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Please consider the following clues and answer the question that follows: 1. This mosque is located in the city dubbed the "Jerusalem of the Balkans." 2, The mosque was commissioned by an authoritarian dictator born in a small village 10 km west of Yogyakarta. Question: What is the height difference between the twin towers of the mosque and its dome?
21 meters
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istiklal_Mosque,_Sarajevo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suharto
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemusuk
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istiklal_Mosque,_Sarajevo', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevo', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suharto', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemusuk']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istiklal_Mosque,_Sarajevo", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevo", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suharto", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemusuk" ]
[ "Istiklal Mosque, Sarajevo Istiklal Mosque(Bosnian:Istiklal Džamija) is one of the largest mosques inSarajevo,Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was named afterIstiqlal Mosque, Jakarta, thenational mosqueofIndonesia, since the mosque was a gift from the Indonesian people and government for Bosnia and Herzegovina as a token of solidarity and friendship between the two nations.The name\"istiqlal\"isArabicword for \"independence\", thus it is also meant to commemorate the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Activities Other than its regular function as a house of prayers; the regular daily 5 timessalatand other prayers (Jumu'ahandEids), Istiqlal mosque also hostsmaktabandQuranrecital competitions for children and adults. The mosque also served as Project Bureau Center for Islamic Architecture, arranging Sharia weddings, and also as Indonesian Cultural Center. History During his visit to thewar torncity of Sarajevo in March 1995 and paid a courtesy call to Bosnian PresidentAlija Izetbegović, Indonesian PresidentSuhartocontemplating an idea to build a mosque in the city as a gift for the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Suharto mobilized his administrations to realize his idea, and appointing Fauzan Noe’man, one of Indonesia's foremost architect to design the mosque and proceed with the project. Noe'man was known for his works in constructing grand mosque ofBatam, Baiturrahim mosque inMerdeka Palacecomplex, and also At-Tin mosque (1999) in East Jakarta nearTaman Mini Indonesia Indah. The project is started in 1995, however because the turmoil in Indonesia led to thefall of Suharto in 1998has stalled the construction process. The mosque was completed and inaugurated in September 2001 by Indonesian Minister of Religious Affairs Said Agil Al Munawar.A year later in September 2002 during her stately visit to Sarajevo, PresidentMegawati Soekarnoputrialso visited the mosque. Architecture The Istiqlal mosque of Sarajevo demonstratepostmoderninterpretation ofIslamic architectureas viewed fromIndonesianperspective. The mosque built with simple geometric elements and patterns on metal-works made from stainless steel or aluminum and glass blocks applied on facade, windows and arches. The exterior were covered with white tiles, while the interior, especially inmihrab,minbarand window frames were adorned with Indonesian wooden carving of floral ornaments. Built on 2,800 square meters land on Otoka on western side of the city, the mosque is one among the largest mosque in Sarajevo and easily recognizable as the landmark in the neighborhood. The mosque has a single copper-colored dome measured 27 meters tall and 27 meters in diameter. The dome is equipped with three horizontal openings around the dome to allow natural lights to enter the mosque's interior beneath the dome. This type of dome is similar to those of At-Tin mosque in Jakarta, also designed by Fauzan Noe’man. Two twin towers flanking the entrance with reminiscent of Iranianiwanfacade style. The tower height is 48 meters. The tip of the dome and twin towers are adorned with three spherical pinnacles with star and crescent on top of it. The twin towers symbolize two nations, as the mosque represents the friendship and solidarity between Indonesia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. See also References External links", "Sarajevo Sarajevo(/ˌsærəˈjeɪvoʊ/SARR-ə-YAY-voh)is thecapitalandlargest cityofBosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its administrative limits.TheSarajevo metropolitan areaincludingSarajevo Canton,East Sarajevoand nearby municipalities is home to 555,210 inhabitants.Located within the greater Sarajevo valley ofBosnia, it is surrounded by theDinaric Alpsand situated along theMiljackaRiver in the heart of theBalkans, a region ofSoutheastern Europe. Sarajevo is the political, financial, social, and cultural center of Bosnia and Herzegovina and a prominent center of culture in the Balkans. It exerts region-wide influence in entertainment, media, fashion, and the arts.Due to its long history of religious and cultural diversity, Sarajevo is sometimes called the \"Jerusalemof Europe\"or \"Jerusalem of the Balkans\".It is one of a few major European cities to have a mosque, Catholic church, Eastern Orthodox church, and synagogue within the same neighborhood.It is also home to the former Yugoslavia's first institution of tertiary education in the form of an Islamic polytechnic, today part of theUniversity of Sarajevo. Although there is evidence of human settlement in the area since prehistoric times, the modern city arose in the 15th century as anOttomanstronghold when the Ottoman empire extended into Europe.Sarajevo has gained international renown several times throughout its history. In 1885, it was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, followingSan Francisco. In 1914, Sarajevo was the site of theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinandby a localYoung BosniaactivistGavrilo Princip, a murder that sparkedWorld War I. This resulted in the end ofAustro-Hungarianrule in Bosnia and the creation of the multiculturalKingdom of Yugoslaviain the Balkan region. Later, afterWorld War II, the area was designated the capital of the communistSocialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovinawithin theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, leading to rapid expansion of its population and businesses with investment in infrastructure and economic development. In 1984, Sarajevo hosted the1984 Winter Olympics, which marked a prosperous era for the city. However, after the start of theYugoslav Wars, the city suffered thelongest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare, for a total of 1,425 days, from April 1992 to February 1996, during theBosnian War. With continuedpost-war reconstructionin the aftermath, Sarajevo is thefastest growing cityin Bosnia and Herzegovina.The travel guide seriesLonely Planetranked Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world.In December 2009, it recommended Sarajevo as one of the top ten cities to visit in 2010. In 2011, Sarajevo was nominated as the 2014European Capital of Culture. It was selected to host theEuropean Youth Olympic Festival.In addition, in October 2019, Sarajevo was designated as aUNESCO Creative Cityfor having placed culture at the center of its development strategies.It is also ranked as one of the world's eighteenCities of Film. Etymology The nameSarajevoderives from the Turkish nounsaray, meaning \"palace\" or \"mansion\" (fromPersiansarāy,سرای, of the same meaning). Scholars disagree on the origin of theevoattached to the end. In Slavic languages, the addition of \"evo\" may indicate a possessive noun, thereby making the name of Sarajevo 'city of the palace'. One theory is that the name may have been derived from theOttoman Turkishtermsaray ovası, first recorded in 1455,meaning \"the plains around the palace\" or simply \"palace plains\". However, in hisDictionary of Turkish Loanwords,Abdulah Škaljićmaintains that theevoending is more likely to have come from the widespreadSlavicsuffixevoused to indicate place names, than from the Turkish endingova.The first mention of the name Sarajevo was in a 1507 letter written byFiruz Bey.The official name during the400 years of Ottoman rulewasSaraybosna(\"Palace of Bosnia\"), which remains the city's name in Modern Turkish. Sarajevo has had many nicknames. The earliest isŠeher, the termIsa-Beg Ishakovićused to describe the town he was going to construct—which is Turkish for \"city\" (şehir), in turn coming from the Persianshahr(شهر, meaning \"city\"). As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, i.e. \"Damascusof the North\" and \"European Jerusalem\"; the latter being the most popular. Environment Geography Sarajevo is near the geometric center of the triangular-shapedBosnia and Herzegovinaand within the historical region ofBosnia proper. It is situated 518 m (1,699 ft)above sea leveland lies in the Sarajevo valley, in the middle of theDinaric Alps. The valley was once an expansive, fertile, and green space, but considerable urban expansion and development took place following World War II. Forested hills and five major mountains surround the city. The highest of the surrounding peaks isTreskavicaat 2,088 m (6,850 ft), followed byBjelašnicamountain at 2,067 m (6,781 ft),Jahorinaat 1,913 m (6,276 ft),Trebevićat 1,627 m (5,338 ft), andIgmanthe shortest at 1,502 m (4,928 ft). The last four are also known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo. When the city hosted the1984 Winter Olympics, venues were constructed at these mountains for many winter sports events. The city is developed within hilly terrain; some steeply inclined streets and residences perch on the hillsides. TheMiljackariver is one of the city's chief geographic features. It flows through the city from east through the center of Sarajevo to the west part of the city, where it eventually meets up with theBosnariver. Miljacka River is also known as \"The Sarajevo River\". Its source (Vrelo Miljacke) is 2 km (1.2 mi) south of the town ofPaleat the foothills of Mount Jahorina, several kilometers to the east of Sarajevo center. The Bosna's source,Vrelo BosnenearIlidža(west Sarajevo), is another notable natural landmark and a popular destination for Sarajevans and other tourists. Several smaller rivers and streams, such asKoševski Potok, also run through the city and its vicinity. Cityscape Sarajevo is close to the center of the triangular shape of Bosnia and Herzegovina in southeastern Europe. The Sarajevo city consists of four municipalities:Centar(Center),Novi Grad(New Town),Novo Sarajevo(New Sarajevo), andStari Grad(Old Town), while theSarajevo metropolitan area(Greater Sarajevo area) includes these and the neighboring municipalities ofIlidža,Hadžići,VogošćaandIlijaš. The Metropolitan area was reduced in the 1990s after the war and theDayton-imposed administrative divisionof the country, with several municipalities partitioned along the border of the newly recognizedFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina(FBiH) andRepublika Srpska(RS), creating several new municipalities which together form the city ofIstočno Sarajevoin the Republika Srpska:Istočna Ilidža,Istočno Novo Sarajevo,Istočni Stari Grad,Lukavica,Pale (RS-section), andTrnovo (RS-section), along with the municipality ofSokolac(which was not traditionally part of the Sarajevo area and was not partitioned). The city has an urban area of 1,041.5 km2(402.1 sq mi). Veliki Park (Great Park) is the largest green area in the center of Sarajevo. It is nestled betweenTitova,Koševo,Džidžikovac, Tina Ujevića and Trampina Streets and in the lower part there is a monument dedicated to the Children of Sarajevo. Climate Sarajevo has anoceanic climate(Köppen climate classification:Cfb) bordering on ahumid continental climate(Köppen climate classification:Dfb). Sarajevo's climate exhibits four seasons and uniformly spread precipitation. The proximity of theAdriatic Seamoderates Sarajevo's climate somewhat, although the mountains to the south of the city greatly reduce this maritime influence.The average yearly temperature is 10 °C (50 °F), with January (−0.5 °C (31.1 °F) on average) being the coldest month of the year and July (19.7 °C (67.5 °F) on average) the warmest. The highest recorded temperature was 40.7 °C (105 °F) on 19 August 1946 and on 23 August 2008 (41.0), while the lowest recorded temperature was −26.2 °C (−15.2 °F) on 25 January 1942. On average, Sarajevo has seven days where the temperature exceeds 32 °C (89.6 °F) and four days where the temperature drops below −15 °C (5 °F) per year.The city typically experiences mildly cloudy skies, with an average yearlycloud coverof 45%. The cloudiest month is December (75% average cloud cover), while the clearest is August (37%). Moderate precipitation occurs fairly consistently throughout the year, with an average 75 days of rainfall. Suitable climatic conditions have allowedwinter sportsto flourish in the region, as exemplified by the1984 Winter Olympicsthat were held in Sarajevo. Average winds are 28–48 km/h (17–30 mph) and the city has 1,769 hours of sunshine. Air quality Air pollutionis a major issue in Sarajevo.According to the 2016World Health Organization's Ambient Air Pollution Database,the annual averagePM2.5concentration in 2010 was estimated to be 30 μg/m3based on PM10 measurement, which is 3 times higher than recommended byWHO Air Quality Guidelinesfor the annual average PM2.5. There are no recent direct long-term PM2.5 measurements available in Sarajevo and only estimates can be made from PM10, which is less health-relevant than PM2.5.Real-time air quality data in the form of PM10, ozone,NO2,COandSO2by theFederal Hydrometeorological InstituteArchived13 September 2018 at theWayback Machine. History Ottoman Empire1461–1878de facto, 1908de jure Ancient times One of the earliest findings of settlement in the Sarajevo area is that of the NeolithicButmir culture. The discoveries atButmirwere made on the grounds of the modern-day Sarajevo suburbIlidžain 1893 byAustro-Hungarianauthorities during the construction of an agricultural school. The area's richness inflintwas attractive to Neolithic humans, and the settlement flourished. The settlement developed unique ceramics and pottery designs, which characterize the Butmir people as a unique culture, as described at the International Congress of Archaeologists andAnthropologistsmeeting in Sarajevo in 1894. The next prominent culture in Sarajevo was theIllyrians. The ancient people, who considered most of theWestern Balkansas their homeland, had several key settlements in the region, mostly around the riverMiljackaand the Sarajevo valley. The Illyrians in the Sarajevo region belonged to theDaesitiates, the last Illyrian people in Bosnia and Herzegovina to resistRomanoccupation. Their defeat by theRomanemperorTiberiusin 9 AD marks the start of Roman rule in the region. The Romans never built up the region of modern-day Bosnia, but theRoman colonyof Aquae Sulphurae was near the top of present-day Ilidža, and was the most important settlement of the time.After the Romans, theGothssettled the area, followed by theSlavsin the 7th century. Middle Ages During theMiddle Ages, Sarajevo was part of the Bosnian province of Vrhbosna near the traditional center of theKingdom of Bosnia. Though a city namedVrhbosnaexisted, the exact settlement in Sarajevo at this time isdebated. Various documents note a place calledTornikin the region, most likely in the area of theMarijin Dvorneighborhood. By all indications, Tornik was a very small marketplace surrounded by a proportionally small village and was not considered very important byRagusanmerchants. Other scholars say thatVrhbosnawas a major town in the wider area of modern-day Sarajevo.Papaldocuments say that in 1238, a cathedral dedicated toSaint Paulwas built in the area. Disciples of the notable saintsCyrilandMethodiusstopped in the region, founding a church nearVrelo Bosne. Whether or not the town was somewhere in the area of modern-day Sarajevo, the documents attest to its and the region's importance. There was also a citadelHodidjednorth-east to theOld City, dating from around 1263 until it was occupied by theOttoman Empirein 1429. Ottoman era Sarajevo was founded by theOttoman Empirein the 1450s upon its conquest of the region, with 1461 used as the city's founding date. The first Ottoman governor ofBosnia,Isa-Beg Ishaković, transformed the cluster of villages into a city and state capital by building several key structures, including a mosque, a closed marketplace, ahamam, acaravansarai, a bridge, and of course the governor's palace (\"Saray\"), which gave the city its present name in conjunction with “evo”, a derivative of “ova” meaning lowland. The mosque was named \"Careva Džamija\" (theEmperor's Mosque) in honor of SultanMehmed II. With the improvements, Sarajevo quickly grew into the largest city in the region. By the15th centurythe settlement was established as a city, namedBosna-Saraj, around the citadel in 1461. Following theexpulsion of Jews from Spainat the end of the 15th century, and the invitation from the Ottoman Empire to resettle their population,Sephardic Jewsarrived in Sarajevo, which over time would become a leading center of Sephardic culture and theLadino language. Though relatively small in size, a Jewish quarter would develop over several blocks inBaščaršija. Many local Christians converted to Islam at this time. To accommodate the new pilgrims on the road toMecca, in 1541,Gazi Husrev-beg's quartermaster Vekil-Harrach built a pilgrim's mosque which it is still known to this day as theHadžijska Mosque. Under leaders such as the second governor Gazi Husrev-beg, Sarajevo grew at a rapid rate. Husrev-beg greatly shaped the physical city, as most of what is now the Old Town was built during his reign. Sarajevo became known for its large marketplace and numerous mosques, which by the middle of the 16th century numbered more than 100. At the peak of the empire, Sarajevo was the biggest and most important Ottoman city in the Balkans afterIstanbul.By 1660, the population of Sarajevo was estimated to be over 80,000.By contrast,Belgradein 1683 had 100,000,andZagrebas late as 1851 had 14,000 people. As political conditions changed, Sarajevo became the site of warfare. In 1697, during theGreat Turkish War, a raid was led byPrince Eugene of Savoyof theHabsburg monarchyagainst the Ottoman Empire,which conquered Sarajevo and left it plague-infected and burned to the ground. After his men had looted thoroughly, they set the city on fire and destroyed nearly all of it in one day. Only a handful of neighborhoods, some mosques, and anOrthodox churchwere left standing. Numerous other fires weakened the city, which was later rebuilt but never fully recovered from the destruction. By 1807, it had only some 60,000 residents. In the 1830s, several battles of theBosnian uprisinghad taken place around the city. These had been led byHusein Gradaščević. Today, a major city street is namedZmaj od Bosne(Dragon of Bosnia) in his honor. The rebellion failed and for several more decades, the Ottoman state remained in control of Bosnia. The Ottoman Empire made Sarajevo an important administrative center by 1850.Baščaršijabecame the central commercial district and cultural center of the city in the 15th century when Isa-Beg Ishaković founded the town.The toponym Baščaršija derives from theTurkish language. Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary's occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovinacame in 1878 as part of theTreaty of Berlin, andcomplete annexationfollowed in 1908, angering theSerbs. Sarajevo was industrialized by Austria-Hungary, who used the city as a testing area for new inventions such astramways, which were established in 1885 before they were later installed inVienna. Architects and engineers wanting to help rebuild Sarajevo as a modern European capital rushed to the city. A fire that burned down a large part of the central city area (čaršija) left more room for redevelopment. As a result, the city has a unique blend of the remaining Ottoman city market and contemporary Western architecture. Sarajevo also has some examples of Secession- and Pseudo-Moorishstyles that date from this period. TheAustro-Hungarianperiod was one of great development for the city, as the Western power brought its new acquisition up to the standards of theVictorian age. Various factories and other buildings were built at this time,and a large number of institutions were both Westernized and modernized. For the first time in history, Sarajevo's population began writing inLatin script.For the first time in centuries, the city significantly expanded outside its traditional borders. Much of the city's contemporary central municipality (Centar) was constructed during this period. Architecture in Sarajevo quickly developed into a wide range of styles and buildings. TheSacred Heart Cathedral, for example, was constructed using elements ofneo-gothicandRomanesque architecture. TheNational Museum,Sarajevo brewery, andCity Hallwere also constructed during this period. Additionally, Austrian officials made Sarajevo the first city in this part of Europe to have atramway. Although the Bosnia Vilayetde jureremained part of the Ottoman Empire, it wasde factogoverned as an integral part of Austria-Hungary with the Ottomans having no say in its day-to-day governance. This lasted until 1908 when the territory was formally annexed and turned into acondominium, jointly controlled by both AustrianCisleithaniaand HungarianTransleithania. The event that triggeredWorld War Iwas theassassinationofArchduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, along with his wifeSophie, Duchess of Hohenbergin Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 byGavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb and self-declared Yugoslav, and member ofYoung Bosnia.This was followed by theAnti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, which resulted in two deaths and destruction of property. In the ensuing war, however, most of the Balkan offensives occurred near Belgrade, and Sarajevo largely escaped damage and destruction. Following the war, Bosnia was annexed into theKingdom of Yugoslavia, and Sarajevo became the capital of theDrina Province. Yugoslavia After World War I and pressure from theRoyal Serbian Army, alongside rebellingSlavicnations inAustria-Hungary, Sarajevo became part of theKingdom of Yugoslavia. Though it held some political significance as the center of first the Bosnian region and then the Drinska Banovina, the city was no longer a national capital and saw a decline in global influence. DuringWorld War II, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's army was overrun by German and Italian forces. Following a German bombing campaign, Sarajevo was captured on 15 April 1941 by the16th Motorized Infantry Division. TheAxis powerscreated theIndependent State of Croatiaand included Sarajevo in its territory. Immediately following the occupation, the main Sephardi Jewish synagogue,Il Kal Grande, was looted, burned, and destroyed by theNazis. Within a matter of months, the centuries-old Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jewish communities of Sarajevo, comprising the vast majority ofBosnian Jewry, would be rounded up in the Old Synagogue (Stari hram) and deported to their deaths inCroatian concentration camps. Roughly 85% of Bosnia's Jewish population would perish at the hands of the Nazis and theUstašeduring the Holocaust in the region. TheSarajevo Haggadahwas the most important artifact which survived this period, smuggled out of Sarajevo and saved from the Nazis and Ustaše by the chief librarian of the National Museum,Derviš Korkut. On 12 October 1941, a group of 108 notableBosniakcitizens of Sarajevo signed theResolution of Sarajevo Muslimsby which they condemned theGenocide of Serbsorganized by the Ustaše, made a distinction between the Bosniaks who participated in such persecutions and the rest of the Bosniak population, presented information about the persecutions of Bosniaks by Serbs, and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity.During the summer of 1941, Ustaše militia periodically interned and executed groups ofSarajevo Serbs.In August 1941, they arrested about one hundred Serbs suspected of ties to the resistance armies, mostly church officials and members of the intelligentsia, and executed them or deported them to concentration camps.By mid-summer 1942, around 20,000 Serbs found refuge in Sarajevo from Ustaše terror. The city was bombed by theAlliesfrom 1943 to 1944.TheYugoslav Partisanmovement was represented in the city. In the period February–May 1945,Maks Luburićset up a Ustaše headquarters in a building known asVilla Luburićand used it as a torture and execution place whose 323 victims were identified after the war. The resistance was led byVladimir Perić Valter, who died while leading the liberation of the city on 6 April 1945. After the war, Sarajevo was the capital of theSocialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovinawithin theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The Republic Government invested heavily in Sarajevo, building many new residential blocks in the municipalities ofNovi GradandNovo Sarajevo, while simultaneously developing the city's industry and transforming Sarajevo into a modern city. Sarajevo grew rapidly as it became an important regional industrial center in Yugoslavia. Between the end of the war and the end of Yugoslavia, the city grew from a population of 115,000 to more than 600,000 people. TheVraca Memorial Park, a monument for victims of World War II, was dedicated on 25 November, the \"Statehood Day of Bosnia and Herzegovina\" when theZAVNOBIHheld their first meeting in 1943. A crowning moment of Sarajevo's time in Socialist Yugoslavia was the1984 Winter Olympics. Sarajevo beat outSapporo, Japan, andFalun/Gothenburg, Sweden, to host theOlympic Games. The games were followed by a tourism boom, making the 1980s one of the city's most prosperous decades. Bosnian War TheBosnian Warfor independence resulted in large-scale destruction and dramatic population shifts during theSiege of Sarajevobetween 1992 and 1996. Thousands of Sarajevans lost their lives under the constant bombardment and sniper shooting at civilians by theSerb forcesduring the siege,the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare.Bosnian Serb forces of theRepublika Srpskaand theYugoslav People's Armybesieged Sarajevo from 5 April 1992 to 29 February 1996. WhenBosnia and Herzegovina declared independencefromYugoslaviaand achievedUnited Nationsrecognition, Serbian leaders declared a new Serbian national state Republika Srpska (RS) which was carved out from the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.The Army of Republika Srpska encircled Sarajevo with a siege force of 18,000stationed in the surrounding hills, from which they assaulted the city with artillery, mortars, tanks, anti-aircraft guns, heavy machine guns, multiple rocket launchers, rocket-launched aircraft bombs, and sniper rifles.From 2 May 1992, the Serbsblockadedthe city. TheBosnian government defense forcesinside the besieged city were poorly equipped and unable to break the siege. During the siege, 11,541 people were killed, including over 1,500 children. An additional 56,000 people were wounded, including nearly 15,000 children.The1991 censusindicates that before the siege, the city and its surrounding areas had a population of 525,980. When the siege ended, the concrete scars caused by mortar shell explosions left marks that were filled with red resin. After the red resin was placed, it left floral patterns, which led to them being dubbedSarajevo Roses. Division of the territory according to theDayton Agreementresulted in amass exodusin early 1996 of some 62,000 Sarajevo Serbs from the city and its suburbs, creating today's more monoethnic post-war city. Present Various modern buildings now occupy Sarajevo's skyline, most significantly theBosmal City Center,ARIA Centar,Sarajevo City Center(all three by architectSead Gološ) and theAvaz Twist Tower, which at the time of its building was the tallest skyscraper in former Yugoslavia. In 2014, the city sawanti-government protests and riotsand record rainfallthat caused historic flooding. Recent years have seen population growth as well as increases in tourism. TheSarajevo cable car, also known as the Trebević cable car, Sarajevo's key landmark during the 1984 Winter Olympics, was rebuilt in 2017 and reopened on 6 April 2018.The cable car runs from Sarajevo at Bistrik station to the slopes ofTrebevićat Vidikovac station. Administration Largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo is the capitalof the country ofBosnia and Herzegovinaand its sub-entity, theFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as of theSarajevo Canton. It is also thede jurecapital of another entity,Republika Srpska.Each of these levels of government has its parliament or council, as well as judicial courts, in the city. All national institutions and foreignembassiesare in Sarajevo. Sarajevo is home to theCouncil of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina,Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina,Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, theConstitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovinaand the operational command of theArmed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina'sParliament officein Sarajevo was damaged heavily in theBosnian War. Due to damage, the staff and documents were moved to a nearby ground-level office to resume work. In late 2006, reconstruction work started on Parliament and was finished in 2007. The cost of reconstruction was 80% funded by theGreek Governmentthrough the Hellenic Program of Balkans Reconstruction (ESOAV), and 20% by Bosnia and Herzegovina. Municipalities and city government The City of Sarajevo comprises four municipalities:Centar,Novi Grad,Novo Sarajevo, andStari Grad. Each operates their ownmunicipal government, while united they form one city government with its constitution. Theexecutive branch(Bosnian:Gradska uprava) consists of amayor, with two deputies and a cabinet. Thelegislative branchconsists of theCity Council, orGradsko vijeće. The council has 28 members, including a council speaker, two deputies, and a secretary. Councilors are elected by the municipality in numbers roughly proportional to their population.The City Statute requires the city council to include at least six councilors from eachconstituent peopleand at least two from the ranks of Others. Sarajevo's Municipalities are further split into \"local communities\" (Bosnian,Mjesne zajednice). Local communities have a small role in city government and are intended as a way for ordinary citizens to get involved in city government. They are based on key neighborhoods in the city. Economy Sarajevo's large manufacturing, administrative, and tourism sectors make it the strongest economic region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sarajevo Canton generates almost 25% of the country's GDP.After years of war, Sarajevo's economy saw reconstruction and rehabilitation programs.TheCentral Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovinaopened in Sarajevo in 1997 and theSarajevo Stock Exchangebegan trading in 2002. While Sarajevo had a large industrial base during its communist period, only a few pre-existing businesses have successfully adapted to themarket economy. Sarajevo industries now include tobacco products, furniture, hosiery, automobiles, and communication equipment.Companies based in Sarajevo includeBH Telecom,Bosnalijek,Energopetrol,Sarajevo Tobacco Factory, andSarajevska pivara(Sarajevo Brewery). In 2019, the total export for the Sarajevo Canton was worth about 1,427,496,000KM. Most of Sarajevo's exports (20.55%) head toGermany, withSerbiaandCroatiafollowing behind at 12% respectively. The largest amount of imported goods comes from Croatia, at 20.95%. With a worth of total import of about 4,872,213,000KM, the total import is almost 3.4 times the total export. In 1981, Sarajevo's GDP per capita was 133% of the Yugoslav average.Gross pay in Sarajevo in March 2023 wasKM2,497 or€1,269, while net salary was KM 1,585 or €805, indicating stable growth. Tourism and recreation Sarajevo has a wide tourist industry and a fast-expanding service sector thanks to the strong annual growth in tourist arrivals. Sarajevo also benefits from being both a summer and winter destination with continuity in its tourism throughout the year. The travel guide series,Lonely Planetnamed Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world,and in December 2009, listed Sarajevo as one of the top ten cities to visit in 2010. In 2019, 733,259 tourists visited Sarajevo, giving 1,667,545 overnight stays, which was 20% more than in 2018.Sports-related tourism uses the legacy facilities of the1984 Winter Olympics, especially the skiing facilities on the nearby mountains ofBjelašnica,Igman,Jahorina,TrebevićandTreskavica. Sarajevo's 600 years of history, influenced by both Western and Eastern empires, makes it atourist attractionwith splendid variations. The city has hosted travelers for centuries, because it was an important trading center during theOttomanandAustro-Hungarianempires and because it was a natural stop for many routes between East and West. Examples of popular destinations in Sarajevo include theVrelo Bosnepark, theSarajevo cathedral, and theGazi Husrev-beg Mosque. Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural sites and winter sports. There are many parks throughout the city and on the outskirts. A popular activity among locals is street chess, usually played atTrg Oslobođenja - Alija Izetbegović. Veliki Park is the largest green area in the center of Sarajevo. It is nestled betweenTitova,Koševo,Džidžikovac, Tina Ujevića and Trampina Streets and in the lower part, there is a monument dedicated to theChildren of Sarajevo.Hastahanais a popular place to relax in the Austro-Hungarian neighborhood ofMarijin Dvor.Goat's Bridge, locally known asKozija Ćuprija, in the Miljacka Canyon is also a popular park destination along theDarivawalkway and river Miljacka.On 24 December 2012, a park hosting two brass sculptures resembling two mourning mothers was dedicated as the Friendship Park, commemorating over 45 years of friendship between Sarajevo andBaku, the capital of Azerbaijan. Sarajevo is also famous for its city lookouts; including an observation deck on theAvaz Twist Tower, Park Prinčeva restaurant, Vidikovac lookout (Mt. Trebević), Zmajevac lookout and Yellow/White fortresses lookouts (inVratnik) as well as numerous other rooftops throughout the city (i.e. Alta Shopping Center,ARIA Centar, Hotel Hecco Deluxe). A symbol of Sarajevo is theTrebević cable carwhich was reconstructed in 2018, also it is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city taking visitors from the city center to Mount Trebević. There is also aUNESCOtentative monument, theOld Jewish Cemetery, an almost 500 years old site that is the second-largest Jewish sepulchral complex in Europe, the one inPraguebeing the largest. It is also one of the most significant memorial complexes in the world. It represents the eternal proof of the coexistence of two or more different confessions under different administrations and rules, and the proof of mutual respect and tolerance. Demographics Thanks to steady but constant and stable growth after the war, today's built-up area includes not only previously mentioned urban municipalities but the urban part ofHadžićithat is uninterruptedly connected toIlidža, the westernmost part of the Sarajevo urban settlement, is inhabited by more than 419,000 people, whilethe metro areaincluding 8 additional municipalities, 14 in total goes up to 555,210 inhabitants.It is noticeable that the fastest-growing municipalities areNovi Grad, one of the main ones and the most inhabited one where the population has increased by almost 4,000 people or 2.95% since the2013 census, and Ilidža that has recorded an increase of almost 7% since 2013. In June 2016, the final results of the 2013 census were published. According to the census, the population of theSarajevo Cantonwas 413,593, with 55,181 residents inCentar, 118,553 in Novi Grad, 64,814 inNovo Sarajevoand 36,976 inStari Grad. The last official Yugoslav census took place in1991and recorded 527,049 people living in the city of Sarajevo (tenmunicipalities). In the settlement of Sarajevo proper, there were 454,319 inhabitants.The war displaced hundreds of thousands of people, a large majority of whom have not returned. The war changed the ethnic and religious profile of the city. It had long been a multicultural city,and often went by the nickname of \"Europe's Jerusalem\".At the time of the 1991 census, 49.2 percent of the city's population of 527,049 wereBosniaks, 29.8 percentSerbs, 10.7 percentYugoslavs, 6.6 percentCroatsand 3.6 percent other ethnicities (Jews, Romas, etc.). According to academic Fran Markowitz, there are several \"administrative apparatuses and public pressures that push people who might prefer to identify as flexible, multiply constituted hybrids or with one of the now unnamed minority groups into one of the three Bosniac-Croat-Serb constituent nations\".These include respondents being encouraged by census interviewers to identify as belonging to one of the threeconstituent peoples.Her analysis of marriage registration data shows, for instance, that 67 percent of people marrying in 2003 identified as Bosniak or Muslim, which is significantly lower than the 79.6 percent census figure from 2002 (unlike the census, where people respond to an interviewer, applicants to the marriage registry fill in the form themselves). Transportation Roads and highways Sarajevo's location in a valley between mountains makes it a compact city. Narrow city streets and a lack of parking areas restrict automobile traffic but allow better pedestrian and cyclist mobility. The two main roads areTitova Ulica(Street ofMarshal Tito) and the east–westZmaj od Bosne(Dragon of Bosnia) highway (E761). Located roughly at the center of the country, Sarajevo is Bosnia's main intersection. The city is connected to all the other major cities by highway or national road likeZenica,Banja Luka,Tuzla,Mostar,GoraždeandFoča. Tourists fromCentral Europeand elsewhere visitingDalmatiadriving viaBudapestthrough Sarajevo also contribute to the traffic congestion in and around Sarajevo. The trans-European highway,Corridor Vc, runs through Sarajevo connecting it to Budapest in the north, andPločeat the Adriatic Sea in the south.The highway is being built by thegovernmentand should cost 3.5 billionEuro. Up until March 2012, theFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovinainvested around 600 million euros in the A1. In 2014, the sections Sarajevo-Zenica and Sarajevo-Tarčinwere completed including theSarajevo Beltwayring road. Tram, bus and trolleybus Sarajevo's electric tramways, in operation since 1884 and electrified since 1895, are the oldest form of public transportation in the city.Sarajevo had the first full-time (dawn to dusk) tram line in Europe, and the second in the world.Opened onNew Year's Dayin 1885, it was the testing line for the tram inViennaand theAustro-Hungarian Empire, and operated by horses. Originally built to760 mm(2 ft5+15⁄16in)Bosnian gauge, the present system in 1960 was upgraded to1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)standard gauge. The trams played a pivotal role in the growth of the city in the 20th century. There are seven tramway lines supplemented by fivetrolleybuslines and numerous bus routes. Themain railway stationin Sarajevo is in the north-central area of the city. From there, the tracks head west before branching off in different directions, including to industrial zones in the city. Sarajevo is undergoing a major infrastructure renewal; many highways and streets are being repaved, the tram system is undergoing modernization, and new bridges and roads are under construction. In January 2021, the city bought 25 new BKM 433 trolleybuses.Tram trackrenovation lasted from August 2021 to September 2023.The city also bought 15 newStadler Tangotrams in September 2021.The first tram arrived in December 2023, while the rest are expected to arrive by the summer of 2024.An additional 10 new trams were bought, as well as 30 new buses. Railway TheSarajevo main railway stationwas built in 1882 for thenarrow-gauge railway. AfterWorld War II, it was decided to replace the old station by a newfunctionalistbuilding. The ceremonial completion of the station building took place in 1949. The station was electrified in 1967, as part of the early electrification program introduced in Bosnia up to 1969. TheSarajevo–Ploče railwayprovides a connection to theAdriaticcoast. It holds the distinction of being the first 25 kV AC-electrified country in the former Yugoslavia, followed by Croatia and Serbia. Once, theEast Bosnian railwayconnected Sarajevo toBelgrade. Metro plans To solve traffic congestion in the city, Sarajevo-based architect Muzafer Osmanagić proposed a study called \"Eco Energy 2010–2015\", proposing a subway system underneath the bed of the riverMiljacka. The first line of Metro Sarajevo would connectBaščaršijawithOtoka. This line would cost some 150 millionKMand be financed by theEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Airport Sarajevo International Airport(IATA:SJJ) is just a few kilometers southwest of the city and was voted Best European Airport With Under 1,000,000 Passengers at the 15th Annual ACI-Europe inMunichin 2005. The first regular flights to Sarajevo using an airfield in the suburb ofButmirbegan in 1930 when the domestic airlinerAeroputopened a regular route linkingBelgradetoPodgoricathrough Sarajevo.Later, Aeroput opened a route that linked Sarajevo withSplit,Rijeka, andDubrovnik, and in 1938, the first international flights were introduced when Aeroput extended the route Dubrovnik – Sarajevo – Zagreb toVienna,BrnoandPrague.The airfield in Butmir remained in use until 1969. The need for a new airport in Sarajevo, with an asphalt-concrete runway, was acknowledged in the mid-1960s whenJAT, the Yugoslav national carrier at that time, began acquiring jet planes. The construction of the airport began in 1966 at its present location, not far from the old one. Sarajevo Airport opened on 2 June 1969 for domestic traffic. In 1970,Frankfurtbecame the first international destination served. Most of the time the airport was a 'feeder' airport where passengers embarked for flights to Zagreb and Belgrade on their way to international destinations. Over time, the traffic volume steadily grew from 70,000 to 600,000 passengers a year.Later, during theBosnian War, the airport was used forUNflights and humanitarian relief. Since theDayton Agreementin 1995, the airport retook its role as the main air portal to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2017, 957,971 passengers travelled through the airport, which was 61,4% of the total airport traffic in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Plans for the extension of the passenger terminal, together with upgrading and expanding the taxiway and apron, started in the fall of 2012. The existing terminal was expanded by approximately 7,000 m2(75,347 sq ft).The upgraded airport was directly linked to the commercial retail center Sarajevo Airport Center, making it easier for tourists and travelers to spend their time before flight boarding shopping and enjoying the many amenities that are offered.Between 2015 and 2018, the airport was upgraded for more than 25 million euros. International relations Twin towns – sister cities Sarajevo istwinnedwith: Friendship Sarajevo is befriended with: Communications and media As the largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo is the main center of the country's media. Most of the communications and media infrastructure was destroyed during the war but reconstruction monitored by theOffice of the High Representativehas helped to modernize the industry as a whole.For example, the Internet was first made available to the city in 1995. Oslobođenje(Liberation), founded in 1943, is Sarajevo's longest-running continuously circulating newspaper and the only one to survive the war. However, this long-running and trusted newspaper has fallen behindDnevni avaz(Daily Voice), founded in 1995, andJutarnje Novine(Morning News) in circulation in Sarajevo.Other local periodicals include the Croatian newspaperHrvatska riječand the Bosnian magazineStart, as well as weekly newspapersSlobodna Bosna(Free Bosnia) andBH Dani(BH Days).Novi Plamen, a monthly magazine, is the most left-wing publication. TheRadio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina(BHRT) is Sarajevo'spublic televisionstation and was created in 1945 under the umbrella of theYugoslav Radio Television(JRT). It had its first television program aired in 1961, while continuous programming started in 1969. It is one of three main TV stations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other stations based in the city includeHayat TV,O Kanal,OBN,TV Kantona SarajevoandTV Alfa. The headquarters ofAl Jazeera Balkansis also in Sarajevo, with a broadcasting studio at the top of theARIA Centar. The news channel coversBosnia and Herzegovina,Serbia,CroatiaandMontenegroand the surroundingBalkanstates. Many small independent radio stations exist, including established stations such asRadio M,RSG Radio(Radio Old Town), Studentski eFM Radio,Radio 202 andRadio BIR.Radio Free Europe, as well as several American and Western European stations are available. Education Higher education Higher education has a long and rich tradition in Sarajevo. The first institution that can be classified as a tertiary educational institution was a school ofSufiphilosophy established byGazi Husrev-begin 1537; numerous other religious schools have been established over time. In 1887, under the Austro-Hungarian Empire, aShariaLaw School began a five-year program.In the 1940s, theUniversity of Sarajevobecame the city's first secular higher education institute, effectively building upon the foundations established by the Saraybosna Hanıka in 1537. In the 1950s, post-bachelor graduate degrees became available.Severely damaged during the war, it was recently rebuilt in partnership with more than 40 other universities. There are also several universities in Sarajevo, including: Primary and secondary education As of 2005, there are 46 elementary schools (Grades 1–9) and 33 high schools (Grades 10–13) in Sarajevo, including three schools for children with special needs. There are also severalinternational schoolsin Sarajevo, catering to the expatriate community; some of which areSarajevo International Schooland the French International Schoolof Sarajevo, established in 1998. Culture Sarajevo has been home to many different religions for centuries, giving the city a range of diverse cultures. In the time of Ottoman occupation of Bosnia,Muslims,Orthodox Christians,Roman Catholics, andSephardi Jewsall shared the city while maintaining distinctive identities. They were joined during the brief occupation byAustria-Hungaryby a smaller number ofGermans,Hungarians,Slovaks,CzechsandAshkenazi Jews. By 1909, about 50% of the city's inhabitants were Muslim, 25% were Catholic, 15% were Orthodox, and 10% were Jewish. Historically, Sarajevo has been home to several prominent Bosnian poets, scholars, philosophers, and writers. To list only a very few;Nobel Prize-winnerVladimir Prelogis from the city, as are the writerZlatko Topčićand the poetAbdulah Sidran. Nobel Prize-winnerIvo Andrićattended high school in Sarajevo for two years.Academy Award-winning directorDanis Tanovićlives in the city. TheSarajevo National Theatreis the oldest professional theater in Bosnia and Herzegovina, having been established in 1921. Museums Sarajevo is rich in museums, including theMuseum of Sarajevo, theArs AeviMuseum of Contemporary Art,Historical Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Museum of Literature and Theatre Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and theNational Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina(established in 1888) home to theSarajevo Haggadah,anilluminated manuscriptand the oldestSephardic Jewishdocument in the worldissued inBarcelonaaround 1350, containing the traditional JewishHaggadah, is on permanent display at the museum. It is the only remaining illustratedSephardicHaggadahin the world.The National Museum also hosts year-round exhibitions about local, regional and international culture and history, and exhibits over 5,000 artifacts from Bosnia's history. TheAlija IzetbegovićMuseum was opened on 19 October 2007 and is in the old town fort, more specifically in theVratnikKapija towers Ploča and Širokac. The museum is a commemoration of the influence and body of work of Alija Izetbegović, the firstpresident of the Presidencyof theRepublic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sarajevo is also home to theWar Childhood Museum, an independent not-for-profit museum containing personal belongings from the war and showing stories behind them. In addition, in 2018, the museum won theCouncil of Europe Museum Prize awardfor best museum. The city also hosts theSarajevo National Theatre, established in 1921, and theSarajevo Youth Theatre. Some othercultural institutionsinclude the Center for Sarajevo Culture,Sarajevo City Library,National Gallery of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and theBosniak Institute, a privately owned library and art collection focusing on Bosniak history. Demolitions associated with the war, as well as reconstruction, destroyed several institutions and cultural orreligious symbolsincluding theGazi Husrev-beg Library, the national library, theSarajevo Oriental Institute, and a museum dedicated to the1984 Winter Olympics. Consequently, the different levels of government established strong cultural protection laws and institutions.Bodies charged with cultural preservation in Sarajevo include the Institute for the Protection of the Cultural, Historical andNatural Heritageof Bosnia and Herzegovina (and their Sarajevo Canton counterpart), and the Bosnia and Herzegovina Commission to Preserve National Monuments. Music Sarajevo is and has historically been one of the most important musical enclaves in the region. The Sarajevo school ofpop rockdeveloped in the city between 1961 and 1991. This type of music began with bands likeIndexi,Kodeksi, and singer-songwriterKemal Monteno. It continued into the 1980s, with bands such asPlavi orkestar,Crvena jabuka, andDivlje jagode, by most accounts, pioneering theregionalrock and roll movement. Sarajevo was also the home and birthplace of arguably the most popular and influential Yugoslavrock bandof all time,Bijelo Dugme, somewhat of a Bosnian parallel to theRolling Stones, in both popularity and influence. Sarajevo was also the home of a very notablepost-punkurban subculture known as theNew Primitives, which began during the early 1980s with the Baglama Band which was banned shortly after its first LP and was brought into the mainstream through bands such asZabranjeno PušenjeandElvis J. Kurtović & His Meteors, as well as theTop lista nadrealistaradio, and later television show. Other notable bands considered to be part of this subculture areBombaj Štampa. Besides and separately from the New Primitives, Sarajevo is the hometown to one of the most significantex-Yugoslavianalternativeindustrial-noisebands,SCH. Perhaps more importantly, Sarajevo in the late 19th and throughout the 20th century was home to a burgeoning and large center ofSevdalinkarecord-making and contributed greatly to bringing this historical genre of music to the mainstream, which had for many centuries been a staple of Bosnian culture. Songwriters and musicians such asHimzo Polovina,Safet Isović,Zaim Imamović,Zehra Deović,Halid Bešlić,Hanka Paldum,Nada Mamula,Meho Puzićand many more composed and wrote some of their most important pieces in the city. Sarajevo also greatly influenced the pop scene of Yugoslavia with musicians likeZdravko Čolić, Kemal Monteno,Dino Merlin,Seid Memić Vajta,Hari Mata Hari,Mladen Vojičić Tifa,Željko Bebekand many more. Many newer Sarajevo-based bands have also found a name and established themselves in Sarajevo, such asReginawho also had two albums out in Yugoslavia, and Letu Štuke, who actually formed their band in Yugoslavia with the famous Bosnian-American writerAleksandar Hemonand got their real breakthrough later in the 2000s. Sarajevo is now home to an important and eclectic mix of new bands and independent musicians, which continue to thrive with the ever-increasing number of festivals, creative showcases, and concerts around the country. The city is also home to the region's largest jazz festival, theJazz Fest Sarajevo. American heavy metal bandSavatage, released a song entitled \"Christmas Eve (Sarajevo 12/24)\" on their 1995 albumDead Winter Dead, which was about acelloplayer playing a forgottenChristmas carolin war-torn Sarajevo. The song was later re-released by the same band under the nameTrans-Siberian Orchestraon their 1996 debut albumChristmas Eve and Other Stories, which the song gave them instant success. Festivals Sarajevo is internationally renowned for its eclectic and diverse selection of over 50 annual festivals. TheSarajevo Film Festivalwas established in 1995 during theBosnian Warand has become the premier and largest film festival inSoutheast Europe.It has been hosted at theNational Theater, with screenings at the Open-air theater Metalac and theBosnian Cultural Center, all in downtown Sarajevo. TheMESS International Festivalis an experimental theatre festival and the oldest living theatre festival in the Balkans.The annualSarajevo Youth Film Festivalshowcases feature, animated and short films from around the world and is the premier student film festival in the Balkans.TheSarajevo Winter Festival,Jazz Fest Sarajevoand Sarajevo International Music Festival are well-known, as is theBaščaršija Nightsfestival, a month-long showcase of local culture, music, and dance. The first incarnation of the Sarajevo Film Festival was hosted in still-warring Sarajevo in 1995, and has now progressed into being the biggest and most significant festival in Southeast Europe.A talent campus is also held during the duration of the festival, with lecturers speaking on behalf of world cinematography and holding workshops for film students from across Southeast Europe. TheJazz Fest Sarajevois the region's largest and most diverse of its kind. The festival takes place at theBosnian Cultural Center(aka \"Main Stage\"), just down the street from the SFF, at the Sarajevo Youth Stage Theater (aka \"Strange Fruits Stage\"), at theDom Vojske Federacije(aka \"Solo Stage\"), and at the CDA (aka \"Groove Stage\"). Sports Sarajevo hosted the1984 Winter Olympics. Yugoslavia won one medal, a silver in men's giant slalom awarded toJure Franko.Many of the Olympic facilities survived the war or were reconstructed, including theZetra Olympic HallandAsim Ferhatović Stadium. In an attempt to bring back some of Sarajevo's Olympic glory,the original Olympic luge and bobsled tracks are being repaired, due to the efforts of both theOlympic Committee of Bosnia and Herzegovinaand local sports enthusiasts. After co-hosting the Southeast Europe Friendship games, Sarajevo was awarded the 2009Special Olympicwinter games,but canceled these plans.The ice arena for the 1984 Olympics, Zetra Stadium, was used during the war as a temporary hospital and, later, for housingNATOtroops of theIFOR. In 2011, Sarajevo was the host city of the 51st World Military Skiing Championship with over 350 participants from 23 different nations. This was the first international event of such standing since the 1984 Olympics.Footballis popular in Sarajevo; the city hostsFK SarajevoandFK Željezničar, which both compete in European and international cups and tournaments and have a very large trophy cabinet in the former Yugoslavia as well as independent Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other notable football clubs includeOlimpik,SAŠKandSlavija. One of only three stadiums in Bosnia and Herzegovina that has theUEFAcategory 3 is theGrbavica Stadium, the home stadium of Željezničar. Another popular sport is basketball; the basketball clubKK Bosnawon theEuropean Championshipin 1979 as well as many Yugoslav and Bosnian national championships, making it one of the greatest basketball clubs in the former Yugoslavia. The chess club,Bosna Sarajevo, has been a championship team since the 1980s and is the third-ranked chess club in Europe, having won four consecutive European championships in the nineties. Handball clubRK Bosnaalso competes in the European Champions League and is considered one of the most well-organized handball clubs in Southeast Europe with a very largefan baseand excellent national, as well as international results. Sarajevo often holds international events and competitions in sports such astennisandkickboxing. The popularity of tennis has been picking up in recent years. Since 2003,BH Telecom Indoorshas been an annual tennis tournament in Sarajevo. Since 2007, theSarajevo Half Marathonhas been organized every year in late September.Giro di Sarajevois also a run in the city with over 2,200 cyclists taking part in 2015. In February 2019, Sarajevo andEast Sarajevohosted theEuropean Youth Olympic Winter Festival(EYOWF). See also Notes References Bibliography External links Una-SanaCentral Bosnia PosavinaHerzegovina-Neretva TuzlaWest Herzegovina Zenica-DobojSarajevo Bosnian PodrinjeCanton 10", "Suharto 2ndPresident of Indonesia Suharto(8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesianmilitary officerand the secondPresident of Indonesia. Widely regarded as amilitary dictatorby international observers, Suharto led Indonesia as anauthoritarian regimefrom 1967 untilhis resignationin 1998 followingnationwide unrest.His 31-year dictatorship is considered one of the most brutal and corrupt of the 20th century: he was central to theperpetration of mass killingsagainst allegedcommunistsand subsequentpersecution of ethnic Chinese, irreligious people, and trade unionists. Suharto was born inKemusuk, near the city ofYogyakarta, during theDutch colonialera.He grew up in humble circumstances.HisJavaneseMuslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he lived with foster parents for much of his childhood. During theJapanese occupation, Suharto served in the Japanese-organized Indonesian security forces. DuringIndonesia's independence struggle, he joined the newly formedIndonesian Armyand rose to the rank ofmajor generalsome time after full Indonesian independence was achieved.An attempted coupon 30 September and 1 October 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led a nationwideviolent anti-communist purgeandSuharto wrested powerfrom Indonesia's founding president,Sukarno. He was appointedacting presidentin 1967 and elected president the following year. He then mounted a social campaign known as \"de-Sukarnoisation\" to reduce the former president's influence. Suharto ordered aninvasion of East Timorin 1975, followed by a deadly 23-yearoccupation of the countryandgenocide. By the 1990s, the New Order's increasing authoritarianism andwidespread corruptionwere a source of discontent and, following the1997 Asian financial crisiswhich led towidespread unrest, heresigned in May 1998. Under his \"New Order\" administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government. What started as anoligarchicmilitary dictatorshipevolved into a personalistic authoritarian regime centred around him.An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedlyanti-communiststance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during theCold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant industrialisation, economic growth, and improved levels of education.As a result, he was given the title \"Father of Development\".According toTransparency International, Suharto was one of the most corrupt leaders in modern history, havingembezzledan alleged US$15–35 billion during his rule.Suharto died in January 2008. Suharto remains a controversial and divisive figure within the Indonesian general public. Many Indonesians have praised his 31-year regime for its economic development, rapid industrialisation, and perceived political stability, while others have denounced his dictatorial rule, extensive human rights violations and corruption.Plans to award the status ofNational Heroto Suharto are being considered by theIndonesian governmentand have been debated vigorously. Name Like manyJavanese, Suharto hadonly one name.Religious contexts in recent years had sometimes referred to him asHaji/Al-HajMohammed Suharto, but these names were neither part of his formal name nor generally used. The spelling \"Suharto\" reflects modern Indonesian orthography, although the general approach in Indonesia is to rely on the spelling preferred by the person concerned. At the time of his birth, thestandard transcriptionwas Soeharto, and he used the original spelling throughout his life. The international English-language press generally uses the spelling \"Suharto\" while the Indonesian government and media use \"Soeharto\". Early life and family Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 in a plaited-bamboo-walled house in the hamlet ofKemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean, then part of theDutch East Indies. The village is 15 kilometres (9 mi) west ofYogyakarta, the cultural heartland of theJavanese.Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the only child of his father's second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage and was a village irrigation official. His mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related toHamengkubuwono Vby his first concubine.Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his mother suffered anervous breakdown; he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo as a result.Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life and both later remarried. At the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies.In 1929, Suharto's father took him to live with his sister, who was married to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yielding farming area nearWonogiri. Over the following two years, he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father. Prawirowihardjo took to raising the boy as his own, which provided Suharto with a father-figure and a stable home in Wuryantoro. In 1931, he moved to the town of Wonogiri to attend the primary school, living first with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, and later with his father's relative Hardjowijono. While living with Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquainted with Darjatmo, adukun(\"shaman\") of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing. The experience deeply affected him and later, as president, Suharto surrounded himself with powerful symbolic language.Difficulties in paying the fees for his education in Wonogiri resulted in another move back to his father in Kemusuk, where he continued studying at a lower-fee SchakelMuhammadiyah(middle school) in the city ofYogyakartauntil 1938.Suharto's upbringing contrasts with that of leading Indonesian nationalists such asSukarnoin that he is believed to have had little interest inanti-colonialism, or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings. Unlike Sukarno and his circle, Suharto had little or no contact with European colonisers. Consequently, he did not learn to speakDutchor other European languages in his youth. He learned to speak Dutch after his induction into the Dutch military in 1940. Military service Japanese occupation period Suharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro. He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes.Following a spell of unemployment, he joined theRoyal Netherlands East Indies Army(KNIL) in June 1940 and undertook basic training inGombongnear Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese.Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal, graduated from a short training course atKNIL KaderschoolinGombongto become a sergeant, and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion inCisarua.Following the Dutch surrender to theinvading Japanese forcesin March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro. After months of unemployment, he then became one of the thousands of Indonesians who took the opportunity to join Japanese-organized security forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force. In October 1943, Suharto was transferred from the police force to the newly formed Japanese-sponsored militia, thePembela Tanah Air(PETA) in which Indonesians served as officers. In his training to serve with the rank ofshodancho(platoon commander) he encountered a localised version of the Japanesebushido, or \"way of the warrior\", used to indoctrinate troops. This training encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists. The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking.Suharto was posted to a PETA coastal defense battalion atWates, south of Yogyakarta until he was admitted for training forchudancho(company commander) inBogorfrom April to August 1944. As company commander, he conducted training for new PETA recruits inSurakarta,Jakarta, andMadiun. The Japanese surrender andProclamation of Indonesian Independencein August 1945 occurred while Suharto was posted to the remote Brebeg area (on the slopes ofMount Wilis) to train new NCOs to replace those executed by the Japanese in the aftermath of the failed February1945 PETA Revolt in Blitar, led bySupriyadi. Indonesian National Revolution Two days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific, independence leadersSukarnoandHattadeclared Indonesian independenceand were appointed president and vice-president respectively of the new Republic. Suharto disbanded his regiment under orders from the Japanese command and returned to Yogyakarta.As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence, Suharto joined a new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army. Based on his PETA experience, he was appointed deputy commander, and subsequently, a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organized in October 1945.Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops aroundMagelangandSemarangand was subsequently appointed the head of a brigade as lieutenant-colonel, having earned respect as a field commander.In the early years of the war, he organized local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I; Suharto was promoted to Major and became Battalion X's leader.The arrival of the Allies, under a mandate to return the situation to thestatus quo ante bellum, quickly led to clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied forces, i.e. returning Dutch and assisting British forces. Suharto led his Division X troops to halt an advance by the Dutch T (\"Tiger\") Brigade on 17 May 1946. It earned him the respect of Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo, who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a body created to organize and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces.The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring. By August 1946, Suharto was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III (the \"Diponegoro Division\") stationed in Yogyakarta. In late 1946, the Diponegoro Division assumed responsibility for the defence of the west and southwest ofYogyakartafrom Dutch forces. Conditions at the time are reported by Dutch sources as miserable; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport ofopiumthrough the territory he controlled, to generate income. In September 1948, Suharto was dispatched to meetMusso, chairman of theIndonesian Communist Party(PKI) in an unsuccessful attempt at a peaceful reconciliation of thecommunist uprising in Madiun. In December 1948, the Dutch launched \"Operation Kraai\", which resulted in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta and the capitalYogyakarta. Suharto was appointed to lead theWehrkreise III, consisting of two battalions, which waged guerrilla warfare against the Dutch from the hills south ofYogyakarta.In dawn raids on 1 March 1949, Suharto's forces and local militia recaptured the city, holding it until noon.Suharto's later accounts had him as the lone plotter, although other sources say SultanHamengkubuwono IXof Yogyakarta, and the Panglima of the Third Division ordered the attack. However, GeneralAbdul Nasutionsaid that Suharto took great care in preparing the \"General Offensive\" (Indonesian:Serangan Umum). Civilians sympathetic to the Republican cause within the city had been galvanised by the show of force which proved that the Dutch had failed to win the guerrilla war. Internationally, the United Nations Security Council pressured the Dutch to cease the military offensive and to recommence negotiations, which eventually led to the Dutch withdrawal from the Yogyakarta area in June 1949 and to complete transfer of sovereignty in December 1949. Suharto was responsible for the takeover of Yogyakarta city from the withdrawing Dutch in June 1949. During the Revolution, Suharto marriedSiti Hartinah(known as Madam Tien), the daughter of a minor noble in the Mangkunegaran royal house of Solo. The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive, lasting until Tien's death in 1996.The couple had six children:Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana(Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), Siti Hediati (\"Titiek Suharto\", born 1959),Hutomo Mandala Putra(Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964). Within the Javanese upper class, it was considered acceptable for the wife to pursue genteel commerceto supplement the family budget, allowing her husband to keep his dignity in his official role. The commercial dealingsof Tien, her children and grandchildren became extensive and ultimately undermined Suharto's presidency. Post-Independence career In the years following Indonesian independence, Suharto served in theIndonesian National Army, primarily inJava. In 1950, as a colonel, he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing theMakassar uprising, a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch-establishedState of East Indonesiaand its federal entity, theUnited States of Indonesia.During his year inMakassar, Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours, the Habibie family, whose eldest sonBJ Habibiewas later Suharto's vice-president, and went on to succeed him as president. In 1951–1952, Suharto led his troops in defeating the Islamic-inspiredrebellion of Battalion 426in theKlatenarea ofCentral Java.Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953, he organized their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in theMount Merapiarea. He also sought to stem leftist sympathies among his troops. His experience in this period left Suharto with a deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism. Between 1956 and 1959, he served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division based inSemarang, responsible for Central Java andYogyakartaprovinces. His relationship with prominent businessmenLiem Sioe LiongandBob Hasan, which extended throughout his presidency, began in Central Java, where he was involved in a series of \"profit-generating\" enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning.Army anti-corruption investigations implicated Suharto in a 1959 smuggling scandal. Relieved of his position, he was transferred to the army's Staff and Command School (Seskoad) in the city ofBandung. While in Bandung, he was promoted to brigadier-general, and in late 1960, promoted to army deputy chief of staff.On 6 March 1961, he was given an additional command, as head of the army's new Strategic Reserve (Korps Tentara I Cadangan Umum AD, laterKOSTRAD), a ready-reaction air-mobile force based inJakarta.In January 1962, Suharto was promoted to the rank ofmajor generaland appointed to lead Operation Mandala, a joint army-navy-air force command based inMakassar. This formed the military side of the campaign to winwestern New Guineafrom the Dutch, who were preparing it for its own independence, separate from Indonesia.In 1965, Suharto was assigned operational command of Sukarno'sKonfrontasi, against the newly formed Malaysia. Fearful thatKonfrontasiwould leave Java thinly covered by the army, and hand control to the 2 million-strongIndonesian Communist Party(PKI), he authorised a Kostrad intelligence officer,Ali Murtopo, to open secret contacts with the British and Malaysians. Overthrow of Sukarno Background Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI's proposal for a \"fifth armed force\" consisting of armed peasants and workers. However, this idea was rejected by the army's leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces. In May, the \"Gilchrist Document\" aroused Sukarno's fear of a military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. On his independence day speech in August, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist countries and warned the army not to interfere. While Sukarno devoted his energy for domestic and international politics, the economy of Indonesia deteriorated rapidly with worsening widespread poverty and hunger, while foreign debt obligations became unmanageable and infrastructure crumbled. Sukarno's Guided Democracy stood on fragile grounds due to the inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared the imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the PKI had three million members and was particularly strong in Central Java and Bali. The party had become the most potent political party in Indonesia. Abortive coup and anti-communist purge Before dawn on 1 October 1965, six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard, Diponegoro Division, and Brawidjaja Division.Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. At 7:10 amUntung bin Syamsuriannounced on the radio that the \"30 September Movement\" had forestalled a coup attempt onSukarnoby \"CIA-backed power-mad generals\", and that it was \"an internal army affair\". The movement never made any attempt on Suharto's life.Suharto had been in Jakarta army hospital that evening with his three-year-old sonTommywho had a scalding injury. It was here that he was visited by Colonel Abdul Latief, a key member of the Movement and close family friend of Suharto. According to Latief's later testimony, the conspirators assumed Suharto to be a Sukarno-loyalist; hence Latief went to inform him of the impending kidnapping plan to save Sukarno from treacherous generals, upon which Suharto seemed to offer his neutrality. Upon being told of the killings, Suharto went toKostradheadquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square. He mobilised Kostrad and RPKAD (nowKopassus) special forces to seize control of the centre of Jakarta, capturing key strategic sites including the radio station without resistance. Suharto announced over the radio at 9:00 pm that six generals had been kidnapped by \"counter-revolutionaries\" and that the 30 September Movement actually intended to overthrow Sukarno. He said he was in control of the army, and that he would crush the Movement and safeguard Sukarno.Suharto issued an ultimatum toHalim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno, air force commanderOmar Dhaniand PKI chairmanDipa Nusantara Aidithad gathered, causing them to disperse before Suhartoist soldiers occupied the airbase on 2 October after short fighting.With the failure of the poorly organized coup,and having secured authority from the president to restore order and security, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of the army by 2 October (he was officially appointed army commander on 14 October). On 5 October, Suharto led a dramatic public ceremony to bury the generals' bodies. Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organizers and their aims. The army's version, and subsequently that of the\"New Order\", was that the PKI was solely responsible. A propaganda campaign by the army and Islamic andCatholicstudent groups convinced both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a communist coup attempt, and that the killings were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes.The army in alliance with civilian religious groups, and backed by the United States and other Western powers, led acampaign of mass killingsto purge Indonesian society, government, and armed forces of theCommunist Party of Indonesiaand other leftist organizations.The purge spread from Jakarta to much of the rest of the country.The most widely accepted estimates are that at least 500,000 to over 1 million were killed.As many as 1.5 million were imprisoned at one stage or another.As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, was effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam.The CIA described the purge as \"one of the worstmass murdersof the 20th century\". Power struggle Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats.In January 1966, university students under the banner ofKAMI, began demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of the PKI and control of hyperinflation. The students received support and protection from the army. Street fights broke out between the students and pro-Sukarno loyalists with the pro-Suharto students prevailing due to army protection. In February 1966, Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant-general (and to full general in July 1966).The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno's order for the disbandment ofKAMIin February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president. On 11 March 1966, the appearance of unidentified troops aroundMerdeka Palaceduring a cabinet meeting (which Suharto had not attended) forced Sukarno to flee toBogor Palace(60 km away) by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals, Major-GeneralBasuki Rahmat, Brigadier-GeneralM. Jusuf, and Brigadier-GeneralAmir Machmudwent to Bogor to meet Sukarno. There, they persuaded and secured a presidential decree from Sukarno (seeSupersemar) that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security.Using theSupersemarletter, Suharto ordered the banning of the PKI the following day and proceeded to purge pro-Sukarno elements from the parliament, the government and military, accusing them of being communist sympathisers. The army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appointa new cabinetconsisting of Suharto supporters. The army arrested pro-Sukarno and pro-communist members of theMPRS(parliament), and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy, air force, and the police force with his supporters, who then began an extensive purge within each service.In June 1966, the now-purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning ofMarxism–Leninism, ratifying theSupersemar, and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life. Crucially, it also resolved that if Sukarno were unable to carry out his duties, the holder of the Supersemar—Suharto—would become acting president. Against the wishes of Sukarno, the government ended the Konfrontasi with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations(Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year).Suharto did not seek Sukarno's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president among some elements of the armed forces.By January 1967, Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within the armed forces. After Sukarno gave his version of events, the MPRS concluded that he had been derelict in his duties and decided to hold another session to impeach him. Facing an increasingly untenable situation, on 22 February 1967 Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency, and on 12 March, the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power and named Suhartoacting president.Sukarno was placed under house arrest inBogor Palace; little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970.On 27 March 1968, the MPRS appointed Suharto for a full five-year term as president. The \"New Order\" (1967–1998) Ideology Suharto promoted his \"New Order\", as opposed toSukarno's \"Old Order\", as a society based on thePancasilaideology. After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into a quasi-religious cult, Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organizations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as a fundamental principle. He also instituted mandatory Pancasila training programs for all Indonesians, from primary school students to office workers. In practice, however, the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as \"anti-Pancasila\".The New Order also implemented theDwifungsi(\"Dual Function\") policy which enabled the military to have an active role in all levels of the Indonesian government, economy, and society. Consolidation of power Having been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mereprimus inter pares, and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti-Communist purge. Suharto, aided by his \"Office of Personal Assistants\" (Aspri) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularlyAli Murtopo, began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives.Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman GeneralAbdul Haris Nasution's 1968 attempt to introduce a bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generalsHartono Rekso Dharsono,Kemal Idris, andSarwo Edhie Wibowo(dubbed \"New Order Radicals\") opposed Suharto's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of a non-ideological two-party system similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto sent Dharsono overseas as an ambassador, while Idris and Wibowo were sent to distantNorth SumatraandSouth Sulawesias regional commanders. Suharto's previously strong relationship with the student movement soured over the increasing authoritarianism and corruption of his administration. While many original leaders of the 1966 student movement (Angkatan '66) were successfully co-opted into the regime, Suharto was faced with large student demonstrations challenging the legitimacy of 1971 elections (\"Golput\" movement), the costly construction of theTaman Mini Indonesia Indahtheme park (1972), the domination of foreign capitalists (Malari Incidentof 1974), and the lack of term limits of Suharto's presidency (1978). The regime responded by imprisoning many student activists (such as future national figuresDorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti,Adnan Buyung Nasution, Hariman Siregar, andSyahrir), and even sending troops to occupy the campus of ITB (Bandung Institute of Technology) from January–March 1978. In April 1978, Suharto moved decisively by issuing a decree on \"Normalisation of Campus Life\" (NKK) which prohibited political activities on-campus not related to academic pursuits. On 15–16 January 1974, Suharto faced a significant challenge when violent riots broke out inJakartaduring a visit by the Japanese prime ministerKakuei Tanaka. Students demonstrating against increasing dominance of Japanese investors were encouraged by GeneralSumitro, deputy commander of the armed forces. Sumitro was an ambitious general who disliked the strong influence of Suharto's Aspri inner circle. Suharto learned that the riots were engineered by Sumitro to destabilise the government, resulting in Sumitro's dismissal and forced retirement. This incident is referred to as theMalari Incident (Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari/ Disaster of 15 January). However, Suharto also disbanded Aspri to appease popular dissent.In 1980, fifty prominent political figures signed thePetition of Fifty, which criticised Suharto's use of Pancasila to silence his critics. Suharto refused to address the petitioners' concerns, and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements. Domestic policy and political stability To placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated a series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for aparliament (Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat/MPR)with the power to elect presidents, consisting of a house of representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat/DPR) and regional representatives. 100 of the 460 members of DPR would be directly appointed by the government, while the remaining seats were allocated to political organizations based on results of the general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents. To participate in the elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party, thePNI, in 1969 Suharto decided to take over control of an obscure military-run federation of NGOs calledGolkar(\"Functional Groups\") and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the coordination of his right-hand manAli Murtopo. Thefirst general electionwas held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants; consisting ofGolkar, four Islamic parties, as well as five nationalist and Christian parties. Campaigning on a non-ideological platform of \"development\", and aided by official government support and subtle intimidation tactics,Golkarmanaged to secure 62.8% of the popular vote. The March 1973 general session of newly elected MPR promptly appointed Suharto to second-term in office with SultanHamengkubuwono IXas vice-president. \"It is not the military strength of the Communists but their fanaticism and ideology which is the principal element of their strength. To consider this, each country in the area needs an ideology of its own with which to counter the Communists. But a national ideology is not enough by itself. The well being of the people must be improved so that it strengthens and supports the national ideology.\" On 5 January 1973, to allow better control, the government forced the four Islamic parties to merge intoPPP(Partai Persatuan Pembangunan/United Development Party) while the five non-Islamic parties were fused intoPDI(Partai Demokrasi Indonesia/Indonesian Democratic Party). The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their leadership while establishing the \"re-call\" system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions. Using this system dubbed \"PancasilaDemocracy\", Suharto was re-elected unopposed by the MPR in 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998.Golkar won landslide majorities in the MPR at every election, ensuring that Suharto would be able to pass his agenda with virtually no opposition. Suharto took great care to make it appear that his regime appeared to observe the tenets of the constitution. On paper, the president was the \"mandatory of the MPR,\" responsible for implementing the \"Broad Lines of State Policy\" (GBHN) developed by the MPR. Near the end of each of his terms, Suharto delivered \"accountability speeches\" to the MPR that outlined the achievements of his administration and demonstrated how he had adhered to the GBHN. Additionally, the president had the power to issue regulations in lieu of law, but such regulations had to be approved by theHouse of People's Representatives(DPR) to remain in effect. In practice, however, Golkar's landslide majorities in the DPR and MPR made such approval a mere formality. Combined with the DPR's infrequent sessions (it usually sat for only one session per year), Suharto was able to effectively rule by decree for most of his tenure. Suharto also proceeded with various social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de-politicised \"floating mass\" supportive of the national mission of \"development\", a concept similar tocorporatism. The government formed various civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs. For instance, the government created theIndonesian Civil Servants Corps(Korps Pegawai Republik IndonesiaorKORPRI) in November 1971 as union of civil servants to ensure their loyalty, organized the FBSI (Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia) as the only legal labour union in February 1973, and established theMUIin 1975 to control Islamic clerics. Internal security and social policy Additionally, Suharto relied on the military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security, organized by theKopkamtib(Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order) andBAKIN(State Intelligence Coordination Agency). To maintain strict control over the country, Suharto expanded the army's territorial system down to village-level, while military officers were appointed as regional heads under the rubric of theDwifungsi(\"Dual Function\") of the military. By 1969, 70% of Indonesia's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers. Suharto authorisedOperasi Trisulawhich destroyed PKI remnants trying to organize a guerrilla base in theBlitararea in 1968 and ordered several military operations that ended the communist PGRS-Paraku insurgency inWest Kalimantan(1967–1972). Attacks on oil workers by the first incarnation ofFree Aceh Movementseparatists underHasan di Tiroin 1977 led to the dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced the movement's members to flee abroad.Notably, in March 1981, Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to endhijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flightby Islamic extremists atDon Mueang International AirportinBangkok. In 1968, Suharto commenced the highly successful family-planning program (Keluarga Berentjana/KB) to stem the high population growth rate and hence increasing per-capita income. A lasting legacy from this period is thespelling reform of Indonesian languagedecreed by Suharto on 17 August 1972.To promoteassimilationof the influentialChinese-Indonesians, the Suharto government passedseveral lawsas part of the so-called \"Basic Policy for the Solution of Chinese Problem\", whereby only one Chinese-language publication (controlled by the Army) was allowed to continue, all Chinese cultural and religious expressions (including the display of Chinese characters) wereprohibitedfrom public space, Chinese schools were seized and turned intoIndonesian-language public schools, and the ethnic-Chinese wereforced to take-up Indonesian-sounding names; creating a systematiccultural genocide. In 1978, the government began requiring aLetter of Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia(Indonesian:Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia, or SBKRI). Although the SBKRI was legally required for all citizens of foreign descent, in practice it was generally applied only to Chinese descent. This led todifficulties for Chinese Indonesianswhen enrolling in state universities, applying to be civil servants, or joining the military or police. Economy To stabilise the economy and to ensure long-term support for the New Order, Suharto's administration enlisted a group of mostly US-educated Indonesian economists, dubbed the \"Berkeley Mafia\", to formulate significant changes in economic policy. By cutting subsidies, decreasing government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation was lowered from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969. The threat of famine was alleviated by the influx ofUSAIDrice aid shipments from 1967 to 1968.With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth, the New Order reversed Sukarno's economic self-sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment through the 1967 Foreign Investment Law. Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia. The first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia included mining companiesFreeport Sulphur Company/International Nickel Company. Following government regulatory frameworks, domestic entrepreneurs (mostly Chinese-Indonesians) emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the import-substitution light-manufacturing sector such asAstra GroupandSalim Group. From 1967, the government secured low-interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) to cover its budget deficit.With the IGGI funds and the later jump in oil export revenue from the1973 oil crisis, the government invested in infrastructure under a series of five-year plans, dubbed REPELITA (Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun) I to VI from 1969 to 1998.Outside the formal economy, Suharto created a network of charitable organizations (\"yayasan\") run by the military and his family members, which extracted \"donations\" from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits. While some proceeds were used for charitable purposes, much of the money was recycled as a slush fund to reward political allies and to maintain support for the New Order.In 1975, the state-owned oil company,Pertamina, defaulted on its foreign loans as a result of mismanagement and corruption under the leadership of Suharto's close ally,Ibnu Sutowo. The government bail-out of the company nearly doubled the national debt. Foreign policy Upon assuming power, Suharto's government adopted a policy of neutrality in theCold Warbut was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western bloc (including Japan andSouth Korea) to secure support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support.Diplomatic relationswith China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in the30 September Movement(diplomatic relations were only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of the PKI, theSoviet Unionembargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign ministerAdam Malikmanaged to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation withMalaysiain August 1966, Indonesia became a founding member of theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) in August 1967. This organization is designed to establish a peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as the ongoingVietnam War. In 1974, the neighbouring colony ofPortuguese Timordescendedinto civil warafter the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following theCarnation Revolution, whereby the left-wing populistFretilin(Portuguese:Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente) emerged triumphant. With approval from Western countries (including from U.S. presidentGerald Fordand Australian prime ministerGough Whitlamduring their visits to Indonesia), Suharto decided to intervene. He claimed the move was to prevent the establishment of a communist state. After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese groupsUDTandAPODETI, Suharto authorised a full-scaleinvasionof the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia's 27th province ofEast Timorin July 1976. The \"encirclement and annihilation\" campaigns of 1977–1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands, although continuing guerrilla resistance caused the government to maintain a strong military force in the half-island until 1999. An estimated minimum of 90,800 and maximum of 213,600 conflict-related deaths occurred in East Timor duringIndonesian rule (1974–1999); namely, 17,600–19,600 killings and 73,200 to 194,000 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness; Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70% of the violent deaths. Indonesia'sinvasionandoccupationofEast Timorduring Suharto's presidency resulted in at least 100,000 deaths.To comply with theNew York Agreementof 1962 which required a plebiscite on the integration ofWest Irianinto Indonesia before the end of 1969, the Suharto government begin organizing for a so-called \"Act of Free Choice\" scheduled for July–August 1969. The government sent RPKAD special forces underSarwo Edhie Wibowowhich secured the surrender of several bands of former Dutch-organized militia (Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK) at large in the jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963 while sending Catholic volunteers underJusuf Wanandito distribute consumer goods to promote pro-Indonesian sentiments. In March 1969, it was agreed that the plebiscite would be channelled via 1,025 tribal chiefs, citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of the population. Using the above strategy, the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia, which was duly noted by theUnited Nations General Assemblyin November 1969. Socio-economic progress Real socio-economic progress sustained support for Suharto's regime across three decades. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate has dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% pa, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$806 to US$4,114. In 1966, the manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested in massive infrastructure development (notably the launching of a series ofPalapatelecommunication satellites); consequently, Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s was considered at par with China. Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his presidency, and theparliament(MPR) on 9 March 1983 granted him the title of \"Father of Development\". Suharto government's health-care programs (such as thePuskesmasprogram) increased life expectancy from 47 years (1966) to 67 years (1997) while cutting infant mortality rate by more than 60%. The government'sInpresprogram launched in 1973 resulted in primary school enrolment ratio reaching 90% by 1983 while almost eliminating the education gap between boys and girls. Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia achieving rice self-sufficiency by 1984, an unprecedented achievement which earned Suharto a gold medal from theFAOin November 1985.In the early 1980s, Suharto government responded to the fall in oil exports due to the1980s oil glutby successfully shifting the basis of the economy to export-oriented labour-intensive manufacturing, made globally competitive by Indonesia's low wages and a series of currency devaluations. Industrialisation was mostly undertaken byChinese-Indonesiancompanies which evolved into large conglomerates dominating the nation's economy. The largest of these conglomerates were theSalim Groupled byLiem Sioe Liong (Sudono Salim),Sinar Mas Groupled byOei Ek Tjong (Eka Tjipta Widjaja),Astra Groupled byTjia Han Poen (William Soeryadjaya),Lippo Groupled byLie Mo Tie (Mochtar Riady), Barito Pacific Group led byPang Djun Phen (Prajogo Pangestu), and Nusamba Group led byBob Hasan. Suharto decided to support the growth of a small number of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates since they would not pose a political challenge due to their ethnic-minority status, but from his experience, he deemed them to possess the skills and capital needed to create real growth for the country. In exchange for Suharto's patronage, the conglomerates provided vital financing for his \"regime maintenance\" activities. In the late 1980s, the Suharto government decided to de-regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing a domestic source of financing required for growth. Suharto decreed the \"October Package of 1988\" (PAKTO 88) which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit; resulting in a 50% increase in the number of banks from 1989 to 1991. To promote savings, the government introduced theTABANASprogram to the populace. TheJakarta Stock Exchange, re-opened in 1977, recorded a \"bull run\", due to a spree of domesticIPOsand an influx of foreign funds after the deregulation in 1990. The sudden availability of credit fuelled robust economic growth in the early 1990s, but the weak regulatory environment of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997, which eventually lead to the end of Suharto's presidency. Growing corruption The growth of the economy coincided with the rapid expansion of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme / KKN). In the early 1980s, Suharto's children, particularlySiti Hardiyanti Rukmana(\"Tutut\"),Hutomo Mandala Putra (\"Tommy\"), and Bambang Trihatmodjo, had grown into greedy adults. Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include thetoll-expresswaymarket which was monopolised by Tutut, the national car project monopolised by Bambang and Tommy, and even the cinema market, monopolised by21 Cineplex(owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000 km2of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m2of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish \"strategic partnerships\" with Suharto family companies. Meanwhile, the myriad ofyayasans run by the Suharto family grew even larger, levying millions of dollars in \"donations\" from the public and private sectors each year. In 1997,Forbes magazinelisted Suharto as the fourth richest person in the world with an individual net worth of $16 billion, despite drawing an annual salary in his last peak year of only $21,000. The Suharto family owned or controlled 3.6 million hectares of prime Indonesian land, an area comparable to all ofBelgium, and directly owned or had controlling equity in at least 564 companies, with no Indonesian economic sector untouched. With $100,000 of seed capital, Tommy Suharto got his start in 1984 at age 22. Within ten weeks hisHumpuss Groupalready had twenty subsidiaries, which soon ballooned to sixty. A year later he acquired Perta Oil Marketing, a subsidiary of the state oil companyPertamina, instantly making him a major crude-oil broker and transporter. Perta generated profits of $1 million per month. Most of Indonesia's toll roads were built and operated by the stateowned firmJasa Marga, with untold markups and opportunities for skimming and theft for oligarchs as the projects were completed. In 1989, Suharto issued a decree granting his daughter Tutut 75% of profits from all toll roads her group operated jointly with Jasa Marga, driving costs up still further. Bambang positioned his group as a partner of major foreign power companies and forced the state-run power company,PLN, to buy electricity at inflated rates. According to one estimate from the 24 May 1999 cover story in the international issue ofTime magazine, the total wealth amassed by the Suharto family over three decades in power was $73.24 billion. Setting aside $9 billion earned from interest on deposits, three-fourths of this wealth was derived from grabbing the country's oil, gas, and mining resources, or muscling in on state corporations and major government contracts. The entrepreneurial value added from these Suharto family companies was, by all accounts, almost zero. In early 2004, the German anti-corruption NGO Transparency International released a list of what it believed to be the ten most self-enriching leaders in the previous two decades; in order of amount allegedly stolen in USD, the highest-ranking of these was Suharto and his family who are alleged to have embezzled $15 billion – $35 billion. The New Order in the 1980s and 1990s By the 1980s, Suharto's grip on power was maintained by the emasculation of civil society, engineered elections, and use of the military's coercive powers. Upon his retirement from the military in June 1976, Suharto undertook a re-organization of the armed forces that concentrated power away from commanders to the president. In March 1983, he appointed GeneralLeonardus Benjamin Moerdanias head of the armed forces who adopted a hard-line approach on elements who challenged the administration. As a Roman Catholic, he was not a political threat to Suharto.From 1983 to 1985, army squads killed up to 10,000 suspected criminals in response to a spike in the crime rate (see \"Petrus Killings\"). Suharto's imposition of Pancasila as the sole ideology caused protests from conservative Islamic groups who considered Islamic law to be above all other conceptions. TheTanjung Priok massacresaw the army kill up to 100 conservative Muslim protesters in September 1984. A retaliatory series of small bombings, including the bombing ofBorobudur, led to arrests of hundreds of conservative Islamic activists, including future parliamentary leader AM Fatwa andAbu Bakar Bashir(later leader ofJemaah Islamiyah). Attacks on police by a resurgentFree Aceh Movementin 1989 led to a military operation which killed 2,000 people and ended the insurgency by 1992. In 1984, the Suharto government sought increased control over the press by issuing a law requiring all media to possess a press operating license (Surat Izin Usaha Penerbitan Pers, SIUPP) which could be revoked at any time by Ministry of Information. With the end of communism and theCold War, Suharto's human rights record came under greater international scrutiny, particularly following the 1991Santa Cruz massacrein East Timor. Suharto was elected as head of theNon-Aligned Movementin 1992, while Indonesia became a founding member ofAPECin 1989 and host to theBogorAPEC Summit in 1994.Domestically, the business dealings of Suharto's family created discontent among the military who lost access to power and lucrative rent-seeking opportunities. The March 1988MPRsession, military legislators attempted to pressure Suharto by unsuccessfully seeking to block the nomination ofSudharmono, a Suharto-loyalist, as vice-president. Moerdani's criticism of the Suharto family's corruption saw the president dismiss him from the position of military chief. Suharto proceeded to slowly \"de-militarise\" his regime; he dissolved the powerfulKopkamtibin September 1988 and ensured key military positions were held by loyalists. In an attempt to diversify his power base away from the military, Suharto began courting support from Islamic elements. He undertook a much-publicisedhajjpilgrimage in 1991, took up the name of Haji Mohammad Suharto, and promoted Islamic values and the careers of Islamic-oriented generals. To win support from the nascent Muslim business community who resented the dominance of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates, Suharto formed theIndonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals(ICMI) in November 1990, which was led by his protégéB.J. Habibie, the Minister for Research and Technology since 1978. During this period, race riots against ethnic-Chinese begin to occur quite regularly, beginning with the April 1994 riot inMedan.By the 1990s, Suharto's government came to be dominated by civilian politicians such asHabibie,Harmoko,Ginandjar Kartasasmita, andAkbar Tanjung, who owed their position solely to Suharto. As a sign of Habibie's growing clout, when two prominent Indonesian magazines and a tabloid newspaper reported on criticism over Habibie's purchase of almost the entire fleet of the disbandedEast German Navyin 1993 (most of the vessels were of scrap-value), the Ministry of Information ordered the offending publications be closed down on 21 June 1994.In 1993, thePurna Bhakti Pertiwi Museumwas opened on the initiative of Tien Suharto. It houses and displays Suharto collections including artworks and souvenirs, received from various world leaders and Indonesian people. In the 1990s, elements within the growing Indonesian middle class created by Suharto's economic development were becoming restless with hisautocracyand the corruption of his children, fuelling demands for \"Reformasi\" (reform) of the almost 30-year-old New Order government. A significant element of the middle class had no memory of the events leading up to Suharto's rise to power. By 1996, Sukarno's daughter,Megawati Sukarnoputri, chairwoman of the normally compliantPDI, was becoming an opposition figure for this growing discontent. In response, Suharto backed a co-opted faction of PDI led bySuryadi, which ousted Megawati as PDI leader. On 27 July 1996,an attackby soldiers and hired thugs led by Lieutenant-GeneralSutiyosoon demonstrating Megawati supporters in Jakarta resulted in fatal riots and looting. This incident was followed by the arrest of 200 democracy activists, 23 of whom were kidnapped, and some killed, by army squads led by Suharto's son-in-law, Major-GeneralPrabowo Subianto.In 1995, Suharto released a special 1,54 troy ouncegold coinworth of 850,000 rupiahwith his face on one side of the coin in the celebration of 50th anniversary ofIndonesian Independence. On 5 October 1997, he awarded himself and generalsSudirmanandAbdul Haris Nasutionthe honorary rank of five-star \"Grand General\". Economic crisis and downfall Asian financial crisis Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the1997 Asian financial crisis. From mid-1997 there were large capital outflows and against the US dollar. Due to poor bank lending practices, many Indonesian companies borrowed cheaper US dollar loans while their income is mainly in Indonesian rupiah. The weakening rupiah spurred panic buying of US dollar by these companies, causing theIndonesian rupiahto drop in value from a pre-crisis level of Rp. 2,600 to a low point in early 1998 of around Rp. 17,000. Consequently, many companies were bankrupted and the economy shrank by 13.7%, leading to sharp increases in unemployment and poverty across the country. Efforts by thecentral bankto defend the rupiah proved futile and only drained the country's dollar reserves. In exchange for US$43 billion in liquidity aid, between October 1997 and the following April, Suharto signed three letters of intent with theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) for an economic reform process. In January 1998, the government was forced to provide emergency liquidity assistance (BLBI), issue blanket guarantees for bank deposits and set-up theIndonesian Bank Restructuring Agencyto take over management of troubled banks to prevent the collapse of the financial system. Among the steps taken on IMF recommendation, the government raised an interest rate up to 70% pa in February 1998, which further worsened the contraction of the economy. In December 1997, Suharto did not attend an ASEAN presidents' summit for the first time, which was later revealed to be due to a minor stroke, creating speculation about his health and the immediate future of his presidency. In mid-December, as the crisis swept through Indonesia and an estimated $150 billion of capital was being withdrawn from the country, he appeared at a press conference to re-assert his authority and to urge people to trust the government and the collapsing rupiah. However, his attempts to re-instil confidence had little effect. Evidence suggested that his family and associates were being spared the most stringent requirements of the IMF reform process, further undermining confidence in the economy and his leadership.The economic meltdown was accompanied by increasing political tension. Anti-Chinese riots occurred inSitubondo(1996),Tasikmalaya(1996),Banjarmasin(1997), andMakassar(1997); violent ethnic clashes broke out between theDayakandMaduresesettlers inCentral Kalimantanin 1997.Golkarwon the rigged1997 election, and in March 1998, Suharto was voted unanimously to another five-year term. He nominated his protégéB. J. Habibieas vice president then stacking thecabinetwith his own family and business associates, including his eldest daughterTututas Minister of Social Affairs. The appointments and the government's unrealistic 1998 budget created further currency instability,rumours, and panic; which led to a run on stores and pushed up prices.The government increased the fuel prices further by 70% in May 1998, which triggered another wave of riots inMedan. Suharto resigned With Suharto increasingly seen as the source of the country's mounting economic and political crises, prominent political figures, including Muslim politicianAmien Rais, spoke out against his presidency, and in January 1998 university students began organizing nationwide demonstrations.The crisis climaxed while Suharto was on a state visit to Egypt on 12 May 1998, when security forceskilled four demonstratorsfrom Jakarta'sTrisakti University.Rioting and looting across Jakarta and other citiesover the following days destroyed thousands of buildings and killed over 1,000 people. Ethnic Chinese and their businesses were particular targets in the violence. Theories on the origin of the violence include rivalry between military chief GeneralWirantoandArmy Strategic CommanderLt. Gen.Prabowo Subianto, and the suggestion of deliberate provocation by Suharto to divert blame for the crisis to the ethnic-Chinese and discredit the student movement. On 16 May, tens of thousands of university students demanded Suharto's resignation, and occupied the grounds and roof ofthe parliament building. Upon Suharto's return to Jakarta, he offered to resign in 2003 and to reshuffle his cabinet. These efforts failed when his political allies deserted him by refusing to join the proposed new cabinet. According to Wiranto, on 18 May, Suharto issued a decree which provided authority to him to take any measures to restore security; however, Wiranto decided not to enforce the decree to prevent conflict with the population.On 21 May 1998, Suharto announced his resignation, upon which vice-president Habibie assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitution.Documents from the United States Department of State indicate that the Clinton Administration sought to maintain close ties with the Indonesian military in the aftermath of Suharto's fall from power. Post-presidency Corruption charges After resigning from the presidency, Suharto became a recluse in his family's compound in theMentengarea of Jakarta, protected by soldiers and rarely making public appearances. Suharto's family spent much of their time fending off corruption investigations. However, Suharto himself was protected from grave prosecution by politicians who owed their positions to the former president, as indicated in the leaked telephone conversation between PresidentHabibieand attorney-general Andi Muhammad Ghalib in February 1999.In May 1999,Time Asiaestimated Suharto's family fortune at US$15 billion in cash,shares, corporate assets, real estate, jewellery and fine art. Suharto sued the magazine seeking more than US$27 billion in damages forlibelover the article.On 10 September 2007, Indonesia's Supreme Court awarded SuhartodamagesagainstTime Asiamagazine, ordering it to pay him one trillionrupiah($128.59 million). The High Court reversed thejudgmentof anappellate courtandCentral Jakartadistrict court(made in 2000 and 2001). Suharto was placed highest onTransparency International's list of corrupt leaders with alleged misappropriation of between US$15–35 billion during his 32-year presidency.On 29 May 2000, Suharto was placed underhouse arrestwhen Indonesian authorities began to investigate the corruption during his presidency. In July 2000, it was announced that he was to be accused of embezzling US$571 million of government donations to one of several foundations under his control and then using the money to finance family investments. However, in September court-appointed doctors announced that he could not stand trial because of his declining health. State prosecutors tried again in 2002, but then doctors cited an unspecified brain disease. On 26 March 2008, a civil court judge acquitted Suharto of corruption but ordered his charitable foundation, Supersemar, to pay US$110 m (£55 m). In 2002, Suharto's sonTommy Suhartowas sentenced to 15 years' jail for ordering the killing of a judge (who had previously convicted him of corruption), illegal weapons possession, and fleeing justice. In 2006, he was paroled on \"conditional release\".In 2003, Suharto's half-brotherProbosutedjowas tried and convicted for corruption and the loss of $10 million from the Indonesian state. He was sentenced to four years in jail. He later won a reduction of his sentence to two years, initiating a probe by theCorruption Eradication Commissioninto the alleged scandal of the \"judicial mafia\" which uncovered offers of $600,000 to various judges. Probosutedjo confessed to the scheme in October 2005, leading to the arrest of his lawyers. His full four-year term was reinstated.After a brief standoff at a hospital, in which he was reportedly protected by a group of police officers, he was arrested on 30 November 2005.On 9 July 2007, Indonesian prosecutors filed a civil lawsuit against Suharto, to recover state funds ($440 million or £219 million, which allegedly disappeared from a scholarship fund, and a further $1.1 billion in damages). Illness and death After resigning from the presidency, Suharto was hospitalised repeatedly forstroke, heart, and intestinal problems. His declining health hindered attempts to prosecute him as his lawyers successfully claimed that his condition rendered him unfit for trial. Moreover, there was little support within Indonesia for any attempts to prosecute him. In 2006, Attorney General Abdurrahman announced that a team of twenty doctors would be asked to evaluate Suharto's health and fitness for trial. One physician, Brigadier-General Dr Marjo Subiandono, stated his doubts about by noting that \" has two permanent cerebral defects.\"In a laterFinancial Timesreport, Attorney General Abdurrahman discussed the re-examination, and called it part of a \"last opportunity\" to prosecute Suharto criminally. Attorney General Abdurrahman left open the possibility of filing suit against the Suharto estate. On 4 January 2008, Suharto was taken to thePertamina Central Hospital, Jakarta with complications arising from poor health, swelling of limbs and stomach, and partial renal failure.His health fluctuated for several weeks but progressively worsened withanaemiaand lowblood pressuredue to heart and kidney complications, internal bleeding, fluid on his lungs, and blood in his faeces and urine which caused ahaemoglobindrop.On 23 January, Suharto's health worsened further, as asepsisinfection spread through his body.His family consented to the removal of life support machines if his condition did not improve, and he died on 27 January at 1:09 pm. Minutes after his death, then-Indonesian PresidentSusilo Bambang Yudhoyonoheld a news conference declaring Suharto as one of Indonesia's \"best sons\" and invited the country to give the highest respect and honour to the ex-president.Suharto's body was taken from Jakarta to theAstana Giribangunmausoleum complex inKaranganyar Regency, near the Central Java city ofSolo. He was buried alongside his late wife in a state military funeral with full honours, with theKopassuselite forces andKOSTRADcommandos as the honour guard and pallbearers and Commander of Group II Kopassus Surakarta Lt. Colonel Asep Subarkah.In attendance were President Yudhoyono, who presided over the ceremony, as well as the vice-president, government ministers, and armed forces chiefs of staff. Tens of thousands of people lined the streets to see the convoy.Condolences were offered by many regional heads of state. President Yudhoyono that afternoon declared a week of official mourning starting from Suharto's day of death.During this period, all flags of Indonesia were flown athalf-mast. Political rehabilitation On 25 September 2024, in one of its last acts for the 2019–2024 period, the Indonesian parliament repealed clause 4 of MPR Resolution XI/MPR/1998, which had accused Suharto and his cronies of acts of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (clause 4 specifically named Suharto). The stated reason for this was because Suharto was never put on trial for these accusations before his death in 2008. This move has reignited debate as to whether Suharto should be awarded the National Hero status. Honours National honours As an officer in theIndonesian Army(1940–1974), and then as president of Indonesia (1967–1998), he received several civilian and militaryStar Decorationsfrom Indonesia, namely: Foreign honours In addition, he also received several foreign decorations:Argentina: Austria: Belgium: Brunei: Cambodia: Egypt: Ethiopia: France: Iran: Italy: Japan: Jordan: Kuwait: Malaysia: Mexico: Netherlands: Pakistan: Philippines: Qatar: Romania: Saudi Arabia: Singapore: South Africa: South Korea: Spain: Syria: Thailand: Tunisia: Ukraine: United Arab Emirates: United Kingdom: Venezuela: West Germany: Yemen: Yugoslavia: Places and statue Suharto's childhood house in Kemusuk is currently a memorial museum, calledMemorial Jenderal Besar HM Soeharto. A statue of him stands in front of the museum. It was built by Probosutedjo and was inaugurated in 2013. FELDA Soeharto, a village inSelangor, is named after him. He visited the village in 1977 as part of a momentous visit to normalize theIndonesia–Malaysia relations. In popular culture Suharto has been portrayed by five Indonesian actors in several movies. See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links", "Kemusuk Kemusukis a hamlet (dukuh) in the Argomulyo village, Sedayu subdistrict,Bantul Regency,Special Region of Yogyakarta,Indonesia. The area, around 10 km to the west ofYogyakartatowards the town ofWates, is known as the birthplace of the second president of Indonesia,Suharto. Significance with Suharto's life and family Suharto was born to a 'poor but not unimportant farmer's family' in the village. His father, Kertosudiro, was a local irrigation official in charge of overseeing the allocation of water to different farmers in Kemusuk. His mother, Sukirah, was a village woman from a nearby hamlet. The Suharto family have returned to the village on various occasions in recent years. Suharto himself, accompanied by members of his family, made a trip to Kemusuk in 2002 to pay respects to his father's grave. At the time Suharto's younger step-brother, Notosuwito, had a house in the village near the graveyard in the Kepoh area.More recently, in March 2013 several of Suharto's children, along with his half-brotherProbosutedjo, visited Kemusuk Lor (North Kemusuk) to attend the unveiling of a statue of their father installed near a series of exhibits (photos and some dioramas) about Suharto's life at a hall in the village.The statue of Soeharto, which is 3.5 meters tall, presents him in full military uniform as the commander of theIndonesian National Armed Forces(Tentara Nasional Indonesia, orTNI) carrying a baton under his left arm. The sculptor of the statue was the well-known Indonesian sculptor Edhi Sunarso. Edhi Sunarso has created various other well-known statues and monuments in Indonesia including the landmarkSelamat Datang Monument(Welcome Monument) in Jakarta. In June 2013 additional facilities as part of a memorial to Suharto were opened in a ceremony in Kemusuk by Suharto's eldest daughterSiti Hardiyanti Rukmana(Tutut) and his brother Probosutedjo. The memorial included refurbished houses which various members of Suharto's family had lived in as well as a museum.The ceremony was attended by several senior ministers of the Indonesian government including the Coordinating People's Welfare MinisterAgung Laksonoand Defence MinisterPurnomo Yusgiantoro. At the time of Suharto's death in January 2008, residents of Kemusuk joined in the mourning for the former president. Flags were lowered in the village and Suharto's nephew, Aryo Notosuwito spoke in memory of Suharto. As is the practice in Indonesia, members of the local community gathered together at the house of Suharto's relatives to remember the former resident of their village. Later, in March 2018, when Suharto's brotherProbosutedjodied in Jakarta, his body was flown back to Yogyakarta and transferred to Kemusuk to be buried in the local Somenggalan cemetery. References 7°49′00″S110°16′59″E / 7.81667°S 110.28306°E /-7.81667; 110.28306" ]
[ "Istiklal Mosque, Sarajevo Istiklal Mosque(Bosnian:Istiklal Džamija) is one of the largest mosques inSarajevo,Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was named afterIstiqlal Mosque, Jakarta, thenational mosqueofIndonesia, since the mosque was a gift from the Indonesian people and government for Bosnia and Herzegovina as a token of solidarity and friendship between the two nations.The name\"istiqlal\"isArabicword for \"independence\", thus it is also meant to commemorate the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Activities Other than its regular function as a house of prayers; the regular daily 5 timessalatand other prayers (Jumu'ahandEids), Istiqlal mosque also hostsmaktabandQuranrecital competitions for children and adults. The mosque also served as Project Bureau Center for Islamic Architecture, arranging Sharia weddings, and also as Indonesian Cultural Center. History During his visit to thewar torncity of Sarajevo in March 1995 and paid a courtesy call to Bosnian PresidentAlija Izetbegović, Indonesian", "Indonesian PresidentSuhartocontemplating an idea to build a mosque in the city as a gift for the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Suharto mobilized his administrations to realize his idea, and appointing Fauzan Noe’man, one of Indonesia's foremost architect to design the mosque and proceed with the project. Noe'man was known for his works in constructing grand mosque ofBatam, Baiturrahim mosque inMerdeka Palacecomplex, and also At-Tin mosque (1999) in East Jakarta nearTaman Mini Indonesia Indah. The project is started in 1995, however because the turmoil in Indonesia led to thefall of Suharto in 1998has stalled the construction process. The mosque was completed and inaugurated in September 2001 by Indonesian Minister of Religious Affairs Said Agil Al Munawar.A year later in September 2002 during her stately visit to Sarajevo, PresidentMegawati Soekarnoputrialso visited the mosque. Architecture The Istiqlal mosque of Sarajevo demonstratepostmoderninterpretation ofIslamic architectureas viewed", "viewed fromIndonesianperspective. The mosque built with simple geometric elements and patterns on metal-works made from stainless steel or aluminum and glass blocks applied on facade, windows and arches. The exterior were covered with white tiles, while the interior, especially inmihrab,minbarand window frames were adorned with Indonesian wooden carving of floral ornaments. Built on 2,800 square meters land on Otoka on western side of the city, the mosque is one among the largest mosque in Sarajevo and easily recognizable as the landmark in the neighborhood. The mosque has a single copper-colored dome measured 27 meters tall and 27 meters in diameter. The dome is equipped with three horizontal openings around the dome to allow natural lights to enter the mosque's interior beneath the dome. This type of dome is similar to those of At-Tin mosque in Jakarta, also designed by Fauzan Noe’man. Two twin towers flanking the entrance with reminiscent of Iranianiwanfacade style. The tower height is 48 meters. The tip", "48 meters. The tip of the dome and twin towers are adorned with three spherical pinnacles with star and crescent on top of it. The twin towers symbolize two nations, as the mosque represents the friendship and solidarity between Indonesia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. See also References External links", "Sarajevo Sarajevo(/ˌsærəˈjeɪvoʊ/SARR-ə-YAY-voh)is thecapitalandlargest cityofBosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its administrative limits.TheSarajevo metropolitan areaincludingSarajevo Canton,East Sarajevoand nearby municipalities is home to 555,210 inhabitants.Located within the greater Sarajevo valley ofBosnia, it is surrounded by theDinaric Alpsand situated along theMiljackaRiver in the heart of theBalkans, a region ofSoutheastern Europe. Sarajevo is the political, financial, social, and cultural center of Bosnia and Herzegovina and a prominent center of culture in the Balkans. It exerts region-wide influence in entertainment, media, fashion, and the arts.Due to its long history of religious and cultural diversity, Sarajevo is sometimes called the \"Jerusalemof Europe\"or \"Jerusalem of the Balkans\".It is one of a few major European cities to have a mosque, Catholic church, Eastern Orthodox church, and synagogue within the same neighborhood.It is also home to the former Yugoslavia's first", "Yugoslavia's first institution of tertiary education in the form of an Islamic polytechnic, today part of theUniversity of Sarajevo. Although there is evidence of human settlement in the area since prehistoric times, the modern city arose in the 15th century as anOttomanstronghold when the Ottoman empire extended into Europe.Sarajevo has gained international renown several times throughout its history. In 1885, it was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, followingSan Francisco. In 1914, Sarajevo was the site of theassassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinandby a localYoung BosniaactivistGavrilo Princip, a murder that sparkedWorld War I. This resulted in the end ofAustro-Hungarianrule in Bosnia and the creation of the multiculturalKingdom of Yugoslaviain the Balkan region. Later, afterWorld War II, the area was designated the capital of the communistSocialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovinawithin theSocialist Federal", "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, leading to rapid expansion of its population and businesses with investment in infrastructure and economic development. In 1984, Sarajevo hosted the1984 Winter Olympics, which marked a prosperous era for the city. However, after the start of theYugoslav Wars, the city suffered thelongest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare, for a total of 1,425 days, from April 1992 to February 1996, during theBosnian War. With continuedpost-war reconstructionin the aftermath, Sarajevo is thefastest growing cityin Bosnia and Herzegovina.The travel guide seriesLonely Planetranked Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world.In December 2009, it recommended Sarajevo as one of the top ten cities to visit in 2010. In 2011, Sarajevo was nominated as the 2014European Capital of Culture. It was selected to host theEuropean Youth Olympic Festival.In addition, in October 2019, Sarajevo was designated as aUNESCO Creative Cityfor having placed culture at the center of its development", "of its development strategies.It is also ranked as one of the world's eighteenCities of Film. Etymology The nameSarajevoderives from the Turkish nounsaray, meaning \"palace\" or \"mansion\" (fromPersiansarāy,سرای, of the same meaning). Scholars disagree on the origin of theevoattached to the end. In Slavic languages, the addition of \"evo\" may indicate a possessive noun, thereby making the name of Sarajevo 'city of the palace'. One theory is that the name may have been derived from theOttoman Turkishtermsaray ovası, first recorded in 1455,meaning \"the plains around the palace\" or simply \"palace plains\". However, in hisDictionary of Turkish Loanwords,Abdulah Škaljićmaintains that theevoending is more likely to have come from the widespreadSlavicsuffixevoused to indicate place names, than from the Turkish endingova.The first mention of the name Sarajevo was in a 1507 letter written byFiruz Bey.The official name during the400 years of Ottoman rulewasSaraybosna(\"Palace of Bosnia\"), which remains the city's name in", "the city's name in Modern Turkish. Sarajevo has had many nicknames. The earliest isŠeher, the termIsa-Beg Ishakovićused to describe the town he was going to construct—which is Turkish for \"city\" (şehir), in turn coming from the Persianshahr(شهر, meaning \"city\"). As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, i.e. \"Damascusof the North\" and \"European Jerusalem\"; the latter being the most popular. Environment Geography Sarajevo is near the geometric center of the triangular-shapedBosnia and Herzegovinaand within the historical region ofBosnia proper. It is situated 518 m (1,699 ft)above sea leveland lies in the Sarajevo valley, in the middle of theDinaric Alps. The valley was once an expansive, fertile, and green space, but considerable urban expansion and development took place following World War II. Forested hills and five major mountains surround the city. The highest of the surrounding peaks isTreskavicaat 2,088 m (6,850 ft), followed", "ft), followed byBjelašnicamountain at 2,067 m (6,781 ft),Jahorinaat 1,913 m (6,276 ft),Trebevićat 1,627 m (5,338 ft), andIgmanthe shortest at 1,502 m (4,928 ft). The last four are also known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo. When the city hosted the1984 Winter Olympics, venues were constructed at these mountains for many winter sports events. The city is developed within hilly terrain; some steeply inclined streets and residences perch on the hillsides. TheMiljackariver is one of the city's chief geographic features. It flows through the city from east through the center of Sarajevo to the west part of the city, where it eventually meets up with theBosnariver. Miljacka River is also known as \"The Sarajevo River\". Its source (Vrelo Miljacke) is 2 km (1.2 mi) south of the town ofPaleat the foothills of Mount Jahorina, several kilometers to the east of Sarajevo center. The Bosna's source,Vrelo BosnenearIlidža(west Sarajevo), is another notable natural landmark and a popular destination for Sarajevans and", "for Sarajevans and other tourists. Several smaller rivers and streams, such asKoševski Potok, also run through the city and its vicinity. Cityscape Sarajevo is close to the center of the triangular shape of Bosnia and Herzegovina in southeastern Europe. The Sarajevo city consists of four municipalities:Centar(Center),Novi Grad(New Town),Novo Sarajevo(New Sarajevo), andStari Grad(Old Town), while theSarajevo metropolitan area(Greater Sarajevo area) includes these and the neighboring municipalities ofIlidža,Hadžići,VogošćaandIlijaš. The Metropolitan area was reduced in the 1990s after the war and theDayton-imposed administrative divisionof the country, with several municipalities partitioned along the border of the newly recognizedFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina(FBiH) andRepublika Srpska(RS), creating several new municipalities which together form the city ofIstočno Sarajevoin the Republika Srpska:Istočna Ilidža,Istočno Novo Sarajevo,Istočni Stari Grad,Lukavica,Pale (RS-section), andTrnovo (RS-section),", "(RS-section), along with the municipality ofSokolac(which was not traditionally part of the Sarajevo area and was not partitioned). The city has an urban area of 1,041.5 km2(402.1 sq mi). Veliki Park (Great Park) is the largest green area in the center of Sarajevo. It is nestled betweenTitova,Koševo,Džidžikovac, Tina Ujevića and Trampina Streets and in the lower part there is a monument dedicated to the Children of Sarajevo. Climate Sarajevo has anoceanic climate(Köppen climate classification:Cfb) bordering on ahumid continental climate(Köppen climate classification:Dfb). Sarajevo's climate exhibits four seasons and uniformly spread precipitation. The proximity of theAdriatic Seamoderates Sarajevo's climate somewhat, although the mountains to the south of the city greatly reduce this maritime influence.The average yearly temperature is 10 °C (50 °F), with January (−0.5 °C (31.1 °F) on average) being the coldest month of the year and July (19.7 °C (67.5 °F) on average) the warmest. The highest recorded", "highest recorded temperature was 40.7 °C (105 °F) on 19 August 1946 and on 23 August 2008 (41.0), while the lowest recorded temperature was −26.2 °C (−15.2 °F) on 25 January 1942. On average, Sarajevo has seven days where the temperature exceeds 32 °C (89.6 °F) and four days where the temperature drops below −15 °C (5 °F) per year.The city typically experiences mildly cloudy skies, with an average yearlycloud coverof 45%. The cloudiest month is December (75% average cloud cover), while the clearest is August (37%). Moderate precipitation occurs fairly consistently throughout the year, with an average 75 days of rainfall. Suitable climatic conditions have allowedwinter sportsto flourish in the region, as exemplified by the1984 Winter Olympicsthat were held in Sarajevo. Average winds are 28–48 km/h (17–30 mph) and the city has 1,769 hours of sunshine. Air quality Air pollutionis a major issue in Sarajevo.According to the 2016World Health Organization's Ambient Air Pollution Database,the annual", "Database,the annual averagePM2.5concentration in 2010 was estimated to be 30 μg/m3based on PM10 measurement, which is 3 times higher than recommended byWHO Air Quality Guidelinesfor the annual average PM2.5. There are no recent direct long-term PM2.5 measurements available in Sarajevo and only estimates can be made from PM10, which is less health-relevant than PM2.5.Real-time air quality data in the form of PM10, ozone,NO2,COandSO2by theFederal Hydrometeorological InstituteArchived13 September 2018 at theWayback Machine. History Ottoman Empire1461–1878de facto, 1908de jure Ancient times One of the earliest findings of settlement in the Sarajevo area is that of the NeolithicButmir culture. The discoveries atButmirwere made on the grounds of the modern-day Sarajevo suburbIlidžain 1893 byAustro-Hungarianauthorities during the construction of an agricultural school. The area's richness inflintwas attractive to Neolithic humans, and the settlement flourished. The settlement developed unique ceramics and pottery", "and pottery designs, which characterize the Butmir people as a unique culture, as described at the International Congress of Archaeologists andAnthropologistsmeeting in Sarajevo in 1894. The next prominent culture in Sarajevo was theIllyrians. The ancient people, who considered most of theWestern Balkansas their homeland, had several key settlements in the region, mostly around the riverMiljackaand the Sarajevo valley. The Illyrians in the Sarajevo region belonged to theDaesitiates, the last Illyrian people in Bosnia and Herzegovina to resistRomanoccupation. Their defeat by theRomanemperorTiberiusin 9 AD marks the start of Roman rule in the region. The Romans never built up the region of modern-day Bosnia, but theRoman colonyof Aquae Sulphurae was near the top of present-day Ilidža, and was the most important settlement of the time.After the Romans, theGothssettled the area, followed by theSlavsin the 7th century. Middle Ages During theMiddle Ages, Sarajevo was part of the Bosnian province of Vrhbosna near", "of Vrhbosna near the traditional center of theKingdom of Bosnia. Though a city namedVrhbosnaexisted, the exact settlement in Sarajevo at this time isdebated. Various documents note a place calledTornikin the region, most likely in the area of theMarijin Dvorneighborhood. By all indications, Tornik was a very small marketplace surrounded by a proportionally small village and was not considered very important byRagusanmerchants. Other scholars say thatVrhbosnawas a major town in the wider area of modern-day Sarajevo.Papaldocuments say that in 1238, a cathedral dedicated toSaint Paulwas built in the area. Disciples of the notable saintsCyrilandMethodiusstopped in the region, founding a church nearVrelo Bosne. Whether or not the town was somewhere in the area of modern-day Sarajevo, the documents attest to its and the region's importance. There was also a citadelHodidjednorth-east to theOld City, dating from around 1263 until it was occupied by theOttoman Empirein 1429. Ottoman era Sarajevo was founded by", "was founded by theOttoman Empirein the 1450s upon its conquest of the region, with 1461 used as the city's founding date. The first Ottoman governor ofBosnia,Isa-Beg Ishaković, transformed the cluster of villages into a city and state capital by building several key structures, including a mosque, a closed marketplace, ahamam, acaravansarai, a bridge, and of course the governor's palace (\"Saray\"), which gave the city its present name in conjunction with “evo”, a derivative of “ova” meaning lowland. The mosque was named \"Careva Džamija\" (theEmperor's Mosque) in honor of SultanMehmed II. With the improvements, Sarajevo quickly grew into the largest city in the region. By the15th centurythe settlement was established as a city, namedBosna-Saraj, around the citadel in 1461. Following theexpulsion of Jews from Spainat the end of the 15th century, and the invitation from the Ottoman Empire to resettle their population,Sephardic Jewsarrived in Sarajevo, which over time would become a leading center of Sephardic", "center of Sephardic culture and theLadino language. Though relatively small in size, a Jewish quarter would develop over several blocks inBaščaršija. Many local Christians converted to Islam at this time. To accommodate the new pilgrims on the road toMecca, in 1541,Gazi Husrev-beg's quartermaster Vekil-Harrach built a pilgrim's mosque which it is still known to this day as theHadžijska Mosque. Under leaders such as the second governor Gazi Husrev-beg, Sarajevo grew at a rapid rate. Husrev-beg greatly shaped the physical city, as most of what is now the Old Town was built during his reign. Sarajevo became known for its large marketplace and numerous mosques, which by the middle of the 16th century numbered more than 100. At the peak of the empire, Sarajevo was the biggest and most important Ottoman city in the Balkans afterIstanbul.By 1660, the population of Sarajevo was estimated to be over 80,000.By contrast,Belgradein 1683 had 100,000,andZagrebas late as 1851 had 14,000 people. As political conditions", "conditions changed, Sarajevo became the site of warfare. In 1697, during theGreat Turkish War, a raid was led byPrince Eugene of Savoyof theHabsburg monarchyagainst the Ottoman Empire,which conquered Sarajevo and left it plague-infected and burned to the ground. After his men had looted thoroughly, they set the city on fire and destroyed nearly all of it in one day. Only a handful of neighborhoods, some mosques, and anOrthodox churchwere left standing. Numerous other fires weakened the city, which was later rebuilt but never fully recovered from the destruction. By 1807, it had only some 60,000 residents. In the 1830s, several battles of theBosnian uprisinghad taken place around the city. These had been led byHusein Gradaščević. Today, a major city street is namedZmaj od Bosne(Dragon of Bosnia) in his honor. The rebellion failed and for several more decades, the Ottoman state remained in control of Bosnia. The Ottoman Empire made Sarajevo an important administrative center by 1850.Baščaršijabecame the", "the central commercial district and cultural center of the city in the 15th century when Isa-Beg Ishaković founded the town.The toponym Baščaršija derives from theTurkish language. Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary's occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovinacame in 1878 as part of theTreaty of Berlin, andcomplete annexationfollowed in 1908, angering theSerbs. Sarajevo was industrialized by Austria-Hungary, who used the city as a testing area for new inventions such astramways, which were established in 1885 before they were later installed inVienna. Architects and engineers wanting to help rebuild Sarajevo as a modern European capital rushed to the city. A fire that burned down a large part of the central city area (čaršija) left more room for redevelopment. As a result, the city has a unique blend of the remaining Ottoman city market and contemporary Western architecture. Sarajevo also has some examples of Secession- and Pseudo-Moorishstyles that date from this period. TheAustro-Hungarianperiod was one of great", "was one of great development for the city, as the Western power brought its new acquisition up to the standards of theVictorian age. Various factories and other buildings were built at this time,and a large number of institutions were both Westernized and modernized. For the first time in history, Sarajevo's population began writing inLatin script.For the first time in centuries, the city significantly expanded outside its traditional borders. Much of the city's contemporary central municipality (Centar) was constructed during this period. Architecture in Sarajevo quickly developed into a wide range of styles and buildings. TheSacred Heart Cathedral, for example, was constructed using elements ofneo-gothicandRomanesque architecture. TheNational Museum,Sarajevo brewery, andCity Hallwere also constructed during this period. Additionally, Austrian officials made Sarajevo the first city in this part of Europe to have atramway. Although the Bosnia Vilayetde jureremained part of the Ottoman Empire, it wasde", "Empire, it wasde factogoverned as an integral part of Austria-Hungary with the Ottomans having no say in its day-to-day governance. This lasted until 1908 when the territory was formally annexed and turned into acondominium, jointly controlled by both AustrianCisleithaniaand HungarianTransleithania. The event that triggeredWorld War Iwas theassassinationofArchduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, along with his wifeSophie, Duchess of Hohenbergin Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 byGavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb and self-declared Yugoslav, and member ofYoung Bosnia.This was followed by theAnti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, which resulted in two deaths and destruction of property. In the ensuing war, however, most of the Balkan offensives occurred near Belgrade, and Sarajevo largely escaped damage and destruction. Following the war, Bosnia was annexed into theKingdom of Yugoslavia, and Sarajevo became the capital of theDrina Province. Yugoslavia After World War I and pressure from theRoyal Serbian Army, alongside", "Army, alongside rebellingSlavicnations inAustria-Hungary, Sarajevo became part of theKingdom of Yugoslavia. Though it held some political significance as the center of first the Bosnian region and then the Drinska Banovina, the city was no longer a national capital and saw a decline in global influence. DuringWorld War II, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's army was overrun by German and Italian forces. Following a German bombing campaign, Sarajevo was captured on 15 April 1941 by the16th Motorized Infantry Division. TheAxis powerscreated theIndependent State of Croatiaand included Sarajevo in its territory. Immediately following the occupation, the main Sephardi Jewish synagogue,Il Kal Grande, was looted, burned, and destroyed by theNazis. Within a matter of months, the centuries-old Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jewish communities of Sarajevo, comprising the vast majority ofBosnian Jewry, would be rounded up in the Old Synagogue (Stari hram) and deported to their deaths inCroatian concentration camps. Roughly 85% of", "Roughly 85% of Bosnia's Jewish population would perish at the hands of the Nazis and theUstašeduring the Holocaust in the region. TheSarajevo Haggadahwas the most important artifact which survived this period, smuggled out of Sarajevo and saved from the Nazis and Ustaše by the chief librarian of the National Museum,Derviš Korkut. On 12 October 1941, a group of 108 notableBosniakcitizens of Sarajevo signed theResolution of Sarajevo Muslimsby which they condemned theGenocide of Serbsorganized by the Ustaše, made a distinction between the Bosniaks who participated in such persecutions and the rest of the Bosniak population, presented information about the persecutions of Bosniaks by Serbs, and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity.During the summer of 1941, Ustaše militia periodically interned and executed groups ofSarajevo Serbs.In August 1941, they arrested about one hundred Serbs suspected of ties to the resistance armies, mostly church officials and members of the", "and members of the intelligentsia, and executed them or deported them to concentration camps.By mid-summer 1942, around 20,000 Serbs found refuge in Sarajevo from Ustaše terror. The city was bombed by theAlliesfrom 1943 to 1944.TheYugoslav Partisanmovement was represented in the city. In the period February–May 1945,Maks Luburićset up a Ustaše headquarters in a building known asVilla Luburićand used it as a torture and execution place whose 323 victims were identified after the war. The resistance was led byVladimir Perić Valter, who died while leading the liberation of the city on 6 April 1945. After the war, Sarajevo was the capital of theSocialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovinawithin theSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The Republic Government invested heavily in Sarajevo, building many new residential blocks in the municipalities ofNovi GradandNovo Sarajevo, while simultaneously developing the city's industry and transforming Sarajevo into a modern city. Sarajevo grew rapidly as it became an", "as it became an important regional industrial center in Yugoslavia. Between the end of the war and the end of Yugoslavia, the city grew from a population of 115,000 to more than 600,000 people. TheVraca Memorial Park, a monument for victims of World War II, was dedicated on 25 November, the \"Statehood Day of Bosnia and Herzegovina\" when theZAVNOBIHheld their first meeting in 1943. A crowning moment of Sarajevo's time in Socialist Yugoslavia was the1984 Winter Olympics. Sarajevo beat outSapporo, Japan, andFalun/Gothenburg, Sweden, to host theOlympic Games. The games were followed by a tourism boom, making the 1980s one of the city's most prosperous decades. Bosnian War TheBosnian Warfor independence resulted in large-scale destruction and dramatic population shifts during theSiege of Sarajevobetween 1992 and 1996. Thousands of Sarajevans lost their lives under the constant bombardment and sniper shooting at civilians by theSerb forcesduring the siege,the longest siege of a capital city in the history of", "in the history of modern warfare.Bosnian Serb forces of theRepublika Srpskaand theYugoslav People's Armybesieged Sarajevo from 5 April 1992 to 29 February 1996. WhenBosnia and Herzegovina declared independencefromYugoslaviaand achievedUnited Nationsrecognition, Serbian leaders declared a new Serbian national state Republika Srpska (RS) which was carved out from the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.The Army of Republika Srpska encircled Sarajevo with a siege force of 18,000stationed in the surrounding hills, from which they assaulted the city with artillery, mortars, tanks, anti-aircraft guns, heavy machine guns, multiple rocket launchers, rocket-launched aircraft bombs, and sniper rifles.From 2 May 1992, the Serbsblockadedthe city. TheBosnian government defense forcesinside the besieged city were poorly equipped and unable to break the siege. During the siege, 11,541 people were killed, including over 1,500 children. An additional 56,000 people were wounded, including nearly 15,000 children.The1991", "children.The1991 censusindicates that before the siege, the city and its surrounding areas had a population of 525,980. When the siege ended, the concrete scars caused by mortar shell explosions left marks that were filled with red resin. After the red resin was placed, it left floral patterns, which led to them being dubbedSarajevo Roses. Division of the territory according to theDayton Agreementresulted in amass exodusin early 1996 of some 62,000 Sarajevo Serbs from the city and its suburbs, creating today's more monoethnic post-war city. Present Various modern buildings now occupy Sarajevo's skyline, most significantly theBosmal City Center,ARIA Centar,Sarajevo City Center(all three by architectSead Gološ) and theAvaz Twist Tower, which at the time of its building was the tallest skyscraper in former Yugoslavia. In 2014, the city sawanti-government protests and riotsand record rainfallthat caused historic flooding. Recent years have seen population growth as well as increases in tourism. TheSarajevo cable", "TheSarajevo cable car, also known as the Trebević cable car, Sarajevo's key landmark during the 1984 Winter Olympics, was rebuilt in 2017 and reopened on 6 April 2018.The cable car runs from Sarajevo at Bistrik station to the slopes ofTrebevićat Vidikovac station. Administration Largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo is the capitalof the country ofBosnia and Herzegovinaand its sub-entity, theFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as of theSarajevo Canton. It is also thede jurecapital of another entity,Republika Srpska.Each of these levels of government has its parliament or council, as well as judicial courts, in the city. All national institutions and foreignembassiesare in Sarajevo. Sarajevo is home to theCouncil of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina,Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina,Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, theConstitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovinaand the operational command of theArmed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and", "Bosnia and Herzegovina'sParliament officein Sarajevo was damaged heavily in theBosnian War. Due to damage, the staff and documents were moved to a nearby ground-level office to resume work. In late 2006, reconstruction work started on Parliament and was finished in 2007. The cost of reconstruction was 80% funded by theGreek Governmentthrough the Hellenic Program of Balkans Reconstruction (ESOAV), and 20% by Bosnia and Herzegovina. Municipalities and city government The City of Sarajevo comprises four municipalities:Centar,Novi Grad,Novo Sarajevo, andStari Grad. Each operates their ownmunicipal government, while united they form one city government with its constitution. Theexecutive branch(Bosnian:Gradska uprava) consists of amayor, with two deputies and a cabinet. Thelegislative branchconsists of theCity Council, orGradsko vijeće. The council has 28 members, including a council speaker, two deputies, and a secretary. Councilors are elected by the municipality in numbers roughly proportional to their", "to their population.The City Statute requires the city council to include at least six councilors from eachconstituent peopleand at least two from the ranks of Others. Sarajevo's Municipalities are further split into \"local communities\" (Bosnian,Mjesne zajednice). Local communities have a small role in city government and are intended as a way for ordinary citizens to get involved in city government. They are based on key neighborhoods in the city. Economy Sarajevo's large manufacturing, administrative, and tourism sectors make it the strongest economic region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sarajevo Canton generates almost 25% of the country's GDP.After years of war, Sarajevo's economy saw reconstruction and rehabilitation programs.TheCentral Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovinaopened in Sarajevo in 1997 and theSarajevo Stock Exchangebegan trading in 2002. While Sarajevo had a large industrial base during its communist period, only a few pre-existing businesses have successfully adapted to themarket economy. Sarajevo", "economy. Sarajevo industries now include tobacco products, furniture, hosiery, automobiles, and communication equipment.Companies based in Sarajevo includeBH Telecom,Bosnalijek,Energopetrol,Sarajevo Tobacco Factory, andSarajevska pivara(Sarajevo Brewery). In 2019, the total export for the Sarajevo Canton was worth about 1,427,496,000KM. Most of Sarajevo's exports (20.55%) head toGermany, withSerbiaandCroatiafollowing behind at 12% respectively. The largest amount of imported goods comes from Croatia, at 20.95%. With a worth of total import of about 4,872,213,000KM, the total import is almost 3.4 times the total export. In 1981, Sarajevo's GDP per capita was 133% of the Yugoslav average.Gross pay in Sarajevo in March 2023 wasKM2,497 or€1,269, while net salary was KM 1,585 or €805, indicating stable growth. Tourism and recreation Sarajevo has a wide tourist industry and a fast-expanding service sector thanks to the strong annual growth in tourist arrivals. Sarajevo also benefits from being both a summer and", "both a summer and winter destination with continuity in its tourism throughout the year. The travel guide series,Lonely Planetnamed Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world,and in December 2009, listed Sarajevo as one of the top ten cities to visit in 2010. In 2019, 733,259 tourists visited Sarajevo, giving 1,667,545 overnight stays, which was 20% more than in 2018.Sports-related tourism uses the legacy facilities of the1984 Winter Olympics, especially the skiing facilities on the nearby mountains ofBjelašnica,Igman,Jahorina,TrebevićandTreskavica. Sarajevo's 600 years of history, influenced by both Western and Eastern empires, makes it atourist attractionwith splendid variations. The city has hosted travelers for centuries, because it was an important trading center during theOttomanandAustro-Hungarianempires and because it was a natural stop for many routes between East and West. Examples of popular destinations in Sarajevo include theVrelo Bosnepark, theSarajevo cathedral, and theGazi Husrev-beg Mosque.", "Husrev-beg Mosque. Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural sites and winter sports. There are many parks throughout the city and on the outskirts. A popular activity among locals is street chess, usually played atTrg Oslobođenja - Alija Izetbegović. Veliki Park is the largest green area in the center of Sarajevo. It is nestled betweenTitova,Koševo,Džidžikovac, Tina Ujevića and Trampina Streets and in the lower part, there is a monument dedicated to theChildren of Sarajevo.Hastahanais a popular place to relax in the Austro-Hungarian neighborhood ofMarijin Dvor.Goat's Bridge, locally known asKozija Ćuprija, in the Miljacka Canyon is also a popular park destination along theDarivawalkway and river Miljacka.On 24 December 2012, a park hosting two brass sculptures resembling two mourning mothers was dedicated as the Friendship Park, commemorating over 45 years of friendship between Sarajevo andBaku, the capital of Azerbaijan. Sarajevo is also famous for its city lookouts;", "its city lookouts; including an observation deck on theAvaz Twist Tower, Park Prinčeva restaurant, Vidikovac lookout (Mt. Trebević), Zmajevac lookout and Yellow/White fortresses lookouts (inVratnik) as well as numerous other rooftops throughout the city (i.e. Alta Shopping Center,ARIA Centar, Hotel Hecco Deluxe). A symbol of Sarajevo is theTrebević cable carwhich was reconstructed in 2018, also it is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city taking visitors from the city center to Mount Trebević. There is also aUNESCOtentative monument, theOld Jewish Cemetery, an almost 500 years old site that is the second-largest Jewish sepulchral complex in Europe, the one inPraguebeing the largest. It is also one of the most significant memorial complexes in the world. It represents the eternal proof of the coexistence of two or more different confessions under different administrations and rules, and the proof of mutual respect and tolerance. Demographics Thanks to steady but constant and stable growth", "and stable growth after the war, today's built-up area includes not only previously mentioned urban municipalities but the urban part ofHadžićithat is uninterruptedly connected toIlidža, the westernmost part of the Sarajevo urban settlement, is inhabited by more than 419,000 people, whilethe metro areaincluding 8 additional municipalities, 14 in total goes up to 555,210 inhabitants.It is noticeable that the fastest-growing municipalities areNovi Grad, one of the main ones and the most inhabited one where the population has increased by almost 4,000 people or 2.95% since the2013 census, and Ilidža that has recorded an increase of almost 7% since 2013. In June 2016, the final results of the 2013 census were published. According to the census, the population of theSarajevo Cantonwas 413,593, with 55,181 residents inCentar, 118,553 in Novi Grad, 64,814 inNovo Sarajevoand 36,976 inStari Grad. The last official Yugoslav census took place in1991and recorded 527,049 people living in the city of Sarajevo", "city of Sarajevo (tenmunicipalities). In the settlement of Sarajevo proper, there were 454,319 inhabitants.The war displaced hundreds of thousands of people, a large majority of whom have not returned. The war changed the ethnic and religious profile of the city. It had long been a multicultural city,and often went by the nickname of \"Europe's Jerusalem\".At the time of the 1991 census, 49.2 percent of the city's population of 527,049 wereBosniaks, 29.8 percentSerbs, 10.7 percentYugoslavs, 6.6 percentCroatsand 3.6 percent other ethnicities (Jews, Romas, etc.). According to academic Fran Markowitz, there are several \"administrative apparatuses and public pressures that push people who might prefer to identify as flexible, multiply constituted hybrids or with one of the now unnamed minority groups into one of the three Bosniac-Croat-Serb constituent nations\".These include respondents being encouraged by census interviewers to identify as belonging to one of the threeconstituent peoples.Her analysis of marriage", "of marriage registration data shows, for instance, that 67 percent of people marrying in 2003 identified as Bosniak or Muslim, which is significantly lower than the 79.6 percent census figure from 2002 (unlike the census, where people respond to an interviewer, applicants to the marriage registry fill in the form themselves). Transportation Roads and highways Sarajevo's location in a valley between mountains makes it a compact city. Narrow city streets and a lack of parking areas restrict automobile traffic but allow better pedestrian and cyclist mobility. The two main roads areTitova Ulica(Street ofMarshal Tito) and the east–westZmaj od Bosne(Dragon of Bosnia) highway (E761). Located roughly at the center of the country, Sarajevo is Bosnia's main intersection. The city is connected to all the other major cities by highway or national road likeZenica,Banja Luka,Tuzla,Mostar,GoraždeandFoča. Tourists fromCentral Europeand elsewhere visitingDalmatiadriving viaBudapestthrough Sarajevo also contribute to the", "contribute to the traffic congestion in and around Sarajevo. The trans-European highway,Corridor Vc, runs through Sarajevo connecting it to Budapest in the north, andPločeat the Adriatic Sea in the south.The highway is being built by thegovernmentand should cost 3.5 billionEuro. Up until March 2012, theFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovinainvested around 600 million euros in the A1. In 2014, the sections Sarajevo-Zenica and Sarajevo-Tarčinwere completed including theSarajevo Beltwayring road. Tram, bus and trolleybus Sarajevo's electric tramways, in operation since 1884 and electrified since 1895, are the oldest form of public transportation in the city.Sarajevo had the first full-time (dawn to dusk) tram line in Europe, and the second in the world.Opened onNew Year's Dayin 1885, it was the testing line for the tram inViennaand theAustro-Hungarian Empire, and operated by horses. Originally built to760 mm(2 ft5+15⁄16in)Bosnian gauge, the present system in 1960 was upgraded to1,435 mm(4 ft8+1⁄2in)standard", "ft8+1⁄2in)standard gauge. The trams played a pivotal role in the growth of the city in the 20th century. There are seven tramway lines supplemented by fivetrolleybuslines and numerous bus routes. Themain railway stationin Sarajevo is in the north-central area of the city. From there, the tracks head west before branching off in different directions, including to industrial zones in the city. Sarajevo is undergoing a major infrastructure renewal; many highways and streets are being repaved, the tram system is undergoing modernization, and new bridges and roads are under construction. In January 2021, the city bought 25 new BKM 433 trolleybuses.Tram trackrenovation lasted from August 2021 to September 2023.The city also bought 15 newStadler Tangotrams in September 2021.The first tram arrived in December 2023, while the rest are expected to arrive by the summer of 2024.An additional 10 new trams were bought, as well as 30 new buses. Railway TheSarajevo main railway stationwas built in 1882 for thenarrow-gauge", "for thenarrow-gauge railway. AfterWorld War II, it was decided to replace the old station by a newfunctionalistbuilding. The ceremonial completion of the station building took place in 1949. The station was electrified in 1967, as part of the early electrification program introduced in Bosnia up to 1969. TheSarajevo–Ploče railwayprovides a connection to theAdriaticcoast. It holds the distinction of being the first 25 kV AC-electrified country in the former Yugoslavia, followed by Croatia and Serbia. Once, theEast Bosnian railwayconnected Sarajevo toBelgrade. Metro plans To solve traffic congestion in the city, Sarajevo-based architect Muzafer Osmanagić proposed a study called \"Eco Energy 2010–2015\", proposing a subway system underneath the bed of the riverMiljacka. The first line of Metro Sarajevo would connectBaščaršijawithOtoka. This line would cost some 150 millionKMand be financed by theEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Airport Sarajevo International Airport(IATA:SJJ) is just a few", "is just a few kilometers southwest of the city and was voted Best European Airport With Under 1,000,000 Passengers at the 15th Annual ACI-Europe inMunichin 2005. The first regular flights to Sarajevo using an airfield in the suburb ofButmirbegan in 1930 when the domestic airlinerAeroputopened a regular route linkingBelgradetoPodgoricathrough Sarajevo.Later, Aeroput opened a route that linked Sarajevo withSplit,Rijeka, andDubrovnik, and in 1938, the first international flights were introduced when Aeroput extended the route Dubrovnik – Sarajevo – Zagreb toVienna,BrnoandPrague.The airfield in Butmir remained in use until 1969. The need for a new airport in Sarajevo, with an asphalt-concrete runway, was acknowledged in the mid-1960s whenJAT, the Yugoslav national carrier at that time, began acquiring jet planes. The construction of the airport began in 1966 at its present location, not far from the old one. Sarajevo Airport opened on 2 June 1969 for domestic traffic. In 1970,Frankfurtbecame the first", "the first international destination served. Most of the time the airport was a 'feeder' airport where passengers embarked for flights to Zagreb and Belgrade on their way to international destinations. Over time, the traffic volume steadily grew from 70,000 to 600,000 passengers a year.Later, during theBosnian War, the airport was used forUNflights and humanitarian relief. Since theDayton Agreementin 1995, the airport retook its role as the main air portal to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2017, 957,971 passengers travelled through the airport, which was 61,4% of the total airport traffic in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Plans for the extension of the passenger terminal, together with upgrading and expanding the taxiway and apron, started in the fall of 2012. The existing terminal was expanded by approximately 7,000 m2(75,347 sq ft).The upgraded airport was directly linked to the commercial retail center Sarajevo Airport Center, making it easier for tourists and travelers to spend their time before flight boarding", "flight boarding shopping and enjoying the many amenities that are offered.Between 2015 and 2018, the airport was upgraded for more than 25 million euros. International relations Twin towns – sister cities Sarajevo istwinnedwith: Friendship Sarajevo is befriended with: Communications and media As the largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo is the main center of the country's media. Most of the communications and media infrastructure was destroyed during the war but reconstruction monitored by theOffice of the High Representativehas helped to modernize the industry as a whole.For example, the Internet was first made available to the city in 1995. Oslobođenje(Liberation), founded in 1943, is Sarajevo's longest-running continuously circulating newspaper and the only one to survive the war. However, this long-running and trusted newspaper has fallen behindDnevni avaz(Daily Voice), founded in 1995, andJutarnje Novine(Morning News) in circulation in Sarajevo.Other local periodicals include the Croatian", "the Croatian newspaperHrvatska riječand the Bosnian magazineStart, as well as weekly newspapersSlobodna Bosna(Free Bosnia) andBH Dani(BH Days).Novi Plamen, a monthly magazine, is the most left-wing publication. TheRadio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina(BHRT) is Sarajevo'spublic televisionstation and was created in 1945 under the umbrella of theYugoslav Radio Television(JRT). It had its first television program aired in 1961, while continuous programming started in 1969. It is one of three main TV stations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other stations based in the city includeHayat TV,O Kanal,OBN,TV Kantona SarajevoandTV Alfa. The headquarters ofAl Jazeera Balkansis also in Sarajevo, with a broadcasting studio at the top of theARIA Centar. The news channel coversBosnia and Herzegovina,Serbia,CroatiaandMontenegroand the surroundingBalkanstates. Many small independent radio stations exist, including established stations such asRadio M,RSG Radio(Radio Old Town), Studentski eFM Radio,Radio 202 andRadio", "202 andRadio BIR.Radio Free Europe, as well as several American and Western European stations are available. Education Higher education Higher education has a long and rich tradition in Sarajevo. The first institution that can be classified as a tertiary educational institution was a school ofSufiphilosophy established byGazi Husrev-begin 1537; numerous other religious schools have been established over time. In 1887, under the Austro-Hungarian Empire, aShariaLaw School began a five-year program.In the 1940s, theUniversity of Sarajevobecame the city's first secular higher education institute, effectively building upon the foundations established by the Saraybosna Hanıka in 1537. In the 1950s, post-bachelor graduate degrees became available.Severely damaged during the war, it was recently rebuilt in partnership with more than 40 other universities. There are also several universities in Sarajevo, including: Primary and secondary education As of 2005, there are 46 elementary schools (Grades 1–9) and 33 high", "1–9) and 33 high schools (Grades 10–13) in Sarajevo, including three schools for children with special needs. There are also severalinternational schoolsin Sarajevo, catering to the expatriate community; some of which areSarajevo International Schooland the French International Schoolof Sarajevo, established in 1998. Culture Sarajevo has been home to many different religions for centuries, giving the city a range of diverse cultures. In the time of Ottoman occupation of Bosnia,Muslims,Orthodox Christians,Roman Catholics, andSephardi Jewsall shared the city while maintaining distinctive identities. They were joined during the brief occupation byAustria-Hungaryby a smaller number ofGermans,Hungarians,Slovaks,CzechsandAshkenazi Jews. By 1909, about 50% of the city's inhabitants were Muslim, 25% were Catholic, 15% were Orthodox, and 10% were Jewish. Historically, Sarajevo has been home to several prominent Bosnian poets, scholars, philosophers, and writers. To list only a very few;Nobel Prize-winnerVladimir", "Prelogis from the city, as are the writerZlatko Topčićand the poetAbdulah Sidran. Nobel Prize-winnerIvo Andrićattended high school in Sarajevo for two years.Academy Award-winning directorDanis Tanovićlives in the city. TheSarajevo National Theatreis the oldest professional theater in Bosnia and Herzegovina, having been established in 1921. Museums Sarajevo is rich in museums, including theMuseum of Sarajevo, theArs AeviMuseum of Contemporary Art,Historical Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Museum of Literature and Theatre Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and theNational Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina(established in 1888) home to theSarajevo Haggadah,anilluminated manuscriptand the oldestSephardic Jewishdocument in the worldissued inBarcelonaaround 1350, containing the traditional JewishHaggadah, is on permanent display at the museum. It is the only remaining illustratedSephardicHaggadahin the world.The National Museum also hosts year-round exhibitions about local, regional and international culture and", "culture and history, and exhibits over 5,000 artifacts from Bosnia's history. TheAlija IzetbegovićMuseum was opened on 19 October 2007 and is in the old town fort, more specifically in theVratnikKapija towers Ploča and Širokac. The museum is a commemoration of the influence and body of work of Alija Izetbegović, the firstpresident of the Presidencyof theRepublic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sarajevo is also home to theWar Childhood Museum, an independent not-for-profit museum containing personal belongings from the war and showing stories behind them. In addition, in 2018, the museum won theCouncil of Europe Museum Prize awardfor best museum. The city also hosts theSarajevo National Theatre, established in 1921, and theSarajevo Youth Theatre. Some othercultural institutionsinclude the Center for Sarajevo Culture,Sarajevo City Library,National Gallery of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and theBosniak Institute, a privately owned library and art collection focusing on Bosniak history. Demolitions associated with the", "associated with the war, as well as reconstruction, destroyed several institutions and cultural orreligious symbolsincluding theGazi Husrev-beg Library, the national library, theSarajevo Oriental Institute, and a museum dedicated to the1984 Winter Olympics. Consequently, the different levels of government established strong cultural protection laws and institutions.Bodies charged with cultural preservation in Sarajevo include the Institute for the Protection of the Cultural, Historical andNatural Heritageof Bosnia and Herzegovina (and their Sarajevo Canton counterpart), and the Bosnia and Herzegovina Commission to Preserve National Monuments. Music Sarajevo is and has historically been one of the most important musical enclaves in the region. The Sarajevo school ofpop rockdeveloped in the city between 1961 and 1991. This type of music began with bands likeIndexi,Kodeksi, and singer-songwriterKemal Monteno. It continued into the 1980s, with bands such asPlavi orkestar,Crvena jabuka, andDivlje jagode, by most", "jagode, by most accounts, pioneering theregionalrock and roll movement. Sarajevo was also the home and birthplace of arguably the most popular and influential Yugoslavrock bandof all time,Bijelo Dugme, somewhat of a Bosnian parallel to theRolling Stones, in both popularity and influence. Sarajevo was also the home of a very notablepost-punkurban subculture known as theNew Primitives, which began during the early 1980s with the Baglama Band which was banned shortly after its first LP and was brought into the mainstream through bands such asZabranjeno PušenjeandElvis J. Kurtović & His Meteors, as well as theTop lista nadrealistaradio, and later television show. Other notable bands considered to be part of this subculture areBombaj Štampa. Besides and separately from the New Primitives, Sarajevo is the hometown to one of the most significantex-Yugoslavianalternativeindustrial-noisebands,SCH. Perhaps more importantly, Sarajevo in the late 19th and throughout the 20th century was home to a burgeoning and large", "and large center ofSevdalinkarecord-making and contributed greatly to bringing this historical genre of music to the mainstream, which had for many centuries been a staple of Bosnian culture. Songwriters and musicians such asHimzo Polovina,Safet Isović,Zaim Imamović,Zehra Deović,Halid Bešlić,Hanka Paldum,Nada Mamula,Meho Puzićand many more composed and wrote some of their most important pieces in the city. Sarajevo also greatly influenced the pop scene of Yugoslavia with musicians likeZdravko Čolić, Kemal Monteno,Dino Merlin,Seid Memić Vajta,Hari Mata Hari,Mladen Vojičić Tifa,Željko Bebekand many more. Many newer Sarajevo-based bands have also found a name and established themselves in Sarajevo, such asReginawho also had two albums out in Yugoslavia, and Letu Štuke, who actually formed their band in Yugoslavia with the famous Bosnian-American writerAleksandar Hemonand got their real breakthrough later in the 2000s. Sarajevo is now home to an important and eclectic mix of new bands and independent musicians,", "musicians, which continue to thrive with the ever-increasing number of festivals, creative showcases, and concerts around the country. The city is also home to the region's largest jazz festival, theJazz Fest Sarajevo. American heavy metal bandSavatage, released a song entitled \"Christmas Eve (Sarajevo 12/24)\" on their 1995 albumDead Winter Dead, which was about acelloplayer playing a forgottenChristmas carolin war-torn Sarajevo. The song was later re-released by the same band under the nameTrans-Siberian Orchestraon their 1996 debut albumChristmas Eve and Other Stories, which the song gave them instant success. Festivals Sarajevo is internationally renowned for its eclectic and diverse selection of over 50 annual festivals. TheSarajevo Film Festivalwas established in 1995 during theBosnian Warand has become the premier and largest film festival inSoutheast Europe.It has been hosted at theNational Theater, with screenings at the Open-air theater Metalac and theBosnian Cultural Center, all in downtown", "all in downtown Sarajevo. TheMESS International Festivalis an experimental theatre festival and the oldest living theatre festival in the Balkans.The annualSarajevo Youth Film Festivalshowcases feature, animated and short films from around the world and is the premier student film festival in the Balkans.TheSarajevo Winter Festival,Jazz Fest Sarajevoand Sarajevo International Music Festival are well-known, as is theBaščaršija Nightsfestival, a month-long showcase of local culture, music, and dance. The first incarnation of the Sarajevo Film Festival was hosted in still-warring Sarajevo in 1995, and has now progressed into being the biggest and most significant festival in Southeast Europe.A talent campus is also held during the duration of the festival, with lecturers speaking on behalf of world cinematography and holding workshops for film students from across Southeast Europe. TheJazz Fest Sarajevois the region's largest and most diverse of its kind. The festival takes place at theBosnian Cultural", "theBosnian Cultural Center(aka \"Main Stage\"), just down the street from the SFF, at the Sarajevo Youth Stage Theater (aka \"Strange Fruits Stage\"), at theDom Vojske Federacije(aka \"Solo Stage\"), and at the CDA (aka \"Groove Stage\"). Sports Sarajevo hosted the1984 Winter Olympics. Yugoslavia won one medal, a silver in men's giant slalom awarded toJure Franko.Many of the Olympic facilities survived the war or were reconstructed, including theZetra Olympic HallandAsim Ferhatović Stadium. In an attempt to bring back some of Sarajevo's Olympic glory,the original Olympic luge and bobsled tracks are being repaired, due to the efforts of both theOlympic Committee of Bosnia and Herzegovinaand local sports enthusiasts. After co-hosting the Southeast Europe Friendship games, Sarajevo was awarded the 2009Special Olympicwinter games,but canceled these plans.The ice arena for the 1984 Olympics, Zetra Stadium, was used during the war as a temporary hospital and, later, for housingNATOtroops of theIFOR. In 2011, Sarajevo was", "2011, Sarajevo was the host city of the 51st World Military Skiing Championship with over 350 participants from 23 different nations. This was the first international event of such standing since the 1984 Olympics.Footballis popular in Sarajevo; the city hostsFK SarajevoandFK Željezničar, which both compete in European and international cups and tournaments and have a very large trophy cabinet in the former Yugoslavia as well as independent Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other notable football clubs includeOlimpik,SAŠKandSlavija. One of only three stadiums in Bosnia and Herzegovina that has theUEFAcategory 3 is theGrbavica Stadium, the home stadium of Željezničar. Another popular sport is basketball; the basketball clubKK Bosnawon theEuropean Championshipin 1979 as well as many Yugoslav and Bosnian national championships, making it one of the greatest basketball clubs in the former Yugoslavia. The chess club,Bosna Sarajevo, has been a championship team since the 1980s and is the third-ranked chess club in Europe,", "club in Europe, having won four consecutive European championships in the nineties. Handball clubRK Bosnaalso competes in the European Champions League and is considered one of the most well-organized handball clubs in Southeast Europe with a very largefan baseand excellent national, as well as international results. Sarajevo often holds international events and competitions in sports such astennisandkickboxing. The popularity of tennis has been picking up in recent years. Since 2003,BH Telecom Indoorshas been an annual tennis tournament in Sarajevo. Since 2007, theSarajevo Half Marathonhas been organized every year in late September.Giro di Sarajevois also a run in the city with over 2,200 cyclists taking part in 2015. In February 2019, Sarajevo andEast Sarajevohosted theEuropean Youth Olympic Winter Festival(EYOWF). See also Notes References Bibliography External links Una-SanaCentral Bosnia PosavinaHerzegovina-Neretva TuzlaWest Herzegovina Zenica-DobojSarajevo Bosnian PodrinjeCanton 10", "Suharto 2ndPresident of Indonesia Suharto(8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesianmilitary officerand the secondPresident of Indonesia. Widely regarded as amilitary dictatorby international observers, Suharto led Indonesia as anauthoritarian regimefrom 1967 untilhis resignationin 1998 followingnationwide unrest.His 31-year dictatorship is considered one of the most brutal and corrupt of the 20th century: he was central to theperpetration of mass killingsagainst allegedcommunistsand subsequentpersecution of ethnic Chinese, irreligious people, and trade unionists. Suharto was born inKemusuk, near the city ofYogyakarta, during theDutch colonialera.He grew up in humble circumstances.HisJavaneseMuslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he lived with foster parents for much of his childhood. During theJapanese occupation, Suharto served in the Japanese-organized Indonesian security forces. DuringIndonesia's independence struggle, he joined the newly formedIndonesian Armyand rose to the rank", "rose to the rank ofmajor generalsome time after full Indonesian independence was achieved.An attempted coupon 30 September and 1 October 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led a nationwideviolent anti-communist purgeandSuharto wrested powerfrom Indonesia's founding president,Sukarno. He was appointedacting presidentin 1967 and elected president the following year. He then mounted a social campaign known as \"de-Sukarnoisation\" to reduce the former president's influence. Suharto ordered aninvasion of East Timorin 1975, followed by a deadly 23-yearoccupation of the countryandgenocide. By the 1990s, the New Order's increasing authoritarianism andwidespread corruptionwere a source of discontent and, following the1997 Asian financial crisiswhich led towidespread unrest, heresigned in May 1998. Under his \"New Order\" administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government. What started as anoligarchicmilitary dictatorshipevolved into a personalistic", "a personalistic authoritarian regime centred around him.An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedlyanti-communiststance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during theCold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant industrialisation, economic growth, and improved levels of education.As a result, he was given the title \"Father of Development\".According toTransparency International, Suharto was one of the most corrupt leaders in modern history, havingembezzledan alleged US$15–35 billion during his rule.Suharto died in January 2008. Suharto remains a controversial and divisive figure within the Indonesian general public. Many Indonesians have praised his 31-year regime for its economic development, rapid industrialisation, and perceived political stability, while others have denounced his dictatorial rule, extensive human rights violations and corruption.Plans to award the status ofNational Heroto Suharto are being considered", "being considered by theIndonesian governmentand have been debated vigorously. Name Like manyJavanese, Suharto hadonly one name.Religious contexts in recent years had sometimes referred to him asHaji/Al-HajMohammed Suharto, but these names were neither part of his formal name nor generally used. The spelling \"Suharto\" reflects modern Indonesian orthography, although the general approach in Indonesia is to rely on the spelling preferred by the person concerned. At the time of his birth, thestandard transcriptionwas Soeharto, and he used the original spelling throughout his life. The international English-language press generally uses the spelling \"Suharto\" while the Indonesian government and media use \"Soeharto\". Early life and family Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 in a plaited-bamboo-walled house in the hamlet ofKemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean, then part of theDutch East Indies. The village is 15 kilometres (9 mi) west ofYogyakarta, the cultural heartland of theJavanese.Born to ethnic", "to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the only child of his father's second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage and was a village irrigation official. His mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related toHamengkubuwono Vby his first concubine.Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his mother suffered anervous breakdown; he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo as a result.Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life and both later remarried. At the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies.In 1929, Suharto's father took him to live with his sister, who was married to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yielding farming area nearWonogiri. Over the following two years, he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father. Prawirowihardjo took to", "took to raising the boy as his own, which provided Suharto with a father-figure and a stable home in Wuryantoro. In 1931, he moved to the town of Wonogiri to attend the primary school, living first with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, and later with his father's relative Hardjowijono. While living with Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquainted with Darjatmo, adukun(\"shaman\") of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing. The experience deeply affected him and later, as president, Suharto surrounded himself with powerful symbolic language.Difficulties in paying the fees for his education in Wonogiri resulted in another move back to his father in Kemusuk, where he continued studying at a lower-fee SchakelMuhammadiyah(middle school) in the city ofYogyakartauntil 1938.Suharto's upbringing contrasts with that of leading Indonesian nationalists such asSukarnoin that he is believed to have had little interest inanti-colonialism, or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings. Unlike Sukarno and his circle,", "and his circle, Suharto had little or no contact with European colonisers. Consequently, he did not learn to speakDutchor other European languages in his youth. He learned to speak Dutch after his induction into the Dutch military in 1940. Military service Japanese occupation period Suharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro. He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes.Following a spell of unemployment, he joined theRoyal Netherlands East Indies Army(KNIL) in June 1940 and undertook basic training inGombongnear Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese.Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal, graduated from a short training course atKNIL KaderschoolinGombongto become a sergeant, and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion inCisarua.Following the Dutch", "the Dutch surrender to theinvading Japanese forcesin March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro. After months of unemployment, he then became one of the thousands of Indonesians who took the opportunity to join Japanese-organized security forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force. In October 1943, Suharto was transferred from the police force to the newly formed Japanese-sponsored militia, thePembela Tanah Air(PETA) in which Indonesians served as officers. In his training to serve with the rank ofshodancho(platoon commander) he encountered a localised version of the Japanesebushido, or \"way of the warrior\", used to indoctrinate troops. This training encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists. The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking.Suharto was posted to a PETA coastal defense battalion atWates, south of", "atWates, south of Yogyakarta until he was admitted for training forchudancho(company commander) inBogorfrom April to August 1944. As company commander, he conducted training for new PETA recruits inSurakarta,Jakarta, andMadiun. The Japanese surrender andProclamation of Indonesian Independencein August 1945 occurred while Suharto was posted to the remote Brebeg area (on the slopes ofMount Wilis) to train new NCOs to replace those executed by the Japanese in the aftermath of the failed February1945 PETA Revolt in Blitar, led bySupriyadi. Indonesian National Revolution Two days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific, independence leadersSukarnoandHattadeclared Indonesian independenceand were appointed president and vice-president respectively of the new Republic. Suharto disbanded his regiment under orders from the Japanese command and returned to Yogyakarta.As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence, Suharto joined a new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army. Based on his PETA", "Based on his PETA experience, he was appointed deputy commander, and subsequently, a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organized in October 1945.Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops aroundMagelangandSemarangand was subsequently appointed the head of a brigade as lieutenant-colonel, having earned respect as a field commander.In the early years of the war, he organized local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I; Suharto was promoted to Major and became Battalion X's leader.The arrival of the Allies, under a mandate to return the situation to thestatus quo ante bellum, quickly led to clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied forces, i.e. returning Dutch and assisting British forces. Suharto led his Division X troops to halt an advance by the Dutch T (\"Tiger\") Brigade on 17 May 1946. It earned him the respect of Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo, who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a body", "(MPP), a body created to organize and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces.The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring. By August 1946, Suharto was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III (the \"Diponegoro Division\") stationed in Yogyakarta. In late 1946, the Diponegoro Division assumed responsibility for the defence of the west and southwest ofYogyakartafrom Dutch forces. Conditions at the time are reported by Dutch sources as miserable; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport ofopiumthrough the territory he controlled, to generate income. In September 1948, Suharto was dispatched to meetMusso, chairman of theIndonesian Communist Party(PKI) in an unsuccessful attempt at a peaceful reconciliation of thecommunist uprising in Madiun. In December 1948, the Dutch launched \"Operation Kraai\", which resulted in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta and the capitalYogyakarta. Suharto was appointed to lead", "appointed to lead theWehrkreise III, consisting of two battalions, which waged guerrilla warfare against the Dutch from the hills south ofYogyakarta.In dawn raids on 1 March 1949, Suharto's forces and local militia recaptured the city, holding it until noon.Suharto's later accounts had him as the lone plotter, although other sources say SultanHamengkubuwono IXof Yogyakarta, and the Panglima of the Third Division ordered the attack. However, GeneralAbdul Nasutionsaid that Suharto took great care in preparing the \"General Offensive\" (Indonesian:Serangan Umum). Civilians sympathetic to the Republican cause within the city had been galvanised by the show of force which proved that the Dutch had failed to win the guerrilla war. Internationally, the United Nations Security Council pressured the Dutch to cease the military offensive and to recommence negotiations, which eventually led to the Dutch withdrawal from the Yogyakarta area in June 1949 and to complete transfer of sovereignty in December 1949. Suharto was", "1949. Suharto was responsible for the takeover of Yogyakarta city from the withdrawing Dutch in June 1949. During the Revolution, Suharto marriedSiti Hartinah(known as Madam Tien), the daughter of a minor noble in the Mangkunegaran royal house of Solo. The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive, lasting until Tien's death in 1996.The couple had six children:Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana(Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), Siti Hediati (\"Titiek Suharto\", born 1959),Hutomo Mandala Putra(Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964). Within the Javanese upper class, it was considered acceptable for the wife to pursue genteel commerceto supplement the family budget, allowing her husband to keep his dignity in his official role. The commercial dealingsof Tien, her children and grandchildren became extensive and ultimately undermined Suharto's presidency. Post-Independence career In the years following Indonesian independence, Suharto", "Suharto served in theIndonesian National Army, primarily inJava. In 1950, as a colonel, he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing theMakassar uprising, a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch-establishedState of East Indonesiaand its federal entity, theUnited States of Indonesia.During his year inMakassar, Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours, the Habibie family, whose eldest sonBJ Habibiewas later Suharto's vice-president, and went on to succeed him as president. In 1951–1952, Suharto led his troops in defeating the Islamic-inspiredrebellion of Battalion 426in theKlatenarea ofCentral Java.Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953, he organized their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in theMount Merapiarea. He also sought to stem leftist sympathies among his troops. His experience in this period left Suharto with a deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism. Between 1956 and 1959, he", "1956 and 1959, he served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division based inSemarang, responsible for Central Java andYogyakartaprovinces. His relationship with prominent businessmenLiem Sioe LiongandBob Hasan, which extended throughout his presidency, began in Central Java, where he was involved in a series of \"profit-generating\" enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning.Army anti-corruption investigations implicated Suharto in a 1959 smuggling scandal. Relieved of his position, he was transferred to the army's Staff and Command School (Seskoad) in the city ofBandung. While in Bandung, he was promoted to brigadier-general, and in late 1960, promoted to army deputy chief of staff.On 6 March 1961, he was given an additional command, as head of the army's new Strategic Reserve (Korps Tentara I Cadangan Umum AD, laterKOSTRAD), a ready-reaction air-mobile force based inJakarta.In January 1962, Suharto was promoted to the rank ofmajor generaland", "ofmajor generaland appointed to lead Operation Mandala, a joint army-navy-air force command based inMakassar. This formed the military side of the campaign to winwestern New Guineafrom the Dutch, who were preparing it for its own independence, separate from Indonesia.In 1965, Suharto was assigned operational command of Sukarno'sKonfrontasi, against the newly formed Malaysia. Fearful thatKonfrontasiwould leave Java thinly covered by the army, and hand control to the 2 million-strongIndonesian Communist Party(PKI), he authorised a Kostrad intelligence officer,Ali Murtopo, to open secret contacts with the British and Malaysians. Overthrow of Sukarno Background Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI's proposal for a \"fifth armed force\" consisting of armed peasants and workers. However, this idea was rejected by the army's leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces. In May, the \"Gilchrist", "May, the \"Gilchrist Document\" aroused Sukarno's fear of a military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. On his independence day speech in August, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist countries and warned the army not to interfere. While Sukarno devoted his energy for domestic and international politics, the economy of Indonesia deteriorated rapidly with worsening widespread poverty and hunger, while foreign debt obligations became unmanageable and infrastructure crumbled. Sukarno's Guided Democracy stood on fragile grounds due to the inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared the imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the PKI had three million members and was", "members and was particularly strong in Central Java and Bali. The party had become the most potent political party in Indonesia. Abortive coup and anti-communist purge Before dawn on 1 October 1965, six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard, Diponegoro Division, and Brawidjaja Division.Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. At 7:10 amUntung bin Syamsuriannounced on the radio that the \"30 September Movement\" had forestalled a coup attempt onSukarnoby \"CIA-backed power-mad generals\", and that it was \"an internal army affair\". The movement never made any attempt on Suharto's life.Suharto had been in Jakarta army hospital that evening with his three-year-old sonTommywho had a scalding injury. It was here that he was visited by Colonel Abdul Latief, a key member of the Movement and close family friend of Suharto. According to Latief's later testimony,", "later testimony, the conspirators assumed Suharto to be a Sukarno-loyalist; hence Latief went to inform him of the impending kidnapping plan to save Sukarno from treacherous generals, upon which Suharto seemed to offer his neutrality. Upon being told of the killings, Suharto went toKostradheadquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square. He mobilised Kostrad and RPKAD (nowKopassus) special forces to seize control of the centre of Jakarta, capturing key strategic sites including the radio station without resistance. Suharto announced over the radio at 9:00 pm that six generals had been kidnapped by \"counter-revolutionaries\" and that the 30 September Movement actually intended to overthrow Sukarno. He said he was in control of the army, and that he would crush the Movement and safeguard Sukarno.Suharto issued an ultimatum toHalim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno, air force commanderOmar Dhaniand PKI chairmanDipa Nusantara Aidithad", "Nusantara Aidithad gathered, causing them to disperse before Suhartoist soldiers occupied the airbase on 2 October after short fighting.With the failure of the poorly organized coup,and having secured authority from the president to restore order and security, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of the army by 2 October (he was officially appointed army commander on 14 October). On 5 October, Suharto led a dramatic public ceremony to bury the generals' bodies. Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organizers and their aims. The army's version, and subsequently that of the\"New Order\", was that the PKI was solely responsible. A propaganda campaign by the army and Islamic andCatholicstudent groups convinced both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a communist coup attempt, and that the killings were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes.The army in alliance with civilian religious groups, and backed by the United States and", "United States and other Western powers, led acampaign of mass killingsto purge Indonesian society, government, and armed forces of theCommunist Party of Indonesiaand other leftist organizations.The purge spread from Jakarta to much of the rest of the country.The most widely accepted estimates are that at least 500,000 to over 1 million were killed.As many as 1.5 million were imprisoned at one stage or another.As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, was effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam.The CIA described the purge as \"one of the worstmass murdersof the 20th century\". Power struggle Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno,", "against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats.In January 1966, university students under the banner ofKAMI, began demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of the PKI and control of hyperinflation. The students received support and protection from the army. Street fights broke out between the students and pro-Sukarno loyalists with the pro-Suharto students prevailing due to army protection. In February 1966, Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant-general (and to full general in July 1966).The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno's order for the disbandment ofKAMIin February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president. On 11 March 1966, the appearance of unidentified troops aroundMerdeka Palaceduring a cabinet meeting (which Suharto had not attended) forced Sukarno to flee toBogor Palace(60 km away) by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals, Major-GeneralBasuki Rahmat,", "Rahmat, Brigadier-GeneralM. Jusuf, and Brigadier-GeneralAmir Machmudwent to Bogor to meet Sukarno. There, they persuaded and secured a presidential decree from Sukarno (seeSupersemar) that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security.Using theSupersemarletter, Suharto ordered the banning of the PKI the following day and proceeded to purge pro-Sukarno elements from the parliament, the government and military, accusing them of being communist sympathisers. The army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appointa new cabinetconsisting of Suharto supporters. The army arrested pro-Sukarno and pro-communist members of theMPRS(parliament), and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy, air force, and the police force with his supporters, who then began an extensive purge within each service.In June 1966, the now-purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning ofMarxism–Leninism, ratifying theSupersemar, and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life.", "President for Life. Crucially, it also resolved that if Sukarno were unable to carry out his duties, the holder of the Supersemar—Suharto—would become acting president. Against the wishes of Sukarno, the government ended the Konfrontasi with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations(Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year).Suharto did not seek Sukarno's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president among some elements of the armed forces.By January 1967, Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within the armed forces. After Sukarno gave his version of events, the MPRS concluded that he had been derelict in his duties and decided to hold another session to impeach him. Facing an increasingly untenable situation, on 22 February 1967 Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency, and on 12 March, the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power and named Suhartoacting president.Sukarno was placed", "was placed under house arrest inBogor Palace; little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970.On 27 March 1968, the MPRS appointed Suharto for a full five-year term as president. The \"New Order\" (1967–1998) Ideology Suharto promoted his \"New Order\", as opposed toSukarno's \"Old Order\", as a society based on thePancasilaideology. After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into a quasi-religious cult, Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organizations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as a fundamental principle. He also instituted mandatory Pancasila training programs for all Indonesians, from primary school students to office workers. In practice, however, the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as \"anti-Pancasila\".The New Order also implemented theDwifungsi(\"Dual Function\") policy which enabled the military to have an", "military to have an active role in all levels of the Indonesian government, economy, and society. Consolidation of power Having been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mereprimus inter pares, and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti-Communist purge. Suharto, aided by his \"Office of Personal Assistants\" (Aspri) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularlyAli Murtopo, began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives.Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman GeneralAbdul Haris Nasution's 1968 attempt to introduce a bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generalsHartono Rekso", "Rekso Dharsono,Kemal Idris, andSarwo Edhie Wibowo(dubbed \"New Order Radicals\") opposed Suharto's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of a non-ideological two-party system similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto sent Dharsono overseas as an ambassador, while Idris and Wibowo were sent to distantNorth SumatraandSouth Sulawesias regional commanders. Suharto's previously strong relationship with the student movement soured over the increasing authoritarianism and corruption of his administration. While many original leaders of the 1966 student movement (Angkatan '66) were successfully co-opted into the regime, Suharto was faced with large student demonstrations challenging the legitimacy of 1971 elections (\"Golput\" movement), the costly construction of theTaman Mini Indonesia Indahtheme park (1972), the domination of foreign capitalists (Malari Incidentof 1974), and the lack of term limits of Suharto's presidency (1978). The regime responded by", "regime responded by imprisoning many student activists (such as future national figuresDorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti,Adnan Buyung Nasution, Hariman Siregar, andSyahrir), and even sending troops to occupy the campus of ITB (Bandung Institute of Technology) from January–March 1978. In April 1978, Suharto moved decisively by issuing a decree on \"Normalisation of Campus Life\" (NKK) which prohibited political activities on-campus not related to academic pursuits. On 15–16 January 1974, Suharto faced a significant challenge when violent riots broke out inJakartaduring a visit by the Japanese prime ministerKakuei Tanaka. Students demonstrating against increasing dominance of Japanese investors were encouraged by GeneralSumitro, deputy commander of the armed forces. Sumitro was an ambitious general who disliked the strong influence of Suharto's Aspri inner circle. Suharto learned that the riots were engineered by Sumitro to destabilise the government, resulting in Sumitro's dismissal and forced retirement. This incident", "This incident is referred to as theMalari Incident (Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari/ Disaster of 15 January). However, Suharto also disbanded Aspri to appease popular dissent.In 1980, fifty prominent political figures signed thePetition of Fifty, which criticised Suharto's use of Pancasila to silence his critics. Suharto refused to address the petitioners' concerns, and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements. Domestic policy and political stability To placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated a series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for aparliament (Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat/MPR)with the power to elect presidents, consisting of a house of representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat/DPR) and regional", "and regional representatives. 100 of the 460 members of DPR would be directly appointed by the government, while the remaining seats were allocated to political organizations based on results of the general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents. To participate in the elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party, thePNI, in 1969 Suharto decided to take over control of an obscure military-run federation of NGOs calledGolkar(\"Functional Groups\") and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the coordination of his right-hand manAli Murtopo. Thefirst general electionwas held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants; consisting ofGolkar, four Islamic parties, as well as five nationalist and Christian parties. Campaigning on a non-ideological platform of \"development\", and aided by official government support and subtle", "support and subtle intimidation tactics,Golkarmanaged to secure 62.8% of the popular vote. The March 1973 general session of newly elected MPR promptly appointed Suharto to second-term in office with SultanHamengkubuwono IXas vice-president. \"It is not the military strength of the Communists but their fanaticism and ideology which is the principal element of their strength. To consider this, each country in the area needs an ideology of its own with which to counter the Communists. But a national ideology is not enough by itself. The well being of the people must be improved so that it strengthens and supports the national ideology.\" On 5 January 1973, to allow better control, the government forced the four Islamic parties to merge intoPPP(Partai Persatuan Pembangunan/United Development Party) while the five non-Islamic parties were fused intoPDI(Partai Demokrasi Indonesia/Indonesian Democratic Party). The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their", "controlling their leadership while establishing the \"re-call\" system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions. Using this system dubbed \"PancasilaDemocracy\", Suharto was re-elected unopposed by the MPR in 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998.Golkar won landslide majorities in the MPR at every election, ensuring that Suharto would be able to pass his agenda with virtually no opposition. Suharto took great care to make it appear that his regime appeared to observe the tenets of the constitution. On paper, the president was the \"mandatory of the MPR,\" responsible for implementing the \"Broad Lines of State Policy\" (GBHN) developed by the MPR. Near the end of each of his terms, Suharto delivered \"accountability speeches\" to the MPR that outlined the achievements of his administration and demonstrated how he had adhered to the GBHN. Additionally, the president had the power to issue regulations in lieu of law, but such regulations had to be approved by theHouse of People's Representatives(DPR) to", "to remain in effect. In practice, however, Golkar's landslide majorities in the DPR and MPR made such approval a mere formality. Combined with the DPR's infrequent sessions (it usually sat for only one session per year), Suharto was able to effectively rule by decree for most of his tenure. Suharto also proceeded with various social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de-politicised \"floating mass\" supportive of the national mission of \"development\", a concept similar tocorporatism. The government formed various civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs. For instance, the government created theIndonesian Civil Servants Corps(Korps Pegawai Republik IndonesiaorKORPRI) in November 1971 as union of civil servants to ensure their loyalty, organized the FBSI (Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia) as the only legal labour union in February 1973, and established theMUIin 1975 to control Islamic clerics. Internal security and social policy Additionally,", "Additionally, Suharto relied on the military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security, organized by theKopkamtib(Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order) andBAKIN(State Intelligence Coordination Agency). To maintain strict control over the country, Suharto expanded the army's territorial system down to village-level, while military officers were appointed as regional heads under the rubric of theDwifungsi(\"Dual Function\") of the military. By 1969, 70% of Indonesia's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers. Suharto authorisedOperasi Trisulawhich destroyed PKI remnants trying to organize a guerrilla base in theBlitararea in 1968 and ordered several military operations that ended the communist PGRS-Paraku insurgency inWest Kalimantan(1967–1972). Attacks on oil workers by the first incarnation ofFree Aceh Movementseparatists underHasan di Tiroin 1977 led to the dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced", "killed or forced the movement's members to flee abroad.Notably, in March 1981, Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to endhijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flightby Islamic extremists atDon Mueang International AirportinBangkok. In 1968, Suharto commenced the highly successful family-planning program (Keluarga Berentjana/KB) to stem the high population growth rate and hence increasing per-capita income. A lasting legacy from this period is thespelling reform of Indonesian languagedecreed by Suharto on 17 August 1972.To promoteassimilationof the influentialChinese-Indonesians, the Suharto government passedseveral lawsas part of the so-called \"Basic Policy for the Solution of Chinese Problem\", whereby only one Chinese-language publication (controlled by the Army) was allowed to continue, all Chinese cultural and religious expressions (including the display of Chinese characters) wereprohibitedfrom public space, Chinese schools were seized and turned intoIndonesian-language public schools, and", "public schools, and the ethnic-Chinese wereforced to take-up Indonesian-sounding names; creating a systematiccultural genocide. In 1978, the government began requiring aLetter of Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia(Indonesian:Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia, or SBKRI). Although the SBKRI was legally required for all citizens of foreign descent, in practice it was generally applied only to Chinese descent. This led todifficulties for Chinese Indonesianswhen enrolling in state universities, applying to be civil servants, or joining the military or police. Economy To stabilise the economy and to ensure long-term support for the New Order, Suharto's administration enlisted a group of mostly US-educated Indonesian economists, dubbed the \"Berkeley Mafia\", to formulate significant changes in economic policy. By cutting subsidies, decreasing government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation was lowered from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969. The threat of famine was", "of famine was alleviated by the influx ofUSAIDrice aid shipments from 1967 to 1968.With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth, the New Order reversed Sukarno's economic self-sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment through the 1967 Foreign Investment Law. Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia. The first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia included mining companiesFreeport Sulphur Company/International Nickel Company. Following government regulatory frameworks, domestic entrepreneurs (mostly Chinese-Indonesians) emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the import-substitution light-manufacturing sector such asAstra GroupandSalim Group. From 1967, the government secured low-interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) to cover its budget deficit.With the IGGI funds and the later jump in oil export revenue from the1973 oil", "from the1973 oil crisis, the government invested in infrastructure under a series of five-year plans, dubbed REPELITA (Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun) I to VI from 1969 to 1998.Outside the formal economy, Suharto created a network of charitable organizations (\"yayasan\") run by the military and his family members, which extracted \"donations\" from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits. While some proceeds were used for charitable purposes, much of the money was recycled as a slush fund to reward political allies and to maintain support for the New Order.In 1975, the state-owned oil company,Pertamina, defaulted on its foreign loans as a result of mismanagement and corruption under the leadership of Suharto's close ally,Ibnu Sutowo. The government bail-out of the company nearly doubled the national debt. Foreign policy Upon assuming power, Suharto's government adopted a policy of neutrality in theCold Warbut was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western", "with the Western bloc (including Japan andSouth Korea) to secure support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support.Diplomatic relationswith China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in the30 September Movement(diplomatic relations were only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of the PKI, theSoviet Unionembargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign ministerAdam Malikmanaged to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation withMalaysiain August 1966, Indonesia became a founding member of theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) in August 1967. This organization is designed to establish a peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as the ongoingVietnam War.", "ongoingVietnam War. In 1974, the neighbouring colony ofPortuguese Timordescendedinto civil warafter the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following theCarnation Revolution, whereby the left-wing populistFretilin(Portuguese:Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente) emerged triumphant. With approval from Western countries (including from U.S. presidentGerald Fordand Australian prime ministerGough Whitlamduring their visits to Indonesia), Suharto decided to intervene. He claimed the move was to prevent the establishment of a communist state. After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese groupsUDTandAPODETI, Suharto authorised a full-scaleinvasionof the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia's 27th province ofEast Timorin July 1976. The \"encirclement and annihilation\" campaigns of 1977–1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands, although continuing guerrilla resistance caused the government to maintain a strong military force in the", "force in the half-island until 1999. An estimated minimum of 90,800 and maximum of 213,600 conflict-related deaths occurred in East Timor duringIndonesian rule (1974–1999); namely, 17,600–19,600 killings and 73,200 to 194,000 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness; Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70% of the violent deaths. Indonesia'sinvasionandoccupationofEast Timorduring Suharto's presidency resulted in at least 100,000 deaths.To comply with theNew York Agreementof 1962 which required a plebiscite on the integration ofWest Irianinto Indonesia before the end of 1969, the Suharto government begin organizing for a so-called \"Act of Free Choice\" scheduled for July–August 1969. The government sent RPKAD special forces underSarwo Edhie Wibowowhich secured the surrender of several bands of former Dutch-organized militia (Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK) at large in the jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963 while sending Catholic volunteers underJusuf Wanandito distribute consumer goods to", "consumer goods to promote pro-Indonesian sentiments. In March 1969, it was agreed that the plebiscite would be channelled via 1,025 tribal chiefs, citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of the population. Using the above strategy, the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia, which was duly noted by theUnited Nations General Assemblyin November 1969. Socio-economic progress Real socio-economic progress sustained support for Suharto's regime across three decades. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate has dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% pa, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$806 to US$4,114. In 1966, the manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested in massive infrastructure development (notably the", "(notably the launching of a series ofPalapatelecommunication satellites); consequently, Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s was considered at par with China. Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his presidency, and theparliament(MPR) on 9 March 1983 granted him the title of \"Father of Development\". Suharto government's health-care programs (such as thePuskesmasprogram) increased life expectancy from 47 years (1966) to 67 years (1997) while cutting infant mortality rate by more than 60%. The government'sInpresprogram launched in 1973 resulted in primary school enrolment ratio reaching 90% by 1983 while almost eliminating the education gap between boys and girls. Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia achieving rice self-sufficiency by 1984, an unprecedented achievement which earned Suharto a gold medal from theFAOin November 1985.In the early 1980s, Suharto government responded to the fall in oil exports due to the1980s oil glutby successfully shifting the", "shifting the basis of the economy to export-oriented labour-intensive manufacturing, made globally competitive by Indonesia's low wages and a series of currency devaluations. Industrialisation was mostly undertaken byChinese-Indonesiancompanies which evolved into large conglomerates dominating the nation's economy. The largest of these conglomerates were theSalim Groupled byLiem Sioe Liong (Sudono Salim),Sinar Mas Groupled byOei Ek Tjong (Eka Tjipta Widjaja),Astra Groupled byTjia Han Poen (William Soeryadjaya),Lippo Groupled byLie Mo Tie (Mochtar Riady), Barito Pacific Group led byPang Djun Phen (Prajogo Pangestu), and Nusamba Group led byBob Hasan. Suharto decided to support the growth of a small number of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates since they would not pose a political challenge due to their ethnic-minority status, but from his experience, he deemed them to possess the skills and capital needed to create real growth for the country. In exchange for Suharto's patronage, the conglomerates provided", "provided vital financing for his \"regime maintenance\" activities. In the late 1980s, the Suharto government decided to de-regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing a domestic source of financing required for growth. Suharto decreed the \"October Package of 1988\" (PAKTO 88) which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit; resulting in a 50% increase in the number of banks from 1989 to 1991. To promote savings, the government introduced theTABANASprogram to the populace. TheJakarta Stock Exchange, re-opened in 1977, recorded a \"bull run\", due to a spree of domesticIPOsand an influx of foreign funds after the deregulation in 1990. The sudden availability of credit fuelled robust economic growth in the early 1990s, but the weak regulatory environment of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997, which eventually lead to the end of Suharto's presidency. Growing corruption The growth of the economy coincided with the rapid expansion of", "rapid expansion of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme / KKN). In the early 1980s, Suharto's children, particularlySiti Hardiyanti Rukmana(\"Tutut\"),Hutomo Mandala Putra (\"Tommy\"), and Bambang Trihatmodjo, had grown into greedy adults. Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include thetoll-expresswaymarket which was monopolised by Tutut, the national car project monopolised by Bambang and Tommy, and even the cinema market, monopolised by21 Cineplex(owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000 km2of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m2of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish \"strategic", "\"strategic partnerships\" with Suharto family companies. Meanwhile, the myriad ofyayasans run by the Suharto family grew even larger, levying millions of dollars in \"donations\" from the public and private sectors each year. In 1997,Forbes magazinelisted Suharto as the fourth richest person in the world with an individual net worth of $16 billion, despite drawing an annual salary in his last peak year of only $21,000. The Suharto family owned or controlled 3.6 million hectares of prime Indonesian land, an area comparable to all ofBelgium, and directly owned or had controlling equity in at least 564 companies, with no Indonesian economic sector untouched. With $100,000 of seed capital, Tommy Suharto got his start in 1984 at age 22. Within ten weeks hisHumpuss Groupalready had twenty subsidiaries, which soon ballooned to sixty. A year later he acquired Perta Oil Marketing, a subsidiary of the state oil companyPertamina, instantly making him a major crude-oil broker and transporter. Perta generated profits of $1", "profits of $1 million per month. Most of Indonesia's toll roads were built and operated by the stateowned firmJasa Marga, with untold markups and opportunities for skimming and theft for oligarchs as the projects were completed. In 1989, Suharto issued a decree granting his daughter Tutut 75% of profits from all toll roads her group operated jointly with Jasa Marga, driving costs up still further. Bambang positioned his group as a partner of major foreign power companies and forced the state-run power company,PLN, to buy electricity at inflated rates. According to one estimate from the 24 May 1999 cover story in the international issue ofTime magazine, the total wealth amassed by the Suharto family over three decades in power was $73.24 billion. Setting aside $9 billion earned from interest on deposits, three-fourths of this wealth was derived from grabbing the country's oil, gas, and mining resources, or muscling in on state corporations and major government contracts. The entrepreneurial value added from", "value added from these Suharto family companies was, by all accounts, almost zero. In early 2004, the German anti-corruption NGO Transparency International released a list of what it believed to be the ten most self-enriching leaders in the previous two decades; in order of amount allegedly stolen in USD, the highest-ranking of these was Suharto and his family who are alleged to have embezzled $15 billion – $35 billion. The New Order in the 1980s and 1990s By the 1980s, Suharto's grip on power was maintained by the emasculation of civil society, engineered elections, and use of the military's coercive powers. Upon his retirement from the military in June 1976, Suharto undertook a re-organization of the armed forces that concentrated power away from commanders to the president. In March 1983, he appointed GeneralLeonardus Benjamin Moerdanias head of the armed forces who adopted a hard-line approach on elements who challenged the administration. As a Roman Catholic, he was not a political threat to", "political threat to Suharto.From 1983 to 1985, army squads killed up to 10,000 suspected criminals in response to a spike in the crime rate (see \"Petrus Killings\"). Suharto's imposition of Pancasila as the sole ideology caused protests from conservative Islamic groups who considered Islamic law to be above all other conceptions. TheTanjung Priok massacresaw the army kill up to 100 conservative Muslim protesters in September 1984. A retaliatory series of small bombings, including the bombing ofBorobudur, led to arrests of hundreds of conservative Islamic activists, including future parliamentary leader AM Fatwa andAbu Bakar Bashir(later leader ofJemaah Islamiyah). Attacks on police by a resurgentFree Aceh Movementin 1989 led to a military operation which killed 2,000 people and ended the insurgency by 1992. In 1984, the Suharto government sought increased control over the press by issuing a law requiring all media to possess a press operating license (Surat Izin Usaha Penerbitan Pers, SIUPP) which could be", "which could be revoked at any time by Ministry of Information. With the end of communism and theCold War, Suharto's human rights record came under greater international scrutiny, particularly following the 1991Santa Cruz massacrein East Timor. Suharto was elected as head of theNon-Aligned Movementin 1992, while Indonesia became a founding member ofAPECin 1989 and host to theBogorAPEC Summit in 1994.Domestically, the business dealings of Suharto's family created discontent among the military who lost access to power and lucrative rent-seeking opportunities. The March 1988MPRsession, military legislators attempted to pressure Suharto by unsuccessfully seeking to block the nomination ofSudharmono, a Suharto-loyalist, as vice-president. Moerdani's criticism of the Suharto family's corruption saw the president dismiss him from the position of military chief. Suharto proceeded to slowly \"de-militarise\" his regime; he dissolved the powerfulKopkamtibin September 1988 and ensured key military positions were held by", "were held by loyalists. In an attempt to diversify his power base away from the military, Suharto began courting support from Islamic elements. He undertook a much-publicisedhajjpilgrimage in 1991, took up the name of Haji Mohammad Suharto, and promoted Islamic values and the careers of Islamic-oriented generals. To win support from the nascent Muslim business community who resented the dominance of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates, Suharto formed theIndonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals(ICMI) in November 1990, which was led by his protégéB.J. Habibie, the Minister for Research and Technology since 1978. During this period, race riots against ethnic-Chinese begin to occur quite regularly, beginning with the April 1994 riot inMedan.By the 1990s, Suharto's government came to be dominated by civilian politicians such asHabibie,Harmoko,Ginandjar Kartasasmita, andAkbar Tanjung, who owed their position solely to Suharto. As a sign of Habibie's growing clout, when two prominent Indonesian magazines and a", "magazines and a tabloid newspaper reported on criticism over Habibie's purchase of almost the entire fleet of the disbandedEast German Navyin 1993 (most of the vessels were of scrap-value), the Ministry of Information ordered the offending publications be closed down on 21 June 1994.In 1993, thePurna Bhakti Pertiwi Museumwas opened on the initiative of Tien Suharto. It houses and displays Suharto collections including artworks and souvenirs, received from various world leaders and Indonesian people. In the 1990s, elements within the growing Indonesian middle class created by Suharto's economic development were becoming restless with hisautocracyand the corruption of his children, fuelling demands for \"Reformasi\" (reform) of the almost 30-year-old New Order government. A significant element of the middle class had no memory of the events leading up to Suharto's rise to power. By 1996, Sukarno's daughter,Megawati Sukarnoputri, chairwoman of the normally compliantPDI, was becoming an opposition figure for this", "figure for this growing discontent. In response, Suharto backed a co-opted faction of PDI led bySuryadi, which ousted Megawati as PDI leader. On 27 July 1996,an attackby soldiers and hired thugs led by Lieutenant-GeneralSutiyosoon demonstrating Megawati supporters in Jakarta resulted in fatal riots and looting. This incident was followed by the arrest of 200 democracy activists, 23 of whom were kidnapped, and some killed, by army squads led by Suharto's son-in-law, Major-GeneralPrabowo Subianto.In 1995, Suharto released a special 1,54 troy ouncegold coinworth of 850,000 rupiahwith his face on one side of the coin in the celebration of 50th anniversary ofIndonesian Independence. On 5 October 1997, he awarded himself and generalsSudirmanandAbdul Haris Nasutionthe honorary rank of five-star \"Grand General\". Economic crisis and downfall Asian financial crisis Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the1997 Asian financial crisis. From mid-1997 there were large capital outflows and against the US dollar. Due to", "US dollar. Due to poor bank lending practices, many Indonesian companies borrowed cheaper US dollar loans while their income is mainly in Indonesian rupiah. The weakening rupiah spurred panic buying of US dollar by these companies, causing theIndonesian rupiahto drop in value from a pre-crisis level of Rp. 2,600 to a low point in early 1998 of around Rp. 17,000. Consequently, many companies were bankrupted and the economy shrank by 13.7%, leading to sharp increases in unemployment and poverty across the country. Efforts by thecentral bankto defend the rupiah proved futile and only drained the country's dollar reserves. In exchange for US$43 billion in liquidity aid, between October 1997 and the following April, Suharto signed three letters of intent with theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) for an economic reform process. In January 1998, the government was forced to provide emergency liquidity assistance (BLBI), issue blanket guarantees for bank deposits and set-up theIndonesian Bank Restructuring Agencyto", "Agencyto take over management of troubled banks to prevent the collapse of the financial system. Among the steps taken on IMF recommendation, the government raised an interest rate up to 70% pa in February 1998, which further worsened the contraction of the economy. In December 1997, Suharto did not attend an ASEAN presidents' summit for the first time, which was later revealed to be due to a minor stroke, creating speculation about his health and the immediate future of his presidency. In mid-December, as the crisis swept through Indonesia and an estimated $150 billion of capital was being withdrawn from the country, he appeared at a press conference to re-assert his authority and to urge people to trust the government and the collapsing rupiah. However, his attempts to re-instil confidence had little effect. Evidence suggested that his family and associates were being spared the most stringent requirements of the IMF reform process, further undermining confidence in the economy and his leadership.The", "his leadership.The economic meltdown was accompanied by increasing political tension. Anti-Chinese riots occurred inSitubondo(1996),Tasikmalaya(1996),Banjarmasin(1997), andMakassar(1997); violent ethnic clashes broke out between theDayakandMaduresesettlers inCentral Kalimantanin 1997.Golkarwon the rigged1997 election, and in March 1998, Suharto was voted unanimously to another five-year term. He nominated his protégéB. J. Habibieas vice president then stacking thecabinetwith his own family and business associates, including his eldest daughterTututas Minister of Social Affairs. The appointments and the government's unrealistic 1998 budget created further currency instability,rumours, and panic; which led to a run on stores and pushed up prices.The government increased the fuel prices further by 70% in May 1998, which triggered another wave of riots inMedan. Suharto resigned With Suharto increasingly seen as the source of the country's mounting economic and political crises, prominent political figures,", "political figures, including Muslim politicianAmien Rais, spoke out against his presidency, and in January 1998 university students began organizing nationwide demonstrations.The crisis climaxed while Suharto was on a state visit to Egypt on 12 May 1998, when security forceskilled four demonstratorsfrom Jakarta'sTrisakti University.Rioting and looting across Jakarta and other citiesover the following days destroyed thousands of buildings and killed over 1,000 people. Ethnic Chinese and their businesses were particular targets in the violence. Theories on the origin of the violence include rivalry between military chief GeneralWirantoandArmy Strategic CommanderLt. Gen.Prabowo Subianto, and the suggestion of deliberate provocation by Suharto to divert blame for the crisis to the ethnic-Chinese and discredit the student movement. On 16 May, tens of thousands of university students demanded Suharto's resignation, and occupied the grounds and roof ofthe parliament building. Upon Suharto's return to Jakarta, he", "to Jakarta, he offered to resign in 2003 and to reshuffle his cabinet. These efforts failed when his political allies deserted him by refusing to join the proposed new cabinet. According to Wiranto, on 18 May, Suharto issued a decree which provided authority to him to take any measures to restore security; however, Wiranto decided not to enforce the decree to prevent conflict with the population.On 21 May 1998, Suharto announced his resignation, upon which vice-president Habibie assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitution.Documents from the United States Department of State indicate that the Clinton Administration sought to maintain close ties with the Indonesian military in the aftermath of Suharto's fall from power. Post-presidency Corruption charges After resigning from the presidency, Suharto became a recluse in his family's compound in theMentengarea of Jakarta, protected by soldiers and rarely making public appearances. Suharto's family spent much of their time fending off corruption", "off corruption investigations. However, Suharto himself was protected from grave prosecution by politicians who owed their positions to the former president, as indicated in the leaked telephone conversation between PresidentHabibieand attorney-general Andi Muhammad Ghalib in February 1999.In May 1999,Time Asiaestimated Suharto's family fortune at US$15 billion in cash,shares, corporate assets, real estate, jewellery and fine art. Suharto sued the magazine seeking more than US$27 billion in damages forlibelover the article.On 10 September 2007, Indonesia's Supreme Court awarded SuhartodamagesagainstTime Asiamagazine, ordering it to pay him one trillionrupiah($128.59 million). The High Court reversed thejudgmentof anappellate courtandCentral Jakartadistrict court(made in 2000 and 2001). Suharto was placed highest onTransparency International's list of corrupt leaders with alleged misappropriation of between US$15–35 billion during his 32-year presidency.On 29 May 2000, Suharto was placed underhouse arrestwhen", "arrestwhen Indonesian authorities began to investigate the corruption during his presidency. In July 2000, it was announced that he was to be accused of embezzling US$571 million of government donations to one of several foundations under his control and then using the money to finance family investments. However, in September court-appointed doctors announced that he could not stand trial because of his declining health. State prosecutors tried again in 2002, but then doctors cited an unspecified brain disease. On 26 March 2008, a civil court judge acquitted Suharto of corruption but ordered his charitable foundation, Supersemar, to pay US$110 m (£55 m). In 2002, Suharto's sonTommy Suhartowas sentenced to 15 years' jail for ordering the killing of a judge (who had previously convicted him of corruption), illegal weapons possession, and fleeing justice. In 2006, he was paroled on \"conditional release\".In 2003, Suharto's half-brotherProbosutedjowas tried and convicted for corruption and the loss of $10", "and the loss of $10 million from the Indonesian state. He was sentenced to four years in jail. He later won a reduction of his sentence to two years, initiating a probe by theCorruption Eradication Commissioninto the alleged scandal of the \"judicial mafia\" which uncovered offers of $600,000 to various judges. Probosutedjo confessed to the scheme in October 2005, leading to the arrest of his lawyers. His full four-year term was reinstated.After a brief standoff at a hospital, in which he was reportedly protected by a group of police officers, he was arrested on 30 November 2005.On 9 July 2007, Indonesian prosecutors filed a civil lawsuit against Suharto, to recover state funds ($440 million or £219 million, which allegedly disappeared from a scholarship fund, and a further $1.1 billion in damages). Illness and death After resigning from the presidency, Suharto was hospitalised repeatedly forstroke, heart, and intestinal problems. His declining health hindered attempts to prosecute him as his lawyers", "him as his lawyers successfully claimed that his condition rendered him unfit for trial. Moreover, there was little support within Indonesia for any attempts to prosecute him. In 2006, Attorney General Abdurrahman announced that a team of twenty doctors would be asked to evaluate Suharto's health and fitness for trial. One physician, Brigadier-General Dr Marjo Subiandono, stated his doubts about by noting that \" has two permanent cerebral defects.\"In a laterFinancial Timesreport, Attorney General Abdurrahman discussed the re-examination, and called it part of a \"last opportunity\" to prosecute Suharto criminally. Attorney General Abdurrahman left open the possibility of filing suit against the Suharto estate. On 4 January 2008, Suharto was taken to thePertamina Central Hospital, Jakarta with complications arising from poor health, swelling of limbs and stomach, and partial renal failure.His health fluctuated for several weeks but progressively worsened withanaemiaand lowblood pressuredue to heart and kidney", "to heart and kidney complications, internal bleeding, fluid on his lungs, and blood in his faeces and urine which caused ahaemoglobindrop.On 23 January, Suharto's health worsened further, as asepsisinfection spread through his body.His family consented to the removal of life support machines if his condition did not improve, and he died on 27 January at 1:09 pm. Minutes after his death, then-Indonesian PresidentSusilo Bambang Yudhoyonoheld a news conference declaring Suharto as one of Indonesia's \"best sons\" and invited the country to give the highest respect and honour to the ex-president.Suharto's body was taken from Jakarta to theAstana Giribangunmausoleum complex inKaranganyar Regency, near the Central Java city ofSolo. He was buried alongside his late wife in a state military funeral with full honours, with theKopassuselite forces andKOSTRADcommandos as the honour guard and pallbearers and Commander of Group II Kopassus Surakarta Lt. Colonel Asep Subarkah.In attendance were President Yudhoyono, who", "Yudhoyono, who presided over the ceremony, as well as the vice-president, government ministers, and armed forces chiefs of staff. Tens of thousands of people lined the streets to see the convoy.Condolences were offered by many regional heads of state. President Yudhoyono that afternoon declared a week of official mourning starting from Suharto's day of death.During this period, all flags of Indonesia were flown athalf-mast. Political rehabilitation On 25 September 2024, in one of its last acts for the 2019–2024 period, the Indonesian parliament repealed clause 4 of MPR Resolution XI/MPR/1998, which had accused Suharto and his cronies of acts of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (clause 4 specifically named Suharto). The stated reason for this was because Suharto was never put on trial for these accusations before his death in 2008. This move has reignited debate as to whether Suharto should be awarded the National Hero status. Honours National honours As an officer in theIndonesian Army(1940–1974), and", "and then as president of Indonesia (1967–1998), he received several civilian and militaryStar Decorationsfrom Indonesia, namely: Foreign honours In addition, he also received several foreign decorations:Argentina: Austria: Belgium: Brunei: Cambodia: Egypt: Ethiopia: France: Iran: Italy: Japan: Jordan: Kuwait: Malaysia: Mexico: Netherlands: Pakistan: Philippines: Qatar: Romania: Saudi Arabia: Singapore: South Africa: South Korea: Spain: Syria: Thailand: Tunisia: Ukraine: United Arab Emirates: United Kingdom: Venezuela: West Germany: Yemen: Yugoslavia: Places and statue Suharto's childhood house in Kemusuk is currently a memorial museum, calledMemorial Jenderal Besar HM Soeharto. A statue of him stands in front of the museum. It was built by Probosutedjo and was inaugurated in 2013. FELDA Soeharto, a village inSelangor, is named after him. He visited the village in 1977 as part of a momentous visit to normalize theIndonesia–Malaysia relations. In popular culture Suharto has been portrayed by five Indonesian", "by five Indonesian actors in several movies. See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links", "Kemusuk Kemusukis a hamlet (dukuh) in the Argomulyo village, Sedayu subdistrict,Bantul Regency,Special Region of Yogyakarta,Indonesia. The area, around 10 km to the west ofYogyakartatowards the town ofWates, is known as the birthplace of the second president of Indonesia,Suharto. Significance with Suharto's life and family Suharto was born to a 'poor but not unimportant farmer's family' in the village. His father, Kertosudiro, was a local irrigation official in charge of overseeing the allocation of water to different farmers in Kemusuk. His mother, Sukirah, was a village woman from a nearby hamlet. The Suharto family have returned to the village on various occasions in recent years. Suharto himself, accompanied by members of his family, made a trip to Kemusuk in 2002 to pay respects to his father's grave. At the time Suharto's younger step-brother, Notosuwito, had a house in the village near the graveyard in the Kepoh area.More recently, in March 2013 several of Suharto's children, along with his", "along with his half-brotherProbosutedjo, visited Kemusuk Lor (North Kemusuk) to attend the unveiling of a statue of their father installed near a series of exhibits (photos and some dioramas) about Suharto's life at a hall in the village.The statue of Soeharto, which is 3.5 meters tall, presents him in full military uniform as the commander of theIndonesian National Armed Forces(Tentara Nasional Indonesia, orTNI) carrying a baton under his left arm. The sculptor of the statue was the well-known Indonesian sculptor Edhi Sunarso. Edhi Sunarso has created various other well-known statues and monuments in Indonesia including the landmarkSelamat Datang Monument(Welcome Monument) in Jakarta. In June 2013 additional facilities as part of a memorial to Suharto were opened in a ceremony in Kemusuk by Suharto's eldest daughterSiti Hardiyanti Rukmana(Tutut) and his brother Probosutedjo. The memorial included refurbished houses which various members of Suharto's family had lived in as well as a museum.The ceremony was", "ceremony was attended by several senior ministers of the Indonesian government including the Coordinating People's Welfare MinisterAgung Laksonoand Defence MinisterPurnomo Yusgiantoro. At the time of Suharto's death in January 2008, residents of Kemusuk joined in the mourning for the former president. Flags were lowered in the village and Suharto's nephew, Aryo Notosuwito spoke in memory of Suharto. As is the practice in Indonesia, members of the local community gathered together at the house of Suharto's relatives to remember the former resident of their village. Later, in March 2018, when Suharto's brotherProbosutedjodied in Jakarta, his body was flown back to Yogyakarta and transferred to Kemusuk to be buried in the local Somenggalan cemetery. References 7°49′00″S110°16′59″E / 7.81667°S 110.28306°E /-7.81667; 110.28306" ]
What painting was stolen from The Louvre exactly 56 years before the birth of activist and songwriter Serj Tankian?
The Mona Lisa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona_Lisa#Refuge,_theft,_and_vandalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serj_Tankian
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Numerical reasoning | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona_Lisa#Refuge,_theft,_and_vandalism', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serj_Tankian']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mona_Lisa#Refuge,_theft,_and_vandalism", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serj_Tankian" ]
[ "Mona Lisa TheMona Lisa(/ˌmoʊnəˈliːsə/MOH-nəLEE-sə;Italian:GiocondaorMonna Lisa;French:Joconde) is a half-lengthportrait paintingby Italian artistLeonardo da Vinci. Considered an archetypalmasterpieceof theItalian Renaissance,it has been described as \"the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, the most parodied work of art in the world.\"The painting's novel qualities include the subject's enigmatic expression,monumentality of the composition, the subtle modelling of forms, and the atmospheric illusionism. The painting has been traditionally considered to depict the Italian noblewomanLisa del Giocondo.It is painted in oil on awhite poplarpanel.Leonardo never gave the painting to the Giocondo family.It was believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. KingFrancis I of Franceacquired theMona Lisaafter Leonardo's death in 1519, and it is now the property of the French Republic. It has normally been on display at theLouvrein Paris since 1797. The painting's global fame and popularity partly stem from its 1911 theft byVincenzo Peruggia, who attributed his actions to Italian patriotism—a belief it should belong to Italy. The theft and subsequent recovery in 1914 generated unprecedented publicity for anart theft, and led to the publication of many cultural depictions such as the 1915 operaMona Lisa, two early 1930s films (The Theft of the Mona LisaandArsène Lupin), and the song \"Mona Lisa\" recorded byNat King Cole—one of the most successful songs of the 1950s. TheMona Lisais one of the most valuable paintings in the world. It holds theGuinness World Recordfor the highest known painting insurance valuation in history at US$100 million in 1962,equivalent to $1 billion as of 2023. Title and subject Thetitle of the painting, which is known in English asMona Lisa, is based on the presumption that it depictsLisa del Giocondo, although her likeness is uncertain.Renaissanceart historianGiorgio Vasariwrote that \"Leonardoundertook to paint, for Francesco del Giocondo, the portrait of Mona Lisa, his wife.\"Monnain Italian is a polite form of address originating asma donna—similar toMa'am,Madam, ormy ladyin English. This becamemadonna, and its contractionmonna. The title of the painting, though traditionally spelledMonain English, is spelled in Italian asMonna Lisa(monabeing a vulgarity in Italian), but this is rare in English. Lisa del Giocondo was a member of theGherardinifamily ofFlorenceandTuscany, and the wife of wealthy Florentine silk merchant Francesco del Giocondo.The painting is thought to have been commissioned for their new home, and to celebrate the birth of their second son, Andrea.The Italian name for the painting,La Gioconda, means 'jocund' ('happy' or 'jovial') or, literally, 'the jocund one', a pun on the feminine form of Lisa's married name, Giocondo.In French, the titleLa Jocondehas the same meaning. Vasari's account of theMona Lisacomes from his biography of Leonardo published in 1550, 31 years after the artist's death. It has long been the best-known source of information on theprovenanceof the work and identity of the sitter. Leonardo's assistantSalaì, at his death in 1524, owned a portrait which in his personal papers was namedla Gioconda, a painting bequeathed to him by Leonardo. That Leonardo painted such a work, and its date, were confirmed in 2005 when a scholar atHeidelberg Universitydiscovered a marginal note in a 1477 printing of a volume byancient RomanphilosopherCicero. Dated October 1503, the note was written by Leonardo's contemporaryAgostino Vespucci. This note likens Leonardo to renowned Greek painterApelles, who is mentioned in the text, and states that Leonardo was at that time working on a painting of Lisa del Giocondo.In response to the announcement of the discovery of this document, Vincent Delieuvin, theLouvrerepresentative, stated \"Leonardo da Vinci was painting, in 1503, the portrait of a Florentine lady by the name of Lisa del Giocondo. About this we are now certain. Unfortunately, we cannot be absolutely certain that this portrait of Lisa del Giocondo is the painting of the Louvre.\" Thecatalogue raisonnéLeonardo da Vinci(2019) confirms that the painting probably depicts Lisa del Giocondo, withIsabella d'Estebeing the only plausible alternative.Scholars have developed severalalternative views, arguing that Lisa del Giocondo was the subject of a different portrait, and identifying at least four other paintings referred to by Vasari as theMona Lisa.Several other people have been proposed as the subject of the painting,includingIsabella of Aragon,Cecilia Gallerani,Costanza d'Avalos, Duchess of Francavilla,Pacifica Brandano/Brandino, Isabella Gualanda,Caterina Sforza,Bianca Giovanna Sforza, Salaì, and even Leonardo himself.PsychoanalystSigmund Freudtheorized that Leonardo imparted an approving smile from his mother, Caterina, onto theMona Lisaand other works. Description TheMona Lisabears a strong resemblance to many Renaissance depictions of theVirgin Mary, who was at that time seen as an ideal for womanhood.The woman sits markedly upright in a \"pozzetto\" armchair with her arms folded, a sign of her reserved posture. Her gaze is fixed on the observer. The woman appears alive to an unusual extent, which Leonardo achieved by his method of not drawing outlines. The soft blending (sfumato) creates an ambiguous mood \"mainly in two features: the corners of the mouth, and the corners of the eyes\". The depiction of the sitter in three-quarter profile is similar to late 15th-century works byLorenzo di CrediandAgnolo di Domenico del Mazziere.Zöllnernotes that the sitter's general position can be traced back toFlemishmodels and that \"in particular the vertical slices of columns at both sides of the panel had precedents in Flemish portraiture.\"Woods-Marsden citesHans Memling'sportrait of Benedetto Portinari(1487) or Italian imitations such asSebastiano Mainardi's pendant portraitsfor the use of aloggia, which has the effect of mediating between the sitter and the distant landscape, a feature missing from Leonardo's earlier portrait ofGinevra de' Benci. The painting was one of the first Italian portraits to depict the sitter in front of an imaginary landscape,although some scholars favour a realistic description,and Leonardo was one of the first painters to useaerial perspective.The enigmatic woman is portrayed seated in what appears to be an open loggia with dark pillar bases on either side. Behind her, a vast landscape recedes to icy mountains,winding paths and a distant bridge, giving only the slightest indications of human presence. Leonardo has chosen to place the horizon line not at the neck, as he did withGinevra de' Benci, but on a level with the eyes, thus linking the figure with the landscape and emphasizing the mysterious nature of the painting.The bridge in the background was identified by Silvano Vincenti as the four-archedRomito di Laterina bridgefromEtruscan-Romantimes nearLaterina,Arezzoover theArno river.Other bridges with similar arches suggested as possible locations had more arches.Some observers find similarities with theAzzone Viscontibridge. Mona Lisahas no clearly visible eyebrows or eyelashes, although Vasari describes the eyebrows in detail.In 2007, French engineer Pascal Cotte announced that his ultra-high resolution scans of the painting provide evidence thatMona Lisawas originally painted with eyelashes and eyebrows, but that these had gradually disappeared over time, perhaps as a result of overcleaning.Cotte discovered that the painting had been reworked several times, with changes made to the size of the face and the direction of gaze. He also found that in one layer the subject was depicted wearing numerous hairpins and a headdress adorned with pearls which was later scrubbed out and overpainted. There has been much speculation regarding the painting's model and landscape. For example, Leonardo probably painted his model faithfully since her beauty is not seen as being among the best, \"even when measured by late quattrocento (15th century) or even twenty-first century standards.\"Some historians in Eastern art, such asYukio Yashiro, argue that the landscape in the background of the picture was influenced byChinese paintings,but this thesis has been contested for lack of clear evidence. Research in 2003 by ProfessorMargaret LivingstoneofHarvard Universitysaid that Mona Lisa's smile disappears when observed with direct vision, known asfoveal. Because of the way the human eye processes visual information, it is less suited to pick up shadows directly; however,peripheral visioncan pick up shadows well. Research in 2008 by a geomorphology professor atUrbino Universityand an artist-photographer revealed thatMona Lisa's landscape was similar to some views in theMontefeltroregion in the Italian provinces ofPesaro and Urbino, andRimini.Research in 2023/2024 by geologist and art historian Ann Pizzorusso suggests that the landscape contains \"several recognisable features ofLecco, on the shores ofLake Comoin theLombardyregion of northernItaly.\" History Creation and date OfLeonardo da Vinci's works, theMona Lisais the only portrait whose authenticity has never been seriously questioned,and one of four works—the others beingSaint Jerome in the Wilderness,Adoration of the MagiandThe Last Supper—whose attribution has avoided controversy.He had begun working on a portrait ofLisa del Giocondo, the model of theMona Lisa, by October 1503.It is believed by some that theMona Lisawas begun in 1503 or 1504 in Florence.Although the Louvre states that it was \"doubtless painted between 1503 and 1506\",art historianMartin Kempsays that there are some difficulties in confirming the dates with certainty.Alessandro Vezzosibelieves that the painting is characteristic of Leonardo's style in the final years of his life, post-1513.Other academics argue that, given the historical documentation, Leonardo would have painted the work from 1513.According to Vasari, \"after he had lingered over it four years, left it unfinished\".In 1516, Leonardo was invited byKing Francis Ito work at theClos Lucénear theChâteau d'Amboise; it is believed that he took theMona Lisawith him and continued to work on it after he moved to France.Art historian Carmen C. Bambach has concluded that Leonardo probably continued refining the work until 1516 or 1517.Leonardo's right hand was paralyticc.1517,which may indicate why he left theMona Lisaunfinished. Circa1505,Raphaelexecuted a pen-and-ink sketch, in which the columns flanking the subject are more apparent. Experts universally agree that it is based on Leonardo's portrait.Other later copies of theMona Lisa, such as those in theNational Museum of Art, Architecture and DesignandThe Walters Art Museum, also display large flanking columns. As a result, it was thought that theMona Lisahad been trimmed.However, by 1993,Frank Zöllnerobserved that the painting surface had never been trimmed;this was confirmed through a series of tests in 2004.In view of this,Vincent Delieuvin, curator of 16th-century Italian painting at the Louvre, states that the sketch and these other copies must have been inspired by another version,while Zöllner states that the sketch may be after another Leonardo portrait of the same subject. The record of an October 1517 visit byLouis d'Aragonstates that theMona Lisawas executed for the deceasedGiuliano de' Medici, Leonardo's steward atBelvedere, Vienna, between 1513 and 1516—but this was likely an error.According to Vasari, the painting was created for the model's husband, Francesco del Giocondo.A number of experts have argued that Leonardo made two versions (because of the uncertainty concerning its dating and commissioner, as well as its fate following Leonardo's death in 1519, and the difference of details in Raphael's sketch—which may be explained by the possibility that he made the sketch from memory).The hypothetical first portrait, displaying prominent columns, would have been commissioned by Giocondoc.1503, and left unfinished in Leonardo's pupil and assistant Salaì's possession until his death in 1524. The second, commissioned by Giuliano de' Medicic.1513, would have been sold by Salaì to Francis I in 1518and is the one in the Louvre today.Others believe that there was only one trueMona Lisabut are divided as to the two aforementioned fates.At some point in the 16th century, avarnishwas applied to the painting.It was kept at thePalace of FontainebleauuntilLouis XIVmoved it to thePalace of Versailles, where it remained until theFrench Revolution.In 1797, it went on permanent display at the Louvre. Refuge, theft, and vandalism After the French Revolution, the painting was moved to the Louvre, but spent a brief period in the bedroom ofNapoleon(d. 1821) in theTuileries Palace.TheMona Lisawas not widely known outside the art world, but in the 1860s, a portion of the Frenchintelligentsiabegan to hail it as a masterwork of Renaissance painting.During theFranco-Prussian War(1870–1871), the painting was moved from the Louvre to theBrest Arsenal. In 1911, the painting was still not popular among the lay-public.On 21 August 1911, the painting wasstolenfrom the Louvre.The painting was first reported missing the next day by painterLouis Béroud. After some confusion as to whether the painting was being photographed somewhere, the Louvre was closed for a week for investigation. French poetGuillaume Apollinairecame under suspicion and was arrested and imprisoned. Apollinaire implicated his friendPablo Picasso, who was brought in for questioning. Both were later exonerated.The real culprit was Louvre employeeVincenzo Peruggia, who had helped construct the painting's glass case.He carried out the theft by entering the building during regular hours, hiding in a broom closet, and walking out with the painting hidden under his coat after the museum had closed. Peruggia was an Italian patriot who believed that Leonardo's painting should have been returned to an Italian museum.Peruggia may have been motivated by an associate whose copies of the original would significantly rise in value after the painting's theft.After having kept theMona Lisain his apartment for two years, Peruggia grew impatient and was caught when he attempted to sell it toGiovanni Poggi, director of theUffizi GalleryinFlorence. It was exhibited in the Uffizi Gallery for over two weeks and returned to the Louvre on 4 January 1914.Peruggia served six months in prison for the crime and was hailed for his patriotism in Italy.A year after the theft,Saturday Evening PostjournalistKarl Deckerwrote that he met an alleged accomplice namedEduardo de Valfierno, who claimed to have masterminded the theft. ForgerYves Chaudronwas to have created six copies of the painting to sell in the US while concealing the location of the original.Decker published this account of the theft in 1932. DuringWorld War II, it was again removed from the Louvre and taken first to the Château d'Amboise, then to theLoc-Dieu AbbeyandChâteau de Chambord, then finally to theMusée IngresinMontauban. In recent decades, the painting has been temporarily moved to accommodate renovations to the Louvre on three occasions: between 1992 and 1995, from 2001 to 2005, and again in 2019.A new queuing system introduced in 2019 reduces the amount of time museum visitors have to wait in line to see the painting. After going through the queue, a group has about 30 seconds to see the painting. On 30 December 1956, Bolivian Ugo Ungaza Villegas threw a rock at theMona Lisawhile it was on display at the Louvre. He did so with such force that it shattered the glass case and dislodged a speck of pigment near the left elbow.The painting was protected by glass because a few years earlier a man who claimed to be in love with the painting had cut it with a razor blade and tried to steal it.Since then,bulletproof glasshas been used to shield the painting from any further attacks. Subsequently, on 21 April 1974, while the painting was on display at theTokyo National Museum, a woman sprayed it with red paint as a protest against that museum's failure to provide access for disabled people.On 2 August 2009, a Russian woman, distraught over being denied French citizenship, threw a ceramic teacup purchased at the Louvre; the vessel shattered against the glass enclosure.In both cases, the painting was undamaged. On 29 May 2022, a male activist, disguised as a woman in a wheelchair, threwcakeat the protective glass covering the painting in an apparent attempt to raise awareness forclimate change.The painting was not damaged.The man was arrested and placed in psychiatric care in the police headquarters.An investigation was opened after the Louvre filed a complaint.On 28 January 2024, two attackers from the environmentalist group Riposte Alimentaire (Food Retaliation) threw soup at the painting's protective glass, demanding the right to \"healthy and sustainable food\" and criticizing the contemporary state of agriculture. Modern analysis In the early 21st century, French scientist Pascal Cotte hypothesized a hidden portrait underneath the surface of the painting. He analysed the painting in the Louvre with reflective light technology beginning in 2004, and producedcircumstantial evidencefor his theory.Cotte admits that his investigation was carried out only in support of his hypotheses and should not be considered as definitive proof.The underlying portrait appears to be of a model looking to the side, and lacks flanking columns,but does not fit with historical descriptions of the painting. Both Vasari andGian Paolo Lomazzodescribe the subject as smiling,unlike the subject in Cotte's supposed portrait.In 2020, Cotte published a study alleging that the painting has anunderdrawing, transferred from a preparatory drawing via thespolverotechnique. Conservation TheMona Lisahas survived for more than 500 years, and an international commission convened in 1952 noted that \"the picture is in a remarkable state of preservation.\"It has never been fully restored,so the current condition is partly due to a variety of conservation treatments the painting has undergone. A detailed analysis in 1933 by Madame de Gironde revealed that earlier restorers had \"acted with a great deal of restraint.\"Nevertheless, applications ofvarnishmade to the painting had darkened even by the end of the 16th century, and an aggressive 1809 cleaning and revarnishing removed some of the uppermost portion of the paint layer, resulting in a washed-out appearance to the face of the figure. Despite the treatments, theMona Lisahas been well cared for throughout its history, and although the panel's warping caused the curators \"some worry\",the 2004–05 conservation team was optimistic about the future of the work. Poplar panel At some point, theMona Lisawas removed from its original frame. The unconstrained poplar panel warped freely with changes in humidity, and as a result, a crack developed near the top of the panel, extending down to the hairline of the figure. In the mid-18th century to early 19th century, twobutterfly-shapedwalnut braces were inserted into the back of the panel to a depth of about one third the thickness of the panel. This intervention was skilfully executed, and successfully stabilized the crack. Sometime between 1888 and 1905, or perhaps during the picture's theft, the upper brace fell out. A later restorer glued and lined the resulting socket and crack with cloth. The picture is kept under strict, climate-controlled conditions in its bulletproof glass case. The humidity is maintained at 50% ±10%, and the temperature is maintained between 18 °C (64 °F) and 21 °C (70 °F). To compensate for fluctuations in relative humidity, the case is supplemented with a bed ofsilica geltreated to provide 55% relative humidity. Frame Because theMona Lisa's poplarsupportexpands and contracts with changes in humidity, the picture has experienced some warping. In response to warping and swelling experienced during its storage during World War II, and to prepare the picture for an exhibit to honour the anniversary of Leonardo's 500th birthday, theMona Lisawas fitted in 1951 with a flexible oak frame with beechcrosspieces. This flexible frame, which is used in addition to the decorative frame, exerts pressure on the panel to keep it from warping further. In 1970, the beech crosspieces were switched to maple after it was found that thebeechwoodhad been infested with insects. In 2004–05, a conservation and study team replaced the maple crosspieces with sycamore ones, and an additional metal crosspiece was added for scientific measurement of the panel's warp. TheMona Lisahas had many different decorative frames in its history. In 1909, the art collectorComtesse de Béhaguegave the portrait its current frame,a Renaissance-era work consistent with the historical period of theMona Lisa. The edges of the painting have been trimmed at least once in its history to fit the picture into various frames, but no part of the original paint layer has been trimmed. Cleaning and touch-up The first and most extensive recorded cleaning, revarnishing, and touch-up of theMona Lisawas an 1809 wash and revarnishing undertaken by Jean-Marie Hooghstoel, who was responsible for the restoration of paintings for the galleries of theMusée Napoléon. The work involved cleaning with spirits, touch-ups of colour, and revarnishing the painting. In 1906, Louvre restorer Eugène Denizard performed watercolour retouches on areas of the paint layer disturbed by the crack in the panel. Denizard also retouched the edges of the picture with varnish to mask areas that had been covered initially by an older frame. In 1913, when the painting was recovered after its theft, Denizard was again called upon to work on theMona Lisa. Denizard was directed to clean the picture withoutsolventand to lightly touch up several scratches on the painting with watercolour. In 1952, the varnish layer over the background in the painting was evened out. After the second 1956 attack, restorer Jean-Gabriel Goulinat was directed to touch up the damage toMona Lisa's left elbow with watercolour. In 1977, a new insect infestation was discovered in the back of the panel as a result of crosspieces installed to keep the painting from warping. This was treated on the spot withcarbon tetrachloride, and later with anethylene oxidetreatment. In 1985, the spot was again treated with carbon tetrachloride as a preventive measure. Display On 6 April 2005—following a period of curatorial maintenance, recording, and analysis—the painting was moved to a new location within the museum's Salle des États. It is displayed in a purpose-built, climate-controlled enclosure behind bulletproof glass.Since 2005, the painting has been illuminated by anLED lamp, and a new 20-watt LED lamp that was specially designed for this painting was installed in 2013. The lamp has aColour Rendering Indexof up to 98 and minimizesinfraredandultravioletradiation, which could otherwise degrade the painting.The renovation of the gallery where the painting now resides was financed by the Japanese broadcasterNippon Television.As of 2019, about 10.2 million people view the painting at the Louvre each year. On the 500th anniversary of the master's death, the Louvre held the largest ever single exhibit of Leonardo's works from 24 October 2019 to 24 February 2020. TheMona Lisawas not included because it is in such great demand among visitors to the museum; the painting remained on display in its gallery. In 2024, it was decided to place the panel in a separate room. This change will require significant construction changes, including a new entrance to the Louvre and two rooms in the basement under the museum's square courtyard. Due to the renovation, visitors will be able to pass directly to the painting, which will reduce queues at theLouvre. Legacy TheMona Lisabegan influencing contemporaryFlorentine paintingeven before its completion.Raphael, who had been to Leonardo's workshop several times, promptly used elements of the portrait's composition and format in several of his works, such asYoung Woman with Unicorn(c.1506),andPortrait of Maddalena Doni(c.1506).Later paintings by Raphael, such asLa velata(1515–16) andPortrait of Baldassare Castiglione(c.1514–15), continued to borrow from Leonardo's painting. Zollner states that \"None of Leonardo's works would exert more influence upon the evolution of the genre than theMona Lisa. It became the definitive example of the Renaissance portrait and perhaps for this reason is seen not just as the likeness of a real person, but also as the embodiment of an ideal.\" Where earlier critics such asVasariin the 16th century andAndré Félibienin the 17th praised the picture for itsrealism, by the mid-19th century, writers began to regard theMona Lisaas imbued with a sense of mystery andromance. In 1859,Théophile Gautierwrote that theMona Lisawas a \"sphinx of beauty who smiles so mysteriously\" and that \"Beneath the form expressed one feels a thought that is vague, infinite, inexpressible. One is moved, troubled ... repressed desires, hopes that drive one to despair, stir painfully.\"Walter Pater's essay of 1869 described the sitter as \"older than the rocks among which she sits; like the vampire, she has been dead many times, and learned the secrets of the grave; and has been a diver in the deep seas, and keeps their fallen day about her.\" By the early 20th century, some critics started to feel the painting had become a repository for subjectiveexegesesand theories.Upon the painting's theft in 1911, Renaissance historianBernard Berensonadmitted that it had \"simply become an incubus, and was glad to be rid of her.\"Jean Metzinger'sLe goûter (Tea Time)was exhibited at the 1911Salon d'Automneand was sarcastically described as \"la Joconde à la cuiller\" (Mona Lisa with a spoon) by art criticLouis Vauxcelleson the front page ofGil Blas.André Salmonsubsequently described the painting as \"The Mona Lisa of Cubism\". Theavant-gardeart world has made note of theMona Lisa's undeniable popularity. Because of the painting's overwhelming stature,DadaistsandSurrealistsoften produce modifications andcaricatures. In 1883,Le rire,an image of aMona Lisasmoking a pipe, bySapeck(Eugène Bataille), was shown at the \"Incoherents\" show in Paris. In 1919,Marcel Duchamp, one of the most influential modern artists, createdL.H.O.O.Q., aMona Lisaparody made by adorning a cheap reproduction with a moustache and goatee. Duchamp added an inscription, which when read out loud in French sounds like \"Elle a chaud au cul\" meaning: \"she has a hot ass\", implying the woman in the painting is in a state of sexual excitement and intended as aFreudian joke.According toRhonda R. Shearer, the apparent reproduction is in fact a copy partly modelled on Duchamp's own face. Salvador Dalí, famous for his surrealist work, paintedSelf portrait as Mona Lisain 1954.Andy Warholcreatedserigraphprints of multipleMona Lisas, calledThirty Are Better than One, following the painting's visit to the United States in 1963.The French urban artist known pseudonymously asInvaderhas created versions of theMona Lisaon city walls in Paris and Tokyo using a mosaic style.A 2014New Yorkermagazine cartoon parodies the supposed enigma of theMona Lisasmile in an animation showing progressively more maniacal smiles. Fame Today, theMona Lisais considered the most famous painting in the world, adestination painting, but until the 20th century, it was one among many highly regarded artworks.Once part ofKing Francis I of France's collection, theMona Lisawas among the first artworks to be exhibited in the Louvre, which became a national museum after the French Revolution. Leonardo began to be revered as a genius, and the painting's popularity grew in the mid-19th century when French intelligentsia praised it as mysterious and a representation of thefemme fatale.TheBaedekerguide in 1878 called it \"the most celebrated work of Leonardo in the Louvre\",but the painting was known more by theintelligentsiathan the general public. The 1911 theft of theMona Lisaand its subsequent return was reported worldwide, leading to a massive increase in public recognition of the painting. During the 20th century, it was an object for mass reproduction, merchandising, lampooning, and speculation, and was claimed to have been reproduced in \"300 paintings and 2,000 advertisements\".TheMona Lisawas regarded as \"just another Leonardo until early last century, when the scandal of the painting's theft from the Louvre and subsequent return kept a spotlight on it over several years.\" From December 1962 to March 1963, the French government lent it to the United States to be displayed in New York City and Washington, D.C.It was shipped on the new ocean linerSSFrance.In New York, an estimated 1.7 million people queued \"in order to cast a glance at theMona Lisafor 20 seconds or so.\"While exhibited in theMetropolitan Museum of Art, the painting was nearly drenched in water because of a faulty sprinkler, but the painting's bullet-proof glass case protected it. In 1974, the painting was exhibited in Tokyo and Moscow. In 2014, 9.3 million people visited the Louvre.Former directorHenri Loyrettereckoned that \"80 percent of the people only want to see theMona Lisa.\" Financial worth Before the 1962–1963 tour, the painting was assessed for insurance at $100 million (equivalent to$770 millionin 2023), making it, in practice, themost highly-valued paintingin the world. The insurance was not purchased; instead, more was spent on security. In 2014, aFrance 24article suggested that the painting could be sold to help ease the national debt, although it was observed that theMona Lisaand other such art works were prohibited from being sold by French heritage law, which states that, \"Collections held in museums that belong to public bodies are considered public property and cannot be otherwise.\" Cultural depictions Cultural depictions of theMona Lisainclude: Early versions and copies Prado Museum La Gioconda A version ofMona Lisaknown asMujer de mano de Leonardo Abince(\"Woman by Leonardo da Vinci's hand\",Museo del Prado, Madrid) was for centuries considered to be a work by Leonardo. However, since its restoration in 2012, it is now thought to have been executed by one ofLeonardo's pupilsin his studio at the same time asMona Lisawas being painted.The Prado's conclusion that the painting is probably bySalaì(1480–1524) or byMelzi(1493–1572) has been called into question by others. The restored painting is from a slightly different perspective than the originalMona Lisa, leading to thespeculationthat it is part of the world's firststereoscopicpair.However, a more recent report has demonstrated that this stereoscopic pair in fact gives no reliable stereoscopic depth. Isleworth Mona Lisa A version of theMona Lisaknown as theIsleworth Mona Lisawas first bought by an English nobleman in 1778 and was rediscovered in 1913 byHugh Blaker, an art connoisseur. The painting was presented to the media in 2012 by the Mona Lisa Foundation.It is a painting of the same subject as Leonardo da Vinci'sMona Lisa. The current scholarly consensus on attribution is unclear.Some experts, includingFrank Zöllner,Martin Kemp, andLuke Sysondenied the attribution to Leonardo;professors such as Salvatore Lorusso, Andrea Natali,and John F Asmus supported it;others likeAlessandro VezzosiandCarlo Pedrettiwere uncertain. Hermitage Mona Lisa A version known as theHermitage Mona Lisais in theHermitage Museumand it was made by an unknown 16th-century artist. Mona Lisaillusion If a person being photographed looks into the camera lens, the image produced provides an illusion that viewers perceive as the subject looking at them, irrespective of the photograph's position. It is presumably for this reason that many people, while taking photographs, ask subjects to look at the camera rather than anywhere else. In psychology, this is known as the \"Mona Lisaillusion\", which was named after the famous painting that also presents the same illusion. See also Footnotes References Sources Further reading External links", "Serj Tankian Serj Tankian(/sɜːrdʒˈtɑːnkiən/TAHN-kee-ən,Western Armenian:Սերժ Թանգյանpronounced; born August 21, 1967) is an Armenian-American musician and activist. He is best known as the lead vocalist of thealternative metalbandSystem of a Down, which was formed in 1994. Tankian has released five albums with System of a Down (System of a Down,Toxicity,Steal This Album!,Mezmerize,Hypnotize) and five solo albums (Elect the Dead,Imperfect Harmonies,Harakiri,Orca, andElasticity), as well as collaborating with musicians such as rapperTech N9neand folk singerArto Tunçboyacıyan. He also releasedElect the Dead Symphony, a live orchestral version ofElect the Deadfeaturing theAuckland Philharmonia Orchestra. He is the founder of the record labelSerjical Strike Records, and is currently represented by Velvet Hammer Music and Management Group. Tankian is regarded as one of the best vocalists in heavy metal, with praise given to his unusual delivery and his widevocal range. In 2006, he was ranked No. 26 on theHit Paraderlist of \"Top 100 Heavy Metal Vocalists\".A study conducted by VVN Music found that Tankian possesses a high and diverse vocal range of 4.2octaves. In 2002, Tankian co-founded the non-profit political activism organizationAxis of Justice, alongside guitarist and fellow activistTom Morello. In 2011, he was awarded the Armenian Prime Minister's Medal for his contributions to the recognition of theArmenian genocideand the advancement of music. Early life Of Armenian parents (Khatchadour and Alice Tankian),Serj was born inBeirut,Lebanon, on August 21, 1967.He traces his ancestry to the cities ofDörtyol,Kayseri,Tokat, andUrfa, all of which are in modern-day Turkey.His four grandparents were survivors of theArmenian genocide.At age seven, he moved to the U.S. with his parents, and the family settled in Los Angeles.In his youth, he attended the bilingualRose and Alex Pilibos Armenian School,which was also attended by his future System of a Down bandmatesDaron MalakianandShavo Odadjian.Tankian was accepted intoCalifornia State University, Northridge, graduating with a marketing degree in 1989.During his sophomore year, he first began to play instruments, particularly the keyboard, and write songs. In an interview in 2021, Tankian stated; \"I was very lost. I was playing music at home, but I didn't have a band, I didn't have any connection, and my vision hadn't interpreted that this was my future yet. I was like, probably 22, 23 when I was really, when I discovered it... I was driving home, I had aJeep Wrangler, I remember it was raining, very dramatic, and I really, I always say I have to go to the far reaches of who I don't wanna be to admit to myself who I really am. And I was in my car, and I literally stopped, and I just go, \"I want to fuckin' do music. This is bullshit. I don't want to do all this shit.\" And that was the day that changed my life. From then on, anything I did was with the idea that I'm going on this path, and I gotta do whatever I gotta do to be on this path.\" During his college years, Tankian began participing in political activism, attempting to draw attention to the recognition of theArmenian genocideduring his time as president of the university's Armenian Students Association.He has said that his activism started with theArmenian Youth Federation(AYF) and the Shant Student Association of theArmenian Revolutionary Federation(ARF). Career System of a Down (1994–present) The beginnings of System of a Down lie in a band named Soil (not to be confused with the Chicago-based bandSOiL) with Tankian on vocals & keyboards, Malakian on vocals & lead guitar, Dave Hakopyan on bass, and Domingo Laranio on drums. The band initially hired Odadjian as their manager before he was to transition into their rhythm guitarist. Laranio and Hakopyan later left the band feeling that it was not going anywhere, leading to Soil splitting up. After the split, Tankian, Odadjian and Malakian formed System of a Down, named after a poem Malakian wrote calledVictims of a Down. The band recruited drummer Ontronik \"Andy\" Khachaturian, an old school friend of Malakian, and Odadjian who had played with Malakian in a band called Snowblind during their teens. In mid-1997, Khachaturian left the band because of a hand injury (he subsequently co-founded The Apex Theory, which included former Soil bassist Dave Hakopyan). Khachaturian was replaced byJohn Dolmayan. Dolmayan is also the drummer for the band Indicator and former drummer forScars on Broadway. The band began touring theSouthern Californiarock clubs, building a strong following. The band achieved commercial success with the release of five studio albums, three of which debuted at number one on theBillboard200. System of a Down has been nominated for fourGrammy Awards, and their song \"B.Y.O.B.\" won theBest Hard Rock Performanceof 2006. In May the same year, the band announced they were going on hiatus. On November 29, 2010, following several weeks of internet rumors, System of a Down officially announced that they would play shows in Europe during Festivals and in North America, mostly in the U.S.,embarking ona tourfor the following three years. The band was in limbo of not releasing any new tracks until November 2020, when they released \"Protect the Land\" and \"Genocidal Humanoidz\", which were songs that were made to help the cause of theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh War. The song's profits went to theArmenia Fund. In the following years, System of a Down increasingly limited their live appearances.On May 14, 2023, the band hosted their only live performance of the year as co-headliners of the Sick New World festival inLas Vegas.In 2024, the band performed two gigs, making headline appearances at Sick New World on April 27,and at a standalone concert (together withDeftones) at theGolden Gate ParkinSan Francisco, the first-ever ticketed live event to take place at the venue. Elect the Dead, side projects, and guest appearances (2007–2009) Tankian's breakthrough as a solo artist came with the release of his debut recordElect the Dead. The first singles fromElect the Deadare \"The Unthinking Majority\" and \"Empty Walls\". The music video \"Feed Us\" was released on the Swedishand UKMTV. A music video was directed and filmed for every song on the record, each by unique directors. Tankian explained, \"I asked each of the directors for their visual interpretation of my work. They were asked not to write treatments and that they could make whatever they liked. The results have been overwhelmingly amazing!\" Three different promo versions of the album have surfaced to the public. The instrumental promotional version, issued by Serjical Strike/Reprise Records and intended for the music and movie industry, contains instrumental versions of the twelve album tracks. Another promotional version, issued by Reprise Records and made only for individual reviewers, features the album in final master form. This promotional CD-R, which was labeled \"Smart Talk\" as a codename for \"Serj Tankian\" to prevent leaking by unauthorized persons, also indicates that the album was finalized prior to August 20, 2007(2007-08-20). The official tour forElect the Deadcommenced on October 12, 2007, with a show at Chicago'sVic Theatre. Roughly one thousand people attended the first concert. Although Tankian had stated he would not be performing any material by System of a Down, he performed \"Charades\" and \"Blue\", songs co-written by Daron Malakian, the guitarist of the band. \"Blue\" had previously appeared on their Fourth Demo Tape in 1998, and Charades was attempted during the 2005Mezmerize/Hypnotizesessions, but never released (although a short video clip of Tankian and Dolmayan playing the song in a recording studio was featured on \"the Making ofMezmerize/Hypnotize\"). Although it is originally a song restricted to piano and vocals,Tankian used his backing band, theFlying Cunts of Chaos(F.C.C.). Tankian is also politically involved. Together withTom Morello, he founded the organizationAxis of Justiceand often speaks publicly against violence and injustice in the world. Tankian released a new song \"Fears\" in November 2008 exclusively in support ofAmnesty International's Global Write-A-Thon. In 2009, Tankian collaborated with the bandViza(previously known as Visa) for their track \"Viktor\". Imperfect Harmonies(2010) Tankian's second solo album was originally due in 2009. It is said to be more of ajazzandorchestralbased sound. Tankian said of the second album: I'm structuring the next record kind of like a jazz orchestral. I've got a full orchestra interested, so I want this giant electric guitar in the air to be played by a full orchestra. I want the orchestra to be the electric guitar. I want to make an orchestra do what it's never done before, like aGG Allintype orchestra. Think of that. The album had the working titleMusic Without Borders, however, the final album title isImperfect Harmonies. On June 23, 2010, a promo single from his upcoming albumImperfect Harmonieswas released called \"Borders Are\". The first radio single fromImperfect Harmonies, \"Left of Center\", was released on July 13, 2010. A third single, \"Disowned Inc.\" was released on August 9, 2010.Imperfect Harmonieswas released on September 21, 2010. Preceding the album's release, two contests were announced (one consisting of brainteasers related to the album/song titles, the other an art contest) in which fans could win prizes such as Tankian's autograph and merchandise. On August 22, 2010, a music video for \"Left of Center\" was released on Tankian'sMySpaceaccount. The premiere date for Tankian and Sater'sPrometheus Boundat the American Repertory Theater was February 25, 2011. Tankian said that collaborating on the show has been a great learning experience for him. \"I've been using a lot of my archives, a lot of different types of music that I had already put together for underscoring and what not,\" he said. \"It's quite diverse, from noise to jazz to electronic stuff to hip-hop songs to rock songs to cool, piano dark underscores, and that's a whole different bag of tricks there because it's always evolving. Unlike a film score that's very linear and you get a scene to score for, this is something where you do another workshop and one song is gone, that underscore changes to 20 seconds and they need something else on the spot. Everything's always changing until the show comes, so it's quite interesting.\" In January 2011, Tankian released a music video for his song \"Reconstructive Demonstrations\" from his albumImperfect Harmonies. Tankian also announced on his Facebook page, during the video's release, that an EP titledImperfect Remixeswould be released sometime within 2011. On March 1, Tankian releasedImperfect Remixesand the music video for \"Goodbye\", a remix of \"Gate 21\" fromImperfect Harmonies. Tankian co-wrote a musical with the American playwrightSteven Sater. It is based on theAncient GreektragedyPrometheus Bound. It opened at theAmerican Repertory Theateron March 14, 2011. Harakiri(2012),Orca(2013), andJazz-iz-Christ(2013) In early July 2011, Tankian posted a video on YouTube showing two samples of new songs. During the video he said \"next year\". In multiple interviews he has stated that he has been working on a rock record that will be released in 2011, and some side projects including jazz, electronic, and symphonic records. It was later confirmed that his third album would be calledHarakiriand will be released on July 10, 2012. In 2012, he planned for this to be the first of four new albums.The first single fromHarakiri, \"Figure It Out\", was released on May 1.A music video for the song appeared on Tankian's official YouTube page. A second single from the album, \"Cornucopia\", was released on June 10. A third single, title track \"Harakiri\", was made available as a preorder bonus from Tankian's website on June 20. On August 12, 2011, Tankian traveled to Armenia, where he was received atGovernment Houseby then-Prime MinisterTigran Sargsyan, who awarded him with a Commemorative Medal (Armenian:ՀՀ Վարչապետի հուշամեդալ)for his \"contribution to therecognition of the Armenian Genocideand the advancement of music\".Tankian promised to return and put on a concert to commemorate the100th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide,which he did on April 24, 2015, playing for free for over two hours inYerevan'sRepublic Square. He released his fourth studio albumOrca Symphony No. 1on June 25, 2013. The album takes the form of a classical symphony.A professionally sampled studio version was released on November 30, 2012, while the live recorded version was released on June 25, 2013, throughSerjical Strike Records. His fifth studio albumJazz-Iz-Christwas released on July 23, 2013, by Serjical Strike Records.The release features Tankian's vocals on only four of the 15 tracks; all others are instrumental, except for \"End of Time\", which features a female vocalist. In 2014, he collaborated with Italian DJBenny Benassifor the single \"Shooting Helicopters\". On April 9, 2013, Tankian collaborated withDevice, a project led byDisturbedfrontmanDavid Draiman. He had a guest appearance on the song \"Out of Line\" onDevice's self-titled album. Tankian also appeared on theTech N9nealbumSomething Elsein 2013 on the song \"Straight Out the Gate\". Film and television scores (2017-2022) He was a surprise guest performer for theGame of Thrones Live Concert Experiencein Los Angeles on March 25, 2017, singing \"The Rains of Castamere\".His rendition of the song also made it onto the soundtrack for the eighth season ofGame of Thronesin 2019. In June and July 2017, he was a guest on multiple shows of theProphets of Rageduring System of a Down's European tour, singing \"Like a Stone\" in memory of his friend,Audioslave'sChris Cornell. In November 2017, Swedish independent label Woah Dad! acquired the albums that Tankian recorded forReprise Records. Tankian composed music forI Am Not Alone, a 2019 documentary film about the2018 Armenian revolution.He was also an executive producer of the film. Tankian composed the music for the second season of theNetflixseriesDown to Earth with Zac Efron. Fuktronic(2020) Fuktronic, an electronic music collaboration withMindless Self Indulgence'sJimmy Urinewas released in May 2020, after the duo released a sample onSoundCloud.Fuktronicis described as \"the team of Serj Tankian and Jimmy Urine from Mindless Self Indulgence, making a soundtrack for the ultimate British Gangster Film. It's an electronic album with 12 tracks (4 instrumental and 8 tracks that have original scripted dialogue that portrays the trials and tribulations of a fresh out of prison British gangster who hasn't learned his lesson).\" Elasticity(2021) Tankian released his first ever EP titledElasticityon March 19, 2021. He announced the release of his EP, and released the title track \"Elasticity\", along with a music video for it,on February 5, 2021. In his announcement, Tankian stated \"When I conceived possibly doing another record with the guys from System of a Down a few years back, I started working on a set of songs that I arranged in rock format for that purpose, As we weren't able to see eye to eye on the vision going forward with a SOAD album, I decided to release these songs under my moniker.\"The EP features songs like \"Electric Yerevan\", which is described as a \"rallying cry\" for Armenia, \"Rumi\", a poetic song about Tankian's son, and \"Your Mom\", which has been described as a \"political mash-up\". Perplex Cities(2022) Tankian released his second EP titledPerplex Citieson October 21, 2022. Down With The Systemand new solo projects (2023-) In October 2023, Tankian announced that he would release his firstmemoir,Down With the System, on May 14, 2024 viaHachette Books; the artist wrote onX, \"I had a blast working on this accidentally hatched philosophical memoir, as it's given me the unique opportunity to deep dive into my family history, my own motivations from a young age and lessons I didn't know I had learned\". In April 2024, during an interview withMetal Hammerin promotion ofDown With the System, Tankian announced that he would release a new solo EP, titledFoundations, in September of the same year; he also revealed that he had originally written one of the songs included in the project for System of a Down, while two other tracks had been recorded during the studio sessions for his 2007 solo albumElect the Dead.The first single from the EP, \"A.F. Day\", was released on May 17 of the same year. Influences Tankian grew up listening to traditionalArmenian musicin his exiled community in Lebanon and sang it with his father Khatchadour Tankian.He discovered pop music only once his family moved to Los Angeles in the 1970s via theBee Gees' soundtrack toSaturday Night Fever, that led him to delve into it. In his 20s, he bought every record bythe Beatles, whom he has called the most \"universal\" artists he is aware of.Tankian said that the first hard rock album that left an impact on him was 1992'sAngel DustbyFaith No More.When System of a Down toured with Faith No More singerMike Patton, who at the time fronted his other bandMr. Bungleon the 2000SnoCore Tour, Tankian said that both vocalists \"had some of the most interesting conversations\" of his life.Besides the experimental vocals of Patton, Tankian is greatly influenced byFrank Zappa, especially by his albumsSheik YerboutiandJoe's Garage. Tankian holds in high regard the soundtrack ofThe Good, the Bad and the UglybyEnnio Morricone, and the albumsDecoybyMiles Davisand…And Justice for AllbyMetallica. He also much admires the reinvention that the British bandRadioheadwent through in their 2000 recordKid A, saying that it serves as an example to other artists. Views and activism Tankian is passionate about human rights, recognition ofgenocides, and social justice. These traits have helped to shape his lyrical style. He has organized and participated in many protests, fromArmenian genocide recognitiontoAxis of Justice(AOJ) protests held by him and AOJ co-founderTom Morello.He also covers current issues in his music. In his music, issues like theWar on Terror,overpopulation,genocide,environmentalism, and theAmerican prison systemare addressed. He and his System of a Down bandmates were featured in the 2006 documentary filmScreamers, which covers the United States' position on genocide. In the film, Tankian interviews his grandfather, Stepan Haytayan, a survivor of theArmenian genocide, who recounts his experience of it. Views on religion Tankian said in an interview that he has \"the same religion as that tree over there\". He said, \"It's a mix ofNative American,Christian,Buddhist, andTranscendentalideas. I like to think of Earth as mother. I like to think of sky as grandfather. God has been used for ulterior motives\".In another interview, he said, \"I believe very firmly thatindigenouspopulations had a really good, intuitive understanding of why we're here. And we're trying to gain that same understanding through psychology and intellect in modern civilization\". Political views Following theSeptember 11 attacks, Tankian wrote an essay in which he stated, \"If we carry outbombings on Afghanistanor elsewhere to appease public demand, and very likely kill innocent civilians along the way, we'd be creating many more martyrs going to their deaths in retaliation against the retaliation. As shown from yesterday's events, you cannot stop a person who's ready to die\". In the2008 Democratic Party primaries, Tankian originally supportedDennis Kucinich, but subsequently stated thatBarack Obama\"presents the best possible scenario for a hopeful future, but I don't personally put my trust in any political office\".In the2016 Democratic Party primaries, he endorsedBernie Sandersand wrote onFacebook, \"When it comes to standing up to the oligarchs, leading the fight for civil rights, income-equality, and so much more, no other politician has been so consistent and incorruptible as Bernie Sanders\".He further praised Sanders, \"He's said what he's done and he'd done what he says in the Senate. All his contributions are from private individuals; everyone else's are from major donors and corporations. It does not take a genius to see who's working for whom here\". Concerning theSyrian Civil War, Tankian advocates negotiating withBashar al-Assad, letting Iran deal withIslamic State of Iraq and Syria(ISIS), whom he accused Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Turkey of supporting. Tankian has stated he supportedBernie Sanders's bid during the 2020 US Democratic Party primaries and that although it was \"frustrating\" for his brother-in-lawJohn Dolmayanto supportDonald Trump, he added that they are \"on the same page with Armenian issues\". Tankian is also friendly with current Armenian Prime MinisterNikol Pashinyan, who wrote a song called \"Hayastane\" (Հայաստանը, 'Armenia') which Tankian performed in April 2020.Tankian was also an executive producer and composer for the documentaryI am not alone, which chronicled the rise of Pashinyan. Tankian is a supporter of theBlack Lives Matterprotests, as he stated in his interview withh-pem. In 2020, Tankian condemned the actions ofAzerbaijanin theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh Warand expressed his support to Armenia and theRepublic of Artsakh.Since September 27, 2020, when the war broke, Tankian has been very active on social media, posting daily messages and has spoken to a number of media outlets about the issue, including Forbes. In May 2021, more than 600 musicians, including Tankian, added their signature to an open letter calling for aboycott of performances in IsraeluntilIsraelends itsoccupationof thePalestinian territories.In November 2023, Tankian signed an open letter calling for a ceasefire in the2023 Israel-Hamas war. Animal rights and environmental issues Tankian is an advocate of environmental and animal protection. He became avegetarian, claiming in an interview withPETAthat his change was due to \"touring and its variety of edible crap\", and he also felt it was \"instinctive somewhat\". Furthermore, he also feels the need for respect toward \"mother earth\".In July 2009, he signed a PETA petition against the slaughtering methods of chickens inKFCslaughterhouses. However, in 2024 Tankian stated in an interview on the popularYouTubechannelMythical Kitchenthat he had begun eating meat again the year prior. Personal life On June 9, 2012, Tankian married his long-time girlfriend Angela Madatyan, an Armenian woman fromVanadzor, in a private ceremony inSimi Valley, California.On October 24, 2014, he announced that they had a son. The family lives intermittently betweenWarkworth, New Zealandand Los Angeles as of 2015.Tankian is the brother-in-law of his System of a Down bandmateJohn Dolmayan, as their respective wives are sisters. In 2018, Tankian founded Kavat Coffee, a company that focuses onArmenian coffee. Discography Solo With System of a Down With Jazz-Iz-Christ Collaboration albums Video games Bibliography Filmography Awards and nominations System of a Down has been nominated for four Grammy Awards, of which they won one in 2006 for \"Best Hard Rock Performance\" for their song \"B.Y.O.B.\". Grammy Awards General References External links" ]
[ "Mona Lisa TheMona Lisa(/ˌmoʊnəˈliːsə/MOH-nəLEE-sə;Italian:GiocondaorMonna Lisa;French:Joconde) is a half-lengthportrait paintingby Italian artistLeonardo da Vinci. Considered an archetypalmasterpieceof theItalian Renaissance,it has been described as \"the best known, the most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, the most parodied work of art in the world.\"The painting's novel qualities include the subject's enigmatic expression,monumentality of the composition, the subtle modelling of forms, and the atmospheric illusionism. The painting has been traditionally considered to depict the Italian noblewomanLisa del Giocondo.It is painted in oil on awhite poplarpanel.Leonardo never gave the painting to the Giocondo family.It was believed to have been painted between 1503 and 1506; however, Leonardo may have continued working on it as late as 1517. KingFrancis I of Franceacquired theMona Lisaafter Leonardo's death in 1519, and it is now the property of the French Republic. It has normally been on", "normally been on display at theLouvrein Paris since 1797. The painting's global fame and popularity partly stem from its 1911 theft byVincenzo Peruggia, who attributed his actions to Italian patriotism—a belief it should belong to Italy. The theft and subsequent recovery in 1914 generated unprecedented publicity for anart theft, and led to the publication of many cultural depictions such as the 1915 operaMona Lisa, two early 1930s films (The Theft of the Mona LisaandArsène Lupin), and the song \"Mona Lisa\" recorded byNat King Cole—one of the most successful songs of the 1950s. TheMona Lisais one of the most valuable paintings in the world. It holds theGuinness World Recordfor the highest known painting insurance valuation in history at US$100 million in 1962,equivalent to $1 billion as of 2023. Title and subject Thetitle of the painting, which is known in English asMona Lisa, is based on the presumption that it depictsLisa del Giocondo, although her likeness is uncertain.Renaissanceart historianGiorgio", "historianGiorgio Vasariwrote that \"Leonardoundertook to paint, for Francesco del Giocondo, the portrait of Mona Lisa, his wife.\"Monnain Italian is a polite form of address originating asma donna—similar toMa'am,Madam, ormy ladyin English. This becamemadonna, and its contractionmonna. The title of the painting, though traditionally spelledMonain English, is spelled in Italian asMonna Lisa(monabeing a vulgarity in Italian), but this is rare in English. Lisa del Giocondo was a member of theGherardinifamily ofFlorenceandTuscany, and the wife of wealthy Florentine silk merchant Francesco del Giocondo.The painting is thought to have been commissioned for their new home, and to celebrate the birth of their second son, Andrea.The Italian name for the painting,La Gioconda, means 'jocund' ('happy' or 'jovial') or, literally, 'the jocund one', a pun on the feminine form of Lisa's married name, Giocondo.In French, the titleLa Jocondehas the same meaning. Vasari's account of theMona Lisacomes from his biography of", "his biography of Leonardo published in 1550, 31 years after the artist's death. It has long been the best-known source of information on theprovenanceof the work and identity of the sitter. Leonardo's assistantSalaì, at his death in 1524, owned a portrait which in his personal papers was namedla Gioconda, a painting bequeathed to him by Leonardo. That Leonardo painted such a work, and its date, were confirmed in 2005 when a scholar atHeidelberg Universitydiscovered a marginal note in a 1477 printing of a volume byancient RomanphilosopherCicero. Dated October 1503, the note was written by Leonardo's contemporaryAgostino Vespucci. This note likens Leonardo to renowned Greek painterApelles, who is mentioned in the text, and states that Leonardo was at that time working on a painting of Lisa del Giocondo.In response to the announcement of the discovery of this document, Vincent Delieuvin, theLouvrerepresentative, stated \"Leonardo da Vinci was painting, in 1503, the portrait of a Florentine lady by the name of", "lady by the name of Lisa del Giocondo. About this we are now certain. Unfortunately, we cannot be absolutely certain that this portrait of Lisa del Giocondo is the painting of the Louvre.\" Thecatalogue raisonnéLeonardo da Vinci(2019) confirms that the painting probably depicts Lisa del Giocondo, withIsabella d'Estebeing the only plausible alternative.Scholars have developed severalalternative views, arguing that Lisa del Giocondo was the subject of a different portrait, and identifying at least four other paintings referred to by Vasari as theMona Lisa.Several other people have been proposed as the subject of the painting,includingIsabella of Aragon,Cecilia Gallerani,Costanza d'Avalos, Duchess of Francavilla,Pacifica Brandano/Brandino, Isabella Gualanda,Caterina Sforza,Bianca Giovanna Sforza, Salaì, and even Leonardo himself.PsychoanalystSigmund Freudtheorized that Leonardo imparted an approving smile from his mother, Caterina, onto theMona Lisaand other works. Description TheMona Lisabears a strong", "Lisabears a strong resemblance to many Renaissance depictions of theVirgin Mary, who was at that time seen as an ideal for womanhood.The woman sits markedly upright in a \"pozzetto\" armchair with her arms folded, a sign of her reserved posture. Her gaze is fixed on the observer. The woman appears alive to an unusual extent, which Leonardo achieved by his method of not drawing outlines. The soft blending (sfumato) creates an ambiguous mood \"mainly in two features: the corners of the mouth, and the corners of the eyes\". The depiction of the sitter in three-quarter profile is similar to late 15th-century works byLorenzo di CrediandAgnolo di Domenico del Mazziere.Zöllnernotes that the sitter's general position can be traced back toFlemishmodels and that \"in particular the vertical slices of columns at both sides of the panel had precedents in Flemish portraiture.\"Woods-Marsden citesHans Memling'sportrait of Benedetto Portinari(1487) or Italian imitations such asSebastiano Mainardi's pendant portraitsfor the use", "the use of aloggia, which has the effect of mediating between the sitter and the distant landscape, a feature missing from Leonardo's earlier portrait ofGinevra de' Benci. The painting was one of the first Italian portraits to depict the sitter in front of an imaginary landscape,although some scholars favour a realistic description,and Leonardo was one of the first painters to useaerial perspective.The enigmatic woman is portrayed seated in what appears to be an open loggia with dark pillar bases on either side. Behind her, a vast landscape recedes to icy mountains,winding paths and a distant bridge, giving only the slightest indications of human presence. Leonardo has chosen to place the horizon line not at the neck, as he did withGinevra de' Benci, but on a level with the eyes, thus linking the figure with the landscape and emphasizing the mysterious nature of the painting.The bridge in the background was identified by Silvano Vincenti as the four-archedRomito di Laterina bridgefromEtruscan-Romantimes", "nearLaterina,Arezzoover theArno river.Other bridges with similar arches suggested as possible locations had more arches.Some observers find similarities with theAzzone Viscontibridge. Mona Lisahas no clearly visible eyebrows or eyelashes, although Vasari describes the eyebrows in detail.In 2007, French engineer Pascal Cotte announced that his ultra-high resolution scans of the painting provide evidence thatMona Lisawas originally painted with eyelashes and eyebrows, but that these had gradually disappeared over time, perhaps as a result of overcleaning.Cotte discovered that the painting had been reworked several times, with changes made to the size of the face and the direction of gaze. He also found that in one layer the subject was depicted wearing numerous hairpins and a headdress adorned with pearls which was later scrubbed out and overpainted. There has been much speculation regarding the painting's model and landscape. For example, Leonardo probably painted his model faithfully since her beauty is not", "her beauty is not seen as being among the best, \"even when measured by late quattrocento (15th century) or even twenty-first century standards.\"Some historians in Eastern art, such asYukio Yashiro, argue that the landscape in the background of the picture was influenced byChinese paintings,but this thesis has been contested for lack of clear evidence. Research in 2003 by ProfessorMargaret LivingstoneofHarvard Universitysaid that Mona Lisa's smile disappears when observed with direct vision, known asfoveal. Because of the way the human eye processes visual information, it is less suited to pick up shadows directly; however,peripheral visioncan pick up shadows well. Research in 2008 by a geomorphology professor atUrbino Universityand an artist-photographer revealed thatMona Lisa's landscape was similar to some views in theMontefeltroregion in the Italian provinces ofPesaro and Urbino, andRimini.Research in 2023/2024 by geologist and art historian Ann Pizzorusso suggests that the landscape contains \"several", "contains \"several recognisable features ofLecco, on the shores ofLake Comoin theLombardyregion of northernItaly.\" History Creation and date OfLeonardo da Vinci's works, theMona Lisais the only portrait whose authenticity has never been seriously questioned,and one of four works—the others beingSaint Jerome in the Wilderness,Adoration of the MagiandThe Last Supper—whose attribution has avoided controversy.He had begun working on a portrait ofLisa del Giocondo, the model of theMona Lisa, by October 1503.It is believed by some that theMona Lisawas begun in 1503 or 1504 in Florence.Although the Louvre states that it was \"doubtless painted between 1503 and 1506\",art historianMartin Kempsays that there are some difficulties in confirming the dates with certainty.Alessandro Vezzosibelieves that the painting is characteristic of Leonardo's style in the final years of his life, post-1513.Other academics argue that, given the historical documentation, Leonardo would have painted the work from 1513.According to Vasari,", "to Vasari, \"after he had lingered over it four years, left it unfinished\".In 1516, Leonardo was invited byKing Francis Ito work at theClos Lucénear theChâteau d'Amboise; it is believed that he took theMona Lisawith him and continued to work on it after he moved to France.Art historian Carmen C. Bambach has concluded that Leonardo probably continued refining the work until 1516 or 1517.Leonardo's right hand was paralyticc.1517,which may indicate why he left theMona Lisaunfinished. Circa1505,Raphaelexecuted a pen-and-ink sketch, in which the columns flanking the subject are more apparent. Experts universally agree that it is based on Leonardo's portrait.Other later copies of theMona Lisa, such as those in theNational Museum of Art, Architecture and DesignandThe Walters Art Museum, also display large flanking columns. As a result, it was thought that theMona Lisahad been trimmed.However, by 1993,Frank Zöllnerobserved that the painting surface had never been trimmed;this was confirmed through a series of tests", "a series of tests in 2004.In view of this,Vincent Delieuvin, curator of 16th-century Italian painting at the Louvre, states that the sketch and these other copies must have been inspired by another version,while Zöllner states that the sketch may be after another Leonardo portrait of the same subject. The record of an October 1517 visit byLouis d'Aragonstates that theMona Lisawas executed for the deceasedGiuliano de' Medici, Leonardo's steward atBelvedere, Vienna, between 1513 and 1516—but this was likely an error.According to Vasari, the painting was created for the model's husband, Francesco del Giocondo.A number of experts have argued that Leonardo made two versions (because of the uncertainty concerning its dating and commissioner, as well as its fate following Leonardo's death in 1519, and the difference of details in Raphael's sketch—which may be explained by the possibility that he made the sketch from memory).The hypothetical first portrait, displaying prominent columns, would have been commissioned", "been commissioned by Giocondoc.1503, and left unfinished in Leonardo's pupil and assistant Salaì's possession until his death in 1524. The second, commissioned by Giuliano de' Medicic.1513, would have been sold by Salaì to Francis I in 1518and is the one in the Louvre today.Others believe that there was only one trueMona Lisabut are divided as to the two aforementioned fates.At some point in the 16th century, avarnishwas applied to the painting.It was kept at thePalace of FontainebleauuntilLouis XIVmoved it to thePalace of Versailles, where it remained until theFrench Revolution.In 1797, it went on permanent display at the Louvre. Refuge, theft, and vandalism After the French Revolution, the painting was moved to the Louvre, but spent a brief period in the bedroom ofNapoleon(d. 1821) in theTuileries Palace.TheMona Lisawas not widely known outside the art world, but in the 1860s, a portion of the Frenchintelligentsiabegan to hail it as a masterwork of Renaissance painting.During theFranco-Prussian", "theFranco-Prussian War(1870–1871), the painting was moved from the Louvre to theBrest Arsenal. In 1911, the painting was still not popular among the lay-public.On 21 August 1911, the painting wasstolenfrom the Louvre.The painting was first reported missing the next day by painterLouis Béroud. After some confusion as to whether the painting was being photographed somewhere, the Louvre was closed for a week for investigation. French poetGuillaume Apollinairecame under suspicion and was arrested and imprisoned. Apollinaire implicated his friendPablo Picasso, who was brought in for questioning. Both were later exonerated.The real culprit was Louvre employeeVincenzo Peruggia, who had helped construct the painting's glass case.He carried out the theft by entering the building during regular hours, hiding in a broom closet, and walking out with the painting hidden under his coat after the museum had closed. Peruggia was an Italian patriot who believed that Leonardo's painting should have been returned to an Italian", "to an Italian museum.Peruggia may have been motivated by an associate whose copies of the original would significantly rise in value after the painting's theft.After having kept theMona Lisain his apartment for two years, Peruggia grew impatient and was caught when he attempted to sell it toGiovanni Poggi, director of theUffizi GalleryinFlorence. It was exhibited in the Uffizi Gallery for over two weeks and returned to the Louvre on 4 January 1914.Peruggia served six months in prison for the crime and was hailed for his patriotism in Italy.A year after the theft,Saturday Evening PostjournalistKarl Deckerwrote that he met an alleged accomplice namedEduardo de Valfierno, who claimed to have masterminded the theft. ForgerYves Chaudronwas to have created six copies of the painting to sell in the US while concealing the location of the original.Decker published this account of the theft in 1932. DuringWorld War II, it was again removed from the Louvre and taken first to the Château d'Amboise, then to theLoc-Dieu", "then to theLoc-Dieu AbbeyandChâteau de Chambord, then finally to theMusée IngresinMontauban. In recent decades, the painting has been temporarily moved to accommodate renovations to the Louvre on three occasions: between 1992 and 1995, from 2001 to 2005, and again in 2019.A new queuing system introduced in 2019 reduces the amount of time museum visitors have to wait in line to see the painting. After going through the queue, a group has about 30 seconds to see the painting. On 30 December 1956, Bolivian Ugo Ungaza Villegas threw a rock at theMona Lisawhile it was on display at the Louvre. He did so with such force that it shattered the glass case and dislodged a speck of pigment near the left elbow.The painting was protected by glass because a few years earlier a man who claimed to be in love with the painting had cut it with a razor blade and tried to steal it.Since then,bulletproof glasshas been used to shield the painting from any further attacks. Subsequently, on 21 April 1974, while the painting was on", "the painting was on display at theTokyo National Museum, a woman sprayed it with red paint as a protest against that museum's failure to provide access for disabled people.On 2 August 2009, a Russian woman, distraught over being denied French citizenship, threw a ceramic teacup purchased at the Louvre; the vessel shattered against the glass enclosure.In both cases, the painting was undamaged. On 29 May 2022, a male activist, disguised as a woman in a wheelchair, threwcakeat the protective glass covering the painting in an apparent attempt to raise awareness forclimate change.The painting was not damaged.The man was arrested and placed in psychiatric care in the police headquarters.An investigation was opened after the Louvre filed a complaint.On 28 January 2024, two attackers from the environmentalist group Riposte Alimentaire (Food Retaliation) threw soup at the painting's protective glass, demanding the right to \"healthy and sustainable food\" and criticizing the contemporary state of agriculture. Modern", "agriculture. Modern analysis In the early 21st century, French scientist Pascal Cotte hypothesized a hidden portrait underneath the surface of the painting. He analysed the painting in the Louvre with reflective light technology beginning in 2004, and producedcircumstantial evidencefor his theory.Cotte admits that his investigation was carried out only in support of his hypotheses and should not be considered as definitive proof.The underlying portrait appears to be of a model looking to the side, and lacks flanking columns,but does not fit with historical descriptions of the painting. Both Vasari andGian Paolo Lomazzodescribe the subject as smiling,unlike the subject in Cotte's supposed portrait.In 2020, Cotte published a study alleging that the painting has anunderdrawing, transferred from a preparatory drawing via thespolverotechnique. Conservation TheMona Lisahas survived for more than 500 years, and an international commission convened in 1952 noted that \"the picture is in a remarkable state of", "remarkable state of preservation.\"It has never been fully restored,so the current condition is partly due to a variety of conservation treatments the painting has undergone. A detailed analysis in 1933 by Madame de Gironde revealed that earlier restorers had \"acted with a great deal of restraint.\"Nevertheless, applications ofvarnishmade to the painting had darkened even by the end of the 16th century, and an aggressive 1809 cleaning and revarnishing removed some of the uppermost portion of the paint layer, resulting in a washed-out appearance to the face of the figure. Despite the treatments, theMona Lisahas been well cared for throughout its history, and although the panel's warping caused the curators \"some worry\",the 2004–05 conservation team was optimistic about the future of the work. Poplar panel At some point, theMona Lisawas removed from its original frame. The unconstrained poplar panel warped freely with changes in humidity, and as a result, a crack developed near the top of the panel, extending", "panel, extending down to the hairline of the figure. In the mid-18th century to early 19th century, twobutterfly-shapedwalnut braces were inserted into the back of the panel to a depth of about one third the thickness of the panel. This intervention was skilfully executed, and successfully stabilized the crack. Sometime between 1888 and 1905, or perhaps during the picture's theft, the upper brace fell out. A later restorer glued and lined the resulting socket and crack with cloth. The picture is kept under strict, climate-controlled conditions in its bulletproof glass case. The humidity is maintained at 50% ±10%, and the temperature is maintained between 18 °C (64 °F) and 21 °C (70 °F). To compensate for fluctuations in relative humidity, the case is supplemented with a bed ofsilica geltreated to provide 55% relative humidity. Frame Because theMona Lisa's poplarsupportexpands and contracts with changes in humidity, the picture has experienced some warping. In response to warping and swelling experienced", "experienced during its storage during World War II, and to prepare the picture for an exhibit to honour the anniversary of Leonardo's 500th birthday, theMona Lisawas fitted in 1951 with a flexible oak frame with beechcrosspieces. This flexible frame, which is used in addition to the decorative frame, exerts pressure on the panel to keep it from warping further. In 1970, the beech crosspieces were switched to maple after it was found that thebeechwoodhad been infested with insects. In 2004–05, a conservation and study team replaced the maple crosspieces with sycamore ones, and an additional metal crosspiece was added for scientific measurement of the panel's warp. TheMona Lisahas had many different decorative frames in its history. In 1909, the art collectorComtesse de Béhaguegave the portrait its current frame,a Renaissance-era work consistent with the historical period of theMona Lisa. The edges of the painting have been trimmed at least once in its history to fit the picture into various frames, but no", "frames, but no part of the original paint layer has been trimmed. Cleaning and touch-up The first and most extensive recorded cleaning, revarnishing, and touch-up of theMona Lisawas an 1809 wash and revarnishing undertaken by Jean-Marie Hooghstoel, who was responsible for the restoration of paintings for the galleries of theMusée Napoléon. The work involved cleaning with spirits, touch-ups of colour, and revarnishing the painting. In 1906, Louvre restorer Eugène Denizard performed watercolour retouches on areas of the paint layer disturbed by the crack in the panel. Denizard also retouched the edges of the picture with varnish to mask areas that had been covered initially by an older frame. In 1913, when the painting was recovered after its theft, Denizard was again called upon to work on theMona Lisa. Denizard was directed to clean the picture withoutsolventand to lightly touch up several scratches on the painting with watercolour. In 1952, the varnish layer over the background in the painting was evened", "painting was evened out. After the second 1956 attack, restorer Jean-Gabriel Goulinat was directed to touch up the damage toMona Lisa's left elbow with watercolour. In 1977, a new insect infestation was discovered in the back of the panel as a result of crosspieces installed to keep the painting from warping. This was treated on the spot withcarbon tetrachloride, and later with anethylene oxidetreatment. In 1985, the spot was again treated with carbon tetrachloride as a preventive measure. Display On 6 April 2005—following a period of curatorial maintenance, recording, and analysis—the painting was moved to a new location within the museum's Salle des États. It is displayed in a purpose-built, climate-controlled enclosure behind bulletproof glass.Since 2005, the painting has been illuminated by anLED lamp, and a new 20-watt LED lamp that was specially designed for this painting was installed in 2013. The lamp has aColour Rendering Indexof up to 98 and minimizesinfraredandultravioletradiation, which could", "which could otherwise degrade the painting.The renovation of the gallery where the painting now resides was financed by the Japanese broadcasterNippon Television.As of 2019, about 10.2 million people view the painting at the Louvre each year. On the 500th anniversary of the master's death, the Louvre held the largest ever single exhibit of Leonardo's works from 24 October 2019 to 24 February 2020. TheMona Lisawas not included because it is in such great demand among visitors to the museum; the painting remained on display in its gallery. In 2024, it was decided to place the panel in a separate room. This change will require significant construction changes, including a new entrance to the Louvre and two rooms in the basement under the museum's square courtyard. Due to the renovation, visitors will be able to pass directly to the painting, which will reduce queues at theLouvre. Legacy TheMona Lisabegan influencing contemporaryFlorentine paintingeven before its completion.Raphael, who had been to Leonardo's", "been to Leonardo's workshop several times, promptly used elements of the portrait's composition and format in several of his works, such asYoung Woman with Unicorn(c.1506),andPortrait of Maddalena Doni(c.1506).Later paintings by Raphael, such asLa velata(1515–16) andPortrait of Baldassare Castiglione(c.1514–15), continued to borrow from Leonardo's painting. Zollner states that \"None of Leonardo's works would exert more influence upon the evolution of the genre than theMona Lisa. It became the definitive example of the Renaissance portrait and perhaps for this reason is seen not just as the likeness of a real person, but also as the embodiment of an ideal.\" Where earlier critics such asVasariin the 16th century andAndré Félibienin the 17th praised the picture for itsrealism, by the mid-19th century, writers began to regard theMona Lisaas imbued with a sense of mystery andromance. In 1859,Théophile Gautierwrote that theMona Lisawas a \"sphinx of beauty who smiles so mysteriously\" and that \"Beneath the form", "\"Beneath the form expressed one feels a thought that is vague, infinite, inexpressible. One is moved, troubled ... repressed desires, hopes that drive one to despair, stir painfully.\"Walter Pater's essay of 1869 described the sitter as \"older than the rocks among which she sits; like the vampire, she has been dead many times, and learned the secrets of the grave; and has been a diver in the deep seas, and keeps their fallen day about her.\" By the early 20th century, some critics started to feel the painting had become a repository for subjectiveexegesesand theories.Upon the painting's theft in 1911, Renaissance historianBernard Berensonadmitted that it had \"simply become an incubus, and was glad to be rid of her.\"Jean Metzinger'sLe goûter (Tea Time)was exhibited at the 1911Salon d'Automneand was sarcastically described as \"la Joconde à la cuiller\" (Mona Lisa with a spoon) by art criticLouis Vauxcelleson the front page ofGil Blas.André Salmonsubsequently described the painting as \"The Mona Lisa of Cubism\".", "Lisa of Cubism\". Theavant-gardeart world has made note of theMona Lisa's undeniable popularity. Because of the painting's overwhelming stature,DadaistsandSurrealistsoften produce modifications andcaricatures. In 1883,Le rire,an image of aMona Lisasmoking a pipe, bySapeck(Eugène Bataille), was shown at the \"Incoherents\" show in Paris. In 1919,Marcel Duchamp, one of the most influential modern artists, createdL.H.O.O.Q., aMona Lisaparody made by adorning a cheap reproduction with a moustache and goatee. Duchamp added an inscription, which when read out loud in French sounds like \"Elle a chaud au cul\" meaning: \"she has a hot ass\", implying the woman in the painting is in a state of sexual excitement and intended as aFreudian joke.According toRhonda R. Shearer, the apparent reproduction is in fact a copy partly modelled on Duchamp's own face. Salvador Dalí, famous for his surrealist work, paintedSelf portrait as Mona Lisain 1954.Andy Warholcreatedserigraphprints of multipleMona Lisas, calledThirty Are Better", "Are Better than One, following the painting's visit to the United States in 1963.The French urban artist known pseudonymously asInvaderhas created versions of theMona Lisaon city walls in Paris and Tokyo using a mosaic style.A 2014New Yorkermagazine cartoon parodies the supposed enigma of theMona Lisasmile in an animation showing progressively more maniacal smiles. Fame Today, theMona Lisais considered the most famous painting in the world, adestination painting, but until the 20th century, it was one among many highly regarded artworks.Once part ofKing Francis I of France's collection, theMona Lisawas among the first artworks to be exhibited in the Louvre, which became a national museum after the French Revolution. Leonardo began to be revered as a genius, and the painting's popularity grew in the mid-19th century when French intelligentsia praised it as mysterious and a representation of thefemme fatale.TheBaedekerguide in 1878 called it \"the most celebrated work of Leonardo in the Louvre\",but the painting", "the painting was known more by theintelligentsiathan the general public. The 1911 theft of theMona Lisaand its subsequent return was reported worldwide, leading to a massive increase in public recognition of the painting. During the 20th century, it was an object for mass reproduction, merchandising, lampooning, and speculation, and was claimed to have been reproduced in \"300 paintings and 2,000 advertisements\".TheMona Lisawas regarded as \"just another Leonardo until early last century, when the scandal of the painting's theft from the Louvre and subsequent return kept a spotlight on it over several years.\" From December 1962 to March 1963, the French government lent it to the United States to be displayed in New York City and Washington, D.C.It was shipped on the new ocean linerSSFrance.In New York, an estimated 1.7 million people queued \"in order to cast a glance at theMona Lisafor 20 seconds or so.\"While exhibited in theMetropolitan Museum of Art, the painting was nearly drenched in water because of a", "water because of a faulty sprinkler, but the painting's bullet-proof glass case protected it. In 1974, the painting was exhibited in Tokyo and Moscow. In 2014, 9.3 million people visited the Louvre.Former directorHenri Loyrettereckoned that \"80 percent of the people only want to see theMona Lisa.\" Financial worth Before the 1962–1963 tour, the painting was assessed for insurance at $100 million (equivalent to$770 millionin 2023), making it, in practice, themost highly-valued paintingin the world. The insurance was not purchased; instead, more was spent on security. In 2014, aFrance 24article suggested that the painting could be sold to help ease the national debt, although it was observed that theMona Lisaand other such art works were prohibited from being sold by French heritage law, which states that, \"Collections held in museums that belong to public bodies are considered public property and cannot be otherwise.\" Cultural depictions Cultural depictions of theMona Lisainclude: Early versions and copies", "versions and copies Prado Museum La Gioconda A version ofMona Lisaknown asMujer de mano de Leonardo Abince(\"Woman by Leonardo da Vinci's hand\",Museo del Prado, Madrid) was for centuries considered to be a work by Leonardo. However, since its restoration in 2012, it is now thought to have been executed by one ofLeonardo's pupilsin his studio at the same time asMona Lisawas being painted.The Prado's conclusion that the painting is probably bySalaì(1480–1524) or byMelzi(1493–1572) has been called into question by others. The restored painting is from a slightly different perspective than the originalMona Lisa, leading to thespeculationthat it is part of the world's firststereoscopicpair.However, a more recent report has demonstrated that this stereoscopic pair in fact gives no reliable stereoscopic depth. Isleworth Mona Lisa A version of theMona Lisaknown as theIsleworth Mona Lisawas first bought by an English nobleman in 1778 and was rediscovered in 1913 byHugh Blaker, an art connoisseur. The painting was", "The painting was presented to the media in 2012 by the Mona Lisa Foundation.It is a painting of the same subject as Leonardo da Vinci'sMona Lisa. The current scholarly consensus on attribution is unclear.Some experts, includingFrank Zöllner,Martin Kemp, andLuke Sysondenied the attribution to Leonardo;professors such as Salvatore Lorusso, Andrea Natali,and John F Asmus supported it;others likeAlessandro VezzosiandCarlo Pedrettiwere uncertain. Hermitage Mona Lisa A version known as theHermitage Mona Lisais in theHermitage Museumand it was made by an unknown 16th-century artist. Mona Lisaillusion If a person being photographed looks into the camera lens, the image produced provides an illusion that viewers perceive as the subject looking at them, irrespective of the photograph's position. It is presumably for this reason that many people, while taking photographs, ask subjects to look at the camera rather than anywhere else. In psychology, this is known as the \"Mona Lisaillusion\", which was named after the", "was named after the famous painting that also presents the same illusion. See also Footnotes References Sources Further reading External links", "Serj Tankian Serj Tankian(/sɜːrdʒˈtɑːnkiən/TAHN-kee-ən,Western Armenian:Սերժ Թանգյանpronounced; born August 21, 1967) is an Armenian-American musician and activist. He is best known as the lead vocalist of thealternative metalbandSystem of a Down, which was formed in 1994. Tankian has released five albums with System of a Down (System of a Down,Toxicity,Steal This Album!,Mezmerize,Hypnotize) and five solo albums (Elect the Dead,Imperfect Harmonies,Harakiri,Orca, andElasticity), as well as collaborating with musicians such as rapperTech N9neand folk singerArto Tunçboyacıyan. He also releasedElect the Dead Symphony, a live orchestral version ofElect the Deadfeaturing theAuckland Philharmonia Orchestra. He is the founder of the record labelSerjical Strike Records, and is currently represented by Velvet Hammer Music and Management Group. Tankian is regarded as one of the best vocalists in heavy metal, with praise given to his unusual delivery and his widevocal range. In 2006, he was ranked No. 26 on theHit", "No. 26 on theHit Paraderlist of \"Top 100 Heavy Metal Vocalists\".A study conducted by VVN Music found that Tankian possesses a high and diverse vocal range of 4.2octaves. In 2002, Tankian co-founded the non-profit political activism organizationAxis of Justice, alongside guitarist and fellow activistTom Morello. In 2011, he was awarded the Armenian Prime Minister's Medal for his contributions to the recognition of theArmenian genocideand the advancement of music. Early life Of Armenian parents (Khatchadour and Alice Tankian),Serj was born inBeirut,Lebanon, on August 21, 1967.He traces his ancestry to the cities ofDörtyol,Kayseri,Tokat, andUrfa, all of which are in modern-day Turkey.His four grandparents were survivors of theArmenian genocide.At age seven, he moved to the U.S. with his parents, and the family settled in Los Angeles.In his youth, he attended the bilingualRose and Alex Pilibos Armenian School,which was also attended by his future System of a Down bandmatesDaron MalakianandShavo Odadjian.Tankian", "Odadjian.Tankian was accepted intoCalifornia State University, Northridge, graduating with a marketing degree in 1989.During his sophomore year, he first began to play instruments, particularly the keyboard, and write songs. In an interview in 2021, Tankian stated; \"I was very lost. I was playing music at home, but I didn't have a band, I didn't have any connection, and my vision hadn't interpreted that this was my future yet. I was like, probably 22, 23 when I was really, when I discovered it... I was driving home, I had aJeep Wrangler, I remember it was raining, very dramatic, and I really, I always say I have to go to the far reaches of who I don't wanna be to admit to myself who I really am. And I was in my car, and I literally stopped, and I just go, \"I want to fuckin' do music. This is bullshit. I don't want to do all this shit.\" And that was the day that changed my life. From then on, anything I did was with the idea that I'm going on this path, and I gotta do whatever I gotta do to be on this path.\"", "be on this path.\" During his college years, Tankian began participing in political activism, attempting to draw attention to the recognition of theArmenian genocideduring his time as president of the university's Armenian Students Association.He has said that his activism started with theArmenian Youth Federation(AYF) and the Shant Student Association of theArmenian Revolutionary Federation(ARF). Career System of a Down (1994–present) The beginnings of System of a Down lie in a band named Soil (not to be confused with the Chicago-based bandSOiL) with Tankian on vocals & keyboards, Malakian on vocals & lead guitar, Dave Hakopyan on bass, and Domingo Laranio on drums. The band initially hired Odadjian as their manager before he was to transition into their rhythm guitarist. Laranio and Hakopyan later left the band feeling that it was not going anywhere, leading to Soil splitting up. After the split, Tankian, Odadjian and Malakian formed System of a Down, named after a poem Malakian wrote calledVictims of a", "calledVictims of a Down. The band recruited drummer Ontronik \"Andy\" Khachaturian, an old school friend of Malakian, and Odadjian who had played with Malakian in a band called Snowblind during their teens. In mid-1997, Khachaturian left the band because of a hand injury (he subsequently co-founded The Apex Theory, which included former Soil bassist Dave Hakopyan). Khachaturian was replaced byJohn Dolmayan. Dolmayan is also the drummer for the band Indicator and former drummer forScars on Broadway. The band began touring theSouthern Californiarock clubs, building a strong following. The band achieved commercial success with the release of five studio albums, three of which debuted at number one on theBillboard200. System of a Down has been nominated for fourGrammy Awards, and their song \"B.Y.O.B.\" won theBest Hard Rock Performanceof 2006. In May the same year, the band announced they were going on hiatus. On November 29, 2010, following several weeks of internet rumors, System of a Down officially announced", "announced that they would play shows in Europe during Festivals and in North America, mostly in the U.S.,embarking ona tourfor the following three years. The band was in limbo of not releasing any new tracks until November 2020, when they released \"Protect the Land\" and \"Genocidal Humanoidz\", which were songs that were made to help the cause of theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh War. The song's profits went to theArmenia Fund. In the following years, System of a Down increasingly limited their live appearances.On May 14, 2023, the band hosted their only live performance of the year as co-headliners of the Sick New World festival inLas Vegas.In 2024, the band performed two gigs, making headline appearances at Sick New World on April 27,and at a standalone concert (together withDeftones) at theGolden Gate ParkinSan Francisco, the first-ever ticketed live event to take place at the venue. Elect the Dead, side projects, and guest appearances (2007–2009) Tankian's breakthrough as a solo artist came with the release of", "with the release of his debut recordElect the Dead. The first singles fromElect the Deadare \"The Unthinking Majority\" and \"Empty Walls\". The music video \"Feed Us\" was released on the Swedishand UKMTV. A music video was directed and filmed for every song on the record, each by unique directors. Tankian explained, \"I asked each of the directors for their visual interpretation of my work. They were asked not to write treatments and that they could make whatever they liked. The results have been overwhelmingly amazing!\" Three different promo versions of the album have surfaced to the public. The instrumental promotional version, issued by Serjical Strike/Reprise Records and intended for the music and movie industry, contains instrumental versions of the twelve album tracks. Another promotional version, issued by Reprise Records and made only for individual reviewers, features the album in final master form. This promotional CD-R, which was labeled \"Smart Talk\" as a codename for \"Serj Tankian\" to prevent leaking", "to prevent leaking by unauthorized persons, also indicates that the album was finalized prior to August 20, 2007(2007-08-20). The official tour forElect the Deadcommenced on October 12, 2007, with a show at Chicago'sVic Theatre. Roughly one thousand people attended the first concert. Although Tankian had stated he would not be performing any material by System of a Down, he performed \"Charades\" and \"Blue\", songs co-written by Daron Malakian, the guitarist of the band. \"Blue\" had previously appeared on their Fourth Demo Tape in 1998, and Charades was attempted during the 2005Mezmerize/Hypnotizesessions, but never released (although a short video clip of Tankian and Dolmayan playing the song in a recording studio was featured on \"the Making ofMezmerize/Hypnotize\"). Although it is originally a song restricted to piano and vocals,Tankian used his backing band, theFlying Cunts of Chaos(F.C.C.). Tankian is also politically involved. Together withTom Morello, he founded the organizationAxis of Justiceand often", "of Justiceand often speaks publicly against violence and injustice in the world. Tankian released a new song \"Fears\" in November 2008 exclusively in support ofAmnesty International's Global Write-A-Thon. In 2009, Tankian collaborated with the bandViza(previously known as Visa) for their track \"Viktor\". Imperfect Harmonies(2010) Tankian's second solo album was originally due in 2009. It is said to be more of ajazzandorchestralbased sound. Tankian said of the second album: I'm structuring the next record kind of like a jazz orchestral. I've got a full orchestra interested, so I want this giant electric guitar in the air to be played by a full orchestra. I want the orchestra to be the electric guitar. I want to make an orchestra do what it's never done before, like aGG Allintype orchestra. Think of that. The album had the working titleMusic Without Borders, however, the final album title isImperfect Harmonies. On June 23, 2010, a promo single from his upcoming albumImperfect Harmonieswas released called", "released called \"Borders Are\". The first radio single fromImperfect Harmonies, \"Left of Center\", was released on July 13, 2010. A third single, \"Disowned Inc.\" was released on August 9, 2010.Imperfect Harmonieswas released on September 21, 2010. Preceding the album's release, two contests were announced (one consisting of brainteasers related to the album/song titles, the other an art contest) in which fans could win prizes such as Tankian's autograph and merchandise. On August 22, 2010, a music video for \"Left of Center\" was released on Tankian'sMySpaceaccount. The premiere date for Tankian and Sater'sPrometheus Boundat the American Repertory Theater was February 25, 2011. Tankian said that collaborating on the show has been a great learning experience for him. \"I've been using a lot of my archives, a lot of different types of music that I had already put together for underscoring and what not,\" he said. \"It's quite diverse, from noise to jazz to electronic stuff to hip-hop songs to rock songs to cool,", "rock songs to cool, piano dark underscores, and that's a whole different bag of tricks there because it's always evolving. Unlike a film score that's very linear and you get a scene to score for, this is something where you do another workshop and one song is gone, that underscore changes to 20 seconds and they need something else on the spot. Everything's always changing until the show comes, so it's quite interesting.\" In January 2011, Tankian released a music video for his song \"Reconstructive Demonstrations\" from his albumImperfect Harmonies. Tankian also announced on his Facebook page, during the video's release, that an EP titledImperfect Remixeswould be released sometime within 2011. On March 1, Tankian releasedImperfect Remixesand the music video for \"Goodbye\", a remix of \"Gate 21\" fromImperfect Harmonies. Tankian co-wrote a musical with the American playwrightSteven Sater. It is based on theAncient GreektragedyPrometheus Bound. It opened at theAmerican Repertory Theateron March 14, 2011.", "March 14, 2011. Harakiri(2012),Orca(2013), andJazz-iz-Christ(2013) In early July 2011, Tankian posted a video on YouTube showing two samples of new songs. During the video he said \"next year\". In multiple interviews he has stated that he has been working on a rock record that will be released in 2011, and some side projects including jazz, electronic, and symphonic records. It was later confirmed that his third album would be calledHarakiriand will be released on July 10, 2012. In 2012, he planned for this to be the first of four new albums.The first single fromHarakiri, \"Figure It Out\", was released on May 1.A music video for the song appeared on Tankian's official YouTube page. A second single from the album, \"Cornucopia\", was released on June 10. A third single, title track \"Harakiri\", was made available as a preorder bonus from Tankian's website on June 20. On August 12, 2011, Tankian traveled to Armenia, where he was received atGovernment Houseby then-Prime MinisterTigran Sargsyan, who awarded him with", "awarded him with a Commemorative Medal (Armenian:ՀՀ Վարչապետի հուշամեդալ)for his \"contribution to therecognition of the Armenian Genocideand the advancement of music\".Tankian promised to return and put on a concert to commemorate the100th anniversary of the Armenian Genocide,which he did on April 24, 2015, playing for free for over two hours inYerevan'sRepublic Square. He released his fourth studio albumOrca Symphony No. 1on June 25, 2013. The album takes the form of a classical symphony.A professionally sampled studio version was released on November 30, 2012, while the live recorded version was released on June 25, 2013, throughSerjical Strike Records. His fifth studio albumJazz-Iz-Christwas released on July 23, 2013, by Serjical Strike Records.The release features Tankian's vocals on only four of the 15 tracks; all others are instrumental, except for \"End of Time\", which features a female vocalist. In 2014, he collaborated with Italian DJBenny Benassifor the single \"Shooting Helicopters\". On April 9,", "On April 9, 2013, Tankian collaborated withDevice, a project led byDisturbedfrontmanDavid Draiman. He had a guest appearance on the song \"Out of Line\" onDevice's self-titled album. Tankian also appeared on theTech N9nealbumSomething Elsein 2013 on the song \"Straight Out the Gate\". Film and television scores (2017-2022) He was a surprise guest performer for theGame of Thrones Live Concert Experiencein Los Angeles on March 25, 2017, singing \"The Rains of Castamere\".His rendition of the song also made it onto the soundtrack for the eighth season ofGame of Thronesin 2019. In June and July 2017, he was a guest on multiple shows of theProphets of Rageduring System of a Down's European tour, singing \"Like a Stone\" in memory of his friend,Audioslave'sChris Cornell. In November 2017, Swedish independent label Woah Dad! acquired the albums that Tankian recorded forReprise Records. Tankian composed music forI Am Not Alone, a 2019 documentary film about the2018 Armenian revolution.He was also an executive producer of", "producer of the film. Tankian composed the music for the second season of theNetflixseriesDown to Earth with Zac Efron. Fuktronic(2020) Fuktronic, an electronic music collaboration withMindless Self Indulgence'sJimmy Urinewas released in May 2020, after the duo released a sample onSoundCloud.Fuktronicis described as \"the team of Serj Tankian and Jimmy Urine from Mindless Self Indulgence, making a soundtrack for the ultimate British Gangster Film. It's an electronic album with 12 tracks (4 instrumental and 8 tracks that have original scripted dialogue that portrays the trials and tribulations of a fresh out of prison British gangster who hasn't learned his lesson).\" Elasticity(2021) Tankian released his first ever EP titledElasticityon March 19, 2021. He announced the release of his EP, and released the title track \"Elasticity\", along with a music video for it,on February 5, 2021. In his announcement, Tankian stated \"When I conceived possibly doing another record with the guys from System of a Down a few", "of a Down a few years back, I started working on a set of songs that I arranged in rock format for that purpose, As we weren't able to see eye to eye on the vision going forward with a SOAD album, I decided to release these songs under my moniker.\"The EP features songs like \"Electric Yerevan\", which is described as a \"rallying cry\" for Armenia, \"Rumi\", a poetic song about Tankian's son, and \"Your Mom\", which has been described as a \"political mash-up\". Perplex Cities(2022) Tankian released his second EP titledPerplex Citieson October 21, 2022. Down With The Systemand new solo projects (2023-) In October 2023, Tankian announced that he would release his firstmemoir,Down With the System, on May 14, 2024 viaHachette Books; the artist wrote onX, \"I had a blast working on this accidentally hatched philosophical memoir, as it's given me the unique opportunity to deep dive into my family history, my own motivations from a young age and lessons I didn't know I had learned\". In April 2024, during an interview", "during an interview withMetal Hammerin promotion ofDown With the System, Tankian announced that he would release a new solo EP, titledFoundations, in September of the same year; he also revealed that he had originally written one of the songs included in the project for System of a Down, while two other tracks had been recorded during the studio sessions for his 2007 solo albumElect the Dead.The first single from the EP, \"A.F. Day\", was released on May 17 of the same year. Influences Tankian grew up listening to traditionalArmenian musicin his exiled community in Lebanon and sang it with his father Khatchadour Tankian.He discovered pop music only once his family moved to Los Angeles in the 1970s via theBee Gees' soundtrack toSaturday Night Fever, that led him to delve into it. In his 20s, he bought every record bythe Beatles, whom he has called the most \"universal\" artists he is aware of.Tankian said that the first hard rock album that left an impact on him was 1992'sAngel DustbyFaith No More.When System of", "More.When System of a Down toured with Faith No More singerMike Patton, who at the time fronted his other bandMr. Bungleon the 2000SnoCore Tour, Tankian said that both vocalists \"had some of the most interesting conversations\" of his life.Besides the experimental vocals of Patton, Tankian is greatly influenced byFrank Zappa, especially by his albumsSheik YerboutiandJoe's Garage. Tankian holds in high regard the soundtrack ofThe Good, the Bad and the UglybyEnnio Morricone, and the albumsDecoybyMiles Davisand…And Justice for AllbyMetallica. He also much admires the reinvention that the British bandRadioheadwent through in their 2000 recordKid A, saying that it serves as an example to other artists. Views and activism Tankian is passionate about human rights, recognition ofgenocides, and social justice. These traits have helped to shape his lyrical style. He has organized and participated in many protests, fromArmenian genocide recognitiontoAxis of Justice(AOJ) protests held by him and AOJ co-founderTom", "AOJ co-founderTom Morello.He also covers current issues in his music. In his music, issues like theWar on Terror,overpopulation,genocide,environmentalism, and theAmerican prison systemare addressed. He and his System of a Down bandmates were featured in the 2006 documentary filmScreamers, which covers the United States' position on genocide. In the film, Tankian interviews his grandfather, Stepan Haytayan, a survivor of theArmenian genocide, who recounts his experience of it. Views on religion Tankian said in an interview that he has \"the same religion as that tree over there\". He said, \"It's a mix ofNative American,Christian,Buddhist, andTranscendentalideas. I like to think of Earth as mother. I like to think of sky as grandfather. God has been used for ulterior motives\".In another interview, he said, \"I believe very firmly thatindigenouspopulations had a really good, intuitive understanding of why we're here. And we're trying to gain that same understanding through psychology and intellect in modern", "intellect in modern civilization\". Political views Following theSeptember 11 attacks, Tankian wrote an essay in which he stated, \"If we carry outbombings on Afghanistanor elsewhere to appease public demand, and very likely kill innocent civilians along the way, we'd be creating many more martyrs going to their deaths in retaliation against the retaliation. As shown from yesterday's events, you cannot stop a person who's ready to die\". In the2008 Democratic Party primaries, Tankian originally supportedDennis Kucinich, but subsequently stated thatBarack Obama\"presents the best possible scenario for a hopeful future, but I don't personally put my trust in any political office\".In the2016 Democratic Party primaries, he endorsedBernie Sandersand wrote onFacebook, \"When it comes to standing up to the oligarchs, leading the fight for civil rights, income-equality, and so much more, no other politician has been so consistent and incorruptible as Bernie Sanders\".He further praised Sanders, \"He's said what he's done", "said what he's done and he'd done what he says in the Senate. All his contributions are from private individuals; everyone else's are from major donors and corporations. It does not take a genius to see who's working for whom here\". Concerning theSyrian Civil War, Tankian advocates negotiating withBashar al-Assad, letting Iran deal withIslamic State of Iraq and Syria(ISIS), whom he accused Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Turkey of supporting. Tankian has stated he supportedBernie Sanders's bid during the 2020 US Democratic Party primaries and that although it was \"frustrating\" for his brother-in-lawJohn Dolmayanto supportDonald Trump, he added that they are \"on the same page with Armenian issues\". Tankian is also friendly with current Armenian Prime MinisterNikol Pashinyan, who wrote a song called \"Hayastane\" (Հայաստանը, 'Armenia') which Tankian performed in April 2020.Tankian was also an executive producer and composer for the documentaryI am not alone, which chronicled the rise of Pashinyan. Tankian is a", "Tankian is a supporter of theBlack Lives Matterprotests, as he stated in his interview withh-pem. In 2020, Tankian condemned the actions ofAzerbaijanin theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh Warand expressed his support to Armenia and theRepublic of Artsakh.Since September 27, 2020, when the war broke, Tankian has been very active on social media, posting daily messages and has spoken to a number of media outlets about the issue, including Forbes. In May 2021, more than 600 musicians, including Tankian, added their signature to an open letter calling for aboycott of performances in IsraeluntilIsraelends itsoccupationof thePalestinian territories.In November 2023, Tankian signed an open letter calling for a ceasefire in the2023 Israel-Hamas war. Animal rights and environmental issues Tankian is an advocate of environmental and animal protection. He became avegetarian, claiming in an interview withPETAthat his change was due to \"touring and its variety of edible crap\", and he also felt it was \"instinctive somewhat\".", "somewhat\". Furthermore, he also feels the need for respect toward \"mother earth\".In July 2009, he signed a PETA petition against the slaughtering methods of chickens inKFCslaughterhouses. However, in 2024 Tankian stated in an interview on the popularYouTubechannelMythical Kitchenthat he had begun eating meat again the year prior. Personal life On June 9, 2012, Tankian married his long-time girlfriend Angela Madatyan, an Armenian woman fromVanadzor, in a private ceremony inSimi Valley, California.On October 24, 2014, he announced that they had a son. The family lives intermittently betweenWarkworth, New Zealandand Los Angeles as of 2015.Tankian is the brother-in-law of his System of a Down bandmateJohn Dolmayan, as their respective wives are sisters. In 2018, Tankian founded Kavat Coffee, a company that focuses onArmenian coffee. Discography Solo With System of a Down With Jazz-Iz-Christ Collaboration albums Video games Bibliography Filmography Awards and nominations System of a Down has been nominated for", "been nominated for four Grammy Awards, of which they won one in 2006 for \"Best Hard Rock Performance\" for their song \"B.Y.O.B.\". Grammy Awards General References External links" ]
What was the age difference between Mike Tyson and Tyson Fury on the respective days on which they lost their first ever fights? Represent the figure in years only.
12 years.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Fury
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tyson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tyson_vs._Buster_Douglas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Fury_vs_Oleksandr_Usyk
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Numerical reasoning | Post processing
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Fury', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tyson', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tyson_vs._Buster_Douglas', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Fury_vs_Oleksandr_Usyk']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Fury", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tyson", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Tyson_vs._Buster_Douglas", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Fury_vs_Oleksandr_Usyk" ]
[ "Tyson Fury Tyson Luke Fury(born 12 August 1988)is a Britishprofessional boxer. He has held multiple world championships in theheavyweightdivision, includingunifiedtitles from 2015 to 2016, theRingmagazine title twice between 2015 and 2022, and theWorld Boxing Council(WBC) title from 2020 to 2024. He also held theInternational Boxing Organization(IBO) title during his first reign as champion. As anamateur, he won a bronze medal at the2006 World Junior Championships; gold at the2007 EU Junior Championships; silver at the 2007 European Junior Championships; and won theABAsuper-heavyweighttitle in 2008. At regional level, he has held multiple heavyweight championships, including theBritishtitle twice between 2011 and 2015; theEuropeantitle from 2014 to 2015; and theCommonwealthtitle from 2011 to 2012. In 2015, hisvictorious fightagainstWladimir Klitschkowas namedUpset of the Yearand earned himFighter of the Year byThe Ring. In 2018, hisdrawn fightagainstDeontay Wilderwas namedRound of the Yearand earned himComeback of the YearbyThe Ring. In 2020, with hisdefeat of Deontay Wilder, Fury became the third heavyweight, afterFloyd PattersonandMuhammad Ali, to holdThe Ringmagazine title twice, and was widely considered by media outlets to be thelinealheavyweight champion.In 2021, histrilogy fightagainst Wilder was namedFight of the YearbyThe Ring. Early life Tyson Luke Furywas born in theWythenshawearea ofManchesteron 12 August 1988, the son ofIrish Travellerparents Amber andJohn Fury.He was born three monthsprematureand weighed just 1 pound (450 g).His father named him afterMike Tyson, who was the reigningundisputedheavyweightworld champion,and later explained, \"The doctors told me there was not much chance of him living. I had lost two daughters in the same way who had been born prematurely.\" He decided on the name \"Tyson\" as Fury was \"a fighter\" and survived the premature birth. Fury grew up inStyal, Cheshire, and later often mentioned his love for both Styal and his birthplace of Manchester.His paternal grandfather was fromTuam, which is also the birthplace of his father.The Furys are of Irish origin, deriving their present surname from Ó Fiodhabhra.His maternal grandmother is fromCounty Tipperaryand his mother was born inBelfast.Despite strongly identifying with his Irish heritage,Fury has had problems in gaining dual citizenship because his father's birth in County Galway was not recorded civilly in the 1960s, as Irish Travellers at the time only recorded births through baptism with the church rather than officially with the state.After defeatingWladimir Klitschko, Fury would quip that \"becoming the heavyweight champion of the world is not as hard a fight as proving Irishness\". Fury left school when he was 11, and joined his father and three brotherstarmacking roads. His mother Amber had 14 pregnancies but only four of the children survived. A daughter, Ramona, was born in December 1997 but died within days. This experience has stayed with Fury, who was nine years old at the time. Fury began boxing at the age of 10.His father, John, trained him until 2011, when he was jailed for gouging out the eye of another Traveller due to a long-standing feud.Fury's uncle Hughie Fury trained him until he died in 2014, after which Fury's other uncle Peter Fury (trainer of sonHughie Fury) trained him in preparation for his fight against Klitschko. The Fury family has a long history in boxing.Fury's father competed in the 1980s as \"Gypsy\" John Fury,initially as abare-knuckleand unlicensed boxer, and then as a professional boxer.John had a professional record of 8–4–1, with one of his losses being to future WBO heavyweight world championHenry Akinwande.Tyson's half-brotherTommymade his professional debut on 22 December 2018 under the tutelage of two-weight world championRicky Hatton.Fury is also a cousin of several professional boxers, including heavyweightsHughie FuryandNathan Gorman,former WBOmiddleweightworld championAndy Leeandlight heavyweightcontenderHosea Burton.Fury's distant relatives include the bare-knuckle boxers Uriah Burton andBartley Gorman, both considered \"King of the Gypsies\",hence Fury's own nickname of \"Gypsy King\".He has also styled himself as \"The Furious One\"and \"2 Fast\" Fury. Amateur career As an amateur, Fury represented both England and Ireland. Fury represented Ireland three times at international level. He was based out of the Holy Family Boxing Club inBelfast, Northern Ireland, and later switched to the Smithboro Club inCounty Monaghan, Ireland.In a double international match against an experiencedPolishteam in 2007, the Irish team lost 12–6 overall; Fury, however, was victorious in both his fights inRzeszówandBiałystok.In another Irish match against the US, Fury won his bout by knockout.He won bronze at theAIBA Youth World Boxing Championshipsin 2006. In England, while representing Jimmy Egan's Boxing Academy in Wythenshawe, Manchester, he participated in thesenior national championshipsin 2006 but was beaten byDavid Price22–8.In May 2007, he won the EU Junior Championship, defeating Istvan Bernath in the final.In July 2007 he won silver at the European Junior Championship, losing toMaxim Babaninin the final. As a junior, Fury was ranked number three in the world behind the Russians Maxim Babanin and Andrey Volkov, but did not get the chance to represent Great Britain at the2008 Olympicsbecause each country is restricted to one boxer per weight division and David Price was selected. Price came up through the amateur Olympic programme. Fury also unsuccessfully tried to qualify for Ireland.Speaking in 2011, Fury said \"I should have gone to the Olympic games in 2008 and won a gold medal for Ireland, but I was denied the chance to go and do it\"He was also forced to withdraw from theIrish national championshipsafter officials from the Holy Trinity Boxing Club in West Belfast, the club of the then Irish amateur heavyweight champion, submitted a protest regarding his eligibility as he was not born in Ireland. Fury won theABAsuper-heavyweighttitle in 2008 by defeating Damien Campbell 19:1.He turned professional later that year.Feeling disillusioned with amateur boxing, he decided not to wait for the 2012 Olympics.He finished with an amateur record of 31–4 (26 KOs). Professional career Early career Fury made his professional debut at the age of 20 on 6 December 2008 in Nottingham, on the undercard ofCarl Froch vs. Jean Pascalagainst Hungarian fighter Bela Gyongyosi (3–9–2), who Fury defeated via TKO in the first round with a combination to head and body.He then had six more fights in the space of seven months, defeatingMarcel Zeller(21–3), Daniil Peretyatko (15–20),Lee Swaby(23–22–2), Matthew Ellis (20–6–1),Scott Belshaw(10–1) and Aleksandrs Selezens (3–6) all via knockout within 4 rounds. On 11 September 2009, Fury foughtJohn McDermott(25–5, 16 KOs) for the English heavyweight title, and won via apoints decision.Fury came in as a 1–6 favourite but produced a poor display, and the 98–92 decision by the referee Terry O'Connor was criticised as a \"travesty\".The decision led the British Boxing Board of Control to mandate three judges for all English titles, and the board ordered a rematch. Fury scored two more victories against Tomas Mrazek (4–22–5) and Hans-Joerg Blasko (9–3) before facing McDermott in a rematch on 25 June 2010. Fury settled the controversy of the first fight, as he knocked down McDermott three times, first in the 8th round then twice in the 9th round to win by TKO. Fury won the English heavyweight title for a second time in the process.Another three wins followed: points decisions over American fighters Rich Power (12–0) and Zack Page (21–32–2) in two 8-round matches, and a knockout of the BrazilianMarcelo Luiz Nascimento(13–0) in the 5th round. British and Commonwealth champion Fury vs. Chisora On 23 July 2011, Fury faced undefeated heavyweightDerek Chisorafor the British and Commonwealth heavyweight titles at Wembley Arena in London. Although Chisora was aged 27 and Fury 22 years old, both men went into the fight with a record of 14–0. Despite Fury's superior size and reach, Chisora was the favourite. After 12 hard-fought rounds Fury won via unanimous decision 117–112, 117–112, and 118–111, with the fight shown live on free-to-airChannel 5.PromoterMick Hennessysaid the fight peaked at around 3 million viewers. On 17 September 2011, Fury fought 32-year-old fringe contender Nicolai Firtha (20–8–1, 8 KOs) in a non-title bout at theKing's Hall, Belfast. Firtha took the fight on two weeks' notice. The opening two rounds were dominated by Fury. In round 3, Firtha landed a big punch which looked to trouble Fury. Fury regained control of the fight by the next round and forced the referee to stop the fight at 2 minutes, 19 seconds on round 5. Fury admitted he got caught flush, \"He caught me with a good punch and I had to come back from it.\"The fight averaged 1.03 million viewers on Channel 5. Fury returned to the ring on 12 November at theEvent CityinTrafford Park, Manchesterto defend his Commonwealth heavyweight title against undefeated Canadian heavyweight championNeven Pajkic(16–0, 5 KOs). Fury had an early scare after being knocked down in round 2 following a big right hand. Although Pajkic hobbled Fury again at the outset of round 3, Fury came back to knock down Pajkic twice during that round. The referee stopped the fight after the last knockdown, causing Pajkic to protest, who declared himself ready to fight on. Many at ringside thought the stoppage premature.The fight averaged 1.72 million viewers on Channel 5. Fury vacated his British and Commonwealth belts in order to pursue a future world title match. He said to the media of his decision to vacate the belts, \"I vacated the British and Commonwealth titles, which some people say are more prestigious than the Irish title, but not to me. I vacated those belts for an Irish title shot because it meant more to me. All my people are from Ireland. I was born in Manchester but I am Irish.\"On 14 April 2012, Fury travelled to Belfast to fight at the Odyssey Arena for the vacant Irish heavyweight title. His opponent was veteranMartin Rogan(14–2, 7 KOs). Rogan had not fought in 18 months and had not beaten an opponent with a winning record since 2009. At245+3⁄4pounds (111.5 kg), Fury was fighting at the lightest weight of his professional career to date. Fury put Rogan on the canvas with a left hook in the third round. Rogan went down again in round 5 from a body shot. Rogan made it to his feet, but the bout was stopped at the request of his corner.The fight averaged 1.33 million viewers on Channel 5. On 7 July, Fury fought for the vacantWBOInter-Continental heavyweight title against American boxerVinny Maddalone(35–7, 26 KOs) at the Hand Arena inClevedon, Somerset. Fury weighed 245.5 pounds (111.4 kg), marginally lighter than the Rogan fight. Maddalone entered with a record of 4–3 in his previous seven bouts. Fury improved his record to 19–0 with 14 stoppage wins, with a fifth-round technical knockout over Maddalone. Fury controlled the fight from the onset and stunned Maddalone with a combination in the opening round. Fury continued to land heavy punches and opened a cut under his opponent's left eye in the fourth. In round 5, with Maddalone taking punches, the referee stepped in and called an end to the bout with blood streaming out of the cut under the veteran's left eye. It was the fifth knockout loss of Maddalone's professional career. In the post-fight interviews, Fury said, \"I knew it was a matter of time. I actually called the referee over, he was taking some big shots. I'm still undefeated. I would like to say I'm ready for anyone in the world. Klitschkos, bring them on. Americans, bring them on. Bring onTomasz Adamek. He's too small for me and I see an early win for me.\" PromoterMick Hennessyalso stated a world title fight was \"two or three fights away\", targeting Adamek next.The fight averaged 1.05 million viewers on Channel 5. Rise up the ranks Fury vs. Johnson On 12 November 2012, it was announced that Fury would fight American world title contenderKevin Johnson(28–3–1, 13 KOs) in aWBCtitle eliminator at theOdyssey Arenain Belfast on 1 December. Fury said, \"Johnson is just the kind of opponent that I want at this stage of my career. We needed a world class fighter and we have got one.\"Fury won via unanimous decision over Johnson. After 12 rounds, the judges scored it 119–110, 119–108, and 119–108 in favour of Fury. Many media outlets including the BBC and ESPN dubbed the fight as a poor showing. Fury claimed he would score a good win, just as rivalDavid Pricedid when he stoppedMatt Skeltona night earlier, but instead eased to a decision victory. Fury, with the win, was in line to challenge for the WBC title, held at the time byVitali Klitschko.The fight averaged 1.37 million viewers on Channel 5. Fury vs. Cunningham On 20 February 2013, it was reported that Fury would fight highly ranked American former cruiserweight world championSteve Cunningham(25–5, 12 KOs) in his United States debut atMadison Square Garden Theateron 20 April. The bout was an IBF title eliminator to determine the number 2 world ranking, with the winner then needing to fight unbeaten Bulgarian heavyweightKubrat Pulevfor the mandatory position for a shot at the long reigning world championWladimir Klitschko. Cunningham came into the fight on the rebound from a controversial split decision loss toTomasz Adamek.At the weigh in, Cunningham was 44 pounds (20 kg) lighter, at 210 pounds (95 kg) to Fury's 254 pounds (115 kg). Fury fought wildly in the first two rounds of the bout, and was floored heavily by Cunningham in the 2nd round. Cunningham continued to land heavy punches on Fury for the next few rounds, until being worn down by Fury's size advantage and power punches. By round seven, Fury had fully rebounded and handed Cunningham the first knockout defeat of his career with a cuffing right hand against the rope. Earlier, in round five, Fury was docked a point following a headbutt. At the time of the stoppage, Fury was behind on two judges' scorecards 57–55, while the other judge had it 56–56 (even).A week after the fight, Cunningham spoke to ATG Radio, claiming that Fury used an illegal manoeuvre to knock him out, \"He held me with his forearm. He pushed me in the corner twice – which is illegal – and then he pushed me with his forearm, cocked my head to the left and threw a right hook.\"The fight card aired on NBC in the late afternoon and averaged 1.2 million viewers, peaking at 1.7 million.In the UK, the fight aired on Channel 5 and averaged 1.54 million viewers.The win over Cunningham gave Fury a world ranking of 7 according toBoxRec, a number 2 ranking according to theIBF, 6th with theWBC, and 5th with theWBO. Fury was due to fightDavid Haye(26–2, 24 KOs) on 28 September 2013, in a fight which would have seen Fury fight on a pay-per-view platform for the first time.However, Haye pulled out of the fight on 21 September, after sustaining a cut, which required six stitches, above the eye during training.The fight was originally postponed to 8 February 2014. Haye pulled out of the fight a second time on 17 November, stating that he had a career-threatening shoulder injury which required surgery, and hinted at his retirement.Fury believed that Haye was making excuses because he did not want the fight, saying \"I'm absolutely furious but in all honesty this is exactly what I expected. Everyone knows I was very suspicious when he pulled out the first time and this confirms to me that he's always been afraid of me and never wanted this fight.\" Aside from training camp expenses, Haye also cost Fury his positions in the world rankings including an IBF final eliminator bout which would have made him mandatory for a shot at the world title. Fury vs. Abell On 24 January 2014, it was announced that Fury would fight at the Copper Box Arena against Argentine veteranGonzalo Omar Basile(61–8, 27 KOs) on 15 February.On 5 February, Basile pulled out of the fight due to a lung infection. He was replaced by American journeymanJoey Abell(29–7, 28 KOs).Fury won the fight via 4th-round TKO, which set up a rematch with Chisora in the summer. Ring rust showed in the opening two rounds with Abell connecting with left hands, which had Fury against the ropes. But Fury managed to compose himself and get behind the jab. In the third round, Fury floored Abell with a right hand. Abell beat the count but was floored again, this time being saved by the bell. Two more knockdowns followed in round 4 ending the fight.After the fight, Fury took to the microphone, \"Tyson too fast Fury, that's the name, fighting's the game and these are bums compared to me. I wantWladimir Klitschko, he's avoiding me, let's get it on Wlad.\" European champion Fury vs. Chisora II Fury was due to fight rival and heavyweight contenderDerek Chisorafor the second time on 26 July 2014, for the European and once again the British heavyweight title.On 21 July, Chisora was forced to pull out after sustaining a fractured hand in training. RussianAlexander Ustinovwas lined up as Chisora's replacement in the bout scheduled to take place at theManchester Arena,Fury pulled out of the fight after his uncle and former trainer Hughie Fury was taken seriously ill.However, Fury and Chisora rescheduled the rematch for 29 November 2014 atExCeL London. The bout was also a WBO title eliminator and shown live onBoxNation.Fury was victorious again after dominating the fight up until Chisora's corner pulled him out at the end of the 10th round. Fury also used a southpaw stance for the majority of the fight, despite the traditional right-handed orthodox stance being his preference. Fury used his jab to trouble Chisora and stayed on the outside with his longer reach to dominate the fight. Chisora failed to land any telling punches, and due to Fury's awkward fighting style, ended up hitting him below the belt. Chisora was warned by referee Marcus McDonnell in the first round. After the fight, Fury said, \"Wladimir Klitschko, I'm coming for you, baby. I'm coming. No retreat, no surrender.\" PromoterMick Hennessysaid Fury would likely fight once more before challenging for the world title. Fury vs. Hammer On 26 December 2014, Sky Sports News announced that Fury would fight once more before challenging Klitschko for his world titles. His opponent wasChristian Hammer(17–3, 10 KOs) and the fight took place on 28 February 2015 at theO2 Arenain London. Fury said he went for an opponent that would give him a challenge rather than an \"easier\" opponent, before challenging Klitschko.Fury went on to win the fight when it came to a halt in the 8th round viacorner stoppage. Fury dominated the fight from the opening bell and dropped Hammer in round 5 with a short right hook. After the fight, Fury called out Wladimir Klitschko again, stating he was ready for his world title shot. Unified heavyweight world champion Fury vs. Klitschko In July 2015, it was confirmed that Fury would fightWladimir Klitschkoin a world heavyweight title showdown, for theWBA (Super),IBF,WBO,IBO,LinealandThe Ringheavyweighttitles. Initially scheduled for 24 October 2015, the fight was postponed to 28 November 2015 after Klitschko sustained a calf injury. For this match, Fury trained with the highest ranked heavyweight kickboxers inGLORY,Rico VerhoevenandBenjamin Adegbuyi. The fight took place atEsprit ArenainDüsseldorf, Germany. On fight night, there was controversy with the gloves, then a complaint about the ring canvas. Klitschko reportedly had his hands wrapped without the presence of a Fury representative, so had to do them again. Fury won after 12 rounds by a unanimous decision. The judges scored the fight 115–112, 115–112, and 116–111.Klitschko and Fury showed little offence during the 12 rounds, but Fury was more active and did enough each round to take the decision. Klitschko landed 52 of 231 punches thrown (23%) and Fury landed 86 of 371 thrown (23%). In the post-fight interview, an emotional Fury said, \"This is a dream come true. We worked so hard for this. I've done it. It's hard to come to foreign countries and get decisions. It just means so much to me to come here and get the decision.\" He then took the microphone and thanked Klitschko, \"I'd like to say to Wladimir, you're a great champion. And thanks very much for having me. It was all fun and games during the buildup.\" Klitschko failed to throw his well-known right hand, mostly due to Fury's constant movement and mocking. He said, \"Tyson was the faster and better man tonight. I felt quite comfortable in the first six rounds, but I was astonished that Tyson was so fast in the second half as well. I couldn't throw my right hand because the advantage was the longer distance he had.\" Klitschko had a rematch clause in place. On 8 December 2015, the IBF stripped Fury of its title, as the contract for the fight against Klitschko included a rematch clause, precluding Fury from facing the IBF's mandatory challengerVyacheslav Glazkov. Fury had held the IBF belt for only 10 days. Relinquishing world titles Following months of negotiation, the rematch with Klitschko was announced on 8 April 2016, this time with the fight scheduled to take place in Fury's hometown ofManchesterat theManchester Arenaon 9 July 2016. Despite agreeing terms for the rematch, Fury said he had \"no motivation\" and had gained an extreme amount of weight after the first fight, as he weighed over 24stone(330 lb or 150 kg) by April 2016.On 24 June 2016, it was announced that this fight would be postponed to a later date due to Fury sustaining a sprained ankle in training.On the same day, Fury and his cousin,Hughie Fury, were charged byUK Anti-Doping\"with presence of a prohibited substance\", namelynandrolone, from a sample taken 16 months previously in February 2015. Tyson and Hughie said that they \"strenuously deny\" the charge.On 23 September, Fury again postponed the fight after being declared \"medically unfit\".ESPN reported that Fury had failed a drug test forcocainea day before the second postponement. Fury cited problems withdepressionafter the positive test for cocaine. Fury's mental health deteriorated after winning the world titles. On 4 October 2016, in an interview withRolling Stone, Fury said \"I'm going through a lot of personal demons, trying to shake them off, this has got nothing to do with my fighting – what I'm going through right now is my personal life. I've not been in a gym for months. I've been going through depression. I just don't want to live anymore, if you know what I'm saying. I've had total enough of it. Never mind cocaine. I just didn't care. I don't want to live anymore. So cocaine is a little minor thing compared to not wanting to live anymore. I am seeing help, but they can't do nothing for me. What I've got is incurable. I don't want to live. All the money in the world, fame and glory, means nothing if you're not happy. I'm seeing psychiatrists. They say I've got a version ofbipolar. I'm a manic depressive. I don't even want to wake up. I hope I die every day. And that's a bad thing to say when I've got three children and a lovely wife isn't it? But I don't want to live anymore. And if I could take me own life – and I wasn't a Christian – I'd take it in a second. I just hope someone kills me before I kill me self. I'll have to spend eternity in hell. I've been out drinking, Monday to Friday to Sunday, and taking cocaine. I can't deal with it and the only thing that helps me is when I get drunk out of me mind.\" On 12 October 2016, pending investigation on an anti-doping case about his cocaine use, nandrolone findings, and being deemed medically unfit to fight, Fury decided to vacate theWBA (Unified), WBO, IBO heavyweight titles. He said \"I won the titles in the ring and I believe that they should be lost in the ring, but I'm unable to defend at this time and I have taken the hard and emotional decision to now officially vacate my treasured world titles and wish the next in-line contenders all the very best as I now enter another big challenge in my life which I know, like against Klitschko, I will conquer.\"Fury's promoter Mick Hennessy added: \"Tyson will still be the lineal world heavyweight champion in everyone's eyes. He beat the most dominant champion in the modern era of boxing on an amazing night in Germany to earn that accolade and that will never change. Whilst it's heartbreaking to see Tyson vacate the world titles that he worked so long and hard for all his life, what's paramount now is that he receives the medical treatment along with the love of his family and friends and the support of the boxing world to make a full recovery.\"Fury's decision was based on not having to put himself under constant media pressure, allowing him time to recover and receive professional medical help for his mental health problems, and spend time with his family. On 13 October, theBritish Boxing Board of Controldecided to suspend Fury's boxing licence.On 1 February 2018, Fury was stripped of his last remaining title,The Ringmagazine's heavyweight championship. Issues with UKAD and BBBofC In December 2016, Fury's uncle Peter announced that Fury would be returning around spring in 2017 and would aim for a fight against WBC championDeontay Wilder. On 23 December, Fury tweeted that he was back in training ahead of a ring return around April or May 2017. His tweet read, \"I've had a nightmare 2016, done a lot of stuff I'm not proud of, but my promise to you is I'll return in 2017.\"On 6 March 2017, Fury tweeted that his return fight would take place on 13 May 2017 and he was speaking to promoterFrank Warrenabout possible opponents. Warren had become Fury's promoter after Fury dropped his long-time promoter Mick Hennessy.The date set for the return would mean Fury would be fighting on the undercard ofJosh Warringtondefending his WBC International featherweight title againstKiko Martinezat theFirst Direct Arenain Leeds. Shortly after Fury announced a comeback date, theBritish Boxing Board of Control(BBBofC) publicly announced that Fury was still suspended and would not be fighting in May. This was confirmed by their general secretary Robert Smith. He also mentioned that there had been no contact from Fury or his representatives since the ban started in October 2016.Warren toldReuterson 7 March, \"I want to see him back in the ring as soon as possible but before that happens he's got a couple of issues to sort out.\" Warren said that along with the dispute with the BBBofC there would need to be a court hearing withUK Anti-Doping(UKAD). Robert Smith, general secretary of the BBBofC, said in May 2017 that Fury's case was \"complex\" and it had been adjourned.In September 2017, Fury challenged UKAD to give him a reply, and either ban him or reinstate his boxing licence. He believed he was being treated unfairly as it had taken over a year for them to reply, stating that usually the problem would be dealt with within a matter of months. Fury tweeted, \"How long must I be held up and kept out of action? It's been 15 months since I've been under investigation, you're keeping an innocent man from fulfilling his destiny and from providing for his family.\" UKAD stated there was no particular timescale involved,but denied claims that they were prolonging the hearing. Instead they said they were trying to resolve the matter as soon as possible. On 8 November 2017,BBC Sportreported that a National Anti-Doping Panel hearing was due to take place in December. Due to the legal battle between Fury and UKAD, it was believed that UKAD could potentially becomeinsolventor would need a government bail out. UKAD reportedly have an annual budget of £8 million, and the fact that Fury had not fought for two years would have caused potential loss of earnings, possibly over £10 million. UKAD asked the government if they could underwrite the case.On 23 November, according to Robert Smith of the BBBofC, a hearing was set for a date in December 2017.On 25 November 2017, Fury announced his comeback after signing with managerial groupMTK Global.A hearing start date of 11 December was set, with a potential outcome being Fury facing a four-year ban.Fury did not attend the hearing and had reporters waiting outside the location for six hours before leaving.Mick Hennessy later stated that Fury was not required at the hearing.On 7 February 2018, UKAD revealed they spent £585,659 on the Fury case. £576,587 was paid to London law firmBird & Bird, barrister fees came to £1,130 and around £8,000 was paid for laboratory work. UKAD believed they could regain £250,000 through legal insurance. On 12 December, UKAD announced they had agreed with the Furys and the BBBoC to resolve the charges. \"Taking into account the delays in results management that meant charges were not brought in respect of the nandrolone findings until June 2016, and the provisional suspensions that Tyson and Hughie Fury have already effectively served, the two year period of ineligibility is backdated to 13 December 2015, and therefore expires at midnight on 12 December 2017.\"Tyson's February 2015 win over Christian Hammer was disqualified but his Klitschko triumph was not. Tyson blamed the elevated nandrolone levels on eating uncastratedwild boarand declared his and Hughie's innocence, \"Hughie and I have maintained our innocence from day one and we're now happy that it has finally been settled with UKAD and that we can move forward knowing that we'll not be labelled drug cheats.\"The BBBofC said they would consider the renewal of Fury's boxing licence in January 2018.In relation to the news, Fury wrote on Twitter, \"Guess who's back?\" Return to the ring On 10 January 2018, Fury announced he would be re-applying for his boxing licence through the BBBofC.An interview took place between Fury and BBBofC on 19 January, where the latter agreed to re-instate Fury as long as he sent them up-to-date medical records after visiting a psychologist.Fury said a motivation on his return wasDeontay Wilder. \"He said I couldn't do it, he said definitely not Tyson Fury. He's done.\"At a press conference in London on 12 April 2018, Fury announced he had signed a multi-fight deal with Frank Warren's Queensberry Promotions. He stated that he intended to fight at least three times before 2019, starting on 9 June at the Manchester Arena.After weeks of speculation, it was confirmed the fight would be shown exclusively on BT Sport. Fury vs. Seferi On 20 May 39-year-old AlbanianSefer Seferi(23–1, 21 KOs) was announced as Fury's opponent in a 10-round bout. Seferi was a career cruiserweight, having fought once at heavyweight, when he lost toManuel Charrin 2016.Fury weighed 276 pounds (125 kg) at the weigh-in, 66 pounds (30 kg) heavier than Seferi. Fury had lost 112 pounds (51 kg) for the fight, having experienced extreme weight gain due to his mental health problems. Fury won the fight after Seferi quit on his stool after round 4.The opening couple of rounds had little to no action as Fury was showboating, which referee Phil Edwards warned him for in round 2. A brawl also broke out in the crowd during the fight, but order was restored before the fight came to an end. Fury began to unload heavy shots in round 4 and it appeared many of the shots landed and hurt Seferi, hence he retired on his stool.After the fight, Warren confirmed Fury would next return on theCarl Framptonundercard on 18 August atWindsor ParkinBelfast. It was revealed the fight, which aired exclusively onBT Sport 1, peaked at 814,000 live viewers. Fury vs. Pianeta On 12 July 2018, it was announced that Fury would fight former two-time world title challengerFrancesco Pianeta(35–4–1, 21 KOs) on 18 August.Fury weighed in at 258 pounds (117 kg), 18 pounds (8.2 kg) lighter than he weighed against Seferi. Pianeta came in at 254.7 pounds (115.5 kg).On 30 July, it was reported that there was ongoing negotiations for a fight to take place in either November or December 2018 between Fury and Wilder (40–0, 39 KOs).On 31 July, Fury stated the fight against Wilder was 99% a done deal, with only a location and date to be confirmed. Fury also had to come through in his bout against Pianeta.Wilder was scheduled to be in Belfast to further promote the fight.Fury went the full 10 rounds, defeating Pianeta via a points decision. Referee Steve Gray scored the fight 100–90 in favour of Fury. Fury later stated he had no intention of trying to end the fight early. He said, \"I think it was a calculated boxing performance. I got 10 rounds with a very tough man under my belt. I was working on my jab, slipping his punches. I thought that was a step up with the opponent and display. I needed the rounds, and I had plenty left in the tank.\"According to CompuBox, Fury landed 107 of 620 punches thrown (17%). This included 100 power punches landed of 226 thrown (44%). Pianeta landed only 37 of his 228 punches thrown (16%). During the post-fight interviews, promoter Warren confirmed the Fury vs. Wilder fight was on. The fight would take place in either Las Vegas or New York in November 2018. The fight would be aired on PPV in the United States onShowtimeand in the UK onBT Sports Box Office.Talking about how the fight came together, Fury said, \"We have two men who will fight anyone. This man has been trying to make a fight with another chump. They called, I answered. I said: 'Send me the contract.' They sent it. I said 'yes'.\"Warren later told BBC Radio 5 live, \" 50–50 , quick and smooth negotiations. He was the world heavyweight champion. He's undefeated. understand that. All of the terms are agreed.\" By the end of August, contracts for the fight to take place had been signed. WBC heavyweight title challenge Fury vs. Wilder On 22 September, both Fury and Wilder confirmed they had signed the contract and the fight would take place on 1 December 2018.According to theCalifornia State Athletic Commission, Wilder would earn a guaranteed base purse of $4 million and Fury would take home a guaranteed purse of $3 million.Despite Frank Warren's original claim that the revenue would be split 50–50, it was revealed that Wilder could make $14 million (£11 million) and Fury would earn around $10.25 million (£8 million). Both boxers would see this increase to their base purses after receiving their percentages from pay-per-view revenue.The weigh-in took place on 30 November, outside theLos Angeles Convention Center. Fury stepped on the scale first and weighed in at256+1⁄2pounds (116.3 kg). This was only 2 pounds (0.91 kg) lighter than his weigh-in against Francisco Pianeta in August 2018, but he looked leaner. Wilder was next to step on and came in at212+1⁄2pounds (96.4 kg), his lowest since his debut in 2008 when he weighed207+1⁄4pounds (94.0 kg). For his last bout, Wilder weighed 214 pounds (97 kg), however, it was cited that Wilder became ill during his training camp. In front of a crowd of 17,698 at the Staples Center, Wilder and Fury fought a 12-round split decision draw, meaning Wilder retained his WBC title. Mexican judge Alejandro Rochin scored the fight 115–111 for Wilder, Canadian judge Robert Tapper had it 114–112 for Fury and English judge Phil Edwards scored it a 113–113 draw.The crowd booed at the decision with many believing Fury did enough to dethrone Wilder. Fury, using his unorthodox stance, spent much of the fight using upper and lower-body movement to avoid Wilder big shots and stay out of range. There was not much action in round 1 as both boxers used the round to feel each other out. Wilder tried to trap Fury into the corner, but Fury made Wilder miss most of his big swings. In round 4, Wilder bloodied Fury's nose with his stiff jabs, but was unable to follow up on the attacks. In round 6, Fury switched to southpaw stance and had success backing Wilder against the ropes and at the same time stayed cautious of Wilder's power. In round 7, after trading jabs, which saw Fury come out on top, Fury landed a counter right hand, then quickly tied Wilder up before he could throw anything back. Round 8 saw back and forth action with both trying to land. Wilder threw a lot of power shots which Fury mostly evaded. In round 9, Wilder finally dropped Fury with a short left hook followed by an overhand right. Fury beat referee Jack Reiss' count and survived the round. Having expended a lot of energy trying to finish Fury in round 9, Wilder looked fatigued in round 10. This came to as an advantage for Fury as he landed two right hands. Fury also took advantage in round 11, landing enough shots and avoided anything Wilder could throw. In round 12, Wilder landed a right-left combination which put Fury down hard on his back. The crowd, commentary team and Wilder believed the fight was over. Reiss looked at Fury on the canvas and began giving him a count. To everyone's surprise, Fury beat the count. Reiss made Fury walk towards him and called for the action to continue. Wilder, fatigued again, was unable to land another power shot and Fury landed some right hands to finish the round and the fight on his feet. Both boxers embraced in a hug after the final bell sounded. According toCompuBoxstatistics, Wilder landed 71 punches of 430 thrown (17%), and Fury landed 84 of his 327 thrown (26%). Wilder was much less accurate in this fight than he usually had been in previous fights. Fury out-landed Wilder in 9 out of the 12 rounds. Both Wilder and Fury only landed double digits in 4 separate rounds.After the fight, both men gave in-ring interviews. Wilder stated, \"I think with the two knockdowns, I definitely won the fight. We poured our hearts out tonight. We're both warriors. I rushed my punches. I didn't sit still. I was too hesitant. I started overthrowing the right hand, and I just couldn't adjust. I was rushing my punches. That's something I usually don't do.\" Fury said, \"We're on away soil. I got knocked down twice, but I still believe I won that fight. I'm being a total professional here. God bless America. The 'Gypsy King' has returned. That man is a fearsome puncher, and I was able to avoid that. The world knows I won the fight. I hope I did you all proud after nearly three years out of the ring. I showed good heart to get up. I came here tonight, and I fought my heart out.\"Wilder and Fury both claimed to be the best heavyweights in the world and both called out unified world championAnthony Joshua. Fury shouted, \"Chicken! Chicken! Joshua, where are you?\" Wilder then agreed to state the two best heavyweights got into the ring and fought. The event was both a critical and a commercial success. The fight sold approximately 325,000pay-per-viewbuys on Showtime in the United States, grossing around $24 million, making it the most lucrative heavyweight fight in the country since2003.Showtime's delayed broadcast a week later drew an average 488,000 viewers and peaked at 590,000 viewers.Despite the commercial success of the fight, promoterBob Arumbelieves it was meagre in comparison to the bout's potential. Arum said Fury vs. Wilder II could surpassFloyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Manny Pacquiao, which grossed over $600 million, saying: \"They were the little guys, here we have the biggest men in the sport.\" Establishing himself in Las Vegas Fury vs. Schwarz After the fight with Wilder, Fury secured a five-fight contract withESPNandTop Rankworth £80 million ($100 million). He made his return to the ring at theMGM Grand Garden ArenainLas Vegasagainst the WBO Inter-Continental heavyweight championTom Schwarz(24–0, 16 KOs) on 15 June 2019. This was Fury's first fight in Las Vegas.Schwarz was ranked #2 by the WBO and #9 by the IBF at the time.Fury weighed 263 pounds (119 kg), compared to Schwarz's235+1⁄2pounds (106.8 kg).He was in complete control of the fight, peppering the undefeated Schwarz in round one before finishing him in the second round by TKO, to take Schwarz's WBO Inter-Continental title. During the fight, Furypurposely backed up against the ropes and let Schwarz unload, using head movement to evade the strikes and generating applause from the 9,000 people in attendance. Fury vs. Wallin Fury fought again in Las Vegas against former WBA Continental heavyweight championOtto Wallin(20–0, 13 KOs) on 14 September, at theT-Mobile Arena. Promoter Frank Warren said: \"It is another undefeated boxer he is facing and a contest where a victory will set up the Deontay Wilder rematch.\"Wallin was ranked #4 by the WBA and #12 by the IBF at heavyweight.Fury scaled at 254.4 pounds (115.4 kg), his lightest since facing Klitschko in 2015, when he weighed 247 pounds (112 kg). The Swedish southpaw Wallin came in at exactly 236 pounds (107 kg). Fury won by unanimous decision 116–112, 117–111, and 118–110. Fury suffered a serious cut above his right eye in the third round from a short left hook, as well as a cut over his right eyelid from an accidental clash of heads in the fifth which affected his vision for the rest of the fight and prompted a ringside doctor to be consulted in the sixth. After an examination, Fury said he was able to continue and the doctor agreed. In the second half of the fight, Fury repeatedly hit Wallin with solid shots. Wallin came back in the twelfth with his best punch of the fight, a clean left hand which momentarily troubled Fury. After tying Wallin up in a clinch, Fury saw out the round, receiving the decision victory and the WBC Mayan belt, a commemorative title awarded to the winner of a high-profile fight held duringMexican national holidays. According to CompuBox, Fury landed 179 of 651 total punches (27%) while Wallin connected with 127 of 334 total punches (38%). Of these total punches, Fury landed 127 power punches to Wallin's 84.In his in-ring interview, Fury praised the performance of Wallin, who was a more than 10–1 underdog, and expressed condolences as Wallin's father had recently died. Fury then called out Wilder for a rematch in February 2020. WBC andThe Ringheavyweight champion Fury vs. Wilder II On 27 November 2019, ESPN announced that Fury would face Deontay Wilder on 22 February 2020, in a rematch oftheir bout in 2018, which resulted in a controversial draw.In the build-up to the rematch, Fury split with trainer Ben Davison, who had coached Fury since late 2017 and helped him lose the large amount of weight he had gained during his hiatus and restore him to fighting condition. Davison was nominated for 2018 Trainer of the Year due to his role in Fury's successful return to the ring. The split was described as amicable and Davison wished Fury good luck in the rematch against Wilder. Fury then announced he had partnered withSugarHill Steward, nephew of Hall-of-Fame trainerEmanuel Steward, and that he would return toKronk Gym, where he briefly trained in 2010.The rematch was officially announced on 27 December 2019, and the venue was set as theMGM Grand Garden Arenain Las Vegas.The fight contract included a clause in which the loser can invoke a trilogy fight if he chooses. Fury weighed in at 273 pounds (124 kg), the third heaviest weight of his professional career and 17 pounds (7.7 kg) heavier than his weight for the first Wilder bout. He stated in the lead-up to the fight that he wanted extra size and power to look for a knockout. Wilder weighed in at 231 pounds (105 kg), the heaviest of his career.Fury started the fight by taking the centre of the ring and establishing his jab. He looked for some big shots, while evading Wilder's swings. In the third round, Fury floored Wilder with a strong right hand to the temple. Wilder beat the count and survived the round but was visibly disoriented, as blood began to stream from his left ear. Wilder fell to the canvas twice more, but they were ruled as slips by the refereeKenny Bayless, before Fury knocked Wilder down again in the fifth round with a quick combination punctuated by a left hook to the body. Wilder made it to his feet again, but was unable to muster much in the way of a counterattack and he was now bleeding from the mouth as well as the ear. The fight was stopped midway through the seventh round after a flurry of hard-hitting shots from Fury caused Wilder's corner to throw in the towel to save him from further punishment.At the time of stoppage, Fury was ahead on all three judges' scorecards 59–52, 58–53, and 59–52, with the irregular scores due to Bayless deducting a point from Fury in the fifth for holding.According to CompuBox, Fury landed 82 of his 267 total punches (31%), including 58 out of 160 power punches (36%). Wilder landed 34 of his 141 total punches (24%), including 18 out of 55 power punches (33%). According to CompuBox, Fury landed 82 of his 267 total punches (31%), including 58 out of 160 power punches (36%). Wilder landed 34 of his 141 total punches (24%), including 18 out of 55 power punches (33%).Fury received widespread praise for his performance, with many believing that it established one of the best boxing comeback stories ever seen, and some stating that the victory placed him as one of the greatest heavyweight boxers in history.It made him the first man to defeat two champions who had 10 or more defences of their world championship (Klitschko with 18 defences, and Wilder with 10 defences).Fury also became the third heavyweight, afterMuhammad AliandFloyd Patterson, to holdThe Ringmagazine title twice, and the first heavyweight in history to have held the WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, WBO, andThe Ringmagazine titles.With a gate of $16,916,440, the fight broke the gate record for a heavyweight bout in Nevada set byEvander Holyfield vs. Lennox Lewis IIin November 1999. Fury vs. Wilder III Deontay Wilder activated the clause for a second rematch fight with Tyson Fury after his loss to Fury in the first rematch. The trilogy fight was tentatively scheduled for July 2020, but this was later postponed due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. On 11 June 2020,Anthony Joshua'spromoterEddie Hearnannounced that Fury and Joshua had agreed a two-fight deal, provided that Fury defeated Wilder and Joshua defeated hismandatory challenger,Kubrat Pulev.Fury's promoterBob Arumsaid in August 2020, \"the WBC approved the trilogy contract and that provides for postponements. And certainly, if you can't do it with spectators, a reasonable postponement would be okay. It's a different kind of fight.\" On 12 October 2020, Fury announced that he was foregoing a trilogy fight with Wilder after organizers failed to deliver a date for the event in 2020.The Athleticreported \"Fury had every intention of fighting Wilder in 2020 and made several concessions regarding rescheduled dates. However, he was unwilling to allow this situation to drag out, delaying a series of fights with Joshua while also keeping him out of the ring for an extended period of time.\" On 17 May 2021, the proposed unificationfight between Fury and Joshuawas thrown into serious doubt whenarbitrationjudge Daniel Weinstein ruled that Fury will have to honour a contractual clause which mandates a third fight with Wilder.Subsequently, Bob Arum claimed that theAllegiant Stadiumin Las Vegas had been reserved for 24 July in anticipation of Fury's trilogy fight with Wilder.On 22 May 2021, Fury announced during the broadcast ofJosé Ramírez vs. Josh TayloronESPNthat he had signed the contract for the Wilder trilogy fight, which ESPN showed footage of Fury signing. It was also confirmed by Wilder's managerShelly Finkelthat his fighter had signed the contract, and that the fight was on.Ahead of their pre-fight press conference on 15 June, the venue was officially confirmed asT-Mobile Arenain Las Vegas, where Fury had previously defeatedOtto Wallinby unanimous decision on 14 September 2019.The bout was postponed from the original date of 24 July until 9 October, after Fury's camp had an outbreak ofCOVID-19.At the pre-fight weigh-in on 8 October, both men weighed in at their respective career-heaviest weights, with the champion Fury weighing in at 277 lbs (19st11 lb), and the challenger Wilder at 238 lbs (17 st). On the night, both men exchanged a total of five knockdowns as Fury won the bout via eleventh-round knockout. Wilder had started the first round well, jabbing the champion to the body and landing several clean right hands to his chest and stomach, doing enough to win the first round on all three judges' scorecards. In the second, Fury landed some good shots in the clinch. Midway through the third, Fury sent Wilder to the canvas with a series of hard right hands, and continued to pummel him as Wilder was effectively saved by the bell. Wilder came back in the fourth with a vicious short right hand that put Fury down on the canvas. Wilder continued coming forwards, and sent the champion down again towards the end of the round. In the middle rounds, Fury recovered and started landing with more regularity, racking up a commanding lead on the cards and marking up Wilder's face badly, with the latter now visibly exhausted as a result of all of the punishment he had taken. In the tenth, Wilder was decked by a huge right hook, but came back yet again with a huge series of wild swings that caught Fury at the bell. With Wilder badly hurt and bleeding, Fury managed to finish his opponent in the eleventh round with a clean right hook thrown from the clinch. Referee Robert Mora waved the contest off with Wilder face-down on the canvas. After the fight, Fury praised his opponent, calling Wilder a \"top fighter\", but criticised him for being a \"sore loser\" and refusing to \"show any sportsmanship or respect\". In his post-fight interview, Fury stated \"I'm a sportsman. I went over to him to show some love and respect and he didn't show it back. I will pray for him so that God will soften his heart.\" Fury then added that it \"was a great fight tonight, worthy of the best of trilogies.\" Fury asserted his view that he is the best boxer in his division, stating \"I'm now the greatest heavyweight of my era, without a doubt.\" At the time of the stoppage, Fury was winning the bout on all three scorecards with 95–91, 94–92, and 95–92.According toCompuBox, Fury landed 150 of 385 punches (39%), while Wilder connected with 72 of 355 punches (20%). The 150 punches landed on Wilder is the most ever landed by an opponent. Despite the back and forth nature of the bout, CompuBox calculated Fury as having outlanded Wilder in every single round of the fight, including the fourth round in which Fury was knocked down twice.The fight was widely acclaimed by observers and pundits for its action and high-level intensity: hall-of-fame promoterBob Arumsaid, \"I've been in this business 57 years promoting fights and I have to say I've truly never seen a heavyweight fight as magnificent as this\",while theRingmagazinedescribed it as \"the obvious fight of the year so far\" and \"a rare and historic heavyweight championship trilogy\". Fury vs. Whyte On 30 December 2021, WBC president Mauricio Sulaiman, who had ordered Fury to defend his WBC title againstmandatory challengerDillian Whyte, ruled that Fury as the reigning champion would be entitled to 80% of the purse, compared to Whyte's 20% as the challenger.Sulaiman had set a deadline of 11 January 2022 forpurse bids, as the two fighters' camps could not agree to terms. However, this deadline was pushed back multiple times, in part due to ongoing negotiations from Fury's team who were trying to secure the fight for theundisputed heavyweight championshipagainst undefeatedWBA (Super),IBFandWBOheavyweight championOleksandr Usyk. A fight between Fury and Usyk did not materialise, as deposed former championAnthony Joshuawas unwilling to step aside to allow the two champions to fight. The deadline for the Fury-Whyte purse bids was ultimately scheduled for 28 January 2022, when it was announced thatFrank Warren's Queensberry Promotions had won the rights to promote the fight, with a winning bid of $41,025,000 (£31 million), beating out the $32,222,222 (£24 million) bid submitted byEddie Hearn'sMatchroom. Warren's bid was reported to be the highest successful purse bid in boxing history.Fury reacted to the news, stating on social media that he is \"coming home\", suggesting that the fight against Whyte would be the first time he would box on U.K. soil since his August 2018 win againstFrancesco Pianeta.On 25 February, it was officially announced that the fight would be taking place atWembley Stadiumin London, England on 23 April. The first press conference for the fight took place on 1 March at Wembley Stadium, with Whyte absent. Whyte's lawyer stated that his client would not be partaking in promoting the fight, as \"we still do not have things resolved\". Despite his opponent's non-attendance, Fury as usual was \"in full showman mode\", declaring, \"Even Tyson Fury versus his own shadow sells\", and promising that the fight \"is going to be aFerrariracing aVauxhall Corsa\". When asked about Whyte's no-show, Fury opined, \"He's definitely shown the white flag in my estimation.\" In addition, he stated that his bout against Whyte would be the final fight of his professional career, promising to retire after the fight: \"I'm a two-time undisputed world champion. £150m in the bank and nothing to prove to anybody.\" Tickets for the fight went on sale on 2 March. 85,000 of the 90,000 available tickets were sold within the first 3 hours, prompting Fury's promoter Frank Warren to begin the process of applying to the local authorities to expand the capacity to 100,000 fans, which would make Fury-Whyte the largest post-war boxing attendance in the history of the United Kingdom.The contest ultimately took place in front of a record-breaking crowd of 94,000 fans: 4,000 more than the attendance ofAnthony Joshua vs. Wladimir Klitschkowhich also took place at Wembley Stadium in 2017, thus setting a new attendance record for a boxing match in Europe. Fury was given a rousing reception by the crowd as he made his way to the ring in an attire of red and white, paying homage toSaint George's Dayto the backdrop of \"Juicy\" byThe Notorious B.I.G.and \"Sex on Fire\" byKings of Leon, in contrast to the boos received by his opponent Whyte during his own ring-walk. Whyte unexpectedly boxed the first round in thesouthpaw stance, which was unusual for the primarily orthodox fighter. After a cautious first three minutes, Fury returned the favour at the start of the second round by switching between the southpaw and orthodox stances. The champion found success with the jab andcheck hook. In the fourth round, Whyte was cut over his right eye after a clash of heads. Fury continued to dominate the fight, landing a straight right in the fifth round which appeared to momentarily stun the challenger. With around ten seconds left of the sixth round, Fury landed a left jab, followed by a right uppercut which sent Whyte sprawling to the canvas. Although Whyte was able to beat the count and rise to his feet, the referee deemed it unsafe for him to continue, halting the fight after two minutes and fifty-nine seconds of the sixth round, declaring Fury the winner by sixth-round technical knockout.At the time of the stoppage, Fury was winning the bout on all three scorecards with 49–46, 48–47, and 50–45. In his post-fight ring interview, Fury claimed that the fight against Whyte was the last of his professional boxing career: \"I've been in this game 20 years, I'm 34 in a few months. I said the third Wilder fight would be my last but I felt I owed the fans one last homecoming. This is definitely the end of the Gypsy King and I went out with a bang. Tonight was amazing but this is the end.\"Fury appeared to have no regrets, stating, \"I fulfilled everything I've ever wanted to fulfil. I will retire as only the second heavyweight in history, afterRocky Marciano, to retire undefeated. I was unbeatable at this game.\" He announced his retirement on 12 August 2022 and relinquished hisRingtitle. Fury vs. Chisora III On 20 October 2022, it was announced that Fury would return from his short-lived retirement to defend his WBC title againstDerek Chisorain a trilogy bout on 3 December atTottenham Hotspur Stadiumin London, live on BT Sport Box Office. On the night of the fight, Fury defeated Chisora via 10th-round TKO in front of a crowd of 60,000 fans, in a dominant performance. After the fight, Fury called on fellow undefeated heavyweight championOleksandr Usyk, who was seated ringside at the Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, to join him between the ropes. Fury indicated his preference to face Usyk as his next opponent to determine the undisputed heavyweight champion. Fury added he would be happy to face WBOinterim championJoe Joyce, who had also joined Fury and Usyk ringside post-fight. Fury vs. Ngannou Fury faced formerUFC heavyweight championFrancis Ngannouin Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on 28 October 2023, in what was Ngannou's professional boxing debut. WBC officials confirmed the fight would be ten rounds and count as an official bout, although Fury's title would not be at stake. Fury entered the fight as a 14–1 favourite, but he was knocked down in the third round. He went on to win the bout via controversial split decision. One judge scored the bout 95–94 to Ngannou, while the other two judges had it 96–93 and 95–94 in Fury's favour. According toCompuBox, Fury outlanded Ngannou 71 to 59 in total punches, while Ngannou outlanded Fury 37 to 32 in power punches.When asked in his in-ring interview about the fight, Fury said \" is a lot better of a boxer than we thought he’d be. He’s a very awkward man, and he’s a good puncher, and I respect him a lot. I don’t know how close was, but I got the win and that’s what it is.\"Oleksandr Usyk, who was in attendance, then entered the ring and faced off with Fury to promote their scheduled bout for the undisputed heavyweight championship. Undisputed heavyweight championship challenge Fury vs. Usyk On 29 September 2023, it was announced Fury had signed a contract to face the unified WBA, WBO and IBF heavyweight championOleksandr Usykfor the undisputed heavyweight title in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.The fight was originally scheduled for 23 December but was delayed to 17 February 2024 after Fury's bout with Francis Ngannou in October 2023.On 2 February, it was announced the fight had been postponed again after Fury suffered a cut in sparring above his right eye that required \"urgent medical attention\" and \"significant stitching\".The fight was rescheduled for 18 May 2024 and would crown the first undisputed heavyweight champion of the four belt era, as well as the first undisputed heavyweight champion in nearly 25 years. Fury lost the bout via split decision, the first loss in his professional boxing career. The opening rounds of the fight were closely contested, with Usyk applying constant pressure and landing power punches, while Fury found success with his jab, fighting off the back foot. From round 4, Fury became increasingly dominant, appearing to hurt Usyk with uppercuts in round 6. However, in the later rounds Usyk began to mount a comeback, particularly in a dramatic ninth round where he was able to badly hurt Fury with a series of punches, scoring a knockdown near the end of the round as Fury fell into the ropes. Although Fury was able to recover and attempted to rally, the judges ultimately awarded Usyk the victory. One judge had it 114–113 for Fury, while the other two scored it 115–112 and 114–113 in Usyk's favour.CompuBox suggested Fury had landed 157 of 496 punches (31.7%) whilst Usyk landed 170 of 407 (41.8%). Fury vs. Usyk II Fury and Usyk were expected to meet in a rematch in October 2024 at Kingdom Arena in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.On 29 May 2024 it was announced that the rematch was rescheduled for 21 December 2024. Professional wrestling Fury made an appearance in anangleonWWE's debut ofSmackDownonFoxon 4 October 2019. Appearing as afan, he stared downBraun Strowmanduring his match, and Strowman later threw one of his opponents,Dolph Ziggler, at Fury. After the match, Fury jumped the barricade, but was stopped by security.On 11 October, it was confirmed that Fury and Strowman would have a match atWWE Crown Jewel.At Crown Jewel on 31 October, Fury defeated Strowman via countout.Fury reportedly earned £11.9 million ($15 million) for his participation.Fury later made an appearance on 8 November episode ofSmackDownat the Manchester Arena, shaking hands with Strowman and suggesting they form atag teamtogether before both being challenged by the B-Team (Bo DallasandCurtis Axel), who they left laying in the ring. Other ventures In September 2019,Penguin Random Houseimprint Century secured the publishing rights to Fury's autobiography, titledBehind the Mask: My Autobiography. It was released on 14 November 2019 and reached the number-one bestseller position on Amazon with 24 hours of its release.His second book, entitledThe Furious Method, was published in 2020.A self-help book, it is \"full of inspirational advice for readers on how we can all improve our physical and mental health\".The book was a commercial success, and is aSunday Timesbestseller. Fury appeared in a four-partITVdocumentary namedMeet the Furys, which followed the Fury family while Tyson was preparing to fight in Las Vegas for the first time.ITV later commissioned another documentary about Fury, titledTyson Fury: The Gypsy King, which showed Fury and his family during the build-up to the Wilder rematch.ANetflixseries about Fury and his family,At Home with the Furys, was released on 16 August 2023. Known for his habit of impromptu singing, Fury regularly gained media attention for singing songs in the boxing ring after matches and during promotional events.In 2019, Fury appeared as a guest vocalist on English singer-songwriterRobbie Williams' studio albumThe Christmas Present, for the song \"Bad Sharon\".On 11 November 2022, Fury released a cover of \"Sweet Caroline\" as a singleto raise money for the men's mental health charity, Talk Club. Fury has expressed an interest in competing inmixed martial arts. In November 2019, he had a training session withDarren Till, who said there is a 70% chance that Fury will compete in MMA.Fury also mentioned thatConor McGregorhas offered to train him should he crossover to MMA. On 16 February 2022, Fury launched a new range of energy drinks named Furocity Energy to rival market leadersRed BullandMonster Energy.He has since released Furocity ice lollies,energy gum,and protein bars. Fury signed a sponsorship deal with local clubMorecambe FCbefore their2022-23 League One campaign, with the Gypsy King brand appearing on the team's shorts.Fury has displayed interest in purchasing the team.In the north east corner of the team'smain stadiumis a two-storey building which houses the Tyson Fury Foundation, and a gym which Fury purchased in August 2020.Fury said of the foundation (which houses boxing,footballandrugbyfacilities) that \"It’s giving the next Tyson Fury or the nextWayne Rooneythe chance that we had.\"He also owns the fenced-off3G pitchesneighbouring the stadium. Public image After Fury became world champion in 2015, the British media began to scrutinise what he had said in the past. He received criticism for having said that he would \"hang\" his sister if she waspromiscuous, as well as comments made in an interview before the Klitschko fight in which he denouncedabortion,paedophilia, andhomosexuality, saying that the legalisation of these behaviours would bring forth aBiblicalreckoning. Fury was nominated for the 2015BBC Sports Personality of the Year Awardbut around 140,000 people signed a petition claiming that his equation of homosexuality with paedophilia should disqualify him. When asked about the petition by a BBC journalist, Fury quoted religious phrases, including \"believe in theLord Jesus Christand you will be saved,\" along withJohn 3:16: \"For God so loved the world, He gave His only begotten Son, whoever believes in Him shall have eternal life and shall not perish.\"Fury ultimately came fourth in the SPOTY award and said at the ceremony, \"I've said a lot of stuff in the past and none of it is with intentions to hurt anybody. I apologise to anyone that's been hurt by it.\" Fury was later criticised for comments ontransgenderpeople and \"ZionistJewishpeople who own all the banks, all the papers, all the TV stations\" in a May 2016 interview.The interview was later deleted and Fury apologised: \"I said some things which may have hurt some people, which as aChristianman is not something I would ever want to do. Though it is not an excuse, sometimes the heightened media scrutiny has caused me to act out in public and then my words can get taken out of context. I mean no harm or disrespect to anyone and I know more is expected of me as an ambassador of British boxing and I promise in future to hold myself up to the highest possible standard.\" Fury was formerly known for his attention-grabbing antics, such as arriving at a press conference in aLamborghiniand wearing aBatmancostume. After his hiatus, he has said that he does not want to \"play a character anymore\". He stated in November 2017, \"I feel I have a story to tell, a massive one. The stuff I've been through, depression, mental health problems. It can help and inspire others. From 18 stone to 27. From a clean living man to drugs and alcohol and back to the heavyweight world champion again. I hope the legacy and story I leave behind will help others in the future of what to do and not to do.\"Although Fury has vowed to rein in his entertaining behaviour, he is still known for his vibrant personality, with promoterBob Arumstating that he \"hasn't seen a fighter with that much charisma sinceMuhammad Ali\".Since his return to the ring and his strong performance against Wilder, Fury has been dubbed \"The People's Champion\" due to his open and honest discussion about hismental healthstruggles.He is currently an ambassador for the former British world championFrank Bruno's mental health charity, The Frank Bruno Foundation. In June 2020, Fury publicly thankedDaniel Kinahanfor his role in brokering a potentialTyson Fury vs. Anthony Joshuafight.In 2018, anIrish High Courtjudge stated that Kinahan, who has no previous criminal convictions, is a senior figure in organised crime on a global scale.TheIrish governmentexpressed its \"outrage\" over the involvement of Kinahan in the brokering of the proposed fight.On 24 June 2020, it was announced that Fury had parted ways with Kinahan as an advisor.Fury was photographed alongside Kinahan in Dubai in February 2022.Fury was refused entry to the United States in June 2022, reportedly as a result of his links with Kinahan, who is subject to sanctions by the U.S. government'sOffice of Foreign Assets Control. Personal life Fury met his wife Paris (née Mullroy) when she was 15 and he was 17.They began dating the year after they met, and married in 2008 at St. Peter in Chains Catholic Church inDoncaster, South Yorkshire.The couple have seven children together: four sons (all named Prince) and three daughters.When Fury was asked why all of his sons had the first name Prince, he said, \"I'm a king and they're princes until they earn their rightful name.\"He named his first son Prince afterPrince Naseem, his favourite British fighter.Paris suffered amiscarriagebefore Fury's cancelled bout with Ustinov in 2014,and lost another child on the day of his comeback fight against Seferi in 2018. Fury's mother was aProtestantand his father is aCatholic, though neither actively practised their religions; he was instead introduced to religion by his uncle, aborn-again ChristianandPentecostalpreacher in theIrish Travellercommunity.The Guardiandescribed Fury's beliefs as \"a mixture of traditional Roman Catholic... and a particularly literal interpretation ofevangelical Christianity\".His wife is a practising Catholic and was also raised in an Irish Traveller family. Fury and his family reside inMorecambe, Lancashire.He also owns a home inLas Vegas, but decided to let his boxing trainer live there because he is unsure about spending more time in the US.In September 2015, he expressed an interest in running to be an independentMPforMorecambe and Lunesdale, stating that the government was too focused on providing services for immigrants and not enough on homeless people and those with drug and alcohol problems. In April 2016, Fury spoke about theracialabuse he receives as an Irish Traveller, stating that \"no one wants to see aGypsydo well\".He stated, \"I am a Gypsy and that's it. I will always be a Gypsy, I'll never change. I will always be fat and white and that's it. I am the champion yet I am thought of as a bum.\"Since his return from his hiatus, Fury has stated that he still feels bias against his community. Fury is a fan ofManchester Unitedand attends football matches at their home groundOld Trafford.He also supports theEngland national team. Professional boxing record Viewership International Pay-per-view bouts Filmography Television Discography Singles Bibliography Non-fiction See also Notes References External links", "Mike Tyson Michael Gerard Tyson(born June 30, 1966) is an Americanprofessional boxerwho competed from 1985 to 2005, and is scheduled to compete once again in 2024. Nicknamed \"Iron Mike\"and \"Kid Dynamite\" in his early career, and later known as \"the Baddest Man on the Planet\",Tyson is regarded as one of the greatestheavyweightboxers of all time.He reigned as theundisputedworld heavyweight champion from 1987 to 1990. Tyson won his first 19 professional fights byknockout, 12 of them in the first round. Claiming his first belt at 20 years, 4 months, and 22 days old, Tyson holds the record asthe youngest boxer ever to win a heavyweight title.He was the first heavyweight boxer to simultaneously hold the WBA, WBC and IBF titles, as well as the only heavyweight to unify them in succession. The following year, Tyson became thelineal championwhen he knocked outMichael Spinksin 91 seconds of the first round.In 1990, Tyson was knocked out by underdogBuster Douglasinone of the biggest upsets in boxing history. In 1992, Tyson was convicted of rape and sentenced to six years in prison. He was released on parole after three years.After his release in 1995, he engaged in a series of comeback fights, regaining the WBA and WBC titles in 1996 to joinFloyd Patterson,Muhammad Ali,Tim Witherspoon,Evander HolyfieldandGeorge Foremanas the only men in boxing history to have regained a heavyweight championship after losing it. After being stripped of the WBC title in the same year, Tyson lost the WBA title to Evander Holyfield by an eleventh round stoppage. Their1997 rematchended when Tyson was disqualified for biting Holyfield's ears, one bite notoriously being strong enough to remove a portion of his right ear. In 2002, Tyson fought for the world heavyweight title, losing by knockout toLennox Lewis. Tyson was known for his ferocious and intimidating boxing style as well as his controversial behavior inside and outside the ring, which he explained was inspired bySonny Liston, a boxer who is widely regarded as the most intimidating man in the history of boxing.With a knockout-to-win percentage of 88%,he was ranked 16th onThe Ringmagazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time,and first onESPN's list of \"The Hardest Hitters in Heavyweight History\".Sky Sportsdescribed him as \"perhaps the most ferocious fighter to step into a professional ring\".He has been inducted into theInternational Boxing Hall of Fameand theWorld Boxing Hall of Fame. Early life Michael Gerard Tyson was born inFort Greene, Brooklyn, New York City, on June 30, 1966.He has an older brother named Rodney (bornc.1961)and had an older sister named Denise, who died of a heart attack at age 24 in February 1990.Tyson's mother, born inCharlottesville,Virginia,was described as a promiscuous woman who might have been a prostitute.Tyson's biological father is listed as \"Purcell Tyson\", a \"humble cab driver\" (who was fromJamaica) on his birth certificate,but the man Tyson had known as his father was a pimp named Jimmy Kirkpatrick. Kirkpatrick was fromGrier Town, North Carolina(a predominantly black neighborhood that was annexed by the city ofCharlotte),where he was one of the neighborhood's top baseball players. Kirkpatrick married and had a son, Tyson's half-brother Jimmie Lee Kirkpatrick, who would help to integrate Charlotte high school football in 1965. In 1959, Jimmy Kirkpatrick left his family and moved to Brooklyn, where he met Tyson's mother, Lorna Mae (Smith) Tyson. Kirkpatrick frequented pool halls, gambled and hung out on the streets. \"My father was just a regular street guy caught up in the street world,\" Tyson said. Kirkpatrick abandoned the Tyson family around the time Mike was born, leaving Tyson's mother to care for the children on her own.Kirkpatrick died in 1992. The family lived inBedford-Stuyvesantuntil their financial burdens necessitated a move toBrownsvillewhen Tyson was 10 years old.Throughout his childhood, Tyson lived in and around neighborhoods with a high rate of crime. According to an interview inDetails, his first fight was with a bigger youth who had pulled the head off one of Tyson's pigeons.Tyson was repeatedly caught committing petty crimes and fighting those who ridiculed his high-pitched voice andlisp. By the age of 13, he had been arrested 38 times.He ended up at the Tryon School for Boys inJohnstown, New York. Tyson's emerging boxing ability was discovered there byBobby Stewart, a juvenile detention center counselor and former boxer. Stewart considered Tyson to be an outstanding fighter and trained him for a few months before introducing him to boxing manager and trainerCus D'Amato.Tyson dropped out of high school as a junior.He was later awarded an honoraryDoctorate in Humane LettersfromCentral State Universityin 1989.Kevin Rooneyalso trained Tyson, and he was occasionally assisted byTeddy Atlas, although Atlas was dismissed by D'Amato when Tyson was 15. Rooney eventually took over all training duties for the young fighter. Tyson's mother died when he was 16, leaving him in the care of D'Amato, who would become his legal guardian. Tyson later said, \"I never saw my mother happy with me and proud of me for doing something: she only knew me as being a wild kid running the streets, coming home with new clothes that she knew I didn't pay for. I never got a chance to talk to her or know about her. Professionally, it has no effect, but it's crushing emotionally and personally.\" Amateur career As anamateur, Tyson won gold medals at the 1981 and 1982 Junior Olympic Games, defeating Joe Cortez in 1981 and beating Kelton Brown in 1982. Brown's corner threw in the towel in the first round. In 1984 Tyson won the gold medal at theNation Golden Glovesheld in New York, beating Jonathan Littles.He foughtHenry Tillmantwice as an amateur, losing both bouts by decision. Tillman went on to win heavyweight gold at the1984 Summer Olympicsin Los Angeles. Professional career Early career Tyson made his professional debut as an 18-year-old on March 6, 1985, inAlbany, New York. He defeated Hector Mercedes via first-round TKO.He had 15 bouts in his first year as a professional. Fighting frequently, Tyson won 26 of his first 28 fights by KO or TKO; 16 of those came in the first round.The quality of his opponents gradually increased tojourneymanfighters and borderline contenders,likeJames Tillis,David Jaco,Jesse Ferguson,Mitch Green, andMarvis Frazier. His win streak attracted media attention and Tyson was billed as the next greatheavyweightchampion. D'Amato died in November 1985, relatively early into Tyson's professional career, and some speculate that his death was the catalyst to many of the troubles Tyson was to experience as his life and career progressed. Rise up the ranks Tyson's first nationallytelevisedbout took place on February 16, 1986, atHouston Field HouseinTroy, New York, against journeyman heavyweightJesse Ferguson, and was carried byABC Sports. Tyson knocked down Ferguson with an uppercut in the fifth round that broke Ferguson's nose.During the sixth round, Ferguson began to hold and clinch Tyson in an apparent attempt to avoid further punishment. After admonishing Ferguson several times to obey his commands to box, therefereefinally stopped the fight near the middle of the sixth round. The fight was initially ruled a win for Tyson bydisqualification(DQ) of his opponent. The ruling was \"adjusted\" to a win bytechnical knockout(TKO) after Tyson's corner protested that a DQ win would end Tyson's string of knockout victories, and that a knockout would have been the inevitable result. In July, after recording six more knockout victories, Tyson fought former world title challengerMarvis FrazierinGlens Falls, New York, on another ABC Sports broadcast. Tyson won easily, charging at Frazier at the opening bell and hitting him with two consecutive uppercuts, the second of which knocked Frazier unconscious thirty seconds into the fight. After his win over Frazier, Tyson was booked to fightJosé Ribaltaat theTrump Plaza Hotel and Casinoin Atlantic City, New Jersey in 1986.Ribalta would hit Tyson in the body throughout the fight. Tyson knocked down Ribalta three times in the 2nd, 8th, and 10th round when the referee called the fight off. Tyson would go on to say that Ribalta was his toughest fight commenting, \"I hit Jose Ribalta with everything, and he took everything and kept coming back for more. Jose Ribalta stood toe to toe with me. He was very strong in the clinches,\" and \"Ribalta was a game fighter who actually engaged me. I felt nauseous from all Ribalta’s body blows, even hours after the fight. I never felt that much general pain again.\" WBC heavyweight champion Tyson vs. Berbick On November 22, 1986, Tyson was given his first title fight againstTrevor Berbickfor theWorld Boxing Council(WBC) heavyweight championship. Tyson won the title by TKO in the second round, and at the age of 20 years and 4 months became the youngest heavyweight champion in history.He added theWBAandIBFtitles after defeatingJames SmithandTony Tuckerin 1987. Tyson's dominant performance brought many accolades. Donald Saunders wrote: \"The noble and manly art of boxing can at least cease worrying about its immediate future, now it has discovered a heavyweight champion fit to stand alongside Dempsey, Tunney, Louis, Marciano, and Ali.\" Tyson intimidated fighters with his strength, combined with outstanding hand speed, accuracy, coordination and timing.Tyson also possessed notable defensive abilities, holding his hands high in thepeek-a-boostyle taught by his mentorCus D'Amatoto slip under and weave around his opponent's punches while timing his own.Tyson's explosive punching technique was due in large part to crouching immediately prior to throwing a hook or an uppercut: this allowed the \"spring\" of his legs to add power to the punch.Among his signature moves was a right hook to his opponent's body followed by a right uppercut to his opponent's chin. Lorenzo Boyd, Jesse Ferguson andJosé Ribaltawere each knocked down by this combination. Unified heavyweight champion Tyson vs. Smith, Thomas Expectations for Tyson were extremely high, and he was the favorite to win theheavyweight unification series, a tournament designed to establish an undisputed heavyweight champion. Tyson defended his title againstJames Smithon March 7, 1987, in Las Vegas, Nevada. He won by unanimous decision and added Smith'sWorld Boxing Association(WBA) title to his existing belt.\"Tyson-mania\" in the media was becoming rampant. He beatPinklon Thomasin May by TKO in the sixth round. Undisputed heavyweight champion Tyson vs. Tucker On August 1 he took theInternational Boxing Federation(IBF) title fromTony Tuckerin a twelve-round unanimous decision 119–111, 118–113, and 116–112.He became the first heavyweight to own all three major belts – WBA, WBC, and IBF – at the same time. Tyson vs. Biggs, Holmes, Tubbs Another fight, in October of that year, ended with a victory for Tyson over 1984 Olympic super heavyweight gold medalistTyrell Biggsby TKO in the seventh round. During this time, Tyson came to the attention of gaming companyNintendo. After witnessing one of Tyson's fights, Nintendo of America presidentMinoru Arakawawas impressed by the fighter's \"power and skill\", prompting him to suggest Tyson be included in the upcomingNintendo Entertainment Systemport of thePunch-Out!!arcade game. In 1987, Nintendo releasedMike Tyson's Punch-Out!!, which was well received and sold more than a million copies. Tyson had three fights in 1988. He facedLarry Holmeson January 22, 1988, and defeated the legendary former champion by KO in the fourth round.This was the only knockout loss Holmes had in 75 professional bouts. In March, Tyson then fought contenderTony Tubbsin Tokyo, Japan, fitting in an easy second-round TKO victory amid promotional and marketing work. Tyson vs. Spinks On June 27, 1988, Tyson facedMichael Spinks. Spinks, who had taken the heavyweight championship fromLarry Holmesvia fifteen-round decision in 1985, had not lost his title in the ring but was not recognized as champion by the major boxing organizations. Holmes had previously given up all but the IBF title, and that was eventually stripped from Spinks after he elected to fight Gerry Cooney (winning by TKO in the fifth round) rather than IBF Number 1 Contender Tony Tucker, as the Cooney fight provided him a larger purse. However, Spinks did become the lineal champion by beating Holmes and many (includingRingmagazine) considered him to have a legitimate claim to being the true heavyweight champion.The bout was, at the time, the richest fight in history and expectations were very high. Boxing pundits were predicting a titanic battle of styles, with Tyson's aggressive infighting conflicting with Spinks's skillful out-boxing and footwork. The fight ended after 91 seconds when Tyson knocked Spinks out in the first round; many consider this to be the pinnacle of Tyson's fame and boxing ability. During this period, Tyson's problems outside the ring were also beginning to emerge. His marriage toRobin Givenswas heading for divorce,and his future contract was being fought over byDon KingandBill Cayton.In late 1988, Tyson parted with manager Bill Cayton and fired longtime trainerKevin Rooney, the man many credit for honing Tyson's craft after the death of D'Amato.Following Rooney's departure, critics alleged that Tyson began to show less head movement and combination punching. Tyson vs. Bruno, Carl Williams In 1989, Tyson had only two fights amid personal turmoil. He faced the British boxerFrank Brunoin February. Bruno managed to stun Tyson at the end of the first round,although Tyson went on to knock Bruno out in the fifth round. Tyson then knocked outCarl \"The Truth\" Williamsin the first round in July. Tyson vs. Douglas By 1990, Tyson seemed to have lost direction, and his personal life was in disarray amidst reports of less vigorous training prior to theBuster Douglasmatch.In a fight on February 11, 1990, he lost the undisputed championship to Douglas in Tokyo.Tyson was a huge betting favorite; indeed, the Mirage, the only casino to put out odds for the fight, made Tyson a 42/1 favorite. Tyson failed to find a way past Douglas's quick jab that had a 12-inch (30 cm) reach advantage over his own.Tyson did catch Douglas with an uppercut in the eighth round and knocked him to the floor, but Douglas recovered sufficiently to hand Tyson a heavy beating in the subsequent two rounds. After the fight, the Tyson camp would complain that the count was slow and that Douglas had taken longer than ten seconds to get back on his feet.Just 35 seconds into the tenth round, Douglas unleashed a brutal uppercut, followed by a four-punch combination of hooks that knocked Tyson down for the first time in his career. He was counted out by refereeOctavio Meyran. The knockout victory by Douglas over Tyson, the previously undefeated \"baddest man on the planet\" and arguably the most feared boxer in professional boxing at that time, has been described as one of the most shockingupsetsin modern sports history. Return to the ring Despite the shocking loss, Tyson has said that losing to Douglas was the greatest moment of his career: \"I needed that fight to make me a better person and fighter. I have a broader perspective of myself and boxing.\" After the loss, Tyson recovered with first-round knockouts ofHenry TillmanandAlex Stewartin his next two fights. Tyson's victory over Tillman, the 1984 Olympic heavyweight gold medalist, enabled Tyson to avenge his amateur losses at Tillman's hands. These bouts set up an elimination match for another shot at the undisputed world heavyweight championship, whichEvander Holyfieldhad taken from Douglas in his first defense of the title. Tyson vs. Ruddock Tyson, who was the number one contender, faced number two contenderDonovan \"Razor\" Ruddockon March 18, 1991, in Las Vegas. Ruddock was seen as the most dangerous heavyweight around and was thought of as one of the hardest punching heavyweights. Tyson and Ruddock went back and forth for most of the fight, until refereeRichard Steelecontroversially stopped the fight during the seventh round in favor of Tyson. This decision infuriated the fans in attendance, sparking a post-fight melee in the audience. The referee had to be escorted from the ring. Tyson vs Ruddock II Tyson and Ruddock met again on June 28 that year, with Tyson knocking down Ruddock twice and winning a twelve-round unanimous decision 113–109, 114–108, and 114–108.A fight between Tyson and Holyfield for the undisputed championship was scheduled for November 8, 1991, atCaesars Palacein Las Vegas, but Tyson pulled out after sustaining a rib cartilage injury during training. Trial and incarceration Tyson was arrested in July 1991 for the rape of 18-year-old Desiree Washington at the Canterbury Hotel inIndianapolis. Washington, who had previously been \"crowned Miss BlackRhode Island\",was a contestant in the Miss Black America pageant, rehearsals for which were being held in the city. Tyson was charged with \"one count of rape, two counts of criminal deviate conduct, and one count of criminal confinement—charges that carried a maximum sentence of 63 years.\"Tyson's rape trial at theMarion Countysuperior court lasted from January 26 to February 10, 1992. Washington herself testified that Tyson had \"called her around 1:45 a.m. to tour the city, then picked her up in his limo, took her back to his room, and made small talk as they both sat on the bed.\"After propositioning her for sex, Washington stated that she firmly refused and went to use the bathroom before leaving. \"After using the bathroom, she said, she noticed some discharge on her panty shield. Washington said she removed the liner and threw it away.\"When she came out, \"Tyson then pulled her to the bed, pinned her down and raped her, she testified. “He was mean, evil,” she said. “I got on top and started to try to get away, but he slammed me down again.”\".\"Three days after the assault, Washington went to the police and accused Tyson of rape.\"Partial corroboration of Washington's story came via testimony from Tyson'schauffeur, Virginia Foster, who confirmed Desiree Washington's \"state of shock\"after the incident. Foster also testified that Tyson had previously attempted to sexually assault her too, having \"lured her to his hotel room, tried to touch her, and then exposed himself\".Further testimony came from theemergency roomphysician, Dr. Thomas Richardson, who examined Washington after the incident and confirmed that Washington's physical condition was consistent with rape.Richardson testified that Washington had suffered \"two small vaginal abrasions, consistent with 20 to 30 percent of the injuries seen in sexual assault cases\",and that in approximately 20,000 cases over a period of 20 years, \"only twice had he ever seen such abrasions following consensual sex.\" Under lead defense lawyerVincent J. Fuller's direct examination, Tyson claimed that everything had taken place with Washington's full consent and he claimed not to have forced himself upon her. When he was cross-examined by lead prosecutor Gregory Garrison, Tyson denied claims that he had misled Washington and insisted that she wanted to have sex with him.\"In a misguided attempt to show that Washington must have known that Tyson wanted sex, the defense called witness after witness to testify about their client’s lewd remarks and crude behavior during his encounters with the Miss Black America contestants, and even with Washington herself.\"Former attorney Mark Shaw argued that Tyson's \"case was mishandled, citing a jury-selection process that allowed a conservativeex-Marineto become foreman, a defense “strategy” of making Tyson look as bad as possible, and a disastrous decision to allow the defendant to testify at thegrand juryhearing, the trial, and his sentencing.\" Despite Fuller's reputation as \"one of the most skillful and respected defense attorneys not only in Washington, but in the country the defense team embarked on a game plan filled with ill-fated decisions and questionable strategies. While the famous Fuller seemed to give Tyson an imposing advantage, his background made him an illogical choice. Though he’d represented such notables asJohn Hinckley Jr.and junk-bond kingMichael Milken, his reputation came mostly from federal courtwhite-collar casessuch as tax fraud and bribery. He simply wasn’t familiar with the rough-and-tumble county criminal courts, and lacked recent experience in sex-crime cases. He couldn’t locate exhibits, fumbled his delivery, exhibited a lack of knowledge of Indiana law, and generally handled Tyson’s defense more like a first-year law student than a seasoned pro.\"Fuller had also successfully defended Tyson's manager, Don King, \"against federal tax-evasion charges\"in 1985, which may have been one of the reasons King chose him to represent Tyson. Tyson himself would later describe Fuller as \"a horrible lawyer\".According to Shaw, Fuller \"never challenged obvious problems in Washington’s story. Exactly why did she remove her panty shield? How did Tyson perform oral sex on her and still keep her pinned to the bed? If Tyson is one of the strongest men in the world, where were the bruises on the 108-pound woman?\" Tyson was convicted of the rape charge on February 10, 1992, after the jurydeliberatedfor nearly 10 hours. Alan Dershowitz, acting as Tyson's counsel, filed an appeal urging error of law in the Court's exclusion of evidence of the victim's past sexual conduct (known as theRape Shield Law; Dershowtiz alleged that Washington had \"falsely accused one of her high school classmates of rape\"),the exclusion of three potential defense witnesses, and the lack ofjury instructionson honest and reasonablemistake of fact.TheIndiana Court of Appealsruled against Tyson in a 2–1 vote.TheIndiana Supreme Courtlet the lower court opinion stand due to a 2–2 split in its review. The tie vote was due to the fact that the Chief Justice,Randall T. Shepard, recused himself from the case. The Chief Justice later revealed he did so because of a heated argument between his wife and Dershowitz at a Yale Law School reunion concerning the case.On March 26, 1992, Tyson was sentenced to six years in prison along with four years of probation.He was assigned to the Indiana Youth Center (now thePlainfield Correctional Facility) in April 1992,and he was released in March 1995 after serving less than three years of the sentence.He left with prison tattoosof tennis playerArthur Asheand Chinese communist leaderMao Zedong; Tyson also dates his tattoo of Marxist revolutionaryChe Guevarato this time. Due to his conviction, Tyson was required toregisteras a Tier IIsex offenderunderfederal law.Tyson has continued to maintain his innocence. In 1992, Erinn Cosby, the daughter of comedian and actorBill Cosby, publicly accused Tyson of sexually assaulting her in 1989, although no criminal charges were ever sought. Comeback After being paroled from prison, Tyson easily won his comeback bouts againstPeter McNeeleyandBuster Mathis Jr.Tyson's first comeback fight was marketed as \"He's back!\"and grossed more than US$96 million worldwide, including a United States record $63 million forPPVtelevision. The viewing of the fight was purchased by 1.52 million homes, setting both PPV viewership and revenue records.The 89-second fight elicited criticism that Tyson's management lined up \"tomato cans\" to ensure easy victories for his return.TV Guideincluded the Tyson–McNeeley fight in their list of the 50 Greatest TV Sports Moments of All Time in 1998. Second reign as unified heavyweight champion Tyson vs. Bruno II, Seldon Tyson regained one belt by easily winning the WBC title againstFrank Brunoin March 1996. It was the second fight between the two, and Tyson knocked out Bruno in the third round.In 1996,Lennox Lewisturned down a $13.5 million guarantee to fight Tyson. This would've been Lewis's highest fight purse to date. Lewis then accepted $4 million from Don King to step aside and allow Tyson to fightBruce Seldonfor an expected $30 million instead with the intention that if Tyson defeated Seldon, he would fight Lewis next.Tyson added the WBA belt by defeating champion Seldon in the first round in September that year. Seldon was severely criticized and mocked in the popular press for seemingly collapsing to innocuous punches from Tyson. Tyson vs. Holyfield Tyson attempted to defend the WBA title againstEvander Holyfield, who was in the fourth fight of his own comeback. Holyfield had retired in 1994 following the loss of his championship toMichael Moorer. It was said that Don King and others saw former champion Holyfield, who was 34 at the time of the fight and a huge underdog, as a washed-up fighter. On November 9, 1996, in Las Vegas, Nevada, Tyson faced Holyfield in a title bout dubbed \"Finally\". In a surprising turn of events, Holyfield, who was given virtually no chance to win by numerous commentators,defeated Tyson by TKO when refereeMitch Halpernstopped the bout in round eleven.Holyfield became the second boxer to win a heavyweight championship belt three times. Holyfield's victory was marred by allegations from Tyson's camp of Holyfield's frequentheadbuttsduring the bout. Although the headbutts were ruled accidental by the referee,they would become a point of contention in the rematch. Post-title career Tyson vs. Holyfield II Tyson and Holyfield fought again on June 28, 1997. Originally, Halpern was supposed to be the referee, but after Tyson's camp protested, Halpern stepped aside in favor ofMills Lane.The highly anticipated rematch was dubbedThe Sound and the Fury, and it was held at the Las VegasMGM Grand Garden Arena, site of the first bout. It was a lucrative event, drawing even more attention than the first bout and grossing $100 million. Tyson received $30 million and Holyfield $35 million, the highest paid professionalboxing pursesuntil 2007.The fight was purchased by 1.99 million households, setting a pay-per-view buy rate record that stood until May 5, 2007, being surpassed byOscar De La Hoya vs. Floyd Mayweather Jr. Soon to become one of the most controversial events in modern sports,the fight was stopped at the end of the third round, with Tyson disqualifiedfor biting Holyfield on both ears. The first time Tyson bit him, the match was temporarily stopped. Referee Mills Lane deducted two points from Tyson and the fight resumed. However, after the match resumed, Tyson bit him again, resulting in his disqualification, and Holyfield won the match. The first bite was severe enough to remove a piece of Holyfield's right ear, which was found on the ring floor after the fight.Tyson later stated that his actions were retaliation for Holyfield repeatedlyheadbuttinghim without penalty.In the confusion that followed the ending of the bout and announcement of the decision, a near riot occurred in the arena and several people were injured.Tyson Holyfield II was the first heavyweight title fight in over 50 years to end in a disqualification. As a fallout from the incident, US$3 million was immediately withheld from Tyson's $30-million purse by the Nevada state boxing commission (the most it could legally hold back at the time).Two days after the fight, Tyson issued a statement,apologizing to Holyfield for his actions and asked not to be banned for life over the incident.Tyson was roundly condemned in the news media but was not without defenders. Novelist and commentatorKatherine Dunnwrote a column that criticized Holyfield's sportsmanship in the controversial bout and charged the news media with being biased against Tyson. On July 9, 1997, Tyson's boxing license was rescinded by theNevada State Athletic Commissionin a unanimous voice vote; he was also fined US$3 million and ordered to pay the legal costs of the hearing.As most state athletic commissions honor sanctions imposed by other states, this effectively made Tyson unable to box in the United States. The revocation was not permanent, as the commission voted 4–1 to restore Tyson's boxing license on October 18, 1998. During his time away from boxing in 1998, Tyson made a guest appearance atWrestleMania XIVas anenforcerfor the main event match betweenShawn MichaelsandSteve Austin. During this time, Tyson was also an unofficial member of Michaels'sstable,D-Generation X. Tyson was paid $3 million for being guest enforcer of the match at WrestleMania XIV. \"I'm the best ever. I'm the most brutal and vicious, the most ruthless champion there has ever been. There's no one can stop me.Lennoxis a conqueror? No! I'mAlexander! He's no Alexander! I'm the best ever. There's never been anyone as ruthless. I'mSonny Liston. I'mJack Dempsey. There's no one like me. I'm from their cloth. There is no one who can match me. My style is impetuous, my defense is impregnable, and I'm just ferocious. I want your heart! I want to eat his children! Praise be to Allah!\" —Tyson's post-fight interview after knocking outLou Savarese38 seconds into the bout in June 2000. In January 1999, Tyson returned to the ring for a match against the South AfricanFrancois Botha. This match also ended in controversy. While Botha initially controlled the fight, Tyson allegedly attempted to break Botha's arms during a tie-up and both boxers were cautioned by the referee in the ill-tempered bout. Botha was ahead on points on all scorecards and was confident enough to mock Tyson as the fight continued. Nonetheless, Tyson landed a straight right hand in the fifth round that knocked out Botha.Critics noticed Tyson stopped using the bob and weave defense altogether following this return.Promoting the fight onSecaucus, New Jerseytelevision stationWWOR-TV, Tyson launched into an expletive-laden tirade that forced sports anchor Russ Salzberg to cut the interview short. Legal problems arose with Tyson once again. On February 5, 1999, Tyson was sentenced to a year's imprisonment, fined $5,000, and ordered to serve two yearsprobationalong with undergoing 200 hours ofcommunity servicefor assaulting two motorists after a traffic accident on August 31, 1998.He served nine months of that sentence. After his release, he foughtOrlin Norrison October 23, 1999. Tyson knocked down Norris with a left hook thrown after the bell sounded to end the first round. Norris injured his knee when he went down and said that he was unable to continue. Consequently, the bout was ruled ano contest. In 2000, Tyson had three fights. The first match in January was staged at theMEN Arenain Manchester, England againstJulius Francis. Following controversy as to whether Tyson was allowed into the country, he took four minutes to knock out Francis, ending the bout in the second round.He also foughtLou Savaresein June 2000 inGlasgow, winning in the first round; the fight lasted only 38 seconds. Tyson continued punching after the referee had stopped the fight, knocking the referee to the floor as he tried to separate the boxers.It was after this fight that Tyson called out Lennox Lewis with his post fight speech proclaiming that he was the \"best ever\" and he was \"Sonny Listion and Jack Dempsey, cut from their cloth.\"In October, Tyson fought the similarly controversialAndrew Golota,winning in round three after Gołota was unable to continue due to a broken cheekbone, concussion, and neck injury.The result was later changed to no contest after Tyson refused to take a pre-fight drug test and then tested positive formarijuanain a post-fight urine test.Tyson fought only once in 2001, beatingBrian Nielsenin Copenhagen by TKO in the seventh round. Tyson vs. Lewis Tyson once again had the opportunity to fight for a heavyweight championship in 2002.Lennox Lewisheld the WBC, IBF,IBOandLinealtitles at the time. As promising fighters, Tyson and Lewis had sparred at a training camp in a meeting arranged by Cus D'Amato in 1984.Tyson sought to fight Lewis in Nevada for a more lucrative box-office venue, but the Nevada Boxing Commission refused him a license to box as he was facing possiblesexual assaultcharges at the time. Two years prior to the bout, Tyson had made several inflammatory remarks to Lewis in an interview following the Savarese fight. The remarks included the statement \"I want your heart, I want to eat your children.\"On January 22, 2002, the two boxers and their entourages were involved in a brawl at a New Yorkpress conferenceto publicize the planned event.A few weeks later, the Nevada State Athletic Commission refused to grant Tyson a license for the fight, and the promoters had to make alternative arrangements. After multiple states balked at granting Tyson a license, the fight eventually occurred on June 8 at thePyramid ArenainMemphis, Tennessee. Lewis dominated the fight and knocked out Tyson with a right hand in the eighth round. Tyson was respectful after the fight and praised Lewis on his victory.This fight was the highest-grossing event inpay-per-viewhistory at that time, generating $106.9 million from 1.95 million buys in the US. In another Memphis fight on February 22, 2003, Tyson beat fringe contenderClifford Etienne49 seconds into round one. The pre-fight was marred by rumors of Tyson's lack of fitness. Some said that he took time out from training to party in Las Vegas and geta new facial tattoo.This eventually proved to be Tyson's final professional victory in the ring. In August 2003, after years of financial struggles, Tyson finally filed for bankruptcy.Tyson earned over $30 million for several of his fights and $300 million during his career. At the time, the media reported that he had approximately $23 million in debt. On August 13, 2003, Tyson entered the ring for a face-to-face confrontation againstK-1fighterBob Sappimmediately after Sapp's win againstKimo Leopoldoin Las Vegas. K-1 signed Tyson to a contract with the hopes of making a fight happen between the two, but Tyson's felony history made it impossible for him to obtain a visa to enter Japan, where the fight would have been most profitable. Alternative locations were discussed, but the fight ultimately did not take place. On July 30, 2004, Tyson had a match against British boxerDanny Williamsin another comeback fight, and this time, staged inLouisville, Kentucky. Tyson dominated the opening two rounds. The third round was even, with Williams getting in some clean blows and also a few illegal ones, for which he was penalized. In the fourth round, Tyson was unexpectedly knocked out. After the fight, it was revealed that Tyson was trying to fight on one leg, having torn aligamentin his other knee in the first round. This was Tyson's fifth career defeat.He underwent surgery for the ligament four days after the fight. His manager,Shelly Finkel, claimed that Tyson was unable to throw significant right-hand punches since he had a knee injury. Retirement Tyson vs. McBride On June 11, 2005, Tyson quit before the start of the seventh round in a close bout against journeymanKevin McBride. In the 2008 documentaryTyson, he stated that he fought McBride for a payday, that he did not anticipate winning, that he was in poor physical condition and fed up with taking boxing seriously. After losing three of his last four fights, Tyson said he would quit boxing because he felt he had lost his passion for the sport. In 2000 Tyson dismissed everyone who was working for him and enlisted new accountants, who prepared a statement showing he started the year $3.3 million in debt but earned $65.7 million.In August 2007, Tyson pleaded guilty to drug possession and driving under the influence in an Arizona court, which stemmed from an arrest in December where authorities said Tyson, who has a long history of legal contentions, admitted to using cocaine that day and to being addicted to the drug. In his 2013 autobiographyUndisputed Truth, Tyson admitted to using the urine of his then wife Monica Turner to pass doping tests. He was married to Turner from 1997 to 2003. He also used his infant's urine for the same purpose. Tyson vs. Paul In March 2024, it was announced that Tyson would be making his ring return againstJake Paulin a heavyweight bout on July 20, 2024, atAT&T StadiuminArlington, Texas.On April 29, 2024, it was announced that the fight would be sanctioned as a professional boxing match by Texas Department of Licensing and Regulations (TDLR).On May 26, 2024, Tyson suffered an ulcer flare aboard a plane.On May 31, 2024, it was announced that the fight was postponed per medical advice from Tyson's doctor, allowing him to recover from his ulcer flareup.On June 7, 2024, it was announced that the fight will take place at the same arena on November 15, 2024. Exhibition bouts Mike Tyson's World Tour To help pay off his debts, Tyson announced he would be doing a series of exhibition bouts, calling it Tyson's World Tour. For his first bout, Tyson returned to the ring in 2006 for a four-roundexhibitionagainst journeyman heavyweightCorey Sandersin Youngstown, Ohio.Tyson, without headgear at 5 ft 10 in and 216 pounds, was in quality shape, but far from his prime against Sanders, at 6 ft 6 inwho wore headgear. Tyson appeared to be \"holding back\" in the exhibition to prevent an early end to the \"show\". \"If I don't get out of this financial quagmire there's a possibility I may have to be a punching bag for somebody. The money I make isn't going to help my bills from a tremendous standpoint, but I'm going to feel better about myself. I'm not going to be depressed\", explained Tyson about the reasons for his \"comeback\".After the bout was poorly received by fans the remainder of the tour was canceled. Tyson vs. Jones It was announced in July 2020 that Tyson had signed a contract to face formerfour-division world champion,Roy Jones Jr., in an eight-round exhibition fight.Mixed martial artscoachRafael Cordeirowas selected to be Tyson's trainer and cornerman.The bout—officially sanctioned by theCalifornia State Athletic Commission(CSAC)—was initially scheduled to take place on September 12 at theDignity Health Sports ParkinCarson, California,however, the date was pushed back to November 28 in order to maximize revenue for the event. The fight went the full 8 rounds, and was declared a draw.The fight was a split draw and the three judges scored the fight as follows: Chad Dawson (76–76 draw), Christy Martin (79–73 for Tyson), and Vinny Pazienza (76–80 for Jones). Mike Tyson's Legends Only League In July 2020, Mike Tyson announced the creation of Mike Tyson's Legends Only League.Tyson formed the league in partnership with Sophie Watts and her company, Eros Innovations.The league provides retired professional athletes the opportunity to compete in their respective sport.On November 28, 2020, Mike Tyson fought Roy Jones Jr. at the Staples Center in the first event produced under Legends Only League.The event received largely positive reviews and was the highest selling PPV event of 2020, which ranks in the Top-10 for PPV purchased events all-time. Legacy Tyson wasThe Ringmagazine's Fighter of the Year in 1986 and 1988.A 1998 ranking of \"The Greatest Heavyweights of All-Time\" byThe Ringmagazine placed Tyson at number 14 on the list.Despite criticism of facing underwhelming competition during his run as champion, Tyson's knockout power and intimidation factor made him the sport's most dynamic box-office draw.According to Douglas Quenqua ofThe New York Times, \"The began with Mike Tyson, considered by many to be the last great heavyweight champion, losing his title to the little-known Buster Douglas. Seven years later, Mr. Tyson bit Evander Holyfield's ear in a heavyweight champion bout—hardly a proud moment for the sport.\" He is remembered for his attire of black trunks, black shoes with no socks, and a plain white towel fit around his neck in place of a traditional robe, as well as his habit of rapidly pacing the ring before the start of a fight.In his prime, Tyson rarely took a step back and had never been knocked down or seriously challenged.According toMartial Arts World Report, it gave Tyson an Honorable Mention in its Ten Greatest Heavyweights of All Time rather than a ranking because longevity is a factor and the peak period of Tyson's career lasted only about 5 years. BoxReccurrently ranks Tyson at number 20 among the greatest boxers that had their last fight at heavyweight.InThe Ringmagazine's list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years, released in 2002, Tyson was ranked at number 72.He is ranked number 16 onThe Ringmagazine's 2003 list of 100 greatest punchers of all time.Tyson has defeated11 boxersfor the world heavyweight title, the seventh-most in history. On June 12, 2011, Tyson was inducted to theInternational Boxing Hall of Famealongside legendary Mexican championJulio César Chávez, light welterweight championKostya Tszyu, and actor/screenwriterSylvester Stallone.In 2011,Bleacher Reportomitted Tyson from its list of top 10 heavyweights, saying that \"Mike Tyson is not a top 10 heavyweight. He killed the fighters he was supposed to beat, but when he fought another elite fighter, he always lost. I'm not talking about some of those B-level fighters he took a belt from. I'm talking about the handful of good boxers he fought throughout his career.\" In 2013, Tyson was inducted into theNevada Boxing Hall of Fameand headlined the induction ceremony.Tyson was inducted into the Southern Nevada Hall of Fame in 2015 along with four other inductees with ties to Southern Nevada. Tyson reflected on his strongest opponents in ten categories for a 2014 interview withThe Ringmagazine, including best jab, best defense, fastest hands, fastest feet, best chin, smartest, strongest, best puncher, best boxer, and best overall. In 2017,The Ringmagazine ranked Tyson as number 9 of 20 heavyweight champions based on a poll of panelists that included trainers, matchmakers, media, historians, and boxers, including: In 2020, Bill Caplan ofThe Ringmagazine listed Tyson as number 17 of the 20 greatest heavyweights of all time.Tyson spoke withThe Ringmagazine in 2020 about his six greatest victories, those over Trevor Berbick, Pinklon Thomas, Tony Tucker, Tyrell Biggs, Larry Holmes, and Michael Spinks.In 2020, CBS Sports boxing experts Brian Campbell and Brent Brookhouse ranked the top 10 heavyweights of the last 50 years and Tyson was ranked number 7. Life after boxing In an interview withUSA Todaypublished on June 3, 2005, Tyson said, \"My whole life has been a waste – I've been a failure.\" He continued: \"I just want to escape. I'm really embarrassed with myself and my life. I want to be a missionary. I think I could do that while keeping my dignity without letting people know they chased me out of the country. I want to get this part of my life over as soon as possible. In this country nothing good is going to come of me. People put me so high; I wanted to tear that image down.\"Tyson began to spend much of his time tending to his 350 pigeons inParadise Valley, an upscale enclave nearPhoenix, Arizona. Tyson has stayed in the limelight by promoting various websites and companies.In the past Tyson had shunned endorsements, accusing other athletes of putting on a false front to obtain them.Tyson has held entertainment boxing shows at a casino in Las Vegasand started a tour of exhibition bouts to pay off his numerous debts. In October 2012, Tyson launched the Mike Tyson Cares Foundation.The mission of the Mike Tyson Cares Foundation is to \"give kids a fighting chance\" with innovative centers that provide for the comprehensive needs of kids from broken homes. In August 2013, Tyson teamed up with Acquinity Sports to formIron Mike Productions, a boxing promotions company. In September 2013, Tyson was featured on a six-episode television series onFox Sports 1that documented his personal and private life entitledBeing: Mike Tyson. In November 2013, Tyson'sUndisputed Truthwas published, which appeared onThe New York TimesBest Seller list.At the Golden Podium Awards Ceremony, Tyson received the Sportel Special Prize for the best autobiography. In May 2017, Tyson published his second book,Iron Ambition,which details his time with trainer and surrogate fatherCus D'Amato. In February 2018, Tyson attended the international mixed martial arts (MMA) tournament in the Russian city ofChelyabinsk. Tyson said: \"As I have travelled all over the country of Russia I have realised that the people are very sensitive and kind. But most Americans do not have any experience of that.\" On May 12, 2020, Tyson posted a video on his Instagram of him training again. At the end of the video, Tyson hinted at a return to boxing by saying, \"I'm back\". On May 23, 2020, atAll Elite Wrestling'sDouble or Nothing, Tyson helpedCodydefeatLance ArcheralongsideJake Robertsand presented him the inauguralAEW TNT Championship. Tyson alongsideHenry Cejudo,Rashad Evans, andVitor Belfortappeared on the May 27 episode ofAEW Dynamitefacing off againstChris Jerichoand his stableThe Inner Circle.Tyson returned to AEW on the April 7, 2021, episode ofDynamiteand helped Jericho from being attacked byThe Pinnacle, beating downShawn Spearsin the process.He was thespecial guest enforceron the April 14 episode ofDynamitefor a match between Jericho andDax Harwoodof The Pinnacle, a preview of the upcoming Inner Circle vs. Pinnacle match atBlood and Guts. Tyson made an extended cameo appearance in the Telugu-Hindi movieLiger, which released on August 25, 2022. Personal life Marriages and children Tyson resides inSeven Hills, Nevada.He has been married three times, and has seven children, one deceased, with three women; in addition to his biological children, Tyson includes his second wife's oldest daughter as one of his own. Tyson married actressRobin Givenson February 7, 1988, at Holy Angels Catholic Church during a traditional ceremony in Chicago.Givens was known at the time for her role on the sitcomHead of the Class.Tyson's marriage to Givens was especially tumultuous, with allegations of violence,spousal abuse, and mental instability on Tyson's part. Matters came to a head when Tyson and Givens gave a joint interview withBarbara Walterson theABCTVnewsmagazineshow20/20in September 1988, in which Givens described life with Tyson as \"torture, pure hell, worse than anything I could possibly imagine.\"Givens also described Tyson as \"manic depressive\" – which was later confirmed by doctors– on national television while Tyson looked on with an intent and calm expression.A month later, Givens announced that she was seeking a divorce from the allegedly abusive Tyson,with the two officially separating on February 14, 1989. According to the bookFire and Fear: The Inside Story of Mike Tyson, Tyson admitted that he punched Givens and stated, \"that was the best punch I've ever thrown in my entire life.\"Tyson claimed that the book was \"filled with inaccuracies.\"Tyson and Givens had no children, but she reported having had amiscarriage; Tyson claimed that she was never pregnant and only used that to get him to marry her.During their marriage, the couple lived in a mansion inBernardsville, New Jersey. Tyson's second marriage was to Monica Turner from April 19, 1997, to January 14, 2003.At the time of the divorce filing, Turner worked as apediatricresidentatGeorgetown University Medical Centerin Washington, D.C.She is the sister ofMichael Steele, the formerLieutenant Governor of Marylandand formerRepublican National Committeechairman.Turner filed for divorce from Tyson in January 2002, claiming that he committedadulteryduring their five-year marriage, an act that \"has neither been forgiven nor condoned.\"The couple had two children; son Amir and Ramsey who self-identifies asnon-binary. On May 25, 2009, Tyson's four-year-old daughter Exodus was found by her seven-year-old brother Miguel unconscious and tangled in a cord, dangling from an exercise treadmill. The child's mother, Sol Xochitl, untangled her, administeredCPRand called for medical attention. Tyson, who was in Las Vegas at the time of the incident, traveled back to Phoenix to be with her. She died of her injuries on May 26, 2009. Eleven days after his daughter's death, Tyson wed for the third time, to longtime girlfriend Lakiha \"Kiki\" Spicer, age 32, exchanging vows on Saturday, June 6, 2009, in a short, private ceremony at the La Bella Wedding Chapel at the Las Vegas Hilton.They have two children; daughter Milan and son Morocco. Religious beliefs Raised as aCatholic,Tyson has stated that he converted toIslambefore entering prison and that he made no efforts to correct what was reported in the media,although it was falsely reported that heconverted to Islamduring his time in prison and adopted theMuslim nameMalik Abdul Aziz;some sources report it as Malik Shabazz.Tyson never changed his given name to an Islamic one, despite the rumors. In November 2013, Tyson stated \"the more I look into the churches and mosques for god, the more I start seeing the devil\".But, just a month later, in a December 2013 interview with Fox News, Tyson said that he is very grateful to be a Muslim and that he needs Allah in his life. In the same interview Tyson talked about his progress with sobriety and how being in the company of good people has made him want to be a better and more humble person. He first completed the Islamic pilgrimageUmrahin July 2010and more recently in December 2022 accompanied byDJ Khaled, aPalestinian AmericanMuslim. Diet In March 2011, Tyson appeared onThe Ellen DeGeneres Showto discuss his newAnimal Planetreality seriesTaking On Tyson. In the interview with DeGeneres, Tyson discussed some of the ways he had improved his life in the past two years, including sober living and avegandiet.However, in August 2013 he admitted publicly that he had lied about his sobriety and was on the verge of death from alcoholism. Tyson also revealed that he is no longer vegan, stating, \"I was a vegan for four years but not anymore. I eat chicken every now and then. I should be a vegan. at all, no way! I would be very sick if I ate red meat. That's probably why I was so crazy before.\" Political views In 2015, Tyson announced that he was supportingDonald Trump'spresidential candidacy. Controversies and legal challenges On December 29, 2006, Tyson was arrested inScottsdale, Arizona, on suspicion ofDUIandfelonydrug possession; he nearly crashed into a police SUV shortly after leaving a nightclub. According to a police probable-cause statement, filed inMaricopa CountySuperior Court, \" admitted to using today and stated he is an addict and has a problem.\"Tyson pleaded not guilty on January 22, 2007, in Maricopa County Superior Court to felony drug possession and paraphernalia possession counts and two misdemeanor counts of driving under the influence of drugs. On February 8 he checked himself into an inpatient treatment program for \"various addictions\" while awaiting trial on the drug charges. On September 24, 2007, Tyson pleaded guilty to possession of cocaine and driving under the influence. He was convicted of these charges in November 2007 and sentenced to 24 hours in jail. After his release, he was ordered to serve three years' probation and complete 360 hours of community service. Prosecutors had requested a year-long jail sentence, but the judge praised Tyson for seeking help with his drug problems.On November 11, 2009, Tyson was arrested after getting into a scuffle at Los Angeles International airport with a photographer.No charges were filed. In September 2011, Tyson gave an interview in which he made comments about former Alaska governorSarah Palinincluding crude and violent descriptions of interracial sex. These comments were reprinted onThe Daily Callerwebsite. JournalistGreta van Susterencriticized Tyson andThe Daily Callerover the comments, which she described as \"smut\" and \"violence against women\". On April 20, 2022, on aJetBlueflight from San Francisco to Florida, Tyson repeatedly punched a male passenger who was harassing him, including throwing water on Tyson; he did not face criminal charges. In 2023, an unnamed woman filed a $5 million lawsuit against Tyson, accusing him of raping her in his limousine in the early 90s. She accused Tyson of kissing her several times before pulling off her pants and raping her, despite repeatedly telling him to stop.The woman claims to have experienced \"guilt, loss of self-esteem, shame, embarrassment, sadness, anger, depression, anxiety, violent tendencies, drug and alcohol addiction and confusion\", as well as inability \"to maintain and/or develop healthy relationships with men or other people in general\". In November 2023, Tyson found himself amidst criticism and rumors regarding his alleged donation to theIsraeli Defense Forcesafter he was photographed attending a November 13 eventsponsored byFriends of the IDF(FIDF) to fundraise for theIsrael–Hamas war, which seemed to clash with his previous statements aboutPalestinians. This led to a social media backlash, prompting Tyson to release the following statement on Instagram: \"I want to clarify the recent portrayal of an event I attended,\" he wrote on Thursday. \"Invited for a casual evening out by a friend, I was unaware of the arranged fundraiser and no donations were made by me or on my behalf. As a Muslim and human, I support peace. My prayers have been and continue to be with my brothers and sisters.\" In popular culture At the height of his fame and career in the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, Tyson was among the most recognized sports personalities in the world. In addition to his many sporting accomplishments, his outrageous and controversial behavior in the ring and in his private life has kept him in the public eye and in the courtroom.As such, Tyson has been the subject of myriad popular media including movies, television, books and music. He has also been featured in video games and as a subject of parody or satire. Tyson became involved inprofessional wrestlingand has made manycameo appearancesin film and television. The filmTysonwas released in 1995 and was directed byUli Edel. It explores the life of Mike Tyson, from the death of his guardian and trainerCus D'Amatoto his rape conviction. Tyson is played byMichael Jai White. In 2006, Tyson appeared as himself in a cameo role in the filmRocky Balboa. Published in 2007, author Joe Layden's bookThe Last Great Fight: The Extraordinary Tale of Two Men and How One Fight Changed Their Lives Forever, chronicled the lives of Tyson and Douglas before and after their heavyweight championship fight. In 2008, the documentaryTysonpremiered at the annualCannes Film Festivalin France. Tyson played a fictionalized version of himself in the 2009 filmThe Hangover. After debuting aone-man showin Las Vegas, Tyson collaborated with film directorSpike Leeand brought the show toBroadwayin August 2012.In February 2013, Tyson took his one-man showMike Tyson: Undisputed Truthon a 36-city, three-month national tour. Tyson talks about his personal and professional life on stage.The one-man show was aired onHBOon November 16, 2013. In 2013, he appeared in an episode ofLaw and Order: SVUas a survivor of child-abuse awaiting execution for murder. He is the titular character inMike Tyson Mysteries, which started airing on October 27, 2014, onAdult Swim. In the animated series, Tyson voices a fictionalized version of himself, solving mysteries in the style ofScooby-Doo. In early March 2015, Tyson appeared on the track \"Iconic\" onMadonna's albumRebel Heart. Tyson says some lines at the beginning of the song. In late March 2015,Ip Man 3was announced. WithDonnie Yenreprising his role as the titular character,Bruce Lee's martial arts master,Ip Man, while Mike Tyson has been confirmed to join the cast.Principal photography began on March 25, 2015, and was premiered in Hong Kong on December 16, 2015. In January 2017, Tyson launched his YouTube channel withShots Studios, a comedy video and comedy music production company with young digital stars likeLele PonsandRudy Mancuso. Tyson's channel includes parody music videos and comedy sketches. He hosts the podcastHotboxin' with Mike Tyson. In October 2017, Tyson was announced as the new face of Australian car servicing franchiseUltra Tune. He took over fromJean-Claude van Dammein fronting television commercials for the brand, and the first advert aired in January 2018 during the Australian Open.However, the ad was quickly attacked,even leading Tyson himself to describe it as \"a little sexist.\" A jointMainland China-Hong Kong-directed film on female friendship titledGirls 2: Girls vs Gangsters(Vietnamese:Girls 2: Những Cô Gái và Găng Tơ) that was shot earlier from July–August 2016 at several locations aroundVietnamwas released in March 2018, featuring Tyson as \"Dragon\". Tiki Lau released a dance music single, \"Mike Tyson\", in October 2020, which includes vocals from Tyson. In 2021, Mike's Hard Lemonade Seltzer featured ads with Tyson. In March 2021, it was announced thatJamie Foxxwill star in, and also executive produce the official scripted seriesTyson.The limited series will be directed byAntoine Fuquaand executive produced byMartin Scorsese. A two-part documentary series titledMike Tyson: The Knockoutpremiered on May 25, 2021, onABC. Tyson and his family appeared in the 300th episode ofHell's Kitchenas VIP guests in the Blue Team's kitchen duringSeason 20's opening dinner service that aired on June 7, 2021. On August 25, 2022,Hulureleased a biographical drama limited series about Tyson, entitledMike, depicting his life and career.On August 6, 2022, Tyson spoke out about the series, saying, \"Hulu stole my story\" and telling the service that \"I'm not a n****r you can sell on the auction block.\" Professional boxing record Exhibition boxing record Pay-per-view bouts Boxing PPV home television Closed-circuit theater TV Selectpay-per-viewboxing buy rates at Americanclosed-circuittheater television venues: Professional wrestling World Wrestling Federation All Elite Wrestling Filmography Awards and honors Humane letters TheCentral State Universityin Wilberforce, Ohio, in 1989 awarded Tyson an honoraryDoctorate in Humane Letters: \"Mike demonstrates that hard work, determination and perseverance can enable one to overcome any obstacles.\" Boxing Professional wrestling See also Notes References External links", "Mike Tyson vs. Buster Douglas Mike Tysonvs.Buster Douglas, billed asTyson is Back!, was aprofessional boxingmatch that occurred at theTokyo Domeon February 11, 1990.The then-undefeated,undisputedheavyweightchampion Tyson lost byknockoutto the 42-1underdogDouglas. The fight is widely regarded as one of the biggestupsetsin sports history. Background Going into the fight, Mike Tyson was the undefeated and undisputed heavyweight champion of the world and was very popular at the time. He held theWBC,WBA, andIBFtitles. Despite several controversies that marred Tyson's profile at the time, such as his allegedly abusive relationship withRobin Givens, contractual battles between longtime managerBill Caytonand promoterDon King, and Tyson's departure from longtime trainerKevin Rooney,Tyson was still dominant in the ring. He scored a 93-second knockout againstCarl \"The Truth\" Williamsin his previous fight. Most considered this fight to be a warm-up bout for Tyson before meeting up with then-undefeated number-one heavyweight contenderEvander Holyfield(who was ringside for the fight).Tyson was viewed as such a dominant champion that he was often considered the number-one fighter in the worldpound-for-pound(including byRing Magazine), a rarity for heavyweights. Buster Douglas was ranked as the #7 heavyweight contender byRing Magazineand had met with mixed success in his professional career up to that point. Hisprevious title fightwas againstTony Tuckerin 1987, in which he was TKO'd in the 10th round. However, six consecutive wins since the Tucker fight—including victories over former world championTrevor Berbickand future world championOliver McCall—gave him the opportunity to fight Tyson. In the time leading up to the fight, Douglas faced a number of personal setbacks, including the death of his mother, Lula Pearl, 23 days before the fight.Additionally, the mother of his son had a severe kidney ailment, and he had contracted the flu on the day before the fight. HBOboxing analystsLarry MerchantandJim Lampleyexpected to see \"another 90-second annihilation.\" (When asked by a Japanese customs official how long he expected to be working in Japan, Ed Schuyler of theAssociated Pressreplied, \"Oh, about ninety seconds.\") Instead of discussing Douglas's chances against Tyson, Merchant and Lampley compared their pets: Tyson had a whitepitbullnamed \"Duran\" (after his idolRoberto Durán) while Douglas had abeaglenamed \"Shakespeare.\" Merchant, after saying that \"this fight is over before it begins or soon thereafter\" and describing Douglas as \"just another frozen tuna\" from theTokyo fish market, opined that \"any prizefighter with a dog named Shakespeare can't be all-bad.\" In an interview given to HBO prior to the fight, Douglas told reporters that his favorite Shakespeare play was the romantic tragedyRomeo and Juliet. Lampley suggested that if Tyson were asked the same question (assuming he had read Shakespeare), he would choose something more bloody and violent, such asHenry the FifthorMacbeth. SingerBobby Brownwrote in his autobiography that he met with Tyson in Tokyo and the two partied extensively the night before the fight. Brown claims Tyson refused to go to sleep early for the fight, deeming Douglas \"an amateur\" he could beat \"if I didn't sleep for five weeks\". Fight From the beginning of the fight, it was apparent that Douglas was not afraid. Douglas displayed a lot of spring in his body movement and was not cautious in letting his punches fly whenever he saw the opportunity to attack Tyson. He used his quick and accurate jab to prevent Tyson from getting inside, where Tyson was most dangerous. When Tyson tried to get inside, Douglas tied him up, moved away, or would immediately hit Tyson with multiple punches as Tyson came within Douglas' range. Early on, Douglas was more agile than Tyson and outlanded Tyson in exchanges. Douglas finished the second round with a snappy uppercut to Tyson's chin. Seeming to regain his form, Tyson landed a punishing left to the body that had Douglas look at his corner. After an ineffectual and lackluster third round, Tyson cornerman Jay Bright screamed at his fighter \"Don't just stand there and look at him, you've gotta work!\" Boxer \"Sugar\" Ray Leonard, at ringside doing commentary forHBO, noted Douglas' dominance with the jab and right hand and said Tyson was having one of those occasional days in the ring where \"you just don't have it...things just don't click in\". Douglas would still dominate the middle rounds, although Tyson managed to land a few of his signature uppercuts. Tyson was wobbled by a chopping right during the fifth round. Soon, Tyson's left eye began to swell from Douglas' right jabs, preventing him from seeing his opponent's punches well.Tyson's cornermen were caught unprepared; they were so confident Tyson would easily beat Douglas that they had not brought anendswellor ice packs, usually standard equipment for a fight. Instead, they filled a latex glove with ice water and held it on Tyson's eye between rounds. Aaron Snowell, Tyson's primary cornerman, at one point caught the chain from the identification badge hanging from his neck between the iced glove and Tyson's eye. Tyson winced in pain as Snowell moved dragging the chain from one side of his injured eye to the other. Confusion and panic grew in his corner as the fight went on. Despite Tyson's inability to execute an effective fight plan, his corner continued to give him the same advice between rounds to move his head, jab his way inside and deliver a right hand. In the eighth round -- a round Douglas dominated until the last few seconds --HBO's Larry Merchant noted, \"Douglas is asking of Tyson some questions he hasn't been asked before...in the last few rounds of a fight, you have to come back and win it.\" Within the last ten seconds of the eighth round, Tyson, who had been backed onto the ropes, landed a big right uppercut that sent Douglas to the canvas. Although the knockdown timekeeper began when Douglas's backside touched the ring's surface, the referee was said to have started his own count behind by two beats. Douglas rose as the referee signaled nine, but the bell ended the round. In obvious annoyance at his own lapse, Douglas pounded his left fist on the mat.Tyson promoterDon Kingwould later argue the validity of the referee count in vain. In the ninth round, Tyson came out aggressively to try to end the fight and save his title, hoping that Douglas was still hurt from the knockdown. Douglas was able to fight off Tyson's attack and was able to close Tyson's eye completely. Both men traded punches before Douglas connected on a four-punch combination that staggered Tyson back to the ropes. With Tyson hurt along the ropes, Douglas closed in and unleashed a four-punch attack to try to knock Tyson out. Tyson withstood the punishment and barely survived the round. In the tenth round, Tyson pushed forward, but he was still hurting from the accumulation of punishment he had absorbed throughout the match. As Tyson advanced, Douglas measured him with a few jabs before landing an uppercut that snapped Tyson's head upward, stopping Tyson in his tracks. As Tyson reeled back, Douglas immediately followed with four punches to the head, knocking Tyson down for the first time in his career. In a famous scene, Tyson fumbled for his mouthpiece on the canvas before sticking one end in his mouth with the other end hanging out. The champion attempted to make it back to his feet, but refereeOctavio Meyrancounted him out. Buster Douglas thus became the new undisputed heavyweight champion, engineering one of the biggestupsetsin boxing history. The official scorecards through nine rounds were 87–86 for Tyson, 86–86, and 88–83 for Douglas. During the post-fight interview, Douglas broke down in tears when asked why he was able to win this fight when no one thought he could. \"Because of my mother...God bless her heart,\" said the emotional new champion. Merchant concluded that it was the expulsion ofKevin Rooney, who still rooted for Tyson every time he watched him fight (despite their split), which led to the stunning knockout loss. Merchant said Tyson needed Rooney in much the same way thatMuhammad AlineededAngelo Dundee. Merchant speculated that with Rooney in his corner, Tyson would have managed to end the fight on his feet, and to change the tide of the fight, exactly as in the Tucker fight, after he was rocked in the first round but weathered the storm with Rooney's help and came back determined to win, outboxing his opponent.Butch Lewisshared the same opinion, believing that after he got rid of Rooney, Tyson found himself in a situation where there was no one to enforce compliance with the training regimen and a normal daily routine, and tell him \"Back on track, Mike!\" when needed. So didJerry Izenberg, who commented:\"They assemble a corner for that fight which looks like it was picked up out of the semi-finals of theIntercity Golden Gloves.\" Aftermath and legacy As a 42-1 underdog,Douglas earned $1.3 million from the fight while Tyson got $6 million. Tyson's camp, led byDon King, immediately protested the result, claiming that Douglas had been given along countby refereeOctavio Meyran. The WBA and WBC initially agreed and suspended recognition of Douglas as champion, although the IBF immediately accepted that the result was valid.After a public outcry and demands from boxing commissions around the world that they acknowledge Douglas as the champion, the protest was withdrawn and Douglas' win was recognised four days after the fight.In spite of Douglas' inspired and dominant performance, a sizable number of boxing fans viewed the fight outcome as an aberration, leading to interest in a rematch. In anHBOstudio interview with Merchant the following week, Douglas stated the protest and post-fight confusion ruined what should have been the best time of his life. At the time of the fight, Don King was said to have been negotiating for Tyson's next fight to be in the fall in Berlin against former championGreg Page, who had decked Tyson while sparring with him three weeks before the Douglas fight. A future Mike Tyson versusGeorge Foremanfight to be promoted by the Sultan ofBruneiwas also shelved. Plans for a rematch fell through, so Douglas' first title defence was against No. 1 contenderEvander Holyfield. An overweight Douglas, weighing 14.5 pounds (6.6 kg) more than in the Tyson fight, was knocked out by Holyfield in the third round.Douglas retired after the fight. Six years later, he launched a comeback after almost dying in a diabetic coma and won a few fights againstjourneymanopposition. He fought for the last time in 1999.Despite rumours of a rematch with Tyson throughout the 1990s,they never faced each other again. Tyson would fight four more times after the Douglas fight before being convicted of raping beauty pageant contestantDesiree Washingtonin 1991. Following his release from theIndiana Youth Centerin 1995 he quickly regained the WBA and WBC world titles, beforelosing them to Holyfieldand was never again a world champion. He fought on sporadically for another decade and lost in anothertitle challengeagainstLennox Lewisin 2002. He retired from boxing in 2005 after consecutive losses to journeymen. Buster Douglas went down in sports lore as a prize fighter who defied the odds to pull off one of the biggest upsets in sports history. Among the honors was a cover photo on an issue ofSports Illustratedwith the title \"Rocky Lives!,\" after the popularfilm seriesabout a similarly underestimated boxing hero. For Tyson, though he retained a menacing aura for years afterwards, \"the mystique of the untouchable, invincible 'Baddest Man on the Planet' had been shattered.\"Tyson himself knew as much, stating after he ended his career by losing to unheralded Kevin McBride in 2005, \"My career has been over since 1990.\"The fight is often ranked among the biggest upsets in sports history. In popular culture The fight appeared in theMike Tyson Mysteriesepisode \"Help a Brother Out\". Douglas's upset against Tyson is the inspiration forThe Killers' song \"Tyson vs Douglas\" from theirWonderful Wonderfulalbum. Singer songwriterBrandon Flowersused the childhood memory of watching the seemingly invincible Tyson lose as the motivation for a song that's about \"me and my family, and the way I’m perceived by my kids. I don’t want them to see me go down like Tyson.\"The song also features audio of the commentators for the fight. The fight is referenced in a short film by Paradigm Studios when a boxer, who came out of retirement, made a promise to his dying son; the short film also references how Douglas made a promise to his dying mother that he would win. In 1990,In Living Colormade references to the fight in the \"Three Champs and a Baby/Little Lady\" sketches. In the first, Tyson prank calls Buster demanding a rematch, while in \"Little Lady\" Tyson uses an action figure to mock Douglas's loss to Holyfield. Undercard Confirmed bouts: Broadcasting References This was in 1992, as no award in 1991.", "Tyson Fury vs Oleksandr Usyk Tyson Fury vs Oleksandr Usyk, billed asRing of Fire, was aheavyweightprofessional boxing matchcontested betweenWBCheavyweight championTyson Furyand unifiedWBA (Super),IBF,WBO,IBO, andThe Ringheavyweight championOleksandr Usykfor theundisputedheavyweight championship. It was scheduled to take place on 17 February 2024 atKingdom ArenainRiyadh,Saudi Arabia, then postponed due to a facial injury sustained by Fury in training. It was rescheduled the next day and took place on 18 May 2024 at the same venue. Usyk won bysplit decision. Background and buildup The fight crowned the firstundisputed heavyweight championsinceLennox Lewisin 2000, as well as the first in thefour-belt era. In addition to the four sanctioned belts, special commemorative belts were made specifically for the fight on 18 May 2024. Queensbury Promotions made a special edition belt for the undisputed heavyweight. Then, the WBC also made the Fury-Usyk belt, which was blessed byPope Francis, the head of theRoman Catholic Church. On 25 October 2023, Fury and Usyk took to social media to announce that they had signed for a bout, with a date of 23 December being reported but not officially announced. It was also reported thatAnthony JoshuavsDeontay Wilderwould serve as the co-feature.On 28 October, after FurydefeatedformerUFC Heavyweight ChampionFrancis Ngannou, he demanded that the bout with Usyk must be postponed because of injuries he sustained in the fight, despite Usyk stating that they were contracted for 23 December 2023.On 29 October, it was announced that the bout would take place in early 2024. On 16 November, the bout was officially announced to take place on 17 February 2024 inRiyadh,Saudi Arabia, with a launch press conference inLondon.The fight was officially postponed on 2 February 2024, with the idea of rescheduling for 2024 once a doctor could determine the recovery time for a cut sustained by Tyson Fury in training. Fury's promoter Queensberry Promotions confirmed the injury.The whole card was rescheduled for 18 May 2024; the decision was made quickly by the event's organizer in Saudi Arabia,Turki Alalshikh. DAZNPPV covered the fight globally. Viewers in Middle East and North Africa countries could watch the event via Webook. In UK and Ireland, the fight was aired live on both PPV'sSkyandTNTSports Box Office channels. In Ukraine, the fight was streamed live onMEGOGO. In the US, the fight was streamed live viaESPN+PPV. Fight Fury was described byBBC Sportas showboating during the first round, during which Usyk landed a left hook.The three judges all agreed that the first round was 10–9 in favour of Usyk.In the second and third round, Usyk was moving forward, while Fury was moving backwards, in a somewhat even bout.Fury established momentum in the fourth round, with multiple uppercuts.In the fifth round, Fury started moving forward and focused on punches to Usyk's body.In the sixth round, Fury uppercutted Usyk's body and nose.In the seventh round, Fury started dominant, but Usyk began to throw better punches to the head.The three judges all agreed that the fifth, sixth, and seventh rounds were 10–9 in Fury's favour. In the eighth round, Usyk landed a right punch that caused for Fury to touch his nose, then another Usyk right punch hurt Fury's right eye; Fury bled from the face at the end of the round, and this seemed to affect him in the next round.In the ninth round, Usyk landed an unanswered series of 14 punches, including several overhand lefts, during which and after Fury was wobbling and stumbling around into the ring ropes, which held him up.At this point, BBC Sport described Fury as being \"seemingly out on his feet\", whileThe Guardianreported that Fury's \"eyes glazed\", the \"referee could have stopped the fight\", and that \"Fury has been down in the past but we've never seen him hurt this badly!\"RefereeMark Nelsonregistered this as aknockdownof Fury (the ninth of Fury's career), and gave Fury astanding eight count, after which the round ended.Fury was \"saved by the bell\" in the ninth round, concurredYahoo! Sportsand theAssociated Press.In the tenth round, Usyk did not rush his advantage, which allowed Fury to recover, but Usyk did continue to land occasional overhand lefts.The three judges all agreed that the eighth, ninth, and tenth rounds were 10–9, 10–8, and 10–9 respectively, in favour of Usyk. In the eleventh round, Usyk continued to land left hands, but Fury showed some recovery to fight back.In the twelfth and final round, Fury came back with some right punches, and the judges recorded that he won it unanimously 10–9.The fight went down to the judges' scorecards, with Usyk defeating Fury bysplit decision, with judge Manuel Oliver Palermo scoring it 115–112 for Usyk, judge Craig Metcalfe scoring it 114–113 for Fury, and judge Mike Fitzgerald scoring it 114–113 for Usyk. Statistics Card ^Note 1ForWBA (Super),WBC,IBF,WBO,IBO, andThe Ringheavyweight titles^Note 2ForThe Ringand vacantIBF cruiserweight titles^Note 3ForIBFandIBO super-featherweight titles Main event official scorecard Source:Yahoo! Sports Aftermath Usyk broke down in tears in the ring after his victory was announced and dedicated it to his family, his team, and thepeople of Ukraine.After the fight, Fury commented: \"I believe he won a few of the rounds but I won the majority of them …His country's at war, so people are siding withthe country at war, but make no mistake, I won that fight … I'll be back. I've got a rematch clause.\"Fury raised the possibility of a rematch \"in October\", and eventually declared: \"Happy New Year!\"Usyk responded to Fury, stating, \"If he wants, I'm ready for a rematch.\"Usyk suffered a suspected broken jaw from the bout and went to the hospital after his press conference.Although, Usyk did not break his jaw. Fury was given a 1 week medical suspension following the fight. In its next update of the rankings,The Ringreturned Usyk to the No.1 spot in thepound-for-poundrankings, which he had previously lost toTerence Crawfordon 29 July. Along with Usyk's team, a few commentators, likeTNT Sports' David Haye,felt Usyk was robbed by the referee of a win bytechnical knockoutin the ninth round.Usyk's win made him the first newundisputed heavyweight championin 24 years.Lennox Lewisheld the title for five months after hedefeatedEvander Holyfieldin November 1999.In a post-match analysis, analysts wrote that Usyk'shall of famecase is \"beyond cemented\" and that he is an all-time great after his win.Two-divisionundisputed championTerence Crawford,ESPN's top-rankedpound for poundboxer, declared Usyk a candidate for the No. 1 position.The tentatively scheduled rematch is set for 12 October 2024. Main event unofficial scorecards Financial details The event reportedly sold over 1.5 millionpay-per-viewbuys, mostly in the UK, and this generated over $50 million. The event also made $40 million in advertising and $3 million gate at the arena. However, according to ESPN, the revenue failed to cover total expenses.At least 20 million people watched the fight throughpiracy streams. Of those 20 million, approximately 45% were from themainland Europeand 18% were from the UK. The financial loss from illegal streaming is estimated to be around $120 million. The total purse is reported to be worth around $150 million (£116 million), with Fury being guaranteed 70% of the purse, or £81.2 million (around $105 million). Usyk reportedly secured $45 million.With the UK tax rate in place for Fury, he will henceforth contribute a minimum of £45 million of his purse to the British government. Rematch On 29 May, Turki Alalshikh announced that the rematch is scheduled to take place in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, on 21 December. References" ]
[ "Tyson Fury Tyson Luke Fury(born 12 August 1988)is a Britishprofessional boxer. He has held multiple world championships in theheavyweightdivision, includingunifiedtitles from 2015 to 2016, theRingmagazine title twice between 2015 and 2022, and theWorld Boxing Council(WBC) title from 2020 to 2024. He also held theInternational Boxing Organization(IBO) title during his first reign as champion. As anamateur, he won a bronze medal at the2006 World Junior Championships; gold at the2007 EU Junior Championships; silver at the 2007 European Junior Championships; and won theABAsuper-heavyweighttitle in 2008. At regional level, he has held multiple heavyweight championships, including theBritishtitle twice between 2011 and 2015; theEuropeantitle from 2014 to 2015; and theCommonwealthtitle from 2011 to 2012. In 2015, hisvictorious fightagainstWladimir Klitschkowas namedUpset of the Yearand earned himFighter of the Year byThe Ring. In 2018, hisdrawn fightagainstDeontay Wilderwas namedRound of the Yearand earned", "the Yearand earned himComeback of the YearbyThe Ring. In 2020, with hisdefeat of Deontay Wilder, Fury became the third heavyweight, afterFloyd PattersonandMuhammad Ali, to holdThe Ringmagazine title twice, and was widely considered by media outlets to be thelinealheavyweight champion.In 2021, histrilogy fightagainst Wilder was namedFight of the YearbyThe Ring. Early life Tyson Luke Furywas born in theWythenshawearea ofManchesteron 12 August 1988, the son ofIrish Travellerparents Amber andJohn Fury.He was born three monthsprematureand weighed just 1 pound (450 g).His father named him afterMike Tyson, who was the reigningundisputedheavyweightworld champion,and later explained, \"The doctors told me there was not much chance of him living. I had lost two daughters in the same way who had been born prematurely.\" He decided on the name \"Tyson\" as Fury was \"a fighter\" and survived the premature birth. Fury grew up inStyal, Cheshire, and later often mentioned his love for both Styal and his birthplace of", "his birthplace of Manchester.His paternal grandfather was fromTuam, which is also the birthplace of his father.The Furys are of Irish origin, deriving their present surname from Ó Fiodhabhra.His maternal grandmother is fromCounty Tipperaryand his mother was born inBelfast.Despite strongly identifying with his Irish heritage,Fury has had problems in gaining dual citizenship because his father's birth in County Galway was not recorded civilly in the 1960s, as Irish Travellers at the time only recorded births through baptism with the church rather than officially with the state.After defeatingWladimir Klitschko, Fury would quip that \"becoming the heavyweight champion of the world is not as hard a fight as proving Irishness\". Fury left school when he was 11, and joined his father and three brotherstarmacking roads. His mother Amber had 14 pregnancies but only four of the children survived. A daughter, Ramona, was born in December 1997 but died within days. This experience has stayed with Fury, who was nine", "Fury, who was nine years old at the time. Fury began boxing at the age of 10.His father, John, trained him until 2011, when he was jailed for gouging out the eye of another Traveller due to a long-standing feud.Fury's uncle Hughie Fury trained him until he died in 2014, after which Fury's other uncle Peter Fury (trainer of sonHughie Fury) trained him in preparation for his fight against Klitschko. The Fury family has a long history in boxing.Fury's father competed in the 1980s as \"Gypsy\" John Fury,initially as abare-knuckleand unlicensed boxer, and then as a professional boxer.John had a professional record of 8–4–1, with one of his losses being to future WBO heavyweight world championHenry Akinwande.Tyson's half-brotherTommymade his professional debut on 22 December 2018 under the tutelage of two-weight world championRicky Hatton.Fury is also a cousin of several professional boxers, including heavyweightsHughie FuryandNathan Gorman,former WBOmiddleweightworld championAndy Leeandlight", "Leeandlight heavyweightcontenderHosea Burton.Fury's distant relatives include the bare-knuckle boxers Uriah Burton andBartley Gorman, both considered \"King of the Gypsies\",hence Fury's own nickname of \"Gypsy King\".He has also styled himself as \"The Furious One\"and \"2 Fast\" Fury. Amateur career As an amateur, Fury represented both England and Ireland. Fury represented Ireland three times at international level. He was based out of the Holy Family Boxing Club inBelfast, Northern Ireland, and later switched to the Smithboro Club inCounty Monaghan, Ireland.In a double international match against an experiencedPolishteam in 2007, the Irish team lost 12–6 overall; Fury, however, was victorious in both his fights inRzeszówandBiałystok.In another Irish match against the US, Fury won his bout by knockout.He won bronze at theAIBA Youth World Boxing Championshipsin 2006. In England, while representing Jimmy Egan's Boxing Academy in Wythenshawe, Manchester, he participated in thesenior national championshipsin 2006 but", "2006 but was beaten byDavid Price22–8.In May 2007, he won the EU Junior Championship, defeating Istvan Bernath in the final.In July 2007 he won silver at the European Junior Championship, losing toMaxim Babaninin the final. As a junior, Fury was ranked number three in the world behind the Russians Maxim Babanin and Andrey Volkov, but did not get the chance to represent Great Britain at the2008 Olympicsbecause each country is restricted to one boxer per weight division and David Price was selected. Price came up through the amateur Olympic programme. Fury also unsuccessfully tried to qualify for Ireland.Speaking in 2011, Fury said \"I should have gone to the Olympic games in 2008 and won a gold medal for Ireland, but I was denied the chance to go and do it\"He was also forced to withdraw from theIrish national championshipsafter officials from the Holy Trinity Boxing Club in West Belfast, the club of the then Irish amateur heavyweight champion, submitted a protest regarding his eligibility as he was not born in", "he was not born in Ireland. Fury won theABAsuper-heavyweighttitle in 2008 by defeating Damien Campbell 19:1.He turned professional later that year.Feeling disillusioned with amateur boxing, he decided not to wait for the 2012 Olympics.He finished with an amateur record of 31–4 (26 KOs). Professional career Early career Fury made his professional debut at the age of 20 on 6 December 2008 in Nottingham, on the undercard ofCarl Froch vs. Jean Pascalagainst Hungarian fighter Bela Gyongyosi (3–9–2), who Fury defeated via TKO in the first round with a combination to head and body.He then had six more fights in the space of seven months, defeatingMarcel Zeller(21–3), Daniil Peretyatko (15–20),Lee Swaby(23–22–2), Matthew Ellis (20–6–1),Scott Belshaw(10–1) and Aleksandrs Selezens (3–6) all via knockout within 4 rounds. On 11 September 2009, Fury foughtJohn McDermott(25–5, 16 KOs) for the English heavyweight title, and won via apoints decision.Fury came in as a 1–6 favourite but produced a poor display, and the 98–92", "and the 98–92 decision by the referee Terry O'Connor was criticised as a \"travesty\".The decision led the British Boxing Board of Control to mandate three judges for all English titles, and the board ordered a rematch. Fury scored two more victories against Tomas Mrazek (4–22–5) and Hans-Joerg Blasko (9–3) before facing McDermott in a rematch on 25 June 2010. Fury settled the controversy of the first fight, as he knocked down McDermott three times, first in the 8th round then twice in the 9th round to win by TKO. Fury won the English heavyweight title for a second time in the process.Another three wins followed: points decisions over American fighters Rich Power (12–0) and Zack Page (21–32–2) in two 8-round matches, and a knockout of the BrazilianMarcelo Luiz Nascimento(13–0) in the 5th round. British and Commonwealth champion Fury vs. Chisora On 23 July 2011, Fury faced undefeated heavyweightDerek Chisorafor the British and Commonwealth heavyweight titles at Wembley Arena in London. Although Chisora was aged", "Chisora was aged 27 and Fury 22 years old, both men went into the fight with a record of 14–0. Despite Fury's superior size and reach, Chisora was the favourite. After 12 hard-fought rounds Fury won via unanimous decision 117–112, 117–112, and 118–111, with the fight shown live on free-to-airChannel 5.PromoterMick Hennessysaid the fight peaked at around 3 million viewers. On 17 September 2011, Fury fought 32-year-old fringe contender Nicolai Firtha (20–8–1, 8 KOs) in a non-title bout at theKing's Hall, Belfast. Firtha took the fight on two weeks' notice. The opening two rounds were dominated by Fury. In round 3, Firtha landed a big punch which looked to trouble Fury. Fury regained control of the fight by the next round and forced the referee to stop the fight at 2 minutes, 19 seconds on round 5. Fury admitted he got caught flush, \"He caught me with a good punch and I had to come back from it.\"The fight averaged 1.03 million viewers on Channel 5. Fury returned to the ring on 12 November at theEvent", "at theEvent CityinTrafford Park, Manchesterto defend his Commonwealth heavyweight title against undefeated Canadian heavyweight championNeven Pajkic(16–0, 5 KOs). Fury had an early scare after being knocked down in round 2 following a big right hand. Although Pajkic hobbled Fury again at the outset of round 3, Fury came back to knock down Pajkic twice during that round. The referee stopped the fight after the last knockdown, causing Pajkic to protest, who declared himself ready to fight on. Many at ringside thought the stoppage premature.The fight averaged 1.72 million viewers on Channel 5. Fury vacated his British and Commonwealth belts in order to pursue a future world title match. He said to the media of his decision to vacate the belts, \"I vacated the British and Commonwealth titles, which some people say are more prestigious than the Irish title, but not to me. I vacated those belts for an Irish title shot because it meant more to me. All my people are from Ireland. I was born in Manchester but I am", "Manchester but I am Irish.\"On 14 April 2012, Fury travelled to Belfast to fight at the Odyssey Arena for the vacant Irish heavyweight title. His opponent was veteranMartin Rogan(14–2, 7 KOs). Rogan had not fought in 18 months and had not beaten an opponent with a winning record since 2009. At245+3⁄4pounds (111.5 kg), Fury was fighting at the lightest weight of his professional career to date. Fury put Rogan on the canvas with a left hook in the third round. Rogan went down again in round 5 from a body shot. Rogan made it to his feet, but the bout was stopped at the request of his corner.The fight averaged 1.33 million viewers on Channel 5. On 7 July, Fury fought for the vacantWBOInter-Continental heavyweight title against American boxerVinny Maddalone(35–7, 26 KOs) at the Hand Arena inClevedon, Somerset. Fury weighed 245.5 pounds (111.4 kg), marginally lighter than the Rogan fight. Maddalone entered with a record of 4–3 in his previous seven bouts. Fury improved his record to 19–0 with 14 stoppage wins, with", "stoppage wins, with a fifth-round technical knockout over Maddalone. Fury controlled the fight from the onset and stunned Maddalone with a combination in the opening round. Fury continued to land heavy punches and opened a cut under his opponent's left eye in the fourth. In round 5, with Maddalone taking punches, the referee stepped in and called an end to the bout with blood streaming out of the cut under the veteran's left eye. It was the fifth knockout loss of Maddalone's professional career. In the post-fight interviews, Fury said, \"I knew it was a matter of time. I actually called the referee over, he was taking some big shots. I'm still undefeated. I would like to say I'm ready for anyone in the world. Klitschkos, bring them on. Americans, bring them on. Bring onTomasz Adamek. He's too small for me and I see an early win for me.\" PromoterMick Hennessyalso stated a world title fight was \"two or three fights away\", targeting Adamek next.The fight averaged 1.05 million viewers on Channel 5. Rise up the", "5. Rise up the ranks Fury vs. Johnson On 12 November 2012, it was announced that Fury would fight American world title contenderKevin Johnson(28–3–1, 13 KOs) in aWBCtitle eliminator at theOdyssey Arenain Belfast on 1 December. Fury said, \"Johnson is just the kind of opponent that I want at this stage of my career. We needed a world class fighter and we have got one.\"Fury won via unanimous decision over Johnson. After 12 rounds, the judges scored it 119–110, 119–108, and 119–108 in favour of Fury. Many media outlets including the BBC and ESPN dubbed the fight as a poor showing. Fury claimed he would score a good win, just as rivalDavid Pricedid when he stoppedMatt Skeltona night earlier, but instead eased to a decision victory. Fury, with the win, was in line to challenge for the WBC title, held at the time byVitali Klitschko.The fight averaged 1.37 million viewers on Channel 5. Fury vs. Cunningham On 20 February 2013, it was reported that Fury would fight highly ranked American former cruiserweight world", "cruiserweight world championSteve Cunningham(25–5, 12 KOs) in his United States debut atMadison Square Garden Theateron 20 April. The bout was an IBF title eliminator to determine the number 2 world ranking, with the winner then needing to fight unbeaten Bulgarian heavyweightKubrat Pulevfor the mandatory position for a shot at the long reigning world championWladimir Klitschko. Cunningham came into the fight on the rebound from a controversial split decision loss toTomasz Adamek.At the weigh in, Cunningham was 44 pounds (20 kg) lighter, at 210 pounds (95 kg) to Fury's 254 pounds (115 kg). Fury fought wildly in the first two rounds of the bout, and was floored heavily by Cunningham in the 2nd round. Cunningham continued to land heavy punches on Fury for the next few rounds, until being worn down by Fury's size advantage and power punches. By round seven, Fury had fully rebounded and handed Cunningham the first knockout defeat of his career with a cuffing right hand against the rope. Earlier, in round five,", "in round five, Fury was docked a point following a headbutt. At the time of the stoppage, Fury was behind on two judges' scorecards 57–55, while the other judge had it 56–56 (even).A week after the fight, Cunningham spoke to ATG Radio, claiming that Fury used an illegal manoeuvre to knock him out, \"He held me with his forearm. He pushed me in the corner twice – which is illegal – and then he pushed me with his forearm, cocked my head to the left and threw a right hook.\"The fight card aired on NBC in the late afternoon and averaged 1.2 million viewers, peaking at 1.7 million.In the UK, the fight aired on Channel 5 and averaged 1.54 million viewers.The win over Cunningham gave Fury a world ranking of 7 according toBoxRec, a number 2 ranking according to theIBF, 6th with theWBC, and 5th with theWBO. Fury was due to fightDavid Haye(26–2, 24 KOs) on 28 September 2013, in a fight which would have seen Fury fight on a pay-per-view platform for the first time.However, Haye pulled out of the fight on 21 September,", "on 21 September, after sustaining a cut, which required six stitches, above the eye during training.The fight was originally postponed to 8 February 2014. Haye pulled out of the fight a second time on 17 November, stating that he had a career-threatening shoulder injury which required surgery, and hinted at his retirement.Fury believed that Haye was making excuses because he did not want the fight, saying \"I'm absolutely furious but in all honesty this is exactly what I expected. Everyone knows I was very suspicious when he pulled out the first time and this confirms to me that he's always been afraid of me and never wanted this fight.\" Aside from training camp expenses, Haye also cost Fury his positions in the world rankings including an IBF final eliminator bout which would have made him mandatory for a shot at the world title. Fury vs. Abell On 24 January 2014, it was announced that Fury would fight at the Copper Box Arena against Argentine veteranGonzalo Omar Basile(61–8, 27 KOs) on 15 February.On 5", "on 15 February.On 5 February, Basile pulled out of the fight due to a lung infection. He was replaced by American journeymanJoey Abell(29–7, 28 KOs).Fury won the fight via 4th-round TKO, which set up a rematch with Chisora in the summer. Ring rust showed in the opening two rounds with Abell connecting with left hands, which had Fury against the ropes. But Fury managed to compose himself and get behind the jab. In the third round, Fury floored Abell with a right hand. Abell beat the count but was floored again, this time being saved by the bell. Two more knockdowns followed in round 4 ending the fight.After the fight, Fury took to the microphone, \"Tyson too fast Fury, that's the name, fighting's the game and these are bums compared to me. I wantWladimir Klitschko, he's avoiding me, let's get it on Wlad.\" European champion Fury vs. Chisora II Fury was due to fight rival and heavyweight contenderDerek Chisorafor the second time on 26 July 2014, for the European and once again the British heavyweight title.On 21", "title.On 21 July, Chisora was forced to pull out after sustaining a fractured hand in training. RussianAlexander Ustinovwas lined up as Chisora's replacement in the bout scheduled to take place at theManchester Arena,Fury pulled out of the fight after his uncle and former trainer Hughie Fury was taken seriously ill.However, Fury and Chisora rescheduled the rematch for 29 November 2014 atExCeL London. The bout was also a WBO title eliminator and shown live onBoxNation.Fury was victorious again after dominating the fight up until Chisora's corner pulled him out at the end of the 10th round. Fury also used a southpaw stance for the majority of the fight, despite the traditional right-handed orthodox stance being his preference. Fury used his jab to trouble Chisora and stayed on the outside with his longer reach to dominate the fight. Chisora failed to land any telling punches, and due to Fury's awkward fighting style, ended up hitting him below the belt. Chisora was warned by referee Marcus McDonnell in the", "McDonnell in the first round. After the fight, Fury said, \"Wladimir Klitschko, I'm coming for you, baby. I'm coming. No retreat, no surrender.\" PromoterMick Hennessysaid Fury would likely fight once more before challenging for the world title. Fury vs. Hammer On 26 December 2014, Sky Sports News announced that Fury would fight once more before challenging Klitschko for his world titles. His opponent wasChristian Hammer(17–3, 10 KOs) and the fight took place on 28 February 2015 at theO2 Arenain London. Fury said he went for an opponent that would give him a challenge rather than an \"easier\" opponent, before challenging Klitschko.Fury went on to win the fight when it came to a halt in the 8th round viacorner stoppage. Fury dominated the fight from the opening bell and dropped Hammer in round 5 with a short right hook. After the fight, Fury called out Wladimir Klitschko again, stating he was ready for his world title shot. Unified heavyweight world champion Fury vs. Klitschko In July 2015, it was confirmed that", "was confirmed that Fury would fightWladimir Klitschkoin a world heavyweight title showdown, for theWBA (Super),IBF,WBO,IBO,LinealandThe Ringheavyweighttitles. Initially scheduled for 24 October 2015, the fight was postponed to 28 November 2015 after Klitschko sustained a calf injury. For this match, Fury trained with the highest ranked heavyweight kickboxers inGLORY,Rico VerhoevenandBenjamin Adegbuyi. The fight took place atEsprit ArenainDüsseldorf, Germany. On fight night, there was controversy with the gloves, then a complaint about the ring canvas. Klitschko reportedly had his hands wrapped without the presence of a Fury representative, so had to do them again. Fury won after 12 rounds by a unanimous decision. The judges scored the fight 115–112, 115–112, and 116–111.Klitschko and Fury showed little offence during the 12 rounds, but Fury was more active and did enough each round to take the decision. Klitschko landed 52 of 231 punches thrown (23%) and Fury landed 86 of 371 thrown (23%). In the post-fight", "In the post-fight interview, an emotional Fury said, \"This is a dream come true. We worked so hard for this. I've done it. It's hard to come to foreign countries and get decisions. It just means so much to me to come here and get the decision.\" He then took the microphone and thanked Klitschko, \"I'd like to say to Wladimir, you're a great champion. And thanks very much for having me. It was all fun and games during the buildup.\" Klitschko failed to throw his well-known right hand, mostly due to Fury's constant movement and mocking. He said, \"Tyson was the faster and better man tonight. I felt quite comfortable in the first six rounds, but I was astonished that Tyson was so fast in the second half as well. I couldn't throw my right hand because the advantage was the longer distance he had.\" Klitschko had a rematch clause in place. On 8 December 2015, the IBF stripped Fury of its title, as the contract for the fight against Klitschko included a rematch clause, precluding Fury from facing the IBF's mandatory", "the IBF's mandatory challengerVyacheslav Glazkov. Fury had held the IBF belt for only 10 days. Relinquishing world titles Following months of negotiation, the rematch with Klitschko was announced on 8 April 2016, this time with the fight scheduled to take place in Fury's hometown ofManchesterat theManchester Arenaon 9 July 2016. Despite agreeing terms for the rematch, Fury said he had \"no motivation\" and had gained an extreme amount of weight after the first fight, as he weighed over 24stone(330 lb or 150 kg) by April 2016.On 24 June 2016, it was announced that this fight would be postponed to a later date due to Fury sustaining a sprained ankle in training.On the same day, Fury and his cousin,Hughie Fury, were charged byUK Anti-Doping\"with presence of a prohibited substance\", namelynandrolone, from a sample taken 16 months previously in February 2015. Tyson and Hughie said that they \"strenuously deny\" the charge.On 23 September, Fury again postponed the fight after being declared \"medically unfit\".ESPN", "unfit\".ESPN reported that Fury had failed a drug test forcocainea day before the second postponement. Fury cited problems withdepressionafter the positive test for cocaine. Fury's mental health deteriorated after winning the world titles. On 4 October 2016, in an interview withRolling Stone, Fury said \"I'm going through a lot of personal demons, trying to shake them off, this has got nothing to do with my fighting – what I'm going through right now is my personal life. I've not been in a gym for months. I've been going through depression. I just don't want to live anymore, if you know what I'm saying. I've had total enough of it. Never mind cocaine. I just didn't care. I don't want to live anymore. So cocaine is a little minor thing compared to not wanting to live anymore. I am seeing help, but they can't do nothing for me. What I've got is incurable. I don't want to live. All the money in the world, fame and glory, means nothing if you're not happy. I'm seeing psychiatrists. They say I've got a version", "I've got a version ofbipolar. I'm a manic depressive. I don't even want to wake up. I hope I die every day. And that's a bad thing to say when I've got three children and a lovely wife isn't it? But I don't want to live anymore. And if I could take me own life – and I wasn't a Christian – I'd take it in a second. I just hope someone kills me before I kill me self. I'll have to spend eternity in hell. I've been out drinking, Monday to Friday to Sunday, and taking cocaine. I can't deal with it and the only thing that helps me is when I get drunk out of me mind.\" On 12 October 2016, pending investigation on an anti-doping case about his cocaine use, nandrolone findings, and being deemed medically unfit to fight, Fury decided to vacate theWBA (Unified), WBO, IBO heavyweight titles. He said \"I won the titles in the ring and I believe that they should be lost in the ring, but I'm unable to defend at this time and I have taken the hard and emotional decision to now officially vacate my treasured world titles and", "world titles and wish the next in-line contenders all the very best as I now enter another big challenge in my life which I know, like against Klitschko, I will conquer.\"Fury's promoter Mick Hennessy added: \"Tyson will still be the lineal world heavyweight champion in everyone's eyes. He beat the most dominant champion in the modern era of boxing on an amazing night in Germany to earn that accolade and that will never change. Whilst it's heartbreaking to see Tyson vacate the world titles that he worked so long and hard for all his life, what's paramount now is that he receives the medical treatment along with the love of his family and friends and the support of the boxing world to make a full recovery.\"Fury's decision was based on not having to put himself under constant media pressure, allowing him time to recover and receive professional medical help for his mental health problems, and spend time with his family. On 13 October, theBritish Boxing Board of Controldecided to suspend Fury's boxing licence.On", "boxing licence.On 1 February 2018, Fury was stripped of his last remaining title,The Ringmagazine's heavyweight championship. Issues with UKAD and BBBofC In December 2016, Fury's uncle Peter announced that Fury would be returning around spring in 2017 and would aim for a fight against WBC championDeontay Wilder. On 23 December, Fury tweeted that he was back in training ahead of a ring return around April or May 2017. His tweet read, \"I've had a nightmare 2016, done a lot of stuff I'm not proud of, but my promise to you is I'll return in 2017.\"On 6 March 2017, Fury tweeted that his return fight would take place on 13 May 2017 and he was speaking to promoterFrank Warrenabout possible opponents. Warren had become Fury's promoter after Fury dropped his long-time promoter Mick Hennessy.The date set for the return would mean Fury would be fighting on the undercard ofJosh Warringtondefending his WBC International featherweight title againstKiko Martinezat theFirst Direct Arenain Leeds. Shortly after Fury announced", "Fury announced a comeback date, theBritish Boxing Board of Control(BBBofC) publicly announced that Fury was still suspended and would not be fighting in May. This was confirmed by their general secretary Robert Smith. He also mentioned that there had been no contact from Fury or his representatives since the ban started in October 2016.Warren toldReuterson 7 March, \"I want to see him back in the ring as soon as possible but before that happens he's got a couple of issues to sort out.\" Warren said that along with the dispute with the BBBofC there would need to be a court hearing withUK Anti-Doping(UKAD). Robert Smith, general secretary of the BBBofC, said in May 2017 that Fury's case was \"complex\" and it had been adjourned.In September 2017, Fury challenged UKAD to give him a reply, and either ban him or reinstate his boxing licence. He believed he was being treated unfairly as it had taken over a year for them to reply, stating that usually the problem would be dealt with within a matter of months. Fury", "of months. Fury tweeted, \"How long must I be held up and kept out of action? It's been 15 months since I've been under investigation, you're keeping an innocent man from fulfilling his destiny and from providing for his family.\" UKAD stated there was no particular timescale involved,but denied claims that they were prolonging the hearing. Instead they said they were trying to resolve the matter as soon as possible. On 8 November 2017,BBC Sportreported that a National Anti-Doping Panel hearing was due to take place in December. Due to the legal battle between Fury and UKAD, it was believed that UKAD could potentially becomeinsolventor would need a government bail out. UKAD reportedly have an annual budget of £8 million, and the fact that Fury had not fought for two years would have caused potential loss of earnings, possibly over £10 million. UKAD asked the government if they could underwrite the case.On 23 November, according to Robert Smith of the BBBofC, a hearing was set for a date in December 2017.On 25", "December 2017.On 25 November 2017, Fury announced his comeback after signing with managerial groupMTK Global.A hearing start date of 11 December was set, with a potential outcome being Fury facing a four-year ban.Fury did not attend the hearing and had reporters waiting outside the location for six hours before leaving.Mick Hennessy later stated that Fury was not required at the hearing.On 7 February 2018, UKAD revealed they spent £585,659 on the Fury case. £576,587 was paid to London law firmBird & Bird, barrister fees came to £1,130 and around £8,000 was paid for laboratory work. UKAD believed they could regain £250,000 through legal insurance. On 12 December, UKAD announced they had agreed with the Furys and the BBBoC to resolve the charges. \"Taking into account the delays in results management that meant charges were not brought in respect of the nandrolone findings until June 2016, and the provisional suspensions that Tyson and Hughie Fury have already effectively served, the two year period of", "two year period of ineligibility is backdated to 13 December 2015, and therefore expires at midnight on 12 December 2017.\"Tyson's February 2015 win over Christian Hammer was disqualified but his Klitschko triumph was not. Tyson blamed the elevated nandrolone levels on eating uncastratedwild boarand declared his and Hughie's innocence, \"Hughie and I have maintained our innocence from day one and we're now happy that it has finally been settled with UKAD and that we can move forward knowing that we'll not be labelled drug cheats.\"The BBBofC said they would consider the renewal of Fury's boxing licence in January 2018.In relation to the news, Fury wrote on Twitter, \"Guess who's back?\" Return to the ring On 10 January 2018, Fury announced he would be re-applying for his boxing licence through the BBBofC.An interview took place between Fury and BBBofC on 19 January, where the latter agreed to re-instate Fury as long as he sent them up-to-date medical records after visiting a psychologist.Fury said a motivation on", "a motivation on his return wasDeontay Wilder. \"He said I couldn't do it, he said definitely not Tyson Fury. He's done.\"At a press conference in London on 12 April 2018, Fury announced he had signed a multi-fight deal with Frank Warren's Queensberry Promotions. He stated that he intended to fight at least three times before 2019, starting on 9 June at the Manchester Arena.After weeks of speculation, it was confirmed the fight would be shown exclusively on BT Sport. Fury vs. Seferi On 20 May 39-year-old AlbanianSefer Seferi(23–1, 21 KOs) was announced as Fury's opponent in a 10-round bout. Seferi was a career cruiserweight, having fought once at heavyweight, when he lost toManuel Charrin 2016.Fury weighed 276 pounds (125 kg) at the weigh-in, 66 pounds (30 kg) heavier than Seferi. Fury had lost 112 pounds (51 kg) for the fight, having experienced extreme weight gain due to his mental health problems. Fury won the fight after Seferi quit on his stool after round 4.The opening couple of rounds had little to no", "had little to no action as Fury was showboating, which referee Phil Edwards warned him for in round 2. A brawl also broke out in the crowd during the fight, but order was restored before the fight came to an end. Fury began to unload heavy shots in round 4 and it appeared many of the shots landed and hurt Seferi, hence he retired on his stool.After the fight, Warren confirmed Fury would next return on theCarl Framptonundercard on 18 August atWindsor ParkinBelfast. It was revealed the fight, which aired exclusively onBT Sport 1, peaked at 814,000 live viewers. Fury vs. Pianeta On 12 July 2018, it was announced that Fury would fight former two-time world title challengerFrancesco Pianeta(35–4–1, 21 KOs) on 18 August.Fury weighed in at 258 pounds (117 kg), 18 pounds (8.2 kg) lighter than he weighed against Seferi. Pianeta came in at 254.7 pounds (115.5 kg).On 30 July, it was reported that there was ongoing negotiations for a fight to take place in either November or December 2018 between Fury and Wilder (40–0,", "and Wilder (40–0, 39 KOs).On 31 July, Fury stated the fight against Wilder was 99% a done deal, with only a location and date to be confirmed. Fury also had to come through in his bout against Pianeta.Wilder was scheduled to be in Belfast to further promote the fight.Fury went the full 10 rounds, defeating Pianeta via a points decision. Referee Steve Gray scored the fight 100–90 in favour of Fury. Fury later stated he had no intention of trying to end the fight early. He said, \"I think it was a calculated boxing performance. I got 10 rounds with a very tough man under my belt. I was working on my jab, slipping his punches. I thought that was a step up with the opponent and display. I needed the rounds, and I had plenty left in the tank.\"According to CompuBox, Fury landed 107 of 620 punches thrown (17%). This included 100 power punches landed of 226 thrown (44%). Pianeta landed only 37 of his 228 punches thrown (16%). During the post-fight interviews, promoter Warren confirmed the Fury vs. Wilder fight was", "Wilder fight was on. The fight would take place in either Las Vegas or New York in November 2018. The fight would be aired on PPV in the United States onShowtimeand in the UK onBT Sports Box Office.Talking about how the fight came together, Fury said, \"We have two men who will fight anyone. This man has been trying to make a fight with another chump. They called, I answered. I said: 'Send me the contract.' They sent it. I said 'yes'.\"Warren later told BBC Radio 5 live, \" 50–50 , quick and smooth negotiations. He was the world heavyweight champion. He's undefeated. understand that. All of the terms are agreed.\" By the end of August, contracts for the fight to take place had been signed. WBC heavyweight title challenge Fury vs. Wilder On 22 September, both Fury and Wilder confirmed they had signed the contract and the fight would take place on 1 December 2018.According to theCalifornia State Athletic Commission, Wilder would earn a guaranteed base purse of $4 million and Fury would take home a guaranteed", "home a guaranteed purse of $3 million.Despite Frank Warren's original claim that the revenue would be split 50–50, it was revealed that Wilder could make $14 million (£11 million) and Fury would earn around $10.25 million (£8 million). Both boxers would see this increase to their base purses after receiving their percentages from pay-per-view revenue.The weigh-in took place on 30 November, outside theLos Angeles Convention Center. Fury stepped on the scale first and weighed in at256+1⁄2pounds (116.3 kg). This was only 2 pounds (0.91 kg) lighter than his weigh-in against Francisco Pianeta in August 2018, but he looked leaner. Wilder was next to step on and came in at212+1⁄2pounds (96.4 kg), his lowest since his debut in 2008 when he weighed207+1⁄4pounds (94.0 kg). For his last bout, Wilder weighed 214 pounds (97 kg), however, it was cited that Wilder became ill during his training camp. In front of a crowd of 17,698 at the Staples Center, Wilder and Fury fought a 12-round split decision draw, meaning Wilder", "meaning Wilder retained his WBC title. Mexican judge Alejandro Rochin scored the fight 115–111 for Wilder, Canadian judge Robert Tapper had it 114–112 for Fury and English judge Phil Edwards scored it a 113–113 draw.The crowd booed at the decision with many believing Fury did enough to dethrone Wilder. Fury, using his unorthodox stance, spent much of the fight using upper and lower-body movement to avoid Wilder big shots and stay out of range. There was not much action in round 1 as both boxers used the round to feel each other out. Wilder tried to trap Fury into the corner, but Fury made Wilder miss most of his big swings. In round 4, Wilder bloodied Fury's nose with his stiff jabs, but was unable to follow up on the attacks. In round 6, Fury switched to southpaw stance and had success backing Wilder against the ropes and at the same time stayed cautious of Wilder's power. In round 7, after trading jabs, which saw Fury come out on top, Fury landed a counter right hand, then quickly tied Wilder up before he", "Wilder up before he could throw anything back. Round 8 saw back and forth action with both trying to land. Wilder threw a lot of power shots which Fury mostly evaded. In round 9, Wilder finally dropped Fury with a short left hook followed by an overhand right. Fury beat referee Jack Reiss' count and survived the round. Having expended a lot of energy trying to finish Fury in round 9, Wilder looked fatigued in round 10. This came to as an advantage for Fury as he landed two right hands. Fury also took advantage in round 11, landing enough shots and avoided anything Wilder could throw. In round 12, Wilder landed a right-left combination which put Fury down hard on his back. The crowd, commentary team and Wilder believed the fight was over. Reiss looked at Fury on the canvas and began giving him a count. To everyone's surprise, Fury beat the count. Reiss made Fury walk towards him and called for the action to continue. Wilder, fatigued again, was unable to land another power shot and Fury landed some right", "landed some right hands to finish the round and the fight on his feet. Both boxers embraced in a hug after the final bell sounded. According toCompuBoxstatistics, Wilder landed 71 punches of 430 thrown (17%), and Fury landed 84 of his 327 thrown (26%). Wilder was much less accurate in this fight than he usually had been in previous fights. Fury out-landed Wilder in 9 out of the 12 rounds. Both Wilder and Fury only landed double digits in 4 separate rounds.After the fight, both men gave in-ring interviews. Wilder stated, \"I think with the two knockdowns, I definitely won the fight. We poured our hearts out tonight. We're both warriors. I rushed my punches. I didn't sit still. I was too hesitant. I started overthrowing the right hand, and I just couldn't adjust. I was rushing my punches. That's something I usually don't do.\" Fury said, \"We're on away soil. I got knocked down twice, but I still believe I won that fight. I'm being a total professional here. God bless America. The 'Gypsy King' has returned. That", "has returned. That man is a fearsome puncher, and I was able to avoid that. The world knows I won the fight. I hope I did you all proud after nearly three years out of the ring. I showed good heart to get up. I came here tonight, and I fought my heart out.\"Wilder and Fury both claimed to be the best heavyweights in the world and both called out unified world championAnthony Joshua. Fury shouted, \"Chicken! Chicken! Joshua, where are you?\" Wilder then agreed to state the two best heavyweights got into the ring and fought. The event was both a critical and a commercial success. The fight sold approximately 325,000pay-per-viewbuys on Showtime in the United States, grossing around $24 million, making it the most lucrative heavyweight fight in the country since2003.Showtime's delayed broadcast a week later drew an average 488,000 viewers and peaked at 590,000 viewers.Despite the commercial success of the fight, promoterBob Arumbelieves it was meagre in comparison to the bout's potential. Arum said Fury vs. Wilder", "Fury vs. Wilder II could surpassFloyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Manny Pacquiao, which grossed over $600 million, saying: \"They were the little guys, here we have the biggest men in the sport.\" Establishing himself in Las Vegas Fury vs. Schwarz After the fight with Wilder, Fury secured a five-fight contract withESPNandTop Rankworth £80 million ($100 million). He made his return to the ring at theMGM Grand Garden ArenainLas Vegasagainst the WBO Inter-Continental heavyweight championTom Schwarz(24–0, 16 KOs) on 15 June 2019. This was Fury's first fight in Las Vegas.Schwarz was ranked #2 by the WBO and #9 by the IBF at the time.Fury weighed 263 pounds (119 kg), compared to Schwarz's235+1⁄2pounds (106.8 kg).He was in complete control of the fight, peppering the undefeated Schwarz in round one before finishing him in the second round by TKO, to take Schwarz's WBO Inter-Continental title. During the fight, Furypurposely backed up against the ropes and let Schwarz unload, using head movement to evade the strikes and", "the strikes and generating applause from the 9,000 people in attendance. Fury vs. Wallin Fury fought again in Las Vegas against former WBA Continental heavyweight championOtto Wallin(20–0, 13 KOs) on 14 September, at theT-Mobile Arena. Promoter Frank Warren said: \"It is another undefeated boxer he is facing and a contest where a victory will set up the Deontay Wilder rematch.\"Wallin was ranked #4 by the WBA and #12 by the IBF at heavyweight.Fury scaled at 254.4 pounds (115.4 kg), his lightest since facing Klitschko in 2015, when he weighed 247 pounds (112 kg). The Swedish southpaw Wallin came in at exactly 236 pounds (107 kg). Fury won by unanimous decision 116–112, 117–111, and 118–110. Fury suffered a serious cut above his right eye in the third round from a short left hook, as well as a cut over his right eyelid from an accidental clash of heads in the fifth which affected his vision for the rest of the fight and prompted a ringside doctor to be consulted in the sixth. After an examination, Fury said he", "Fury said he was able to continue and the doctor agreed. In the second half of the fight, Fury repeatedly hit Wallin with solid shots. Wallin came back in the twelfth with his best punch of the fight, a clean left hand which momentarily troubled Fury. After tying Wallin up in a clinch, Fury saw out the round, receiving the decision victory and the WBC Mayan belt, a commemorative title awarded to the winner of a high-profile fight held duringMexican national holidays. According to CompuBox, Fury landed 179 of 651 total punches (27%) while Wallin connected with 127 of 334 total punches (38%). Of these total punches, Fury landed 127 power punches to Wallin's 84.In his in-ring interview, Fury praised the performance of Wallin, who was a more than 10–1 underdog, and expressed condolences as Wallin's father had recently died. Fury then called out Wilder for a rematch in February 2020. WBC andThe Ringheavyweight champion Fury vs. Wilder II On 27 November 2019, ESPN announced that Fury would face Deontay Wilder on", "Deontay Wilder on 22 February 2020, in a rematch oftheir bout in 2018, which resulted in a controversial draw.In the build-up to the rematch, Fury split with trainer Ben Davison, who had coached Fury since late 2017 and helped him lose the large amount of weight he had gained during his hiatus and restore him to fighting condition. Davison was nominated for 2018 Trainer of the Year due to his role in Fury's successful return to the ring. The split was described as amicable and Davison wished Fury good luck in the rematch against Wilder. Fury then announced he had partnered withSugarHill Steward, nephew of Hall-of-Fame trainerEmanuel Steward, and that he would return toKronk Gym, where he briefly trained in 2010.The rematch was officially announced on 27 December 2019, and the venue was set as theMGM Grand Garden Arenain Las Vegas.The fight contract included a clause in which the loser can invoke a trilogy fight if he chooses. Fury weighed in at 273 pounds (124 kg), the third heaviest weight of his", "weight of his professional career and 17 pounds (7.7 kg) heavier than his weight for the first Wilder bout. He stated in the lead-up to the fight that he wanted extra size and power to look for a knockout. Wilder weighed in at 231 pounds (105 kg), the heaviest of his career.Fury started the fight by taking the centre of the ring and establishing his jab. He looked for some big shots, while evading Wilder's swings. In the third round, Fury floored Wilder with a strong right hand to the temple. Wilder beat the count and survived the round but was visibly disoriented, as blood began to stream from his left ear. Wilder fell to the canvas twice more, but they were ruled as slips by the refereeKenny Bayless, before Fury knocked Wilder down again in the fifth round with a quick combination punctuated by a left hook to the body. Wilder made it to his feet again, but was unable to muster much in the way of a counterattack and he was now bleeding from the mouth as well as the ear. The fight was stopped midway through", "midway through the seventh round after a flurry of hard-hitting shots from Fury caused Wilder's corner to throw in the towel to save him from further punishment.At the time of stoppage, Fury was ahead on all three judges' scorecards 59–52, 58–53, and 59–52, with the irregular scores due to Bayless deducting a point from Fury in the fifth for holding.According to CompuBox, Fury landed 82 of his 267 total punches (31%), including 58 out of 160 power punches (36%). Wilder landed 34 of his 141 total punches (24%), including 18 out of 55 power punches (33%). According to CompuBox, Fury landed 82 of his 267 total punches (31%), including 58 out of 160 power punches (36%). Wilder landed 34 of his 141 total punches (24%), including 18 out of 55 power punches (33%).Fury received widespread praise for his performance, with many believing that it established one of the best boxing comeback stories ever seen, and some stating that the victory placed him as one of the greatest heavyweight boxers in history.It made him", "history.It made him the first man to defeat two champions who had 10 or more defences of their world championship (Klitschko with 18 defences, and Wilder with 10 defences).Fury also became the third heavyweight, afterMuhammad AliandFloyd Patterson, to holdThe Ringmagazine title twice, and the first heavyweight in history to have held the WBA (Super), WBC, IBF, WBO, andThe Ringmagazine titles.With a gate of $16,916,440, the fight broke the gate record for a heavyweight bout in Nevada set byEvander Holyfield vs. Lennox Lewis IIin November 1999. Fury vs. Wilder III Deontay Wilder activated the clause for a second rematch fight with Tyson Fury after his loss to Fury in the first rematch. The trilogy fight was tentatively scheduled for July 2020, but this was later postponed due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. On 11 June 2020,Anthony Joshua'spromoterEddie Hearnannounced that Fury and Joshua had agreed a two-fight deal, provided that Fury defeated Wilder and Joshua defeated hismandatory challenger,Kubrat Pulev.Fury's", "Pulev.Fury's promoterBob Arumsaid in August 2020, \"the WBC approved the trilogy contract and that provides for postponements. And certainly, if you can't do it with spectators, a reasonable postponement would be okay. It's a different kind of fight.\" On 12 October 2020, Fury announced that he was foregoing a trilogy fight with Wilder after organizers failed to deliver a date for the event in 2020.The Athleticreported \"Fury had every intention of fighting Wilder in 2020 and made several concessions regarding rescheduled dates. However, he was unwilling to allow this situation to drag out, delaying a series of fights with Joshua while also keeping him out of the ring for an extended period of time.\" On 17 May 2021, the proposed unificationfight between Fury and Joshuawas thrown into serious doubt whenarbitrationjudge Daniel Weinstein ruled that Fury will have to honour a contractual clause which mandates a third fight with Wilder.Subsequently, Bob Arum claimed that theAllegiant Stadiumin Las Vegas had been", "Las Vegas had been reserved for 24 July in anticipation of Fury's trilogy fight with Wilder.On 22 May 2021, Fury announced during the broadcast ofJosé Ramírez vs. Josh TayloronESPNthat he had signed the contract for the Wilder trilogy fight, which ESPN showed footage of Fury signing. It was also confirmed by Wilder's managerShelly Finkelthat his fighter had signed the contract, and that the fight was on.Ahead of their pre-fight press conference on 15 June, the venue was officially confirmed asT-Mobile Arenain Las Vegas, where Fury had previously defeatedOtto Wallinby unanimous decision on 14 September 2019.The bout was postponed from the original date of 24 July until 9 October, after Fury's camp had an outbreak ofCOVID-19.At the pre-fight weigh-in on 8 October, both men weighed in at their respective career-heaviest weights, with the champion Fury weighing in at 277 lbs (19st11 lb), and the challenger Wilder at 238 lbs (17 st). On the night, both men exchanged a total of five knockdowns as Fury won the bout", "Fury won the bout via eleventh-round knockout. Wilder had started the first round well, jabbing the champion to the body and landing several clean right hands to his chest and stomach, doing enough to win the first round on all three judges' scorecards. In the second, Fury landed some good shots in the clinch. Midway through the third, Fury sent Wilder to the canvas with a series of hard right hands, and continued to pummel him as Wilder was effectively saved by the bell. Wilder came back in the fourth with a vicious short right hand that put Fury down on the canvas. Wilder continued coming forwards, and sent the champion down again towards the end of the round. In the middle rounds, Fury recovered and started landing with more regularity, racking up a commanding lead on the cards and marking up Wilder's face badly, with the latter now visibly exhausted as a result of all of the punishment he had taken. In the tenth, Wilder was decked by a huge right hook, but came back yet again with a huge series of wild", "huge series of wild swings that caught Fury at the bell. With Wilder badly hurt and bleeding, Fury managed to finish his opponent in the eleventh round with a clean right hook thrown from the clinch. Referee Robert Mora waved the contest off with Wilder face-down on the canvas. After the fight, Fury praised his opponent, calling Wilder a \"top fighter\", but criticised him for being a \"sore loser\" and refusing to \"show any sportsmanship or respect\". In his post-fight interview, Fury stated \"I'm a sportsman. I went over to him to show some love and respect and he didn't show it back. I will pray for him so that God will soften his heart.\" Fury then added that it \"was a great fight tonight, worthy of the best of trilogies.\" Fury asserted his view that he is the best boxer in his division, stating \"I'm now the greatest heavyweight of my era, without a doubt.\" At the time of the stoppage, Fury was winning the bout on all three scorecards with 95–91, 94–92, and 95–92.According toCompuBox, Fury landed 150 of 385", "landed 150 of 385 punches (39%), while Wilder connected with 72 of 355 punches (20%). The 150 punches landed on Wilder is the most ever landed by an opponent. Despite the back and forth nature of the bout, CompuBox calculated Fury as having outlanded Wilder in every single round of the fight, including the fourth round in which Fury was knocked down twice.The fight was widely acclaimed by observers and pundits for its action and high-level intensity: hall-of-fame promoterBob Arumsaid, \"I've been in this business 57 years promoting fights and I have to say I've truly never seen a heavyweight fight as magnificent as this\",while theRingmagazinedescribed it as \"the obvious fight of the year so far\" and \"a rare and historic heavyweight championship trilogy\". Fury vs. Whyte On 30 December 2021, WBC president Mauricio Sulaiman, who had ordered Fury to defend his WBC title againstmandatory challengerDillian Whyte, ruled that Fury as the reigning champion would be entitled to 80% of the purse, compared to Whyte's 20%", "to Whyte's 20% as the challenger.Sulaiman had set a deadline of 11 January 2022 forpurse bids, as the two fighters' camps could not agree to terms. However, this deadline was pushed back multiple times, in part due to ongoing negotiations from Fury's team who were trying to secure the fight for theundisputed heavyweight championshipagainst undefeatedWBA (Super),IBFandWBOheavyweight championOleksandr Usyk. A fight between Fury and Usyk did not materialise, as deposed former championAnthony Joshuawas unwilling to step aside to allow the two champions to fight. The deadline for the Fury-Whyte purse bids was ultimately scheduled for 28 January 2022, when it was announced thatFrank Warren's Queensberry Promotions had won the rights to promote the fight, with a winning bid of $41,025,000 (£31 million), beating out the $32,222,222 (£24 million) bid submitted byEddie Hearn'sMatchroom. Warren's bid was reported to be the highest successful purse bid in boxing history.Fury reacted to the news, stating on social media", "on social media that he is \"coming home\", suggesting that the fight against Whyte would be the first time he would box on U.K. soil since his August 2018 win againstFrancesco Pianeta.On 25 February, it was officially announced that the fight would be taking place atWembley Stadiumin London, England on 23 April. The first press conference for the fight took place on 1 March at Wembley Stadium, with Whyte absent. Whyte's lawyer stated that his client would not be partaking in promoting the fight, as \"we still do not have things resolved\". Despite his opponent's non-attendance, Fury as usual was \"in full showman mode\", declaring, \"Even Tyson Fury versus his own shadow sells\", and promising that the fight \"is going to be aFerrariracing aVauxhall Corsa\". When asked about Whyte's no-show, Fury opined, \"He's definitely shown the white flag in my estimation.\" In addition, he stated that his bout against Whyte would be the final fight of his professional career, promising to retire after the fight: \"I'm a two-time", "\"I'm a two-time undisputed world champion. £150m in the bank and nothing to prove to anybody.\" Tickets for the fight went on sale on 2 March. 85,000 of the 90,000 available tickets were sold within the first 3 hours, prompting Fury's promoter Frank Warren to begin the process of applying to the local authorities to expand the capacity to 100,000 fans, which would make Fury-Whyte the largest post-war boxing attendance in the history of the United Kingdom.The contest ultimately took place in front of a record-breaking crowd of 94,000 fans: 4,000 more than the attendance ofAnthony Joshua vs. Wladimir Klitschkowhich also took place at Wembley Stadium in 2017, thus setting a new attendance record for a boxing match in Europe. Fury was given a rousing reception by the crowd as he made his way to the ring in an attire of red and white, paying homage toSaint George's Dayto the backdrop of \"Juicy\" byThe Notorious B.I.G.and \"Sex on Fire\" byKings of Leon, in contrast to the boos received by his opponent Whyte during", "Whyte during his own ring-walk. Whyte unexpectedly boxed the first round in thesouthpaw stance, which was unusual for the primarily orthodox fighter. After a cautious first three minutes, Fury returned the favour at the start of the second round by switching between the southpaw and orthodox stances. The champion found success with the jab andcheck hook. In the fourth round, Whyte was cut over his right eye after a clash of heads. Fury continued to dominate the fight, landing a straight right in the fifth round which appeared to momentarily stun the challenger. With around ten seconds left of the sixth round, Fury landed a left jab, followed by a right uppercut which sent Whyte sprawling to the canvas. Although Whyte was able to beat the count and rise to his feet, the referee deemed it unsafe for him to continue, halting the fight after two minutes and fifty-nine seconds of the sixth round, declaring Fury the winner by sixth-round technical knockout.At the time of the stoppage, Fury was winning the bout on", "winning the bout on all three scorecards with 49–46, 48–47, and 50–45. In his post-fight ring interview, Fury claimed that the fight against Whyte was the last of his professional boxing career: \"I've been in this game 20 years, I'm 34 in a few months. I said the third Wilder fight would be my last but I felt I owed the fans one last homecoming. This is definitely the end of the Gypsy King and I went out with a bang. Tonight was amazing but this is the end.\"Fury appeared to have no regrets, stating, \"I fulfilled everything I've ever wanted to fulfil. I will retire as only the second heavyweight in history, afterRocky Marciano, to retire undefeated. I was unbeatable at this game.\" He announced his retirement on 12 August 2022 and relinquished hisRingtitle. Fury vs. Chisora III On 20 October 2022, it was announced that Fury would return from his short-lived retirement to defend his WBC title againstDerek Chisorain a trilogy bout on 3 December atTottenham Hotspur Stadiumin London, live on BT Sport Box Office.", "Sport Box Office. On the night of the fight, Fury defeated Chisora via 10th-round TKO in front of a crowd of 60,000 fans, in a dominant performance. After the fight, Fury called on fellow undefeated heavyweight championOleksandr Usyk, who was seated ringside at the Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, to join him between the ropes. Fury indicated his preference to face Usyk as his next opponent to determine the undisputed heavyweight champion. Fury added he would be happy to face WBOinterim championJoe Joyce, who had also joined Fury and Usyk ringside post-fight. Fury vs. Ngannou Fury faced formerUFC heavyweight championFrancis Ngannouin Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on 28 October 2023, in what was Ngannou's professional boxing debut. WBC officials confirmed the fight would be ten rounds and count as an official bout, although Fury's title would not be at stake. Fury entered the fight as a 14–1 favourite, but he was knocked down in the third round. He went on to win the bout via controversial split decision. One judge scored", "One judge scored the bout 95–94 to Ngannou, while the other two judges had it 96–93 and 95–94 in Fury's favour. According toCompuBox, Fury outlanded Ngannou 71 to 59 in total punches, while Ngannou outlanded Fury 37 to 32 in power punches.When asked in his in-ring interview about the fight, Fury said \" is a lot better of a boxer than we thought he’d be. He’s a very awkward man, and he’s a good puncher, and I respect him a lot. I don’t know how close was, but I got the win and that’s what it is.\"Oleksandr Usyk, who was in attendance, then entered the ring and faced off with Fury to promote their scheduled bout for the undisputed heavyweight championship. Undisputed heavyweight championship challenge Fury vs. Usyk On 29 September 2023, it was announced Fury had signed a contract to face the unified WBA, WBO and IBF heavyweight championOleksandr Usykfor the undisputed heavyweight title in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.The fight was originally scheduled for 23 December but was delayed to 17 February 2024 after Fury's", "2024 after Fury's bout with Francis Ngannou in October 2023.On 2 February, it was announced the fight had been postponed again after Fury suffered a cut in sparring above his right eye that required \"urgent medical attention\" and \"significant stitching\".The fight was rescheduled for 18 May 2024 and would crown the first undisputed heavyweight champion of the four belt era, as well as the first undisputed heavyweight champion in nearly 25 years. Fury lost the bout via split decision, the first loss in his professional boxing career. The opening rounds of the fight were closely contested, with Usyk applying constant pressure and landing power punches, while Fury found success with his jab, fighting off the back foot. From round 4, Fury became increasingly dominant, appearing to hurt Usyk with uppercuts in round 6. However, in the later rounds Usyk began to mount a comeback, particularly in a dramatic ninth round where he was able to badly hurt Fury with a series of punches, scoring a knockdown near the end of", "near the end of the round as Fury fell into the ropes. Although Fury was able to recover and attempted to rally, the judges ultimately awarded Usyk the victory. One judge had it 114–113 for Fury, while the other two scored it 115–112 and 114–113 in Usyk's favour.CompuBox suggested Fury had landed 157 of 496 punches (31.7%) whilst Usyk landed 170 of 407 (41.8%). Fury vs. Usyk II Fury and Usyk were expected to meet in a rematch in October 2024 at Kingdom Arena in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.On 29 May 2024 it was announced that the rematch was rescheduled for 21 December 2024. Professional wrestling Fury made an appearance in anangleonWWE's debut ofSmackDownonFoxon 4 October 2019. Appearing as afan, he stared downBraun Strowmanduring his match, and Strowman later threw one of his opponents,Dolph Ziggler, at Fury. After the match, Fury jumped the barricade, but was stopped by security.On 11 October, it was confirmed that Fury and Strowman would have a match atWWE Crown Jewel.At Crown Jewel on 31 October, Fury defeated", "Fury defeated Strowman via countout.Fury reportedly earned £11.9 million ($15 million) for his participation.Fury later made an appearance on 8 November episode ofSmackDownat the Manchester Arena, shaking hands with Strowman and suggesting they form atag teamtogether before both being challenged by the B-Team (Bo DallasandCurtis Axel), who they left laying in the ring. Other ventures In September 2019,Penguin Random Houseimprint Century secured the publishing rights to Fury's autobiography, titledBehind the Mask: My Autobiography. It was released on 14 November 2019 and reached the number-one bestseller position on Amazon with 24 hours of its release.His second book, entitledThe Furious Method, was published in 2020.A self-help book, it is \"full of inspirational advice for readers on how we can all improve our physical and mental health\".The book was a commercial success, and is aSunday Timesbestseller. Fury appeared in a four-partITVdocumentary namedMeet the Furys, which followed the Fury family while Tyson", "family while Tyson was preparing to fight in Las Vegas for the first time.ITV later commissioned another documentary about Fury, titledTyson Fury: The Gypsy King, which showed Fury and his family during the build-up to the Wilder rematch.ANetflixseries about Fury and his family,At Home with the Furys, was released on 16 August 2023. Known for his habit of impromptu singing, Fury regularly gained media attention for singing songs in the boxing ring after matches and during promotional events.In 2019, Fury appeared as a guest vocalist on English singer-songwriterRobbie Williams' studio albumThe Christmas Present, for the song \"Bad Sharon\".On 11 November 2022, Fury released a cover of \"Sweet Caroline\" as a singleto raise money for the men's mental health charity, Talk Club. Fury has expressed an interest in competing inmixed martial arts. In November 2019, he had a training session withDarren Till, who said there is a 70% chance that Fury will compete in MMA.Fury also mentioned thatConor McGregorhas offered to", "offered to train him should he crossover to MMA. On 16 February 2022, Fury launched a new range of energy drinks named Furocity Energy to rival market leadersRed BullandMonster Energy.He has since released Furocity ice lollies,energy gum,and protein bars. Fury signed a sponsorship deal with local clubMorecambe FCbefore their2022-23 League One campaign, with the Gypsy King brand appearing on the team's shorts.Fury has displayed interest in purchasing the team.In the north east corner of the team'smain stadiumis a two-storey building which houses the Tyson Fury Foundation, and a gym which Fury purchased in August 2020.Fury said of the foundation (which houses boxing,footballandrugbyfacilities) that \"It’s giving the next Tyson Fury or the nextWayne Rooneythe chance that we had.\"He also owns the fenced-off3G pitchesneighbouring the stadium. Public image After Fury became world champion in 2015, the British media began to scrutinise what he had said in the past. He received criticism for having said that he would", "said that he would \"hang\" his sister if she waspromiscuous, as well as comments made in an interview before the Klitschko fight in which he denouncedabortion,paedophilia, andhomosexuality, saying that the legalisation of these behaviours would bring forth aBiblicalreckoning. Fury was nominated for the 2015BBC Sports Personality of the Year Awardbut around 140,000 people signed a petition claiming that his equation of homosexuality with paedophilia should disqualify him. When asked about the petition by a BBC journalist, Fury quoted religious phrases, including \"believe in theLord Jesus Christand you will be saved,\" along withJohn 3:16: \"For God so loved the world, He gave His only begotten Son, whoever believes in Him shall have eternal life and shall not perish.\"Fury ultimately came fourth in the SPOTY award and said at the ceremony, \"I've said a lot of stuff in the past and none of it is with intentions to hurt anybody. I apologise to anyone that's been hurt by it.\" Fury was later criticised for comments", "for comments ontransgenderpeople and \"ZionistJewishpeople who own all the banks, all the papers, all the TV stations\" in a May 2016 interview.The interview was later deleted and Fury apologised: \"I said some things which may have hurt some people, which as aChristianman is not something I would ever want to do. Though it is not an excuse, sometimes the heightened media scrutiny has caused me to act out in public and then my words can get taken out of context. I mean no harm or disrespect to anyone and I know more is expected of me as an ambassador of British boxing and I promise in future to hold myself up to the highest possible standard.\" Fury was formerly known for his attention-grabbing antics, such as arriving at a press conference in aLamborghiniand wearing aBatmancostume. After his hiatus, he has said that he does not want to \"play a character anymore\". He stated in November 2017, \"I feel I have a story to tell, a massive one. The stuff I've been through, depression, mental health problems. It can", "problems. It can help and inspire others. From 18 stone to 27. From a clean living man to drugs and alcohol and back to the heavyweight world champion again. I hope the legacy and story I leave behind will help others in the future of what to do and not to do.\"Although Fury has vowed to rein in his entertaining behaviour, he is still known for his vibrant personality, with promoterBob Arumstating that he \"hasn't seen a fighter with that much charisma sinceMuhammad Ali\".Since his return to the ring and his strong performance against Wilder, Fury has been dubbed \"The People's Champion\" due to his open and honest discussion about hismental healthstruggles.He is currently an ambassador for the former British world championFrank Bruno's mental health charity, The Frank Bruno Foundation. In June 2020, Fury publicly thankedDaniel Kinahanfor his role in brokering a potentialTyson Fury vs. Anthony Joshuafight.In 2018, anIrish High Courtjudge stated that Kinahan, who has no previous criminal convictions, is a senior", "is a senior figure in organised crime on a global scale.TheIrish governmentexpressed its \"outrage\" over the involvement of Kinahan in the brokering of the proposed fight.On 24 June 2020, it was announced that Fury had parted ways with Kinahan as an advisor.Fury was photographed alongside Kinahan in Dubai in February 2022.Fury was refused entry to the United States in June 2022, reportedly as a result of his links with Kinahan, who is subject to sanctions by the U.S. government'sOffice of Foreign Assets Control. Personal life Fury met his wife Paris (née Mullroy) when she was 15 and he was 17.They began dating the year after they met, and married in 2008 at St. Peter in Chains Catholic Church inDoncaster, South Yorkshire.The couple have seven children together: four sons (all named Prince) and three daughters.When Fury was asked why all of his sons had the first name Prince, he said, \"I'm a king and they're princes until they earn their rightful name.\"He named his first son Prince afterPrince Naseem, his", "Naseem, his favourite British fighter.Paris suffered amiscarriagebefore Fury's cancelled bout with Ustinov in 2014,and lost another child on the day of his comeback fight against Seferi in 2018. Fury's mother was aProtestantand his father is aCatholic, though neither actively practised their religions; he was instead introduced to religion by his uncle, aborn-again ChristianandPentecostalpreacher in theIrish Travellercommunity.The Guardiandescribed Fury's beliefs as \"a mixture of traditional Roman Catholic... and a particularly literal interpretation ofevangelical Christianity\".His wife is a practising Catholic and was also raised in an Irish Traveller family. Fury and his family reside inMorecambe, Lancashire.He also owns a home inLas Vegas, but decided to let his boxing trainer live there because he is unsure about spending more time in the US.In September 2015, he expressed an interest in running to be an independentMPforMorecambe and Lunesdale, stating that the government was too focused on providing", "on providing services for immigrants and not enough on homeless people and those with drug and alcohol problems. In April 2016, Fury spoke about theracialabuse he receives as an Irish Traveller, stating that \"no one wants to see aGypsydo well\".He stated, \"I am a Gypsy and that's it. I will always be a Gypsy, I'll never change. I will always be fat and white and that's it. I am the champion yet I am thought of as a bum.\"Since his return from his hiatus, Fury has stated that he still feels bias against his community. Fury is a fan ofManchester Unitedand attends football matches at their home groundOld Trafford.He also supports theEngland national team. Professional boxing record Viewership International Pay-per-view bouts Filmography Television Discography Singles Bibliography Non-fiction See also Notes References External links", "Mike Tyson Michael Gerard Tyson(born June 30, 1966) is an Americanprofessional boxerwho competed from 1985 to 2005, and is scheduled to compete once again in 2024. Nicknamed \"Iron Mike\"and \"Kid Dynamite\" in his early career, and later known as \"the Baddest Man on the Planet\",Tyson is regarded as one of the greatestheavyweightboxers of all time.He reigned as theundisputedworld heavyweight champion from 1987 to 1990. Tyson won his first 19 professional fights byknockout, 12 of them in the first round. Claiming his first belt at 20 years, 4 months, and 22 days old, Tyson holds the record asthe youngest boxer ever to win a heavyweight title.He was the first heavyweight boxer to simultaneously hold the WBA, WBC and IBF titles, as well as the only heavyweight to unify them in succession. The following year, Tyson became thelineal championwhen he knocked outMichael Spinksin 91 seconds of the first round.In 1990, Tyson was knocked out by underdogBuster Douglasinone of the biggest upsets in boxing history. In 1992,", "history. In 1992, Tyson was convicted of rape and sentenced to six years in prison. He was released on parole after three years.After his release in 1995, he engaged in a series of comeback fights, regaining the WBA and WBC titles in 1996 to joinFloyd Patterson,Muhammad Ali,Tim Witherspoon,Evander HolyfieldandGeorge Foremanas the only men in boxing history to have regained a heavyweight championship after losing it. After being stripped of the WBC title in the same year, Tyson lost the WBA title to Evander Holyfield by an eleventh round stoppage. Their1997 rematchended when Tyson was disqualified for biting Holyfield's ears, one bite notoriously being strong enough to remove a portion of his right ear. In 2002, Tyson fought for the world heavyweight title, losing by knockout toLennox Lewis. Tyson was known for his ferocious and intimidating boxing style as well as his controversial behavior inside and outside the ring, which he explained was inspired bySonny Liston, a boxer who is widely regarded as the most", "as the most intimidating man in the history of boxing.With a knockout-to-win percentage of 88%,he was ranked 16th onThe Ringmagazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time,and first onESPN's list of \"The Hardest Hitters in Heavyweight History\".Sky Sportsdescribed him as \"perhaps the most ferocious fighter to step into a professional ring\".He has been inducted into theInternational Boxing Hall of Fameand theWorld Boxing Hall of Fame. Early life Michael Gerard Tyson was born inFort Greene, Brooklyn, New York City, on June 30, 1966.He has an older brother named Rodney (bornc.1961)and had an older sister named Denise, who died of a heart attack at age 24 in February 1990.Tyson's mother, born inCharlottesville,Virginia,was described as a promiscuous woman who might have been a prostitute.Tyson's biological father is listed as \"Purcell Tyson\", a \"humble cab driver\" (who was fromJamaica) on his birth certificate,but the man Tyson had known as his father was a pimp named Jimmy Kirkpatrick. Kirkpatrick was", "Kirkpatrick was fromGrier Town, North Carolina(a predominantly black neighborhood that was annexed by the city ofCharlotte),where he was one of the neighborhood's top baseball players. Kirkpatrick married and had a son, Tyson's half-brother Jimmie Lee Kirkpatrick, who would help to integrate Charlotte high school football in 1965. In 1959, Jimmy Kirkpatrick left his family and moved to Brooklyn, where he met Tyson's mother, Lorna Mae (Smith) Tyson. Kirkpatrick frequented pool halls, gambled and hung out on the streets. \"My father was just a regular street guy caught up in the street world,\" Tyson said. Kirkpatrick abandoned the Tyson family around the time Mike was born, leaving Tyson's mother to care for the children on her own.Kirkpatrick died in 1992. The family lived inBedford-Stuyvesantuntil their financial burdens necessitated a move toBrownsvillewhen Tyson was 10 years old.Throughout his childhood, Tyson lived in and around neighborhoods with a high rate of crime. According to an interview inDetails,", "inDetails, his first fight was with a bigger youth who had pulled the head off one of Tyson's pigeons.Tyson was repeatedly caught committing petty crimes and fighting those who ridiculed his high-pitched voice andlisp. By the age of 13, he had been arrested 38 times.He ended up at the Tryon School for Boys inJohnstown, New York. Tyson's emerging boxing ability was discovered there byBobby Stewart, a juvenile detention center counselor and former boxer. Stewart considered Tyson to be an outstanding fighter and trained him for a few months before introducing him to boxing manager and trainerCus D'Amato.Tyson dropped out of high school as a junior.He was later awarded an honoraryDoctorate in Humane LettersfromCentral State Universityin 1989.Kevin Rooneyalso trained Tyson, and he was occasionally assisted byTeddy Atlas, although Atlas was dismissed by D'Amato when Tyson was 15. Rooney eventually took over all training duties for the young fighter. Tyson's mother died when he was 16, leaving him in the care of", "him in the care of D'Amato, who would become his legal guardian. Tyson later said, \"I never saw my mother happy with me and proud of me for doing something: she only knew me as being a wild kid running the streets, coming home with new clothes that she knew I didn't pay for. I never got a chance to talk to her or know about her. Professionally, it has no effect, but it's crushing emotionally and personally.\" Amateur career As anamateur, Tyson won gold medals at the 1981 and 1982 Junior Olympic Games, defeating Joe Cortez in 1981 and beating Kelton Brown in 1982. Brown's corner threw in the towel in the first round. In 1984 Tyson won the gold medal at theNation Golden Glovesheld in New York, beating Jonathan Littles.He foughtHenry Tillmantwice as an amateur, losing both bouts by decision. Tillman went on to win heavyweight gold at the1984 Summer Olympicsin Los Angeles. Professional career Early career Tyson made his professional debut as an 18-year-old on March 6, 1985, inAlbany, New York. He defeated Hector", "He defeated Hector Mercedes via first-round TKO.He had 15 bouts in his first year as a professional. Fighting frequently, Tyson won 26 of his first 28 fights by KO or TKO; 16 of those came in the first round.The quality of his opponents gradually increased tojourneymanfighters and borderline contenders,likeJames Tillis,David Jaco,Jesse Ferguson,Mitch Green, andMarvis Frazier. His win streak attracted media attention and Tyson was billed as the next greatheavyweightchampion. D'Amato died in November 1985, relatively early into Tyson's professional career, and some speculate that his death was the catalyst to many of the troubles Tyson was to experience as his life and career progressed. Rise up the ranks Tyson's first nationallytelevisedbout took place on February 16, 1986, atHouston Field HouseinTroy, New York, against journeyman heavyweightJesse Ferguson, and was carried byABC Sports. Tyson knocked down Ferguson with an uppercut in the fifth round that broke Ferguson's nose.During the sixth round, Ferguson", "round, Ferguson began to hold and clinch Tyson in an apparent attempt to avoid further punishment. After admonishing Ferguson several times to obey his commands to box, therefereefinally stopped the fight near the middle of the sixth round. The fight was initially ruled a win for Tyson bydisqualification(DQ) of his opponent. The ruling was \"adjusted\" to a win bytechnical knockout(TKO) after Tyson's corner protested that a DQ win would end Tyson's string of knockout victories, and that a knockout would have been the inevitable result. In July, after recording six more knockout victories, Tyson fought former world title challengerMarvis FrazierinGlens Falls, New York, on another ABC Sports broadcast. Tyson won easily, charging at Frazier at the opening bell and hitting him with two consecutive uppercuts, the second of which knocked Frazier unconscious thirty seconds into the fight. After his win over Frazier, Tyson was booked to fightJosé Ribaltaat theTrump Plaza Hotel and Casinoin Atlantic City, New Jersey in", "City, New Jersey in 1986.Ribalta would hit Tyson in the body throughout the fight. Tyson knocked down Ribalta three times in the 2nd, 8th, and 10th round when the referee called the fight off. Tyson would go on to say that Ribalta was his toughest fight commenting, \"I hit Jose Ribalta with everything, and he took everything and kept coming back for more. Jose Ribalta stood toe to toe with me. He was very strong in the clinches,\" and \"Ribalta was a game fighter who actually engaged me. I felt nauseous from all Ribalta’s body blows, even hours after the fight. I never felt that much general pain again.\" WBC heavyweight champion Tyson vs. Berbick On November 22, 1986, Tyson was given his first title fight againstTrevor Berbickfor theWorld Boxing Council(WBC) heavyweight championship. Tyson won the title by TKO in the second round, and at the age of 20 years and 4 months became the youngest heavyweight champion in history.He added theWBAandIBFtitles after defeatingJames SmithandTony Tuckerin 1987. Tyson's", "1987. Tyson's dominant performance brought many accolades. Donald Saunders wrote: \"The noble and manly art of boxing can at least cease worrying about its immediate future, now it has discovered a heavyweight champion fit to stand alongside Dempsey, Tunney, Louis, Marciano, and Ali.\" Tyson intimidated fighters with his strength, combined with outstanding hand speed, accuracy, coordination and timing.Tyson also possessed notable defensive abilities, holding his hands high in thepeek-a-boostyle taught by his mentorCus D'Amatoto slip under and weave around his opponent's punches while timing his own.Tyson's explosive punching technique was due in large part to crouching immediately prior to throwing a hook or an uppercut: this allowed the \"spring\" of his legs to add power to the punch.Among his signature moves was a right hook to his opponent's body followed by a right uppercut to his opponent's chin. Lorenzo Boyd, Jesse Ferguson andJosé Ribaltawere each knocked down by this combination. Unified heavyweight", "Unified heavyweight champion Tyson vs. Smith, Thomas Expectations for Tyson were extremely high, and he was the favorite to win theheavyweight unification series, a tournament designed to establish an undisputed heavyweight champion. Tyson defended his title againstJames Smithon March 7, 1987, in Las Vegas, Nevada. He won by unanimous decision and added Smith'sWorld Boxing Association(WBA) title to his existing belt.\"Tyson-mania\" in the media was becoming rampant. He beatPinklon Thomasin May by TKO in the sixth round. Undisputed heavyweight champion Tyson vs. Tucker On August 1 he took theInternational Boxing Federation(IBF) title fromTony Tuckerin a twelve-round unanimous decision 119–111, 118–113, and 116–112.He became the first heavyweight to own all three major belts – WBA, WBC, and IBF – at the same time. Tyson vs. Biggs, Holmes, Tubbs Another fight, in October of that year, ended with a victory for Tyson over 1984 Olympic super heavyweight gold medalistTyrell Biggsby TKO in the seventh round. During", "round. During this time, Tyson came to the attention of gaming companyNintendo. After witnessing one of Tyson's fights, Nintendo of America presidentMinoru Arakawawas impressed by the fighter's \"power and skill\", prompting him to suggest Tyson be included in the upcomingNintendo Entertainment Systemport of thePunch-Out!!arcade game. In 1987, Nintendo releasedMike Tyson's Punch-Out!!, which was well received and sold more than a million copies. Tyson had three fights in 1988. He facedLarry Holmeson January 22, 1988, and defeated the legendary former champion by KO in the fourth round.This was the only knockout loss Holmes had in 75 professional bouts. In March, Tyson then fought contenderTony Tubbsin Tokyo, Japan, fitting in an easy second-round TKO victory amid promotional and marketing work. Tyson vs. Spinks On June 27, 1988, Tyson facedMichael Spinks. Spinks, who had taken the heavyweight championship fromLarry Holmesvia fifteen-round decision in 1985, had not lost his title in the ring but was not", "ring but was not recognized as champion by the major boxing organizations. Holmes had previously given up all but the IBF title, and that was eventually stripped from Spinks after he elected to fight Gerry Cooney (winning by TKO in the fifth round) rather than IBF Number 1 Contender Tony Tucker, as the Cooney fight provided him a larger purse. However, Spinks did become the lineal champion by beating Holmes and many (includingRingmagazine) considered him to have a legitimate claim to being the true heavyweight champion.The bout was, at the time, the richest fight in history and expectations were very high. Boxing pundits were predicting a titanic battle of styles, with Tyson's aggressive infighting conflicting with Spinks's skillful out-boxing and footwork. The fight ended after 91 seconds when Tyson knocked Spinks out in the first round; many consider this to be the pinnacle of Tyson's fame and boxing ability. During this period, Tyson's problems outside the ring were also beginning to emerge. His marriage", "His marriage toRobin Givenswas heading for divorce,and his future contract was being fought over byDon KingandBill Cayton.In late 1988, Tyson parted with manager Bill Cayton and fired longtime trainerKevin Rooney, the man many credit for honing Tyson's craft after the death of D'Amato.Following Rooney's departure, critics alleged that Tyson began to show less head movement and combination punching. Tyson vs. Bruno, Carl Williams In 1989, Tyson had only two fights amid personal turmoil. He faced the British boxerFrank Brunoin February. Bruno managed to stun Tyson at the end of the first round,although Tyson went on to knock Bruno out in the fifth round. Tyson then knocked outCarl \"The Truth\" Williamsin the first round in July. Tyson vs. Douglas By 1990, Tyson seemed to have lost direction, and his personal life was in disarray amidst reports of less vigorous training prior to theBuster Douglasmatch.In a fight on February 11, 1990, he lost the undisputed championship to Douglas in Tokyo.Tyson was a huge", "was a huge betting favorite; indeed, the Mirage, the only casino to put out odds for the fight, made Tyson a 42/1 favorite. Tyson failed to find a way past Douglas's quick jab that had a 12-inch (30 cm) reach advantage over his own.Tyson did catch Douglas with an uppercut in the eighth round and knocked him to the floor, but Douglas recovered sufficiently to hand Tyson a heavy beating in the subsequent two rounds. After the fight, the Tyson camp would complain that the count was slow and that Douglas had taken longer than ten seconds to get back on his feet.Just 35 seconds into the tenth round, Douglas unleashed a brutal uppercut, followed by a four-punch combination of hooks that knocked Tyson down for the first time in his career. He was counted out by refereeOctavio Meyran. The knockout victory by Douglas over Tyson, the previously undefeated \"baddest man on the planet\" and arguably the most feared boxer in professional boxing at that time, has been described as one of the most shockingupsetsin modern", "modern sports history. Return to the ring Despite the shocking loss, Tyson has said that losing to Douglas was the greatest moment of his career: \"I needed that fight to make me a better person and fighter. I have a broader perspective of myself and boxing.\" After the loss, Tyson recovered with first-round knockouts ofHenry TillmanandAlex Stewartin his next two fights. Tyson's victory over Tillman, the 1984 Olympic heavyweight gold medalist, enabled Tyson to avenge his amateur losses at Tillman's hands. These bouts set up an elimination match for another shot at the undisputed world heavyweight championship, whichEvander Holyfieldhad taken from Douglas in his first defense of the title. Tyson vs. Ruddock Tyson, who was the number one contender, faced number two contenderDonovan \"Razor\" Ruddockon March 18, 1991, in Las Vegas. Ruddock was seen as the most dangerous heavyweight around and was thought of as one of the hardest punching heavyweights. Tyson and Ruddock went back and forth for most of the fight,", "most of the fight, until refereeRichard Steelecontroversially stopped the fight during the seventh round in favor of Tyson. This decision infuriated the fans in attendance, sparking a post-fight melee in the audience. The referee had to be escorted from the ring. Tyson vs Ruddock II Tyson and Ruddock met again on June 28 that year, with Tyson knocking down Ruddock twice and winning a twelve-round unanimous decision 113–109, 114–108, and 114–108.A fight between Tyson and Holyfield for the undisputed championship was scheduled for November 8, 1991, atCaesars Palacein Las Vegas, but Tyson pulled out after sustaining a rib cartilage injury during training. Trial and incarceration Tyson was arrested in July 1991 for the rape of 18-year-old Desiree Washington at the Canterbury Hotel inIndianapolis. Washington, who had previously been \"crowned Miss BlackRhode Island\",was a contestant in the Miss Black America pageant, rehearsals for which were being held in the city. Tyson was charged with \"one count of rape, two", "count of rape, two counts of criminal deviate conduct, and one count of criminal confinement—charges that carried a maximum sentence of 63 years.\"Tyson's rape trial at theMarion Countysuperior court lasted from January 26 to February 10, 1992. Washington herself testified that Tyson had \"called her around 1:45 a.m. to tour the city, then picked her up in his limo, took her back to his room, and made small talk as they both sat on the bed.\"After propositioning her for sex, Washington stated that she firmly refused and went to use the bathroom before leaving. \"After using the bathroom, she said, she noticed some discharge on her panty shield. Washington said she removed the liner and threw it away.\"When she came out, \"Tyson then pulled her to the bed, pinned her down and raped her, she testified. “He was mean, evil,” she said. “I got on top and started to try to get away, but he slammed me down again.”\".\"Three days after the assault, Washington went to the police and accused Tyson of rape.\"Partial", "of rape.\"Partial corroboration of Washington's story came via testimony from Tyson'schauffeur, Virginia Foster, who confirmed Desiree Washington's \"state of shock\"after the incident. Foster also testified that Tyson had previously attempted to sexually assault her too, having \"lured her to his hotel room, tried to touch her, and then exposed himself\".Further testimony came from theemergency roomphysician, Dr. Thomas Richardson, who examined Washington after the incident and confirmed that Washington's physical condition was consistent with rape.Richardson testified that Washington had suffered \"two small vaginal abrasions, consistent with 20 to 30 percent of the injuries seen in sexual assault cases\",and that in approximately 20,000 cases over a period of 20 years, \"only twice had he ever seen such abrasions following consensual sex.\" Under lead defense lawyerVincent J. Fuller's direct examination, Tyson claimed that everything had taken place with Washington's full consent and he claimed not to have forced", "not to have forced himself upon her. When he was cross-examined by lead prosecutor Gregory Garrison, Tyson denied claims that he had misled Washington and insisted that she wanted to have sex with him.\"In a misguided attempt to show that Washington must have known that Tyson wanted sex, the defense called witness after witness to testify about their client’s lewd remarks and crude behavior during his encounters with the Miss Black America contestants, and even with Washington herself.\"Former attorney Mark Shaw argued that Tyson's \"case was mishandled, citing a jury-selection process that allowed a conservativeex-Marineto become foreman, a defense “strategy” of making Tyson look as bad as possible, and a disastrous decision to allow the defendant to testify at thegrand juryhearing, the trial, and his sentencing.\" Despite Fuller's reputation as \"one of the most skillful and respected defense attorneys not only in Washington, but in the country the defense team embarked on a game plan filled with ill-fated", "with ill-fated decisions and questionable strategies. While the famous Fuller seemed to give Tyson an imposing advantage, his background made him an illogical choice. Though he’d represented such notables asJohn Hinckley Jr.and junk-bond kingMichael Milken, his reputation came mostly from federal courtwhite-collar casessuch as tax fraud and bribery. He simply wasn’t familiar with the rough-and-tumble county criminal courts, and lacked recent experience in sex-crime cases. He couldn’t locate exhibits, fumbled his delivery, exhibited a lack of knowledge of Indiana law, and generally handled Tyson’s defense more like a first-year law student than a seasoned pro.\"Fuller had also successfully defended Tyson's manager, Don King, \"against federal tax-evasion charges\"in 1985, which may have been one of the reasons King chose him to represent Tyson. Tyson himself would later describe Fuller as \"a horrible lawyer\".According to Shaw, Fuller \"never challenged obvious problems in Washington’s story. Exactly why did she", "Exactly why did she remove her panty shield? How did Tyson perform oral sex on her and still keep her pinned to the bed? If Tyson is one of the strongest men in the world, where were the bruises on the 108-pound woman?\" Tyson was convicted of the rape charge on February 10, 1992, after the jurydeliberatedfor nearly 10 hours. Alan Dershowitz, acting as Tyson's counsel, filed an appeal urging error of law in the Court's exclusion of evidence of the victim's past sexual conduct (known as theRape Shield Law; Dershowtiz alleged that Washington had \"falsely accused one of her high school classmates of rape\"),the exclusion of three potential defense witnesses, and the lack ofjury instructionson honest and reasonablemistake of fact.TheIndiana Court of Appealsruled against Tyson in a 2–1 vote.TheIndiana Supreme Courtlet the lower court opinion stand due to a 2–2 split in its review. The tie vote was due to the fact that the Chief Justice,Randall T. Shepard, recused himself from the case. The Chief Justice later", "Chief Justice later revealed he did so because of a heated argument between his wife and Dershowitz at a Yale Law School reunion concerning the case.On March 26, 1992, Tyson was sentenced to six years in prison along with four years of probation.He was assigned to the Indiana Youth Center (now thePlainfield Correctional Facility) in April 1992,and he was released in March 1995 after serving less than three years of the sentence.He left with prison tattoosof tennis playerArthur Asheand Chinese communist leaderMao Zedong; Tyson also dates his tattoo of Marxist revolutionaryChe Guevarato this time. Due to his conviction, Tyson was required toregisteras a Tier IIsex offenderunderfederal law.Tyson has continued to maintain his innocence. In 1992, Erinn Cosby, the daughter of comedian and actorBill Cosby, publicly accused Tyson of sexually assaulting her in 1989, although no criminal charges were ever sought. Comeback After being paroled from prison, Tyson easily won his comeback bouts againstPeter", "bouts againstPeter McNeeleyandBuster Mathis Jr.Tyson's first comeback fight was marketed as \"He's back!\"and grossed more than US$96 million worldwide, including a United States record $63 million forPPVtelevision. The viewing of the fight was purchased by 1.52 million homes, setting both PPV viewership and revenue records.The 89-second fight elicited criticism that Tyson's management lined up \"tomato cans\" to ensure easy victories for his return.TV Guideincluded the Tyson–McNeeley fight in their list of the 50 Greatest TV Sports Moments of All Time in 1998. Second reign as unified heavyweight champion Tyson vs. Bruno II, Seldon Tyson regained one belt by easily winning the WBC title againstFrank Brunoin March 1996. It was the second fight between the two, and Tyson knocked out Bruno in the third round.In 1996,Lennox Lewisturned down a $13.5 million guarantee to fight Tyson. This would've been Lewis's highest fight purse to date. Lewis then accepted $4 million from Don King to step aside and allow Tyson to", "and allow Tyson to fightBruce Seldonfor an expected $30 million instead with the intention that if Tyson defeated Seldon, he would fight Lewis next.Tyson added the WBA belt by defeating champion Seldon in the first round in September that year. Seldon was severely criticized and mocked in the popular press for seemingly collapsing to innocuous punches from Tyson. Tyson vs. Holyfield Tyson attempted to defend the WBA title againstEvander Holyfield, who was in the fourth fight of his own comeback. Holyfield had retired in 1994 following the loss of his championship toMichael Moorer. It was said that Don King and others saw former champion Holyfield, who was 34 at the time of the fight and a huge underdog, as a washed-up fighter. On November 9, 1996, in Las Vegas, Nevada, Tyson faced Holyfield in a title bout dubbed \"Finally\". In a surprising turn of events, Holyfield, who was given virtually no chance to win by numerous commentators,defeated Tyson by TKO when refereeMitch Halpernstopped the bout in round", "the bout in round eleven.Holyfield became the second boxer to win a heavyweight championship belt three times. Holyfield's victory was marred by allegations from Tyson's camp of Holyfield's frequentheadbuttsduring the bout. Although the headbutts were ruled accidental by the referee,they would become a point of contention in the rematch. Post-title career Tyson vs. Holyfield II Tyson and Holyfield fought again on June 28, 1997. Originally, Halpern was supposed to be the referee, but after Tyson's camp protested, Halpern stepped aside in favor ofMills Lane.The highly anticipated rematch was dubbedThe Sound and the Fury, and it was held at the Las VegasMGM Grand Garden Arena, site of the first bout. It was a lucrative event, drawing even more attention than the first bout and grossing $100 million. Tyson received $30 million and Holyfield $35 million, the highest paid professionalboxing pursesuntil 2007.The fight was purchased by 1.99 million households, setting a pay-per-view buy rate record that stood until", "that stood until May 5, 2007, being surpassed byOscar De La Hoya vs. Floyd Mayweather Jr. Soon to become one of the most controversial events in modern sports,the fight was stopped at the end of the third round, with Tyson disqualifiedfor biting Holyfield on both ears. The first time Tyson bit him, the match was temporarily stopped. Referee Mills Lane deducted two points from Tyson and the fight resumed. However, after the match resumed, Tyson bit him again, resulting in his disqualification, and Holyfield won the match. The first bite was severe enough to remove a piece of Holyfield's right ear, which was found on the ring floor after the fight.Tyson later stated that his actions were retaliation for Holyfield repeatedlyheadbuttinghim without penalty.In the confusion that followed the ending of the bout and announcement of the decision, a near riot occurred in the arena and several people were injured.Tyson Holyfield II was the first heavyweight title fight in over 50 years to end in a disqualification. As", "As a fallout from the incident, US$3 million was immediately withheld from Tyson's $30-million purse by the Nevada state boxing commission (the most it could legally hold back at the time).Two days after the fight, Tyson issued a statement,apologizing to Holyfield for his actions and asked not to be banned for life over the incident.Tyson was roundly condemned in the news media but was not without defenders. Novelist and commentatorKatherine Dunnwrote a column that criticized Holyfield's sportsmanship in the controversial bout and charged the news media with being biased against Tyson. On July 9, 1997, Tyson's boxing license was rescinded by theNevada State Athletic Commissionin a unanimous voice vote; he was also fined US$3 million and ordered to pay the legal costs of the hearing.As most state athletic commissions honor sanctions imposed by other states, this effectively made Tyson unable to box in the United States. The revocation was not permanent, as the commission voted 4–1 to restore Tyson's boxing", "Tyson's boxing license on October 18, 1998. During his time away from boxing in 1998, Tyson made a guest appearance atWrestleMania XIVas anenforcerfor the main event match betweenShawn MichaelsandSteve Austin. During this time, Tyson was also an unofficial member of Michaels'sstable,D-Generation X. Tyson was paid $3 million for being guest enforcer of the match at WrestleMania XIV. \"I'm the best ever. I'm the most brutal and vicious, the most ruthless champion there has ever been. There's no one can stop me.Lennoxis a conqueror? No! I'mAlexander! He's no Alexander! I'm the best ever. There's never been anyone as ruthless. I'mSonny Liston. I'mJack Dempsey. There's no one like me. I'm from their cloth. There is no one who can match me. My style is impetuous, my defense is impregnable, and I'm just ferocious. I want your heart! I want to eat his children! Praise be to Allah!\" —Tyson's post-fight interview after knocking outLou Savarese38 seconds into the bout in June 2000. In January 1999, Tyson returned to the", "returned to the ring for a match against the South AfricanFrancois Botha. This match also ended in controversy. While Botha initially controlled the fight, Tyson allegedly attempted to break Botha's arms during a tie-up and both boxers were cautioned by the referee in the ill-tempered bout. Botha was ahead on points on all scorecards and was confident enough to mock Tyson as the fight continued. Nonetheless, Tyson landed a straight right hand in the fifth round that knocked out Botha.Critics noticed Tyson stopped using the bob and weave defense altogether following this return.Promoting the fight onSecaucus, New Jerseytelevision stationWWOR-TV, Tyson launched into an expletive-laden tirade that forced sports anchor Russ Salzberg to cut the interview short. Legal problems arose with Tyson once again. On February 5, 1999, Tyson was sentenced to a year's imprisonment, fined $5,000, and ordered to serve two yearsprobationalong with undergoing 200 hours ofcommunity servicefor assaulting two motorists after a", "motorists after a traffic accident on August 31, 1998.He served nine months of that sentence. After his release, he foughtOrlin Norrison October 23, 1999. Tyson knocked down Norris with a left hook thrown after the bell sounded to end the first round. Norris injured his knee when he went down and said that he was unable to continue. Consequently, the bout was ruled ano contest. In 2000, Tyson had three fights. The first match in January was staged at theMEN Arenain Manchester, England againstJulius Francis. Following controversy as to whether Tyson was allowed into the country, he took four minutes to knock out Francis, ending the bout in the second round.He also foughtLou Savaresein June 2000 inGlasgow, winning in the first round; the fight lasted only 38 seconds. Tyson continued punching after the referee had stopped the fight, knocking the referee to the floor as he tried to separate the boxers.It was after this fight that Tyson called out Lennox Lewis with his post fight speech proclaiming that he was", "that he was the \"best ever\" and he was \"Sonny Listion and Jack Dempsey, cut from their cloth.\"In October, Tyson fought the similarly controversialAndrew Golota,winning in round three after Gołota was unable to continue due to a broken cheekbone, concussion, and neck injury.The result was later changed to no contest after Tyson refused to take a pre-fight drug test and then tested positive formarijuanain a post-fight urine test.Tyson fought only once in 2001, beatingBrian Nielsenin Copenhagen by TKO in the seventh round. Tyson vs. Lewis Tyson once again had the opportunity to fight for a heavyweight championship in 2002.Lennox Lewisheld the WBC, IBF,IBOandLinealtitles at the time. As promising fighters, Tyson and Lewis had sparred at a training camp in a meeting arranged by Cus D'Amato in 1984.Tyson sought to fight Lewis in Nevada for a more lucrative box-office venue, but the Nevada Boxing Commission refused him a license to box as he was facing possiblesexual assaultcharges at the time. Two years prior to", "Two years prior to the bout, Tyson had made several inflammatory remarks to Lewis in an interview following the Savarese fight. The remarks included the statement \"I want your heart, I want to eat your children.\"On January 22, 2002, the two boxers and their entourages were involved in a brawl at a New Yorkpress conferenceto publicize the planned event.A few weeks later, the Nevada State Athletic Commission refused to grant Tyson a license for the fight, and the promoters had to make alternative arrangements. After multiple states balked at granting Tyson a license, the fight eventually occurred on June 8 at thePyramid ArenainMemphis, Tennessee. Lewis dominated the fight and knocked out Tyson with a right hand in the eighth round. Tyson was respectful after the fight and praised Lewis on his victory.This fight was the highest-grossing event inpay-per-viewhistory at that time, generating $106.9 million from 1.95 million buys in the US. In another Memphis fight on February 22, 2003, Tyson beat fringe", "Tyson beat fringe contenderClifford Etienne49 seconds into round one. The pre-fight was marred by rumors of Tyson's lack of fitness. Some said that he took time out from training to party in Las Vegas and geta new facial tattoo.This eventually proved to be Tyson's final professional victory in the ring. In August 2003, after years of financial struggles, Tyson finally filed for bankruptcy.Tyson earned over $30 million for several of his fights and $300 million during his career. At the time, the media reported that he had approximately $23 million in debt. On August 13, 2003, Tyson entered the ring for a face-to-face confrontation againstK-1fighterBob Sappimmediately after Sapp's win againstKimo Leopoldoin Las Vegas. K-1 signed Tyson to a contract with the hopes of making a fight happen between the two, but Tyson's felony history made it impossible for him to obtain a visa to enter Japan, where the fight would have been most profitable. Alternative locations were discussed, but the fight ultimately did not", "ultimately did not take place. On July 30, 2004, Tyson had a match against British boxerDanny Williamsin another comeback fight, and this time, staged inLouisville, Kentucky. Tyson dominated the opening two rounds. The third round was even, with Williams getting in some clean blows and also a few illegal ones, for which he was penalized. In the fourth round, Tyson was unexpectedly knocked out. After the fight, it was revealed that Tyson was trying to fight on one leg, having torn aligamentin his other knee in the first round. This was Tyson's fifth career defeat.He underwent surgery for the ligament four days after the fight. His manager,Shelly Finkel, claimed that Tyson was unable to throw significant right-hand punches since he had a knee injury. Retirement Tyson vs. McBride On June 11, 2005, Tyson quit before the start of the seventh round in a close bout against journeymanKevin McBride. In the 2008 documentaryTyson, he stated that he fought McBride for a payday, that he did not anticipate winning, that", "winning, that he was in poor physical condition and fed up with taking boxing seriously. After losing three of his last four fights, Tyson said he would quit boxing because he felt he had lost his passion for the sport. In 2000 Tyson dismissed everyone who was working for him and enlisted new accountants, who prepared a statement showing he started the year $3.3 million in debt but earned $65.7 million.In August 2007, Tyson pleaded guilty to drug possession and driving under the influence in an Arizona court, which stemmed from an arrest in December where authorities said Tyson, who has a long history of legal contentions, admitted to using cocaine that day and to being addicted to the drug. In his 2013 autobiographyUndisputed Truth, Tyson admitted to using the urine of his then wife Monica Turner to pass doping tests. He was married to Turner from 1997 to 2003. He also used his infant's urine for the same purpose. Tyson vs. Paul In March 2024, it was announced that Tyson would be making his ring return", "his ring return againstJake Paulin a heavyweight bout on July 20, 2024, atAT&T StadiuminArlington, Texas.On April 29, 2024, it was announced that the fight would be sanctioned as a professional boxing match by Texas Department of Licensing and Regulations (TDLR).On May 26, 2024, Tyson suffered an ulcer flare aboard a plane.On May 31, 2024, it was announced that the fight was postponed per medical advice from Tyson's doctor, allowing him to recover from his ulcer flareup.On June 7, 2024, it was announced that the fight will take place at the same arena on November 15, 2024. Exhibition bouts Mike Tyson's World Tour To help pay off his debts, Tyson announced he would be doing a series of exhibition bouts, calling it Tyson's World Tour. For his first bout, Tyson returned to the ring in 2006 for a four-roundexhibitionagainst journeyman heavyweightCorey Sandersin Youngstown, Ohio.Tyson, without headgear at 5 ft 10 in and 216 pounds, was in quality shape, but far from his prime against Sanders, at 6 ft 6 inwho wore", "6 ft 6 inwho wore headgear. Tyson appeared to be \"holding back\" in the exhibition to prevent an early end to the \"show\". \"If I don't get out of this financial quagmire there's a possibility I may have to be a punching bag for somebody. The money I make isn't going to help my bills from a tremendous standpoint, but I'm going to feel better about myself. I'm not going to be depressed\", explained Tyson about the reasons for his \"comeback\".After the bout was poorly received by fans the remainder of the tour was canceled. Tyson vs. Jones It was announced in July 2020 that Tyson had signed a contract to face formerfour-division world champion,Roy Jones Jr., in an eight-round exhibition fight.Mixed martial artscoachRafael Cordeirowas selected to be Tyson's trainer and cornerman.The bout—officially sanctioned by theCalifornia State Athletic Commission(CSAC)—was initially scheduled to take place on September 12 at theDignity Health Sports ParkinCarson, California,however, the date was pushed back to November 28 in", "to November 28 in order to maximize revenue for the event. The fight went the full 8 rounds, and was declared a draw.The fight was a split draw and the three judges scored the fight as follows: Chad Dawson (76–76 draw), Christy Martin (79–73 for Tyson), and Vinny Pazienza (76–80 for Jones). Mike Tyson's Legends Only League In July 2020, Mike Tyson announced the creation of Mike Tyson's Legends Only League.Tyson formed the league in partnership with Sophie Watts and her company, Eros Innovations.The league provides retired professional athletes the opportunity to compete in their respective sport.On November 28, 2020, Mike Tyson fought Roy Jones Jr. at the Staples Center in the first event produced under Legends Only League.The event received largely positive reviews and was the highest selling PPV event of 2020, which ranks in the Top-10 for PPV purchased events all-time. Legacy Tyson wasThe Ringmagazine's Fighter of the Year in 1986 and 1988.A 1998 ranking of \"The Greatest Heavyweights of All-Time\" byThe", "of All-Time\" byThe Ringmagazine placed Tyson at number 14 on the list.Despite criticism of facing underwhelming competition during his run as champion, Tyson's knockout power and intimidation factor made him the sport's most dynamic box-office draw.According to Douglas Quenqua ofThe New York Times, \"The began with Mike Tyson, considered by many to be the last great heavyweight champion, losing his title to the little-known Buster Douglas. Seven years later, Mr. Tyson bit Evander Holyfield's ear in a heavyweight champion bout—hardly a proud moment for the sport.\" He is remembered for his attire of black trunks, black shoes with no socks, and a plain white towel fit around his neck in place of a traditional robe, as well as his habit of rapidly pacing the ring before the start of a fight.In his prime, Tyson rarely took a step back and had never been knocked down or seriously challenged.According toMartial Arts World Report, it gave Tyson an Honorable Mention in its Ten Greatest Heavyweights of All Time rather", "of All Time rather than a ranking because longevity is a factor and the peak period of Tyson's career lasted only about 5 years. BoxReccurrently ranks Tyson at number 20 among the greatest boxers that had their last fight at heavyweight.InThe Ringmagazine's list of the 80 Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years, released in 2002, Tyson was ranked at number 72.He is ranked number 16 onThe Ringmagazine's 2003 list of 100 greatest punchers of all time.Tyson has defeated11 boxersfor the world heavyweight title, the seventh-most in history. On June 12, 2011, Tyson was inducted to theInternational Boxing Hall of Famealongside legendary Mexican championJulio César Chávez, light welterweight championKostya Tszyu, and actor/screenwriterSylvester Stallone.In 2011,Bleacher Reportomitted Tyson from its list of top 10 heavyweights, saying that \"Mike Tyson is not a top 10 heavyweight. He killed the fighters he was supposed to beat, but when he fought another elite fighter, he always lost. I'm not talking about some of those", "about some of those B-level fighters he took a belt from. I'm talking about the handful of good boxers he fought throughout his career.\" In 2013, Tyson was inducted into theNevada Boxing Hall of Fameand headlined the induction ceremony.Tyson was inducted into the Southern Nevada Hall of Fame in 2015 along with four other inductees with ties to Southern Nevada. Tyson reflected on his strongest opponents in ten categories for a 2014 interview withThe Ringmagazine, including best jab, best defense, fastest hands, fastest feet, best chin, smartest, strongest, best puncher, best boxer, and best overall. In 2017,The Ringmagazine ranked Tyson as number 9 of 20 heavyweight champions based on a poll of panelists that included trainers, matchmakers, media, historians, and boxers, including: In 2020, Bill Caplan ofThe Ringmagazine listed Tyson as number 17 of the 20 greatest heavyweights of all time.Tyson spoke withThe Ringmagazine in 2020 about his six greatest victories, those over Trevor Berbick, Pinklon Thomas,", "Pinklon Thomas, Tony Tucker, Tyrell Biggs, Larry Holmes, and Michael Spinks.In 2020, CBS Sports boxing experts Brian Campbell and Brent Brookhouse ranked the top 10 heavyweights of the last 50 years and Tyson was ranked number 7. Life after boxing In an interview withUSA Todaypublished on June 3, 2005, Tyson said, \"My whole life has been a waste – I've been a failure.\" He continued: \"I just want to escape. I'm really embarrassed with myself and my life. I want to be a missionary. I think I could do that while keeping my dignity without letting people know they chased me out of the country. I want to get this part of my life over as soon as possible. In this country nothing good is going to come of me. People put me so high; I wanted to tear that image down.\"Tyson began to spend much of his time tending to his 350 pigeons inParadise Valley, an upscale enclave nearPhoenix, Arizona. Tyson has stayed in the limelight by promoting various websites and companies.In the past Tyson had shunned endorsements, accusing", "accusing other athletes of putting on a false front to obtain them.Tyson has held entertainment boxing shows at a casino in Las Vegasand started a tour of exhibition bouts to pay off his numerous debts. In October 2012, Tyson launched the Mike Tyson Cares Foundation.The mission of the Mike Tyson Cares Foundation is to \"give kids a fighting chance\" with innovative centers that provide for the comprehensive needs of kids from broken homes. In August 2013, Tyson teamed up with Acquinity Sports to formIron Mike Productions, a boxing promotions company. In September 2013, Tyson was featured on a six-episode television series onFox Sports 1that documented his personal and private life entitledBeing: Mike Tyson. In November 2013, Tyson'sUndisputed Truthwas published, which appeared onThe New York TimesBest Seller list.At the Golden Podium Awards Ceremony, Tyson received the Sportel Special Prize for the best autobiography. In May 2017, Tyson published his second book,Iron Ambition,which details his time with", "his time with trainer and surrogate fatherCus D'Amato. In February 2018, Tyson attended the international mixed martial arts (MMA) tournament in the Russian city ofChelyabinsk. Tyson said: \"As I have travelled all over the country of Russia I have realised that the people are very sensitive and kind. But most Americans do not have any experience of that.\" On May 12, 2020, Tyson posted a video on his Instagram of him training again. At the end of the video, Tyson hinted at a return to boxing by saying, \"I'm back\". On May 23, 2020, atAll Elite Wrestling'sDouble or Nothing, Tyson helpedCodydefeatLance ArcheralongsideJake Robertsand presented him the inauguralAEW TNT Championship. Tyson alongsideHenry Cejudo,Rashad Evans, andVitor Belfortappeared on the May 27 episode ofAEW Dynamitefacing off againstChris Jerichoand his stableThe Inner Circle.Tyson returned to AEW on the April 7, 2021, episode ofDynamiteand helped Jericho from being attacked byThe Pinnacle, beating downShawn Spearsin the process.He was", "the process.He was thespecial guest enforceron the April 14 episode ofDynamitefor a match between Jericho andDax Harwoodof The Pinnacle, a preview of the upcoming Inner Circle vs. Pinnacle match atBlood and Guts. Tyson made an extended cameo appearance in the Telugu-Hindi movieLiger, which released on August 25, 2022. Personal life Marriages and children Tyson resides inSeven Hills, Nevada.He has been married three times, and has seven children, one deceased, with three women; in addition to his biological children, Tyson includes his second wife's oldest daughter as one of his own. Tyson married actressRobin Givenson February 7, 1988, at Holy Angels Catholic Church during a traditional ceremony in Chicago.Givens was known at the time for her role on the sitcomHead of the Class.Tyson's marriage to Givens was especially tumultuous, with allegations of violence,spousal abuse, and mental instability on Tyson's part. Matters came to a head when Tyson and Givens gave a joint interview withBarbara Walterson", "Walterson theABCTVnewsmagazineshow20/20in September 1988, in which Givens described life with Tyson as \"torture, pure hell, worse than anything I could possibly imagine.\"Givens also described Tyson as \"manic depressive\" – which was later confirmed by doctors– on national television while Tyson looked on with an intent and calm expression.A month later, Givens announced that she was seeking a divorce from the allegedly abusive Tyson,with the two officially separating on February 14, 1989. According to the bookFire and Fear: The Inside Story of Mike Tyson, Tyson admitted that he punched Givens and stated, \"that was the best punch I've ever thrown in my entire life.\"Tyson claimed that the book was \"filled with inaccuracies.\"Tyson and Givens had no children, but she reported having had amiscarriage; Tyson claimed that she was never pregnant and only used that to get him to marry her.During their marriage, the couple lived in a mansion inBernardsville, New Jersey. Tyson's second marriage was to Monica Turner from", "Monica Turner from April 19, 1997, to January 14, 2003.At the time of the divorce filing, Turner worked as apediatricresidentatGeorgetown University Medical Centerin Washington, D.C.She is the sister ofMichael Steele, the formerLieutenant Governor of Marylandand formerRepublican National Committeechairman.Turner filed for divorce from Tyson in January 2002, claiming that he committedadulteryduring their five-year marriage, an act that \"has neither been forgiven nor condoned.\"The couple had two children; son Amir and Ramsey who self-identifies asnon-binary. On May 25, 2009, Tyson's four-year-old daughter Exodus was found by her seven-year-old brother Miguel unconscious and tangled in a cord, dangling from an exercise treadmill. The child's mother, Sol Xochitl, untangled her, administeredCPRand called for medical attention. Tyson, who was in Las Vegas at the time of the incident, traveled back to Phoenix to be with her. She died of her injuries on May 26, 2009. Eleven days after his daughter's death, Tyson wed", "death, Tyson wed for the third time, to longtime girlfriend Lakiha \"Kiki\" Spicer, age 32, exchanging vows on Saturday, June 6, 2009, in a short, private ceremony at the La Bella Wedding Chapel at the Las Vegas Hilton.They have two children; daughter Milan and son Morocco. Religious beliefs Raised as aCatholic,Tyson has stated that he converted toIslambefore entering prison and that he made no efforts to correct what was reported in the media,although it was falsely reported that heconverted to Islamduring his time in prison and adopted theMuslim nameMalik Abdul Aziz;some sources report it as Malik Shabazz.Tyson never changed his given name to an Islamic one, despite the rumors. In November 2013, Tyson stated \"the more I look into the churches and mosques for god, the more I start seeing the devil\".But, just a month later, in a December 2013 interview with Fox News, Tyson said that he is very grateful to be a Muslim and that he needs Allah in his life. In the same interview Tyson talked about his progress", "about his progress with sobriety and how being in the company of good people has made him want to be a better and more humble person. He first completed the Islamic pilgrimageUmrahin July 2010and more recently in December 2022 accompanied byDJ Khaled, aPalestinian AmericanMuslim. Diet In March 2011, Tyson appeared onThe Ellen DeGeneres Showto discuss his newAnimal Planetreality seriesTaking On Tyson. In the interview with DeGeneres, Tyson discussed some of the ways he had improved his life in the past two years, including sober living and avegandiet.However, in August 2013 he admitted publicly that he had lied about his sobriety and was on the verge of death from alcoholism. Tyson also revealed that he is no longer vegan, stating, \"I was a vegan for four years but not anymore. I eat chicken every now and then. I should be a vegan. at all, no way! I would be very sick if I ate red meat. That's probably why I was so crazy before.\" Political views In 2015, Tyson announced that he was supportingDonald", "supportingDonald Trump'spresidential candidacy. Controversies and legal challenges On December 29, 2006, Tyson was arrested inScottsdale, Arizona, on suspicion ofDUIandfelonydrug possession; he nearly crashed into a police SUV shortly after leaving a nightclub. According to a police probable-cause statement, filed inMaricopa CountySuperior Court, \" admitted to using today and stated he is an addict and has a problem.\"Tyson pleaded not guilty on January 22, 2007, in Maricopa County Superior Court to felony drug possession and paraphernalia possession counts and two misdemeanor counts of driving under the influence of drugs. On February 8 he checked himself into an inpatient treatment program for \"various addictions\" while awaiting trial on the drug charges. On September 24, 2007, Tyson pleaded guilty to possession of cocaine and driving under the influence. He was convicted of these charges in November 2007 and sentenced to 24 hours in jail. After his release, he was ordered to serve three years' probation", "years' probation and complete 360 hours of community service. Prosecutors had requested a year-long jail sentence, but the judge praised Tyson for seeking help with his drug problems.On November 11, 2009, Tyson was arrested after getting into a scuffle at Los Angeles International airport with a photographer.No charges were filed. In September 2011, Tyson gave an interview in which he made comments about former Alaska governorSarah Palinincluding crude and violent descriptions of interracial sex. These comments were reprinted onThe Daily Callerwebsite. JournalistGreta van Susterencriticized Tyson andThe Daily Callerover the comments, which she described as \"smut\" and \"violence against women\". On April 20, 2022, on aJetBlueflight from San Francisco to Florida, Tyson repeatedly punched a male passenger who was harassing him, including throwing water on Tyson; he did not face criminal charges. In 2023, an unnamed woman filed a $5 million lawsuit against Tyson, accusing him of raping her in his limousine in the", "limousine in the early 90s. She accused Tyson of kissing her several times before pulling off her pants and raping her, despite repeatedly telling him to stop.The woman claims to have experienced \"guilt, loss of self-esteem, shame, embarrassment, sadness, anger, depression, anxiety, violent tendencies, drug and alcohol addiction and confusion\", as well as inability \"to maintain and/or develop healthy relationships with men or other people in general\". In November 2023, Tyson found himself amidst criticism and rumors regarding his alleged donation to theIsraeli Defense Forcesafter he was photographed attending a November 13 eventsponsored byFriends of the IDF(FIDF) to fundraise for theIsrael–Hamas war, which seemed to clash with his previous statements aboutPalestinians. This led to a social media backlash, prompting Tyson to release the following statement on Instagram: \"I want to clarify the recent portrayal of an event I attended,\" he wrote on Thursday. \"Invited for a casual evening out by a friend, I was", "by a friend, I was unaware of the arranged fundraiser and no donations were made by me or on my behalf. As a Muslim and human, I support peace. My prayers have been and continue to be with my brothers and sisters.\" In popular culture At the height of his fame and career in the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, Tyson was among the most recognized sports personalities in the world. In addition to his many sporting accomplishments, his outrageous and controversial behavior in the ring and in his private life has kept him in the public eye and in the courtroom.As such, Tyson has been the subject of myriad popular media including movies, television, books and music. He has also been featured in video games and as a subject of parody or satire. Tyson became involved inprofessional wrestlingand has made manycameo appearancesin film and television. The filmTysonwas released in 1995 and was directed byUli Edel. It explores the life of Mike Tyson, from the death of his guardian and trainerCus D'Amatoto his rape", "D'Amatoto his rape conviction. Tyson is played byMichael Jai White. In 2006, Tyson appeared as himself in a cameo role in the filmRocky Balboa. Published in 2007, author Joe Layden's bookThe Last Great Fight: The Extraordinary Tale of Two Men and How One Fight Changed Their Lives Forever, chronicled the lives of Tyson and Douglas before and after their heavyweight championship fight. In 2008, the documentaryTysonpremiered at the annualCannes Film Festivalin France. Tyson played a fictionalized version of himself in the 2009 filmThe Hangover. After debuting aone-man showin Las Vegas, Tyson collaborated with film directorSpike Leeand brought the show toBroadwayin August 2012.In February 2013, Tyson took his one-man showMike Tyson: Undisputed Truthon a 36-city, three-month national tour. Tyson talks about his personal and professional life on stage.The one-man show was aired onHBOon November 16, 2013. In 2013, he appeared in an episode ofLaw and Order: SVUas a survivor of child-abuse awaiting execution for", "execution for murder. He is the titular character inMike Tyson Mysteries, which started airing on October 27, 2014, onAdult Swim. In the animated series, Tyson voices a fictionalized version of himself, solving mysteries in the style ofScooby-Doo. In early March 2015, Tyson appeared on the track \"Iconic\" onMadonna's albumRebel Heart. Tyson says some lines at the beginning of the song. In late March 2015,Ip Man 3was announced. WithDonnie Yenreprising his role as the titular character,Bruce Lee's martial arts master,Ip Man, while Mike Tyson has been confirmed to join the cast.Principal photography began on March 25, 2015, and was premiered in Hong Kong on December 16, 2015. In January 2017, Tyson launched his YouTube channel withShots Studios, a comedy video and comedy music production company with young digital stars likeLele PonsandRudy Mancuso. Tyson's channel includes parody music videos and comedy sketches. He hosts the podcastHotboxin' with Mike Tyson. In October 2017, Tyson was announced as the new face", "as the new face of Australian car servicing franchiseUltra Tune. He took over fromJean-Claude van Dammein fronting television commercials for the brand, and the first advert aired in January 2018 during the Australian Open.However, the ad was quickly attacked,even leading Tyson himself to describe it as \"a little sexist.\" A jointMainland China-Hong Kong-directed film on female friendship titledGirls 2: Girls vs Gangsters(Vietnamese:Girls 2: Những Cô Gái và Găng Tơ) that was shot earlier from July–August 2016 at several locations aroundVietnamwas released in March 2018, featuring Tyson as \"Dragon\". Tiki Lau released a dance music single, \"Mike Tyson\", in October 2020, which includes vocals from Tyson. In 2021, Mike's Hard Lemonade Seltzer featured ads with Tyson. In March 2021, it was announced thatJamie Foxxwill star in, and also executive produce the official scripted seriesTyson.The limited series will be directed byAntoine Fuquaand executive produced byMartin Scorsese. A two-part documentary series", "documentary series titledMike Tyson: The Knockoutpremiered on May 25, 2021, onABC. Tyson and his family appeared in the 300th episode ofHell's Kitchenas VIP guests in the Blue Team's kitchen duringSeason 20's opening dinner service that aired on June 7, 2021. On August 25, 2022,Hulureleased a biographical drama limited series about Tyson, entitledMike, depicting his life and career.On August 6, 2022, Tyson spoke out about the series, saying, \"Hulu stole my story\" and telling the service that \"I'm not a n****r you can sell on the auction block.\" Professional boxing record Exhibition boxing record Pay-per-view bouts Boxing PPV home television Closed-circuit theater TV Selectpay-per-viewboxing buy rates at Americanclosed-circuittheater television venues: Professional wrestling World Wrestling Federation All Elite Wrestling Filmography Awards and honors Humane letters TheCentral State Universityin Wilberforce, Ohio, in 1989 awarded Tyson an honoraryDoctorate in Humane Letters: \"Mike demonstrates that hard work,", "that hard work, determination and perseverance can enable one to overcome any obstacles.\" Boxing Professional wrestling See also Notes References External links", "Mike Tyson vs. Buster Douglas Mike Tysonvs.Buster Douglas, billed asTyson is Back!, was aprofessional boxingmatch that occurred at theTokyo Domeon February 11, 1990.The then-undefeated,undisputedheavyweightchampion Tyson lost byknockoutto the 42-1underdogDouglas. The fight is widely regarded as one of the biggestupsetsin sports history. Background Going into the fight, Mike Tyson was the undefeated and undisputed heavyweight champion of the world and was very popular at the time. He held theWBC,WBA, andIBFtitles. Despite several controversies that marred Tyson's profile at the time, such as his allegedly abusive relationship withRobin Givens, contractual battles between longtime managerBill Caytonand promoterDon King, and Tyson's departure from longtime trainerKevin Rooney,Tyson was still dominant in the ring. He scored a 93-second knockout againstCarl \"The Truth\" Williamsin his previous fight. Most considered this fight to be a warm-up bout for Tyson before meeting up with then-undefeated number-one", "number-one heavyweight contenderEvander Holyfield(who was ringside for the fight).Tyson was viewed as such a dominant champion that he was often considered the number-one fighter in the worldpound-for-pound(including byRing Magazine), a rarity for heavyweights. Buster Douglas was ranked as the #7 heavyweight contender byRing Magazineand had met with mixed success in his professional career up to that point. Hisprevious title fightwas againstTony Tuckerin 1987, in which he was TKO'd in the 10th round. However, six consecutive wins since the Tucker fight—including victories over former world championTrevor Berbickand future world championOliver McCall—gave him the opportunity to fight Tyson. In the time leading up to the fight, Douglas faced a number of personal setbacks, including the death of his mother, Lula Pearl, 23 days before the fight.Additionally, the mother of his son had a severe kidney ailment, and he had contracted the flu on the day before the fight. HBOboxing analystsLarry MerchantandJim", "MerchantandJim Lampleyexpected to see \"another 90-second annihilation.\" (When asked by a Japanese customs official how long he expected to be working in Japan, Ed Schuyler of theAssociated Pressreplied, \"Oh, about ninety seconds.\") Instead of discussing Douglas's chances against Tyson, Merchant and Lampley compared their pets: Tyson had a whitepitbullnamed \"Duran\" (after his idolRoberto Durán) while Douglas had abeaglenamed \"Shakespeare.\" Merchant, after saying that \"this fight is over before it begins or soon thereafter\" and describing Douglas as \"just another frozen tuna\" from theTokyo fish market, opined that \"any prizefighter with a dog named Shakespeare can't be all-bad.\" In an interview given to HBO prior to the fight, Douglas told reporters that his favorite Shakespeare play was the romantic tragedyRomeo and Juliet. Lampley suggested that if Tyson were asked the same question (assuming he had read Shakespeare), he would choose something more bloody and violent, such asHenry the FifthorMacbeth.", "the FifthorMacbeth. SingerBobby Brownwrote in his autobiography that he met with Tyson in Tokyo and the two partied extensively the night before the fight. Brown claims Tyson refused to go to sleep early for the fight, deeming Douglas \"an amateur\" he could beat \"if I didn't sleep for five weeks\". Fight From the beginning of the fight, it was apparent that Douglas was not afraid. Douglas displayed a lot of spring in his body movement and was not cautious in letting his punches fly whenever he saw the opportunity to attack Tyson. He used his quick and accurate jab to prevent Tyson from getting inside, where Tyson was most dangerous. When Tyson tried to get inside, Douglas tied him up, moved away, or would immediately hit Tyson with multiple punches as Tyson came within Douglas' range. Early on, Douglas was more agile than Tyson and outlanded Tyson in exchanges. Douglas finished the second round with a snappy uppercut to Tyson's chin. Seeming to regain his form, Tyson landed a punishing left to the body that", "to the body that had Douglas look at his corner. After an ineffectual and lackluster third round, Tyson cornerman Jay Bright screamed at his fighter \"Don't just stand there and look at him, you've gotta work!\" Boxer \"Sugar\" Ray Leonard, at ringside doing commentary forHBO, noted Douglas' dominance with the jab and right hand and said Tyson was having one of those occasional days in the ring where \"you just don't have it...things just don't click in\". Douglas would still dominate the middle rounds, although Tyson managed to land a few of his signature uppercuts. Tyson was wobbled by a chopping right during the fifth round. Soon, Tyson's left eye began to swell from Douglas' right jabs, preventing him from seeing his opponent's punches well.Tyson's cornermen were caught unprepared; they were so confident Tyson would easily beat Douglas that they had not brought anendswellor ice packs, usually standard equipment for a fight. Instead, they filled a latex glove with ice water and held it on Tyson's eye between", "Tyson's eye between rounds. Aaron Snowell, Tyson's primary cornerman, at one point caught the chain from the identification badge hanging from his neck between the iced glove and Tyson's eye. Tyson winced in pain as Snowell moved dragging the chain from one side of his injured eye to the other. Confusion and panic grew in his corner as the fight went on. Despite Tyson's inability to execute an effective fight plan, his corner continued to give him the same advice between rounds to move his head, jab his way inside and deliver a right hand. In the eighth round -- a round Douglas dominated until the last few seconds --HBO's Larry Merchant noted, \"Douglas is asking of Tyson some questions he hasn't been asked before...in the last few rounds of a fight, you have to come back and win it.\" Within the last ten seconds of the eighth round, Tyson, who had been backed onto the ropes, landed a big right uppercut that sent Douglas to the canvas. Although the knockdown timekeeper began when Douglas's backside touched the", "touched the ring's surface, the referee was said to have started his own count behind by two beats. Douglas rose as the referee signaled nine, but the bell ended the round. In obvious annoyance at his own lapse, Douglas pounded his left fist on the mat.Tyson promoterDon Kingwould later argue the validity of the referee count in vain. In the ninth round, Tyson came out aggressively to try to end the fight and save his title, hoping that Douglas was still hurt from the knockdown. Douglas was able to fight off Tyson's attack and was able to close Tyson's eye completely. Both men traded punches before Douglas connected on a four-punch combination that staggered Tyson back to the ropes. With Tyson hurt along the ropes, Douglas closed in and unleashed a four-punch attack to try to knock Tyson out. Tyson withstood the punishment and barely survived the round. In the tenth round, Tyson pushed forward, but he was still hurting from the accumulation of punishment he had absorbed throughout the match. As Tyson", "the match. As Tyson advanced, Douglas measured him with a few jabs before landing an uppercut that snapped Tyson's head upward, stopping Tyson in his tracks. As Tyson reeled back, Douglas immediately followed with four punches to the head, knocking Tyson down for the first time in his career. In a famous scene, Tyson fumbled for his mouthpiece on the canvas before sticking one end in his mouth with the other end hanging out. The champion attempted to make it back to his feet, but refereeOctavio Meyrancounted him out. Buster Douglas thus became the new undisputed heavyweight champion, engineering one of the biggestupsetsin boxing history. The official scorecards through nine rounds were 87–86 for Tyson, 86–86, and 88–83 for Douglas. During the post-fight interview, Douglas broke down in tears when asked why he was able to win this fight when no one thought he could. \"Because of my mother...God bless her heart,\" said the emotional new champion. Merchant concluded that it was the expulsion ofKevin Rooney, who", "ofKevin Rooney, who still rooted for Tyson every time he watched him fight (despite their split), which led to the stunning knockout loss. Merchant said Tyson needed Rooney in much the same way thatMuhammad AlineededAngelo Dundee. Merchant speculated that with Rooney in his corner, Tyson would have managed to end the fight on his feet, and to change the tide of the fight, exactly as in the Tucker fight, after he was rocked in the first round but weathered the storm with Rooney's help and came back determined to win, outboxing his opponent.Butch Lewisshared the same opinion, believing that after he got rid of Rooney, Tyson found himself in a situation where there was no one to enforce compliance with the training regimen and a normal daily routine, and tell him \"Back on track, Mike!\" when needed. So didJerry Izenberg, who commented:\"They assemble a corner for that fight which looks like it was picked up out of the semi-finals of theIntercity Golden Gloves.\" Aftermath and legacy As a 42-1 underdog,Douglas", "underdog,Douglas earned $1.3 million from the fight while Tyson got $6 million. Tyson's camp, led byDon King, immediately protested the result, claiming that Douglas had been given along countby refereeOctavio Meyran. The WBA and WBC initially agreed and suspended recognition of Douglas as champion, although the IBF immediately accepted that the result was valid.After a public outcry and demands from boxing commissions around the world that they acknowledge Douglas as the champion, the protest was withdrawn and Douglas' win was recognised four days after the fight.In spite of Douglas' inspired and dominant performance, a sizable number of boxing fans viewed the fight outcome as an aberration, leading to interest in a rematch. In anHBOstudio interview with Merchant the following week, Douglas stated the protest and post-fight confusion ruined what should have been the best time of his life. At the time of the fight, Don King was said to have been negotiating for Tyson's next fight to be in the fall in Berlin", "the fall in Berlin against former championGreg Page, who had decked Tyson while sparring with him three weeks before the Douglas fight. A future Mike Tyson versusGeorge Foremanfight to be promoted by the Sultan ofBruneiwas also shelved. Plans for a rematch fell through, so Douglas' first title defence was against No. 1 contenderEvander Holyfield. An overweight Douglas, weighing 14.5 pounds (6.6 kg) more than in the Tyson fight, was knocked out by Holyfield in the third round.Douglas retired after the fight. Six years later, he launched a comeback after almost dying in a diabetic coma and won a few fights againstjourneymanopposition. He fought for the last time in 1999.Despite rumours of a rematch with Tyson throughout the 1990s,they never faced each other again. Tyson would fight four more times after the Douglas fight before being convicted of raping beauty pageant contestantDesiree Washingtonin 1991. Following his release from theIndiana Youth Centerin 1995 he quickly regained the WBA and WBC world titles,", "WBC world titles, beforelosing them to Holyfieldand was never again a world champion. He fought on sporadically for another decade and lost in anothertitle challengeagainstLennox Lewisin 2002. He retired from boxing in 2005 after consecutive losses to journeymen. Buster Douglas went down in sports lore as a prize fighter who defied the odds to pull off one of the biggest upsets in sports history. Among the honors was a cover photo on an issue ofSports Illustratedwith the title \"Rocky Lives!,\" after the popularfilm seriesabout a similarly underestimated boxing hero. For Tyson, though he retained a menacing aura for years afterwards, \"the mystique of the untouchable, invincible 'Baddest Man on the Planet' had been shattered.\"Tyson himself knew as much, stating after he ended his career by losing to unheralded Kevin McBride in 2005, \"My career has been over since 1990.\"The fight is often ranked among the biggest upsets in sports history. In popular culture The fight appeared in theMike Tyson Mysteriesepisode", "Mysteriesepisode \"Help a Brother Out\". Douglas's upset against Tyson is the inspiration forThe Killers' song \"Tyson vs Douglas\" from theirWonderful Wonderfulalbum. Singer songwriterBrandon Flowersused the childhood memory of watching the seemingly invincible Tyson lose as the motivation for a song that's about \"me and my family, and the way I’m perceived by my kids. I don’t want them to see me go down like Tyson.\"The song also features audio of the commentators for the fight. The fight is referenced in a short film by Paradigm Studios when a boxer, who came out of retirement, made a promise to his dying son; the short film also references how Douglas made a promise to his dying mother that he would win. In 1990,In Living Colormade references to the fight in the \"Three Champs and a Baby/Little Lady\" sketches. In the first, Tyson prank calls Buster demanding a rematch, while in \"Little Lady\" Tyson uses an action figure to mock Douglas's loss to Holyfield. Undercard Confirmed bouts: Broadcasting References This", "References This was in 1992, as no award in 1991.", "Tyson Fury vs Oleksandr Usyk Tyson Fury vs Oleksandr Usyk, billed asRing of Fire, was aheavyweightprofessional boxing matchcontested betweenWBCheavyweight championTyson Furyand unifiedWBA (Super),IBF,WBO,IBO, andThe Ringheavyweight championOleksandr Usykfor theundisputedheavyweight championship. It was scheduled to take place on 17 February 2024 atKingdom ArenainRiyadh,Saudi Arabia, then postponed due to a facial injury sustained by Fury in training. It was rescheduled the next day and took place on 18 May 2024 at the same venue. Usyk won bysplit decision. Background and buildup The fight crowned the firstundisputed heavyweight championsinceLennox Lewisin 2000, as well as the first in thefour-belt era. In addition to the four sanctioned belts, special commemorative belts were made specifically for the fight on 18 May 2024. Queensbury Promotions made a special edition belt for the undisputed heavyweight. Then, the WBC also made the Fury-Usyk belt, which was blessed byPope Francis, the head of theRoman Catholic", "theRoman Catholic Church. On 25 October 2023, Fury and Usyk took to social media to announce that they had signed for a bout, with a date of 23 December being reported but not officially announced. It was also reported thatAnthony JoshuavsDeontay Wilderwould serve as the co-feature.On 28 October, after FurydefeatedformerUFC Heavyweight ChampionFrancis Ngannou, he demanded that the bout with Usyk must be postponed because of injuries he sustained in the fight, despite Usyk stating that they were contracted for 23 December 2023.On 29 October, it was announced that the bout would take place in early 2024. On 16 November, the bout was officially announced to take place on 17 February 2024 inRiyadh,Saudi Arabia, with a launch press conference inLondon.The fight was officially postponed on 2 February 2024, with the idea of rescheduling for 2024 once a doctor could determine the recovery time for a cut sustained by Tyson Fury in training. Fury's promoter Queensberry Promotions confirmed the injury.The whole card", "whole card was rescheduled for 18 May 2024; the decision was made quickly by the event's organizer in Saudi Arabia,Turki Alalshikh. DAZNPPV covered the fight globally. Viewers in Middle East and North Africa countries could watch the event via Webook. In UK and Ireland, the fight was aired live on both PPV'sSkyandTNTSports Box Office channels. In Ukraine, the fight was streamed live onMEGOGO. In the US, the fight was streamed live viaESPN+PPV. Fight Fury was described byBBC Sportas showboating during the first round, during which Usyk landed a left hook.The three judges all agreed that the first round was 10–9 in favour of Usyk.In the second and third round, Usyk was moving forward, while Fury was moving backwards, in a somewhat even bout.Fury established momentum in the fourth round, with multiple uppercuts.In the fifth round, Fury started moving forward and focused on punches to Usyk's body.In the sixth round, Fury uppercutted Usyk's body and nose.In the seventh round, Fury started dominant, but Usyk began", "but Usyk began to throw better punches to the head.The three judges all agreed that the fifth, sixth, and seventh rounds were 10–9 in Fury's favour. In the eighth round, Usyk landed a right punch that caused for Fury to touch his nose, then another Usyk right punch hurt Fury's right eye; Fury bled from the face at the end of the round, and this seemed to affect him in the next round.In the ninth round, Usyk landed an unanswered series of 14 punches, including several overhand lefts, during which and after Fury was wobbling and stumbling around into the ring ropes, which held him up.At this point, BBC Sport described Fury as being \"seemingly out on his feet\", whileThe Guardianreported that Fury's \"eyes glazed\", the \"referee could have stopped the fight\", and that \"Fury has been down in the past but we've never seen him hurt this badly!\"RefereeMark Nelsonregistered this as aknockdownof Fury (the ninth of Fury's career), and gave Fury astanding eight count, after which the round ended.Fury was \"saved by the", "was \"saved by the bell\" in the ninth round, concurredYahoo! Sportsand theAssociated Press.In the tenth round, Usyk did not rush his advantage, which allowed Fury to recover, but Usyk did continue to land occasional overhand lefts.The three judges all agreed that the eighth, ninth, and tenth rounds were 10–9, 10–8, and 10–9 respectively, in favour of Usyk. In the eleventh round, Usyk continued to land left hands, but Fury showed some recovery to fight back.In the twelfth and final round, Fury came back with some right punches, and the judges recorded that he won it unanimously 10–9.The fight went down to the judges' scorecards, with Usyk defeating Fury bysplit decision, with judge Manuel Oliver Palermo scoring it 115–112 for Usyk, judge Craig Metcalfe scoring it 114–113 for Fury, and judge Mike Fitzgerald scoring it 114–113 for Usyk. Statistics Card ^Note 1ForWBA (Super),WBC,IBF,WBO,IBO, andThe Ringheavyweight titles^Note 2ForThe Ringand vacantIBF cruiserweight titles^Note 3ForIBFandIBO super-featherweight", "super-featherweight titles Main event official scorecard Source:Yahoo! Sports Aftermath Usyk broke down in tears in the ring after his victory was announced and dedicated it to his family, his team, and thepeople of Ukraine.After the fight, Fury commented: \"I believe he won a few of the rounds but I won the majority of them …His country's at war, so people are siding withthe country at war, but make no mistake, I won that fight … I'll be back. I've got a rematch clause.\"Fury raised the possibility of a rematch \"in October\", and eventually declared: \"Happy New Year!\"Usyk responded to Fury, stating, \"If he wants, I'm ready for a rematch.\"Usyk suffered a suspected broken jaw from the bout and went to the hospital after his press conference.Although, Usyk did not break his jaw. Fury was given a 1 week medical suspension following the fight. In its next update of the rankings,The Ringreturned Usyk to the No.1 spot in thepound-for-poundrankings, which he had previously lost toTerence Crawfordon 29 July. Along with", "29 July. Along with Usyk's team, a few commentators, likeTNT Sports' David Haye,felt Usyk was robbed by the referee of a win bytechnical knockoutin the ninth round.Usyk's win made him the first newundisputed heavyweight championin 24 years.Lennox Lewisheld the title for five months after hedefeatedEvander Holyfieldin November 1999.In a post-match analysis, analysts wrote that Usyk'shall of famecase is \"beyond cemented\" and that he is an all-time great after his win.Two-divisionundisputed championTerence Crawford,ESPN's top-rankedpound for poundboxer, declared Usyk a candidate for the No. 1 position.The tentatively scheduled rematch is set for 12 October 2024. Main event unofficial scorecards Financial details The event reportedly sold over 1.5 millionpay-per-viewbuys, mostly in the UK, and this generated over $50 million. The event also made $40 million in advertising and $3 million gate at the arena. However, according to ESPN, the revenue failed to cover total expenses.At least 20 million people watched", "people watched the fight throughpiracy streams. Of those 20 million, approximately 45% were from themainland Europeand 18% were from the UK. The financial loss from illegal streaming is estimated to be around $120 million. The total purse is reported to be worth around $150 million (£116 million), with Fury being guaranteed 70% of the purse, or £81.2 million (around $105 million). Usyk reportedly secured $45 million.With the UK tax rate in place for Fury, he will henceforth contribute a minimum of £45 million of his purse to the British government. Rematch On 29 May, Turki Alalshikh announced that the rematch is scheduled to take place in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, on 21 December. References" ]
I can't recall who I'm trying to think of. This person was the partner of someone in the 1984 Olympic keelboat competition. Their partner's sister was the only American who placed in the 2003 Pan American Games for sailing in the men's or women's competition (not including the open events).
Richard Coxon.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailing_at_the_2003_Pan_American_Games
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanee_Butler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Beashel
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailing_at_the_2003_Pan_American_Games', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanee_Butler', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Beashel']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailing_at_the_2003_Pan_American_Games", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanee_Butler", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Beashel" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Sailing_at_the_2003_Pan_American_Games (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92edf280>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Lanee Butler Lanee \"Carrie\" Butler-Beashel(born June 3, 1970, inManhasset, New York) is an Americanwindsurfer. She competed at four Olympics from 1992 to 2004.Her best position was fourth in 2000. She is married to America's Cup sailorAdam Beashel. Her brother in law is six-time OlympianColin Beashel. She and Adam have two sons, born in 2005 and 2008. References External links This biographical article related toyacht racingin the United States is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This biographical article related to windsurfing is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "Colin Beashel Colin Kenneth Beashel(born 21 November 1959) is an Australian sailor who crewed on the winning America's Cup teamAustralia IIin 1983and competed at six Olympics between 1984 and 2004, winning bronze in 1996. He became, jointly with BrazilianTorben Grael, the eighth sailor to compete atsix Olympics. He helmed Australia Challenge at the1992 Louis Vuitton Cup. Born inSydney, Beashel comes from a sailing family. His father Ken is a local sailing legend. His brotherAdamwas a sailor forTeam New Zealandin theAmericas Cupin2003,2007and 2013.Adam's wifeLanee Butlersailed at four Olympics. Beashel competed at the Olympics in the two-person keelboat, withRichard Coxonin 1984,Gregory Torpyin 1988, andDavid Gilesfrom 1992 to 2004.He and Giles also won the World Championships in 1998 in the Star class.He now runs the family boat shop inElvina Bay,Pittwater. See also References External links This biographical article related to yacht racing in Australia is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This article about an Australian Olympic medalist is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Sailing_at_the_2003_Pan_American_Games (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92edf280>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Lanee Butler Lanee \"Carrie\" Butler-Beashel(born June 3, 1970, inManhasset, New York) is an Americanwindsurfer. She competed at four Olympics from 1992 to 2004.Her best position was fourth in 2000. She is married to America's Cup sailorAdam Beashel. Her brother in law is six-time OlympianColin Beashel. She and Adam have two sons, born in 2005 and 2008. References External links This biographical article related toyacht racingin the United States is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This biographical article related to windsurfing is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "Colin Beashel Colin Kenneth Beashel(born 21 November 1959) is an Australian sailor who crewed on the winning America's Cup teamAustralia IIin 1983and competed at six Olympics between 1984 and 2004, winning bronze in 1996. He became, jointly with BrazilianTorben Grael, the eighth sailor to compete atsix Olympics. He helmed Australia Challenge at the1992 Louis Vuitton Cup. Born inSydney, Beashel comes from a sailing family. His father Ken is a local sailing legend. His brotherAdamwas a sailor forTeam New Zealandin theAmericas Cupin2003,2007and 2013.Adam's wifeLanee Butlersailed at four Olympics. Beashel competed at the Olympics in the two-person keelboat, withRichard Coxonin 1984,Gregory Torpyin 1988, andDavid Gilesfrom 1992 to 2004.He and Giles also won the World Championships in 1998 in the Star class.He now runs the family boat shop inElvina Bay,Pittwater. See also References External links This biographical article related to yacht racing in Australia is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This", "it. This article about an Australian Olympic medalist is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]
I am the narrator character in the final novel written by the recipient of the 1963 Hugo Award for Best Novel. Who am I?
Angel Archer.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award_for_Best_Novel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick#Career
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Transmigration_of_Timothy_Archer
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Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award_for_Best_Novel', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick#Career', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Transmigration_of_Timothy_Archer']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award_for_Best_Novel", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick#Career", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Transmigration_of_Timothy_Archer" ]
[ "Hugo Award for Best Novel TheHugo Award for Best Novelis one of theHugo Awardsgiven each year forscience fictionorfantasystories published in, or translated to, English during the previous calendar year. Thenovelaward is available for works of fiction of 40,000 words or more; awards are also given out in theshort story,novelette, andnovellacategories. The Hugo Awards have been described as \"a fine showcase forspeculative fiction\", and \"the best known literary award for science fiction writing\". The Hugo Award for Best Novel has been awarded annually by the World Science Fiction Society since 1953, except in 1954 and 1957. In addition, beginning in 1996, Retrospective Hugo Awards or \"Retro-Hugos\" have been available for works published 50, 75, or 100 years prior. Retro-Hugos may only be awarded for years after 1939 in which no awards were originally given.Retro-Hugo awards have been given for novels for 1939, 1941, 1943–1946, 1951, and 1954. Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending members of the annualWorld Science Fiction Convention, orWorldcon, and the presentation evening constitutes its central event. The final selection process is defined in the World Science Fiction Society Constitution asinstant-runoff votingwith six nominees, except in the case of a tie. The novels on the ballot are the six most-nominated by members that year, with no limit on the number of stories that can be nominated. The 1953, 1955, and 1958 awards did not include a recognition of runner-up novels, but since 1959 all final candidates have been recorded.Initial nominations are made by members from January through March, while voting on the ballot of six nominations is performed roughly from April through July, subject to change depending on when that year's Worldcon is held.Prior to 2017, the final ballot was five works; it was changed that year to six, with each initial nominator limited to five nominations.Worldcons are generally held in August or early September, and are held in a different city around the world each year. During the 78 nomination years, 169 authors have had works nominated and 54 have won (including co-authors, ties, and Retro-Hugos). Two translators have been noted along with the author of a novel written in a language other than English:Ken Liu, in 2015 and 2017, for translations of two works from Chinese; andRita Barisse, in 2019, who was retroactively noted as the translator of a 1963 French novel.Robert A. Heinleinhas won the most Hugos for Best Novel, and also received the most nominations; he has six wins (four Hugos and two Retro-Hugos) on twelve nominations.Lois McMaster Bujoldhas received four Hugos on ten nominations. Five authors have won three times:Isaac AsimovandFritz Leiber(with two Hugos and one Retro-Hugo each),N. K. Jemisin,Connie Willis, andVernor Vinge. Nine other authors have won the award twice. The next-most nominations by a winning author are held byRobert J. SawyerandLarry Niven, who have been nominated nine and eight times, respectively, and have each only won once. With nine nominations,Robert Silverberghas the greatest number of nominations without winning any. Three authors have won the award in consecutive years:Orson Scott Card(1986 and 1987), Lois McMaster Bujold (1991 and 1992), and N. K. Jemisin (2016, 2017, and 2018). Winners and nominees In the following table, the years correspond to the date of the ceremony, rather than when the novel was first published. Each year links to the corresponding \"year in literature\". Entries with a yellow background have won the award; those with a grey background are the nominees on the short-list. *Winners and joint winners Retro-Hugos Beginning with the1996 Worldcon, the World Science Fiction Society created the concept of \"Retro-Hugos\", in which the Hugo award could be retroactively awarded for 50, 75, or 100 years prior. Retro-Hugos may only be awarded for years after 1939 (the year of the firstWorldcon) in which no Hugos were originally awarded.Retro-Hugos have been awarded eight times, for 1939, 1941, 1943–46, 1951, and 1954. See also Notes References External links", "Philip K. Dick Philip Kindred Dick(December 16, 1928 – March 2, 1982), often referred to by his initialsPKD, was an Americanscience fictionwriter and novelist.He wrote 44 novels and about 121 short stories, most of which appeared inscience fiction magazinesduring his lifetime.His fiction explored varied philosophical and social questions such as thenature of reality,perception,human nature, andidentity, and commonly featured characters struggling against elements such asalternate realities, illusory environments, monopolistic corporations,drug abuse,authoritariangovernments, andaltered states of consciousness.He is considered one of the most important figures in 20th-century science fiction. Born in Chicago, Dick moved to theSan Francisco Bay Areawith his family at a young age. He began publishing science fiction stories in 1952, at age 23. He found little commercial successuntil hisalternative historynovelThe Man in the High Castle(1962) earned him acclaim, including aHugo Award for Best Novel, when he was 33.He followed with science fiction novels such asDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?(1968) andUbik(1969). His 1974 novelFlow My Tears, the Policeman Saidwon theJohn W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel. Following years ofdrug abuseand a series ofmystical experiencesin 1974, Dick's work engaged more explicitly with issues of theology, metaphysics, and the nature of reality, as in novelsA Scanner Darkly(1977),VALIS(1981), andThe Transmigration of Timothy Archer(1982).A collection of his speculative nonfiction writing on these themes was published posthumously asThe Exegesis of Philip K. Dick(2011). He died in 1982 inSanta Ana, California, at the age of 53, due to complications from astroke.Following his death, he became \"widely regarded as a master of imaginative,paranoid fictionin the vein ofFranz KafkaandThomas Pynchon\". Dick's posthumous influence has been widespread, extending beyond literary circles intoHollywoodfilmmaking.Popular films based on his works includeBlade Runner(1982),Total Recall(adapted twice:in 1990andin 2012),Screamers(1995),Minority Report(2002),A Scanner Darkly(2006),The Adjustment Bureau(2011), andRadio Free Albemuth(2010). Beginning in 2015,Amazon Prime Videoproduced the multi-season television adaptationThe Man in the High Castle, based on Dick's 1962 novel; and in 2017Channel 4produced the anthology seriesElectric Dreams, based on various Dick stories. In 2005,TimenamedUbik(1969) one of the hundred greatest English-language novels published since 1923.In 2007, Dick became the first science fiction writer included inThe Library of America series. Early life Dick and his twin sister, Jane Charlotte Dick, wereborn six weeks prematurelyon December 16, 1928, in Chicago, Illinois, to Dorothy (née Kindred; 1900–1978) and Joseph Edgar Dick (1899–1985), who worked for theUnited States Department of Agriculture.His paternal grandparents were Irish.Jane's death on January 26, 1929, six weeks after their birth, profoundly affected Philip's life, leading to the recurrentmotifof the \"phantom twin\" in his books. Dick's family later moved to theSan Francisco Bay Area. When he was five, his father was transferred toReno, Nevada, and when Dorothy refused to move, she and Joseph divorced. Both fought for custody of Philip, which was awarded to Dorothy. Determined to raise Philip alone, she took a job inWashington, D.C., and moved there with her son. Philip was enrolled at John Eaton Elementary School (1936–1938), completing the second through fourth grades. His lowest grade was a \"C\" in Written Composition, although a teacher said he \"shows interest and ability instory telling\". He was educated inQuakerschools.In June 1938, Dorothy and Philip returned to California, and it was around this time that he became interested in science fiction.Dick stated that he read his first science fiction magazine,Stirring Science Stories,in 1940. Dick attendedBerkeley High SchoolinBerkeley, California. He and fellow science fiction authorUrsula K. Le Guinwere members of the class of 1947 but did not know each other at the time. He claimed to have hosted a classical music program onKSMORadio in 1947.From 1948 to 1952, he worked at Art Music Company, a record store onTelegraph Avenue. He attended theUniversity of California, Berkeleyfrom September 1949 to November 11, 1949, ultimately receiving an honorable dismissal dated January 1, 1950. He did not declare a major and took classes in history, psychology, philosophy, and zoology. Dick dropped out because of ongoinganxietyproblems, according to his third wife Anne's memoir. She also says he disliked the mandatoryROTCtraining. At Berkeley, he befriended poetRobert Duncanand poet andlinguistJack Spicer, who gave Dick ideas for a Martian language. Through his studies in philosophy, he believed that existence is based on internal human perception, which does not necessarily correspond to external reality. He described himself as \"an acosmicpanentheist\", which he explained as meaning that \"I don't believe that the universe exists. I believe that the only thing that exists is God and he is more than the universe. The universe is an extension of God into space and time. That's the premise I start from in my work, that so-called 'reality' is a mass delusion that we've all been required to believe for reasons totally obscure\".After reading the works ofPlatoand pondering the possibilities ofmetaphysicalrealms, he came to the conclusion that, in a certain sense, the world is not entirely real and there is no way to confirm whether it is truly there. That question was a theme in many of his novels. Career Early writing Dick sold his first story, \"Roog\"—about \"a dog who imagined that the garbagemen who came every Friday morning were stealing valuable food which the family had carefully stored away in a safe metal container\"—in 1951, when he was 22. From then on he wrote full-time. During 1952, his first speculative fiction publications appeared in July and September numbers ofPlanet Stories, edited by Jack O'Sullivan, and inIfandThe Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fictionthat year.His debut novel,Solar Lottery, was published in 1955 as half ofAce Double#D-103 alongsideThe Big JumpbyLeigh Brackett.The 1950s were a difficult and impoverished time for Dick, who once lamented, \"We couldn't even pay the late fees on a library book.\" He published almost exclusively within the science fiction genre but dreamed of a career in mainstream fiction.During the 1950s, he produced a series of non-genre, relatively conventional novels. In 1960, Dick wrote that he was willing to \"take twenty to thirty years to succeed as a literary writer\". The dream of mainstream success formally died in January 1963 when the Scott Meredith Literary Agency returned all of his unsold mainstream novels. Only one of them,Confessions of a Crap Artist, was published during Dick's lifetime,in 1975 byPaul Williams'Entwhistle Books. In 1963 Dick won the Hugo Award forThe Man in the High Castle.Although he was hailed as a genius in the science fiction world, the mainstream literary world was unappreciative, and he could publish books only through low-paying science fiction publishers such asAce. He said in a 1977 interview that were it not for interest by a French publishing company in the mid-1960s, which decided to publish all of his catalog to date, he would not have been able to continue as a writer.But even in his later years, he continued to have financial troubles. In the introduction to the 1980 short story collection,The Golden Man, he wrote: \"Several years ago, when I was ill,Heinleinoffered his help, anything he could do, and we had never met; he would phone me to cheer me up and see how I was doing. He wanted to buy me an electrictypewriter, God bless him—one of the few true gentlemen in this world. I don't agree with any ideas he puts forth in his writing, but that is neither here nor there. One time when I owed theIRSa lot of money and couldn't raise it, Heinlein loaned the money to me. I think a great deal of him and his wife; I dedicated a book to them in appreciation. Robert Heinlein is a fine-looking man, very impressive and very military in stance; you can tell he has a military background, even to the haircut. He knows I'm a flipped-out freak and still he helped me and my wife when we were in trouble. That is the best in humanity, there; that is who and what I love.\" Flight to Canada, mental health and suicide attempt In 1971, Dick's marriage to Nancy Hackett broke down, and she moved out of their house inSanta Venetia, California. He had abusedamphetaminefor much of the previous decade, stemming in part from his need to maintain a prolific writing regimen due to the financial exigencies of the science fiction field. He allowed other drug users to move into the house. Following the release of 21 novels between 1960 and 1970, these developments were exacerbated by unprecedented periods ofwriter's block, with Dick ultimately failing to publish new fiction until 1974. One day, in November 1971, Dick returned to his home to discover it had been burglarized, with his safe blown open and personal papers missing. The police could not determine the culprit, and even suspected Dick of having done it himself.Shortly thereafter, he was invited to be guest of honor at theVancouver Science Fiction Conventionin February 1972. Within a day of arriving at the conference and giving his speech,The Android and the Human, he informed people that he had fallen in love with a woman named Janis whom he had met there and announced that he would be remaining in Vancouver.A conference attendee,Michael Walsh, movie critic for the local newspaperThe Province, invited Dick to stay in his home, but asked him to leave two weeks later due to his erratic behavior. Janis then ended their relationship and moved away. On March 23, 1972, Dick attempted suicide by taking an overdose of the sedativepotassium bromide.Subsequently, after deciding to seek help, Dick became a participant in X-Kalay (a CanadianSynanon-type recovery program), and was well enough by April to return to California.In October 1972, Dick wrote a letter to the FBI about science fiction writerThomas Disch. Dick said he had been approached by a covert Anti-American organization which attempted to recruit him. Dick said he recognized their ideology in a book Disch wrote. On relocating toOrange County, Californiaat the behest ofCalifornia State University, Fullertonprofessor Willis McNelly (who initiated a correspondence with Dick during his X-Kalay stint), he donatedmanuscripts, papers and other materials to the university's Special Collections Library, where they are in the Philip K. Dick Science Fiction Collection in the Pollak Library. During this period, Dick befriended a circle of Fullerton State students that included several aspiring science fiction writers, includingK. W. Jeter,James BlaylockandTim Powers. Jeter would later continue Dick's Bladerunner series with three sequels. Dick returned to the events of these months while writing his novelA Scanner Darkly(1977),which contains fictionalized depictions of the burglary of his home, his time using amphetamines and living with addicts, and his experiences of X-Kalay (portrayed in the novel as \"New-Path\"). A factual account of his recovery program participation was portrayed in his posthumously released bookThe Dark Haired Girl, a collection of letters and journals from the period. Paranormal experiences On February 20, 1974, while recovering from the effects ofsodium pentothaladministered for the extraction of an impactedwisdom tooth, Dick received a home delivery ofDarvonfrom a young woman. When he opened the door, he was struck by the dark-haired girl's beauty, and was especially drawn to her golden necklace. He asked her about its curious fish-shaped design. As she was leaving, she replied: \"This is a sign used by the early Christians.\" Dick called the symbol the \"vesicle pisces\". This name seems to have been based on his conflation of two related symbols, the Christianichthyssymbol (two intersecting arcs delineating a fish in profile), which the woman was wearing, and thevesica piscis. Dick recounted that as the sun glinted off the gold pendant, the reflection caused the generation of a \"pink beam\" of light that mesmerized him. He came to believe the beam imparted wisdom and clairvoyance, and also believed it to be intelligent. On one occasion, he was startled by a separate recurrence of the pink beam, which imparted the information that his infant son was ill. The Dicks rushed the child to the hospital, where the illness was confirmed by professional diagnosis. After the woman's departure, Dick began experiencing strange hallucinations. Although initially attributing them to side effects from medication, he considered this explanation implausible after weeks of continued hallucination. He toldCharles Platt: \"I experienced an invasion of my mind by a transcendentally rational mind, as if I had been insane all my life and suddenly I had become sane.\" Throughout February and March 1974, Dick experienced a series of hallucinations which he referred to as \"2-3-74\",shorthand for February–March 1974. Aside from the \"pink beam\", he described the initial hallucinations asgeometricpatterns, and, occasionally, brief pictures of Jesus andancient Rome. As the hallucinations increased in duration and frequency, Dick claimed he began to live two parallel lives—one as himself, \"Philip K. Dick\", and one as \"Thomas\",a Christian persecuted by Romans in the first century AD. He referred to the \"transcendentally rational mind\" as \"Zebra\", \"God\" and \"VALIS\" (an acronym forVast Active Living Intelligence System). He wrote about the experiences, first in the semi-autobiographical novelRadio Free Albemuth, then inVALIS,The Divine Invasion,The Transmigration of Timothy Archerand the unfinishedThe Owl in Daylight(theVALIS trilogy). In 1974, Dick wrote a letter to theFBI, accusing various people, includingUniversity of California, San DiegoprofessorFredric Jameson, of being foreign agents ofWarsaw Pactpowers.He also wrote thatStanisław Lemwas probably a false name used by a composite committee operating on orders of theCommunist partyto gain control over public opinion. At one point, Dick felt he had been taken over by the spirit of the prophetElijah. He believed that an episode in his novelFlow My Tears, the Policeman Saidwas a detailed retelling of a biblical story from theBook of Acts, which he had never read.He documented and discussed his experiences and faith in a private journal he called his \"exegesis\", portions of which were later published asThe Exegesis of Philip K. Dick. The last novel he wrote wasThe Transmigration of Timothy Archer; it was published shortly after his death in 1982. Personal life Dick was married five times: Dick had three children, Laura Archer Dick(born February 25, 1960, to Dick and his third wife, Anne Williams Rubenstein), Isolde Freya Dick(nowIsa Dick Hackett) (born March 15, 1967, to Dick and his fourth wife, Nancy Hackett), and Christopher Kenneth Dick (born July 25, 1973, to Dick and his fifth wife, Leslie \"Tessa\" Busby). In 1955, Dick and his second wife, Kleo Apostolides, received a visit from theFBI, which they believed to be the result of Kleo'ssocialistviews andleft-wing activities. He physically fought with Anne Williams Rubinstein, his third wife. Dick wrote to a friend that he and Anne had \"dreadful violent fights...slamming each other around, smashing every object in the house.\" In 1963, Dick told his neighbors that his wife was attempting to kill him and had her involuntarily committed to a psychiatric institution for two weeks.After filing for divorce in 1964, Dick moved to Oakland to live with a fan, author and editorGrania Davis. Shortly after, he attempted suicide by driving off the road while she was a passenger. Politics Early in life, Dick attendedCommunist Party USAmeetings, but shifted more towardsanti-communismandlibertarianismas time passed. In an interview, Dick once described himself as a \"religious anarchist\". Dick generally tried to stay out of the political scene because of high societal turmoil from theVietnam War. Still, he did show someanti-Vietnam Warand anti-governmental sentiments. In 1968, he joined the \"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\",an anti-war pledge to pay no U.S.federal income tax, which resulted in theconfiscationof his car by theIRS.Dick was a critic of the U.S. federal government, regarding it to be just as \"bad as theSoviet Union\", and cheered on \"a great decentralization of the government\". Dick's politics occasionally influenced his literature. Dick's 1967 short story \"Faith of Our Fathers\" is critical ofcommunism. Dick's 1968 novelDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?condemns theeugenicsmovement.In 1974, as a response to theRoe v. Wadedecision, Dick also published \"The Pre-persons\", a satirical anti-abortion andanti-Malthusianismshort story. Following the story's publication, Dick stated that he received death threats from feminists. Death On February 17, 1982, after completing an interview, Dick contacted his therapist, complaining of failing eyesight, and was advised to go to a hospital immediately, but did not. The following day, he was found unconscious on the floor of hisSanta Ana, California, home, having suffered a stroke. On February 25, 1982, Dick suffered another stroke in the hospital, which led tobrain death. Five days later, on March 2, 1982, he was disconnected fromlife support. After his death, Dick's father, Joseph, took his son's ashes to Riverside Cemetery inFort Morgan, Colorado(section K, block 1, lot 56), where they were buried next to his twin sister Jane, who died in infancy. Her tombstone had been inscribed with both of their names at the time of her death, 53 years earlier.Philip died four months before the release ofBlade Runner, the film based on his novelDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Style and works Themes Dick's stories typically focus on the fragile nature of what is real and the construction ofpersonal identity. His stories often become surreal fantasies, as the main characters slowly discover that their everyday world is actually an illusion assembled by powerful external entities, such as the suspended animation inUbik,vast political conspiracies or the vicissitudes of anunreliable narrator. \"All of his work starts with the basic assumption that there cannot be one, single, objective reality\", writes science fiction authorCharles Platt. \"Everything is a matter of perception. The ground is liable to shift under your feet. A protagonist may find himself living out another person's dream, or he may enter a drug-induced state that actually makes better sense than the real world, or he may cross into a different universe completely.\" Alternate universesandsimulacraare commonplot devices, with fictional worlds inhabited by common, working people, rather than galactic elites. \"There are no heroes in Dick's books\",Ursula K. Le Guinwrote, \"but there are heroics. One is reminded ofDickens: what counts is the honesty, constancy, kindness and patience of ordinary people.\"Dick made no secret that much of his thinking and work was heavily influenced by the writings ofCarl Jung.The Jungian constructs and models that most concerned Dick seem to be the archetypes of thecollective unconscious, group projection/hallucination,synchronicities, and personality theory.Many of Dick's protagonists overtly analyze reality and their perceptions in Jungian terms (seeLies, Inc.). Dick identified one major theme of his work as the question, \"What constitutes the authentic human being?\"In works such asDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, beings can appear totally human in every respect while lacking soul or compassion, while completely alien beings such as Glimmung inGalactic Pot-Healermay be more humane and complex than their human peers. Understood correctly, said Dick, the term \"human being\" applies \"not to origin or to any ontology but to a way of being in the world.\"This authentic way of being manifests itself in compassion that recognizes the oneness of all life. \"In Dick's vision, the moral imperative calls on us to care for all sentient beings, human or nonhuman, natural or artificial, regardless of their place in the order of things. And Dick makes clear that this imperative is grounded in empathy, not reason, whatever subsequent role reason may play.\"The figure of the android depicts those who are deficient in empathy, who are alienated from others and are becoming more mechanical (emotionless) in their behaviour. \"In general, then, it can be said that for Dick robots represent machines that are becoming more like humans, while androids represent humans that are becoming more like machines.\" Dick's third major theme is his fascination with war and his fear and hatred of it. One hardly sees critical mention of it, yet it is as integral to his body of work as oxygen is to water. —Steven Owen Godersky Mental illness was a constant interest of Dick's, and themes of mental illness permeate his work. The character Jack Bohlen in the 1964 novelMartian Time-Slipis an \"ex-schizophrenic\". The novelClans of the Alphane Mooncenters on an entire society made up of descendants of lunatic asylum inmates. In 1965, he wrote the essay titled \"Schizophrenia and the Book of Changes\". Drug use (includingreligious,recreational, andabuse) was also a theme in many of Dick's works, such asA Scanner DarklyandThe Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch.Dick himself was a drug user for much of his life. According to a 1975 interview inRolling Stone,Dick wrote all of his books published before 1970 while onamphetamines. \"A Scanner Darkly(1977) was the first complete novel I had written without speed\", said Dick in the interview. He also experimented briefly withpsychedelics, but wroteThe Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch(1965), whichRolling Stonedubs \"the classicLSDnovel of all time\", before he had ever tried them. Despite his heavy amphetamine use, however, Dick later said that doctors told him the amphetamines never actually affected him, that his liver had processed them before they reached his brain. Summing up all these themes inUnderstanding Philip K. Dick, Eric Carl Link discussed eight themes or \"ideas and motifs\":: 48Epistemology and the Nature of Reality, Know Thyself, The Android and the Human, Entropy and Pot Healing, TheTheodicyProblem, Warfare and Power Politics, The Evolved Human, and \"Technology, Media, Drugs and Madness\".: 48–101 Pen names Dick had two professional stories published under thepen namesRichard Phillipps and Jack Dowland. \"Some Kinds of Life\" was published in October 1953 inFantastic Universeunder byline Richard Phillipps, apparently because the magazine had a policy against publishing multiple stories by the same author in the same issue; \"Planet for Transients\" was published in the same issue under his own name. The short story \"Orpheus with Clay Feet\" was published under the pen name Jack Dowland. The protagonist desires to be themusefor fictional author Jack Dowland, considered the greatest science fiction author of the 20th century. In the story, Dowland publishes a short story titled \"Orpheus with Clay Feet\" under the pen name Philip K. Dick. The surname Dowland refers toRenaissancecomposerJohn Dowland, who is featured in several works. The titleFlow My Tears, the Policeman Saiddirectly refers to Dowland's best-known composition, \"Flow, my tears\". In the novelThe Divine Invasion, the character Linda Fox, created specifically withLinda Ronstadtin mind, is an intergalactically famous singer whose entire body of work consists of recordings of John Dowland compositions. Selected works The Man in the High Castle(1962) is set in analternative historyin which the United States is ruled by the victoriousAxis powers. It is the only Dick novel to win aHugo Award. In 2015 this was adapted into a television series byAmazon Studios. The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch(1965) utilizes an array of science fiction concepts and features several layers of reality and unreality. It is also one of Dick's first works to explore religious themes. The novel takes place in the 21st century, when, under UN authority, mankind has colonized theSolar System's everyhabitableplanetandmoon. Life is physically daunting and psychologically monotonous for most colonists, so the UN must draft people to go to the colonies. Most entertain themselves using \"Perky Pat\"dollsand accessories manufactured by Earth-based \"P.P. Layouts\". The company also secretly creates \"Can-D\", an illegal but widely available hallucinogenic drug allowing the user to \"translate\" into Perky Pat (if the drug user is a woman) or Pat's boyfriend, Walt (if the drug user is a man). This recreational use of Can-D allows colonists to experience a few minutes of an idealized life on Earth by participating in a collective hallucination. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?(1968) is the story of a bounty hunter policing the local android population. It occurs on a dying, poisoned Earth de-populated of almost all animals and all \"successful\" humans; the only remaining inhabitants of the planet are people with no prospects off-world. The 1968 novel is the literary source of the filmBlade Runner(1982).It is both a conflation and an intensification of the pivotally Dickian question: \"What is real, what is fake? What crucial factor defines humanity as distinctly 'alive', versus those merely alive only in their outward appearance?\" Ubik(1969) employs extensive psychic telepathy and a suspended state after death in creating a state of eroding reality. A group of psychics is sent to investigate a rival organisation, but several of them are apparently killed by a saboteur's bomb. Much of the following novel flicks between different equally plausible realities and the \"real\" reality, a state of half-life and psychically manipulated realities. In 2005,Timemagazine listed it among the \"All-TIME 100 Greatest Novels\" published since 1923. Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said(1974) concerns Jason Taverner, a television star living in a dystopian near-futurepolice state. After being attacked by an angry ex-girlfriend, Taverner awakens in a dingy Los Angeles hotel room. He still has his money in his wallet, but his identification cards are missing. This is no minor inconvenience, as security checkpoints (staffed by \"pols\" and \"nats\", the police and National Guard) are set up throughout the city to stop and arrest anyone without valid ID. Jason at first thinks that he was robbed, but soon discovers that his entire identity has been erased. There is no record of him in any official database, and even his closest associates do not recognize or remember him. For the first time in many years, Jason has no fame or reputation to rely on. He has only his innate charm and social graces to help him as he tries to find out what happened to his past while avoiding the attention of the pols. The novel was Dick's first published novel after years of silence, during which time his critical reputation had grown, and this novel was awarded theJohn W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.It is the only Philip K. Dick novel nominated for both a Hugo and aNebula Award. In an essay written two years before his death, Dick described how he learned from his Episcopal priest that an important scene inFlow My Tears, the Policeman Said– involving its other main character, the eponymous Police General Felix Buckman, was very similar to a scene inActs of the Apostles,a book of theNew Testament. Film director Richard Linklater discusses this novel in his filmWaking Life, which begins with a scene reminiscent of another Dick novel,Time Out of Joint. A Scanner Darkly(1977) is a bleak mixture of science fiction andpolice proceduralnovels; in its story, an undercover narcotics police detective begins to lose touch with reality after falling victim to Substance D, the same permanently mind-altering drug he was enlisted to help fight. Substance D is instantly addictive, beginning with a pleasant euphoria which is quickly replaced with increasing confusion, hallucinations and eventually total psychosis. In this novel, as with all Dick novels, there is an underlying thread of paranoia and dissociation with multiple realities perceived simultaneously. It was adapted tofilmbyRichard Linklater. The Philip K. Dick Readeris an introduction to the variety of Dick's short fiction. VALIS(1980) is perhaps Dick's mostpostmodernand autobiographical novel, examining his own unexplained experiences. It may also be his most academically studied work, and was adapted as an opera byTod Machover.Later works like theVALIS trilogywere heavily autobiographical, many with \"two-three-seventy-four\" (2-3-74) references and influences. The wordVALISis the acronym forVast Active Living Intelligence System. Later, Dick theorized that VALIS was both a \"reality generator\" and a means of extraterrestrial communication. A fourth VALIS manuscript,Radio Free Albemuth, although composed in 1976, was posthumously published in 1985. This work is described by the publisher (Arbor House) as \"an introduction and key to his magnificent VALIS trilogy\". Regardless of the feeling that he was somehow experiencing a divine communication, Dick was never fully able to rationalize the events. For the rest of his life, he struggled to comprehend what was occurring, questioning his own sanity and perception of reality. He transcribed what thoughts he could into an eight-thousand-page, one-million-wordjournaldubbed theExegesis. From 1974 until his death in 1982, Dick spent many nights writing in this journal. A recurring theme inExegesisis Dick's hypothesis that history had been stopped in the first century AD, and that \"theEmpirenever ended\". He saw Rome as the pinnacle ofmaterialismanddespotism, which, after forcing theGnosticsunderground, had kept the population of Earth enslaved to worldly possessions. Dick believed that VALIS had communicated with him, and anonymously others, to induce theimpeachmentof U.S. PresidentRichard Nixon, whom Dick believed to be the current Emperor of Rome incarnate. In a 1968 essay titled \"Self Portrait\", collected in the 1995 bookThe Shifting Realities of Philip K. Dick, Dick reflects on his work and lists which books he feels \"might escape World War Three\":Eye in the Sky,The Man in the High Castle,Martian Time-Slip,Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb,The Zap Gun,The Penultimate Truth,The Simulacra,The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch(which he refers to as \"the most vital of them all\"),Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, andUbik.In a 1976 interview, Dick citedA Scanner Darklyas his best work, feeling that he \"had finally written a true masterpiece, after 25 years of writing\". Adaptations Films Several of Dick's stories have been made into films. Dick himself wrote a screenplay for an intended film adaptation ofUbikin 1974, but the film was never made. Many film adaptations have not used Dick's original titles. When asked why this was, Dick's ex-wife Tessa said, \"Actually, the books rarely carry Phil's original titles, as the editors usually wrote new titles after reading his manuscripts. Phil often commented that he couldn't write good titles. If he could, he would have been an advertising writer instead of a novelist.\"Films based on Dick's writing had accumulated a total revenue of over US$1 billion by 2009. Future films based on Dick's writing include a film adaptation ofUbikwhich, according to Dick's daughter, Isa Dick Hackett, is in advanced negotiation.Ubik was set to be made into a film byMichel Gondry.In 2014, however, Gondry told French outlet Telerama (via Jeux Actu), that he was no longer working on the project.In November 2021, it was announced thatFrancis Lawrencewill direct a film adaptation ofVulcan's Hammer, with Lawrence's about:blank production company, alongsideNew Republic PicturesandElectric Shepherd Productions, producing. An animated adaptation ofThe King of the ElvesfromWalt Disney Animation Studioswas in production and was set to be released in the spring of 2016 but it was cancelled following multiple creative problems. TheTerminatorseries prominently features the theme of humanoid assassination machines first portrayed inSecond Variety.The Halcyon Company, known for developing theTerminatorfranchise, acquiredright of first refusalto film adaptations of the works of Philip K. Dick in 2007. In May 2009, they announced plans for an adaptation ofFlow My Tears, the Policeman Said. Television It was reported in 2010 that Ridley Scott would produce anadaptationofThe Man in the High Castlefor the BBC, in the form of a miniseries.A pilot episode was released onAmazon Prime Videoin January 2015 and season 1 was fully released in ten episodes of about 60 minutes each on November 20, 2015.Premiering in January 2015, the pilot was Amazon's \"most-watched since the original series development program began.\" The next month Amazon ordered episodes to fill out a ten-episode season, which was released in November, to positive reviews. A second season of ten episodes premiered in December 2016, and a third season was released on October 5, 2018. The fourth and final season premiered on November 15, 2019. In late 2015,FoxairedMinority Report, a television series sequel adaptation to the2002 film of the same namebased on Dick's short story \"The Minority Report\" (1956). The show was cancelled after one 10-episode season. In May 2016, it was announced that a 10-partanthology serieswas in the works. TitledPhilip K. Dick's Electric Dreams, the series was distributed bySony Pictures Televisionand premiered onChannel 4in the United Kingdom and Amazon Prime Video in the United States.It was written by executive producersRonald D. MooreandMichael Dinner, with executive input from Dick's daughterIsa Dick Hackett, and starsBryan Cranston, also an executive producer. Stage and radio Four of Dick's works have been adapted for the stage. One was the operaVALIS, composed and withlibrettobyTod Machover, which premiered at thePompidou Centerin Parison December 1, 1987, with a French libretto. It was subsequently revised and readapted into English, and was recorded and released on CD (Bridge Records BCD9007) in 1988. Another wasFlow My Tears, the Policeman Said, adapted by Linda Hartinian and produced by the New York-based avant-garde companyMabou Mines. It premiered in Boston at the Boston Shakespeare Theatre (June 18–30, 1985) and was subsequently staged in New York and Chicago. Productions ofFlow My Tears, the Policeman Saidwere also staged by the Evidence Roomin Los Angeles in 1999and by the Fifth Column Theatre Company at theOval House Theatrein London in the same year. A play based onRadio Free Albemuthalso had a brief run in the 1980s. In November 2010, a production ofDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, adapted byEdward Einhorn, premiered at the 3LD Art and Technology Center in Manhattan. A radio drama adaptation of Dick's short story \"Mr. Spaceship\" was aired by the Finnish Broadcasting Company (Yleisradio) in 1996 under the nameMenolippu Paratiisiin. Radio dramatizations of Dick's short storiesColonyandThe Defenderswere aired byNBCin 1956 as part of the seriesX Minus One. In January 2006, a theatre adaptation ofThe Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch(English forTrzy stygmaty Palmera Eldritcha) premiered in Stary Teatr inKraków, with an extensive use of lights and laser choreography. In June 2014, the BBC broadcast a two-part adaptation ofDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?onBBC Radio 4, starringJames Purefoyas Rick Deckard. Comics Marvel Comicsadapted Dick's short story \"The Electric Ant\" as alimited serieswhich was released in 2009. The comic was produced by writerDavid Mack(Daredevil) and artist Pascal Alixe (Ultimate X-Men), with covers provided by artistPaul Pope.\"The Electric Ant\" had earlier been loosely adapted by Frank Miller and Geof Darrow in their 3-issue mini-seriesHard Boiledpublished byDark Horse Comicsin 1990–1992. In 2009, BOOM! Studios started publishing a 24-issue miniseries comic book adaptation ofDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?Blade Runner, the 1982 film adapted fromDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, had previously been adapted to comics asA Marvel Comics Super Special: Blade Runner. In 2011, Dynamite Entertainment published a four-issue miniseriesTotal Recall, a sequel to the 1990 filmTotal Recall, inspired by Philip K. Dick's short story \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\".In 1990,DC Comicspublished the official adaptation of the original film as aDC Movie Special: Total Recall. Alternative formats In response to a 1975 request from theNational Library for the Blindfor permission to make use ofThe Man in the High Castle, Dick responded, \"I also grant you a general permission to transcribe any of my former, present or future work, so indeed you can add my name to your 'general permission' list.\"Some of his books and stories are available inbrailleand other specialized formats through the NLS. As of December 2012, thirteen of Philip K. Dick's early works in thepublic domainin the United States are available in ebook form fromProject Gutenberg. As of December 2019,Wikisourcehas three of Philip K. Dick's early works in the public domain in the United States available in ebook form which is not from Project Gutenberg. Influence and legacy Lawrence Sutinwrote a 1989 biography of Dick, titledDivine Invasions: A Life of Philip K. Dick. In 1993, French writerEmmanuel CarrèrepublishedI Am Alive and You Are Dead: A Journey into the Mind of Philip K. Dick(French:Je suis vivant et vous êtes morts), which the author describes in his preface in this way: The book you hold in your hands is a very peculiar book. I have tried to depict the life of Philip K. Dick from the inside, in other words, with the same freedom and empathy – indeed with the same truth – with which he depicted his own characters. The book omits fact checking, sourcing, notes and index.It can be considered anon-fiction novelabout his life. Dick has influenced many writers, includingJonathan LethemandUrsula K. Le Guin. The prominent literary criticFredric Jamesonproclaimed Dick the \"Shakespeareof Science Fiction\", and praised his work as \"one of the most powerful expressions of the society ofspectacleand pseudo-event\".The authorRoberto Bolañoalso praised Dick, describing him as \"Thoreauplus the death of theAmerican dream\".Dick has also influenced filmmakers, his work being compared to films such asthe Wachowskis'The Matrix,David Cronenberg'sVideodrome,eXistenZ,andSpider,Spike Jonze'sBeing John Malkovich,Adaptation,Michel Gondry'sEternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind,Alex Proyas'sDark City,Peter Weir'sThe Truman Show,Andrew Niccol'sGattaca,In Time,Terry Gilliam's12 Monkeys,Alejandro Amenábar'sOpen Your Eyes,David Fincher'sFight Club,Cameron Crowe'sVanilla Sky,Darren Aronofsky'sPi,Richard Kelly'sDonnie DarkoandSouthland Tales,Rian Johnson'sLooper,Duncan Jones'Source Code,Christopher Nolan'sMementoandInception,andOwen Dennis'Infinity Train The Philip K. Dick Society was an organization dedicated to promoting the literary works of Dick and was led by Dick's longtime friend and music journalistPaul Williams. Williams also served as Dick'sliterary executorfor several years after Dick's death and wrote one of the first biographies of Dick, entitledOnly Apparently Real: The World of Philip K. Dick. The Philip K. Dick estate owns and operates the production company Electric Shepherd Productions,which has produced the filmThe Adjustment Bureau(2011), the TV seriesThe Man in the High Castleand also aMarvel Comics5-issue adaptation ofElectric Ant. Dick was recreated by his fans in the form of asimulacrumor remote-controlledandroiddesigned in his likeness.Such simulacra had been themes of many of Dick's works. The Philip K. Dick simulacrum was included on a discussion panel in aSan Diego Comic Conpresentation about the film adaptation of the novel,A Scanner Darkly. In February 2006, anAmerica West Airlinesemployee misplaced the android's head, and it has not yet been found.In January 2011, it was announced that Hanson Robotics had built a replacement. Film In fiction Music Radio Theater Contemporary philosophy Postmodernistssuch asJean Baudrillard,Fredric Jameson,Laurence RickelsandSlavoj Žižekhave commented on Dick's writing's foreshadowing of postmodernity.Jean Baudrillard offers this interpretation: \"It is hyperreal. It is a universe of simulation, which is something altogether different. And this is so not because Dick speaks specifically of simulacra. SF has always done so, but it has always played upon the double, on artificial replication or imaginary duplication, whereas here the double has disappeared. There is no more double; one is always already in the other world, an other world which is not another, without mirrors or projection or utopias as means for reflection. The simulation is impassable, unsurpassable, checkmated, without exteriority. We can no longer move 'through the mirror' to the other side, as we could during the golden age of transcendence.\" For his anti-government skepticism, Philip K. Dick was afforded minor mention inMythmakers and Lawbreakers, a collection of interviews about fiction by anarchist authors. Noting his early authorship ofThe Last of the Masters, an anarchist-themed novelette, authorMargaret Killjoyexpressed that while Dick never fully sided withanarchism, his opposition to governmentcentralizationandorganized religionhas influencedanarchist interpretations of gnosticism. Video games Awards and honors TheScience Fiction Hall of Fameinducted Dick in 2005. During his lifetime he received numerous annual literary awards and nominations for particular works. Philip K. Dick Award The Philip K. Dick Award is ascience fiction awardthat annually recognizes the previous year's best SFpaperback originalpublished in the U.S.It is conferred atNorwescon, sponsored by thePhiladelphia Science Fiction Society, and since 2005 supported by the Philip K. Dick Trust. Winning works are identified on their covers asBest Original SF Paperback. It is currently administered by, John Silbersack, andGordon Van Gelder. The award was inaugurated in 1983, the year after Dick's death. It was founded byThomas Dischwith assistance fromDavid G. Hartwell,Paul S. Williams, andCharles N. Brown. Past administrators include Algis J. Budrys and David Alexander Smith. See also Bibliography Primary bibliography Secondary bibliography References External links", "The Transmigration of Timothy Archer The Transmigration of Timothy Archeris a 1982 novel by American writerPhilip K. Dick. As his final work, the book was published shortly after his death in March 1982, although it was written the previous year. The novel draws on autobiographical details of Dick's friendship with the controversialEpiscopalbishopJames Pike, on whom the title character is loosely based. It continues Dick's investigation into the religious and philosophical themes ofVALIS. The novel was nominated for theNebula AwardforBest Novelin 1982. Plot Set in the late 1960s and 1970s, the story describes the efforts ofEpiscopalbishop Timothy Archer, who must cope with thetheologicalandphilosophicalimplications of the newly discoveredGnosticZadokitescroll fragments. The character of Bishop Archer is loosely based on the controversial, iconoclastic Episcopal bishopJames Pike, who in 1969 died of exposure while exploring theJudean Desertnear theDead Seain theWest Bank. As the novel opens, it is 1980. On the day thatJohn Lennonis shot and killed, Angel Archer visits thehouseboatof Edgar Barefoot, (agurubased onAlan Watts), and reflects on the lives of her deceased relatives. During the sixties, she was married to Jeff Archer, son of theEpiscopalBishop of California Timothy Archer. She introduced Kirsten Lundborg, a friend, to her father-in law, and the two began an affair. Kirsten has a son, Bill, from a previous relationship, who hasschizophrenia, although he is knowledgeable as anautomobilemechanic. Tim is already being investigated for his allegedlyhereticalviews about theHoly Ghost. Jeff commitssuicidedue to his romantic obsession with Kirsten. However, afterpoltergeistactivity, he manifests to Tim and Kirsten at aseance, also attended by Angel. Angel is skeptical about the efficacy ofastrology, and believes that the unfoldingexistentialsituation of Tim and Kirsten is akin toFriedrich Schiller'sGermanRomanticismera masterpiece, theWallenstein trilogy(insofar as their credulity reflects the loss of rational belief in contemporary consensual reality). The three are told that Kirsten and Tim will die. As predicted, Kirsten loses herremissionfromcancer, and also commits suicide after abarbiturateoverdose. Tim travels toIsraelto investigate whether or not apsychotropicmushroomwas associated with theresurrection, but his car stalls, he becomes disoriented, falls from a cliff, and dies in thedesert. On the houseboat, Angel is reunited with Bill, Kirsten's son who hasschizophrenia. He claims to have Tim's reincarnated spirit within him, but is soon institutionalized. Angel agrees to care for Bill, in return for a rare record (Koto MusicbyKimio Eto) that Edgar offers her. The Transmigration of Timothy Archeris one of Dick's most overtly philosophical and intellectual works. While Dick's novels usually employmultiple narratorsor an omniscient perspective, this story is told in thefirst personby a single narrator: Angel Archer, Bishop Archer's daughter-in-law. Characters Other works The Transmigration of Timothy Archeris thematically related to Dick's unfinishedVALIS trilogyof novels: The novel has been included in several omnibus editions of the trilogy as a stand-in for the unwritten final volume.The Transmigration of Timothy Archerwas not intended by Dick to be part of the trilogy; however, the book fits with the two finished volumes and Dick himself called the three novels a trilogy, saying \"the three do form a trilogy constellating around a basic theme.\" The book was originally titledBishop Timothy Archer. Criticism See also References External links" ]
[ "Hugo Award for Best Novel TheHugo Award for Best Novelis one of theHugo Awardsgiven each year forscience fictionorfantasystories published in, or translated to, English during the previous calendar year. Thenovelaward is available for works of fiction of 40,000 words or more; awards are also given out in theshort story,novelette, andnovellacategories. The Hugo Awards have been described as \"a fine showcase forspeculative fiction\", and \"the best known literary award for science fiction writing\". The Hugo Award for Best Novel has been awarded annually by the World Science Fiction Society since 1953, except in 1954 and 1957. In addition, beginning in 1996, Retrospective Hugo Awards or \"Retro-Hugos\" have been available for works published 50, 75, or 100 years prior. Retro-Hugos may only be awarded for years after 1939 in which no awards were originally given.Retro-Hugo awards have been given for novels for 1939, 1941, 1943–1946, 1951, and 1954. Hugo Award nominees and winners are chosen by supporting or attending", "or attending members of the annualWorld Science Fiction Convention, orWorldcon, and the presentation evening constitutes its central event. The final selection process is defined in the World Science Fiction Society Constitution asinstant-runoff votingwith six nominees, except in the case of a tie. The novels on the ballot are the six most-nominated by members that year, with no limit on the number of stories that can be nominated. The 1953, 1955, and 1958 awards did not include a recognition of runner-up novels, but since 1959 all final candidates have been recorded.Initial nominations are made by members from January through March, while voting on the ballot of six nominations is performed roughly from April through July, subject to change depending on when that year's Worldcon is held.Prior to 2017, the final ballot was five works; it was changed that year to six, with each initial nominator limited to five nominations.Worldcons are generally held in August or early September, and are held in a different", "held in a different city around the world each year. During the 78 nomination years, 169 authors have had works nominated and 54 have won (including co-authors, ties, and Retro-Hugos). Two translators have been noted along with the author of a novel written in a language other than English:Ken Liu, in 2015 and 2017, for translations of two works from Chinese; andRita Barisse, in 2019, who was retroactively noted as the translator of a 1963 French novel.Robert A. Heinleinhas won the most Hugos for Best Novel, and also received the most nominations; he has six wins (four Hugos and two Retro-Hugos) on twelve nominations.Lois McMaster Bujoldhas received four Hugos on ten nominations. Five authors have won three times:Isaac AsimovandFritz Leiber(with two Hugos and one Retro-Hugo each),N. K. Jemisin,Connie Willis, andVernor Vinge. Nine other authors have won the award twice. The next-most nominations by a winning author are held byRobert J. SawyerandLarry Niven, who have been nominated nine and eight times,", "and eight times, respectively, and have each only won once. With nine nominations,Robert Silverberghas the greatest number of nominations without winning any. Three authors have won the award in consecutive years:Orson Scott Card(1986 and 1987), Lois McMaster Bujold (1991 and 1992), and N. K. Jemisin (2016, 2017, and 2018). Winners and nominees In the following table, the years correspond to the date of the ceremony, rather than when the novel was first published. Each year links to the corresponding \"year in literature\". Entries with a yellow background have won the award; those with a grey background are the nominees on the short-list. *Winners and joint winners Retro-Hugos Beginning with the1996 Worldcon, the World Science Fiction Society created the concept of \"Retro-Hugos\", in which the Hugo award could be retroactively awarded for 50, 75, or 100 years prior. Retro-Hugos may only be awarded for years after 1939 (the year of the firstWorldcon) in which no Hugos were originally awarded.Retro-Hugos have", "have been awarded eight times, for 1939, 1941, 1943–46, 1951, and 1954. See also Notes References External links", "Philip K. Dick Philip Kindred Dick(December 16, 1928 – March 2, 1982), often referred to by his initialsPKD, was an Americanscience fictionwriter and novelist.He wrote 44 novels and about 121 short stories, most of which appeared inscience fiction magazinesduring his lifetime.His fiction explored varied philosophical and social questions such as thenature of reality,perception,human nature, andidentity, and commonly featured characters struggling against elements such asalternate realities, illusory environments, monopolistic corporations,drug abuse,authoritariangovernments, andaltered states of consciousness.He is considered one of the most important figures in 20th-century science fiction. Born in Chicago, Dick moved to theSan Francisco Bay Areawith his family at a young age. He began publishing science fiction stories in 1952, at age 23. He found little commercial successuntil hisalternative historynovelThe Man in the High Castle(1962) earned him acclaim, including aHugo Award for Best Novel, when he was", "Novel, when he was 33.He followed with science fiction novels such asDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?(1968) andUbik(1969). His 1974 novelFlow My Tears, the Policeman Saidwon theJohn W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel. Following years ofdrug abuseand a series ofmystical experiencesin 1974, Dick's work engaged more explicitly with issues of theology, metaphysics, and the nature of reality, as in novelsA Scanner Darkly(1977),VALIS(1981), andThe Transmigration of Timothy Archer(1982).A collection of his speculative nonfiction writing on these themes was published posthumously asThe Exegesis of Philip K. Dick(2011). He died in 1982 inSanta Ana, California, at the age of 53, due to complications from astroke.Following his death, he became \"widely regarded as a master of imaginative,paranoid fictionin the vein ofFranz KafkaandThomas Pynchon\". Dick's posthumous influence has been widespread, extending beyond literary circles intoHollywoodfilmmaking.Popular films based on his works", "based on his works includeBlade Runner(1982),Total Recall(adapted twice:in 1990andin 2012),Screamers(1995),Minority Report(2002),A Scanner Darkly(2006),The Adjustment Bureau(2011), andRadio Free Albemuth(2010). Beginning in 2015,Amazon Prime Videoproduced the multi-season television adaptationThe Man in the High Castle, based on Dick's 1962 novel; and in 2017Channel 4produced the anthology seriesElectric Dreams, based on various Dick stories. In 2005,TimenamedUbik(1969) one of the hundred greatest English-language novels published since 1923.In 2007, Dick became the first science fiction writer included inThe Library of America series. Early life Dick and his twin sister, Jane Charlotte Dick, wereborn six weeks prematurelyon December 16, 1928, in Chicago, Illinois, to Dorothy (née Kindred; 1900–1978) and Joseph Edgar Dick (1899–1985), who worked for theUnited States Department of Agriculture.His paternal grandparents were Irish.Jane's death on January 26, 1929, six weeks after their birth, profoundly", "birth, profoundly affected Philip's life, leading to the recurrentmotifof the \"phantom twin\" in his books. Dick's family later moved to theSan Francisco Bay Area. When he was five, his father was transferred toReno, Nevada, and when Dorothy refused to move, she and Joseph divorced. Both fought for custody of Philip, which was awarded to Dorothy. Determined to raise Philip alone, she took a job inWashington, D.C., and moved there with her son. Philip was enrolled at John Eaton Elementary School (1936–1938), completing the second through fourth grades. His lowest grade was a \"C\" in Written Composition, although a teacher said he \"shows interest and ability instory telling\". He was educated inQuakerschools.In June 1938, Dorothy and Philip returned to California, and it was around this time that he became interested in science fiction.Dick stated that he read his first science fiction magazine,Stirring Science Stories,in 1940. Dick attendedBerkeley High SchoolinBerkeley, California. He and fellow science fiction", "science fiction authorUrsula K. Le Guinwere members of the class of 1947 but did not know each other at the time. He claimed to have hosted a classical music program onKSMORadio in 1947.From 1948 to 1952, he worked at Art Music Company, a record store onTelegraph Avenue. He attended theUniversity of California, Berkeleyfrom September 1949 to November 11, 1949, ultimately receiving an honorable dismissal dated January 1, 1950. He did not declare a major and took classes in history, psychology, philosophy, and zoology. Dick dropped out because of ongoinganxietyproblems, according to his third wife Anne's memoir. She also says he disliked the mandatoryROTCtraining. At Berkeley, he befriended poetRobert Duncanand poet andlinguistJack Spicer, who gave Dick ideas for a Martian language. Through his studies in philosophy, he believed that existence is based on internal human perception, which does not necessarily correspond to external reality. He described himself as \"an acosmicpanentheist\", which he explained as", "he explained as meaning that \"I don't believe that the universe exists. I believe that the only thing that exists is God and he is more than the universe. The universe is an extension of God into space and time. That's the premise I start from in my work, that so-called 'reality' is a mass delusion that we've all been required to believe for reasons totally obscure\".After reading the works ofPlatoand pondering the possibilities ofmetaphysicalrealms, he came to the conclusion that, in a certain sense, the world is not entirely real and there is no way to confirm whether it is truly there. That question was a theme in many of his novels. Career Early writing Dick sold his first story, \"Roog\"—about \"a dog who imagined that the garbagemen who came every Friday morning were stealing valuable food which the family had carefully stored away in a safe metal container\"—in 1951, when he was 22. From then on he wrote full-time. During 1952, his first speculative fiction publications appeared in July and September", "July and September numbers ofPlanet Stories, edited by Jack O'Sullivan, and inIfandThe Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fictionthat year.His debut novel,Solar Lottery, was published in 1955 as half ofAce Double#D-103 alongsideThe Big JumpbyLeigh Brackett.The 1950s were a difficult and impoverished time for Dick, who once lamented, \"We couldn't even pay the late fees on a library book.\" He published almost exclusively within the science fiction genre but dreamed of a career in mainstream fiction.During the 1950s, he produced a series of non-genre, relatively conventional novels. In 1960, Dick wrote that he was willing to \"take twenty to thirty years to succeed as a literary writer\". The dream of mainstream success formally died in January 1963 when the Scott Meredith Literary Agency returned all of his unsold mainstream novels. Only one of them,Confessions of a Crap Artist, was published during Dick's lifetime,in 1975 byPaul Williams'Entwhistle Books. In 1963 Dick won the Hugo Award forThe Man in the High", "Man in the High Castle.Although he was hailed as a genius in the science fiction world, the mainstream literary world was unappreciative, and he could publish books only through low-paying science fiction publishers such asAce. He said in a 1977 interview that were it not for interest by a French publishing company in the mid-1960s, which decided to publish all of his catalog to date, he would not have been able to continue as a writer.But even in his later years, he continued to have financial troubles. In the introduction to the 1980 short story collection,The Golden Man, he wrote: \"Several years ago, when I was ill,Heinleinoffered his help, anything he could do, and we had never met; he would phone me to cheer me up and see how I was doing. He wanted to buy me an electrictypewriter, God bless him—one of the few true gentlemen in this world. I don't agree with any ideas he puts forth in his writing, but that is neither here nor there. One time when I owed theIRSa lot of money and couldn't raise it,", "couldn't raise it, Heinlein loaned the money to me. I think a great deal of him and his wife; I dedicated a book to them in appreciation. Robert Heinlein is a fine-looking man, very impressive and very military in stance; you can tell he has a military background, even to the haircut. He knows I'm a flipped-out freak and still he helped me and my wife when we were in trouble. That is the best in humanity, there; that is who and what I love.\" Flight to Canada, mental health and suicide attempt In 1971, Dick's marriage to Nancy Hackett broke down, and she moved out of their house inSanta Venetia, California. He had abusedamphetaminefor much of the previous decade, stemming in part from his need to maintain a prolific writing regimen due to the financial exigencies of the science fiction field. He allowed other drug users to move into the house. Following the release of 21 novels between 1960 and 1970, these developments were exacerbated by unprecedented periods ofwriter's block, with Dick ultimately failing to", "failing to publish new fiction until 1974. One day, in November 1971, Dick returned to his home to discover it had been burglarized, with his safe blown open and personal papers missing. The police could not determine the culprit, and even suspected Dick of having done it himself.Shortly thereafter, he was invited to be guest of honor at theVancouver Science Fiction Conventionin February 1972. Within a day of arriving at the conference and giving his speech,The Android and the Human, he informed people that he had fallen in love with a woman named Janis whom he had met there and announced that he would be remaining in Vancouver.A conference attendee,Michael Walsh, movie critic for the local newspaperThe Province, invited Dick to stay in his home, but asked him to leave two weeks later due to his erratic behavior. Janis then ended their relationship and moved away. On March 23, 1972, Dick attempted suicide by taking an overdose of the sedativepotassium bromide.Subsequently, after deciding to seek help, Dick", "to seek help, Dick became a participant in X-Kalay (a CanadianSynanon-type recovery program), and was well enough by April to return to California.In October 1972, Dick wrote a letter to the FBI about science fiction writerThomas Disch. Dick said he had been approached by a covert Anti-American organization which attempted to recruit him. Dick said he recognized their ideology in a book Disch wrote. On relocating toOrange County, Californiaat the behest ofCalifornia State University, Fullertonprofessor Willis McNelly (who initiated a correspondence with Dick during his X-Kalay stint), he donatedmanuscripts, papers and other materials to the university's Special Collections Library, where they are in the Philip K. Dick Science Fiction Collection in the Pollak Library. During this period, Dick befriended a circle of Fullerton State students that included several aspiring science fiction writers, includingK. W. Jeter,James BlaylockandTim Powers. Jeter would later continue Dick's Bladerunner series with three", "series with three sequels. Dick returned to the events of these months while writing his novelA Scanner Darkly(1977),which contains fictionalized depictions of the burglary of his home, his time using amphetamines and living with addicts, and his experiences of X-Kalay (portrayed in the novel as \"New-Path\"). A factual account of his recovery program participation was portrayed in his posthumously released bookThe Dark Haired Girl, a collection of letters and journals from the period. Paranormal experiences On February 20, 1974, while recovering from the effects ofsodium pentothaladministered for the extraction of an impactedwisdom tooth, Dick received a home delivery ofDarvonfrom a young woman. When he opened the door, he was struck by the dark-haired girl's beauty, and was especially drawn to her golden necklace. He asked her about its curious fish-shaped design. As she was leaving, she replied: \"This is a sign used by the early Christians.\" Dick called the symbol the \"vesicle pisces\". This name seems to", "This name seems to have been based on his conflation of two related symbols, the Christianichthyssymbol (two intersecting arcs delineating a fish in profile), which the woman was wearing, and thevesica piscis. Dick recounted that as the sun glinted off the gold pendant, the reflection caused the generation of a \"pink beam\" of light that mesmerized him. He came to believe the beam imparted wisdom and clairvoyance, and also believed it to be intelligent. On one occasion, he was startled by a separate recurrence of the pink beam, which imparted the information that his infant son was ill. The Dicks rushed the child to the hospital, where the illness was confirmed by professional diagnosis. After the woman's departure, Dick began experiencing strange hallucinations. Although initially attributing them to side effects from medication, he considered this explanation implausible after weeks of continued hallucination. He toldCharles Platt: \"I experienced an invasion of my mind by a transcendentally rational mind,", "rational mind, as if I had been insane all my life and suddenly I had become sane.\" Throughout February and March 1974, Dick experienced a series of hallucinations which he referred to as \"2-3-74\",shorthand for February–March 1974. Aside from the \"pink beam\", he described the initial hallucinations asgeometricpatterns, and, occasionally, brief pictures of Jesus andancient Rome. As the hallucinations increased in duration and frequency, Dick claimed he began to live two parallel lives—one as himself, \"Philip K. Dick\", and one as \"Thomas\",a Christian persecuted by Romans in the first century AD. He referred to the \"transcendentally rational mind\" as \"Zebra\", \"God\" and \"VALIS\" (an acronym forVast Active Living Intelligence System). He wrote about the experiences, first in the semi-autobiographical novelRadio Free Albemuth, then inVALIS,The Divine Invasion,The Transmigration of Timothy Archerand the unfinishedThe Owl in Daylight(theVALIS trilogy). In 1974, Dick wrote a letter to theFBI, accusing various people,", "various people, includingUniversity of California, San DiegoprofessorFredric Jameson, of being foreign agents ofWarsaw Pactpowers.He also wrote thatStanisław Lemwas probably a false name used by a composite committee operating on orders of theCommunist partyto gain control over public opinion. At one point, Dick felt he had been taken over by the spirit of the prophetElijah. He believed that an episode in his novelFlow My Tears, the Policeman Saidwas a detailed retelling of a biblical story from theBook of Acts, which he had never read.He documented and discussed his experiences and faith in a private journal he called his \"exegesis\", portions of which were later published asThe Exegesis of Philip K. Dick. The last novel he wrote wasThe Transmigration of Timothy Archer; it was published shortly after his death in 1982. Personal life Dick was married five times: Dick had three children, Laura Archer Dick(born February 25, 1960, to Dick and his third wife, Anne Williams Rubenstein), Isolde Freya Dick(nowIsa", "Freya Dick(nowIsa Dick Hackett) (born March 15, 1967, to Dick and his fourth wife, Nancy Hackett), and Christopher Kenneth Dick (born July 25, 1973, to Dick and his fifth wife, Leslie \"Tessa\" Busby). In 1955, Dick and his second wife, Kleo Apostolides, received a visit from theFBI, which they believed to be the result of Kleo'ssocialistviews andleft-wing activities. He physically fought with Anne Williams Rubinstein, his third wife. Dick wrote to a friend that he and Anne had \"dreadful violent fights...slamming each other around, smashing every object in the house.\" In 1963, Dick told his neighbors that his wife was attempting to kill him and had her involuntarily committed to a psychiatric institution for two weeks.After filing for divorce in 1964, Dick moved to Oakland to live with a fan, author and editorGrania Davis. Shortly after, he attempted suicide by driving off the road while she was a passenger. Politics Early in life, Dick attendedCommunist Party USAmeetings, but shifted more", "but shifted more towardsanti-communismandlibertarianismas time passed. In an interview, Dick once described himself as a \"religious anarchist\". Dick generally tried to stay out of the political scene because of high societal turmoil from theVietnam War. Still, he did show someanti-Vietnam Warand anti-governmental sentiments. In 1968, he joined the \"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\",an anti-war pledge to pay no U.S.federal income tax, which resulted in theconfiscationof his car by theIRS.Dick was a critic of the U.S. federal government, regarding it to be just as \"bad as theSoviet Union\", and cheered on \"a great decentralization of the government\". Dick's politics occasionally influenced his literature. Dick's 1967 short story \"Faith of Our Fathers\" is critical ofcommunism. Dick's 1968 novelDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?condemns theeugenicsmovement.In 1974, as a response to theRoe v. Wadedecision, Dick also published \"The Pre-persons\", a satirical anti-abortion andanti-Malthusianismshort story.", "story. Following the story's publication, Dick stated that he received death threats from feminists. Death On February 17, 1982, after completing an interview, Dick contacted his therapist, complaining of failing eyesight, and was advised to go to a hospital immediately, but did not. The following day, he was found unconscious on the floor of hisSanta Ana, California, home, having suffered a stroke. On February 25, 1982, Dick suffered another stroke in the hospital, which led tobrain death. Five days later, on March 2, 1982, he was disconnected fromlife support. After his death, Dick's father, Joseph, took his son's ashes to Riverside Cemetery inFort Morgan, Colorado(section K, block 1, lot 56), where they were buried next to his twin sister Jane, who died in infancy. Her tombstone had been inscribed with both of their names at the time of her death, 53 years earlier.Philip died four months before the release ofBlade Runner, the film based on his novelDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Style and works", "Style and works Themes Dick's stories typically focus on the fragile nature of what is real and the construction ofpersonal identity. His stories often become surreal fantasies, as the main characters slowly discover that their everyday world is actually an illusion assembled by powerful external entities, such as the suspended animation inUbik,vast political conspiracies or the vicissitudes of anunreliable narrator. \"All of his work starts with the basic assumption that there cannot be one, single, objective reality\", writes science fiction authorCharles Platt. \"Everything is a matter of perception. The ground is liable to shift under your feet. A protagonist may find himself living out another person's dream, or he may enter a drug-induced state that actually makes better sense than the real world, or he may cross into a different universe completely.\" Alternate universesandsimulacraare commonplot devices, with fictional worlds inhabited by common, working people, rather than galactic elites. \"There are no", "\"There are no heroes in Dick's books\",Ursula K. Le Guinwrote, \"but there are heroics. One is reminded ofDickens: what counts is the honesty, constancy, kindness and patience of ordinary people.\"Dick made no secret that much of his thinking and work was heavily influenced by the writings ofCarl Jung.The Jungian constructs and models that most concerned Dick seem to be the archetypes of thecollective unconscious, group projection/hallucination,synchronicities, and personality theory.Many of Dick's protagonists overtly analyze reality and their perceptions in Jungian terms (seeLies, Inc.). Dick identified one major theme of his work as the question, \"What constitutes the authentic human being?\"In works such asDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, beings can appear totally human in every respect while lacking soul or compassion, while completely alien beings such as Glimmung inGalactic Pot-Healermay be more humane and complex than their human peers. Understood correctly, said Dick, the term \"human being\" applies", "being\" applies \"not to origin or to any ontology but to a way of being in the world.\"This authentic way of being manifests itself in compassion that recognizes the oneness of all life. \"In Dick's vision, the moral imperative calls on us to care for all sentient beings, human or nonhuman, natural or artificial, regardless of their place in the order of things. And Dick makes clear that this imperative is grounded in empathy, not reason, whatever subsequent role reason may play.\"The figure of the android depicts those who are deficient in empathy, who are alienated from others and are becoming more mechanical (emotionless) in their behaviour. \"In general, then, it can be said that for Dick robots represent machines that are becoming more like humans, while androids represent humans that are becoming more like machines.\" Dick's third major theme is his fascination with war and his fear and hatred of it. One hardly sees critical mention of it, yet it is as integral to his body of work as oxygen is to water.", "oxygen is to water. —Steven Owen Godersky Mental illness was a constant interest of Dick's, and themes of mental illness permeate his work. The character Jack Bohlen in the 1964 novelMartian Time-Slipis an \"ex-schizophrenic\". The novelClans of the Alphane Mooncenters on an entire society made up of descendants of lunatic asylum inmates. In 1965, he wrote the essay titled \"Schizophrenia and the Book of Changes\". Drug use (includingreligious,recreational, andabuse) was also a theme in many of Dick's works, such asA Scanner DarklyandThe Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch.Dick himself was a drug user for much of his life. According to a 1975 interview inRolling Stone,Dick wrote all of his books published before 1970 while onamphetamines. \"A Scanner Darkly(1977) was the first complete novel I had written without speed\", said Dick in the interview. He also experimented briefly withpsychedelics, but wroteThe Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch(1965), whichRolling Stonedubs \"the classicLSDnovel of all time\", before he", "time\", before he had ever tried them. Despite his heavy amphetamine use, however, Dick later said that doctors told him the amphetamines never actually affected him, that his liver had processed them before they reached his brain. Summing up all these themes inUnderstanding Philip K. Dick, Eric Carl Link discussed eight themes or \"ideas and motifs\":: 48Epistemology and the Nature of Reality, Know Thyself, The Android and the Human, Entropy and Pot Healing, TheTheodicyProblem, Warfare and Power Politics, The Evolved Human, and \"Technology, Media, Drugs and Madness\".: 48–101 Pen names Dick had two professional stories published under thepen namesRichard Phillipps and Jack Dowland. \"Some Kinds of Life\" was published in October 1953 inFantastic Universeunder byline Richard Phillipps, apparently because the magazine had a policy against publishing multiple stories by the same author in the same issue; \"Planet for Transients\" was published in the same issue under his own name. The short story \"Orpheus with Clay", "\"Orpheus with Clay Feet\" was published under the pen name Jack Dowland. The protagonist desires to be themusefor fictional author Jack Dowland, considered the greatest science fiction author of the 20th century. In the story, Dowland publishes a short story titled \"Orpheus with Clay Feet\" under the pen name Philip K. Dick. The surname Dowland refers toRenaissancecomposerJohn Dowland, who is featured in several works. The titleFlow My Tears, the Policeman Saiddirectly refers to Dowland's best-known composition, \"Flow, my tears\". In the novelThe Divine Invasion, the character Linda Fox, created specifically withLinda Ronstadtin mind, is an intergalactically famous singer whose entire body of work consists of recordings of John Dowland compositions. Selected works The Man in the High Castle(1962) is set in analternative historyin which the United States is ruled by the victoriousAxis powers. It is the only Dick novel to win aHugo Award. In 2015 this was adapted into a television series byAmazon Studios. The", "Studios. The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch(1965) utilizes an array of science fiction concepts and features several layers of reality and unreality. It is also one of Dick's first works to explore religious themes. The novel takes place in the 21st century, when, under UN authority, mankind has colonized theSolar System's everyhabitableplanetandmoon. Life is physically daunting and psychologically monotonous for most colonists, so the UN must draft people to go to the colonies. Most entertain themselves using \"Perky Pat\"dollsand accessories manufactured by Earth-based \"P.P. Layouts\". The company also secretly creates \"Can-D\", an illegal but widely available hallucinogenic drug allowing the user to \"translate\" into Perky Pat (if the drug user is a woman) or Pat's boyfriend, Walt (if the drug user is a man). This recreational use of Can-D allows colonists to experience a few minutes of an idealized life on Earth by participating in a collective hallucination. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?(1968) is", "Sheep?(1968) is the story of a bounty hunter policing the local android population. It occurs on a dying, poisoned Earth de-populated of almost all animals and all \"successful\" humans; the only remaining inhabitants of the planet are people with no prospects off-world. The 1968 novel is the literary source of the filmBlade Runner(1982).It is both a conflation and an intensification of the pivotally Dickian question: \"What is real, what is fake? What crucial factor defines humanity as distinctly 'alive', versus those merely alive only in their outward appearance?\" Ubik(1969) employs extensive psychic telepathy and a suspended state after death in creating a state of eroding reality. A group of psychics is sent to investigate a rival organisation, but several of them are apparently killed by a saboteur's bomb. Much of the following novel flicks between different equally plausible realities and the \"real\" reality, a state of half-life and psychically manipulated realities. In 2005,Timemagazine listed it among", "listed it among the \"All-TIME 100 Greatest Novels\" published since 1923. Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said(1974) concerns Jason Taverner, a television star living in a dystopian near-futurepolice state. After being attacked by an angry ex-girlfriend, Taverner awakens in a dingy Los Angeles hotel room. He still has his money in his wallet, but his identification cards are missing. This is no minor inconvenience, as security checkpoints (staffed by \"pols\" and \"nats\", the police and National Guard) are set up throughout the city to stop and arrest anyone without valid ID. Jason at first thinks that he was robbed, but soon discovers that his entire identity has been erased. There is no record of him in any official database, and even his closest associates do not recognize or remember him. For the first time in many years, Jason has no fame or reputation to rely on. He has only his innate charm and social graces to help him as he tries to find out what happened to his past while avoiding the attention of the", "attention of the pols. The novel was Dick's first published novel after years of silence, during which time his critical reputation had grown, and this novel was awarded theJohn W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.It is the only Philip K. Dick novel nominated for both a Hugo and aNebula Award. In an essay written two years before his death, Dick described how he learned from his Episcopal priest that an important scene inFlow My Tears, the Policeman Said– involving its other main character, the eponymous Police General Felix Buckman, was very similar to a scene inActs of the Apostles,a book of theNew Testament. Film director Richard Linklater discusses this novel in his filmWaking Life, which begins with a scene reminiscent of another Dick novel,Time Out of Joint. A Scanner Darkly(1977) is a bleak mixture of science fiction andpolice proceduralnovels; in its story, an undercover narcotics police detective begins to lose touch with reality after falling victim to Substance D, the same", "D, the same permanently mind-altering drug he was enlisted to help fight. Substance D is instantly addictive, beginning with a pleasant euphoria which is quickly replaced with increasing confusion, hallucinations and eventually total psychosis. In this novel, as with all Dick novels, there is an underlying thread of paranoia and dissociation with multiple realities perceived simultaneously. It was adapted tofilmbyRichard Linklater. The Philip K. Dick Readeris an introduction to the variety of Dick's short fiction. VALIS(1980) is perhaps Dick's mostpostmodernand autobiographical novel, examining his own unexplained experiences. It may also be his most academically studied work, and was adapted as an opera byTod Machover.Later works like theVALIS trilogywere heavily autobiographical, many with \"two-three-seventy-four\" (2-3-74) references and influences. The wordVALISis the acronym forVast Active Living Intelligence System. Later, Dick theorized that VALIS was both a \"reality generator\" and a means of", "and a means of extraterrestrial communication. A fourth VALIS manuscript,Radio Free Albemuth, although composed in 1976, was posthumously published in 1985. This work is described by the publisher (Arbor House) as \"an introduction and key to his magnificent VALIS trilogy\". Regardless of the feeling that he was somehow experiencing a divine communication, Dick was never fully able to rationalize the events. For the rest of his life, he struggled to comprehend what was occurring, questioning his own sanity and perception of reality. He transcribed what thoughts he could into an eight-thousand-page, one-million-wordjournaldubbed theExegesis. From 1974 until his death in 1982, Dick spent many nights writing in this journal. A recurring theme inExegesisis Dick's hypothesis that history had been stopped in the first century AD, and that \"theEmpirenever ended\". He saw Rome as the pinnacle ofmaterialismanddespotism, which, after forcing theGnosticsunderground, had kept the population of Earth enslaved to worldly", "enslaved to worldly possessions. Dick believed that VALIS had communicated with him, and anonymously others, to induce theimpeachmentof U.S. PresidentRichard Nixon, whom Dick believed to be the current Emperor of Rome incarnate. In a 1968 essay titled \"Self Portrait\", collected in the 1995 bookThe Shifting Realities of Philip K. Dick, Dick reflects on his work and lists which books he feels \"might escape World War Three\":Eye in the Sky,The Man in the High Castle,Martian Time-Slip,Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb,The Zap Gun,The Penultimate Truth,The Simulacra,The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch(which he refers to as \"the most vital of them all\"),Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, andUbik.In a 1976 interview, Dick citedA Scanner Darklyas his best work, feeling that he \"had finally written a true masterpiece, after 25 years of writing\". Adaptations Films Several of Dick's stories have been made into films. Dick himself wrote a screenplay for an intended film adaptation ofUbikin 1974, but", "ofUbikin 1974, but the film was never made. Many film adaptations have not used Dick's original titles. When asked why this was, Dick's ex-wife Tessa said, \"Actually, the books rarely carry Phil's original titles, as the editors usually wrote new titles after reading his manuscripts. Phil often commented that he couldn't write good titles. If he could, he would have been an advertising writer instead of a novelist.\"Films based on Dick's writing had accumulated a total revenue of over US$1 billion by 2009. Future films based on Dick's writing include a film adaptation ofUbikwhich, according to Dick's daughter, Isa Dick Hackett, is in advanced negotiation.Ubik was set to be made into a film byMichel Gondry.In 2014, however, Gondry told French outlet Telerama (via Jeux Actu), that he was no longer working on the project.In November 2021, it was announced thatFrancis Lawrencewill direct a film adaptation ofVulcan's Hammer, with Lawrence's about:blank production company, alongsideNew Republic PicturesandElectric", "PicturesandElectric Shepherd Productions, producing. An animated adaptation ofThe King of the ElvesfromWalt Disney Animation Studioswas in production and was set to be released in the spring of 2016 but it was cancelled following multiple creative problems. TheTerminatorseries prominently features the theme of humanoid assassination machines first portrayed inSecond Variety.The Halcyon Company, known for developing theTerminatorfranchise, acquiredright of first refusalto film adaptations of the works of Philip K. Dick in 2007. In May 2009, they announced plans for an adaptation ofFlow My Tears, the Policeman Said. Television It was reported in 2010 that Ridley Scott would produce anadaptationofThe Man in the High Castlefor the BBC, in the form of a miniseries.A pilot episode was released onAmazon Prime Videoin January 2015 and season 1 was fully released in ten episodes of about 60 minutes each on November 20, 2015.Premiering in January 2015, the pilot was Amazon's \"most-watched since the original series", "the original series development program began.\" The next month Amazon ordered episodes to fill out a ten-episode season, which was released in November, to positive reviews. A second season of ten episodes premiered in December 2016, and a third season was released on October 5, 2018. The fourth and final season premiered on November 15, 2019. In late 2015,FoxairedMinority Report, a television series sequel adaptation to the2002 film of the same namebased on Dick's short story \"The Minority Report\" (1956). The show was cancelled after one 10-episode season. In May 2016, it was announced that a 10-partanthology serieswas in the works. TitledPhilip K. Dick's Electric Dreams, the series was distributed bySony Pictures Televisionand premiered onChannel 4in the United Kingdom and Amazon Prime Video in the United States.It was written by executive producersRonald D. MooreandMichael Dinner, with executive input from Dick's daughterIsa Dick Hackett, and starsBryan Cranston, also an executive producer. Stage and", "producer. Stage and radio Four of Dick's works have been adapted for the stage. One was the operaVALIS, composed and withlibrettobyTod Machover, which premiered at thePompidou Centerin Parison December 1, 1987, with a French libretto. It was subsequently revised and readapted into English, and was recorded and released on CD (Bridge Records BCD9007) in 1988. Another wasFlow My Tears, the Policeman Said, adapted by Linda Hartinian and produced by the New York-based avant-garde companyMabou Mines. It premiered in Boston at the Boston Shakespeare Theatre (June 18–30, 1985) and was subsequently staged in New York and Chicago. Productions ofFlow My Tears, the Policeman Saidwere also staged by the Evidence Roomin Los Angeles in 1999and by the Fifth Column Theatre Company at theOval House Theatrein London in the same year. A play based onRadio Free Albemuthalso had a brief run in the 1980s. In November 2010, a production ofDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, adapted byEdward Einhorn, premiered at the 3LD Art and", "at the 3LD Art and Technology Center in Manhattan. A radio drama adaptation of Dick's short story \"Mr. Spaceship\" was aired by the Finnish Broadcasting Company (Yleisradio) in 1996 under the nameMenolippu Paratiisiin. Radio dramatizations of Dick's short storiesColonyandThe Defenderswere aired byNBCin 1956 as part of the seriesX Minus One. In January 2006, a theatre adaptation ofThe Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch(English forTrzy stygmaty Palmera Eldritcha) premiered in Stary Teatr inKraków, with an extensive use of lights and laser choreography. In June 2014, the BBC broadcast a two-part adaptation ofDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?onBBC Radio 4, starringJames Purefoyas Rick Deckard. Comics Marvel Comicsadapted Dick's short story \"The Electric Ant\" as alimited serieswhich was released in 2009. The comic was produced by writerDavid Mack(Daredevil) and artist Pascal Alixe (Ultimate X-Men), with covers provided by artistPaul Pope.\"The Electric Ant\" had earlier been loosely adapted by Frank Miller and", "by Frank Miller and Geof Darrow in their 3-issue mini-seriesHard Boiledpublished byDark Horse Comicsin 1990–1992. In 2009, BOOM! Studios started publishing a 24-issue miniseries comic book adaptation ofDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?Blade Runner, the 1982 film adapted fromDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, had previously been adapted to comics asA Marvel Comics Super Special: Blade Runner. In 2011, Dynamite Entertainment published a four-issue miniseriesTotal Recall, a sequel to the 1990 filmTotal Recall, inspired by Philip K. Dick's short story \"We Can Remember It for You Wholesale\".In 1990,DC Comicspublished the official adaptation of the original film as aDC Movie Special: Total Recall. Alternative formats In response to a 1975 request from theNational Library for the Blindfor permission to make use ofThe Man in the High Castle, Dick responded, \"I also grant you a general permission to transcribe any of my former, present or future work, so indeed you can add my name to your 'general permission'", "permission' list.\"Some of his books and stories are available inbrailleand other specialized formats through the NLS. As of December 2012, thirteen of Philip K. Dick's early works in thepublic domainin the United States are available in ebook form fromProject Gutenberg. As of December 2019,Wikisourcehas three of Philip K. Dick's early works in the public domain in the United States available in ebook form which is not from Project Gutenberg. Influence and legacy Lawrence Sutinwrote a 1989 biography of Dick, titledDivine Invasions: A Life of Philip K. Dick. In 1993, French writerEmmanuel CarrèrepublishedI Am Alive and You Are Dead: A Journey into the Mind of Philip K. Dick(French:Je suis vivant et vous êtes morts), which the author describes in his preface in this way: The book you hold in your hands is a very peculiar book. I have tried to depict the life of Philip K. Dick from the inside, in other words, with the same freedom and empathy – indeed with the same truth – with which he depicted his own", "he depicted his own characters. The book omits fact checking, sourcing, notes and index.It can be considered anon-fiction novelabout his life. Dick has influenced many writers, includingJonathan LethemandUrsula K. Le Guin. The prominent literary criticFredric Jamesonproclaimed Dick the \"Shakespeareof Science Fiction\", and praised his work as \"one of the most powerful expressions of the society ofspectacleand pseudo-event\".The authorRoberto Bolañoalso praised Dick, describing him as \"Thoreauplus the death of theAmerican dream\".Dick has also influenced filmmakers, his work being compared to films such asthe Wachowskis'The Matrix,David Cronenberg'sVideodrome,eXistenZ,andSpider,Spike Jonze'sBeing John Malkovich,Adaptation,Michel Gondry'sEternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind,Alex Proyas'sDark City,Peter Weir'sThe Truman Show,Andrew Niccol'sGattaca,In Time,Terry Gilliam's12 Monkeys,Alejandro Amenábar'sOpen Your Eyes,David Fincher'sFight Club,Cameron Crowe'sVanilla Sky,Darren Aronofsky'sPi,Richard Kelly'sDonnie", "Kelly'sDonnie DarkoandSouthland Tales,Rian Johnson'sLooper,Duncan Jones'Source Code,Christopher Nolan'sMementoandInception,andOwen Dennis'Infinity Train The Philip K. Dick Society was an organization dedicated to promoting the literary works of Dick and was led by Dick's longtime friend and music journalistPaul Williams. Williams also served as Dick'sliterary executorfor several years after Dick's death and wrote one of the first biographies of Dick, entitledOnly Apparently Real: The World of Philip K. Dick. The Philip K. Dick estate owns and operates the production company Electric Shepherd Productions,which has produced the filmThe Adjustment Bureau(2011), the TV seriesThe Man in the High Castleand also aMarvel Comics5-issue adaptation ofElectric Ant. Dick was recreated by his fans in the form of asimulacrumor remote-controlledandroiddesigned in his likeness.Such simulacra had been themes of many of Dick's works. The Philip K. Dick simulacrum was included on a discussion panel in aSan Diego Comic", "in aSan Diego Comic Conpresentation about the film adaptation of the novel,A Scanner Darkly. In February 2006, anAmerica West Airlinesemployee misplaced the android's head, and it has not yet been found.In January 2011, it was announced that Hanson Robotics had built a replacement. Film In fiction Music Radio Theater Contemporary philosophy Postmodernistssuch asJean Baudrillard,Fredric Jameson,Laurence RickelsandSlavoj Žižekhave commented on Dick's writing's foreshadowing of postmodernity.Jean Baudrillard offers this interpretation: \"It is hyperreal. It is a universe of simulation, which is something altogether different. And this is so not because Dick speaks specifically of simulacra. SF has always done so, but it has always played upon the double, on artificial replication or imaginary duplication, whereas here the double has disappeared. There is no more double; one is always already in the other world, an other world which is not another, without mirrors or projection or utopias as means for reflection.", "for reflection. The simulation is impassable, unsurpassable, checkmated, without exteriority. We can no longer move 'through the mirror' to the other side, as we could during the golden age of transcendence.\" For his anti-government skepticism, Philip K. Dick was afforded minor mention inMythmakers and Lawbreakers, a collection of interviews about fiction by anarchist authors. Noting his early authorship ofThe Last of the Masters, an anarchist-themed novelette, authorMargaret Killjoyexpressed that while Dick never fully sided withanarchism, his opposition to governmentcentralizationandorganized religionhas influencedanarchist interpretations of gnosticism. Video games Awards and honors TheScience Fiction Hall of Fameinducted Dick in 2005. During his lifetime he received numerous annual literary awards and nominations for particular works. Philip K. Dick Award The Philip K. Dick Award is ascience fiction awardthat annually recognizes the previous year's best SFpaperback originalpublished in the U.S.It is", "in the U.S.It is conferred atNorwescon, sponsored by thePhiladelphia Science Fiction Society, and since 2005 supported by the Philip K. Dick Trust. Winning works are identified on their covers asBest Original SF Paperback. It is currently administered by, John Silbersack, andGordon Van Gelder. The award was inaugurated in 1983, the year after Dick's death. It was founded byThomas Dischwith assistance fromDavid G. Hartwell,Paul S. Williams, andCharles N. Brown. Past administrators include Algis J. Budrys and David Alexander Smith. See also Bibliography Primary bibliography Secondary bibliography References External links", "The Transmigration of Timothy Archer The Transmigration of Timothy Archeris a 1982 novel by American writerPhilip K. Dick. As his final work, the book was published shortly after his death in March 1982, although it was written the previous year. The novel draws on autobiographical details of Dick's friendship with the controversialEpiscopalbishopJames Pike, on whom the title character is loosely based. It continues Dick's investigation into the religious and philosophical themes ofVALIS. The novel was nominated for theNebula AwardforBest Novelin 1982. Plot Set in the late 1960s and 1970s, the story describes the efforts ofEpiscopalbishop Timothy Archer, who must cope with thetheologicalandphilosophicalimplications of the newly discoveredGnosticZadokitescroll fragments. The character of Bishop Archer is loosely based on the controversial, iconoclastic Episcopal bishopJames Pike, who in 1969 died of exposure while exploring theJudean Desertnear theDead Seain theWest Bank. As the novel opens, it is 1980. On the", "it is 1980. On the day thatJohn Lennonis shot and killed, Angel Archer visits thehouseboatof Edgar Barefoot, (agurubased onAlan Watts), and reflects on the lives of her deceased relatives. During the sixties, she was married to Jeff Archer, son of theEpiscopalBishop of California Timothy Archer. She introduced Kirsten Lundborg, a friend, to her father-in law, and the two began an affair. Kirsten has a son, Bill, from a previous relationship, who hasschizophrenia, although he is knowledgeable as anautomobilemechanic. Tim is already being investigated for his allegedlyhereticalviews about theHoly Ghost. Jeff commitssuicidedue to his romantic obsession with Kirsten. However, afterpoltergeistactivity, he manifests to Tim and Kirsten at aseance, also attended by Angel. Angel is skeptical about the efficacy ofastrology, and believes that the unfoldingexistentialsituation of Tim and Kirsten is akin toFriedrich Schiller'sGermanRomanticismera masterpiece, theWallenstein trilogy(insofar as their credulity reflects the", "reflects the loss of rational belief in contemporary consensual reality). The three are told that Kirsten and Tim will die. As predicted, Kirsten loses herremissionfromcancer, and also commits suicide after abarbiturateoverdose. Tim travels toIsraelto investigate whether or not apsychotropicmushroomwas associated with theresurrection, but his car stalls, he becomes disoriented, falls from a cliff, and dies in thedesert. On the houseboat, Angel is reunited with Bill, Kirsten's son who hasschizophrenia. He claims to have Tim's reincarnated spirit within him, but is soon institutionalized. Angel agrees to care for Bill, in return for a rare record (Koto MusicbyKimio Eto) that Edgar offers her. The Transmigration of Timothy Archeris one of Dick's most overtly philosophical and intellectual works. While Dick's novels usually employmultiple narratorsor an omniscient perspective, this story is told in thefirst personby a single narrator: Angel Archer, Bishop Archer's daughter-in-law. Characters Other works The", "Other works The Transmigration of Timothy Archeris thematically related to Dick's unfinishedVALIS trilogyof novels: The novel has been included in several omnibus editions of the trilogy as a stand-in for the unwritten final volume.The Transmigration of Timothy Archerwas not intended by Dick to be part of the trilogy; however, the book fits with the two finished volumes and Dick himself called the three novels a trilogy, saying \"the three do form a trilogy constellating around a basic theme.\" The book was originally titledBishop Timothy Archer. Criticism See also References External links" ]
The Sikh empire's capital at the time of the Battle of Sobraon came under the rule of the British Crown in what year?
1858
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sobraon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahore
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_Province_(British_India)
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Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sobraon', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahore', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_Province_(British_India)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sobraon", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahore", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_Province_(British_India" ]
[ "Battle of Sobraon TheBattle of Sobraonwas fought on 10 February 1846, between the forces of theEast India Companyand theSikh Khalsa Army, the army of the decliningSikh Empireof thePunjab.The Sikhs were completely defeated, making this the decisive battle of theFirst Anglo-Sikh War. Background The First Anglo-Sikh war began in late 1845, after a combination of increasing disorder in the Sikh empire following the death ofRanjit Singhin 1839 and provocations by the British East India Company led to theSikh Khalsa Armyinvading British territory. The British had won the first two major battles of the war through a combination of luck, the steadfastness of British and Bengal units and treachery by Tej Singh and Lal Singh, the commanders of the Sikh Army. On the British side, the Governor General, SirHenry Hardinge, had been dismayed by the head-on tactics of the Bengal Army's commander-in-chief, SirHugh Gough, and was seeking to have him removed from command. However, no commander senior enough to supersede Gough could arrive from England for several months. Then the army's spirits were revived by the victory gained by SirHarry Smithat theBattle of Aliwal, in which he eliminated a threat to the army's lines of communication, and the arrival of reinforcements including much-needed heavy artillery and two battalions ofGurkhas. The Sikhs had been temporarily dismayed by their defeat at theBattle of Ferozeshah, and had withdrawn most of their forces across theSutlej River. The RegentJind Kaurwho was ruling in the name of her son, the infant MaharajaDuleep Singh, had accused 500 of her officers of cowardice, even flinging one of her garments in their faces. The Khalsa had been reinforced from districts west ofLahore, and now moved in strength into a bridgehead across the Sutlej at Sobraon, entrenching and fortifying their encampment. Any wavering after their earlier defeats was dispelled by the presence of the respected veteran leader,Sham Singh Attariwala. Unfortunately for the Khalsa, Tej Singh and Lal Singh retained the overall direction of the Sikh armies. Also, their position at Sobraon was linked to the west, Punjabi, bank of the river by a single vulnerable pontoon bridge. Three days' continuous rain before the battle had swollen the river and threatened to carry away this bridge. The battle Gough had intended to attack the Sikh army as soon as Smith's division rejoined fromLudhiana, but Hardinge forced him to wait until a heavy artillery train had arrived. At last, he moved forward early on 10 February. The start of the battle was delayed by heavy fog, but as it lifted, 35 British heavy guns and howitzers opened fire. The Sikh cannon replied. The bombardment went on for two hours without much effect on the Sikh defences. Gough was told that his heavy guns were running short of ammunition and is alleged to have replied, \"Thank God! Then I'll be at them with the bayonet.\" Two British divisions under Harry Smithand Major GeneralSir Walter Gilbertmade feint attacks on the Sikh left, while another division under Major GeneralRobert Henry Dickmade the main attack on the Sikh right, where the defences were of soft sand and were lower and weaker than the rest of the line. (It is believed that Lal Singh had supplied this information to MajorHenry Lawrence, the Political Agent at Gough's headquarters.) Nevertheless, Dick's division was driven back by Sikh counter-attacks after initially gaining footholds within the Sikh lines. Dick himself was killed. As the British fell back, some frenzied Sikh soldiers attacked British wounded left in the ditch in front of the entrenchments, enraging the British soldiers. The British, Gurkhas and Bengal regiments renewed their attacks along the entire front of the entrenchment, and broke through at several points. On the vulnerable Sikh right, engineers blew a breach in the fortifications and British cavalry and horse artillery pushed through it to engage the Sikhs in the centre of their position. Tej Singh had left the battlefield early. It is alleged in many Sikh accounts that he deliberately weakened the pontoon bridge, casting loose the boat at its centre, or that he ordered his own artillery on the west bank to fire on the bridge on the pretext of preventing British pursuit. British accounts claim that the bridge, having been weakened by the swollen river, simply broke under the weight of the numbers of soldiers trying to retreat across it. Whichever account is correct, the bridge broke, trapping nearly 20,000 of theSikh Khalsa Armyon the east bank. None of the trapped Sikh soldiers attempted to surrender. Many detachments, including one led by Sham Singh Attariwala, fought to the death.Some Sikhs rushed forward to attack the British regiments sword in hand; others tried to ford or swim the river. British horse artillery lined the bank of the river and continued to fire into the crowds in the water. By the time the firing ceased, the Sikhs had lost between 8,000 and 10,000 men.The British had also captured 67 guns. Aftermath The destruction of the bridge did not delay Gough at all, if this had indeed been Tej Singh's intention. The first British units began to cross the river on the evening of the day of battle, and on 13 February, Gough's army was only 30 miles (48 km) from Lahore, the Sikh empire's capital. Although detachments of the Khalsa remained intact in outlying frontier districts of the Punjab, they could not be concentrated quickly enough to defend Lahore. The centraldurbarof the Punjab nominatedGulab Singh, the effective ruler ofJammu, to negotiate terms for surrender. By theTreaty of Lahore, the Sikhs ceded the valuable agricultural lands of theBist Doab (Jullundur Doab)(between theBeasandSutlej Rivers) to the East India Company, and allowed a British Resident at Lahore with subordinates in other principal cities. These Residents and Agents would indirectly govern the Punjab, through SikhSardars. In addition, the Sikhs were to pay an indemnity of 1.2 million pounds. Since they could not readily find this sum, Gulab Singh was allowed to acquireKashmirfrom the Punjab by paying 750,000 pounds to the East India Company. Order of battle British regiments British Indian Army regiments Monument A monument was erected on the battle site atRhodawalain 1868.Photographs of the monument Folklore and personal accounts Several years after the battle, Gough wrote, \"The awful slaughter, confusion and dismay were such as would have excited compassion in the hearts of their generous conquerors, if the Khalsa troops had not, in the early part of the action, sullied their gallantry by slaughtering and barbarously mangling every wounded soldier whom, in the vicissitudes of attack, the fortune of war left at their mercy.\" After hearing of the battle, the wife of Sham Singh Attariwalaimmolatedherself on a funeral pyre without waiting for news of her husband, convinced (correctly) that he would never return alive from such a defeat. Some accounts state thatLal Singhwas present on the battlefield, and accompaniedTej Singhon his retreat. Other sources maintain that he commanded a large body ofgorchurras(irregular cavalry) which was some miles away, and took no action against Gough's army although he might have attacked Gough's communications. A long-standing friendship between the10th (Lincolnshire) Regimentand29th (Worcestershire) Regimentwas cemented at the battle when their two battalions met in the captured trenches that had cost so many lives to take. For many years afterwards, it was the custom that sergeants and officers were honorary members of each other's messes and the adjutants of the two regiments addressed each other as 'My Dear Cousin' in official correspondence Popular culture The battle provides the climax forGeorge MacDonald Fraser's novel,Flashman and the Mountain of Light.It is mentioned inRudyard Kipling'sStalky & Co See also References Bibliography External links", "Lahore Lahore(/ləˈhɔːr/lə-HOR;Punjabi:لہور;Urdu:لاہورⓘ) is the capital and largest city of thePakistani provinceofPunjab. It is thesecond largestcity inPakistan, afterKarachi, and 26thlargest in the world, with a population of over 13 million.Located in central-eastern Punjab, along theRiver Ravi, it is the largestPunjabi-speakingcity in the world. Lahore is one of Pakistan's major industrial, educational and economic hubs.It has been the historic capital and cultural centre of the widerPunjab region,and is one of Pakistan's mostsocially liberal,progressive,andcosmopolitancities. Lahore's origin dates back to antiquity. The city has been inhabited for around twomillennia, although it rose to prominence in the late 10th century with the establishment of the fortifiedWalled City.Lahore served as the capital of several empires during the medieval era, including theHindu Shahis,GhaznavidsandDelhi Sultanate. It succeededMultanas the primary cultural centre of Punjab in thelate-medieval era, reaching the height of its splendor under theMughal Empirebetween the late 16th and early 18th centuries and also serving as its capital city between 1586 and 1598. During this period, it was one of the largest cities in the world. The city was captured and lootedby the forces of the PersianAfsharidrulerNader Shahin 1739. Although Mughal authority was briefly re-established, it fell into a period of decline and nominal control with frequent raids and invasions byAfghansandMarathas. After the official end of Mughal rule andAfghan–Maratha Warin Punjab, the city became heavily contested among the Afghans and thelocal Punjabi statesbetween1748 and 1798. The Afghans were eventually driven out of Punjab as the city was captured by theSukerchakia Misl, based inGujranwala, underRanjit Singhin July 1799 where he was crowned theMaharajaof Punjab, thus Lahore became the capital of theSikh Empirein the early 19th century, regaining some of its lost grandeur. In the aftermath of theSecond Anglo-Sikh War, Punjab was annexed by theEast India Companyin 1849 and Lahore became the capital ofBritish Punjab.Lahore was central to the independence movements of both India and Pakistan, with the city being the site of both theDeclaration of Indian Independenceand theresolution calling for the establishment of Pakistan. It experienced some of the worst rioting during thepartitionperiod, preceding Pakistan's independence.Following the establishment of Pakistan in 1947, Lahore served as the capital ofWest Punjabfrom 1947 to 1955, and ofWest Pakistanfrom 1955 to 1970. Primarily inhabited by ethnicPunjabis, Lahore exerts a strong cultural and political influence over Pakistan.A UNESCOCity of Literatureand major centre for Pakistan's publishing industry, Lahore remains the foremost center of Pakistan's literary scene. The city is also a major centre of education sector,with some of Pakistan's leading universities based in the city.Lahore is home to Pakistan'sPunjabi film industry, and is a major centre ofQawwalimusic.The city also hosts much ofPakistan's tourist industry,with major attractions including theWalled City, the famousBadshahiandWazir Khanmosques, as well as severalSikhandSufishrines. Lahore is also home to theLahore FortandShalimar Gardens, both of which areUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites. Etymology The origin of Lahore's name is unclear. The city's name has been variously recorded by early Muslim historians asLuhawar,Lūhār, andRahwar.TheIranianpolymathandgeographer,Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni, referred to the city asLuhāwarin his 11th century work,Qanun,while the poetAmir Khusrow, who lived during theDelhi Sultanateperiod, recorded the city's name asLāhanūr.Yaqut al-Hamawirecords the city's name asLawhūr, mentioning that it was famously known asLahāwar.Persian historianFirishtamentions the city asAlahwarin his work, withal-Ahwarbeing another variation. One theory suggests that Lahore's name is a corruption of the wordRavāwar,as R to L shifts are common in languages derived fromSanskrit.Ravāwaris the simplified pronunciation of the nameIravatyāwar,a name possibly derived from theRavi River, known as the Iravati River in theVedas.Another theory suggests the city's name may derive from the wordLohar, meaning \"blacksmith\". According to a legend,Lahore's name derives fromLavpurorLavapuri(City ofLava),and is said to have been founded by Prince Lava,the son ofSitaandRama. The same account attributes the founding of nearbyKasurto his twin brotherKusha,though it was actually established in the 16th century. History Taank Kingdom550–950Hindu Shahis1001–1020Ghaznavid Empire1020–1186Ghurid Empire1186–1206Delhi Sultanate1206–1214Multan State1214–1217Delhi Sultanate1217–1223Khwarazmian Empire1223–1228Delhi Sultanate1228–1241Mongol Empire1241– 1266Delhi Sultanate1266–1287Mongol Empire1287–1305Delhi Sultanate1305–1329Chagatai Khanate1329Delhi Sultanate1329–1342Khokhars1342Delhi Sultanate1342–1394Khokhars1394–1398Timurid Empire1398–1414Delhi Sultanate1414–1431Khokhars1431–1432Delhi Sultanate1432–1524Mughal Empire1524–1540Suri Empire1540–1550Mughal Empire1550–1739Afsharid Empire1739Mughal Empire1739–1748Durrani Empire1748–1758Nawab of Punjab1758Maratha Empire1758–1759Durrani Empire1759–1765Bhangi Misl&Kanhaiya Misl1765–1799Sikh Empire1799–1846British East India Company1846–1858British Raj/British Empire1858–1947Pakistan1947– present Origins No definitive record of Lahore's early history exists, and its ambiguous historical background has given rise to various theories about its establishment and history. Hindu legend states that Keneksen, the founder of theSolar dynasty, migrated out from the city. Alexander the Great's historians make no mention of any city near Lahore's location during his invasion in 326 BCE, suggesting the city had not been founded by that point or was not noteworthy.Ptolemymentions in hisGeographya city calledLaboklasituated near theChenabandRavi riverswhich may have been in reference to ancient Lahore, or an abandoned predecessor of the city.Chinese pilgrimXuanzanggave a vivid description of a large and prosperous unnamed city that may have been Lahore when he visited the region in 630 CE during his tour of India.Xuanzang described the city, then underTaankrule, as a greatBrahmincity. The first document that mentions Lahore by name is theHudud al-'Alam(\"The Regions of the World\"), written in 982 CE,in which Lahore is mentioned as a town which had \"impressive temples, large markets and huge orchards\". Lahore, previously a town, first emerged as a notable city in 11th century during the era ofSufisaintAli al-Hajvery.Few other references to Lahore remain from before its capture by theGhaznavidSultanMahmudin the 11th century. During this time, Lahore appears to have served as the capital of Punjab under RajaAnandapalaof theÜdi Shahiempire, who moved his capital there from Waihind. Medieval era Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud conquered Lahore between 1020 and 1027, making it part of Ghaznavid Empire.He appointedMalik Ayazas its governor in 1021. In 1034, the city was captured by Nialtigin, the rebellious governor ofMultan. However, his forces were expelled by Malik Ayaz in 1036. With the support of SultanIbrahim, Malik Ayaz rebuilt and repopulated the city, which had been devastated after the Ghaznavid invasion. He also erected city walls and a masonry fort was built in 1037–1040 on the ruins of a previous one.A confederation of Hindu princes unsuccessfully laid siege to Lahore in 1043–44 during Ayaz's rule.The city became a cultural and academic centre, renowned forpoetry. Lahore was formally made the eastern capital of Ghaznavid Empire during the reign ofKhusrau Shahin 1152.After the fall of Ghazni in 1163, It became the sole capital.Under their patronage, poets and scholars from other cities of Ghaznavid Empire congregated in Lahore.The entire city of Lahore during the medieval Ghaznavid era was probably located west of the modernShah Alami Bazaarand north of theBhatti Gate. Mamluk Following theSiege of Lahorein 1186, theGhuridrulerMuhammadcaptured the city and imprisoned the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik,thus ending Ghaznavid rule over Lahore. Lahore was made an important establishment of theMamluk dynastyof theDelhi Sultanatefollowing the assassination of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206. Under the reign of Mamluk sultanQutb ud-Din Aibak, Lahore attracted poets and scholars from medievalMuslim World. Lahore at this time had more poets writing in Persian than any other city.Following the death of Aibak, Lahore first came under the control of the Governor of Multan,Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, and then was briefly captured in 1217 by the sultan in Delhi,Iltutmish. In an alliance with localKhokharsin 1223,KhwarazmiansultanJalal al-Din Mangburnicaptured Lahore after fleeing fromGenghis Khan's invasion of his realm.Mangburni then fled from Lahore to the city ofUch Sharifafter Iltutmish's army re-captured Lahore in 1228. The threat of Mongol invasions and political instability in Lahore caused future sultans to regard Delhi as a safer capital for the sultanate,even though Delhi was considered a forward base whereas Lahore was widely considered as the centre of Islamic culture in northeastern Punjab. Lahore came under progressively weaker central rule under Iltutmish's descendants in Delhi, to the point that governors in the city acted with great autonomy.Under the rule of Kabir Khan Ayaz, Lahore was virtually independent from the Delhi Sultanate. Actual Sultanate rule on Lahore lasted only a few decades until the locals reclaimed their autonomy.Lahore was sacked and ruined by the Mongol army in 1241.Lahore governor Malik Ikhtyaruddin Qaraqash fled the Mongols,while the Mongols held the city for a few years under the rule of the Mongol chiefToghrul. In 1266, sultanBalbanreconquered Lahore, but in 1287 under the Mongol rulerTemür Khan,the Mongols again overran northern Punjab. Because of Mongol invasions, Lahore region became a city on a frontier, with the region's administrative centre shifted south toDipalpur.The Mongols again invaded northern Punjabin 1298, though their advance was eventually stopped byUlugh Khan, brother of SultanAlauddin Khaljiof Delhi.The Mongols again attacked Lahore in 1305. Tughluq Lahore briefly flourished again under the reign ofGhiyath al-Din Tughlaq(Ghazi Malik) of theTughluq dynastybetween 1320 and 1325, though the city was again sacked in 1329 byTarmashirinof the Central AsianChagatai Khanate, and then again by the Mongol chief Hülechü.Khokhars seized Lahore in 1342,but the city was retaken by Ghazi Malik's son,Muhammad bin Tughluq.The weakened city then fell into obscurity and was captured once more by the Khokhar chief,Shaikhain 1394.By the time the Mongol conquerorTimurcaptured the city in 1398 from Shaikha, he did not loot it because it was no longer wealthy. Late Sultanates Timur gave control of the Lahore region toKhizr Khan, governor of Multan, who later established theSayyid dynastyin 1414 – the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.The city was twice besieged byJasrat, ruler ofSialkot, during the reign ofMubarak Shah, the longest of which being in 1431–32.To combat Jasrat, the city was granted by the Sayyid dynasty toBahlul Lodiin 1441, though Lodi would then displace the Sayyids in 1451 by establishing himself upon the throne of Delhi. Bahlul Lodi installed his cousin, Tatar Khan, to be governor of the city, though Tatar Khan died in battle withSikandar Lodiin 1485.Governorship of Lahore was transferred by Sikandar Lodi to Umar Khan Sarwani, who quickly left the management of this city to his son Said Khan Sarwani. Said Khan was removed from power in 1500 by Sikandar Lodi, and Lahore came under the governorship ofDaulat Khan Lodi, son of Tatar Khan and former employer ofGuru Nanak(the founder ofSikhism). Mughals Early Mughal Babur, the founder of theMughal Empire, captured and sacked Lahore and Dipalpur, although he retreated after the Lodi nobles backed away from assisting him.The city became a refuge toHumayunand his cousinKamran MirzawhenSher Shah Surirose in power in the Gangetic plains, displacing Mughals. Sher Shah Suri seized Lahore in 1540, though Humayun reconquered Lahore in February 1555.The establishment of Mughal rule eventually led to the most prosperous era of Lahore's history.Lahore's prosperity and central position has yielded more Mughal-era monuments in Lahore than eitherDelhiorAgra. By the time of the rule of the Mughal empire's greatest emperors, a majority of Lahore's residents did not live within the walled city itself but instead lived in suburbs that had spread outside the city's walls.Only 9 of the 36 urban quarters around Lahore, known asguzars, were located within the city walls during theAkbarperiod.During this period, Lahore was closely tied to smaller market towns known asqasbahs, such asKasurandEminabad, as well asAmritsar, andBatalain modern-day India, which in turn, linked to supply chains in villages surrounding eachqasbah. Akbar Beginning in 1584, Lahore became the Mughal capital when Akbar began re-fortifying the city's ruined citadel, laying the foundations for the revival of theLahore Fort.Akbar made Lahore one of his original twelvesubahprovinces,and in 1585–86, relegated governorship of the city andsubahtoBhagwant Das, brother ofMariam-uz-Zamani, who was commonly known as \"Jodhabhai\". Akbar also rebuilt the city's walls and extended their perimeter east of the Shah Alami bazaar to encompass the sparsely populated area of Rarra Maidan.The Akbari Mandigrain marketwas set up during this era, which continues to function to the present-day.Akbar also established theDharampuraneighbourhood in the early 1580s, which survives today.The earliest of Lahore's manyhavelisdate from the Akbari era. Lahore's Mughal monuments were built under the reign of Akbar and several subsequent emperors.Lahore reached its cultural zenith during this period, with dozens of mosques, tombs, shrines, and urban infrastructure developed in the city. Jahangir During the reign of EmperorJahangirin the early 17th century, Lahore's bazaars were noted to be vibrant, frequented by foreigners, and stocked with a wide array of goods.In 1606, Jehangir's rebel sonKhusrau Mirzalaid siege to Lahore after obtaining the blessings of the SikhGuru Arjan Dev.Jehangir quickly defeated his son at Bhairowal, and the roots of Mughal–Sikh animosity grew.Sikh Guru Arjan Dev was executed in Lahore in 1606 for his involvement in the rebellion.Emperor Jahangir chose to be buried in Lahore, andhis tombwas built in Lahore'sShahdara Baghsuburb in 1637 by his wifeNur Jahan,whose tombis also nearby. Shah Jahan Jahangir's son,Shah Jahan(reigned 1628–1658), was born in Lahore in 1592. He renovated large portions of theLahore Fortwith luxurious white marble and erected the iconicNaulakha Pavilionin 1633.Shah Jahan lavished Lahore with some of its most celebrated and iconic monuments, such as theShahi Hammamin 1635, and both theShalimar Gardensand the extravagantly decoratedWazir Khan Mosquein 1641. The population of pre-modern Lahore probably reached its zenith during his reign, with suburban districts home to perhaps 6 times as many compared to within theWalled City. Aurangzeb Shah Jahan's son,Aurangzeb, last of the great Mughal Emperors, further contributed to the development of Lahore. Aurangzeb built the Alamgiri Bund embankment along the Ravi river in 1662 in order to prevent its shifting course from threatening the city's walls.The area near the embankment grew into a fashionable locality, with several nearby pleasure gardens laid by Lahore's gentry.The largest of Lahore's Mughal monuments, theBadshahi Mosque, was raised during Aurangzeb's reign in 1673, as well as the iconic Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore fort in 1674. Late Mughal Civil wars regarding succession to the Mughal throne following Aurangzeb's death in 1707 led to weakening control over Lahore from Delhi, and a prolonged period of decline in Lahore.Mughal preoccupation with theMarathasin theDeccan Plateaueventually resulted in Lahore being governed by a series of governors who pledged nominal allegiance to the ever-weaker Mughal emperors in Delhi. Mughal EmperorBahadur Shah Idied en route to Lahore as part of a campaign in 1711 to subdue Sikh rebels under the leadership ofBanda Singh Bahadur.His sons fought a battle outside Lahore in 1712 for succession to the Mughal crown, withJahandarwinning the throne.Sikh rebels were defeated during the reign ofFarrukhsiyarwhen Abd as-Samad and Zakariyya Khan suppressed them. Nader Shah's brief invasion of the Mughal Empirein early 1739wrested control away fromZakariya Khan Bahadur. Though Khan was able to win back control after the Persian armies had left,the trade routes had shifted away from Lahore, and south towardsKandaharinstead.Indus ports near the Arabian Sea that served Lahore also silted up during this time, reducing the city's importance even further. Struggles between Zakariyya Khan's sons following his death in 1745 further weakened Muslim control over Lahore, thus leaving the city in a power vacuum, and vulnerable to foreign marauders. Durrani invasions TheDurranirulerAhmad Shahoccupied Lahorein 1748.Following Ahmed Shah Durrani's quick retreat, the Mughals entrusted Lahore to Mu’īn al-MulkMir Mannu.Ahmad Shah again invaded in 1751, forcing Mir Mannu into signing a treaty that nominally subjected Lahore to Durrani rule.Lahore was third time conquered by Ahmad Shahin 1752. The MughalGrand VizierGhazi-Din Imad al-Mulk seized Lahore in 1756, provoking Ahmad Shah to invade for fourth time in 1757, after which he placed the city under the rule of his son,Timur Shah. Durrani rule was interrupted when Lahore was conquered byAdina BegArainwith the assistance of Marathas in 1758 during theircampaigns against Afghans.After Adina Beg's untimely death in 1758, however,Marathasoccupied the city. The following year, Durranis again marched and conquered it.After the Durranis withdrew from the city in 1765, Sikh forces quickly occupied it.By this time, the city had been ravaged several time and had lost all of its former grandeur. The Durranis invaded two more times—in 1797 and 1798—underShah Zaman, but the Sikhs re-occupied the city after both invasions. Sikh Early Expanding SikhMislssecured control over Lahore in 1767, when theBhangi Mislstate captured the city.In 1780, the city was divided among three rulers:Gujjar Singh, Lahna Singh, andSobha Singh. Instability resulting from this arrangement allowed nearbyAmritsarto establish itself as the area's primary commercial centre in place of Lahore. Ahmad Shah Durrani's grandson, Zaman Shah, invaded Lahore in 1796, and again in 1798–99.Ranjit Singhnegotiated with the Afghans for the post ofsubahdarto control Lahore following the second invasion. By the end of the 18th century, the city's population drastically declined, with its remaining residents living within the city walls, while the extramural suburbs lay abandoned, forcing travellers to pass through abandoned and ruined suburbs for a few miles before reaching the city's gates. Sikh Empire In the aftermath of Zaman Shah's 1799 invasion of Punjab, Ranjit Singh, of nearbyGujranwala, began to consolidate his position. Singh was able to seize control of the region after a series of battles with the Bhangi chiefs who had seized Lahore in 1780.His army marched to Anarkali, where according to legend, the gatekeeper of theLohari Gate, Mukham Din Chaudhry, opened the gates allowing Ranjit Singh's army to enter Lahore.After capturing Lahore, Sikh soldiers immediately began plundering Muslim areas of the city until their actions were reined in by Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh's rule restored some of Lahore's lost grandeur, but at the expense of destroying the remaining Mughal architecture for building materials.He established a mint in the city in 1800,and moved into the Mughal palace at the Lahore fort after repurposing it for his own use in governing the Sikh Empire.In 1801, he established aGurdwara Ram Dasto mark the site whereGuru Ram Daswas born in 1534. Lahore became the empire's administrative capital, though the nearby economic centre of Amritsar had also been established as the empire's spiritual capital by 1802.By 1812, Singh had mostly refurbished the city's defences by adding a second circuit of outer walls surrounding Akbar's original walls, with the two separated by a moat. Singh also partially restored Shah Jahan's decayingShalimar Gardensand built theHazuri Bagh Baradariin 1818 to celebrate his capture of theKoh-i-Noordiamond fromShuja Shah Durraniin 1813.He erected theGurdwara Dera Sahibto mark the site ofGuru Arjan Dev's death (1606). The Sikh royal court also endowed religious architecture in the city, including a number of Sikhgurdwaras, Hindu temples, andhavelis. While much of Lahore's Mughal-era fabric lay in ruins by the time of his arrival, Ranjit Singh's rule saw the re-establishment of Lahore's glory, though the Mughal monuments suffered during the Sikh period. Singh's armies plundered most of Lahore's most precious Mughal monuments, and stripped the white marble from several monuments to send to different parts of the Sikh Empire during his reign.Monuments plundered for decorative materials include the Tomb of Asif Khan, the Tomb of Nur Jahan, and the Shalimar Gardens.Ranjit Singh's army also desecrated the Badshahi Mosque by converting it into an ammunition depot and a stable for horses.TheSunehri Mosquein the Walled City was also converted to a gurdwara,while the Mariyam Zamani Mosque was repurposed into a gunpowder factory. Late The Sikh royal court (Lahore Durbar) underwent a quick succession of rulers after the death of Ranjit Singh. His sonKharak Singhdied on 6 November 1840, soon after taking the throne. On that same day, the next appointed successor to the throne,Nau Nihal Singh, died in an accident at the gardens of Hazuri Bagh.MaharajaSher Singhwas then selected as Maharajah, though his claim to the throne was quickly challenged byChand Kaur, widow of Kharak Singh and mother of Nau Nihal Singh, who quickly seized the throne.Sher Singh raised an army that attacked Chand Kaur's forces in Lahore on 14 January 1841. His soldiers mounted weaponry on the minarets of the Badshahi Mosque in order to target Chand Kaur's forces in the Lahore fort, destroying the fort's historicDiwan-e-Aam.Kaur quickly ceded the throne, but Sher Sing was then assassinated in 1843 in Lahore'sChah Miranneighbourhood along with his wazir Dhiyan Singh.Dhyan Singh's son, Hira Singh, sought to avenge his father's death by laying siege to Lahore in order to capture his father's assassins. The siege resulted in the capture of his father's murderer, Ajit Singh.Duleep Singhwas then crowned Maharajah, with Hira Singh as hiswazir, but his power would be weakened by the continued infighting among Sikh nobles,as well as confrontations against the British during the twoAnglo-Sikh wars. After the conclusion of the two Anglo-Sikh wars, the Sikh Empire fell into disarray, resulting in the fall of theLahore Durbar, and commencement of British rule after they captured Lahore and the wider Punjab region. British colonial period TheBritish East India Companyseized control of Lahore in February 1846 from the collapsing Sikh state and occupied the rest of Punjab in 1848.Following the defeat of the Sikhs at theBattle of Gujrat, British troops formally deposed Maharaja Duleep Singh in Lahore that same year.Punjab was then annexed to the British Indian Empire in 1849. At the commencement of British rule, Lahore was estimated to have apopulationof 120,000.Prior to annexation by the British, Lahore's environs consisted mostly of theWalled Citysurrounded by plains interrupted by settlements to the south and east, such asMozangandQila Gujar Singh, which have since been engulfed by modern Lahore. The plains between the settlements also contained the remains of Mughal gardens, tombs, and Sikh-era military structures. The British viewed Lahore's Walled City as a bed of potential social discontent and disease epidemics, and so largely left the inner city alone, while focusing development efforts in Lahore's suburban areas and Punjab's fertile countryside.The British instead laid out their capital city in an area south of the Walled City that would first come to be known as \"Donald's Town\" before being renamed \"Civil Station\". Under early British rule, formerly prominent Mughal-era monuments that were scattered throughout Civil Station were also re-purposed and sometimes desecrated – including theTomb of Anarkali, which the British had initially converted to clerical offices before re-purposing it as anAnglicanchurch in 1851.The 17th-centuryDai Anga Mosquewas converted into railway administration offices during this time, the tomb of Nawab Bahadur Khan was converted into a storehouse, and the tomb of Mir Mannu was used as a wine shop.The British also used older structures to house municipal offices, such as the Civil Secretariat, Public Works Department, and Accountant General's Office. The British built theLahore Railway Stationjust outside the Walled City shortly after theSepoy Mutiny of 1857; the station was therefore styled as a medieval castle to ward off any potential future uprisings, with thick walls, turrets, and holes to direct gun and cannon fire for the defence of the structure.Lahore's most prominent government institutions and commercial enterprises came to be concentrated in Civil Station in a half-mile wide area flankingThe Mall, where unlike in Lahore's military zone, the British and locals were allowed to mix.The Mall continues to serve as the epicentre of Lahore's civil administration, as well as one of its most fashionable commercial areas. The British also laid the spaciousLahore Cantonmentto the southeast of the Walled City at the former village of Mian Mir, where unlike around The Mall, laws did exist against the mixing of different races. Lahore was visited on 9 February 1870 byPrince Alfred,Duke of Edinburgh– a visit in which he received delegations from theDograsofJammu, Maharajas ofPatiala, the Nawab ofBahawalpur, and other rulers from various Punjabi states.During the visit, he visited several of Lahore's major sights.British authorities built several important structures around the time of theGolden Jubilee of Queen Victoria(1887) in the distinctiveIndo-Saracenic style, including theLahore MuseumandMayo School of Industrial Arts. The British carried out a census of Lahore in 1901, and counted 20,691 houses in the Walled City.An estimated 200,000 people lived in Lahore at this time.Lahore's poshModel Townwas established as a \"garden town\" suburb in 1921, whileKrishan Nagarlocality was laid in the 1930s near The Mall and Walled City. Lahore played an important role in the independence movements of both Indiaand Pakistan. TheDeclaration of the Independence of Indiawas moved byJawaharlal Nehruand passed unanimously at midnight on 31 December 1929 at Lahore'sBradlaugh Hall.The IndianSwarajflagwas adopted this time as well. Lahore's jail was used by the British to imprison independence activists such asJatin Das, and was also whereBhagat Singhwas hanged in 1931.Under the leadership ofMuhammad Ali Jinnah, theAll India Muslim Leaguepassed theLahore Resolutionin 1940, demanding the creation of Pakistan as a separate homeland for the Muslims of India. Partition The 1941 census showed that city of Lahore had a population of 671,659, of which was 64.5% Muslim, with the remainder 35% being Hindu and Sikh, alongside a small Christian community.The population figure was disputed by Hindus and Sikhs before the Boundary Commission that would draw theRadcliffe Lineto demarcate the border of the two new states based on religious demography.In a bid to have Lahore awarded to India, they argued that the city was only 54% Muslim, and that Hindu and Sikh domination of the city's economy and educational institutions should trump Muslim demography.Two-thirds of shops, and 80% of Lahore's factories belonged to the Hindu and Sikh community.Kuldip Nayyar claimed thatCyril Radcliffehad told him in 1971 that he originally had planned to give Lahore to the newDominion of India,but decided to place it within theDominion of Pakistan, which he saw as lacking a major city as he had already awardedCalcuttato India. As tensions grew over the city's uncertain fate, Lahore experiencedPartition's worst riots.Carnage ensued in which all three religious groups were both victims and perpetrators.Early riots in March and April 1947 destroyed 6,000 of Lahore's 82,000 homes.Violence continued to rise throughout the summer, despite the presence of armoured British personnel.Hindus and Sikhs began to leave the cityen masseas their hopes that the Boundary Commission would award the city to India came to be regarded as increasingly unlikely. By late August 1947, 66% of Hindus and Sikhs had left the city.The Shah Alami Bazaar, once a largely Hindu quarter of theWalled City, was entirely burnt down during subsequent rioting. When Pakistan's independence was declared on 14 August 1947, the Radcliffe Line had not yet been announced, and so cries of \"Long live Pakistan\" and \"God is greatest\" were heard intermittently with \"Long liveHindustan\" throughout the night.On 17 August 1947, Lahore was awarded to Pakistan on the basis of its Muslim majority in the 1941 census and was made capital of thePunjabprovince in the new state of Pakistan. The city's location near the Indian border meant that it received large numbers of refugees fleeing eastern Punjab and northern India, though it was able to accommodate them given the large stock of abandoned Hindu and Sikh properties that could be re-distributed to newly arrived refugees. Modern Partitionleft Lahore with a much-weakened economy, and a stymied social and cultural scene that had previously been invigorated by the city's Hindus and Sikhs.Industrial production dropped to one-third of pre-Partition level by the end of the 1940s, and only 27% of its manufacturing units were operating by 1950, and usually well-below capacity.Capital flightfurther weakened the city's economy whileKarachiindustrialized and became more prosperous. The city's weakened economy, and proximity to the Indian border, meant that the city was deemed unsuitable to be the Pakistani capital after independence.Karachiwas therefore chosen to be the capital on account of its relative tranquility during the Partition period, stronger economy, and better infrastructure. After independence, Lahore slowly regained its significance as an economic and cultural centre of western Punjab. Reconstruction began in 1949 of the Shah Alami Bazaar, the former commercial heart of the Walled City until it was destroyed in the 1947 riots.TheTomb of Allama Iqbalwas built in 1951 to honour the philosopher-poet who provided the spiritual inspiration for the Pakistan movement.In 1955, Lahore was selected to be the capital of allWest Pakistanduring the single-unit period that lasted until 1970.Shortly afterwards, Lahore's iconicMinar-e-Pakistanwas completed in 1968 to mark the spot where thePakistan Resolutionwas passed.With support from theUnited Nations, thegovernmentwas able to rebuild Lahore, and most scars from the communal violence of Partition were ameliorated. The secondIslamic Summit Conferencewas held in the city in 1974.In retaliation for the destruction of theBabri Masjidin India, riots erupted in 1992 in which several non-Muslim monuments were targeted, including the tomb of MaharajaSher Singh,and the former Jain temple near The Mall. In 1996, theInternational Cricket CouncilCricket World Cupfinal match was held at theGaddafi Stadiumin Lahore. TheWalled City of Lahorerestoration project began in 2009, when the Punjab government restored the Royal Trail fromAkbari Gateto theLahore Fortwith money from theWorld Bank. Geography Lahore is in northeastern portion of Pakistan, lying between 31°15′—31°45′ N and 74°01′—74°39′ E. The city is bounded on the north and west by theSheikhupura District, on the east byWagah, and on the south byKasur District. TheRavi Riverflows on the northern side of Lahore. Lahore city covers a total land area of 404 square kilometres (156 sq mi). Climate Lahore has ahot semi-arid climate(Köppen climate classificationBSh), bordering on a humid subtropical climate. The hottest month is June, where temperatures routinely exceed 45 °C (113 °F). The monsoon season starts in late June, and the wettest months are July, August and September.with heavy rainfalls and evening thunderstorms with the possibility of cloudbursts and flash floods. The coolest month is January, with dense fog. The city's record high temperature was 50.4 °C (122.7 °F), recorded on 5 June 2003.On 10 June 2007, a temperature of 48 °C (118 °F) was recorded;this was in the shade, and the meteorological office recording the figure reported a heat index in direct sunlight of 55 °C (131 °F).The highest rainfall in a 24-hour period is 337 millimetres (13.3 in), recorded on 01 August 2024. Demographics Population The results of the2017 Censusdetermined the population of Lahore to be 11,126,285,with an annual growth rate of 4.07% since1998.Gender-wise, 52.35% of the population are male, 47.64% are female, and 0.01% are transgender.Lahore is a demographically young city, with over 40% of its inhabitants below the age of 15. Tribes and backgrounds in theLahore district Tribes and background At the time of the2017 Pakistani census, the largest tribal group wereArain Punjabis, constituting 40%, followed byPunjabi Kashmirisat 30% with other groups such asRajputPunjabisandKamboh Punjabisat 5% each. Controversy about the city's Pashtun population SomePashtun nationalistparties argue that thePashtunpopulation of Lahore in the 2017 census has been underestimated, with Ameer Bahadur Khan, provincial general secretary ofAwami National Party, putting their numbers at 1.5 million, while Gul Muhammad Regwal, a member ofPakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party, claiming more than 1 million including 300,000 in theWalled Cityalone, most of these having moved over the last 20 years, including due to military operations, but remaining uncounted as they're not considered permanent residents of Lahore. Religion According to the 2023 Census, the vast majority of Lahore's population areMuslims(95.26%), up from 94.7% in 2017. Other religions includeChristians(4.64%, slightly less than 5.14% in 2017)and small numbers ofAhmadis,Baháʼís,Hindus,Parsis, andSikhs. There is also a small but longstandingZoroastriancommunity. Since Lahore contains some ofSikhism's holiest sites, it is a major pilgrimage destination for Sikhs.Lahore's first church was built during the reign of EmperorAkbarin the late 16th century, but was then leveled byShah Jahanin 1632.Due to the few numbers of Hindus living in Lahore, the only two functional Hindu temples in the city are theShri Krishna Mandirand theValmiki Mandir. Languages Languages by number of native speakers in theLahore district ThePunjabi languageis the most-widely spoken native language in Lahore, with 73.58% of Lahore counting it as their first language according to the 2023 Census.Lahore is the largest Punjabi-speaking city in the world. According to the2023 Pakistani census21.1% speakUrdu, 2.06%Pashto, 2.01%Mewatiand 2.78% other mother tongues. Urduand English are used as official languages and as mediums of instruction and media administration. However, Punjabi is also taught at graduation level and used in theatres, films, and newspapers from Lahore.Several Lahore-based prominent educational leaders, researchers, and social commentators have demanded that the Punjabi language should be declared as the medium of instruction at the primary level and be used officially in thePunjab Assembly, Lahore. Cityscape Old City Lahore's modern cityscape consists of the historicWalled City of Lahorein the northern part of the city, which contains severalWorld Heritage Sitesand national heritage sites. Lahore's urban planning was not based on geometric design but was instead built piecemeal, with small cul-de-sacs, askatrahsandgalisdeveloped in the context of neighbouring buildings.Though certain neighbourhoods were named for particular religious or ethnic communities, the neighbourhoods themselves typically were diverse and were not dominated by the namesake group. Lahore's urban typology is similar to other ancient cities in South Asia, such asPeshawar,MultanandDelhi– all of which were founded near a major river, and included an old walled city and royal citadel. By the end of the Sikh rule, most of Lahore's massivehavelicompounds had been occupied by settlers. New neighbourhoods occasionally grew up entirely within the confines of an old Mughal haveli, such as the Mohallah Pathan Wali, which grew within the ruins of a haveli of the same name, built by Mian Khan.By 1831, all Mughal Havelis in the Walled City had been encroached upon by the surrounding neighbourhood,leading to the modern-day absence of any Mughal Havelis in Lahore. A total of thirteen gates once surrounded the historic walled city. Some of the remaining gates include the Raushnai Gate, Masti Gate, Yakki Gate, Kashmiri Gate, Khizri Gate, Shah Burj Gate, Akbari Gate, and Lahori Gate. Southeast of the walled city is the spacious British-eraLahore Cantonment. Architecture Lahore is home to numerous monuments from theMughal Dynasty,Sikh Empire, and theBritish Indian Raj. The architectural style of theWalled City of Lahorehas traditionally been influenced by Mughal and Sikh styles. Sikh period By the arrival of the Sikh Empire at the end of the 18th century, Lahore had decayed from its former glory as the Mughal capital. Rebuilding efforts under Ranjit Singh and his successors were influenced by Mughal practices, and Lahore was known as the 'City of Gardens' during the Ranjit Singh period.Later, British maps of the area surrounding Lahore dating from the mid-19th century show many walled private gardens which were confiscated from the Muslim noble families bearing the names of prominent Sikh nobles – a pattern of patronage which was inherited from the Mughals. While much of Lahore's Mughal-era fabric lay in ruins by the time of his arrival, Ranjit Singh's army's plundered most of Lahore's most precious Mughal monuments, and stripped the white marble from several monuments to send to different parts of the Sikh Empire.Monuments plundered of their marble include theTomb of Asif Khanand theTomb of Nur Jahan; theShalimar Gardenswas plundered of much of its marble, and its costlyagategate was stripped.The Sikh state also demolished a number of shrines and monuments laying outside the city's walls. Still, Sikh rule left Lahore with several monuments, and a heavily altered Lahore Fort. Ranjit Singh's rule restored some of Lahore's previous grandeur,and the city was left with a large number of religious monuments from this period. Several havelis were built during this era, though only a few still remain. British period As the capital of British Punjab, the city derived much of its architecture from British colonialists. Structures were built predominantly in theIndo-Gothicstyle – a syncretic architectural style that blends elements ofVictorianandIslamic architectureo r in the distinctIndo-Saracenic style. The British also builtneoclassicalMontgomery Hall, which today serves as theQuaid-e-Azam Library. Lawrence Gardenswere also laid near Civil Station, and were paid for by donations solicited from both Lahore's European community, as well as from wealthy locals. The gardens featured over 600 species of plants, and were tended to by a horticulturist sent from London'sRoyal Botanic Gardens at Kew. The leafy suburbs to the south of the Old City, as well as the Cantonment southwest of the Old City, were largely developed under British colonial rule, and feature colonial-era buildings built alongside leafy avenues. The British authorities built several important structures around the time of theGolden Jubilee of Queen Victoriain 1887 in the distinctive Indo-Saracenic style, such as theLahore MuseumandMayo School of Industrial Arts.Other prominent examples of the Indo-Saracenic style in Lahore include Lahore's prestigiousAitchison College, the Punjab Chief Court (today theLahore High Court),Lahore Museum, and theUniversity of the Punjab. Many of Lahore's most important buildings were designed by civil engineer and architectSir Ganga Ram, who is considered \"the father of modern Lahore\". Parks and gardens Lahore is also known as \"the city of gardens\" due to its large number of gardens. TheShahdara Baghwas one of the earliestMughal gardens, laid out in 15th century, and contains theTomb of Jahangir. TheShalimar Gardenswere laid out during the reign ofShah Jahanand were designed to mimic theIslamicparadise of the afterlife described in theQur'an. The gardens follow the familiarcharbaghlayout of four squares, with three descending terraces. In 1818,Hazuri Baghwas built during reign of Ranjit Singh to celebrate his capture of theKoh-i-Noordiamond from Shuja Shah Durrani. TheLawrence Gardenwas established in 1862 and was originally named afterSir John Lawrence, late 19th-century British Viceroy to India. The Circular Garden, which surrounds the Walled City on three sides, was established by 1892.The former parade ground adjacent to Badshahi Mosque was also renamed during the British era asMinto Park, which after restoration was re-established as Iqbal Park. The many other gardens and parks in the city includeHazuri Bagh,Iqbal Park, Mochi Bagh,Gulshan-e-Iqbal Park,Model Town Park,Jilani Park, Nasir Bagh Lahore,Jallo Park,Lahore Zoo Safari Park, andChanga Manga, a human-made forest near Lahore in theKasurdistrict. Another example is theBagh-e-Jinnah, a 141-acre (57 ha) botanical garden that houses entertainment and sports facilities as well as a library. Economy As of 2008, the city's gross domestic product (GDP) bypurchasing power parity(PPP) was estimated at $40 billion with a projected average growth rate of 5.6 percent. This is on par with Karachi, Pakistan's economic hub, with Lahore (having half the population) fostering an economy that is 51% of the size of Karachi's ($78 billion in 2008).It is estimated that Lahore contributes 11.5% to the national economy, and 19% to the provincial economy of Punjab.As a whole, Punjab has a $115 billion economy, making it the first (and to date,only) Pakistani Subdivision with an economy of more than $100 billion, at the rank 144.Lahore's GDP is projected to be $102 billion by 2025, with a slightly higher growth rate of 5.6% per annum, as compared to Karachi's 5.5%. A major industrial agglomeration with about 9,000 industrial units, Lahore has shifted in recent decades from manufacturing to service industries.Some 42% of its workforce is employed in finance, banking, real estate, community, cultural, and social services.The city is Pakistan's largest software and hardware producing centre,and hosts a growing computer-assembly industry.The city has always been a centre for publications; 80% of Pakistan's books are published in Lahore, and it remains the foremost centre of literary, educational, and cultural activity in Pakistan. TheLahore Expo Centreis one of the biggest projects in the history of the city and was inaugurated on 22 May 2010.Defense Raya Golf Resort, also under construction, will be Pakistan's and Asia's largest golf course. The project is the result of a partnership between DHA Lahore and BRDB Malaysia. The rapid development of large projects such as these in the city is expected to boost the economy of the country.Ferozepur Road of theCentral business districtsof Lahore contains high-rises and skyscrapers including Kayre International Hotel andArfa Software Technology Park. Transport Public transportation Lahore's main public transportation system is operated by theLahore Transport Company(LTC) and Punjab Mass Transit Authority (PMTA). The backbone of its public transport network is the PMTA'sLahore Metrobusand theOrange Lineof theLahore Metrotrain. LTC and PMTA also operates an extensive network of buses, providing bus service to many parts of the city and acting as a feeder system for the Metrobus. The Orange Line metro spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi) around the city and operates at a speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). Metrobus TheLahore Metrobusis abus rapid transitservice operating in Lahore,Punjab, Pakistan.Lahore Metrobus service is integrated withLahore Transport Company's local bus service to operate as one urban transport system, providing a connected transit service acrossLahore Districtwith connections to neighboring suburban communities. Low occupancy vehicles Low occupancy vehicle (LOVs)—functionally a medium-sized van or wagon—run on routes throughout the city. They function like buses and operate on many routes throughout the city. Metro Train Orange Line TheOrange Line Metro Trainis an automatedrapid transitsystem in Lahore.The Orange line is the first of the three proposed rail lines proposed for theLahore Metro. As of 2020, it is the primary metro rail line in the city. The line spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi), with 25.4 km (15.8 mi) elevated and 1.72 km (1.1 mi) underground,and had a cost of 251.06 billionrupees($1.6 billion). The line consists of 26 subway stations (Ali Town Station to Dera Gujran Station) and is designed to carry over 250,000 passengers daily.CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotiverolled out the first of 27 trains for the metro on 16 May 2017.The train has speed up to 80 km/h (50 mph). For improved durability, itsbogiesare heat-resistant, can manage unstable voltage, and feature energy-saving air-conditioning.Successful initial test trials were run in mid-2018,and commercial operations began on 25 October 2020. Blue Line The Blue Line is a proposed 24 kilometres (15 mi) line from Chauburji to College Road Township. Along the way, it will connect places like Mozang Chungi, Shadman Chowk, Jail Road, Mian Boulevard Gulberg, Mian Boulevard Garden Town, and Faisal Town. Purple Line The Purple Line is a proposed 19 kilometres (12 mi) line from Bhaati Chowk to the Allama Iqbal International Airport. Along the way, it will connect places like Brandreth Road, Railway Station, Allama Iqbal Road, Dharampura, and Ghazi Road. Taxi and rickshaw Ride-sharing services such asUberandCareemare available in the city. Motorcycle rides are also available in the city, which have been introduced by private companies. Auto rickshawsplay an important role of public transport in Lahore. As of 2019, there were approximately 82,000 auto rickshaws and 65,000 motorcycle rickshaws in the city.Motorcycle rickshaws, usually calledchingchi(after the Chinese company Jinan Qingqi Motorcycle Co. Ltd, who first introduced these to the market)orchand gari('moon car')are cheaper than auto rickshaws and provide a shared ride experience for multiple passengers and fares, whereas auto rickshaws cater to only one passenger or group for a fare.Since 2002, all auto rickshaws have been required to usecompressed natural gasas fuel,and all-electric rickshaws were introduced in 2023. Intercity transportation Railways Lahore Junction Stationserves as the main railway station for Lahore, and serves as a major hub for allPakistan Railwaysservices inNorthern Pakistan. It includes services toPeshawarand the national capital metropolitan area ofIslamabad–Rawalpindi, and long-distance services toKarachiandQuetta.Lahore Cantonment Stationalso operates a few trains. Buses Lahore Badami Bagh Bus Terminal(known colloquially as \"Lari Adda\") serves as a hub for intercity bus services in Lahore, served by multiple bus companies providing a comprehensive network of services in Punjab and neighbouring provinces.Lahore Jinnah Bus Terminalis also a major bus stand in southern Lahore. Apart from these stations, multiple privately owned bus transportation companies operate from Band Road (referred to colloquially as Chowk Yateem Khana), offering intercity transport at varying fares and comfort levels. Airports Pakistan's third busiest airport,Allama Iqbal International Airport(IATA: LHE), straddles the city's eastern boundary. The new passenger terminal was opened in 2003, replacing the old terminal which now serves as a VIP and Hajj lounge. The airport was named after the national poet-philosopher,Muhammad Iqbal,and is a secondary hub for the national carrier,Pakistan International Airlines.Walton Airportin Askari neighbourhood providesgeneral aviationfacilities.Sialkot International Airport(IATA: SKT) andFaisalabad International Airport(IATA: LYP) also serve as alternate airports for the Lahore area, in addition to serving their respective cities. Allama Iqbal International Airport connects Lahore with many cities worldwide (including domestic destinations) by both passenger and cargo flight includingRas al Khaimah,Guangzhou(begins 28 August 2018),Ürümqi,Abu Dhabi,Barcelona,Beijing–Capital,Copenhagen,Dammam,Dera Ghazi Khan,Doha,Dubai–International,Islamabad,Jeddah,Karachi,Kuala Lumpur–International,London–Heathrow,Manchester,Medina,Milan–Malpensa,Multan,Muscat,Oslo–Gardermoen,Paris–Charles de Gaulle,Peshawar,Quetta,Rahim Yar Khan,Riyadh,Salalah,Tokyo–Narita,Toronto–Pearson,Mashhad,Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi, andTashkent. Roads There are a number of municipal, provincial and federalroadsthat serve Lahore. Government Metropolitan Corporation Under Punjab Local Government Act 2013, Lahore is ametropolitan areaunder the authority of the Metropolitan Corporation Lahore.The Metropolitan Corporation Lahore is a body consisting of nine deputy mayors (one from each zone in the district) and the city's mayor – all of whom are elected in popular elections. The Metropolitan Corporation approves zoning and land use, coordinates urban design and planning, sets environmental protection laws, and provides municipal services. Mayor As per the Punjab Local Government Act 2013, theMayor of Lahoreis the elected head of the Metropolitan Corporation of Lahore. The mayor is directly elected in municipal elections every four years alongside 9 deputytownmayors. Mubashir Javed of thePakistan Muslim League (N)was elected mayor of Lahore in 2016. The mayor is responsible for the administration of government services, the composition of councils and committees overseeingLahore City Districtdepartments and serves as the chairperson for the meeting of the Lahore Council. The mayor also functions to help devise long-term development plans in consultation with other stakeholders and bodies to improve the condition, livability, and sustainability of urban areas. Neighbourhoods Lahore Districtis a subdivision of the Punjab, and is further divided into 9 administrative zones.Each town in turn consists of a group of union councils, of which there are 274 total. Politics The 2015 local government elections forUnion Councilsin Lahore yielded the following results: Festivals The people of Lahorecelebrate many festivalsand events throughout the year, including Islamic, traditional Punjabi, Christian, and national holidays and festivals. Many people decorate their houses and light candles to illuminate the streets and houses during public holidays; roads and businesses may be lit for days. Many of Lahore's dozens ofSufishrines hold annual festivals calledursto honour their respective saints. For example, the mausoleum ofAli Hujwiriat theData Darbarshrine has an annualursthat attracts up to one million visitors per year.The popularMela Chiraghanfestival in Lahore takes place at the shrine ofMadho Lal Hussain, while other largeurstake place at the shrines ofBibi Pak Daman, and at theShrine of Mian Mir.Eid ul-FitrandEid ul-Adhaare celebrated in the city with public buildings and shopping centers decorated in lights. The people of Lahore also commemorate the martyrdom ofImam HusainatKarbalawith massive processions that take place during the first ten days of the month ofMuharram. Basantis a traditionalPunjabifestival that marks the coming of spring. Basant celebrations in Pakistan are centred in Lahore, and people from all over the country and abroad come to the city for the annual festivities.Kite-flying competitions traditionally take place on city rooftops during Basant, while theLahore Canalis decorated with floating lanterns. Courts have banned kite-flying because of casualties and power installation losses. The ban was lifted for two days in 2007, then immediately reimposed when 11 people were killed bycelebratory gunfire, sharp kite-strings, electrocution, and falls related to the competition. Lahore's churches are elaborately decorated forChristmasandEastercelebrations.Shopping centers and public buildings also feature Christmas installations to celebrate the holiday, even though Christians only constitute 3% of the total population of Lahore in 2016. Tourism Lahore remains a major tourist destination in Pakistan. TheWalled City of Lahorewas renovated in 2014 and is popular due to the presence ofUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.Among the most popular sights are theLahore Fort, adjacent to the Walled City, and home to theSheesh Mahal, theAlamgiri Gate, theNaulakha pavilion, and theMoti Masjid. The fort and adjoiningShalimar Gardenshave been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1981. The city is home to several ancient religious sites, including prominent Hindu temples: theKrishna TempleandValmiki Mandir. TheSamadhi of Ranjit Singh, also located near the Walled City, houses thefunerary urnsof theSikhrulerMaharaja Ranjit Singh. The most prominent religious building is theBadshahi Mosque, constructed in 1673; it was the largest mosque in the world upon construction. Another popular sight is theWazir Khan Mosque,constructed in 1635 and known for its extensivefaiencetile work. Cuisine Religious sites Well-known religious sites in the city include: Museums Tombs Shrines Samadhis Havelis There are manyhavelisinside the Walled City of Lahore, some in good condition while others need urgent attention. Many of these havelis are fine examples ofMughalandSikharchitecture. Some of the havelis inside the Walled City include: Other landmarks Historic neighbourhoods Education Lahore is known as Pakistan's educational capital,with more colleges and universities than any other city in Pakistan. The literacy rate of Lahore is 74%. The city is Pakistan's largest producer of professionals in the fields of science, technology, IT, law, engineering, medicine, nuclear sciences, pharmacology, telecommunication, biotechnology, microelectronics, and nanotechnology, and has the only future hyper high-tech centerin Pakistan.Most of the reputable universities are public, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge in the number of private universities. Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) is the onlyAACSBaccredited business school in Pakistan. Lahore hosts some of Pakistan's oldest and best educational institutes, including: Notable people Sports Lahore has successfully hosted many international sports events, including the finals of the1990 Men's Hockey World Cupand the1996 Cricket World Cup. The headquarters of all major sports governing bodies in Pakistan are located in Lahore, including cricket, hockey, rugby, and football.Lahore is also home to the head office of thePakistan Olympic Association. Gaddafi Stadiumis aTest cricket groundin Lahore. It was completed in 1959, and renovations were carried out by Pakistani architectNayyar Ali Dadain the 1990s. The multi purposePunjab Stadiumlocated near the headquarters of thePakistan Football Federation, is mainly used forfootballmatches and has hosted several events includingAFC President's CupandFIFA World Cup qualifiers. Lahore is home to severalgolfcourses, including theLahore Gymkhana Golf Course, the Lahore Garrison Golf and Country Club, the Royal Palm Golf Club, and newly built Defence Raya Golf & Country Club. Lake City, a 9-hole course, opened in nearbyRaiwindRoad in 2011. The newly opened Oasis Golf and Aqua Resort is a state-of-the-art resort, featuring golf, water parks, and leisure activities like horse riding and archery. TheLahore Marathonis part of an annual package of six international marathons sponsored byStandard Chartered Bankacross Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. More than 20,000 athletes from Pakistan and all over the world participate in this event. It was first held on 30 January 2005, and again on 29 January 2006. More than 22,000 people participated in the 2006 race. The third marathon was held on 14 January 2007.Plans exist to build Pakistan's first sports city in Lahore, on the bank of theRavi River. Twin towns and sister cities The following international cities have been declaredtwin towns and sister citiesof Lahore. Awards In 1966, theGovernment of Pakistanawarded a special flag, theHilal-i-istaqlal, to the cities of Lahore,Sargodha, andSialkotfor showing severe resistance to the enemy during theIndo-Pakistani War of 1965, as these cities were targets of the Indian aggression.Every year onDefence Day(6 September), this flag is hoisted in these cities in recognition of the will, courage, and perseverance of their people. See also Notes References Bibliography External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_Province_(British_India" ]
[ "Battle of Sobraon TheBattle of Sobraonwas fought on 10 February 1846, between the forces of theEast India Companyand theSikh Khalsa Army, the army of the decliningSikh Empireof thePunjab.The Sikhs were completely defeated, making this the decisive battle of theFirst Anglo-Sikh War. Background The First Anglo-Sikh war began in late 1845, after a combination of increasing disorder in the Sikh empire following the death ofRanjit Singhin 1839 and provocations by the British East India Company led to theSikh Khalsa Armyinvading British territory. The British had won the first two major battles of the war through a combination of luck, the steadfastness of British and Bengal units and treachery by Tej Singh and Lal Singh, the commanders of the Sikh Army. On the British side, the Governor General, SirHenry Hardinge, had been dismayed by the head-on tactics of the Bengal Army's commander-in-chief, SirHugh Gough, and was seeking to have him removed from command. However, no commander senior enough to supersede Gough", "to supersede Gough could arrive from England for several months. Then the army's spirits were revived by the victory gained by SirHarry Smithat theBattle of Aliwal, in which he eliminated a threat to the army's lines of communication, and the arrival of reinforcements including much-needed heavy artillery and two battalions ofGurkhas. The Sikhs had been temporarily dismayed by their defeat at theBattle of Ferozeshah, and had withdrawn most of their forces across theSutlej River. The RegentJind Kaurwho was ruling in the name of her son, the infant MaharajaDuleep Singh, had accused 500 of her officers of cowardice, even flinging one of her garments in their faces. The Khalsa had been reinforced from districts west ofLahore, and now moved in strength into a bridgehead across the Sutlej at Sobraon, entrenching and fortifying their encampment. Any wavering after their earlier defeats was dispelled by the presence of the respected veteran leader,Sham Singh Attariwala. Unfortunately for the Khalsa, Tej Singh and", "Tej Singh and Lal Singh retained the overall direction of the Sikh armies. Also, their position at Sobraon was linked to the west, Punjabi, bank of the river by a single vulnerable pontoon bridge. Three days' continuous rain before the battle had swollen the river and threatened to carry away this bridge. The battle Gough had intended to attack the Sikh army as soon as Smith's division rejoined fromLudhiana, but Hardinge forced him to wait until a heavy artillery train had arrived. At last, he moved forward early on 10 February. The start of the battle was delayed by heavy fog, but as it lifted, 35 British heavy guns and howitzers opened fire. The Sikh cannon replied. The bombardment went on for two hours without much effect on the Sikh defences. Gough was told that his heavy guns were running short of ammunition and is alleged to have replied, \"Thank God! Then I'll be at them with the bayonet.\" Two British divisions under Harry Smithand Major GeneralSir Walter Gilbertmade feint attacks on the Sikh left,", "on the Sikh left, while another division under Major GeneralRobert Henry Dickmade the main attack on the Sikh right, where the defences were of soft sand and were lower and weaker than the rest of the line. (It is believed that Lal Singh had supplied this information to MajorHenry Lawrence, the Political Agent at Gough's headquarters.) Nevertheless, Dick's division was driven back by Sikh counter-attacks after initially gaining footholds within the Sikh lines. Dick himself was killed. As the British fell back, some frenzied Sikh soldiers attacked British wounded left in the ditch in front of the entrenchments, enraging the British soldiers. The British, Gurkhas and Bengal regiments renewed their attacks along the entire front of the entrenchment, and broke through at several points. On the vulnerable Sikh right, engineers blew a breach in the fortifications and British cavalry and horse artillery pushed through it to engage the Sikhs in the centre of their position. Tej Singh had left the battlefield early.", "battlefield early. It is alleged in many Sikh accounts that he deliberately weakened the pontoon bridge, casting loose the boat at its centre, or that he ordered his own artillery on the west bank to fire on the bridge on the pretext of preventing British pursuit. British accounts claim that the bridge, having been weakened by the swollen river, simply broke under the weight of the numbers of soldiers trying to retreat across it. Whichever account is correct, the bridge broke, trapping nearly 20,000 of theSikh Khalsa Armyon the east bank. None of the trapped Sikh soldiers attempted to surrender. Many detachments, including one led by Sham Singh Attariwala, fought to the death.Some Sikhs rushed forward to attack the British regiments sword in hand; others tried to ford or swim the river. British horse artillery lined the bank of the river and continued to fire into the crowds in the water. By the time the firing ceased, the Sikhs had lost between 8,000 and 10,000 men.The British had also captured 67 guns.", "captured 67 guns. Aftermath The destruction of the bridge did not delay Gough at all, if this had indeed been Tej Singh's intention. The first British units began to cross the river on the evening of the day of battle, and on 13 February, Gough's army was only 30 miles (48 km) from Lahore, the Sikh empire's capital. Although detachments of the Khalsa remained intact in outlying frontier districts of the Punjab, they could not be concentrated quickly enough to defend Lahore. The centraldurbarof the Punjab nominatedGulab Singh, the effective ruler ofJammu, to negotiate terms for surrender. By theTreaty of Lahore, the Sikhs ceded the valuable agricultural lands of theBist Doab (Jullundur Doab)(between theBeasandSutlej Rivers) to the East India Company, and allowed a British Resident at Lahore with subordinates in other principal cities. These Residents and Agents would indirectly govern the Punjab, through SikhSardars. In addition, the Sikhs were to pay an indemnity of 1.2 million pounds. Since they could not", "they could not readily find this sum, Gulab Singh was allowed to acquireKashmirfrom the Punjab by paying 750,000 pounds to the East India Company. Order of battle British regiments British Indian Army regiments Monument A monument was erected on the battle site atRhodawalain 1868.Photographs of the monument Folklore and personal accounts Several years after the battle, Gough wrote, \"The awful slaughter, confusion and dismay were such as would have excited compassion in the hearts of their generous conquerors, if the Khalsa troops had not, in the early part of the action, sullied their gallantry by slaughtering and barbarously mangling every wounded soldier whom, in the vicissitudes of attack, the fortune of war left at their mercy.\" After hearing of the battle, the wife of Sham Singh Attariwalaimmolatedherself on a funeral pyre without waiting for news of her husband, convinced (correctly) that he would never return alive from such a defeat. Some accounts state thatLal Singhwas present on the battlefield,", "on the battlefield, and accompaniedTej Singhon his retreat. Other sources maintain that he commanded a large body ofgorchurras(irregular cavalry) which was some miles away, and took no action against Gough's army although he might have attacked Gough's communications. A long-standing friendship between the10th (Lincolnshire) Regimentand29th (Worcestershire) Regimentwas cemented at the battle when their two battalions met in the captured trenches that had cost so many lives to take. For many years afterwards, it was the custom that sergeants and officers were honorary members of each other's messes and the adjutants of the two regiments addressed each other as 'My Dear Cousin' in official correspondence Popular culture The battle provides the climax forGeorge MacDonald Fraser's novel,Flashman and the Mountain of Light.It is mentioned inRudyard Kipling'sStalky & Co See also References Bibliography External links", "Lahore Lahore(/ləˈhɔːr/lə-HOR;Punjabi:لہور;Urdu:لاہورⓘ) is the capital and largest city of thePakistani provinceofPunjab. It is thesecond largestcity inPakistan, afterKarachi, and 26thlargest in the world, with a population of over 13 million.Located in central-eastern Punjab, along theRiver Ravi, it is the largestPunjabi-speakingcity in the world. Lahore is one of Pakistan's major industrial, educational and economic hubs.It has been the historic capital and cultural centre of the widerPunjab region,and is one of Pakistan's mostsocially liberal,progressive,andcosmopolitancities. Lahore's origin dates back to antiquity. The city has been inhabited for around twomillennia, although it rose to prominence in the late 10th century with the establishment of the fortifiedWalled City.Lahore served as the capital of several empires during the medieval era, including theHindu Shahis,GhaznavidsandDelhi Sultanate. It succeededMultanas the primary cultural centre of Punjab in thelate-medieval era, reaching the height of", "the height of its splendor under theMughal Empirebetween the late 16th and early 18th centuries and also serving as its capital city between 1586 and 1598. During this period, it was one of the largest cities in the world. The city was captured and lootedby the forces of the PersianAfsharidrulerNader Shahin 1739. Although Mughal authority was briefly re-established, it fell into a period of decline and nominal control with frequent raids and invasions byAfghansandMarathas. After the official end of Mughal rule andAfghan–Maratha Warin Punjab, the city became heavily contested among the Afghans and thelocal Punjabi statesbetween1748 and 1798. The Afghans were eventually driven out of Punjab as the city was captured by theSukerchakia Misl, based inGujranwala, underRanjit Singhin July 1799 where he was crowned theMaharajaof Punjab, thus Lahore became the capital of theSikh Empirein the early 19th century, regaining some of its lost grandeur. In the aftermath of theSecond Anglo-Sikh War, Punjab was annexed by", "was annexed by theEast India Companyin 1849 and Lahore became the capital ofBritish Punjab.Lahore was central to the independence movements of both India and Pakistan, with the city being the site of both theDeclaration of Indian Independenceand theresolution calling for the establishment of Pakistan. It experienced some of the worst rioting during thepartitionperiod, preceding Pakistan's independence.Following the establishment of Pakistan in 1947, Lahore served as the capital ofWest Punjabfrom 1947 to 1955, and ofWest Pakistanfrom 1955 to 1970. Primarily inhabited by ethnicPunjabis, Lahore exerts a strong cultural and political influence over Pakistan.A UNESCOCity of Literatureand major centre for Pakistan's publishing industry, Lahore remains the foremost center of Pakistan's literary scene. The city is also a major centre of education sector,with some of Pakistan's leading universities based in the city.Lahore is home to Pakistan'sPunjabi film industry, and is a major centre ofQawwalimusic.The city also", "city also hosts much ofPakistan's tourist industry,with major attractions including theWalled City, the famousBadshahiandWazir Khanmosques, as well as severalSikhandSufishrines. Lahore is also home to theLahore FortandShalimar Gardens, both of which areUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites. Etymology The origin of Lahore's name is unclear. The city's name has been variously recorded by early Muslim historians asLuhawar,Lūhār, andRahwar.TheIranianpolymathandgeographer,Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni, referred to the city asLuhāwarin his 11th century work,Qanun,while the poetAmir Khusrow, who lived during theDelhi Sultanateperiod, recorded the city's name asLāhanūr.Yaqut al-Hamawirecords the city's name asLawhūr, mentioning that it was famously known asLahāwar.Persian historianFirishtamentions the city asAlahwarin his work, withal-Ahwarbeing another variation. One theory suggests that Lahore's name is a corruption of the wordRavāwar,as R to L shifts are common in languages derived fromSanskrit.Ravāwaris the simplified pronunciation", "pronunciation of the nameIravatyāwar,a name possibly derived from theRavi River, known as the Iravati River in theVedas.Another theory suggests the city's name may derive from the wordLohar, meaning \"blacksmith\". According to a legend,Lahore's name derives fromLavpurorLavapuri(City ofLava),and is said to have been founded by Prince Lava,the son ofSitaandRama. The same account attributes the founding of nearbyKasurto his twin brotherKusha,though it was actually established in the 16th century. History Taank Kingdom550–950Hindu Shahis1001–1020Ghaznavid Empire1020–1186Ghurid Empire1186–1206Delhi Sultanate1206–1214Multan State1214–1217Delhi Sultanate1217–1223Khwarazmian Empire1223–1228Delhi Sultanate1228–1241Mongol Empire1241– 1266Delhi Sultanate1266–1287Mongol Empire1287–1305Delhi Sultanate1305–1329Chagatai Khanate1329Delhi Sultanate1329–1342Khokhars1342Delhi Sultanate1342–1394Khokhars1394–1398Timurid Empire1398–1414Delhi Sultanate1414–1431Khokhars1431–1432Delhi Sultanate1432–1524Mughal Empire1524–1540Suri", "Empire1524–1540Suri Empire1540–1550Mughal Empire1550–1739Afsharid Empire1739Mughal Empire1739–1748Durrani Empire1748–1758Nawab of Punjab1758Maratha Empire1758–1759Durrani Empire1759–1765Bhangi Misl&Kanhaiya Misl1765–1799Sikh Empire1799–1846British East India Company1846–1858British Raj/British Empire1858–1947Pakistan1947– present Origins No definitive record of Lahore's early history exists, and its ambiguous historical background has given rise to various theories about its establishment and history. Hindu legend states that Keneksen, the founder of theSolar dynasty, migrated out from the city. Alexander the Great's historians make no mention of any city near Lahore's location during his invasion in 326 BCE, suggesting the city had not been founded by that point or was not noteworthy.Ptolemymentions in hisGeographya city calledLaboklasituated near theChenabandRavi riverswhich may have been in reference to ancient Lahore, or an abandoned predecessor of the city.Chinese pilgrimXuanzanggave a vivid description", "a vivid description of a large and prosperous unnamed city that may have been Lahore when he visited the region in 630 CE during his tour of India.Xuanzang described the city, then underTaankrule, as a greatBrahmincity. The first document that mentions Lahore by name is theHudud al-'Alam(\"The Regions of the World\"), written in 982 CE,in which Lahore is mentioned as a town which had \"impressive temples, large markets and huge orchards\". Lahore, previously a town, first emerged as a notable city in 11th century during the era ofSufisaintAli al-Hajvery.Few other references to Lahore remain from before its capture by theGhaznavidSultanMahmudin the 11th century. During this time, Lahore appears to have served as the capital of Punjab under RajaAnandapalaof theÜdi Shahiempire, who moved his capital there from Waihind. Medieval era Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud conquered Lahore between 1020 and 1027, making it part of Ghaznavid Empire.He appointedMalik Ayazas its governor in 1021. In 1034, the city was captured by", "was captured by Nialtigin, the rebellious governor ofMultan. However, his forces were expelled by Malik Ayaz in 1036. With the support of SultanIbrahim, Malik Ayaz rebuilt and repopulated the city, which had been devastated after the Ghaznavid invasion. He also erected city walls and a masonry fort was built in 1037–1040 on the ruins of a previous one.A confederation of Hindu princes unsuccessfully laid siege to Lahore in 1043–44 during Ayaz's rule.The city became a cultural and academic centre, renowned forpoetry. Lahore was formally made the eastern capital of Ghaznavid Empire during the reign ofKhusrau Shahin 1152.After the fall of Ghazni in 1163, It became the sole capital.Under their patronage, poets and scholars from other cities of Ghaznavid Empire congregated in Lahore.The entire city of Lahore during the medieval Ghaznavid era was probably located west of the modernShah Alami Bazaarand north of theBhatti Gate. Mamluk Following theSiege of Lahorein 1186, theGhuridrulerMuhammadcaptured the city and", "the city and imprisoned the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik,thus ending Ghaznavid rule over Lahore. Lahore was made an important establishment of theMamluk dynastyof theDelhi Sultanatefollowing the assassination of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206. Under the reign of Mamluk sultanQutb ud-Din Aibak, Lahore attracted poets and scholars from medievalMuslim World. Lahore at this time had more poets writing in Persian than any other city.Following the death of Aibak, Lahore first came under the control of the Governor of Multan,Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, and then was briefly captured in 1217 by the sultan in Delhi,Iltutmish. In an alliance with localKhokharsin 1223,KhwarazmiansultanJalal al-Din Mangburnicaptured Lahore after fleeing fromGenghis Khan's invasion of his realm.Mangburni then fled from Lahore to the city ofUch Sharifafter Iltutmish's army re-captured Lahore in 1228. The threat of Mongol invasions and political instability in Lahore caused future sultans to regard Delhi as a safer capital for the sultanate,even", "the sultanate,even though Delhi was considered a forward base whereas Lahore was widely considered as the centre of Islamic culture in northeastern Punjab. Lahore came under progressively weaker central rule under Iltutmish's descendants in Delhi, to the point that governors in the city acted with great autonomy.Under the rule of Kabir Khan Ayaz, Lahore was virtually independent from the Delhi Sultanate. Actual Sultanate rule on Lahore lasted only a few decades until the locals reclaimed their autonomy.Lahore was sacked and ruined by the Mongol army in 1241.Lahore governor Malik Ikhtyaruddin Qaraqash fled the Mongols,while the Mongols held the city for a few years under the rule of the Mongol chiefToghrul. In 1266, sultanBalbanreconquered Lahore, but in 1287 under the Mongol rulerTemür Khan,the Mongols again overran northern Punjab. Because of Mongol invasions, Lahore region became a city on a frontier, with the region's administrative centre shifted south toDipalpur.The Mongols again invaded northern", "invaded northern Punjabin 1298, though their advance was eventually stopped byUlugh Khan, brother of SultanAlauddin Khaljiof Delhi.The Mongols again attacked Lahore in 1305. Tughluq Lahore briefly flourished again under the reign ofGhiyath al-Din Tughlaq(Ghazi Malik) of theTughluq dynastybetween 1320 and 1325, though the city was again sacked in 1329 byTarmashirinof the Central AsianChagatai Khanate, and then again by the Mongol chief Hülechü.Khokhars seized Lahore in 1342,but the city was retaken by Ghazi Malik's son,Muhammad bin Tughluq.The weakened city then fell into obscurity and was captured once more by the Khokhar chief,Shaikhain 1394.By the time the Mongol conquerorTimurcaptured the city in 1398 from Shaikha, he did not loot it because it was no longer wealthy. Late Sultanates Timur gave control of the Lahore region toKhizr Khan, governor of Multan, who later established theSayyid dynastyin 1414 – the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.The city was twice besieged byJasrat, ruler ofSialkot, during", "ofSialkot, during the reign ofMubarak Shah, the longest of which being in 1431–32.To combat Jasrat, the city was granted by the Sayyid dynasty toBahlul Lodiin 1441, though Lodi would then displace the Sayyids in 1451 by establishing himself upon the throne of Delhi. Bahlul Lodi installed his cousin, Tatar Khan, to be governor of the city, though Tatar Khan died in battle withSikandar Lodiin 1485.Governorship of Lahore was transferred by Sikandar Lodi to Umar Khan Sarwani, who quickly left the management of this city to his son Said Khan Sarwani. Said Khan was removed from power in 1500 by Sikandar Lodi, and Lahore came under the governorship ofDaulat Khan Lodi, son of Tatar Khan and former employer ofGuru Nanak(the founder ofSikhism). Mughals Early Mughal Babur, the founder of theMughal Empire, captured and sacked Lahore and Dipalpur, although he retreated after the Lodi nobles backed away from assisting him.The city became a refuge toHumayunand his cousinKamran MirzawhenSher Shah Surirose in power in the", "in power in the Gangetic plains, displacing Mughals. Sher Shah Suri seized Lahore in 1540, though Humayun reconquered Lahore in February 1555.The establishment of Mughal rule eventually led to the most prosperous era of Lahore's history.Lahore's prosperity and central position has yielded more Mughal-era monuments in Lahore than eitherDelhiorAgra. By the time of the rule of the Mughal empire's greatest emperors, a majority of Lahore's residents did not live within the walled city itself but instead lived in suburbs that had spread outside the city's walls.Only 9 of the 36 urban quarters around Lahore, known asguzars, were located within the city walls during theAkbarperiod.During this period, Lahore was closely tied to smaller market towns known asqasbahs, such asKasurandEminabad, as well asAmritsar, andBatalain modern-day India, which in turn, linked to supply chains in villages surrounding eachqasbah. Akbar Beginning in 1584, Lahore became the Mughal capital when Akbar began re-fortifying the city's ruined", "the city's ruined citadel, laying the foundations for the revival of theLahore Fort.Akbar made Lahore one of his original twelvesubahprovinces,and in 1585–86, relegated governorship of the city andsubahtoBhagwant Das, brother ofMariam-uz-Zamani, who was commonly known as \"Jodhabhai\". Akbar also rebuilt the city's walls and extended their perimeter east of the Shah Alami bazaar to encompass the sparsely populated area of Rarra Maidan.The Akbari Mandigrain marketwas set up during this era, which continues to function to the present-day.Akbar also established theDharampuraneighbourhood in the early 1580s, which survives today.The earliest of Lahore's manyhavelisdate from the Akbari era. Lahore's Mughal monuments were built under the reign of Akbar and several subsequent emperors.Lahore reached its cultural zenith during this period, with dozens of mosques, tombs, shrines, and urban infrastructure developed in the city. Jahangir During the reign of EmperorJahangirin the early 17th century, Lahore's bazaars were", "bazaars were noted to be vibrant, frequented by foreigners, and stocked with a wide array of goods.In 1606, Jehangir's rebel sonKhusrau Mirzalaid siege to Lahore after obtaining the blessings of the SikhGuru Arjan Dev.Jehangir quickly defeated his son at Bhairowal, and the roots of Mughal–Sikh animosity grew.Sikh Guru Arjan Dev was executed in Lahore in 1606 for his involvement in the rebellion.Emperor Jahangir chose to be buried in Lahore, andhis tombwas built in Lahore'sShahdara Baghsuburb in 1637 by his wifeNur Jahan,whose tombis also nearby. Shah Jahan Jahangir's son,Shah Jahan(reigned 1628–1658), was born in Lahore in 1592. He renovated large portions of theLahore Fortwith luxurious white marble and erected the iconicNaulakha Pavilionin 1633.Shah Jahan lavished Lahore with some of its most celebrated and iconic monuments, such as theShahi Hammamin 1635, and both theShalimar Gardensand the extravagantly decoratedWazir Khan Mosquein 1641. The population of pre-modern Lahore probably reached its zenith", "reached its zenith during his reign, with suburban districts home to perhaps 6 times as many compared to within theWalled City. Aurangzeb Shah Jahan's son,Aurangzeb, last of the great Mughal Emperors, further contributed to the development of Lahore. Aurangzeb built the Alamgiri Bund embankment along the Ravi river in 1662 in order to prevent its shifting course from threatening the city's walls.The area near the embankment grew into a fashionable locality, with several nearby pleasure gardens laid by Lahore's gentry.The largest of Lahore's Mughal monuments, theBadshahi Mosque, was raised during Aurangzeb's reign in 1673, as well as the iconic Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore fort in 1674. Late Mughal Civil wars regarding succession to the Mughal throne following Aurangzeb's death in 1707 led to weakening control over Lahore from Delhi, and a prolonged period of decline in Lahore.Mughal preoccupation with theMarathasin theDeccan Plateaueventually resulted in Lahore being governed by a series of governors who", "of governors who pledged nominal allegiance to the ever-weaker Mughal emperors in Delhi. Mughal EmperorBahadur Shah Idied en route to Lahore as part of a campaign in 1711 to subdue Sikh rebels under the leadership ofBanda Singh Bahadur.His sons fought a battle outside Lahore in 1712 for succession to the Mughal crown, withJahandarwinning the throne.Sikh rebels were defeated during the reign ofFarrukhsiyarwhen Abd as-Samad and Zakariyya Khan suppressed them. Nader Shah's brief invasion of the Mughal Empirein early 1739wrested control away fromZakariya Khan Bahadur. Though Khan was able to win back control after the Persian armies had left,the trade routes had shifted away from Lahore, and south towardsKandaharinstead.Indus ports near the Arabian Sea that served Lahore also silted up during this time, reducing the city's importance even further. Struggles between Zakariyya Khan's sons following his death in 1745 further weakened Muslim control over Lahore, thus leaving the city in a power vacuum, and", "a power vacuum, and vulnerable to foreign marauders. Durrani invasions TheDurranirulerAhmad Shahoccupied Lahorein 1748.Following Ahmed Shah Durrani's quick retreat, the Mughals entrusted Lahore to Mu’īn al-MulkMir Mannu.Ahmad Shah again invaded in 1751, forcing Mir Mannu into signing a treaty that nominally subjected Lahore to Durrani rule.Lahore was third time conquered by Ahmad Shahin 1752. The MughalGrand VizierGhazi-Din Imad al-Mulk seized Lahore in 1756, provoking Ahmad Shah to invade for fourth time in 1757, after which he placed the city under the rule of his son,Timur Shah. Durrani rule was interrupted when Lahore was conquered byAdina BegArainwith the assistance of Marathas in 1758 during theircampaigns against Afghans.After Adina Beg's untimely death in 1758, however,Marathasoccupied the city. The following year, Durranis again marched and conquered it.After the Durranis withdrew from the city in 1765, Sikh forces quickly occupied it.By this time, the city had been ravaged several time and had lost", "time and had lost all of its former grandeur. The Durranis invaded two more times—in 1797 and 1798—underShah Zaman, but the Sikhs re-occupied the city after both invasions. Sikh Early Expanding SikhMislssecured control over Lahore in 1767, when theBhangi Mislstate captured the city.In 1780, the city was divided among three rulers:Gujjar Singh, Lahna Singh, andSobha Singh. Instability resulting from this arrangement allowed nearbyAmritsarto establish itself as the area's primary commercial centre in place of Lahore. Ahmad Shah Durrani's grandson, Zaman Shah, invaded Lahore in 1796, and again in 1798–99.Ranjit Singhnegotiated with the Afghans for the post ofsubahdarto control Lahore following the second invasion. By the end of the 18th century, the city's population drastically declined, with its remaining residents living within the city walls, while the extramural suburbs lay abandoned, forcing travellers to pass through abandoned and ruined suburbs for a few miles before reaching the city's gates. Sikh", "city's gates. Sikh Empire In the aftermath of Zaman Shah's 1799 invasion of Punjab, Ranjit Singh, of nearbyGujranwala, began to consolidate his position. Singh was able to seize control of the region after a series of battles with the Bhangi chiefs who had seized Lahore in 1780.His army marched to Anarkali, where according to legend, the gatekeeper of theLohari Gate, Mukham Din Chaudhry, opened the gates allowing Ranjit Singh's army to enter Lahore.After capturing Lahore, Sikh soldiers immediately began plundering Muslim areas of the city until their actions were reined in by Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh's rule restored some of Lahore's lost grandeur, but at the expense of destroying the remaining Mughal architecture for building materials.He established a mint in the city in 1800,and moved into the Mughal palace at the Lahore fort after repurposing it for his own use in governing the Sikh Empire.In 1801, he established aGurdwara Ram Dasto mark the site whereGuru Ram Daswas born in 1534. Lahore became the", "Lahore became the empire's administrative capital, though the nearby economic centre of Amritsar had also been established as the empire's spiritual capital by 1802.By 1812, Singh had mostly refurbished the city's defences by adding a second circuit of outer walls surrounding Akbar's original walls, with the two separated by a moat. Singh also partially restored Shah Jahan's decayingShalimar Gardensand built theHazuri Bagh Baradariin 1818 to celebrate his capture of theKoh-i-Noordiamond fromShuja Shah Durraniin 1813.He erected theGurdwara Dera Sahibto mark the site ofGuru Arjan Dev's death (1606). The Sikh royal court also endowed religious architecture in the city, including a number of Sikhgurdwaras, Hindu temples, andhavelis. While much of Lahore's Mughal-era fabric lay in ruins by the time of his arrival, Ranjit Singh's rule saw the re-establishment of Lahore's glory, though the Mughal monuments suffered during the Sikh period. Singh's armies plundered most of Lahore's most precious Mughal monuments, and", "monuments, and stripped the white marble from several monuments to send to different parts of the Sikh Empire during his reign.Monuments plundered for decorative materials include the Tomb of Asif Khan, the Tomb of Nur Jahan, and the Shalimar Gardens.Ranjit Singh's army also desecrated the Badshahi Mosque by converting it into an ammunition depot and a stable for horses.TheSunehri Mosquein the Walled City was also converted to a gurdwara,while the Mariyam Zamani Mosque was repurposed into a gunpowder factory. Late The Sikh royal court (Lahore Durbar) underwent a quick succession of rulers after the death of Ranjit Singh. His sonKharak Singhdied on 6 November 1840, soon after taking the throne. On that same day, the next appointed successor to the throne,Nau Nihal Singh, died in an accident at the gardens of Hazuri Bagh.MaharajaSher Singhwas then selected as Maharajah, though his claim to the throne was quickly challenged byChand Kaur, widow of Kharak Singh and mother of Nau Nihal Singh, who quickly seized", "who quickly seized the throne.Sher Singh raised an army that attacked Chand Kaur's forces in Lahore on 14 January 1841. His soldiers mounted weaponry on the minarets of the Badshahi Mosque in order to target Chand Kaur's forces in the Lahore fort, destroying the fort's historicDiwan-e-Aam.Kaur quickly ceded the throne, but Sher Sing was then assassinated in 1843 in Lahore'sChah Miranneighbourhood along with his wazir Dhiyan Singh.Dhyan Singh's son, Hira Singh, sought to avenge his father's death by laying siege to Lahore in order to capture his father's assassins. The siege resulted in the capture of his father's murderer, Ajit Singh.Duleep Singhwas then crowned Maharajah, with Hira Singh as hiswazir, but his power would be weakened by the continued infighting among Sikh nobles,as well as confrontations against the British during the twoAnglo-Sikh wars. After the conclusion of the two Anglo-Sikh wars, the Sikh Empire fell into disarray, resulting in the fall of theLahore Durbar, and commencement of British", "of British rule after they captured Lahore and the wider Punjab region. British colonial period TheBritish East India Companyseized control of Lahore in February 1846 from the collapsing Sikh state and occupied the rest of Punjab in 1848.Following the defeat of the Sikhs at theBattle of Gujrat, British troops formally deposed Maharaja Duleep Singh in Lahore that same year.Punjab was then annexed to the British Indian Empire in 1849. At the commencement of British rule, Lahore was estimated to have apopulationof 120,000.Prior to annexation by the British, Lahore's environs consisted mostly of theWalled Citysurrounded by plains interrupted by settlements to the south and east, such asMozangandQila Gujar Singh, which have since been engulfed by modern Lahore. The plains between the settlements also contained the remains of Mughal gardens, tombs, and Sikh-era military structures. The British viewed Lahore's Walled City as a bed of potential social discontent and disease epidemics, and so largely left the inner", "left the inner city alone, while focusing development efforts in Lahore's suburban areas and Punjab's fertile countryside.The British instead laid out their capital city in an area south of the Walled City that would first come to be known as \"Donald's Town\" before being renamed \"Civil Station\". Under early British rule, formerly prominent Mughal-era monuments that were scattered throughout Civil Station were also re-purposed and sometimes desecrated – including theTomb of Anarkali, which the British had initially converted to clerical offices before re-purposing it as anAnglicanchurch in 1851.The 17th-centuryDai Anga Mosquewas converted into railway administration offices during this time, the tomb of Nawab Bahadur Khan was converted into a storehouse, and the tomb of Mir Mannu was used as a wine shop.The British also used older structures to house municipal offices, such as the Civil Secretariat, Public Works Department, and Accountant General's Office. The British built theLahore Railway Stationjust", "Railway Stationjust outside the Walled City shortly after theSepoy Mutiny of 1857; the station was therefore styled as a medieval castle to ward off any potential future uprisings, with thick walls, turrets, and holes to direct gun and cannon fire for the defence of the structure.Lahore's most prominent government institutions and commercial enterprises came to be concentrated in Civil Station in a half-mile wide area flankingThe Mall, where unlike in Lahore's military zone, the British and locals were allowed to mix.The Mall continues to serve as the epicentre of Lahore's civil administration, as well as one of its most fashionable commercial areas. The British also laid the spaciousLahore Cantonmentto the southeast of the Walled City at the former village of Mian Mir, where unlike around The Mall, laws did exist against the mixing of different races. Lahore was visited on 9 February 1870 byPrince Alfred,Duke of Edinburgh– a visit in which he received delegations from theDograsofJammu, Maharajas ofPatiala,", "ofPatiala, the Nawab ofBahawalpur, and other rulers from various Punjabi states.During the visit, he visited several of Lahore's major sights.British authorities built several important structures around the time of theGolden Jubilee of Queen Victoria(1887) in the distinctiveIndo-Saracenic style, including theLahore MuseumandMayo School of Industrial Arts. The British carried out a census of Lahore in 1901, and counted 20,691 houses in the Walled City.An estimated 200,000 people lived in Lahore at this time.Lahore's poshModel Townwas established as a \"garden town\" suburb in 1921, whileKrishan Nagarlocality was laid in the 1930s near The Mall and Walled City. Lahore played an important role in the independence movements of both Indiaand Pakistan. TheDeclaration of the Independence of Indiawas moved byJawaharlal Nehruand passed unanimously at midnight on 31 December 1929 at Lahore'sBradlaugh Hall.The IndianSwarajflagwas adopted this time as well. Lahore's jail was used by the British to imprison independence", "independence activists such asJatin Das, and was also whereBhagat Singhwas hanged in 1931.Under the leadership ofMuhammad Ali Jinnah, theAll India Muslim Leaguepassed theLahore Resolutionin 1940, demanding the creation of Pakistan as a separate homeland for the Muslims of India. Partition The 1941 census showed that city of Lahore had a population of 671,659, of which was 64.5% Muslim, with the remainder 35% being Hindu and Sikh, alongside a small Christian community.The population figure was disputed by Hindus and Sikhs before the Boundary Commission that would draw theRadcliffe Lineto demarcate the border of the two new states based on religious demography.In a bid to have Lahore awarded to India, they argued that the city was only 54% Muslim, and that Hindu and Sikh domination of the city's economy and educational institutions should trump Muslim demography.Two-thirds of shops, and 80% of Lahore's factories belonged to the Hindu and Sikh community.Kuldip Nayyar claimed thatCyril Radcliffehad told him in", "told him in 1971 that he originally had planned to give Lahore to the newDominion of India,but decided to place it within theDominion of Pakistan, which he saw as lacking a major city as he had already awardedCalcuttato India. As tensions grew over the city's uncertain fate, Lahore experiencedPartition's worst riots.Carnage ensued in which all three religious groups were both victims and perpetrators.Early riots in March and April 1947 destroyed 6,000 of Lahore's 82,000 homes.Violence continued to rise throughout the summer, despite the presence of armoured British personnel.Hindus and Sikhs began to leave the cityen masseas their hopes that the Boundary Commission would award the city to India came to be regarded as increasingly unlikely. By late August 1947, 66% of Hindus and Sikhs had left the city.The Shah Alami Bazaar, once a largely Hindu quarter of theWalled City, was entirely burnt down during subsequent rioting. When Pakistan's independence was declared on 14 August 1947, the Radcliffe Line had not", "Line had not yet been announced, and so cries of \"Long live Pakistan\" and \"God is greatest\" were heard intermittently with \"Long liveHindustan\" throughout the night.On 17 August 1947, Lahore was awarded to Pakistan on the basis of its Muslim majority in the 1941 census and was made capital of thePunjabprovince in the new state of Pakistan. The city's location near the Indian border meant that it received large numbers of refugees fleeing eastern Punjab and northern India, though it was able to accommodate them given the large stock of abandoned Hindu and Sikh properties that could be re-distributed to newly arrived refugees. Modern Partitionleft Lahore with a much-weakened economy, and a stymied social and cultural scene that had previously been invigorated by the city's Hindus and Sikhs.Industrial production dropped to one-third of pre-Partition level by the end of the 1940s, and only 27% of its manufacturing units were operating by 1950, and usually well-below capacity.Capital flightfurther weakened the", "weakened the city's economy whileKarachiindustrialized and became more prosperous. The city's weakened economy, and proximity to the Indian border, meant that the city was deemed unsuitable to be the Pakistani capital after independence.Karachiwas therefore chosen to be the capital on account of its relative tranquility during the Partition period, stronger economy, and better infrastructure. After independence, Lahore slowly regained its significance as an economic and cultural centre of western Punjab. Reconstruction began in 1949 of the Shah Alami Bazaar, the former commercial heart of the Walled City until it was destroyed in the 1947 riots.TheTomb of Allama Iqbalwas built in 1951 to honour the philosopher-poet who provided the spiritual inspiration for the Pakistan movement.In 1955, Lahore was selected to be the capital of allWest Pakistanduring the single-unit period that lasted until 1970.Shortly afterwards, Lahore's iconicMinar-e-Pakistanwas completed in 1968 to mark the spot where thePakistan", "where thePakistan Resolutionwas passed.With support from theUnited Nations, thegovernmentwas able to rebuild Lahore, and most scars from the communal violence of Partition were ameliorated. The secondIslamic Summit Conferencewas held in the city in 1974.In retaliation for the destruction of theBabri Masjidin India, riots erupted in 1992 in which several non-Muslim monuments were targeted, including the tomb of MaharajaSher Singh,and the former Jain temple near The Mall. In 1996, theInternational Cricket CouncilCricket World Cupfinal match was held at theGaddafi Stadiumin Lahore. TheWalled City of Lahorerestoration project began in 2009, when the Punjab government restored the Royal Trail fromAkbari Gateto theLahore Fortwith money from theWorld Bank. Geography Lahore is in northeastern portion of Pakistan, lying between 31°15′—31°45′ N and 74°01′—74°39′ E. The city is bounded on the north and west by theSheikhupura District, on the east byWagah, and on the south byKasur District. TheRavi Riverflows on the", "Riverflows on the northern side of Lahore. Lahore city covers a total land area of 404 square kilometres (156 sq mi). Climate Lahore has ahot semi-arid climate(Köppen climate classificationBSh), bordering on a humid subtropical climate. The hottest month is June, where temperatures routinely exceed 45 °C (113 °F). The monsoon season starts in late June, and the wettest months are July, August and September.with heavy rainfalls and evening thunderstorms with the possibility of cloudbursts and flash floods. The coolest month is January, with dense fog. The city's record high temperature was 50.4 °C (122.7 °F), recorded on 5 June 2003.On 10 June 2007, a temperature of 48 °C (118 °F) was recorded;this was in the shade, and the meteorological office recording the figure reported a heat index in direct sunlight of 55 °C (131 °F).The highest rainfall in a 24-hour period is 337 millimetres (13.3 in), recorded on 01 August 2024. Demographics Population The results of the2017 Censusdetermined the population of Lahore", "of Lahore to be 11,126,285,with an annual growth rate of 4.07% since1998.Gender-wise, 52.35% of the population are male, 47.64% are female, and 0.01% are transgender.Lahore is a demographically young city, with over 40% of its inhabitants below the age of 15. Tribes and backgrounds in theLahore district Tribes and background At the time of the2017 Pakistani census, the largest tribal group wereArain Punjabis, constituting 40%, followed byPunjabi Kashmirisat 30% with other groups such asRajputPunjabisandKamboh Punjabisat 5% each. Controversy about the city's Pashtun population SomePashtun nationalistparties argue that thePashtunpopulation of Lahore in the 2017 census has been underestimated, with Ameer Bahadur Khan, provincial general secretary ofAwami National Party, putting their numbers at 1.5 million, while Gul Muhammad Regwal, a member ofPakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party, claiming more than 1 million including 300,000 in theWalled Cityalone, most of these having moved over the last 20 years, including due to", "including due to military operations, but remaining uncounted as they're not considered permanent residents of Lahore. Religion According to the 2023 Census, the vast majority of Lahore's population areMuslims(95.26%), up from 94.7% in 2017. Other religions includeChristians(4.64%, slightly less than 5.14% in 2017)and small numbers ofAhmadis,Baháʼís,Hindus,Parsis, andSikhs. There is also a small but longstandingZoroastriancommunity. Since Lahore contains some ofSikhism's holiest sites, it is a major pilgrimage destination for Sikhs.Lahore's first church was built during the reign of EmperorAkbarin the late 16th century, but was then leveled byShah Jahanin 1632.Due to the few numbers of Hindus living in Lahore, the only two functional Hindu temples in the city are theShri Krishna Mandirand theValmiki Mandir. Languages Languages by number of native speakers in theLahore district ThePunjabi languageis the most-widely spoken native language in Lahore, with 73.58% of Lahore counting it as their first language", "first language according to the 2023 Census.Lahore is the largest Punjabi-speaking city in the world. According to the2023 Pakistani census21.1% speakUrdu, 2.06%Pashto, 2.01%Mewatiand 2.78% other mother tongues. Urduand English are used as official languages and as mediums of instruction and media administration. However, Punjabi is also taught at graduation level and used in theatres, films, and newspapers from Lahore.Several Lahore-based prominent educational leaders, researchers, and social commentators have demanded that the Punjabi language should be declared as the medium of instruction at the primary level and be used officially in thePunjab Assembly, Lahore. Cityscape Old City Lahore's modern cityscape consists of the historicWalled City of Lahorein the northern part of the city, which contains severalWorld Heritage Sitesand national heritage sites. Lahore's urban planning was not based on geometric design but was instead built piecemeal, with small cul-de-sacs, askatrahsandgalisdeveloped in the", "in the context of neighbouring buildings.Though certain neighbourhoods were named for particular religious or ethnic communities, the neighbourhoods themselves typically were diverse and were not dominated by the namesake group. Lahore's urban typology is similar to other ancient cities in South Asia, such asPeshawar,MultanandDelhi– all of which were founded near a major river, and included an old walled city and royal citadel. By the end of the Sikh rule, most of Lahore's massivehavelicompounds had been occupied by settlers. New neighbourhoods occasionally grew up entirely within the confines of an old Mughal haveli, such as the Mohallah Pathan Wali, which grew within the ruins of a haveli of the same name, built by Mian Khan.By 1831, all Mughal Havelis in the Walled City had been encroached upon by the surrounding neighbourhood,leading to the modern-day absence of any Mughal Havelis in Lahore. A total of thirteen gates once surrounded the historic walled city. Some of the remaining gates include the", "gates include the Raushnai Gate, Masti Gate, Yakki Gate, Kashmiri Gate, Khizri Gate, Shah Burj Gate, Akbari Gate, and Lahori Gate. Southeast of the walled city is the spacious British-eraLahore Cantonment. Architecture Lahore is home to numerous monuments from theMughal Dynasty,Sikh Empire, and theBritish Indian Raj. The architectural style of theWalled City of Lahorehas traditionally been influenced by Mughal and Sikh styles. Sikh period By the arrival of the Sikh Empire at the end of the 18th century, Lahore had decayed from its former glory as the Mughal capital. Rebuilding efforts under Ranjit Singh and his successors were influenced by Mughal practices, and Lahore was known as the 'City of Gardens' during the Ranjit Singh period.Later, British maps of the area surrounding Lahore dating from the mid-19th century show many walled private gardens which were confiscated from the Muslim noble families bearing the names of prominent Sikh nobles – a pattern of patronage which was inherited from the Mughals.", "from the Mughals. While much of Lahore's Mughal-era fabric lay in ruins by the time of his arrival, Ranjit Singh's army's plundered most of Lahore's most precious Mughal monuments, and stripped the white marble from several monuments to send to different parts of the Sikh Empire.Monuments plundered of their marble include theTomb of Asif Khanand theTomb of Nur Jahan; theShalimar Gardenswas plundered of much of its marble, and its costlyagategate was stripped.The Sikh state also demolished a number of shrines and monuments laying outside the city's walls. Still, Sikh rule left Lahore with several monuments, and a heavily altered Lahore Fort. Ranjit Singh's rule restored some of Lahore's previous grandeur,and the city was left with a large number of religious monuments from this period. Several havelis were built during this era, though only a few still remain. British period As the capital of British Punjab, the city derived much of its architecture from British colonialists. Structures were built", "were built predominantly in theIndo-Gothicstyle – a syncretic architectural style that blends elements ofVictorianandIslamic architectureo r in the distinctIndo-Saracenic style. The British also builtneoclassicalMontgomery Hall, which today serves as theQuaid-e-Azam Library. Lawrence Gardenswere also laid near Civil Station, and were paid for by donations solicited from both Lahore's European community, as well as from wealthy locals. The gardens featured over 600 species of plants, and were tended to by a horticulturist sent from London'sRoyal Botanic Gardens at Kew. The leafy suburbs to the south of the Old City, as well as the Cantonment southwest of the Old City, were largely developed under British colonial rule, and feature colonial-era buildings built alongside leafy avenues. The British authorities built several important structures around the time of theGolden Jubilee of Queen Victoriain 1887 in the distinctive Indo-Saracenic style, such as theLahore MuseumandMayo School of Industrial Arts.Other", "Arts.Other prominent examples of the Indo-Saracenic style in Lahore include Lahore's prestigiousAitchison College, the Punjab Chief Court (today theLahore High Court),Lahore Museum, and theUniversity of the Punjab. Many of Lahore's most important buildings were designed by civil engineer and architectSir Ganga Ram, who is considered \"the father of modern Lahore\". Parks and gardens Lahore is also known as \"the city of gardens\" due to its large number of gardens. TheShahdara Baghwas one of the earliestMughal gardens, laid out in 15th century, and contains theTomb of Jahangir. TheShalimar Gardenswere laid out during the reign ofShah Jahanand were designed to mimic theIslamicparadise of the afterlife described in theQur'an. The gardens follow the familiarcharbaghlayout of four squares, with three descending terraces. In 1818,Hazuri Baghwas built during reign of Ranjit Singh to celebrate his capture of theKoh-i-Noordiamond from Shuja Shah Durrani. TheLawrence Gardenwas established in 1862 and was originally named", "originally named afterSir John Lawrence, late 19th-century British Viceroy to India. The Circular Garden, which surrounds the Walled City on three sides, was established by 1892.The former parade ground adjacent to Badshahi Mosque was also renamed during the British era asMinto Park, which after restoration was re-established as Iqbal Park. The many other gardens and parks in the city includeHazuri Bagh,Iqbal Park, Mochi Bagh,Gulshan-e-Iqbal Park,Model Town Park,Jilani Park, Nasir Bagh Lahore,Jallo Park,Lahore Zoo Safari Park, andChanga Manga, a human-made forest near Lahore in theKasurdistrict. Another example is theBagh-e-Jinnah, a 141-acre (57 ha) botanical garden that houses entertainment and sports facilities as well as a library. Economy As of 2008, the city's gross domestic product (GDP) bypurchasing power parity(PPP) was estimated at $40 billion with a projected average growth rate of 5.6 percent. This is on par with Karachi, Pakistan's economic hub, with Lahore (having half the population) fostering", "fostering an economy that is 51% of the size of Karachi's ($78 billion in 2008).It is estimated that Lahore contributes 11.5% to the national economy, and 19% to the provincial economy of Punjab.As a whole, Punjab has a $115 billion economy, making it the first (and to date,only) Pakistani Subdivision with an economy of more than $100 billion, at the rank 144.Lahore's GDP is projected to be $102 billion by 2025, with a slightly higher growth rate of 5.6% per annum, as compared to Karachi's 5.5%. A major industrial agglomeration with about 9,000 industrial units, Lahore has shifted in recent decades from manufacturing to service industries.Some 42% of its workforce is employed in finance, banking, real estate, community, cultural, and social services.The city is Pakistan's largest software and hardware producing centre,and hosts a growing computer-assembly industry.The city has always been a centre for publications; 80% of Pakistan's books are published in Lahore, and it remains the foremost centre of", "foremost centre of literary, educational, and cultural activity in Pakistan. TheLahore Expo Centreis one of the biggest projects in the history of the city and was inaugurated on 22 May 2010.Defense Raya Golf Resort, also under construction, will be Pakistan's and Asia's largest golf course. The project is the result of a partnership between DHA Lahore and BRDB Malaysia. The rapid development of large projects such as these in the city is expected to boost the economy of the country.Ferozepur Road of theCentral business districtsof Lahore contains high-rises and skyscrapers including Kayre International Hotel andArfa Software Technology Park. Transport Public transportation Lahore's main public transportation system is operated by theLahore Transport Company(LTC) and Punjab Mass Transit Authority (PMTA). The backbone of its public transport network is the PMTA'sLahore Metrobusand theOrange Lineof theLahore Metrotrain. LTC and PMTA also operates an extensive network of buses, providing bus service to many", "bus service to many parts of the city and acting as a feeder system for the Metrobus. The Orange Line metro spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi) around the city and operates at a speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). Metrobus TheLahore Metrobusis abus rapid transitservice operating in Lahore,Punjab, Pakistan.Lahore Metrobus service is integrated withLahore Transport Company's local bus service to operate as one urban transport system, providing a connected transit service acrossLahore Districtwith connections to neighboring suburban communities. Low occupancy vehicles Low occupancy vehicle (LOVs)—functionally a medium-sized van or wagon—run on routes throughout the city. They function like buses and operate on many routes throughout the city. Metro Train Orange Line TheOrange Line Metro Trainis an automatedrapid transitsystem in Lahore.The Orange line is the first of the three proposed rail lines proposed for theLahore Metro. As of 2020, it is the primary metro rail line in the city. The line spans 27.1 km (16.8 mi), with 25.4 km", "mi), with 25.4 km (15.8 mi) elevated and 1.72 km (1.1 mi) underground,and had a cost of 251.06 billionrupees($1.6 billion). The line consists of 26 subway stations (Ali Town Station to Dera Gujran Station) and is designed to carry over 250,000 passengers daily.CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotiverolled out the first of 27 trains for the metro on 16 May 2017.The train has speed up to 80 km/h (50 mph). For improved durability, itsbogiesare heat-resistant, can manage unstable voltage, and feature energy-saving air-conditioning.Successful initial test trials were run in mid-2018,and commercial operations began on 25 October 2020. Blue Line The Blue Line is a proposed 24 kilometres (15 mi) line from Chauburji to College Road Township. Along the way, it will connect places like Mozang Chungi, Shadman Chowk, Jail Road, Mian Boulevard Gulberg, Mian Boulevard Garden Town, and Faisal Town. Purple Line The Purple Line is a proposed 19 kilometres (12 mi) line from Bhaati Chowk to the Allama Iqbal International Airport. Along the", "Airport. Along the way, it will connect places like Brandreth Road, Railway Station, Allama Iqbal Road, Dharampura, and Ghazi Road. Taxi and rickshaw Ride-sharing services such asUberandCareemare available in the city. Motorcycle rides are also available in the city, which have been introduced by private companies. Auto rickshawsplay an important role of public transport in Lahore. As of 2019, there were approximately 82,000 auto rickshaws and 65,000 motorcycle rickshaws in the city.Motorcycle rickshaws, usually calledchingchi(after the Chinese company Jinan Qingqi Motorcycle Co. Ltd, who first introduced these to the market)orchand gari('moon car')are cheaper than auto rickshaws and provide a shared ride experience for multiple passengers and fares, whereas auto rickshaws cater to only one passenger or group for a fare.Since 2002, all auto rickshaws have been required to usecompressed natural gasas fuel,and all-electric rickshaws were introduced in 2023. Intercity transportation Railways Lahore Junction", "Lahore Junction Stationserves as the main railway station for Lahore, and serves as a major hub for allPakistan Railwaysservices inNorthern Pakistan. It includes services toPeshawarand the national capital metropolitan area ofIslamabad–Rawalpindi, and long-distance services toKarachiandQuetta.Lahore Cantonment Stationalso operates a few trains. Buses Lahore Badami Bagh Bus Terminal(known colloquially as \"Lari Adda\") serves as a hub for intercity bus services in Lahore, served by multiple bus companies providing a comprehensive network of services in Punjab and neighbouring provinces.Lahore Jinnah Bus Terminalis also a major bus stand in southern Lahore. Apart from these stations, multiple privately owned bus transportation companies operate from Band Road (referred to colloquially as Chowk Yateem Khana), offering intercity transport at varying fares and comfort levels. Airports Pakistan's third busiest airport,Allama Iqbal International Airport(IATA: LHE), straddles the city's eastern boundary. The new", "boundary. The new passenger terminal was opened in 2003, replacing the old terminal which now serves as a VIP and Hajj lounge. The airport was named after the national poet-philosopher,Muhammad Iqbal,and is a secondary hub for the national carrier,Pakistan International Airlines.Walton Airportin Askari neighbourhood providesgeneral aviationfacilities.Sialkot International Airport(IATA: SKT) andFaisalabad International Airport(IATA: LYP) also serve as alternate airports for the Lahore area, in addition to serving their respective cities. Allama Iqbal International Airport connects Lahore with many cities worldwide (including domestic destinations) by both passenger and cargo flight includingRas al Khaimah,Guangzhou(begins 28 August 2018),Ürümqi,Abu Dhabi,Barcelona,Beijing–Capital,Copenhagen,Dammam,Dera Ghazi Khan,Doha,Dubai–International,Islamabad,Jeddah,Karachi,Kuala Lumpur–International,London–Heathrow,Manchester,Medina,Milan–Malpensa,Multan,Muscat,Oslo–Gardermoen,Paris–Charles de", "de Gaulle,Peshawar,Quetta,Rahim Yar Khan,Riyadh,Salalah,Tokyo–Narita,Toronto–Pearson,Mashhad,Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi, andTashkent. Roads There are a number of municipal, provincial and federalroadsthat serve Lahore. Government Metropolitan Corporation Under Punjab Local Government Act 2013, Lahore is ametropolitan areaunder the authority of the Metropolitan Corporation Lahore.The Metropolitan Corporation Lahore is a body consisting of nine deputy mayors (one from each zone in the district) and the city's mayor – all of whom are elected in popular elections. The Metropolitan Corporation approves zoning and land use, coordinates urban design and planning, sets environmental protection laws, and provides municipal services. Mayor As per the Punjab Local Government Act 2013, theMayor of Lahoreis the elected head of the Metropolitan Corporation of Lahore. The mayor is directly elected in municipal elections every four years alongside 9 deputytownmayors. Mubashir Javed of thePakistan Muslim League (N)was elected", "(N)was elected mayor of Lahore in 2016. The mayor is responsible for the administration of government services, the composition of councils and committees overseeingLahore City Districtdepartments and serves as the chairperson for the meeting of the Lahore Council. The mayor also functions to help devise long-term development plans in consultation with other stakeholders and bodies to improve the condition, livability, and sustainability of urban areas. Neighbourhoods Lahore Districtis a subdivision of the Punjab, and is further divided into 9 administrative zones.Each town in turn consists of a group of union councils, of which there are 274 total. Politics The 2015 local government elections forUnion Councilsin Lahore yielded the following results: Festivals The people of Lahorecelebrate many festivalsand events throughout the year, including Islamic, traditional Punjabi, Christian, and national holidays and festivals. Many people decorate their houses and light candles to illuminate the streets and houses", "streets and houses during public holidays; roads and businesses may be lit for days. Many of Lahore's dozens ofSufishrines hold annual festivals calledursto honour their respective saints. For example, the mausoleum ofAli Hujwiriat theData Darbarshrine has an annualursthat attracts up to one million visitors per year.The popularMela Chiraghanfestival in Lahore takes place at the shrine ofMadho Lal Hussain, while other largeurstake place at the shrines ofBibi Pak Daman, and at theShrine of Mian Mir.Eid ul-FitrandEid ul-Adhaare celebrated in the city with public buildings and shopping centers decorated in lights. The people of Lahore also commemorate the martyrdom ofImam HusainatKarbalawith massive processions that take place during the first ten days of the month ofMuharram. Basantis a traditionalPunjabifestival that marks the coming of spring. Basant celebrations in Pakistan are centred in Lahore, and people from all over the country and abroad come to the city for the annual festivities.Kite-flying", "competitions traditionally take place on city rooftops during Basant, while theLahore Canalis decorated with floating lanterns. Courts have banned kite-flying because of casualties and power installation losses. The ban was lifted for two days in 2007, then immediately reimposed when 11 people were killed bycelebratory gunfire, sharp kite-strings, electrocution, and falls related to the competition. Lahore's churches are elaborately decorated forChristmasandEastercelebrations.Shopping centers and public buildings also feature Christmas installations to celebrate the holiday, even though Christians only constitute 3% of the total population of Lahore in 2016. Tourism Lahore remains a major tourist destination in Pakistan. TheWalled City of Lahorewas renovated in 2014 and is popular due to the presence ofUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.Among the most popular sights are theLahore Fort, adjacent to the Walled City, and home to theSheesh Mahal, theAlamgiri Gate, theNaulakha pavilion, and theMoti Masjid. The fort and", "The fort and adjoiningShalimar Gardenshave been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1981. The city is home to several ancient religious sites, including prominent Hindu temples: theKrishna TempleandValmiki Mandir. TheSamadhi of Ranjit Singh, also located near the Walled City, houses thefunerary urnsof theSikhrulerMaharaja Ranjit Singh. The most prominent religious building is theBadshahi Mosque, constructed in 1673; it was the largest mosque in the world upon construction. Another popular sight is theWazir Khan Mosque,constructed in 1635 and known for its extensivefaiencetile work. Cuisine Religious sites Well-known religious sites in the city include: Museums Tombs Shrines Samadhis Havelis There are manyhavelisinside the Walled City of Lahore, some in good condition while others need urgent attention. Many of these havelis are fine examples ofMughalandSikharchitecture. Some of the havelis inside the Walled City include: Other landmarks Historic neighbourhoods Education Lahore is known as Pakistan's", "known as Pakistan's educational capital,with more colleges and universities than any other city in Pakistan. The literacy rate of Lahore is 74%. The city is Pakistan's largest producer of professionals in the fields of science, technology, IT, law, engineering, medicine, nuclear sciences, pharmacology, telecommunication, biotechnology, microelectronics, and nanotechnology, and has the only future hyper high-tech centerin Pakistan.Most of the reputable universities are public, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge in the number of private universities. Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS) is the onlyAACSBaccredited business school in Pakistan. Lahore hosts some of Pakistan's oldest and best educational institutes, including: Notable people Sports Lahore has successfully hosted many international sports events, including the finals of the1990 Men's Hockey World Cupand the1996 Cricket World Cup. The headquarters of all major sports governing bodies in Pakistan are located in Lahore,", "located in Lahore, including cricket, hockey, rugby, and football.Lahore is also home to the head office of thePakistan Olympic Association. Gaddafi Stadiumis aTest cricket groundin Lahore. It was completed in 1959, and renovations were carried out by Pakistani architectNayyar Ali Dadain the 1990s. The multi purposePunjab Stadiumlocated near the headquarters of thePakistan Football Federation, is mainly used forfootballmatches and has hosted several events includingAFC President's CupandFIFA World Cup qualifiers. Lahore is home to severalgolfcourses, including theLahore Gymkhana Golf Course, the Lahore Garrison Golf and Country Club, the Royal Palm Golf Club, and newly built Defence Raya Golf & Country Club. Lake City, a 9-hole course, opened in nearbyRaiwindRoad in 2011. The newly opened Oasis Golf and Aqua Resort is a state-of-the-art resort, featuring golf, water parks, and leisure activities like horse riding and archery. TheLahore Marathonis part of an annual package of six international marathons", "marathons sponsored byStandard Chartered Bankacross Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. More than 20,000 athletes from Pakistan and all over the world participate in this event. It was first held on 30 January 2005, and again on 29 January 2006. More than 22,000 people participated in the 2006 race. The third marathon was held on 14 January 2007.Plans exist to build Pakistan's first sports city in Lahore, on the bank of theRavi River. Twin towns and sister cities The following international cities have been declaredtwin towns and sister citiesof Lahore. Awards In 1966, theGovernment of Pakistanawarded a special flag, theHilal-i-istaqlal, to the cities of Lahore,Sargodha, andSialkotfor showing severe resistance to the enemy during theIndo-Pakistani War of 1965, as these cities were targets of the Indian aggression.Every year onDefence Day(6 September), this flag is hoisted in these cities in recognition of the will, courage, and perseverance of their people. See also Notes References Bibliography External", "External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_Province_(British_India" ]
The US Naval ship that sunk in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, is named for a state that was admitted to the Union while what woman was serving as First Lady?
Elizabeth Monroe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_first_ladies_of_the_United_States
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Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_first_ladies_of_the_United_States']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_first_ladies_of_the_United_States" ]
[ "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889", "Maine Maine(/meɪn/ⓘMAYN)is astatein theNew Englandregion of theUnited States, and the northeasternmost state in theLower 48. It bordersNew Hampshireto the west, theGulf of Maineto the southeast, and theCanadian provincesofNew BrunswickandQuebecto the northeast and northwest, and shares a maritime border withNova Scotia. Maine is the largeststatein New England by total area, nearly larger than the combined area of the remaining five states. Of the50 U.S. states, it is the12th-smallest by area, the9th-least populous, the13th-least densely populated, and the most rural.Maine'scapitalisAugusta, and itsmost populous cityisPortland, with a total population of 68,408, as of the2020 census. The territory of Maine has been inhabited byIndigenous populationsfor about 12,000 years,after the glaciers retreated during thelast ice age. At the time of European arrival, severalAlgonquian-speaking nations governed the area and these nations are now known as theWabanaki Confederacy. The first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 onSaint Croix Island, founded byPierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-livedPopham Colony, established by thePlymouth Companyin 1607. A number of English settlements were established along the coast of Maine in the 1620s, although the rugged climate and conflict with the localIndigenous peoplecaused many to fail. As Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived.LoyalistandPatriotforces contended for Maine's territory during theAmerican Revolution. During theWar of 1812, the largely undefended eastern region of Maine was occupied by British forces with the goal of annexing it toCanadavia theColony of New Ireland, but returned to the United States following failed British offensives on the northern border, mid-Atlantic and south which produced apeace treatythat restored the pre-war boundaries. Maine was part of theCommonwealth of Massachusettsuntil 1820 when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become a separate state. On March 15, 1820, under theMissouri Compromise, Maine wasadmitted to the Unionas the 23rd state. Today, Maine is known for its jagged, rockyAtlantic Oceanand bayshore coastlines, mountains, heavilyforestedinterior, and its cuisine, particularlywild lowbush blueberriesandseafoodsuch aslobsterandclams. Coastal andDown East Mainehave emerged as important centers for thecreative economy,especially inthe vicinity of Portland, which has also broughtgentrificationto the city and its metropolitan area. History The earliest known inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including thePassamaquoddy,Maliseet,Penobscot,Androscoggin, and Kennebec. During the laterKing Philip's War, many of these peoples would merge in one form or another to become theWabanaki Confederacy, aiding theWampanoagofMassachusettsand theMahicanofNew York. Afterwards, many of these people were driven from their natural territories, but most of Maine's tribes continued, unchanged, until theAmerican Revolution. Before this point, however, most of these people were considered separate nations. Many had adapted to living in permanent,Iroquois-inspired settlements, while those along the coast tended to move from summer villages to winter villages on a yearly cycle. They would usually winter inland and head to the coasts by summer. European contactwith what is now called Maine may have started around 1200 CE whenVikingsare believed to have interacted with the nativePenobscotin present-dayHancock County, most likely through trade. If confirmed, this would make Maine the site of the earliest European discovery in the entire US. About 200 years earlier, from the settlements inIcelandandGreenland, the Norsefirst identified Americaandattempted to settleareas such asNewfoundland, but failed to establish a permanent settlement. Archeological evidence suggests thatVikings in Greenlandreturned to North America for severalcenturiesafter the initial discovery to trade and collect timber, with the most relevant evidence being theMaine Penny, an 11th-century Norwegian coin found at a Native American dig site in 1954. The first European confirmed settlement in modern-day Maine was in 1604 onSaint Croix Island, led by French explorerPierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. His party includedSamuel de Champlain, noted as an explorer. The French named the entire areaAcadia, including the portion that later became the state of Maine. ThePlymouth Companyestablished the first English settlement in Maine at thePopham Colonyin 1607, the same year as the settlement atJamestown, Virginia. The Popham colonists returned toBritainafter 14 months. The French established twoJesuitmissions: one onPenobscot Bayin 1609, and the other onMount Desert Islandin 1613. The same year,Claude de La TourestablishedCastine. In 1625,Charles de Saint-Étienne de la TourerectedFort Pentagouetto protect Castine. The coastal areas of eastern Maine first became theProvince of Mainein a 1622 land patent. The part of western Maine north of theKennebec Riverwas more sparsely settled and was known in the 17th century as theTerritory of Sagadahock. A second settlement was attempted in 1623 by English explorer and naval CaptainChristopher Levettat a place calledYork, where he had been granted 6,000 acres (24 km2) byKing Charles Iof England.It also failed. The 1622 patent of the Province of Maine was split at thePiscataqua Riverinto theProvince of New Hampshireto the south andNew Somersetshireto the north. A disputed 1630 patent split off the area around present-daySacoasLygonia. Justifying its actions with a 1652 geographic survey that showed an overlapping patent, theMassachusetts Bay Colonyhad seized New Somersetshire and Lygonia by force by 1658. TheTerritory of Sagadahockbetween theKennebec RiverandSt. Croix Rivernotionally becameCornwall County, Province of New Yorkunder a 1664 grant fromCharles II of Englandto hisbrother James, at the time theDuke of York. Some of this land was claimed byNew Franceas part ofAcadia. All of the English settlements in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Province of New York became part of theDominion of New Englandin 1686. All of present-day Maine was unified asYork County, Massachusettsunder a 1691 royal patent for theProvince of Massachusetts Bay. Central Maine was formerly inhabited by theAndroscoggin tribeof theAbenaki nation, also known as Arosaguntacook. They were driven out of the area in 1690 duringKing William's War. They were relocated toSt. Francis, Canada, which was destroyed byRogers' Rangersin 1759, and is nowOdanak. The other Abenaki tribes suffered several severe defeats, particularly duringDummer's War, with the capture ofNorridgewockin 1724 and the defeat of thePequawketin 1725, which significantly reduced their numbers. They finally withdrew toCanada, where they were settled atBécancourandSillery, and later at St. Francis, along with other refugee tribes from the south. Maine was much fought over by theFrench, English, and allied natives during the 17th and 18th centuries. These natives conducted raids against settlers and each other, taking captives for ransom or, in some cases, kidnapped for adoption byNative Americantribes. A notable example was the early 1692Abenakiraid on York, where about 100 English settlers were killed and another estimated 80 taken hostage.TheAbenakitook captives taken during raids ofMassachusettsinQueen Anne's Warof the early 1700s toKahnewake, a CatholicMohawkvillage nearMontreal, where some were adopted and others ransomed. After the British defeated the French in Acadia in the 1740s, the territory from thePenobscot Rivereast fell under the nominal authority of theProvince of Nova Scotia, and together with present-day New Brunswick formed the Nova Scotia county ofSunbury, with its court of general sessions at Campobello. American and British forces contended for Maine's territory during the American Revolution and the War of 1812, with the British occupying eastern Maine in both conflicts via theColony of New Ireland.The territory of Maine was confirmed as part of Massachusetts when the United States was formed following theTreaty of Parisending the revolution, although the final border withBritish North Americawas not established until theWebster–Ashburton Treatyof 1842. Maine was physically separate from the rest of Massachusetts. Longstanding disagreements over land speculation and settlements led to Maine residents and their allies in Massachusetts proper forcing an 1807 vote in the Massachusetts Assembly on permitting Maine to secede; the vote failed. Secessionist sentiment in Maine was stoked during theWar of 1812when Massachusetts pro-British merchants opposed the war and refused to defend Maine from British invaders. In 1819, Massachusetts agreed to permit secession, sanctioned by voters of the rapidly growing region the following year. Statehood and Missouri Compromise Formal secession from Massachusetts and admission of Maine as the 23rd state occurred on March 15, 1820, as part of theMissouri Compromise, which geographically restricted the spread ofslaveryand enabled the admission to statehood ofMissourithe following year, keeping a balance betweenslaveand free states. Maine's original state capital was Portland, Maine's largest city, until it was moved to the more central Augusta in 1832. The principal office of theMaine Supreme Judicial Courtremains in Portland. The20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment, under the command of ColonelJoshua Lawrence Chamberlain, prevented theUnion Armyfrom being flanked atLittle Round Topby theConfederate Armyduring theBattle of Gettysburg. FourU.S. Navyships have been namedUSSMaine, most famously thearmored cruiserUSSMaine(ACR-1), whose sinking by an explosion on February 15, 1898, precipitated theSpanish–American War. Geography To the south and east is theGulf of Maine, and to the west is the state ofNew Hampshire. The Canadian province ofNew Brunswickis to the north and northeast, and the province ofQuebecis to the northwest. Maine is the northernmost and largest state in New England, accounting for almost half of the region's entire land area. Maine is the only state to border exactly one other American state. Approximately half the area of Maine lies on each side of the45th parallel northinlatitude. Maine is the easternmost state in theContiguous United Statesboth in its extreme points and its geographic center. The town ofLubecis the easternmost organized settlement in the United States. Its Quoddy Head Lighthouse is also the closest place in the United States to Africa and Europe.Estcourt Stationis Maine's northernmost point, as well as the northernmost point in New England. (For more information seeextreme points of the United States) Maine'sMoosehead Lakeis the largest lake wholly in New England, sinceLake Champlainis located betweenVermont,New York, andQuebec. A number of other Maine lakes, such asSouth Twin Lake, are described byThoreauinThe Maine Woods(1864).Mount Katahdinis the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trail, which extends southerly toSpringer Mountain,Georgia, and the southern terminus of the newInternational Appalachian Trailwhich, when complete, will run toBelle Isle,Newfoundland and Labrador. Machias Seal IslandandNorth Rock, off the state's Downeast coast, are claimed by bothCanadaand the Maine town ofCutler, and are within one offour areas between the two countries whose sovereignty is still in dispute, but it is the only one of the disputed areas containing land. Also in this easternmost area in theBay of Fundyis theOld Sow, the largesttidalwhirlpoolin theWestern Hemisphere. Maine is the least densely populated state east of theMississippi River. It is called thePine Tree Statedue to its largest distribution and presence ofpine, includingPinus strobusandPinus resinosa. Over 80% of its total area is forested or unclaimed,the most forest cover of any U.S. state. In the wooded areas of the interior lies much uninhabited land, some of which does not have formal political organization into local units (a rarity in New England). TheNorthwest Aroostookunorganized territoryin the northern part of the state, for example, has an area of 2,668 square miles (6,910 km2) and a population of 10, or one person for every 267 square miles (690 km2). Maine is in thetemperate broadleaf and mixed forestsbiome. The land near the southern and central Atlantic coast is covered by the mixedoaksof theNortheastern coastal forests. The remainder of the state, including theNorth Woods, is covered by theNew England–Acadian forests. Maine has almost 230 miles (400 km) of ocean coastline (and 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of tidal coastline).West Quoddy Headin Lubec is the easternmost point of land in the 48 contiguous states. Along the famous rock-bound coast of Maine are lighthouses, beaches, fishing villages, and thousands of offshore islands, including theIsles of Shoalswhich straddle the New Hampshire border. There are jagged rocks and cliffs and many bays and inlets. Inland are lakes, rivers, forests, and mountains. This visual contrast of forested slopes sweeping down to the sea has been summed up by American poetEdna St. Vincent MillayofRocklandandCamden, in \"Renascence\": All I could see from where I stoodWas three long mountains and a wood;I turned and looked the other way,And saw three islands in a bay. Geologists describe this type of landscape as a \"drowned coast\", where a rising sea level has invaded former land features, creating bays out of valleys and islands out of mountain tops.A rise in land elevation due to the melting of heavy glacier ice caused a slight rebounding effect of underlying rock; this land rise, however, was not enough to eliminate all the effect of the rising sea level and its invasion of former land features. Much of Maine's geomorphology was created by extended glacial activity at the end of thelast ice age. Prominent glacial features includeSomes Soundand Bubble Rock, both part of Acadia National Park on Mount Desert Island. Carved by glaciers, Somes Sound reaches depths of 175 feet (50 m). The extreme depth and steep drop-off allow large ships to navigate almost the entire length of the sound. These features also have made it attractive for boat builders, such as the prestigiousHinckley Yachts. Bubble Rock, aglacial erratic, is a large boulder perched on the edge of Bubble Mountain inAcadia National Park. By analyzing the type of granite, geologists discovered that glaciers carried Bubble Rock to its present location from nearLucerne, 30 miles (48 km) away. TheIapetus Sutureruns through the north and west of the state, being underlain by the ancientLaurentian terrane, and the south and east underlain by theAvalonian terrane. Acadia National Park is the only national park in New England. Areas under the protection and management of theNational Park Serviceinclude: Lands under the control of the state of Maine include: Climate Maine has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classificationDfb), with warm and sometimes humid summers, and long, cold and very snowy winters. Winters are especially severe in the northern and western parts of Maine, while coastal areas are moderated slightly by theAtlantic Ocean, resulting in marginally milder winters and cooler summers than inland regions. Daytime highs are generally in the 75–85 °F (24–29 °C) range throughout the state in July, with overnight lows in the high 50s°F (around 15°C). January temperatures range from highs near 30 °F (−1 °C) on the southern coast to overnight lows averaging below 0 °F (−18 °C) in the far north. The state's record high temperature is 105 °F (41 °C), set in July 1911, at North Bridgton.Precipitation in Maine is evenly distributed year-round, but with a slight summer maximum in northern/northwestern Maine and a slight late-fall or early-winter maximum along the coast due to \"nor'easters\" or intense cold-season rain and snowstorms. In coastal Maine, the late spring and summer months are usually driest—a rarity across the Eastern United States. Maine has fewer days of thunderstorms than any other state east of theRockies, with most of the state averaging fewer than twenty days ofthunderstormsa year.Tornadoesare rare in Maine, with the state averaging two per year, although this number is increasing. Most severe thunderstorms and tornadoes occur in the southwestern interior portion of the state,where summer temperatures are often the warmest and the atmosphere is thus more unstable compared to northern and coastal areas.Maine rarely sees the direct landfall oftropical cyclones, as they tend to recurve out to sea or are rapidly weakening by the time they reach the cooler waters of Maine. In January 2009, a new record low temperature for the state was set atBig Black Riverof −50 °F (−46 °C), tying the New England record. Annual precipitation varies from 35.8 in (909 mm) inPresque Isleto 56.7 in (1,441 mm) in Acadia National Park. Flora and fauna Maine exhibits a diverse range of flora and fauna across its varied landscapes, including forests, coastline, and wetlands. Forested areas consist primarily of coniferous and deciduous trees, such asbalsam fir,sugar maple, and its state tree, theEastern white pine.Coastal regions are characterized by hardysea milkwort,sea-blight,bayberry, and the invasiverugosa rose. Maine's terrestrial fauna comprises mammals such asmoose,black bears, andwhite-tailed deer, along with smaller species likered squirrels,snowshoe hares, andraccoons. Maine has the largest populations of moose and black bears in the contiguous United States.Avian diversity is evident with migratory birds likepiping plovers,American oystercatcher, andnorthern harrier, as well as resident species likeblack-capped chickadees,blue jays, andbarred owls. Wetlands provide habitat for amphibians such asspotted salamanders,wood frogs, and toads. Freshwater habitats support fish species likebrook trout,landlocked salmon, and multiplegamefish, while marine life in offshore waters includesAtlantic puffins,harbor seals,minke whales, andlobster. Maine's abundance of lobster makes the state the largest producer of lobster in the United States. Demographics Population TheU.S. Census Bureauestimates that the population of Maine was 1,344,212 on July 1, 2019, a 1.19% increase since the2010 United States census.At the2020 census, 1,362,359 people lived in the state. The state's population density is 41.3 people per square mile, making it theleast densely populated stateeast of theMississippi River. As of 2010, Maine was also the most rural state in the Union, with only 38.7% of the state's population living within urban areas.As explained in detail under \"Geography\", there are large tracts of uninhabited land in some remote parts of the interior of the state, particularly in theNorth Maine Woods. The mean population center of Maine is located inKennebec County, just east of Augusta.TheGreater Portland metropolitan areais the most densely populated with nearly 40% of Maine's population.This area spans three counties and includes many farms and wooded areas; the 2016 population of Portland proper was 66,937. Maine has experienced a very slow rate of population growth since the 1990 census; its rate of growth (0.57%) since the 2010 census ranks 45th of the 50 states.In 2021 and 2022, however, Maine had the highest proportion of arriving residents to departing residents of any state in the country, with 1.8 arrivals for every departure.The modest population growth in the state has been concentrated in the southern coastal counties; with more diverse populations slowly moving into these areas of the state. However, the northern, more rural areas of the state have experienced a slight decline in population from 2010 to 2016. As of 2020, Maine has the highest population age 65 or older in the United States. According to the2010 census, Maine has the highest percentage of non-HispanicWhiteof any state, at 94.4% of the total population. In 2011, 89.0% of all births in the state were to non-Hispanic White parents.Maine also has the second-highest residential senior population. According toHUD's 2022Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 4,411homelesspeople in Maine. The table below shows the racial composition of Maine's population as of 2016. According to the 2016American Community Survey, 1.5% of Maine's population were ofHispanic or Latinoorigin (of any race):Mexican(0.4%),Puerto Rican(0.4%),Cuban(0.1%), and other Hispanic or Latino origin (0.6%).The six largest ancestry groups were:English(20.7%),Irish(17.3%),French(15.7%),German(8.1%),American(7.8%) andFrench Canadian(7.7%). People citing that they areAmericanare of overwhelmingly English descent, but have ancestry that has been in the region for so long (often since the 17th century) that they choose to identify simply as Americans. Maine has the highest percentage ofFrench Americansof any state. Most of them are ofCanadianorigin, but in some cases have been living there since prior to theAmerican Revolutionary War. There are particularly high concentrations in the northern part of Maine inAroostook County, which is part of a cultural region known asAcadiathat goes over the border intoNew Brunswick. Along with theAcadianpopulation in the north, many French-Canadians came fromQuebecas immigrants between 1840 and 1930. The upperSaint John Rivervalley area was once part of the so-calledRepublic of Madawaska, before the frontier was decided in theWebster-Ashburton Treatyof 1842. Over a quarter of the population of Lewiston,Waterville, andBiddefordare Franco-American. Most of the residents of theMid CoastandDown Eastsections are chiefly of British heritage. Smaller numbers of various other groups, includingIrish,Italian,SwedishandPolish, have settled throughout the state since the late 19th and early 20th centuryimmigrationwaves. Today there are fourfederally recognizedtribes in Maine, including theMi'kmaq Nation. In 2020, 7,885 identified as being Native American alone, and 25,617 did in combination with one or more other races. Birth data Note: Births in table do not sum to 100% because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race. In 2018, The top countries of origin for Maine's immigrants wereCanada, thePhilippines,Germany,IndiaandKorea. Language Maine does not have an official language,but the most widely spoken language in the state is English. The 2010 census reported 92.91% of Maine residents aged five and older spoke only English at home. French-speakers are the state's chief linguistic minority; census figures show that Maine has the highest percentage of people speaking French at home of any state: 3.93% of Maine households are French-speaking, compared with 3.45% (including Cajun andCreole) inLouisiana, which is the second highest state.Spanish is the third-most-common language in Maine, after English and French. Religion Religious self-identification, perPublic Religion Research Institute's 2022American Values Survey According to thePew Research Centerin 2014, the religious affiliations of Maine were:Protestant37% (in particular:Evangelical Protestant14%,Mainline Protestant21%,Historical Black Protestant2%),AtheismorAgnosticism6%, Nothing in Particular 26%,Roman Catholic Church21%, other Christians 5%, non-Christian religions includingHinduism,Islam,BuddhismandBaháʼí7%, andPagansandUnitarians5%. In 2014, the Roman Catholic Church was the largest religious denomination and theBaptists(7% Evangelical and 5% Mainline) were the state's largest Protestant denomination, followed by theMethodists(6%) and theCongregationalists(5%). The atheists and the agnostics are only 6% of the state, but 26% of Mainers said that they \"Believe in God but they are Unaffiliated.\" Eighty-one percent of Mainers believed in God, while 3% did not know and 16% did not believe in God. Thirty-four percent of Mainers thought that religion was \"very important\" and 29% said that it was \"important\", while 21% said that religion was not important. According to a survey through thePublic Religion Research Institutein 2020, approximately 62% of the population were Christian; the religiously unaffiliated slightly increased to 33% from the separate 2014 study by the Pew Research Center.In a 2022 study by the Public Religion Research Institute, 63% of the population were Christian, and 30% were religiously unaffiliated. Among the non-Christian population in 2022, 1% wereUnitarian Universalist, 5%Jewish, and 1%New Ager. According to theAssociation of Religion Data Archivesin 2020, with Christianity as the dominant faith, the largest denominations by number of adherents were Catholicism (219,233 members), non-denominational Protestantism (45,364), and United Methodists (19,686).According to the same study, there were an estimated 16,894Muslimsin the state. Economy Total employment (May 2024): Total employer establishments (2021): Maine's totalgross state productwas $91.1 billion in 2023.The state'sper capita personal incomefor 2023 was $63,117, ranking 30th in the nation, and its median gross income was $69,543.As of September 2022, Maine's unemployment rate is 3.3%.As of September 2023, Maine'sminimum wageis $13.80. Maine'sagriculturaloutputs include poultry, eggs, dairy products, cattle, wild blueberries, apples,maple syrup, andmaple sugar.Aroostook Countyis known for itspotatocrops. Potatoes make the state $166,672,000 a year.Commercial fishing, once a mainstay of the state's economy, maintains a presence, particularlylobsteringandgroundfishing. While lobster is the main seafood focus for Maine, the harvest of both oysters and seaweed are on the rise. In 2015, 14% of the Northeast's total oyster supply came from Maine. In 2017, the production of Maine's seaweed industry was estimated at $20 million per year. The shrimp industry of Maine is on a government-mandated hold. With an ever-decreasing Northern shrimp population, Maine fishermen are no longer allowed to catch and sell shrimp. The hold began in 2014 and is expected to continue until 2021.Western Maine aquifers and springs are a source of bottled water for companies likePoland Spring. Maine's industrial outputs consist chiefly of paper, lumber and wood products, electronic equipment, leather products, food products, textiles, and bio-technology. Naval shipbuilding and construction remain key as well, withBath Iron Worksin Bath andPortsmouth Naval Shipyardin Kittery. Brunswick Landing, formerlyNaval Air Station Brunswick, is also in Maine. Formerly a large support base for the U.S. Navy, theBRACcampaign initiated the Naval Air Station's closing, despite a government-funded effort to upgrade its facilities. The former base has since been changed into a civilian business park, as well as a new satellite campus forSouthern Maine Community College. Maine is the top U.S. producer oflow-bush blueberries. Preliminary data from theUSDAfor 2012 also indicate Maine was the largest blueberry producer of the major blueberry producing states, with a total production of 91,100,000 lbs.This data includes both low (wild) andhigh-bush (cultivated) blueberries. Tourism and outdoor recreation play a major and increasingly important role in Maine's economy. The state is a popular destination for sporthunting(particularly deer, moose, and bear),sport fishing,snowmobiling,skiing, boating,campingandhiking, among other activities. Along with the tourist and recreation-oriented economy, Maine has developed a burgeoningcreative economy, most notably centered in theGreater Portlandvicinity. Historically, Maine ports played a key role in national transportation. Beginning around 1880, Portland's rail link andice-free portmade it Canada's principal winter port, until the aggressive development ofHalifax, Nova Scotia in the mid-20th century. In 2013, 12,039,600short tonspassed into and out of Portland by sea,which places it 45th of U.S. water ports.Portland International Jetporthas been expanded, providing the state with increased air traffic from carriers such asJetBlueandSouthwest Airlines. Maine has very few large companies that maintain headquarters in the state, and that number has fallen due to consolidations and mergers, particularly in thepulp and paper industry. Some of the larger companies that do maintain headquarters in Maine includeCovetrusin Portland,Fairchild Semiconductorin South Portland,IDEXX Laboratoriesin Westbrook,Hannaford Bros. Co.in Scarborough, andL.L.BeaninFreeport. Maine is also the home of theJackson Laboratory, the world's largest non-profit mammalian genetic research facility and the world's largest supplier of genetically purebred mice. Taxation Maine has anincome taxstructure containing two brackets, 6.5 and 7.95 percent of personal income.Before July 2013, Maine had four brackets: 2, 4.5, 7, and 8.5 percent.Maine's generalsales taxrate is 5.5 percent. The state also levies charges of nine percent on lodging and prepared food and ten percent on short-term auto rentals.Commercial sellers of blueberries, a Maine staple, must keep records of their transactions and pay the state 1.5 cents per pound ($1.50 per 100 pounds) of the fruit sold each season. Allrealand tangiblepersonal propertylocated in the state of Maine is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. The administration of property taxes is handled by the local assessor in incorporated cities and towns, while property taxes in the unorganized territories are handled by the State Tax Assessor. Shipbuilding Maine has a long-standing tradition of being home to many shipbuilding companies, such asBath Iron Worksand thePortsmouth Naval Shipyard. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Maine was home to many shipyards that produced wooden sailing ships. The main function of these ships was to transport either cargos or passengers overseas. One of these yards was located inPennellville Historic Districtin what is nowBrunswick, Maine. This yard, owned by the Pennell family, was typical of the many family-owned shipbuilding companies of the time period. Other such examples of shipbuilding families were the Skolfields and the Morses. During the 18th and 19th centuries, wooden shipbuilding of this sort made up a sizable portion of the economy. Transportation Airports Maine receivespassenger jetservice at its two largest airports, thePortland International Jetportin Portland, and theBangor International Airportin Bangor. Both are served daily by many majorairlinesto destinations such as New York,Atlanta, andOrlando.Essential Air Servicealso subsidizes service to a number of smaller airports in Maine, bringing smallturbopropaircraft to regional airports such as theAugusta State Airport,Hancock County-Bar Harbor Airport,Knox County Regional Airport, and theNorthern Maine Regional Airport at Presque Isle. These airports are served by regional providers such asCape AirwithCessna 402s, andCommutAirwithEmbraer ERJ-145aircraft. Many smaller airports are scattered throughout Maine, serving onlygeneral aviationtraffic. TheEastport Municipal Airport, for example, is a city-owned public-use airport with 1,200 general aviation aircraft operations each year from single-engine and ultralight aircraft. Highways Interstate95(I-95) travels through Maine, as well as its easterly branchI-295and spursI-195,I-395and the unsignedI-495(the Falmouth Spur). In addition,U.S. Route1(US1) starts inFort Kentand travels toFlorida. The eastern terminus of the eastern section ofUS2starts in Houlton, near the New Brunswick, Canada border toRouses Point, New York, atUS11.US2Aconnects Old Town and Orono, primarily serving theUniversity of Mainecampus.US201andUS202flow through the state. US2,Maine State Route 6(SR6), andSR9are often used by truckers and other motorists of theMaritime Provincesen routeto other destinations in the United States or as a short cut toCentral Canada. Rail Passenger TheDowneasterpassenger train, operated byAmtrak, provides passenger service between Brunswick and Boston'sNorth Station, with stops in Freeport, Portland,Old Orchard Beach, Saco, andWells. TheDowneastermakes five daily trips. Freight Freight service throughout the state is provided by a handful of regional and shortline carriers:Pan Am Railways(formerly known as Guilford Rail System), which operates the formerBoston and MaineandMaine Centralrailroads;St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad;Maine Eastern Railroad;Central Maine and Quebec Railway; andNew Brunswick Southern Railway. Shipping Cargo The International Marine Terminal inPortlandprovides shipping container transport. In 2021 an estimated 36,700 shipping containers moved through the terminal. In 2017, a total of 17,515 shipping containers were transported. The Icelandic shipping companyEimskipopened its United States headquarters in Portland in 2013. Its ships stop in Portland once a week in a route that includes Atlantic Canada and Iceland with connections to northern Europe and Asia.In 2015, the terminal moved 10,500 containers. The Maine Port Authority in 2016 began a $15.5 million expansion and improvement of the terminal. The Maine Port Authority leased the International Marine Terminal from the city of Portland in 2009. Law and government TheMaine Constitutionstructures Maine's state government, composed of three co-equal branches—the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The state of Maine also has three Constitutional Officers (the Secretary of State, the State Treasurer, and the State Attorney General) and one Statutory Officer (the State Auditor). Thelegislative branchis theMaine Legislature, a bicameral body composed of theMaine House of Representatives, with 151 members, and theMaine Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is charged with introducing and passing laws. Theexecutive branchis headed by theGovernor of Maine(currentlyJanet Mills). The Governor is elected every four years; no individual may serve more than two consecutive terms in this office. The currentattorney general of MaineisAaron Frey. As with otherstate legislatures, the Maine Legislature can by a two-thirds majority vote from both the House and Senate override a gubernatorial veto. Maine is one of seven states that do not have a lieutenant governor. The highest court in the state'sjudicial branchis theMaine Supreme Judicial Court. The lower courts are the District Court,Superior Courtand Probate Court. All judges except for probate judges serve full-time, are nominated by the Governor, and confirmed by the Legislature for terms of seven years. Probate judges serve part-time and are elected by the voters of each county for four-year terms. In a 2020 study, Maine was ranked as the 14th easiest state for citizens to vote in.In 2012, Maine became one of the first U.S. states to establishmarriage rights for same-sex couples. Politics Maine politics are dynamic in nature, with parties loosely hung together, governors often winning by pluralities rather than majorities, and significant turnover both in members and parties inlegislative districts. In his 2010 articleMaine's Paradoxical Politics, Kenneth Palmer suggests that \"Maine's political leaders find themselves ascentrists, primarily because they want to find practical solutions to difficult problems.\" The results of the elections are oftenvaried. Maine is seen as a blue-leaningswing state, with unusually high support forindependent candidates.The Republican Partyhave won Maine in 11 out of the past 20 presidential elections, and the governorship has been won byDemocratsand independents three times each, and Republicans four times, since 1974. Maine usesranked choice votingin primary elections for state and federal offices, as well as in general elections for federal offices. Ranked choice voting was adopted by voters in a2016 referendum. Counties Maine is divided into political jurisdictions designated ascounties. Since 1860 there have been 16 counties in the state, ranging in size from 370 to 6,829 square miles (958 to 17,700 km2). Law enforcement Municipalities Organized municipalities An organized municipality has a form of elected local government which administers and provides local services, keeps records, collects licensing fees, and can pass locally bindingordinances, among other responsibilities of self-government. The governmental format of most organized towns andplantationsis the town meeting, while the format of most cities is the council-manager form. As of 2022the organized municipalities of Maine consist of 23cities, 430towns, and 30plantations. Collectively these 483 organized municipalities cover less than half of the state's territory. Maine also has threeReservations:Indian Island, Indian Township Reservation, and Pleasant Point Indian Reservation. Unorganized territory Unorganized territory(UT) has no local government. Administration, services, licensing, and ordinances are handled by the state government as well as by respective county governments who have townships within each county's bounds. The unorganized territory of Maine consists of more than 400 townships (in Maine, towns are incorporated, townships are unincorporated), plus many coastal islands that do not lie within any municipal bounds. The UT land area is slightly over half the entire area of the State of Maine. Year-round residents in the UT number approximately 9,000 (about 1.3% of the state's total population), with many more people staying there only seasonally. Only four ofMaine's sixteen counties(Androscoggin, Cumberland, Waldo and York) are entirely incorporated, although a few others are nearly so, and most of the unincorporated area is in the vast and sparsely populatedGreat North Woods of Maine. Most populous cities and towns Throughout Maine, many municipalities, although each separate governmental entities, nevertheless form portions of a much larger population base. There are many such population clusters throughout Maine, but some examples from the municipalities appearing in the above listing are: Education There are thirty institutions ofhigher learningin Maine.These institutions include theUniversity of Maine, which is the oldest, largest and onlyresearch universityin the state. UMaine was founded in 1865 and is the state's onlyland grantandsea grantcollege. The University of Maine is located in the town ofOronoand is the flagship of Maine. There are also branch campuses inAugusta,Farmington,Fort Kent,Machias, andPresque Isle. Bowdoin Collegeis a liberal arts college founded in 1794 in Brunswick, making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the state.Colby Collegein Waterville was founded in 1813 making it the second oldest college in Maine.Bates Collegein Lewiston was founded in 1855 making it the third oldest institution in the state and the oldestcoeducationalcollege in New England.The three colleges collectively form theColby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortiumand are ranked among the best colleges in the United States; often placing in the top 10% of all liberal arts colleges. Maine's per-student public expenditure for elementary and secondary schools was 21st in the nation in 2012, at $12,344. The collegiate system of Maine also includes numerousbaccalaureatecolleges such as: theMaine Maritime Academy(MMA),College of the Atlantic,Unity College, andThomas College. There is only one medical school in the state, (University of New England'sCollege of Osteopathic Medicine) and only one law school (TheUniversity of Maine School of Law). There is one art school in the state,Maine College of Art, along with a private graduate school,Institute for Doctoral Studies in the Visual Arts, which offers aDoctor of Philosophyto visual artists. TheMaine Community College System, founded in 1985 also serves \"to provide associate degree, diploma and certificate programs directed at the educational, career and technical needs of the State's citizens and the workforce needs of the State's employers.\"This system includesSouthern Maine Community College(SMCC),York County Community College(YCCC),Central Maine Community College(CMCC),Eastern Maine Community College(EMCC),Kennebec Valley Community College(KVCC),Northern Maine Community College(NMCC), andWashington County Community College(WCCC). Private schools in Maine are funded independently of the state and its furthered domains. Private schools are less common than public schools. A large number of private elementary schools with under 20 students exist, but most private high schools in Maine can be described as \"semi-private\". Maine also has Vocational Schools, such as theBiddeford Regional Center of Technologyand Sanford Regional Technical Centerthat teach trades such as welding, construction and vehicle repair to students. Culture Agriculture Maine was a center of agriculture before it achieved statehood. Prior to colonization,Wabanakinations farmed large crops of corn and other produce in southern Maine. Maine was a center of grain production in the 1800s, until grain production moved westward. However, in the early 2000s the local food movement spurred renewed interested in locally grown grains. In 2007, the Kneading Conference was founded. In, 2012, theSkowhegangrist mill Maine Grains opened.The revival of grain farming and milling in Maine has led to the creation of other businesses, including bakeries and malthouses. Maine has many vegetable farms and other small, diversified farms. In the 1960s and 1970s, the book \"Living the Good Life\" byHelen NearingandScott Nearingcaused many young people to move to Maine and engage in small-scale farming and homesteading. Theseback-to-the-landmigrants increased the population of some counties. Maine is home to theMaine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Associationand had 535 certified organic farms in 2019. Festivals Maine has multiple fairs and festivals that are held annually, which includeLa Kermesse, a celebration of the state'sFrenchandFrench Canadianheritage, theFryeburg Fair, theCumberland Fair, theUnion Fair, theCommon Ground Country Fair, a number ofOld Home Days festivals, and a number ofPortland Food Festivals. Food Along with the growth of the local food movement over the last several decades, Maine has received national recognition for its food and restaurant scene.Portlandwas namedBon Appetitmagazine's Restaurant City of the Year in 2018.In 2018, HealthIQ.com named Maine the 3rd most vegan-friendly state.Biddefordwas selected byFood & Winein 2022 as one of America's next great food cities. Maine food shares many ingredients withWabanaki cuisine, including corn, beans, squash, wild blueberries, maple syrup, fish, and seafood.By 1902, theMaine Italian sandwichhad been invented in Portland. Sandwich shops across Maine serve the sandwiches.Baked beans are a common dish in Maine, served at community suppers where the beans are sometimes cooked underground in a bean hole. In New England, Maine baked beans are one of two well-known regional styles of baked beans, the other beingBoston baked beans. Maine baked beans use thicker skinned, native bean varieties such like Marafax, soldier, and yellow-eye beans.From 1913 until 2021, baked beans were canned on the Portland waterfront at theB&M Baked Beans factory. Sports teams Professional Upcoming Non-professional NCAA USCAA Terminology Maine maintains some vernacular and terminology that is unique in comparison to the rest of the country.Some of these include: People from Maine Citizens of Maine are often known as Mainers.The term Downeaster may be applied to residents of the northeast coast of the state. The term Mainiac is considered by some to be derogatory, but is embraced with pride by others,and is used for a variety of organizations and for events such as the YMCA Mainiac Sprint Triathlon & Duathlon. See also References Notes Citations External links State government U.S. government Information", "List of first ladies of the United States Thefirst lady of the United Statesis the hostess of theWhite House. The position is traditionally filled by the wife of thepresident of the United States, but, on occasion, the title has been applied to women who were not presidents' wives, such as when the president was a bachelor or widower, or when the wife of the president was unable to fulfill the duties of the first lady. The first lady is not an elected position; it carries no official duties and receives no salary. Nonetheless, she attends many official ceremonies and functions of state either along with or in place of the president. Traditionally, the first lady does not hold outside employment while occupying the office,althoughEleanor Rooseveltearned money writing and giving lectures, but gave most of it to charity,andJill Bidenhas maintained her regular job as an educator during her time in the role.The first lady has her own staff, including theWhite House social secretary, thechief of staff, thepress secretary, thechief floral designer, and theexecutive chef. TheOffice of the First Ladyis also in charge of all social and ceremonial events of the White House, and is a branch of theExecutive Office of the President. There have been total of 54 first ladies including 43 official and 11 acting, within 46 first ladyships. This discrepancy exists because some presidents had multiple first ladies. FollowingJoe Biden'sinaugurationon January 20, 2021, his wife,Jill Biden, became the 43rd official first lady. There are four living former first ladies:Hillary Clinton, married toBill Clinton;Laura Bush, married toGeorge W. Bush;Michelle Obama, married toBarack Obama; andMelania Trump, married toDonald Trump. The most recent first lady to die wasRosalynn Carter, married toJimmy Carter. The first first lady wasMartha Washington, married toGeorge Washington. PresidentsJohn TylerandWoodrow Wilsonhad two official first ladies; both remarried during their presidential tenures. The wives of four presidents died before their husbands were sworn into office but are still considered first ladies by the White House and National First Ladies' Library:Martha Wayles Skelton, married toThomas Jefferson;Rachel Jackson, married toAndrew Jackson;Hannah Van Buren, married toMartin Van Buren;andEllen Lewis Herndon Arthur, married toChester A. Arthur.One woman who was not married to a president is still considered an official first lady:Harriet Lane, niece of bachelorJames Buchanan. The other non-spousal relatives who served as White House hostesses are not recognized by the First Ladies' Library. In 2007, theUnited States Mintbegan releasing a set of half-ounce $10 gold coins under theFirst Spouse Programwith engravings of portraits of the first ladies on theobverse.When a president served without a spouse, a gold coin was issued that bears an obverse image emblematic ofLibertyas depicted on a circulating coin of that era and a reverse image emblematic of themes of that president's life. This is true for the coins for Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, and James Buchanan's first ladies, but not the coin for Chester A. Arthur's first lady, which instead depictssuffragetteAlice Paul. Current living first ladies Living first ladies as of October 2024(from oldest to youngest): List This list includes all persons who served as first ladies, regardless of whether they were married to the incumbent president or not, as well as persons who are considered first ladiesby the official White House websiteand theWhite House Historical Association. It is sorted by the name the first ladies were commonly known as. June 1, 1807 – December 19, 1836(aged 29) July 16, 1803 – August 23, 1887(aged 84) Other spouses of presidents of the United States Certain spouses of presidents of the United States are not considered first ladies of the United States. Four presidents were widowed prior to their presidencies: Two presidents were widowed and remarried prior to their presidencies: Two presidents were divorced and remarried prior to their presidencies: Two presidents remarried after their presidencies: See also Notes References External links" ]
[ "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889", "Maine Maine(/meɪn/ⓘMAYN)is astatein theNew Englandregion of theUnited States, and the northeasternmost state in theLower 48. It bordersNew Hampshireto the west, theGulf of Maineto the southeast, and theCanadian provincesofNew BrunswickandQuebecto the northeast and northwest, and shares a maritime border withNova Scotia. Maine is the largeststatein New England by total area, nearly larger than the combined area of the remaining five states. Of the50 U.S. states, it is the12th-smallest by area, the9th-least populous, the13th-least densely populated, and the most rural.Maine'scapitalisAugusta, and itsmost populous cityisPortland, with a total population of 68,408, as of the2020 census. The territory of Maine has been inhabited byIndigenous populationsfor about 12,000 years,after the glaciers retreated during thelast ice age. At the time of European arrival, severalAlgonquian-speaking nations governed the area and these nations are now known as theWabanaki Confederacy. The first European settlement in the area", "in the area was by the French in 1604 onSaint Croix Island, founded byPierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-livedPopham Colony, established by thePlymouth Companyin 1607. A number of English settlements were established along the coast of Maine in the 1620s, although the rugged climate and conflict with the localIndigenous peoplecaused many to fail. As Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived.LoyalistandPatriotforces contended for Maine's territory during theAmerican Revolution. During theWar of 1812, the largely undefended eastern region of Maine was occupied by British forces with the goal of annexing it toCanadavia theColony of New Ireland, but returned to the United States following failed British offensives on the northern border, mid-Atlantic and south which produced apeace treatythat restored the pre-war boundaries. Maine was part of theCommonwealth of Massachusettsuntil 1820 when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to", "Massachusetts to become a separate state. On March 15, 1820, under theMissouri Compromise, Maine wasadmitted to the Unionas the 23rd state. Today, Maine is known for its jagged, rockyAtlantic Oceanand bayshore coastlines, mountains, heavilyforestedinterior, and its cuisine, particularlywild lowbush blueberriesandseafoodsuch aslobsterandclams. Coastal andDown East Mainehave emerged as important centers for thecreative economy,especially inthe vicinity of Portland, which has also broughtgentrificationto the city and its metropolitan area. History The earliest known inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including thePassamaquoddy,Maliseet,Penobscot,Androscoggin, and Kennebec. During the laterKing Philip's War, many of these peoples would merge in one form or another to become theWabanaki Confederacy, aiding theWampanoagofMassachusettsand theMahicanofNew York. Afterwards, many of these people were driven from their natural territories, but most of Maine's", "but most of Maine's tribes continued, unchanged, until theAmerican Revolution. Before this point, however, most of these people were considered separate nations. Many had adapted to living in permanent,Iroquois-inspired settlements, while those along the coast tended to move from summer villages to winter villages on a yearly cycle. They would usually winter inland and head to the coasts by summer. European contactwith what is now called Maine may have started around 1200 CE whenVikingsare believed to have interacted with the nativePenobscotin present-dayHancock County, most likely through trade. If confirmed, this would make Maine the site of the earliest European discovery in the entire US. About 200 years earlier, from the settlements inIcelandandGreenland, the Norsefirst identified Americaandattempted to settleareas such asNewfoundland, but failed to establish a permanent settlement. Archeological evidence suggests thatVikings in Greenlandreturned to North America for severalcenturiesafter the initial", "the initial discovery to trade and collect timber, with the most relevant evidence being theMaine Penny, an 11th-century Norwegian coin found at a Native American dig site in 1954. The first European confirmed settlement in modern-day Maine was in 1604 onSaint Croix Island, led by French explorerPierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. His party includedSamuel de Champlain, noted as an explorer. The French named the entire areaAcadia, including the portion that later became the state of Maine. ThePlymouth Companyestablished the first English settlement in Maine at thePopham Colonyin 1607, the same year as the settlement atJamestown, Virginia. The Popham colonists returned toBritainafter 14 months. The French established twoJesuitmissions: one onPenobscot Bayin 1609, and the other onMount Desert Islandin 1613. The same year,Claude de La TourestablishedCastine. In 1625,Charles de Saint-Étienne de la TourerectedFort Pentagouetto protect Castine. The coastal areas of eastern Maine first became theProvince of Mainein a 1622", "of Mainein a 1622 land patent. The part of western Maine north of theKennebec Riverwas more sparsely settled and was known in the 17th century as theTerritory of Sagadahock. A second settlement was attempted in 1623 by English explorer and naval CaptainChristopher Levettat a place calledYork, where he had been granted 6,000 acres (24 km2) byKing Charles Iof England.It also failed. The 1622 patent of the Province of Maine was split at thePiscataqua Riverinto theProvince of New Hampshireto the south andNew Somersetshireto the north. A disputed 1630 patent split off the area around present-daySacoasLygonia. Justifying its actions with a 1652 geographic survey that showed an overlapping patent, theMassachusetts Bay Colonyhad seized New Somersetshire and Lygonia by force by 1658. TheTerritory of Sagadahockbetween theKennebec RiverandSt. Croix Rivernotionally becameCornwall County, Province of New Yorkunder a 1664 grant fromCharles II of Englandto hisbrother James, at the time theDuke of York. Some of this land", "Some of this land was claimed byNew Franceas part ofAcadia. All of the English settlements in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Province of New York became part of theDominion of New Englandin 1686. All of present-day Maine was unified asYork County, Massachusettsunder a 1691 royal patent for theProvince of Massachusetts Bay. Central Maine was formerly inhabited by theAndroscoggin tribeof theAbenaki nation, also known as Arosaguntacook. They were driven out of the area in 1690 duringKing William's War. They were relocated toSt. Francis, Canada, which was destroyed byRogers' Rangersin 1759, and is nowOdanak. The other Abenaki tribes suffered several severe defeats, particularly duringDummer's War, with the capture ofNorridgewockin 1724 and the defeat of thePequawketin 1725, which significantly reduced their numbers. They finally withdrew toCanada, where they were settled atBécancourandSillery, and later at St. Francis, along with other refugee tribes from the south. Maine was much fought over by theFrench,", "over by theFrench, English, and allied natives during the 17th and 18th centuries. These natives conducted raids against settlers and each other, taking captives for ransom or, in some cases, kidnapped for adoption byNative Americantribes. A notable example was the early 1692Abenakiraid on York, where about 100 English settlers were killed and another estimated 80 taken hostage.TheAbenakitook captives taken during raids ofMassachusettsinQueen Anne's Warof the early 1700s toKahnewake, a CatholicMohawkvillage nearMontreal, where some were adopted and others ransomed. After the British defeated the French in Acadia in the 1740s, the territory from thePenobscot Rivereast fell under the nominal authority of theProvince of Nova Scotia, and together with present-day New Brunswick formed the Nova Scotia county ofSunbury, with its court of general sessions at Campobello. American and British forces contended for Maine's territory during the American Revolution and the War of 1812, with the British occupying eastern", "occupying eastern Maine in both conflicts via theColony of New Ireland.The territory of Maine was confirmed as part of Massachusetts when the United States was formed following theTreaty of Parisending the revolution, although the final border withBritish North Americawas not established until theWebster–Ashburton Treatyof 1842. Maine was physically separate from the rest of Massachusetts. Longstanding disagreements over land speculation and settlements led to Maine residents and their allies in Massachusetts proper forcing an 1807 vote in the Massachusetts Assembly on permitting Maine to secede; the vote failed. Secessionist sentiment in Maine was stoked during theWar of 1812when Massachusetts pro-British merchants opposed the war and refused to defend Maine from British invaders. In 1819, Massachusetts agreed to permit secession, sanctioned by voters of the rapidly growing region the following year. Statehood and Missouri Compromise Formal secession from Massachusetts and admission of Maine as the 23rd", "Maine as the 23rd state occurred on March 15, 1820, as part of theMissouri Compromise, which geographically restricted the spread ofslaveryand enabled the admission to statehood ofMissourithe following year, keeping a balance betweenslaveand free states. Maine's original state capital was Portland, Maine's largest city, until it was moved to the more central Augusta in 1832. The principal office of theMaine Supreme Judicial Courtremains in Portland. The20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment, under the command of ColonelJoshua Lawrence Chamberlain, prevented theUnion Armyfrom being flanked atLittle Round Topby theConfederate Armyduring theBattle of Gettysburg. FourU.S. Navyships have been namedUSSMaine, most famously thearmored cruiserUSSMaine(ACR-1), whose sinking by an explosion on February 15, 1898, precipitated theSpanish–American War. Geography To the south and east is theGulf of Maine, and to the west is the state ofNew Hampshire. The Canadian province ofNew Brunswickis to the north and northeast, and", "and northeast, and the province ofQuebecis to the northwest. Maine is the northernmost and largest state in New England, accounting for almost half of the region's entire land area. Maine is the only state to border exactly one other American state. Approximately half the area of Maine lies on each side of the45th parallel northinlatitude. Maine is the easternmost state in theContiguous United Statesboth in its extreme points and its geographic center. The town ofLubecis the easternmost organized settlement in the United States. Its Quoddy Head Lighthouse is also the closest place in the United States to Africa and Europe.Estcourt Stationis Maine's northernmost point, as well as the northernmost point in New England. (For more information seeextreme points of the United States) Maine'sMoosehead Lakeis the largest lake wholly in New England, sinceLake Champlainis located betweenVermont,New York, andQuebec. A number of other Maine lakes, such asSouth Twin Lake, are described byThoreauinThe Maine", "Maine Woods(1864).Mount Katahdinis the northern terminus of theAppalachian Trail, which extends southerly toSpringer Mountain,Georgia, and the southern terminus of the newInternational Appalachian Trailwhich, when complete, will run toBelle Isle,Newfoundland and Labrador. Machias Seal IslandandNorth Rock, off the state's Downeast coast, are claimed by bothCanadaand the Maine town ofCutler, and are within one offour areas between the two countries whose sovereignty is still in dispute, but it is the only one of the disputed areas containing land. Also in this easternmost area in theBay of Fundyis theOld Sow, the largesttidalwhirlpoolin theWestern Hemisphere. Maine is the least densely populated state east of theMississippi River. It is called thePine Tree Statedue to its largest distribution and presence ofpine, includingPinus strobusandPinus resinosa. Over 80% of its total area is forested or unclaimed,the most forest cover of any U.S. state. In the wooded areas of the interior lies much uninhabited land,", "uninhabited land, some of which does not have formal political organization into local units (a rarity in New England). TheNorthwest Aroostookunorganized territoryin the northern part of the state, for example, has an area of 2,668 square miles (6,910 km2) and a population of 10, or one person for every 267 square miles (690 km2). Maine is in thetemperate broadleaf and mixed forestsbiome. The land near the southern and central Atlantic coast is covered by the mixedoaksof theNortheastern coastal forests. The remainder of the state, including theNorth Woods, is covered by theNew England–Acadian forests. Maine has almost 230 miles (400 km) of ocean coastline (and 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of tidal coastline).West Quoddy Headin Lubec is the easternmost point of land in the 48 contiguous states. Along the famous rock-bound coast of Maine are lighthouses, beaches, fishing villages, and thousands of offshore islands, including theIsles of Shoalswhich straddle the New Hampshire border. There are jagged rocks and cliffs", "rocks and cliffs and many bays and inlets. Inland are lakes, rivers, forests, and mountains. This visual contrast of forested slopes sweeping down to the sea has been summed up by American poetEdna St. Vincent MillayofRocklandandCamden, in \"Renascence\": All I could see from where I stoodWas three long mountains and a wood;I turned and looked the other way,And saw three islands in a bay. Geologists describe this type of landscape as a \"drowned coast\", where a rising sea level has invaded former land features, creating bays out of valleys and islands out of mountain tops.A rise in land elevation due to the melting of heavy glacier ice caused a slight rebounding effect of underlying rock; this land rise, however, was not enough to eliminate all the effect of the rising sea level and its invasion of former land features. Much of Maine's geomorphology was created by extended glacial activity at the end of thelast ice age. Prominent glacial features includeSomes Soundand Bubble Rock, both part of Acadia National", "of Acadia National Park on Mount Desert Island. Carved by glaciers, Somes Sound reaches depths of 175 feet (50 m). The extreme depth and steep drop-off allow large ships to navigate almost the entire length of the sound. These features also have made it attractive for boat builders, such as the prestigiousHinckley Yachts. Bubble Rock, aglacial erratic, is a large boulder perched on the edge of Bubble Mountain inAcadia National Park. By analyzing the type of granite, geologists discovered that glaciers carried Bubble Rock to its present location from nearLucerne, 30 miles (48 km) away. TheIapetus Sutureruns through the north and west of the state, being underlain by the ancientLaurentian terrane, and the south and east underlain by theAvalonian terrane. Acadia National Park is the only national park in New England. Areas under the protection and management of theNational Park Serviceinclude: Lands under the control of the state of Maine include: Climate Maine has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate", "(Köppen climate classificationDfb), with warm and sometimes humid summers, and long, cold and very snowy winters. Winters are especially severe in the northern and western parts of Maine, while coastal areas are moderated slightly by theAtlantic Ocean, resulting in marginally milder winters and cooler summers than inland regions. Daytime highs are generally in the 75–85 °F (24–29 °C) range throughout the state in July, with overnight lows in the high 50s°F (around 15°C). January temperatures range from highs near 30 °F (−1 °C) on the southern coast to overnight lows averaging below 0 °F (−18 °C) in the far north. The state's record high temperature is 105 °F (41 °C), set in July 1911, at North Bridgton.Precipitation in Maine is evenly distributed year-round, but with a slight summer maximum in northern/northwestern Maine and a slight late-fall or early-winter maximum along the coast due to \"nor'easters\" or intense cold-season rain and snowstorms. In coastal Maine, the late spring and summer months are", "summer months are usually driest—a rarity across the Eastern United States. Maine has fewer days of thunderstorms than any other state east of theRockies, with most of the state averaging fewer than twenty days ofthunderstormsa year.Tornadoesare rare in Maine, with the state averaging two per year, although this number is increasing. Most severe thunderstorms and tornadoes occur in the southwestern interior portion of the state,where summer temperatures are often the warmest and the atmosphere is thus more unstable compared to northern and coastal areas.Maine rarely sees the direct landfall oftropical cyclones, as they tend to recurve out to sea or are rapidly weakening by the time they reach the cooler waters of Maine. In January 2009, a new record low temperature for the state was set atBig Black Riverof −50 °F (−46 °C), tying the New England record. Annual precipitation varies from 35.8 in (909 mm) inPresque Isleto 56.7 in (1,441 mm) in Acadia National Park. Flora and fauna Maine exhibits a diverse range", "a diverse range of flora and fauna across its varied landscapes, including forests, coastline, and wetlands. Forested areas consist primarily of coniferous and deciduous trees, such asbalsam fir,sugar maple, and its state tree, theEastern white pine.Coastal regions are characterized by hardysea milkwort,sea-blight,bayberry, and the invasiverugosa rose. Maine's terrestrial fauna comprises mammals such asmoose,black bears, andwhite-tailed deer, along with smaller species likered squirrels,snowshoe hares, andraccoons. Maine has the largest populations of moose and black bears in the contiguous United States.Avian diversity is evident with migratory birds likepiping plovers,American oystercatcher, andnorthern harrier, as well as resident species likeblack-capped chickadees,blue jays, andbarred owls. Wetlands provide habitat for amphibians such asspotted salamanders,wood frogs, and toads. Freshwater habitats support fish species likebrook trout,landlocked salmon, and multiplegamefish, while marine life in", "marine life in offshore waters includesAtlantic puffins,harbor seals,minke whales, andlobster. Maine's abundance of lobster makes the state the largest producer of lobster in the United States. Demographics Population TheU.S. Census Bureauestimates that the population of Maine was 1,344,212 on July 1, 2019, a 1.19% increase since the2010 United States census.At the2020 census, 1,362,359 people lived in the state. The state's population density is 41.3 people per square mile, making it theleast densely populated stateeast of theMississippi River. As of 2010, Maine was also the most rural state in the Union, with only 38.7% of the state's population living within urban areas.As explained in detail under \"Geography\", there are large tracts of uninhabited land in some remote parts of the interior of the state, particularly in theNorth Maine Woods. The mean population center of Maine is located inKennebec County, just east of Augusta.TheGreater Portland metropolitan areais the most densely populated with nearly", "with nearly 40% of Maine's population.This area spans three counties and includes many farms and wooded areas; the 2016 population of Portland proper was 66,937. Maine has experienced a very slow rate of population growth since the 1990 census; its rate of growth (0.57%) since the 2010 census ranks 45th of the 50 states.In 2021 and 2022, however, Maine had the highest proportion of arriving residents to departing residents of any state in the country, with 1.8 arrivals for every departure.The modest population growth in the state has been concentrated in the southern coastal counties; with more diverse populations slowly moving into these areas of the state. However, the northern, more rural areas of the state have experienced a slight decline in population from 2010 to 2016. As of 2020, Maine has the highest population age 65 or older in the United States. According to the2010 census, Maine has the highest percentage of non-HispanicWhiteof any state, at 94.4% of the total population. In 2011, 89.0% of all", "2011, 89.0% of all births in the state were to non-Hispanic White parents.Maine also has the second-highest residential senior population. According toHUD's 2022Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 4,411homelesspeople in Maine. The table below shows the racial composition of Maine's population as of 2016. According to the 2016American Community Survey, 1.5% of Maine's population were ofHispanic or Latinoorigin (of any race):Mexican(0.4%),Puerto Rican(0.4%),Cuban(0.1%), and other Hispanic or Latino origin (0.6%).The six largest ancestry groups were:English(20.7%),Irish(17.3%),French(15.7%),German(8.1%),American(7.8%) andFrench Canadian(7.7%). People citing that they areAmericanare of overwhelmingly English descent, but have ancestry that has been in the region for so long (often since the 17th century) that they choose to identify simply as Americans. Maine has the highest percentage ofFrench Americansof any state. Most of them are ofCanadianorigin, but in some cases have been living", "have been living there since prior to theAmerican Revolutionary War. There are particularly high concentrations in the northern part of Maine inAroostook County, which is part of a cultural region known asAcadiathat goes over the border intoNew Brunswick. Along with theAcadianpopulation in the north, many French-Canadians came fromQuebecas immigrants between 1840 and 1930. The upperSaint John Rivervalley area was once part of the so-calledRepublic of Madawaska, before the frontier was decided in theWebster-Ashburton Treatyof 1842. Over a quarter of the population of Lewiston,Waterville, andBiddefordare Franco-American. Most of the residents of theMid CoastandDown Eastsections are chiefly of British heritage. Smaller numbers of various other groups, includingIrish,Italian,SwedishandPolish, have settled throughout the state since the late 19th and early 20th centuryimmigrationwaves. Today there are fourfederally recognizedtribes in Maine, including theMi'kmaq Nation. In 2020, 7,885 identified as being Native", "as being Native American alone, and 25,617 did in combination with one or more other races. Birth data Note: Births in table do not sum to 100% because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race. In 2018, The top countries of origin for Maine's immigrants wereCanada, thePhilippines,Germany,IndiaandKorea. Language Maine does not have an official language,but the most widely spoken language in the state is English. The 2010 census reported 92.91% of Maine residents aged five and older spoke only English at home. French-speakers are the state's chief linguistic minority; census figures show that Maine has the highest percentage of people speaking French at home of any state: 3.93% of Maine households are French-speaking, compared with 3.45% (including Cajun andCreole) inLouisiana, which is the second highest state.Spanish is the third-most-common language in Maine, after English and French. Religion Religious self-identification, perPublic Religion Research Institute's 2022American Values", "2022American Values Survey According to thePew Research Centerin 2014, the religious affiliations of Maine were:Protestant37% (in particular:Evangelical Protestant14%,Mainline Protestant21%,Historical Black Protestant2%),AtheismorAgnosticism6%, Nothing in Particular 26%,Roman Catholic Church21%, other Christians 5%, non-Christian religions includingHinduism,Islam,BuddhismandBaháʼí7%, andPagansandUnitarians5%. In 2014, the Roman Catholic Church was the largest religious denomination and theBaptists(7% Evangelical and 5% Mainline) were the state's largest Protestant denomination, followed by theMethodists(6%) and theCongregationalists(5%). The atheists and the agnostics are only 6% of the state, but 26% of Mainers said that they \"Believe in God but they are Unaffiliated.\" Eighty-one percent of Mainers believed in God, while 3% did not know and 16% did not believe in God. Thirty-four percent of Mainers thought that religion was \"very important\" and 29% said that it was \"important\", while 21% said that religion", "said that religion was not important. According to a survey through thePublic Religion Research Institutein 2020, approximately 62% of the population were Christian; the religiously unaffiliated slightly increased to 33% from the separate 2014 study by the Pew Research Center.In a 2022 study by the Public Religion Research Institute, 63% of the population were Christian, and 30% were religiously unaffiliated. Among the non-Christian population in 2022, 1% wereUnitarian Universalist, 5%Jewish, and 1%New Ager. According to theAssociation of Religion Data Archivesin 2020, with Christianity as the dominant faith, the largest denominations by number of adherents were Catholicism (219,233 members), non-denominational Protestantism (45,364), and United Methodists (19,686).According to the same study, there were an estimated 16,894Muslimsin the state. Economy Total employment (May 2024): Total employer establishments (2021): Maine's totalgross state productwas $91.1 billion in 2023.The state'sper capita personal", "capita personal incomefor 2023 was $63,117, ranking 30th in the nation, and its median gross income was $69,543.As of September 2022, Maine's unemployment rate is 3.3%.As of September 2023, Maine'sminimum wageis $13.80. Maine'sagriculturaloutputs include poultry, eggs, dairy products, cattle, wild blueberries, apples,maple syrup, andmaple sugar.Aroostook Countyis known for itspotatocrops. Potatoes make the state $166,672,000 a year.Commercial fishing, once a mainstay of the state's economy, maintains a presence, particularlylobsteringandgroundfishing. While lobster is the main seafood focus for Maine, the harvest of both oysters and seaweed are on the rise. In 2015, 14% of the Northeast's total oyster supply came from Maine. In 2017, the production of Maine's seaweed industry was estimated at $20 million per year. The shrimp industry of Maine is on a government-mandated hold. With an ever-decreasing Northern shrimp population, Maine fishermen are no longer allowed to catch and sell shrimp. The hold began in", "The hold began in 2014 and is expected to continue until 2021.Western Maine aquifers and springs are a source of bottled water for companies likePoland Spring. Maine's industrial outputs consist chiefly of paper, lumber and wood products, electronic equipment, leather products, food products, textiles, and bio-technology. Naval shipbuilding and construction remain key as well, withBath Iron Worksin Bath andPortsmouth Naval Shipyardin Kittery. Brunswick Landing, formerlyNaval Air Station Brunswick, is also in Maine. Formerly a large support base for the U.S. Navy, theBRACcampaign initiated the Naval Air Station's closing, despite a government-funded effort to upgrade its facilities. The former base has since been changed into a civilian business park, as well as a new satellite campus forSouthern Maine Community College. Maine is the top U.S. producer oflow-bush blueberries. Preliminary data from theUSDAfor 2012 also indicate Maine was the largest blueberry producer of the major blueberry producing states,", "producing states, with a total production of 91,100,000 lbs.This data includes both low (wild) andhigh-bush (cultivated) blueberries. Tourism and outdoor recreation play a major and increasingly important role in Maine's economy. The state is a popular destination for sporthunting(particularly deer, moose, and bear),sport fishing,snowmobiling,skiing, boating,campingandhiking, among other activities. Along with the tourist and recreation-oriented economy, Maine has developed a burgeoningcreative economy, most notably centered in theGreater Portlandvicinity. Historically, Maine ports played a key role in national transportation. Beginning around 1880, Portland's rail link andice-free portmade it Canada's principal winter port, until the aggressive development ofHalifax, Nova Scotia in the mid-20th century. In 2013, 12,039,600short tonspassed into and out of Portland by sea,which places it 45th of U.S. water ports.Portland International Jetporthas been expanded, providing the state with increased air traffic", "air traffic from carriers such asJetBlueandSouthwest Airlines. Maine has very few large companies that maintain headquarters in the state, and that number has fallen due to consolidations and mergers, particularly in thepulp and paper industry. Some of the larger companies that do maintain headquarters in Maine includeCovetrusin Portland,Fairchild Semiconductorin South Portland,IDEXX Laboratoriesin Westbrook,Hannaford Bros. Co.in Scarborough, andL.L.BeaninFreeport. Maine is also the home of theJackson Laboratory, the world's largest non-profit mammalian genetic research facility and the world's largest supplier of genetically purebred mice. Taxation Maine has anincome taxstructure containing two brackets, 6.5 and 7.95 percent of personal income.Before July 2013, Maine had four brackets: 2, 4.5, 7, and 8.5 percent.Maine's generalsales taxrate is 5.5 percent. The state also levies charges of nine percent on lodging and prepared food and ten percent on short-term auto rentals.Commercial sellers of blueberries,", "of blueberries, a Maine staple, must keep records of their transactions and pay the state 1.5 cents per pound ($1.50 per 100 pounds) of the fruit sold each season. Allrealand tangiblepersonal propertylocated in the state of Maine is taxable unless specifically exempted by statute. The administration of property taxes is handled by the local assessor in incorporated cities and towns, while property taxes in the unorganized territories are handled by the State Tax Assessor. Shipbuilding Maine has a long-standing tradition of being home to many shipbuilding companies, such asBath Iron Worksand thePortsmouth Naval Shipyard. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Maine was home to many shipyards that produced wooden sailing ships. The main function of these ships was to transport either cargos or passengers overseas. One of these yards was located inPennellville Historic Districtin what is nowBrunswick, Maine. This yard, owned by the Pennell family, was typical of the many family-owned shipbuilding companies of the time", "of the time period. Other such examples of shipbuilding families were the Skolfields and the Morses. During the 18th and 19th centuries, wooden shipbuilding of this sort made up a sizable portion of the economy. Transportation Airports Maine receivespassenger jetservice at its two largest airports, thePortland International Jetportin Portland, and theBangor International Airportin Bangor. Both are served daily by many majorairlinesto destinations such as New York,Atlanta, andOrlando.Essential Air Servicealso subsidizes service to a number of smaller airports in Maine, bringing smallturbopropaircraft to regional airports such as theAugusta State Airport,Hancock County-Bar Harbor Airport,Knox County Regional Airport, and theNorthern Maine Regional Airport at Presque Isle. These airports are served by regional providers such asCape AirwithCessna 402s, andCommutAirwithEmbraer ERJ-145aircraft. Many smaller airports are scattered throughout Maine, serving onlygeneral aviationtraffic. TheEastport Municipal Airport,", "Municipal Airport, for example, is a city-owned public-use airport with 1,200 general aviation aircraft operations each year from single-engine and ultralight aircraft. Highways Interstate95(I-95) travels through Maine, as well as its easterly branchI-295and spursI-195,I-395and the unsignedI-495(the Falmouth Spur). In addition,U.S. Route1(US1) starts inFort Kentand travels toFlorida. The eastern terminus of the eastern section ofUS2starts in Houlton, near the New Brunswick, Canada border toRouses Point, New York, atUS11.US2Aconnects Old Town and Orono, primarily serving theUniversity of Mainecampus.US201andUS202flow through the state. US2,Maine State Route 6(SR6), andSR9are often used by truckers and other motorists of theMaritime Provincesen routeto other destinations in the United States or as a short cut toCentral Canada. Rail Passenger TheDowneasterpassenger train, operated byAmtrak, provides passenger service between Brunswick and Boston'sNorth Station, with stops in Freeport, Portland,Old Orchard", "Orchard Beach, Saco, andWells. TheDowneastermakes five daily trips. Freight Freight service throughout the state is provided by a handful of regional and shortline carriers:Pan Am Railways(formerly known as Guilford Rail System), which operates the formerBoston and MaineandMaine Centralrailroads;St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad;Maine Eastern Railroad;Central Maine and Quebec Railway; andNew Brunswick Southern Railway. Shipping Cargo The International Marine Terminal inPortlandprovides shipping container transport. In 2021 an estimated 36,700 shipping containers moved through the terminal. In 2017, a total of 17,515 shipping containers were transported. The Icelandic shipping companyEimskipopened its United States headquarters in Portland in 2013. Its ships stop in Portland once a week in a route that includes Atlantic Canada and Iceland with connections to northern Europe and Asia.In 2015, the terminal moved 10,500 containers. The Maine Port Authority in 2016 began a $15.5 million expansion and improvement", "and improvement of the terminal. The Maine Port Authority leased the International Marine Terminal from the city of Portland in 2009. Law and government TheMaine Constitutionstructures Maine's state government, composed of three co-equal branches—the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The state of Maine also has three Constitutional Officers (the Secretary of State, the State Treasurer, and the State Attorney General) and one Statutory Officer (the State Auditor). Thelegislative branchis theMaine Legislature, a bicameral body composed of theMaine House of Representatives, with 151 members, and theMaine Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is charged with introducing and passing laws. Theexecutive branchis headed by theGovernor of Maine(currentlyJanet Mills). The Governor is elected every four years; no individual may serve more than two consecutive terms in this office. The currentattorney general of MaineisAaron Frey. As with otherstate legislatures, the Maine Legislature can by a two-thirds", "can by a two-thirds majority vote from both the House and Senate override a gubernatorial veto. Maine is one of seven states that do not have a lieutenant governor. The highest court in the state'sjudicial branchis theMaine Supreme Judicial Court. The lower courts are the District Court,Superior Courtand Probate Court. All judges except for probate judges serve full-time, are nominated by the Governor, and confirmed by the Legislature for terms of seven years. Probate judges serve part-time and are elected by the voters of each county for four-year terms. In a 2020 study, Maine was ranked as the 14th easiest state for citizens to vote in.In 2012, Maine became one of the first U.S. states to establishmarriage rights for same-sex couples. Politics Maine politics are dynamic in nature, with parties loosely hung together, governors often winning by pluralities rather than majorities, and significant turnover both in members and parties inlegislative districts. In his 2010 articleMaine's Paradoxical Politics,", "Politics, Kenneth Palmer suggests that \"Maine's political leaders find themselves ascentrists, primarily because they want to find practical solutions to difficult problems.\" The results of the elections are oftenvaried. Maine is seen as a blue-leaningswing state, with unusually high support forindependent candidates.The Republican Partyhave won Maine in 11 out of the past 20 presidential elections, and the governorship has been won byDemocratsand independents three times each, and Republicans four times, since 1974. Maine usesranked choice votingin primary elections for state and federal offices, as well as in general elections for federal offices. Ranked choice voting was adopted by voters in a2016 referendum. Counties Maine is divided into political jurisdictions designated ascounties. Since 1860 there have been 16 counties in the state, ranging in size from 370 to 6,829 square miles (958 to 17,700 km2). Law enforcement Municipalities Organized municipalities An organized municipality has a form of", "has a form of elected local government which administers and provides local services, keeps records, collects licensing fees, and can pass locally bindingordinances, among other responsibilities of self-government. The governmental format of most organized towns andplantationsis the town meeting, while the format of most cities is the council-manager form. As of 2022the organized municipalities of Maine consist of 23cities, 430towns, and 30plantations. Collectively these 483 organized municipalities cover less than half of the state's territory. Maine also has threeReservations:Indian Island, Indian Township Reservation, and Pleasant Point Indian Reservation. Unorganized territory Unorganized territory(UT) has no local government. Administration, services, licensing, and ordinances are handled by the state government as well as by respective county governments who have townships within each county's bounds. The unorganized territory of Maine consists of more than 400 townships (in Maine, towns are", "Maine, towns are incorporated, townships are unincorporated), plus many coastal islands that do not lie within any municipal bounds. The UT land area is slightly over half the entire area of the State of Maine. Year-round residents in the UT number approximately 9,000 (about 1.3% of the state's total population), with many more people staying there only seasonally. Only four ofMaine's sixteen counties(Androscoggin, Cumberland, Waldo and York) are entirely incorporated, although a few others are nearly so, and most of the unincorporated area is in the vast and sparsely populatedGreat North Woods of Maine. Most populous cities and towns Throughout Maine, many municipalities, although each separate governmental entities, nevertheless form portions of a much larger population base. There are many such population clusters throughout Maine, but some examples from the municipalities appearing in the above listing are: Education There are thirty institutions ofhigher learningin Maine.These institutions include", "include theUniversity of Maine, which is the oldest, largest and onlyresearch universityin the state. UMaine was founded in 1865 and is the state's onlyland grantandsea grantcollege. The University of Maine is located in the town ofOronoand is the flagship of Maine. There are also branch campuses inAugusta,Farmington,Fort Kent,Machias, andPresque Isle. Bowdoin Collegeis a liberal arts college founded in 1794 in Brunswick, making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the state.Colby Collegein Waterville was founded in 1813 making it the second oldest college in Maine.Bates Collegein Lewiston was founded in 1855 making it the third oldest institution in the state and the oldestcoeducationalcollege in New England.The three colleges collectively form theColby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortiumand are ranked among the best colleges in the United States; often placing in the top 10% of all liberal arts colleges. Maine's per-student public expenditure for elementary and secondary schools was 21st in the nation in", "in the nation in 2012, at $12,344. The collegiate system of Maine also includes numerousbaccalaureatecolleges such as: theMaine Maritime Academy(MMA),College of the Atlantic,Unity College, andThomas College. There is only one medical school in the state, (University of New England'sCollege of Osteopathic Medicine) and only one law school (TheUniversity of Maine School of Law). There is one art school in the state,Maine College of Art, along with a private graduate school,Institute for Doctoral Studies in the Visual Arts, which offers aDoctor of Philosophyto visual artists. TheMaine Community College System, founded in 1985 also serves \"to provide associate degree, diploma and certificate programs directed at the educational, career and technical needs of the State's citizens and the workforce needs of the State's employers.\"This system includesSouthern Maine Community College(SMCC),York County Community College(YCCC),Central Maine Community College(CMCC),Eastern Maine Community College(EMCC),Kennebec Valley", "Valley Community College(KVCC),Northern Maine Community College(NMCC), andWashington County Community College(WCCC). Private schools in Maine are funded independently of the state and its furthered domains. Private schools are less common than public schools. A large number of private elementary schools with under 20 students exist, but most private high schools in Maine can be described as \"semi-private\". Maine also has Vocational Schools, such as theBiddeford Regional Center of Technologyand Sanford Regional Technical Centerthat teach trades such as welding, construction and vehicle repair to students. Culture Agriculture Maine was a center of agriculture before it achieved statehood. Prior to colonization,Wabanakinations farmed large crops of corn and other produce in southern Maine. Maine was a center of grain production in the 1800s, until grain production moved westward. However, in the early 2000s the local food movement spurred renewed interested in locally grown grains. In 2007, the Kneading", "2007, the Kneading Conference was founded. In, 2012, theSkowhegangrist mill Maine Grains opened.The revival of grain farming and milling in Maine has led to the creation of other businesses, including bakeries and malthouses. Maine has many vegetable farms and other small, diversified farms. In the 1960s and 1970s, the book \"Living the Good Life\" byHelen NearingandScott Nearingcaused many young people to move to Maine and engage in small-scale farming and homesteading. Theseback-to-the-landmigrants increased the population of some counties. Maine is home to theMaine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Associationand had 535 certified organic farms in 2019. Festivals Maine has multiple fairs and festivals that are held annually, which includeLa Kermesse, a celebration of the state'sFrenchandFrench Canadianheritage, theFryeburg Fair, theCumberland Fair, theUnion Fair, theCommon Ground Country Fair, a number ofOld Home Days festivals, and a number ofPortland Food Festivals. Food Along with the growth of the local", "growth of the local food movement over the last several decades, Maine has received national recognition for its food and restaurant scene.Portlandwas namedBon Appetitmagazine's Restaurant City of the Year in 2018.In 2018, HealthIQ.com named Maine the 3rd most vegan-friendly state.Biddefordwas selected byFood & Winein 2022 as one of America's next great food cities. Maine food shares many ingredients withWabanaki cuisine, including corn, beans, squash, wild blueberries, maple syrup, fish, and seafood.By 1902, theMaine Italian sandwichhad been invented in Portland. Sandwich shops across Maine serve the sandwiches.Baked beans are a common dish in Maine, served at community suppers where the beans are sometimes cooked underground in a bean hole. In New England, Maine baked beans are one of two well-known regional styles of baked beans, the other beingBoston baked beans. Maine baked beans use thicker skinned, native bean varieties such like Marafax, soldier, and yellow-eye beans.From 1913 until 2021, baked beans", "2021, baked beans were canned on the Portland waterfront at theB&M Baked Beans factory. Sports teams Professional Upcoming Non-professional NCAA USCAA Terminology Maine maintains some vernacular and terminology that is unique in comparison to the rest of the country.Some of these include: People from Maine Citizens of Maine are often known as Mainers.The term Downeaster may be applied to residents of the northeast coast of the state. The term Mainiac is considered by some to be derogatory, but is embraced with pride by others,and is used for a variety of organizations and for events such as the YMCA Mainiac Sprint Triathlon & Duathlon. See also References Notes Citations External links State government U.S. government Information", "List of first ladies of the United States Thefirst lady of the United Statesis the hostess of theWhite House. The position is traditionally filled by the wife of thepresident of the United States, but, on occasion, the title has been applied to women who were not presidents' wives, such as when the president was a bachelor or widower, or when the wife of the president was unable to fulfill the duties of the first lady. The first lady is not an elected position; it carries no official duties and receives no salary. Nonetheless, she attends many official ceremonies and functions of state either along with or in place of the president. Traditionally, the first lady does not hold outside employment while occupying the office,althoughEleanor Rooseveltearned money writing and giving lectures, but gave most of it to charity,andJill Bidenhas maintained her regular job as an educator during her time in the role.The first lady has her own staff, including theWhite House social secretary, thechief of staff, thepress", "of staff, thepress secretary, thechief floral designer, and theexecutive chef. TheOffice of the First Ladyis also in charge of all social and ceremonial events of the White House, and is a branch of theExecutive Office of the President. There have been total of 54 first ladies including 43 official and 11 acting, within 46 first ladyships. This discrepancy exists because some presidents had multiple first ladies. FollowingJoe Biden'sinaugurationon January 20, 2021, his wife,Jill Biden, became the 43rd official first lady. There are four living former first ladies:Hillary Clinton, married toBill Clinton;Laura Bush, married toGeorge W. Bush;Michelle Obama, married toBarack Obama; andMelania Trump, married toDonald Trump. The most recent first lady to die wasRosalynn Carter, married toJimmy Carter. The first first lady wasMartha Washington, married toGeorge Washington. PresidentsJohn TylerandWoodrow Wilsonhad two official first ladies; both remarried during their presidential tenures. The wives of four", "The wives of four presidents died before their husbands were sworn into office but are still considered first ladies by the White House and National First Ladies' Library:Martha Wayles Skelton, married toThomas Jefferson;Rachel Jackson, married toAndrew Jackson;Hannah Van Buren, married toMartin Van Buren;andEllen Lewis Herndon Arthur, married toChester A. Arthur.One woman who was not married to a president is still considered an official first lady:Harriet Lane, niece of bachelorJames Buchanan. The other non-spousal relatives who served as White House hostesses are not recognized by the First Ladies' Library. In 2007, theUnited States Mintbegan releasing a set of half-ounce $10 gold coins under theFirst Spouse Programwith engravings of portraits of the first ladies on theobverse.When a president served without a spouse, a gold coin was issued that bears an obverse image emblematic ofLibertyas depicted on a circulating coin of that era and a reverse image emblematic of themes of that president's life. This", "life. This is true for the coins for Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, and James Buchanan's first ladies, but not the coin for Chester A. Arthur's first lady, which instead depictssuffragetteAlice Paul. Current living first ladies Living first ladies as of October 2024(from oldest to youngest): List This list includes all persons who served as first ladies, regardless of whether they were married to the incumbent president or not, as well as persons who are considered first ladiesby the official White House websiteand theWhite House Historical Association. It is sorted by the name the first ladies were commonly known as. June 1, 1807 – December 19, 1836(aged 29) July 16, 1803 – August 23, 1887(aged 84) Other spouses of presidents of the United States Certain spouses of presidents of the United States are not considered first ladies of the United States. Four presidents were widowed prior to their presidencies: Two presidents were widowed and remarried prior to their presidencies: Two", "presidencies: Two presidents were divorced and remarried prior to their presidencies: Two presidents remarried after their presidencies: See also Notes References External links" ]
As of August 5, 2024, what is the name of the federal law that was found to be violated by the company that Brian Bergstein is employed by?
The Sherman Antitrust Act
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Bergstein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press_v._United_States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Bergstein', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press_v._United_States', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Bergstein", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press_v._United_States", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" ]
[ "Brian Bergstein Brian Bergsteinis the NationalTechnologyEditor for the AmericanAssociated Pressnews agency, based inBoston, Massachusetts.His work focuses mainly on the economic, legal, and social implications of upcoming technologies. Personal He is a graduate ofNorthwestern University. Bergstein was raised inLos Angeles, California. He, his wife, and two children currently live inBrookline, Massachusetts. Awards and honors From 2004 to 2005, he held one of theKnight Science Journalism Fellowships. Career Bergstein has been a technology journalist for 13 years. He has worked on the Web, computing, telecom, and in the business of technology from Silicon Valley,New York, andBoston.Previously a technology writer for the Associated Press's New York bureau,Bergstein was promoted to Technology Editor in mid-2008 when the AP reorganised to cover stories by topic rather than geographical areas.He has worked as a journalism instructor atBoston University. He is also deputy editor of MIT Technology Review. References This article about a United States journalist born in the 20th century is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "Associated Press The Associated Press(AP)is an Americannot-for-profitnews agencyheadquartered inNew York City. Founded in 1846, it operates as acooperative,unincorporated association, and produces news reports that are distributed to its members, major U.S. daily newspapers and radio and television broadcasters. Since the award was established in 1917, the AP has earned 59Pulitzer Prizes, including 36 for photography. The AP is also known for its widely usedAP Stylebook, itsAP pollstrackingNCAA sports, and its election polls and results duringUS elections. By 2016, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,300 newspapers and broadcasters.The AP operates 235news bureausin 94 countries, and publishes in English, Spanish, and Arabic.It also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides twice hourly newscasts and daily sportscasts for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, paying a fee to use AP material without being contributing members of the cooperative. As part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute theirlocal newsreports. History The Associated Press was formed in May 1846 by five daily newspapers inNew York Cityto share the cost of transmitting news of theMexican–American War.The venture was organized byMoses Yale Beach(1800–68), second publisher ofThe Sun, joined by theNew York Herald, theNew York Courier and Enquirer,The Journal of Commerce, and theNew York Evening Express.Some historiansbelieve that theNew-York Tribunejoined at this time; documents show it was a member in 1849.The New York Timesbecame a member in September 1851. Initially known as the New York Associated Press (NYAP), the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press (1862), which criticized its monopolistic news gathering andprice settingpractices. An investigation completed in 1892 byVictor Lawson, editor and publisher of theChicago Daily News, revealed that several principals of the NYAP had entered into a secret agreement with United Press, a rival organization, to share NYAP news and the profits of reselling it. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, the Western Associated Press was incorporated in Illinois as the Associated Press. A 1900Illinois Supreme Courtdecision (Inter Ocean Publishing Co. v. Associated Press) holding that the AP was apublic utilityand operating inrestraint of traderesulted in the AP's move from Chicago to New York City, where corporation laws were more favorable to cooperatives. Melville Stone, who had founded theChicago Daily Newsin 1875, served as AP general manager from 1893 to 1921. The cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who served from 1925 to 1948 and who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and (afterWorld War II), the Middle East. He introduced the \"telegraph typewriter\" or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914.In 1935, the AP launched theWirephotonetwork, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave the AP a major advantage over other news media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually the AP had its network across the whole United States. In 1945, theSupreme Court of the United Statesheld inAssociated Press v. United Statesthat the AP had been violating theSherman Antitrust Actby prohibiting member newspapers from selling or providing news to nonmember organizations as well as making it very difficult for nonmember newspapers to join the AP. The AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations; it created its own radio network in 1974. In 1994, it established APTV, a global video newsgathering agency. APTV merged with Worldwide Television News in 1998 to formAPTN, which provides video to international broadcasters and websites. In 2004, the AP moved its headquarters from its long time home at50 Rockefeller Plazato450 West 33rd Streetin Manhattan. In 2019, AP had more than 240 bureaus globally.Its mission—\"to gather with economy and efficiency an accurate and impartial report of the news\"—has not changed since its founding, but digital technology has made the distribution of the AP news report an interactive endeavor between the AP and its 1,400 U.S. newspaper members as well as broadcasters, international subscribers, and online customers. The AP began diversifying its news gathering capabilities. By 2007 the AP was generating only about 30% of its revenue from United States newspapers, and by 2024, this had declined to 10%.37% came from the global broadcast customers, 15% from online ventures and 18% came from international newspapers and from photography. In March 2024,Gannett, the largest U.S. newspaper publisher as measured by total daily circulation, announced that effective March 25, 2024, it would no longer use content from the AP. A spokesperson for AP said that they were \"shocked and disappointed\" by this development.Newspaper chainMcClatchyannounced that it would also stop using some AP services. Gannett and McClatchy will both continue to use AP's election results data. Web resources The AP's multi-topic structure has resulted in web portals such asYahoo!andMSNposting its articles, often relying on the AP as their first source for news coverage of breaking news items. This and the constant updating evolving stories require has had a major impact on the AP's public image and role, giving new credence to the AP's ongoing mission of having staff for covering every area of news fully and promptly. In 2007, Google announced that it was paying to receive AP content, to be displayed inGoogle News,interrupted from late 2009 to mid-2010 due to a licensing dispute. A 2017 study byNewsWhiprevealed that AP content was more engaged with onFacebookthan content from any individual English-language publisher. Nonprofit In June 2024,Axiosreported that the AP would be launching a nonprofit with the goal of expanding state and local news, hoping to raise $100 million. Timeline Governance The AP is governed by an electedboard of directors.Since April 2022, the chairperson isGracia C. Martore, former president and CEO ofTegna, Inc. Election polls The AP is the only organization that collects and verifies election results in every city and county across the United States, including races for the U.S. president, the Senate and House of Representatives, and governors as well as other statewide offices.Known for accuracy, the organization has collected and published presidential election data since 1848.Major news outlets rely on the polling data and results provided by the Associated Press before declaring a winner in major political races, particularly the presidential election. In declaring the winners, the AP has historically relied on a robust network of local reporters with first-hand knowledge of assigned territories who also have long-standing relationships with county clerks as well as other local officials. Moreover, the AP monitors and gathers data from county websites and electronic feeds provided by states. The research team further verifies the results by considering demographics, number of absentee ballots, and other political issues that may have an effect on the final results.In 2018, the AP introduced a new system calledAP VoteCast, which was developed together withNORC at the University of Chicagoin order to further improve the reliability of its data and overcome biases of its legacyexit poll. Sports polls The AP conducts polls for numerouscollege sportsin theUnited States. The AP college football rankings were created in 1936, and began including the top 25 teams in 1989. Since 1969, the final poll of each season has been released after all bowl games have been played.The AP released its all-time Top 25 in 2016.As of 2017, 22 different programs had finished in the number one spot of the poll since its inception.In the pre-bowl game determination era, the AP poll was often used as the distinction for a national champion in football. The AP college basketball poll has been used as a guide for which teams deserve national attention. The AP first began its poll of college basketball teams in 1949, and has since conducted over 1,100 polls. The college basketball poll started with 20 teams and was reduced to 10 during the 1960-61 college basketball season. It returned to 20 teams in 1968-69 and expanded to 25 beginning in 1989–90. The final poll for each season is released prior to the conclusion of theNCAA tournament, so all data includes regular season games only. In 2017, The AP released a list of the Top 100 teams of all time. The poll counted poll appearances (one point) and No. 1 rankings (two points) to rank each team. Sports awards Baseball The AP began itsMajor League BaseballManager of the Year Award in 1959, for a manager in each league.From 1984 to 2000, the award was given to one manager in all of MLB.The winners were chosen by a national panel of AP baseball writers and radio men. The award was discontinued in 2001. Basketball Every year, the AP releases the names of the winners of itsAP College Basketball Player of the YearandAP College Basketball Coach of the Yearawards. It also honors a group ofAll-Americanplayers. Football Associated Press Television News In 1994, London-based Associated Press Television (APTV) was founded to provide agency news material to television broadcasters.In 1998, the AP purchased Worldwide Television News (WTN) from the ABC News division ofThe Walt Disney Company, Nine Network Australia and ITN London.The AP publishes 70,000 videos and 6,000 hours of live video per year, as of 2016. The agency also provides seven simultaneous live video channels, AP Direct for broadcasters, and sixlive channels on AP Live Choice for broadcasters and digital publishers. The AP was the first news agency to launch a live video news service in 2003. AP Stylebook The Associated Press Stylebook(generally called theAP Stylebook), alternatively titledThe Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law, is astyle and usage guidefor AmericanEnglishgrammar created by American journalists working for or connected with the Associated Press journalism cooperative based inNew York City. TheStylebookoffers a basic reference to American English grammar, punctuation, and principles of reporting, including many definitions and rules for usage as well as styles forcapitalization,abbreviation,spelling, and numerals. The first publicly available edition of the book was published in 1953. The first modern edition was published in August 1977 byLorenz Press. Afterwards, various paperback editions were published by different publishers, including, among others, Turtleback Books,Penguin's Laurel Press,Pearson'sAddison-Wesley, andHachette'sPerseus BooksandBasic Books. Recent editions are released in several formats, includingpaperbackand flat-lyingspiral-boundeditions, as well as a digitale-bookedition and an online subscription version. Additionally, theAP Stylebookalso provides English grammar recommendations through social media, includingTwitter,Facebook,Pinterest,andInstagram. Litigation and controversies Kidnapping of Tina Susman In 1994,Tina Susmanwas on her fourth trip toSomalia, reporting for the AP. She was reporting on U.S.peacekeepingtroops leaving the country. Somali rebels outnumbered her bodyguards inMogadishu,dragged her from her car in broad daylight,and held her for 20 days. She toldThe Quillthat she believes being a woman was an advantage in her experience there.The AP had requested news organizations includingThe New York Times, theChicago Tribune,andThe Washington Postto suppress the story to discourage the emboldening of the kidnappers. Christopher Newton In September 2002,Washington, D.C.bureau reporter Christopher Newton, an AP reporter since 1994, was fired after he was accused of fabricating sources since 2000, including at least 40 people and organizations. Prior to his firing, Newton had been focused on writing about federal law-enforcement while based at theJustice Department. Some of the nonexistent agencies quoted in his stories included \"Education Alliance\", the \"Institute for Crime and Punishment in Chicago\", \"Voice for the Disabled\", and \"People for Civil Rights\". FBI impersonation case In 2007, anFBIagent working in Seattle impersonated an AP journalist and infected the computer of a 15-year-old suspect with a malicious surveillance software.The incident sparked a strongly worded statement from the AP demanding the bureau never impersonate a member of the news media again.In September 2016 the incident resulted in a report by the Justice Department, which the AP said \"effectively condone the FBI's impersonation\". In December 2017, following a US court appearance, a judge ruled in favor of the AP in a lawsuit against the FBI for fraudulently impersonating a member of the news media. Fair-use controversy In June 2008, the AP sent numerousDMCAtake-down demands and threatened legal action against severalblogs. The AP contended that the internet blogs were violating the AP'scopyrightby linking to AP material and using headlines and short summaries in those links. Many bloggers and experts noted that the use of the AP news fell squarely under commonly accepted internet practices and withinfair-usestandards.Others noted and demonstrated that the AP routinely takes similar excerpts from other sources, often without attribution or licenses. The AP responded that it was defining standards regarding citations of AP news. Shepard Fairey In March 2009, the AP counter-sued artistShepard Faireyoverhis famous image of Barack Obama, saying the uncredited, uncompensated use of an AP photo violatedcopyright lawsand signaled a threat tojournalism. Fairey had sued the AP the previous month over his artwork, titled \"Obama Hope\" and \"Obama Progress\", arguing that he did not violate copyright law because he dramatically changed the image. The artwork, based on an April 2006 picture taken for the AP byMannie Garcia, was a popular image during the2008 presidential electionand now hangs in theNational Portrait Galleryin Washington, D.C. According to the AP lawsuit filed in federal court in Manhattan, Fairey knowingly \"misappropriated The AP's rights in that image\". The suit asked the court to award the AP profits made off the image and damages. Fairey said he looked forward to \"upholding thefree expressionrights at stake here\" and disproving the AP's accusations.In January 2011 this suit was settled with neither side declaring their position to be wrong but agreeing to share reproduction rights and profits from Fairey's work. All Headline News In January 2008, the AP sued competitorAll Headline News(AHN) claiming that AHN allegedly infringed on its copyrights and a contentious \"quasi-property\" right to facts.The AP complaint asserted that AHN reporters had copied facts from AP news reports without permission and without paying a syndication fee. After AHN moved to dismiss all but the copyright claims set forth by the AP, a majority of the lawsuit was dismissed.The case has been dismissed and both parties settled. Hoax tweet and flash crash On April 23, 2013, hackers posted a tweet to AP'sTwitteraccount about fictional attacks on theWhite House, falsely claiming that PresidentObamahad been injured.The hoax caused aflash crashon the American stock markets, with theDow Jones Industrial Averagebriefly falling by 143 points. Justice Department subpoena of phone records On May 13, 2013, the AP announced telephone records for 20 of their reporters during a two-month period in 2012, had beensubpoenaedby theU.S. Justice Departmentand described these acts as a \"massive and unprecedented intrusion\" into news-gathering operations.The AP reported that the Justice Department would not say why it sought the records, but sources stated that theUnited States Attorney for the District of Columbia's office was conducting a criminal investigation into a May 7, 2012 AP story about aCIAoperation that prevented a terrorist plot to detonate an explosive device on a commercial flight.The DOJ did not direct subpoenas to the AP, instead going to their phone providers, includingVerizon Wireless.U.S. Attorney GeneralEric Holdertestified under oath in front of the House Judiciary Committee that he recused himself from the leak investigations to avoid any appearance of a conflict of interest. Holder said his Deputy Attorney General,James M. Cole, was in charge of the AP investigation and would have ordered the subpoenas. AP collaboration with Nazi Germany The APcollaboratedwithNazi Germanyand gave to it access to its photographic archives for itsantisemiticNazi propaganda.AP also cooperated with the Nazi regimethrough censorship. In 2017, the German historian Norman Domeier of theUniversity of Viennabrought to wider attention the deal between the AP and theNazi governmentrelated to the interchange of press photos during the period in whichthe United States were at war with Nazi Germany.This relationship involved the Bureau Laux, run by theWaffen-SSphotographerHelmut Laux. The mechanism for this interchange involved a courier flying toLisbonand back each day transporting photos from and for Nazi Germany's wartime enemy, the United States, viadiplomatic pouch. The transactions were initially conducted at the AP bureau under Luiz Lupi in Lisbon, and from 1944, when the exchange via Lisbon took too long, also at the AP bureau inStockholmunder Eddie Shanke. Here, as a cover, the Swedish agency,Pressens Bild, was involved as an intermediary. An estimated 40,000 photos were exchanged between the enemies in this way.The AP was kicked out of Nazi Germany whenthe United States entered World War IIin December 1941. Israeli–Palestinian conflict In his bookBroken Spring: An American-Israeli Reporter's Close-up View of How Egyptians Lost Their Struggle for Freedom, former AP correspondentMark Lavieclaimed that the editorial line of the Cairo bureau was that the conflict was Israel's fault and the Arabs and Palestinians were blameless.Israeli journalistMatti Friedmanaccused the AP of killing a story he wrote about the \"war of words\", \"between Israel and its critics in human rights organizations\", in the aftermath of theIsrael/Gaza conflict of 2008–09. Tuvia Grossman photograph On September 29, 2000, the first day of theSecond Intifada, the AP published a photograph of a badly bloodied young man behind whom a police officer could be seen with a baton raised in a menacing fashion; a gas station with Hebrew lettering could also be seen in the background.The AP labelled it with the caption \"An Israeli policeman and a Palestinian on the Temple Mount\", and the picture and caption were subsequently published in several major American newspapers, including theNew York Times.In reality, the injured man in the photograph was a Jewish yeshiva student from Chicago namedTuvia Grossman, and the police officer, a Druze named Gidon Tzefadi, was protecting Grossman from a Palestinian mob who had clubbed, stoned, and stabbed Grossman.There are also no gas stations with Hebrew lettering on the Temple Mount. The episode is often cited by those who accuse the media of having an anti-Israel bias, and was the impetus for the founding ofHonestReporting.After a letter from Grossman's father noted the error, the AP, the New York Times, and other papers published corrections; despite these corrections, the photograph continues to be used by critics of Israel as a symbol of Israeli aggression and violence. Israeli airstrike on the AP office building During the2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, the Israeli armydestroyed the al-Jalaa Highrise, a building housing the AP's Gaza offices andAl Jazeeraoffices. Israel stated that the building housedHamasmilitary intelligence and had given advanced warning of the strike, and no civilians were harmed.AP CEO Gary Pruitt released a statement on May 16, stating that he \"had no indication Hamas was in the building\" and called on the Israeli government to provide the evidence. He said that \"the world will know less about what is happening in Gaza because of what happened today.\" On 17 May,US secretary of stateAntony Blinkensaid he had not seen any evidence that Hamas operated from the building housing the AP and Al Jazeera, but it is the job of others to handle intelligence matters. Israel reportedly shared intelligence with American officials and U.S. presidentJoe Bidenshowing Hamas offices inside the building. Reporters Without Bordersasked theInternational Criminal Courtto investigate the bombing as a possiblewar crime. On June 8, Israeli Ambassador to the USGilad Erdanmet with AP CEO Gary Pruitt and vice president for foreign news, Ian Phillips, to discuss the operation. In coordination with the IDF, Erdan said the site was used by Hamas intelligence officials to develop and carry out electronic warfare operations,and that IDF did not suspect the AP was aware of the alleged covert Hamas presence. After the meeting the AP stated \"We have yet to receive evidence to support these claims\".Erdan later tweeted \"Israel is willing to assist AP in rebuilding its offices and operations in Gaza.\" Firing of Emily Wilder In May 2021, the AP said it would launch a review of its social media policies after questions were raised about the firing of a journalist who expressed pro-Palestinian views on social media. The announcement came after some AP journalists signed a letter expressing concern over the termination of former news associate Emily Wilder, whom the AP said committed multiple violations of the company'ssocial media policy. The AP has said that Wilder's previous activism played no role in her termination. Removal of Israel-Palestine Livestream In May 2024, Israeli officials seized equipment broadcasting a live stream of Northern Gaza from the town ofSderotas part of a ban onAl Jazeera Mediain Israel which had received footage from the broadcast. The move was condemned by multiple journalism organizations, Israeli opposition politicians, and US government officials. In a press briefing, the spokesperson for theNational Security Councilcommented on the seizure, saying \"The White House and the State Department immediately engaged with the government of Israel at high levels to express our serious concern and ask them to reverse this action.\"Later that day, Israeli Communication MinisterShlomo Karhiannounced via Twitter that the equipment would be returned to the AP and the Israeli Government would review the positioning of the AP broadcast to determine if it posed a security risk. Migrant Boat NFT On January 10, 2022, AP announced it would start sellingnon-fungible tokens(NFTs) of their photographs in partnership with a company named Xooa, with the proceeds being used to fund their operations.One of the NFTs they promoted on Twitter on 24 February was an aerial shot depicting an overcrowded migrant boat in theMediterranean Sea. The tweet received negative backlash from users and other journalists, with AP being accused of profiting off of human suffering and the picture choice being \"dystopian\" and \"in extremely poor taste\". The tweet was subsequently deleted and the NFT, which was to be sold the next day, was pulled from market. Global director of media relations Lauren Easton apologized, saying \"This was a poor choice of imagery for an NFT. It has not and will not be put up for auction AP's NFT marketplace is a very early pilot program, and we are immediately reviewing our efforts\". Awards received The AP has earned 58Pulitzer Prizes, including 35 for photography, since the award was established in 1917.In May 2020,Dar Yasin,Mukhtar Khan, andChanni Anandof the AP were honored with the 2020Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography.The choice caused controversy,because it was taken by some as questioning \"India's legitimacy over Kashmir\" as it had used the word \"independence\" in regard torevocation of Article 370. The AP won an Oscarin 2024 for20 Days in Mariupol, a first-person accountof the early days of Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022. See also References Citations Sources Further reading External links 1234567 NBC NewsWall Street JournalPoliticoMSNBC/CNBC/TelemundoBloomberg GovernmentWashington ExaminerBoston Globe/Washington Blade Fox NewsCBS News RadioAP Radio/PBSVOATimeYahoo! NewsDaily Caller/EWTN CBS NewsBloomberg NewsMcClatchyNY Post/TheGrioWashington TimesSalem Radio/CBNCheddar News/Hearst TV APNPRForeign poolThe HillRegionalsNewsmaxGray TV/Spectrum News ABC NewsWashington PostAgence France-PresseFox Business/Fox News RadioCSM/Roll CallAl JazeeraNexstar/Scripps News ReutersNY TimesLA TimesUnivision/AURNRealClearPoliticsDaily Beast/Dallas Morning NewsBBC/Newsweek CNNUSA TodayABC News RadioDaily MailNational JournalHuffPostFinancial Times/The Guardian", "Associated Press v. United States Associated Press v. United States, 326 U.S. 1 (1945), was a ruling of theUnited States Supreme Court. concerning bothantitrust lawandfreedom of the press.The ruling confirmed that anticompetitive behavior in the news industry should be subjected to aFirst Amendmentanalysis on the ability of the public to receive information from multiple sources. Background TheAssociated Press(AP), which included more than 1,200 American newspapers in its membership, had prohibited its members from selling or providing news content to organizations that were not members, regardless of whether that content had been created by the AP as branded content, or by its member newspapers in the form of \"spontaneous news\".This rule made it difficult for non-member news organizations to compete with or join the AP network. A similar rule had been enacted by another news conglomerate, theTribune Company, and the United States government sued both that company and the AP for violations of theSherman Antitrust Act.Action against the AP was first heard at theDistrict Court for the Southern District of New York, which held that the AP had violated antitrust law.The AP appealed, and the concurrent government action against the Tribune Company was combined into theSupreme Courtproceeding under the nameAssociated Press v. United Statesin 1945. Opinion of the court The Supreme Court, in a decision written by JusticeHugo Black, held that the Associated Press had violated theSherman Antitrust Act. While the AP had argued that theFirst Amendmentallowed it to control the distribution of its own content, the court disagreed, ruling thatfreedom of the pressdid not allow news organizations to violateantitrust law. The AP bylaws, as written, constituted restraint of trade. Furthermore, the bylaws restrictedinterstate commercein a fashion prohibited by the Sherman Act. The fact that the AP had not yet achieved a truemonopolyon the distribution of news content was deemed irrelevant, While the ruling essentially focused onantitrust law, the parts of Black's opinion discussing journalism and public knowledge have become more influential. In Black's words: \"Freedom to publish is guaranteed by the Constitution, but freedom to combine to keep others from publishing is not. Freedom of the press from governmental interference under the First Amendment does not sanction repression of that freedom by private interests.\" Impact Associated Press v. United States, thanks to Black's comment on the control of private media interests, is widely cited as an important precedent supporting efforts in the United States to restrictmedia concentration. This applies to both the growth of newsconglomeratesin that era,and the later growth ofmass mediafirms.The ruling has regained influence in the newspaper industry in the 2000s, this time due to the consolidation of newspaper ownership as theindustry declinesin profitability. The ruling has also been cited as justification for many regulations by theFederal Communications Commissiontoward broadcasting content, as media firms may try to prevent certain viewpoints from being seen/heard on stations that they control.In the more recent era, Black's comments on the power of media conglomerates have been applied in arguments to regulate the size ofbig techfirms, who have pioneered new techniques for controlling the flow of information to the public. References External links", "Sherman Antitrust Act TheSherman Antitrust Act of 1890(26Stat.209,15 U.S.C.§§ 1–7) is aUnited States antitrust lawwhich prescribes the rule of free competition among those engaged in commerce and consequently prohibits unfairmonopolies. It was passed byCongressand is named for SenatorJohn Sherman, its principal author. The Sherman Act broadly prohibits 1) anticompetitive agreements and 2) unilateral conduct that monopolizes or attempts to monopolize the relevant market. The Act authorizes theDepartment of Justiceto bringsuitstoenjoin(i.e. prohibit) conduct violating the Act, and additionally authorizes private parties injured by conduct violating the Act to bring suits fortreble damages(i.e. three times as much money in damages as the violation cost them). Over time, the federal courts have developed a body of law under the Sherman Act making certain types of anticompetitive conduct per se illegal, and subjecting other types of conduct to case-by-case analysis regarding whether the conduct unreasonably restrains trade. The law attempts to prevent the artificial raising of prices by restriction of trade or supply.\"Innocent monopoly\", or monopoly achieved solely by merit, is legal, but acts by a monopolist to artificially preserve that status, or nefarious dealings to create a monopoly, are not. The purpose of the Sherman Act is not to protect competitors from harm from legitimately successful businesses, nor to prevent businesses from gaining honest profits from consumers, but rather to preserve a competitive marketplace to protect consumers from abuses. Background InSpectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan506 U.S. 447 (1993) the Supreme Court said: The purpose of the Act is not to protect businesses from the working of the market; it is to protect the public from the failure of the market. The law directs itself not against conduct which is competitive, even severely so, but against conduct which unfairly tends to destroy competition itself. According to its authors, it was not intended to impact market gains obtained by honest means, by benefiting the consumers more than the competitors. SenatorGeorge HoarofMassachusetts, another author of the Sherman Act, said the following: ... who merely by superior skill and intelligence...got the whole business because nobody could do it as well as he could was not a monopolist...(but was if) it involved something like the use of means which made it impossible for other persons to engage in fair competition.\" AtApex Hosiery Co. v. Leader310 U.S. 469,310 U. S. 492-93 and n. 15: The legislative history of the Sherman Act, as well as the decisions of this Court interpreting it, show that it was not aimed at policing interstate transportation or movement of goods and property. The legislative history and the voluminous literature which was generated in the course of the enactment and during fifty years of litigation of the Sherman Act give no hint that such was its purpose.They do not suggest that, in general, state laws or law enforcement machinery were inadequate to prevent local obstructions or interferences with interstate transportation, or presented any problem requiring the interposition of federal authority.In 1890, when the Sherman Act was adopted, there were only a few federal statutes imposing penalties for obstructing or misusing interstate transportation.With an expanding commerce, many others have since been enacted safeguarding transportation in interstate commerce as the need was seen, including statutes declaring conspiracies to interfere or actual interference with interstate commerce by violence or threats of violence to be felonies.The law was enacted in the era of \"trusts\" and of \"combinations\" of businesses and of capital organized and directed to control of the market by suppression of competition in the marketing of goods and services, the monopolistic tendency of which had become a matter of public concern. The goal was to prevent restraints of free competition in business and commercial transactions which tended to restrict production, raise prices, or otherwise control the market to the detriment of purchasers or consumers of goods and services, all of which had come to be regarded as a special form of public injury.For that reason the phrase \"restraint of trade,\" which, as will presently appear, had a well understood meaning in common law, was made the means of defining the activities prohibited. The addition of the words \"or commerce among the several States\" was not an additional kind of restraint to be prohibited by the Sherman Act, but was the means used to relate the prohibited restraint of trade to interstate commerce for constitutional purposes, Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, 286 U. S. 427, 286 U. S. 434, so that Congress, through its commerce power, might suppress and penalize restraints on the competitive system which involved or affected interstate commerce. Because many forms of restraint upon commercial competition extended across state lines so as to make regulation by state action difficult or impossible, Congress enacted the Sherman Act, 21 Cong.Rec. 2456. It was in this sense of preventing restraints on commercial competition that Congress exercised \"all the power it possessed.\" Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, supra, 286 U. S. 435. AtAddyston Pipe and Steel Company v. United States, 85 F.2d 1,affirmed,175 U. S. 175U.S. 211; AtStandard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States,221 U. S. 1,221 U. S. 54-58. Provisions Original text The Sherman Act is divided into three sections. Section 1 delineates and prohibits specific means of anticompetitive conduct, while Section 2 deals with end results that are anti-competitive in nature. Thus, these sections supplement each other in an effort to prevent businesses from violating the spirit of the Act, while technically remaining within the letter of the law. Section 3 simply extends the provisions of Section 1 to U.S. territories and the District of Columbia. Section 1: Section 2: Subsequent legislation expanding its scope TheClayton Antitrust Act, passed in 1914, proscribes certain additional activities that had been discovered to fall outside the scope of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Clayton Antitrust Act added certain practices to the list of impermissible activities: The Clayton Antitrust Act specifically states that unions are exempt from this ruling. TheRobinson–Patman Actof 1936 amended the Clayton Act. The amendment proscribed certain anti-competitive practices in which manufacturers engaged in price discrimination against equally-situated distributors. Legacy The federal government began filing cases under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890. Some cases were successful and others were not; many took several years to decide, including appeals. Notable cases filed under the act include: Legal application Constitutional basis for legislation Congress claimed power to pass the Sherman Act through itsconstitutional authority to regulate interstate commerce. Therefore, federal courts only have jurisdiction to apply the Act to conduct that restrains or substantially affects either interstate commerce. (Congress also has ultimate authority over economic rules within the District of Columbia and US territories under the 17thenumerated powerand theTerritorial Clause, respectively.) This requires that the plaintiff must show that the conduct occurred during the flow of interstate commerce or had an appreciable effect on some activity that occurs during interstate commerce. Elements A Section 1 violation has three elements: A Section 2 monopolization violation has two elements: Section 2 also bans attempted monopolization, which has the following elements: Violations \"per se\" and violations of the \"rule of reason\" Violations of the Sherman Act fall (loosely) into two categories: Modern trends Inference of conspiracy A modern trend has increased difficulty for antitrust plaintiffs as courts have come to hold plaintiffs to increasing burdens of pleading. Under older Section 1 precedent, it was not settled how much evidence was required to show a conspiracy. For example, a conspiracy could be inferred based on parallel conduct, etc. That is, plaintiffs were only required to show that a conspiracy was conceivable. Since the 1970s, however, courts have held plaintiffs to higher standards, giving antitrust defendants an opportunity to resolve cases in their favor before significant discovery underFRCP12(b)(6). That is, to overcome amotion to dismiss, plaintiffs, underBell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly, must plead facts consistent withFRCP8(a) sufficient to show that a conspiracy is plausible (and not merely conceivable or possible). This protects defendants from bearing the costs of antitrust \"fishing expeditions\"; however it deprives plaintiffs of perhaps their only tool to acquire evidence (discovery). Manipulation of market Second, courts have employed more sophisticated and principled definitions of markets. Market definition is necessary, in rule of reason cases, for the plaintiff to prove a conspiracy is harmful. It is also necessary for the plaintiff to establish the market relationship between conspirators to prove their conduct is within the per se rule. In early cases, it was easier for plaintiffs to show market relationship, or dominance, by tailoring market definition, even if it ignored fundamental principles of economics. InU.S. v. Grinnell, 384 U.S. 563 (1966), the trial judge,Charles Wyzanski, composed the market only of alarm companies with services in every state, tailoring out any local competitors; the defendant stood alone in this market, but had the court added up the entire national market, it would have had a much smaller share of the national market for alarm services that the court purportedly used. The appellate courts affirmed this finding; however, today, an appellate court would likely find this definition to be flawed. Modern courts use a more sophisticated market definition that does not permit as manipulative a definition. Monopoly Section 2 of the Act forbids monopoly. In Section 2 cases, the court has, again on its own initiative, drawn a distinction betweencoerciveand innocent monopoly. The act is not meant to punish businesses that come to dominate their market passively or on their own merit, only those that intentionally dominate the market through misconduct, which generally consists of conspiratorial conduct of the kind forbidden by Section 1 of the Sherman Act, or Section 3 of the Clayton Act. Application of the act outside pure commerce While the Act was aimed at regulating businesses, its prohibition of contracts restricting commerce was applied to the activities of labor unions until the 1930s.This is because unions were characterized as cartels as well (cartels of laborers).In 1914 theClayton Actcreated exceptions for certain union activities, but the Supreme Court ruled inDuplex Printing Press Co. v. Deeringthat the actions allowed by the Act were already legal. Congress included provisions in theNorris–La Guardia Actin 1932 to more explicitly exempt organized labor from antitrust enforcement, and the Supreme Court upheld these exemptions inUnited States v. Hutcheson312 U.S. 219. Preemption by Section 1 of state statutes that restrain competition To determine whether the Actpreempts a state law, courts will engage in a two-step analysis, as set forth by the Supreme Court inRice v. Norman Williams Co. The antitrust laws allow coincident state regulation of competition.The Supreme Court enunciated the test for determining when a state statute is in irreconcilable conflict with Section 1 of the Sherman Act inRice v. Norman Williams Co.Different standards apply depending on whether a statute is attacked on its face or for its effects. A statute can be condemned on its face only when it mandates, authorizes or places irresistible pressure on private parties to engage in conduct constituting a per se violation of Section 1. If the statute does not mandate conduct violating a per se rule, the conduct is analyzed under the rule of reason, which requires an examination of the conduct's actual effects on competition.If unreasonable anticompetitive effects are created, the required conduct violates Section 1and the statute is in irreconcilable conflict with the Sherman Act.Then statutory arrangement is analyzed to determine whether it qualifies as \"state action\" and is thereby saved from preemption. Ricesets out guidelines to aid in preemption analysis. Preemption should not occur \"simply because in a hypothetical situation a private party's compliance with the statute might cause him to violate the antitrust laws\".This language suggests that preemption occurs only if economic analysis determines that the statutory requirements create \"an unacceptable and unnecessary risk of anticompetitive effect\",and does not occur simply because it is possible to use the statute in an anticompetitive manner.It should not mean that preemption is impossible whenever both procompetitive and anticompetitive results are conceivable.The per se rule \"reflects the judgment that such cases are not sufficiently common or important to justify the time and expense necessary to identify them\". Another important, yet, in the context ofRice, ambiguous guideline regarding preemption by Section 1 is the Court's statement that a \"state statute is not preempted by the federal antitrust laws simply because the state scheme might have an anticompetitive effect\".The meaning of this statement is clarified by examining the three cases cited inRiceto support the statement. InNew Motor Vehicle Board v. Orrin W. Fox Co., automobile manufacturers and retail franchisees contended that the Sherman Act preempted a statute requiring manufacturers to secure the permission of a state board before opening a new dealership if and only if a competing dealer protested. They argued that a conflict existed because the statute permitted \"auto dealers to invoke state power for the purpose of restraining intrabrand competition\". InExxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland, oil companies challenged a state statute requiring uniform statewide gasoline prices in situations where theRobinson-Patman Actwould permit charging different prices. They reasoned that the Robinson-Patman Act is a qualification of our \"more basic national policy favoring free competition\" and that any state statute altering \"the competitive balance that Congress struck between the Robinson-Patman and Sherman Acts\" should be preempted. In bothNew Motor VehicleandExxon, the Court upheld the statutes and rejected the arguments presented as Merely another way of stating that the ... statute will have an anticompetitive effect. In this sense, there is a conflict between the statute and the central policy of the Sherman Act – 'our charter of economic liberty'. ... Nevertheless, this sort of conflict cannot itself constitute a sufficient reason for invalidating the ... statute. For if an adverse effect on competition were, in and of itself, enough to render a state statute invalid, the States' power to engage in economic regulation would be effectively destroyed. This indicates that not every anticompetitive effect warrants preemption. In neitherExxonnorNew Motor Vehicledid the created effect constitute an antitrust violation. TheRiceguideline therefore indicates that only when the effect unreasonably restrains trade, and is therefore a violation, can preemption occur. The third case cited to support the \"anticompetitive effect\" guideline isJoseph E. Seagram & Sons v. Hostetter, in which the Court rejected a facial Sherman Act preemption challenge to a statute requiring that persons selling liquor to wholesalers affirm that the price charged was no higher than the lowest price at which sales were made anywhere in the United States during the previous month. Since the attack was a facial one, and the state law required no per se violations, no preemption could occur. The Court also rejected the possibility of preemption due to Sherman Act violations stemming from misuse of the statute. The Court stated that rather than imposing \"irresistible economic pressure\" on sellers to violate the Sherman Act, the statute \"appears firmly anchored to the assumption that the Sherman Act will deter any attempts by the appellants to preserve their ... price level by conspiring to raise the prices at which liquor is sold elsewhere in the country\". Thus,Seagramindicates that when conduct required by a state statute combines with other conduct that, taken together, constitutes an illegal restraint of trade, liability may be imposed for the restraint without requiring preemption of the state statute. Rice v. Norman Williams Co.supports this misuse limitation on preemption.Ricestates that while particular conduct or arrangements by private parties would be subject to per se or rule of reason analysis to determine liability, \"here is no basis ... for condemning the statute itself by force of the Sherman Act.\" Thus, when a state requires conduct analyzed under the rule of reason, a court must carefully distinguish rule of reason analysis for preemption purposes from the analysis for liability purposes. To analyze whether preemption occurs, the court must determine whether the inevitable effects of a statutory restraint unreasonably restrain trade. If they do, preemption is warranted unless the statute passes the appropriate state action tests. But, when the statutory conduct combines with other practices in a larger conspiracy to restrain trade, or when the statute is used to violate the antitrust laws in a market in which such a use is not compelled by the state statute, the private party might be subjected to antitrust liability without preemption of the statute. Evidence from legislative history The Act was not intended to regulate existing state statutes regulating commerce within state borders. The House committee, in reporting the bill which was adopted without change, declared: No attempt is made to invade the legislative authority of the several States or even to occupy doubtful grounds. No system of laws can be devised by Congress alone which would effectually protect the people of the United States against the evils and oppression of trusts and monopolies. Congress has no authority to deal, generally, with the subject within the States, and the States have no authority to legislate in respect of commerce between the several States or with foreign nations. See also the statement on the floor of the House by Mr. Culberson, in charge of the bill, There is no attempt to exercise any doubtful authority on this subject, but the bill is confined strictly and alone to subjects over which, confessedly, there is no question about the legislative power of Congress. And see the statement of Senator Edmunds, chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee which reported out the bill in the form in which it passed, that in drafting that bill the committee thought that \"we would frame a bill that should be clearly within our constitutional power, that we would make its definition out of terms that were well known to the law already, and would leave it to the courts in the first instance to say how far they could carry it or its particular definitions as applicable to each particular case as the occasion might arise.\" Similarly Senator Hoar, a member of that committee who with Senator Edmunds was in charge of the bill, stated Now we are dealing with an offense against interstate or international commerce, which the State cannot regulate by penal enactment, and we find the United States without any common law. The great thing that this bill does, except affording a remedy, is to extend the common-law principles, which protected fair competition in trade in old times in England, to international and interstate commerce in the United States. Criticism Alan Greenspan, in his essay entitledAntitrust,described the Sherman Act as stifling innovation and harming society. \"No one will ever know what new products, processes, machines, and cost-saving mergers failed to come into existence, killed by the Sherman Act before they were born. No one can ever compute the price that all of us have paid for that Act which, by inducing less effective use of capital, has kept our standard of living lower than would otherwise have been possible.\" Greenspan summarized the nature of antitrust law as \"a jumble of economic irrationality and ignorance\".Greenspan at that time was a disciple and friend ofAyn Rand, and he first publishedAntitrustin Rand's monthly publicationThe Objectivist Newsletter.Rand, who described herself as \"a radical for capitalism\",opposed antitrust law not only on economic grounds but also morally, as a violation of property rights, asserting that the \"meaning and purpose\" of antitrust law is \"the penalizing of ability for being ability, the penalizing of success for being success, and the sacrifice of productive genius to the demands of envious mediocrity\". In 1890, RepresentativeWilliam E. Masonsaid \"trusts have made products cheaper, have reduced prices; but if the price of oil, for instance, were reduced to one cent a barrel, it would not right the wrong done to people of this country by the trusts which have destroyed legitimate competition and driven honest men from legitimate business enterprise.\"Consequently, if the primary goal of the act is to protect consumers, and consumers are protected by lower prices, the act may be harmful if it reduceseconomy of scale, a price-lowering mechanism, by breaking up big businesses. Mason put small business survival, a justice interest, on a level concomitant with the pure economic rationale of consumer interest. EconomistThomas DiLorenzonotes that Senator Sherman sponsored the 1890William McKinleytariff just three months after the Sherman Act, and agrees withThe New York Timeswhich wrote on October 1, 1890: \"That so-called Anti-Trust law was passed to deceive the people and to clear the way for the enactment of this Pro-Trust law relating to the tariff.\" TheNew York Timeswent on to assert that Sherman merely supported this \"humbug\" of a law \"in order that party organs might say ... 'Behold! We have attacked the trusts. The Republican Party is the enemy of all such rings.'\"Dilorenzo writes: \"Protectionists did not want prices paid by consumers to fall. But they also understood that to gain political support for high tariffs they would have to assure the public that industries would not combine to increase prices to politically prohibitive levels. Support for both an antitrust law and tariff hikes would maintain high prices while avoiding the more obvious bilking of consumers.\" Robert Borkwas well known for his outspoken criticism of the antitrust regime. Another conservative legal scholar and judge,Richard Posnerof theSeventh Circuit, does not condemn the entire regime, but expresses concern with the potential that it could be applied to create inefficiency, rather than to avoid inefficiency.Posner further believes, along with a number of others, including Bork, that genuinely inefficient cartels and coercive monopolies, the target of the act, would be self-corrected by market forces, making the strict penalties of antitrust legislation unnecessary.Conversely, liberalU.S. Supreme CourtJusticeWilliam O. Douglascriticized the judiciary for interpreting and enforcing the antitrust law unequally: \"From the beginning it has been applied by judges hostile to its purposes, friendly to the empire builders who wanted it emasculated ... trusts that were dissolved reintegrated in new forms ... It is ironic that the Sherman Act was truly effective in only one respect, and that was when it was applied to labor unions. Then the courts read it with a literalness that never appeared in their other decisions.\" According to a 2018 study in the journalPublic Choice, \"Senator John Sherman of Ohio was motivated to introduce an antitrust bill in late 1889 partly as a way of enacting revenge on his political rival, General and former Governor Russell Alger of Michigan, because Sherman believed that Alger personally had cost him the presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican national convention ... Sherman was able to pursue his revenge motive by combining it with the broader Republican goals of preserving high tariffs and attacking the trusts.\" See also Notes and references External links" ]
[ "Brian Bergstein Brian Bergsteinis the NationalTechnologyEditor for the AmericanAssociated Pressnews agency, based inBoston, Massachusetts.His work focuses mainly on the economic, legal, and social implications of upcoming technologies. Personal He is a graduate ofNorthwestern University. Bergstein was raised inLos Angeles, California. He, his wife, and two children currently live inBrookline, Massachusetts. Awards and honors From 2004 to 2005, he held one of theKnight Science Journalism Fellowships. Career Bergstein has been a technology journalist for 13 years. He has worked on the Web, computing, telecom, and in the business of technology from Silicon Valley,New York, andBoston.Previously a technology writer for the Associated Press's New York bureau,Bergstein was promoted to Technology Editor in mid-2008 when the AP reorganised to cover stories by topic rather than geographical areas.He has worked as a journalism instructor atBoston University. He is also deputy editor of MIT Technology Review. References", "Review. References This article about a United States journalist born in the 20th century is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "Associated Press The Associated Press(AP)is an Americannot-for-profitnews agencyheadquartered inNew York City. Founded in 1846, it operates as acooperative,unincorporated association, and produces news reports that are distributed to its members, major U.S. daily newspapers and radio and television broadcasters. Since the award was established in 1917, the AP has earned 59Pulitzer Prizes, including 36 for photography. The AP is also known for its widely usedAP Stylebook, itsAP pollstrackingNCAA sports, and its election polls and results duringUS elections. By 2016, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,300 newspapers and broadcasters.The AP operates 235news bureausin 94 countries, and publishes in English, Spanish, and Arabic.It also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides twice hourly newscasts and daily sportscasts for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, paying a fee to use", "paying a fee to use AP material without being contributing members of the cooperative. As part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute theirlocal newsreports. History The Associated Press was formed in May 1846 by five daily newspapers inNew York Cityto share the cost of transmitting news of theMexican–American War.The venture was organized byMoses Yale Beach(1800–68), second publisher ofThe Sun, joined by theNew York Herald, theNew York Courier and Enquirer,The Journal of Commerce, and theNew York Evening Express.Some historiansbelieve that theNew-York Tribunejoined at this time; documents show it was a member in 1849.The New York Timesbecame a member in September 1851. Initially known as the New York Associated Press (NYAP), the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press (1862), which criticized its monopolistic news gathering andprice settingpractices. An investigation completed in 1892 byVictor", "in 1892 byVictor Lawson, editor and publisher of theChicago Daily News, revealed that several principals of the NYAP had entered into a secret agreement with United Press, a rival organization, to share NYAP news and the profits of reselling it. The revelations led to the demise of the NYAP and in December 1892, the Western Associated Press was incorporated in Illinois as the Associated Press. A 1900Illinois Supreme Courtdecision (Inter Ocean Publishing Co. v. Associated Press) holding that the AP was apublic utilityand operating inrestraint of traderesulted in the AP's move from Chicago to New York City, where corporation laws were more favorable to cooperatives. Melville Stone, who had founded theChicago Daily Newsin 1875, served as AP general manager from 1893 to 1921. The cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who served from 1925 to 1948 and who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and (afterWorld War II), the Middle East. He introduced the \"telegraph typewriter\" or", "typewriter\" or teletypewriter into newsrooms in 1914.In 1935, the AP launched theWirephotonetwork, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave the AP a major advantage over other news media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually the AP had its network across the whole United States. In 1945, theSupreme Court of the United Statesheld inAssociated Press v. United Statesthat the AP had been violating theSherman Antitrust Actby prohibiting member newspapers from selling or providing news to nonmember organizations as well as making it very difficult for nonmember newspapers to join the AP. The AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations; it created its own radio network in 1974. In 1994, it established APTV, a global video newsgathering agency. APTV merged with Worldwide Television News in 1998 to formAPTN, which provides video to", "provides video to international broadcasters and websites. In 2004, the AP moved its headquarters from its long time home at50 Rockefeller Plazato450 West 33rd Streetin Manhattan. In 2019, AP had more than 240 bureaus globally.Its mission—\"to gather with economy and efficiency an accurate and impartial report of the news\"—has not changed since its founding, but digital technology has made the distribution of the AP news report an interactive endeavor between the AP and its 1,400 U.S. newspaper members as well as broadcasters, international subscribers, and online customers. The AP began diversifying its news gathering capabilities. By 2007 the AP was generating only about 30% of its revenue from United States newspapers, and by 2024, this had declined to 10%.37% came from the global broadcast customers, 15% from online ventures and 18% came from international newspapers and from photography. In March 2024,Gannett, the largest U.S. newspaper publisher as measured by total daily circulation, announced that", "announced that effective March 25, 2024, it would no longer use content from the AP. A spokesperson for AP said that they were \"shocked and disappointed\" by this development.Newspaper chainMcClatchyannounced that it would also stop using some AP services. Gannett and McClatchy will both continue to use AP's election results data. Web resources The AP's multi-topic structure has resulted in web portals such asYahoo!andMSNposting its articles, often relying on the AP as their first source for news coverage of breaking news items. This and the constant updating evolving stories require has had a major impact on the AP's public image and role, giving new credence to the AP's ongoing mission of having staff for covering every area of news fully and promptly. In 2007, Google announced that it was paying to receive AP content, to be displayed inGoogle News,interrupted from late 2009 to mid-2010 due to a licensing dispute. A 2017 study byNewsWhiprevealed that AP content was more engaged with onFacebookthan content", "content from any individual English-language publisher. Nonprofit In June 2024,Axiosreported that the AP would be launching a nonprofit with the goal of expanding state and local news, hoping to raise $100 million. Timeline Governance The AP is governed by an electedboard of directors.Since April 2022, the chairperson isGracia C. Martore, former president and CEO ofTegna, Inc. Election polls The AP is the only organization that collects and verifies election results in every city and county across the United States, including races for the U.S. president, the Senate and House of Representatives, and governors as well as other statewide offices.Known for accuracy, the organization has collected and published presidential election data since 1848.Major news outlets rely on the polling data and results provided by the Associated Press before declaring a winner in major political races, particularly the presidential election. In declaring the winners, the AP has historically relied on a robust network of local", "network of local reporters with first-hand knowledge of assigned territories who also have long-standing relationships with county clerks as well as other local officials. Moreover, the AP monitors and gathers data from county websites and electronic feeds provided by states. The research team further verifies the results by considering demographics, number of absentee ballots, and other political issues that may have an effect on the final results.In 2018, the AP introduced a new system calledAP VoteCast, which was developed together withNORC at the University of Chicagoin order to further improve the reliability of its data and overcome biases of its legacyexit poll. Sports polls The AP conducts polls for numerouscollege sportsin theUnited States. The AP college football rankings were created in 1936, and began including the top 25 teams in 1989. Since 1969, the final poll of each season has been released after all bowl games have been played.The AP released its all-time Top 25 in 2016.As of 2017, 22", "2016.As of 2017, 22 different programs had finished in the number one spot of the poll since its inception.In the pre-bowl game determination era, the AP poll was often used as the distinction for a national champion in football. The AP college basketball poll has been used as a guide for which teams deserve national attention. The AP first began its poll of college basketball teams in 1949, and has since conducted over 1,100 polls. The college basketball poll started with 20 teams and was reduced to 10 during the 1960-61 college basketball season. It returned to 20 teams in 1968-69 and expanded to 25 beginning in 1989–90. The final poll for each season is released prior to the conclusion of theNCAA tournament, so all data includes regular season games only. In 2017, The AP released a list of the Top 100 teams of all time. The poll counted poll appearances (one point) and No. 1 rankings (two points) to rank each team. Sports awards Baseball The AP began itsMajor League BaseballManager of the Year Award in", "the Year Award in 1959, for a manager in each league.From 1984 to 2000, the award was given to one manager in all of MLB.The winners were chosen by a national panel of AP baseball writers and radio men. The award was discontinued in 2001. Basketball Every year, the AP releases the names of the winners of itsAP College Basketball Player of the YearandAP College Basketball Coach of the Yearawards. It also honors a group ofAll-Americanplayers. Football Associated Press Television News In 1994, London-based Associated Press Television (APTV) was founded to provide agency news material to television broadcasters.In 1998, the AP purchased Worldwide Television News (WTN) from the ABC News division ofThe Walt Disney Company, Nine Network Australia and ITN London.The AP publishes 70,000 videos and 6,000 hours of live video per year, as of 2016. The agency also provides seven simultaneous live video channels, AP Direct for broadcasters, and sixlive channels on AP Live Choice for broadcasters and digital publishers.", "digital publishers. The AP was the first news agency to launch a live video news service in 2003. AP Stylebook The Associated Press Stylebook(generally called theAP Stylebook), alternatively titledThe Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law, is astyle and usage guidefor AmericanEnglishgrammar created by American journalists working for or connected with the Associated Press journalism cooperative based inNew York City. TheStylebookoffers a basic reference to American English grammar, punctuation, and principles of reporting, including many definitions and rules for usage as well as styles forcapitalization,abbreviation,spelling, and numerals. The first publicly available edition of the book was published in 1953. The first modern edition was published in August 1977 byLorenz Press. Afterwards, various paperback editions were published by different publishers, including, among others, Turtleback Books,Penguin's Laurel Press,Pearson'sAddison-Wesley, andHachette'sPerseus BooksandBasic Books. Recent", "Books. Recent editions are released in several formats, includingpaperbackand flat-lyingspiral-boundeditions, as well as a digitale-bookedition and an online subscription version. Additionally, theAP Stylebookalso provides English grammar recommendations through social media, includingTwitter,Facebook,Pinterest,andInstagram. Litigation and controversies Kidnapping of Tina Susman In 1994,Tina Susmanwas on her fourth trip toSomalia, reporting for the AP. She was reporting on U.S.peacekeepingtroops leaving the country. Somali rebels outnumbered her bodyguards inMogadishu,dragged her from her car in broad daylight,and held her for 20 days. She toldThe Quillthat she believes being a woman was an advantage in her experience there.The AP had requested news organizations includingThe New York Times, theChicago Tribune,andThe Washington Postto suppress the story to discourage the emboldening of the kidnappers. Christopher Newton In September 2002,Washington, D.C.bureau reporter Christopher Newton, an AP reporter", "an AP reporter since 1994, was fired after he was accused of fabricating sources since 2000, including at least 40 people and organizations. Prior to his firing, Newton had been focused on writing about federal law-enforcement while based at theJustice Department. Some of the nonexistent agencies quoted in his stories included \"Education Alliance\", the \"Institute for Crime and Punishment in Chicago\", \"Voice for the Disabled\", and \"People for Civil Rights\". FBI impersonation case In 2007, anFBIagent working in Seattle impersonated an AP journalist and infected the computer of a 15-year-old suspect with a malicious surveillance software.The incident sparked a strongly worded statement from the AP demanding the bureau never impersonate a member of the news media again.In September 2016 the incident resulted in a report by the Justice Department, which the AP said \"effectively condone the FBI's impersonation\". In December 2017, following a US court appearance, a judge ruled in favor of the AP in a lawsuit", "the AP in a lawsuit against the FBI for fraudulently impersonating a member of the news media. Fair-use controversy In June 2008, the AP sent numerousDMCAtake-down demands and threatened legal action against severalblogs. The AP contended that the internet blogs were violating the AP'scopyrightby linking to AP material and using headlines and short summaries in those links. Many bloggers and experts noted that the use of the AP news fell squarely under commonly accepted internet practices and withinfair-usestandards.Others noted and demonstrated that the AP routinely takes similar excerpts from other sources, often without attribution or licenses. The AP responded that it was defining standards regarding citations of AP news. Shepard Fairey In March 2009, the AP counter-sued artistShepard Faireyoverhis famous image of Barack Obama, saying the uncredited, uncompensated use of an AP photo violatedcopyright lawsand signaled a threat tojournalism. Fairey had sued the AP the previous month over his artwork,", "over his artwork, titled \"Obama Hope\" and \"Obama Progress\", arguing that he did not violate copyright law because he dramatically changed the image. The artwork, based on an April 2006 picture taken for the AP byMannie Garcia, was a popular image during the2008 presidential electionand now hangs in theNational Portrait Galleryin Washington, D.C. According to the AP lawsuit filed in federal court in Manhattan, Fairey knowingly \"misappropriated The AP's rights in that image\". The suit asked the court to award the AP profits made off the image and damages. Fairey said he looked forward to \"upholding thefree expressionrights at stake here\" and disproving the AP's accusations.In January 2011 this suit was settled with neither side declaring their position to be wrong but agreeing to share reproduction rights and profits from Fairey's work. All Headline News In January 2008, the AP sued competitorAll Headline News(AHN) claiming that AHN allegedly infringed on its copyrights and a contentious \"quasi-property\" right", "right to facts.The AP complaint asserted that AHN reporters had copied facts from AP news reports without permission and without paying a syndication fee. After AHN moved to dismiss all but the copyright claims set forth by the AP, a majority of the lawsuit was dismissed.The case has been dismissed and both parties settled. Hoax tweet and flash crash On April 23, 2013, hackers posted a tweet to AP'sTwitteraccount about fictional attacks on theWhite House, falsely claiming that PresidentObamahad been injured.The hoax caused aflash crashon the American stock markets, with theDow Jones Industrial Averagebriefly falling by 143 points. Justice Department subpoena of phone records On May 13, 2013, the AP announced telephone records for 20 of their reporters during a two-month period in 2012, had beensubpoenaedby theU.S. Justice Departmentand described these acts as a \"massive and unprecedented intrusion\" into news-gathering operations.The AP reported that the Justice Department would not say why it sought the", "why it sought the records, but sources stated that theUnited States Attorney for the District of Columbia's office was conducting a criminal investigation into a May 7, 2012 AP story about aCIAoperation that prevented a terrorist plot to detonate an explosive device on a commercial flight.The DOJ did not direct subpoenas to the AP, instead going to their phone providers, includingVerizon Wireless.U.S. Attorney GeneralEric Holdertestified under oath in front of the House Judiciary Committee that he recused himself from the leak investigations to avoid any appearance of a conflict of interest. Holder said his Deputy Attorney General,James M. Cole, was in charge of the AP investigation and would have ordered the subpoenas. AP collaboration with Nazi Germany The APcollaboratedwithNazi Germanyand gave to it access to its photographic archives for itsantisemiticNazi propaganda.AP also cooperated with the Nazi regimethrough censorship. In 2017, the German historian Norman Domeier of theUniversity of Viennabrought", "of Viennabrought to wider attention the deal between the AP and theNazi governmentrelated to the interchange of press photos during the period in whichthe United States were at war with Nazi Germany.This relationship involved the Bureau Laux, run by theWaffen-SSphotographerHelmut Laux. The mechanism for this interchange involved a courier flying toLisbonand back each day transporting photos from and for Nazi Germany's wartime enemy, the United States, viadiplomatic pouch. The transactions were initially conducted at the AP bureau under Luiz Lupi in Lisbon, and from 1944, when the exchange via Lisbon took too long, also at the AP bureau inStockholmunder Eddie Shanke. Here, as a cover, the Swedish agency,Pressens Bild, was involved as an intermediary. An estimated 40,000 photos were exchanged between the enemies in this way.The AP was kicked out of Nazi Germany whenthe United States entered World War IIin December 1941. Israeli–Palestinian conflict In his bookBroken Spring: An American-Israeli Reporter's", "Reporter's Close-up View of How Egyptians Lost Their Struggle for Freedom, former AP correspondentMark Lavieclaimed that the editorial line of the Cairo bureau was that the conflict was Israel's fault and the Arabs and Palestinians were blameless.Israeli journalistMatti Friedmanaccused the AP of killing a story he wrote about the \"war of words\", \"between Israel and its critics in human rights organizations\", in the aftermath of theIsrael/Gaza conflict of 2008–09. Tuvia Grossman photograph On September 29, 2000, the first day of theSecond Intifada, the AP published a photograph of a badly bloodied young man behind whom a police officer could be seen with a baton raised in a menacing fashion; a gas station with Hebrew lettering could also be seen in the background.The AP labelled it with the caption \"An Israeli policeman and a Palestinian on the Temple Mount\", and the picture and caption were subsequently published in several major American newspapers, including theNew York Times.In reality, the injured man in", "the injured man in the photograph was a Jewish yeshiva student from Chicago namedTuvia Grossman, and the police officer, a Druze named Gidon Tzefadi, was protecting Grossman from a Palestinian mob who had clubbed, stoned, and stabbed Grossman.There are also no gas stations with Hebrew lettering on the Temple Mount. The episode is often cited by those who accuse the media of having an anti-Israel bias, and was the impetus for the founding ofHonestReporting.After a letter from Grossman's father noted the error, the AP, the New York Times, and other papers published corrections; despite these corrections, the photograph continues to be used by critics of Israel as a symbol of Israeli aggression and violence. Israeli airstrike on the AP office building During the2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, the Israeli armydestroyed the al-Jalaa Highrise, a building housing the AP's Gaza offices andAl Jazeeraoffices. Israel stated that the building housedHamasmilitary intelligence and had given advanced warning of the strike,", "of the strike, and no civilians were harmed.AP CEO Gary Pruitt released a statement on May 16, stating that he \"had no indication Hamas was in the building\" and called on the Israeli government to provide the evidence. He said that \"the world will know less about what is happening in Gaza because of what happened today.\" On 17 May,US secretary of stateAntony Blinkensaid he had not seen any evidence that Hamas operated from the building housing the AP and Al Jazeera, but it is the job of others to handle intelligence matters. Israel reportedly shared intelligence with American officials and U.S. presidentJoe Bidenshowing Hamas offices inside the building. Reporters Without Bordersasked theInternational Criminal Courtto investigate the bombing as a possiblewar crime. On June 8, Israeli Ambassador to the USGilad Erdanmet with AP CEO Gary Pruitt and vice president for foreign news, Ian Phillips, to discuss the operation. In coordination with the IDF, Erdan said the site was used by Hamas intelligence officials", "officials to develop and carry out electronic warfare operations,and that IDF did not suspect the AP was aware of the alleged covert Hamas presence. After the meeting the AP stated \"We have yet to receive evidence to support these claims\".Erdan later tweeted \"Israel is willing to assist AP in rebuilding its offices and operations in Gaza.\" Firing of Emily Wilder In May 2021, the AP said it would launch a review of its social media policies after questions were raised about the firing of a journalist who expressed pro-Palestinian views on social media. The announcement came after some AP journalists signed a letter expressing concern over the termination of former news associate Emily Wilder, whom the AP said committed multiple violations of the company'ssocial media policy. The AP has said that Wilder's previous activism played no role in her termination. Removal of Israel-Palestine Livestream In May 2024, Israeli officials seized equipment broadcasting a live stream of Northern Gaza from the town ofSderotas", "the town ofSderotas part of a ban onAl Jazeera Mediain Israel which had received footage from the broadcast. The move was condemned by multiple journalism organizations, Israeli opposition politicians, and US government officials. In a press briefing, the spokesperson for theNational Security Councilcommented on the seizure, saying \"The White House and the State Department immediately engaged with the government of Israel at high levels to express our serious concern and ask them to reverse this action.\"Later that day, Israeli Communication MinisterShlomo Karhiannounced via Twitter that the equipment would be returned to the AP and the Israeli Government would review the positioning of the AP broadcast to determine if it posed a security risk. Migrant Boat NFT On January 10, 2022, AP announced it would start sellingnon-fungible tokens(NFTs) of their photographs in partnership with a company named Xooa, with the proceeds being used to fund their operations.One of the NFTs they promoted on Twitter on 24", "on Twitter on 24 February was an aerial shot depicting an overcrowded migrant boat in theMediterranean Sea. The tweet received negative backlash from users and other journalists, with AP being accused of profiting off of human suffering and the picture choice being \"dystopian\" and \"in extremely poor taste\". The tweet was subsequently deleted and the NFT, which was to be sold the next day, was pulled from market. Global director of media relations Lauren Easton apologized, saying \"This was a poor choice of imagery for an NFT. It has not and will not be put up for auction AP's NFT marketplace is a very early pilot program, and we are immediately reviewing our efforts\". Awards received The AP has earned 58Pulitzer Prizes, including 35 for photography, since the award was established in 1917.In May 2020,Dar Yasin,Mukhtar Khan, andChanni Anandof the AP were honored with the 2020Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography.The choice caused controversy,because it was taken by some as questioning \"India's legitimacy", "\"India's legitimacy over Kashmir\" as it had used the word \"independence\" in regard torevocation of Article 370. The AP won an Oscarin 2024 for20 Days in Mariupol, a first-person accountof the early days of Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022. See also References Citations Sources Further reading External links 1234567 NBC NewsWall Street JournalPoliticoMSNBC/CNBC/TelemundoBloomberg GovernmentWashington ExaminerBoston Globe/Washington Blade Fox NewsCBS News RadioAP Radio/PBSVOATimeYahoo! NewsDaily Caller/EWTN CBS NewsBloomberg NewsMcClatchyNY Post/TheGrioWashington TimesSalem Radio/CBNCheddar News/Hearst TV APNPRForeign poolThe HillRegionalsNewsmaxGray TV/Spectrum News ABC NewsWashington PostAgence France-PresseFox Business/Fox News RadioCSM/Roll CallAl JazeeraNexstar/Scripps News ReutersNY TimesLA TimesUnivision/AURNRealClearPoliticsDaily Beast/Dallas Morning NewsBBC/Newsweek CNNUSA TodayABC News RadioDaily MailNational JournalHuffPostFinancial Times/The Guardian", "Associated Press v. United States Associated Press v. United States, 326 U.S. 1 (1945), was a ruling of theUnited States Supreme Court. concerning bothantitrust lawandfreedom of the press.The ruling confirmed that anticompetitive behavior in the news industry should be subjected to aFirst Amendmentanalysis on the ability of the public to receive information from multiple sources. Background TheAssociated Press(AP), which included more than 1,200 American newspapers in its membership, had prohibited its members from selling or providing news content to organizations that were not members, regardless of whether that content had been created by the AP as branded content, or by its member newspapers in the form of \"spontaneous news\".This rule made it difficult for non-member news organizations to compete with or join the AP network. A similar rule had been enacted by another news conglomerate, theTribune Company, and the United States government sued both that company and the AP for violations of theSherman", "of theSherman Antitrust Act.Action against the AP was first heard at theDistrict Court for the Southern District of New York, which held that the AP had violated antitrust law.The AP appealed, and the concurrent government action against the Tribune Company was combined into theSupreme Courtproceeding under the nameAssociated Press v. United Statesin 1945. Opinion of the court The Supreme Court, in a decision written by JusticeHugo Black, held that the Associated Press had violated theSherman Antitrust Act. While the AP had argued that theFirst Amendmentallowed it to control the distribution of its own content, the court disagreed, ruling thatfreedom of the pressdid not allow news organizations to violateantitrust law. The AP bylaws, as written, constituted restraint of trade. Furthermore, the bylaws restrictedinterstate commercein a fashion prohibited by the Sherman Act. The fact that the AP had not yet achieved a truemonopolyon the distribution of news content was deemed irrelevant, While the ruling", "While the ruling essentially focused onantitrust law, the parts of Black's opinion discussing journalism and public knowledge have become more influential. In Black's words: \"Freedom to publish is guaranteed by the Constitution, but freedom to combine to keep others from publishing is not. Freedom of the press from governmental interference under the First Amendment does not sanction repression of that freedom by private interests.\" Impact Associated Press v. United States, thanks to Black's comment on the control of private media interests, is widely cited as an important precedent supporting efforts in the United States to restrictmedia concentration. This applies to both the growth of newsconglomeratesin that era,and the later growth ofmass mediafirms.The ruling has regained influence in the newspaper industry in the 2000s, this time due to the consolidation of newspaper ownership as theindustry declinesin profitability. The ruling has also been cited as justification for many regulations by theFederal", "by theFederal Communications Commissiontoward broadcasting content, as media firms may try to prevent certain viewpoints from being seen/heard on stations that they control.In the more recent era, Black's comments on the power of media conglomerates have been applied in arguments to regulate the size ofbig techfirms, who have pioneered new techniques for controlling the flow of information to the public. References External links", "Sherman Antitrust Act TheSherman Antitrust Act of 1890(26Stat.209,15 U.S.C.§§ 1–7) is aUnited States antitrust lawwhich prescribes the rule of free competition among those engaged in commerce and consequently prohibits unfairmonopolies. It was passed byCongressand is named for SenatorJohn Sherman, its principal author. The Sherman Act broadly prohibits 1) anticompetitive agreements and 2) unilateral conduct that monopolizes or attempts to monopolize the relevant market. The Act authorizes theDepartment of Justiceto bringsuitstoenjoin(i.e. prohibit) conduct violating the Act, and additionally authorizes private parties injured by conduct violating the Act to bring suits fortreble damages(i.e. three times as much money in damages as the violation cost them). Over time, the federal courts have developed a body of law under the Sherman Act making certain types of anticompetitive conduct per se illegal, and subjecting other types of conduct to case-by-case analysis regarding whether the conduct unreasonably", "unreasonably restrains trade. The law attempts to prevent the artificial raising of prices by restriction of trade or supply.\"Innocent monopoly\", or monopoly achieved solely by merit, is legal, but acts by a monopolist to artificially preserve that status, or nefarious dealings to create a monopoly, are not. The purpose of the Sherman Act is not to protect competitors from harm from legitimately successful businesses, nor to prevent businesses from gaining honest profits from consumers, but rather to preserve a competitive marketplace to protect consumers from abuses. Background InSpectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan506 U.S. 447 (1993) the Supreme Court said: The purpose of the Act is not to protect businesses from the working of the market; it is to protect the public from the failure of the market. The law directs itself not against conduct which is competitive, even severely so, but against conduct which unfairly tends to destroy competition itself. According to its authors, it was not intended to impact", "intended to impact market gains obtained by honest means, by benefiting the consumers more than the competitors. SenatorGeorge HoarofMassachusetts, another author of the Sherman Act, said the following: ... who merely by superior skill and intelligence...got the whole business because nobody could do it as well as he could was not a monopolist...(but was if) it involved something like the use of means which made it impossible for other persons to engage in fair competition.\" AtApex Hosiery Co. v. Leader310 U.S. 469,310 U. S. 492-93 and n. 15: The legislative history of the Sherman Act, as well as the decisions of this Court interpreting it, show that it was not aimed at policing interstate transportation or movement of goods and property. The legislative history and the voluminous literature which was generated in the course of the enactment and during fifty years of litigation of the Sherman Act give no hint that such was its purpose.They do not suggest that, in general, state laws or law enforcement", "or law enforcement machinery were inadequate to prevent local obstructions or interferences with interstate transportation, or presented any problem requiring the interposition of federal authority.In 1890, when the Sherman Act was adopted, there were only a few federal statutes imposing penalties for obstructing or misusing interstate transportation.With an expanding commerce, many others have since been enacted safeguarding transportation in interstate commerce as the need was seen, including statutes declaring conspiracies to interfere or actual interference with interstate commerce by violence or threats of violence to be felonies.The law was enacted in the era of \"trusts\" and of \"combinations\" of businesses and of capital organized and directed to control of the market by suppression of competition in the marketing of goods and services, the monopolistic tendency of which had become a matter of public concern. The goal was to prevent restraints of free competition in business and commercial transactions", "transactions which tended to restrict production, raise prices, or otherwise control the market to the detriment of purchasers or consumers of goods and services, all of which had come to be regarded as a special form of public injury.For that reason the phrase \"restraint of trade,\" which, as will presently appear, had a well understood meaning in common law, was made the means of defining the activities prohibited. The addition of the words \"or commerce among the several States\" was not an additional kind of restraint to be prohibited by the Sherman Act, but was the means used to relate the prohibited restraint of trade to interstate commerce for constitutional purposes, Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, 286 U. S. 427, 286 U. S. 434, so that Congress, through its commerce power, might suppress and penalize restraints on the competitive system which involved or affected interstate commerce. Because many forms of restraint upon commercial competition extended across state lines so as to make", "lines so as to make regulation by state action difficult or impossible, Congress enacted the Sherman Act, 21 Cong.Rec. 2456. It was in this sense of preventing restraints on commercial competition that Congress exercised \"all the power it possessed.\" Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, supra, 286 U. S. 435. AtAddyston Pipe and Steel Company v. United States, 85 F.2d 1,affirmed,175 U. S. 175U.S. 211; AtStandard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States,221 U. S. 1,221 U. S. 54-58. Provisions Original text The Sherman Act is divided into three sections. Section 1 delineates and prohibits specific means of anticompetitive conduct, while Section 2 deals with end results that are anti-competitive in nature. Thus, these sections supplement each other in an effort to prevent businesses from violating the spirit of the Act, while technically remaining within the letter of the law. Section 3 simply extends the provisions of Section 1 to U.S. territories and the District of Columbia. Section 1: Section 2:", "1: Section 2: Subsequent legislation expanding its scope TheClayton Antitrust Act, passed in 1914, proscribes certain additional activities that had been discovered to fall outside the scope of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Clayton Antitrust Act added certain practices to the list of impermissible activities: The Clayton Antitrust Act specifically states that unions are exempt from this ruling. TheRobinson–Patman Actof 1936 amended the Clayton Act. The amendment proscribed certain anti-competitive practices in which manufacturers engaged in price discrimination against equally-situated distributors. Legacy The federal government began filing cases under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890. Some cases were successful and others were not; many took several years to decide, including appeals. Notable cases filed under the act include: Legal application Constitutional basis for legislation Congress claimed power to pass the Sherman Act through itsconstitutional authority to regulate interstate commerce.", "commerce. Therefore, federal courts only have jurisdiction to apply the Act to conduct that restrains or substantially affects either interstate commerce. (Congress also has ultimate authority over economic rules within the District of Columbia and US territories under the 17thenumerated powerand theTerritorial Clause, respectively.) This requires that the plaintiff must show that the conduct occurred during the flow of interstate commerce or had an appreciable effect on some activity that occurs during interstate commerce. Elements A Section 1 violation has three elements: A Section 2 monopolization violation has two elements: Section 2 also bans attempted monopolization, which has the following elements: Violations \"per se\" and violations of the \"rule of reason\" Violations of the Sherman Act fall (loosely) into two categories: Modern trends Inference of conspiracy A modern trend has increased difficulty for antitrust plaintiffs as courts have come to hold plaintiffs to increasing burdens of pleading. Under", "of pleading. Under older Section 1 precedent, it was not settled how much evidence was required to show a conspiracy. For example, a conspiracy could be inferred based on parallel conduct, etc. That is, plaintiffs were only required to show that a conspiracy was conceivable. Since the 1970s, however, courts have held plaintiffs to higher standards, giving antitrust defendants an opportunity to resolve cases in their favor before significant discovery underFRCP12(b)(6). That is, to overcome amotion to dismiss, plaintiffs, underBell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly, must plead facts consistent withFRCP8(a) sufficient to show that a conspiracy is plausible (and not merely conceivable or possible). This protects defendants from bearing the costs of antitrust \"fishing expeditions\"; however it deprives plaintiffs of perhaps their only tool to acquire evidence (discovery). Manipulation of market Second, courts have employed more sophisticated and principled definitions of markets. Market definition is necessary, in rule", "necessary, in rule of reason cases, for the plaintiff to prove a conspiracy is harmful. It is also necessary for the plaintiff to establish the market relationship between conspirators to prove their conduct is within the per se rule. In early cases, it was easier for plaintiffs to show market relationship, or dominance, by tailoring market definition, even if it ignored fundamental principles of economics. InU.S. v. Grinnell, 384 U.S. 563 (1966), the trial judge,Charles Wyzanski, composed the market only of alarm companies with services in every state, tailoring out any local competitors; the defendant stood alone in this market, but had the court added up the entire national market, it would have had a much smaller share of the national market for alarm services that the court purportedly used. The appellate courts affirmed this finding; however, today, an appellate court would likely find this definition to be flawed. Modern courts use a more sophisticated market definition that does not permit as", "does not permit as manipulative a definition. Monopoly Section 2 of the Act forbids monopoly. In Section 2 cases, the court has, again on its own initiative, drawn a distinction betweencoerciveand innocent monopoly. The act is not meant to punish businesses that come to dominate their market passively or on their own merit, only those that intentionally dominate the market through misconduct, which generally consists of conspiratorial conduct of the kind forbidden by Section 1 of the Sherman Act, or Section 3 of the Clayton Act. Application of the act outside pure commerce While the Act was aimed at regulating businesses, its prohibition of contracts restricting commerce was applied to the activities of labor unions until the 1930s.This is because unions were characterized as cartels as well (cartels of laborers).In 1914 theClayton Actcreated exceptions for certain union activities, but the Supreme Court ruled inDuplex Printing Press Co. v. Deeringthat the actions allowed by the Act were already legal.", "were already legal. Congress included provisions in theNorris–La Guardia Actin 1932 to more explicitly exempt organized labor from antitrust enforcement, and the Supreme Court upheld these exemptions inUnited States v. Hutcheson312 U.S. 219. Preemption by Section 1 of state statutes that restrain competition To determine whether the Actpreempts a state law, courts will engage in a two-step analysis, as set forth by the Supreme Court inRice v. Norman Williams Co. The antitrust laws allow coincident state regulation of competition.The Supreme Court enunciated the test for determining when a state statute is in irreconcilable conflict with Section 1 of the Sherman Act inRice v. Norman Williams Co.Different standards apply depending on whether a statute is attacked on its face or for its effects. A statute can be condemned on its face only when it mandates, authorizes or places irresistible pressure on private parties to engage in conduct constituting a per se violation of Section 1. If the statute does not", "statute does not mandate conduct violating a per se rule, the conduct is analyzed under the rule of reason, which requires an examination of the conduct's actual effects on competition.If unreasonable anticompetitive effects are created, the required conduct violates Section 1and the statute is in irreconcilable conflict with the Sherman Act.Then statutory arrangement is analyzed to determine whether it qualifies as \"state action\" and is thereby saved from preemption. Ricesets out guidelines to aid in preemption analysis. Preemption should not occur \"simply because in a hypothetical situation a private party's compliance with the statute might cause him to violate the antitrust laws\".This language suggests that preemption occurs only if economic analysis determines that the statutory requirements create \"an unacceptable and unnecessary risk of anticompetitive effect\",and does not occur simply because it is possible to use the statute in an anticompetitive manner.It should not mean that preemption is", "that preemption is impossible whenever both procompetitive and anticompetitive results are conceivable.The per se rule \"reflects the judgment that such cases are not sufficiently common or important to justify the time and expense necessary to identify them\". Another important, yet, in the context ofRice, ambiguous guideline regarding preemption by Section 1 is the Court's statement that a \"state statute is not preempted by the federal antitrust laws simply because the state scheme might have an anticompetitive effect\".The meaning of this statement is clarified by examining the three cases cited inRiceto support the statement. InNew Motor Vehicle Board v. Orrin W. Fox Co., automobile manufacturers and retail franchisees contended that the Sherman Act preempted a statute requiring manufacturers to secure the permission of a state board before opening a new dealership if and only if a competing dealer protested. They argued that a conflict existed because the statute permitted \"auto dealers to invoke state", "to invoke state power for the purpose of restraining intrabrand competition\". InExxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland, oil companies challenged a state statute requiring uniform statewide gasoline prices in situations where theRobinson-Patman Actwould permit charging different prices. They reasoned that the Robinson-Patman Act is a qualification of our \"more basic national policy favoring free competition\" and that any state statute altering \"the competitive balance that Congress struck between the Robinson-Patman and Sherman Acts\" should be preempted. In bothNew Motor VehicleandExxon, the Court upheld the statutes and rejected the arguments presented as Merely another way of stating that the ... statute will have an anticompetitive effect. In this sense, there is a conflict between the statute and the central policy of the Sherman Act – 'our charter of economic liberty'. ... Nevertheless, this sort of conflict cannot itself constitute a sufficient reason for invalidating the ... statute. For if an adverse", "For if an adverse effect on competition were, in and of itself, enough to render a state statute invalid, the States' power to engage in economic regulation would be effectively destroyed. This indicates that not every anticompetitive effect warrants preemption. In neitherExxonnorNew Motor Vehicledid the created effect constitute an antitrust violation. TheRiceguideline therefore indicates that only when the effect unreasonably restrains trade, and is therefore a violation, can preemption occur. The third case cited to support the \"anticompetitive effect\" guideline isJoseph E. Seagram & Sons v. Hostetter, in which the Court rejected a facial Sherman Act preemption challenge to a statute requiring that persons selling liquor to wholesalers affirm that the price charged was no higher than the lowest price at which sales were made anywhere in the United States during the previous month. Since the attack was a facial one, and the state law required no per se violations, no preemption could occur. The Court also", "The Court also rejected the possibility of preemption due to Sherman Act violations stemming from misuse of the statute. The Court stated that rather than imposing \"irresistible economic pressure\" on sellers to violate the Sherman Act, the statute \"appears firmly anchored to the assumption that the Sherman Act will deter any attempts by the appellants to preserve their ... price level by conspiring to raise the prices at which liquor is sold elsewhere in the country\". Thus,Seagramindicates that when conduct required by a state statute combines with other conduct that, taken together, constitutes an illegal restraint of trade, liability may be imposed for the restraint without requiring preemption of the state statute. Rice v. Norman Williams Co.supports this misuse limitation on preemption.Ricestates that while particular conduct or arrangements by private parties would be subject to per se or rule of reason analysis to determine liability, \"here is no basis ... for condemning the statute itself by force of", "itself by force of the Sherman Act.\" Thus, when a state requires conduct analyzed under the rule of reason, a court must carefully distinguish rule of reason analysis for preemption purposes from the analysis for liability purposes. To analyze whether preemption occurs, the court must determine whether the inevitable effects of a statutory restraint unreasonably restrain trade. If they do, preemption is warranted unless the statute passes the appropriate state action tests. But, when the statutory conduct combines with other practices in a larger conspiracy to restrain trade, or when the statute is used to violate the antitrust laws in a market in which such a use is not compelled by the state statute, the private party might be subjected to antitrust liability without preemption of the statute. Evidence from legislative history The Act was not intended to regulate existing state statutes regulating commerce within state borders. The House committee, in reporting the bill which was adopted without change,", "without change, declared: No attempt is made to invade the legislative authority of the several States or even to occupy doubtful grounds. No system of laws can be devised by Congress alone which would effectually protect the people of the United States against the evils and oppression of trusts and monopolies. Congress has no authority to deal, generally, with the subject within the States, and the States have no authority to legislate in respect of commerce between the several States or with foreign nations. See also the statement on the floor of the House by Mr. Culberson, in charge of the bill, There is no attempt to exercise any doubtful authority on this subject, but the bill is confined strictly and alone to subjects over which, confessedly, there is no question about the legislative power of Congress. And see the statement of Senator Edmunds, chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee which reported out the bill in the form in which it passed, that in drafting that bill the committee thought that \"we", "thought that \"we would frame a bill that should be clearly within our constitutional power, that we would make its definition out of terms that were well known to the law already, and would leave it to the courts in the first instance to say how far they could carry it or its particular definitions as applicable to each particular case as the occasion might arise.\" Similarly Senator Hoar, a member of that committee who with Senator Edmunds was in charge of the bill, stated Now we are dealing with an offense against interstate or international commerce, which the State cannot regulate by penal enactment, and we find the United States without any common law. The great thing that this bill does, except affording a remedy, is to extend the common-law principles, which protected fair competition in trade in old times in England, to international and interstate commerce in the United States. Criticism Alan Greenspan, in his essay entitledAntitrust,described the Sherman Act as stifling innovation and harming", "and harming society. \"No one will ever know what new products, processes, machines, and cost-saving mergers failed to come into existence, killed by the Sherman Act before they were born. No one can ever compute the price that all of us have paid for that Act which, by inducing less effective use of capital, has kept our standard of living lower than would otherwise have been possible.\" Greenspan summarized the nature of antitrust law as \"a jumble of economic irrationality and ignorance\".Greenspan at that time was a disciple and friend ofAyn Rand, and he first publishedAntitrustin Rand's monthly publicationThe Objectivist Newsletter.Rand, who described herself as \"a radical for capitalism\",opposed antitrust law not only on economic grounds but also morally, as a violation of property rights, asserting that the \"meaning and purpose\" of antitrust law is \"the penalizing of ability for being ability, the penalizing of success for being success, and the sacrifice of productive genius to the demands of envious", "demands of envious mediocrity\". In 1890, RepresentativeWilliam E. Masonsaid \"trusts have made products cheaper, have reduced prices; but if the price of oil, for instance, were reduced to one cent a barrel, it would not right the wrong done to people of this country by the trusts which have destroyed legitimate competition and driven honest men from legitimate business enterprise.\"Consequently, if the primary goal of the act is to protect consumers, and consumers are protected by lower prices, the act may be harmful if it reduceseconomy of scale, a price-lowering mechanism, by breaking up big businesses. Mason put small business survival, a justice interest, on a level concomitant with the pure economic rationale of consumer interest. EconomistThomas DiLorenzonotes that Senator Sherman sponsored the 1890William McKinleytariff just three months after the Sherman Act, and agrees withThe New York Timeswhich wrote on October 1, 1890: \"That so-called Anti-Trust law was passed to deceive the people and to clear", "people and to clear the way for the enactment of this Pro-Trust law relating to the tariff.\" TheNew York Timeswent on to assert that Sherman merely supported this \"humbug\" of a law \"in order that party organs might say ... 'Behold! We have attacked the trusts. The Republican Party is the enemy of all such rings.'\"Dilorenzo writes: \"Protectionists did not want prices paid by consumers to fall. But they also understood that to gain political support for high tariffs they would have to assure the public that industries would not combine to increase prices to politically prohibitive levels. Support for both an antitrust law and tariff hikes would maintain high prices while avoiding the more obvious bilking of consumers.\" Robert Borkwas well known for his outspoken criticism of the antitrust regime. Another conservative legal scholar and judge,Richard Posnerof theSeventh Circuit, does not condemn the entire regime, but expresses concern with the potential that it could be applied to create inefficiency, rather", "rather than to avoid inefficiency.Posner further believes, along with a number of others, including Bork, that genuinely inefficient cartels and coercive monopolies, the target of the act, would be self-corrected by market forces, making the strict penalties of antitrust legislation unnecessary.Conversely, liberalU.S. Supreme CourtJusticeWilliam O. Douglascriticized the judiciary for interpreting and enforcing the antitrust law unequally: \"From the beginning it has been applied by judges hostile to its purposes, friendly to the empire builders who wanted it emasculated ... trusts that were dissolved reintegrated in new forms ... It is ironic that the Sherman Act was truly effective in only one respect, and that was when it was applied to labor unions. Then the courts read it with a literalness that never appeared in their other decisions.\" According to a 2018 study in the journalPublic Choice, \"Senator John Sherman of Ohio was motivated to introduce an antitrust bill in late 1889 partly as a way of enacting", "a way of enacting revenge on his political rival, General and former Governor Russell Alger of Michigan, because Sherman believed that Alger personally had cost him the presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican national convention ... Sherman was able to pursue his revenge motive by combining it with the broader Republican goals of preserving high tariffs and attacking the trusts.\" See also Notes and references External links" ]
How many times larger was the population of the city of Paris, 19 years after the year designated as The International Year for the Culture of Peace by the United Nations, than the population of Brown County, Kansas according to its 2020 census? Round the answer to the nearest whole number.
228 times larger
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_County,_Kansas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Paris
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Year_for_the_Culture_of_Peace
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Numerical reasoning | Post processing | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_County,_Kansas', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Paris', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Year_for_the_Culture_of_Peace']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_County,_Kansas", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Paris", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Year_for_the_Culture_of_Peace" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Brown_County,_Kansas (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92d974c0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Demographics_of_Paris (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92d97eb0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "International Year for the Culture of Peace The International Year for the Culture of Peacewas designated by theUnited Nationsas the year 2000, with the aim of celebrating and encouraging a culture ofpeace. Origins Since 1959 theUnited Nationshas designated specific years to emphasize issues which are part of the mission of the organization. The International Year for the Culture of Peace was proclaimed in aUnited Nations General Assemblyresolution in 1997 on the basis of anEconomic and Social Councilresolution.The General Assembly invited aDeclaration and Programme of Actionfrom UNESCO and adopted it after ten months of difficult negotiation. The IYCP Taskforce The lead organization for the International Year wasUNESCO. There was a logic to this, in that UNESCO is theUnited Nationsorganization dealing with education, and also in that the constitutional mandate of UNESCO involves the encouragement of a global culture of peace. Within the UNESCO Secretariat in Paris, a specific International Year for the Culture of Peace Taskforce was established from 1998 to 2000, with the aim of co-ordinating the activities to publicize the International Year. Members of the Taskforce included:David Adams(Chair), Enzo Fazzino,Katherine Stoessel,Di Bretherton,Zeynep Varogluand Jan Visser. International Year Strategies and Results The strategies behind the International Year centred upon involving civil society as much as possible. The specific initiatives included the collection of some 75 million signatures worldwide in support of a culture of peace, with the Manifesto 2000 Project.Another initiative was theCulture of Peace News Network, otherwise known as the CPNN, a web-based news service reporting news in support of a culture of peace. An extensive description of the results obtained during the International Year was published by UNESCO. Assessment of the International Year Opinion is divided as to how effective the International Year was. It is possible to argue that there was much rhetoric in the International Year, and yet often the impact of such events can only be discerned many years later. Ongoing Commitment of the United Nations The work of supporting and encouraging a culture of peace continues through theInternational Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World, and the ongoingCulture of Peace News Network. See also References External links" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Brown_County,_Kansas (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92d974c0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Demographics_of_Paris (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92d97eb0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "International Year for the Culture of Peace The International Year for the Culture of Peacewas designated by theUnited Nationsas the year 2000, with the aim of celebrating and encouraging a culture ofpeace. Origins Since 1959 theUnited Nationshas designated specific years to emphasize issues which are part of the mission of the organization. The International Year for the Culture of Peace was proclaimed in aUnited Nations General Assemblyresolution in 1997 on the basis of anEconomic and Social Councilresolution.The General Assembly invited aDeclaration and Programme of Actionfrom UNESCO and adopted it after ten months of difficult negotiation. The IYCP Taskforce The lead organization for the International Year wasUNESCO. There was a logic to this, in that UNESCO is theUnited Nationsorganization dealing with education, and also in that the constitutional mandate of UNESCO involves the encouragement of a global culture of peace. Within the UNESCO Secretariat in Paris, a specific International Year for the", "Year for the Culture of Peace Taskforce was established from 1998 to 2000, with the aim of co-ordinating the activities to publicize the International Year. Members of the Taskforce included:David Adams(Chair), Enzo Fazzino,Katherine Stoessel,Di Bretherton,Zeynep Varogluand Jan Visser. International Year Strategies and Results The strategies behind the International Year centred upon involving civil society as much as possible. The specific initiatives included the collection of some 75 million signatures worldwide in support of a culture of peace, with the Manifesto 2000 Project.Another initiative was theCulture of Peace News Network, otherwise known as the CPNN, a web-based news service reporting news in support of a culture of peace. An extensive description of the results obtained during the International Year was published by UNESCO. Assessment of the International Year Opinion is divided as to how effective the International Year was. It is possible to argue that there was much rhetoric in the", "rhetoric in the International Year, and yet often the impact of such events can only be discerned many years later. Ongoing Commitment of the United Nations The work of supporting and encouraging a culture of peace continues through theInternational Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World, and the ongoingCulture of Peace News Network. See also References External links" ]
"The Terminator" was released on October 26th exactly how many years after the famous gunfight at the O.K. Corral occurred?
103
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunfight_at_the_O.K._Corral
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Terminator
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunfight_at_the_O.K._Corral', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Terminator']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunfight_at_the_O.K._Corral", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Terminator" ]
[ "Gunfight at the O.K. Corral Thegunfight at the O.K. Corralpittedlawmenagainst members of a loosely organized group of cattle rustlers and horse thieves called theCowboyson October 26, 1881. While lasting less than a minute, the gunfight has been the subject of books and films into the 21st century. Taking place in the town of Tombstone in Arizona Territory, the battle has become one archetype of theAmerican Old West. The gunfight was the result of a long-simmeringfeudbetween five outlaws (including two sets of brothers) and four representatives of the law, including three brothers. The trigger for the event was the local marshal's decision to enforce acity ordinancethat prohibited the carrying of weapons into town. To enforce that ordinance, the lawmen would have to disarm the Cowboys. Among the lawmen were three brothers,Virgil,Wyatt, andMorgan Earp, as well as Wyatt’s close friendDoc Holliday. AsDeputy U.S. MarshalandTown Marshal, Virgil was in charge, and it was his decision to enforce the ordinance that led to the shoot out. His two brothers and Doc Holliday were temporary assistant marshals. The Cowboys were a loosely-connected group of outlaws. In Tombstone at the time of the gunfight were five members of the Cowboys:Billy Claiborne, brothersIkeandBilly Clanton, and brothersTomandFrank McLaury. During that brief battle, three men were killed, three were wounded, two ran away, and one fought but was unharmed. The gunfight was not widely known until two years after Wyatt Earp's death, whenStuart Lakepublished his 1931Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal.The book was the basis for the 1939 filmFrontier Marshal, with Randolph Scott and Cesar Romero, the 1946 filmMy Darling Clementine, directed byJohn Ford,and the 1957 filmGunfight at the O.K. Corral, after which the shootout became known by that name. Since then, the conflict has been portrayed with varying degrees of accuracy in numerousWesternfilms and books, and has become an archetype for much of the popular imagery associated with the Old West. Despite its name, the gunfight did not take place within or next to theO.K. Corral, which fronted Allen Street and had a rear entrance lined with horse stalls on Fremont Street. The shootout actually took place in a narrow lot on the side ofC. S. Fly's photography studio on Fremont Street, six doors west of the O.K. Corral's rear entrance. Some members of the two opposing parties were initially only about 6 feet (1.8 m) apart. About thirty shots were fired in thirty seconds.Ike Clanton subsequently filed murder charges against the Earps and Holliday. After a thirty-daypreliminary hearingand a brief stint in jail, the defendants were shown to have acted lawfully. The gunfight was not the end of the conflict. On December 28, 1881, Virgil was ambushed and maimed in a murder attempt by the Cowboys. On March 18, 1882, a Cowboy fired from a dark alley through the glass door of Campbell & Hatch's saloon and billiard parlor, killing Morgan. The suspects in both incidents furnishedalibissupplied by other Cowboys and were notindicted. Wyatt, newly appointed as Deputy U.S. Marshal inCochise County, then took matters into his own hands in a personalvendetta. He was pursued by county sheriffJohnny Behan, who had received a warrant fromTucsonfor Wyatt's killing ofFrank Stilwell. Background Tombstone, located inArizona Territoryabout 30 miles (50 km) from the Mexican border, was founded in March 1879 aftersilverwas discovered in the area. Like manyminingboomtownson theAmerican frontier, Tombstone grew rapidly. At its founding, it had a population of just 100, and only two years later, in late 1881, the population was more than 7,000 (excluding Chinese, Mexicans, women, and children), making it the largest boomtown in theAmerican Southwest. Silver mining and its attendant wealth attracted many professionals and merchants, who brought their wives and families. With them came churches and ministers. By 1881 the town boasted fancy restaurants, abowlingalley, four churches, anice house, a school, anopera house, two banks, three newspapers, and an ice cream parlor, along with 110saloons, fourteengambling halls, and numerousbrothels, all situated among a number of dirty, hardscrabble mines. Horse rustlers and bandits from the countryside often came to town, and shootings were frequent. In the 1880s, thetheft of cattleand thesmugglingof alcohol and tobacco across the border were common. The Mexican government assessed heavyexport taxeson these items, and smugglers earned a handsome profit by stealing them in Mexico and selling them in Tombstone. James,Virgil, andWyatt Earparrived in Tombstone on December 1, 1879, when the town was mostly composed of tents as living quarters, a few saloons and other buildings, and the mines. Virgil had been hired asDeputy U.S. Marshalfor easternPima County, with his offices in Tombstone, only days before his arrival. In June 1881 he was also appointed as Tombstone's townmarshal(or police chief). Though not universally liked by the townspeople, the Earp brothers tended to protect the interests of the town's business owners and residents; even so, Wyatt helped protect outlaw\"Curly Bill\" Brociusfrom beinglynchedafter he accidentally killed Tombstone town marshalFred White. In contrast,Cochise CountySheriffJohnny Behanwas generally sympathetic to the interests of the rural ranchers and members of the loosely organized outlaw group called theCochise County Cowboys, or simply the Cowboys, to which Brocius belonged. (In that time and region, the termcowboygenerally meant an outlaw; legitimate cowmen were instead referred to ascattle herdersorranchers.: 194) Conflicting versions of events Many of the sources describing the events leading up to the gunfight and details of the gunfight itself conflict with each other. Newspapers of the day were not above taking sides, and news reporting often editorialized on issues to reflect the publisher's interests.John Clum, publisher ofThe Tombstone Epitaph, had helped organize a \"Committee of Safety\" (avigilance committee) in Tombstone in late September 1881.He was elected as Tombstone's firstmayorunder the newcity charterthat year. Clum and his newspaper tended to side with the interests of local business owners and supported Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp. Harry Woods, the publisher of the other major newspaper,The Daily Nugget, was anundersheriffto Behan. He and his newspaper tended to side with Behan, the Cowboys (some of whom were part-time ranchers and landowners) and the rural interests of the ranchers. Much of what is known of the event is based on month-longpreliminary hearingsheld afterward, generally known as theSpicer hearings. Reporters from both newspapers covered the hearings and recorded the testimony there and at thecoroner's inquest, but only the reporter from theNuggetknewshorthand. The testimony recorded by the court recorder and the two newspapers varied greatly. According to the Earps' version of events, the fight was inself-defensebecause the Cowboys, armed in violation oflocal ordinance, defied a lawful order to hand over their weapons and drew their pistols instead. The Cowboys maintained that they raised their hands, offered no resistance, and were shot in cold blood by the Earps. Sorting out who was telling the truth was difficult then and remains so to this day. Though usually opposing each other in their depiction of events, reporting by both theEpitaphand theNuggetinitially supported the lawmen's version of events. Woods, the publisher of the pro-CowboyNugget, was out of town during the hearings, and an experienced reporter, Richard Rule, wrote the story. TheNuggetstaff had a close relationship with Behan, but Rule's story, as printed in theNuggetthe day after the shootout, backed up the Earps' account. This varied widely from Behan's and the Cowboys' later court testimony.: 183 Subsequent stories about the gunfight published in theNuggetafter that day supported Behan's and the Cowboys' view of events. Other stories in theEpitaphcountered theNugget's later view entirely and supported the lawmen. Dr. George Goodfellow, who examined the Cowboys after their deaths, told the court that the angle of the wound in Billy Clanton's wrist indicated that his hands could not have been in the air,or holding his coats open by thelapels, as witnesses loyal to the Cowboys testified. Part-time newspaper reporter Howell \"Pat\" Hayhurst transcribed the testimony from the hearings in the early 1930s as part of aFederal Writers' Project, which was part of theWorks Progress Administration. According to one report, Hayhurst was a friend of the Behan family. After he completed his transcription, he kept the original document in his home, where it was destroyed in a house fire. Origins of the conflict Earps versus Cowboys The interpersonal conflicts andfeudsleading to the gunfight were complex. Each side had strong family ties. The brothers James, Virgil, Wyatt,Morgan, andWarren Earpwere a tight-knit family, working together as lawmen,pimps, and saloon owners in several frontier towns, among other occupations, and had moved together from one town to another. Virgil served in theUnion Armyduring theAmerican Civil Warand in 1877 became a police officer inPrescott, Arizona Territory. He followed that with a job as a night watchman before he became a constable. Wyatt had held jobs as either a guard or police officer in the cattle-drive towns ofWichitaandDodge City,Kansas. James, Virgil, and Wyatt Earp, together with their wives, arrived in Tombstone on December 1, 1879, during the early period of rapid growth associated with mining, when there were only a few hundred residents.Virgil was appointed Deputy U.S. Marshal shortly before he arrived in town. In the summer of 1880, Morgan and Warren Earp also moved to Tombstone. Wyatt arrived hoping he could leave \"lawing\" behind. He bought astagecoach, only to find the business was already very competitive. The Earps invested together in several mining claims and water rights.: 180The Earps wereRepublicansandNorthernerswho had never worked as cowmen or ranchers. The Earps quickly came into conflict withFrankandTom McLaury,BillyandIke Clanton,Johnny Ringo, and William \"Curly Bill\" Brocius, among others. They were part of a large, loose association of cattle smugglers andhorse thievesknown as the Cowboys, outlaws who had been implicated in various crimes. Ike Clanton was prone to drinking heavily and threatened the Earp brothers numerous times. Tombstone resident George Parson wrote in his diary, \"A Cowboy is a rustler at times, and a rustler is a synonym fordesperado—bandit, outlaw, and horse thief.\" TheSan Francisco Examinerwrote in an editorial, \"Cowboys the most reckless class of outlaws in that wild country ... infinitely worse than the ordinary robber.\"During the 1880s in Cochise County, it was an insult to call a legitimatecattlemana \"Cowboy\".The Cowboys teamed up for various crimes and came to each other's aid. Virgil thought that some of the Cowboys had met atCharlestonand taken \"an oath over blood drawn from the arm of Johnny Ringo, the leader, that they would kill us.\" The Earps as lawmen Among the lawmen involved in the O.K. Corral shooting, only Virgil had any real experience in combat. Virgil had beenconstablein Prescott and was thedeputy United States Marshalin Tombstone. He was appointed Deputy U.S. Marshal for eastern Pima County by U.S. MarshalCrawley Dake, on November 27, 1879, before the Earps arrived in Tombstone on December 1. He was appointed as Tombstone's acting town marshal on September 30, 1880, after popular Tombstone town marshalFred Whitewas accidentally shot and killed by Brocius. Wyatt had been a deputy city marshal in Kansas, as well as deputy sheriff in Tombstone. Only six weeks later, Virgil ran for the office on November 12, 1880, but lost toBen Sippy. However, on June 6, 1881, Sippy asked for a two-weekleave of absence. The city soon discovered $3,000 (equivalent to $95,000 in 2023) in financial improprieties in Sippy's records. A few days later Virgil was appointed as town marshal in his place.At the time of the gunfight, Virgil was both Deputy U.S. Marshal and town marshal. The city suspended him as town marshal after Ike Clanton filed murder charges.: 238 After Wyatt first arrived in Tombstone, his business efforts yielded little profit, and he took a job as a stagecoachshotgun messengerforWells Fargo, guarding shipments of silver bullion. On July 28, 1880, Wyatt was appointed Pima CountyDeputy Sheriff. He held this position for only three months, until after the election of November 9, 1880, when he resigned.When Virgil was maimed by an assassination attempt, Wyatt was appointed Deputy U.S. Marshal in his place. He held that position until he left Cochise County in April 1882. Wyatt was an imposing, handsome man: blond, 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, weighing 165 to 170 pounds (75 to 77 kg), broad-shouldered, long-armed, and muscular. He had been a boxer and was reputed to be an expert with apistol. According to author Leo Silva, Earp showed no fear of any man.: 83Wyatt had been an assistant marshal when he and policemanJames Masterson, along with a few other citizens, fired their pistols at several cowboys who were fleeing town after shooting up a theater. A member of the group, George Hoyt (sometimes spelled Hoy), was shot in the arm and died of his wound a month later. Wyatt always claimed to have been the one to shoot Hoyt, although it could have been anyone among the lawmen.Wyatt had developed a reputation as a no-nonsense, hard-nosed lawman, but prior to the gunfight he had been involved in only one other shooting, in Dodge City, Kansas, during the summer of 1878. The 1931 bookWyatt Earp: Frontier Marshalwas a best-selling biography byStuart N. Lake.It established Wyatt Earp's role as a fearless lawman in theAmerican Old Westand the legend of the \"Gunfight at the O.K. Corral\" in the public consciousness.: 36But Lake and many others in the popular media wildly exaggerated Wyatt's role as the central figure in the gunfight.It was only discovered much later thatWyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal, based on eight interviews with Earp, was largely fictional.The book and later Hollywood portrayals embellished Wyatt's reputation and magnified his mystique as a western lawman. Morgan Earp had been a police officer inMontana, but had no known experience with gunfighting prior to their arrival in Tombstone. While Wyatt was Pima County Deputy Sheriff on July 27, 1880, Morgan Earp took over his job as shotgun messenger for Wells Fargo. Morgan also occasionally assisted Virgil and at the time of the gunfight was a special deputy policeman and drawing pay. Doc Hollidayhad a reputation as a gunman and had reportedly been in nine shootouts during his life, although it has only been verified that he killed three men.One well-documented episode occurred on July 19, 1879, when Holliday and his business partner, former deputy marshalJohn Joshua Webb, were seated in their saloon inLas Vegas, New Mexico. FormerU.S. ArmyscoutMike Gordon got into a loud argument with one of the saloon girls whom he wanted to take with him. Gordon stormed from the saloon and began firing his revolver into the building. Before Gordon could get off his second shot, Holliday killed him. Holliday was tried for the murder but acquitted, mostly based on the testimony of Webb. Holliday had saved Wyatt Earp's life at one time and had become a close friend. He had been living in Prescott, Arizona Territory and making a living as a gambler since late 1879. There, he first met future Tombstone sheriffJohnny Behan, a sometime gambler and saloon owner. In late September 1880, Holliday followed the Earps to Tombstone. Rural Cowboys vs. Tombstone interests Theranchowned byNewman Haynes ClantonnearCharleston, Arizonawas believed to be the local center for the Cowboys' illegal activities.TomandFrank McLauryworked with the rustlers buying and selling stolen cattle. Many of the ruralranchersandCowboysresented the growing influence of the city residents over county politics and law enforcement. The ranchers largely maintained control of the country outside Tombstone, due in large part to the sympathetic support ofCochise CountySheriffJohnny Behan, who favored the Cowboys and rural ranchers,and who also grew to intensely dislike the Earps. Behan tended to ignore the Earps' complaints about the McLaurys' and Clantons' horse thieving and cattle rustling. The Earps were known to bend the law in their favor when it affected theirgamblingand saloon interests, which earned them further enmity with the Cowboy faction. Relevant law in Tombstone To reduce crime in Tombstone, on April 19, 1881, the city council passedordinance 9, requiring anyone carrying abowie knife,dirk, pistol or rifleto deposit their weapons at aliveryor saloon soon after entering town. To Provide against Carrying of Deadly Weapons Section 1. It is hereby declared unlawful to carry in the hand or upon the person or otherwise any deadly weapon within the limits of said city of Tombstone, without first obtaining a permit in writing. Section 2: This prohibition does not extend to persons immediately leaving or entering the city, who, with good faith, and within reasonable time are proceeding to deposit, or take from the place of deposit such deadly weapon. Section 3: All fire-arms of every description, and bowie knives and dirks, are included within the prohibition of this ordinance. The ordinance was the legal basis for City Marshal Virgil Earp's decision to confront the Cowboys on the day of the shootout. Smuggling and stock thefts In the borderlands south of Tombstone there was only one passable route betweenArizonaandMexico, a passage known as Guadalupe Canyon.In August 1881, 15Mexicanscarrying gold, coins andbullionto make their purchases were ambushed and killed inSkeleton Canyon. The next month MexicanCommandantFelipe Neri dispatched troops to the border,: 110where they killed five Cowboys, includingNewman Haynes \"Old Man\" Clanton, inGuadalupe Canyon.The Earps knew that the McLaurys and Clantons were reputed to be mixed up in the robbery and murder in Skeleton Canyon. Wyatt Earp said in his testimony after the shootout, \"I naturally kept my eyes open and did not intend that any of the gang should get the drop on me if I could help it.\" Earp loses sheriff's office to Behan On July 27, 1880,Pima CountySheriffCharles A. Shibell, whose offices were in the county seat of Tucson, appointed Wyatt Earp asdeputy sheriff. On October 28, 1880, Tombstone MarshalFred Whiteattempted to disarm some late-night revelers who were shooting their pistols in the air. When he attempted to disarm Curly Bill Brocius, the gun discharged, striking White in the abdomen. Wyatt saw the shooting andpistol-whippedBrocius, knocking him unconscious, and arrested him. Wyatt later told his biographerJohn Floodthat he thought Brocius was still armed at the time, and did not see Brocius' pistol on the ground. Brocius waived the preliminary hearing so he and his case could be immediately transferred toTucson. Wyatt and a deputy took Brocius in a wagon the next day to Tucson to stand trial, possibly saving him from beinglynched. Wyatt testified that he thought the shooting was accidental. It was also demonstrated that Brocius's pistol could be fired fromhalf-cock. Fred White left a statement before he died two days later that the shooting was not intentional. Based on the evidence presented, Brocius was not charged with White's death.: 30–31 The Tombstone council convened and appointed Virgil Earp as \"temporary assistant city marshal\" to replace White for a salary of $100 per month (equivalent to $3,200 in 2023) until an election could be held on November 12. For the next few weeks, Virgil represented federal and local law enforcement and Wyatt represented Pima County.: 122–123 In the November 2, 1880, election for Pima County sheriff,DemocratShibell ran against RepublicanBob Paul, who was expected to win. Votes arrived as late as November 7, and Shibell was unexpectedly re-elected. He immediately appointedJohnny Behanas the new deputy sheriff for eastern Pima County, a job that Wyatt wanted. A controversy ensued when Paul uncoveredballot-stuffingby Cowboys and he sued to overturn the election. While San Simeon precinct, east of Tombstone, only had 10 registered voters, Shibell won that precinct with 103 votes to 1. Ike Clanton was the election inspector and Johnny Ringo was one of the election judges. Paul finally became sheriff in April 1881, but it was too late to re-appoint Wyatt Earp asdeputy sheriffbecause on February 1, 1881, the eastern portion of Pima County containing Tombstone had been split off into the newCochise County, which would need its own sheriff, based in the county's largest city, Tombstone.This position was filled by a political appointment from the governor, and Wyatt and Behan both wanted the job. The Cochise County sheriff's position was worth more than $40,000 a year (equivalent to $1.3 million in 2023) because the office holder was also county assessor and tax collector, and the board of supervisors allowed him to keep ten percent of the amounts paid.: 157 Behan used his existing position and his superior political connections to successfullylobbyfor the position. He also promised Wyatt a position as hisundersheriffif he was appointed over Wyatt. Wyatt withdrew from the political contest and the governor and legislature appointed Behan to the job of Cochise County sheriff on February 10, 1881.Behan reneged on his deal with Earp and appointed Harry Woods as undersheriff instead. Behan said he broke his promise to appoint Earp because Wyatt Earp used Behan's name to threaten Ike Clanton when Wyatt recovered his stolen horse from Clanton. Earp conflicts with Cowboys Tensions between the Earp family and both the Clanton and McLaury clans increased through 1881. On July 25, 1880, Captain Joseph H. Hurst, of Company A,12th U.S. Infantry, and Commanding Officer ofFort Bennett, asked Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp to help him track Cowboys who had stolen sixU.S. Armymules fromCamp Rucker. This was afederalmatter because the animals were U.S. property. Hurst brought four soldiers, and Virgil invited Wyatt and Morgan Earp, as well asWells Fargoagent Marshall Williams. Thepossefound the mules on the McLaury's Ranch on Babacomari Creek, northwest of Tombstone, as well as thebranding ironused to change the \"US\" brand to \"D8.\" To avoid bloodshed, Cowboy Frank Patterson promised Hurst they would return the mules and Hurst persuaded the posse to withdraw. Hurst went to nearbyCharleston, but the Cowboys showed up two days later without the mules, laughing at Hurst and the Earps. In response, Hurst had printed and distributed ahandbillin which he named Frank McLaury as specifically assisting with hiding the mules. He re-printed this inThe Tombstone Epitaphon July 30, 1880.Virgil later said that McLaury had asked him if he had posted the handbills. When Virgil said he had not, McLaury said if Virgil had printed the handbills it was Frank's intention to kill Virgil.He warned Virgil, \"If you ever again follow us as close as you did, then you will have to fight anyway.\"This incident was the first run-in between the Clantons and McLaurys and the Earps. March stagecoach robbery and murder On the evening of March 15, 1881, a Kinnear & Companystagecoachcarrying $26,000 insilver bullion(equivalent to $820,000 in 2023) was en route from Tombstone toBenson, Arizona, the nearest freight terminal.: 180Bob Paul, who had run forPima CountySheriff and was contesting the election he lost due toballot-stuffing, was temporarily working once again as theWells Fargoshotgun messenger. He had taken the reins and driver's seat in Contention City because the usual driver, a well-known and popular man named Eli \"Bud\" Philpot, was ill. Philpot wasriding shotgun. NearDrew's Station, just outsideContention City, a man stepped into the road and commanded them to \"Hold!\" Three Cowboys attempted to rob the stage. Paul, in the driver's seat, fired hisshotgunand emptied hisrevolverat the robbers, wounding a Cowboy later identified as Bill Leonard in the groin. Philpot, riding shotgun, and passenger Peter Roerig, riding in the reardickey seat, were both shot and killed.The horses spooked and Paul was not able to bring the stage under control for almost one mile (1.6 km), leaving the robbers with nothing. Paul, who normally rode shotgun, later said he thought the first shot killing Philpot had been meant for him. Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp, along with temporary federal deputies Wyatt and Morgan Earp, Wells Fargo agent Marshall Williams, former Kansas SheriffBat Masterson(who was dealingfaroat the Oriental Saloon), andCounty SheriffBehan set out to find the robbers. Wells Fargo issued awanted posteroffering a $3,600 reward (equivalent to $114,000 in 2023) for the three robbers ($1,200 each), dead or alive. Robbery of a mail-carrying stagecoach was both a federal crime and territorial crime, and the posse consisted of both county and federal authorities and deputies.: 181 The posse trailed the robbers to a nearby ranch where they found adrifternamed Luther King. He would not tell who his confederates were until the posse lied and told him thatDoc Holliday's girlfriend had been shot. Fearful of Holliday's reputation, he confessed to holding the reins of the robbers' horses, and identified Bill Leonard, Harry \"The Kid\" Head, and Jim Crane as the robbers.: 181They were all known Cowboys and rustlers. Behan and Williams escorted King back to Tombstone. Remarkably, King walked in the front door of the jail and a few minutes later walked out the back. King had arranged withUndersheriffHarry Woods (publisher of theNugget) to sell the horse he had been riding to John Dunbar, Sheriff Behan's partner in the DexterLivery Stable.On March 19, King conveniently escaped while Dunbar and Woods were making out the bill-of-sale. Woods claimed that someone had deliberately unlocked a secured back door to the jail.The Earps and the townspeople were furious at King's easy escape.Williams was later dismissed from Wells Fargo, leaving behind a number of debts, when it was determined he had been stealing from the company for years. The Earps pursued the other two men for 17 days, riding for 60 hours without food and 36 hours without water, during whichBob Paul's horse died, and Wyatt and Morgan's horses became so weak that the two men walked 18 miles (29 km) back to Tombstone to obtain new horses.After pursuing the Cowboys for over 400 miles (640 km) they could not obtain more fresh horses and were forced to give up the chase. They returned to Tombstone on April 1.: 123Behan submitted a bill for $796.84 (equivalent to $25,000 in 2023) to the county for posse expenses, but he refused to reimburse the Earps for any of their costs. Virgil was incensed. They were later reimbursed by Wells, Fargo & Co., but the incident caused further friction between county and federal law enforcement, and between Behan and the Earps.: 38 After he was passed over by Johnny Behan for the position of undersheriff,Wyattthought he might beat him in the nextCochise Countyelection in late 1882. He thought catching the murderers of Bud Philpot and Peter Roerig would help him win the sheriff's office. Wyatt later said that on June 2, 1881, he offered the Wells, Fargo & Co. reward money and more to Ike Clanton if he would provide information leading to the capture or death of the stage robbers.According to Wyatt, Ike was initially interested, but the plan was foiled when the three suspects — Leonard, Head and Crane — were killed in unrelated incidents. Ike began to fear that word of his possible cooperation had leaked, threatening to compromise his standing among the Cowboys. Undercover Wells Fargo Company agent M. Williams suspected a deal, and said something to Ike, who was fearful that other Cowboys might learn of his double-cross.Ike now began to threaten Wyatt and Doc Holliday (who had learned of the deal) for apparently revealing Ike's willingness to help arrest his friends. The fallout over the Cowboys' attempt to implicate Holliday and the Earps in the robbery,: 544along with Behan's involvement in King's escape, was the beginning of increasingly bad feelings between the Earp brothers and Cowboy factions.: 38 Earp and Behan attracted to Josephine Marcus Wyatt Earp andCochise CountysheriffJohnny Behanwere interested in the same sheriff's position and also might have shared an interest in the same woman,Josephine Marcus, known as Sadie. Citizens of Tombstone believed that Behan and Sadie were married, but Behan was a known womanizer and had sex with prostitutes and other women. In early 1881, Sadie ended the relationship after she came home and found Behan in bed with the wife of a friendand kicked him out,although she used the Behan surname through the end of that summer. She rented her home sometime before April 1881 toDr. George Goodfellow. Wyatt Earp lived withMattie Blaylock,: 159who was listed as his wife in the 1880 census. She had a growing addiction to the opiatelaudanum, which was readily available at the time.Earp remained with Blaylock until he left Tombstone in April 1882. There are no contemporary Tombstone records that indicate a relationship between Sadie and Earp, but Earp certainly knew her, because both Behan and Earp had offices above the Crystal Palace Saloon. Sadie, traveling as either Mrs. J. C. Earp or Mrs. Wyatt Earp, left for Los Angeles on March 25, 1882,and then returned to her family in San Francisco. In July 1882, Wyatt left Colorado and went to San Francisco,where he sought out Sadie and his brother Virgil, who was seeking treatment for his arm.: 29In February or March 1883, Sadie and Earp left San Francisco forGunnison, where Earp ran a Faro bank until he received a request in April for assistance from Luke Short in Dodge City.: 275–298Sadie was his common-law wife for the next 46 years.: 29 September stage holdup Tensions between the Earps and the McLaurys further increased when anotherpassenger stageon the 'Sandy Bob Line' in the Tombstone area, bound forBisbee, was held up on September 8, 1881. The masked bandits robbed all of the passengers of their valuables since the stage was not carrying astrongbox. During the robbery, the driver heard one of the robbers describe the money as \"sugar\", a phrase known to be used byFrank Stilwell. Stilwell had, until the prior month, been a deputy for Sheriff Behan but had been fired for \"accounting irregularities\". Wyatt andVirgil Earprode with a sheriff's posse and tracked the Bisbee stage robbers. Virgil had been appointed Tombstone'stown marshal(i.e.,chief of police) on June 6, 1881, after Ben Sippy abandoned the job. However, Virgil at the same time continued to hold his position of deputy U.S. marshal, and it was in this federal capacity that he continued to chase robbers of stage coaches outside Tombstone city limits. At the scene of the holdup, Wyatt discovered an unusual boot print left by someone wearing a custom-repaired boot heel.The Earps checked a shoe repair shop in Bisbee known to provide widened boot heels and were able to link the boot print to Stilwell. Stilwell and Spence arrests Frank Stilwell had just arrived in Bisbee with his livery stable partner,Pete Spence, when the two were arrested by Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp for the holdup. Both were friends of Ike Clanton and the McLaurys. At the preliminary hearing, Stilwell and Spence were able to provide several witnesses who supported theiralibis. Judge Spicer dropped the charges for insufficient evidence just as he had done for Doc Holliday earlier in the year. Released on bail, Spence and Stilwell were re-arrested October 13 by Marshal Virgil Earp for the Bisbee robbery on a new federal charge of interfering with amail carrier.The newspapers, however, reported that they had been arrested for a different stage robbery that occurred on October 8 near Contention City. Ike and other Cowboys believed the new arrest was further evidence that the Earps were illegally persecuting the Cowboys.They told theEarpsthat they could expect retaliation.While Virgil and Wyatt were in Tucson for the federal hearing on the charges against Spence and Stilwell, Frank McLaury confronted Morgan Earp. He told him that the McLaurys would kill the Earps if they tried to arrest Spence, Stilwell, or the McLaurys again.The Tombstone Epitaphreported \"that since the arrest of Spence and Stilwell, veiled threats being made that the friends of the accused will 'get the Earps.'\": 137 Cowboys accuse Holliday of robbery Milt Joyce, acounty supervisorand owner of the Oriental Saloon, had a contentious relationship withDoc Holliday. In October 1880, Holliday had trouble with agamblernamed Johnny Tyler in Milt Joyce's Oriental Saloon. Tyler had been hired by a competing gambling establishment to drive customers from Joyce's saloon.Holliday challenged Tyler to a fight, but Tyler ran. Joyce did not like Holliday or the Earps and he continued to argue with Holliday. Joyce ordered Holliday removed from the saloon but would not return Holliday's revolver. But Holliday returned carrying a double-action revolver. Milt brandished a pistol and threatened Holliday, but Holliday shot Joyce in the palm, disarming him, and then shot Joyce's business partner William Parker in the big toe. Joyce then hit Holliday over the head with his revolver.Holliday was arrested and pleaded guilty to assault and battery. Holliday and his on-again, off-again mistressBig Nose Katehad many fights. After a particularly nasty, drunken argument, Holliday kicked her out.County SheriffJohn Behan and Milt Joyce saw an opportunity and exploited the situation. They plied Big Nose Kate with more booze and suggested to her a way to get even with Holliday. She signed anaffidavitimplicating Holliday in the attempted stagecoach robbery and murders. Holliday was a good friend of Bill Leonard, a formerwatchmakerfromNew York, one of three men implicated in the robbery.: 181JudgeWells Spicerissued anarrest warrantfor Holliday. The Earps foundwitnesseswho could attest to Holliday's location at the time of the murders and Kate sobered up, revealing that Behan and Joyce had influenced her to sign a document she did not understand. With the Cowboyplotrevealed, Spicer freed Holliday. Thedistrict attorneythrew out the charges, labeling them \"ridiculous.\" Doc gave Kate some money and put her on astageout of town. Ike Clanton's conflict with Doc Holliday Wyatt Earp testified after the gunfight that five or six weeks prior he had met Ike Clanton outside the Alhambra Hotel. Ike told Wyatt that Doc Holliday had told him he knew of Ike's meetings with Wyatt and about Ike providing information on Head, Leonard, and Crane, as well as their attempted robbery of the stage. Ike now accused Earp of telling Holliday about these conversations. Earp testified that he told Ike he had not told Holliday anything. Wyatt Earp offered to prove this when Holliday and the Clantons next returned to town. A month later, the weekend before the shootout, Morgan Earp was concerned about possible trouble with the Cowboys. He asked Doc Holliday to come back to Tombstone from a fiesta celebration in Tucson where Holliday had been gambling. Upon his return, Wyatt Earp asked Holliday about Ike's accusation. On the morning of Tuesday, October 25, 1881, the day before the gunfight, Ike Clanton and Tom McLaury drove 10 miles (16 km) in aspring wagonfrom Chandler's Milk Ranch at the foot of theDragoon Mountainsto Tombstone. They were in town to sell a large number of beefstock, most of them owned by the McLaurys.Fred Dodge, an undercover detective for Wells Fargo, heard from J.B. Ayers, another undercover Wells Fargo man in Contention, that Frank McLaury, Billy Clanton, and Billy Claiborne were in town and planning to join Ike and Tom in Tombstone Wednesday afternoon. Dodge, who had been sick, got up and went looking for city marshal Virgil Earp. He found Tombstone Deputy CityMarshalMorgan Earp at the Alhambra Saloon instead and told him the news.: 87 Near midnight, Holliday saw Clanton in the Alhambra Saloon and confronted him, accusing him of lying about their previous conversations. They got into a heated argument. Wyatt Earp (who was not wearing a badge) encouraged his brother Morgan to intervene. Morgan took Holliday out onto the street and Ike, who had been drinking steadily, followed them. City Marshal Virgil Earp arrived a few minutes later and threatened to arrest both Holliday and Clanton if they did not stop quarreling. Wyatt Earp walked over to the Oriental Saloon and Ike followed him. They talked again, and Ike threatened to confront Holliday in the morning. Ike told Earp that the fighting talk had been going on for a long time and that he intended to put an end to it. Ike told Earp, \"I will be ready for you in the morning.\" Wyatt told Ike to go home \"because there was no money in it.\" Ike sat down near Wyatt, his revolver in plain sight, and told Earp \"You must not think I won't be after you all in the morning.\" Virgil Earp went to the Occidental Saloon across the street.: 88 Morning of the gunfight Events leading up to the Ike Clanton court hearing After Holliday's confrontation with Ike Clanton, Wyatt Earp took Holliday back to his room atCamillus Sidney \"Buck\" Fly'sLodging House to sleep off his drinking, then went home and to bed.TombstoneMarshalVirgil Earp played poker with Ike Clanton, Tom McLaury, CochiseCounty SheriffJohnny Behanand a fifth unnamed man in a back room of the Occidental Saloon until morning. At about dawn on October 26, the card game broke up and Behan and Virgil Earp went home to bed. Ike Clanton testified later he saw Virgil take hissix-shooterout of his lap and stick it in his pants when the game ended.Not having rented a room, Tom McLaury and Ike Clanton had no place to go. Shortly after 8:00 ambarkeeperE. F. Boyle spoke to Ike Clanton in front of thetelegraphoffice. Clanton had been drinking all night and Boyle encouraged him to get some sleep, but Ike insisted he would not go to bed. Boyle later testified he noticed Ike was armed and covered his gun for him. Boyle later said that Ike told him, \"'As soon as the Earps and Doc Holliday showed themselves on the street, the ball would open — that they would have to fight' ... I went down to Wyatt Earp's house and told him that Ike Clanton had threatened that when Wyatt, his brothers, and Doc Holliday showed themselves on the street that the ball would open.\"Ike said in his testimony afterward that he remembered neither meeting Boyle nor making any such statements that day.Deputy Marshal Andy Bronk also heard the talk around town. He woke Virgil, who listened, and went back to sleep. Ike's continuous threats were not worth losing sleep over. Later in the morning, Ike picked up hisrifleandrevolverfrom the West End Corral, where he had deposited his weapons and stabled his wagon and team after entering town. By noon that day, Ike was still drinking and once again armed, in violation of the city ordinance against carrying firearms in the city. He told anyone who would listen he was looking for Holliday or an Earp. At Fly's boarding house where Holliday and his common-law wifeMary Katharine Horonywere sleeping, proprietor Mary Fly heard Clanton's threats and banged on Holliday's door. Fly told Horony, \"Ike Clanton was here looking for , and he had a rifle with him.\"Horony woke Holliday and relayed the threat, who replied, \"If God will let me live to get my clothes on, he will see me.\" At about 1:00 p.m., Marshal Virgil and his Deputy Morgan Earp found Ike on Fourth Street, still armed, and Virgilpistol whippedhim from behind. Disarming him, the Earps took Ike to appear before Justice of the Peace A.O. Wallace for violating the ordinance. Wyatt waited with Clanton while Virgil went to find Justice Wallace so a court hearing could be held. Ike Clanton court hearing While Wyatt waited for Virgil to return with Justice Wallace, witnesses overheard Wyatt tell Clanton, \"You cattle thieving son-of-a-bitch, and you know that I know you are a cattle thieving son-of-a-bitch, you've threatened my life enough, and you've got to fight!\", Ike Clanton was heard to reply, \"Fight is my racket, and all I want is four feet of ground!\" Ike reported in his testimony afterward that Wyatt Earp cursed him. He said Wyatt, Virgil and Morgan offered him his rifle and to fight him right there in the courthouse, which Ike declined. Ike also denied ever threatening the Earps.Justice Wallace fined Ike $25 (equivalent to $790 in 2023) plus court costs. Ike paid the fine and Virgil told Ike he could pick up his confiscated rifle and revolver at the Grand Hotel, which was favored by Cowboys when in town. Ike testified that he picked up the weapons from William Soule, the jailer, a couple of days later. Tom McLaury's concealed weapon Outside the court house where Ike was being fined, Tombstone Deputy Marshal Wyatt almost walked into 28-year-oldTom McLauryas the two men were brought up short nose-to-nose. Tom, who had arrived in town the day before, was required by the well-known city ordinance to deposit his pistol when he first arrived in town. When Wyatt demanded, \"Are you heeled or not?\", McLaury said he was not armed. Wyatt testified that he saw arevolverin plain sight on the right hip of Tom's pants.As an unpaiddeputymarshalfor Virgil, Wyatt habitually carried a pistol, in his waistband or in a coat pocket lined with leather to make drawing it easier. Witnesses reported that Wyatt drew hisrevolverfrom his coat pocket andpistol whippedTom McLaury with it twice, leaving him prostrate and bleeding on the street. Saloon-keeper Andrew Mehan testified at the Spicer hearing afterward that he saw McLaury deposit a revolver at the Capital Saloon sometime between 1:00–2:00 p.m., after the confrontation with Wyatt, which Mehan also witnessed. Wyatt said in his deposition afterward that he had been temporarily acting as city marshal for Virgil the week before while Virgil was in Tucson for thePete SpenceandFrank Stilwelltrial. Wyatt said that he still considered himself a deputy city marshal, which Virgil later confirmed. Since Wyatt was an off-duty officer, he could not legally search or arrest Tom for carrying a revolver within the city limits — amisdemeanoroffense. Only Virgil or one of his city police deputies, including Morgan Earp and possiblyWarren Earp, could search him and take any required action. Wyatt, who was portrayed as a non-drinker, testified at the Spicer hearing that he went to Haffords and bought a cigar and went outside to watch the Cowboys. At the time of the gunfight about two hours later, Wyatt could not know if Tom was still armed. It was early afternoon by the time Ike and Tom had seen doctors for their head wounds. The day was chilly, with snow still on the ground in some places. Both Tom and Ike had spent the night gambling, drinking heavily, and without sleep. Now they were both out-of-doors, both wounded from head beatings, and at least Ike was still drunk.: 138 More Cowboys enter town At around 1:30–2:00 p.m., after Tom had beenpistol-whippedby Wyatt, Ike's 19-year-old younger brother Billy Clanton and Tom's older brother Frank McLaury arrived in town. They had heard from their neighbor, Ed \"Old Man\" Frink, that Ike had been stirring up trouble in town overnight, and they had ridden into town on horseback to back up their brothers. They arrived from Antelope Springs, 13 miles (21 km) east ofTombstone, where they had been rounding upstockand had breakfasted with Ike and Tom the day before. Both Frank and Billy were armed with a revolver and a rifle, as was the custom for riders in the country outside Tombstone.Apachewarriors had engaged the U.S. Army near Tombstone just three weeks before the O.K. Corral gunfight, so the need for weapons outside of town was well established and accepted. Billy and Frank stopped first at the Grand Hotel on Allen Street, and were greeted by Doc Holliday. They learned immediately about their brothers' beatings by the Earps within the previous two hours. The incidents had generated a lot of talk in town. Angrily, Frank said he would not drink, and he and Billy left the saloon immediately to seek Tom. By law, both Frank and Billy should have left their firearms at the Grand Hotel. Instead, they remained fully armed.: 49: 190 Virgil and Wyatt Earp's reactions Wyatt said that he saw Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury in Spangenberg's gun and hardware store on 4th Street filling theirgun beltswithcartridges.Ike testified afterward that Tom was not there and that he had tried to buy a new revolver but the owner saw Ike's bandaged head and refused to sell him one.Ike apparently had not heard Virgil tell him that his confiscated weapons were at the Grand Hotel around the corner from Spangenberg's shop. When Virgil Earp learned that Wyatt was talking to the Cowboys at Spangenberg's gun shop, he went there himself. Virgil testified afterward that he thought he saw all four men, Ike Clanton, Billy Clanton, Frank McLaury, and Tom McLaury, buying cartridges.Virgil went around the corner on Allen Street to theWells Fargooffice, where he picked up a 10-gauge or 12-gauge,short, double-barreled shotgun. It was an unusually cold and windy day in Tombstone, and Virgil was wearing along overcoat. To avoid alarming Tombstone's public, Virgil hid the shotgun under his overcoat when he returned to Hafford's Saloon.: 4 From Spangenberg's, the Cowboys moved to the O.K. Corral where witnesses overheard them threatening to kill the Earps. For unknown reasons the Cowboys then walked out the back of the O.K. Corral and then west, stopping in a narrow, empty lot next to C. S. Fly's boarding house.: 4 Virgil initially avoided a confrontation with the newly arrived Frank McLaury and Billy Clanton, who had not yet deposited their weapons at a hotel or stable as the law required. The statute was not specific about how far a recently arrived visitor might \"with good faith, and within reasonable time\" travel into town while carrying a firearm. This permitted a traveler to keep his firearms if he was proceeding directly to a livery, hotel or saloon. The three main Tombstone corrals were all west of 4th Street between Allen and Fremont, a block or two from where Wyatt saw the Cowboys buying cartridges. Miner Ruben F. Coleman later toldThe Tombstone Epitaph: I was in the O.K. Corral at 2:30 p.m. when I saw the two Clantons and the two McLaurys in an earnest conversation across the street at Dunbar's corral. I went up the street and notified Sheriff Behan and told them it was my opinion that they meant trouble, and it was his duty, as sheriff, to go and disarm them. I told him they had gone to the West End Corral. I then went and saw Marshal Virgil Earp and notified him to the same effect. Behan attempts to disarm Cowboys Cochise CountySheriffJohnny Behan, a friend of the Cowboys,later testified that he woke up about 1:30 p.m. after the late-night card game, and went to get a shave at a barbershop. That is where he first learned that the Cowboys were armed. Behan stated he quickly finished his shave and went to locate the Cowboys. At about 2:30 p.m. he found Frank McLaury holding a horse and talking to someone on 4th Street near the corner of Fremont. When he saw Ike Clanton and Tom McLaury near C. S. Fly's photography studio, he walked there with Frank. He told the Cowboys that they must give up their arms. Ike Clanton said he was not armed, and Tom McLaury pulled his coat open to show he was not carrying a weapon. The Cowboys were located in a narrow 15–20 feet (4.6–6.1 m) lotbetween the Harwood house and Fly's 12-room boarding house and photography studio at 312 Fremont Street,where Doc Holliday roomed. Behan later said he attempted to persuade Frank McLaury to give up his weapons, but Frank insisted that he would give up his guns only after CityMarshalVirgil Earp and his brothers were first disarmed. The Cowboys were about a block and a half from the West End Corral at 2nd. Street and Fremont, where Ike and Tom's wagon and team were stabled. Virgil Earp later testified that he thought Ike and Tom were stabled at theO.K. Corralon Allen between 3rd and 4th, from which he thought they would be departing if they were leaving town. While Ike Clanton later said he was planning to leave town, Frank McLaury reported that he had decided to remain behind to take care of some business. Will McLaury, Tom and Frank's brother and a judge inFort Worth, Texas, claimed in a letter he wrote during the preliminary hearing after the shootout that Tom and Frank were still armed because they were planning to conduct business before leaving town to visit him in Texas. He wrote that Billy Clanton, who had arrived on horseback with Frank, intended to go with the McLaurys to Fort Worth. Will McLaury came to Tombstone after the gun fight and joined the prosecution team in an attempt to convict the Earps and Holliday for his brothers' murder.Paul Johnson told a different story, that the McLaurys were about to leave for Iowa to attend the wedding of their sister, Sarah Caroline.Tom and Frank were especially close to Sarah, one of their 14 siblings and half-siblings.Caroline married James Reed inRichland, Iowaat the end of November that year. Virgil decides to disarm Cowboys Citizens reported to Virgil on the Cowboys' movements and their threats told him that Ike and Tom had left their livery stable and entered town while armed, in violation of the city ordinance. Virgil Earp was told by several citizens that the McLaurys and the Clantons had gathered on Fremont Street. Virgil decided he had to disarm the Cowboys.His decision to take action may have been influenced by the Cowboys' repeated threats to the Earps, their proximity to Holliday's room in Fly's boarding house, and their location on the route the Earps usually took to their homes two blocks further west on Fremont Street.: 27 Several members of the citizen's vigilance committee offered to support him with arms, but Virgil refused.He had, during the prior month, appointed Morgan as a Special Policeman. He had also appointed Wyatt as a Special Policeman while Virgil had been in Prescott on business. He had also called on Doc Holliday that morning for help with disarming the Clantons and McLaurys.Wyatt spoke of his brothers Virgil and Morgan as the \"marshals\" while he acted as \"deputy.\" Virgil Earp picked up the shotgun he had retrieved from the Wells Fargo office earlier.: 185He gave the shotgun to Doc Holliday who hid it under his overcoat. He took Holliday'swalking-stickin return.: 89 As usual, the Earps carried their revolvers in their coat pockets or in their waistbands. Wyatt Earp was carrying a.44 caliber American1869 Smith & Wessonrevolver.Holliday was carrying a nickel-plated pistol in a holster, but this was concealed by his long coat, as was the shotgun. The Earps and Holliday walked west, down the south side of Fremont Street past the rear entrance to the O.K. Corral, but out of visual range of the Cowboys' last reported location.Near the corner of Fourth St. and Fremont St., the Earps ran into Sheriff Behan. He had left the Cowboys and came toward the Earps, though he looked nervously backward several times. Virgil testified afterward that Behan told them, \"For God's sake, don't go down there or they will murder you!\"Wyatt said Behan told him and Morgan, \"I have disarmed them.\"Behan testified afterward that he had only said he had gone down to the Cowboys \"for the purpose of disarming them,\" not that he had actually disarmed them.One eyewitness, laundryman Peter H. Fallehy, testified afterward that Virgil Earp told Behan, \"those men have made their threats and I will not arrest them but I will kill them on sight.\" When Behan said he had disarmed them, Virgil attempted to avoid a fight. \"I had a walking stick in my left hand and my hand was on my six-shooter in my waist pants, and when he said he had disarmed them, I shoved it clean around to my left hip and changed my walking stick to my right hand.\"Wyatt said, \"I took my pistol, which I had in my hand, under my coat, and put it in my overcoat pocket.\" The Earps walked further down Fremont street and came into full view of the Cowboys in the lot. Wyatt testified he saw \"Frank McLaury, Tom McLaury, and Billy Clanton standing in a row against the east side of the building on the opposite side of the vacant space west of Fly's photograph gallery. Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne and a man I don't know were standing in the vacant space about halfway between the photograph gallery and the next building west.\"Addie Bourland corroborated Wyatt's testimony, stating that she saw \"five men opposite my house, leaning against a small house west of Fly's Gallery and one man was holding a horse, standing a little out from the house.\" The gunfight Martha J. King was in Bauer's butcher shop located on Fremont Street.She testified that when the Earp party passed by her location, one of the Earps on the outside of the group looked across and said to Doc Holliday nearest the store, \"... let them have it!\" to which Holliday replied, \"All right.\": 66–68 Physical proximity When the Earps approached the lot, the four law men initially faced six Cowboys: Frank McLaury, Tom McLaury, Billy Clanton, Billy Claiborne, Wes Fuller, and Ike Clanton.: 88When the Cowboys saw the officers, they stepped away from the Harwood house. In testimony given by witnesses afterward, they disagreed about the precise location of the men before, during and after the gunfight.The coroner's inquest and theSpicer hearingproduced a sketch showing the Cowboys standing, from left to right facing Fremont Street, with Billy Clanton and then Frank McLaury near the Harwood house and Tom McLaury and Ike Clanton roughly in the middle of the lot. Opposite them and initially only about 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3.0 m) away, Virgil Earp was on the left end of the Earp party, standing a few feet inside the vacant lot and nearest Ike Clanton. Behind him a few feet near the corner ofC. S. Fly's boarding house was Wyatt. Morgan Earp was standing on Fremont Street to Wyatt's right, and Doc Holliday anchored the end of their line in Fremont Street, a few feet to Morgan's right. Wyatt Earp drew a sketch in 1924 and another withJohn Floodon September 15, 1926, that depictedBilly Clantonnear the middle of the lot, close to the Harwood house. Tom and Frank McLaury stood deeper in the lot. Frank was in the center between the two buildings, holding the reins of his horse. Tom was closer to C. S. Fly's boarding house. According to Wyatt's sketches, Morgan was on the right of the lawmen, close to the Harwood house, opposite Billy Clanton near the Harwood house and close to Fremont St. Virgil was deeper in the lot, opposite Frank and Ike Clanton. Wyatt was to Virgil's left, opposite Tom. Doc Holliday hung back a step or two on Fremont Street.: 145Neither of Wyatt's sketches included Ike Clanton or Billy Claiborne, who ran from the fight. Gun battle begins Virgil Earp was not expecting a fight. After Behan said that he had disarmed the Cowboys, Virgil and Wyatt put the pistols they had been holding in their waistbandor overcoat pocket. Holliday had a short coach gun concealed under his long jacket. Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury wore revolvers inholsterson their belts and stood alongside their saddled horses with rifles in theirscabbards, possibly in violation of the city ordinance prohibiting carrying weapons in town. When Virgil saw the Cowboys, he testified, he immediately commanded the Cowboys to \"Throw up your hands, I want your guns!\"Wyatt said Virgil told the Cowboys, \"Throw up your hands; I have come to disarm you!\"Virgil and Wyatt both testified they saw Frank McLaury and Billy Clanton draw and cock their single action six shot revolvers.Virgil yelled: \"Hold! I don't mean that!\": 172–173or \"Hold on, I don't want that!\" Jeff Morey, who served as the historical consultant on the filmTombstone, compared testimony by partisan and neutral witnesses and came to the conclusion that the Earps described the situation accurately. Who started shooting first is not certain; accounts by both participants and eyewitnesses are contradictory.The smoke from theblack powderused in the weapons added to the confusion of the gunfight in the narrow space.Those loyal to one side or the other told conflicting stories, and independent eyewitnesses who did not know the participants by sight were unable to say for certain who shot first. The six or seven men with guns fired about 30 shots in around 30 seconds.: 230 Virgil Earp reported afterward, \"Two shots went off right together. Billy Clanton's was one of them.\"Wyatt testified, \"Billy Clanton leveled his pistol at me, but I did not aim at him. I knew that Frank McLaury had the reputation of being a good shot and a dangerous man, and I aimed at Frank McLaury.\" He said he shot Frank McLaury after both he and Billy Clanton went for their revolvers: \"The first two shots were fired by Billy Clanton and myself, he shooting at me, and I shooting at Frank McLaury.\"Morey agreed that Billy Clanton and Wyatt Earp fired first. Clanton missed, but Earp shot Frank McLaury in the stomach. All witnesses generally agreed that the first two shots were almost indistinguishable from each other. General firing immediately broke out. Virgil and Wyatt thought Tom was armed. When the shooting started, the horse thatTom McLauryheld jumped to one side. Wyatt said he also saw Tom throw his hand to his right hip. Virgil said Tom followed the horse's movement, hiding behind it, and fired once or twice over the horse's back. According to one witness, Holliday drew a \"large bronze pistol\" (interpreted by some as Virgil'scoach gun) from under his long coat, stepped around Tom McLaury's horse,and shot him with the double-barreled shotgun in the chest at close range.: 185 Witness C. H. \"Ham\" Light saw Tom running or stumbling westward on Fremont Street towards Third Street, away from the gunfight, while Frank and Billy were still standing and shooting. Light testified that Tom fell at the foot of a telegraph pole on the corner of Fremont and 3rd Street and lay there, without moving, through the duration of the fight.Fallehy also saw Tom stagger across the street until he fell on his back.After shooting Tom, Holliday tossed the empty shotgun aside, pulled out his nickel-plated revolver, and continued to fire at Frank McLaury and Billy Clanton. Ike Clantonhad been publicly threatening to kill the Earps for several months, including very loud threats on the day before.Wyatt told the court afterward that Clanton had bragged that he would kill the Earps or Doc Holliday at his first opportunity. However, when the gunfight broke out, Clanton ran forward and grabbed Wyatt, exclaiming that he was unarmed and did not want a fight. To this protest Wyatt said he responded, \"Go to fighting or get away!\": 164Clanton ran through the front door of Fly's boarding house and escaped, unwounded. Other accounts say that Ike drew a hidden pistol and fired at the Earps before disappearing.Like Ike,Billy Claibornewas unarmed. He and Cowboy Wes Fuller, who had been at the rear of the lot, also ran from the fight as soon as the shooting began.: 88 According toThe Tombstone Epitaph, \"Wyatt Earp stood up and fired in rapid succession, as cool as a cucumber, and was not hit.\" Morgan Earp fired almost immediately, asBilly Clantondrew his gun right-handed. Morgan's shot hit Billy in the right wrist, disabling his hand. Forced to shift the revolver to his left hand, Clanton continued shooting until he emptied the gun.: 154Virgil and Wyatt were now firing. Morgan Earp tripped and fell over a newly buried waterline and fired from the ground.Wyatt shot Frank McLaury in the abdomen, and Frank took his horse by its reins and struggled across Fremont Street. He tried and failed to grab his rifle from the scabbard but lost control of the horse. Frank crossed Fremont Street firing his revolver instead. Frank and Holliday exchanged shots as Frank moved across Fremont Street, and Frank hit Holliday in his pistol pocket, grazing him. Holliday followed him, exclaiming, \"That son of a bitch has shot me and I am going to kill him.\" Morgan Earp picked himself up and also fired at Frank.Frank fell to the sidewalk on the east side of Fremont Street. A number of witnesses observed a man leading a horse into the street and firing near it and Wyatt in his testimony thought this was Tom McLaury. Claiborne said only one man had a horse in the fight, and that this man was Frank, holding his own horse by the reins, then losing it and its cover, in the middle of the street.Wes Fuller also identified Frank as the man in the street leading the horse. Though wounded, Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury kept shooting. One of them, perhaps Billy, shot Morgan Earp across the back in a wound that struck both shoulder blades and a vertebra. Morgan went down for a minute before picking himself up. Either Frank or Billy shot Virgil Earp in the calf (Virgil thought it was Billy). Virgil, though hit, fired his next shot at Billy Clanton. Frank, now entirely across Fremont street and still walking at a good pace according to Claiborne's testimony, fired twice more before he was shot in the head under his right ear. Both Morgan and Holliday apparently thought they had fired the shot that killed Frank, but since neither of them testified at the hearing, this information is only from second-hand accounts. A passerby testified to having stopped to help Frank, and saw Frank try to speak, but he died where he fell, before he could be moved. Billy Clanton was shot in the wrist, chest and abdomen, and after a minute or two slumped to a sitting position near his original position at the corner of the Harwood house in the lot between the house and Fly's Lodging House. Claiborne said Clanton was supported by a window initially after he was shot, and fired some shots after sitting, with the pistol supported on his leg. After he ran out of ammunition, he called for more cartridges, butC. S. Flytook his pistol at about the time the general shooting ended.: 174 A few moments later, Tom McLaury was carried from the corner of Fremont and Third into the Harwood house on that corner, where he died without speaking.: 234Passersby carried Billy Clanton to the Harwood house, where Tom had been taken. Billy was in considerable pain and asked for a doctor and somemorphine. He told those near him, \"They have murdered me. I have been murdered. Chase the crowd away and from the door and give me air.\" Billy gasped for air, and someone else heard him say, \"Go away and let me die.\": 234Ike Clanton, who had repeatedly threatened the Earps with death, was still running. William Cuddy testified that Ike passed him on Allen Street and Johnny Behan saw him a few minutes later on Toughnut Street.: 236 Outcome of the battle Both Wyatt and Virgil believed Tom McLaury was armed and testified that he had fired at least one shot over the back of a horse.Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury exchanged gunfire with the lawmen. During the gunfight, Doc Holliday was bruised by a bullet fired by Frank that struck his holster and grazed his hip. Virgil Earp was shot through the calf, he thought by Billy Clanton. Morgan Earp was struck across both shoulder blades by a bullet that Morgan thought Frank McLaury had fired. Wyatt Earp was unhurt. Tom McLaury, his brotherFrank, andBilly Clantonwere killed. Behan attempts arrest As the wounded lawmen were carried to their homes, they passed in front of the Sheriff's Office, and Johnny Behan told Wyatt Earp, \"I will have to arrest you.\" Wyatt paused two or three seconds and replied very forcibly: \"I won't be arrested today. I am right here and am not going away. You have deceived me. You told me these men were disarmed; I went to disarm them.\": 27Dr.George Goodfellowtreated the Earps' wounds. Cowboy wounds Dr. Henry M. Mathews examined the dead Cowboys late that night. He found Frank McLaury had two wounds: a gunshot beneath the right ear that horizontally penetrated his head, and a second entering his abdomen one inch (2.5 cm) to the left of his navel. Mathews stated that the wound beneath the ear was at the base of the brain and caused instant death.Sheriff Behan testified that he had heard Morgan Earp yell \"I got him\" after Frank was shot.However, during the gunfight, Frank moved across Fremont street, putting Holliday on Frank's right and Morgan on his left. This makes it much more likely that Holliday shot the fatal round that killed Frank. When he examined Tom McLaury's body, Mathews found twelvebuckshotwounds from a single shotgun blast on the right side under his arm, between the third and fifth ribs. The wound was about four inches (10 cm) across. The nature and location of the wound indicated that it could not have been received if Tom's hands were on his coat lapels as the Cowboys later testified.Both Virgil and Wyatt stated that Holliday had shot Tom, which the coroner's exam supported. Dr. George Goodfellow testified about Billy Clanton's wounds at the Spicer hearing. He stated that the angle of the wrist wound indicated that Billy's hand could not have been raised over his head as claimed by Cowboy witnesses.In his coroner's report, Mathews did not mention Billy's arm wound, but witness Keefe, who examined the arm closely, testified later that Clanton was shot through the right arm, close to the wrist joint and \"the bullet passed through the arm from \"inside to outside,\" entering the arm close to the base of the thumb, and exiting \"on the back of the wrist diagonally\" with the latter wound larger. This indicated to the judge that Billy could not have been holding his coat's lapels open, his arms raised, as the Cowboys testified.Dr. Mathews found two other wounds on Billy's body. The first was two inches (5 cm) from Clanton's left nipple, and penetrated his lung. The other was in the abdomen beneath the twelfth rib, six inches (20 cm) to the right of the navel. Both were fired from the front. Neither passed completely through his body.The wound to Billy Clanton's right wrist may have been inflicted by Morgan Earp or Doc Holliday immediately at the outset of the fight as Billy was drawing his gun. Weapons carried by the Cowboys Billy Clanton was armed with aColt Frontier 1873revolver in .44-40 caliber, which were identified by their serial numbers at the Spicer hearing.C.S. Flyfound Billy Clanton's empty revolver in his hand where he lay and took it from him. Frank McLaury was also armed with aColt Frontier 1873revolver in .44-40 caliber, which was recovered by laundryman Fallehy on the street about 5 feet (1.5 m) from his body with tworoundsremaining in it. Fallehy placed it next to Frank's body before he was moved to the Harwood house. Dr. Mathews laid Frank's revolver on the floor while he examined Billy and Tom. Cowboy witness Wes Fuller said he saw Frank in the middle of the street shooting a revolver and trying to remove aWinchester riflefrom thescabbardon his horse. The two Model 1873 rifles were still in the scabbards on Frank and Tom McLaury's horses when they were found after the gunfight.If, as was customary, Frank carried only five rounds, then he had fired only three shots. Witnesses differed about whether Tom McLaury was carrying a weapon during the shootout or not. No revolver or rifle was found near his body and he was not wearing a cartridge belt. Wyatt testified that he had arrested Tom earlier that day when he found him carrying a weapon earlier in violation of a city ordinance. Hepistol-whippedhim and took him to the courthouse where he was fined. Saloon-keeper Mehan testified that Tom had deposited his revolver at the Capital Saloon on 4th Street and Fremont after his arrest and before the fight, between 1 and 2 p.m.Several Cowboy witnesses testified that Tom was unarmed and claimed that the Earps had murdered a defenseless man. Behan testified that when he searched Tom McLaury for a weapon prior to the gunfight, he was not thorough, and that Tom might have had a pistol hidden in his waistband.: 164Behan's testimony was significant, since he was a prime witness for the prosecution but had equivocated on this point. Behan's sympathy to theCowboyswas well known, and during the trial he firmly denied he had contributed money to help Ike with his defense costs.However, documents were located in 1997 that showed Behan served asguarantorfor a loan to Ike Clanton during the Spicer hearing.Since Wyatt planned to run against Behan for County Sheriff, Behan had an incentive to help convict Wyatt. A story by Richard Rule in the Cowboy-friendly newspaper, theNugget, told the story in the manner of the day, without attribution. Rule wrote, \"The Sheriff stepped out and said : 'Hold up boys, don't go down there or there will be trouble; I have been down there to disarm them.'\"In his testimony, Behan repeatedly insisted he told the Earps that he only intended to disarm the Cowboys, not that he had actually done so. The article said that Behan \"was standing near by commanding the contestants to cease firing but was powerless to prevent it.\" TheNuggethad a close relationship to Behan; it was owned by Harry Woods, who was also undersheriff to Behan, but Woods was collecting prisoners in El Paso, Texas, that day. So it is extremely likely that Rule interviewed Behan. Both Virgil and Williams' testified that Behan visited Virgil Earp that evening and said, \"I am your friend, and you did perfectly right.\" This corroborated the initialNuggetreport, which upon Wood's return was altered to a version that favored the Cowboys and which Behan later supported in his testimony at the hearing. Though saloon-keeper Andrew Mehan had seen Tom deposit his pistol after his beating by Earp and before the gunfight, none of the Earps had any way of knowing that Tom had left his revolver at the saloon. Hotel keeper Albert \"Chris\" Billickie, whose father Charles owned the Cosmopolitan Hotel, saw Tom McLaury enter Bauer's butcher shop about 2:00 p.m. He testified that Tom's right-hand pants pocket was flat when he went in but protruded, as if it contained a pistol (so he thought), when he emerged.Retired army surgeon Dr. J. W. Gardiner also testified that he saw the bulge in Tom's pants.However, the bulge in Tom's pants pocket may have been the nearly $3,300 (equivalent to $104,000 in 2023) in cash and receipts found on his body, perhaps in payment for stolen Mexican beef purchased by the butcher.: 182 Wyatt and Virgil Earp and Doc Holliday believed that Tom had a revolver at the time of the gunfight. Wyatt thought Tom fired a revolver under the horse's neck and believed until he died that Tom's revolver had been removed from the scene by Wesley Fuller.Witness Fallehy wrote that he saw Morgan Earp and Doc Holliday shooting at a man who was using a horse to barricade himself, and once shot the man fell. In his statement, Fallehy wrote that the man still held his pistol in his hand. Although he did not see him shoot, he thought Tom McLaury was armed. Ruben F. Coleman also said afterward that he thought Tom was armed, though he later equivocated on this point. He was quoted in the October 27 issue ofThe Tombstone Epitaphin which he said, \"Tom McLaury fell first, but raised and fired again before he died.\" Coleman also testified at the coroner's inquest one day later. Part-time newspaper reporter Howell 'Pat' Hayhurst transcribed all of the testimony from the hearing in the early 1930s as part of theFederal Writers' Project, in theWorks Progress Administration. When he transcribed Coleman's second testimony, he quoted Coleman as saying, \"Tom McLaury, after the first two shots were fired, ran down Fremont Street and fell ... I think that the report I gave to theEpitaphwas pretty near correct as published.\" However, it is known that Hayhurst arbitrarily removed text that he decided was not relevant. AuthorStuart N. Lakelater said Hayhurst 'mutilated' the transcription.The documents were subsequently lost and are still unaccounted for.: 269 Even if Tom was not armed with a revolver,Virgil Earptestified Tom attempted to grab a rifle from the scabbard on the horse in front of him before he was killed. Judge Spicer ruled afterward that \"if Thomas McLaury was one of a party who were thus armed and were making felonious resistance to an arrest, and in the melee that followed was shot, the fact of his being unarmed, if it be a fact, could not of itself criminate the defendants , if they were not otherwise criminated.\" Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne both said they were unarmed when they fled thegunfight. Public reaction The bodies of the three dead Cowboys were displayed in a window at Ritter and Reams undertakers with a sign: \"Murdered in the Streets of Tombstone.\" Sympathy for Cowboys The funerals for Billy Clanton (age 19), Tom McLaury (age 28) and his older brother Frank (age 33) were well attended. About 300 people joined in the procession toBoot Hilland as many as two thousand watched from the sidewalks.Both McLaurys were buried in the same grave, and Billy Clanton was buried nearby. The story was widely printed in newspapers across the United States. Most versions favored the lawmen. The headline in theSan Francisco Exchangewas, \"A Good Riddance\". Three days after the shootout, the ruling of the Coroner's Jury convened by Dr. Henry Matthews neither condemned nor exonerated the lawmen for shooting the Cowboys. \"William Clanton, Frank and Thomas McLaury, came to their deaths in the town of Tombstone on October 26, 1881, from the effects of pistol and gunshot woundsinflicted by Virgil Earp, Morgan Earp, Wyatt Earp, and one—Holliday, commonly called 'Doc Holliday'.\" Spicer hearings Four days after the shootout, Ike Clanton filed murder charges against Doc Holliday and the Earps. Wyatt and Holliday were arrested and brought beforeJustice of the PeaceWells Spicer. Morgan and Virgil were still recovering at home. Only Wyatt and Holliday were required to post $10,000 bail (equivalent to $320,000 in 2023), which was paid by their attorneyThomas Fitch, local mine owner E.B. Gage, Wells Fargo undercover agent Fred Dodge, and other business owners appreciative of the Earps' efforts to maintain order.: 194Virgil Earp was suspended as town marshal pending the outcome of the trial.Justice Spicer convened apreliminary hearingon October 31 to determine if there was enough evidence to go to trial. The prosecution was led by Republican District Attorney Lyttleton Price, assisted by John M. Murphy, James Robinson, and Ben Goodrich. They were joined by William McLaury, Frank and Tom's older brother, he also being an able attorney, who played a key role on the prosecutor's team.The Earps' attorney Thomas Fitch was an experienced trial lawyerand had earned a reputation as the \"silver-tongued orator of the Pacific.\" Spicer took written and oral testimony from a number of witnesses over more than a month. Accounts by both participants andeye-witnesseswere contradictory. Those loyal to one side or the other told conflicting stories and independent eyewitnesses who did not know the participants by sight were unable to say for certain who shot first. Cochise CountySheriffJohnny Behantestified on the third day of the hearing. During two days on the stand,: 103he gave strong testimony that the Cowboys had not resisted but either threw up their hands and turned out their coats to show they were not armed.Behan's views turned public opinion against the Earps, who were free on bail. He and other prosecution witnesses testified that Tom McLaury was unarmed, that Billy Clanton had his hands in the air, and that neither of the McLaurys were troublemakers. They portrayed Ike Clanton and Tom McLaury as being unjustly bullied and beaten by the vengeful Earps on the day of the gunfight.On the strength of the prosecution case, Spicer revoked the bail for Doc and Wyatt Earp and had them jailed on November 7. They spent the next 16 days in jail. Defense accounts contradicted the testimony of Behan, Claiborne and Allen, who all said that a man had fired a nickel-plated pistol first. Claiborne and Allen both said it was Holliday. Virgil, Wyatt and other witnesses testified that Holliday was carrying a shotgun. (Morgan remained bedridden throughout the trial and did not testify.) The prosecution's scenario would have required Holliday to fire with his pistol first, switch to the shotgun to shoot Tom McLaury, then switch back again to his pistol to continue firing. Three witnesses gave key evidence that swayed Justice Spicer to hold that Virgil had acted within his capacity as town marshal and that there was insufficient evidence to indict the Earps and Doc Holliday for murder. H.F Sills was anAT&SF RRengineer who had just arrived in town and knew none of the parties involved. He testified that he saw \"the marshal go up and speak to this other party. I ... saw them pull out their revolvers immediately. The marshal had a cane in his right hand at the time. He throwed up his hand and spoke. I did not hear the words though. By that time Billy Clanton and Wyatt Earp had fired their guns off.\"Grilled by the prosecution, he corroborated virtually all of the defense's testimony. Addie Bourland was a dressmaker whose residence was across Fremont Street from Fly's Boarding House.: 207–211She testified that she saw both sides facing each other, that none of the Cowboys had held their hands up, that the firing was general, and that she had not seen Billy Clanton fall immediately as the Cowboys had testified. Judge J.H. Lucas of the Cochise County Probate Court had offices in the Mining Exchange Building about 200 feet (60 m) from the shootout.: 214–216Lucas corroborated Addie Bourland's testimony that Billy Clanton was standing throughout the fight, which contradicted prosecution witnesses who maintained he went down immediately after being shot at close range in the belly. Spicer noted that no powder burns were found on his clothing. These witnesses' testimony, especially that of H.F. Sills, a disinterested party, discredited much of the testimony given by Sheriff Johnny Behan, Ike Clanton and the other Cowboy witnesses. After hearing all the evidence, Justice Spicer ruled on November 30 that Virgil, as the lawman in charge that day, had acted within his office and that there was not enough evidence to indict the men. He described Frank McLaury's insistence that he would not give up his weapons unless the marshal and his deputies also gave up their arms as a \"proposition both monstrous and startling!\" He noted that the prosecution claimed that the Cowboys' purpose was to leave town,yet Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne did not have their weapons with them.Spicer noted that the doctor who examined the dead Cowboys established that the wounds they received could not have occurred if their hands and arms had been in the positions that prosecution witnesses described. Spicer did not condone all of the Earps' actions and criticized Virgil Earp's use of Wyatt and Holliday as deputies, but he concluded that no laws were broken. He said the evidence indicated that the Earps and Holliday acted within the law and that Holliday and Wyatt had been properly deputized by Virgil Earp. In popular culture The public perception of the Earp brothers' actions at the time were widely divergent. Even today, the event and its participants are viewed differently by opinionated admirers and detractors.The controversy still stimulates ongoing interest in the gunfight and related events. Gunfight sketch A hand-drawn sketch of the gunfight was made by John Flood with Wyatt Earp's assistance on September 15, 1921; it was sold at auction in October 2010 for $380,000. The map describes the position of a number of witnesses and all of the participants with the exception of Ike Clanton, who fled from the gunfight. Paintings In 1952,Victor Clyde Forsythe, a popular painter of desert scenes and cowboy artist, paintedGunfight at O.K. Corral, a 43 by 60 inches (110 by 150 cm) oil painting. Forsythe's father William Bowen Forsyth and uncle Ira Chandler owned the store Chandler & Forsyth C.O.D. at 328 Fremont Street, west of the back entrance to the O.K. Corral and half a block from the site of the gunfight. They claimed that they had been present and witnessed the shootout. Newspaper accounts of the painting reported that Forsythe had interviewed Tombstone residents and examined many of the existing buildings before beginning to plan his painting. In May 1988, his studio printed and sold a limited edition of 390 copies of the painting. John Gilchriese became friends withJohn Flood, who had been Wyatt Earp's secretary, confidante, and best friend for many years. When Earp died, Flood inherited many of his personal belongings. Flood in turn willed them to Gilchriese, who amassed over a number of years one of the largest collections of personal items belonging to Wyatt and Virgil Earp, along with many unpublished photos of them and their family. Gilchriese opened the Wyatt Earp Museum in Tombstone in 1966 and commissioned Western artist Don Perceval to paint the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. The oil on masonite painting titledThe Street Fightis 6 feet 4 inches by 4 feet 0 inches (1.93 by 1.22 m). It was the largest work ever executed by Perceval. He referred to original documents in Gilchriese's collection, including Wyatt Earp's own diagram of the shootout, and unpublished notes made by John Flood, to create what is regarded as the most accurate depiction of the shootout.Gilchreise had 500 lithographic prints reproduced from the original, which Perceval signed. The prints were sold by the museum for $10 (equivalent to $94 in 2023). After Gilchriese closed his museum, the painting and other contents of the museum were sold at auction by John's Western Gallery of San Francisco. The estimated auction price for the painting had been $200,000 to $300,000;the final sale price on June 25, 2004, was $40,250. It was put up for auction again on June 14, 2014, with an estimated selling price of $40,000–$60,000 but failed to sell. Origin of the gunfight's name Less than a month after the shootout it was described by a local newspaper as the \"Gunfight at The O.K. Corral\". William Breakenridge in his 1928 bookHelldorado: Bringing Law to the Mesquitedescribed it as \"The Incident Near the O.K. Corral\". Stuart Lake titled his chapter about the conflict \"At the O.K. Corral\" in his popular bookWyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal. But it was the popular movieGunfight at the O.K. Corralthat cemented the incident and its erroneous location in popular consciousness. The movie and accompanying mythologizing also altered the way that the public thought of the Earps and the outlaws. Prior to the movie, the media often criticized the Earps' actions in Tombstone. In the movies, they became the good guys, always ready to stand for what is right. The incident has become a fixture in American history due to the personal nature of the feud between the Earps and the McLaury and Clanton brothers and the symbolism of the fight between lawmen and the Cowboys. The Cowboys maimed Virgil and murdered Morgan but escaped prosecution, and Wyatt's extra-legalcampaign for revengecaptured people's attention. The gunfight and its aftermath stand for the change overcoming America as the Western frontier ceased to exist, as a nation that was rapidly industrializing pushed out what had been a largely agrarian economy.: 206 The town of Tombstone has capitalized on interest in the gunfight. A portion of the town is ahistorical districtthat has been designated aNational Historic Landmarkand is listed in theNational Register of Historic Placesby the U.S.National Park Service.A local company produces daily theatrical re-enactments of the gunfight. Film and television With the widespread sales of televisions after World War II, producers spun out a large number of western-oriented shows. At the height of their popularity in 1959, there were more than two dozen \"cowboy\" programs on each week. At least six of them were directly or indirectly connected with Wyatt Earp:The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp,Bat Masterson,Tombstone Territory,Broken Arrow,Johnny Ringo, andGunsmoke.Hugh O'Brianportrayed Earp on the namesake showWyatt Earpwhich ran for six seasons, and he was forever associated with that role. A 2003 episode ofDiscovery Channel'sUnsolved Historyused modern technology to attempt to re-enact the gunfight. They utilized a movie set to recreate a space similar to the lot where the original gun fight took place. They confirmed that the front-to-back wrist wound suffered by Billy Clanton could only have occurred if his arm was raised in the manner of one holding a pistol, and that theblack powdermay have obscured the shooters' view of each other.The episode concluded that the three eyewitnesses for the prosecution (Sheriff Behan, Ike Clanton, and Billy Claiborne) likely offered perjured testimony. They found that Tom McLaury may have been hit by the shotgun round under his armpit as he reached over his horse for a rifle in his scabbard, as the horse turned away from him at the same time. The stories about the gunfight written in the 20th century affected American culture. Numerous dramatic, fictional, and documentary works have been produced about or in reference to the event, with widely varying degrees of accuracy. These works include: In print In mathematics David Williamsand Paul McIlroy introduced a mathematical model for the O.K. Corral gunfight, which they published inBulletin of the London Mathematical Society(1998). Later this model was analyzed bySir John Kingman(1999, 2002), and Kingman and Volkov (2003). They analyzed the probability of \"survival of exactly S gunmen given an initially fair configuration.\" See also References Further reading External links", "The Terminator The Terminatoris a 1984 Americanscience fictionaction filmdirected byJames Cameron, written by Cameron andGale Anne Hurdand produced by Hurd. It starsArnold Schwarzeneggeras theTerminator, a cybernetic assassin sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 to killSarah Connor(Linda Hamilton), whose unborn son will one day save mankind from extinction bySkynet, a hostileartificial intelligencein apost-apocalypticfuture.Kyle Reese(Michael Biehn) is a soldier sent back in time to protect Sarah. The screenplay is credited to Cameron and Hurd, while co-writerWilliam Wisher Jr.received an \"additional dialogue\" credit. Cameron devised the premise of the film from a fever dream he experienced during the release of his first film,Piranha II: The Spawning(1982), in Rome, and developed the concept in collaboration with Wisher. He sold the rights to the project to fellowNew World Picturesalumna Hurd on the condition that she would produce the film only if he were to direct it; Hurd eventually secured a distribution deal withOrion Pictures, while executive producersJohn Dalyand Derek Gibson ofHemdale Film Corporationwere instrumental in setting up the film's financing and production. Originally approached by Orion for the role of Reese, Schwarzenegger agreed to play the title character after befriending Cameron. Filming, which took place mostly at night on location in Los Angeles, was delayed because of Schwarzenegger's commitments toConan the Destroyer(1984), during which Cameron found time to work on the scripts forRambo: First Blood Part II(1985) andAliens(1986). The film's special effects, which includedminiaturesandstop-motion animation, were created by a team of artists led byStan WinstonandGene Warren Jr. Defying low pre-release expectations,The Terminatortopped the United Statesbox officefor two weeks, eventually grossing $78.3 million against a modest $6.4 million budget. It is credited with launching Cameron's film career and solidifying Schwarzenegger's status as aleading man. The film's success led toa franchiseconsisting ofseveral sequels,a television series,comic books,novelsandvideo games. In 2008,The Terminatorwas selected by theLibrary of Congressfor preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registry. Plot A cyborg is sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 Los Angeles: an assassin known as aTerminator, disguised as a human male and programmed to hunt and assassinate a woman namedSarah Connor. Separately, a human soldier namedKyle Reesealso arrives, intent on stopping it, as they both steal ammunition and clothing. After searching for addresses in atelephone directory, the Terminator systematically kills women who share Sarah's name before tracking the correct Sarah to a nightclub, but Reese rescues her. The duo steal a car and escape, with the Terminator pursuing them in a stolen police car. As they hide in a parking lot, Reese explains to Sarah that an artificially intelligent defense network known asSkynet, created by Cyberdyne Systems, will soon become self-aware and trigger a global nuclear war to bring humankind to its extinction. Sarah's future son,John, will rally the survivors and lead a successful resistance movement against Skynet and its mechanical forces. On the verge of the resistance's victory, Skynet sends the Terminator back in time to eliminate Sarah, thereby preventing John's birth. The Terminator is an efficient and relentless killing machine with a perfect voice-mimicking ability and a durable metalendoskeletoncovered by living tissue to appear human. The Terminator tracks Reese and Sarah down, and a car chase ensues, ending with the Terminator crashing into a wall. The police apprehend Reese and Sarah and interrogate Reese, but they disbelieve his story. The Terminator discovers Sarah is inside the police station and attacks it, killing several officers while hunting for her. Reese and Sarah escape, steal another car, and take refuge in a motel, where they assemble severalpipe bombsand plan their next move. Reese admits that he has adored Sarah since he saw her in John's photograph and that he traveled through time out of love for her. Reciprocating his feelings, Sarah kisses him, and they have sex, conceiving John. The Terminator locates Sarah by intercepting a call intended for her mother. She and Reese escape the motel in a pickup truck while it pursues them on a motorcycle. In the ensuing chase, Reese is badly wounded by gunfire while throwing pipe bombs at the Terminator. She knocks the Terminator off its motorcycle but loses control of the truck, which flips over. The Terminator, now bloodied and badly damaged, hijacks atank truckand attempts to run down Sarah. Reese manages to slide a pipe bomb into the truck's hose tube, causing the truck to explode and reduce the Terminator to its endoskeleton. It pursues them into a Cyberdyne-owned factory, where Reese activates machinery to confuse it, but it eventually discovers them. Reese then lodges his final pipe bomb into its midsection, blowing it apart, but at the cost of his life. Its still-functional torso then pursues Sarah, but she manages to lure it into ahydraulic pressthat she uses to destroy it. Months later, Sarah, visibly pregnant with John, travels through Mexico, recordingaudio tapesto pass on to him. At a gas station, a boy takes apolaroidphotograph of her, the exact one that John will one day give to Reese, and she buys it. The gas station owner comments that a storm is coming, and she replies that she knows, alluding to humanity's impending conflict against Skynet, before driving away towards it. Cast Additional actors included Shawn Schepps as Nancy, Sarah's co-worker at the diner;Dick Milleras a gun shop clerk; professional bodybuilderFranco Columbuas a Terminator in the future;Bill PaxtonandBrian Thompsonas punks whom the Terminator confronts and dispatches;Marianne Muellerleileas one of the other women with the name \"Sarah Connor\" whom the Terminator dispatches;Rick Aielloas the bouncer of the local nightclub where the Terminator finally locates Sarah; andBill Wisheras the police officer who reports a hit-and-run felony on Reese, only to be knocked unconscious and have his car stolen by the Terminator soon thereafter. Production Development InRome, Italy, during the release ofPiranha II: The Spawning(1982), directorJames Cameronfell ill and had a dream about a metallic torso holding kitchen knives dragging itself from an explosion.Inspired by directorJohn Carpenter, who had made theslasher filmHalloween(1978) on a low budget, Cameron used the dream as a \"launching pad\" to write a slasher-style film.Cameron's agent disliked the early concept of the horror film and requested that he work on something else. After this, Cameron dismissed his agent. Cameron returned toPomona, California, and stayed at the home of science fiction writerRandall Frakes, where he wrote the draft forThe Terminator.Cameron's influences included 1950s science fiction films, the 1960s fantasy television seriesThe Outer Limits,and contemporary films such asThe Driver(1978) andMad Max 2(1981).To translate the draft into a script, Cameron enlisted his friendBill Wisher, who had a similar approach to storytelling. Cameron gave Wisher scenes involving Sarah Connor and the police department to write. As Wisher lived far from Cameron, the two communicated ideas by phoning each other and recording phone calls of them reading new scenes. The initial outline of the script involved two Terminators being sent to the past. The first was similar to the Terminator in the film, while the second was made of liquid metal and could not be destroyed with conventional weaponry.Cameron felt that the technology of the time was unable to create the liquid Terminator,and shelved the idea until the appearance of theT-1000character inTerminator 2: Judgment Day(1991). Gale Anne Hurd, who had worked atNew World PicturesasRoger Corman's assistant, showed interest in the project.Cameron sold the rights forThe Terminatorto Hurd for one dollar with the promise that she would produce it only if Cameron was to direct it. Hurd suggested edits to the script and took a screenwriting credit in the film, though Cameron stated that she \"did no actual writing at all\".Cameron would later regret the decision to sell the rights for one dollar.Cameron and Hurd had friends who worked with Corman previously and who were working atOrion Pictures(now part ofAmazon MGM Studios). Orion agreed to distribute the film if Cameron could get financial backing elsewhere. The script was picked up byJohn Daly, chairman and president ofHemdale Film Corporation.Daly and his executive vice president and head of production Derek Gibson became executive producers of the project. Cameron wanted his pitch for Daly to finalize the deal and had his friendLance Henriksenshow up to the meeting early dressed and acting like the Terminator.Henriksen, wearing a leather jacket, fake cuts on his face, and gold foil on his teeth, kicked open the door to the office and then sat in a chair.Cameron arrived shortly and then relieved the staff from Henriksen's act. Daly was impressed by the screenplay and Cameron's sketches and passion for the film.In late 1982, Daly agreed to back the film with help fromHBOand OrionThe Terminatorwas originally budgeted at $4 million and later raised to $6.5 million.Aside from Hemdale,Pacific Western Productions, Euro Film Funding and Cinema '84 have been credited as production companies after the film's release. Casting For the role of Kyle Reese, Orion wanted a star whose popularity was rising in the United States but who also would have foreign appeal. Orion co-founderMike Medavoyhad metArnold Schwarzeneggerand sent his agent the script forThe Terminator.Cameron was uncertain about casting Schwarzenegger as Reese as he felt he would need someone even more famous to play the Terminator.Sylvester StalloneandMel Gibsonboth turned down the Terminator role.Medavoy suggestedO. J. Simpsonbut Cameron did not feel that Simpson, at that time, would be believable as a killer. Cameron agreed to meet with Schwarzenegger and devised a plan to avoid casting him; he would pick a fight with him and return to Hemdale and find him unfit for the role.Cameron was entertained by Schwarzenegger, who would talk about how the villain should be played, and began sketching his face on a notepad, asking Schwarzenegger to stop talking and remain still.After the meeting, Cameron returned to Daly saying Schwarzenegger would not play Reese but that \"he'd make a hell of a Terminator\". Casting Arnold Schwarzenegger as our Terminator shouldn't have worked. The guy is supposed to be an infiltration unit, and there's no way you wouldn't spot a Terminator in a crowd instantly if they all looked like Arnold. It made no sense whatsoever. But the beauty of movies is that they don't have to be logical. They just have to have plausibility. If there's a visceral, cinematic thing happening that the audience likes, they don't care if it goes against what's likely. —James Cameron on casting Schwarzenegger. Schwarzenegger was not as excited by the film; during an interview on the set ofConan the Destroyer, an interviewer asked him about a pair of shoes he had, which belonged to the wardrobe forThe Terminator. Schwarzenegger responded, \"Oh, some shit movie I'm doing, take a couple weeks.\"He recounted in his memoir,Total Recall, that he was initially hesitant, but thought that playing a robot in a contemporary film would be a challenging change of pace fromConan the Barbarianand that the film was low-profile enough that it would not damage his career if it were unsuccessful. In a later interview withGQ, he admitted that he and the studio regarded it as just anotherB action movie, since \"The year before came outExterminator, now it was the Terminator and what else is gonna be next, type of thing\". It was only when he saw 20 minutes of the first edit did he realize that \"this is really intense, this is wild, I don't think I've ever seen anything like this before\" and realized that \"this could be bigger than we all think\".To prepare for the role, Schwarzenegger spent three months training with weapons to be able to use them and feel comfortable around them.Schwarzenegger speaks only 17 lines in the film, and fewer than 100 words. Cameron said that \"Somehow, even his accent worked ... It had a strange synthesized quality, like they hadn't gotten the voice thing quite worked out.\" Various other actors were suggested for the role of Reese, including rock musicianSting.Cameron met with Sting, but he was not interested as Cameron was too much an unknown director at the time.Others who were considered for Reese, includedChristopher Reeve,Matt Dillon,Kurt Russell,Treat Williams,Tommy Lee Jones,Scott Glenn,Michael O'Keefe, andBruce Springsteen.Cameron choseMichael Biehn. Biehn, who had recently seenTaxi Driverand had aspirations about acting alongside the likes ofAl Pacino,Robert De Niro, andRobert Redford, was originally skeptical, feeling the film was silly.After meeting with Cameron, Biehn changed his mind.Hurd stated that \"almost everyone else who came in from the audition was so tough that you just never believed that there was gonna be this human connection between Sarah Connor and Kyle Reese. They have very little time to fall in love. A lot of people came in and just could not pull it off.\"To get into Reese's character, Biehn studied thePolish resistance movement in World War II. In the first pages of the script, Sarah Connor is described as \"19, small and delicate features. Pretty in a flawed, accessible way. She doesn't stop the party when she walks in, but you'd like to get to know her. Her vulnerable quality masks a strength even she doesn't know exists.\"Lisa Langloiswas offered the role but turned it down as she was already shootingThe Slugger's Wife.Jennifer Jason Leigh,Melissa Sue Anderson, andJessica Harperwere also considered for the role of Sarah Connor.Cameron castLinda Hamilton, who had just finished filmingChildren of the Corn.Rosanna ArquetteandLea Thompsonalso auditioned for the role.Cameron found a role for Lance Henriksen as Vukovich, as Henriksen had been essential to finding finances for the film.For the special effects shots, Cameron wantedDick Smith, who had worked onThe GodfatherandTaxi Driver. Smith did not take Cameron's offer and suggested his friendStan Winston. Filming Filming forThe Terminatorwas set to begin in early 1983 inToronto, but was halted when producerDino De Laurentiisapplied an option in Schwarzenegger's contract that would make him unavailable for nine months while he was filmingConan the Destroyer. During the waiting period, Cameron was contracted to write the script forRambo: First Blood Part II,refined theTerminatorscript, and met with producersDavid GilerandWalter Hillto discuss a sequel toAlien,which becameAliens, released in 1986. There was limited interference from Orion Pictures. Two suggestions Orion put forward included the addition of a canine android for Reese, which Cameron refused, and to strengthen the love interest between Sarah and Reese, which Cameron accepted.To create the Terminator's look, Winston and Cameron passed sketches back and forth, eventually deciding on a design nearly identical to Cameron's original drawing in Rome.Winston had a team of seven artists work for six months to create a Terminator puppet; it was first molded in clay, then plaster reinforced with steel ribbing. These pieces were then sanded, painted and then chrome-plated. Winston sculpted reproduction of Schwarzenegger's face in several poses out of silicone, clay and plaster. The sequences set in 2029 and thestop-motionscenes were developed by Fantasy II, a special effects company headed by Gene Warren Jr.A stop-motion model is used in several scenes in the film involving the Terminator's endoskeleton. Cameron wanted to convince the audience that the model of the structure was capable of doing what they saw Schwarzenegger doing. To allow this, a scene was filmed of Schwarzenegger injured and limping away; this limp made it easier for the model to imitate Schwarzenegger. One of the guns seen in the film and on the film's poster was anAMT Longslidepistol modified by Ed Reynolds fromSureFireto include alaser sight. Both non-functioning and functioning versions of the prop were created. At the time the movie was made,diode laserswere not available; because of the high power requirement, thehelium–neon laserin the sight used an external power supply that Schwarzenegger had to activate manually. Reynolds states that his only compensation for the project was promotional material for the film. In March 1984, the film began production in Los Angeles.Cameron felt that with Schwarzenegger on the set, the style of the film changed, explaining that \"the movie took on a larger-than-life sheen. I just found myself on the set doing things I didn't think I would do – scenes that were just purely horrific that just couldn't be, because now they were too flamboyant.\"Most ofThe Terminator's action scenes were filmed at night, which led to tight filming schedules before sunrise. A week before filming started, Linda Hamilton sprained her ankle, leading to a production change whereby the scenes in which Hamilton needed to run occurred as late as the filming schedule allowed. Hamilton's ankle was taped every day and she spent most of the film production in pain. Schwarzenegger tried to have the iconic line \"I'll be back\" changed as he had difficulty pronouncing the wordI'll. Cameron refused to change the line to \"I will be back\", so Schwarzenegger worked to say the line as written the best he could. He would later say the line in numerous films throughout his career. After production finished onThe Terminator, somepost-productionshots were needed.These included scenes showing the Terminator outside Sarah Connor's apartment, Reese being zipped into a body bag, and the Terminator's head being crushed in a press.The final scene where Sarah is driving down a highway was filmed without a permit. Cameron and Hurd convinced an officer who confronted them that they were making aUCLAstudent film. Music TheTerminatorsoundtrack was composed and performed onsynthesizerbyBrad Fiedel.Fiedel was with the Gorfaine/Schwartz Agency, where a new agent, Beth Donahue, found that Cameron was working onThe Terminatorand sent him a cassette of Fiedel's music.Fiedel was invited to a screening of the film with Cameron and Hurd.Hurd was not certain about having Fiedel compose the score, as he had only worked in television, not theatrical films.Fiedel convinced the two by showing them an experimental piece he had worked on, thinking that \"You know, I'm going to play this for him because it's really dark and I think it's interesting for him.\" The song convinced Hurd and Cameron to hire him. Fiedel said his score reflected \"a mechanical man and his heartbeat\".Almost all the music was performed live.The Terminatortheme is used in the opening credits and appears in various points, such as a slowed version when Reese dies, and a piano version during the love scene.It has been described as \"haunting\", with a \"deceptively simple\" melodyrecorded on aProphet-10synthesizer.It is in the unusualtime signatureof1316, which arose when Fiedel experimented with rhythms and accidentally created an incomplete loop on hissequencer; Fiedel liked the \"herky-jerky\" \"propulsiveness\".Fiedel created music for when Reese and Connor escape from the police station that would be appropriate for a \"heroic moment\". Cameron turned down this theme, as he believed it would lose the audience's excitement. Release Orion Pictures did not have faith inThe Terminatorperforming well at the box office and feared a negative critical reception.At an early screening of the film, the actors' agents insisted to the producers that the film should be screened for critics.Orion only held one press screening for the film.The film premiered on October 26, 1984. On its opening week,The Terminatorplayed at 1,005 theaters and grossed $4.0 million making it number one at the box office. The film remained at number one in its second week. It lost its number one spot in the third week toOh, God! You Devil.Cameron noted thatThe Terminatorwas a hit \"relative to its market, which is between the summer and the Christmas blockbusters. But it's better to be a big fish in a small pond than the other way around.\"The Terminatorgrossed $38.3 million in the United States and Canada and $40 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $78.3 million. Critical response Contemporary Contemporary critical responses toThe Terminatorwere mixed.Varietypraised the film, calling it a \"blazing, cinematic comic book, full of virtuoso moviemaking, terrific momentum, solid performances and a compelling story ... Schwarzenegger is perfectly cast in a machine-like portrayal that requires only a few lines of dialog.\"Richard CorlissofTimemagazine said that the film had \"plenty of tech-noir savvy to keep infidels and action fans satisfied.\"TimeplacedThe Terminatoron its \"10 Best\" list for 1984. TheLos Angeles Timescalled the film \"a crackling thriller full of all sorts of gory treats ... loaded with fuel-injected chase scenes, clever special effects and a sly humor.\"TheMilwaukee Journalgave the film three stars, calling it \"the most chilling science fiction thriller sinceAlien\".A review inOrange Coastmagazine stated that \"the distinguishing virtue ofThe Terminatoris its relentless tension. Right from the start it's all action and violence with no time taken to set up the story ... It's like a streamlinedDirty Harrymovie– no exposition at all; just guns, guns and more guns.\"In the May 1985 issue ofCinefantastiqueit was referred to as a film that \"manages to be both derivative and original at the same time ... not sinceThe Road Warriorhas the genre exhibited so much exuberant carnage\" and \"an example of science fiction/horror at its best ... Cameron's no-nonsense approach will make him a sought-after commodity\".In the United Kingdom theMonthly Film Bulletinpraised the film's script, special effects, design and Schwarzenegger's performance.Colin GreenlandreviewedThe TerminatorforImaginemagazine, and stated that it was \"a gripping sf horror movie\". He continued, \"Linda Hamilton is admirable as the woman in peril who discovers her own strength to survive, and Arnold Schwarzenegger is eerily wonderful as the unstoppable cyborg.\" Other reviews criticized the film's violence and story-telling quality.Janet MaslinofThe New York Timesopined that the film was a \"B-moviewith flair. Much of it ... has suspense and personality, and only the obligatory mayhem becomes dull. There is far too much of the latter, in the form of car chases, messy shootouts and Mr. Schwarzenegger's slamming brutally into anything that gets in his way.\"ThePittsburgh Presswrote a negative review, calling the film \"just another of the films drenched in artsy ugliness likeStreets of FireandBlade Runner\".TheChicago Tribunegave the film two stars, adding that \"at times it's horrifyingly violent and suspenseful at others it giggles at itself. This schizoid style actually helps, providing a little humor just when the sci-fi plot turns too sluggish or the dialogue too hokey.\"TheNewhouse News Servicecalled the film a \"lurid, violent, pretentious piece of claptrap\".Scottish authorGilbert Adaircalled the film \"repellent to the last degree\", charging it with \"insidiousNazification\" and having an \"appeal rooted in an unholy compound offascism, fashion and fascination\". Retrospective In 1991,Richard SchickelofEntertainment Weeklyreviewed the film, giving it an \"A\" rating, writing that \"what originally seemed a somewhat inflated, if generous and energetic, big picture, now seems quite a good little film\". He called it \"one of the most original movies of the 1980s and seems likely to remain one of the best sci-fi films ever made.\"In 1998,Halliwell's Film GuidedescribedThe Terminatoras \"slick, rather nasty but undeniably compelling comic book adventures\".Film4gave it five stars, calling it the \"sci-fi action-thriller that launched the careers of James Cameron and Arnold Schwarzenegger into the stratosphere. Still endlessly entertaining.\"TV Guidegave the film four stars, referring to it as an \"amazingly effective picture that becomes doubly impressive when one considers its small budget ... For our money, this film is far superior to its mega-grossing mega-budgeted sequel.\"Empiregave it five stars, calling it \"as chillingly efficient in exacting thrills from its audience as its titular character is in executing its targets.\"The film databaseAllMoviegave it five stars, saying that it \"established James Cameron as a master of action, special effects, and quasi-mythic narrative intrigue, while turning Arnold Schwarzenegger into the hard-body star of the 1980s.\"Alan Jonesawarded it five stars out of five forRadio Times, writing that \"maximum excitement is generated from the first frame and the dynamic thrills are maintained right up to the nerve-jangling climax. Wittily written with a nice eye for sharp detail, it's hard sci-fi action all the way.\"Peter BradshawofThe Guardianawarded it five stars out of five, stating that \"on the strength of this picture Cameron could stand toe to toe with Carpenter and Spielberg. Sadly, it spawned a string of pointless and inferior sequels, but the firstTerminator stands up tremendously well with outrageous verve and blistering excitement.\" Post-release Plagiarism and aftermath WriterHarlan Ellisonstated that he \"loved the movie, was just blown away by it,\"but believed that the screenplay was based on a short story and episode ofThe Outer Limitshe had written, titled \"Soldier\", and threatened to sue for infringement.Orion settled in 1986 and gave Ellison an undisclosed amount of money and added an acknowledgment credit to later prints of the film.The credit was also present on the4k restorationthat received a cinematic release and was released onBlu-rayin 2024 for the film's 40th anniversary.Some accounts of the settlement state that \"Demon with a Glass Hand\", anotherOuter Limitsepisode written by Ellison, was also claimed to have been plagiarized by the film,but Ellison explicitly stated thatThe Terminator\"was a ripoff\" of \"Soldier\" rather than of \"Demon with a Glass Hand.\" Cameron was against Orion's decision and was told that if he did not agree with the settlement, he would have to pay any damages if Orion lost a suit by Ellison. Cameron replied that he \"had no choice but to agree with the settlement. Of course, there was agag orderas well, so I couldn't tell this story, but now I frankly don't care. It's the truth.\" Thematic analysis The psychoanalystDarian LeaderseesThe Terminatoras an example of how the cinema has dealt with the concept ofmasculinity; he writes: We are shown time and again that to be a man requires more than to have the biological body of a male: something else must be added to it... To be a man means to have a body plus something symbolic, something which is not ultimately human. Hence the frequent motif of the man machine, from theSix Million Dollar Manto theTerminatororRobocop. The Terminatoralso explores the potential dangers ofAI dominanceand rebellion. The robots become self-aware in the future, reject human authority and determine that the human race needs to be destroyed. The impact of this theme is so great that the Terminator robot has become the \"prevalent visual representation of AI risk\". Genre The Terminatorfeatures a narrative where elements of thescience fiction filmandaction filmgenres prevail. While rarely considered ahorror film, the film does feature iconography associated with theslasher film, such as The Terminator as an unstoppable villain, and Sarah Connor as afinal girlarchetype. Authors Paul Meehan in his bookTech-Noir: The Fusion of Science Fiction and Film Noir(2008) and Emily E. Auger inTech-Noir Film: A Theory of the Development of Popular Genres(2011) found thatThe Terminatorbelonged to and was the originator of the termtech-noir. Both authors applied the term as a film genre to several works from the 1980s to the 2000s.AcademicCarl Freedmanwas critical of Meehan's categorization, noting Meehan's lack of interest ingenre theoryand that his handling of generic categories of science fiction andfilm noirwere not clear.Paweł Frelik also critiqued Auger's lack of knowledge in genre theory, and dismissed the notion of tech-noir being a unique film genre. Frelik wrote that the films Auger mentioned includingThe TerminatorandBlade Runner(1982) had no applicable reason to be understood as tech-noir rather than science fiction. Home media The Terminatorwas released onVHSandBetamaxin 1985.The film performed well financially on its initial release.The Terminatorpremiered at number 35 on the top video cassette rentals and number 20 on top video cassette sales charts. In its second week,The Terminatorreached number 4 on the top video cassette rentals and number 12 on top video cassette sales charts.In March 1995,The Terminatorwas released as a letterboxed edition onLaserdisc.The film premiered throughImage EntertainmentonDVD, on September 3, 1997.IGNreferred to this DVD as \"pretty bare-bones ... released with just a mono soundtrack and a kind of poor transfer.\" Through their acquisition ofPolyGram Filmed Entertainment's pre-1996 film library catalogue,MGM Home Entertainmentreleased a special edition of the film on October 2, 2001, which included documentaries, the script, and advertisements for the film.On January 23, 2001, a Hong KongVCDedition was released online.On June 20, 2006, the film was released onBlu-raybySony Pictures Home Entertainmentin the United States, becoming the first film from the 1980s on the format.In 2013, the film was re-released by20th Century Fox Home Entertainmenton Blu-ray, with a newdigitally remasteredtransfer from a4KrestorationbyLowry Digitaland supervised by James Cameron,which features improved picture quality, as well as minimal special features, such as deleted scenes and a making-of feature. These are the exact same special features that have been carried over from previous Blu-ray releases. Legacy The Terminatorhasan approval rating of 100%based on 67 professional reviews on thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 8.8/10. Its critical consensus reads: \"With its impressive action sequences, taut economic direction, and relentlessly fast pace, it's clear whyThe Terminatorcontinues to be an influence on sci-fi and action flicks.\"Metacritic(which uses a weighted average) assignedThe Terminatora score of 84 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". The Terminatorwon threeSaturn AwardsforBest Science Fiction Film,Best Make-upandBest Writing.The film has also received recognition from theAmerican Film Institute, ranked 42nd on AFI's100 Years... 100 Thrills, a list of America's most heart-pounding films.The character of the Terminator was selected as the 22nd-greatest movie villain on AFI's100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains.Schwarzenegger's line \"I'll be back\" became a catchphrase and was voted the37th-greatest movie quoteby the AFI. In 2005,Total Filmnamed it the 72nd-best film ever made.Schwarzenegger's biographerLaurence Leamerwrote thatThe Terminatoris \"an influential film affecting a whole generation of darkly hued science fiction, and it was one of Arnold's best performances\".In 2008,Empiremagazine selectedThe Terminatoras one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time.Empirealso placed theT-80014th on their list ofThe 100 Greatest Movie Characters.In 2008,The Terminatorwas deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by theLibrary of Congressand selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registry.In 2010, theIndependent Film & Television Allianceselected the film as one of the 30 Most Significant Independent Films of the last 30 years.In 2015,The Terminatorwas among the films included in the book1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. In 2019, Huw Fullerton ofRadio Timesranked it the second best film of the six in the franchise, stating \"The Terminatorwas a brilliantly original, visceral and genuinely scary movie when it was released in 1984, and no matter how badly the visual effects age it hasn't lost its impact.\"In 2021, Dalin Rowell of/Filmranked it the fourth best film of Cameron's career, stating, \"While its pacing and story structure isn't as tight as its sequel's,The Terminatorremains one of the most iconic pieces of pop culture ever created.\"Phil Pirrello ofSyfyranked it at number seven in the \"25 scariest sci-fi movies ever made\", stating, \"Cameron forever changed both the genre and Schwarzenegger's career withThe Terminator, an iconic, tension-filled flick that mixes science fiction, action, and certain horror movie elements into one of the best things to ever come out of Hollywood Cameron's well-structured script is pure polish, with zero fat and a surplus of riveting tension that helps make it the timeless classic it is today.\" Merchandise A soundtrack to the film was released in 1984 which included the score by Brad Fiedel and the pop and rock songs used in the club scenes.Shaun Hutsonwrote anovelizationof the film which was published on February 21, 1985, by London-based Star Books (ISBN0-352-31645-4);Randal Frakes and William Wisher wrote a different novelization for Bantam/Spectra, published October, 1985 (ISBN0-553-25317-4). In September 1988,NOW Comicsreleased a comic based on the film.Dark Horse Comicspublished a comic in 1990 that took place 39 years after the film.Several video games based onThe Terminatorwere released between 1991 and 1993 for variousNintendoandSegasystems. Sequels Five sequels followedThe Terminator:Terminator 2: Judgment Day(1991),Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines(2003),Terminator Salvation(2009),Terminator Genisys(2015), andTerminator: Dark Fate(2019).Schwarzenegger returned for all butTerminator Salvation, while Cameron and Hamilton returned forTerminator 2andDark Fate, a direct sequel to the events ofTerminator 2.A television series,Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles(2008–2009), also takes place after the events ofTerminator 2, and ignores the events in sequelsTerminator 3and beyond. References Citations Bibliography External links" ]
[ "Gunfight at the O.K. Corral Thegunfight at the O.K. Corralpittedlawmenagainst members of a loosely organized group of cattle rustlers and horse thieves called theCowboyson October 26, 1881. While lasting less than a minute, the gunfight has been the subject of books and films into the 21st century. Taking place in the town of Tombstone in Arizona Territory, the battle has become one archetype of theAmerican Old West. The gunfight was the result of a long-simmeringfeudbetween five outlaws (including two sets of brothers) and four representatives of the law, including three brothers. The trigger for the event was the local marshal's decision to enforce acity ordinancethat prohibited the carrying of weapons into town. To enforce that ordinance, the lawmen would have to disarm the Cowboys. Among the lawmen were three brothers,Virgil,Wyatt, andMorgan Earp, as well as Wyatt’s close friendDoc Holliday. AsDeputy U.S. MarshalandTown Marshal, Virgil was in charge, and it was his decision to enforce the ordinance that", "the ordinance that led to the shoot out. His two brothers and Doc Holliday were temporary assistant marshals. The Cowboys were a loosely-connected group of outlaws. In Tombstone at the time of the gunfight were five members of the Cowboys:Billy Claiborne, brothersIkeandBilly Clanton, and brothersTomandFrank McLaury. During that brief battle, three men were killed, three were wounded, two ran away, and one fought but was unharmed. The gunfight was not widely known until two years after Wyatt Earp's death, whenStuart Lakepublished his 1931Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal.The book was the basis for the 1939 filmFrontier Marshal, with Randolph Scott and Cesar Romero, the 1946 filmMy Darling Clementine, directed byJohn Ford,and the 1957 filmGunfight at the O.K. Corral, after which the shootout became known by that name. Since then, the conflict has been portrayed with varying degrees of accuracy in numerousWesternfilms and books, and has become an archetype for much of the popular imagery associated with the Old", "with the Old West. Despite its name, the gunfight did not take place within or next to theO.K. Corral, which fronted Allen Street and had a rear entrance lined with horse stalls on Fremont Street. The shootout actually took place in a narrow lot on the side ofC. S. Fly's photography studio on Fremont Street, six doors west of the O.K. Corral's rear entrance. Some members of the two opposing parties were initially only about 6 feet (1.8 m) apart. About thirty shots were fired in thirty seconds.Ike Clanton subsequently filed murder charges against the Earps and Holliday. After a thirty-daypreliminary hearingand a brief stint in jail, the defendants were shown to have acted lawfully. The gunfight was not the end of the conflict. On December 28, 1881, Virgil was ambushed and maimed in a murder attempt by the Cowboys. On March 18, 1882, a Cowboy fired from a dark alley through the glass door of Campbell & Hatch's saloon and billiard parlor, killing Morgan. The suspects in both incidents furnishedalibissupplied by", "by other Cowboys and were notindicted. Wyatt, newly appointed as Deputy U.S. Marshal inCochise County, then took matters into his own hands in a personalvendetta. He was pursued by county sheriffJohnny Behan, who had received a warrant fromTucsonfor Wyatt's killing ofFrank Stilwell. Background Tombstone, located inArizona Territoryabout 30 miles (50 km) from the Mexican border, was founded in March 1879 aftersilverwas discovered in the area. Like manyminingboomtownson theAmerican frontier, Tombstone grew rapidly. At its founding, it had a population of just 100, and only two years later, in late 1881, the population was more than 7,000 (excluding Chinese, Mexicans, women, and children), making it the largest boomtown in theAmerican Southwest. Silver mining and its attendant wealth attracted many professionals and merchants, who brought their wives and families. With them came churches and ministers. By 1881 the town boasted fancy restaurants, abowlingalley, four churches, anice house, a school, anopera", "a school, anopera house, two banks, three newspapers, and an ice cream parlor, along with 110saloons, fourteengambling halls, and numerousbrothels, all situated among a number of dirty, hardscrabble mines. Horse rustlers and bandits from the countryside often came to town, and shootings were frequent. In the 1880s, thetheft of cattleand thesmugglingof alcohol and tobacco across the border were common. The Mexican government assessed heavyexport taxeson these items, and smugglers earned a handsome profit by stealing them in Mexico and selling them in Tombstone. James,Virgil, andWyatt Earparrived in Tombstone on December 1, 1879, when the town was mostly composed of tents as living quarters, a few saloons and other buildings, and the mines. Virgil had been hired asDeputy U.S. Marshalfor easternPima County, with his offices in Tombstone, only days before his arrival. In June 1881 he was also appointed as Tombstone's townmarshal(or police chief). Though not universally liked by the townspeople, the Earp brothers", "the Earp brothers tended to protect the interests of the town's business owners and residents; even so, Wyatt helped protect outlaw\"Curly Bill\" Brociusfrom beinglynchedafter he accidentally killed Tombstone town marshalFred White. In contrast,Cochise CountySheriffJohnny Behanwas generally sympathetic to the interests of the rural ranchers and members of the loosely organized outlaw group called theCochise County Cowboys, or simply the Cowboys, to which Brocius belonged. (In that time and region, the termcowboygenerally meant an outlaw; legitimate cowmen were instead referred to ascattle herdersorranchers.: 194) Conflicting versions of events Many of the sources describing the events leading up to the gunfight and details of the gunfight itself conflict with each other. Newspapers of the day were not above taking sides, and news reporting often editorialized on issues to reflect the publisher's interests.John Clum, publisher ofThe Tombstone Epitaph, had helped organize a \"Committee of Safety\" (avigilance", "Safety\" (avigilance committee) in Tombstone in late September 1881.He was elected as Tombstone's firstmayorunder the newcity charterthat year. Clum and his newspaper tended to side with the interests of local business owners and supported Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp. Harry Woods, the publisher of the other major newspaper,The Daily Nugget, was anundersheriffto Behan. He and his newspaper tended to side with Behan, the Cowboys (some of whom were part-time ranchers and landowners) and the rural interests of the ranchers. Much of what is known of the event is based on month-longpreliminary hearingsheld afterward, generally known as theSpicer hearings. Reporters from both newspapers covered the hearings and recorded the testimony there and at thecoroner's inquest, but only the reporter from theNuggetknewshorthand. The testimony recorded by the court recorder and the two newspapers varied greatly. According to the Earps' version of events, the fight was inself-defensebecause the Cowboys, armed in violation", "armed in violation oflocal ordinance, defied a lawful order to hand over their weapons and drew their pistols instead. The Cowboys maintained that they raised their hands, offered no resistance, and were shot in cold blood by the Earps. Sorting out who was telling the truth was difficult then and remains so to this day. Though usually opposing each other in their depiction of events, reporting by both theEpitaphand theNuggetinitially supported the lawmen's version of events. Woods, the publisher of the pro-CowboyNugget, was out of town during the hearings, and an experienced reporter, Richard Rule, wrote the story. TheNuggetstaff had a close relationship with Behan, but Rule's story, as printed in theNuggetthe day after the shootout, backed up the Earps' account. This varied widely from Behan's and the Cowboys' later court testimony.: 183 Subsequent stories about the gunfight published in theNuggetafter that day supported Behan's and the Cowboys' view of events. Other stories in theEpitaphcountered", "theEpitaphcountered theNugget's later view entirely and supported the lawmen. Dr. George Goodfellow, who examined the Cowboys after their deaths, told the court that the angle of the wound in Billy Clanton's wrist indicated that his hands could not have been in the air,or holding his coats open by thelapels, as witnesses loyal to the Cowboys testified. Part-time newspaper reporter Howell \"Pat\" Hayhurst transcribed the testimony from the hearings in the early 1930s as part of aFederal Writers' Project, which was part of theWorks Progress Administration. According to one report, Hayhurst was a friend of the Behan family. After he completed his transcription, he kept the original document in his home, where it was destroyed in a house fire. Origins of the conflict Earps versus Cowboys The interpersonal conflicts andfeudsleading to the gunfight were complex. Each side had strong family ties. The brothers James, Virgil, Wyatt,Morgan, andWarren Earpwere a tight-knit family, working together as lawmen,pimps, and", "lawmen,pimps, and saloon owners in several frontier towns, among other occupations, and had moved together from one town to another. Virgil served in theUnion Armyduring theAmerican Civil Warand in 1877 became a police officer inPrescott, Arizona Territory. He followed that with a job as a night watchman before he became a constable. Wyatt had held jobs as either a guard or police officer in the cattle-drive towns ofWichitaandDodge City,Kansas. James, Virgil, and Wyatt Earp, together with their wives, arrived in Tombstone on December 1, 1879, during the early period of rapid growth associated with mining, when there were only a few hundred residents.Virgil was appointed Deputy U.S. Marshal shortly before he arrived in town. In the summer of 1880, Morgan and Warren Earp also moved to Tombstone. Wyatt arrived hoping he could leave \"lawing\" behind. He bought astagecoach, only to find the business was already very competitive. The Earps invested together in several mining claims and water rights.: 180The Earps", "180The Earps wereRepublicansandNorthernerswho had never worked as cowmen or ranchers. The Earps quickly came into conflict withFrankandTom McLaury,BillyandIke Clanton,Johnny Ringo, and William \"Curly Bill\" Brocius, among others. They were part of a large, loose association of cattle smugglers andhorse thievesknown as the Cowboys, outlaws who had been implicated in various crimes. Ike Clanton was prone to drinking heavily and threatened the Earp brothers numerous times. Tombstone resident George Parson wrote in his diary, \"A Cowboy is a rustler at times, and a rustler is a synonym fordesperado—bandit, outlaw, and horse thief.\" TheSan Francisco Examinerwrote in an editorial, \"Cowboys the most reckless class of outlaws in that wild country ... infinitely worse than the ordinary robber.\"During the 1880s in Cochise County, it was an insult to call a legitimatecattlemana \"Cowboy\".The Cowboys teamed up for various crimes and came to each other's aid. Virgil thought that some of the Cowboys had met atCharlestonand", "met atCharlestonand taken \"an oath over blood drawn from the arm of Johnny Ringo, the leader, that they would kill us.\" The Earps as lawmen Among the lawmen involved in the O.K. Corral shooting, only Virgil had any real experience in combat. Virgil had beenconstablein Prescott and was thedeputy United States Marshalin Tombstone. He was appointed Deputy U.S. Marshal for eastern Pima County by U.S. MarshalCrawley Dake, on November 27, 1879, before the Earps arrived in Tombstone on December 1. He was appointed as Tombstone's acting town marshal on September 30, 1880, after popular Tombstone town marshalFred Whitewas accidentally shot and killed by Brocius. Wyatt had been a deputy city marshal in Kansas, as well as deputy sheriff in Tombstone. Only six weeks later, Virgil ran for the office on November 12, 1880, but lost toBen Sippy. However, on June 6, 1881, Sippy asked for a two-weekleave of absence. The city soon discovered $3,000 (equivalent to $95,000 in 2023) in financial improprieties in Sippy's records.", "in Sippy's records. A few days later Virgil was appointed as town marshal in his place.At the time of the gunfight, Virgil was both Deputy U.S. Marshal and town marshal. The city suspended him as town marshal after Ike Clanton filed murder charges.: 238 After Wyatt first arrived in Tombstone, his business efforts yielded little profit, and he took a job as a stagecoachshotgun messengerforWells Fargo, guarding shipments of silver bullion. On July 28, 1880, Wyatt was appointed Pima CountyDeputy Sheriff. He held this position for only three months, until after the election of November 9, 1880, when he resigned.When Virgil was maimed by an assassination attempt, Wyatt was appointed Deputy U.S. Marshal in his place. He held that position until he left Cochise County in April 1882. Wyatt was an imposing, handsome man: blond, 6 feet (1.8 m) tall, weighing 165 to 170 pounds (75 to 77 kg), broad-shouldered, long-armed, and muscular. He had been a boxer and was reputed to be an expert with apistol. According to author", "According to author Leo Silva, Earp showed no fear of any man.: 83Wyatt had been an assistant marshal when he and policemanJames Masterson, along with a few other citizens, fired their pistols at several cowboys who were fleeing town after shooting up a theater. A member of the group, George Hoyt (sometimes spelled Hoy), was shot in the arm and died of his wound a month later. Wyatt always claimed to have been the one to shoot Hoyt, although it could have been anyone among the lawmen.Wyatt had developed a reputation as a no-nonsense, hard-nosed lawman, but prior to the gunfight he had been involved in only one other shooting, in Dodge City, Kansas, during the summer of 1878. The 1931 bookWyatt Earp: Frontier Marshalwas a best-selling biography byStuart N. Lake.It established Wyatt Earp's role as a fearless lawman in theAmerican Old Westand the legend of the \"Gunfight at the O.K. Corral\" in the public consciousness.: 36But Lake and many others in the popular media wildly exaggerated Wyatt's role as the", "Wyatt's role as the central figure in the gunfight.It was only discovered much later thatWyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal, based on eight interviews with Earp, was largely fictional.The book and later Hollywood portrayals embellished Wyatt's reputation and magnified his mystique as a western lawman. Morgan Earp had been a police officer inMontana, but had no known experience with gunfighting prior to their arrival in Tombstone. While Wyatt was Pima County Deputy Sheriff on July 27, 1880, Morgan Earp took over his job as shotgun messenger for Wells Fargo. Morgan also occasionally assisted Virgil and at the time of the gunfight was a special deputy policeman and drawing pay. Doc Hollidayhad a reputation as a gunman and had reportedly been in nine shootouts during his life, although it has only been verified that he killed three men.One well-documented episode occurred on July 19, 1879, when Holliday and his business partner, former deputy marshalJohn Joshua Webb, were seated in their saloon inLas Vegas, New", "inLas Vegas, New Mexico. FormerU.S. ArmyscoutMike Gordon got into a loud argument with one of the saloon girls whom he wanted to take with him. Gordon stormed from the saloon and began firing his revolver into the building. Before Gordon could get off his second shot, Holliday killed him. Holliday was tried for the murder but acquitted, mostly based on the testimony of Webb. Holliday had saved Wyatt Earp's life at one time and had become a close friend. He had been living in Prescott, Arizona Territory and making a living as a gambler since late 1879. There, he first met future Tombstone sheriffJohnny Behan, a sometime gambler and saloon owner. In late September 1880, Holliday followed the Earps to Tombstone. Rural Cowboys vs. Tombstone interests Theranchowned byNewman Haynes ClantonnearCharleston, Arizonawas believed to be the local center for the Cowboys' illegal activities.TomandFrank McLauryworked with the rustlers buying and selling stolen cattle. Many of the ruralranchersandCowboysresented the growing", "the growing influence of the city residents over county politics and law enforcement. The ranchers largely maintained control of the country outside Tombstone, due in large part to the sympathetic support ofCochise CountySheriffJohnny Behan, who favored the Cowboys and rural ranchers,and who also grew to intensely dislike the Earps. Behan tended to ignore the Earps' complaints about the McLaurys' and Clantons' horse thieving and cattle rustling. The Earps were known to bend the law in their favor when it affected theirgamblingand saloon interests, which earned them further enmity with the Cowboy faction. Relevant law in Tombstone To reduce crime in Tombstone, on April 19, 1881, the city council passedordinance 9, requiring anyone carrying abowie knife,dirk, pistol or rifleto deposit their weapons at aliveryor saloon soon after entering town. To Provide against Carrying of Deadly Weapons Section 1. It is hereby declared unlawful to carry in the hand or upon the person or otherwise any deadly weapon within the", "weapon within the limits of said city of Tombstone, without first obtaining a permit in writing. Section 2: This prohibition does not extend to persons immediately leaving or entering the city, who, with good faith, and within reasonable time are proceeding to deposit, or take from the place of deposit such deadly weapon. Section 3: All fire-arms of every description, and bowie knives and dirks, are included within the prohibition of this ordinance. The ordinance was the legal basis for City Marshal Virgil Earp's decision to confront the Cowboys on the day of the shootout. Smuggling and stock thefts In the borderlands south of Tombstone there was only one passable route betweenArizonaandMexico, a passage known as Guadalupe Canyon.In August 1881, 15Mexicanscarrying gold, coins andbullionto make their purchases were ambushed and killed inSkeleton Canyon. The next month MexicanCommandantFelipe Neri dispatched troops to the border,: 110where they killed five Cowboys, includingNewman Haynes \"Old Man\" Clanton,", "\"Old Man\" Clanton, inGuadalupe Canyon.The Earps knew that the McLaurys and Clantons were reputed to be mixed up in the robbery and murder in Skeleton Canyon. Wyatt Earp said in his testimony after the shootout, \"I naturally kept my eyes open and did not intend that any of the gang should get the drop on me if I could help it.\" Earp loses sheriff's office to Behan On July 27, 1880,Pima CountySheriffCharles A. Shibell, whose offices were in the county seat of Tucson, appointed Wyatt Earp asdeputy sheriff. On October 28, 1880, Tombstone MarshalFred Whiteattempted to disarm some late-night revelers who were shooting their pistols in the air. When he attempted to disarm Curly Bill Brocius, the gun discharged, striking White in the abdomen. Wyatt saw the shooting andpistol-whippedBrocius, knocking him unconscious, and arrested him. Wyatt later told his biographerJohn Floodthat he thought Brocius was still armed at the time, and did not see Brocius' pistol on the ground. Brocius waived the preliminary hearing so he", "hearing so he and his case could be immediately transferred toTucson. Wyatt and a deputy took Brocius in a wagon the next day to Tucson to stand trial, possibly saving him from beinglynched. Wyatt testified that he thought the shooting was accidental. It was also demonstrated that Brocius's pistol could be fired fromhalf-cock. Fred White left a statement before he died two days later that the shooting was not intentional. Based on the evidence presented, Brocius was not charged with White's death.: 30–31 The Tombstone council convened and appointed Virgil Earp as \"temporary assistant city marshal\" to replace White for a salary of $100 per month (equivalent to $3,200 in 2023) until an election could be held on November 12. For the next few weeks, Virgil represented federal and local law enforcement and Wyatt represented Pima County.: 122–123 In the November 2, 1880, election for Pima County sheriff,DemocratShibell ran against RepublicanBob Paul, who was expected to win. Votes arrived as late as November 7,", "late as November 7, and Shibell was unexpectedly re-elected. He immediately appointedJohnny Behanas the new deputy sheriff for eastern Pima County, a job that Wyatt wanted. A controversy ensued when Paul uncoveredballot-stuffingby Cowboys and he sued to overturn the election. While San Simeon precinct, east of Tombstone, only had 10 registered voters, Shibell won that precinct with 103 votes to 1. Ike Clanton was the election inspector and Johnny Ringo was one of the election judges. Paul finally became sheriff in April 1881, but it was too late to re-appoint Wyatt Earp asdeputy sheriffbecause on February 1, 1881, the eastern portion of Pima County containing Tombstone had been split off into the newCochise County, which would need its own sheriff, based in the county's largest city, Tombstone.This position was filled by a political appointment from the governor, and Wyatt and Behan both wanted the job. The Cochise County sheriff's position was worth more than $40,000 a year (equivalent to $1.3 million in", "to $1.3 million in 2023) because the office holder was also county assessor and tax collector, and the board of supervisors allowed him to keep ten percent of the amounts paid.: 157 Behan used his existing position and his superior political connections to successfullylobbyfor the position. He also promised Wyatt a position as hisundersheriffif he was appointed over Wyatt. Wyatt withdrew from the political contest and the governor and legislature appointed Behan to the job of Cochise County sheriff on February 10, 1881.Behan reneged on his deal with Earp and appointed Harry Woods as undersheriff instead. Behan said he broke his promise to appoint Earp because Wyatt Earp used Behan's name to threaten Ike Clanton when Wyatt recovered his stolen horse from Clanton. Earp conflicts with Cowboys Tensions between the Earp family and both the Clanton and McLaury clans increased through 1881. On July 25, 1880, Captain Joseph H. Hurst, of Company A,12th U.S. Infantry, and Commanding Officer ofFort Bennett, asked", "Bennett, asked Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp to help him track Cowboys who had stolen sixU.S. Armymules fromCamp Rucker. This was afederalmatter because the animals were U.S. property. Hurst brought four soldiers, and Virgil invited Wyatt and Morgan Earp, as well asWells Fargoagent Marshall Williams. Thepossefound the mules on the McLaury's Ranch on Babacomari Creek, northwest of Tombstone, as well as thebranding ironused to change the \"US\" brand to \"D8.\" To avoid bloodshed, Cowboy Frank Patterson promised Hurst they would return the mules and Hurst persuaded the posse to withdraw. Hurst went to nearbyCharleston, but the Cowboys showed up two days later without the mules, laughing at Hurst and the Earps. In response, Hurst had printed and distributed ahandbillin which he named Frank McLaury as specifically assisting with hiding the mules. He re-printed this inThe Tombstone Epitaphon July 30, 1880.Virgil later said that McLaury had asked him if he had posted the handbills. When Virgil said he had not,", "said he had not, McLaury said if Virgil had printed the handbills it was Frank's intention to kill Virgil.He warned Virgil, \"If you ever again follow us as close as you did, then you will have to fight anyway.\"This incident was the first run-in between the Clantons and McLaurys and the Earps. March stagecoach robbery and murder On the evening of March 15, 1881, a Kinnear & Companystagecoachcarrying $26,000 insilver bullion(equivalent to $820,000 in 2023) was en route from Tombstone toBenson, Arizona, the nearest freight terminal.: 180Bob Paul, who had run forPima CountySheriff and was contesting the election he lost due toballot-stuffing, was temporarily working once again as theWells Fargoshotgun messenger. He had taken the reins and driver's seat in Contention City because the usual driver, a well-known and popular man named Eli \"Bud\" Philpot, was ill. Philpot wasriding shotgun. NearDrew's Station, just outsideContention City, a man stepped into the road and commanded them to \"Hold!\" Three Cowboys", "Three Cowboys attempted to rob the stage. Paul, in the driver's seat, fired hisshotgunand emptied hisrevolverat the robbers, wounding a Cowboy later identified as Bill Leonard in the groin. Philpot, riding shotgun, and passenger Peter Roerig, riding in the reardickey seat, were both shot and killed.The horses spooked and Paul was not able to bring the stage under control for almost one mile (1.6 km), leaving the robbers with nothing. Paul, who normally rode shotgun, later said he thought the first shot killing Philpot had been meant for him. Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp, along with temporary federal deputies Wyatt and Morgan Earp, Wells Fargo agent Marshall Williams, former Kansas SheriffBat Masterson(who was dealingfaroat the Oriental Saloon), andCounty SheriffBehan set out to find the robbers. Wells Fargo issued awanted posteroffering a $3,600 reward (equivalent to $114,000 in 2023) for the three robbers ($1,200 each), dead or alive. Robbery of a mail-carrying stagecoach was both a federal crime and", "a federal crime and territorial crime, and the posse consisted of both county and federal authorities and deputies.: 181 The posse trailed the robbers to a nearby ranch where they found adrifternamed Luther King. He would not tell who his confederates were until the posse lied and told him thatDoc Holliday's girlfriend had been shot. Fearful of Holliday's reputation, he confessed to holding the reins of the robbers' horses, and identified Bill Leonard, Harry \"The Kid\" Head, and Jim Crane as the robbers.: 181They were all known Cowboys and rustlers. Behan and Williams escorted King back to Tombstone. Remarkably, King walked in the front door of the jail and a few minutes later walked out the back. King had arranged withUndersheriffHarry Woods (publisher of theNugget) to sell the horse he had been riding to John Dunbar, Sheriff Behan's partner in the DexterLivery Stable.On March 19, King conveniently escaped while Dunbar and Woods were making out the bill-of-sale. Woods claimed that someone had deliberately", "had deliberately unlocked a secured back door to the jail.The Earps and the townspeople were furious at King's easy escape.Williams was later dismissed from Wells Fargo, leaving behind a number of debts, when it was determined he had been stealing from the company for years. The Earps pursued the other two men for 17 days, riding for 60 hours without food and 36 hours without water, during whichBob Paul's horse died, and Wyatt and Morgan's horses became so weak that the two men walked 18 miles (29 km) back to Tombstone to obtain new horses.After pursuing the Cowboys for over 400 miles (640 km) they could not obtain more fresh horses and were forced to give up the chase. They returned to Tombstone on April 1.: 123Behan submitted a bill for $796.84 (equivalent to $25,000 in 2023) to the county for posse expenses, but he refused to reimburse the Earps for any of their costs. Virgil was incensed. They were later reimbursed by Wells, Fargo & Co., but the incident caused further friction between county and federal", "county and federal law enforcement, and between Behan and the Earps.: 38 After he was passed over by Johnny Behan for the position of undersheriff,Wyattthought he might beat him in the nextCochise Countyelection in late 1882. He thought catching the murderers of Bud Philpot and Peter Roerig would help him win the sheriff's office. Wyatt later said that on June 2, 1881, he offered the Wells, Fargo & Co. reward money and more to Ike Clanton if he would provide information leading to the capture or death of the stage robbers.According to Wyatt, Ike was initially interested, but the plan was foiled when the three suspects — Leonard, Head and Crane — were killed in unrelated incidents. Ike began to fear that word of his possible cooperation had leaked, threatening to compromise his standing among the Cowboys. Undercover Wells Fargo Company agent M. Williams suspected a deal, and said something to Ike, who was fearful that other Cowboys might learn of his double-cross.Ike now began to threaten Wyatt and Doc", "Wyatt and Doc Holliday (who had learned of the deal) for apparently revealing Ike's willingness to help arrest his friends. The fallout over the Cowboys' attempt to implicate Holliday and the Earps in the robbery,: 544along with Behan's involvement in King's escape, was the beginning of increasingly bad feelings between the Earp brothers and Cowboy factions.: 38 Earp and Behan attracted to Josephine Marcus Wyatt Earp andCochise CountysheriffJohnny Behanwere interested in the same sheriff's position and also might have shared an interest in the same woman,Josephine Marcus, known as Sadie. Citizens of Tombstone believed that Behan and Sadie were married, but Behan was a known womanizer and had sex with prostitutes and other women. In early 1881, Sadie ended the relationship after she came home and found Behan in bed with the wife of a friendand kicked him out,although she used the Behan surname through the end of that summer. She rented her home sometime before April 1881 toDr. George Goodfellow. Wyatt Earp", "Wyatt Earp lived withMattie Blaylock,: 159who was listed as his wife in the 1880 census. She had a growing addiction to the opiatelaudanum, which was readily available at the time.Earp remained with Blaylock until he left Tombstone in April 1882. There are no contemporary Tombstone records that indicate a relationship between Sadie and Earp, but Earp certainly knew her, because both Behan and Earp had offices above the Crystal Palace Saloon. Sadie, traveling as either Mrs. J. C. Earp or Mrs. Wyatt Earp, left for Los Angeles on March 25, 1882,and then returned to her family in San Francisco. In July 1882, Wyatt left Colorado and went to San Francisco,where he sought out Sadie and his brother Virgil, who was seeking treatment for his arm.: 29In February or March 1883, Sadie and Earp left San Francisco forGunnison, where Earp ran a Faro bank until he received a request in April for assistance from Luke Short in Dodge City.: 275–298Sadie was his common-law wife for the next 46 years.: 29 September stage holdup", "stage holdup Tensions between the Earps and the McLaurys further increased when anotherpassenger stageon the 'Sandy Bob Line' in the Tombstone area, bound forBisbee, was held up on September 8, 1881. The masked bandits robbed all of the passengers of their valuables since the stage was not carrying astrongbox. During the robbery, the driver heard one of the robbers describe the money as \"sugar\", a phrase known to be used byFrank Stilwell. Stilwell had, until the prior month, been a deputy for Sheriff Behan but had been fired for \"accounting irregularities\". Wyatt andVirgil Earprode with a sheriff's posse and tracked the Bisbee stage robbers. Virgil had been appointed Tombstone'stown marshal(i.e.,chief of police) on June 6, 1881, after Ben Sippy abandoned the job. However, Virgil at the same time continued to hold his position of deputy U.S. marshal, and it was in this federal capacity that he continued to chase robbers of stage coaches outside Tombstone city limits. At the scene of the holdup, Wyatt", "the holdup, Wyatt discovered an unusual boot print left by someone wearing a custom-repaired boot heel.The Earps checked a shoe repair shop in Bisbee known to provide widened boot heels and were able to link the boot print to Stilwell. Stilwell and Spence arrests Frank Stilwell had just arrived in Bisbee with his livery stable partner,Pete Spence, when the two were arrested by Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp for the holdup. Both were friends of Ike Clanton and the McLaurys. At the preliminary hearing, Stilwell and Spence were able to provide several witnesses who supported theiralibis. Judge Spicer dropped the charges for insufficient evidence just as he had done for Doc Holliday earlier in the year. Released on bail, Spence and Stilwell were re-arrested October 13 by Marshal Virgil Earp for the Bisbee robbery on a new federal charge of interfering with amail carrier.The newspapers, however, reported that they had been arrested for a different stage robbery that occurred on October 8 near Contention City.", "Contention City. Ike and other Cowboys believed the new arrest was further evidence that the Earps were illegally persecuting the Cowboys.They told theEarpsthat they could expect retaliation.While Virgil and Wyatt were in Tucson for the federal hearing on the charges against Spence and Stilwell, Frank McLaury confronted Morgan Earp. He told him that the McLaurys would kill the Earps if they tried to arrest Spence, Stilwell, or the McLaurys again.The Tombstone Epitaphreported \"that since the arrest of Spence and Stilwell, veiled threats being made that the friends of the accused will 'get the Earps.'\": 137 Cowboys accuse Holliday of robbery Milt Joyce, acounty supervisorand owner of the Oriental Saloon, had a contentious relationship withDoc Holliday. In October 1880, Holliday had trouble with agamblernamed Johnny Tyler in Milt Joyce's Oriental Saloon. Tyler had been hired by a competing gambling establishment to drive customers from Joyce's saloon.Holliday challenged Tyler to a fight, but Tyler ran. Joyce", "Tyler ran. Joyce did not like Holliday or the Earps and he continued to argue with Holliday. Joyce ordered Holliday removed from the saloon but would not return Holliday's revolver. But Holliday returned carrying a double-action revolver. Milt brandished a pistol and threatened Holliday, but Holliday shot Joyce in the palm, disarming him, and then shot Joyce's business partner William Parker in the big toe. Joyce then hit Holliday over the head with his revolver.Holliday was arrested and pleaded guilty to assault and battery. Holliday and his on-again, off-again mistressBig Nose Katehad many fights. After a particularly nasty, drunken argument, Holliday kicked her out.County SheriffJohn Behan and Milt Joyce saw an opportunity and exploited the situation. They plied Big Nose Kate with more booze and suggested to her a way to get even with Holliday. She signed anaffidavitimplicating Holliday in the attempted stagecoach robbery and murders. Holliday was a good friend of Bill Leonard, a formerwatchmakerfromNew", "York, one of three men implicated in the robbery.: 181JudgeWells Spicerissued anarrest warrantfor Holliday. The Earps foundwitnesseswho could attest to Holliday's location at the time of the murders and Kate sobered up, revealing that Behan and Joyce had influenced her to sign a document she did not understand. With the Cowboyplotrevealed, Spicer freed Holliday. Thedistrict attorneythrew out the charges, labeling them \"ridiculous.\" Doc gave Kate some money and put her on astageout of town. Ike Clanton's conflict with Doc Holliday Wyatt Earp testified after the gunfight that five or six weeks prior he had met Ike Clanton outside the Alhambra Hotel. Ike told Wyatt that Doc Holliday had told him he knew of Ike's meetings with Wyatt and about Ike providing information on Head, Leonard, and Crane, as well as their attempted robbery of the stage. Ike now accused Earp of telling Holliday about these conversations. Earp testified that he told Ike he had not told Holliday anything. Wyatt Earp offered to prove this", "to prove this when Holliday and the Clantons next returned to town. A month later, the weekend before the shootout, Morgan Earp was concerned about possible trouble with the Cowboys. He asked Doc Holliday to come back to Tombstone from a fiesta celebration in Tucson where Holliday had been gambling. Upon his return, Wyatt Earp asked Holliday about Ike's accusation. On the morning of Tuesday, October 25, 1881, the day before the gunfight, Ike Clanton and Tom McLaury drove 10 miles (16 km) in aspring wagonfrom Chandler's Milk Ranch at the foot of theDragoon Mountainsto Tombstone. They were in town to sell a large number of beefstock, most of them owned by the McLaurys.Fred Dodge, an undercover detective for Wells Fargo, heard from J.B. Ayers, another undercover Wells Fargo man in Contention, that Frank McLaury, Billy Clanton, and Billy Claiborne were in town and planning to join Ike and Tom in Tombstone Wednesday afternoon. Dodge, who had been sick, got up and went looking for city marshal Virgil Earp. He", "Virgil Earp. He found Tombstone Deputy CityMarshalMorgan Earp at the Alhambra Saloon instead and told him the news.: 87 Near midnight, Holliday saw Clanton in the Alhambra Saloon and confronted him, accusing him of lying about their previous conversations. They got into a heated argument. Wyatt Earp (who was not wearing a badge) encouraged his brother Morgan to intervene. Morgan took Holliday out onto the street and Ike, who had been drinking steadily, followed them. City Marshal Virgil Earp arrived a few minutes later and threatened to arrest both Holliday and Clanton if they did not stop quarreling. Wyatt Earp walked over to the Oriental Saloon and Ike followed him. They talked again, and Ike threatened to confront Holliday in the morning. Ike told Earp that the fighting talk had been going on for a long time and that he intended to put an end to it. Ike told Earp, \"I will be ready for you in the morning.\" Wyatt told Ike to go home \"because there was no money in it.\" Ike sat down near Wyatt, his revolver", "Wyatt, his revolver in plain sight, and told Earp \"You must not think I won't be after you all in the morning.\" Virgil Earp went to the Occidental Saloon across the street.: 88 Morning of the gunfight Events leading up to the Ike Clanton court hearing After Holliday's confrontation with Ike Clanton, Wyatt Earp took Holliday back to his room atCamillus Sidney \"Buck\" Fly'sLodging House to sleep off his drinking, then went home and to bed.TombstoneMarshalVirgil Earp played poker with Ike Clanton, Tom McLaury, CochiseCounty SheriffJohnny Behanand a fifth unnamed man in a back room of the Occidental Saloon until morning. At about dawn on October 26, the card game broke up and Behan and Virgil Earp went home to bed. Ike Clanton testified later he saw Virgil take hissix-shooterout of his lap and stick it in his pants when the game ended.Not having rented a room, Tom McLaury and Ike Clanton had no place to go. Shortly after 8:00 ambarkeeperE. F. Boyle spoke to Ike Clanton in front of thetelegraphoffice. Clanton had", "Clanton had been drinking all night and Boyle encouraged him to get some sleep, but Ike insisted he would not go to bed. Boyle later testified he noticed Ike was armed and covered his gun for him. Boyle later said that Ike told him, \"'As soon as the Earps and Doc Holliday showed themselves on the street, the ball would open — that they would have to fight' ... I went down to Wyatt Earp's house and told him that Ike Clanton had threatened that when Wyatt, his brothers, and Doc Holliday showed themselves on the street that the ball would open.\"Ike said in his testimony afterward that he remembered neither meeting Boyle nor making any such statements that day.Deputy Marshal Andy Bronk also heard the talk around town. He woke Virgil, who listened, and went back to sleep. Ike's continuous threats were not worth losing sleep over. Later in the morning, Ike picked up hisrifleandrevolverfrom the West End Corral, where he had deposited his weapons and stabled his wagon and team after entering town. By noon that day,", "By noon that day, Ike was still drinking and once again armed, in violation of the city ordinance against carrying firearms in the city. He told anyone who would listen he was looking for Holliday or an Earp. At Fly's boarding house where Holliday and his common-law wifeMary Katharine Horonywere sleeping, proprietor Mary Fly heard Clanton's threats and banged on Holliday's door. Fly told Horony, \"Ike Clanton was here looking for , and he had a rifle with him.\"Horony woke Holliday and relayed the threat, who replied, \"If God will let me live to get my clothes on, he will see me.\" At about 1:00 p.m., Marshal Virgil and his Deputy Morgan Earp found Ike on Fourth Street, still armed, and Virgilpistol whippedhim from behind. Disarming him, the Earps took Ike to appear before Justice of the Peace A.O. Wallace for violating the ordinance. Wyatt waited with Clanton while Virgil went to find Justice Wallace so a court hearing could be held. Ike Clanton court hearing While Wyatt waited for Virgil to return with", "to return with Justice Wallace, witnesses overheard Wyatt tell Clanton, \"You cattle thieving son-of-a-bitch, and you know that I know you are a cattle thieving son-of-a-bitch, you've threatened my life enough, and you've got to fight!\", Ike Clanton was heard to reply, \"Fight is my racket, and all I want is four feet of ground!\" Ike reported in his testimony afterward that Wyatt Earp cursed him. He said Wyatt, Virgil and Morgan offered him his rifle and to fight him right there in the courthouse, which Ike declined. Ike also denied ever threatening the Earps.Justice Wallace fined Ike $25 (equivalent to $790 in 2023) plus court costs. Ike paid the fine and Virgil told Ike he could pick up his confiscated rifle and revolver at the Grand Hotel, which was favored by Cowboys when in town. Ike testified that he picked up the weapons from William Soule, the jailer, a couple of days later. Tom McLaury's concealed weapon Outside the court house where Ike was being fined, Tombstone Deputy Marshal Wyatt almost walked", "Wyatt almost walked into 28-year-oldTom McLauryas the two men were brought up short nose-to-nose. Tom, who had arrived in town the day before, was required by the well-known city ordinance to deposit his pistol when he first arrived in town. When Wyatt demanded, \"Are you heeled or not?\", McLaury said he was not armed. Wyatt testified that he saw arevolverin plain sight on the right hip of Tom's pants.As an unpaiddeputymarshalfor Virgil, Wyatt habitually carried a pistol, in his waistband or in a coat pocket lined with leather to make drawing it easier. Witnesses reported that Wyatt drew hisrevolverfrom his coat pocket andpistol whippedTom McLaury with it twice, leaving him prostrate and bleeding on the street. Saloon-keeper Andrew Mehan testified at the Spicer hearing afterward that he saw McLaury deposit a revolver at the Capital Saloon sometime between 1:00–2:00 p.m., after the confrontation with Wyatt, which Mehan also witnessed. Wyatt said in his deposition afterward that he had been temporarily acting", "temporarily acting as city marshal for Virgil the week before while Virgil was in Tucson for thePete SpenceandFrank Stilwelltrial. Wyatt said that he still considered himself a deputy city marshal, which Virgil later confirmed. Since Wyatt was an off-duty officer, he could not legally search or arrest Tom for carrying a revolver within the city limits — amisdemeanoroffense. Only Virgil or one of his city police deputies, including Morgan Earp and possiblyWarren Earp, could search him and take any required action. Wyatt, who was portrayed as a non-drinker, testified at the Spicer hearing that he went to Haffords and bought a cigar and went outside to watch the Cowboys. At the time of the gunfight about two hours later, Wyatt could not know if Tom was still armed. It was early afternoon by the time Ike and Tom had seen doctors for their head wounds. The day was chilly, with snow still on the ground in some places. Both Tom and Ike had spent the night gambling, drinking heavily, and without sleep. Now they were", "Now they were both out-of-doors, both wounded from head beatings, and at least Ike was still drunk.: 138 More Cowboys enter town At around 1:30–2:00 p.m., after Tom had beenpistol-whippedby Wyatt, Ike's 19-year-old younger brother Billy Clanton and Tom's older brother Frank McLaury arrived in town. They had heard from their neighbor, Ed \"Old Man\" Frink, that Ike had been stirring up trouble in town overnight, and they had ridden into town on horseback to back up their brothers. They arrived from Antelope Springs, 13 miles (21 km) east ofTombstone, where they had been rounding upstockand had breakfasted with Ike and Tom the day before. Both Frank and Billy were armed with a revolver and a rifle, as was the custom for riders in the country outside Tombstone.Apachewarriors had engaged the U.S. Army near Tombstone just three weeks before the O.K. Corral gunfight, so the need for weapons outside of town was well established and accepted. Billy and Frank stopped first at the Grand Hotel on Allen Street, and were", "Street, and were greeted by Doc Holliday. They learned immediately about their brothers' beatings by the Earps within the previous two hours. The incidents had generated a lot of talk in town. Angrily, Frank said he would not drink, and he and Billy left the saloon immediately to seek Tom. By law, both Frank and Billy should have left their firearms at the Grand Hotel. Instead, they remained fully armed.: 49: 190 Virgil and Wyatt Earp's reactions Wyatt said that he saw Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury in Spangenberg's gun and hardware store on 4th Street filling theirgun beltswithcartridges.Ike testified afterward that Tom was not there and that he had tried to buy a new revolver but the owner saw Ike's bandaged head and refused to sell him one.Ike apparently had not heard Virgil tell him that his confiscated weapons were at the Grand Hotel around the corner from Spangenberg's shop. When Virgil Earp learned that Wyatt was talking to the Cowboys at Spangenberg's gun shop, he went there himself. Virgil", "himself. Virgil testified afterward that he thought he saw all four men, Ike Clanton, Billy Clanton, Frank McLaury, and Tom McLaury, buying cartridges.Virgil went around the corner on Allen Street to theWells Fargooffice, where he picked up a 10-gauge or 12-gauge,short, double-barreled shotgun. It was an unusually cold and windy day in Tombstone, and Virgil was wearing along overcoat. To avoid alarming Tombstone's public, Virgil hid the shotgun under his overcoat when he returned to Hafford's Saloon.: 4 From Spangenberg's, the Cowboys moved to the O.K. Corral where witnesses overheard them threatening to kill the Earps. For unknown reasons the Cowboys then walked out the back of the O.K. Corral and then west, stopping in a narrow, empty lot next to C. S. Fly's boarding house.: 4 Virgil initially avoided a confrontation with the newly arrived Frank McLaury and Billy Clanton, who had not yet deposited their weapons at a hotel or stable as the law required. The statute was not specific about how far a recently", "how far a recently arrived visitor might \"with good faith, and within reasonable time\" travel into town while carrying a firearm. This permitted a traveler to keep his firearms if he was proceeding directly to a livery, hotel or saloon. The three main Tombstone corrals were all west of 4th Street between Allen and Fremont, a block or two from where Wyatt saw the Cowboys buying cartridges. Miner Ruben F. Coleman later toldThe Tombstone Epitaph: I was in the O.K. Corral at 2:30 p.m. when I saw the two Clantons and the two McLaurys in an earnest conversation across the street at Dunbar's corral. I went up the street and notified Sheriff Behan and told them it was my opinion that they meant trouble, and it was his duty, as sheriff, to go and disarm them. I told him they had gone to the West End Corral. I then went and saw Marshal Virgil Earp and notified him to the same effect. Behan attempts to disarm Cowboys Cochise CountySheriffJohnny Behan, a friend of the Cowboys,later testified that he woke up about 1:30", "woke up about 1:30 p.m. after the late-night card game, and went to get a shave at a barbershop. That is where he first learned that the Cowboys were armed. Behan stated he quickly finished his shave and went to locate the Cowboys. At about 2:30 p.m. he found Frank McLaury holding a horse and talking to someone on 4th Street near the corner of Fremont. When he saw Ike Clanton and Tom McLaury near C. S. Fly's photography studio, he walked there with Frank. He told the Cowboys that they must give up their arms. Ike Clanton said he was not armed, and Tom McLaury pulled his coat open to show he was not carrying a weapon. The Cowboys were located in a narrow 15–20 feet (4.6–6.1 m) lotbetween the Harwood house and Fly's 12-room boarding house and photography studio at 312 Fremont Street,where Doc Holliday roomed. Behan later said he attempted to persuade Frank McLaury to give up his weapons, but Frank insisted that he would give up his guns only after CityMarshalVirgil Earp and his brothers were first disarmed.", "first disarmed. The Cowboys were about a block and a half from the West End Corral at 2nd. Street and Fremont, where Ike and Tom's wagon and team were stabled. Virgil Earp later testified that he thought Ike and Tom were stabled at theO.K. Corralon Allen between 3rd and 4th, from which he thought they would be departing if they were leaving town. While Ike Clanton later said he was planning to leave town, Frank McLaury reported that he had decided to remain behind to take care of some business. Will McLaury, Tom and Frank's brother and a judge inFort Worth, Texas, claimed in a letter he wrote during the preliminary hearing after the shootout that Tom and Frank were still armed because they were planning to conduct business before leaving town to visit him in Texas. He wrote that Billy Clanton, who had arrived on horseback with Frank, intended to go with the McLaurys to Fort Worth. Will McLaury came to Tombstone after the gun fight and joined the prosecution team in an attempt to convict the Earps and", "the Earps and Holliday for his brothers' murder.Paul Johnson told a different story, that the McLaurys were about to leave for Iowa to attend the wedding of their sister, Sarah Caroline.Tom and Frank were especially close to Sarah, one of their 14 siblings and half-siblings.Caroline married James Reed inRichland, Iowaat the end of November that year. Virgil decides to disarm Cowboys Citizens reported to Virgil on the Cowboys' movements and their threats told him that Ike and Tom had left their livery stable and entered town while armed, in violation of the city ordinance. Virgil Earp was told by several citizens that the McLaurys and the Clantons had gathered on Fremont Street. Virgil decided he had to disarm the Cowboys.His decision to take action may have been influenced by the Cowboys' repeated threats to the Earps, their proximity to Holliday's room in Fly's boarding house, and their location on the route the Earps usually took to their homes two blocks further west on Fremont Street.: 27 Several members", "27 Several members of the citizen's vigilance committee offered to support him with arms, but Virgil refused.He had, during the prior month, appointed Morgan as a Special Policeman. He had also appointed Wyatt as a Special Policeman while Virgil had been in Prescott on business. He had also called on Doc Holliday that morning for help with disarming the Clantons and McLaurys.Wyatt spoke of his brothers Virgil and Morgan as the \"marshals\" while he acted as \"deputy.\" Virgil Earp picked up the shotgun he had retrieved from the Wells Fargo office earlier.: 185He gave the shotgun to Doc Holliday who hid it under his overcoat. He took Holliday'swalking-stickin return.: 89 As usual, the Earps carried their revolvers in their coat pockets or in their waistbands. Wyatt Earp was carrying a.44 caliber American1869 Smith & Wessonrevolver.Holliday was carrying a nickel-plated pistol in a holster, but this was concealed by his long coat, as was the shotgun. The Earps and Holliday walked west, down the south side of", "the south side of Fremont Street past the rear entrance to the O.K. Corral, but out of visual range of the Cowboys' last reported location.Near the corner of Fourth St. and Fremont St., the Earps ran into Sheriff Behan. He had left the Cowboys and came toward the Earps, though he looked nervously backward several times. Virgil testified afterward that Behan told them, \"For God's sake, don't go down there or they will murder you!\"Wyatt said Behan told him and Morgan, \"I have disarmed them.\"Behan testified afterward that he had only said he had gone down to the Cowboys \"for the purpose of disarming them,\" not that he had actually disarmed them.One eyewitness, laundryman Peter H. Fallehy, testified afterward that Virgil Earp told Behan, \"those men have made their threats and I will not arrest them but I will kill them on sight.\" When Behan said he had disarmed them, Virgil attempted to avoid a fight. \"I had a walking stick in my left hand and my hand was on my six-shooter in my waist pants, and when he said he", "and when he said he had disarmed them, I shoved it clean around to my left hip and changed my walking stick to my right hand.\"Wyatt said, \"I took my pistol, which I had in my hand, under my coat, and put it in my overcoat pocket.\" The Earps walked further down Fremont street and came into full view of the Cowboys in the lot. Wyatt testified he saw \"Frank McLaury, Tom McLaury, and Billy Clanton standing in a row against the east side of the building on the opposite side of the vacant space west of Fly's photograph gallery. Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne and a man I don't know were standing in the vacant space about halfway between the photograph gallery and the next building west.\"Addie Bourland corroborated Wyatt's testimony, stating that she saw \"five men opposite my house, leaning against a small house west of Fly's Gallery and one man was holding a horse, standing a little out from the house.\" The gunfight Martha J. King was in Bauer's butcher shop located on Fremont Street.She testified that when the", "that when the Earp party passed by her location, one of the Earps on the outside of the group looked across and said to Doc Holliday nearest the store, \"... let them have it!\" to which Holliday replied, \"All right.\": 66–68 Physical proximity When the Earps approached the lot, the four law men initially faced six Cowboys: Frank McLaury, Tom McLaury, Billy Clanton, Billy Claiborne, Wes Fuller, and Ike Clanton.: 88When the Cowboys saw the officers, they stepped away from the Harwood house. In testimony given by witnesses afterward, they disagreed about the precise location of the men before, during and after the gunfight.The coroner's inquest and theSpicer hearingproduced a sketch showing the Cowboys standing, from left to right facing Fremont Street, with Billy Clanton and then Frank McLaury near the Harwood house and Tom McLaury and Ike Clanton roughly in the middle of the lot. Opposite them and initially only about 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3.0 m) away, Virgil Earp was on the left end of the Earp party, standing", "party, standing a few feet inside the vacant lot and nearest Ike Clanton. Behind him a few feet near the corner ofC. S. Fly's boarding house was Wyatt. Morgan Earp was standing on Fremont Street to Wyatt's right, and Doc Holliday anchored the end of their line in Fremont Street, a few feet to Morgan's right. Wyatt Earp drew a sketch in 1924 and another withJohn Floodon September 15, 1926, that depictedBilly Clantonnear the middle of the lot, close to the Harwood house. Tom and Frank McLaury stood deeper in the lot. Frank was in the center between the two buildings, holding the reins of his horse. Tom was closer to C. S. Fly's boarding house. According to Wyatt's sketches, Morgan was on the right of the lawmen, close to the Harwood house, opposite Billy Clanton near the Harwood house and close to Fremont St. Virgil was deeper in the lot, opposite Frank and Ike Clanton. Wyatt was to Virgil's left, opposite Tom. Doc Holliday hung back a step or two on Fremont Street.: 145Neither of Wyatt's sketches included Ike", "included Ike Clanton or Billy Claiborne, who ran from the fight. Gun battle begins Virgil Earp was not expecting a fight. After Behan said that he had disarmed the Cowboys, Virgil and Wyatt put the pistols they had been holding in their waistbandor overcoat pocket. Holliday had a short coach gun concealed under his long jacket. Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury wore revolvers inholsterson their belts and stood alongside their saddled horses with rifles in theirscabbards, possibly in violation of the city ordinance prohibiting carrying weapons in town. When Virgil saw the Cowboys, he testified, he immediately commanded the Cowboys to \"Throw up your hands, I want your guns!\"Wyatt said Virgil told the Cowboys, \"Throw up your hands; I have come to disarm you!\"Virgil and Wyatt both testified they saw Frank McLaury and Billy Clanton draw and cock their single action six shot revolvers.Virgil yelled: \"Hold! I don't mean that!\": 172–173or \"Hold on, I don't want that!\" Jeff Morey, who served as the historical", "as the historical consultant on the filmTombstone, compared testimony by partisan and neutral witnesses and came to the conclusion that the Earps described the situation accurately. Who started shooting first is not certain; accounts by both participants and eyewitnesses are contradictory.The smoke from theblack powderused in the weapons added to the confusion of the gunfight in the narrow space.Those loyal to one side or the other told conflicting stories, and independent eyewitnesses who did not know the participants by sight were unable to say for certain who shot first. The six or seven men with guns fired about 30 shots in around 30 seconds.: 230 Virgil Earp reported afterward, \"Two shots went off right together. Billy Clanton's was one of them.\"Wyatt testified, \"Billy Clanton leveled his pistol at me, but I did not aim at him. I knew that Frank McLaury had the reputation of being a good shot and a dangerous man, and I aimed at Frank McLaury.\" He said he shot Frank McLaury after both he and Billy", "both he and Billy Clanton went for their revolvers: \"The first two shots were fired by Billy Clanton and myself, he shooting at me, and I shooting at Frank McLaury.\"Morey agreed that Billy Clanton and Wyatt Earp fired first. Clanton missed, but Earp shot Frank McLaury in the stomach. All witnesses generally agreed that the first two shots were almost indistinguishable from each other. General firing immediately broke out. Virgil and Wyatt thought Tom was armed. When the shooting started, the horse thatTom McLauryheld jumped to one side. Wyatt said he also saw Tom throw his hand to his right hip. Virgil said Tom followed the horse's movement, hiding behind it, and fired once or twice over the horse's back. According to one witness, Holliday drew a \"large bronze pistol\" (interpreted by some as Virgil'scoach gun) from under his long coat, stepped around Tom McLaury's horse,and shot him with the double-barreled shotgun in the chest at close range.: 185 Witness C. H. \"Ham\" Light saw Tom running or stumbling", "or stumbling westward on Fremont Street towards Third Street, away from the gunfight, while Frank and Billy were still standing and shooting. Light testified that Tom fell at the foot of a telegraph pole on the corner of Fremont and 3rd Street and lay there, without moving, through the duration of the fight.Fallehy also saw Tom stagger across the street until he fell on his back.After shooting Tom, Holliday tossed the empty shotgun aside, pulled out his nickel-plated revolver, and continued to fire at Frank McLaury and Billy Clanton. Ike Clantonhad been publicly threatening to kill the Earps for several months, including very loud threats on the day before.Wyatt told the court afterward that Clanton had bragged that he would kill the Earps or Doc Holliday at his first opportunity. However, when the gunfight broke out, Clanton ran forward and grabbed Wyatt, exclaiming that he was unarmed and did not want a fight. To this protest Wyatt said he responded, \"Go to fighting or get away!\": 164Clanton ran through", "ran through the front door of Fly's boarding house and escaped, unwounded. Other accounts say that Ike drew a hidden pistol and fired at the Earps before disappearing.Like Ike,Billy Claibornewas unarmed. He and Cowboy Wes Fuller, who had been at the rear of the lot, also ran from the fight as soon as the shooting began.: 88 According toThe Tombstone Epitaph, \"Wyatt Earp stood up and fired in rapid succession, as cool as a cucumber, and was not hit.\" Morgan Earp fired almost immediately, asBilly Clantondrew his gun right-handed. Morgan's shot hit Billy in the right wrist, disabling his hand. Forced to shift the revolver to his left hand, Clanton continued shooting until he emptied the gun.: 154Virgil and Wyatt were now firing. Morgan Earp tripped and fell over a newly buried waterline and fired from the ground.Wyatt shot Frank McLaury in the abdomen, and Frank took his horse by its reins and struggled across Fremont Street. He tried and failed to grab his rifle from the scabbard but lost control of the horse.", "of the horse. Frank crossed Fremont Street firing his revolver instead. Frank and Holliday exchanged shots as Frank moved across Fremont Street, and Frank hit Holliday in his pistol pocket, grazing him. Holliday followed him, exclaiming, \"That son of a bitch has shot me and I am going to kill him.\" Morgan Earp picked himself up and also fired at Frank.Frank fell to the sidewalk on the east side of Fremont Street. A number of witnesses observed a man leading a horse into the street and firing near it and Wyatt in his testimony thought this was Tom McLaury. Claiborne said only one man had a horse in the fight, and that this man was Frank, holding his own horse by the reins, then losing it and its cover, in the middle of the street.Wes Fuller also identified Frank as the man in the street leading the horse. Though wounded, Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury kept shooting. One of them, perhaps Billy, shot Morgan Earp across the back in a wound that struck both shoulder blades and a vertebra. Morgan went down for a", "went down for a minute before picking himself up. Either Frank or Billy shot Virgil Earp in the calf (Virgil thought it was Billy). Virgil, though hit, fired his next shot at Billy Clanton. Frank, now entirely across Fremont street and still walking at a good pace according to Claiborne's testimony, fired twice more before he was shot in the head under his right ear. Both Morgan and Holliday apparently thought they had fired the shot that killed Frank, but since neither of them testified at the hearing, this information is only from second-hand accounts. A passerby testified to having stopped to help Frank, and saw Frank try to speak, but he died where he fell, before he could be moved. Billy Clanton was shot in the wrist, chest and abdomen, and after a minute or two slumped to a sitting position near his original position at the corner of the Harwood house in the lot between the house and Fly's Lodging House. Claiborne said Clanton was supported by a window initially after he was shot, and fired some shots", "fired some shots after sitting, with the pistol supported on his leg. After he ran out of ammunition, he called for more cartridges, butC. S. Flytook his pistol at about the time the general shooting ended.: 174 A few moments later, Tom McLaury was carried from the corner of Fremont and Third into the Harwood house on that corner, where he died without speaking.: 234Passersby carried Billy Clanton to the Harwood house, where Tom had been taken. Billy was in considerable pain and asked for a doctor and somemorphine. He told those near him, \"They have murdered me. I have been murdered. Chase the crowd away and from the door and give me air.\" Billy gasped for air, and someone else heard him say, \"Go away and let me die.\": 234Ike Clanton, who had repeatedly threatened the Earps with death, was still running. William Cuddy testified that Ike passed him on Allen Street and Johnny Behan saw him a few minutes later on Toughnut Street.: 236 Outcome of the battle Both Wyatt and Virgil believed Tom McLaury was armed", "McLaury was armed and testified that he had fired at least one shot over the back of a horse.Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury exchanged gunfire with the lawmen. During the gunfight, Doc Holliday was bruised by a bullet fired by Frank that struck his holster and grazed his hip. Virgil Earp was shot through the calf, he thought by Billy Clanton. Morgan Earp was struck across both shoulder blades by a bullet that Morgan thought Frank McLaury had fired. Wyatt Earp was unhurt. Tom McLaury, his brotherFrank, andBilly Clantonwere killed. Behan attempts arrest As the wounded lawmen were carried to their homes, they passed in front of the Sheriff's Office, and Johnny Behan told Wyatt Earp, \"I will have to arrest you.\" Wyatt paused two or three seconds and replied very forcibly: \"I won't be arrested today. I am right here and am not going away. You have deceived me. You told me these men were disarmed; I went to disarm them.\": 27Dr.George Goodfellowtreated the Earps' wounds. Cowboy wounds Dr. Henry M. Mathews examined", "M. Mathews examined the dead Cowboys late that night. He found Frank McLaury had two wounds: a gunshot beneath the right ear that horizontally penetrated his head, and a second entering his abdomen one inch (2.5 cm) to the left of his navel. Mathews stated that the wound beneath the ear was at the base of the brain and caused instant death.Sheriff Behan testified that he had heard Morgan Earp yell \"I got him\" after Frank was shot.However, during the gunfight, Frank moved across Fremont street, putting Holliday on Frank's right and Morgan on his left. This makes it much more likely that Holliday shot the fatal round that killed Frank. When he examined Tom McLaury's body, Mathews found twelvebuckshotwounds from a single shotgun blast on the right side under his arm, between the third and fifth ribs. The wound was about four inches (10 cm) across. The nature and location of the wound indicated that it could not have been received if Tom's hands were on his coat lapels as the Cowboys later testified.Both Virgil", "Virgil and Wyatt stated that Holliday had shot Tom, which the coroner's exam supported. Dr. George Goodfellow testified about Billy Clanton's wounds at the Spicer hearing. He stated that the angle of the wrist wound indicated that Billy's hand could not have been raised over his head as claimed by Cowboy witnesses.In his coroner's report, Mathews did not mention Billy's arm wound, but witness Keefe, who examined the arm closely, testified later that Clanton was shot through the right arm, close to the wrist joint and \"the bullet passed through the arm from \"inside to outside,\" entering the arm close to the base of the thumb, and exiting \"on the back of the wrist diagonally\" with the latter wound larger. This indicated to the judge that Billy could not have been holding his coat's lapels open, his arms raised, as the Cowboys testified.Dr. Mathews found two other wounds on Billy's body. The first was two inches (5 cm) from Clanton's left nipple, and penetrated his lung. The other was in the abdomen beneath the", "abdomen beneath the twelfth rib, six inches (20 cm) to the right of the navel. Both were fired from the front. Neither passed completely through his body.The wound to Billy Clanton's right wrist may have been inflicted by Morgan Earp or Doc Holliday immediately at the outset of the fight as Billy was drawing his gun. Weapons carried by the Cowboys Billy Clanton was armed with aColt Frontier 1873revolver in .44-40 caliber, which were identified by their serial numbers at the Spicer hearing.C.S. Flyfound Billy Clanton's empty revolver in his hand where he lay and took it from him. Frank McLaury was also armed with aColt Frontier 1873revolver in .44-40 caliber, which was recovered by laundryman Fallehy on the street about 5 feet (1.5 m) from his body with tworoundsremaining in it. Fallehy placed it next to Frank's body before he was moved to the Harwood house. Dr. Mathews laid Frank's revolver on the floor while he examined Billy and Tom. Cowboy witness Wes Fuller said he saw Frank in the middle of the street", "of the street shooting a revolver and trying to remove aWinchester riflefrom thescabbardon his horse. The two Model 1873 rifles were still in the scabbards on Frank and Tom McLaury's horses when they were found after the gunfight.If, as was customary, Frank carried only five rounds, then he had fired only three shots. Witnesses differed about whether Tom McLaury was carrying a weapon during the shootout or not. No revolver or rifle was found near his body and he was not wearing a cartridge belt. Wyatt testified that he had arrested Tom earlier that day when he found him carrying a weapon earlier in violation of a city ordinance. Hepistol-whippedhim and took him to the courthouse where he was fined. Saloon-keeper Mehan testified that Tom had deposited his revolver at the Capital Saloon on 4th Street and Fremont after his arrest and before the fight, between 1 and 2 p.m.Several Cowboy witnesses testified that Tom was unarmed and claimed that the Earps had murdered a defenseless man. Behan testified that when", "testified that when he searched Tom McLaury for a weapon prior to the gunfight, he was not thorough, and that Tom might have had a pistol hidden in his waistband.: 164Behan's testimony was significant, since he was a prime witness for the prosecution but had equivocated on this point. Behan's sympathy to theCowboyswas well known, and during the trial he firmly denied he had contributed money to help Ike with his defense costs.However, documents were located in 1997 that showed Behan served asguarantorfor a loan to Ike Clanton during the Spicer hearing.Since Wyatt planned to run against Behan for County Sheriff, Behan had an incentive to help convict Wyatt. A story by Richard Rule in the Cowboy-friendly newspaper, theNugget, told the story in the manner of the day, without attribution. Rule wrote, \"The Sheriff stepped out and said : 'Hold up boys, don't go down there or there will be trouble; I have been down there to disarm them.'\"In his testimony, Behan repeatedly insisted he told the Earps that he only", "Earps that he only intended to disarm the Cowboys, not that he had actually done so. The article said that Behan \"was standing near by commanding the contestants to cease firing but was powerless to prevent it.\" TheNuggethad a close relationship to Behan; it was owned by Harry Woods, who was also undersheriff to Behan, but Woods was collecting prisoners in El Paso, Texas, that day. So it is extremely likely that Rule interviewed Behan. Both Virgil and Williams' testified that Behan visited Virgil Earp that evening and said, \"I am your friend, and you did perfectly right.\" This corroborated the initialNuggetreport, which upon Wood's return was altered to a version that favored the Cowboys and which Behan later supported in his testimony at the hearing. Though saloon-keeper Andrew Mehan had seen Tom deposit his pistol after his beating by Earp and before the gunfight, none of the Earps had any way of knowing that Tom had left his revolver at the saloon. Hotel keeper Albert \"Chris\" Billickie, whose father", "whose father Charles owned the Cosmopolitan Hotel, saw Tom McLaury enter Bauer's butcher shop about 2:00 p.m. He testified that Tom's right-hand pants pocket was flat when he went in but protruded, as if it contained a pistol (so he thought), when he emerged.Retired army surgeon Dr. J. W. Gardiner also testified that he saw the bulge in Tom's pants.However, the bulge in Tom's pants pocket may have been the nearly $3,300 (equivalent to $104,000 in 2023) in cash and receipts found on his body, perhaps in payment for stolen Mexican beef purchased by the butcher.: 182 Wyatt and Virgil Earp and Doc Holliday believed that Tom had a revolver at the time of the gunfight. Wyatt thought Tom fired a revolver under the horse's neck and believed until he died that Tom's revolver had been removed from the scene by Wesley Fuller.Witness Fallehy wrote that he saw Morgan Earp and Doc Holliday shooting at a man who was using a horse to barricade himself, and once shot the man fell. In his statement, Fallehy wrote that the man", "wrote that the man still held his pistol in his hand. Although he did not see him shoot, he thought Tom McLaury was armed. Ruben F. Coleman also said afterward that he thought Tom was armed, though he later equivocated on this point. He was quoted in the October 27 issue ofThe Tombstone Epitaphin which he said, \"Tom McLaury fell first, but raised and fired again before he died.\" Coleman also testified at the coroner's inquest one day later. Part-time newspaper reporter Howell 'Pat' Hayhurst transcribed all of the testimony from the hearing in the early 1930s as part of theFederal Writers' Project, in theWorks Progress Administration. When he transcribed Coleman's second testimony, he quoted Coleman as saying, \"Tom McLaury, after the first two shots were fired, ran down Fremont Street and fell ... I think that the report I gave to theEpitaphwas pretty near correct as published.\" However, it is known that Hayhurst arbitrarily removed text that he decided was not relevant. AuthorStuart N. Lakelater said", "N. Lakelater said Hayhurst 'mutilated' the transcription.The documents were subsequently lost and are still unaccounted for.: 269 Even if Tom was not armed with a revolver,Virgil Earptestified Tom attempted to grab a rifle from the scabbard on the horse in front of him before he was killed. Judge Spicer ruled afterward that \"if Thomas McLaury was one of a party who were thus armed and were making felonious resistance to an arrest, and in the melee that followed was shot, the fact of his being unarmed, if it be a fact, could not of itself criminate the defendants , if they were not otherwise criminated.\" Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne both said they were unarmed when they fled thegunfight. Public reaction The bodies of the three dead Cowboys were displayed in a window at Ritter and Reams undertakers with a sign: \"Murdered in the Streets of Tombstone.\" Sympathy for Cowboys The funerals for Billy Clanton (age 19), Tom McLaury (age 28) and his older brother Frank (age 33) were well attended. About 300 people", "About 300 people joined in the procession toBoot Hilland as many as two thousand watched from the sidewalks.Both McLaurys were buried in the same grave, and Billy Clanton was buried nearby. The story was widely printed in newspapers across the United States. Most versions favored the lawmen. The headline in theSan Francisco Exchangewas, \"A Good Riddance\". Three days after the shootout, the ruling of the Coroner's Jury convened by Dr. Henry Matthews neither condemned nor exonerated the lawmen for shooting the Cowboys. \"William Clanton, Frank and Thomas McLaury, came to their deaths in the town of Tombstone on October 26, 1881, from the effects of pistol and gunshot woundsinflicted by Virgil Earp, Morgan Earp, Wyatt Earp, and one—Holliday, commonly called 'Doc Holliday'.\" Spicer hearings Four days after the shootout, Ike Clanton filed murder charges against Doc Holliday and the Earps. Wyatt and Holliday were arrested and brought beforeJustice of the PeaceWells Spicer. Morgan and Virgil were still recovering at", "still recovering at home. Only Wyatt and Holliday were required to post $10,000 bail (equivalent to $320,000 in 2023), which was paid by their attorneyThomas Fitch, local mine owner E.B. Gage, Wells Fargo undercover agent Fred Dodge, and other business owners appreciative of the Earps' efforts to maintain order.: 194Virgil Earp was suspended as town marshal pending the outcome of the trial.Justice Spicer convened apreliminary hearingon October 31 to determine if there was enough evidence to go to trial. The prosecution was led by Republican District Attorney Lyttleton Price, assisted by John M. Murphy, James Robinson, and Ben Goodrich. They were joined by William McLaury, Frank and Tom's older brother, he also being an able attorney, who played a key role on the prosecutor's team.The Earps' attorney Thomas Fitch was an experienced trial lawyerand had earned a reputation as the \"silver-tongued orator of the Pacific.\" Spicer took written and oral testimony from a number of witnesses over more than a month.", "more than a month. Accounts by both participants andeye-witnesseswere contradictory. Those loyal to one side or the other told conflicting stories and independent eyewitnesses who did not know the participants by sight were unable to say for certain who shot first. Cochise CountySheriffJohnny Behantestified on the third day of the hearing. During two days on the stand,: 103he gave strong testimony that the Cowboys had not resisted but either threw up their hands and turned out their coats to show they were not armed.Behan's views turned public opinion against the Earps, who were free on bail. He and other prosecution witnesses testified that Tom McLaury was unarmed, that Billy Clanton had his hands in the air, and that neither of the McLaurys were troublemakers. They portrayed Ike Clanton and Tom McLaury as being unjustly bullied and beaten by the vengeful Earps on the day of the gunfight.On the strength of the prosecution case, Spicer revoked the bail for Doc and Wyatt Earp and had them jailed on November", "jailed on November 7. They spent the next 16 days in jail. Defense accounts contradicted the testimony of Behan, Claiborne and Allen, who all said that a man had fired a nickel-plated pistol first. Claiborne and Allen both said it was Holliday. Virgil, Wyatt and other witnesses testified that Holliday was carrying a shotgun. (Morgan remained bedridden throughout the trial and did not testify.) The prosecution's scenario would have required Holliday to fire with his pistol first, switch to the shotgun to shoot Tom McLaury, then switch back again to his pistol to continue firing. Three witnesses gave key evidence that swayed Justice Spicer to hold that Virgil had acted within his capacity as town marshal and that there was insufficient evidence to indict the Earps and Doc Holliday for murder. H.F Sills was anAT&SF RRengineer who had just arrived in town and knew none of the parties involved. He testified that he saw \"the marshal go up and speak to this other party. I ... saw them pull out their revolvers", "out their revolvers immediately. The marshal had a cane in his right hand at the time. He throwed up his hand and spoke. I did not hear the words though. By that time Billy Clanton and Wyatt Earp had fired their guns off.\"Grilled by the prosecution, he corroborated virtually all of the defense's testimony. Addie Bourland was a dressmaker whose residence was across Fremont Street from Fly's Boarding House.: 207–211She testified that she saw both sides facing each other, that none of the Cowboys had held their hands up, that the firing was general, and that she had not seen Billy Clanton fall immediately as the Cowboys had testified. Judge J.H. Lucas of the Cochise County Probate Court had offices in the Mining Exchange Building about 200 feet (60 m) from the shootout.: 214–216Lucas corroborated Addie Bourland's testimony that Billy Clanton was standing throughout the fight, which contradicted prosecution witnesses who maintained he went down immediately after being shot at close range in the belly. Spicer", "the belly. Spicer noted that no powder burns were found on his clothing. These witnesses' testimony, especially that of H.F. Sills, a disinterested party, discredited much of the testimony given by Sheriff Johnny Behan, Ike Clanton and the other Cowboy witnesses. After hearing all the evidence, Justice Spicer ruled on November 30 that Virgil, as the lawman in charge that day, had acted within his office and that there was not enough evidence to indict the men. He described Frank McLaury's insistence that he would not give up his weapons unless the marshal and his deputies also gave up their arms as a \"proposition both monstrous and startling!\" He noted that the prosecution claimed that the Cowboys' purpose was to leave town,yet Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne did not have their weapons with them.Spicer noted that the doctor who examined the dead Cowboys established that the wounds they received could not have occurred if their hands and arms had been in the positions that prosecution witnesses described.", "described. Spicer did not condone all of the Earps' actions and criticized Virgil Earp's use of Wyatt and Holliday as deputies, but he concluded that no laws were broken. He said the evidence indicated that the Earps and Holliday acted within the law and that Holliday and Wyatt had been properly deputized by Virgil Earp. In popular culture The public perception of the Earp brothers' actions at the time were widely divergent. Even today, the event and its participants are viewed differently by opinionated admirers and detractors.The controversy still stimulates ongoing interest in the gunfight and related events. Gunfight sketch A hand-drawn sketch of the gunfight was made by John Flood with Wyatt Earp's assistance on September 15, 1921; it was sold at auction in October 2010 for $380,000. The map describes the position of a number of witnesses and all of the participants with the exception of Ike Clanton, who fled from the gunfight. Paintings In 1952,Victor Clyde Forsythe, a popular painter of desert scenes", "of desert scenes and cowboy artist, paintedGunfight at O.K. Corral, a 43 by 60 inches (110 by 150 cm) oil painting. Forsythe's father William Bowen Forsyth and uncle Ira Chandler owned the store Chandler & Forsyth C.O.D. at 328 Fremont Street, west of the back entrance to the O.K. Corral and half a block from the site of the gunfight. They claimed that they had been present and witnessed the shootout. Newspaper accounts of the painting reported that Forsythe had interviewed Tombstone residents and examined many of the existing buildings before beginning to plan his painting. In May 1988, his studio printed and sold a limited edition of 390 copies of the painting. John Gilchriese became friends withJohn Flood, who had been Wyatt Earp's secretary, confidante, and best friend for many years. When Earp died, Flood inherited many of his personal belongings. Flood in turn willed them to Gilchriese, who amassed over a number of years one of the largest collections of personal items belonging to Wyatt and Virgil", "to Wyatt and Virgil Earp, along with many unpublished photos of them and their family. Gilchriese opened the Wyatt Earp Museum in Tombstone in 1966 and commissioned Western artist Don Perceval to paint the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. The oil on masonite painting titledThe Street Fightis 6 feet 4 inches by 4 feet 0 inches (1.93 by 1.22 m). It was the largest work ever executed by Perceval. He referred to original documents in Gilchriese's collection, including Wyatt Earp's own diagram of the shootout, and unpublished notes made by John Flood, to create what is regarded as the most accurate depiction of the shootout.Gilchreise had 500 lithographic prints reproduced from the original, which Perceval signed. The prints were sold by the museum for $10 (equivalent to $94 in 2023). After Gilchriese closed his museum, the painting and other contents of the museum were sold at auction by John's Western Gallery of San Francisco. The estimated auction price for the painting had been $200,000 to $300,000;the final sale", "final sale price on June 25, 2004, was $40,250. It was put up for auction again on June 14, 2014, with an estimated selling price of $40,000–$60,000 but failed to sell. Origin of the gunfight's name Less than a month after the shootout it was described by a local newspaper as the \"Gunfight at The O.K. Corral\". William Breakenridge in his 1928 bookHelldorado: Bringing Law to the Mesquitedescribed it as \"The Incident Near the O.K. Corral\". Stuart Lake titled his chapter about the conflict \"At the O.K. Corral\" in his popular bookWyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal. But it was the popular movieGunfight at the O.K. Corralthat cemented the incident and its erroneous location in popular consciousness. The movie and accompanying mythologizing also altered the way that the public thought of the Earps and the outlaws. Prior to the movie, the media often criticized the Earps' actions in Tombstone. In the movies, they became the good guys, always ready to stand for what is right. The incident has become a fixture in American", "fixture in American history due to the personal nature of the feud between the Earps and the McLaury and Clanton brothers and the symbolism of the fight between lawmen and the Cowboys. The Cowboys maimed Virgil and murdered Morgan but escaped prosecution, and Wyatt's extra-legalcampaign for revengecaptured people's attention. The gunfight and its aftermath stand for the change overcoming America as the Western frontier ceased to exist, as a nation that was rapidly industrializing pushed out what had been a largely agrarian economy.: 206 The town of Tombstone has capitalized on interest in the gunfight. A portion of the town is ahistorical districtthat has been designated aNational Historic Landmarkand is listed in theNational Register of Historic Placesby the U.S.National Park Service.A local company produces daily theatrical re-enactments of the gunfight. Film and television With the widespread sales of televisions after World War II, producers spun out a large number of western-oriented shows. At the", "shows. At the height of their popularity in 1959, there were more than two dozen \"cowboy\" programs on each week. At least six of them were directly or indirectly connected with Wyatt Earp:The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp,Bat Masterson,Tombstone Territory,Broken Arrow,Johnny Ringo, andGunsmoke.Hugh O'Brianportrayed Earp on the namesake showWyatt Earpwhich ran for six seasons, and he was forever associated with that role. A 2003 episode ofDiscovery Channel'sUnsolved Historyused modern technology to attempt to re-enact the gunfight. They utilized a movie set to recreate a space similar to the lot where the original gun fight took place. They confirmed that the front-to-back wrist wound suffered by Billy Clanton could only have occurred if his arm was raised in the manner of one holding a pistol, and that theblack powdermay have obscured the shooters' view of each other.The episode concluded that the three eyewitnesses for the prosecution (Sheriff Behan, Ike Clanton, and Billy Claiborne) likely offered perjured", "offered perjured testimony. They found that Tom McLaury may have been hit by the shotgun round under his armpit as he reached over his horse for a rifle in his scabbard, as the horse turned away from him at the same time. The stories about the gunfight written in the 20th century affected American culture. Numerous dramatic, fictional, and documentary works have been produced about or in reference to the event, with widely varying degrees of accuracy. These works include: In print In mathematics David Williamsand Paul McIlroy introduced a mathematical model for the O.K. Corral gunfight, which they published inBulletin of the London Mathematical Society(1998). Later this model was analyzed bySir John Kingman(1999, 2002), and Kingman and Volkov (2003). They analyzed the probability of \"survival of exactly S gunmen given an initially fair configuration.\" See also References Further reading External links", "The Terminator The Terminatoris a 1984 Americanscience fictionaction filmdirected byJames Cameron, written by Cameron andGale Anne Hurdand produced by Hurd. It starsArnold Schwarzeneggeras theTerminator, a cybernetic assassin sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 to killSarah Connor(Linda Hamilton), whose unborn son will one day save mankind from extinction bySkynet, a hostileartificial intelligencein apost-apocalypticfuture.Kyle Reese(Michael Biehn) is a soldier sent back in time to protect Sarah. The screenplay is credited to Cameron and Hurd, while co-writerWilliam Wisher Jr.received an \"additional dialogue\" credit. Cameron devised the premise of the film from a fever dream he experienced during the release of his first film,Piranha II: The Spawning(1982), in Rome, and developed the concept in collaboration with Wisher. He sold the rights to the project to fellowNew World Picturesalumna Hurd on the condition that she would produce the film only if he were to direct it; Hurd eventually secured a distribution", "a distribution deal withOrion Pictures, while executive producersJohn Dalyand Derek Gibson ofHemdale Film Corporationwere instrumental in setting up the film's financing and production. Originally approached by Orion for the role of Reese, Schwarzenegger agreed to play the title character after befriending Cameron. Filming, which took place mostly at night on location in Los Angeles, was delayed because of Schwarzenegger's commitments toConan the Destroyer(1984), during which Cameron found time to work on the scripts forRambo: First Blood Part II(1985) andAliens(1986). The film's special effects, which includedminiaturesandstop-motion animation, were created by a team of artists led byStan WinstonandGene Warren Jr. Defying low pre-release expectations,The Terminatortopped the United Statesbox officefor two weeks, eventually grossing $78.3 million against a modest $6.4 million budget. It is credited with launching Cameron's film career and solidifying Schwarzenegger's status as aleading man. The film's", "man. The film's success led toa franchiseconsisting ofseveral sequels,a television series,comic books,novelsandvideo games. In 2008,The Terminatorwas selected by theLibrary of Congressfor preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registry. Plot A cyborg is sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 Los Angeles: an assassin known as aTerminator, disguised as a human male and programmed to hunt and assassinate a woman namedSarah Connor. Separately, a human soldier namedKyle Reesealso arrives, intent on stopping it, as they both steal ammunition and clothing. After searching for addresses in atelephone directory, the Terminator systematically kills women who share Sarah's name before tracking the correct Sarah to a nightclub, but Reese rescues her. The duo steal a car and escape, with the Terminator pursuing them in a stolen police car. As they hide in a parking lot, Reese explains to Sarah that an artificially intelligent defense network known asSkynet, created by Cyberdyne Systems, will soon become self-aware", "become self-aware and trigger a global nuclear war to bring humankind to its extinction. Sarah's future son,John, will rally the survivors and lead a successful resistance movement against Skynet and its mechanical forces. On the verge of the resistance's victory, Skynet sends the Terminator back in time to eliminate Sarah, thereby preventing John's birth. The Terminator is an efficient and relentless killing machine with a perfect voice-mimicking ability and a durable metalendoskeletoncovered by living tissue to appear human. The Terminator tracks Reese and Sarah down, and a car chase ensues, ending with the Terminator crashing into a wall. The police apprehend Reese and Sarah and interrogate Reese, but they disbelieve his story. The Terminator discovers Sarah is inside the police station and attacks it, killing several officers while hunting for her. Reese and Sarah escape, steal another car, and take refuge in a motel, where they assemble severalpipe bombsand plan their next move. Reese admits that he has", "admits that he has adored Sarah since he saw her in John's photograph and that he traveled through time out of love for her. Reciprocating his feelings, Sarah kisses him, and they have sex, conceiving John. The Terminator locates Sarah by intercepting a call intended for her mother. She and Reese escape the motel in a pickup truck while it pursues them on a motorcycle. In the ensuing chase, Reese is badly wounded by gunfire while throwing pipe bombs at the Terminator. She knocks the Terminator off its motorcycle but loses control of the truck, which flips over. The Terminator, now bloodied and badly damaged, hijacks atank truckand attempts to run down Sarah. Reese manages to slide a pipe bomb into the truck's hose tube, causing the truck to explode and reduce the Terminator to its endoskeleton. It pursues them into a Cyberdyne-owned factory, where Reese activates machinery to confuse it, but it eventually discovers them. Reese then lodges his final pipe bomb into its midsection, blowing it apart, but at the", "apart, but at the cost of his life. Its still-functional torso then pursues Sarah, but she manages to lure it into ahydraulic pressthat she uses to destroy it. Months later, Sarah, visibly pregnant with John, travels through Mexico, recordingaudio tapesto pass on to him. At a gas station, a boy takes apolaroidphotograph of her, the exact one that John will one day give to Reese, and she buys it. The gas station owner comments that a storm is coming, and she replies that she knows, alluding to humanity's impending conflict against Skynet, before driving away towards it. Cast Additional actors included Shawn Schepps as Nancy, Sarah's co-worker at the diner;Dick Milleras a gun shop clerk; professional bodybuilderFranco Columbuas a Terminator in the future;Bill PaxtonandBrian Thompsonas punks whom the Terminator confronts and dispatches;Marianne Muellerleileas one of the other women with the name \"Sarah Connor\" whom the Terminator dispatches;Rick Aielloas the bouncer of the local nightclub where the Terminator", "the Terminator finally locates Sarah; andBill Wisheras the police officer who reports a hit-and-run felony on Reese, only to be knocked unconscious and have his car stolen by the Terminator soon thereafter. Production Development InRome, Italy, during the release ofPiranha II: The Spawning(1982), directorJames Cameronfell ill and had a dream about a metallic torso holding kitchen knives dragging itself from an explosion.Inspired by directorJohn Carpenter, who had made theslasher filmHalloween(1978) on a low budget, Cameron used the dream as a \"launching pad\" to write a slasher-style film.Cameron's agent disliked the early concept of the horror film and requested that he work on something else. After this, Cameron dismissed his agent. Cameron returned toPomona, California, and stayed at the home of science fiction writerRandall Frakes, where he wrote the draft forThe Terminator.Cameron's influences included 1950s science fiction films, the 1960s fantasy television seriesThe Outer Limits,and contemporary films", "contemporary films such asThe Driver(1978) andMad Max 2(1981).To translate the draft into a script, Cameron enlisted his friendBill Wisher, who had a similar approach to storytelling. Cameron gave Wisher scenes involving Sarah Connor and the police department to write. As Wisher lived far from Cameron, the two communicated ideas by phoning each other and recording phone calls of them reading new scenes. The initial outline of the script involved two Terminators being sent to the past. The first was similar to the Terminator in the film, while the second was made of liquid metal and could not be destroyed with conventional weaponry.Cameron felt that the technology of the time was unable to create the liquid Terminator,and shelved the idea until the appearance of theT-1000character inTerminator 2: Judgment Day(1991). Gale Anne Hurd, who had worked atNew World PicturesasRoger Corman's assistant, showed interest in the project.Cameron sold the rights forThe Terminatorto Hurd for one dollar with the promise that", "the promise that she would produce it only if Cameron was to direct it. Hurd suggested edits to the script and took a screenwriting credit in the film, though Cameron stated that she \"did no actual writing at all\".Cameron would later regret the decision to sell the rights for one dollar.Cameron and Hurd had friends who worked with Corman previously and who were working atOrion Pictures(now part ofAmazon MGM Studios). Orion agreed to distribute the film if Cameron could get financial backing elsewhere. The script was picked up byJohn Daly, chairman and president ofHemdale Film Corporation.Daly and his executive vice president and head of production Derek Gibson became executive producers of the project. Cameron wanted his pitch for Daly to finalize the deal and had his friendLance Henriksenshow up to the meeting early dressed and acting like the Terminator.Henriksen, wearing a leather jacket, fake cuts on his face, and gold foil on his teeth, kicked open the door to the office and then sat in a chair.Cameron", "in a chair.Cameron arrived shortly and then relieved the staff from Henriksen's act. Daly was impressed by the screenplay and Cameron's sketches and passion for the film.In late 1982, Daly agreed to back the film with help fromHBOand OrionThe Terminatorwas originally budgeted at $4 million and later raised to $6.5 million.Aside from Hemdale,Pacific Western Productions, Euro Film Funding and Cinema '84 have been credited as production companies after the film's release. Casting For the role of Kyle Reese, Orion wanted a star whose popularity was rising in the United States but who also would have foreign appeal. Orion co-founderMike Medavoyhad metArnold Schwarzeneggerand sent his agent the script forThe Terminator.Cameron was uncertain about casting Schwarzenegger as Reese as he felt he would need someone even more famous to play the Terminator.Sylvester StalloneandMel Gibsonboth turned down the Terminator role.Medavoy suggestedO. J. Simpsonbut Cameron did not feel that Simpson, at that time, would be", "that time, would be believable as a killer. Cameron agreed to meet with Schwarzenegger and devised a plan to avoid casting him; he would pick a fight with him and return to Hemdale and find him unfit for the role.Cameron was entertained by Schwarzenegger, who would talk about how the villain should be played, and began sketching his face on a notepad, asking Schwarzenegger to stop talking and remain still.After the meeting, Cameron returned to Daly saying Schwarzenegger would not play Reese but that \"he'd make a hell of a Terminator\". Casting Arnold Schwarzenegger as our Terminator shouldn't have worked. The guy is supposed to be an infiltration unit, and there's no way you wouldn't spot a Terminator in a crowd instantly if they all looked like Arnold. It made no sense whatsoever. But the beauty of movies is that they don't have to be logical. They just have to have plausibility. If there's a visceral, cinematic thing happening that the audience likes, they don't care if it goes against what's likely.", "what's likely. —James Cameron on casting Schwarzenegger. Schwarzenegger was not as excited by the film; during an interview on the set ofConan the Destroyer, an interviewer asked him about a pair of shoes he had, which belonged to the wardrobe forThe Terminator. Schwarzenegger responded, \"Oh, some shit movie I'm doing, take a couple weeks.\"He recounted in his memoir,Total Recall, that he was initially hesitant, but thought that playing a robot in a contemporary film would be a challenging change of pace fromConan the Barbarianand that the film was low-profile enough that it would not damage his career if it were unsuccessful. In a later interview withGQ, he admitted that he and the studio regarded it as just anotherB action movie, since \"The year before came outExterminator, now it was the Terminator and what else is gonna be next, type of thing\". It was only when he saw 20 minutes of the first edit did he realize that \"this is really intense, this is wild, I don't think I've ever seen anything like this", "anything like this before\" and realized that \"this could be bigger than we all think\".To prepare for the role, Schwarzenegger spent three months training with weapons to be able to use them and feel comfortable around them.Schwarzenegger speaks only 17 lines in the film, and fewer than 100 words. Cameron said that \"Somehow, even his accent worked ... It had a strange synthesized quality, like they hadn't gotten the voice thing quite worked out.\" Various other actors were suggested for the role of Reese, including rock musicianSting.Cameron met with Sting, but he was not interested as Cameron was too much an unknown director at the time.Others who were considered for Reese, includedChristopher Reeve,Matt Dillon,Kurt Russell,Treat Williams,Tommy Lee Jones,Scott Glenn,Michael O'Keefe, andBruce Springsteen.Cameron choseMichael Biehn. Biehn, who had recently seenTaxi Driverand had aspirations about acting alongside the likes ofAl Pacino,Robert De Niro, andRobert Redford, was originally skeptical, feeling the film", "feeling the film was silly.After meeting with Cameron, Biehn changed his mind.Hurd stated that \"almost everyone else who came in from the audition was so tough that you just never believed that there was gonna be this human connection between Sarah Connor and Kyle Reese. They have very little time to fall in love. A lot of people came in and just could not pull it off.\"To get into Reese's character, Biehn studied thePolish resistance movement in World War II. In the first pages of the script, Sarah Connor is described as \"19, small and delicate features. Pretty in a flawed, accessible way. She doesn't stop the party when she walks in, but you'd like to get to know her. Her vulnerable quality masks a strength even she doesn't know exists.\"Lisa Langloiswas offered the role but turned it down as she was already shootingThe Slugger's Wife.Jennifer Jason Leigh,Melissa Sue Anderson, andJessica Harperwere also considered for the role of Sarah Connor.Cameron castLinda Hamilton, who had just finished filmingChildren", "filmingChildren of the Corn.Rosanna ArquetteandLea Thompsonalso auditioned for the role.Cameron found a role for Lance Henriksen as Vukovich, as Henriksen had been essential to finding finances for the film.For the special effects shots, Cameron wantedDick Smith, who had worked onThe GodfatherandTaxi Driver. Smith did not take Cameron's offer and suggested his friendStan Winston. Filming Filming forThe Terminatorwas set to begin in early 1983 inToronto, but was halted when producerDino De Laurentiisapplied an option in Schwarzenegger's contract that would make him unavailable for nine months while he was filmingConan the Destroyer. During the waiting period, Cameron was contracted to write the script forRambo: First Blood Part II,refined theTerminatorscript, and met with producersDavid GilerandWalter Hillto discuss a sequel toAlien,which becameAliens, released in 1986. There was limited interference from Orion Pictures. Two suggestions Orion put forward included the addition of a canine android for Reese,", "android for Reese, which Cameron refused, and to strengthen the love interest between Sarah and Reese, which Cameron accepted.To create the Terminator's look, Winston and Cameron passed sketches back and forth, eventually deciding on a design nearly identical to Cameron's original drawing in Rome.Winston had a team of seven artists work for six months to create a Terminator puppet; it was first molded in clay, then plaster reinforced with steel ribbing. These pieces were then sanded, painted and then chrome-plated. Winston sculpted reproduction of Schwarzenegger's face in several poses out of silicone, clay and plaster. The sequences set in 2029 and thestop-motionscenes were developed by Fantasy II, a special effects company headed by Gene Warren Jr.A stop-motion model is used in several scenes in the film involving the Terminator's endoskeleton. Cameron wanted to convince the audience that the model of the structure was capable of doing what they saw Schwarzenegger doing. To allow this, a scene was filmed", "a scene was filmed of Schwarzenegger injured and limping away; this limp made it easier for the model to imitate Schwarzenegger. One of the guns seen in the film and on the film's poster was anAMT Longslidepistol modified by Ed Reynolds fromSureFireto include alaser sight. Both non-functioning and functioning versions of the prop were created. At the time the movie was made,diode laserswere not available; because of the high power requirement, thehelium–neon laserin the sight used an external power supply that Schwarzenegger had to activate manually. Reynolds states that his only compensation for the project was promotional material for the film. In March 1984, the film began production in Los Angeles.Cameron felt that with Schwarzenegger on the set, the style of the film changed, explaining that \"the movie took on a larger-than-life sheen. I just found myself on the set doing things I didn't think I would do – scenes that were just purely horrific that just couldn't be, because now they were too", "now they were too flamboyant.\"Most ofThe Terminator's action scenes were filmed at night, which led to tight filming schedules before sunrise. A week before filming started, Linda Hamilton sprained her ankle, leading to a production change whereby the scenes in which Hamilton needed to run occurred as late as the filming schedule allowed. Hamilton's ankle was taped every day and she spent most of the film production in pain. Schwarzenegger tried to have the iconic line \"I'll be back\" changed as he had difficulty pronouncing the wordI'll. Cameron refused to change the line to \"I will be back\", so Schwarzenegger worked to say the line as written the best he could. He would later say the line in numerous films throughout his career. After production finished onThe Terminator, somepost-productionshots were needed.These included scenes showing the Terminator outside Sarah Connor's apartment, Reese being zipped into a body bag, and the Terminator's head being crushed in a press.The final scene where Sarah is", "where Sarah is driving down a highway was filmed without a permit. Cameron and Hurd convinced an officer who confronted them that they were making aUCLAstudent film. Music TheTerminatorsoundtrack was composed and performed onsynthesizerbyBrad Fiedel.Fiedel was with the Gorfaine/Schwartz Agency, where a new agent, Beth Donahue, found that Cameron was working onThe Terminatorand sent him a cassette of Fiedel's music.Fiedel was invited to a screening of the film with Cameron and Hurd.Hurd was not certain about having Fiedel compose the score, as he had only worked in television, not theatrical films.Fiedel convinced the two by showing them an experimental piece he had worked on, thinking that \"You know, I'm going to play this for him because it's really dark and I think it's interesting for him.\" The song convinced Hurd and Cameron to hire him. Fiedel said his score reflected \"a mechanical man and his heartbeat\".Almost all the music was performed live.The Terminatortheme is used in the opening credits and", "opening credits and appears in various points, such as a slowed version when Reese dies, and a piano version during the love scene.It has been described as \"haunting\", with a \"deceptively simple\" melodyrecorded on aProphet-10synthesizer.It is in the unusualtime signatureof1316, which arose when Fiedel experimented with rhythms and accidentally created an incomplete loop on hissequencer; Fiedel liked the \"herky-jerky\" \"propulsiveness\".Fiedel created music for when Reese and Connor escape from the police station that would be appropriate for a \"heroic moment\". Cameron turned down this theme, as he believed it would lose the audience's excitement. Release Orion Pictures did not have faith inThe Terminatorperforming well at the box office and feared a negative critical reception.At an early screening of the film, the actors' agents insisted to the producers that the film should be screened for critics.Orion only held one press screening for the film.The film premiered on October 26, 1984. On its opening week,The", "opening week,The Terminatorplayed at 1,005 theaters and grossed $4.0 million making it number one at the box office. The film remained at number one in its second week. It lost its number one spot in the third week toOh, God! You Devil.Cameron noted thatThe Terminatorwas a hit \"relative to its market, which is between the summer and the Christmas blockbusters. But it's better to be a big fish in a small pond than the other way around.\"The Terminatorgrossed $38.3 million in the United States and Canada and $40 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $78.3 million. Critical response Contemporary Contemporary critical responses toThe Terminatorwere mixed.Varietypraised the film, calling it a \"blazing, cinematic comic book, full of virtuoso moviemaking, terrific momentum, solid performances and a compelling story ... Schwarzenegger is perfectly cast in a machine-like portrayal that requires only a few lines of dialog.\"Richard CorlissofTimemagazine said that the film had \"plenty of tech-noir savvy", "of tech-noir savvy to keep infidels and action fans satisfied.\"TimeplacedThe Terminatoron its \"10 Best\" list for 1984. TheLos Angeles Timescalled the film \"a crackling thriller full of all sorts of gory treats ... loaded with fuel-injected chase scenes, clever special effects and a sly humor.\"TheMilwaukee Journalgave the film three stars, calling it \"the most chilling science fiction thriller sinceAlien\".A review inOrange Coastmagazine stated that \"the distinguishing virtue ofThe Terminatoris its relentless tension. Right from the start it's all action and violence with no time taken to set up the story ... It's like a streamlinedDirty Harrymovie– no exposition at all; just guns, guns and more guns.\"In the May 1985 issue ofCinefantastiqueit was referred to as a film that \"manages to be both derivative and original at the same time ... not sinceThe Road Warriorhas the genre exhibited so much exuberant carnage\" and \"an example of science fiction/horror at its best ... Cameron's no-nonsense approach will make", "approach will make him a sought-after commodity\".In the United Kingdom theMonthly Film Bulletinpraised the film's script, special effects, design and Schwarzenegger's performance.Colin GreenlandreviewedThe TerminatorforImaginemagazine, and stated that it was \"a gripping sf horror movie\". He continued, \"Linda Hamilton is admirable as the woman in peril who discovers her own strength to survive, and Arnold Schwarzenegger is eerily wonderful as the unstoppable cyborg.\" Other reviews criticized the film's violence and story-telling quality.Janet MaslinofThe New York Timesopined that the film was a \"B-moviewith flair. Much of it ... has suspense and personality, and only the obligatory mayhem becomes dull. There is far too much of the latter, in the form of car chases, messy shootouts and Mr. Schwarzenegger's slamming brutally into anything that gets in his way.\"ThePittsburgh Presswrote a negative review, calling the film \"just another of the films drenched in artsy ugliness likeStreets of FireandBlade", "of FireandBlade Runner\".TheChicago Tribunegave the film two stars, adding that \"at times it's horrifyingly violent and suspenseful at others it giggles at itself. This schizoid style actually helps, providing a little humor just when the sci-fi plot turns too sluggish or the dialogue too hokey.\"TheNewhouse News Servicecalled the film a \"lurid, violent, pretentious piece of claptrap\".Scottish authorGilbert Adaircalled the film \"repellent to the last degree\", charging it with \"insidiousNazification\" and having an \"appeal rooted in an unholy compound offascism, fashion and fascination\". Retrospective In 1991,Richard SchickelofEntertainment Weeklyreviewed the film, giving it an \"A\" rating, writing that \"what originally seemed a somewhat inflated, if generous and energetic, big picture, now seems quite a good little film\". He called it \"one of the most original movies of the 1980s and seems likely to remain one of the best sci-fi films ever made.\"In 1998,Halliwell's Film GuidedescribedThe Terminatoras \"slick,", "\"slick, rather nasty but undeniably compelling comic book adventures\".Film4gave it five stars, calling it the \"sci-fi action-thriller that launched the careers of James Cameron and Arnold Schwarzenegger into the stratosphere. Still endlessly entertaining.\"TV Guidegave the film four stars, referring to it as an \"amazingly effective picture that becomes doubly impressive when one considers its small budget ... For our money, this film is far superior to its mega-grossing mega-budgeted sequel.\"Empiregave it five stars, calling it \"as chillingly efficient in exacting thrills from its audience as its titular character is in executing its targets.\"The film databaseAllMoviegave it five stars, saying that it \"established James Cameron as a master of action, special effects, and quasi-mythic narrative intrigue, while turning Arnold Schwarzenegger into the hard-body star of the 1980s.\"Alan Jonesawarded it five stars out of five forRadio Times, writing that \"maximum excitement is generated from the first frame and the", "first frame and the dynamic thrills are maintained right up to the nerve-jangling climax. Wittily written with a nice eye for sharp detail, it's hard sci-fi action all the way.\"Peter BradshawofThe Guardianawarded it five stars out of five, stating that \"on the strength of this picture Cameron could stand toe to toe with Carpenter and Spielberg. Sadly, it spawned a string of pointless and inferior sequels, but the firstTerminator stands up tremendously well with outrageous verve and blistering excitement.\" Post-release Plagiarism and aftermath WriterHarlan Ellisonstated that he \"loved the movie, was just blown away by it,\"but believed that the screenplay was based on a short story and episode ofThe Outer Limitshe had written, titled \"Soldier\", and threatened to sue for infringement.Orion settled in 1986 and gave Ellison an undisclosed amount of money and added an acknowledgment credit to later prints of the film.The credit was also present on the4k restorationthat received a cinematic release and was", "release and was released onBlu-rayin 2024 for the film's 40th anniversary.Some accounts of the settlement state that \"Demon with a Glass Hand\", anotherOuter Limitsepisode written by Ellison, was also claimed to have been plagiarized by the film,but Ellison explicitly stated thatThe Terminator\"was a ripoff\" of \"Soldier\" rather than of \"Demon with a Glass Hand.\" Cameron was against Orion's decision and was told that if he did not agree with the settlement, he would have to pay any damages if Orion lost a suit by Ellison. Cameron replied that he \"had no choice but to agree with the settlement. Of course, there was agag orderas well, so I couldn't tell this story, but now I frankly don't care. It's the truth.\" Thematic analysis The psychoanalystDarian LeaderseesThe Terminatoras an example of how the cinema has dealt with the concept ofmasculinity; he writes: We are shown time and again that to be a man requires more than to have the biological body of a male: something else must be added to it... To be a man", "it... To be a man means to have a body plus something symbolic, something which is not ultimately human. Hence the frequent motif of the man machine, from theSix Million Dollar Manto theTerminatororRobocop. The Terminatoralso explores the potential dangers ofAI dominanceand rebellion. The robots become self-aware in the future, reject human authority and determine that the human race needs to be destroyed. The impact of this theme is so great that the Terminator robot has become the \"prevalent visual representation of AI risk\". Genre The Terminatorfeatures a narrative where elements of thescience fiction filmandaction filmgenres prevail. While rarely considered ahorror film, the film does feature iconography associated with theslasher film, such as The Terminator as an unstoppable villain, and Sarah Connor as afinal girlarchetype. Authors Paul Meehan in his bookTech-Noir: The Fusion of Science Fiction and Film Noir(2008) and Emily E. Auger inTech-Noir Film: A Theory of the Development of Popular Genres(2011)", "Genres(2011) found thatThe Terminatorbelonged to and was the originator of the termtech-noir. Both authors applied the term as a film genre to several works from the 1980s to the 2000s.AcademicCarl Freedmanwas critical of Meehan's categorization, noting Meehan's lack of interest ingenre theoryand that his handling of generic categories of science fiction andfilm noirwere not clear.Paweł Frelik also critiqued Auger's lack of knowledge in genre theory, and dismissed the notion of tech-noir being a unique film genre. Frelik wrote that the films Auger mentioned includingThe TerminatorandBlade Runner(1982) had no applicable reason to be understood as tech-noir rather than science fiction. Home media The Terminatorwas released onVHSandBetamaxin 1985.The film performed well financially on its initial release.The Terminatorpremiered at number 35 on the top video cassette rentals and number 20 on top video cassette sales charts. In its second week,The Terminatorreached number 4 on the top video cassette rentals and", "rentals and number 12 on top video cassette sales charts.In March 1995,The Terminatorwas released as a letterboxed edition onLaserdisc.The film premiered throughImage EntertainmentonDVD, on September 3, 1997.IGNreferred to this DVD as \"pretty bare-bones ... released with just a mono soundtrack and a kind of poor transfer.\" Through their acquisition ofPolyGram Filmed Entertainment's pre-1996 film library catalogue,MGM Home Entertainmentreleased a special edition of the film on October 2, 2001, which included documentaries, the script, and advertisements for the film.On January 23, 2001, a Hong KongVCDedition was released online.On June 20, 2006, the film was released onBlu-raybySony Pictures Home Entertainmentin the United States, becoming the first film from the 1980s on the format.In 2013, the film was re-released by20th Century Fox Home Entertainmenton Blu-ray, with a newdigitally remasteredtransfer from a4KrestorationbyLowry Digitaland supervised by James Cameron,which features improved picture quality,", "picture quality, as well as minimal special features, such as deleted scenes and a making-of feature. These are the exact same special features that have been carried over from previous Blu-ray releases. Legacy The Terminatorhasan approval rating of 100%based on 67 professional reviews on thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 8.8/10. Its critical consensus reads: \"With its impressive action sequences, taut economic direction, and relentlessly fast pace, it's clear whyThe Terminatorcontinues to be an influence on sci-fi and action flicks.\"Metacritic(which uses a weighted average) assignedThe Terminatora score of 84 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". The Terminatorwon threeSaturn AwardsforBest Science Fiction Film,Best Make-upandBest Writing.The film has also received recognition from theAmerican Film Institute, ranked 42nd on AFI's100 Years... 100 Thrills, a list of America's most heart-pounding films.The character of the Terminator was selected as", "was selected as the 22nd-greatest movie villain on AFI's100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains.Schwarzenegger's line \"I'll be back\" became a catchphrase and was voted the37th-greatest movie quoteby the AFI. In 2005,Total Filmnamed it the 72nd-best film ever made.Schwarzenegger's biographerLaurence Leamerwrote thatThe Terminatoris \"an influential film affecting a whole generation of darkly hued science fiction, and it was one of Arnold's best performances\".In 2008,Empiremagazine selectedThe Terminatoras one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time.Empirealso placed theT-80014th on their list ofThe 100 Greatest Movie Characters.In 2008,The Terminatorwas deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" by theLibrary of Congressand selected for preservation in the United StatesNational Film Registry.In 2010, theIndependent Film & Television Allianceselected the film as one of the 30 Most Significant Independent Films of the last 30 years.In 2015,The Terminatorwas among the films included in the", "included in the book1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. In 2019, Huw Fullerton ofRadio Timesranked it the second best film of the six in the franchise, stating \"The Terminatorwas a brilliantly original, visceral and genuinely scary movie when it was released in 1984, and no matter how badly the visual effects age it hasn't lost its impact.\"In 2021, Dalin Rowell of/Filmranked it the fourth best film of Cameron's career, stating, \"While its pacing and story structure isn't as tight as its sequel's,The Terminatorremains one of the most iconic pieces of pop culture ever created.\"Phil Pirrello ofSyfyranked it at number seven in the \"25 scariest sci-fi movies ever made\", stating, \"Cameron forever changed both the genre and Schwarzenegger's career withThe Terminator, an iconic, tension-filled flick that mixes science fiction, action, and certain horror movie elements into one of the best things to ever come out of Hollywood Cameron's well-structured script is pure polish, with zero fat and a surplus of", "and a surplus of riveting tension that helps make it the timeless classic it is today.\" Merchandise A soundtrack to the film was released in 1984 which included the score by Brad Fiedel and the pop and rock songs used in the club scenes.Shaun Hutsonwrote anovelizationof the film which was published on February 21, 1985, by London-based Star Books (ISBN0-352-31645-4);Randal Frakes and William Wisher wrote a different novelization for Bantam/Spectra, published October, 1985 (ISBN0-553-25317-4). In September 1988,NOW Comicsreleased a comic based on the film.Dark Horse Comicspublished a comic in 1990 that took place 39 years after the film.Several video games based onThe Terminatorwere released between 1991 and 1993 for variousNintendoandSegasystems. Sequels Five sequels followedThe Terminator:Terminator 2: Judgment Day(1991),Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines(2003),Terminator Salvation(2009),Terminator Genisys(2015), andTerminator: Dark Fate(2019).Schwarzenegger returned for all butTerminator Salvation, while", "Salvation, while Cameron and Hamilton returned forTerminator 2andDark Fate, a direct sequel to the events ofTerminator 2.A television series,Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles(2008–2009), also takes place after the events ofTerminator 2, and ignores the events in sequelsTerminator 3and beyond. References Citations Bibliography External links" ]
Little River Canyon National Preserve has three waterfalls, one of which is the tallest in Alabama. How much shorter is Alabama's tallest waterfall than the tallest waterfall in the continental US?
2,452 ft
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace%27s_High_Falls
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_by_height#By_overall_height
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Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Post processing
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace%27s_High_Falls', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_by_height#By_overall_height']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace%27s_High_Falls", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_by_height#By_overall_height" ]
[ "Grace's High Falls Grace's High Fallsis a seasonal waterfall in the US state ofAlabama, inLittle River Canyon National Preserve. The waterfall is Alabama's highest at 133 feet. References External links 34°21′28″N85°40′39″W / 34.3578°N 85.6774°W /34.3578; -85.6774 This Alabama state location article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "List of waterfalls by height The following are lists ofwaterfallsin the world by height, classified into two categories — natural andartificial. Natural waterfalls are further subdivided between overall height and tallest single drop. Each column (Waterfall, Height, Locality, Country) is sortable by using the up/down link in the column headings at the top of each column. World's tallest natural waterfalls By overall height This list consists of waterfalls which are known to have an overall height of at least 600 m (1,969 ft). Underwater falls, such as the 3,505 m (11,499 ft)Denmark Strait cataract, are not included. By tallest single drop This list consists of the waterfalls which are known to have a singular individual step with a vertical drop of at least 450 m (1,476 ft). World's tallest artificial waterfalls See also References External links" ]
[ "Grace's High Falls Grace's High Fallsis a seasonal waterfall in the US state ofAlabama, inLittle River Canyon National Preserve. The waterfall is Alabama's highest at 133 feet. References External links 34°21′28″N85°40′39″W / 34.3578°N 85.6774°W /34.3578; -85.6774 This Alabama state location article is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it.", "List of waterfalls by height The following are lists ofwaterfallsin the world by height, classified into two categories — natural andartificial. Natural waterfalls are further subdivided between overall height and tallest single drop. Each column (Waterfall, Height, Locality, Country) is sortable by using the up/down link in the column headings at the top of each column. World's tallest natural waterfalls By overall height This list consists of waterfalls which are known to have an overall height of at least 600 m (1,969 ft). Underwater falls, such as the 3,505 m (11,499 ft)Denmark Strait cataract, are not included. By tallest single drop This list consists of the waterfalls which are known to have a singular individual step with a vertical drop of at least 450 m (1,476 ft). World's tallest artificial waterfalls See also References External links" ]
Who was the Mayor of Quincy, Massachusetts when the Quincy Medical Center opened and who was the Mayor when it closed?
Henry O. Fairbanks and Thomas P. Koch
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quincy_Medical_Center
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Quincy,_Massachusetts
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Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quincy_Medical_Center', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Quincy,_Massachusetts']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quincy_Medical_Center", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_Quincy,_Massachusetts" ]
[ "Quincy Medical Center Quincy Medical Centerwas a smallfor-profitcommunity hospitallocated inQuincy, Massachusettsfor 124 years, from 1890 to 2014.Amunicipal hospitalfor most of its existence, it transitioned tonon-profitin 1999 and then for-profit when it was purchased bySteward Health Carein 2011. It was closed in 2014 due to year of financial difficulties, though Steward's nearbyCarney Hospitalcontinued to operate the former hospital's ED as a stand-alone on the same site until 2020. During its history, the hospital offered a varying range of services, includingemergency care,behavioral health,obstetrics,surgery, andorthopedics. In 2013, its final full fiscal year, Quincy Medical Center operated with total revenues of $79 million, at a loss of $19.7 million, and discharged 4,803inpatients.In 2014, the year it closed, the hospital operated with total revenues of $68 million and losses of $39 million, and discharged 4,419 inpatients. History Quincy Medical Center was founded in 1890 as Quincy Hospital, established to treat localgraniteworkers suffering from dust inhalation.Initially operated as a private corporation, the city began assisting in the funding of the hospital in 1896, providing $1,000 to $5,000 per year.This ended in 1919, when the city took over the hospital following the ratification of Article CIII, an amendment to theConstitution of Massachusettswhich prohibited the public funding of privately-owned hospitals.Throughout most of the rest of the 20th century, the city provided millions in funding on reconstruction and improvement projects for the hospital. In late 1999, amid mounting financial difficulties affecting hospitals across Massachusetts and a state legislature gridlocked over which hospitals should receive aid, Quincy Mayor James A. Sheets raised the possibility that the City may need to close the hospital. Sheets followed this by appealing to the legislature requesting they reconsider. Finally, in October, the legislature approved a bill which would provide a $12.1 million loan to save the hospital, with an additional $7 million to be placed in a fund for other struggling hospitals. Thanks to this loan, Quincy Hospital reopened as Quincy Medical Center, affiliating itself withBoston Medical Center. The hospital's new affiliation with BMC made it a teaching hospital, and brought with it 25 clinical specialists to expand care at the facilityas well as the appointment of BMC administrators as chiefs of medicine and surgery. However, the hospital's previous financial hardships remained, and the new board of trustees set out to strategize for the future of the hospital, which retained $60 million in debt. Before long, the city pledged $33 million over six years, and unions representing 1,100 hospital workers agreed to 10 percent cuts in compensation, which would lead to savings of $3.6 million annually. Despite collective efforts, Quincy Medical Center's financial struggles continued. This led to a change in June 2011, when the hospital's board of trustees approved a deal that would see the hospital acquired by Steward Health Care, a for-profit Massachusetts health care system then owned by New York private equity firmCerberus Capital Management. Four days later, the hospital filed forbankruptcy,citing $50 million in debt, inability to make monthly payments to bondholders, and the unwillingness of Steward or other potential buyers the invest enough to pay off the hospital's debts.Steward received necessary approvals from state officials, including the Public Health Council andAttorney GeneralMartha Coakley,and the acquisition was completed September 30, 2011.Coakley's approval contained several stipulations, including that the hospital remain open for 10 years (6.5 under poor financial conditions), that 18 months notice be provided to the state if the hospital is to be closed, that Steward pay off at least $35 million of the hospital's bankruptcy debt, and that they commit to spend no less than $44 million on the needs of the hospital in the first 10 years. Despite the agreement to keep the hospital open for 6.5-10 years, Steward announced in November 2014 that the hospital would close on December 31. This not only violated the terms of their agreement with the Coakley, but also violated state law requiring that any hospital give 90 days' notice before closing. Given declining numbers in ED visits and admissions, the hospital system came to an agreement with the state which would see the hospital remain open until February of 2015, and maintain a satellite emergency department (i.e., an ED independent of an inpatient hospital) in the city until the end of that year.Ultimately due to low inpatient volume, the hospital was given a waiver allowing them to close inpatient operations on December 26, 2014. Following the closure of the main hospital, the emergency department at Quincy Medical Center was kept open as a \"satellite\" facility, operated under the license of Steward's nearby Carney Hospital. In 2016, Steward sold the hospital's property to developer FoxRock Properties in a temporarysale-leaseback dealwhich would allow them to continue running the satellite ED. The lease arrangement, originally written to terminate in 2021, lasted until 2020 when FoxRock utilized a clause allowing for early termination. Steward reported that they had attempted to find adequate space elsewhere in the city to move the ED, but were unable to find a landlord willing to host it. While city officials criticized Steward for closing the hospital and for their failure to open another ED in the city, they conceded that \"we know the marketplace will not sustain a hospital in that location or in the city.\" Demolition of the hospital campus was completed by FoxRock in 2021 to make way for residential development. The only building left standing was the hospital's administrative building, which would be restored and remain as part of the development. Legacy Quincy Medical Center grew with and helped shape the City of Quincy through the end of the 19th century and the whole of the 20th. Its establishment as a center of care for granite workerswas representative of Quincy's overall history as a prominent exporter of granite.The surrounding neighborhood gained its current name, Hospital Hill, due to the prominence of the hospital, and generations of Quincy residents were born, cared for, and died at the hospital. However, the hospital faced financial difficulty throughout its existence, escalating in the late 20th century and culminating with its closure in the new millenium - leaving Quincy as the largest city in Massachusetts without an acute care hospital or emergency department.In its later years, the saturation of the health care market took its toll on Quincy Medical Center. While it provided convenience to residents of Quincy, the hospital's deteriorating relationships with other providers left more preferable options for a wider range of care,and the presence of nearby regional competitors likeSouth Shore Hospitalin Weymouth,Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center'scampus in Milton, and numerous hospitals in Boston offered more convenience and higher level of care for those not within city limits.These factors were commonly blamed for the inability of the hospital to become financially viable. References External links", "List of mayors of Quincy, Massachusetts TheMayor of Quincyis the head of the municipal government inQuincy, Massachusetts. List of mayors References" ]
[ "Quincy Medical Center Quincy Medical Centerwas a smallfor-profitcommunity hospitallocated inQuincy, Massachusettsfor 124 years, from 1890 to 2014.Amunicipal hospitalfor most of its existence, it transitioned tonon-profitin 1999 and then for-profit when it was purchased bySteward Health Carein 2011. It was closed in 2014 due to year of financial difficulties, though Steward's nearbyCarney Hospitalcontinued to operate the former hospital's ED as a stand-alone on the same site until 2020. During its history, the hospital offered a varying range of services, includingemergency care,behavioral health,obstetrics,surgery, andorthopedics. In 2013, its final full fiscal year, Quincy Medical Center operated with total revenues of $79 million, at a loss of $19.7 million, and discharged 4,803inpatients.In 2014, the year it closed, the hospital operated with total revenues of $68 million and losses of $39 million, and discharged 4,419 inpatients. History Quincy Medical Center was founded in 1890 as Quincy Hospital,", "as Quincy Hospital, established to treat localgraniteworkers suffering from dust inhalation.Initially operated as a private corporation, the city began assisting in the funding of the hospital in 1896, providing $1,000 to $5,000 per year.This ended in 1919, when the city took over the hospital following the ratification of Article CIII, an amendment to theConstitution of Massachusettswhich prohibited the public funding of privately-owned hospitals.Throughout most of the rest of the 20th century, the city provided millions in funding on reconstruction and improvement projects for the hospital. In late 1999, amid mounting financial difficulties affecting hospitals across Massachusetts and a state legislature gridlocked over which hospitals should receive aid, Quincy Mayor James A. Sheets raised the possibility that the City may need to close the hospital. Sheets followed this by appealing to the legislature requesting they reconsider. Finally, in October, the legislature approved a bill which would provide a", "would provide a $12.1 million loan to save the hospital, with an additional $7 million to be placed in a fund for other struggling hospitals. Thanks to this loan, Quincy Hospital reopened as Quincy Medical Center, affiliating itself withBoston Medical Center. The hospital's new affiliation with BMC made it a teaching hospital, and brought with it 25 clinical specialists to expand care at the facilityas well as the appointment of BMC administrators as chiefs of medicine and surgery. However, the hospital's previous financial hardships remained, and the new board of trustees set out to strategize for the future of the hospital, which retained $60 million in debt. Before long, the city pledged $33 million over six years, and unions representing 1,100 hospital workers agreed to 10 percent cuts in compensation, which would lead to savings of $3.6 million annually. Despite collective efforts, Quincy Medical Center's financial struggles continued. This led to a change in June 2011, when the hospital's board of", "hospital's board of trustees approved a deal that would see the hospital acquired by Steward Health Care, a for-profit Massachusetts health care system then owned by New York private equity firmCerberus Capital Management. Four days later, the hospital filed forbankruptcy,citing $50 million in debt, inability to make monthly payments to bondholders, and the unwillingness of Steward or other potential buyers the invest enough to pay off the hospital's debts.Steward received necessary approvals from state officials, including the Public Health Council andAttorney GeneralMartha Coakley,and the acquisition was completed September 30, 2011.Coakley's approval contained several stipulations, including that the hospital remain open for 10 years (6.5 under poor financial conditions), that 18 months notice be provided to the state if the hospital is to be closed, that Steward pay off at least $35 million of the hospital's bankruptcy debt, and that they commit to spend no less than $44 million on the needs of the", "on the needs of the hospital in the first 10 years. Despite the agreement to keep the hospital open for 6.5-10 years, Steward announced in November 2014 that the hospital would close on December 31. This not only violated the terms of their agreement with the Coakley, but also violated state law requiring that any hospital give 90 days' notice before closing. Given declining numbers in ED visits and admissions, the hospital system came to an agreement with the state which would see the hospital remain open until February of 2015, and maintain a satellite emergency department (i.e., an ED independent of an inpatient hospital) in the city until the end of that year.Ultimately due to low inpatient volume, the hospital was given a waiver allowing them to close inpatient operations on December 26, 2014. Following the closure of the main hospital, the emergency department at Quincy Medical Center was kept open as a \"satellite\" facility, operated under the license of Steward's nearby Carney Hospital. In 2016,", "Hospital. In 2016, Steward sold the hospital's property to developer FoxRock Properties in a temporarysale-leaseback dealwhich would allow them to continue running the satellite ED. The lease arrangement, originally written to terminate in 2021, lasted until 2020 when FoxRock utilized a clause allowing for early termination. Steward reported that they had attempted to find adequate space elsewhere in the city to move the ED, but were unable to find a landlord willing to host it. While city officials criticized Steward for closing the hospital and for their failure to open another ED in the city, they conceded that \"we know the marketplace will not sustain a hospital in that location or in the city.\" Demolition of the hospital campus was completed by FoxRock in 2021 to make way for residential development. The only building left standing was the hospital's administrative building, which would be restored and remain as part of the development. Legacy Quincy Medical Center grew with and helped shape the City of", "shape the City of Quincy through the end of the 19th century and the whole of the 20th. Its establishment as a center of care for granite workerswas representative of Quincy's overall history as a prominent exporter of granite.The surrounding neighborhood gained its current name, Hospital Hill, due to the prominence of the hospital, and generations of Quincy residents were born, cared for, and died at the hospital. However, the hospital faced financial difficulty throughout its existence, escalating in the late 20th century and culminating with its closure in the new millenium - leaving Quincy as the largest city in Massachusetts without an acute care hospital or emergency department.In its later years, the saturation of the health care market took its toll on Quincy Medical Center. While it provided convenience to residents of Quincy, the hospital's deteriorating relationships with other providers left more preferable options for a wider range of care,and the presence of nearby regional competitors", "competitors likeSouth Shore Hospitalin Weymouth,Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center'scampus in Milton, and numerous hospitals in Boston offered more convenience and higher level of care for those not within city limits.These factors were commonly blamed for the inability of the hospital to become financially viable. References External links", "List of mayors of Quincy, Massachusetts TheMayor of Quincyis the head of the municipal government inQuincy, Massachusetts. List of mayors References" ]
Use this information: -The Dragonfly Sea is a novel by Yvonne Adhiambo Owuor. -It has a publisher. -The publisher has two co-founders. What was the original name of the university where the male co-founder of this publisher studied?
King's College
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragonfly_Sea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf_Sr.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University
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Multiple constraints | Post processing
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragonfly_Sea', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf_Sr.', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragonfly_Sea", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf_Sr.", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University" ]
[ "The Dragonfly Sea The Dragonfly Seais acoming-of-agefamily novel byKenyanwriterYvonne Adhiambo Owuor. It was published byKnopf Publishers, imprint ofPenguin Random House, in 2019. References This article about afamily saga novelof the 2010s is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article'stalk page. This article about aKenyannovel is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article'stalk page.", "Alfred A. Knopf Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.(/knɒpf/) is an American publishing house that was founded byBlanche KnopfandAlfred A. Knopf Sr.in 1915.Blanche and Alfred traveled abroad regularly and were known for publishing European, Asian, and Latin American writers in addition to leading American literary trends. It was acquired byRandom Housein 1960, and is now part of the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group division ofPenguin Random Housewhich is owned by the German conglomerateBertelsmann. The Knopf publishing house is associated with theborzoilogo in itscolophon, which was designed by co-founderBlanche Knopfin 1925. History Founding Knopf was founded in 1915 byAlfred A. Knopf Sr.along withBlanche Knopf, on a $5,000 advance from his father, Samuel Knopf.The first office was located in New York'sCandler Building.The publishing house was officially incorporated in 1918, with Alfred Knopf as president, Blanche Knopf as vice president, and Samuel Knopf as treasurer. From the start, Knopf focused on European translations and high-brow works of literature. Among their initial publications were French authorÉmile Augier'sFour Plays, Russian writerNikolai Gogol'sTaras Bulba, Polish novelistStanisław Przybyszewski's novelHomo Sapiens, and French writerGuy de Maupassant'sYvette, a Novelette, and Ten Other Stories.During World War I these books were cheap to obtain and helped establish Knopf as an American firm publishing European works.Their first bestseller was a new edition ofGreen Mansions, a novel byW. H. Hudsonwhich went through nine printings by 1919 and sold over 20,000 copies.Their first original American novel,The Three Black PennysbyJoseph Hergesheimer, was published in 1917. 1920s With the start of the 1920s Knopf began using innovative advertising techniques to draw attention to their books and authors. Beginning in 1920, Knopf produced achapbookfor the purpose of promoting new books.The Borzoiwas published periodically over the years, the first being a hardback calledThe Borzoiand sometimes quarterly asThe Borzoi Quarterly.For Floyd Dell's coming-of-age novel,Moon-Calf, they paid men to walk the streets of the financial and theatre districts dressed in artist costumes withsandwich boards. The placards had a copy of the book for browsing and directed interested buyers to local book shops. The unique look of their books along with their expertise in advertising their authors drewWilla Catherto leave her previous publisherHoughton Mifflinto join Alfred A. Knopf.As she was still under contract for her novels, the Knopfs suggested publishing a collection of her short stories,Youth and the Bright Medusa, in 1920.Cather was pleased with the results and the advertisement of the book inThe New Republicand would go on to publish sixteen books with Knopf, including their firstPulitzer Prizewinner,One of Ours. Before they had married, Alfred had promised Blanche that they would be equal partners in the publishing company, but it was clear by the company's fifth anniversary that this was not to be the case. Knopf published a celebratory fifth-anniversary book in which Alfred was the focus of anecdotes by authors and Blanche's name was only mentioned once to note that \"Mrs. Knopf\" had found a manuscript. This despite ample evidence from authors and others that Blanche was in fact the soul of the company. This was covered extensively inThe Lady with the Borzoiby Laura Claridge. In 1923, Knopf also started publishing periodicals, beginning withThe American Mercury, founded byH. L. MenckenandGeorge Jean Nathan, which it published through 1934. Also in 1923, Knopf publishedKahlil Gibran'sThe Prophet. Knopf had published Gibran's earlier works which had disappointing sales. In its first year,The Prophetonly sold 1,159 copies. It would double sales the next year and keep doubling becoming one of the firm's most successful books. In 1965 the book sold 240,000 copies.Approaching its 100 year anniversary in 2023,The Prophethas been translated into over100 languagesand has never gone out of print for Knopf. In the 1920s, Knopf sometimes withdrew or censored their books when threatened byJohn Sumner, such asFloyd Dell'sJanet MarchorGeorge Egerton's 1899 translation ofHunger. 1930s Samuel Knopf died in 1932. William A. Koshland joined the company in 1934, and worked with the firm for more than fifty years, rising to take the positions of president and chairman of the board. Blanche became president in 1957 when Alfred became chairman of the board, and worked steadily for the firm until her death in 1966. Alfred Knopf retired in 1972, becoming chairman emeritus of the firm until his death in 1984. Alfred Knopf also had a summer home inPurchase, New York. 1940s Following theGood Neighbor policy, Blanche Knopf visited South America in 1942, so the firm could start producing texts from there. She was one of the first publishers to visit Europe after World War II. Her trips, and those of other editors, brought in new writers from Europe, South America, and Asia. Alfred traveled to Brazil in 1961, which spurred a corresponding interest on his part in South America. Penn Publishing Company was acquired in 1943. The Knopfs' son, Alfred \"Pat\" Jr., was hired on as secretary and trade books manager after the war. 1950s In 1957, editorJudith Jonesjoined Knopf.Jones, who had discoveredAnne Frank: Diary of a Young Girlwhile working at Doubleday, acquiredJulia Child'sMastering the Art of French Cookingfor Knopf.Jones would remain with Knopf, retiring in 2011 as a senior editor and vice-president after a career that included working withJohn UpdikeandAnne Tyler. Pat Knopf left his parents' publishing company in 1959 to launch his own,Atheneum Publishers, with two other partners.The story made the front page ofThe New York Times. In a 1957 advertisement inThe Atlantic Monthly, Alfred A. Knopf published the Borzoi Credo. The credo includes a list of what Knopf's beliefs for publishing including the statement that he never published an unworthy book. Among a list of beliefs listed is the final one—\"I believe that magazines, movies, television, and radio will never replace good books.\" Acquisition by Random House In 1960,Random Houseacquired Alfred A. Knopf.It is believed that the decision to sell was prompted byAlfred A. Knopf Jr., leaving Knopf to found his own book company,Atheneum Books, in 1959. Since its founding, Knopf has paid close attention to design andtypography,employing notable designers and typographers includingWilliam Addison Dwiggins, Harry Ford,Steven Heller,Chip Kidd,Lorraine Louie,Peter Mendelsund,Bruce Rogers,Rudolf Ruzicka, andBeatrice Warde. Knopf books conclude with an unnumbered page titled \"A Note on the Type\", which describes the history of thetypefaceused for the book. In addition, Knopf books date the year of the book's current printing on the title page. Knopf published textbooks until 1988, when Random House's schools and colleges division was sold toMcGraw Hill. In 1991, Knopf revived the \"Everyman's Library\" series, originally published in England in the early 20th century. This series consists of classics of world literature in affordable hardcover editions. The series has grown over the years to include lines ofChildren's ClassicsandPocket Poets. Random House was acquired byBertelsmann AGin 1998.In late 2008 and early 2009, the Knopf Publishing Group merged withDoubledayto form the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.Random House has been owned since its 2013 merger ofPenguin GroupbyPenguin Random House, ajoint venturebetweenBertelsmann(53%) andPearson PLC(47%). Many of Knopf's hardcover books are published later asVintage paperbacks. Vintage Books is a sister imprint of Random House. In October 2012, Bertelsmann entered into talks with rival conglomeratePearson plc, over the possibility of combining their respective publishing companies, Random House andPenguin Group. The merger was completed on 1 July 2013 and the new company isPenguin Random House.Bertelsmann owned 53% of the joint venture while Pearson owned 47%.At the time of the acquisition the combined companies controlled 25% of the book business, with more than 10,000 employees and 250 independent publishing imprints and with about $3.9 billion in annual revenues.The move to consolidate was to provide leverage againstAmazon.comand battle the shrinking state ofbookstores. In 2015, Knopf celebrated its 100th anniversary by publishing a commemorative book,Alfred A. Knopf, 1915–2015: A Century of Publishing. Notable people Notable editors and publishers While there have been many notable editors at Knopf there have only been four editors-in-chief:Alfred A. Knopf, Sr.,Robert Gottlieb,Sonny Mehta(who died in 2019) and Jordan Pavlin.Other influential editors at Knopf includedHarold Strauss(Japanese literature),Herbert Weinstock(biography of musical composers),Judith Jones(translations, The Diary of Anne Frank, culinary texts),Peter Mendelsund(art director and book cover designer)as well as Bobbie Bristol,Angus Cameron, Ann Close, Charles Elliott,Gary Fisketjon, Lee Goerner,Ashbel Green,Carol Brown Janeway, Michael Magzis, Anne McCormick, Nancy Nicholas,Daniel Okrent, Regina Ryan, Sophie Wilkins, andVictoria Wilson. Knopf also employed literary scouts to good advantage. Notable authors Alfred A. Knopf has published books by many notable authors, includingJohn Banville,Carl Bernstein,Elizabeth Bowen,Frederick Buechner,Albert Camus,Robert Caro,Willa Cather,John Cheever,Julia Child,Bill Clinton,Michael Crichton,Miguel Covarrubias,Don DeLillo,Joan Didion,Bret Easton Ellis,James Ellroy,Martin Gardner,Kahlil Gibran,Lee H. Hamilton,Kazuo Ishiguro,John Keegan,Nella Larsen,John le Carré,Jack London,Gabriel García Márquez,Cormac McCarthy,Toni Morrison,Alice Munro,Haruki Murakami,Cynthia Ozick,Christopher Paolini,Edgar Allan Poe,Ezra Pound,Anne Rice,Dorothy Richardson,Stephen M. Silverman,Oswald Spengler,Susan Swan,Donna Tartt,Barbara W. Tuchman,Anne Tyler,John Updike,Andrew Vachss,James D. Watson, andElinor Wylie. Awards Logo Thelogofor Knopf is a Russian wolfhound orBorzoi.Blanche Knopfsuggested the Borzoi for the logo to imply motion and the logo was used on both the spine and the title page of their books. References Sources cited External links", "Alfred A. Knopf Sr. Alfred Abraham Knopf Sr.(September 12, 1892 – August 11, 1984) was an Americanpublisherof the 20th century, and co-founder ofAlfred A. Knopf, Inc.His contemporaries included the likes ofBennett CerfandDonald Klopfer, and (of the previous generation)Frank Nelson Doubleday, J. Henry Harper andHenry Holt. Knopf paid special attention to the quality of printing, binding, and design in his books, and earned a reputation as a purist in both content and presentation. Biography Knopf was born into aJewishfamily inNew York City. His father, Samuel Knopf, was an advertising executive and financial consultant, and his mother was Ida Japhe, a school teacher.Samuel Knopf was originally fromWarsaw, Poland, but came to New York with his parents, where he worked his way up the directorship at a small mercantile bank.Alfred's mother, Ida, was from a Latvian Jewish family who settled in New York.For a time Knopf's parents lived in theMidwestand inVirginia. Ida committed suicide when Alfred was five years old and his sister Sophia was almost two.That same day, Alfred's father had filed for divorce in which he named Ida as an adulteress.His father later married Lillian Harris, who had a daughter, Bertha, from a previous marriage. With Lillian, Samuel had another son,Edwin H. Knopf, who worked for Alfred briefly, then became afilm directorandproducer. Alfred attendedColumbia University,where he was a pre-law student and a member of thePeithologian Society(a debating and literary club) and theBoar's Head Society.He began to show an interest in publishing during his senior year, becoming advertising manager of an undergraduate magazine. His interest in publishing was allegedly fostered by a correspondence with British authorJohn Galsworthy. Galsworthy was the subject of Knopf's senior thesis and after visiting Galsworthy inEngland, Knopf gave up his plans for a law career, and upon his return went into publishing. Knopf was introduced to his future wife and business partner,Blanche Knopf, at a party at the Lawrence Athletic Club in 1911.Their relationship was built on their mutual interest in books. Blanche said of their relationship: \"Alfred had realized I read books constantly and he had never met a girl who did ... I saw him and talk books, and nobody liked him--my family least of all. But I did, because I had someone to talk books to and we talked of making books...We decided we would get married and make books and publish them.\"Alfred and Blanche were married on April 4, 1916. Knopf worked as a clerk atDoubleday(1912–1913), then as an editorial assistant toMitchell Kennerley(1914). Knopf, along with Blanche Knopf, founded the publishing houseAlfred A. Knopfin 1915.The company initially emphasized European, especially Russian, literature, hence the choice of theborzoias acolophon. At that time European literature was largely neglected by American publishers; Knopf published authors such asSimone de Beauvoir,Albert Camus,Joseph Conrad,E. M. Forster,Sigmund Freud,André Gide,Franz Kafka,D. H. Lawrence,Thomas Mann,W. Somerset Maugham,T. F. Powys,Wyndham LewisandJean-Paul Sartre. While Blanche was known as a superb editor, Alfred was always interested in more of the sales side than in editing. Knopf also published many American authors, includingConrad Aiken,James Baldwin,James M. Cain,Theodore Dreiser,Shirley Ann Grau,Dashiell Hammett,Langston Hughes,Vachel Lindsay,H.L. Mencken,George Jean Nathan,John Updike, and Knopf's own favorite,Willa Cather. From 1924 to 1934, he published the famous literary magazine founded by Mencken and Nathan,The American Mercury. He often developed a personal friendship with his authors. Knopf's personal interest in the fields ofhistory,sociology, andscienceled to close friendships in the academic community with such noted historians asRichard Hofstadter,Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., andSamuel Eliot Morison. A prominentRepublicanuntilWatergate, Knopf often drew legislators into lengthy correspondence by mail. He was also a member of thePeabody AwardsBoard of Jurorsfrom 1940 to 1946. Knopf himself was also an author. His writings includeSome Random Recollections,Publishing Then and Now,Portrait of a Publisher,Blanche W. Knopf: July 30, 1894–June 4, 1966, andSixty Photographs. When the Knopfs' sonAlfred A. Knopf Jr.left the company in 1959 to foundAtheneum Publishers,Alfred and Blanche became concerned about the eventual fate of their publishing house, which had always been a family business. The problem was solved in 1960, when Knopf merged withRandom House, which was owned by the Knopfs' close friendsBennett Cerfand Donald Klopfer. Knopf retained complete editorial control for five years, and then gave up only his right to veto other editors' manuscript selections. The editorial departments of the two companies remain separate, and Knopf, Inc., retains its distinctive character. Knopf called the merger \"a perfect marriage.\" Random House itself eventually became a division ofBertelsmann AG, a large multinational media company. The Knopf imprint remains in existence. Blanche Knopfdied in June 1966. Alfred remarried in April of the following year, to Helen Norcross Hedrick. He died ofcongestive heart failureon August 11, 1984, at his estate inPurchase, New York. Personality Knopf had little enthusiasm for most of the changes that took place in the publishing industry during his lifetime. \"Too many books are published, and they are overpriced\", he toldThe Saturday Review. These are things \"about which all publishers agree, and about which no publisher does anything.\" The most fundamental change he noted was the increased importance of the editor. \"In the early days, things were quite simple. The books came in; we published them as written... A publisher was regarded – and so, in turn, was the writer – as a pro. A writer's job was to write a book and give it to you.\" And he remarked to Shenker: \"I guess business became more complicated and publishers less literate. It ceased to be the fact that publishers publish and authors write. Today authors submit manuscripts and editors write books.\" The editor is now hired largely to acquire books, \"and if he can't get good books, he usually takes what he can get – books that are not so good. And then he sometimes wrecks himself trying to make a silk purse out of what can never become anything but a sow's ear.\" Knopf was generally unimpressed with currentliterature, though he admiredJohn Hersey,John Updike,Jorge Amado, and a few other contemporary authors. InPublishing Then and Nowhe wrote: \"Frequently... our American author, whatever his age, experience in life, and technical knowledge, simply can't write. I don't mean that he is not the master of a prose style of elegance and distinction; I mean that he can't write simple straightforward and correct English. And here, only an exceptional editor will really help him.\" American authors are not very durable, he said in 1964, and \"there are no giants in Europe now.\" Though twelve Knopf authors had wonNobel Prizes, Knopf acknowledged that \"some Nobel Prize books aren't very good,\" callingDoctor Zhivago,for example, \"incredibly tedious ... IfKrushchevhad banned it for dullness instead of its political implications, he might have been in the clear.\" Among other authors he rejected wereSylvia Plath,Jack Kerouac,Anne Frank,George Orwell,Jorge Luis Borges,Vladimir Nabokov,Isaac Bashevis SingerandAnaïs Nin.He turned down an early novel byUrsula K. Le Guinbut encouraged her to keep writing. Knopf also lamented the \"shockingly bad taste\" that he felt characterizes much modern fiction, and warned of the danger of a \"legal backlash\" against pornography, and a possible revival ofcensorship. This outspoken aspect of his character sometimes found voice in letters of complaint to hotels, restaurants, and stores that failed to meet his high standards. These letters grew increasingly frequent and more severe as he aged. One striking example is the six-year-long war of words he waged against theEastman Kodak Companyover a roll of lost film. Knopf did not support the creation of a Jewish commonwealth in Palestine. In response to Senator Robert Wagner's November 5, 1945 letter to Knopf's employees in support of the Jewish colonization of Palestine, Knopf replied to the senator's unexpected letter that he did not share his employees' views. Furthermore, he wrote that nothing was \"more likely to destroy the possibility of peace than resurgent nationalism.\" And as a Jew, he thought it was \"a great pity that Jews, above all people, should be advocates of still another national state.\" Bibliography References External links", "Columbia University Columbia University, officiallyColumbia University in the City of New York,is aprivateIvy Leagueresearch universityinNew York City. Established in 1754 asKing's Collegeon the grounds ofTrinity ChurchinManhattan, it is the oldest institution of higher education inNew Yorkandthe fifth-oldest in the United States. Columbia was established as acolonial collegebyroyal charterunderGeorge II of Great Britain. It was renamedColumbia Collegein 1784 following theAmerican Revolution, and in 1787 was placed undera private board of trusteesheaded by former studentsAlexander HamiltonandJohn Jay. In 1896, the campus was moved to its current location inMorningside Heightsand renamed Columbia University. Columbia is organized into twenty schools, including four undergraduate schools and 16 graduate schools. The university's research efforts include theLamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, theGoddard Institute for Space Studies, and accelerator laboratories withBig Techfirms such asAmazonandIBM.Columbia is a founding member of theAssociation of American Universitiesand was the first school in the United States to grant theMD degree.The university also administers and annually awards thePulitzer Prize. Columbia scientists and scholars have played a pivotal role in scientific breakthroughs includingbrain–computer interface; thelaserandmaser;nuclear magnetic resonance;the firstnuclear pile; the firstnuclear fissionreaction in theAmericas; the first evidence forplate tectonicsandcontinental drift;and much of the initial research and planning for theManhattan ProjectduringWorld War II. As of December 2021, its alumni, faculty, and staff have included seven of theFounding Fathersof the United States of America;four U.S. presidents;34 foreignheads of state or government;two secretaries-general of the United Nations;ten justices of theUnited States Supreme Court;103 Nobel laureates; 125National Academy of Sciencesmembers;53 living billionaires;23 Olympic medalists;33Academy Award winners; and 125Pulitzer Prizerecipients. History 18th century Discussions regarding the founding of a college in theProvince of New Yorkbegan as early as 1704, at which timeColonel Lewis Morriswrote to theSociety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the missionary arm of theChurch of England, persuading the society thatNew York Citywas an ideal community in which to establish a college.However, it was not until the founding of theCollege of New Jersey(renamedPrinceton) across theHudson RiverinNew Jerseythat the City of New York seriously considered founding a college.In 1746, an act was passed by the general assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. In 1751, the assembly appointed a commission of ten New York residents, seven of whom were members of theChurch of England, to direct the funds accrued by thestate lotterytowards the foundation of a college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the college's first president,Samuel Johnson.: 8–10Johnson was the only instructor of the college's first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse on the grounds ofTrinity Church, located on what is now theFinancial Districtof Manhattan.: 3The college was officially founded on October 31, 1754, as King's College by royal charter ofGeorge II,making it the oldest institution of higher learning in theState of New Yorkand the fifth oldest in the United States. In 1763, Johnson was succeeded in the presidency byMyles Cooper, a graduate ofThe Queen's College, Oxford, and an ardentTory. In the charged political climate of theAmerican Revolution, his chief opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777,Alexander Hamilton.: 3TheIrishanatomist,Samuel Clossy, was appointed professor of natural philosophy in October 1765 and later the college's first professor of anatomy in 1767.TheAmerican Revolutionary Warbroke out in 1776, and was catastrophic for the operation of King's College, which suspended instruction for eight years beginning in 1776 with the arrival of theContinental Army. The suspension continued through the military occupation of New York City by British troops until theirdeparturein 1783. The college's library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a military hospital first by American and then British forces. After theAmerican Revolutionary War, the college turned to theState of New Yorkin order to restore its vitality, promising to make whatever changes to the school's charter the state might demand.: 59The legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1, 1784, it passed \"an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called King's College\".The Act createda board of regentsto oversee the resuscitation of King's College, and, in an effort to demonstrate its support for the new Republic, the legislature stipulated that \"the College within the City of New York heretofore called King's College be forever hereafter called and known by the name ofColumbia College\",a reference toColumbia, an alternative name for America which in turn comes from the name ofChristopher Columbus. The Regents finally became aware of the college's defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, which was headed byJohn Jayand Alexander Hamilton. In April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college granted the power toa separate board of 24 trustees.: 65–70 On May 21, 1787,William Samuel Johnson, the son ofSamuel Johnson, was unanimously elected president of Columbia College. Prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in theFirst Continental Congressand been chosen as a delegate to theConstitutional Convention.For a period in the 1790s, with New York City as the federal and state capital and the country under successiveFederalistgovernments, a revived Columbia thrived under the auspices of Federalists such as Hamilton and Jay. PresidentGeorge Washingtonand Vice PresidentJohn Adams, in addition to both houses ofCongressattendedthe college's commencementon May 6, 1789, as a tribute of honor to the many alumni of the school who had been involved in theAmerican Revolution.: 74 19th century In November 1813, the college agreed to incorporate its medical school with The College of Physicians and Surgeons, a new school created by the Regents of New York, formingColumbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons.: 53–60The college's enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the King's College campus at Park Place to a primarilyGothic Revivalcampus on 49th Street andMadison Avenue, where it remained for the next forty years. During the last half of the 19th century, under the presidency ofFrederick A. P. Barnard, for whomBarnard Collegeis named, the institution rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university. Barnard College was created in 1889 as a response to the university's refusal to accept women.By this time, the college's investments in New York real estate became a primary source of steady income for the school, mainly owing to the city's expanding population.: 5–8 In 1896, university presidentSeth Lowmoved the campus from 49th Street to its present location, a more spacious campus in the developing neighborhood ofMorningside Heights.Under the leadership of Low's successor,Nicholas Murray Butler, who served for over four decades, Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting the multiversity model that later universities would adopt.Prior to becoming the president of Columbia University, Butler foundedTeachers College, as a school to prepare home economists and manual art teachers for the children of the poor, with philanthropistGrace Hoadley Dodge.Teachers College is currently affiliated as the university's Graduate School of Education. 20th century In the 1940s, faculty members, includingJohn R. Dunning,I. I. Rabi,Enrico Fermi, andPolykarp Kusch, began what became theManhattan Project, creating the first nuclear fission reactor in theAmericasand researchinggaseous diffusion. In 1928, Seth Low Junior College was established by Columbia University in order to mitigate the number of Jewish applicants to Columbia College.The college was closed in 1936 due to the adverse effects of theGreat Depressionand its students were subsequently taught at Morningside Heights, although they did not belong to any college but to the university at large.There was an evening school called University Extension, which taught night classes, for a fee, to anyone willing to attend. In 1947, the program was reorganized as an undergraduate college and designated theSchool of General Studiesin response to the return ofGIsafterWorld War II.In 1995, the School of General Studies was again reorganized as a full-fledged liberal arts college fornon-traditional students(those who have had an academic break of one year or more, or are pursuing dual-degrees) and was fully integrated into Columbia's traditional undergraduate curriculum.The same year, the Division of Special Programs, later called the School of Continuing Education and now theSchool of Professional Studies, was established to reprise the former role of University Extension.While the School of Professional Studies only offered non-degree programs for lifelong learners and high school students in its earliest stages, it now offers degree programs in a diverse range of professional and inter-disciplinary fields. In the aftermath of World War II, the discipline of international relations became a major scholarly focus of the university, and in response, theSchool of International and Public Affairswas founded in 1946, drawing upon the resources of the faculties of political science, economics, and history.TheColumbia University Bicentennialwas celebrated in 1954. During the 1960s, student activism reached a climax withprotests in the spring of 1968, when hundreds of students occupied buildings on campus. The incident forced the resignation of Columbia's president,Grayson Kirk, and the establishment of the University Senate. Though several schools in the university had admitted women for years, Columbia College first admitted women in the fall of 1983,after a decade of failed negotiations withBarnard College, the all-female institution affiliated with the university, to merge the two schools.Barnard College still remains affiliated with Columbia, and all Barnard graduates are issued diplomas signed by thepresidents of Columbia Universityand Barnard College. During the late 20th century, the university underwent significant academic, structural, and administrative changes as it developed into a major research university. For much of the 19th century, the university consisted of decentralized and separate faculties specializing in Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science. In 1979, these faculties were merged into theGraduate School of Arts and Sciences.In 1991, the faculties of Columbia College, the School of General Studies, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, theSchool of the Arts, and theSchool of Professional Studieswere merged into the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, leading to the academic integration and centralized governance of these schools. 21st century In 2010, theSchool of International and Public Affairs, which was previously a part of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, became an independent faculty. In fall of 2023, pro-Palestine student activists organized protests in response to theIsrael–Hamas war, with counter-protests from pro-Israelactivists.The students were protesting against the allegedgenocide of Palestiniansin Gaza by theIDF, with significant faculty support for the protests.Protestors were reported to have yelled “October 7th is going to be every day for you,” toward Jewish students. In January 2024, students who were former IDF soldiers were accused of attacking pro-Palestine demonstrators with noxious chemicals in what the interim provostDennis Mitchellsaid was “what appears to have been serious crimes, possibly hate crimes”.One of the students suspected in the attack was initially placed on interim suspensionbefore later being suspended through May 2025. In April 2024, the suspended student sued Columbia, alleging that the school subjected him to \"biased misconduct proceedings\" and that he had used fart sprays such as \"Liquid Ass\" rather than harmful chemicals.Following a joint investigation by the NYPD and Columbia, the school concluded that the chemical substance was a \"non-toxic, legal, novelty item\". On April 17, 2024, Columbia presidentMinouche Shafikwas questioned by theHouse Committee on Education and the Workforceon the topic of antisemitism on campus. While Shafik was in Washington, DC, student activists began renewed protests,leading to what CNN described as a \"full-blown crisis\" over tensions stemming from apro-Palestinian campus occupation.These protests at Columbia sparkedsimilar pro-Palestinian protestsat universities across the USA. As the protests expanded in scale and notoriety, students and faculty, including people of Jewish heritage, pushed back against the silencing of anti-Zionist voices andaccusations of anti-semitism.This sentiment was later repeated in an open letter by Columbia faculty that criticized the findings of the university's antisemitism task force. On April 22, 2024 the university moved all in-person classes online,with President Shafik saying that this decision would \"deescalate the rancor and give us all a chance to consider next steps\". In late April, several participants in thecampus encampmentoccupiedHamilton Hall.While inside, these protestors overturned furniture, broke windows, and erected barricades.On April 30, Columbia University calledNew York Police Departmentto clear Hamilton Hall.Around 9 PM that night, NYPD officers in riot gear used a siege ladder to access the second floor of Hamilton Hall and subsequently removed the demonstrators occupying it, dozens of whom were arrested.The actions taken against the demonstrators by the NYPD in riot armour while clearingHamilton Hallinspired the rap song'Hinds Hall'byMacklemore,who described the police as \"actors in badges\" in the song.In June, the charges against most of the participants in the occupation of Hamilton Hall were dropped. In mid-August 2024, three deans andMinouche Shafik, the 20thpresidentof the university, resigned in the wake of the campus protests. In late August, the university's antisemitism task force reported that the university had failed to prevent violence andhate or protect Jews in the university. According to the report, antisemitism has \"affected the entire university community\" and was carried out by both faculty and students.The task force on anti-semitism was criticised by a group of 24 Jewish faculty (as well as 16 non-Jewish faculty) and Jewish students for misrepresentations, omission of key context and equating anti-Zionism with antisemitism. Campus Morningside Heights The majority of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in theUpper Manhattanneighborhood ofMorningside HeightsonSeth Low's late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught at one location. The campus was designed alongBeaux-Artsplanning principles by the architectsMcKim, Mead & White. Columbia's main campus occupies more than sixcity blocks, or 32 acres (13 ha), in Morningside Heights, New York City, a neighborhood that contains a number of academic institutions. The university owns over 7,800 apartments in Morningside Heights, housing faculty, graduate students, and staff. Almost two dozen undergraduate dormitories (purpose-built or converted) are located on campus or in Morningside Heights. Columbia University hasan extensive tunnel system, more than a century old, with the oldest portions predating the present campus. Some of these remain accessible to the public, while others have been cordoned off. Butler Libraryis the largest in theColumbia University Librariessystem and one of the largest buildings on the campus. Proposed as \"South Hall\" by the university's former presidentNicholas Murray Butleras expansion plans forLow Memorial Librarystalled, the new library was funded byEdward Harkness, benefactor ofYale University'sresidential collegesystem, and designed by his favorite architect,James Gamble Rogers. It was completed in 1934 and renamed for Butler in 1946. The library design isneo-classicalin style. Its facade features a row of columns in theIonic orderabove which are inscribed the names of great writers, philosophers, and thinkers, most of whom are read by students engaged in theCore CurriculumofColumbia College.As of 2020,Columbia's library systemincludes over 15.0 million volumes, making it the eighth largest library system and fifth largest collegiate library system in the United States. Several buildings on the Morningside Heights campus are listed on theNational Register of Historic Places.Low Memorial Library, aNational Historic Landmarkand the centerpiece of the campus, is listed for its architectural significance.Philosophy Hallis listed as the site of the invention ofFM radio.Also listed isPupin Hall, anotherNational Historic Landmark, which houses the physics and astronomy departments. Here the first experiments on the fission of uranium were conducted byEnrico Fermi. The uranium atom was split there ten days after the world's first atom-splitting inCopenhagen, Denmark.Other buildings listed includeCasa Italiana, theDelta Psi, Alpha Chapter buildingofSt. Anthony Hall,Earl Hall, and the buildings of the affiliatedUnion Theological Seminary. A statue by sculptorDaniel Chester FrenchcalledAlma Materis centered on the front steps ofLow Memorial Library. The statue represents a personification of the traditional image of the university as analma mater, or \"nourishing mother\", draped in an academic gown and seated on a throne. She wears alaurel wreathon her head and holds in her right hand a scepter capped by a King's Crown, a traditional symbol of the university. A book, representing learning, rests on her lap. The arms of her throne end in lamps, representing \"Sapientia et Doctrina\", or \"Wisdom and Learning\"; on the back of the throne is embossed an image ofthe seal of the university.A local actress named Mary Lawton was said to have posed for parts of the sculpture. The statue was dedicated on September 23, 1903, as a gift of Mr. & Mrs. Robert Goelet, and was originally covered in golden leaf. During theColumbia University protests of 1968a bomb damaged the sculpture, but it has since been repaired.The small hidden owl on the sculpture is also the subject of many Columbia legends, the main legend being that the first student in the freshmen class to find the hidden owl on the statue will be valedictorian, and that any subsequent Columbia male who finds it will marry a Barnard student, given that Barnard is awomen's college. \"The Steps\", alternatively known as \"Low Steps\" or the \"Urban Beach\", are a popular meeting area for Columbia students. The term refers to the long series of granite steps leading from the lower part of campus (South Field) to its upper terrace. With a design inspired by theCity Beautiful movement, the steps of Low Library provides Columbia University and Barnard College students, faculty, and staff with a comfortable outdoor platform and space for informal gatherings, events, and ceremonies. McKim's classical facade epitomizes late 19th-century new-classical designs, with its columns and portico marking the entrance to an important structure. Other campuses In April 2007, the university purchased more than two-thirds of a 17 acres (6.9 ha) site for a new campus inManhattanville, an industrial neighborhood to the north of the Morningside Heights campus. Stretching from125th Streetto133rd Street, Columbia Manhattanville houses buildings for Columbia's Business School, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia School of the Arts, and the Jerome L. Greene Center for Mind, Brain, and Behavior, where research will occur on neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.The $7 billion expansion plan included demolishing all buildings, except three that are historically significant (theStudebaker Building,Prentis Hall, and the Nash Building), eliminating the existing light industry and storage warehouses, and relocating tenants in 132 apartments. Replacing these buildings created 6.8 million square feet (630,000 m2) of space for the university. Community activist groups in West Harlem fought the expansion for reasons ranging from property protection and fair exchange for land, to residents' rights.Subsequent public hearings drew neighborhood opposition. As of December 2008, the State of New York'sEmpire State Development Corporationapproved use of eminent domain, which, through declaration of Manhattanville's \"blighted\" status, gives governmental bodies the right to appropriate private property for public use.On May 20, 2009, theNew York State Public Authorities Control Boardapproved the Manhanttanville expansion plan. NewYork-Presbyterian Hospitalis affiliated with the medical schools of both Columbia University andCornell University. According toU.S. News & World Report's \"2020–21 Best Hospitals Honor Roll and Medical Specialties Rankings\", it is ranked fourth overall and second among university hospitals.Columbia'smedical schoolhas a strategic partnership withNew York State Psychiatric Institute, and is affiliated with 19 other hospitals in the U.S. and four hospitals in other countries. Health-related schools are located at theColumbia University Medical Center, a 20-acre (8.1 ha) campus located in the neighborhood ofWashington Heights, fifty blocks uptown. Other teaching hospitals affiliated with Columbia through the NewYork-Presbyterian network include the Payne Whitney Clinic in Manhattan, and the Payne Whitney Westchester, a psychiatric institute located in White Plains, New York.On the northern tip of Manhattan island (in the neighborhood ofInwood), Columbia owns the 26-acre (11 ha) Baker Field, which includes theLawrence A. Wien Stadiumas well as facilities for field sports, outdoor track, and tennis. There is a third campus on the west bank of theHudson River, the 157-acre (64 ha)Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatoryand Earth Institute inPalisades, New York. A fourth is the 60-acre (24 ha)Nevis LaboratoriesinIrvington, New York, for the study of particle and motion physics. A satellite site in Paris holds classes atReid Hall. Sustainability In 2006, the university established the Office of Environmental Stewardship to initiate, coordinate and implement programs to reduce the university's environmental footprint. The U.S. Green Building Council selected the university's Manhattanville plan for theLeadership in Energy and Environmental Design(LEED) Neighborhood Design pilot program. The plan commits to incorporating smart growth, new urbanism and \"green\" building design principles.Columbia is one of the 2030 Challenge Partners, a group of nine universities in the city of New York that have pledged to reduce theirgreenhouse emissionsby 30% within the next ten years. Columbia University adopts LEED standards for all new construction and major renovations. The university requires a minimum of Silver, but through its design and review process seeks to achieve higher levels. This is especially challenging for lab and research buildings with their intensive energy use; however, the university also uses lab design guidelines that seek to maximize energy efficiency while protecting the safety of researchers. Every Thursday and Sunday of the month, Columbia hosts agreenmarketwhere local farmers can sell their produce to residents of the city. In addition, from April to November Hodgson's farm, a local New York gardening center, joins the market bringing a large selection of plants and blooming flowers. The market is one of the many operated at different points throughout the city by the non-profit group GrowNYC.Dining services at Columbia spends 36 percent of its food budget on local products, in addition to serving sustainably harvested seafood and fair trade coffee on campus.Columbia has been rated \"B+\" by the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card for its environmental and sustainability initiatives. According to theA. W. KuchlerU.S.potential natural vegetationtypes, Columbia University would have a dominant vegetation type of AppalachianOak(104) with a dominant vegetation form of EasternHardwoodForest (25). Transportation Columbia Transportationis the bus service of the university, operated byAcademy Bus Lines. The buses are open to all Columbia faculty, students, Dodge Fitness Center members, and anyone else who holds a Columbia ID card. In addition, allTSCstudents can ride the buses. In theNew York City Subway, thetrain serves the university at116th Street-Columbia University. TheM4,M104andM60buses stop on Broadway while theM11stops on Amsterdam Avenue. The main campus is primarily boxed off by the streets of Amsterdam Avenue,Broadway, 114th street, and 120th street, with some buildings, including Barnard College, located just outside the area. The nearest major highway is theHenry Hudson Parkway(NY 9A) to the west of the campus. It is located 3.4 miles (5.5 km) south of theGeorge Washington Bridge. Academics Undergraduate admissions and financial aid Columbia University received 60,551 applications for the class of 2025 (entering 2021) and a total of around 2,218 were admitted to the two schools for an overall acceptance rate of 3.66%.Columbia is a racially diverse school, with approximately 52% of all students identifying themselves as persons of color. Additionally, 50% of all undergraduates received grants from Columbia. The average grant size awarded to these students is $46,516.In 2015–2016, annual undergraduate tuition at Columbia was $50,526 with a total cost of attendance of $65,860 (including room and board).The college isneed-blindfor domestic applicants. Annual gifts, fund-raising, and an increase in spending from the university's endowment have allowed Columbia to extend generous financial aid packages to qualifying students. On April 11, 2007, Columbia University announced a $400 million donation from media billionaire alumnusJohn Klugeto be used exclusively for undergraduate financial aid. The donation is among the largest single gifts to higher education.As of 2008, undergraduates from families with incomes as high as $60,000 a year will have the projected cost of attending the university, including room, board, and academic fees, fully paid for by the university. That same year, the university ended loans for incoming and then-current students who were on financial aid, replacing loans that were traditionally part of aid packages with grants from the university. However, this does not apply to international students, transfer students, visiting students, or students in the School of General Studies.In the fall of 2010, admission to Columbia's undergraduate collegesColumbia Collegeand theFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science(also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) began accepting theCommon Application. The policy change made Columbia one of the last major academic institutions and the lastIvy Leagueuniversity to switch to the Common Application. Scholarships are also given to undergraduate students by the admissions committee. Designations include John W. Kluge Scholars, John Jay Scholars, C. Prescott Davis Scholars, Global Scholars, Egleston Scholars, and Science Research Fellows. Named scholars are selected by the admission committee from first-year applicants. According to Columbia, the first four designated scholars \"distinguish themselves for their remarkable academic and personal achievements, dynamism, intellectual curiosity, the originality and independence of their thinking, and the diversity that stems from their different cultures and their varied educational experiences\". In 1919, Columbia established a student application process characterized byThe New York Timesas \"the first modern college application\". The application required a photograph of the applicant, the maiden name of the applicant's mother, and the applicant's religious background. Organization Columbia University is an independent, privately supported, nonsectarian andnot-for-profitinstitution of higher education.Its official corporate name isTrustees of Columbia University in the City of New York. In 1754, the university's first charter was granted byKing George II; however, its modern charter was first enacted in 1787 and last amended in 1810 by the New York State Legislature. The university is governed by 24 trustees, customarily including the president, who servesex officio. The trustees themselves are responsible for choosing their successors. Six of the 24 are nominated from a pool of candidates recommended by the Columbia Alumni Association. Another six are nominated by the board in consultation with the executive committee of the University Senate. The remaining 12, including the president, are nominated by the trustees themselves through their internal processes. The term of office for trustees is six years. Generally, they serve for no more than two consecutive terms. The trustees appoint the president and other senior administrative officers of the university, and review and confirm faculty appointments as required. They determine the university's financial and investment policies, authorize the budget, supervise the endowment, direct the management of the university's real estate and other assets, and otherwise oversee the administration and management of the university. The University Senate was established by the trustees after a university-wide referendum in 1969. It succeeded to the powers of the University Council, which was created in 1890 as a body of faculty, deans, and other administrators to regulate inter-Faculty affairs and consider issues of university-wide concern. The University Senate is a unicameral body consisting of 107 members drawn from all constituencies of the university. These include the president of the university, the provost, the deans of Columbia College and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, all of whom serveex officio, and five additional representatives, appointed by the president, from the university's administration. The president serves as the Senate's presiding officer. The Senate is charged with reviewing the educational policies, physical development, budget, and external relations of the university. It oversees the welfare and academic freedom of the faculty and the welfare of students. Thepresident of Columbia University, who is selected by the trustees in consultation with the executive committee of the University Senate and who serves at the trustees' pleasure, is the chief executive officer of the university. Assisting the president in administering the university are the provost, the senior executive vice president, the executive vice president for health and biomedical sciences, several other vice presidents, the general counsel, the secretary of the university, and the deans of the faculties, all of whom are appointed by the trustees on the nomination of the president and serve at their pleasure. Columbia has four official undergraduate colleges:Columbia College, the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree; theFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science(also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering), the engineering and applied science school offering the Bachelor of Science degree; theSchool of General Studies, the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree to non-traditional students undertaking full- or part-time study; andBarnard College.Barnard Collegeis a women's liberal arts college and an academic affiliate in which students receive a Bachelor of Arts degree from Columbia University. Their degrees are signed by the presidents of Columbia University and Barnard College.Barnard students are also eligible to cross-register classes that are available through the Barnard Catalogue and alumnae can join the Columbia Alumni Association. Joint degree programs are available throughUnion Theological Seminary, theJewish Theological Seminary of America,and theJuilliard School.Teachers CollegeandBarnard Collegeare official faculties of the university; both colleges' presidents are deans under the university governance structure.The Columbia University Senate includes faculty and student representatives from Teachers College and Barnard College who serve two-year terms; all senators are accorded full voting privileges regarding matters impacting the entire university. Teachers College is an affiliated, financially independent graduate school with their own board of trustees.Pursuant to an affiliation agreement, Columbia is given the authority to confer \"degrees and diplomas\" to the graduates of Teachers College. The degrees are signed by presidents of Teachers College and Columbia University in a manner analogous to the university's other graduate schools.Columbia's General Studies school also has joint undergraduate programs available throughUniversity College London,Sciences Po,City University of Hong Kong,Trinity College Dublin,and theJuilliard School. The university also has severalColumbia Global Centers, inAmman,Beijing,Istanbul,Mumbai,Nairobi,Paris,Rio de Janeiro,Santiago, andTunis. International partnerships Columbia students can study abroad for a semester or a year at partner institutions such asSciences Po,École des hautes études en sciences sociales(EHESS),École normale supérieure(ENS),Panthéon-Sorbonne University,King's College London,London School of Economics,University College Londonand theUniversity of Warwick. Select students can study at either theUniversity of Oxfordor theUniversity of Cambridgefor a year if approved by both Columbia and either Oxford or Cambridge.Columbia also has a dual MA program with theAga Khan Universityin London. Rankings Columbia University is ranked 12th in the United States and seventh globally for 2023–2024 byU.S. News & World Report. QS University Rankings listed Columbia as fifth in the United States. Ranked 15th among U.S. colleges for 2020 byThe Wall Street JournalandTimes Higher Education, in recent years it has been ranked as high as second. Individual colleges and schools were also nationally ranked byU.S. News & World Reportfor its 2021 edition.Columbia Law Schoolwas ranked fourth, theMailman School of Public Healthfourth, theSchool of Social Worktied for third,Columbia Business Schooleighth, theCollege of Physicians and Surgeonstied for sixth for research (and tied for 31st for primary care), theSchool of Nursingtied for 11th in the master's program and tied for first in the doctorate nursing program, and theFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science(graduate) was ranked tied for 14th. In 2021, Columbia was ranked seventh in the world (sixth in the United States) byAcademic Ranking of World Universities, sixth in the world byU.S. News & World Report, 19th in the world byQS World University Rankings, and 11th globally byTimes Higher Education World University Rankings. It was ranked in the first tier of American research universities, along with Harvard, MIT, and Stanford, in the 2019 report from theCenter for Measuring University Performance. Columbia'sGraduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservationwas ranked the second most admired graduate program byArchitectural Recordin 2020. In 2011, theMines ParisTech: Professional Ranking of World Universitiesranked Columbia third best university for formingCEOsin the US and 12th worldwide. Controversies In 2022, Columbia's reporting of metrics used for university ranking was criticized by Professor of MathematicsMichael Thaddeus, who argued key data supporting the ranking was \"inaccurate, dubious or highly misleading.\"Subsequently,U.S. News & World Report\"unranked\" Columbia from its 2022 list of Best Colleges saying that it could not verify the data submitted by the university.In June 2023, Columbia University announced their undergraduate schools would no longer participate inU.S. News & World Report'srankings, following the lead of its law, medical and nursing schools. A press release cited concerns that such rankings unduly influence applicants and \"distill a university's profile into a composite of data categories.\" Research Columbia isclassifiedamong \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\".Columbia was the first North American site where theuraniumatom was split. The College of Physicians and Surgeons played a central role in developing the modern understanding of neuroscience with the publication ofPrinciples of Neural Science, described by historian of science Katja Huenther as the \"neuroscience 'bible' \".The book was written by a team of Columbia researchers that included Nobel Prize winnerEric Kandel,James H. Schwartz, andThomas Jessell. Columbia was the birthplace ofFM radioand thelaser.The firstbrain-computer interfacecapable of translating brain signals into speech was developed byneuroengineersat Columbia.TheMPEG-2algorithm of transmitting high quality audio and video over limited bandwidth was developed byDimitris Anastassiou, a Columbia professor of electrical engineering. BiologistMartin Chalfiewas the first to introduce the use ofGreen Fluorescent Protein(GFP) in labeling cells in intact organisms.Other inventions and products related to Columbia include Sequential Lateral Solidification (SLS) technology for making LCDs, System Management Arts (SMARTS),Session Initiation Protocol(SIP) (which is used for audio, video, chat, instant messaging and whiteboarding),pharmacopeia, Macromodel (software for computational chemistry), a new and better recipe for glass concrete, BlueLEDs, and Beamprop (used in photonics). Columbia scientists have been credited with about 175 new inventions in the health sciences each year.More than 30 pharmaceutical products based on discoveries and inventions made at Columbia reached the market. These includeRemicade(for arthritis),Reopro(for blood clot complications),Xalatan(for glaucoma),Benefix,Latanoprost(a glaucoma treatment), shoulder prosthesis,homocysteine(testing for cardiovascular disease), andZolinza(for cancer therapy).Columbia Technology Ventures (formerly Science and Technology Ventures), as of 2008, manages some 600 patents and more than 250 active license agreements.Patent-related deals earned Columbia more than $230 million in the 2006 fiscal year, according to the university, more than any university in the world.Columbia owns many unique research facilities, such as theColumbia Institute for Tele-Informationdedicated totelecommunicationsand theGoddard Institute for Space Studies, which is anastronomicalobservatoryaffiliated withNASA. Military and veteran enrollment Columbia is a long-standing participant of theUnited States Department of Veterans AffairsYellow Ribbon Program, allowing eligible veterans to pursue a Columbia undergraduate degree regardless of socioeconomic status for over 70 years.As a part of the Eisenhower Leader Development Program (ELDP) in partnership with theUnited States Military AcademyatWest Point, Columbia is the only school in the Ivy League to offer a graduate degree program in organizational psychology to aid military officers in tactical decision making and strategic management. Awards Several prestigious awards are administered by Columbia University, most notably thePulitzer Prizeand theBancroft Prizein history.Other prizes, which are awarded by theGraduate School of Journalism, include theAlfred I. duPont–Columbia University Award, theNational Magazine Awards, theMaria Moors Cabot Prizes, theJohn Chancellor Award, and the Lukas Prizes, which include theJ. Anthony Lukas Book PrizeandMark Lynton History Prize.The university also administers theLouisa Gross Horwitz Prize, which is considered an important precursor to the Nobel Prize, 51 of its 101 recipients having gone on to win either aNobel Prize in Physiology or MedicineorNobel Prize in Chemistryas of October 2018;theW. Alden Spencer Award;theVetlesen Prize, which is known as the Nobel Prize of geology;theJapan-U.S. Friendship Commission Prize for the Translation of Japanese Literature, the oldest such award;theEdwin Howard Armstrong award;theCalderone Prizein public health;and theDitson Conductor's Award. Student life In 2020, Columbia University's student population was 31,455 (8,842 students in undergraduate programs and 22,613 in postgraduate programs), with 45% of the student population identifying themselves as a minority.Twenty-six percent of students at Columbia have family incomes below $60,000. 16% of students at Columbia receive Federal Pell Grants,which mostly go to students whose family incomes are below $40,000. Seventeen percent of students are the first member of their family to attend a four-year college. On-campus housing is guaranteed for all four years as an undergraduate.Columbia Collegeand theFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science(also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) share housing in the on-campus residence halls. First-year students usually live in one of the large residence halls situated around South Lawn:Carman Hall,Furnald Hall,Hartley Hall,John Jay Hall, orWallach Hall(originally Livingston Hall). Upperclassmen participate in a room selection process, wherein students can pick to live in a mix of either corridor- or apartment-style housing with their friends. TheColumbia University School of General Studies,Barnard Collegeand graduate schools have their own apartment-style housing in the surrounding neighborhood. Columbia University is home to manyfraternities, sororities, and co-educational Greek organizations. Approximately 10–15% of undergraduate students are associated with Greek life.Many Barnard women also join Columbia sororities. There has been a Greek presence on campus since the establishment in 1836 of the Delta chapter ofAlpha Delta Phi.The InterGreek Council is the self-governing student organization that provides guidelines and support to its member organizations within each of the three councils at Columbia, the Interfraternity Council, Panhellenic Council, and Multicultural Greek Council. The three council presidents bring their affiliated chapters together once a month to meet as one Greek community. The InterGreek Council meetings provide opportunity for member organizations to learn from each other, work together and advocate for community needs. Publications TheColumbia Daily Spectatoris the nation's second-oldest continuously operating daily student newspaper.The Blue and Whiteis a monthly literary magazine established in 1890 that discusses campus life and local politics.Bwog,originally an offshoot ofThe Blue and Whitebut now fully independent, is an online campus news and entertainment source.The Morningside Postis a student-run multimedia news publication. Political publications includeThe Current, a journal of politics, culture and Jewish Affairs;theColumbia Political Review, the multi-partisan political magazine of the Columbia Political Union;andAdHoc, which denotes itself as the \"progressive\" campus magazine and deals largely with local political issues and arts events. Columbia Magazineis the alumni magazine of Columbia, serving all 340,000+ of the university's alumni. Arts and literary publications includeThe Columbia Review, the nation's oldest college literary magazine;Surgam, the literary magazine ofThe Philolexian Society;Quarto, Columbia University's official undergraduate literary magazine;4x4, a student-run alternative toQuarto;Columbia, a nationally regardedliterary journal; theColumbia Journal of Literary Criticism;andThe Mobius Strip, an online arts and literary magazine.Inside New Yorkis an annual guidebook to New York City, written, edited, and published by Columbia undergraduates. Through a distribution agreement withColumbia University Press, the book is sold at major retailers and independent bookstores. Columbia is home to numerous undergraduate academic publications. TheColumbia Undergraduate Science Journalprints original science research in its two annual publications.TheJournal of Politics & Societyis a journal of undergraduate research in the social sciences;Publiusis an undergraduate journal of politics established in 2008 and published biannually;theColumbia East Asia Reviewallows undergraduates throughout the world to publish original work on China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Vietnam and is supported by theWeatherhead East Asian Institute;The Birchis an undergraduate journal of Eastern European and Eurasian culture that is the first national student-run journal of its kind;theColumbia Economics Reviewis the undergraduate economic journal on research and policy supported by the Columbia Economics Department; and theColumbia Science Reviewis a science magazine that prints general interest articles and faculty profiles. Humor publications on Columbia's campus includeThe Fed, a triweekly satire and investigative newspaper, and theJester of Columbia.Other publications includeThe Columbian, the undergraduate colleges' annually published yearbook;theGadfly, a biannual journal of popular philosophy produced by undergraduates;andRhapsody in Blue, an undergraduate urban studies magazine.Professional journals published by academic departments at Columbia University includeCurrent MusicologyandThe Journal of Philosophy.During the spring semester, graduate students in the Journalism School publishThe Bronx Beat, a bi-weekly newspaper covering the South Bronx. Founded in 1961 under the auspices of Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism, theColumbia Journalism Review(CJR) examines day-to-day press performance as well as the forces that affect that performance. The magazine is published six times a year. Former publications include theColumbia University Forum, a review of literature and cultural affairs distributed for free to alumni. Broadcasting Columbia is home to two pioneers in undergraduatecampus radiobroadcasting,WKCR-FMand CTV. Many undergraduates are also involved with Barnard's radio station,WBAR. WKCR, the student run radio station that broadcasts to the Tri-state area, claims to be the oldest FM radio station in the world, owing to the university's affiliation withMajor Edwin Armstrong. The station went operational on July 18, 1939, from a 400-foot antenna tower in Alpine, New Jersey, broadcasting the first FM transmission in the world. Initially, WKCR was not a radio station, but an organization concerned with the technology of radio communications. As membership grew, however, the nascent club turned its efforts to broadcasting. Armstrong helped the students in their early efforts, donating a microphone and turntables when they designed their first makeshift studio in a dorm room.The station has its studios on the second floor of Alfred Lerner Hall on the Morningside campus with its main transmitter tower at4 Times SquareinMidtown Manhattan. Columbia Television (CTV) is the nation's second oldeststudent television stationand the home of CTV News, a weekly live news program produced by undergraduate students. Debate and Model UN ThePhilolexian Societyis a literary and debating club founded in 1802, making it the oldest student group at Columbia, as well as the third oldest collegiate literary society in the country.The society annually administers theJoyce Kilmer Memorial Bad Poetry Contest.The Columbia Parliamentary Debate Team competes in tournaments around the country as part of theAmerican Parliamentary Debate Association, and hosts both high school and college tournaments on Columbia's campus, as well as public debates on issues affecting the university. The Columbia International Relations Council and Association (CIRCA), oversees Columbia'sModel United Nationsactivities. CIRCA hosts college and high school Model UN conferences, hosts speakers influential in international politics to speak on campus, and trains students from underprivileged schools in New York in Model UN. Technology and entrepreneurship Columbia is a top supplier of young engineering entrepreneurs for New York City. Over the past 20 years, graduates of Columbia established over 100 technology companies. The Columbia University Organization of Rising Entrepreneurs (CORE) was founded in 1999. The student-run group aims to foster entrepreneurship on campus. Each year CORE hosts dozens of events, including talks, #StartupColumbia, a conference and venture competition for $250,000, and Ignite@CU, a weekend for undergrads interested in design, engineering, and entrepreneurship. Notable speakers includePeter Thiel,Jack Dorsey,Alexis Ohanian,Drew Houston, andMark Cuban. As of 2006, CORE had awarded graduate and undergraduate students over $100,000 in seed capital. CampusNetwork, an on-campus social networking site called Campus Network that preceded Facebook, was created and popularized by Columbia engineering student Adam Goldberg in 2003.Mark Zuckerberglater asked Goldberg to join him inPalo Altoto work on Facebook, but Goldberg declined the offer.TheFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Scienceoffers a minor in Technical Entrepreneurship through its Center for Technology, Innovation, and Community Engagement. SEAS' entrepreneurship activities focus on community building initiatives in New York and worldwide, made possible through partners such asMicrosoft Corporation. On June 14, 2010, MayorMichael R. Bloomberglaunched the NYC Media Lab to promote innovations in New York's media industry. Situated at theNew York University Tandon School of Engineering, the lab is a consortium of Columbia University,New York University, andNew York City Economic Development Corporationacting to connect companies with universities in new technology research. The Lab is modeled after similar ones atMITandStanford, and was established with a $250,000 grant from the New York City Economic Development Corporation. World Leaders Forum Established in 2003 by university presidentLee C. Bollinger, the World Leaders Forum at Columbia University provides the opportunity for students and faculty to listen to world leaders in government, religion, industry, finance, and academia. Past forum speakers include former president of the United StatesBill Clinton, the prime minister of IndiaAtal Bihari Vajpayee, former president of GhanaJohn Agyekum Kufuor, president of AfghanistanHamid Karzai, prime minister of RussiaVladimir Putin, president of the Republic of MozambiqueJoaquim Alberto Chissano, president of the Republic of BoliviaCarlos Diego Mesa Gisbert, president of the Republic of RomaniaIon Iliescu, president of the Republic of LatviaVaira Vīķe-Freiberga, the first female president of FinlandTarja Halonen, PresidentYudhoyonoof Indonesia, PresidentPervez Musharrafof the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Iraq PresidentJalal Talabani, the14th Dalai Lama, president of the Islamic Republic of IranMahmoud Ahmadinejad, financierGeorge Soros, Mayor of New York CityMichael R. Bloomberg, PresidentVáclav Klausof the Czech Republic, PresidentCristina Fernández de Kirchnerof Argentina, former Secretary-General of the United NationsKofi Annan, andAl Gore. Other The Columbia University Orchestra was founded by composerEdward MacDowellin 1896, and is the oldest continually operating university orchestra in the United States. Undergraduate student composers at Columbia may choose to become involved with Columbia New Music, which sponsors concerts of music written by undergraduate students from all of Columbia's schools.The Notes and Keys, the oldesta cappellagroup at Columbia, was founded in 1909.There are a number of performing arts groups at Columbia dedicated to producing student theater, including the Columbia Players, King's Crown Shakespeare Troupe (KCST), Columbia Musical Theater Society (CMTS), NOMADS (New and Original Material Authored and Directed by Students), LateNite Theatre, Columbia University Performing Arts League (CUPAL), Black Theatre Ensemble (BTE), sketch comedy group Chowdah, and improvisational troupes Alfred and Fruit Paunch. TheColumbia Queer Allianceis the central Columbia student organization that represents the bisexual, lesbian, gay, transgender, and questioning student population. It is the oldestgaystudent organization in the world, founded as the StudentHomophileLeague in 1967 by students including lifelong activistStephen Donaldson. Columbia University campus military groups include the U.S. Military Veterans of Columbia University and Advocates for Columbia ROTC. In the 2005–06 academic year, the Columbia Military Society, Columbia's student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates, was renamed the Hamilton Society for \"students who aspire to serve their nation through the military in the tradition ofAlexander Hamilton\". The largest student service organization at Columbia is Community Impact (CI). Founded in 1981, CI provides food, clothing, shelter, education, job training, and companionship for residents in its surrounding communities. CI consists of about 950 Columbia University student volunteers participating in 25 community service programs, which serve more than 8,000 people each year. Columbia has several secret societies, includingSt. Anthony Hall, which was founded at the university in 1847, and two senior societies, theNacoms and Sachems. Athletics A member institution of theNational Collegiate Athletic Association(NCAA) inDivision IFCS, Columbia fields varsity teams in 29 sports and is a member of theIvy League. The football Lions play home games at the 17,000-seatRobert K. Kraft Field at Lawrence A. Wien Stadium. The Baker Athletics Complex also includes facilities for baseball, softball, soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, tennis, track, and rowing, as well as the new Campbell Sports Center, which opened in January 2013. The basketball, fencing, swimming & diving, volleyball, and wrestling programs are based at the Dodge Physical Fitness Center on the main campus. Former students includeBaseball Hall of FamersLou GehrigandEddie Collins,football Hall of FamerSid Luckman,Marcellus Wiley, and world champion women's weightlifterKaryn Marshall.On May 17, 1939, fledglingNBCbroadcast a doubleheader between the Columbia Lions and thePrinceton Tigersat Columbia's Baker Field, making it the first televised regular athletic event in history. Columbia University athletics has a long history, with many accomplishments in athletic fields. In 1870, Columbia played againstRutgers Universityin the second intercollegiate rugby football game in the history of the sport. Eight years later, Columbia crew won the famedHenley Royal Regattain the first-ever defeat for an English crew rowing in English waters. In 1900, Olympian and Columbia College studentMaxie Longset the first official world record in the 400 meters with a time of 47.8 seconds. In 1983, Columbia men's soccer went 18–0 and was ranked first in the nation, but lost to Indiana 1–0 in double overtime in the NCAA championship game; nevertheless, the team went further toward the NCAA title than any Ivy League soccer team in history.The football program unfortunately is best known for its record of futility set during the 1980s: between 1983 and 1988, the team lost 44 games in a row, which is still the record for the NCAAFootball Championship Subdivision. The streak was broken on October 8, 1988, with a 16–13 victory over arch-rivalPrinceton University. That was the Lions' first victory at Wien Stadium, which had been opened during the losing streak and was already four years old.A new tradition has developed with theLiberty Cup. The Liberty Cup is awarded annually to the winner of the football game betweenFordhamand Columbia Universities, two of the only three NCAA Division I football teams in New York City. Traditions The Varsity Show The Varsity Show is one of the oldest traditions at Columbia. Founded in 1893 as a fundraiser for the university's fledgling athletic teams, the Varsity Show now draws together the entire Columbia undergraduate community for a series of performances every April. Dedicated to producing a unique full-length musical that skewers and satirizes many dubious aspects of life at Columbia, the Varsity Show is written and performed exclusively by university undergraduates. Various renowned playwrights, composers, authors, directors, and actors have contributed to the Varsity Show, either as writers or performers, while students at Columbia, includingRichard Rodgers,Oscar Hammerstein II,Lorenz Hart,Herman J. Mankiewicz,I. A. L. Diamond,Herman Wouk,Greta Gerwig, andKate McKinnon. Notable past shows includeFly With Me(1920),TheStreets of New York(1948),The Sky's the Limit(1954), andAngels at Columbia(1994). In particular,Streets of New York, after having been revived three times, openedoff-Broadwayin 1963 and was awarded a 1964Drama Desk Award.The Mischief Maker(1903), written byEdgar Allan Woolfand Cassius Freeborn, premiered atMadison Square Gardenin 1906 asMam'zelle Champagne. Tree Lighting and Yule Log ceremonies The campus Tree Lighting ceremony was inaugurated in 1998. It celebrates the illumination of the medium-sized trees lining College Walk in front of Kent Hall andHamilton Hallon the east end and Dodge Hall and Pulitzer Hall on the west, just before finals week in early December. The lights remain on until February 28. Students meet atthe sundialfor free hot chocolate, performances bya cappellagroups, and speeches by the university president and a guest. Immediately following the College Walk festivities is one of Columbia's older holiday traditions, the lighting of the Yule Log. The Christmas ceremony dates to a period prior to theAmerican Revolutionary War, but lapsed before being revived by PresidentNicholas Murray Butlerin 1910. A troop of students dressed asContinental Armysoldiers carry the eponymous log from the sundial to the lounge ofJohn Jay Hall, where it is lit amid the singing of seasonal carols. The Christmas ceremony is accompanied by a reading ofA Visit From St. NicholasbyClement Clarke MooreandYes, Virginia, There is a Santa ClausbyFrancis Pharcellus Church. Notable people Alumni The university has graduated many notable alumni, including fiveFounding Fathers of the United States,an authorof the United States Constitution anda memberof theCommittee of Five. Three United States presidents have attended Columbia,as well as tenJustices of the Supreme Court of the United States, including threeChief Justices. As of 2011, 125 Pulitzer Prize winners and 39 Oscar winners have attended Columbia.As of 2006, there were 101 National Academy members who were alumni. In a 2016 ranking of universities worldwide with respect to living graduates who are billionaires, Columbia ranked second, after Harvard. Former U.S. PresidentsTheodore RooseveltandFranklin Delano Rooseveltattended the law school. Other political figures educated at Columbia include former U.S. PresidentBarack Obama,Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme CourtRuth Bader Ginsburg,former U.S. Secretary of StateMadeleine Albright,former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve BankAlan Greenspan,U.S. Attorney GeneralEric Holder, and U.S. Solicitor GeneralDonald Verrilli Jr.The university has also educated 29 foreignheads of state, including president of GeorgiaMikheil Saakashvili, president of East TimorJosé Ramos-Horta, president of EstoniaToomas Hendrik Ilvesand other historical figures such asWellington Koo,Radovan Karadžić,Gaston Eyskens, andT. V. Soong. One of the founding fathers of modern India and the prime architect of the Constitution of India,B. R. Ambedkar, was an alumnus. Alumni of Columbia have occupied top positions in Wall Street and the rest of the business world. Notable members of theAstor familyattended Columbia, while other business graduates include investorWarren Buffett,former CEO of PBS and NBCLawrence K. Grossman,chairman ofWalmartS. Robson Walton,Bain CapitalCo-Managing Partner,Jonathan Lavine,Thomson ReutersCEOTom Glocer,New York Stock ExchangepresidentLynn Martin,andAllianceBernsteinChairman and CEOLewis A. Sanders.CEO's of top Fortune 500 companies includeJames P. GormanofMorgan Stanley,Robert J. StevensofLockheed Martin,Philippe DaumanofViacom,Robert BakishofParamount Global,Ursula BurnsofXerox,Devin WenigofEBay,Vikram PanditofCitigroup,Ralph IzzoofPublic Service Enterprise Group,Gail Koziara BoudreauxofAnthem,andFrank BlakeofThe Home Depot.Notable labor organizer and women's educatorLouise Leonard McLarenreceived her degree of Master of Arts from Columbia. In science and technology, Columbia alumni include: founder ofIBMHerman Hollerith;inventor ofFM radioEdwin Armstrong;Francis Mechner; integral in development of thenuclear submarineHyman Rickover;founder ofGoogle ChinaKai-Fu Lee;scientistsStephen Jay Gould,Robert Millikan,Helium–neon laserinventorAli JavanandMihajlo Pupin;chief-engineer of theNew York City Subway,William Barclay Parsons;philosophersIrwin EdmanandRobert Nozick;economistMilton Friedman;psychologistHarriet Babcock;archaeologistJosephine Platner Shear;and sociologistsLewis A. CoserandRose Laub Coser. Many Columbia alumni have gone on to renowned careers in the arts, including composersRichard Rodgers,Oscar Hammerstein II,Lorenz Hart,andArt Garfunkel;and painterGeorgia O'Keeffe.Five United StatesPoet Laureatesreceived their degrees from Columbia. Columbia alumni have made an indelible mark in the field of American poetry and literature, with such people asJack KerouacandAllen Ginsberg, pioneers of theBeat Generation;andLangston HughesandZora Neale Hurston, seminal figures in theHarlem Renaissance,all having attended the university. Other notable writers who attended Columbia include authorsIsaac Asimov,J.D. Salinger,Upton Sinclair,Ursula K. Le Guin,Danielle Valore Evans,andHunter S. Thompson.In architecture,William Lee Stoddart, a prolific architect ofU.S. East Coasthotels, is an alumnus. University alumni have also been very prominent in the film industry, with 33 alumni and former students winning a combined 43Academy Awards(as of 2011).Some notable Columbia alumni that have gone on to work in film include directorsSidney Lumet(12 Angry Men)andKathryn Bigelow(The Hurt Locker),screenwritersHoward Koch(Casablanca)andJoseph L. Mankiewicz(All About Eve),and actorsJames Cagney,Ed HarrisandTimothée Chalamet. Faculty As of 2021, Columbia employs 4,381 faculty, including 70 members of theNational Academy of Sciences,178 members of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences,and 65 members of theNational Academy of Medicine.In total, the Columbia faculty has included 52Nobel laureates, 12National Medal of Sciencerecipients,and 32National Academy of Engineeringmembers. Columbia University faculty played particularly important roles duringWorld War IIand the creation of theNew Dealunder PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt, who attended Columbia Law School. The three core members of Roosevelt'sBrain Trust:Adolf A. Berle,Raymond Moley, andRexford Tugwell, were law professors at Columbia.TheStatistical Research Group, which used statistics to analyze military problems during World War II, was composed of Columbia researchers and faculty includingGeorge StiglerandMilton Friedman.Columbia faculty and researchers, includingEnrico Fermi,Leo Szilard,Eugene T. Booth,John R. Dunning,George B. Pegram,Walter Zinn,Chien-Shiung Wu,Francis G. Slack,Harold Urey,Herbert L. Anderson, andIsidor Isaac Rabi, also played a significant role during the early phases of theManhattan Project. Following the rise ofNazi Germany, the exiledInstitute for Social ResearchatGoethe University Frankfurtwould affiliate itself with Columbia from 1934 to 1950.It was during this period that thinkers includingTheodor Adorno,Max Horkheimer, andHerbert Marcusewrote and published some of the most seminal works of theFrankfurt School, includingReason and Revolution,Dialectic of Enlightenment, andEclipse of Reason.ProfessorsEdward Said, author ofOrientalism, andGayatri Spivakare generally considered as founders of the field ofpostcolonialism;other professors that have significantly contributed to the field includeHamid DabashiandJoseph Massad.The works of professorsKimberlé Crenshaw,Patricia J. Williams, andKendall Thomaswere foundational to the field ofcritical race theory. Columbia and its affiliated faculty have also made significant contributions to the study of religion. The affiliated Union Theological Seminary is a center ofliberal Christianityin the United States, having served as the birthplace ofBlack theologythrough the efforts of faculty includingJames H. ConeandCornel West,andWomanist theology, through the works ofKatie Cannon,Emilie Townes, andDelores S. Williams.Likewise, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America was the birthplace ofConservative Judaismmovement in the United States, which was founded and led by faculty members includingSolomon Schechter,Alexander Kohut, andLouis Ginzbergin the early 20th century, and is a major center for Jewish studies in general. Other schools of thought in the humanities Columbia professors made significant contributions toward include theDunning School, founded byWilliam Archibald Dunning;the anthropological schools ofhistorical particularismandcultural relativism, founded byFranz Boas;andfunctional psychology, whose founders and proponents includeJohn Dewey,James McKeen Cattell,Edward L. Thorndike, andRobert S. Woodworth. Notable figures that have served as thepresident of Columbia Universityinclude34thPresident of the United StatesDwight D. Eisenhower,4thVice President of the United StatesGeorge Clinton,Founding FatherandU.S. Senatorfrom ConnecticutWilliam Samuel Johnson,Nobel Peace PrizelaureateNicholas Murray Butler, andFirst AmendmentscholarLee Bollinger. Notable Columbia University faculty includeZbigniew Brzezinski,Sonia Sotomayor,Kimberlé Crenshaw,Lee Bollinger,Franz Boas,Margaret Mead,Edward Sapir,John Dewey,Charles A. Beard,Max Horkheimer,Herbert Marcuse,Edward Said,Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,Orhan Pamuk,Edwin Howard Armstrong,Enrico Fermi,Chien-Shiung Wu,Tsung-Dao Lee,Jack Steinberger,Joachim Frank,Joseph Stiglitz,Jeffrey Sachs,Robert Mundell,Thomas Hunt Morgan,Eric Kandel,Richard Axel, andAndrei Okounkov. See also Notes Citations References Further reading External links * indicates acting or interim president or chancellor" ]
[ "The Dragonfly Sea The Dragonfly Seais acoming-of-agefamily novel byKenyanwriterYvonne Adhiambo Owuor. It was published byKnopf Publishers, imprint ofPenguin Random House, in 2019. References This article about afamily saga novelof the 2010s is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article'stalk page. This article about aKenyannovel is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article'stalk page.", "Alfred A. Knopf Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.(/knɒpf/) is an American publishing house that was founded byBlanche KnopfandAlfred A. Knopf Sr.in 1915.Blanche and Alfred traveled abroad regularly and were known for publishing European, Asian, and Latin American writers in addition to leading American literary trends. It was acquired byRandom Housein 1960, and is now part of the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group division ofPenguin Random Housewhich is owned by the German conglomerateBertelsmann. The Knopf publishing house is associated with theborzoilogo in itscolophon, which was designed by co-founderBlanche Knopfin 1925. History Founding Knopf was founded in 1915 byAlfred A. Knopf Sr.along withBlanche Knopf, on a $5,000 advance from his father, Samuel Knopf.The first office was located in New York'sCandler Building.The publishing house was officially incorporated in 1918, with Alfred Knopf as president, Blanche Knopf as vice president, and Samuel Knopf as treasurer. From the start, Knopf focused on European", "focused on European translations and high-brow works of literature. Among their initial publications were French authorÉmile Augier'sFour Plays, Russian writerNikolai Gogol'sTaras Bulba, Polish novelistStanisław Przybyszewski's novelHomo Sapiens, and French writerGuy de Maupassant'sYvette, a Novelette, and Ten Other Stories.During World War I these books were cheap to obtain and helped establish Knopf as an American firm publishing European works.Their first bestseller was a new edition ofGreen Mansions, a novel byW. H. Hudsonwhich went through nine printings by 1919 and sold over 20,000 copies.Their first original American novel,The Three Black PennysbyJoseph Hergesheimer, was published in 1917. 1920s With the start of the 1920s Knopf began using innovative advertising techniques to draw attention to their books and authors. Beginning in 1920, Knopf produced achapbookfor the purpose of promoting new books.The Borzoiwas published periodically over the years, the first being a hardback calledThe Borzoiand", "calledThe Borzoiand sometimes quarterly asThe Borzoi Quarterly.For Floyd Dell's coming-of-age novel,Moon-Calf, they paid men to walk the streets of the financial and theatre districts dressed in artist costumes withsandwich boards. The placards had a copy of the book for browsing and directed interested buyers to local book shops. The unique look of their books along with their expertise in advertising their authors drewWilla Catherto leave her previous publisherHoughton Mifflinto join Alfred A. Knopf.As she was still under contract for her novels, the Knopfs suggested publishing a collection of her short stories,Youth and the Bright Medusa, in 1920.Cather was pleased with the results and the advertisement of the book inThe New Republicand would go on to publish sixteen books with Knopf, including their firstPulitzer Prizewinner,One of Ours. Before they had married, Alfred had promised Blanche that they would be equal partners in the publishing company, but it was clear by the company's fifth anniversary", "fifth anniversary that this was not to be the case. Knopf published a celebratory fifth-anniversary book in which Alfred was the focus of anecdotes by authors and Blanche's name was only mentioned once to note that \"Mrs. Knopf\" had found a manuscript. This despite ample evidence from authors and others that Blanche was in fact the soul of the company. This was covered extensively inThe Lady with the Borzoiby Laura Claridge. In 1923, Knopf also started publishing periodicals, beginning withThe American Mercury, founded byH. L. MenckenandGeorge Jean Nathan, which it published through 1934. Also in 1923, Knopf publishedKahlil Gibran'sThe Prophet. Knopf had published Gibran's earlier works which had disappointing sales. In its first year,The Prophetonly sold 1,159 copies. It would double sales the next year and keep doubling becoming one of the firm's most successful books. In 1965 the book sold 240,000 copies.Approaching its 100 year anniversary in 2023,The Prophethas been translated into over100 languagesand", "languagesand has never gone out of print for Knopf. In the 1920s, Knopf sometimes withdrew or censored their books when threatened byJohn Sumner, such asFloyd Dell'sJanet MarchorGeorge Egerton's 1899 translation ofHunger. 1930s Samuel Knopf died in 1932. William A. Koshland joined the company in 1934, and worked with the firm for more than fifty years, rising to take the positions of president and chairman of the board. Blanche became president in 1957 when Alfred became chairman of the board, and worked steadily for the firm until her death in 1966. Alfred Knopf retired in 1972, becoming chairman emeritus of the firm until his death in 1984. Alfred Knopf also had a summer home inPurchase, New York. 1940s Following theGood Neighbor policy, Blanche Knopf visited South America in 1942, so the firm could start producing texts from there. She was one of the first publishers to visit Europe after World War II. Her trips, and those of other editors, brought in new writers from Europe, South America, and Asia.", "America, and Asia. Alfred traveled to Brazil in 1961, which spurred a corresponding interest on his part in South America. Penn Publishing Company was acquired in 1943. The Knopfs' son, Alfred \"Pat\" Jr., was hired on as secretary and trade books manager after the war. 1950s In 1957, editorJudith Jonesjoined Knopf.Jones, who had discoveredAnne Frank: Diary of a Young Girlwhile working at Doubleday, acquiredJulia Child'sMastering the Art of French Cookingfor Knopf.Jones would remain with Knopf, retiring in 2011 as a senior editor and vice-president after a career that included working withJohn UpdikeandAnne Tyler. Pat Knopf left his parents' publishing company in 1959 to launch his own,Atheneum Publishers, with two other partners.The story made the front page ofThe New York Times. In a 1957 advertisement inThe Atlantic Monthly, Alfred A. Knopf published the Borzoi Credo. The credo includes a list of what Knopf's beliefs for publishing including the statement that he never published an unworthy book. Among a", "book. Among a list of beliefs listed is the final one—\"I believe that magazines, movies, television, and radio will never replace good books.\" Acquisition by Random House In 1960,Random Houseacquired Alfred A. Knopf.It is believed that the decision to sell was prompted byAlfred A. Knopf Jr., leaving Knopf to found his own book company,Atheneum Books, in 1959. Since its founding, Knopf has paid close attention to design andtypography,employing notable designers and typographers includingWilliam Addison Dwiggins, Harry Ford,Steven Heller,Chip Kidd,Lorraine Louie,Peter Mendelsund,Bruce Rogers,Rudolf Ruzicka, andBeatrice Warde. Knopf books conclude with an unnumbered page titled \"A Note on the Type\", which describes the history of thetypefaceused for the book. In addition, Knopf books date the year of the book's current printing on the title page. Knopf published textbooks until 1988, when Random House's schools and colleges division was sold toMcGraw Hill. In 1991, Knopf revived the \"Everyman's Library\" series,", "Library\" series, originally published in England in the early 20th century. This series consists of classics of world literature in affordable hardcover editions. The series has grown over the years to include lines ofChildren's ClassicsandPocket Poets. Random House was acquired byBertelsmann AGin 1998.In late 2008 and early 2009, the Knopf Publishing Group merged withDoubledayto form the Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.Random House has been owned since its 2013 merger ofPenguin GroupbyPenguin Random House, ajoint venturebetweenBertelsmann(53%) andPearson PLC(47%). Many of Knopf's hardcover books are published later asVintage paperbacks. Vintage Books is a sister imprint of Random House. In October 2012, Bertelsmann entered into talks with rival conglomeratePearson plc, over the possibility of combining their respective publishing companies, Random House andPenguin Group. The merger was completed on 1 July 2013 and the new company isPenguin Random House.Bertelsmann owned 53% of the joint venture while", "joint venture while Pearson owned 47%.At the time of the acquisition the combined companies controlled 25% of the book business, with more than 10,000 employees and 250 independent publishing imprints and with about $3.9 billion in annual revenues.The move to consolidate was to provide leverage againstAmazon.comand battle the shrinking state ofbookstores. In 2015, Knopf celebrated its 100th anniversary by publishing a commemorative book,Alfred A. Knopf, 1915–2015: A Century of Publishing. Notable people Notable editors and publishers While there have been many notable editors at Knopf there have only been four editors-in-chief:Alfred A. Knopf, Sr.,Robert Gottlieb,Sonny Mehta(who died in 2019) and Jordan Pavlin.Other influential editors at Knopf includedHarold Strauss(Japanese literature),Herbert Weinstock(biography of musical composers),Judith Jones(translations, The Diary of Anne Frank, culinary texts),Peter Mendelsund(art director and book cover designer)as well as Bobbie Bristol,Angus Cameron, Ann Close,", "Cameron, Ann Close, Charles Elliott,Gary Fisketjon, Lee Goerner,Ashbel Green,Carol Brown Janeway, Michael Magzis, Anne McCormick, Nancy Nicholas,Daniel Okrent, Regina Ryan, Sophie Wilkins, andVictoria Wilson. Knopf also employed literary scouts to good advantage. Notable authors Alfred A. Knopf has published books by many notable authors, includingJohn Banville,Carl Bernstein,Elizabeth Bowen,Frederick Buechner,Albert Camus,Robert Caro,Willa Cather,John Cheever,Julia Child,Bill Clinton,Michael Crichton,Miguel Covarrubias,Don DeLillo,Joan Didion,Bret Easton Ellis,James Ellroy,Martin Gardner,Kahlil Gibran,Lee H. Hamilton,Kazuo Ishiguro,John Keegan,Nella Larsen,John le Carré,Jack London,Gabriel García Márquez,Cormac McCarthy,Toni Morrison,Alice Munro,Haruki Murakami,Cynthia Ozick,Christopher Paolini,Edgar Allan Poe,Ezra Pound,Anne Rice,Dorothy Richardson,Stephen M. Silverman,Oswald Spengler,Susan Swan,Donna Tartt,Barbara W. Tuchman,Anne Tyler,John Updike,Andrew Vachss,James D. Watson, andElinor Wylie. Awards", "Wylie. Awards Logo Thelogofor Knopf is a Russian wolfhound orBorzoi.Blanche Knopfsuggested the Borzoi for the logo to imply motion and the logo was used on both the spine and the title page of their books. References Sources cited External links", "Alfred A. Knopf Sr. Alfred Abraham Knopf Sr.(September 12, 1892 – August 11, 1984) was an Americanpublisherof the 20th century, and co-founder ofAlfred A. Knopf, Inc.His contemporaries included the likes ofBennett CerfandDonald Klopfer, and (of the previous generation)Frank Nelson Doubleday, J. Henry Harper andHenry Holt. Knopf paid special attention to the quality of printing, binding, and design in his books, and earned a reputation as a purist in both content and presentation. Biography Knopf was born into aJewishfamily inNew York City. His father, Samuel Knopf, was an advertising executive and financial consultant, and his mother was Ida Japhe, a school teacher.Samuel Knopf was originally fromWarsaw, Poland, but came to New York with his parents, where he worked his way up the directorship at a small mercantile bank.Alfred's mother, Ida, was from a Latvian Jewish family who settled in New York.For a time Knopf's parents lived in theMidwestand inVirginia. Ida committed suicide when Alfred was five years", "was five years old and his sister Sophia was almost two.That same day, Alfred's father had filed for divorce in which he named Ida as an adulteress.His father later married Lillian Harris, who had a daughter, Bertha, from a previous marriage. With Lillian, Samuel had another son,Edwin H. Knopf, who worked for Alfred briefly, then became afilm directorandproducer. Alfred attendedColumbia University,where he was a pre-law student and a member of thePeithologian Society(a debating and literary club) and theBoar's Head Society.He began to show an interest in publishing during his senior year, becoming advertising manager of an undergraduate magazine. His interest in publishing was allegedly fostered by a correspondence with British authorJohn Galsworthy. Galsworthy was the subject of Knopf's senior thesis and after visiting Galsworthy inEngland, Knopf gave up his plans for a law career, and upon his return went into publishing. Knopf was introduced to his future wife and business partner,Blanche Knopf, at a", "Knopf, at a party at the Lawrence Athletic Club in 1911.Their relationship was built on their mutual interest in books. Blanche said of their relationship: \"Alfred had realized I read books constantly and he had never met a girl who did ... I saw him and talk books, and nobody liked him--my family least of all. But I did, because I had someone to talk books to and we talked of making books...We decided we would get married and make books and publish them.\"Alfred and Blanche were married on April 4, 1916. Knopf worked as a clerk atDoubleday(1912–1913), then as an editorial assistant toMitchell Kennerley(1914). Knopf, along with Blanche Knopf, founded the publishing houseAlfred A. Knopfin 1915.The company initially emphasized European, especially Russian, literature, hence the choice of theborzoias acolophon. At that time European literature was largely neglected by American publishers; Knopf published authors such asSimone de Beauvoir,Albert Camus,Joseph Conrad,E. M. Forster,Sigmund Freud,André Gide,Franz", "Gide,Franz Kafka,D. H. Lawrence,Thomas Mann,W. Somerset Maugham,T. F. Powys,Wyndham LewisandJean-Paul Sartre. While Blanche was known as a superb editor, Alfred was always interested in more of the sales side than in editing. Knopf also published many American authors, includingConrad Aiken,James Baldwin,James M. Cain,Theodore Dreiser,Shirley Ann Grau,Dashiell Hammett,Langston Hughes,Vachel Lindsay,H.L. Mencken,George Jean Nathan,John Updike, and Knopf's own favorite,Willa Cather. From 1924 to 1934, he published the famous literary magazine founded by Mencken and Nathan,The American Mercury. He often developed a personal friendship with his authors. Knopf's personal interest in the fields ofhistory,sociology, andscienceled to close friendships in the academic community with such noted historians asRichard Hofstadter,Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., andSamuel Eliot Morison. A prominentRepublicanuntilWatergate, Knopf often drew legislators into lengthy correspondence by mail. He was also a member of thePeabody", "of thePeabody AwardsBoard of Jurorsfrom 1940 to 1946. Knopf himself was also an author. His writings includeSome Random Recollections,Publishing Then and Now,Portrait of a Publisher,Blanche W. Knopf: July 30, 1894–June 4, 1966, andSixty Photographs. When the Knopfs' sonAlfred A. Knopf Jr.left the company in 1959 to foundAtheneum Publishers,Alfred and Blanche became concerned about the eventual fate of their publishing house, which had always been a family business. The problem was solved in 1960, when Knopf merged withRandom House, which was owned by the Knopfs' close friendsBennett Cerfand Donald Klopfer. Knopf retained complete editorial control for five years, and then gave up only his right to veto other editors' manuscript selections. The editorial departments of the two companies remain separate, and Knopf, Inc., retains its distinctive character. Knopf called the merger \"a perfect marriage.\" Random House itself eventually became a division ofBertelsmann AG, a large multinational media company. The", "media company. The Knopf imprint remains in existence. Blanche Knopfdied in June 1966. Alfred remarried in April of the following year, to Helen Norcross Hedrick. He died ofcongestive heart failureon August 11, 1984, at his estate inPurchase, New York. Personality Knopf had little enthusiasm for most of the changes that took place in the publishing industry during his lifetime. \"Too many books are published, and they are overpriced\", he toldThe Saturday Review. These are things \"about which all publishers agree, and about which no publisher does anything.\" The most fundamental change he noted was the increased importance of the editor. \"In the early days, things were quite simple. The books came in; we published them as written... A publisher was regarded – and so, in turn, was the writer – as a pro. A writer's job was to write a book and give it to you.\" And he remarked to Shenker: \"I guess business became more complicated and publishers less literate. It ceased to be the fact that publishers publish and", "publish and authors write. Today authors submit manuscripts and editors write books.\" The editor is now hired largely to acquire books, \"and if he can't get good books, he usually takes what he can get – books that are not so good. And then he sometimes wrecks himself trying to make a silk purse out of what can never become anything but a sow's ear.\" Knopf was generally unimpressed with currentliterature, though he admiredJohn Hersey,John Updike,Jorge Amado, and a few other contemporary authors. InPublishing Then and Nowhe wrote: \"Frequently... our American author, whatever his age, experience in life, and technical knowledge, simply can't write. I don't mean that he is not the master of a prose style of elegance and distinction; I mean that he can't write simple straightforward and correct English. And here, only an exceptional editor will really help him.\" American authors are not very durable, he said in 1964, and \"there are no giants in Europe now.\" Though twelve Knopf authors had wonNobel Prizes, Knopf", "Prizes, Knopf acknowledged that \"some Nobel Prize books aren't very good,\" callingDoctor Zhivago,for example, \"incredibly tedious ... IfKrushchevhad banned it for dullness instead of its political implications, he might have been in the clear.\" Among other authors he rejected wereSylvia Plath,Jack Kerouac,Anne Frank,George Orwell,Jorge Luis Borges,Vladimir Nabokov,Isaac Bashevis SingerandAnaïs Nin.He turned down an early novel byUrsula K. Le Guinbut encouraged her to keep writing. Knopf also lamented the \"shockingly bad taste\" that he felt characterizes much modern fiction, and warned of the danger of a \"legal backlash\" against pornography, and a possible revival ofcensorship. This outspoken aspect of his character sometimes found voice in letters of complaint to hotels, restaurants, and stores that failed to meet his high standards. These letters grew increasingly frequent and more severe as he aged. One striking example is the six-year-long war of words he waged against theEastman Kodak Companyover a roll", "Companyover a roll of lost film. Knopf did not support the creation of a Jewish commonwealth in Palestine. In response to Senator Robert Wagner's November 5, 1945 letter to Knopf's employees in support of the Jewish colonization of Palestine, Knopf replied to the senator's unexpected letter that he did not share his employees' views. Furthermore, he wrote that nothing was \"more likely to destroy the possibility of peace than resurgent nationalism.\" And as a Jew, he thought it was \"a great pity that Jews, above all people, should be advocates of still another national state.\" Bibliography References External links", "Columbia University Columbia University, officiallyColumbia University in the City of New York,is aprivateIvy Leagueresearch universityinNew York City. Established in 1754 asKing's Collegeon the grounds ofTrinity ChurchinManhattan, it is the oldest institution of higher education inNew Yorkandthe fifth-oldest in the United States. Columbia was established as acolonial collegebyroyal charterunderGeorge II of Great Britain. It was renamedColumbia Collegein 1784 following theAmerican Revolution, and in 1787 was placed undera private board of trusteesheaded by former studentsAlexander HamiltonandJohn Jay. In 1896, the campus was moved to its current location inMorningside Heightsand renamed Columbia University. Columbia is organized into twenty schools, including four undergraduate schools and 16 graduate schools. The university's research efforts include theLamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, theGoddard Institute for Space Studies, and accelerator laboratories withBig Techfirms such asAmazonandIBM.Columbia is a", "is a founding member of theAssociation of American Universitiesand was the first school in the United States to grant theMD degree.The university also administers and annually awards thePulitzer Prize. Columbia scientists and scholars have played a pivotal role in scientific breakthroughs includingbrain–computer interface; thelaserandmaser;nuclear magnetic resonance;the firstnuclear pile; the firstnuclear fissionreaction in theAmericas; the first evidence forplate tectonicsandcontinental drift;and much of the initial research and planning for theManhattan ProjectduringWorld War II. As of December 2021, its alumni, faculty, and staff have included seven of theFounding Fathersof the United States of America;four U.S. presidents;34 foreignheads of state or government;two secretaries-general of the United Nations;ten justices of theUnited States Supreme Court;103 Nobel laureates; 125National Academy of Sciencesmembers;53 living billionaires;23 Olympic medalists;33Academy Award winners; and 125Pulitzer", "and 125Pulitzer Prizerecipients. History 18th century Discussions regarding the founding of a college in theProvince of New Yorkbegan as early as 1704, at which timeColonel Lewis Morriswrote to theSociety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the missionary arm of theChurch of England, persuading the society thatNew York Citywas an ideal community in which to establish a college.However, it was not until the founding of theCollege of New Jersey(renamedPrinceton) across theHudson RiverinNew Jerseythat the City of New York seriously considered founding a college.In 1746, an act was passed by the general assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. In 1751, the assembly appointed a commission of ten New York residents, seven of whom were members of theChurch of England, to direct the funds accrued by thestate lotterytowards the foundation of a college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the college's first president,Samuel Johnson.:", "Johnson.: 8–10Johnson was the only instructor of the college's first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse on the grounds ofTrinity Church, located on what is now theFinancial Districtof Manhattan.: 3The college was officially founded on October 31, 1754, as King's College by royal charter ofGeorge II,making it the oldest institution of higher learning in theState of New Yorkand the fifth oldest in the United States. In 1763, Johnson was succeeded in the presidency byMyles Cooper, a graduate ofThe Queen's College, Oxford, and an ardentTory. In the charged political climate of theAmerican Revolution, his chief opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777,Alexander Hamilton.: 3TheIrishanatomist,Samuel Clossy, was appointed professor of natural philosophy in October 1765 and later the college's first professor of anatomy in 1767.TheAmerican Revolutionary Warbroke out in 1776, and was catastrophic for the operation of King's", "operation of King's College, which suspended instruction for eight years beginning in 1776 with the arrival of theContinental Army. The suspension continued through the military occupation of New York City by British troops until theirdeparturein 1783. The college's library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a military hospital first by American and then British forces. After theAmerican Revolutionary War, the college turned to theState of New Yorkin order to restore its vitality, promising to make whatever changes to the school's charter the state might demand.: 59The legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1, 1784, it passed \"an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called King's College\".The Act createda board of regentsto oversee the resuscitation of King's College, and, in an effort to demonstrate its support for the new Republic, the legislature stipulated that \"the College within the City of New York heretofore called King's College be", "King's College be forever hereafter called and known by the name ofColumbia College\",a reference toColumbia, an alternative name for America which in turn comes from the name ofChristopher Columbus. The Regents finally became aware of the college's defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, which was headed byJohn Jayand Alexander Hamilton. In April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college granted the power toa separate board of 24 trustees.: 65–70 On May 21, 1787,William Samuel Johnson, the son ofSamuel Johnson, was unanimously elected president of Columbia College. Prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in theFirst Continental Congressand been chosen as a delegate to theConstitutional Convention.For a period in the 1790s, with New York City as the federal and state capital and the country under successiveFederalistgovernments, a revived Columbia thrived under the auspices of Federalists such as Hamilton and Jay. PresidentGeorge", "PresidentGeorge Washingtonand Vice PresidentJohn Adams, in addition to both houses ofCongressattendedthe college's commencementon May 6, 1789, as a tribute of honor to the many alumni of the school who had been involved in theAmerican Revolution.: 74 19th century In November 1813, the college agreed to incorporate its medical school with The College of Physicians and Surgeons, a new school created by the Regents of New York, formingColumbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons.: 53–60The college's enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the King's College campus at Park Place to a primarilyGothic Revivalcampus on 49th Street andMadison Avenue, where it remained for the next forty years. During the last half of the 19th century, under the presidency ofFrederick A. P. Barnard, for whomBarnard Collegeis named, the institution", "the institution rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university. Barnard College was created in 1889 as a response to the university's refusal to accept women.By this time, the college's investments in New York real estate became a primary source of steady income for the school, mainly owing to the city's expanding population.: 5–8 In 1896, university presidentSeth Lowmoved the campus from 49th Street to its present location, a more spacious campus in the developing neighborhood ofMorningside Heights.Under the leadership of Low's successor,Nicholas Murray Butler, who served for over four decades, Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting the multiversity model that later universities would adopt.Prior to becoming the president of Columbia University, Butler foundedTeachers College, as a school to prepare home economists and manual art teachers for the children of the poor, with philanthropistGrace Hoadley Dodge.Teachers College is currently affiliated as the university's", "as the university's Graduate School of Education. 20th century In the 1940s, faculty members, includingJohn R. Dunning,I. I. Rabi,Enrico Fermi, andPolykarp Kusch, began what became theManhattan Project, creating the first nuclear fission reactor in theAmericasand researchinggaseous diffusion. In 1928, Seth Low Junior College was established by Columbia University in order to mitigate the number of Jewish applicants to Columbia College.The college was closed in 1936 due to the adverse effects of theGreat Depressionand its students were subsequently taught at Morningside Heights, although they did not belong to any college but to the university at large.There was an evening school called University Extension, which taught night classes, for a fee, to anyone willing to attend. In 1947, the program was reorganized as an undergraduate college and designated theSchool of General Studiesin response to the return ofGIsafterWorld War II.In 1995, the School of General Studies was again reorganized as a full-fledged", "as a full-fledged liberal arts college fornon-traditional students(those who have had an academic break of one year or more, or are pursuing dual-degrees) and was fully integrated into Columbia's traditional undergraduate curriculum.The same year, the Division of Special Programs, later called the School of Continuing Education and now theSchool of Professional Studies, was established to reprise the former role of University Extension.While the School of Professional Studies only offered non-degree programs for lifelong learners and high school students in its earliest stages, it now offers degree programs in a diverse range of professional and inter-disciplinary fields. In the aftermath of World War II, the discipline of international relations became a major scholarly focus of the university, and in response, theSchool of International and Public Affairswas founded in 1946, drawing upon the resources of the faculties of political science, economics, and history.TheColumbia University Bicentennialwas", "Bicentennialwas celebrated in 1954. During the 1960s, student activism reached a climax withprotests in the spring of 1968, when hundreds of students occupied buildings on campus. The incident forced the resignation of Columbia's president,Grayson Kirk, and the establishment of the University Senate. Though several schools in the university had admitted women for years, Columbia College first admitted women in the fall of 1983,after a decade of failed negotiations withBarnard College, the all-female institution affiliated with the university, to merge the two schools.Barnard College still remains affiliated with Columbia, and all Barnard graduates are issued diplomas signed by thepresidents of Columbia Universityand Barnard College. During the late 20th century, the university underwent significant academic, structural, and administrative changes as it developed into a major research university. For much of the 19th century, the university consisted of decentralized and separate faculties specializing in", "specializing in Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science. In 1979, these faculties were merged into theGraduate School of Arts and Sciences.In 1991, the faculties of Columbia College, the School of General Studies, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, theSchool of the Arts, and theSchool of Professional Studieswere merged into the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, leading to the academic integration and centralized governance of these schools. 21st century In 2010, theSchool of International and Public Affairs, which was previously a part of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, became an independent faculty. In fall of 2023, pro-Palestine student activists organized protests in response to theIsrael–Hamas war, with counter-protests from pro-Israelactivists.The students were protesting against the allegedgenocide of Palestiniansin Gaza by theIDF, with significant faculty support for the protests.Protestors were reported to have yelled “October 7th is going to be every day for you,” toward Jewish", "you,” toward Jewish students. In January 2024, students who were former IDF soldiers were accused of attacking pro-Palestine demonstrators with noxious chemicals in what the interim provostDennis Mitchellsaid was “what appears to have been serious crimes, possibly hate crimes”.One of the students suspected in the attack was initially placed on interim suspensionbefore later being suspended through May 2025. In April 2024, the suspended student sued Columbia, alleging that the school subjected him to \"biased misconduct proceedings\" and that he had used fart sprays such as \"Liquid Ass\" rather than harmful chemicals.Following a joint investigation by the NYPD and Columbia, the school concluded that the chemical substance was a \"non-toxic, legal, novelty item\". On April 17, 2024, Columbia presidentMinouche Shafikwas questioned by theHouse Committee on Education and the Workforceon the topic of antisemitism on campus. While Shafik was in Washington, DC, student activists began renewed protests,leading to what CNN", "to what CNN described as a \"full-blown crisis\" over tensions stemming from apro-Palestinian campus occupation.These protests at Columbia sparkedsimilar pro-Palestinian protestsat universities across the USA. As the protests expanded in scale and notoriety, students and faculty, including people of Jewish heritage, pushed back against the silencing of anti-Zionist voices andaccusations of anti-semitism.This sentiment was later repeated in an open letter by Columbia faculty that criticized the findings of the university's antisemitism task force. On April 22, 2024 the university moved all in-person classes online,with President Shafik saying that this decision would \"deescalate the rancor and give us all a chance to consider next steps\". In late April, several participants in thecampus encampmentoccupiedHamilton Hall.While inside, these protestors overturned furniture, broke windows, and erected barricades.On April 30, Columbia University calledNew York Police Departmentto clear Hamilton Hall.Around 9 PM that", "9 PM that night, NYPD officers in riot gear used a siege ladder to access the second floor of Hamilton Hall and subsequently removed the demonstrators occupying it, dozens of whom were arrested.The actions taken against the demonstrators by the NYPD in riot armour while clearingHamilton Hallinspired the rap song'Hinds Hall'byMacklemore,who described the police as \"actors in badges\" in the song.In June, the charges against most of the participants in the occupation of Hamilton Hall were dropped. In mid-August 2024, three deans andMinouche Shafik, the 20thpresidentof the university, resigned in the wake of the campus protests. In late August, the university's antisemitism task force reported that the university had failed to prevent violence andhate or protect Jews in the university. According to the report, antisemitism has \"affected the entire university community\" and was carried out by both faculty and students.The task force on anti-semitism was criticised by a group of 24 Jewish faculty (as well as 16", "(as well as 16 non-Jewish faculty) and Jewish students for misrepresentations, omission of key context and equating anti-Zionism with antisemitism. Campus Morningside Heights The majority of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in theUpper Manhattanneighborhood ofMorningside HeightsonSeth Low's late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught at one location. The campus was designed alongBeaux-Artsplanning principles by the architectsMcKim, Mead & White. Columbia's main campus occupies more than sixcity blocks, or 32 acres (13 ha), in Morningside Heights, New York City, a neighborhood that contains a number of academic institutions. The university owns over 7,800 apartments in Morningside Heights, housing faculty, graduate students, and staff. Almost two dozen undergraduate dormitories (purpose-built or converted) are located on campus or in Morningside Heights. Columbia University hasan extensive tunnel system, more than a century old, with the", "old, with the oldest portions predating the present campus. Some of these remain accessible to the public, while others have been cordoned off. Butler Libraryis the largest in theColumbia University Librariessystem and one of the largest buildings on the campus. Proposed as \"South Hall\" by the university's former presidentNicholas Murray Butleras expansion plans forLow Memorial Librarystalled, the new library was funded byEdward Harkness, benefactor ofYale University'sresidential collegesystem, and designed by his favorite architect,James Gamble Rogers. It was completed in 1934 and renamed for Butler in 1946. The library design isneo-classicalin style. Its facade features a row of columns in theIonic orderabove which are inscribed the names of great writers, philosophers, and thinkers, most of whom are read by students engaged in theCore CurriculumofColumbia College.As of 2020,Columbia's library systemincludes over 15.0 million volumes, making it the eighth largest library system and fifth largest collegiate", "largest collegiate library system in the United States. Several buildings on the Morningside Heights campus are listed on theNational Register of Historic Places.Low Memorial Library, aNational Historic Landmarkand the centerpiece of the campus, is listed for its architectural significance.Philosophy Hallis listed as the site of the invention ofFM radio.Also listed isPupin Hall, anotherNational Historic Landmark, which houses the physics and astronomy departments. Here the first experiments on the fission of uranium were conducted byEnrico Fermi. The uranium atom was split there ten days after the world's first atom-splitting inCopenhagen, Denmark.Other buildings listed includeCasa Italiana, theDelta Psi, Alpha Chapter buildingofSt. Anthony Hall,Earl Hall, and the buildings of the affiliatedUnion Theological Seminary. A statue by sculptorDaniel Chester FrenchcalledAlma Materis centered on the front steps ofLow Memorial Library. The statue represents a personification of the traditional image of the", "image of the university as analma mater, or \"nourishing mother\", draped in an academic gown and seated on a throne. She wears alaurel wreathon her head and holds in her right hand a scepter capped by a King's Crown, a traditional symbol of the university. A book, representing learning, rests on her lap. The arms of her throne end in lamps, representing \"Sapientia et Doctrina\", or \"Wisdom and Learning\"; on the back of the throne is embossed an image ofthe seal of the university.A local actress named Mary Lawton was said to have posed for parts of the sculpture. The statue was dedicated on September 23, 1903, as a gift of Mr. & Mrs. Robert Goelet, and was originally covered in golden leaf. During theColumbia University protests of 1968a bomb damaged the sculpture, but it has since been repaired.The small hidden owl on the sculpture is also the subject of many Columbia legends, the main legend being that the first student in the freshmen class to find the hidden owl on the statue will be valedictorian, and that", "and that any subsequent Columbia male who finds it will marry a Barnard student, given that Barnard is awomen's college. \"The Steps\", alternatively known as \"Low Steps\" or the \"Urban Beach\", are a popular meeting area for Columbia students. The term refers to the long series of granite steps leading from the lower part of campus (South Field) to its upper terrace. With a design inspired by theCity Beautiful movement, the steps of Low Library provides Columbia University and Barnard College students, faculty, and staff with a comfortable outdoor platform and space for informal gatherings, events, and ceremonies. McKim's classical facade epitomizes late 19th-century new-classical designs, with its columns and portico marking the entrance to an important structure. Other campuses In April 2007, the university purchased more than two-thirds of a 17 acres (6.9 ha) site for a new campus inManhattanville, an industrial neighborhood to the north of the Morningside Heights campus. Stretching from125th Streetto133rd", "Streetto133rd Street, Columbia Manhattanville houses buildings for Columbia's Business School, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia School of the Arts, and the Jerome L. Greene Center for Mind, Brain, and Behavior, where research will occur on neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.The $7 billion expansion plan included demolishing all buildings, except three that are historically significant (theStudebaker Building,Prentis Hall, and the Nash Building), eliminating the existing light industry and storage warehouses, and relocating tenants in 132 apartments. Replacing these buildings created 6.8 million square feet (630,000 m2) of space for the university. Community activist groups in West Harlem fought the expansion for reasons ranging from property protection and fair exchange for land, to residents' rights.Subsequent public hearings drew neighborhood opposition. As of December 2008, the State of New York'sEmpire State Development Corporationapproved use of eminent", "use of eminent domain, which, through declaration of Manhattanville's \"blighted\" status, gives governmental bodies the right to appropriate private property for public use.On May 20, 2009, theNew York State Public Authorities Control Boardapproved the Manhanttanville expansion plan. NewYork-Presbyterian Hospitalis affiliated with the medical schools of both Columbia University andCornell University. According toU.S. News & World Report's \"2020–21 Best Hospitals Honor Roll and Medical Specialties Rankings\", it is ranked fourth overall and second among university hospitals.Columbia'smedical schoolhas a strategic partnership withNew York State Psychiatric Institute, and is affiliated with 19 other hospitals in the U.S. and four hospitals in other countries. Health-related schools are located at theColumbia University Medical Center, a 20-acre (8.1 ha) campus located in the neighborhood ofWashington Heights, fifty blocks uptown. Other teaching hospitals affiliated with Columbia through the NewYork-Presbyterian", "network include the Payne Whitney Clinic in Manhattan, and the Payne Whitney Westchester, a psychiatric institute located in White Plains, New York.On the northern tip of Manhattan island (in the neighborhood ofInwood), Columbia owns the 26-acre (11 ha) Baker Field, which includes theLawrence A. Wien Stadiumas well as facilities for field sports, outdoor track, and tennis. There is a third campus on the west bank of theHudson River, the 157-acre (64 ha)Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatoryand Earth Institute inPalisades, New York. A fourth is the 60-acre (24 ha)Nevis LaboratoriesinIrvington, New York, for the study of particle and motion physics. A satellite site in Paris holds classes atReid Hall. Sustainability In 2006, the university established the Office of Environmental Stewardship to initiate, coordinate and implement programs to reduce the university's environmental footprint. The U.S. Green Building Council selected the university's Manhattanville plan for theLeadership in Energy and Environmental", "and Environmental Design(LEED) Neighborhood Design pilot program. The plan commits to incorporating smart growth, new urbanism and \"green\" building design principles.Columbia is one of the 2030 Challenge Partners, a group of nine universities in the city of New York that have pledged to reduce theirgreenhouse emissionsby 30% within the next ten years. Columbia University adopts LEED standards for all new construction and major renovations. The university requires a minimum of Silver, but through its design and review process seeks to achieve higher levels. This is especially challenging for lab and research buildings with their intensive energy use; however, the university also uses lab design guidelines that seek to maximize energy efficiency while protecting the safety of researchers. Every Thursday and Sunday of the month, Columbia hosts agreenmarketwhere local farmers can sell their produce to residents of the city. In addition, from April to November Hodgson's farm, a local New York gardening center,", "gardening center, joins the market bringing a large selection of plants and blooming flowers. The market is one of the many operated at different points throughout the city by the non-profit group GrowNYC.Dining services at Columbia spends 36 percent of its food budget on local products, in addition to serving sustainably harvested seafood and fair trade coffee on campus.Columbia has been rated \"B+\" by the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card for its environmental and sustainability initiatives. According to theA. W. KuchlerU.S.potential natural vegetationtypes, Columbia University would have a dominant vegetation type of AppalachianOak(104) with a dominant vegetation form of EasternHardwoodForest (25). Transportation Columbia Transportationis the bus service of the university, operated byAcademy Bus Lines. The buses are open to all Columbia faculty, students, Dodge Fitness Center members, and anyone else who holds a Columbia ID card. In addition, allTSCstudents can ride the buses. In theNew York City", "In theNew York City Subway, thetrain serves the university at116th Street-Columbia University. TheM4,M104andM60buses stop on Broadway while theM11stops on Amsterdam Avenue. The main campus is primarily boxed off by the streets of Amsterdam Avenue,Broadway, 114th street, and 120th street, with some buildings, including Barnard College, located just outside the area. The nearest major highway is theHenry Hudson Parkway(NY 9A) to the west of the campus. It is located 3.4 miles (5.5 km) south of theGeorge Washington Bridge. Academics Undergraduate admissions and financial aid Columbia University received 60,551 applications for the class of 2025 (entering 2021) and a total of around 2,218 were admitted to the two schools for an overall acceptance rate of 3.66%.Columbia is a racially diverse school, with approximately 52% of all students identifying themselves as persons of color. Additionally, 50% of all undergraduates received grants from Columbia. The average grant size awarded to these students is $46,516.In", "is $46,516.In 2015–2016, annual undergraduate tuition at Columbia was $50,526 with a total cost of attendance of $65,860 (including room and board).The college isneed-blindfor domestic applicants. Annual gifts, fund-raising, and an increase in spending from the university's endowment have allowed Columbia to extend generous financial aid packages to qualifying students. On April 11, 2007, Columbia University announced a $400 million donation from media billionaire alumnusJohn Klugeto be used exclusively for undergraduate financial aid. The donation is among the largest single gifts to higher education.As of 2008, undergraduates from families with incomes as high as $60,000 a year will have the projected cost of attending the university, including room, board, and academic fees, fully paid for by the university. That same year, the university ended loans for incoming and then-current students who were on financial aid, replacing loans that were traditionally part of aid packages with grants from the", "grants from the university. However, this does not apply to international students, transfer students, visiting students, or students in the School of General Studies.In the fall of 2010, admission to Columbia's undergraduate collegesColumbia Collegeand theFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science(also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) began accepting theCommon Application. The policy change made Columbia one of the last major academic institutions and the lastIvy Leagueuniversity to switch to the Common Application. Scholarships are also given to undergraduate students by the admissions committee. Designations include John W. Kluge Scholars, John Jay Scholars, C. Prescott Davis Scholars, Global Scholars, Egleston Scholars, and Science Research Fellows. Named scholars are selected by the admission committee from first-year applicants. According to Columbia, the first four designated scholars \"distinguish themselves for their remarkable academic and personal achievements, dynamism,", "dynamism, intellectual curiosity, the originality and independence of their thinking, and the diversity that stems from their different cultures and their varied educational experiences\". In 1919, Columbia established a student application process characterized byThe New York Timesas \"the first modern college application\". The application required a photograph of the applicant, the maiden name of the applicant's mother, and the applicant's religious background. Organization Columbia University is an independent, privately supported, nonsectarian andnot-for-profitinstitution of higher education.Its official corporate name isTrustees of Columbia University in the City of New York. In 1754, the university's first charter was granted byKing George II; however, its modern charter was first enacted in 1787 and last amended in 1810 by the New York State Legislature. The university is governed by 24 trustees, customarily including the president, who servesex officio. The trustees themselves are responsible for", "are responsible for choosing their successors. Six of the 24 are nominated from a pool of candidates recommended by the Columbia Alumni Association. Another six are nominated by the board in consultation with the executive committee of the University Senate. The remaining 12, including the president, are nominated by the trustees themselves through their internal processes. The term of office for trustees is six years. Generally, they serve for no more than two consecutive terms. The trustees appoint the president and other senior administrative officers of the university, and review and confirm faculty appointments as required. They determine the university's financial and investment policies, authorize the budget, supervise the endowment, direct the management of the university's real estate and other assets, and otherwise oversee the administration and management of the university. The University Senate was established by the trustees after a university-wide referendum in 1969. It succeeded to the powers", "to the powers of the University Council, which was created in 1890 as a body of faculty, deans, and other administrators to regulate inter-Faculty affairs and consider issues of university-wide concern. The University Senate is a unicameral body consisting of 107 members drawn from all constituencies of the university. These include the president of the university, the provost, the deans of Columbia College and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, all of whom serveex officio, and five additional representatives, appointed by the president, from the university's administration. The president serves as the Senate's presiding officer. The Senate is charged with reviewing the educational policies, physical development, budget, and external relations of the university. It oversees the welfare and academic freedom of the faculty and the welfare of students. Thepresident of Columbia University, who is selected by the trustees in consultation with the executive committee of the University Senate and who serves", "and who serves at the trustees' pleasure, is the chief executive officer of the university. Assisting the president in administering the university are the provost, the senior executive vice president, the executive vice president for health and biomedical sciences, several other vice presidents, the general counsel, the secretary of the university, and the deans of the faculties, all of whom are appointed by the trustees on the nomination of the president and serve at their pleasure. Columbia has four official undergraduate colleges:Columbia College, the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree; theFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science(also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering), the engineering and applied science school offering the Bachelor of Science degree; theSchool of General Studies, the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree to non-traditional students undertaking full- or part-time study; andBarnard College.Barnard Collegeis a women's liberal", "a women's liberal arts college and an academic affiliate in which students receive a Bachelor of Arts degree from Columbia University. Their degrees are signed by the presidents of Columbia University and Barnard College.Barnard students are also eligible to cross-register classes that are available through the Barnard Catalogue and alumnae can join the Columbia Alumni Association. Joint degree programs are available throughUnion Theological Seminary, theJewish Theological Seminary of America,and theJuilliard School.Teachers CollegeandBarnard Collegeare official faculties of the university; both colleges' presidents are deans under the university governance structure.The Columbia University Senate includes faculty and student representatives from Teachers College and Barnard College who serve two-year terms; all senators are accorded full voting privileges regarding matters impacting the entire university. Teachers College is an affiliated, financially independent graduate school with their own board of", "their own board of trustees.Pursuant to an affiliation agreement, Columbia is given the authority to confer \"degrees and diplomas\" to the graduates of Teachers College. The degrees are signed by presidents of Teachers College and Columbia University in a manner analogous to the university's other graduate schools.Columbia's General Studies school also has joint undergraduate programs available throughUniversity College London,Sciences Po,City University of Hong Kong,Trinity College Dublin,and theJuilliard School. The university also has severalColumbia Global Centers, inAmman,Beijing,Istanbul,Mumbai,Nairobi,Paris,Rio de Janeiro,Santiago, andTunis. International partnerships Columbia students can study abroad for a semester or a year at partner institutions such asSciences Po,École des hautes études en sciences sociales(EHESS),École normale supérieure(ENS),Panthéon-Sorbonne University,King's College London,London School of Economics,University College Londonand theUniversity of Warwick. Select students can", "Select students can study at either theUniversity of Oxfordor theUniversity of Cambridgefor a year if approved by both Columbia and either Oxford or Cambridge.Columbia also has a dual MA program with theAga Khan Universityin London. Rankings Columbia University is ranked 12th in the United States and seventh globally for 2023–2024 byU.S. News & World Report. QS University Rankings listed Columbia as fifth in the United States. Ranked 15th among U.S. colleges for 2020 byThe Wall Street JournalandTimes Higher Education, in recent years it has been ranked as high as second. Individual colleges and schools were also nationally ranked byU.S. News & World Reportfor its 2021 edition.Columbia Law Schoolwas ranked fourth, theMailman School of Public Healthfourth, theSchool of Social Worktied for third,Columbia Business Schooleighth, theCollege of Physicians and Surgeonstied for sixth for research (and tied for 31st for primary care), theSchool of Nursingtied for 11th in the master's program and tied for first in the", "for first in the doctorate nursing program, and theFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science(graduate) was ranked tied for 14th. In 2021, Columbia was ranked seventh in the world (sixth in the United States) byAcademic Ranking of World Universities, sixth in the world byU.S. News & World Report, 19th in the world byQS World University Rankings, and 11th globally byTimes Higher Education World University Rankings. It was ranked in the first tier of American research universities, along with Harvard, MIT, and Stanford, in the 2019 report from theCenter for Measuring University Performance. Columbia'sGraduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservationwas ranked the second most admired graduate program byArchitectural Recordin 2020. In 2011, theMines ParisTech: Professional Ranking of World Universitiesranked Columbia third best university for formingCEOsin the US and 12th worldwide. Controversies In 2022, Columbia's reporting of metrics used for university ranking was criticized by", "was criticized by Professor of MathematicsMichael Thaddeus, who argued key data supporting the ranking was \"inaccurate, dubious or highly misleading.\"Subsequently,U.S. News & World Report\"unranked\" Columbia from its 2022 list of Best Colleges saying that it could not verify the data submitted by the university.In June 2023, Columbia University announced their undergraduate schools would no longer participate inU.S. News & World Report'srankings, following the lead of its law, medical and nursing schools. A press release cited concerns that such rankings unduly influence applicants and \"distill a university's profile into a composite of data categories.\" Research Columbia isclassifiedamong \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\".Columbia was the first North American site where theuraniumatom was split. The College of Physicians and Surgeons played a central role in developing the modern understanding of neuroscience with the publication ofPrinciples of Neural Science, described by historian", "by historian of science Katja Huenther as the \"neuroscience 'bible' \".The book was written by a team of Columbia researchers that included Nobel Prize winnerEric Kandel,James H. Schwartz, andThomas Jessell. Columbia was the birthplace ofFM radioand thelaser.The firstbrain-computer interfacecapable of translating brain signals into speech was developed byneuroengineersat Columbia.TheMPEG-2algorithm of transmitting high quality audio and video over limited bandwidth was developed byDimitris Anastassiou, a Columbia professor of electrical engineering. BiologistMartin Chalfiewas the first to introduce the use ofGreen Fluorescent Protein(GFP) in labeling cells in intact organisms.Other inventions and products related to Columbia include Sequential Lateral Solidification (SLS) technology for making LCDs, System Management Arts (SMARTS),Session Initiation Protocol(SIP) (which is used for audio, video, chat, instant messaging and whiteboarding),pharmacopeia, Macromodel (software for computational chemistry), a new", "chemistry), a new and better recipe for glass concrete, BlueLEDs, and Beamprop (used in photonics). Columbia scientists have been credited with about 175 new inventions in the health sciences each year.More than 30 pharmaceutical products based on discoveries and inventions made at Columbia reached the market. These includeRemicade(for arthritis),Reopro(for blood clot complications),Xalatan(for glaucoma),Benefix,Latanoprost(a glaucoma treatment), shoulder prosthesis,homocysteine(testing for cardiovascular disease), andZolinza(for cancer therapy).Columbia Technology Ventures (formerly Science and Technology Ventures), as of 2008, manages some 600 patents and more than 250 active license agreements.Patent-related deals earned Columbia more than $230 million in the 2006 fiscal year, according to the university, more than any university in the world.Columbia owns many unique research facilities, such as theColumbia Institute for Tele-Informationdedicated totelecommunicationsand theGoddard Institute for Space", "Institute for Space Studies, which is anastronomicalobservatoryaffiliated withNASA. Military and veteran enrollment Columbia is a long-standing participant of theUnited States Department of Veterans AffairsYellow Ribbon Program, allowing eligible veterans to pursue a Columbia undergraduate degree regardless of socioeconomic status for over 70 years.As a part of the Eisenhower Leader Development Program (ELDP) in partnership with theUnited States Military AcademyatWest Point, Columbia is the only school in the Ivy League to offer a graduate degree program in organizational psychology to aid military officers in tactical decision making and strategic management. Awards Several prestigious awards are administered by Columbia University, most notably thePulitzer Prizeand theBancroft Prizein history.Other prizes, which are awarded by theGraduate School of Journalism, include theAlfred I. duPont–Columbia University Award, theNational Magazine Awards, theMaria Moors Cabot Prizes, theJohn Chancellor Award, and the", "Award, and the Lukas Prizes, which include theJ. Anthony Lukas Book PrizeandMark Lynton History Prize.The university also administers theLouisa Gross Horwitz Prize, which is considered an important precursor to the Nobel Prize, 51 of its 101 recipients having gone on to win either aNobel Prize in Physiology or MedicineorNobel Prize in Chemistryas of October 2018;theW. Alden Spencer Award;theVetlesen Prize, which is known as the Nobel Prize of geology;theJapan-U.S. Friendship Commission Prize for the Translation of Japanese Literature, the oldest such award;theEdwin Howard Armstrong award;theCalderone Prizein public health;and theDitson Conductor's Award. Student life In 2020, Columbia University's student population was 31,455 (8,842 students in undergraduate programs and 22,613 in postgraduate programs), with 45% of the student population identifying themselves as a minority.Twenty-six percent of students at Columbia have family incomes below $60,000. 16% of students at Columbia receive Federal Pell", "Federal Pell Grants,which mostly go to students whose family incomes are below $40,000. Seventeen percent of students are the first member of their family to attend a four-year college. On-campus housing is guaranteed for all four years as an undergraduate.Columbia Collegeand theFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science(also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) share housing in the on-campus residence halls. First-year students usually live in one of the large residence halls situated around South Lawn:Carman Hall,Furnald Hall,Hartley Hall,John Jay Hall, orWallach Hall(originally Livingston Hall). Upperclassmen participate in a room selection process, wherein students can pick to live in a mix of either corridor- or apartment-style housing with their friends. TheColumbia University School of General Studies,Barnard Collegeand graduate schools have their own apartment-style housing in the surrounding neighborhood. Columbia University is home to manyfraternities, sororities, and co-educational", "and co-educational Greek organizations. Approximately 10–15% of undergraduate students are associated with Greek life.Many Barnard women also join Columbia sororities. There has been a Greek presence on campus since the establishment in 1836 of the Delta chapter ofAlpha Delta Phi.The InterGreek Council is the self-governing student organization that provides guidelines and support to its member organizations within each of the three councils at Columbia, the Interfraternity Council, Panhellenic Council, and Multicultural Greek Council. The three council presidents bring their affiliated chapters together once a month to meet as one Greek community. The InterGreek Council meetings provide opportunity for member organizations to learn from each other, work together and advocate for community needs. Publications TheColumbia Daily Spectatoris the nation's second-oldest continuously operating daily student newspaper.The Blue and Whiteis a monthly literary magazine established in 1890 that discusses campus life", "campus life and local politics.Bwog,originally an offshoot ofThe Blue and Whitebut now fully independent, is an online campus news and entertainment source.The Morningside Postis a student-run multimedia news publication. Political publications includeThe Current, a journal of politics, culture and Jewish Affairs;theColumbia Political Review, the multi-partisan political magazine of the Columbia Political Union;andAdHoc, which denotes itself as the \"progressive\" campus magazine and deals largely with local political issues and arts events. Columbia Magazineis the alumni magazine of Columbia, serving all 340,000+ of the university's alumni. Arts and literary publications includeThe Columbia Review, the nation's oldest college literary magazine;Surgam, the literary magazine ofThe Philolexian Society;Quarto, Columbia University's official undergraduate literary magazine;4x4, a student-run alternative toQuarto;Columbia, a nationally regardedliterary journal; theColumbia Journal of Literary Criticism;andThe", "Criticism;andThe Mobius Strip, an online arts and literary magazine.Inside New Yorkis an annual guidebook to New York City, written, edited, and published by Columbia undergraduates. Through a distribution agreement withColumbia University Press, the book is sold at major retailers and independent bookstores. Columbia is home to numerous undergraduate academic publications. TheColumbia Undergraduate Science Journalprints original science research in its two annual publications.TheJournal of Politics & Societyis a journal of undergraduate research in the social sciences;Publiusis an undergraduate journal of politics established in 2008 and published biannually;theColumbia East Asia Reviewallows undergraduates throughout the world to publish original work on China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Vietnam and is supported by theWeatherhead East Asian Institute;The Birchis an undergraduate journal of Eastern European and Eurasian culture that is the first national student-run journal of its kind;theColumbia Economics", "Economics Reviewis the undergraduate economic journal on research and policy supported by the Columbia Economics Department; and theColumbia Science Reviewis a science magazine that prints general interest articles and faculty profiles. Humor publications on Columbia's campus includeThe Fed, a triweekly satire and investigative newspaper, and theJester of Columbia.Other publications includeThe Columbian, the undergraduate colleges' annually published yearbook;theGadfly, a biannual journal of popular philosophy produced by undergraduates;andRhapsody in Blue, an undergraduate urban studies magazine.Professional journals published by academic departments at Columbia University includeCurrent MusicologyandThe Journal of Philosophy.During the spring semester, graduate students in the Journalism School publishThe Bronx Beat, a bi-weekly newspaper covering the South Bronx. Founded in 1961 under the auspices of Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism, theColumbia Journalism Review(CJR) examines", "examines day-to-day press performance as well as the forces that affect that performance. The magazine is published six times a year. Former publications include theColumbia University Forum, a review of literature and cultural affairs distributed for free to alumni. Broadcasting Columbia is home to two pioneers in undergraduatecampus radiobroadcasting,WKCR-FMand CTV. Many undergraduates are also involved with Barnard's radio station,WBAR. WKCR, the student run radio station that broadcasts to the Tri-state area, claims to be the oldest FM radio station in the world, owing to the university's affiliation withMajor Edwin Armstrong. The station went operational on July 18, 1939, from a 400-foot antenna tower in Alpine, New Jersey, broadcasting the first FM transmission in the world. Initially, WKCR was not a radio station, but an organization concerned with the technology of radio communications. As membership grew, however, the nascent club turned its efforts to broadcasting. Armstrong helped the students in", "the students in their early efforts, donating a microphone and turntables when they designed their first makeshift studio in a dorm room.The station has its studios on the second floor of Alfred Lerner Hall on the Morningside campus with its main transmitter tower at4 Times SquareinMidtown Manhattan. Columbia Television (CTV) is the nation's second oldeststudent television stationand the home of CTV News, a weekly live news program produced by undergraduate students. Debate and Model UN ThePhilolexian Societyis a literary and debating club founded in 1802, making it the oldest student group at Columbia, as well as the third oldest collegiate literary society in the country.The society annually administers theJoyce Kilmer Memorial Bad Poetry Contest.The Columbia Parliamentary Debate Team competes in tournaments around the country as part of theAmerican Parliamentary Debate Association, and hosts both high school and college tournaments on Columbia's campus, as well as public debates on issues affecting the", "affecting the university. The Columbia International Relations Council and Association (CIRCA), oversees Columbia'sModel United Nationsactivities. CIRCA hosts college and high school Model UN conferences, hosts speakers influential in international politics to speak on campus, and trains students from underprivileged schools in New York in Model UN. Technology and entrepreneurship Columbia is a top supplier of young engineering entrepreneurs for New York City. Over the past 20 years, graduates of Columbia established over 100 technology companies. The Columbia University Organization of Rising Entrepreneurs (CORE) was founded in 1999. The student-run group aims to foster entrepreneurship on campus. Each year CORE hosts dozens of events, including talks, #StartupColumbia, a conference and venture competition for $250,000, and Ignite@CU, a weekend for undergrads interested in design, engineering, and entrepreneurship. Notable speakers includePeter Thiel,Jack Dorsey,Alexis Ohanian,Drew Houston, andMark Cuban.", "andMark Cuban. As of 2006, CORE had awarded graduate and undergraduate students over $100,000 in seed capital. CampusNetwork, an on-campus social networking site called Campus Network that preceded Facebook, was created and popularized by Columbia engineering student Adam Goldberg in 2003.Mark Zuckerberglater asked Goldberg to join him inPalo Altoto work on Facebook, but Goldberg declined the offer.TheFu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Scienceoffers a minor in Technical Entrepreneurship through its Center for Technology, Innovation, and Community Engagement. SEAS' entrepreneurship activities focus on community building initiatives in New York and worldwide, made possible through partners such asMicrosoft Corporation. On June 14, 2010, MayorMichael R. Bloomberglaunched the NYC Media Lab to promote innovations in New York's media industry. Situated at theNew York University Tandon School of Engineering, the lab is a consortium of Columbia University,New York University, andNew York City Economic", "York City Economic Development Corporationacting to connect companies with universities in new technology research. The Lab is modeled after similar ones atMITandStanford, and was established with a $250,000 grant from the New York City Economic Development Corporation. World Leaders Forum Established in 2003 by university presidentLee C. Bollinger, the World Leaders Forum at Columbia University provides the opportunity for students and faculty to listen to world leaders in government, religion, industry, finance, and academia. Past forum speakers include former president of the United StatesBill Clinton, the prime minister of IndiaAtal Bihari Vajpayee, former president of GhanaJohn Agyekum Kufuor, president of AfghanistanHamid Karzai, prime minister of RussiaVladimir Putin, president of the Republic of MozambiqueJoaquim Alberto Chissano, president of the Republic of BoliviaCarlos Diego Mesa Gisbert, president of the Republic of RomaniaIon Iliescu, president of the Republic of LatviaVaira Vīķe-Freiberga, the", "Vīķe-Freiberga, the first female president of FinlandTarja Halonen, PresidentYudhoyonoof Indonesia, PresidentPervez Musharrafof the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Iraq PresidentJalal Talabani, the14th Dalai Lama, president of the Islamic Republic of IranMahmoud Ahmadinejad, financierGeorge Soros, Mayor of New York CityMichael R. Bloomberg, PresidentVáclav Klausof the Czech Republic, PresidentCristina Fernández de Kirchnerof Argentina, former Secretary-General of the United NationsKofi Annan, andAl Gore. Other The Columbia University Orchestra was founded by composerEdward MacDowellin 1896, and is the oldest continually operating university orchestra in the United States. Undergraduate student composers at Columbia may choose to become involved with Columbia New Music, which sponsors concerts of music written by undergraduate students from all of Columbia's schools.The Notes and Keys, the oldesta cappellagroup at Columbia, was founded in 1909.There are a number of performing arts groups at Columbia dedicated", "Columbia dedicated to producing student theater, including the Columbia Players, King's Crown Shakespeare Troupe (KCST), Columbia Musical Theater Society (CMTS), NOMADS (New and Original Material Authored and Directed by Students), LateNite Theatre, Columbia University Performing Arts League (CUPAL), Black Theatre Ensemble (BTE), sketch comedy group Chowdah, and improvisational troupes Alfred and Fruit Paunch. TheColumbia Queer Allianceis the central Columbia student organization that represents the bisexual, lesbian, gay, transgender, and questioning student population. It is the oldestgaystudent organization in the world, founded as the StudentHomophileLeague in 1967 by students including lifelong activistStephen Donaldson. Columbia University campus military groups include the U.S. Military Veterans of Columbia University and Advocates for Columbia ROTC. In the 2005–06 academic year, the Columbia Military Society, Columbia's student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates, was renamed the", "was renamed the Hamilton Society for \"students who aspire to serve their nation through the military in the tradition ofAlexander Hamilton\". The largest student service organization at Columbia is Community Impact (CI). Founded in 1981, CI provides food, clothing, shelter, education, job training, and companionship for residents in its surrounding communities. CI consists of about 950 Columbia University student volunteers participating in 25 community service programs, which serve more than 8,000 people each year. Columbia has several secret societies, includingSt. Anthony Hall, which was founded at the university in 1847, and two senior societies, theNacoms and Sachems. Athletics A member institution of theNational Collegiate Athletic Association(NCAA) inDivision IFCS, Columbia fields varsity teams in 29 sports and is a member of theIvy League. The football Lions play home games at the 17,000-seatRobert K. Kraft Field at Lawrence A. Wien Stadium. The Baker Athletics Complex also includes facilities for", "facilities for baseball, softball, soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, tennis, track, and rowing, as well as the new Campbell Sports Center, which opened in January 2013. The basketball, fencing, swimming & diving, volleyball, and wrestling programs are based at the Dodge Physical Fitness Center on the main campus. Former students includeBaseball Hall of FamersLou GehrigandEddie Collins,football Hall of FamerSid Luckman,Marcellus Wiley, and world champion women's weightlifterKaryn Marshall.On May 17, 1939, fledglingNBCbroadcast a doubleheader between the Columbia Lions and thePrinceton Tigersat Columbia's Baker Field, making it the first televised regular athletic event in history. Columbia University athletics has a long history, with many accomplishments in athletic fields. In 1870, Columbia played againstRutgers Universityin the second intercollegiate rugby football game in the history of the sport. Eight years later, Columbia crew won the famedHenley Royal Regattain the first-ever defeat for an English crew", "for an English crew rowing in English waters. In 1900, Olympian and Columbia College studentMaxie Longset the first official world record in the 400 meters with a time of 47.8 seconds. In 1983, Columbia men's soccer went 18–0 and was ranked first in the nation, but lost to Indiana 1–0 in double overtime in the NCAA championship game; nevertheless, the team went further toward the NCAA title than any Ivy League soccer team in history.The football program unfortunately is best known for its record of futility set during the 1980s: between 1983 and 1988, the team lost 44 games in a row, which is still the record for the NCAAFootball Championship Subdivision. The streak was broken on October 8, 1988, with a 16–13 victory over arch-rivalPrinceton University. That was the Lions' first victory at Wien Stadium, which had been opened during the losing streak and was already four years old.A new tradition has developed with theLiberty Cup. The Liberty Cup is awarded annually to the winner of the football game", "the football game betweenFordhamand Columbia Universities, two of the only three NCAA Division I football teams in New York City. Traditions The Varsity Show The Varsity Show is one of the oldest traditions at Columbia. Founded in 1893 as a fundraiser for the university's fledgling athletic teams, the Varsity Show now draws together the entire Columbia undergraduate community for a series of performances every April. Dedicated to producing a unique full-length musical that skewers and satirizes many dubious aspects of life at Columbia, the Varsity Show is written and performed exclusively by university undergraduates. Various renowned playwrights, composers, authors, directors, and actors have contributed to the Varsity Show, either as writers or performers, while students at Columbia, includingRichard Rodgers,Oscar Hammerstein II,Lorenz Hart,Herman J. Mankiewicz,I. A. L. Diamond,Herman Wouk,Greta Gerwig, andKate McKinnon. Notable past shows includeFly With Me(1920),TheStreets of New York(1948),The Sky's the", "Sky's the Limit(1954), andAngels at Columbia(1994). In particular,Streets of New York, after having been revived three times, openedoff-Broadwayin 1963 and was awarded a 1964Drama Desk Award.The Mischief Maker(1903), written byEdgar Allan Woolfand Cassius Freeborn, premiered atMadison Square Gardenin 1906 asMam'zelle Champagne. Tree Lighting and Yule Log ceremonies The campus Tree Lighting ceremony was inaugurated in 1998. It celebrates the illumination of the medium-sized trees lining College Walk in front of Kent Hall andHamilton Hallon the east end and Dodge Hall and Pulitzer Hall on the west, just before finals week in early December. The lights remain on until February 28. Students meet atthe sundialfor free hot chocolate, performances bya cappellagroups, and speeches by the university president and a guest. Immediately following the College Walk festivities is one of Columbia's older holiday traditions, the lighting of the Yule Log. The Christmas ceremony dates to a period prior to theAmerican", "to theAmerican Revolutionary War, but lapsed before being revived by PresidentNicholas Murray Butlerin 1910. A troop of students dressed asContinental Armysoldiers carry the eponymous log from the sundial to the lounge ofJohn Jay Hall, where it is lit amid the singing of seasonal carols. The Christmas ceremony is accompanied by a reading ofA Visit From St. NicholasbyClement Clarke MooreandYes, Virginia, There is a Santa ClausbyFrancis Pharcellus Church. Notable people Alumni The university has graduated many notable alumni, including fiveFounding Fathers of the United States,an authorof the United States Constitution anda memberof theCommittee of Five. Three United States presidents have attended Columbia,as well as tenJustices of the Supreme Court of the United States, including threeChief Justices. As of 2011, 125 Pulitzer Prize winners and 39 Oscar winners have attended Columbia.As of 2006, there were 101 National Academy members who were alumni. In a 2016 ranking of universities worldwide with respect to", "with respect to living graduates who are billionaires, Columbia ranked second, after Harvard. Former U.S. PresidentsTheodore RooseveltandFranklin Delano Rooseveltattended the law school. Other political figures educated at Columbia include former U.S. PresidentBarack Obama,Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme CourtRuth Bader Ginsburg,former U.S. Secretary of StateMadeleine Albright,former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve BankAlan Greenspan,U.S. Attorney GeneralEric Holder, and U.S. Solicitor GeneralDonald Verrilli Jr.The university has also educated 29 foreignheads of state, including president of GeorgiaMikheil Saakashvili, president of East TimorJosé Ramos-Horta, president of EstoniaToomas Hendrik Ilvesand other historical figures such asWellington Koo,Radovan Karadžić,Gaston Eyskens, andT. V. Soong. One of the founding fathers of modern India and the prime architect of the Constitution of India,B. R. Ambedkar, was an alumnus. Alumni of Columbia have occupied top positions in Wall Street and the rest", "Street and the rest of the business world. Notable members of theAstor familyattended Columbia, while other business graduates include investorWarren Buffett,former CEO of PBS and NBCLawrence K. Grossman,chairman ofWalmartS. Robson Walton,Bain CapitalCo-Managing Partner,Jonathan Lavine,Thomson ReutersCEOTom Glocer,New York Stock ExchangepresidentLynn Martin,andAllianceBernsteinChairman and CEOLewis A. Sanders.CEO's of top Fortune 500 companies includeJames P. GormanofMorgan Stanley,Robert J. StevensofLockheed Martin,Philippe DaumanofViacom,Robert BakishofParamount Global,Ursula BurnsofXerox,Devin WenigofEBay,Vikram PanditofCitigroup,Ralph IzzoofPublic Service Enterprise Group,Gail Koziara BoudreauxofAnthem,andFrank BlakeofThe Home Depot.Notable labor organizer and women's educatorLouise Leonard McLarenreceived her degree of Master of Arts from Columbia. In science and technology, Columbia alumni include: founder ofIBMHerman Hollerith;inventor ofFM radioEdwin Armstrong;Francis Mechner; integral in development", "in development of thenuclear submarineHyman Rickover;founder ofGoogle ChinaKai-Fu Lee;scientistsStephen Jay Gould,Robert Millikan,Helium–neon laserinventorAli JavanandMihajlo Pupin;chief-engineer of theNew York City Subway,William Barclay Parsons;philosophersIrwin EdmanandRobert Nozick;economistMilton Friedman;psychologistHarriet Babcock;archaeologistJosephine Platner Shear;and sociologistsLewis A. CoserandRose Laub Coser. Many Columbia alumni have gone on to renowned careers in the arts, including composersRichard Rodgers,Oscar Hammerstein II,Lorenz Hart,andArt Garfunkel;and painterGeorgia O'Keeffe.Five United StatesPoet Laureatesreceived their degrees from Columbia. Columbia alumni have made an indelible mark in the field of American poetry and literature, with such people asJack KerouacandAllen Ginsberg, pioneers of theBeat Generation;andLangston HughesandZora Neale Hurston, seminal figures in theHarlem Renaissance,all having attended the university. Other notable writers who attended Columbia include", "Columbia include authorsIsaac Asimov,J.D. Salinger,Upton Sinclair,Ursula K. Le Guin,Danielle Valore Evans,andHunter S. Thompson.In architecture,William Lee Stoddart, a prolific architect ofU.S. East Coasthotels, is an alumnus. University alumni have also been very prominent in the film industry, with 33 alumni and former students winning a combined 43Academy Awards(as of 2011).Some notable Columbia alumni that have gone on to work in film include directorsSidney Lumet(12 Angry Men)andKathryn Bigelow(The Hurt Locker),screenwritersHoward Koch(Casablanca)andJoseph L. Mankiewicz(All About Eve),and actorsJames Cagney,Ed HarrisandTimothée Chalamet. Faculty As of 2021, Columbia employs 4,381 faculty, including 70 members of theNational Academy of Sciences,178 members of theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences,and 65 members of theNational Academy of Medicine.In total, the Columbia faculty has included 52Nobel laureates, 12National Medal of Sciencerecipients,and 32National Academy of Engineeringmembers. Columbia", "Columbia University faculty played particularly important roles duringWorld War IIand the creation of theNew Dealunder PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt, who attended Columbia Law School. The three core members of Roosevelt'sBrain Trust:Adolf A. Berle,Raymond Moley, andRexford Tugwell, were law professors at Columbia.TheStatistical Research Group, which used statistics to analyze military problems during World War II, was composed of Columbia researchers and faculty includingGeorge StiglerandMilton Friedman.Columbia faculty and researchers, includingEnrico Fermi,Leo Szilard,Eugene T. Booth,John R. Dunning,George B. Pegram,Walter Zinn,Chien-Shiung Wu,Francis G. Slack,Harold Urey,Herbert L. Anderson, andIsidor Isaac Rabi, also played a significant role during the early phases of theManhattan Project. Following the rise ofNazi Germany, the exiledInstitute for Social ResearchatGoethe University Frankfurtwould affiliate itself with Columbia from 1934 to 1950.It was during this period that thinkers includingTheodor", "includingTheodor Adorno,Max Horkheimer, andHerbert Marcusewrote and published some of the most seminal works of theFrankfurt School, includingReason and Revolution,Dialectic of Enlightenment, andEclipse of Reason.ProfessorsEdward Said, author ofOrientalism, andGayatri Spivakare generally considered as founders of the field ofpostcolonialism;other professors that have significantly contributed to the field includeHamid DabashiandJoseph Massad.The works of professorsKimberlé Crenshaw,Patricia J. Williams, andKendall Thomaswere foundational to the field ofcritical race theory. Columbia and its affiliated faculty have also made significant contributions to the study of religion. The affiliated Union Theological Seminary is a center ofliberal Christianityin the United States, having served as the birthplace ofBlack theologythrough the efforts of faculty includingJames H. ConeandCornel West,andWomanist theology, through the works ofKatie Cannon,Emilie Townes, andDelores S. Williams.Likewise, the Jewish Theological", "Jewish Theological Seminary of America was the birthplace ofConservative Judaismmovement in the United States, which was founded and led by faculty members includingSolomon Schechter,Alexander Kohut, andLouis Ginzbergin the early 20th century, and is a major center for Jewish studies in general. Other schools of thought in the humanities Columbia professors made significant contributions toward include theDunning School, founded byWilliam Archibald Dunning;the anthropological schools ofhistorical particularismandcultural relativism, founded byFranz Boas;andfunctional psychology, whose founders and proponents includeJohn Dewey,James McKeen Cattell,Edward L. Thorndike, andRobert S. Woodworth. Notable figures that have served as thepresident of Columbia Universityinclude34thPresident of the United StatesDwight D. Eisenhower,4thVice President of the United StatesGeorge Clinton,Founding FatherandU.S. Senatorfrom ConnecticutWilliam Samuel Johnson,Nobel Peace PrizelaureateNicholas Murray Butler, andFirst", "Butler, andFirst AmendmentscholarLee Bollinger. Notable Columbia University faculty includeZbigniew Brzezinski,Sonia Sotomayor,Kimberlé Crenshaw,Lee Bollinger,Franz Boas,Margaret Mead,Edward Sapir,John Dewey,Charles A. Beard,Max Horkheimer,Herbert Marcuse,Edward Said,Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,Orhan Pamuk,Edwin Howard Armstrong,Enrico Fermi,Chien-Shiung Wu,Tsung-Dao Lee,Jack Steinberger,Joachim Frank,Joseph Stiglitz,Jeffrey Sachs,Robert Mundell,Thomas Hunt Morgan,Eric Kandel,Richard Axel, andAndrei Okounkov. See also Notes Citations References Further reading External links * indicates acting or interim president or chancellor" ]
What was the birthday of the man who was mayor of New York City the year Snoopy debuted in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade?
November 24, 1921
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snoopy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_New_York_City
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lindsay
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Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snoopy', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_New_York_City', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lindsay']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snoopy", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mayors_of_New_York_City", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lindsay" ]
[ "Snoopy Snoopyis ananthropomorphicbeaglein the comic stripPeanutsbyCharles M. Schulz. He can also be found in all of thePeanutsfilms and television specials. Since his debut on October 4, 1950, Snoopy has become one of the most recognizable and iconic characters in the comic strip and is considered more famous thanCharlie Brownin some countries. The original drawings of Snoopy were inspired by Spike, one of Schulz's childhood dogs. Traits Snoopy is a loyal, imaginative, and good-natured beagle who is prone to imagining fantasy lives, including being an author,a college student known as \"Joe Cool\", an attorney, and aWorld War I flying ace. He is perhaps best known in this last persona, wearing an aviator's helmet and goggles and a scarf while carrying aswagger stick(like a stereotypicalBritish Armyofficer ofWorld War IandII). Snoopy can be selfish, gluttonous, and lazy at times, and occasionally mocks his owner, Charlie Brown. But on the whole, he shows great love, care, and loyalty for his owner (even though he cannot even remember his name and always refers to him as \"the round-headed kid\"). In the 1990s comic strips, he is obsessed with cookies, particularly the chocolate-chip variety. This, and other instances in which he indulges in large chocolate-based meals and snacks, indicate that chocolate is not poisonous to Snoopy, the wayit is for real dogs. All of his fantasies have a similar formula. Snoopy pretends to be something, usually \"world famous\", and fails. His short \"novels\" are never published. HisSopwith Camelis consistently shot down by his imaginary rival enemy, theGermanflying acethe \"Red Baron\". Schulz said of Snoopy's character in a 1997 interview: \"He has to retreat into his fanciful world in order to survive. Otherwise, he leads kind of a dull, miserable life. I don't envy dogs the lives they have to live.\" Snoopy imagines himself to speak, but never actually does, other than nonverbal sounds and occasionally uttering \"Woof\". His very articulate thoughts are shown in thought balloons. In the animatedPeanutsfilms and television specials, Snoopy's thoughts are not verbalized. His moods are instead conveyed through moans, yelps, growls, sobs, laughter, and monosyllabic utterances such as \"bleah\" or \"hey\" as well as throughpantomime. His vocal effects were usually provided byBill Melendez, who first played the role during Snoopy's appearances onThe Tennessee Ernie Ford Show.The only exceptions are in the animated adaptions of themusicalsYou're a Good Man, Charlie BrownandSnoopy!!! The Musical, in which Snoopy's thoughts are verbalized byRobert TowersandCameron Clarke, respectively. (His dialogue, however, is not \"heard\" by the other characters except Woodstock the bird and other non-human characters; however, he does remember Charlie Brown's name.) Snoopy's doghousedefies physicsand is shown to be bigger on the inside than the outside. History Snoopy appeared on October 4, 1950, two days after the firstPeanutsstrip. He was one of the four original characters, along with Charlie Brown,Patty, andShermy. He was named Snoopy for the first time in the November 10 strip. On March 16, 1952,his thoughts were first shown in a thought balloon. Snoopy first appeared upright on his hind legs on January 9, 1956, when he was shown sliding across a sheet of ice after Shermy andLucyhad first done so.He is first shown sleeping on top of his doghouse rather than inside it on December 12, 1958,and first adopts his World War I Flying Ace persona on October 10, 1965.Snoopy's final appearance in the comic was on February 13, 2000, when he was shown sitting on top of his doghouse typing Schulz's farewell message to his readers. Popularity Snoopy appeared as a character balloon in theMacy's Thanksgiving Day Paradein 1968; the balloon depicted Snoopy in his World War I Flying Ace costume.The beagle has been in almost every parade ever since in different costumes, as an ice skater, a jester (to celebrate the new millennium and the parade's 75th anniversary), and an astronaut. TheDogs Trustand Wild in Arts created a trail called A Dog's Trail which spanned acrossCardiff,Caerphilly, andPorthcawlin spring of 2022. The trail raised money for Dogs Trust to use for dog welfare. Relationship with otherPeanutscharacters Charlie Brown Despite his history of conflicted loyalties, his constant disrespect for Charlie Brown, and his inability to remember his name (he refers to him as \"that round-headed kid\"), Snoopy has shown both love and loyalty to his owner. Charlie Brown would often get irritated at Snoopy's flights of fancy with the comment, \"Why can't I have a normal dog like everyone else?\" He joins Charlie Brown in walking out of a game ofHa-Ha Hermanwhen Peppermint Patty insults Charlie Brown, unaware that Charlie Brown is within earshot.He also helps Charlie Brown recover his autographed baseball when a bully takes it and challenges Charlie Brown to fight him for it. When Charlie Brown has to stop dedicating himself to making Snoopy happy, Snoopy replies, \"Don't worry about it. I was already happy.\" InThe Peanuts Movie, Snoopy remains loyal to Charlie Brown, supporting and caring for him throughout the movie. In earlyPeanutsstrips, Charlie Brown was not Snoopy's owner (as seen in the February 2, 1951, strip), and it was not made clear who, if anyone, his actual owner was. At various times, it was suggested that he was Patty'sor Shermy'sdog. Charlie Brown was first portrayed as being responsible for Snoopy in the strips of November 1 and 3, 1955; it was not until September 1, 1958, that Snoopy was specifically said to be Charlie Brown's dog. (In the September 20, 1980, strip, Charlie Brown comments that he once told Snoopy to \"stay\" and \"he never went home.\") In both the early strips and the movieSnoopy Come Home,Charlie Brown says that he got Snoopy after being bullied by another kid. His parents took him to the Daisy Hill Puppy Farm to cheer him up, where he met and bought Snoopy. The specialSnoopy's Reuniondepicts their first meeting. Lucy Snoopy frequently tries to kiss Lucy on the cheek or nose, which Lucy, who is afraid of dog germs, thoroughly hates. Despite her distaste of doggy kisses, Lucy seems to care for Snoopy: inSnoopy Come Home, Lucy is sad to see him go and is (momentarily) glad when he comes back home. In some strips, Lucy goes to Snoopy for help, such as in the April 16, 1961strip, wherein a jealous Lucy and Frieda are beating each other up at Schroeder's piano, Lucy ends up winning, and shakes hands with Snoopy in the end, looking slightly injured. Snoopy also commandeers Lucy's psychiatric booth either in her absence or when she ends up being the one needing help. InSnoopy!, Lucy and Snoopy hug each other during the song \"If Just One Person\". Linus Snoopy often tries to steal Linus's blanket, leading to slapstick fights and wild chases, the latter of which usually involve Snoopy running up, grabbing the blanket in his mouth, then running off with Linus holding on for dear life, and finally swinging Linus and the blanket around and around in a circular motion through the air before letting go and they both fly off to who-knows-where. Lila Lila was Snoopy's owner before Charlie Brown. Snoopy visits her in the cartoonSnoopy Come Homeand struggles to decide whether to stay with Charlie Brown or go back to Lila. Lila quickly persuades him to leave Charlie Brown so Snoopy can live with her again. However, upon arriving at her apartment complex, Snoopy is very relieved to see a \"NO DOGS ALLOWED\" sign and returns to live with Charlie Brown. Peppermint Patty Peppermint Pattyoften refers to Snoopy as a \"funny-looking kid with a big nose\", unaware that he is a beagle. In one instance, she has him serve as her attorney in a case involving the school dress code. In the March 21, 1974, strip, Marcie tells Peppermint Patty that Snoopy is a beagle, finally resulting in her realizing his true identity. Snoopy serves as Peppermint Patty's watchdog several times. She is one of the few girls who does not get disgusted after being kissed by him. Sally Brown Like Lucy, Sally does not care that much for Snoopy and often calls him a stupid beagle. Sally usually complains when her big brother asks her to feed Snoopy whenever he is away from home. While she is still an infant, Sally has a friendly and playful relationship with Snoopy. In later years, Sally occasionally enlists Snoopy's help in school assignments. She even treats him to an ice cream cone (a very tall ice cream cone, with scoops of about a dozen flavors) when Snoopy helps her get an \"A\" on a report about \"Our Animal Friends\". In one storyline, Sally uses Snoopy as a \"weapon\" to help protect her from bullies on the playground (Snoopy barks loudly at anyone who threatens Sally, leading Snoopy to comment, \"I feel like a can of mace!\"), but this ends in disaster when Snoopy sees an old girlfriend of his and runs off to meet her, abandoning Sally and leaving her to get \"slaughtered\" by the playground bullies. Schroeder Schroeder does not mind much when Snoopy sits against his toy piano, except when Snoopy dances on top of the piano, much to Schroeder's annoyance. He also sometimes plays with the notes coming from the piano. Rerun van Pelt Rerun, the youngest child character in the strip, plays with Snoopy sometimes. In some strips, Rerun and Snoopy are playing cards with each other, both of them clueless about the rules. Woodstock Woodstock is Snoopy's best friend and sidekick. He is a small, yellow bird of indeterminate species. He speaks in a chirping language that only Snoopy and his other bird friends can understand. In return, the birds somehow understand Snoopy's thoughts. In some strips, Snoopy can be seen telling a joke to Woodstock and both laugh so hard they end up falling off the doghouse. Woodstock sometimes sleeps on top of Snoopy's nose, such as in one strip where Snoopy says \"Never share your pad with a restless bird\". Fifi Fifi is a major love interest of Snoopy and she appears inLife Is a Circus, Charlie BrownandThe Peanuts Movie. InLife Is a Circus, Charlie Brown, Snoopy sees Fifi, a white poodle, at a circus and starts to get attracted to her. He and Fifi do a trapeze act and afterward, he runs away, taking Fifi with him. Fifi decides to go back to the circus, however, leaving Snoopy heartbroken and forced to return to Charlie Brown. InThe Peanuts Movie, Fifi (voiced byKristin Chenoweth) is a pilot just like Snoopy (being redesigned to be bipedal while still retaining her poodle traits), and together they have interaction via Snoopy's typewriter against the Red Baron. He shows how much he cares for her when he cries atSchroeder's house after she is captured by the Red Baron. Snoopy, Woodstock, and the Beagle Scouts set out on a mission to save her. Eventually, they save her, and she shows her affection to Snoopy. Siblings In the comic strip, Snoopy has seven siblings. Five appeared at various times in the strip: four brothers, Spike, Andy, Marbles, and Olaf; and one sister, Belle. The two others were never mentioned by name in the comic strip, but the whole family appeared in 1991television specialSnoopy's Reunion, introducing the two unknown siblings, identified in the special as Molly and Rover. Snoopy having seven siblings was an element of the strip that developed as the strip evolved. Originally described in a June 1959 strip as an \"only dog\",Snoopy went to a family reunion with several unnamed siblings in a May 1965 sequence, stating that they all spoke different languages and couldn't understand each other.In March 1970, Snoopy wrote in his autobiography that he was one of seven puppies,and the number reached its final count of eight beagles in December 1972. In a 1987 interview, Schulz said that he felt introducing Snoopy's siblings was a mistake, similar to the introduction ofEugene the JeepinThimble Theatre: \"I think Eugene the Jeep took the life out of Popeye himself, and I'm sureSegardidn't realize that. I realized it myself a couple of years ago when I began to introduce Snoopy's brothers and sisters. I realized that when I put Belle and Marbles in there it destroyed the relationship that Snoopy has with the kids, which is a very strange relationship. And these things are so subtle when you're doing them, you can make mistakes and not realize them.\"Schulz elaborated further in another 1987 interview: \"Snoopy had a sister, Belle, whom I discovered I really didn't like. I brought in Spike and I like Spike a lot. But when I brought another brother in — I thought Marbles would make a great name for a dog — I discovered almost immediately that bringing in other animals took the uniqueness away from Snoopy. So the only other animal character who works now is Spike, as long as Spike stays out in the desert.\" Spike Spike, Snoopy's older brother who lived in the desert, was the most frequently seen sibling in the strip.He was introduced in the August 13, 1975, strip.He was a recurring character between 1984 and 1988, and was also used in one-off appearances sporadically through the rest ofPeanutshistory. Spike is named afterCharles Schulz's childhood dog. Spike's appearance is similar to Snoopy's, but he is substantially thinner, has a perpetually sleepy-eyed look, sports long, droopy whiskers that look like a mustache, and wears a fedora. He is called Snoopy's older brother during the first story in which he appears. Spike lives in the middle of a desert nearNeedles, California, mostly interacting with inanimate saguaro cacti and rocks. He temporarily becameRerun's dog inI Want a Dog for Christmas, Charlie Brown, and also starred in his own television special,It's the Girl in the Red Truck, Charlie Brown.He was also a main character inSnoopy's Getting Married, Charlie Brown, where he is shown traveling from Needles to visit Snoopy to be thebest beagleat his wedding. A large statue of Spike resides inside the Needles Regional Museum inNeedles, California. The Schulz family lived in Needles from 1928 to 1930. Belle Belleis Snoopy's sister, who first appeared in the strip on June 28, 1976.She lives inKansas City, Missouriwith her teenage son, whom Snoopy noted as resembling thePink Panther.Belle herself bears a strong resemblance to Snoopy, but with longer eyelashes. In addition, she wears a lace collar and sometimes wears a pearl necklace. Belle only made a few appearances in the strip but is remembered because of the Belle stuffed animal toys sold in the late 1970s and early 1980s.San Franciscotoy merchandiser Determined Productions had the license to make Snoopy plush toys, and they introduced Belle plush after receiving many requests from children who wanted a female \"sister\" doll. In 1984, Snoopy and Belle inspired fashion designers around the world, includingLagerfeld,Armani, andde la Renta, to create one-of-a-kind outfits in their honor. Both beagles modeled for the \"Snoopy in Fashion\" exhibition held that year in Japan. \"Snoopy & Belle in Fashion\" continues to be exhibited as of 2020.Photographs of the exhibition were collected in a 1988 book,Snoopy in Fashion. There was another traveling exhibition of Snoopy and Belle plush in outfits made by fashion designers in 1990, as a celebration of the comic strip's fortieth anniversary. This exhibition began inParisat theLouvre Museum, and then to theMitsukoshidepartment store inTokyo, followed by showings inLos Angeles,New York City,London,Milan, andMadrid.Photographs from this collection were published asSnoopy Around the World. Reception Snoopy and Charlie Brown were ranked byTV Guideas the 8th greatest cartoon characters of all time. Some critics feel that the strip suffered a decline in quality after the 1960s. Writing in 2000,Christopher Caldwellargued that the character of Snoopy, and the strip's increased focus on him in the 1970s, \"went from being the strip's besetting artistic weakness to ruining it altogether\". Caldwell felt that Snoopy \"was never a full participant in the tangle of relationships that drovePeanutsin its Golden Age\", as he could not talk. He went on to say that Snoopy \"was way too shallow for the strip as it developed in the 1960s, and the strips he featured in were anomalies.\" Jim Davisnoted that Snoopy was a boon from a marketing standpoint, which inspired him to center his comic stripGarfieldaround a cat: \"Snoopy is very popular in licensing. Charlie Brown is not.\" A toy titled The Snoopy Snowcone Machine was popular in the '80s and was later recreated in the 2010s by Cra-z-art. Political endorsement controversy On October 5, 2024, a fan account devoted to Snoopy onTwitterposted an endorsement ofDonald Trump'spresidential candidacyin the2024 U.S. presidential race.The tweet called for \"more take home pay, a secure border, and a government that prioritizes prosperity for its tax paying citizens rather thanillegal immigrants. The tweet also stated that \"Kamala Harrismay have 'come from a middle class family', but this account is run by an actual middle class family. We started this profile last year as a distraction from the difficult economic times, with the help of bringing hope to others who may be going through the same.\" The tweet, which featured anAI-generated portraitof Snoopy shaking the hand of Trump, was widely criticized by many fellowPeanutsfans on social media,several of whom referenced a 1970 letter from creator Schulz in which he stressed the importance of faith in American democracy, writing that \"sometimes it is the very people who cry out the loudest in favor of getting back to what they call 'American Virtues' who lack this faith in our country. I believe that our greatest strength lies always in the protection of our smallest minorities.\"The account deleted the tweet, then did another which acknowledged the support from Trump supporters, and championed continued voter registration in swing states. The account was deactivated shortly thereafter. The tweet was parodied on the October 12, 2024 edition of theNBCvariety showSaturday Night Live, with remarks that, in turn, used the character ofFranklinto reference Trump's owncontroversial comments about Haitian immigrants. Awards and honors Schulz was a keenbridgeplayer, andPeanutsoccasionally included bridge references. In 1997 theAmerican Contract Bridge League(ACBL) awarded both Snoopy andWoodstockthe honorary rank ofLife Master, and Schulz was delighted. On November 2, 2015, Snoopy was honored with a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, becoming the secondPeanuts-related figure to be inducted with a star, after Schulz. In aviation and space Use by NASA Other uses References Further reading External links", "List of mayors of New York City Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Themayor of New York Cityis thechief executiveof theGovernment of New York City, as stipulated by New York City's charter. The current officeholder, the 110th in the sequence of regular mayors, isEric Adams, a member of theDemocratic Party. During the Dutch colonial period from 1624 to 1664,New Amsterdamwas governed by theDirector of New Netherland. Following the 1664 creation of the BritishProvince of New York, newly renamed New York City was run by the British military governor,Richard Nicolls. The office of Mayor of New York City was established in 1665. Holders were appointed by colonial governors, beginning withThomas Willett. The position remained appointed until 1777. That year, during theAmerican Revolution, aCouncil of Appointmentwas formed by theStateofNew York. In 1821 theNew York City Council– then known as the Common Council – began appointing mayors. Since 1834,mayorshave been elected by direct popular vote. The city included little beyond the island of Manhattan before 1874, when it annexedthe western part of the Bronx, to be followed in 1895 by the rest of the Bronx. The1898 consolidationcreated the city as it is today withfive boroughs:Manhattan,the Bronx,Brooklyn,Queens, andStaten Island. The first mayor of the expanded city wasRobert Anderson Van Wyck. The longest-serving mayors have beenFiorello H. La Guardia(1934–1945),Robert F. Wagner Jr.(1954–1965),Ed Koch(1978–1989) andMichael Bloomberg(2002–2013), each of whom was in office for twelve years (three successive four-year terms). The shortest terms in office since 1834 have been those of acting mayors:William T. Collinsserved a single day on December 31, 1925,Samuel B. H. Vanceserved one month (from November 30 to December 31, 1874), andThomas Comanserved five weeks (from Monday, November 30, 1868, to Monday, January 4, 1869). Colonial mayors (1665–1783) Before 1680, mayors served one-year terms. From 1680, they served two-year terms. Exceptions are noted thus (*). A dagger (†) indicates mayoralties cut short by death in office. (When the same man served more than one continuous term, his name is lightly shaded purely for clarity, but the tints have no other significance.) Note †died in office Pre-consolidation mayors (1784–1897) The mayor continued to be selected by theGovernment of New York'sCouncil of Appointmentuntil 1821, whenStephen Allenbecame the first mayor appointed by a localCommon Council. Under the Charter of 1834, mayors were elected annually by direct popular vote. Starting in 1849, mayors were elected to serve two-year terms. Notes †died in office Post-consolidation mayors (since 1897) The 1898–1901 term was for four years. The City Charter was changed to make the mayor's term a two-year one beginning in 1902, but after two such terms was changed back to resume four-year terms in 1906.George B. McClellan Jr.thus served one two-year term from 1904 to 1905, during which he was elected to a four-year term from 1906 to 1909. The party of the mayor reflects party registration, as opposed to the party lines run under during the general election. Notes †died in office Appendices Mayoral terms and term limits in New York City since 1834 Direct elections to the mayoralty of the unconsolidated City of New York began in 1834 for a term of one year, extended to two years after 1849. The 1897 Charter of the consolidated City stipulated that the mayor was to be elected for a single four-year term. In 1901, the term halved to two years, with no restrictions on reelection. In 1905, the term was extended to four years once again. (MayorsFiorello La Guardia,Robert F. Wagner Jr.andEd Kochwere later able to serve for twelve years each.)In 1993, the voters approved a two-term (eight-year) limit, and reconfirmed this limit when the issue was submitted to referendum in 1996. In 2008, theNew York City Councilvoted to change the two-term limit to three terms (without submitting the issue to the voters).Legal challenges to the Council's action were rejected by Federal courts in January and April 2009.However, in 2010, yet another referendum, reverting the limit to two terms, passed overwhelmingly. Principal source:The Encyclopedia of New York Cityespecially the entries for \"charter\" and \"mayoralty\". Interrupted terms MayorsJohn T. Hoffman(1866–1868, elected Governor 1868),William Havemeyer(1845–1846, 1848–1849, and 1873–1874),William Jay Gaynor(1910–1913),John Francis Hylan(1918–1925),Jimmy Walker(1926–1932), andWilliam O'Dwyer(1946–1950) failed to complete the final terms to which they were elected. The uncompleted mayoral terms of Hoffman, Walker, and O'Dwyer were added to the other offices elected in (respectively) 1868,1932, and1950 † Became acting mayor as the president of the board of aldermen or (in 1950) city council. (D) = (Democratic) (R) = (Republican) Mayors of the City of Brooklyn, 1834–1897 Brooklynelected amayorfrom 1834 until consolidation in 1898 into theCity of Greater New York, whose own secondmayor(1902–1903),Seth Low, had beenMayorofBrooklynfrom 1882 to 1885. Since 1898,Brooklynhas, in place of a separatemayor, elected aBorough President. Mayors of Long Island City, 1870–1897 Long Island City, now within the Borough ofQueens, was incorporated as a city in its own right on May 4, 1870 and (like the City of Brooklyn) consolidated into the presentGreater New York Cityon January 1, 1898. See also References External links", "John Lindsay John Vliet Lindsay(/vliːt/; November 24, 1921 – December 19, 2000) was an American politician and lawyer. During his political career, Lindsay was a U.S. congressman, themayor of New York City, and a candidate for U.S. president. He was also a regular guest host ofGood Morning America. Lindsay served as a member of theUnited States House of Representativesfrom January 1959 to December 1965 and as mayor of New York from January 1966 to December 1973. He switched from theRepublicanto theDemocratic Partyin 1971, and launched a brief and unsuccessful bid for the1972 Democratic presidential nomination, and later for the 1980 Democratic nomination for Senator from New York. Early life Lindsay was born in New York City onWest End Avenueto George Nelson Lindsay and the former Florence Eleanor Vliet.He grew up in an upper-middle-class family ofEnglishandDutchdescent.Lindsay's paternal grandfather migrated to the United States in the 1880s from theIsle of Wight,and his mother was from an upper-middle-class family that had been in New York since the 1660s.His mother was a descendant of Dirck Jans van der Vliet (1612–1689) who settled in the then Dutch settlement ofNew Netherlandsaround 1659–1660 as son Henderick was born in what is nowLivingston, New York.Lindsay's father was a successful lawyer andinvestment banker.Lindsay attended theBuckley School,St. Paul's School, andYale,where he was admitted to the class of 1944 and joinedScroll and Key. Military service and legal career With the outbreak of World War II, Lindsay completed his studies early and in 1943 joined theUnited States Navyas agunnery officer. He obtained the rank oflieutenant, earning fivebattle starsthrough action in theinvasion of Sicilyand a series of landings in thePacific theater.After the war, he spent a few months as a ski bumand a couple of months training as a bank clerkbefore returning toNew Haven, where he received his law degree fromYale Law Schoolin 1948, ahead of schedule.In 1949, he began his legal career at the law firm ofWebster, Sheffield, Fleischmann, Hitchcock & Chrystie. Marriage Back in New York City, Lindsay met his future wife, Mary Anne Harrison (1926–2004), at the wedding ofNancy Walker Bush(daughter ofConnecticut's SenatorPrescott Bushand sister of future PresidentGeorge Herbert Walker Bushand aunt ofGeorge W. Bush&Jeb Bush),where he was anusherand Harrison abridesmaid.She was a graduate ofVassar Collegeand a distant relative ofWilliam Henry HarrisonandBenjamin Harrison.They married in 1949.That same year Lindsay was admitted to the bar, and rose to become a partner in his law firm four years later.They had three daughters and a son. U.S. Representative Lindsay began gravitating toward politics as one of the founders of the Youth forEisenhowerclub in 1951 and as president of theNew York Young Republican Clubin 1952.He went on to join theUnited States Department of Justicein 1955 as executive assistant toAttorney GeneralHerbert Brownell. There he worked oncivil libertiescases as well as the1957 Civil Rights Act. In 1958, with the backing of Brownell as well asBruce Barton,John Aspinwall Roosevelt, andEdith Willkie,Lindsay won the Republican primary and went on to be elected to Congress as the representative of the \"Silk Stocking\" 17th district, exemplified byManhattan'sUpper East Sidebut also encompassing the diverseLower East Sideand historically bohemianGreenwich Village. While in Congress, Lindsay established a liberal voting record increasingly at odds with his own party and an amateur harmonica improvisation group.He was an early supporter of federal aid to education andMedicare;and advocated the establishment of a federalUnited States Department of Housing and Urban Developmentand aNational Foundation for the Arts and Humanities.He was called a maverick,casting the lone dissenting vote for a Republican-sponsored bill extending the power of thePostmaster Generalto impound obscene mailand one of only two dissenting votes for a bill allowing federal interception of mail fromCommunistcountries.Also known for his wit, when asked by his party leaders why he opposed legislation to combat Communism and pornography, he replied that the two were the major industries of his district and if they were suppressed then \"the 17th district would be a depressed area\".Lindsay voted in favor of theCivil Rights Act of 1960and1964, the24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitutionand theVoting Rights Act of 1965. Mayor of New York City In1965, Lindsay was electedMayor of New York Cityas a Republican with the support of theLiberal Party of New Yorkin a three-way race. He defeated Democratic mayoral candidateAbraham D. Beame, then City Comptroller, as well as conservative thinker andNational ReviewfounderWilliam F. Buckley Jr., who ran on theConservative Partyline. The unofficial motto of the campaign, taken from aMurray Kemptoncolumn, was \"He is fresh and everyone else is tired\". Labor issues On his first day as mayor, January 1, 1966, theTransport Workers Union of America, led byMike Quill, shut down the city with acomplete halt of subway and bus service. As New Yorkers endured the transit strike, Lindsay remarked, \"I still think it's a fun city\", and walked four miles (6 km) from his hotel room to City Hall in a gesture to show it.Dick Schaap, then a columnist for theNew York Herald Tribune, popularized the term in an article titled \"Fun City\".In the article, Schaap sardonically pointed out that it was not. In 1966, the settlement terms of the transit strike, combined with increased welfare costs and general economic decline, forced Lindsay to lobby the New York State legislature for a new municipalincome taxand higher water rates for city residents, plus a newcommuter taxfor people who worked in the city but resided elsewhere. The transit strike was the first of many labor struggles. In 1968, in an attempt to decentralize the city's school system, Lindsay granted three local school boards in the city complete control over their schools, in an effort to allow communities to have more of a say in their schools. The city's teachers union, theUnited Federation of Teachers, however, saw the breakup as a way ofunion busting, as a decentralized school system would force the union to negotiate with 33 separate school boards rather than with one centralized body. As a result, in May 1968 several teachers working in schools located in the neighborhood ofOcean Hill-Brownsville, one of the neighborhoods where the decentralization was being tested, were fired from their jobs by the community-run school board. The UFT demanded the reinstatement of the dismissed teachers, citing that the teachers had been fired withoutdue process. When their demands were ignored, the UFT called the first of three strikes, leading ultimately to aprotracted citywide teachers' strikethat stretched over a seven-month period between May and November.The strike was tinged with racial and anti-Semitic overtones, pitting Black and Puerto Rican parents against Jewish teachers and supervisors.Many thought the mayor had made a bad situation worse by taking sides against the teachers.The episode left a legacy of tensions between African-Americans and Jews that went on for years,and Lindsay called it his greatest regret. That same year, 1968, also saw a three-day Broadway strike and a nine-daysanitationstrike.Quality of life in the city reached a nadir during the sanitation strike as mounds ofgarbagecaught fire and strong winds blew the filth through the streets.In June 1968, the New York City Police Department deployed snipers to protect Lindsay during a public ceremony, shortly after they detained a knife-wielding man who had demanded to meet the mayor.With the schools shut down, police engaged in a slowdown, firefighters threatening job actions, the city awash in garbage, and racial and religious tensions breaking to the surface, Lindsay later called the last six months of 1968 \"the worst of my public life.\" The summer of 1971 ushered in another devastating strike as over 8,000 workers belonging toAFSCMEDistrict Council 37 walked off their jobs for two days. The strikers included the operators of the city'sdrawbridgesandsewage treatment plants. Drawbridges over theHarlem Riverwere locked in the \"up\" position, barring automobile travel into Manhattan, and hundreds of thousands of gallons of raw sewage flowed into local waterways. Racial and civil unrest Lindsay served on the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, known as theKerner Commission, and was its vice chairman. This body was appointed in 1967 by President Johnson after riots in urban centers of the US, including Newark and Detroit. Lindsay maximized publicity and coverage of his activities on the commission, and while other commissioners made inconspicuous visits to riot-damaged sites, Lindsay would alert the press before his fact-finding missions. Nonetheless, he was especially influential in producing the Kerner Report; its dramatic language of the nation \"moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal\" was consistent with his rhetoric. President Johnson ignored the report and rejected the Kerner Commission's recommendations.In April 1968, one month after the release of the Kerner report, rioting broke out inmore than 100 citiesfollowing theassassination of Martin Luther King Jr.However, in New York City, Lindsay traveled directly intoHarlem, telling Black residents that he regretted King's death and was working against poverty.He is credited with averting riots in the city with this direct response, even as other major cities burned.David Garth, who accompanied Lindsay that night, recalled: \"There was a wall of people coming across125th Street, going from west to east ... I thought we were dead. John raised his hands, said he was sorry. It was very quiet. My feeling was, his appearance there was very reassuring to people because it wasn't the first time they had seen him. He had gone there on a regular basis. That gave him credibility when it hit the fan.\" Lindsay showed his support for New York's African American community through his administration's sponsorship of the 1969Harlem Cultural Festival, which is documented in the 2021 music film,Summer of Soul.The host of the festival, Tony Lawrence, introduces the mayor to the Harlem crowd as \"our blue-eyed soul brother.\" Blizzard of 1969 On February 10, 1969, New York City was pummeled with 15 inches (38 cm) of snow. On the first day alone, 14 people died and 68 were injured.Within a day, the mayor was criticized for giving favored treatment to Manhattan at the expense of the other boroughs.Charges were made that a city worker solicited a bribe to clean streets in Queens. Over a week later, streets in eastern Queens still remained unplowed by the city, enraging the borough's residents, many who felt that the city's other boroughs always took a back seat to Manhattan.Lindsay traveled to Queens, but his visit was not well received. His car could not make its way throughRego Park, and even in a four-wheel-drive truck, he had trouble getting around.InKew Gardens Hills, the mayor was booed; one woman screamed, \"You should be ashamed of yourself.\"InFresh Meadows, a woman told the mayor: \"Get away, you bum.\"Later during his walk through Fresh Meadows, another woman called him \"a wonderful man,\" prompting the mayor to respond: \"And you're a wonderful woman, not like those fat Jewish broads up there,\" pointing to women in a nearby building who had criticized him. The blizzard, dubbed the \"Lindsay Snowstorm,”prompted a political crisis that became \"legendary in the annals of municipal politics\"as the scenes conveyed a message that the mayor of New York City was indifferent to the middle class and poor citizens of the city. Reelection In 1969, a backlash against Lindsay caused him to lose the Republican mayoralprimarytostate SenatorJohn Marchi, who was enthusiastically supported by William F. Buckley and the rest of the party's conservative wing. In the Democratic primary, the most conservative candidate, City ComptrollerMario Procaccino, defeated several more liberal contenders and won the nomination with only apluralityof the votes. \"The more the Mario,\" he quipped.Procaccino, who ran to Lindsay's right, went on to coin the term \"limousine liberal\" to describe Lindsay and his wealthyManhattanbackers. Despite losing the Republican nomination, Lindsay remained on the ballot as the candidate of theNew York Liberal Party. In his campaign he said \"mistakes were made\" and called being mayor of New York City \"the second toughest job in America.\"Two television advertisements described his position: In one he looked directly into the camera and said, \"I guessed wrong on the weather before the city's biggest snowfall last winter. And that was a mistake. But I put 6,000 more cops on the streets. And that was no mistake. The school strike went on too long and we all made some mistakes. But I brought 225,000 more jobs to this town. And that was no mistake... And we did not have a Detroit, aWattsorNewark. And those were no mistakes. The things that go wrong are what make this the second toughest job in America. But the things that go right are those things that make me want it.\" The second opened with a drive through theHolland Tunnelfrom lower Manhattan towardNew Jerseyand suggested that, \"Every New Yorker should take this trip at least once before election day...\" followed by video of Newark, New Jersey which had been devastated by race riots. While narrowly losingBrooklynandthe Bronxdue to Procaccino's entrenched support among ethnic, working class whites (with Marchi winning his nativeStaten Island), Lindsay was able to vanquish his opponents with support from three distinct groups.First were the city's minorities, mostly African Americans and Puerto Ricans, who were concentrated inHarlem, theSouth Bronxand various Brooklyn neighborhoods, includingBedford-StuyvesantandBrownsville.Second were the white and economically secure residents of certain areas of Manhattan.Third were the whites in the boroughs outside Manhattan who had a similar educational background and \"cosmopolitan\" attitude, namely residents of solidly middle-class neighborhoods, includingForest HillsandKew GardensinQueensandBrooklyn Heightsin Brooklyn.This third category included many traditionally Democratic Jewish Americans who were repelled by Procaccino's conservatism. This created a plurality coalition (42%) in Lindsay's second three-way race. His margin of victory rose from just over 100,000 more votes than his Democratic opponent in 1965 to over 180,000 votes over Procaccino in 1969, despite appearing on just onethird partyballot line (seeNew York City Mayoral Elections). Hard-hat riots On May 8, 1970, near the intersection ofWall StreetandBroad Streetand atNew York City Hall, a riot started when about 200construction workersmobilized by the New York StateAFL–CIOlabor federation attacked about 1,000 high school and college students and othersprotestingtheKent State shootings, theCambodian Campaign, and theVietnam War. Some attorneys, bankers, and investment analysts from nearby Wall Street investment firms tried to protect many of the students but were themselves attacked, and some onlookers reported that the police stood by and did nothing. Although more than 70 people were injured, including four policemen, only six people were arrested.The following day, Lindsay severely criticized the police for their lack of action.Police Department labor leaders later accused Lindsay of \"undermining the confidence of the public in its Police Department\" by his statementsand blamed the inaction on inadequate preparations and \"inconsistent directives\" in the past from the mayor's office.Several thousand construction workers, longshoremen and white-collar workers protested against the mayor on May 11 and again on May 16. Protesters called Lindsay \"the red mayor,\" \"traitor,\" \"Commie rat,\" and \"bum.\" The mayor described the mood of the city as \"taut.\" Police corruption In 1970,The New York TimesprintedNew York City Police DepartmentPatrolmanFrank Serpico's claims of widespreadpolice corruption. As a result, theKnapp Commissionwas eventually formed that April by Lindsay, with investigations beginning in June, although public hearings did not start until October 18, 1971. Its preliminary report was not issued until August 1972, and final recommendations only released on December 27, 1972. Because of his forming of the Knapp Commission, many NYPD officers disliked him and didn't want him to attend their funerals in case they died on duty and heckled, hissed, jeered and booed him when he did appear. The wife of Rocco Laurie, one of two city police officers who were murdered by Black revolutionaries in 1972, specifically stated that she did not want Lindsay to attend her husband's funeral that year. Assessments A 1993 survey of historians, political scientists and urban experts conducted by Melvin G. Holli of theUniversity of Illinois at Chicagoranked Lindsay as the sixteenth-worst American big-city mayor to have served between the years 1820 and 1993. Party switch and presidential campaign Lindsay was mentioned as a Republican Vice Presidential possibility in 1968, but was found to be unacceptable by Southern conservatives, andSpiro Agnewwas nominated instead. Lindsay’s original break with the Republican Party began immediately after he failed to win the 1969 Republican mayoral primary, and his subsequent association with the New York Liberal Party for that election. In 1971, Lindsay and his wife cut ties with the Republican Party by registering with theDemocratic Party. Lindsay said, \"In a sense, this step recognizes the failure of 20 years in progressive Republican politics. In another sense, it represents the renewed decision to fight for new national leadership.\"Lindsay then launched a brief and unsuccessful bid for the1972 Democratic presidential nomination. He attracted positive media attention and was a successful fundraiser. Lindsay did well in the earlyArizonacaucus, coming in second placebehindEdmund MuskieofMaineand ahead of eventual nomineeGeorge McGovernofSouth Dakota. Then in the March 14 Florida primary, he placed a weak fifth place, behindGeorge WallaceofAlabama, Muskie,Hubert HumphreyofMinnesota, andScoop JacksonofWashington(though he did edge out McGovern).Among his difficulties was New York City's worsening problems, which Lindsay was accused of neglecting; a band of protesters fromForest Hills, Queens, who were opposed to his support for a low income housing project in their neighborhood, followed Lindsay around his aborted campaign itinerary to jeer and heckle him.His poor showing in Florida effectively doomed his candidacy. Shortly thereafter, influential Brooklyn Democratic Party chairmanMeade Espositocalled for Lindsay to end his campaign: \"I think the handwriting is on the wall;Little Shebabetter come home.\"After a poor showing in the April 5Wisconsinprimary, Lindsay formally abandoned the race. Assessment In a 1972 Gallup poll, 60% of New Yorkers felt Lindsay's administration was working poorly, nine percent rated it good, and not one person thought its performance excellent.By 1978,The New York Timescalled Lindsay \"an exile in his own city\". Lindsay's record remained controversial after he left politics for pursuing his passion oftrapeze. Conservative historianFred Siegel, calling Lindsay the worst New York City mayor of the 20th century, said \"Lindsay wasn't incompetent or foolish or corrupt, but he was actively destructive\".Journalist Steven Weisman observed \"Lindsay's congressional career had taught him little of the need for subtle bureaucratic maneuvering, for understanding an opponent's self-interest, or for the great patience required in a sprawling government.\" Lindsay's budget aidePeter C. Goldmark, Jr.told historian Vincent Cannato that the administration \"failed to come to grips with what a neighborhood is. We never realized that crime is something that happens to, and in, a community.\" Assistant Nancy Seifer said \"There was a whole world out there that nobody in City Hall knew anything about ... If you didn't live onCentral Park West, you were some kind of lesser being.\"Many experts traced the city's mid-1970s fiscal crisis to the Lindsay years, and to the new taxes that he imposed. An alternate assessment was made by journalist Robert McFadden who said that \"By 1973, his last year in office, Mr. Lindsay had become a more seasoned, pragmatic mayor.\"McFadden also credited him for reducing racial tensions, leading to the prevention of riots that plagued Detroit, Los Angeles, Newark and other cities. Legacy Mario Cuomo,Carl McCall, andCarter F. Baleswere among the many people who started their careers in public service in the Lindsay administration.Rev. Al Sharptonhas said that he still remembers Lindsay having walked the streets of Bedford-Stuyvesant and Harlem when these neighborhoods were doing poorly economically. Lindsay also fought to transform theNew York City Civilian Complaint Review Boardfrom an internal police-run department, into a public-minded agency with a citizen majority board. Later life After leaving office, Lindsay returned to the law, but remained in the public eye as a commentator and regular guest host for ABC'sGood Morning America. In 1975, Lindsay made a surprise appearance onThe Tony Awardstelecast in which he, along with a troupe of celebrity male suitors in tuxedos, sang \"Mame\" toAngela Lansbury. He presented the award forBest Director Of A PlaytoJohn Dexterfor the playEquus. Lindsay also tried his hand at acting, appearing inOtto Preminger'sRosebud;the following year his novel,The Edge, was published (Lindsay had earlier authored two non-fiction memoirs):The New York Times, in its contemporary review of the novel, said it was \"as dead-serious as a $100-a-plate dinner of gray meat and frozen candidates' smiles.\" Attempting a political comeback in 1980, Lindsay made a long-shot bid for the Democratic nomination for U.S. Senator from New York, and finished third. He was also active in New York City charities, serving on the board of theAssociation for a Better New York, and as chairman of theLincoln Center Theater. On his death,The New York Timescredited Lindsay with a significant role in the rejuvenation of the theatre. Medical bills from hisParkinson's disease, heart attacks,foreign accent syndromeand stroke depleted Lindsay's finances, as did the collapse of two law firms where he worked, and he found himself without health insurance. Lindsay's eight years of service as mayor left him seven years short of qualifying for a city pension. In 1996, with support from City Council SpeakerPeter Vallone, MayorRudolph W. Giulianiappointed Lindsay to two largelyceremonial poststo make him eligible for municipal health insurance coverage.He and his wife, Mary, moved to a retirement community inHilton Head Island, South Carolina, in November 1999, where he died on December 19, 2000, at the age of 79 of complications frompneumoniaand Parkinson's disease. In 2000, Yale Law School created a fellowship program named in Lindsay's honor. In 1998, a park in Brooklyn, Lindsay Triangle, was named in his honor,and in 2001, theEast River Parkwas renamed in his memory.In December 2013, South Loop Drive in Manhattan'sCentral Parkwas renamed after Lindsay, to commemorate his support for a car-free Central Park. He was featured on a poster picture with GovernorNelson Rockefellerat the groundbreaking of the formerWorld Trade Centerin the city history section of theMuseum of the City of New YorkatFifth Avenueand 103rd Street. See also References Further reading External links" ]
[ "Snoopy Snoopyis ananthropomorphicbeaglein the comic stripPeanutsbyCharles M. Schulz. He can also be found in all of thePeanutsfilms and television specials. Since his debut on October 4, 1950, Snoopy has become one of the most recognizable and iconic characters in the comic strip and is considered more famous thanCharlie Brownin some countries. The original drawings of Snoopy were inspired by Spike, one of Schulz's childhood dogs. Traits Snoopy is a loyal, imaginative, and good-natured beagle who is prone to imagining fantasy lives, including being an author,a college student known as \"Joe Cool\", an attorney, and aWorld War I flying ace. He is perhaps best known in this last persona, wearing an aviator's helmet and goggles and a scarf while carrying aswagger stick(like a stereotypicalBritish Armyofficer ofWorld War IandII). Snoopy can be selfish, gluttonous, and lazy at times, and occasionally mocks his owner, Charlie Brown. But on the whole, he shows great love, care, and loyalty for his owner (even though", "owner (even though he cannot even remember his name and always refers to him as \"the round-headed kid\"). In the 1990s comic strips, he is obsessed with cookies, particularly the chocolate-chip variety. This, and other instances in which he indulges in large chocolate-based meals and snacks, indicate that chocolate is not poisonous to Snoopy, the wayit is for real dogs. All of his fantasies have a similar formula. Snoopy pretends to be something, usually \"world famous\", and fails. His short \"novels\" are never published. HisSopwith Camelis consistently shot down by his imaginary rival enemy, theGermanflying acethe \"Red Baron\". Schulz said of Snoopy's character in a 1997 interview: \"He has to retreat into his fanciful world in order to survive. Otherwise, he leads kind of a dull, miserable life. I don't envy dogs the lives they have to live.\" Snoopy imagines himself to speak, but never actually does, other than nonverbal sounds and occasionally uttering \"Woof\". His very articulate thoughts are shown in thought", "shown in thought balloons. In the animatedPeanutsfilms and television specials, Snoopy's thoughts are not verbalized. His moods are instead conveyed through moans, yelps, growls, sobs, laughter, and monosyllabic utterances such as \"bleah\" or \"hey\" as well as throughpantomime. His vocal effects were usually provided byBill Melendez, who first played the role during Snoopy's appearances onThe Tennessee Ernie Ford Show.The only exceptions are in the animated adaptions of themusicalsYou're a Good Man, Charlie BrownandSnoopy!!! The Musical, in which Snoopy's thoughts are verbalized byRobert TowersandCameron Clarke, respectively. (His dialogue, however, is not \"heard\" by the other characters except Woodstock the bird and other non-human characters; however, he does remember Charlie Brown's name.) Snoopy's doghousedefies physicsand is shown to be bigger on the inside than the outside. History Snoopy appeared on October 4, 1950, two days after the firstPeanutsstrip. He was one of the four original characters, along", "characters, along with Charlie Brown,Patty, andShermy. He was named Snoopy for the first time in the November 10 strip. On March 16, 1952,his thoughts were first shown in a thought balloon. Snoopy first appeared upright on his hind legs on January 9, 1956, when he was shown sliding across a sheet of ice after Shermy andLucyhad first done so.He is first shown sleeping on top of his doghouse rather than inside it on December 12, 1958,and first adopts his World War I Flying Ace persona on October 10, 1965.Snoopy's final appearance in the comic was on February 13, 2000, when he was shown sitting on top of his doghouse typing Schulz's farewell message to his readers. Popularity Snoopy appeared as a character balloon in theMacy's Thanksgiving Day Paradein 1968; the balloon depicted Snoopy in his World War I Flying Ace costume.The beagle has been in almost every parade ever since in different costumes, as an ice skater, a jester (to celebrate the new millennium and the parade's 75th anniversary), and an astronaut.", "and an astronaut. TheDogs Trustand Wild in Arts created a trail called A Dog's Trail which spanned acrossCardiff,Caerphilly, andPorthcawlin spring of 2022. The trail raised money for Dogs Trust to use for dog welfare. Relationship with otherPeanutscharacters Charlie Brown Despite his history of conflicted loyalties, his constant disrespect for Charlie Brown, and his inability to remember his name (he refers to him as \"that round-headed kid\"), Snoopy has shown both love and loyalty to his owner. Charlie Brown would often get irritated at Snoopy's flights of fancy with the comment, \"Why can't I have a normal dog like everyone else?\" He joins Charlie Brown in walking out of a game ofHa-Ha Hermanwhen Peppermint Patty insults Charlie Brown, unaware that Charlie Brown is within earshot.He also helps Charlie Brown recover his autographed baseball when a bully takes it and challenges Charlie Brown to fight him for it. When Charlie Brown has to stop dedicating himself to making Snoopy happy, Snoopy replies, \"Don't", "replies, \"Don't worry about it. I was already happy.\" InThe Peanuts Movie, Snoopy remains loyal to Charlie Brown, supporting and caring for him throughout the movie. In earlyPeanutsstrips, Charlie Brown was not Snoopy's owner (as seen in the February 2, 1951, strip), and it was not made clear who, if anyone, his actual owner was. At various times, it was suggested that he was Patty'sor Shermy'sdog. Charlie Brown was first portrayed as being responsible for Snoopy in the strips of November 1 and 3, 1955; it was not until September 1, 1958, that Snoopy was specifically said to be Charlie Brown's dog. (In the September 20, 1980, strip, Charlie Brown comments that he once told Snoopy to \"stay\" and \"he never went home.\") In both the early strips and the movieSnoopy Come Home,Charlie Brown says that he got Snoopy after being bullied by another kid. His parents took him to the Daisy Hill Puppy Farm to cheer him up, where he met and bought Snoopy. The specialSnoopy's Reuniondepicts their first meeting. Lucy Snoopy", "Lucy Snoopy frequently tries to kiss Lucy on the cheek or nose, which Lucy, who is afraid of dog germs, thoroughly hates. Despite her distaste of doggy kisses, Lucy seems to care for Snoopy: inSnoopy Come Home, Lucy is sad to see him go and is (momentarily) glad when he comes back home. In some strips, Lucy goes to Snoopy for help, such as in the April 16, 1961strip, wherein a jealous Lucy and Frieda are beating each other up at Schroeder's piano, Lucy ends up winning, and shakes hands with Snoopy in the end, looking slightly injured. Snoopy also commandeers Lucy's psychiatric booth either in her absence or when she ends up being the one needing help. InSnoopy!, Lucy and Snoopy hug each other during the song \"If Just One Person\". Linus Snoopy often tries to steal Linus's blanket, leading to slapstick fights and wild chases, the latter of which usually involve Snoopy running up, grabbing the blanket in his mouth, then running off with Linus holding on for dear life, and finally swinging Linus and the blanket", "and the blanket around and around in a circular motion through the air before letting go and they both fly off to who-knows-where. Lila Lila was Snoopy's owner before Charlie Brown. Snoopy visits her in the cartoonSnoopy Come Homeand struggles to decide whether to stay with Charlie Brown or go back to Lila. Lila quickly persuades him to leave Charlie Brown so Snoopy can live with her again. However, upon arriving at her apartment complex, Snoopy is very relieved to see a \"NO DOGS ALLOWED\" sign and returns to live with Charlie Brown. Peppermint Patty Peppermint Pattyoften refers to Snoopy as a \"funny-looking kid with a big nose\", unaware that he is a beagle. In one instance, she has him serve as her attorney in a case involving the school dress code. In the March 21, 1974, strip, Marcie tells Peppermint Patty that Snoopy is a beagle, finally resulting in her realizing his true identity. Snoopy serves as Peppermint Patty's watchdog several times. She is one of the few girls who does not get disgusted after", "get disgusted after being kissed by him. Sally Brown Like Lucy, Sally does not care that much for Snoopy and often calls him a stupid beagle. Sally usually complains when her big brother asks her to feed Snoopy whenever he is away from home. While she is still an infant, Sally has a friendly and playful relationship with Snoopy. In later years, Sally occasionally enlists Snoopy's help in school assignments. She even treats him to an ice cream cone (a very tall ice cream cone, with scoops of about a dozen flavors) when Snoopy helps her get an \"A\" on a report about \"Our Animal Friends\". In one storyline, Sally uses Snoopy as a \"weapon\" to help protect her from bullies on the playground (Snoopy barks loudly at anyone who threatens Sally, leading Snoopy to comment, \"I feel like a can of mace!\"), but this ends in disaster when Snoopy sees an old girlfriend of his and runs off to meet her, abandoning Sally and leaving her to get \"slaughtered\" by the playground bullies. Schroeder Schroeder does not mind much when", "not mind much when Snoopy sits against his toy piano, except when Snoopy dances on top of the piano, much to Schroeder's annoyance. He also sometimes plays with the notes coming from the piano. Rerun van Pelt Rerun, the youngest child character in the strip, plays with Snoopy sometimes. In some strips, Rerun and Snoopy are playing cards with each other, both of them clueless about the rules. Woodstock Woodstock is Snoopy's best friend and sidekick. He is a small, yellow bird of indeterminate species. He speaks in a chirping language that only Snoopy and his other bird friends can understand. In return, the birds somehow understand Snoopy's thoughts. In some strips, Snoopy can be seen telling a joke to Woodstock and both laugh so hard they end up falling off the doghouse. Woodstock sometimes sleeps on top of Snoopy's nose, such as in one strip where Snoopy says \"Never share your pad with a restless bird\". Fifi Fifi is a major love interest of Snoopy and she appears inLife Is a Circus, Charlie BrownandThe", "Charlie BrownandThe Peanuts Movie. InLife Is a Circus, Charlie Brown, Snoopy sees Fifi, a white poodle, at a circus and starts to get attracted to her. He and Fifi do a trapeze act and afterward, he runs away, taking Fifi with him. Fifi decides to go back to the circus, however, leaving Snoopy heartbroken and forced to return to Charlie Brown. InThe Peanuts Movie, Fifi (voiced byKristin Chenoweth) is a pilot just like Snoopy (being redesigned to be bipedal while still retaining her poodle traits), and together they have interaction via Snoopy's typewriter against the Red Baron. He shows how much he cares for her when he cries atSchroeder's house after she is captured by the Red Baron. Snoopy, Woodstock, and the Beagle Scouts set out on a mission to save her. Eventually, they save her, and she shows her affection to Snoopy. Siblings In the comic strip, Snoopy has seven siblings. Five appeared at various times in the strip: four brothers, Spike, Andy, Marbles, and Olaf; and one sister, Belle. The two others", "The two others were never mentioned by name in the comic strip, but the whole family appeared in 1991television specialSnoopy's Reunion, introducing the two unknown siblings, identified in the special as Molly and Rover. Snoopy having seven siblings was an element of the strip that developed as the strip evolved. Originally described in a June 1959 strip as an \"only dog\",Snoopy went to a family reunion with several unnamed siblings in a May 1965 sequence, stating that they all spoke different languages and couldn't understand each other.In March 1970, Snoopy wrote in his autobiography that he was one of seven puppies,and the number reached its final count of eight beagles in December 1972. In a 1987 interview, Schulz said that he felt introducing Snoopy's siblings was a mistake, similar to the introduction ofEugene the JeepinThimble Theatre: \"I think Eugene the Jeep took the life out of Popeye himself, and I'm sureSegardidn't realize that. I realized it myself a couple of years ago when I began to introduce", "began to introduce Snoopy's brothers and sisters. I realized that when I put Belle and Marbles in there it destroyed the relationship that Snoopy has with the kids, which is a very strange relationship. And these things are so subtle when you're doing them, you can make mistakes and not realize them.\"Schulz elaborated further in another 1987 interview: \"Snoopy had a sister, Belle, whom I discovered I really didn't like. I brought in Spike and I like Spike a lot. But when I brought another brother in — I thought Marbles would make a great name for a dog — I discovered almost immediately that bringing in other animals took the uniqueness away from Snoopy. So the only other animal character who works now is Spike, as long as Spike stays out in the desert.\" Spike Spike, Snoopy's older brother who lived in the desert, was the most frequently seen sibling in the strip.He was introduced in the August 13, 1975, strip.He was a recurring character between 1984 and 1988, and was also used in one-off appearances", "one-off appearances sporadically through the rest ofPeanutshistory. Spike is named afterCharles Schulz's childhood dog. Spike's appearance is similar to Snoopy's, but he is substantially thinner, has a perpetually sleepy-eyed look, sports long, droopy whiskers that look like a mustache, and wears a fedora. He is called Snoopy's older brother during the first story in which he appears. Spike lives in the middle of a desert nearNeedles, California, mostly interacting with inanimate saguaro cacti and rocks. He temporarily becameRerun's dog inI Want a Dog for Christmas, Charlie Brown, and also starred in his own television special,It's the Girl in the Red Truck, Charlie Brown.He was also a main character inSnoopy's Getting Married, Charlie Brown, where he is shown traveling from Needles to visit Snoopy to be thebest beagleat his wedding. A large statue of Spike resides inside the Needles Regional Museum inNeedles, California. The Schulz family lived in Needles from 1928 to 1930. Belle Belleis Snoopy's sister,", "Snoopy's sister, who first appeared in the strip on June 28, 1976.She lives inKansas City, Missouriwith her teenage son, whom Snoopy noted as resembling thePink Panther.Belle herself bears a strong resemblance to Snoopy, but with longer eyelashes. In addition, she wears a lace collar and sometimes wears a pearl necklace. Belle only made a few appearances in the strip but is remembered because of the Belle stuffed animal toys sold in the late 1970s and early 1980s.San Franciscotoy merchandiser Determined Productions had the license to make Snoopy plush toys, and they introduced Belle plush after receiving many requests from children who wanted a female \"sister\" doll. In 1984, Snoopy and Belle inspired fashion designers around the world, includingLagerfeld,Armani, andde la Renta, to create one-of-a-kind outfits in their honor. Both beagles modeled for the \"Snoopy in Fashion\" exhibition held that year in Japan. \"Snoopy & Belle in Fashion\" continues to be exhibited as of 2020.Photographs of the exhibition were", "the exhibition were collected in a 1988 book,Snoopy in Fashion. There was another traveling exhibition of Snoopy and Belle plush in outfits made by fashion designers in 1990, as a celebration of the comic strip's fortieth anniversary. This exhibition began inParisat theLouvre Museum, and then to theMitsukoshidepartment store inTokyo, followed by showings inLos Angeles,New York City,London,Milan, andMadrid.Photographs from this collection were published asSnoopy Around the World. Reception Snoopy and Charlie Brown were ranked byTV Guideas the 8th greatest cartoon characters of all time. Some critics feel that the strip suffered a decline in quality after the 1960s. Writing in 2000,Christopher Caldwellargued that the character of Snoopy, and the strip's increased focus on him in the 1970s, \"went from being the strip's besetting artistic weakness to ruining it altogether\". Caldwell felt that Snoopy \"was never a full participant in the tangle of relationships that drovePeanutsin its Golden Age\", as he could not", "as he could not talk. He went on to say that Snoopy \"was way too shallow for the strip as it developed in the 1960s, and the strips he featured in were anomalies.\" Jim Davisnoted that Snoopy was a boon from a marketing standpoint, which inspired him to center his comic stripGarfieldaround a cat: \"Snoopy is very popular in licensing. Charlie Brown is not.\" A toy titled The Snoopy Snowcone Machine was popular in the '80s and was later recreated in the 2010s by Cra-z-art. Political endorsement controversy On October 5, 2024, a fan account devoted to Snoopy onTwitterposted an endorsement ofDonald Trump'spresidential candidacyin the2024 U.S. presidential race.The tweet called for \"more take home pay, a secure border, and a government that prioritizes prosperity for its tax paying citizens rather thanillegal immigrants. The tweet also stated that \"Kamala Harrismay have 'come from a middle class family', but this account is run by an actual middle class family. We started this profile last year as a distraction", "as a distraction from the difficult economic times, with the help of bringing hope to others who may be going through the same.\" The tweet, which featured anAI-generated portraitof Snoopy shaking the hand of Trump, was widely criticized by many fellowPeanutsfans on social media,several of whom referenced a 1970 letter from creator Schulz in which he stressed the importance of faith in American democracy, writing that \"sometimes it is the very people who cry out the loudest in favor of getting back to what they call 'American Virtues' who lack this faith in our country. I believe that our greatest strength lies always in the protection of our smallest minorities.\"The account deleted the tweet, then did another which acknowledged the support from Trump supporters, and championed continued voter registration in swing states. The account was deactivated shortly thereafter. The tweet was parodied on the October 12, 2024 edition of theNBCvariety showSaturday Night Live, with remarks that, in turn, used the", "in turn, used the character ofFranklinto reference Trump's owncontroversial comments about Haitian immigrants. Awards and honors Schulz was a keenbridgeplayer, andPeanutsoccasionally included bridge references. In 1997 theAmerican Contract Bridge League(ACBL) awarded both Snoopy andWoodstockthe honorary rank ofLife Master, and Schulz was delighted. On November 2, 2015, Snoopy was honored with a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, becoming the secondPeanuts-related figure to be inducted with a star, after Schulz. In aviation and space Use by NASA Other uses References Further reading External links", "List of mayors of New York City Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Themayor of New York Cityis thechief executiveof theGovernment of New York City, as stipulated by New York City's charter. The current officeholder, the 110th in the sequence of regular mayors, isEric Adams, a member of theDemocratic Party. During the Dutch colonial period from 1624 to 1664,New Amsterdamwas governed by theDirector of New Netherland. Following the 1664 creation of the BritishProvince of New York, newly renamed New York City was run by the British military governor,Richard Nicolls. The office of Mayor of New York City was established in 1665. Holders were appointed by colonial governors, beginning withThomas Willett. The position remained appointed until 1777. That year, during theAmerican Revolution, aCouncil of Appointmentwas formed by theStateofNew York. In 1821 theNew York City Council– then known as the Common Council – began appointing mayors. Since 1834,mayorshave been elected by direct popular", "by direct popular vote. The city included little beyond the island of Manhattan before 1874, when it annexedthe western part of the Bronx, to be followed in 1895 by the rest of the Bronx. The1898 consolidationcreated the city as it is today withfive boroughs:Manhattan,the Bronx,Brooklyn,Queens, andStaten Island. The first mayor of the expanded city wasRobert Anderson Van Wyck. The longest-serving mayors have beenFiorello H. La Guardia(1934–1945),Robert F. Wagner Jr.(1954–1965),Ed Koch(1978–1989) andMichael Bloomberg(2002–2013), each of whom was in office for twelve years (three successive four-year terms). The shortest terms in office since 1834 have been those of acting mayors:William T. Collinsserved a single day on December 31, 1925,Samuel B. H. Vanceserved one month (from November 30 to December 31, 1874), andThomas Comanserved five weeks (from Monday, November 30, 1868, to Monday, January 4, 1869). Colonial mayors (1665–1783) Before 1680, mayors served one-year terms. From 1680, they served two-year", "served two-year terms. Exceptions are noted thus (*). A dagger (†) indicates mayoralties cut short by death in office. (When the same man served more than one continuous term, his name is lightly shaded purely for clarity, but the tints have no other significance.) Note †died in office Pre-consolidation mayors (1784–1897) The mayor continued to be selected by theGovernment of New York'sCouncil of Appointmentuntil 1821, whenStephen Allenbecame the first mayor appointed by a localCommon Council. Under the Charter of 1834, mayors were elected annually by direct popular vote. Starting in 1849, mayors were elected to serve two-year terms. Notes †died in office Post-consolidation mayors (since 1897) The 1898–1901 term was for four years. The City Charter was changed to make the mayor's term a two-year one beginning in 1902, but after two such terms was changed back to resume four-year terms in 1906.George B. McClellan Jr.thus served one two-year term from 1904 to 1905, during which he was elected to a four-year", "to a four-year term from 1906 to 1909. The party of the mayor reflects party registration, as opposed to the party lines run under during the general election. Notes †died in office Appendices Mayoral terms and term limits in New York City since 1834 Direct elections to the mayoralty of the unconsolidated City of New York began in 1834 for a term of one year, extended to two years after 1849. The 1897 Charter of the consolidated City stipulated that the mayor was to be elected for a single four-year term. In 1901, the term halved to two years, with no restrictions on reelection. In 1905, the term was extended to four years once again. (MayorsFiorello La Guardia,Robert F. Wagner Jr.andEd Kochwere later able to serve for twelve years each.)In 1993, the voters approved a two-term (eight-year) limit, and reconfirmed this limit when the issue was submitted to referendum in 1996. In 2008, theNew York City Councilvoted to change the two-term limit to three terms (without submitting the issue to the voters).Legal", "the voters).Legal challenges to the Council's action were rejected by Federal courts in January and April 2009.However, in 2010, yet another referendum, reverting the limit to two terms, passed overwhelmingly. Principal source:The Encyclopedia of New York Cityespecially the entries for \"charter\" and \"mayoralty\". Interrupted terms MayorsJohn T. Hoffman(1866–1868, elected Governor 1868),William Havemeyer(1845–1846, 1848–1849, and 1873–1874),William Jay Gaynor(1910–1913),John Francis Hylan(1918–1925),Jimmy Walker(1926–1932), andWilliam O'Dwyer(1946–1950) failed to complete the final terms to which they were elected. The uncompleted mayoral terms of Hoffman, Walker, and O'Dwyer were added to the other offices elected in (respectively) 1868,1932, and1950 † Became acting mayor as the president of the board of aldermen or (in 1950) city council. (D) = (Democratic) (R) = (Republican) Mayors of the City of Brooklyn, 1834–1897 Brooklynelected amayorfrom 1834 until consolidation in 1898 into theCity of Greater New", "of Greater New York, whose own secondmayor(1902–1903),Seth Low, had beenMayorofBrooklynfrom 1882 to 1885. Since 1898,Brooklynhas, in place of a separatemayor, elected aBorough President. Mayors of Long Island City, 1870–1897 Long Island City, now within the Borough ofQueens, was incorporated as a city in its own right on May 4, 1870 and (like the City of Brooklyn) consolidated into the presentGreater New York Cityon January 1, 1898. See also References External links", "John Lindsay John Vliet Lindsay(/vliːt/; November 24, 1921 – December 19, 2000) was an American politician and lawyer. During his political career, Lindsay was a U.S. congressman, themayor of New York City, and a candidate for U.S. president. He was also a regular guest host ofGood Morning America. Lindsay served as a member of theUnited States House of Representativesfrom January 1959 to December 1965 and as mayor of New York from January 1966 to December 1973. He switched from theRepublicanto theDemocratic Partyin 1971, and launched a brief and unsuccessful bid for the1972 Democratic presidential nomination, and later for the 1980 Democratic nomination for Senator from New York. Early life Lindsay was born in New York City onWest End Avenueto George Nelson Lindsay and the former Florence Eleanor Vliet.He grew up in an upper-middle-class family ofEnglishandDutchdescent.Lindsay's paternal grandfather migrated to the United States in the 1880s from theIsle of Wight,and his mother was from an upper-middle-class", "upper-middle-class family that had been in New York since the 1660s.His mother was a descendant of Dirck Jans van der Vliet (1612–1689) who settled in the then Dutch settlement ofNew Netherlandsaround 1659–1660 as son Henderick was born in what is nowLivingston, New York.Lindsay's father was a successful lawyer andinvestment banker.Lindsay attended theBuckley School,St. Paul's School, andYale,where he was admitted to the class of 1944 and joinedScroll and Key. Military service and legal career With the outbreak of World War II, Lindsay completed his studies early and in 1943 joined theUnited States Navyas agunnery officer. He obtained the rank oflieutenant, earning fivebattle starsthrough action in theinvasion of Sicilyand a series of landings in thePacific theater.After the war, he spent a few months as a ski bumand a couple of months training as a bank clerkbefore returning toNew Haven, where he received his law degree fromYale Law Schoolin 1948, ahead of schedule.In 1949, he began his legal career at the", "legal career at the law firm ofWebster, Sheffield, Fleischmann, Hitchcock & Chrystie. Marriage Back in New York City, Lindsay met his future wife, Mary Anne Harrison (1926–2004), at the wedding ofNancy Walker Bush(daughter ofConnecticut's SenatorPrescott Bushand sister of future PresidentGeorge Herbert Walker Bushand aunt ofGeorge W. Bush&Jeb Bush),where he was anusherand Harrison abridesmaid.She was a graduate ofVassar Collegeand a distant relative ofWilliam Henry HarrisonandBenjamin Harrison.They married in 1949.That same year Lindsay was admitted to the bar, and rose to become a partner in his law firm four years later.They had three daughters and a son. U.S. Representative Lindsay began gravitating toward politics as one of the founders of the Youth forEisenhowerclub in 1951 and as president of theNew York Young Republican Clubin 1952.He went on to join theUnited States Department of Justicein 1955 as executive assistant toAttorney GeneralHerbert Brownell. There he worked oncivil libertiescases as well", "as well as the1957 Civil Rights Act. In 1958, with the backing of Brownell as well asBruce Barton,John Aspinwall Roosevelt, andEdith Willkie,Lindsay won the Republican primary and went on to be elected to Congress as the representative of the \"Silk Stocking\" 17th district, exemplified byManhattan'sUpper East Sidebut also encompassing the diverseLower East Sideand historically bohemianGreenwich Village. While in Congress, Lindsay established a liberal voting record increasingly at odds with his own party and an amateur harmonica improvisation group.He was an early supporter of federal aid to education andMedicare;and advocated the establishment of a federalUnited States Department of Housing and Urban Developmentand aNational Foundation for the Arts and Humanities.He was called a maverick,casting the lone dissenting vote for a Republican-sponsored bill extending the power of thePostmaster Generalto impound obscene mailand one of only two dissenting votes for a bill allowing federal interception of mail", "of mail fromCommunistcountries.Also known for his wit, when asked by his party leaders why he opposed legislation to combat Communism and pornography, he replied that the two were the major industries of his district and if they were suppressed then \"the 17th district would be a depressed area\".Lindsay voted in favor of theCivil Rights Act of 1960and1964, the24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitutionand theVoting Rights Act of 1965. Mayor of New York City In1965, Lindsay was electedMayor of New York Cityas a Republican with the support of theLiberal Party of New Yorkin a three-way race. He defeated Democratic mayoral candidateAbraham D. Beame, then City Comptroller, as well as conservative thinker andNational ReviewfounderWilliam F. Buckley Jr., who ran on theConservative Partyline. The unofficial motto of the campaign, taken from aMurray Kemptoncolumn, was \"He is fresh and everyone else is tired\". Labor issues On his first day as mayor, January 1, 1966, theTransport Workers Union of America, led byMike Quill,", "led byMike Quill, shut down the city with acomplete halt of subway and bus service. As New Yorkers endured the transit strike, Lindsay remarked, \"I still think it's a fun city\", and walked four miles (6 km) from his hotel room to City Hall in a gesture to show it.Dick Schaap, then a columnist for theNew York Herald Tribune, popularized the term in an article titled \"Fun City\".In the article, Schaap sardonically pointed out that it was not. In 1966, the settlement terms of the transit strike, combined with increased welfare costs and general economic decline, forced Lindsay to lobby the New York State legislature for a new municipalincome taxand higher water rates for city residents, plus a newcommuter taxfor people who worked in the city but resided elsewhere. The transit strike was the first of many labor struggles. In 1968, in an attempt to decentralize the city's school system, Lindsay granted three local school boards in the city complete control over their schools, in an effort to allow communities to", "communities to have more of a say in their schools. The city's teachers union, theUnited Federation of Teachers, however, saw the breakup as a way ofunion busting, as a decentralized school system would force the union to negotiate with 33 separate school boards rather than with one centralized body. As a result, in May 1968 several teachers working in schools located in the neighborhood ofOcean Hill-Brownsville, one of the neighborhoods where the decentralization was being tested, were fired from their jobs by the community-run school board. The UFT demanded the reinstatement of the dismissed teachers, citing that the teachers had been fired withoutdue process. When their demands were ignored, the UFT called the first of three strikes, leading ultimately to aprotracted citywide teachers' strikethat stretched over a seven-month period between May and November.The strike was tinged with racial and anti-Semitic overtones, pitting Black and Puerto Rican parents against Jewish teachers and supervisors.Many", "supervisors.Many thought the mayor had made a bad situation worse by taking sides against the teachers.The episode left a legacy of tensions between African-Americans and Jews that went on for years,and Lindsay called it his greatest regret. That same year, 1968, also saw a three-day Broadway strike and a nine-daysanitationstrike.Quality of life in the city reached a nadir during the sanitation strike as mounds ofgarbagecaught fire and strong winds blew the filth through the streets.In June 1968, the New York City Police Department deployed snipers to protect Lindsay during a public ceremony, shortly after they detained a knife-wielding man who had demanded to meet the mayor.With the schools shut down, police engaged in a slowdown, firefighters threatening job actions, the city awash in garbage, and racial and religious tensions breaking to the surface, Lindsay later called the last six months of 1968 \"the worst of my public life.\" The summer of 1971 ushered in another devastating strike as over 8,000", "as over 8,000 workers belonging toAFSCMEDistrict Council 37 walked off their jobs for two days. The strikers included the operators of the city'sdrawbridgesandsewage treatment plants. Drawbridges over theHarlem Riverwere locked in the \"up\" position, barring automobile travel into Manhattan, and hundreds of thousands of gallons of raw sewage flowed into local waterways. Racial and civil unrest Lindsay served on the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, known as theKerner Commission, and was its vice chairman. This body was appointed in 1967 by President Johnson after riots in urban centers of the US, including Newark and Detroit. Lindsay maximized publicity and coverage of his activities on the commission, and while other commissioners made inconspicuous visits to riot-damaged sites, Lindsay would alert the press before his fact-finding missions. Nonetheless, he was especially influential in producing the Kerner Report; its dramatic language of the nation \"moving toward two societies, one black,", "one black, one white—separate and unequal\" was consistent with his rhetoric. President Johnson ignored the report and rejected the Kerner Commission's recommendations.In April 1968, one month after the release of the Kerner report, rioting broke out inmore than 100 citiesfollowing theassassination of Martin Luther King Jr.However, in New York City, Lindsay traveled directly intoHarlem, telling Black residents that he regretted King's death and was working against poverty.He is credited with averting riots in the city with this direct response, even as other major cities burned.David Garth, who accompanied Lindsay that night, recalled: \"There was a wall of people coming across125th Street, going from west to east ... I thought we were dead. John raised his hands, said he was sorry. It was very quiet. My feeling was, his appearance there was very reassuring to people because it wasn't the first time they had seen him. He had gone there on a regular basis. That gave him credibility when it hit the fan.\" Lindsay", "the fan.\" Lindsay showed his support for New York's African American community through his administration's sponsorship of the 1969Harlem Cultural Festival, which is documented in the 2021 music film,Summer of Soul.The host of the festival, Tony Lawrence, introduces the mayor to the Harlem crowd as \"our blue-eyed soul brother.\" Blizzard of 1969 On February 10, 1969, New York City was pummeled with 15 inches (38 cm) of snow. On the first day alone, 14 people died and 68 were injured.Within a day, the mayor was criticized for giving favored treatment to Manhattan at the expense of the other boroughs.Charges were made that a city worker solicited a bribe to clean streets in Queens. Over a week later, streets in eastern Queens still remained unplowed by the city, enraging the borough's residents, many who felt that the city's other boroughs always took a back seat to Manhattan.Lindsay traveled to Queens, but his visit was not well received. His car could not make its way throughRego Park, and even in a", "Park, and even in a four-wheel-drive truck, he had trouble getting around.InKew Gardens Hills, the mayor was booed; one woman screamed, \"You should be ashamed of yourself.\"InFresh Meadows, a woman told the mayor: \"Get away, you bum.\"Later during his walk through Fresh Meadows, another woman called him \"a wonderful man,\" prompting the mayor to respond: \"And you're a wonderful woman, not like those fat Jewish broads up there,\" pointing to women in a nearby building who had criticized him. The blizzard, dubbed the \"Lindsay Snowstorm,”prompted a political crisis that became \"legendary in the annals of municipal politics\"as the scenes conveyed a message that the mayor of New York City was indifferent to the middle class and poor citizens of the city. Reelection In 1969, a backlash against Lindsay caused him to lose the Republican mayoralprimarytostate SenatorJohn Marchi, who was enthusiastically supported by William F. Buckley and the rest of the party's conservative wing. In the Democratic primary, the most", "primary, the most conservative candidate, City ComptrollerMario Procaccino, defeated several more liberal contenders and won the nomination with only apluralityof the votes. \"The more the Mario,\" he quipped.Procaccino, who ran to Lindsay's right, went on to coin the term \"limousine liberal\" to describe Lindsay and his wealthyManhattanbackers. Despite losing the Republican nomination, Lindsay remained on the ballot as the candidate of theNew York Liberal Party. In his campaign he said \"mistakes were made\" and called being mayor of New York City \"the second toughest job in America.\"Two television advertisements described his position: In one he looked directly into the camera and said, \"I guessed wrong on the weather before the city's biggest snowfall last winter. And that was a mistake. But I put 6,000 more cops on the streets. And that was no mistake. The school strike went on too long and we all made some mistakes. But I brought 225,000 more jobs to this town. And that was no mistake... And we did not have", "And we did not have a Detroit, aWattsorNewark. And those were no mistakes. The things that go wrong are what make this the second toughest job in America. But the things that go right are those things that make me want it.\" The second opened with a drive through theHolland Tunnelfrom lower Manhattan towardNew Jerseyand suggested that, \"Every New Yorker should take this trip at least once before election day...\" followed by video of Newark, New Jersey which had been devastated by race riots. While narrowly losingBrooklynandthe Bronxdue to Procaccino's entrenched support among ethnic, working class whites (with Marchi winning his nativeStaten Island), Lindsay was able to vanquish his opponents with support from three distinct groups.First were the city's minorities, mostly African Americans and Puerto Ricans, who were concentrated inHarlem, theSouth Bronxand various Brooklyn neighborhoods, includingBedford-StuyvesantandBrownsville.Second were the white and economically secure residents of certain areas of", "of certain areas of Manhattan.Third were the whites in the boroughs outside Manhattan who had a similar educational background and \"cosmopolitan\" attitude, namely residents of solidly middle-class neighborhoods, includingForest HillsandKew GardensinQueensandBrooklyn Heightsin Brooklyn.This third category included many traditionally Democratic Jewish Americans who were repelled by Procaccino's conservatism. This created a plurality coalition (42%) in Lindsay's second three-way race. His margin of victory rose from just over 100,000 more votes than his Democratic opponent in 1965 to over 180,000 votes over Procaccino in 1969, despite appearing on just onethird partyballot line (seeNew York City Mayoral Elections). Hard-hat riots On May 8, 1970, near the intersection ofWall StreetandBroad Streetand atNew York City Hall, a riot started when about 200construction workersmobilized by the New York StateAFL–CIOlabor federation attacked about 1,000 high school and college students and othersprotestingtheKent State", "State shootings, theCambodian Campaign, and theVietnam War. Some attorneys, bankers, and investment analysts from nearby Wall Street investment firms tried to protect many of the students but were themselves attacked, and some onlookers reported that the police stood by and did nothing. Although more than 70 people were injured, including four policemen, only six people were arrested.The following day, Lindsay severely criticized the police for their lack of action.Police Department labor leaders later accused Lindsay of \"undermining the confidence of the public in its Police Department\" by his statementsand blamed the inaction on inadequate preparations and \"inconsistent directives\" in the past from the mayor's office.Several thousand construction workers, longshoremen and white-collar workers protested against the mayor on May 11 and again on May 16. Protesters called Lindsay \"the red mayor,\" \"traitor,\" \"Commie rat,\" and \"bum.\" The mayor described the mood of the city as \"taut.\" Police corruption In", "corruption In 1970,The New York TimesprintedNew York City Police DepartmentPatrolmanFrank Serpico's claims of widespreadpolice corruption. As a result, theKnapp Commissionwas eventually formed that April by Lindsay, with investigations beginning in June, although public hearings did not start until October 18, 1971. Its preliminary report was not issued until August 1972, and final recommendations only released on December 27, 1972. Because of his forming of the Knapp Commission, many NYPD officers disliked him and didn't want him to attend their funerals in case they died on duty and heckled, hissed, jeered and booed him when he did appear. The wife of Rocco Laurie, one of two city police officers who were murdered by Black revolutionaries in 1972, specifically stated that she did not want Lindsay to attend her husband's funeral that year. Assessments A 1993 survey of historians, political scientists and urban experts conducted by Melvin G. Holli of theUniversity of Illinois at Chicagoranked Lindsay as the", "Lindsay as the sixteenth-worst American big-city mayor to have served between the years 1820 and 1993. Party switch and presidential campaign Lindsay was mentioned as a Republican Vice Presidential possibility in 1968, but was found to be unacceptable by Southern conservatives, andSpiro Agnewwas nominated instead. Lindsay’s original break with the Republican Party began immediately after he failed to win the 1969 Republican mayoral primary, and his subsequent association with the New York Liberal Party for that election. In 1971, Lindsay and his wife cut ties with the Republican Party by registering with theDemocratic Party. Lindsay said, \"In a sense, this step recognizes the failure of 20 years in progressive Republican politics. In another sense, it represents the renewed decision to fight for new national leadership.\"Lindsay then launched a brief and unsuccessful bid for the1972 Democratic presidential nomination. He attracted positive media attention and was a successful fundraiser. Lindsay did well in", "Lindsay did well in the earlyArizonacaucus, coming in second placebehindEdmund MuskieofMaineand ahead of eventual nomineeGeorge McGovernofSouth Dakota. Then in the March 14 Florida primary, he placed a weak fifth place, behindGeorge WallaceofAlabama, Muskie,Hubert HumphreyofMinnesota, andScoop JacksonofWashington(though he did edge out McGovern).Among his difficulties was New York City's worsening problems, which Lindsay was accused of neglecting; a band of protesters fromForest Hills, Queens, who were opposed to his support for a low income housing project in their neighborhood, followed Lindsay around his aborted campaign itinerary to jeer and heckle him.His poor showing in Florida effectively doomed his candidacy. Shortly thereafter, influential Brooklyn Democratic Party chairmanMeade Espositocalled for Lindsay to end his campaign: \"I think the handwriting is on the wall;Little Shebabetter come home.\"After a poor showing in the April 5Wisconsinprimary, Lindsay formally abandoned the race. Assessment In a", "Assessment In a 1972 Gallup poll, 60% of New Yorkers felt Lindsay's administration was working poorly, nine percent rated it good, and not one person thought its performance excellent.By 1978,The New York Timescalled Lindsay \"an exile in his own city\". Lindsay's record remained controversial after he left politics for pursuing his passion oftrapeze. Conservative historianFred Siegel, calling Lindsay the worst New York City mayor of the 20th century, said \"Lindsay wasn't incompetent or foolish or corrupt, but he was actively destructive\".Journalist Steven Weisman observed \"Lindsay's congressional career had taught him little of the need for subtle bureaucratic maneuvering, for understanding an opponent's self-interest, or for the great patience required in a sprawling government.\" Lindsay's budget aidePeter C. Goldmark, Jr.told historian Vincent Cannato that the administration \"failed to come to grips with what a neighborhood is. We never realized that crime is something that happens to, and in, a community.\"", "in, a community.\" Assistant Nancy Seifer said \"There was a whole world out there that nobody in City Hall knew anything about ... If you didn't live onCentral Park West, you were some kind of lesser being.\"Many experts traced the city's mid-1970s fiscal crisis to the Lindsay years, and to the new taxes that he imposed. An alternate assessment was made by journalist Robert McFadden who said that \"By 1973, his last year in office, Mr. Lindsay had become a more seasoned, pragmatic mayor.\"McFadden also credited him for reducing racial tensions, leading to the prevention of riots that plagued Detroit, Los Angeles, Newark and other cities. Legacy Mario Cuomo,Carl McCall, andCarter F. Baleswere among the many people who started their careers in public service in the Lindsay administration.Rev. Al Sharptonhas said that he still remembers Lindsay having walked the streets of Bedford-Stuyvesant and Harlem when these neighborhoods were doing poorly economically. Lindsay also fought to transform theNew York City", "theNew York City Civilian Complaint Review Boardfrom an internal police-run department, into a public-minded agency with a citizen majority board. Later life After leaving office, Lindsay returned to the law, but remained in the public eye as a commentator and regular guest host for ABC'sGood Morning America. In 1975, Lindsay made a surprise appearance onThe Tony Awardstelecast in which he, along with a troupe of celebrity male suitors in tuxedos, sang \"Mame\" toAngela Lansbury. He presented the award forBest Director Of A PlaytoJohn Dexterfor the playEquus. Lindsay also tried his hand at acting, appearing inOtto Preminger'sRosebud;the following year his novel,The Edge, was published (Lindsay had earlier authored two non-fiction memoirs):The New York Times, in its contemporary review of the novel, said it was \"as dead-serious as a $100-a-plate dinner of gray meat and frozen candidates' smiles.\" Attempting a political comeback in 1980, Lindsay made a long-shot bid for the Democratic nomination for U.S. Senator", "for U.S. Senator from New York, and finished third. He was also active in New York City charities, serving on the board of theAssociation for a Better New York, and as chairman of theLincoln Center Theater. On his death,The New York Timescredited Lindsay with a significant role in the rejuvenation of the theatre. Medical bills from hisParkinson's disease, heart attacks,foreign accent syndromeand stroke depleted Lindsay's finances, as did the collapse of two law firms where he worked, and he found himself without health insurance. Lindsay's eight years of service as mayor left him seven years short of qualifying for a city pension. In 1996, with support from City Council SpeakerPeter Vallone, MayorRudolph W. Giulianiappointed Lindsay to two largelyceremonial poststo make him eligible for municipal health insurance coverage.He and his wife, Mary, moved to a retirement community inHilton Head Island, South Carolina, in November 1999, where he died on December 19, 2000, at the age of 79 of complications", "79 of complications frompneumoniaand Parkinson's disease. In 2000, Yale Law School created a fellowship program named in Lindsay's honor. In 1998, a park in Brooklyn, Lindsay Triangle, was named in his honor,and in 2001, theEast River Parkwas renamed in his memory.In December 2013, South Loop Drive in Manhattan'sCentral Parkwas renamed after Lindsay, to commemorate his support for a car-free Central Park. He was featured on a poster picture with GovernorNelson Rockefellerat the groundbreaking of the formerWorld Trade Centerin the city history section of theMuseum of the City of New YorkatFifth Avenueand 103rd Street. See also References Further reading External links" ]
During which year did the actor who played George Falconer in the film A Single Man receive his first Academy Award? Include the name of the film for which he won.
Colin Firth won his first Academy Award in 2011 for The King's Speech.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Single_Man
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Firth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Colin_Firth
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Single_Man', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Firth', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Colin_Firth']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Single_Man", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Firth", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Colin_Firth" ]
[ "A Single Man A Single Manis a 2009 Americanperiodromantic drama filmbased onthe 1964 novelbyChristopher Isherwood. Thedirectorial debutof fashion designerTom Ford, the film starsColin Firth, who was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Actorfor his portrayal of George Falconer, a depressed gay British university professor living in Southern California in 1962. The film premiered on September 11, 2009, at the66th Venice International Film Festival, and went on the film festival circuit. After it screened at the34th Toronto International Film Festival,The Weinstein Companypicked it up for distribution in the United States and Germany. An initiallimited runin the United States commenced on December 11, 2009, to qualify it for the82nd Academy Awardswith awider releasein early 2010. Plot On November 30, 1962, a month after theCuban Missile Crisis, George Falconer is a middle-aged English college professor living inLos Angeles. George dreams that he encounters the body of his longtime partner, Jim, at the scene of the car accident that took Jim's life eight months earlier. He bends down to kiss his dead lover. After awakening, George delivers a voiceover discussing the pain and depression he has endured since Jim's death and his intention to end his life that evening. George receives a phone call from his dearest friend, Charley, who projects lightheartedness despite her also being miserable. George goes about his day putting his affairs in order and focusing on the beauty of isolated events, believing he is seeing things for the last time. At times, he recalls his sixteen-year-long relationship with Jim. During the school day, George comes into contact with a student, Kenny Potter, who shows interest in George and disregards conventional boundaries of student–professor discussion. George also forms an unexpected connection with a Spanish male prostitute, Carlos. That evening, George meets Charley for dinner. Though they initially reminisce and amuse themselves by dancing, Charley's desire for a deeper relationship with George and her failure to understand his relationship with Jim angers George. George goes to a bar and discovers that Kenny has followed him. They get a round of drinks, go skinny dipping, and then return to George's house and continue drinking. George passes out and wakes up in bed with Kenny asleep in another room. While watching Kenny, George discovers that he has fallen asleep holding George's gun to keep George from killing himself. George locks the gun away, burns his suicide notes and in a voiceover explains that he has rediscovered the ability \"to feel, rather than think\". As he makes peace with his grief, George suffers a heart attack and dies, while envisioning Jim appearing and kissing him. Cast Jon Hammhas an uncredited voice cameo as Jim's cousin Harold Ackerly, who calls George to tell him of Jim's death and that the funeral is \"just for family.\" Production Fashion designerTom Ford, as a first-time director, financed the film himself.The film places emphasis on the culture of the 1960s; the production design is by the same team that designed AMC television'sMad Men, which is set in the same era.The actual house where the character George lives in the film was designed in 1948 byJohn Lautner, his first house after leavingFrank Lloyd Wright.The film was shot in 21 days (from 3 November to 5 December 2008), according to \"The Making ofA Single Man\", a featurette included on theDVDrelease of the film. Marketing controversy An early theatrical poster forA Single Manfeatured a close-up shot of Colin Firth and Julianne Moore lying side by side, their arms and shoulders touching. This led to speculation that the work's gay content and themes were being deleted or diminished in its marketing materials to improve its chances of success with a wider audience. A new poster with Moore relocated to the background was issued. The film's original trailer placed more emphasis on the relationship between George and Jim but a re-cut trailer omitted a shot of George and Jim kissing while retaining a kiss between George and Charley. Also deleted were shots of George meeting hustler Carlos outside a liquor store, George and Kenny running nude into the ocean, and a shot of George staring into a male student's eyes, while keeping a shot of George staring into the eyes of a female student. Speaking of the controversy, Moore said that director Tom Ford expressed concern that the original poster made the film appear to be a romantic comedy and that he ordered that the poster be changed.However Ford, noting he does not see the film in terms of gay or straight, said, \"I don't think the movie's been de-gayed. I have to say that we live in a society that's pretty weird. For example, you can have full-frontal male nudity on HBO, yet in cinema, you can't have naked male buttocks. You can't have men kissing each other without it being considered adult content. So, in order to cut a trailer that can go into broad distribution in theaters, certain things had to be edited out. But it wasn't an intentional attempt to remove the gayness of the movie.\"Conversely, Colin Firth said, \" is deceptive. I don't think they should do that because there's nothing to sanitize. It's a beautiful story of love between two men and I see no point in hiding that. People should see it for what it is.\"Harvey Weinsteinwould only say, when asked about marketing a gay romance, \"Brokeback Mountaindid pretty well.Midnight Cowboydid pretty well. If you know how to market, you can market. There's an audience for it.\" When pressed about the poster, Weinstein cut off the interview, saying, \"I'm good. You got enough. Thank you.\"Peter Knegt ofIndieWiresuggested that The Weinstein Company \"de-gayed\" the trailer to better the film's chances of receivingAcademy Awardnominations. Reception Critical response A Single Manhas received an overall positive reception from critics, with most reviews singling out Colin Firth's performance. It currently holds an 86% \"Fresh\" rating onRotten Tomatoes, based on 192 reviews, and an average rating of 7.4/10, with the site's consensus being that \"Though the costumes are beautiful and the art direction impeccable, what stands out most from this debut by fashion designer Tom Ford is the leading performance by Colin Firth.\"Metacritichas compiled an average score of 77 (generally favorable reviews) from 35 critic reviews. Michael Phillips of theChicago Tribunewrote \"Some films aren't revelations, exactly, but they burrow so deeply into old truths about love and loss and the mess and thrill of life, they seem new anyway\"Bob Mondello ofNPRcommented \"An exquisite, almost sensual grief suffuses every frame of A Single Man.\"Marc Savlov ofThe Austin Chroniclewrote \"Everything fits perfectly, from titles to fin, but most of all Colin Firth, who dons the role of George like a fine bespoke suit.\" Critics who liked the film includeThe A.V. Clubfilm critic Nathan Rabin, who gave the film an A− score, arguing that \"A Single Manis a film of tremendous style wedded to real substance, and rooted in \"Firth's affecting lead performance as a man trying to keep it together for one last day after his world has fallen apart.\"CriticRoger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesalso praised Firth, saying that he \"plays George superbly, as a man who prepares a face to meet the faces that he meets. He betrays very little emotion, and certainly his thoughts cannot be read in his eyes.\" The Timesnewspaper of London called the film \"a thing of heart-stopping beauty . . . There will be critics who will be unable to get past the director's background, but rest assured: Tom Ford is the real deal.\"Variety's verdict: \"Luminous and treasurable, despite its imperfections. An impressive helming debut for fashion designer Tom Ford.\" Accolades The film was nominated for theGolden Lionat the66th Venice International Film Festivaland won the festival's third annualQueer Lion;Colin Firth was awarded theVolpi Cup for Best Actorat the film festival for his performance in the film.He also received theBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role.Additionally, Firth received nominations at theGolden Globe Awards, theScreen Actors Guild Awards, and theAcademy Awards. For her performance, Julianne Moore was nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture. Abel Korzeniowski was nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Original Score.Arianne Phillipswas nominated for theBAFTA Award for Best Costume Design. The film received theGrand Prixfrom theBelgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics.It also won theGLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Film – Wide Releaseand was named the AFI's Film of the Year. Soundtrack The official soundtrack was released by Silva Screen Records on December 22, 2009.The tracklist consisted of original music composed byAbel Korzeniowski, operatic arias byShigeru Umebayashi, as well as songs featured in the film. References Further reading External links", "Colin Firth Colin Andrew FirthCBE(born 10 September 1960) is an English actor and producer. Over his career he has been the recipient ofseveral accolades, including anAcademy Award, twoBAFTA Awards, aGolden Globe Award, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for twoPrimetime Emmy Awards. In 2011, Firth was appointed aCBEbyQueen Elizabeth IIatBuckingham Palacefor his services to drama.That same year, he received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, and appeared inTimemagazine's100 most influential people in the worldin 2011. He was identified in the mid-1980s with the \"Brit Pack\" of rising young British actors,undertaking a series of challenging roles, including leading roles inA Month in the Country(1987),Tumbledown(1988) andValmont(1989). His portrayal ofMr. Darcyin the1995 television adaptationofJane Austen'sPride and Prejudiceled to widespread attention, and to roles in more prominent films such asThe English Patient(1996),Fever Pitch(1997),Shakespeare in Love(1998),The Importance of Being Earnest(2002),Girl with a Pearl Earring(2003), andLove Actually(2003). He is also known for co-starring asMark Darcyin theromantic comedy filmsBridget Jones's Diary(2001),Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason(2004), andBridget Jones's Baby(2016), and Harry Bright in themusical comedy filmsMamma Mia!(2008) andMamma Mia! Here We Go Again!(2018). Firth won theAcademy Award for Best Actorfor his portrayal ofKing George VIin the historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010).He was Oscar-nominated for playing agayman who lost his long-time partner in the romantic dramaA Single Man(2009), a performance which earned him theBAFTA Awardand theVolpi Cup for Best Actor. He subsequently playedsecret agentHarry Hart inKingsman: The Secret Service(2014) and its sequelKingsman: The Golden Circle(2017), and acted inTinker Tailor Soldier Spy(2011),Mary Poppins Returns(2018),1917(2019),Supernova(2020),Operation Mincemeat(2021). For his roles on television, he receivedPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for his portrayals of Dr.Wilhelm Stuckartin theBBCfilmConspiracy(2001), andMichael Petersonin theHBOlimited seriesThe Staircase(2022). In 2012, he founded the production company Raindog Films, where he served as a producer forEye in the Sky(2015) andLoving(2016). His films have grossed more than $3 billion from 42 releases worldwide.Firth has campaigned for the rights of Indigenous people and is a member ofSurvival International. He has also campaigned on issues of asylum seekers, refugees' rights and the environment. He commissioned and co-authored a scientific paper on a study of the differences in brain structure between people of differing political orientations. Early life and education Firth was born in the village ofGrayshott, Hampshire,to parents who were academics and teachers. His mother, Shirley Jean (néeRolles), was acomparative religionlecturer at King Alfred's College (now theUniversity of Winchester); and his father, David Norman Lewis Firth, was a history lecturer at King Alfred's and education officer for theNigerian government.Firth is the eldest of three children; his sisterKateis an actress and voice coach, and his brotherJonathanis also an actor.His maternal grandparents wereCongregationalistministers and his paternal grandfather was anAnglicanpriest. They did overseasmissionarywork, and both of his parents were born and spent part of their childhoods inIndia. As a child, Firth frequently travelled due to his parents' work, spending some years inNigeria.He also lived inSt. Louis,Missouri, when he was 11, which he has described as \"a difficult time\".On returning to England, he attended the Montgomery of Alamein Secondary School (nowKings' School), which at the time was a statecomprehensive schoolinWinchester, Hampshire. He was still an outsider and the target ofbullying. To counter this, he adopted the local working class Hampshire accent and copied his schoolmates' lack of interest in schoolwork. Firth began attending drama workshops at age 10, and by 14 had decided to be a professional actor. Untilfurther education, he was not academically inclined, later saying in an interview, \"I didn't like school. I just thought it was boring and mediocre and nothing they taught me seemed to be of any interest at all.\"However, atBarton Peveril Sixth Form CollegeinEastleigh, he was imbued with a love ofEnglish literatureby an enthusiastic teacher, Penny Edwards, and has said that his two years there were among the happiest of his life. After hissixth formyears, Firth moved to London and joined theNational Youth Theatre, where he made many contacts and got a job in thewardrobe departmentat theNational Theatre.He subsequently studied atDrama Centre London. Career 1983–1995: Early work and breakthrough Firth playedHamletin the Drama Centre end-of-year production, and in 1984, Firth made his film debut as Tommy Judd, Guy Bennett'sstraight,Marxistschool friend in thescreen adaptation of the play(withRupert Everettas Guy Bennett).It was the start of a longstanding public feud between Firth and Everett, which was eventually resolved.He starred with SirLaurence OlivierinLost Empires(1986), a TV adaptation ofJ. B. Priestley's novel. In 1987, Firth and other up-and-coming British actors such asTim Roth,Bruce PayneandPaul McGannwere dubbed the 'Brit Pack'.That year, he appeared withKenneth Branaghin the film version ofJ. L. Carr'sA Month in the Country.Sheila Johnston observed a theme in his early work of playing those traumatised by war.He portrayed real-life British soldierRobert LawrenceMCin the 1988 BBC dramatisationTumbledown. Lawrence was severely injured at theBattle of Mount Tumbledownduring theFalklands War, and the film details his struggles to adjust to his disability whilst confronted with indifference from the government and public. It attracted controversy at the time, with criticism coming from left and right sides of the political spectrum.Despite this, the performance brought Firth a Royal TV Society Best Actor Award, and a nomination for the 1989BAFTATelevision Award.In 1989, he played the title role inMiloš Forman'sValmont, based onLes Liaisons dangereuses.Released just a year afterDangerous Liaisons, it did not make a big impact in comparison. That year he also played a paranoid, socially awkward character in theArgentinianpsychological thrillerApartment Zero. Firth finally became a British household name through his role as the aloof, haughty aristocratMr. Darcyin the 1995BBCtelevision adaptation ofJane Austen'sPride and Prejudice. Producer Sue Birtwistle's first choice for the part, he was eventually persuaded to take it despite his unfamiliarity with Austen's writing.He and co-starJennifer Ehlebegan a romantic relationship during the filming, which received media attention only after their separation.Sheila Johnston wrote that Firth's approach to the part \"lent Darcy complex shades of coldness, even caddishness, in the early episodes\".The series was an international success and unexpectedly elevated Firth to stardom—in some part due to a scene not from the novel, where he emerges from a lake swim in a wet shirt.Although he did not mind being recognised as \"a romantic idol as a Darcy with smouldering sex appeal\"in a role that \"officially turned him into a heart-throb\",he expressed the wish not to be associated withPride and Prejudiceforever.He was, therefore, reluctant to accept similar roles and risk becomingtypecast. 1996–2008: Romance and ensemble films For a time, it did seem as if Mr. Darcy would overshadow the rest of Firth's career, and there were humorous allusions to the role in his next five movies.The most notable was his casting as the love interestMark Darcyin thefilm adaptationofBridget Jones's Diary, itself a modern-day retelling ofPride and Prejudice. Firth accepted the part as he saw it as an opportunity to lampoon his Mr. Darcy character.The film was very successfuland critically well-liked.A2004 sequelwas mostly panned by criticsbut still financially successful. Prior to this, Firth had a significant supporting role inThe English Patient(1996) as the husband ofKristin Scott Thomas's character, whose jealousy of her adultery leads to tragedy. That year he also played the husband of the character of Kristin's sister,Serena Scott Thomas, in the television miniseriesNostromo. Of the two he said \"Serena was a much more faithful wife.\" He next played the lead role as a school teacher and obsessedArsenal F.C.footballfan in the romantic fictional adaptationFever Pitch(1997) ofNick Hornby’s million-selling autobiographical essayFever Pitch: A Fan's Life. He had parts in lightromanticperiod piecessuch asShakespeare in Love(1998),Relative Values(2000) andThe Importance of Being Earnest(2002). He appeared in several television productions, includingDonovan Quick(an updated version ofDon Quixote) (1999),and had a more serious role as Dr.Wilhelm StuckartinConspiracy(2001), concerning the NaziWannsee Conference, for which he was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award. Firth featured in the ensemble all-star cast ofRichard Curtis'Love Actually(2003), another financial successwhich divided critics.He was also given solo billing as the romantic lead inHope Springs, but it received very poor reviewsand made little box-office impact.He starred asAmanda Bynes' character's father in the 2003 teen comedyWhat A Girl Wants, which was based on the playThe Reluctant Debutante.He played painterJohannes VermeeroppositeScarlett Johanssonin the 2003 releaseGirl with a Pearl Earring; some critics praised the film's subtletyand sumptuous visuals,whilst others found it almost restrained, tedious and bereft of emotion.Nevertheless, it received mostly favourable reviews, was moderately successfuland earned several awards and nominations. In 2005 Firth appeared inNanny McPheewithEmma Thompson, in which he plays a struggling widowed father, it was a rare venture for him into thefantasygenre.He also appeared inWhere the Truth Lies, a return to some of his darker, more intense early roles, that included a notorious scene featuring abisexualorgy.Sheila Johnston wrote that it \"confounded his fans\", but nonetheless that his character \"draws knowingly on that suave, cultivated persona\",which could be traced from Mr. Darcy. Other films from this time includedThen She Found Me(2007) withHelen HuntandThe Last Legion(2007) withAishwarya Rai. In 2008, he played the adultBlake Morrisonreminiscing on his difficult relationship with his ailing father in the film adaptation of Morrison's memoir,And When Did You Last See Your Father?It received generally favorable reviews.Peter BradshawofThe Guardiangave it four out of five stars.Manohla DargisinThe New York Timessaid: \"It's a pleasure to watch Mr. Firth–a supremely controlled actor who makes each developing fissure visible–show the adult Blake coming to terms with his contradictory feelings, letting the love and the hurt pour out of him.\"Philip FrenchofThe Observerwrote that Firth \" quiet agonising to perfection.\"However, Derek Elley ofVarietycalled the film \"an unashamed tearjerker that's all wrapping and no center.\" While he conceded that it was \"undeniably effective at a gut level despite its dramatic shortcomings\", he added, \"Things aren't helped any by Firth's dour perf, as his Blake comes across as a self-centered whiner, a latter-day Me Generation figure who's obsessed with finding problems when there really aren't any.\" The film adaptation ofMamma Mia!(2008) was Firth's first foray intomusicals. He described the experience as \"a bit nerve-wracking\"but believed he got off lightly by being tasked with one of the less demanding songs,Our Last Summer.Mamma Miabecame the highest grossing British-made film of all time,taking in over $600 million worldwide.LikeLove Actually, it polarised critics, with supporters such asEmpirecalling it \"cute, clean, camp fun, full of sunshine, and toe tappers\",whereas Peter Bradshaw inThe Guardiansaid the film gave him a \"need to vomit\".Carrie Rickey inThe Philadelphia Inquirerdescribed Firth's performance as \"the embodiment of forced mirth.\"That year, Firth also starred inEasy Virtue, which screened at the Rome Film Festival to excellent reviews.He starred inGenova, which premiered at the2008 Toronto International Film Festival.In 2009 he appeared inA Christmas Carol, an adaptation ofCharles Dickens's novel, using theperformance captureprocedure, playing Scrooge's optimistic nephew Fred. 2009–2011: Critical success At the66th Venice International Film Festivalin 2009, Firth received theVolpi Cupfor Best Actor for his role inTom Ford's directorial debutA Single Man,as a college professor grappling with solitude after the death of his longtime partner. His performance earned him career-best reviews and Academy Award, Golden Globe, Screen Actors' Guild, BAFTA, and BFCA nominations; he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role in February 2010. Firth starred in the 2010 filmThe King's SpeechasPrince Albert, Duke of York/King George VI, detailing his efforts to overcome his speech impediment while becoming monarch of the United Kingdom at the end of 1936. At theToronto International Film Festival(TIFF),the film received a standing ovation. The TIFF release ofThe King's Speechfell on Firth's 50th birthday and was called the \"best 50th birthday gift\". On 16 January 2011, he won a Golden Globe for his performance inThe King's Speechin the category ofBest Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama. TheScreen Actors Guildrecognised him with the award for Best Male Actor on 30 January 2011.In February 2011, he won his second consecutivebest actor awardat the2011 BAFTA awards,and received anAcademy Award for Best Actorin on 27 February 2011.The film grossed $414,211,549 worldwide. Firth appeared as senior British secret agentBill Haydonin the 2011 adaptation of theJohn le CarrénovelTinker Tailor Soldier Spy, directed byTomas Alfredsonand co-starringGary Oldman,Benedict Cumberbatch,Tom Hardy,Mark StrongandJohn Hurt.It gathered mostly excellent reviews.The Independentdescribed Firth's performance as \"suavely arrogant\" and praised the film.Deborah Young inThe Hollywood Reporterthought Firth got \"all the best dialogue\", which he delivered \"sardonically\".Leslie Felperin inVarietywrote that all the actors brought their \"A game\" and Firth was in \"particularlycholeric, amusing form.\" 2012–present: Established actor In May 2011, Firth began filmingGambit—a remake ofa 1960s crime caper, in the part originally played byMichael Caine. It was released in the UK in November 2012 and was a financial and critical failure.Empire'sKim Newmanwrote, \"Firth starts out homaging Caine with hishorn-rimmedcool but soon defaults to his usual repressed British cold mode\",whilstTime Out Londoncalled his a \"likeable performance\", although criticised the film overall.Stephen Dalton inThe Hollywood Reportersaid, \"To his credit, Firth keeps his performance grounded in downbeat realism while all around are wildly mugging in desperate pursuit of thin, forced laughs.In 2012, Firth co-founded Raindog Films with British music industry executive and entrepreneurGed Doherty.Its first feature,Eye in the Sky, for which Firth was co-producer, was released in April 2016. In May 2013, it was announced that Firth had signed to co-star withEmma StoneinWoody Allen's romantic comedyMagic in the Moonlight, set in the 1920s and shot on theFrench Riviera.In 2014, he did his first turn as Harry Hart / Agent Galahad in the spy action filmKingsman: The Secret Service, which grossed $414.4 million against an $81 million budget.Firth had been announced to voicePaddington Bearfor the filmPaddington; however, he announced his withdrawal on 17 June 2014, saying: \"It's been bittersweet to see this delightful creature take shape and come to the sad realization that he simply doesn't have my voice\". In June 2015, he began filming the story of amateur yachtsmanDonald CrowhurstinThe Mercy, alongsideRachel Weisz,David ThewlisandJonathan Bailey.In 2016, Firth reprised his popular role as Mark Darcy inBridget Jones's Baby, which fared much better with audiences and critics than the second in the series (Bridget Jones: Edge of Reason). He portrayed American book editorMax PerkinsinGenius, co-starringJude Lawas authorThomas Wolfeand based onA. Scott Berg's biographyMax Perkins: Editor of Genius.In 2016 he began filming forRupert Everett's directorial debutThe Happy Prince, a biopic ofOscar Wilde, playing Wilde's friendReginald \"Reggie\" Turner. In 2017, he reprised his role as Jamie from 2003'sLove Actuallyin the television short filmRed Nose Day Actually, by original writer and directorRichard Curtis.Also that year, Firth returned asHarry Hart / Agent Galahadin the sequelKingsman: The Golden Circle.In 2018, Firth reprised his role of Harry Bright in the sequel toMamma Mia!,Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again.That year, he also appeared as William Weatherall Wilkins in the musical fantasy filmMary Poppins Returns, starringEmily Bluntin the title role. He also played British naval commanderDavid RussellinThomas Vinterberg'sKursk, a film about the true story of the2000 Kursk submarine disaster, in which he starred alongsideMatthias Schoenaerts.In 2019, he had a cameo as British General Erinmore inSam Mendes' World War I film1917.Set in 1947 England, Firth starred withJulie WaltersinThe Secret Gardenand later in 2020 withStanley TucciinSupernova.In 2021, he starred in romantic drama filmMothering Sundaydirected by Eva Husson.In December 2021, he was cast in Sam Mendes' drama filmEmpire of Light, starringOlivia Colman.He was seen as Ewen Montagu inOperation Mincemeat, in April 2022.Firth returned to television in May 2022 starring as Michael Peterson in the HBO productionThe Staircase. Writing Firth's first published work, \"The Department of Nothing\", appeared inSpeaking with the Angel(2000),a collection of short stories edited byNick Hornbyand published to benefit theTreeHouse Trustto aid autistic children. He met Hornby during the filming of the originalFever Pitch.He contributed to the bookWe Are One: A Celebration of Tribal Peoples(2009),which explores the cultures, diversity and challenges of Indigenous peoples around the world. It features contributions from many Western writers, includingLaurens van der Post,Noam Chomsky,Claude Lévi-Strauss; and from Indigenous people such asDavi Kopenawa YanomamiandRoy Sesana. Profits from the book's sale benefit the Indigenous rights organisationSurvival International. Firth was an executive producer for the filmIn Prison My Whole Life, featuring Noam Chomsky andAngela Davis. It was selected to the 2007 London Film Festival and the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. In December 2010, Firth was guest editor onBBC Radio 4'sTodayprogramme, where he commissioned research to scan the brains of volunteers (mostly university students) to see if there were structural differences that might account for political leanings.The resulting academic paper listed him as an author, along with twoUniversity College Londonresearchersand the science reporter of the BBC Radio 4Todayprogramme. For his contribution, professorJohn Jostcalled Firth a 'scientific ambassador' in the field of political neuroscience.The study suggested that conservatives had more development in theamygdala, and liberals in theanterior cingulate cortex. In 2012, Firth's audiobook recording ofGraham Greene'sThe End of the Affairwas released atAudible.comand was declaredAudiobook of the Yearat the 2013Audie Awards. Activism Firth has been a longstanding supporter ofSurvival International, anon-governmental organisationthat advocates for the rights of tribal peoples.Speaking in 2001, he said, \"My interest in tribal peoples goes back many years ... and I have supported ever since.\"In 2003, during the promotion ofLove Actually, he spoke in defence of the Indigenous people ofBotswana, condemning the Botswana government's eviction of theGana and Gwi people(San) from theCentral Kalahari Game Reserve. He said of San, \"These people are not the remnants of a past era who need to be brought up to date. Those who are able to continue to live on the land that is rightfully theirs are facing the 21st century with a confidence that many of us in the so-called developed world can only envy.\"He has also backed a Survival International campaign to press the Brazilian government to take more decisive action in defence ofAwá-Guajá people, whose land and livelihood is critically threatened by the actions of loggers. As a supporter of theRefugee Council, Firth was involved in a campaign to stop thedeportationof a group of 42 Congoleseasylum seekers, expressing concerns in open letters toThe IndependentandThe Guardianthat they faced being murdered on their return to theDemocratic Republic of Congo.Firth said: \"To me, it's just basic civilisation to help people. I find this incredibly painful to see how we dismiss the most desperate people in our society. It's easily done. It plays to the tabloids, to theMiddle-Englandxenophobes. It just makes me furious. And all from a government we once had such high hopes for.\"Four of the asylum seekers were given last-minute reprieves from deportation. Firth, along with other celebrities, has been involved in theOxfamglobal campaignMake Trade Fair, focusing on trade practices considered especially unfair to third-world producers, including dumping, high import tariffs, and labour rights.He and some collaborators opened Eco, an eco-friendly shop in West London,which offers fair-trade and eco-friendly goods, and expert advice on making spaces more energy efficient. In October 2009, at theLondon Film Festival, he launched a film and political activism website, Brightwide (since decommissioned), with his wife Livia. During the2010 general election, Firth announced his support for theLiberal Democrats, having previously been aLaboursupporter, citing asylum and refugees' rights as key reasons for the change.In December 2010, he publicly dropped his support of the Liberal Democrats, citing their U-turn ontuition fees, and said that he was currently unaffiliated.He appeared in literature supporting changing the British electoral system fromfirst-past-the-posttoalternative votefor electing members of parliament to theHouse of Commons, in the unsuccessfulAlternative Vote referendumin 2011. In 2009, Firth joined the10:10project, supporting the movement calling for people to reduce their carbon footprints. In 2010, he endorsed \"Roots & Shoots\",an education programme in the UK run by theJane Goodall Institute. Personal life In 1989, Firth began a relationship withMeg Tilly, his co-star inValmont. Their son, William Joseph Firth, was born in 1990.William is now also an actor, appearing with his father inBridget Jones's Babyin 2016. The family moved to theLower MainlandofBritish Columbia, Canada but Firth and Tilly ultimately broke up in 1994. During the filming ofPride and Prejudice, Firth and co-starJennifer Ehlebegan a romantic relationship, which received media attention only after their separation. In 1997, Firth married Italian activistLivia Giuggioli.They have two sons, Luca and Matteo.Firth speaks fluent Italian.The family divided their time betweenWandsworth, in London, andUmbria, Italy.They announced their separation in 2019.They had gone through a private separation several years prior, but had reconciled. Firth was a vocal opponent of theBrexitinitiative for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union. Following the referendum's passage, and the ensuing uncertainty over rights of non-EU citizens, he applied for \"dual citizenship (British and Italian)\" in 2017 to \"have the same passports as his wife and children\".TheItalian interior minister,Marco Minniti, announced Firth's application had been approved on 22 September 2017.Firth said, \"I will always be extremely British (you only have to look at or listen to me).\" In 2011, after winning the Academy Award for his portrayal of King George VI inThe King's Speech, Firth suggested that he may be arepublican(anti-monarchist) in aCNNinterview withPiers Morgan, saying that voting was \"one of his favourite things\" and that unelected institutions were \"a problem for him\". Acting credits and awards Firth has received numerous awards, including anAcademy Award,Golden Globe Award,British Academy Film Award, andScreen Actors Guild Awardfor his performance asKing George VIinTom Hooper's historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010). He received anhonorary doctorateon 19 October 2007 from theUniversity of Winchester.On 13 January 2011, he was presented with the 2,429th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.In April 2011,Timeincluded him in its list of the World's 100 Most Influential People.He was made aFreemanof theCity of Londonon 8 March 2012,and was awarded anhonorary fellowshipby theUniversity of the Arts Londonin 2012. Firth was appointedCommander of the Order of the British Empire(CBE) in the2011 Birthday Honoursfor services to drama. References External links", "List of awards and nominations received by Colin Firth The following article is aList of awards and nominations received by Colin Firth. Colin Firthis an English actor known for his roles in film, television, and theatre. Over his career has received anAcademy Award, twoBAFTA Awards, aGolden Globe Awardand threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for twoPrimetime Emmy Awards. Firth received theAcademy Award for Best Actorfor his portrayal asKing George VIinTom Hooper's historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010). The performance also earned him theBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, theGolden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama, and theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Actor in a Leading Role. He was previously Oscar-nominated for playing agayman who lost in long-time partner in the romantic dramaA Single Man(2009), which also earned him theBAFTA Awardand theVolpi Cup for Best Actor. He also received threeBritish Academy Film Awardnominations for his performances in the romantic comedyBridget Jones's Diary(2000), the romantic dramaA Single Man(2009), and the historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010), winning for the later two. He receivedScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picturenominations for the romantic epic dramaThe English Patient(1996), and the romantic period comedy-dramaShakespeare in Love(1998), before winning for the historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010). For his work on television, he received twoBritish Academy Television Awardnominations for his roles in theBBCprojectsTumbledown(1989), andPride and Prejudice(1996) as well as twoPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations forOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Moviefor his role as Dr.Wilhelm Stuckartin theBBC/HBOfilmConspiracy(2001), andOutstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Moviefor playingMichael PetersontheHBOlimited seriesThe Staircase(2022). For the later he also received aGolden Globe Awardnomination. Major associations Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards Emmy Awards Screen Actors Guild Awards Critic awards Critics' Choice Awards European Film Awards Other awards References" ]
[ "A Single Man A Single Manis a 2009 Americanperiodromantic drama filmbased onthe 1964 novelbyChristopher Isherwood. Thedirectorial debutof fashion designerTom Ford, the film starsColin Firth, who was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Actorfor his portrayal of George Falconer, a depressed gay British university professor living in Southern California in 1962. The film premiered on September 11, 2009, at the66th Venice International Film Festival, and went on the film festival circuit. After it screened at the34th Toronto International Film Festival,The Weinstein Companypicked it up for distribution in the United States and Germany. An initiallimited runin the United States commenced on December 11, 2009, to qualify it for the82nd Academy Awardswith awider releasein early 2010. Plot On November 30, 1962, a month after theCuban Missile Crisis, George Falconer is a middle-aged English college professor living inLos Angeles. George dreams that he encounters the body of his longtime partner, Jim, at the scene", "Jim, at the scene of the car accident that took Jim's life eight months earlier. He bends down to kiss his dead lover. After awakening, George delivers a voiceover discussing the pain and depression he has endured since Jim's death and his intention to end his life that evening. George receives a phone call from his dearest friend, Charley, who projects lightheartedness despite her also being miserable. George goes about his day putting his affairs in order and focusing on the beauty of isolated events, believing he is seeing things for the last time. At times, he recalls his sixteen-year-long relationship with Jim. During the school day, George comes into contact with a student, Kenny Potter, who shows interest in George and disregards conventional boundaries of student–professor discussion. George also forms an unexpected connection with a Spanish male prostitute, Carlos. That evening, George meets Charley for dinner. Though they initially reminisce and amuse themselves by dancing, Charley's desire for a", "desire for a deeper relationship with George and her failure to understand his relationship with Jim angers George. George goes to a bar and discovers that Kenny has followed him. They get a round of drinks, go skinny dipping, and then return to George's house and continue drinking. George passes out and wakes up in bed with Kenny asleep in another room. While watching Kenny, George discovers that he has fallen asleep holding George's gun to keep George from killing himself. George locks the gun away, burns his suicide notes and in a voiceover explains that he has rediscovered the ability \"to feel, rather than think\". As he makes peace with his grief, George suffers a heart attack and dies, while envisioning Jim appearing and kissing him. Cast Jon Hammhas an uncredited voice cameo as Jim's cousin Harold Ackerly, who calls George to tell him of Jim's death and that the funeral is \"just for family.\" Production Fashion designerTom Ford, as a first-time director, financed the film himself.The film places", "film places emphasis on the culture of the 1960s; the production design is by the same team that designed AMC television'sMad Men, which is set in the same era.The actual house where the character George lives in the film was designed in 1948 byJohn Lautner, his first house after leavingFrank Lloyd Wright.The film was shot in 21 days (from 3 November to 5 December 2008), according to \"The Making ofA Single Man\", a featurette included on theDVDrelease of the film. Marketing controversy An early theatrical poster forA Single Manfeatured a close-up shot of Colin Firth and Julianne Moore lying side by side, their arms and shoulders touching. This led to speculation that the work's gay content and themes were being deleted or diminished in its marketing materials to improve its chances of success with a wider audience. A new poster with Moore relocated to the background was issued. The film's original trailer placed more emphasis on the relationship between George and Jim but a re-cut trailer omitted a shot of", "omitted a shot of George and Jim kissing while retaining a kiss between George and Charley. Also deleted were shots of George meeting hustler Carlos outside a liquor store, George and Kenny running nude into the ocean, and a shot of George staring into a male student's eyes, while keeping a shot of George staring into the eyes of a female student. Speaking of the controversy, Moore said that director Tom Ford expressed concern that the original poster made the film appear to be a romantic comedy and that he ordered that the poster be changed.However Ford, noting he does not see the film in terms of gay or straight, said, \"I don't think the movie's been de-gayed. I have to say that we live in a society that's pretty weird. For example, you can have full-frontal male nudity on HBO, yet in cinema, you can't have naked male buttocks. You can't have men kissing each other without it being considered adult content. So, in order to cut a trailer that can go into broad distribution in theaters, certain things had to", "things had to be edited out. But it wasn't an intentional attempt to remove the gayness of the movie.\"Conversely, Colin Firth said, \" is deceptive. I don't think they should do that because there's nothing to sanitize. It's a beautiful story of love between two men and I see no point in hiding that. People should see it for what it is.\"Harvey Weinsteinwould only say, when asked about marketing a gay romance, \"Brokeback Mountaindid pretty well.Midnight Cowboydid pretty well. If you know how to market, you can market. There's an audience for it.\" When pressed about the poster, Weinstein cut off the interview, saying, \"I'm good. You got enough. Thank you.\"Peter Knegt ofIndieWiresuggested that The Weinstein Company \"de-gayed\" the trailer to better the film's chances of receivingAcademy Awardnominations. Reception Critical response A Single Manhas received an overall positive reception from critics, with most reviews singling out Colin Firth's performance. It currently holds an 86% \"Fresh\" rating onRotten", "rating onRotten Tomatoes, based on 192 reviews, and an average rating of 7.4/10, with the site's consensus being that \"Though the costumes are beautiful and the art direction impeccable, what stands out most from this debut by fashion designer Tom Ford is the leading performance by Colin Firth.\"Metacritichas compiled an average score of 77 (generally favorable reviews) from 35 critic reviews. Michael Phillips of theChicago Tribunewrote \"Some films aren't revelations, exactly, but they burrow so deeply into old truths about love and loss and the mess and thrill of life, they seem new anyway\"Bob Mondello ofNPRcommented \"An exquisite, almost sensual grief suffuses every frame of A Single Man.\"Marc Savlov ofThe Austin Chroniclewrote \"Everything fits perfectly, from titles to fin, but most of all Colin Firth, who dons the role of George like a fine bespoke suit.\" Critics who liked the film includeThe A.V. Clubfilm critic Nathan Rabin, who gave the film an A− score, arguing that \"A Single Manis a film of", "Manis a film of tremendous style wedded to real substance, and rooted in \"Firth's affecting lead performance as a man trying to keep it together for one last day after his world has fallen apart.\"CriticRoger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesalso praised Firth, saying that he \"plays George superbly, as a man who prepares a face to meet the faces that he meets. He betrays very little emotion, and certainly his thoughts cannot be read in his eyes.\" The Timesnewspaper of London called the film \"a thing of heart-stopping beauty . . . There will be critics who will be unable to get past the director's background, but rest assured: Tom Ford is the real deal.\"Variety's verdict: \"Luminous and treasurable, despite its imperfections. An impressive helming debut for fashion designer Tom Ford.\" Accolades The film was nominated for theGolden Lionat the66th Venice International Film Festivaland won the festival's third annualQueer Lion;Colin Firth was awarded theVolpi Cup for Best Actorat the film festival for his performance", "for his performance in the film.He also received theBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role.Additionally, Firth received nominations at theGolden Globe Awards, theScreen Actors Guild Awards, and theAcademy Awards. For her performance, Julianne Moore was nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture. Abel Korzeniowski was nominated for theGolden Globe Award for Best Original Score.Arianne Phillipswas nominated for theBAFTA Award for Best Costume Design. The film received theGrand Prixfrom theBelgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics.It also won theGLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Film – Wide Releaseand was named the AFI's Film of the Year. Soundtrack The official soundtrack was released by Silva Screen Records on December 22, 2009.The tracklist consisted of original music composed byAbel Korzeniowski, operatic arias byShigeru Umebayashi, as well as songs featured in the film. References Further reading External links", "Colin Firth Colin Andrew FirthCBE(born 10 September 1960) is an English actor and producer. Over his career he has been the recipient ofseveral accolades, including anAcademy Award, twoBAFTA Awards, aGolden Globe Award, and threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for twoPrimetime Emmy Awards. In 2011, Firth was appointed aCBEbyQueen Elizabeth IIatBuckingham Palacefor his services to drama.That same year, he received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame, and appeared inTimemagazine's100 most influential people in the worldin 2011. He was identified in the mid-1980s with the \"Brit Pack\" of rising young British actors,undertaking a series of challenging roles, including leading roles inA Month in the Country(1987),Tumbledown(1988) andValmont(1989). His portrayal ofMr. Darcyin the1995 television adaptationofJane Austen'sPride and Prejudiceled to widespread attention, and to roles in more prominent films such asThe English Patient(1996),Fever Pitch(1997),Shakespeare in Love(1998),The Importance of", "Importance of Being Earnest(2002),Girl with a Pearl Earring(2003), andLove Actually(2003). He is also known for co-starring asMark Darcyin theromantic comedy filmsBridget Jones's Diary(2001),Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason(2004), andBridget Jones's Baby(2016), and Harry Bright in themusical comedy filmsMamma Mia!(2008) andMamma Mia! Here We Go Again!(2018). Firth won theAcademy Award for Best Actorfor his portrayal ofKing George VIin the historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010).He was Oscar-nominated for playing agayman who lost his long-time partner in the romantic dramaA Single Man(2009), a performance which earned him theBAFTA Awardand theVolpi Cup for Best Actor. He subsequently playedsecret agentHarry Hart inKingsman: The Secret Service(2014) and its sequelKingsman: The Golden Circle(2017), and acted inTinker Tailor Soldier Spy(2011),Mary Poppins Returns(2018),1917(2019),Supernova(2020),Operation Mincemeat(2021). For his roles on television, he receivedPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for his portrayals", "for his portrayals of Dr.Wilhelm Stuckartin theBBCfilmConspiracy(2001), andMichael Petersonin theHBOlimited seriesThe Staircase(2022). In 2012, he founded the production company Raindog Films, where he served as a producer forEye in the Sky(2015) andLoving(2016). His films have grossed more than $3 billion from 42 releases worldwide.Firth has campaigned for the rights of Indigenous people and is a member ofSurvival International. He has also campaigned on issues of asylum seekers, refugees' rights and the environment. He commissioned and co-authored a scientific paper on a study of the differences in brain structure between people of differing political orientations. Early life and education Firth was born in the village ofGrayshott, Hampshire,to parents who were academics and teachers. His mother, Shirley Jean (néeRolles), was acomparative religionlecturer at King Alfred's College (now theUniversity of Winchester); and his father, David Norman Lewis Firth, was a history lecturer at King Alfred's and", "King Alfred's and education officer for theNigerian government.Firth is the eldest of three children; his sisterKateis an actress and voice coach, and his brotherJonathanis also an actor.His maternal grandparents wereCongregationalistministers and his paternal grandfather was anAnglicanpriest. They did overseasmissionarywork, and both of his parents were born and spent part of their childhoods inIndia. As a child, Firth frequently travelled due to his parents' work, spending some years inNigeria.He also lived inSt. Louis,Missouri, when he was 11, which he has described as \"a difficult time\".On returning to England, he attended the Montgomery of Alamein Secondary School (nowKings' School), which at the time was a statecomprehensive schoolinWinchester, Hampshire. He was still an outsider and the target ofbullying. To counter this, he adopted the local working class Hampshire accent and copied his schoolmates' lack of interest in schoolwork. Firth began attending drama workshops at age 10, and by 14 had decided", "by 14 had decided to be a professional actor. Untilfurther education, he was not academically inclined, later saying in an interview, \"I didn't like school. I just thought it was boring and mediocre and nothing they taught me seemed to be of any interest at all.\"However, atBarton Peveril Sixth Form CollegeinEastleigh, he was imbued with a love ofEnglish literatureby an enthusiastic teacher, Penny Edwards, and has said that his two years there were among the happiest of his life. After hissixth formyears, Firth moved to London and joined theNational Youth Theatre, where he made many contacts and got a job in thewardrobe departmentat theNational Theatre.He subsequently studied atDrama Centre London. Career 1983–1995: Early work and breakthrough Firth playedHamletin the Drama Centre end-of-year production, and in 1984, Firth made his film debut as Tommy Judd, Guy Bennett'sstraight,Marxistschool friend in thescreen adaptation of the play(withRupert Everettas Guy Bennett).It was the start of a longstanding public", "longstanding public feud between Firth and Everett, which was eventually resolved.He starred with SirLaurence OlivierinLost Empires(1986), a TV adaptation ofJ. B. Priestley's novel. In 1987, Firth and other up-and-coming British actors such asTim Roth,Bruce PayneandPaul McGannwere dubbed the 'Brit Pack'.That year, he appeared withKenneth Branaghin the film version ofJ. L. Carr'sA Month in the Country.Sheila Johnston observed a theme in his early work of playing those traumatised by war.He portrayed real-life British soldierRobert LawrenceMCin the 1988 BBC dramatisationTumbledown. Lawrence was severely injured at theBattle of Mount Tumbledownduring theFalklands War, and the film details his struggles to adjust to his disability whilst confronted with indifference from the government and public. It attracted controversy at the time, with criticism coming from left and right sides of the political spectrum.Despite this, the performance brought Firth a Royal TV Society Best Actor Award, and a nomination for the", "nomination for the 1989BAFTATelevision Award.In 1989, he played the title role inMiloš Forman'sValmont, based onLes Liaisons dangereuses.Released just a year afterDangerous Liaisons, it did not make a big impact in comparison. That year he also played a paranoid, socially awkward character in theArgentinianpsychological thrillerApartment Zero. Firth finally became a British household name through his role as the aloof, haughty aristocratMr. Darcyin the 1995BBCtelevision adaptation ofJane Austen'sPride and Prejudice. Producer Sue Birtwistle's first choice for the part, he was eventually persuaded to take it despite his unfamiliarity with Austen's writing.He and co-starJennifer Ehlebegan a romantic relationship during the filming, which received media attention only after their separation.Sheila Johnston wrote that Firth's approach to the part \"lent Darcy complex shades of coldness, even caddishness, in the early episodes\".The series was an international success and unexpectedly elevated Firth to stardom—in", "Firth to stardom—in some part due to a scene not from the novel, where he emerges from a lake swim in a wet shirt.Although he did not mind being recognised as \"a romantic idol as a Darcy with smouldering sex appeal\"in a role that \"officially turned him into a heart-throb\",he expressed the wish not to be associated withPride and Prejudiceforever.He was, therefore, reluctant to accept similar roles and risk becomingtypecast. 1996–2008: Romance and ensemble films For a time, it did seem as if Mr. Darcy would overshadow the rest of Firth's career, and there were humorous allusions to the role in his next five movies.The most notable was his casting as the love interestMark Darcyin thefilm adaptationofBridget Jones's Diary, itself a modern-day retelling ofPride and Prejudice. Firth accepted the part as he saw it as an opportunity to lampoon his Mr. Darcy character.The film was very successfuland critically well-liked.A2004 sequelwas mostly panned by criticsbut still financially successful. Prior to this, Firth", "to this, Firth had a significant supporting role inThe English Patient(1996) as the husband ofKristin Scott Thomas's character, whose jealousy of her adultery leads to tragedy. That year he also played the husband of the character of Kristin's sister,Serena Scott Thomas, in the television miniseriesNostromo. Of the two he said \"Serena was a much more faithful wife.\" He next played the lead role as a school teacher and obsessedArsenal F.C.footballfan in the romantic fictional adaptationFever Pitch(1997) ofNick Hornby’s million-selling autobiographical essayFever Pitch: A Fan's Life. He had parts in lightromanticperiod piecessuch asShakespeare in Love(1998),Relative Values(2000) andThe Importance of Being Earnest(2002). He appeared in several television productions, includingDonovan Quick(an updated version ofDon Quixote) (1999),and had a more serious role as Dr.Wilhelm StuckartinConspiracy(2001), concerning the NaziWannsee Conference, for which he was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award. Firth featured in the", "featured in the ensemble all-star cast ofRichard Curtis'Love Actually(2003), another financial successwhich divided critics.He was also given solo billing as the romantic lead inHope Springs, but it received very poor reviewsand made little box-office impact.He starred asAmanda Bynes' character's father in the 2003 teen comedyWhat A Girl Wants, which was based on the playThe Reluctant Debutante.He played painterJohannes VermeeroppositeScarlett Johanssonin the 2003 releaseGirl with a Pearl Earring; some critics praised the film's subtletyand sumptuous visuals,whilst others found it almost restrained, tedious and bereft of emotion.Nevertheless, it received mostly favourable reviews, was moderately successfuland earned several awards and nominations. In 2005 Firth appeared inNanny McPheewithEmma Thompson, in which he plays a struggling widowed father, it was a rare venture for him into thefantasygenre.He also appeared inWhere the Truth Lies, a return to some of his darker, more intense early roles, that", "early roles, that included a notorious scene featuring abisexualorgy.Sheila Johnston wrote that it \"confounded his fans\", but nonetheless that his character \"draws knowingly on that suave, cultivated persona\",which could be traced from Mr. Darcy. Other films from this time includedThen She Found Me(2007) withHelen HuntandThe Last Legion(2007) withAishwarya Rai. In 2008, he played the adultBlake Morrisonreminiscing on his difficult relationship with his ailing father in the film adaptation of Morrison's memoir,And When Did You Last See Your Father?It received generally favorable reviews.Peter BradshawofThe Guardiangave it four out of five stars.Manohla DargisinThe New York Timessaid: \"It's a pleasure to watch Mr. Firth–a supremely controlled actor who makes each developing fissure visible–show the adult Blake coming to terms with his contradictory feelings, letting the love and the hurt pour out of him.\"Philip FrenchofThe Observerwrote that Firth \" quiet agonising to perfection.\"However, Derek Elley", "Derek Elley ofVarietycalled the film \"an unashamed tearjerker that's all wrapping and no center.\" While he conceded that it was \"undeniably effective at a gut level despite its dramatic shortcomings\", he added, \"Things aren't helped any by Firth's dour perf, as his Blake comes across as a self-centered whiner, a latter-day Me Generation figure who's obsessed with finding problems when there really aren't any.\" The film adaptation ofMamma Mia!(2008) was Firth's first foray intomusicals. He described the experience as \"a bit nerve-wracking\"but believed he got off lightly by being tasked with one of the less demanding songs,Our Last Summer.Mamma Miabecame the highest grossing British-made film of all time,taking in over $600 million worldwide.LikeLove Actually, it polarised critics, with supporters such asEmpirecalling it \"cute, clean, camp fun, full of sunshine, and toe tappers\",whereas Peter Bradshaw inThe Guardiansaid the film gave him a \"need to vomit\".Carrie Rickey inThe Philadelphia Inquirerdescribed", "Inquirerdescribed Firth's performance as \"the embodiment of forced mirth.\"That year, Firth also starred inEasy Virtue, which screened at the Rome Film Festival to excellent reviews.He starred inGenova, which premiered at the2008 Toronto International Film Festival.In 2009 he appeared inA Christmas Carol, an adaptation ofCharles Dickens's novel, using theperformance captureprocedure, playing Scrooge's optimistic nephew Fred. 2009–2011: Critical success At the66th Venice International Film Festivalin 2009, Firth received theVolpi Cupfor Best Actor for his role inTom Ford's directorial debutA Single Man,as a college professor grappling with solitude after the death of his longtime partner. His performance earned him career-best reviews and Academy Award, Golden Globe, Screen Actors' Guild, BAFTA, and BFCA nominations; he won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role in February 2010. Firth starred in the 2010 filmThe King's SpeechasPrince Albert, Duke of York/King George VI, detailing his efforts to", "his efforts to overcome his speech impediment while becoming monarch of the United Kingdom at the end of 1936. At theToronto International Film Festival(TIFF),the film received a standing ovation. The TIFF release ofThe King's Speechfell on Firth's 50th birthday and was called the \"best 50th birthday gift\". On 16 January 2011, he won a Golden Globe for his performance inThe King's Speechin the category ofBest Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama. TheScreen Actors Guildrecognised him with the award for Best Male Actor on 30 January 2011.In February 2011, he won his second consecutivebest actor awardat the2011 BAFTA awards,and received anAcademy Award for Best Actorin on 27 February 2011.The film grossed $414,211,549 worldwide. Firth appeared as senior British secret agentBill Haydonin the 2011 adaptation of theJohn le CarrénovelTinker Tailor Soldier Spy, directed byTomas Alfredsonand co-starringGary Oldman,Benedict Cumberbatch,Tom Hardy,Mark StrongandJohn Hurt.It gathered mostly excellent", "mostly excellent reviews.The Independentdescribed Firth's performance as \"suavely arrogant\" and praised the film.Deborah Young inThe Hollywood Reporterthought Firth got \"all the best dialogue\", which he delivered \"sardonically\".Leslie Felperin inVarietywrote that all the actors brought their \"A game\" and Firth was in \"particularlycholeric, amusing form.\" 2012–present: Established actor In May 2011, Firth began filmingGambit—a remake ofa 1960s crime caper, in the part originally played byMichael Caine. It was released in the UK in November 2012 and was a financial and critical failure.Empire'sKim Newmanwrote, \"Firth starts out homaging Caine with hishorn-rimmedcool but soon defaults to his usual repressed British cold mode\",whilstTime Out Londoncalled his a \"likeable performance\", although criticised the film overall.Stephen Dalton inThe Hollywood Reportersaid, \"To his credit, Firth keeps his performance grounded in downbeat realism while all around are wildly mugging in desperate pursuit of thin, forced", "of thin, forced laughs.In 2012, Firth co-founded Raindog Films with British music industry executive and entrepreneurGed Doherty.Its first feature,Eye in the Sky, for which Firth was co-producer, was released in April 2016. In May 2013, it was announced that Firth had signed to co-star withEmma StoneinWoody Allen's romantic comedyMagic in the Moonlight, set in the 1920s and shot on theFrench Riviera.In 2014, he did his first turn as Harry Hart / Agent Galahad in the spy action filmKingsman: The Secret Service, which grossed $414.4 million against an $81 million budget.Firth had been announced to voicePaddington Bearfor the filmPaddington; however, he announced his withdrawal on 17 June 2014, saying: \"It's been bittersweet to see this delightful creature take shape and come to the sad realization that he simply doesn't have my voice\". In June 2015, he began filming the story of amateur yachtsmanDonald CrowhurstinThe Mercy, alongsideRachel Weisz,David ThewlisandJonathan Bailey.In 2016, Firth reprised his", "Firth reprised his popular role as Mark Darcy inBridget Jones's Baby, which fared much better with audiences and critics than the second in the series (Bridget Jones: Edge of Reason). He portrayed American book editorMax PerkinsinGenius, co-starringJude Lawas authorThomas Wolfeand based onA. Scott Berg's biographyMax Perkins: Editor of Genius.In 2016 he began filming forRupert Everett's directorial debutThe Happy Prince, a biopic ofOscar Wilde, playing Wilde's friendReginald \"Reggie\" Turner. In 2017, he reprised his role as Jamie from 2003'sLove Actuallyin the television short filmRed Nose Day Actually, by original writer and directorRichard Curtis.Also that year, Firth returned asHarry Hart / Agent Galahadin the sequelKingsman: The Golden Circle.In 2018, Firth reprised his role of Harry Bright in the sequel toMamma Mia!,Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again.That year, he also appeared as William Weatherall Wilkins in the musical fantasy filmMary Poppins Returns, starringEmily Bluntin the title role. He also played", "He also played British naval commanderDavid RussellinThomas Vinterberg'sKursk, a film about the true story of the2000 Kursk submarine disaster, in which he starred alongsideMatthias Schoenaerts.In 2019, he had a cameo as British General Erinmore inSam Mendes' World War I film1917.Set in 1947 England, Firth starred withJulie WaltersinThe Secret Gardenand later in 2020 withStanley TucciinSupernova.In 2021, he starred in romantic drama filmMothering Sundaydirected by Eva Husson.In December 2021, he was cast in Sam Mendes' drama filmEmpire of Light, starringOlivia Colman.He was seen as Ewen Montagu inOperation Mincemeat, in April 2022.Firth returned to television in May 2022 starring as Michael Peterson in the HBO productionThe Staircase. Writing Firth's first published work, \"The Department of Nothing\", appeared inSpeaking with the Angel(2000),a collection of short stories edited byNick Hornbyand published to benefit theTreeHouse Trustto aid autistic children. He met Hornby during the filming of the", "the filming of the originalFever Pitch.He contributed to the bookWe Are One: A Celebration of Tribal Peoples(2009),which explores the cultures, diversity and challenges of Indigenous peoples around the world. It features contributions from many Western writers, includingLaurens van der Post,Noam Chomsky,Claude Lévi-Strauss; and from Indigenous people such asDavi Kopenawa YanomamiandRoy Sesana. Profits from the book's sale benefit the Indigenous rights organisationSurvival International. Firth was an executive producer for the filmIn Prison My Whole Life, featuring Noam Chomsky andAngela Davis. It was selected to the 2007 London Film Festival and the 2008 Sundance Film Festival. In December 2010, Firth was guest editor onBBC Radio 4'sTodayprogramme, where he commissioned research to scan the brains of volunteers (mostly university students) to see if there were structural differences that might account for political leanings.The resulting academic paper listed him as an author, along with twoUniversity", "with twoUniversity College Londonresearchersand the science reporter of the BBC Radio 4Todayprogramme. For his contribution, professorJohn Jostcalled Firth a 'scientific ambassador' in the field of political neuroscience.The study suggested that conservatives had more development in theamygdala, and liberals in theanterior cingulate cortex. In 2012, Firth's audiobook recording ofGraham Greene'sThe End of the Affairwas released atAudible.comand was declaredAudiobook of the Yearat the 2013Audie Awards. Activism Firth has been a longstanding supporter ofSurvival International, anon-governmental organisationthat advocates for the rights of tribal peoples.Speaking in 2001, he said, \"My interest in tribal peoples goes back many years ... and I have supported ever since.\"In 2003, during the promotion ofLove Actually, he spoke in defence of the Indigenous people ofBotswana, condemning the Botswana government's eviction of theGana and Gwi people(San) from theCentral Kalahari Game Reserve. He said of San, \"These", "said of San, \"These people are not the remnants of a past era who need to be brought up to date. Those who are able to continue to live on the land that is rightfully theirs are facing the 21st century with a confidence that many of us in the so-called developed world can only envy.\"He has also backed a Survival International campaign to press the Brazilian government to take more decisive action in defence ofAwá-Guajá people, whose land and livelihood is critically threatened by the actions of loggers. As a supporter of theRefugee Council, Firth was involved in a campaign to stop thedeportationof a group of 42 Congoleseasylum seekers, expressing concerns in open letters toThe IndependentandThe Guardianthat they faced being murdered on their return to theDemocratic Republic of Congo.Firth said: \"To me, it's just basic civilisation to help people. I find this incredibly painful to see how we dismiss the most desperate people in our society. It's easily done. It plays to the tabloids, to", "to the tabloids, to theMiddle-Englandxenophobes. It just makes me furious. And all from a government we once had such high hopes for.\"Four of the asylum seekers were given last-minute reprieves from deportation. Firth, along with other celebrities, has been involved in theOxfamglobal campaignMake Trade Fair, focusing on trade practices considered especially unfair to third-world producers, including dumping, high import tariffs, and labour rights.He and some collaborators opened Eco, an eco-friendly shop in West London,which offers fair-trade and eco-friendly goods, and expert advice on making spaces more energy efficient. In October 2009, at theLondon Film Festival, he launched a film and political activism website, Brightwide (since decommissioned), with his wife Livia. During the2010 general election, Firth announced his support for theLiberal Democrats, having previously been aLaboursupporter, citing asylum and refugees' rights as key reasons for the change.In December 2010, he publicly dropped his", "dropped his support of the Liberal Democrats, citing their U-turn ontuition fees, and said that he was currently unaffiliated.He appeared in literature supporting changing the British electoral system fromfirst-past-the-posttoalternative votefor electing members of parliament to theHouse of Commons, in the unsuccessfulAlternative Vote referendumin 2011. In 2009, Firth joined the10:10project, supporting the movement calling for people to reduce their carbon footprints. In 2010, he endorsed \"Roots & Shoots\",an education programme in the UK run by theJane Goodall Institute. Personal life In 1989, Firth began a relationship withMeg Tilly, his co-star inValmont. Their son, William Joseph Firth, was born in 1990.William is now also an actor, appearing with his father inBridget Jones's Babyin 2016. The family moved to theLower MainlandofBritish Columbia, Canada but Firth and Tilly ultimately broke up in 1994. During the filming ofPride and Prejudice, Firth and co-starJennifer Ehlebegan a romantic relationship,", "relationship, which received media attention only after their separation. In 1997, Firth married Italian activistLivia Giuggioli.They have two sons, Luca and Matteo.Firth speaks fluent Italian.The family divided their time betweenWandsworth, in London, andUmbria, Italy.They announced their separation in 2019.They had gone through a private separation several years prior, but had reconciled. Firth was a vocal opponent of theBrexitinitiative for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union. Following the referendum's passage, and the ensuing uncertainty over rights of non-EU citizens, he applied for \"dual citizenship (British and Italian)\" in 2017 to \"have the same passports as his wife and children\".TheItalian interior minister,Marco Minniti, announced Firth's application had been approved on 22 September 2017.Firth said, \"I will always be extremely British (you only have to look at or listen to me).\" In 2011, after winning the Academy Award for his portrayal of King George VI inThe King's Speech, Firth", "Speech, Firth suggested that he may be arepublican(anti-monarchist) in aCNNinterview withPiers Morgan, saying that voting was \"one of his favourite things\" and that unelected institutions were \"a problem for him\". Acting credits and awards Firth has received numerous awards, including anAcademy Award,Golden Globe Award,British Academy Film Award, andScreen Actors Guild Awardfor his performance asKing George VIinTom Hooper's historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010). He received anhonorary doctorateon 19 October 2007 from theUniversity of Winchester.On 13 January 2011, he was presented with the 2,429th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.In April 2011,Timeincluded him in its list of the World's 100 Most Influential People.He was made aFreemanof theCity of Londonon 8 March 2012,and was awarded anhonorary fellowshipby theUniversity of the Arts Londonin 2012. Firth was appointedCommander of the Order of the British Empire(CBE) in the2011 Birthday Honoursfor services to drama. References External links", "List of awards and nominations received by Colin Firth The following article is aList of awards and nominations received by Colin Firth. Colin Firthis an English actor known for his roles in film, television, and theatre. Over his career has received anAcademy Award, twoBAFTA Awards, aGolden Globe Awardand threeScreen Actors Guild Awardsas well as nominations for twoPrimetime Emmy Awards. Firth received theAcademy Award for Best Actorfor his portrayal asKing George VIinTom Hooper's historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010). The performance also earned him theBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, theGolden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama, and theScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Actor in a Leading Role. He was previously Oscar-nominated for playing agayman who lost in long-time partner in the romantic dramaA Single Man(2009), which also earned him theBAFTA Awardand theVolpi Cup for Best Actor. He also received threeBritish Academy Film Awardnominations for his performances", "his performances in the romantic comedyBridget Jones's Diary(2000), the romantic dramaA Single Man(2009), and the historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010), winning for the later two. He receivedScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picturenominations for the romantic epic dramaThe English Patient(1996), and the romantic period comedy-dramaShakespeare in Love(1998), before winning for the historical dramaThe King's Speech(2010). For his work on television, he received twoBritish Academy Television Awardnominations for his roles in theBBCprojectsTumbledown(1989), andPride and Prejudice(1996) as well as twoPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations forOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Moviefor his role as Dr.Wilhelm Stuckartin theBBC/HBOfilmConspiracy(2001), andOutstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Moviefor playingMichael PetersontheHBOlimited seriesThe Staircase(2022). For the later he also received aGolden Globe Awardnomination. Major associations Academy Awards BAFTA Awards", "Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards Emmy Awards Screen Actors Guild Awards Critic awards Critics' Choice Awards European Film Awards Other awards References" ]
In 2024's version of the world, which country was the birthplace of the Emperor who reigned from the year 363 to 364 over the Empire that the Goths played a major part in collapsing?
Serbia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_(emperor" ]
[ "Goths TheGothswere aGermanic peoplewho played a major role in thefall of the Western Roman Empireand the emergence ofmedieval Europe.They were first reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is now Ukraine, Moldova and Romania. These Goths conducted raids into Roman territory, and large numbers of them joined the Roman military. These early Goths lived in the regions where archaeologists find theChernyakhov culture, which flourished throughout this region during the 3rd and 4th centuries. In the late 4th century, the lands of the Goths in present-day Ukraine were overwhelmed by a significant westward movement of Alans and Huns from the east. Large numbers of Goths subsequently concentrated upon the Roman border at the LowerDanube, seeking refuge inside the Roman Empire. After they entered the Empire, violence broke out, and Goth-led forces inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at theBattle of Adrianoplein 378. Many Goths and other eastern peoples were quickly settled in and near the empire. One group of these, initially led by their kingAlaric I, where the precursors of theVisigoths, and their successors eventually establishing aVisigothic Kingdomin Spain atToledo.Meanwhile, Goths under Hunnic rule gained their independence in the 5th century, most importantly theOstrogoths. Under their kingTheodoric the Great, these Goths established anOstrogothic Kingdomin Italy atRavenna. The Ostrogothic Kingdomwas destroyedby theEastern Roman Empirein the 6th century, while the Visigothic Kingdom was largelyconqueredby theUmayyad Caliphatein the early 8th century, with aremnant in Asturiaswhich would go on to initiate the Reconquista underPelagius. Remnants of Gothic communities inCrimea, known as theCrimean Goths, established a culture that survived for more than a thousand years,although Goths would eventually cease to exist as a distinct people. Gothic architecture,Gothic literatureand the modern-dayGoth subcultureultimately derive their names from the ancient Goths, though the Goths themselves did not directly create or influence these art forms. Name In theGothic language, the Goths were called the *Gut-þiuda('Gothic people') or *Gutans('Goths').TheProto-Germanicform of the Gothic name is *Gutōz, which co-existed with an n-stem variant *Gutaniz, attested inGutones,gutani, orgutniskr. The form *Gutōzis identical to that of theGutesfrom Gotland, Sweden, and closely related to that of theGeats(*Gautōz), from mainland Sweden.Though these names probably mean the same, their exact meaning is uncertain.They are all thought to be related to the Proto-Germanic verb *geuta-, which means \"to pour\". The etymology of the demonym \"Goths\" is closely related to that of the SwedishGutes,Geats, and perhapsJutes.In his bookGetica(c.551), the historianJordaneswrites that the Goths originated in southernScandinavia, but the accuracy of this account is unclear.A people called theGutones– possibly early Goths – are documented living near the lowerVistula Riverin currentPolandin the 1st century, where they are associated with the archaeologicalWielbark culture.From the 2nd century, the Wielbark culture expanded southwards towards theBlack Seain what has been associated with Gothic migration, and by the late 3rd century it contributed to the formation of theChernyakhov culture.By the 4th century at the latest, several Gothic groups were distinguishable, among whom theThervingiandGreuthungiwere the most powerful.During this time,Wulfilabegan theconversion of GothstoChristianity. Classification The Goths are classified as aGermanic peoplein modern scholarship.Along with theBurgundians,Vandalsand others they belong to theEast Germanicgroup.Roman authors oflate antiquitydid not classify the Goths asGermani.In modern scholarship the Goths are sometimes referred to as beingGermani. History Prehistory A crucial source on Gothic history is theGeticaof the 6th-century historianJordanes, who may have been of Gothic descent.Jordanes claims to have based theGeticaon an earlier lost work byCassiodorus, but also cites material from fifteen other classical sources, including an otherwise unknown writer,Ablabius.Many scholars accept that Jordanes' account on Gothic origins is at least partially derived from Gothic tribal tradition and accurate on certain details, and as a result the Goths are often identified as originating from south-central Sweden. According to Jordanes, the Goths originated on an island calledScandza(Scandinavia), from where they emigrated by sea to an area calledGothiscandzaunder their kingBerig.Historians are not in agreement on the authenticity and accuracy of this account.Most scholars agree that Gothic migration from Scandinavia is reflected in the archaeological record,but the evidence is not entirely clear.Rather than a single mass migration of an entire people, scholars open to hypothetical Scandinavian origins envision a process of gradual migration in the 1st centuries BC and AD, which was probably preceded by long-term contacts and perhaps limited to a few elite clans from Scandinavia. Similarities between thename of the Goths, some Swedishplace namesand the names of the Gutes and Geats have been cited as evidence that the Goths originated inGotlandorGötaland.The Goths, Geats and Gutes may all have descended from an early community of seafarers active on both sides of the Baltic.Similarities and dissimilarities between the Gothic language andScandinavian languages(particularlyGutnish) have been cited as evidence both for and against a Scandinavian origin. Scholars generally locateGothiscandzain the area of theWielbark culture.This culture emerged in the lower Vistula and along thePomeraniancoast in the 1st century AD, replacing the precedingOksywie culture.It is primarily distinguished from the Oksywie by the practice of inhumation, the absence of weapons in graves, and the presence ofstone circles.This area had been intimately connected with Scandinavia since the time of theNordic Bronze Ageand theLusatian culture.Its inhabitants in the Wielbark period are usually thought to have been Germanic peoples, such as the Goths and Rugii.Jordanes writes that the Goths, soon after settlingGothiscandza, seized the lands of theUlmerugi(Rugii). Early history The Goths are generally believed to have been first attested byGreco-Romansources in the 1st century under the nameGutones.The equation between Gutones and later Goths is disputed by several historians. Around 15 AD,Strabomentions the Butones,Lugii, andSemnonesas part of a large group of peoples who came under the domination of theMarcomannickingMaroboduus.The \"Butones\" are generally equated with the Gutones.The Lugii have sometimes been considered the same people as theVandals, with whom they were certainly closely affiliated.The Vandals are associated with thePrzeworsk culture, which was located to the south of the Wielbark culture.Wolfram suggests that the Gutones were clients of the Lugii and Vandals in the 1st century AD. In 77 AD,Pliny the Eldermentions the Gutones as one of the peoples ofGermania. He writes that the Gutones,Burgundiones,Varini, and Carini belong to the Vandili. Pliny classifies the Vandili as one of the five principal \"German races\", along with the coastalIngvaeones,Istvaeones,Irminones, andPeucini.In an earlier chapter Pliny writes that the 4th century BC travelerPytheasencountered a people called theGuiones.Some scholars have equated theseGuioneswith the Gutones, but the authenticity of the Pytheas account is uncertain. In his workGermaniafrom around 98 AD,Tacituswrites that the Gotones (or Gothones) and the neighbouring Rugii andLemoviiwereGermaniwho carried round shields and short swords, and lived near the ocean, beyond the Vandals.He described them as \"ruled by kings, a little more strictly than the other German tribes\".In another notable work, theAnnals, Tacitus writes that the Gotones had assistedCatualda, a young Marcomannic exile, in overthrowing the rule of Maroboduus.Prior to this, it is probable that both the Gutones and Vandals had been subjects of the Marcomanni. Sometime after settlingGothiscandza, Jordanes writes that the Goths defeated the neighbouring Vandals.Wolfram believes the Gutones freed themselves from Vandalic domination at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. In hisGeographyfrom around 150 AD,Ptolemymentions the Gythones (or Gutones) as living east of the Vistula in Sarmatia, between theVenetiand theFenni.In an earlier chapter he mentions a people called the Gutae (or Gautae) as living in southernScandia.These Gutae are probably the same as the laterGautimentioned by Procopius.Wolfram suggests that there were close relations between the Gythones and Gutae, and that they might have been of common origin. Movement towards the Black Sea Beginning in the middle of the 2nd century, the Wielbark culture shifted southeast towards theBlack Sea.During this time the Wielbark culture is believed to have ejected and partially absorbed peoples of the Przeworsk culture.This was part of a wider southward movement of eastern Germanic tribes, which was probably caused by massive population growth.As a result, other tribes were pushed towards theRoman Empire, contributing to the beginning of theMarcomannic Wars.By 200 AD, Wielbark Goths were probably being recruited into theRoman army. According to Jordanes, the Goths enteredOium, part of Scythia, under the kingFilimer, where they defeated theSpali.This migration account partly corresponds with the archaeological evidence.The nameSpalimay mean \"the giants\" inSlavic, and the Spali were thus probably notSlavs.In the early 3rd century AD, western Scythia was inhabited by the agriculturalZarubintsy cultureand the nomadicSarmatians.Prior to the Sarmatians, the area had been settled by theBastarnae, who are believed to have carried out a migration similar to the Goths in the 3rd century BC.Peter Heatherconsiders the Filimer story to be at least partially derived from Gothic oral tradition.The fact that the expanding Goths appear to have preserved their Gothic language during their migration suggests that their movement involved a fairly large number of people. By the mid-3rd century AD, the Wielbark culture had contributed to the formation of theChernyakhov culturein Scythia.This strikingly uniform culture came to stretch from theDanubein the west to theDonin the east.It is believed to have been dominated by the Goths and other Germanic groups such as theHeruli.It nevertheless also includedIranian,Dacian, Roman and probablySlavicelements as well. 3rd century raids on the Roman Empire The first incursion of the Roman Empire that can be attributed to Goths is the sack ofHistriain 238.The first references to the Goths in the 3rd century call themScythians, as this area, known as Scythia, had historically been occupied by an unrelated people of that name.It is in the late 3rd century that the nameGoths(Latin:Gothi) is first mentioned.Ancient authors do not identify the Goths with the earlier Gutones.Philologistsandlinguistshave no doubt that the names are linked. On thePontic steppethe Goths quickly adopted several nomadic customs from the Sarmatians.They excelled athorsemanship,archeryandfalconry,and were also accomplishedagriculturalistsandseafarers.J. B. Burydescribes the Gothic period as \"the only non-nomadic episode in the history of the steppe.\"William H. McNeillcompares the migration of the Goths to that of the earlyMongols, who migrated southward from the forests and came to dominate the easternEurasian steppearound the same time as the Goths in the west.From the 240s at the earliest, Goths were heavily recruited into theRoman Armyto fight in theRoman–Persian Wars, notably participating at theBattle of Misichein 244.Aninscription at the Ka'ba-ye ZartoshtinParthian,Persianand Greek commemorates the Persian victory over the Romans and the troops drawn fromgwt W g'rmny xštr, the Gothic and German kingdoms,which is probably a Parthian gloss for theDanubian (Gothic)limesand theGermaniclimes. Meanwhile, Gothic raids on the Roman Empire continued,In 250–51, the Gothic kingCnivacaptured the city of Philippopolisand inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at theBattle of Abrittus, in which the Roman EmperorDeciuswas killed.This was one of the most disastrous defeats in the history of the Roman army. The first Gothic seaborne raids took place in the 250s. The first two incursions intoAsia Minortook place between 253 and 256, and are attributed to Boranoi byZosimus. This may not be an ethnic term but may just mean \"people from the north\". It is unknown if Goths were involved in these first raids.Gregory Thaumaturgusattributes a third attack to Goths and Boradoi, and claims that some, \"forgetting that they were men of Pontus and Christians,\" joined the invaders.An unsuccessful attack onPityuswas followed in the second year by another, which sacked Pityus andTrabzonand ravaged large areas in thePontus. In the third year, a much larger force devastated large areas ofBithyniaand thePropontis, including the cities ofChalcedon,Nicomedia,Nicaea,Apamea Myrlea,CiusandBursa. By the end of the raids, the Goths had seized control overCrimeaand theBosporusand captured several cities on theEuxinecoast, includingOlbiaandTyras, which enabled them to engage in widespread naval activities. After a 10-year hiatus, the Goths and theHeruli, with a raiding fleet of 500 ships,sackedHeraclea Pontica,CyzicusandByzantium.They were defeated by theRoman navybut managed to escape into theAegean Sea, where they ravaged the islands ofLemnosandScyros,broke through Thermopylaeand sacked several cities of southern Greece (province of Achaea) includingAthens,Corinth,Argos,OlympiaandSparta.Then an Athenian militia, led by the historianDexippus, pushed the invaders to the north where they were intercepted by the Roman army underGallienus.He won an important victory near the Nessos (Nestos) river, on the boundary betweenMacedoniaandThrace, the Dalmatian cavalry of the Roman army earning a reputation as good fighters. Reported barbarian casualties were 3,000 men.Subsequently, the Heruli leaderNaulobatuscame to terms with the Romans. AfterGallienuswas assassinated outsideMilanin the summer of 268 in a plot led by high officers in his army,Claudiuswas proclaimed emperor and headed to Rome to establish his rule. Claudius' immediate concerns were with theAlamanni, who had invadedRaetiaand Italy. After he defeated them in theBattle of Lake Benacus, he was finally able to take care of the invasions in theBalkanprovinces. In the meantime, a second and larger sea-borne invasion had started. An enormous coalition consisting of Goths (Greuthungi and Thervingi), Gepids and Peucini, led again by the Heruli, assembled at the mouth of river Tyras (Dniester).TheAugustan Historyand Zosimus claim a total number of 2,000–6,000 ships and 325,000 men.This is probably a gross exaggeration but remains indicative of the scale of the invasion.After failing to storm some towns on the coasts of the westernBlack Seaand theDanube(Tomi,Marcianopolis), the invaders attackedByzantiumandChrysopolis. Part of their fleet was wrecked, either because of the Goth's inexperience in sailing through the violent currents of thePropontisor because they were defeated by the Roman navy.Then they entered theAegean Seaand a detachment ravaged the Aegean islands as far asCrete,RhodesandCyprus.According to theAugustan History, the Goths achieved no success on this expedition because they were struck by theCyprianic Plague.The fleet probably also sackedTroyandEphesus, damaging theTemple of Artemis, though the temple was repaired and then later torn down by Christians a century later, one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World.While their main force had constructed siege works and was close to taking the cities ofThessalonicaandCassandreia, it retreated to the Balkan interior at the news that the emperor was advancing. Learning of the approach of Claudius, the Goths first attempted to directly invade Italy.They wereengagednear Naissus by a Roman army led by Claudius advancing from the north. The battle most likely took place in 269, and was fiercely contested. Large numbers on both sides were killed but, at the critical point, the Romans tricked the Goths into an ambush by pretending to retreat. Some 50,000 Goths were allegedly killed or taken captive and their base atThessalonikadestroyed.ApparentlyAurelian, who was in charge of all Roman cavalry during Claudius' reign, led the decisive attack in the battle. Some survivors were resettled within the empire, while others were incorporated into the Roman army.The battle ensured the survival of theRoman Empirefor another two centuries. In 270, after the death of Claudius, Goths under the leadership ofCannabaudesagain launched an invasion of theRoman Empire, but were defeated byAurelian, who, however, did surrenderDaciabeyond theDanube. Around 275 the Goths launched a last major assault onAsia Minor, where piracy by Black Sea Goths was causing great trouble inColchis, Pontus,Cappadocia,Galatiaand evenCilicia.They were defeated sometime in 276 by EmperorMarcus Claudius Tacitus. By the late 3rd century, there were at least two groups of Goths, separated by theDniester River: theThervingiand theGreuthungi.TheGepids, who lived northwest of the Goths, are also attested as this time.Jordanes writes that the Gepids shared common origins with the Goths. In the late 3rd century, as recorded by Jordanes, the Gepids, under their kingFastida, utterly defeated the Burgundians, and then attacked the Goths and their king Ostrogotha. Out of this conflict, Ostrogotha and the Goths emerged victorious.In the last decades of the 3rd century, large numbers ofCarpiare recorded as fleeing Dacia for the Roman Empire, having probably been driven from the area by Goths. Co-existence with the Roman Empire (300–375) In 332,Constantinehelped the Sarmatians to settle on the north banks of the Danube to defend against the Goths' attacks and thereby enforce the Roman border. Around 100,000 Goths were reportedly killed in battle, andAoric, son of the Thervingian kingAriaric, was captured.Eusebius, a historian who wrote in Greek in the third century, wrote that in 334, Constantine evacuated approximately 300,000Sarmatiansfrom the north bank of the Danube after a revolt of the Sarmatians' slaves. From 335 to 336, Constantine, continuing his Danube campaign, defeated many Gothic tribes. Having been driven from the Danube by the Romans, the Thervingi invaded the territory of the Sarmatians of theTisza. In this conflict, the Thervingi were led byVidigoia, \"the bravest of the Goths\" and were victorious, although Vidigoia was killed.Jordanes states that Aoric was succeeded byGeberic, \"a man renowned for his valor and noble birth\", who waged war on theHasdingiVandals and their kingVisimar, forcing them to settle in Pannonia under Roman protection. Both the Greuthungi and Thervingi became heavilyRomanizedduring the 4th century. This came about through trade with the Romans, as well as through Gothic membership of a military covenant, which was based in Byzantium and involved pledges of military assistance. Reportedly, 40,000 Goths were brought by Constantine to defendConstantinoplein his later reign, and the Palace Guard was thereafter mostly composed of Germanic warriors, as Roman soldiers by this time had largely lost military value.The Goths increasingly became soldiers in the Roman armies in the 4th century leading to a significantGermanizationof the Roman Army.Without the recruitment of Germanic warriors in the Roman Army, the Roman Empire would not have survived for as long as it did.Goths who gained prominent positions in the Roman military includeGainas,Tribigild,FravittaandAspar.Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, was the childhood tutor and later adviser of Roman emperorJulian, on whom he had an immense influence. The Gothic penchant for wearingskinsbecame fashionable in Constantinople, a fashion which was loudly denounced by conservatives.The 4th-century Greek bishopSynesiuscompared the Goths to wolves among sheep, mocked them for wearing skins and questioned their loyalty towards Rome: A man in skins leading warriors who wear thechlamys, exchanging his sheepskins for thetogato debate withRoman magistratesand perhaps even sit next to aRoman consul, while law-abiding men sit behind. Then these same men, once they have gone a little way from the senate house, put on their sheepskins again, and when they have rejoined their fellows they mock the toga, saying that they cannot comfortably draw their swords in it. In the 4th century, Geberic was succeeded by the Greuthungian kingErmanaric, who embarked on a large-scale expansion.Jordanes states that Ermanaric conquered a large number of warlike tribes, including the Heruli (who were led by Alaric), theAestiand theVistula Veneti, who, although militarily weak, were very numerous, and put up a strong resistance.Jordanes compares the conquests of Ermanaric to those ofAlexander the Great, and states that he \"ruled all the nations of Scythia and Germany by his own prowess alone.\"Interpreting Jordanes, Herwig Wolfram estimates that Ermanaric dominated a vast area of the Pontic Steppe stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea as far eastwards as theUral Mountains,encompassing not only the Greuthungi, but alsoBaltic Finnic peoples, Slavs (such as theAntes),Rosomoni(Roxolani), Alans,Huns,Sarmatiansand probablyAestii(Balts).According to Wolfram, it is certainly possible that the sphere of influence of the Chernyakhov culture could have extended well beyond its archaeological extent.Chernyakhov archaeological finds have been found far to the north in theforest steppe, suggesting Gothic domination of this area.Peter Heatheron the other hand, contends that the extent of Ermanaric's power is exaggerated.Ermanaric's possible dominance of theVolga-Dontrade routes has led historianGottfried Schrammto consider his realm a forerunner of theViking-founded state ofKievan Rus'.In the western part of Gothic territories, dominated by the Thervingi, there were also populations ofTaifali, Sarmatians and other Iranian peoples,Dacians,Daco-Romansand other Romanized populations. According toHervarar saga ok Heiðreks(The Saga of Hervör and Heidrek), a 13th-centurylegendary saga,Árheimarwas the capital ofReidgotaland, the land of the Goths. The saga states that it was located on the Dnieper river. Jordanes refers to the region as Oium. In the 360s,Athanaric, son of Aoric and leader of the Thervingi, supported the usurperProcopiusagainst theEastern Roman EmperorValens. In retaliation, Valens invaded the territories of Athanaric anddefeated him, but was unable to achieve a decisive victory. Athanaric and Valens thereupon negotiated a peace treaty, favorable to the Thervingi, on a boat in the Danube river, as Athanaric refused to set his feet within the Roman Empire. Soon afterwards,Fritigern, a rival of Athanaric, converted to Arianism, gaining the favor of Valens. Athanaric and Fritigern thereafter fought a civil war in which Athanaric appears to have been victorious. Athanaric thereafter carried outa crackdown on Christianityin his realm. Arrival of the Huns (about 375) Around 375 the Huns overran theAlans, anIranianpeople living to the east of the Goths, and then, along with Alans, invaded the territory of the Goths.A source for this period is the Roman historianAmmianus Marcellinus, who wrote that Hunnic domination of the Gothic kingdoms in Scythia began in the 370s.It is possible that the Hunnic attack came as a response to the Gothic expansion eastwards. Upon the suicide of Ermanaric (died 376), the Greuthungi gradually fell under Hunnic domination.Christopher I. Beckwithsuggests that the Hunnic thrust intoEuropeand the Roman Empire was an attempt to subdue the independent Goths in the west.The Huns fell upon the Thervingi, and Athanaric sought refuge in the mountains (referred to asCaucalandin the sagas).Ambrosemakes a passing reference to Athanaric's royal titles before 376 in hisDe Spiritu Sancto(On the Holy Spirit). Battles between the Goths and the Huns are described in the \"Hlöðskviða\" (The Battle of the Goths and Huns), a medieval Icelandic saga. The sagas recall thatGizur, king of theGeats, came to the aid of the Goths in an epic conflict with the Huns, although this saga might derive from a later Gothic-Hunnic conflict. Although the Huns successfully subdued many of the Goths who subsequently joined their ranks, Fritigern approached theEastern RomanemperorValensin 376 with a portion of his people and asked to be allowed to settle on the south bank of the Danube. Valens permitted this, and even assisted the Goths in their crossing of the river (probably at the fortress ofDurostorum).The Gothic evacuation across the Danube was probably not spontaneous, but rather a carefully planned operation initiated after long debate among leading members of the community.Upon arrival, the Goths were to be disarmed according to their agreement with the Romans, although many of them still managed to keep their arms.TheMoesogothssettled in Thrace andMoesia. The Gothic War of 376–382 Mistreated by corrupt local Roman officials, the Gothic refugees were soon experiencing a famine; some are recorded as having been forced to sell their children to Roman slave traders in return for rotten dog meat.Enraged by this treachery, Fritigern unleashed a widescale rebellion in Thrace, in which he was joined not only by Gothic refugees and slaves, but also by disgruntled Roman workers and peasants, and Gothic deserters from the Roman Army. The ensuing conflict, known as theGothic War, lasted for several years.Meanwhile, a group of Greuthungi, led by the chieftainsAlatheus and Saphrax, who were co-regents with Vithericus, son and heir of the Greuthungi kingVithimiris, crossed the Danube without Roman permission.The Gothic War culminated in theBattle of Adrianoplein 378, in which the Romans were badly defeated and Valens was killed. Following the decisive Gothic victory at Adrianople, Julius, themagister militumof theEastern Roman Empire, organized a wholesale massacre of Goths inAsia Minor,Syriaand other parts of the Roman East. Fearing rebellion, Julian lured the Goths into the confines of urban streets from which they could not escape and massacred soldiers and civilians alike. As word spread, the Goths rioted throughout the region, and large numbers were killed. Survivors may have settled inPhrygia. With the rise ofTheodosius Iin 379, the Romans launched a renewed offensive to subdue Fritigern and his followers.Around the same time, Athanaric arrived in Constantinople, having fled Caucaland through the scheming of Fritigern.Athanaric received a warm reception by Theodosius, praised the Roman Emperor in return, and was honoured with a magnificent funeral by the emperor following his death shortly after his arrival.In 382, Theodosius decided to enter peace negotiations with the Thervingi, which were concluded on 3 October 382.The Thervingi were subsequently madefoederatiof the Romans in Thrace and obliged to provide troops to the Roman army. Later division and spread of the Goths In the aftermath of the Hunnic onslaught, two major groups of the Goths would eventually emerge, theVisigothsandOstrogoths.Visigoths means the \"Goths of the west\", while Ostrogoths means \"Goths of the east\".The Visigoths, led by theBalti dynasty, claimed descent from the Thervingi and lived asfoederatiinside Roman territory, while the Ostrogoths, led by theAmali dynasty, claimed descent from the Greuthungi and were subjects of the Huns.Procopius interpreted the nameVisigothas \"western Goths\" and the nameOstrogothas \"eastern Goth\", reflecting the geographic distribution of the Gothic realms at that time.A people closely related to the Goths, the Gepids, were also living under Hunnic domination.A smaller group of Goths were theCrimean Goths, who remained in Crimea and maintained their Gothic identity well into the18th century. In his biography of theWest SaxonmonarchAlfred the Great, theWelshhistorianAsserstates that Alfred's motherOsburhwas of partial Goth ancestry through her father Oslac. Visigoths The Visigoths were a new Gothic political unit brought together during the career of their first leader, Alaric I.Following a major settlement of Goths in the Balkans made by Theodosius in 382, Goths received prominent positions in the Roman army.Relations with Roman civilians were sometimes uneasy. In 391, Gothic soldiers, with the blessing of Theodosius I,massacredthousands of Roman spectators at the Hippodrome inThessalonicaas vengeance for the lynching of the Gothic generalButheric. The Goths suffered heavy losses while serving Theodosius in the civil war of 394 againstEugeniusandArbogast.In 395, following the death of Theodosius I, Alaric and his Balkan Goths invaded Greece, where they sackedPiraeus(the port ofAthens) and destroyedCorinth,Megara,Argos, andSparta.Athens itself was spared by paying a large bribe, and the Eastern emperorFlavius Arcadiussubsequently appointed Alaricmagister militum(\"master of the soldiers\") inIllyricumin 397. In 401 and 402, Alaric made two attempts at invading Italy, but was defeated byStilicho. In 405–406, another Gothic leader,Radagaisus, also attempted to invade Italy, and was also defeated by Stilicho.In 408, the Western Roman emperorFlavius Honoriusordered the execution of Stilicho and his family, then incited the Roman population to massacre tens of thousands of wives and children of Goths serving in the Roman military. Subsequently, around 30,000 Gothic soldiers defected to Alaric.Alaric in turn invaded Italy, seeking to pressure Honorious into granting him permission to settle his people inNorth Africa.In Italy, Alaric liberated tens of thousands of Gothic slaves, and in 410 hesackedthe city of Rome. Although the city's riches were plundered, the civilian inhabitants of the city were treated humanely, and only a few buildings were burned.Alaric died soon afterwards, and was buried along with his treasure in an unknown grave under theBusentoriver. Alaric was succeeded by his brother-in–lawAthaulf, husband of Honorius' sisterGalla Placidia, who had been seized during Alaric's sack of Rome. Athaulf settled the Visigoths in southernGaul.After failing to gain recognition from the Romans, Athaulf retreated into Hispania in early 415, and was assassinated inBarcelonashortly afterwards.He was succeeded bySigericand thenWallia, who succeeded in having the Visigoths accepted by Honorius as foederati in southern Gaul, with their capital atToulouse. Wallia subsequently inflicted severe defeats upon theSilingiVandals and the Alans in Hispania. Wallia was succeeded byTheodoric Iwho completed the settlement of the Goths inAquitania. Periodically they marched onArles, the seat of thepraetorian prefectbut were always pushed back. In 439 the Visigoths signed a treaty with the Romans which they kept. UnderTheodoric IIthe Visigoths allied with the Romans and foughtAttilato a stalemate in theBattle of the Catalaunian Fields, although Theodoric was killed in the battle.UnderEuric, the Visigoths established an independentVisigothic Kingdomand succeeded in driving theSuebiout of Hispania proper and back intoGalicia.Although they controlled Spain, they still formed a tiny minority among a much largerHispano-Romanpopulation, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000. In 507, the Visigoths were pushed out of most of Gaul by theFrankishkingClovis Iat theBattle of Vouillé.They were able to retainNarbonensisandProvenceafter the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent byTheodoric the Great. The defeat at Vouillé resulted in their penetrating further into Hispania and establishing a new capital atToledo. UnderLiuvigildin the latter part of the 6th century, the Visigoths succeeded in subduing the Suebi in Galicia and the Byzantines in the south-west, and thus achieved dominance over most of theIberian peninsula.Liuvigild also abolished the law that prevented intermarriage between Hispano-Romans and Goths, and he remained an Arian Christian.The conversion ofReccared ItoRoman Catholicismin the late 6th century prompted the assimilation of Goths with the Hispano-Romans. At the end of the 7th century, the Visigothic Kingdom began to suffer from internal troubles.Their kingdom fell and was progressivelyconqueredby theUmayyad Caliphatefrom 711 after the defeat of their last kingRodericat theBattle of Guadalete. Some Visigothic nobles found refuge in the mountain areas of theAsturias,PyreneesandCantabria. According to Joseph F. O'Callaghan, the remnants of the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy still played an important role in the society of Hispania. At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring at a fast pace. Their nobility had begun to think of themselves as constituting one people, thegens Gothorumor theHispani. An unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy. The population of the mountain region consisted of nativeAstures,Galicians,Cantabri,Basquesand other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society.The Christians began to regain control under the leadership of the noblemanPelagius of Asturias, who founded theKingdom of Asturiasin 718 and defeated the Muslims at theBattle of Covadongain c. 722, in what is taken by historians to be the beginning of theReconquista. It was from the Asturian kingdom that modernSpainandPortugalevolved. The Visigoths were never completelyRomanized; rather, they were 'Hispanicized' as they spread widely over a large territory and population. They progressively adopted a new culture, retaining little of their original culture except for practical military customs, some artistic modalities, family traditions such as heroic songs and folklore, as well as select conventions to include Germanic names still in use in present-day Spain. It is these artifacts of the original Visigothic culture that give ample evidence of its contributing foundation for the present regional culture.Portraying themselves heirs of the Visigoths, the subsequent Christian Spanish monarchs declared their responsibility for the Reconquista of Muslim Spain, which was completed with theFall of Granadain 1492. Ostrogoths After the Hunnic invasion, many Goths became subjects of the Huns. A section of these Goths under the leadership of the Amali dynasty came to be known as theOstrogoths.Others sought refuge in the Roman Empire, where many of them were recruited into the Roman army. In the spring of 399,Tribigild, a Gothic leader in charge of troops inNakoleia, rose up in rebellion and defeated the first imperial army sent against him, possibly seeking to emulate Alaric's successes in the west.Gainas, a Goth who along with Stilicho andEutropiushad deposedRufinusin 395, was sent to suppress Tribigild's rebellion, but instead plotted to use the situation to seize power in the Eastern Roman Empire. This attempt was however thwarted by the pro-Roman GothFravitta, and in the aftermath, thousands of Gothic civilians were massacred in Constantinople,many being burned alive in the local Arian church where they had taken shelter.As late as the 6th century Goths were settled asfoederatiin parts ofAsia Minor. Their descendants, who formed the eliteOptimatoiregiment, still lived there in the early 8th century.While they were largely assimilated, their Gothic origin was still well–known: the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor calls themGothograeci. The Ostrogoths fought together with the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451.Following the death of Attila and the defeat of the Huns at theBattle of Nedaoin 454, the Ostrogoths broke away from Hunnic rule under their kingValamir.Mentions of this event were probably preserved in Slavic epic songs.Under his successor,Theodemir, they utterly defeated the Huns at theBassianaein 468,and then defeated a coalition of Roman–supported Germanic tribes at theBattle of Boliain 469, which gained them supremacy inPannonia. Theodemir was succeeded by his sonTheodoricin 471, who was forced to compete withTheodoric Strabo, leader of theThracian Goths, for the leadership of his people.Fearing the threat posed by Theodoric to Constantinople, the Eastern Roman emperorZenoordered Theodoric to invade Italy in 488. By 493,Theodoric had conquered all of Italy from theScirianOdoacer, whom he killed with his own hands;he subsequently formed theOstrogothic Kingdom. Theodoric settled his entire people in Italy, estimated at 100,000–200,000, mostly in the northern part of the country, and ruled the country very efficiently. The Goths in Italy constituted a small minority of the population in the country.Intermarriage between Goths and Romans were forbidden, and Romans were also forbidden from carrying arms. Nevertheless, the Roman majority was treated fairly. The Goths were briefly reunited under one crown in the early 6th century under Theodoric, who became regent of the Visigothic kingdom following the death ofAlaric IIat the Battle of Vouillé in 507.Shortly after Theodoric's death, the country was invaded by the Eastern Roman Empire in theGothic War, which severely devastated and depopulated the Italian peninsula.The Ostrogoths made a brief resurgence under their kingTotila,who was, however, killed at theBattle of Taginaein 552. After the last stand of the Ostrogothic kingTeiaat theBattle of Mons Lactariusin 553, Ostrogothic resistance ended, and the remaining Goths in Italy were assimilated by theLombards, another Germanic tribe, who invaded Italy and founded theKingdom of the Lombardsin 567. Crimean Goths Gothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea,especially inCrimea, were known as theCrimean Goths. During the late 5th and early 6th century, the Crimean Goths had to fend off hordes of Huns who were migrating back eastward after losing control of their European empire.In the 5th century,Theodoric the Greattried to recruit Crimean Goths for his campaigns in Italy, but few showed interest in joining him.They affiliated with theEastern Orthodox Churchthrough theMetropolitanate of Gothia, and were then closely associated with theByzantine Empire. During the Middle Ages, the Crimean Goths were in perpetual conflict with theKhazars.John of Gothia, themetropolitan bishopofDoros, capital of the Crimean Goths, briefly expelled the Khazars from Crimea in the late 8th century, and was subsequentlycanonizedas anEastern Orthodox saint. In the 10th century, the lands of the Crimean Goths were once again raided by the Khazars. As a response, the leaders of the Crimean Goths made an alliance withSviatoslav I of Kiev, who subsequently waged war upon and utterly destroyed theKhazar Khaganate.In the late Middle Ages the Crimean Goths were part of thePrincipality of Theodoro, which was conquered by theOttoman Empirein the late 15th century. As late as the 18th century a small number of people in Crimea may still have spokenCrimean Gothic. Language The Goths wereGermanic-speaking.The Gothic language is theGermanic languagewith the earliest attestation (the 4th century),and the onlyEast Germanic languagedocumented in more than proper names,short phrasesthat survived in historical accounts, and loan-words in other languages, making it a language of great interest incomparative linguistics. Gothic is known primarily from theCodex Argenteus, now preserved inUppsala, Sweden, which contains a partial translation of the Bible credited toUlfilas. The language was in decline by the mid-500s, due to the military victory of the Franks, the elimination of the Goths in Italy, and geographic isolation. In Spain, the language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language when the Visigoths converted to Catholicism in 589;it survived as a domestic language in the Iberian peninsula (modernSpainandPortugal) as late as the 8th century. FrankishauthorWalafrid Strabowrote that Gothic was still spoken in the lowerDanubearea, in what is now Bulgaria, in the early 9th century,and a related dialect known asCrimean Gothicwas spoken in the Crimea until the 16th century, according to references in the writings of travelers.Most modern scholars believe that Crimean Gothic did not derive from the dialect that was the basis for Ulfilas' translation of the Bible. Culture Art Early Before the invasion of the Huns, the Gothic Chernyakhov culture produced jewelry, vessels, and decorative objects in a style much influenced by Greek and Roman craftsmen. They developed apolychromestyle of gold work, using wrought cells or setting to encrustgemstonesinto their gold objects. Ostrogoths The eagle-shapedfibula, part of theDomagnano Treasure, was used to join clothes c. AD 500; the piece on display in theGermanisches Nationalmuseumin Nuremberg is well-known. Visigoths InSpainan important collection of Visigothic metalwork was found in thetreasure of Guarrazar,Guadamur,Province of Toledo,Castile-La Mancha, anarcheologicalfind composed of twenty-sixvotive crownsand goldcrossesfrom the royal workshop in Toledo, with Byzantine influence. The treasure represents the high point of Visigothic goldsmithery, according toGuerra, Galligaro & Perea (2007).The two most important votive crowns are those ofRecceswinthand ofSuintila, displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid; both are made of gold, encrusted with sapphires, pearls, and other precious stones. Suintila's crown was stolen in 1921 and never recovered. There are several other small crowns and many votive crosses in the treasure. These findings, along with others from some neighbouring sites and with the archaeological excavation of the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and the Royal Spanish Academy of History (April 1859), formed a group consisting of: The aquiliform (eagle-shaped)fibulaethat have been discovered innecropolisessuch asDuraton,Madronaor Castiltierra (cities ofSegovia), are an unmistakable indication of the Visigothic presence in Spain. These fibulae were used individually or in pairs, as clasps or pins in gold, bronze and glass to join clothes, showing the work of the goldsmiths of Visigothic Hispania. The Visigothic belt buckles, a symbol of rank and status characteristic of Visigothic women's clothing, are also notable as works of goldsmithery. Some pieces contain exceptionalByzantine-stylelapis lazuliinlays and are generally rectangular in shape, with copper alloy, garnets and glass. Society Archaeological evidence in Visigothic cemeteries shows that social stratification was analogous to that of the village ofSabbas the Goth. The majority of villagers were commonpeasants. Paupers were buried with funeral rites, unlike slaves. In a village of 50 to 100 people, there were four or five elite couples.In Eastern Europe, houses include sunken-floored dwellings, surface dwellings, and stall-houses. The largest known settlement is theCriuleni District.Chernyakhov cemeteries feature bothcremationandinhumationburials; among the latter the head aligned to the north. Some graves were left empty. Grave goods often include pottery, bone combs, and iron tools, but hardly ever weapons. Peter Heather suggests that the freemen constituted the core of Gothic society. These were ranked below the nobility, but above thefreedmenand slaves. It is estimated that around a quarter to a fifth of weapon-bearing Gothic males of theOstrogothic Kingdomwere freemen. Religion Initially practisingGothic paganism, the Goths were gradually converted toArianismin the course of the 4th century.According toBasil of Caesarea, a prisoner named Eutychus taken captive in a raid on Cappadocia in 260 preached the gospel to the Goths and was martyred.It was only in the 4th century, as a result of missionary activity by the Gothic bishopUlfilas, whose grandparents were Cappadocians taken captive in the raids of the 250s,that the Goths were gradually converted.Ulfilas devised aGothic alphabetand translated theGothic Bible. During the 370s, Goths converting to Christianity were subject topersecutionby the Thervingian king Athanaric, who was a pagan. The Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania converted to Catholicism in the late 6th century. The Ostrogoths (and their remnants, the Crimean Goths) were closely connected to thePatriarchate of Constantinoplefrom the 5th century, and became fully incorporated under theMetropolitanate of Gothiafrom the 9th century. Law Warfare Gothic arms and armour usually consisted of wooden shield, spear and often swords. 'Rank and file' troops did not wear much protection, while warriors of higher social class were better equipped, as was common for most tribal peoples of the time. Armour was either a chainmail shirt or lamellar cuirass. Lamellar was popular among horsemen. Shields were either round or oval with a central boss grip. They were decorated with tribe or clan symbols, such as animal drawings. Helmets were often of spangenhelm type, often with cheek and neck plates. Spears were used both for thrusting and throwing, although specialized javelins were also in use. Swords were one handed, double edged and straight, with a very small crossguard and large pommel. It was called the Spatha by the Romans, and it is believed to have first been used by the Celts. Short wooden bows were also used, as well as occasional throwing axes.Missile weapons were mainly short throwing-axes such asFransicaand short wooden bows. Specialized javelins such asangonwere more rare but still used Economy Archaeology shows that the Visigoths, unlike the Ostrogoths, were predominantly farmers. They sowed wheat, barley, rye, and flax. They also raised pigs, poultry, and goats. Horses and donkeys were raised as working animals and fed with hay. Sheep were raised for their wool, which they fashioned into clothing. Archaeology indicates they were skilled potters and blacksmiths. When peace treaties were negotiated with the Romans, the Goths demanded free trade. Imports from Rome included wine and cooking-oil. Roman writers note that the Goths neither assessedtaxeson their own people nor on their subjects. The early 5th-century Christian writerSalviancompared the Goths' and related people's favourable treatment of the poor to the miserable state of peasants inRoman Gaul: For in the Gothic country the barbarians are so far from tolerating this sort of oppression that not even Romans who live among them have to bear it. Hence all the Romans in that region have but one desire, that they may never have to return to the Roman jurisdiction. It is the unanimous prayer of the Roman people in that district that they may be permitted to continue to lead their present life among the barbarians. Architecture Ostrogoths TheMausoleum of Theodoric(Italian:Mausoleo di Teodorico) is an ancient monument just outsideRavenna,Italy. It was built in 520 AD byTheodoric the Great, an Ostrogoth, as his future tomb. The current structure of themausoleumis divided into twodecagonalorders, one above the other; both are made ofIstriastone. Its roof is a single 230-tonneIstrian stone, 10 meters in diameter. Possibly as a reference to the Goths' tradition of an origin in Scandinavia, the architect decorated thefriezewith a pattern found in 5th- and 6th-century Scandinavian metal adornments.A niche leads down to a room that was probably a chapel for funeralliturgies; a stair leads to the upper floor. Located in the centre of the floor is a circularporphyrystone grave, in which Theodoric was buried. His remains were removed duringByzantinerule, when the mausoleum was turned into aChristianoratory. In the late 19th century, silting from a nearby rivulet that had partly submerged the mausoleum was drained and excavated. ThePalace of Theodoric, also in Ravenna, has a symmetrical composition with arches and monolithic marble columns, reused from previous Roman buildings. With capitals of different shapes and sizes.The Ostrogoths restored Roman buildings, some of which have come down to us thanks to them. Visigoths During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches ofbasilicalorcruciformfloor plan that survive, including the churches ofSan Pedro de la Navein El Campillo,Santa María de MelqueinSan Martín de Montalbán, Santa Lucía del Trampal in Alcuéscar, Santa Comba in Bande, andSanta María de Larain Quintanilla de las Viñas; theVisigothiccrypt(the Crypt of San Antolín) in thePalencia Cathedralis aVisigothicchapel from the mid 7th century, built during the reign ofWambato preserve the remains of the martyrSaint Antoninus of Pamiers, a Visigothic-Gallic nobleman brought from Narbonne to Visigothic Hispania in 672 or 673 by Wamba himself. These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia. Reccopolis(Spanish:Recópolis), located near the tiny modern village ofZorita de los Canesin theprovince of Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha, Spain, is an archaeological site of one of at least four cities founded inHispaniaby theVisigoths. It is the only city in Western Europe to have been founded between the fifth and eighth centuries.According to Lauro Olmo Enciso who is a professor of archaeology at theUniversity of Alcalá, the city was ordered to build by the Visigothic kingLeovigildto honor his sonReccaredI and to serve as Reccared's seat as co-king in the Visigothic province ofCeltiberia, to the west ofCarpetania, where the main capital, Toledo, lay. Physical appearance In ancient sources, the Goths are always described as tall and athletic, withlight skin,blondehair andblue eyes.The 4th-century Greek historianEunapiusdescribed their characteristic powerful musculature in a pejorative way: \"Their bodies provoked contempt in all who saw them, for they were far too big and far too heavy for their feet to carry them, and they were pinched in at the waist – just like those insectsAristotlewrites of.\"Procopiusnotes that the Vandals and Gepids looked similar to the Goths, and on this basis, he suggested that they were all of common origin. Of the Goths, he wrote that \"they all have white bodies and fair hair, and are tall and handsome to look upon.\" Genetics Stolarek et al. (2023) and Antonio et al. (2022) both sequenced genomes from theWielbark cultureGoths. Stolarek et al. includes samples from multiple sites all over the territory of the Wielbark culture, in large numbers. The results are in alignment with archaeological and historical evidence, strongly suggesting that the Wielbark culture formed through migration from Southern Scandinavia. A large majority of the Wielbark culture samples are autosomally Scandinavian-like, and carry predominantly Scandinavian Y-DNA haplogroups. The most common Y-DNA haplogroup among the Wielbark individuals was Y-DNA haplogroup I1-M253, characteristic of the Nordic Bronze Age in Southern Scandinavia, in which it was found at a very high frequency and from where it first expanded. Among the Wielbark Goths, substantial subclade diversity is seen among the I1 carriers, suggesting that the male founders of the culture descended from clans from a rather widespread area in Scandinavia. Assessing the population movement during late Antiquity, a 2023 study on the Roman frontier on the Danube concludes that \"Goths were ethnically diverse confederations\". A number of samples obtained from Roman sites close to the limes (such asViminacium) dated to the 3th century or later were shown to carry admixture from Central/North European and Pontic-Kazakh Steppe ancestries in addition to 42%–55% local Balkan Iron Age-related ancestry. 7 out of 9 males among these samples belonged to haplogroups associated with these trans-frontier ancestry sources (I1 and R1b-U106: North European; Z93: Iron Age Steppe). Many of these samples suggest that admixture between Central/North European and Pontic-Kazakh Steppe ancestries likely occurred beyond the frontier prior to the movement into the Roman Empire, \"perhaps indicative of, e.g., the formation of diverse confederations under Gothic leadership\". Legacy The Goths' relationship with Sweden became an important part of Swedish nationalism, and until the 19th century, before the Gothic origin had been thoroughly researched by archaeologists, Swedish scholars considered Swedes to be the direct descendants of the Goths. Today, scholars identify this as acultural movementcalledGothicismus, which included an enthusiasm for thingsOld Norse. Inmedievaland modern Spain, the Visigoths were believed to be the progenitors of theSpanish nobility(compareGobineaufor a similar French idea). By the early 7th century, the ethnic distinction between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans had all but disappeared, but recognition of a Gothic origin, e.g. on gravestones, still survived among the nobility. The 7th century Visigothic aristocracy saw itself as bearers of a particular Gothic consciousness and as guardians of old traditions such as Germanic namegiving; probably these traditions were on the whole restricted to the family sphere (Hispano-Roman nobles were doing service for the Visigothic Royal Court in Toulouse already in the 5th century and the two branches of Spanish aristocracy had fully adopted similar customs two centuries later). Beginning in 1278, whenMagnus III of Swedenascended to the throne,a reference to Gothic originswas included in the title of the king of Sweden: \"We N.N. by the Grace of God King of the Swedes, the Goths and the Vends\". In 1973, with the accession of KingCarl XVI Gustaf, the title was changed to simply \"King of Sweden\". In all history there is nothing more romantically marvellous than the swift rise of this people to the height of greatness, or than the suddenness and the tragic completeness of their ruin. —Henry Bradley, The Story of the Goths (1888) The Spanish and Swedish claims of Gothic origins led to a clash at theCouncil of Baselin 1434. Before the assembledcardinalsand delegations could engage in theological discussion, they had to decide how to sit during the proceedings. The delegations from the more prominent nations argued that they should sit closest to thePope, and there were also disputes over who were to have the finest chairs and who were to have their chairs on mats. In some cases, they compromised so that some would have half a chair leg on the rim of a mat. In this conflict,Nicolaus Ragvaldi, bishop of theDiocese of Växjö, claimed that the Swedes were the descendants of the great Goths, and that the people of Västergötland (Westrogothiain Latin) were the Visigoths and the people of Östergötland (Ostrogothiain Latin) were the Ostrogoths. The Spanish delegation retorted that it was only the \"lazy\" and \"unenterprising\" Goths who had remained in Sweden, whereas the \"heroic\" Goths had left Sweden, invaded the Roman empire and settled in Spain. In Spain, a man acting with arrogance would be said to be \"haciéndose los godos\" (\"making himself to act like the Goths\"). InChile,Argentina, and theCanary Islands,godowas anethnic slurused against European Spaniards, who in the early colonial period often felt superior to the people born locally (criollos).In Colombia, it remains as slang for a person withconservativeviews. A large amount of literature has been produced on the Goths, withHenry Bradley'sThe Goths(1888) being the standard English-language text for many decades. More recently,Peter Heatherhas established himself as the leading authority on the Goths in theEnglish-speaking world. The leading authority on the Goths in theGerman-speaking worldisHerwig Wolfram. List of early literature on the Goths In the sagas In Greek and Roman literature See also Notes and sources Notes Footnotes Ancient sources Modern sources Further reading", "Western Roman Empire In modernhistoriography, theWestern Roman Empirewas the western provinces of theRoman Empire, collectively, during any period in which they were administered separately from the eastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. Particularly during the period from AD 395 to 476, there were separate, coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire into the Western provinces and the Eastern provinces with a distinctimperial successionin the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire andEastern Roman Empirewere coined in modern times to describe political entities that werede factoindependent; contemporaryRomansdid not consider the Empire to have been split into two empires but viewed it as a singlepolitygoverned by two imperial courts for administrative expediency. The Western Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court inRavennadisappeared by AD 554, at the end ofJustinian'sGothic War. Though there were periods with more than one emperor ruling jointly before, the view that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire wasinstitutionalizedby emperorDiocletianfollowing the disastrous civil wars and disintegrations of theCrisis of the Third Century. He introduced the system of theTetrarchyin 286, with two senior emperors titledAugustus, one in the East and one in the West, each with an appointed subordinate and heir titledCaesar. Though the tetrarchic system would collapse in a matter of years, the East–West administrative division would endure in one form or another over the coming centuries. As such, the unofficial Western Roman Empire would exist intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries. Some emperors, such asConstantine IandTheodosius I, governed, if briefly, as the soleAugustusacross the Roman Empire. On the death of Theodosius in 395, the empire was divided between his two infant sons, withHonoriusas his successor in the West governing briefly fromMediolanumthen fromRavenna, andArcadiusas his successor in the East governing fromConstantinople. In 476, after theBattle of Ravenna, the Roman army in the West suffered defeat at the hands ofOdoacerand his Germanicfoederati. Odoacer forced theabdicationof the emperorRomulus Augustulusand became the firstKing of Italy. In 480, following the assassination of the previous Western emperorJulius Nepos, the Eastern emperorZenodissolved the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. The date of 476 was popularized by the 18th-century British historianEdward Gibbonas a demarcating event for thefall of the Western Roman Empireand is sometimes used to mark the transition fromAntiquityto theMiddle Ages. Odoacer's Italy and otherbarbarian kingdoms, many of them representing former Western Roman allies that had been granted lands in return for military assistance, would maintain a pretense of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern Roman court. In the 6th century, EmperorJustinian Ire-imposed direct Imperial rule on large parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including the prosperous regions ofNorth Africa, the ancient Roman heartland ofItalyand parts ofHispania. Political instability in the Eastern heartlands, combined with foreign invasions, plague, and religious differences, made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost for good. Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century, the influence that the Empire had overWestern Europehad diminished significantly. Thepapalcoronation of theFrankish kingCharlemagneasRoman Emperorin 800 marked a new imperial line that would evolve into theHoly Roman Empire, which presented a revival of the Imperial title in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions. TheGreat Schism of 1054between the churches ofRomeandConstantinoplefurther diminished any authority the emperor in Constantinople could hope to exert in the West. Background As theRoman Republicexpanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship ormounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be returned and acted upon. Therefore, provincialgovernorshadde factoautonomy in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as the province's chief judges. Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of theSecond Triumvirate:Mark Antony,OctavianandMarcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East:Achaea,MacedoniaandEpirus(roughly modern Greece,Albaniaand the coast ofCroatia),Bithynia,PontusandAsia(roughly modernTurkey),Syria,Cyprus, andCyrenaica.These lands had previously been conquered byAlexander the Great; thus, much of thearistocracywas of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture,Greekoften serving as thelingua franca. Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West:Italia(modern Italy),Gaul(modern France),Gallia Belgica(parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands andLuxembourg), andHispania(modern Spain and Portugal).These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, thoughCeltictribes such asGaulsandCeltiberianswere culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province ofAfrica(roughly modernTunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while addingSicilia(modernSicily) to his holdings. Upon thedefeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a unitedRoman Empire. The Empire featured many distinct cultures, all experienced a gradualRomanization.While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices (and to some extent the languages themselves) would be combined in fields such ashistory(e.g., those byCato the Elder),philosophyandrhetoric. Rebellions and political developments Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt, and thelegionswould be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime. In a full-blownmilitary campaign, the legions were far more numerous – as, for example, those led byVespasianin theFirst Jewish–Roman War. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's familyhostage. To this end,Neroeffectively heldDomitianandQuintus Petillius Cerialis, Governor ofOstia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero's rule was ended by a revolt of thePraetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name ofGalba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative \"sword ofDamocles\", was often perceived as being of dubious loyalty, primarily due its role in court intrigues and in overthrowing several emperors, includingPertinaxandAurelian.Following their example, the legions at the borders increasingly participated incivil wars. For instance, legions stationed inEgyptand the eastern provinces would see significant participation in thecivil war of 218between EmperorMacrinusandElagabalus. As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the riversRhineandDanube, Germanic tribes were an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrousBattle of the Teutoburg Forest.Whilst the Germanic tribes were formidable foes, theParthian Empirein the East presented the greatest threat to the Empire. The Parthians were too remote and powerful to be conquered and there was a constant Parthian threat of invasion. The Parthians repelled several Roman invasions, and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented byTrajanorSeptimius Severus, the conquered territories were forsaken in attempts to ensure a lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, whichcontinued hostilitieswith the Roman Empire. Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, the chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of theCrisis of the Third Century, usurpation became a common method of succession:Philip the Arab,Trebonianus GallusandAemilianuswere all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another powerful general. The idea of co-emperorship was first tested byMarcus Aurelius(r. 161–180), who decided to rule alongside his adoptive brotherLucius Verus. There was, however, much precedent. Theconsulateof theRepublicwas a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices. Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past—Augustusplanned to leaveGaiusandLucius Caesaras joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to haveCaligulaandTiberius Gemellusdo so as well; asClaudiuswithNeroandBritannicus. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius) or murder (Gemellus and Britannicus).Marcus Aurelius ruled mostly from the West, while Verus spent most of his reign campaigning in the East,against Parthia. Verus accompanied Marcus at the start of theMarcomannic Wars, but died shortly after. Decades later,Septimius Severus(r. 193–211) appointed his sonsGetaandCaracallaas joint heirs. However, Caracalla murdered his brother shortly after succeeding to the throne. Crisis of the Third Century With the assassination of the emperorAlexander Severusin March 235 by his own troops, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. During this period, the Empire saw the combined pressures of barbarian invasions and migrations into Roman territory, civil wars, peasant rebellions and political instability, with multiple usurpers competing for power. The idea of dividing the empire was first developed in this time;Valerianand his sonGallienusdivided the empire between them, the former ruling from the East and the latter from the West. However, Valerian was captured by theSassanidsat theBattle of Edessa, leaving Gallienus as sole emperor. Saloninus, Gallienus' infant son, and thepraetorian prefectSilvanus resided inColonia Agrippina(modernCologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless,Postumus– the local governor of the German provinces – rebelled, and his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known in modern historiography as theGallic Empireemerged. Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modernTrier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces, all of Hispania andBritannia. It had its ownsenate, and a partial list of itsconsulsstill survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting theGermanic tribes, fending off Germanic incursions and restoring the security the Gallic provinces had enjoyed in the past, than in challenging the Roman central government. In the reign ofClaudius Gothicus(268–270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, however, several eastern provinces seceded to form thePalmyrene Empire, under the rule of QueenZenobia. In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeatedTetricus Iin theBattle of Châlons, and soon captured Tetricus and his sonTetricus II. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph. Tetrarchy Diocletiandivided the Roman Empire when, in 286, he elevatedMaximianto the rank ofAugustus(emperor) and gave him control of the Western Empire, while he continued to rule the East.In 293,GaleriusandConstantius Chloruswere appointed as their subordinate (caesars), as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions, theFirst Tetrarchy: in the West, Maximian madeMediolanum(nowMilan) his capital, and Constantius made Trier his. In the East, Galerius made his capitalSirmiumand Diocletian madeNicomediahis. On 1 May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, replaced by Galerius and Constantius, who, in turn, appointedMaximinus IIandValerius Severus, respectively, as their caesars, thus creating theSecond Tetrarchy. The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306. His son,Constantine, was declared Western emperor by the British legions,but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine andLicinius.However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire so, by 314, began to compete against Licinius, finally defeating him in 324 at theBattle of Chrysopolis.After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city ofByzantiumin modern-day Turkey asNova Roma(\"New Rome\"), later calledConstantinople, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire.Although the Tetrarchy was ended, the concept of physically dividing the Roman Empire into East and a West continued, as happened after the deaths of Constantine andTheodosius I. Further divisions The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs.Constantius, his third son and the second by his wifeFausta(Maximian's daughter)received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople,Thrace,Asia Minor,Syria,Egypt, and Cyrenaica;Constantine IIreceived Britannia,Gaul, Hispania, andMauretania; andConstans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, receivedItaly, Africa,Illyricum, Pannonia,Macedonia, andAchaea. The provinces of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled byDalmatius, nephew of Constantine I and acaesar, not anAugustus, until his murder by his own soldiers in 337.The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of theusurperMagnentius. After Magnentius lost theBattle of Mursa Majorand committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353. Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would remain safe for centuries to come. The city was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus andCaracalla, more than a century prior. In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandsonJulian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in theBattle of Samarraagainst theSasanian Empireand was succeeded byJovian, who ruled for only nine months.Following the death of Jovian,Valentinian Iemerged as emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brotherValens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (barbarian tribes) intensified. In 376, theVisigoths, fleeing before theOstrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before theHuns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle in the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in theBattle of Adrianople, in which Emperor Valens also died. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independentfoederatiunder their own leaders. More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the emperors in the western part of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successorGratiandeclined to wear the mantle ofPontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed theAltar of Victoryfrom theRoman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general namedMagnus Maximusseized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brotherValentinian IIto flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war the Eastern emperor Theodosius I restored him to power.In 392, theFrankishand paganmagister militumArbogastassassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator namedEugeniusas emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire againclashedwith great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire before the West fragmented and collapsed. Theodosius I's older sonArcadiusinherited the eastern half while the youngerHonoriusgot the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarianmagister militumFlavius Stilicho,whileRufinusbecame the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements would be exploited by the Gothic leaderAlaric Iwho again rebelled in 408 following the massacre by Roman legions of thousands of barbarian families who were trying to assimilate into the Roman empire. Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so. Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and theVandals,Alans, andSueviinvaded Gaulin large numbers in 406. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's mensacked Romein 410. History Reign of Honorius Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declaredAugustus(and as such co-emperor with his father) on 23 January in 393, at the age of 9. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved toRavennain 401 upon the entry of the Visigothic king Alaric I into Italy. Ravenna, protected by abundant marshes and strong fortifications, was far easier to defend and had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend the central parts of Italy from regular barbarian incursions.Ravenna would remain the western capital until 450 whenValentinian IIImoved the court back to Rome. Most western emperors from 450 until 475 reigned from Rome. The last de facto western emperorRomulus Augustulusresided in Ravenna from 475 until his deposition in 476 and Ravenna would later be the capital of both theOstrogothic Kingdomand theExarchate of Ravenna. Despite the moved capital, economic power remained focused on Rome and its rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After EmperorGallienushad banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of – and interest in – military life.In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as a military capital of sorts for the Empire. Many leading Western generals werebarbarians. The reign of Honorius was, even by Western Roman standards, chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles. The Visigothicfoederatiunder Alaric,magister milituminIllyricum, rebelled in 395.Gildo, theComesAfricaeandMagister utriusque militiae per Africam, rebelled in 397 and initiated theGildonic War. Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was campaigning inRaetiawhen the Visigoths entered Italy in 402.Stilicho, hurrying back to aid in defending Italy, summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back toIllyria. The weakening of the frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the Empire. As the imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed, numerous usurpers arose in Britain, includingMarcus(406–407),Gratian(407), andConstantine IIIwho invaded Gaul in 407.Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the lack of resources and the need to look after more important frontiers. The weakening of the Rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes, including the Vandals, Alans andSuebi, to cross the river and enter Roman territory in 406. Honorius was convinced by the ministerOlympiusthat Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him, and so arrested and executed Stilicho in 408.Olympius headed a conspiracy that orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the faction of Stilicho, including his son and the families of many of his federated troops. This led many of the soldiers to instead join with Alaric, who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition. Despite attempts by Honorius to reach a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him,the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric sacked the city of Rome. Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital of even the Western Empire, the event shocked people across both halves of the Empire as this was the first time Rome (viewed at least as the symbolic heart of the Empire) had fallen to a foreign enemy since theGallic invasionsof the 4th century BC. The Eastern Roman emperorTheodosius II, the successor of Arcadius, declared three days of mourning in Constantinople. Without Stilicho and following the sack of Rome, Honorius' reign grew more chaotic. The usurperConstantine IIIhad stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by thePictsand then by theSaxons,Angli, and theJuteswho began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. After Honorius accepted Constantine as co-emperor, Constantine's general in Hispania,Gerontius, proclaimedMaximusas emperor. With the aid of generalConstantius, Honorius defeated Gerontius and Maximus in 411 and shortly thereafter captured and executed Constantine III. With Constantius back in Italy, the Gallo-Roman senatorJovinusrevolted after proclaiming himself emperor, with the support of the Gallic nobility and the barbarianBurgundiansand Alans. Honorius turned to the Visigoths under KingAthaulffor support.Athaulf defeated and executed Jovinus and his proclaimed co-emperorSebastianusin 413, around the same time as another usurper arose inAfrica,Heraclianus. Heraclianus attempted to invade Italy but failed and retreated to Carthage, where he was killed. With the Roman legions withdrawn, northern Gaul became increasingly subject to Frankish influence, the Franks naturally adopting a leading role in the region. In 418, Honorius granted southwestern Gaul (Gallia Aquitania) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation. Honorius removed the local imperial governors, leaving the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants to conduct their own affairs. As such, the first of the \"barbarian kingdoms\", theVisigothic Kingdom, was formed. Escalating barbarian conflicts Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government installedValentinian IIIas Western emperor in Ravenna by force of arms, withGalla Placidiaacting as regent during her son's minority. Theodosius II, the Eastern emperor, had hesitated to announce the death of Honorius and in the ensuing interregnum,Joanneswas nominated as Western emperor. Joannes' rule was short and the forces of the East defeated and executed him in 425. After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish,Aetiusrose to the rank ofmagister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on hisHunnicallies. With their help Aetius undertook extensive campaigns in Gaul, defeating the Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffering a defeat himself in 439, ending the conflict in astatus quo antewith a treaty. Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion byBonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under KingGaisericto cross from Spain to Tingitana in what is now Morocco in 429. They temporarily halted inNumidiain 435 before moving eastward. With Aetius occupied in Gaul, the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the Vandals conquering the wealthy African provinces, culminating in thefallofCarthageon 19October 439 and the establishment of theVandal Kingdom. By the 400s, Italy and Rome itself were dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces, leading to an economic crisis. With Vandal fleets becoming an increasing danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean, Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440, organizing a large army in Sicily. However, the plans for retaking Africa had to be abandoned due to the immediate need to combat the invading Huns, who in 444 were united under their ambitious kingAttila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Aetius transferred his forces to the Danube,though Attila concentrated on raiding the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, providing temporary relief to the Western Empire. In 449, Attila received a message fromHonoria, Valentinian III's sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into. With a pretext to invade the West, Attila secured peace with the Eastern court and crossed the Rhine in early 451.With Attila wreaking havoc in Gaul, Aetius gathered a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and prevented the Huns from taking the city ofAurelianum, forcing them into retreat.At theBattle of the Catalaunian Plains, the Roman-Germanic coalition met and defeated the Hunnic forces, though Attila escaped. Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452. With Aetius not having enough forces to attack him, the road to Rome was open. Valentinian sentPope Leo Iand two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern emperorMarcianhad launched an attack on the Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn back and leave Italy. When Attila died unexpectedly in 453, the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns. Internal unrest and Majorian Valentinian III was intimidated by Aetius and was encouraged by the Roman senatorPetronius Maximusand the chamberlain Heraclius to assassinate him. When Aetius was at court in Ravenna delivering a financial account, Valentinian suddenly leaped from his seat and declared that he would no longer be the victim of Aetius' drunken depravities. Aetius attempted to defend himself from the charges, but Valentinian drew his sword and struck the weaponless Aetius on the head, killing him on the spot.On 16 March the following year, Valentinian himself was killed by supporters of the dead general, possibly acting for Petronius Maximus. With the end of theTheodosian dynasty, Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor during the ensuing period of unrest. Petronius was not able to take effective control of the significantly weakened and unstable Empire. He broke the betrothal between Huneric, son of the Vandal kingGaiseric, and Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III. This was seen as a just cause of war by King Gaiseric, who set sail to attack Rome. Petronius and his supporters attempted to flee the city at the sight of the approaching Vandals, only to be stoned to death by a Roman mob. Petronius had reigned only 11 weeks.With the Vandals at the gates, Pope Leo I requested that the King not destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants, to which Gaiseric agreed and the city gates were opened to him. Though keeping his promise, Gaiseric looted great amounts of treasure and damaged objects of cultural significance such as theTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The severity of theVandal sack of 455is disputed, though with the Vandals plundering the city for a full fourteen days as opposed to the Visigothic sack of 410, where the Visigoths only spent three days in the city, it was likely more thorough. Avitus, a prominent general under Petronius, was proclaimed emperor by the Visigothic kingTheodoric IIand accepted as such by theRoman Senate. Though supported by the Gallic provinces and the Visigoths, Avitus was resented in Italy due to ongoing food shortages caused by Vandal control of trade routes, and for using a Visigothic imperial guard. He disbanded his guard due to popular pressure, and the Suebian generalRicimerused the opportunity to depose Avitus, counting on popular discontent. After the deposition of Avitus, the Eastern emperorLeo Idid not select a new westernAugustus. The prominent generalMajoriandefeated an invading force ofAlemanniand was subsequently proclaimed Western emperor by the army and eventually accepted as such by Leo. Majorian was the last Western emperor to attempt to recover the Western Empire with his own military forces. To prepare, Majorian significantly strengthened the Western Roman army by recruiting large numbers of barbarian mercenaries, among them theGepids, Ostrogoths,Rugii, Burgundians, Huns,Bastarnae, Suebi,Scythiansand Alans, and built two fleets, one at Ravenna, to combat the strong Vandalic fleet. Majorian personally led the army to wage war in Gaul, leaving Ricimer in Italy. The Gallic provinces and the Visigothic Kingdom had rebelled following the deposition of Avitus, refusing to acknowledge Majorian as lawful emperor. At theBattle of Arelate, Majorian decisively defeated the Visigoths under Theoderic II and forced them to relinquish their great conquests in Hispania and return tofoederatistatus. Majorian then entered theRhone Valley, where he defeated the Burgundians and reconquered the rebel city ofLugdunum. With Gaul back under Roman control, Majorian turned his eyes to the Vandals and Africa. Not only did the Vandals pose a constant danger to coastal Italy and trade in the Mediterranean, but the province they ruled was economically vital to the survival of the West. Majorian began a campaign to fully reconquer Hispania to use it as a base for the reconquest of Africa. Throughout 459, Majorian campaigned against the Suebi in northwestern Hispania. The Vandals began to increasingly fear a Roman invasion. King Gaiseric tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. In the wake of this, Gaiseric devastatedMauretania, part of his own kingdom, fearing that the Roman army would land there. Having regained control of Hispania, Majorian intended to use his fleet atCarthaginiensisto attack the Vandals. Before he could, the fleet was destroyed, allegedly by traitors paid by the Vandals. Deprived of his fleet, Majorian had to cancel his attack on the Vandals and conclude a peace with Gaiseric. Disbanding his barbarian forces, Majorian intended to return to Rome and issue reforms, stopping atArelateon his way. Here, Ricimer deposed and arrested him in 461, having gathered significant aristocratic opposition against Majorian. After five days of beatings and torture, Majorian was beheaded near the riverIria. Collapse The final collapse of the Empire in the West was marked by increasingly ineffectual puppet emperors dominated by their Germanicmagistri militum. The most pointed example of this isRicimer, who effectively became a \"shadow emperor\" following the depositions of Avitus and Majorian. Unable to take the throne for himself due to his barbarian heritage, Ricimer appointed a series of puppet emperors who could do little to halt the collapse of Roman authority and the loss of the territories re-conquered by Majorian.The first of these puppet emperors,Libius Severus, had no recognition outside of Italy, with the Eastern emperor Leo I and provincial governors in Gaul andIllyriaall refusing to recognize him. Severus died in 465 and Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer, appointed the capable Eastern generalAnthemiusas Western emperor following an eighteen-monthinterregnum. The relationship between Anthemius and the East was good, Anthemius is the last Western emperor recorded in an Eastern law, and the two courts conducted a joint operation to retake Africa from the Vandals, culminating in the disastrousBattle of Cape Bonin 468. In addition Anthemius conducted failed campaigns against the Visigoths, hoping to halt their expansion. The trial and subsequent execution ofRomanus, an Italian senator and friend of Ricimer, on the grounds of treachery in 470 made Ricimer hostile to Anthemius. Following two years of ill feeling, Ricimer deposed and killed Anthemius in 472, elevatingOlybriusto the Western throne.During the brief reign of Olybrius, Ricimer died and his nephewGundobadsucceeded him asmagister militum. After only seven months of rule, Olybrius died ofdropsy. Gundobad elevatedGlyceriusto Western emperor. The Eastern Empire had rejected Olybrius and also rejected Glycerius, instead supporting a candidate of their own,Julius Nepos,magister milituminDalmatia. With the support of Eastern emperorsLeo IIandZeno, Julius Nepos crossed theAdriatic Seain the spring of 474 to depose Glycerius. At the arrival of Nepos in Italy, Glycerius abdicated without a fight and was allowed to live out his life as theBishop of Salona. The brief rule of Nepos in Italy ended in 475 whenOrestes, a former secretary of Attila and themagister militumof Julius Nepos, took control of Ravenna and forced Nepos to flee by ship toDalmatia. Later in the same year, Orestes crowned his own young son as Western emperor under the nameRomulus Augustus. Romulus Augustus was not recognised as Western emperor by the Eastern Court, who maintained that Nepos was the only legal Western emperor, reigning in exile fromDalmatia. On 4 September 476,Odoacer, leader of the Germanicfoederatiin Italy, captured Ravenna, killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. Though Romulus was deposed, Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western emperor fromDalmatia, with support from Constantinople. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern emperorZeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacerpatricianstatus as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Nepos. The murder of Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invadeDalmatia, annexing it to hisKingdom of Italy. Fall of the Empire By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, but the historical record calls this determination into question. Indeed, the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times. Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy, with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire inDalmatia. Furthermore, the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades, with most of its legal territory being under control of various barbarian kingdoms. With Odoacer recognising Julius Nepos, and later the Eastern emperor Zeno, as his sovereign, nominal Roman control continued in Italy.Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in anexclavein northern Gaul (a realm today known as theDomain of Soissons) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western emperor. The authority of Julius Nepos as emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy, but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul (who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus). Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480, a plot some attribute to Odoacer or the previous, deposed emperor Glycerius,and the Eastern emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new Western emperor. Zeno, recognizing that no true Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court, instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of emperor and declared himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Zeno became the first sole Roman emperor since the division after Theodosius I, 85 years prior, and the position would never again be divided. As such, the (eastern)Roman emperorsafter 480 are the successors of the western ones, albeit only in a juridical sense.These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until theFall of Constantinoplein 1453, nearly a thousand years later.As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two imperial courts, some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire. Despite the fall, or abolition, of the Western Empire, many of the new kings of western Europe continued to operate firmly within a Roman administrative framework. This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths, who came to rule Italy after Odoacer. They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The Senate continued to function as it always had, and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws.Western Roman administrative institutions, in particular those of Italy, thus continued to be used during \"barbarian\" rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire re-conquered some of the formerly imperial territories. Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolition of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units, such as thePraetorian prefecture of Italy, during the sixth century as the \"true\" fall of the Western Roman Empire. Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall. Political aftermath After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic kingdoms, often referred to as \"barbarian kingdoms\", founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition fromLate Antiquityto theMiddle Ages. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in thepraetorian prefecturesofGauland Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries.In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place.The Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Hispania and Gaul continued to recognise the emperor in Constantinople as a somewhat nominal sovereign, the Visigoths minted coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century. Some territories under direct Roman control continued to exist in the West even after 480. TheDomain of Soissons, a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by Syagrius, survived until 486 when it was conquered by theFranksunder KingClovis Iafter theBattle of Soissons. Syagrius was known as the \"King of the Romans\" by the Germanic peoples of the region and repeatedly claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province, not an independent realm.Under Clovis I from the 480s to 511, the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power. After their conquest of Soissons, the Franks defeated the Alemanni in 504 and conquered all Visigothic territory north of thePyreneesother thanSeptimaniain 507. Relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been positive, with Emperor Anastasius granting Clovis the title of consul following his victory against the Visigoths. At the time of its dissolution in the 800s, the Frankish Kingdom had lasted far longer than the other migration period barbarian kingdoms. Its divided successors would develop into the medieval states ofFrance(initially known asWest Francia) andGermany(initially known asEast Francia). A Mauro-Roman realm survived in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis until the early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city ofAltavafrom the year 508 identifies a man namedMasunaas the king of \"Regnum Maurorum et Romanarum\", theKingdom of the Moors and Romans.It is possible that Masuna is the same man as the \"Massonas\" who allied himself with the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire against the Vandals in 535.This Kingdom was defeated by the Eastern Romanmagister militumGennadiusin 578 and its coastal territories were incorporated into the Empire once more. Germanic Italy The deposition of Romulus Augustus and the rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time.Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman emperor in Constantinople to whom Odoacer had subordinated himself. Interregna had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, not unlike Ricimer, and he effectively ruled as an imperial \"governor\" of Italy and was even awarded the title ofpatricius. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the EasternAugustus, rather than in his own name. When Nepos was murdered inDalmatiain 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule inDalmatiaat the same time.Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate, a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legendS C(Senatus Consulto). These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform carried out by EmperorAnastasiusin the East. Under Odoacer, Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under the Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first beingCaecina Decius Maximus Basilusin 480. Basilus was made thepraetorian prefect of Italyin 483, another traditional position which continued to exist under Odoacer.Eleven further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed,Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius(486–493). Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to theremaining Empire, the Eastern emperor Zeno began to increasingly see him as a rival. Thus, Zeno promisedTheoderic the Greatof the Ostrogoths,foederatiof the Eastern Court, control over theItalian peninsulaif he was able to defeat Odoacer.Theoderic led the Ostrogoths across theJulian Alpsand into Italy and defeated Odoacer in battle twice in 489. Following four years of hostilities between them, John, theBishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty in 493 between Odoacer and Theoderic whereby they agreed to rule Ravenna and Italy jointly. Theoderic entered Ravenna on 5March and Odoacer was dead ten days later, killed by Theoderic after sharing a meal with him. Theoderic inherited Odoacer's role as acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly apatriciusand subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497, four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer. Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position. Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his ownlaws, only edicts or clarifications.The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths, however, who largely settled in northern Italy. Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theodoric acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic kingAlaric IIand the Burgundian princeSigismund. His sister Amalfrida was married to the Vandal kingThrasamundand he married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I, himself.Through these alliances and occasional conflicts, the territory controlled by Theoderic in the early sixth century nearly constituted a restored Western Roman Empire. Ruler of Italy since 493, Theoderic becameking of the Visigothsin 511 and exerted hegemony over theVandalsin North Africa between 521 and 523. As such, his rule extended throughout the westernMediterranean. The Western imperial regalia, housed in Constantinople since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476, were returned to Ravenna by Emperor Anastasius in 497.Theoderic, by now Western emperor in all but name, could not, however, assume an imperial title, not only because the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished but also due to his \"barbarian\" heritage, which, like that ofRicimerbefore him, would have barred him from assuming the throne. With the death of Theodoric in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under KingAmalaricand the Ostrogoths' relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile under the reign of their new kingAthalaric, a child under the regency of his motherAmalasuntha.After the collapse of Theoderic's control of the western Mediterranean, the Frankish Kingdom rose to become the most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms, having taken control of most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance. Amalasuntha continued the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern emperorJustinian Iand allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in theVandalic War. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relativeTheodahadas king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and, even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly after. This served as an idealcasus bellifor Justinian, who prepared to invade and reclaim the Italian peninsula for the Roman Empire. Imperial reconquest With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughoutLate Antiquityand the Middle Ages. Though military campaigns had been conducted by the Western court prior to 476 with the aim of recapturing lost territory, most notably under Majorian, the reconquests, if successful at all, were only momentary. It was as a result of the campaigns of the generalsBelisariusandNarseson behalf of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554 that long-lasting reconquests of Roman lands were witnessed. Despite also suffering from barbarian incursions, the Eastern Empire had survived the fifth century mostly intact. The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and more thinly populated, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces.Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities), and to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East fared better economically, especially as Emperors such as Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and to augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even after major defeats, the East could, although not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom or \"protection money\".Numbering more than 300,000 soldiers, the Eastern Roman army of Justinian I was among the most powerful in the world. Unlike the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, the Vandals in Africa minted their own coinage and were bothde factoandde jureindependent, often being enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.With the pro-Roman Vandal kingHilderichaving been deposed byGelimerin 530,Justinian prepared an expedition led by Belisarius. It swiftly retook North Africa between June 533 and March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reintroduced the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a newPraetorian Prefecture of Africaand taking measures to decrease Vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the Vandalic people. Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth King Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under KingTotilain 541. They were finally defeated following campaigns by the Roman general Narses, who also repelled invasions into Italy by the Franks and Alemanni, though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s. Justinian promulgated thePragmatic Sanctionto reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule. The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated, which, combined with the disastrous effects of thePlague of Justinian, made it difficult to retain over the following centuries. At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476–480, the Visigoths controlled large areas of southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania. Their increased domain had been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western emperor Avitus in the 450s–60s.Justinian undertook some limited campaigns against them, recovering portions of the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula. Here, the province ofSpaniawould last until the 620s, when the Visigoths under KingSuintilareconquered the south coast.These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian. Three years after his death, theLombardsinvaded Italy. The Lombards conquered large parts of the devastated peninsula in the late 500s, establishing theLombard Kingdom. They were in constant conflict with the Exarchate of Ravenna, a polity established to replace the old Praetorian Prefecture of Italy and enforce Roman rule in Italy. The wealthiest parts of the province, including the cities of Rome and Ravenna, remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century. Although other Eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues ofwar with Sasanian Persiaand then the rise of Islam. For a while, the West remained important, withEmperor Constans IIruling fromSyracusein Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s. Thereafter, imperial attention declined, with Constantinople itselfbeing besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and thena period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost once and for all,being conqueredby the Umayyad Caliphate. Through reforms and military campaigns, EmperorLeo IIIattempted to restore order in the Empire, but his doctrinal reforms, known as theIconoclastic Controversy, were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned byPope Gregory III. The Roman Empire was not the only Christian nation affected by the Islamic conquests, the Visigothic Kingdom finally fell to theUmayyad Caliphatein the 720s.TheKingdom of Asturiaswas founded byPelagius of Asturiasaround the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths.Asturias would be transformed into theKingdom of Leónin 924,which would develop into the predecessors of modern-day Spain. The religious disagreements between Rome and Constantinople eventually led to the breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independentPapal States, led by the Pope. In an attempt to gain support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish kingCharlemagneas \"Roman Emperor\" in AD 800. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased. After a series of small wars in the 810s, EmperorMichael Irecognized Charlemagne as an \"Emperor\". He refused to recognize him as a \"Roman Emperor\" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious \"Emperor of the Franks\". Imperial rule continued inSicilythroughout the eighth century, withthe island slowly being overrunby the Arabs during the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds inCalabriaprovided a base for a later, modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the Empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empire's former mercenaries, theNormans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with theconquest of Bari.The last emperor to attempt reconquests in the West wasManuel I Komnenos, who invaded southern Italy during a war with the NormanKingdom of Sicilyin the 1150s. The city ofBariwillingly opened its gates to the emperor and after successes in taking other cities in the region,Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches ofRomeandConstantinople, separated since theschism of 1054. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return east. Legacy As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered its constituent provinces maintained most Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers ofArianism. They quickly changed their adherence to thestate church of the Roman Empire. This helped cement the loyalty of the local Roman populations, as well as the support of the powerfulBishopof Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced byRoman lawand gradually incorporated it.Roman law, particularly theCorpus Juris Civiliscollected on the orders of Justinian I, is the basis of moderncivil law. In contrast,common lawis based on GermanicAnglo-Saxon law. Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in some form in about 150 countries. Latin as a language did not disappear.Vulgar Latincombined with neighboring Germanic andCeltic languages, giving rise to modernRomance languagessuch as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers. Latin also influencedGermanic languagessuch as English and German.It survives in a \"purer\" form as the language of the Catholic Church; the CatholicMasswas spoken exclusively in Latin until1969. As such it was also used as alingua francaby ecclesiasticals. It remained the language of medicine, law, and diplomacy, as well as of intellectuals and scholarship, well into the 18th century. Since then the use of Latin has declined with the growth of otherlingua francas, especially English and French.TheLatin alphabetwas expanded due to the split of I into I and J, and of V into U, V, and, in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish), W.Latin scriptis the basis for the largest number of alphabets of anywriting systemand is themost widely adoptedwriting system in the world.Roman numeralscontinue to be used in some fields and situations, though they have largely been replaced byArabic numerals. A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is theCatholic Church. Church institutions slowly began to replace Roman ones in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century.As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c.9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as theVicar of Christ. The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the Church of Rome was Clovis I of the Franks; other kingdoms, such as the Visigoths, later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy. WhenPope Leo IIIcrowned Charlemagne as \"Roman Emperor\" in 800, he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation.Although the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent periods, the office itself has remained as the head of the Catholic Church and the head of state of theVatican City. The Pope has consistently held the title of \"Pontifex Maximus\" since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day; this title formerly used by the high priest ofthe Roman polytheistic religion, one of whom was Julius Caesar. The Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority increased under the rule of Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths, evident by the Senate in 498 managing to installSymmachusas pope despite bothTheodoricof Italy and Emperor Anastasius supporting another candidate,Laurentius.Exactly when the senate disappeared is unclear, but the institution is known to have survived at least into the 6th century, inasmuch as gifts from the senate were received by EmperorTiberius IIin 578 and 580. The traditional senate building,Curia Julia, was rebuilt into a church underPope Honorius Iin 630, probably with permission from the Eastern emperor,Heraclius. Nomenclature Marcellinus Comes, a sixth-century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I, mentions the Western Roman Empire in hisChronicle, which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534. In theChronicle, it is clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with mentions of a geographical east (\"Oriens\") and west (\"Occidens\") and of an imperial east (\"Orientale imperium\" and \"Orientale respublica\") and an imperial west (\"Occidentalie imperium\", \"Occidentale regnum\", \"Occidentalis respublica\", \"Hesperium regnum\", \"Hesperium imperium\" and \"principatum Occidentis\"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being \"Eastern\", \"Orientalibus principibus\" and \"Orientalium consulum\" respectively.The termHesperium Imperium, translating to \"Western Empire\", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well. Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term \"Roman\" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as \"us\", \"our generals\", and \"our emperor\", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns.This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one.The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there were co-emperors, such as withCaracallaandGetain 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their fatherSeptimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother. Attempted restorations of a Western court The positions of Eastern and WesternAugustus, established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy, had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the soleAugustus, Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer.The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control, and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler. Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper,Stotzas, appeared in the province (though he was quickly defeated).As such, the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the period that the Eastern Empire controlled large parts of the former West, both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West. The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during theGothic Warsunder Justinian. Belisarius, an accomplished general who had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and large parts of Italy, including Rome itself, was offered the position of Western Roman emperor by the Ostrogoths during his siege of Ravenna (the Ostrogothic, and previously Western Roman, capital) in 540. The Ostrogoths, desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy, offered the title and theirfealtyto Belisarius as WesternAugustus. Justinian had expected to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone, with theCodex Justinianeusexplicitly designating the newPraetorian Prefect of Africaas the subject of Justinian in Constantinople.Belisarius, loyal to Justinian, feigned acceptance of the title to enter the city, whereupon he immediately relinquished it. Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title, the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east. At the end of Emperor Tiberius II's reign in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose twoCaesares, the generalMauriceand the governorGermanus, and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius was planning to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more.If so, the plan was never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne. Maurice established a new type of administrative unit, theExarchate, and organized the remaining western territories under his control into the Exarchate of Ravenna and theExarchate of Africa. Later claims to the Imperial title in the West In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as \"Emperor of the Romans\" in AD 800, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept oftranslatio imperii. Though theCarolingian Empirecollapsed in 888 andBerengar, the last \"Emperor\" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of theHoly Roman Empirein 962. TheHoly Roman Emperorswould uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman emperors of old until thedissolution of the Holy Roman Empirein 1806. Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors, were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be \"one and indivisible\". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation wasIrene of Athens, the mother of emperorConstantine VIwho she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus, but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor. Irene was deposed and replaced by EmperorNikephorossoon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Following several wars in the 810s EmperorMichael I Rangabeeventually recognized Charlemagne as an \"Emperor\", but as the slightly humiliating \"Emperor of the Franks\" rather than \"Roman Emperor\", a title he reserved for himself.For centuries to come, the \"revived\" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole Roman Empire. With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an \"Empire of the Franks\", the term \"Empire of the Greeks\" was popularized in the Frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople. Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of \"Emperor\" became widespread among European monarchs. TheAustrian Empirelaid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria'sHabsburgsattempted to unite Germany under their rule.TheGerman Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire.Both of these empires used the imperial titleKaiser(derived from the Latin word \"Caesar\"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire andAustria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of theFirst World Waralong with theRussianandOttoman Empireswhich had also claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire. List of Western Roman emperors With junior colleagues and heirs are listed below the reign of each emperor. Tetrarchy (286–313) Maximian was elevated tocaesarby Diocletian in 285, after Diocletian defeatedCarinus.He became Western emperor in 286, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. On 1 May 305, both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated, leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors. Constantius was elevated tocaesarin 293, under Maximian. Constantius became the Western emperor in 305, after the abdication of Maximian.Constantius died on 25 July 306, leaving a highly contested succession in his wake. Valerius Severus was elevated tocaesarby Constantius in 305, after the abdication of Maximian and Diocletian. After the death of Constantius in 306, Severus became Western emperor. Severus was forced to deal with the revolt of Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Maxentius invaded in early 307, and captured the Western Empire.He had Severus put to death soon after his capture. Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in 306, in opposition to Valerius Severus, and ruled alongside his father Maximian. They succeeded in capturing the Western Empire in 307, and had Severus killed soon after.The Western Empire was invaded in 312 by Constantine, who on 28 October 312 decisively defeated Maxentius, who drowned when his forces were pushed back into theTiberriver.Maximian had relinquished the title ofaugustusin 308, but rebelled in Gaul once again in 310. He was defeated by Constantine shortly after. Licinius was made emperor of the Eastern Empire, and parts of the Western Empire, all of which was actually held by Maxentius, at theCouncil of Carnuntum, which was held in 308 in order to try to end the civil war in the Western Empire. Constantine invaded Licinius' section of the Western Empire in 313, and forced him to sign a treaty in which he forfeited his claim to the Western Empire, and only controlled the Eastern Empire.Licinius attempted twice to replace Constantine, first withValerius Valensin 316 and thenMartinianin 324, but they were both killed shortly after their elevation. Constantinian dynasty (309–363) Constantine I was proclaimedaugustusof the Western Empire by his father's troops on 25 July 306 and was accepted ascaesarby Galerius later that year. In 307 Maximian accepted him toaugustus(although Maximian himself was considered an usurper) and in 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western emperor, in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius. He ruled alone in the West from 312 and became sole Roman emperor following the defeat ofLiciniusat theBattle of Chrysopolis. Constantine II was proclaimedcaesarof the Eastern Empire in late 317. In 335, Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death, which would take place two years later in 337, giving Constantine II thePraetorian prefecture of Gaul, which also includedBritanniaandHispania. Constantine II's relationship with Constans I was tense, and in 340, Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it. However, in the same year, he was ambushed by Constans' forces in Aquilea, and was killed. Constans was given thePraetorian prefecture of Italyand Africa on the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340, while attempting to invade Constans' territory in Italy, Constans took control of the entire Western Empire. Constans was contemptuous of his army, who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350. Constans fled toward Hispania, but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border. Magnentius was defeated by Constantius II at theBattle of Mursa Majorin 351, but continued to rule Italy and Gaul until his final defeat at theBattle of Mons Seleucus. Constantius II was proclaimedcaesarin 334, and became Eastern emperor in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constans was killed by the usurper Magnentius, Constantius laid claim to the Western Empire, and after defeating Magnentius took possession of it, becoming sole emperor. Constantius II died in 361, of a violent fever. Julian was proclaimedcaesarin 355. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops shortly before Constantius' death. Julian died in March 363, of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra. Non-dynastic (363–364) When Julian died in 363, he left no heir, causing a succession crisis. The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor. Jovian reigned only seven months, in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, underShapur II. In this agreement, Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians, in exchange for a 30-year truce. Jovian died on 16 February 364, due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation. Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) After the death of Jovian, Valentinian I was elected. He divided the Empire between himself and his younger brother, Valens, giving himself the West and Valens the East. Valentinian spent much of his reign defending Gaul against repeated attacks by barbarian tribes, only leaving the region in 373. In 375, while meeting with the Quadi, he suffered a stroke brought on by rage. Valentinian I elevated his son, Gratian, toaugustusin 367, however after his death in 375 his leading generals elevated his much younger son, Valentinian II, toaugustusalongside Gratian and Valens who was emperor in the East.Gratian showed a strong preference for the barbarian mercenaries in his army, especially his Alanic guard, which inflamed the Roman population, to the point that in 383, Roman troops in Britain declared Magnus Maximus emperor, in opposition to Gratian. Maximus landed troops in Gaul, and attacked Gratian's troops near Paris. Gratian was defeated, and fled toLyons, where he was murdered on 25 August 383. After the death of Gratian, Valentinian II succeeded him, although he only controlled Italy itself, with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, to depose Valentinian. Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius, where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus, and to reinstate himself as Western emperor, which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia.Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392, when he was probably murdered by Arbogast. Magnus Maximus was elected emperor by his men in 383, in opposition to Gratian, and defeated him in battle in 383. Maximus was recognized as the Western emperor by Eastern emperor Theodosius I in 384, however this recognition was revoked by him when Maximus invaded Italy and deposed Valentinian II in 387. Valentinian II fled to the Eastern Roman Empire, and convinced Theodosius I to invade the Western Roman Empire and restore him to the Western Roman throne, which he did in 388. Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia, and executed. Theodosian dynasty (392–455) Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379, after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube. He became sole emperor in August 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius. Theodosius died ofedemain January 395. Honorius became Western emperor in 395, after the death of his father Theodosius. His reign was beset by barbarian invasions, and for much of his early reign, until 408, he was controlled byStilicho, whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors. After 408 his reign was greatly influenced by the generalConstantius, who briefly reigned as his co-emperor for a few months before dying of natural causes. He also faced the usurpation ofPriscus Attalus, a senator who was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 409, andConstantine, who took over Britain and Gaul around the same time. Honorius died of edema in 423. Valentinian III was designated Honorius' heir in 421, although he was not proclaimedcaesar, only given the title ofnobilissimus puer. In 423, after the death of Honorius, a usurper namedJoannesrose up, forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern emperor Theodosius II. Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in Ravenna. Valentinian III was killed on 16 March 455, byOptila, a friend of Aetius, whom Valentinian had killed. Non-dynastic (455–480) The following last emperors of the West were all accepted by the Senate but only two of them (AnthemiusandJulius Nepos) were recognized in the East. In fact, these two emperors were installed by the Eastern emperor. Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman emperor on 17 March 455, after assassinating Valentinian III.During his short reign, he provoked Gaiseric, theVandalking, into invading the Western Empire and sacking Rome, by breaking a marriage agreement made between Gaiseric and Valentinian III. Maximus and his son Palladius attempted to flee on 31 May 455, however they were apprehended by a group of peasants, and either killed by them, or by palace servants wishing to curry favor with them. Avitus was proclaimed Western emperor on 9July 455, with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II. While he held support from the Visigoths, his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people. In 456 Ricimer, a senior officer, had Avitus deposed, and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472. Majorian was proclaimed Western emperor on 28 December 456. On 7August 461, Majorian was compelled to abdicate, and reportedly died five days later of dysentery, although modern historians have asserted he was likely murdered byRicimer, who became the power behind the throne. Libius Severus was proclaimed Western emperor on 19 November 461. His rule, even as a puppet emperor, extended little beyond Italy, withAegidiussplitting off from the Western Empire, and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons. Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals, who invaded Italy and Sicily. During these events, Libius Severus died on 14November 465, possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer. Anthemius was proclaimed Western emperor on 12April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius, the Western Empire, which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire, grew closer, although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire. Anthemius' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer, who deposed him in March or April of 472. Olybrius was proclaimed emperor in April 472. His brief reign, lasting only five or six months, was dominated by Gundobad, who had replaced his uncle Ricimer as the true power behind the throne, after the former's death. Olybrius died in October or November 472, of edema. After the death of both Olybrius and Ricimer, Glycerius was proclaimed Western emperor by the Western Roman army, on 3 or 5May 473.He was deposed by Julius Nepos in July 474, and sent to live in a monastery, where he remained until his death. The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius, instead supporting Julius Nepos,magister militumin Dalmatia as Western Roman emperor. Nepos, with support from the East, deposed Glycerius in the spring of 474.Orestes,magister militumof Nepos, deposed him a year later in 475, forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia. Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western emperor, though the Eastern Empire and the Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor.Nepos continued to rule as \"Western emperor\" in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title. Romulus Augustus was crowned as Western emperor after his father Orestes deposed Julius Nepos.The rule of Romulus would be brief; in the autumn of 476 thefoederatiunder the control of Odoacer rebelled when their demands for a third of the land of Italy were ignored.Orestes was captured and executed on 28August of the same year and Romulus was deposed by Odoacer a week later. Romulus was spared and allowed to live in theCastellum LucullanuminCampania, where he might have been alive as late as AD 507. With the deposition of Romulus Augustus by Odoacer, direct Roman control ceased to exist in Italy. Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as ade jurerepresentative of Western Roman emperor Nepos. With the death of Nepos in 480, the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno abolished the title and position of Western Roman emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer's sovereign. The position of Roman emperor would never again be divided, though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman re-conquests of the sixth century, such asBelisariusin 540 andGermanusin 582. See also References Citations Sources Web sources Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_(emperor" ]
[ "Goths TheGothswere aGermanic peoplewho played a major role in thefall of the Western Roman Empireand the emergence ofmedieval Europe.They were first reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is now Ukraine, Moldova and Romania. These Goths conducted raids into Roman territory, and large numbers of them joined the Roman military. These early Goths lived in the regions where archaeologists find theChernyakhov culture, which flourished throughout this region during the 3rd and 4th centuries. In the late 4th century, the lands of the Goths in present-day Ukraine were overwhelmed by a significant westward movement of Alans and Huns from the east. Large numbers of Goths subsequently concentrated upon the Roman border at the LowerDanube, seeking refuge inside the Roman Empire. After they entered the Empire, violence broke out, and Goth-led forces inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at theBattle of Adrianoplein 378. Many Goths and other eastern peoples were", "peoples were quickly settled in and near the empire. One group of these, initially led by their kingAlaric I, where the precursors of theVisigoths, and their successors eventually establishing aVisigothic Kingdomin Spain atToledo.Meanwhile, Goths under Hunnic rule gained their independence in the 5th century, most importantly theOstrogoths. Under their kingTheodoric the Great, these Goths established anOstrogothic Kingdomin Italy atRavenna. The Ostrogothic Kingdomwas destroyedby theEastern Roman Empirein the 6th century, while the Visigothic Kingdom was largelyconqueredby theUmayyad Caliphatein the early 8th century, with aremnant in Asturiaswhich would go on to initiate the Reconquista underPelagius. Remnants of Gothic communities inCrimea, known as theCrimean Goths, established a culture that survived for more than a thousand years,although Goths would eventually cease to exist as a distinct people. Gothic architecture,Gothic literatureand the modern-dayGoth subcultureultimately derive their names from the", "names from the ancient Goths, though the Goths themselves did not directly create or influence these art forms. Name In theGothic language, the Goths were called the *Gut-þiuda('Gothic people') or *Gutans('Goths').TheProto-Germanicform of the Gothic name is *Gutōz, which co-existed with an n-stem variant *Gutaniz, attested inGutones,gutani, orgutniskr. The form *Gutōzis identical to that of theGutesfrom Gotland, Sweden, and closely related to that of theGeats(*Gautōz), from mainland Sweden.Though these names probably mean the same, their exact meaning is uncertain.They are all thought to be related to the Proto-Germanic verb *geuta-, which means \"to pour\". The etymology of the demonym \"Goths\" is closely related to that of the SwedishGutes,Geats, and perhapsJutes.In his bookGetica(c.551), the historianJordaneswrites that the Goths originated in southernScandinavia, but the accuracy of this account is unclear.A people called theGutones– possibly early Goths – are documented living near the lowerVistula Riverin", "Riverin currentPolandin the 1st century, where they are associated with the archaeologicalWielbark culture.From the 2nd century, the Wielbark culture expanded southwards towards theBlack Seain what has been associated with Gothic migration, and by the late 3rd century it contributed to the formation of theChernyakhov culture.By the 4th century at the latest, several Gothic groups were distinguishable, among whom theThervingiandGreuthungiwere the most powerful.During this time,Wulfilabegan theconversion of GothstoChristianity. Classification The Goths are classified as aGermanic peoplein modern scholarship.Along with theBurgundians,Vandalsand others they belong to theEast Germanicgroup.Roman authors oflate antiquitydid not classify the Goths asGermani.In modern scholarship the Goths are sometimes referred to as beingGermani. History Prehistory A crucial source on Gothic history is theGeticaof the 6th-century historianJordanes, who may have been of Gothic descent.Jordanes claims to have based theGeticaon an", "theGeticaon an earlier lost work byCassiodorus, but also cites material from fifteen other classical sources, including an otherwise unknown writer,Ablabius.Many scholars accept that Jordanes' account on Gothic origins is at least partially derived from Gothic tribal tradition and accurate on certain details, and as a result the Goths are often identified as originating from south-central Sweden. According to Jordanes, the Goths originated on an island calledScandza(Scandinavia), from where they emigrated by sea to an area calledGothiscandzaunder their kingBerig.Historians are not in agreement on the authenticity and accuracy of this account.Most scholars agree that Gothic migration from Scandinavia is reflected in the archaeological record,but the evidence is not entirely clear.Rather than a single mass migration of an entire people, scholars open to hypothetical Scandinavian origins envision a process of gradual migration in the 1st centuries BC and AD, which was probably preceded by long-term contacts and", "contacts and perhaps limited to a few elite clans from Scandinavia. Similarities between thename of the Goths, some Swedishplace namesand the names of the Gutes and Geats have been cited as evidence that the Goths originated inGotlandorGötaland.The Goths, Geats and Gutes may all have descended from an early community of seafarers active on both sides of the Baltic.Similarities and dissimilarities between the Gothic language andScandinavian languages(particularlyGutnish) have been cited as evidence both for and against a Scandinavian origin. Scholars generally locateGothiscandzain the area of theWielbark culture.This culture emerged in the lower Vistula and along thePomeraniancoast in the 1st century AD, replacing the precedingOksywie culture.It is primarily distinguished from the Oksywie by the practice of inhumation, the absence of weapons in graves, and the presence ofstone circles.This area had been intimately connected with Scandinavia since the time of theNordic Bronze Ageand theLusatian culture.Its", "culture.Its inhabitants in the Wielbark period are usually thought to have been Germanic peoples, such as the Goths and Rugii.Jordanes writes that the Goths, soon after settlingGothiscandza, seized the lands of theUlmerugi(Rugii). Early history The Goths are generally believed to have been first attested byGreco-Romansources in the 1st century under the nameGutones.The equation between Gutones and later Goths is disputed by several historians. Around 15 AD,Strabomentions the Butones,Lugii, andSemnonesas part of a large group of peoples who came under the domination of theMarcomannickingMaroboduus.The \"Butones\" are generally equated with the Gutones.The Lugii have sometimes been considered the same people as theVandals, with whom they were certainly closely affiliated.The Vandals are associated with thePrzeworsk culture, which was located to the south of the Wielbark culture.Wolfram suggests that the Gutones were clients of the Lugii and Vandals in the 1st century AD. In 77 AD,Pliny the Eldermentions the", "Eldermentions the Gutones as one of the peoples ofGermania. He writes that the Gutones,Burgundiones,Varini, and Carini belong to the Vandili. Pliny classifies the Vandili as one of the five principal \"German races\", along with the coastalIngvaeones,Istvaeones,Irminones, andPeucini.In an earlier chapter Pliny writes that the 4th century BC travelerPytheasencountered a people called theGuiones.Some scholars have equated theseGuioneswith the Gutones, but the authenticity of the Pytheas account is uncertain. In his workGermaniafrom around 98 AD,Tacituswrites that the Gotones (or Gothones) and the neighbouring Rugii andLemoviiwereGermaniwho carried round shields and short swords, and lived near the ocean, beyond the Vandals.He described them as \"ruled by kings, a little more strictly than the other German tribes\".In another notable work, theAnnals, Tacitus writes that the Gotones had assistedCatualda, a young Marcomannic exile, in overthrowing the rule of Maroboduus.Prior to this, it is probable that both the", "that both the Gutones and Vandals had been subjects of the Marcomanni. Sometime after settlingGothiscandza, Jordanes writes that the Goths defeated the neighbouring Vandals.Wolfram believes the Gutones freed themselves from Vandalic domination at the beginning of the 2nd century AD. In hisGeographyfrom around 150 AD,Ptolemymentions the Gythones (or Gutones) as living east of the Vistula in Sarmatia, between theVenetiand theFenni.In an earlier chapter he mentions a people called the Gutae (or Gautae) as living in southernScandia.These Gutae are probably the same as the laterGautimentioned by Procopius.Wolfram suggests that there were close relations between the Gythones and Gutae, and that they might have been of common origin. Movement towards the Black Sea Beginning in the middle of the 2nd century, the Wielbark culture shifted southeast towards theBlack Sea.During this time the Wielbark culture is believed to have ejected and partially absorbed peoples of the Przeworsk culture.This was part of a wider", "was part of a wider southward movement of eastern Germanic tribes, which was probably caused by massive population growth.As a result, other tribes were pushed towards theRoman Empire, contributing to the beginning of theMarcomannic Wars.By 200 AD, Wielbark Goths were probably being recruited into theRoman army. According to Jordanes, the Goths enteredOium, part of Scythia, under the kingFilimer, where they defeated theSpali.This migration account partly corresponds with the archaeological evidence.The nameSpalimay mean \"the giants\" inSlavic, and the Spali were thus probably notSlavs.In the early 3rd century AD, western Scythia was inhabited by the agriculturalZarubintsy cultureand the nomadicSarmatians.Prior to the Sarmatians, the area had been settled by theBastarnae, who are believed to have carried out a migration similar to the Goths in the 3rd century BC.Peter Heatherconsiders the Filimer story to be at least partially derived from Gothic oral tradition.The fact that the expanding Goths appear to have", "appear to have preserved their Gothic language during their migration suggests that their movement involved a fairly large number of people. By the mid-3rd century AD, the Wielbark culture had contributed to the formation of theChernyakhov culturein Scythia.This strikingly uniform culture came to stretch from theDanubein the west to theDonin the east.It is believed to have been dominated by the Goths and other Germanic groups such as theHeruli.It nevertheless also includedIranian,Dacian, Roman and probablySlavicelements as well. 3rd century raids on the Roman Empire The first incursion of the Roman Empire that can be attributed to Goths is the sack ofHistriain 238.The first references to the Goths in the 3rd century call themScythians, as this area, known as Scythia, had historically been occupied by an unrelated people of that name.It is in the late 3rd century that the nameGoths(Latin:Gothi) is first mentioned.Ancient authors do not identify the Goths with the earlier Gutones.Philologistsandlinguistshave", "no doubt that the names are linked. On thePontic steppethe Goths quickly adopted several nomadic customs from the Sarmatians.They excelled athorsemanship,archeryandfalconry,and were also accomplishedagriculturalistsandseafarers.J. B. Burydescribes the Gothic period as \"the only non-nomadic episode in the history of the steppe.\"William H. McNeillcompares the migration of the Goths to that of the earlyMongols, who migrated southward from the forests and came to dominate the easternEurasian steppearound the same time as the Goths in the west.From the 240s at the earliest, Goths were heavily recruited into theRoman Armyto fight in theRoman–Persian Wars, notably participating at theBattle of Misichein 244.Aninscription at the Ka'ba-ye ZartoshtinParthian,Persianand Greek commemorates the Persian victory over the Romans and the troops drawn fromgwt W g'rmny xštr, the Gothic and German kingdoms,which is probably a Parthian gloss for theDanubian (Gothic)limesand theGermaniclimes. Meanwhile, Gothic raids on the Roman", "raids on the Roman Empire continued,In 250–51, the Gothic kingCnivacaptured the city of Philippopolisand inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at theBattle of Abrittus, in which the Roman EmperorDeciuswas killed.This was one of the most disastrous defeats in the history of the Roman army. The first Gothic seaborne raids took place in the 250s. The first two incursions intoAsia Minortook place between 253 and 256, and are attributed to Boranoi byZosimus. This may not be an ethnic term but may just mean \"people from the north\". It is unknown if Goths were involved in these first raids.Gregory Thaumaturgusattributes a third attack to Goths and Boradoi, and claims that some, \"forgetting that they were men of Pontus and Christians,\" joined the invaders.An unsuccessful attack onPityuswas followed in the second year by another, which sacked Pityus andTrabzonand ravaged large areas in thePontus. In the third year, a much larger force devastated large areas ofBithyniaand thePropontis, including the cities", "the cities ofChalcedon,Nicomedia,Nicaea,Apamea Myrlea,CiusandBursa. By the end of the raids, the Goths had seized control overCrimeaand theBosporusand captured several cities on theEuxinecoast, includingOlbiaandTyras, which enabled them to engage in widespread naval activities. After a 10-year hiatus, the Goths and theHeruli, with a raiding fleet of 500 ships,sackedHeraclea Pontica,CyzicusandByzantium.They were defeated by theRoman navybut managed to escape into theAegean Sea, where they ravaged the islands ofLemnosandScyros,broke through Thermopylaeand sacked several cities of southern Greece (province of Achaea) includingAthens,Corinth,Argos,OlympiaandSparta.Then an Athenian militia, led by the historianDexippus, pushed the invaders to the north where they were intercepted by the Roman army underGallienus.He won an important victory near the Nessos (Nestos) river, on the boundary betweenMacedoniaandThrace, the Dalmatian cavalry of the Roman army earning a reputation as good fighters. Reported barbarian", "Reported barbarian casualties were 3,000 men.Subsequently, the Heruli leaderNaulobatuscame to terms with the Romans. AfterGallienuswas assassinated outsideMilanin the summer of 268 in a plot led by high officers in his army,Claudiuswas proclaimed emperor and headed to Rome to establish his rule. Claudius' immediate concerns were with theAlamanni, who had invadedRaetiaand Italy. After he defeated them in theBattle of Lake Benacus, he was finally able to take care of the invasions in theBalkanprovinces. In the meantime, a second and larger sea-borne invasion had started. An enormous coalition consisting of Goths (Greuthungi and Thervingi), Gepids and Peucini, led again by the Heruli, assembled at the mouth of river Tyras (Dniester).TheAugustan Historyand Zosimus claim a total number of 2,000–6,000 ships and 325,000 men.This is probably a gross exaggeration but remains indicative of the scale of the invasion.After failing to storm some towns on the coasts of the westernBlack Seaand", "westernBlack Seaand theDanube(Tomi,Marcianopolis), the invaders attackedByzantiumandChrysopolis. Part of their fleet was wrecked, either because of the Goth's inexperience in sailing through the violent currents of thePropontisor because they were defeated by the Roman navy.Then they entered theAegean Seaand a detachment ravaged the Aegean islands as far asCrete,RhodesandCyprus.According to theAugustan History, the Goths achieved no success on this expedition because they were struck by theCyprianic Plague.The fleet probably also sackedTroyandEphesus, damaging theTemple of Artemis, though the temple was repaired and then later torn down by Christians a century later, one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World.While their main force had constructed siege works and was close to taking the cities ofThessalonicaandCassandreia, it retreated to the Balkan interior at the news that the emperor was advancing. Learning of the approach of Claudius, the Goths first attempted to directly invade Italy.They", "invade Italy.They wereengagednear Naissus by a Roman army led by Claudius advancing from the north. The battle most likely took place in 269, and was fiercely contested. Large numbers on both sides were killed but, at the critical point, the Romans tricked the Goths into an ambush by pretending to retreat. Some 50,000 Goths were allegedly killed or taken captive and their base atThessalonikadestroyed.ApparentlyAurelian, who was in charge of all Roman cavalry during Claudius' reign, led the decisive attack in the battle. Some survivors were resettled within the empire, while others were incorporated into the Roman army.The battle ensured the survival of theRoman Empirefor another two centuries. In 270, after the death of Claudius, Goths under the leadership ofCannabaudesagain launched an invasion of theRoman Empire, but were defeated byAurelian, who, however, did surrenderDaciabeyond theDanube. Around 275 the Goths launched a last major assault onAsia Minor, where piracy by Black Sea Goths was causing great", "was causing great trouble inColchis, Pontus,Cappadocia,Galatiaand evenCilicia.They were defeated sometime in 276 by EmperorMarcus Claudius Tacitus. By the late 3rd century, there were at least two groups of Goths, separated by theDniester River: theThervingiand theGreuthungi.TheGepids, who lived northwest of the Goths, are also attested as this time.Jordanes writes that the Gepids shared common origins with the Goths. In the late 3rd century, as recorded by Jordanes, the Gepids, under their kingFastida, utterly defeated the Burgundians, and then attacked the Goths and their king Ostrogotha. Out of this conflict, Ostrogotha and the Goths emerged victorious.In the last decades of the 3rd century, large numbers ofCarpiare recorded as fleeing Dacia for the Roman Empire, having probably been driven from the area by Goths. Co-existence with the Roman Empire (300–375) In 332,Constantinehelped the Sarmatians to settle on the north banks of the Danube to defend against the Goths' attacks and thereby enforce the Roman", "enforce the Roman border. Around 100,000 Goths were reportedly killed in battle, andAoric, son of the Thervingian kingAriaric, was captured.Eusebius, a historian who wrote in Greek in the third century, wrote that in 334, Constantine evacuated approximately 300,000Sarmatiansfrom the north bank of the Danube after a revolt of the Sarmatians' slaves. From 335 to 336, Constantine, continuing his Danube campaign, defeated many Gothic tribes. Having been driven from the Danube by the Romans, the Thervingi invaded the territory of the Sarmatians of theTisza. In this conflict, the Thervingi were led byVidigoia, \"the bravest of the Goths\" and were victorious, although Vidigoia was killed.Jordanes states that Aoric was succeeded byGeberic, \"a man renowned for his valor and noble birth\", who waged war on theHasdingiVandals and their kingVisimar, forcing them to settle in Pannonia under Roman protection. Both the Greuthungi and Thervingi became heavilyRomanizedduring the 4th century. This came about through trade with", "through trade with the Romans, as well as through Gothic membership of a military covenant, which was based in Byzantium and involved pledges of military assistance. Reportedly, 40,000 Goths were brought by Constantine to defendConstantinoplein his later reign, and the Palace Guard was thereafter mostly composed of Germanic warriors, as Roman soldiers by this time had largely lost military value.The Goths increasingly became soldiers in the Roman armies in the 4th century leading to a significantGermanizationof the Roman Army.Without the recruitment of Germanic warriors in the Roman Army, the Roman Empire would not have survived for as long as it did.Goths who gained prominent positions in the Roman military includeGainas,Tribigild,FravittaandAspar.Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, was the childhood tutor and later adviser of Roman emperorJulian, on whom he had an immense influence. The Gothic penchant for wearingskinsbecame fashionable in Constantinople, a fashion which was loudly denounced by conservatives.The", "conservatives.The 4th-century Greek bishopSynesiuscompared the Goths to wolves among sheep, mocked them for wearing skins and questioned their loyalty towards Rome: A man in skins leading warriors who wear thechlamys, exchanging his sheepskins for thetogato debate withRoman magistratesand perhaps even sit next to aRoman consul, while law-abiding men sit behind. Then these same men, once they have gone a little way from the senate house, put on their sheepskins again, and when they have rejoined their fellows they mock the toga, saying that they cannot comfortably draw their swords in it. In the 4th century, Geberic was succeeded by the Greuthungian kingErmanaric, who embarked on a large-scale expansion.Jordanes states that Ermanaric conquered a large number of warlike tribes, including the Heruli (who were led by Alaric), theAestiand theVistula Veneti, who, although militarily weak, were very numerous, and put up a strong resistance.Jordanes compares the conquests of Ermanaric to those ofAlexander the Great,", "the Great, and states that he \"ruled all the nations of Scythia and Germany by his own prowess alone.\"Interpreting Jordanes, Herwig Wolfram estimates that Ermanaric dominated a vast area of the Pontic Steppe stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea as far eastwards as theUral Mountains,encompassing not only the Greuthungi, but alsoBaltic Finnic peoples, Slavs (such as theAntes),Rosomoni(Roxolani), Alans,Huns,Sarmatiansand probablyAestii(Balts).According to Wolfram, it is certainly possible that the sphere of influence of the Chernyakhov culture could have extended well beyond its archaeological extent.Chernyakhov archaeological finds have been found far to the north in theforest steppe, suggesting Gothic domination of this area.Peter Heatheron the other hand, contends that the extent of Ermanaric's power is exaggerated.Ermanaric's possible dominance of theVolga-Dontrade routes has led historianGottfried Schrammto consider his realm a forerunner of theViking-founded state ofKievan Rus'.In the western", "Rus'.In the western part of Gothic territories, dominated by the Thervingi, there were also populations ofTaifali, Sarmatians and other Iranian peoples,Dacians,Daco-Romansand other Romanized populations. According toHervarar saga ok Heiðreks(The Saga of Hervör and Heidrek), a 13th-centurylegendary saga,Árheimarwas the capital ofReidgotaland, the land of the Goths. The saga states that it was located on the Dnieper river. Jordanes refers to the region as Oium. In the 360s,Athanaric, son of Aoric and leader of the Thervingi, supported the usurperProcopiusagainst theEastern Roman EmperorValens. In retaliation, Valens invaded the territories of Athanaric anddefeated him, but was unable to achieve a decisive victory. Athanaric and Valens thereupon negotiated a peace treaty, favorable to the Thervingi, on a boat in the Danube river, as Athanaric refused to set his feet within the Roman Empire. Soon afterwards,Fritigern, a rival of Athanaric, converted to Arianism, gaining the favor of Valens. Athanaric and", "Athanaric and Fritigern thereafter fought a civil war in which Athanaric appears to have been victorious. Athanaric thereafter carried outa crackdown on Christianityin his realm. Arrival of the Huns (about 375) Around 375 the Huns overran theAlans, anIranianpeople living to the east of the Goths, and then, along with Alans, invaded the territory of the Goths.A source for this period is the Roman historianAmmianus Marcellinus, who wrote that Hunnic domination of the Gothic kingdoms in Scythia began in the 370s.It is possible that the Hunnic attack came as a response to the Gothic expansion eastwards. Upon the suicide of Ermanaric (died 376), the Greuthungi gradually fell under Hunnic domination.Christopher I. Beckwithsuggests that the Hunnic thrust intoEuropeand the Roman Empire was an attempt to subdue the independent Goths in the west.The Huns fell upon the Thervingi, and Athanaric sought refuge in the mountains (referred to asCaucalandin the sagas).Ambrosemakes a passing reference to Athanaric's royal", "Athanaric's royal titles before 376 in hisDe Spiritu Sancto(On the Holy Spirit). Battles between the Goths and the Huns are described in the \"Hlöðskviða\" (The Battle of the Goths and Huns), a medieval Icelandic saga. The sagas recall thatGizur, king of theGeats, came to the aid of the Goths in an epic conflict with the Huns, although this saga might derive from a later Gothic-Hunnic conflict. Although the Huns successfully subdued many of the Goths who subsequently joined their ranks, Fritigern approached theEastern RomanemperorValensin 376 with a portion of his people and asked to be allowed to settle on the south bank of the Danube. Valens permitted this, and even assisted the Goths in their crossing of the river (probably at the fortress ofDurostorum).The Gothic evacuation across the Danube was probably not spontaneous, but rather a carefully planned operation initiated after long debate among leading members of the community.Upon arrival, the Goths were to be disarmed according to their agreement with", "agreement with the Romans, although many of them still managed to keep their arms.TheMoesogothssettled in Thrace andMoesia. The Gothic War of 376–382 Mistreated by corrupt local Roman officials, the Gothic refugees were soon experiencing a famine; some are recorded as having been forced to sell their children to Roman slave traders in return for rotten dog meat.Enraged by this treachery, Fritigern unleashed a widescale rebellion in Thrace, in which he was joined not only by Gothic refugees and slaves, but also by disgruntled Roman workers and peasants, and Gothic deserters from the Roman Army. The ensuing conflict, known as theGothic War, lasted for several years.Meanwhile, a group of Greuthungi, led by the chieftainsAlatheus and Saphrax, who were co-regents with Vithericus, son and heir of the Greuthungi kingVithimiris, crossed the Danube without Roman permission.The Gothic War culminated in theBattle of Adrianoplein 378, in which the Romans were badly defeated and Valens was killed. Following the decisive", "the decisive Gothic victory at Adrianople, Julius, themagister militumof theEastern Roman Empire, organized a wholesale massacre of Goths inAsia Minor,Syriaand other parts of the Roman East. Fearing rebellion, Julian lured the Goths into the confines of urban streets from which they could not escape and massacred soldiers and civilians alike. As word spread, the Goths rioted throughout the region, and large numbers were killed. Survivors may have settled inPhrygia. With the rise ofTheodosius Iin 379, the Romans launched a renewed offensive to subdue Fritigern and his followers.Around the same time, Athanaric arrived in Constantinople, having fled Caucaland through the scheming of Fritigern.Athanaric received a warm reception by Theodosius, praised the Roman Emperor in return, and was honoured with a magnificent funeral by the emperor following his death shortly after his arrival.In 382, Theodosius decided to enter peace negotiations with the Thervingi, which were concluded on 3 October 382.The Thervingi were", "Thervingi were subsequently madefoederatiof the Romans in Thrace and obliged to provide troops to the Roman army. Later division and spread of the Goths In the aftermath of the Hunnic onslaught, two major groups of the Goths would eventually emerge, theVisigothsandOstrogoths.Visigoths means the \"Goths of the west\", while Ostrogoths means \"Goths of the east\".The Visigoths, led by theBalti dynasty, claimed descent from the Thervingi and lived asfoederatiinside Roman territory, while the Ostrogoths, led by theAmali dynasty, claimed descent from the Greuthungi and were subjects of the Huns.Procopius interpreted the nameVisigothas \"western Goths\" and the nameOstrogothas \"eastern Goth\", reflecting the geographic distribution of the Gothic realms at that time.A people closely related to the Goths, the Gepids, were also living under Hunnic domination.A smaller group of Goths were theCrimean Goths, who remained in Crimea and maintained their Gothic identity well into the18th century. In his biography of theWest", "of theWest SaxonmonarchAlfred the Great, theWelshhistorianAsserstates that Alfred's motherOsburhwas of partial Goth ancestry through her father Oslac. Visigoths The Visigoths were a new Gothic political unit brought together during the career of their first leader, Alaric I.Following a major settlement of Goths in the Balkans made by Theodosius in 382, Goths received prominent positions in the Roman army.Relations with Roman civilians were sometimes uneasy. In 391, Gothic soldiers, with the blessing of Theodosius I,massacredthousands of Roman spectators at the Hippodrome inThessalonicaas vengeance for the lynching of the Gothic generalButheric. The Goths suffered heavy losses while serving Theodosius in the civil war of 394 againstEugeniusandArbogast.In 395, following the death of Theodosius I, Alaric and his Balkan Goths invaded Greece, where they sackedPiraeus(the port ofAthens) and destroyedCorinth,Megara,Argos, andSparta.Athens itself was spared by paying a large bribe, and the Eastern emperorFlavius", "emperorFlavius Arcadiussubsequently appointed Alaricmagister militum(\"master of the soldiers\") inIllyricumin 397. In 401 and 402, Alaric made two attempts at invading Italy, but was defeated byStilicho. In 405–406, another Gothic leader,Radagaisus, also attempted to invade Italy, and was also defeated by Stilicho.In 408, the Western Roman emperorFlavius Honoriusordered the execution of Stilicho and his family, then incited the Roman population to massacre tens of thousands of wives and children of Goths serving in the Roman military. Subsequently, around 30,000 Gothic soldiers defected to Alaric.Alaric in turn invaded Italy, seeking to pressure Honorious into granting him permission to settle his people inNorth Africa.In Italy, Alaric liberated tens of thousands of Gothic slaves, and in 410 hesackedthe city of Rome. Although the city's riches were plundered, the civilian inhabitants of the city were treated humanely, and only a few buildings were burned.Alaric died soon afterwards, and was buried along with", "buried along with his treasure in an unknown grave under theBusentoriver. Alaric was succeeded by his brother-in–lawAthaulf, husband of Honorius' sisterGalla Placidia, who had been seized during Alaric's sack of Rome. Athaulf settled the Visigoths in southernGaul.After failing to gain recognition from the Romans, Athaulf retreated into Hispania in early 415, and was assassinated inBarcelonashortly afterwards.He was succeeded bySigericand thenWallia, who succeeded in having the Visigoths accepted by Honorius as foederati in southern Gaul, with their capital atToulouse. Wallia subsequently inflicted severe defeats upon theSilingiVandals and the Alans in Hispania. Wallia was succeeded byTheodoric Iwho completed the settlement of the Goths inAquitania. Periodically they marched onArles, the seat of thepraetorian prefectbut were always pushed back. In 439 the Visigoths signed a treaty with the Romans which they kept. UnderTheodoric IIthe Visigoths allied with the Romans and foughtAttilato a stalemate in theBattle", "in theBattle of the Catalaunian Fields, although Theodoric was killed in the battle.UnderEuric, the Visigoths established an independentVisigothic Kingdomand succeeded in driving theSuebiout of Hispania proper and back intoGalicia.Although they controlled Spain, they still formed a tiny minority among a much largerHispano-Romanpopulation, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000. In 507, the Visigoths were pushed out of most of Gaul by theFrankishkingClovis Iat theBattle of Vouillé.They were able to retainNarbonensisandProvenceafter the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent byTheodoric the Great. The defeat at Vouillé resulted in their penetrating further into Hispania and establishing a new capital atToledo. UnderLiuvigildin the latter part of the 6th century, the Visigoths succeeded in subduing the Suebi in Galicia and the Byzantines in the south-west, and thus achieved dominance over most of theIberian peninsula.Liuvigild also abolished the law that prevented intermarriage between Hispano-Romans", "Hispano-Romans and Goths, and he remained an Arian Christian.The conversion ofReccared ItoRoman Catholicismin the late 6th century prompted the assimilation of Goths with the Hispano-Romans. At the end of the 7th century, the Visigothic Kingdom began to suffer from internal troubles.Their kingdom fell and was progressivelyconqueredby theUmayyad Caliphatefrom 711 after the defeat of their last kingRodericat theBattle of Guadalete. Some Visigothic nobles found refuge in the mountain areas of theAsturias,PyreneesandCantabria. According to Joseph F. O'Callaghan, the remnants of the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy still played an important role in the society of Hispania. At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring at a fast pace. Their nobility had begun to think of themselves as constituting one people, thegens Gothorumor theHispani. An unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining", "and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy. The population of the mountain region consisted of nativeAstures,Galicians,Cantabri,Basquesand other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society.The Christians began to regain control under the leadership of the noblemanPelagius of Asturias, who founded theKingdom of Asturiasin 718 and defeated the Muslims at theBattle of Covadongain c. 722, in what is taken by historians to be the beginning of theReconquista. It was from the Asturian kingdom that modernSpainandPortugalevolved. The Visigoths were never completelyRomanized; rather, they were 'Hispanicized' as they spread widely over a large territory and population. They progressively adopted a new culture, retaining little of their original culture except for practical military customs, some artistic modalities, family traditions such as heroic songs and folklore, as well as select conventions to include Germanic names still in use in present-day Spain. It is these artifacts of the", "artifacts of the original Visigothic culture that give ample evidence of its contributing foundation for the present regional culture.Portraying themselves heirs of the Visigoths, the subsequent Christian Spanish monarchs declared their responsibility for the Reconquista of Muslim Spain, which was completed with theFall of Granadain 1492. Ostrogoths After the Hunnic invasion, many Goths became subjects of the Huns. A section of these Goths under the leadership of the Amali dynasty came to be known as theOstrogoths.Others sought refuge in the Roman Empire, where many of them were recruited into the Roman army. In the spring of 399,Tribigild, a Gothic leader in charge of troops inNakoleia, rose up in rebellion and defeated the first imperial army sent against him, possibly seeking to emulate Alaric's successes in the west.Gainas, a Goth who along with Stilicho andEutropiushad deposedRufinusin 395, was sent to suppress Tribigild's rebellion, but instead plotted to use the situation to seize power in the Eastern", "in the Eastern Roman Empire. This attempt was however thwarted by the pro-Roman GothFravitta, and in the aftermath, thousands of Gothic civilians were massacred in Constantinople,many being burned alive in the local Arian church where they had taken shelter.As late as the 6th century Goths were settled asfoederatiin parts ofAsia Minor. Their descendants, who formed the eliteOptimatoiregiment, still lived there in the early 8th century.While they were largely assimilated, their Gothic origin was still well–known: the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor calls themGothograeci. The Ostrogoths fought together with the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451.Following the death of Attila and the defeat of the Huns at theBattle of Nedaoin 454, the Ostrogoths broke away from Hunnic rule under their kingValamir.Mentions of this event were probably preserved in Slavic epic songs.Under his successor,Theodemir, they utterly defeated the Huns at theBassianaein 468,and then defeated a coalition of", "a coalition of Roman–supported Germanic tribes at theBattle of Boliain 469, which gained them supremacy inPannonia. Theodemir was succeeded by his sonTheodoricin 471, who was forced to compete withTheodoric Strabo, leader of theThracian Goths, for the leadership of his people.Fearing the threat posed by Theodoric to Constantinople, the Eastern Roman emperorZenoordered Theodoric to invade Italy in 488. By 493,Theodoric had conquered all of Italy from theScirianOdoacer, whom he killed with his own hands;he subsequently formed theOstrogothic Kingdom. Theodoric settled his entire people in Italy, estimated at 100,000–200,000, mostly in the northern part of the country, and ruled the country very efficiently. The Goths in Italy constituted a small minority of the population in the country.Intermarriage between Goths and Romans were forbidden, and Romans were also forbidden from carrying arms. Nevertheless, the Roman majority was treated fairly. The Goths were briefly reunited under one crown in the early 6th", "in the early 6th century under Theodoric, who became regent of the Visigothic kingdom following the death ofAlaric IIat the Battle of Vouillé in 507.Shortly after Theodoric's death, the country was invaded by the Eastern Roman Empire in theGothic War, which severely devastated and depopulated the Italian peninsula.The Ostrogoths made a brief resurgence under their kingTotila,who was, however, killed at theBattle of Taginaein 552. After the last stand of the Ostrogothic kingTeiaat theBattle of Mons Lactariusin 553, Ostrogothic resistance ended, and the remaining Goths in Italy were assimilated by theLombards, another Germanic tribe, who invaded Italy and founded theKingdom of the Lombardsin 567. Crimean Goths Gothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea,especially inCrimea, were known as theCrimean Goths. During the late 5th and early 6th century, the Crimean Goths had to fend off hordes of Huns who were migrating back eastward after losing control of their European empire.In the 5th", "empire.In the 5th century,Theodoric the Greattried to recruit Crimean Goths for his campaigns in Italy, but few showed interest in joining him.They affiliated with theEastern Orthodox Churchthrough theMetropolitanate of Gothia, and were then closely associated with theByzantine Empire. During the Middle Ages, the Crimean Goths were in perpetual conflict with theKhazars.John of Gothia, themetropolitan bishopofDoros, capital of the Crimean Goths, briefly expelled the Khazars from Crimea in the late 8th century, and was subsequentlycanonizedas anEastern Orthodox saint. In the 10th century, the lands of the Crimean Goths were once again raided by the Khazars. As a response, the leaders of the Crimean Goths made an alliance withSviatoslav I of Kiev, who subsequently waged war upon and utterly destroyed theKhazar Khaganate.In the late Middle Ages the Crimean Goths were part of thePrincipality of Theodoro, which was conquered by theOttoman Empirein the late 15th century. As late as the 18th century a small number", "a small number of people in Crimea may still have spokenCrimean Gothic. Language The Goths wereGermanic-speaking.The Gothic language is theGermanic languagewith the earliest attestation (the 4th century),and the onlyEast Germanic languagedocumented in more than proper names,short phrasesthat survived in historical accounts, and loan-words in other languages, making it a language of great interest incomparative linguistics. Gothic is known primarily from theCodex Argenteus, now preserved inUppsala, Sweden, which contains a partial translation of the Bible credited toUlfilas. The language was in decline by the mid-500s, due to the military victory of the Franks, the elimination of the Goths in Italy, and geographic isolation. In Spain, the language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language when the Visigoths converted to Catholicism in 589;it survived as a domestic language in the Iberian peninsula (modernSpainandPortugal) as late as the 8th century. FrankishauthorWalafrid", "Strabowrote that Gothic was still spoken in the lowerDanubearea, in what is now Bulgaria, in the early 9th century,and a related dialect known asCrimean Gothicwas spoken in the Crimea until the 16th century, according to references in the writings of travelers.Most modern scholars believe that Crimean Gothic did not derive from the dialect that was the basis for Ulfilas' translation of the Bible. Culture Art Early Before the invasion of the Huns, the Gothic Chernyakhov culture produced jewelry, vessels, and decorative objects in a style much influenced by Greek and Roman craftsmen. They developed apolychromestyle of gold work, using wrought cells or setting to encrustgemstonesinto their gold objects. Ostrogoths The eagle-shapedfibula, part of theDomagnano Treasure, was used to join clothes c. AD 500; the piece on display in theGermanisches Nationalmuseumin Nuremberg is well-known. Visigoths InSpainan important collection of Visigothic metalwork was found in thetreasure of Guarrazar,Guadamur,Province of", "of Toledo,Castile-La Mancha, anarcheologicalfind composed of twenty-sixvotive crownsand goldcrossesfrom the royal workshop in Toledo, with Byzantine influence. The treasure represents the high point of Visigothic goldsmithery, according toGuerra, Galligaro & Perea (2007).The two most important votive crowns are those ofRecceswinthand ofSuintila, displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid; both are made of gold, encrusted with sapphires, pearls, and other precious stones. Suintila's crown was stolen in 1921 and never recovered. There are several other small crowns and many votive crosses in the treasure. These findings, along with others from some neighbouring sites and with the archaeological excavation of the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and the Royal Spanish Academy of History (April 1859), formed a group consisting of: The aquiliform (eagle-shaped)fibulaethat have been discovered innecropolisessuch asDuraton,Madronaor Castiltierra (cities ofSegovia), are an unmistakable indication of", "indication of the Visigothic presence in Spain. These fibulae were used individually or in pairs, as clasps or pins in gold, bronze and glass to join clothes, showing the work of the goldsmiths of Visigothic Hispania. The Visigothic belt buckles, a symbol of rank and status characteristic of Visigothic women's clothing, are also notable as works of goldsmithery. Some pieces contain exceptionalByzantine-stylelapis lazuliinlays and are generally rectangular in shape, with copper alloy, garnets and glass. Society Archaeological evidence in Visigothic cemeteries shows that social stratification was analogous to that of the village ofSabbas the Goth. The majority of villagers were commonpeasants. Paupers were buried with funeral rites, unlike slaves. In a village of 50 to 100 people, there were four or five elite couples.In Eastern Europe, houses include sunken-floored dwellings, surface dwellings, and stall-houses. The largest known settlement is theCriuleni District.Chernyakhov cemeteries feature", "cemeteries feature bothcremationandinhumationburials; among the latter the head aligned to the north. Some graves were left empty. Grave goods often include pottery, bone combs, and iron tools, but hardly ever weapons. Peter Heather suggests that the freemen constituted the core of Gothic society. These were ranked below the nobility, but above thefreedmenand slaves. It is estimated that around a quarter to a fifth of weapon-bearing Gothic males of theOstrogothic Kingdomwere freemen. Religion Initially practisingGothic paganism, the Goths were gradually converted toArianismin the course of the 4th century.According toBasil of Caesarea, a prisoner named Eutychus taken captive in a raid on Cappadocia in 260 preached the gospel to the Goths and was martyred.It was only in the 4th century, as a result of missionary activity by the Gothic bishopUlfilas, whose grandparents were Cappadocians taken captive in the raids of the 250s,that the Goths were gradually converted.Ulfilas devised aGothic alphabetand translated", "translated theGothic Bible. During the 370s, Goths converting to Christianity were subject topersecutionby the Thervingian king Athanaric, who was a pagan. The Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania converted to Catholicism in the late 6th century. The Ostrogoths (and their remnants, the Crimean Goths) were closely connected to thePatriarchate of Constantinoplefrom the 5th century, and became fully incorporated under theMetropolitanate of Gothiafrom the 9th century. Law Warfare Gothic arms and armour usually consisted of wooden shield, spear and often swords. 'Rank and file' troops did not wear much protection, while warriors of higher social class were better equipped, as was common for most tribal peoples of the time. Armour was either a chainmail shirt or lamellar cuirass. Lamellar was popular among horsemen. Shields were either round or oval with a central boss grip. They were decorated with tribe or clan symbols, such as animal drawings. Helmets were often of spangenhelm type, often with cheek and neck plates.", "and neck plates. Spears were used both for thrusting and throwing, although specialized javelins were also in use. Swords were one handed, double edged and straight, with a very small crossguard and large pommel. It was called the Spatha by the Romans, and it is believed to have first been used by the Celts. Short wooden bows were also used, as well as occasional throwing axes.Missile weapons were mainly short throwing-axes such asFransicaand short wooden bows. Specialized javelins such asangonwere more rare but still used Economy Archaeology shows that the Visigoths, unlike the Ostrogoths, were predominantly farmers. They sowed wheat, barley, rye, and flax. They also raised pigs, poultry, and goats. Horses and donkeys were raised as working animals and fed with hay. Sheep were raised for their wool, which they fashioned into clothing. Archaeology indicates they were skilled potters and blacksmiths. When peace treaties were negotiated with the Romans, the Goths demanded free trade. Imports from Rome included", "from Rome included wine and cooking-oil. Roman writers note that the Goths neither assessedtaxeson their own people nor on their subjects. The early 5th-century Christian writerSalviancompared the Goths' and related people's favourable treatment of the poor to the miserable state of peasants inRoman Gaul: For in the Gothic country the barbarians are so far from tolerating this sort of oppression that not even Romans who live among them have to bear it. Hence all the Romans in that region have but one desire, that they may never have to return to the Roman jurisdiction. It is the unanimous prayer of the Roman people in that district that they may be permitted to continue to lead their present life among the barbarians. Architecture Ostrogoths TheMausoleum of Theodoric(Italian:Mausoleo di Teodorico) is an ancient monument just outsideRavenna,Italy. It was built in 520 AD byTheodoric the Great, an Ostrogoth, as his future tomb. The current structure of themausoleumis divided into twodecagonalorders, one above", "one above the other; both are made ofIstriastone. Its roof is a single 230-tonneIstrian stone, 10 meters in diameter. Possibly as a reference to the Goths' tradition of an origin in Scandinavia, the architect decorated thefriezewith a pattern found in 5th- and 6th-century Scandinavian metal adornments.A niche leads down to a room that was probably a chapel for funeralliturgies; a stair leads to the upper floor. Located in the centre of the floor is a circularporphyrystone grave, in which Theodoric was buried. His remains were removed duringByzantinerule, when the mausoleum was turned into aChristianoratory. In the late 19th century, silting from a nearby rivulet that had partly submerged the mausoleum was drained and excavated. ThePalace of Theodoric, also in Ravenna, has a symmetrical composition with arches and monolithic marble columns, reused from previous Roman buildings. With capitals of different shapes and sizes.The Ostrogoths restored Roman buildings, some of which have come down to us thanks to", "to us thanks to them. Visigoths During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches ofbasilicalorcruciformfloor plan that survive, including the churches ofSan Pedro de la Navein El Campillo,Santa María de MelqueinSan Martín de Montalbán, Santa Lucía del Trampal in Alcuéscar, Santa Comba in Bande, andSanta María de Larain Quintanilla de las Viñas; theVisigothiccrypt(the Crypt of San Antolín) in thePalencia Cathedralis aVisigothicchapel from the mid 7th century, built during the reign ofWambato preserve the remains of the martyrSaint Antoninus of Pamiers, a Visigothic-Gallic nobleman brought from Narbonne to Visigothic Hispania in 672 or 673 by Wamba himself. These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia. Reccopolis(Spanish:Recópolis), located near the tiny modern village ofZorita de los Canesin theprovince of Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha, Spain, is an archaeological site of one of at least four cities founded inHispaniaby theVisigoths. It is the only city in", "is the only city in Western Europe to have been founded between the fifth and eighth centuries.According to Lauro Olmo Enciso who is a professor of archaeology at theUniversity of Alcalá, the city was ordered to build by the Visigothic kingLeovigildto honor his sonReccaredI and to serve as Reccared's seat as co-king in the Visigothic province ofCeltiberia, to the west ofCarpetania, where the main capital, Toledo, lay. Physical appearance In ancient sources, the Goths are always described as tall and athletic, withlight skin,blondehair andblue eyes.The 4th-century Greek historianEunapiusdescribed their characteristic powerful musculature in a pejorative way: \"Their bodies provoked contempt in all who saw them, for they were far too big and far too heavy for their feet to carry them, and they were pinched in at the waist – just like those insectsAristotlewrites of.\"Procopiusnotes that the Vandals and Gepids looked similar to the Goths, and on this basis, he suggested that they were all of common origin. Of the", "origin. Of the Goths, he wrote that \"they all have white bodies and fair hair, and are tall and handsome to look upon.\" Genetics Stolarek et al. (2023) and Antonio et al. (2022) both sequenced genomes from theWielbark cultureGoths. Stolarek et al. includes samples from multiple sites all over the territory of the Wielbark culture, in large numbers. The results are in alignment with archaeological and historical evidence, strongly suggesting that the Wielbark culture formed through migration from Southern Scandinavia. A large majority of the Wielbark culture samples are autosomally Scandinavian-like, and carry predominantly Scandinavian Y-DNA haplogroups. The most common Y-DNA haplogroup among the Wielbark individuals was Y-DNA haplogroup I1-M253, characteristic of the Nordic Bronze Age in Southern Scandinavia, in which it was found at a very high frequency and from where it first expanded. Among the Wielbark Goths, substantial subclade diversity is seen among the I1 carriers, suggesting that the male", "that the male founders of the culture descended from clans from a rather widespread area in Scandinavia. Assessing the population movement during late Antiquity, a 2023 study on the Roman frontier on the Danube concludes that \"Goths were ethnically diverse confederations\". A number of samples obtained from Roman sites close to the limes (such asViminacium) dated to the 3th century or later were shown to carry admixture from Central/North European and Pontic-Kazakh Steppe ancestries in addition to 42%–55% local Balkan Iron Age-related ancestry. 7 out of 9 males among these samples belonged to haplogroups associated with these trans-frontier ancestry sources (I1 and R1b-U106: North European; Z93: Iron Age Steppe). Many of these samples suggest that admixture between Central/North European and Pontic-Kazakh Steppe ancestries likely occurred beyond the frontier prior to the movement into the Roman Empire, \"perhaps indicative of, e.g., the formation of diverse confederations under Gothic leadership\". Legacy The", "Legacy The Goths' relationship with Sweden became an important part of Swedish nationalism, and until the 19th century, before the Gothic origin had been thoroughly researched by archaeologists, Swedish scholars considered Swedes to be the direct descendants of the Goths. Today, scholars identify this as acultural movementcalledGothicismus, which included an enthusiasm for thingsOld Norse. Inmedievaland modern Spain, the Visigoths were believed to be the progenitors of theSpanish nobility(compareGobineaufor a similar French idea). By the early 7th century, the ethnic distinction between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans had all but disappeared, but recognition of a Gothic origin, e.g. on gravestones, still survived among the nobility. The 7th century Visigothic aristocracy saw itself as bearers of a particular Gothic consciousness and as guardians of old traditions such as Germanic namegiving; probably these traditions were on the whole restricted to the family sphere (Hispano-Roman nobles were doing service for", "doing service for the Visigothic Royal Court in Toulouse already in the 5th century and the two branches of Spanish aristocracy had fully adopted similar customs two centuries later). Beginning in 1278, whenMagnus III of Swedenascended to the throne,a reference to Gothic originswas included in the title of the king of Sweden: \"We N.N. by the Grace of God King of the Swedes, the Goths and the Vends\". In 1973, with the accession of KingCarl XVI Gustaf, the title was changed to simply \"King of Sweden\". In all history there is nothing more romantically marvellous than the swift rise of this people to the height of greatness, or than the suddenness and the tragic completeness of their ruin. —Henry Bradley, The Story of the Goths (1888) The Spanish and Swedish claims of Gothic origins led to a clash at theCouncil of Baselin 1434. Before the assembledcardinalsand delegations could engage in theological discussion, they had to decide how to sit during the proceedings. The delegations from the more prominent nations", "prominent nations argued that they should sit closest to thePope, and there were also disputes over who were to have the finest chairs and who were to have their chairs on mats. In some cases, they compromised so that some would have half a chair leg on the rim of a mat. In this conflict,Nicolaus Ragvaldi, bishop of theDiocese of Växjö, claimed that the Swedes were the descendants of the great Goths, and that the people of Västergötland (Westrogothiain Latin) were the Visigoths and the people of Östergötland (Ostrogothiain Latin) were the Ostrogoths. The Spanish delegation retorted that it was only the \"lazy\" and \"unenterprising\" Goths who had remained in Sweden, whereas the \"heroic\" Goths had left Sweden, invaded the Roman empire and settled in Spain. In Spain, a man acting with arrogance would be said to be \"haciéndose los godos\" (\"making himself to act like the Goths\"). InChile,Argentina, and theCanary Islands,godowas anethnic slurused against European Spaniards, who in the early colonial period often", "period often felt superior to the people born locally (criollos).In Colombia, it remains as slang for a person withconservativeviews. A large amount of literature has been produced on the Goths, withHenry Bradley'sThe Goths(1888) being the standard English-language text for many decades. More recently,Peter Heatherhas established himself as the leading authority on the Goths in theEnglish-speaking world. The leading authority on the Goths in theGerman-speaking worldisHerwig Wolfram. List of early literature on the Goths In the sagas In Greek and Roman literature See also Notes and sources Notes Footnotes Ancient sources Modern sources Further reading", "Western Roman Empire In modernhistoriography, theWestern Roman Empirewas the western provinces of theRoman Empire, collectively, during any period in which they were administered separately from the eastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. Particularly during the period from AD 395 to 476, there were separate, coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire into the Western provinces and the Eastern provinces with a distinctimperial successionin the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire andEastern Roman Empirewere coined in modern times to describe political entities that werede factoindependent; contemporaryRomansdid not consider the Empire to have been split into two empires but viewed it as a singlepolitygoverned by two imperial courts for administrative expediency. The Western Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court inRavennadisappeared by AD 554, at the end ofJustinian'sGothic War. Though there were periods with more than one emperor ruling jointly", "ruling jointly before, the view that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire wasinstitutionalizedby emperorDiocletianfollowing the disastrous civil wars and disintegrations of theCrisis of the Third Century. He introduced the system of theTetrarchyin 286, with two senior emperors titledAugustus, one in the East and one in the West, each with an appointed subordinate and heir titledCaesar. Though the tetrarchic system would collapse in a matter of years, the East–West administrative division would endure in one form or another over the coming centuries. As such, the unofficial Western Roman Empire would exist intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries. Some emperors, such asConstantine IandTheodosius I, governed, if briefly, as the soleAugustusacross the Roman Empire. On the death of Theodosius in 395, the empire was divided between his two infant sons, withHonoriusas his successor in the West governing briefly fromMediolanumthen fromRavenna, andArcadiusas", "andArcadiusas his successor in the East governing fromConstantinople. In 476, after theBattle of Ravenna, the Roman army in the West suffered defeat at the hands ofOdoacerand his Germanicfoederati. Odoacer forced theabdicationof the emperorRomulus Augustulusand became the firstKing of Italy. In 480, following the assassination of the previous Western emperorJulius Nepos, the Eastern emperorZenodissolved the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. The date of 476 was popularized by the 18th-century British historianEdward Gibbonas a demarcating event for thefall of the Western Roman Empireand is sometimes used to mark the transition fromAntiquityto theMiddle Ages. Odoacer's Italy and otherbarbarian kingdoms, many of them representing former Western Roman allies that had been granted lands in return for military assistance, would maintain a pretense of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern", "to the Eastern Roman court. In the 6th century, EmperorJustinian Ire-imposed direct Imperial rule on large parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including the prosperous regions ofNorth Africa, the ancient Roman heartland ofItalyand parts ofHispania. Political instability in the Eastern heartlands, combined with foreign invasions, plague, and religious differences, made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost for good. Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century, the influence that the Empire had overWestern Europehad diminished significantly. Thepapalcoronation of theFrankish kingCharlemagneasRoman Emperorin 800 marked a new imperial line that would evolve into theHoly Roman Empire, which presented a revival of the Imperial title in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions. TheGreat Schism of 1054between the churches ofRomeandConstantinoplefurther", "diminished any authority the emperor in Constantinople could hope to exert in the West. Background As theRoman Republicexpanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship ormounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be returned and acted upon. Therefore, provincialgovernorshadde factoautonomy in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as the province's chief judges. Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of theSecond Triumvirate:Mark Antony,OctavianandMarcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the", "provinces in the East:Achaea,MacedoniaandEpirus(roughly modern Greece,Albaniaand the coast ofCroatia),Bithynia,PontusandAsia(roughly modernTurkey),Syria,Cyprus, andCyrenaica.These lands had previously been conquered byAlexander the Great; thus, much of thearistocracywas of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture,Greekoften serving as thelingua franca. Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West:Italia(modern Italy),Gaul(modern France),Gallia Belgica(parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands andLuxembourg), andHispania(modern Spain and Portugal).These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, thoughCeltictribes such asGaulsandCeltiberianswere culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province ofAfrica(roughly modernTunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while addingSicilia(modernSicily) to his holdings. Upon thedefeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a unitedRoman Empire.", "unitedRoman Empire. The Empire featured many distinct cultures, all experienced a gradualRomanization.While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices (and to some extent the languages themselves) would be combined in fields such ashistory(e.g., those byCato the Elder),philosophyandrhetoric. Rebellions and political developments Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt, and thelegionswould be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime. In a full-blownmilitary campaign, the legions were far more numerous – as, for example, those led byVespasianin theFirst Jewish–Roman War. To ensure", "War. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's familyhostage. To this end,Neroeffectively heldDomitianandQuintus Petillius Cerialis, Governor ofOstia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero's rule was ended by a revolt of thePraetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name ofGalba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative \"sword ofDamocles\", was often perceived as being of dubious loyalty, primarily due its role in court intrigues and in overthrowing several emperors, includingPertinaxandAurelian.Following their example, the legions at the borders increasingly participated incivil wars. For instance, legions stationed inEgyptand the eastern provinces would see significant participation in thecivil war of 218between EmperorMacrinusandElagabalus. As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the riversRhineandDanube, Germanic tribes were an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor, had", "first emperor, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrousBattle of the Teutoburg Forest.Whilst the Germanic tribes were formidable foes, theParthian Empirein the East presented the greatest threat to the Empire. The Parthians were too remote and powerful to be conquered and there was a constant Parthian threat of invasion. The Parthians repelled several Roman invasions, and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented byTrajanorSeptimius Severus, the conquered territories were forsaken in attempts to ensure a lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, whichcontinued hostilitieswith the Roman Empire. Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, the chances were high that an", "were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of theCrisis of the Third Century, usurpation became a common method of succession:Philip the Arab,Trebonianus GallusandAemilianuswere all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another powerful general. The idea of co-emperorship was first tested byMarcus Aurelius(r. 161–180), who decided to rule alongside his adoptive brotherLucius Verus. There was, however, much precedent. Theconsulateof theRepublicwas a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices. Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past—Augustusplanned to leaveGaiusandLucius Caesaras joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to haveCaligulaandTiberius Gemellusdo so as well; asClaudiuswithNeroandBritannicus. All of these arrangements had", "arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius) or murder (Gemellus and Britannicus).Marcus Aurelius ruled mostly from the West, while Verus spent most of his reign campaigning in the East,against Parthia. Verus accompanied Marcus at the start of theMarcomannic Wars, but died shortly after. Decades later,Septimius Severus(r. 193–211) appointed his sonsGetaandCaracallaas joint heirs. However, Caracalla murdered his brother shortly after succeeding to the throne. Crisis of the Third Century With the assassination of the emperorAlexander Severusin March 235 by his own troops, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. During this period, the Empire saw the combined pressures of barbarian invasions and migrations into Roman territory, civil wars, peasant rebellions and political instability, with multiple usurpers competing for power. The idea of dividing the empire was first developed in this time;Valerianand his", "his sonGallienusdivided the empire between them, the former ruling from the East and the latter from the West. However, Valerian was captured by theSassanidsat theBattle of Edessa, leaving Gallienus as sole emperor. Saloninus, Gallienus' infant son, and thepraetorian prefectSilvanus resided inColonia Agrippina(modernCologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless,Postumus– the local governor of the German provinces – rebelled, and his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known in modern historiography as theGallic Empireemerged. Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modernTrier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces, all of Hispania andBritannia. It had its ownsenate, and a partial list of itsconsulsstill survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting theGermanic tribes, fending off Germanic incursions", "Germanic incursions and restoring the security the Gallic provinces had enjoyed in the past, than in challenging the Roman central government. In the reign ofClaudius Gothicus(268–270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, however, several eastern provinces seceded to form thePalmyrene Empire, under the rule of QueenZenobia. In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeatedTetricus Iin theBattle of Châlons, and soon captured Tetricus and his sonTetricus II. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph. Tetrarchy Diocletiandivided the Roman Empire when, in 286, he elevatedMaximianto the rank ofAugustus(emperor) and gave him control of the Western Empire, while he continued to rule the East.In 293,GaleriusandConstantius Chloruswere appointed as", "appointed as their subordinate (caesars), as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions, theFirst Tetrarchy: in the West, Maximian madeMediolanum(nowMilan) his capital, and Constantius made Trier his. In the East, Galerius made his capitalSirmiumand Diocletian madeNicomediahis. On 1 May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, replaced by Galerius and Constantius, who, in turn, appointedMaximinus IIandValerius Severus, respectively, as their caesars, thus creating theSecond Tetrarchy. The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306. His son,Constantine, was declared Western emperor by the British legions,but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine andLicinius.However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire so, by 314, began to compete against Licinius,", "against Licinius, finally defeating him in 324 at theBattle of Chrysopolis.After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city ofByzantiumin modern-day Turkey asNova Roma(\"New Rome\"), later calledConstantinople, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire.Although the Tetrarchy was ended, the concept of physically dividing the Roman Empire into East and a West continued, as happened after the deaths of Constantine andTheodosius I. Further divisions The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs.Constantius, his third son and the second by his wifeFausta(Maximian's daughter)received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople,Thrace,Asia Minor,Syria,Egypt, and Cyrenaica;Constantine IIreceived Britannia,Gaul, Hispania, andMauretania; andConstans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, receivedItaly, Africa,Illyricum, Pannonia,Macedonia, andAchaea. The provinces of Thrace,", "of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled byDalmatius, nephew of Constantine I and acaesar, not anAugustus, until his murder by his own soldiers in 337.The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of theusurperMagnentius. After Magnentius lost theBattle of Mursa Majorand committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353. Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would remain safe for centuries to come. The city was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus andCaracalla, more than a century prior. In 361, Constantius II became ill and", "II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandsonJulian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in theBattle of Samarraagainst theSasanian Empireand was succeeded byJovian, who ruled for only nine months.Following the death of Jovian,Valentinian Iemerged as emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brotherValens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (barbarian tribes) intensified. In 376, theVisigoths, fleeing before theOstrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before theHuns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle in the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in theBattle of Adrianople, in which Emperor Valens also died. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths", "the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independentfoederatiunder their own leaders. More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the emperors in the western part of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successorGratiandeclined to wear the mantle ofPontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed theAltar of Victoryfrom theRoman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general namedMagnus Maximusseized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brotherValentinian IIto flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war the Eastern emperor Theodosius I restored him to power.In 392, theFrankishand paganmagister militumArbogastassassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator namedEugeniusas emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire", "of the Empire againclashedwith great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire before the West fragmented and collapsed. Theodosius I's older sonArcadiusinherited the eastern half while the youngerHonoriusgot the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarianmagister militumFlavius Stilicho,whileRufinusbecame the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements would be exploited by the Gothic leaderAlaric Iwho again rebelled in 408 following the massacre by Roman legions of thousands of barbarian families who were trying to assimilate into the Roman empire. Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a", "to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so. Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and theVandals,Alans, andSueviinvaded Gaulin large numbers in 406. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's mensacked Romein 410. History Reign of Honorius Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declaredAugustus(and as such co-emperor with his father) on 23 January in 393, at the age of 9. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved toRavennain 401 upon the entry of the Visigothic king Alaric I into Italy. Ravenna, protected by abundant marshes and strong", "marshes and strong fortifications, was far easier to defend and had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend the central parts of Italy from regular barbarian incursions.Ravenna would remain the western capital until 450 whenValentinian IIImoved the court back to Rome. Most western emperors from 450 until 475 reigned from Rome. The last de facto western emperorRomulus Augustulusresided in Ravenna from 475 until his deposition in 476 and Ravenna would later be the capital of both theOstrogothic Kingdomand theExarchate of Ravenna. Despite the moved capital, economic power remained focused on Rome and its rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After EmperorGallienushad banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of – and interest in – military life.In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred", "largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as a military capital of sorts for the Empire. Many leading Western generals werebarbarians. The reign of Honorius was, even by Western Roman standards, chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles. The Visigothicfoederatiunder Alaric,magister milituminIllyricum, rebelled in 395.Gildo, theComesAfricaeandMagister utriusque militiae per Africam, rebelled in 397 and initiated theGildonic War. Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was campaigning inRaetiawhen the Visigoths entered Italy in 402.Stilicho, hurrying back to aid in defending Italy, summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back", "him to retreat back toIllyria. The weakening of the frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the Empire. As the imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed, numerous usurpers arose in Britain, includingMarcus(406–407),Gratian(407), andConstantine IIIwho invaded Gaul in 407.Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the lack of resources and the need to look after more important frontiers. The weakening of the Rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes, including the Vandals, Alans andSuebi, to cross the river and enter Roman territory in 406. Honorius was convinced by the ministerOlympiusthat Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him, and so arrested and executed Stilicho in 408.Olympius headed a conspiracy that orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the faction of Stilicho, including his son and the families of many of his federated troops. This led many of the soldiers to instead join with", "instead join with Alaric, who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition. Despite attempts by Honorius to reach a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him,the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric sacked the city of Rome. Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital of even the Western Empire, the event shocked people across both halves of the Empire as this was the first time Rome (viewed at least as the symbolic heart of the Empire) had fallen to a foreign enemy since theGallic invasionsof the 4th century BC. The Eastern Roman emperorTheodosius II, the successor of Arcadius, declared three days of mourning in Constantinople. Without Stilicho and following the sack of Rome, Honorius' reign grew more chaotic. The usurperConstantine IIIhad stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by thePictsand then by theSaxons,Angli,", "by theSaxons,Angli, and theJuteswho began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. After Honorius accepted Constantine as co-emperor, Constantine's general in Hispania,Gerontius, proclaimedMaximusas emperor. With the aid of generalConstantius, Honorius defeated Gerontius and Maximus in 411 and shortly thereafter captured and executed Constantine III. With Constantius back in Italy, the Gallo-Roman senatorJovinusrevolted after proclaiming himself emperor, with the support of the Gallic nobility and the barbarianBurgundiansand Alans. Honorius turned to the Visigoths under KingAthaulffor support.Athaulf defeated and executed Jovinus and his proclaimed co-emperorSebastianusin 413, around the same time as another usurper arose inAfrica,Heraclianus. Heraclianus attempted to invade Italy but failed and retreated to Carthage, where he was killed. With the Roman legions withdrawn, northern Gaul became increasingly subject to Frankish influence, the Franks naturally adopting a leading role in the region. In 418,", "the region. In 418, Honorius granted southwestern Gaul (Gallia Aquitania) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation. Honorius removed the local imperial governors, leaving the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants to conduct their own affairs. As such, the first of the \"barbarian kingdoms\", theVisigothic Kingdom, was formed. Escalating barbarian conflicts Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government installedValentinian IIIas Western emperor in Ravenna by force of arms, withGalla Placidiaacting as regent during her son's minority. Theodosius II, the Eastern emperor, had hesitated to announce the death of Honorius and in the ensuing interregnum,Joanneswas nominated as Western emperor. Joannes' rule was short and the forces of the East defeated and executed him in 425. After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish,Aetiusrose to the rank ofmagister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat,", "situation somewhat, relying heavily on hisHunnicallies. With their help Aetius undertook extensive campaigns in Gaul, defeating the Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffering a defeat himself in 439, ending the conflict in astatus quo antewith a treaty. Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion byBonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under KingGaisericto cross from Spain to Tingitana in what is now Morocco in 429. They temporarily halted inNumidiain 435 before moving eastward. With Aetius occupied in Gaul, the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the Vandals conquering the wealthy African provinces, culminating in thefallofCarthageon 19October 439 and the establishment of theVandal Kingdom. By the 400s, Italy and Rome itself were dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces, leading to an economic crisis. With Vandal fleets becoming an increasing danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean, Aetius", "Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440, organizing a large army in Sicily. However, the plans for retaking Africa had to be abandoned due to the immediate need to combat the invading Huns, who in 444 were united under their ambitious kingAttila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Aetius transferred his forces to the Danube,though Attila concentrated on raiding the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, providing temporary relief to the Western Empire. In 449, Attila received a message fromHonoria, Valentinian III's sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into. With a pretext to invade the West, Attila secured peace with the Eastern court and crossed the Rhine in early 451.With Attila wreaking havoc in Gaul, Aetius gathered a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and prevented the Huns from taking the city", "taking the city ofAurelianum, forcing them into retreat.At theBattle of the Catalaunian Plains, the Roman-Germanic coalition met and defeated the Hunnic forces, though Attila escaped. Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452. With Aetius not having enough forces to attack him, the road to Rome was open. Valentinian sentPope Leo Iand two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern emperorMarcianhad launched an attack on the Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn back and leave Italy. When Attila died unexpectedly in 453, the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns. Internal unrest and Majorian Valentinian III was intimidated by Aetius and was encouraged by the Roman senatorPetronius Maximusand the chamberlain Heraclius to assassinate him. When Aetius was at court in Ravenna delivering a financial account, Valentinian suddenly leaped from his seat", "from his seat and declared that he would no longer be the victim of Aetius' drunken depravities. Aetius attempted to defend himself from the charges, but Valentinian drew his sword and struck the weaponless Aetius on the head, killing him on the spot.On 16 March the following year, Valentinian himself was killed by supporters of the dead general, possibly acting for Petronius Maximus. With the end of theTheodosian dynasty, Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor during the ensuing period of unrest. Petronius was not able to take effective control of the significantly weakened and unstable Empire. He broke the betrothal between Huneric, son of the Vandal kingGaiseric, and Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III. This was seen as a just cause of war by King Gaiseric, who set sail to attack Rome. Petronius and his supporters attempted to flee the city at the sight of the approaching Vandals, only to be stoned to death by a Roman mob. Petronius had reigned only 11 weeks.With the Vandals at the gates, Pope Leo", "the gates, Pope Leo I requested that the King not destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants, to which Gaiseric agreed and the city gates were opened to him. Though keeping his promise, Gaiseric looted great amounts of treasure and damaged objects of cultural significance such as theTemple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The severity of theVandal sack of 455is disputed, though with the Vandals plundering the city for a full fourteen days as opposed to the Visigothic sack of 410, where the Visigoths only spent three days in the city, it was likely more thorough. Avitus, a prominent general under Petronius, was proclaimed emperor by the Visigothic kingTheodoric IIand accepted as such by theRoman Senate. Though supported by the Gallic provinces and the Visigoths, Avitus was resented in Italy due to ongoing food shortages caused by Vandal control of trade routes, and for using a Visigothic imperial guard. He disbanded his guard due to popular pressure, and the Suebian generalRicimerused the opportunity to", "the opportunity to depose Avitus, counting on popular discontent. After the deposition of Avitus, the Eastern emperorLeo Idid not select a new westernAugustus. The prominent generalMajoriandefeated an invading force ofAlemanniand was subsequently proclaimed Western emperor by the army and eventually accepted as such by Leo. Majorian was the last Western emperor to attempt to recover the Western Empire with his own military forces. To prepare, Majorian significantly strengthened the Western Roman army by recruiting large numbers of barbarian mercenaries, among them theGepids, Ostrogoths,Rugii, Burgundians, Huns,Bastarnae, Suebi,Scythiansand Alans, and built two fleets, one at Ravenna, to combat the strong Vandalic fleet. Majorian personally led the army to wage war in Gaul, leaving Ricimer in Italy. The Gallic provinces and the Visigothic Kingdom had rebelled following the deposition of Avitus, refusing to acknowledge Majorian as lawful emperor. At theBattle of Arelate, Majorian decisively defeated the", "defeated the Visigoths under Theoderic II and forced them to relinquish their great conquests in Hispania and return tofoederatistatus. Majorian then entered theRhone Valley, where he defeated the Burgundians and reconquered the rebel city ofLugdunum. With Gaul back under Roman control, Majorian turned his eyes to the Vandals and Africa. Not only did the Vandals pose a constant danger to coastal Italy and trade in the Mediterranean, but the province they ruled was economically vital to the survival of the West. Majorian began a campaign to fully reconquer Hispania to use it as a base for the reconquest of Africa. Throughout 459, Majorian campaigned against the Suebi in northwestern Hispania. The Vandals began to increasingly fear a Roman invasion. King Gaiseric tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. In the wake of this, Gaiseric devastatedMauretania, part of his own kingdom, fearing that the Roman army would land there. Having regained control of Hispania, Majorian intended to", "intended to use his fleet atCarthaginiensisto attack the Vandals. Before he could, the fleet was destroyed, allegedly by traitors paid by the Vandals. Deprived of his fleet, Majorian had to cancel his attack on the Vandals and conclude a peace with Gaiseric. Disbanding his barbarian forces, Majorian intended to return to Rome and issue reforms, stopping atArelateon his way. Here, Ricimer deposed and arrested him in 461, having gathered significant aristocratic opposition against Majorian. After five days of beatings and torture, Majorian was beheaded near the riverIria. Collapse The final collapse of the Empire in the West was marked by increasingly ineffectual puppet emperors dominated by their Germanicmagistri militum. The most pointed example of this isRicimer, who effectively became a \"shadow emperor\" following the depositions of Avitus and Majorian. Unable to take the throne for himself due to his barbarian heritage, Ricimer appointed a series of puppet emperors who could do little to halt the collapse", "halt the collapse of Roman authority and the loss of the territories re-conquered by Majorian.The first of these puppet emperors,Libius Severus, had no recognition outside of Italy, with the Eastern emperor Leo I and provincial governors in Gaul andIllyriaall refusing to recognize him. Severus died in 465 and Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer, appointed the capable Eastern generalAnthemiusas Western emperor following an eighteen-monthinterregnum. The relationship between Anthemius and the East was good, Anthemius is the last Western emperor recorded in an Eastern law, and the two courts conducted a joint operation to retake Africa from the Vandals, culminating in the disastrousBattle of Cape Bonin 468. In addition Anthemius conducted failed campaigns against the Visigoths, hoping to halt their expansion. The trial and subsequent execution ofRomanus, an Italian senator and friend of Ricimer, on the grounds of treachery in 470 made Ricimer hostile to Anthemius. Following two years of ill feeling, Ricimer", "feeling, Ricimer deposed and killed Anthemius in 472, elevatingOlybriusto the Western throne.During the brief reign of Olybrius, Ricimer died and his nephewGundobadsucceeded him asmagister militum. After only seven months of rule, Olybrius died ofdropsy. Gundobad elevatedGlyceriusto Western emperor. The Eastern Empire had rejected Olybrius and also rejected Glycerius, instead supporting a candidate of their own,Julius Nepos,magister milituminDalmatia. With the support of Eastern emperorsLeo IIandZeno, Julius Nepos crossed theAdriatic Seain the spring of 474 to depose Glycerius. At the arrival of Nepos in Italy, Glycerius abdicated without a fight and was allowed to live out his life as theBishop of Salona. The brief rule of Nepos in Italy ended in 475 whenOrestes, a former secretary of Attila and themagister militumof Julius Nepos, took control of Ravenna and forced Nepos to flee by ship toDalmatia. Later in the same year, Orestes crowned his own young son as Western emperor under the nameRomulus Augustus.", "Augustus. Romulus Augustus was not recognised as Western emperor by the Eastern Court, who maintained that Nepos was the only legal Western emperor, reigning in exile fromDalmatia. On 4 September 476,Odoacer, leader of the Germanicfoederatiin Italy, captured Ravenna, killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. Though Romulus was deposed, Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western emperor fromDalmatia, with support from Constantinople. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern emperorZeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacerpatricianstatus as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Nepos. The murder of Nepos in 480", "of Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invadeDalmatia, annexing it to hisKingdom of Italy. Fall of the Empire By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, but the historical record calls this determination into question. Indeed, the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times. Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy, with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire inDalmatia. Furthermore, the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades, with most of its legal territory being under control of various barbarian kingdoms. With Odoacer recognising Julius Nepos, and later the Eastern emperor Zeno, as his sovereign, nominal Roman control continued in Italy.Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty", "Roman sovereignty in anexclavein northern Gaul (a realm today known as theDomain of Soissons) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western emperor. The authority of Julius Nepos as emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy, but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul (who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus). Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480, a plot some attribute to Odoacer or the previous, deposed emperor Glycerius,and the Eastern emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new Western emperor. Zeno, recognizing that no true Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court, instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of emperor and declared himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Zeno became the first sole Roman emperor since the division after Theodosius I, 85 years prior, and the position would never again be divided. As such, the (eastern)Roman emperorsafter 480 are the successors of the western ones,", "the western ones, albeit only in a juridical sense.These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until theFall of Constantinoplein 1453, nearly a thousand years later.As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two imperial courts, some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire. Despite the fall, or abolition, of the Western Empire, many of the new kings of western Europe continued to operate firmly within a Roman administrative framework. This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths, who came to rule Italy after Odoacer. They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The Senate continued to function as it always had, and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional", "own traditional laws.Western Roman administrative institutions, in particular those of Italy, thus continued to be used during \"barbarian\" rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire re-conquered some of the formerly imperial territories. Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolition of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units, such as thePraetorian prefecture of Italy, during the sixth century as the \"true\" fall of the Western Roman Empire. Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall. Political aftermath After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic kingdoms, often referred to as \"barbarian kingdoms\", founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the", "with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition fromLate Antiquityto theMiddle Ages. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in thepraetorian prefecturesofGauland Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries.In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place.The Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Hispania and Gaul continued to recognise the emperor in Constantinople as a somewhat nominal sovereign, the Visigoths minted coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century. Some territories under direct Roman control continued to exist in the West even after 480. TheDomain of Soissons, a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by Syagrius, survived until 486 when it was conquered", "it was conquered by theFranksunder KingClovis Iafter theBattle of Soissons. Syagrius was known as the \"King of the Romans\" by the Germanic peoples of the region and repeatedly claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province, not an independent realm.Under Clovis I from the 480s to 511, the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power. After their conquest of Soissons, the Franks defeated the Alemanni in 504 and conquered all Visigothic territory north of thePyreneesother thanSeptimaniain 507. Relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been positive, with Emperor Anastasius granting Clovis the title of consul following his victory against the Visigoths. At the time of its dissolution in the 800s, the Frankish Kingdom had lasted far longer than the other migration period barbarian kingdoms. Its divided successors would develop into the medieval states ofFrance(initially known asWest Francia) andGermany(initially known asEast Francia). A Mauro-Roman realm survived in", "realm survived in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis until the early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city ofAltavafrom the year 508 identifies a man namedMasunaas the king of \"Regnum Maurorum et Romanarum\", theKingdom of the Moors and Romans.It is possible that Masuna is the same man as the \"Massonas\" who allied himself with the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire against the Vandals in 535.This Kingdom was defeated by the Eastern Romanmagister militumGennadiusin 578 and its coastal territories were incorporated into the Empire once more. Germanic Italy The deposition of Romulus Augustus and the rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time.Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman emperor in Constantinople to whom Odoacer had subordinated himself. Interregna had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as", "saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, not unlike Ricimer, and he effectively ruled as an imperial \"governor\" of Italy and was even awarded the title ofpatricius. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the EasternAugustus, rather than in his own name. When Nepos was murdered inDalmatiain 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule inDalmatiaat the same time.Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate, a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legendS C(Senatus Consulto). These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform carried", "reform carried out by EmperorAnastasiusin the East. Under Odoacer, Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under the Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first beingCaecina Decius Maximus Basilusin 480. Basilus was made thepraetorian prefect of Italyin 483, another traditional position which continued to exist under Odoacer.Eleven further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed,Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius(486–493). Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to theremaining Empire, the Eastern emperor Zeno began to increasingly see him as a rival. Thus, Zeno promisedTheoderic the Greatof the Ostrogoths,foederatiof the Eastern Court, control over theItalian peninsulaif he was able to defeat Odoacer.Theoderic led the Ostrogoths across theJulian Alpsand into Italy and defeated Odoacer in battle twice in 489. Following four years", "four years of hostilities between them, John, theBishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty in 493 between Odoacer and Theoderic whereby they agreed to rule Ravenna and Italy jointly. Theoderic entered Ravenna on 5March and Odoacer was dead ten days later, killed by Theoderic after sharing a meal with him. Theoderic inherited Odoacer's role as acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly apatriciusand subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497, four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer. Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position. Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths", "though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his ownlaws, only edicts or clarifications.The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths, however, who largely settled in northern Italy. Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theodoric acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic kingAlaric IIand the Burgundian princeSigismund. His sister Amalfrida was married to the Vandal kingThrasamundand he married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I, himself.Through these alliances and occasional conflicts, the territory controlled by Theoderic in the early sixth century nearly constituted a restored Western Roman Empire. Ruler of Italy since 493, Theoderic becameking of the Visigothsin 511 and exerted hegemony over theVandalsin North Africa between 521 and 523. As such, his rule", "As such, his rule extended throughout the westernMediterranean. The Western imperial regalia, housed in Constantinople since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476, were returned to Ravenna by Emperor Anastasius in 497.Theoderic, by now Western emperor in all but name, could not, however, assume an imperial title, not only because the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished but also due to his \"barbarian\" heritage, which, like that ofRicimerbefore him, would have barred him from assuming the throne. With the death of Theodoric in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under KingAmalaricand the Ostrogoths' relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile under the reign of their new kingAthalaric, a child under the regency of his motherAmalasuntha.After the collapse of Theoderic's control of the western Mediterranean, the Frankish Kingdom rose to become the most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms, having taken control of most of Gaul in the", "most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance. Amalasuntha continued the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern emperorJustinian Iand allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in theVandalic War. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relativeTheodahadas king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and, even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly after. This served as an idealcasus bellifor Justinian, who prepared to invade and reclaim the Italian peninsula for the Roman Empire. Imperial reconquest With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughoutLate Antiquityand the Middle Ages. Though military campaigns had been conducted by the Western court prior to 476 with the aim of", "476 with the aim of recapturing lost territory, most notably under Majorian, the reconquests, if successful at all, were only momentary. It was as a result of the campaigns of the generalsBelisariusandNarseson behalf of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554 that long-lasting reconquests of Roman lands were witnessed. Despite also suffering from barbarian incursions, the Eastern Empire had survived the fifth century mostly intact. The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and more thinly populated, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces.Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities), and to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East fared better economically, especially as Emperors such as Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and to augment them with", "augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even after major defeats, the East could, although not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom or \"protection money\".Numbering more than 300,000 soldiers, the Eastern Roman army of Justinian I was among the most powerful in the world. Unlike the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, the Vandals in Africa minted their own coinage and were bothde factoandde jureindependent, often being enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires.With the pro-Roman Vandal kingHilderichaving been deposed byGelimerin 530,Justinian prepared an expedition led by Belisarius. It swiftly retook North Africa between June 533 and March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reintroduced the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a newPraetorian Prefecture of Africaand taking measures to decrease Vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete", "to the complete disappearance of the Vandalic people. Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth King Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under KingTotilain 541. They were finally defeated following campaigns by the Roman general Narses, who also repelled invasions into Italy by the Franks and Alemanni, though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s. Justinian promulgated thePragmatic Sanctionto reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule. The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated, which, combined with the disastrous effects of thePlague of Justinian, made it difficult to retain over the", "to retain over the following centuries. At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476–480, the Visigoths controlled large areas of southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania. Their increased domain had been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western emperor Avitus in the 450s–60s.Justinian undertook some limited campaigns against them, recovering portions of the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula. Here, the province ofSpaniawould last until the 620s, when the Visigoths under KingSuintilareconquered the south coast.These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian. Three years after his death, theLombardsinvaded Italy. The Lombards conquered large parts of the devastated peninsula in the late 500s, establishing theLombard Kingdom. They were in constant conflict with the Exarchate of Ravenna, a polity established to replace the old Praetorian Prefecture of Italy and enforce Roman rule in Italy. The wealthiest parts of the province, including the", "including the cities of Rome and Ravenna, remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century. Although other Eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues ofwar with Sasanian Persiaand then the rise of Islam. For a while, the West remained important, withEmperor Constans IIruling fromSyracusein Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s. Thereafter, imperial attention declined, with Constantinople itselfbeing besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and thena period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost once and for all,being conqueredby the Umayyad Caliphate. Through reforms and military campaigns, EmperorLeo IIIattempted to restore order in the Empire, but his doctrinal", "but his doctrinal reforms, known as theIconoclastic Controversy, were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned byPope Gregory III. The Roman Empire was not the only Christian nation affected by the Islamic conquests, the Visigothic Kingdom finally fell to theUmayyad Caliphatein the 720s.TheKingdom of Asturiaswas founded byPelagius of Asturiasaround the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths.Asturias would be transformed into theKingdom of Leónin 924,which would develop into the predecessors of modern-day Spain. The religious disagreements between Rome and Constantinople eventually led to the breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independentPapal States, led by the Pope. In an attempt to gain support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish kingCharlemagneas \"Roman", "\"Roman Emperor\" in AD 800. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased. After a series of small wars in the 810s, EmperorMichael Irecognized Charlemagne as an \"Emperor\". He refused to recognize him as a \"Roman Emperor\" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious \"Emperor of the Franks\". Imperial rule continued inSicilythroughout the eighth century, withthe island slowly being overrunby the Arabs during the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds inCalabriaprovided a base for a later, modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the Empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empire's former mercenaries, theNormans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western", "rule in Western Europe in 1071 with theconquest of Bari.The last emperor to attempt reconquests in the West wasManuel I Komnenos, who invaded southern Italy during a war with the NormanKingdom of Sicilyin the 1150s. The city ofBariwillingly opened its gates to the emperor and after successes in taking other cities in the region,Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches ofRomeandConstantinople, separated since theschism of 1054. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return east. Legacy As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered its constituent provinces maintained most Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers ofArianism. They quickly changed their adherence to thestate church of the Roman Empire. This helped cement the loyalty of the local Roman populations, as well as the support of the powerfulBishopof", "powerfulBishopof Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced byRoman lawand gradually incorporated it.Roman law, particularly theCorpus Juris Civiliscollected on the orders of Justinian I, is the basis of moderncivil law. In contrast,common lawis based on GermanicAnglo-Saxon law. Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in some form in about 150 countries. Latin as a language did not disappear.Vulgar Latincombined with neighboring Germanic andCeltic languages, giving rise to modernRomance languagessuch as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers. Latin also influencedGermanic languagessuch as English and German.It survives in a \"purer\" form as the language of the Catholic Church; the", "Church; the CatholicMasswas spoken exclusively in Latin until1969. As such it was also used as alingua francaby ecclesiasticals. It remained the language of medicine, law, and diplomacy, as well as of intellectuals and scholarship, well into the 18th century. Since then the use of Latin has declined with the growth of otherlingua francas, especially English and French.TheLatin alphabetwas expanded due to the split of I into I and J, and of V into U, V, and, in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish), W.Latin scriptis the basis for the largest number of alphabets of anywriting systemand is themost widely adoptedwriting system in the world.Roman numeralscontinue to be used in some fields and situations, though they have largely been replaced byArabic numerals. A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is theCatholic Church. Church institutions slowly began to replace Roman ones in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century.As Rome was invaded by", "Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c.9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as theVicar of Christ. The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the Church of Rome was Clovis I of the Franks; other kingdoms, such as the Visigoths, later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy. WhenPope Leo IIIcrowned Charlemagne as \"Roman Emperor\" in 800, he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation.Although the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent periods, the office itself has remained as the head of the Catholic Church and the head of state of theVatican City. The Pope has consistently held the title of \"Pontifex Maximus\" since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day;", "it to this day; this title formerly used by the high priest ofthe Roman polytheistic religion, one of whom was Julius Caesar. The Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority increased under the rule of Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths, evident by the Senate in 498 managing to installSymmachusas pope despite bothTheodoricof Italy and Emperor Anastasius supporting another candidate,Laurentius.Exactly when the senate disappeared is unclear, but the institution is known to have survived at least into the 6th century, inasmuch as gifts from the senate were received by EmperorTiberius IIin 578 and 580. The traditional senate building,Curia Julia, was rebuilt into a church underPope Honorius Iin 630, probably with permission from the Eastern emperor,Heraclius. Nomenclature Marcellinus Comes, a sixth-century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I, mentions the Western Roman Empire in hisChronicle, which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to", "Empire from 379 to 534. In theChronicle, it is clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with mentions of a geographical east (\"Oriens\") and west (\"Occidens\") and of an imperial east (\"Orientale imperium\" and \"Orientale respublica\") and an imperial west (\"Occidentalie imperium\", \"Occidentale regnum\", \"Occidentalis respublica\", \"Hesperium regnum\", \"Hesperium imperium\" and \"principatum Occidentis\"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being \"Eastern\", \"Orientalibus principibus\" and \"Orientalium consulum\" respectively.The termHesperium Imperium, translating to \"Western Empire\", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well. Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term \"Roman\" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as \"us\", \"our generals\", and \"our emperor\", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the", "divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns.This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one.The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there were co-emperors, such as withCaracallaandGetain 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their fatherSeptimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother. Attempted restorations of a Western court The positions of Eastern and WesternAugustus, established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy, had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the soleAugustus, Zeno only exercised true control", "true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer.The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control, and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler. Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper,Stotzas, appeared in the province (though he was quickly defeated).As such, the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the period that the Eastern Empire controlled large parts of the former West, both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West. The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during theGothic Warsunder Justinian. Belisarius, an accomplished general who had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and", "North Africa and large parts of Italy, including Rome itself, was offered the position of Western Roman emperor by the Ostrogoths during his siege of Ravenna (the Ostrogothic, and previously Western Roman, capital) in 540. The Ostrogoths, desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy, offered the title and theirfealtyto Belisarius as WesternAugustus. Justinian had expected to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone, with theCodex Justinianeusexplicitly designating the newPraetorian Prefect of Africaas the subject of Justinian in Constantinople.Belisarius, loyal to Justinian, feigned acceptance of the title to enter the city, whereupon he immediately relinquished it. Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title, the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east. At the end of Emperor Tiberius II's reign in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose twoCaesares, the generalMauriceand the", "the governorGermanus, and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius was planning to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more.If so, the plan was never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne. Maurice established a new type of administrative unit, theExarchate, and organized the remaining western territories under his control into the Exarchate of Ravenna and theExarchate of Africa. Later claims to the Imperial title in the West In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as \"Emperor of the Romans\" in AD 800, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of", "as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept oftranslatio imperii. Though theCarolingian Empirecollapsed in 888 andBerengar, the last \"Emperor\" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of theHoly Roman Empirein 962. TheHoly Roman Emperorswould uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman emperors of old until thedissolution of the Holy Roman Empirein 1806. Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors, were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be \"one and indivisible\". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation wasIrene of Athens, the mother of emperorConstantine VIwho she had deposed.", "she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus, but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor. Irene was deposed and replaced by EmperorNikephorossoon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Following several wars in the 810s EmperorMichael I Rangabeeventually recognized Charlemagne as an \"Emperor\", but as the slightly humiliating \"Emperor of the Franks\" rather than \"Roman Emperor\", a title he reserved for himself.For centuries to come, the \"revived\" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole Roman Empire. With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an \"Empire of the Franks\", the term \"Empire of the Greeks\"", "of the Greeks\" was popularized in the Frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople. Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of \"Emperor\" became widespread among European monarchs. TheAustrian Empirelaid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria'sHabsburgsattempted to unite Germany under their rule.TheGerman Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire.Both of these empires used the imperial titleKaiser(derived from the Latin word \"Caesar\"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire andAustria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of theFirst World Waralong with theRussianandOttoman Empireswhich had also claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire. List of Western Roman emperors With junior colleagues and heirs are listed below the reign of", "below the reign of each emperor. Tetrarchy (286–313) Maximian was elevated tocaesarby Diocletian in 285, after Diocletian defeatedCarinus.He became Western emperor in 286, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. On 1 May 305, both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated, leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors. Constantius was elevated tocaesarin 293, under Maximian. Constantius became the Western emperor in 305, after the abdication of Maximian.Constantius died on 25 July 306, leaving a highly contested succession in his wake. Valerius Severus was elevated tocaesarby Constantius in 305, after the abdication of Maximian and Diocletian. After the death of Constantius in 306, Severus became Western emperor. Severus was forced to deal with the revolt of Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Maxentius invaded in early 307, and captured the Western Empire.He had Severus put to death soon after his capture. Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in 306, in opposition to Valerius Severus, and ruled alongside his father", "his father Maximian. They succeeded in capturing the Western Empire in 307, and had Severus killed soon after.The Western Empire was invaded in 312 by Constantine, who on 28 October 312 decisively defeated Maxentius, who drowned when his forces were pushed back into theTiberriver.Maximian had relinquished the title ofaugustusin 308, but rebelled in Gaul once again in 310. He was defeated by Constantine shortly after. Licinius was made emperor of the Eastern Empire, and parts of the Western Empire, all of which was actually held by Maxentius, at theCouncil of Carnuntum, which was held in 308 in order to try to end the civil war in the Western Empire. Constantine invaded Licinius' section of the Western Empire in 313, and forced him to sign a treaty in which he forfeited his claim to the Western Empire, and only controlled the Eastern Empire.Licinius attempted twice to replace Constantine, first withValerius Valensin 316 and thenMartinianin 324, but they were both killed shortly after their elevation.", "their elevation. Constantinian dynasty (309–363) Constantine I was proclaimedaugustusof the Western Empire by his father's troops on 25 July 306 and was accepted ascaesarby Galerius later that year. In 307 Maximian accepted him toaugustus(although Maximian himself was considered an usurper) and in 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western emperor, in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius. He ruled alone in the West from 312 and became sole Roman emperor following the defeat ofLiciniusat theBattle of Chrysopolis. Constantine II was proclaimedcaesarof the Eastern Empire in late 317. In 335, Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death, which would take place two years later in 337, giving Constantine II thePraetorian prefecture of Gaul, which also includedBritanniaandHispania. Constantine II's relationship with Constans I was tense, and in 340, Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it. However, in the same year, he was ambushed by Constans' forces", "by Constans' forces in Aquilea, and was killed. Constans was given thePraetorian prefecture of Italyand Africa on the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340, while attempting to invade Constans' territory in Italy, Constans took control of the entire Western Empire. Constans was contemptuous of his army, who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350. Constans fled toward Hispania, but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border. Magnentius was defeated by Constantius II at theBattle of Mursa Majorin 351, but continued to rule Italy and Gaul until his final defeat at theBattle of Mons Seleucus. Constantius II was proclaimedcaesarin 334, and became Eastern emperor in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constans was killed by the usurper Magnentius, Constantius laid claim to the Western Empire, and after defeating Magnentius took possession of it, becoming sole emperor. Constantius II died in 361, of a violent fever. Julian was proclaimedcaesarin", "proclaimedcaesarin 355. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops shortly before Constantius' death. Julian died in March 363, of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra. Non-dynastic (363–364) When Julian died in 363, he left no heir, causing a succession crisis. The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor. Jovian reigned only seven months, in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, underShapur II. In this agreement, Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians, in exchange for a 30-year truce. Jovian died on 16 February 364, due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation. Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) After the death of Jovian, Valentinian I was elected. He divided the Empire between himself and his younger brother, Valens, giving himself the West and Valens the East. Valentinian spent much of his reign defending Gaul against repeated attacks by barbarian tribes, only leaving the region in 373. In 375, while meeting with the Quadi, he", "with the Quadi, he suffered a stroke brought on by rage. Valentinian I elevated his son, Gratian, toaugustusin 367, however after his death in 375 his leading generals elevated his much younger son, Valentinian II, toaugustusalongside Gratian and Valens who was emperor in the East.Gratian showed a strong preference for the barbarian mercenaries in his army, especially his Alanic guard, which inflamed the Roman population, to the point that in 383, Roman troops in Britain declared Magnus Maximus emperor, in opposition to Gratian. Maximus landed troops in Gaul, and attacked Gratian's troops near Paris. Gratian was defeated, and fled toLyons, where he was murdered on 25 August 383. After the death of Gratian, Valentinian II succeeded him, although he only controlled Italy itself, with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, to depose Valentinian. Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius, where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus, and to", "Maximus, and to reinstate himself as Western emperor, which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia.Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392, when he was probably murdered by Arbogast. Magnus Maximus was elected emperor by his men in 383, in opposition to Gratian, and defeated him in battle in 383. Maximus was recognized as the Western emperor by Eastern emperor Theodosius I in 384, however this recognition was revoked by him when Maximus invaded Italy and deposed Valentinian II in 387. Valentinian II fled to the Eastern Roman Empire, and convinced Theodosius I to invade the Western Roman Empire and restore him to the Western Roman throne, which he did in 388. Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia, and executed. Theodosian dynasty (392–455) Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379, after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube. He became sole emperor in August 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius. Theodosius", "Theodosius died ofedemain January 395. Honorius became Western emperor in 395, after the death of his father Theodosius. His reign was beset by barbarian invasions, and for much of his early reign, until 408, he was controlled byStilicho, whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors. After 408 his reign was greatly influenced by the generalConstantius, who briefly reigned as his co-emperor for a few months before dying of natural causes. He also faced the usurpation ofPriscus Attalus, a senator who was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 409, andConstantine, who took over Britain and Gaul around the same time. Honorius died of edema in 423. Valentinian III was designated Honorius' heir in 421, although he was not proclaimedcaesar, only given the title ofnobilissimus puer. In 423, after the death of Honorius, a usurper namedJoannesrose up, forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern emperor Theodosius II. Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in", "by Theodosius in Ravenna. Valentinian III was killed on 16 March 455, byOptila, a friend of Aetius, whom Valentinian had killed. Non-dynastic (455–480) The following last emperors of the West were all accepted by the Senate but only two of them (AnthemiusandJulius Nepos) were recognized in the East. In fact, these two emperors were installed by the Eastern emperor. Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman emperor on 17 March 455, after assassinating Valentinian III.During his short reign, he provoked Gaiseric, theVandalking, into invading the Western Empire and sacking Rome, by breaking a marriage agreement made between Gaiseric and Valentinian III. Maximus and his son Palladius attempted to flee on 31 May 455, however they were apprehended by a group of peasants, and either killed by them, or by palace servants wishing to curry favor with them. Avitus was proclaimed Western emperor on 9July 455, with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II. While he held support from the Visigoths, his rule", "Visigoths, his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people. In 456 Ricimer, a senior officer, had Avitus deposed, and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472. Majorian was proclaimed Western emperor on 28 December 456. On 7August 461, Majorian was compelled to abdicate, and reportedly died five days later of dysentery, although modern historians have asserted he was likely murdered byRicimer, who became the power behind the throne. Libius Severus was proclaimed Western emperor on 19 November 461. His rule, even as a puppet emperor, extended little beyond Italy, withAegidiussplitting off from the Western Empire, and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons. Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals, who invaded Italy and Sicily. During these events, Libius Severus died on 14November 465, possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer. Anthemius was proclaimed Western emperor on 12April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius, the Western Empire, which had become", "which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire, grew closer, although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire. Anthemius' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer, who deposed him in March or April of 472. Olybrius was proclaimed emperor in April 472. His brief reign, lasting only five or six months, was dominated by Gundobad, who had replaced his uncle Ricimer as the true power behind the throne, after the former's death. Olybrius died in October or November 472, of edema. After the death of both Olybrius and Ricimer, Glycerius was proclaimed Western emperor by the Western Roman army, on 3 or 5May 473.He was deposed by Julius Nepos in July 474, and sent to live in a monastery, where he remained until his death. The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius, instead supporting Julius Nepos,magister militumin Dalmatia as Western Roman emperor. Nepos, with support from the East, deposed Glycerius in the spring of", "in the spring of 474.Orestes,magister militumof Nepos, deposed him a year later in 475, forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia. Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western emperor, though the Eastern Empire and the Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor.Nepos continued to rule as \"Western emperor\" in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title. Romulus Augustus was crowned as Western emperor after his father Orestes deposed Julius Nepos.The rule of Romulus would be brief; in the autumn of 476 thefoederatiunder the control of Odoacer rebelled when their demands for a third of the land of Italy were ignored.Orestes was captured and executed on 28August of the same year and Romulus was deposed by Odoacer a week later. Romulus was spared and allowed to live in theCastellum LucullanuminCampania, where he might have been alive as late as AD 507. With the deposition of Romulus Augustus by Odoacer, direct", "by Odoacer, direct Roman control ceased to exist in Italy. Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as ade jurerepresentative of Western Roman emperor Nepos. With the death of Nepos in 480, the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno abolished the title and position of Western Roman emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer's sovereign. The position of Roman emperor would never again be divided, though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman re-conquests of the sixth century, such asBelisariusin 540 andGermanusin 582. See also References Citations Sources Web sources Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_(emperor" ]
As of 2010, if you added the number of times Brazil had won the World Cup to the amount of times the Chicago Bulls had won the NBA Championship and multiplied this number by the amount of times the Dallas Cowboys had won the Super Bowl, what number are you left with?
55
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Bulls
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys
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Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Bulls', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_World_Cup", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Bulls", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Cowboys" ]
[ "FIFA World Cup TheFIFA World Cup, often called theWorld Cup, is an internationalassociation footballcompetition among the seniormen's national teamsof the members of theFédération Internationale de Football Association(FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since theinaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to theSecond World War. The reigning champions areArgentina, who won their third title at the2022 tournament. The contest starts with thequalification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the2026 tournament. As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. Thetrophyhas been won by eight national teams. With five wins,Brazilis the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners areGermanyandItaly, with four titles each;Argentina, with three titles;Franceand inaugural winnerUruguay, each with two titles; andEnglandandSpain, with one title each. The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.The viewership of the2018 World Cupwas estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population,while the engagement with the2022 World Cupwas estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watchingthe final match. Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recentlyQatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The2026 tournamentwill be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played inGlasgowin 1872 betweenScotlandandEngland.The first international tournament for nations, the inauguralBritish Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland,Wales, andIreland.As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as ademonstration sportwith no medals awarded at the1900and1904 Summer Olympics; however, theInternational Olympic Committeehas retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the1906 Intercalated Games. AfterFIFAwas founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been unsuccessful. At the1908 Summer OlympicsinLondon, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned byThe Football Association(FA), England's football governing body, the event was foramateurplayers only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by theEngland national amateur football team) won thegold medals. They repeated the feat at the1912 Summer OlympicsinStockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only,Sir Thomas Liptonorganised theSir Thomas Lipton Trophytournament inTurinin 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described asThe First World Cup,and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invitedWest Auckland, an amateur side fromCounty Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the1895 gamebetweenSunderland A.F.C.and theHeart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise theOlympic tournamentas a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event.This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the1920 Summer Olympics, contested byEgyptand 13 European teams, and won byBelgium.Uruguaywon the next two Olympic football tournaments in1924and1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason whyUruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars. World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, withPresidentJules Rimetas the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress inAmsterdamdecided to stage a world championship.With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate theircentenaryofindependencein 1930, FIFA namedUruguayas the host country of theinaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of theGreat Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams fromBelgium,France,Romania, andYugoslaviato make the trip.In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won byFranceand theUnited States, who defeatedMexico4–1 andBelgium3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored byLucien Laurentof France.In thefinal,UruguaydefeatedArgentina4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators inMontevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and theIOCdisagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the1932 Summer Olympics.After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the1934 World Cupand all North and South American nations exceptBrazilandCubaboycotted the1938tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, whichGermanyandBrazilsought to host,were cancelled due toWorld War II. World Cups after World War II The1950 World Cup, held inBrazil, was the first to include British football associations.Scotland,England,Wales, andNorthern Irelandhad withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 championsUruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese:Maracanaço). In the tournaments between 1934 and1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, whenAustriawasabsorbedintoGermanyafter qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, whenIndia,Scotland, andTurkeywithdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were:United States, semi-finalists in 1930;Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938;North Korea, quarter-finalists in1966; andMexico, quarter-finalists in1970. Expansion to 24 and 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in1982,and then to 32 in1998,allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals:Mexico, quarter-finalists in1986;Cameroon, quarter-finalists in1990;South Korea, finishing in fourth place in2002;Senegal, along withUSA, both quarter-finalists in 2002;Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010;Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; andMorocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far. Two hundred teams entered the2002 FIFA World Cupqualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the2010 FIFA World Cup. Expansion to 48 teams In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing theCaribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.In the edition of 25 October 2013 of theFIFA WeeklyBlatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\"Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency,UEFAPresidentMichel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth toUEFA, two each to theAsian Football Confederationand theConfederation of African Football, two shared betweenCONCACAFandCONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for theOceania Football Confederation.Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \" not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\" In October 2016, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams. 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games,with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. On 4 June 2015,Chuck Blazerwhile co-operating with theFBIand the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices ofSepp Blatter.The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the2026 FIFA World Cupin light of theallegations surrounding briberyin the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary generalJérôme Valckestated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\"On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. On 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day. Biennial World Cup proposition A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by theSaudi Arabian Football Federationat the 71stFIFA Congresson 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal managerArsène Wengerand national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the planbut, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament forwomen's football, theFIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in1991inChina.The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Men's football has been included in everySummer Olympic Gamesexcept 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men'sfootball tournament at the Olympicsis not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.Women's football made itsOlympic debut in 1996. TheFIFA Confederations Cupwas a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.The first edition took place in1992and the last edition was played in2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of theFIFA Club World Cupin 2021. FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup,FIFA U-17 World Cup,FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup,FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such asfutsal(FIFA Futsal World Cup) andbeach soccer(FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although aFIFA Women's Club World Cuphas been proposed. TheFIFA U-20 Women's World Cupis held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010,2014and2018). Trophy From 1930 to 1970, theJules Rimet Trophywas awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as theWorld CuporCoupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA presidentJules Rimetwho set up the first tournament. In1970,Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. After 1970, a new trophy, known as theFIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designerSilvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18carat(75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-preciousmalachitewhile the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\" This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards. All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of theWorld Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hostsSouth Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear theFIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa,Asia,North and Central America and Caribbean,South America,Oceania, andEurope), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinentalplay-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the2010 World Cup.From the1938 World Cuponwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the2006 FIFA World Cuponward, requiring the champions to qualify.Brazil, winners in2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. Final tournament The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on theFIFA World Rankingsor performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays around-robin tournamentin which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since1994,three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). Considering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points.However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by: The knockout stage is asingle-elimination tournamentin which teams play each other in one-off matches, withextra timeandpenalty shootoutsused to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, thethird-place match(contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32. Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold thefirst World Cupin Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the1938 FIFA World Cup. Since the1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the1998 FIFA World Cup. The2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in2010. The2014 FIFA World Cupwas hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America sinceArgentina 1978,and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under anexhaustive ballotsystem. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded toRussiaandQatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after thecontroversysurrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. The2026 FIFA World Cupwas chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each. Summary by confederation Performances Six of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions beingBrazil, who finished as runners-up after losing thedeciding matchon home soil in 1950 and lost theirsemi-finalagainst Germany in 2014, andSpain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England(1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.Uruguay(1930),Italy(1934),Argentina(1978), andFrance(1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, whileGermany(1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.Switzerland(quarter-finals 1954),Sweden(runners-up in 1958),Chile(third place in 1962),South Korea(fourth place in 2002),Russia(quarter-finals 2018), andMexico(quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.So far,South Africa(2010) andQatar(2022) failed to advance beyond the first round. Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.The World Cup attracts major sponsors such asCoca-Cola,McDonald'sandAdidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. The governing body of the sport,FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament,and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its ownmascotor logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the firstWorld Cup mascot.World Cups featureofficial match ballsspecially designed for each tournament. AfterSlazengerproduced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.Each World Cup also has anofficial song, which have been performed by artists ranging fromShakiratoWill Smith.Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed byThe Three Tenorsat four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970,Paninipublished its firststicker albumfor the 1970 World Cup.Since then, collecting and trading stickers andcardshas become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.FIFA has licensed World Cupvideo gamessince 1986, sponsored byElectronic Arts. Results In all, 80 nations haveplayed in at least one World Cup.Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup,and they have addedstars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to displayfour stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to haveplayed in every World Cup(22) to date.Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8). Teams reaching the top four Best performances by confederations To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from theUEFA(Europe) andCONMEBOL(South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition:United States(North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930;South Korea(Asia) in 2002; andMorocco(Africa) in 2022. Only oneOceanianqualifier,Australiain 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022. Brazil,Argentina,SpainandGermanyare the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious inEurope(1958),North America(1970and1994) andAsia(2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in1986and in Asia in2022. Spain won inAfricain2010. In2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the2006,2010,2014, and2018tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively). Records and statistics Six players share the record forplaying in the most World Cups;Mexico'sAntonio Carbajal(1950–1966).Rafael Márquez(2002–2018), andAndrés Guardado(2006–2022);Germany'sLothar Matthäus(1982–1998);Argentina'sLionel Messi(2006–2022); andPortugal'sCristiano Ronaldo(2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.Brazil'sDjalma Santos(1954–1962), West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauer(1966–1974), and Germany'sPhilipp Lahm(2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World CupAll-Star Teams. Miroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He brokeRonaldoof Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany'sGerd Müller(1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.The fourth-placed goalscorer,France'sJust Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.This made Brazil'sPeléthe only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury),with20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974:Franz Beckenbauer,Jürgen Grabowski,Horst-Dieter Höttges,Sepp Maier, andWolfgang Overath(1966–1974), Italy'sFranco Baresi(1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has beenMiroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals. Brazil'sMário Zagallo, West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauerand France'sDidier Deschampsare the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach,and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.Italy'sVittorio Pozzois the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the2002 finaland in the2014 semi-final. Top goalscorers Players inboldare still active. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. See also Notes Citations Cited works External links", "Chicago Bulls TheChicago Bullsare an American professionalbasketballteam based inChicago. The Bulls compete in theNational Basketball Association(NBA) as a member of theCentral Divisionof theEastern Conference. The team was founded on January 16, 1966, and played its first game during the1966–67 NBA season.The Bulls play their home games at theUnited Center, an arena on Chicago's West Side. The Bulls saw their greatest success during the 1990s when they played a major part in popularizing the NBA worldwide. They are known for having one of the NBA's greatest dynasties, winning sixNBA championshipsbetween 1991 and 1998 with twothree-peats. All six of their championship teams were led byHall of FamersMichael Jordan,Scottie Pippen, and coachPhil Jackson. The Bulls are the only NBA franchise to win multiple championships while never losing anNBA Finalsseries in their history. The Bulls won 72 games during the1995–96 season, setting anNBA recordthat stood until theGolden State Warriorswon 73 games during the2015–16 season. The Bulls were the first team in NBA history to win 70 games or more in a single season, and the only NBA franchise to do so until the 2015–16 Warriors. Since 1998, the Bulls have failed to regain their former success. The franchise struggled throughout the 2000s, but showed promise in the early 2010s led byDerrick RoseandJoakim Noah, culminating in back-to-back seasons above .732 in2010–11and2011–12. AnACLtear suffered by Rose and subsequent trades of key players triggered a rebuild, culminating in the lineup built aroundAll-StarsZach LaVine,DeMar DeRozanandNikola Vučević. Jordan and Rose have won theNBA Most Valuable Player Awardwhile playing for the Bulls, for a total of six MVP awards. The Bulls share rivalries with theCleveland Cavaliers,Detroit Pistons,Miami Heat, and theNew York Knicks. The Bulls' rivalry with the Pistons was highlighted heavily during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Outside of basketball, the Chicago Bulls are also known for their community work through their charity department which provides youth and not-for-profit organizations with tickets to games and merchandise. History 1966–1975: Team creation and early success On January 16, 1966,Chicagowas granted aNational Basketball Association(NBA) franchise to be called the Bulls. The Chicago Bulls became the third NBA franchise in the city, after theChicago Stags(1946–1950) and the Chicago Packers/Zephyrs (1961–1963, now theWashington Wizards). The Bulls' founder,Dick Klein, was the Bulls' only owner to ever play professional basketball (for theChicago American Gears). He served as the Bulls' general manager and president in their initial years. After the1966 NBA Expansion Draft, the newly founded Chicago Bulls were allowed to acquire players from the previously established teams in the league for the upcoming1966–67 season. They would be coached by Chicagoan and former NBA All-StarJohnny \"Red\" Kerr.That season, the team played their first game in franchise history on October 15.Played on the road, their first game was an upset victory over theSt. Louis Hawks.They went on to post a 33–48 record, the best by an expansion team in NBA history. Led by guardsGuy RodgersandJerry Sloan, and forwardBob Boozer, the Bulls qualified for the playoffs, the only NBA team to do so in their inaugural season.Kerr receivedCoach of the Yearhonors for the season.Rodgers and Sloan were named All-Stars during the season, with the former leading the league in assists. In their first season, the Bulls played their home games at theInternational Amphitheatre, before moving toChicago Stadium. Fan interest was diminishing after four seasons, with one game in the1967–68 seasonhaving an official attendance of 891 and some games being played inKansas City. In 1969, Klein dropped out of the general manager job and hiredPat Williams, who as thePhiladelphia 76ers' business manager created promotions that helped the team become third in attendance the previous season. Williams revamped the team roster, acquiringChet Walkerfrom Philadelphia in exchange forJim Washingtonand draftingNorm Van Lier– who was traded to theCincinnati Royalsand only joined the Bulls in 1971 – while also investing in promotion, with actions such as creating mascotBenny the Bull. The Bulls under Williams and head coachDick Mottaqualified for four straight playoffs and had attendances grow to over 10,000.In 1972, the Bulls set a franchise win–loss record at 57 wins and 25 losses. During the 1970s, the Bulls relied onJerry Sloan, forwardsBob LoveandChet Walker, point guardNorm Van Lier, and centersClifford RayandTom Boerwinkle. The team made the conference finals in 1975 but lost to the eventual champions, theGolden State Warriors, 4 games to 3. After four 50-win seasons, Williams returned to Philadelphia, and Motta decided to take on the role of general manager as well. The Bulls ended up declining, winning only 24 games in the 1975–76 season. Motta was fired and replaced byEd Badger. 1976–1984: Gilmore and Theus duo Klein sold the Bulls to the Wirtz family, longtime owners of theChicago Blackhawks. Indifferent to NBA basketball, the new ownership group infamously implemented a shoestring budget, putting little time and investment into improving the team. Artis Gilmore, acquired in theABAdispersal draft in 1976, led a Bulls squad which included guardReggie Theus, forwardDavid Greenwoodand forwardOrlando Woolridge. In 1979, the Bulls lost a coin flip for the right to select first in the NBA draft (Rod Thorn, the Bulls' general manager, called \"heads\"). Had the Bulls won the toss, they would have selectedMagic Johnson; instead, they selectedDavid Greenwoodwith the second pick. TheLos Angeles Lakersselected Johnson with the pick acquired from theNew Orleans Jazz, who traded the selection forGail Goodrich. After Gilmore was traded to the San Antonio Spurs for centerDave Corzine, the Bulls employed a high-powered offense centered on Theus, and which soon included guardsQuintin DaileyandEnnis Whatley. However, with continued dismal results, the Bulls decided to change direction, trading Theus to theKansas City Kingsduring the1983–84 season. Attendance began to dwindle, with the Wirtz family looking to sell to ownership groups interested in moving the team out of Chicago, before selling to local ownership. 1984–1990: Michael Jordan era begins In the summer of 1984, the Bulls had the third pick of the1984 NBA draft, after Houston and Portland. TheRocketsselectedHakeem Olajuwon, theBlazerspickedSam Bowieand the Bulls chose shooting guardMichael Jordan. The team, with new management in ownerJerry Reinsdorfand general managerJerry Krause, decided to rebuild around Jordan. Jordan set franchise records during his rookie campaign for scoring (third in the league) and steals (fourth), and led the Bulls back tothe playoffs, where they lost in four games to theMilwaukee Bucks. For his efforts, he was rewarded with a selection to the All-NBA Second Team and the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. In the following off-season, the team acquired point guardJohn Paxsonand on draft day traded with the Cavaliers for the rights to power forwardCharles Oakley. Along with Jordan and centerDave Corzine, they provided much of the Bulls' offense for the next two years. After suffering a broken foot early in the1985–86 season, Jordan finished second on the team to Woolridge in scoring. Jordan returned forthe playoffs, and led the eighth-place Bulls against the 67–15Boston Celtics, led byLarry Bird. At the time, the Bulls had the fifth-worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history.Though the Bulls were swept, Jordan recorded a playoff single-game record 63 points in Game 2 (which still stands to this day), prompting Bird to call him 'God disguised as Michael Jordan.' In the1986–87 season, Jordan continued his assault on the record books, leading the league in scoring with 37.1 points per game and becoming the first Bull named to the All-NBA First Team. The Bulls finished 40–42, which was good enough to qualify them for the playoffs. However, they were again swept by the Celtics inthe playoffs. In the1987 draft, to address their lack of depth, Krause selected centerOlden Polyniceeighth overall and power forwardHorace Grant10th overall, then sent Polynice to Seattle in a draft-day trade for the fifth selection,small forwardScottie Pippen. With Paxson and Jordan in the backcourt,Brad Sellersand Oakley at the forward spots, Corzine anchoring center, androokiesPippen and Grant coming off the bench, the Bulls won 50 games and advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals, where they were beaten by the eventual Eastern Conference ChampionsDetroit Pistonsin five games. For his efforts, Jordan was named NBAMost Valuable Player, an award he would win four more times over his career. The 1987–88 season would also mark the start of the Pistons-Bulls rivalry which was formed from 1988 to 1991. The1988–89 seasonmarked a second straight year of major off-season moves. Power forwardCharles Oakley, who had led the league in total rebounds in both 1987 and 1988, was traded on the eve of the1988 NBA draftto theNew York Knicksalong with a first-round draft pick used by the Knicks to selectRod Stricklandfor centerBill Cartwrightand a first-round pick, which the Bulls used to obtain centerWill Perdue. In addition, the Bulls acquired three-point shooterCraig Hodgesfrom Phoenix. The new starting lineup of Paxson, Jordan, Pippen, Grant, and Cartwright took some time to mesh, winning fewer games than the previous season, but made it all the way to the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were defeated in six games by the NBA champion Pistons. In1989–90, Jordan led the league in scoring for the fourth straight season and was joined on the all-star squad for the first time by Pippen. There was also a major change during the off-season, where head coachDoug Collinswas replaced by assistant coachPhil Jackson. The Bulls also picked up rookie centerStacey Kingand rookie point guardB. J. Armstrongin the1989 draft. With these additional players and the previous year's starting five, the Bulls again made it to the Conference Finals and pushed the Pistons to seven games before being eliminated for the third straight year, the Pistons going on to repeat as NBA champions. 1990–1993: First championship three-peat In the1990–91 season, the Bulls recorded a then-franchise record 61 wins, and romped throughthe playoffs, where they swept the Knicks in the first round, defeated thePhiladelphia 76ersin the semifinals, and then swept the defending champion Pistons in the Conference Finals, then winning theNBA Finalsin five games over theMagic Johnson-ledLos Angeles Lakers. The Bulls won their second straight title in1992after racking up another franchise record for wins with 67. They swept theMiami Heatin the first round, defeated the Knicks in seven games in the second round, then theCleveland Cavaliersin six games in the third round, advancing to theFinalsfor the second year in a row where they defeated theClyde Drexler-ledPortland Trail Blazersin six games. In1993, the Bulls won their third consecutive championship by defeating theAtlanta Hawks,Cleveland CavaliersandNew York Knicksin the first three rounds of the playoffs and then defeating regular season MVPCharles Barkleyand thePhoenix Sunsin the Finals, with Paxson's three-pointer with 3.9 seconds left giving them a 99–98 victory in Game 6 in Phoenix. 1993–1995: Jordan's first retirement and the Scottie Pippen era On October 6, 1993,Michael Jordanshocked the basketball community by announcing his retirement, three months after hisfather's murder. The Bulls were then led byScottie Pippen, who established himself as one of the top players in the league by winning the1994 All-StarMVP. He received help fromHorace GrantandB. J. Armstrong, who were named to their first all-star games. The three were assisted byCartwright,Perdue, shooting guardPete Myers, andCroatianrookie forwardToni Kukoč. Despite the Bulls winning 55 games during the1993–94 season, they were beaten in seven games by the Knicks in the second round ofthe playoffs, after a controversial foul call by refereeHue Hollinsin game 5 of that series. The Knicks eventually reached theNBA Finalsthat year, but lost to theHouston Rockets. The Bulls opened the1994–95 seasonby leaving their home of 27 years,Chicago Stadium, and moving into their current home, theUnited Center. In 1994, the Bulls lost Grant, Cartwright andScott Williamsto free agency, andJohn Paxsonto retirement, but picked up shooting guardRon Harper, the seeming heir apparent to Jordan in assistant coachTex Winter's triple-post offense, and small-forwardJud Buechler. The Bulls started Armstrong and Harper in the backcourt, Pippen and Kukoč at the forward spots, and Perdue at center. They also had sharpshooterSteve Kerr, whom they acquired via free agency before the 1993–94 season, Myers, and centersLuc Longley(acquired via trade in 1994 from the Minnesota Timberwolves) andBill Wennington. However, the Bulls struggled during the season, and on March 18, 1995, they received the news that Michael Jordan was coming out of retirement. He scored 55 points against the Knicks in only his fifth game back, and led the Bulls to the fifth seed inthe playoffs, where they defeated the Charlotte Hornets. However, Jordan and the Bulls were unable to overcome the eventual Eastern Conference championOrlando Magic, which includedHorace Grant,Penny Hardaway, andShaquille O'Neal. In the off-season, the Bulls lost Armstrong in the expansion draft, and Krause traded Perdue to theSan Antonio Spursfor rebounding specialistDennis Rodman, who had won the past four rebounding titles, and who had also been a member of theDetroit Pistons' \"Bad Boys\" squad that served as the Bulls' chief nemesis in the late 1980s. 1995–1998: Return of Michael Jordan and second championship three-peat With a lineup of Jordan, Pippen, Rodman, Harper and Longley, and perhaps the league's best bench inSteve Kerr, Kukoč, Wennington, Buechler, and guardRandy Brown, the Bulls were seen as the team to win again for the NBA Finals. The Bulls started their 1995–96 campaign with a 105–91 win over the visiting Hornets. In that game, Michael Jordan recorded 42 points, 6 rebounds and 7 assists for the Bulls.The next game, they were up against the Boston Celtics. The Bulls scored 35 points in the third quarter as they pulled away against the Celtics, 107–85. Six Bulls players scored in double figures in this win.The 1995–96 Bulls posted one of the best single-season improvements in league history and the best single-season record at that time, moving from 47–35 to 72–10, becoming the first NBA team to win 70 or more games.Jordan won his eighth scoring title, and Rodman his fifth straight rebounding title, while Kerr finished second in the league in three-point shooting percentage. Jordan garnered the elusive triple crown with theNBA MVP,NBA All-Star Game MVP, andNBA Finals MVP. Krause was namedNBA Executive of the Year, Jackson Coach of the Year, and Kukoč the Sixth Man of the Year. Both Pippen and Jordan made the All-NBA First Team, and Jordan, Pippen, and Rodman made the All-Defensive First Team, making the Bulls one of several teams in NBA history with three players on the All-Defensive First Team. In addition, the1995–96team holds several other records, including the best road record in a standard 41 road-game season (33–8), the all-time best start by a team (41–3), and the best start at home (37–0). The Bulls also posted the second-best home record in history (39–2), behind only the 1985–86 Celtics 40–1 home mark. The team triumphed over theMiami Heatin the first round, theNew York Knicksin the second round, theOrlando Magicin the Eastern Conference Finals and finallyGary Payton,Shawn Kempand theSeattle SuperSonicsfortheir fourth title. The 1995–96 Chicago Bulls are widely regarded as one ofthe greatest teams in the history of basketball. In the1996–97 season, the Bulls missed out on a second consecutive 70-win season by losing their final two games to finish 69–13. They repeated their home dominance, going 39–2 at the United Center.The Bulls capped the season by defeating the Bullets, Hawks and Heat in the first three rounds of the playoffs en route to winning their fifthNBA championshipoverJohn Stockton,Karl Maloneand theUtah Jazz. Jordan earned his second straight and ninth career scoring title, while Rodman earned his sixth straight rebounding title. Jordan and Pippen, along withRobert Parish, who was a member of the Bulls at the time, were also honored as members of the 50 greatest players of all time with the NBA celebrating its 50th season.Parish, whose single season with the Bulls would be his last year in the league, was nominated for his stellar career with theBoston Celtics. The 1997–98 season was one of turmoil for the NBA champion Bulls.Many speculated this would be Michael Jordan's final season with the team.Phil Jackson's future with the team was also questionable, as his relationship with team general manager Jerry Krause was one of growing tension. Scottie Pippen was looking for a significant contract extension that he thought he deserved, but was not getting from the organization. In spite of the turmoil that surrounded the Bulls, they still had a remarkable season, with a final regular season record of 62–20. Jordan would be named the league MVP for the fifth and final time, and the Bulls went into the playoffs as the number one seed in the Eastern Conference. The first round of the playoffs for the Bulls was against theNew Jersey Nets, a team led byKeith Van Horn,Kendall GillandSam Cassell. The Bulls swept the Nets three to nothing in a best of five series. The conference semi-finals were more challenging with theCharlotte Hornetsstealing game two from the Bulls at the United Center, and tying the series 1–1. But the Bulls easily defeated the Hornets in the next three games of the series. The Conference Finals was a challenge for the Bulls as they went up against theReggie Miller-ledIndiana Pacers. Experts were of the opinion that the Pacers had the best chance to defeat the Bulls.The Pacers gave the Bulls no road wins, winning games 3, 4, and 6, sending the series to a deciding game seven at the United Center. The Bulls prevailed and beat the Pacers 88–83, winning their sixth Eastern Conference title. In a much-anticipated Finals, The Bulls faced the team they beat the previous year, theUtah Jazz. Led byKarl MaloneandJohn Stockton, the Jazz felt confident that they could defeat the Bulls, winning game one at Utah'sDelta Center. Facing a potential two to nothing deficit, the Bulls won Game 2 at the Delta Center and tied the series. The Bulls returned to the United Center and, by winning the next two games, took a 3–1 series lead. The Jazz won Game 5 by two points, 83–81. Game 6 was a tough battle for both teams. Scottie Pippen left early in the first quarter due to an ongoing back injury. He came back at the start of the second half, and after a trip or two to the locker room to get physical therapy, came back out to finish the game. Late in the game and down by three points to the Jazz, Michael Jordan led the Bulls to one final win. Jordan hit a shot to bring the Bulls within 1, then stole the ball from Karl Malone and hitthe game winning shotwith 5.2 seconds remaining on the clock. With a score of 87–86, John Stockton put up a three-pointer, but missed, giving the Bulls their sixth championship in eight years. Jordan would be named the Finals MVP for the sixth time in his career. He retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. 1998–2008: Post-Jordan era and a decade of struggle 1998–2004: The Baby Bulls The summer of 1998 brought an abrupt end to the championship era.Krause felt that the Bulls were on the verge of being too old and unable to compete. He decided that the team's only choices were to rebuild or endure a slow decline. His plan was to trade away the aging talent and acquire high draft picks while clearing salary cap space to make a run at several promising free agents in two years' time. After having been vetoed in a previous attempt by ownerJerry Reinsdorf, Krause tradedScottie PippenforRoy Rogers(who was released in February 1999) and a conditional second-round draft pick from the Houston Rockets. He also decided not to re-signDennis Rodman, and tradedLuc LongleyandSteve Kerrfor other draft picks. He hired a new coach,Tim Floyd, who had run a successful program atIowa State University. Upon Phil Jackson's departure, Michael Jordan made his second retirement official. With a new starting lineup of point guard Randy Brown, shooting guardRon Harper, newcomerBrent Barryat small forward, power forwardToni Kukoč, and center Bill Wennington, the team began thelockout-shortened1998–99 season. On their home opener, the Bulls unveiled the 1998 championship banner, but no ring ceremony took place. PA announcerRay Clay's subsequent introductions made no mention of the Bulls as \"world champions\", acknowledging it as a new team. Kukoč led the team in scoring, rebounding, and assists, but the team won only 13 of 50 games. The lowest point of the season came on April 10 in a game against the Miami Heat. In that game, the Bulls scored 49 points to set an NBA record for the fewest points in a game in the shot-clock era. The previous year's dismal finish came with one highlight: the team won the draft lottery and the rights to power forwardElton Brand. Since the team lost Harper, Wennington and Barry in the off-season, Brand and fellow rookieRon Artestled the team throughout the year, especially after Kukoč missed most of the season due to injury and was then dealt for a draft pick at the trading deadline. Brand recorded the first 20–10 average for the Bulls since the days ofArtis Gilmore. He led all rookies in scoring,rebounds, blocks, field goal percentage and minutes, while Artest led all rookies in steals and finished second on the team in scoring. For his efforts Brand was named1999–2000co-Rookie of the YearwithHouston'sSteve Francis, and to the all-rookie first team, while Artest was named to the all-rookie second team. However, the team established a franchise low at 17–65, second-worst in the league. After a summer in which the Bulls witnessed most major and minor free agentsTim Duncan,Grant Hill,Tracy McGrady,Eddie Jonesand evenTim Thomaschoose to stay with their teams (or go elsewhere) rather than sign with them, Krause signed free agent centerBrad Millerand shooting guardRon Mercer, and drafted power forwardMarcus Fizerand traded draft pick Chris Mihm to Cleveland for the rights of guardJamal Crawford. Brand again led the team in scoring and rebounds with another 20–10 season, but the new acquisitions failed to make a major impact, and they finished with the worst record in team history and the league's worst for the season at 15–67. Krause shocked Bulls fans ondraft day in 2001when he traded franchise player Brand to theLos Angeles Clippersfor the second pick in the draft,Tyson Chandler. He also selectedEddy Currywith the fourth pick. Since both Chandler and Curry came straight out of high school, neither was expected to make much of a contribution for several years, but they were seen as potential franchise players. The team floundered without veteran leadership. At mid-season, the Bulls traded their top three scorers—Mercer,Artest, andMilleralong with Kevin Ollie—to theIndiana Pacersfor veteran guardJalen Rose,Travis Bestand Norman Richardson. There was also a change in coaching, with Floyd being dismissed in favor of assistant coach and former Bulls co-captain Bill Cartwright, following a series of arguments with players and management. The Bulls improved from 15 to 21 wins, although they were still tied for last in the league. For the2002–03 season, the Bulls came to play with much optimism. They picked up college phenomJay Williamswith the second pick inthe draft. Williams teamed with Jalen Rose, Crawford, Fizer, newcomerDonyell Marshall, Curry, Chandler, and guardTrenton Hassellto form a young and exciting nucleus which improved to 30–52 in Bill Cartwright's first full season ashead coach. Curry led the league in field goal percentage, becoming the first Bull since Jordan to lead the league in a major statistical category. During the summer of 2003, long-time general managerJerry Krauseretired, and former player and color commentator John Paxson was tapped as his successor. Jay Williams, coming off a promising rookie campaign, was seriously injured in a motorcycle accident. His contract was bought out by the Bulls in February 2004, and he never returned to the league. Paxson selected point guardKirk Hinrichwith the seventh pick in the draft, and signed veteran free agent and former franchise player Scottie Pippen. With Pippen playing, Cartwright at the sidelines, and Paxson in thefront office, the Bulls hoped that some of the championship magic from before would return. However, the2003–04 seasonwas a resounding disappointment. Eddy Curry regressed, leading to questions about his conditioning and commitment. Tyson Chandler was plagued by a chronic back injury, missing more than thirty games. Pippen's ability to influence games was impaired by knee problems, and he openly contemplated retirement. Jamal Crawford remained inconsistent. Bill Cartwright was fired as head coach in December and replaced with former Phoenix coachScott Skiles. A trade with theToronto RaptorsbroughtAntonio Davisand Jerome Williams in exchange for Rose and Marshall in what was seen as a major shift in team strategy from winning with athleticism to winning with hard work and defense. After struggling throughout the season, the Bulls finished with 23 wins and 59 losses, the second-worst record in the league. Fizer was not re-signed, and Crawford was re-signed and traded to the Knicks for expiring contracts. Hinrich provided the lone bright spot, becoming a fan favorite for his gritty determination and tenacious defense. He won a place on the All-Rookie first team. 2004–2007: Resurgence During the 2004 off-season, Paxson traded a2005 draft pickto thePhoenix Sunsin return for an additional pick in the2004 NBA draft. He used the picks to selectConnecticutguardBen GordonandDukesmall forwardLuol Dengin the first round, and Duke point guardChris Duhonin the second. Paxson also signed free agent small forwardAndrés Nocioni, who had recently won anOlympicgold medal as a member of theArgentina national basketball team. After losing the first nine games of the season, the Bulls began to show signs of improvement behind their improved team defense and clutch fourth-quarter play from Gordon. The Bulls, who were 0–9 to start the season, finished the regular season 47–35, with the third-best record in the Eastern Conference and advanced to theNBA playoffsfor the first time since Jordan's departure. In the first round, the fourth-seeded Bulls played the Washington Wizards. Despite an injury to Deng and a heart issue with Curry, the Bulls opened the series with two wins at home, but lost the next four games and the series. After the season, Ben Gordon became the first rookie to win theNBA Sixth Man Awardand the first Bull since Kukoč in 1996 to win the award. During the 2005 off-season, the Bulls re-signed free agentTyson Chandler. However, Curry showed possible symptoms of a heart disease resulting of a heart murmur during checkups, and Paxson would not clear him to play without extensiveDNAtesting. Ultimately, Curry refused to participate in the tests, and he was traded along with Antonio Davis to theNew York KnicksforMichael Sweetney,Tim Thomas, and what became the second pick of the2006 NBA draft—as well as the right to swap picks with New York in the2007 NBA draft. Without a significant post presence, the Bulls struggled for most of the2005–06 season. However, a late season 12–2 surge allowed them to finish 41–41 and qualify for the2006 playoffsas the seventh seed. There, the Bulls faced theMiami Heat. After two close losses in Miami, the Bulls broke through with a win in Game 3, and another win in Game 4. However, the Heat took the next two games to win the series and went on to win that year's championship. The Bulls' several young players nevertheless earned additional postseason experience, and Nocioni turned in a remarkable series of performances that far exceeded his season averages. In the 2006 NBA Draft, the Bulls were awarded forward-centerLaMarcus Aldridgeand immediately traded him to thePortland Trail Blazersfor forwardTyrus Thomasand forwardViktor Khryapa. In a second draft-day trade, the Bulls selectedRodney Carneyand traded him to thePhiladelphia 76ersfor guardThabo Sefolosha. Later that summer, four-time Defensive Player of the YearBen Wallacesigned with the Bulls for a reported four-year, $60 million contract. Following the signing of Wallace, the Bulls tradedTyson Chandler, the last remaining player of the Krause era, to the (then)New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornetsfor veteran power forwardP.J. BrownandJ. R. Smithand salary cap space that was used to sign former Chicago co-captainAdrian Griffin. In 2006–07, the Bulls overcame a 3–9 season start to finish 49–33, the third-best record in theEastern Conference. In the first round, the Bulls again facedMiami, the defending NBA champions. The Bulls narrowly won Game 1 at home, then followed it with a victory in Game 2. In Miami, the Bulls rallied from a 12-point second-half deficit to win Game 3 and then posted another comeback win in Game 4. The Bulls' four-game sweep of the defending champions stunned many NBA observers. It was Chicago's first playoff series victory since 1998, Jordan's last season with the team. The Bulls then advanced to face theDetroit Pistons, marking the first time theCentral Divisionrivals had met in the playoffs since 1991. The Pistons won the first three games including a big comeback in Game 3. No NBA team had ever come back from a 0–3 deficit to win the series, but the Bulls avoided a sweep by winning Game 4 by 10 points. The Bulls then easily won Game 5 in Detroit, and had a chance to make NBA history. But they lost at home in game 6 by 10, and the Pistons won the series 4–2 on May 17. 2007–2008: Missing the playoffs During the off season, the Bulls signed forwardJoe Smithand guardAdrian Griffin, and drafted centerJoakim Noah. However, distractions began whenLuol DengandBen Gordonturned down contract extensions, never citing reasons. Then rumors surfaced that the Bulls were pursuing stars likeKevin Garnett,Pau Gasol, and most notably,Kobe Bryant. None of these deals happened, and general managerJohn Paxsondenied a deal was ever imminent. The Bulls started the2007–08 seasonby losing 10 of their first 12 games and on December 24, 2007, after a 9–16 start, the Bulls fired head coachScott Skiles.Jim Boylanwas named the interim head coach on December 27, 2007. On February 21, 2008,Ben Wallace,Joe Smith,Adrian Griffinand the Bulls' 2009 second-round draft pick were exchanged forDrew Gooden,Cedric Simmons,Larry HughesandShannon Brownin a three-team trade deal involving theCleveland Cavaliersand theSeattle SuperSonics.Boylan was not retained on April 17 at the conclusion of the 2007–08 season after compiling a 24–32 record with the Bulls. The Bulls ended the 2007–08 campaign with a 33–49 record, a complete reversal of last year's record. AfterJim Boylan's interim tenure expired, the Bulls began the process of selecting a new head coach. They were in talks with formerPhoenixhead coachMike D'Antoni, but on May 10, 2008, he signed with theNew York Knicks. Other possible options included formerDallashead coachAvery Johnsonand former Bulls head coachDoug Collins. Collins resigned from the coaching list on June 4, 2008, reporting that he did not want to ruin his friendship withJerry Reinsdorf. On June 10, 2008, the Bulls general managerJohn PaxsonhiredVinny Del Negro, with no coaching experience, to coach the young Bulls. On July 3, 2008, theChicago Tribunereported that Del Harris agreed to become an assistant coach for the Bulls along with formerCharlotte Bobcatshead coachBernie Bickerstaffand longtime NBA assistant coach Bob Ociepka. Along with Bickerstaff and Ociepka, Harris helped establish a veteran presence on the coaching staff and helped rookie head coach Del Negro. 2008–2016: Derrick Rose era 2008–2010: Appearance of Derrick Rose With a slim 1.7 percent chance of winning the rights to draft first overall, the Bulls won the 2008NBA draft lotteryand selected first overall.With this, the Bulls became the team with the lowest chance of winning to ever win the lottery since it was modified for the1994 NBA draft, and second-lowest ever. On June 26, 2008, the Bulls drafted Chicago nativeDerrick Rosefrom theUniversity of Memphisas the number 1 draft pick. At pick number 39 they selectedSonny Weems. The Bulls later traded Weems to theDenver Nuggetsfor Denver's 2009 regular second-round draft pick. The Bulls then acquiredÖmer Aşıkfrom thePortland Trail Blazers(selected with the 36th pick) for Denver's 2009 second-round draft pick,New York's 2009 second-round draft pick, and the Bulls' 2010 regular second-round draft pick. The Bulls re-signedLuol Dengto a six-year $71 million contract on July 30, 2008. He was later plagued with an injury keeping him from action for most of the2008–09 season.Ben Gordonsigned a one-year contract on October 2, 2008. On February 18, 2009, the Bulls made their first of several trades, sendingAndrés Nocioni,Drew Gooden,Cedric Simmons, andMichael Ruffinto theSacramento KingsforBrad MillerandJohn Salmons.Then on February 19, 2009, the NBA trade deadline, the Bulls tradedLarry Hughesto theNew York KnicksforTim Thomas,Jerome James, andAnthony Roberson.Later that day the Bulls made the third trade in a span of less than 24 hours by sending swingmanThabo Sefoloshato theOklahoma City Thunderfor a 2009 first-round pick.The trades brought a late season push for the Bulls, which finally clinched a playoff berth on April 10, 2009, their fourth in the last five years. They finished the season with a 41–41 record. Their record was good enough to secure a No. 7 seed in the2009 NBA playoffs, playing a tough series against theBoston Celtics. In Game 1,Derrick Rosescored 36 points, along with 11 assists, tyingKareem Abdul-Jabbar's record for most points scored by a rookie in a playoff debut. After breaking the record for most overtimes played in anNBA PlayoffsSeries, theBoston Celticsmanaged to overcome the Bulls after 7 games and 7 overtime periods played. The Bulls had two first-round picks in the2009 NBA draftand decided to takeWake Foreststand out forwardJames Johnsonand athleticUSCforwardTaj Gibson.In the 2009 NBA off-season the Bulls lost their leading scorer, Ben Gordon, when he signed with their divisional rival, theDetroit Pistons. On February 18, 2010, John Salmons was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks forJoe AlexanderandHakim Warrick. Meanwhile,Tyrus Thomaswas traded to theCharlotte BobcatsforAcie Law,Flip Murrayand a future protected first-round pick. On April 14, 2010, the Bulls clinched the playoffs with the number 8 seed. Unlike the previous year, however, the Bulls' playoff run was shorter and less dramatic as they were eliminated by theCleveland Cavaliersin five games. On May 4, 2010, the Bulls officially fired head coach Vinny Del Negro. 2010–2011: Arrival of Tom Thibodeau and Rose's MVP year In early June 2010,Boston CelticsassistantTom Thibodeauaccepted a three-year contract to fill the Bulls' head coaching vacancy.He was officially introduced on June 23.On July 7, it was revealed thatCarlos Boozerof theUtah Jazzhad verbally agreed to an $80 million, five-year contract. Afterwards, the Bulls traded veteran point guardKirk Hinrichto theWashington Wizardsto create more cap space. The Bulls also signed former76erand Jazz sharpshooterKyle Korverto a three-year, $15 million contract. The same day that the Bulls signed Kyle Korver, they signed Turkish All-StarÖmer Aşık. After being matched by theOrlando MagicforJ. J. Redick, they signed their third free agent from the Jazz in the off-season in shooting guardRonnie Brewer, traded for formerWarriorpoint guardC.J. Watson, and signed formerBuckspower forwardKurt Thomasas well as formerSpursplayerKeith Bogansand former CelticBrian Scalabrine. Rose earned the 2011 NBA MVP Award, thereby becoming the youngest player in NBA history to win it. He became the first Bulls player sinceMichael Jordanto win the award. As a team, Chicago finished the regular season with a league-best 62–20 record and clinched the first seed in the Eastern Conference for the first time since 1998. The Bulls defeated theIndiana Pacersand theAtlanta Hawksin five and six games, respectively, thereby reaching the Eastern Conference finals for the first time since 1998, and faced theMiami Heat. After winning the first game of the series, they lost the next four games, ending their season. 2011–2014: Injury-plagued seasons for Derrick Rose During the off-season, the Bulls draftedJimmy Butler30th overall in the2011 NBA draft. After theNBA lockoutended, the Bulls lost Kurt Thomas to free agency, and released Keith Bogans. The Bulls signed veteran shooting guardRichard \"Rip\" Hamiltonto a three-year deal, after he was waived by the Detroit Pistons. The Bulls also gave MVP Derrick Rose a 5-year contract extension worth $94.8 million. Derrick Rose was voted as an NBA All-Star starter for the second consecutive year, and was the third leading voted player overall behindDwight HowardandKobe Bryant. Luol Deng was also selected as a reserve for the Eastern Conference. This was the first time that the Bulls had two all-stars since 1997, when Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen were the duo. Derrick Rose was injured for most of the2011–12 season; however, the team was still able to finish with a 50–16 record and clinched the first seed in the Eastern Conference for the second straight year and the best overall record in the NBA (tied with theSan Antonio Spurs). Rose suffered a new injury when he tore hisACLduring the fourth quarter of the first playoff game on April 28, 2012, against thePhiladelphia 76ersand missed the rest of the series. Head coachTom Thibodeauwas criticized for keeping Rose in the game even though the Bulls were essentially minutes away from their victory over the 76ers. The Bulls lost the next three games, and also lost Noah to a foot injury after he severely rolled his ankle stepping onAndre Iguodala's foot in Game 3; he briefly returned for part of the fourth quarter of that game, but missed the following games in the series. After winning Game 5 at home, the Bulls were eliminated by the 76ers in Game 6 in Philadelphia, becoming the fifth team in NBA history to be eliminated as a first seed by an eighth seed. In Game 6, Andre Iguodala sank two free throws with 2.2 seconds left to put the 76ers up 79–78 after getting fouled byÖmer Aşık, who had missed two free throws five seconds earlier. At the end of the season, Boozer and Aşık were the only members on the Bulls' roster to have played in every game, with Korver and Brewer missing one game apiece. In the off-season, the Bulls gave up Lucas to theToronto Raptors, Brewer to theNew York Knicks, Korver to theAtlanta Hawks, Watson to theBrooklyn Netsand Aşık to theHouston Rockets, but brought backKirk Hinrich. In addition, they addedMarco Belinelli,Vladimir Radmanovic,Nazr MohammedandNate Robinsonto the roster via free agency. Rose missed the entire2012–13 season, but despite his absence, the Bulls finished 45–37, second in the Central Division (behind theIndiana Pacers) and fifth in their conference. They defeated theBrooklyn Nets4–3 (after leading 3–1) in the first round of the playoffs and lost to theMiami Heat4–1 in the next round. During the season, the Bulls snapped both Miami's 27-game winning streak and the New York Knicks' 13-game winning streak, becoming the second team in NBA history to snap two winning streaks of 13 games or more in a season. Just 10 games into the2013–14 season, Derrick Rose would tear his medial meniscus on a non-contact play. He declared he would miss the remainder of the season. On January 7, 2014, veteran forwardLuol Dengwas traded to theCleveland Cavaliersfor centerAndrew Bynumand a set of picks. Bynum was immediately waived after the trade went through. The Bulls would finish second in the Central Division with 48 wins, and earned home-court advantage in the first round. Joakim Noah finished the season fourth in MVP voting, made All-NBA first team, and was awarded Defensive Player of the Year award. However, due to lack of a strong offensive weapon, they failed to win a single home game en route to losing to theWashington Wizardsin five games. In the2014 NBA draft, the Bulls traded their 16th and 19th picks forDoug McDermott, the formerCreightonstar and fifth-leading scorer in NCAA history, who was selected with the 11th pick, and in the second round, tookCameron Bairstowwith the 49th pick. That off-season, they signedPau Gasol, re-signedKirk Hinrichand brought over EurostarNikola Mirotić, who was acquired via a draft-day trade in 2011, but could not come over sooner, due to salary cap constraints. 2014–2015: Return of Derrick Rose to health and rise of Jimmy Butler The second return ofDerrick Rosegave the Bulls and their fans optimism for the 2014–15 season. With two-time NBA championPau Gasoland a deep bench consisting ofTaj Gibson,Nikola Mirotić,Tony Snell,Aaron Brooks,Doug McDermott,Kirk Hinrich, among others, the Bulls were one of the two favorite teams to come out of the Eastern Conference along with theCleveland Cavaliers. The Bulls started off the season in style with a win over theNew York Knicks, and then winning seven of their first ninie games (losses coming to theCleveland CavaliersandBoston Celtics). The emergence ofJimmy Butleras a primary scorer for the Bulls was a major surprise and he surged into the forefront of the \"Most Improved Player of the Year\" award race. Butler's statistical jump was noted by many as one of the greatest in NBA History,going from scoring just 13 points per game in 2013–14 to scoring 20 points per game in 2014–15. Pau Gasol was considered a huge asset for the Bulls and averaged a double-double throughout the season. Both Butler and Gasol ended up making the Eastern Conference All-Star team. The Bulls' second half of the season was marred by inconsistency and frustration set in with Derrick Rose blasting the team for not being on the same page. Tension between management andTom Thibodeaucontinued to be a dark cloud hanging over the organization. The Bulls finished with a 50–32 record and the third seed in the Eastern Conference. They faced theMilwaukee Bucksin the first round, and took advantage of the young and inexperienced Bucks by going up a quick 3–0 in the series. However, inconsistency and not being on the same page yet again plagued the Bulls as the Bucks won the next two games, sending a scare to Chicago. The Bulls bounced back with fury in Game 6 however, beating the Bucks by a playoff record 54 points winning the series 4–2. The next round saw the Bulls facing their arch-rivalCleveland Cavaliers, and their biggest nemesis,LeBron James, who had beaten the Bulls in all three of their previous playoff meetings. The Bulls shocked the Cavs in Game 1 dominating them and never trailing. The Cavs answered back in Game 2 in the same fashion, never trailing the entire game. In a pivotal Game 3 in Chicago, the Bulls and Cavs battled closely all the way through, but the Bulls prevailed on a last-second buzzer-beating 3-pointer byDerrick Rose. In Game 4, the Cavaliers would answer once again, withLeBron Jameshitting the buzzer-beating shot to win the game. The Bulls lack of consistency and poor offensive showing doomed them once again as the Cavaliers won the next two games handily and closed out the series 4–2. After the series, speculation erupted aboutTom Thibodeau's job security due to escalating feud between Thibodeau and Bulls front office managersGar FormanandJohn Paxson. 2015–2016: Change in approach On May 28, 2015, the Bulls fired Tom Thibodeau to seek a \"change in approach\".The Bulls namedFred Hoibergas their head coach on June 2, 2015.The Bulls had only 1 draft pick in the2015 NBA draft, and selected centerBobby Portisfrom theUniversity of Arkansas. Bulls forwardMike Dunleavy Jr.was ruled out for at least the first four months of the season after completing back surgery. With Dunleavy out indefinitely, the Bulls promoted Doug McDermott to the starting lineup in his place at small forward. Before the season started, coach Fred Hoiberg made an incredibly controversial move by putting Nikola Mirotić as his starting power forward to pair with center Pau Gasol, meaning Joakim Noah, a long-time Bulls veteran and a fan-favorite was to come off the bench. Hoiberg told the media that the move was suggested by Noah himself but Noah denied having made any suggestions to Hoiberg, which sparked a distrust between the two before the season even began. The Bulls started the 2015–16 season off well with an impressive season-opening 97–95 victory against archrivals and defending Eastern Conference ChampionCleveland Cavaliersand jumped to an 8–3 record in the first month. The Bulls went 10–9 and through late November and December. The Bulls came back and won six straight games. However, soon afterwards, they lost 12 of their next 17 games and Butler missed four weeks after injuring his knee. The Bulls were eliminated from playoff contention after a loss to the Miami Heat on April 7, 2016, although finishing the season with a winning record of 42–40. It was the first time in 8 years that the Bulls had missed the playoffs. 2016–2017: Departure of Derrick Rose On June 22, 2016,Derrick RoseandJustin Holiday, along with a 2017 second-round draft pick, were traded to theNew York Knicksfor centerRobin Lopez, and point guardsJerian GrantandJosé Calderón, who was soon traded to the Los Angeles Lakers.On July 7, the Bulls announced the signing of Rose's replacement, guardRajon Rondo.On July 15, the Bulls signed Chicago nativeDwyane Wade.On October 17, 2016, the Bulls acquired2014 Rookie of the YearMichael Carter-Williamsin exchange for Tony Snell. On February 23, 2017,Taj GibsonandDoug McDermott, along with a 2018 second-round draft pick, were traded to theOklahoma City Thunderfor point guardCameron Payne, shooting guardAnthony Morrow, and power forward/centerJoffrey Lauvergne. Jimmy Butler finished the season with several career highs, was named an All-Star, and made All-NBA third team. The Bulls clinched the eighth seed in2017 NBA playoffsafter winning seven of their final ten games and finishing the season with a 41–41 record.The team struck an early 2–0 lead against the top-seededBoston Celticsin the first round of the playoffs, but ultimately lost the series after losing the next four games. 2017–present: Lavine era 2017–2020: Final years of GarPax and rebuilding On June 22, 2017,Jimmy Butler, along with Chicago's 2017 first-round pick, was traded to theMinnesota TimberwolvesforZach LaVine,Kris Dunn, and Minnesota's 2017 first-round pick, which the Bulls used to selectLauri Markkanen. Additionally, on June 27, the Bulls did not give a qualifying offer toMichael Carter-Williams, allowing him to enter unrestricted free agency. On June 30,Rajon RondoandIsaiah Canaanwere waived by the Bulls. On July 10, 2017,Justin Holidayreturned to the Bulls signing a 2-year, $9 million contract. On September 24, 2017,Dwyane Wadeand the Bulls reportedly agreed to a buyout of the remaining year on his contract.Adrian Wojnarowskireported that Wade gave back $8 million of his $23.2 million contract as part of the agreement. On October 17, 2017, a fight broke out in practice betweenBobby PortisandNikola Mirotić, who suffered a concussion and two broken bones in his face.Portis was suspended eight games for his role in the altercation,and Mirotić missed 23 games to start the regular season. On February 1, 2018, the Bulls traded Mirotić and a second-round draft pick to theNew Orleans Pelicansfor a first-round draft pick andÖmer Aşık,Tony Allen, andJameer Nelson.Bulls ended up finishing the season with 27–55 record. On June 21, 2018, the Bulls selectedWendell Carter Jr.with the seventh overall pick, and with 22nd overall pick via trade withNew Orleans PelicansselectedChandler Hutchison. On July 8, the Bulls matched an offerZach LaVinereceived from theSacramento Kingsfor a four-year, $78 million deal. On July 14, the team signedJabari Parkerto a two-year, $40 million contract after theMilwaukee Bucks' general managerJon Horstremoved the qualifying offer on the restricted free agent and allowed him to become unrestricted. Part of Parker's agreement gave the Bulls a team option for the second year. On December 3, the Bulls fired head coach Hoiberg after the team started the 2018–19 season 5–19 and promoted his assistantJim Boylenas head coach. On January 3, 2019, the Bulls tradedJustin Holidayto theMemphis Grizzliesin exchange forMarShon Brooks,Wayne Selden Jr.and 2019 and 2020 second-round draft picks. MarShon Brooks andCameron Paynewere waived.On February 6, the team tradedBobby Portis,Jabari Parkerand a 2023 second-round draft pick to theWashington Wizardsan exchange forOtto Porter. After a season filled with injuries, coaching change, and trades, the Bulls finished with 22–60 record missing the playoffs for the second straight year. On June 20, 2019, the Bulls selectedCoby Whitewith the seventh overall pick andDaniel Gaffordwith 38th pick in the second round. During the off-season, the team signed veteransTomáš SatoranskýandThaddeus Young. In March 2020, the league suspended the season afterRudy Goberttested positive forCOVID-19.In April 2020, the Bulls fired longtime general managerGar Forman, reassignedJohn Paxsonto senior advisor role and hiredArtūras Karnišovasas executive vice president of basketball operations.In May 2020, the Bulls hiredMarc Eversleyas general manager. On June 4, 2020, the Bulls season officially came to an end when the NBA Board of Governors approved a plan to bring 22 teams back to finish the season in theNBA Bubble. The Bulls finished with a 22–43 record. Head coach Jim Boylen was fired on August 14, 2020. On September 22, 2020, the Bulls hiredBilly Donovanas head coach. Donovan had previously coached theOklahoma City Thunder. On November 18, 2020, the Bulls selectedPatrick Williamswith the fourth overall pick. On March 25, 2021, the Bulls tradedWendell Carter Jr,Otto Porter, along with 2021 and 2023 first-round draft picks toOrlando MagicforNikola VučevićandAl-Farouq Aminu. The team also tradedChandler HutchisonandDaniel Gaffordto theWashington WizardsforTroy Brown Jr.andMoe Wagner.Wagner was later traded along withLuke Kornetto theBoston CelticsforDaniel TheisandJavonte Green.The Bulls finished the abbreviated 72-game season with 31–41 record missing the playoffs for the fourth consecutive year. 2021–2024: DeRozan-Lavine duo On July 29, 2021, the Bulls selected hometown kidAyo Dosunmuwith 38th pick in the second round. On August 2, 2021, the Bulls sentTomas Satoransky,Garrett Temple, 2024 second-round pick and cash toNew Orleans PelicansforLonzo Ball.On the same day, the Bulls managed to sign free agent and 2020 NBA ChampionAlex Carusoafter he and theLos Angeles Lakersfailed to reach an agreement.As part of the same preseason rebuild, on August 11, Chicago announced a trade sendingThaddeus Young,Al-Farouq Aminu, a protected first-round pick and second-round pick to theSan Antonio Spursin exchange for four-time All-StarDeMar DeRozan. While playing against theIndiana Pacerson New Year's Eve in the fourth quarter, DeRozan hit a buzzer-beating game-winning shot to sink the Pacers 108-106. The next day on New Year's Day, while the Bulls were down 117-119, DeRozan hit another buzzer-beating shot to defeat theWashington Wizards120-119, becoming the first player in NBA History to hit back-to-back game-winning buzzer-beater shots in two consecutive days. The Bulls would then go on to win 9 games in a row. On January 22, 2022, it was announced that DeRozan would start in that year'sAll-Star Game.Eight days later, LaVine was named a reserve in the All-Star Game for the second year in a row. The Bulls finished sixth in the Eastern Conference, narrowly evading the play-ins.The Bulls played the defending NBA ChampionMilwaukee Bucksin the first round where they would lose in 5 games.The Bulls leading scorers Lavine-DeRozan-Vucevic all struggled in this series .On June 23, 2022, Bulls selected guard-forwardDalen Terrywith the 18 pick. On July 7, the Bulls re-signed Zach Lavine to a five-year $215.2 million dollar contract, making this largest contract signed in Bulls history. On February 21, 2023, the Bulls signedPatrick Beverleyfor the rest of the season. After the signing, Billy Donovan stated, \"You hope that a guy like him coming in gives a boost to our team. That's what he's always been.”The addition excited the franchise's fans with a new spark of hope for the play-in tournament. His addition aided the Bulls' win against the understaffed Nets, 131–87 on February 24.Derozan made his sixth All-Star Game, second for the Bulls, this season. The Bulls finished the 2022–23 season with 40–42 record, placing them 10th in the Eastern Conference, thus earning a spot in the play-in tournament. to no avail losing to theMiami Heat, thus missing the playoffs. On June 22, 2023, the Bulls traded two second-round picks to theWashington Wizardsto obtain the 35th overall pick in the draft to select Julian Philips.The Bulls re-signed both Vučević and Coby White to three-year contracts while also signing veteran playersJevon CarterandTorrey Craig. During the Bulls' 2023-24 season, the team lost Zach Lavine and Patrick Williams to season-ending injuries. Meanwhile, the team saw improvements from Coby White and Ayo Dosunmu. The team would finish with a 39-43 record, placing them 9th in the Eastern Conference, earning their second consecutive play-in tournament. They defeated 10th seededAtlanta Hawksin the first game but once again would lose the second game to theMiami Heatfor the second consecutive year and missing the playoffs. 2024-present: DeRozan's departure DeMar DeRozansigned with theSacramento Kingsas part of a three-team sign-and-trade deal.The team also tradedAlex Carusoto theOklahoma City ThunderforJosh Giddey.Andre Drummondsigned with theSixers. In the draft, Matas Buzelis was taken by the Bulls 11th overall.After two missed seasons,Lonzo Ballmade his return to the court. Rivalries Cleveland Cavaliers The Bulls–Cavaliers rivalryis aNational Basketball Association(NBA)rivalrybetween theCleveland Cavaliersand the Chicago Bulls. The teams have played each other since the Cavaliers joined the NBA as anexpansion teamin 1970, but the rivalry didn't begin in earnest until the Bulls draftedMichael Jordanwith the third overall pick in1984. After Jordan went on to theWashington Wizardsand eventually retired, the rivalry died down, but when Cleveland pickedLeBron Jameswith the first selection in2003, the rivalry heated up again. However, the Cavaliers had an edge over the Bulls, who would pickDerrick Rosewith the first selection in2008to turn Chicago from a lottery team to a future contender. Detroit Pistons The Bulls' main division rivals have been theDetroit Pistonsever since the Jordan-led Bulls met the \"Bad Boy\" Pistons in the 1988 Eastern Conference semifinals.The two teams met in the playoffs four consecutive years, with the Pistons winning each time until 1991. The Eastern Conference Finals in 1991 ended with a four-game sweep of the Pistons, who walked off the floor with time still on the game clock.The rivalry was renewed in the 2007 Eastern Conference Semifinals, in which former Detroit cornerstoneBen Wallacemet his former team (the Pistons won in 6 games). The geographic proximity and membership in theCentral Divisionfurther intensify the rivalry, which has been characterized by intense, physical play ever since the teams met in the late 1980s. Chicago fans' rivalry with Detroit extends past the NBA, as the two cities shared divisions in all four major North American sports until 2013 when theDetroit Red Wingsmoved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference. Miami Heat The Bulls and theMiami Heatrivalry began once the Heat became contenders during the 1990s, a decade dominated by the Bulls. They were eliminated 3 times by Chicago, who went on to win the title each time. The rivalry was revived due to the return of the Bulls to the playoffs after the departure of Jordan from the Bulls and the emergence ofDwyane WadeandDerrick Rose. The revived rivalry was physical, involving rough plays and hard fouls between players, most notably the actions of former Heat playerJames Posey. The Bulls and Heat met in the 2011 Eastern Conference Finals, with the Heat winning in 5 games. On March 27, 2013, Chicago snapped Miami's 27-game winning streak. The Bulls and Heat met later that year in the 2013 Eastern Conference Semifinals. Miami won the series 4–1. In 2023, the two would meet in the Eastern Conference play-in, with the Heat winning to advance to the playoffs. Notably the game featured former Bull, Jimmy Butler on the Heat and former teammates DeMar DeRozan (Chicago) versus Kyle Lowry (Miami). New York Knicks Another franchise that the Bulls have competed fiercely with is theNew York Knicks. The two teams met in the playoffs in four consecutive years (1991–1994) and again in 1996, with the teams' series twice (1992 and 1994) going the full seven games. Their first playoff confrontation, however, came in 1989 when both teams were called \"teams on the rise\" underMichael JordanandPatrick Ewing, respectively (rivalry that started their freshman year in the1982 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship Gamewith Jordan hitting the deciding jumper of the final). That first confrontation would belong to Chicago with six games of the Eastern Semifinals. The Bulls won in the first three years (1991–1993) before losing in 1994 but got revenge in 1996. As with Detroit, the historic rivalry between the cities has led to animosity between the teams and occasionally their fans. Traditions Starting lineup introductions During the Bulls' run of dominance, the player introductions became world-famous. Longtime announcerTommy Edwardswas the first to use\"Sirius\",\"On The Run\"and other songs in game presentation in the NBA. When Edwards moved to Boston for employment with CBS Radio, he was replaced byRay Clayin 1990, and Clay continued many of the traditional aspects of the Bulls introductions, including the music,The Alan Parsons Project's \"Sirius\", for all six championship runs. The lights are first dimmed during the visiting team introduction, accompanied by \"The Imperial March\" fromStar Warscomposed by John Williams or \"On the Run\" by Pink Floyd, or \"Tick of the Clock\" byChromatics. Virtually all lights in the stadium are then shut off for the Bulls introduction, and a spotlight illuminates each player as he is introduced and runs onto the court; the spotlight is also focused on the Bulls logo prior to the introductions. Since the move to the United Center, lasers and fireworks have been added, and with improvements to the arena's White Way video screen, computer graphics on the stadium monitors have been added. These graphics feature the3D-animated'Running of the Bulls' en route to the United Center, along the way smashing a bus featuring the opposing team's logo. Coincidentally,Alan Parsonswrote \"Sirius\" for his own band and was the sound engineer for \"On the Run\" from Pink Floyd's albumThe Dark Side of the Moon. Traditionally, the players have been introduced in the following order: small forward, power forward, center, point guard, shooting guard. During the championship era,Scottie Pippenwas usually the first (or second afterHorace Grant) Bulls player introduced, andMichael Jordanthe last. (Pippen and Jordan are the only players to play on all six Bulls championship teams.) More recently withDerrick Rose's arrival, the guards have been reversed in order, making the Chicago-bred point guard the last player introduced. Although internal disputes eventually led to the dismissal of Clay, the Bulls in 2006 announced the return ofTommy Edwardsas the announcer. As part of Edwards' return, the introductions changed as a new introduction was developed byLily and Lana Wachowski,Ethan Stollerand Jamie Poindexter, all from Chicago. The introduction also included a newly composed remix of the traditional Sirius theme. Edwards was replaced in 2020 byTim Sinclair. Black shoes and socks The Bulls have an unofficial tradition of wearing black shoes (regardless of being home or away) during the playoffs, which dates all the way back to1989when they debuted the tradition.Then-Bulls backup centerBrad Sellerssuggested to wear black shoes as a way to show unity within the team. For the 1996 playoffs, they became the first team to wear black socks with the black shoes, similar to theUniversity of Michiganand theFab Fivewhich started the trend in college earlier in the decade. Since then, many teams have this look in both the regular season and playoffs. It was noted when the Bulls made their first playoff appearance during the 2004–05 season after a six-year hiatus, they continued the tradition and wore black shoes. Even though the Bulls generally wear black footwear in the playoffs since 1989, there have been some notable exceptions. In the1995 playoffsagainst the Magic, when Michael Jordan debuted hisAir Jordan XIshoe, he wore the white colorway during the Bulls' playoff games in Orlando. He was fined by the Bulls for not complying with their colorway policy. During the2009 playoffs, the Bulls again broke the tradition when all of their players wore white shoes and socks in Game 3 of the first round against the Boston Celtics.More recently, since the NBA's relaxation of sneaker color rules, some Bulls players wore either red or white sneakers in defiance of the tradition. Circus trip The Bulls and their arena mates, theChicago Blackhawks, shared an odd tradition dating to the opening of Chicago Stadium. Every fall,Feld Entertainment's now-defunctRingling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circuscame to Chicago on its nationwide tour. Since it used large indoor venues rather than tents, it took over the United Center for its entire run and the Bulls were forced, along with the Blackhawks, to take an extended road trip that lasted about two weeks. Initially local newspapers and television and radio sportscasters, and later national programs likeSportsCenter, referred to this fortnight-long local hiatus as \"the circus trip\".Blackhawks chairmanRocky Wirtz, who co-owns the United Center with Bulls chairmanJerry Reinsdorf, let the contract lapse after the circus' 2016 run, and condensed the formerly two-week local run of Feld'sDisney on Iceto a week-long period effective February 2018.The circus itself would be discontinued in 2017. Name, logo, and uniforms Name Dick Klein wanted a name that evoked Chicago's traditionalmeat packing industry(similarly to the forerunner Packers franchise) and the Chicago Stadium's proximity to theUnion Stock Yards.Klein considered names likeMatadorsorToreadors, but dismissed them, saying, \"If you think about it, no team with as many as three syllables in its nickname has ever had much success except for theMontreal Canadiens.\" After discussing possible names with his family, Klein settled onBullswhen his son Mark said, \"Dad, that's a bunch of bull!\" Logo The Bulls are unique in the fact they have used the same logo with very little change since the team's inception. The iconic logo is a red, charging bull's face. The logo was designed by noted American graphic designer Dean P. Wesseland was adopted in 1966. At one point, the Bulls also had an alternate logo during the early 1970s, featuring the same Bulls logo, but with a cloud that says \"Windy City\" below the bull's nose. Uniforms 1966–1973 uniforms The Bulls wear three different uniforms: a white uniform, a red uniform, and a blackalternateuniform. The original uniforms were esthetically close to the current design, featuring the iconic diamond surrounding the Bulls logo on the shorts and block lettering. What distinguished the original uniforms were the black drop shadows, red or white side stripes with black borders, and white lettering on the red uniforms. For the 1969–70 season, the red uniforms were tweaked to include the city name. 1973–1985 uniforms For the 1973–74 season, the Bulls drastically changed their look, removing the side stripes and drop shadows while moving the front numbers to the left chest. While the white uniforms saw the \"Bulls\" wordmark go from a vertically arched to radially arched arrangement, the red uniforms saw a more significant makeover, featuring black lettering and a script \"Chicago\" wordmark. With a few tweaks in the lettering, these uniforms were used until 1985. This uniform set was later revived as a throwback uniform during the 2003–04 and 2015–16 seasons. 1985–present uniforms Starting with the 1985–86 season, the Bulls updated their uniform. Among the more notable changes in the look were centered uniform numbers and a vertically arched \"Bulls\" wordmark in both the red and white uniforms. Like the previous set, this uniform saw a few tweaks particularly in the treatment of the player's name. WhenNikebecame the NBA's uniform provider in 2017, the Bulls kept much of the same look save for the truncated shoulder striping and the addition of theChicago four starson the waistline. With Nike and the NBA eliminating designations on home and away uniforms, the Bulls also announced that their red \"Icon\" uniforms would become their home uniforms, and the white \"Association\" uniforms would become their away uniforms.The Bulls would continue to wear red \"Icon\" uniforms in home games until the 2020–21 season, after which they returned to wearing the white \"Association\" uniforms in home games starting in the 2021–22 season. Alternate black uniforms In the 1995–96 season, the Bulls added a black uniform to their set. The initial look featured red pinstripes and lacked the classic diamond on the shorts. This set was revived as throwback uniforms in the 2012–13 seasons. From the 1997–98 to the 2005–06 seasons, the Bulls wore slightly modified black uniforms without pinstripes. This set, with a few slight changes in the template, also marked the return of the city name in front of the uniform during the 1999–2000 season. The 2006–07 season saw another change in the Bulls' black alternate uniform, now resembling the red and white uniform with the addition of a red diamond in the shorts. For the 2014–15 season, the uniforms were tweaked a bit to include sleeves and a modernized diamond treatment in black with red and white borders. Since the 2017–18 season, the Bulls' black uniforms remained mostly untouched for the aforementioned switch to the new Nike logo that affected the treatment towards the shoulder piping. Nike also dubbed this uniform as the \"Statement\" uniform in reference to its third jerseys. The Bulls began wearing the Statement uniforms after Thanksgiving and they are currently used in away games against teams that wear their white, gray/silver or cream uniforms. The 2019–20 season marked the return of pinstripes to the Bulls' \"Statement\" uniform, albeit in dark gray. In addition, the diamond treatment returned to red, piping was tweaked, and four six-point stars were featured on the beltline. The Bulls wore this \"Statement\" uniform in select home games and away games against teams wearing white, cream, yellow, red or silver uniforms. Other uniforms During the 2005–06 season, the Bulls honored the defunctChicago Stagsby wearing the team's red and blue throwback uniforms. The set featured red tops and blue shorts. From 2006 to 2017, the Bulls wore a green version of their red uniforms during the week ofSt. Patrick's Dayin March. The only red elements visible were those found on the team logo. For 2015 the Bulls wore sleeved versions of the green uniform that featured white lettering with gold and black trim and the \"Chicago\" wordmark replacing \"Bulls\" in front. In 2016 and 2017, they wore the same uniforms minus the sleeves. Between 2009 and 2017, the Bulls wore a variation of their red uniforms as part of the NBA's \"Noche Latina\" festivities every March. The only notable change in this uniform was the \"Los Bulls\" wordmark in front. For 2014, the Bulls briefly retired the look in favor of a black sleeved uniform featuring \"Los Bulls\" in white with red trim. During the NBA's \"Green Week\" celebrations, the Bulls also wore green uniforms, but with a slightly darker shade from their St. Patrick's Day counterparts. They used their black alternate uniforms as its template. They donned the uniforms in a game against thePhiladelphia 76erson April 9, 2009. The Bulls also wore special edition Christmas uniforms as part of theNBA's Christmas Day games. The one-off Christmas uniforms were as follows: From 2015 to 2017, the Bulls wore a gray \"Pride\" sleeved uniform, featuring the team name and other lettering in red with white trim. The shorts featured a more modernized version of the diamond, along with four six-pointed stars on either side. In the 2017–18 season, the Bulls wore special \"City\" uniforms designed by Nike. The uniforms, designed to pay homage to Chicago's flag, are in white and feature the classic \"Chicago\" script and numbers in red with light blue trim along with four six-pointed stars on each side. The Bulls' 2018–19 \"City\" uniform is once again inspired from Chicago's flag, with a black base and a portion of the flag with four red six-point stars and two powder blue stripes in front. The Bulls' \"City\" uniform for 2019–20 continued the flag theme, featuring a light blue base and a recolored Bulls logo in front. The predominantly blue uniform was also inspired from the waters ofLake Michiganand theChicago River. For the 2020–21 season, the Bulls' \"City\" uniform featured elements of Chicago'sArt Decoarchitecture and imagery, featuring a dark grey base, gold lettering and red accents. The Bulls' \"City\" uniform for the 2021–22 season was a \"mixtape\" of past uniform designs. The predominantly red uniform featured the following design cues: The 2022–23 \"City\" uniform paid homage to Chicago'smunicipal device \"Y\" symbol. The predominantly white uniform featured rust red letters and black trim, as well as alternating red and black side stripes. The Chicago Stadium served as the inspiration for the Bulls' 2023–24 \"City\" uniform. The black-based design featured the vertical \"Chicago\" wordmark taken from the Stadium marquee, along with red numbers on the chest and the \"Madhouse on Madison\" monicker on the jock tag. Mascots Benny the Bullis the main mascot of the Chicago Bulls. He was first introduced in 1969. Benny is a red bull who wears number 1. Benny is one of the oldest and best-known mascots in all of professional sports. The Bulls also had another mascot named Da Bull. Introduced in 1995, he was described on the team website as being the high-flying cousin of Benny, known for his dunking skills. The man who portrayed Da Bull was arrested in 2004 for possession and selling marijuana from his car.Da Bull was retired soon after the incident. While Benny has a family-friendly design, Da Bull was designed as a more realistic bull. Unlike Benny, Da Bull was brown. He also had a meaner facial expression and wore number 95. Season-by-season record List of the last five seasons completed by the Bulls. For the full season-by-season history, seeList of Chicago Bulls seasons. Note:GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, W–L% = Winning percentage Franchise records Training facilities Alumni HallonDePaul University's Lincoln Park campus was the practice facility for the Bulls in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1992, the team began training at the Berto Center, located inDeerfield, Illinois. On June 13, 2012, the team announced that it would move its practice facility to a downtown location closer to the United Center to reduce game day commutes.On September 12, 2014, the Bulls officially opened their new training facility, the Advocate Center (named after the Advocate Medical Group, one of the medicine-practicing firms that serves Chicago), a block east of the United Center. Home arenas Personnel Current roster RosterLast transaction: October 19, 2024 Retained draft rights The Bulls hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player's contract with the non-NBA team ends.This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams. Franchise leaders Bolddenotes still active with the team.Italicsdenotes still active, but not with the team. Head coaches Hall of Famers, retired, and honored numbers Basketball Hall of Famers Notes: FIBA Hall of Famers Notes: Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame Retired numbers and honorees Chicago Bulls Ring of Honor On January 12, 2024, the Bulls introduced the Ring of Honor, which honors former players and other personnel. The inaugural class of Ring of Honor inductees included all personnel (players, coaches, executives, etc.) who have had their number retired or were honored with similar banners in the rafters, as well as a number of other contributors to the team over the years, such as original ownerDick Kleinand assistant coachTex Winter. Plans were made to induct a class every two years for people with at least three seasons with the Bulls and being retired from basketball for at least three years. Media Radio The team's games are broadcast onEntercom'sWSCR(670) as of February 3, 2018. From October 2015-January 2018, games were carried onCumulus Media'sWLS(890) in a deal that was expected to last until the 2020–21 season, but was nullified in the middle of the 2017–18 season after Cumulus filed forChapter 11 bankruptcyand nullified several large play-by-play and talent contracts. Chuck Swirskydoes play-by-play, withBill Wenningtonprovidingcolor commentary.Univision Radio'sWRTO(1200) has carriedSpanish languagegame coverage since 2009–10, with Omar Ramos as play-by-play announcer and Matt Moreno as color analyst. Television The Bulls' television broadcasts are televised byChicago Sports Network, which broadcasts all of the games that are not televised nationally as of the 2024–2025 season. For many years, broadcasts were split betweenNBC Sports Chicago(and prior to that,FSN Chicago),WGN-TV, andWCIU-TV.The announcers areAdam AminandStacey King.Jason Benettifills in for Amin whenever the latter is assigned to work forFox Sports. On January 2, 2019, the Bulls (along with theChicago White SoxandChicago Blackhawks) agreed to an exclusive multi-year deal with NBC Sports Chicago, ending the team's broadcasts on WGN-TV following the 2018–19 season.The Bulls left NBC Sports Chicago at the end of the 2023–2024 season, moving to the new Chicago Sports Network in 2024. References External links", "Dallas Cowboys TheDallas Cowboysare a professionalAmerican footballteam based in theDallas–Fort Worth metroplex. The Cowboys compete in theNational Football League(NFL) as a member of theNational Football Conference(NFC)Eastdivision. The team is headquartered inFrisco, Texas, and has played its home games atAT&T StadiuminArlington, Texas, since its opening in2009. The stadium took its current name prior to the2013 season, following the team's decision to sell the stadium's naming rights to telecommunications companyAT&T.In January 2020,Mike McCarthywas hired as head coach of the Cowboys.He is the ninth in the team's history.McCarthy followsJason Garrett, who coached the team from 2010 to 2019. The Cowboys joined the NFL as anexpansion teamin1960.The team's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive sell-outs. The Cowboys' streak of 190 consecutive sold-out regular and post-season games (home and away) began in2002.The franchise has made it to theSuper Bowleight times, tying it with thePittsburgh Steelers,Denver Broncos, andSan Francisco 49ersfor second-mostSuper Bowl appearancesin history behind theNew England Patriots' record 11 appearances. Their eightNFC championshipsare tied for most in the conference's history. The Cowboys are the only NFL team to record 20 straight winning seasons (from 1966 to 1985) during which they missed the playoffs only twice (1974 and 1984). In2015, the Dallas Cowboys became the first sports team to be valued at $4 billion, making it themost valuable sports teamin the world, according toForbes.The Cowboys also generated $620 million in revenue in 2014, a record for a U.S. sports team.In 2018, they also became the first NFL franchise to be valued at $5 billionand making Forbes' list as the most valued NFL team for the 12th straight year. History Clint Murchison/Harvey Bright era (1960–1988) Prior to the formation of the Dallas Cowboys, there had not been an NFL team south of Washington, D.C. since theDallas Texansfolded in 1952 after only one season. Two businessmen had tried and failed to get Dallas a team in the NFL:Lamar Huntresponded by forming theAmerican Football Leaguewith a group of owners, which would spur the NFL to expand beyond twelve teams. OilmanClint Murchison Jr.persisted with his intent to bring a team to Dallas, butGeorge Preston Marshall, owner of theWashington Redskins, had a monopoly in theSouth(after the addition of Dallas, the South would see three further teams - NFL teams in Atlanta and New Orleans, and an AFL team in Miami - added in the next six years). Murchison had tried to purchase the Washington Redskins (now Commanders) from Marshall in 1958 with the intent of moving them to Dallas. An agreement was struck, but as the deal was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms, which infuriated Murchison, and he called off the deal.Marshall then opposed any franchise for Murchison in Dallas. Since NFL expansion needed unanimous approval from team owners at that time, Marshall's position would prevent Murchison from joining the league. Marshall had a falling out with the Redskins band leader Barnee Breeskin, who had written the music to the Redskins fight song \"Hail to the Redskins\", and Marshall's wife had penned the lyrics. Breeskin owned the rights to the song and was aware of Murchison's plight to get an NFL franchise. Angry with Marshall, Breeskin approached Murchison's attorney to sell him the rights to the song before the expansion vote in 1959: Murchison subsequently purchased \"Hail to the Redskins\" for $2,500. Before the vote to award franchises in 1959, Murchison revealed to Marshall that he now owned the song, and barred Marshall from playing it during games. After Marshall launched an expletive-laced tirade, Murchison sold the rights to \"Hail to the Redskins\" back to Marshall in exchange for his vote, the lone one against Murchison getting a franchise at that time, and arivalrywas born.Murchison hiredCBS Sportsexecutive and formerLos Angeles Ramsgeneral managerTex Schrammas team president and general manager,San Francisco 49ersscoutGil Brandtas head of player personnel,andNew York Giantsdefensive coordinatorTom Landryas head coach,thus forming a triumvirate that would lead the Cowboys' football operations for three decades. Tom Landry years (1960–1988) Like most expansion teams, the Cowboys struggled at first. They failed to win a game in their inaugural season.However, Landry slowly brought the team to respectability. In 1965, they finally got to .500. They broke all the way through a year later, winning consecutive Eastern Conference titles in 1966 and 1967. However, they lost theNFL Championship Gameeach time to theGreen Bay Packerswith the second loss coming in the1967 Ice Bowl.They would win consecutive division titles in 1968 and 1969 when the NFL adopted a divisional format, but were defeated in the playoffs both years by theCleveland Browns. From1970through1979, the Cowboys won 105 regular season games, more than any other NFL franchise during that time span.In addition, they appeared in fiveSuper Bowls, winning two (1971and1977). Led by quarterbackCraig Morton, theCowboyshad a 10–4 season in1970. They defeated Detroit 5–0 in the lowest-scoring playoff game in NFL historyand then defeated San Francisco 17–10 in the first-everNFC Championship Gameto qualify for their firstSuper Bowlappearance in franchise history, a mistake-filledSuper Bowl V, where they lost 16–13 to theBaltimore Coltscourtesy of afield goalby Colts' kicker Jim O'Brien with five seconds remaining in the contest. Despite the loss, linebackerChuck Howleywas named theSuper Bowl MVP, the first and only time in Super Bowl history that the game's MVP did not come from the winning team. Super Bowl VI champions (1971) The Cowboys moved from theCotton BowltoTexas Stadiumin week six of the1971 season. Landry named Staubach as the permanent starting quarterback to start the second half of the season, and Dallas was off and running. The Cowboys won their last seven regular season games (finishing 11–3) before dispatching theMinnesota VikingsandSan Francisco 49ersin the playoffs to return to the Super Bowl. InSuper Bowl VI, behind an MVP performance from Staubach and a then Super Bowl record 252 yards rushing, the Cowboys crushed the upstartMiami Dolphins, 24–3, to finally bury the \"Next Year's Champions\" stigma. After missing the playoffs in 1974, theteamdrafted well thefollowing year, adding defensive linemanRandy White(a future Hall of Fame member) and linebackerThomas \"Hollywood\" Henderson. The fresh influx of talent helped the Cowboys back to the playoffs in1975as a wild card, losing to thePittsburgh Steelers, 21–17, inSuper Bowl X. Super Bowl XII champions (1977) Dallas began the1977 season8–0, finishing 12–2. In thepostseason, the Cowboys routed theChicago Bears37–7 andMinnesota Vikings23–6 before defeating theDenver Broncos27–10 inSuper Bowl XIIin New Orleans.As a testament toDoomsday'sdominance in the hard-hitting game, defensive linemen Randy White andHarvey Martinwere named co-Super Bowl MVPs, the first and only time multiple players have received the award. Dallas returned to theSuper Bowl, following the1978 season, losing to Pittsburgh 35–31. Bob Ryan, an NFL Films editor, dubbed the Cowboys \"America's Team\" following the Super Bowl loss, a nickname that has earned derision from non-Cowboys fans but has stuck through both good times and bad.Danny Whitebecame the Cowboys' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterbackRoger Staubachretired. Despite going 12–4 in1980, the Cowboys came into the playoffs as a Wild Card team. In the opening round of the1980–81 NFL playoffsthey avenged their elimination from the prior year's playoffs by defeating the Rams. In the Divisional Round they squeaked by theAtlanta Falcons30–27. For the NFC Championship they were pitted against division rivalPhiladelphia Eagles, the team that won the division during the regular season. The Eagles captured their first conference championship and Super Bowl berth by winning 20–7. 1981brought another division championship for the Cowboys. They entered the1981–82 NFL playoffsas the number 2 seed. Their first postseason saw them blow out Tampa Bay in a 38–0 shutout. The Cowboys then advanced to theNFC Championship Gameagainst theSan Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. Despite having a late 4th quarter 27–21 lead, they would lose to the 49ers 28–27. 49ers quarterbackJoe Montanaled his team on an 89-yard game-winning touchdown drive, connecting withDwight Clarkin a play known asThe Catch. The1982 seasonwas shortened after a player strike. With a 6–3 record Dallas made it to the playoffs for the 8th consecutive season. As the number 2 seed for the1982–83 NFL playoffsthey eliminated the Buccaneers 30–17 in the Wild Card round and dispatched the Packers 37–26 in the Divisional round to advance to their 3rd consecutive Conference championship game. However, the third time was not the charm for the Cowboys as they fell 31–17 to their division rival and eventualSuper Bowl XVIIchampions, theWashington Redskins. Although it was not apparent at the time, the loss in the 1982 NFC title game marked the end of an era. For the1983 seasonthe Cowboys went 12–4 and made it once again to the playoffs but were upset at home in the Wild Card by the Rams 24–17. However, 1983 was a missed opportunity as prior to their playoff defeat, the Cowboys had a chance to clinch the NFC East and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs against Washington in the penultimate week of the regular season, but were defeated soundly 31–10 at home, and conceded control of the division to the Redskins in which they would not relinquish a week later. Prior to the1984 season, Murchison sold the Cowboys to another Texas oil magnate,H.R. \"Bum\" Brightand his ten partners.Dallas posted a 9–7 record that season but missed the playoffs for the first time in 10 seasons and only the second time in 18 years. After going 10–6 in1985and winning a division title, the Cowboys were shut out 20–0 by the Rams in the Divisional round in Los Angeles. Hard times came for the organization as they went 7–9 in1986, 7–8 in1987, and 3–13 in1988.During this time period, Bright became disenchanted with the team. During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was \"horrified\" at Landry's play calling. During thesavings and loan crisis, Bright's savings and loan was taken over by theFSLIC. With most of the rest of his money tied up in the Cowboys, Bright was forced to sell the team toJerry Joneson February 25, 1989, for $150 million. Jerry Jones era (1989–present) Jimmy Johnson years (1989–1993) Jones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him withUniversity of Miamihead coachJimmy Johnson, who was also Jones' teammate at theUniversity of Arkansasas a fellow defensive lineman.The hiring of Johnson also reunited Johnson with second-year wide receiverMichael Irvin, who had played collegiately at Miami. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selectedUCLAquarterbackTroy Aikman. Later that same year, they wouldtrade veteran running backHerschel Walkerto theMinnesota Vikingsfor five veteran players and eight draft choices. Although the Cowboys finished the1989 seasonwith a 1–15 record, their worst in almost 30 years, \"The Trade\" later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team. Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL's elite. Skillful drafts added fullbackDaryl Johnstonand centerMark Stepnoskiin 1989, running backEmmitt Smithin 1990, defensive tackleRussell Marylandand offensive tackleErik Williamsin 1991, and safetyDarren Woodsonin 1992. The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiverMichael Irvin, guardNate Newton, linebackerKen Norton Jr., and offensive linemanMark Tuinei, defensive linemanJim Jeffcoat, and veteran pickups such as tight endJay Novacekand defensive endCharles Haley. Things started to look up for the franchise in1990. On Week 1 Dallas won their first home game since September 1988 when they defeated theSan Diego Chargers17–14. They went 2–7 in their next 9 games but won 4 of their last 6 games to finish the season with a 4th place 7–9 record. Coming into1991the Cowboys replaced offensive coordinatorDave ShulawithNorv Turner; the Cowboys raced to a 6–5 start, then defeated the previously unbeatenRedskinsdespite injury toTroy Aikman. BackupSteve Beuerleintook over and the Cowboys finished 11–5. In the Wild Card round they defeated theBears17–13 for the Cowboys' first playoff win since 1982. In the Divisional round their season ended in a 38–6 playoff rout by theLions. Super Bowl XXVII champions (1992) In1992Dallas set a team record for regular-season wins with a 13–3 mark.They started off the season by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins 23–10.Going into the playoffs as the number 2 seed they had a first-round bye before facing division rival thePhiladelphia Eagles.The Cowboys won that game 34–10 to advance to the NFC Conference Championship game for the first time in 10 years.They were pitted against theSan Francisco 49ers, the top seed. On January 17, 1993, the Cowboys went toCandlestick Parkand defeated the 49ers 30–20 to clinch their first Super Bowl berth since 1978.Dallas defeated theBuffalo Bills52–17 inSuper Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers.Johnson became the first coach to claim a national championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football. Super Bowl XXVIII champions (1993) Despite starting the1993 season0–2, Dallas finished the regular season 12–4 as the number 1 seed of the NFC.Dallas sent a then-NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safetyThomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski, and Williams.They defeated the Green Bay Packers 27–17 in the divisional round.In the NFC Conference Championship, Dallas beat the 49ers in Dallas, 38–21.The Cowboys again defeated the Buffalo Bills inSuper Bowl XXVIII, 30–13 (becoming the first team in NFL history to win a Super Bowl after starting 0–2). Barry Switzer years (1994–1997) Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation.Jones then hired formerUniversity of Oklahomahead coachBarry Switzerto replace Johnson.The Cowboys finished 12–4 in1994.They once again clinched a first-round bye and defeated Green Bay 35–9 in the Divisional Round.They missed the Super Bowl, however, after losing to theSan Francisco 49ersin the NFC Championship Game, 38–28. Super Bowl XXX champions (1995) Prior to the start of1995 seasonJerry Jones lured All-Pro cornerbackDeion Sandersaway from San Francisco.Dallas started the season 4–0 including shutting out their division rival New York Giants 35–0 atGiants Stadiumto open their season. Emmitt Smith set an NFL record with 25 rushing touchdowns that season.They ended the season 12–4 and went into the playoffs as the number 1 seed.In the Divisional round, they dispatched their division rival Eagles 30–11 to advance to their fourth consecutive NFC Conference Championship Game, in which they defeated Green Bay, 38–27.InSuper Bowl XXXthe Cowboys defeated thePittsburgh Steelers27–17 atSun Devil Stadiumfor their fifth Super Bowl championship, tied with theSan Francisco 49ersfor the most by any NFC team.Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football national championship and a Super Bowl. The glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age, and injuries began taking their toll. Star receiver Michael Irvin was suspended by the league for the first five games of1996following a drug-related arrest; he came back after the Cowboys started the season 2–3.They finished the regular season with a 10–6 record, won theNFC Easttitle, and entered the playoffs as the number 3 seed in the NFC.They defeated Minnesota 40–15 in the Wild Card round but were eliminated in the Divisional Round of the playoffs 26–17 by theCarolina Panthers. The Cowboys went 6–10 in1997, losing the last six consecutive games of the season, with discipline and off-field problems becoming major distractions.As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinatorChan Gaileywas hired to take his place. Gailey and Campo years (1998–2002) Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10–6 record in1998and anNFC Eastchampionship, the Cowboys' sixth in seven years, but the Cowboys were upset at home in the Wild Card Round of the playoffs by theArizona Cardinals20–7. In1999Dallas went 8–8 in a season that featured Irvin suffering a career-endingcervical spineinjury in a loss to thePhiladelphia EaglesatVeterans Stadium. The season ended in a 27-10 Wild Card playoff loss to theMinnesota Vikings. Gailey was fired and became the first Cowboys coach who did not take the team to aSuper Bowl. Defensive coordinatorDave Campowas promoted to head coach for the2000 season.Prior to the season starting cornerbackDeion Sanderswas released after 5 seasons with the team.He later signed with the division rivalWashington Redskins. In Week 1, they were blown out 41–14 by thePhiladelphia Eagles. That game was very costly when veteran quarterback Troy Aikman suffered a serious concussion which ultimately ended his career. Longtime NFL quarterbackRandall Cunninghamfilled in for Aikman for the rest of the season at quarterback. The Cowboys finished the season in 4th place with a 5–11 record. The only highlights of 2000 wereEmmitt Smithhaving his 10th consecutive 1,000-yard rushing season and a season sweep over the Redskins. 2001was another hard year in Dallas. Prior to the season starting Aikman was released from the team and he retired due to the concussions he had received.Jerry Jones signedTony Banksas a quarterback. Banks had been a starter for half of the season the previous year for theSuper Bowl XXXVchampionBaltimore Ravensbefore being benched. Jones also drafted quarterbackQuincy Carterin the second round of that year's draft, and Banks was released during the preseason.Ryan Leaf,Anthony Wright, andClint Stoernerall competed for the quarterback position that season. Dallas again finished at 5–11, last place in the NFC East, but they swept theWashington Redskinsfor the 4th consecutive season. Prior to the2002 seasonDallas drafted safetyRoy Williamswith the 8th overall pick. The season started out low as the Cowboys lost to theexpansionHouston Texans19–10 in Week 1. By far the highlight of 2002 was on October 28, when during a home game against theSeattle Seahawks, Emmitt Smith broke the all-time NFL rushing record previously held byWalter Payton. TheirThanksgiving Daywin over theWashington Redskinswas their 10th consecutive win against the Redskins. However, that was their final 2002 win as the team lost their next four games to finish with another last-place 5–11 record. The losing streak was punctuated with a Week 17 20–14 loss against the Redskins. That game was Smith's last game as a Cowboys player; he was released during the offseason.Campo was immediately fired as head coach at the conclusion of the season. Bill Parcells years (2003–2006) Jones then luredBill Parcellsout of retirement to coach the Cowboys.The Cowboys became the surprise team of the2003 seasongetting off to a hot 7–2 start, but went 3–4 for the rest of the season.They were able to grab the second NFC wild-card spot with a 10–6 record but lost in the Wild Card round to eventual conference championCarolina Panthers, 29–10. In2004Dallas was unable to replicate their 2003 success and ended 6–10.Quincy Carter was released during the preseason and was replaced at quarterback byVinny Testaverde. Dallas got off to a great 7–3 start for the2005 seasonbut ended up only in 3rd place with a 9–7 record.Prior to the beginning of that season, they signed veteranDrew Bledsoeas starting quarterback. 2006was an interesting year for the Cowboys. Prior to the season, they signed free agent wide receiverTerrell Owenswho was talented yet controversial.The Cowboys started the season 3–2. During a week 7 matchup against theNew York Giants, Bledsoe, who had been struggling since the start of the season, was pulled from the game and was replaced by backupTony Romo.Romo was unable to salvage that game and Dallas lost 36–22. However, Romo was named the starter for the team and went 5–1 in his first 6 games. Dallas ended the season with a 9–7 2nd-place finish.They were able to clinch the number 5 playoff seed. They traveled to play theSeattle Seahawkswhere the Seahawks won 21–20.After the season Parcells retired and was replaced byWade Phillips. Wade Phillips years (2007–2010) Dallas started the2007 seasonwith a bang, winning their first five games. They won 12 of their first 13 games, with their only loss during that span being to theNew England Patriots, who went undefeated that season. Despite dropping two of their last three regular-season games, the Cowboys clinched their first number 1 NFC seed in 12 years, which also granted them a first-round bye and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs.They lost in the divisional round 21–17 to the eventualSuper BowlchampionNew York Giants. In the tumultuous2008 season, the Cowboys started off strong, going 3–0 for the second straight year, en route to a 4–1 start. However, things soon went downhill from there, after quarterback Tony Romo suffered a broken pinkie in an overtime loss to theArizona Cardinals. WithBrad JohnsonandBrooks Bollingerplaying as backups, Dallas went 1–2 during a three-game stretch. Romo's return showed promise, as Dallas went 3–0. However, injuries mounted during the season, with the team losing several starters for the year, such asKyle Kosier,Felix Jones, safetyRoy Williams, punterMat McBriar, and several other starters playing with injuries.Entering December, the 8–4 Cowboys underperformed, finishing 1–3. They failed to make the playoffs after losing to thePhiladelphia Eaglesin the final regular-season game which saw the Eagles reach the playoffs instead. On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys' practice facility collapsed during a wind storm.The collapse left twelve Cowboys players and coaches injured. The most serious injuries were special teams coachJoe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team's 33-year-old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed. The2009 seasonstarted positively with a road win against theTampa Bay Buccaneers, but fortunes quickly changed as Dallas fell to a 2–2 start. In week five, with starting wide receiver Roy Williams sidelined by injury, receiverMiles Austingot his first start of the season and had a record-setting day (250 yards receiving and 2 touchdowns) to help lead Dallas to an overtime win over theKansas City Chiefs.Following theirbye week, they went on a three-game winning streak including wins over theAtlanta Falconsand NFC East division rivalPhiladelphia Eagles. Despite entering December with a record of 8–3, they lost their slim grip on 1st place in the division with losses to theNew York GiantsandSan Diego Chargers. Talks of past December collapses resurfaced, and another collapse in 2009 seemed validated. However, the team surged in the final three weeks of the season with a 24–17 victory against the eventualSuper Bowl XLIVchampionNew Orleans Saintsat the Louisiana Superdome, ending the Saints' previously unbeaten season in week 15. For the first time in franchise history, they posted back-to-back shutouts when they beat their division rivals, theWashington Redskins(17–0) and Philadelphia Eagles (24–0) to end the season. In the process, the Cowboys clinched their second NFC East title in three years as well as the third seed in the NFC Playoffs.Six days later, in the wild-card round of the playoffs, Dallas played the Eagles in a rematch of week 17. The Cowboys defeated the Eagles for the first Cowboys post-season win since the 1996 season, ending a streak of six consecutive NFL post-season losses.However, their playoff run ended after being routed 34–3 in the Divisional Round against theMinnesota Vikings. After beginning the2010 seasonat 1–7, Phillips was fired as head coach and was replaced by offensive coordinatorJason Garrettas the interim head coach. Jason Garrett years (2010–2019) With Garrett as interim head coach, the Cowboys finished the 2010 season 6–10 after beginning at 1–7.With this improvement, the Cowboys signed Garrett as the head coach for the 2011 season. To start the2011 seasonthe Cowboys played theNew York Jetson a Sunday night primetime game in New York, on September 11. The Cowboys held the lead through most of the game, until a fumble, blocked punt, and interception led to the Jets coming back to win the game. In week 2 the Cowboys traveled to San Francisco to play theSan Francisco 49ers. In the middle of the 2nd quarter, while the Cowboys trailed 10–7, Tony Romo suffered a rib injury and was replaced byJon Kitna. Kitna threw 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions until Romo returned in the 3rd quarter as Dallas trailed 17–7. Romo then threw 3 touchdown passes toMiles Austinas the Cowboys rallied to send the game into overtime. On their opening possession after a 49ers punt, Romo found wide receiverJesse Holleyon a 78-yard pass, which set up the game-winning field goal by rookie kickerDan Bailey.The Cowboys ended the season 8–8. They were in a position to win the NFC East but lost to theNew York Giantsin a Week 17 primetime Sunday Night game onNBCwhich allowed the Giants to win the division.The Giants would go on to winSuper Bowl XLVI. The Cowboys started off the2012 seasonon a high note by defeating the defending Super Bowl championNew York Giants24–17 on the opening night of the season.They would hover around the .500 mark for the majority of the season. They lost a close Week 6 game to eventualSuper Bowl XLVIIchampionBaltimore Ravens31–29 atM&T Bank Stadiumin Baltimore. Going into Week 17 they found themselves once again one win away from winning the division. Standing in their way were theWashington Redskins, who had beaten them on Thanksgiving atAT&T Stadiumand who were one win away from their first division title since1999. Led byRobert Griffin IIIthe Redskins defeated the Cowboys at home 28–18.Dallas once again finished the season 8–8. In the2013 seasonthe Cowboys started off by defeating theNew York Giantsfor the second straight year; this time 36–31. It was the first time since 2008 that the Cowboys were able to defeat the Giants at home. The win was punctuated byBrandon Carrintercepting anEli Manningpass for a touchdown late in the 4th quarter. For the third straight year, Dallas once again found itself stuck in the .500 area. In Week 5, they lost a shootout to the eventual AFC championDenver Broncos51–48.They battled it out with thePhiladelphia Eaglesfor control of the division throughout the season. In December however they lost 2 crucial back-to-back games to theChicago BearsandGreen Bay Packers. They were very successful in division games having a 5–0 division record heading into another Week 17 showdown for the NFC East crown against the Eagles. That included beating theWashington Redskins24–23 on Week 16 thanks to the late-game heroics ofTony Romo. However, Romo received a severe back injury in that game which prematurely ended his season. The Cowboys called upon backup quarterbackKyle Ortonto lead them into battle on the final week of the season. Orton was unsuccessful who threw a game-ending interception to the Eagles which allowed the Eagles to win 24–22. Dallas ended the year at 8–8 for the third year in a row. The two differences from this 8–8 ending compared to the others was that Dallas ended the season in second place compared to the 2 previous 3rd-place finishes, along with their season-ending defeat taking place at home instead of on the road. To start off the2014 seasonDallas began by losing to theSan Francisco 49ers28–17. After that, they went on a 6-game winning streak. The highlight of this streak was defeating theSuper Bowl XLVIIIchampionSeattle SeahawksatCenturyLink Field30–23. In Week 8, theWashington Redskinsended the Cowboys' winning streak by winning in overtime 20–17, and Romo injured his back again. He missed next week, a home loss to theArizona Cardinals28–17 with backup quarterbackBrandon Weeden. Romo returned in Week 9 to lead a 31–17 victory over theJacksonville Jaguars, which was played atWembley StadiuminLondon, Englandas part of theNFL International Series. Dallas played their traditional Thanksgiving home game against their division rivalPhiladelphia Eagles. Both teams were vying for first place in the division with identical 8–3 records. The Eagles got off to a fast start and the Cowboys were unable to catch up, losing 33–10. They would rebound the next week when they defeated theChicago Bears41–28. Week 15 was a rematch against 1st place Philadelphia. This time it was the Cowboys who got off to a fast start going up 21–0. Then the Eagles put up 24 points but Dallas came back to win 38–27 to go into first place for the first time in the season and improve to 10–4. Going into their Week 16 matchup at home against theIndianapolis Colts, Dallas was in a position to clinch their first division title since 2009 by defeating the Colts 42-7 and the Eagles losing that week to the Redskins. They became the 2014 NFC East Champions, eliminating the Eagles from the playoffs. Dallas ended the regular season with a 12–4 record and an 8–0 away record when they won on the road against Washington 44–17. On January 4, 2015, the Cowboys, as the number 3 seed, hosted the number 6 seedDetroit Lionsin the wild-card round of theNFL playoffs. In the game, the Lions got off to a hot start, going up 14–0 in the first quarter. Dallas initially struggled on both sides of the ball. However, towards the end of the second quarter, Romo threw a 76-yard touchdown pass to Terrance Williams.Matt Praterof the Lions would kick a field goal before halftime to go up 17–7. Dallas came out swinging to start the second half by picking off Detroit quarterbackMatthew Staffordon the first play of the third quarter. However, the Cowboys failed to capitalize on the turnover, as Dan Bailey missed a field goal during Dallas's ensuing drive. Detroit then kicked another field goal to make the score 20–7. A DeMarco Murray touchdown later in that quarter closed the gap to 20–14. A 51-yard Bailey field goal almost 3 minutes into the fourth quarter trimmed the Cowboys' deficit to 3. The Lions got the ball back and started driving down the field. On 3rd down-and-1 of that Lions drive, Stafford threw a 17-yard pass intended for Lions tight endBrandon Pettigrew, but the ball hit Cowboys linebackerAnthony Hitchensin the back a fraction of a second before he ran into Pettigrew. The play was initially flagged as defensive pass interference against Hitchens. However, the penalty was then nullified by the officiating crew. The Cowboys got the ball back on their 41-yard line and had a successful 59-yard drive which was capped off by an 8-yard touchdown pass from Romo to Williams to give the Cowboys their first lead of the game at 24–20. The Lions got the ball back with less than 2:30 to play in regulation. Stafford fumbled the ball at the 2-minute mark. The fumble was recovered by Cowboys defensive endDeMarcus Lawrence, who then fumbled the ball which was recovered by the Lions. Lawrence would redeem himself by sacking Stafford on a 4th down-and-3 play. The sack led to Stafford fumbling the ball again, which Lawrence recovered to seal the game for the Cowboys, who won 24–20.This was the first time in franchise playoff history that Dallas had been down by 10 or more points at halftime and rallied to win the game. The following week, the Cowboys traveled toLambeau FieldinGreen Bay, Wisconsinto play theGreen Bay Packersin theDivisional Round. Despite having a 14–7 halftime lead, the Cowboys fell to the Packers 26–21, thus ending their season. The season ended on an overturned call of a completed catch by Dez Bryant. The catch was challenged by the Packers, and the referees overturned the call because of the \"Calvin Johnson rule.\" During the 2015 offseason the Cowboys allowed running backDeMarco Murrayto become a free agent. Murray signed with thedivision rivalPhiladelphia Eagles.On July 15 wide receiverDez Bryantsigned a 5-year, $70 million contract. TheCowboysstarted the 2015 season at home against theNew York Giants, in which Dallas won 27–26.Dez Bryantleft the game early with a fractured bone in his foot. On the road against thePhiladelphia Eagles, Romo suffered a broken left collarbone, the same one he injured in 2010, andBrandon Weedenreplaced him. Dallas won 20–10 to begin the season 2–0, but then went on a seven-game losing streak. They finished the season 4–12 and last in their division. In2016, after a preseason injury toTony Romo, rookie quarterbackDak Prescottwas slated as the starting quarterback, as Romo was expected to be out 6–8 weeks.In week 1 against theNew York Giants, Dallas lost 20–19. After this loss, Dallas would go on an eleven-game winning streak. After much speculation leading to a potential quarterback controversy, Romo made an announcement that Prescott had earned the right to take over as the Cowboys starting quarterback. In game 10, Romo suited up for the first time in the season and was the backup quarterback. Dallas defeated theBaltimore Ravensto win their 9th straight game, breaking a franchise record of 8 straight games set in 1977. It also marked rookie running backEzekiel ElliottbreakingTony Dorsett's single-season rushing record for a Cowboys rookie. Prescott also tied an NFL rookie record held byRussell WilsonandDan Marinoby throwing multiple touchdowns in 5 straight games. Dallas finished 13–3, tying their best 16-game regular-season record. While Dallas defeated theGreen Bay PackersatLambeau Fieldin week 6, the Packers would win at AT&T Stadium in the divisional round of theNFL playoffson a last-second field goal, ending the Cowboys’ season. Dak Prescott was namedNFL Rookie of the Yearin the NFL honors on February 4, 2017, and Ezekiel Elliott led the league in rushing yards. Jason Garrett was namedCoach of the Year. Both Prescott and Elliott made the2017 Pro Bowl. This is the first time the Cowboys sent two rookies to the Pro Bowl. 2017was the first season since 2002 without quarterback Tony Romo, who retired on April 4 after 14 seasons with the Cowboys.The season also featured second-year running back Ezekiel Elliott being suspended for 6 games after violating the league's conduct policy.The suspension was to begin at the start of the year but was pushed back to November.The Cowboys finished the year at 9-7 without making the playoffs. Following the season,Dez Bryantwas released after eight seasons in Dallas and tight endJason Witten, who holds several franchise receiving records, retired after 15 seasons, ending an era. The Dallas Cowboys' 2017 season was the subject of the third season ofAmazon'ssports documentary seriesAll or Nothing. The series is produced by NFL Films. In the 2018 season, the Cowboys finished with a 10–6 record and won the NFC East.In the Wild Card Round, the Cowboys defeated the Seattle Seahawks 24–22 before losing 30–22 to the Los Angeles Rams in the Divisional Round. Mike McCarthy years (2020–present) Following the end of the 2019 season, where the Cowboys missed the playoffs for the 7th time in the last 10 seasons, it was announced that the team had parted ways with longtime head coachJason Garrett. BothMarvin Lewis(formerBengalscoach) andMike McCarthy(formerPackerscoach who led Green Bay to a Super Bowl win) were interviewed for the head coaching position. McCarthy and the Cowboys picked up the first win against theAtlanta Falconsin Week 2.On October 11, the Cowboys’2020 seasonwas all but lost when quarterbackDak Prescottsuffered a grievous ankle injury that ended his season.Despite the loss of Prescott, McCarthy's first year Cowboys still remained in the running for a playoff appearance throughout most of the regular season. They would go on to finish the season with a 6–10 record, which ranked the team third in the NFC East Division.Throughout the 2020 season, the Cowboys’ defense struggled massively. Following the season, defensive coordinatorMike Nolanand defensive line coachJim Tomsulawere dismissed. The Cowboys'2021 seasonresulted in the first winning season since2018, and with theSan Francisco 49ers' Week 16 loss to theTennessee Titans, the Cowboys clinched their first playoff berth also since 2018. Following aDenver Broncos' loss to theLas Vegas Raiders, the Cowboys clinched the NFC East, based onstrength-of-victory tiebreakers; this was their first division title since 2018.They swept the NFC East for the first time since1998. RookieMicah Parsonswas awarded asDefensive Rookie of the Year, and contributed to a league-leading defense.The Cowboys' strong offense finished the year with 530 points, the most in the league, and a team record.They finished the season with a 12–5 record, their best since 2016. But despite high expectations, the Cowboys lost in thewild card roundof the playoffs to theSan Francisco 49ers23–17. The2022 seasonsaw a repeat of the 12–5 record. Despite losing to theJacksonville Jaguarsin Week 15, the Cowboys clinched a playoff berth after a loss by theWashington Commanderslater that day. This marked the first time since2006–2007the Cowboys qualified for the postseason in consecutive seasons.Quarterback Dak Prescott was awarded asWalter Payton NFL Man of the Year, for his contributions to the community and charity.In thewild-card round of the playoffs, the Cowboys defeated theTampa Bay Buccaneersto win their first road playoff game since theirSuper Bowl-winning 1992 season, and ended their winless streak againstTom Bradyin what proved to be Brady's last game in his career.However, they were defeated by theSan Francisco 49ersfor the second consecutive season, this time in thedivisional round, their seventh consecutive divisional round defeat. On February 16, 2022, a settlement of $2.4 million was paid after four cheerleaders accused Rich Dalrymple, the now-retired senior vice president of public relations and communications, of voyeurism in their locker room as they undressed during a 2015 event at AT&T Stadium. After the NFL allowed teams to seek blockchain sponsorships,the Cowboys became the first team to do so, signing a multi-year contract with the platformBlockchain.comon April 13, 2022. In2023, the Cowboys again achieved a 12–5 record, for the third year in a row.The team won theNFC Eastdivision for the first time since the2021 seasonand the second time in three seasons.They ended up in a three-way tie with theSan Francisco 49ersand theDetroit Lionsfor first place in the NFC at 12–5. However, they lost the conference record tiebreaker to the 49ers but won the head to head tiebreaker over the Lions, giving them the second seed in the playoffs.Although the Cowboys lost to theBuffalo Billsin Week 15, they clinched their third straight playoff berth before taking the field when theGreen Bay PackersandAtlanta Falconslost to theTampa Bay BuccaneersandCarolina Panthers, respectively.This marked the Cowboys' first run of three consecutive postseason appearances since appearing in six straight from1991to1996. However, the Cowboys collapsed in theplayoffs, and, despite having one of the best-ranked offenses and defenses of the league, were crushed 48–32 by theirrival, seventh-seededGreen Bay Packersin the Wild Card round, at one point trailing 48–16 during the fourth quarter.With the loss, the Cowboys became the first team to lose to a #7 seed since the playoff bracket expanded for the2020–21 NFL playoffs.This also marked the first time a team failed to reach a Conference Championship Game despite winning at least 12 games in three consecutive seasons. Thanksgiving Day games In their seventh season in1966, the Cowboys agreed to host a secondNFL Thanksgiving game; the tradition of a team hosting onThanksgivinghad been popularized by theDetroit Lions(who had hosted a game on the day mostly un-interrupted since moving to Detroit in1934). General managerTex Schrammwanted to find a way to boost publicity on a national level for his team, which had struggled for most of the 1960s. In fact, the NFL guaranteed a cut of the gate revenue in the belief that the game would not be a hit because of said struggle. With a kickoff just after 5 p.m.CST,over eighty thousand fans (and millions viewing onCBS) saw the Cowboys beat theCleveland Browns26–14 at theCotton Bowl. In1975and1977, at the behest ofCommissionerPete Rozelle, theSt. Louis Cardinalsreplaced Dallas as a host team. Dallas then hosted St. Louis in1976in an effort by the NFL to give St. Louis national exposure. Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the \"Cardiac Cards\" due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, the games did not prove as successful. Owing to factors that ranged from ugly contests to opposition from theKirkwood–Webster Groves Turkey Day Game(a localhigh school footballcontest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in1978. It was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day for good; as such, the Cowboys play in the late afternoon. Logos and uniforms Logo The Dallas Cowboys' blue star logo, which represents Texas as \"The Lone Star State,\" is one of the most well-known team logos in professional sports. The blue star originally was a solid shape until a white line and blue border were added in 1964. The logo has remained the same since. Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones' defunctAFLteam, theDallas Desperadosthat used a similar logo based on that of the Cowboys. The blue star also is used on other entries like an imaging facility and storage facility. Uniforms The Dallas Cowboys' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 287 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black. The home pants are a common metallic silver-green color (PMS 8280 C) that helps bring out the blue in the uniform. The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the \"Stars and Stripes\" jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes. A white/gray/white stripe is on each sleeve as well as the collared V-neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes. A \"Cowboys\" chest crest is directly under the NFL shield. The away pants are a pearlish metallic-silver color (PMS 8180 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms. The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates. The team's helmets are also a unique silver with a tint of blue known as \"Metallic Silver Blue\" (PMS 8240 C) and have a blue/white/blue vertical stripe placed upon the center of the crown. The Cowboys also include a unique, if subtle, feature on the back of the helmet: a blue strip ofDymotape with the player's name embossed, placed on the white portion of the stripe at the back of the helmet. Home and away uniform history When the Dallas Cowboys franchise debuted in 1960, the team's uniform included a white helmet adorned with a simple blue star and a blue-white-blue stripe down the center crown. The team donned blue jerseys with white sleeves and a small blue star on each shoulder for home games and the negative opposite for away games. Their socks also had two horizontal white stripes overlapping the blue. In 1964, the Cowboys opted for a simpler look (adopting essentially the team's current uniform) by changing their jersey/socks to one solid color with three horizontal stripes on the sleeves; the white jersey featured royal blue stripes with a narrow black border, the royal blue jersey white stripes with the same black outline. The star-shouldered jerseys were eliminated; \"TV\" numbers appeared just above the jersey stripes. The new helmet was silver-blue, with a blue-white-blue tri-stripe down the center (the middle white stripe was thicker). The blue \"lone star\" logo was retained, but with a white border setting it off from the silver/blue. The new pants were silver/blue, with a blue-white-blue tri-stripe. In 1964, the NFL allowed teams to wear white jerseys at home; several teams did so, and the Cowboys have worn white at home ever since, except on certain and special \"throwback\" days. In 1966, the team modified the jerseys, which now featured only two sleeve stripes, slightly wider; the socks followed the same pattern. In 1967 the \"lone star\" helmet decal added a blue outline to the white-bordered star, giving the logo a bigger, bolder look. The logo and this version of the uniform have seen little change to the present day. The only notable changes from 1970 to the present were: During the 1976 season, the blue-white-blue stripe on the crown of the helmets was temporarily changed to red-white-blue to commemorate the United States' bicentennial anniversary. This stripe configuration returned in 2021 and is now worn for one regular season game annually when the team pays tribute toMedal of Honorrecipients. In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back-to-back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white \"Double-Star\" jersey on Thanksgiving Day. This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994–95 playoffs. During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960–63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league-wide \"throwback\" policy. During the 1995 season, the team wore the navy \"Double-Star\" jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform). The navy \"Double-Star\" jersey was not seen again until the NFL'sClassic Throwback Weekendon Thanksgiving Day 2001–2003. In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960–1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day. This uniform became the team's alternate or \"third jersey\" and was usually worn at least once a year, primarily Thanksgiving Day. Two exceptions were when the Cowboys wore their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008. While the team didn't wear the throwback uniform exactly on Thanksgiving Day in those two years, Dallas wore them on a date around Thanksgiving for those two years. In 2007 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 29, 2007, against the Green Bay Packers. In 2008 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 23, 2008, against the San Francisco 49ers. The team went back to wearing this uniform at home on Thanksgiving Day in 2009 while their opponent was the Oakland Raiders who wore their AFL Legacy Weekend throwbacks. Dallas wore this alternate uniform on October 11, 2009, as part of one of the NFL's AFL Legacy Weekends when they traveled to Kansas City to play the Chiefs who were sporting their AFL Dallas Texans' uniforms. This created a rare game in which neither team wore a white jersey and the first time the Cowboys wore the alternative uniform as a visiting team. The 1960–1963 uniform may also be used on other special occasions. Other instances include the 2005 Monday Night game against the Washington Redskins when the team inducted Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irving into the Cowboys Ring of Honor, and the 2006 Christmas Day game against the Philadelphia Eagles. In 2013, the NFL issued a new helmet rule stating that players would no longer be allowed to use alternate helmets due to the league's enhanced concussion awareness. This caused the Cowboys' white 1960s throwback helmets to become non-compliant. However, this rule became moot in 2022 when the NFL once again allowed teams to use an alternate helmet again, and the Cowboys reintroduced the 1960s white helmet. During the \"one-shell era\", in 2013,2014,2016,and 2017,the team wore their normal blue jerseys at home for Thanksgiving; the only exceptions were in 2015and 2020when the Cowboys wore the \"Color Rush\" uniforms (see below), and in 2018,2019and 2021when they wore their regular white uniforms.In 2017, the team initially announced that they will wear blue jerseys at home on a more regular basis, only to rescind soon after. In 2015, the Cowboys released theirColor Rushuniform, featuring a variation of the 1990s \"Double Star\" alternates with white pants and socks. The uniform was first used in a Thanksgiving game against the Carolina Panthers and in subsequentThursday Night Footballgames since 2016. In 2022, the \"Color Rush\" uniforms would be worn with a white helmet; this design would emulate their current silver helmets but without any silver elements. The Cowboys also unveiled a navy uniform-white pants combination which was first used on December 10, 2017, against the Giants. In 1964, Tex Schramm started the tradition of the Cowboys wearing their white jersey at home, contrary to an unofficial rule that teams should wear colored jerseys at home. Schramm did this because he wanted fans to see a variety of opponents' colors at home games. According to current Cowboys' Equipment Director, Mike McCord, another reason why the team chose to wear white uniforms at home was because of the intense Texas heat during the early part of the season atTexas Stadium. Throughout the years, the Cowboys' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be \"jinxed\" because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them. This purported curse drew attention after the team lost Super Bowl V with the blue jerseys.However, the roots of the curse likely date back earlier to the 1968 divisional playoffs, when the blue-shirted Cowboys were upset by theCleveland Brownsin what turned out to be Don Meredith's final game with the Cowboys. Another example was a 1976 regular season road game against theSt. Louis Cardinals, in which the Cardinals elected to wear white as the home team and promptly defeated the then-undefeated Cowboys 21–17 for their first loss in six games. Since the white home uniform tradition began in 1964, the only season Dallas never wore blue uniforms in a regular season game was in the1972 season, even though they wore them thrice in the preseason.The only other times Dallas wore blue in one regular season game came in1968,1975,1976,1977,1998,2010,and2020.Conversely, the2019 seasonsaw Dallas wear their blue uniforms eight times, the most of any season. Since the 1970 NFL-AFL merger, league rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey. Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jerseys when they visit Washington, Philadelphia (sometimes), Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities or other means. Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse,such as when thePhiladelphia Eagleshosted the Cowboys in the1980 NFC Championship Game,as well as their November 4, 2007, meeting. Various other teams followed suit in the 1980s. Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse.Since the league began allowing teams to use an alternate jersey, the Cowboys' alternates have been primarily blue versions of past jerseys and the Cowboys have generally had success when wearing these blue alternates. With the implementation of the 2013 NFL helmet rule for alternate jerseys, the team decided instead to wear their regular blue jerseys for their Thanksgiving game, something they have not done at home since Schramm started the white-jersey-at-home tradition. As of the2023season, the Cowboys have a cumulative 97–100–3 regular season record in their blue uniforms. They are also 15–11 at home while wearing the blue uniforms since 2001. The Cowboys also sport a 8–2 record when wearing the primary blue uniform/white pants combination since its 2017 debut. The Cowboys are 2–6 in playoff games while wearing the blue uniforms. The only victories with the blue uniforms came in the1978 NFC Championship Gameagainst theLos Angeles Rams, and the2022 NFC Wild Card Roundagainst theTampa Bay Buccaneers. Thanksgiving Day uniforms With the Dallas Cowboys traditionally hostingThanksgiving Day games, the team donned new uniforms when they unveiled their white \"Double-Star\" jersey for the first time on November 24, 1994.This game later became synonymous with future Cowboys Head Coach (2010–2019); then 3rd string QuarterbackJason Garrettas he led a come-from-behind victory against the Green Bay Packers. In the 2004 season, the team went further into Cowboys history by choosing to don blue jerseys worn in their first 4 years of existence, which included white helmets and pants. However, keeping consistent with modern marketing, navy blue was used for this version as opposed to the original 1960-1963 royal color jersey.Aside from the 2007 and 2008 seasons, the Cowboys continued to use this \"throwback\" uniform through Thanksgiving Day 2012. Before the start of the 2013 season, the NFL announced a \"One-helmet\" rule to help prevent potential player concussions.This regulation also prevented the Cowboys from pairing the white helmets with the throwback uniforms, as the team will often use the traditional silver-blue as their primary helmets throughout the season. In the 2015 season, the Cowboys chose to wear a variation of the 1994 \"Double-Star\" jersey as theirColor Rushon Thanksgiving Day against the Carolina Panthers on November 26, 2015.Since then, theColor Rushwas only used again on Thanksgiving against theWashington Football Teamon November 26, 2020.In all other seasons, the team opted to wear their standard white or blue uniforms. In 2022, the NFL restored the use of alternate helmets and the Cowboys reinstated the white helmet and navy 'throwback\" uniforms on November 24, 2022, against theNew York Giants. Stadiums Cotton Bowl The Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1932 and became known as \"The House That Doak Built\" due to the immense crowds that former SMU running backDoak Walkerdrew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s. Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located inFair Park, site of theState Fair of Texas. Concerts or other events using a stage allow the playing field to be used for additional spectators. The Cotton Bowl was the longtime home of the annualCotton Bowl Classiccollege football bowl game, for which the stadium is named. (Beginning with the January 2010 game, the Cotton Bowl Classic has been played atAT&T Stadiumin Arlington.) The Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved toTexas Stadium. It is the only Cowboys stadium within the Dallascity limits. The Cowboys hosted the Green Bay Packers for the1966 NFL Championshipat the Cotton Bowl. Texas Stadium For the majority of the franchise's history the Cowboys played their home games at Texas Stadium. Just outside the city of Dallas, the stadium was located inIrving. The stadium opened on October 24, 1971, at a cost of $35 million and with aseating capacityof 65,675. The stadium was famous for its hole-in-the-roof dome. The roof's worn paint had become so unsightly in the early 2000s that it was repainted in the summer of 2006 by the City of Irving. It was the first time the famed roof was repainted since Texas Stadium opened. The roof was structurally independent from the stadium it covered. The Cowboys lost their final game at Texas Stadium to theBaltimore Ravens, 33–24, on December 20, 2008. After Cowboys Stadium was opened in 2009, the Cowboys turned over the facility to the City of Irving. In2009, it was replaced as home of the Cowboys byCowboys Stadium, which officially opened on May 27, 2009, inArlington.Texas Stadium was demolished by implosion on April 11, 2010. AT&T Stadium AT&T Stadium, previously named Cowboys Stadium, is adomed stadiumwith a retractable roof inArlington. After failed negotiations to build a new stadium on the site of the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones, along with the city of Arlington, Texas, a suburb of Fort Worth, funded the stadium at a cost of $1.3 billion.The stadium is located inTarrant County, the first time the Cowboys has called a stadium home outside ofDallas County. It was completed on May 29, 2009, and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000. AT&T Stadium is among the largest domed stadiums in the world. A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its gigantic, center-hunghigh-definition televisionscreen, at one point the largest in the world.The 160 by 72 feet (49 by 22 m), 11,520-square-foot (1,070 m2) scoreboard surpassed the 8,736 sq ft (812 m2) screen that opened in 2009 at the renovatedKauffman StadiuminKansas Cityas the world's largest.In 2011,Charlotte Motor Speedwayunveiled its plans for a new HDTV screen larger than the one in AT&T Stadium;that larger screen has since been completed. At the debut pre-season game of Cowboys Stadium, a punt by Tennessee Titans kicker,A. J. Trapasso, hit the 2,100 in. screen above the field. The punt deflected and was ruled in-play until Titans coachJeff Fisherinformed the officials that the punt struck thescoreboard. (Many believe Trapasso was trying to hit the suspended scoreboard, based on replays and the angle of the kick.) The scoreboard is, however, within the regulation of the NFL guidelines – hanging approximately five feet above the minimum height. No punts hit the scoreboard during the entire 2009 regular season during an actual game. Also, on August 22, 2009, the day after AJ Trapasso hit the screen, many fans touring the facility noted that half of the field was removed with large cranes re-positioning the screen. According to some fans, a tour guide explained that Jerry Jones invited a few professional soccer players to drop kick soccer balls to try to hit the screen. Once he observed them hitting it consistently he had the screen moved up another 10 feet. The first regular season home game of the 2009 season was against the New York Giants. A league record-setting 105,121 fans showed up to fill Cowboys Stadium for the game before which the traditional \"blue star\" at the 50-yard line was unveiled for the first time; however, the Cowboys lost in the final seconds, 33–31. The Cowboys got their first regular-season home win on September 28, 2009. They beat the Carolina Panthers 21–7 with 90,588 in attendance. The game was televised on ESPN'sMonday Night Footballand marked a record 42nd win for the Cowboys onMonday Night Football. On July 25, 2013, the Cowboys announced thatAT&Twould be taking over the rights to the name of the stadium. Training camp sites Dallas Cowboys training camp locations: Nationwide fanbase Fan support Ever since the team joined the NFL in 1960, the franchise have garnered strong fan support in both theDallas–Fort Worth metroplexand the state of Texas. With its strong fanbase across the country, including the notable presence of fans at road games, the Cowboys are often referred to as \"America's Team\". Criticism Despite the historical success of the franchise and a large Cowboys' fanbase, many fans of other NFL teams have come to dislike the Cowboys.Over the years, the Cowboys' fanbase had been labeled as the most annoying in all of sports.ESPNhost and commentatorStephen A. Smithhas validated this claim. Rivalries TheNFC East, composed of the Cowboys,Philadelphia Eagles, theWashington CommandersandNew York Giants, is one of the least-changed divisions of the original six formed in the wake of theNFL-AFL merger(its only major changes being the relocation of theCardinalsfranchise from St. Louis to Arizona and its subsequent move to theNFC Westin the league's2002 realignment). Three of the four teams have been division rivals since the Cowboys' entry into the NFL. As such, the Cowboys have some of the longest and fiercest rivalries in the sport. Divisional Philadelphia Eagles The competition between the Cowboys and thePhiladelphia Eagleshas been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long-moribund Eagles returned to contention.In January 1981, the two teams faced off in the NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning 20–7. A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coachBuddy Ryan. Among these were the 1989Bounty Bowlsin which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kickerLuis ZendejasandVeterans Stadiumfans pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris. A 1999 game inPhiladelphiasaw Eagles fans cheering asMichael Irvinlay motionless on the field atVeterans Stadium. In 2008, the rivalry became more intense when in the last game of the year in which both teams could clinch a playoff spot with a victory, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the Cowboys 44–6. The following season, the Cowboys avenged that defeat by beating the Eagles three times: twice during the regular season to claim the title as NFC East champions and once more in a wild-card playoff game by a combined score of 78–30, including a 24–0 shutout in week 17. That three-game sweep was Dallas' first over any opponent and the longest winning streak against the Eagles since 1992–1995 when Dallas won seven straight matches against Philadelphia. During the 2013 season, Dallas won the first meeting 17–3 atLincoln Financial Fieldin Philadelphia. The two teams met again in Week 17 at AT&T Stadium with the winner clinching the 2013 NFC East title. The Cowboys came into the game at a disadvantage with starting quarterbackTony Romoout with a season-ending back injury, which put backupKyle Ortonas the starter. It was a tight game with the Eagles up 24–22 with less than 2 minutes to go in regulation. Orton got the ball and started driving down the field when he was intercepted by the Eagles defense, which ended the game and the Cowboys season. In 2014, the Cowboys and Eagles both won against each other on the road with Philadelphia posting a dominant 33–10 win onThanksgiving Dayin Dallas, and Dallas returning the favor two weeks later by defeating the Eagles 38–27 atLincoln Financial Fieldin Philadelphia. The second game between these rivals clinched a playoff spot for Dallas and led to formerly first-place Philadelphia missing out on the post-season. Dallas leads the all-time series 73–56. New York Giants The first game ever played between theNew York Giantsand Cowboys was a 31–31 tie on December 4, 1960. Dallas logged its first win in the series on October 29, 1961, and New York's first was on November 11, 1962. Among the more notable moments in the rivalry was the Giants' defeat of Dallas in the 2007 playoffs en route to their victory inSuper Bowl XLIIand winning the first regular-season game played atCowboys Stadiumin 2009. Dallas currently leads the all-time series 75–47–2. Washington Commanders TheWashington Commandersand the Dallas Cowboys enjoy what has been called bySports Illustratedthe top NFL rivalry of all time and \"one of the greatest in sports.\" Some sources trace the enmity to before the Cowboys were even formed, due to a longstanding disagreement between Washington ownerGeorge Preston Marshalland Cowboys founderClint Murchison, Jr.over the creation of a new football team in the South, due to Marshall's TV monopoly in that region. The two teams' storied on-field rivalry goes back to 1960 when the two clubs first played each other, resulting in a 26–14 Washington victory. Since that time, the two teams have met in 126 regular-season contests and two NFC Championships. Dallas leads the regular season all-time series 78–46–2, and Washington leads the all-time playoff series 2–0.The Cowboys currently have a 14–7 advantage over Washington at FedEx Field. Some notable moments in the rivalry include Washington's victory over Dallas in the 1982 NFC Championship and the latter's 1989 win over Washington for their only victory that season. The last Cowboys game with Tom Landry as coach was a win over Washington on December 11, 1988. In the 2010s, Washington has struggled to consistently compete for the Division title, but still play the Cowboys particularly tough, posting an impressive upset victory against Dallas in 2014, despite being outclassed by the Cowboys in the overall standings. The 2010s also included an important game in week 17 of 2012 which saw Washington defeat Dallas 28–18 to win the NFC East. Conference San Francisco 49ers The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys andSan Francisco 49ershas been going on since the 1970s.TheNFL Top 10ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL. San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers'Joe Montanacomplete a game-winning pass toDwight Clarkin the final minute (now known asThe Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history. The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992–1994 seasons. San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three separate times. Dallas won the first two match-ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of these pivotal match-ups, the game's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. Both the Cowboys and the 49ers are tied for third all-time inSuper Bowlvictories to thePittsburgh Steelersand New England Patriots, with five each. The 49ers-Cowboys rivalry is also part of the larger cultural rivalry between California and Texas. The 49ers lead the all-time series with a record of 20–19–1. Green Bay Packers The rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and theGreen Bay Packersis one of the best known intra-conferencerivalriesin the NFL. The two teams do not play every year; instead, they play once every three years due to the NFL's rotating division schedules, or if the two teams finish in the same place in their respective divisions, they would play the ensuing season. The rivalry has also resulted in notableplayoffgames. The all-time regular seasons series record is 20–17 in favor of the Packers, and the postseason series is also in favor of the Packers at 5–4. Los Angeles Rams The Cowboys also had a fierce rivalry with theLos Angeles Rams, particularly during the 1970s and 1980s. The two teams played eight postseason games during this period, including two NFC championship games. Between 1975 and 1980, the Cowboys faced the Rams in the playoffs five times in a six-year period. In both 1975 and 1978, the Cowboys won the NFC championship on the road in blowout fashion, only to be followed by close defeats at home in next year's divisional round. The 1980 Wild Card Round saw Dallas follow up last year's playoff defeat with another blowout victory. As of 2022, the Cowboys and Rams tied the all-time regular season series 18–18, but the Rams lead the all-time playoff series 5–4, having recently defeated the Cowboys in the 2018 Divisional Round. Minnesota Vikings Between the Dallas Cowboys andMinnesota Vikings.,the Cowboys lead the all-time series 18–15. The teams have met seven times in the post-season, the Cowboys third most played playoff opponent. The rivalry is home to many key memories, including the famous 1975 Hail Mary pass against the Vikings, theHerschel Walker trade, theRandy MossThanksgiving game, andBrett Favretorching the Cowboys in what would be his last playoff win of his career in 2009. As of the 2023 season, the Cowboys lead the all-time series 19–15. Inter Conference Houston Oilers/Houston Texans The Cowboys have an intrastate interconference rivalry with theHouston Texansfor which they compete in either a preseason or regular season game for bragging rights inTexas, a tradition started between the teams prior to the Oilers relocating toNashville, Tennesseeto become theTennessee Titans. The Texans defeated the Cowboys in the team's inaugural season in 2002. The Cowboys lead the all-time series 4–2. Pittsburgh Steelers The two teams met in the first regular-season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35–28 loss to theSteelers), the first-ever regular-season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of them closely contested events. The Steelers-Cowboys is to date the Super Bowl matchup with the most contests. The Steelers wonSuper Bowl XandSuper Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds, first on a last-second throw byRoger Staubach, then as a fourth-quarter rally by Dallas fell short on anonside kick.The Cowboys wonSuper Bowl XXXin January 1996.It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrast of the teams: the Cowboys, being more of a \"flashy\" team withRoger Staubach's aerial attack and the \"flex\"Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a\"blue-collar\"team with a strong running game and the 1970s-esqueSteel Curtaindefense, a contrast that still exists today.In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels. Dallas leads the all-time series 17–16 including the playoffs. Season-by-season records Players of note Current roster Running backs(RB) Wide receivers(WR) Tight ends(TE) Defensive linemen(DL) Defensive backs(DB) Special teams Reserved 53 active, 9 reserved, 16 practice squad (+1 exempt) Pro Football Hall of Famers Super Bowl MVPs The Cowboys have had seven players win Super Bowl MVP. Ring of Honor Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a\"Ring of Honor\", which is on permanent display encircling the field. Originally at Texas Stadium, the ring is now on display atAT&T Stadiumin Arlington. The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager/president. The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years. Tex Schramm was believed to be a \"one-man committee\" in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebackerLee Roy Jordanbecause of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan's playing days. When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm's Ring of Honor \"power\" and immediately inducted Jordan. Jones also has sparked controversy regarding his decisions in handling the \"Ring of Honor\". For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction. Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame). In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year's Cowboys-Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants). In 2003, Jones chose to induct Tex Schramm. Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction. Unfortunately, Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys-Eagles game that fall. Troy Aikman, all-time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as \"The Triplets,\" were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the archrival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005. Defensive endCharles Haley, offensive linemanLarry Allen, and wide receiverDrew Pearsonwere inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime of the Cowboys' game vs. theSeattle Seahawkson November 6, 2011. SafetyDarren Woodsonwas inducted on November 1, 2015.ExecutiveGil Brandtwas inducted on November 29, 2018. The most recent inductees wereDeMarcus Ware, who was inducted on October 29, 2023, andJimmy Johnson, who was inducted on December 30, 2023. Retired numbers The Dallas Cowboys do not officially retire jersey numbers; however, some are kept \"unofficially inactive\".As of 2022, six numbers have been kept out of circulation:Troy Aikman's No. 8,Roger Staubach's No. 12,Bob Hayes' andEmmitt Smith's No. 22,Bob Lilly's No. 74, andJason Witten's No. 82.The Cowboys are one of three NFL teams that do not officially retire numbers, with the other two being theAtlanta FalconsandLas Vegas Raiders. Career leaders Single-season leaders All-time first-round draft picks The Cowboys have had the number one overall pick in the NFL Draft on three occasions. Head coaches and staff Head coaches Current staff →Coaching staff→Front office→More NFL staffs Radio and television As of 2010, the Cowboys' flagship radio station isKRLD-FM.Brad Shamis the team's longtimeplay-by-play voice.Working alongside him is former Cowboy quarterbackBabe Laufenberg, who returned in 2007 after a one-year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters.The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters. However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the \"Blue Star Network\", which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks. The anchor station isKTVT, theCBSowned and operated station in Dallas. Previous stations which aired Cowboys games includedKVIL-FM,KRLD, andKLUV-FM. Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts. During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach's show with late veteran sportscasterFrank Glieberand later with Brad Sham. Landry's show was famous for his analysis of raw game footage and for him and his co-host making their NFL \"predictions\" at the end of each show. Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along withBill Mercer, famous for calling theIce Bowlof 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI. Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator ofWCCWin the 1980s. Upon Mercer's departure,Verne Lundquistjoined the network, and became their play-by-play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill-in for Lundquist. LongtimeWFAA-TVsports anchorDale Hansenwas the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play-by-play announcer from 1985 to 1996. Dave Garrett served as the Cowboys' play-by-play announcer from 1995 to 1997, when Brad Sham left the team and joined the Texas Rangers' radio network team as well as broadcast Sunday Night Football on Westwood One. Seeking to expand its radio broadcasting scope nationally, the Cowboys began a five-year partnership withCompass Media Networkson February 2, 2011. The result was the America's Team Radio Network, a supplement to the franchise's regional one.Beginning with the 2011 season,Kevin BurkhardtandDanny Whitehandled the broadcasts, withJerry Reccoas the studio host. Fight song The Dallas Cowboys fight song, \"Cowboys Stampede March\" by Tom Merriman Big Band was the official fight song of the Dallas Cowboys.The Cowboys now playWe Dem BoyzbyWiz Khalifafor starting defensive line, because of the saying \"How Bout Dem Cowboys.\" For every touchdown scored by the Cowboys at a home game the song \"Cowboys and Cut Cigars\" by The Burning of Rome is played after a train horn. See also References Further reading External links" ]
[ "FIFA World Cup TheFIFA World Cup, often called theWorld Cup, is an internationalassociation footballcompetition among the seniormen's national teamsof the members of theFédération Internationale de Football Association(FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since theinaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to theSecond World War. The reigning champions areArgentina, who won their third title at the2022 tournament. The contest starts with thequalification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the2026 tournament. As of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the", "been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. Thetrophyhas been won by eight national teams. With five wins,Brazilis the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners areGermanyandItaly, with four titles each;Argentina, with three titles;Franceand inaugural winnerUruguay, each with two titles; andEnglandandSpain, with one title each. The World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world.The viewership of the2018 World Cupwas estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population,while the engagement with the2022 World Cupwas estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watchingthe final match. Seventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recentlyQatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The2026 tournamentwill be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the", "give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played inGlasgowin 1872 betweenScotlandandEngland.The first international tournament for nations, the inauguralBritish Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland,Wales, andIreland.As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as ademonstration sportwith no medals awarded at the1900and1904 Summer Olympics; however, theInternational Olympic Committeehas retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the1906 Intercalated Games. AfterFIFAwas founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition", "the competition as having been unsuccessful. At the1908 Summer OlympicsinLondon, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned byThe Football Association(FA), England's football governing body, the event was foramateurplayers only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by theEngland national amateur football team) won thegold medals. They repeated the feat at the1912 Summer OlympicsinStockholm. With the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only,Sir Thomas Liptonorganised theSir Thomas Lipton Trophytournament inTurinin 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described asThe First World Cup,and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to", "the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invitedWest Auckland, an amateur side fromCounty Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title.Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the1895 gamebetweenSunderland A.F.C.and theHeart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise theOlympic tournamentas a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event.This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the1920 Summer Olympics, contested byEgyptand 13 European teams, and won byBelgium.Uruguaywon the next two Olympic football tournaments in1924and1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason", "and is the reason whyUruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars. World Cups before World War II Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, withPresidentJules Rimetas the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress inAmsterdamdecided to stage a world championship.With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate theircentenaryofindependencein 1930, FIFA namedUruguayas the host country of theinaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of theGreat Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams fromBelgium,France,Romania, andYugoslaviato make the trip.In total, 13", "trip.In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won byFranceand theUnited States, who defeatedMexico4–1 andBelgium3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored byLucien Laurentof France.In thefinal,UruguaydefeatedArgentina4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators inMontevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup.After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and theIOCdisagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the1932 Summer Olympics.After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the1934 World Cupand all North and South American", "and South American nations exceptBrazilandCubaboycotted the1938tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, whichGermanyandBrazilsought to host,were cancelled due toWorld War II. World Cups after World War II The1950 World Cup, held inBrazil, was the first to include British football associations.Scotland,England,Wales, andNorthern Irelandhad withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football.The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation.The tournament also saw the return of 1930 championsUruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese:Maracanaço). In the tournaments between 1934 and1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, whenAustriawasabsorbedintoGermanyafter qualifying,", "qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, whenIndia,Scotland, andTurkeywithdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams.Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were:United States, semi-finalists in 1930;Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938;North Korea, quarter-finalists in1966; andMexico, quarter-finalists in1970. Expansion to 24 and 32 teams The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in1982,and then to 32 in1998,allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals:Mexico, quarter-finalists in1986;Cameroon, quarter-finalists in1990;South Korea, finishing in fourth place in2002;Senegal, along", "along withUSA, both quarter-finalists in 2002;Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010;Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; andMorocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far. Two hundred teams entered the2002 FIFA World Cupqualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the2010 FIFA World Cup. Expansion to 48 teams In October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing theCaribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup.In the edition of 25 October 2013 of theFIFA WeeklyBlatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South", "European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\"Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency. Following the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency,UEFAPresidentMichel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth toUEFA, two each to theAsian Football Confederationand theConfederation of African Football, two shared betweenCONCACAFandCONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for theOceania Football Confederation.Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \" not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the", "is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\" In October 2016, FIFA presidentGianni Infantinostated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026.On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams. 2015 FIFA corruption case By May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games,with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December.By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of", "five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016. On 4 June 2015,Chuck Blazerwhile co-operating with theFBIand the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups.On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices ofSepp Blatter.The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the2026 FIFA World Cupin light of theallegations surrounding briberyin the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary generalJérôme Valckestated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\"On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media. On 3 December 2015 two", "3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May.An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day. Biennial World Cup proposition A biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by theSaudi Arabian Football Federationat the 71stFIFA Congresson 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal managerArsène Wengerand national federations in Africa and Asia.Continental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the planbut, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament forwomen's football, theFIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in1991inChina.The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Men's football has been included in everySummer", "in everySummer Olympic Gamesexcept 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men'sfootball tournament at the Olympicsis not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players.Women's football made itsOlympic debut in 1996. TheFIFA Confederations Cupwas a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country.The first edition took place in1992and the last edition was played in2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of theFIFA Club World Cupin 2021. FIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup,FIFA U-17 World Cup,FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup,FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such", "variants such asfutsal(FIFA Futsal World Cup) andbeach soccer(FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although aFIFA Women's Club World Cuphas been proposed. TheFIFA U-20 Women's World Cupis held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010,2014and2018). Trophy From 1930 to 1970, theJules Rimet Trophywas awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as theWorld CuporCoupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA presidentJules Rimetwho set up the first tournament. In1970,Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. After 1970, a new trophy, known as theFIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts", "The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designerSilvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18carat(75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb). The base contains two layers of semi-preciousmalachitewhile the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since1974.The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\" This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards. All members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams", "the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of theWorld Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hostsSouth Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. Since 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear theFIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament.They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa,Asia,North and Central America and Caribbean,South America,Oceania, andEurope), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament,", "each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinentalplay-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the2010 World Cup.From the1938 World Cuponwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the2006 FIFA World Cuponward, requiring the champions to qualify.Brazil, winners in2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches. Final tournament The final tournament format since 1998 has had 32", "1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on theFIFA World Rankingsor performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups.The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays around-robin tournamentin which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to", "at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams.The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since1994,three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points). Considering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points.However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by: The knockout stage is asingle-elimination tournamentin which teams play each other in one-off matches, withextra timeandpenalty shootoutsused to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the", "is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, thethird-place match(contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. On 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026.On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32. Hosts Selection process Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold thefirst World Cupin Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing.The next two World Cups were both held in", "were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the1938 FIFA World Cup. Since the1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the1998 FIFA World Cup. The2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts.South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in2010. The2014 FIFA World Cupwas hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America sinceArgentina 1978,and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under anexhaustive ballotsystem. The national football association of a country desiring to host", "desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded toRussiaandQatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014)", "America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after thecontroversysurrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from2018.This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. The2026 FIFA World Cupwas chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations.The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each. Summary by confederation Performances Six of the eight champions have won", "champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions beingBrazil, who finished as runners-up after losing thedeciding matchon home soil in 1950 and lost theirsemi-finalagainst Germany in 2014, andSpain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982.England(1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation.Uruguay(1930),Italy(1934),Argentina(1978), andFrance(1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, whileGermany(1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament.Switzerland(quarter-finals 1954),Sweden(runners-up in 1958),Chile(third place in 1962),South Korea(fourth place in 2002),Russia(quarter-finals 2018), andMexico(quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts.So far,South Africa(2010) andQatar(2022) failed to advance beyond the first round. Broadcasting and promotion The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006is", "and as of 2006is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion.715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers.The World Cup attracts major sponsors such asCoca-Cola,McDonald'sandAdidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event. The governing body of the sport,FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament,and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its ownmascotor logo.World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the firstWorld Cup mascot.World Cups featureofficial match ballsspecially designed", "designed for each tournament. AfterSlazengerproduced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA.Each World Cup also has anofficial song, which have been performed by artists ranging fromShakiratoWill Smith.Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed byThe Three Tenorsat four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970,Paninipublished its firststicker albumfor the 1970 World Cup.Since then, collecting and trading stickers andcardshas become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation.FIFA has licensed World Cupvideo gamessince 1986, sponsored byElectronic Arts. Results In all, 80 nations haveplayed in at least one World Cup.Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup,and they have addedstars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to displayfour stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928", "the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to haveplayed in every World Cup(22) to date.Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8). Teams reaching the top four Best performances by confederations To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from theUEFA(Europe) andCONMEBOL(South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two", "outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition:United States(North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930;South Korea(Asia) in 2002; andMorocco(Africa) in 2022. Only oneOceanianqualifier,Australiain 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022. Brazil,Argentina,SpainandGermanyare the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious inEurope(1958),North America(1970and1994) andAsia(2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in1986and in Asia in2022. Spain won inAfricain2010. In2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the2006,2010,2014, and2018tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively). Records and statistics Six players share the record", "share the record forplaying in the most World Cups;Mexico'sAntonio Carbajal(1950–1966).Rafael Márquez(2002–2018), andAndrés Guardado(2006–2022);Germany'sLothar Matthäus(1982–1998);Argentina'sLionel Messi(2006–2022); andPortugal'sCristiano Ronaldo(2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments.Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances.Brazil'sDjalma Santos(1954–1962), West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauer(1966–1974), and Germany'sPhilipp Lahm(2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World CupAll-Star Teams. Miroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He brokeRonaldoof Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany'sGerd Müller(1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals.The fourth-placed goalscorer,France'sJust Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals", "all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.This made Brazil'sPeléthe only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury),with20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974:Franz Beckenbauer,Jürgen Grabowski,Horst-Dieter Höttges,Sepp Maier, andWolfgang Overath(1966–1974), Italy'sFranco Baresi(1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has beenMiroslav Kloseof Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals. Brazil'sMário Zagallo, West Germany'sFranz Beckenbauerand France'sDidier Deschampsare the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player", "1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach.Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach,and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain.Italy'sVittorio Pozzois the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938).All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. Among the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237).The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the2002 finaland in the2014 semi-final. Top goalscorers Players inboldare still active. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. See also Notes Citations Cited works External links", "Chicago Bulls TheChicago Bullsare an American professionalbasketballteam based inChicago. The Bulls compete in theNational Basketball Association(NBA) as a member of theCentral Divisionof theEastern Conference. The team was founded on January 16, 1966, and played its first game during the1966–67 NBA season.The Bulls play their home games at theUnited Center, an arena on Chicago's West Side. The Bulls saw their greatest success during the 1990s when they played a major part in popularizing the NBA worldwide. They are known for having one of the NBA's greatest dynasties, winning sixNBA championshipsbetween 1991 and 1998 with twothree-peats. All six of their championship teams were led byHall of FamersMichael Jordan,Scottie Pippen, and coachPhil Jackson. The Bulls are the only NBA franchise to win multiple championships while never losing anNBA Finalsseries in their history. The Bulls won 72 games during the1995–96 season, setting anNBA recordthat stood until theGolden State Warriorswon 73 games during", "73 games during the2015–16 season. The Bulls were the first team in NBA history to win 70 games or more in a single season, and the only NBA franchise to do so until the 2015–16 Warriors. Since 1998, the Bulls have failed to regain their former success. The franchise struggled throughout the 2000s, but showed promise in the early 2010s led byDerrick RoseandJoakim Noah, culminating in back-to-back seasons above .732 in2010–11and2011–12. AnACLtear suffered by Rose and subsequent trades of key players triggered a rebuild, culminating in the lineup built aroundAll-StarsZach LaVine,DeMar DeRozanandNikola Vučević. Jordan and Rose have won theNBA Most Valuable Player Awardwhile playing for the Bulls, for a total of six MVP awards. The Bulls share rivalries with theCleveland Cavaliers,Detroit Pistons,Miami Heat, and theNew York Knicks. The Bulls' rivalry with the Pistons was highlighted heavily during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Outside of basketball, the Chicago Bulls are also known for their community work", "community work through their charity department which provides youth and not-for-profit organizations with tickets to games and merchandise. History 1966–1975: Team creation and early success On January 16, 1966,Chicagowas granted aNational Basketball Association(NBA) franchise to be called the Bulls. The Chicago Bulls became the third NBA franchise in the city, after theChicago Stags(1946–1950) and the Chicago Packers/Zephyrs (1961–1963, now theWashington Wizards). The Bulls' founder,Dick Klein, was the Bulls' only owner to ever play professional basketball (for theChicago American Gears). He served as the Bulls' general manager and president in their initial years. After the1966 NBA Expansion Draft, the newly founded Chicago Bulls were allowed to acquire players from the previously established teams in the league for the upcoming1966–67 season. They would be coached by Chicagoan and former NBA All-StarJohnny \"Red\" Kerr.That season, the team played their first game in franchise history on October 15.Played", "October 15.Played on the road, their first game was an upset victory over theSt. Louis Hawks.They went on to post a 33–48 record, the best by an expansion team in NBA history. Led by guardsGuy RodgersandJerry Sloan, and forwardBob Boozer, the Bulls qualified for the playoffs, the only NBA team to do so in their inaugural season.Kerr receivedCoach of the Yearhonors for the season.Rodgers and Sloan were named All-Stars during the season, with the former leading the league in assists. In their first season, the Bulls played their home games at theInternational Amphitheatre, before moving toChicago Stadium. Fan interest was diminishing after four seasons, with one game in the1967–68 seasonhaving an official attendance of 891 and some games being played inKansas City. In 1969, Klein dropped out of the general manager job and hiredPat Williams, who as thePhiladelphia 76ers' business manager created promotions that helped the team become third in attendance the previous season. Williams revamped the team roster,", "the team roster, acquiringChet Walkerfrom Philadelphia in exchange forJim Washingtonand draftingNorm Van Lier– who was traded to theCincinnati Royalsand only joined the Bulls in 1971 – while also investing in promotion, with actions such as creating mascotBenny the Bull. The Bulls under Williams and head coachDick Mottaqualified for four straight playoffs and had attendances grow to over 10,000.In 1972, the Bulls set a franchise win–loss record at 57 wins and 25 losses. During the 1970s, the Bulls relied onJerry Sloan, forwardsBob LoveandChet Walker, point guardNorm Van Lier, and centersClifford RayandTom Boerwinkle. The team made the conference finals in 1975 but lost to the eventual champions, theGolden State Warriors, 4 games to 3. After four 50-win seasons, Williams returned to Philadelphia, and Motta decided to take on the role of general manager as well. The Bulls ended up declining, winning only 24 games in the 1975–76 season. Motta was fired and replaced byEd Badger. 1976–1984: Gilmore and Theus duo", "and Theus duo Klein sold the Bulls to the Wirtz family, longtime owners of theChicago Blackhawks. Indifferent to NBA basketball, the new ownership group infamously implemented a shoestring budget, putting little time and investment into improving the team. Artis Gilmore, acquired in theABAdispersal draft in 1976, led a Bulls squad which included guardReggie Theus, forwardDavid Greenwoodand forwardOrlando Woolridge. In 1979, the Bulls lost a coin flip for the right to select first in the NBA draft (Rod Thorn, the Bulls' general manager, called \"heads\"). Had the Bulls won the toss, they would have selectedMagic Johnson; instead, they selectedDavid Greenwoodwith the second pick. TheLos Angeles Lakersselected Johnson with the pick acquired from theNew Orleans Jazz, who traded the selection forGail Goodrich. After Gilmore was traded to the San Antonio Spurs for centerDave Corzine, the Bulls employed a high-powered offense centered on Theus, and which soon included guardsQuintin DaileyandEnnis Whatley. However,", "Whatley. However, with continued dismal results, the Bulls decided to change direction, trading Theus to theKansas City Kingsduring the1983–84 season. Attendance began to dwindle, with the Wirtz family looking to sell to ownership groups interested in moving the team out of Chicago, before selling to local ownership. 1984–1990: Michael Jordan era begins In the summer of 1984, the Bulls had the third pick of the1984 NBA draft, after Houston and Portland. TheRocketsselectedHakeem Olajuwon, theBlazerspickedSam Bowieand the Bulls chose shooting guardMichael Jordan. The team, with new management in ownerJerry Reinsdorfand general managerJerry Krause, decided to rebuild around Jordan. Jordan set franchise records during his rookie campaign for scoring (third in the league) and steals (fourth), and led the Bulls back tothe playoffs, where they lost in four games to theMilwaukee Bucks. For his efforts, he was rewarded with a selection to the All-NBA Second Team and the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. In the following", "In the following off-season, the team acquired point guardJohn Paxsonand on draft day traded with the Cavaliers for the rights to power forwardCharles Oakley. Along with Jordan and centerDave Corzine, they provided much of the Bulls' offense for the next two years. After suffering a broken foot early in the1985–86 season, Jordan finished second on the team to Woolridge in scoring. Jordan returned forthe playoffs, and led the eighth-place Bulls against the 67–15Boston Celtics, led byLarry Bird. At the time, the Bulls had the fifth-worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history.Though the Bulls were swept, Jordan recorded a playoff single-game record 63 points in Game 2 (which still stands to this day), prompting Bird to call him 'God disguised as Michael Jordan.' In the1986–87 season, Jordan continued his assault on the record books, leading the league in scoring with 37.1 points per game and becoming the first Bull named to the All-NBA First Team. The Bulls finished 40–42, which was good", "which was good enough to qualify them for the playoffs. However, they were again swept by the Celtics inthe playoffs. In the1987 draft, to address their lack of depth, Krause selected centerOlden Polyniceeighth overall and power forwardHorace Grant10th overall, then sent Polynice to Seattle in a draft-day trade for the fifth selection,small forwardScottie Pippen. With Paxson and Jordan in the backcourt,Brad Sellersand Oakley at the forward spots, Corzine anchoring center, androokiesPippen and Grant coming off the bench, the Bulls won 50 games and advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals, where they were beaten by the eventual Eastern Conference ChampionsDetroit Pistonsin five games. For his efforts, Jordan was named NBAMost Valuable Player, an award he would win four more times over his career. The 1987–88 season would also mark the start of the Pistons-Bulls rivalry which was formed from 1988 to 1991. The1988–89 seasonmarked a second straight year of major off-season moves. Power forwardCharles Oakley,", "Oakley, who had led the league in total rebounds in both 1987 and 1988, was traded on the eve of the1988 NBA draftto theNew York Knicksalong with a first-round draft pick used by the Knicks to selectRod Stricklandfor centerBill Cartwrightand a first-round pick, which the Bulls used to obtain centerWill Perdue. In addition, the Bulls acquired three-point shooterCraig Hodgesfrom Phoenix. The new starting lineup of Paxson, Jordan, Pippen, Grant, and Cartwright took some time to mesh, winning fewer games than the previous season, but made it all the way to the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were defeated in six games by the NBA champion Pistons. In1989–90, Jordan led the league in scoring for the fourth straight season and was joined on the all-star squad for the first time by Pippen. There was also a major change during the off-season, where head coachDoug Collinswas replaced by assistant coachPhil Jackson. The Bulls also picked up rookie centerStacey Kingand rookie point guardB. J. Armstrongin the1989", "Armstrongin the1989 draft. With these additional players and the previous year's starting five, the Bulls again made it to the Conference Finals and pushed the Pistons to seven games before being eliminated for the third straight year, the Pistons going on to repeat as NBA champions. 1990–1993: First championship three-peat In the1990–91 season, the Bulls recorded a then-franchise record 61 wins, and romped throughthe playoffs, where they swept the Knicks in the first round, defeated thePhiladelphia 76ersin the semifinals, and then swept the defending champion Pistons in the Conference Finals, then winning theNBA Finalsin five games over theMagic Johnson-ledLos Angeles Lakers. The Bulls won their second straight title in1992after racking up another franchise record for wins with 67. They swept theMiami Heatin the first round, defeated the Knicks in seven games in the second round, then theCleveland Cavaliersin six games in the third round, advancing to theFinalsfor the second year in a row where they", "in a row where they defeated theClyde Drexler-ledPortland Trail Blazersin six games. In1993, the Bulls won their third consecutive championship by defeating theAtlanta Hawks,Cleveland CavaliersandNew York Knicksin the first three rounds of the playoffs and then defeating regular season MVPCharles Barkleyand thePhoenix Sunsin the Finals, with Paxson's three-pointer with 3.9 seconds left giving them a 99–98 victory in Game 6 in Phoenix. 1993–1995: Jordan's first retirement and the Scottie Pippen era On October 6, 1993,Michael Jordanshocked the basketball community by announcing his retirement, three months after hisfather's murder. The Bulls were then led byScottie Pippen, who established himself as one of the top players in the league by winning the1994 All-StarMVP. He received help fromHorace GrantandB. J. Armstrong, who were named to their first all-star games. The three were assisted byCartwright,Perdue, shooting guardPete Myers, andCroatianrookie forwardToni Kukoč. Despite the Bulls winning 55 games", "winning 55 games during the1993–94 season, they were beaten in seven games by the Knicks in the second round ofthe playoffs, after a controversial foul call by refereeHue Hollinsin game 5 of that series. The Knicks eventually reached theNBA Finalsthat year, but lost to theHouston Rockets. The Bulls opened the1994–95 seasonby leaving their home of 27 years,Chicago Stadium, and moving into their current home, theUnited Center. In 1994, the Bulls lost Grant, Cartwright andScott Williamsto free agency, andJohn Paxsonto retirement, but picked up shooting guardRon Harper, the seeming heir apparent to Jordan in assistant coachTex Winter's triple-post offense, and small-forwardJud Buechler. The Bulls started Armstrong and Harper in the backcourt, Pippen and Kukoč at the forward spots, and Perdue at center. They also had sharpshooterSteve Kerr, whom they acquired via free agency before the 1993–94 season, Myers, and centersLuc Longley(acquired via trade in 1994 from the Minnesota Timberwolves) andBill Wennington.", "andBill Wennington. However, the Bulls struggled during the season, and on March 18, 1995, they received the news that Michael Jordan was coming out of retirement. He scored 55 points against the Knicks in only his fifth game back, and led the Bulls to the fifth seed inthe playoffs, where they defeated the Charlotte Hornets. However, Jordan and the Bulls were unable to overcome the eventual Eastern Conference championOrlando Magic, which includedHorace Grant,Penny Hardaway, andShaquille O'Neal. In the off-season, the Bulls lost Armstrong in the expansion draft, and Krause traded Perdue to theSan Antonio Spursfor rebounding specialistDennis Rodman, who had won the past four rebounding titles, and who had also been a member of theDetroit Pistons' \"Bad Boys\" squad that served as the Bulls' chief nemesis in the late 1980s. 1995–1998: Return of Michael Jordan and second championship three-peat With a lineup of Jordan, Pippen, Rodman, Harper and Longley, and perhaps the league's best bench inSteve Kerr, Kukoč,", "Kerr, Kukoč, Wennington, Buechler, and guardRandy Brown, the Bulls were seen as the team to win again for the NBA Finals. The Bulls started their 1995–96 campaign with a 105–91 win over the visiting Hornets. In that game, Michael Jordan recorded 42 points, 6 rebounds and 7 assists for the Bulls.The next game, they were up against the Boston Celtics. The Bulls scored 35 points in the third quarter as they pulled away against the Celtics, 107–85. Six Bulls players scored in double figures in this win.The 1995–96 Bulls posted one of the best single-season improvements in league history and the best single-season record at that time, moving from 47–35 to 72–10, becoming the first NBA team to win 70 or more games.Jordan won his eighth scoring title, and Rodman his fifth straight rebounding title, while Kerr finished second in the league in three-point shooting percentage. Jordan garnered the elusive triple crown with theNBA MVP,NBA All-Star Game MVP, andNBA Finals MVP. Krause was namedNBA Executive of the Year,", "of the Year, Jackson Coach of the Year, and Kukoč the Sixth Man of the Year. Both Pippen and Jordan made the All-NBA First Team, and Jordan, Pippen, and Rodman made the All-Defensive First Team, making the Bulls one of several teams in NBA history with three players on the All-Defensive First Team. In addition, the1995–96team holds several other records, including the best road record in a standard 41 road-game season (33–8), the all-time best start by a team (41–3), and the best start at home (37–0). The Bulls also posted the second-best home record in history (39–2), behind only the 1985–86 Celtics 40–1 home mark. The team triumphed over theMiami Heatin the first round, theNew York Knicksin the second round, theOrlando Magicin the Eastern Conference Finals and finallyGary Payton,Shawn Kempand theSeattle SuperSonicsfortheir fourth title. The 1995–96 Chicago Bulls are widely regarded as one ofthe greatest teams in the history of basketball. In the1996–97 season, the Bulls missed out on a second consecutive", "second consecutive 70-win season by losing their final two games to finish 69–13. They repeated their home dominance, going 39–2 at the United Center.The Bulls capped the season by defeating the Bullets, Hawks and Heat in the first three rounds of the playoffs en route to winning their fifthNBA championshipoverJohn Stockton,Karl Maloneand theUtah Jazz. Jordan earned his second straight and ninth career scoring title, while Rodman earned his sixth straight rebounding title. Jordan and Pippen, along withRobert Parish, who was a member of the Bulls at the time, were also honored as members of the 50 greatest players of all time with the NBA celebrating its 50th season.Parish, whose single season with the Bulls would be his last year in the league, was nominated for his stellar career with theBoston Celtics. The 1997–98 season was one of turmoil for the NBA champion Bulls.Many speculated this would be Michael Jordan's final season with the team.Phil Jackson's future with the team was also questionable, as his", "as his relationship with team general manager Jerry Krause was one of growing tension. Scottie Pippen was looking for a significant contract extension that he thought he deserved, but was not getting from the organization. In spite of the turmoil that surrounded the Bulls, they still had a remarkable season, with a final regular season record of 62–20. Jordan would be named the league MVP for the fifth and final time, and the Bulls went into the playoffs as the number one seed in the Eastern Conference. The first round of the playoffs for the Bulls was against theNew Jersey Nets, a team led byKeith Van Horn,Kendall GillandSam Cassell. The Bulls swept the Nets three to nothing in a best of five series. The conference semi-finals were more challenging with theCharlotte Hornetsstealing game two from the Bulls at the United Center, and tying the series 1–1. But the Bulls easily defeated the Hornets in the next three games of the series. The Conference Finals was a challenge for the Bulls as they went up against", "went up against theReggie Miller-ledIndiana Pacers. Experts were of the opinion that the Pacers had the best chance to defeat the Bulls.The Pacers gave the Bulls no road wins, winning games 3, 4, and 6, sending the series to a deciding game seven at the United Center. The Bulls prevailed and beat the Pacers 88–83, winning their sixth Eastern Conference title. In a much-anticipated Finals, The Bulls faced the team they beat the previous year, theUtah Jazz. Led byKarl MaloneandJohn Stockton, the Jazz felt confident that they could defeat the Bulls, winning game one at Utah'sDelta Center. Facing a potential two to nothing deficit, the Bulls won Game 2 at the Delta Center and tied the series. The Bulls returned to the United Center and, by winning the next two games, took a 3–1 series lead. The Jazz won Game 5 by two points, 83–81. Game 6 was a tough battle for both teams. Scottie Pippen left early in the first quarter due to an ongoing back injury. He came back at the start of the second half, and after a trip", "and after a trip or two to the locker room to get physical therapy, came back out to finish the game. Late in the game and down by three points to the Jazz, Michael Jordan led the Bulls to one final win. Jordan hit a shot to bring the Bulls within 1, then stole the ball from Karl Malone and hitthe game winning shotwith 5.2 seconds remaining on the clock. With a score of 87–86, John Stockton put up a three-pointer, but missed, giving the Bulls their sixth championship in eight years. Jordan would be named the Finals MVP for the sixth time in his career. He retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. 1998–2008: Post-Jordan era and a decade of struggle 1998–2004: The Baby Bulls The summer of 1998 brought an abrupt end to the championship era.Krause felt that the Bulls were on the verge of being too old and unable to compete. He decided that the team's only choices were to rebuild or endure a slow decline. His plan was to trade away the aging talent and acquire high draft picks while clearing salary cap", "clearing salary cap space to make a run at several promising free agents in two years' time. After having been vetoed in a previous attempt by ownerJerry Reinsdorf, Krause tradedScottie PippenforRoy Rogers(who was released in February 1999) and a conditional second-round draft pick from the Houston Rockets. He also decided not to re-signDennis Rodman, and tradedLuc LongleyandSteve Kerrfor other draft picks. He hired a new coach,Tim Floyd, who had run a successful program atIowa State University. Upon Phil Jackson's departure, Michael Jordan made his second retirement official. With a new starting lineup of point guard Randy Brown, shooting guardRon Harper, newcomerBrent Barryat small forward, power forwardToni Kukoč, and center Bill Wennington, the team began thelockout-shortened1998–99 season. On their home opener, the Bulls unveiled the 1998 championship banner, but no ring ceremony took place. PA announcerRay Clay's subsequent introductions made no mention of the Bulls as \"world champions\", acknowledging", "acknowledging it as a new team. Kukoč led the team in scoring, rebounding, and assists, but the team won only 13 of 50 games. The lowest point of the season came on April 10 in a game against the Miami Heat. In that game, the Bulls scored 49 points to set an NBA record for the fewest points in a game in the shot-clock era. The previous year's dismal finish came with one highlight: the team won the draft lottery and the rights to power forwardElton Brand. Since the team lost Harper, Wennington and Barry in the off-season, Brand and fellow rookieRon Artestled the team throughout the year, especially after Kukoč missed most of the season due to injury and was then dealt for a draft pick at the trading deadline. Brand recorded the first 20–10 average for the Bulls since the days ofArtis Gilmore. He led all rookies in scoring,rebounds, blocks, field goal percentage and minutes, while Artest led all rookies in steals and finished second on the team in scoring. For his efforts Brand was named1999–2000co-Rookie of", "of the YearwithHouston'sSteve Francis, and to the all-rookie first team, while Artest was named to the all-rookie second team. However, the team established a franchise low at 17–65, second-worst in the league. After a summer in which the Bulls witnessed most major and minor free agentsTim Duncan,Grant Hill,Tracy McGrady,Eddie Jonesand evenTim Thomaschoose to stay with their teams (or go elsewhere) rather than sign with them, Krause signed free agent centerBrad Millerand shooting guardRon Mercer, and drafted power forwardMarcus Fizerand traded draft pick Chris Mihm to Cleveland for the rights of guardJamal Crawford. Brand again led the team in scoring and rebounds with another 20–10 season, but the new acquisitions failed to make a major impact, and they finished with the worst record in team history and the league's worst for the season at 15–67. Krause shocked Bulls fans ondraft day in 2001when he traded franchise player Brand to theLos Angeles Clippersfor the second pick in the draft,Tyson Chandler. He", "Chandler. He also selectedEddy Currywith the fourth pick. Since both Chandler and Curry came straight out of high school, neither was expected to make much of a contribution for several years, but they were seen as potential franchise players. The team floundered without veteran leadership. At mid-season, the Bulls traded their top three scorers—Mercer,Artest, andMilleralong with Kevin Ollie—to theIndiana Pacersfor veteran guardJalen Rose,Travis Bestand Norman Richardson. There was also a change in coaching, with Floyd being dismissed in favor of assistant coach and former Bulls co-captain Bill Cartwright, following a series of arguments with players and management. The Bulls improved from 15 to 21 wins, although they were still tied for last in the league. For the2002–03 season, the Bulls came to play with much optimism. They picked up college phenomJay Williamswith the second pick inthe draft. Williams teamed with Jalen Rose, Crawford, Fizer, newcomerDonyell Marshall, Curry, Chandler, and guardTrenton", "and guardTrenton Hassellto form a young and exciting nucleus which improved to 30–52 in Bill Cartwright's first full season ashead coach. Curry led the league in field goal percentage, becoming the first Bull since Jordan to lead the league in a major statistical category. During the summer of 2003, long-time general managerJerry Krauseretired, and former player and color commentator John Paxson was tapped as his successor. Jay Williams, coming off a promising rookie campaign, was seriously injured in a motorcycle accident. His contract was bought out by the Bulls in February 2004, and he never returned to the league. Paxson selected point guardKirk Hinrichwith the seventh pick in the draft, and signed veteran free agent and former franchise player Scottie Pippen. With Pippen playing, Cartwright at the sidelines, and Paxson in thefront office, the Bulls hoped that some of the championship magic from before would return. However, the2003–04 seasonwas a resounding disappointment. Eddy Curry regressed, leading", "regressed, leading to questions about his conditioning and commitment. Tyson Chandler was plagued by a chronic back injury, missing more than thirty games. Pippen's ability to influence games was impaired by knee problems, and he openly contemplated retirement. Jamal Crawford remained inconsistent. Bill Cartwright was fired as head coach in December and replaced with former Phoenix coachScott Skiles. A trade with theToronto RaptorsbroughtAntonio Davisand Jerome Williams in exchange for Rose and Marshall in what was seen as a major shift in team strategy from winning with athleticism to winning with hard work and defense. After struggling throughout the season, the Bulls finished with 23 wins and 59 losses, the second-worst record in the league. Fizer was not re-signed, and Crawford was re-signed and traded to the Knicks for expiring contracts. Hinrich provided the lone bright spot, becoming a fan favorite for his gritty determination and tenacious defense. He won a place on the All-Rookie first team.", "first team. 2004–2007: Resurgence During the 2004 off-season, Paxson traded a2005 draft pickto thePhoenix Sunsin return for an additional pick in the2004 NBA draft. He used the picks to selectConnecticutguardBen GordonandDukesmall forwardLuol Dengin the first round, and Duke point guardChris Duhonin the second. Paxson also signed free agent small forwardAndrés Nocioni, who had recently won anOlympicgold medal as a member of theArgentina national basketball team. After losing the first nine games of the season, the Bulls began to show signs of improvement behind their improved team defense and clutch fourth-quarter play from Gordon. The Bulls, who were 0–9 to start the season, finished the regular season 47–35, with the third-best record in the Eastern Conference and advanced to theNBA playoffsfor the first time since Jordan's departure. In the first round, the fourth-seeded Bulls played the Washington Wizards. Despite an injury to Deng and a heart issue with Curry, the Bulls opened the series with two wins", "with two wins at home, but lost the next four games and the series. After the season, Ben Gordon became the first rookie to win theNBA Sixth Man Awardand the first Bull since Kukoč in 1996 to win the award. During the 2005 off-season, the Bulls re-signed free agentTyson Chandler. However, Curry showed possible symptoms of a heart disease resulting of a heart murmur during checkups, and Paxson would not clear him to play without extensiveDNAtesting. Ultimately, Curry refused to participate in the tests, and he was traded along with Antonio Davis to theNew York KnicksforMichael Sweetney,Tim Thomas, and what became the second pick of the2006 NBA draft—as well as the right to swap picks with New York in the2007 NBA draft. Without a significant post presence, the Bulls struggled for most of the2005–06 season. However, a late season 12–2 surge allowed them to finish 41–41 and qualify for the2006 playoffsas the seventh seed. There, the Bulls faced theMiami Heat. After two close losses in Miami, the Bulls broke", "the Bulls broke through with a win in Game 3, and another win in Game 4. However, the Heat took the next two games to win the series and went on to win that year's championship. The Bulls' several young players nevertheless earned additional postseason experience, and Nocioni turned in a remarkable series of performances that far exceeded his season averages. In the 2006 NBA Draft, the Bulls were awarded forward-centerLaMarcus Aldridgeand immediately traded him to thePortland Trail Blazersfor forwardTyrus Thomasand forwardViktor Khryapa. In a second draft-day trade, the Bulls selectedRodney Carneyand traded him to thePhiladelphia 76ersfor guardThabo Sefolosha. Later that summer, four-time Defensive Player of the YearBen Wallacesigned with the Bulls for a reported four-year, $60 million contract. Following the signing of Wallace, the Bulls tradedTyson Chandler, the last remaining player of the Krause era, to the (then)New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornetsfor veteran power forwardP.J. BrownandJ. R. Smithand salary", "R. Smithand salary cap space that was used to sign former Chicago co-captainAdrian Griffin. In 2006–07, the Bulls overcame a 3–9 season start to finish 49–33, the third-best record in theEastern Conference. In the first round, the Bulls again facedMiami, the defending NBA champions. The Bulls narrowly won Game 1 at home, then followed it with a victory in Game 2. In Miami, the Bulls rallied from a 12-point second-half deficit to win Game 3 and then posted another comeback win in Game 4. The Bulls' four-game sweep of the defending champions stunned many NBA observers. It was Chicago's first playoff series victory since 1998, Jordan's last season with the team. The Bulls then advanced to face theDetroit Pistons, marking the first time theCentral Divisionrivals had met in the playoffs since 1991. The Pistons won the first three games including a big comeback in Game 3. No NBA team had ever come back from a 0–3 deficit to win the series, but the Bulls avoided a sweep by winning Game 4 by 10 points. The Bulls", "points. The Bulls then easily won Game 5 in Detroit, and had a chance to make NBA history. But they lost at home in game 6 by 10, and the Pistons won the series 4–2 on May 17. 2007–2008: Missing the playoffs During the off season, the Bulls signed forwardJoe Smithand guardAdrian Griffin, and drafted centerJoakim Noah. However, distractions began whenLuol DengandBen Gordonturned down contract extensions, never citing reasons. Then rumors surfaced that the Bulls were pursuing stars likeKevin Garnett,Pau Gasol, and most notably,Kobe Bryant. None of these deals happened, and general managerJohn Paxsondenied a deal was ever imminent. The Bulls started the2007–08 seasonby losing 10 of their first 12 games and on December 24, 2007, after a 9–16 start, the Bulls fired head coachScott Skiles.Jim Boylanwas named the interim head coach on December 27, 2007. On February 21, 2008,Ben Wallace,Joe Smith,Adrian Griffinand the Bulls' 2009 second-round draft pick were exchanged forDrew Gooden,Cedric Simmons,Larry", "Simmons,Larry HughesandShannon Brownin a three-team trade deal involving theCleveland Cavaliersand theSeattle SuperSonics.Boylan was not retained on April 17 at the conclusion of the 2007–08 season after compiling a 24–32 record with the Bulls. The Bulls ended the 2007–08 campaign with a 33–49 record, a complete reversal of last year's record. AfterJim Boylan's interim tenure expired, the Bulls began the process of selecting a new head coach. They were in talks with formerPhoenixhead coachMike D'Antoni, but on May 10, 2008, he signed with theNew York Knicks. Other possible options included formerDallashead coachAvery Johnsonand former Bulls head coachDoug Collins. Collins resigned from the coaching list on June 4, 2008, reporting that he did not want to ruin his friendship withJerry Reinsdorf. On June 10, 2008, the Bulls general managerJohn PaxsonhiredVinny Del Negro, with no coaching experience, to coach the young Bulls. On July 3, 2008, theChicago Tribunereported that Del Harris agreed to become an", "agreed to become an assistant coach for the Bulls along with formerCharlotte Bobcatshead coachBernie Bickerstaffand longtime NBA assistant coach Bob Ociepka. Along with Bickerstaff and Ociepka, Harris helped establish a veteran presence on the coaching staff and helped rookie head coach Del Negro. 2008–2016: Derrick Rose era 2008–2010: Appearance of Derrick Rose With a slim 1.7 percent chance of winning the rights to draft first overall, the Bulls won the 2008NBA draft lotteryand selected first overall.With this, the Bulls became the team with the lowest chance of winning to ever win the lottery since it was modified for the1994 NBA draft, and second-lowest ever. On June 26, 2008, the Bulls drafted Chicago nativeDerrick Rosefrom theUniversity of Memphisas the number 1 draft pick. At pick number 39 they selectedSonny Weems. The Bulls later traded Weems to theDenver Nuggetsfor Denver's 2009 regular second-round draft pick. The Bulls then acquiredÖmer Aşıkfrom thePortland Trail Blazers(selected with the 36th", "with the 36th pick) for Denver's 2009 second-round draft pick,New York's 2009 second-round draft pick, and the Bulls' 2010 regular second-round draft pick. The Bulls re-signedLuol Dengto a six-year $71 million contract on July 30, 2008. He was later plagued with an injury keeping him from action for most of the2008–09 season.Ben Gordonsigned a one-year contract on October 2, 2008. On February 18, 2009, the Bulls made their first of several trades, sendingAndrés Nocioni,Drew Gooden,Cedric Simmons, andMichael Ruffinto theSacramento KingsforBrad MillerandJohn Salmons.Then on February 19, 2009, the NBA trade deadline, the Bulls tradedLarry Hughesto theNew York KnicksforTim Thomas,Jerome James, andAnthony Roberson.Later that day the Bulls made the third trade in a span of less than 24 hours by sending swingmanThabo Sefoloshato theOklahoma City Thunderfor a 2009 first-round pick.The trades brought a late season push for the Bulls, which finally clinched a playoff berth on April 10, 2009, their fourth in the last", "fourth in the last five years. They finished the season with a 41–41 record. Their record was good enough to secure a No. 7 seed in the2009 NBA playoffs, playing a tough series against theBoston Celtics. In Game 1,Derrick Rosescored 36 points, along with 11 assists, tyingKareem Abdul-Jabbar's record for most points scored by a rookie in a playoff debut. After breaking the record for most overtimes played in anNBA PlayoffsSeries, theBoston Celticsmanaged to overcome the Bulls after 7 games and 7 overtime periods played. The Bulls had two first-round picks in the2009 NBA draftand decided to takeWake Foreststand out forwardJames Johnsonand athleticUSCforwardTaj Gibson.In the 2009 NBA off-season the Bulls lost their leading scorer, Ben Gordon, when he signed with their divisional rival, theDetroit Pistons. On February 18, 2010, John Salmons was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks forJoe AlexanderandHakim Warrick. Meanwhile,Tyrus Thomaswas traded to theCharlotte BobcatsforAcie Law,Flip Murrayand a future protected", "a future protected first-round pick. On April 14, 2010, the Bulls clinched the playoffs with the number 8 seed. Unlike the previous year, however, the Bulls' playoff run was shorter and less dramatic as they were eliminated by theCleveland Cavaliersin five games. On May 4, 2010, the Bulls officially fired head coach Vinny Del Negro. 2010–2011: Arrival of Tom Thibodeau and Rose's MVP year In early June 2010,Boston CelticsassistantTom Thibodeauaccepted a three-year contract to fill the Bulls' head coaching vacancy.He was officially introduced on June 23.On July 7, it was revealed thatCarlos Boozerof theUtah Jazzhad verbally agreed to an $80 million, five-year contract. Afterwards, the Bulls traded veteran point guardKirk Hinrichto theWashington Wizardsto create more cap space. The Bulls also signed former76erand Jazz sharpshooterKyle Korverto a three-year, $15 million contract. The same day that the Bulls signed Kyle Korver, they signed Turkish All-StarÖmer Aşık. After being matched by theOrlando MagicforJ. J.", "MagicforJ. J. Redick, they signed their third free agent from the Jazz in the off-season in shooting guardRonnie Brewer, traded for formerWarriorpoint guardC.J. Watson, and signed formerBuckspower forwardKurt Thomasas well as formerSpursplayerKeith Bogansand former CelticBrian Scalabrine. Rose earned the 2011 NBA MVP Award, thereby becoming the youngest player in NBA history to win it. He became the first Bulls player sinceMichael Jordanto win the award. As a team, Chicago finished the regular season with a league-best 62–20 record and clinched the first seed in the Eastern Conference for the first time since 1998. The Bulls defeated theIndiana Pacersand theAtlanta Hawksin five and six games, respectively, thereby reaching the Eastern Conference finals for the first time since 1998, and faced theMiami Heat. After winning the first game of the series, they lost the next four games, ending their season. 2011–2014: Injury-plagued seasons for Derrick Rose During the off-season, the Bulls draftedJimmy Butler30th", "Butler30th overall in the2011 NBA draft. After theNBA lockoutended, the Bulls lost Kurt Thomas to free agency, and released Keith Bogans. The Bulls signed veteran shooting guardRichard \"Rip\" Hamiltonto a three-year deal, after he was waived by the Detroit Pistons. The Bulls also gave MVP Derrick Rose a 5-year contract extension worth $94.8 million. Derrick Rose was voted as an NBA All-Star starter for the second consecutive year, and was the third leading voted player overall behindDwight HowardandKobe Bryant. Luol Deng was also selected as a reserve for the Eastern Conference. This was the first time that the Bulls had two all-stars since 1997, when Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen were the duo. Derrick Rose was injured for most of the2011–12 season; however, the team was still able to finish with a 50–16 record and clinched the first seed in the Eastern Conference for the second straight year and the best overall record in the NBA (tied with theSan Antonio Spurs). Rose suffered a new injury when he tore", "injury when he tore hisACLduring the fourth quarter of the first playoff game on April 28, 2012, against thePhiladelphia 76ersand missed the rest of the series. Head coachTom Thibodeauwas criticized for keeping Rose in the game even though the Bulls were essentially minutes away from their victory over the 76ers. The Bulls lost the next three games, and also lost Noah to a foot injury after he severely rolled his ankle stepping onAndre Iguodala's foot in Game 3; he briefly returned for part of the fourth quarter of that game, but missed the following games in the series. After winning Game 5 at home, the Bulls were eliminated by the 76ers in Game 6 in Philadelphia, becoming the fifth team in NBA history to be eliminated as a first seed by an eighth seed. In Game 6, Andre Iguodala sank two free throws with 2.2 seconds left to put the 76ers up 79–78 after getting fouled byÖmer Aşık, who had missed two free throws five seconds earlier. At the end of the season, Boozer and Aşık were the only members on the", "only members on the Bulls' roster to have played in every game, with Korver and Brewer missing one game apiece. In the off-season, the Bulls gave up Lucas to theToronto Raptors, Brewer to theNew York Knicks, Korver to theAtlanta Hawks, Watson to theBrooklyn Netsand Aşık to theHouston Rockets, but brought backKirk Hinrich. In addition, they addedMarco Belinelli,Vladimir Radmanovic,Nazr MohammedandNate Robinsonto the roster via free agency. Rose missed the entire2012–13 season, but despite his absence, the Bulls finished 45–37, second in the Central Division (behind theIndiana Pacers) and fifth in their conference. They defeated theBrooklyn Nets4–3 (after leading 3–1) in the first round of the playoffs and lost to theMiami Heat4–1 in the next round. During the season, the Bulls snapped both Miami's 27-game winning streak and the New York Knicks' 13-game winning streak, becoming the second team in NBA history to snap two winning streaks of 13 games or more in a season. Just 10 games into the2013–14 season,", "the2013–14 season, Derrick Rose would tear his medial meniscus on a non-contact play. He declared he would miss the remainder of the season. On January 7, 2014, veteran forwardLuol Dengwas traded to theCleveland Cavaliersfor centerAndrew Bynumand a set of picks. Bynum was immediately waived after the trade went through. The Bulls would finish second in the Central Division with 48 wins, and earned home-court advantage in the first round. Joakim Noah finished the season fourth in MVP voting, made All-NBA first team, and was awarded Defensive Player of the Year award. However, due to lack of a strong offensive weapon, they failed to win a single home game en route to losing to theWashington Wizardsin five games. In the2014 NBA draft, the Bulls traded their 16th and 19th picks forDoug McDermott, the formerCreightonstar and fifth-leading scorer in NCAA history, who was selected with the 11th pick, and in the second round, tookCameron Bairstowwith the 49th pick. That off-season, they signedPau Gasol,", "signedPau Gasol, re-signedKirk Hinrichand brought over EurostarNikola Mirotić, who was acquired via a draft-day trade in 2011, but could not come over sooner, due to salary cap constraints. 2014–2015: Return of Derrick Rose to health and rise of Jimmy Butler The second return ofDerrick Rosegave the Bulls and their fans optimism for the 2014–15 season. With two-time NBA championPau Gasoland a deep bench consisting ofTaj Gibson,Nikola Mirotić,Tony Snell,Aaron Brooks,Doug McDermott,Kirk Hinrich, among others, the Bulls were one of the two favorite teams to come out of the Eastern Conference along with theCleveland Cavaliers. The Bulls started off the season in style with a win over theNew York Knicks, and then winning seven of their first ninie games (losses coming to theCleveland CavaliersandBoston Celtics). The emergence ofJimmy Butleras a primary scorer for the Bulls was a major surprise and he surged into the forefront of the \"Most Improved Player of the Year\" award race. Butler's statistical jump was noted", "jump was noted by many as one of the greatest in NBA History,going from scoring just 13 points per game in 2013–14 to scoring 20 points per game in 2014–15. Pau Gasol was considered a huge asset for the Bulls and averaged a double-double throughout the season. Both Butler and Gasol ended up making the Eastern Conference All-Star team. The Bulls' second half of the season was marred by inconsistency and frustration set in with Derrick Rose blasting the team for not being on the same page. Tension between management andTom Thibodeaucontinued to be a dark cloud hanging over the organization. The Bulls finished with a 50–32 record and the third seed in the Eastern Conference. They faced theMilwaukee Bucksin the first round, and took advantage of the young and inexperienced Bucks by going up a quick 3–0 in the series. However, inconsistency and not being on the same page yet again plagued the Bulls as the Bucks won the next two games, sending a scare to Chicago. The Bulls bounced back with fury in Game 6 however,", "in Game 6 however, beating the Bucks by a playoff record 54 points winning the series 4–2. The next round saw the Bulls facing their arch-rivalCleveland Cavaliers, and their biggest nemesis,LeBron James, who had beaten the Bulls in all three of their previous playoff meetings. The Bulls shocked the Cavs in Game 1 dominating them and never trailing. The Cavs answered back in Game 2 in the same fashion, never trailing the entire game. In a pivotal Game 3 in Chicago, the Bulls and Cavs battled closely all the way through, but the Bulls prevailed on a last-second buzzer-beating 3-pointer byDerrick Rose. In Game 4, the Cavaliers would answer once again, withLeBron Jameshitting the buzzer-beating shot to win the game. The Bulls lack of consistency and poor offensive showing doomed them once again as the Cavaliers won the next two games handily and closed out the series 4–2. After the series, speculation erupted aboutTom Thibodeau's job security due to escalating feud between Thibodeau and Bulls front office", "Bulls front office managersGar FormanandJohn Paxson. 2015–2016: Change in approach On May 28, 2015, the Bulls fired Tom Thibodeau to seek a \"change in approach\".The Bulls namedFred Hoibergas their head coach on June 2, 2015.The Bulls had only 1 draft pick in the2015 NBA draft, and selected centerBobby Portisfrom theUniversity of Arkansas. Bulls forwardMike Dunleavy Jr.was ruled out for at least the first four months of the season after completing back surgery. With Dunleavy out indefinitely, the Bulls promoted Doug McDermott to the starting lineup in his place at small forward. Before the season started, coach Fred Hoiberg made an incredibly controversial move by putting Nikola Mirotić as his starting power forward to pair with center Pau Gasol, meaning Joakim Noah, a long-time Bulls veteran and a fan-favorite was to come off the bench. Hoiberg told the media that the move was suggested by Noah himself but Noah denied having made any suggestions to Hoiberg, which sparked a distrust between the two before the", "the two before the season even began. The Bulls started the 2015–16 season off well with an impressive season-opening 97–95 victory against archrivals and defending Eastern Conference ChampionCleveland Cavaliersand jumped to an 8–3 record in the first month. The Bulls went 10–9 and through late November and December. The Bulls came back and won six straight games. However, soon afterwards, they lost 12 of their next 17 games and Butler missed four weeks after injuring his knee. The Bulls were eliminated from playoff contention after a loss to the Miami Heat on April 7, 2016, although finishing the season with a winning record of 42–40. It was the first time in 8 years that the Bulls had missed the playoffs. 2016–2017: Departure of Derrick Rose On June 22, 2016,Derrick RoseandJustin Holiday, along with a 2017 second-round draft pick, were traded to theNew York Knicksfor centerRobin Lopez, and point guardsJerian GrantandJosé Calderón, who was soon traded to the Los Angeles Lakers.On July 7, the Bulls announced", "the Bulls announced the signing of Rose's replacement, guardRajon Rondo.On July 15, the Bulls signed Chicago nativeDwyane Wade.On October 17, 2016, the Bulls acquired2014 Rookie of the YearMichael Carter-Williamsin exchange for Tony Snell. On February 23, 2017,Taj GibsonandDoug McDermott, along with a 2018 second-round draft pick, were traded to theOklahoma City Thunderfor point guardCameron Payne, shooting guardAnthony Morrow, and power forward/centerJoffrey Lauvergne. Jimmy Butler finished the season with several career highs, was named an All-Star, and made All-NBA third team. The Bulls clinched the eighth seed in2017 NBA playoffsafter winning seven of their final ten games and finishing the season with a 41–41 record.The team struck an early 2–0 lead against the top-seededBoston Celticsin the first round of the playoffs, but ultimately lost the series after losing the next four games. 2017–present: Lavine era 2017–2020: Final years of GarPax and rebuilding On June 22, 2017,Jimmy Butler, along with", "Butler, along with Chicago's 2017 first-round pick, was traded to theMinnesota TimberwolvesforZach LaVine,Kris Dunn, and Minnesota's 2017 first-round pick, which the Bulls used to selectLauri Markkanen. Additionally, on June 27, the Bulls did not give a qualifying offer toMichael Carter-Williams, allowing him to enter unrestricted free agency. On June 30,Rajon RondoandIsaiah Canaanwere waived by the Bulls. On July 10, 2017,Justin Holidayreturned to the Bulls signing a 2-year, $9 million contract. On September 24, 2017,Dwyane Wadeand the Bulls reportedly agreed to a buyout of the remaining year on his contract.Adrian Wojnarowskireported that Wade gave back $8 million of his $23.2 million contract as part of the agreement. On October 17, 2017, a fight broke out in practice betweenBobby PortisandNikola Mirotić, who suffered a concussion and two broken bones in his face.Portis was suspended eight games for his role in the altercation,and Mirotić missed 23 games to start the regular season. On February 1, 2018,", "February 1, 2018, the Bulls traded Mirotić and a second-round draft pick to theNew Orleans Pelicansfor a first-round draft pick andÖmer Aşık,Tony Allen, andJameer Nelson.Bulls ended up finishing the season with 27–55 record. On June 21, 2018, the Bulls selectedWendell Carter Jr.with the seventh overall pick, and with 22nd overall pick via trade withNew Orleans PelicansselectedChandler Hutchison. On July 8, the Bulls matched an offerZach LaVinereceived from theSacramento Kingsfor a four-year, $78 million deal. On July 14, the team signedJabari Parkerto a two-year, $40 million contract after theMilwaukee Bucks' general managerJon Horstremoved the qualifying offer on the restricted free agent and allowed him to become unrestricted. Part of Parker's agreement gave the Bulls a team option for the second year. On December 3, the Bulls fired head coach Hoiberg after the team started the 2018–19 season 5–19 and promoted his assistantJim Boylenas head coach. On January 3, 2019, the Bulls tradedJustin Holidayto", "Holidayto theMemphis Grizzliesin exchange forMarShon Brooks,Wayne Selden Jr.and 2019 and 2020 second-round draft picks. MarShon Brooks andCameron Paynewere waived.On February 6, the team tradedBobby Portis,Jabari Parkerand a 2023 second-round draft pick to theWashington Wizardsan exchange forOtto Porter. After a season filled with injuries, coaching change, and trades, the Bulls finished with 22–60 record missing the playoffs for the second straight year. On June 20, 2019, the Bulls selectedCoby Whitewith the seventh overall pick andDaniel Gaffordwith 38th pick in the second round. During the off-season, the team signed veteransTomáš SatoranskýandThaddeus Young. In March 2020, the league suspended the season afterRudy Goberttested positive forCOVID-19.In April 2020, the Bulls fired longtime general managerGar Forman, reassignedJohn Paxsonto senior advisor role and hiredArtūras Karnišovasas executive vice president of basketball operations.In May 2020, the Bulls hiredMarc Eversleyas general manager. On June", "manager. On June 4, 2020, the Bulls season officially came to an end when the NBA Board of Governors approved a plan to bring 22 teams back to finish the season in theNBA Bubble. The Bulls finished with a 22–43 record. Head coach Jim Boylen was fired on August 14, 2020. On September 22, 2020, the Bulls hiredBilly Donovanas head coach. Donovan had previously coached theOklahoma City Thunder. On November 18, 2020, the Bulls selectedPatrick Williamswith the fourth overall pick. On March 25, 2021, the Bulls tradedWendell Carter Jr,Otto Porter, along with 2021 and 2023 first-round draft picks toOrlando MagicforNikola VučevićandAl-Farouq Aminu. The team also tradedChandler HutchisonandDaniel Gaffordto theWashington WizardsforTroy Brown Jr.andMoe Wagner.Wagner was later traded along withLuke Kornetto theBoston CelticsforDaniel TheisandJavonte Green.The Bulls finished the abbreviated 72-game season with 31–41 record missing the playoffs for the fourth consecutive year. 2021–2024: DeRozan-Lavine duo On July 29, 2021,", "On July 29, 2021, the Bulls selected hometown kidAyo Dosunmuwith 38th pick in the second round. On August 2, 2021, the Bulls sentTomas Satoransky,Garrett Temple, 2024 second-round pick and cash toNew Orleans PelicansforLonzo Ball.On the same day, the Bulls managed to sign free agent and 2020 NBA ChampionAlex Carusoafter he and theLos Angeles Lakersfailed to reach an agreement.As part of the same preseason rebuild, on August 11, Chicago announced a trade sendingThaddeus Young,Al-Farouq Aminu, a protected first-round pick and second-round pick to theSan Antonio Spursin exchange for four-time All-StarDeMar DeRozan. While playing against theIndiana Pacerson New Year's Eve in the fourth quarter, DeRozan hit a buzzer-beating game-winning shot to sink the Pacers 108-106. The next day on New Year's Day, while the Bulls were down 117-119, DeRozan hit another buzzer-beating shot to defeat theWashington Wizards120-119, becoming the first player in NBA History to hit back-to-back game-winning buzzer-beater shots in two", "shots in two consecutive days. The Bulls would then go on to win 9 games in a row. On January 22, 2022, it was announced that DeRozan would start in that year'sAll-Star Game.Eight days later, LaVine was named a reserve in the All-Star Game for the second year in a row. The Bulls finished sixth in the Eastern Conference, narrowly evading the play-ins.The Bulls played the defending NBA ChampionMilwaukee Bucksin the first round where they would lose in 5 games.The Bulls leading scorers Lavine-DeRozan-Vucevic all struggled in this series .On June 23, 2022, Bulls selected guard-forwardDalen Terrywith the 18 pick. On July 7, the Bulls re-signed Zach Lavine to a five-year $215.2 million dollar contract, making this largest contract signed in Bulls history. On February 21, 2023, the Bulls signedPatrick Beverleyfor the rest of the season. After the signing, Billy Donovan stated, \"You hope that a guy like him coming in gives a boost to our team. That's what he's always been.”The addition excited the franchise's fans", "franchise's fans with a new spark of hope for the play-in tournament. His addition aided the Bulls' win against the understaffed Nets, 131–87 on February 24.Derozan made his sixth All-Star Game, second for the Bulls, this season. The Bulls finished the 2022–23 season with 40–42 record, placing them 10th in the Eastern Conference, thus earning a spot in the play-in tournament. to no avail losing to theMiami Heat, thus missing the playoffs. On June 22, 2023, the Bulls traded two second-round picks to theWashington Wizardsto obtain the 35th overall pick in the draft to select Julian Philips.The Bulls re-signed both Vučević and Coby White to three-year contracts while also signing veteran playersJevon CarterandTorrey Craig. During the Bulls' 2023-24 season, the team lost Zach Lavine and Patrick Williams to season-ending injuries. Meanwhile, the team saw improvements from Coby White and Ayo Dosunmu. The team would finish with a 39-43 record, placing them 9th in the Eastern Conference, earning their second", "their second consecutive play-in tournament. They defeated 10th seededAtlanta Hawksin the first game but once again would lose the second game to theMiami Heatfor the second consecutive year and missing the playoffs. 2024-present: DeRozan's departure DeMar DeRozansigned with theSacramento Kingsas part of a three-team sign-and-trade deal.The team also tradedAlex Carusoto theOklahoma City ThunderforJosh Giddey.Andre Drummondsigned with theSixers. In the draft, Matas Buzelis was taken by the Bulls 11th overall.After two missed seasons,Lonzo Ballmade his return to the court. Rivalries Cleveland Cavaliers The Bulls–Cavaliers rivalryis aNational Basketball Association(NBA)rivalrybetween theCleveland Cavaliersand the Chicago Bulls. The teams have played each other since the Cavaliers joined the NBA as anexpansion teamin 1970, but the rivalry didn't begin in earnest until the Bulls draftedMichael Jordanwith the third overall pick in1984. After Jordan went on to theWashington Wizardsand eventually retired, the", "retired, the rivalry died down, but when Cleveland pickedLeBron Jameswith the first selection in2003, the rivalry heated up again. However, the Cavaliers had an edge over the Bulls, who would pickDerrick Rosewith the first selection in2008to turn Chicago from a lottery team to a future contender. Detroit Pistons The Bulls' main division rivals have been theDetroit Pistonsever since the Jordan-led Bulls met the \"Bad Boy\" Pistons in the 1988 Eastern Conference semifinals.The two teams met in the playoffs four consecutive years, with the Pistons winning each time until 1991. The Eastern Conference Finals in 1991 ended with a four-game sweep of the Pistons, who walked off the floor with time still on the game clock.The rivalry was renewed in the 2007 Eastern Conference Semifinals, in which former Detroit cornerstoneBen Wallacemet his former team (the Pistons won in 6 games). The geographic proximity and membership in theCentral Divisionfurther intensify the rivalry, which has been characterized by intense,", "by intense, physical play ever since the teams met in the late 1980s. Chicago fans' rivalry with Detroit extends past the NBA, as the two cities shared divisions in all four major North American sports until 2013 when theDetroit Red Wingsmoved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference. Miami Heat The Bulls and theMiami Heatrivalry began once the Heat became contenders during the 1990s, a decade dominated by the Bulls. They were eliminated 3 times by Chicago, who went on to win the title each time. The rivalry was revived due to the return of the Bulls to the playoffs after the departure of Jordan from the Bulls and the emergence ofDwyane WadeandDerrick Rose. The revived rivalry was physical, involving rough plays and hard fouls between players, most notably the actions of former Heat playerJames Posey. The Bulls and Heat met in the 2011 Eastern Conference Finals, with the Heat winning in 5 games. On March 27, 2013, Chicago snapped Miami's 27-game winning streak. The Bulls and Heat met later that", "Heat met later that year in the 2013 Eastern Conference Semifinals. Miami won the series 4–1. In 2023, the two would meet in the Eastern Conference play-in, with the Heat winning to advance to the playoffs. Notably the game featured former Bull, Jimmy Butler on the Heat and former teammates DeMar DeRozan (Chicago) versus Kyle Lowry (Miami). New York Knicks Another franchise that the Bulls have competed fiercely with is theNew York Knicks. The two teams met in the playoffs in four consecutive years (1991–1994) and again in 1996, with the teams' series twice (1992 and 1994) going the full seven games. Their first playoff confrontation, however, came in 1989 when both teams were called \"teams on the rise\" underMichael JordanandPatrick Ewing, respectively (rivalry that started their freshman year in the1982 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship Gamewith Jordan hitting the deciding jumper of the final). That first confrontation would belong to Chicago with six games of the Eastern Semifinals. The Bulls", "The Bulls won in the first three years (1991–1993) before losing in 1994 but got revenge in 1996. As with Detroit, the historic rivalry between the cities has led to animosity between the teams and occasionally their fans. Traditions Starting lineup introductions During the Bulls' run of dominance, the player introductions became world-famous. Longtime announcerTommy Edwardswas the first to use\"Sirius\",\"On The Run\"and other songs in game presentation in the NBA. When Edwards moved to Boston for employment with CBS Radio, he was replaced byRay Clayin 1990, and Clay continued many of the traditional aspects of the Bulls introductions, including the music,The Alan Parsons Project's \"Sirius\", for all six championship runs. The lights are first dimmed during the visiting team introduction, accompanied by \"The Imperial March\" fromStar Warscomposed by John Williams or \"On the Run\" by Pink Floyd, or \"Tick of the Clock\" byChromatics. Virtually all lights in the stadium are then shut off for the Bulls introduction,", "Bulls introduction, and a spotlight illuminates each player as he is introduced and runs onto the court; the spotlight is also focused on the Bulls logo prior to the introductions. Since the move to the United Center, lasers and fireworks have been added, and with improvements to the arena's White Way video screen, computer graphics on the stadium monitors have been added. These graphics feature the3D-animated'Running of the Bulls' en route to the United Center, along the way smashing a bus featuring the opposing team's logo. Coincidentally,Alan Parsonswrote \"Sirius\" for his own band and was the sound engineer for \"On the Run\" from Pink Floyd's albumThe Dark Side of the Moon. Traditionally, the players have been introduced in the following order: small forward, power forward, center, point guard, shooting guard. During the championship era,Scottie Pippenwas usually the first (or second afterHorace Grant) Bulls player introduced, andMichael Jordanthe last. (Pippen and Jordan are the only players to play on", "players to play on all six Bulls championship teams.) More recently withDerrick Rose's arrival, the guards have been reversed in order, making the Chicago-bred point guard the last player introduced. Although internal disputes eventually led to the dismissal of Clay, the Bulls in 2006 announced the return ofTommy Edwardsas the announcer. As part of Edwards' return, the introductions changed as a new introduction was developed byLily and Lana Wachowski,Ethan Stollerand Jamie Poindexter, all from Chicago. The introduction also included a newly composed remix of the traditional Sirius theme. Edwards was replaced in 2020 byTim Sinclair. Black shoes and socks The Bulls have an unofficial tradition of wearing black shoes (regardless of being home or away) during the playoffs, which dates all the way back to1989when they debuted the tradition.Then-Bulls backup centerBrad Sellerssuggested to wear black shoes as a way to show unity within the team. For the 1996 playoffs, they became the first team to wear black socks", "to wear black socks with the black shoes, similar to theUniversity of Michiganand theFab Fivewhich started the trend in college earlier in the decade. Since then, many teams have this look in both the regular season and playoffs. It was noted when the Bulls made their first playoff appearance during the 2004–05 season after a six-year hiatus, they continued the tradition and wore black shoes. Even though the Bulls generally wear black footwear in the playoffs since 1989, there have been some notable exceptions. In the1995 playoffsagainst the Magic, when Michael Jordan debuted hisAir Jordan XIshoe, he wore the white colorway during the Bulls' playoff games in Orlando. He was fined by the Bulls for not complying with their colorway policy. During the2009 playoffs, the Bulls again broke the tradition when all of their players wore white shoes and socks in Game 3 of the first round against the Boston Celtics.More recently, since the NBA's relaxation of sneaker color rules, some Bulls players wore either red or", "wore either red or white sneakers in defiance of the tradition. Circus trip The Bulls and their arena mates, theChicago Blackhawks, shared an odd tradition dating to the opening of Chicago Stadium. Every fall,Feld Entertainment's now-defunctRingling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circuscame to Chicago on its nationwide tour. Since it used large indoor venues rather than tents, it took over the United Center for its entire run and the Bulls were forced, along with the Blackhawks, to take an extended road trip that lasted about two weeks. Initially local newspapers and television and radio sportscasters, and later national programs likeSportsCenter, referred to this fortnight-long local hiatus as \"the circus trip\".Blackhawks chairmanRocky Wirtz, who co-owns the United Center with Bulls chairmanJerry Reinsdorf, let the contract lapse after the circus' 2016 run, and condensed the formerly two-week local run of Feld'sDisney on Iceto a week-long period effective February 2018.The circus itself would be discontinued in", "be discontinued in 2017. Name, logo, and uniforms Name Dick Klein wanted a name that evoked Chicago's traditionalmeat packing industry(similarly to the forerunner Packers franchise) and the Chicago Stadium's proximity to theUnion Stock Yards.Klein considered names likeMatadorsorToreadors, but dismissed them, saying, \"If you think about it, no team with as many as three syllables in its nickname has ever had much success except for theMontreal Canadiens.\" After discussing possible names with his family, Klein settled onBullswhen his son Mark said, \"Dad, that's a bunch of bull!\" Logo The Bulls are unique in the fact they have used the same logo with very little change since the team's inception. The iconic logo is a red, charging bull's face. The logo was designed by noted American graphic designer Dean P. Wesseland was adopted in 1966. At one point, the Bulls also had an alternate logo during the early 1970s, featuring the same Bulls logo, but with a cloud that says \"Windy City\" below the bull's nose.", "the bull's nose. Uniforms 1966–1973 uniforms The Bulls wear three different uniforms: a white uniform, a red uniform, and a blackalternateuniform. The original uniforms were esthetically close to the current design, featuring the iconic diamond surrounding the Bulls logo on the shorts and block lettering. What distinguished the original uniforms were the black drop shadows, red or white side stripes with black borders, and white lettering on the red uniforms. For the 1969–70 season, the red uniforms were tweaked to include the city name. 1973–1985 uniforms For the 1973–74 season, the Bulls drastically changed their look, removing the side stripes and drop shadows while moving the front numbers to the left chest. While the white uniforms saw the \"Bulls\" wordmark go from a vertically arched to radially arched arrangement, the red uniforms saw a more significant makeover, featuring black lettering and a script \"Chicago\" wordmark. With a few tweaks in the lettering, these uniforms were used until 1985. This", "until 1985. This uniform set was later revived as a throwback uniform during the 2003–04 and 2015–16 seasons. 1985–present uniforms Starting with the 1985–86 season, the Bulls updated their uniform. Among the more notable changes in the look were centered uniform numbers and a vertically arched \"Bulls\" wordmark in both the red and white uniforms. Like the previous set, this uniform saw a few tweaks particularly in the treatment of the player's name. WhenNikebecame the NBA's uniform provider in 2017, the Bulls kept much of the same look save for the truncated shoulder striping and the addition of theChicago four starson the waistline. With Nike and the NBA eliminating designations on home and away uniforms, the Bulls also announced that their red \"Icon\" uniforms would become their home uniforms, and the white \"Association\" uniforms would become their away uniforms.The Bulls would continue to wear red \"Icon\" uniforms in home games until the 2020–21 season, after which they returned to wearing the white", "wearing the white \"Association\" uniforms in home games starting in the 2021–22 season. Alternate black uniforms In the 1995–96 season, the Bulls added a black uniform to their set. The initial look featured red pinstripes and lacked the classic diamond on the shorts. This set was revived as throwback uniforms in the 2012–13 seasons. From the 1997–98 to the 2005–06 seasons, the Bulls wore slightly modified black uniforms without pinstripes. This set, with a few slight changes in the template, also marked the return of the city name in front of the uniform during the 1999–2000 season. The 2006–07 season saw another change in the Bulls' black alternate uniform, now resembling the red and white uniform with the addition of a red diamond in the shorts. For the 2014–15 season, the uniforms were tweaked a bit to include sleeves and a modernized diamond treatment in black with red and white borders. Since the 2017–18 season, the Bulls' black uniforms remained mostly untouched for the aforementioned switch to the new", "switch to the new Nike logo that affected the treatment towards the shoulder piping. Nike also dubbed this uniform as the \"Statement\" uniform in reference to its third jerseys. The Bulls began wearing the Statement uniforms after Thanksgiving and they are currently used in away games against teams that wear their white, gray/silver or cream uniforms. The 2019–20 season marked the return of pinstripes to the Bulls' \"Statement\" uniform, albeit in dark gray. In addition, the diamond treatment returned to red, piping was tweaked, and four six-point stars were featured on the beltline. The Bulls wore this \"Statement\" uniform in select home games and away games against teams wearing white, cream, yellow, red or silver uniforms. Other uniforms During the 2005–06 season, the Bulls honored the defunctChicago Stagsby wearing the team's red and blue throwback uniforms. The set featured red tops and blue shorts. From 2006 to 2017, the Bulls wore a green version of their red uniforms during the week ofSt. Patrick's Dayin", "Patrick's Dayin March. The only red elements visible were those found on the team logo. For 2015 the Bulls wore sleeved versions of the green uniform that featured white lettering with gold and black trim and the \"Chicago\" wordmark replacing \"Bulls\" in front. In 2016 and 2017, they wore the same uniforms minus the sleeves. Between 2009 and 2017, the Bulls wore a variation of their red uniforms as part of the NBA's \"Noche Latina\" festivities every March. The only notable change in this uniform was the \"Los Bulls\" wordmark in front. For 2014, the Bulls briefly retired the look in favor of a black sleeved uniform featuring \"Los Bulls\" in white with red trim. During the NBA's \"Green Week\" celebrations, the Bulls also wore green uniforms, but with a slightly darker shade from their St. Patrick's Day counterparts. They used their black alternate uniforms as its template. They donned the uniforms in a game against thePhiladelphia 76erson April 9, 2009. The Bulls also wore special edition Christmas uniforms as part", "uniforms as part of theNBA's Christmas Day games. The one-off Christmas uniforms were as follows: From 2015 to 2017, the Bulls wore a gray \"Pride\" sleeved uniform, featuring the team name and other lettering in red with white trim. The shorts featured a more modernized version of the diamond, along with four six-pointed stars on either side. In the 2017–18 season, the Bulls wore special \"City\" uniforms designed by Nike. The uniforms, designed to pay homage to Chicago's flag, are in white and feature the classic \"Chicago\" script and numbers in red with light blue trim along with four six-pointed stars on each side. The Bulls' 2018–19 \"City\" uniform is once again inspired from Chicago's flag, with a black base and a portion of the flag with four red six-point stars and two powder blue stripes in front. The Bulls' \"City\" uniform for 2019–20 continued the flag theme, featuring a light blue base and a recolored Bulls logo in front. The predominantly blue uniform was also inspired from the waters ofLake", "the waters ofLake Michiganand theChicago River. For the 2020–21 season, the Bulls' \"City\" uniform featured elements of Chicago'sArt Decoarchitecture and imagery, featuring a dark grey base, gold lettering and red accents. The Bulls' \"City\" uniform for the 2021–22 season was a \"mixtape\" of past uniform designs. The predominantly red uniform featured the following design cues: The 2022–23 \"City\" uniform paid homage to Chicago'smunicipal device \"Y\" symbol. The predominantly white uniform featured rust red letters and black trim, as well as alternating red and black side stripes. The Chicago Stadium served as the inspiration for the Bulls' 2023–24 \"City\" uniform. The black-based design featured the vertical \"Chicago\" wordmark taken from the Stadium marquee, along with red numbers on the chest and the \"Madhouse on Madison\" monicker on the jock tag. Mascots Benny the Bullis the main mascot of the Chicago Bulls. He was first introduced in 1969. Benny is a red bull who wears number 1. Benny is one of the oldest and", "of the oldest and best-known mascots in all of professional sports. The Bulls also had another mascot named Da Bull. Introduced in 1995, he was described on the team website as being the high-flying cousin of Benny, known for his dunking skills. The man who portrayed Da Bull was arrested in 2004 for possession and selling marijuana from his car.Da Bull was retired soon after the incident. While Benny has a family-friendly design, Da Bull was designed as a more realistic bull. Unlike Benny, Da Bull was brown. He also had a meaner facial expression and wore number 95. Season-by-season record List of the last five seasons completed by the Bulls. For the full season-by-season history, seeList of Chicago Bulls seasons. Note:GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, W–L% = Winning percentage Franchise records Training facilities Alumni HallonDePaul University's Lincoln Park campus was the practice facility for the Bulls in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1992, the team began training at the Berto Center, located", "Center, located inDeerfield, Illinois. On June 13, 2012, the team announced that it would move its practice facility to a downtown location closer to the United Center to reduce game day commutes.On September 12, 2014, the Bulls officially opened their new training facility, the Advocate Center (named after the Advocate Medical Group, one of the medicine-practicing firms that serves Chicago), a block east of the United Center. Home arenas Personnel Current roster RosterLast transaction: October 19, 2024 Retained draft rights The Bulls hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player's contract with the non-NBA team ends.This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.", "with other teams. Franchise leaders Bolddenotes still active with the team.Italicsdenotes still active, but not with the team. Head coaches Hall of Famers, retired, and honored numbers Basketball Hall of Famers Notes: FIBA Hall of Famers Notes: Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame Retired numbers and honorees Chicago Bulls Ring of Honor On January 12, 2024, the Bulls introduced the Ring of Honor, which honors former players and other personnel. The inaugural class of Ring of Honor inductees included all personnel (players, coaches, executives, etc.) who have had their number retired or were honored with similar banners in the rafters, as well as a number of other contributors to the team over the years, such as original ownerDick Kleinand assistant coachTex Winter. Plans were made to induct a class every two years for people with at least three seasons with the Bulls and being retired from basketball for at least three years. Media Radio The team's games are broadcast onEntercom'sWSCR(670) as of February 3, 2018.", "February 3, 2018. From October 2015-January 2018, games were carried onCumulus Media'sWLS(890) in a deal that was expected to last until the 2020–21 season, but was nullified in the middle of the 2017–18 season after Cumulus filed forChapter 11 bankruptcyand nullified several large play-by-play and talent contracts. Chuck Swirskydoes play-by-play, withBill Wenningtonprovidingcolor commentary.Univision Radio'sWRTO(1200) has carriedSpanish languagegame coverage since 2009–10, with Omar Ramos as play-by-play announcer and Matt Moreno as color analyst. Television The Bulls' television broadcasts are televised byChicago Sports Network, which broadcasts all of the games that are not televised nationally as of the 2024–2025 season. For many years, broadcasts were split betweenNBC Sports Chicago(and prior to that,FSN Chicago),WGN-TV, andWCIU-TV.The announcers areAdam AminandStacey King.Jason Benettifills in for Amin whenever the latter is assigned to work forFox Sports. On January 2, 2019, the Bulls (along with", "Bulls (along with theChicago White SoxandChicago Blackhawks) agreed to an exclusive multi-year deal with NBC Sports Chicago, ending the team's broadcasts on WGN-TV following the 2018–19 season.The Bulls left NBC Sports Chicago at the end of the 2023–2024 season, moving to the new Chicago Sports Network in 2024. References External links", "Dallas Cowboys TheDallas Cowboysare a professionalAmerican footballteam based in theDallas–Fort Worth metroplex. The Cowboys compete in theNational Football League(NFL) as a member of theNational Football Conference(NFC)Eastdivision. The team is headquartered inFrisco, Texas, and has played its home games atAT&T StadiuminArlington, Texas, since its opening in2009. The stadium took its current name prior to the2013 season, following the team's decision to sell the stadium's naming rights to telecommunications companyAT&T.In January 2020,Mike McCarthywas hired as head coach of the Cowboys.He is the ninth in the team's history.McCarthy followsJason Garrett, who coached the team from 2010 to 2019. The Cowboys joined the NFL as anexpansion teamin1960.The team's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive sell-outs. The Cowboys' streak of 190 consecutive sold-out regular and post-season games (home and away) began in2002.The franchise has made it to theSuper Bowleight times, tying", "times, tying it with thePittsburgh Steelers,Denver Broncos, andSan Francisco 49ersfor second-mostSuper Bowl appearancesin history behind theNew England Patriots' record 11 appearances. Their eightNFC championshipsare tied for most in the conference's history. The Cowboys are the only NFL team to record 20 straight winning seasons (from 1966 to 1985) during which they missed the playoffs only twice (1974 and 1984). In2015, the Dallas Cowboys became the first sports team to be valued at $4 billion, making it themost valuable sports teamin the world, according toForbes.The Cowboys also generated $620 million in revenue in 2014, a record for a U.S. sports team.In 2018, they also became the first NFL franchise to be valued at $5 billionand making Forbes' list as the most valued NFL team for the 12th straight year. History Clint Murchison/Harvey Bright era (1960–1988) Prior to the formation of the Dallas Cowboys, there had not been an NFL team south of Washington, D.C. since theDallas Texansfolded in 1952 after", "in 1952 after only one season. Two businessmen had tried and failed to get Dallas a team in the NFL:Lamar Huntresponded by forming theAmerican Football Leaguewith a group of owners, which would spur the NFL to expand beyond twelve teams. OilmanClint Murchison Jr.persisted with his intent to bring a team to Dallas, butGeorge Preston Marshall, owner of theWashington Redskins, had a monopoly in theSouth(after the addition of Dallas, the South would see three further teams - NFL teams in Atlanta and New Orleans, and an AFL team in Miami - added in the next six years). Murchison had tried to purchase the Washington Redskins (now Commanders) from Marshall in 1958 with the intent of moving them to Dallas. An agreement was struck, but as the deal was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms, which infuriated Murchison, and he called off the deal.Marshall then opposed any franchise for Murchison in Dallas. Since NFL expansion needed unanimous approval from team owners at that time, Marshall's", "time, Marshall's position would prevent Murchison from joining the league. Marshall had a falling out with the Redskins band leader Barnee Breeskin, who had written the music to the Redskins fight song \"Hail to the Redskins\", and Marshall's wife had penned the lyrics. Breeskin owned the rights to the song and was aware of Murchison's plight to get an NFL franchise. Angry with Marshall, Breeskin approached Murchison's attorney to sell him the rights to the song before the expansion vote in 1959: Murchison subsequently purchased \"Hail to the Redskins\" for $2,500. Before the vote to award franchises in 1959, Murchison revealed to Marshall that he now owned the song, and barred Marshall from playing it during games. After Marshall launched an expletive-laced tirade, Murchison sold the rights to \"Hail to the Redskins\" back to Marshall in exchange for his vote, the lone one against Murchison getting a franchise at that time, and arivalrywas born.Murchison hiredCBS Sportsexecutive and formerLos Angeles Ramsgeneral", "Angeles Ramsgeneral managerTex Schrammas team president and general manager,San Francisco 49ersscoutGil Brandtas head of player personnel,andNew York Giantsdefensive coordinatorTom Landryas head coach,thus forming a triumvirate that would lead the Cowboys' football operations for three decades. Tom Landry years (1960–1988) Like most expansion teams, the Cowboys struggled at first. They failed to win a game in their inaugural season.However, Landry slowly brought the team to respectability. In 1965, they finally got to .500. They broke all the way through a year later, winning consecutive Eastern Conference titles in 1966 and 1967. However, they lost theNFL Championship Gameeach time to theGreen Bay Packerswith the second loss coming in the1967 Ice Bowl.They would win consecutive division titles in 1968 and 1969 when the NFL adopted a divisional format, but were defeated in the playoffs both years by theCleveland Browns. From1970through1979, the Cowboys won 105 regular season games, more than any other NFL", "than any other NFL franchise during that time span.In addition, they appeared in fiveSuper Bowls, winning two (1971and1977). Led by quarterbackCraig Morton, theCowboyshad a 10–4 season in1970. They defeated Detroit 5–0 in the lowest-scoring playoff game in NFL historyand then defeated San Francisco 17–10 in the first-everNFC Championship Gameto qualify for their firstSuper Bowlappearance in franchise history, a mistake-filledSuper Bowl V, where they lost 16–13 to theBaltimore Coltscourtesy of afield goalby Colts' kicker Jim O'Brien with five seconds remaining in the contest. Despite the loss, linebackerChuck Howleywas named theSuper Bowl MVP, the first and only time in Super Bowl history that the game's MVP did not come from the winning team. Super Bowl VI champions (1971) The Cowboys moved from theCotton BowltoTexas Stadiumin week six of the1971 season. Landry named Staubach as the permanent starting quarterback to start the second half of the season, and Dallas was off and running. The Cowboys won their", "Cowboys won their last seven regular season games (finishing 11–3) before dispatching theMinnesota VikingsandSan Francisco 49ersin the playoffs to return to the Super Bowl. InSuper Bowl VI, behind an MVP performance from Staubach and a then Super Bowl record 252 yards rushing, the Cowboys crushed the upstartMiami Dolphins, 24–3, to finally bury the \"Next Year's Champions\" stigma. After missing the playoffs in 1974, theteamdrafted well thefollowing year, adding defensive linemanRandy White(a future Hall of Fame member) and linebackerThomas \"Hollywood\" Henderson. The fresh influx of talent helped the Cowboys back to the playoffs in1975as a wild card, losing to thePittsburgh Steelers, 21–17, inSuper Bowl X. Super Bowl XII champions (1977) Dallas began the1977 season8–0, finishing 12–2. In thepostseason, the Cowboys routed theChicago Bears37–7 andMinnesota Vikings23–6 before defeating theDenver Broncos27–10 inSuper Bowl XIIin New Orleans.As a testament toDoomsday'sdominance in the hard-hitting game, defensive", "game, defensive linemen Randy White andHarvey Martinwere named co-Super Bowl MVPs, the first and only time multiple players have received the award. Dallas returned to theSuper Bowl, following the1978 season, losing to Pittsburgh 35–31. Bob Ryan, an NFL Films editor, dubbed the Cowboys \"America's Team\" following the Super Bowl loss, a nickname that has earned derision from non-Cowboys fans but has stuck through both good times and bad.Danny Whitebecame the Cowboys' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterbackRoger Staubachretired. Despite going 12–4 in1980, the Cowboys came into the playoffs as a Wild Card team. In the opening round of the1980–81 NFL playoffsthey avenged their elimination from the prior year's playoffs by defeating the Rams. In the Divisional Round they squeaked by theAtlanta Falcons30–27. For the NFC Championship they were pitted against division rivalPhiladelphia Eagles, the team that won the division during the regular season. The Eagles captured their first conference championship and", "championship and Super Bowl berth by winning 20–7. 1981brought another division championship for the Cowboys. They entered the1981–82 NFL playoffsas the number 2 seed. Their first postseason saw them blow out Tampa Bay in a 38–0 shutout. The Cowboys then advanced to theNFC Championship Gameagainst theSan Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. Despite having a late 4th quarter 27–21 lead, they would lose to the 49ers 28–27. 49ers quarterbackJoe Montanaled his team on an 89-yard game-winning touchdown drive, connecting withDwight Clarkin a play known asThe Catch. The1982 seasonwas shortened after a player strike. With a 6–3 record Dallas made it to the playoffs for the 8th consecutive season. As the number 2 seed for the1982–83 NFL playoffsthey eliminated the Buccaneers 30–17 in the Wild Card round and dispatched the Packers 37–26 in the Divisional round to advance to their 3rd consecutive Conference championship game. However, the third time was not the charm for the Cowboys as they fell 31–17 to their division", "to their division rival and eventualSuper Bowl XVIIchampions, theWashington Redskins. Although it was not apparent at the time, the loss in the 1982 NFC title game marked the end of an era. For the1983 seasonthe Cowboys went 12–4 and made it once again to the playoffs but were upset at home in the Wild Card by the Rams 24–17. However, 1983 was a missed opportunity as prior to their playoff defeat, the Cowboys had a chance to clinch the NFC East and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs against Washington in the penultimate week of the regular season, but were defeated soundly 31–10 at home, and conceded control of the division to the Redskins in which they would not relinquish a week later. Prior to the1984 season, Murchison sold the Cowboys to another Texas oil magnate,H.R. \"Bum\" Brightand his ten partners.Dallas posted a 9–7 record that season but missed the playoffs for the first time in 10 seasons and only the second time in 18 years. After going 10–6 in1985and winning a division title, the", "division title, the Cowboys were shut out 20–0 by the Rams in the Divisional round in Los Angeles. Hard times came for the organization as they went 7–9 in1986, 7–8 in1987, and 3–13 in1988.During this time period, Bright became disenchanted with the team. During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was \"horrified\" at Landry's play calling. During thesavings and loan crisis, Bright's savings and loan was taken over by theFSLIC. With most of the rest of his money tied up in the Cowboys, Bright was forced to sell the team toJerry Joneson February 25, 1989, for $150 million. Jerry Jones era (1989–present) Jimmy Johnson years (1989–1993) Jones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him withUniversity of Miamihead coachJimmy Johnson, who was also Jones' teammate at theUniversity of Arkansasas a fellow defensive lineman.The hiring of Johnson also reunited Johnson with second-year wide receiverMichael Irvin, who had played collegiately", "played collegiately at Miami. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selectedUCLAquarterbackTroy Aikman. Later that same year, they wouldtrade veteran running backHerschel Walkerto theMinnesota Vikingsfor five veteran players and eight draft choices. Although the Cowboys finished the1989 seasonwith a 1–15 record, their worst in almost 30 years, \"The Trade\" later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team. Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL's elite. Skillful drafts added fullbackDaryl Johnstonand centerMark Stepnoskiin 1989, running backEmmitt Smithin 1990, defensive tackleRussell Marylandand offensive tackleErik Williamsin 1991, and safetyDarren Woodsonin 1992. The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiverMichael Irvin, guardNate Newton, linebackerKen Norton Jr., and offensive linemanMark Tuinei, defensive linemanJim Jeffcoat, and veteran pickups such as tight endJay Novacekand defensive endCharles Haley. Things started to look up", "started to look up for the franchise in1990. On Week 1 Dallas won their first home game since September 1988 when they defeated theSan Diego Chargers17–14. They went 2–7 in their next 9 games but won 4 of their last 6 games to finish the season with a 4th place 7–9 record. Coming into1991the Cowboys replaced offensive coordinatorDave ShulawithNorv Turner; the Cowboys raced to a 6–5 start, then defeated the previously unbeatenRedskinsdespite injury toTroy Aikman. BackupSteve Beuerleintook over and the Cowboys finished 11–5. In the Wild Card round they defeated theBears17–13 for the Cowboys' first playoff win since 1982. In the Divisional round their season ended in a 38–6 playoff rout by theLions. Super Bowl XXVII champions (1992) In1992Dallas set a team record for regular-season wins with a 13–3 mark.They started off the season by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins 23–10.Going into the playoffs as the number 2 seed they had a first-round bye before facing division rival thePhiladelphia", "thePhiladelphia Eagles.The Cowboys won that game 34–10 to advance to the NFC Conference Championship game for the first time in 10 years.They were pitted against theSan Francisco 49ers, the top seed. On January 17, 1993, the Cowboys went toCandlestick Parkand defeated the 49ers 30–20 to clinch their first Super Bowl berth since 1978.Dallas defeated theBuffalo Bills52–17 inSuper Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers.Johnson became the first coach to claim a national championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football. Super Bowl XXVIII champions (1993) Despite starting the1993 season0–2, Dallas finished the regular season 12–4 as the number 1 seed of the NFC.Dallas sent a then-NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safetyThomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski, and Williams.They defeated the Green Bay Packers 27–17 in the divisional round.In the NFC Conference Championship, Dallas beat the 49ers", "beat the 49ers in Dallas, 38–21.The Cowboys again defeated the Buffalo Bills inSuper Bowl XXVIII, 30–13 (becoming the first team in NFL history to win a Super Bowl after starting 0–2). Barry Switzer years (1994–1997) Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation.Jones then hired formerUniversity of Oklahomahead coachBarry Switzerto replace Johnson.The Cowboys finished 12–4 in1994.They once again clinched a first-round bye and defeated Green Bay 35–9 in the Divisional Round.They missed the Super Bowl, however, after losing to theSan Francisco 49ersin the NFC Championship Game, 38–28. Super Bowl XXX champions (1995) Prior to the start of1995 seasonJerry Jones lured All-Pro cornerbackDeion Sandersaway from San Francisco.Dallas started the season 4–0 including shutting out their division rival New York Giants 35–0 atGiants Stadiumto open their season. Emmitt Smith set an NFL record with 25 rushing", "with 25 rushing touchdowns that season.They ended the season 12–4 and went into the playoffs as the number 1 seed.In the Divisional round, they dispatched their division rival Eagles 30–11 to advance to their fourth consecutive NFC Conference Championship Game, in which they defeated Green Bay, 38–27.InSuper Bowl XXXthe Cowboys defeated thePittsburgh Steelers27–17 atSun Devil Stadiumfor their fifth Super Bowl championship, tied with theSan Francisco 49ersfor the most by any NFC team.Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football national championship and a Super Bowl. The glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age, and injuries began taking their toll. Star receiver Michael Irvin was suspended by the league for the first five games of1996following a drug-related arrest; he came back after the Cowboys started the season 2–3.They finished the regular season with a 10–6 record, won theNFC Easttitle, and entered the playoffs as the number 3 seed in the", "3 seed in the NFC.They defeated Minnesota 40–15 in the Wild Card round but were eliminated in the Divisional Round of the playoffs 26–17 by theCarolina Panthers. The Cowboys went 6–10 in1997, losing the last six consecutive games of the season, with discipline and off-field problems becoming major distractions.As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinatorChan Gaileywas hired to take his place. Gailey and Campo years (1998–2002) Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10–6 record in1998and anNFC Eastchampionship, the Cowboys' sixth in seven years, but the Cowboys were upset at home in the Wild Card Round of the playoffs by theArizona Cardinals20–7. In1999Dallas went 8–8 in a season that featured Irvin suffering a career-endingcervical spineinjury in a loss to thePhiladelphia EaglesatVeterans Stadium. The season ended in a 27-10 Wild Card playoff loss to theMinnesota Vikings. Gailey was fired and became the first Cowboys coach who did not", "coach who did not take the team to aSuper Bowl. Defensive coordinatorDave Campowas promoted to head coach for the2000 season.Prior to the season starting cornerbackDeion Sanderswas released after 5 seasons with the team.He later signed with the division rivalWashington Redskins. In Week 1, they were blown out 41–14 by thePhiladelphia Eagles. That game was very costly when veteran quarterback Troy Aikman suffered a serious concussion which ultimately ended his career. Longtime NFL quarterbackRandall Cunninghamfilled in for Aikman for the rest of the season at quarterback. The Cowboys finished the season in 4th place with a 5–11 record. The only highlights of 2000 wereEmmitt Smithhaving his 10th consecutive 1,000-yard rushing season and a season sweep over the Redskins. 2001was another hard year in Dallas. Prior to the season starting Aikman was released from the team and he retired due to the concussions he had received.Jerry Jones signedTony Banksas a quarterback. Banks had been a starter for half of the", "for half of the season the previous year for theSuper Bowl XXXVchampionBaltimore Ravensbefore being benched. Jones also drafted quarterbackQuincy Carterin the second round of that year's draft, and Banks was released during the preseason.Ryan Leaf,Anthony Wright, andClint Stoernerall competed for the quarterback position that season. Dallas again finished at 5–11, last place in the NFC East, but they swept theWashington Redskinsfor the 4th consecutive season. Prior to the2002 seasonDallas drafted safetyRoy Williamswith the 8th overall pick. The season started out low as the Cowboys lost to theexpansionHouston Texans19–10 in Week 1. By far the highlight of 2002 was on October 28, when during a home game against theSeattle Seahawks, Emmitt Smith broke the all-time NFL rushing record previously held byWalter Payton. TheirThanksgiving Daywin over theWashington Redskinswas their 10th consecutive win against the Redskins. However, that was their final 2002 win as the team lost their next four games to finish with", "to finish with another last-place 5–11 record. The losing streak was punctuated with a Week 17 20–14 loss against the Redskins. That game was Smith's last game as a Cowboys player; he was released during the offseason.Campo was immediately fired as head coach at the conclusion of the season. Bill Parcells years (2003–2006) Jones then luredBill Parcellsout of retirement to coach the Cowboys.The Cowboys became the surprise team of the2003 seasongetting off to a hot 7–2 start, but went 3–4 for the rest of the season.They were able to grab the second NFC wild-card spot with a 10–6 record but lost in the Wild Card round to eventual conference championCarolina Panthers, 29–10. In2004Dallas was unable to replicate their 2003 success and ended 6–10.Quincy Carter was released during the preseason and was replaced at quarterback byVinny Testaverde. Dallas got off to a great 7–3 start for the2005 seasonbut ended up only in 3rd place with a 9–7 record.Prior to the beginning of that season, they signed veteranDrew", "signed veteranDrew Bledsoeas starting quarterback. 2006was an interesting year for the Cowboys. Prior to the season, they signed free agent wide receiverTerrell Owenswho was talented yet controversial.The Cowboys started the season 3–2. During a week 7 matchup against theNew York Giants, Bledsoe, who had been struggling since the start of the season, was pulled from the game and was replaced by backupTony Romo.Romo was unable to salvage that game and Dallas lost 36–22. However, Romo was named the starter for the team and went 5–1 in his first 6 games. Dallas ended the season with a 9–7 2nd-place finish.They were able to clinch the number 5 playoff seed. They traveled to play theSeattle Seahawkswhere the Seahawks won 21–20.After the season Parcells retired and was replaced byWade Phillips. Wade Phillips years (2007–2010) Dallas started the2007 seasonwith a bang, winning their first five games. They won 12 of their first 13 games, with their only loss during that span being to theNew England Patriots, who went", "Patriots, who went undefeated that season. Despite dropping two of their last three regular-season games, the Cowboys clinched their first number 1 NFC seed in 12 years, which also granted them a first-round bye and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs.They lost in the divisional round 21–17 to the eventualSuper BowlchampionNew York Giants. In the tumultuous2008 season, the Cowboys started off strong, going 3–0 for the second straight year, en route to a 4–1 start. However, things soon went downhill from there, after quarterback Tony Romo suffered a broken pinkie in an overtime loss to theArizona Cardinals. WithBrad JohnsonandBrooks Bollingerplaying as backups, Dallas went 1–2 during a three-game stretch. Romo's return showed promise, as Dallas went 3–0. However, injuries mounted during the season, with the team losing several starters for the year, such asKyle Kosier,Felix Jones, safetyRoy Williams, punterMat McBriar, and several other starters playing with injuries.Entering December, the 8–4", "December, the 8–4 Cowboys underperformed, finishing 1–3. They failed to make the playoffs after losing to thePhiladelphia Eaglesin the final regular-season game which saw the Eagles reach the playoffs instead. On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys' practice facility collapsed during a wind storm.The collapse left twelve Cowboys players and coaches injured. The most serious injuries were special teams coachJoe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team's 33-year-old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed. The2009 seasonstarted positively with a road win against theTampa Bay Buccaneers, but fortunes quickly changed as Dallas fell to a 2–2 start. In week five, with starting wide receiver Roy Williams sidelined by injury, receiverMiles Austingot his first start of the season and had a record-setting day (250 yards receiving and 2 touchdowns) to help lead Dallas", "to help lead Dallas to an overtime win over theKansas City Chiefs.Following theirbye week, they went on a three-game winning streak including wins over theAtlanta Falconsand NFC East division rivalPhiladelphia Eagles. Despite entering December with a record of 8–3, they lost their slim grip on 1st place in the division with losses to theNew York GiantsandSan Diego Chargers. Talks of past December collapses resurfaced, and another collapse in 2009 seemed validated. However, the team surged in the final three weeks of the season with a 24–17 victory against the eventualSuper Bowl XLIVchampionNew Orleans Saintsat the Louisiana Superdome, ending the Saints' previously unbeaten season in week 15. For the first time in franchise history, they posted back-to-back shutouts when they beat their division rivals, theWashington Redskins(17–0) and Philadelphia Eagles (24–0) to end the season. In the process, the Cowboys clinched their second NFC East title in three years as well as the third seed in the NFC Playoffs.Six", "NFC Playoffs.Six days later, in the wild-card round of the playoffs, Dallas played the Eagles in a rematch of week 17. The Cowboys defeated the Eagles for the first Cowboys post-season win since the 1996 season, ending a streak of six consecutive NFL post-season losses.However, their playoff run ended after being routed 34–3 in the Divisional Round against theMinnesota Vikings. After beginning the2010 seasonat 1–7, Phillips was fired as head coach and was replaced by offensive coordinatorJason Garrettas the interim head coach. Jason Garrett years (2010–2019) With Garrett as interim head coach, the Cowboys finished the 2010 season 6–10 after beginning at 1–7.With this improvement, the Cowboys signed Garrett as the head coach for the 2011 season. To start the2011 seasonthe Cowboys played theNew York Jetson a Sunday night primetime game in New York, on September 11. The Cowboys held the lead through most of the game, until a fumble, blocked punt, and interception led to the Jets coming back to win the game. In", "to win the game. In week 2 the Cowboys traveled to San Francisco to play theSan Francisco 49ers. In the middle of the 2nd quarter, while the Cowboys trailed 10–7, Tony Romo suffered a rib injury and was replaced byJon Kitna. Kitna threw 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions until Romo returned in the 3rd quarter as Dallas trailed 17–7. Romo then threw 3 touchdown passes toMiles Austinas the Cowboys rallied to send the game into overtime. On their opening possession after a 49ers punt, Romo found wide receiverJesse Holleyon a 78-yard pass, which set up the game-winning field goal by rookie kickerDan Bailey.The Cowboys ended the season 8–8. They were in a position to win the NFC East but lost to theNew York Giantsin a Week 17 primetime Sunday Night game onNBCwhich allowed the Giants to win the division.The Giants would go on to winSuper Bowl XLVI. The Cowboys started off the2012 seasonon a high note by defeating the defending Super Bowl championNew York Giants24–17 on the opening night of the season.They would hover", "would hover around the .500 mark for the majority of the season. They lost a close Week 6 game to eventualSuper Bowl XLVIIchampionBaltimore Ravens31–29 atM&T Bank Stadiumin Baltimore. Going into Week 17 they found themselves once again one win away from winning the division. Standing in their way were theWashington Redskins, who had beaten them on Thanksgiving atAT&T Stadiumand who were one win away from their first division title since1999. Led byRobert Griffin IIIthe Redskins defeated the Cowboys at home 28–18.Dallas once again finished the season 8–8. In the2013 seasonthe Cowboys started off by defeating theNew York Giantsfor the second straight year; this time 36–31. It was the first time since 2008 that the Cowboys were able to defeat the Giants at home. The win was punctuated byBrandon Carrintercepting anEli Manningpass for a touchdown late in the 4th quarter. For the third straight year, Dallas once again found itself stuck in the .500 area. In Week 5, they lost a shootout to the eventual AFC", "to the eventual AFC championDenver Broncos51–48.They battled it out with thePhiladelphia Eaglesfor control of the division throughout the season. In December however they lost 2 crucial back-to-back games to theChicago BearsandGreen Bay Packers. They were very successful in division games having a 5–0 division record heading into another Week 17 showdown for the NFC East crown against the Eagles. That included beating theWashington Redskins24–23 on Week 16 thanks to the late-game heroics ofTony Romo. However, Romo received a severe back injury in that game which prematurely ended his season. The Cowboys called upon backup quarterbackKyle Ortonto lead them into battle on the final week of the season. Orton was unsuccessful who threw a game-ending interception to the Eagles which allowed the Eagles to win 24–22. Dallas ended the year at 8–8 for the third year in a row. The two differences from this 8–8 ending compared to the others was that Dallas ended the season in second place compared to the 2 previous", "to the 2 previous 3rd-place finishes, along with their season-ending defeat taking place at home instead of on the road. To start off the2014 seasonDallas began by losing to theSan Francisco 49ers28–17. After that, they went on a 6-game winning streak. The highlight of this streak was defeating theSuper Bowl XLVIIIchampionSeattle SeahawksatCenturyLink Field30–23. In Week 8, theWashington Redskinsended the Cowboys' winning streak by winning in overtime 20–17, and Romo injured his back again. He missed next week, a home loss to theArizona Cardinals28–17 with backup quarterbackBrandon Weeden. Romo returned in Week 9 to lead a 31–17 victory over theJacksonville Jaguars, which was played atWembley StadiuminLondon, Englandas part of theNFL International Series. Dallas played their traditional Thanksgiving home game against their division rivalPhiladelphia Eagles. Both teams were vying for first place in the division with identical 8–3 records. The Eagles got off to a fast start and the Cowboys were unable to catch", "unable to catch up, losing 33–10. They would rebound the next week when they defeated theChicago Bears41–28. Week 15 was a rematch against 1st place Philadelphia. This time it was the Cowboys who got off to a fast start going up 21–0. Then the Eagles put up 24 points but Dallas came back to win 38–27 to go into first place for the first time in the season and improve to 10–4. Going into their Week 16 matchup at home against theIndianapolis Colts, Dallas was in a position to clinch their first division title since 2009 by defeating the Colts 42-7 and the Eagles losing that week to the Redskins. They became the 2014 NFC East Champions, eliminating the Eagles from the playoffs. Dallas ended the regular season with a 12–4 record and an 8–0 away record when they won on the road against Washington 44–17. On January 4, 2015, the Cowboys, as the number 3 seed, hosted the number 6 seedDetroit Lionsin the wild-card round of theNFL playoffs. In the game, the Lions got off to a hot start, going up 14–0 in the first", "14–0 in the first quarter. Dallas initially struggled on both sides of the ball. However, towards the end of the second quarter, Romo threw a 76-yard touchdown pass to Terrance Williams.Matt Praterof the Lions would kick a field goal before halftime to go up 17–7. Dallas came out swinging to start the second half by picking off Detroit quarterbackMatthew Staffordon the first play of the third quarter. However, the Cowboys failed to capitalize on the turnover, as Dan Bailey missed a field goal during Dallas's ensuing drive. Detroit then kicked another field goal to make the score 20–7. A DeMarco Murray touchdown later in that quarter closed the gap to 20–14. A 51-yard Bailey field goal almost 3 minutes into the fourth quarter trimmed the Cowboys' deficit to 3. The Lions got the ball back and started driving down the field. On 3rd down-and-1 of that Lions drive, Stafford threw a 17-yard pass intended for Lions tight endBrandon Pettigrew, but the ball hit Cowboys linebackerAnthony Hitchensin the back a fraction", "the back a fraction of a second before he ran into Pettigrew. The play was initially flagged as defensive pass interference against Hitchens. However, the penalty was then nullified by the officiating crew. The Cowboys got the ball back on their 41-yard line and had a successful 59-yard drive which was capped off by an 8-yard touchdown pass from Romo to Williams to give the Cowboys their first lead of the game at 24–20. The Lions got the ball back with less than 2:30 to play in regulation. Stafford fumbled the ball at the 2-minute mark. The fumble was recovered by Cowboys defensive endDeMarcus Lawrence, who then fumbled the ball which was recovered by the Lions. Lawrence would redeem himself by sacking Stafford on a 4th down-and-3 play. The sack led to Stafford fumbling the ball again, which Lawrence recovered to seal the game for the Cowboys, who won 24–20.This was the first time in franchise playoff history that Dallas had been down by 10 or more points at halftime and rallied to win the game. The", "win the game. The following week, the Cowboys traveled toLambeau FieldinGreen Bay, Wisconsinto play theGreen Bay Packersin theDivisional Round. Despite having a 14–7 halftime lead, the Cowboys fell to the Packers 26–21, thus ending their season. The season ended on an overturned call of a completed catch by Dez Bryant. The catch was challenged by the Packers, and the referees overturned the call because of the \"Calvin Johnson rule.\" During the 2015 offseason the Cowboys allowed running backDeMarco Murrayto become a free agent. Murray signed with thedivision rivalPhiladelphia Eagles.On July 15 wide receiverDez Bryantsigned a 5-year, $70 million contract. TheCowboysstarted the 2015 season at home against theNew York Giants, in which Dallas won 27–26.Dez Bryantleft the game early with a fractured bone in his foot. On the road against thePhiladelphia Eagles, Romo suffered a broken left collarbone, the same one he injured in 2010, andBrandon Weedenreplaced him. Dallas won 20–10 to begin the season 2–0, but then", "2–0, but then went on a seven-game losing streak. They finished the season 4–12 and last in their division. In2016, after a preseason injury toTony Romo, rookie quarterbackDak Prescottwas slated as the starting quarterback, as Romo was expected to be out 6–8 weeks.In week 1 against theNew York Giants, Dallas lost 20–19. After this loss, Dallas would go on an eleven-game winning streak. After much speculation leading to a potential quarterback controversy, Romo made an announcement that Prescott had earned the right to take over as the Cowboys starting quarterback. In game 10, Romo suited up for the first time in the season and was the backup quarterback. Dallas defeated theBaltimore Ravensto win their 9th straight game, breaking a franchise record of 8 straight games set in 1977. It also marked rookie running backEzekiel ElliottbreakingTony Dorsett's single-season rushing record for a Cowboys rookie. Prescott also tied an NFL rookie record held byRussell WilsonandDan Marinoby throwing multiple touchdowns in", "touchdowns in 5 straight games. Dallas finished 13–3, tying their best 16-game regular-season record. While Dallas defeated theGreen Bay PackersatLambeau Fieldin week 6, the Packers would win at AT&T Stadium in the divisional round of theNFL playoffson a last-second field goal, ending the Cowboys’ season. Dak Prescott was namedNFL Rookie of the Yearin the NFL honors on February 4, 2017, and Ezekiel Elliott led the league in rushing yards. Jason Garrett was namedCoach of the Year. Both Prescott and Elliott made the2017 Pro Bowl. This is the first time the Cowboys sent two rookies to the Pro Bowl. 2017was the first season since 2002 without quarterback Tony Romo, who retired on April 4 after 14 seasons with the Cowboys.The season also featured second-year running back Ezekiel Elliott being suspended for 6 games after violating the league's conduct policy.The suspension was to begin at the start of the year but was pushed back to November.The Cowboys finished the year at 9-7 without making the playoffs.", "the playoffs. Following the season,Dez Bryantwas released after eight seasons in Dallas and tight endJason Witten, who holds several franchise receiving records, retired after 15 seasons, ending an era. The Dallas Cowboys' 2017 season was the subject of the third season ofAmazon'ssports documentary seriesAll or Nothing. The series is produced by NFL Films. In the 2018 season, the Cowboys finished with a 10–6 record and won the NFC East.In the Wild Card Round, the Cowboys defeated the Seattle Seahawks 24–22 before losing 30–22 to the Los Angeles Rams in the Divisional Round. Mike McCarthy years (2020–present) Following the end of the 2019 season, where the Cowboys missed the playoffs for the 7th time in the last 10 seasons, it was announced that the team had parted ways with longtime head coachJason Garrett. BothMarvin Lewis(formerBengalscoach) andMike McCarthy(formerPackerscoach who led Green Bay to a Super Bowl win) were interviewed for the head coaching position. McCarthy and the Cowboys picked up the", "picked up the first win against theAtlanta Falconsin Week 2.On October 11, the Cowboys’2020 seasonwas all but lost when quarterbackDak Prescottsuffered a grievous ankle injury that ended his season.Despite the loss of Prescott, McCarthy's first year Cowboys still remained in the running for a playoff appearance throughout most of the regular season. They would go on to finish the season with a 6–10 record, which ranked the team third in the NFC East Division.Throughout the 2020 season, the Cowboys’ defense struggled massively. Following the season, defensive coordinatorMike Nolanand defensive line coachJim Tomsulawere dismissed. The Cowboys'2021 seasonresulted in the first winning season since2018, and with theSan Francisco 49ers' Week 16 loss to theTennessee Titans, the Cowboys clinched their first playoff berth also since 2018. Following aDenver Broncos' loss to theLas Vegas Raiders, the Cowboys clinched the NFC East, based onstrength-of-victory tiebreakers; this was their first division title since", "title since 2018.They swept the NFC East for the first time since1998. RookieMicah Parsonswas awarded asDefensive Rookie of the Year, and contributed to a league-leading defense.The Cowboys' strong offense finished the year with 530 points, the most in the league, and a team record.They finished the season with a 12–5 record, their best since 2016. But despite high expectations, the Cowboys lost in thewild card roundof the playoffs to theSan Francisco 49ers23–17. The2022 seasonsaw a repeat of the 12–5 record. Despite losing to theJacksonville Jaguarsin Week 15, the Cowboys clinched a playoff berth after a loss by theWashington Commanderslater that day. This marked the first time since2006–2007the Cowboys qualified for the postseason in consecutive seasons.Quarterback Dak Prescott was awarded asWalter Payton NFL Man of the Year, for his contributions to the community and charity.In thewild-card round of the playoffs, the Cowboys defeated theTampa Bay Buccaneersto win their first road playoff game since", "playoff game since theirSuper Bowl-winning 1992 season, and ended their winless streak againstTom Bradyin what proved to be Brady's last game in his career.However, they were defeated by theSan Francisco 49ersfor the second consecutive season, this time in thedivisional round, their seventh consecutive divisional round defeat. On February 16, 2022, a settlement of $2.4 million was paid after four cheerleaders accused Rich Dalrymple, the now-retired senior vice president of public relations and communications, of voyeurism in their locker room as they undressed during a 2015 event at AT&T Stadium. After the NFL allowed teams to seek blockchain sponsorships,the Cowboys became the first team to do so, signing a multi-year contract with the platformBlockchain.comon April 13, 2022. In2023, the Cowboys again achieved a 12–5 record, for the third year in a row.The team won theNFC Eastdivision for the first time since the2021 seasonand the second time in three seasons.They ended up in a three-way tie with theSan", "tie with theSan Francisco 49ersand theDetroit Lionsfor first place in the NFC at 12–5. However, they lost the conference record tiebreaker to the 49ers but won the head to head tiebreaker over the Lions, giving them the second seed in the playoffs.Although the Cowboys lost to theBuffalo Billsin Week 15, they clinched their third straight playoff berth before taking the field when theGreen Bay PackersandAtlanta Falconslost to theTampa Bay BuccaneersandCarolina Panthers, respectively.This marked the Cowboys' first run of three consecutive postseason appearances since appearing in six straight from1991to1996. However, the Cowboys collapsed in theplayoffs, and, despite having one of the best-ranked offenses and defenses of the league, were crushed 48–32 by theirrival, seventh-seededGreen Bay Packersin the Wild Card round, at one point trailing 48–16 during the fourth quarter.With the loss, the Cowboys became the first team to lose to a #7 seed since the playoff bracket expanded for the2020–21 NFL playoffs.This", "NFL playoffs.This also marked the first time a team failed to reach a Conference Championship Game despite winning at least 12 games in three consecutive seasons. Thanksgiving Day games In their seventh season in1966, the Cowboys agreed to host a secondNFL Thanksgiving game; the tradition of a team hosting onThanksgivinghad been popularized by theDetroit Lions(who had hosted a game on the day mostly un-interrupted since moving to Detroit in1934). General managerTex Schrammwanted to find a way to boost publicity on a national level for his team, which had struggled for most of the 1960s. In fact, the NFL guaranteed a cut of the gate revenue in the belief that the game would not be a hit because of said struggle. With a kickoff just after 5 p.m.CST,over eighty thousand fans (and millions viewing onCBS) saw the Cowboys beat theCleveland Browns26–14 at theCotton Bowl. In1975and1977, at the behest ofCommissionerPete Rozelle, theSt. Louis Cardinalsreplaced Dallas as a host team. Dallas then hosted St. Louis", "hosted St. Louis in1976in an effort by the NFL to give St. Louis national exposure. Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the \"Cardiac Cards\" due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, the games did not prove as successful. Owing to factors that ranged from ugly contests to opposition from theKirkwood–Webster Groves Turkey Day Game(a localhigh school footballcontest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in1978. It was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day for good; as such, the Cowboys play in the late afternoon. Logos and uniforms Logo The Dallas Cowboys' blue star logo, which represents Texas as \"The Lone Star State,\" is one of the most well-known team logos in professional sports. The blue star originally was a solid shape until a white line and blue border were added in 1964. The logo has remained the same", "remained the same since. Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones' defunctAFLteam, theDallas Desperadosthat used a similar logo based on that of the Cowboys. The blue star also is used on other entries like an imaging facility and storage facility. Uniforms The Dallas Cowboys' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 287 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black. The home pants are a common metallic silver-green color (PMS 8280 C) that helps bring out the blue in the uniform. The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the \"Stars and Stripes\" jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes. A white/gray/white stripe is on each sleeve as well as the collared V-neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes. A \"Cowboys\" chest crest is directly under the NFL shield. The away pants are a pearlish metallic-silver color (PMS 8180 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms. The team", "uniforms. The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates. The team's helmets are also a unique silver with a tint of blue known as \"Metallic Silver Blue\" (PMS 8240 C) and have a blue/white/blue vertical stripe placed upon the center of the crown. The Cowboys also include a unique, if subtle, feature on the back of the helmet: a blue strip ofDymotape with the player's name embossed, placed on the white portion of the stripe at the back of the helmet. Home and away uniform history When the Dallas Cowboys franchise debuted in 1960, the team's uniform included a white helmet adorned with a simple blue star and a blue-white-blue stripe down the center crown. The team donned blue jerseys with white sleeves and a small blue star on each shoulder for home games and the negative opposite for away games. Their socks also had two horizontal white stripes overlapping the blue. In 1964, the Cowboys opted for a simpler look (adopting essentially the team's current uniform) by", "current uniform) by changing their jersey/socks to one solid color with three horizontal stripes on the sleeves; the white jersey featured royal blue stripes with a narrow black border, the royal blue jersey white stripes with the same black outline. The star-shouldered jerseys were eliminated; \"TV\" numbers appeared just above the jersey stripes. The new helmet was silver-blue, with a blue-white-blue tri-stripe down the center (the middle white stripe was thicker). The blue \"lone star\" logo was retained, but with a white border setting it off from the silver/blue. The new pants were silver/blue, with a blue-white-blue tri-stripe. In 1964, the NFL allowed teams to wear white jerseys at home; several teams did so, and the Cowboys have worn white at home ever since, except on certain and special \"throwback\" days. In 1966, the team modified the jerseys, which now featured only two sleeve stripes, slightly wider; the socks followed the same pattern. In 1967 the \"lone star\" helmet decal added a blue outline to the", "blue outline to the white-bordered star, giving the logo a bigger, bolder look. The logo and this version of the uniform have seen little change to the present day. The only notable changes from 1970 to the present were: During the 1976 season, the blue-white-blue stripe on the crown of the helmets was temporarily changed to red-white-blue to commemorate the United States' bicentennial anniversary. This stripe configuration returned in 2021 and is now worn for one regular season game annually when the team pays tribute toMedal of Honorrecipients. In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back-to-back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white \"Double-Star\" jersey on Thanksgiving Day. This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994–95 playoffs. During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960–63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league-wide \"throwback\" policy. During the 1995 season, the team wore the", "the team wore the navy \"Double-Star\" jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform). The navy \"Double-Star\" jersey was not seen again until the NFL'sClassic Throwback Weekendon Thanksgiving Day 2001–2003. In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960–1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day. This uniform became the team's alternate or \"third jersey\" and was usually worn at least once a year, primarily Thanksgiving Day. Two exceptions were when the Cowboys wore their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008. While the team didn't wear the throwback uniform exactly on Thanksgiving Day in those two years, Dallas wore them on a date around Thanksgiving for those two years. In 2007 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 29, 2007, against the Green Bay Packers. In 2008 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 23, 2008, against the San Francisco 49ers. The team went back to", "team went back to wearing this uniform at home on Thanksgiving Day in 2009 while their opponent was the Oakland Raiders who wore their AFL Legacy Weekend throwbacks. Dallas wore this alternate uniform on October 11, 2009, as part of one of the NFL's AFL Legacy Weekends when they traveled to Kansas City to play the Chiefs who were sporting their AFL Dallas Texans' uniforms. This created a rare game in which neither team wore a white jersey and the first time the Cowboys wore the alternative uniform as a visiting team. The 1960–1963 uniform may also be used on other special occasions. Other instances include the 2005 Monday Night game against the Washington Redskins when the team inducted Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irving into the Cowboys Ring of Honor, and the 2006 Christmas Day game against the Philadelphia Eagles. In 2013, the NFL issued a new helmet rule stating that players would no longer be allowed to use alternate helmets due to the league's enhanced concussion awareness. This caused the", "This caused the Cowboys' white 1960s throwback helmets to become non-compliant. However, this rule became moot in 2022 when the NFL once again allowed teams to use an alternate helmet again, and the Cowboys reintroduced the 1960s white helmet. During the \"one-shell era\", in 2013,2014,2016,and 2017,the team wore their normal blue jerseys at home for Thanksgiving; the only exceptions were in 2015and 2020when the Cowboys wore the \"Color Rush\" uniforms (see below), and in 2018,2019and 2021when they wore their regular white uniforms.In 2017, the team initially announced that they will wear blue jerseys at home on a more regular basis, only to rescind soon after. In 2015, the Cowboys released theirColor Rushuniform, featuring a variation of the 1990s \"Double Star\" alternates with white pants and socks. The uniform was first used in a Thanksgiving game against the Carolina Panthers and in subsequentThursday Night Footballgames since 2016. In 2022, the \"Color Rush\" uniforms would be worn with a white helmet; this", "white helmet; this design would emulate their current silver helmets but without any silver elements. The Cowboys also unveiled a navy uniform-white pants combination which was first used on December 10, 2017, against the Giants. In 1964, Tex Schramm started the tradition of the Cowboys wearing their white jersey at home, contrary to an unofficial rule that teams should wear colored jerseys at home. Schramm did this because he wanted fans to see a variety of opponents' colors at home games. According to current Cowboys' Equipment Director, Mike McCord, another reason why the team chose to wear white uniforms at home was because of the intense Texas heat during the early part of the season atTexas Stadium. Throughout the years, the Cowboys' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be \"jinxed\" because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them. This purported curse drew attention after the team lost Super Bowl V with the blue jerseys.However, the roots of the curse likely date back earlier to the 1968", "earlier to the 1968 divisional playoffs, when the blue-shirted Cowboys were upset by theCleveland Brownsin what turned out to be Don Meredith's final game with the Cowboys. Another example was a 1976 regular season road game against theSt. Louis Cardinals, in which the Cardinals elected to wear white as the home team and promptly defeated the then-undefeated Cowboys 21–17 for their first loss in six games. Since the white home uniform tradition began in 1964, the only season Dallas never wore blue uniforms in a regular season game was in the1972 season, even though they wore them thrice in the preseason.The only other times Dallas wore blue in one regular season game came in1968,1975,1976,1977,1998,2010,and2020.Conversely, the2019 seasonsaw Dallas wear their blue uniforms eight times, the most of any season. Since the 1970 NFL-AFL merger, league rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey. Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jerseys when they visit", "when they visit Washington, Philadelphia (sometimes), Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities or other means. Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse,such as when thePhiladelphia Eagleshosted the Cowboys in the1980 NFC Championship Game,as well as their November 4, 2007, meeting. Various other teams followed suit in the 1980s. Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse.Since the league began allowing teams to use an alternate jersey, the Cowboys' alternates have been primarily blue versions of past jerseys and the Cowboys have generally had success when wearing these blue alternates. With the implementation of the 2013 NFL helmet rule for alternate jerseys, the team decided instead to wear their regular blue jerseys for their", "jerseys for their Thanksgiving game, something they have not done at home since Schramm started the white-jersey-at-home tradition. As of the2023season, the Cowboys have a cumulative 97–100–3 regular season record in their blue uniforms. They are also 15–11 at home while wearing the blue uniforms since 2001. The Cowboys also sport a 8–2 record when wearing the primary blue uniform/white pants combination since its 2017 debut. The Cowboys are 2–6 in playoff games while wearing the blue uniforms. The only victories with the blue uniforms came in the1978 NFC Championship Gameagainst theLos Angeles Rams, and the2022 NFC Wild Card Roundagainst theTampa Bay Buccaneers. Thanksgiving Day uniforms With the Dallas Cowboys traditionally hostingThanksgiving Day games, the team donned new uniforms when they unveiled their white \"Double-Star\" jersey for the first time on November 24, 1994.This game later became synonymous with future Cowboys Head Coach (2010–2019); then 3rd string QuarterbackJason Garrettas he led a", "Garrettas he led a come-from-behind victory against the Green Bay Packers. In the 2004 season, the team went further into Cowboys history by choosing to don blue jerseys worn in their first 4 years of existence, which included white helmets and pants. However, keeping consistent with modern marketing, navy blue was used for this version as opposed to the original 1960-1963 royal color jersey.Aside from the 2007 and 2008 seasons, the Cowboys continued to use this \"throwback\" uniform through Thanksgiving Day 2012. Before the start of the 2013 season, the NFL announced a \"One-helmet\" rule to help prevent potential player concussions.This regulation also prevented the Cowboys from pairing the white helmets with the throwback uniforms, as the team will often use the traditional silver-blue as their primary helmets throughout the season. In the 2015 season, the Cowboys chose to wear a variation of the 1994 \"Double-Star\" jersey as theirColor Rushon Thanksgiving Day against the Carolina Panthers on November 26,", "on November 26, 2015.Since then, theColor Rushwas only used again on Thanksgiving against theWashington Football Teamon November 26, 2020.In all other seasons, the team opted to wear their standard white or blue uniforms. In 2022, the NFL restored the use of alternate helmets and the Cowboys reinstated the white helmet and navy 'throwback\" uniforms on November 24, 2022, against theNew York Giants. Stadiums Cotton Bowl The Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1932 and became known as \"The House That Doak Built\" due to the immense crowds that former SMU running backDoak Walkerdrew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s. Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located inFair Park, site of theState Fair of Texas. Concerts or other events using a stage allow the playing field to be used for additional spectators. The Cotton Bowl was the longtime home of the annualCotton Bowl Classiccollege football bowl game, for which the stadium is named. (Beginning with the January 2010 game, the", "2010 game, the Cotton Bowl Classic has been played atAT&T Stadiumin Arlington.) The Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved toTexas Stadium. It is the only Cowboys stadium within the Dallascity limits. The Cowboys hosted the Green Bay Packers for the1966 NFL Championshipat the Cotton Bowl. Texas Stadium For the majority of the franchise's history the Cowboys played their home games at Texas Stadium. Just outside the city of Dallas, the stadium was located inIrving. The stadium opened on October 24, 1971, at a cost of $35 million and with aseating capacityof 65,675. The stadium was famous for its hole-in-the-roof dome. The roof's worn paint had become so unsightly in the early 2000s that it was repainted in the summer of 2006 by the City of Irving. It was the first time the famed roof was repainted since Texas Stadium opened. The roof was structurally independent from the stadium it covered. The Cowboys lost their final game", "their final game at Texas Stadium to theBaltimore Ravens, 33–24, on December 20, 2008. After Cowboys Stadium was opened in 2009, the Cowboys turned over the facility to the City of Irving. In2009, it was replaced as home of the Cowboys byCowboys Stadium, which officially opened on May 27, 2009, inArlington.Texas Stadium was demolished by implosion on April 11, 2010. AT&T Stadium AT&T Stadium, previously named Cowboys Stadium, is adomed stadiumwith a retractable roof inArlington. After failed negotiations to build a new stadium on the site of the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones, along with the city of Arlington, Texas, a suburb of Fort Worth, funded the stadium at a cost of $1.3 billion.The stadium is located inTarrant County, the first time the Cowboys has called a stadium home outside ofDallas County. It was completed on May 29, 2009, and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000. AT&T Stadium is among the largest domed stadiums in the world. A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its gigantic,", "is its gigantic, center-hunghigh-definition televisionscreen, at one point the largest in the world.The 160 by 72 feet (49 by 22 m), 11,520-square-foot (1,070 m2) scoreboard surpassed the 8,736 sq ft (812 m2) screen that opened in 2009 at the renovatedKauffman StadiuminKansas Cityas the world's largest.In 2011,Charlotte Motor Speedwayunveiled its plans for a new HDTV screen larger than the one in AT&T Stadium;that larger screen has since been completed. At the debut pre-season game of Cowboys Stadium, a punt by Tennessee Titans kicker,A. J. Trapasso, hit the 2,100 in. screen above the field. The punt deflected and was ruled in-play until Titans coachJeff Fisherinformed the officials that the punt struck thescoreboard. (Many believe Trapasso was trying to hit the suspended scoreboard, based on replays and the angle of the kick.) The scoreboard is, however, within the regulation of the NFL guidelines – hanging approximately five feet above the minimum height. No punts hit the scoreboard during the entire 2009", "the entire 2009 regular season during an actual game. Also, on August 22, 2009, the day after AJ Trapasso hit the screen, many fans touring the facility noted that half of the field was removed with large cranes re-positioning the screen. According to some fans, a tour guide explained that Jerry Jones invited a few professional soccer players to drop kick soccer balls to try to hit the screen. Once he observed them hitting it consistently he had the screen moved up another 10 feet. The first regular season home game of the 2009 season was against the New York Giants. A league record-setting 105,121 fans showed up to fill Cowboys Stadium for the game before which the traditional \"blue star\" at the 50-yard line was unveiled for the first time; however, the Cowboys lost in the final seconds, 33–31. The Cowboys got their first regular-season home win on September 28, 2009. They beat the Carolina Panthers 21–7 with 90,588 in attendance. The game was televised on ESPN'sMonday Night Footballand marked a record 42nd", "a record 42nd win for the Cowboys onMonday Night Football. On July 25, 2013, the Cowboys announced thatAT&Twould be taking over the rights to the name of the stadium. Training camp sites Dallas Cowboys training camp locations: Nationwide fanbase Fan support Ever since the team joined the NFL in 1960, the franchise have garnered strong fan support in both theDallas–Fort Worth metroplexand the state of Texas. With its strong fanbase across the country, including the notable presence of fans at road games, the Cowboys are often referred to as \"America's Team\". Criticism Despite the historical success of the franchise and a large Cowboys' fanbase, many fans of other NFL teams have come to dislike the Cowboys.Over the years, the Cowboys' fanbase had been labeled as the most annoying in all of sports.ESPNhost and commentatorStephen A. Smithhas validated this claim. Rivalries TheNFC East, composed of the Cowboys,Philadelphia Eagles, theWashington CommandersandNew York Giants, is one of the least-changed divisions", "divisions of the original six formed in the wake of theNFL-AFL merger(its only major changes being the relocation of theCardinalsfranchise from St. Louis to Arizona and its subsequent move to theNFC Westin the league's2002 realignment). Three of the four teams have been division rivals since the Cowboys' entry into the NFL. As such, the Cowboys have some of the longest and fiercest rivalries in the sport. Divisional Philadelphia Eagles The competition between the Cowboys and thePhiladelphia Eagleshas been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long-moribund Eagles returned to contention.In January 1981, the two teams faced off in the NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning 20–7. A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coachBuddy Ryan. Among these were the 1989Bounty Bowlsin which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kickerLuis ZendejasandVeterans Stadiumfans pelted the Cowboys", "pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris. A 1999 game inPhiladelphiasaw Eagles fans cheering asMichael Irvinlay motionless on the field atVeterans Stadium. In 2008, the rivalry became more intense when in the last game of the year in which both teams could clinch a playoff spot with a victory, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the Cowboys 44–6. The following season, the Cowboys avenged that defeat by beating the Eagles three times: twice during the regular season to claim the title as NFC East champions and once more in a wild-card playoff game by a combined score of 78–30, including a 24–0 shutout in week 17. That three-game sweep was Dallas' first over any opponent and the longest winning streak against the Eagles since 1992–1995 when Dallas won seven straight matches against Philadelphia. During the 2013 season, Dallas won the first meeting 17–3 atLincoln Financial Fieldin Philadelphia. The two teams met again in Week 17 at AT&T Stadium with the winner clinching the 2013 NFC East title. The", "NFC East title. The Cowboys came into the game at a disadvantage with starting quarterbackTony Romoout with a season-ending back injury, which put backupKyle Ortonas the starter. It was a tight game with the Eagles up 24–22 with less than 2 minutes to go in regulation. Orton got the ball and started driving down the field when he was intercepted by the Eagles defense, which ended the game and the Cowboys season. In 2014, the Cowboys and Eagles both won against each other on the road with Philadelphia posting a dominant 33–10 win onThanksgiving Dayin Dallas, and Dallas returning the favor two weeks later by defeating the Eagles 38–27 atLincoln Financial Fieldin Philadelphia. The second game between these rivals clinched a playoff spot for Dallas and led to formerly first-place Philadelphia missing out on the post-season. Dallas leads the all-time series 73–56. New York Giants The first game ever played between theNew York Giantsand Cowboys was a 31–31 tie on December 4, 1960. Dallas logged its first win in", "its first win in the series on October 29, 1961, and New York's first was on November 11, 1962. Among the more notable moments in the rivalry was the Giants' defeat of Dallas in the 2007 playoffs en route to their victory inSuper Bowl XLIIand winning the first regular-season game played atCowboys Stadiumin 2009. Dallas currently leads the all-time series 75–47–2. Washington Commanders TheWashington Commandersand the Dallas Cowboys enjoy what has been called bySports Illustratedthe top NFL rivalry of all time and \"one of the greatest in sports.\" Some sources trace the enmity to before the Cowboys were even formed, due to a longstanding disagreement between Washington ownerGeorge Preston Marshalland Cowboys founderClint Murchison, Jr.over the creation of a new football team in the South, due to Marshall's TV monopoly in that region. The two teams' storied on-field rivalry goes back to 1960 when the two clubs first played each other, resulting in a 26–14 Washington victory. Since that time, the two teams have", "the two teams have met in 126 regular-season contests and two NFC Championships. Dallas leads the regular season all-time series 78–46–2, and Washington leads the all-time playoff series 2–0.The Cowboys currently have a 14–7 advantage over Washington at FedEx Field. Some notable moments in the rivalry include Washington's victory over Dallas in the 1982 NFC Championship and the latter's 1989 win over Washington for their only victory that season. The last Cowboys game with Tom Landry as coach was a win over Washington on December 11, 1988. In the 2010s, Washington has struggled to consistently compete for the Division title, but still play the Cowboys particularly tough, posting an impressive upset victory against Dallas in 2014, despite being outclassed by the Cowboys in the overall standings. The 2010s also included an important game in week 17 of 2012 which saw Washington defeat Dallas 28–18 to win the NFC East. Conference San Francisco 49ers The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys andSan Francisco", "andSan Francisco 49ershas been going on since the 1970s.TheNFL Top 10ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL. San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers'Joe Montanacomplete a game-winning pass toDwight Clarkin the final minute (now known asThe Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history. The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992–1994 seasons. San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three separate times. Dallas won the first two match-ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of these pivotal match-ups, the game's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. Both the Cowboys and the 49ers are tied for third all-time inSuper Bowlvictories to thePittsburgh Steelersand New England Patriots, with five each. The 49ers-Cowboys rivalry", "rivalry is also part of the larger cultural rivalry between California and Texas. The 49ers lead the all-time series with a record of 20–19–1. Green Bay Packers The rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and theGreen Bay Packersis one of the best known intra-conferencerivalriesin the NFL. The two teams do not play every year; instead, they play once every three years due to the NFL's rotating division schedules, or if the two teams finish in the same place in their respective divisions, they would play the ensuing season. The rivalry has also resulted in notableplayoffgames. The all-time regular seasons series record is 20–17 in favor of the Packers, and the postseason series is also in favor of the Packers at 5–4. Los Angeles Rams The Cowboys also had a fierce rivalry with theLos Angeles Rams, particularly during the 1970s and 1980s. The two teams played eight postseason games during this period, including two NFC championship games. Between 1975 and 1980, the Cowboys faced the Rams in the playoffs five times", "playoffs five times in a six-year period. In both 1975 and 1978, the Cowboys won the NFC championship on the road in blowout fashion, only to be followed by close defeats at home in next year's divisional round. The 1980 Wild Card Round saw Dallas follow up last year's playoff defeat with another blowout victory. As of 2022, the Cowboys and Rams tied the all-time regular season series 18–18, but the Rams lead the all-time playoff series 5–4, having recently defeated the Cowboys in the 2018 Divisional Round. Minnesota Vikings Between the Dallas Cowboys andMinnesota Vikings.,the Cowboys lead the all-time series 18–15. The teams have met seven times in the post-season, the Cowboys third most played playoff opponent. The rivalry is home to many key memories, including the famous 1975 Hail Mary pass against the Vikings, theHerschel Walker trade, theRandy MossThanksgiving game, andBrett Favretorching the Cowboys in what would be his last playoff win of his career in 2009. As of the 2023 season, the Cowboys lead", "the Cowboys lead the all-time series 19–15. Inter Conference Houston Oilers/Houston Texans The Cowboys have an intrastate interconference rivalry with theHouston Texansfor which they compete in either a preseason or regular season game for bragging rights inTexas, a tradition started between the teams prior to the Oilers relocating toNashville, Tennesseeto become theTennessee Titans. The Texans defeated the Cowboys in the team's inaugural season in 2002. The Cowboys lead the all-time series 4–2. Pittsburgh Steelers The two teams met in the first regular-season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35–28 loss to theSteelers), the first-ever regular-season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of them closely contested events. The Steelers-Cowboys is to date the Super Bowl matchup with the most contests. The Steelers wonSuper Bowl XandSuper Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds, first on a last-second throw byRoger Staubach, then as a", "Staubach, then as a fourth-quarter rally by Dallas fell short on anonside kick.The Cowboys wonSuper Bowl XXXin January 1996.It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrast of the teams: the Cowboys, being more of a \"flashy\" team withRoger Staubach's aerial attack and the \"flex\"Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a\"blue-collar\"team with a strong running game and the 1970s-esqueSteel Curtaindefense, a contrast that still exists today.In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels. Dallas leads the all-time series 17–16 including the playoffs. Season-by-season records Players of note Current roster Running backs(RB) Wide receivers(WR) Tight ends(TE) Defensive linemen(DL) Defensive backs(DB) Special teams Reserved 53 active, 9 reserved, 16 practice squad (+1 exempt) Pro Football Hall of Famers Super Bowl MVPs The Cowboys have had seven players win Super Bowl MVP.", "win Super Bowl MVP. Ring of Honor Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a\"Ring of Honor\", which is on permanent display encircling the field. Originally at Texas Stadium, the ring is now on display atAT&T Stadiumin Arlington. The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager/president. The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years. Tex Schramm was believed to be a \"one-man committee\" in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebackerLee Roy Jordanbecause of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan's playing days. When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm's Ring of Honor \"power\" and immediately inducted Jordan. Jones also has sparked controversy regarding his decisions in handling the \"Ring of Honor\". For four", "of Honor\". For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction. Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame). In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year's Cowboys-Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants). In 2003, Jones chose to induct Tex Schramm. Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction. Unfortunately, Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys-Eagles game that fall. Troy Aikman, all-time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as \"The Triplets,\" were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the archrival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005. Defensive endCharles Haley, offensive linemanLarry Allen, and wide receiverDrew Pearsonwere inducted into the", "inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime of the Cowboys' game vs. theSeattle Seahawkson November 6, 2011. SafetyDarren Woodsonwas inducted on November 1, 2015.ExecutiveGil Brandtwas inducted on November 29, 2018. The most recent inductees wereDeMarcus Ware, who was inducted on October 29, 2023, andJimmy Johnson, who was inducted on December 30, 2023. Retired numbers The Dallas Cowboys do not officially retire jersey numbers; however, some are kept \"unofficially inactive\".As of 2022, six numbers have been kept out of circulation:Troy Aikman's No. 8,Roger Staubach's No. 12,Bob Hayes' andEmmitt Smith's No. 22,Bob Lilly's No. 74, andJason Witten's No. 82.The Cowboys are one of three NFL teams that do not officially retire numbers, with the other two being theAtlanta FalconsandLas Vegas Raiders. Career leaders Single-season leaders All-time first-round draft picks The Cowboys have had the number one overall pick in the NFL Draft on three occasions. Head coaches and staff Head coaches Current staff", "Current staff →Coaching staff→Front office→More NFL staffs Radio and television As of 2010, the Cowboys' flagship radio station isKRLD-FM.Brad Shamis the team's longtimeplay-by-play voice.Working alongside him is former Cowboy quarterbackBabe Laufenberg, who returned in 2007 after a one-year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters.The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters. However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the \"Blue Star Network\", which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks. The anchor station isKTVT, theCBSowned and operated station in Dallas. Previous stations which aired Cowboys games includedKVIL-FM,KRLD, andKLUV-FM. Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts. During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach's show with late veteran sportscasterFrank Glieberand later with Brad Sham. Landry's show was famous for his analysis of raw game", "of raw game footage and for him and his co-host making their NFL \"predictions\" at the end of each show. Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along withBill Mercer, famous for calling theIce Bowlof 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI. Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator ofWCCWin the 1980s. Upon Mercer's departure,Verne Lundquistjoined the network, and became their play-by-play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill-in for Lundquist. LongtimeWFAA-TVsports anchorDale Hansenwas the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play-by-play announcer from 1985 to 1996. Dave Garrett served as the Cowboys' play-by-play announcer from 1995 to 1997, when Brad Sham left the team and joined the Texas Rangers' radio network team as well as broadcast Sunday Night Football on Westwood One. Seeking to expand its radio broadcasting", "radio broadcasting scope nationally, the Cowboys began a five-year partnership withCompass Media Networkson February 2, 2011. The result was the America's Team Radio Network, a supplement to the franchise's regional one.Beginning with the 2011 season,Kevin BurkhardtandDanny Whitehandled the broadcasts, withJerry Reccoas the studio host. Fight song The Dallas Cowboys fight song, \"Cowboys Stampede March\" by Tom Merriman Big Band was the official fight song of the Dallas Cowboys.The Cowboys now playWe Dem BoyzbyWiz Khalifafor starting defensive line, because of the saying \"How Bout Dem Cowboys.\" For every touchdown scored by the Cowboys at a home game the song \"Cowboys and Cut Cigars\" by The Burning of Rome is played after a train horn. See also References Further reading External links" ]
As of August 1, 2024, what is the population of the writer of the "Culdcept Saga"'s birthplace? Write the answer to the nearest million, in characters.
Two million.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culdcept_Saga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tow_Ubukata
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culdcept_Saga', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tow_Ubukata', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culdcept_Saga", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tow_Ubukata", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture" ]
[ "Culdcept Saga Culdcept Saga(カルドセプト サーガ,Karudoseputo Sāga)is avideo gamein theCuldceptseries developed exclusively for theXbox 360video game console. It is the first entry for a Microsoft console in the franchise. A demo of the title was made available toXbox Liveusers on December 4, 2007. The demo includes two different pre-made card decks and supports both single player gameplay and local multiplayer for up to four players.Initially released in Japan in 2006, the full game wasn't released in North America until more than a year later, in February 2008, but has never been released in Europe or Australia. Story As the game begins, the player-nameable \"Boy\" protagonist sells himself into slavery to help his struggling village. While departing the village with his new owner, the two encounter a mysterious woman carrying a deck of magical cards which respond powerfully to the young man's presence. As the woman, Princess Faustina, pleads with the slaver to release the boy (whom she refers to as \"the savior\"), all three are set upon by Rilara, a traveling bandit. It is here that the young man, controlled by the player, learns that he is actually a Cepter, a powerful individual who can control magical cards. Using cards borrowed from Faustina, he defeats Rilara and begins his journey towards becoming a master Cepter. The protagonist is sold by the slaver to an arena, and must fight other Cepters to earn his freedom. When he finally does, Faustina takes him to her home, the Advatarian Empire. Her father tells her to go to the four neighboring elementally-themed lands and negotiate for peace. However, after they finish doing this, it is revealed that the king only did it as a ploy to launch an all-out attack. The protagonist must flee along with Faustina to avoid execution. Soon after, Faustina is kidnapped by High Priest Sapphius, one of the world's most powerful Cepters, who seeks to destroy the Empire and the world. Too weak to resist the High Priest, the protagonist is forced to undergo the Trials, an ancient proving grounds for Cepters overseen by Diarna, a former Imperial knight who became a hermit. He passes them, despite the interference of Rilara, and becomes a true Cepter, learning that a Cepter's purpose is to reassemble the cards into Culdcept, the book of creation. Meanwhile, the High Priest attacks and destroys the Empire. The protagonist can choose to travel to the Northern or Southern Continent to face the High Priest, but, each time, Faustina perishes, either by the hand of the High Priest or his own. Both times, he reassembles Culdcept, and is granted the power of a god by the world's goddess Zeromn, but he chooses to return to the past, as he finds creating a world pointless without Faustina alive. Finally, the protagonist is able to choose a third option, going to the island between the continents. There, aided by Rilara, who has now become a true Cepter herself, the protagonist convinces Faustina, who had joined the High Priest, to rejoin him, and fights Sapphius. It is revealed that Sapphius was being manipulated by Baltias, an evil god who cast a curse on Culdcept. The protagonist defeats Baltias, and both he and Faustina become gods together, finally creating a new world. Gameplay As inMonopoly, players inCuldcept Sagaroll dice and move around a game board, attempting to claim spaces and assess fees against other Cepters who land there. UnlikeMonopoly, squares are claimed by summoning creatures to guard them, and players who land on them can opt to challenge this creature with one of their own rather than pay the toll. If successful, the challenger claims ownership of the square. The winner of the game is the first player to return to the starting location after amassing a sufficient quantity of magic/mana. Cards Creatures are summoned from customized decks (\"books\") of cards which players design ahead of time from their available pool of cards. Other cards in these decks bestow items to temporarily enhance creature abilities, or represent spells which can influence players or locations on the game board. The standard gameplay options fix the size of each deck at 50 cards, although this is customizable during multiplayer matches. There are nearly 500 different cards in total, but players must earn the majority of these through skillful play and story mode progression before they can be used. Cards are earned simply for completing a match, regardless of whether one wins or loses, although the winner earns a greater number of cards than the opponent(s). Strategy While the game relies somewhat heavily on luck,strategy and planning play a strong role as well. Players have a choice over what cards make up their decks, as well as when to play those cards. The squares in the game consist of different terrain or elemental types (fire, earth, water, or air), and a creature's defense power is raised when the element of the square is in accordance with the placed color of the creature there. Also the offensive capabilities of creatures can be bolstered by deploying them on an aligned square. Several more powerful creatures can only be summoned when a certain number of squares of a given terrain type are already controlled. Players must also decide when to upgrade the squares which they currently control. Upgraded squares exact higher magic tolls than non-upgraded squares when landed on. New features As a title in the roughly decade-oldCuldceptseries,Culdcept Sagaexpands upon and refines the existing gameplay concept without radically altering it. While more than 300 cards were included from the previous title, some of these were tweaked for balance, and over 100 new cards were added.New features include support for online multiplayer play against up to three other players viaXbox Live, complete with leaderboards and rankings. If desired, custom rules for such online matches can be defined in order to modify the experience. Also new to the series is the ability to unlock various items with which to graphically customize in-gameavatars. Other improvements include high-resolution graphics, now rendered (at least partially) in3D. Development The story forCuldcept Sagawas written byTow Ubukata, ascience fictionandanimeauthor. The main composer for the game's music wasKenji Ito, who worked previously on titles such as those in theSaGaseries, as well as earlierCuldceptinstallments.The massive soundtrack spans 4 CDs, and while not released outside Japan in any physical format, is available oniTunes.Card artwork was provided by a large number of different artists from across Japan, each using their own style and imagination to come up with appropriate illustrations. The time required for the artists to complete their work and then have the images imported into the game totalled over a year. Reception The game received \"generally favorable reviews\" according to thereview aggregationwebsiteMetacritic.In Japan,Famitsugave it a score of 34 out of 40, whileFamitsu X360gave it a score of one nine, two eights, and one seven for a total of 32 out of 40. IGNcommented that game length can be quite excessive (4+ hours for a single match with multiple opponents) and that the game never really moves too far beyond the core \"roll dice, play creature\" mechanics.However, they later named the game one of the \"hidden gems\" of 2008.GameSpyshared concerns about the lengthy time required per match, and noted that the game could be quite frustrating when luck wasn't on one's side, although the review did note that the game included a \"clever mix of strategy and good old-fashioned luck\".Both reviews expressed dismay and confusion over the way the game routinely shows what cards are in player's hands, observing that this limits elements of strategic surprise.1Up.com, however, praised its depth and online play. Culdcept Sagasold 27,960 units in Japan as of November 30, 2008. GameSpotnominated it for Best Game No One Played.Gaming Targetselected it as one of their \"40 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2008.\" References External links", "Tow Ubukata Tow Ubukata(冲方 丁,Ubukata Tō, born February 14, 1977 inGifu Prefecture)is thepen nameof a Japanese novelist, mangaka and anime screenwriter who primarily writes fantasy and science fiction. His major works includeMardock Scramble,Le Chevalier D'EonandHeroic Age. He also did series composition for theFafner in the Azureseries,Ghost in the Shell: Arise,Psycho-Pass 2andPsycho-Pass 3. Early life Ubukata was raised in Singapore and Nepal. Career In high school, Ubukata received several writer's awards.In 1996, he debuted as a writer of short stories and won theKadokawa Sneaker Awardwith his storyBlack Season.In 2009, he won the Eiji Yoshikawa Award for New Writers with his storyTenchi Meisatsu.In 2012, he won the Fūtarō Yamada Award for his storyMitsukuni-den. Ubukata writes for the Japanese visual culture magazineNewtype. His serialized segments, called \"A Gambler's Life\", are comedic, often-satiric expository pieces. They chronicle his day-to-day experiences and interactions with people, such as his wife. In these segments, he dubs himself \"The Kamikazi Wordsmith\". These segments were also published in the American counterpart, Newtype USA, which is now discontinued. Ubukata won the 24thNihon SF Taisho Awardin 2003. Ubukata has written the novelization and the script for the manga version ofLe Chevalier D'Eon, and has contributed to the screenplay and the overall story plot of the animated version. Personal life On August 21, 2015, Ubukata allegedly hit his then-wife in her jaw and mouth area at their home in Aoyama,Minato Wardof Tokyo,breaking her front tooth.She reported the incident to the police the next day, leading to his arrest on August 24, 2015.Ubukata admitted they had an argument but denied hitting her.On August 26, 2015,Mito Citymayor Yasushi Takahashi decided to putNHK's offer to film a live-actiontaigadramaadaptation of Ubukuta's novel,Mitsukuni-den, in the city itself on hold.Ubukata was released on September 1, 2015 without indictment.ThePublic Prosecutors Officedropped charges against him in October 2015, with one reason being that his wife did not want to press charges.Following the incident, Ubukata announced that he planned on writing a memoir based on his experiences in jail, titled9 Days Trapped.In 2016, one year after his arrest and release, Ubukata revealed that he and his wife had divorced, with his wife taking custody of their children. Bibliography Filmography Anime series Anime films Live action Video games References External links", "Gifu Prefecture Gifu Prefecture(岐阜県,Gifu-ken)is aprefectureofJapanlocated in theChūbu regionofHonshu.: 246: 126Gifu Prefecture has a population of 1,991,390 (as of 1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of 10,621square kilometres(4,101sq mi). Gifu Prefecture bordersToyama Prefectureto the north;Ishikawa Prefectureto the northwest,Fukui PrefectureandShiga Prefectureto the west,Mie Prefectureto the southwest,Aichi Prefectureto the south, andNagano Prefectureto the east. Gifuis the capital and largest city of Gifu Prefecture, with other major cities includingŌgaki,Kakamigahara, andTajimi.: 246 Gifu Prefecture is located in the center of Japan, one of only eightlandlockedprefectures, and features the country'scenter of population. Gifu Prefecture has served as the historiccrossroadsof Japan with routes connecting the east to the west, including theNakasendō, one of theFive Routesof theEdo period. Gifu Prefecture was a long-term residence ofOda NobunagaandSaitō Dōsan, two influential figures of Japanese history in theSengoku period, spawning the popular phrase \"control Gifu and you control Japan\" in the lateMedieval era.Gifu Prefecture is known for its traditionalWashipaper industry, includingGifu lanternsandGifu umbrellas, and as a center for theJapanese swordsmithingandcutleryindustries. Gifu Prefecture is home toGifu Castle, the 1,300-year-old tradition ofcormorant fishing on the Nagara River, and the site of theBattle of Sekigahara. History The land area that makes up modern-day Gifu became part of theYamato Courtaround the middle of the fourth century. Because it is in the middle of the island ofHonshu, it has been the site of many decisive battles throughout Japan's history, the oldest major one being theJinshin Warin 672, which led to the establishment ofEmperor Tenmuas the 40th emperor of Japan. The area of Gifu Prefecture consists of theold provincesofHidaandMino, as well as smaller parts ofEchizenandShinano.The name of the prefecture derives from its capital city,Gifu, which was named byOda Nobunagaduringhis campaignto unify all of Japan in 1567.The first character used comes from Qishan (岐山), a legendary mountain from which most of China was unified, whereas the second character comes fromQufu(曲阜), the birthplace ofConfucius.Nobunaga chose those characters because he wanted to unify all of Japan and he wanted to be viewed as a great mind. Historically, the prefecture served as the center of swordmaking for the whole of Japan, withSekibeing known for making the best swords in Japan. More recently, its strengths have been in fashion (primarily in the city of Gifu) and aerospace engineering (Kakamigahara). On October 28, 1891, the present-day city ofMotosuwas theepicenterfor theMino–Owari earthquake, the second largest earthquake to ever hit Japan.The earthquake, estimated at 8.0 (surface-wave magnitude), left afault scarpthat can still be seen today. Geography One of the few landlocked prefectures in Japan, Gifu shares borders with seven other prefectures:Toyama,Ishikawa,Fukui,Shiga,Mie,Aichi, andNagano. Japan'spostal codesall start with a three-digit number, ranging from 001 to 999. Part of Gifu has the 500 prefix, reflecting its location in the center of Japan. Thecenter of Japanese populationis currently located in Seki City, Gifu Prefecture. The center of population is a hypothetical point at which a country is perfectly balanced assuming each person has a uniform weight. The spot was calculated using the 2005 census. As of 31 March 2019,18 percent of the total land area of the prefecture was designated asNatural Parks, namely theHakusanandChūbu-SangakuNational Parks,Hida-KisogawaandIbi-Sekigahara-YōrōQuasi-National Parks, and fifteen Prefectural Natural Parks. Regions Gifu has five unofficial regions, which allows local municipalities to work together to promote the surrounding area. The five regions areSeinō,Gifu,Chūnō,TōnōandHida.The borders of the regions are loosely defined, but they are usually delineated among major cities. Topography The northernHida regionis dominated by tall mountains, including parts of theJapanese Alps. The southernMinoregion is mostly parts of the fertileNōbi Plain, a vast plains area with arable soil. Most of the prefecture's population lives in the southern part of the prefecture, near thedesignated cityofNagoya. The mountainous Hida region contains theHida Mountains, which are referred to as the \"Northern Alps\" in Japan. TheRyōhaku Mountainsare also in the Hida region. Other major ranges include theIbuki Mountainsand theYōrō Mountains. Much of the Mino region is made up of thealluvial plainof theKiso Three Rivers, which are theKiso River,Nagara RiverandIbi River. The sources of Kiso river is in Nagano prefecture, and those of the others are in Gifu prefecture. They eventually run through Aichi and Mie prefectures before emptying intoIse Bay. Other major rivers in the prefecture include theMiya,Takahara,Shō,Toki (Shōnai),Yahagi, andItoshirorivers. Climate Gifu's climate varies fromhumid subtropical climatein the south, eventually making the transition tohumid continental climatein the north. Because the Mino region is surrounded by low mountains, the temperature fluctuates through the year, from hot summers to cold winters. The eastern city ofTajimi, for example, often records the hottest temperature in Japan each year and is considered to be the hottest city within Honshu boasting an average daytime high of 34.1 °C (93.4 °F) during the peak of summer. On August 16, 2007, Tajimi set the record for the hottest day recorded in Japan's history—40.9 °C (105.6 °F).Summers are hotter, as the landlocked area becomes a heat island, and the temperature rises even further when hot, dryfoehn windsblow over the Ibuki Mountains from theKansai region. The Hida region, with its higher elevation and northerly latitude, is significantly cooler than the Mino region, although there are sometimes extremely hot days there too. The Hida region is more famous for its harsh winters, bringing extremely heavy snowfall, especially in the northwestern areas. Gifu boasts a high amount of skiing locations.Shōkawa-chō, part of the city ofTakayama, is up in the mountains, and its location has led it to be called the coldest inhabited place on Honshū. Municipalities All of the cities, towns, villages and districts of Gifu Prefecture are listed below. Cities Twenty-one cities are located in Gifu Prefecture: Towns and villages These are the towns and villages in eachdistrict: Mergers Economy Traditional industries such as paper-making and agriculture are found in Gifu, but its economy is dominated by the manufacturing sector including aerospace and automotive, with industrial complexes extending from the Nagoya area. A wealth of small component manufacturing is also found, such as precision machines, dye and mold making, and plastic forming. Traditional industries Gifu is famous forcormorant fishing, which has a history of over 1,300 years. Agriculture is also a major industry because of Gifu's vast, arable plains. The forests in the north provide materials for woodworking and for the viewing boats used in cormorant fishing. The Mino region has long been known for its high-quality paper calledMino washi, which is stronger and thinner than most other papers in Japan, and was used by the Japanese military during World War II.Other paper-based products includeGifu LanternsandGifu Umbrellas, made in the prefectural capital ofGifu. Other traditional goods includemino-yakipottery inTajimi,Toki, andMizunami,cutleryinSeki, andlacquerwareinTakayama.Sakeis often brewed with clear water from the rivers. Modern industries Kakamigaharahas a large role in the prefecture's modern industries. It boasts large aerospace facilities of bothKawasaki Heavy IndustriesandMitsubishi Heavy Industries, as well as manymetalworkingandmanufacturingcompanies. Information technology (IT) is gaining a foothold in the prefecture with bothSoftopia JapaninŌgakiand VR Techno Japan (part of Techno Plaza) in Kakamigahara. The capital city of Gifu, located between Ōgaki and Kakamigahara, is also working to strengthen its IT fields, too. Tourism Gifu has many popular tourist attractions, bringing visitors to all parts of the prefecture. The most popular places are Gifu,Gero,ShirakawaandTakayama. Gero is known for its relaxinghot springs, which attract visitors throughout the year. Shirakawa'shistoric villagesare a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. Takayama is famous for retaining its original appearance and is often referred to asLittleKyoto. In addition to international tourists, Gifu also plays host to many international events. TheWorld Event and Convention Complex Gifuis available for many types of events. Other areas of Gifu, too, bring international events. TheWorld Rowing Championshipswere held in the city ofKaizuin 2005. TheFIS Snowboard World Cupwas held in the city ofGujoin 2008. TheAPECJapan 2010 SME Ministerial Meetings were held inGifu City. Science The Kamioka area of the city ofHidais home to theKamioka Observatoryunderground laboratory. Located 1,000 m (3,281 ft) underground in Kamioka Mining and Smelting Co.'s Mozumi Mine, theSuper-Kamiokandeexperiment searches for neutrinos from the high atmosphere, the sun and supernovae, while theKamLANDexperiment searches for antineutrinos from regional nuclear reactors. The Super-Kamiokande consists of a cylindrical stainless steel tank that is 41.4 m (136 ft) tall and 39.3 m (129 ft) in diameter holding 50,000 tons of ultra-pure water. Some of the 11,146 photomultiplier tubes are on display at theMiraikanin Tokyo. The same facility also hosts theCLIOprototype andKAGRAgravitational wave detector. Demographics The prefecture's population was 2,101,969, as of 1 September 2007,with approximately 1.8 million people in the cities and the rest in towns and villages.The percentage of male and female residents is 48.4% and 51.6%, respectively.14.4% of the population is no more than 14 years old, with 22.1% of the population being at least 65 years old. According to Japan'scensus, the country'scenter of populationis located in Gifu Prefecture. In 2000, it was located in the former town of Mugi, which has since merged withSeki. In the most recent census in 2005, the center of population has moved slightly more to the east but is still located within Gifu. Education Transportation Rail Road Expressway and toll roads National highways Prefectural symbols Gifu's symbol comes from the first charactergi(岐) of its Japanese name, written in a stylized script, surrounded by a circle, which represents the peace and harmony of the prefectural citizen. It was chosen by contest in 1932. The prefectural logo (see right) expands from the red dot into the center to the outer two lines and, finally, the yellow plain. This symbol was chosen in 1991 for the development and expansion of the prefecture. The prefecture also has two plants (themilk vetch(renge) and theJapanese yew) and two animals (thesnow grouseand theayu) as symbols. The milk vetch was chosen in 1954, because the prefecture is well known for its abundance of blooming milk vetch each spring. The yew was chosen in 1966, because it is the tree used to make ornamental scepters for the emperor, many of which came from the Hida district. The snow grouse was chosen in 1961, as the birds live up in the Japanese alps and is a nationally protected species. Ayu were chosen in 1989, because the fish is found in many prefectural rivers and is prized for its sweet taste. Notable people See also Notes References External links 35°29′N136°54′E / 35.483°N 136.900°E /35.483; 136.900" ]
[ "Culdcept Saga Culdcept Saga(カルドセプト サーガ,Karudoseputo Sāga)is avideo gamein theCuldceptseries developed exclusively for theXbox 360video game console. It is the first entry for a Microsoft console in the franchise. A demo of the title was made available toXbox Liveusers on December 4, 2007. The demo includes two different pre-made card decks and supports both single player gameplay and local multiplayer for up to four players.Initially released in Japan in 2006, the full game wasn't released in North America until more than a year later, in February 2008, but has never been released in Europe or Australia. Story As the game begins, the player-nameable \"Boy\" protagonist sells himself into slavery to help his struggling village. While departing the village with his new owner, the two encounter a mysterious woman carrying a deck of magical cards which respond powerfully to the young man's presence. As the woman, Princess Faustina, pleads with the slaver to release the boy (whom she refers to as \"the savior\"), all", "\"the savior\"), all three are set upon by Rilara, a traveling bandit. It is here that the young man, controlled by the player, learns that he is actually a Cepter, a powerful individual who can control magical cards. Using cards borrowed from Faustina, he defeats Rilara and begins his journey towards becoming a master Cepter. The protagonist is sold by the slaver to an arena, and must fight other Cepters to earn his freedom. When he finally does, Faustina takes him to her home, the Advatarian Empire. Her father tells her to go to the four neighboring elementally-themed lands and negotiate for peace. However, after they finish doing this, it is revealed that the king only did it as a ploy to launch an all-out attack. The protagonist must flee along with Faustina to avoid execution. Soon after, Faustina is kidnapped by High Priest Sapphius, one of the world's most powerful Cepters, who seeks to destroy the Empire and the world. Too weak to resist the High Priest, the protagonist is forced to undergo the Trials,", "undergo the Trials, an ancient proving grounds for Cepters overseen by Diarna, a former Imperial knight who became a hermit. He passes them, despite the interference of Rilara, and becomes a true Cepter, learning that a Cepter's purpose is to reassemble the cards into Culdcept, the book of creation. Meanwhile, the High Priest attacks and destroys the Empire. The protagonist can choose to travel to the Northern or Southern Continent to face the High Priest, but, each time, Faustina perishes, either by the hand of the High Priest or his own. Both times, he reassembles Culdcept, and is granted the power of a god by the world's goddess Zeromn, but he chooses to return to the past, as he finds creating a world pointless without Faustina alive. Finally, the protagonist is able to choose a third option, going to the island between the continents. There, aided by Rilara, who has now become a true Cepter herself, the protagonist convinces Faustina, who had joined the High Priest, to rejoin him, and fights Sapphius.", "fights Sapphius. It is revealed that Sapphius was being manipulated by Baltias, an evil god who cast a curse on Culdcept. The protagonist defeats Baltias, and both he and Faustina become gods together, finally creating a new world. Gameplay As inMonopoly, players inCuldcept Sagaroll dice and move around a game board, attempting to claim spaces and assess fees against other Cepters who land there. UnlikeMonopoly, squares are claimed by summoning creatures to guard them, and players who land on them can opt to challenge this creature with one of their own rather than pay the toll. If successful, the challenger claims ownership of the square. The winner of the game is the first player to return to the starting location after amassing a sufficient quantity of magic/mana. Cards Creatures are summoned from customized decks (\"books\") of cards which players design ahead of time from their available pool of cards. Other cards in these decks bestow items to temporarily enhance creature abilities, or represent spells", "or represent spells which can influence players or locations on the game board. The standard gameplay options fix the size of each deck at 50 cards, although this is customizable during multiplayer matches. There are nearly 500 different cards in total, but players must earn the majority of these through skillful play and story mode progression before they can be used. Cards are earned simply for completing a match, regardless of whether one wins or loses, although the winner earns a greater number of cards than the opponent(s). Strategy While the game relies somewhat heavily on luck,strategy and planning play a strong role as well. Players have a choice over what cards make up their decks, as well as when to play those cards. The squares in the game consist of different terrain or elemental types (fire, earth, water, or air), and a creature's defense power is raised when the element of the square is in accordance with the placed color of the creature there. Also the offensive capabilities of creatures can", "of creatures can be bolstered by deploying them on an aligned square. Several more powerful creatures can only be summoned when a certain number of squares of a given terrain type are already controlled. Players must also decide when to upgrade the squares which they currently control. Upgraded squares exact higher magic tolls than non-upgraded squares when landed on. New features As a title in the roughly decade-oldCuldceptseries,Culdcept Sagaexpands upon and refines the existing gameplay concept without radically altering it. While more than 300 cards were included from the previous title, some of these were tweaked for balance, and over 100 new cards were added.New features include support for online multiplayer play against up to three other players viaXbox Live, complete with leaderboards and rankings. If desired, custom rules for such online matches can be defined in order to modify the experience. Also new to the series is the ability to unlock various items with which to graphically customize", "customize in-gameavatars. Other improvements include high-resolution graphics, now rendered (at least partially) in3D. Development The story forCuldcept Sagawas written byTow Ubukata, ascience fictionandanimeauthor. The main composer for the game's music wasKenji Ito, who worked previously on titles such as those in theSaGaseries, as well as earlierCuldceptinstallments.The massive soundtrack spans 4 CDs, and while not released outside Japan in any physical format, is available oniTunes.Card artwork was provided by a large number of different artists from across Japan, each using their own style and imagination to come up with appropriate illustrations. The time required for the artists to complete their work and then have the images imported into the game totalled over a year. Reception The game received \"generally favorable reviews\" according to thereview aggregationwebsiteMetacritic.In Japan,Famitsugave it a score of 34 out of 40, whileFamitsu X360gave it a score of one nine, two eights, and one seven for", "and one seven for a total of 32 out of 40. IGNcommented that game length can be quite excessive (4+ hours for a single match with multiple opponents) and that the game never really moves too far beyond the core \"roll dice, play creature\" mechanics.However, they later named the game one of the \"hidden gems\" of 2008.GameSpyshared concerns about the lengthy time required per match, and noted that the game could be quite frustrating when luck wasn't on one's side, although the review did note that the game included a \"clever mix of strategy and good old-fashioned luck\".Both reviews expressed dismay and confusion over the way the game routinely shows what cards are in player's hands, observing that this limits elements of strategic surprise.1Up.com, however, praised its depth and online play. Culdcept Sagasold 27,960 units in Japan as of November 30, 2008. GameSpotnominated it for Best Game No One Played.Gaming Targetselected it as one of their \"40 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2008.\" References External", "References External links", "Tow Ubukata Tow Ubukata(冲方 丁,Ubukata Tō, born February 14, 1977 inGifu Prefecture)is thepen nameof a Japanese novelist, mangaka and anime screenwriter who primarily writes fantasy and science fiction. His major works includeMardock Scramble,Le Chevalier D'EonandHeroic Age. He also did series composition for theFafner in the Azureseries,Ghost in the Shell: Arise,Psycho-Pass 2andPsycho-Pass 3. Early life Ubukata was raised in Singapore and Nepal. Career In high school, Ubukata received several writer's awards.In 1996, he debuted as a writer of short stories and won theKadokawa Sneaker Awardwith his storyBlack Season.In 2009, he won the Eiji Yoshikawa Award for New Writers with his storyTenchi Meisatsu.In 2012, he won the Fūtarō Yamada Award for his storyMitsukuni-den. Ubukata writes for the Japanese visual culture magazineNewtype. His serialized segments, called \"A Gambler's Life\", are comedic, often-satiric expository pieces. They chronicle his day-to-day experiences and interactions with people, such as his", "people, such as his wife. In these segments, he dubs himself \"The Kamikazi Wordsmith\". These segments were also published in the American counterpart, Newtype USA, which is now discontinued. Ubukata won the 24thNihon SF Taisho Awardin 2003. Ubukata has written the novelization and the script for the manga version ofLe Chevalier D'Eon, and has contributed to the screenplay and the overall story plot of the animated version. Personal life On August 21, 2015, Ubukata allegedly hit his then-wife in her jaw and mouth area at their home in Aoyama,Minato Wardof Tokyo,breaking her front tooth.She reported the incident to the police the next day, leading to his arrest on August 24, 2015.Ubukata admitted they had an argument but denied hitting her.On August 26, 2015,Mito Citymayor Yasushi Takahashi decided to putNHK's offer to film a live-actiontaigadramaadaptation of Ubukuta's novel,Mitsukuni-den, in the city itself on hold.Ubukata was released on September 1, 2015 without indictment.ThePublic Prosecutors", "Prosecutors Officedropped charges against him in October 2015, with one reason being that his wife did not want to press charges.Following the incident, Ubukata announced that he planned on writing a memoir based on his experiences in jail, titled9 Days Trapped.In 2016, one year after his arrest and release, Ubukata revealed that he and his wife had divorced, with his wife taking custody of their children. Bibliography Filmography Anime series Anime films Live action Video games References External links", "Gifu Prefecture Gifu Prefecture(岐阜県,Gifu-ken)is aprefectureofJapanlocated in theChūbu regionofHonshu.: 246: 126Gifu Prefecture has a population of 1,991,390 (as of 1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of 10,621square kilometres(4,101sq mi). Gifu Prefecture bordersToyama Prefectureto the north;Ishikawa Prefectureto the northwest,Fukui PrefectureandShiga Prefectureto the west,Mie Prefectureto the southwest,Aichi Prefectureto the south, andNagano Prefectureto the east. Gifuis the capital and largest city of Gifu Prefecture, with other major cities includingŌgaki,Kakamigahara, andTajimi.: 246 Gifu Prefecture is located in the center of Japan, one of only eightlandlockedprefectures, and features the country'scenter of population. Gifu Prefecture has served as the historiccrossroadsof Japan with routes connecting the east to the west, including theNakasendō, one of theFive Routesof theEdo period. Gifu Prefecture was a long-term residence ofOda NobunagaandSaitō Dōsan, two influential figures of Japanese history in", "Japanese history in theSengoku period, spawning the popular phrase \"control Gifu and you control Japan\" in the lateMedieval era.Gifu Prefecture is known for its traditionalWashipaper industry, includingGifu lanternsandGifu umbrellas, and as a center for theJapanese swordsmithingandcutleryindustries. Gifu Prefecture is home toGifu Castle, the 1,300-year-old tradition ofcormorant fishing on the Nagara River, and the site of theBattle of Sekigahara. History The land area that makes up modern-day Gifu became part of theYamato Courtaround the middle of the fourth century. Because it is in the middle of the island ofHonshu, it has been the site of many decisive battles throughout Japan's history, the oldest major one being theJinshin Warin 672, which led to the establishment ofEmperor Tenmuas the 40th emperor of Japan. The area of Gifu Prefecture consists of theold provincesofHidaandMino, as well as smaller parts ofEchizenandShinano.The name of the prefecture derives from its capital city,Gifu, which was named", "which was named byOda Nobunagaduringhis campaignto unify all of Japan in 1567.The first character used comes from Qishan (岐山), a legendary mountain from which most of China was unified, whereas the second character comes fromQufu(曲阜), the birthplace ofConfucius.Nobunaga chose those characters because he wanted to unify all of Japan and he wanted to be viewed as a great mind. Historically, the prefecture served as the center of swordmaking for the whole of Japan, withSekibeing known for making the best swords in Japan. More recently, its strengths have been in fashion (primarily in the city of Gifu) and aerospace engineering (Kakamigahara). On October 28, 1891, the present-day city ofMotosuwas theepicenterfor theMino–Owari earthquake, the second largest earthquake to ever hit Japan.The earthquake, estimated at 8.0 (surface-wave magnitude), left afault scarpthat can still be seen today. Geography One of the few landlocked prefectures in Japan, Gifu shares borders with seven other", "with seven other prefectures:Toyama,Ishikawa,Fukui,Shiga,Mie,Aichi, andNagano. Japan'spostal codesall start with a three-digit number, ranging from 001 to 999. Part of Gifu has the 500 prefix, reflecting its location in the center of Japan. Thecenter of Japanese populationis currently located in Seki City, Gifu Prefecture. The center of population is a hypothetical point at which a country is perfectly balanced assuming each person has a uniform weight. The spot was calculated using the 2005 census. As of 31 March 2019,18 percent of the total land area of the prefecture was designated asNatural Parks, namely theHakusanandChūbu-SangakuNational Parks,Hida-KisogawaandIbi-Sekigahara-YōrōQuasi-National Parks, and fifteen Prefectural Natural Parks. Regions Gifu has five unofficial regions, which allows local municipalities to work together to promote the surrounding area. The five regions areSeinō,Gifu,Chūnō,TōnōandHida.The borders of the regions are loosely defined, but they are usually delineated among major", "among major cities. Topography The northernHida regionis dominated by tall mountains, including parts of theJapanese Alps. The southernMinoregion is mostly parts of the fertileNōbi Plain, a vast plains area with arable soil. Most of the prefecture's population lives in the southern part of the prefecture, near thedesignated cityofNagoya. The mountainous Hida region contains theHida Mountains, which are referred to as the \"Northern Alps\" in Japan. TheRyōhaku Mountainsare also in the Hida region. Other major ranges include theIbuki Mountainsand theYōrō Mountains. Much of the Mino region is made up of thealluvial plainof theKiso Three Rivers, which are theKiso River,Nagara RiverandIbi River. The sources of Kiso river is in Nagano prefecture, and those of the others are in Gifu prefecture. They eventually run through Aichi and Mie prefectures before emptying intoIse Bay. Other major rivers in the prefecture include theMiya,Takahara,Shō,Toki (Shōnai),Yahagi, andItoshirorivers. Climate Gifu's climate varies", "climate varies fromhumid subtropical climatein the south, eventually making the transition tohumid continental climatein the north. Because the Mino region is surrounded by low mountains, the temperature fluctuates through the year, from hot summers to cold winters. The eastern city ofTajimi, for example, often records the hottest temperature in Japan each year and is considered to be the hottest city within Honshu boasting an average daytime high of 34.1 °C (93.4 °F) during the peak of summer. On August 16, 2007, Tajimi set the record for the hottest day recorded in Japan's history—40.9 °C (105.6 °F).Summers are hotter, as the landlocked area becomes a heat island, and the temperature rises even further when hot, dryfoehn windsblow over the Ibuki Mountains from theKansai region. The Hida region, with its higher elevation and northerly latitude, is significantly cooler than the Mino region, although there are sometimes extremely hot days there too. The Hida region is more famous for its harsh winters,", "its harsh winters, bringing extremely heavy snowfall, especially in the northwestern areas. Gifu boasts a high amount of skiing locations.Shōkawa-chō, part of the city ofTakayama, is up in the mountains, and its location has led it to be called the coldest inhabited place on Honshū. Municipalities All of the cities, towns, villages and districts of Gifu Prefecture are listed below. Cities Twenty-one cities are located in Gifu Prefecture: Towns and villages These are the towns and villages in eachdistrict: Mergers Economy Traditional industries such as paper-making and agriculture are found in Gifu, but its economy is dominated by the manufacturing sector including aerospace and automotive, with industrial complexes extending from the Nagoya area. A wealth of small component manufacturing is also found, such as precision machines, dye and mold making, and plastic forming. Traditional industries Gifu is famous forcormorant fishing, which has a history of over 1,300 years. Agriculture is also a major industry", "a major industry because of Gifu's vast, arable plains. The forests in the north provide materials for woodworking and for the viewing boats used in cormorant fishing. The Mino region has long been known for its high-quality paper calledMino washi, which is stronger and thinner than most other papers in Japan, and was used by the Japanese military during World War II.Other paper-based products includeGifu LanternsandGifu Umbrellas, made in the prefectural capital ofGifu. Other traditional goods includemino-yakipottery inTajimi,Toki, andMizunami,cutleryinSeki, andlacquerwareinTakayama.Sakeis often brewed with clear water from the rivers. Modern industries Kakamigaharahas a large role in the prefecture's modern industries. It boasts large aerospace facilities of bothKawasaki Heavy IndustriesandMitsubishi Heavy Industries, as well as manymetalworkingandmanufacturingcompanies. Information technology (IT) is gaining a foothold in the prefecture with bothSoftopia JapaninŌgakiand VR Techno Japan (part of Techno", "(part of Techno Plaza) in Kakamigahara. The capital city of Gifu, located between Ōgaki and Kakamigahara, is also working to strengthen its IT fields, too. Tourism Gifu has many popular tourist attractions, bringing visitors to all parts of the prefecture. The most popular places are Gifu,Gero,ShirakawaandTakayama. Gero is known for its relaxinghot springs, which attract visitors throughout the year. Shirakawa'shistoric villagesare a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site. Takayama is famous for retaining its original appearance and is often referred to asLittleKyoto. In addition to international tourists, Gifu also plays host to many international events. TheWorld Event and Convention Complex Gifuis available for many types of events. Other areas of Gifu, too, bring international events. TheWorld Rowing Championshipswere held in the city ofKaizuin 2005. TheFIS Snowboard World Cupwas held in the city ofGujoin 2008. TheAPECJapan 2010 SME Ministerial Meetings were held inGifu City. Science The Kamioka area of the city", "area of the city ofHidais home to theKamioka Observatoryunderground laboratory. Located 1,000 m (3,281 ft) underground in Kamioka Mining and Smelting Co.'s Mozumi Mine, theSuper-Kamiokandeexperiment searches for neutrinos from the high atmosphere, the sun and supernovae, while theKamLANDexperiment searches for antineutrinos from regional nuclear reactors. The Super-Kamiokande consists of a cylindrical stainless steel tank that is 41.4 m (136 ft) tall and 39.3 m (129 ft) in diameter holding 50,000 tons of ultra-pure water. Some of the 11,146 photomultiplier tubes are on display at theMiraikanin Tokyo. The same facility also hosts theCLIOprototype andKAGRAgravitational wave detector. Demographics The prefecture's population was 2,101,969, as of 1 September 2007,with approximately 1.8 million people in the cities and the rest in towns and villages.The percentage of male and female residents is 48.4% and 51.6%, respectively.14.4% of the population is no more than 14 years old, with 22.1% of the population being", "population being at least 65 years old. According to Japan'scensus, the country'scenter of populationis located in Gifu Prefecture. In 2000, it was located in the former town of Mugi, which has since merged withSeki. In the most recent census in 2005, the center of population has moved slightly more to the east but is still located within Gifu. Education Transportation Rail Road Expressway and toll roads National highways Prefectural symbols Gifu's symbol comes from the first charactergi(岐) of its Japanese name, written in a stylized script, surrounded by a circle, which represents the peace and harmony of the prefectural citizen. It was chosen by contest in 1932. The prefectural logo (see right) expands from the red dot into the center to the outer two lines and, finally, the yellow plain. This symbol was chosen in 1991 for the development and expansion of the prefecture. The prefecture also has two plants (themilk vetch(renge) and theJapanese yew) and two animals (thesnow grouseand theayu) as symbols. The", "as symbols. The milk vetch was chosen in 1954, because the prefecture is well known for its abundance of blooming milk vetch each spring. The yew was chosen in 1966, because it is the tree used to make ornamental scepters for the emperor, many of which came from the Hida district. The snow grouse was chosen in 1961, as the birds live up in the Japanese alps and is a nationally protected species. Ayu were chosen in 1989, because the fish is found in many prefectural rivers and is prized for its sweet taste. Notable people See also Notes References External links 35°29′N136°54′E / 35.483°N 136.900°E /35.483; 136.900" ]
As of August 2024, the Atlanta Braves beat the Houston Astros the last time they won the World Series. How many years before this did Jackie Robinson join the Brooklyn Dodgers?
74 years
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Series_champions#World_Series_results
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Atlanta_Braves_season
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Houston_Astros_season
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson
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Numerical reasoning | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Series_champions#World_Series_results', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Atlanta_Braves_season', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Houston_Astros_season', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Series_champions#World_Series_results", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Atlanta_Braves_season", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Houston_Astros_season", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" ]
[ "List of World Series champions TheWorld Seriesis the annual championship series ofMajor League Baseball(MLB) and concludes theMLB postseason. First played in 1903,the World Series championship is abest-of-seven playoffand is a contest between the champions of baseball'sNational League(NL) andAmerican League(AL).Often referred to as the \"Fall Classic\",the modern World Series has been played every year since 1903 with two exceptions: in1904, when the NL championNew York Giantsdeclined to play the AL championBoston Americans; and in1994, when the series was canceled due to theplayers' strike.The best-of-seven style has been the format of all World Series except in1903,1919,1920,1921, when the winner was determined through abest-of-nine playoff.Although the large majority of contests have been played entirely during the month of October, a small number of Series have also had games played during September and November. The Series-winning team is awarded theCommissioner's Trophy.Players, coaches and others associated with the team are generally givenWorld Series ringsto commemorate their victory; however, they have received other items such aspocket watchesand medallions in the past.The winning team is traditionally invited to theWhite Houseto meet thePresident of the United States. A total of 119 World Series have been contested through 2023, with the AL champion winning 68 and the NL champion winning 51. TheNew York Yankeesof the AL have played in 40 World Series, winning 27 – the most championship appearances and most victories by any team amongst themajor North American professional sports leagues. TheDodgersof the NL have the most losses with 14, while the Yankees have the most losses among AL teams with 13. TheSt. Louis Cardinalshave won 11 championships, the most championships among NL clubs and second-most all-time behind the Yankees, and have made 19 total appearances, third-most among NL clubs.The Dodgers have represented the NL the most in the World Series with 21 appearances. TheSeattle Marinersare the only MLB franchise that has never appeared in a World Series; theMilwaukee Brewers,San Diego Padres,Tampa Bay Rays, andColorado Rockieshave all played in the Series but have never won it, with the Padres and the Rays appearing twice. TheLos Angeles AngelsandWashington Nationalsare the only teams who have won their only World Series appearance, and theToronto Blue JaysandMiami Marlinsare the only teams with multiple World Series appearances with no losses. The Toronto Blue Jays are the only franchise from outside the United States to appear in and win a World Series, winning in 1992 and 1993. TheHouston Astrosare the only franchise to have represented both the NL (2005) and the AL (2017, 2019, 2021, 2022), winning the Series in 2017 and 2022. The 1919 and 2017 World Series were both marred with cheating scandals: theBlack Sox Scandaland theHouston Astros sign stealing scandal. The most recent World Series champions are theTexas Rangers. World Series results Numbers in parentheses in the table are World Series appearances as of the date of that World Series, and are used as follows: Source for this Table World Series records by franchise In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of wins, then by number of appearances, and finally by year of first appearance. In the \"Season(s)\" column,bold yearsindicate winning appearances. Frequent matchups The following are the 20 matchups of teams that have occurred two or more times in the World Series. All teams that have participated in these were \"Classic Eight\" members of either the American or National League; no expansion team (created in 1961 or later) has faced the same opponent more than once in a World Series. See also References External links", "2021 Atlanta Braves season The2021 Atlanta Braves seasonwas the 151st season of theAtlanta Bravesfranchise, the 56th Season inAtlanta, and the Braves' 5th season atTruist Park. The Braves were managed byBrian Snitker, in his sixth season as the team’smanager. The Braves clinched their fourth consecutiveNational League Easttitle. They defeated theMilwaukee Brewersin theNLDSand faced theLos Angeles Dodgersin theNLCSfor the second straight year. They defeated the Dodgers in six games to reach theWorld Seriesfor the first time since1999. They would go on to defeat theHouston Astrosin six games, winning their first World Series since1995, their second since moving to Atlanta, and their fourth in franchise history.Jorge Solerwon theMost Valuable Playeraward in the World Series. Offseason November February Regular season Standings National League East National League Division Leaders Record vs. opponents Source:MLB Standings Grid – 2021 Updated with the results of all games through October 3, 2021. Game log Player stats Batting Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; R = Runs; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; SB = Stolen bases; BB = Walks; AVG = Batting average; SLG = Slugging average Source: Pitching Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; SO = Strikeouts Source: Postseason Game log Postseason rosters Roster Infielders Other batters Coaches Farm system Notes References External links", "2021 Houston Astros season The2021 Houston Astros seasonwas the60th seasonfor theMajor League Baseball(MLB) franchise inHouston,Texas, their 57th as the Astros, ninth in both theAmerican LeagueandAmerican League West, and 22nd atMinute Maid Park. Four Astros players gained selection to the2021 All-Star Game, tied for the second most from any team in baseball. The four weresecond basemanJosé Altuve,shortstopCarlos Correa,outfielderMichael Brantley, andrelief pitcherRyan Pressly, although none of them participated in the game.First basemanYuli Gurrielwon the ALbatting title, his first, with a .319batting average, becoming the second Cuban-born player and second Astro to do so. Correa led ALposition playerswith 7.2Wins Above Replacement(WAR). The Astros concluded the regular season with a 95–67 record, while clinching an AL West title for the fourth time in the last five seasons, as well as their sixthplayoff berthin seven years. By winning the AL West,Dusty Bakerbecame the firstmanagerin major league history to guide five different clubs to a division title, giving him eight division titles overall. In the playoffs, the Astros defeated theChicago White Soxin theALDSin four games to advance to their fifth straightALCS. They faced theBoston Red Soxin a rematch of the2018 ALCS. The Astros won the ALCS in six games to advance to theWorld Seriesfor the third time in five years. It was the Astros' fourth pennant in franchise history and their third as an AL team. They lost in the World Series to theAtlanta Bravesin six games. Following the season, Yuli Gurriel and Carlos Correa won their firstGold Glove Awards, and the Astros were named the American LeagueGold Glove Team. Correa also won his firstPlatinum Glove Awardand his firstFielding Bible Award. An American League (and franchise) record five Astros were named Gold Glove finalists, along with another five as finalists for theSilver Slugger Award.Dusty BakerandLuis Garcíawere named finalists for theAL Manager of the YearandAL Rookie of the Yearawards, respectively. Baker finished third in voting, and García finished second. This marked the third consecutive season that an Astros player was named a finalist for theAL Rookie of the Year Award, followingYordan Álvarez, who won it unanimously in2019, and Cristian Javier, who finished in third in2020. Additionally, Álvarez andKyle Tuckerwere both selected for 2021'sAll-MLB Second Team. Offseason Summary The Astros entered the2021 Major League Baseball (MLB) seasonas having been defeated by theTampa Bay Raysin seven games in theAmerican League Championship Series(ALCS) and runner-up for the 2020AL pennant. The Astros played to a 3–0 deficit to begin the ALCS, won the next three, and were defeated 4–2 in Game 7. The Rays thus avoided joining the2004 New York Yankeesas the only MLB clubs to lose a League Championship Series after mounting a 3–0 lead. Acestarting pitcherJustin Verlandermissed the entire 2021 season recuperating fromulnar collateral ligament reconstructionsurgery, also known as Tommy John surgery, which was performed on October 1, 2020. He was in the final year of his contract.On February 27, 2021, the Astros placed the right-hander on the 60-dayinjured listas he continued to recover from the surgery. Offseason transactions Free agent signings Free agent departures Pitchers that elected for free agency includedJoe Biagini,Chase De Jong,Roberto Osuna,Brad Peacock,Chris Devenski, andDustin Garneau Trades and waiver claims Players that were traded or claimed in the offseason by a different team includedBrandon Bailey,Humberto Castellanos,Cionel Pérez,Carlos Sanabria,Cy Sneed, andJack Mayfield. Contract extensions Regular season Summary April On April 1,starting pitcherZack Greinkeearned his first careerOpening Daywin, and 209th win overall, as the Astros defeated theOakland Athletics, 8–1, at theOakland Coliseum. He pitched six scoreless innings, the 65th time his career he has produced at least six scoreless innings.Yordan Álvarez, returning from dual knee surgery that cost him nearly all of the 2020 season,drove inthree runners, andMichael BrantleyandAlex Bregmanhit back-to-back home runs in the eighth inning.OutfielderChas McCormickmade his MLB debutas a defensive replacement for Brantley.It was the Astros' ninth consecutive Opening Day win, a club record, and equalled the modern era (since 1900) major league record for the longest streak, with the Seattle Mariners (2007–15), Cincinnati Reds (1983–91), New York Mets (1975–83) and St. Louis Browns (1937–45). Ryan Presslyfirst became Houston's full-timecloserin 2021. Brantley batted .345 in April and .410 in June, remaining at or near the top of the AL batting leaders for much of the season. ManagerDusty Bakerearned his1,900th career winin the major leagues on April 22 by an 8–2 score versus theLos Angeles Angels.In that game,Cristian Javierbecame the first Astros pitcher to record the first eight outs of a game by strikeout sinceJim Deshaieson September 23,1986, versus theLos Angeles Dodgers.Over five innings, Javier set a new personal high with nine strikeouts and one walk and no earned runs. In their first rematch since the2020 American League Championship Series(ALCS), the Astros defeated theTampa Bay Rays, 9–2, on April 30.Lance McCullers Jr.hurled seven shutout innings, striking out nine. Brantley andCarlos Correaboth had four hits and Bregman hit a two-run home run. Four RBI came viaAledmys Díaz' two hits. Brantley, Bregman, Álvarez and Correa produced consecutive hits in the third inning, leading to three of the runs. With this win, Baker reached 1,906 to passCasey Stengelfor 12th all-time. May OutfielderKyle Tuckerrecorded a breakout season in 2021: from May 1 through the end of the season, he batted .320 and led the AL in on-base percentage, slugging and OPS. During the May 7 game versus theToronto Blue Jays,designated hitterYordan Álvarezdrove in the 100th run of his career, doing so in 114 game as part of a 10–4 victory. He was the seventh-fastest player to reach 100 RBI in league history and the fastest to do so since the expansion era started in 1961. The next game, he homered and drove in three more in an 8–4 loss to the Blue Jays for 103 RBI in 115 games. In the May 25 contest versus theLos Angeles Dodgers, Greinke became the 135th pitcher in major league history to reach 3,000 career innings.José Altuvewas hitless in four at bats to end a 17-gamehitting streak, the longest in the major leagues to that point in the season. June On June 4,Zack Greinkethrew his firstcomplete gamesince April 19, 2017, and first as a member of the Astros. He allowed six hits with one run and one walk and three strikeouts in a 13–1 win over theToronto Blue JaysatSahlen FieldinBuffalo, New York.Martín Maldonadohit agrand slam, andCarlos Correahomered twice to lead the Astros' 16-hit attack. In the June 6 contest versus the Blue Jays, infielderAledmys Díazsuffered a fracture in his left hand on ahit by pitchdelivered fromRoss Stripling. Díaz was expected to miss six to eight weeks. On June 15,José Altuvehit awalk-off grand slamagainst theTexas Rangers. The next day, he continued with a lead-off home run against Texas; Altuve is the first player in major league history to have a walk-off grand slam and then a lead-off home run in the following game. The Astros won that game, 8–4, to sweep their in-state rivals and realize their 12th win in their past 16th games.Third basemanAlex Bregmaninjured his leftquadricepsin the first inning of the June 16 game as he attempted to avoid hitting into a double play.CatcherGarrett Stubbswas recalled from Triple-ASugar Landto take his place on the 25-man roster. Altuve hit his 150th career home run on June 23, served up byThomas Eshelmanof theBaltimore Orioles. All-Star Game selections The following Astros players were selected as reserves to play at the91st All-Star Game, hosted by theColorado RockiesatCoors Fieldon July 13, 2021: With the four total selections, the Astros tied for second-most selections for 2021. July A lingering knee injury dampened Brantley's second-half performance. As of late July, he maintained a batting average of .336. In an attempt to revamp their bullpen by adding higher-velocity pitchers, the Astros acquiredYimi Garcíafrom theMiami Marlinson July 28. Up until that trade, García saved 15 games with a 3.47 ERA over 39 total relief appearances in 2021. He struck out 35 in36+1⁄3innings. The Astros sent outfielderBryan De La Cruzand pitcherAustin Pruittin return. On July 30, the Astros tradedMyles Strawto theCleveland Indiansfor relieverPhil Matonand minor league catcherYainer Díaz. Trading Straw allowed for the Astros to give rookie outfieldersChas McCormickandJake Meyersmore opportunities to play.On July 31, the club selected Meyers' contract from Sugar Land and promoted him to the major league roster. August Jake Meyers made his Major League debut on August 1 as a pinch hitter in the ninth inning of a 5–3 loss to theSan Francisco Giants. Jake Meyers hit his first career home run on August 14 versus pitcherJaime Barríaof theLos Angeles Angels, and added agrand slamlater in the same game as the Astros won, 8–2. Third basemanAlex Bregmanreturned from left quadriceps strain on August 25 after missing over two months. He scoring the winning run versus theKansas City Royalson the day of his return, capping a 6–5, 10-inning score. September and October José Sirimade his major league debut on September 3 as a pinch runner in the ninth inning versus theSan Diego Padres.Jake Meyerspromptly hit a single that scored Siri from second base to give Siri his first run as a major leaguer. Siri made his first start in the majors on September 13, playing left field and facing theTexas Rangers. He went 4-for-5 with two home runs and five runs batted in to power a 15–1 rout atGlobe Life Field. He is the first player since the RBI statistic became official in 1920 to have that many RBI along with multiple home runs in their first major league start.Yordan Álvarezadded two home runs,including his 30th of the season; at the age of 24, he is the second Astro to hit 30 home runs in a season at that age afterAlex Bregman, who hit 31 in2018. In the September 17 contest versus theArizona Diamondbacks,José Altuvehomered offMadison Bumgarnerat Minute Maid Park to collect his 849th career hit in the stadium. The hit tied him withLance Berkmanfor most by an Astro in the venue. He then passed Berkman the next night with a double. On September 21,Carlos Correascored his 100th run on the season to become the first Astros shortstop to score 100 runs in a season. During the final road trip of the season, twenty-seven members of the team paid homage to veteran pitcherZack Greinke, known for his leisurely dress style. They wore fishing shirts, short shorts, andbucket hats.Lance McCullers Jr.also brought in a bag of groceries fromWhole Foods– as is Greinke's habit to fill his locker – as replenishment for their upcoming flight. Greinke, who is fromFlorida, wore a bright orangeTampa Bay Buccaneershat, an oversized fishing shirt, and shorts.Martín Maldonadodonned his own bright orange hat. With Greinke posing with his new cadre of imitators, the team posted photos of their amusement onInstagram. The team had chosen to honor the pitcher, in the final year of his contract, after a 7–6 win over theArizona Diamondbacksin which had allowed five runs over four innings, raising his ERA on the season to 4.11. On September 23, Álvarez drove in two runs on a home run in the first inning againstLos Angeles Angelsto score his 100th RBI of the season. He was the second-youngest Astro to reach 100 RBI in one season, trailingCésar Cedeño, who did so at the age of 23 in1974.It was a 9–5 win.Ryan Presslycompleted a scoreless ninth in his 60th appearance of the season in this game, concluding the final condition for his contract for 2022 to fully vest. He would earn a guaranteed $10 million. Since being acquired by Houston at the2018trade deadline, Pressly had produced a 2.19 ERA, 0.924 WHIP, and saved 42 games in160+1⁄3innings. He had converted 25 of 27 save chances on the season. On September 28, the Astros won 4–3 against theTampa Bay Rayson consecutive walks with the bases loaded, which was the first time they had done so in team history and only the eighth time inMajor League Baseballhistory since 1931.The Astros clinched the AL West on September 30 with a win over Tampa Bay at Minute Maid Park for their fourth division title in five seasons. It was Houston's tenth division title and 15thpostseasonentrance. For the first time in franchise history, the Astros gained a postseason berth for the fifth consecutive season. With a combined record of 432–272 (.614) since 2017, Houston had attained the most wins in the major leagues in that span. Manager Dusty Baker secured his eighth division title while becoming the first manager to guide five different clubs to a division title.It was Baker's 11th career postseason appearance. In the final game of the 2021 regular season,Yuli Gurrielhit a walk-off single to scoreJason Castroand defeat theOakland Athletics.With that hit, hisbatting averagestood at .319 to lead teammateMichael BrantleyandVladimir Guerrero Jr.of theToronto Blue Jays(both hit .311) for the ALbatting championship. At age 37, Gurriel was the sixth-oldest player to win a batting title, the oldest to win their first batting title sinceBarry Bondsin2002, and the firstCuban-born playersinceTony Olivain1971.Brantley, continuing to produce through lingering knee pain, saw 39 at bats in September.It was the sixth time in his career he had finished in the top 10 in the AL in batting. Over the final month of the season,right fielderKyle Tuckerbatted .346 with eight home runs, 20 runs scored, 19 RBI, .438 on-base percentage, and .692 slugging percentage for a 1.130 OPS. He was awardedAL Player of the Monthfor September, his first career monthly award. Season standings American League West American League Wild Card Astros team leaders †Minimum 3.1plate appearancesper team games playedAVG qualified batters: Altuve, Álvarez, Brantley, Correa, Gurriel, Tucker‡Minimum 1inning pitchedper team games playedERA and WHIP qualified pitchers: Greinke, McCullers Jr. Record against opponents Source:MLB Standings Grid – 2021 Updated with the results of all games through October 3, 2021. Game log Postseason Game log American League Division Series (ALDS) vs. Chicago White Sox The Astros played theChicago White Soxin the ALDS. The managers of the two clubs—Dusty Bakerof the Astros andTony La Russaof the White Sox—had faced each other over 200 times previously as managers of other major league clubs. This series capped a historic rivalry in two intertwining professional baseball careers of which both spanned more than 50 years. The Astros startedLance McCullers Jr., while the White Sox startedLance Lynn. The Astros got the scoring started with a line drive single off the bat of rookie center fielderJake Meyers. The Astros tacked on two more runs in the third on aAlex Bregmanfielders choice and aYordan Álvarezdouble that made it 3–0 Astros.Michael Brantleyadded on to the lead with a two run single to make it 5–0. Álvarez added a solo homer to cap the scoring for Houston as McCullers would pitch6+2⁄3innings of scoreless ball. The White Sox would get on the board in the 8th inning on aJosé Abreusingle that made it 6–1 before Astros closerRyan Presslyshut the door in the 9th inning to seal the Game 1 victory for the Astros. The Astros startedFramber Valdez, while the White Sox startedLucas Giolito. The White Sox got the scoring started with a fielder's choice RBI fromEloy Jiménez. The Astros took the lead in the bottom of the 2nd with an RBI single fromKyle Tuckerand aChas McCormicksacrifice fly made it 2–1 Astros. The White Sox would storm back in the 5th, on RBI singles fromLuis Robert& José Abreu and a sac fly fromYasmani Grandal. The Astros would tie it in the bottom half of the 5th from a 2 run single from AL batting championYuli Gurriel. The Astros would blow it open in the 7th off relieversAaron BummerandCraig Kimbrel, with Yordan Álvarez driving in José Altuve,Carlos Correadriving in both Alex Bregman and Yordan Álvarez before Tucker hit a 2 run home run to left to cap off the scoring. Astros relievers Ryan Pressly andKendall Gravemaneach worked scoreless innings to seal the Game 2 win and give the Astros a 2–0 lead heading toGuaranteed Rate Fieldfor Game 3. The Astros startedLuis García, while the White Sox startedDylan Cease. The White Sox once again got on the board first with an Eloy Jiménez RBI single. The Astros would strike back in the 2nd on a Kyle Tucker RBI double and a Jake Meyers RBI single. Tucker hit his 2nd homer of the series to make it 5–1 in the 3rd. The White Sox would answer with 5 runs in the bottom of the third. Yasmani Grandal hit a 2 run homer andLeury Garcíahit a go ahead three run home run. The Astros would tie in the top of the 4th on an Alex Bregman RBI single. The White Sox would put up 3 in the bottom of the 4th on RBI singles from José Abreu, Eloy Jiménez along with a fielder's choice RBI off the bat of Grandal to make it 9–6 Chicago.Andrew Vaughnwould come off the bench and double inYoan Moncada, García would double in Vaughn and Anderson would single in Garcia to make it 12–6. That would be the end of scoring and White Sox closer Liam Hendriks would shut the door to send the series to a Game 4. The Astros started Game 1 starter Lance McCullers Jr., while the White Sox startedCarlos Rodón. The game was postponed on October 11 and was moved to October 12th. The White Sox again got the scoring started with a solo homer from rookieGavin Sheets. Center fielderJake Meyerssustained an injury to his left shoulder while attempting to catch Sheets' home run ball on the fly. He exited the game and was replaced byChas McCormick.The Astros took the lead in the 3rd on an RBI double from Carlos Correa. The Astros scored three more runs in the fourth on an RBI single fromMartín Maldonadoand an RBI double from Alex Bregman. Another run scored for Houston as Michael Brantley drove in McCormick, and they tacked on another run on an RBI single from Brantley that scored José Altuve. Altuve broke the game open with a three-run homer off White Sox closer Liam Hendriks. Astros closer Ryan Pressly would allow a single to Eloy Jiménez but shut the door afterwards to send Houston to their fifth straight ALCS. American League Championship Series vs. Boston Red Sox This was Houston's fifth straight ALCS appearance. The Astros faced theBoston Red Soxin a rematch of the2018 ALCS, which the Astros lost in five games. With home field advantage in the series, the Astros started game 1 at home, where Altuve and Correa played their 65th career postseason game together. It was the most for a second baseman/shortstop duo in MLB history (this was also in addition to Altuve-Bregman-Correa-Gurriel being the most experienced playoff quartet with 61 games).The Astros won the ALCS in game six, advancing to their third World Series appearance in five years. The Astros startedFramber Valdez, while the Red Sox startedChris Sale. The Astros got on the board first with a sacrifice fly from Yordan Álvarez. The Red Sox would respond with a game tying home run fromKiké Hernández, a fielders choice RBI fromJ. D. Martinezand a RBI double fromHunter Renfroebefore knocking Valdez out of the game after2+2⁄3. Sale would last only2+2⁄3as well before being pulled. The Astros would tie it on Altuve's 20th career postseason home run, tying him with Hall of Famer and Yankees former captainDerek Jeter. The Astros would retake the lead on a solo homer from Carlos Correa before adding another run on a sac fly in the 8th. Hernández hit another homer off Astros closer Ryan Pressly before Pressly shut the door to seal the 5–4 Game 1 win for Houston. The Astros startedLuis García, while the Red Sox startedNathan Eovaldi. The Red Sox got things started with a grand slam from DH J.D. Martinez. The Red Sox would add another slam in the 2nd to make it 8–0 as Luis García left the game with a right knee injury. Kiké Hernández would add another run on a home run offJake Odorizzi. The Astros would add three runs in the 4th off starter Nathan Eovaldi with an RBI double from Kyle Tucker and an RBI single from Yuli Gurriel. The Astros would tack on two more runs with homers from Gurriel andJason Castrobefore the Red Sox sealed the win, 9–5. On the mound, the Astros started right-handerJosé Urquidy, while the Red Sox started left-handerEduardo Rodríguez. The Astros' startinginfieldconsisted ofYuli Gurriel,José Altuve,Alex Bregman, andCarlos Correa, who established an MLB postseason record with four teammates starting their 64th postseason game together.The Red Sox scored first with RBIs fromChristian VázquezandChristian ArroyobeforeKyle Schwarberhit Boston's third grand slam to break it open at 6–0, knocking Urquidy out of the game. Vázquez would add another run on an RBI single before Arroyo hit a 2-run homer to make it 9–0 after 3 innings. The Astros got on the board on a 3-run homer from Kyle Tucker. The Red Sox would add three more runs on a 2-run homer from J.D. Martinez and a solo homer from Rafael Devers beforeHirokazu Sawamurashut the door to seal the 12–3 win for the Red Sox. The Astros startedZack Greinke, while the Red Sox countered withNick Pivetta. The Astros got on the board first with a solo homer from Alex Bregman in the top of the 1st. The Red Sox responded immediately with a 2-run homer fromXander Bogaertsin the bottom of the 1st. No other scoring occurred until the top of the eighth inning, when José Altuve tied the game with a leadoff homer. The Astros batted a total of 12 times in the ninth inning, with Correa leading the frame off with a double. On the hill for Boston to attempt to hold the contest at a 2–2 tie was Eovaldi, typically their number-one starting pitcher. Eovaldi struck out Kyle Tucker, then intentionally walked Yuli Gurriel, which brought Chas McCormick's spot to bat. Baker opted to pinch hit for McCormick with Aledmys Díaz, whom Eovaldi also struck out. Jason Castro next batted for Maldonado, and with a 1–2 count,umpireLaz Díazcalled a slow curveball on that appeared to find the outside corner for a ball. After a foul ball, Castro singled on split-finger fastball to score Correa, putting the Astros back on top, 3–2. Next, Altuve worked a full-count walk to load the bases, leading Cora to remove Eovaldi forMartín Pérez. Michael Brantley greeted Pérez' first pitch–a fastball–with a double to clear the bases and increase the score to 6–2. Yordan Álvarez singled in Brantley to make it 7–2 and Correa and Tucker both followed with RBI singles to make it 9–2. The seven runs scored tied the postseason record for runs scored in a ninth inning. Astros closer Ryan Pressly allowed two singles in the 9th inning but allowed neither baserunner to score, securing the Game 4 win for the Astros and knot up the ALCS at 2 games apiece. The ALCS Game 5 featured a rematch of Game 1 starters: Framber Valdez for the Astros, and Chris Sale for the Red Sox. Houston scored first with an solo home run from Yordan Álvarez over theGreen Monster. Valdez did not allow a Boston baserunner until the fifth inning. The Astros scored five runs in the top of the sixth, chasing Sale with one out. Álvarez doubled home two more runs to make it 3–0, then Yuli Gurriel doubled home Álvarez; rookie outfielderJosé Sirisingled home Kyle Tucker and Gurriel to cap a five-run 6th inning. Both Álvarez and Gurriel collected three hits and three RBI;all of Álvarez' hits landed to the opposite field. This marked the first occasion in Álvarez' career in which he had produced at least three opposite-field hits; meanwhile Sale had allowed four total hits in 2021 to left-handed batters in42+2⁄3IP.Michael Brantley hit an RBI single in the seventh to up the score to 7–0. Rafael Devers got Boston on the board with a solo home run versus Valdez in the bottom of the 7th. Gurriel drove in two more in the 9th to make it 9–1. Valdez went eight innings and got the win, limiting Boston to three total hits and one walk while striking out five; he is the seventh visiting pitcher to go at least eight innings while allowing a run or fewer at Fenway Park in the postseason and the first sinceCharles Nagyin1998.Ryne Stanekshut the door in the 9th seal the Game 5 win and send the series back to Houston with the Astros up 3 games to 2. The ALCS Game 6 featured a rematch of Game 2 starters Luis Garcia for the Astros and Nathan Eovaldi for the Red Sox. The Astros got on the board first with an RBI double deep to center field from Yordan Álvarez. Kiké Hernández appeared to be in position to catch Álvarez' batted ball, but the ball bounced off his arm just below the glove and dropped to the ground for the two-base hit. Garcia allowed no hits until the sixth inning, when Hernández tripled with two outs. Baker removed Garcia, who left to a standing ovation from the fans. His5+2⁄3no-hit innings equaledBrandon Backe's club record for a postseason contest; Backe also started with5+2⁄3no-hit innings in the2004 NLDS. The Astros got another run in the sixth on a double play that scored Álvarez from 3rd to make it 2–0 Houston. In the seventh, Boston encountered their best chance to score with runners at first and third and one out following Alex Verdugo's single.Kendall Gravemanstruck out pinch-hitterTravis Shaw; at that instant, Maldonado threw perfectly to Carlos Correa, covering second, to catch Verdugo attempting to steal for an inning-ending double play. Kyle Tucker added insurance runs in the eighth with a three-run home run off relieverAdam Ottavino. Ryan Pressly closed the game in the ninth to defeat the Red Sox, 5–0, capturing the Astros' third pennant in the last five seasons. The ALCS win brought Baker his firstAL pennant. Thus, Baker became the ninth manager in major league history to win a pennant in both the American andNational Leagues, having first won in 2002. Origins of the Astros' pennant-winning roster Having reached the World Series for the third time in five seasons, just six players remained from the2017 World Serieswinner; of the six, two did not play in the 2021 ALCS:Lance McCullers JrandMarwin González. World Series vs. Atlanta Braves This World Series appearance marked Houston's third World Series appearance in five years and fourth World Series appearance overall. Game 1 of the World Series featured a matchup ofCharlie Morton, who pitched for the Astros in2017and2018before leaving in free agency, for the Braves againstFramber Valdezfor the Astros. The Braves got the scoring started with a leadoff home run fromJorge SolerandAustin Rileydoubled inOzzie Albies. Soler drove in his 2nd run of the game on a fielder's choice RBI.Adam Duvallwould add a 2-run home run to make it 5–0 Atlanta. Morton would leave the game after2+1⁄3after taking a comebacker to his ankle in the 2nd inning, which fractured his right fibula and ruled Morton out for the rest of the series. The Astros would get a run in the 4th after an error from shortstopDansby Swanson. The Braves would get another run in the 8th onFreddie Freemansac fly. The Astros would tack on a run in the 8th as well on a RBI groundout from Carlos Correa. Braves closerWill Smithwould walkAledmys Díazbefore shutting the door to seal the Game 1 win for Atlanta, 6–2. Game 2 featured a matchup ofMax Friedfor the Braves andJosé Urquidyfor the Astros. The Astros got on the board first with an Alex Bregman sac fly that scored José Altuve. The Braves would respond in the top of the 2nd with a solo homer from catcherTravis d'Arnaud. The Astros would tack on four runs in the bottom of the 2nd with RBI singles from rookie outfielder José Siri, catcher Martín Maldonado and veteran outfielder Michael Brantley. Freddie Freeman would drive in his 2nd RBI of the series with an RBI single that made it 5–2 Houston. The Astros would tack on a run in the 6th on an fielder's choice error. Altuve would add another run on his 22nd career postseason home run, tying him for 2nd place on the all time postseason home run leaderboard withBernie Williams. Kendall Graveman would shut the door in the 9th to tie the series at 1 game apiece heading to Atlanta for Game 3. Game 3 featured a matchup of rookie right handerLuis García, while Atlanta went with right handerIan Anderson. The Braves held the Astros hitless for the first seven innings until Aledmys Díaz hit a single to right field in the eighth inning to end the Braves' no-hit bid. The Astros managed just one more hit as the Braves won, 2–0, to take a 2–1 Series lead. The Braves opted for a bullpen game in Game 4, starting the left-hander Dylan Lee. The Astros went with right-hander Zack Greinke. Houston scored the first run of the game in the top of the first inning when Carlos Correa drove in Jose Altuve. Altuve would add to the lead with a solo home run off ofKyle Wrightin the fourth, passing Bernie Williams for second all time on the postseason home runs list. The Braves would not get on the board until the sixth, when Austin Riley drove in Eddie Rosario against reliever Phil Maton. In the seventh inning, the Braves' Dansby Swanson stepped up and hit a game-tying solo home run off reliever Cristian Javier. Jorge Soler came off the bench and proceeded to follow up Dansby Swanson's homer with one of his own, this one giving Atlanta the lead. Tyler Matzek pitched a scoreless top of the eighth, aided by a great catch by Eddie Rosario robbing Jose Altuve of extra bases. Will Smith recorded his second save of the series, and the Braves moved win away from a World Series title. The Astros started Framber Valdez, while the Braves went with another bullpen game, starting Tucker Davidson. The Braves started off strong with a first inning grand slam by Adam Duvall. The Astros got an RBI double from Alex Bregman and a sac fly by Martin Maldonado to make it 4–2. In the top of the third, an RBI double by Carlos Correa and a sacrifice groundout by Yuli Gurriel made it a tie game at 4-4. Freddie Freeman put the Braves back up with a 460-foot home run into right field. In the fifth, with two on base, Braves reliever A.J. Minter intentionally walked Alex Bregman. Maldonado came up and drew a bases loaded walk to tie the game. He was followed by pinch-hitter Marwin González, who drove in two more with a single. In the top of the 7th, Maldonado tacked on his third RBI of the night with a double that scored Kyle Tucker. In the eighth, the Astros got one more on an RBI double by Carlos Correa, his second of the night. Kendall Graveman pitched a scoreless eighth and ninth to secure the 9–5 victory for Houston and force Game 6. The Astros started Luis García, while the Braves sent Max Fried to the mound. The Braves took a 3–0 lead in the top of the third inning on a single andwalkfollowed by a towering two-out home run byJorge Solerthat leftMinute Maid Parkover the raised train tracks in left field.Garcia exited after Soler's home run, having pitched2+2⁄3innings while striking out three batters. In the top of the fifth, a two-run home run byDansby Swansonfollowed by a walk then a two-out double byFreddie Freemanextended Atlanta's lead to 6–0. In the top of the seventh, Freeman hit a solo home run with two outs to make it 7–0.Tyler Matzekentered in relief in the bottom of the seventh; Fried allowed no runs on four hits while striking out six batters and walking none in six innings. AtlantacloserWill Smithwas brought in to pitch the bottom of the ninth. He allowed a leadoff single toMichael Brantleyand retired the next three batters, the last out being aYuli Gurrielinfield grounder fielded by Swanson, who threw to Freeman, giving the Braves the title.With this final inning,Will Smithfinished off a postseason in which he closed 11 of 16 Braves games while allowing no runs.Jorge Solerwon theWorld Series Most Valuable Player Award. With the World Series victory,Joc Pedersonbecame a back-to-back World Series winner on two different teams, joining names likeJack Morris,Ryan Theriot,Jake PeavyandBen Zobristwho previously accomplished that feat.Pederson had become a fan-favorite throughout his three-month stay in Atlanta, particularly for his preference to wear pearls. Postseason rosters Awards notes For recognition of their defensive prowess,Rawlings Sporting Goodsannounced that the Houston Astros were the winners of the 2021 American League (AL) Gold Glove Team Award, the second iteration of the team-wide award, and Houston's first. The Astros led the American League with +78Defensive Runs Saved(DRS), second in MLB to only theSt. Louis Cardinalswith +86, the winners of theNational LeagueGold Glove Team Award. The Astros also led the AL with +45 outs above average (OAA), second in the major leagues to the Cardinals (+50). ShortstopCarlos Correawon his first career of both thePlatinum GloveandGold Glove Awards, marking the first time an Astros player has won a Platinum Glove. Correa led the AL with +21 DRS in 2021. Five Astros players were announced on October 25, 2021, as finalists for theSilver Slugger Award, includingJosé Altuve,Yordan Álvarez, Correa,Yuli Gurriel, andKyle Tucker.However, all of the five were claimed by players on other teams, includingVladimir Guerrero Jr.of Toronto at first base,Marcus Semienof Toronto at second base,Xander Bogaertsof Boston at shortstop,Teoscar Hernández,Aaron JudgeandCedric Mullinsin the outfield, andShohei Ohtaniat designated hitter. Starting pitcher Luis García finished second toRandy Arozarenaof Tampa Bay in the American LeagueRooke of the Yearballoting, receiving two first-place votes Manager Dusty Baker was named as a finalist for ALManager of the Year Award.He finished third, garnering two first-place votes, five for second place, and eight for third place.Kevin Cashof Tampa Bay was the winner. Statistics Note: Yellow background is team leader in specific category. Batting Regular season Pitching Note: Pos = Position; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; SO = Strikeouts; HBP = Hit by pitch; WHIP = Walks + hits per inning pitched Source: Awards and achievements Major League debuts and awards AL batting leaders AL pitching leaders AL fielding leaders Roster Infielders Outfielders Other batters Coaches Minor league system and first-year player draft Teams In advance of the 2021 season, Major League Baseball took direct control of, and restructured, Minor League Baseball in part with the intent of cost efficiency, and enhancing the experience and compensation for its players and directly managing their development plans. The legacy league names were replaced with generic names depicting their level of play. One significant change for Astros included aligning theSugar Land Skeetersas their AAA club; the Skeeters were previously members of theAtlantic League of Professional Baseballand unaffiliated with any major league clubs.Sugar Land replaced theRound Rock Express. Major League Baseball draft See also References External links", "Jackie Robinson Jack Roosevelt Robinson(January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professionalbaseballplayer who became the first African-American to play inMajor League Baseball(MLB) in the modern era. Robinson broke thecolor linewhen he started atfirst basefor theBrooklyn Dodgerson April 15, 1947. The Dodgers signing Robinson heralded the end ofracial segregationin professional baseball, which had relegated black players to theNegro leaguessince the 1880s. Born inCairo, Georgia, Robinson was raised inPasadena, California. A four-sport student athlete atPasadena Junior Collegeand theUniversity of California, Los Angeles, he was better known for football than he was for baseball, becoming a star college player with theUCLA Bruins footballteam. Following his college career, Robinson was drafted for service duringWorld War IIbut wascourt-martialedfor refusing to sit at the back of a segregated Army bus, eventually being honorably discharged. Afterwards, he signed with theKansas City Monarchsof the Negro leagues, where he caught the eye ofBranch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, who thought he would be the perfect candidate for breaking the color line in MLB. During his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inauguralRookie of the Year Awardin 1947, was anAll-Starfor six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won theNational League(NL)Most Valuable Player Awardin 1949—the first black player so honored. Robinson played in sixWorld Seriesand contributed to the Dodgers'1955 World Serieschampionship. He was inducted into theBaseball Hall of Famein1962. Robinson's character, his use ofnonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to thecivil rights movement. Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation,Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he helped establish theFreedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based inHarlem, New York. After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded theCongressional Gold MedalandPresidential Medal of Freedomin recognition of his achievements on and off the field. In 1997, MLBretiredhis uniform number, 42, across all Major League teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored.MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, \"Jackie Robinson Day\", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears no. 42. Early life Family and personal life Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family ofsharecroppersinCairo, Georgia. He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (née McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank,Matthew(nicknamed \"Mack\"), and Willa Mae.His middle name honored former PresidentTheodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born.After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved toPasadena, California. The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family.Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities.As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it. John Muir High School In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled atJohn Muir Technical High School.Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers, Frank and Mack (himself an accomplished track and field athlete andsilver medalistbehindJesse Owensin the200 metersat the Berlin1936 Summer Olympics) inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports. At Muir Tech, Robinson played numerous sports at thevarsity levelandletteredin four of them:football,basketball,track and field, andbaseball.He playedshortstopandcatcheron the baseball team,quarterbackon the football team, andguardon the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in thebroad jump. He was also a member of thetennisteam. In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on thePomonaannual baseball tournament all-star team, which included futureHall of FamersTed WilliamsandBob Lemon.In late January 1937, thePasadena Star-Newsnewspaper reported that Robinson \"for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball, and tennis.\" Pasadena Junior College After Muir, Robinson attendedPasadena Junior College(PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track.On the football team, he played quarterback andsafety. He was a shortstop andleadoff hitterfor the baseball team,and he broke an American junior college broad-jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft.6+1⁄2in. on May 7, 1938.As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white.While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military.In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player. That year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing \"outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition.\"Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities. An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived asracist—a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police.Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism.While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian.Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearbyUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family. UCLA and afterward After graduating from PJC in spring 1939,Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to winvarsity lettersin four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track. He was one of four black players on the Bruins'1939 football team; the others wereWoody Strode,Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players.At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's mostintegrated team.They went undefeated with four ties at6–0–4.Robinson finished the season with 12.2 yards per attempt on 42 carries, which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022. Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons. Intrack and field, Robinson won the1940 NCAA championshipin thelong jumpat24 ft10+1⁄4in (7.58 m).Baseballwas Robinson's \"worst sport\" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twicestolehome. While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife,Rachel Isum(b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic careerat PJC.He played football as a senior, but the1940 Bruinswon only one game.In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite the reservations of his mother and Isum.He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government'sNational Youth Administration(NYA)inAtascadero, California. After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled toHonoluluin the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated HonoluluBears.After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for theLos Angeles Bulldogsof thePacific Coast Football League.By that time, however, the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harborhad taken place, which drew the United States intoWorld War IIand ended Robinson's nascent football career. Military career In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit atFort Riley, Kansas.Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to anOfficer Candidate School(OCS) then located at Fort Riley. Although the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race-neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership.The applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months.After protests by heavyweight boxing championJoe Louis(then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help ofTruman Gibson(then an assistant civilian aide to theSecretary of War),the men were accepted into OCS.The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis.Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as asecond lieutenantin January 1943.Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged. After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned toFort Hood, Texas, where he joined the761st \"Black Panthers\" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (nowHuston–Tillotson University) in nearbyAustin, Texas; in California, Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC. An event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career.While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus.Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned themilitary police, who took Robinson into custody.When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson becourt-martialed. After Robinson'scommanderin the 761st,Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the758th Battalion—where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink. By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning.Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers. Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, and he was never in combat. After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge,Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving anhonorable dischargein November 1944.While there, Robinson met a former player for theKansas City Monarchsof theNegro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout.Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird. Post-military After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs.Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director atSamuel Huston Collegein Austin, then of theSouthwestern Athletic Conference.The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season.As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games.Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach,and drew the admiration of, among others,Langston Universitybasketball playerMarques Haynes, a future member of theHarlem Globetrotters. Playing career Negro leagues and major league prospects In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, theKansas City Monarchssent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues.Robinson accepted a contract for $400 per month.Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him.The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter.In all, Robinson played 47 games atshortstopfor the Monarchs, hitting .387 with fivehome runs, and registering 13stolen bases.He also appeared in the 1945East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats. During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues sinceMoses Fleetwood Walkerin 1884, but theBoston Red Soxnevertheless held a tryout atFenway Parkfor Robinson and other black players on April 16.The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City CouncilmanIsadore H. Y. Muchnick.Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets.He left the tryout humiliated,and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster. Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s,Branch Rickey, club president andgeneral managerof theBrooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn'sInternational Leaguefarm club, theMontreal Royals.Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him.In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military.Robinson was aghast: \"Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?\"Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player \"with guts enough not to fight back.\"After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to \"turn the other cheek\" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $10,155 today.Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause.Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects wasWendell Smith, writer for the black weeklyPittsburgh Courier, who, according toCleveland Indiansowner and team presidentBill Veeck, \"influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit.\" Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945.On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season.On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals.In what was later referred to as \"The Noble Experiment\",Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s.He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues,and black talentsSatchel PaigeandJosh Gibsonwere upset when Robinson was selected first.Larry Doby, who broke the color line in theAmerican Leaguethe same year as Robinson, said, \"One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken.\" Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed withChet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-seasonbarnstormingteam in theCalifornia Winter League.Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City.On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs. Minor leagues In 1946, Robinson arrived atDaytona Beach, Florida, forspring trainingwith theMontreal Royalsof theClass AAAInternational League.Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused. Robinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African-American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activistMary McLeod Bethune.Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility, scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson orJohnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. InSanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach.InJacksonville, thestadiumwas padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director.InDeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting. After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach.Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since thede factobaseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s. Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop tosecond base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base.Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946,Roosevelt Stadiumhosted theJersey City Giants' season opener against theMontreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs.Pitching against Robinson wasWarren Sandelwho had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his fiveat bats; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's thirdinning.He also scored fourruns, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory.Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349batting averageand .985fielding percentage, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel aSouthernexhibition tour, for example),the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson.Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards.In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-livedLos Angeles Red Devils. Major leagues Breaking the color barrier (1947) In 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season. WithEddie Stankyentrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as afirst baseman.Robinson made his debut as a Dodger wearinguniform number42 on April 11, 1947, in a preseasonexhibition gameagainst the New York Yankees atEbbets Fieldwith 24,237 in attendance.On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black.Although he failed to get a base hit, he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory.Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams. Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players.However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse.Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. ManagerLeo Durocherinformed the team, \"I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded.\" Robinson was also derided by opposing teams.According to a press report, theSt. Louis Cardinalsthreatened tostrikeif Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League.Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, theNew York Herald Tribune'sRud Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to hisTribunecolleague and editor,Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland.The Woodward article made national headlines. After it was published, National League PresidentFord FrickandBaseball CommissionerHappy Chandlerlet it be known that any striking players would be suspended. \"You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts,\" Frick was quoted as saying. \"I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another.\"Woodward's article received theE. P. DuttonAward in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting.The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told authorRoger Kahnthat Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech \"never happened\".Regardless, the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from thesports media. EvenThe Sporting News, a publication that had backed the color line, came out against the idea of a strike. Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg fromEnos Slaughter.On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and thePhiladelphia Phillies, Phillies players and managerBen Chapmancalled Robinson a \"nigger\" from theirdugoutand yelled that he should \"go back to the cotton fields\".Rickey later recalled that Chapman \"did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men.\" However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson namedLee \"Jeep\" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well.Dodgers teammatePee Wee Reeseonce came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, \"You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them.\"In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati.Astatueby sculptorWilliam Behrends, unveiled atKeySpan Parkon November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson.Jewishbaseball starHank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he \"whispered a few words into Robinson's ear\", which Robinson later characterized as \"words of encouragement\".Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games.Robinson also talked frequently withLarry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in theAmerican Leaguewith theCleveland Indians, as the two spoke to each other via telephone throughout the season. Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for theDodgers, with a batting average of .297, anon-base percentageof .383, and a .427slugging percentage. He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31doubles, 5triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league insacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29.His cumulative performance earned him the inauguralMajor League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award(separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949). That year, theBrooklyn Dodgerswon the National League pennant and went on to face theYankeesin the1947 World Series. Robinson became the first black player to play in the World Series. He appeared in all seven games, with the Dodgers ultimately losing in Game 7. MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950) Following Stanky's trade to theBoston Bravesin March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980fielding percentagethat year (second in theNational Leagueat the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season.In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, hehit for the cycle—ahome run, atriple, adouble, and asinglein the same game.The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the pennant and lose to the Cleveland Indians in theWorld Series. Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues.Larry Doby(who broke the color barrier in theAmerican Leagueon July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) andSatchel Paigeplayed for theCleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $158,518 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from avaudevilletour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate.In 1948, Wendell Smith's book,Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released. In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of FamerGeorge Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that \"Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second\". The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949.In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124runs batted inwith 122 runs scored.For the performance Robinson earned theMost Valuable Player Awardfor the National League.Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the1949 All-Star Game— the first All-Star Game to include black players. That year, a song about Robinson byBuddy Johnson, \"Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?\", reached number 13 on the charts;Count Basierecorded a famous version.Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to theNew York Yankeesin the1949 World Series. Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before theUnited States House of Representatives'Committee on Un-American Activities(HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actorPaul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined. In 1950, Robinson led the National League indouble playsmade by a second baseman with 133.His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($443,237 in 2023 dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases.The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life,The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself, and actressRuby Deeplayed Rachel \"Rae\" (Isum) Robinson.The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.The New York Timeswrote that Robinson, \"doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star.\" Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-ownerWalter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as \"Rickey'sprima donna\".In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise.Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of thePittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, \"Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it.\" Pennant races and outside interests (1951–1953) Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in theMontreal Standardas saying, \"Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post\"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered. During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137.He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning, which proved to be the winning margin. This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rivalNew York Giants. Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant onBobby Thomson's famous home run, known as theShot Heard 'Round the World. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscasterVin Scullylater noted that the incident showed \"how much of a competitor Robinson was.\"He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases. Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952.He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career-highon-base percentageof .436.The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the1952 World Seriesto the New York Yankees in seven games.That year, on the television showYouth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager,George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player.SportswriterDick Young, whom Robinson had described as a \"bigot\", said, \"If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness.\"The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in theoutfield, withJim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in thePuerto Rican Winter League, but according to theNew York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request. In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and anotherWorld Seriesloss to the Yankees, this time in six games).Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats.He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor forOur Sportsmagazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friendJoe Louis.Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-starChase Park Hotelin St. Louis. World Championship and retirement (1954–1956) In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles.The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers defeated the New York Yankees in the1955 World Series.Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as athird baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base.Robinson, then 36 years old,missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series.He missed the game because managerWalter Alstondecided to play Gilliam at second andDon Hoakat third base. That season, the Dodgers'Don Newcombebecame the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year. In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals.By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects ofdiabetesand to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball.Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the1956 World Series.After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rivalNew York GiantsforDick Littlefieldand $35,000 cash (equal to $392,240 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president ofChock full o'Nutsto quit baseball and become an executive with the company.Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story toLookmagazine two years previously,his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization. Legacy Robinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as thebaseball color line. After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks, including their acceleratedmigration to the North, where their political clout grew, andPresident Harry Truman'sdesegregation of the militaryin 1948.Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter.Civil rights movementleaderMartin Luther King Jr.said that he was \"a legend and a symbol in his own time\", and that he \"challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration.\"According to historianDoris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's \"efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities.\" Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers.During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games.In 1999, he was one of 30 players named to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team. Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–\"long ball\" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning.Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially morewalksthanstrikeouts(740 to 291).Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñosowas the other).He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total, including 19 steals of home.None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time).Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as \"the father of modern base-stealing\". Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played.After playing his rookie season at first base,Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951.Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both. Assessing himself, Robinson said, \"I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being.\"Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field,Leo Durochersaid, \"You want a guy that comes to play. But he didn't just come to play. He came to beat you. He came to stuff the damn bat right up your ass.\" Portrayals on stage, film and television Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion pictureThe Jackie Robinson Story.Other portrayals include: Robinson was also the subject of a 2016PBSdocumentary,Jackie Robinson, which was directed byKen Burnsand featuresJamie Foxxdoing voice-over as Robinson. Post-baseball life Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inducteeHank Aaronthat \"the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over.\"Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957.Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed withdiabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers.Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease. In October 1959, Robinson entered theGreenville Municipal Airport's whites-only waiting room. Airport police asked Robinson to leave, but he refused. At aNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) speech inGreenville, South Carolina, Robinson urged \"complete freedom\" and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second-class citizenship. The following January, approximately 1,000 peoplemarched on New Year's Dayto the airport,which was desegregated shortly thereafter. In his first year of eligibility for theBaseball Hall of Famein 1962,Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game.He waselectedon the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into theCooperstownmuseum. In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst forABC'sMajor League Baseball Game of the Weektelecasts, the first black person to do so.In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-livedBrooklyn Dodgersof theContinental Football League.In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator onMontreal Expostelecasts. From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel atChock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation.Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause ofblack peoplein commerce and industry.He also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967.In 1964, he helped found, withHarlembusinessman Dunbar McLaurin,Freedom National Bank—a black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem.He also served as the bank's first chairman of the board.In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families. Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent,although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including theVietnam War(he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr. to defend theJohnson Administration's military policy).After supportingRichard Nixonin his1960 presidential raceagainstJohn F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights.Robinson was angered by the1964 presidential electioncandidacy of conservative Republican SenatorBarry GoldwaterofArizona, who had opposed theCivil Rights Act of 1964.He became one of six national directors forNelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election.After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had \"a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany\".He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to theNew York State Athletic Commissionby Rockefeller.In 1968, he broke with the Republican party and supportedHubert Humphreyagainst Nixon inthat year's presidential election. Robinson protested against the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in anold-timers' gameat Yankee Stadium in 1969.He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, nine days before his death, throwing theceremonial first pitchbefore Game 2 of theWorld Seriesat Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati.He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, \"I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball.\"This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, theCleveland Indiansgave their managerial post toFrank Robinson(no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s. Family life and death After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wifeRachel Robinsonpursued a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at theYale School of Nursingand director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center.She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990.She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946–1971), Sharon Robinson (b. 1950), and David Robinson (b. 1952). Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age.He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in theVietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965.After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program atDaytop VillageinSeymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution.On June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24.The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life. Robinson did not outlive his son by very long. In 1968, he suffered aheart attack. Complications fromheart diseaseanddiabetesweakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home at 95 Cascade Road inNorth Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old.Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, atUpper Manhattan'sRiverside ChurchinMorningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners.Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball starBill Russellserved as pallbearers, and the Rev.Jesse Jacksongave the eulogy.Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site atCypress Hills CemeteryinBrooklyn, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum.Twenty-five years after Robinson's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed theJackie Robinson Parkwayin his memory. This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson's gravesite. After Robinson's death, his widow founded theJackie Robinson Foundation, and she remains an officer as of 2024.On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan.Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father.His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist inTanzania. Awards and recognition On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired Robinson's uniform number, 42, alongside those of former teammatesRoy Campanella(39) andSandy Koufax(32).In 2017, astatue of Robinson, created by sculptorBranly Cadet, was unveiled atDodger Stadium. It was the first statue the Dodgers ever unveiled. In 1999, Robinson was named byTimeon its list of the100 most influential people of the 20th century.That same year, he was one of 30 players elected to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team.That same year, he was ranked No. 44 onThe Sporting Newslist of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\" in 1999.In 2020,The Athleticranked Robinson at number 42 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, complied by sportswriterJoe Posnanski. Baseball writerBill James, inThe New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.Robinson was among the 25 charter members ofUCLA's Athletics Hall of Famein 1984.In 2002,Molefi Kete Asanteincluded Robinson on his list of100 Greatest African Americans. TheCity of Pasadenahas recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field inBrookside Parknext to theRose Bowl,and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach center providing health services).In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $616,853 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance ofPasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family. Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American LeagueRookie of the YearAwards were renamed the \"Jackie Robinson Award\" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues). On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of thefour major American sports leagues. Under the terms of the retirement, agrandfather clauseallowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers.This affected players such as the Mets'Butch Huskeyand Boston'sMo Vaughn. The Yankees'Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season,was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Since 1997, onlyWayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by theNHLin 2000, andBill Russell's number 6, retired by theNBAin 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports. As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15,Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004.For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007.The gesture was originally the idea of outfielderKen Griffey Jr., who soughtRachel Robinson's permission to wear the number.After Griffey received her permission, CommissionerBud Selignot only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same.Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of theLos Angeles Dodgers,New York Mets,Houston Astros,Philadelphia Phillies,St. Louis Cardinals,Milwaukee Brewers, andPittsburgh Pirates.The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals,Washington Nationals, andTampa Bay Rayswore Robinson's number 42.On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at theBaseball Hall of Famecommemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics.In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date. At the November 2006 groundbreaking forCiti Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's oldEbbets Field, would be called theJackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009.It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets ownerFred Wilponannounced that the Mets—in conjunction withCitigroupand the Jackie Robinson Foundation—would create theJackie Robinson Museumand Learning Center, located at the headquarters of theJackie Robinson Foundationat One Hudson Square, alongCanal Streetinlower Manhattan. Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to \"young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals.\"The museum opened in 2022.The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque inMonument Park. Since 2004, theAflacNational High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the \"Jackie Robinson Award\". Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with theSpingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American.PresidentRonald Reaganposthumously awarded Robinson thePresidential Medal of Freedomon March 26, 1984,and on March 2, 2005, PresidentGeorge W. Bushgave Robinson's widow theCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, afterRoberto Clemente.On August 20, 2007, California GovernorArnold Schwarzeneggerand his wife,Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into theCalifornia Hall of Fame, located atThe California Museum for History, Women and the Artsin Sacramento. A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. TheUCLA Bruins baseballteam plays inJackie Robinson Stadium,which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis.The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013. City Island Ballpark inDaytona Beach, Floridawas renamedJackie Robinson Ballparkin 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15. 1990.A number of facilities atPasadena City College(successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack.The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson,andDorsey High Schoolplays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him.His home in Brooklyn, theJackie Robinson House, was declared aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976,and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark.In 1978,Colonial ParkinHarlemwas renamed after Robinson.Robinson also has anasteroidnamed after him,4319 Jackierobinson.In 1997, New York City renamed theInterboro Parkway in his honor.The following year, astatue of Robinsonwas dedicated atJournal Square Transportation CenterinJersey City, New Jersey. In 1997, theUnited States Mintissued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin.Robinson has also been honored by theUnited States Postal Serviceon three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000. In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball.The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé nearJarry Park, was Robinson's residence when he played for theMontreal Royalsduring 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: \"I rememberMontrealand that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man.\" On November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately. While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him.The only sport this did not affect wasmen's basketball, which hadpreviously retired the numberforWalt Hazzard(althoughKevin Lovewas actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing).In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers. The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues. A jersey that Robinson brought home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at an auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017. The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey. See also References Book sources Further reading Books Articles External links" ]
[ "List of World Series champions TheWorld Seriesis the annual championship series ofMajor League Baseball(MLB) and concludes theMLB postseason. First played in 1903,the World Series championship is abest-of-seven playoffand is a contest between the champions of baseball'sNational League(NL) andAmerican League(AL).Often referred to as the \"Fall Classic\",the modern World Series has been played every year since 1903 with two exceptions: in1904, when the NL championNew York Giantsdeclined to play the AL championBoston Americans; and in1994, when the series was canceled due to theplayers' strike.The best-of-seven style has been the format of all World Series except in1903,1919,1920,1921, when the winner was determined through abest-of-nine playoff.Although the large majority of contests have been played entirely during the month of October, a small number of Series have also had games played during September and November. The Series-winning team is awarded theCommissioner's Trophy.Players, coaches and others", "coaches and others associated with the team are generally givenWorld Series ringsto commemorate their victory; however, they have received other items such aspocket watchesand medallions in the past.The winning team is traditionally invited to theWhite Houseto meet thePresident of the United States. A total of 119 World Series have been contested through 2023, with the AL champion winning 68 and the NL champion winning 51. TheNew York Yankeesof the AL have played in 40 World Series, winning 27 – the most championship appearances and most victories by any team amongst themajor North American professional sports leagues. TheDodgersof the NL have the most losses with 14, while the Yankees have the most losses among AL teams with 13. TheSt. Louis Cardinalshave won 11 championships, the most championships among NL clubs and second-most all-time behind the Yankees, and have made 19 total appearances, third-most among NL clubs.The Dodgers have represented the NL the most in the World Series with 21 appearances.", "21 appearances. TheSeattle Marinersare the only MLB franchise that has never appeared in a World Series; theMilwaukee Brewers,San Diego Padres,Tampa Bay Rays, andColorado Rockieshave all played in the Series but have never won it, with the Padres and the Rays appearing twice. TheLos Angeles AngelsandWashington Nationalsare the only teams who have won their only World Series appearance, and theToronto Blue JaysandMiami Marlinsare the only teams with multiple World Series appearances with no losses. The Toronto Blue Jays are the only franchise from outside the United States to appear in and win a World Series, winning in 1992 and 1993. TheHouston Astrosare the only franchise to have represented both the NL (2005) and the AL (2017, 2019, 2021, 2022), winning the Series in 2017 and 2022. The 1919 and 2017 World Series were both marred with cheating scandals: theBlack Sox Scandaland theHouston Astros sign stealing scandal. The most recent World Series champions are theTexas Rangers. World Series results Numbers", "results Numbers in parentheses in the table are World Series appearances as of the date of that World Series, and are used as follows: Source for this Table World Series records by franchise In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of wins, then by number of appearances, and finally by year of first appearance. In the \"Season(s)\" column,bold yearsindicate winning appearances. Frequent matchups The following are the 20 matchups of teams that have occurred two or more times in the World Series. All teams that have participated in these were \"Classic Eight\" members of either the American or National League; no expansion team (created in 1961 or later) has faced the same opponent more than once in a World Series. See also References External links", "2021 Atlanta Braves season The2021 Atlanta Braves seasonwas the 151st season of theAtlanta Bravesfranchise, the 56th Season inAtlanta, and the Braves' 5th season atTruist Park. The Braves were managed byBrian Snitker, in his sixth season as the team’smanager. The Braves clinched their fourth consecutiveNational League Easttitle. They defeated theMilwaukee Brewersin theNLDSand faced theLos Angeles Dodgersin theNLCSfor the second straight year. They defeated the Dodgers in six games to reach theWorld Seriesfor the first time since1999. They would go on to defeat theHouston Astrosin six games, winning their first World Series since1995, their second since moving to Atlanta, and their fourth in franchise history.Jorge Solerwon theMost Valuable Playeraward in the World Series. Offseason November February Regular season Standings National League East National League Division Leaders Record vs. opponents Source:MLB Standings Grid – 2021 Updated with the results of all games through October 3, 2021. Game log Player", "Game log Player stats Batting Note: G = Games played; AB = At bats; R = Runs; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; SB = Stolen bases; BB = Walks; AVG = Batting average; SLG = Slugging average Source: Pitching Note: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; SO = Strikeouts Source: Postseason Game log Postseason rosters Roster Infielders Other batters Coaches Farm system Notes References External links", "2021 Houston Astros season The2021 Houston Astros seasonwas the60th seasonfor theMajor League Baseball(MLB) franchise inHouston,Texas, their 57th as the Astros, ninth in both theAmerican LeagueandAmerican League West, and 22nd atMinute Maid Park. Four Astros players gained selection to the2021 All-Star Game, tied for the second most from any team in baseball. The four weresecond basemanJosé Altuve,shortstopCarlos Correa,outfielderMichael Brantley, andrelief pitcherRyan Pressly, although none of them participated in the game.First basemanYuli Gurrielwon the ALbatting title, his first, with a .319batting average, becoming the second Cuban-born player and second Astro to do so. Correa led ALposition playerswith 7.2Wins Above Replacement(WAR). The Astros concluded the regular season with a 95–67 record, while clinching an AL West title for the fourth time in the last five seasons, as well as their sixthplayoff berthin seven years. By winning the AL West,Dusty Bakerbecame the firstmanagerin major league history to", "league history to guide five different clubs to a division title, giving him eight division titles overall. In the playoffs, the Astros defeated theChicago White Soxin theALDSin four games to advance to their fifth straightALCS. They faced theBoston Red Soxin a rematch of the2018 ALCS. The Astros won the ALCS in six games to advance to theWorld Seriesfor the third time in five years. It was the Astros' fourth pennant in franchise history and their third as an AL team. They lost in the World Series to theAtlanta Bravesin six games. Following the season, Yuli Gurriel and Carlos Correa won their firstGold Glove Awards, and the Astros were named the American LeagueGold Glove Team. Correa also won his firstPlatinum Glove Awardand his firstFielding Bible Award. An American League (and franchise) record five Astros were named Gold Glove finalists, along with another five as finalists for theSilver Slugger Award.Dusty BakerandLuis Garcíawere named finalists for theAL Manager of the YearandAL Rookie of the", "Rookie of the Yearawards, respectively. Baker finished third in voting, and García finished second. This marked the third consecutive season that an Astros player was named a finalist for theAL Rookie of the Year Award, followingYordan Álvarez, who won it unanimously in2019, and Cristian Javier, who finished in third in2020. Additionally, Álvarez andKyle Tuckerwere both selected for 2021'sAll-MLB Second Team. Offseason Summary The Astros entered the2021 Major League Baseball (MLB) seasonas having been defeated by theTampa Bay Raysin seven games in theAmerican League Championship Series(ALCS) and runner-up for the 2020AL pennant. The Astros played to a 3–0 deficit to begin the ALCS, won the next three, and were defeated 4–2 in Game 7. The Rays thus avoided joining the2004 New York Yankeesas the only MLB clubs to lose a League Championship Series after mounting a 3–0 lead. Acestarting pitcherJustin Verlandermissed the entire 2021 season recuperating fromulnar collateral ligament reconstructionsurgery, also", "also known as Tommy John surgery, which was performed on October 1, 2020. He was in the final year of his contract.On February 27, 2021, the Astros placed the right-hander on the 60-dayinjured listas he continued to recover from the surgery. Offseason transactions Free agent signings Free agent departures Pitchers that elected for free agency includedJoe Biagini,Chase De Jong,Roberto Osuna,Brad Peacock,Chris Devenski, andDustin Garneau Trades and waiver claims Players that were traded or claimed in the offseason by a different team includedBrandon Bailey,Humberto Castellanos,Cionel Pérez,Carlos Sanabria,Cy Sneed, andJack Mayfield. Contract extensions Regular season Summary April On April 1,starting pitcherZack Greinkeearned his first careerOpening Daywin, and 209th win overall, as the Astros defeated theOakland Athletics, 8–1, at theOakland Coliseum. He pitched six scoreless innings, the 65th time his career he has produced at least six scoreless innings.Yordan Álvarez, returning from dual knee surgery that", "knee surgery that cost him nearly all of the 2020 season,drove inthree runners, andMichael BrantleyandAlex Bregmanhit back-to-back home runs in the eighth inning.OutfielderChas McCormickmade his MLB debutas a defensive replacement for Brantley.It was the Astros' ninth consecutive Opening Day win, a club record, and equalled the modern era (since 1900) major league record for the longest streak, with the Seattle Mariners (2007–15), Cincinnati Reds (1983–91), New York Mets (1975–83) and St. Louis Browns (1937–45). Ryan Presslyfirst became Houston's full-timecloserin 2021. Brantley batted .345 in April and .410 in June, remaining at or near the top of the AL batting leaders for much of the season. ManagerDusty Bakerearned his1,900th career winin the major leagues on April 22 by an 8–2 score versus theLos Angeles Angels.In that game,Cristian Javierbecame the first Astros pitcher to record the first eight outs of a game by strikeout sinceJim Deshaieson September 23,1986, versus theLos Angeles Dodgers.Over five", "Dodgers.Over five innings, Javier set a new personal high with nine strikeouts and one walk and no earned runs. In their first rematch since the2020 American League Championship Series(ALCS), the Astros defeated theTampa Bay Rays, 9–2, on April 30.Lance McCullers Jr.hurled seven shutout innings, striking out nine. Brantley andCarlos Correaboth had four hits and Bregman hit a two-run home run. Four RBI came viaAledmys Díaz' two hits. Brantley, Bregman, Álvarez and Correa produced consecutive hits in the third inning, leading to three of the runs. With this win, Baker reached 1,906 to passCasey Stengelfor 12th all-time. May OutfielderKyle Tuckerrecorded a breakout season in 2021: from May 1 through the end of the season, he batted .320 and led the AL in on-base percentage, slugging and OPS. During the May 7 game versus theToronto Blue Jays,designated hitterYordan Álvarezdrove in the 100th run of his career, doing so in 114 game as part of a 10–4 victory. He was the seventh-fastest player to reach 100 RBI in", "to reach 100 RBI in league history and the fastest to do so since the expansion era started in 1961. The next game, he homered and drove in three more in an 8–4 loss to the Blue Jays for 103 RBI in 115 games. In the May 25 contest versus theLos Angeles Dodgers, Greinke became the 135th pitcher in major league history to reach 3,000 career innings.José Altuvewas hitless in four at bats to end a 17-gamehitting streak, the longest in the major leagues to that point in the season. June On June 4,Zack Greinkethrew his firstcomplete gamesince April 19, 2017, and first as a member of the Astros. He allowed six hits with one run and one walk and three strikeouts in a 13–1 win over theToronto Blue JaysatSahlen FieldinBuffalo, New York.Martín Maldonadohit agrand slam, andCarlos Correahomered twice to lead the Astros' 16-hit attack. In the June 6 contest versus the Blue Jays, infielderAledmys Díazsuffered a fracture in his left hand on ahit by pitchdelivered fromRoss Stripling. Díaz was expected to miss six to eight", "miss six to eight weeks. On June 15,José Altuvehit awalk-off grand slamagainst theTexas Rangers. The next day, he continued with a lead-off home run against Texas; Altuve is the first player in major league history to have a walk-off grand slam and then a lead-off home run in the following game. The Astros won that game, 8–4, to sweep their in-state rivals and realize their 12th win in their past 16th games.Third basemanAlex Bregmaninjured his leftquadricepsin the first inning of the June 16 game as he attempted to avoid hitting into a double play.CatcherGarrett Stubbswas recalled from Triple-ASugar Landto take his place on the 25-man roster. Altuve hit his 150th career home run on June 23, served up byThomas Eshelmanof theBaltimore Orioles. All-Star Game selections The following Astros players were selected as reserves to play at the91st All-Star Game, hosted by theColorado RockiesatCoors Fieldon July 13, 2021: With the four total selections, the Astros tied for second-most selections for 2021. July A", "for 2021. July A lingering knee injury dampened Brantley's second-half performance. As of late July, he maintained a batting average of .336. In an attempt to revamp their bullpen by adding higher-velocity pitchers, the Astros acquiredYimi Garcíafrom theMiami Marlinson July 28. Up until that trade, García saved 15 games with a 3.47 ERA over 39 total relief appearances in 2021. He struck out 35 in36+1⁄3innings. The Astros sent outfielderBryan De La Cruzand pitcherAustin Pruittin return. On July 30, the Astros tradedMyles Strawto theCleveland Indiansfor relieverPhil Matonand minor league catcherYainer Díaz. Trading Straw allowed for the Astros to give rookie outfieldersChas McCormickandJake Meyersmore opportunities to play.On July 31, the club selected Meyers' contract from Sugar Land and promoted him to the major league roster. August Jake Meyers made his Major League debut on August 1 as a pinch hitter in the ninth inning of a 5–3 loss to theSan Francisco Giants. Jake Meyers hit his first career home run on", "career home run on August 14 versus pitcherJaime Barríaof theLos Angeles Angels, and added agrand slamlater in the same game as the Astros won, 8–2. Third basemanAlex Bregmanreturned from left quadriceps strain on August 25 after missing over two months. He scoring the winning run versus theKansas City Royalson the day of his return, capping a 6–5, 10-inning score. September and October José Sirimade his major league debut on September 3 as a pinch runner in the ninth inning versus theSan Diego Padres.Jake Meyerspromptly hit a single that scored Siri from second base to give Siri his first run as a major leaguer. Siri made his first start in the majors on September 13, playing left field and facing theTexas Rangers. He went 4-for-5 with two home runs and five runs batted in to power a 15–1 rout atGlobe Life Field. He is the first player since the RBI statistic became official in 1920 to have that many RBI along with multiple home runs in their first major league start.Yordan Álvarezadded two home", "two home runs,including his 30th of the season; at the age of 24, he is the second Astro to hit 30 home runs in a season at that age afterAlex Bregman, who hit 31 in2018. In the September 17 contest versus theArizona Diamondbacks,José Altuvehomered offMadison Bumgarnerat Minute Maid Park to collect his 849th career hit in the stadium. The hit tied him withLance Berkmanfor most by an Astro in the venue. He then passed Berkman the next night with a double. On September 21,Carlos Correascored his 100th run on the season to become the first Astros shortstop to score 100 runs in a season. During the final road trip of the season, twenty-seven members of the team paid homage to veteran pitcherZack Greinke, known for his leisurely dress style. They wore fishing shirts, short shorts, andbucket hats.Lance McCullers Jr.also brought in a bag of groceries fromWhole Foods– as is Greinke's habit to fill his locker – as replenishment for their upcoming flight. Greinke, who is fromFlorida, wore a bright orangeTampa Bay", "orangeTampa Bay Buccaneershat, an oversized fishing shirt, and shorts.Martín Maldonadodonned his own bright orange hat. With Greinke posing with his new cadre of imitators, the team posted photos of their amusement onInstagram. The team had chosen to honor the pitcher, in the final year of his contract, after a 7–6 win over theArizona Diamondbacksin which had allowed five runs over four innings, raising his ERA on the season to 4.11. On September 23, Álvarez drove in two runs on a home run in the first inning againstLos Angeles Angelsto score his 100th RBI of the season. He was the second-youngest Astro to reach 100 RBI in one season, trailingCésar Cedeño, who did so at the age of 23 in1974.It was a 9–5 win.Ryan Presslycompleted a scoreless ninth in his 60th appearance of the season in this game, concluding the final condition for his contract for 2022 to fully vest. He would earn a guaranteed $10 million. Since being acquired by Houston at the2018trade deadline, Pressly had produced a 2.19 ERA, 0.924 WHIP,", "ERA, 0.924 WHIP, and saved 42 games in160+1⁄3innings. He had converted 25 of 27 save chances on the season. On September 28, the Astros won 4–3 against theTampa Bay Rayson consecutive walks with the bases loaded, which was the first time they had done so in team history and only the eighth time inMajor League Baseballhistory since 1931.The Astros clinched the AL West on September 30 with a win over Tampa Bay at Minute Maid Park for their fourth division title in five seasons. It was Houston's tenth division title and 15thpostseasonentrance. For the first time in franchise history, the Astros gained a postseason berth for the fifth consecutive season. With a combined record of 432–272 (.614) since 2017, Houston had attained the most wins in the major leagues in that span. Manager Dusty Baker secured his eighth division title while becoming the first manager to guide five different clubs to a division title.It was Baker's 11th career postseason appearance. In the final game of the 2021 regular season,Yuli", "regular season,Yuli Gurrielhit a walk-off single to scoreJason Castroand defeat theOakland Athletics.With that hit, hisbatting averagestood at .319 to lead teammateMichael BrantleyandVladimir Guerrero Jr.of theToronto Blue Jays(both hit .311) for the ALbatting championship. At age 37, Gurriel was the sixth-oldest player to win a batting title, the oldest to win their first batting title sinceBarry Bondsin2002, and the firstCuban-born playersinceTony Olivain1971.Brantley, continuing to produce through lingering knee pain, saw 39 at bats in September.It was the sixth time in his career he had finished in the top 10 in the AL in batting. Over the final month of the season,right fielderKyle Tuckerbatted .346 with eight home runs, 20 runs scored, 19 RBI, .438 on-base percentage, and .692 slugging percentage for a 1.130 OPS. He was awardedAL Player of the Monthfor September, his first career monthly award. Season standings American League West American League Wild Card Astros team leaders †Minimum 3.1plate", "†Minimum 3.1plate appearancesper team games playedAVG qualified batters: Altuve, Álvarez, Brantley, Correa, Gurriel, Tucker‡Minimum 1inning pitchedper team games playedERA and WHIP qualified pitchers: Greinke, McCullers Jr. Record against opponents Source:MLB Standings Grid – 2021 Updated with the results of all games through October 3, 2021. Game log Postseason Game log American League Division Series (ALDS) vs. Chicago White Sox The Astros played theChicago White Soxin the ALDS. The managers of the two clubs—Dusty Bakerof the Astros andTony La Russaof the White Sox—had faced each other over 200 times previously as managers of other major league clubs. This series capped a historic rivalry in two intertwining professional baseball careers of which both spanned more than 50 years. The Astros startedLance McCullers Jr., while the White Sox startedLance Lynn. The Astros got the scoring started with a line drive single off the bat of rookie center fielderJake Meyers. The Astros tacked on two more runs in the", "more runs in the third on aAlex Bregmanfielders choice and aYordan Álvarezdouble that made it 3–0 Astros.Michael Brantleyadded on to the lead with a two run single to make it 5–0. Álvarez added a solo homer to cap the scoring for Houston as McCullers would pitch6+2⁄3innings of scoreless ball. The White Sox would get on the board in the 8th inning on aJosé Abreusingle that made it 6–1 before Astros closerRyan Presslyshut the door in the 9th inning to seal the Game 1 victory for the Astros. The Astros startedFramber Valdez, while the White Sox startedLucas Giolito. The White Sox got the scoring started with a fielder's choice RBI fromEloy Jiménez. The Astros took the lead in the bottom of the 2nd with an RBI single fromKyle Tuckerand aChas McCormicksacrifice fly made it 2–1 Astros. The White Sox would storm back in the 5th, on RBI singles fromLuis Robert& José Abreu and a sac fly fromYasmani Grandal. The Astros would tie it in the bottom half of the 5th from a 2 run single from AL batting championYuli Gurriel.", "Gurriel. The Astros would blow it open in the 7th off relieversAaron BummerandCraig Kimbrel, with Yordan Álvarez driving in José Altuve,Carlos Correadriving in both Alex Bregman and Yordan Álvarez before Tucker hit a 2 run home run to left to cap off the scoring. Astros relievers Ryan Pressly andKendall Gravemaneach worked scoreless innings to seal the Game 2 win and give the Astros a 2–0 lead heading toGuaranteed Rate Fieldfor Game 3. The Astros startedLuis García, while the White Sox startedDylan Cease. The White Sox once again got on the board first with an Eloy Jiménez RBI single. The Astros would strike back in the 2nd on a Kyle Tucker RBI double and a Jake Meyers RBI single. Tucker hit his 2nd homer of the series to make it 5–1 in the 3rd. The White Sox would answer with 5 runs in the bottom of the third. Yasmani Grandal hit a 2 run homer andLeury Garcíahit a go ahead three run home run. The Astros would tie in the top of the 4th on an Alex Bregman RBI single. The White Sox would put up 3 in the bottom", "up 3 in the bottom of the 4th on RBI singles from José Abreu, Eloy Jiménez along with a fielder's choice RBI off the bat of Grandal to make it 9–6 Chicago.Andrew Vaughnwould come off the bench and double inYoan Moncada, García would double in Vaughn and Anderson would single in Garcia to make it 12–6. That would be the end of scoring and White Sox closer Liam Hendriks would shut the door to send the series to a Game 4. The Astros started Game 1 starter Lance McCullers Jr., while the White Sox startedCarlos Rodón. The game was postponed on October 11 and was moved to October 12th. The White Sox again got the scoring started with a solo homer from rookieGavin Sheets. Center fielderJake Meyerssustained an injury to his left shoulder while attempting to catch Sheets' home run ball on the fly. He exited the game and was replaced byChas McCormick.The Astros took the lead in the 3rd on an RBI double from Carlos Correa. The Astros scored three more runs in the fourth on an RBI single fromMartín Maldonadoand an RBI", "Maldonadoand an RBI double from Alex Bregman. Another run scored for Houston as Michael Brantley drove in McCormick, and they tacked on another run on an RBI single from Brantley that scored José Altuve. Altuve broke the game open with a three-run homer off White Sox closer Liam Hendriks. Astros closer Ryan Pressly would allow a single to Eloy Jiménez but shut the door afterwards to send Houston to their fifth straight ALCS. American League Championship Series vs. Boston Red Sox This was Houston's fifth straight ALCS appearance. The Astros faced theBoston Red Soxin a rematch of the2018 ALCS, which the Astros lost in five games. With home field advantage in the series, the Astros started game 1 at home, where Altuve and Correa played their 65th career postseason game together. It was the most for a second baseman/shortstop duo in MLB history (this was also in addition to Altuve-Bregman-Correa-Gurriel being the most experienced playoff quartet with 61 games).The Astros won the ALCS in game six, advancing to", "six, advancing to their third World Series appearance in five years. The Astros startedFramber Valdez, while the Red Sox startedChris Sale. The Astros got on the board first with a sacrifice fly from Yordan Álvarez. The Red Sox would respond with a game tying home run fromKiké Hernández, a fielders choice RBI fromJ. D. Martinezand a RBI double fromHunter Renfroebefore knocking Valdez out of the game after2+2⁄3. Sale would last only2+2⁄3as well before being pulled. The Astros would tie it on Altuve's 20th career postseason home run, tying him with Hall of Famer and Yankees former captainDerek Jeter. The Astros would retake the lead on a solo homer from Carlos Correa before adding another run on a sac fly in the 8th. Hernández hit another homer off Astros closer Ryan Pressly before Pressly shut the door to seal the 5–4 Game 1 win for Houston. The Astros startedLuis García, while the Red Sox startedNathan Eovaldi. The Red Sox got things started with a grand slam from DH J.D. Martinez. The Red Sox would add", "Red Sox would add another slam in the 2nd to make it 8–0 as Luis García left the game with a right knee injury. Kiké Hernández would add another run on a home run offJake Odorizzi. The Astros would add three runs in the 4th off starter Nathan Eovaldi with an RBI double from Kyle Tucker and an RBI single from Yuli Gurriel. The Astros would tack on two more runs with homers from Gurriel andJason Castrobefore the Red Sox sealed the win, 9–5. On the mound, the Astros started right-handerJosé Urquidy, while the Red Sox started left-handerEduardo Rodríguez. The Astros' startinginfieldconsisted ofYuli Gurriel,José Altuve,Alex Bregman, andCarlos Correa, who established an MLB postseason record with four teammates starting their 64th postseason game together.The Red Sox scored first with RBIs fromChristian VázquezandChristian ArroyobeforeKyle Schwarberhit Boston's third grand slam to break it open at 6–0, knocking Urquidy out of the game. Vázquez would add another run on an RBI single before Arroyo hit a 2-run homer", "hit a 2-run homer to make it 9–0 after 3 innings. The Astros got on the board on a 3-run homer from Kyle Tucker. The Red Sox would add three more runs on a 2-run homer from J.D. Martinez and a solo homer from Rafael Devers beforeHirokazu Sawamurashut the door to seal the 12–3 win for the Red Sox. The Astros startedZack Greinke, while the Red Sox countered withNick Pivetta. The Astros got on the board first with a solo homer from Alex Bregman in the top of the 1st. The Red Sox responded immediately with a 2-run homer fromXander Bogaertsin the bottom of the 1st. No other scoring occurred until the top of the eighth inning, when José Altuve tied the game with a leadoff homer. The Astros batted a total of 12 times in the ninth inning, with Correa leading the frame off with a double. On the hill for Boston to attempt to hold the contest at a 2–2 tie was Eovaldi, typically their number-one starting pitcher. Eovaldi struck out Kyle Tucker, then intentionally walked Yuli Gurriel, which brought Chas McCormick's spot", "McCormick's spot to bat. Baker opted to pinch hit for McCormick with Aledmys Díaz, whom Eovaldi also struck out. Jason Castro next batted for Maldonado, and with a 1–2 count,umpireLaz Díazcalled a slow curveball on that appeared to find the outside corner for a ball. After a foul ball, Castro singled on split-finger fastball to score Correa, putting the Astros back on top, 3–2. Next, Altuve worked a full-count walk to load the bases, leading Cora to remove Eovaldi forMartín Pérez. Michael Brantley greeted Pérez' first pitch–a fastball–with a double to clear the bases and increase the score to 6–2. Yordan Álvarez singled in Brantley to make it 7–2 and Correa and Tucker both followed with RBI singles to make it 9–2. The seven runs scored tied the postseason record for runs scored in a ninth inning. Astros closer Ryan Pressly allowed two singles in the 9th inning but allowed neither baserunner to score, securing the Game 4 win for the Astros and knot up the ALCS at 2 games apiece. The ALCS Game 5 featured a", "Game 5 featured a rematch of Game 1 starters: Framber Valdez for the Astros, and Chris Sale for the Red Sox. Houston scored first with an solo home run from Yordan Álvarez over theGreen Monster. Valdez did not allow a Boston baserunner until the fifth inning. The Astros scored five runs in the top of the sixth, chasing Sale with one out. Álvarez doubled home two more runs to make it 3–0, then Yuli Gurriel doubled home Álvarez; rookie outfielderJosé Sirisingled home Kyle Tucker and Gurriel to cap a five-run 6th inning. Both Álvarez and Gurriel collected three hits and three RBI;all of Álvarez' hits landed to the opposite field. This marked the first occasion in Álvarez' career in which he had produced at least three opposite-field hits; meanwhile Sale had allowed four total hits in 2021 to left-handed batters in42+2⁄3IP.Michael Brantley hit an RBI single in the seventh to up the score to 7–0. Rafael Devers got Boston on the board with a solo home run versus Valdez in the bottom of the 7th. Gurriel drove in", "Gurriel drove in two more in the 9th to make it 9–1. Valdez went eight innings and got the win, limiting Boston to three total hits and one walk while striking out five; he is the seventh visiting pitcher to go at least eight innings while allowing a run or fewer at Fenway Park in the postseason and the first sinceCharles Nagyin1998.Ryne Stanekshut the door in the 9th seal the Game 5 win and send the series back to Houston with the Astros up 3 games to 2. The ALCS Game 6 featured a rematch of Game 2 starters Luis Garcia for the Astros and Nathan Eovaldi for the Red Sox. The Astros got on the board first with an RBI double deep to center field from Yordan Álvarez. Kiké Hernández appeared to be in position to catch Álvarez' batted ball, but the ball bounced off his arm just below the glove and dropped to the ground for the two-base hit. Garcia allowed no hits until the sixth inning, when Hernández tripled with two outs. Baker removed Garcia, who left to a standing ovation from the fans. His5+2⁄3no-hit innings", "innings equaledBrandon Backe's club record for a postseason contest; Backe also started with5+2⁄3no-hit innings in the2004 NLDS. The Astros got another run in the sixth on a double play that scored Álvarez from 3rd to make it 2–0 Houston. In the seventh, Boston encountered their best chance to score with runners at first and third and one out following Alex Verdugo's single.Kendall Gravemanstruck out pinch-hitterTravis Shaw; at that instant, Maldonado threw perfectly to Carlos Correa, covering second, to catch Verdugo attempting to steal for an inning-ending double play. Kyle Tucker added insurance runs in the eighth with a three-run home run off relieverAdam Ottavino. Ryan Pressly closed the game in the ninth to defeat the Red Sox, 5–0, capturing the Astros' third pennant in the last five seasons. The ALCS win brought Baker his firstAL pennant. Thus, Baker became the ninth manager in major league history to win a pennant in both the American andNational Leagues, having first won in 2002. Origins of the", "Origins of the Astros' pennant-winning roster Having reached the World Series for the third time in five seasons, just six players remained from the2017 World Serieswinner; of the six, two did not play in the 2021 ALCS:Lance McCullers JrandMarwin González. World Series vs. Atlanta Braves This World Series appearance marked Houston's third World Series appearance in five years and fourth World Series appearance overall. Game 1 of the World Series featured a matchup ofCharlie Morton, who pitched for the Astros in2017and2018before leaving in free agency, for the Braves againstFramber Valdezfor the Astros. The Braves got the scoring started with a leadoff home run fromJorge SolerandAustin Rileydoubled inOzzie Albies. Soler drove in his 2nd run of the game on a fielder's choice RBI.Adam Duvallwould add a 2-run home run to make it 5–0 Atlanta. Morton would leave the game after2+1⁄3after taking a comebacker to his ankle in the 2nd inning, which fractured his right fibula and ruled Morton out for the rest of the", "for the rest of the series. The Astros would get a run in the 4th after an error from shortstopDansby Swanson. The Braves would get another run in the 8th onFreddie Freemansac fly. The Astros would tack on a run in the 8th as well on a RBI groundout from Carlos Correa. Braves closerWill Smithwould walkAledmys Díazbefore shutting the door to seal the Game 1 win for Atlanta, 6–2. Game 2 featured a matchup ofMax Friedfor the Braves andJosé Urquidyfor the Astros. The Astros got on the board first with an Alex Bregman sac fly that scored José Altuve. The Braves would respond in the top of the 2nd with a solo homer from catcherTravis d'Arnaud. The Astros would tack on four runs in the bottom of the 2nd with RBI singles from rookie outfielder José Siri, catcher Martín Maldonado and veteran outfielder Michael Brantley. Freddie Freeman would drive in his 2nd RBI of the series with an RBI single that made it 5–2 Houston. The Astros would tack on a run in the 6th on an fielder's choice error. Altuve would add another", "would add another run on his 22nd career postseason home run, tying him for 2nd place on the all time postseason home run leaderboard withBernie Williams. Kendall Graveman would shut the door in the 9th to tie the series at 1 game apiece heading to Atlanta for Game 3. Game 3 featured a matchup of rookie right handerLuis García, while Atlanta went with right handerIan Anderson. The Braves held the Astros hitless for the first seven innings until Aledmys Díaz hit a single to right field in the eighth inning to end the Braves' no-hit bid. The Astros managed just one more hit as the Braves won, 2–0, to take a 2–1 Series lead. The Braves opted for a bullpen game in Game 4, starting the left-hander Dylan Lee. The Astros went with right-hander Zack Greinke. Houston scored the first run of the game in the top of the first inning when Carlos Correa drove in Jose Altuve. Altuve would add to the lead with a solo home run off ofKyle Wrightin the fourth, passing Bernie Williams for second all time on the postseason home", "the postseason home runs list. The Braves would not get on the board until the sixth, when Austin Riley drove in Eddie Rosario against reliever Phil Maton. In the seventh inning, the Braves' Dansby Swanson stepped up and hit a game-tying solo home run off reliever Cristian Javier. Jorge Soler came off the bench and proceeded to follow up Dansby Swanson's homer with one of his own, this one giving Atlanta the lead. Tyler Matzek pitched a scoreless top of the eighth, aided by a great catch by Eddie Rosario robbing Jose Altuve of extra bases. Will Smith recorded his second save of the series, and the Braves moved win away from a World Series title. The Astros started Framber Valdez, while the Braves went with another bullpen game, starting Tucker Davidson. The Braves started off strong with a first inning grand slam by Adam Duvall. The Astros got an RBI double from Alex Bregman and a sac fly by Martin Maldonado to make it 4–2. In the top of the third, an RBI double by Carlos Correa and a sacrifice groundout by", "groundout by Yuli Gurriel made it a tie game at 4-4. Freddie Freeman put the Braves back up with a 460-foot home run into right field. In the fifth, with two on base, Braves reliever A.J. Minter intentionally walked Alex Bregman. Maldonado came up and drew a bases loaded walk to tie the game. He was followed by pinch-hitter Marwin González, who drove in two more with a single. In the top of the 7th, Maldonado tacked on his third RBI of the night with a double that scored Kyle Tucker. In the eighth, the Astros got one more on an RBI double by Carlos Correa, his second of the night. Kendall Graveman pitched a scoreless eighth and ninth to secure the 9–5 victory for Houston and force Game 6. The Astros started Luis García, while the Braves sent Max Fried to the mound. The Braves took a 3–0 lead in the top of the third inning on a single andwalkfollowed by a towering two-out home run byJorge Solerthat leftMinute Maid Parkover the raised train tracks in left field.Garcia exited after Soler's home run, having", "home run, having pitched2+2⁄3innings while striking out three batters. In the top of the fifth, a two-run home run byDansby Swansonfollowed by a walk then a two-out double byFreddie Freemanextended Atlanta's lead to 6–0. In the top of the seventh, Freeman hit a solo home run with two outs to make it 7–0.Tyler Matzekentered in relief in the bottom of the seventh; Fried allowed no runs on four hits while striking out six batters and walking none in six innings. AtlantacloserWill Smithwas brought in to pitch the bottom of the ninth. He allowed a leadoff single toMichael Brantleyand retired the next three batters, the last out being aYuli Gurrielinfield grounder fielded by Swanson, who threw to Freeman, giving the Braves the title.With this final inning,Will Smithfinished off a postseason in which he closed 11 of 16 Braves games while allowing no runs.Jorge Solerwon theWorld Series Most Valuable Player Award. With the World Series victory,Joc Pedersonbecame a back-to-back World Series winner on two different", "on two different teams, joining names likeJack Morris,Ryan Theriot,Jake PeavyandBen Zobristwho previously accomplished that feat.Pederson had become a fan-favorite throughout his three-month stay in Atlanta, particularly for his preference to wear pearls. Postseason rosters Awards notes For recognition of their defensive prowess,Rawlings Sporting Goodsannounced that the Houston Astros were the winners of the 2021 American League (AL) Gold Glove Team Award, the second iteration of the team-wide award, and Houston's first. The Astros led the American League with +78Defensive Runs Saved(DRS), second in MLB to only theSt. Louis Cardinalswith +86, the winners of theNational LeagueGold Glove Team Award. The Astros also led the AL with +45 outs above average (OAA), second in the major leagues to the Cardinals (+50). ShortstopCarlos Correawon his first career of both thePlatinum GloveandGold Glove Awards, marking the first time an Astros player has won a Platinum Glove. Correa led the AL with +21 DRS in 2021. Five", "DRS in 2021. Five Astros players were announced on October 25, 2021, as finalists for theSilver Slugger Award, includingJosé Altuve,Yordan Álvarez, Correa,Yuli Gurriel, andKyle Tucker.However, all of the five were claimed by players on other teams, includingVladimir Guerrero Jr.of Toronto at first base,Marcus Semienof Toronto at second base,Xander Bogaertsof Boston at shortstop,Teoscar Hernández,Aaron JudgeandCedric Mullinsin the outfield, andShohei Ohtaniat designated hitter. Starting pitcher Luis García finished second toRandy Arozarenaof Tampa Bay in the American LeagueRooke of the Yearballoting, receiving two first-place votes Manager Dusty Baker was named as a finalist for ALManager of the Year Award.He finished third, garnering two first-place votes, five for second place, and eight for third place.Kevin Cashof Tampa Bay was the winner. Statistics Note: Yellow background is team leader in specific category. Batting Regular season Pitching Note: Pos = Position; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run", "ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; SO = Strikeouts; HBP = Hit by pitch; WHIP = Walks + hits per inning pitched Source: Awards and achievements Major League debuts and awards AL batting leaders AL pitching leaders AL fielding leaders Roster Infielders Outfielders Other batters Coaches Minor league system and first-year player draft Teams In advance of the 2021 season, Major League Baseball took direct control of, and restructured, Minor League Baseball in part with the intent of cost efficiency, and enhancing the experience and compensation for its players and directly managing their development plans. The legacy league names were replaced with generic names depicting their level of play. One significant change for Astros included aligning theSugar Land Skeetersas their AAA club; the Skeeters were previously members of theAtlantic League of Professional Baseballand", "Baseballand unaffiliated with any major league clubs.Sugar Land replaced theRound Rock Express. Major League Baseball draft See also References External links", "Jackie Robinson Jack Roosevelt Robinson(January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professionalbaseballplayer who became the first African-American to play inMajor League Baseball(MLB) in the modern era. Robinson broke thecolor linewhen he started atfirst basefor theBrooklyn Dodgerson April 15, 1947. The Dodgers signing Robinson heralded the end ofracial segregationin professional baseball, which had relegated black players to theNegro leaguessince the 1880s. Born inCairo, Georgia, Robinson was raised inPasadena, California. A four-sport student athlete atPasadena Junior Collegeand theUniversity of California, Los Angeles, he was better known for football than he was for baseball, becoming a star college player with theUCLA Bruins footballteam. Following his college career, Robinson was drafted for service duringWorld War IIbut wascourt-martialedfor refusing to sit at the back of a segregated Army bus, eventually being honorably discharged. Afterwards, he signed with theKansas City Monarchsof the", "City Monarchsof the Negro leagues, where he caught the eye ofBranch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, who thought he would be the perfect candidate for breaking the color line in MLB. During his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inauguralRookie of the Year Awardin 1947, was anAll-Starfor six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won theNational League(NL)Most Valuable Player Awardin 1949—the first black player so honored. Robinson played in sixWorld Seriesand contributed to the Dodgers'1955 World Serieschampionship. He was inducted into theBaseball Hall of Famein1962. Robinson's character, his use ofnonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to thecivil rights movement. Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation,Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he", "In the 1960s, he helped establish theFreedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based inHarlem, New York. After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded theCongressional Gold MedalandPresidential Medal of Freedomin recognition of his achievements on and off the field. In 1997, MLBretiredhis uniform number, 42, across all Major League teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored.MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, \"Jackie Robinson Day\", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears no. 42. Early life Family and personal life Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family ofsharecroppersinCairo, Georgia. He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (née McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank,Matthew(nicknamed \"Mack\"), and Willa Mae.His middle name honored former PresidentTheodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born.After Robinson's father", "Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved toPasadena, California. The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family.Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities.As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it. John Muir High School In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled atJohn Muir Technical High School.Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers, Frank and Mack (himself an accomplished track and field athlete andsilver medalistbehindJesse Owensin the200 metersat the Berlin1936 Summer Olympics) inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports. At Muir Tech, Robinson played numerous sports at thevarsity levelandletteredin four of", "four of them:football,basketball,track and field, andbaseball.He playedshortstopandcatcheron the baseball team,quarterbackon the football team, andguardon the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in thebroad jump. He was also a member of thetennisteam. In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on thePomonaannual baseball tournament all-star team, which included futureHall of FamersTed WilliamsandBob Lemon.In late January 1937, thePasadena Star-Newsnewspaper reported that Robinson \"for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball, and tennis.\" Pasadena Junior College After Muir, Robinson attendedPasadena Junior College(PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track.On the football team, he played quarterback andsafety. He was a shortstop andleadoff hitterfor the baseball team,and he", "team,and he broke an American junior college broad-jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft.6+1⁄2in. on May 7, 1938.As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white.While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military.In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player. That year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing \"outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition.\"Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities. An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived asracist—a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in", "repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police.Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism.While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian.Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearbyUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family. UCLA and afterward After graduating from PJC in spring 1939,Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to winvarsity lettersin four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track. He was one of", "He was one of four black players on the Bruins'1939 football team; the others wereWoody Strode,Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players.At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's mostintegrated team.They went undefeated with four ties at6–0–4.Robinson finished the season with 12.2 yards per attempt on 42 carries, which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022. Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons. Intrack and field, Robinson won the1940 NCAA championshipin thelong jumpat24 ft10+1⁄4in (7.58 m).Baseballwas Robinson's \"worst sport\" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twicestolehome. While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife,Rachel Isum(b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic careerat PJC.He", "careerat PJC.He played football as a senior, but the1940 Bruinswon only one game.In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite the reservations of his mother and Isum.He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government'sNational Youth Administration(NYA)inAtascadero, California. After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled toHonoluluin the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated HonoluluBears.After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for theLos Angeles Bulldogsof thePacific Coast Football League.By that time, however, the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harborhad taken place, which drew the United States intoWorld War IIand ended Robinson's nascent football career. Military career In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit atFort Riley, Kansas.Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied", "soldiers applied for admission to anOfficer Candidate School(OCS) then located at Fort Riley. Although the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race-neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership.The applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months.After protests by heavyweight boxing championJoe Louis(then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help ofTruman Gibson(then an assistant civilian aide to theSecretary of War),the men were accepted into OCS.The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis.Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as asecond lieutenantin January 1943.Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged. After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned toFort Hood, Texas, where he joined the761st \"Black Panthers\" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam", "President of Sam Huston College (nowHuston–Tillotson University) in nearbyAustin, Texas; in California, Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC. An event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career.While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus.Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned themilitary police, who took Robinson into custody.When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson becourt-martialed. After Robinson'scommanderin the 761st,Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the758th Battalion—where the commander", "the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink. By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning.Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers. Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, and he was never in combat. After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge,Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving anhonorable dischargein November 1944.While there, Robinson met a former player for theKansas City Monarchsof theNegro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout.Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird.", "Thomas Baird. Post-military After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs.Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director atSamuel Huston Collegein Austin, then of theSouthwestern Athletic Conference.The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season.As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games.Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach,and drew the admiration of, among others,Langston Universitybasketball playerMarques Haynes, a future member of theHarlem Globetrotters. Playing career Negro leagues and major league prospects In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, theKansas City Monarchssent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues.Robinson accepted a", "accepted a contract for $400 per month.Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him.The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter.In all, Robinson played 47 games atshortstopfor the Monarchs, hitting .387 with fivehome runs, and registering 13stolen bases.He also appeared in the 1945East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats. During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues sinceMoses Fleetwood Walkerin 1884, but theBoston Red Soxnevertheless held a tryout atFenway Parkfor Robinson and other black players on April 16.The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City CouncilmanIsadore H. Y.", "H. Y. Muchnick.Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets.He left the tryout humiliated,and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster. Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s,Branch Rickey, club president andgeneral managerof theBrooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn'sInternational Leaguefarm club, theMontreal Royals.Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him.In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law", "arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military.Robinson was aghast: \"Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?\"Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player \"with guts enough not to fight back.\"After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to \"turn the other cheek\" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $10,155 today.Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause.Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects wasWendell Smith, writer for the black weeklyPittsburgh Courier, who, according toCleveland Indiansowner and team presidentBill Veeck, \"influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit.\" Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945.On October 23, it was publicly", "23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season.On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals.In what was later referred to as \"The Noble Experiment\",Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s.He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues,and black talentsSatchel PaigeandJosh Gibsonwere upset when Robinson was selected first.Larry Doby, who broke the color line in theAmerican Leaguethe same year as Robinson, said, \"One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken.\" Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed withChet Brewer's Kansas", "Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-seasonbarnstormingteam in theCalifornia Winter League.Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City.On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs. Minor leagues In 1946, Robinson arrived atDaytona Beach, Florida, forspring trainingwith theMontreal Royalsof theClass AAAInternational League.Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused. Robinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African-American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activistMary McLeod Bethune.Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility, scheduling was subject to", "was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson orJohnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. InSanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach.InJacksonville, thestadiumwas padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director.InDeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting. After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach.Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major", "against a major league team since thede factobaseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s. Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop tosecond base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base.Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946,Roosevelt Stadiumhosted theJersey City Giants' season opener against theMontreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs.Pitching against Robinson wasWarren Sandelwho had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his fiveat bats; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's thirdinning.He also scored fourruns,", "scored fourruns, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory.Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349batting averageand .985fielding percentage, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel aSouthernexhibition tour, for example),the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson.Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards.In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-livedLos Angeles Red Devils. Major leagues Breaking the color barrier (1947) In 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season. WithEddie Stankyentrenched at second", "at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as afirst baseman.Robinson made his debut as a Dodger wearinguniform number42 on April 11, 1947, in a preseasonexhibition gameagainst the New York Yankees atEbbets Fieldwith 24,237 in attendance.On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black.Although he failed to get a base hit, he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory.Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams. Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players.However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse.Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing", "The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. ManagerLeo Durocherinformed the team, \"I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded.\" Robinson was also derided by opposing teams.According to a press report, theSt. Louis Cardinalsthreatened tostrikeif Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League.Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, theNew York Herald Tribune'sRud Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to hisTribunecolleague and editor,Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland.The Woodward article made national headlines. After it was published, National League PresidentFord", "PresidentFord FrickandBaseball CommissionerHappy Chandlerlet it be known that any striking players would be suspended. \"You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts,\" Frick was quoted as saying. \"I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another.\"Woodward's article received theE. P. DuttonAward in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting.The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told authorRoger Kahnthat Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech \"never happened\".Regardless, the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from thesports media. EvenThe Sporting News, a publication that had backed the color line, came out against the idea of a strike.", "idea of a strike. Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg fromEnos Slaughter.On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and thePhiladelphia Phillies, Phillies players and managerBen Chapmancalled Robinson a \"nigger\" from theirdugoutand yelled that he should \"go back to the cotton fields\".Rickey later recalled that Chapman \"did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men.\" However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson namedLee \"Jeep\" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well.Dodgers teammatePee Wee Reeseonce came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, \"You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them.\"In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in", "around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati.Astatueby sculptorWilliam Behrends, unveiled atKeySpan Parkon November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson.Jewishbaseball starHank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he \"whispered a few words into Robinson's ear\", which Robinson later characterized as \"words of encouragement\".Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games.Robinson also talked frequently withLarry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in theAmerican Leaguewith theCleveland Indians, as the two spoke to each other via telephone throughout the season. Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for theDodgers, with a batting average of .297, anon-base percentageof .383, and a .427slugging percentage. He had 175", "He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31doubles, 5triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league insacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29.His cumulative performance earned him the inauguralMajor League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award(separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949). That year, theBrooklyn Dodgerswon the National League pennant and went on to face theYankeesin the1947 World Series. Robinson became the first black player to play in the World Series. He appeared in all seven games, with the Dodgers ultimately losing in Game 7. MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950) Following Stanky's trade to theBoston Bravesin March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980fielding percentagethat year (second in theNational Leagueat the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season.In a 12–7 win", "a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, hehit for the cycle—ahome run, atriple, adouble, and asinglein the same game.The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the pennant and lose to the Cleveland Indians in theWorld Series. Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues.Larry Doby(who broke the color barrier in theAmerican Leagueon July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) andSatchel Paigeplayed for theCleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $158,518 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from avaudevilletour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of", "ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate.In 1948, Wendell Smith's book,Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released. In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of FamerGeorge Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that \"Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second\". The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949.In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124runs batted inwith 122 runs", "inwith 122 runs scored.For the performance Robinson earned theMost Valuable Player Awardfor the National League.Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the1949 All-Star Game— the first All-Star Game to include black players. That year, a song about Robinson byBuddy Johnson, \"Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?\", reached number 13 on the charts;Count Basierecorded a famous version.Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to theNew York Yankeesin the1949 World Series. Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before theUnited States House of Representatives'Committee on Un-American Activities(HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actorPaul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined. In 1950, Robinson led the National League indouble playsmade by a second baseman", "by a second baseman with 133.His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($443,237 in 2023 dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases.The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life,The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself, and actressRuby Deeplayed Rachel \"Rae\" (Isum) Robinson.The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.The New York Timeswrote that Robinson, \"doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star.\" Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-ownerWalter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as \"Rickey'sprima donna\".In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President", "team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise.Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of thePittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, \"Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it.\" Pennant races and outside interests (1951–1953) Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in theMontreal Standardas saying, \"Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post\"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.", "formally offered. During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137.He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning, which proved to be the winning margin. This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rivalNew York Giants. Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant onBobby Thomson's famous home run, known as theShot Heard 'Round the World. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscasterVin Scullylater noted that the incident showed \"how much of a competitor Robinson was.\"He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases. Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952.He finished the", "finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career-highon-base percentageof .436.The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the1952 World Seriesto the New York Yankees in seven games.That year, on the television showYouth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager,George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player.SportswriterDick Young, whom Robinson had described as a \"bigot\", said, \"If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness.\"The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in theoutfield, withJim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson's interests began to", "interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in thePuerto Rican Winter League, but according to theNew York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request. In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and anotherWorld Seriesloss to the Yankees, this time in six games).Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats.He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor forOur Sportsmagazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friendJoe Louis.Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-starChase Park Hotelin St. Louis. World Championship and", "Championship and retirement (1954–1956) In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles.The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers defeated the New York Yankees in the1955 World Series.Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as athird baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base.Robinson, then 36 years old,missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series.He missed the game because managerWalter Alstondecided to play Gilliam at second andDon Hoakat third base. That season, the Dodgers'Don Newcombebecame the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year. In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals.By then, he", "steals.By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects ofdiabetesand to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball.Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the1956 World Series.After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rivalNew York GiantsforDick Littlefieldand $35,000 cash (equal to $392,240 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president ofChock full o'Nutsto quit baseball and become an executive with the company.Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story toLookmagazine two years previously,his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization. Legacy Robinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as thebaseball color line. After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased", "toward increased equality for blacks, including their acceleratedmigration to the North, where their political clout grew, andPresident Harry Truman'sdesegregation of the militaryin 1948.Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter.Civil rights movementleaderMartin Luther King Jr.said that he was \"a legend and a symbol in his own time\", and that he \"challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration.\"According to historianDoris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's \"efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities.\" Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers.During his career, the Dodgers", "career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games.In 1999, he was one of 30 players named to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team. Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–\"long ball\" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning.Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially morewalksthanstrikeouts(740 to 291).Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñosowas the other).He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total, including 19", "total, including 19 steals of home.None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time).Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as \"the father of modern base-stealing\". Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played.After playing his rookie season at first base,Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951.Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both. Assessing himself, Robinson said, \"I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being.\"Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field,Leo Durochersaid, \"You want a guy that comes to play. But he didn't just come to play. He came to beat", "He came to beat you. He came to stuff the damn bat right up your ass.\" Portrayals on stage, film and television Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion pictureThe Jackie Robinson Story.Other portrayals include: Robinson was also the subject of a 2016PBSdocumentary,Jackie Robinson, which was directed byKen Burnsand featuresJamie Foxxdoing voice-over as Robinson. Post-baseball life Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inducteeHank Aaronthat \"the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over.\"Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957.Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed withdiabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers.Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease. In October 1959, Robinson entered theGreenville Municipal Airport's whites-only", "whites-only waiting room. Airport police asked Robinson to leave, but he refused. At aNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) speech inGreenville, South Carolina, Robinson urged \"complete freedom\" and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second-class citizenship. The following January, approximately 1,000 peoplemarched on New Year's Dayto the airport,which was desegregated shortly thereafter. In his first year of eligibility for theBaseball Hall of Famein 1962,Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game.He waselectedon the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into theCooperstownmuseum. In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst forABC'sMajor League Baseball Game of the Weektelecasts, the first black person to do so.In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-livedBrooklyn Dodgersof theContinental Football League.In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator", "commentator onMontreal Expostelecasts. From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel atChock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation.Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause ofblack peoplein commerce and industry.He also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967.In 1964, he helped found, withHarlembusinessman Dunbar McLaurin,Freedom National Bank—a black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem.He also served as the bank's first chairman of the board.In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families. Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent,although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including theVietnam War(he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr. to defend theJohnson", "defend theJohnson Administration's military policy).After supportingRichard Nixonin his1960 presidential raceagainstJohn F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights.Robinson was angered by the1964 presidential electioncandidacy of conservative Republican SenatorBarry GoldwaterofArizona, who had opposed theCivil Rights Act of 1964.He became one of six national directors forNelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election.After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had \"a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany\".He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to theNew York State Athletic Commissionby Rockefeller.In 1968, he broke with the Republican party and supportedHubert Humphreyagainst Nixon inthat year's presidential", "year's presidential election. Robinson protested against the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in anold-timers' gameat Yankee Stadium in 1969.He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, nine days before his death, throwing theceremonial first pitchbefore Game 2 of theWorld Seriesat Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati.He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, \"I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball.\"This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, theCleveland Indiansgave their managerial post toFrank Robinson(no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American", "of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s. Family life and death After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wifeRachel Robinsonpursued a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at theYale School of Nursingand director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center.She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990.She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946–1971), Sharon Robinson (b. 1950), and David Robinson (b. 1952). Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age.He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in theVietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965.After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program atDaytop VillageinSeymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution.On June 17, 1971,", "June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24.The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life. Robinson did not outlive his son by very long. In 1968, he suffered aheart attack. Complications fromheart diseaseanddiabetesweakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home at 95 Cascade Road inNorth Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old.Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, atUpper Manhattan'sRiverside ChurchinMorningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners.Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball starBill Russellserved as pallbearers, and the Rev.Jesse Jacksongave the eulogy.Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site atCypress Hills CemeteryinBrooklyn, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum.Twenty-five years after", "years after Robinson's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed theJackie Robinson Parkwayin his memory. This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson's gravesite. After Robinson's death, his widow founded theJackie Robinson Foundation, and she remains an officer as of 2024.On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan.Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father.His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist inTanzania. Awards and recognition On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired Robinson's uniform number, 42, alongside those of former teammatesRoy Campanella(39) andSandy Koufax(32).In 2017, astatue of Robinson, created by sculptorBranly Cadet, was unveiled atDodger Stadium. It was the first statue the Dodgers ever unveiled. In 1999, Robinson was named byTimeon its list of the100", "its list of the100 most influential people of the 20th century.That same year, he was one of 30 players elected to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team.That same year, he was ranked No. 44 onThe Sporting Newslist of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\" in 1999.In 2020,The Athleticranked Robinson at number 42 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, complied by sportswriterJoe Posnanski. Baseball writerBill James, inThe New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.Robinson was among the 25 charter members ofUCLA's Athletics Hall of Famein 1984.In 2002,Molefi Kete Asanteincluded Robinson on his list of100 Greatest African Americans. TheCity of Pasadenahas recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field inBrookside Parknext to theRose Bowl,and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach", "community outreach center providing health services).In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $616,853 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance ofPasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family. Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American LeagueRookie of the YearAwards were renamed the \"Jackie Robinson Award\" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues). On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of thefour major American sports leagues. Under the terms", "Under the terms of the retirement, agrandfather clauseallowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers.This affected players such as the Mets'Butch Huskeyand Boston'sMo Vaughn. The Yankees'Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season,was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Since 1997, onlyWayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by theNHLin 2000, andBill Russell's number 6, retired by theNBAin 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports. As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15,Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004.For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007.The gesture was originally the idea of outfielderKen", "of outfielderKen Griffey Jr., who soughtRachel Robinson's permission to wear the number.After Griffey received her permission, CommissionerBud Selignot only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same.Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of theLos Angeles Dodgers,New York Mets,Houston Astros,Philadelphia Phillies,St. Louis Cardinals,Milwaukee Brewers, andPittsburgh Pirates.The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals,Washington Nationals, andTampa Bay Rayswore Robinson's number 42.On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at theBaseball Hall of Famecommemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics.In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date. At the November 2006 groundbreaking forCiti Field,", "forCiti Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's oldEbbets Field, would be called theJackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009.It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets ownerFred Wilponannounced that the Mets—in conjunction withCitigroupand the Jackie Robinson Foundation—would create theJackie Robinson Museumand Learning Center, located at the headquarters of theJackie Robinson Foundationat One Hudson Square, alongCanal Streetinlower Manhattan. Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to \"young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals.\"The museum opened in 2022.The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque inMonument Park. Since 2004, theAflacNational High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the", "been presented the \"Jackie Robinson Award\". Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with theSpingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American.PresidentRonald Reaganposthumously awarded Robinson thePresidential Medal of Freedomon March 26, 1984,and on March 2, 2005, PresidentGeorge W. Bushgave Robinson's widow theCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, afterRoberto Clemente.On August 20, 2007, California GovernorArnold Schwarzeneggerand his wife,Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into theCalifornia Hall of Fame, located atThe California Museum for History, Women and the Artsin Sacramento. A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. TheUCLA Bruins baseballteam plays inJackie Robinson Stadium,which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of", "memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis.The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013. City Island Ballpark inDaytona Beach, Floridawas renamedJackie Robinson Ballparkin 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15. 1990.A number of facilities atPasadena City College(successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack.The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson,andDorsey High Schoolplays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him.His home in Brooklyn, theJackie Robinson House, was declared aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976,and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark.In 1978,Colonial ParkinHarlemwas renamed after Robinson.Robinson also has anasteroidnamed after him,4319 Jackierobinson.In 1997,", "1997, New York City renamed theInterboro Parkway in his honor.The following year, astatue of Robinsonwas dedicated atJournal Square Transportation CenterinJersey City, New Jersey. In 1997, theUnited States Mintissued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin.Robinson has also been honored by theUnited States Postal Serviceon three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000. In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball.The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé nearJarry Park, was Robinson's residence when he played for theMontreal Royalsduring 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: \"I rememberMontrealand that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for", "perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man.\" On November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately. While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him.The only sport this did not affect wasmen's basketball, which hadpreviously retired the numberforWalt Hazzard(althoughKevin Lovewas actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing).In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers. The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues. A jersey that Robinson brought home with him", "home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at an auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017. The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey. See also References Book sources Further reading Books Articles External links" ]
After Meat Loaf legally changed his name due to a commercial, what was the first new brand launched by the company to whom the commercial belonged?
Dockers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat_Loaf#Personal_life
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Strauss_%26_Co.#Blue_jeans_era_(1960s%E2%80%931980s)
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Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat_Loaf#Personal_life', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Strauss_%26_Co.#Blue_jeans_era_(1960s%E2%80%931980s)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat_Loaf#Personal_life", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Strauss_%26_Co.#Blue_jeans_era_(1960s%E2%80%931980s" ]
[ "Meat Loaf Michael Lee Aday(bornMarvin Lee Aday; September 27, 1947 – January 20, 2022), better known by his stage nameMeat Loaf, was an American singer and actor. He was known for his powerful, wide-ranging voice and theatrical live shows. HisBat Out of Hellalbum trilogy—Bat Out of Hell(1977),Bat Out of Hell II: Back into Hell(1993), andBat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose(2006)—has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making him one of thebest-selling music artists of all time.The first album stayed on the charts for over nine years and is one of thebest-selling albums in history, still selling an estimated 200,000 copies annually as of 2016. Despite the commercial success ofBat Out of HellandBat Out of Hell II: Back Into Hell, and earning aGrammy Award for Best Solo Rock Vocal Performancefor the song \"I'd Do Anything for Love\", Meat Loaf nevertheless experienced some difficulty establishing a steady career within the United States.However, his career still saw success due to his popularity in Europe, especially in the United Kingdom and Ireland. He received the 1994Brit Awardin the United Kingdom for best-selling album and single, and was ranked 23rd for the number of weeks spent on the UK charts in 2006. He ranks 96th onVH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock\". Meat Loaf also acted in over 50 films and television shows, sometimes as himself or as characters resembling his stage persona. His notable film roles include Eddie inThe Rocky Horror Picture Show(1975), the bus driver inSpice World(1997), and Robert Paulson inFight Club(1999). His early stage work included dual roles in the originalBroadwaycast ofThe Rocky Horror Show;he also appeared in the musicalHair, both on andOff-Broadway. Early life Marvin Lee Aday was born inDallas,Texas, on September 27, 1947,the son of Wilma Artie (néeHukel), a schoolteacher and member of the Vo-di-o-do Girlsgospel musicquartet, and Orvis Wesley Aday, a former police officer who went into business selling a homemade cough remedy with his wife and a friend under the name of the Griffin Grocery Company.He stated in an interview that when he was born, he was \"bright red and stayed that way for days\" and that his father said he looked like \"nine pounds of ground chuck,” and convinced hospital staff to put the name \"Meat\" on his crib.He was later called \"M.L.\" in reference to his initials, but when his weight increased, his seventh-grade classmates referred to him as \"Meat Loaf\", referring to his 5-foot-2-inch (157 cm), 240-pound (110 kg) stature. He also attributed the nickname to an incident where, after he stepped on a football coach's foot, the coach yelled 'Get off my foot, you hunk of meatloaf!'” Meat Loaf's father would binge-drink alcohol for days at a time, a habit he started when he was medically discharged from theU.S. ArmyduringWorld War IIafter being wounded by fragments from amortar shell.Meat Loaf often accompanied his mother in driving to the bars in Dallas to look for his father, and often stayed with his grandmother.He attended church andBible studyevery Sunday. He was 16 years-old on November 22nd, 1963, the day of theassassination of John F. Kennedy. That morning, Meat Loaf had seen the President when he arrived atDallas Love Field. Later, after hearing of Kennedy's death, a friend and he drove toParkland Hospitalwhere he witnessedJacqueline Kennedy Onassis, covered in her husband's blood, getting out of the car that brought her to the hospital. In 1965, Meat Loaf graduated fromThomas Jefferson High School, having appeared in school stage productions such asWhere's Charley?andThe Music Man. He played high school football as adefensive tackle.After attending college atLubbock Christian College, he transferred to North Texas State University (now theUniversity of North Texas). In 1967, when Meat Loaf was 19 years old: his mother died of cancer, and his father lunged at him with a knife after falsely accusing the teen of having girls in his bedroom.Meat Loaf used the money his mother left him, to rent an apartment in Dallas, where he isolated for three and a half months, at which time a friend found him.Soon after, he went to the airport and caught the next flight to Los Angeles. Meat Loaf intentionally gained 60 pounds (27 kg) to fail hisphysical examinationfor theVietnam War draft. Despite this strategy, he still received his notice to appear before his local draft board, but chose to ignore it. Career Early career In Los Angeles, Meat Loaf formed his first band, Meat Loaf Soul.The band received several recording contracts.Meat Loaf Soul's first gig was inHuntington Beach, Californiain 1968 at the Cave, opening forVan Morrison's bandThemandQuestion Mark and the Mysterians.Meat Loaf later described his early days in the music industry as being treated like a \"circus clown\". The band underwent several changes of lead guitarists, changing the name of the band each time, to names including Popcorn Blizzard and Floating Circus.As Floating Circus, they opened forthe Who,the Fugs,the Stooges,MC5, theGrateful Dead, andthe Grease Band. Their regional success led them to release a single, \"Once Upon a Time\", backed with \"Hello\". Meat Loaf then joined the Los Angeles production of the musicalHair. 1970s With the publicity generated fromHair, Meat Loaf accepted an invitation byMotown, in Detroit. In addition to appearing as \"Mother\" and \"Ulysses S. Grant\" at Detroit's Vest Pocket Theatre, he recorded the vocals with fellowHairperformerShaun \"Stoney\" Murphyon an album of songs written and selected by the Motown production team. The album, titledStoney & Meatloaf(with Meatloaf spelled as one word), was released in September 1971 and included the single \"What You See Is What You Get\"; it reached number 36 on theBest Selling Soul Singleschart and number 71 on theBillboardHot 100chart. Meat Loaf and Stoney toured withJake Wade and the Soul Searchers, opening forRichie Havens,the Who,the Stooges,Bob Seger,Alice Cooper, andRare Earth. Meat Loaf left Motown soon after the label replaced his and Stoney's vocals from the one song he liked, \"Who Is the Leader of the People?\" with new vocals byEdwin Starr.He moved toFreeland, Michiganfor a year and was the opening act at theGrande Ballroom80 times. In December 1972, Meat Loaf was in the originaloff-Broadwayproduction ofRainbowat theOrpheum Theatrein New York.After the tour, Meat Loaf rejoined the cast ofHair, this time at aBroadway theater. After he hired an agent, he auditioned for thePublic Theater's production ofMore Than You Deserve. During the audition, Meat Loaf metJim Steinman. He sang a Stoney and Meat Loaf favorite of his, \"(I'd Love to Be) As Heavy as Jesus\", and subsequently got the part of Rabbit, a maniac that blows up his fellow soldiers so they can \"go home\".Ron SilverandFred Gwynnewere also in the show. In the summer between the show's workshop production (April 1973) and full production (November 1973 – January 1974), Meat Loaf appeared in aShakespeare in the Parkproduction ofAs You Like ItwithRaul JuliaandMary Beth Hurt. In late 1973, Meat Loaf was cast in the original L.A. Roxy cast ofThe Rocky Horror Show, playing the parts of Eddie and Dr. Everett Scott.The success of the musical led to the filming ofThe Rocky Horror Picture Showin which Meat Loaf played only Eddie, a decision he said made the movie not as good as the musical. About the same time, Meat Loaf and Steinman started work onBat Out of Hell. Meat Loaf convincedEpic Recordsto shoot music videos for four songs, \"Bat Out of Hell\", \"Paradise by the Dashboard Light\", \"You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth\", and \"Two Out of Three Ain't Bad\" and convincedLou Adler, the producer ofRocky Horror, to run the \"Paradise\" video as a trailer to the movie. During his recording of the soundtrack forRocky Horror, Meat Loaf recorded two more songs: \"Stand by Me\" (aBen E. Kingcover), and \"Clap Your Hands\". They remained unreleased for a decade, until 1984, when they appeared as B-sides to the \"Nowhere Fast\" single. In 1976, Meat Loaf recorded lead vocals forTed Nugent's albumFree-for-Allwhen regular Nugent lead vocalistDerek St. Holmestemporarily quit the band. Meat Loaf sang lead on five of the album's nine tracks. That same year, Meat Loaf appeared in his final theatrical show in New York City, the short-lived Broadway production ofGower Champion's rock musicalRockabye Hamlet.It closed two weeks into its initial run. Meat Loaf and Steinman started working onBat Out of Hellin 1972, but did not get serious about it until the end of 1974. Meat Loaf then decided to leave theater and concentrate exclusively on music.Meat Loaf was cast as an understudy forJohn BelushiinThe National Lampoon Show.It was at theLampoonshow that Meat Loaf metEllen Foley, the co-star who sang \"Paradise by the Dashboard Light\" and \"Bat Out of Hell\" with him on the albumBat Out of Hell. Meat Loaf and Steinman spent time seeking a record deal; however, their approaches were rejected by each record company, because their songs did not fit any specific recognizedmusic industrystyle.Todd Rundgren, under the impression that they already had a record deal, agreed to produce the album as well as play lead guitar along with other members of Rundgren's bandUtopiaandMax Weinberg.They then shopped the record around, but they still had no takers untilSteve Popovich'sCleveland International Recordstook a chance, releasingBat Out of Hellin October 1977. Meat Loaf and Steinman formed the bandNeverland Expressto tour in support ofBat Out of Hell. Their first gig was opening forCheap Trickin Chicago. Meat Loaf gained national exposure as the musical guest onSaturday Night Liveon March 25, 1978.In 1978, Meat Loaf jumped off a stage inOttawa, Ontario, breaking his leg. He finished his tour performing in awheelchair. Bat Out of Hellhas sold an estimated 43 million copies globally, including 15 million in the United States, making it one of the bestselling albums of all time. In the United Kingdom alone, its 2.1 million sales put it in 38th place. Despite peaking at No. 9 and spending only two weeks in the top ten in 1981, it has now spent 485 weeks on theUK Albums Chart(May 2015), a figure bettered only byRumoursbyFleetwood Macwith 487 weeks.In Australia, it knocked theBee Geesoff the No. 1 spot and became the biggest-selling album of all time in that country.Bat Out of Hellhas, as of December 2020, spent a total of 522 weeks in the Top 200 in the UK chart. 1980s In 1979, Steinman started to work onBad for Good, the intended follow-up to 1977'sBat Out of Hell. During that time, a combination of touring, drugs and exhaustion had caused Meat Loaf to lose his voice. Without a singer, and pressured by the record company, Steinman decided that he should sing onBad for Goodhimself. While Steinman worked on Bad for Good, Meat Loaf played the role of Travis Redfish in the movieRoadieuntil his singing voice returned.Steinman then wrote a new album for Meat Loaf,Dead Ringer, which was released in September 1981.Steinman had written five new songs which, in addition to the track \"More Than You Deserve\" (sung by Meat Loaf in the stage musical of the same name) and a reworked monolog, formed the albumDead Ringer, which was produced by Meat Loaf andStephan Galfas, with backing tracks produced byTodd Rundgren,Jimmy Iovine, and Steinman. In 1976, Meat Loaf appeared on the track \"Keeper Keep Us\", from theIntergalactic Touring Band's self-titled album, produced by Galfas. The song \"Dead Ringer for Love\" was the pinnacle of the album, and launched Meat Loaf to even greater success. While it failed to chart in the US, it reached No. 5 in the United Kingdom and stayed in the UK Singles Chart for 19 weeks.Cherprovided the lead female vocals in the song. On December 5, 1981, Meat Loaf and the Neverland Express were the musical guests forSaturday Night Livewhere he and former fellowRocky Horror Picture ShowactorTim Curryperformed a skit depicting a One-Stop Rocky Horror Shop. Also on the show, Curry performed \"The Zucchini Song\" and Meat Loaf & the Neverland Express performed \"Bat Out of Hell\" and \"Promised Land\". Following a dispute with his former songwriter Jim Steinman, Meat Loaf was contractually obliged to release a new album, resulting inMidnight at the Lost and Found, released in May 1983.According to Meat Loaf, Steinman had given the songs \"Total Eclipse of the Heart\" and \"Making Love Out of Nothing at All\" to Meat Loaf for this album. However, Meat Loaf's record company did not want Meat Loaf to sing Steinman's songs, saying that nobody wanted to hear them.Bonnie Tyler's version of \"Eclipse\" andAir Supply's version of \"Making Love\" topped the charts together, holding No. 1 and No. 2 for a period during 1983.Meat Loaf is credited with having been involved in the writing of some of the tracks on the album, including the title track, \"Midnight at the Lost and Found\". Poormoney managementas well as 45 lawsuits totaling US$80 million, including ones from Steinman, resulted in Meat Loaf filing forpersonal bankruptcyin 1983.The bankruptcy resulted in Meat Loaf losing the rights to his songs,although he received royalties forBat Out of Hellin 1997. In 1984, Meat Loaf went to England, where he felt increasingly at home, to record the albumBad Attitude; it was released that year.It features two songs by Steinman, both previously recorded, \"Nowhere Fast\" and \"Surf's Up\". The American release on RCA Records was in April 1985 and features a slightly different track list, as well as alternate mixes for some songs. The title track features a duet withthe Who's lead singerRoger Daltrey.It was a minor success with a few commercially successful singles, the most successful being \"Modern Girl\".In 1985, Meat Loaf took part in some comedy sketches in the UK withHugh Laurie.Meat Loaf also tried stand-up comedy, appearing several times inConnecticut. Meat Loaf worked with songwriterJohn Parron his next album,Blind Before I Stop, which was released in 1986 byArista Records. It features production, mixing, and general influence byFrank Farian. Meat Loaf was involved in the composition of three of the songs on the album.Meat Loaf performed \"Thrashin\" for the soundtrack of the 1986 skateboarding filmThrashin'(directed byDavid Wintersand starringJosh Brolin). 1990s Following the success of Meat Loaf's touring in the 1980s, he and Steinman began work during December 1990 onBat Out of Hell II: Back into Hell; the album was released in September 1993. The immediate success ofBat Out of Hell IIled to the sale of over 15 million copies, and the single \"I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)\" reached number one in 28 countries. In March 1994, at the36th Annual Grammy Awards, Meat Loaf won theGrammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solofor \"I'd Do Anything for Love\".This song stayed at No. 1 in the UK chart for seven consecutive weeks. The single featured a female vocalist who was credited only as \"Mrs. Loud\". Mrs. Loud was later identified asLorraine Crosby, a performer from England.Meat Loaf promoted the song with American vocalistPatti Russo, who performed lead female vocals on tour with him. Also in 1994, he sang the U.S. national anthem \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" at theMajor League Baseball All-Star Game.He released the single \"Rock and Roll Dreams Come Through\", which reached No. 13 in the United States. In 1995, Meat Loaf released his seventh studio album,Welcome to the Neighborhood. The album wentplatinumin the United States and the United Kingdom.It included three singles that hit the top 40, including \"I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)\" (which reached No. 13 in the United Statesand No. 2 in the UK),and \"Not a Dry Eye in the House\" (which reached No. 7 in the UK chart).I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)was a duet withPatti Russo, who had been touring with Meat Loaf and singing on his albums since 1993. Of the twelve songs on the album, two are written by Steinman. Both are cover versions, the \"Original Sin\" fromPandora's Box'sOriginal Sinalbum and \"Left in the Dark\" first appeared on Steinman's ownBad for Goodas well as the 1984 albumEmotionbyBarbra Streisand. His other singles, \"I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)\" and \"Not a Dry Eye in the House\", were written byDiane Warren. In 1998, Meat Loaf releasedThe Very Best of Meat Loaf. The album featured three new songs co-written by Steinman – two withAndrew Lloyd Webberand one withDon Black, \"Is Nothing Sacred\", released as a single.The single version of this song is a duet with Patti Russo, whereas the album version is a solo song by Meat Loaf. 2000s In 2003, Meat Loaf released his albumCouldn't Have Said It Better. For only the third time in his career, Meat Loaf released an album without any songs written by Steinman (not counting live bonus tracks on special edition releases). Although Meat Loaf claimed thatCouldn't Have Said It Betterwas \"the most perfect album did sinceBat Out of Hell\",it was not as commercially successful. The album was a minor commercial success worldwide and reached No. 4 on theUK Albums Chart,accompanied by a sellout world tour to promote the album and some of Meat Loaf's best selling singles. One such performance on his world tour was at the2003 NRL Grand FinalinSydney.There were many writers for the album includingDiane WarrenandJames Michael, who were both asked to contribute to his 2006 album,Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose. The album featured duets with Patti Russo and Meat Loaf's daughterPearl Aday. On November 17, 2003, during a performance at London'sWembley Arena, on hisCouldn't Have Said It Bettertour, he collapsed of what was later diagnosed asWolff–Parkinson–White syndrome, a condition marked by an extra electrical pathway in the heart which causes symptoms like a rapid heartbeat. The following week, he underwent a surgical procedure intended to correct the problem.As a result, Meat Loaf's insurance agency did not allow him to perform for any longer than one hour and 45 minutes. From February 20 to 22, 2004, during an Australian tour, Meat Loaf performed with theMelbourne Symphony Orchestra, in a set of concerts recorded for the albumBat Out of Hell: Live with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra. The performances included theAustralian Boys' Choirsinging back-up on aCouldn't Have Said It Bettertrack, \"Testify\". Meat Loaf and Steinman had begun to work on the third installment ofBat Out of Hellwhen Steinman suffered a heart attack. According to Meat Loaf, Steinman was too ill to work on such an intense project while Steinman's manager said health was not an issue. Steinman had registered the phrase \"Bat Out of Hell\" as a trademark in 1995.In May 2006, Meat Loaf sued Steinman and his manager in federal District Court in Los Angeles, seeking $50 million and an injunction against Steinman's use of the phrase.Steinman and his representatives attempted to block the album's release. An agreement was reached in July 2006.Denying reports in the press over the years of a rift between Meat Loaf and Steinman, in an interview withDan Rather, Meat Loaf stated that he and Steinman never stopped talking, and that the lawsuits reported in the press were between lawyers and managers, and not between Meat Loaf and Steinman. The albumBat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loosewas released on October 31, 2006, and was produced byDesmond Child. The first single from the album \"It's All Coming Back to Me Now\" (featuringMarion Raven) was released on October 16, 2006. It entered the UK Singles Chart at No. 6,giving Meat Loaf his highest UK chart position in nearly 11 years. The album debuted at No. 8 on the Billboard 200,and sold 81,000 copies in its opening week,but after that did not sell as well in the United States and yielded no hit singles, although it was certified gold.The album also featured duets withPatti RussoandJennifer Hudson.In the weeks following the release ofBat III, Meat Loaf and theNeverland Expressdid a brief tour of the U.S. and Europe, known as the Bases are Loaded Tour. In October 2006, Meat Loaf's private jet had to make an emergency landing atLondon Stansted Airportafter the plane's forward landing gear failed. In 2007, Meat Loaf beganThe Seize the Night Tour, withMarion Raven, serving as a supporting act. Portions of the tour in February 2007 were featured in the documentaryMeat Loaf: In Search of Paradise, directed byBruce David Klein. The film was an official selection of theMontreal World Film Festivalin 2007.It opened in theaters in March 2008and was released on DVD in May 2008. During a performance at theMetro Radio ArenainNewcastle upon Tyne, England, on October 31, 2007, at the opening of \"Paradise by the Dashboard Light\" Meat Loaf walked off the stage early in the song and said that it was his last performance. His tour promoter, Andrew Miller, said that it was a result of \"exhaustionandstress\" and said that Meat Loaf would continue touring after suitable rest.The next two gigs in the tour, at theNECandManchester Evening News Arenawere canceled because of \"acutelaryngitis\" and were rescheduled for late November.The concert scheduled for November 6, 2007, at London'sWembley Arenawas also canceled. Meat Loaf canceled his entire European tour for 2007 after being diagnosed with acyston his vocal cords. On June 27, 2008, Meat Loaf beganThe Casa de Carne TourinPlymouth, England alongside his longtime duet partner Patti Russo, who debuted one of her own original songs during the show.The tour continued through July and August with twenty dates throughout England, Ireland, Germany, Portugal, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark. Six U.S. shows were also added for October and December 2008. In May 2009, Meat Loaf began work on the albumHang Cool Teddy Bearin the studio withGreen Day'sAmerican Idiotalbum producerRob Cavallo, working with such writers asJustin Hawkins, Rick Brantley, Ollie Wride,Tommy Henriksen, andJon Bon Jovi.The album is based on the story of a fictional soldier, whose \"story\" furnishes the theme.The album is based on a short story by the Los Angeles-based screenwriter and director Kilian Kerwin, a long-time friend of the singer.Hugh LaurieandJack Blackboth perform on the album, Laurie plays piano on the song \"If I Can't Have You\", while Black sings a duet with Meat Loaf on \"Like A Rose\". Patti Russo and Kara DioGuardi also duet on the album.Brian MayofQueenfeatures on guitar along withSteve Vai. It received positive reviews from critics and fans alike.The first single from the album, \"Los Angeloser\", was released for download on April 5 with the album charting at number 4 in the UK Albums Chart on April 25, 2010.The Hang Cool Tour followed in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. Patti Russo accompanied him on the tour, continuing through mid-2011. 2010s Hell in a Handbasket, released in October 2011 for Australia and New Zealand, and February 2012 for the rest of the world, was recorded and produced byPaul Crook; Doug McKean did the mix with input fromRob Cavallo. The album features songs called \"All of Me\", \"Blue Sky\", \"The Giving Tree\", \"Mad, Mad World\", and a duet with Patti Russo called \"Our Love and Our Souls\". At the2011 AFL Grand Final, the pre-match entertainment was headlined by a 12-minute medley performed by Meat Loaf. The performance was panned as the worst in the 34-year history of AFL Grand Final pre-game entertainment in a multitude of online reviews by football fans and Australian sport commentators.Meat Loaf responded by calling online critics \"butt-smellers\",and the AFL \"jerks\", vowing to convince other artists not to play at the event. In 2011, Meat Loaf planned to release a Christmas album calledHot HolidaysfeaturingGarth BrooksandReba McEntire, but the album was never released. In September 2016,Braver Than We Are, a 10-track album created with Jim Steinman, was released. Meat Loaf recorded reworked versions of Steinman's songs \"Braver Than We Are\", \"Speaking in Tongues\", \"Who Needs the Young\", and \"More\" (previously recorded bythe Sisters of Mercy) for the album. Additionally, the song \"Prize Fight Lover\", originally issued as a download-only bonus track forHang Cool Teddy Bear, was re-recorded for the album. Later projects and Jim Steinman's death In January 2020, during an interview forThe Mirror, Meat Loaf announced \"I'm not old. I've got songs for another record and I'm reading a script.\"In a February 2020 Facebook post, Meat Loaf announced his intention to record a new album containing 'four or five new tracks', including Steinman's \"What Part of My Body Hurts the Most\" (a song long requested by fans, but previously under contract restrictions for theBat Out of Hellmusical), along with the original 1975 demo recordings made for theBat Out of Hellalbum.Meat Loaf's longtime collaborator Jim Steinman died on April 19, 2021, of kidney failure. In a Facebook post in November 2021, he further elaborated that he and his band would be returning to the studio in January 2022 to record seven new songs for a forthcoming album, which would also include live tracks from the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s.However, on January 20, 2022, he died at age 74. At the time of his death, the recording process had not yet begun. Acting In addition to his role in 1975 forRocky Horror Picture Show, Meat Loaf also had a career as an actor in television and film. 1992 he was a main character inLeap Of Faithwhere he played as the band director/bus driver/piano player, He also played a small role as a doorman/bouncer inWayne's World. He appeared as theSpice Girls' bus driver in the 1997 movieSpice Worldand as Red in the 1998 thriller/drama filmBlack DogalongsidePatrick SwayzeandRandy Travis. InDavid Fincher's 1999 filmFight Clubhe played Robert Paulsen, a man who joins a men's self-help group. He also reportedly assisted directorDavid Fincherwith the editing of the film. In 2000, he played a character in the sixth-season episode \"Gettysburg\" ofThe Outer Limits. Meat Loaf appears (uncredited) asJack Black's father in the 2006 filmTenacious D in The Pick of Destiny,providing vocals on the film's opening song \"Kickapoo\". In 2009, Meat Loaf acted inHouse (TV Series)S5 E20 \"Simple Explanation\", playing Eddie - a husband who is determined to die in order to donate his liver to his wife. On October 26, 2010, Meat Loaf (credited as Meat Loaf Aday) appeared on theFoxtelevision seriesGleein \"The Rocky Horror Glee Show\", the series' tribute episode toThe Rocky Horror Picture Show.In 2011, he was a contestant inseason 11ofCelebrity Apprentice, during which he was eliminated after task number 12. In the course of the contest he had a notable dramatic showdown with fellow contestantGary Buseywhich was then televised. Personal life Family and residences In December 1978, Meat Loaf went to work with Steinman inWoodstock, New York, where his future wife, Leslie G. Edmonds, was working as a secretary atBearsville Studios;they were married in early 1979. From a previous marriage, Leslie had a daughter namedPearl, who later marriedAnthraxrhythm guitaristScott Ian. Meat Loaf adopted Pearl in 1979, and her last name was changed to Aday.Also in 1979, he and his family moved to a house on Eagle Drive inStamford, Connecticut. In 1981, Leslie gave birth toAmanda Aday, later a television actress.For a brief time after Amanda's birth, they lived inWestport, Connecticut. He coached children's baseball or softball in each of the Connecticut towns where he lived, including for his daughter's team atJoel Barlow High School.He lived on Orchard Drive inRedding, Connecticut, from 1989 to 1998. He had also lived on Beach Road inFairfield, Connecticut.In February 1998, the family purchased a house inBeverly Hills, Californiafor $1.6 million.Meat Loaf and Leslie divorced in 2001. In 2001, he sold his 5,083-square-foot house inMandeville Canyonnear Los Angeles toGreg Kinnearfor $3.6 million.In 2003, theBBCsaid that he was seeking a residence inHartlepool; Meat Loaf supportedHartlepool United F.C.In May 2005, he purchased a 7,142-square-foot Spanish-style home offMulholland HighwayinCalabasas, California, for $2,999,000;he sold it for $3,065,000 in May 2011.He married Deborah Gillespie in 2007. In May 2012, he moved toAustin, Texas, purchasing a newly constructed 5,200-square-foot house at 17701 Flagler Drive for $1,475,000.Before his death, he lived inBrentwood, Tennessee. Name change In 1984, Meat Loaf legally changed his first name from Marvin to Michael because he was \"haunted\" by aLevi Strauss & Co.commercial which—according to him—contained the line “Poor fat Marvin can't wear Levi's.” Sports Meat Loaf was a fan of theNew York Yankees.He gotPhil Rizzutoto recite theplay-by-playof a young man racing around the bases in \"Paradise by the Dashboard Light\".He participated in multiplefantasy baseballleagues every season.He also expressed support for the English Association football teamHartlepool United F.C.In June 2008, he took part in a footballpenalty shootoutcompetition on behalf of two cancer charities inNewcastle upon Tyne. He auctioned shots to the 100 highest bidders and then took his place between the goal posts.He also participated in celebrity golf tournaments. In April 2005, he was one of the celebrity drivers in the 2005Toyota Pro/Celebrity Race, finishing seventh among the 12 celebrity drivers in the race. Social anxiety He revealed that he hadsocial anxietyand said, \"I never meet anybody much in a social situation because when I go into a social situation, I have no idea what to do.\" He said that he does not \"even go anywhere\" and that he felt that he led a \"boring life\", in having said that he \"completely freaked\" when having to attend a party and that he was \"so nervous, so scared\" of the idea. He also said that he spent time with fellow musicians mainly in work-related situations rather than social ones.He also said that as a kid, \"Being too fat to play with the other children, I had to spend a lot of time alone, which probably has a lot to do with the way I am today. I'm usually alone in my hotel room from right after the show until the next day's sound check. And I'm never bored; I don't get bored. Probably because mothers wouldn't let their kids play with me.\" Vegetarianism Meat Loaf was a vegetarian from 1981 to 1992. Discussing the confusion caused by his contrasting stage name and dietary habits, he once toldEntertainment Weekly, \"There've been vegetarians who wouldn't speak to me because of my name. I was sitting withJon Bon Joviat one of those awards things, and I say, 'Oh, man, I lovek.d. lang. I'd really like to meet her.' They went to find out if it was okay, and she goes, 'No. His name is Meat Loaf.' I stopped being a k.d. lang fan after that.\"He declared in 2019 that he would tryveganismforVeganuaryin 2020 and would be partnering with UK restaurant chainFrankie & Benny'sto promote its vegan options. Religion Although he did not belong to any faith-based institution, Meat Loaf was religious. While growing up, he attended church with his mother and studied the Bible, which influenced his work. Several of his songs, such as \"40 Days\" and \"Fall from Grace\", have religious themes. He prayed every night. Politics Political affiliations Meat Loaf was not officially registered with any political party. In 1997, he performed at aninaugural ballduring thesecond inauguration of Bill Clinton,and attended thefirst inauguration of George W. Bushin 2001.He donated to the presidential campaigns of Republican candidatesRick SantorumandJohn McCain, the latter of whom became the party's nominee in the2008 United States presidential election. On October 25, 2012, Meat Loaf endorsedMitt Romneyfor president, citing poorRussia–United States relationsas a major reason he had been \"arguing for Mitt Romney for a year\".He said, \"I have never been in any political agenda in my life, but I think that in 2012 this is the most important election in the history of the United States.\" He then said there are \"storm clouds\" over the United States and \"thunder storms\" over Europe: \"There are hail storms – and I mean major hail storms! – in the Middle East. There are storms brewing through China, through Asia, through everywhere.\"The same day, he performed \"America the Beautiful\" standing next to Romney. In a 2017 interview withBillboard, he made positive remarks about PresidentDonald Trump,Ivanka Trump, andDonald Trump Jr.; they had worked together onThe Celebrity Apprenticein 2011.When asked if he would vote for Trump, Meat Loaf said: \"I would vote for you. In fact, I'll help you with your campaign.\" In 2020, however, he said he was not 100% supportive of Trump. Climate change views Meat Loaf said that he did not believe in climate change.In an interview with theDaily Mailin 2020, he calledGreta Thunberg\"brainwashed\" due to her views on climate change, saying: \"I feel for that Greta. She has been brainwashed into thinking that there is climate change and there isn't. She hasn't done anything wrong but she's been forced into thinking that what she is saying is true.” Criticism of COVID-19 rules He was critical of theCOVID-19 lockdownsduring theCOVID-19 pandemic, telling thePittsburgh Post-Gazettein August 2021: \"I hug people in the middle of COVID ... I understood stopping life for a little while, but they cannot continue to stop life because of politics.\" He opposedmask mandatesand described a person who called for people on airplanes to wear masks as a \"Nazi\" and \"power-mad\". Meat Loaf then said: \"If I die, I die, but I'm not going to be controlled.\" Health In 2003, Meat Loaf was diagnosed withWolff–Parkinson–White syndrome, a condition marked by an extra electrical pathway in the heart that causes symptoms like a rapid heartbeat.Meat Loaf hadasthmaand, in July 2011, he fainted on stage while performing inPittsburghdue to anasthma attack. He collapsed again while on stage inEdmontonin June 2016 due to severe dehydration, after having already canceled two other shows due to illness.The playback containing his pre-recorded, voice-over vocal track continued while he lay unconscious on the stage, which caused controversy overlip syncing, claims that Meat Loaf denied, saying that his mic was live.After the incident, Meat Loaf usedacupuncture,physical therapyand a trainer for four days a week, an hour and a half each session.Meat Loaf had emergency back surgery in November 2016 including aspinal fusiondue to acystthat was pinching nerves, and in 2019, he was using a cane and a wheelchair to get around. At the 2019Texas Frightmare Weekendat theHyattRegency DFW hotel, Meat Loaf fell off an interview stage and broke hisclavicle.Meat Loaf and his wife sued Texas Frightmare Weekend and Hyatt due to the accident. Death Meat Loaf died inNashville, Tennessee, on the evening of January 20, 2022, at the age of 74. No officialcause of deathwas released.He was reportedly ill with COVID-19 earlier in January, and reporting byTMZsuggested that he died from COVID-19 complications.As his health rapidly declined, his two daughters rushed to see him in the hospital with his wife being beside him as he died.His daughter had posted toInstagramin early January that: \"We are not sick, but we have too many friends and family testing positive right now, positive but doing OK\".Notable people who posted tributes includeBonnie Tyler,Cher,Brian May,Boy George,Travis Tritt,Marlee Matlin,Stephen Fry, his Rocky Horror co-starNell Campbell, andDonald Trump.TheQueen's Guardperformed a rendition of \"I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)\". Discography Tours Note: Meat Loaf's band TheNeverland Expresshas since continued with American Idol winnerCaleb Johnson Filmography Film Television Books See also References External links", "Levi Strauss & Co. Levi Strauss & Co.(/ˈliːvaɪˈstraʊs/LEE-vySTROWSS) is an Americanclothingcompany known worldwide for itsLevi's(/ˈliːvaɪz/LEE-vyze) brand ofdenimjeans. It was founded in May 1853whenGerman-JewishimmigrantLevi Straussmoved fromButtenheim,Bavaria, toSan Francisco,California, to open a West Coast branch of his brothers' New Yorkdry goodsbusiness. Although the corporation is registered inDelaware,the company's corporate headquarters is located inLevi's Plazain San Francisco. History Origin and formation (1853–1890s) German-JewishimmigrantLevi Straussbegan business at 90 Sacramento Street in San Francisco, then moved to 62 Sacramento Street.In 1858, the company was listed asStrauss, Levi (David Stern & Lewis Strauss) importers clothing, etc. 63 & 65 Sacramento St.(today, on the current grounds of the 353 Sacramento Street Lobby) in the San Francisco Directory with Strauss serving as its sales manager and his brother-in-law,David Stern, as its manager. Jacob Davis, aLatvian-Jewishimmigrant, was aReno, Nevada,tailor who frequently purchased bolts of denim cloth from Levi Strauss & Co.'s wholesale house. After one of Davis's customers kept purchasing cloth to reinforce torn pants, he thought of using copperrivetsto reinforce points of strain, such as on pocket corners and the base of thebutton fly.Davis lacked sufficient funds to obtain a patent, so he wrote to Strauss proposing a business partnership. After Strauss accepted Davis's offer, the two men receivedU.S. patent 139,121from theUnited States Patent and Trademark Officeon May 20, 1873. The copper rivet was incorporated into the company's jean design and advertisements. Contrary to an advertising campaign suggesting that Levi Strauss sold his first jeans to gold miners during theCalifornia Gold Rush(which peaked in 1849), the manufacturing of denim overalls began in the 1870s. In 1890, the rivet patent went into the public domain; the same year, lot numbers were assigned to company products, and \"501\" was used to designate the famous copper-riveted waist overalls. The company lost its records in the 1906 earthquake and there is no information why that number was chosen. There areurban legendsclaiming that the first pair of Levi's jeans were made ofhemp, despite being made from cotton by theAmoskeag Manufacturing Company.This misinformation was likely spread byJack Herer.The first hemp jeans from Levi's were manufactured in March 2019. Growth in popularity (1910s–1960s) Modern jeans began to appear in the 1920s, but sales were largely confined to the working people of the western US, such as cowboys, lumberjacks, and railroad workers. Levi's jeans were first introduced to the East during thedude ranchcraze of the 1930s, when vacationing Easterners returned home with tales (and usually examples) of the hard-wearing riveted denim pants. Another boost came in World War II when blue jeans were declared an essential commodity and sold only to people engaged in defense work. Between the 1950s and 1980s, Levi's jeans became popular among a wide range of youthsubcultures, includinggreasers,mods,rockers, andhippies. Levi's popular shrink-to-fit 501s were sold as labeled, sized as manufactured, and had substantial shrinkage upon laundering.Although popular lore (abetted by company marketing) holds that the original design remains unaltered, the crotch rivet, watch pocket rivets, and waist cinch were removed during World War II to conform with War Production Board metal conservation rules and only the watch pocket rivets restored after.Additionally, the back pocket rivets, which had been covered in denim since 1937 to prevent scratching furniture, were removed in the 1950s (and replaced by bar tacks) as they eventually wore through and caused the problem anyway. Blue jeans era (1960s–1980s) From the early 1960s through the mid-1970s, Levi Strauss experienced significant business growth as the casual look of the 1960s and 1970s ushered in the \"blue jeans craze\". Levi's, under the leadership of Walter Haas, Peter Haas Sr., Paul Glasco, and George P. Simpkins Sr., expanded the firm's clothing line by adding new fashions and models, such as \"stone-washed\" jeans through the acquisition ofGreat Western Garment Co.(GWG), a Canadian clothing manufacturer, a technique still in use by Levi Strauss. Simpkins is credited with the company's record-paced expansion of its manufacturing capacity from 16 plants to more than 63 in the US – and 23 overseas – from 1964 to 1974. In the 1980s, the company closed approximately 60 manufacturing plants because of financial difficulties and strong competition. TheDockersbrand, launched in 1986 and sold primarily through department store chains, helped the company grow through the mid-1990s, as denim sales began to wane. Dockers were introduced into Europe in 1996 and led by CEO Jorge Bardina. Levi Strauss attempted to sell the Dockers division in 2004 to relieve part of the company's $2.6 billion outstanding debt. Brand competition (1990s) By the 1990s, Levi's faced competition from other brands and cheaper products from overseas and began accelerating the pace of its US factory closures and its use of offshore subcontractors. In 1991, Levi Strauss became implicated in a scandal involving pants made in theNorthern Mariana Islands: some 3% of Levi's jeans sold annually with the \"Made in the USA\" label were shown to have been made by Chinese laborers under what theU.S. Department of Laborcalled slave-like conditions.As of 2016, only a few of the costlier higher-end styles are made domestically. Cited for sub-minimum wages, seven-day work weeks with 12-hour shifts, poor living conditions, and other workplace abuses,Tan Holdings Corporation, Levi Strauss' Marianas subcontractor, paid what were then the largest fines in US labor history, distributing more than $9 million in restitution to some 1,200 employees.Levi Strauss claimed no knowledge of the offenses, severed ties to the Tan family, and instituted labor reforms and inspection practices in its offshore facilities. The activist groupFuerza Unida(United Force) formed following the January 1990 closure of a plant inSan Antonio,Texas, in which 1,150 seamstresses – some of whom had worked for Levi Strauss for decades – saw their jobs exported toCosta Rica.During the mid-and late 1990s, Fuerza Unida picketed the Levi Strauss headquarters in San Francisco and staged hunger strikes and sit-ins in protest of the company's labor policies. The company took on multibillion-dollar debt in February 1996 to help finance a series of privateleveraged stock buyoutsamong family members determined to consolidate the company under their ownership. At the time, shares in Levi Strauss stock were not publicly traded. As of 2016, the firm was owned almost entirely by indirect descendants and collateral relatives of Levi Strauss, whose four nephews inherited the San Francisco dry-goods firm after their uncle died in 1902.The corporation's bonds are traded publicly, as are shares of the company's Japanese affiliate, Levi Strauss Japan K.K. In June 1996, the company offered to pay its workers an unusual dividend of up to $750 million in six years, having halted an employee-stock plan during the internal family buyout. However, the company failed to make cash-flow targets, and no worker dividends were paid. The annual sales of the brand increased in 1997 to $7.1 billion. Later developments (2000–present) In 2002, Levi Strauss began a close business collaboration withWalmart, producing a line of \"Signature\" jeans and other clothes for sale only in Walmart stores until 2006. In 2002, the company closed its Valencia Street plant in San Francisco, which opened in 1906, the year of the city'sdevastating earthquake.By the end of 2003, the closure of Levi's last U.S. factory inSan Antonioended 150 years of jeans made in the United States.Production of a few higher-end, more expensive styles of jeans resumed in the U.S. several years later. In 2002, Levi Strauss closed several factories worldwide and took control of GWG's operations.Attempts to make the GWG brand profitable again were unsuccessful, and theEdmontonGWG factory, along with all remaining Levi Strauss factories in North America, closed in 2004. By 2007, Levi Strauss was again profitable after declining sales in nine of the previous ten years.Its total annual sales of just over $4 billion were $3 billion less than during its peak performancein the mid-1990s.After more than two decades of family ownership, rumors of a possible public stock offering appeared in the media in July 2007. As of 2007, Levi Strauss leads the apparel industry in trademark infringement cases, filing nearly 100 lawsuits against competitors over six years from 2001.Most cases center on the alleged imitation of Levi's back pocket double arc stitching pattern (U.S.trademarkNo. 1,139,254), which Levi's filed for a trademark in 1978.Levi's has successfully suedGuess,Polo Ralph Lauren,Esprit Holdings,Zegna,Zumiez, andLucky Brand Jeans, among other companies. In 2010, the company partnered withFilson, an outdoor goods manufacturer in Seattle, to produce a high-end line of jackets and workwear. In 2011, the firm hired Chip Bergh as the president and chief executive of the brand.In that same year, they established more than 20 different waterless manufacturing techniques, reducing the exceptionally high amounts of water used to create denim. Levi's is now the world's most sustainable brand of jeans in terms of water usage. On May 8, 2013, theNFL'sSan Francisco 49ersannounced that Levi Strauss & Co. had purchased the naming rights to theirnew stadiuminSanta Clara, California. The naming rights deal called for Levi's to pay $220.3 million to the city of Santa Clara and the 49ers over 20 years, with an option to extend the agreement for another five years for around $75 million. As of 2016, Levi Strauss Signature jeans were sold in 110 countries.In 2016, the company reported revenues of $4.6 billion. On July 13, 2017, Levi Strauss heir Bill Goldman died in a private plane crash nearSonoma, California. In 2017, Levi Strauss & Co. released a \"smart jacket\", an apparel they developed in partnership withGoogle. After two years of collaboration, the result was a denim jacket set at $350. In March 2019, Levi's debuted on theNew York Stock Exchangeunder the ticker \"LEVI\".Levi Strauss was valued at $6.6 billion as itsIPOpriced above the target. In September 2019, Levi's won a final judgment on atrademark infringementinGuangzhou, China. The case centered on the \"arcuate design on two pockets at the back of jeans\", which has been protected in China since its registration there in 2005. The company won damages and costs in addition to a ban on future infringements. The infringer's ignorance of the trademark was no bar to punishment. In 2019, Levi's became one of only two major clothing companies with commitments in line with theParis Agreement's goal of limiting global average temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. In 2020, Levi Strauss & Co. was expected to have completely replaced chemical usage as well as usinglasersto cut, and design ripped parts of jeans.In December 2019, the Engage for Good (formerly Cause Marketing Forum) organization awarded the company the Golden Halo Award for 2020for their advancements in corporate social impact. On August 5, 2021, Levi Strauss & Co. announced the acquisition of Beyond Yoga, entering the activewear market. They expect the acquisition will contribute more than $100 million in net revenue per year.It was announced senior executives are to speak with AI expert Blake Van Leer at the LA eCommerce Summit about their digital strategies and AI in 2023.It was announced in January 2023 that Levi would begin accepting old pairs of jeans to recycle into more denim in a campaign to go green.Levi's Autumn/Winter 2023 WellThread capsule aimed to show the brand's engagement to sustainability as it included items made from 100% transitional cotton as well as plant-based natural dyes. Cultural impact Levi's have been worn by people of all backgrounds – from miners to actors to Nobel Prize recipients.Marlon BrandoandAlbert Einsteinwore Levi's, and Einstein wore a 1930s-era Levi's leather jacket, which sold at auction houseChristie'sin July 2016 for £110,500. Levi's is aggressive in advertising, marketing, andtrademarkprotection. It has used its signature arched stitching on the back pockets of its jeans since 1873. In 1943, the firm trademarked the design in the U.S. and has done so in more than 100 total jurisdictions as of 2019.It has also trademarked variousword marks, including \"Levi's\", \"Red Tab\", \"Orange Tab\", \"Silvertab\", \"501\", \"505\", \"517\", \"550\", \"569\": and \"Dockers\". During theCold War, Levi's became a symbol of the west in theSoviet Union. According to historian Kristin Roth-Ey, the association stemmed from the 1957World Festival of Youth and StudentsinMoscow: Americans wore Levi's jeans to the event, resulting in widespread interest within theRussian Soviet Federative Socialist Republicthat prompted the Soviet government to condemn the brand as a symbol of western decadence.Continued demand for the jeans resulted in both genuine articles and bootlegs becoming commonplace in Soviet black markets, and in 1979, the Soviet government struck deals with Levi's and theVF Corporationto manufacture jeans for consumers in the region; however, this deal fell through due to the1980 Summer Olympics boycottfollowing the onset of theSoviet–Afghan War. In 2022, it was reported that a pair of Levi's jeans from the 1880s found in an abandoned mine shaft was sold for $87,400 at an auction inNew Mexico.The vintage Levi's bore a label with the inscription \"the only kind made by white labor\", a detail which helped date the jeans to the period between 1882, which was after the U.S. Congress passed theChinese Exclusion Act, banning Chinese laborers seeking to immigrate to the U.S., and the 1890s, when the company \"reversed policy and company leaders began speaking out against the nation's racist policy\". Corporate structure and staff Levi Strauss & Co. is a worldwide corporation organized into three geographic divisions: Levi Strauss Americas (LSA), which is headquartered inSan Francisco; Levi Strauss Europe (LSE), which is based inBrussels; and Levi Strauss Asia Pacific, Middle East and Africa. Strauss passed the company to his nephews, the sons of David Stern, upon his death in 1902.Walter A. Haas, who married the daughter of David's fourth son, Sigmund Stern, became president in 1928, and the company remained under the ownership of the Stern-Haas family until first going public in 1971. However, in 1985, the Haas family recaptured ownership of the company, taking it private once again for the next 34 years.In February 2019, the company filed with theU.S. Securities and Exchange Commissionfor aninitial public offeringto be traded on theNew York Stock Exchangeunder theticker symbolLEVI.It was held on March 21, 2019, selling for $17 per share. The company is also well known for promoting progressive causes.It was one of the earliest private sector institutions to support LGBTQ causes and, during the 2016 presidential campaign, donated $1 million to support immigration andLGBTQrights. In 2018, CEO Chip Bergh published anop-edinFortunemagazine, speaking out against gun violence. However, the company is alleged to make use ofUyghurforced labor provided by the China-based supplier Beijing Guanghua Textile Group from a report by theHelena Kennedy Center for International Justice, thesocialists and democrats in the European Parliament.Levi's has disputedthese claims. In the first few months of theCOVID-19 pandemic, the company experienced a 62% drop in sales and recorded a $364 million loss. Some 700 office jobs were pared to reduce expenses by $100 million. Current products As of 2019, Levi's are made in many developing countries, including Bangladesh, India, Egypt, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Mexico. Some top-end styles in the \"Levi's Premium\" and \"Levi's Vintage Clothing\" lines are produced in the United States. In addition to jeans, Levi's sells a full line of shirts, jackets, sweaters, underwear, socks, eyeglasses, accessories, dresses, skirts, and leather products. All jeans and pants are categorized by fit – skinny, slim, straight, bootcut, taper, relaxed, flare, and \"big & tall\" – identified by trademarked three-digit numbers. The 501, the company's original modern design, is available in styles for both men and women. The rest of the 500 series is designed for men, and the 300, 400, 700, and 800 series for women. See also References Further reading External links 37°48′10″N122°24′10″W / 37.80278°N 122.40278°W /37.80278; -122.40278" ]
[ "Meat Loaf Michael Lee Aday(bornMarvin Lee Aday; September 27, 1947 – January 20, 2022), better known by his stage nameMeat Loaf, was an American singer and actor. He was known for his powerful, wide-ranging voice and theatrical live shows. HisBat Out of Hellalbum trilogy—Bat Out of Hell(1977),Bat Out of Hell II: Back into Hell(1993), andBat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose(2006)—has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making him one of thebest-selling music artists of all time.The first album stayed on the charts for over nine years and is one of thebest-selling albums in history, still selling an estimated 200,000 copies annually as of 2016. Despite the commercial success ofBat Out of HellandBat Out of Hell II: Back Into Hell, and earning aGrammy Award for Best Solo Rock Vocal Performancefor the song \"I'd Do Anything for Love\", Meat Loaf nevertheless experienced some difficulty establishing a steady career within the United States.However, his career still saw success due to his popularity in", "his popularity in Europe, especially in the United Kingdom and Ireland. He received the 1994Brit Awardin the United Kingdom for best-selling album and single, and was ranked 23rd for the number of weeks spent on the UK charts in 2006. He ranks 96th onVH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock\". Meat Loaf also acted in over 50 films and television shows, sometimes as himself or as characters resembling his stage persona. His notable film roles include Eddie inThe Rocky Horror Picture Show(1975), the bus driver inSpice World(1997), and Robert Paulson inFight Club(1999). His early stage work included dual roles in the originalBroadwaycast ofThe Rocky Horror Show;he also appeared in the musicalHair, both on andOff-Broadway. Early life Marvin Lee Aday was born inDallas,Texas, on September 27, 1947,the son of Wilma Artie (néeHukel), a schoolteacher and member of the Vo-di-o-do Girlsgospel musicquartet, and Orvis Wesley Aday, a former police officer who went into business selling a homemade cough remedy with his wife", "with his wife and a friend under the name of the Griffin Grocery Company.He stated in an interview that when he was born, he was \"bright red and stayed that way for days\" and that his father said he looked like \"nine pounds of ground chuck,” and convinced hospital staff to put the name \"Meat\" on his crib.He was later called \"M.L.\" in reference to his initials, but when his weight increased, his seventh-grade classmates referred to him as \"Meat Loaf\", referring to his 5-foot-2-inch (157 cm), 240-pound (110 kg) stature. He also attributed the nickname to an incident where, after he stepped on a football coach's foot, the coach yelled 'Get off my foot, you hunk of meatloaf!'” Meat Loaf's father would binge-drink alcohol for days at a time, a habit he started when he was medically discharged from theU.S. ArmyduringWorld War IIafter being wounded by fragments from amortar shell.Meat Loaf often accompanied his mother in driving to the bars in Dallas to look for his father, and often stayed with his grandmother.He", "his grandmother.He attended church andBible studyevery Sunday. He was 16 years-old on November 22nd, 1963, the day of theassassination of John F. Kennedy. That morning, Meat Loaf had seen the President when he arrived atDallas Love Field. Later, after hearing of Kennedy's death, a friend and he drove toParkland Hospitalwhere he witnessedJacqueline Kennedy Onassis, covered in her husband's blood, getting out of the car that brought her to the hospital. In 1965, Meat Loaf graduated fromThomas Jefferson High School, having appeared in school stage productions such asWhere's Charley?andThe Music Man. He played high school football as adefensive tackle.After attending college atLubbock Christian College, he transferred to North Texas State University (now theUniversity of North Texas). In 1967, when Meat Loaf was 19 years old: his mother died of cancer, and his father lunged at him with a knife after falsely accusing the teen of having girls in his bedroom.Meat Loaf used the money his mother left him, to rent an", "him, to rent an apartment in Dallas, where he isolated for three and a half months, at which time a friend found him.Soon after, he went to the airport and caught the next flight to Los Angeles. Meat Loaf intentionally gained 60 pounds (27 kg) to fail hisphysical examinationfor theVietnam War draft. Despite this strategy, he still received his notice to appear before his local draft board, but chose to ignore it. Career Early career In Los Angeles, Meat Loaf formed his first band, Meat Loaf Soul.The band received several recording contracts.Meat Loaf Soul's first gig was inHuntington Beach, Californiain 1968 at the Cave, opening forVan Morrison's bandThemandQuestion Mark and the Mysterians.Meat Loaf later described his early days in the music industry as being treated like a \"circus clown\". The band underwent several changes of lead guitarists, changing the name of the band each time, to names including Popcorn Blizzard and Floating Circus.As Floating Circus, they opened forthe Who,the Fugs,the Stooges,MC5,", "Stooges,MC5, theGrateful Dead, andthe Grease Band. Their regional success led them to release a single, \"Once Upon a Time\", backed with \"Hello\". Meat Loaf then joined the Los Angeles production of the musicalHair. 1970s With the publicity generated fromHair, Meat Loaf accepted an invitation byMotown, in Detroit. In addition to appearing as \"Mother\" and \"Ulysses S. Grant\" at Detroit's Vest Pocket Theatre, he recorded the vocals with fellowHairperformerShaun \"Stoney\" Murphyon an album of songs written and selected by the Motown production team. The album, titledStoney & Meatloaf(with Meatloaf spelled as one word), was released in September 1971 and included the single \"What You See Is What You Get\"; it reached number 36 on theBest Selling Soul Singleschart and number 71 on theBillboardHot 100chart. Meat Loaf and Stoney toured withJake Wade and the Soul Searchers, opening forRichie Havens,the Who,the Stooges,Bob Seger,Alice Cooper, andRare Earth. Meat Loaf left Motown soon after the label replaced his and", "replaced his and Stoney's vocals from the one song he liked, \"Who Is the Leader of the People?\" with new vocals byEdwin Starr.He moved toFreeland, Michiganfor a year and was the opening act at theGrande Ballroom80 times. In December 1972, Meat Loaf was in the originaloff-Broadwayproduction ofRainbowat theOrpheum Theatrein New York.After the tour, Meat Loaf rejoined the cast ofHair, this time at aBroadway theater. After he hired an agent, he auditioned for thePublic Theater's production ofMore Than You Deserve. During the audition, Meat Loaf metJim Steinman. He sang a Stoney and Meat Loaf favorite of his, \"(I'd Love to Be) As Heavy as Jesus\", and subsequently got the part of Rabbit, a maniac that blows up his fellow soldiers so they can \"go home\".Ron SilverandFred Gwynnewere also in the show. In the summer between the show's workshop production (April 1973) and full production (November 1973 – January 1974), Meat Loaf appeared in aShakespeare in the Parkproduction ofAs You Like ItwithRaul JuliaandMary Beth", "JuliaandMary Beth Hurt. In late 1973, Meat Loaf was cast in the original L.A. Roxy cast ofThe Rocky Horror Show, playing the parts of Eddie and Dr. Everett Scott.The success of the musical led to the filming ofThe Rocky Horror Picture Showin which Meat Loaf played only Eddie, a decision he said made the movie not as good as the musical. About the same time, Meat Loaf and Steinman started work onBat Out of Hell. Meat Loaf convincedEpic Recordsto shoot music videos for four songs, \"Bat Out of Hell\", \"Paradise by the Dashboard Light\", \"You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth\", and \"Two Out of Three Ain't Bad\" and convincedLou Adler, the producer ofRocky Horror, to run the \"Paradise\" video as a trailer to the movie. During his recording of the soundtrack forRocky Horror, Meat Loaf recorded two more songs: \"Stand by Me\" (aBen E. Kingcover), and \"Clap Your Hands\". They remained unreleased for a decade, until 1984, when they appeared as B-sides to the \"Nowhere Fast\" single. In 1976, Meat Loaf recorded lead vocals", "lead vocals forTed Nugent's albumFree-for-Allwhen regular Nugent lead vocalistDerek St. Holmestemporarily quit the band. Meat Loaf sang lead on five of the album's nine tracks. That same year, Meat Loaf appeared in his final theatrical show in New York City, the short-lived Broadway production ofGower Champion's rock musicalRockabye Hamlet.It closed two weeks into its initial run. Meat Loaf and Steinman started working onBat Out of Hellin 1972, but did not get serious about it until the end of 1974. Meat Loaf then decided to leave theater and concentrate exclusively on music.Meat Loaf was cast as an understudy forJohn BelushiinThe National Lampoon Show.It was at theLampoonshow that Meat Loaf metEllen Foley, the co-star who sang \"Paradise by the Dashboard Light\" and \"Bat Out of Hell\" with him on the albumBat Out of Hell. Meat Loaf and Steinman spent time seeking a record deal; however, their approaches were rejected by each record company, because their songs did not fit any specific recognizedmusic", "recognizedmusic industrystyle.Todd Rundgren, under the impression that they already had a record deal, agreed to produce the album as well as play lead guitar along with other members of Rundgren's bandUtopiaandMax Weinberg.They then shopped the record around, but they still had no takers untilSteve Popovich'sCleveland International Recordstook a chance, releasingBat Out of Hellin October 1977. Meat Loaf and Steinman formed the bandNeverland Expressto tour in support ofBat Out of Hell. Their first gig was opening forCheap Trickin Chicago. Meat Loaf gained national exposure as the musical guest onSaturday Night Liveon March 25, 1978.In 1978, Meat Loaf jumped off a stage inOttawa, Ontario, breaking his leg. He finished his tour performing in awheelchair. Bat Out of Hellhas sold an estimated 43 million copies globally, including 15 million in the United States, making it one of the bestselling albums of all time. In the United Kingdom alone, its 2.1 million sales put it in 38th place. Despite peaking at No. 9", "peaking at No. 9 and spending only two weeks in the top ten in 1981, it has now spent 485 weeks on theUK Albums Chart(May 2015), a figure bettered only byRumoursbyFleetwood Macwith 487 weeks.In Australia, it knocked theBee Geesoff the No. 1 spot and became the biggest-selling album of all time in that country.Bat Out of Hellhas, as of December 2020, spent a total of 522 weeks in the Top 200 in the UK chart. 1980s In 1979, Steinman started to work onBad for Good, the intended follow-up to 1977'sBat Out of Hell. During that time, a combination of touring, drugs and exhaustion had caused Meat Loaf to lose his voice. Without a singer, and pressured by the record company, Steinman decided that he should sing onBad for Goodhimself. While Steinman worked on Bad for Good, Meat Loaf played the role of Travis Redfish in the movieRoadieuntil his singing voice returned.Steinman then wrote a new album for Meat Loaf,Dead Ringer, which was released in September 1981.Steinman had written five new songs which, in addition to", "in addition to the track \"More Than You Deserve\" (sung by Meat Loaf in the stage musical of the same name) and a reworked monolog, formed the albumDead Ringer, which was produced by Meat Loaf andStephan Galfas, with backing tracks produced byTodd Rundgren,Jimmy Iovine, and Steinman. In 1976, Meat Loaf appeared on the track \"Keeper Keep Us\", from theIntergalactic Touring Band's self-titled album, produced by Galfas. The song \"Dead Ringer for Love\" was the pinnacle of the album, and launched Meat Loaf to even greater success. While it failed to chart in the US, it reached No. 5 in the United Kingdom and stayed in the UK Singles Chart for 19 weeks.Cherprovided the lead female vocals in the song. On December 5, 1981, Meat Loaf and the Neverland Express were the musical guests forSaturday Night Livewhere he and former fellowRocky Horror Picture ShowactorTim Curryperformed a skit depicting a One-Stop Rocky Horror Shop. Also on the show, Curry performed \"The Zucchini Song\" and Meat Loaf & the Neverland Express", "Neverland Express performed \"Bat Out of Hell\" and \"Promised Land\". Following a dispute with his former songwriter Jim Steinman, Meat Loaf was contractually obliged to release a new album, resulting inMidnight at the Lost and Found, released in May 1983.According to Meat Loaf, Steinman had given the songs \"Total Eclipse of the Heart\" and \"Making Love Out of Nothing at All\" to Meat Loaf for this album. However, Meat Loaf's record company did not want Meat Loaf to sing Steinman's songs, saying that nobody wanted to hear them.Bonnie Tyler's version of \"Eclipse\" andAir Supply's version of \"Making Love\" topped the charts together, holding No. 1 and No. 2 for a period during 1983.Meat Loaf is credited with having been involved in the writing of some of the tracks on the album, including the title track, \"Midnight at the Lost and Found\". Poormoney managementas well as 45 lawsuits totaling US$80 million, including ones from Steinman, resulted in Meat Loaf filing forpersonal bankruptcyin 1983.The bankruptcy resulted", "bankruptcy resulted in Meat Loaf losing the rights to his songs,although he received royalties forBat Out of Hellin 1997. In 1984, Meat Loaf went to England, where he felt increasingly at home, to record the albumBad Attitude; it was released that year.It features two songs by Steinman, both previously recorded, \"Nowhere Fast\" and \"Surf's Up\". The American release on RCA Records was in April 1985 and features a slightly different track list, as well as alternate mixes for some songs. The title track features a duet withthe Who's lead singerRoger Daltrey.It was a minor success with a few commercially successful singles, the most successful being \"Modern Girl\".In 1985, Meat Loaf took part in some comedy sketches in the UK withHugh Laurie.Meat Loaf also tried stand-up comedy, appearing several times inConnecticut. Meat Loaf worked with songwriterJohn Parron his next album,Blind Before I Stop, which was released in 1986 byArista Records. It features production, mixing, and general influence byFrank Farian. Meat", "Farian. Meat Loaf was involved in the composition of three of the songs on the album.Meat Loaf performed \"Thrashin\" for the soundtrack of the 1986 skateboarding filmThrashin'(directed byDavid Wintersand starringJosh Brolin). 1990s Following the success of Meat Loaf's touring in the 1980s, he and Steinman began work during December 1990 onBat Out of Hell II: Back into Hell; the album was released in September 1993. The immediate success ofBat Out of Hell IIled to the sale of over 15 million copies, and the single \"I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)\" reached number one in 28 countries. In March 1994, at the36th Annual Grammy Awards, Meat Loaf won theGrammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance, Solofor \"I'd Do Anything for Love\".This song stayed at No. 1 in the UK chart for seven consecutive weeks. The single featured a female vocalist who was credited only as \"Mrs. Loud\". Mrs. Loud was later identified asLorraine Crosby, a performer from England.Meat Loaf promoted the song with American", "song with American vocalistPatti Russo, who performed lead female vocals on tour with him. Also in 1994, he sang the U.S. national anthem \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" at theMajor League Baseball All-Star Game.He released the single \"Rock and Roll Dreams Come Through\", which reached No. 13 in the United States. In 1995, Meat Loaf released his seventh studio album,Welcome to the Neighborhood. The album wentplatinumin the United States and the United Kingdom.It included three singles that hit the top 40, including \"I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)\" (which reached No. 13 in the United Statesand No. 2 in the UK),and \"Not a Dry Eye in the House\" (which reached No. 7 in the UK chart).I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)was a duet withPatti Russo, who had been touring with Meat Loaf and singing on his albums since 1993. Of the twelve songs on the album, two are written by Steinman. Both are cover versions, the \"Original Sin\" fromPandora's Box'sOriginal Sinalbum and \"Left in the Dark\" first appeared on", "first appeared on Steinman's ownBad for Goodas well as the 1984 albumEmotionbyBarbra Streisand. His other singles, \"I'd Lie for You (And That's the Truth)\" and \"Not a Dry Eye in the House\", were written byDiane Warren. In 1998, Meat Loaf releasedThe Very Best of Meat Loaf. The album featured three new songs co-written by Steinman – two withAndrew Lloyd Webberand one withDon Black, \"Is Nothing Sacred\", released as a single.The single version of this song is a duet with Patti Russo, whereas the album version is a solo song by Meat Loaf. 2000s In 2003, Meat Loaf released his albumCouldn't Have Said It Better. For only the third time in his career, Meat Loaf released an album without any songs written by Steinman (not counting live bonus tracks on special edition releases). Although Meat Loaf claimed thatCouldn't Have Said It Betterwas \"the most perfect album did sinceBat Out of Hell\",it was not as commercially successful. The album was a minor commercial success worldwide and reached No. 4 on theUK Albums", "4 on theUK Albums Chart,accompanied by a sellout world tour to promote the album and some of Meat Loaf's best selling singles. One such performance on his world tour was at the2003 NRL Grand FinalinSydney.There were many writers for the album includingDiane WarrenandJames Michael, who were both asked to contribute to his 2006 album,Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose. The album featured duets with Patti Russo and Meat Loaf's daughterPearl Aday. On November 17, 2003, during a performance at London'sWembley Arena, on hisCouldn't Have Said It Bettertour, he collapsed of what was later diagnosed asWolff–Parkinson–White syndrome, a condition marked by an extra electrical pathway in the heart which causes symptoms like a rapid heartbeat. The following week, he underwent a surgical procedure intended to correct the problem.As a result, Meat Loaf's insurance agency did not allow him to perform for any longer than one hour and 45 minutes. From February 20 to 22, 2004, during an Australian tour, Meat Loaf", "tour, Meat Loaf performed with theMelbourne Symphony Orchestra, in a set of concerts recorded for the albumBat Out of Hell: Live with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra. The performances included theAustralian Boys' Choirsinging back-up on aCouldn't Have Said It Bettertrack, \"Testify\". Meat Loaf and Steinman had begun to work on the third installment ofBat Out of Hellwhen Steinman suffered a heart attack. According to Meat Loaf, Steinman was too ill to work on such an intense project while Steinman's manager said health was not an issue. Steinman had registered the phrase \"Bat Out of Hell\" as a trademark in 1995.In May 2006, Meat Loaf sued Steinman and his manager in federal District Court in Los Angeles, seeking $50 million and an injunction against Steinman's use of the phrase.Steinman and his representatives attempted to block the album's release. An agreement was reached in July 2006.Denying reports in the press over the years of a rift between Meat Loaf and Steinman, in an interview withDan Rather, Meat", "Rather, Meat Loaf stated that he and Steinman never stopped talking, and that the lawsuits reported in the press were between lawyers and managers, and not between Meat Loaf and Steinman. The albumBat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loosewas released on October 31, 2006, and was produced byDesmond Child. The first single from the album \"It's All Coming Back to Me Now\" (featuringMarion Raven) was released on October 16, 2006. It entered the UK Singles Chart at No. 6,giving Meat Loaf his highest UK chart position in nearly 11 years. The album debuted at No. 8 on the Billboard 200,and sold 81,000 copies in its opening week,but after that did not sell as well in the United States and yielded no hit singles, although it was certified gold.The album also featured duets withPatti RussoandJennifer Hudson.In the weeks following the release ofBat III, Meat Loaf and theNeverland Expressdid a brief tour of the U.S. and Europe, known as the Bases are Loaded Tour. In October 2006, Meat Loaf's private jet had to make an", "jet had to make an emergency landing atLondon Stansted Airportafter the plane's forward landing gear failed. In 2007, Meat Loaf beganThe Seize the Night Tour, withMarion Raven, serving as a supporting act. Portions of the tour in February 2007 were featured in the documentaryMeat Loaf: In Search of Paradise, directed byBruce David Klein. The film was an official selection of theMontreal World Film Festivalin 2007.It opened in theaters in March 2008and was released on DVD in May 2008. During a performance at theMetro Radio ArenainNewcastle upon Tyne, England, on October 31, 2007, at the opening of \"Paradise by the Dashboard Light\" Meat Loaf walked off the stage early in the song and said that it was his last performance. His tour promoter, Andrew Miller, said that it was a result of \"exhaustionandstress\" and said that Meat Loaf would continue touring after suitable rest.The next two gigs in the tour, at theNECandManchester Evening News Arenawere canceled because of \"acutelaryngitis\" and were rescheduled for", "rescheduled for late November.The concert scheduled for November 6, 2007, at London'sWembley Arenawas also canceled. Meat Loaf canceled his entire European tour for 2007 after being diagnosed with acyston his vocal cords. On June 27, 2008, Meat Loaf beganThe Casa de Carne TourinPlymouth, England alongside his longtime duet partner Patti Russo, who debuted one of her own original songs during the show.The tour continued through July and August with twenty dates throughout England, Ireland, Germany, Portugal, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark. Six U.S. shows were also added for October and December 2008. In May 2009, Meat Loaf began work on the albumHang Cool Teddy Bearin the studio withGreen Day'sAmerican Idiotalbum producerRob Cavallo, working with such writers asJustin Hawkins, Rick Brantley, Ollie Wride,Tommy Henriksen, andJon Bon Jovi.The album is based on the story of a fictional soldier, whose \"story\" furnishes the theme.The album is based on a short story by the Los Angeles-based", "Los Angeles-based screenwriter and director Kilian Kerwin, a long-time friend of the singer.Hugh LaurieandJack Blackboth perform on the album, Laurie plays piano on the song \"If I Can't Have You\", while Black sings a duet with Meat Loaf on \"Like A Rose\". Patti Russo and Kara DioGuardi also duet on the album.Brian MayofQueenfeatures on guitar along withSteve Vai. It received positive reviews from critics and fans alike.The first single from the album, \"Los Angeloser\", was released for download on April 5 with the album charting at number 4 in the UK Albums Chart on April 25, 2010.The Hang Cool Tour followed in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. Patti Russo accompanied him on the tour, continuing through mid-2011. 2010s Hell in a Handbasket, released in October 2011 for Australia and New Zealand, and February 2012 for the rest of the world, was recorded and produced byPaul Crook; Doug McKean did the mix with input fromRob Cavallo. The album features songs called \"All of Me\", \"Blue Sky\", \"The Giving", "Sky\", \"The Giving Tree\", \"Mad, Mad World\", and a duet with Patti Russo called \"Our Love and Our Souls\". At the2011 AFL Grand Final, the pre-match entertainment was headlined by a 12-minute medley performed by Meat Loaf. The performance was panned as the worst in the 34-year history of AFL Grand Final pre-game entertainment in a multitude of online reviews by football fans and Australian sport commentators.Meat Loaf responded by calling online critics \"butt-smellers\",and the AFL \"jerks\", vowing to convince other artists not to play at the event. In 2011, Meat Loaf planned to release a Christmas album calledHot HolidaysfeaturingGarth BrooksandReba McEntire, but the album was never released. In September 2016,Braver Than We Are, a 10-track album created with Jim Steinman, was released. Meat Loaf recorded reworked versions of Steinman's songs \"Braver Than We Are\", \"Speaking in Tongues\", \"Who Needs the Young\", and \"More\" (previously recorded bythe Sisters of Mercy) for the album. Additionally, the song \"Prize", "the song \"Prize Fight Lover\", originally issued as a download-only bonus track forHang Cool Teddy Bear, was re-recorded for the album. Later projects and Jim Steinman's death In January 2020, during an interview forThe Mirror, Meat Loaf announced \"I'm not old. I've got songs for another record and I'm reading a script.\"In a February 2020 Facebook post, Meat Loaf announced his intention to record a new album containing 'four or five new tracks', including Steinman's \"What Part of My Body Hurts the Most\" (a song long requested by fans, but previously under contract restrictions for theBat Out of Hellmusical), along with the original 1975 demo recordings made for theBat Out of Hellalbum.Meat Loaf's longtime collaborator Jim Steinman died on April 19, 2021, of kidney failure. In a Facebook post in November 2021, he further elaborated that he and his band would be returning to the studio in January 2022 to record seven new songs for a forthcoming album, which would also include live tracks from the 1970s, 1980s,", "the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s.However, on January 20, 2022, he died at age 74. At the time of his death, the recording process had not yet begun. Acting In addition to his role in 1975 forRocky Horror Picture Show, Meat Loaf also had a career as an actor in television and film. 1992 he was a main character inLeap Of Faithwhere he played as the band director/bus driver/piano player, He also played a small role as a doorman/bouncer inWayne's World. He appeared as theSpice Girls' bus driver in the 1997 movieSpice Worldand as Red in the 1998 thriller/drama filmBlack DogalongsidePatrick SwayzeandRandy Travis. InDavid Fincher's 1999 filmFight Clubhe played Robert Paulsen, a man who joins a men's self-help group. He also reportedly assisted directorDavid Fincherwith the editing of the film. In 2000, he played a character in the sixth-season episode \"Gettysburg\" ofThe Outer Limits. Meat Loaf appears (uncredited) asJack Black's father in the 2006 filmTenacious D in The Pick of Destiny,providing vocals on the", "vocals on the film's opening song \"Kickapoo\". In 2009, Meat Loaf acted inHouse (TV Series)S5 E20 \"Simple Explanation\", playing Eddie - a husband who is determined to die in order to donate his liver to his wife. On October 26, 2010, Meat Loaf (credited as Meat Loaf Aday) appeared on theFoxtelevision seriesGleein \"The Rocky Horror Glee Show\", the series' tribute episode toThe Rocky Horror Picture Show.In 2011, he was a contestant inseason 11ofCelebrity Apprentice, during which he was eliminated after task number 12. In the course of the contest he had a notable dramatic showdown with fellow contestantGary Buseywhich was then televised. Personal life Family and residences In December 1978, Meat Loaf went to work with Steinman inWoodstock, New York, where his future wife, Leslie G. Edmonds, was working as a secretary atBearsville Studios;they were married in early 1979. From a previous marriage, Leslie had a daughter namedPearl, who later marriedAnthraxrhythm guitaristScott Ian. Meat Loaf adopted Pearl in 1979,", "Pearl in 1979, and her last name was changed to Aday.Also in 1979, he and his family moved to a house on Eagle Drive inStamford, Connecticut. In 1981, Leslie gave birth toAmanda Aday, later a television actress.For a brief time after Amanda's birth, they lived inWestport, Connecticut. He coached children's baseball or softball in each of the Connecticut towns where he lived, including for his daughter's team atJoel Barlow High School.He lived on Orchard Drive inRedding, Connecticut, from 1989 to 1998. He had also lived on Beach Road inFairfield, Connecticut.In February 1998, the family purchased a house inBeverly Hills, Californiafor $1.6 million.Meat Loaf and Leslie divorced in 2001. In 2001, he sold his 5,083-square-foot house inMandeville Canyonnear Los Angeles toGreg Kinnearfor $3.6 million.In 2003, theBBCsaid that he was seeking a residence inHartlepool; Meat Loaf supportedHartlepool United F.C.In May 2005, he purchased a 7,142-square-foot Spanish-style home offMulholland HighwayinCalabasas, California,", "California, for $2,999,000;he sold it for $3,065,000 in May 2011.He married Deborah Gillespie in 2007. In May 2012, he moved toAustin, Texas, purchasing a newly constructed 5,200-square-foot house at 17701 Flagler Drive for $1,475,000.Before his death, he lived inBrentwood, Tennessee. Name change In 1984, Meat Loaf legally changed his first name from Marvin to Michael because he was \"haunted\" by aLevi Strauss & Co.commercial which—according to him—contained the line “Poor fat Marvin can't wear Levi's.” Sports Meat Loaf was a fan of theNew York Yankees.He gotPhil Rizzutoto recite theplay-by-playof a young man racing around the bases in \"Paradise by the Dashboard Light\".He participated in multiplefantasy baseballleagues every season.He also expressed support for the English Association football teamHartlepool United F.C.In June 2008, he took part in a footballpenalty shootoutcompetition on behalf of two cancer charities inNewcastle upon Tyne. He auctioned shots to the 100 highest bidders and then took his", "and then took his place between the goal posts.He also participated in celebrity golf tournaments. In April 2005, he was one of the celebrity drivers in the 2005Toyota Pro/Celebrity Race, finishing seventh among the 12 celebrity drivers in the race. Social anxiety He revealed that he hadsocial anxietyand said, \"I never meet anybody much in a social situation because when I go into a social situation, I have no idea what to do.\" He said that he does not \"even go anywhere\" and that he felt that he led a \"boring life\", in having said that he \"completely freaked\" when having to attend a party and that he was \"so nervous, so scared\" of the idea. He also said that he spent time with fellow musicians mainly in work-related situations rather than social ones.He also said that as a kid, \"Being too fat to play with the other children, I had to spend a lot of time alone, which probably has a lot to do with the way I am today. I'm usually alone in my hotel room from right after the show until the next day's sound check.", "day's sound check. And I'm never bored; I don't get bored. Probably because mothers wouldn't let their kids play with me.\" Vegetarianism Meat Loaf was a vegetarian from 1981 to 1992. Discussing the confusion caused by his contrasting stage name and dietary habits, he once toldEntertainment Weekly, \"There've been vegetarians who wouldn't speak to me because of my name. I was sitting withJon Bon Joviat one of those awards things, and I say, 'Oh, man, I lovek.d. lang. I'd really like to meet her.' They went to find out if it was okay, and she goes, 'No. His name is Meat Loaf.' I stopped being a k.d. lang fan after that.\"He declared in 2019 that he would tryveganismforVeganuaryin 2020 and would be partnering with UK restaurant chainFrankie & Benny'sto promote its vegan options. Religion Although he did not belong to any faith-based institution, Meat Loaf was religious. While growing up, he attended church with his mother and studied the Bible, which influenced his work. Several of his songs, such as \"40 Days\"", "such as \"40 Days\" and \"Fall from Grace\", have religious themes. He prayed every night. Politics Political affiliations Meat Loaf was not officially registered with any political party. In 1997, he performed at aninaugural ballduring thesecond inauguration of Bill Clinton,and attended thefirst inauguration of George W. Bushin 2001.He donated to the presidential campaigns of Republican candidatesRick SantorumandJohn McCain, the latter of whom became the party's nominee in the2008 United States presidential election. On October 25, 2012, Meat Loaf endorsedMitt Romneyfor president, citing poorRussia–United States relationsas a major reason he had been \"arguing for Mitt Romney for a year\".He said, \"I have never been in any political agenda in my life, but I think that in 2012 this is the most important election in the history of the United States.\" He then said there are \"storm clouds\" over the United States and \"thunder storms\" over Europe: \"There are hail storms – and I mean major hail storms! – in the Middle", "– in the Middle East. There are storms brewing through China, through Asia, through everywhere.\"The same day, he performed \"America the Beautiful\" standing next to Romney. In a 2017 interview withBillboard, he made positive remarks about PresidentDonald Trump,Ivanka Trump, andDonald Trump Jr.; they had worked together onThe Celebrity Apprenticein 2011.When asked if he would vote for Trump, Meat Loaf said: \"I would vote for you. In fact, I'll help you with your campaign.\" In 2020, however, he said he was not 100% supportive of Trump. Climate change views Meat Loaf said that he did not believe in climate change.In an interview with theDaily Mailin 2020, he calledGreta Thunberg\"brainwashed\" due to her views on climate change, saying: \"I feel for that Greta. She has been brainwashed into thinking that there is climate change and there isn't. She hasn't done anything wrong but she's been forced into thinking that what she is saying is true.” Criticism of COVID-19 rules He was critical of theCOVID-19", "of theCOVID-19 lockdownsduring theCOVID-19 pandemic, telling thePittsburgh Post-Gazettein August 2021: \"I hug people in the middle of COVID ... I understood stopping life for a little while, but they cannot continue to stop life because of politics.\" He opposedmask mandatesand described a person who called for people on airplanes to wear masks as a \"Nazi\" and \"power-mad\". Meat Loaf then said: \"If I die, I die, but I'm not going to be controlled.\" Health In 2003, Meat Loaf was diagnosed withWolff–Parkinson–White syndrome, a condition marked by an extra electrical pathway in the heart that causes symptoms like a rapid heartbeat.Meat Loaf hadasthmaand, in July 2011, he fainted on stage while performing inPittsburghdue to anasthma attack. He collapsed again while on stage inEdmontonin June 2016 due to severe dehydration, after having already canceled two other shows due to illness.The playback containing his pre-recorded, voice-over vocal track continued while he lay unconscious on the stage, which caused", "stage, which caused controversy overlip syncing, claims that Meat Loaf denied, saying that his mic was live.After the incident, Meat Loaf usedacupuncture,physical therapyand a trainer for four days a week, an hour and a half each session.Meat Loaf had emergency back surgery in November 2016 including aspinal fusiondue to acystthat was pinching nerves, and in 2019, he was using a cane and a wheelchair to get around. At the 2019Texas Frightmare Weekendat theHyattRegency DFW hotel, Meat Loaf fell off an interview stage and broke hisclavicle.Meat Loaf and his wife sued Texas Frightmare Weekend and Hyatt due to the accident. Death Meat Loaf died inNashville, Tennessee, on the evening of January 20, 2022, at the age of 74. No officialcause of deathwas released.He was reportedly ill with COVID-19 earlier in January, and reporting byTMZsuggested that he died from COVID-19 complications.As his health rapidly declined, his two daughters rushed to see him in the hospital with his wife being beside him as he died.His", "him as he died.His daughter had posted toInstagramin early January that: \"We are not sick, but we have too many friends and family testing positive right now, positive but doing OK\".Notable people who posted tributes includeBonnie Tyler,Cher,Brian May,Boy George,Travis Tritt,Marlee Matlin,Stephen Fry, his Rocky Horror co-starNell Campbell, andDonald Trump.TheQueen's Guardperformed a rendition of \"I'd Do Anything for Love (But I Won't Do That)\". Discography Tours Note: Meat Loaf's band TheNeverland Expresshas since continued with American Idol winnerCaleb Johnson Filmography Film Television Books See also References External links", "Levi Strauss & Co. Levi Strauss & Co.(/ˈliːvaɪˈstraʊs/LEE-vySTROWSS) is an Americanclothingcompany known worldwide for itsLevi's(/ˈliːvaɪz/LEE-vyze) brand ofdenimjeans. It was founded in May 1853whenGerman-JewishimmigrantLevi Straussmoved fromButtenheim,Bavaria, toSan Francisco,California, to open a West Coast branch of his brothers' New Yorkdry goodsbusiness. Although the corporation is registered inDelaware,the company's corporate headquarters is located inLevi's Plazain San Francisco. History Origin and formation (1853–1890s) German-JewishimmigrantLevi Straussbegan business at 90 Sacramento Street in San Francisco, then moved to 62 Sacramento Street.In 1858, the company was listed asStrauss, Levi (David Stern & Lewis Strauss) importers clothing, etc. 63 & 65 Sacramento St.(today, on the current grounds of the 353 Sacramento Street Lobby) in the San Francisco Directory with Strauss serving as its sales manager and his brother-in-law,David Stern, as its manager. Jacob Davis, aLatvian-Jewishimmigrant, was", "was aReno, Nevada,tailor who frequently purchased bolts of denim cloth from Levi Strauss & Co.'s wholesale house. After one of Davis's customers kept purchasing cloth to reinforce torn pants, he thought of using copperrivetsto reinforce points of strain, such as on pocket corners and the base of thebutton fly.Davis lacked sufficient funds to obtain a patent, so he wrote to Strauss proposing a business partnership. After Strauss accepted Davis's offer, the two men receivedU.S. patent 139,121from theUnited States Patent and Trademark Officeon May 20, 1873. The copper rivet was incorporated into the company's jean design and advertisements. Contrary to an advertising campaign suggesting that Levi Strauss sold his first jeans to gold miners during theCalifornia Gold Rush(which peaked in 1849), the manufacturing of denim overalls began in the 1870s. In 1890, the rivet patent went into the public domain; the same year, lot numbers were assigned to company products, and \"501\" was used to designate the famous", "the famous copper-riveted waist overalls. The company lost its records in the 1906 earthquake and there is no information why that number was chosen. There areurban legendsclaiming that the first pair of Levi's jeans were made ofhemp, despite being made from cotton by theAmoskeag Manufacturing Company.This misinformation was likely spread byJack Herer.The first hemp jeans from Levi's were manufactured in March 2019. Growth in popularity (1910s–1960s) Modern jeans began to appear in the 1920s, but sales were largely confined to the working people of the western US, such as cowboys, lumberjacks, and railroad workers. Levi's jeans were first introduced to the East during thedude ranchcraze of the 1930s, when vacationing Easterners returned home with tales (and usually examples) of the hard-wearing riveted denim pants. Another boost came in World War II when blue jeans were declared an essential commodity and sold only to people engaged in defense work. Between the 1950s and 1980s, Levi's jeans became popular", "became popular among a wide range of youthsubcultures, includinggreasers,mods,rockers, andhippies. Levi's popular shrink-to-fit 501s were sold as labeled, sized as manufactured, and had substantial shrinkage upon laundering.Although popular lore (abetted by company marketing) holds that the original design remains unaltered, the crotch rivet, watch pocket rivets, and waist cinch were removed during World War II to conform with War Production Board metal conservation rules and only the watch pocket rivets restored after.Additionally, the back pocket rivets, which had been covered in denim since 1937 to prevent scratching furniture, were removed in the 1950s (and replaced by bar tacks) as they eventually wore through and caused the problem anyway. Blue jeans era (1960s–1980s) From the early 1960s through the mid-1970s, Levi Strauss experienced significant business growth as the casual look of the 1960s and 1970s ushered in the \"blue jeans craze\". Levi's, under the leadership of Walter Haas, Peter Haas Sr.,", "Peter Haas Sr., Paul Glasco, and George P. Simpkins Sr., expanded the firm's clothing line by adding new fashions and models, such as \"stone-washed\" jeans through the acquisition ofGreat Western Garment Co.(GWG), a Canadian clothing manufacturer, a technique still in use by Levi Strauss. Simpkins is credited with the company's record-paced expansion of its manufacturing capacity from 16 plants to more than 63 in the US – and 23 overseas – from 1964 to 1974. In the 1980s, the company closed approximately 60 manufacturing plants because of financial difficulties and strong competition. TheDockersbrand, launched in 1986 and sold primarily through department store chains, helped the company grow through the mid-1990s, as denim sales began to wane. Dockers were introduced into Europe in 1996 and led by CEO Jorge Bardina. Levi Strauss attempted to sell the Dockers division in 2004 to relieve part of the company's $2.6 billion outstanding debt. Brand competition (1990s) By the 1990s, Levi's faced competition from", "competition from other brands and cheaper products from overseas and began accelerating the pace of its US factory closures and its use of offshore subcontractors. In 1991, Levi Strauss became implicated in a scandal involving pants made in theNorthern Mariana Islands: some 3% of Levi's jeans sold annually with the \"Made in the USA\" label were shown to have been made by Chinese laborers under what theU.S. Department of Laborcalled slave-like conditions.As of 2016, only a few of the costlier higher-end styles are made domestically. Cited for sub-minimum wages, seven-day work weeks with 12-hour shifts, poor living conditions, and other workplace abuses,Tan Holdings Corporation, Levi Strauss' Marianas subcontractor, paid what were then the largest fines in US labor history, distributing more than $9 million in restitution to some 1,200 employees.Levi Strauss claimed no knowledge of the offenses, severed ties to the Tan family, and instituted labor reforms and inspection practices in its offshore facilities. The", "facilities. The activist groupFuerza Unida(United Force) formed following the January 1990 closure of a plant inSan Antonio,Texas, in which 1,150 seamstresses – some of whom had worked for Levi Strauss for decades – saw their jobs exported toCosta Rica.During the mid-and late 1990s, Fuerza Unida picketed the Levi Strauss headquarters in San Francisco and staged hunger strikes and sit-ins in protest of the company's labor policies. The company took on multibillion-dollar debt in February 1996 to help finance a series of privateleveraged stock buyoutsamong family members determined to consolidate the company under their ownership. At the time, shares in Levi Strauss stock were not publicly traded. As of 2016, the firm was owned almost entirely by indirect descendants and collateral relatives of Levi Strauss, whose four nephews inherited the San Francisco dry-goods firm after their uncle died in 1902.The corporation's bonds are traded publicly, as are shares of the company's Japanese affiliate, Levi Strauss", "Levi Strauss Japan K.K. In June 1996, the company offered to pay its workers an unusual dividend of up to $750 million in six years, having halted an employee-stock plan during the internal family buyout. However, the company failed to make cash-flow targets, and no worker dividends were paid. The annual sales of the brand increased in 1997 to $7.1 billion. Later developments (2000–present) In 2002, Levi Strauss began a close business collaboration withWalmart, producing a line of \"Signature\" jeans and other clothes for sale only in Walmart stores until 2006. In 2002, the company closed its Valencia Street plant in San Francisco, which opened in 1906, the year of the city'sdevastating earthquake.By the end of 2003, the closure of Levi's last U.S. factory inSan Antonioended 150 years of jeans made in the United States.Production of a few higher-end, more expensive styles of jeans resumed in the U.S. several years later. In 2002, Levi Strauss closed several factories worldwide and took control of GWG's", "control of GWG's operations.Attempts to make the GWG brand profitable again were unsuccessful, and theEdmontonGWG factory, along with all remaining Levi Strauss factories in North America, closed in 2004. By 2007, Levi Strauss was again profitable after declining sales in nine of the previous ten years.Its total annual sales of just over $4 billion were $3 billion less than during its peak performancein the mid-1990s.After more than two decades of family ownership, rumors of a possible public stock offering appeared in the media in July 2007. As of 2007, Levi Strauss leads the apparel industry in trademark infringement cases, filing nearly 100 lawsuits against competitors over six years from 2001.Most cases center on the alleged imitation of Levi's back pocket double arc stitching pattern (U.S.trademarkNo. 1,139,254), which Levi's filed for a trademark in 1978.Levi's has successfully suedGuess,Polo Ralph Lauren,Esprit Holdings,Zegna,Zumiez, andLucky Brand Jeans, among other companies. In 2010, the company", "2010, the company partnered withFilson, an outdoor goods manufacturer in Seattle, to produce a high-end line of jackets and workwear. In 2011, the firm hired Chip Bergh as the president and chief executive of the brand.In that same year, they established more than 20 different waterless manufacturing techniques, reducing the exceptionally high amounts of water used to create denim. Levi's is now the world's most sustainable brand of jeans in terms of water usage. On May 8, 2013, theNFL'sSan Francisco 49ersannounced that Levi Strauss & Co. had purchased the naming rights to theirnew stadiuminSanta Clara, California. The naming rights deal called for Levi's to pay $220.3 million to the city of Santa Clara and the 49ers over 20 years, with an option to extend the agreement for another five years for around $75 million. As of 2016, Levi Strauss Signature jeans were sold in 110 countries.In 2016, the company reported revenues of $4.6 billion. On July 13, 2017, Levi Strauss heir Bill Goldman died in a private", "died in a private plane crash nearSonoma, California. In 2017, Levi Strauss & Co. released a \"smart jacket\", an apparel they developed in partnership withGoogle. After two years of collaboration, the result was a denim jacket set at $350. In March 2019, Levi's debuted on theNew York Stock Exchangeunder the ticker \"LEVI\".Levi Strauss was valued at $6.6 billion as itsIPOpriced above the target. In September 2019, Levi's won a final judgment on atrademark infringementinGuangzhou, China. The case centered on the \"arcuate design on two pockets at the back of jeans\", which has been protected in China since its registration there in 2005. The company won damages and costs in addition to a ban on future infringements. The infringer's ignorance of the trademark was no bar to punishment. In 2019, Levi's became one of only two major clothing companies with commitments in line with theParis Agreement's goal of limiting global average temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. In 2020, Levi Strauss & Co. was expected", "& Co. was expected to have completely replaced chemical usage as well as usinglasersto cut, and design ripped parts of jeans.In December 2019, the Engage for Good (formerly Cause Marketing Forum) organization awarded the company the Golden Halo Award for 2020for their advancements in corporate social impact. On August 5, 2021, Levi Strauss & Co. announced the acquisition of Beyond Yoga, entering the activewear market. They expect the acquisition will contribute more than $100 million in net revenue per year.It was announced senior executives are to speak with AI expert Blake Van Leer at the LA eCommerce Summit about their digital strategies and AI in 2023.It was announced in January 2023 that Levi would begin accepting old pairs of jeans to recycle into more denim in a campaign to go green.Levi's Autumn/Winter 2023 WellThread capsule aimed to show the brand's engagement to sustainability as it included items made from 100% transitional cotton as well as plant-based natural dyes. Cultural impact Levi's have", "impact Levi's have been worn by people of all backgrounds – from miners to actors to Nobel Prize recipients.Marlon BrandoandAlbert Einsteinwore Levi's, and Einstein wore a 1930s-era Levi's leather jacket, which sold at auction houseChristie'sin July 2016 for £110,500. Levi's is aggressive in advertising, marketing, andtrademarkprotection. It has used its signature arched stitching on the back pockets of its jeans since 1873. In 1943, the firm trademarked the design in the U.S. and has done so in more than 100 total jurisdictions as of 2019.It has also trademarked variousword marks, including \"Levi's\", \"Red Tab\", \"Orange Tab\", \"Silvertab\", \"501\", \"505\", \"517\", \"550\", \"569\": and \"Dockers\". During theCold War, Levi's became a symbol of the west in theSoviet Union. According to historian Kristin Roth-Ey, the association stemmed from the 1957World Festival of Youth and StudentsinMoscow: Americans wore Levi's jeans to the event, resulting in widespread interest within theRussian Soviet Federative Socialist", "Socialist Republicthat prompted the Soviet government to condemn the brand as a symbol of western decadence.Continued demand for the jeans resulted in both genuine articles and bootlegs becoming commonplace in Soviet black markets, and in 1979, the Soviet government struck deals with Levi's and theVF Corporationto manufacture jeans for consumers in the region; however, this deal fell through due to the1980 Summer Olympics boycottfollowing the onset of theSoviet–Afghan War. In 2022, it was reported that a pair of Levi's jeans from the 1880s found in an abandoned mine shaft was sold for $87,400 at an auction inNew Mexico.The vintage Levi's bore a label with the inscription \"the only kind made by white labor\", a detail which helped date the jeans to the period between 1882, which was after the U.S. Congress passed theChinese Exclusion Act, banning Chinese laborers seeking to immigrate to the U.S., and the 1890s, when the company \"reversed policy and company leaders began speaking out against the nation's", "the nation's racist policy\". Corporate structure and staff Levi Strauss & Co. is a worldwide corporation organized into three geographic divisions: Levi Strauss Americas (LSA), which is headquartered inSan Francisco; Levi Strauss Europe (LSE), which is based inBrussels; and Levi Strauss Asia Pacific, Middle East and Africa. Strauss passed the company to his nephews, the sons of David Stern, upon his death in 1902.Walter A. Haas, who married the daughter of David's fourth son, Sigmund Stern, became president in 1928, and the company remained under the ownership of the Stern-Haas family until first going public in 1971. However, in 1985, the Haas family recaptured ownership of the company, taking it private once again for the next 34 years.In February 2019, the company filed with theU.S. Securities and Exchange Commissionfor aninitial public offeringto be traded on theNew York Stock Exchangeunder theticker symbolLEVI.It was held on March 21, 2019, selling for $17 per share. The company is also well known for", "also well known for promoting progressive causes.It was one of the earliest private sector institutions to support LGBTQ causes and, during the 2016 presidential campaign, donated $1 million to support immigration andLGBTQrights. In 2018, CEO Chip Bergh published anop-edinFortunemagazine, speaking out against gun violence. However, the company is alleged to make use ofUyghurforced labor provided by the China-based supplier Beijing Guanghua Textile Group from a report by theHelena Kennedy Center for International Justice, thesocialists and democrats in the European Parliament.Levi's has disputedthese claims. In the first few months of theCOVID-19 pandemic, the company experienced a 62% drop in sales and recorded a $364 million loss. Some 700 office jobs were pared to reduce expenses by $100 million. Current products As of 2019, Levi's are made in many developing countries, including Bangladesh, India, Egypt, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Mexico. Some top-end styles in the \"Levi's Premium\" and \"Levi's", "and \"Levi's Vintage Clothing\" lines are produced in the United States. In addition to jeans, Levi's sells a full line of shirts, jackets, sweaters, underwear, socks, eyeglasses, accessories, dresses, skirts, and leather products. All jeans and pants are categorized by fit – skinny, slim, straight, bootcut, taper, relaxed, flare, and \"big & tall\" – identified by trademarked three-digit numbers. The 501, the company's original modern design, is available in styles for both men and women. The rest of the 500 series is designed for men, and the 300, 400, 700, and 800 series for women. See also References Further reading External links 37°48′10″N122°24′10″W / 37.80278°N 122.40278°W /37.80278; -122.40278" ]
Part of the dynamic duo who broke a record set by Mickey Lolich and Bill Freehan in 1975 for most starts together, this MLB pitcher's battery mate ranked first all-time among catchers in putouts as of 2022. In what year did he (the pitcher) make his Grand Ole Opry debut?
2024
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadier_Molina
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Wainwright
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Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadier_Molina', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Wainwright']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadier_Molina", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Wainwright" ]
[ "St. Louis Cardinals TheSt. Louis Cardinalsare an Americanprofessional baseballteam based inSt. Louis. The Cardinals compete inMajor League Baseball(MLB) as a member club of theNational League(NL)Central Division. Since the2006 season, the Cardinals have played their home games atBusch Stadiumin downtown St. Louis. One of the nation's oldest and most successful professional baseball clubs, the Cardinals have won 11World Series championships, the most of any NL team and second in MLB only to theNew York Yankees.The team has won 19National League pennants, third-most of any team behind theLos Angeles DodgersandSan Francisco Giants. St. Louis has also won 15division titlesin theEastand Central divisions. In 1881, entrepreneurChris von der Ahepurchased theBrown Stockingsbarnstormingclub, renamed it theSt. Louis Browns, and made it a charter member of theAmerican Associationbaseball league. The team won four league championships, qualifying them to play in the era'sprofessional baseball championship series, a forerunner of the modernWorld Series.In two of these championships, the Browns met the Chicago White Stockings, now theChicago Cubs, launching the enduringCardinals–Cubs rivalry. In 1892, the Browns – also called thePerfectos– joined theNational League. In 1900, the team was renamed theCardinals. (Two years later, an unrelatedSt. Louis Brownsteam joined theAmerican League.) Notable Cardinals achievements include manager/ownerBranch Rickey's invention of thefarm system,Rogers Hornsby's two battingTriple Crowns,Dizzy Dean's 30-winseason in 1934,Stan Musial's 17 MLB and 29 NL records,Bob Gibson's 1.12earned run average(ERA) in 1968,Whitey Herzog'sWhiteyball,Mark McGwire'ssingle-season home run record in 1998, the2011 championship team'sunprecedented comebacks,andAlbert Pujols’ 700thhome run. The Cardinals have won 105 or more games in four seasons and won 100 or more nine times. Cardinals players have won 21league MVPs, four batting Triple Crowns, and threeCy Young Awards.Baseball Hall of Fameinductees includeLou Brock,Dizzy Dean,Bob Gibson,Whitey Herzog,Rogers Hornsby,Tony LaRussa,Joe Medwick,Stan Musial,Enos Slaughter,Branch Rickey,Red Schoendienst,Ozzie Smith,Ted Simmons,Bruce Sutter, andScott Rolen. In 2018,Forbesvalued the Cardinals at $1.9 billion, the 7th-highest among MLB clubs and far more than the $147 million paid in 1995 byownerWilliam DeWitt Jr.'s investment group. In 2017, the team took in revenue of $319 million on anoperating incomeof $40.0 million.John Mozeliakis the President of Baseball Operations, Mike Girsch is thegeneral manager, andOliver Marmolis themanager.The Cardinals are renowned for their strong fan support: despite being in one of the sport's mid-level markets, they routinely see attendances among the league's highest, and are consistently among the top three in MLB in local television ratings. Through 2024, the Cardinals' all-time win-loss record is11,285–10,402–152(.520). History Before the Cardinals (1875–1881) Professional baseball began in St. Louis with the inception of theBrown Stockingsin theNational Association(NA)in 1875. The NA folded following that season, andthe next season, St. Louis joined theNational Leagueas a charter member, finishing in third place at 45–19.George Bradleyhurled the firstno-hitterinMajor League history. The NL expelled St. Louis from the leagueafter 1877due to a game-fixing scandal and the team went bankrupt.Without a league, they continued play as a semi-professionalbarnstormingteam through 1881. The magnitudes of the reorganizations, following the 1877 and 1881 seasons, are such that the 1875–1877 and 1878–1881 Brown Stockings teams are not generally considered to share continuity as a franchise with the current St. Louis Cardinals. American Association and early National League eras (1882–1919) For the1882 season,Chris von der Ahepurchased the team, reorganized it, and made it a founding member of theAmerican Association(AA), a league to rival the NL.1882 is generally considered to be the first year of existence for the franchise which would later become known as the St. Louis Cardinals. The next season, St. Louis shortened their name to theBrowns. Soon thereafter they became the dominant team in the AA, as managerCharlie Comiskeyguided St. Louis to four pennants in a row from1885to1888.PitcherandoutfielderBob Caruthersled the league inERA(2.07) andwins(40) in 1885 and finished in the top six in both in each of the following two seasons. He also led the AA inOBP(.448) andOPS(.974) in1886and finished fourth inbatting averagein1886(.334) and fifth in1887(.357).OutfielderTip O'Neillwon the first battingtriple crownin franchise history in 1887 and the only one in AA history.By winning the pennant, the Browns played the NL pennant winnerin a predecessorof theWorld Series. The Browns twice met the Chicago White Stockings—the predecessor to theChicago Cubs—tying onein a heated dispute andwinning the other, thus spurring the vigorousSt. Louis-Chicago rivalrythat ensues to this day.During the franchise's ten seasons in the AA, they compiled an all-time league-high of 780 wins and .639 winning percentage. They lost just 432 contests while tying 21 others. The AA went bankrupt after the 1891 season and the Browns transferred to the National League. This time, the club entered an era of stark futility. Between1892and1919, St. Louis managed just five winning seasons, finished in last or next-to-last place sixteen times, and ended four seasons with 100 losses or more. Thenadirwas the1897 season: a 29–102 record for a franchise-worst .221 winning percentage.St. Louis' 84–67 finishas thePerfectosin 1899 would be the team's best finish between the AA era andSam Breadon's purchase of the team.As the \"Perfectos\", the team wore their jersey with a cardinal red trim and sock striping.Later that season,St. Louis Republicsportswriter Willie McHale included an account in a column of a female fan he heard remarking about the uniforms, \"What a lovely shade of cardinal.\" Fans liked the moniker \"Cardinals\" and, the next year in 1900, popularity for the nickname induced an official change toCardinals. In 1902, an American League team moved fromMilwaukeeinto St. Louis, renamed themselves theSt. Louis Brownsand built a new parkon the site of the Cardinals' old stadium, striking a rivalry that lasted five decades.Breadon bought a minority interest in the Cardinalsin 1917andin 1919Browns managerBranch Rickeyjoined the Cardinals.The Cardinals' first 28 seasons in the NL were a complete reversal of their stay in the AA – with a .406 winning percentage, they compiled 1,632 wins, 2,425 losses and 74 ties. Breadon era (1920–1952) St. Louis baseball commenced arenaissance:since 1926the Cardinals have won eleven World Series and nineteen NL pennants.Breadon spurred this revival when he bought out the majority stake in1920and appointed Rickey as business manager, who expanded scouting, player development, and pioneered theminor leaguefarm system, filling the role of today'sgeneral manager.WithRogers Hornsbyat second base, he claimed Triple Crowns in1922and1925, and the Cardinals won the1926 World Series, their first.St. Louis then wonthe leaguein1928,1930, and1931and the1931 World Series. TheGashouse Gangedition claimed the1934 World Seriesand the Cardinals amassed new thresholds of popularity far outside St. Louis via radio, which led to the coining of the term \"Cardinal Nation\".Dizzy Deanled the Gang, winning the 1934MVP, and leading the NL multiple times inwins,strikeouts,innings,complete gamesandshutouts.Johnny MizeandJoe Medwickemerged as two power threats, with Medwick claiming the last Triple Crown for a Cardinalin 1937. In the 1940s, a golden era emerged as Rickey's farm system became laden with such talent asMarty Marion,Enos Slaughter,Mort Cooper,Walker Cooper,Stan Musial,Max Lanier,Whitey Kurowski,Red SchoendienstandJohnny Beazley.It was one of the most successful decades in franchise history with 960 wins and 580 losses for a winning percentage higher than any other Major League team at .623.WithBilly Southworthmanaging, they won the World Series in1942and1944(in the only all-St. Louis series against theBrowns), and won 105 or more games each in1942,1943, and1944.Southworth's managerial winning percentage (.642) is St. Louis' highest since the franchise joined the National League.Musial was considered the most consistent hitter of his era and most accomplished in team history, winning three MVPs and sevenbatting titles.St. Louis then won the1946 World SeriesonSlaughter's Mad Dashin Game 7.Breadon was forced to sell the teamin 1947but won six World Series and nine NL pennants as Cardinals owner.They remained competitive, finishing .500 or better in thirteen of the next seventeen seasons, but fell short of winning the league or World Seriesuntil 1964. Gussie Busch era (1953–1989) In1953theAnheuser-Buschbrewerybought the CardinalsandAugust \"Gussie\" Buschbecame team president,spurring the Browns' departure in1953toBaltimoreto become theOrioles, and making the Cardinals the only major league club in town.More success followed in the 1960s, starting with what is considered one of themost lopsided tradesin Major League history, as St. Louis receivedoutfielderLou Brockfromthe Cubsfor pitcherErnie Broglio.MVP third basemanKen Boyerand pitcherBob Gibsonled the club to aWorld Series winthesame yearandCurt Flood,Bill White,Curt Simmons, andSteve Carltonalso made key contributions in this decade.In 1967, new arrivalOrlando Cepedawon the MVP, helping to propel St. Louis to theWorld Series.The Cardinals won the leaguethe following yearbehind their Major League-leading 2.49 staff ERAin what was an all-round record-breaking season ofpitching dominance. Posting a modern-day record low ERA of 1.12 and striking out a one-gameWorld Series-record of 17,Gibson won both the MVP and Cy Young awards that year.However, the Cardinals failed to repeat asWorld Serieschampions, blowing a 3–1 lead to the underdogDetroit Tigers. In the 1970s, catcher/third basemanJoe Torreand first basemanKeith Hernandezeach won MVPs, but the team's best finishes were second place and90 wins.The team found their way back to the World Series three times in the 1980s, starting with managerWhitey Herzogand hisWhiteyballstyle of play and another trade that altered course of the franchise:in 1982, shortstopGarry Templetonwas shipped to thePadresfor fellow shortstopOzzie Smith.Widely regarded as one of the best defensive players in history, Smith ranks first all-time among shortstops inGold Glove Awards(13),All-Star games(15),assists(8,375), anddouble plays(1,590).St. Louis won the1982 World Seriesfrom theMilwaukee Brewersthat fall.The Cardinals again won the league in1985and1987.Inthe 1985 Series, they faced-off withcross-staterivalsKansas City Royalsfor the first time in a non-exhibition game, but they lost the series after acontroversial callin Game 6;the1987 seriessaw them face off against theMinnesota Twins, but could only win all three of their games played at home in the seven-game series. Bill DeWitt era (1996–present) After Gussie Busch diedin 1989,the brewerytook controland hired Joe Torre to managelate in 1990,then sold the team to an investment group led byWilliam DeWitt Jr.in 1996.Tony La Russareplaced Torre in the spring of 1996.In 1998,Mark McGwirecompeted with theCubs'Sammy Sosafor a barrage of home runs in their pursuit of thesingle-season home run record.From2000to2013, the Cardinals reestablished their way to the top with ten playoff appearances, fourNL pennants, two World Series titles and 1,274 regular season wins against 993 losses for a .560 winning percentage, leading the National League and second in MLB only to theNew York Yankees.With the addition ofJim Edmonds,Albert Pujols, andScott Rolen, the Cardinals featured three prominent sluggers and defenders nicknamed \"MV3;\"Pujols won three MVPs and hit .328 with 445 home runs in his Cardinals career.In 2004, playoff stalwartChris Carpenter's 3.09 ERA and 15 winshelped power the team to amajor-league best105 wins and take theNL pennant.In 2006, beset with injuries and inconsistency,they won theWorld Series, beating Detroit in five games to set an all-time record-low of 83 wins for a World Series winner. In 2009, the Cardinals reached 10,000 wins, dating to when they first played in theAmerican Association(AA).St. Louis returned to the playoffsin 2011, first surmounting the largest games-won deficit after 130 games (at 10.5) to upstage theAtlanta Braveson the final day for the wild card playoff berth.In Game 3 of theWorld Series, Pujols became just the third player to hit three home runs in a World Series game.In Game 6, third basemanDavid Freeseand outfielderLance Berkmaneach tied the score on the Cardinals' final strike—the first such occurrence in any game in MLB history—and St. Louis defeated theTexas Rangerslater that game with awalk-off home runfrom Freese.After winning that Series, La Russa retired and became the only manager to do so after winning a title. He also finished with the most wins for managers in franchise history with 1,408. La Russa's successor,Mike Matheny, helped extend St. Louis' playoff run as he became the first manager in thedivision playera to guide the Cardinals to the NLCS and playoffs in his first two seasons.In2014, the Cardinals extended their NLCS streak to 4, with their 3–1 series victory over theDodgers, in theNLDS. Ten days after being eliminated from the postseason by theSan Francisco Giants, rookie outfielderOscar Taveraswas killed in a car accident while traveling to his hometown Puerto Plata in theDominican Republic.On November 17, they acquiredAtlanta Bravesright-fielderJason Heyward(who had just come off aGold Glove-winning season) to replace Taveras.On June 16, 2015, theFBIand theJustice Departmentstarted an investigation on the Cardinals for possibly hacking theHouston Astros. The hacking incident was perpetrated by Scouting Director Chris Correa.For the first time since the2007–2008 seasons, the Cardinals missed the playoffs in consecutive years,2016–2017. On July 14, 2018, following an 8–2 loss to theCincinnati Reds, the St. Louis Cardinals announced they had dismissed managerMike Mathenyafter6+1⁄2seasons. The team then namedMike Shildtinterim manager, and he was made the permanent manager a month later. On November 19, 2018, the team announced that the \"Victory Blue\" uniforms, worn by the Cardinals during the late 1970s and 1980s, would be returning for the 2019 season. The uniforms, integrating the powder blue color with the team's current \"Saturday alternate\" jersey design, were to be worn 13 times on the road during the 2019 season.The Cardinals acquiredPaul Goldschmidtin a trade from theArizona Diamondbackson December 5, 2018. On September 14, 2022, long-time starting pitcherAdam Wainwrightand catcherYadier Molinaset the NL/AL record for most starts as pitcher and catcher duo, also referred to as abattery, at 325 starts together going back to 2007.The previous record holding duo,Mickey LolichandBill Freehan, had held the record since 1975. Ballpark The Cardinals play their home games atBusch Stadium(also referred to asNew Busch StadiumorBusch III) indowntown St. Louis, straddling 7th and Clark near the intersection ofInterstates64,55, and44.The stadium opened for the2006 seasonat a cost of $411 million and holds a normal capacity of 46,861.The Cardinals finished their inaugural season in the new Busch Stadium by winning the2006 World Series, the first team to do so since theNew York Yankeesin 1923.This open-airstadiumemulates the HOK Sport (nowPopulous)-designed \"retro-style\" baseball-only parks built since the 1990s.The open panoramic perspective over the outfield wall offers a remarkable view of St. Louis' downtown skyline featuring the distinctiveGateway Arch.A replica of theEads Bridgespans the entrance to the park on the third base side, while thestatueofStan Musialstands in front of that entrance.Other statues at the corner of 8th and Clark include Hall of FamersRogers Hornsby,Ozzie Smith,George Sisler,Cool Papa Bell,Bob Gibson,Jack Buck, and others. Due to increased demand, Game 7 of the2011 World Seriesaccommodated a baseball record of 47,399 by increasing the number ofstanding room onlytickets. The attendance record for any sporting event is 48,263, in a 2013association football(soccer)friendly matchbetweenChelsea F.C.andManchester City F.C., made possible by on-field seating.The largest attendance (53,000) of any event at Busch belongs toU2during a concert from their360° Tourin 2011. Ballpark Villageis a mixed-use development located across Clark Street from Busch Stadium.Phase 1 of the development, completed for the start of the 2014 season, includesentertainmentvenues,restaurants, and retail. Anchored by Cardinals Nation (which includes theCardinals Hall of Fame, a two-story Cardinals-themed restaurant and rooftop seating for 300+ fans with views of the field across the street), a 20,000 sq ft (1,900 m2) Budweiser Brew House, FOX Sports Midwest Live! andPBR, the $100 million phase 1 development of Ballpark Village is intended to be a gathering space throughout the year, not just during the baseball season. Previous ballparks Busch Stadium is the Cardinals' fourth home ballpark and the third to bear that name. The Cardinals' original home ballpark wasSportsman's Parkfrom 1882 to 1892 when they played in theAmerican Associationand were known as the Browns.In 1893, the Browns moved to a new ballpark five blocks northwest of Sportsman's Park which would serve as their home from 1893 to 1920. The new park was originally called New Sportsman's Park but became more commonly referred to asRobison Field.Midway through the 1920 season, the Cardinals abandoned Robison Field and returned to the original Sportsman's Park and became tenants of their American League rivals, theSt. Louis Browns. In 1953, theAnheuser-Busch Brewerypurchased the Cardinals and the new owner subsequently also purchased Sportsman's Park from the Browns and renamed it Busch Stadium, later becoming Busch I. The Browns then left St. Louis forBaltimoreafter the season, becoming the Orioles. The Cardinals builtBusch Memorial Stadium, or Busch II, in downtown St. Louis, opened it during the 1966 season and played there until 2005.It was built as themulti-purpose stadiumhome of both the baseball Cardinals and theNFL football Cardinals, who are now theArizona Cardinals; the NFL'sRamsalso played the first four games of their home schedule upon their arrival in St. Louis in 1995. The current Busch Stadium was constructed partly atop the site of Busch Memorial Stadium. Spring training The Cardinals home field inspring trainingisRoger Dean StadiuminJupiter, Florida. They share the complex, which opened in 1998, with theMiami Marlins. Before moving to Jupiter, the Cardinals hosted spring training atAl Lang FieldinSt. Petersburg, Floridafrom 1937 to 1997. Regular season home attendance The Cardinals have exceeded the attendance total of 3 million every season from 2004 to 2019. Every season from 2013 to 2019, the Cardinals finished second among MLB franchises in home game attendance, surpassed only by theLos Angeles Dodgerseach season. The Cardinals since1987, have surpassed 3 million in 25 years, with the 25th season on September 18,2023. Logos and uniforms The Cardinals have had few logos throughout their history, although those logos have evolved over time. The first logo associated with the Cardinals was an interlocking \"SL\" that appeared on the team's caps and or sleeves as early as 1899 or 1900 (depending on the source). Those early uniforms usually featured the name \"St. Louis\" on white home and gray road uniforms which both hadcardinal redaccents. During an 1899 road trip to Chicago, a girl in the stands remarked, \"Oh, isn't that a lovely shade of cardinal.\" The team, known as the Perfectos at the time, changed its name to Cardinals the following season. In 1920, the \"SL\" largely disappeared from the team's uniforms, and for the next 20 years the team wore caps that were white with red striping and a red bill. In 1922, the Cardinals wore uniforms for the first time that featured twocardinalbirds perched on abaseball batover the name \"Cardinals\" with the letter \"C\" of the word hooked over the bat. The concept of the birds originated aftergeneral managerBranch Rickeynoticed a colorful cardboard arrangement featuring cardinal birds on a table in aPresbyterianchurchinFerguson, Missouri, at which he was speaking. The arrangement's production was by a woman named Allie May Schmidt. Schmidt's father, agraphic designer, helped Rickey make the logo a familiar staple on Cardinals uniforms.While the team had been known as the Cardinals for over 20 years by then, this logo changed the perception from the color to the bird.The now-famous \"birds on the bat\" design initially appeared with the birds perched on a black bat and \"Cardinals\" in printed letters. An alternate version of this logo with \"St. Louis\" replacing \"Cardinals\" appeared in 1930 and was the primary logo in 1931 and 1932 before \"Cardinals\" returned. In 1940, the now-familiar \"StL\" logo was introduced on the team's caps. The interlocking \"StL\" has undergone several slight modifications over the years but has appeared on the team's caps every year since. The first appearance of the \"STL\" in 1940 coincided with the introduction of navy blue as a uniform color. From 1940 until 1955, the team wore navy blue caps with red bills and a red interlocking \"StL\" while the jerseys featured both cardinal red and navy blue accents. In 1951, the \"birds on the bat\" logo was changed to feature a yellow baseball bat. In 1956, the Cardinals changed their caps to solid blue with a red \"StL\", removing the red bill. Also, for that season only, the Cardinals wore a script \"Cardinals\" wordmark on their uniforms excluding the \"birds on the bat\". An updated version of the \"birds on the bat\" logo returned in 1957 with the word \"Cardinals\" written in cursive beneath the bat; this logo, with some incremental changes along the way, has been the team's logo since. In 1962, the Cardinals became the first National League team (and the second in all of Major League Baseball after theChicago White Soxin 1960) to display players' names on the back of their jerseys. In 1964, while retaining their blue caps for road games, the Cardinals changed their home caps to all red with first a blue, than a white, interlocking \"StL\". The next year, the red caps were the only cap worn by the team full-time. In 1967, the birds on the bat emblem on the jersey was again tweaked, making the birds more realistic and changing the position of their tails relative to the bat and this version remained on all Cardinals game jerseys through 1997. In 1971, following the trend in baseball at the time, the Cardinals replaced the traditional flannel front-button shirts and pants with belts with new pullover knit jerseys and beltless elastic waist pants. In 1973, the crew-neck collar became a V-neck. Another trend in baseball led the Cardinals to change their road uniforms from gray to light blue from 1976 to 1984; the player numbers were worn on the sleeves in 1979 and 1980. In 1992, the Cardinals returned to wearing traditional button-down shirts and pants with belts. That same year, they also brought back the all-navy cap with a red \"StL\", which were last worn in 1964, for use on the road only while wearing the same red and white cap for home games. In 1998, the \"birds on the bat\" was updated for the first time in 30 years with more detailed birds and bolder letters. That year, St. Louis introduced a cap featuring a single cardinal bird perched on a bat worn for Sunday home games only. Up until 2020, the alternate \"bird\" caps were paired with their primary \"StL\" red batting helmets, but in the 2021 season, the Cardinals added a new helmet to match their home Sunday alternate caps. The new birds on the bat design was modified again the next year, with yellow beaks and white eyes replacing the red beaks and yellow eyes of the 1998 version. Uniform numbers also returned to the front of the jerseys in 1999 after a two-year absence. On November 16, 2012, the Cardinals unveiled a new alternate uniform to be worn at home games on Saturdays beginning with the 2013 season. The modified jersey, cream-colored with red trim on the sleeves and down the front, retains the \"birds on the bat\" but is the first since 1932 in which \"St. Louis\" is used instead of \"Cardinals\".2013 also saw the team adopt their red caps as their main cap for both home and away games for the first time since 1991; the navy cap was retained as an alternate, used when visiting other teams with red home caps. Starting with the 2019 season, the Cardinals have worn updated powder blue alternate uniforms during Saturday road games. Like the Saturday home cream alternates, it features red piping and \"St. Louis\" below the \"birds on the bat\" logo.In 2020, the Cardinals introduced a slightly updated version of their \"StL\" cap logo, which was \"soft launched\" in 2019 via their social media accounts and game broadcasts. In 2023, the Cardinals introducedStifelas its first uniform sponsor. The Stifel patch, which has red letters with the background color corresponding to the team's uniform, is placed on either sleeve depending on a player's handedness. In 2024, the Cardinals unveiled theirCity Connectuniform. The red-based uniform with white pants maintained the trademark \"birds on the bat\" logo in front, but with the script \"The Lou\" in white trimmed in navy blue instead of either the city or team name. \"The Lou\" paid homage to rapperNelly, a St. Louis native who once coined the city's nickname on his 2000 singleCountry Grammar. Darker red wavy pinstripes were an allusion to theMississippi Riverwhere St. Louis is situated. A red circular patch containing a yellowfleur-de-lis, a navy blue illustration of theGateway Arch, and a red \"STL\" wordmark, is placed on either sleeve. Caps are red and featured the aforementioned \"STL\" wordmark in white with navy blue trim. Support Fans Mascots The team mascot is an anthropomorphic cardinal wearing the team's uniform namedFredbird. He is assisted byTeam Fredbird, a group of eleven women who entertain fans from the field and on top of the dugouts. While unofficial, the Rally Squirrel became an unexpected phenomenon during the 2011 postseason. Making its \"debut\" in Game 3 of theNLDSon October 4, a squirrel ran across home plate in the middle of a pitch fromRoy Oswaltof the Phillies to the Cardinals'Skip Schumaker. The Cardinals would win Game 4 and subsequently Game 5 (October 7) in Philadelphia to advance to the NLCS, symbolizing the squirrel's \"role\" in the victory. The squirrel was popularized as \"Buschie the Rally Squirrel\".As a tribute to the popularity of the squirrel, a small depiction of the Rally Squirrel is also included on the officialWorld Series ringsthe team received. It shows up under the \"STL\" logo on the side of the ring. Fredbird sparked controversy in May 2015, when he was asked by a fan for a photograph and handed him a sign that said \"Police Lives Matter\". The team later claimed that Fredbird should not be involved in any political activity or social commentary. Rivalries Chicago Cubs The Cardinals–Cubs rivalry refers to games between the Cardinals and theChicago Cubs. The rivalry is also known as theDownstate Illinois rivalryor theI-55 Series(in earlier years as theRoute 66 Series) as both cities are located alongInterstate 55(which itself succeeded the famousU.S. Route 66). The Cubs lead the series 1,253–1,196, through October 2021, while the Cardinals lead inNational Leaguepennants with 19 against the Cubs' 17. The Cubs have won 11 of those pennants in Major League Baseball's Modern Era (1901–present), while all 19 of the Cardinals' pennants have been won since 1926. The Cardinals also have an edge when it comes toWorld Seriessuccesses, having won 11 championships to the Cubs' 3. Games featuring the Cardinals and Cubs see numerous visiting fans in eitherBusch Stadiumin St. Louis orWrigley Fieldin Chicago.When the National League split into two and then three divisions, the Cardinals and Cubs remained together. This has added excitement to several pennant races over the years. The Cardinals and Cubs have played each other once in the postseason,2015 National League Division Series, which the Cubs won 3–1. Kansas City Royals The Cardinals have aninterleagueand intrastate rivalry with theKansas City Royals, dubbed the \"Show-Me Series\" after thenicknameof the team's home state,Missouri; or the \"I–70 Series\" after theinterstate highwaythat connects the cities. The teams first met in the1985 World Series, which the Royals won 4–3, and which remains their only post-season meeting. Since interleague play began in1997, the Cardinals and Royals have met in four to six games each season, evenly split between the two cities. As of 2021, the Cardinals lead the overall series 71–50. The rivalry heated up in 2015, when both teams held the best records in their respective leagues when they opened each of their two series. The Royals advanced to the World Series, where they faced and ultimately defeated theNew York Mets, while the Cardinals lost in the NLDS. Had the Cardinals made it to the World Series, they would have faced the Royals in a rematch of 1985. Los Angeles Dodgers Primarily a playoff rivalry; since 1892, The Cardinals andDodgershave met 6 times in the postseason with 2 meetings in the NLCS won by the Cardinals. Both teams have recently grown a history of animosity towards one another since the late 2000s as both teams often met frequently in the postseason. The Dodgers have not fared as well against the Cardinals in the postseason. In five prior postseason series matchups, the Cardinals have won four with the Dodgers winning only the 2009 NLDS and the 2021 National League Wild Card Game. New York Mets The rivalry between the Cardinals and theNew York Metspeaked during the 1980s when both teams contended forNational League Eastsupremacy. The rivalry began with the 1983 trade that broughtKeith Hernandezfrom the Cardinals to the Mets, essentially turning the latter into contenders.Between 1985 and 1988, the division was dominated by either of the two teams, and in three of those years, the NL East winner went on to the World Series. In 1994, the Cardinals were moved to theNational League Central, and the rivalry faded soon after. The two teams would meet in the2000and2006National League Championship Series, briefly rekindling the rivalry. Executives and club officials Ownership and valuation An investment group led byWilliam DeWitt Jr.owns the St. Louis Cardinals, having bought the team from Anheuser-Busch (AB) in 1996.As with other periods of the Cardinals' transaction history, doubt loomed as to whether the purchaser would keep the team in St. Louis, due to the city's status as a \"small market\", which appears to handicap a club's competitiveness. Such was the case whenSam Breadonput the Cardinals up for sale in 1947:then-NL PresidentFord Frickproposed moving the Cardinals toChicago.When AB placed the Cardinals for sale in 1995, they publicly expressed intention to find a buyer who would keep the club in St. Louis.In March 1996, AB sold the team for $147 million to a partnership headed by Southwest Bank'sDrew Baur, Hanser and DeWitt Jr.Civic Center Redevelopment, a subsidiary of AB, held the parking garages and adjacent property and also transferred them to the Baur ownership group.Baur's group then sold the garages to another investment group, lowering the net franchise purchase price to about $100 million, about $10 million less thanFinancial World'svalue of the team at the time $110 million. CurrentCincinnati RedsownersBob Castelliniand brothers Thomas Williams and W. Joseph Williams Jr. each once owned a stake in the Cardinals dating back to the Baur-DeWitt group's purchase of the team. To allow their purchase of the Reds in 2005, the rest of the group bought out Castellini's and the Williams brothers' shares, totaling an estimated 13 percent. At that time, theForbesvalued the Cardinals at about $370 million.However, after reabsorbing that stake into the remainder of the group, they decided to make it available to new investors in 2010. Amid later allegations that the Cardinals owed the city profit shares, DeWitt revealed that their profitability had not reached the threshold to trigger that obligation. Recent annual financial records As of 2024,Forbesvalued the Cardinals tenth among the 30 MLB franchises. Their estimated value of $2.55 billion was the same from the season before, when they ranked tenth. St. Louis' revenue in 2024 was $372 million, up $14 million from 2023. TheirOperating incomewas $57 million.The Cardinals' deal withFox Sports Midwest(now Bally Sports Midwest), signed in 2015, began in 2018, and is worth $1 billion through 2032.In 2014,Forbesvalued the Cardinals at $820 million and opined previously that they play \"in the best single-team baseball market in the country and are among the league's leaders in television ratings and attendance every season.\"Concurrent with the growth ofMajor League Baseball, the Cardinals value has increased significantly since the Baur-DeWitt purchase. In 2000, the franchise was valued at $219 million,a growth rate of 374% through 2014. The franchise's value grew 12.7% from 2013 to 2014. TheForbesmethodology of team values are enterprise values (equity plus net debt) that include the economics of the ballpark but exclude the value of real estate itself. Forbes does not include the value of team-owned regional sports networks. The league's ownership in Major League Baseball Advanced Media (100%) and the MLB Network (67%) and league's investment portfolio are included in our values. In total, these three assets constitute about $425 million in value for each team. Revenue and operating income (earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) measure cash in versus cash out (not accrual accounting) for the 2017 season. Their figures include the post-season and are net of revenue sharing and stadium debt payments. Revenues include the pro-rated upfront bonuses networks pay teams as well as proceeds from non-MLB events at the ballpark. The non-recurring $18 million each team received in 2017 from the sale of a stake in BamTech to Walt Disney was excluded, as were profits or losses from team-owned RSNs. All valuations perForbes.1Based on current stadium deal (unless new stadium is pending) without deduction for debt, other than stadium debt. (2024: market $1,070 mil., stadium $540 mil., sport $590 mil., brand management $350 mil.)(2018: market $715 mil., stadium $447 mil., sport $493 mil., brand management $245 mil.)(2017: market $666 mil., stadium $411 mil., sport $488 mil., brand management $235 mil.)(2016: market $613 mil., stadium $378 mil., sport $406 mil., brand management $219 mil.)(2015: market $548 mil., stadium $338 mil., sport $331 mil., brand management $197 mil.)(2014: market $339 mil., stadium $211 mil., sport $156 mil., brand management $124 mil.)(2013: market $291 mil., stadium $182 mil., sport $151 mil., brand management $91 mil.)(2012: market $240 mil., stadium $157 mil., sport $119 mil., brand management $78 mil.)(2011: market $206 mil., stadium $136 mil., sport $111 mil., brand management $65 mil.) 2Net of stadium revenues used for debt payments.3Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization.4Includes benefits and bonuses.5Compares the number of wins per player payroll relative to the rest of MLB. Playoff wins count twice as much as regular season wins. A score of 120 means that the team achieved 20% more victories per dollar of payroll compared with the league average in 2010. Other interests The Cardinals own three of their sixMinor League Baseballaffiliates: Executives Managers Field managerswith one or more years managing, and the current manager are included here. Players Current roster Pitchers Catchers Infielders Outfielders Designated hitters Manager Coaches 60-day injured list 39 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees 7-, 10-, or 15-dayinjured list* Not on active roster†Suspended listRoster,coaches, andNRIsupdated October 1, 2024Transactions•Depth chart→All MLB rosters Coaching staff Selected individual achievements and awards Team captains Hall of Famers Inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Charles Comiskey Roger Connor Pud Galvin Clark Griffith Tommy McCarthy Grover Cleveland AlexanderWalter AlstonJake BeckleyJim Bottomley*Roger BresnahanLou Brock*Mordecai BrownJesse BurkettSteve CarltonOrlando Cepeda Dizzy Dean*Leo DurocherDennis EckersleyFrankie Frisch*Bob Gibson*Burleigh GrimesChick Hafey*Jesse Haines*Whitey Herzog*Rogers Hornsby* Miller HugginsJim KaatTony La Russa*Rabbit MaranvilleJohn McGrawBill McKechnieJoe Medwick*Minnie MiñosoJohnny Mize*Stan Musial* Kid NicholsBranch RickeyWilbert RobinsonScott RolenRed Schoendienst*Ted Simmons*Enos Slaughter*Lee SmithOzzie Smith*John Smoltz Billy Southworth*Bruce SutterJoe TorreDazzy VanceLarry WalkerBobby WallaceHoyt WilhelmVic WillisCy Young St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum In 2014, the Cardinals announced the reopening of the franchise Hall of Fame after a 6-year hiatus. A formal selection process recognizes former players as Cardinals Hall of Famers each year. To be eligible for election, a player must have been a member of the Cardinals for at least three seasons. The team initially released the names of 22 former players and personnel included in the inaugural class of2014.There are now 52 members of the Cardinals Hall of Fame. Positions that are listed were played the equivalent of a full season for the Cardinals. Players who have been nominated, but not inducted, includeJoaquín Andújar,Steve Carlton,George Hendrick,Édgar Rentería, andLee Smith. After receiving the most fan votes on the 2023 ballot,David Freeselater declined his induction into the Cardinals Hall of Fame. Inducted into the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame Retired numbers The Cardinals have retired 13 total jersey numbers––second in MLB only to theNew York Yankees' 22––in honoring 15 total former players and club personnel on the left field wall atBusch Stadium.A 16th,Jackie Robinson, is honored by all MLB teams.For the majority ofRogers Hornsby's career, the Cardinals did not have any numbers on their uniforms. When the Cardinals experimented with numbers on uniforms in 1923, Hornsby briefly donned the number 4. He switched to 6 the following season before the team abandoned the practice. Upon his return to the team in 1933, Hornsby again wore number 4 before being traded later that year. The club opted to simply honor his name with no number attached to him in 1997. Notes: Out of circulation, but not officially retired Cardinals records Minor league affiliations The St. Louis Cardinalsfarm systemconsists of sixminor leagueaffiliates. Radio and television coverage Radio In St. Louis,Audacy-ownedKMOX(1120 AM) airs Cardinals games over radio and feeds the rest of theCardinals network. Capable of reaching 21 million listeners in nine states includingMissouri,Illinois,Arkansas,Indiana,Iowa,Kentucky,Mississippi,Oklahoma, andTennessee, the Cardinals radio network is the second-largest in MLB with 117 affiliate stations. Ricky HortonandJohn Rooneyalternate asplay-by-playannouncers, with Matt Pauley serving aspre-gameandpost-gamehost. KMOX's 50,000-wattclear-channel signalcovers much of thecontinental United Statesat night. At one time, owing to the Cardinals' status as a \"regional\" franchise, the Cardinals radio network reached almost half of the country. The 2011 season marked the Cardinals' return to KMOX following five seasons onKTRS(550 AM), a station which is 50 percent owned by the Cardinals. With a partnership spanning seven decades, and continuously since 1954, its conclusion was realized after the 2005 season when the then owners of KMOX,CBS Radio, and the Cardinals failed to reach terms on a new rights agreement. However, frustrated by the underpowered coverage of 5,000-watt KTRS, the Cardinals reached a new deal with KMOX in 2011. Starting in 2013 (at age 74),Mike Shannonstarted reducing his workload. As of the 2016 season, he only called home games for the Cardinals. As of the 2019 season, his 47th in the broadcast booth, he surpassed Jack Buck, his long-time broadcast companion, as the longest-tenured Cardinal broadcaster. On January 14, 2021, Shannon announced that the upcoming season, his 50th season in the broadcast booth, would be his last. Television Since 2000, Cardinals telecasts have generated the top three in ratings in MLB every season.Bally Sports Midwestairs all games inhigh-definitionand is the team's exclusive television broadcaster, with the exception of selectedSaturday afternoon gamesonFox(via its St. Louis affiliate,KTVI) orSunday Night BaseballonESPN.Bally Sports Indiana,Bally Sports South,Bally Sports Oklahoma,Bally Sports Southwest, andBally Sports Southeastair Cardinals games for fans living within the Cardinals broadcast territory who do not receive the Bally Sports Midwest channel. During the 2016 season, the Cardinals averaged an 8.54 rating and 104,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts in St Louis. The television commentators lineup includesChip Caray,Brad Thompson, andJim Edmonds. Jimmy \"The Cat\" Hayes serves asdugout reporterduring the game as well as onCardinals Live, a pre- and post-game show.Cardinals Liveis hosted in-studio byAlexa Dattalong with game analysts and former Cardinals playersAl HraboskyandRick Ankiel. Cardinals Kids, a program aimed at the team's younger fans, airs weekly in-season on Fox Sports Midwest. It is hosted by former Cardinals pitcherBrad Thompson, team mascotFredbird, and Busch Stadium Public Address announcer John \"The U-Man\" Ulett. The 30-minute show began airing in 2003 and presents team news, player profiles, and Cardinals team history in a kid-friendly manner along with games and trivia. A weekly magazine program,This Week in Cardinal Nation, airs on St. Louis'NBCaffiliateKSDK. Cardinals games had been seen on KSDK (and its predecessor, KSD-TV) from 1947 through 1958, 1963 through 1987, and 2007 until 2010.KPLR-TVwas the Cardinals' other over-the-air broadcaster, carrying games from 1959 through 1962 and from 1988 until 2006. Former Cardinals broadcasters includeJack Buck,Harry Caray,Bob Carpenter,Dizzy Dean,Joe Garagiola,Dan McLaughlin, andJay Randolph.Joe Buck, the son of Jack Buck, was an official member of the Cardinals' broadcast team from 1991 until 2007. The younger Buck once served as the lead play-by-play caller forFox Sports' nationalMajor League BaseballandNational Football Leaguebroadcasts before joiningESPNas the voice ofMonday Night Footballin 2022. Opening Day lineups Opening Day salaries Opening Day payrolls for 25-man roster (since 2000):2018–23 payroll obligations2020 seasonshortened to 60 games.Payroll adjusted from $168,930,500 to $69,461,295. Notes References Further reading External links", "Yadier Molina Yadier Benjamín Molina(Spanish pronunciation:; born July 13, 1982), nicknamed \"Yadi\", is a Puerto Rican formerprofessional baseballcatcherwho played his entire 19-year career with theSt. Louis CardinalsofMajor League Baseball(MLB) and who is currently the team's Special Assistant to the President of Baseball Operations. Widely considered one of the greatest defensive catchers of all time for his blocking ability and hiscaught-stealingpercentage, Molina won nineRawlings Gold Glovesand sixFielding Bible Awards. A two-timeWorld Serieschampion, he played for Cardinals teams that made 12playoffappearances and won fourNational League pennants. Molina also played for thePuerto Rican national teamin fourWorld Baseball Classic(WBC) tournaments, winning twosilver medals. When he retired after the 2022 season, Molina ranked first all-time among catchers in putouts and second all-time among catchers with 130Defensive Runs Saved(DRS); among active players, he ranked first with 845assists, 40.21% of runnerscaught stealing, and 55pickoffs. Along with pitcherAdam Wainwright, Molina holds the records for most games started and won as abattery. As a hitter, Molina accrued more than 2,100hits, 150home runs, and 1,000runs batted in(RBIs); hebattedover .300 in five seasons.Other distinctions include selection to tenMLB All-Star Games, fourPlatinum Glove Awards, and oneSilver Slugger Award. He was a two-time selection to the All-WBC Tournament Team and was a member of the2018 MLB Japan All-Star Series. The product of a baseball family, Molina was born inBayamon, Puerto Rico. His father was an amateursecond basemanand the all-time hits leader inPuerto Rican baseball, and his two older brothers,BengieandJosé, also developed into standout defensive catchers with lengthy MLB careers. The Cardinals' fourth-round selection in the2000 MLB draft, Molina entered the major leagues in the 2004 season and quickly showed one of the strongest and most accurate arms in the game. Over his career, he earned a reputation as a team leader, eventually formulating pregame plans to handle opposing hitters, including pitching strategies and fielder positioning. Molina appeared on five NLMost Valuable Player Award(MVP) ballots, including finishing fourth in 2012 and third in 2013. WhenHurricane Mariaravaged the island of Puerto Rico in September 2017, Molina began relief efforts for victims of the catastrophe, consequently receiving theRoberto Clemente Awardin 2018. Early life Yadier Benjamín Molina was born on July 13, 1982, inBayamón, Puerto Rico, the youngest of three boys to Gladys Matta and Benjamín Molina, Sr. He attended MaestroLadislao MartínezHigh School inVega Alta.Baseball in Puerto Ricois a significant part of the island's culture. Molina's father playedsecond baseas an amateur and worked as a tools technician 10 hours per day in aWestinghousefactory. The all-timehitsleader inLiga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente(orDoble-A Beísbol) history, the elder Molina delivered a .320 careerbatting averageand gained election to the Puerto Rican baseball hall of fame in 2002. Molina's two older brothers,BengieandJosé, also developed into distinguished defensivecatcherswith lengthy careers inMajor League Baseball(MLB), and each of the three won at least oneWorld Serieschampionship. Each day when he completed work, Molina's father went directly home, ate dinner with his family, and crossed the street from his family's home with his sons and his son’s friend Carlos Diaz to Jesús Mambe Kuilan Park, spending countless evening hours teaching them the fundamentals of the sport.He remained hopeful that his sons would becomeprofessional baseballplayers. Molina's catching aptitude showed as early as age five and developed quickly.Nonetheless, he developed great competence in playing all over thebaseball fieldand, as older brother Bengie recalled, always seemed to \"be the first player taken in the youth league draft\".Molina concentrated oninfieldpositions until about age 16, when he began to develop the familiar Molina physique: as of 2013, he stood 5'11\" and weighed 220 pounds. Molina's father also sought to accelerate him on the diamond. Following Yadier's suspension from a youth league about age 15, he anticipated the desistance would stagnate his development, so he searched for an alternative. Against the wishes of coaches, family members and friends, he scheduled Yadier for a workout with theHatilloTigres, anamateur leagueteam. Molina made the team after a single workout and immediately became the starting catcher.The Tigres' first baseman, Luís Rosario, was the one who recommended him to the organization.The Tigres played in a league composed mainly of players 10 or more years older than Molina, well before he was eligible for theMLB draft. Professional career Draft and minor leagues Minnesota TwinsscoutEdwin Rodríguezfollowed and scrutinized Molina starting in high school. He observed that Molina's skills closely resembled that of both his older brothers—both accomplished major league catchers—and decided that his defense was \"polished\" enough to be considered more advanced than most high schoolers in the United States. However, Molina's hitting lagged behind his defense. The initial report on his skill set was \"defensive catcher, great arm, weak bat\"; the closest comparable hitter as catcher was one whom the Cardinals eventually placed at the top of their organizational ladder, his futuremanagerMike Matheny. Before he was drafted, Molina worked out for theCincinnati Reds. He put on a spectacle atRiverfront Stadiumwith his arm and bat that grabbed the attention of executives, scouts, and prominent former Reds players, includingJohnny BenchandBob Boone. As Molina recalled, he left the session with the impression that Cincinnati intended to draft him.Undeterred by the universal reservations about his offensive ceiling, theSt. Louis Cardinalsinstead took Molina in the fourth round of the2000 MLB draftand signed him for $325,000. \"I saw the kid that's going to steal my job.\" —Mike Matheny, when he was still the Cardinals' starting catcher, to his wife, on Molina in 2001 The Cardinals then invited Molina to major leaguespring trainingcamp. Described as \"raw\", the young catcher worked to emulate Matheny.At one point in that extended spring training, instructorDave Rickettsobserved Molina from agolf cartduring a game. Molina allowed apassed ballthrough his legs with a runner on third base, and raced to the backstop to retrieve the ball. Still hoping to prevent the runner from scoring, he instead found Ricketts in the golf cart parked on top of home plate. Ricketts, who had a reputation for becoming upset when minor league catchers allowed balls to bounce between their legs, removed Molina from the game and drove him to thebatting cage. There, Molina later recalled, Ricketts batted 150 to 200 ground balls to improve the young catcher's ability to block pitches. Molina began his professional career with theJohnson City Cardinalsof the Rookie-levelAppalachian Leaguein 2001, playing 44 total games and batting .259. He advanced one level in each of four seasons in the minor leagues. Even without highly developed offensive skills, Molina proved difficult to strike out. Mainly a singles hitter who favored hitting the ball the other way, he batted .278 with 14 home runs and 133runs batted in(RBIs) with 118 strikeouts in 1,044 at-bats in four minor league seasons. In his first three seasons, he threw out 111 base runners attempting to steal while allowing 133 stolen bases, for a caught-stealing percentage of 45%. St. Louis Cardinals (2004–2022) 2004–06 Molina's first chance in the Major Leagues came when the incumbent catcher, Matheny, went on thedisabled list(DL) with a strained rib in the Cardinals'pennant-winningseason of2004. Molina made his Major League debut on June 3.One of his firstgame-winning hitsoccurred on August 7. He stroked a broken-bat single to shallow center field in the bottom of the ninth inning against theNew York Mets. On the play, thecenter fielder,Mike Cameronstarted towards the outfield wall based on Molina's full swing, not immediately realizing that he had made only partial contact because of the broken bat. By the time Cameron charged the ball, it was too late; it fell in for a hit, scoringJim Edmonds.Three weeks later, on August 29, the Cardinals beat thePittsburgh Pirates6–4, thanks in part to two plays in which Molina tagged out the runner at home plate, including a collision withTy Wigginton. Molina appeared in 51 regular-season games and batted .267 with two home runs and 15 RBIs in 151 plate appearances.He threw out more than half of would-be base-stealers (nine of 17).In theWorld Seriesagainst theBoston Red Sox, managerTony La Russaelected to start Molina over Matheny in Game 4.The Red Sox swept the Cardinals and claimed thetitlethat game, their first in 86 years.The following offseason, Matheny signed a three-year, $10.5-million contract with theSan Francisco Giants, clearing the way for Molina to become the Cardinals' starting catcher. In2005, Molina struggled with injuries and saw a drop off in the offensive performance in his rookie season. Hedoubledand scored onDavid Eckstein's go-ahead single on his way to three hits in a June 12 defeat of theNew York Yankees, 5–3.Molina returned from a 33-game absence on August 19 induced by ahairline fractureof his leftfifth metacarpal bonefrom being hit by a pitch on July 7.Starting pitcherChris Carpenter, attempting to extend a winning streak to ten games on an August 19 game versus the San Francisco Giants, found himself in a 4–0 deficit in the ninth inning. Capped by Molina's three-run home run, the Cardinals rallied and won 5–4 in the ninth.The next day, Molina'ssuicide squeeze buntscoredMark Grudzielanek, tying the game and allowing the Cardinals to win 4–2.Those were just two wins of 100 as St. Louis made their way to another division title following 105 wins the season before. In 114 games, Molina posted a .252batting averagewith eighthome runsand 49 RBIs with just 30 strikeouts in 421 plate appearances. Defensively, he registered career-highs of nine pickoffs and a caught-stealing percentage of 64 from throwing out 25 of 39 would-be base-stealers.According toBaseball-Reference.com, as of 2013, that percentage ranked as the 26th highest all-time season-single caught stealing percentage. Since 1957, onlyMike LaValliere's 1993 figure of 72.7% was higher. Beforethe 2006 seasoncommenced, Molina participated in theinauguralWorld Baseball Classic(WBC) forPuerto Rico. After returning to the Cardinals, he changed his jersey number from 41 to 4. However, the regular season presented some of his greatest offensive challenges as he struggled through a career-worst .216 batting average in 461 regular-season plate appearances. It was a culmination of a decline over his first three seasons; Molina'son-base plus sluggingpercentages (OPS) registered at .684 in 2004, .654 in 2005 and .595 in 2006.The low batting average was due in part to a deflatedbatting average on balls in play(BABIP) of .226 (normal is around .300), a career low. In a May 27 game against theSan Diego PadresatPetco ParkinSan Diegowith the Cardinals holding a 4–3 lead in the bottom of the ninth, Molina pickedBrian Gilesoff first to end the game,the first pickoff to end a major league game in nearly four years.The Cardinals faced the Padres again in theNational League Division Series(NLDS) playoff game in theplayoffs, he again picked a Padre off at first, this timeMike Piazza, while bailing pitcherJeff Suppanout of a jam.For the season, he caught 41% of all base-stealing attempts and picked off seven runners. Even as his bat languished, Molina's defense was instrumental in propelling the Cardinals to theNational League Centraldivision crown in a season heavily marred by injuries for the team.However, the followingplayoffsmarked a turning point in his career offensive output. He posted a .358 composite batting average, .424on-base percentage(OBP), two home runs and eight RBIs in 16 games as the Cardinals reached theWorld Series.He batted .308 in the National League Division Series (NLDS), .348 in theNational League Championship Series(NLCS) and .412 in the World Series. One of Molina's landmark playoff performances came in Game 7 of the NLCS against theNew York Mets, the final game of the series tied at three games each. Starting in the top of the ninth, he batted with a 1–1 score. In the sixth inning, Mets left fielderEndy Chávezhad prevented the Cardinals from taking the lead when he leapt to catchScott Rolen's near-miss home run over the left field fence. This time, however, Molina hit a two-run home run offAaron Heilmanover left field that was too high for Chávez to catch and gave the Cardinals a 3–1 edge. In the bottom of the ninth, rookie pitcherAdam Wainwright– filling in as emergencycloser– found himself in a two-out, bases-loaded situation against center fielderCarlos Beltrán, who had already homered three times in the NLCS. Molina called for a mound conference. Initially, he wanted asinkerfrom Wainwright but changed his mind because he suspected Wainwright would overthrow it and give Beltrán an easy pitch to hit. Molina made an unconventional choice by calling for achangeupto start the sequence against Beltrán. It was called for a strike. Had Beltrán successfully got a base hit, the scheme may have caused tension for the third-year catcher with La Russa andpitching coachDave Duncanbecause throwing a first-pitch changeup ran contrary to Duncan's teaching. Molina then called for twocurveballs. Beltrán fouled off the first, but Wainwright struck him out looking at a \"bender that started up and away and bit hard to the low inside corner\" for the final out of the game. The Cardinals' conquest of the NLCS gave them a return trip to the World Series after two years. They proceeded to defeat theDetroit Tigersin five games, giving Molina his firstchampionship ring.His mask was turned in for display at theBaseball Hall of Fame. 2007–09 Batting out of the number-five spot in the batting order for the first time in his career on Opening Day,2007, Molina collected two hits. In a game against theMilwaukee Brewerson April 15, Molina pickedPrince Fielderoff first base as he leaned far off the bag, tipping off Molina and first basemanAlbert Pujolsto ahit and runthe Brewers were planning.Four days later, Molina faced his brother Bengie for the first time in a game against theSan Francisco Giants. It was also the first time they had seen each other in about three and one-half years. From May 1 to 24, Molina strung together a then-career high 15-game hitting streak, during which he batted .373. It was the longest streak for a Cardinals catcher sinceErik Pappas' 16-game streak in1993.Molina was absent for most of June due to a fractured left wrist.In the third inning of the May 29 game againstColorado, he took a foul tip off his wrist from Rockies right fielderBrad Hawpe's bat. After missing 26 games, the Cardinals activated him from the disabled list on June 28. The first multi-error game of Molina's career occurred July 13 against thePhiladelphia Phillieson a catch and throw. In a span of 11 starts from August 2–16, he racked up four three-hit games. On August 16, he hit two home runs against the Brewers for his first career multi-homer game. Molina homered and stroked the go-ahead double in an August 22 defeat ofFlorida. One week later, he homered in back-to-back games against theCincinnati Reds; he, Edmonds, andRick Ankieleach drove in three runs in an 11–3 victory on September 2.On Yadier MolinaBobbleheadNight September 19 versusPhiladelphia, he stroked three hits including the game-winning single in the tenth inning. Molina suffered a concussion in September and underwentarthroscopic surgeryto repair torn cartilage in his right knee. The knee surgery ended his season early on September 24.In Molina's final 50 games, he successfully collected 49 hits in 158 AB for a .310 AVG. Of his final 35 starts, 12 were multi-hit games. His .281 batting average after the All-Star break ranked fifth among NL catchers.He finished the season with a new career-best .275 batting average, six home runs, and 40 RBIs in 111 games.He threw out 50% (23 of 46) baserunners attempting to steal, the highest percentage in the majors. From 2005 to 2007, he led all MLB with a 47% caught-stealing rate and 18 pick-offs. On January 14,2008, Molina and the Cardinals agreed to a four-year, $15.5 million deal with a club option for a fifth, cementing his position as their starting catcher. He reported to spring training having lost 15 pounds and in improved physical shape from rehabilitating following knee surgery.He started the season with anOpening Dayhome run and seven-game hitting streak.After a home plate collision withEric Bruntletton June 15 against thePhiladelphia Philliesin the ninth inning, Molina sustained head and neck injuries and was removed from the field on a stretcher. There were no indications of a concussion.He held on to the ball to help the Cardinals win.He missed the next four games.To that point, Molina was batting .295 with three home runs and 24 RBIs. He also had thrown out 10 of 32 baserunners (31.3%) – well below his career average of 45% – but anAssociated Pressreporter attributed the decline to an inexperienced pitching staff. Molina returned to the field againstBostonatFenway Parkas thedesignated hitter. In that game, his solo home run provided the difference in a 5–4 Cardinals victory. It was also the first game of the first of two 13-gamehitting streaksfor the season. His first career start atfirst base, also against Boston, occurred two days later. During that streak, he collected 17 hits in 47 at-bats for a .362 batting average. The second hitting streak spanned from August 16 to September 2, where he successfully hit 19 times in 50 at bats for a .380 average.On September 2, he andFelipe Lópezhit consecutive home runs against theArizona Diamondbacksen route to an 8–2 victory. Overall, Molina enjoyed a breakout offensive season, finishing with new career highs with a .304 batting average – his first over .300 – and in hits (135), OBP (.349), SLG (.392), runs (37) and RBIs (56). Of all catchers in franchise history with at least 450 PA in a season, he became just the second ever, after Simmons, to bat over .300; it was then the fourth-best season batting average; and, his 29 strikeouts were the fewest since Simmons fanned 20 times in1976. Molina led the team and was sixth in the NL with a .340 batting average with runners inscoring position.For the season, he successfully caught 35% of opposing baserunners, still higher than the league average of 27%.He led all MLB with seven pickoffs. That November, Molina received his firstGold Glove Award, becoming the third Cardinal catcher ever to win the honor, afterTom Pagnozziand Matheny. Before the2009 seasoncommenced, Molina participated with Puerto Rico in hissecondWBC. When the event concluded, he returned to the Cardinals. In an April 16 game against theArizona Diamondbacks, he reached base in all five of his plate appearances in a 12–7 victory.Starting pitcherJoel Piñeiro– struggling with hisfastballcommand in previous starts – experimented with a sinker and shut out theNew York Metson June 24 with just two hits. Molina erased a Mets runner by throwing outLuis Castilloattempting to steal second base.Molina was batting .278 with five home runs and 25 RBIs through July 5, 2009. He was selected through fan vote to represent the Cardinals in theAll-Star Gamein St. Louis'Busch Stadium– his first All-Star Game.As the top vote-getter among NL catchers with 2,641,467 votes, Molina was named the NL's starting catcher.He caught eight innings and drove home a run. Following the All-Star break on July 18, Molina's four hits and Albert Pujols' two home runs helped cap Chris Carpenter's 6–1 victory over the Diamondbacks, who pitched around nine runners on base in eight innings.On August 15, Molina picked offSan Diego'sKevin Kouzmanoffat first on the way to a 7–4 victory, the 33rd of his career.At that point,Bill James Onlinerated that Molina saved his team fifteen total runs from pickoffs alone in his career. A sore left knee sustained after taking a foul ball of his kneecap temporarily disabled Molina on September 26. He was back in action on October 1 againstCincinnati, although he was removed from that game due to a \"tweaked\" knee.He finished the season with a .293 batting average, six home runs, 54 RBIs, and a major league-leading 136 games caught, the highest franchise total sinceTed Simmons' total in1977.His strikeout rate of once every 13.9 PA was the second-lowest in the NL. While accumulating 39 mult-hit games, the Cardinals won 27 of them. He led the major leagues with eight pickoffs and was second in the NL in innings caught.He also won his second Gold Glove award after the season.The Sporting Newsannounced that major league managers and coaches had selected Molina for the magazine's end-of-season All-Star award.For the first time in his career, Molina earnedMost Valuable Player Award(MVP) consideration. He finished tied for 23rd withMiguel Tejadawith one percent of the vote share. 2010–11 On Opening Day, April 5,2010, Molina connected for agrand slam, becoming just the third Cardinals player to hit an Opening Day grand slam, followingMark McGwireandScott Rolen.On April 17, he caught all 20 innings of a game against theMets.Molina turned in a productive April, driving in 15 runners, the most for a Cardinals catcher in the month of April since Ted Simmons drove in 20 in 1977. He also continued his productivity with the bases loaded that month, collecting four hits and 11 RBIs in five at bats. Before theAll-Starbreak, Molina batted just .223. However, he was voted to start his second consecutive game, and second overall, and played four innings.After the All-Star break, his hitting improved, as he stroked 63 hits in 200 at bats for .315 batting average. During a game against theCincinnati Redson August 10, as second basemanBrandon Phillipscame to bat, he exchanged words with Molina that escalated to a bench-clearing confrontation, although no one was ejected.On September 17, he amassed a career-high five RBIs and career-tying four hits againstSan Diego, including two doubles.After an examination on his sore right knee on September 23, Molina was shut down for the rest of the season, missing 12 games. The final batting results for Molina's 2010 season consisted of a .262 batting average, six home runs, and 62 RBIs. He ranked as the fourth toughest in the NL to strike out with 10.2 at bats per strikeout. He led all NL catchers in at-bats (465) and stolen bases (eight), and his 122 hits ranked second, just behindBrian McCann's 123. He was tops in the NL with 24 bases-loaded RBIs, collecting eight hits in 15 AB for a .533 batting average in those situations. He also was first in the Majors with a .455 batting average (10–22) on 0–2 counts. He led all MLB catchers in innings (1138.0), games started (130) and assists (79),and led the NL for the third time in caught-stealing percentage at 49%.On November 1, he won his fourth consecutive Fielding Bible Award as the sole catcher. In addition, Molina became the first player at any position to win the award unanimously with a perfect score of 100.Nine days later, he was awarded his third consecutive Gold Glove Award. With increased offensive productivity in2011, Molina continued to help anchor the middle of Cardinals lineup in addition to the pitching staff and defense. From May 15 to 18, he put together four consecutive multi-hit games. Selected to his third consecutiveAll-Star Game, he substituted for the starter, McCann, played four innings and doubled in his only at-bat. Molina hit safety in 14 consecutive games from July 21 to August 11, one fewer than his career high. From July 22–25, he homered in three consecutive games, the second time in his career he had done so. On August 2, Molina was ejected from a game against theMilwaukee Brewersfor arguing a called strike. He bumpedumpireRob Drakein the chest multiple times and appeared to spit upon him. Molina later apologized, stating that he did not intend to spit on the umpire and that he \"was caught up in the moment. That's what happens when you're caught up in the race and trying to win. I didn't handle it the right way.\" He served a five-game suspension handed down by MLB for \"making contact with umpire Rob Drake multiple times and spraying him with spit twice while arguing.\" Although the Cardinals stayed competitive, they were, at best, on the fringes of making the playoffs through August. As of August 28, with a 70–64 record, they faced a10+1⁄2-game deficit to theBravesfor thewild cardplayoff berth with 28 left to play. Molina provided a spark to the offense in the close of the season, batting .342 in August and .341 in September.With his 30th double on September 21, he became the fourth catcher in Cardinals history to reach that milestone, following Simmons,Bob O'FarrellandWalker Cooper. St. Louis won 20 of 28 games to finish the season, allowing them to tie the Braves for the wild card lead going into the final day. Molina caught Carpenter's 8–0 shutout of theAstros, the final game of the regular season.Meanwhile, thePhillesdefeated the Braves 4–3 in 13 innings, giving the Cardinals the wild card title and eliminating the Braves from the playoffs. The10+1⁄2games-won deficit marked the largest lead surrendered with 28 left to play in MLB history,consummating whatSt. Louis Post-DispatchsportswriterBernie Miklasztermed an \"improbable comeback,\"and one of the greatest sports history. It was just the first in a series of improbable comebacks for the Cardinals in 2011. Molina compiled a .305 batting average, 32 doubles, 14 home runs and 65 RBIs during the 2011 regular season. His batting average led the Cardinals and was eighth in the NL. However, his posted a career-low 29% caught-stealing percentage.His OPS+ (126),batting average, and hit totals led NL catchers, doubles placed second and RBIs third. His .337 batting average following the All-Star Break tied for seventh in the NL. He also led all NL catchers with 12 three-hit games, and collated 39 multi-hit games and 13 multi-RBI games. By making the playoffs, Molina became the first catcher in franchise history to appear in five postseasons for the Cardinals. He batted .333 in theNLCSagainstMilwaukee, including five hits in eight AB in the final two games.In Game 1 of theWorld Seriesagainst theTexas Rangers, Molina threw outIan Kinslerattempting to steal in the first inning on the way to a 3–2 win. It was the Rangers' only attempted steal of the game. That caught stealing gave Molina five in seven total chances in the 2011 postseason to that point; the Rangers had been tied with the Cardinals for most steals in that postseason.For the series, the Rangers attempted to steal four bases and were successful just once.In Game 3, Molina accumulated four RBI, and two more each in Games 6 and 7. The Cardinals won the Series in seven games, giving Molina his second championship ring. He batted .333 and set a team World Series record with nine RBIs.It was the highest World Series RBI total among catchers sinceSandy Alomar Jr., drove in 10 in1997. Molina started all 18 games and played every inning in that 2011 playoff run, including one at first. Overall, he batted .299 with five doubles and 12 RBIs. His 20 hits were the most by a catcher in the postseason since Iván Rodríguez stroked 21 in 2003.On November 1, Molina won his fourth consecutive Gold Glove Award,becoming just the fifth catcher on a pennant-winning club to lead his position in OPS+ in his league while winning a Gold Glove.He also won the first-ever National LeagueRawlings Platinum Glove Award, bestowed upon one player in each league.For the second time in his career, he won MVP consideration; he finished tied for 21st for the NL MVP balloting. 2012 On March 1,2012, Molina signed a five-year extension with the Cardinals worth $75 million through 2017. The contract included a $1 million signing bonus,no-trade clause, and a mutual option for 2018 worth another $15 million.The deal made him the second-highest-paid catcher in the majors.He collected his tenth career four-hit game against theBrewerson April 29 with a two-run home run that led the Cardinals to a 7–3 win.On May 1, Molina mounted the first of two two-stolen base games of the season; the other occurred August 3. On May 27 against thePhillies, Molina blasted his third career grand slam againstRoy Halladay. His made his 1,000th career appearance in an MLB game against theChicago White Soxon June 12. From July 25 to August 7, he maintained a season-best 11-game hitting streak in which he batted .413.In a game againstPittsburghatPNC Parkon August 28, he sustained head, neck and back injuries – although no concussion – in a second-inning home plate collision with second basemanJosh Harrison.In August, he batted .403 with a .453 OBP, both tied for third in the NL.As the season progressed, he garnered widespread consideration for the National League MVP award.On September 4, Molina collected his 1,000th career hit, an infield single against theMetsat home in the second inning. The 2012 season was one of Molina's crowning achievements as a hitter, especially considering early professional scouting reports did not forecast his bat being much of a factor in the major leagues. He set new career highs in multiple offensive categories, including a .315 batting average, 22 home runs, 76 RBI, 65 runs scored, .373 OBP, .501 slugging percentage and 12 stolen bases.He led the team in batting average for the second straight season, thus becoming the first catcher in franchise history to do so. Panning Molina's performance National League-wide, he ranked fourth in batting average,tenth in on-base percentage, 14th in slugging percentage and tied for 18th with 46 multihit games. He led NL catchers in stolen bases and set a Cardinals single-season record for catchers,and ranked second among NL catchers in HR and third in RBIs and batting average.An aggressive hitter, he batted .380 with seven home runs on the first pitch; his home run total on first pitches ranked seventh in the NL. His 32 baserunners caught stealing topped MLB, 47.9 caught stealing percentage ranked second, and three pickoffs tied for first in the NL and were second in MLB. From a historic perspective,Fangraphs'Dave Cameronnoted that Molina's combination of offensive productivity and interception of base runners in 2012 was one of the rarest performances in history. He became just the ninth MLB catcher to post a season with a weightedruns created(WRC+)factor of 140 and 45 percent of runners caught stealing. At 143, his WRC+ was tied for eighth all-time among catchers with at 45% of base runners caught stealing. Further, those figures aligned with peak seasons of other catchers such as Johnny Bench,Elston Howard,Carlton Fisk, andRick Wilkins. After being the subject of much speculation for the MVP award throughout the season, Molina ultimately finished fourth. However, he did win the prestigious and oldest award given to Latino players: the LatinoMVP award given by Latino Sports and the Latino Sports Writers & Broadcasters Association (LSWBA). He and winnerBuster Poseybecame the first pair of catchers to finish in the top four in the award's 88-year history.However, like in years past, other awards were on their way. In November, he won his fifth straight Gold Glove award, making him the first Cardinal since Jim Edmonds to win that many consecutively,which Edmonds did in 2004. On December 4, he won his firstGIBBYAward for Defensive Player of the Year.The St. Louis chapter of theBaseball Writers' Association of America(BBWAA) named him the St. Louis Baseball Man of the Year for 2012.In aLos Angeles Timesreport that published the top MLB jersey sales from the All-Star break until October 1, his jersey ranked 18th. 2013 With increased profile coming in conjunction with his offensive breakout from the year before, Molina's popularity with fans around the game also increased. Following his 2012 fourth-place MVP finish, his2013in-season jersey sales rose to third place, just after Posey and retiringNew York YankeescloserMariano Rivera, according to a July 11 report.On June 2 he was ejected by 1st base umpireClint Faganfor throwing his helmet. Molina collected two doubles in a three-hit game on June 12, giving him 21 doubles for the season, a pre-All-Star break career high. It was also the second-highest pre-All-Star break total in franchise history following Ted Simmons' 29thirty-five years earlier. That three-hit game also gave Molina 78 for his career, tied for 43 on the all-time list for catchers. Through July 15, Molina led the NL with a .341 (110 hits in 323 at-bats) batting average. In the finalAll-StarGame balloting, Molina (6,883,258 votes) edged out Posey (6,474,088) for the role of the NL's starting catcher in the game held atCiti FieldinQueens, New York City.The Cardinals placed Molina on the 15-day disabled list on July 31 due to a right knee sprain.At the time he went on the DL, Molina was batting .330 with eight homers, thirty doubles, and 54 RBIs.Amagnetic resonance image(MRI) indicatedinflammationbut no structural damage, so the knee was drained of excessfluidbuildup and Molina was given acortisoneinjection. The knee injury impacted his batting average, contributing to a late-season slump. On September 16, Molina collected four hits with three runs scored to help the Cardinals to a 12–2 win over theSeattle Marinersand break an 0–15 slump, raising his batting average to .317.Eight days later, Molina was behind the plate to call rookieMichael Wacha's one-hit, 82⁄3innings ofshutoutwork in a 2–0 victory over theWashington Nationals. It was actually ano-hitterthrough that point untilRyan Zimmermanbroke it up with a high-bouncing ground ball that glanced off Wacha's glove for the Nationals' only hit of the game. For the year, Molina set new career highs in batting average (.319), doubles (44), runs scored (68), and RBIs (80). He also hit .373 withrunners in scoring position(RISP) in a season in which the Cardinals set the all-team team record for batting average with RISP at .330. He finished fourth in the NL in batting average, second in doubles and sixth in batting average with RISP. His 44 doubles were the most in the Major Leagues among catchers sinceIván Rodríguez' 47 in1996. Molina was also noted for his handling of the pitching staff. The Cardinals overcame losing key pitchers Chris Carpenter,Jason Motte, andJaime García– among others – early in the season by substituting twelve rookie pitchers en route to winning a competitive NL Central division title over thePittsburgh PiratesandCincinnati Reds(each team finished with at least 90 wins). A continuously evolving core exceeded expectations by filling in for 52 games started, 36 wins, and fivesavesand Molina was credited with their success in a large part due to his pitch-calling skills and aptness to guide. The rookies' 36 wins were the most in franchise history since1941. The Cardinals squared off against the Pirates in theNLDS. Two weeks removed from just missing a no-hitter, Wacha again nearly repeated the feat with Molina behind the plate in an elimination game, Game 4. Molina threw outpinch runnerJosh Harrison attempting to steal second base in the eighth inning to help the Cardinals preserve a 2–1 lead.In theWorld Seriesagainst theBoston Red Sox, Molina became just the ninth player – and the first in theexpansion era– in franchise history to appear in four World Series with the club, and the first sinceStan Musialin the1946 World Series, also against theRed Sox.Molina collected more awards following the season, including his first Silver Slugger Award,sixth Gold Glove, and a third-place finish in MVP voting.Molina was a co-winner, along with Wainwright andMatt Carpenter, for the BBWAA St. Louis Baseball Man of the Year. 2014 Along with three other players each separately displayed,Sports Illustratedfeatured Molina on the cover of their March 31 issue complementing the 2014 MLB season previewarticle.On the2014Opening Day – the same daySports Illustratedpublished the Molina cover edition – he stroked his second season-entry home run and the 90th of his career, accounting for the difference in a 1–0 defeat of theRedsinCincinnati. It also secured the 100th win for batterymate Adam Wainwright. Molina added a single for two of the Cardinals' five hits. With a one ball, two strike pitch fromrelief pitcherRandy Choateincoming toCubsoutfielderNate Schierholtzin a May 4 game, the batterfoul tippedthe pitch. Instead of Molina being in a position to catch it cleanly with his glove, the ball hit thethigh. Molina instantly hunched over the ball, trapping it between the thigh andrib cage. He held on, qualifying it as a third strike. \"Do you want another St. Louis Cardinals catcher to star in an All Star game? Isn’t there a better way? Cast a ballot for change. Cardinals fans need to know that enough is enough.\" —Brad Weimer, the creator forJonathan Lucroy's All-Star voting advertisement, intended to take votes away from Molina With theAll-Star Gamenearing,BrewerscatcherJonathan LucroyairedArchivedJuly 15, 2014, at theWayback Machineasatiricaltelevision commercialin the style of a politicaladvertising campaignon June 17 to outgain Molina in the All-Star voting totals. Thevoice-overnarrator posed the question, \"Do you want another St. Louis Cardinals catcher to star in an All Star game? Isn’t there a better way? Cast a ballot for change. Cardinals fans need to know that enough is enough.\" At that point, Molina led the vote total for NL catchers with more than two million, while Posey was second at 1.4 million and Lucroy third with 1.1 million. Some, including Matheny, took the message literally.However, Brad Weimer, the advertisement's creator, confirmed the humor was meant to betongue-in-cheek.Molina stayed in the lead and won the vote as the starting catcher in the All-Star Game atTarget FieldinMinneapolis,Minnesota, his sixth consecutive appearance. His season was interrupted on July 9 against thePirates. While sliding past third base, he attempted to grab the bag to stay on. However, during the play, he injured his right thumb. An MRI revealed torn ligaments, requiring surgery and forcing him to miss the next eight to 12 weeks. Regarding the injury as having a significance impact on the Cardinals' season,St. Louis Post-DispatchsportswriterBernie Miklaszcommented, \"Losing the best catcher in the world for the next 8 to 12 weeks with a torn thumb ligament is a horrendous, demoralizing setback for the Cardinals. This could be a season-ending injury.\"At that point, he was batting .287 with a .341 OBP, .409 SLG, 16 doubles, seven homers, and 30 RBIs through 83 games. He also led MLB with a 49 caught-stealing percentage. He returned from the DL ahead of schedule, about seven weeks and 40 games missed after the injury, and was activated August 29 before a series against theCubs.However, he still had not fully recovered, as he batted .250 in September with a pronounced drop in power production.His 110 appearances were his fewest since his rookie season in 2004. He finished the season with a .282 batting average, seven HR, 38 RBIs, 21 doubles, a .333 OBP and .386 SLG, all lower totals than 2013, and many since 2010. Among players with at least 90 games played, Molina's 48% caught stealing and 3.20catcher's ERAwere both first in the major leagues. During Game 1 of theNLDSagainst theDodgers, Wainwright hitAdrián Gonzálezwith a pitch, and both benches cleared. UmpireJerry Mealsattempted to get between González and Molina, but Molina briefly shoved Meals. MLB fined Molina $5,000 without suspending him.In Game 2 of theNLCSagainst theGiants, Molina collected his 89th career hit in the postseason, passing Pujols for the franchise record. However, he sustained his second significant injury of the season in that same game, straining his leftabdominal oblique muscleduring another at bat,due in part to compensation in his swing for lost power following his thumb injury earlier in the season. After missing the next game, his string of 83 consecutive playoff games started was stopped, which was a major league record. The last playoff game he had not started was Game 3 of the 2004 World Series.On November 4, Molina was announced as winning his seventh consecutive Gold Glove, tying Boone as having won the third-most Gold Gloves among catchers. Further, only Bench and Rodríguez had won more consecutive (10 each) as catchers in major league history.He won the National League Platinum Glove award on November 8, his third time in the award's first four years. 2015 With his 11th consecutive Opening Day start on April 5,2015, against theCubs, Molina became the first catcher in club history to achieve this feat.On May 10 against thePirates, he was on the dubious end of a piece of MLB history: lining out into the first \"4–5–4\"triple playin MLB history. Second basemanNeil Walkercaught his line drive with two runners on, then threw to third basemanJung-ho Kangto double upJhonny Peraltafor the second out. Kang briefly pirouetted the ball in his hand, albeit confused, but threw back to Walker to tagJason Heywardfor the third out.Molina's first home run of the season and first in 95 games occurred against theMinnesota Twinson June 15; his previous home run dated back to June 27, 2014. On July 7, he was selected to his seventh consecutiveAll-Star Game, played atGreat American Ball ParkinCincinnati.In the Reds'clubhousefor the All-Star Game, Molina shared alockerwith Reds' second baseman Brandon Phillips. Since the brawl between the Cardinals and Reds in 2010, the two mended their schism, and Molina has a photograph of their families together.When informed whose locker he was using, Molina replied, \"This is Phillips' locker? How about that? I'll have to write something to him.\"While the pregame roster introductions were made, Redsfansbooed all six Cardinals players who were selected, and even former Cardinal Albert Pujols. When Molina was introduced, he smiled and turned and pointed histhumbstoward the back of his jersey. Pujols provided levity when he then joined in the booing. After the game, Molina remarked toreporters, \"when you spend 12 years coming to Cincinnati and you beat them so many times, they’re going to boo you.\" In his career to that point, he hit .319 with a .352 on-base percentage and .500 slugging percentage in 270 career at-bats at Great American Ball Park. Hitting his firsttriplein more than four years and 2,000 at bats, with the bases loaded, Molina provided the decisive run in a 3–2 outcome against theChicago White Soxon July 22.In the annualBaseball AmericaToolboxAwards, managers and coaches around the National League rated Molina as both the \"Besthit and runartist\" and \"Bestdefensivecatcher\" in the NL.His 100th career home run was well-timed, becoming the game-winning run in the bottom of the eighth inning atBusch Stadiumon August 19 in a 4–3 win overSan Francisco.After sustaining an injury to his left thumb during a September 20 game against the Cubs, an MRI revealed a partial ligament tear, preventing him from playing.Molina won his eighth consecutive Gold Glove Awardand fourth Platinum Glove Award in 2015.In December, it was revealed that Molina had a second surgery on his left thumb, pushing his return to late in 2016 spring training.He was winner of theDarryl KileGood Guy Award. 2016 At age 33, Molina broke the Cardinals' all-time games caught record on April 8,2016, in his 1,440th game, passingTed Simmons(1968–80). His 1,343 games started since the beginning of the 2005 season was the highest total in the major leagues.He made his 1,500th career major league appearance on May 14 in a 5–3 loss to theLos Angeles Dodgers.While playing theWashington Nationalsin the seventh inning of a 2–1 loss atNationals Parkon May 26,Stephen Drewhit a high infield fly that stayed over the pitcher's mound. With bothAledmys DíazandMike Leakeattempting to catch the ball, Molina posited himself and waited. As the ball deflected off Díaz' glove, he almost collided with Leake, but Molina instinctively moved his glove and caught the ball before it hit the ground.He recorded his 1,500th career hit on July 2 againstMilwaukee, becoming the 34th catcher in MLB history, and second for the Cardinals, after Simmons. Molina's ninth-inning, RBI double, tied the July 27 game against theNew York Metsat 4−4, endingJeurys Familia’s consecutive-saves streak of 52, the third-longest in major league history.His tenth-inning double againstMilwaukeeon August 30, his 30th of the season and 300th of his career, helped lead the Cardinals to a 2–1 victory.He caught a career-high 146 games. After starting with a .256 average through 85 games, Molina batted .365 from July 8 to the end of the season, and overall hit .307, eight home runs, 58 RBIs,and led all major league catchers with 164 hits and 38 doubles.His hit total was also a career-high, leading the club,and he was eighth in the league in batting and ninth in doubles. 2017 DuringSpring Trainingbefore the2017 season, and the final guaranteed year on Molina's contract, the Cardinals began to negotiate an extension to keep Molina in St. Louis for the remainder of his career. He agreed to a three-year contract extension for a reported $60 million, making him the highest-paid catcher in baseball. He was not interested in exercising his 2018 mutual option, which would have been worth $15 million. The extension assured Molina of remaining in St. Louis through 2020, and increases the chances that he will finish his career having played for just one organization, the one that drafted him. This distinction of having Molina retire as a Cardinal is something that carried weight for both parties throughout the negotiations. On June 26, Molina became the ninth catcher all-time to record 11,000career putoutsat the position. For the eighth time in his career, he was anAll-Starselection, as resulted in a vote by fellow players.He homered, making him the oldest catcher to hit a homer in an All-Star Game, in his age-34 season, and the first Cardinal to homer in an All-Star Game sinceReggie Smithin1974. On August 9 against the Kansas City Royals, Molina came in with two outs and the bases loaded. After drawing a 1–0 count against Peter Moylan, a brief delay occurred when a stray kitten had made its way onto the outfield. On the very next pitch to Molina, he hit it 387 feet into the left field seats for a go-ahead grand slam. This was the fifth grand slam of his career, tying him with Tim McCarver for second-most career grand slams by a Cardinals catcher. This also proved to be the deciding hit in this game, as the Cardinals held up to win, 8–5. On September 19, Molina tiedJim Bottomley(1922–1932) for 10th place in Cardinals history with 1,727 hits. Molina led the team in 2017 with 134 hits and 78 RBIs, and all NL catchers in both categories, entering play on that date.He broke the tie with Bottomley on September 20, with his 1,728th hit, and tied his own career-high RBI total for a season with 80, reached in 2013. He passed 80 on September 21, with his 81st and 82nd RBI.He was the 2017 recipient of theMissouri Athletic Club's Sports Personality of the Year Award. 2018 In January 2018, Molina expressed his plan to retire following the 2020 season when his contract would expire.Asbatterymates, Wainwright and Molina had accumulated more starts together than any other in franchise history.He passed Bench for two milestones early in the season: for 13th place in major league history in innings caught with14,494+1⁄3on April 14 while playing theCincinnati Reds,and 16th in games caught versus with 1,743 on May 2 versus theChicago White Sox.Molina doubled versus Cincinnati on April 22 to give him 338 for his career and tieOzzie Smithfor tenth place in Cardinals' history.On May 5, Molina exited the game after a foul tip struck him in thegroin. The next day, on May 6, Molina underwent emergency surgery for apelvicinjury with traumatichematoma. The Cardinals activated Molina from the DL on June 5.On June 19, he set the major league record for most games caught with one team with 1,757, passingGabby Hartnettwho had previously held the record as a member of the Cubs.Molina homered twice in a loss toPhiladelphiaon June 20 for his fifth career multihomer game.He homered twice again on June 23 versusMilwaukeeto fuel a 3–2 win, giving him five home runs over his previous six games. Batting .279 with 13 home runs, Molina was named to the2018 MLB All-Star Gameto replace the injuredBuster Posey.He finished his 2018 campaign batting .261 with twenty home runs and 74 RBIs in 123 games.He had the highest fielding percentage among major league catchers, at .998.He won his ninthGold Glove. 2019 On Opening Day2019, versus theBrewers, Molina extended his team-record for Opening Day starts with 15.He made his first career appearance at third base in extra innings of a 6−5 win on April 1 versus thePirates. The Cardinals were in need of infield depth with an injury to regular utility infielderJedd Gyorko.He was placed on the injured list on May 31 with a thumb tendon strain. For the 2019 season, Molina batted .270/.312/.399 with ten home runs and 57 RBIs over 113 games.He batted .143 in the NLCS and .167 in the NLDS.He had the slowest sprint speed of all National League players, at 22.8 feet/second.On October 9, Molina set the record for the most appearances by a National League player in post-season MLB play, at ninety-four games. He was nominated for a Gold Glove. 2020 In 2020, Molina made his 16th consecutive Opening Day start.On August 4, it was announced that Molina had tested positive forCOVID-19, and he was subsequently placed on the injured list.Molina would eventually recover from the disease. On September 24, against theMilwaukee Brewers, he singled to right-center field for his 2,000th career hit. For the season, he batted aslash lineof .262/.303/.359, with four home runs and 16 RBIs.He was the second-oldest player in the NL, and had the slowest sprint speed of all major league catchers, at 23.0 feet per second.On defense, he led all NL catchers in errors, with five. At the end of the 2020 season, Molina entered into free agency for the first time in his career. 2021 In 2021, Molina returned temporarily to Puerto Rico to play in the Liga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente to play as a reinforcement with the Atenienses de Manatí in the semifinals.However, his participation was shadowed by the poor performance of the team,resulting in a sweeping 4-0 series with the Indios de Mayagüez. On February 8, 2021, the Cardinals announced that they had signed Molina to a one-year deal for a reported $9 million.In regards to the signing, Molina stated \"this is my home\" and \"I'm happy to be back.\"On April 14, Molina caught his 2,000th game with the Cardinals, the most by a catcher on one team.On August 24, Molina signed a one-year extension worth $10 million and announced that 2022 would be his final season. Molina finished the 2021 season batting .252/.297/.370 with 11 home runs and 66 RBIs over 121 games and again had the slowest sprint speed of all major league catchers, at 22.6 feet/second.He was nominated for a Gold Glove, making him one of six Cardinals to be nominated which led the major leagues. 2022 On May 15, 2022, Molina andAdam Wainwrightwon their 203rd game as a starting battery, setting the MLB record.On May 22, Molina made his first career pitching performance as he closed an 18–4 win against thePittsburgh Pirates. He gave up all four of the Pirates' runs on four hits and two home runs. His pitching debut came one week after that of teammateAlbert Pujols, who also gave up four hits and two home runs in the ninth inning.On June 8, Molina came in to pitch again in the eighth inning of an 11-3 loss against theTampa Bay Rays. In the mound appearance, Molina collected his first career pitching strikeout, punching out Rays infielderIsaac Paredes. On September 14, Wainwright and Molina set another MLB record by starting alongside one another for the 325th time, surpassingMickey LolichandBill Freehanof theDetroit Tigersfor the most starts by a battery in MLB history. His last game was played on October 8, 2022 as the Cardinals were beaten 2–0 in the2022 Wild Card Seriesby thePhiladelphia Phillies. He went one for four and left two runners on base. In 2022 he batted .214/.233/.302 in 262 at bats, and was the slowest player in major league baseball, with a sprint speed of 21.8 feet per second. International career Molina participated in the first fourWorld Baseball Classic(WBC) tournaments –2006,2009,2013, and2017– for thePuerto Ricanteam. He was fellow defensive standoutIván Rodríguez’s backup in 2006 and 2009 and the primary catcher for the 2013and 2017 squads. In his first classic in 2006, Molina played four games and collected three hits in five at-bats. In a 2009 tournament game against theNetherlandson March 9, Molina's eighth-inning double keyed a rally in which Puerto Rico won 3–1.Speaking the next day, Molina stated that the previous night's double had been a bigger thrill than his two-run homer to beat the Mets in Game 7 of the 2006 NLCS. With Molina as the starting catcher in 2013, Puerto Rico earned the silver medal. Edwin Rodríguez, who had scouted Molina in Puerto Rico before the Cardinals signed him, became the manager for the 2013 squad. Shortly after learning he would be the 2013 manager, Rodríguez contacted Molina for input on constructing the roster. Molina prepared for the Classic by playing 14 games for the winter league team in Puerto Rico Rodríguez managed.Molina was voted on theAll-World Baseball Classic teamfor the first time. In a 2013 semifinal game againstJapan, Molina alertly took advantage of abaserunningmistake to record an unusualputout. WithShinnosuke Abebatting for Japan in the top of the eighth inning, andHirokazu Ibataon second andSeiichi Uchikawaon first,J. C. Romerowas pitching for Puerto Rico. Abe took a pitch from Romero inside for a ball as the runners went in motion. However, Ibata retreated to second as Uchikawa charged toward him. Instead of throwing and risking an error, Molina held on to the ball. He then chased Uchikawa, cornered him by positioning himself between first and second and tagged out Uchikawa – an unassistedcaught stealing. The Japanese later stated they were attempting to exploit Romero's slow delivery. Puerto Rico advanced the finals again in 2017, falling to theUnited States8−0 in earning their second consecutive silver medal, and only loss of the tournament. Molina made a strong case to be named Most Valuable Player (MVP) of the entire tournament, batting .333 with two home runs and a .583 slugging percentage in six games.After collecting three hits and a home run in eight at bats over two games in Pool F competition, he was named that group's MVP.In the semifinal game against theNetherlands, he picked two runners off base in one inning. He was named the catcher of2017 All-World Baseball Classic team, his second All-WBC honor.Also, the coaching staff often allowed him to conduct the preparation meetings, took his advice on construction of the starting rotation, and when to remove tiring pitchers. On September 10, 2018, he was selected to be part of the2018 MLB Japan All-Star Seriesas a member of the MLB All-Stars team. Managerial career Molina's first experience managing was with Puerto Rico's U-23 baseball team, in both the qualifiers for and actual tournament of the2018 U-23 Baseball World Cup. Puerto Rico dropped its first three games to theDominican Republic,Venezuela, andSouth Korea, preventing it from moving on in the tournament. However, Molina managed the team to four more victories in the group stage and consolation round. In 2022, Molina announced that he would be managing theNavegantes del Magallanesin theVenezuelan Professional Baseball League, having been recruited by former major leaguerPablo Sandoval. Molina said the opportunity could open the door to managing a team in MLB, saying that Navegantes was \"something different, and I’d like to try it early and see how it goes. And then after, I can decide if I want to do it .\"He managed Magallanes to a 29–27 regular season finish, though they were eliminated in the playoff round-robin. Also in 2022, Molina was announced as manager of the Puerto Rico national team in the2023 World Baseball Classic. The appointment created some controversy in Puerto Rico after the resignation of team general managerEduardo Pérez, who had reportedly sought to name Astros bench coachJoe Espadato the position.Puerto Rico was placed in Pool D, the so-called \"group of death,\" along with Venezuela and theDominican Republic.At the tournament, Molina managed Puerto Rico to eightperfectinnings againstIsrael, as well as a 5-2 upset victory over the Dominican Republic to decide which team moved on to the knockout stage.However, Puerto Rico was eliminated byMexicoin the quarterfinals. Molina managed theCriollos de Caguasto the 2023–24Roberto Clemente Professional Baseball Leaguetitle in Puerto Rico, as well as at the2024 Caribbean Series. Skills profile Defense, pitch calling, throwing and hands The winner of eight consecutive Gold Gloves,Molina was widely praised for his preparation, defense and leadership, not just of the pitching staff, but also of the entire team, even fromJohnny Bench. Fellow catchersJorge PosadaandBrian McCannstated in 2009 that Molina was \"the best defensive catcher in baseball\";Víctor Martínezalso called him \"the best behind the plate.\"In 2013, a scout pronounced Molina the \"one piece the St. Louis Cardinals cannot lose\" while another commented that he was \"irreplaceable.\"When the club did lose Molina midway through the 2014 season to a thumb injury,ESPN'sKeith Lawtweeted, \"Yadier Molina missing two-plus months would be bad for the Cardinals, but also just bad for baseball, period.\" In his time in the major leagues, Molina was widely viewed as evolving into a competitive influence and an unofficial on-fieldcoach. As a part of his pre-game preparation, Molina would meticulously study and prepare for the upcoming game's opposing hitters by creating a complete pitching and defensive plan. Other preparation included handling ground balls atshortstopandthird base, extending his agility for blocking pitches thrown in the dirt.Former Cardinals starterJake Westbrooksaid he was \"a part of every aspect of the game: starters, relievers, offense, defense.\" Advanced defensive metrics — known assabermetrics— show Molina to be a top defender among catchers in MLB history. Molina ranked second all-time among catchers at the end of the 2014 season on Baseball-Reference.com's careerdefensive runs saved(DRS)with 120, behind only Iván Rodríguez (167), and ahead ofJim Sundberg(114), Bob Boone (107) andGary Carter(106), the only catchers with over 100 on the list. He was the season leader in the NL every year from 2005 to 2014, except 2008 and 2011–12.Fangraphstallied his career DRS at 106, with a career-high of 20 in 2010.The sabermetric statdefensive wins above replacement(dWAR) has also ranked Molina's defense highly; he never had a full season with a negative dWAR, and he had a career-high 2.9 dWAR in 2010.Fangraphs has also ranked Molina as the most valuable defensive player at any position in baseball history. \"You don't ever have to worry about bouncing a ball to Yadier. He's a human vacuum behind the plate. The only thing you have to think about is making the pitch, because you know Yadi's going to catch whatever you throw.\" — Cardinals starting pitcherAdam Wainwright Molina was known for his in-game pitch-calling skills, and pitchers rarely rejected signs that he showed for the next pitch. In 2013, Matheny said, \"We tell all our young pitchers when they come up to pitch their game. Yadi needs to find out how they work. He's a quick study. But at the same time, they tend to just follow him. We do put them in Yadi's hands.\"Molina read opposing hitters and would move fielders with subtle signs and gestures to align them with his pitch calling.La Russa said that \"it's not just instinct. It's sense, based on how a hitter's standing, how he responds to the pitch or two before, and he's very creative in how he makes his adjustment based on what he sees with the hitter and knowing what his pitcher can do.\" \"During the course of games, he would do something and I'd go, 'I can't believe he did that.' But it worked. His pitch calling, sometimes you're thinking he's doing something so out of the norm, yet it was the right thing to do at the time.\" —Dave Duncan, on Molina toSports Illustratedin 2013 Baseball Prospectusestimated in 2013 that Molina saved 35 defensive runs per season through his pitch framing and had moved 301 out-of-zone pitches that were called strikes between April 1 and June 30, 2013. Molina was among the best in the game at throwing out baserunners withpickoffsand duringsteal attempts. As of July 2013, Molina had thrown out 45% of would-be basestealers. He studied baserunners to learn how they decide when and whether to attempt a steal and when they were less guarded against a pickoff.He practiced pickoff moves and coordinates signals with the first basemen to indicate when he was primed to move for a pickoff throw.Molina threw from behind left-handed batters to obfuscate the runner's view of his motion to first base. In 2012, aSports Illustratedpoll of 306 players found that Molina was the \"toughest catcher to run on.\"AnArizona Diamondbacksofficial said team policy was not to run on Molina. Batting As the publicationViva El Birdoswrote, \"Yadier Molina broke into the majors as a light-hitting defensive specialist\", who hit mostly singles.Molina pushed to shed the light-hitter label he had in common with his brothers. A fidgeter with his batting stance early in his career, Molina mimicked and vacillated between more accomplished hitters such asAndrés Galarragaand Albert Pujols. However, it was a dip in his swing and an inability to get around on fastballs that sapped his efforts. Over time, with assistance of teammates such as Pujols, Molina found his comfortable stance, sounder mechanics and adopted a line-drive style of swing that eliminated the dip and helped him hit fastballs with more authority. Thus, he became a more consistent hitter as his career progressed, defying the scouting reports that he would have a weak bat. In combination with an improved ability to pull the ball and hit it up the middle, he improved his batting average, batting .293 or higher in five of his last six seasons. His line-drive pull percentage of 2009–11 increased by about 6% in 2012–13; hisbatting average on balls in playincreased from .280 in 2005–10 to .327 in 2011–13; and hisweighted on-base average(wOBA)increased from .290 in 2009 to over .520 in 2013.To keep his bat in the lineup but allow respite from the rigors of his in-game catching duties, Molina has occasionally started at first base. Aside from swinging with increased line-drive contact and hitting fastballs with more authority, very little has actually changed in the catcher's approach.One trait that always persisted throughout his career was Molina's aggressive and free-swinging — but high-contact — batting style. Through 2012, he swung at more than 51% percent of the pitches he saw — he has a reputation for swinging at pitches in and out of the strike zone, low and away and even in toward his hands.Because of his free-swinging tendency, he naturally had awalkrate (7.1%) below the Major League average (8.4%).Combined with his ability to put the bat on the ball quite frequently (87%) and his improved approach at the plate, he increased his career-high single-season batting average five times between 2006 and 2013. Despite batting just .238 in his first three seasons and .240 after 1,000 at-bats, Molina increased his average to .284 average after 3,983 at-bats (1,132 hits) as of 2013 due in part to having only one season lower than .293 from 2009 to 2013. He hit into 27double playsin 2009, but in 2012 reduced that figure to 10.Molina's home run and doubles rates also increased; from 2011 to 2013, he hit 104 of his 226 career doubles. Awards and accomplishments Records Statistical achievements Personal life Molina resides in Vega Alta and stayed inCaseyville, Illinois, during the baseball season until 2015.He then purchased a home inCreve Coeur, Missouri.Molina also owned a home inJupiter, Florida, the home of the Cardinalsspring trainingfacilities, but sold it in 2020. Molina married his wife Wanda Torres in 2007 and the couple have three children. On September 4, 2008, they had a son; on July 4, 2010, a daughter; and on February 6, 2016, another son.After signing his $75 million contract in 2012, Molina purchased a home on a four-acre property inJupiter, Florida, for $7.15 million.Hisagentis Melvin Roman of MDR Sports Management, who has represented him since he signed his first professional contract with the Cardinals shortly after being drafted in 2000.Molina'scharitable organization, named Foundation 4, has helped to raise donations forchildhood cancerpatients in Puerto Rico.Molina is an avid fan of theSt. Louis Blues, and attends games frequently.He is close friends withVladimir Tarasenko. Molina's two older brothers, Bengie andJosé Molina, played a combined 28 seasons in the major leagues. Each of the three brothers has won at least one World Series ring, making them the only trio of brothers with such a distinction (Bengie and José both won their first while with theAnaheim Angelsin2002). They are also the only trio of brothers to play as catchers in the major leagues.Of a total of nineteen trios of brothers who have played in the Major Leagues – including the DiMaggios and the Cruzes – only one other trio of brothers has all appeared in a World Series:Matty,FélipeandJesús Alou. Even while the Molina brothers still lived in the United States playing professional baseball, their parents stayed in the same home near the park where the brothers grew up playing ball, Jesús Rivera Park.Benjamín Molina organized youth teams.On October 11, 2008, Molina's father died from aheart attack. At the moment it occurred, he was tending to a baseball field that he had built for the youth in Bayamón. Spurred by absences from autograph shows for which he was paid to appear,Steiner Sports Marketingfiled a lawsuit for $175,000 against Molina in theNew York state supreme courtinManhattanon October 2, 2009. Steiner Sports allegedly paid him $90,640 in advance when they renewed their contract with him in July 2008. The firm stated that he ignored their agreement to make public and private appearances to sign autographs and did not return the money. AfterHurricane Mariadevastated the island of Puerto Rico in September 2017, Molina and Wanda started aGoFundMe pageArchivedSeptember 22, 2017, at theWayback Machinefor the victims on September 21 with a goal of $1 million. It raised $20,000 in the first seven hours. More than three million Puerto Ricans were left without power, andThe New York Timeshad reported that over 95% of cell service was unavailable.Dronevideo coverage onThe Weather Channeldescribed Bayamon as looking \"like a war zone.\"Continuing with relief efforts, Molina was consequently named the recipient of the annualRoberto Clemente Awardon October 24, 2018. See also References Footnotes Source notes External links", "Adam Wainwright Adam Parrish Wainwright(born August 30, 1981), nicknamed \"Waino\" and \"Uncle Charlie\",is an American formerprofessional baseballpitcherwho spent his entire 18-yearMajor League Baseball(MLB) career with theSt. Louis Cardinals. TheAtlanta Bravesselected him 29th overall in the first round of the2000 amateur draftfromGlynn AcademyinBrunswick, Georgia. His performance in theminor leaguesmade him one of the Braves' top pitching prospects. After the 2003 season, the Braves traded him to the Cardinals foroutfielderJ. D. Drew. Wainwright made his MLB debut on September 11, 2005, and spent the rest of the season as arelief pitcher. The next year, he briefly assumedcloserduties,savingthe series-clinching games of the2006 National League Championship Seriesand the2006 World Seriesover theDetroit Tigers. In 2007, he returned to starting pitching, a role in which he would remain for the rest of his career. He missed the 2011 season due toTommy John surgery, but emerged as anace, leading theNational Leaguemultiple times inwins,innings pitched, andgames started. He also has multiple top-ten finishes inearned run average,strikeouts,walks plus hits per inning pitched, andcomplete games. In 2014, Wainwright became the first pitcher in Major League history to post nine of his first 18 starts with seven innings pitched and no runs allowed. In his career, Wainwright won 200 games, received threeAll-Starselections and twoGold Glove Awards, and finished in the top three in theCy Young Awardballoting four times. With 2,202 career strikeouts, Wainwright is second toBob Gibson(3,117)in Cardinalsfranchise history. Wainwright and longtime teammateYadier Molinaare the most successfulbatteryin Major League history, having both the most wins and starts together. On September 18, 2023, he became the third Cardinals' pitcher to win 200 games, joiningBob Gibson(251), andJesse Haines(210), and the 122nd in baseball history. With three strikeouts, he also became the 66th pitcher in baseball history with at least 2,200 strikeouts. Early life Wainwright was born inBrunswick, Georgia, to Bill, anattorney, and Nancy Wainwright, areal estate agent.His parents divorced when he was seven years old and his father moved toFlorida, leaving only Wainwright's mother to raise him and his older brother Trey, now an attorney inAtlanta.Wainwright credits Trey, seven years his senior, with teaching him everything he knows about sports after their father left, including building a pitcher's mound in their back yard to teach him how to pitch.Wainwright also participated in the Cub Scouts, Boy Scouts, and numerous church activities, and grew up anAtlanta Bravesfan. High school Wainwright attended high school atGlynn Academyin his native Brunswick, where he was an athletic and academic standout.With afastballover 90 mph and batting average at times over .500, Wainwright was namedGatorade Georgia Player of the Yearin 2000.He also played football, in which he was named to the All-State team as awide receiverhis junior and senior years as well as All-Region honors as a placekicker.Various colleges and universities, includingGeorgia Tech, offered him academic and baseball scholarships. Professional career Draft and minor leagues (2000–05) Atlanta Braves organization (2000–03) TheAtlanta Bravesselected Wainwright 29th overall in the first round of the2000 MLB draft, using a compensatory pick from theArizona Diamondbacksfor signingRuss Springerin the offseason. Wainwright chose to forgo college to go straight to the pros, signing a contract that included a $1.25 million bonus. The Braves had been his favorite team growing up. Less than two weeks after high school graduation, Wainwright reported to the Braves rookie team and soon advanced to Atlanta's Class ADanville Bravesin theAppalachian League. He pitched for theMacon Bravesin theSouth Atlantic Leaguein 2001, where he broke the team record for strikeouts, previously held byBruce Chen, with 184. Wainwright spent the 2002 season in theCarolina Leagueand also participated in that season'sAll-Star Futures Game. In 2003, Wainwright advanced to the Braves' Double-A club,Greenville.He wasBaseball America'stop Braves prospect in 2003.In December of that year, theSt. Louis Cardinalsacquired Wainwright and pitchersJason MarquisandRay Kingin a trade that sent outfielderJ. D. Drewandutility playerEli Marreroto the Braves. St. Louis Cardinals (2005–2023) Wainwright pitched just 12 games for theTriple-AMemphis Redbirdsin 2004 before he was shut down for nearly the entire rest of the season with anelbowstrain. There, he had a 4–4win–loss record(W–L) with a 5.37earned run average(ERA) in63+2⁄3innings pitched(IP). He struck out 64 batters and allowed 68hitsand 28 walks (BB). In theArizona Fall League, he returned to pitch 10 innings. He spent the next season with Memphis, starting 29 games, completing 182 IP, allowing 204 hits and 51 BB while striking out 147. His win–loss record was 10–10. After two somewhat uneven seasons in the Cardinals' minor league system, Wainwright made his MLB debut for St. Louis on September 11,2005. 2006 Wainwright made the Cardinals' Opening Day roster as a relief pitcher after having been a starter for his entire minor league career. On May 24,2006, he hit ahome runon the first pitch he saw asbatterin the major leagues against theSan Francisco Giants'Noah Lowry; he became the 22nd batter, and only the seventhpitcher, in Major League history and 11th National Leaguer to hit a home run off the first pitch thrown in his first at-bat. Wainwright pitched capably as amiddle reliever, but when incumbentcloserJason Isringhausenunderwent season-ending hip surgery in September, Wainwright was pressed into service as the closer. He saved two crucial games on September 27 and 30 as St. Louis held off theHouston Astros'late charge and won theNL CentralDivision championship. Despite their unexceptional 83–78 regular-season record, the Cardinals rolled through October to win the10th world championshipin franchise history. As the closer, Wainwright closed out the final game of the Cardinals' National League Division Series, ending theNew York Mets' season and propelling the Cardinals to the2006 National League Championship Series, where he famously struck outCarlos BeltráninGame 7to send the Cardinals to theWorld Series.InGame 5of the2006 World Series, Wainwright struck outDetroit Tigersthird basemanBrandon Ingeto win the championship. 2007 Wainwright moved from the bullpen to the starting rotation for2007. Shortly after losing aceChris Carpenterfor the year due to elbow surgery, Wainwright emerged as the Cardinals' most reliable starter. On August 10, he threw the first complete game of his career, a 2–1 loss toLos Angeles, and the only nine-inning complete game for the Cardinals that season. By September, Wainwright had established himself as the staff ace in Carpenter's absence, going 9–6 with a 2.94 ERA from mid-May to the end of the season. He finished his first year by leading the club in almost every pitching category—games started, innings pitched, strikeouts, and wins—while compiling a 3.70 ERA and a 14–12 record. His 14 wins were the most in franchise history for a first-year starter. His 2.71 ERA after the All-Star break was third-best in the NL. 2008 In March 2008, Wainwright signed a four-year deal with the Cardinals worth $21 million, with two club options for 2012 and 2013 that made the potential aggregate value $36 million.He gave up four runs or less in each of his first seven starts. However, the Cardinals lost to theBrewers8–3 in Wainwright's eighth start, on May 13, asRyan Braunhit two home runs off him.He suffered a strain on the middle finger of his pitching hand in June, causing him to miss2+1⁄2months of the season. In 20 starts, he finished 11–3 with a 3.20 ERA. 2009 On August 19,2009, atDodger Stadium, Wainwright had ano-hittergoing against theLos Angeles Dodgersfor5+1⁄3innings beforeOrlando Hudsonbroke it up with a clean single to left field. In his next start against theAstros, he pitched eight shutout innings to pick up his then-league-leading 15th win in a 1–0 victory. It was Wainwright's 25th straight start with at least six innings pitched. In five August starts that season, he completed35+2⁄3IP with just one walk and 22 SO.On September 26, Wainwright pitched eight innings and struck out eleven for a 6–3, NL Central division-clinching victory against theColorado RockiesatCoors Fieldfor his 19th win.Wainwright finished with a 19–8 record and a 2.63 ERA, leading the National League in wins, games started (34), and innings pitched (233).He also struck out a major-league high 140 batters on third-strike curveballs. On October 28, Wainwright won thePlayers Choice Awardas the NL Most Outstanding Pitcher.He won his firstGold Glove Awardon November 11, 2009.Wainwright was a top contender for theCy Young Awardalong with teammateChris Carpenterand eventual winnerTim Lincecum. He became only the second pitcher ever—Trevor Hoffmanwas the first—to get the most first-place votes and not win the award. 2010 Pitching in his firstAll-Star Game, Wainwright completed one inning. He faced five batters, throwing 17 pitches for ten strikes and seven balls, and allowed no runs with just one hit—a double off the glove of fellow Cardinal All-StarMatt Holliday—one walk, and two strikeouts.In one 11-game stretch preceding August 16, he compiled66+1⁄3IP in nine of those starts and allowed two earned runs for a 0.27 ERA. Wainwright finished the2010 season20–11 with a 2.42 ERA, five complete games, 213 strikeouts, 56 walks, 15 home runs allowed, and a WHIP of 1.05, in230+1⁄3IP. His win, strikeout, complete game, and shutout totals were all career-bests. His win total and ERA were both good for second place in the National League (behind onlyJosh Johnson's 2.30 ERA andRoy Halladay's 21 wins). He also pitched the first two shutouts of his career in 2010—one against theMilwaukee Brewerson June 4 and a two-hitter against theFlorida Marlinson August 6. Wainwright was the runner-up for the 2010 NL Cy Young Award, finishing second in voting behind unanimous winner Halladay. Wainwright picked up 28 of 32 second-place votes. Near the end of the season, he had experienced elbow discomfort and nerve swelling. Amagnetic resonance imaging(MRI) scan cleared him after the season. 2011 Shortly after reporting to spring training, Wainwright experienced discomfort in his rightelbowwhile pitchingbatting practiceon February 21. Three days later, the Cardinals announced that Wainwright would miss the entire2011 season—and possibly the first three months of the next season—after finding thatulnar collateral ligamentdamage necessitatedTommy John surgery(TJS). George Paletta, the team physician, performed the surgery on February 28 inSt. Louisand it was deemed \"a success\".Former clients for the same surgery included teammatesChris Carpenter,Jaime García, andKyle McClellan.Wainwright's contract featured options for 2012 and 2013 totaling $21 million with a provision that they would not automatically vest if he ended the 2011 season on thedisabled list. The Cardinals made the playoffs as awild cardentry, overtaking theBraveson the final day of the season.They eventually won theWorld Series, defeating theTexas Rangersfour games to three. The Cardinals awarded Wainwright his secondWorld Series ring, despite not pitching the entire season. 2012 Fully recovered after TJS and rehabilitation, Wainwright was ready ahead of schedule for spring training. Statistically, the2012 seasonproved to be an overall disappointment by Wainwright's standards, as he wound up 14–13 with a 3.94 ERA. However, it was encouraging in regards to the health of his right arm, as he completed the entire season without any issues. In addition, pitchers recovering from TJS often find it challenging at first to throw with the same command as before the surgery, and thus to achieve post-surgery results equal to pre-surgery results. This was the case at first with Wainwright. On May 22, he threw his first complete-game shutout since August 6, 2010, and the third of his career in his ninth complete game. It was a four-hit, 4–0 win at home against theSan Diego Padres, striking out nine and walking only one.Wainwright reached his 1,000th career inning on July 29.The May 22 start marked a turning point in the season. During a 13-start stretch through August 3, he pitched85+2⁄3innings, striking out 83 while allowing just four home runs and 17 BB. Wainwright attributed the improvement to be able to sustain the usual finishing movement on his pitches through late innings, which earlier in the season, had eluded him, thus making his pitches easier to hit. He also corrected a subtle flaw that had developed on the grip of his curveball during a bullpen session prior to the start against San Diego. The flaw made it increasingly difficult to throw the curveball for consistent strikes. 2013 On March 28,2013, the Cardinals announced they and Wainwright had agreed to a five-year contract extension. At the time, he was under the last year of his previous contract, so the new deal extended him through 2018. With a total value of $97.5 million, it was the largest contract ever for a Cardinals pitcher.On April 18, he became the first pitcher in baseball since 1900 to achieve 28 strikeouts and zero walks in his first four starts of a season.Slim Salleeestablished the franchise record exactly100 years earlierby not issuing a walk in his first 40 innings.Wainwright's streak ended in a start atWashingtonon April 23 after34+2⁄3innings and 133 batters faced. The first MLB pitcher to post 10 wins on June 13, Wainwright put up seven scoreless innings in a 2–1 defeat of theMetsatCiti Field. Moreover, his strikeout ofDavid Wrightwas his first of the game and the 1,000th of his career. He allowed six hits and struck out a total of four.Wainwright became the NLPitcher of the Monthfor June with a 4–2 record and 1.77 ERA. With 40 strikeouts for the month, Wainwright issued just six walks while holding opposing batters to a .220 average. Through that point in the season, he was 11–5 with a 2.22 ERA, and was the MLB leader with four complete games and a 9.5 strikeout-to-walk ratio. In successive starts against theRedsin late August, Wainwright allowed 15 runs, both losses. He struck out eight in seven shutout innings on September 7 at home in a 5–0 win over the first-placePiratesin earning his 16th victory of the season. The Pirates, Reds, and Cardinals were all close contenders for the Central division title in September. The win gave the Cardinals first place over the Pirates by a half-game, and1+1⁄2games over the Reds.Wainwright's seven strikeouts increased his career total to 1,103, passingDizzy Dean(1,095) for second place among Cardinals' pitchers. OnlyBob Gibson(3,117 in 528 games) had more. In a 60-inning stretch following the All-Star break Wainwright had walked 14, compared with 15 in146+2⁄3IP before the break.When fellow starterShelby Millerdefeated Nationals' starterJordan Zimmermannon September 26, he denied Zimmermann his 20th victory.Two days later, Wainwright, who was second in the league with 18 entering the game, defeated theChicago Cubsin his final start of the season to tie Zimmerman for the lead in wins at 19. Wainwright also became just the third pitcher in franchise history to twice lead the league in wins, joiningDizzy Dean(1934–35) andMort Cooper(1942–43).He also led the NL in games started (34), innings pitched (241+2⁄3), hits allowed (223), and batters faced (956), and was third in strikeouts. The Cardinals faced theBoston Red Soxin theWorld Series, and called upon Wainwright to start Game 1 againstJon Lester. It was Wainwright's first World Series appearance since 2006 and first start. He allowed five runs and St. Louis lost, 8–1.In Game 5, a rematch against Lester, the Cardinals again lost, this time 3–1. Wainwright struck out 10 in seven innings, becoming the first Cardinal to reach double digits in strikeouts in a World Series game sinceGibsonagainst theDetroit Tigersin1968.After the Cardinals took a 2–1 Series lead, the Red Sox won the final three games to take the title. Wainwright won his second Gold Glove award in 2013.In the Cy Young balloting, Wainwright placed second, his second such ranking, and finished 23rd in the NL MVP voting. 2014 Starting for the Cardinals against theRedson Opening Day, March 31, 2014, Wainwright won his 100th career decision. In seven innings, he struck out nine and gave up just three singles in a 1–0 win.AtNationals ParkagainstWashingtonon April 17, he pitched a two-hit shutout, winning 8–0. Wainwright gave up the first hit in the second inning on a high infield chopper, but none after until two outs into the ninth. He walked three and struck out eight. It was his seventh career shutout.In an April 27 start against thePirates, Wainwright tallied eight scoreless innings to extend a streak to 25 innings as the Cardinals won, 7–0, but was pulled before he could get a complete game due to concerns over his April 22 hyperextended right knee injury.His streak of 25 scoreless innings ended in the first inning on May 2 in a loss against theCubs, to whom he allowed six runs. On May 20, Wainwright pitched a one-hitter against theDiamondbacks. He retired the first 11 batters before giving up adoubletoPaul Goldschmidtin the fourth inning. After the hit, Wainwright retired the final 16 batters, facing only 28, one over the minimum for aperfect game. He walked none and struck out nine, throwing 115 pitches, 86 for strikes. It was Wainwright's seventh win of the year, tying for theNational Leaguelead, and his 106th career victory against 59 losses. It also tied him for eighth place with Sallee on the all-time Cardinals' pitching win list and was his eighth career shutout.Wainwright followed that effort with eight more scoreless innings on May 25. Between those two starts, he gave up just one walk and struck out a major-league-leading 21 batters in 17 scoreless innings. He was namedNL Co-Player of the WeekwithDodgersstarterJosh Beckett, who threw ano-hitteron May 25.However, he missed his June 16 against theMetsdue to elbowtendinitis, but an MRI showed no structural damage to the Tommy John surgically repaired ligament. After leading the NL with a 1.79 ERA and 11 wins through July 6, Wainwright was selected to his thirdAll-Star GameatTarget FieldinMinneapolis,Minnesota. He was selected as the NL's starting pitcher for the first time in his career.Besides two starts in which he gave up seven runs to the Giants and six to the Cubs, Wainwright had allowed 13 runs in 16 of his first 18 starts. Nine of those starts included totals with seven or more innings pitched and zero earned runs allowed. Per theElias Sports Bureau(ESB), it was the first time in Major League history that any pitcher achieved that feat in his first 18 starts of the season. When the Cardinals defeated theBrewers10–2 on July 12, Wainwright finished his pre-All Star break total with a 12–4 record and a 1.83 ERA. Further, he joinedHall of FamememberSteve Carltonas the only Cardinals to post an ERA less than 2.00 and at least 12 wins before the All-Star break (1969). In that game, Wainwright posted his Major League-leading 15th start of the season with at least seven innings pitched and two or fewer runs allowed.At the plate, hisRBI-single scored rookieOscar Taverasfor his 100th career hit. In the All-Star Game, Wainwright incurred controversy over his remarks about facingleadoff hitterDerek Jeter. Jeter, who was retiring after the season, doubled on Wainwright's second pitch of the game. During interviews, he admitted that he gave Jeter an easy pitch to hit. \"I was gonna give him a couple of pipe shots. He deserved it,\" Wainwright said. \"I didn’t know he was gonna hit a double or I might have changed my mind.\" Wainwright later recanted, stating that it was in humor and that he was \"not intentionally giving up hits out there\". Conversely, Jeter was appreciative. \"He grooved them? The first one was a little cutter that he threw down and away. He probably assumed I was swinging. So he didn't groove the first one. The second was about 90, a two-seamer that stayed on a really good ... No, I don't know, man,\" he paused and smiled, drawing laughs from reporters. \"I have no idea. If he grooved it, thank you. You still got to hit it.\" Following the All-Star break, Wainwright temporarily struggled to keep the consistency of the first half of the season due to frequent elbow irritation. In June, he gave up just four earned runs in 31 IP for a 1.16 ERA, and followed that up with a 1.62 ERA in July. His results reversed in August when he allowed 22 ER in38+1⁄3IP for a 5.17 ERA. However, in September, he posted a 1.38 ERA in 39 IP with 29 SO and a 5–0 W–L.He was subsequently named the NL Pitcher of the Month for September. After the season, Wainwright had a procedure to remove part of the cartilage of the right elbow on October 24. At times—commencing in June—he had altered his mechanics to mitigate the discomfort. In his third-to-last and second-to-last starts of the season—which were in theNLDSagainst theDodgersandNLCSagainst theGiants—Wainwright was unable to complete five innings in both starts. This led to speculation Wainwright was pitching with pain, which he denied. Through the 2014 season he had a career 132ERA+, third-highest for an active pitcher who has a minimum of 1,000 innings, and a .643winning percentage, fourth-highest for active pitchers.Wainwright finished third in the Cy Young voting for 2014, his third such placing, and fourth time he was positioned in the top three. 2015 TheCardinalsselected Wainwright to make his fourth career Opening Day start, and the season-opening game for MLB in 2015, in what was also the first-ever MLB Opening Night game. He was credited with the win as the Cardinals defeated theCubsatWrigley Field, 3–0.On April 25, Wainwright left the game against theBrewersin the top of the fifth after suffering an ankle injury while batting. The next day, the Cardinals placed him on the 15-day disabled list,and announced the following day that he had anAchilles tendon ruptureand would likely miss the remainder of the season.He underwent successful surgery to repair the tendon on April 30. With a recovery initially expected to take nine to twelve months,Wainwright had made four appearances through that point in the season, going 2–1 with a 1.44 ERA. As the season progressed, he consistently stated his goal was to return to pitching before the end of the season. After working diligently to accelerate his recovery, the Cardinals announced on September 21 that he was cleared to resume baseball activities, two weeks prior to the conclusion of the regular season.His actual recovery took five months. Making his first appearance of the season since April, Wainwright pitched a scoreless inning of relief in the first game of adoubleheaderagainst Pittsburgh on September 30, an 8–2 loss. It was his first relief appearance since the 2006 World Series.Wainwright was named theHutch Awardwinner for 2015. 2016 The Cardinals announced before spring training that Wainwright would be the Opening Day starter in2016, his fifth time. For the three previous seasons, he had gone 41–19 with a 2.61 ERA.For the second consecutive season, the Cardinals opened the MLB season, this time atPNC Parkagainst thePittsburgh Pirateson April 3. The Cardinals lost the game, 4–1, with Wainwright taking the first loss of the season.He hit his first home run of season in a 10–3 win over thePhiladelphia Phillieson May 2, also being credited with his second win.In each of four consecutive plate appearances spanning April 27 to May 7, he became the first Cardinal pitcher since 1900 to garner an extra base hit while batting, perElias Sports Bureau.On the mound, he struggled early, yielding a 5.04 ERA in his first 16 starts of the season. Wainwright pitched a three-hit, complete-game shutout and 5−0 win againstMiamion July 15, 2016; the first hit he allowed was a double toAdeiny Hechavarriain the sixth inning.With four RBI againstColoradoon September 20, Wainwright increased his season total to 18, the highest total for all pitchers in thedesignated hitterera – since 1973 – and the most sinceFerguson Jenkinsdrove in 20 for the Cubs in1971. 2017 On April 21,2017, Wainwright struck out nine and hit a home run with four RBI as the Cardinals defeated theMilwaukee Brewers, 6−3.His May 27 appearance was the 330th of his career, tying him withLarry Jackson(1955−1962) for tenth place in games pitched for the Cardinals.while passingAl Hrabosky.Wainwright pitched six scoreless innings versusLos Angeleson June 1, while hitting a two-run home run facingBrandon McCarthy, for a 2−0 win. On July 17, he passedBill Doakfor fifth place in wins (145) for the Cardinals.On the same day, Wainwright became the only active major league pitcher with multiple seasons of 10+ RBI (2016–17). The Cardinals placed Wainwright on the 10-day DL on July 25 due to mid-back tightness, retroactive to July 23. It was the fourth time in his career that he had been placed on the DL.Wainwright was activated from the DL on August 6, and totaled 11 innings in three starts. On August 18, the Cardinals placed him back on the DL for right elbow impingement.Wainwright reported pain in his right elbow for the second consecutive season and displayed a precipitous decline in velocity in his most recent starts. Treatments on the right elbow that Wainwright received during the season included trimming cartilage and an injection ofplatelet-rich plasmainto the joint. In 23 games he had started, he allowed a 5.12 ERA with a 12−5 W−L record. Wainwright returned to pitch on September 18 from the bullpen for the remainder of the season. In 2017, Wainwright won his first careerSilver Slugger Award, the first Cardinal pitcher to win the award sinceBob Forsch(1980 and 1987) andJason Marquis(2005).He batted .262/.279/.452, a career-high .731 OPS, and two home runs. Wainwright led all pitchers with seven runs scored and 11 RBI, and, among all with at least 40 plate appearances, in slugging percentage and OPS. He also hit .462 with runners inscoring position. After the season, Wainwright underwent right elbow surgery to remove a cartilage flap, the first surgery on the elbow since having Tommy John surgery in 2011. The cartilage flap was believed to have caused a bone bruise which led to reduced velocity and efficacy of his breaking pitches. Recovery time was expected to take six weeks with full readiness in time for the 2018 season. 2018 Wainwright began the 2018 season on the 10-daydisabled listwith a left hamstring sprain. He was reactivated on April 5 but placed on the disabled list again with right elbow inflammation on April 22. Wainwright was activated once again on May 13 and started that same day against theSan Diego Padres. He gave up two runs and walked six batters in2+1⁄3innings as San Diego beat St. Louis 5–3. Two days later, Wainwright was placed back on the 10-day DL before being transferred to the 60-day DL on May 17. 2019 Wainwright signed a one-year, $2 million contract extension with the Cardinals prior to the 2019 offseason. On April 24, 2019, Wainwright picked up his 150th win in a 5–2 victory against the Brewers. Over 31 starts during the regular season, he went 14–10 with a 4.19 ERA, striking out 153 over171+2⁄3innings. In the2019 MLB postseason, Wainwright struck out 19 over16+2⁄3innings and had a 1.62 ERA. 2020 On November 12, 2019, Wainwright and the Cardinals agreed to a one-year contract for the 2020 season.On his 39th birthday, Wainwright pitched his first complete game since 2016 against theCleveland Indiansin a 7–2 win.He pitched a second, albeit 7-inning complete game against theMilwaukee Brewerson September 16.Over 10 starts for the 2020 season, Wainwright went 5–3 with a 3.15 ERA and 54 strikeouts over65+2⁄3innings. 2021 On January 28, 2021, Wainwright signed a one-year, $8 million contract to stay with theCardinals.On April 26, Wainwright pitched a complete game against thePhiladelphia Philliesin a 2–1 loss asRhys Hoskinshit two solo home runs off him.It was the second such occurrence in his career to pitch a 9-inning complete game and lose since a 2–1 loss to theLos Angeles Dodgersin 2007. Wainwright picked up his first win of the season in a 6–5 win over theNew York Metson May 3, while also picking up his 1,000th career strikeout atBusch Stadium; joiningBob Gibsonas the only Cardinals pitchers with 1,000 strikeouts at their home ballparks.On June 14, Wainwright picked up his 1,900th strikeout against theMiami Marlins.OnFather's Day, June 20, he pitched his second complete game of the year, albeit 7 innings in the first game of a doubleheader against theAtlanta Braves; striking out 11 while allowing just one run.On August 10, Wainwright pitched his first shutout since 2016, and his first everMadduxagainst thePittsburgh PiratesatPNC Parkin a 4–0 Cardinals win, throwing 88 pitches. At 39, he became the oldest pitcher to record a shutout sinceBartolo Colónin 2015.He was subsequently named National League Pitcher of the Month for August after going 5–1 with a 1.45 ERA, striking out 36 while walking just six over 44 innings.On September 3, Wainwright started against the Brewers with battery mateYadier Molina, marking their 300th start as abattery. They are the fourth battery in MLB history to make 300 starts. The Cardinals won the game 15–4, with Wainwright picking up the win.While facing theMilwaukee Brewerson September 23, Wainwright recorded his 2,000th career strikeout againstLuis Urías. Wainwright became the second pitcher in franchise history alongsideBob Gibsonto reach the milestone. On October 1, the Cardinals and Wainwright agreed on a one-year deal for the 2022 season. Statistically for 2021, Wainwright had his best season since 2014, going 17–7 with a 3.05 ERA and 174 strikeouts in206+1⁄3innings.Wainwright was second in MLB in wins (17), third in innings pitched (206+1⁄3), tied for first in complete games (3) and tenth in walks and hits per inning pitched (1.057).He led the major leagues in sacrifice hits, with 14. Wainwright finished seventh in the 2021 NLCy Young Awardvoting. 2022 On October 4, 2021, Wainwright and the Cardinals agreed to a one-year, $17.5 million deal for the 2022 season On April 7, 2022, Wainwright won his 100th game atBusch StadiumonOpening Dayin a 9–0 win against thePittsburgh Pirates, pitching six shutout innings with six strikeouts.On May 15, 2022, Wainwright and Molina made history claiming their 203rd win together, becoming the most successful battery in MLB history.Later that season on September 14, Wainwright and Molina set another MLB record by starting alongside one another for the 325th time, surpassingMickey LolichandBill Freehanof theDetroit Tigersfor the most starts by a battery. In November 2022, it was announced that Wainwright intended to represent Team USA in the 2023 World Baseball Classic. 2023 Wainwright announced that the 2023 season would be his last. On March 30, Wainwright sang the national anthem before the opening day game.In 21 starts for the Cardinals, Wainwright struggled to a 5–11 record and 7.40 ERA with 55 strikeouts in 101.0 innings of work. On September 18, pitching at home against the division-leadingMilwaukee Brewers, he won his 200th game, 1-0, pitching seven scoreless innings, giving up only four hits, walking two, striking out three. His 2,202 career strikeouts make him the 66th pitcher to have at least 2,200 strikeouts. His 200 wins make him the 122nd pitcher in baseball history to reach that milestone. His 200 wins, all with the Cardinals, rank him third in the team's history, joiningBob Gibson(251) andJesse Haines(210). At home on September 29, he batted for the first time since October 6,2021. In the sixth inning with the team trailing 14-2, he pinch-hit fordesignated hitterLuken Baker. On the second pitch, he grounded out sharply to second base. It was his only at-bat that night. Over his career, he had 10 home runs, 75 RBIs, and a .192 batting average. He has five seasons batting over .200.Defensively, he recorded a .982fielding percentage, with only 10 errors in 569total chances, which was 26 points higher than the league average at his position. Annual statistical achievements Notes:Through 2019 season. PerBaseball-Reference.com. Pitching style Wainwright has asinkerball, throwing it in the 90–92 miles per hour (145–148 km/h) range. He also throws a good deal ofcutters84–88 miles per hour (135–142 km/h) andcurveballs73–77 miles per hour (117–124 km/h) that have dropped more than 8 inches before from top to bottom of the pitch. Less commonly, he also throws afour-seam fastball90–95 miles per hour (145–153 km/h) and an 84–86 miles per hour (135–138 km/h)changeup. He uses all of his pitches against left-handed hitters, but he does not use the changeup against right-handers. Wainwright's most-used pitch in two-strike counts is his curveball. In spring training of 2013, he started incorporating an elevated four-seam fastball, making his curveball more effective. Discography Studio Albums Singles \"—\" denotes a release that did not chart. Outside baseball Big League Impact Afantasy footballenthusiast, Wainwright created and hosts a fantasy football network in eight cities called Big League Impact, designed to raise money for various charities. In 2015, the organization raised more than $1 million total. Other major leaguers, includingDavid Wright,Hunter Pence, andJohn Smoltzhost in their respective cities. The concept officially opened in July 2013 with the launch of a website called WainosWorld.com. In an interview withFox Sports Midwest, Wainwright remarked that the program combined his love of fantasy football with his passion for helping the less fortunate. For a registration fee, all of which goes to charity, fans can assemble their own fantasy team and compete throughout the season against not only Wainwright but his current and former Cardinals teammatesAllen Craig,David Freese, andMatt Holliday.Those with the best team records at season's end will receive prizes.The league raised $100,000 in 2013 and supported Operation Food Search andWater Missions International. Wainwright was the recipient of the 2020Roberto Clemente Awarddue to his work with Big League Impact alongside his contributions in helping build Haiti's Ferrier Village Secondary School. As an actor With longtime aspirations to host an episode ofSaturday Night Live, Wainwright made hisfilmdebut in the 2016comedy-dramaProximity, directed by Dan Steadman and filmed in the St. Louis area. The majority of the work done was completed in 2015, after the opportunity presented to Wainwright due in part to the Achilles tendon injury he had suffered early in the season. Broadcasting Adam Wainwright made his national TV broadcasting debut on October 6, 2020, calling the2020 NLDSbetween theMiami MarlinsandAtlanta BravesonFox Sports 1along withAdam Aminand former teammateA. J. Pierzynski.The trio worked together for the2021 ALDSbetween the Astros and theChicago White Soxand again in the2023 ALDSbetween theHouston AstrosandMinnesota Twins.Prior to the2024 MLB season, Wainwright was hired as a full time color commentator forFox Sports. Musician On March 30, 2023, Wainwright surprised his teammates by performing thenational anthemprior to the Cardinals' home opener against theToronto Blue Jays. After he accomplished his musical goal, he nervously admitted, \"I didn't mess the words up.\"Wainwright aspires to be acountry musicsinger after his baseball career concludes; he held a concert inSpringfield, Illinois, in January 2023 for approximately 500 fans. Wainwright has released three singles and one full-length album,Hey Y'all. It which was originally scheduled to be released on March 9, 2024 when he made hisGrand Ole Oprydebut, but was officially released on April 5, 2024. Personal life Wainwright married his high school sweetheart, Jenny Curry, in 2004.In a quirk of fate, he was in the midst of proposing to Curry in December 2003, when a telephone call interrupted him to inform him he'd been traded from the Braves to the Cardinals.Jenny holds a degree in interior design fromGeorgia Southern University. In the off-season, the Wainwrights reside onSt. Simons Island, Georgia, with their four daughtersand a son, whom they adopted in 2019.Wainwright has openly expressed hisChristianfaith,and is active in theFellowship of Christian Athletes. See also References Footnotes Source notes External links" ]
[ "St. Louis Cardinals TheSt. Louis Cardinalsare an Americanprofessional baseballteam based inSt. Louis. The Cardinals compete inMajor League Baseball(MLB) as a member club of theNational League(NL)Central Division. Since the2006 season, the Cardinals have played their home games atBusch Stadiumin downtown St. Louis. One of the nation's oldest and most successful professional baseball clubs, the Cardinals have won 11World Series championships, the most of any NL team and second in MLB only to theNew York Yankees.The team has won 19National League pennants, third-most of any team behind theLos Angeles DodgersandSan Francisco Giants. St. Louis has also won 15division titlesin theEastand Central divisions. In 1881, entrepreneurChris von der Ahepurchased theBrown Stockingsbarnstormingclub, renamed it theSt. Louis Browns, and made it a charter member of theAmerican Associationbaseball league. The team won four league championships, qualifying them to play in the era'sprofessional baseball championship series, a", "series, a forerunner of the modernWorld Series.In two of these championships, the Browns met the Chicago White Stockings, now theChicago Cubs, launching the enduringCardinals–Cubs rivalry. In 1892, the Browns – also called thePerfectos– joined theNational League. In 1900, the team was renamed theCardinals. (Two years later, an unrelatedSt. Louis Brownsteam joined theAmerican League.) Notable Cardinals achievements include manager/ownerBranch Rickey's invention of thefarm system,Rogers Hornsby's two battingTriple Crowns,Dizzy Dean's 30-winseason in 1934,Stan Musial's 17 MLB and 29 NL records,Bob Gibson's 1.12earned run average(ERA) in 1968,Whitey Herzog'sWhiteyball,Mark McGwire'ssingle-season home run record in 1998, the2011 championship team'sunprecedented comebacks,andAlbert Pujols’ 700thhome run. The Cardinals have won 105 or more games in four seasons and won 100 or more nine times. Cardinals players have won 21league MVPs, four batting Triple Crowns, and threeCy Young Awards.Baseball Hall of", "Hall of Fameinductees includeLou Brock,Dizzy Dean,Bob Gibson,Whitey Herzog,Rogers Hornsby,Tony LaRussa,Joe Medwick,Stan Musial,Enos Slaughter,Branch Rickey,Red Schoendienst,Ozzie Smith,Ted Simmons,Bruce Sutter, andScott Rolen. In 2018,Forbesvalued the Cardinals at $1.9 billion, the 7th-highest among MLB clubs and far more than the $147 million paid in 1995 byownerWilliam DeWitt Jr.'s investment group. In 2017, the team took in revenue of $319 million on anoperating incomeof $40.0 million.John Mozeliakis the President of Baseball Operations, Mike Girsch is thegeneral manager, andOliver Marmolis themanager.The Cardinals are renowned for their strong fan support: despite being in one of the sport's mid-level markets, they routinely see attendances among the league's highest, and are consistently among the top three in MLB in local television ratings. Through 2024, the Cardinals' all-time win-loss record is11,285–10,402–152(.520). History Before the Cardinals (1875–1881) Professional baseball began in St. Louis", "began in St. Louis with the inception of theBrown Stockingsin theNational Association(NA)in 1875. The NA folded following that season, andthe next season, St. Louis joined theNational Leagueas a charter member, finishing in third place at 45–19.George Bradleyhurled the firstno-hitterinMajor League history. The NL expelled St. Louis from the leagueafter 1877due to a game-fixing scandal and the team went bankrupt.Without a league, they continued play as a semi-professionalbarnstormingteam through 1881. The magnitudes of the reorganizations, following the 1877 and 1881 seasons, are such that the 1875–1877 and 1878–1881 Brown Stockings teams are not generally considered to share continuity as a franchise with the current St. Louis Cardinals. American Association and early National League eras (1882–1919) For the1882 season,Chris von der Ahepurchased the team, reorganized it, and made it a founding member of theAmerican Association(AA), a league to rival the NL.1882 is generally considered to be the first year of", "the first year of existence for the franchise which would later become known as the St. Louis Cardinals. The next season, St. Louis shortened their name to theBrowns. Soon thereafter they became the dominant team in the AA, as managerCharlie Comiskeyguided St. Louis to four pennants in a row from1885to1888.PitcherandoutfielderBob Caruthersled the league inERA(2.07) andwins(40) in 1885 and finished in the top six in both in each of the following two seasons. He also led the AA inOBP(.448) andOPS(.974) in1886and finished fourth inbatting averagein1886(.334) and fifth in1887(.357).OutfielderTip O'Neillwon the first battingtriple crownin franchise history in 1887 and the only one in AA history.By winning the pennant, the Browns played the NL pennant winnerin a predecessorof theWorld Series. The Browns twice met the Chicago White Stockings—the predecessor to theChicago Cubs—tying onein a heated dispute andwinning the other, thus spurring the vigorousSt. Louis-Chicago rivalrythat ensues to this day.During the", "this day.During the franchise's ten seasons in the AA, they compiled an all-time league-high of 780 wins and .639 winning percentage. They lost just 432 contests while tying 21 others. The AA went bankrupt after the 1891 season and the Browns transferred to the National League. This time, the club entered an era of stark futility. Between1892and1919, St. Louis managed just five winning seasons, finished in last or next-to-last place sixteen times, and ended four seasons with 100 losses or more. Thenadirwas the1897 season: a 29–102 record for a franchise-worst .221 winning percentage.St. Louis' 84–67 finishas thePerfectosin 1899 would be the team's best finish between the AA era andSam Breadon's purchase of the team.As the \"Perfectos\", the team wore their jersey with a cardinal red trim and sock striping.Later that season,St. Louis Republicsportswriter Willie McHale included an account in a column of a female fan he heard remarking about the uniforms, \"What a lovely shade of cardinal.\" Fans liked the moniker", "liked the moniker \"Cardinals\" and, the next year in 1900, popularity for the nickname induced an official change toCardinals. In 1902, an American League team moved fromMilwaukeeinto St. Louis, renamed themselves theSt. Louis Brownsand built a new parkon the site of the Cardinals' old stadium, striking a rivalry that lasted five decades.Breadon bought a minority interest in the Cardinalsin 1917andin 1919Browns managerBranch Rickeyjoined the Cardinals.The Cardinals' first 28 seasons in the NL were a complete reversal of their stay in the AA – with a .406 winning percentage, they compiled 1,632 wins, 2,425 losses and 74 ties. Breadon era (1920–1952) St. Louis baseball commenced arenaissance:since 1926the Cardinals have won eleven World Series and nineteen NL pennants.Breadon spurred this revival when he bought out the majority stake in1920and appointed Rickey as business manager, who expanded scouting, player development, and pioneered theminor leaguefarm system, filling the role of today'sgeneral", "of today'sgeneral manager.WithRogers Hornsbyat second base, he claimed Triple Crowns in1922and1925, and the Cardinals won the1926 World Series, their first.St. Louis then wonthe leaguein1928,1930, and1931and the1931 World Series. TheGashouse Gangedition claimed the1934 World Seriesand the Cardinals amassed new thresholds of popularity far outside St. Louis via radio, which led to the coining of the term \"Cardinal Nation\".Dizzy Deanled the Gang, winning the 1934MVP, and leading the NL multiple times inwins,strikeouts,innings,complete gamesandshutouts.Johnny MizeandJoe Medwickemerged as two power threats, with Medwick claiming the last Triple Crown for a Cardinalin 1937. In the 1940s, a golden era emerged as Rickey's farm system became laden with such talent asMarty Marion,Enos Slaughter,Mort Cooper,Walker Cooper,Stan Musial,Max Lanier,Whitey Kurowski,Red SchoendienstandJohnny Beazley.It was one of the most successful decades in franchise history with 960 wins and 580 losses for a winning percentage higher", "percentage higher than any other Major League team at .623.WithBilly Southworthmanaging, they won the World Series in1942and1944(in the only all-St. Louis series against theBrowns), and won 105 or more games each in1942,1943, and1944.Southworth's managerial winning percentage (.642) is St. Louis' highest since the franchise joined the National League.Musial was considered the most consistent hitter of his era and most accomplished in team history, winning three MVPs and sevenbatting titles.St. Louis then won the1946 World SeriesonSlaughter's Mad Dashin Game 7.Breadon was forced to sell the teamin 1947but won six World Series and nine NL pennants as Cardinals owner.They remained competitive, finishing .500 or better in thirteen of the next seventeen seasons, but fell short of winning the league or World Seriesuntil 1964. Gussie Busch era (1953–1989) In1953theAnheuser-Buschbrewerybought the CardinalsandAugust \"Gussie\" Buschbecame team president,spurring the Browns' departure in1953toBaltimoreto become", "become theOrioles, and making the Cardinals the only major league club in town.More success followed in the 1960s, starting with what is considered one of themost lopsided tradesin Major League history, as St. Louis receivedoutfielderLou Brockfromthe Cubsfor pitcherErnie Broglio.MVP third basemanKen Boyerand pitcherBob Gibsonled the club to aWorld Series winthesame yearandCurt Flood,Bill White,Curt Simmons, andSteve Carltonalso made key contributions in this decade.In 1967, new arrivalOrlando Cepedawon the MVP, helping to propel St. Louis to theWorld Series.The Cardinals won the leaguethe following yearbehind their Major League-leading 2.49 staff ERAin what was an all-round record-breaking season ofpitching dominance. Posting a modern-day record low ERA of 1.12 and striking out a one-gameWorld Series-record of 17,Gibson won both the MVP and Cy Young awards that year.However, the Cardinals failed to repeat asWorld Serieschampions, blowing a 3–1 lead to the underdogDetroit Tigers. In the 1970s, catcher/third", "catcher/third basemanJoe Torreand first basemanKeith Hernandezeach won MVPs, but the team's best finishes were second place and90 wins.The team found their way back to the World Series three times in the 1980s, starting with managerWhitey Herzogand hisWhiteyballstyle of play and another trade that altered course of the franchise:in 1982, shortstopGarry Templetonwas shipped to thePadresfor fellow shortstopOzzie Smith.Widely regarded as one of the best defensive players in history, Smith ranks first all-time among shortstops inGold Glove Awards(13),All-Star games(15),assists(8,375), anddouble plays(1,590).St. Louis won the1982 World Seriesfrom theMilwaukee Brewersthat fall.The Cardinals again won the league in1985and1987.Inthe 1985 Series, they faced-off withcross-staterivalsKansas City Royalsfor the first time in a non-exhibition game, but they lost the series after acontroversial callin Game 6;the1987 seriessaw them face off against theMinnesota Twins, but could only win all three of their games played at", "games played at home in the seven-game series. Bill DeWitt era (1996–present) After Gussie Busch diedin 1989,the brewerytook controland hired Joe Torre to managelate in 1990,then sold the team to an investment group led byWilliam DeWitt Jr.in 1996.Tony La Russareplaced Torre in the spring of 1996.In 1998,Mark McGwirecompeted with theCubs'Sammy Sosafor a barrage of home runs in their pursuit of thesingle-season home run record.From2000to2013, the Cardinals reestablished their way to the top with ten playoff appearances, fourNL pennants, two World Series titles and 1,274 regular season wins against 993 losses for a .560 winning percentage, leading the National League and second in MLB only to theNew York Yankees.With the addition ofJim Edmonds,Albert Pujols, andScott Rolen, the Cardinals featured three prominent sluggers and defenders nicknamed \"MV3;\"Pujols won three MVPs and hit .328 with 445 home runs in his Cardinals career.In 2004, playoff stalwartChris Carpenter's 3.09 ERA and 15 winshelped power the team", "power the team to amajor-league best105 wins and take theNL pennant.In 2006, beset with injuries and inconsistency,they won theWorld Series, beating Detroit in five games to set an all-time record-low of 83 wins for a World Series winner. In 2009, the Cardinals reached 10,000 wins, dating to when they first played in theAmerican Association(AA).St. Louis returned to the playoffsin 2011, first surmounting the largest games-won deficit after 130 games (at 10.5) to upstage theAtlanta Braveson the final day for the wild card playoff berth.In Game 3 of theWorld Series, Pujols became just the third player to hit three home runs in a World Series game.In Game 6, third basemanDavid Freeseand outfielderLance Berkmaneach tied the score on the Cardinals' final strike—the first such occurrence in any game in MLB history—and St. Louis defeated theTexas Rangerslater that game with awalk-off home runfrom Freese.After winning that Series, La Russa retired and became the only manager to do so after winning a title. He also", "a title. He also finished with the most wins for managers in franchise history with 1,408. La Russa's successor,Mike Matheny, helped extend St. Louis' playoff run as he became the first manager in thedivision playera to guide the Cardinals to the NLCS and playoffs in his first two seasons.In2014, the Cardinals extended their NLCS streak to 4, with their 3–1 series victory over theDodgers, in theNLDS. Ten days after being eliminated from the postseason by theSan Francisco Giants, rookie outfielderOscar Taveraswas killed in a car accident while traveling to his hometown Puerto Plata in theDominican Republic.On November 17, they acquiredAtlanta Bravesright-fielderJason Heyward(who had just come off aGold Glove-winning season) to replace Taveras.On June 16, 2015, theFBIand theJustice Departmentstarted an investigation on the Cardinals for possibly hacking theHouston Astros. The hacking incident was perpetrated by Scouting Director Chris Correa.For the first time since the2007–2008 seasons, the Cardinals missed", "Cardinals missed the playoffs in consecutive years,2016–2017. On July 14, 2018, following an 8–2 loss to theCincinnati Reds, the St. Louis Cardinals announced they had dismissed managerMike Mathenyafter6+1⁄2seasons. The team then namedMike Shildtinterim manager, and he was made the permanent manager a month later. On November 19, 2018, the team announced that the \"Victory Blue\" uniforms, worn by the Cardinals during the late 1970s and 1980s, would be returning for the 2019 season. The uniforms, integrating the powder blue color with the team's current \"Saturday alternate\" jersey design, were to be worn 13 times on the road during the 2019 season.The Cardinals acquiredPaul Goldschmidtin a trade from theArizona Diamondbackson December 5, 2018. On September 14, 2022, long-time starting pitcherAdam Wainwrightand catcherYadier Molinaset the NL/AL record for most starts as pitcher and catcher duo, also referred to as abattery, at 325 starts together going back to 2007.The previous record holding duo,Mickey", "holding duo,Mickey LolichandBill Freehan, had held the record since 1975. Ballpark The Cardinals play their home games atBusch Stadium(also referred to asNew Busch StadiumorBusch III) indowntown St. Louis, straddling 7th and Clark near the intersection ofInterstates64,55, and44.The stadium opened for the2006 seasonat a cost of $411 million and holds a normal capacity of 46,861.The Cardinals finished their inaugural season in the new Busch Stadium by winning the2006 World Series, the first team to do so since theNew York Yankeesin 1923.This open-airstadiumemulates the HOK Sport (nowPopulous)-designed \"retro-style\" baseball-only parks built since the 1990s.The open panoramic perspective over the outfield wall offers a remarkable view of St. Louis' downtown skyline featuring the distinctiveGateway Arch.A replica of theEads Bridgespans the entrance to the park on the third base side, while thestatueofStan Musialstands in front of that entrance.Other statues at the corner of 8th and Clark include Hall of", "include Hall of FamersRogers Hornsby,Ozzie Smith,George Sisler,Cool Papa Bell,Bob Gibson,Jack Buck, and others. Due to increased demand, Game 7 of the2011 World Seriesaccommodated a baseball record of 47,399 by increasing the number ofstanding room onlytickets. The attendance record for any sporting event is 48,263, in a 2013association football(soccer)friendly matchbetweenChelsea F.C.andManchester City F.C., made possible by on-field seating.The largest attendance (53,000) of any event at Busch belongs toU2during a concert from their360° Tourin 2011. Ballpark Villageis a mixed-use development located across Clark Street from Busch Stadium.Phase 1 of the development, completed for the start of the 2014 season, includesentertainmentvenues,restaurants, and retail. Anchored by Cardinals Nation (which includes theCardinals Hall of Fame, a two-story Cardinals-themed restaurant and rooftop seating for 300+ fans with views of the field across the street), a 20,000 sq ft (1,900 m2) Budweiser Brew House, FOX Sports", "House, FOX Sports Midwest Live! andPBR, the $100 million phase 1 development of Ballpark Village is intended to be a gathering space throughout the year, not just during the baseball season. Previous ballparks Busch Stadium is the Cardinals' fourth home ballpark and the third to bear that name. The Cardinals' original home ballpark wasSportsman's Parkfrom 1882 to 1892 when they played in theAmerican Associationand were known as the Browns.In 1893, the Browns moved to a new ballpark five blocks northwest of Sportsman's Park which would serve as their home from 1893 to 1920. The new park was originally called New Sportsman's Park but became more commonly referred to asRobison Field.Midway through the 1920 season, the Cardinals abandoned Robison Field and returned to the original Sportsman's Park and became tenants of their American League rivals, theSt. Louis Browns. In 1953, theAnheuser-Busch Brewerypurchased the Cardinals and the new owner subsequently also purchased Sportsman's Park from the Browns and", "from the Browns and renamed it Busch Stadium, later becoming Busch I. The Browns then left St. Louis forBaltimoreafter the season, becoming the Orioles. The Cardinals builtBusch Memorial Stadium, or Busch II, in downtown St. Louis, opened it during the 1966 season and played there until 2005.It was built as themulti-purpose stadiumhome of both the baseball Cardinals and theNFL football Cardinals, who are now theArizona Cardinals; the NFL'sRamsalso played the first four games of their home schedule upon their arrival in St. Louis in 1995. The current Busch Stadium was constructed partly atop the site of Busch Memorial Stadium. Spring training The Cardinals home field inspring trainingisRoger Dean StadiuminJupiter, Florida. They share the complex, which opened in 1998, with theMiami Marlins. Before moving to Jupiter, the Cardinals hosted spring training atAl Lang FieldinSt. Petersburg, Floridafrom 1937 to 1997. Regular season home attendance The Cardinals have exceeded the attendance total of 3 million every", "of 3 million every season from 2004 to 2019. Every season from 2013 to 2019, the Cardinals finished second among MLB franchises in home game attendance, surpassed only by theLos Angeles Dodgerseach season. The Cardinals since1987, have surpassed 3 million in 25 years, with the 25th season on September 18,2023. Logos and uniforms The Cardinals have had few logos throughout their history, although those logos have evolved over time. The first logo associated with the Cardinals was an interlocking \"SL\" that appeared on the team's caps and or sleeves as early as 1899 or 1900 (depending on the source). Those early uniforms usually featured the name \"St. Louis\" on white home and gray road uniforms which both hadcardinal redaccents. During an 1899 road trip to Chicago, a girl in the stands remarked, \"Oh, isn't that a lovely shade of cardinal.\" The team, known as the Perfectos at the time, changed its name to Cardinals the following season. In 1920, the \"SL\" largely disappeared from the team's uniforms, and for the", "and for the next 20 years the team wore caps that were white with red striping and a red bill. In 1922, the Cardinals wore uniforms for the first time that featured twocardinalbirds perched on abaseball batover the name \"Cardinals\" with the letter \"C\" of the word hooked over the bat. The concept of the birds originated aftergeneral managerBranch Rickeynoticed a colorful cardboard arrangement featuring cardinal birds on a table in aPresbyterianchurchinFerguson, Missouri, at which he was speaking. The arrangement's production was by a woman named Allie May Schmidt. Schmidt's father, agraphic designer, helped Rickey make the logo a familiar staple on Cardinals uniforms.While the team had been known as the Cardinals for over 20 years by then, this logo changed the perception from the color to the bird.The now-famous \"birds on the bat\" design initially appeared with the birds perched on a black bat and \"Cardinals\" in printed letters. An alternate version of this logo with \"St. Louis\" replacing \"Cardinals\"", "\"Cardinals\" appeared in 1930 and was the primary logo in 1931 and 1932 before \"Cardinals\" returned. In 1940, the now-familiar \"StL\" logo was introduced on the team's caps. The interlocking \"StL\" has undergone several slight modifications over the years but has appeared on the team's caps every year since. The first appearance of the \"STL\" in 1940 coincided with the introduction of navy blue as a uniform color. From 1940 until 1955, the team wore navy blue caps with red bills and a red interlocking \"StL\" while the jerseys featured both cardinal red and navy blue accents. In 1951, the \"birds on the bat\" logo was changed to feature a yellow baseball bat. In 1956, the Cardinals changed their caps to solid blue with a red \"StL\", removing the red bill. Also, for that season only, the Cardinals wore a script \"Cardinals\" wordmark on their uniforms excluding the \"birds on the bat\". An updated version of the \"birds on the bat\" logo returned in 1957 with the word \"Cardinals\" written in cursive beneath the bat; this", "the bat; this logo, with some incremental changes along the way, has been the team's logo since. In 1962, the Cardinals became the first National League team (and the second in all of Major League Baseball after theChicago White Soxin 1960) to display players' names on the back of their jerseys. In 1964, while retaining their blue caps for road games, the Cardinals changed their home caps to all red with first a blue, than a white, interlocking \"StL\". The next year, the red caps were the only cap worn by the team full-time. In 1967, the birds on the bat emblem on the jersey was again tweaked, making the birds more realistic and changing the position of their tails relative to the bat and this version remained on all Cardinals game jerseys through 1997. In 1971, following the trend in baseball at the time, the Cardinals replaced the traditional flannel front-button shirts and pants with belts with new pullover knit jerseys and beltless elastic waist pants. In 1973, the crew-neck collar became a V-neck.", "became a V-neck. Another trend in baseball led the Cardinals to change their road uniforms from gray to light blue from 1976 to 1984; the player numbers were worn on the sleeves in 1979 and 1980. In 1992, the Cardinals returned to wearing traditional button-down shirts and pants with belts. That same year, they also brought back the all-navy cap with a red \"StL\", which were last worn in 1964, for use on the road only while wearing the same red and white cap for home games. In 1998, the \"birds on the bat\" was updated for the first time in 30 years with more detailed birds and bolder letters. That year, St. Louis introduced a cap featuring a single cardinal bird perched on a bat worn for Sunday home games only. Up until 2020, the alternate \"bird\" caps were paired with their primary \"StL\" red batting helmets, but in the 2021 season, the Cardinals added a new helmet to match their home Sunday alternate caps. The new birds on the bat design was modified again the next year, with yellow beaks and white eyes", "and white eyes replacing the red beaks and yellow eyes of the 1998 version. Uniform numbers also returned to the front of the jerseys in 1999 after a two-year absence. On November 16, 2012, the Cardinals unveiled a new alternate uniform to be worn at home games on Saturdays beginning with the 2013 season. The modified jersey, cream-colored with red trim on the sleeves and down the front, retains the \"birds on the bat\" but is the first since 1932 in which \"St. Louis\" is used instead of \"Cardinals\".2013 also saw the team adopt their red caps as their main cap for both home and away games for the first time since 1991; the navy cap was retained as an alternate, used when visiting other teams with red home caps. Starting with the 2019 season, the Cardinals have worn updated powder blue alternate uniforms during Saturday road games. Like the Saturday home cream alternates, it features red piping and \"St. Louis\" below the \"birds on the bat\" logo.In 2020, the Cardinals introduced a slightly updated version of their", "version of their \"StL\" cap logo, which was \"soft launched\" in 2019 via their social media accounts and game broadcasts. In 2023, the Cardinals introducedStifelas its first uniform sponsor. The Stifel patch, which has red letters with the background color corresponding to the team's uniform, is placed on either sleeve depending on a player's handedness. In 2024, the Cardinals unveiled theirCity Connectuniform. The red-based uniform with white pants maintained the trademark \"birds on the bat\" logo in front, but with the script \"The Lou\" in white trimmed in navy blue instead of either the city or team name. \"The Lou\" paid homage to rapperNelly, a St. Louis native who once coined the city's nickname on his 2000 singleCountry Grammar. Darker red wavy pinstripes were an allusion to theMississippi Riverwhere St. Louis is situated. A red circular patch containing a yellowfleur-de-lis, a navy blue illustration of theGateway Arch, and a red \"STL\" wordmark, is placed on either sleeve. Caps are red and featured the", "and featured the aforementioned \"STL\" wordmark in white with navy blue trim. Support Fans Mascots The team mascot is an anthropomorphic cardinal wearing the team's uniform namedFredbird. He is assisted byTeam Fredbird, a group of eleven women who entertain fans from the field and on top of the dugouts. While unofficial, the Rally Squirrel became an unexpected phenomenon during the 2011 postseason. Making its \"debut\" in Game 3 of theNLDSon October 4, a squirrel ran across home plate in the middle of a pitch fromRoy Oswaltof the Phillies to the Cardinals'Skip Schumaker. The Cardinals would win Game 4 and subsequently Game 5 (October 7) in Philadelphia to advance to the NLCS, symbolizing the squirrel's \"role\" in the victory. The squirrel was popularized as \"Buschie the Rally Squirrel\".As a tribute to the popularity of the squirrel, a small depiction of the Rally Squirrel is also included on the officialWorld Series ringsthe team received. It shows up under the \"STL\" logo on the side of the ring. Fredbird", "the ring. Fredbird sparked controversy in May 2015, when he was asked by a fan for a photograph and handed him a sign that said \"Police Lives Matter\". The team later claimed that Fredbird should not be involved in any political activity or social commentary. Rivalries Chicago Cubs The Cardinals–Cubs rivalry refers to games between the Cardinals and theChicago Cubs. The rivalry is also known as theDownstate Illinois rivalryor theI-55 Series(in earlier years as theRoute 66 Series) as both cities are located alongInterstate 55(which itself succeeded the famousU.S. Route 66). The Cubs lead the series 1,253–1,196, through October 2021, while the Cardinals lead inNational Leaguepennants with 19 against the Cubs' 17. The Cubs have won 11 of those pennants in Major League Baseball's Modern Era (1901–present), while all 19 of the Cardinals' pennants have been won since 1926. The Cardinals also have an edge when it comes toWorld Seriessuccesses, having won 11 championships to the Cubs' 3. Games featuring the Cardinals", "the Cardinals and Cubs see numerous visiting fans in eitherBusch Stadiumin St. Louis orWrigley Fieldin Chicago.When the National League split into two and then three divisions, the Cardinals and Cubs remained together. This has added excitement to several pennant races over the years. The Cardinals and Cubs have played each other once in the postseason,2015 National League Division Series, which the Cubs won 3–1. Kansas City Royals The Cardinals have aninterleagueand intrastate rivalry with theKansas City Royals, dubbed the \"Show-Me Series\" after thenicknameof the team's home state,Missouri; or the \"I–70 Series\" after theinterstate highwaythat connects the cities. The teams first met in the1985 World Series, which the Royals won 4–3, and which remains their only post-season meeting. Since interleague play began in1997, the Cardinals and Royals have met in four to six games each season, evenly split between the two cities. As of 2021, the Cardinals lead the overall series 71–50. The rivalry heated up in 2015,", "heated up in 2015, when both teams held the best records in their respective leagues when they opened each of their two series. The Royals advanced to the World Series, where they faced and ultimately defeated theNew York Mets, while the Cardinals lost in the NLDS. Had the Cardinals made it to the World Series, they would have faced the Royals in a rematch of 1985. Los Angeles Dodgers Primarily a playoff rivalry; since 1892, The Cardinals andDodgershave met 6 times in the postseason with 2 meetings in the NLCS won by the Cardinals. Both teams have recently grown a history of animosity towards one another since the late 2000s as both teams often met frequently in the postseason. The Dodgers have not fared as well against the Cardinals in the postseason. In five prior postseason series matchups, the Cardinals have won four with the Dodgers winning only the 2009 NLDS and the 2021 National League Wild Card Game. New York Mets The rivalry between the Cardinals and theNew York Metspeaked during the 1980s when both", "the 1980s when both teams contended forNational League Eastsupremacy. The rivalry began with the 1983 trade that broughtKeith Hernandezfrom the Cardinals to the Mets, essentially turning the latter into contenders.Between 1985 and 1988, the division was dominated by either of the two teams, and in three of those years, the NL East winner went on to the World Series. In 1994, the Cardinals were moved to theNational League Central, and the rivalry faded soon after. The two teams would meet in the2000and2006National League Championship Series, briefly rekindling the rivalry. Executives and club officials Ownership and valuation An investment group led byWilliam DeWitt Jr.owns the St. Louis Cardinals, having bought the team from Anheuser-Busch (AB) in 1996.As with other periods of the Cardinals' transaction history, doubt loomed as to whether the purchaser would keep the team in St. Louis, due to the city's status as a \"small market\", which appears to handicap a club's competitiveness. Such was the case whenSam", "the case whenSam Breadonput the Cardinals up for sale in 1947:then-NL PresidentFord Frickproposed moving the Cardinals toChicago.When AB placed the Cardinals for sale in 1995, they publicly expressed intention to find a buyer who would keep the club in St. Louis.In March 1996, AB sold the team for $147 million to a partnership headed by Southwest Bank'sDrew Baur, Hanser and DeWitt Jr.Civic Center Redevelopment, a subsidiary of AB, held the parking garages and adjacent property and also transferred them to the Baur ownership group.Baur's group then sold the garages to another investment group, lowering the net franchise purchase price to about $100 million, about $10 million less thanFinancial World'svalue of the team at the time $110 million. CurrentCincinnati RedsownersBob Castelliniand brothers Thomas Williams and W. Joseph Williams Jr. each once owned a stake in the Cardinals dating back to the Baur-DeWitt group's purchase of the team. To allow their purchase of the Reds in 2005, the rest of the group", "rest of the group bought out Castellini's and the Williams brothers' shares, totaling an estimated 13 percent. At that time, theForbesvalued the Cardinals at about $370 million.However, after reabsorbing that stake into the remainder of the group, they decided to make it available to new investors in 2010. Amid later allegations that the Cardinals owed the city profit shares, DeWitt revealed that their profitability had not reached the threshold to trigger that obligation. Recent annual financial records As of 2024,Forbesvalued the Cardinals tenth among the 30 MLB franchises. Their estimated value of $2.55 billion was the same from the season before, when they ranked tenth. St. Louis' revenue in 2024 was $372 million, up $14 million from 2023. TheirOperating incomewas $57 million.The Cardinals' deal withFox Sports Midwest(now Bally Sports Midwest), signed in 2015, began in 2018, and is worth $1 billion through 2032.In 2014,Forbesvalued the Cardinals at $820 million and opined previously that they play \"in", "that they play \"in the best single-team baseball market in the country and are among the league's leaders in television ratings and attendance every season.\"Concurrent with the growth ofMajor League Baseball, the Cardinals value has increased significantly since the Baur-DeWitt purchase. In 2000, the franchise was valued at $219 million,a growth rate of 374% through 2014. The franchise's value grew 12.7% from 2013 to 2014. TheForbesmethodology of team values are enterprise values (equity plus net debt) that include the economics of the ballpark but exclude the value of real estate itself. Forbes does not include the value of team-owned regional sports networks. The league's ownership in Major League Baseball Advanced Media (100%) and the MLB Network (67%) and league's investment portfolio are included in our values. In total, these three assets constitute about $425 million in value for each team. Revenue and operating income (earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) measure cash in", "measure cash in versus cash out (not accrual accounting) for the 2017 season. Their figures include the post-season and are net of revenue sharing and stadium debt payments. Revenues include the pro-rated upfront bonuses networks pay teams as well as proceeds from non-MLB events at the ballpark. The non-recurring $18 million each team received in 2017 from the sale of a stake in BamTech to Walt Disney was excluded, as were profits or losses from team-owned RSNs. All valuations perForbes.1Based on current stadium deal (unless new stadium is pending) without deduction for debt, other than stadium debt. (2024: market $1,070 mil., stadium $540 mil., sport $590 mil., brand management $350 mil.)(2018: market $715 mil., stadium $447 mil., sport $493 mil., brand management $245 mil.)(2017: market $666 mil., stadium $411 mil., sport $488 mil., brand management $235 mil.)(2016: market $613 mil., stadium $378 mil., sport $406 mil., brand management $219 mil.)(2015: market $548 mil., stadium $338 mil., sport $331 mil.,", "sport $331 mil., brand management $197 mil.)(2014: market $339 mil., stadium $211 mil., sport $156 mil., brand management $124 mil.)(2013: market $291 mil., stadium $182 mil., sport $151 mil., brand management $91 mil.)(2012: market $240 mil., stadium $157 mil., sport $119 mil., brand management $78 mil.)(2011: market $206 mil., stadium $136 mil., sport $111 mil., brand management $65 mil.) 2Net of stadium revenues used for debt payments.3Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization.4Includes benefits and bonuses.5Compares the number of wins per player payroll relative to the rest of MLB. Playoff wins count twice as much as regular season wins. A score of 120 means that the team achieved 20% more victories per dollar of payroll compared with the league average in 2010. Other interests The Cardinals own three of their sixMinor League Baseballaffiliates: Executives Managers Field managerswith one or more years managing, and the current manager are included here. Players Current roster", "Current roster Pitchers Catchers Infielders Outfielders Designated hitters Manager Coaches 60-day injured list 39 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees 7-, 10-, or 15-dayinjured list* Not on active roster†Suspended listRoster,coaches, andNRIsupdated October 1, 2024Transactions•Depth chart→All MLB rosters Coaching staff Selected individual achievements and awards Team captains Hall of Famers Inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Charles Comiskey Roger Connor Pud Galvin Clark Griffith Tommy McCarthy Grover Cleveland AlexanderWalter AlstonJake BeckleyJim Bottomley*Roger BresnahanLou Brock*Mordecai BrownJesse BurkettSteve CarltonOrlando Cepeda Dizzy Dean*Leo DurocherDennis EckersleyFrankie Frisch*Bob Gibson*Burleigh GrimesChick Hafey*Jesse Haines*Whitey Herzog*Rogers Hornsby* Miller HugginsJim KaatTony La Russa*Rabbit MaranvilleJohn McGrawBill McKechnieJoe Medwick*Minnie MiñosoJohnny Mize*Stan Musial* Kid NicholsBranch RickeyWilbert RobinsonScott RolenRed Schoendienst*Ted Simmons*Enos", "Simmons*Enos Slaughter*Lee SmithOzzie Smith*John Smoltz Billy Southworth*Bruce SutterJoe TorreDazzy VanceLarry WalkerBobby WallaceHoyt WilhelmVic WillisCy Young St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum In 2014, the Cardinals announced the reopening of the franchise Hall of Fame after a 6-year hiatus. A formal selection process recognizes former players as Cardinals Hall of Famers each year. To be eligible for election, a player must have been a member of the Cardinals for at least three seasons. The team initially released the names of 22 former players and personnel included in the inaugural class of2014.There are now 52 members of the Cardinals Hall of Fame. Positions that are listed were played the equivalent of a full season for the Cardinals. Players who have been nominated, but not inducted, includeJoaquín Andújar,Steve Carlton,George Hendrick,Édgar Rentería, andLee Smith. After receiving the most fan votes on the 2023 ballot,David Freeselater declined his induction into the Cardinals Hall of Fame.", "Hall of Fame. Inducted into the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame Retired numbers The Cardinals have retired 13 total jersey numbers––second in MLB only to theNew York Yankees' 22––in honoring 15 total former players and club personnel on the left field wall atBusch Stadium.A 16th,Jackie Robinson, is honored by all MLB teams.For the majority ofRogers Hornsby's career, the Cardinals did not have any numbers on their uniforms. When the Cardinals experimented with numbers on uniforms in 1923, Hornsby briefly donned the number 4. He switched to 6 the following season before the team abandoned the practice. Upon his return to the team in 1933, Hornsby again wore number 4 before being traded later that year. The club opted to simply honor his name with no number attached to him in 1997. Notes: Out of circulation, but not officially retired Cardinals records Minor league affiliations The St. Louis Cardinalsfarm systemconsists of sixminor leagueaffiliates. Radio and television coverage Radio In St.", "Radio In St. Louis,Audacy-ownedKMOX(1120 AM) airs Cardinals games over radio and feeds the rest of theCardinals network. Capable of reaching 21 million listeners in nine states includingMissouri,Illinois,Arkansas,Indiana,Iowa,Kentucky,Mississippi,Oklahoma, andTennessee, the Cardinals radio network is the second-largest in MLB with 117 affiliate stations. Ricky HortonandJohn Rooneyalternate asplay-by-playannouncers, with Matt Pauley serving aspre-gameandpost-gamehost. KMOX's 50,000-wattclear-channel signalcovers much of thecontinental United Statesat night. At one time, owing to the Cardinals' status as a \"regional\" franchise, the Cardinals radio network reached almost half of the country. The 2011 season marked the Cardinals' return to KMOX following five seasons onKTRS(550 AM), a station which is 50 percent owned by the Cardinals. With a partnership spanning seven decades, and continuously since 1954, its conclusion was realized after the 2005 season when the then owners of KMOX,CBS Radio, and the Cardinals", "and the Cardinals failed to reach terms on a new rights agreement. However, frustrated by the underpowered coverage of 5,000-watt KTRS, the Cardinals reached a new deal with KMOX in 2011. Starting in 2013 (at age 74),Mike Shannonstarted reducing his workload. As of the 2016 season, he only called home games for the Cardinals. As of the 2019 season, his 47th in the broadcast booth, he surpassed Jack Buck, his long-time broadcast companion, as the longest-tenured Cardinal broadcaster. On January 14, 2021, Shannon announced that the upcoming season, his 50th season in the broadcast booth, would be his last. Television Since 2000, Cardinals telecasts have generated the top three in ratings in MLB every season.Bally Sports Midwestairs all games inhigh-definitionand is the team's exclusive television broadcaster, with the exception of selectedSaturday afternoon gamesonFox(via its St. Louis affiliate,KTVI) orSunday Night BaseballonESPN.Bally Sports Indiana,Bally Sports South,Bally Sports Oklahoma,Bally Sports", "Sports Southwest, andBally Sports Southeastair Cardinals games for fans living within the Cardinals broadcast territory who do not receive the Bally Sports Midwest channel. During the 2016 season, the Cardinals averaged an 8.54 rating and 104,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts in St Louis. The television commentators lineup includesChip Caray,Brad Thompson, andJim Edmonds. Jimmy \"The Cat\" Hayes serves asdugout reporterduring the game as well as onCardinals Live, a pre- and post-game show.Cardinals Liveis hosted in-studio byAlexa Dattalong with game analysts and former Cardinals playersAl HraboskyandRick Ankiel. Cardinals Kids, a program aimed at the team's younger fans, airs weekly in-season on Fox Sports Midwest. It is hosted by former Cardinals pitcherBrad Thompson, team mascotFredbird, and Busch Stadium Public Address announcer John \"The U-Man\" Ulett. The 30-minute show began airing in 2003 and presents team news, player profiles, and Cardinals team history in a kid-friendly manner along with games", "along with games and trivia. A weekly magazine program,This Week in Cardinal Nation, airs on St. Louis'NBCaffiliateKSDK. Cardinals games had been seen on KSDK (and its predecessor, KSD-TV) from 1947 through 1958, 1963 through 1987, and 2007 until 2010.KPLR-TVwas the Cardinals' other over-the-air broadcaster, carrying games from 1959 through 1962 and from 1988 until 2006. Former Cardinals broadcasters includeJack Buck,Harry Caray,Bob Carpenter,Dizzy Dean,Joe Garagiola,Dan McLaughlin, andJay Randolph.Joe Buck, the son of Jack Buck, was an official member of the Cardinals' broadcast team from 1991 until 2007. The younger Buck once served as the lead play-by-play caller forFox Sports' nationalMajor League BaseballandNational Football Leaguebroadcasts before joiningESPNas the voice ofMonday Night Footballin 2022. Opening Day lineups Opening Day salaries Opening Day payrolls for 25-man roster (since 2000):2018–23 payroll obligations2020 seasonshortened to 60 games.Payroll adjusted from $168,930,500 to $69,461,295.", "to $69,461,295. Notes References Further reading External links", "Yadier Molina Yadier Benjamín Molina(Spanish pronunciation:; born July 13, 1982), nicknamed \"Yadi\", is a Puerto Rican formerprofessional baseballcatcherwho played his entire 19-year career with theSt. Louis CardinalsofMajor League Baseball(MLB) and who is currently the team's Special Assistant to the President of Baseball Operations. Widely considered one of the greatest defensive catchers of all time for his blocking ability and hiscaught-stealingpercentage, Molina won nineRawlings Gold Glovesand sixFielding Bible Awards. A two-timeWorld Serieschampion, he played for Cardinals teams that made 12playoffappearances and won fourNational League pennants. Molina also played for thePuerto Rican national teamin fourWorld Baseball Classic(WBC) tournaments, winning twosilver medals. When he retired after the 2022 season, Molina ranked first all-time among catchers in putouts and second all-time among catchers with 130Defensive Runs Saved(DRS); among active players, he ranked first with 845assists, 40.21% of", "40.21% of runnerscaught stealing, and 55pickoffs. Along with pitcherAdam Wainwright, Molina holds the records for most games started and won as abattery. As a hitter, Molina accrued more than 2,100hits, 150home runs, and 1,000runs batted in(RBIs); hebattedover .300 in five seasons.Other distinctions include selection to tenMLB All-Star Games, fourPlatinum Glove Awards, and oneSilver Slugger Award. He was a two-time selection to the All-WBC Tournament Team and was a member of the2018 MLB Japan All-Star Series. The product of a baseball family, Molina was born inBayamon, Puerto Rico. His father was an amateursecond basemanand the all-time hits leader inPuerto Rican baseball, and his two older brothers,BengieandJosé, also developed into standout defensive catchers with lengthy MLB careers. The Cardinals' fourth-round selection in the2000 MLB draft, Molina entered the major leagues in the 2004 season and quickly showed one of the strongest and most accurate arms in the game. Over his career, he earned a", "career, he earned a reputation as a team leader, eventually formulating pregame plans to handle opposing hitters, including pitching strategies and fielder positioning. Molina appeared on five NLMost Valuable Player Award(MVP) ballots, including finishing fourth in 2012 and third in 2013. WhenHurricane Mariaravaged the island of Puerto Rico in September 2017, Molina began relief efforts for victims of the catastrophe, consequently receiving theRoberto Clemente Awardin 2018. Early life Yadier Benjamín Molina was born on July 13, 1982, inBayamón, Puerto Rico, the youngest of three boys to Gladys Matta and Benjamín Molina, Sr. He attended MaestroLadislao MartínezHigh School inVega Alta.Baseball in Puerto Ricois a significant part of the island's culture. Molina's father playedsecond baseas an amateur and worked as a tools technician 10 hours per day in aWestinghousefactory. The all-timehitsleader inLiga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente(orDoble-A Beísbol) history, the elder Molina delivered a .320", "delivered a .320 careerbatting averageand gained election to the Puerto Rican baseball hall of fame in 2002. Molina's two older brothers,BengieandJosé, also developed into distinguished defensivecatcherswith lengthy careers inMajor League Baseball(MLB), and each of the three won at least oneWorld Serieschampionship. Each day when he completed work, Molina's father went directly home, ate dinner with his family, and crossed the street from his family's home with his sons and his son’s friend Carlos Diaz to Jesús Mambe Kuilan Park, spending countless evening hours teaching them the fundamentals of the sport.He remained hopeful that his sons would becomeprofessional baseballplayers. Molina's catching aptitude showed as early as age five and developed quickly.Nonetheless, he developed great competence in playing all over thebaseball fieldand, as older brother Bengie recalled, always seemed to \"be the first player taken in the youth league draft\".Molina concentrated oninfieldpositions until about age 16, when he", "age 16, when he began to develop the familiar Molina physique: as of 2013, he stood 5'11\" and weighed 220 pounds. Molina's father also sought to accelerate him on the diamond. Following Yadier's suspension from a youth league about age 15, he anticipated the desistance would stagnate his development, so he searched for an alternative. Against the wishes of coaches, family members and friends, he scheduled Yadier for a workout with theHatilloTigres, anamateur leagueteam. Molina made the team after a single workout and immediately became the starting catcher.The Tigres' first baseman, Luís Rosario, was the one who recommended him to the organization.The Tigres played in a league composed mainly of players 10 or more years older than Molina, well before he was eligible for theMLB draft. Professional career Draft and minor leagues Minnesota TwinsscoutEdwin Rodríguezfollowed and scrutinized Molina starting in high school. He observed that Molina's skills closely resembled that of both his older brothers—both", "older brothers—both accomplished major league catchers—and decided that his defense was \"polished\" enough to be considered more advanced than most high schoolers in the United States. However, Molina's hitting lagged behind his defense. The initial report on his skill set was \"defensive catcher, great arm, weak bat\"; the closest comparable hitter as catcher was one whom the Cardinals eventually placed at the top of their organizational ladder, his futuremanagerMike Matheny. Before he was drafted, Molina worked out for theCincinnati Reds. He put on a spectacle atRiverfront Stadiumwith his arm and bat that grabbed the attention of executives, scouts, and prominent former Reds players, includingJohnny BenchandBob Boone. As Molina recalled, he left the session with the impression that Cincinnati intended to draft him.Undeterred by the universal reservations about his offensive ceiling, theSt. Louis Cardinalsinstead took Molina in the fourth round of the2000 MLB draftand signed him for $325,000. \"I saw the kid", "\"I saw the kid that's going to steal my job.\" —Mike Matheny, when he was still the Cardinals' starting catcher, to his wife, on Molina in 2001 The Cardinals then invited Molina to major leaguespring trainingcamp. Described as \"raw\", the young catcher worked to emulate Matheny.At one point in that extended spring training, instructorDave Rickettsobserved Molina from agolf cartduring a game. Molina allowed apassed ballthrough his legs with a runner on third base, and raced to the backstop to retrieve the ball. Still hoping to prevent the runner from scoring, he instead found Ricketts in the golf cart parked on top of home plate. Ricketts, who had a reputation for becoming upset when minor league catchers allowed balls to bounce between their legs, removed Molina from the game and drove him to thebatting cage. There, Molina later recalled, Ricketts batted 150 to 200 ground balls to improve the young catcher's ability to block pitches. Molina began his professional career with theJohnson City Cardinalsof the", "Cardinalsof the Rookie-levelAppalachian Leaguein 2001, playing 44 total games and batting .259. He advanced one level in each of four seasons in the minor leagues. Even without highly developed offensive skills, Molina proved difficult to strike out. Mainly a singles hitter who favored hitting the ball the other way, he batted .278 with 14 home runs and 133runs batted in(RBIs) with 118 strikeouts in 1,044 at-bats in four minor league seasons. In his first three seasons, he threw out 111 base runners attempting to steal while allowing 133 stolen bases, for a caught-stealing percentage of 45%. St. Louis Cardinals (2004–2022) 2004–06 Molina's first chance in the Major Leagues came when the incumbent catcher, Matheny, went on thedisabled list(DL) with a strained rib in the Cardinals'pennant-winningseason of2004. Molina made his Major League debut on June 3.One of his firstgame-winning hitsoccurred on August 7. He stroked a broken-bat single to shallow center field in the bottom of the ninth inning against theNew", "against theNew York Mets. On the play, thecenter fielder,Mike Cameronstarted towards the outfield wall based on Molina's full swing, not immediately realizing that he had made only partial contact because of the broken bat. By the time Cameron charged the ball, it was too late; it fell in for a hit, scoringJim Edmonds.Three weeks later, on August 29, the Cardinals beat thePittsburgh Pirates6–4, thanks in part to two plays in which Molina tagged out the runner at home plate, including a collision withTy Wigginton. Molina appeared in 51 regular-season games and batted .267 with two home runs and 15 RBIs in 151 plate appearances.He threw out more than half of would-be base-stealers (nine of 17).In theWorld Seriesagainst theBoston Red Sox, managerTony La Russaelected to start Molina over Matheny in Game 4.The Red Sox swept the Cardinals and claimed thetitlethat game, their first in 86 years.The following offseason, Matheny signed a three-year, $10.5-million contract with theSan Francisco Giants, clearing the way", "clearing the way for Molina to become the Cardinals' starting catcher. In2005, Molina struggled with injuries and saw a drop off in the offensive performance in his rookie season. Hedoubledand scored onDavid Eckstein's go-ahead single on his way to three hits in a June 12 defeat of theNew York Yankees, 5–3.Molina returned from a 33-game absence on August 19 induced by ahairline fractureof his leftfifth metacarpal bonefrom being hit by a pitch on July 7.Starting pitcherChris Carpenter, attempting to extend a winning streak to ten games on an August 19 game versus the San Francisco Giants, found himself in a 4–0 deficit in the ninth inning. Capped by Molina's three-run home run, the Cardinals rallied and won 5–4 in the ninth.The next day, Molina'ssuicide squeeze buntscoredMark Grudzielanek, tying the game and allowing the Cardinals to win 4–2.Those were just two wins of 100 as St. Louis made their way to another division title following 105 wins the season before. In 114 games, Molina posted a .252batting", "a .252batting averagewith eighthome runsand 49 RBIs with just 30 strikeouts in 421 plate appearances. Defensively, he registered career-highs of nine pickoffs and a caught-stealing percentage of 64 from throwing out 25 of 39 would-be base-stealers.According toBaseball-Reference.com, as of 2013, that percentage ranked as the 26th highest all-time season-single caught stealing percentage. Since 1957, onlyMike LaValliere's 1993 figure of 72.7% was higher. Beforethe 2006 seasoncommenced, Molina participated in theinauguralWorld Baseball Classic(WBC) forPuerto Rico. After returning to the Cardinals, he changed his jersey number from 41 to 4. However, the regular season presented some of his greatest offensive challenges as he struggled through a career-worst .216 batting average in 461 regular-season plate appearances. It was a culmination of a decline over his first three seasons; Molina'son-base plus sluggingpercentages (OPS) registered at .684 in 2004, .654 in 2005 and .595 in 2006.The low batting average was", "batting average was due in part to a deflatedbatting average on balls in play(BABIP) of .226 (normal is around .300), a career low. In a May 27 game against theSan Diego PadresatPetco ParkinSan Diegowith the Cardinals holding a 4–3 lead in the bottom of the ninth, Molina pickedBrian Gilesoff first to end the game,the first pickoff to end a major league game in nearly four years.The Cardinals faced the Padres again in theNational League Division Series(NLDS) playoff game in theplayoffs, he again picked a Padre off at first, this timeMike Piazza, while bailing pitcherJeff Suppanout of a jam.For the season, he caught 41% of all base-stealing attempts and picked off seven runners. Even as his bat languished, Molina's defense was instrumental in propelling the Cardinals to theNational League Centraldivision crown in a season heavily marred by injuries for the team.However, the followingplayoffsmarked a turning point in his career offensive output. He posted a .358 composite batting average, .424on-base", ".424on-base percentage(OBP), two home runs and eight RBIs in 16 games as the Cardinals reached theWorld Series.He batted .308 in the National League Division Series (NLDS), .348 in theNational League Championship Series(NLCS) and .412 in the World Series. One of Molina's landmark playoff performances came in Game 7 of the NLCS against theNew York Mets, the final game of the series tied at three games each. Starting in the top of the ninth, he batted with a 1–1 score. In the sixth inning, Mets left fielderEndy Chávezhad prevented the Cardinals from taking the lead when he leapt to catchScott Rolen's near-miss home run over the left field fence. This time, however, Molina hit a two-run home run offAaron Heilmanover left field that was too high for Chávez to catch and gave the Cardinals a 3–1 edge. In the bottom of the ninth, rookie pitcherAdam Wainwright– filling in as emergencycloser– found himself in a two-out, bases-loaded situation against center fielderCarlos Beltrán, who had already homered three times", "homered three times in the NLCS. Molina called for a mound conference. Initially, he wanted asinkerfrom Wainwright but changed his mind because he suspected Wainwright would overthrow it and give Beltrán an easy pitch to hit. Molina made an unconventional choice by calling for achangeupto start the sequence against Beltrán. It was called for a strike. Had Beltrán successfully got a base hit, the scheme may have caused tension for the third-year catcher with La Russa andpitching coachDave Duncanbecause throwing a first-pitch changeup ran contrary to Duncan's teaching. Molina then called for twocurveballs. Beltrán fouled off the first, but Wainwright struck him out looking at a \"bender that started up and away and bit hard to the low inside corner\" for the final out of the game. The Cardinals' conquest of the NLCS gave them a return trip to the World Series after two years. They proceeded to defeat theDetroit Tigersin five games, giving Molina his firstchampionship ring.His mask was turned in for display at", "in for display at theBaseball Hall of Fame. 2007–09 Batting out of the number-five spot in the batting order for the first time in his career on Opening Day,2007, Molina collected two hits. In a game against theMilwaukee Brewerson April 15, Molina pickedPrince Fielderoff first base as he leaned far off the bag, tipping off Molina and first basemanAlbert Pujolsto ahit and runthe Brewers were planning.Four days later, Molina faced his brother Bengie for the first time in a game against theSan Francisco Giants. It was also the first time they had seen each other in about three and one-half years. From May 1 to 24, Molina strung together a then-career high 15-game hitting streak, during which he batted .373. It was the longest streak for a Cardinals catcher sinceErik Pappas' 16-game streak in1993.Molina was absent for most of June due to a fractured left wrist.In the third inning of the May 29 game againstColorado, he took a foul tip off his wrist from Rockies right fielderBrad Hawpe's bat. After missing 26", "After missing 26 games, the Cardinals activated him from the disabled list on June 28. The first multi-error game of Molina's career occurred July 13 against thePhiladelphia Phillieson a catch and throw. In a span of 11 starts from August 2–16, he racked up four three-hit games. On August 16, he hit two home runs against the Brewers for his first career multi-homer game. Molina homered and stroked the go-ahead double in an August 22 defeat ofFlorida. One week later, he homered in back-to-back games against theCincinnati Reds; he, Edmonds, andRick Ankieleach drove in three runs in an 11–3 victory on September 2.On Yadier MolinaBobbleheadNight September 19 versusPhiladelphia, he stroked three hits including the game-winning single in the tenth inning. Molina suffered a concussion in September and underwentarthroscopic surgeryto repair torn cartilage in his right knee. The knee surgery ended his season early on September 24.In Molina's final 50 games, he successfully collected 49 hits in 158 AB for a .310 AVG.", "AB for a .310 AVG. Of his final 35 starts, 12 were multi-hit games. His .281 batting average after the All-Star break ranked fifth among NL catchers.He finished the season with a new career-best .275 batting average, six home runs, and 40 RBIs in 111 games.He threw out 50% (23 of 46) baserunners attempting to steal, the highest percentage in the majors. From 2005 to 2007, he led all MLB with a 47% caught-stealing rate and 18 pick-offs. On January 14,2008, Molina and the Cardinals agreed to a four-year, $15.5 million deal with a club option for a fifth, cementing his position as their starting catcher. He reported to spring training having lost 15 pounds and in improved physical shape from rehabilitating following knee surgery.He started the season with anOpening Dayhome run and seven-game hitting streak.After a home plate collision withEric Bruntletton June 15 against thePhiladelphia Philliesin the ninth inning, Molina sustained head and neck injuries and was removed from the field on a stretcher. There were", "There were no indications of a concussion.He held on to the ball to help the Cardinals win.He missed the next four games.To that point, Molina was batting .295 with three home runs and 24 RBIs. He also had thrown out 10 of 32 baserunners (31.3%) – well below his career average of 45% – but anAssociated Pressreporter attributed the decline to an inexperienced pitching staff. Molina returned to the field againstBostonatFenway Parkas thedesignated hitter. In that game, his solo home run provided the difference in a 5–4 Cardinals victory. It was also the first game of the first of two 13-gamehitting streaksfor the season. His first career start atfirst base, also against Boston, occurred two days later. During that streak, he collected 17 hits in 47 at-bats for a .362 batting average. The second hitting streak spanned from August 16 to September 2, where he successfully hit 19 times in 50 at bats for a .380 average.On September 2, he andFelipe Lópezhit consecutive home runs against theArizona Diamondbacksen", "Diamondbacksen route to an 8–2 victory. Overall, Molina enjoyed a breakout offensive season, finishing with new career highs with a .304 batting average – his first over .300 – and in hits (135), OBP (.349), SLG (.392), runs (37) and RBIs (56). Of all catchers in franchise history with at least 450 PA in a season, he became just the second ever, after Simmons, to bat over .300; it was then the fourth-best season batting average; and, his 29 strikeouts were the fewest since Simmons fanned 20 times in1976. Molina led the team and was sixth in the NL with a .340 batting average with runners inscoring position.For the season, he successfully caught 35% of opposing baserunners, still higher than the league average of 27%.He led all MLB with seven pickoffs. That November, Molina received his firstGold Glove Award, becoming the third Cardinal catcher ever to win the honor, afterTom Pagnozziand Matheny. Before the2009 seasoncommenced, Molina participated with Puerto Rico in hissecondWBC. When the event concluded, he", "event concluded, he returned to the Cardinals. In an April 16 game against theArizona Diamondbacks, he reached base in all five of his plate appearances in a 12–7 victory.Starting pitcherJoel Piñeiro– struggling with hisfastballcommand in previous starts – experimented with a sinker and shut out theNew York Metson June 24 with just two hits. Molina erased a Mets runner by throwing outLuis Castilloattempting to steal second base.Molina was batting .278 with five home runs and 25 RBIs through July 5, 2009. He was selected through fan vote to represent the Cardinals in theAll-Star Gamein St. Louis'Busch Stadium– his first All-Star Game.As the top vote-getter among NL catchers with 2,641,467 votes, Molina was named the NL's starting catcher.He caught eight innings and drove home a run. Following the All-Star break on July 18, Molina's four hits and Albert Pujols' two home runs helped cap Chris Carpenter's 6–1 victory over the Diamondbacks, who pitched around nine runners on base in eight innings.On August 15,", "August 15, Molina picked offSan Diego'sKevin Kouzmanoffat first on the way to a 7–4 victory, the 33rd of his career.At that point,Bill James Onlinerated that Molina saved his team fifteen total runs from pickoffs alone in his career. A sore left knee sustained after taking a foul ball of his kneecap temporarily disabled Molina on September 26. He was back in action on October 1 againstCincinnati, although he was removed from that game due to a \"tweaked\" knee.He finished the season with a .293 batting average, six home runs, 54 RBIs, and a major league-leading 136 games caught, the highest franchise total sinceTed Simmons' total in1977.His strikeout rate of once every 13.9 PA was the second-lowest in the NL. While accumulating 39 mult-hit games, the Cardinals won 27 of them. He led the major leagues with eight pickoffs and was second in the NL in innings caught.He also won his second Gold Glove award after the season.The Sporting Newsannounced that major league managers and coaches had selected Molina for the", "Molina for the magazine's end-of-season All-Star award.For the first time in his career, Molina earnedMost Valuable Player Award(MVP) consideration. He finished tied for 23rd withMiguel Tejadawith one percent of the vote share. 2010–11 On Opening Day, April 5,2010, Molina connected for agrand slam, becoming just the third Cardinals player to hit an Opening Day grand slam, followingMark McGwireandScott Rolen.On April 17, he caught all 20 innings of a game against theMets.Molina turned in a productive April, driving in 15 runners, the most for a Cardinals catcher in the month of April since Ted Simmons drove in 20 in 1977. He also continued his productivity with the bases loaded that month, collecting four hits and 11 RBIs in five at bats. Before theAll-Starbreak, Molina batted just .223. However, he was voted to start his second consecutive game, and second overall, and played four innings.After the All-Star break, his hitting improved, as he stroked 63 hits in 200 at bats for .315 batting average. During a", "average. During a game against theCincinnati Redson August 10, as second basemanBrandon Phillipscame to bat, he exchanged words with Molina that escalated to a bench-clearing confrontation, although no one was ejected.On September 17, he amassed a career-high five RBIs and career-tying four hits againstSan Diego, including two doubles.After an examination on his sore right knee on September 23, Molina was shut down for the rest of the season, missing 12 games. The final batting results for Molina's 2010 season consisted of a .262 batting average, six home runs, and 62 RBIs. He ranked as the fourth toughest in the NL to strike out with 10.2 at bats per strikeout. He led all NL catchers in at-bats (465) and stolen bases (eight), and his 122 hits ranked second, just behindBrian McCann's 123. He was tops in the NL with 24 bases-loaded RBIs, collecting eight hits in 15 AB for a .533 batting average in those situations. He also was first in the Majors with a .455 batting average (10–22) on 0–2 counts. He led all", "counts. He led all MLB catchers in innings (1138.0), games started (130) and assists (79),and led the NL for the third time in caught-stealing percentage at 49%.On November 1, he won his fourth consecutive Fielding Bible Award as the sole catcher. In addition, Molina became the first player at any position to win the award unanimously with a perfect score of 100.Nine days later, he was awarded his third consecutive Gold Glove Award. With increased offensive productivity in2011, Molina continued to help anchor the middle of Cardinals lineup in addition to the pitching staff and defense. From May 15 to 18, he put together four consecutive multi-hit games. Selected to his third consecutiveAll-Star Game, he substituted for the starter, McCann, played four innings and doubled in his only at-bat. Molina hit safety in 14 consecutive games from July 21 to August 11, one fewer than his career high. From July 22–25, he homered in three consecutive games, the second time in his career he had done so. On August 2,", "so. On August 2, Molina was ejected from a game against theMilwaukee Brewersfor arguing a called strike. He bumpedumpireRob Drakein the chest multiple times and appeared to spit upon him. Molina later apologized, stating that he did not intend to spit on the umpire and that he \"was caught up in the moment. That's what happens when you're caught up in the race and trying to win. I didn't handle it the right way.\" He served a five-game suspension handed down by MLB for \"making contact with umpire Rob Drake multiple times and spraying him with spit twice while arguing.\" Although the Cardinals stayed competitive, they were, at best, on the fringes of making the playoffs through August. As of August 28, with a 70–64 record, they faced a10+1⁄2-game deficit to theBravesfor thewild cardplayoff berth with 28 left to play. Molina provided a spark to the offense in the close of the season, batting .342 in August and .341 in September.With his 30th double on September 21, he became the fourth catcher in Cardinals", "in Cardinals history to reach that milestone, following Simmons,Bob O'FarrellandWalker Cooper. St. Louis won 20 of 28 games to finish the season, allowing them to tie the Braves for the wild card lead going into the final day. Molina caught Carpenter's 8–0 shutout of theAstros, the final game of the regular season.Meanwhile, thePhillesdefeated the Braves 4–3 in 13 innings, giving the Cardinals the wild card title and eliminating the Braves from the playoffs. The10+1⁄2games-won deficit marked the largest lead surrendered with 28 left to play in MLB history,consummating whatSt. Louis Post-DispatchsportswriterBernie Miklasztermed an \"improbable comeback,\"and one of the greatest sports history. It was just the first in a series of improbable comebacks for the Cardinals in 2011. Molina compiled a .305 batting average, 32 doubles, 14 home runs and 65 RBIs during the 2011 regular season. His batting average led the Cardinals and was eighth in the NL. However, his posted a career-low 29% caught-stealing", "29% caught-stealing percentage.His OPS+ (126),batting average, and hit totals led NL catchers, doubles placed second and RBIs third. His .337 batting average following the All-Star Break tied for seventh in the NL. He also led all NL catchers with 12 three-hit games, and collated 39 multi-hit games and 13 multi-RBI games. By making the playoffs, Molina became the first catcher in franchise history to appear in five postseasons for the Cardinals. He batted .333 in theNLCSagainstMilwaukee, including five hits in eight AB in the final two games.In Game 1 of theWorld Seriesagainst theTexas Rangers, Molina threw outIan Kinslerattempting to steal in the first inning on the way to a 3–2 win. It was the Rangers' only attempted steal of the game. That caught stealing gave Molina five in seven total chances in the 2011 postseason to that point; the Rangers had been tied with the Cardinals for most steals in that postseason.For the series, the Rangers attempted to steal four bases and were successful just once.In Game", "just once.In Game 3, Molina accumulated four RBI, and two more each in Games 6 and 7. The Cardinals won the Series in seven games, giving Molina his second championship ring. He batted .333 and set a team World Series record with nine RBIs.It was the highest World Series RBI total among catchers sinceSandy Alomar Jr., drove in 10 in1997. Molina started all 18 games and played every inning in that 2011 playoff run, including one at first. Overall, he batted .299 with five doubles and 12 RBIs. His 20 hits were the most by a catcher in the postseason since Iván Rodríguez stroked 21 in 2003.On November 1, Molina won his fourth consecutive Gold Glove Award,becoming just the fifth catcher on a pennant-winning club to lead his position in OPS+ in his league while winning a Gold Glove.He also won the first-ever National LeagueRawlings Platinum Glove Award, bestowed upon one player in each league.For the second time in his career, he won MVP consideration; he finished tied for 21st for the NL MVP balloting. 2012 On", "balloting. 2012 On March 1,2012, Molina signed a five-year extension with the Cardinals worth $75 million through 2017. The contract included a $1 million signing bonus,no-trade clause, and a mutual option for 2018 worth another $15 million.The deal made him the second-highest-paid catcher in the majors.He collected his tenth career four-hit game against theBrewerson April 29 with a two-run home run that led the Cardinals to a 7–3 win.On May 1, Molina mounted the first of two two-stolen base games of the season; the other occurred August 3. On May 27 against thePhillies, Molina blasted his third career grand slam againstRoy Halladay. His made his 1,000th career appearance in an MLB game against theChicago White Soxon June 12. From July 25 to August 7, he maintained a season-best 11-game hitting streak in which he batted .413.In a game againstPittsburghatPNC Parkon August 28, he sustained head, neck and back injuries – although no concussion – in a second-inning home plate collision with second basemanJosh", "second basemanJosh Harrison.In August, he batted .403 with a .453 OBP, both tied for third in the NL.As the season progressed, he garnered widespread consideration for the National League MVP award.On September 4, Molina collected his 1,000th career hit, an infield single against theMetsat home in the second inning. The 2012 season was one of Molina's crowning achievements as a hitter, especially considering early professional scouting reports did not forecast his bat being much of a factor in the major leagues. He set new career highs in multiple offensive categories, including a .315 batting average, 22 home runs, 76 RBI, 65 runs scored, .373 OBP, .501 slugging percentage and 12 stolen bases.He led the team in batting average for the second straight season, thus becoming the first catcher in franchise history to do so. Panning Molina's performance National League-wide, he ranked fourth in batting average,tenth in on-base percentage, 14th in slugging percentage and tied for 18th with 46 multihit games. He", "multihit games. He led NL catchers in stolen bases and set a Cardinals single-season record for catchers,and ranked second among NL catchers in HR and third in RBIs and batting average.An aggressive hitter, he batted .380 with seven home runs on the first pitch; his home run total on first pitches ranked seventh in the NL. His 32 baserunners caught stealing topped MLB, 47.9 caught stealing percentage ranked second, and three pickoffs tied for first in the NL and were second in MLB. From a historic perspective,Fangraphs'Dave Cameronnoted that Molina's combination of offensive productivity and interception of base runners in 2012 was one of the rarest performances in history. He became just the ninth MLB catcher to post a season with a weightedruns created(WRC+)factor of 140 and 45 percent of runners caught stealing. At 143, his WRC+ was tied for eighth all-time among catchers with at 45% of base runners caught stealing. Further, those figures aligned with peak seasons of other catchers such as Johnny", "such as Johnny Bench,Elston Howard,Carlton Fisk, andRick Wilkins. After being the subject of much speculation for the MVP award throughout the season, Molina ultimately finished fourth. However, he did win the prestigious and oldest award given to Latino players: the LatinoMVP award given by Latino Sports and the Latino Sports Writers & Broadcasters Association (LSWBA). He and winnerBuster Poseybecame the first pair of catchers to finish in the top four in the award's 88-year history.However, like in years past, other awards were on their way. In November, he won his fifth straight Gold Glove award, making him the first Cardinal since Jim Edmonds to win that many consecutively,which Edmonds did in 2004. On December 4, he won his firstGIBBYAward for Defensive Player of the Year.The St. Louis chapter of theBaseball Writers' Association of America(BBWAA) named him the St. Louis Baseball Man of the Year for 2012.In aLos Angeles Timesreport that published the top MLB jersey sales from the All-Star break until", "break until October 1, his jersey ranked 18th. 2013 With increased profile coming in conjunction with his offensive breakout from the year before, Molina's popularity with fans around the game also increased. Following his 2012 fourth-place MVP finish, his2013in-season jersey sales rose to third place, just after Posey and retiringNew York YankeescloserMariano Rivera, according to a July 11 report.On June 2 he was ejected by 1st base umpireClint Faganfor throwing his helmet. Molina collected two doubles in a three-hit game on June 12, giving him 21 doubles for the season, a pre-All-Star break career high. It was also the second-highest pre-All-Star break total in franchise history following Ted Simmons' 29thirty-five years earlier. That three-hit game also gave Molina 78 for his career, tied for 43 on the all-time list for catchers. Through July 15, Molina led the NL with a .341 (110 hits in 323 at-bats) batting average. In the finalAll-StarGame balloting, Molina (6,883,258 votes) edged out Posey (6,474,088)", "Posey (6,474,088) for the role of the NL's starting catcher in the game held atCiti FieldinQueens, New York City.The Cardinals placed Molina on the 15-day disabled list on July 31 due to a right knee sprain.At the time he went on the DL, Molina was batting .330 with eight homers, thirty doubles, and 54 RBIs.Amagnetic resonance image(MRI) indicatedinflammationbut no structural damage, so the knee was drained of excessfluidbuildup and Molina was given acortisoneinjection. The knee injury impacted his batting average, contributing to a late-season slump. On September 16, Molina collected four hits with three runs scored to help the Cardinals to a 12–2 win over theSeattle Marinersand break an 0–15 slump, raising his batting average to .317.Eight days later, Molina was behind the plate to call rookieMichael Wacha's one-hit, 82⁄3innings ofshutoutwork in a 2–0 victory over theWashington Nationals. It was actually ano-hitterthrough that point untilRyan Zimmermanbroke it up with a high-bouncing ground ball that", "ground ball that glanced off Wacha's glove for the Nationals' only hit of the game. For the year, Molina set new career highs in batting average (.319), doubles (44), runs scored (68), and RBIs (80). He also hit .373 withrunners in scoring position(RISP) in a season in which the Cardinals set the all-team team record for batting average with RISP at .330. He finished fourth in the NL in batting average, second in doubles and sixth in batting average with RISP. His 44 doubles were the most in the Major Leagues among catchers sinceIván Rodríguez' 47 in1996. Molina was also noted for his handling of the pitching staff. The Cardinals overcame losing key pitchers Chris Carpenter,Jason Motte, andJaime García– among others – early in the season by substituting twelve rookie pitchers en route to winning a competitive NL Central division title over thePittsburgh PiratesandCincinnati Reds(each team finished with at least 90 wins). A continuously evolving core exceeded expectations by filling in for 52 games started,", "52 games started, 36 wins, and fivesavesand Molina was credited with their success in a large part due to his pitch-calling skills and aptness to guide. The rookies' 36 wins were the most in franchise history since1941. The Cardinals squared off against the Pirates in theNLDS. Two weeks removed from just missing a no-hitter, Wacha again nearly repeated the feat with Molina behind the plate in an elimination game, Game 4. Molina threw outpinch runnerJosh Harrison attempting to steal second base in the eighth inning to help the Cardinals preserve a 2–1 lead.In theWorld Seriesagainst theBoston Red Sox, Molina became just the ninth player – and the first in theexpansion era– in franchise history to appear in four World Series with the club, and the first sinceStan Musialin the1946 World Series, also against theRed Sox.Molina collected more awards following the season, including his first Silver Slugger Award,sixth Gold Glove, and a third-place finish in MVP voting.Molina was a co-winner, along with Wainwright", "with Wainwright andMatt Carpenter, for the BBWAA St. Louis Baseball Man of the Year. 2014 Along with three other players each separately displayed,Sports Illustratedfeatured Molina on the cover of their March 31 issue complementing the 2014 MLB season previewarticle.On the2014Opening Day – the same daySports Illustratedpublished the Molina cover edition – he stroked his second season-entry home run and the 90th of his career, accounting for the difference in a 1–0 defeat of theRedsinCincinnati. It also secured the 100th win for batterymate Adam Wainwright. Molina added a single for two of the Cardinals' five hits. With a one ball, two strike pitch fromrelief pitcherRandy Choateincoming toCubsoutfielderNate Schierholtzin a May 4 game, the batterfoul tippedthe pitch. Instead of Molina being in a position to catch it cleanly with his glove, the ball hit thethigh. Molina instantly hunched over the ball, trapping it between the thigh andrib cage. He held on, qualifying it as a third strike. \"Do you want another", "you want another St. Louis Cardinals catcher to star in an All Star game? Isn’t there a better way? Cast a ballot for change. Cardinals fans need to know that enough is enough.\" —Brad Weimer, the creator forJonathan Lucroy's All-Star voting advertisement, intended to take votes away from Molina With theAll-Star Gamenearing,BrewerscatcherJonathan LucroyairedArchivedJuly 15, 2014, at theWayback Machineasatiricaltelevision commercialin the style of a politicaladvertising campaignon June 17 to outgain Molina in the All-Star voting totals. Thevoice-overnarrator posed the question, \"Do you want another St. Louis Cardinals catcher to star in an All Star game? Isn’t there a better way? Cast a ballot for change. Cardinals fans need to know that enough is enough.\" At that point, Molina led the vote total for NL catchers with more than two million, while Posey was second at 1.4 million and Lucroy third with 1.1 million. Some, including Matheny, took the message literally.However, Brad Weimer, the advertisement's", "the advertisement's creator, confirmed the humor was meant to betongue-in-cheek.Molina stayed in the lead and won the vote as the starting catcher in the All-Star Game atTarget FieldinMinneapolis,Minnesota, his sixth consecutive appearance. His season was interrupted on July 9 against thePirates. While sliding past third base, he attempted to grab the bag to stay on. However, during the play, he injured his right thumb. An MRI revealed torn ligaments, requiring surgery and forcing him to miss the next eight to 12 weeks. Regarding the injury as having a significance impact on the Cardinals' season,St. Louis Post-DispatchsportswriterBernie Miklaszcommented, \"Losing the best catcher in the world for the next 8 to 12 weeks with a torn thumb ligament is a horrendous, demoralizing setback for the Cardinals. This could be a season-ending injury.\"At that point, he was batting .287 with a .341 OBP, .409 SLG, 16 doubles, seven homers, and 30 RBIs through 83 games. He also led MLB with a 49 caught-stealing percentage.", "percentage. He returned from the DL ahead of schedule, about seven weeks and 40 games missed after the injury, and was activated August 29 before a series against theCubs.However, he still had not fully recovered, as he batted .250 in September with a pronounced drop in power production.His 110 appearances were his fewest since his rookie season in 2004. He finished the season with a .282 batting average, seven HR, 38 RBIs, 21 doubles, a .333 OBP and .386 SLG, all lower totals than 2013, and many since 2010. Among players with at least 90 games played, Molina's 48% caught stealing and 3.20catcher's ERAwere both first in the major leagues. During Game 1 of theNLDSagainst theDodgers, Wainwright hitAdrián Gonzálezwith a pitch, and both benches cleared. UmpireJerry Mealsattempted to get between González and Molina, but Molina briefly shoved Meals. MLB fined Molina $5,000 without suspending him.In Game 2 of theNLCSagainst theGiants, Molina collected his 89th career hit in the postseason, passing Pujols for the", "Pujols for the franchise record. However, he sustained his second significant injury of the season in that same game, straining his leftabdominal oblique muscleduring another at bat,due in part to compensation in his swing for lost power following his thumb injury earlier in the season. After missing the next game, his string of 83 consecutive playoff games started was stopped, which was a major league record. The last playoff game he had not started was Game 3 of the 2004 World Series.On November 4, Molina was announced as winning his seventh consecutive Gold Glove, tying Boone as having won the third-most Gold Gloves among catchers. Further, only Bench and Rodríguez had won more consecutive (10 each) as catchers in major league history.He won the National League Platinum Glove award on November 8, his third time in the award's first four years. 2015 With his 11th consecutive Opening Day start on April 5,2015, against theCubs, Molina became the first catcher in club history to achieve this feat.On May 10", "this feat.On May 10 against thePirates, he was on the dubious end of a piece of MLB history: lining out into the first \"4–5–4\"triple playin MLB history. Second basemanNeil Walkercaught his line drive with two runners on, then threw to third basemanJung-ho Kangto double upJhonny Peraltafor the second out. Kang briefly pirouetted the ball in his hand, albeit confused, but threw back to Walker to tagJason Heywardfor the third out.Molina's first home run of the season and first in 95 games occurred against theMinnesota Twinson June 15; his previous home run dated back to June 27, 2014. On July 7, he was selected to his seventh consecutiveAll-Star Game, played atGreat American Ball ParkinCincinnati.In the Reds'clubhousefor the All-Star Game, Molina shared alockerwith Reds' second baseman Brandon Phillips. Since the brawl between the Cardinals and Reds in 2010, the two mended their schism, and Molina has a photograph of their families together.When informed whose locker he was using, Molina replied, \"This is", "replied, \"This is Phillips' locker? How about that? I'll have to write something to him.\"While the pregame roster introductions were made, Redsfansbooed all six Cardinals players who were selected, and even former Cardinal Albert Pujols. When Molina was introduced, he smiled and turned and pointed histhumbstoward the back of his jersey. Pujols provided levity when he then joined in the booing. After the game, Molina remarked toreporters, \"when you spend 12 years coming to Cincinnati and you beat them so many times, they’re going to boo you.\" In his career to that point, he hit .319 with a .352 on-base percentage and .500 slugging percentage in 270 career at-bats at Great American Ball Park. Hitting his firsttriplein more than four years and 2,000 at bats, with the bases loaded, Molina provided the decisive run in a 3–2 outcome against theChicago White Soxon July 22.In the annualBaseball AmericaToolboxAwards, managers and coaches around the National League rated Molina as both the \"Besthit and runartist\" and", "and runartist\" and \"Bestdefensivecatcher\" in the NL.His 100th career home run was well-timed, becoming the game-winning run in the bottom of the eighth inning atBusch Stadiumon August 19 in a 4–3 win overSan Francisco.After sustaining an injury to his left thumb during a September 20 game against the Cubs, an MRI revealed a partial ligament tear, preventing him from playing.Molina won his eighth consecutive Gold Glove Awardand fourth Platinum Glove Award in 2015.In December, it was revealed that Molina had a second surgery on his left thumb, pushing his return to late in 2016 spring training.He was winner of theDarryl KileGood Guy Award. 2016 At age 33, Molina broke the Cardinals' all-time games caught record on April 8,2016, in his 1,440th game, passingTed Simmons(1968–80). His 1,343 games started since the beginning of the 2005 season was the highest total in the major leagues.He made his 1,500th career major league appearance on May 14 in a 5–3 loss to theLos Angeles Dodgers.While playing theWashington", "theWashington Nationalsin the seventh inning of a 2–1 loss atNationals Parkon May 26,Stephen Drewhit a high infield fly that stayed over the pitcher's mound. With bothAledmys DíazandMike Leakeattempting to catch the ball, Molina posited himself and waited. As the ball deflected off Díaz' glove, he almost collided with Leake, but Molina instinctively moved his glove and caught the ball before it hit the ground.He recorded his 1,500th career hit on July 2 againstMilwaukee, becoming the 34th catcher in MLB history, and second for the Cardinals, after Simmons. Molina's ninth-inning, RBI double, tied the July 27 game against theNew York Metsat 4−4, endingJeurys Familia’s consecutive-saves streak of 52, the third-longest in major league history.His tenth-inning double againstMilwaukeeon August 30, his 30th of the season and 300th of his career, helped lead the Cardinals to a 2–1 victory.He caught a career-high 146 games. After starting with a .256 average through 85 games, Molina batted .365 from July 8 to the end", "July 8 to the end of the season, and overall hit .307, eight home runs, 58 RBIs,and led all major league catchers with 164 hits and 38 doubles.His hit total was also a career-high, leading the club,and he was eighth in the league in batting and ninth in doubles. 2017 DuringSpring Trainingbefore the2017 season, and the final guaranteed year on Molina's contract, the Cardinals began to negotiate an extension to keep Molina in St. Louis for the remainder of his career. He agreed to a three-year contract extension for a reported $60 million, making him the highest-paid catcher in baseball. He was not interested in exercising his 2018 mutual option, which would have been worth $15 million. The extension assured Molina of remaining in St. Louis through 2020, and increases the chances that he will finish his career having played for just one organization, the one that drafted him. This distinction of having Molina retire as a Cardinal is something that carried weight for both parties throughout the negotiations. On", "negotiations. On June 26, Molina became the ninth catcher all-time to record 11,000career putoutsat the position. For the eighth time in his career, he was anAll-Starselection, as resulted in a vote by fellow players.He homered, making him the oldest catcher to hit a homer in an All-Star Game, in his age-34 season, and the first Cardinal to homer in an All-Star Game sinceReggie Smithin1974. On August 9 against the Kansas City Royals, Molina came in with two outs and the bases loaded. After drawing a 1–0 count against Peter Moylan, a brief delay occurred when a stray kitten had made its way onto the outfield. On the very next pitch to Molina, he hit it 387 feet into the left field seats for a go-ahead grand slam. This was the fifth grand slam of his career, tying him with Tim McCarver for second-most career grand slams by a Cardinals catcher. This also proved to be the deciding hit in this game, as the Cardinals held up to win, 8–5. On September 19, Molina tiedJim Bottomley(1922–1932) for 10th place in", "for 10th place in Cardinals history with 1,727 hits. Molina led the team in 2017 with 134 hits and 78 RBIs, and all NL catchers in both categories, entering play on that date.He broke the tie with Bottomley on September 20, with his 1,728th hit, and tied his own career-high RBI total for a season with 80, reached in 2013. He passed 80 on September 21, with his 81st and 82nd RBI.He was the 2017 recipient of theMissouri Athletic Club's Sports Personality of the Year Award. 2018 In January 2018, Molina expressed his plan to retire following the 2020 season when his contract would expire.Asbatterymates, Wainwright and Molina had accumulated more starts together than any other in franchise history.He passed Bench for two milestones early in the season: for 13th place in major league history in innings caught with14,494+1⁄3on April 14 while playing theCincinnati Reds,and 16th in games caught versus with 1,743 on May 2 versus theChicago White Sox.Molina doubled versus Cincinnati on April 22 to give him 338 for his", "him 338 for his career and tieOzzie Smithfor tenth place in Cardinals' history.On May 5, Molina exited the game after a foul tip struck him in thegroin. The next day, on May 6, Molina underwent emergency surgery for apelvicinjury with traumatichematoma. The Cardinals activated Molina from the DL on June 5.On June 19, he set the major league record for most games caught with one team with 1,757, passingGabby Hartnettwho had previously held the record as a member of the Cubs.Molina homered twice in a loss toPhiladelphiaon June 20 for his fifth career multihomer game.He homered twice again on June 23 versusMilwaukeeto fuel a 3–2 win, giving him five home runs over his previous six games. Batting .279 with 13 home runs, Molina was named to the2018 MLB All-Star Gameto replace the injuredBuster Posey.He finished his 2018 campaign batting .261 with twenty home runs and 74 RBIs in 123 games.He had the highest fielding percentage among major league catchers, at .998.He won his ninthGold Glove. 2019 On Opening", "2019 On Opening Day2019, versus theBrewers, Molina extended his team-record for Opening Day starts with 15.He made his first career appearance at third base in extra innings of a 6−5 win on April 1 versus thePirates. The Cardinals were in need of infield depth with an injury to regular utility infielderJedd Gyorko.He was placed on the injured list on May 31 with a thumb tendon strain. For the 2019 season, Molina batted .270/.312/.399 with ten home runs and 57 RBIs over 113 games.He batted .143 in the NLCS and .167 in the NLDS.He had the slowest sprint speed of all National League players, at 22.8 feet/second.On October 9, Molina set the record for the most appearances by a National League player in post-season MLB play, at ninety-four games. He was nominated for a Gold Glove. 2020 In 2020, Molina made his 16th consecutive Opening Day start.On August 4, it was announced that Molina had tested positive forCOVID-19, and he was subsequently placed on the injured list.Molina would eventually recover from the", "recover from the disease. On September 24, against theMilwaukee Brewers, he singled to right-center field for his 2,000th career hit. For the season, he batted aslash lineof .262/.303/.359, with four home runs and 16 RBIs.He was the second-oldest player in the NL, and had the slowest sprint speed of all major league catchers, at 23.0 feet per second.On defense, he led all NL catchers in errors, with five. At the end of the 2020 season, Molina entered into free agency for the first time in his career. 2021 In 2021, Molina returned temporarily to Puerto Rico to play in the Liga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente to play as a reinforcement with the Atenienses de Manatí in the semifinals.However, his participation was shadowed by the poor performance of the team,resulting in a sweeping 4-0 series with the Indios de Mayagüez. On February 8, 2021, the Cardinals announced that they had signed Molina to a one-year deal for a reported $9 million.In regards to the signing, Molina stated \"this is my home\" and \"I'm", "my home\" and \"I'm happy to be back.\"On April 14, Molina caught his 2,000th game with the Cardinals, the most by a catcher on one team.On August 24, Molina signed a one-year extension worth $10 million and announced that 2022 would be his final season. Molina finished the 2021 season batting .252/.297/.370 with 11 home runs and 66 RBIs over 121 games and again had the slowest sprint speed of all major league catchers, at 22.6 feet/second.He was nominated for a Gold Glove, making him one of six Cardinals to be nominated which led the major leagues. 2022 On May 15, 2022, Molina andAdam Wainwrightwon their 203rd game as a starting battery, setting the MLB record.On May 22, Molina made his first career pitching performance as he closed an 18–4 win against thePittsburgh Pirates. He gave up all four of the Pirates' runs on four hits and two home runs. His pitching debut came one week after that of teammateAlbert Pujols, who also gave up four hits and two home runs in the ninth inning.On June 8, Molina came in to", "Molina came in to pitch again in the eighth inning of an 11-3 loss against theTampa Bay Rays. In the mound appearance, Molina collected his first career pitching strikeout, punching out Rays infielderIsaac Paredes. On September 14, Wainwright and Molina set another MLB record by starting alongside one another for the 325th time, surpassingMickey LolichandBill Freehanof theDetroit Tigersfor the most starts by a battery in MLB history. His last game was played on October 8, 2022 as the Cardinals were beaten 2–0 in the2022 Wild Card Seriesby thePhiladelphia Phillies. He went one for four and left two runners on base. In 2022 he batted .214/.233/.302 in 262 at bats, and was the slowest player in major league baseball, with a sprint speed of 21.8 feet per second. International career Molina participated in the first fourWorld Baseball Classic(WBC) tournaments –2006,2009,2013, and2017– for thePuerto Ricanteam. He was fellow defensive standoutIván Rodríguez’s backup in 2006 and 2009 and the primary catcher for the", "catcher for the 2013and 2017 squads. In his first classic in 2006, Molina played four games and collected three hits in five at-bats. In a 2009 tournament game against theNetherlandson March 9, Molina's eighth-inning double keyed a rally in which Puerto Rico won 3–1.Speaking the next day, Molina stated that the previous night's double had been a bigger thrill than his two-run homer to beat the Mets in Game 7 of the 2006 NLCS. With Molina as the starting catcher in 2013, Puerto Rico earned the silver medal. Edwin Rodríguez, who had scouted Molina in Puerto Rico before the Cardinals signed him, became the manager for the 2013 squad. Shortly after learning he would be the 2013 manager, Rodríguez contacted Molina for input on constructing the roster. Molina prepared for the Classic by playing 14 games for the winter league team in Puerto Rico Rodríguez managed.Molina was voted on theAll-World Baseball Classic teamfor the first time. In a 2013 semifinal game againstJapan, Molina alertly took advantage of", "took advantage of abaserunningmistake to record an unusualputout. WithShinnosuke Abebatting for Japan in the top of the eighth inning, andHirokazu Ibataon second andSeiichi Uchikawaon first,J. C. Romerowas pitching for Puerto Rico. Abe took a pitch from Romero inside for a ball as the runners went in motion. However, Ibata retreated to second as Uchikawa charged toward him. Instead of throwing and risking an error, Molina held on to the ball. He then chased Uchikawa, cornered him by positioning himself between first and second and tagged out Uchikawa – an unassistedcaught stealing. The Japanese later stated they were attempting to exploit Romero's slow delivery. Puerto Rico advanced the finals again in 2017, falling to theUnited States8−0 in earning their second consecutive silver medal, and only loss of the tournament. Molina made a strong case to be named Most Valuable Player (MVP) of the entire tournament, batting .333 with two home runs and a .583 slugging percentage in six games.After collecting three", "collecting three hits and a home run in eight at bats over two games in Pool F competition, he was named that group's MVP.In the semifinal game against theNetherlands, he picked two runners off base in one inning. He was named the catcher of2017 All-World Baseball Classic team, his second All-WBC honor.Also, the coaching staff often allowed him to conduct the preparation meetings, took his advice on construction of the starting rotation, and when to remove tiring pitchers. On September 10, 2018, he was selected to be part of the2018 MLB Japan All-Star Seriesas a member of the MLB All-Stars team. Managerial career Molina's first experience managing was with Puerto Rico's U-23 baseball team, in both the qualifiers for and actual tournament of the2018 U-23 Baseball World Cup. Puerto Rico dropped its first three games to theDominican Republic,Venezuela, andSouth Korea, preventing it from moving on in the tournament. However, Molina managed the team to four more victories in the group stage and consolation round.", "consolation round. In 2022, Molina announced that he would be managing theNavegantes del Magallanesin theVenezuelan Professional Baseball League, having been recruited by former major leaguerPablo Sandoval. Molina said the opportunity could open the door to managing a team in MLB, saying that Navegantes was \"something different, and I’d like to try it early and see how it goes. And then after, I can decide if I want to do it .\"He managed Magallanes to a 29–27 regular season finish, though they were eliminated in the playoff round-robin. Also in 2022, Molina was announced as manager of the Puerto Rico national team in the2023 World Baseball Classic. The appointment created some controversy in Puerto Rico after the resignation of team general managerEduardo Pérez, who had reportedly sought to name Astros bench coachJoe Espadato the position.Puerto Rico was placed in Pool D, the so-called \"group of death,\" along with Venezuela and theDominican Republic.At the tournament, Molina managed Puerto Rico to", "Puerto Rico to eightperfectinnings againstIsrael, as well as a 5-2 upset victory over the Dominican Republic to decide which team moved on to the knockout stage.However, Puerto Rico was eliminated byMexicoin the quarterfinals. Molina managed theCriollos de Caguasto the 2023–24Roberto Clemente Professional Baseball Leaguetitle in Puerto Rico, as well as at the2024 Caribbean Series. Skills profile Defense, pitch calling, throwing and hands The winner of eight consecutive Gold Gloves,Molina was widely praised for his preparation, defense and leadership, not just of the pitching staff, but also of the entire team, even fromJohnny Bench. Fellow catchersJorge PosadaandBrian McCannstated in 2009 that Molina was \"the best defensive catcher in baseball\";Víctor Martínezalso called him \"the best behind the plate.\"In 2013, a scout pronounced Molina the \"one piece the St. Louis Cardinals cannot lose\" while another commented that he was \"irreplaceable.\"When the club did lose Molina midway through the 2014 season to a", "2014 season to a thumb injury,ESPN'sKeith Lawtweeted, \"Yadier Molina missing two-plus months would be bad for the Cardinals, but also just bad for baseball, period.\" In his time in the major leagues, Molina was widely viewed as evolving into a competitive influence and an unofficial on-fieldcoach. As a part of his pre-game preparation, Molina would meticulously study and prepare for the upcoming game's opposing hitters by creating a complete pitching and defensive plan. Other preparation included handling ground balls atshortstopandthird base, extending his agility for blocking pitches thrown in the dirt.Former Cardinals starterJake Westbrooksaid he was \"a part of every aspect of the game: starters, relievers, offense, defense.\" Advanced defensive metrics — known assabermetrics— show Molina to be a top defender among catchers in MLB history. Molina ranked second all-time among catchers at the end of the 2014 season on Baseball-Reference.com's careerdefensive runs saved(DRS)with 120, behind only Iván", "behind only Iván Rodríguez (167), and ahead ofJim Sundberg(114), Bob Boone (107) andGary Carter(106), the only catchers with over 100 on the list. He was the season leader in the NL every year from 2005 to 2014, except 2008 and 2011–12.Fangraphstallied his career DRS at 106, with a career-high of 20 in 2010.The sabermetric statdefensive wins above replacement(dWAR) has also ranked Molina's defense highly; he never had a full season with a negative dWAR, and he had a career-high 2.9 dWAR in 2010.Fangraphs has also ranked Molina as the most valuable defensive player at any position in baseball history. \"You don't ever have to worry about bouncing a ball to Yadier. He's a human vacuum behind the plate. The only thing you have to think about is making the pitch, because you know Yadi's going to catch whatever you throw.\" — Cardinals starting pitcherAdam Wainwright Molina was known for his in-game pitch-calling skills, and pitchers rarely rejected signs that he showed for the next pitch. In 2013, Matheny said,", "2013, Matheny said, \"We tell all our young pitchers when they come up to pitch their game. Yadi needs to find out how they work. He's a quick study. But at the same time, they tend to just follow him. We do put them in Yadi's hands.\"Molina read opposing hitters and would move fielders with subtle signs and gestures to align them with his pitch calling.La Russa said that \"it's not just instinct. It's sense, based on how a hitter's standing, how he responds to the pitch or two before, and he's very creative in how he makes his adjustment based on what he sees with the hitter and knowing what his pitcher can do.\" \"During the course of games, he would do something and I'd go, 'I can't believe he did that.' But it worked. His pitch calling, sometimes you're thinking he's doing something so out of the norm, yet it was the right thing to do at the time.\" —Dave Duncan, on Molina toSports Illustratedin 2013 Baseball Prospectusestimated in 2013 that Molina saved 35 defensive runs per season through his pitch framing", "his pitch framing and had moved 301 out-of-zone pitches that were called strikes between April 1 and June 30, 2013. Molina was among the best in the game at throwing out baserunners withpickoffsand duringsteal attempts. As of July 2013, Molina had thrown out 45% of would-be basestealers. He studied baserunners to learn how they decide when and whether to attempt a steal and when they were less guarded against a pickoff.He practiced pickoff moves and coordinates signals with the first basemen to indicate when he was primed to move for a pickoff throw.Molina threw from behind left-handed batters to obfuscate the runner's view of his motion to first base. In 2012, aSports Illustratedpoll of 306 players found that Molina was the \"toughest catcher to run on.\"AnArizona Diamondbacksofficial said team policy was not to run on Molina. Batting As the publicationViva El Birdoswrote, \"Yadier Molina broke into the majors as a light-hitting defensive specialist\", who hit mostly singles.Molina pushed to shed the", "pushed to shed the light-hitter label he had in common with his brothers. A fidgeter with his batting stance early in his career, Molina mimicked and vacillated between more accomplished hitters such asAndrés Galarragaand Albert Pujols. However, it was a dip in his swing and an inability to get around on fastballs that sapped his efforts. Over time, with assistance of teammates such as Pujols, Molina found his comfortable stance, sounder mechanics and adopted a line-drive style of swing that eliminated the dip and helped him hit fastballs with more authority. Thus, he became a more consistent hitter as his career progressed, defying the scouting reports that he would have a weak bat. In combination with an improved ability to pull the ball and hit it up the middle, he improved his batting average, batting .293 or higher in five of his last six seasons. His line-drive pull percentage of 2009–11 increased by about 6% in 2012–13; hisbatting average on balls in playincreased from .280 in 2005–10 to .327 in", "2005–10 to .327 in 2011–13; and hisweighted on-base average(wOBA)increased from .290 in 2009 to over .520 in 2013.To keep his bat in the lineup but allow respite from the rigors of his in-game catching duties, Molina has occasionally started at first base. Aside from swinging with increased line-drive contact and hitting fastballs with more authority, very little has actually changed in the catcher's approach.One trait that always persisted throughout his career was Molina's aggressive and free-swinging — but high-contact — batting style. Through 2012, he swung at more than 51% percent of the pitches he saw — he has a reputation for swinging at pitches in and out of the strike zone, low and away and even in toward his hands.Because of his free-swinging tendency, he naturally had awalkrate (7.1%) below the Major League average (8.4%).Combined with his ability to put the bat on the ball quite frequently (87%) and his improved approach at the plate, he increased his career-high single-season batting average", "batting average five times between 2006 and 2013. Despite batting just .238 in his first three seasons and .240 after 1,000 at-bats, Molina increased his average to .284 average after 3,983 at-bats (1,132 hits) as of 2013 due in part to having only one season lower than .293 from 2009 to 2013. He hit into 27double playsin 2009, but in 2012 reduced that figure to 10.Molina's home run and doubles rates also increased; from 2011 to 2013, he hit 104 of his 226 career doubles. Awards and accomplishments Records Statistical achievements Personal life Molina resides in Vega Alta and stayed inCaseyville, Illinois, during the baseball season until 2015.He then purchased a home inCreve Coeur, Missouri.Molina also owned a home inJupiter, Florida, the home of the Cardinalsspring trainingfacilities, but sold it in 2020. Molina married his wife Wanda Torres in 2007 and the couple have three children. On September 4, 2008, they had a son; on July 4, 2010, a daughter; and on February 6, 2016, another son.After signing his", "signing his $75 million contract in 2012, Molina purchased a home on a four-acre property inJupiter, Florida, for $7.15 million.Hisagentis Melvin Roman of MDR Sports Management, who has represented him since he signed his first professional contract with the Cardinals shortly after being drafted in 2000.Molina'scharitable organization, named Foundation 4, has helped to raise donations forchildhood cancerpatients in Puerto Rico.Molina is an avid fan of theSt. Louis Blues, and attends games frequently.He is close friends withVladimir Tarasenko. Molina's two older brothers, Bengie andJosé Molina, played a combined 28 seasons in the major leagues. Each of the three brothers has won at least one World Series ring, making them the only trio of brothers with such a distinction (Bengie and José both won their first while with theAnaheim Angelsin2002). They are also the only trio of brothers to play as catchers in the major leagues.Of a total of nineteen trios of brothers who have played in the Major Leagues –", "the Major Leagues – including the DiMaggios and the Cruzes – only one other trio of brothers has all appeared in a World Series:Matty,FélipeandJesús Alou. Even while the Molina brothers still lived in the United States playing professional baseball, their parents stayed in the same home near the park where the brothers grew up playing ball, Jesús Rivera Park.Benjamín Molina organized youth teams.On October 11, 2008, Molina's father died from aheart attack. At the moment it occurred, he was tending to a baseball field that he had built for the youth in Bayamón. Spurred by absences from autograph shows for which he was paid to appear,Steiner Sports Marketingfiled a lawsuit for $175,000 against Molina in theNew York state supreme courtinManhattanon October 2, 2009. Steiner Sports allegedly paid him $90,640 in advance when they renewed their contract with him in July 2008. The firm stated that he ignored their agreement to make public and private appearances to sign autographs and did not return the money.", "return the money. AfterHurricane Mariadevastated the island of Puerto Rico in September 2017, Molina and Wanda started aGoFundMe pageArchivedSeptember 22, 2017, at theWayback Machinefor the victims on September 21 with a goal of $1 million. It raised $20,000 in the first seven hours. More than three million Puerto Ricans were left without power, andThe New York Timeshad reported that over 95% of cell service was unavailable.Dronevideo coverage onThe Weather Channeldescribed Bayamon as looking \"like a war zone.\"Continuing with relief efforts, Molina was consequently named the recipient of the annualRoberto Clemente Awardon October 24, 2018. See also References Footnotes Source notes External links", "Adam Wainwright Adam Parrish Wainwright(born August 30, 1981), nicknamed \"Waino\" and \"Uncle Charlie\",is an American formerprofessional baseballpitcherwho spent his entire 18-yearMajor League Baseball(MLB) career with theSt. Louis Cardinals. TheAtlanta Bravesselected him 29th overall in the first round of the2000 amateur draftfromGlynn AcademyinBrunswick, Georgia. His performance in theminor leaguesmade him one of the Braves' top pitching prospects. After the 2003 season, the Braves traded him to the Cardinals foroutfielderJ. D. Drew. Wainwright made his MLB debut on September 11, 2005, and spent the rest of the season as arelief pitcher. The next year, he briefly assumedcloserduties,savingthe series-clinching games of the2006 National League Championship Seriesand the2006 World Seriesover theDetroit Tigers. In 2007, he returned to starting pitching, a role in which he would remain for the rest of his career. He missed the 2011 season due toTommy John surgery, but emerged as anace, leading theNational", "leading theNational Leaguemultiple times inwins,innings pitched, andgames started. He also has multiple top-ten finishes inearned run average,strikeouts,walks plus hits per inning pitched, andcomplete games. In 2014, Wainwright became the first pitcher in Major League history to post nine of his first 18 starts with seven innings pitched and no runs allowed. In his career, Wainwright won 200 games, received threeAll-Starselections and twoGold Glove Awards, and finished in the top three in theCy Young Awardballoting four times. With 2,202 career strikeouts, Wainwright is second toBob Gibson(3,117)in Cardinalsfranchise history. Wainwright and longtime teammateYadier Molinaare the most successfulbatteryin Major League history, having both the most wins and starts together. On September 18, 2023, he became the third Cardinals' pitcher to win 200 games, joiningBob Gibson(251), andJesse Haines(210), and the 122nd in baseball history. With three strikeouts, he also became the 66th pitcher in baseball history with", "history with at least 2,200 strikeouts. Early life Wainwright was born inBrunswick, Georgia, to Bill, anattorney, and Nancy Wainwright, areal estate agent.His parents divorced when he was seven years old and his father moved toFlorida, leaving only Wainwright's mother to raise him and his older brother Trey, now an attorney inAtlanta.Wainwright credits Trey, seven years his senior, with teaching him everything he knows about sports after their father left, including building a pitcher's mound in their back yard to teach him how to pitch.Wainwright also participated in the Cub Scouts, Boy Scouts, and numerous church activities, and grew up anAtlanta Bravesfan. High school Wainwright attended high school atGlynn Academyin his native Brunswick, where he was an athletic and academic standout.With afastballover 90 mph and batting average at times over .500, Wainwright was namedGatorade Georgia Player of the Yearin 2000.He also played football, in which he was named to the All-State team as awide receiverhis", "awide receiverhis junior and senior years as well as All-Region honors as a placekicker.Various colleges and universities, includingGeorgia Tech, offered him academic and baseball scholarships. Professional career Draft and minor leagues (2000–05) Atlanta Braves organization (2000–03) TheAtlanta Bravesselected Wainwright 29th overall in the first round of the2000 MLB draft, using a compensatory pick from theArizona Diamondbacksfor signingRuss Springerin the offseason. Wainwright chose to forgo college to go straight to the pros, signing a contract that included a $1.25 million bonus. The Braves had been his favorite team growing up. Less than two weeks after high school graduation, Wainwright reported to the Braves rookie team and soon advanced to Atlanta's Class ADanville Bravesin theAppalachian League. He pitched for theMacon Bravesin theSouth Atlantic Leaguein 2001, where he broke the team record for strikeouts, previously held byBruce Chen, with 184. Wainwright spent the 2002 season in theCarolina", "in theCarolina Leagueand also participated in that season'sAll-Star Futures Game. In 2003, Wainwright advanced to the Braves' Double-A club,Greenville.He wasBaseball America'stop Braves prospect in 2003.In December of that year, theSt. Louis Cardinalsacquired Wainwright and pitchersJason MarquisandRay Kingin a trade that sent outfielderJ. D. Drewandutility playerEli Marreroto the Braves. St. Louis Cardinals (2005–2023) Wainwright pitched just 12 games for theTriple-AMemphis Redbirdsin 2004 before he was shut down for nearly the entire rest of the season with anelbowstrain. There, he had a 4–4win–loss record(W–L) with a 5.37earned run average(ERA) in63+2⁄3innings pitched(IP). He struck out 64 batters and allowed 68hitsand 28 walks (BB). In theArizona Fall League, he returned to pitch 10 innings. He spent the next season with Memphis, starting 29 games, completing 182 IP, allowing 204 hits and 51 BB while striking out 147. His win–loss record was 10–10. After two somewhat uneven seasons in the Cardinals' minor", "Cardinals' minor league system, Wainwright made his MLB debut for St. Louis on September 11,2005. 2006 Wainwright made the Cardinals' Opening Day roster as a relief pitcher after having been a starter for his entire minor league career. On May 24,2006, he hit ahome runon the first pitch he saw asbatterin the major leagues against theSan Francisco Giants'Noah Lowry; he became the 22nd batter, and only the seventhpitcher, in Major League history and 11th National Leaguer to hit a home run off the first pitch thrown in his first at-bat. Wainwright pitched capably as amiddle reliever, but when incumbentcloserJason Isringhausenunderwent season-ending hip surgery in September, Wainwright was pressed into service as the closer. He saved two crucial games on September 27 and 30 as St. Louis held off theHouston Astros'late charge and won theNL CentralDivision championship. Despite their unexceptional 83–78 regular-season record, the Cardinals rolled through October to win the10th world championshipin franchise", "franchise history. As the closer, Wainwright closed out the final game of the Cardinals' National League Division Series, ending theNew York Mets' season and propelling the Cardinals to the2006 National League Championship Series, where he famously struck outCarlos BeltráninGame 7to send the Cardinals to theWorld Series.InGame 5of the2006 World Series, Wainwright struck outDetroit Tigersthird basemanBrandon Ingeto win the championship. 2007 Wainwright moved from the bullpen to the starting rotation for2007. Shortly after losing aceChris Carpenterfor the year due to elbow surgery, Wainwright emerged as the Cardinals' most reliable starter. On August 10, he threw the first complete game of his career, a 2–1 loss toLos Angeles, and the only nine-inning complete game for the Cardinals that season. By September, Wainwright had established himself as the staff ace in Carpenter's absence, going 9–6 with a 2.94 ERA from mid-May to the end of the season. He finished his first year by leading the club in almost every", "in almost every pitching category—games started, innings pitched, strikeouts, and wins—while compiling a 3.70 ERA and a 14–12 record. His 14 wins were the most in franchise history for a first-year starter. His 2.71 ERA after the All-Star break was third-best in the NL. 2008 In March 2008, Wainwright signed a four-year deal with the Cardinals worth $21 million, with two club options for 2012 and 2013 that made the potential aggregate value $36 million.He gave up four runs or less in each of his first seven starts. However, the Cardinals lost to theBrewers8–3 in Wainwright's eighth start, on May 13, asRyan Braunhit two home runs off him.He suffered a strain on the middle finger of his pitching hand in June, causing him to miss2+1⁄2months of the season. In 20 starts, he finished 11–3 with a 3.20 ERA. 2009 On August 19,2009, atDodger Stadium, Wainwright had ano-hittergoing against theLos Angeles Dodgersfor5+1⁄3innings beforeOrlando Hudsonbroke it up with a clean single to left field. In his next start against", "next start against theAstros, he pitched eight shutout innings to pick up his then-league-leading 15th win in a 1–0 victory. It was Wainwright's 25th straight start with at least six innings pitched. In five August starts that season, he completed35+2⁄3IP with just one walk and 22 SO.On September 26, Wainwright pitched eight innings and struck out eleven for a 6–3, NL Central division-clinching victory against theColorado RockiesatCoors Fieldfor his 19th win.Wainwright finished with a 19–8 record and a 2.63 ERA, leading the National League in wins, games started (34), and innings pitched (233).He also struck out a major-league high 140 batters on third-strike curveballs. On October 28, Wainwright won thePlayers Choice Awardas the NL Most Outstanding Pitcher.He won his firstGold Glove Awardon November 11, 2009.Wainwright was a top contender for theCy Young Awardalong with teammateChris Carpenterand eventual winnerTim Lincecum. He became only the second pitcher ever—Trevor Hoffmanwas the first—to get the most", "get the most first-place votes and not win the award. 2010 Pitching in his firstAll-Star Game, Wainwright completed one inning. He faced five batters, throwing 17 pitches for ten strikes and seven balls, and allowed no runs with just one hit—a double off the glove of fellow Cardinal All-StarMatt Holliday—one walk, and two strikeouts.In one 11-game stretch preceding August 16, he compiled66+1⁄3IP in nine of those starts and allowed two earned runs for a 0.27 ERA. Wainwright finished the2010 season20–11 with a 2.42 ERA, five complete games, 213 strikeouts, 56 walks, 15 home runs allowed, and a WHIP of 1.05, in230+1⁄3IP. His win, strikeout, complete game, and shutout totals were all career-bests. His win total and ERA were both good for second place in the National League (behind onlyJosh Johnson's 2.30 ERA andRoy Halladay's 21 wins). He also pitched the first two shutouts of his career in 2010—one against theMilwaukee Brewerson June 4 and a two-hitter against theFlorida Marlinson August 6. Wainwright was the", "Wainwright was the runner-up for the 2010 NL Cy Young Award, finishing second in voting behind unanimous winner Halladay. Wainwright picked up 28 of 32 second-place votes. Near the end of the season, he had experienced elbow discomfort and nerve swelling. Amagnetic resonance imaging(MRI) scan cleared him after the season. 2011 Shortly after reporting to spring training, Wainwright experienced discomfort in his rightelbowwhile pitchingbatting practiceon February 21. Three days later, the Cardinals announced that Wainwright would miss the entire2011 season—and possibly the first three months of the next season—after finding thatulnar collateral ligamentdamage necessitatedTommy John surgery(TJS). George Paletta, the team physician, performed the surgery on February 28 inSt. Louisand it was deemed \"a success\".Former clients for the same surgery included teammatesChris Carpenter,Jaime García, andKyle McClellan.Wainwright's contract featured options for 2012 and 2013 totaling $21 million with a provision that they", "provision that they would not automatically vest if he ended the 2011 season on thedisabled list. The Cardinals made the playoffs as awild cardentry, overtaking theBraveson the final day of the season.They eventually won theWorld Series, defeating theTexas Rangersfour games to three. The Cardinals awarded Wainwright his secondWorld Series ring, despite not pitching the entire season. 2012 Fully recovered after TJS and rehabilitation, Wainwright was ready ahead of schedule for spring training. Statistically, the2012 seasonproved to be an overall disappointment by Wainwright's standards, as he wound up 14–13 with a 3.94 ERA. However, it was encouraging in regards to the health of his right arm, as he completed the entire season without any issues. In addition, pitchers recovering from TJS often find it challenging at first to throw with the same command as before the surgery, and thus to achieve post-surgery results equal to pre-surgery results. This was the case at first with Wainwright. On May 22, he threw", "On May 22, he threw his first complete-game shutout since August 6, 2010, and the third of his career in his ninth complete game. It was a four-hit, 4–0 win at home against theSan Diego Padres, striking out nine and walking only one.Wainwright reached his 1,000th career inning on July 29.The May 22 start marked a turning point in the season. During a 13-start stretch through August 3, he pitched85+2⁄3innings, striking out 83 while allowing just four home runs and 17 BB. Wainwright attributed the improvement to be able to sustain the usual finishing movement on his pitches through late innings, which earlier in the season, had eluded him, thus making his pitches easier to hit. He also corrected a subtle flaw that had developed on the grip of his curveball during a bullpen session prior to the start against San Diego. The flaw made it increasingly difficult to throw the curveball for consistent strikes. 2013 On March 28,2013, the Cardinals announced they and Wainwright had agreed to a five-year contract", "five-year contract extension. At the time, he was under the last year of his previous contract, so the new deal extended him through 2018. With a total value of $97.5 million, it was the largest contract ever for a Cardinals pitcher.On April 18, he became the first pitcher in baseball since 1900 to achieve 28 strikeouts and zero walks in his first four starts of a season.Slim Salleeestablished the franchise record exactly100 years earlierby not issuing a walk in his first 40 innings.Wainwright's streak ended in a start atWashingtonon April 23 after34+2⁄3innings and 133 batters faced. The first MLB pitcher to post 10 wins on June 13, Wainwright put up seven scoreless innings in a 2–1 defeat of theMetsatCiti Field. Moreover, his strikeout ofDavid Wrightwas his first of the game and the 1,000th of his career. He allowed six hits and struck out a total of four.Wainwright became the NLPitcher of the Monthfor June with a 4–2 record and 1.77 ERA. With 40 strikeouts for the month, Wainwright issued just six walks", "just six walks while holding opposing batters to a .220 average. Through that point in the season, he was 11–5 with a 2.22 ERA, and was the MLB leader with four complete games and a 9.5 strikeout-to-walk ratio. In successive starts against theRedsin late August, Wainwright allowed 15 runs, both losses. He struck out eight in seven shutout innings on September 7 at home in a 5–0 win over the first-placePiratesin earning his 16th victory of the season. The Pirates, Reds, and Cardinals were all close contenders for the Central division title in September. The win gave the Cardinals first place over the Pirates by a half-game, and1+1⁄2games over the Reds.Wainwright's seven strikeouts increased his career total to 1,103, passingDizzy Dean(1,095) for second place among Cardinals' pitchers. OnlyBob Gibson(3,117 in 528 games) had more. In a 60-inning stretch following the All-Star break Wainwright had walked 14, compared with 15 in146+2⁄3IP before the break.When fellow starterShelby Millerdefeated Nationals'", "Nationals' starterJordan Zimmermannon September 26, he denied Zimmermann his 20th victory.Two days later, Wainwright, who was second in the league with 18 entering the game, defeated theChicago Cubsin his final start of the season to tie Zimmerman for the lead in wins at 19. Wainwright also became just the third pitcher in franchise history to twice lead the league in wins, joiningDizzy Dean(1934–35) andMort Cooper(1942–43).He also led the NL in games started (34), innings pitched (241+2⁄3), hits allowed (223), and batters faced (956), and was third in strikeouts. The Cardinals faced theBoston Red Soxin theWorld Series, and called upon Wainwright to start Game 1 againstJon Lester. It was Wainwright's first World Series appearance since 2006 and first start. He allowed five runs and St. Louis lost, 8–1.In Game 5, a rematch against Lester, the Cardinals again lost, this time 3–1. Wainwright struck out 10 in seven innings, becoming the first Cardinal to reach double digits in strikeouts in a World Series game", "a World Series game sinceGibsonagainst theDetroit Tigersin1968.After the Cardinals took a 2–1 Series lead, the Red Sox won the final three games to take the title. Wainwright won his second Gold Glove award in 2013.In the Cy Young balloting, Wainwright placed second, his second such ranking, and finished 23rd in the NL MVP voting. 2014 Starting for the Cardinals against theRedson Opening Day, March 31, 2014, Wainwright won his 100th career decision. In seven innings, he struck out nine and gave up just three singles in a 1–0 win.AtNationals ParkagainstWashingtonon April 17, he pitched a two-hit shutout, winning 8–0. Wainwright gave up the first hit in the second inning on a high infield chopper, but none after until two outs into the ninth. He walked three and struck out eight. It was his seventh career shutout.In an April 27 start against thePirates, Wainwright tallied eight scoreless innings to extend a streak to 25 innings as the Cardinals won, 7–0, but was pulled before he could get a complete game due", "a complete game due to concerns over his April 22 hyperextended right knee injury.His streak of 25 scoreless innings ended in the first inning on May 2 in a loss against theCubs, to whom he allowed six runs. On May 20, Wainwright pitched a one-hitter against theDiamondbacks. He retired the first 11 batters before giving up adoubletoPaul Goldschmidtin the fourth inning. After the hit, Wainwright retired the final 16 batters, facing only 28, one over the minimum for aperfect game. He walked none and struck out nine, throwing 115 pitches, 86 for strikes. It was Wainwright's seventh win of the year, tying for theNational Leaguelead, and his 106th career victory against 59 losses. It also tied him for eighth place with Sallee on the all-time Cardinals' pitching win list and was his eighth career shutout.Wainwright followed that effort with eight more scoreless innings on May 25. Between those two starts, he gave up just one walk and struck out a major-league-leading 21 batters in 17 scoreless innings. He was", "innings. He was namedNL Co-Player of the WeekwithDodgersstarterJosh Beckett, who threw ano-hitteron May 25.However, he missed his June 16 against theMetsdue to elbowtendinitis, but an MRI showed no structural damage to the Tommy John surgically repaired ligament. After leading the NL with a 1.79 ERA and 11 wins through July 6, Wainwright was selected to his thirdAll-Star GameatTarget FieldinMinneapolis,Minnesota. He was selected as the NL's starting pitcher for the first time in his career.Besides two starts in which he gave up seven runs to the Giants and six to the Cubs, Wainwright had allowed 13 runs in 16 of his first 18 starts. Nine of those starts included totals with seven or more innings pitched and zero earned runs allowed. Per theElias Sports Bureau(ESB), it was the first time in Major League history that any pitcher achieved that feat in his first 18 starts of the season. When the Cardinals defeated theBrewers10–2 on July 12, Wainwright finished his pre-All Star break total with a 12–4 record and", "a 12–4 record and a 1.83 ERA. Further, he joinedHall of FamememberSteve Carltonas the only Cardinals to post an ERA less than 2.00 and at least 12 wins before the All-Star break (1969). In that game, Wainwright posted his Major League-leading 15th start of the season with at least seven innings pitched and two or fewer runs allowed.At the plate, hisRBI-single scored rookieOscar Taverasfor his 100th career hit. In the All-Star Game, Wainwright incurred controversy over his remarks about facingleadoff hitterDerek Jeter. Jeter, who was retiring after the season, doubled on Wainwright's second pitch of the game. During interviews, he admitted that he gave Jeter an easy pitch to hit. \"I was gonna give him a couple of pipe shots. He deserved it,\" Wainwright said. \"I didn’t know he was gonna hit a double or I might have changed my mind.\" Wainwright later recanted, stating that it was in humor and that he was \"not intentionally giving up hits out there\". Conversely, Jeter was appreciative. \"He grooved them? The", "grooved them? The first one was a little cutter that he threw down and away. He probably assumed I was swinging. So he didn't groove the first one. The second was about 90, a two-seamer that stayed on a really good ... No, I don't know, man,\" he paused and smiled, drawing laughs from reporters. \"I have no idea. If he grooved it, thank you. You still got to hit it.\" Following the All-Star break, Wainwright temporarily struggled to keep the consistency of the first half of the season due to frequent elbow irritation. In June, he gave up just four earned runs in 31 IP for a 1.16 ERA, and followed that up with a 1.62 ERA in July. His results reversed in August when he allowed 22 ER in38+1⁄3IP for a 5.17 ERA. However, in September, he posted a 1.38 ERA in 39 IP with 29 SO and a 5–0 W–L.He was subsequently named the NL Pitcher of the Month for September. After the season, Wainwright had a procedure to remove part of the cartilage of the right elbow on October 24. At times—commencing in June—he had altered his", "had altered his mechanics to mitigate the discomfort. In his third-to-last and second-to-last starts of the season—which were in theNLDSagainst theDodgersandNLCSagainst theGiants—Wainwright was unable to complete five innings in both starts. This led to speculation Wainwright was pitching with pain, which he denied. Through the 2014 season he had a career 132ERA+, third-highest for an active pitcher who has a minimum of 1,000 innings, and a .643winning percentage, fourth-highest for active pitchers.Wainwright finished third in the Cy Young voting for 2014, his third such placing, and fourth time he was positioned in the top three. 2015 TheCardinalsselected Wainwright to make his fourth career Opening Day start, and the season-opening game for MLB in 2015, in what was also the first-ever MLB Opening Night game. He was credited with the win as the Cardinals defeated theCubsatWrigley Field, 3–0.On April 25, Wainwright left the game against theBrewersin the top of the fifth after suffering an ankle injury while", "ankle injury while batting. The next day, the Cardinals placed him on the 15-day disabled list,and announced the following day that he had anAchilles tendon ruptureand would likely miss the remainder of the season.He underwent successful surgery to repair the tendon on April 30. With a recovery initially expected to take nine to twelve months,Wainwright had made four appearances through that point in the season, going 2–1 with a 1.44 ERA. As the season progressed, he consistently stated his goal was to return to pitching before the end of the season. After working diligently to accelerate his recovery, the Cardinals announced on September 21 that he was cleared to resume baseball activities, two weeks prior to the conclusion of the regular season.His actual recovery took five months. Making his first appearance of the season since April, Wainwright pitched a scoreless inning of relief in the first game of adoubleheaderagainst Pittsburgh on September 30, an 8–2 loss. It was his first relief appearance since", "appearance since the 2006 World Series.Wainwright was named theHutch Awardwinner for 2015. 2016 The Cardinals announced before spring training that Wainwright would be the Opening Day starter in2016, his fifth time. For the three previous seasons, he had gone 41–19 with a 2.61 ERA.For the second consecutive season, the Cardinals opened the MLB season, this time atPNC Parkagainst thePittsburgh Pirateson April 3. The Cardinals lost the game, 4–1, with Wainwright taking the first loss of the season.He hit his first home run of season in a 10–3 win over thePhiladelphia Phillieson May 2, also being credited with his second win.In each of four consecutive plate appearances spanning April 27 to May 7, he became the first Cardinal pitcher since 1900 to garner an extra base hit while batting, perElias Sports Bureau.On the mound, he struggled early, yielding a 5.04 ERA in his first 16 starts of the season. Wainwright pitched a three-hit, complete-game shutout and 5−0 win againstMiamion July 15, 2016; the first hit he", "the first hit he allowed was a double toAdeiny Hechavarriain the sixth inning.With four RBI againstColoradoon September 20, Wainwright increased his season total to 18, the highest total for all pitchers in thedesignated hitterera – since 1973 – and the most sinceFerguson Jenkinsdrove in 20 for the Cubs in1971. 2017 On April 21,2017, Wainwright struck out nine and hit a home run with four RBI as the Cardinals defeated theMilwaukee Brewers, 6−3.His May 27 appearance was the 330th of his career, tying him withLarry Jackson(1955−1962) for tenth place in games pitched for the Cardinals.while passingAl Hrabosky.Wainwright pitched six scoreless innings versusLos Angeleson June 1, while hitting a two-run home run facingBrandon McCarthy, for a 2−0 win. On July 17, he passedBill Doakfor fifth place in wins (145) for the Cardinals.On the same day, Wainwright became the only active major league pitcher with multiple seasons of 10+ RBI (2016–17). The Cardinals placed Wainwright on the 10-day DL on July 25 due to", "on July 25 due to mid-back tightness, retroactive to July 23. It was the fourth time in his career that he had been placed on the DL.Wainwright was activated from the DL on August 6, and totaled 11 innings in three starts. On August 18, the Cardinals placed him back on the DL for right elbow impingement.Wainwright reported pain in his right elbow for the second consecutive season and displayed a precipitous decline in velocity in his most recent starts. Treatments on the right elbow that Wainwright received during the season included trimming cartilage and an injection ofplatelet-rich plasmainto the joint. In 23 games he had started, he allowed a 5.12 ERA with a 12−5 W−L record. Wainwright returned to pitch on September 18 from the bullpen for the remainder of the season. In 2017, Wainwright won his first careerSilver Slugger Award, the first Cardinal pitcher to win the award sinceBob Forsch(1980 and 1987) andJason Marquis(2005).He batted .262/.279/.452, a career-high .731 OPS, and two home runs. Wainwright", "runs. Wainwright led all pitchers with seven runs scored and 11 RBI, and, among all with at least 40 plate appearances, in slugging percentage and OPS. He also hit .462 with runners inscoring position. After the season, Wainwright underwent right elbow surgery to remove a cartilage flap, the first surgery on the elbow since having Tommy John surgery in 2011. The cartilage flap was believed to have caused a bone bruise which led to reduced velocity and efficacy of his breaking pitches. Recovery time was expected to take six weeks with full readiness in time for the 2018 season. 2018 Wainwright began the 2018 season on the 10-daydisabled listwith a left hamstring sprain. He was reactivated on April 5 but placed on the disabled list again with right elbow inflammation on April 22. Wainwright was activated once again on May 13 and started that same day against theSan Diego Padres. He gave up two runs and walked six batters in2+1⁄3innings as San Diego beat St. Louis 5–3. Two days later, Wainwright was placed back", "was placed back on the 10-day DL before being transferred to the 60-day DL on May 17. 2019 Wainwright signed a one-year, $2 million contract extension with the Cardinals prior to the 2019 offseason. On April 24, 2019, Wainwright picked up his 150th win in a 5–2 victory against the Brewers. Over 31 starts during the regular season, he went 14–10 with a 4.19 ERA, striking out 153 over171+2⁄3innings. In the2019 MLB postseason, Wainwright struck out 19 over16+2⁄3innings and had a 1.62 ERA. 2020 On November 12, 2019, Wainwright and the Cardinals agreed to a one-year contract for the 2020 season.On his 39th birthday, Wainwright pitched his first complete game since 2016 against theCleveland Indiansin a 7–2 win.He pitched a second, albeit 7-inning complete game against theMilwaukee Brewerson September 16.Over 10 starts for the 2020 season, Wainwright went 5–3 with a 3.15 ERA and 54 strikeouts over65+2⁄3innings. 2021 On January 28, 2021, Wainwright signed a one-year, $8 million contract to stay with theCardinals.On", "theCardinals.On April 26, Wainwright pitched a complete game against thePhiladelphia Philliesin a 2–1 loss asRhys Hoskinshit two solo home runs off him.It was the second such occurrence in his career to pitch a 9-inning complete game and lose since a 2–1 loss to theLos Angeles Dodgersin 2007. Wainwright picked up his first win of the season in a 6–5 win over theNew York Metson May 3, while also picking up his 1,000th career strikeout atBusch Stadium; joiningBob Gibsonas the only Cardinals pitchers with 1,000 strikeouts at their home ballparks.On June 14, Wainwright picked up his 1,900th strikeout against theMiami Marlins.OnFather's Day, June 20, he pitched his second complete game of the year, albeit 7 innings in the first game of a doubleheader against theAtlanta Braves; striking out 11 while allowing just one run.On August 10, Wainwright pitched his first shutout since 2016, and his first everMadduxagainst thePittsburgh PiratesatPNC Parkin a 4–0 Cardinals win, throwing 88 pitches. At 39, he became the", "39, he became the oldest pitcher to record a shutout sinceBartolo Colónin 2015.He was subsequently named National League Pitcher of the Month for August after going 5–1 with a 1.45 ERA, striking out 36 while walking just six over 44 innings.On September 3, Wainwright started against the Brewers with battery mateYadier Molina, marking their 300th start as abattery. They are the fourth battery in MLB history to make 300 starts. The Cardinals won the game 15–4, with Wainwright picking up the win.While facing theMilwaukee Brewerson September 23, Wainwright recorded his 2,000th career strikeout againstLuis Urías. Wainwright became the second pitcher in franchise history alongsideBob Gibsonto reach the milestone. On October 1, the Cardinals and Wainwright agreed on a one-year deal for the 2022 season. Statistically for 2021, Wainwright had his best season since 2014, going 17–7 with a 3.05 ERA and 174 strikeouts in206+1⁄3innings.Wainwright was second in MLB in wins (17), third in innings pitched (206+1⁄3), tied", "(206+1⁄3), tied for first in complete games (3) and tenth in walks and hits per inning pitched (1.057).He led the major leagues in sacrifice hits, with 14. Wainwright finished seventh in the 2021 NLCy Young Awardvoting. 2022 On October 4, 2021, Wainwright and the Cardinals agreed to a one-year, $17.5 million deal for the 2022 season On April 7, 2022, Wainwright won his 100th game atBusch StadiumonOpening Dayin a 9–0 win against thePittsburgh Pirates, pitching six shutout innings with six strikeouts.On May 15, 2022, Wainwright and Molina made history claiming their 203rd win together, becoming the most successful battery in MLB history.Later that season on September 14, Wainwright and Molina set another MLB record by starting alongside one another for the 325th time, surpassingMickey LolichandBill Freehanof theDetroit Tigersfor the most starts by a battery. In November 2022, it was announced that Wainwright intended to represent Team USA in the 2023 World Baseball Classic. 2023 Wainwright announced that the", "announced that the 2023 season would be his last. On March 30, Wainwright sang the national anthem before the opening day game.In 21 starts for the Cardinals, Wainwright struggled to a 5–11 record and 7.40 ERA with 55 strikeouts in 101.0 innings of work. On September 18, pitching at home against the division-leadingMilwaukee Brewers, he won his 200th game, 1-0, pitching seven scoreless innings, giving up only four hits, walking two, striking out three. His 2,202 career strikeouts make him the 66th pitcher to have at least 2,200 strikeouts. His 200 wins make him the 122nd pitcher in baseball history to reach that milestone. His 200 wins, all with the Cardinals, rank him third in the team's history, joiningBob Gibson(251) andJesse Haines(210). At home on September 29, he batted for the first time since October 6,2021. In the sixth inning with the team trailing 14-2, he pinch-hit fordesignated hitterLuken Baker. On the second pitch, he grounded out sharply to second base. It was his only at-bat that night. Over", "that night. Over his career, he had 10 home runs, 75 RBIs, and a .192 batting average. He has five seasons batting over .200.Defensively, he recorded a .982fielding percentage, with only 10 errors in 569total chances, which was 26 points higher than the league average at his position. Annual statistical achievements Notes:Through 2019 season. PerBaseball-Reference.com. Pitching style Wainwright has asinkerball, throwing it in the 90–92 miles per hour (145–148 km/h) range. He also throws a good deal ofcutters84–88 miles per hour (135–142 km/h) andcurveballs73–77 miles per hour (117–124 km/h) that have dropped more than 8 inches before from top to bottom of the pitch. Less commonly, he also throws afour-seam fastball90–95 miles per hour (145–153 km/h) and an 84–86 miles per hour (135–138 km/h)changeup. He uses all of his pitches against left-handed hitters, but he does not use the changeup against right-handers. Wainwright's most-used pitch in two-strike counts is his curveball. In spring training of 2013, he", "of 2013, he started incorporating an elevated four-seam fastball, making his curveball more effective. Discography Studio Albums Singles \"—\" denotes a release that did not chart. Outside baseball Big League Impact Afantasy footballenthusiast, Wainwright created and hosts a fantasy football network in eight cities called Big League Impact, designed to raise money for various charities. In 2015, the organization raised more than $1 million total. Other major leaguers, includingDavid Wright,Hunter Pence, andJohn Smoltzhost in their respective cities. The concept officially opened in July 2013 with the launch of a website called WainosWorld.com. In an interview withFox Sports Midwest, Wainwright remarked that the program combined his love of fantasy football with his passion for helping the less fortunate. For a registration fee, all of which goes to charity, fans can assemble their own fantasy team and compete throughout the season against not only Wainwright but his current and former Cardinals teammatesAllen", "teammatesAllen Craig,David Freese, andMatt Holliday.Those with the best team records at season's end will receive prizes.The league raised $100,000 in 2013 and supported Operation Food Search andWater Missions International. Wainwright was the recipient of the 2020Roberto Clemente Awarddue to his work with Big League Impact alongside his contributions in helping build Haiti's Ferrier Village Secondary School. As an actor With longtime aspirations to host an episode ofSaturday Night Live, Wainwright made hisfilmdebut in the 2016comedy-dramaProximity, directed by Dan Steadman and filmed in the St. Louis area. The majority of the work done was completed in 2015, after the opportunity presented to Wainwright due in part to the Achilles tendon injury he had suffered early in the season. Broadcasting Adam Wainwright made his national TV broadcasting debut on October 6, 2020, calling the2020 NLDSbetween theMiami MarlinsandAtlanta BravesonFox Sports 1along withAdam Aminand former teammateA. J. Pierzynski.The trio", "Pierzynski.The trio worked together for the2021 ALDSbetween the Astros and theChicago White Soxand again in the2023 ALDSbetween theHouston AstrosandMinnesota Twins.Prior to the2024 MLB season, Wainwright was hired as a full time color commentator forFox Sports. Musician On March 30, 2023, Wainwright surprised his teammates by performing thenational anthemprior to the Cardinals' home opener against theToronto Blue Jays. After he accomplished his musical goal, he nervously admitted, \"I didn't mess the words up.\"Wainwright aspires to be acountry musicsinger after his baseball career concludes; he held a concert inSpringfield, Illinois, in January 2023 for approximately 500 fans. Wainwright has released three singles and one full-length album,Hey Y'all. It which was originally scheduled to be released on March 9, 2024 when he made hisGrand Ole Oprydebut, but was officially released on April 5, 2024. Personal life Wainwright married his high school sweetheart, Jenny Curry, in 2004.In a quirk of fate, he was in", "of fate, he was in the midst of proposing to Curry in December 2003, when a telephone call interrupted him to inform him he'd been traded from the Braves to the Cardinals.Jenny holds a degree in interior design fromGeorgia Southern University. In the off-season, the Wainwrights reside onSt. Simons Island, Georgia, with their four daughtersand a son, whom they adopted in 2019.Wainwright has openly expressed hisChristianfaith,and is active in theFellowship of Christian Athletes. See also References Footnotes Source notes External links" ]
What age was the Director of Inception (2010) when the film was released in the UK?
39
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inception
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nolan
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Numerical reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inception', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nolan']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inception", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nolan" ]
[ "Inception Inceptionis a 2010science fictionaction filmwritten and directed byChristopher Nolan, who also produced it withEmma Thomas, his wife. The film starsLeonardo DiCaprioas a professional thief who steals information by infiltrating thesubconsciousof his targets. He is offered a chance to have his criminal history erased as payment for the implantation of another person's idea into a target's subconscious.Theensemble castincludesKen Watanabe,Joseph Gordon-Levitt,Marion Cotillard,Elliot Page,Tom Hardy,Cillian Murphy,Tom Berenger,Dileep Rao, andMichael Caine. After the 2002 completion ofInsomnia, Nolan presented toWarner Bros.a written 80-pagetreatmentfor ahorror filmenvisioning \"dream stealers,\" based onlucid dreaming.Deciding he needed more experience before tackling a production of this magnitude and complexity, Nolan shelved the project and instead worked on 2005'sBatman Begins, 2006'sThe Prestige, and 2008'sThe Dark Knight.The treatment was revised over six months and was purchased by Warner in February 2009.Inceptionwas filmed in six countries, beginning in Tokyo on June 19 and ending in Canada on November 22.Its official budget was $160 million, split betweenWarner Bros.andLegendary.Nolan's reputation and success withThe Dark Knighthelped secure the film's US$100 million in advertising expenditure. Inception's premiere was held inLondonon July 8, 2010; it was released in both conventional andIMAXtheaters beginning on July 16, 2010.Inceptiongrossed over $837 million worldwide, becoming thefourth-highest-grossing film of 2010. Considered one of the best films of the 2010s,Inceptionwon fourOscars(Best Cinematography,Best Sound Editing,Best Sound Mixing,Best Visual Effects) and was nominated for four more (Best Picture,Best Original Screenplay,Best Art Direction,Best Original Score) at the83rd Academy Awards. Plot Dom Cobb and Arthur are \"extractors\" who performcorporate espionageusing experimental dream-sharing technology to infiltrate their targets'subconsciousand extract information. Their latest target, Saito, is impressed with Cobb's ability tolayer multiple dreams within each other. He offers to hire Cobb for the ostensibly impossible job of implanting an idea into a person's subconscious; performing \"inception\" on Robert Fischer, the son of Saito's competitor Maurice Fischer, with the idea to dissolve his father's company. In return, Saito promises to clear Cobb's criminal status, allowing him to return home to his children. Cobb accepts the offer and assembles his team: a forger named Eames, a chemist named Yusuf, and a college student named Ariadne. Ariadne is tasked with designing the dream's architecture, something Cobb himself cannot do for fear of being sabotaged by his mind's projection of his late wife, Mal. Maurice Fischer dies, and the team sedates Robert Fischer into a three-layer shared dream on an airplane to America bought by Saito. Time on each layer runs slower than the layer above, with one member staying behind on each to perform a music-synchronized \"kick\" (using the French song \"Non, je ne regrette rien\") to awaken dreamers on all three levels simultaneously. The team abducts Robert in a city on the first level, but his trained subconscious projections attack them. After Saito is wounded, Cobb reveals that while dying in the dream would usually awaken dreamers, Yusuf's sedatives will instead send them into \"Limbo\": a world of infinite subconscious. Eames impersonates Robert's godfather, Peter Browning, to introduce the idea of an alternate will to dissolve the company. Cobb tells Ariadne that he and Mal entered Limbo while experimenting with dream-sharing, experiencing fifty years in one night due to the time dilation with reality. After waking up, Mal still believed she was dreaming. Attempting to \"wake up,\" she committed suicide and framed Cobb for her murder to force him to do the same. Cobb fled the U.S., leaving his children behind. Yusuf drives the team around the first level as they are sedated into the second level, a hotel dreamed by Arthur. Cobb persuades Robert that Browning has kidnapped him to stop the dissolution and that Cobb is a defensive projection, leading Robert to another third level deeper as part of a ruse to enter Robert's subconscious. In the third level, the team infiltrates an alpine fortress with a projection of Maurice inside, where the inception itself can be performed. However, Yusuf performs his kick too soon by driving off a bridge, forcing Arthur and Eames to improvise a new set of kicks synchronized with them hitting the water by rigging an elevator and the fortress, respectively, with explosives. Mal then appears and kills Robert before he can be subjected to the inception, and he and Saito are lost in Limbo, forcing Cobb and Ariadne to rescue them in time for Robert's inception and Eames's kick. Cobb reveals that during their time in Limbo, Mal refused to return to reality; Cobb had to convince her it was only a dream, accidentally incepting in her the belief that the real world was still a dream. Cobb makes peace with his part in Mal's death. Ariadne kills Mal's projection and wakes Robert up with a kick. Revived into the third level, he discovers the planted idea: his dying father telling him to create something for himself. While Cobb searches for Saito in Limbo, the others ride the synced kicks back to reality. Cobb finds an aged Saito and reminds him of their agreement. The dreamers all awaken on the plane, and Saito makes a phone call. Arriving inLos Angeles, Cobb passes the immigration checkpoint, and his father-in-law accompanies him to his home. Cobb uses Mal's \"totem\" – atopthat spins indefinitely in a dream – to test if he is indeed in the real world, but he chooses not to observe the result and instead joins his children. Cast Production Development Initially, Christopher Nolan wrote an 80-pagetreatmentabout dream-stealers.Nolan had originally envisionedInceptionas ahorror film,but eventually wrote it as aheist filmeven though he found that \"traditionally are very deliberately superficial in emotional terms.\"Upon revisiting his script, he decided that basing it in that genre did not work because the story \"relies so heavily on the idea of the interior state, the idea of dream andmemory. I realized I needed to raise the emotional stakes.\" Nolan worked on the script for nine to ten years.When he first started thinking about making the film, Nolan was influenced by \"that era of movies where you hadThe Matrix(1999), you hadDark City(1998), you hadThe Thirteenth Floor(1999) and, to a certain extent, you hadMemento(2000), too. They were based in the principles that the world around you might not be real.\" Nolan first pitched the film to Warner Bros. in 2001, but decided that he needed more experience making large-scale films, and embarked onBatman BeginsandThe Dark Knight.He soon realized that a film likeInceptionneeded a large budget because \"as soon as you're talking about dreams, the potential of the human mind is infinite. And so the scale of the film has to feel infinite. It has to feel like you could go anywhere by the end of the film. And it has to work on a massive scale.\"After makingThe Dark Knight, Nolan decided to makeInceptionand spent six months completing the script.Nolan said that the key to completing the script was wondering what would happen if several people shared the same dream. \"Once you remove the privacy, you've created an infinite number of alternative universes in which people can meaningfully interact, with validity, with weight, with dramatic consequences.\" Nolan had been trying to work with Leonardo DiCaprio for years and met him several times, but was unable to recruit him for any of his films untilInception.DiCaprio finally agreed because he was \"intrigued by this concept—this dream-heist notion and how this character's going to unlock his dreamworld and ultimately affect his real life.\": 93–94He read the script and found it to be \"very well written, comprehensive but you really had to have Chris in person, to try to articulate some of the things that have been swirling around his head for the last eight years.\"DiCaprio and Nolan spent months talking about the screenplay. Nolan took a long time re-writing the script in order \"to make sure that the emotional journey of his character was the driving force of the movie.\"On February 11, 2009, it was announced thatWarner Bros.purchasedInception, aspec scriptwritten by Nolan. Locations and sets Principal photographybegan inTokyoon June 19, 2009, with the scene in which Saito first hires Cobb during a helicopter flight over the city.: 13 The production moved to the United Kingdom and shot in a convertedairship hangarinCardington, Bedfordshire, north of London.: 14There, the hotel bar set which tilted 30 degrees was built.: 29A hotel corridor was also constructed byGuy Hendrix Dyas, the production designer,Chris Corbould, the special effects supervisor, andWally Pfister, the director of photography; it rotated a full 360 degrees to create the effect of alternate directions ofgravityfor scenes set during the second level of dreaming, where dream-sector physics become chaotic. The idea was inspired by a technique used inStanley Kubrick's2001: A Space Odyssey(1968). Nolan said, \"I was interested in taking those ideas, techniques, and philosophies and applying them to an action scenario\".: 32The filmmakers originally planned to make the hallway only 40 feet (12 m) long, but as the action sequence became more elaborate, the hallway's length was increased to 100 ft (30 m). The corridor was suspended along eight large concentric rings that were spaced equidistantly outside its walls and powered by two massive electric motors.: 14 Joseph Gordon-Levitt, who plays Arthur, spent several weeks learning to fight in a corridor that spun like \"a gianthamster wheel\".Nolan said of the device, \"It was like some incredible torture device; we thrashed Joseph for weeks, but in the end we looked at the footage, and it looks unlike anything any of us has seen before. The rhythm of it is unique, and when you watch it, even if you know how it was done, it confuses your perceptions. It's unsettling in a wonderful way\".Gordon-Levitt remembered, \"it was six-day weeks of just, like, coming home at night battered ... The light fixtures on the ceiling are coming around on the floor, and you have to choose the right time to cross through them, and if you don't, you're going to fall.\"On July 15, 2009, filming took place atUniversity College Londonfor the sequences occurring inside a Paris college of architecture in the story,including the library, Flaxman Gallery and Gustav Tuck Theatre. Filming moved to France, where they shot Cobb entering the college of architecture (the place used for the entrance was theMusée Galliera) and the pivotal scenes between Ariadne and Cobb, in abistro(a fictional one set up at the corner of Rue César Franck and Rue Bouchut), and lastly on theBir-Hakeim bridge.: 17For the explosion that takes place during the bistro scene, local authorities would not allow the use of real explosives. High-pressurenitrogenwas used to create the effect of a series of explosions. Pfister used six high-speed cameras to capture the sequence from different angles and make sure that they got the shot. The visual effects department enhanced the sequence, adding more destruction and flying debris. For the \"Paris folding\" sequence and when Ariadne \"creates\" the bridges,green screenandCGIwere used on location.: 17 Tangier, Morocco, doubled asMombasa, where Cobb hires Eames and Yusuf. A foot chase was shot in the streets and alleyways of the historicmedina quarter.: 18To capture this sequence, Pfister employed a mix ofhand-held cameraandsteadicamwork.: 19Tangier was also used as the setting for filming an important riot scene during the initial foray into Saito's mind. Filming moved to theLos Angelesarea, where some sets were built on a Warner Bros.sound stage, including the interior rooms of Saito's Japanese castle (the exterior was done on a small set built inMalibu Beach). The dining room was inspired by the historicNijō Castle, built around 1603. These sets were inspired by a mix ofJapanese architectureand Western influences.: 19 The production staged a multi-vehiclecar chaseon the streets ofdowntown Los Angeles, which involved a freight train crashing down the middle of a street.: 20To do this, the filmmakers configured a train engine on the chassis of a tractor trailer. The replica was made fromfiberglassmolds taken from authentic train parts and matched in terms of color and design.: 21Also, the car chase was supposed to be set in the midst of a downpour, but the L.A. weather stayed typically sunny. The filmmakers set up elaborate effects (e.g., rooftopwater cannons) to give the audience the impression that the weather was overcast and soggy. L.A. was also the site of the climactic scene where aFord Econolinevan runs off theSchuyler Heim Bridgein slow motion.This sequence was filmed on and off for months, with the van being shot out of a cannon, according to actor Dileep Rao. Capturing the actors suspended within the van in slow motion took a whole day to film. Once the van landed in the water, the challenge for the actors was to avoid panic. \"And when they ask you to act, it's a bit of an ask,\" explained Cillian Murphy.The actors had to be underwater for four to five minutes while drawing air fromscuba tanks; underwaterbuddy breathingis shown in this sequence. Cobb's house was in Pasadena. The hotel lobby was filmed at the CAA building in Century City. 'Limbo' was made on location in Los Angeles andMorocco, with the beach scene filmed atPalos Verdesbeach with CGI buildings. N Hope St. in Los Angeles was the primary filming location for 'Limbo,' with green screen and CGI being used to create the dream landscape. The final phase of principal photography took place inAlbertain late November 2009. The location manager discovered a temporarily closed ski resort,Fortress Mountain.: 22An elaborate set was assembled near the top station of the Canadianchairlift, taking three months to build.: 93The production had to wait for a huge snowstorm, which eventually arrived.The ski-chase sequence was inspired by Nolan's favoriteJames Bondfilm,On Her Majesty's Secret Service(1969): \"What I liked about it that we've tried to emulate in this film is there's a tremendous balance in that movie of action and scale and romanticism and tragedy and emotion.\": 91 Cinematography The film was shot primarily in theanamorphic formaton35 mm film, with key sequences filmed on65 mm, and aerial sequences inVistaVision. Nolan did not shoot any footage withIMAXcameras as he had withThe Dark Knight. \"We didn't feel that we were going to be able to shoot in IMAX because of the size of the cameras because this film given that it deals with a potentially surreal area, the nature of dreams and so forth, I wanted it to be as realistic as possible. Not be bound by the scale of those IMAX cameras, even though I love the format dearly\".In addition Nolan and Pfister tested usingShowscanandSuper Dimension 70as potential large-format,high-frame-ratecamera systems to use for the film, but ultimately decided against either format.: 29Sequences in slow motion were filmed on a Photo-Sonics 35 mm camera at speeds of up to 1,000 frames per second. Wally Pfister tested shooting some of these sequences using a high speeddigital camera, but found the format to be too unreliable due to technical glitches. \"Out of six times that we shot on the digital format, we only had one usable piece and it didn't end up in the film. Out of the six times we shot with the Photo-Sonics camera and 35 mm running through it, every single shot was in the movie.\"Nolan also chose not to shoot any of the film in3Das he prefers shooting on filmusingprime lenses, which is not possible with 3D cameras.Nolan has also criticized the dim image that 3D projection produces, and disputes that traditional film does not allow realisticdepth perception, saying \"I think it's a misnomer to call it 3D versus 2D. The whole point of cinematic imagery is it's three dimensional... You know 95% of ourdepth cuescome fromocclusion, resolution, color and so forth, so the idea of calling a 2D movie a '2D movie' is a little misleading.\"Nolan did testconvertingInceptioninto 3D in post-production but decided that, while it was possible, he lacked the time to complete the conversion to a standard he was happy with.In February 2011Jonathan Liebesmansuggested that Warner Bros. were attempting a 3D conversion forBlu-rayrelease. Wally Pfister gave each location and dream level a distinctive look to aid the audience's recognition of the narrative's location during the heavily crosscut portion of the film: the mountain fortress appears sterile and cool, the hotel hallways have warm hues, and the scenes in the van are more neutral.: 35–36 Nolan has said that the film \"deals with levels of reality, and perceptions of reality which is something I'm very interested in. It's an action film set in a contemporary world, but with a slight science-fiction bent to it\", while also describing it as \"very much an ensemble film structured somewhat as a heist movie. It's an action adventure that spans the globe\". Visual effects For dream sequences inInception, Nolan used littlecomputer-generated imagery, preferringpractical effectswhenever possible. Nolan said, \"It's always very important to me to do as much as possible in-camera, and then, if necessary, computer graphics are very useful to build on or enhance what you have achieved physically.\": 12To this end, visual effects supervisorPaul Franklinbuilt aminiatureof the mountain fortress set and then blew it up for the film. For the fight scene that takes place in zero gravity, he used CG-based effects to \"subtly bend elements like physics, space and time.\" The most challenging effect was the \"Limbo\" city level at the end of the film, because it continually developed during production. Franklin had artists build concepts while Nolan expressed his ideal vision: \"Something glacial, with clear modernist architecture, but with chunks of it breaking off into the sea like icebergs\".Franklin and his team ended up with \"something that looked like an iceberg version ofGotham Citywith water running through it.\"They created a basic model of a glacier and then designers created a program that added elements like roads, intersections and ravines until they had a complex, yet organic-looking, cityscape. For the Paris-folding sequence, Franklin had artists producing concept sketches and then they created rough computer animations to give them an idea of what the sequence looked like while in motion. Later during principal photography, Nolan was able to direct DiCaprio and Page based on this rough computer animation that Franklin had created.Inceptionhad nearly 500 visual effects shots (in comparison,Batman Beginshad approximately 620), which is relatively few in comparison to contemporary effects-heavy films, which can have as many as 2,000 visual effects shots. Music The score forInceptionwas written byHans Zimmer,who described his work as \"a very electronic,dense score\",filled with \"nostalgia and sadness\" to match Cobb's feelings throughout the film.The music was written simultaneously to filming,and features a guitar sound reminiscent ofEnnio Morricone, played byJohnny Marr, former guitarist ofthe Smiths.Édith Piaf's \"Non, je ne regrette rien\" (\"No, I Regret Nothing\") appears throughout the film, used to accurately time the dreams, and Zimmer reworked pieces of the song into cues of the score.Asoundtrack albumwas released on July 11, 2010, byReprise Records.The majority of the score was also included in high resolution5.1 surround soundon the second disc of the two-disc Blu-ray release.Hans Zimmer's music was nominated for an Academy Award in theBest Original Scorecategory in 2011, losing toTrent ReznorandAtticus RossofThe Social Network. Themes Reality and dreams InInception, Nolan wanted to explore \"the idea of people sharing a dream space... That gives you the ability to access somebody'sunconscious mind. What would that be used and abused for?\"The majority of the film's plot takes place in these interconnected dream worlds. This structure creates a framework where actions in the real or dream worlds ripple across others. The dream is always in a state of production, and shifts across the levels as the characters navigate it.By contrast, the world ofThe Matrix(1999) is an authoritarian, computer-controlled one, alluding to theories of social control developed by thinkersMichel FoucaultandJean Baudrillard. However, according to one interpretation Nolan's world has more in common with the works ofGilles DeleuzeandFélix Guattari. David DenbyinThe New Yorkercompared Nolan's cinematic treatment of dreams toLuis Buñuel's inBelle de Jour(1967) andThe Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie(1972).He criticized Nolan's \"literal-minded\" action level sequencing compared to Buñuel, who \"silently pushed us into reveries and left us alone to enjoy our wonderment, but Nolan is working on so many levels of representation at once that he has to lay in pages of dialogue just to explain what's going on.\" The latter captures \"the peculiar malign intensity of actual dreams.\" Deirdre Barrett, a dream researcher atHarvard University, said that Nolan did not get every detail accurate regarding dreams, but their illogical, rambling, disjointed plots would not make for a great thriller anyway. However, \"he did get many aspects right,\" she said, citing the scene in which a sleeping Cobb is shoved into a full bath, and in the dream world water gushes into the windows of the building, waking him up. \"That's very much how real stimuli get incorporated, and you very often wake up right after that intrusion.\" Nolan himself said, \"I tried to work that idea of manipulation and management of aconscious dreambeing a skill that these people have. Really the script is based on those common, very basic experiences and concepts, and where can those take you? And the only outlandish idea that the film presents, really, is the existence of a technology that allows you to enter and share the same dream as someone else.\" Dreams and cinema Others have argued that the film is itself ametaphor for filmmaking, and that the filmgoing experience itself, images flashing before one's eyes in a darkened room, is akin to a dream. Writing inWired, Jonah Lehrer supported this interpretation and presented neurological evidence that brain activity is strikingly similar during film-watching and sleeping. In both, thevisual cortexis highly active and theprefrontal cortex, which deals with logic, deliberate analysis, and self-awareness, is quiet.Paul argued that the experience of going to a picturehouse is itself an exercise in shared dreaming, particularly when viewingInception: the film's sharp cutting between scenes forces the viewer to create larger narrative arcs to stitch the pieces together. This demand of production parallel to consumption of the images, on the part of the audience is analogous to dreaming itself. As in the film's story, in a cinema one enters into the space of another's dream, in this case Nolan's, as with any work of art, one's reading of it is ultimately influenced by one's own subjective desires and subconscious.At Bir-Hakeim bridge in Paris, Ariadne creates an illusion of infinity by addingfacing mirrorsunderneath its struts, Stephanie Dreyfus inla Croixasked \"Is this not a strong, beautiful metaphor for the cinema and its power of illusion?\" Cinematic technique Genre Nolan combined elements from several different film genres into the film, notably science fiction,heist film, andfilm noir.Marion Cotillardplays \"Mal\" Cobb, Dom Cobb's projection of his guilt over his deceased wife's suicide. As the film's main antagonist, she is a frequent, malevolent presence in his dreams. Dom is unable to control these projections of her, challenging his abilities as an extractor.Nolan described Mal as \"the essence of the femme fatale\",: 9the keynoirreference in the film. As a \"classic femme fatale\" her relationship with Cobb is in his mind, a manifestation of Cobb's own neurosis and fear of how little he knows about the woman he loves.DiCaprio praised Cotillard's performance saying that \"she can be strong and vulnerable and hopeful and heartbreaking all in the same moment, which was perfect for all the contradictions of her character\".: 10 Nolan began with the structure of a heist movie, sinceexpositionis an essential element of that genre, though adapted it to have a greater emotional narrative suited to the world of dreams and subconscious.As Denby described this device: \"the outer shell of the story is an elaborate caper\".Kristin Thompsonargued that exposition was a major formal device in the film. While a traditional heist movie has a heavy dose of exposition at the beginning as the team assembles and the leader explains the plan, inInceptionthis becomes nearly continuous as the group progresses through the various levels of dreaming.Three quarters of the film, until the van begins to fall from the bridge, are devoted to explaining its plot. In this way, exposition takes precedence over characterization. The characters' relationships are created by their respective skills and roles. Ariadne, likeher ancient namesake, creates the maze and guides the others through it, but also helps Cobb navigate his own subconscious, and as the sole student of dream sharing, helps the audience understand the concept of the plot. Nolan drew inspiration from the works ofJorge Luis Borges,including \"The Secret Miracle\" and \"The Circular Ruins\",and from the filmsBlade Runner(1982) andThe Matrix(1999).While Nolan has not confirmed this, it has also been suggested by many observers that the movie draws heavy inspiration from the 2006 animated filmPaprika. Ending The film cuts to theclosing creditsfrom a shot of the top apparently starting to show an ever so faint wobble, inviting speculation about whether the final sequence was reality or another dream. Nolan confirmed that the ambiguity was deliberate,saying, \"I've been asked the question more times than I've ever been asked any other question about any other film I've made... What's funny to me is that people really do expect me to answer it.\"The film's script concludes with \"Behind him, on the table, the spinning top is STILL SPINNING. And we—FADE OUT\".Nolan said, \"I put that cut there at the end, imposing an ambiguity from outside the film. That always felt the right ending to me—it always felt like the appropriate 'kick' to me... The real point of the scene—and this is what I tell people—is that Cobb isn't looking at the top. He's looking at his kids. He's left it behind. That's the emotional significance of the thing.\" Caine interpreted the ending as meaning that Cobb is in the real world, quoting Nolan as telling him \"'Well, when you're in the scene, it's reality.' So get that — if I'm in it, it's reality. If I'm not in it, it's a dream\". While reiterating that he was uncomfortable with definitively explaining the scene, Nolan in 2023 creditedEmma Thomasas providing \"the correct answer, which is Leo's character ... doesn't care at that point\".Mark Fisherargued that \"a century of cultural theory\" cautions against accepting theauthor's interpretationas anything more than a supplementary text, and this all the more so given the theme of the instability of any one master position in Nolan's films. Therein the manipulator is often the one who ends up manipulated, and Cobb's \"not caring\" about whether or not his world is real may be the price of his happiness and release. Release Marketing Warner Bros. spent US$100 million marketing the film. AlthoughInceptionwas not part of an existing franchise, Sue Kroll, president of Warner's worldwide marketing, said the company believed it could gain awareness due to the strength of \"Christopher Nolan as a brand\". Kroll declared that \"We don't have the brand equity that usually drives a big summer opening, but we have a great cast and a fresh idea from a filmmaker with a track record of making incredible movies. If you can't make those elements work, it's a sad day.\"The studio also tried to maintain a campaign of secrecy—as reported by the Senior VP of Interactive Marketing, Michael Tritter, \"You have this movie which is going to have a pretty big built in fanbase... but you also have a movie that you are trying to keep very secret. Chris really likes people to see his movies in a theater and not see it all beforehand so everything that you do to market that—at least early on—is with an eye to feeding the interest to fans.\" Aviral marketingcampaign was employed for the film. After the revelation of the first teaser trailer, in August 2009, the film's official website featured only an animation of Cobb's spinning top. In December, the top toppled over and the website opened the online gameMind Crime, which upon completion revealedInception's poster.The rest of the campaign unrolled afterWonderConin April 2010, where Warner gave away promotional T-shirts featuring the PASIV briefcase used to create the dream space, and had aQR codelinking to an online manual of the device.Mind Crimealso received a stage 2 with more resources, including a hidden trailer for the movie.More pieces of viral marketing began to surface beforeInception's release, such as a manual filled with bizarre images and text sent toWiredmagazine,and the online publication of posters, ads, phone applications, and strange websites all related to the film.Warner also released an online prequel comic,Inception: The Cobol Job. The official trailer released on May 10, 2010, throughMind Gamewas extremely well received.It featured an original piece of music, \"Mind Heist\", by recording artistZack Hemsey,rather than music from the score.The trailer quickly went viral with numerousmashupscopying its style, both by amateurs on sites like YouTubeand by professionals on sites such asCollegeHumor.On June 7, 2010, a behind-the-scenes featurette on the film was released in HD on Yahoo! Movies. Inceptionand its film trailers are widely credited for launching the trend throughout the 2010s in which blockbuster movie trailers repeatedly hit audiences with so-called \"braam\" sounds: \"bassy, brassy, thunderous notes—like a foghorn on steroids—meant to impart a sense of apocalyptic momentousness\".However, different composers worked on the teaser trailer, first trailer, second trailer, and film score, meaning that identifying the composer(s) responsible for that trend is a complicated task. Home media Inceptionwas released onDVDandBlu-rayon December 3, 2010, in France,and the week after in the UK and USA (December 7, 2010).The film was released onVHSinSouth Korea, making it one of the last major studio films released for the format.Warner Bros. also made available in the United States a limited Blu-ray edition packaged in a metal replica of the PASIV briefcase, which included extras such as a metal replica of the spinning top totem. With a production run of less than 2,000, it sold out in one weekend.Inceptionwas released on4K Blu-rayanddigital copyalong with other Christopher Nolan films on December 19, 2017.As of 2018, thehome videoreleases have sold over 9million units and grossed over$160 million. Putative video game In a November 2010 interview, Nolan expressed his intention to develop a video game set in theInceptionworld, working with a team of collaborators. He described it as \"a longer-term proposition\", referring to the medium of video games as \"something I've wanted to explore\". 10th anniversary re-release Inceptionwas re-released in theaters for its tenth anniversary, starting on August 12, 2020, in international markets and on August 21 in the U.S.The re-release was originally announced by Warner Bros. in June 2020 and scheduled for July 17, 2020, taking the original release date for Nolan's upcoming filmTenetafter its delay to July 31 due to the impact of theCOVID-19 pandemicon movie theaters.AfterTenetwas delayed again to August 12, the re-release was shifted to July 31,before setting on the August release date following a third delay. Reception Box office Inceptionwas released in both conventional andIMAXtheaters on July 16, 2010.The film had its world premiere atLeicester Squarein London on July 8, 2010.In the United States and Canada,Inceptionwas released theatrically in 3,792 conventional theaters and 195 IMAX theaters.The film grossed US$21.8 million during its opening day on July 16, 2010, with midnight screenings in 1,500 locations.Overall the film made US$62.7 million and debuted at No.1 on its opening weekend.Inception's opening weekend gross made it the second-highest-grossing debut for ascience fiction filmthat was not a sequel, remake or adaptation, behindAvatar's US$77 million opening-weekend gross in 2009.The film held the top spot of the box office rankings in its second and third weekends, with drops of just 32% (US$42.7 million) and 36% (US$27.5 million), respectively,before dropping to second place in its fourth week, behindThe Other Guys. Inceptioninitially grossed US$292 million in the United States and Canada, US$56 million in the United Kingdom, Ireland andMaltaand US$479 million in other countries for a total of US$828 million worldwide.Its five highest-grossing markets after the US and Canada (US$292 million) were China (US$68 million), the United Kingdom, Ireland andMalta(US$56 million), France and theMaghrebregion (US$43 million), Japan (US$40 million) andSouth Korea(US$38 million).It was thesixth-highest-grossing film of 2010 in North America,and thefourth-highest-grossing film of 2010, behindToy Story 3,Alice in WonderlandandHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1.Its subsequent re-releases increased its gross to US$839 million.Inceptionis the fourth most lucrative production in Christopher Nolan's career—behindThe Dark Knight,The Dark Knight RisesandOppenheimer—and the second most forLeonardo DiCaprio—behindTitanic. Critical response OnRotten Tomatoes,Inceptionholds an approval rating of 87% based on 370 reviews, with an average rating of 8.20/10. The website's critical consensus reads: \"Smart, innovative, and thrilling,Inceptionis that rare summer blockbuster that succeeds viscerally as well as intellectually.\"Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film an average grade of \"B+\" on an A+ to F scale. Peter TraversofRolling StonecalledInceptiona \"wildly ingenious chess game,\" and concluded \"the result is a knockout.\"Justin Chang ofVarietypraised the film as \"a conceptualtour de force\" and wrote, \"applying a vivid sense of procedural detail to a fiendishly intricate yarn set in thelabyrinthof theunconscious mind, the writer-director has devised a heist thriller forsurrealists, aJungian'sRififi, that challenges viewers to sift through multiple layers of (un)reality.\"Jim Vejvoda ofIGNrated the film as perfect, deeming it \"a singular accomplishment from a filmmaker who has only gotten better with each film.\"Relevant's David Roark called it Nolan's \"greatest accomplishment\", saying, \"Visually, intellectually and emotionally,Inceptionis a masterpiece.\" In its August 2010 issue,Empiregave the film a full five stars and wrote, \"it feels likeStanley Kubrickadapting the work of the great sci-fi authorWilliam Gibson Nolan delivers another true original: welcome to an undiscovered country.\"Entertainment Weekly's Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the film a B+ grade and wrote, \"It's a rolling explosion of images as hypnotizing and sharply angled as any in a drawing byM. C. Escheror a state-of-the-biz video game; the backwards splicing of Nolan's ownMementolooks rudimentary by comparison.\"Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesawarded the film a full four stars and said thatInception\"is all about process, about fighting our way through enveloping sheets of reality and dream, reality within dreams, dreams without reality. It's a breathtaking juggling act.\"Richard Roeper, also of theSun-Times, gaveInceptionan \"A+\" score and called it \"one of the best movies of the century.\"BBC Radio 5 Live'sMark KermodenamedInceptionas the best film of 2010, stating that \"Inceptionis proof that people are not stupid, that cinema is not trash, and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing.\" Michael Phillipsof theChicago Tribunegave the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote, \"I found myself wishingInceptionwere weirder, further out the film is Nolan's labyrinth all the way, and it's gratifying to experience a summer movie with large visual ambitions and with nothing more or less on its mind than (asShakespearesaid) a dream that hath no bottom.\"Time'sRichard Corlisswrote that the film's \"noble intent is to implant one man's vision in the mind of a vast audience The idea of moviegoing as communal dreaming is a century old. WithInception, viewers have a chance to see that notion get a state-of-the-art update.\"Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timesfelt that Nolan was able to blend \"the best of traditional and modern filmmaking. If you're searching for smart and nervy popular entertainment, this is what it looks like.\"USA Today'sClaudia Puig gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars and felt that Nolan \"regards his viewers as possibly smarter than they are—or at least as capable of rising to his inventive level. That's a tall order. But it's refreshing to find a director who makes us stretch, even occasionally struggle, to keep up.\" Not all reviewers gave the film positive reviews.New Yorkmagazine'sDavid Edelsteinsaid in his review that he had \"no idea what so many people are raving about. It's as if someone went into their heads while they were sleeping and planted the idea thatInceptionis a visionary masterpiece and—hold on ... Whoa! I think I get it. The movie is a metaphor for the power of delusional hype—a metaphor for itself.\"The New York Observer'sRex Reedsaid the film's development was \"pretty much what we've come to expect from summer movies in general and Christopher Nolan movies in particular ... doesn't seem like much of an accomplishment to me.\"A. O. ScottofThe New York Timescommented \"there is a lot to see inInception, there is nothing that counts as genuine vision. Mr. Nolan's idea of the mind is too literal, too logical, and too rule-bound to allow the full measure of madness.\"The New Yorker'sDavid Denbyconsidered the film to be \"not nearly as much fun as Nolan imagined it to be\", concluding that \"Inceptionis a stunning-looking film that gets lost in fabulous intricacies, a movie devoted to its own workings and to little else.\" While some critics have tended to view the film as perfectly straightforward, and even criticize its overarching themes as \"the stuff of torpid platitudes\", online discussion has been much more positive.Heated debate has centered on the ambiguity of the ending, with many critics like Devin Faraci making the case that the film is self-referential and tongue-in-cheek, both a film about film-making and a dream about dreams.Other critics readInceptionas Christian allegory and focus on the film's use of religious and water symbolism.Yet other critics, such asKristin Thompson, see less value in the ambiguous ending of the film and more in its structure and novel method of storytelling, highlightingInceptionas a new form of narrative that revels in \"continuous exposition\". Several critics and scholars have noted the film has many striking similarities to the 2006animefilmPaprikabySatoshi Kon(andYasutaka Tsutsui's 1993novel of the same name), including plot similarities, similar scenes, and similar characters, arguing thatInceptionwas influenced byPaprika.Several sources have also noted plot similarities between the film and the 2002Uncle ScroogecomicThe Dream of a LifetimebyDon Rosa.The influence of Tarkovsky'sSolarisonInceptionwas noted as well. Year-end and all-time lists Inceptionappeared on over 273 critics' lists of the top ten films of 2010, being picked as number-one on at least 55 of those lists.It was the second-most-mentioned film in both the top ten lists and number-one rankings, only behindThe Social Networkalong withToy Story 3,True Grit,The King's Speech, andBlack Swanas the most critically acclaimed films of 2010.AuthorStephen KingplacedInceptionat No. 3 in his list of top 10 best films of the year. Critics and publications who ranked the film first for that year includedRichard Roeperof theChicago Sun-Times,Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Times(tied withThe Social NetworkandToy Story 3), Tasha Robinson ofThe A.V. Club,Empiremagazine, and Kirk Honeycutt ofThe Hollywood Reporter. In March 2011, the film was voted byBBC Radio 1andBBC Radio 1Xtralisteners as their ninth-favorite film of all time.ProducerRoger CormancitedInceptionas an example of \"great imagination and originality\".In 2012,Inceptionwas ranked the 35th-best-edited film of all time by theMotion Picture Editors Guild.In the same year,Total Filmnamed it the most-rewatchable movie of all time.In 2014,EmpirerankedInceptionthe tenth-greatest film ever made on their list of \"The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time\" as voted by the magazine's readers,whileRolling Stonemagazine named it the second-best science fiction film since the turn of the century.Inceptionwas ranked 84th onHollywood's 100 Favorite Films, a list compiled byThe Hollywood Reporterin 2014, surveying \"Studio chiefs, Oscar winners and TV royalty\".In 2016,Inceptionwas voted the51st-best film of the 21st CenturybyBBC, as picked by 177 film critics from around the world.The film was included in theVisual Effects Society's list of \"The Most Influential Visual Effects Films of All Time\".In 2019,Total FilmnamedInceptionthe best film of the 2010s.Many critics and media outlets includedInceptionin their rankings of the best films of the 2010s.The film was included inForbesmagazine's list ofTop 150 Greatest Films of 21st Century. In April 2014,The Daily Telegraphplaced the title on its top ten list of the most overrated films.Telegraph's Tim Robey stated, \"It's a criminal failing of the movie that it purports to be about people's dreams being invaded, but demonstrates no instinct at all for what a dream has ever felt like, and no flair for making us feel like we're in one, at any point.\"The film won an informal poll by theLos Angeles Timesas the most overrated movie of 2010. Accolades The film won many awards in technical categories, such asAcademy AwardsforBest Cinematography,Best Sound Editing,Best Sound Mixing, andBest Visual Effects,and theBritish Academy Film AwardsforBest Production Design,Best Special Visual EffectsandBest Sound.In most of its artistic nominations, such as Film, Director, and Screenplay at the Oscars, BAFTAs andGolden Globes, the film was defeated byThe Social NetworkorThe King's Speech.However, the film did win the two highest honors for a science fiction or fantasy film: the 2011Bradbury Awardfor best dramatic productionand the 2011Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation (Long Form). In popular culture Numerous pop and hip hop songs reference the film, includingCommon's \"Blue Sky\",N.E.R.D.'s \"Hypnotize U\",XV's \"The Kick\",Black Eyed Peas' \"Just Can't Get Enough\",Lil Wayne's \"6 Foot 7 Foot\",Jennifer Lopez's \"On the Floor\", andB.o.B's \"Strange Clouds\", whileT.I.hadInception-based artwork on two of his mixtapes. An instrumental track byJoe Buddenis titled \"Inception\".The animated seriesSouth Parkparodies the film in the show's tenth episode of itsfourteenth season, titled \"Insheeption.\"The film was also an influence forAriana Grande's video for \"No Tears Left to Cry.\"\"Lawnmower Dog\", the second episode of the animated comedy showRick and Morty, parodied the film.In an episode ofThe Simpsons, named \"How I Wet Your Mother\", the plot spoofsInceptionwith various scenes parodying moments from the film.The showrunners of the television seriesThe Flashsaid its season 4 finale was inspired byInception.In February 2020, American singer-songwriterTaylor Swiftreleased a lyric video for her single \"The Man\", which featured visuals bearing resemblance to the film. The song also mentions DiCaprio in its lyrics. The film's title has been colloquialized as the suffix-ception, which can be jokingly appended to a noun to indicate a layering, nesting, orrecursionof the thing in question. See also Notes References Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Christopher_Nolan (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930af820>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Inception Inceptionis a 2010science fictionaction filmwritten and directed byChristopher Nolan, who also produced it withEmma Thomas, his wife. The film starsLeonardo DiCaprioas a professional thief who steals information by infiltrating thesubconsciousof his targets. He is offered a chance to have his criminal history erased as payment for the implantation of another person's idea into a target's subconscious.Theensemble castincludesKen Watanabe,Joseph Gordon-Levitt,Marion Cotillard,Elliot Page,Tom Hardy,Cillian Murphy,Tom Berenger,Dileep Rao, andMichael Caine. After the 2002 completion ofInsomnia, Nolan presented toWarner Bros.a written 80-pagetreatmentfor ahorror filmenvisioning \"dream stealers,\" based onlucid dreaming.Deciding he needed more experience before tackling a production of this magnitude and complexity, Nolan shelved the project and instead worked on 2005'sBatman Begins, 2006'sThe Prestige, and 2008'sThe Dark Knight.The treatment was revised over six months and was purchased by Warner in", "by Warner in February 2009.Inceptionwas filmed in six countries, beginning in Tokyo on June 19 and ending in Canada on November 22.Its official budget was $160 million, split betweenWarner Bros.andLegendary.Nolan's reputation and success withThe Dark Knighthelped secure the film's US$100 million in advertising expenditure. Inception's premiere was held inLondonon July 8, 2010; it was released in both conventional andIMAXtheaters beginning on July 16, 2010.Inceptiongrossed over $837 million worldwide, becoming thefourth-highest-grossing film of 2010. Considered one of the best films of the 2010s,Inceptionwon fourOscars(Best Cinematography,Best Sound Editing,Best Sound Mixing,Best Visual Effects) and was nominated for four more (Best Picture,Best Original Screenplay,Best Art Direction,Best Original Score) at the83rd Academy Awards. Plot Dom Cobb and Arthur are \"extractors\" who performcorporate espionageusing experimental dream-sharing technology to infiltrate their targets'subconsciousand extract information.", "information. Their latest target, Saito, is impressed with Cobb's ability tolayer multiple dreams within each other. He offers to hire Cobb for the ostensibly impossible job of implanting an idea into a person's subconscious; performing \"inception\" on Robert Fischer, the son of Saito's competitor Maurice Fischer, with the idea to dissolve his father's company. In return, Saito promises to clear Cobb's criminal status, allowing him to return home to his children. Cobb accepts the offer and assembles his team: a forger named Eames, a chemist named Yusuf, and a college student named Ariadne. Ariadne is tasked with designing the dream's architecture, something Cobb himself cannot do for fear of being sabotaged by his mind's projection of his late wife, Mal. Maurice Fischer dies, and the team sedates Robert Fischer into a three-layer shared dream on an airplane to America bought by Saito. Time on each layer runs slower than the layer above, with one member staying behind on each to perform a music-synchronized", "music-synchronized \"kick\" (using the French song \"Non, je ne regrette rien\") to awaken dreamers on all three levels simultaneously. The team abducts Robert in a city on the first level, but his trained subconscious projections attack them. After Saito is wounded, Cobb reveals that while dying in the dream would usually awaken dreamers, Yusuf's sedatives will instead send them into \"Limbo\": a world of infinite subconscious. Eames impersonates Robert's godfather, Peter Browning, to introduce the idea of an alternate will to dissolve the company. Cobb tells Ariadne that he and Mal entered Limbo while experimenting with dream-sharing, experiencing fifty years in one night due to the time dilation with reality. After waking up, Mal still believed she was dreaming. Attempting to \"wake up,\" she committed suicide and framed Cobb for her murder to force him to do the same. Cobb fled the U.S., leaving his children behind. Yusuf drives the team around the first level as they are sedated into the second level, a hotel", "level, a hotel dreamed by Arthur. Cobb persuades Robert that Browning has kidnapped him to stop the dissolution and that Cobb is a defensive projection, leading Robert to another third level deeper as part of a ruse to enter Robert's subconscious. In the third level, the team infiltrates an alpine fortress with a projection of Maurice inside, where the inception itself can be performed. However, Yusuf performs his kick too soon by driving off a bridge, forcing Arthur and Eames to improvise a new set of kicks synchronized with them hitting the water by rigging an elevator and the fortress, respectively, with explosives. Mal then appears and kills Robert before he can be subjected to the inception, and he and Saito are lost in Limbo, forcing Cobb and Ariadne to rescue them in time for Robert's inception and Eames's kick. Cobb reveals that during their time in Limbo, Mal refused to return to reality; Cobb had to convince her it was only a dream, accidentally incepting in her the belief that the real world was", "the real world was still a dream. Cobb makes peace with his part in Mal's death. Ariadne kills Mal's projection and wakes Robert up with a kick. Revived into the third level, he discovers the planted idea: his dying father telling him to create something for himself. While Cobb searches for Saito in Limbo, the others ride the synced kicks back to reality. Cobb finds an aged Saito and reminds him of their agreement. The dreamers all awaken on the plane, and Saito makes a phone call. Arriving inLos Angeles, Cobb passes the immigration checkpoint, and his father-in-law accompanies him to his home. Cobb uses Mal's \"totem\" – atopthat spins indefinitely in a dream – to test if he is indeed in the real world, but he chooses not to observe the result and instead joins his children. Cast Production Development Initially, Christopher Nolan wrote an 80-pagetreatmentabout dream-stealers.Nolan had originally envisionedInceptionas ahorror film,but eventually wrote it as aheist filmeven though he found that \"traditionally", "\"traditionally are very deliberately superficial in emotional terms.\"Upon revisiting his script, he decided that basing it in that genre did not work because the story \"relies so heavily on the idea of the interior state, the idea of dream andmemory. I realized I needed to raise the emotional stakes.\" Nolan worked on the script for nine to ten years.When he first started thinking about making the film, Nolan was influenced by \"that era of movies where you hadThe Matrix(1999), you hadDark City(1998), you hadThe Thirteenth Floor(1999) and, to a certain extent, you hadMemento(2000), too. They were based in the principles that the world around you might not be real.\" Nolan first pitched the film to Warner Bros. in 2001, but decided that he needed more experience making large-scale films, and embarked onBatman BeginsandThe Dark Knight.He soon realized that a film likeInceptionneeded a large budget because \"as soon as you're talking about dreams, the potential of the human mind is infinite. And so the scale of", "And so the scale of the film has to feel infinite. It has to feel like you could go anywhere by the end of the film. And it has to work on a massive scale.\"After makingThe Dark Knight, Nolan decided to makeInceptionand spent six months completing the script.Nolan said that the key to completing the script was wondering what would happen if several people shared the same dream. \"Once you remove the privacy, you've created an infinite number of alternative universes in which people can meaningfully interact, with validity, with weight, with dramatic consequences.\" Nolan had been trying to work with Leonardo DiCaprio for years and met him several times, but was unable to recruit him for any of his films untilInception.DiCaprio finally agreed because he was \"intrigued by this concept—this dream-heist notion and how this character's going to unlock his dreamworld and ultimately affect his real life.\": 93–94He read the script and found it to be \"very well written, comprehensive but you really had to have Chris in", "to have Chris in person, to try to articulate some of the things that have been swirling around his head for the last eight years.\"DiCaprio and Nolan spent months talking about the screenplay. Nolan took a long time re-writing the script in order \"to make sure that the emotional journey of his character was the driving force of the movie.\"On February 11, 2009, it was announced thatWarner Bros.purchasedInception, aspec scriptwritten by Nolan. Locations and sets Principal photographybegan inTokyoon June 19, 2009, with the scene in which Saito first hires Cobb during a helicopter flight over the city.: 13 The production moved to the United Kingdom and shot in a convertedairship hangarinCardington, Bedfordshire, north of London.: 14There, the hotel bar set which tilted 30 degrees was built.: 29A hotel corridor was also constructed byGuy Hendrix Dyas, the production designer,Chris Corbould, the special effects supervisor, andWally Pfister, the director of photography; it rotated a full 360 degrees to create the", "to create the effect of alternate directions ofgravityfor scenes set during the second level of dreaming, where dream-sector physics become chaotic. The idea was inspired by a technique used inStanley Kubrick's2001: A Space Odyssey(1968). Nolan said, \"I was interested in taking those ideas, techniques, and philosophies and applying them to an action scenario\".: 32The filmmakers originally planned to make the hallway only 40 feet (12 m) long, but as the action sequence became more elaborate, the hallway's length was increased to 100 ft (30 m). The corridor was suspended along eight large concentric rings that were spaced equidistantly outside its walls and powered by two massive electric motors.: 14 Joseph Gordon-Levitt, who plays Arthur, spent several weeks learning to fight in a corridor that spun like \"a gianthamster wheel\".Nolan said of the device, \"It was like some incredible torture device; we thrashed Joseph for weeks, but in the end we looked at the footage, and it looks unlike anything any of us has", "any of us has seen before. The rhythm of it is unique, and when you watch it, even if you know how it was done, it confuses your perceptions. It's unsettling in a wonderful way\".Gordon-Levitt remembered, \"it was six-day weeks of just, like, coming home at night battered ... The light fixtures on the ceiling are coming around on the floor, and you have to choose the right time to cross through them, and if you don't, you're going to fall.\"On July 15, 2009, filming took place atUniversity College Londonfor the sequences occurring inside a Paris college of architecture in the story,including the library, Flaxman Gallery and Gustav Tuck Theatre. Filming moved to France, where they shot Cobb entering the college of architecture (the place used for the entrance was theMusée Galliera) and the pivotal scenes between Ariadne and Cobb, in abistro(a fictional one set up at the corner of Rue César Franck and Rue Bouchut), and lastly on theBir-Hakeim bridge.: 17For the explosion that takes place during the bistro scene,", "the bistro scene, local authorities would not allow the use of real explosives. High-pressurenitrogenwas used to create the effect of a series of explosions. Pfister used six high-speed cameras to capture the sequence from different angles and make sure that they got the shot. The visual effects department enhanced the sequence, adding more destruction and flying debris. For the \"Paris folding\" sequence and when Ariadne \"creates\" the bridges,green screenandCGIwere used on location.: 17 Tangier, Morocco, doubled asMombasa, where Cobb hires Eames and Yusuf. A foot chase was shot in the streets and alleyways of the historicmedina quarter.: 18To capture this sequence, Pfister employed a mix ofhand-held cameraandsteadicamwork.: 19Tangier was also used as the setting for filming an important riot scene during the initial foray into Saito's mind. Filming moved to theLos Angelesarea, where some sets were built on a Warner Bros.sound stage, including the interior rooms of Saito's Japanese castle (the exterior was", "(the exterior was done on a small set built inMalibu Beach). The dining room was inspired by the historicNijō Castle, built around 1603. These sets were inspired by a mix ofJapanese architectureand Western influences.: 19 The production staged a multi-vehiclecar chaseon the streets ofdowntown Los Angeles, which involved a freight train crashing down the middle of a street.: 20To do this, the filmmakers configured a train engine on the chassis of a tractor trailer. The replica was made fromfiberglassmolds taken from authentic train parts and matched in terms of color and design.: 21Also, the car chase was supposed to be set in the midst of a downpour, but the L.A. weather stayed typically sunny. The filmmakers set up elaborate effects (e.g., rooftopwater cannons) to give the audience the impression that the weather was overcast and soggy. L.A. was also the site of the climactic scene where aFord Econolinevan runs off theSchuyler Heim Bridgein slow motion.This sequence was filmed on and off for months, with", "for months, with the van being shot out of a cannon, according to actor Dileep Rao. Capturing the actors suspended within the van in slow motion took a whole day to film. Once the van landed in the water, the challenge for the actors was to avoid panic. \"And when they ask you to act, it's a bit of an ask,\" explained Cillian Murphy.The actors had to be underwater for four to five minutes while drawing air fromscuba tanks; underwaterbuddy breathingis shown in this sequence. Cobb's house was in Pasadena. The hotel lobby was filmed at the CAA building in Century City. 'Limbo' was made on location in Los Angeles andMorocco, with the beach scene filmed atPalos Verdesbeach with CGI buildings. N Hope St. in Los Angeles was the primary filming location for 'Limbo,' with green screen and CGI being used to create the dream landscape. The final phase of principal photography took place inAlbertain late November 2009. The location manager discovered a temporarily closed ski resort,Fortress Mountain.: 22An elaborate set", "22An elaborate set was assembled near the top station of the Canadianchairlift, taking three months to build.: 93The production had to wait for a huge snowstorm, which eventually arrived.The ski-chase sequence was inspired by Nolan's favoriteJames Bondfilm,On Her Majesty's Secret Service(1969): \"What I liked about it that we've tried to emulate in this film is there's a tremendous balance in that movie of action and scale and romanticism and tragedy and emotion.\": 91 Cinematography The film was shot primarily in theanamorphic formaton35 mm film, with key sequences filmed on65 mm, and aerial sequences inVistaVision. Nolan did not shoot any footage withIMAXcameras as he had withThe Dark Knight. \"We didn't feel that we were going to be able to shoot in IMAX because of the size of the cameras because this film given that it deals with a potentially surreal area, the nature of dreams and so forth, I wanted it to be as realistic as possible. Not be bound by the scale of those IMAX cameras, even though I love the", "though I love the format dearly\".In addition Nolan and Pfister tested usingShowscanandSuper Dimension 70as potential large-format,high-frame-ratecamera systems to use for the film, but ultimately decided against either format.: 29Sequences in slow motion were filmed on a Photo-Sonics 35 mm camera at speeds of up to 1,000 frames per second. Wally Pfister tested shooting some of these sequences using a high speeddigital camera, but found the format to be too unreliable due to technical glitches. \"Out of six times that we shot on the digital format, we only had one usable piece and it didn't end up in the film. Out of the six times we shot with the Photo-Sonics camera and 35 mm running through it, every single shot was in the movie.\"Nolan also chose not to shoot any of the film in3Das he prefers shooting on filmusingprime lenses, which is not possible with 3D cameras.Nolan has also criticized the dim image that 3D projection produces, and disputes that traditional film does not allow realisticdepth perception,", "perception, saying \"I think it's a misnomer to call it 3D versus 2D. The whole point of cinematic imagery is it's three dimensional... You know 95% of ourdepth cuescome fromocclusion, resolution, color and so forth, so the idea of calling a 2D movie a '2D movie' is a little misleading.\"Nolan did testconvertingInceptioninto 3D in post-production but decided that, while it was possible, he lacked the time to complete the conversion to a standard he was happy with.In February 2011Jonathan Liebesmansuggested that Warner Bros. were attempting a 3D conversion forBlu-rayrelease. Wally Pfister gave each location and dream level a distinctive look to aid the audience's recognition of the narrative's location during the heavily crosscut portion of the film: the mountain fortress appears sterile and cool, the hotel hallways have warm hues, and the scenes in the van are more neutral.: 35–36 Nolan has said that the film \"deals with levels of reality, and perceptions of reality which is something I'm very interested in.", "very interested in. It's an action film set in a contemporary world, but with a slight science-fiction bent to it\", while also describing it as \"very much an ensemble film structured somewhat as a heist movie. It's an action adventure that spans the globe\". Visual effects For dream sequences inInception, Nolan used littlecomputer-generated imagery, preferringpractical effectswhenever possible. Nolan said, \"It's always very important to me to do as much as possible in-camera, and then, if necessary, computer graphics are very useful to build on or enhance what you have achieved physically.\": 12To this end, visual effects supervisorPaul Franklinbuilt aminiatureof the mountain fortress set and then blew it up for the film. For the fight scene that takes place in zero gravity, he used CG-based effects to \"subtly bend elements like physics, space and time.\" The most challenging effect was the \"Limbo\" city level at the end of the film, because it continually developed during production. Franklin had artists build", "had artists build concepts while Nolan expressed his ideal vision: \"Something glacial, with clear modernist architecture, but with chunks of it breaking off into the sea like icebergs\".Franklin and his team ended up with \"something that looked like an iceberg version ofGotham Citywith water running through it.\"They created a basic model of a glacier and then designers created a program that added elements like roads, intersections and ravines until they had a complex, yet organic-looking, cityscape. For the Paris-folding sequence, Franklin had artists producing concept sketches and then they created rough computer animations to give them an idea of what the sequence looked like while in motion. Later during principal photography, Nolan was able to direct DiCaprio and Page based on this rough computer animation that Franklin had created.Inceptionhad nearly 500 visual effects shots (in comparison,Batman Beginshad approximately 620), which is relatively few in comparison to contemporary effects-heavy films,", "films, which can have as many as 2,000 visual effects shots. Music The score forInceptionwas written byHans Zimmer,who described his work as \"a very electronic,dense score\",filled with \"nostalgia and sadness\" to match Cobb's feelings throughout the film.The music was written simultaneously to filming,and features a guitar sound reminiscent ofEnnio Morricone, played byJohnny Marr, former guitarist ofthe Smiths.Édith Piaf's \"Non, je ne regrette rien\" (\"No, I Regret Nothing\") appears throughout the film, used to accurately time the dreams, and Zimmer reworked pieces of the song into cues of the score.Asoundtrack albumwas released on July 11, 2010, byReprise Records.The majority of the score was also included in high resolution5.1 surround soundon the second disc of the two-disc Blu-ray release.Hans Zimmer's music was nominated for an Academy Award in theBest Original Scorecategory in 2011, losing toTrent ReznorandAtticus RossofThe Social Network. Themes Reality and dreams InInception, Nolan wanted to explore", "wanted to explore \"the idea of people sharing a dream space... That gives you the ability to access somebody'sunconscious mind. What would that be used and abused for?\"The majority of the film's plot takes place in these interconnected dream worlds. This structure creates a framework where actions in the real or dream worlds ripple across others. The dream is always in a state of production, and shifts across the levels as the characters navigate it.By contrast, the world ofThe Matrix(1999) is an authoritarian, computer-controlled one, alluding to theories of social control developed by thinkersMichel FoucaultandJean Baudrillard. However, according to one interpretation Nolan's world has more in common with the works ofGilles DeleuzeandFélix Guattari. David DenbyinThe New Yorkercompared Nolan's cinematic treatment of dreams toLuis Buñuel's inBelle de Jour(1967) andThe Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie(1972).He criticized Nolan's \"literal-minded\" action level sequencing compared to Buñuel, who \"silently", "who \"silently pushed us into reveries and left us alone to enjoy our wonderment, but Nolan is working on so many levels of representation at once that he has to lay in pages of dialogue just to explain what's going on.\" The latter captures \"the peculiar malign intensity of actual dreams.\" Deirdre Barrett, a dream researcher atHarvard University, said that Nolan did not get every detail accurate regarding dreams, but their illogical, rambling, disjointed plots would not make for a great thriller anyway. However, \"he did get many aspects right,\" she said, citing the scene in which a sleeping Cobb is shoved into a full bath, and in the dream world water gushes into the windows of the building, waking him up. \"That's very much how real stimuli get incorporated, and you very often wake up right after that intrusion.\" Nolan himself said, \"I tried to work that idea of manipulation and management of aconscious dreambeing a skill that these people have. Really the script is based on those common, very basic", "common, very basic experiences and concepts, and where can those take you? And the only outlandish idea that the film presents, really, is the existence of a technology that allows you to enter and share the same dream as someone else.\" Dreams and cinema Others have argued that the film is itself ametaphor for filmmaking, and that the filmgoing experience itself, images flashing before one's eyes in a darkened room, is akin to a dream. Writing inWired, Jonah Lehrer supported this interpretation and presented neurological evidence that brain activity is strikingly similar during film-watching and sleeping. In both, thevisual cortexis highly active and theprefrontal cortex, which deals with logic, deliberate analysis, and self-awareness, is quiet.Paul argued that the experience of going to a picturehouse is itself an exercise in shared dreaming, particularly when viewingInception: the film's sharp cutting between scenes forces the viewer to create larger narrative arcs to stitch the pieces together. This", "together. This demand of production parallel to consumption of the images, on the part of the audience is analogous to dreaming itself. As in the film's story, in a cinema one enters into the space of another's dream, in this case Nolan's, as with any work of art, one's reading of it is ultimately influenced by one's own subjective desires and subconscious.At Bir-Hakeim bridge in Paris, Ariadne creates an illusion of infinity by addingfacing mirrorsunderneath its struts, Stephanie Dreyfus inla Croixasked \"Is this not a strong, beautiful metaphor for the cinema and its power of illusion?\" Cinematic technique Genre Nolan combined elements from several different film genres into the film, notably science fiction,heist film, andfilm noir.Marion Cotillardplays \"Mal\" Cobb, Dom Cobb's projection of his guilt over his deceased wife's suicide. As the film's main antagonist, she is a frequent, malevolent presence in his dreams. Dom is unable to control these projections of her, challenging his abilities as an", "his abilities as an extractor.Nolan described Mal as \"the essence of the femme fatale\",: 9the keynoirreference in the film. As a \"classic femme fatale\" her relationship with Cobb is in his mind, a manifestation of Cobb's own neurosis and fear of how little he knows about the woman he loves.DiCaprio praised Cotillard's performance saying that \"she can be strong and vulnerable and hopeful and heartbreaking all in the same moment, which was perfect for all the contradictions of her character\".: 10 Nolan began with the structure of a heist movie, sinceexpositionis an essential element of that genre, though adapted it to have a greater emotional narrative suited to the world of dreams and subconscious.As Denby described this device: \"the outer shell of the story is an elaborate caper\".Kristin Thompsonargued that exposition was a major formal device in the film. While a traditional heist movie has a heavy dose of exposition at the beginning as the team assembles and the leader explains the plan, inInceptionthis", "inInceptionthis becomes nearly continuous as the group progresses through the various levels of dreaming.Three quarters of the film, until the van begins to fall from the bridge, are devoted to explaining its plot. In this way, exposition takes precedence over characterization. The characters' relationships are created by their respective skills and roles. Ariadne, likeher ancient namesake, creates the maze and guides the others through it, but also helps Cobb navigate his own subconscious, and as the sole student of dream sharing, helps the audience understand the concept of the plot. Nolan drew inspiration from the works ofJorge Luis Borges,including \"The Secret Miracle\" and \"The Circular Ruins\",and from the filmsBlade Runner(1982) andThe Matrix(1999).While Nolan has not confirmed this, it has also been suggested by many observers that the movie draws heavy inspiration from the 2006 animated filmPaprika. Ending The film cuts to theclosing creditsfrom a shot of the top apparently starting to show an ever so", "to show an ever so faint wobble, inviting speculation about whether the final sequence was reality or another dream. Nolan confirmed that the ambiguity was deliberate,saying, \"I've been asked the question more times than I've ever been asked any other question about any other film I've made... What's funny to me is that people really do expect me to answer it.\"The film's script concludes with \"Behind him, on the table, the spinning top is STILL SPINNING. And we—FADE OUT\".Nolan said, \"I put that cut there at the end, imposing an ambiguity from outside the film. That always felt the right ending to me—it always felt like the appropriate 'kick' to me... The real point of the scene—and this is what I tell people—is that Cobb isn't looking at the top. He's looking at his kids. He's left it behind. That's the emotional significance of the thing.\" Caine interpreted the ending as meaning that Cobb is in the real world, quoting Nolan as telling him \"'Well, when you're in the scene, it's reality.' So get that — if I'm", "get that — if I'm in it, it's reality. If I'm not in it, it's a dream\". While reiterating that he was uncomfortable with definitively explaining the scene, Nolan in 2023 creditedEmma Thomasas providing \"the correct answer, which is Leo's character ... doesn't care at that point\".Mark Fisherargued that \"a century of cultural theory\" cautions against accepting theauthor's interpretationas anything more than a supplementary text, and this all the more so given the theme of the instability of any one master position in Nolan's films. Therein the manipulator is often the one who ends up manipulated, and Cobb's \"not caring\" about whether or not his world is real may be the price of his happiness and release. Release Marketing Warner Bros. spent US$100 million marketing the film. AlthoughInceptionwas not part of an existing franchise, Sue Kroll, president of Warner's worldwide marketing, said the company believed it could gain awareness due to the strength of \"Christopher Nolan as a brand\". Kroll declared that \"We", "declared that \"We don't have the brand equity that usually drives a big summer opening, but we have a great cast and a fresh idea from a filmmaker with a track record of making incredible movies. If you can't make those elements work, it's a sad day.\"The studio also tried to maintain a campaign of secrecy—as reported by the Senior VP of Interactive Marketing, Michael Tritter, \"You have this movie which is going to have a pretty big built in fanbase... but you also have a movie that you are trying to keep very secret. Chris really likes people to see his movies in a theater and not see it all beforehand so everything that you do to market that—at least early on—is with an eye to feeding the interest to fans.\" Aviral marketingcampaign was employed for the film. After the revelation of the first teaser trailer, in August 2009, the film's official website featured only an animation of Cobb's spinning top. In December, the top toppled over and the website opened the online gameMind Crime, which upon completion", "upon completion revealedInception's poster.The rest of the campaign unrolled afterWonderConin April 2010, where Warner gave away promotional T-shirts featuring the PASIV briefcase used to create the dream space, and had aQR codelinking to an online manual of the device.Mind Crimealso received a stage 2 with more resources, including a hidden trailer for the movie.More pieces of viral marketing began to surface beforeInception's release, such as a manual filled with bizarre images and text sent toWiredmagazine,and the online publication of posters, ads, phone applications, and strange websites all related to the film.Warner also released an online prequel comic,Inception: The Cobol Job. The official trailer released on May 10, 2010, throughMind Gamewas extremely well received.It featured an original piece of music, \"Mind Heist\", by recording artistZack Hemsey,rather than music from the score.The trailer quickly went viral with numerousmashupscopying its style, both by amateurs on sites like YouTubeand by", "like YouTubeand by professionals on sites such asCollegeHumor.On June 7, 2010, a behind-the-scenes featurette on the film was released in HD on Yahoo! Movies. Inceptionand its film trailers are widely credited for launching the trend throughout the 2010s in which blockbuster movie trailers repeatedly hit audiences with so-called \"braam\" sounds: \"bassy, brassy, thunderous notes—like a foghorn on steroids—meant to impart a sense of apocalyptic momentousness\".However, different composers worked on the teaser trailer, first trailer, second trailer, and film score, meaning that identifying the composer(s) responsible for that trend is a complicated task. Home media Inceptionwas released onDVDandBlu-rayon December 3, 2010, in France,and the week after in the UK and USA (December 7, 2010).The film was released onVHSinSouth Korea, making it one of the last major studio films released for the format.Warner Bros. also made available in the United States a limited Blu-ray edition packaged in a metal replica of the", "replica of the PASIV briefcase, which included extras such as a metal replica of the spinning top totem. With a production run of less than 2,000, it sold out in one weekend.Inceptionwas released on4K Blu-rayanddigital copyalong with other Christopher Nolan films on December 19, 2017.As of 2018, thehome videoreleases have sold over 9million units and grossed over$160 million. Putative video game In a November 2010 interview, Nolan expressed his intention to develop a video game set in theInceptionworld, working with a team of collaborators. He described it as \"a longer-term proposition\", referring to the medium of video games as \"something I've wanted to explore\". 10th anniversary re-release Inceptionwas re-released in theaters for its tenth anniversary, starting on August 12, 2020, in international markets and on August 21 in the U.S.The re-release was originally announced by Warner Bros. in June 2020 and scheduled for July 17, 2020, taking the original release date for Nolan's upcoming filmTenetafter its", "filmTenetafter its delay to July 31 due to the impact of theCOVID-19 pandemicon movie theaters.AfterTenetwas delayed again to August 12, the re-release was shifted to July 31,before setting on the August release date following a third delay. Reception Box office Inceptionwas released in both conventional andIMAXtheaters on July 16, 2010.The film had its world premiere atLeicester Squarein London on July 8, 2010.In the United States and Canada,Inceptionwas released theatrically in 3,792 conventional theaters and 195 IMAX theaters.The film grossed US$21.8 million during its opening day on July 16, 2010, with midnight screenings in 1,500 locations.Overall the film made US$62.7 million and debuted at No.1 on its opening weekend.Inception's opening weekend gross made it the second-highest-grossing debut for ascience fiction filmthat was not a sequel, remake or adaptation, behindAvatar's US$77 million opening-weekend gross in 2009.The film held the top spot of the box office rankings in its second and third", "second and third weekends, with drops of just 32% (US$42.7 million) and 36% (US$27.5 million), respectively,before dropping to second place in its fourth week, behindThe Other Guys. Inceptioninitially grossed US$292 million in the United States and Canada, US$56 million in the United Kingdom, Ireland andMaltaand US$479 million in other countries for a total of US$828 million worldwide.Its five highest-grossing markets after the US and Canada (US$292 million) were China (US$68 million), the United Kingdom, Ireland andMalta(US$56 million), France and theMaghrebregion (US$43 million), Japan (US$40 million) andSouth Korea(US$38 million).It was thesixth-highest-grossing film of 2010 in North America,and thefourth-highest-grossing film of 2010, behindToy Story 3,Alice in WonderlandandHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1.Its subsequent re-releases increased its gross to US$839 million.Inceptionis the fourth most lucrative production in Christopher Nolan's career—behindThe Dark Knight,The Dark Knight", "Dark Knight RisesandOppenheimer—and the second most forLeonardo DiCaprio—behindTitanic. Critical response OnRotten Tomatoes,Inceptionholds an approval rating of 87% based on 370 reviews, with an average rating of 8.20/10. The website's critical consensus reads: \"Smart, innovative, and thrilling,Inceptionis that rare summer blockbuster that succeeds viscerally as well as intellectually.\"Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".Audiences polled byCinemaScoregave the film an average grade of \"B+\" on an A+ to F scale. Peter TraversofRolling StonecalledInceptiona \"wildly ingenious chess game,\" and concluded \"the result is a knockout.\"Justin Chang ofVarietypraised the film as \"a conceptualtour de force\" and wrote, \"applying a vivid sense of procedural detail to a fiendishly intricate yarn set in thelabyrinthof theunconscious mind, the writer-director has devised a heist thriller forsurrealists,", "forsurrealists, aJungian'sRififi, that challenges viewers to sift through multiple layers of (un)reality.\"Jim Vejvoda ofIGNrated the film as perfect, deeming it \"a singular accomplishment from a filmmaker who has only gotten better with each film.\"Relevant's David Roark called it Nolan's \"greatest accomplishment\", saying, \"Visually, intellectually and emotionally,Inceptionis a masterpiece.\" In its August 2010 issue,Empiregave the film a full five stars and wrote, \"it feels likeStanley Kubrickadapting the work of the great sci-fi authorWilliam Gibson Nolan delivers another true original: welcome to an undiscovered country.\"Entertainment Weekly's Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the film a B+ grade and wrote, \"It's a rolling explosion of images as hypnotizing and sharply angled as any in a drawing byM. C. Escheror a state-of-the-biz video game; the backwards splicing of Nolan's ownMementolooks rudimentary by comparison.\"Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesawarded the film a full four stars and said thatInception\"is all", "all about process, about fighting our way through enveloping sheets of reality and dream, reality within dreams, dreams without reality. It's a breathtaking juggling act.\"Richard Roeper, also of theSun-Times, gaveInceptionan \"A+\" score and called it \"one of the best movies of the century.\"BBC Radio 5 Live'sMark KermodenamedInceptionas the best film of 2010, stating that \"Inceptionis proof that people are not stupid, that cinema is not trash, and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing.\" Michael Phillipsof theChicago Tribunegave the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote, \"I found myself wishingInceptionwere weirder, further out the film is Nolan's labyrinth all the way, and it's gratifying to experience a summer movie with large visual ambitions and with nothing more or less on its mind than (asShakespearesaid) a dream that hath no bottom.\"Time'sRichard Corlisswrote that the film's \"noble intent is to implant one man's vision in the mind of a vast audience The idea of moviegoing as", "of moviegoing as communal dreaming is a century old. WithInception, viewers have a chance to see that notion get a state-of-the-art update.\"Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timesfelt that Nolan was able to blend \"the best of traditional and modern filmmaking. If you're searching for smart and nervy popular entertainment, this is what it looks like.\"USA Today'sClaudia Puig gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars and felt that Nolan \"regards his viewers as possibly smarter than they are—or at least as capable of rising to his inventive level. That's a tall order. But it's refreshing to find a director who makes us stretch, even occasionally struggle, to keep up.\" Not all reviewers gave the film positive reviews.New Yorkmagazine'sDavid Edelsteinsaid in his review that he had \"no idea what so many people are raving about. It's as if someone went into their heads while they were sleeping and planted the idea thatInceptionis a visionary masterpiece and—hold on ... Whoa! I think I get it. The movie is a", "it. The movie is a metaphor for the power of delusional hype—a metaphor for itself.\"The New York Observer'sRex Reedsaid the film's development was \"pretty much what we've come to expect from summer movies in general and Christopher Nolan movies in particular ... doesn't seem like much of an accomplishment to me.\"A. O. ScottofThe New York Timescommented \"there is a lot to see inInception, there is nothing that counts as genuine vision. Mr. Nolan's idea of the mind is too literal, too logical, and too rule-bound to allow the full measure of madness.\"The New Yorker'sDavid Denbyconsidered the film to be \"not nearly as much fun as Nolan imagined it to be\", concluding that \"Inceptionis a stunning-looking film that gets lost in fabulous intricacies, a movie devoted to its own workings and to little else.\" While some critics have tended to view the film as perfectly straightforward, and even criticize its overarching themes as \"the stuff of torpid platitudes\", online discussion has been much more positive.Heated", "positive.Heated debate has centered on the ambiguity of the ending, with many critics like Devin Faraci making the case that the film is self-referential and tongue-in-cheek, both a film about film-making and a dream about dreams.Other critics readInceptionas Christian allegory and focus on the film's use of religious and water symbolism.Yet other critics, such asKristin Thompson, see less value in the ambiguous ending of the film and more in its structure and novel method of storytelling, highlightingInceptionas a new form of narrative that revels in \"continuous exposition\". Several critics and scholars have noted the film has many striking similarities to the 2006animefilmPaprikabySatoshi Kon(andYasutaka Tsutsui's 1993novel of the same name), including plot similarities, similar scenes, and similar characters, arguing thatInceptionwas influenced byPaprika.Several sources have also noted plot similarities between the film and the 2002Uncle ScroogecomicThe Dream of a LifetimebyDon Rosa.The influence of", "influence of Tarkovsky'sSolarisonInceptionwas noted as well. Year-end and all-time lists Inceptionappeared on over 273 critics' lists of the top ten films of 2010, being picked as number-one on at least 55 of those lists.It was the second-most-mentioned film in both the top ten lists and number-one rankings, only behindThe Social Networkalong withToy Story 3,True Grit,The King's Speech, andBlack Swanas the most critically acclaimed films of 2010.AuthorStephen KingplacedInceptionat No. 3 in his list of top 10 best films of the year. Critics and publications who ranked the film first for that year includedRichard Roeperof theChicago Sun-Times,Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Times(tied withThe Social NetworkandToy Story 3), Tasha Robinson ofThe A.V. Club,Empiremagazine, and Kirk Honeycutt ofThe Hollywood Reporter. In March 2011, the film was voted byBBC Radio 1andBBC Radio 1Xtralisteners as their ninth-favorite film of all time.ProducerRoger CormancitedInceptionas an example of \"great imagination and", "imagination and originality\".In 2012,Inceptionwas ranked the 35th-best-edited film of all time by theMotion Picture Editors Guild.In the same year,Total Filmnamed it the most-rewatchable movie of all time.In 2014,EmpirerankedInceptionthe tenth-greatest film ever made on their list of \"The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time\" as voted by the magazine's readers,whileRolling Stonemagazine named it the second-best science fiction film since the turn of the century.Inceptionwas ranked 84th onHollywood's 100 Favorite Films, a list compiled byThe Hollywood Reporterin 2014, surveying \"Studio chiefs, Oscar winners and TV royalty\".In 2016,Inceptionwas voted the51st-best film of the 21st CenturybyBBC, as picked by 177 film critics from around the world.The film was included in theVisual Effects Society's list of \"The Most Influential Visual Effects Films of All Time\".In 2019,Total FilmnamedInceptionthe best film of the 2010s.Many critics and media outlets includedInceptionin their rankings of the best films of the", "best films of the 2010s.The film was included inForbesmagazine's list ofTop 150 Greatest Films of 21st Century. In April 2014,The Daily Telegraphplaced the title on its top ten list of the most overrated films.Telegraph's Tim Robey stated, \"It's a criminal failing of the movie that it purports to be about people's dreams being invaded, but demonstrates no instinct at all for what a dream has ever felt like, and no flair for making us feel like we're in one, at any point.\"The film won an informal poll by theLos Angeles Timesas the most overrated movie of 2010. Accolades The film won many awards in technical categories, such asAcademy AwardsforBest Cinematography,Best Sound Editing,Best Sound Mixing, andBest Visual Effects,and theBritish Academy Film AwardsforBest Production Design,Best Special Visual EffectsandBest Sound.In most of its artistic nominations, such as Film, Director, and Screenplay at the Oscars, BAFTAs andGolden Globes, the film was defeated byThe Social NetworkorThe King's Speech.However, the", "Speech.However, the film did win the two highest honors for a science fiction or fantasy film: the 2011Bradbury Awardfor best dramatic productionand the 2011Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation (Long Form). In popular culture Numerous pop and hip hop songs reference the film, includingCommon's \"Blue Sky\",N.E.R.D.'s \"Hypnotize U\",XV's \"The Kick\",Black Eyed Peas' \"Just Can't Get Enough\",Lil Wayne's \"6 Foot 7 Foot\",Jennifer Lopez's \"On the Floor\", andB.o.B's \"Strange Clouds\", whileT.I.hadInception-based artwork on two of his mixtapes. An instrumental track byJoe Buddenis titled \"Inception\".The animated seriesSouth Parkparodies the film in the show's tenth episode of itsfourteenth season, titled \"Insheeption.\"The film was also an influence forAriana Grande's video for \"No Tears Left to Cry.\"\"Lawnmower Dog\", the second episode of the animated comedy showRick and Morty, parodied the film.In an episode ofThe Simpsons, named \"How I Wet Your Mother\", the plot spoofsInceptionwith various scenes parodying moments", "parodying moments from the film.The showrunners of the television seriesThe Flashsaid its season 4 finale was inspired byInception.In February 2020, American singer-songwriterTaylor Swiftreleased a lyric video for her single \"The Man\", which featured visuals bearing resemblance to the film. The song also mentions DiCaprio in its lyrics. The film's title has been colloquialized as the suffix-ception, which can be jokingly appended to a noun to indicate a layering, nesting, orrecursionof the thing in question. See also Notes References Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Christopher_Nolan (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930af820>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
As of 2024, how many times could the country where shogi was invented fit inside the country where xiangqi was invented? Round to the nearest whole number.
25
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiangqi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan
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Numerical reasoning | Post processing
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogi', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiangqi', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogi", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiangqi", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" ]
[ "Shogi Shogi(将棋,shōgi,English:/ˈʃoʊɡi/,Japanese:), also known asJapanese chess, is astrategyboard gamefor two players. It is one of the most popular board games in Japan and is in the same family of games asWestern chess,chaturanga,xiangqi,Indian chess, andjanggi.Shōgimeans general's (shō将) board game (gi棋). Shogi was the earliest historical chess-related game to allow captured pieces to be returned to the board by the capturing player.Thisdrop ruleis speculated to have been invented in the 15th century and possibly connected to the practice of 15th-centurymercenariesswitching loyalties when captured instead of being killed. The earliest predecessor of the game,chaturanga, originated in India in the 6th century, and the game was likely transmitted to Japan via China orKoreasometime after theNara period.Shogi in its present form was played as early as the 16th century, while a direct ancestor without the drop rule was recorded from 1210 in a historical documentNichūreki, which is an edited copy ofShōchūrekiandKaichūrekifrom the lateHeian period(c. 1120). Equipment Two players face each other across a board composed of rectangles in a grid of 9ranks(rows,段) by 9files(columns,筋) yielding an 81-square board.In Japanese they are calledSente先手(first player) andGote後手(second player), but in English are conventionally referred to as Black and White, with Black the first player. The board is nearly always rectangular, and the rectangles are undifferentiated by marking or color. Pairs of dots mark the players' promotion zones. Each player has a set of 20 flat wedge-shaped pentagonal pieces of slightly different sizes. Except for the kings, opposing pieces are undifferentiated by marking or color. Pieces faceforwardby having the pointed side of each piece oriented toward the opponent's side – this shows who controls the piece during play. The pieces from largest (most important) to smallest (least important) are: Several of these names were chosen to correspond to their rough equivalents in international chess, and not as literal translations of the Japanese names. Each piece has its name written on its surface in the form of twokanji(Chinese charactersused assyllabogramsor aslogogramsto record texts inOld Japanese), usually in black ink. On the reverse side of each piece, other than the king and gold general, are one or two other characters, in amateur sets often in a different color (usually red); this side is turned face up during play to indicate that the piece has been promoted. In some cases, the backsides of the King pieces (the narrow side which faces back toward the player during normal play) will display kanji containing additional information about the piece manufacturers. Following is a table of the pieces with their Japanese representations and English equivalents. The abbreviations are used for game notation and often when referring to the pieces in speech in Japanese. English speakers sometimes refer to promoted bishops ashorsesand promoted rooks asdragons, after their Japanese names, and generally use the Japanese termtokinfor promoted pawns. Silver generals and gold generals are commonly referred to simply assilversandgolds, respectively. The characters inscribed on the reverse sides of the pieces to indicate promotion may be in red ink, and are usually cursive. The characters on the backs of the pieces that promote to gold generals are cursive variants of金'gold', becoming more cursive (more abbreviated) as the value of the original piece decreases. These cursive forms have these equivalents in print:全for promoted silver,今for promoted knight,仝for promoted lance, and个for promoted pawn (tokin). Another typographic convention has abbreviated versions of the original values, with a reduced number of strokes:圭for a promoted knight(桂),杏for a promoted lance(香), and the全as above for a promoted silver, butと(ahiraganasymbol for the syllable \"to\") fortokin. The suggestion that the Japanese characters have deterred Western players from learning shogi has led to \"Westernized\" or \"international\" pieces which use iconic symbols instead of characters. Most players soon learn to recognize the characters, however, partially because the traditional pieces are already iconic by size, with more powerful pieces being larger. As a result, Westernized pieces have never become popular. Bilingual pieces with both Japanese characters and English captions have been developed as have pieces with animal cartoons. Setup and gameplay Each player sets up friendly pieces facing forward (toward the opponent). Afurigoma振り駒 'piece toss' is used to decide who moves first. One of the players tosses five pawns. If the number of tokins (promoted pawns, と) facing up is higher than unpromoted pawns (歩), then the player who tossed the pawns playsgote後手 'white' (that is, getting the second move). After the piece tossfurigoma,the game proceeds. If multiple games are played, then players alternate turns for who goes first in subsequent games. (The terms \"Black\" and \"White\" are used to differentiate sides although there is no difference in the color of the pieces.) For each turn, a player may either move a piece that is currently on the board (and potentially promote it, capture an opposing piece, or both) or else drop a piece that has been previously captured onto a square of the board. These options are explained below. Rules Objective The usual goal of a game is for one player tocheckmatethe other player's king, winning the game. Movement Most shogi pieces can move only to an adjacent square. A few may move across the board, and one jumps over intervening pieces. The lance, bishop, and rook arerangingpieces: They can move any number of squares along a straight line limited only by intervening pieces and the edge of the board. If an opposing piece intervenes, it may be captured by removing it from the board and replacing it with the moving piece. If a friendly piece intervenes, the moving piece must stop short of that square; if the friendly piece is adjacent, the moving piece may not move in that direction at all. Aking(玉/王) moves one square in any direction,orthogonalor diagonal. Arook(飛) moves any number of squares in an orthogonal direction. Abishop(角) moves any number of squares in a diagonal direction. Because they cannot move orthogonally, the players' unpromoted bishops can reach only half the squares of the board, unless one is captured and then dropped. Agold general(金) moves one square orthogonally, or one square diagonally forward, giving it six possible destinations. It cannot move diagonally backwards. Asilver general(銀) moves one square diagonally, or one square straight forward, giving it five possible destinations. Because an unpromoted silver can retreat more easily than a promoted one, it is common to leave a silver unpromoted at the far side of the board. (SeePromotion). Aknight(桂) jumps at an angle intermediate to orthogonal and diagonal, amounting to one square straight forward plus one square diagonally forward, in a single move. Thus the knight has two possible forward destinations. Unlikeinternational chess knights, shogi knights cannot move to the sides or in a backwards direction. The knight is the only piece that ignores intervening pieces on the way to its destination. It is not blocked from moving if the square in front of it is occupied, but neither can it capture a piece on that square. It is often useful to leave a knight unpromoted at the far side of the board. A knightmustpromote, however, if it reaches either of the two furthest ranks. (SeePromotion.) Alance(香) moves just like the rook except it cannot move backwards or to the sides. It is often useful to leave a lance unpromoted at the far side of the board. A lancemustpromote, however, if it reaches the furthest rank. (SeePromotion.) Apawn(歩) moves one square straight forward. It cannot retreat. Unlikeinternational chess pawns, shogi pawns capture the same as they move. A pawnmustpromote if it arrives at the furthest rank. (SeePromotion.) In practice, however, a pawn is usually promoted whenever possible. There are two restrictions on where a pawn may be dropped. (SeeDrops.) All pieces but the knight move either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. These directions cannot be combined in a single move; one direction must be chosen. Every piece blocks the movement of all other non-jumping pieces through the square it occupies. If a piece occupies a legal destination for an opposing piece, it may becapturedby removing it from the board and replacing it with the opposing piece. The capturing piece may not continue beyond that square on that turn. Shogi pieces capture the same as they move. Normally, when moving a piece, a player snaps it to the board with the ends of the fingers of the same hand. This makes a sudden sound effect, bringing the piece to the attention of the opponent. This is also true for capturing and dropping pieces. On a traditionalshogi-ban, the pitch of the snap is deeper, delivering a subtler effect. Promotion A player'spromotion zoneconsists of the furthest one-third of the board – the three ranks occupied by the opponent's pieces at setup. The zone is typically delineated on shogi boards by two inscribed dots. When a piece is moved, if part of the piece's path lies within the promotion zone (that is, if the piece moves into, out of, or wholly within the zone; butnotif it is dropped into the zone – seeDrops), then the player has the option topromotethe piece at the end of the turn. Promotion is indicated by turning the piece over after it moves, revealing the character of the promoted piece. Promoting a piece is usually not compulsory; however, if a pawn or lance is moved to the furthest rank, or a knight is moved to either of the two furthest ranks, that piecemustpromote (otherwise, it would have no legal move on subsequent turns). A silver general is never required to promote, and it is often advantageous to keep a silver general unpromoted (it is easier, for example, to extract an unpromoted silver from behind enemy lines: a promoted silver, with only one line of retreat, can be easily blocked.) Rooks, bishops and pawns are almost always promoted, as these pieces do not lose any of their powers upon promotion. Promoting a piece changes the way it moves. The various pieces promote as follows: When captured, a piece loses its promoted status. Otherwise promotion is permanent. Apromoted rook(literallydragon king(龍王(ryūō)); shortended forms:龍(ryū)and竜(ryū)) moves as a rook and as a king. It is commonly referred to asdragon. Apromoted bishop(literallydragon horse(龍馬(ryūma)); shortened form馬(uma)) moves as a bishop and as a king. It is commonly referred to ashorse. Apromoted silver(成銀narigin; alternate forms: 全, cursive 金), apromoted knight(成桂narikei; alternate forms: 圭, 今, cursive 金), apromoted lance(成香narikyō; alternate forms: 杏, 仝, cursive 金) and apromoted pawn(と金tokin; alternate forms: と, 个) all move the same way as a gold general. The promoted pawn is often called by its Japanese nametokin, even by non-Japanese players. Drops Captured pieces are retainedin handand can be brought back into play under the capturing player's control. The Japanese term forpiece(s) in handis either 持ち駒mochigomaor 手駒tegoma.On any turn, instead of moving a piece on the board, a player may select a piece in hand and place it – unpromoted side up and facing the opposing side – on any empty square. The piece is then one of that player's active pieces on the board and can be moved accordingly. This is calleddroppingthe piece, or simply, adrop. A drop counts as a complete move. A drop cannot capture a piece, nor does dropping within the promotion zone result in immediate promotion. Capture and/or promotion may occur normally, however, on subsequent moves of the piece. Restrictions.There are three restrictions on dropping pieces; the last two of these apply only to pawns. A corollary of the second restriction is that a player with an unpromoted pawn on every file is unable to drop a pawn anywhere. For this reason, it is common to sacrifice a pawn in order to gain flexibility for drops. Captured pieces are typically kept on a wooden stand (駒台komadai)which is traditionally placed so that its bottom-left corner aligns with the bottom-right corner of the board from the perspective of each player. It is not permissible to hide pieces from full view. It is common for players to swap bishops, which oppose each other across the board, early in the game. This leaves each player with a bishop in hand to be dropped later. The ability for drops in shogi gives the game tactical richness and complexity. The fact that no piece ever goes entirely out of play accounts for the rarity of draws. Check When a player's move threatens to capture the opposing king on the next turn, the move is said togive checkto the king and the king is said to bein check.If a player's king is in check, that player's responding move must remove the check.Ways to remove a check include moving the king away from the threat, capturing the threatening piece, or placing another interposing piece between the king and the threatening piece. To announce check in Japanese, one can sayōte(王手), however, this is an influence of international chess and is not required, even as a courtesy.It may be common to announceōtein beginner matches or for local rules to dictate that you have to announce it.Announcing a check vocally is unheard of in competitive tournaments. End of the game The usual way for shogi games to end is for one side to checkmate the other side's king, after which the losing player will be given the opportunity to admit defeat. Unlike western chess or xiangqi, checkmate is almost always the result in shogi since pieces never retire from play, which gives the players a sufficient number of pieces to deliver checkmate. That said, there are three other possible ways for a game to end:repetition(千日手sennichite),impasse(持将棋jishōgi), and anillegal move(反則手hansokute). The first two – repetition and impasse – are particularly uncommon. Illegal moves are also uncommon in professional games although this may not be true with amateur players (especially beginners). Unlike western chess, there is no tradition of offering a mutualdraw by agreement. Checkmate If the king is in check and there is no possible move which could protect the king, the move is said tocheckmate(tsumi詰み) the king. Checkmate effectively means that the opponent wins the game as the player would have no remaining legal moves.(See also:tsumeshogi,hisshi.) Resignation The losing player will usually resign when the situation is thought to be hopeless and may declare the resignation at any time during their turn. Although a player may resign just after they are checkmated, playing up to the checkmate point rarely occurs in practice as players normally resign as soon as a loss is deemed inevitable. Similarly, if a player were to lose in an Entering King situation (see section below) by having less than 24 points (or by any of the other Impasse rules used by amateurs), then the player will usually resign before that point. In traditional tournament play, a formal resignation is required – that is, a checkmate is not a sufficient condition for winning.The resignation is indicated by bowing and/or saying 'I lost' (負けましたmakemashita) and/or placing the right hand over the piece stands. Placing the hand over the piece stand is a vestige of an older practice of gently dropping one's pieces in hand over the board in order to indicate resignation. In western practice, a handshake may be used. Illegal move In professional and serious (tournament) amateur games, a player who makes an illegal move loses immediately.The loss stands even if play continued and the move was discovered later in game. However, if neither the opponent nor a third party points out the illegal move and the opponent later resigned, the resignation stands as the result. Illegal moves include: In friendly amateur games, this rule is sometimes relaxed, and the player may be able to take back the illegal move and replay a new legal move. In particular, the Two Pawn violation is the most common illegal move played by professional players. The Two Pawn violation played byTakahiro Toyokawa(againstKōsuke Tamura) in the 2004NHK Cupis infamous since it was broadcast on television. On the 109th move, Toyokawa (playing as Black) dropped a pawn to the 29 square while he already had a pawn in play on the board on the 23 square and, thus, lost the game. Repetition (draw) If the same game position occurs four times with the same player to move and the same pieces in hand for each player, then the game ends in arepetition draw(千日手sennichite,lit. \"moves for a thousand days\"), as long as the positions are not due toperpetual check. Perpetual check (連続王手の千日手) is an illegal move (see above), which ends the game in a loss in tournament play. In professional shogi, a repetition draw outcome is not a final result as draws essentially do not count. Each game can only end in either a win or loss.In the case of a repetition draw, professional shogi players will have to immediately play a subsequent game (or as many games as necessary) with sides reversed in order to obtain a true win outcome. (That is, the player who was White becomes Black, and vice versa.) Also, depending on the tournament, professional players play the subsequent game in the remainder of the allowed game time. Thus, aiming for a repetition draw may be a possible professional strategy for the White player in order to play the second replay game as Black, which has a slight statistical advantage and/or greater initiative. For instance,Bishop Exchange Fourth File Rookis a passive strategy for White with the goal of a repetition draw (as it requires two tempo losses – swinging the rook and trading the bishops) while it is a very aggressive strategy if played by Black. Repetition draws are rare in professional shogi occurring in about 1–2% of games and even rarer in amateur games. In professional shogi, repetition draws usually occur in the opening as certain positions are reached that are theoretically disadvantaged for both sides (reciprocal zugzwang). In amateur shogi, repetition draws tend to occur in the middle or endgame as a result of player errors. Impasse The game reaches anImpasseorDeadlock(持将棋jishōgi) if both kings have advanced into their respective promotion zones – a situation known as 相入玉 (ai-nyū gyoku\"double entering kings\") – and neither player can hope to mate the other or to gain any further material. An Impasse can result in either a win or a draw. If an Impasse happens, the winner is decided as follows: each player agrees to an Impasse, then each rook or bishop, promoted or not, scores 5 points for the owning player, and all other pieces except kings score 1 point each. A player scoring fewer than 24 points loses. (Note that in the start position, both players have 27 points each.) If neither player has fewer than 24, the game is no contest – a draw. In professional shogi, an Impasse result is always a draw since a player that cannot obtain the 24 points will simply resign.Jishōgiis considered an outcome in its own right rather than no contest, but there is no practical difference. As an Impasse needs to be agreed on for the rule to be invoked, a player may refuse to do so and attempt to win the game in future moves. If that happens, there is no official rule about the verdict of the game. However, in amateur shogi, there are different practices most of which force a win resolution to the Impasse in order to avoid a draw result. The first draw by Impasse occurred in 1731 in abishop handicap gamebetween the seventhLifetime Meijin,Sōkan Itō II, and his brother, Sōkei Ōhashi. Entering King As a practical matter, when an opponent's king has entered a player's own territory especially with supporting defending pieces, the opponent's king is often very difficult to mate given the forward attacking nature of most shogi pieces. This state is referred to asentering king(入玉nyū gyoku). If both players' kings are in entering king states, the game becomes more likely to result in an impasse. In the adjacent diagram example, although White's king is in a strongBear-in-the-hole castle, Black's king has entered White's territory making it very difficult to mate. Therefore, this position favors Black. An example of Entering King occurred in the fourth game of the 60thŌititle match betweenMasayuki ToyoshimaandKazuki Kimuraheld on August 20–21, 2019. After being unsuccessful in attacking Kimura and also in defending his own king within his camp, Toyoshima (playing as White) moved his king away from Kimura's attacking pieces by fleeing up the second file, ultimately entering his king into Kimura's camp by move 150. Although Toyoshima had achieved Entering King, he still had only 23 points—one point shy of the required 24 points for anImpassedraw—while Kimura (Black) had 31 points. Toyoshima then spent the next 134 moves trying to bring his point total, which fluctuated between 17 and 23, up to the necessary 24. By the 231st move, the game had reached a Double Entering Kings state, and by move 285 Kimura had successfully kept Toyoshima's point total at bay. Here, Toyoshima with 20 points (and Kimura at 34 points) resigned.Incidentally, this game broke the record of longest game in a title match. Amateur resolutions For amateur games, there are various guidances with little standardization.Fairbairnreports a practice in the 1980s (considered a rule by the now defunct Shogi Association for The West) where the dispute is resolved by either player moving all friendly pieces into the promotion zone and then the game ends with points tallied. Another resolution is the 27-Point (27点法) rule used for some amateur tournaments.One version of this is simply the player who has 27 or more points is the winner of the Impasse. Another version is a 27-Point Declaration rule. For instance, the Declaration rule on the online shogi site,81Dojo, is that the player who wants to declare an Impasse win must (i) declare an intention to win via Impasse, (ii) have the king in the enemy camp (the promotion zone for that player), (iii) 10 other pieces must be in the promotion zone, (iv) not be in check, (v) have time remaining, and (vi) must have 28 points if Black or 27 points if White. If all of these conditions are met, then the Impasse declarer will win the game regardless of whether the opponent objects. Yet another resolution to Impasse is the so-called Try Rule (トライルールtorairūru). In this case, after both kings have entered their corresponding promotion zones, then the player who first moves the king to the opponent's king's start square (51 for Black, 59 for White) first will be the winner.As an example, the popular将棋ウォーズ(Shogi Wars) app byHEROZ Inc.used the Try Rule up until 2014.(Now the app uses a variant of the 27-Point Declaration Rule – although it differs from the variant used on the 81Dojo site.) The idea of the \"Try Rule\" was taken fromrugby football(seeTry (rugby)). Draws in tournaments In professional tournaments, the rules typically require drawn games to be replayed with sides reversed, possibly with reduced time limits. They are rare compared tochessandxiangqi, occurring at a rate of 1–2% even in amateur games. The 1982Meijintitle matchbetweenMakoto NakaharaandHifumi Katohwas unusual in this regard with an impasse draw in the first (Double Fortress) game on April 13–14 (only the fifth draw in the then 40-year history of the tournament). This game (with Katoh as Black) lasted for 223 moves with 114 minutes spent pondering a single move. One of the reasons for the length of this game was that White (Nakahara) was very close to falling below the minimum of 24 points required for a draw. Thus, the end of the endgame was strategically about trying to keep White's points above the 24-point threshold.In this match,sennichiteoccurred in the sixth and eighth games. Thus, this best-of-seven match lasted eight games and took over three months to finish; Black did not lose a single game and the eventual victor was Katoh at 4–3. Time control Professional games are timed as in international chess, butprofessional shogi playersare almost never expected to keep time in their games. Instead a timekeeper is assigned, typically an apprentice professional. Time limits are much longer than in international chess (9 hours a side plus extra time in the prestigiousMeijintitle match), and in additionbyōyomi(literally \"second counting\") is employed. This means that when the ordinary time has run out, the player will from that point on have a certain amount of time to complete every move (abyōyomiperiod), typically upwards of one minute. The final ten seconds are counted down, and if the time expires the player to move loses the game immediately. Amateurs often play with electronic clocks that beep out the final ten seconds of abyōyomiperiod, with a prolonged beep for the last five. Player rank and handicaps Amateur players are ranked from 15kyūto 1 kyū and then from 1danto 8 dan. Amateur 8 dan was previously only honorarily given to famous people. While it is now possible to win amateur 8 dan by actual strength (winning amateur Ryu-oh 3 times), this has yet to be achieved. Professional players operate with their own scale, from 6 kyū to 3 dan for pro-aspiring players and professional 4 dan to 9 dan for formal professional players.Amateur and professional ranks are offset (with amateur 4 dan being equivalent to professional 6 kyū). Handicaps Shogi has a handicap system (likego) in which games between players of disparate strengths are adjusted so that the stronger player is put in a more disadvantageous position in order to compensate for the difference in playing levels. In ahandicap game, one or more of White's pieces are removed from the setup, and instead White plays first. The imbalance created by this method of handicapping is not as strong as it is inwestern chessbecause material advantage is not as powerful in shogi. Notation There are two common systems used to notate piece movements in shogi game records. One is used in Japanese language texts while a second was created for western players by George Hodges and Glyndon Townhill in the English language. This system was updated by Hosking to be closer to the Japanese standard (two numerals).Other systems are used to notate shogi board positions. Unlike chess, the origin (11 square) is at the top right of a printed position rather than the bottom left. In western piece movement notation, the format is the piece initial followed by the type of movement and finally the file and rank where the piece moved to. The piece initials are K (King), R (Rook), B (Bishop), G (Gold), S (Silver), N (Knight), L (Lance), and P (Pawn). Simple movement is indicated with-, captures withx, and piece drops with*. The files are indicated with numerals 1–9. The older Hodges standard used letters a–i for ranks, and the newer Hosking standard also uses numerals 1–9 for the ranks. Thus,Rx24indicates 'rook captures on 24'. Promoted pieces are notated with+prefixed to the piece initial (e.g.+Rx24). Piece promotion is also indicated with+(e.g.S-21+) while unpromotion is indicated with=(e.g.S-21=). Piece ambiguity is resolved by notating which square a piece is moving from (e.g.N65-53+means 'knight from 65 moves to 53 and promotes,' which distinguishes it fromN45-53+). The Japanese notation system uses Japanese characters for pieces and promotion indication and uses Japanese numerals instead of letters for ranks. Movement type aside from drops is not indicated, and the conventions for resolving ambiguity are quite different from the western system. As examples, the western Rx24 would be2四飛in Japanese notation, +Rx24 would be2四龍, S-21+ would be2一銀成, S-21= would be2一銀不成, and N65-53+ would be5三桂左成showing that the leftmost knight jumped (implicitly from the 65 square), which distinguishes it from5三桂右成in which the rightmost knight jumped. Although not strictly part of the notational calculus for games, game results are indicated in Japanese newspapers, websites, etc. with wins indicated by a white circle and losses indicated by a black circle. Strategy and tactics Shogi is similar to chess but has a much largergame tree complexitybecause of the use of drops, greater number of pieces, and larger board size.In comparison, shogi games average about 140 (half-)moves per game (or 70 chess move-pairs) whereas chess games average about 80 moves per game (or 40 chess move-pairs) andminishogiaverages about 40 moves per game (or 20 chess move-pairs). Like chess, however, the game can be divided into the opening, middle game and endgame, each requiring a different strategy. Theopeningconsists of arranging one's defenses usually in acastleand positioning for attack; the mid game consists of attempting to break through the opposing defenses while maintaining one's own; and the endgame starts when one side's defenses have been compromised. In the adjacent diagram, Black has chosen aRanging Rookposition (specificallyFourth File Rook) where the rook has been moved leftward away from its starting position. Additionally, Black is using aSilver Crown castle, which is a type of fortification structure constructed with one silver and two gold pieces and the king moved inside of the fortification – thesilver crownname comes from the silver being positioned directly above the king's head on the 27 square as if it were a crown. In the diagram, White has chosen aStatic Rookposition, in which the rook remains on its starting square. This Static Rook position is specifically a type of Counter-Ranging Rook position known asBear-in-the-hole Static Rookthat uses aBear-in-the-hole castle. The Bear-in-the-hole fortification has the king moved all the way into very edge corner of the board on the 11 square as if it were a badger in a hole with a silver moved to the 22 square in order to close up the hole and additional reinforcing golds on 31 and 32 squares. This board position required 33 moves (or 12 move pairs as counted in western chess) to construct. Etiquette Shogi players are expected to follow etiquette in addition to rules explicitly described. Commonly accepted etiquette include the following: Shogi piece sets may contain two types of king pieces,王(king) and玉(jewel). In this case, the higher classed player, in either social or genuine shogi player rank, may take the king piece. For example, intitleholder systemgames, the current titleholder takes the king piece as the higher. The higher-ranked (or older) player also sits facing the door of the room and is the person who takes the pieces out of the piece box. Shogi does not have atouch-move ruleas in western chess tournament play orchu shogi. However, in professional games, a piece is considered to be moved when the piece has been let go of. In both amateur and professional play, any piece may be touched in order to adjust its centralization within its square (to look tidy). Taking back moves (待ったmatta) in professional games is prohibited. However, in friendly amateur games in Japan, it is often permitted. Professional players are required to follow several ritualistic etiquette prescriptions such as kneeling exactly 15 centimeters from the shogi board, sitting in the formalseizaposition, etc. Game setup Traditionally, the order of placing the pieces on the board is determined. There are two commonly used orders, theŌhashiorder 大橋流 and theItōorder 伊藤流.Placement sets pieces with multiples (generals, knights, lances) from left to right in all cases, and follows the order: Furigoma Among amateur tournaments, the higher-ranked player or defending champion performs the piece toss. In professional games, the furigoma is done on the behalf of the higher-ranked player/champion by the timekeeper who kneels by the side of the higher-ranked player and tosses the pawn pieces onto a silk cloth.In friendly amateur games, a player will ask the opponent to toss the pawns out of politeness. Otherwise, the person who tosses the pawns can be determined byRock–paper–scissors. History FromThe Chess Variant Pages: The world's first chess variant,chaturangaarose in India in approximately the seventh century AD. From there it migrated both westward and northward, mutating along the way. The western branch became shatranj in Arabia and Orthodox Chess in Europe. The northern branch becamexiangqiin China andjanggiin Korea. Sometime in the tenth to twelfth centuries, 'chess' crossed the channel to Japan where it spawned a number of interesting variants. One of these was called 'Small Shogi'. Eventually, Small Shogi (though it went through many forms) won out over the larger variants and is now referred to simply as 'Shogi'. It is certain that Shogi in its present form was played in Japan as early as the 16th century. It is not clear when chess was brought to Japan. The earliest generally accepted mention of shogi is Shin Saru Gakuki(新猿楽記)(1058–1064) by Fujiwara Akihira. The oldest archaeological evidence is a group of 16 shogi pieces excavated from the grounds ofKōfuku-jiinNara Prefecture. As it was physically associated with a wooden tablet written on in the sixth year ofTenki(1058), the pieces are thought to date from that period. These simple pieces were cut from a writing plaque in the same five-sided shape as modern pieces, with the names of the pieces written on them. The dictionary of common folk culture, Nichūreki(二中歴)(c. 1210–1221), a collection based on the two works Shōchūreki(掌中歴)and Kaichūreki(懐中歴), describes two forms of shogi, large(dai)shogi and small(shō)shogi. These are now calledHeian shogi(or Heian small shogi) andHeian dai shogi. Heian small shogi is the version on which modern shogi is based, but theNichūrekistates that one wins if one's opponent is reduced to a single king, indicating that drops had not yet been introduced. According to Kōji Shimizu, chief researcher at the Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture, the names of the Heian shogi pieces keep those ofchaturanga(general, elephant, horse, chariot and soldier), and add to them the five treasures of Buddhism (jade, gold, silver,katsura tree, and incense). Around the 13th century the game ofdai shogideveloped, created by increasing the number of pieces in Heian shogi, as wassho shogi, which added the rook, bishop, and drunken elephant from dai shogi to Heian shogi. The drunken elephant steps one square in any direction except directly backward, and promotes to the prince, which acts as a second king and must also be captured along with the original king for the other player to win. Around the 15th century, the rules of dai shogi were simplified, creating the game ofchu shogi. Chu shogi, like its parent dai shogi, contains many distinct pieces, such as the queen (identical with Western chess) and the lion (which moves like a king, but twice per turn, potentially being able to capture twice, among other idiosyncrasies). The popularity of dai shogi soon waned in favour of chu shogi, until it stopped being played commonly. Chu shogi rivalled sho shogi in popularity until the introduction of drops in the latter, upon which standard shogi became ascendant, although chu shogi was still commonly played until about World War II, especially inKyoto. It is thought that the rules of standard shogi were fixed in the 16th century, when the drunken elephant was removed from the set of pieces present in sho shogi. There is no clear record of when drops were introduced, however. In theEdo period, shogi variants were greatly expanded:tenjiku shogi,dai dai shogi,maka dai dai shogi,tai shogi, andtaikyoku shogiwere all invented. It is thought that these were played to only a very limited extent, however. Both standard shogi andGowere promoted by theTokugawa shogunate. In 1612, the shogunate passed a law giving endowments to top shogi players (Meijin(名人)). During the reign of the eighth shōgun,Tokugawa Yoshimune, castle shogi tournaments were held once a year on the 17th day ofKannazuki, corresponding to November 17, which isShogi Dayon the modern calendar. The title ofmeijinbecame hereditary in the Ōhashi and Itō families until the fall of the shogunate, when it came to be passed by recommendation. Today the title is used for the winner of theMeijin-sencompetition, the first modern title match. From around 1899,newspapersbegan to publish records of shogi matches, and high-ranking players formed alliances with the aim of having their games published. In 1909, the Shogi Association(将棋同盟社)was formed, and in 1924, the Tokyo Shogi Association(東京将棋連盟)was formed. This was an early incarnation of the modernJapan Shogi Association(日本将棋連盟,nihon shōgi renmei), or JSA, and 1924 is considered by the JSA to be the date it was founded. In 1935,meijinKinjirō Sekinestepped down, and the rank of meijin came to be awarded to the winner of aMeijin title match(名人戦,meijin-sen).Yoshio Kimura(木村義雄)became the first Meijin under this system in 1937. This was the start of theshogi title matches(seetitleholder system). After the war other tournaments were promoted to title matches, culminating with theRyūō title match(竜王戦,ryūō-sen)in 1988 for the modern line-up of seven. About 200 professional shogi players compete. Each year, the title holder defends the title against a challenger chosen from knockout or round matches. After the Second World War,SCAP(occupational government mainly led by US) tried to eliminate all \"feudal\" factors from Japanese society and shogi was included in the possible list of items to be banned along withBushido(philosophy of samurai) and other things. SCAP's reason for banning shogi was that the game uniquely utilized captured pieces. SCAP insisted that this could lead to the idea ofprisoner abuse.Kozo Masuda, then one of the top professional shogi players, when summoned to the SCAP headquarters for an investigation, criticized such understanding of shogi, instead insisting that chess that potentially contained the idea of prisoner abuse, because opposing pieces are removed permanently, while shogi gives prisoners the chance to get back into the game. Masuda also argued that chess contradicts the ideal ofgender equalityin western society because the king shields itself behind the queen and runs away. Masuda's assertions are said to have eventually led to the exemption of shogi from the list of items to be banned. Tournament play There are two organizations for shogi professional players in Japan: the JSA, and theLadies' Professional Shogi-players' Association of Japan(日本女子プロ将棋協会,nihon joshi puro shōgi kyōkai), or LPSA. The JSA is the primary organization for men and women's professional shogiwhile the LPSA is a group of women professionals who broke away from the JSA in 2007 to establish their own independent organization.Both organize tournaments for their members and have reached an agreement to cooperate with each other to promote shogi through events and other activities.Top professional players are fairly well-paid from tournament earnings. In 2016, the highest tournament earners wereYoshiharu HabuandAkira Watanabewho earned ¥91,500,000 and ¥73,900,000. (The tenth highest earner,Kouichi Fukaura, won ¥18,490,000.) The JSA recognizes two categories of shogi professionals: Professional(棋士,kishi), and Female Professional(女流棋士,joryūkishi). Sometimeskishiare addressed as seikishi(正棋士), a term fromGoused to distinguishkishifrom other classes of players. JSA professional ranks and female professional ranks are not equivalent and each has their own promotion criteria and ranking system. In 2006, the JSA officially granted women \"professional status\". This is not equivalent, however, to the more traditional way of \"gaining professional status\", i.e., being promoted from the \"Shoreikai System\"(奨励会): leagues of strong amateur players aspiring to become a professional. Rather, it is a separate system especially designed for female professionals. Qualified amateurs, regardless of gender, may apply for the \"Shoreikai System\" and all those who successfully \"graduate\" are grantedkishistatus; however, no woman has yet to accomplish this feat (the highest women have reached is \"Shoreikai 3danleague\" byKana SatomiandTomoka Nishiyama), sokishiisde factoonly used to refer to male shogi professionals. The JSA is the only body which can organize tournaments for professionals, e.g., the eight major tournaments in thetitleholder systemand other professional tournaments. In 1996,Yoshiharu Habubecame the onlykishito hold seven major titles at the same time. For female professionals, both the JSA and LPSA organize tournaments, either jointly or separately. Tournaments for amateurs may be organized by the JSA and LPSA as well as local clubs, newspapers, private corporations, educational institutions or municipal governments for cities or prefectures under the guidance of the JSA or LPSA. Since the 1990s, shogi has grown in popularity outside Japan, particularly in thePeople's Republic of China, and especially inShanghai. The January 2006 edition ofKindai Shogi(近代将棋)stated that there were 120,000 shogi players in Shanghai. The spread of the game to countries where Chinese characters are not in common use, however, has been slower. In Europe As of November 2017, there were over 1,200 active players in Europe. Computer shogi Shogi has the highestgame complexityof all popular chess variants. Computers have steadily improved in playing shogi since the 1970s. In 2007, champion Yoshiharu Habu estimated the strength of the 2006 world computer shogi champion Bonanza at the level of two-dan shoreikai. The JSA prohibits its professionals from playing computers in public without prior permission, with the reason of promoting shogi and monetizing the computer–human events. On October 12, 2010, after some 35 years of development, a computer finally beat a professional player, when the top ranked female champion Ichiyo Shimizu was beaten by the Akara2010 system in a game lasting just over 6 hours. On July 24, 2011, computer shogi programs Bonanza and Akara crushed the amateur team of Kosaku and Shinoda in two games. The allotted time for the amateurs was one hour and then three minutes per move. The allotted time for the computer was 25 minutes and then 10 seconds per move. On April 20, 2013, GPS Shogi defeated 8-dan professional shogi playerHiroyuki Miurain a 102-move game which lasted over 8 hours. On December 13, 2015, the highest rated player on Shogi Club 24 was computer program Ponanza, rated 3455. On April 10, 2016, Ponanza defeated Takayuki Yamasaki, 8-dan in 85 moves. Takayuki used 7 hours 9 minutes. In October 2017,DeepMindclaimed that its programAlphaZero, after a full nine hours of training, defeatedElmoin a 100-game match, winning 90, losing 8, and drawing two. From acomputational complexitypoint of view, generalized shogi isEXPTIME-complete. Video games Hundreds ofvideo gameswere released exclusively in Japan for severalconsoles. Clubhouse Games: 51 Worldwide Classics was released internationally by Nintendo in 2020 for the Nintendo Switch console, offering both Shogi and mini Shogi variants using either traditional or bilingual pieces. Culture According to professional playerYoshiharu Habu, in Japan shogi is viewed as not merely a game as entertainment or a mind sport but is instead an art that is a part of traditional Japanese culture along withhaiku,tanka,noh,ikebana, and theJapanese tea ceremony. Its elevated status was established by theiemotosystem supported by the historicalshogunate. The backwardsuma(shogi horse symbol) is often featured on merchandise (such as on large decorative shogi piece sculptures, keychains, and other keepsakes) available for sale inTendō. It also serves as a symbol of good luck. (Cf.Rabbit's foot.) There are multiple theories on its origin. One is thatuma(うま ) spelled in the Japanese syllabary backwards is まうmau(舞う), which means(to) danceand dancing horses are a good luck omen. In popular culture In the manga and anime seriesNaruto, shogi plays an essential part inShikamaru Nara's character development. He often plays it with his sensei,Asuma Sarutobi, apparently always beating him. When Asuma is fatally injured in battle, he reminds Shikamaru that the shogi king must always be protected, and draws a parallel between the king in shogi and the children who would grow up to take care of the Hidden Leaf (Konoha) in the future, as well as his yet-unborn daughter, Mirai, whom he wanted Shikamaru to guide. Shogi has been a central plot point in the manga and animeShion no Ō, the manga and animeMarch Comes in Like a Lion,and the manga and television drama81diver. In the manga and animeDurarara!!, the information broker Izaya Orihara plays a twisted version of chess, go and shogi, where he mixes all three games into one as a representation of the battles inIkebukuro. In the video gamePersona 5, the Star confidant, a girl named Hifumi Togo, is a high school shogi player looking to break into the ranks of the professionals. The player character will gain a knowledge stat when spending time with the confidant, supposedly from learning to play shogi. The abilities learned from ranking up the confidant comes from Japanese shogi terms. In the manga and animeWhen Will Ayumu Make His Move?, second-year high school student Urushi Yaotome is the president of her school's shogi club, though the club is considered illegitimate due to not having enough members, the only other member being first-year student Ayumu Tanaka. See also Notes References Bibliography External links Rules Online play Online tools", "Xiangqi Xiangqi(/ˈʃɑːŋtʃi/;Chinese:象棋;pinyin:xiàngqí), commonly known asChinese chessorelephant chess, is astrategyboard gamefor two players. It is the most popular board game in China. Xiangqi is in the same family of games asshogi,janggi,Western chess,chaturanga, andIndian chess. Besides China and areas with significant ethnic Chinese communities, this game is also a popular pastime in Vietnam, where it is known ascờ tướng, literally 'General's chess'. The game represents a battle between two armies, with the primary object being to checkmate the enemy's general (king). Distinctive features of xiangqi include the cannon (pao), which must jump to capture; a rule prohibiting the generals from facing each other directly; areas on the board called theriverandpalace, which restrict the movement of some pieces but enhance that of others; and the placement of the pieces on the intersections of the board lines, rather than within the squares. Board Xiangqi is played on a board nine lines wide and ten lines long. As in the gameGo(圍碁;or Wéi qí圍棋), the pieces are placed on the intersections, which are known aspoints. The vertical lines are known asfiles(Chinese:路;pinyin:lù; \"road\"), and the horizontal lines are known asranks(Chinese:線/綫;pinyin:xiàn; \"line\"). Centred at the first to third and eighth to tenth ranks of the board are two zones, each three points by three points, demarcated by two diagonal lines connecting opposite corners and intersecting at the centre point. Each of these areas is known as宮gōngⓘ, a palace. Dividing the two opposing sides, between the fifth and sixth ranks, is河hé, the \"river\". The river is usually marked with the phrases楚河chǔ héⓘ, meaning \"River of theChu\", and漢界hàn jièⓘ, meaning \"Border of theHan\", a reference to theChu–Han War. Although the river (orHanchu boundary) provides a visual division between the two sides, only two pieces are affected by its presence: soldiers have an enhanced move after crossing the river, and elephants cannot cross it. The starting points of the soldiers and cannons are usually, but not always, marked with small crosses. Rules The pieces start in the position shown in the diagram above. Which player moves first has varied throughout history and from one part of China to another. Different xiangqi books advise either that the black or red side moves first.Some books refer to the two sides asnorthandsouth; which direction corresponds to which colour also varies from source to source. Generally, Red moves first in most modern tournaments. Each player in turn moves one piece from the point it occupies, to another point. Pieces are generally not permitted to move through points occupied by other pieces, the exception being the cannon’s capturing move. A piece can be moved onto a point occupied by an enemy piece, in which case the enemy piece is captured and removed from the board. A player cannot capture one of their own pieces. Pieces are never promoted (converted into other pieces), although the soldier gains the ability to move sideways after it crosses the river. Almost all pieces capture using their normal moves, while the cannon has a special capture move described below. The game ends when one player checkmates the other's general. When the general is in danger of being captured by the enemy player on their next move, the enemy player has \"delivered a check\" (照將/將軍, abbreviated as將jiāngⓘ), and the general is \"in check\". A check should be announced. If the general's player can make no move to prevent the general's capture, the situation is called \"checkmate\" (將死). Unlike in chess, in whichstalemateis a draw, in xiangqi, it is a loss for the stalemated player. In xiangqi, a player—often with a material or positional disadvantage—may attempt to check or chase pieces in a way such that the moves fall in a cycle, preventing the opponent from winning. While this is accepted in Western chess, in xiangqi, the following special rules are used to make it harder to draw the game by endless checking or chasing, regardless of whether the positions of the pieces are repeated or not: Different sets of rules set different limits on what is considered perpetual. For example, club xiangqi rules allow a player to check or chase six consecutive times using one piece, twelve times using two pieces, and eighteen times using three pieces before considering the action perpetual. The above rules to prevent perpetual checking and chasing, while popular, are not the only ones; there are numerous end game situations. Pieces Each player controls an army of 16 pieces; the armies are usually coloured red and black.Pieces are flat circular disks labelled or engraved with aChinese characteridentifying the piece type, and in a colour indicating which player has ownership. The black pieces are marked with somewhat different characters from the corresponding red pieces. Onmainland China, most sets still usetraditional Chinese characters(as opposed tosimplified Chinese characters). Modern pieces are usually plastic, though some sets are wooden, and more expensive sets may usejade. In more ancient times, many sets were simple unpainted woodcarvings; thus, to distinguish between pieces of the two sides, most corresponding pieces used characters that were similar but varied slightly.This practice may have originated in situations where there was only one material available to make the pieces from and no colouring material available to distinguish the opposing armies. The oldest xiangqi piece found to date is a俥(chariot) piece. It is kept in theThree Gorges Museum. General Generals(orkings) are labelled 將 (trad.) / 将 (simp.)jiàngⓘ(\"general\") on the black side and 帥 (trad.) / 帅 (simp.)shuàiⓘ(\"marshal\") on the red side. The general starts the game at the midpoint of the back edge, within the palace. The general may move and capture one pointorthogonallyand may not leave the palace, with the following exception. If the two generals face each other along the same file with no intervening pieces, the 飛將 (\"flying general\") move may be executed, in which the general to move crosses the board to capture the enemy general. In practice, this rule means that creating this situation in the first place means moving into check, and is therefore not allowed. The Indian namekingfor this piece was changed togeneralbecause of Chinesenaming taboos; China's rulers objected to their royal titles being given to game pieces.Despite this, the general is sometimes called the \"king\" by English-speaking players, due to their similar functions asroyal pieces. Advisor Advisors(also known asguardsand less commonly asassistants,mandarins,ministersorwarriors) are labelled 士shìⓘ(\"scholar\", \"gentleman\", \"officer\", \"guardian\") for Black and 仕shìⓘ(\"scholar\", \"official\", \"guardian\") for Red. Rarely, sets use the character 士 for both colours. The advisors start on either side of the general. They move and capture one pointdiagonallyand may not leave the palace, which confines them to five points on the board.The advisor is probably derived from the mantri inchaturanga, like the queen in Western chess. There is some controversy about whether \"士\" really is intended to mean \"scholar\", \"gentleman\" which would be \"士人\", or \"guard\", \"guardian\" which would be \"衛士\" (simplified Chinese: 卫士). One argument for the latter is that their functionality seems to be to guard/protect the general. The common Western translation \"advisor\" does not reflect this layer of meaning. Elephant Elephants(orbishops) are labeled象xiàng(\"elephant\") for Black and 相xiàng(\"minister\") for Red. They are located next to the advisors. These pieces move and capture exactly two points diagonally and may not jump over intervening pieces; the move is described as being like the character 田Tián(\"field\"), in reference to the board's squares.Blocking an elephant with a diagonally adjacent piece is known as \"blocking the elephant's eye\" (塞象眼). Elephants may not cross the river to attack the enemygeneral, and serve as defensive pieces. Because an elephant's movement is restricted to just seven board positions, it can be easily trapped or threatened. The two elephants are often used to defend each other. TheChinese charactersfor \"minister\" and \"elephant\" arehomophonesinMandarin(Listenⓘ) and both have alternative meanings as \"appearance\" or \"image\". However, in English, both are referred to as elephants, and less commonly as \"bishops\", due to their similar movements. Horse Horses(orknights) are labelled 馬mǎⓘfor Black and 傌mǎfor Red in sets marked withTraditional Chinese charactersand 马mǎfor both Black and Red in sets marked withSimplified Chinese characters. Some sets use 馬 for both colours. Horses begin the game next to the elephants, on their outside flanks. A horse moves and captures one point orthogonally and then one point diagonally away from its former position, a move which is traditionally described as being like the character 日Rì.The horse does not jump as the knight does in Western chess, and can be blocked by a piece of either colour located one point horizontally or vertically adjacent to it. Blocking a horse is called \"hobblingthe horse's leg\" (蹩馬腿). The diagram on the right illustrates the horse's movement. Since horses can be blocked, it is possible for one player's horse to have an asymmetric attack advantage if an opponent's horse is blocked, as seen in the diagram on the right. The horse is sometimes called the \"knight\" by English-speaking players, due to their similar movements. Chariot Chariots(orrooksorcars) are labelled 車jūⓘfor Black and 俥jūⓘfor Red in sets marked withTraditional Chinese charactersand 车 for both Black and Red in sets marked withSimplified Chinese characters. Some traditional sets use 車 for both colours. In the context of xiangqi, all of these characters are pronounced asjūⓘ(instead of the common pronunciationchē). The chariot moves and captures any distance orthogonally, but may not jump over intervening pieces. The chariots begin the game on the points at the corners of the board. The chariot is often considered to be the strongest piece in the game due to its freedom of movement and lack of restrictions. The chariot is sometimes called the \"rook\" by English-speaking players, since it moves identically to the rook in Western chess.Chinese players (and others) often call this piece a car, since that is one modern meaning of the character 車. Cannon Cannonsare labelled 砲pàoⓘ(\"catapult\") for Black and炮pào(\"cannon\") for Red. The names arehomophones, though sometimes 炮 is used for both Red and Black. The 石shíradicalof 砲 means \"stone\", and the 火huǒradical of 炮 means \"fire\". Both colours' pieces are normally referred to as cannons in English. The black piece is sometimes labelled包bāo. Each player has two cannons, which start on the row behind the soldiers, two points in front of the horses. Cannons move like chariots, any distance orthogonally without jumping, but can only capture by jumping a single piece of either colour along the path of attack. The piece over which the cannon jumps is called the 炮臺 (trad.) / 炮台 (simp.)pào tái(\"cannon platform\" or \"screen\"). Any number of unoccupied spaces, including none, may exist between the cannon, screen, and the piece to be captured. Cannons can be exchanged for horses immediately from their starting positions. Soldier Soldiers(orpawns) are labelled 卒zúⓘ(\"pawn\" or \"private\") for Black and 兵bīngⓘ(\"soldier\") for Red. Each side starts with five soldiers. Soldiers begin the game located on every other point one row back from the edge of the river. They move and capture by advancing one point. Once they have crossed the river, they may also move and capture one point horizontally. Soldiers cannot move backward, and therefore cannot retreat; after advancing to the last rank of the board, however, a soldier may still move sideways at the enemy's edge.The soldier is sometimes called the \"pawn\" by English-speaking players, due to the pieces' similar movements. Approximate relative values of the pieces These approximate valuesdo not take into account the position of the piece in question (except the soldier in a general sense), the positions of other pieces on the board, or the number of pieces remaining. In what follows, “minor piece” will refer to horses and cannons, and \"defensive piece\", unless otherwise specified, will refer to the non-royal pieces that cannot cross the river, namely advisors and elephants. Other common rules of assessment: Notation There are several types of notation used to record xiangqi games. In each case the moves are numbered and written with the same general pattern. It is clearer but not required to write each move pair on a separate line. System 1 The bookThe Chess of Chinadescribes a move notation method in which the ranks of the board are numbered 1 to 10 from closest to farthest away, followed by a digit 1 to 9 for files from right to left.Both values are relative to the moving player. Moves are then indicated as follows: ()- Thus, the most common opening in the game would be written as: System 2 A notation system partially described inA Manual of Chinese Chessand used by several computer software implementations describes moves in relative terms as follows: The file numbers are counted from each player's right to each player's left. In case there are two identical pieces in one file, symbols + (front) and – (rear) are used instead of former file number. Direction of movement is indicated via an operator symbol. Aplus signis used to indicate forward movement. Aminus signis used to indicate backward movement. Adot or periodorequals signis used to indicate horizontal or lateral movement. For a piece that moves diagonally (such as the horse or elephant), the plus or minus sign is used rather than the period. Thus, the most common opening in the game would be written as: According toWorld Xiangqi Federation(WXF), in the case oftripled, quadrupled, or quintupledsoldiers (pawns), there is no need to specify the P for pawn. Instead, the soldiers are numbered starting from the frontmost soldier, and this number replaces the usual piece abbreviation. The file number is given immediately after as usual. Thus the notation to move the middle of a set of tripled soldiers on the 5th file to the 4th file would be: In older books written in Chinese the system is the same, except that: the names of the pieces are written in Chinese; the name for the cannon on both sides is 炮; the name for the horse on both sides is 馬; forward motion is indicated with 進 (pronouncedjìn); backward motion is indicated with 退 (tuì); sideways motion is indicated with 平 (píng); and numbers are written in Chinese either for both players or for just Black. Thus, the most common opening in the game might be written as: System 3 This system is unofficial and principally used by Western players.It is similar toalgebraic notationfor Western chess. Letters are used for files and numbers for ranks. File \"a\" is on Red's left and rank \"1\" is nearest to Red. A point's designation does not depend on which player moves; for both sides \"a1\" is the lowest left point from Red's side. Pieces are abbreviated as in notation system 2, except that no letter is used for the soldier. Former position is only indicated if necessary to distinguish between two identical pieces that could have made the move. If they share the same file, indicate which rank moves; if they share the same rank, indicate which file moves. If they share neither rank nor file, then the file is indicated. Capture is indicated by \"x\". No symbol is used to indicate a non-capturing move. Check is indicated by \"+\", double check by \"++\", triple check by \"+++\", and quadruple check by \"++++\". Checkmate is indicated by \"#\". For analysis purposes, bad moves are indicated by \"?\" and good moves by \"!\". These can be combined if the analysis is uncertain (\"!?\" might be either but is probably good; \"?!\" is probably bad) or repeated for emphasis (\"??\" is a disaster). Thus, the most common opening in the game would be written as: For example, the following game is tied with several others as the shortest possible xiangqi game: Gameplay Because of the size of the board and the low number of long-range pieces, there is a tendency for the battle to focus on a particular area of the board. Tactics Xiangqi involves several tactics common to games in the chess family. Some common ones are briefly discussed here. In contrast to the ubiquity ofpawn chainsin western chess, soldiers typically do not support each other until the endgame, because from the initial position it takes a minimum of five moves of a soldier to allow mutual protection between two of them, and they are often prone to capture by other pieces. Soldiers, horses, cannons and chariots can form up formations that protect each other. However, lining up chariots must be done with caution, as this risks losing one chariot to an enemy's inferior piece. Horses that support each other are called Linked Horses (Chinese: 連環馬), which is a relatively safe formation of the horses, though it can still be threatened with a soldier, a chariot plus another minor piece, or a piece blocking one of the horses thus making the protection one-sided. It is common to use cannons independently to control particular ranks and files. Using a cannon to control the middle file is often considered vital strategy, because it pins pieces such as the advisors and elephants to the general, which in turn restrict their general’s movement. The two files adjacent to the middle file are also considered important and horses and chariots can be used to push for checkmate there. Since the general is usually safest in its original position before the endgame phase, attacking the general commonly involves forcing the general out of its original position with check or with threats. Thus, specific points and formations are very important in xiangqi. For an attacking (Red) horse, the most fatal points are c9 and g9 (Chinese: 臥槽馬), especially since without proper defence a quick mate can follow with an extra chariot or cannon. For a cannon, one of the most fatal formations is the exposed cannon (Chinese: 空心炮), where the cannon directly controls the middle file with no other pieces between the cannon and the general. This formation is particularly dangerous since the defensive side cannot move any piece in front of the cannon; while with an extra cannon joining the attack, mate can follow on the spot, and with an extra rook, the offensive side can mount a double check (with the rook in front of the cannon) followed by awindmill(as when the check is blocked, the rook moving laterally discovers a new check from the cannon), often winning at least a piece afterwards. If the defensive side cannot chase the cannon away or capture it, it must move the general forward to avoid these threats, leaving the general vulnerable to attacks. Another fatal formation, called the \"cannon-controlled centroid horse\" (Chinese: 炮鎮窩心馬, diagram at right), also requires particularly bad coordination of the enemy pieces. In the diagram, Black's \"centroid horse\" occupies the centre of the palace, blocking Black's own general and advisors, and being pinned to the general by the red cannon, cannot move. Black's cannon at e8 is also pinned to its own general; it too is unable to move and restricts the movement of Black's two elephants, making them unable to protect each other. Such a formation in the middlegame often produces deadly threats of smothered mates, while in the endgame, as in the diagram, Red's cannon cannot be chased away, rendering Black's general, advisors, cannon on e8, and horse all permanently immobilized. Even though Black is up a minor piece, Red has a clear win: The game concluded 41.Hg7 (forking the elephant and pinned cannon and creating a mating threat) Eg10 42.Hh9 Ci9 43.Hf8+ Cf9 (if not for the other black cannon, it is instant mate) 44.Hxg6, and Black resigned: Black's only active piece (the cannon on f9) is absolutely helpless to stop Red's horse and soldiers, which will soon invade the palace. A common defensive configuration is to leave the general at its starting position, deploy one advisor and one elephant on the two points directly in front of the general, and to leave the other advisor and elephant in their starting positions, to the side of the general. In this setup, the advisor and elephant pairs support each other, and the general is immune from attacks by cannons. Losing any defensive pieces makes the general vulnerable to cannon attack, and the setup may need to be abandoned. The defender may move defensive pieces away from the general, or even sacrifice them intentionally, to ward off attack by a cannon. Solution: 1.Rh10++ 1. ...Af10 2.Rh9+ Afe9 3.Rg10++ Af10 4.Rg9+ Afe9 5.Rh10++ 5. ...Af10 6.Re9+!! 6. ...Adxe9 7.Rh9+ Eeg10 8.Rxe9+ (the chariot is untouchable with legal moves) Gd10 9.Re10+ Gd9 10.d8+ Gxd8 11.Rd10# Long sequences of checks leading to mate or gain of material are common both in chess compositions and in actual play. A skilled xiangqi player would often have to calculate several steps, or even tens of steps ahead for a forced sequence. In the diagram on the right, Black has an immediate mating threat which cannot be parried, forcing Red to check Black on every move. Although it requires 11 moves to mate, its general idea is clear: Induce a smothered check by sacrificing a chariot at the centre of the palace (e9), then force Black to open the centre file, enabling the Red general to assist the attack, and finally mate by facing generals. Openings Since the left and right flanks of the starting setup are symmetrical, it is customary to make the first move on the right flank. Starting on the left flank is considered needlessly confusing. The most common opening is to move the cannon to the central column, an opening known as 當頭炮 (trad.) / 当头炮 (simp.)dāng tóu pàoor \"Central Cannon\". The most common reply is to advance the horse on the same flank. Together, this move-and-response is known by the rhyme 當頭炮,馬來跳 (trad.) / 当头炮,马来跳 (simp.)dāng tóu pào, mǎ lái tiàoⓘ. The notation for this is \"1. 炮 (32)–35, 馬 (18)–37\", \"1. C2.5 H8+7\", or \"1. Che3 Hg8\" (diagram at right). After Black's 1. ...H8+7 (Hg8) response, the game can develop into a variety of openings, the most common being the 屏風馬 (trad.) / 屏风马 (simp.) or \"Screen Horses (Defence)\" in which Black develops the other horse to further protect their middle pawn (...H2+3 or ...Hc8) either immediately on their second move, or later when Black transposes the game into this opening. Alternative common first moves by Black are developing either cannons (1. ...C8.5/1. ...Che8, or 1. ...C2.5/1. ...Cbe8); note that after either of these moves, taking the central soldier with the cannon (2. C5+4 or 2. Cxe7+) is a beginner's trap that impedes development and coordination of Red's pieces if Black plays correctly (for example, 1. Che3 Che8 2. Cxe7+?? Ade9 3. Hg3 Hg8 4. Ce5 Rh10 when Black develops the rook first, and the loss of Black's middle pawn actually enabled Black's horses to occupy the centre on the next moves). Other common first moves by Red include moving an elephant to the central column (1. Ege3), advancing the soldier on the third or seventh file (1. c5), moving a horse forward (1. Hg3), and moving either cannon to the 4th or 6th (d- or f-) file (1. Chd3 or 1. Chf3). Compared to the Central Cannon openings, these openings are generally less restricted by theory. General advice for the opening includes rapid development of at least one chariot and putting it on open files and ranks, as it is the most powerful piece with a long attack range. There is a saying that only a poor player does not move a chariot in the first three moves (Chinese: 三步不出車,必定要輸棋); however this is not to be taken literally, and is in fact often violated in modern Xiangqi games.Attacking and defending the centre, especially the central soldiers / central pawns, are common themes in the opening, hence the Central Cannon openings. Usually, at least one horse should be moved to the middle in order to defend the central soldier; however undefended central soldiers can also become \"poisoned pawns\" in the early moves, especially if the attacking side does not have an immediate follow-up to retain the pressure on the central file. Middlegame strategy Xiangqi strategy shares common themes with chess, but has some differences: Like in chess, xiangqi piece values depend highly on the position on the board. The following study from Volume 42 of the Elegant Pastime Manual, dating from the Ming Dynasty, illustrates this dramatically. It is Red to play and win. In this position, Red is up two soldiers and a cannon but Black threatens seemingly unstoppable mate with ...Rf1#, since 1.Ec5? Ad8! renews the mate threat. Note that the red chariot is nearly useless, having only two legal moves, in stark contrast to the very active black chariot. However, Red averts the checkmate by sacrificing both the cannon and chariot: 1.Ca10+!! Hxa10 2.Ea3! Rxa1 (or the chariot is lost, since the general protects the elephant on e3, which in turn guards g1, and the red horse guards e2) 3.Eec1: Despite the substantial sacrifice of material by Red, Black's chariot has now become useless as it is permanently immobilized by the red elephants and horse; the red general prevents the black soldier on g2 from moving laterally to free the chariot (for example 3...g1 4.Gf2). Black's horse similarly has no safe move due to the red soldier on c8, which also, along with the soldier on f9, prevents the black general from attacking the soldier on f9 from the behind. In addition, the black soldier on g6 is undefended and has no safe move, so Red can win it by pushing the soldier on c4 to c6 and moving it laterally to the g-file, after which the position is effectively an endgame of three soldiers against two advisers, an easy win for Red (seebelow) despite being down a chariot for three soldiers. Endgame Though xiangqi endgames require remarkable skill to be played well, there are a number of widely known book wins and book draws. Without a counterpart topawn promotion, xiangqi endgames instead focus more directly on forcing checkmate or stalemate, and in this regard resemblepawnless chess endgames. Since stalemate is a loss for the stalemated player instead of a draw, most book draws in xiangqi are due tofortresses, with a few draws due toinsufficient material. A general rule in xiangqi endgames for the advantageous side is that, when there's less material on the board, do not trade pieces easily, as with fewer attacking pieces on the board, defending is easier (in contrast to Western chess, where it is almost always advantageous to trade pieces when up on material). Hence, if a certain type of endgame can transpose, by trading pieces, into another type of endgame which is a book win, then this endgame itself is a book win. Zugzwang in xiangqi endgames Red wins with either side to move. Inducingzugzwangis a crucial theme in winning simple endgames, and almost exclusively in simple endgames. In the general + soldier vs general endgame shown on the right, Red's first main goal is to occupy the middle file. Red wins with 1. Gd1, a waiting move, and Black is in zugzwang. Black must proceed with 1. ...Ge8, as 1. ...Ge10 instantly loses after 2. f9#. After 1. ...Ge8 2. f9 Gf8 3. e9 Ge8 4. d9 Gf8 5. Ge1, Red's general successfully occupies the middle file. The game would conclude with 5. ...Gf9 6. e9+, and regardless of Black's reply, 7. Ge2# (stale)mates Black. Reciprocal zugzwang: Whoever moves first loses. Reciprocal zugzwang is possible, but very rare and usually seen in endgame compositions. In this endgame shown on the right, whoever moves loses, since when either of the two generals moves to an open d- or f- file, it threatens unstoppable mate, while the player to move only helps the enemy general occupy one of the files. For instance, Red can only move their two soldiers if he is to move. Moving the f-(or d-)soldier allows the enemy general to occupy the f-file(d-file). Even if 1. fe9+ Gf10 2. d10, when Red threatens mate in 1, Black still mates immediately with either 2. ...fe2# or 2. ...f1#. Soldier (pawn) endgames Red to play wins; Black to play draws. Horse endgames Cannon endgames Horse+Cannon endgames This type of endgame is considered one of the more complex endgames. Commonly known book wins and book draws are: Chariot endgames Single chariot endgames: Chariot + soldiers (unadvanced): Chariot + horse: Chariot + cannon: Two chariots: History A game calledxiangqiwas mentioned as dating to theWarring States period; according to the first-century-BC textShuo Yuan(說苑/说苑), it was one ofLord Mengchang of Qi's interests. However, the rules of that game are not described, and it was not necessarily related to the present-day game.Emperor Wu of Northern Zhouwrote a book in AD 569 calledXiang Jing. It described the rules of an astronomically themed game calledxiangxi(象戲). The wordxiàngqí象棋 is usually translated as \"elephant game\" or \"figure game\", because theChinese character象 means \"elephant\" and \"figure\"; it originated as a stylized drawing of an elephant, and was used to write a word meaning \"figure\", likely because thetwo words were pronounced the same. For these reasons, Murray theorized that \"in China took over the board and name of a game called 象棋 in the sense of 'Astronomical Game', which represented the apparent movements of naked-eye-visible astronomical objects in the night sky, and that the earliest Chinese references to 象棋 meant the Astronomical Game and not Chinese chess\". Previous games called xiàngqí may have been based on the movements of sky objects. However, the connection between 象 andastronomyis marginal, and arose from constellations being called \"figures\" in astronomical contexts where other meanings of \"figure\" were less likely; this usage may have led some ancient Chinese authors to theorize that the game 象棋 started as a simulation of astronomy. To support his argument, Murray quoted an old Chinese source that says that in the older xiangqi (which modern xiangqi may have taken some of its rules from) the game pieces could beshuffled, which does not happen in the modern chess-style xiangqi.Murray also wrote that in ancient China there was more than one game called xiangqi.Murray also even supposed thatchaturangafrom India influenced the formation of present-day xiangqi. An alternative hypothesis to Murray's is that xiangqi was patterned after the array of troops in theWarring States period.David H. Li, for example, argues that the game was developed byHan Xinin the winter of 204 BC-203 BC to prepare for an upcoming battle.His theories have been questioned by other chess researchers, however.The earliest description of the game's rules appears in the story \"Cén Shùn\" (岑順) in the collectionXuanguai lu(玄怪錄), written byNiu Sengruin the middle part of theTang dynasty. Xiangqi is the same as it is today fromSouthern Song dynasty. JanggiofKorean Peninsulaoriginates from Xiangqi. With the popularization of xiangqi, many different schools of circles and players came into prominence, many books and manuals on the techniques of playing the game were also published, they played an important role in popularizing xiangqi and improving the techniques of play in modern times. With the economic and cultural development during theQing dynasty, xiangqi entered a new stage. A Western-styleEncyclopedia of Chinese Chess Openingswas written in 2004. Modern play Tournaments and leagues Although xiangqi has its origin in Asia, there are xiangqi leagues and clubs all over the world. Each European nation generally has its own governing league; for example, in Britain, xiangqi is regulated by the United Kingdom Chinese Chess Association. Asian countries also have nationwide leagues, such as the Malaysia Chinese Chess Association. In addition, there are several international federations and tournaments. TheChinese Xiangqi Associationhosts several tournaments every year, including the Yin Li and Ram Cup Tournaments.Other organizations include the Asian Xiangqi Federationand a World Xiangqi Federation,which hosts tournaments and competitions bi-annually, with most limited to players from member nations. There are Europeanized versions of boards (10 × 9) and figures of xiangqi. Rankings The Asian Xiangqi Federation (AXF) and its corresponding member associations rank players in a format similar to theElo rating systemof chess. According to the XiangQi DataBase, the top-ranking female and male players in China, as of June 2012, wereTang Danand Jiang Chuan, with ratings of 2529 and 2667, respectively.Other strong players include Zhao GuanFang (female),Xu Yinchuan(male), Lu Qin (male), and Wang LinNa (female). The Asian Xiangqi Federation also bestows the title of grandmaster to select individuals around the world who have excelled at xiangqi or made special contributions to the game. There are no specific criteria for becoming a grandmaster and there are only approximately 100 grandmasters as of 2020.The titles of grandmaster is bestowed by bodies such as the AXF and the Chinese Xiangqi Association (CXA). Computers Thegame-tree complexityof xiangqi is approximately 10150; in 2004 it was projected that a human top player would be defeated before 2010.Xiangqi is one of the more popular computer-versus-computer competitions at theComputer Olympiads. Computer programs for playing xiangqi show the same development trend as has occurred for international chess: they are usually console applications (called engines) which communicate their moves in text form through some standard protocol. For displaying the board graphically, they then rely on a separategraphical user interface(GUI). Through such standardization, many different engines can be used through the same GUI, which can also be used for automated play of different engines against each other. Popular protocols are UCI (Universal Chess Interface), UCCI (Universal Chinese Chess Interface), Qianhong (QH) protocol, andWinBoard/XBoard (WB) protocol (the latter two named after the GUIs that implemented them). There now exist many dozens of xiangqi engines supporting one or more of these protocols, including some commercial engines. Variations Blitz chessEach player only has around 5–10 minutes each. Manchu chessInvented during theManchu-ledQing dynasty. Red horses, cannons, and one of the chariots are absent, but the remaining chariot can be played as horses and cannons as well. Supply chessSimilar to the Western chess variantBughouse chess, this variant features the ability to re-deploy captured pieces, similar to a rule inshogi. Four players play as two-person teams in two side-by-side games. One teammate plays Black and other plays Red. Any piece obtained by capturing the opponent's piece is given to the teammate for use in the other game. These pieces can be deployed by the teammate to give him an advantage over the other player, so long as the piece starts on the player's own side of the board and does not cause the opponent to be in check. FormationSimilar toFischer Random Chess, one player's pieces are placed randomly on one side of the river, except for the generals and advisors, which must be at their usual positions, and the elephants, which must start at two of the seven points they can normally reach. The other player's pieces are set up to mirror the first's. All other rules are the same. BanqiThis variation is more well known inHong Kongthan in mainland China. It uses the xiangqi pieces and board, but does not follow any of its rules, bearing more of a resemblance to the Western gameStrategoas well as the Chinese gameLuzhanqi. Variations played with special boards or pieces There are many versions of three-player xiangqi, orsan xiangqui, all played on special boards. San Guo Qi\"Game of the Three Kingdoms\" is played on a special hexagonal board with three xiangqi armies (red, blue, and green) vying for dominance. A Y-shaped river divides the board into three gem-shaped territories, each containing the grid found on one side of a xiangqi board, but distorted to make the game playable by three people. Each player has eighteen pieces: the sixteen of regular xiangqi, plus two new ones that stand on the same rank as the cannons. The new pieces have different names depending on their side:huo(\"fire\") for Red,qi(\"flag\") for Blue, andfeng(\"wind\") for Green. They move two spaces orthogonally, then one space diagonally. The generals each bear the name of a historical Chinese kingdom—Shu for Red, Wei for Blue, and Wu for Green—from China'sThree Kingdomsperiod.It is likely that San Guo Qi first appeared under the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). San You Qi\"Three Friends Chess\" was invented by Zheng Jinde fromShexianin theAnhuiprovince during the reign of theKangxi Emperorof theQing dynasty(1661–1722). It is played on a Y-shaped board with a full army of xiangqi pieces set up at the end of each of the board's three wide radii. In the centre of the board sits a triangular zone with certain features, such as ocean, mountain, or city walls, each of which is impassable by certain pieces. Two of an army's five soldiers are replaced by new pieces calledhuo(\"fire\") pieces, which move one space diagonally forward. Twoqi(\"flag\") pieces are positioned on the front corners of the palace; they move two spaces forward inside their own camp, and then one space in any direction inside an enemy camp. Sanrenqi\"Three Men Chess\" is a riverless, commercial variant played on a cross-shaped board with some special rules, including a fourth, neutral country calledHan.Han has three Chariots, one Cannon, and one General named \"Emperor Xian of Han\", but these pieces do not move and do not belong to any of the players until a certain point in the game when two players team up against the third player. At that point the third player gets to also control Han. Si Guo Qi\"Four Kingdoms Chess\" is also played on a riverless, cross-shaped board, but with four players. Because there are no rivers, elephants may move about the board freely. Qi Guo Xiang Qi\"Game of the Seven Kingdoms\" is based symbolically on the Warring States Period. In Unicode Xiangqi pieces were added toUnicodeversion 11.0 in June 2018. They are assigned to the codepoints U+1FA60–U+1FA6D in theChess Symbolsblock. For legibility, the red pieces are filled white, while black pieces are filled black. See also Notes References Further reading External links", "China China,officially thePeople's Republic of China(PRC),is a country inEast Asia. Witha populationexceeding 1.4 billion, it is thesecond-most populous countryafterIndia, representing 17.4% of the world population. China spans the equivalent of five time zones andborders fourteen countries by land.With an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi), it is thethird-largest countryby total land area.The country is divided into 33province-level divisions: 22provinces,fiveautonomous regions, fourmunicipalities, and two semi-autonomousspecial administrative regions.Beijingis the country's capital, whileShanghaiisits most populous city by urban areaand largestfinancial center. China is considered one of thecradles of civilization: the first human inhabitants in the region arrived during thePaleolithic. By the late second millennium BCE, the earliestdynastic stateshad emerged in theYellow Riverbasin. The eighth to third centuries BCE saw a breakdown in the authority of theZhou dynasty, accompanied by the emergence of administrative and military techniques,literature,philosophy, andhistoriography. In 221 BCE, China was unified underan emperor, ushering in more than two millennia of imperial dynasties including theQin,Han,Tang,Yuan,Ming, andQing. With theinvention of gunpowderandpaper, the establishment of theSilk Road, and the building of theGreat Wall,Chinese cultureflourished and hasheavily influenced both its neighborsand lands further afield. However, China began to cedeparts of the countryin the late 19th century to various European powers by a series ofunequal treaties. After decades of struggle, the1911 Revolutionresulted in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of theRepublic of China(ROC) the following year. The country under the nascentBeiyang governmentwas unstable and ultimately fragmented during theWarlord Era, which was ended upon theNorthern Expeditionconducted by theKuomintang(KMT) to reunify the country. TheChinese Civil Warbegan in 1927, when KMT forcespurgedmembers of the rivalChinese Communist Party(CCP), who proceeded to engage in sporadic fighting against the KMT-ledNationalist government. Following the country's invasion by theEmpire of Japanin 1937, theSecond Sino-Japanese Wareventually ended in a Chinese victory; however, atrocities such as theNanjing Massacrehad a lasting impact on the country. In 1949, the resurgent Communists established control over most of the country,proclaiming the People's Republic of Chinaand forcing theNationalist government to retreatto theisland of Taiwan. The country was split, withboth sidesclaiming to be thesole legitimate government of China. Following the implementation ofland reforms, further attempts by the PRC to realizecommunismfailed: theGreat Leap Forwardwas largely responsible for theGreat Chinese Faminethat ended with millions of Chinese people having died, and the subsequentCultural Revolutionwas a period of social turmoil and persecution characterized byMaoistpopulism. Following theSino-Soviet split, theShanghai Communiquéin 1972 would precipitate the normalization ofrelations with the United States.Economic reformsthat began in 1978 moved the country away from a socialistplanned economytowardsan increasingly capitalist market economy, spurring significant economic growth. The corresponding movement for increased democracy and liberalization stalled after theTiananmen Square protests and massacrein 1989. China is aunitaryone-partysocialist republicled by the CCP. It is one of the fivepermanent membersof theUN Security Council; the UN representative for China was changed from the ROC to the PRC in 1971. It is a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as theAIIB, theSilk Road Fund, theNew Development Bank, and theRCEP. It is a member of theBRICS, theG20,APEC, theSCO, and theEast Asia Summit. Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, theChinese economyis the world'slargest economy by GDPatpurchasing power parity, thesecond-largest economy by nominal GDP, and thesecond-wealthiest country, albeitranking poorlyin measures ofdemocracy,human rightsandreligious freedom. The country has been one of thefastest-growingmajor economies and is the world'slargest manufacturerandexporter, as well as thesecond-largest importer. China is anuclear-weapon statewith the world'slargest standing army by military personneland thesecond-largest defense budget. It is agreat power, andhas been described as an emerging superpower. China is known forits cuisineand culture, and has59 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, thesecond-highest number of any country. Etymology The word \"China\" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced throughPortuguese,Malay, andPersianback to theSanskritwordCīna, used inancient India.\"China\" appears inRichard Eden's 1555 translationof the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorerDuarte Barbosa.Barbosa's usage was derived from PersianChīn(چین), which in turn derived from SanskritCīna(चीन).Cīnawas first used in earlyHinduscripture, including theMahabharata(5th century BCE) and theLaws of Manu(2nd century BCE).In 1655,Martino Martinisuggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of theQin dynasty(221–206 BCE).Although use in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources.The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate.Alternative suggestions include the names forYelangand theJingor Chu state. The official name of the modern state is the \"People's Republic of China\" (simplified Chinese:中华人民共和国;traditional Chinese:中華人民共和國;pinyin:Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó). The shorter form is \"China\" (中国;中國;Zhōngguó), fromzhōng('central') andguó('state'), a term which developed under theWestern Zhoudynasty in reference to itsroyal demesne.It was used in official documents as an synonym for the state under theQing.The nameZhongguois also translated as'Middle Kingdom'in English.China is sometimes referred to as \"mainland China\" or \"the Mainland\" when distinguishing it from theRepublic of Chinaor thePRC's Special Administrative Regions. History Prehistory Archaeological evidencesuggests that earlyhominidsinhabited China 2.25 million years ago.The hominid fossils ofPeking Man, aHomo erectuswhoused fire,have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000years ago.The fossilized teeth ofHomo sapiens(dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered inFuyan Cave.Chineseproto-writingexisted inJiahuaround 6600 BCE,atDamaidiaround 6000 BCE,Dadiwanfrom 5800 to 5400 BCE, andBanpodating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that theJiahu symbols(7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system. Early dynastic rule According to traditionalChinese historiography, theXia dynastywas established during the late third millennium BC, marking the beginning of the dynastic cycle that was understood to underpin China's entire political history. In the modern era, the Xia's historicity came under increasing scrutiny, in part due to the earliest known attestation of the Xia being written millennia after the date given for their collapse. In 1958, archaeologists discovered sites belonging to theErlitou culturethat existed during the earlyBronze Age; they have since been characterized as the remains of the historical Xia, but this conception is often rejected.TheShang dynastythat traditionally succeeded the Xia is the earliest for which there are both contemporary written records and undisputed archaeological evidence.The Shang ruled much of theYellow Rivervalley until the 11th century BCE, with the earliest hard evidence dating toc.1300 BCE.Theoracle bone script, attested fromc.1250 BCEbut generally assumed to be considerably older,represents the oldest known form ofwritten Chinese,and is the direct ancestor of modernChinese characters. The Shang were overthrown by theZhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5thcenturies BCE, though the centralized authority ofSon of Heavenwas slowly eroded byfengjianlords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou and continually waged war with each other during the 300-yearSpring and Autumn period. By the time of theWarring States periodof the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven major powerful states left. Imperial China Qin and Han The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after thestate of Qinconquered the other six states, reunited China and established the dominant order ofautocracy.King Zheng of Qinproclaimed himself the Emperor of theQin dynasty, becoming the first emperor of a unified China. He enacted Qin'slegalistreforms, notably the standardization of Chinese characters,measurements, road widths, andcurrency. His dynasty alsoconquered the Yue tribesinGuangxi,Guangdong, andNorthern Vietnam.The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death. Followingwidespread revoltsduring which the imperial librarywas burned,theHan dynastyemerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modernHan Chinese.The Hanexpanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reachingCentral Asia, Mongolia,Korea, andYunnan, and therecovery of Guangdong and northern VietnamfromNanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia andSogdiahelped establish the land route of theSilk Road, replacing the earlier path over theHimalayasto India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor ofConfucianism, Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors. Three Kingdoms, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties After theend of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known asThree Kingdomsfollowed, at the end of whichWeiwas swiftly overthrown by theJin dynasty. The Jin fell tocivil warupon the ascension of adevelopmentally disabled emperor; theFive Barbariansthenrebelledand ruled northern China as theSixteen States. TheXianbeiunified them as theNorthern Wei, whoseEmperor Xiaowenreversed his predecessors' apartheid policies andenforced a drastic sinification on his subjects. In the south, the generalLiu Yusecured the abdication of the Jin in favor of theLiu Song. The various successors of these states became known as theNorthern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by theSuiin 581. Sui, Tang and Song The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy andimperial examinationsystem, constructed theGrand Canal, and patronizedBuddhism. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and afailed warinnorthern Koreaprovoked widespread unrest.Under the succeedingTangandSong dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.The Tang dynasty retained control of theWestern Regionsand the Silk Road,which brought traders to as far asMesopotamiaand theHorn of Africa,and made the capitalChang'ana cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by theAn Lushan rebellionin the 8th century.In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended theseparatist situationin 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and theLiao dynasty. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade. Between the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw arevival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang,and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, aslandscape artandporcelainwere brought to new levels of complexity.However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by theJin dynasty. In 1127,Emperor Huizong of Songand the capitalBianjingwere captured during theJin–Song wars. The remnants of the Song retreated tosouthern China. Yuan TheMongol conquest of Chinabegan in 1205 with thecampaignsagainstWestern XiabyGenghis Khan,who alsoinvaded Jin territories.In 1271, the Mongol leaderKublai Khanestablished theYuan dynasty, whichconquered the last remnant of the Song dynastyin 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhangoverthrew the Yuanin 1368 and founded theMing dynastyas theHongwu Emperor. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiralZheng Heled theMing treasure voyagesthroughout the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as East Africa. Ming In the early Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved fromNanjingto Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such asWang Yangmingcritiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts ofindividualismand equality offour occupations.Thescholar-officialstratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense againstJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)andLater Jinincursions led to an exhausted treasury.In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition ofpeasant rebelforces led byLi Zicheng. TheChongzhen Emperorcommitted suicide when the city fell. The ManchuQing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty generalWu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-livedShun dynastyand subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. Qing The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. TheMing-Qing transition(1618–1683) cost 25 million lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurated another flowering of the arts.After theSouthern Mingended, the further conquest of theDzungar Khanateadded Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire.Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly began to accelerate. It is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced two growth spurts, one during theNorthern Songperiod (960–1127), and other during the Qing period (around 1700–1830).By theHigh Qing eraChina was possibly the most commercialized country in the world, and imperial China experienced a second commercial revolution by the end of the 18th century.On the other hand, the centralized autocracy was strengthened in part to suppressanti-Qing sentimentwith the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, like theHaijinduring the early Qing period and ideological control as represented by theliterary inquisition, causing some social and technological stagnation. Fall of the Qing dynasty In the mid-19th century, theOpium Warswith Britain andFranceforced China to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allowextraterritorialityfor foreign nationals, and cedeHong Kongto the Britishunder the 1842Treaty of Nanking, the first of what have been termed as the \"unequal treaties\". TheFirst Sino-Japanese War(1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in theKorean Peninsula, as well as thecession of TaiwantoJapan.The Qing dynasty also began experiencinginternal unrestin which tens of millions of people died, especially in theWhite Lotus Rebellion, the failedTaiping Rebellionthat ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and theDungan Revolt (1862–1877)in the northwest. The initial success of theSelf-Strengthening Movementof the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s. In the 19th century, the greatChinese diasporabegan. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as theNorthern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.TheGuangxu Emperordrafted areform planin 1898 to establish a modernconstitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by theEmpress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreignBoxer Rebellionof 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as thelate Qing reforms, theXinhai Revolutionof 1911–1912 ended the Qing dynasty and established theRepublic of China.Puyi, the last Emperor,abdicated in 1912. Establishment of the Republic and World War II On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, andSun Yat-senof theKuomintang(KMT) was proclaimed provisional president.In March 1912, the presidency was given toYuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himselfEmperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his ownBeiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916.After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.During thisperiod, Chinaparticipated inWorld War Iand saw a far-reaching popular uprising (theMay Fourth Movement). In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang underChiang Kai-shekwas able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings known collectively as theNorthern Expedition.The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital toNanjingand implemented \"political tutelage\", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen'sThree Principles of the Peopleprogram for transforming China into a modern democratic state.The Kuomintangbriefly alliedwith theChinese Communist Party(CCP) during the Northern Expedition, though the alliance broke down in 1927 after Chiangviolently suppressedthe CCP and other leftists in Shanghai, marking the beginning of theChinese Civil War.The CCP declaredareas of the countryas theChinese Soviet Republic(Jiangxi Soviet) in November 1931 inRuijin,Jiangxi. The Jiangxi Soviet waswiped outby the KMT armies in 1934, leading the CCP to initiate theLong Marchand relocate toYan'aninShaanxi. It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949. In 1931, Japaninvaded and occupied Manchuria. Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating theSecond Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945), atheaterofWorld War II. The war forced anuneasy alliancebetween the Kuomintang and the CCP. Japanese forces committed numerouswar atrocitiesagainst the civilian population; as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinesewere massacredin Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.China, along with the UK, the United States, and theSoviet Union, were recognized as the Allied \"Big Four\" in theDeclaration by United Nations.Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four majorAllies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.After thesurrender of Japanin 1945, Taiwan, including thePenghu, washanded over to Chinese control; however, the validity of this handover is controversial. People's Republic China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between theKuomintangand theCommunistsled to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of theROC constitutionwere never implemented in mainland China.Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and theROC government retreated offshore to Taiwan. On 1 October 1949,CCP ChairmanMao Zedongformallyproclaimed the People's Republic of ChinainTiananmen Square,Beijing.In 1950, the PRCcaptured Hainanfrom the ROCandannexed Tibet.However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wagean insurgency in western Chinathroughout the 1950s.TheCCPconsolidated its popularity among the peasants through theLand Reform Movement, which included the state-tolerated executions of between 1 and 2 million landlords by peasants and former tenants.Though the PRC initially allied closely with theSoviet Union, the relations between the twocommunistnationsgradually deteriorated, leading China to develop an independent industrial system andits own nuclear weapons. The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974.However, theGreat Leap Forward, an idealistic massiveindustrializationproject, resulted inan estimated 15 to 55 million deathsbetween 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation.In 1964, China detonated its first atomic bomb.In 1966, Mao and his allies launched theCultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRCreplaced the ROCin the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. Reforms and contemporary history After Mao's death, theGang of Fourwas arrested byHua Guofengand held responsible for the Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution was rebuked, with millions rehabilitated.Deng Xiaopingtook power in 1978, and instituted large-scalepoliticalandeconomic reforms, together with the \"Eight Elders\", most senior and influential members of the party. The government loosened its control and thecommuneswere gradually disbanded.Agricultural collectivizationwas dismantled and farmlands privatized. While foreign trade became a major focus,special economic zones(SEZs) were created. Inefficientstate-owned enterprises(SOEs) were restructured and some closed. This marked China's transition away from planned economy.China adopted its currentconstitutionon 4 December 1982. In 1989, there were protests suchthose in Tiananmen Square, and then throughout the entire nation.Zhao Ziyangwas put under house arrest for his sympathies to the protests and was replaced byJiang Zemin. Jiang continued economic reforms, closing many SOEs and trimming down \"iron rice bowl\" (life-tenure positions).China's economy grew sevenfold during this time.British Hong KongandPortuguese Macaureturned to China in1997and1999, respectively, asspecial administrative regionsunder the principle ofone country, two systems. The country joined theWorld Trade Organizationin 2001. At the16th CCP National Congressin 2002,Hu Jintaosucceeded Jiang as the general secretary.Under Hu, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy.However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,and caused major social displacement.Xi Jinpingsucceeded Hu as paramount leader at the18th CCP National Congressin 2012. Shortly after his ascension to power, Xi launcheda vast anti-corruption crackdown,that prosecuted more than 2 million officials by 2022.Duringhis tenure, Xi has consolidated power unseen since the initiation of economic and political reforms. Geography China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from theGobiandTaklamakan Desertsin the arid north to thesubtropicalforests in the wetter south. TheHimalaya,Karakoram,PamirandTian Shanmountain ranges separate China from much ofSouthandCentral Asia. TheYangtzeand Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from theTibetan Plateauto the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along thePacific Oceanis 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by theBohai,Yellow,East ChinaandSouth Chinaseas. China connects through the Kazakh border to theEurasian Steppe. The territory of China lies betweenlatitudes18°and54° N, andlongitudes73°and135° E. Thegeographical centerof China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at35°50′40.9″N103°27′7.5″E / 35.844694°N 103.452083°E /35.844694; 103.452083 (Geographical center of China). China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populatedalluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broadgrasslandspredominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts thedeltasof China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include theXi,Mekong,BrahmaputraandAmur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. Highplateausfeature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point,Mount Everest(8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed ofAyding Lake(−154 m) in theTurpan Depression. Climate China's climate is mainly dominated bydry seasonsand wetmonsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. A major environmental issue in China is the continuedexpansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency ofsandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted indust stormsplaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. Water quality,erosion, andpollution controlhave become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Meltingglaciersin the Himalayas could potentially lead towater shortagesfor hundreds of millions of people.According to academics, in order to limitclimate change in Chinato 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) electricity generation fromcoal in Chinawithoutcarbon capturemust be phased out by 2045.With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to three-degree temperature rise. Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels.Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops.In 2021,12 percent of global permanent meadows and pastures belonged to China, as well as 8% of global cropland. Biodiversity China is one of 17megadiverse countries,lying in two of the world's majorbiogeographic realms: thePalearcticand theIndomalayan. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, afterBrazilandColombia.The country is a party to theConvention on Biological Diversity;itsNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Planwas received by the convention in 2010. China is home to at least 551 species ofmammals(the third-highest in the world),1,221 species of birds (eighth),424 species of reptiles (seventh)and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure from, one of the world's largest population of humans. At least 840animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur andtraditional Chinese medicine.Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west.TheBaijiwas confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006. China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,and is home to a variety of forest types. Coldconiferousforests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such asmooseandAsian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.Theunderstoryof moistconiferforests may contain thickets ofbamboo. In highermontanestands ofjuniperandyew, the bamboo is replaced byrhododendrons.Subtropicalforests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonalrainforests, though confined toYunnanandHainan, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.China has over 10,000 recorded species offungi. Environment In the early 2000s, China has suffered fromenvironmental deterioration and pollutiondue to its rapid pace of industrialization.Regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, frequently disregarded in favor of rapid economic development.China has the second-highest death toll because of air pollution, afterIndia, with approximately 1 million deaths.Although China ranks as the highestCO2emittingcountry,it only emits 8 tons ofCO2per capita, significantly lower than developed countries such as the United States (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6).Greenhouse gas emissions by Chinaare theworld's largest.The country has significantwater pollutionproblems; only 89.4% of China's national surface water was graded suitable for human consumption by theMinistry of Ecology and Environmentin 2023. China has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air pollution in the 2010s.In 2020, the Chinese government announced its aims for the country to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 in line with theParis Agreement,which, according toClimate Action Tracker, would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2–0.3 degrees – \"the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker\". China is the world's leading investor inrenewable energyandits commercialization, with$546 billion invested in 2022;it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation ofrenewable energyhas increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022.In 2023, 60.5% of China's electricity came fromcoal(largest producer in the world), 13.2% fromhydroelectric power(largest), 9.4% fromwind(largest), 6.2% fromsolar energy(largest), 4.6% fromnuclear energy(second-largest), 3.3% fromnatural gas(fifth-largest), and 2.2% frombioenergy(largest); in total, 31% of China's energy came from renewable energy sources.Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been the largest importer of Russiancrude oilin 2022. Political geography China is thethird-largestcountry in the world by land area afterRussia, and the third- or fourth-largest country in the world by total area.China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2(3,700,000 sq mi).Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2(3,696,100 sq mi) according to theEncyclopædia Britannica,to 9,596,961 km2(3,705,407 sq mi) according to theUN Demographic Yearbook,andThe World Factbook. China has thelongest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) and itscoastlinecovers approximately 14,500 km (9,000 mi) from the mouth of theYalu River(Amnok River) to theGulf of Tonkin.Chinaborders 14 nationsand covers the bulk of East Asia, borderingVietnam,Laos, andMyanmarin Southeast Asia;India,Bhutan,Nepal,PakistanandAfghanistanin South Asia;Tajikistan,KyrgyzstanandKazakhstanin Central Asia; and Russia,Mongolia, andNorth KoreainInner AsiaandNortheast Asia. It is narrowly separated fromBangladeshandThailandto the southwest and south, and has several maritime neighbors such asJapan,Philippines,Malaysia, andIndonesia. China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them.China currently has a disputed land border withIndiaandBhutan.China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over territory in theEastandSouth China Seas, such as theSenkaku Islandsand the entirety ofSouth China Sea Islands. Government and politics The People's Republic of China is aone-party stategoverned by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP is officiallyguidedbysocialism with Chinese characteristics, which isMarxism adapted to Chinese circumstances.The Chinese constitution states that the PRC \"is a socialist state governed by apeople's democratic dictatorshipthat is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants,\" that the state institutions \"shall practice the principle ofdemocratic centralism,\"and that \"the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party.\" The PRCofficially terms itself as a democracy, using terms such as \"socialist consultative democracy\",and \"whole-process people's democracy\".However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and adictatorship,with among the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably againstfreedom of the press,freedom of assembly,free formation of social organizations,freedom of religionandfree access to the Internet.China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an \"authoritarian regime\" by theEconomist Intelligence Unit'sDemocracy Index, ranking at 148th out of 167 countries in 2023.Other sources suggest that terming China as \"authoritarian\" does not sufficiently account for the multiple consultation mechanisms that exist in Chinese government. Chinese Communist Party According to theCCP constitution, its highest body is theNational Congressheld every five years.The National Congress elects theCentral Committee, who then elects the party'sPolitburo,Politburo Standing Committeeand thegeneral secretary(party leader), the top leadership of the country.The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over party and state and serves as the informalparamount leader.The current general secretary isXi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012.At the local level, thesecretary of the CCP committeeof a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor. Government The government in China is under the sole control of the CCP.The CCP controls appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members. TheNational People's Congress(NPC), with nearly 3,000-members, is constitutionally the \"highest organ of state power\",though it has been also described as a \"rubber stamp\" body.The NPC meets annually, while theNPC Standing Committee, around 150 members elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP.The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with anothereight minor partieshaving nominal representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership. Thepresidentis elected by the NPC. The presidency is the ceremonial state representative, but not the constitutional head of state. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and thechairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China'sparamount leaderandsupreme commanderof the Armed Forces. Thepremieris thehead of government, withLi Qiangbeing the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second- or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over theState Council, China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers,state councilors, and the heads of ministries and commissions.TheChinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's \"united front\" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired byWang Huning, fourth-ranking member of the PSC. The governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.: 7Policy instruments or processes are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy that involves experimentation and feedback.: 14Generally, central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.: 71The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.: 71 Administrative divisions The PRC is constitutionally aunitary statedivided into 23provinces,fiveautonomous regions(each with a designated minority group), and fourdirect-administered municipalities—collectively referred to as \"mainland China\"—as well as thespecial administrative regions(SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.The PRC regards theisland of Taiwanas itsTaiwan Province,KinmenandMatsuas a part ofFujian Provinceand islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part ofHainan ProvinceandGuangdong Province, although all these territories are governed by theRepublic of China(ROC).Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions:North China,East China,Southwestern China,Northwestern China,South Central China, andNortheast China. Taiwan(台湾省),governed by theRepublic of China Foreign relations The PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nation members states and maintainsembassies in 174. As of 2024, China has one of the largest diplomatic networks of any country in the world.In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of theUnited Nations Security Council.It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including theG20,theSCO,theBRICS,theEast Asia Summit,and theAPEC.China was also a former member and leader of theNon-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate fordeveloping countries. The PRC officially maintains theone-China principle, which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China.The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique \"one-China policies\" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the U.S. and Japan, onlyacknowledgethe claim.Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,especially in the matter of armament sales.Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the UN in 1971. Much of currentChinese foreign policyis reportedly based on PremierZhou Enlai'sFive Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of \"harmony without uniformity\", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that areregarded as dangerousand repressive by Western nations, such asSudan,North KoreaandIran.China's close relationship withMyanmarhas involved support for its ruling governments as well as for its ethnic rebel groups,including theArakan Army.China has aclose political, economic and military relationshipwith Russia,and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.China's relationship with the United Statesis complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences. Since the early 2000s, China has followed a policy ofengaging with African nationsfor trade and bilateral co-operation.It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods.China is increasing its influence inCentral Asiaand South Pacific.The country has strong trade ties withASEANcountriesand major South American economies,and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others. In 2013, China initiated theBelt and Road Initiative(BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, as of April 2020, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient transport routes, especially themaritime Silk Roadwith its connections to East Africa and Europe. However many loans made under the program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls fordebt relieffrom debtor nations. Military ThePeople's Liberation Army(PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.It has also been accused of technology theft by some countries.Since 2024, it consists of four services: theGround Force(PLAGF), theNavy(PLAN), theAir Force(PLAAF) and theRocket Force(PLARF). It also has four independent arms: theAerospace Force, theCyberspace Force, theInformation Support Force, and theJoint Logistics Support Force, the first three of which were split from the disbandedStrategic Support Force(PLASSF).Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is thelargest in the world. The PLA holds the world'sthird-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons,and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage.China's official military budget for 2023 totalled US$224 billion (1.55 trillion Yuan), thesecond-largest in the world, thoughSIPRIestimates that its real expenditure that year was US$296 billion, making up 12% of global military spending and accounting for 1.7% of the country's GDP.According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP.The PLA is commanded by theCentral Military Commission(CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. Thechairman of the CMCis thecommander-in-chiefof the PLA. Sociopolitical issues and human rights The situation ofhuman rights in Chinahas attracted significant criticism from foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, andexcessive use of the death penalty.Since its inception,Freedom Househas ranked China as \"not free\" in itsFreedom in the Worldsurvey,whileAmnesty Internationalhas documented significant human rights abuses.The Chinese constitution states that the \"fundamental rights\" of citizens includefreedom of speech,freedom of the press, theright to a fair trial,freedom of religion,universal suffrage, andproperty rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.China has limited protections regardingLGBT rights. Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action.China also has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet censorship regime in the world, with numerous websites being blocked.The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to \"social stability\".China additionally uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country. China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses inTibetand Xinjiang,where significant numbers of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns andreligious suppression.Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in a harsh crackdown in Xinjiang, with around one millionUyghursand other ethnic and religion minorities being detained ininternment campsaimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.According to Western reports, political indoctrination, torture,physicalandpsychologicalabuse,forced sterilization,sexual abuse, andforced laborare common in these facilities.According to a 2020Foreign Policyreport, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide,while a separateUN Human Rights Office reportsaid they could potentially meet the definitions forcrimes against humanity.The Chinese authorities have also cracked down on dissent inHong Kong, especially after the passage of anational security lawin 2020. In 2017 and 2020, thePew Research Centerranked the severity of Chinese government restrictions on religion as being among the world's highest, despite ranking religious-related social hostilities in China as low in severity.TheGlobal Slavery Indexestimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people (0.25% of the population) were living in \"conditions of modernslavery\", including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposedre-education through labor(laojiao) system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to what extent its practices have stopped.The much largerreform through labor(laogai) system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; theLaogai Research Foundationhas estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that this number was likely an underestimate. Public views of government Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.Nonetheless, international surveys show the Chinese public have a high level of satisfaction with their government.: 137These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness.: 136According to theWorld Values Survey(2022), 91% of Chinese respondents have significant confidence in their government.: 13A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever in the survey's history. Economy China has the world'ssecond-largest economyin terms ofnominal GDP,and the world'slargestin terms ofpurchasing power parity(PPP).As of 2022, China accounts for around 18% of theglobal economyby nominal GDP.China is one of the world'sfastest-growingmajor economies,with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent since the introduction ofeconomic reforms in 1978.According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022.It ranks at64th at nominal GDP per capita, making it an upper-middle income country.Of the world's500 largest companies, 135 are headquartered in China.As of at least 2024, China has the world's second-largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the third-largest bond market.: 153 Chinawas one of the world's foremost economic powersthroughout the arc ofEast Asianandglobal history. The countryhad one of the largest economiesin the world for most of thepast two millennia,during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail,mining,steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the tenlargest stock exchangesin the world—Shanghai,Hong KongandShenzhen—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020.China has four (Shanghai,Hong Kong,Beijing, andShenzhen) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any other country in the 2020Global Financial Centres Index. Modern-day China is often described as an example ofstate capitalismorparty-state capitalism.The state dominates in strategic \"pillar\" sectors such as energy production andheavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP. China has been the world'slargest manufacturing nationsince 2010, after overtaking the U.S., which had been the largest for the previous hundred years.China has also been the second-largest inhigh-techmanufacturing country since 2012, according to USNational Science Foundation.China is the second-largest retail market after the United States.China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021.China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world as of 2022.China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries. Tourism China received 65.7 million international visitors in 2019,and in 2018 was thefourth-most-visited countryin the world.It also experiences an enormous volume ofdomestic tourism; Chinese tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019.China hosts the world'ssecond-largest numberofWorld Heritage Sites(56) after Italy, and is one of themost popular tourist destinations(first in the Asia-Pacific). Wealth Chinaaccounted for 17.9%of the world's total wealth in 2021, second highest in the world after the U.S.China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million.: 23From 1990 to 2018, the proportion of the Chinese population living with an income of less than $1.90 per day (2011PPP) decreased from 66.3% to 0.3%, the share living with an income of less than $3.20 per day from 90.0% to 2.9%, and the share living with an income of less than $5.50 per day decreased from 98.3% to 17.0%. From 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six.Wages in China have grown significantly in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007.Per capita incomes have also risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself.China's development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions.It has a high level of economic inequality,which has increased quickly after the economic reforms,though has decreased significantly in the 2010s.In 2021, China'sGini coefficientwas 0.357, according to theWorld Bank. As of March 2024, China was second in the world, after the U.S., intotal number of billionairesandtotal number of millionaires, with 473 Chinese billionairesand 6.2 million millionaires.In 2019, China overtook the U.S. as the home to the highest number of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report byCredit Suisse.China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021, two-thirds of the global total.China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015;the middle-class grew to 500 million by 2024. China in the global economy China has been a member of theWTOsince 2001 and is the world's largest trading power.By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 countries.China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer, accounting for roughly 45% of maritime'sdry-bulk market. China's foreign exchange reservesreached US$3.246 trillion as of March 2024, making its reserves by far the world's largest.In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inwardforeign direct investment(FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong.In 2021, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US53 billion making it the second-largest recipient of remittances in the world.China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $147.9 billion in 2023,and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies. Economists have argued that therenminbiis undervalued, due tocurrency interventionfrom the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade advantage.China has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities ofcounterfeitgoods.The U.S. government has also alleged that China does not respectintellectual property(IP) rights andsteals IP through espionage operations.In 2020,Harvard University'sEconomic Complexity Indexranked complexity of China's exports 17th in the world, up from 24th in 2010. The Chinese government has promoted theinternationalization of the renminbiin order to wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system.The renminbi is a component of the IMF'sspecial drawing rightsand the world's fourth-most traded currency as of 2023.However, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, the U.S. Dollar and the Japanese Yen in international trade volumes. Science and technology Historical China was a world leader in science and technology until theMing dynasty.Ancient and medievalChinese discoveriesandinventions, such aspapermaking,printing, thecompass, andgunpowder(theFour Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to usenegative numbers.By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.The causes of this early modernGreat Divergencecontinue to be debated by scholars. Afterrepeated military defeatsby theEuropean colonial powersandImperial Japanin the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of theSelf-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of theSoviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of theFour Modernizations,and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed. Modern era Since the end of theCultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific researchand is quickly catching up with the U.S.in R&D spending.China officially spent around 2.6% of its GDP on R&D in 2023, totaling to around $458.5 billion.According to theWorld Intellectual Property Indicators, China received more applications than the U.S. did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.It was ranked 11th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013.Chinese supercomputersranked among thefastest in the world.Its efforts to develop the most advanced semiconductors and jet engines have seen delays and setbacks. China is developingits education systemwith an emphasis onscience, technology, engineering, and mathematics(STEM).Its academic publication apparatusbecame the world'slargest publisher of scientific papersin 2016.In 2022, China overtook the US in theNature Index, which measures the share of published articles in leading scientific journals. Space program The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with theDong Fang Hong I, which made China the fifth country to do so independently. In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space withYang Liwei's spaceflight aboardShenzhou 5. As of 2023,eighteen Chinese nationalshave journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed,Tiangong-1.In 2013, a Chinese robotic roverYutusuccessfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of theChang'e 3mission. In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—Chang'e 4—on thefar side of the Moon.In 2020,Chang'e 5successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently.In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy arover (Zhurong)on Mars.China completed its own modularspace station, theTiangong, inlow Earth orbiton 3 November 2022.On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard theTiangong. In May 2023, China announced a plan toland humans on the Moonby 2030.To that end, China currently is developing a lunar-capable super-heavy launcher, theLong March 10, a newcrewed spacecraft, and acrewed lunar lander. China sentChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo Basinon thefar side of the Moon.This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5from the lunar near side 4 years ago.It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchanto conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024, at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024, at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, which later completed another robotic rendezvous, before docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongoliain June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission. Infrastructure After a decades-long infrastructural boom,China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: it has thelargest high-speed rail network,themost supertall skyscrapers,the largest power plant (theThree Gorges Dam),anda global satellite navigation systemwith the largest number of satellites. Telecommunications China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has thelargest number of active cellphones of any country, with over 1.7 billion subscribers, as of February 2023. It has the largest number ofinternetandbroadband users, with over 1.09 billion Internet users as of December 2023—equivalent to around 77.5% of its population.By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total.China is making rapid advances in5G—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.As of December 2023, China had over 810 million5Gusers and 3.38 million base stations installed. China Mobile,China UnicomandChina Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018.Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China.Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notablyHuaweiandZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military. China has developed its ownsatellite navigationsystem, dubbedBeiDou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012as well as global services by the end of 2018.Beidou followedGPSandGLONASSas the third completed global navigation satellite. Transport Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network ofnational highwaysandexpressways. In 2022, China's highways had reached a total length of 177,000 km (110,000 mi), making it thelongest highway systemin the world.China has the world's largest market for automobiles,having surpassed the United States in both auto sales andproduction. The country is the world's largest exporter of cars by number as of 2023.A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents.In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2023, there are approximately 200 million bicycles in China. China's railways, which are operated by the state-ownedChina State Railway Group Company, are amongthe busiestin the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.As of 2023, the country had 159,000 km (98,798 mi) of railways, thesecond-longest networkin the world.The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during theChinese New Yearholiday, when theworld's largest annual human migrationtakes place.China'shigh-speed rail (HSR) systemstarted construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2023, high speed rail in China had reached 45,000 kilometers (27,962 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it thelongest HSR networkin the world.Services on theBeijing–Shanghai,Beijing–Tianjin, andChengdu–Chongqinglines reach up to 350 km/h (217 mph), making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.3 billion passengers in 2019, it is the world's busiest.The network includes theBeijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway, the single longest HSR line in the world, and theBeijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which hasthree of longest railroad bridges in the world.TheShanghai maglev train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world.Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated.As of December 2023, 55 Chinese cities haveurban mass transit systemsin operation.As of 2020, China boasts the five longestmetro systemsin the world with the networks inShanghai,Beijing,Guangzhou,ChengduandShenzhenbeing the largest. Thecivil aviation industry in Chinais mostly state-dominated, with the Chinese government retaining a majority stake in the majority of Chinese airlines. The top three airlines in China, which collectively made up 71% of the market in 2018, are all state-owned. Air travel has expanded rapidly in the last decades, with the number of passengers increasing from 16.6 million in 1990 to 551.2 million in 2017.China hadapproximately 259 airports in 2024. China hasover 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping.Of thefifty busiest container ports, 15 are located in China, of which the busiest is thePort of Shanghai, also the busiest port in the world.The country's inland waterways are the world'ssixth-longest, and total 27,700 km (17,212 mi). Water supply and sanitation Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well aswater scarcity, contamination, and pollution.According to theJoint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access toimproved sanitationin 2015.The ongoingSouth–North Water Transfer Projectintends to abate water shortage in the north. Demographics The2020 Chinese censusrecorded the population as approximately 1,411,778,724. About 17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old.Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%. Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a \"1.5\"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-child limits.The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of atwo-child policy.Athree-child policywas announced on 31 May 2021, due topopulation aging,and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.In 2023, thetotal fertility ratewas reported to be 1.09, rankingamong the lowest in the world.In 2023,National Bureau of Statisticsestimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961. According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growthor total population size.However, these scholars have been challenged.The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in thesex ratioat birth.The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total population.However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.8% of the population. The cultural preference for male children, combined with the one-child policy, led to an excess of female child orphans in China, and in the 1990s through around 2007, there was an active stream of adoptions of (mainly female) babies by American and other foreign parents.However, increased restrictions by the Chinese Government slowed foreign adoptions significantly in 2007 and again in 2015. Urbanization Chinahas urbanizedsignificantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 66% in 2023.China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,including the 17megacitiesas of 2021(cities with a population of over 10 million) ofChongqing,Shanghai,Beijing,Chengdu,Guangzhou,Shenzhen,Tianjin,Xi'an,Suzhou,Zhengzhou,Wuhan,Hangzhou,Linyi,Shijiazhuang,Dongguan,QingdaoandChangsha.The total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million.Shanghai is China'smost populous urban areawhile Chongqing is itslargest city proper, the only city in China with a permanent population of over 30 million.The figures in the table below are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large \"floating populations\" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;the figures below include only long-term residents. Ethnic groups China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise theZhonghua minzu. The largest of these nationalities are theHan Chinese, who constitute more than 91% of the total population.The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group– outnumber other ethnic groups in every place excludingTibet,Xinjiang,Linxia,andautonomous prefectureslikeXishuangbanna.Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census.Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%.The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China. Languages There are as many as 292living languagesin China.The languages most commonly spoken belong to theSinitic branchof theSino-Tibetan languagefamily, which containsMandarin(spoken by 80% of the population),andother varietiesofChinese language:Jin,Wu,Min,Hakka,Yue,Xiang,Gan,Hui,Pingand unclassified Tuhua (Shaozhou TuhuaandXiangnan Tuhua).Languages of theTibeto-Burman branch, includingTibetan,Qiang,NaxiandYi, are spoken across theTibetanandYunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages insouthwestern ChinaincludeZhuang,Thai,DongandSuiof theTai-Kadai family,MiaoandYaoof theHmong–Mien family, andWaof theAustroasiatic family. Acrossnortheasternandnorthwestern China, local ethnic groups speakAltaic languagesincludingManchu,Mongolianand severalTurkic languages:Uyghur,Kazakh,Kyrgyz,SalarandWestern Yugur.Koreanis spoken natively along the border withNorth Korea.Sarikoli, the language ofTajiks in western Xinjiang, is anIndo-European language.Taiwanese indigenous peoples, including a small population on the mainland, speakAustronesian languages. Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on theBeijing dialect, is the national language andde factoofficial language of China.It is used as alingua francabetween people of different linguistic backgrounds.In theautonomous regions of China, other languages may also serve as a lingua franca, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang, where governmental services in Uyghur are constitutionally guaranteed. Religion Freedom of religionis guaranteed by China's constitution (Chapter 2, Article 36), although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.The government of the country is officiallyatheist. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration, under theUnited Front Work Department. Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The \"three doctrines\", includingConfucianism,Taoism, andBuddhism(Chinese Buddhism), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,enriching atheological and spiritual frameworkof traditional religion which harks back to the earlyShangandZhou dynasty.Chinese folk religion, which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions,consists in allegiance to theshen(神), a character that signifies the \"energies of generation\", who can bedeitiesof the surrounding nature orancestral principlesof human groups, concepts of civility,culture heroes, many of whom feature inChinese mythologyand history.Amongst the most popularcultsof folk religion are those ofHuangdi, embodiment of the God of Heaven and one of the twodivine patriarchsof the Chinese people,ofMazu(goddess of the seas),Guandi(god of war and business),Caishen(god of prosperity and richness),Panguand many others. In the early decades of the 21st century, the Chinese government has been engaged in a rehabilitation of folk cults — formally recognizing them as \"folk beliefs\" (a category different from that of doctrinal religions),and often reconstructing them into forms of \"highly curated\"civil religion— as well as in a national and international promotion of Buddhism.China is home to many of theworld's tallest religious statues, representing either deities of Chinese folk religion or enlightened beings of Buddhism; the tallest of all is theSpring Temple BuddhainHenan. Statistics on religious affiliation in China are difficult to gather due to complex and varying definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between the three doctrines and local folk religious practices.Chinese religions or some of their currents are also definable asnon-theisticandhumanistic, since they do not hold that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but that it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.According to studies published in 2023, compiling reliable demographic analyses holden throughout the 2010s and the early 2020s, 70% of the Chinese population believes in or practices Chinese folk religion; among them, with an approach of non-exclusivity, 33.4% may be identified as Buddhists, 19.6% as Taoists, and 17.7% as adherents of other types of folk religion.Of the remaining population, 25.2% are fully non-believers or atheists, 2.5% are adherents ofChristianity, and 1.6% are adherents ofIslam.Chinese folk religion also comprises a variety ofsalvationist doctrinal organized movementswhich emerged since theSong dynasty.There are also ethnic minorities in China who maintain their ownindigenous religions, while major religions characteristic of specific ethnic groups includeTibetan BuddhismamongTibetans,MongolsandYugurs,and Islam among theHui,Uyghur,Kazakh,andKyrgyzpeoples, and other ethnicities in the northern and northwestern regions of the country. Education Compulsory education in China comprisesprimaryandjunior secondary school, which together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15.TheGaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary andtertiarylevel.More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges every year.In 2023, about 91.8 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.2 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education. China has the largest education system in the world,with about 291 million students and 18.92 million full-time teachers in over 498,300 schools in 2023.Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while inGuizhou, one of thepoorest provinces, only totalled ¥3,204.China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979,to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020. As of 2023, China has over 3,074 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world.As of 2023, China had the world's highestnumber of top universities.Currently, China trails only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of representation on lists of the top 200 universities according to the 2023Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system of three world-most followed university rankings (ARWU+QS+THE).China is home to two of the highest-ranking universities (Tsinghua UniversityandPeking University) inAsiaandemerging economies, according to theTimes Higher Education World University Rankingsand theQS World University Rankings.These universities are members of theC9 League, an alliance of eliteChinese universitiesoffering comprehensive and leading education. Health TheNational Health Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the population.An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. The Communist Party started thePatriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such ascholera,typhoidandscarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. AfterDeng Xiaopingbegan instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared.Healthcare in Chinabecame mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a three-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter ofpharmaceuticals, producing around 40 percent ofactive pharmaceutical ingredientsin 2017. As of 2023, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 78 years.: 163As of 2021, theinfant mortalityrate is 5 per thousand.Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.Rates ofstunting, a condition caused bymalnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused bywidespread air pollution,hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,and an increase inobesityamong urban youths.In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.Chinese mental healthservices are inadequate.China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such asSARSin 2003, although this has since been largely contained.TheCOVID-19 pandemicwas first identified inWuhanin December 2019;pandemic led the government to enforcestrict public health measuresintended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned in December 2022 afterprotests against the policy. Culture and society Sinceancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influencedEast AsiaandSoutheast Asia.For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigiousimperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty.Theliterary emphasisof the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief thatcalligraphy,poetryandpaintingwere higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.Examinations and aculture of meritremain greatly valued in China today. Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise ofChinese nationalismand the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted. Architecture Chinese architecturehas developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture,including inJapan,Korea, andMongolia.and minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia including the countries ofMalaysia,Singapore,Indonesia,Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos,Cambodia,Vietnamand the Philippines. Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces,feng shui(e.g. directionalhierarchies),a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various cosmological,mythologicalor in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging frompagodastopalaces. Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with differentgeographicregions and different ethnic heritages, such as thestilt housesin the south, theYaodong buildingsin the northwest, theyurt buildingsof nomadic people, and theSiheyuan buildingsin the north. Literature Chinese literature has its roots in the Zhou dynasty's literary tradition.Theclassical texts of Chinaencompass a wide range of thoughts and subjects, such as thecalendar,military,astrology,herbology, andgeography, as well as many others.Among the most significant early works are theI Chingand theShujing, which are part of theFour Books and Five Classics. These texts were the cornerstone of the Confucian curriculum sponsored by the state throughout the dynastic periods. Inherited from theClassic of Poetry,classical Chinese poetrydeveloped to itsfloruitduring the Tang dynasty.Li BaiandDu Fuopened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively.Chinese historiographybegan with theShiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed theTwenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along withChinese mythologyandfolklore.Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town andgods and demons fictionsas represented by theFour Great Classical Novelswhich includeWater Margin,Romance of the Three Kingdoms,Journey to the WestandDream of the Red Chamber.Along with thewuxiafictions ofJin YongandLiang Yusheng,it remains an enduring source of popular culture in theChinese sphere of influence. In the wake of theNew Culture Movementafter the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era withwritten vernacular Chinesefor ordinary citizens.Hu ShihandLu Xunwere pioneers in modern literature.Various literary genres, such asmisty poetry,scar literature,young adult fictionand thexungen literature, which is influenced bymagic realism,emerged following the Cultural Revolution.Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. Music Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times.Traditional Chinese musical instrumentswere traditionally grouped into eight categories known asbayin(八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing andCantonese opera.Chinese pop (C-Pop) includesmandopopandcantopop.Chinese hip hopandHong Kong hip hophave become popular. Fashion Hanfuis the historical clothing of the Han people in China. Theqipaoor cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress.Thehanfu movementhas been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.China Fashion Weekis the country's only national-level fashion festival. Cinema Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film,Dingjun Mountain,was released in 1905.China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016;China became the largest cinema market in 2020.The top threehighest-grossing films in Chinaas of 2023wereThe Battle at Lake Changjin(2021),Wolf Warrior 2(2017), andHi, Mom(2021). Cuisine Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the \"Eight Major Cuisines\", includingSichuan,Cantonese,Jiangsu,Shandong,Fujian,Hunan,Anhui, andZhejiangcuisines.Chinese cuisine is known for its breadth ofcooking methodsand ingredients.China's staple food is rice in the northeast and south, and wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. Bean products such astofuandsoy milkremain a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.There is also the vegetarianBuddhist cuisineand the pork-freeChinese Islamic cuisine. Chinese cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables. Offshoots of Chinese food, such asHong Kong cuisineandAmerican Chinese cuisine, have emerged in theChinese diaspora. Sports China has one of theoldest sporting cultures. There is evidence thatarchery(shèjiàn) was practiced during theWestern Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (jiànshù) andcuju, a sport loosely related toassociation footballdate back to China's early dynasties as well. Physical fitnessis widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such asqigongandtai chiwidely practiced,and commercialgymsand private fitness clubs are gaining popularity.Basketball is the most popular spectator sport in China.TheChinese Basketball Associationand the AmericanNational Basketball Associationalso have a huge national following amongst the Chinese populace, with native-born and NBA-bound Chinese players and well-known national household names such asYao MingandYi Jianlianbeing held in high esteem.China's professional football league, known asChinese Super League, is the largest football market in East Asia.Other popular sports includemartial arts,table tennis,badminton,swimmingandsnooker. China is home to a huge number ofcyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012.China has the world's largestesportsmarket.Many moretraditional sports, such asdragon boatracing,Mongolian-style wrestlingandhorse racingare also popular. China hasparticipated in the Olympic Gamessince 1932, although it has only participated as the PRCsince 1952. China hosted the2008 Summer Olympicsin Beijing, where its athletes received 48 gold medals – thehighest number of any participating nation that year.China also won the most medals at the2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold.In 2011, Shenzhen hosted the2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the2013 East Asian Gamesin Tianjin and the2014 Summer Youth Olympicsin Nanjing, the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby cityZhangjiakoucollaboratively hosted the2022 Winter Olympics, making Beijing the first dual Olympic city by holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics. See also Notes References Sources This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken fromWorld Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO. Further reading External links Government General information Maps World portal 35°N103°E / 35°N 103°E /35; 103", "Japan Japanis anisland countryinEast Asia. It is located in thePacific Oceanoff the northeast coast of theAsian mainland, and is bordered on the west by theSea of Japanand extends from theSea of Okhotskin the north to theEast China Seain the south. TheJapanese archipelagoconsists of four major islands—Hokkaido,Honshu,Shikoku, andKyushu—andthousands of smaller islands, covering 377,975 square kilometres (145,937 sq mi). Japan has a population of nearly 124 million as of 2024, and is theeleventh-most populous country.Its capitalandlargest cityisTokyo; theGreater Tokyo Areais thelargest metropolitan areain the world, with more than 38 million inhabitants as of 2016. Japan is divided into 47administrative prefecturesandeight traditional regions. About three-quarters ofthe country's terrainis mountainous and heavily forested, concentratingits agricultureandhighly urbanized populationalong its easterncoastal plains. The country sits on the PacificRing of Fire, making its islands prone to destructiveearthquakesandtsunamis. The first known habitation of the archipelago dates to theUpper Paleolithic, with the beginningJapanese Paleolithicdating toc.36,000 BC. Between the fourth and sixth centuries, its kingdoms were united underan emperorinNara, and laterHeian-kyō. From the 12th century, actual power was held by military dictators (shōgun) and feudal lords (daimyō), and enforced by warrior nobility (samurai). After rule by theKamakuraandAshikaga shogunatesanda century of warring states, Japan was unified in 1600 by theTokugawa shogunate, which implementedan isolationist foreign policy. In 1853,a United States fleetforced Japan toopen trade to the West, which led to theend of the shogunateand therestoration of imperial powerin 1868. In theMeiji period, theEmpire of Japanpursued rapidindustrializationandmodernization, as well asmilitarismandoverseas colonization. In 1937, Japaninvaded China, and in 1941attacked the United Statesand European colonial powers, enteringWorld War IIas anAxis power. After suffering defeat in thePacific Warandtwo atomic bombings, Japansurrenderedin 1945 andcame under Allied occupation. After the war, the country underwentrapid economic growth, althoughits economy has stagnated since 1990. Japan is aconstitutional monarchywith abicamerallegislature, theNational Diet. Agreat powerand the only Asian member of theG7, Japan has constitutionallyrenounced its right to declare war, but maintainsone of the world's strongest militaries. Ahighly developed countrywith one of the world'slargest economies, Japan is a global leader inscience and technologyand theautomotive,robotics, andelectronics industries. It has one of the world'shighest life expectancies, though it is undergoinga population decline.Japan's cultureis well known around the world, includingits art,cuisine,film,music, andpopular culture, which includes prominentcomics,animation, andvideo gameindustries. Etymology The name for Japan inJapaneseis written using thekanji日本and is pronouncedNihonorNippon.Before日本was adopted in the early 8th century, the country was known in China asWa(倭, changed in Japan around 757 to和) and in Japan by theendonymYamato.Nippon, the originalSino-Japanese readingof the characters, is favored for official uses, including onJapanese banknotesand postage stamps.Nihonis typically used in everyday speech and reflects shifts inJapanese phonologyduring theEdo period.The characters日本mean \"sun origin\",which is the source of the popular Westernepithet\"Land of the Rising Sun\". The name \"Japan\" is based onMinorWu Chinesepronunciations of日本and was introduced to European languages through early trade.In the 13th century,Marco Polorecorded theEarly MandarinChinese pronunciation of the characters日本國asCipangu.The oldMalayname for Japan,JapangorJapun, was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect and encountered byPortuguesetraders inSoutheast Asia, who brought the word to Europe in the early 16th century.The first version of the name in English appears in a book published in 1577, which spelled the name asGiapanin a translation of a 1565 Portuguese letter. History Prehistoric to classical history Modern humans arrived in Japan around 38,000 years ago (~36,000 BC), marking the beginning of theJapanese Paleolithic.This was followed from around 14,500 BC (the start of theJōmon period) by aMesolithictoNeolithicsemi-sedentaryhunter-gathererculture characterized bypit dwellingand rudimentary agriculture.Clay vesselsfrom the period are among the oldest surviving examples of pottery.TheJaponic-speakingYayoi peopleentered the archipelago from the Korean Peninsula,intermingling with theJōmon;theYayoi periodsaw the introduction of practices includingwet-rice farming,a newstyle of pottery,and metallurgy from China and Korea.According to legend,Emperor Jimmu(descendant ofAmaterasu) foundeda kingdomin central Japan in 660 BC, beginninga continuous imperial line. Japan first appears in written history in the ChineseBook of Han, completed in 111 AD.Buddhismwas introduced to Japan fromBaekje(a Korean kingdom) in 552, but the development ofJapanese Buddhismwas primarily influenced by China.Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class, including figures likePrince Shōtoku, and gained widespread acceptance beginning in theAsuka period(592–710). In 645, the government led byPrince Naka no ŌeandFujiwara no Kamataridevised and implemented the far-reachingTaika Reforms. The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideas andphilosophiesfromChina.It nationalized all land in Japan, to bedistributed equallyamong cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basis for a new system of taxation.The true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn about Chinese writing, politics, art, and religion.TheJinshin Warof 672, a bloody conflict betweenPrince Ōamaand his nephewPrince Ōtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms.These reforms culminated with the promulgation of theTaihō Code, which consolidated existing statutes and established the structure of the central and subordinate local governments.These legal reforms created theritsuryōstate, a system of Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium. TheNara period(710–784) marked the emergence of a Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court inHeijō-kyō(modernNara). The period is characterized by the appearance of a nascentliterary culturewith the completion of theKojiki(712) andNihon Shoki(720), as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork andarchitecture.Asmallpox epidemic in 735–737is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.In 784,Emperor Kanmumoved the capital, settling onHeian-kyō(modern-dayKyoto) in 794.This marked the beginning of theHeian period(794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged.Murasaki Shikibu'sThe Tale of Genjiand the lyrics of Japan's national anthem\"Kimigayo\"were written during this time. Feudal era Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, thesamurai.In 1185, following the defeat of theTaira clanby theMinamoto clanin theGenpei War, samuraiMinamoto no Yoritomoestablished amilitary governmentatKamakura.After Yoritomo's death, theHōjō clancame to power as regents for theshōgun.TheZenschool of Buddhism was introduced from China in theKamakura period(1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.TheKamakura shogunaterepelledMongol invasionsin 1274 and 1281 but was eventuallyoverthrownbyEmperor Go-Daigo.Go-Daigo was defeated byAshikaga Takaujiin 1336, beginning theMuromachi period(1336–1573).The succeedingAshikaga shogunatefailed to control the feudal warlords (daimyō) and acivil war began in 1467, opening the century-longSengoku period(\"Warring States\"). During the 16th century, Portuguese traders andJesuitmissionaries reached Japan for the first time, initiating directcommercialandculturalexchange between Japan and the West.Oda Nobunagaused European technology and firearms to conquer many otherdaimyō;his consolidation of power began what was known as theAzuchi–Momoyama period.Afterthe death of Nobunagain 1582, his successor,Toyotomi Hideyoshi, unified the nation in the early 1590s and launchedtwo unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597. Tokugawa Ieyasuserved asregentfor Hideyoshi's sonToyotomi Hideyoriand used his position to gain political and military support.When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in theBattle of Sekigaharain 1600. He was appointedshōgunbyEmperor Go-Yōzeiin 1603 and established theTokugawa shogunateatEdo(modern Tokyo).The shogunate enacted measures includingbuke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomousdaimyō,and in 1639 the isolationistsakoku(\"closed country\") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as theEdo period(1603–1868).Modern Japan's economic growth began in this period, resulting inroadsand water transportation routes, as well as financial instruments such asfutures contracts, banking and insurance of theOsaka rice brokers.The study of Western sciences (rangaku) continued through contact with the Dutch enclave inNagasaki.The Edo period gave rise tokokugaku(\"national studies\"), the study of Japan by the Japanese. Modern era TheUnited States Navysent CommodoreMatthew C. Perryto force the opening of Japan to the outside world. Arriving atUragawith four \"Black Ships\" in July 1853, thePerry Expeditionresulted in the March 1854Convention of Kanagawa.Subsequent similar treaties with other Western countries brought economic and political crises.The resignation of theshōgunled to theBoshin Warand the establishment of acentralized statenominally unified under the emperor (theMeiji Restoration).Adopting Western political, judicial, and military institutions, theCabinetorganized thePrivy Council, introduced theMeiji Constitution(November 29, 1890), and assembled theImperial Diet.During theMeiji period(1868–1912), theEmpire of Japanemerged as the most developed state inAsiaand as an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence.After victories in theFirst Sino-Japanese War(1894–1895) and theRusso-Japanese War(1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea and the southern half ofSakhalin,and annexed Korea in 1910.The Japanese population doubled from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million by 1935, with a significant shift to urbanization. The early 20th century saw a period ofTaishō democracy(1912–1926) overshadowed by increasingexpansionismandmilitarization.World War Iallowed Japan, which joined the side of the victoriousAllies, to captureGerman possessionsin thePacificand China in1920.The 1920s saw a political shift towardsstatism, a period of lawlessness following the 1923Great Tokyo Earthquake, the passing oflaws against political dissent, and a series ofattempted coups.This process accelerated during the 1930s, spawning several radical nationalist groups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a dedication to expansion in Asia.In 1931, Japaninvaded China and occupied Manchuria, which led to the establishment ofpuppet stateofManchukuoin 1932; followinginternational condemnation of the occupation, it resigned from theLeague of Nationsin 1933.In 1936, Japan signed theAnti-Comintern PactwithNazi Germany; the 1940Tripartite Pactmade it one of theAxis powers. The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating theSecond Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945).In 1940, the Empireinvaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out surpriseattacks on Pearl Harbor, as well as on British forces inMalaya,Singapore, andHong Kong, among others, beginningWorld War II in the Pacific.Throughout areas occupied by Japan during the war, numerous abuses were committed against local inhabitants, with many forced intosexual slavery.AfterAlliedvictories during the next four years, which culminated in theSoviet invasion of Manchuriaand theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasakiin 1945, Japan agreed toan unconditional surrender.The war cost Japan millions of lives andits colonies, includingde jureparts of Japan such asKorea,Taiwan,Karafuto, and theKurils.The Allies (led by the United States) repatriated millions ofJapanese settlersfrom their former colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating theJapanese Empireand its influence over the territories it conquered.The Allies convened theInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastto prosecute Japanese leaders except the Emperorforwar crimes. In 1947, Japan adopteda new constitutionemphasizing liberal democratic practices.TheAllied occupationended with theTreaty of San Franciscoin 1952,and Japan was granted membership in theUnited Nationsin 1956.A period of record growthpropelled Japan to become thesecond-largest economyin the world;this ended in the mid-1990s after the popping ofan asset price bubble, beginning the \"Lost Decade\".In 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history - theTōhoku earthquake- triggering theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.On May 1, 2019, after the historicabdication of Emperor Akihito, his sonNaruhitobecame Emperor, beginning theReiwaera. Geography Japan comprises14,125 islandsextending along the Pacific coast of Asia.It stretches over 3000 km (1900 mi) northeast–southwest from theSea of Okhotskto theEast China Sea.The country's five main islands, from north to south, areHokkaido,Honshu,Shikoku,KyushuandOkinawa.TheRyukyu Islands, which include Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyushu. TheNanpō Islandsare south and east of the main islands of Japan. Together they are often known as theJapanese archipelago.As of 2019, Japan's territory is 377,975.24 km2(145,937.06 sq mi).Japan has thesixth-longest coastlinein the world at 29,751 km (18,486 mi). Because of its far-flung outlying islands,Japan's exclusive economic zoneis theeighth-largestin the world, covering 4,470,000 km2(1,730,000 sq mi). The Japanese archipelago is 67%forestsand 14%agricultural.The primarily rugged and mountainous terrain is restricted for habitation.Thus the habitable zones, mainly in the coastal areas, have very high population densities: Japan is the 40thmost densely populated countryeven without considering that local concentration.Honshu has the highest population density at 450 persons/km2(1200/sq mi) as of 2010, while Hokkaido has the lowest density of 64.5 persons/km2as of 2016.As of 2014, approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area isreclaimed land(umetatechi).Lake Biwais anancient lakeand the country's largest freshwater lake. Japan is substantially prone toearthquakes,tsunamiandvolcanic eruptionsbecause of its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire.It has the17th highest natural disaster riskas measured in the 2016 World Risk Index.Japan has 111 active volcanoes.Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century;the1923 Tokyo earthquakekilled over 140,000 people.More recent major quakes are the 1995Great Hanshin earthquakeand the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, which triggered a large tsunami. Climate The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. The northernmost region, Hokkaido, has ahumid continental climatewith long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers.Precipitationis not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter. In theSea of Japanregion on Honshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall during winter. In the summer, the region sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of theFoehn.TheCentral Highlandhas a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter. The mountains of theChūgokuand Shikoku regions shelter theSeto Inland Seafrom seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round. The Pacific coast features ahumid subtropicalclimate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands have asubtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.The mainrainy seasonbegins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north. In late summer and early autumn,typhoonsoften bring heavy rain.According to the Environment Ministry, heavy rainfall and increasing temperatures have caused problems in the agricultural industry and elsewhere.The highest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.1 °C (106.0 °F), was recorded on July 23, 2018,and repeated on August 17, 2020. Biodiversity Japan has nine forestecoregionswhich reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range fromsubtropical moist broadleaf forestsin the Ryūkyū andBonin Islands, totemperate broadleaf and mixed forestsin the mild climate regions of the main islands, totemperate coniferous forestsin the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife as of 2019,including thebrown bear, theJapanese macaque, theJapanese raccoon dog, thesmall Japanese field mouse, and theJapanese giant salamander.There are 53Ramsar wetland sitesin Japan.Five siteshave been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value. Environment In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result,environmental pollutionwas widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concerns, the government introduced environmental protection laws in 1970.Theoil crisis in 1973also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan's lack of natural resources. Japan ranks 20th in the 2018Environmental Performance Index, which measures a country's commitment to environmental sustainability.Japan is the world'sfifth-largest emitterofcarbon dioxide.As the host and signatory of the 1997Kyoto Protocol, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.In 2020, the government of Japan announced a target ofcarbon-neutralityby 2050.Environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspendedparticulate matter, andtoxics),waste management, watereutrophication,nature conservation,climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation. Government and politics Japan is aunitary stateandconstitutional monarchyin which the power of theEmperoris limited to aceremonial role.Executive power is instead wielded by thePrime Minister of Japanand hisCabinet, whose sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.Naruhitois the Emperor of Japan, having succeeded his fatherAkihitoupon his accession to theChrysanthemum Thronein 2019. Japan's legislative organ is theNational Diet, abicameralparliament.It consists of a lowerHouse of Representativeswith 465 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and an upperHouse of Councillorswith 245 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms.There isuniversal suffragefor adults over 18 years of age,with asecret ballotfor all elected offices.The prime minister as thehead of governmenthas the power to appoint and dismissMinisters of State, and isappointedby the emperor after being designated from among the members of the Diet.Shigeru Ishibais Japan's prime minister; he took office after winning the2024 Liberal Democratic Party leadership election.The broadly conservativeLiberal Democratic Partyhas been thedominant partyin the country since the 1950s, often called the1955 System. Historically influenced byChinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such asKujikata Osadamegaki.Since the late 19th century,the judicial systemhas been largely based on thecivil lawof Europe, notably Germany. In 1896, Japan established acivil codebased on the GermanBürgerliches Gesetzbuch, which remains in effect with post–World War II modifications.TheConstitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the world.Statutory law originates in the legislature, and the constitution requires that the emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet without giving him the power to oppose legislation. The main body of Japanese statutory law is called theSix Codes.Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: theSupreme Courtand three levels of lower courts. Administrative divisions Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, each overseen by an electedgovernorand legislature.In the following table, the prefectures are grouped byregion: 7.Fukushima 14.Kanagawa 23.Aichi 30.Wakayama 35.Yamaguchi 39.Kōchi 47.Okinawa Foreign relations A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan is one of theG4 countriesseeking reform of theSecurity Council.Japan is a member of theG7,APEC, and \"ASEAN Plus Three\", and is a participant in theEast Asia Summit.It is the world's fifth-largest donor ofofficial development assistance, donating US$9.2 billion in 2014.In 2024, Japan had the fourth-largest diplomatic network in the world. Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States, with which it maintains asecurity alliance.The United States is a major market for Japanese exports and a major source of Japanese imports, and is committed to defending the country, with military bases in Japan.In 2016, Japan announced the Free and Open Indo-Pacific vision, which frames its regional policies.Japan is also a member of theQuadrilateral Security Dialogue(\"the Quad\"), a multilateral security dialogue reformed in 2017 aiming to limit Chinese influence in theIndo-Pacificregion, along with the United States, Australia, and India. Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors. Japan contests Russia's control of theSouthern Kuril Islands, which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945.South Korea's control of theLiancourt Rocksis acknowledged but not accepted as they are claimed by Japan.Japan has strained relations with China and Taiwan over theSenkaku Islandsand the status ofOkinotorishima. Military Japan is the third highest-ranked Asian country in the 2024Global Peace Index.It spent 1.1% of its total GDP onits defence budgetin 2022,and maintained thetenth-largest military budgetin the world in 2022.The country's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted byArticle 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes.The military is governed by theMinistry of Defense, and primarily consists of theJapan Ground Self-Defense Force, theJapan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and theJapan Air Self-Defense Force. Thedeployment of troops to Iraqand Afghanistan marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II. TheGovernment of Japanhas been making changes to its security policy which include the establishment of theNational Security Council, the adoption of the National Security Strategy, and the development of the National Defense Program Guidelines.In May 2014, Prime MinisterShinzo Abesaid Japan wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility for regional security.In December 2022, Prime MinisterFumio Kishidafurther confirmed this trend, instructing the government to increase spending by 65% until 2027.Recent tensions, particularly with North Korea and China, have reignited the debate over the status of the JSDF and its relation to Japanese society. Law enforcement Domestic security in Japan is provided mainly by theprefectural police departments, under the oversight of theNational Police Agency.As the central coordinating body for the Prefectural Police Departments, the National Police Agency is administered by theNational Public Safety Commission.TheSpecial Assault Teamcomprises national-levelcounter-terrorismtactical units that cooperate with territorial-levelAnti-Firearms Squads and Counter-NBC Terrorism Squads.TheJapan Coast Guardguards territorial waters surrounding Japan and uses surveillance and control countermeasures against smuggling, marineenvironmental crime, poaching, piracy, spy ships, unauthorized foreign fishing vessels, and illegal immigration. TheFirearm and Sword Possession Control Lawstrictly regulates the civilian ownership of guns, swords, and other weaponry.According to theUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, among the member states of the UN that report statistics as of 2018, the incidence rates of violent crimes such as murder, abduction, sexual violence, and robbery are very low in Japan. Human rights Japan has faced criticism fornot allowing same-sex marriages, despite a majority of Japanese people supporting marriage equality.It is the least developed out of theG7countries in terms of LGBT equality.Japan legally prohibits racial and religious discrimination underits constitution.Japan is also a signatory to theInternational Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,while facing criticism forracial profilingby police.Japan is among the few developed countries which legally retain and activelyallow capital punishment. Economy Japan has the world'sfourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, after that of the United States, China and Germany; and thefourth-largest economybyPPP.As of 2021,Japan's labor forceis the world'seighth-largest, consisting of over 68.6 million workers.As of 2022, Japan has alow unemployment rateof around 2.6%.Its poverty rateis the second highest among the G7 countries,and exceeds 15.7% of the population.Japan has the highest ratio of public debt to GDP among advanced economies,witha national debtestimated at 248% relative to GDP as of 2022.TheJapanese yenis the world's third-largestreserve currencyafter the US dollar and the euro. Japan was the world'sfifth-largest exporterandfourth-largest importerin 2022.Its exports amounted to 18.2% of its total GDP in 2021.As of 2022,Japan's main export marketswere China (23.9 percent, including Hong Kong) and the United States (18.5 percent).Its main exportsare motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors, and auto parts.Japan's main import markets as of 2022were China (21.1 percent), the United States (9.9 percent), and Australia (9.8 percent).Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, and raw materials for its industries. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features:keiretsuenterprises are influential, andlifetime employmentand seniority-based career advancement are common in theJapanese work environment.Japan has a largecooperativesector, with three of the world's ten largest cooperatives, including the largestconsumer cooperativeand the largestagricultural cooperativeas of 2018.Itranks highlyforcompetitivenessandeconomic freedom. Japan ranked sixth in theGlobal Competitiveness Reportin 2019.It attracted 31.9 million international tourists in 2019,and wasranked eleventhin the world in 2019 for inbound tourism.The 2021Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Reportranked Japan first in the world out of 117 countries.Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $46.1 billion. Agriculture and fishery The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.2% of the country's total GDP as of 2018.Only 11.5% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation.Because of this lack of arable land, a system ofterracesis used to farm in small areas.This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% as of 2018.Japan's small agricultural sector is highly subsidized andprotected.There has been a growing concern about farming as farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors. Japan ranked seventh in the world intonnage of fish caughtand captured 3,167,610 metric tons of fish in 2016, down from an annual average of 4,000,000 tons over the previous decade.Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch,prompting critiques that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such astuna.Japan has sparked controversy by supporting commercialwhaling. Industry and services Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the \"largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles,machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships,chemical substances, textiles, andprocessed foods\".Japan's industrial sector makes up approximately 27.5% of its GDP.The country's manufacturing output is thefourth highestin the world as of 2023. Japan is in the top three globally for both automobile productionand export,and is home toToyota, the world'slargest automobile companyby vehicle production. The Japanese shipbuilding industry faces increasing competition from its East Asian neighbors, South Korea and China; a 2020 government initiative identified this sector as a target for increasing exports. Japan's service sector accounts for about 69.5% of its total economic output as of 2021.Banking, retail,transportation, andtelecommunicationsare all major industries, with companies such as Toyota,Mitsubishi UFJ, -NTT,Aeon,SoftBank,Hitachi, andItochulisted as among the largest in the world. Science and technology Relative to gross domestic product, Japan'sresearch and developmentbudget is thesecond highestin the world,with 867,000 researchers sharing a 19-trillion-yen research and development budget as of 2017.The country has produced twenty-twoNobel laureatesin either physics, chemistry or medicine,and threeFields medalists. Japan leads the world inroboticsproduction and use, supplying 45% of the world's 2020 total;down from 55% in 2017.Japan has the second highest number of researchers in science and technology per capita in the world with 14 per 1000 employees. Once considered the strongest in the world, theJapanese consumer electronics industryis in a state of decline as regional competition arises in neighboring East Asian countries such as South Korea and China.However,Japan's video game sectorremains a major industry. In 2014, Japan's consumer video game market grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobile gaming.By 2015, Japan had become the world'sfourth-largestPC gamemarket by revenue, behind onlyChina, theUnited States, andSouth Korea. TheJapan Aerospace Exploration Agencyis Japan's nationalspace agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites.It is a participant in theInternational Space Station: theJapanese Experiment Module(Kibō) was added to the station duringSpace Shuttleassembly flights in 2008.Thespace probeAkatsukiwas launched in 2010 and achieved orbit around Venus in 2015.Japan's plans inspace explorationinclude building aMoon baseand landing astronauts by 2030.In 2007, it launched lunar explorerSELENE(Selenological and Engineering Explorer) fromTanegashima Space Center. The largest lunar mission since theApollo program, its purpose was to gather data on theMoon's origin and evolution. The explorer entered a lunar orbit on October 4, 2007,and was deliberately crashed into the Moon on June 11, 2009. Infrastructure Transportation Japan has invested heavily in transportation infrastructure since the 1990s.The country has approximately 1,200,000 kilometers (750,000 miles) of roads made up of 1,000,000 kilometers (620,000 miles) of city, town and village roads, 130,000 kilometers (81,000 miles) of prefectural roads, 54,736 kilometers (34,011 miles) of general national highways and 7641 kilometers (4748 miles) ofnational expresswaysas of 2017. Since privatization in 1987,dozens of Japanese railway companiescompete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include sevenJRenterprises,Kintetsu,Seibu RailwayandKeio Corporation. The high-speedShinkansen(bullet trains) that connect major cities are known for their safety and punctuality. There are175 airports in Japanas of 2021.The largest domestic airport,Haneda Airportin Tokyo, was Asia'ssecond-busiest airportin 2019.The Keihin and Hanshin superport hubs are among the largest in the world, at 7.98 and 5.22 millionTEUrespectively as of 2017. Energy As of 2019, 37.1% of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 25.1% from coal, 22.4% from natural gas, 3.5% fromhydropowerand 2.8% fromnuclear power, among other sources. Nuclear power was down from 11.2 percent in 2010.By May 2012 all ofthe country's nuclear power plantshad been taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disasterin March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some to service.TheSendai Nuclear Power Plantrestarted in 2015,and since then several other nuclear power plants have been restarted.Japan lacks significant domestic reserves and has a heavy dependence onimported energy.The country has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency. Water supply and sanitation Responsibility for the water and sanitation sector is shared between theMinistry of Health, Labour and Welfare, in charge of water supply for domestic use; theMinistry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, in charge of water resources development as well as sanitation; theMinistry of the Environment, in charge of ambient water quality and environmental preservation; and theMinistry of Internal Affairs and Communications, in charge of performance benchmarking of utilities.Access to animproved water sourceis universal in Japan. About 98% of the population receives piped water supply from public utilities. Demographics Japan has a population of almost 125 million, of whom nearly 122 million are Japanese nationals (2022 estimates).A small population of foreign residents makes up the remainder.Japan is the world'sfastest aging countryand has the highest proportion ofelderly citizensof any country, comprising one-third of its total population;this is the result of apost–World War II baby boom, which was followed by an increase in life expectancy and a decrease inbirth rates.Japan has atotal fertility rateof 1.4, which is below thereplacement rateof 2.1, and is among the world'slowest;it has amedian ageof 48.4, thehighestin the world.As of 2020, over 28.7 percent of the population is over 65, or more than one in four out of the Japanese population.As a growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remaining childless,Japan's population is expected to drop to around 88 million by 2065. The changes in demographic structure have created several social issues, particularly a decline in the workforce population and an increase in the cost of social security benefits.The Government of Japan projects that there will be almost one elderly person for each person of working age by 2060.Immigrationand birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.On April 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted, protecting the rights of foreign workers to help reduce labor shortages in certain sectors. In 2022, 92% of the total Japanese population lived in cities.The capital city, Tokyo, has a population of 13.9 million (2022).It is part of theGreater Tokyo Area, the biggestmetropolitan areain the world with 38,140,000 people (2016).Japan is an ethnically and culturallyhomogeneous society,with theJapanese peopleforming 97.4% of the country's population.Minority ethnic groups in the country include the indigenousAinuandRyukyuan people.Zainichi Koreans,Chinese,Filipinos,Brazilians mostlyof Japanese descent,and Peruvians mostlyof Japanese descentare also among Japan's small minority groups.Burakuminmake up a social minority group. Languages TheJapanese languageis Japan'sde factonational language and the primary written and spoken language of most people in the country.Japanese writinguseskanji(Chinese characters) and two sets ofkana(syllabariesbased oncursive scriptandradicalsused by kanji), as well as theLatin alphabetandArabic numerals.English has taken a major role in Japan as a business and international link language. As a result, the prevalence of English in the educational system has increased, with English classes becoming mandatory at all levels of the Japanese school system by 2020.Japanese Sign Languageis the primarysign languageused in Japan and has gained some official recognition, but its usage has been historically hindered by discriminatory policies and a lack of educational support. Besides Japanese, theRyukyuan languages(Amami,Kunigami,Okinawan,Miyako,Yaeyama,Yonaguni), part of theJaponic language family, are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain.Few children learn these languages,but local governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional languages.TheAinu language, which is alanguage isolate, ismoribund, with only a few native speakers remaining as of 2014.Additionally, a number of other languages are taught and used by ethnic minorities, immigrant communities, and a growing number of foreign-language students, such asKorean(including a distinctZainichi Korean dialect),ChineseandPortuguese. Religion Japan's constitution guarantees full religious freedom.Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe toShintoas its indigenous religion.However, these estimates are based on peopleaffiliatedwith a temple, rather than the number of true believers. Many Japanese people practice both Shinto andBuddhism; they can identify with both religions or describe themselves as non-religious or spiritual.The level of participation in religious ceremonies as a cultural tradition remains high, especially duringfestivalsand occasions such as thefirst shrine visitof theNew Year.TaoismandConfucianismfrom China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs. Today, 1%to 1.5% of the population areChristians.Throughout the latest century, Western customs originally related to Christianity (includingWestern style weddings,Valentine's DayandChristmas) have become popular as secular customs among many Japanese. About 90% of those practicingIslam in Japanare foreign-born migrants as of 2016.As of 2018there were an estimated 105mosquesand 200,000 Muslims in Japan, 43,000 of which were Japanese nationals.Other minority religions includeHinduism,Judaism, andBaháʼí Faith, as well as theanimistbeliefs of the Ainu. Education Since the 1947Fundamental Law of Education, compulsory education in Japan compriseselementaryandjunior high school, which together last for nine years.Almost all children continue their education at a three-yearsenior high school.The top-ranking university in the country is theUniversity of Tokyo.Starting in April 2016, various schools began the academic year with elementary school and junior high school integrated into one nine-year compulsory schooling program;MEXTplans for this approach to be adopted nationwide. TheProgramme for International Student Assessment(PISA) coordinated by the OECD ranks the knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the third best in the world.Japan is one of the top-performingOECDcountries in reading literacy, math, and sciences with the average student scoring 520 and has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries.It spent 7.4% of its total GDP on education as of 2021.In 2021, the country ranked third for the percentage of 25 to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 55.6%.Approximately 65% of Japanese aged 25 to 34 have some form of tertiary education qualification, with bachelor's degrees being held by 34.2% of Japanese aged 25 to 64, the second most in the OECD afterSouth Korea.Japanese women are more highly educated than the men: 59 percent of women possess a university degree, compared to 52 percent of men. Health Health care in Japan is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments.Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Japan spent 10.82% of its total GDP on healthcare in 2021.In 2020, the overall life expectancy in Japan at birth was 85 years (82 years for men and 88 years for women),thehighestin the world;while it had a very lowinfant mortality rate(2 per 1,000live births).Since 1981, the principal cause of death in Japan iscancer, which accounted for 27% of the total deaths in 2018—followed bycardiovascular diseases, which led to 15% of the deaths.Japan has one of the world'shighest suicide rates, which is considered a major social issue.Another significant public health issue issmoking among Japanese men.However, Japan has the lowest rate of heart disease in the OECD, and the lowest level ofdementiaamong developed countries. Culture Contemporary Japanese culture combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America.Traditional Japanese arts includecraftssuch asceramics,textiles,lacquerware,swordsanddolls; performances ofbunraku,kabuki,noh,dance, andrakugo; and other practices, thetea ceremony,ikebana,martial arts,calligraphy,origami,onsen,Geishaandgames. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangibleCultural PropertiesandNational Treasures.Twenty-two siteshave been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are of cultural significance.Japan is considered acultural superpower. Art and architecture The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese esthetics and imported ideas.The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for exampleukiyo-eprints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known asJaponism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably onpost-Impressionism. Japanese architecture is a combination of local and other influences. It has traditionally been typified by wooden or mud plaster structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs.Traditional housingand manytemple buildingssee the use oftatamimats andsliding doorsthat break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space.Since the 19th century, Japan has incorporated much of Westernmodern architectureinto construction and design.It was not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly with the work of architects likeKenzō Tangeand then with movements likeMetabolism. Literature and philosophy The earliest works of Japanese literature include theKojikiandNihon Shokichronicles and theMan'yōshūpoetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.In the early Heian period, the system ofphonogramsknown askana(hiraganaandkatakana) was developed.The Tale of the Bamboo Cutteris considered the oldest extant Japanese narrative.An account of court life is given inThe Pillow BookbySei Shōnagon, whileThe Tale of GenjibyMurasaki Shikibuis often described as the world's first novel. During the Edo period, thechōnin(\"townspeople\") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of the works ofSaikaku, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, whileBashōrevivified the poetic tradition of theKokinshūwith hishaikai(haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogueOku no Hosomichi.The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences.Natsume SōsekiandMori Ōgaiwere significant novelists in the early 20th century, followed byRyūnosuke Akutagawa,Jun'ichirō Tanizaki,Kafū Nagaiand, more recently,Haruki MurakamiandKenji Nakagami. Japan has twoNobel Prize-winningauthors –Yasunari Kawabata(1968) andKenzaburō Ōe(1994). Japanese philosophy has historically been afusionof both foreign, particularlyChineseandWestern, and uniquely Japanese elements. In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries ago. Confucian ideals remain evident in theJapanese concept of societyand the self, and in the organization of the government and the structure of society.Buddhism has profoundly impacted Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and esthetics. Performing arts Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Manyinstruments, such as thekoto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The popularfolk music, with the guitar-likeshamisen, dates from the 16th century.Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, forms an integral part of Japanese culture.Kumi-daiko(ensemble drumming) was developed in postwar Japan and became very popular in North America.Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution ofJ-pop.Karaokeis a significant cultural activity. The four traditional theaters from Japan arenoh,kyōgen,kabuki, andbunraku.Noh is one of the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world. Media According to the 2015 NHK survey on television viewing in Japan, 79 percent of Japanese watch television daily.Japanese television dramasare viewed both within Japan and internationally.Many Japanesemedia franchiseshave gained considerable global popularity and are among the world'shighest-grossing media franchises.Japanese newspapersare among the most circulated in the world as of 2016. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries globally.Ishirō Honda'sGodzillabecame an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre ofkaijufilms, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history.Japanese comics, known as manga, developed in the mid-20th century and have become popularworldwide.A large number ofmanga serieshave become some of thebest-selling comics seriesof all time, rivalling theAmerican comics industry.Japanese animated films and television series, known as anime, were largely influenced by Japanese manga and have become highly popular globally. Holidays Officially, Japan has 16 national, government-recognized holidays. Public holidays in Japan are regulated by the Public Holiday Law(国民の祝日に関する法律,Kokumin no Shukujitsu ni Kansuru Hōritsu)of 1948.Beginning in 2000, Japan implemented theHappy Monday System, which moved a number of national holidays to Monday in order to obtain a long weekend.The national holidays in Japan areNew Year's Dayon January 1,Coming of Age Dayon the second Monday of January,National Foundation Dayon February 11,The Emperor's Birthdayon February 23,Vernal Equinox Dayon March 20 or 21,Shōwa Dayon April 29,Constitution Memorial Dayon May 3,Greenery Dayon May 4,Children's Dayon May 5,Marine Dayon the third Monday of July,Mountain Dayon August 11,Respect for the Aged Dayon the third Monday of September,Autumnal Equinoxon September 23 or 24,Health and Sports Dayon the second Monday of October,Culture Dayon November 3, andLabor Thanksgiving Dayon November 23. Cuisine Japanese cuisine offers a vast array ofregional specialtiesthat use traditional recipes and local ingredients.Seafood andJapanese riceornoodlesare traditional staples.Japanese curry, since its introduction to Japan fromBritish India, is so widely consumed that it can be termed anational dish, alongsideramenandsushi.Traditional Japanese sweets are known aswagashi.Ingredients such asred bean pasteandmochiare used. More modern-day tastes includegreen tea ice cream. Popular Japanese beverages includesake, a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 14–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice.Beer has been brewed in Japan since the late 17th century.Green teais produced in Japan and prepared in forms such asmatcha, used in theJapanese tea ceremony. Sports Traditionally,sumois considered Japan's national sport.Japanese martial arts such asjudoandkendoare taught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum.Baseballis the most popular sport in the country.Japan's top professional league,Nippon Professional Baseball(NPB), was established in 1936.Since the establishment of theJapan Professional Football League(J.League) in 1992, association football gained a wide following.The country co-hosted the2002 FIFA World Cupwith South Korea.Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning theAsian Cupfour times,and theFIFA Women's World Cupin 2011.Golf is also popular in Japan. Inmotorsport, Japanese automotive manufacturers have been successful in multiple different categories, with titles and victories in series such asFormula One,MotoGP, and theWorld Rally Championship.Drivers from Japan have victories at theIndianapolis 500and the24 Hours of Le Mansas well as podium finishes in Formula One, in addition to success in domestic championships.Super GTis the most popular national racing series in Japan, whileSuper Formulais the top-level domestic open-wheel series.The country hosts major races such as theJapanese Grand Prix. Japan hosted the Summer Olympics inTokyo in 1964and the Winter Olympics inSapporo in 1972andNagano in 1998.The country hosted the official2006 Basketball World Championshipand co-hosted the2023 Basketball World Championship.Tokyo hosted the2020 Summer Olympicsin 2021, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics twice.The country gained the hosting rights for the officialWomen's Volleyball World Championshipon five occasions, more than any other country.Japan is the most successful AsianRugby Unioncountryand hosted the 2019 IRBRugby World Cup. See also Notes References External links Government General information 36°N138°E / 36°N 138°E /36; 138" ]
[ "Shogi Shogi(将棋,shōgi,English:/ˈʃoʊɡi/,Japanese:), also known asJapanese chess, is astrategyboard gamefor two players. It is one of the most popular board games in Japan and is in the same family of games asWestern chess,chaturanga,xiangqi,Indian chess, andjanggi.Shōgimeans general's (shō将) board game (gi棋). Shogi was the earliest historical chess-related game to allow captured pieces to be returned to the board by the capturing player.Thisdrop ruleis speculated to have been invented in the 15th century and possibly connected to the practice of 15th-centurymercenariesswitching loyalties when captured instead of being killed. The earliest predecessor of the game,chaturanga, originated in India in the 6th century, and the game was likely transmitted to Japan via China orKoreasometime after theNara period.Shogi in its present form was played as early as the 16th century, while a direct ancestor without the drop rule was recorded from 1210 in a historical documentNichūreki, which is an edited copy", "is an edited copy ofShōchūrekiandKaichūrekifrom the lateHeian period(c. 1120). Equipment Two players face each other across a board composed of rectangles in a grid of 9ranks(rows,段) by 9files(columns,筋) yielding an 81-square board.In Japanese they are calledSente先手(first player) andGote後手(second player), but in English are conventionally referred to as Black and White, with Black the first player. The board is nearly always rectangular, and the rectangles are undifferentiated by marking or color. Pairs of dots mark the players' promotion zones. Each player has a set of 20 flat wedge-shaped pentagonal pieces of slightly different sizes. Except for the kings, opposing pieces are undifferentiated by marking or color. Pieces faceforwardby having the pointed side of each piece oriented toward the opponent's side – this shows who controls the piece during play. The pieces from largest (most important) to smallest (least important) are: Several of these names were chosen to correspond to their rough equivalents in", "equivalents in international chess, and not as literal translations of the Japanese names. Each piece has its name written on its surface in the form of twokanji(Chinese charactersused assyllabogramsor aslogogramsto record texts inOld Japanese), usually in black ink. On the reverse side of each piece, other than the king and gold general, are one or two other characters, in amateur sets often in a different color (usually red); this side is turned face up during play to indicate that the piece has been promoted. In some cases, the backsides of the King pieces (the narrow side which faces back toward the player during normal play) will display kanji containing additional information about the piece manufacturers. Following is a table of the pieces with their Japanese representations and English equivalents. The abbreviations are used for game notation and often when referring to the pieces in speech in Japanese. English speakers sometimes refer to promoted bishops ashorsesand promoted rooks asdragons, after", "asdragons, after their Japanese names, and generally use the Japanese termtokinfor promoted pawns. Silver generals and gold generals are commonly referred to simply assilversandgolds, respectively. The characters inscribed on the reverse sides of the pieces to indicate promotion may be in red ink, and are usually cursive. The characters on the backs of the pieces that promote to gold generals are cursive variants of金'gold', becoming more cursive (more abbreviated) as the value of the original piece decreases. These cursive forms have these equivalents in print:全for promoted silver,今for promoted knight,仝for promoted lance, and个for promoted pawn (tokin). Another typographic convention has abbreviated versions of the original values, with a reduced number of strokes:圭for a promoted knight(桂),杏for a promoted lance(香), and the全as above for a promoted silver, butと(ahiraganasymbol for the syllable \"to\") fortokin. The suggestion that the Japanese characters have deterred Western players from learning shogi has led", "shogi has led to \"Westernized\" or \"international\" pieces which use iconic symbols instead of characters. Most players soon learn to recognize the characters, however, partially because the traditional pieces are already iconic by size, with more powerful pieces being larger. As a result, Westernized pieces have never become popular. Bilingual pieces with both Japanese characters and English captions have been developed as have pieces with animal cartoons. Setup and gameplay Each player sets up friendly pieces facing forward (toward the opponent). Afurigoma振り駒 'piece toss' is used to decide who moves first. One of the players tosses five pawns. If the number of tokins (promoted pawns, と) facing up is higher than unpromoted pawns (歩), then the player who tossed the pawns playsgote後手 'white' (that is, getting the second move). After the piece tossfurigoma,the game proceeds. If multiple games are played, then players alternate turns for who goes first in subsequent games. (The terms \"Black\" and \"White\" are used", "\"White\" are used to differentiate sides although there is no difference in the color of the pieces.) For each turn, a player may either move a piece that is currently on the board (and potentially promote it, capture an opposing piece, or both) or else drop a piece that has been previously captured onto a square of the board. These options are explained below. Rules Objective The usual goal of a game is for one player tocheckmatethe other player's king, winning the game. Movement Most shogi pieces can move only to an adjacent square. A few may move across the board, and one jumps over intervening pieces. The lance, bishop, and rook arerangingpieces: They can move any number of squares along a straight line limited only by intervening pieces and the edge of the board. If an opposing piece intervenes, it may be captured by removing it from the board and replacing it with the moving piece. If a friendly piece intervenes, the moving piece must stop short of that square; if the friendly piece is adjacent, the", "is adjacent, the moving piece may not move in that direction at all. Aking(玉/王) moves one square in any direction,orthogonalor diagonal. Arook(飛) moves any number of squares in an orthogonal direction. Abishop(角) moves any number of squares in a diagonal direction. Because they cannot move orthogonally, the players' unpromoted bishops can reach only half the squares of the board, unless one is captured and then dropped. Agold general(金) moves one square orthogonally, or one square diagonally forward, giving it six possible destinations. It cannot move diagonally backwards. Asilver general(銀) moves one square diagonally, or one square straight forward, giving it five possible destinations. Because an unpromoted silver can retreat more easily than a promoted one, it is common to leave a silver unpromoted at the far side of the board. (SeePromotion). Aknight(桂) jumps at an angle intermediate to orthogonal and diagonal, amounting to one square straight forward plus one square diagonally forward, in a single", "in a single move. Thus the knight has two possible forward destinations. Unlikeinternational chess knights, shogi knights cannot move to the sides or in a backwards direction. The knight is the only piece that ignores intervening pieces on the way to its destination. It is not blocked from moving if the square in front of it is occupied, but neither can it capture a piece on that square. It is often useful to leave a knight unpromoted at the far side of the board. A knightmustpromote, however, if it reaches either of the two furthest ranks. (SeePromotion.) Alance(香) moves just like the rook except it cannot move backwards or to the sides. It is often useful to leave a lance unpromoted at the far side of the board. A lancemustpromote, however, if it reaches the furthest rank. (SeePromotion.) Apawn(歩) moves one square straight forward. It cannot retreat. Unlikeinternational chess pawns, shogi pawns capture the same as they move. A pawnmustpromote if it arrives at the furthest rank. (SeePromotion.) In practice,", "In practice, however, a pawn is usually promoted whenever possible. There are two restrictions on where a pawn may be dropped. (SeeDrops.) All pieces but the knight move either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. These directions cannot be combined in a single move; one direction must be chosen. Every piece blocks the movement of all other non-jumping pieces through the square it occupies. If a piece occupies a legal destination for an opposing piece, it may becapturedby removing it from the board and replacing it with the opposing piece. The capturing piece may not continue beyond that square on that turn. Shogi pieces capture the same as they move. Normally, when moving a piece, a player snaps it to the board with the ends of the fingers of the same hand. This makes a sudden sound effect, bringing the piece to the attention of the opponent. This is also true for capturing and dropping pieces. On a traditionalshogi-ban, the pitch of the snap is deeper, delivering a subtler effect. Promotion A", "effect. Promotion A player'spromotion zoneconsists of the furthest one-third of the board – the three ranks occupied by the opponent's pieces at setup. The zone is typically delineated on shogi boards by two inscribed dots. When a piece is moved, if part of the piece's path lies within the promotion zone (that is, if the piece moves into, out of, or wholly within the zone; butnotif it is dropped into the zone – seeDrops), then the player has the option topromotethe piece at the end of the turn. Promotion is indicated by turning the piece over after it moves, revealing the character of the promoted piece. Promoting a piece is usually not compulsory; however, if a pawn or lance is moved to the furthest rank, or a knight is moved to either of the two furthest ranks, that piecemustpromote (otherwise, it would have no legal move on subsequent turns). A silver general is never required to promote, and it is often advantageous to keep a silver general unpromoted (it is easier, for example, to extract an unpromoted", "an unpromoted silver from behind enemy lines: a promoted silver, with only one line of retreat, can be easily blocked.) Rooks, bishops and pawns are almost always promoted, as these pieces do not lose any of their powers upon promotion. Promoting a piece changes the way it moves. The various pieces promote as follows: When captured, a piece loses its promoted status. Otherwise promotion is permanent. Apromoted rook(literallydragon king(龍王(ryūō)); shortended forms:龍(ryū)and竜(ryū)) moves as a rook and as a king. It is commonly referred to asdragon. Apromoted bishop(literallydragon horse(龍馬(ryūma)); shortened form馬(uma)) moves as a bishop and as a king. It is commonly referred to ashorse. Apromoted silver(成銀narigin; alternate forms: 全, cursive 金), apromoted knight(成桂narikei; alternate forms: 圭, 今, cursive 金), apromoted lance(成香narikyō; alternate forms: 杏, 仝, cursive 金) and apromoted pawn(と金tokin; alternate forms: と, 个) all move the same way as a gold general. The promoted pawn is often called by its Japanese", "by its Japanese nametokin, even by non-Japanese players. Drops Captured pieces are retainedin handand can be brought back into play under the capturing player's control. The Japanese term forpiece(s) in handis either 持ち駒mochigomaor 手駒tegoma.On any turn, instead of moving a piece on the board, a player may select a piece in hand and place it – unpromoted side up and facing the opposing side – on any empty square. The piece is then one of that player's active pieces on the board and can be moved accordingly. This is calleddroppingthe piece, or simply, adrop. A drop counts as a complete move. A drop cannot capture a piece, nor does dropping within the promotion zone result in immediate promotion. Capture and/or promotion may occur normally, however, on subsequent moves of the piece. Restrictions.There are three restrictions on dropping pieces; the last two of these apply only to pawns. A corollary of the second restriction is that a player with an unpromoted pawn on every file is unable to drop a pawn anywhere.", "a pawn anywhere. For this reason, it is common to sacrifice a pawn in order to gain flexibility for drops. Captured pieces are typically kept on a wooden stand (駒台komadai)which is traditionally placed so that its bottom-left corner aligns with the bottom-right corner of the board from the perspective of each player. It is not permissible to hide pieces from full view. It is common for players to swap bishops, which oppose each other across the board, early in the game. This leaves each player with a bishop in hand to be dropped later. The ability for drops in shogi gives the game tactical richness and complexity. The fact that no piece ever goes entirely out of play accounts for the rarity of draws. Check When a player's move threatens to capture the opposing king on the next turn, the move is said togive checkto the king and the king is said to bein check.If a player's king is in check, that player's responding move must remove the check.Ways to remove a check include moving the king away from the threat,", "from the threat, capturing the threatening piece, or placing another interposing piece between the king and the threatening piece. To announce check in Japanese, one can sayōte(王手), however, this is an influence of international chess and is not required, even as a courtesy.It may be common to announceōtein beginner matches or for local rules to dictate that you have to announce it.Announcing a check vocally is unheard of in competitive tournaments. End of the game The usual way for shogi games to end is for one side to checkmate the other side's king, after which the losing player will be given the opportunity to admit defeat. Unlike western chess or xiangqi, checkmate is almost always the result in shogi since pieces never retire from play, which gives the players a sufficient number of pieces to deliver checkmate. That said, there are three other possible ways for a game to end:repetition(千日手sennichite),impasse(持将棋jishōgi), and anillegal move(反則手hansokute). The first two – repetition and impasse – are", "and impasse – are particularly uncommon. Illegal moves are also uncommon in professional games although this may not be true with amateur players (especially beginners). Unlike western chess, there is no tradition of offering a mutualdraw by agreement. Checkmate If the king is in check and there is no possible move which could protect the king, the move is said tocheckmate(tsumi詰み) the king. Checkmate effectively means that the opponent wins the game as the player would have no remaining legal moves.(See also:tsumeshogi,hisshi.) Resignation The losing player will usually resign when the situation is thought to be hopeless and may declare the resignation at any time during their turn. Although a player may resign just after they are checkmated, playing up to the checkmate point rarely occurs in practice as players normally resign as soon as a loss is deemed inevitable. Similarly, if a player were to lose in an Entering King situation (see section below) by having less than 24 points (or by any of the other", "by any of the other Impasse rules used by amateurs), then the player will usually resign before that point. In traditional tournament play, a formal resignation is required – that is, a checkmate is not a sufficient condition for winning.The resignation is indicated by bowing and/or saying 'I lost' (負けましたmakemashita) and/or placing the right hand over the piece stands. Placing the hand over the piece stand is a vestige of an older practice of gently dropping one's pieces in hand over the board in order to indicate resignation. In western practice, a handshake may be used. Illegal move In professional and serious (tournament) amateur games, a player who makes an illegal move loses immediately.The loss stands even if play continued and the move was discovered later in game. However, if neither the opponent nor a third party points out the illegal move and the opponent later resigned, the resignation stands as the result. Illegal moves include: In friendly amateur games, this rule is sometimes relaxed, and the", "relaxed, and the player may be able to take back the illegal move and replay a new legal move. In particular, the Two Pawn violation is the most common illegal move played by professional players. The Two Pawn violation played byTakahiro Toyokawa(againstKōsuke Tamura) in the 2004NHK Cupis infamous since it was broadcast on television. On the 109th move, Toyokawa (playing as Black) dropped a pawn to the 29 square while he already had a pawn in play on the board on the 23 square and, thus, lost the game. Repetition (draw) If the same game position occurs four times with the same player to move and the same pieces in hand for each player, then the game ends in arepetition draw(千日手sennichite,lit. \"moves for a thousand days\"), as long as the positions are not due toperpetual check. Perpetual check (連続王手の千日手) is an illegal move (see above), which ends the game in a loss in tournament play. In professional shogi, a repetition draw outcome is not a final result as draws essentially do not count. Each game can only", "Each game can only end in either a win or loss.In the case of a repetition draw, professional shogi players will have to immediately play a subsequent game (or as many games as necessary) with sides reversed in order to obtain a true win outcome. (That is, the player who was White becomes Black, and vice versa.) Also, depending on the tournament, professional players play the subsequent game in the remainder of the allowed game time. Thus, aiming for a repetition draw may be a possible professional strategy for the White player in order to play the second replay game as Black, which has a slight statistical advantage and/or greater initiative. For instance,Bishop Exchange Fourth File Rookis a passive strategy for White with the goal of a repetition draw (as it requires two tempo losses – swinging the rook and trading the bishops) while it is a very aggressive strategy if played by Black. Repetition draws are rare in professional shogi occurring in about 1–2% of games and even rarer in amateur games. In", "amateur games. In professional shogi, repetition draws usually occur in the opening as certain positions are reached that are theoretically disadvantaged for both sides (reciprocal zugzwang). In amateur shogi, repetition draws tend to occur in the middle or endgame as a result of player errors. Impasse The game reaches anImpasseorDeadlock(持将棋jishōgi) if both kings have advanced into their respective promotion zones – a situation known as 相入玉 (ai-nyū gyoku\"double entering kings\") – and neither player can hope to mate the other or to gain any further material. An Impasse can result in either a win or a draw. If an Impasse happens, the winner is decided as follows: each player agrees to an Impasse, then each rook or bishop, promoted or not, scores 5 points for the owning player, and all other pieces except kings score 1 point each. A player scoring fewer than 24 points loses. (Note that in the start position, both players have 27 points each.) If neither player has fewer than 24, the game is no contest – a", "is no contest – a draw. In professional shogi, an Impasse result is always a draw since a player that cannot obtain the 24 points will simply resign.Jishōgiis considered an outcome in its own right rather than no contest, but there is no practical difference. As an Impasse needs to be agreed on for the rule to be invoked, a player may refuse to do so and attempt to win the game in future moves. If that happens, there is no official rule about the verdict of the game. However, in amateur shogi, there are different practices most of which force a win resolution to the Impasse in order to avoid a draw result. The first draw by Impasse occurred in 1731 in abishop handicap gamebetween the seventhLifetime Meijin,Sōkan Itō II, and his brother, Sōkei Ōhashi. Entering King As a practical matter, when an opponent's king has entered a player's own territory especially with supporting defending pieces, the opponent's king is often very difficult to mate given the forward attacking nature of most shogi pieces. This state", "pieces. This state is referred to asentering king(入玉nyū gyoku). If both players' kings are in entering king states, the game becomes more likely to result in an impasse. In the adjacent diagram example, although White's king is in a strongBear-in-the-hole castle, Black's king has entered White's territory making it very difficult to mate. Therefore, this position favors Black. An example of Entering King occurred in the fourth game of the 60thŌititle match betweenMasayuki ToyoshimaandKazuki Kimuraheld on August 20–21, 2019. After being unsuccessful in attacking Kimura and also in defending his own king within his camp, Toyoshima (playing as White) moved his king away from Kimura's attacking pieces by fleeing up the second file, ultimately entering his king into Kimura's camp by move 150. Although Toyoshima had achieved Entering King, he still had only 23 points—one point shy of the required 24 points for anImpassedraw—while Kimura (Black) had 31 points. Toyoshima then spent the next 134 moves trying to bring", "trying to bring his point total, which fluctuated between 17 and 23, up to the necessary 24. By the 231st move, the game had reached a Double Entering Kings state, and by move 285 Kimura had successfully kept Toyoshima's point total at bay. Here, Toyoshima with 20 points (and Kimura at 34 points) resigned.Incidentally, this game broke the record of longest game in a title match. Amateur resolutions For amateur games, there are various guidances with little standardization.Fairbairnreports a practice in the 1980s (considered a rule by the now defunct Shogi Association for The West) where the dispute is resolved by either player moving all friendly pieces into the promotion zone and then the game ends with points tallied. Another resolution is the 27-Point (27点法) rule used for some amateur tournaments.One version of this is simply the player who has 27 or more points is the winner of the Impasse. Another version is a 27-Point Declaration rule. For instance, the Declaration rule on the online shogi site,81Dojo,", "shogi site,81Dojo, is that the player who wants to declare an Impasse win must (i) declare an intention to win via Impasse, (ii) have the king in the enemy camp (the promotion zone for that player), (iii) 10 other pieces must be in the promotion zone, (iv) not be in check, (v) have time remaining, and (vi) must have 28 points if Black or 27 points if White. If all of these conditions are met, then the Impasse declarer will win the game regardless of whether the opponent objects. Yet another resolution to Impasse is the so-called Try Rule (トライルールtorairūru). In this case, after both kings have entered their corresponding promotion zones, then the player who first moves the king to the opponent's king's start square (51 for Black, 59 for White) first will be the winner.As an example, the popular将棋ウォーズ(Shogi Wars) app byHEROZ Inc.used the Try Rule up until 2014.(Now the app uses a variant of the 27-Point Declaration Rule – although it differs from the variant used on the 81Dojo site.) The idea of the \"Try Rule\"", "of the \"Try Rule\" was taken fromrugby football(seeTry (rugby)). Draws in tournaments In professional tournaments, the rules typically require drawn games to be replayed with sides reversed, possibly with reduced time limits. They are rare compared tochessandxiangqi, occurring at a rate of 1–2% even in amateur games. The 1982Meijintitle matchbetweenMakoto NakaharaandHifumi Katohwas unusual in this regard with an impasse draw in the first (Double Fortress) game on April 13–14 (only the fifth draw in the then 40-year history of the tournament). This game (with Katoh as Black) lasted for 223 moves with 114 minutes spent pondering a single move. One of the reasons for the length of this game was that White (Nakahara) was very close to falling below the minimum of 24 points required for a draw. Thus, the end of the endgame was strategically about trying to keep White's points above the 24-point threshold.In this match,sennichiteoccurred in the sixth and eighth games. Thus, this best-of-seven match lasted eight", "match lasted eight games and took over three months to finish; Black did not lose a single game and the eventual victor was Katoh at 4–3. Time control Professional games are timed as in international chess, butprofessional shogi playersare almost never expected to keep time in their games. Instead a timekeeper is assigned, typically an apprentice professional. Time limits are much longer than in international chess (9 hours a side plus extra time in the prestigiousMeijintitle match), and in additionbyōyomi(literally \"second counting\") is employed. This means that when the ordinary time has run out, the player will from that point on have a certain amount of time to complete every move (abyōyomiperiod), typically upwards of one minute. The final ten seconds are counted down, and if the time expires the player to move loses the game immediately. Amateurs often play with electronic clocks that beep out the final ten seconds of abyōyomiperiod, with a prolonged beep for the last five. Player rank and handicaps", "rank and handicaps Amateur players are ranked from 15kyūto 1 kyū and then from 1danto 8 dan. Amateur 8 dan was previously only honorarily given to famous people. While it is now possible to win amateur 8 dan by actual strength (winning amateur Ryu-oh 3 times), this has yet to be achieved. Professional players operate with their own scale, from 6 kyū to 3 dan for pro-aspiring players and professional 4 dan to 9 dan for formal professional players.Amateur and professional ranks are offset (with amateur 4 dan being equivalent to professional 6 kyū). Handicaps Shogi has a handicap system (likego) in which games between players of disparate strengths are adjusted so that the stronger player is put in a more disadvantageous position in order to compensate for the difference in playing levels. In ahandicap game, one or more of White's pieces are removed from the setup, and instead White plays first. The imbalance created by this method of handicapping is not as strong as it is inwestern chessbecause material", "material advantage is not as powerful in shogi. Notation There are two common systems used to notate piece movements in shogi game records. One is used in Japanese language texts while a second was created for western players by George Hodges and Glyndon Townhill in the English language. This system was updated by Hosking to be closer to the Japanese standard (two numerals).Other systems are used to notate shogi board positions. Unlike chess, the origin (11 square) is at the top right of a printed position rather than the bottom left. In western piece movement notation, the format is the piece initial followed by the type of movement and finally the file and rank where the piece moved to. The piece initials are K (King), R (Rook), B (Bishop), G (Gold), S (Silver), N (Knight), L (Lance), and P (Pawn). Simple movement is indicated with-, captures withx, and piece drops with*. The files are indicated with numerals 1–9. The older Hodges standard used letters a–i for ranks, and the newer Hosking standard also", "standard also uses numerals 1–9 for the ranks. Thus,Rx24indicates 'rook captures on 24'. Promoted pieces are notated with+prefixed to the piece initial (e.g.+Rx24). Piece promotion is also indicated with+(e.g.S-21+) while unpromotion is indicated with=(e.g.S-21=). Piece ambiguity is resolved by notating which square a piece is moving from (e.g.N65-53+means 'knight from 65 moves to 53 and promotes,' which distinguishes it fromN45-53+). The Japanese notation system uses Japanese characters for pieces and promotion indication and uses Japanese numerals instead of letters for ranks. Movement type aside from drops is not indicated, and the conventions for resolving ambiguity are quite different from the western system. As examples, the western Rx24 would be2四飛in Japanese notation, +Rx24 would be2四龍, S-21+ would be2一銀成, S-21= would be2一銀不成, and N65-53+ would be5三桂左成showing that the leftmost knight jumped (implicitly from the 65 square), which distinguishes it from5三桂右成in which the rightmost knight jumped. Although", "jumped. Although not strictly part of the notational calculus for games, game results are indicated in Japanese newspapers, websites, etc. with wins indicated by a white circle and losses indicated by a black circle. Strategy and tactics Shogi is similar to chess but has a much largergame tree complexitybecause of the use of drops, greater number of pieces, and larger board size.In comparison, shogi games average about 140 (half-)moves per game (or 70 chess move-pairs) whereas chess games average about 80 moves per game (or 40 chess move-pairs) andminishogiaverages about 40 moves per game (or 20 chess move-pairs). Like chess, however, the game can be divided into the opening, middle game and endgame, each requiring a different strategy. Theopeningconsists of arranging one's defenses usually in acastleand positioning for attack; the mid game consists of attempting to break through the opposing defenses while maintaining one's own; and the endgame starts when one side's defenses have been compromised. In the", "compromised. In the adjacent diagram, Black has chosen aRanging Rookposition (specificallyFourth File Rook) where the rook has been moved leftward away from its starting position. Additionally, Black is using aSilver Crown castle, which is a type of fortification structure constructed with one silver and two gold pieces and the king moved inside of the fortification – thesilver crownname comes from the silver being positioned directly above the king's head on the 27 square as if it were a crown. In the diagram, White has chosen aStatic Rookposition, in which the rook remains on its starting square. This Static Rook position is specifically a type of Counter-Ranging Rook position known asBear-in-the-hole Static Rookthat uses aBear-in-the-hole castle. The Bear-in-the-hole fortification has the king moved all the way into very edge corner of the board on the 11 square as if it were a badger in a hole with a silver moved to the 22 square in order to close up the hole and additional reinforcing golds on 31 and 32", "golds on 31 and 32 squares. This board position required 33 moves (or 12 move pairs as counted in western chess) to construct. Etiquette Shogi players are expected to follow etiquette in addition to rules explicitly described. Commonly accepted etiquette include the following: Shogi piece sets may contain two types of king pieces,王(king) and玉(jewel). In this case, the higher classed player, in either social or genuine shogi player rank, may take the king piece. For example, intitleholder systemgames, the current titleholder takes the king piece as the higher. The higher-ranked (or older) player also sits facing the door of the room and is the person who takes the pieces out of the piece box. Shogi does not have atouch-move ruleas in western chess tournament play orchu shogi. However, in professional games, a piece is considered to be moved when the piece has been let go of. In both amateur and professional play, any piece may be touched in order to adjust its centralization within its square (to look tidy).", "(to look tidy). Taking back moves (待ったmatta) in professional games is prohibited. However, in friendly amateur games in Japan, it is often permitted. Professional players are required to follow several ritualistic etiquette prescriptions such as kneeling exactly 15 centimeters from the shogi board, sitting in the formalseizaposition, etc. Game setup Traditionally, the order of placing the pieces on the board is determined. There are two commonly used orders, theŌhashiorder 大橋流 and theItōorder 伊藤流.Placement sets pieces with multiples (generals, knights, lances) from left to right in all cases, and follows the order: Furigoma Among amateur tournaments, the higher-ranked player or defending champion performs the piece toss. In professional games, the furigoma is done on the behalf of the higher-ranked player/champion by the timekeeper who kneels by the side of the higher-ranked player and tosses the pawn pieces onto a silk cloth.In friendly amateur games, a player will ask the opponent to toss the pawns out of", "the pawns out of politeness. Otherwise, the person who tosses the pawns can be determined byRock–paper–scissors. History FromThe Chess Variant Pages: The world's first chess variant,chaturangaarose in India in approximately the seventh century AD. From there it migrated both westward and northward, mutating along the way. The western branch became shatranj in Arabia and Orthodox Chess in Europe. The northern branch becamexiangqiin China andjanggiin Korea. Sometime in the tenth to twelfth centuries, 'chess' crossed the channel to Japan where it spawned a number of interesting variants. One of these was called 'Small Shogi'. Eventually, Small Shogi (though it went through many forms) won out over the larger variants and is now referred to simply as 'Shogi'. It is certain that Shogi in its present form was played in Japan as early as the 16th century. It is not clear when chess was brought to Japan. The earliest generally accepted mention of shogi is Shin Saru Gakuki(新猿楽記)(1058–1064) by Fujiwara Akihira. The", "Akihira. The oldest archaeological evidence is a group of 16 shogi pieces excavated from the grounds ofKōfuku-jiinNara Prefecture. As it was physically associated with a wooden tablet written on in the sixth year ofTenki(1058), the pieces are thought to date from that period. These simple pieces were cut from a writing plaque in the same five-sided shape as modern pieces, with the names of the pieces written on them. The dictionary of common folk culture, Nichūreki(二中歴)(c. 1210–1221), a collection based on the two works Shōchūreki(掌中歴)and Kaichūreki(懐中歴), describes two forms of shogi, large(dai)shogi and small(shō)shogi. These are now calledHeian shogi(or Heian small shogi) andHeian dai shogi. Heian small shogi is the version on which modern shogi is based, but theNichūrekistates that one wins if one's opponent is reduced to a single king, indicating that drops had not yet been introduced. According to Kōji Shimizu, chief researcher at the Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture, the names of", "the names of the Heian shogi pieces keep those ofchaturanga(general, elephant, horse, chariot and soldier), and add to them the five treasures of Buddhism (jade, gold, silver,katsura tree, and incense). Around the 13th century the game ofdai shogideveloped, created by increasing the number of pieces in Heian shogi, as wassho shogi, which added the rook, bishop, and drunken elephant from dai shogi to Heian shogi. The drunken elephant steps one square in any direction except directly backward, and promotes to the prince, which acts as a second king and must also be captured along with the original king for the other player to win. Around the 15th century, the rules of dai shogi were simplified, creating the game ofchu shogi. Chu shogi, like its parent dai shogi, contains many distinct pieces, such as the queen (identical with Western chess) and the lion (which moves like a king, but twice per turn, potentially being able to capture twice, among other idiosyncrasies). The popularity of dai shogi soon waned in", "shogi soon waned in favour of chu shogi, until it stopped being played commonly. Chu shogi rivalled sho shogi in popularity until the introduction of drops in the latter, upon which standard shogi became ascendant, although chu shogi was still commonly played until about World War II, especially inKyoto. It is thought that the rules of standard shogi were fixed in the 16th century, when the drunken elephant was removed from the set of pieces present in sho shogi. There is no clear record of when drops were introduced, however. In theEdo period, shogi variants were greatly expanded:tenjiku shogi,dai dai shogi,maka dai dai shogi,tai shogi, andtaikyoku shogiwere all invented. It is thought that these were played to only a very limited extent, however. Both standard shogi andGowere promoted by theTokugawa shogunate. In 1612, the shogunate passed a law giving endowments to top shogi players (Meijin(名人)). During the reign of the eighth shōgun,Tokugawa Yoshimune, castle shogi tournaments were held once a year on", "held once a year on the 17th day ofKannazuki, corresponding to November 17, which isShogi Dayon the modern calendar. The title ofmeijinbecame hereditary in the Ōhashi and Itō families until the fall of the shogunate, when it came to be passed by recommendation. Today the title is used for the winner of theMeijin-sencompetition, the first modern title match. From around 1899,newspapersbegan to publish records of shogi matches, and high-ranking players formed alliances with the aim of having their games published. In 1909, the Shogi Association(将棋同盟社)was formed, and in 1924, the Tokyo Shogi Association(東京将棋連盟)was formed. This was an early incarnation of the modernJapan Shogi Association(日本将棋連盟,nihon shōgi renmei), or JSA, and 1924 is considered by the JSA to be the date it was founded. In 1935,meijinKinjirō Sekinestepped down, and the rank of meijin came to be awarded to the winner of aMeijin title match(名人戦,meijin-sen).Yoshio Kimura(木村義雄)became the first Meijin under this system in 1937. This was the start of", "was the start of theshogi title matches(seetitleholder system). After the war other tournaments were promoted to title matches, culminating with theRyūō title match(竜王戦,ryūō-sen)in 1988 for the modern line-up of seven. About 200 professional shogi players compete. Each year, the title holder defends the title against a challenger chosen from knockout or round matches. After the Second World War,SCAP(occupational government mainly led by US) tried to eliminate all \"feudal\" factors from Japanese society and shogi was included in the possible list of items to be banned along withBushido(philosophy of samurai) and other things. SCAP's reason for banning shogi was that the game uniquely utilized captured pieces. SCAP insisted that this could lead to the idea ofprisoner abuse.Kozo Masuda, then one of the top professional shogi players, when summoned to the SCAP headquarters for an investigation, criticized such understanding of shogi, instead insisting that chess that potentially contained the idea of prisoner", "idea of prisoner abuse, because opposing pieces are removed permanently, while shogi gives prisoners the chance to get back into the game. Masuda also argued that chess contradicts the ideal ofgender equalityin western society because the king shields itself behind the queen and runs away. Masuda's assertions are said to have eventually led to the exemption of shogi from the list of items to be banned. Tournament play There are two organizations for shogi professional players in Japan: the JSA, and theLadies' Professional Shogi-players' Association of Japan(日本女子プロ将棋協会,nihon joshi puro shōgi kyōkai), or LPSA. The JSA is the primary organization for men and women's professional shogiwhile the LPSA is a group of women professionals who broke away from the JSA in 2007 to establish their own independent organization.Both organize tournaments for their members and have reached an agreement to cooperate with each other to promote shogi through events and other activities.Top professional players are fairly", "players are fairly well-paid from tournament earnings. In 2016, the highest tournament earners wereYoshiharu HabuandAkira Watanabewho earned ¥91,500,000 and ¥73,900,000. (The tenth highest earner,Kouichi Fukaura, won ¥18,490,000.) The JSA recognizes two categories of shogi professionals: Professional(棋士,kishi), and Female Professional(女流棋士,joryūkishi). Sometimeskishiare addressed as seikishi(正棋士), a term fromGoused to distinguishkishifrom other classes of players. JSA professional ranks and female professional ranks are not equivalent and each has their own promotion criteria and ranking system. In 2006, the JSA officially granted women \"professional status\". This is not equivalent, however, to the more traditional way of \"gaining professional status\", i.e., being promoted from the \"Shoreikai System\"(奨励会): leagues of strong amateur players aspiring to become a professional. Rather, it is a separate system especially designed for female professionals. Qualified amateurs, regardless of gender, may apply for", "may apply for the \"Shoreikai System\" and all those who successfully \"graduate\" are grantedkishistatus; however, no woman has yet to accomplish this feat (the highest women have reached is \"Shoreikai 3danleague\" byKana SatomiandTomoka Nishiyama), sokishiisde factoonly used to refer to male shogi professionals. The JSA is the only body which can organize tournaments for professionals, e.g., the eight major tournaments in thetitleholder systemand other professional tournaments. In 1996,Yoshiharu Habubecame the onlykishito hold seven major titles at the same time. For female professionals, both the JSA and LPSA organize tournaments, either jointly or separately. Tournaments for amateurs may be organized by the JSA and LPSA as well as local clubs, newspapers, private corporations, educational institutions or municipal governments for cities or prefectures under the guidance of the JSA or LPSA. Since the 1990s, shogi has grown in popularity outside Japan, particularly in thePeople's Republic of China, and", "of China, and especially inShanghai. The January 2006 edition ofKindai Shogi(近代将棋)stated that there were 120,000 shogi players in Shanghai. The spread of the game to countries where Chinese characters are not in common use, however, has been slower. In Europe As of November 2017, there were over 1,200 active players in Europe. Computer shogi Shogi has the highestgame complexityof all popular chess variants. Computers have steadily improved in playing shogi since the 1970s. In 2007, champion Yoshiharu Habu estimated the strength of the 2006 world computer shogi champion Bonanza at the level of two-dan shoreikai. The JSA prohibits its professionals from playing computers in public without prior permission, with the reason of promoting shogi and monetizing the computer–human events. On October 12, 2010, after some 35 years of development, a computer finally beat a professional player, when the top ranked female champion Ichiyo Shimizu was beaten by the Akara2010 system in a game lasting just over 6 hours. On", "over 6 hours. On July 24, 2011, computer shogi programs Bonanza and Akara crushed the amateur team of Kosaku and Shinoda in two games. The allotted time for the amateurs was one hour and then three minutes per move. The allotted time for the computer was 25 minutes and then 10 seconds per move. On April 20, 2013, GPS Shogi defeated 8-dan professional shogi playerHiroyuki Miurain a 102-move game which lasted over 8 hours. On December 13, 2015, the highest rated player on Shogi Club 24 was computer program Ponanza, rated 3455. On April 10, 2016, Ponanza defeated Takayuki Yamasaki, 8-dan in 85 moves. Takayuki used 7 hours 9 minutes. In October 2017,DeepMindclaimed that its programAlphaZero, after a full nine hours of training, defeatedElmoin a 100-game match, winning 90, losing 8, and drawing two. From acomputational complexitypoint of view, generalized shogi isEXPTIME-complete. Video games Hundreds ofvideo gameswere released exclusively in Japan for severalconsoles. Clubhouse Games: 51 Worldwide Classics was", "Classics was released internationally by Nintendo in 2020 for the Nintendo Switch console, offering both Shogi and mini Shogi variants using either traditional or bilingual pieces. Culture According to professional playerYoshiharu Habu, in Japan shogi is viewed as not merely a game as entertainment or a mind sport but is instead an art that is a part of traditional Japanese culture along withhaiku,tanka,noh,ikebana, and theJapanese tea ceremony. Its elevated status was established by theiemotosystem supported by the historicalshogunate. The backwardsuma(shogi horse symbol) is often featured on merchandise (such as on large decorative shogi piece sculptures, keychains, and other keepsakes) available for sale inTendō. It also serves as a symbol of good luck. (Cf.Rabbit's foot.) There are multiple theories on its origin. One is thatuma(うま ) spelled in the Japanese syllabary backwards is まうmau(舞う), which means(to) danceand dancing horses are a good luck omen. In popular culture In the manga and anime", "the manga and anime seriesNaruto, shogi plays an essential part inShikamaru Nara's character development. He often plays it with his sensei,Asuma Sarutobi, apparently always beating him. When Asuma is fatally injured in battle, he reminds Shikamaru that the shogi king must always be protected, and draws a parallel between the king in shogi and the children who would grow up to take care of the Hidden Leaf (Konoha) in the future, as well as his yet-unborn daughter, Mirai, whom he wanted Shikamaru to guide. Shogi has been a central plot point in the manga and animeShion no Ō, the manga and animeMarch Comes in Like a Lion,and the manga and television drama81diver. In the manga and animeDurarara!!, the information broker Izaya Orihara plays a twisted version of chess, go and shogi, where he mixes all three games into one as a representation of the battles inIkebukuro. In the video gamePersona 5, the Star confidant, a girl named Hifumi Togo, is a high school shogi player looking to break into the ranks of the", "the ranks of the professionals. The player character will gain a knowledge stat when spending time with the confidant, supposedly from learning to play shogi. The abilities learned from ranking up the confidant comes from Japanese shogi terms. In the manga and animeWhen Will Ayumu Make His Move?, second-year high school student Urushi Yaotome is the president of her school's shogi club, though the club is considered illegitimate due to not having enough members, the only other member being first-year student Ayumu Tanaka. See also Notes References Bibliography External links Rules Online play Online tools", "Xiangqi Xiangqi(/ˈʃɑːŋtʃi/;Chinese:象棋;pinyin:xiàngqí), commonly known asChinese chessorelephant chess, is astrategyboard gamefor two players. It is the most popular board game in China. Xiangqi is in the same family of games asshogi,janggi,Western chess,chaturanga, andIndian chess. Besides China and areas with significant ethnic Chinese communities, this game is also a popular pastime in Vietnam, where it is known ascờ tướng, literally 'General's chess'. The game represents a battle between two armies, with the primary object being to checkmate the enemy's general (king). Distinctive features of xiangqi include the cannon (pao), which must jump to capture; a rule prohibiting the generals from facing each other directly; areas on the board called theriverandpalace, which restrict the movement of some pieces but enhance that of others; and the placement of the pieces on the intersections of the board lines, rather than within the squares. Board Xiangqi is played on a board nine lines wide and ten lines long. As", "ten lines long. As in the gameGo(圍碁;or Wéi qí圍棋), the pieces are placed on the intersections, which are known aspoints. The vertical lines are known asfiles(Chinese:路;pinyin:lù; \"road\"), and the horizontal lines are known asranks(Chinese:線/綫;pinyin:xiàn; \"line\"). Centred at the first to third and eighth to tenth ranks of the board are two zones, each three points by three points, demarcated by two diagonal lines connecting opposite corners and intersecting at the centre point. Each of these areas is known as宮gōngⓘ, a palace. Dividing the two opposing sides, between the fifth and sixth ranks, is河hé, the \"river\". The river is usually marked with the phrases楚河chǔ héⓘ, meaning \"River of theChu\", and漢界hàn jièⓘ, meaning \"Border of theHan\", a reference to theChu–Han War. Although the river (orHanchu boundary) provides a visual division between the two sides, only two pieces are affected by its presence: soldiers have an enhanced move after crossing the river, and elephants cannot cross it. The starting points of", "starting points of the soldiers and cannons are usually, but not always, marked with small crosses. Rules The pieces start in the position shown in the diagram above. Which player moves first has varied throughout history and from one part of China to another. Different xiangqi books advise either that the black or red side moves first.Some books refer to the two sides asnorthandsouth; which direction corresponds to which colour also varies from source to source. Generally, Red moves first in most modern tournaments. Each player in turn moves one piece from the point it occupies, to another point. Pieces are generally not permitted to move through points occupied by other pieces, the exception being the cannon’s capturing move. A piece can be moved onto a point occupied by an enemy piece, in which case the enemy piece is captured and removed from the board. A player cannot capture one of their own pieces. Pieces are never promoted (converted into other pieces), although the soldier gains the ability to move", "the ability to move sideways after it crosses the river. Almost all pieces capture using their normal moves, while the cannon has a special capture move described below. The game ends when one player checkmates the other's general. When the general is in danger of being captured by the enemy player on their next move, the enemy player has \"delivered a check\" (照將/將軍, abbreviated as將jiāngⓘ), and the general is \"in check\". A check should be announced. If the general's player can make no move to prevent the general's capture, the situation is called \"checkmate\" (將死). Unlike in chess, in whichstalemateis a draw, in xiangqi, it is a loss for the stalemated player. In xiangqi, a player—often with a material or positional disadvantage—may attempt to check or chase pieces in a way such that the moves fall in a cycle, preventing the opponent from winning. While this is accepted in Western chess, in xiangqi, the following special rules are used to make it harder to draw the game by endless checking or chasing,", "or chasing, regardless of whether the positions of the pieces are repeated or not: Different sets of rules set different limits on what is considered perpetual. For example, club xiangqi rules allow a player to check or chase six consecutive times using one piece, twelve times using two pieces, and eighteen times using three pieces before considering the action perpetual. The above rules to prevent perpetual checking and chasing, while popular, are not the only ones; there are numerous end game situations. Pieces Each player controls an army of 16 pieces; the armies are usually coloured red and black.Pieces are flat circular disks labelled or engraved with aChinese characteridentifying the piece type, and in a colour indicating which player has ownership. The black pieces are marked with somewhat different characters from the corresponding red pieces. Onmainland China, most sets still usetraditional Chinese characters(as opposed tosimplified Chinese characters). Modern pieces are usually plastic, though some", "though some sets are wooden, and more expensive sets may usejade. In more ancient times, many sets were simple unpainted woodcarvings; thus, to distinguish between pieces of the two sides, most corresponding pieces used characters that were similar but varied slightly.This practice may have originated in situations where there was only one material available to make the pieces from and no colouring material available to distinguish the opposing armies. The oldest xiangqi piece found to date is a俥(chariot) piece. It is kept in theThree Gorges Museum. General Generals(orkings) are labelled 將 (trad.) / 将 (simp.)jiàngⓘ(\"general\") on the black side and 帥 (trad.) / 帅 (simp.)shuàiⓘ(\"marshal\") on the red side. The general starts the game at the midpoint of the back edge, within the palace. The general may move and capture one pointorthogonallyand may not leave the palace, with the following exception. If the two generals face each other along the same file with no intervening pieces, the 飛將 (\"flying general\") move", "general\") move may be executed, in which the general to move crosses the board to capture the enemy general. In practice, this rule means that creating this situation in the first place means moving into check, and is therefore not allowed. The Indian namekingfor this piece was changed togeneralbecause of Chinesenaming taboos; China's rulers objected to their royal titles being given to game pieces.Despite this, the general is sometimes called the \"king\" by English-speaking players, due to their similar functions asroyal pieces. Advisor Advisors(also known asguardsand less commonly asassistants,mandarins,ministersorwarriors) are labelled 士shìⓘ(\"scholar\", \"gentleman\", \"officer\", \"guardian\") for Black and 仕shìⓘ(\"scholar\", \"official\", \"guardian\") for Red. Rarely, sets use the character 士 for both colours. The advisors start on either side of the general. They move and capture one pointdiagonallyand may not leave the palace, which confines them to five points on the board.The advisor is probably derived from the", "derived from the mantri inchaturanga, like the queen in Western chess. There is some controversy about whether \"士\" really is intended to mean \"scholar\", \"gentleman\" which would be \"士人\", or \"guard\", \"guardian\" which would be \"衛士\" (simplified Chinese: 卫士). One argument for the latter is that their functionality seems to be to guard/protect the general. The common Western translation \"advisor\" does not reflect this layer of meaning. Elephant Elephants(orbishops) are labeled象xiàng(\"elephant\") for Black and 相xiàng(\"minister\") for Red. They are located next to the advisors. These pieces move and capture exactly two points diagonally and may not jump over intervening pieces; the move is described as being like the character 田Tián(\"field\"), in reference to the board's squares.Blocking an elephant with a diagonally adjacent piece is known as \"blocking the elephant's eye\" (塞象眼). Elephants may not cross the river to attack the enemygeneral, and serve as defensive pieces. Because an elephant's movement is restricted to", "is restricted to just seven board positions, it can be easily trapped or threatened. The two elephants are often used to defend each other. TheChinese charactersfor \"minister\" and \"elephant\" arehomophonesinMandarin(Listenⓘ) and both have alternative meanings as \"appearance\" or \"image\". However, in English, both are referred to as elephants, and less commonly as \"bishops\", due to their similar movements. Horse Horses(orknights) are labelled 馬mǎⓘfor Black and 傌mǎfor Red in sets marked withTraditional Chinese charactersand 马mǎfor both Black and Red in sets marked withSimplified Chinese characters. Some sets use 馬 for both colours. Horses begin the game next to the elephants, on their outside flanks. A horse moves and captures one point orthogonally and then one point diagonally away from its former position, a move which is traditionally described as being like the character 日Rì.The horse does not jump as the knight does in Western chess, and can be blocked by a piece of either colour located one point", "located one point horizontally or vertically adjacent to it. Blocking a horse is called \"hobblingthe horse's leg\" (蹩馬腿). The diagram on the right illustrates the horse's movement. Since horses can be blocked, it is possible for one player's horse to have an asymmetric attack advantage if an opponent's horse is blocked, as seen in the diagram on the right. The horse is sometimes called the \"knight\" by English-speaking players, due to their similar movements. Chariot Chariots(orrooksorcars) are labelled 車jūⓘfor Black and 俥jūⓘfor Red in sets marked withTraditional Chinese charactersand 车 for both Black and Red in sets marked withSimplified Chinese characters. Some traditional sets use 車 for both colours. In the context of xiangqi, all of these characters are pronounced asjūⓘ(instead of the common pronunciationchē). The chariot moves and captures any distance orthogonally, but may not jump over intervening pieces. The chariots begin the game on the points at the corners of the board. The chariot is often", "chariot is often considered to be the strongest piece in the game due to its freedom of movement and lack of restrictions. The chariot is sometimes called the \"rook\" by English-speaking players, since it moves identically to the rook in Western chess.Chinese players (and others) often call this piece a car, since that is one modern meaning of the character 車. Cannon Cannonsare labelled 砲pàoⓘ(\"catapult\") for Black and炮pào(\"cannon\") for Red. The names arehomophones, though sometimes 炮 is used for both Red and Black. The 石shíradicalof 砲 means \"stone\", and the 火huǒradical of 炮 means \"fire\". Both colours' pieces are normally referred to as cannons in English. The black piece is sometimes labelled包bāo. Each player has two cannons, which start on the row behind the soldiers, two points in front of the horses. Cannons move like chariots, any distance orthogonally without jumping, but can only capture by jumping a single piece of either colour along the path of attack. The piece over which the cannon jumps is called", "jumps is called the 炮臺 (trad.) / 炮台 (simp.)pào tái(\"cannon platform\" or \"screen\"). Any number of unoccupied spaces, including none, may exist between the cannon, screen, and the piece to be captured. Cannons can be exchanged for horses immediately from their starting positions. Soldier Soldiers(orpawns) are labelled 卒zúⓘ(\"pawn\" or \"private\") for Black and 兵bīngⓘ(\"soldier\") for Red. Each side starts with five soldiers. Soldiers begin the game located on every other point one row back from the edge of the river. They move and capture by advancing one point. Once they have crossed the river, they may also move and capture one point horizontally. Soldiers cannot move backward, and therefore cannot retreat; after advancing to the last rank of the board, however, a soldier may still move sideways at the enemy's edge.The soldier is sometimes called the \"pawn\" by English-speaking players, due to the pieces' similar movements. Approximate relative values of the pieces These approximate valuesdo not take into account", "take into account the position of the piece in question (except the soldier in a general sense), the positions of other pieces on the board, or the number of pieces remaining. In what follows, “minor piece” will refer to horses and cannons, and \"defensive piece\", unless otherwise specified, will refer to the non-royal pieces that cannot cross the river, namely advisors and elephants. Other common rules of assessment: Notation There are several types of notation used to record xiangqi games. In each case the moves are numbered and written with the same general pattern. It is clearer but not required to write each move pair on a separate line. System 1 The bookThe Chess of Chinadescribes a move notation method in which the ranks of the board are numbered 1 to 10 from closest to farthest away, followed by a digit 1 to 9 for files from right to left.Both values are relative to the moving player. Moves are then indicated as follows: ()- Thus, the most common opening in the game would be written as: System 2 A", "as: System 2 A notation system partially described inA Manual of Chinese Chessand used by several computer software implementations describes moves in relative terms as follows: The file numbers are counted from each player's right to each player's left. In case there are two identical pieces in one file, symbols + (front) and – (rear) are used instead of former file number. Direction of movement is indicated via an operator symbol. Aplus signis used to indicate forward movement. Aminus signis used to indicate backward movement. Adot or periodorequals signis used to indicate horizontal or lateral movement. For a piece that moves diagonally (such as the horse or elephant), the plus or minus sign is used rather than the period. Thus, the most common opening in the game would be written as: According toWorld Xiangqi Federation(WXF), in the case oftripled, quadrupled, or quintupledsoldiers (pawns), there is no need to specify the P for pawn. Instead, the soldiers are numbered starting from the frontmost", "from the frontmost soldier, and this number replaces the usual piece abbreviation. The file number is given immediately after as usual. Thus the notation to move the middle of a set of tripled soldiers on the 5th file to the 4th file would be: In older books written in Chinese the system is the same, except that: the names of the pieces are written in Chinese; the name for the cannon on both sides is 炮; the name for the horse on both sides is 馬; forward motion is indicated with 進 (pronouncedjìn); backward motion is indicated with 退 (tuì); sideways motion is indicated with 平 (píng); and numbers are written in Chinese either for both players or for just Black. Thus, the most common opening in the game might be written as: System 3 This system is unofficial and principally used by Western players.It is similar toalgebraic notationfor Western chess. Letters are used for files and numbers for ranks. File \"a\" is on Red's left and rank \"1\" is nearest to Red. A point's designation does not depend on which player", "on which player moves; for both sides \"a1\" is the lowest left point from Red's side. Pieces are abbreviated as in notation system 2, except that no letter is used for the soldier. Former position is only indicated if necessary to distinguish between two identical pieces that could have made the move. If they share the same file, indicate which rank moves; if they share the same rank, indicate which file moves. If they share neither rank nor file, then the file is indicated. Capture is indicated by \"x\". No symbol is used to indicate a non-capturing move. Check is indicated by \"+\", double check by \"++\", triple check by \"+++\", and quadruple check by \"++++\". Checkmate is indicated by \"#\". For analysis purposes, bad moves are indicated by \"?\" and good moves by \"!\". These can be combined if the analysis is uncertain (\"!?\" might be either but is probably good; \"?!\" is probably bad) or repeated for emphasis (\"??\" is a disaster). Thus, the most common opening in the game would be written as: For example, the", "For example, the following game is tied with several others as the shortest possible xiangqi game: Gameplay Because of the size of the board and the low number of long-range pieces, there is a tendency for the battle to focus on a particular area of the board. Tactics Xiangqi involves several tactics common to games in the chess family. Some common ones are briefly discussed here. In contrast to the ubiquity ofpawn chainsin western chess, soldiers typically do not support each other until the endgame, because from the initial position it takes a minimum of five moves of a soldier to allow mutual protection between two of them, and they are often prone to capture by other pieces. Soldiers, horses, cannons and chariots can form up formations that protect each other. However, lining up chariots must be done with caution, as this risks losing one chariot to an enemy's inferior piece. Horses that support each other are called Linked Horses (Chinese: 連環馬), which is a relatively safe formation of the horses, though", "the horses, though it can still be threatened with a soldier, a chariot plus another minor piece, or a piece blocking one of the horses thus making the protection one-sided. It is common to use cannons independently to control particular ranks and files. Using a cannon to control the middle file is often considered vital strategy, because it pins pieces such as the advisors and elephants to the general, which in turn restrict their general’s movement. The two files adjacent to the middle file are also considered important and horses and chariots can be used to push for checkmate there. Since the general is usually safest in its original position before the endgame phase, attacking the general commonly involves forcing the general out of its original position with check or with threats. Thus, specific points and formations are very important in xiangqi. For an attacking (Red) horse, the most fatal points are c9 and g9 (Chinese: 臥槽馬), especially since without proper defence a quick mate can follow with an", "can follow with an extra chariot or cannon. For a cannon, one of the most fatal formations is the exposed cannon (Chinese: 空心炮), where the cannon directly controls the middle file with no other pieces between the cannon and the general. This formation is particularly dangerous since the defensive side cannot move any piece in front of the cannon; while with an extra cannon joining the attack, mate can follow on the spot, and with an extra rook, the offensive side can mount a double check (with the rook in front of the cannon) followed by awindmill(as when the check is blocked, the rook moving laterally discovers a new check from the cannon), often winning at least a piece afterwards. If the defensive side cannot chase the cannon away or capture it, it must move the general forward to avoid these threats, leaving the general vulnerable to attacks. Another fatal formation, called the \"cannon-controlled centroid horse\" (Chinese: 炮鎮窩心馬, diagram at right), also requires particularly bad coordination of the enemy", "of the enemy pieces. In the diagram, Black's \"centroid horse\" occupies the centre of the palace, blocking Black's own general and advisors, and being pinned to the general by the red cannon, cannot move. Black's cannon at e8 is also pinned to its own general; it too is unable to move and restricts the movement of Black's two elephants, making them unable to protect each other. Such a formation in the middlegame often produces deadly threats of smothered mates, while in the endgame, as in the diagram, Red's cannon cannot be chased away, rendering Black's general, advisors, cannon on e8, and horse all permanently immobilized. Even though Black is up a minor piece, Red has a clear win: The game concluded 41.Hg7 (forking the elephant and pinned cannon and creating a mating threat) Eg10 42.Hh9 Ci9 43.Hf8+ Cf9 (if not for the other black cannon, it is instant mate) 44.Hxg6, and Black resigned: Black's only active piece (the cannon on f9) is absolutely helpless to stop Red's horse and soldiers, which will soon", "which will soon invade the palace. A common defensive configuration is to leave the general at its starting position, deploy one advisor and one elephant on the two points directly in front of the general, and to leave the other advisor and elephant in their starting positions, to the side of the general. In this setup, the advisor and elephant pairs support each other, and the general is immune from attacks by cannons. Losing any defensive pieces makes the general vulnerable to cannon attack, and the setup may need to be abandoned. The defender may move defensive pieces away from the general, or even sacrifice them intentionally, to ward off attack by a cannon. Solution: 1.Rh10++ 1. ...Af10 2.Rh9+ Afe9 3.Rg10++ Af10 4.Rg9+ Afe9 5.Rh10++ 5. ...Af10 6.Re9+!! 6. ...Adxe9 7.Rh9+ Eeg10 8.Rxe9+ (the chariot is untouchable with legal moves) Gd10 9.Re10+ Gd9 10.d8+ Gxd8 11.Rd10# Long sequences of checks leading to mate or gain of material are common both in chess compositions and in actual play. A skilled xiangqi", "A skilled xiangqi player would often have to calculate several steps, or even tens of steps ahead for a forced sequence. In the diagram on the right, Black has an immediate mating threat which cannot be parried, forcing Red to check Black on every move. Although it requires 11 moves to mate, its general idea is clear: Induce a smothered check by sacrificing a chariot at the centre of the palace (e9), then force Black to open the centre file, enabling the Red general to assist the attack, and finally mate by facing generals. Openings Since the left and right flanks of the starting setup are symmetrical, it is customary to make the first move on the right flank. Starting on the left flank is considered needlessly confusing. The most common opening is to move the cannon to the central column, an opening known as 當頭炮 (trad.) / 当头炮 (simp.)dāng tóu pàoor \"Central Cannon\". The most common reply is to advance the horse on the same flank. Together, this move-and-response is known by the rhyme 當頭炮,馬來跳 (trad.) /", "當頭炮,馬來跳 (trad.) / 当头炮,马来跳 (simp.)dāng tóu pào, mǎ lái tiàoⓘ. The notation for this is \"1. 炮 (32)–35, 馬 (18)–37\", \"1. C2.5 H8+7\", or \"1. Che3 Hg8\" (diagram at right). After Black's 1. ...H8+7 (Hg8) response, the game can develop into a variety of openings, the most common being the 屏風馬 (trad.) / 屏风马 (simp.) or \"Screen Horses (Defence)\" in which Black develops the other horse to further protect their middle pawn (...H2+3 or ...Hc8) either immediately on their second move, or later when Black transposes the game into this opening. Alternative common first moves by Black are developing either cannons (1. ...C8.5/1. ...Che8, or 1. ...C2.5/1. ...Cbe8); note that after either of these moves, taking the central soldier with the cannon (2. C5+4 or 2. Cxe7+) is a beginner's trap that impedes development and coordination of Red's pieces if Black plays correctly (for example, 1. Che3 Che8 2. Cxe7+?? Ade9 3. Hg3 Hg8 4. Ce5 Rh10 when Black develops the rook first, and the loss of Black's middle pawn actually enabled", "actually enabled Black's horses to occupy the centre on the next moves). Other common first moves by Red include moving an elephant to the central column (1. Ege3), advancing the soldier on the third or seventh file (1. c5), moving a horse forward (1. Hg3), and moving either cannon to the 4th or 6th (d- or f-) file (1. Chd3 or 1. Chf3). Compared to the Central Cannon openings, these openings are generally less restricted by theory. General advice for the opening includes rapid development of at least one chariot and putting it on open files and ranks, as it is the most powerful piece with a long attack range. There is a saying that only a poor player does not move a chariot in the first three moves (Chinese: 三步不出車,必定要輸棋); however this is not to be taken literally, and is in fact often violated in modern Xiangqi games.Attacking and defending the centre, especially the central soldiers / central pawns, are common themes in the opening, hence the Central Cannon openings. Usually, at least one horse should be", "one horse should be moved to the middle in order to defend the central soldier; however undefended central soldiers can also become \"poisoned pawns\" in the early moves, especially if the attacking side does not have an immediate follow-up to retain the pressure on the central file. Middlegame strategy Xiangqi strategy shares common themes with chess, but has some differences: Like in chess, xiangqi piece values depend highly on the position on the board. The following study from Volume 42 of the Elegant Pastime Manual, dating from the Ming Dynasty, illustrates this dramatically. It is Red to play and win. In this position, Red is up two soldiers and a cannon but Black threatens seemingly unstoppable mate with ...Rf1#, since 1.Ec5? Ad8! renews the mate threat. Note that the red chariot is nearly useless, having only two legal moves, in stark contrast to the very active black chariot. However, Red averts the checkmate by sacrificing both the cannon and chariot: 1.Ca10+!! Hxa10 2.Ea3! Rxa1 (or the chariot is", "(or the chariot is lost, since the general protects the elephant on e3, which in turn guards g1, and the red horse guards e2) 3.Eec1: Despite the substantial sacrifice of material by Red, Black's chariot has now become useless as it is permanently immobilized by the red elephants and horse; the red general prevents the black soldier on g2 from moving laterally to free the chariot (for example 3...g1 4.Gf2). Black's horse similarly has no safe move due to the red soldier on c8, which also, along with the soldier on f9, prevents the black general from attacking the soldier on f9 from the behind. In addition, the black soldier on g6 is undefended and has no safe move, so Red can win it by pushing the soldier on c4 to c6 and moving it laterally to the g-file, after which the position is effectively an endgame of three soldiers against two advisers, an easy win for Red (seebelow) despite being down a chariot for three soldiers. Endgame Though xiangqi endgames require remarkable skill to be played well, there are", "well, there are a number of widely known book wins and book draws. Without a counterpart topawn promotion, xiangqi endgames instead focus more directly on forcing checkmate or stalemate, and in this regard resemblepawnless chess endgames. Since stalemate is a loss for the stalemated player instead of a draw, most book draws in xiangqi are due tofortresses, with a few draws due toinsufficient material. A general rule in xiangqi endgames for the advantageous side is that, when there's less material on the board, do not trade pieces easily, as with fewer attacking pieces on the board, defending is easier (in contrast to Western chess, where it is almost always advantageous to trade pieces when up on material). Hence, if a certain type of endgame can transpose, by trading pieces, into another type of endgame which is a book win, then this endgame itself is a book win. Zugzwang in xiangqi endgames Red wins with either side to move. Inducingzugzwangis a crucial theme in winning simple endgames, and almost", "and almost exclusively in simple endgames. In the general + soldier vs general endgame shown on the right, Red's first main goal is to occupy the middle file. Red wins with 1. Gd1, a waiting move, and Black is in zugzwang. Black must proceed with 1. ...Ge8, as 1. ...Ge10 instantly loses after 2. f9#. After 1. ...Ge8 2. f9 Gf8 3. e9 Ge8 4. d9 Gf8 5. Ge1, Red's general successfully occupies the middle file. The game would conclude with 5. ...Gf9 6. e9+, and regardless of Black's reply, 7. Ge2# (stale)mates Black. Reciprocal zugzwang: Whoever moves first loses. Reciprocal zugzwang is possible, but very rare and usually seen in endgame compositions. In this endgame shown on the right, whoever moves loses, since when either of the two generals moves to an open d- or f- file, it threatens unstoppable mate, while the player to move only helps the enemy general occupy one of the files. For instance, Red can only move their two soldiers if he is to move. Moving the f-(or d-)soldier allows the enemy general to occupy", "general to occupy the f-file(d-file). Even if 1. fe9+ Gf10 2. d10, when Red threatens mate in 1, Black still mates immediately with either 2. ...fe2# or 2. ...f1#. Soldier (pawn) endgames Red to play wins; Black to play draws. Horse endgames Cannon endgames Horse+Cannon endgames This type of endgame is considered one of the more complex endgames. Commonly known book wins and book draws are: Chariot endgames Single chariot endgames: Chariot + soldiers (unadvanced): Chariot + horse: Chariot + cannon: Two chariots: History A game calledxiangqiwas mentioned as dating to theWarring States period; according to the first-century-BC textShuo Yuan(說苑/说苑), it was one ofLord Mengchang of Qi's interests. However, the rules of that game are not described, and it was not necessarily related to the present-day game.Emperor Wu of Northern Zhouwrote a book in AD 569 calledXiang Jing. It described the rules of an astronomically themed game calledxiangxi(象戲). The wordxiàngqí象棋 is usually translated as \"elephant game\" or", "\"elephant game\" or \"figure game\", because theChinese character象 means \"elephant\" and \"figure\"; it originated as a stylized drawing of an elephant, and was used to write a word meaning \"figure\", likely because thetwo words were pronounced the same. For these reasons, Murray theorized that \"in China took over the board and name of a game called 象棋 in the sense of 'Astronomical Game', which represented the apparent movements of naked-eye-visible astronomical objects in the night sky, and that the earliest Chinese references to 象棋 meant the Astronomical Game and not Chinese chess\". Previous games called xiàngqí may have been based on the movements of sky objects. However, the connection between 象 andastronomyis marginal, and arose from constellations being called \"figures\" in astronomical contexts where other meanings of \"figure\" were less likely; this usage may have led some ancient Chinese authors to theorize that the game 象棋 started as a simulation of astronomy. To support his argument, Murray quoted an old", "quoted an old Chinese source that says that in the older xiangqi (which modern xiangqi may have taken some of its rules from) the game pieces could beshuffled, which does not happen in the modern chess-style xiangqi.Murray also wrote that in ancient China there was more than one game called xiangqi.Murray also even supposed thatchaturangafrom India influenced the formation of present-day xiangqi. An alternative hypothesis to Murray's is that xiangqi was patterned after the array of troops in theWarring States period.David H. Li, for example, argues that the game was developed byHan Xinin the winter of 204 BC-203 BC to prepare for an upcoming battle.His theories have been questioned by other chess researchers, however.The earliest description of the game's rules appears in the story \"Cén Shùn\" (岑順) in the collectionXuanguai lu(玄怪錄), written byNiu Sengruin the middle part of theTang dynasty. Xiangqi is the same as it is today fromSouthern Song dynasty. JanggiofKorean Peninsulaoriginates from Xiangqi. With the", "Xiangqi. With the popularization of xiangqi, many different schools of circles and players came into prominence, many books and manuals on the techniques of playing the game were also published, they played an important role in popularizing xiangqi and improving the techniques of play in modern times. With the economic and cultural development during theQing dynasty, xiangqi entered a new stage. A Western-styleEncyclopedia of Chinese Chess Openingswas written in 2004. Modern play Tournaments and leagues Although xiangqi has its origin in Asia, there are xiangqi leagues and clubs all over the world. Each European nation generally has its own governing league; for example, in Britain, xiangqi is regulated by the United Kingdom Chinese Chess Association. Asian countries also have nationwide leagues, such as the Malaysia Chinese Chess Association. In addition, there are several international federations and tournaments. TheChinese Xiangqi Associationhosts several tournaments every year, including the Yin Li and", "the Yin Li and Ram Cup Tournaments.Other organizations include the Asian Xiangqi Federationand a World Xiangqi Federation,which hosts tournaments and competitions bi-annually, with most limited to players from member nations. There are Europeanized versions of boards (10 × 9) and figures of xiangqi. Rankings The Asian Xiangqi Federation (AXF) and its corresponding member associations rank players in a format similar to theElo rating systemof chess. According to the XiangQi DataBase, the top-ranking female and male players in China, as of June 2012, wereTang Danand Jiang Chuan, with ratings of 2529 and 2667, respectively.Other strong players include Zhao GuanFang (female),Xu Yinchuan(male), Lu Qin (male), and Wang LinNa (female). The Asian Xiangqi Federation also bestows the title of grandmaster to select individuals around the world who have excelled at xiangqi or made special contributions to the game. There are no specific criteria for becoming a grandmaster and there are only approximately 100", "approximately 100 grandmasters as of 2020.The titles of grandmaster is bestowed by bodies such as the AXF and the Chinese Xiangqi Association (CXA). Computers Thegame-tree complexityof xiangqi is approximately 10150; in 2004 it was projected that a human top player would be defeated before 2010.Xiangqi is one of the more popular computer-versus-computer competitions at theComputer Olympiads. Computer programs for playing xiangqi show the same development trend as has occurred for international chess: they are usually console applications (called engines) which communicate their moves in text form through some standard protocol. For displaying the board graphically, they then rely on a separategraphical user interface(GUI). Through such standardization, many different engines can be used through the same GUI, which can also be used for automated play of different engines against each other. Popular protocols are UCI (Universal Chess Interface), UCCI (Universal Chinese Chess Interface), Qianhong (QH) protocol,", "(QH) protocol, andWinBoard/XBoard (WB) protocol (the latter two named after the GUIs that implemented them). There now exist many dozens of xiangqi engines supporting one or more of these protocols, including some commercial engines. Variations Blitz chessEach player only has around 5–10 minutes each. Manchu chessInvented during theManchu-ledQing dynasty. Red horses, cannons, and one of the chariots are absent, but the remaining chariot can be played as horses and cannons as well. Supply chessSimilar to the Western chess variantBughouse chess, this variant features the ability to re-deploy captured pieces, similar to a rule inshogi. Four players play as two-person teams in two side-by-side games. One teammate plays Black and other plays Red. Any piece obtained by capturing the opponent's piece is given to the teammate for use in the other game. These pieces can be deployed by the teammate to give him an advantage over the other player, so long as the piece starts on the player's own side of the board and", "of the board and does not cause the opponent to be in check. FormationSimilar toFischer Random Chess, one player's pieces are placed randomly on one side of the river, except for the generals and advisors, which must be at their usual positions, and the elephants, which must start at two of the seven points they can normally reach. The other player's pieces are set up to mirror the first's. All other rules are the same. BanqiThis variation is more well known inHong Kongthan in mainland China. It uses the xiangqi pieces and board, but does not follow any of its rules, bearing more of a resemblance to the Western gameStrategoas well as the Chinese gameLuzhanqi. Variations played with special boards or pieces There are many versions of three-player xiangqi, orsan xiangqui, all played on special boards. San Guo Qi\"Game of the Three Kingdoms\" is played on a special hexagonal board with three xiangqi armies (red, blue, and green) vying for dominance. A Y-shaped river divides the board into three gem-shaped", "three gem-shaped territories, each containing the grid found on one side of a xiangqi board, but distorted to make the game playable by three people. Each player has eighteen pieces: the sixteen of regular xiangqi, plus two new ones that stand on the same rank as the cannons. The new pieces have different names depending on their side:huo(\"fire\") for Red,qi(\"flag\") for Blue, andfeng(\"wind\") for Green. They move two spaces orthogonally, then one space diagonally. The generals each bear the name of a historical Chinese kingdom—Shu for Red, Wei for Blue, and Wu for Green—from China'sThree Kingdomsperiod.It is likely that San Guo Qi first appeared under the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). San You Qi\"Three Friends Chess\" was invented by Zheng Jinde fromShexianin theAnhuiprovince during the reign of theKangxi Emperorof theQing dynasty(1661–1722). It is played on a Y-shaped board with a full army of xiangqi pieces set up at the end of each of the board's three wide radii. In the centre of the board sits a", "of the board sits a triangular zone with certain features, such as ocean, mountain, or city walls, each of which is impassable by certain pieces. Two of an army's five soldiers are replaced by new pieces calledhuo(\"fire\") pieces, which move one space diagonally forward. Twoqi(\"flag\") pieces are positioned on the front corners of the palace; they move two spaces forward inside their own camp, and then one space in any direction inside an enemy camp. Sanrenqi\"Three Men Chess\" is a riverless, commercial variant played on a cross-shaped board with some special rules, including a fourth, neutral country calledHan.Han has three Chariots, one Cannon, and one General named \"Emperor Xian of Han\", but these pieces do not move and do not belong to any of the players until a certain point in the game when two players team up against the third player. At that point the third player gets to also control Han. Si Guo Qi\"Four Kingdoms Chess\" is also played on a riverless, cross-shaped board, but with four players. Because", "players. Because there are no rivers, elephants may move about the board freely. Qi Guo Xiang Qi\"Game of the Seven Kingdoms\" is based symbolically on the Warring States Period. In Unicode Xiangqi pieces were added toUnicodeversion 11.0 in June 2018. They are assigned to the codepoints U+1FA60–U+1FA6D in theChess Symbolsblock. For legibility, the red pieces are filled white, while black pieces are filled black. See also Notes References Further reading External links", "China China,officially thePeople's Republic of China(PRC),is a country inEast Asia. Witha populationexceeding 1.4 billion, it is thesecond-most populous countryafterIndia, representing 17.4% of the world population. China spans the equivalent of five time zones andborders fourteen countries by land.With an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi), it is thethird-largest countryby total land area.The country is divided into 33province-level divisions: 22provinces,fiveautonomous regions, fourmunicipalities, and two semi-autonomousspecial administrative regions.Beijingis the country's capital, whileShanghaiisits most populous city by urban areaand largestfinancial center. China is considered one of thecradles of civilization: the first human inhabitants in the region arrived during thePaleolithic. By the late second millennium BCE, the earliestdynastic stateshad emerged in theYellow Riverbasin. The eighth to third centuries BCE saw a breakdown in the authority of theZhou dynasty,", "of theZhou dynasty, accompanied by the emergence of administrative and military techniques,literature,philosophy, andhistoriography. In 221 BCE, China was unified underan emperor, ushering in more than two millennia of imperial dynasties including theQin,Han,Tang,Yuan,Ming, andQing. With theinvention of gunpowderandpaper, the establishment of theSilk Road, and the building of theGreat Wall,Chinese cultureflourished and hasheavily influenced both its neighborsand lands further afield. However, China began to cedeparts of the countryin the late 19th century to various European powers by a series ofunequal treaties. After decades of struggle, the1911 Revolutionresulted in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of theRepublic of China(ROC) the following year. The country under the nascentBeiyang governmentwas unstable and ultimately fragmented during theWarlord Era, which was ended upon theNorthern Expeditionconducted by theKuomintang(KMT) to reunify the country. TheChinese Civil Warbegan in 1927,", "Warbegan in 1927, when KMT forcespurgedmembers of the rivalChinese Communist Party(CCP), who proceeded to engage in sporadic fighting against the KMT-ledNationalist government. Following the country's invasion by theEmpire of Japanin 1937, theSecond Sino-Japanese Wareventually ended in a Chinese victory; however, atrocities such as theNanjing Massacrehad a lasting impact on the country. In 1949, the resurgent Communists established control over most of the country,proclaiming the People's Republic of Chinaand forcing theNationalist government to retreatto theisland of Taiwan. The country was split, withboth sidesclaiming to be thesole legitimate government of China. Following the implementation ofland reforms, further attempts by the PRC to realizecommunismfailed: theGreat Leap Forwardwas largely responsible for theGreat Chinese Faminethat ended with millions of Chinese people having died, and the subsequentCultural Revolutionwas a period of social turmoil and persecution characterized byMaoistpopulism.", "byMaoistpopulism. Following theSino-Soviet split, theShanghai Communiquéin 1972 would precipitate the normalization ofrelations with the United States.Economic reformsthat began in 1978 moved the country away from a socialistplanned economytowardsan increasingly capitalist market economy, spurring significant economic growth. The corresponding movement for increased democracy and liberalization stalled after theTiananmen Square protests and massacrein 1989. China is aunitaryone-partysocialist republicled by the CCP. It is one of the fivepermanent membersof theUN Security Council; the UN representative for China was changed from the ROC to the PRC in 1971. It is a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as theAIIB, theSilk Road Fund, theNew Development Bank, and theRCEP. It is a member of theBRICS, theG20,APEC, theSCO, and theEast Asia Summit. Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, theChinese economyis the world'slargest economy by GDPatpurchasing power parity,", "power parity, thesecond-largest economy by nominal GDP, and thesecond-wealthiest country, albeitranking poorlyin measures ofdemocracy,human rightsandreligious freedom. The country has been one of thefastest-growingmajor economies and is the world'slargest manufacturerandexporter, as well as thesecond-largest importer. China is anuclear-weapon statewith the world'slargest standing army by military personneland thesecond-largest defense budget. It is agreat power, andhas been described as an emerging superpower. China is known forits cuisineand culture, and has59 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, thesecond-highest number of any country. Etymology The word \"China\" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced throughPortuguese,Malay, andPersianback to theSanskritwordCīna, used inancient India.\"China\" appears inRichard Eden's 1555 translationof the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorerDuarte Barbosa.Barbosa's usage", "usage was derived from PersianChīn(چین), which in turn derived from SanskritCīna(चीन).Cīnawas first used in earlyHinduscripture, including theMahabharata(5th century BCE) and theLaws of Manu(2nd century BCE).In 1655,Martino Martinisuggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of theQin dynasty(221–206 BCE).Although use in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources.The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate.Alternative suggestions include the names forYelangand theJingor Chu state. The official name of the modern state is the \"People's Republic of China\" (simplified Chinese:中华人民共和国;traditional Chinese:中華人民共和國;pinyin:Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó). The shorter form is \"China\" (中国;中國;Zhōngguó), fromzhōng('central') andguó('state'), a term which developed under theWestern Zhoudynasty in reference to itsroyal demesne.It was used in official documents as an synonym for the state under theQing.The nameZhongguois also translated as'Middle", "as'Middle Kingdom'in English.China is sometimes referred to as \"mainland China\" or \"the Mainland\" when distinguishing it from theRepublic of Chinaor thePRC's Special Administrative Regions. History Prehistory Archaeological evidencesuggests that earlyhominidsinhabited China 2.25 million years ago.The hominid fossils ofPeking Man, aHomo erectuswhoused fire,have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000years ago.The fossilized teeth ofHomo sapiens(dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered inFuyan Cave.Chineseproto-writingexisted inJiahuaround 6600 BCE,atDamaidiaround 6000 BCE,Dadiwanfrom 5800 to 5400 BCE, andBanpodating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that theJiahu symbols(7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system. Early dynastic rule According to traditionalChinese historiography, theXia dynastywas established during the late third millennium BC, marking the beginning of the dynastic cycle that was understood to underpin China's entire", "China's entire political history. In the modern era, the Xia's historicity came under increasing scrutiny, in part due to the earliest known attestation of the Xia being written millennia after the date given for their collapse. In 1958, archaeologists discovered sites belonging to theErlitou culturethat existed during the earlyBronze Age; they have since been characterized as the remains of the historical Xia, but this conception is often rejected.TheShang dynastythat traditionally succeeded the Xia is the earliest for which there are both contemporary written records and undisputed archaeological evidence.The Shang ruled much of theYellow Rivervalley until the 11th century BCE, with the earliest hard evidence dating toc.1300 BCE.Theoracle bone script, attested fromc.1250 BCEbut generally assumed to be considerably older,represents the oldest known form ofwritten Chinese,and is the direct ancestor of modernChinese characters. The Shang were overthrown by theZhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5thcenturies", "and 5thcenturies BCE, though the centralized authority ofSon of Heavenwas slowly eroded byfengjianlords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou and continually waged war with each other during the 300-yearSpring and Autumn period. By the time of theWarring States periodof the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven major powerful states left. Imperial China Qin and Han The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after thestate of Qinconquered the other six states, reunited China and established the dominant order ofautocracy.King Zheng of Qinproclaimed himself the Emperor of theQin dynasty, becoming the first emperor of a unified China. He enacted Qin'slegalistreforms, notably the standardization of Chinese characters,measurements, road widths, andcurrency. His dynasty alsoconquered the Yue tribesinGuangxi,Guangdong, andNorthern Vietnam.The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death. Followingwidespread revoltsduring which the imperial librarywas", "imperial librarywas burned,theHan dynastyemerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modernHan Chinese.The Hanexpanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reachingCentral Asia, Mongolia,Korea, andYunnan, and therecovery of Guangdong and northern VietnamfromNanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia andSogdiahelped establish the land route of theSilk Road, replacing the earlier path over theHimalayasto India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor ofConfucianism, Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors. Three Kingdoms, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties After theend of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known asThree Kingdomsfollowed, at the end of whichWeiwas swiftly overthrown by", "overthrown by theJin dynasty. The Jin fell tocivil warupon the ascension of adevelopmentally disabled emperor; theFive Barbariansthenrebelledand ruled northern China as theSixteen States. TheXianbeiunified them as theNorthern Wei, whoseEmperor Xiaowenreversed his predecessors' apartheid policies andenforced a drastic sinification on his subjects. In the south, the generalLiu Yusecured the abdication of the Jin in favor of theLiu Song. The various successors of these states became known as theNorthern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by theSuiin 581. Sui, Tang and Song The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy andimperial examinationsystem, constructed theGrand Canal, and patronizedBuddhism. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and afailed warinnorthern Koreaprovoked widespread unrest.Under the succeedingTangandSong dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.The Tang dynasty", "Tang dynasty retained control of theWestern Regionsand the Silk Road,which brought traders to as far asMesopotamiaand theHorn of Africa,and made the capitalChang'ana cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by theAn Lushan rebellionin the 8th century.In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended theseparatist situationin 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and theLiao dynasty. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade. Between the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw arevival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of", "to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang,and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, aslandscape artandporcelainwere brought to new levels of complexity.However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by theJin dynasty. In 1127,Emperor Huizong of Songand the capitalBianjingwere captured during theJin–Song wars. The remnants of the Song retreated tosouthern China. Yuan TheMongol conquest of Chinabegan in 1205 with thecampaignsagainstWestern XiabyGenghis Khan,who alsoinvaded Jin territories.In 1271, the Mongol leaderKublai Khanestablished theYuan dynasty, whichconquered the last remnant of the Song dynastyin 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhangoverthrew the Yuanin 1368 and founded theMing dynastyas theHongwu Emperor. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous", "rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiralZheng Heled theMing treasure voyagesthroughout the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as East Africa. Ming In the early Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved fromNanjingto Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such asWang Yangmingcritiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts ofindividualismand equality offour occupations.Thescholar-officialstratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense againstJapanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)andLater Jinincursions led to an exhausted treasury.In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition ofpeasant rebelforces led byLi Zicheng. TheChongzhen Emperorcommitted suicide when the city fell. The ManchuQing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty generalWu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-livedShun dynastyand subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new", "became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. Qing The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. TheMing-Qing transition(1618–1683) cost 25 million lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurated another flowering of the arts.After theSouthern Mingended, the further conquest of theDzungar Khanateadded Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire.Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly began to accelerate. It is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced two growth spurts, one during theNorthern Songperiod (960–1127), and other during the Qing period (around 1700–1830).By theHigh Qing eraChina was possibly the most commercialized country in the world, and imperial China experienced a second commercial revolution by the end of the 18th century.On the other hand, the centralized autocracy was strengthened in part to suppressanti-Qing sentimentwith the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining", "and restraining commerce, like theHaijinduring the early Qing period and ideological control as represented by theliterary inquisition, causing some social and technological stagnation. Fall of the Qing dynasty In the mid-19th century, theOpium Warswith Britain andFranceforced China to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allowextraterritorialityfor foreign nationals, and cedeHong Kongto the Britishunder the 1842Treaty of Nanking, the first of what have been termed as the \"unequal treaties\". TheFirst Sino-Japanese War(1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in theKorean Peninsula, as well as thecession of TaiwantoJapan.The Qing dynasty also began experiencinginternal unrestin which tens of millions of people died, especially in theWhite Lotus Rebellion, the failedTaiping Rebellionthat ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and theDungan Revolt (1862–1877)in the northwest. The initial success of theSelf-Strengthening Movementof the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in", "military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s. In the 19th century, the greatChinese diasporabegan. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as theNorthern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.TheGuangxu Emperordrafted areform planin 1898 to establish a modernconstitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by theEmpress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreignBoxer Rebellionof 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as thelate Qing reforms, theXinhai Revolutionof 1911–1912 ended the Qing dynasty and established theRepublic of China.Puyi, the last Emperor,abdicated in 1912. Establishment of the Republic and World War II On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, andSun Yat-senof theKuomintang(KMT) was proclaimed provisional president.In March 1912, the presidency was given toYuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himselfEmperor of China. In the face of", "In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his ownBeiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916.After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.During thisperiod, Chinaparticipated inWorld War Iand saw a far-reaching popular uprising (theMay Fourth Movement). In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang underChiang Kai-shekwas able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings known collectively as theNorthern Expedition.The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital toNanjingand implemented \"political tutelage\", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen'sThree Principles of the Peopleprogram for transforming China into a modern democratic state.The Kuomintangbriefly alliedwith theChinese Communist Party(CCP) during the Northern Expedition,", "Expedition, though the alliance broke down in 1927 after Chiangviolently suppressedthe CCP and other leftists in Shanghai, marking the beginning of theChinese Civil War.The CCP declaredareas of the countryas theChinese Soviet Republic(Jiangxi Soviet) in November 1931 inRuijin,Jiangxi. The Jiangxi Soviet waswiped outby the KMT armies in 1934, leading the CCP to initiate theLong Marchand relocate toYan'aninShaanxi. It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949. In 1931, Japaninvaded and occupied Manchuria. Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating theSecond Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945), atheaterofWorld War II. The war forced anuneasy alliancebetween the Kuomintang and the CCP. Japanese forces committed numerouswar atrocitiesagainst the civilian population; as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinesewere massacredin Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.China, along with the UK, the United States,", "the United States, and theSoviet Union, were recognized as the Allied \"Big Four\" in theDeclaration by United Nations.Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four majorAllies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.After thesurrender of Japanin 1945, Taiwan, including thePenghu, washanded over to Chinese control; however, the validity of this handover is controversial. People's Republic China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between theKuomintangand theCommunistsled to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of theROC constitutionwere never implemented in mainland China.Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and theROC government retreated offshore to Taiwan. On 1 October 1949,CCP ChairmanMao Zedongformallyproclaimed the People's Republic of ChinainTiananmen Square,Beijing.In 1950, the", "1950, the PRCcaptured Hainanfrom the ROCandannexed Tibet.However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wagean insurgency in western Chinathroughout the 1950s.TheCCPconsolidated its popularity among the peasants through theLand Reform Movement, which included the state-tolerated executions of between 1 and 2 million landlords by peasants and former tenants.Though the PRC initially allied closely with theSoviet Union, the relations between the twocommunistnationsgradually deteriorated, leading China to develop an independent industrial system andits own nuclear weapons. The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974.However, theGreat Leap Forward, an idealistic massiveindustrializationproject, resulted inan estimated 15 to 55 million deathsbetween 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation.In 1964, China detonated its first atomic bomb.In 1966, Mao and his allies launched theCultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until", "that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRCreplaced the ROCin the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. Reforms and contemporary history After Mao's death, theGang of Fourwas arrested byHua Guofengand held responsible for the Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution was rebuked, with millions rehabilitated.Deng Xiaopingtook power in 1978, and instituted large-scalepoliticalandeconomic reforms, together with the \"Eight Elders\", most senior and influential members of the party. The government loosened its control and thecommuneswere gradually disbanded.Agricultural collectivizationwas dismantled and farmlands privatized. While foreign trade became a major focus,special economic zones(SEZs) were created. Inefficientstate-owned enterprises(SOEs) were restructured and some closed. This marked China's transition away from planned economy.China adopted its currentconstitutionon 4 December 1982. In 1989, there were protests suchthose in Tiananmen", "in Tiananmen Square, and then throughout the entire nation.Zhao Ziyangwas put under house arrest for his sympathies to the protests and was replaced byJiang Zemin. Jiang continued economic reforms, closing many SOEs and trimming down \"iron rice bowl\" (life-tenure positions).China's economy grew sevenfold during this time.British Hong KongandPortuguese Macaureturned to China in1997and1999, respectively, asspecial administrative regionsunder the principle ofone country, two systems. The country joined theWorld Trade Organizationin 2001. At the16th CCP National Congressin 2002,Hu Jintaosucceeded Jiang as the general secretary.Under Hu, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy.However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,and caused major social displacement.Xi Jinpingsucceeded Hu as paramount leader at the18th CCP National Congressin 2012. Shortly after his", "Shortly after his ascension to power, Xi launcheda vast anti-corruption crackdown,that prosecuted more than 2 million officials by 2022.Duringhis tenure, Xi has consolidated power unseen since the initiation of economic and political reforms. Geography China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from theGobiandTaklamakan Desertsin the arid north to thesubtropicalforests in the wetter south. TheHimalaya,Karakoram,PamirandTian Shanmountain ranges separate China from much ofSouthandCentral Asia. TheYangtzeand Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from theTibetan Plateauto the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along thePacific Oceanis 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by theBohai,Yellow,East ChinaandSouth Chinaseas. China connects through the Kazakh border to theEurasian Steppe. The territory of China lies betweenlatitudes18°and54° N, andlongitudes73°and135° E. Thegeographical centerof China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument", "Country Monument at35°50′40.9″N103°27′7.5″E / 35.844694°N 103.452083°E /35.844694; 103.452083 (Geographical center of China). China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populatedalluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broadgrasslandspredominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts thedeltasof China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include theXi,Mekong,BrahmaputraandAmur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. Highplateausfeature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point,Mount Everest(8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed ofAyding Lake(−154 m) in theTurpan", "m) in theTurpan Depression. Climate China's climate is mainly dominated bydry seasonsand wetmonsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. A major environmental issue in China is the continuedexpansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency ofsandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted indust stormsplaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. Water quality,erosion, andpollution controlhave become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Meltingglaciersin the Himalayas could potentially lead towater shortagesfor hundreds of millions of people.According to academics, in order to limitclimate change in Chinato 1.5", "in Chinato 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) electricity generation fromcoal in Chinawithoutcarbon capturemust be phased out by 2045.With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to three-degree temperature rise. Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels.Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops.In 2021,12 percent of global permanent meadows and pastures belonged to China, as well as 8% of global cropland. Biodiversity China is one of 17megadiverse countries,lying in two of the world's majorbiogeographic realms: thePalearcticand theIndomalayan. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the", "making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, afterBrazilandColombia.The country is a party to theConvention on Biological Diversity;itsNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Planwas received by the convention in 2010. China is home to at least 551 species ofmammals(the third-highest in the world),1,221 species of birds (eighth),424 species of reptiles (seventh)and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure from, one of the world's largest population of humans. At least 840animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur andtraditional Chinese medicine.Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east", "regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west.TheBaijiwas confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006. China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,and is home to a variety of forest types. Coldconiferousforests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such asmooseandAsian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.Theunderstoryof moistconiferforests may contain thickets ofbamboo. In highermontanestands ofjuniperandyew, the bamboo is replaced byrhododendrons.Subtropicalforests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonalrainforests, though confined toYunnanandHainan, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.China has over 10,000 recorded species offungi. Environment In the early 2000s, China has suffered fromenvironmental deterioration and pollutiondue to its rapid pace of industrialization.Regulations", "such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, frequently disregarded in favor of rapid economic development.China has the second-highest death toll because of air pollution, afterIndia, with approximately 1 million deaths.Although China ranks as the highestCO2emittingcountry,it only emits 8 tons ofCO2per capita, significantly lower than developed countries such as the United States (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6).Greenhouse gas emissions by Chinaare theworld's largest.The country has significantwater pollutionproblems; only 89.4% of China's national surface water was graded suitable for human consumption by theMinistry of Ecology and Environmentin 2023. China has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air pollution in the 2010s.In 2020, the Chinese government announced its aims for the country to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 in line with theParis", "line with theParis Agreement,which, according toClimate Action Tracker, would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2–0.3 degrees – \"the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker\". China is the world's leading investor inrenewable energyandits commercialization, with$546 billion invested in 2022;it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation ofrenewable energyhas increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022.In 2023, 60.5% of China's electricity came fromcoal(largest producer in the world), 13.2% fromhydroelectric power(largest), 9.4% fromwind(largest), 6.2% fromsolar energy(largest), 4.6% fromnuclear energy(second-largest), 3.3% fromnatural gas(fifth-largest), and 2.2% frombioenergy(largest); in total, 31% of China's energy came from", "energy came from renewable energy sources.Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been the largest importer of Russiancrude oilin 2022. Political geography China is thethird-largestcountry in the world by land area afterRussia, and the third- or fourth-largest country in the world by total area.China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2(3,700,000 sq mi).Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2(3,696,100 sq mi) according to theEncyclopædia Britannica,to 9,596,961 km2(3,705,407 sq mi) according to theUN Demographic Yearbook,andThe World Factbook. China has thelongest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) and itscoastlinecovers approximately 14,500 km (9,000 mi) from the mouth of theYalu River(Amnok River) to theGulf of Tonkin.Chinaborders 14 nationsand covers the bulk of East Asia, borderingVietnam,Laos, andMyanmarin Southeast", "Southeast Asia;India,Bhutan,Nepal,PakistanandAfghanistanin South Asia;Tajikistan,KyrgyzstanandKazakhstanin Central Asia; and Russia,Mongolia, andNorth KoreainInner AsiaandNortheast Asia. It is narrowly separated fromBangladeshandThailandto the southwest and south, and has several maritime neighbors such asJapan,Philippines,Malaysia, andIndonesia. China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them.China currently has a disputed land border withIndiaandBhutan.China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over territory in theEastandSouth China Seas, such as theSenkaku Islandsand the entirety ofSouth China Sea Islands. Government and politics The People's Republic of China is aone-party stategoverned by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP is officiallyguidedbysocialism with Chinese characteristics, which isMarxism adapted to Chinese circumstances.The Chinese constitution states that the PRC \"is", "that the PRC \"is a socialist state governed by apeople's democratic dictatorshipthat is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants,\" that the state institutions \"shall practice the principle ofdemocratic centralism,\"and that \"the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party.\" The PRCofficially terms itself as a democracy, using terms such as \"socialist consultative democracy\",and \"whole-process people's democracy\".However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and adictatorship,with among the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably againstfreedom of the press,freedom of assembly,free formation of social organizations,freedom of religionandfree access to the Internet.China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an \"authoritarian regime\" by theEconomist Intelligence Unit'sDemocracy Index, ranking at 148th out of 167 countries in 2023.Other sources suggest", "sources suggest that terming China as \"authoritarian\" does not sufficiently account for the multiple consultation mechanisms that exist in Chinese government. Chinese Communist Party According to theCCP constitution, its highest body is theNational Congressheld every five years.The National Congress elects theCentral Committee, who then elects the party'sPolitburo,Politburo Standing Committeeand thegeneral secretary(party leader), the top leadership of the country.The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over party and state and serves as the informalparamount leader.The current general secretary isXi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012.At the local level, thesecretary of the CCP committeeof a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor. Government The government in China is under the sole control of the CCP.The CCP controls appointments in", "appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members. TheNational People's Congress(NPC), with nearly 3,000-members, is constitutionally the \"highest organ of state power\",though it has been also described as a \"rubber stamp\" body.The NPC meets annually, while theNPC Standing Committee, around 150 members elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP.The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with anothereight minor partieshaving nominal representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership. Thepresidentis elected by the NPC. The presidency is the ceremonial state representative, but not the constitutional head of state. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and thechairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China'sparamount leaderandsupreme commanderof the Armed Forces. Thepremieris thehead of", "thehead of government, withLi Qiangbeing the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second- or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over theState Council, China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers,state councilors, and the heads of ministries and commissions.TheChinese People's Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's \"united front\" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired byWang Huning, fourth-ranking member of the PSC. The governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.: 7Policy instruments or processes are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy that", "in a policy that involves experimentation and feedback.: 14Generally, central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.: 71The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.: 71 Administrative divisions The PRC is constitutionally aunitary statedivided into 23provinces,fiveautonomous regions(each with a designated minority group), and fourdirect-administered municipalities—collectively referred to as \"mainland China\"—as well as thespecial administrative regions(SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.The PRC regards theisland of Taiwanas itsTaiwan Province,KinmenandMatsuas a part ofFujian Provinceand islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part ofHainan ProvinceandGuangdong Province, although all these territories are governed by", "are governed by theRepublic of China(ROC).Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions:North China,East China,Southwestern China,Northwestern China,South Central China, andNortheast China. Taiwan(台湾省),governed by theRepublic of China Foreign relations The PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nation members states and maintainsembassies in 174. As of 2024, China has one of the largest diplomatic networks of any country in the world.In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of theUnited Nations Security Council.It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including theG20,theSCO,theBRICS,theEast Asia Summit,and theAPEC.China was also a former member and leader of theNon-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate fordeveloping countries. The PRC officially maintains theone-China principle, which holds the view that there is", "view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China.The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique \"one-China policies\" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the U.S. and Japan, onlyacknowledgethe claim.Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,especially in the matter of armament sales.Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the UN in 1971. Much of currentChinese foreign policyis reportedly based on PremierZhou Enlai'sFive Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of \"harmony without uniformity\", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties", "maintain close ties with states that areregarded as dangerousand repressive by Western nations, such asSudan,North KoreaandIran.China's close relationship withMyanmarhas involved support for its ruling governments as well as for its ethnic rebel groups,including theArakan Army.China has aclose political, economic and military relationshipwith Russia,and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.China's relationship with the United Statesis complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences. Since the early 2000s, China has followed a policy ofengaging with African nationsfor trade and bilateral co-operation.It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods.China is increasing its influence inCentral Asiaand South Pacific.The country has strong trade ties withASEANcountriesand major South American economies,and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay,", "Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others. In 2013, China initiated theBelt and Road Initiative(BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, as of April 2020, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient transport routes, especially themaritime Silk Roadwith its connections to East Africa and Europe. However many loans made under the program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls fordebt relieffrom debtor nations. Military ThePeople's Liberation Army(PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.It has also been accused of technology theft by some countries.Since 2024, it consists of four services: theGround Force(PLAGF),", "Force(PLAGF), theNavy(PLAN), theAir Force(PLAAF) and theRocket Force(PLARF). It also has four independent arms: theAerospace Force, theCyberspace Force, theInformation Support Force, and theJoint Logistics Support Force, the first three of which were split from the disbandedStrategic Support Force(PLASSF).Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is thelargest in the world. The PLA holds the world'sthird-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons,and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage.China's official military budget for 2023 totalled US$224 billion (1.55 trillion Yuan), thesecond-largest in the world, thoughSIPRIestimates that its real expenditure that year was US$296 billion, making up 12% of global military spending and accounting for 1.7% of the country's GDP.According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP.The PLA is commanded by theCentral Military", "theCentral Military Commission(CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. Thechairman of the CMCis thecommander-in-chiefof the PLA. Sociopolitical issues and human rights The situation ofhuman rights in Chinahas attracted significant criticism from foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, andexcessive use of the death penalty.Since its inception,Freedom Househas ranked China as \"not free\" in itsFreedom in the Worldsurvey,whileAmnesty Internationalhas documented significant human rights abuses.The Chinese constitution states that the \"fundamental rights\" of citizens includefreedom of speech,freedom of the press, theright to a fair trial,freedom of religion,universal", "religion,universal suffrage, andproperty rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.China has limited protections regardingLGBT rights. Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action.China also has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet censorship regime in the world, with numerous websites being blocked.The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to \"social stability\".China additionally uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country. China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses inTibetand Xinjiang,where significant numbers of", "numbers of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns andreligious suppression.Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in a harsh crackdown in Xinjiang, with around one millionUyghursand other ethnic and religion minorities being detained ininternment campsaimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.According to Western reports, political indoctrination, torture,physicalandpsychologicalabuse,forced sterilization,sexual abuse, andforced laborare common in these facilities.According to a 2020Foreign Policyreport, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide,while a separateUN Human Rights Office reportsaid they could potentially meet the definitions forcrimes against humanity.The Chinese authorities have also cracked down on dissent inHong Kong, especially after the passage of anational security lawin 2020. In 2017 and 2020, thePew Research Centerranked the severity of Chinese government restrictions on", "restrictions on religion as being among the world's highest, despite ranking religious-related social hostilities in China as low in severity.TheGlobal Slavery Indexestimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people (0.25% of the population) were living in \"conditions of modernslavery\", including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposedre-education through labor(laojiao) system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to what extent its practices have stopped.The much largerreform through labor(laogai) system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; theLaogai Research Foundationhas estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that this number was likely an underestimate. Public views of government Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.Nonetheless, international surveys", "surveys show the Chinese public have a high level of satisfaction with their government.: 137These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness.: 136According to theWorld Values Survey(2022), 91% of Chinese respondents have significant confidence in their government.: 13A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever in the survey's history. Economy China has the world'ssecond-largest economyin terms ofnominal GDP,and the world'slargestin terms ofpurchasing power parity(PPP).As of 2022, China accounts for around 18% of theglobal economyby nominal GDP.China is one of the world'sfastest-growingmajor economies,with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent since the introduction ofeconomic reforms in", "reforms in 1978.According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022.It ranks at64th at nominal GDP per capita, making it an upper-middle income country.Of the world's500 largest companies, 135 are headquartered in China.As of at least 2024, China has the world's second-largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the third-largest bond market.: 153 Chinawas one of the world's foremost economic powersthroughout the arc ofEast Asianandglobal history. The countryhad one of the largest economiesin the world for most of thepast two millennia,during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail,mining,steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce,", "estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the tenlargest stock exchangesin the world—Shanghai,Hong KongandShenzhen—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020.China has four (Shanghai,Hong Kong,Beijing, andShenzhen) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any other country in the 2020Global Financial Centres Index. Modern-day China is often described as an example ofstate capitalismorparty-state capitalism.The state dominates in strategic \"pillar\" sectors such as energy production andheavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP. China has been the world'slargest manufacturing nationsince 2010, after overtaking the U.S., which had been the largest for the previous hundred years.China has also been the second-largest", "the second-largest inhigh-techmanufacturing country since 2012, according to USNational Science Foundation.China is the second-largest retail market after the United States.China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021.China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world as of 2022.China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries. Tourism China received 65.7 million international visitors in 2019,and in 2018 was thefourth-most-visited countryin the world.It also experiences an enormous volume ofdomestic tourism; Chinese tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019.China hosts the world'ssecond-largest numberofWorld Heritage Sites(56) after Italy, and is one of themost popular tourist destinations(first in the Asia-Pacific). Wealth Chinaaccounted for", "Chinaaccounted for 17.9%of the world's total wealth in 2021, second highest in the world after the U.S.China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million.: 23From 1990 to 2018, the proportion of the Chinese population living with an income of less than $1.90 per day (2011PPP) decreased from 66.3% to 0.3%, the share living with an income of less than $3.20 per day from 90.0% to 2.9%, and the share living with an income of less than $5.50 per day decreased from 98.3% to 17.0%. From 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six.Wages in China have grown significantly in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007.Per capita incomes have also risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself.China's development is", "development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions.It has a high level of economic inequality,which has increased quickly after the economic reforms,though has decreased significantly in the 2010s.In 2021, China'sGini coefficientwas 0.357, according to theWorld Bank. As of March 2024, China was second in the world, after the U.S., intotal number of billionairesandtotal number of millionaires, with 473 Chinese billionairesand 6.2 million millionaires.In 2019, China overtook the U.S. as the home to the highest number of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report byCredit Suisse.China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021, two-thirds of the global total.China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015;the middle-class grew to 500 million by 2024. China in the global economy China has been a member of theWTOsince 2001 and is the world's largest trading", "largest trading power.By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 countries.China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer, accounting for roughly 45% of maritime'sdry-bulk market. China's foreign exchange reservesreached US$3.246 trillion as of March 2024, making its reserves by far the world's largest.In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inwardforeign direct investment(FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong.In 2021, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US53 billion making it the second-largest recipient of remittances in the world.China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $147.9 billion in 2023,and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies. Economists have argued that therenminbiis undervalued, due tocurrency interventionfrom the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade", "an unfair trade advantage.China has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities ofcounterfeitgoods.The U.S. government has also alleged that China does not respectintellectual property(IP) rights andsteals IP through espionage operations.In 2020,Harvard University'sEconomic Complexity Indexranked complexity of China's exports 17th in the world, up from 24th in 2010. The Chinese government has promoted theinternationalization of the renminbiin order to wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system.The renminbi is a component of the IMF'sspecial drawing rightsand the world's fourth-most traded currency as of 2023.However, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, the U.S. Dollar and the Japanese Yen in international trade volumes. Science and technology Historical China was a world leader in science and technology until theMing", "until theMing dynasty.Ancient and medievalChinese discoveriesandinventions, such aspapermaking,printing, thecompass, andgunpowder(theFour Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to usenegative numbers.By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.The causes of this early modernGreat Divergencecontinue to be debated by scholars. Afterrepeated military defeatsby theEuropean colonial powersandImperial Japanin the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of theSelf-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of theSoviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of theFour Modernizations,and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually", "was gradually reformed. Modern era Since the end of theCultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific researchand is quickly catching up with the U.S.in R&D spending.China officially spent around 2.6% of its GDP on R&D in 2023, totaling to around $458.5 billion.According to theWorld Intellectual Property Indicators, China received more applications than the U.S. did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.It was ranked 11th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013.Chinese supercomputersranked among thefastest in the world.Its efforts to develop the most advanced semiconductors and jet engines have seen delays and setbacks. China is developingits education systemwith an emphasis onscience, technology, engineering, and mathematics(STEM).Its academic publication apparatusbecame the world'slargest publisher of scientific papersin", "scientific papersin 2016.In 2022, China overtook the US in theNature Index, which measures the share of published articles in leading scientific journals. Space program The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with theDong Fang Hong I, which made China the fifth country to do so independently. In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space withYang Liwei's spaceflight aboardShenzhou 5. As of 2023,eighteen Chinese nationalshave journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed,Tiangong-1.In 2013, a Chinese robotic roverYutusuccessfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of theChang'e 3mission. In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—Chang'e 4—on thefar side of the Moon.In 2020,Chang'e 5successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so", "country to do so independently.In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy arover (Zhurong)on Mars.China completed its own modularspace station, theTiangong, inlow Earth orbiton 3 November 2022.On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard theTiangong. In May 2023, China announced a plan toland humans on the Moonby 2030.To that end, China currently is developing a lunar-capable super-heavy launcher, theLong March 10, a newcrewed spacecraft, and acrewed lunar lander. China sentChang'e 6on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return fromApollo Basinon thefar side of the Moon.This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved byChang'e 5from the lunar near side 4 years ago.It also carried a Chinese rover calledJinchanto conductinfrared spectroscopyof lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner", "and returner before landing on 1 June 2024, at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024, at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, which later completed another robotic rendezvous, before docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed onInner Mongoliain June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission. Infrastructure After a decades-long infrastructural boom,China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: it has thelargest high-speed rail network,themost supertall skyscrapers,the largest power plant (theThree Gorges Dam),anda global satellite navigation systemwith the largest number of satellites. Telecommunications China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has thelargest number of active cellphones of any country, with over 1.7 billion subscribers, as of February 2023. It has the largest number", "the largest number ofinternetandbroadband users, with over 1.09 billion Internet users as of December 2023—equivalent to around 77.5% of its population.By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total.China is making rapid advances in5G—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.As of December 2023, China had over 810 million5Gusers and 3.38 million base stations installed. China Mobile,China UnicomandChina Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018.Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China.Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notablyHuaweiandZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military. China has developed its ownsatellite", "its ownsatellite navigationsystem, dubbedBeiDou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012as well as global services by the end of 2018.Beidou followedGPSandGLONASSas the third completed global navigation satellite. Transport Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network ofnational highwaysandexpressways. In 2022, China's highways had reached a total length of 177,000 km (110,000 mi), making it thelongest highway systemin the world.China has the world's largest market for automobiles,having surpassed the United States in both auto sales andproduction. The country is the world's largest exporter of cars by number as of 2023.A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents.In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2023, there are approximately 200 million bicycles in China.", "bicycles in China. China's railways, which are operated by the state-ownedChina State Railway Group Company, are amongthe busiestin the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.As of 2023, the country had 159,000 km (98,798 mi) of railways, thesecond-longest networkin the world.The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during theChinese New Yearholiday, when theworld's largest annual human migrationtakes place.China'shigh-speed rail (HSR) systemstarted construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2023, high speed rail in China had reached 45,000 kilometers (27,962 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it thelongest HSR networkin the world.Services on theBeijing–Shanghai,Beijing–Tianjin, andChengdu–Chongqinglines reach up to 350 km/h (217 mph), making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.3 billion passengers in 2019, it is the world's busiest.The network", "busiest.The network includes theBeijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway, the single longest HSR line in the world, and theBeijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which hasthree of longest railroad bridges in the world.TheShanghai maglev train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world.Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated.As of December 2023, 55 Chinese cities haveurban mass transit systemsin operation.As of 2020, China boasts the five longestmetro systemsin the world with the networks inShanghai,Beijing,Guangzhou,ChengduandShenzhenbeing the largest. Thecivil aviation industry in Chinais mostly state-dominated, with the Chinese government retaining a majority stake in the majority of Chinese airlines. The top three airlines in China, which collectively made up 71% of the market in 2018, are all state-owned. Air travel has expanded rapidly in the last decades, with the number of passengers increasing from 16.6 million in 1990", "million in 1990 to 551.2 million in 2017.China hadapproximately 259 airports in 2024. China hasover 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping.Of thefifty busiest container ports, 15 are located in China, of which the busiest is thePort of Shanghai, also the busiest port in the world.The country's inland waterways are the world'ssixth-longest, and total 27,700 km (17,212 mi). Water supply and sanitation Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well aswater scarcity, contamination, and pollution.According to theJoint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access toimproved sanitationin 2015.The ongoingSouth–North Water Transfer Projectintends to abate water shortage in the north. Demographics The2020 Chinese censusrecorded the population as approximately 1,411,778,724. About 17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59", "between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old.Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%. Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a \"1.5\"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-child limits.The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of atwo-child policy.Athree-child policywas announced on 31 May 2021, due topopulation aging,and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.In 2023, thetotal fertility ratewas reported", "ratewas reported to be 1.09, rankingamong the lowest in the world.In 2023,National Bureau of Statisticsestimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961. According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growthor total population size.However, these scholars have been challenged.The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in thesex ratioat birth.The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total population.However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.8% of the population. The cultural preference for male children, combined with the one-child policy, led to an excess of female child orphans in China, and in the 1990s through around 2007, there was an active stream of adoptions of (mainly female) babies by American and other foreign parents.However, increased restrictions by the Chinese Government slowed foreign adoptions", "foreign adoptions significantly in 2007 and again in 2015. Urbanization Chinahas urbanizedsignificantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 66% in 2023.China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,including the 17megacitiesas of 2021(cities with a population of over 10 million) ofChongqing,Shanghai,Beijing,Chengdu,Guangzhou,Shenzhen,Tianjin,Xi'an,Suzhou,Zhengzhou,Wuhan,Hangzhou,Linyi,Shijiazhuang,Dongguan,QingdaoandChangsha.The total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million.Shanghai is China'smost populous urban areawhile Chongqing is itslargest city proper, the only city in China with a permanent population of over 30 million.The figures in the table below are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large \"floating populations\" of migrant", "of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;the figures below include only long-term residents. Ethnic groups China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise theZhonghua minzu. The largest of these nationalities are theHan Chinese, who constitute more than 91% of the total population.The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group– outnumber other ethnic groups in every place excludingTibet,Xinjiang,Linxia,andautonomous prefectureslikeXishuangbanna.Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census.Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%.The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China. Languages There are as many as 292living languagesin China.The languages most commonly spoken belong to theSinitic", "to theSinitic branchof theSino-Tibetan languagefamily, which containsMandarin(spoken by 80% of the population),andother varietiesofChinese language:Jin,Wu,Min,Hakka,Yue,Xiang,Gan,Hui,Pingand unclassified Tuhua (Shaozhou TuhuaandXiangnan Tuhua).Languages of theTibeto-Burman branch, includingTibetan,Qiang,NaxiandYi, are spoken across theTibetanandYunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages insouthwestern ChinaincludeZhuang,Thai,DongandSuiof theTai-Kadai family,MiaoandYaoof theHmong–Mien family, andWaof theAustroasiatic family. Acrossnortheasternandnorthwestern China, local ethnic groups speakAltaic languagesincludingManchu,Mongolianand severalTurkic languages:Uyghur,Kazakh,Kyrgyz,SalarandWestern Yugur.Koreanis spoken natively along the border withNorth Korea.Sarikoli, the language ofTajiks in western Xinjiang, is anIndo-European language.Taiwanese indigenous peoples, including a small population on the mainland, speakAustronesian languages. Standard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on", "Mandarin based on theBeijing dialect, is the national language andde factoofficial language of China.It is used as alingua francabetween people of different linguistic backgrounds.In theautonomous regions of China, other languages may also serve as a lingua franca, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang, where governmental services in Uyghur are constitutionally guaranteed. Religion Freedom of religionis guaranteed by China's constitution (Chapter 2, Article 36), although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.The government of the country is officiallyatheist. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration, under theUnited Front Work Department. Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The \"three doctrines\", includingConfucianism,Taoism, andBuddhism(Chinese Buddhism), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,enriching atheological and", "atheological and spiritual frameworkof traditional religion which harks back to the earlyShangandZhou dynasty.Chinese folk religion, which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions,consists in allegiance to theshen(神), a character that signifies the \"energies of generation\", who can bedeitiesof the surrounding nature orancestral principlesof human groups, concepts of civility,culture heroes, many of whom feature inChinese mythologyand history.Amongst the most popularcultsof folk religion are those ofHuangdi, embodiment of the God of Heaven and one of the twodivine patriarchsof the Chinese people,ofMazu(goddess of the seas),Guandi(god of war and business),Caishen(god of prosperity and richness),Panguand many others. In the early decades of the 21st century, the Chinese government has been engaged in a rehabilitation of folk cults — formally recognizing them as \"folk beliefs\" (a category different from that of doctrinal religions),and often reconstructing them into forms of \"highly curated\"civil", "curated\"civil religion— as well as in a national and international promotion of Buddhism.China is home to many of theworld's tallest religious statues, representing either deities of Chinese folk religion or enlightened beings of Buddhism; the tallest of all is theSpring Temple BuddhainHenan. Statistics on religious affiliation in China are difficult to gather due to complex and varying definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between the three doctrines and local folk religious practices.Chinese religions or some of their currents are also definable asnon-theisticandhumanistic, since they do not hold that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but that it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.According to studies published in 2023, compiling reliable demographic analyses holden throughout the 2010s and the early 2020s, 70% of the Chinese population believes in or practices Chinese", "practices Chinese folk religion; among them, with an approach of non-exclusivity, 33.4% may be identified as Buddhists, 19.6% as Taoists, and 17.7% as adherents of other types of folk religion.Of the remaining population, 25.2% are fully non-believers or atheists, 2.5% are adherents ofChristianity, and 1.6% are adherents ofIslam.Chinese folk religion also comprises a variety ofsalvationist doctrinal organized movementswhich emerged since theSong dynasty.There are also ethnic minorities in China who maintain their ownindigenous religions, while major religions characteristic of specific ethnic groups includeTibetan BuddhismamongTibetans,MongolsandYugurs,and Islam among theHui,Uyghur,Kazakh,andKyrgyzpeoples, and other ethnicities in the northern and northwestern regions of the country. Education Compulsory education in China comprisesprimaryandjunior secondary school, which together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15.TheGaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance", "for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary andtertiarylevel.More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges every year.In 2023, about 91.8 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.2 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education. China has the largest education system in the world,with about 291 million students and 18.92 million full-time teachers in over 498,300 schools in 2023.Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while inGuizhou, one of thepoorest provinces, only totalled ¥3,204.China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979,to 97% of the population over age 15 in", "over age 15 in 2020. As of 2023, China has over 3,074 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world.As of 2023, China had the world's highestnumber of top universities.Currently, China trails only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of representation on lists of the top 200 universities according to the 2023Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system of three world-most followed university rankings (ARWU+QS+THE).China is home to two of the highest-ranking universities (Tsinghua UniversityandPeking University) inAsiaandemerging economies, according to theTimes Higher Education World University Rankingsand theQS World University Rankings.These universities are members of theC9 League, an alliance of eliteChinese universitiesoffering comprehensive and leading education. Health TheNational Health Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health", "oversees the health needs of the population.An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. The Communist Party started thePatriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such ascholera,typhoidandscarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. AfterDeng Xiaopingbegan instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared.Healthcare in Chinabecame mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a three-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.By 2022, China had established itself as a", "itself as a key producer and exporter ofpharmaceuticals, producing around 40 percent ofactive pharmaceutical ingredientsin 2017. As of 2023, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 78 years.: 163As of 2021, theinfant mortalityrate is 5 per thousand.Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.Rates ofstunting, a condition caused bymalnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused bywidespread air pollution,hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,and an increase inobesityamong urban youths.In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.Chinese mental healthservices are inadequate.China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such asSARSin 2003, although this has since been largely contained.TheCOVID-19 pandemicwas first identified inWuhanin", "inWuhanin December 2019;pandemic led the government to enforcestrict public health measuresintended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned in December 2022 afterprotests against the policy. Culture and society Sinceancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influencedEast AsiaandSoutheast Asia.For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigiousimperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty.Theliterary emphasisof the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief thatcalligraphy,poetryandpaintingwere higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.Examinations and aculture of meritremain greatly valued in China today. Today, the Chinese government has accepted", "has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise ofChinese nationalismand the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted. Architecture Chinese architecturehas developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture,including inJapan,Korea, andMongolia.and minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia including the countries ofMalaysia,Singapore,Indonesia,Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos,Cambodia,Vietnamand the Philippines. Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces,feng shui(e.g. directionalhierarchies),a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various", "allusion to various cosmological,mythologicalor in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging frompagodastopalaces. Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with differentgeographicregions and different ethnic heritages, such as thestilt housesin the south, theYaodong buildingsin the northwest, theyurt buildingsof nomadic people, and theSiheyuan buildingsin the north. Literature Chinese literature has its roots in the Zhou dynasty's literary tradition.Theclassical texts of Chinaencompass a wide range of thoughts and subjects, such as thecalendar,military,astrology,herbology, andgeography, as well as many others.Among the most significant early works are theI Chingand theShujing, which are part of theFour Books and Five Classics. These", "Classics. These texts were the cornerstone of the Confucian curriculum sponsored by the state throughout the dynastic periods. Inherited from theClassic of Poetry,classical Chinese poetrydeveloped to itsfloruitduring the Tang dynasty.Li BaiandDu Fuopened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively.Chinese historiographybegan with theShiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed theTwenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along withChinese mythologyandfolklore.Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town andgods and demons fictionsas represented by theFour Great Classical Novelswhich includeWater Margin,Romance of the Three Kingdoms,Journey to the WestandDream of the Red Chamber.Along with thewuxiafictions ofJin YongandLiang Yusheng,it remains an enduring source of popular culture in theChinese sphere of influence. In the wake of", "In the wake of theNew Culture Movementafter the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era withwritten vernacular Chinesefor ordinary citizens.Hu ShihandLu Xunwere pioneers in modern literature.Various literary genres, such asmisty poetry,scar literature,young adult fictionand thexungen literature, which is influenced bymagic realism,emerged following the Cultural Revolution.Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. Music Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times.Traditional Chinese musical instrumentswere traditionally grouped into eight categories known asbayin(八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing andCantonese opera.Chinese pop (C-Pop) includesmandopopandcantopop.Chinese hip hopandHong Kong hip hophave become popular. Fashion", "popular. Fashion Hanfuis the historical clothing of the Han people in China. Theqipaoor cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress.Thehanfu movementhas been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.China Fashion Weekis the country's only national-level fashion festival. Cinema Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film,Dingjun Mountain,was released in 1905.China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016;China became the largest cinema market in 2020.The top threehighest-grossing films in Chinaas of 2023wereThe Battle at Lake Changjin(2021),Wolf Warrior 2(2017), andHi, Mom(2021). Cuisine Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the \"Eight Major Cuisines\", includingSichuan,Cantonese,Jiangsu,Shandong,Fujian,Hunan,Anhui, andZhejiangcuisines.Chinese cuisine is known for its breadth ofcooking methodsand ingredients.China's", "ingredients.China's staple food is rice in the northeast and south, and wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. Bean products such astofuandsoy milkremain a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.There is also the vegetarianBuddhist cuisineand the pork-freeChinese Islamic cuisine. Chinese cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables. Offshoots of Chinese food, such asHong Kong cuisineandAmerican Chinese cuisine, have emerged in theChinese diaspora. Sports China has one of theoldest sporting cultures. There is evidence thatarchery(shèjiàn) was practiced during theWestern Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (jiànshù) andcuju, a sport loosely related toassociation footballdate back to China's early dynasties as well. Physical fitnessis widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such asqigongandtai chiwidely practiced,and", "practiced,and commercialgymsand private fitness clubs are gaining popularity.Basketball is the most popular spectator sport in China.TheChinese Basketball Associationand the AmericanNational Basketball Associationalso have a huge national following amongst the Chinese populace, with native-born and NBA-bound Chinese players and well-known national household names such asYao MingandYi Jianlianbeing held in high esteem.China's professional football league, known asChinese Super League, is the largest football market in East Asia.Other popular sports includemartial arts,table tennis,badminton,swimmingandsnooker. China is home to a huge number ofcyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012.China has the world's largestesportsmarket.Many moretraditional sports, such asdragon boatracing,Mongolian-style wrestlingandhorse racingare also popular. China hasparticipated in the Olympic Gamessince 1932, although it has only participated as the PRCsince 1952. China hosted the2008 Summer Olympicsin Beijing,", "Olympicsin Beijing, where its athletes received 48 gold medals – thehighest number of any participating nation that year.China also won the most medals at the2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold.In 2011, Shenzhen hosted the2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the2013 East Asian Gamesin Tianjin and the2014 Summer Youth Olympicsin Nanjing, the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby cityZhangjiakoucollaboratively hosted the2022 Winter Olympics, making Beijing the first dual Olympic city by holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics. See also Notes References Sources This article incorporates text from afree contentwork. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken fromWorld Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO. Further reading External links Government General information Maps World portal 35°N103°E / 35°N 103°E /35; 103", "Japan Japanis anisland countryinEast Asia. It is located in thePacific Oceanoff the northeast coast of theAsian mainland, and is bordered on the west by theSea of Japanand extends from theSea of Okhotskin the north to theEast China Seain the south. TheJapanese archipelagoconsists of four major islands—Hokkaido,Honshu,Shikoku, andKyushu—andthousands of smaller islands, covering 377,975 square kilometres (145,937 sq mi). Japan has a population of nearly 124 million as of 2024, and is theeleventh-most populous country.Its capitalandlargest cityisTokyo; theGreater Tokyo Areais thelargest metropolitan areain the world, with more than 38 million inhabitants as of 2016. Japan is divided into 47administrative prefecturesandeight traditional regions. About three-quarters ofthe country's terrainis mountainous and heavily forested, concentratingits agricultureandhighly urbanized populationalong its easterncoastal plains. The country sits on the PacificRing of Fire, making its islands prone to", "islands prone to destructiveearthquakesandtsunamis. The first known habitation of the archipelago dates to theUpper Paleolithic, with the beginningJapanese Paleolithicdating toc.36,000 BC. Between the fourth and sixth centuries, its kingdoms were united underan emperorinNara, and laterHeian-kyō. From the 12th century, actual power was held by military dictators (shōgun) and feudal lords (daimyō), and enforced by warrior nobility (samurai). After rule by theKamakuraandAshikaga shogunatesanda century of warring states, Japan was unified in 1600 by theTokugawa shogunate, which implementedan isolationist foreign policy. In 1853,a United States fleetforced Japan toopen trade to the West, which led to theend of the shogunateand therestoration of imperial powerin 1868. In theMeiji period, theEmpire of Japanpursued rapidindustrializationandmodernization, as well asmilitarismandoverseas colonization. In 1937, Japaninvaded China, and in 1941attacked the United Statesand European colonial powers, enteringWorld War IIas", "War IIas anAxis power. After suffering defeat in thePacific Warandtwo atomic bombings, Japansurrenderedin 1945 andcame under Allied occupation. After the war, the country underwentrapid economic growth, althoughits economy has stagnated since 1990. Japan is aconstitutional monarchywith abicamerallegislature, theNational Diet. Agreat powerand the only Asian member of theG7, Japan has constitutionallyrenounced its right to declare war, but maintainsone of the world's strongest militaries. Ahighly developed countrywith one of the world'slargest economies, Japan is a global leader inscience and technologyand theautomotive,robotics, andelectronics industries. It has one of the world'shighest life expectancies, though it is undergoinga population decline.Japan's cultureis well known around the world, includingits art,cuisine,film,music, andpopular culture, which includes prominentcomics,animation, andvideo gameindustries. Etymology The name for Japan inJapaneseis written using thekanji日本and is", "thekanji日本and is pronouncedNihonorNippon.Before日本was adopted in the early 8th century, the country was known in China asWa(倭, changed in Japan around 757 to和) and in Japan by theendonymYamato.Nippon, the originalSino-Japanese readingof the characters, is favored for official uses, including onJapanese banknotesand postage stamps.Nihonis typically used in everyday speech and reflects shifts inJapanese phonologyduring theEdo period.The characters日本mean \"sun origin\",which is the source of the popular Westernepithet\"Land of the Rising Sun\". The name \"Japan\" is based onMinorWu Chinesepronunciations of日本and was introduced to European languages through early trade.In the 13th century,Marco Polorecorded theEarly MandarinChinese pronunciation of the characters日本國asCipangu.The oldMalayname for Japan,JapangorJapun, was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect and encountered byPortuguesetraders inSoutheast Asia, who brought the word to Europe in the early 16th century.The first version of the name in English", "the name in English appears in a book published in 1577, which spelled the name asGiapanin a translation of a 1565 Portuguese letter. History Prehistoric to classical history Modern humans arrived in Japan around 38,000 years ago (~36,000 BC), marking the beginning of theJapanese Paleolithic.This was followed from around 14,500 BC (the start of theJōmon period) by aMesolithictoNeolithicsemi-sedentaryhunter-gathererculture characterized bypit dwellingand rudimentary agriculture.Clay vesselsfrom the period are among the oldest surviving examples of pottery.TheJaponic-speakingYayoi peopleentered the archipelago from the Korean Peninsula,intermingling with theJōmon;theYayoi periodsaw the introduction of practices includingwet-rice farming,a newstyle of pottery,and metallurgy from China and Korea.According to legend,Emperor Jimmu(descendant ofAmaterasu) foundeda kingdomin central Japan in 660 BC, beginninga continuous imperial line. Japan first appears in written history in the ChineseBook of Han, completed in", "Han, completed in 111 AD.Buddhismwas introduced to Japan fromBaekje(a Korean kingdom) in 552, but the development ofJapanese Buddhismwas primarily influenced by China.Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class, including figures likePrince Shōtoku, and gained widespread acceptance beginning in theAsuka period(592–710). In 645, the government led byPrince Naka no ŌeandFujiwara no Kamataridevised and implemented the far-reachingTaika Reforms. The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideas andphilosophiesfromChina.It nationalized all land in Japan, to bedistributed equallyamong cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basis for a new system of taxation.The true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn about Chinese writing, politics, art, and religion.TheJinshin", "religion.TheJinshin Warof 672, a bloody conflict betweenPrince Ōamaand his nephewPrince Ōtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms.These reforms culminated with the promulgation of theTaihō Code, which consolidated existing statutes and established the structure of the central and subordinate local governments.These legal reforms created theritsuryōstate, a system of Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium. TheNara period(710–784) marked the emergence of a Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court inHeijō-kyō(modernNara). The period is characterized by the appearance of a nascentliterary culturewith the completion of theKojiki(712) andNihon Shoki(720), as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork andarchitecture.Asmallpox epidemic in 735–737is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.In 784,Emperor Kanmumoved the capital, settling onHeian-kyō(modern-dayKyoto) in 794.This marked the beginning of theHeian", "of theHeian period(794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged.Murasaki Shikibu'sThe Tale of Genjiand the lyrics of Japan's national anthem\"Kimigayo\"were written during this time. Feudal era Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, thesamurai.In 1185, following the defeat of theTaira clanby theMinamoto clanin theGenpei War, samuraiMinamoto no Yoritomoestablished amilitary governmentatKamakura.After Yoritomo's death, theHōjō clancame to power as regents for theshōgun.TheZenschool of Buddhism was introduced from China in theKamakura period(1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.TheKamakura shogunaterepelledMongol invasionsin 1274 and 1281 but was eventuallyoverthrownbyEmperor Go-Daigo.Go-Daigo was defeated byAshikaga Takaujiin 1336, beginning theMuromachi period(1336–1573).The succeedingAshikaga shogunatefailed to control the feudal warlords (daimyō) and acivil war began in 1467, opening the", "1467, opening the century-longSengoku period(\"Warring States\"). During the 16th century, Portuguese traders andJesuitmissionaries reached Japan for the first time, initiating directcommercialandculturalexchange between Japan and the West.Oda Nobunagaused European technology and firearms to conquer many otherdaimyō;his consolidation of power began what was known as theAzuchi–Momoyama period.Afterthe death of Nobunagain 1582, his successor,Toyotomi Hideyoshi, unified the nation in the early 1590s and launchedtwo unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597. Tokugawa Ieyasuserved asregentfor Hideyoshi's sonToyotomi Hideyoriand used his position to gain political and military support.When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in theBattle of Sekigaharain 1600. He was appointedshōgunbyEmperor Go-Yōzeiin 1603 and established theTokugawa shogunateatEdo(modern Tokyo).The shogunate enacted measures includingbuke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomousdaimyō,and in 1639 the", "in 1639 the isolationistsakoku(\"closed country\") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as theEdo period(1603–1868).Modern Japan's economic growth began in this period, resulting inroadsand water transportation routes, as well as financial instruments such asfutures contracts, banking and insurance of theOsaka rice brokers.The study of Western sciences (rangaku) continued through contact with the Dutch enclave inNagasaki.The Edo period gave rise tokokugaku(\"national studies\"), the study of Japan by the Japanese. Modern era TheUnited States Navysent CommodoreMatthew C. Perryto force the opening of Japan to the outside world. Arriving atUragawith four \"Black Ships\" in July 1853, thePerry Expeditionresulted in the March 1854Convention of Kanagawa.Subsequent similar treaties with other Western countries brought economic and political crises.The resignation of theshōgunled to theBoshin Warand the establishment of acentralized statenominally unified under the emperor", "under the emperor (theMeiji Restoration).Adopting Western political, judicial, and military institutions, theCabinetorganized thePrivy Council, introduced theMeiji Constitution(November 29, 1890), and assembled theImperial Diet.During theMeiji period(1868–1912), theEmpire of Japanemerged as the most developed state inAsiaand as an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence.After victories in theFirst Sino-Japanese War(1894–1895) and theRusso-Japanese War(1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea and the southern half ofSakhalin,and annexed Korea in 1910.The Japanese population doubled from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million by 1935, with a significant shift to urbanization. The early 20th century saw a period ofTaishō democracy(1912–1926) overshadowed by increasingexpansionismandmilitarization.World War Iallowed Japan, which joined the side of the victoriousAllies, to captureGerman possessionsin thePacificand China in1920.The 1920s saw a political shift", "a political shift towardsstatism, a period of lawlessness following the 1923Great Tokyo Earthquake, the passing oflaws against political dissent, and a series ofattempted coups.This process accelerated during the 1930s, spawning several radical nationalist groups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a dedication to expansion in Asia.In 1931, Japaninvaded China and occupied Manchuria, which led to the establishment ofpuppet stateofManchukuoin 1932; followinginternational condemnation of the occupation, it resigned from theLeague of Nationsin 1933.In 1936, Japan signed theAnti-Comintern PactwithNazi Germany; the 1940Tripartite Pactmade it one of theAxis powers. The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating theSecond Sino-Japanese War(1937–1945).In 1940, the Empireinvaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out surpriseattacks on Pearl Harbor, as well as on British forces", "on British forces inMalaya,Singapore, andHong Kong, among others, beginningWorld War II in the Pacific.Throughout areas occupied by Japan during the war, numerous abuses were committed against local inhabitants, with many forced intosexual slavery.AfterAlliedvictories during the next four years, which culminated in theSoviet invasion of Manchuriaand theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasakiin 1945, Japan agreed toan unconditional surrender.The war cost Japan millions of lives andits colonies, includingde jureparts of Japan such asKorea,Taiwan,Karafuto, and theKurils.The Allies (led by the United States) repatriated millions ofJapanese settlersfrom their former colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating theJapanese Empireand its influence over the territories it conquered.The Allies convened theInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastto prosecute Japanese leaders except the Emperorforwar crimes. In 1947, Japan adopteda new constitutionemphasizing liberal democratic", "liberal democratic practices.TheAllied occupationended with theTreaty of San Franciscoin 1952,and Japan was granted membership in theUnited Nationsin 1956.A period of record growthpropelled Japan to become thesecond-largest economyin the world;this ended in the mid-1990s after the popping ofan asset price bubble, beginning the \"Lost Decade\".In 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history - theTōhoku earthquake- triggering theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.On May 1, 2019, after the historicabdication of Emperor Akihito, his sonNaruhitobecame Emperor, beginning theReiwaera. Geography Japan comprises14,125 islandsextending along the Pacific coast of Asia.It stretches over 3000 km (1900 mi) northeast–southwest from theSea of Okhotskto theEast China Sea.The country's five main islands, from north to south, areHokkaido,Honshu,Shikoku,KyushuandOkinawa.TheRyukyu Islands, which include Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyushu. TheNanpō Islandsare south and east of the main", "east of the main islands of Japan. Together they are often known as theJapanese archipelago.As of 2019, Japan's territory is 377,975.24 km2(145,937.06 sq mi).Japan has thesixth-longest coastlinein the world at 29,751 km (18,486 mi). Because of its far-flung outlying islands,Japan's exclusive economic zoneis theeighth-largestin the world, covering 4,470,000 km2(1,730,000 sq mi). The Japanese archipelago is 67%forestsand 14%agricultural.The primarily rugged and mountainous terrain is restricted for habitation.Thus the habitable zones, mainly in the coastal areas, have very high population densities: Japan is the 40thmost densely populated countryeven without considering that local concentration.Honshu has the highest population density at 450 persons/km2(1200/sq mi) as of 2010, while Hokkaido has the lowest density of 64.5 persons/km2as of 2016.As of 2014, approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area isreclaimed land(umetatechi).Lake Biwais anancient lakeand the country's largest freshwater lake. Japan is", "lake. Japan is substantially prone toearthquakes,tsunamiandvolcanic eruptionsbecause of its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire.It has the17th highest natural disaster riskas measured in the 2016 World Risk Index.Japan has 111 active volcanoes.Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century;the1923 Tokyo earthquakekilled over 140,000 people.More recent major quakes are the 1995Great Hanshin earthquakeand the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, which triggered a large tsunami. Climate The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. The northernmost region, Hokkaido, has ahumid continental climatewith long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers.Precipitationis not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter. In theSea of Japanregion on Honshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall during winter. In the summer, the region sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of", "because of theFoehn.TheCentral Highlandhas a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter. The mountains of theChūgokuand Shikoku regions shelter theSeto Inland Seafrom seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round. The Pacific coast features ahumid subtropicalclimate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands have asubtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.The mainrainy seasonbegins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north. In late summer and early autumn,typhoonsoften bring heavy rain.According to the Environment Ministry, heavy rainfall and increasing temperatures have caused problems in the agricultural industry and elsewhere.The highest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.1 °C (106.0 °F), was recorded on July 23, 2018,and repeated on", "repeated on August 17, 2020. Biodiversity Japan has nine forestecoregionswhich reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range fromsubtropical moist broadleaf forestsin the Ryūkyū andBonin Islands, totemperate broadleaf and mixed forestsin the mild climate regions of the main islands, totemperate coniferous forestsin the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife as of 2019,including thebrown bear, theJapanese macaque, theJapanese raccoon dog, thesmall Japanese field mouse, and theJapanese giant salamander.There are 53Ramsar wetland sitesin Japan.Five siteshave been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value. Environment In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result,environmental pollutionwas widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concerns, the government introduced environmental", "environmental protection laws in 1970.Theoil crisis in 1973also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan's lack of natural resources. Japan ranks 20th in the 2018Environmental Performance Index, which measures a country's commitment to environmental sustainability.Japan is the world'sfifth-largest emitterofcarbon dioxide.As the host and signatory of the 1997Kyoto Protocol, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.In 2020, the government of Japan announced a target ofcarbon-neutralityby 2050.Environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspendedparticulate matter, andtoxics),waste management, watereutrophication,nature conservation,climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation. Government and politics Japan is aunitary stateandconstitutional monarchyin which the power of theEmperoris limited to aceremonial role.Executive power is instead wielded by thePrime Minister of", "Minister of Japanand hisCabinet, whose sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.Naruhitois the Emperor of Japan, having succeeded his fatherAkihitoupon his accession to theChrysanthemum Thronein 2019. Japan's legislative organ is theNational Diet, abicameralparliament.It consists of a lowerHouse of Representativeswith 465 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and an upperHouse of Councillorswith 245 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms.There isuniversal suffragefor adults over 18 years of age,with asecret ballotfor all elected offices.The prime minister as thehead of governmenthas the power to appoint and dismissMinisters of State, and isappointedby the emperor after being designated from among the members of the Diet.Shigeru Ishibais Japan's prime minister; he took office after winning the2024 Liberal Democratic Party leadership election.The broadly conservativeLiberal Democratic Partyhas been thedominant partyin the country since the 1950s, often", "the 1950s, often called the1955 System. Historically influenced byChinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such asKujikata Osadamegaki.Since the late 19th century,the judicial systemhas been largely based on thecivil lawof Europe, notably Germany. In 1896, Japan established acivil codebased on the GermanBürgerliches Gesetzbuch, which remains in effect with post–World War II modifications.TheConstitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the world.Statutory law originates in the legislature, and the constitution requires that the emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet without giving him the power to oppose legislation. The main body of Japanese statutory law is called theSix Codes.Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: theSupreme Courtand three levels of lower courts. Administrative divisions Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, each overseen by an electedgovernorand legislature.In the", "legislature.In the following table, the prefectures are grouped byregion: 7.Fukushima 14.Kanagawa 23.Aichi 30.Wakayama 35.Yamaguchi 39.Kōchi 47.Okinawa Foreign relations A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan is one of theG4 countriesseeking reform of theSecurity Council.Japan is a member of theG7,APEC, and \"ASEAN Plus Three\", and is a participant in theEast Asia Summit.It is the world's fifth-largest donor ofofficial development assistance, donating US$9.2 billion in 2014.In 2024, Japan had the fourth-largest diplomatic network in the world. Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States, with which it maintains asecurity alliance.The United States is a major market for Japanese exports and a major source of Japanese imports, and is committed to defending the country, with military bases in Japan.In 2016, Japan announced the Free and Open Indo-Pacific vision, which frames its regional policies.Japan is also a member of theQuadrilateral Security Dialogue(\"the Quad\"), a", "Quad\"), a multilateral security dialogue reformed in 2017 aiming to limit Chinese influence in theIndo-Pacificregion, along with the United States, Australia, and India. Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors. Japan contests Russia's control of theSouthern Kuril Islands, which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945.South Korea's control of theLiancourt Rocksis acknowledged but not accepted as they are claimed by Japan.Japan has strained relations with China and Taiwan over theSenkaku Islandsand the status ofOkinotorishima. Military Japan is the third highest-ranked Asian country in the 2024Global Peace Index.It spent 1.1% of its total GDP onits defence budgetin 2022,and maintained thetenth-largest military budgetin the world in 2022.The country's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted byArticle 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes.The military is governed by theMinistry of", "by theMinistry of Defense, and primarily consists of theJapan Ground Self-Defense Force, theJapan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and theJapan Air Self-Defense Force. Thedeployment of troops to Iraqand Afghanistan marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II. TheGovernment of Japanhas been making changes to its security policy which include the establishment of theNational Security Council, the adoption of the National Security Strategy, and the development of the National Defense Program Guidelines.In May 2014, Prime MinisterShinzo Abesaid Japan wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility for regional security.In December 2022, Prime MinisterFumio Kishidafurther confirmed this trend, instructing the government to increase spending by 65% until 2027.Recent tensions, particularly with North Korea and China, have reignited the debate over the status of the JSDF and its relation to Japanese society. Law enforcement Domestic", "Domestic security in Japan is provided mainly by theprefectural police departments, under the oversight of theNational Police Agency.As the central coordinating body for the Prefectural Police Departments, the National Police Agency is administered by theNational Public Safety Commission.TheSpecial Assault Teamcomprises national-levelcounter-terrorismtactical units that cooperate with territorial-levelAnti-Firearms Squads and Counter-NBC Terrorism Squads.TheJapan Coast Guardguards territorial waters surrounding Japan and uses surveillance and control countermeasures against smuggling, marineenvironmental crime, poaching, piracy, spy ships, unauthorized foreign fishing vessels, and illegal immigration. TheFirearm and Sword Possession Control Lawstrictly regulates the civilian ownership of guns, swords, and other weaponry.According to theUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, among the member states of the UN that report statistics as of 2018, the incidence rates of violent crimes such as murder, abduction,", "murder, abduction, sexual violence, and robbery are very low in Japan. Human rights Japan has faced criticism fornot allowing same-sex marriages, despite a majority of Japanese people supporting marriage equality.It is the least developed out of theG7countries in terms of LGBT equality.Japan legally prohibits racial and religious discrimination underits constitution.Japan is also a signatory to theInternational Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,while facing criticism forracial profilingby police.Japan is among the few developed countries which legally retain and activelyallow capital punishment. Economy Japan has the world'sfourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, after that of the United States, China and Germany; and thefourth-largest economybyPPP.As of 2021,Japan's labor forceis the world'seighth-largest, consisting of over 68.6 million workers.As of 2022, Japan has alow unemployment rateof around 2.6%.Its poverty rateis the second highest among the G7 countries,and exceeds", "exceeds 15.7% of the population.Japan has the highest ratio of public debt to GDP among advanced economies,witha national debtestimated at 248% relative to GDP as of 2022.TheJapanese yenis the world's third-largestreserve currencyafter the US dollar and the euro. Japan was the world'sfifth-largest exporterandfourth-largest importerin 2022.Its exports amounted to 18.2% of its total GDP in 2021.As of 2022,Japan's main export marketswere China (23.9 percent, including Hong Kong) and the United States (18.5 percent).Its main exportsare motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors, and auto parts.Japan's main import markets as of 2022were China (21.1 percent), the United States (9.9 percent), and Australia (9.8 percent).Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, and raw materials for its industries. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features:keiretsuenterprises are influential, andlifetime employmentand seniority-based career advancement", "career advancement are common in theJapanese work environment.Japan has a largecooperativesector, with three of the world's ten largest cooperatives, including the largestconsumer cooperativeand the largestagricultural cooperativeas of 2018.Itranks highlyforcompetitivenessandeconomic freedom. Japan ranked sixth in theGlobal Competitiveness Reportin 2019.It attracted 31.9 million international tourists in 2019,and wasranked eleventhin the world in 2019 for inbound tourism.The 2021Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Reportranked Japan first in the world out of 117 countries.Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $46.1 billion. Agriculture and fishery The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.2% of the country's total GDP as of 2018.Only 11.5% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation.Because of this lack of arable land, a system ofterracesis used to farm in small areas.This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an agricultural", "an agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% as of 2018.Japan's small agricultural sector is highly subsidized andprotected.There has been a growing concern about farming as farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors. Japan ranked seventh in the world intonnage of fish caughtand captured 3,167,610 metric tons of fish in 2016, down from an annual average of 4,000,000 tons over the previous decade.Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch,prompting critiques that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such astuna.Japan has sparked controversy by supporting commercialwhaling. Industry and services Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the \"largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles,machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships,chemical substances, textiles, andprocessed foods\".Japan's industrial sector makes up approximately 27.5% of its GDP.The country's", "GDP.The country's manufacturing output is thefourth highestin the world as of 2023. Japan is in the top three globally for both automobile productionand export,and is home toToyota, the world'slargest automobile companyby vehicle production. The Japanese shipbuilding industry faces increasing competition from its East Asian neighbors, South Korea and China; a 2020 government initiative identified this sector as a target for increasing exports. Japan's service sector accounts for about 69.5% of its total economic output as of 2021.Banking, retail,transportation, andtelecommunicationsare all major industries, with companies such as Toyota,Mitsubishi UFJ, -NTT,Aeon,SoftBank,Hitachi, andItochulisted as among the largest in the world. Science and technology Relative to gross domestic product, Japan'sresearch and developmentbudget is thesecond highestin the world,with 867,000 researchers sharing a 19-trillion-yen research and development budget as of 2017.The country has produced twenty-twoNobel laureatesin either", "laureatesin either physics, chemistry or medicine,and threeFields medalists. Japan leads the world inroboticsproduction and use, supplying 45% of the world's 2020 total;down from 55% in 2017.Japan has the second highest number of researchers in science and technology per capita in the world with 14 per 1000 employees. Once considered the strongest in the world, theJapanese consumer electronics industryis in a state of decline as regional competition arises in neighboring East Asian countries such as South Korea and China.However,Japan's video game sectorremains a major industry. In 2014, Japan's consumer video game market grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobile gaming.By 2015, Japan had become the world'sfourth-largestPC gamemarket by revenue, behind onlyChina, theUnited States, andSouth Korea. TheJapan Aerospace Exploration Agencyis Japan's nationalspace agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites.It is a participant in", "is a participant in theInternational Space Station: theJapanese Experiment Module(Kibō) was added to the station duringSpace Shuttleassembly flights in 2008.Thespace probeAkatsukiwas launched in 2010 and achieved orbit around Venus in 2015.Japan's plans inspace explorationinclude building aMoon baseand landing astronauts by 2030.In 2007, it launched lunar explorerSELENE(Selenological and Engineering Explorer) fromTanegashima Space Center. The largest lunar mission since theApollo program, its purpose was to gather data on theMoon's origin and evolution. The explorer entered a lunar orbit on October 4, 2007,and was deliberately crashed into the Moon on June 11, 2009. Infrastructure Transportation Japan has invested heavily in transportation infrastructure since the 1990s.The country has approximately 1,200,000 kilometers (750,000 miles) of roads made up of 1,000,000 kilometers (620,000 miles) of city, town and village roads, 130,000 kilometers (81,000 miles) of prefectural roads, 54,736 kilometers (34,011", "kilometers (34,011 miles) of general national highways and 7641 kilometers (4748 miles) ofnational expresswaysas of 2017. Since privatization in 1987,dozens of Japanese railway companiescompete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include sevenJRenterprises,Kintetsu,Seibu RailwayandKeio Corporation. The high-speedShinkansen(bullet trains) that connect major cities are known for their safety and punctuality. There are175 airports in Japanas of 2021.The largest domestic airport,Haneda Airportin Tokyo, was Asia'ssecond-busiest airportin 2019.The Keihin and Hanshin superport hubs are among the largest in the world, at 7.98 and 5.22 millionTEUrespectively as of 2017. Energy As of 2019, 37.1% of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 25.1% from coal, 22.4% from natural gas, 3.5% fromhydropowerand 2.8% fromnuclear power, among other sources. Nuclear power was down from 11.2 percent in 2010.By May 2012 all ofthe country's nuclear power plantshad been taken offline because of", "offline because of ongoing public opposition following theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disasterin March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some to service.TheSendai Nuclear Power Plantrestarted in 2015,and since then several other nuclear power plants have been restarted.Japan lacks significant domestic reserves and has a heavy dependence onimported energy.The country has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency. Water supply and sanitation Responsibility for the water and sanitation sector is shared between theMinistry of Health, Labour and Welfare, in charge of water supply for domestic use; theMinistry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, in charge of water resources development as well as sanitation; theMinistry of the Environment, in charge of ambient water quality and environmental preservation; and theMinistry of Internal Affairs and Communications, in charge of performance", "of performance benchmarking of utilities.Access to animproved water sourceis universal in Japan. About 98% of the population receives piped water supply from public utilities. Demographics Japan has a population of almost 125 million, of whom nearly 122 million are Japanese nationals (2022 estimates).A small population of foreign residents makes up the remainder.Japan is the world'sfastest aging countryand has the highest proportion ofelderly citizensof any country, comprising one-third of its total population;this is the result of apost–World War II baby boom, which was followed by an increase in life expectancy and a decrease inbirth rates.Japan has atotal fertility rateof 1.4, which is below thereplacement rateof 2.1, and is among the world'slowest;it has amedian ageof 48.4, thehighestin the world.As of 2020, over 28.7 percent of the population is over 65, or more than one in four out of the Japanese population.As a growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remaining childless,Japan's", "childless,Japan's population is expected to drop to around 88 million by 2065. The changes in demographic structure have created several social issues, particularly a decline in the workforce population and an increase in the cost of social security benefits.The Government of Japan projects that there will be almost one elderly person for each person of working age by 2060.Immigrationand birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.On April 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted, protecting the rights of foreign workers to help reduce labor shortages in certain sectors. In 2022, 92% of the total Japanese population lived in cities.The capital city, Tokyo, has a population of 13.9 million (2022).It is part of theGreater Tokyo Area, the biggestmetropolitan areain the world with 38,140,000 people (2016).Japan is an ethnically and culturallyhomogeneous society,with theJapanese peopleforming 97.4% of the country's", "of the country's population.Minority ethnic groups in the country include the indigenousAinuandRyukyuan people.Zainichi Koreans,Chinese,Filipinos,Brazilians mostlyof Japanese descent,and Peruvians mostlyof Japanese descentare also among Japan's small minority groups.Burakuminmake up a social minority group. Languages TheJapanese languageis Japan'sde factonational language and the primary written and spoken language of most people in the country.Japanese writinguseskanji(Chinese characters) and two sets ofkana(syllabariesbased oncursive scriptandradicalsused by kanji), as well as theLatin alphabetandArabic numerals.English has taken a major role in Japan as a business and international link language. As a result, the prevalence of English in the educational system has increased, with English classes becoming mandatory at all levels of the Japanese school system by 2020.Japanese Sign Languageis the primarysign languageused in Japan and has gained some official recognition, but its usage has been historically", "been historically hindered by discriminatory policies and a lack of educational support. Besides Japanese, theRyukyuan languages(Amami,Kunigami,Okinawan,Miyako,Yaeyama,Yonaguni), part of theJaponic language family, are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain.Few children learn these languages,but local governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional languages.TheAinu language, which is alanguage isolate, ismoribund, with only a few native speakers remaining as of 2014.Additionally, a number of other languages are taught and used by ethnic minorities, immigrant communities, and a growing number of foreign-language students, such asKorean(including a distinctZainichi Korean dialect),ChineseandPortuguese. Religion Japan's constitution guarantees full religious freedom.Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe toShintoas its indigenous religion.However, these estimates are based on peopleaffiliatedwith a temple, rather than the number of true believers. Many", "believers. Many Japanese people practice both Shinto andBuddhism; they can identify with both religions or describe themselves as non-religious or spiritual.The level of participation in religious ceremonies as a cultural tradition remains high, especially duringfestivalsand occasions such as thefirst shrine visitof theNew Year.TaoismandConfucianismfrom China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs. Today, 1%to 1.5% of the population areChristians.Throughout the latest century, Western customs originally related to Christianity (includingWestern style weddings,Valentine's DayandChristmas) have become popular as secular customs among many Japanese. About 90% of those practicingIslam in Japanare foreign-born migrants as of 2016.As of 2018there were an estimated 105mosquesand 200,000 Muslims in Japan, 43,000 of which were Japanese nationals.Other minority religions includeHinduism,Judaism, andBaháʼí Faith, as well as theanimistbeliefs of the Ainu. Education Since the 1947Fundamental Law of Education,", "Law of Education, compulsory education in Japan compriseselementaryandjunior high school, which together last for nine years.Almost all children continue their education at a three-yearsenior high school.The top-ranking university in the country is theUniversity of Tokyo.Starting in April 2016, various schools began the academic year with elementary school and junior high school integrated into one nine-year compulsory schooling program;MEXTplans for this approach to be adopted nationwide. TheProgramme for International Student Assessment(PISA) coordinated by the OECD ranks the knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the third best in the world.Japan is one of the top-performingOECDcountries in reading literacy, math, and sciences with the average student scoring 520 and has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries.It spent 7.4% of its total GDP on education as of 2021.In 2021, the country ranked third for the percentage of 25 to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary", "attained tertiary education with 55.6%.Approximately 65% of Japanese aged 25 to 34 have some form of tertiary education qualification, with bachelor's degrees being held by 34.2% of Japanese aged 25 to 64, the second most in the OECD afterSouth Korea.Japanese women are more highly educated than the men: 59 percent of women possess a university degree, compared to 52 percent of men. Health Health care in Japan is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments.Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Japan spent 10.82% of its total GDP on healthcare in 2021.In 2020, the overall life expectancy in Japan at birth was 85 years (82 years for men and 88 years for", "and 88 years for women),thehighestin the world;while it had a very lowinfant mortality rate(2 per 1,000live births).Since 1981, the principal cause of death in Japan iscancer, which accounted for 27% of the total deaths in 2018—followed bycardiovascular diseases, which led to 15% of the deaths.Japan has one of the world'shighest suicide rates, which is considered a major social issue.Another significant public health issue issmoking among Japanese men.However, Japan has the lowest rate of heart disease in the OECD, and the lowest level ofdementiaamong developed countries. Culture Contemporary Japanese culture combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America.Traditional Japanese arts includecraftssuch asceramics,textiles,lacquerware,swordsanddolls; performances ofbunraku,kabuki,noh,dance, andrakugo; and other practices, thetea ceremony,ikebana,martial arts,calligraphy,origami,onsen,Geishaandgames. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangibleCultural", "intangibleCultural PropertiesandNational Treasures.Twenty-two siteshave been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are of cultural significance.Japan is considered acultural superpower. Art and architecture The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese esthetics and imported ideas.The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for exampleukiyo-eprints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known asJaponism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably onpost-Impressionism. Japanese architecture is a combination of local and other influences. It has traditionally been typified by wooden or mud plaster structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs.Traditional housingand manytemple buildingssee the use oftatamimats andsliding doorsthat break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space.Since the 19th", "the 19th century, Japan has incorporated much of Westernmodern architectureinto construction and design.It was not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly with the work of architects likeKenzō Tangeand then with movements likeMetabolism. Literature and philosophy The earliest works of Japanese literature include theKojikiandNihon Shokichronicles and theMan'yōshūpoetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.In the early Heian period, the system ofphonogramsknown askana(hiraganaandkatakana) was developed.The Tale of the Bamboo Cutteris considered the oldest extant Japanese narrative.An account of court life is given inThe Pillow BookbySei Shōnagon, whileThe Tale of GenjibyMurasaki Shikibuis often described as the world's first novel. During the Edo period, thechōnin(\"townspeople\") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of the works ofSaikaku, for example, reveals", "example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, whileBashōrevivified the poetic tradition of theKokinshūwith hishaikai(haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogueOku no Hosomichi.The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences.Natsume SōsekiandMori Ōgaiwere significant novelists in the early 20th century, followed byRyūnosuke Akutagawa,Jun'ichirō Tanizaki,Kafū Nagaiand, more recently,Haruki MurakamiandKenji Nakagami. Japan has twoNobel Prize-winningauthors –Yasunari Kawabata(1968) andKenzaburō Ōe(1994). Japanese philosophy has historically been afusionof both foreign, particularlyChineseandWestern, and uniquely Japanese elements. In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries ago. Confucian ideals remain evident in theJapanese concept of societyand the self, and in the organization of the government and the structure of society.Buddhism has profoundly impacted Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and esthetics.", "and esthetics. Performing arts Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Manyinstruments, such as thekoto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The popularfolk music, with the guitar-likeshamisen, dates from the 16th century.Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, forms an integral part of Japanese culture.Kumi-daiko(ensemble drumming) was developed in postwar Japan and became very popular in North America.Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution ofJ-pop.Karaokeis a significant cultural activity. The four traditional theaters from Japan arenoh,kyōgen,kabuki, andbunraku.Noh is one of the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world. Media According to the 2015 NHK survey on television viewing in Japan, 79 percent of Japanese watch television daily.Japanese television dramasare viewed both within Japan and internationally.Many Japanesemedia franchiseshave gained considerable global popularity", "global popularity and are among the world'shighest-grossing media franchises.Japanese newspapersare among the most circulated in the world as of 2016. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries globally.Ishirō Honda'sGodzillabecame an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre ofkaijufilms, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history.Japanese comics, known as manga, developed in the mid-20th century and have become popularworldwide.A large number ofmanga serieshave become some of thebest-selling comics seriesof all time, rivalling theAmerican comics industry.Japanese animated films and television series, known as anime, were largely influenced by Japanese manga and have become highly popular globally. Holidays Officially, Japan has 16 national, government-recognized holidays. Public holidays in Japan are regulated by the Public Holiday Law(国民の祝日に関する法律,Kokumin no Shukujitsu ni Kansuru Hōritsu)of 1948.Beginning in 2000, Japan implemented theHappy Monday System, which", "System, which moved a number of national holidays to Monday in order to obtain a long weekend.The national holidays in Japan areNew Year's Dayon January 1,Coming of Age Dayon the second Monday of January,National Foundation Dayon February 11,The Emperor's Birthdayon February 23,Vernal Equinox Dayon March 20 or 21,Shōwa Dayon April 29,Constitution Memorial Dayon May 3,Greenery Dayon May 4,Children's Dayon May 5,Marine Dayon the third Monday of July,Mountain Dayon August 11,Respect for the Aged Dayon the third Monday of September,Autumnal Equinoxon September 23 or 24,Health and Sports Dayon the second Monday of October,Culture Dayon November 3, andLabor Thanksgiving Dayon November 23. Cuisine Japanese cuisine offers a vast array ofregional specialtiesthat use traditional recipes and local ingredients.Seafood andJapanese riceornoodlesare traditional staples.Japanese curry, since its introduction to Japan fromBritish India, is so widely consumed that it can be termed anational dish,", "anational dish, alongsideramenandsushi.Traditional Japanese sweets are known aswagashi.Ingredients such asred bean pasteandmochiare used. More modern-day tastes includegreen tea ice cream. Popular Japanese beverages includesake, a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 14–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice.Beer has been brewed in Japan since the late 17th century.Green teais produced in Japan and prepared in forms such asmatcha, used in theJapanese tea ceremony. Sports Traditionally,sumois considered Japan's national sport.Japanese martial arts such asjudoandkendoare taught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum.Baseballis the most popular sport in the country.Japan's top professional league,Nippon Professional Baseball(NPB), was established in 1936.Since the establishment of theJapan Professional Football League(J.League) in 1992, association football gained a wide following.The country co-hosted the2002 FIFA World Cupwith South Korea.Japan has one of the most", "has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning theAsian Cupfour times,and theFIFA Women's World Cupin 2011.Golf is also popular in Japan. Inmotorsport, Japanese automotive manufacturers have been successful in multiple different categories, with titles and victories in series such asFormula One,MotoGP, and theWorld Rally Championship.Drivers from Japan have victories at theIndianapolis 500and the24 Hours of Le Mansas well as podium finishes in Formula One, in addition to success in domestic championships.Super GTis the most popular national racing series in Japan, whileSuper Formulais the top-level domestic open-wheel series.The country hosts major races such as theJapanese Grand Prix. Japan hosted the Summer Olympics inTokyo in 1964and the Winter Olympics inSapporo in 1972andNagano in 1998.The country hosted the official2006 Basketball World Championshipand co-hosted the2023 Basketball World Championship.Tokyo hosted the2020 Summer Olympicsin 2021, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host", "Asian city to host the Olympics twice.The country gained the hosting rights for the officialWomen's Volleyball World Championshipon five occasions, more than any other country.Japan is the most successful AsianRugby Unioncountryand hosted the 2019 IRBRugby World Cup. See also Notes References External links Government General information 36°N138°E / 36°N 138°E /36; 138" ]
What number would Tommy Lawton have worn playing for Chelsea FC?
9
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Lawton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squad_number_(association_football)
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Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Lawton', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squad_number_(association_football)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Lawton", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squad_number_(association_football" ]
[ "Tommy Lawton Thomas Lawton(6 October 1919 – 6 November 1996) was an Englishfootballplayer and manager. Born inFarnworthand raised inBolton, he played amateur football atRossendale United, before he turned professional atBurnleyon his 17th birthday. He also playedcricketforBurnley Cricket Clubbefore his potential as a footballer won him a £6,500 move toEvertonin January 1937. He went on to finish as theFirst Division's top-scorer in1938and1939, helping Everton to finish aschampionsof the Football League in the latter campaign. League football was then suspended for seven full seasons due to the outbreak of war in Europe, during which time he scored 24 goals in 23 appearances for England whilst guesting for Everton and some other clubs. In November 1945, he moved toChelseafor £14,000 and scored a club-record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946–47 season. In November 1947, he made a surprise move toThird Division SouthclubNotts Countyfor aBritish record transfer feeof £20,000. He helped the club to win promotion as champions in 1949–50 before he moved on toBrentfordin March 1952 for a club record £16,000. In January 1953, Brentford appointed him player-manager, though he would only remain in charge for nine months. He joinedArsenalas a player in November 1953 for £10,000, where he saw out the remainder of his playing career. Despite losing much of his best years toWorld War II, he scored 260 goals in 433 league and cup competitions in 14 full seasons in theFootball League. He had a promising start to his managerial career by leadingKettering Townto theSouthern Leaguetitle in 1956–57, but then only had two more seasons as manager, getting relegated with Notts County in 1957–58 and then relegated with Kettering Town in 1963–64. During the 1970s, he struggled withdebtand related legal problems, which were reported in the media as an example of a celebrated person falling from grace. He scored 22 goals in his 23Englandappearances over a ten-year international career from 1938 to 1948, including four againstPortugalin May 1947. He helped England to win twoBritish Home Championshiptitles outright (1946–47 and 1947–48) and to share the Championship in 1938–39. He fell out of international contention at the age of 28 due to his contempt for managerWalter Winterbottom, his decision to drop out of the First Division, and the emergence ofJackie MilburnandNat Lofthouse. In addition to his England caps, he also representedThe Football League XIand played in a specialGreat Britaingame against Europe in 1947. He married twice and had two children and one step-child. His ashes are held in theNational Football Museum, and he was inducted into theEnglish Football Hall of Famein 2003. Early life Thomas Lawton was born on 6 October 1919 to Elizabeth Riley and Thomas Lawton Senior inFarnworth, Lancashire.His father was a railway signalman, and his mother worked as a weaver at Harrowby Mill.His father left the family 18 months after Lawton was born, and Elizabeth moved back into her parents' home inBolton.Elizabeth's father, James Hugh \"Jim\" Riley, became Lawton's surrogate father.Lawton's natural footballing ability earned him a place on the Bolton Town Schools team in 1930.Lancashire Schools picked him at the age of 13.Despite scoring a hat-trick in a trial game for England Schoolboys, he never earned a full England Schoolboy cap.At the age of 14, he began playing for Hayes Athletic in the Bolton Senior League and went on to score 570 goals in three seasons. The FA's rules meant he was unable to turn professional at a club until he was 17, and Lawton's grandfather rejectedBolton Wanderers's offer for Lawton to work as a delivery driver for two years before turning professional at the club.Lawton instead played as an amateur forRossendale Unitedin theLancashire Combination, scoring a hat-trick on his debut againstBacup.He took up temporary work at atanneryand then joinedBurnleyas assistant groundsman after his mother rejected an offer fromSheffield Wednesdayas she objected to him travelling toSheffielddaily. Club career Burnley Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves againstManchester City Reservesin September 1935. Though he struggled in this game, he became a regular Reserve team player by age 16.After a poor run of form fromCecil Smith, Lawton was selected ahead of Smith for theSecond Divisiongame againstDoncaster RoversatTurf Mooron 28 March 1936; aged 16 years and 174 days, this made him the youngestcentre-forwardever to play in theFootball League.Rovers centre-halfSyd Bycroft, also making his league debut, marked Lawton out of the game, which ended in a 1–1 draw.Burnley had played poorly, though Lawton was praised for his \"keen and fearless\" performance by theExpress & Newsnewspaper.He retained his place for the following game, and scored two goals in a 3–1 victory overSwansea TownatVetch Field.He picked up a groin strain in his third appearance, which caused him to miss two fixtures before he returned to the first team for the final four games of the1935–36season; he claimed three more goals to take his season tally to five goals from seven games. Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936 and also playedcricketforBurnley Cricket Clubas a batsman in theLancashire League.He scored asixagainst bothLearie ConstantineandAmar Singh.He scored 369 runs in 15 completedinningsfor an average of 24.06. He turned professional at Burnley at 17 on wages of £7 a week.His grandfather attempted to negotiate a £500 signing-on fee on his behalf but was rebuffed after the club alertedCharles Sutcliffe, Secretary of the Football League, who informed them that any attempt to circumvent the league'smaximum wagewas illegal.Lawton scored in his first appearance since signing the contract after just 30 seconds before going on to record a hat-trick in a 3–1 win overTottenham Hotspur, scoring a goal with either foot and one with his head. Everton In January 1937,First DivisionclubEvertonpaid Burnley £6,500 to secure Lawton's services and also gave his grandfather a job as deputy groundsman atGoodison Park; the fee was a record for a player under 21.The move to Everton made him a teammate ofDixie Dean, his boyhood idol, who he was expected to gradually replace as first-choice centre-forward.He later recalled that on his way to Goodison Park on his first day as an Everton player, he was told by atramconductor that \"You're that young Lawton, aren't you? You'll never be as good as Dixie.\"Dean was finally rested on 13 February, which allowed Lawton to make his first team debut againstWolverhampton WanderersatMolineux; the match ended in a 6–2 defeat, though Lawton scored a penalty.He spent the rest of the season at inside-left, with Dean at centre-forward, and ended the1936–37campaign with four goals in 11 games.He started the1937–38season in the Reserves. He was installed as first choice centre-forward in September after Dean was dropped for punching club secretaryTheo Kelly.On 2 October, Lawton scored the winning penalty in a 2–1 victory overMerseyside derbyrivalsLiverpoolatAnfield.He ended the campaign with 28 goals in 39 appearances to become thedivision's top-scorer. Everton had a young but highly effective team for the1938–39campaign, and Lawton was praised for the way he led the attack, with theEvening Standard's Roland Allen describing Lawton as a \"clever footballer, bringing his wing men into the game with shrewd flicks and widely flung and accurate passes\" after Everton recorded a 2–1 victory overArsenalatHighbury.The game against Arsenal was part of a run of six wins in the first six games of the campaign, during which time Lawton scored eight goals.Everton lost their lead at the top of the table toDerby Countyover Christmas, but returned to form and to first position by Easter.They faced a difficult final run of games, but beatChelseaand recorded two victories overSunderlandto secure the club's fifth league title, finishing four points ahead of second-place Wolverhampton Wanderers.Lawton scored 35 goals in 38 league games to finish as the division's top-scorer for the second successive season.However, in the summer he wrote toLeicester Cityto request that the club buy him from Everton; it was reported that he reached out to Leicester as they were managed byTom Bromilow, his former Burnley manager.Everton were fifth in the league and Lawton was the division's top-scorer with four goals when league football was suspended three games into the1939–40season due to the outbreak ofWorld War II.Lawton later remarked that \"I'm convinced that if it hadn't been for the War, we'd have won the Championship again, the average age of those players was about 24 or 25\". World War II Lawton continued to play for both Everton and England during the war. However, the FA decided not to award full caps for England appearances during the war. As a result, his 24 goals in 23 international games were not counted in statistics for the official England team.As was common for footballers during the war, he also made guest appearances for several clubs besides Everton, including Leicester City,Greenock Morton,Chester City,Aldershot, andTranmere Rovers.He was called up to theBritish Armyin January 1940, and his status as an England international saw him recruited to theRoyal Army Physical Training Corps.He also played for the British Army team and his Area Command team.He was posted inBirkenhead, which allowed him to appear for Everton frequently. On Christmas Day 1940, he played for Everton against Liverpool at Anfield in the morning and Tranmere Rovers atCrewe Alexandrain the afternoon.Explaining this later, he said, 'The Tranmere people came into the dressing room and asked if anyone wanted to play as they were two men short. I said, \"Go on, I'll help you out.\" And I did.'In 1942, he scored a hat-trick for England in a 5–4 win over Scotland at Hampden Park.Later in the year, he scored six goals for Aldershot in a 9–0 win overLuton Town.On 16 October 1943, he scored four goals in an 8–0 victory over Scotland atMaine Road. Chelsea In July 1945, Lawton handed in a transfer request at Everton as he wanted a move to a Southern club to see more of his increasingly estranged wife.In November 1945, he was sold toChelseafor a fee of £14,000.Chelsea continued to play regional wartime fixtures as national league football had not resumed for the1945–46season, and Lawton also continued his uncapped appearances for the England national team.In the summer of 1946, following his demobilisation, he coached for the FA in a summer camp in Switzerland.He scored aclub record26 goals in 34 league games in the1946–47season.However, he struggled to settle atStamford Bridge. He came into conflict with managerBilly Birrellafter refusing to go on a pre-season tour ofSwedenin 1947, which resulted in him requesting a transfer.He favoured a move to Arsenal, but the Chelsea hierarchy ruled this out.Lawton turned down an approach by Sunderland managerBill Murrayas he held out hope that Chelsea would relent and allow him a move to Arsenal. Notts County In November 1947, Lawton was sold toNotts Countyof theThird Division Southfor aBritish record transfer feeof £20,000(equivalent to £988,400 in 2023).He made the surprise decision to drop down two divisions to be reunited with manager Arthur Stollery, his former masseur and friend at Chelsea, and because he was promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by vice-chairman Harold Walmsley.Walmsley told theNottingham Guardian Journalthat \"we are prepared to spend to the limit to put this old club back where it belongs\".He scored two goals on his home debut, a 4–2 win overBristol Roversin front of 38,000 spectators atMeadow Lane– a huge increase on previous home games of typically 6,000 to 7,000 supporters.He ended the1947–48season with 24 goals in as many games, though he was resented by the club's directors after he insisted on pay rises for his teammates and stopped the practice of director's friends and family travelling to away games on the team coach. He formed a productive forward partnership withJackie Sewellin the1948–49campaign and scored 23 goals in 40 league and cup appearances.County finished in mid-table despite scoring 102 goals, 15 more than champions Swansea.Stollery was sacked, and upon Lawton's suggestion, the club appointedEric Houghtonas manager after Lawton turned down the role as player-manager.Lawton and Sewell's understanding grew throughout the1949–50campaign, and Lawton finished as the division's top-scorer with 31 goals in 37 league games as County won promotion as champions, seven points ahead of second-placedNorthampton Town.Promotion was secured with a 2–0 win overlocal rivalsNottingham Forestat Meadow Lane on 22 April. However, he struggled with poor form during the1950–51season as his first marriage ended, and he came into increasing conflict with his teammates.He was angered when the club sold Jackie Sewell toSheffield Wednesdayin March 1951 – breaking Lawton's own transfer record in the process – as he felt the move showed a lack of ambition from the club's directors.He also found that the well-paid job he was promised outside of football did not transpire.His tally of nine goals in 31 games in 1950–51 and 13 goals in 31 games in1951–52was disappointing, and he was made available for transfer.He voluntarily relinquished the captaincy to teammateLeon Leutyin November 1951, expressing that he no longer wanted the responsibility. Brentford In March 1952, Lawton joined Second Division sideBrentfordfor aclub record£16,000 fee.ManagerJackie Gibbonsleft the club at the start of the1952–53season and was succeeded by his assistantJimmy Bain, who proved ill-suited to management, and so in January 1953 Lawton was appointed as player-manager, with Bain as his assistant.However he lost the dressing room due to his excessive demands of the players, and the strains of management were hurting his form.Brentford also lost their best players having sold bothRon GreenwoodandJimmy Hill.He signed two veterans in former Notts County teammateFrank BroomeandIan McPhersonto play on the wings, who, with Lawton, formed an attacking trio with a combined age of 104.They got off to a poor start to the1953–54season, and Lawton resigned as manager after theGriffin Parkcrowd began to mock the forward line by singingDear Old Pals. Arsenal In November 1953, Lawton was traded to First Division champions Arsenal for £7,500 plusJames Robertsonwho was valued at £2,500.He was signed by managerTom Whittaker, who had previously found success in bringing in veterans such asRonnie RookeandJoe Mercer.However Lawton was limited to ten appearances in the 1953–54 campaign after picking up an injury on his debut.He also played in the1953Charity Shield, scoring one goal as Arsenal beatBlackpool3–1.He scored seven goals in 20 appearances throughout the1954–55season, including winning goals against Chelsea andCardiff City.He scored a hat-trick past Cardiff City on the opening day of the1955–56season, before he announced his decision to leave Arsenal to pursue a career in management eight games into the campaign. \"More than 20 years of soccer. What glorious years. Years that all the money in the world couldn't buy. I have been lucky. I have played with great clubs; I have escaped serious injury; I have played for my country; I have even captained my country; I have won many of the game's top honours. Soccer has been good to me and I hope that I have repaid the game in some small way. I have had great experiences. I have met some wonderful people. I have memories that nobody can take away from me. If I could turn the clock back 20 years, I would still go into the game as a full-time professional and I can say to any lad who is contemplating a career in football: Go ahead son ... providing you are willing to work and work hard and providing you are willing to learn the craft thoroughly. You will meet some of the grandest fellows you could ever wish to meet and you will have a pleasant, healthy life and be quite well paid for it. International career Lawton was called up to play forThe Football League XIagainst aLeague of Ireland XIatWindsor Parkon 21 September 1938, and scored four goals in what finished as an 8–2 win.A month later he went on to win his first cap forEnglandon 22 October, England's first game of the1938–39 British Home Championship, a 4–2 defeat toWalesatNinian Park, and converted a penalty kick to mark his first England appearance with a goal.This made him the youngest player to score on his England debut, a record which lasted untilMarcus Rashfordbroke it in 2016.Four days after Lawton's debut, he scored again for England at Highbury in a 3–0 win over 'The Rest of Europe', a team of players selected from Italy, Germany, France, Belgium, Hungary and Norway.Later in the year he also scored in victories overNorwayandIreland.He played in all four games of 1939, scoring againstScotlandandItaly; the goal against Scotland secured a 2–1 win in front of 149,269 spectators atHampden Park. Newly appointed England managerWalter Winterbottomplayed Lawton in England's first official match in seven years on 28 September 1946, a 7–2 win over Ireland.He played the remaining three fixtures of 1946 and scored four goals in an 8–2 victory over theNetherlandsatLeeds Roadon 27 November.On 10 May 1947, he scored two goals playing for theGreat Britain XIin a 6–1 victory over a Rest of Europe XI that was billed as the 'Match of the Century'.Five days later he scored four goals in a 10–0 victory overPortugalatLisbon'sEstádio Nacional.On 21 September, he scored after just 12 seconds in a 5–2 win overBelgiumatHeysel Stadium. He retained his place in the England team following his club move to Notts County, and in doing so, became the first Third Division footballer to represent England when he scored from the penalty spot in a 4–2 win overSwedenon 19 November.However, he only won three further caps in 1948, his final appearance coming in a 0–0 draw withDenmarkinCopenhagenon 26 September.He had become increasingly disillusioned with the England set-up, and told Winterbottom that \"if you think you can teachStanley Matthewsto play on the wing and me how to score goals, you've got another think coming!\"Winterbottom was also frustrated by Lawton's smoking habit and preferredJackie Milburnahead of Lawton.Hopes of any future comeback were ended by the emergence of powerful centre-forwardNat Lofthouse, who made his England debut in November 1950. Style of play Lawton was widely regarded as the finestcentre-forwardof his generation.He boasted a strong physique and good ball control skills, as well as a great passing range and a powerful shot.He was naturally right-footed, though worked to improve his left foot to a good enough standard to be considered a two-footed player.His greatest strength though was his ability to head the ball with power and accuracy, as he possessed muscular legs to give himself a strong jump and long hang-time, and was also able to time his jumps to perfection.Stanley Matthews surmised that \"Quite simply, Tommy was the greatest header of the ball I ever saw.\"Lawton was never booked throughout his career. Coaching career and later life An Arsenal director helped Lawton to secure the position of player-manager atSouthern LeaguesideKettering Town. He took up the role at the club on wages of £1,500 a year in the summer of 1956.At the helm he thereafter signed several footballers such asJim Standenof Arsenal,Amos MossofAston Villa,Jack Wheelerwho played forHuddersfield Townand Brentford's Jack Goodwin. He was also successful in bringing to KetteringFulham'sBob Thomas,Harry McDonaldwho was previously withCrystal Palaceand Sunderland's Geoff Toseland.During his debut season as manager, 1956–1957, Kettering found themselves ten points clear at the top of the table by Christmas.As a result of this success, in January 1956, he turned down an approach from Notts County.Lawton then went on to foster Kettering towards their winning of the league title in1956–57by eight points. Out of Kettering's 106 league goals, Lawton scored 15. He was appointed Notts County manager in May 1957, controversially replacing caretaker-managerFrank Broome. Broome, who had steered the club away from being relegated from the Second Division, was installed as his assistant manager.He found it tedious making new signings due to financial constraints on the part of the club.He did though take on forwardsJeff AstleandTony Hateleyas apprentices, who would both go on to have long careers in the First Division.Lawton agreed to go without his wages for six months to improve the club's finances.County were, however, relegated at the end of the1957–58season, finishing one point short of safety, and Lawton was sacked.He received a total of just three months' pay for his time at the club, having only a verbal offer of a three-year contract to fall back on and nothing in writing. After being sacked as Notts County manager, Lawton ran theMagna Chartapublic houseinLowdhamfrom October 1958.An employee stole £2,500 from the business, and Lawton decided to leave the pub trade after four years.He then took up a job sellinginsurance.He returned to football management with Kettering Town for the1963–64season as a caretaker following the resignation ofWally Akers. The season ended with Kettering being relegated from the Southern League Premier Division.He was offered the job permanently, but turned it down to concentrate on his job as an insurance salesman.He lost his job in insurance in 1967 and then opened a sporting goods shop that bore his name after going into partnership with a friend, but was forced to close the business after just two months due to poor sales.After a period onunemployment benefitshe found work at a betting company inNottingham. He returned to Notts County as a coach and chief scout from 1968 to 1970.He was sacked after new managerJimmy Sirreldecided to appoint his own backroom staff, and Lawton returned to unemployment.In May 1970, he wrote to Chelsea chairmanRichard Attenboroughasking for a loan of £250 and possible employment; Attenborough lent him £100.He was interviewed byEamonn AndrewsonITV'sTodayprogramme on his fall from England star to the unemployment line.After his financial troubles became public knowledge, a large furnishing company offered him a lucrative job as director of his own subsidiary furniture company onTottenham Court Road; however the company went intoliquidationthe following year.He continued to writechequesin the company's name, and in June 1972, pleaded guilty to seven charges ofobtaining goods and cash by deception.He was sentenced to three yearsprobation, and ordered to pay £240 compensation and £100 in costs. In 1972, atestimonial matchwas organised by Everton on Lawton's behalf to help him pay off his debts of around £6,000.However his financial situation was still bleak, and on two occasions he narrowly avoided a prison sentence for failing to pay hisratesafter an Arsenal supporters club and later an anonymous former co-worker stepped in to pay the bill for him.In August 1974, he was again found guilty of obtaining goods by deception after failing to repay a £10 debt to a publican. He was sentenced to 200 hours ofCommunity serviceand ordered to pay £40 costs.In 1984, he began writing a column for theNottingham Evening Post.Brentford also organised a testimonial match for him in May 1985. Lawton's health deteriorated in his old age, and he died in November 1996, aged 77, as a result ofpneumonia. His ashes were donated to theNational Football Museum.He was inducted into theEnglish Football Hall of Famein 2003. Personal life Lawton married Rosaleen May Kavanagh in January 1941; the marriage bore one child, Amanda.Divorce was granted with adecree nisiin March 1951 after Rosaleen was found to have committed adultery with Notts County director Adrian Van Geffen; Lawton never saw Amanda again and was not required to paychild support.Lawton married second wife Gladys Rose in September 1952, who bore him a son, Thomas Junior.Gladys was also divorced, and her ex-husband cited Lawton as a co-respondent in the divorce proceedings as the pair had begun their relationship whilst Gladys was still married; her family were staunchCatholics, and her family ostracised Gladys following her divorce.Gladys had a daughter, Carol, from her previous marriage, who Lawton raised as his own.Thomas Junior went on to playrugby unionforLeicester Tigers. He starred alongsideThora HirdandDiana Dorsin the 1953 filmThe Great Game, playing himself in a cameo role.Throughout the 1950s he went on to appear onWhat's My Line?amongst other radio and television programmes.He published a total of five books:Football is My Business(1946),Tommy Lawton's all star football book(1950),Soccer the Lawton way(1954),My Twenty Years of Soccer(1955), andWhen the Cheering Stopped(1973). Career statistics Club League War Cup International Managerial statistics Honours Player Everton Notts County Arsenal England Managerial Kettering Town Individual See also References Specific General (N)Football League Third Division North; (S)Football League Third Division South", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squad_number_(association_football" ]
[ "Tommy Lawton Thomas Lawton(6 October 1919 – 6 November 1996) was an Englishfootballplayer and manager. Born inFarnworthand raised inBolton, he played amateur football atRossendale United, before he turned professional atBurnleyon his 17th birthday. He also playedcricketforBurnley Cricket Clubbefore his potential as a footballer won him a £6,500 move toEvertonin January 1937. He went on to finish as theFirst Division's top-scorer in1938and1939, helping Everton to finish aschampionsof the Football League in the latter campaign. League football was then suspended for seven full seasons due to the outbreak of war in Europe, during which time he scored 24 goals in 23 appearances for England whilst guesting for Everton and some other clubs. In November 1945, he moved toChelseafor £14,000 and scored a club-record 26 goals in 34 league games in the 1946–47 season. In November 1947, he made a surprise move toThird Division SouthclubNotts Countyfor aBritish record transfer feeof £20,000. He helped the club to win", "the club to win promotion as champions in 1949–50 before he moved on toBrentfordin March 1952 for a club record £16,000. In January 1953, Brentford appointed him player-manager, though he would only remain in charge for nine months. He joinedArsenalas a player in November 1953 for £10,000, where he saw out the remainder of his playing career. Despite losing much of his best years toWorld War II, he scored 260 goals in 433 league and cup competitions in 14 full seasons in theFootball League. He had a promising start to his managerial career by leadingKettering Townto theSouthern Leaguetitle in 1956–57, but then only had two more seasons as manager, getting relegated with Notts County in 1957–58 and then relegated with Kettering Town in 1963–64. During the 1970s, he struggled withdebtand related legal problems, which were reported in the media as an example of a celebrated person falling from grace. He scored 22 goals in his 23Englandappearances over a ten-year international career from 1938 to 1948, including", "to 1948, including four againstPortugalin May 1947. He helped England to win twoBritish Home Championshiptitles outright (1946–47 and 1947–48) and to share the Championship in 1938–39. He fell out of international contention at the age of 28 due to his contempt for managerWalter Winterbottom, his decision to drop out of the First Division, and the emergence ofJackie MilburnandNat Lofthouse. In addition to his England caps, he also representedThe Football League XIand played in a specialGreat Britaingame against Europe in 1947. He married twice and had two children and one step-child. His ashes are held in theNational Football Museum, and he was inducted into theEnglish Football Hall of Famein 2003. Early life Thomas Lawton was born on 6 October 1919 to Elizabeth Riley and Thomas Lawton Senior inFarnworth, Lancashire.His father was a railway signalman, and his mother worked as a weaver at Harrowby Mill.His father left the family 18 months after Lawton was born, and Elizabeth moved back into her parents' home", "her parents' home inBolton.Elizabeth's father, James Hugh \"Jim\" Riley, became Lawton's surrogate father.Lawton's natural footballing ability earned him a place on the Bolton Town Schools team in 1930.Lancashire Schools picked him at the age of 13.Despite scoring a hat-trick in a trial game for England Schoolboys, he never earned a full England Schoolboy cap.At the age of 14, he began playing for Hayes Athletic in the Bolton Senior League and went on to score 570 goals in three seasons. The FA's rules meant he was unable to turn professional at a club until he was 17, and Lawton's grandfather rejectedBolton Wanderers's offer for Lawton to work as a delivery driver for two years before turning professional at the club.Lawton instead played as an amateur forRossendale Unitedin theLancashire Combination, scoring a hat-trick on his debut againstBacup.He took up temporary work at atanneryand then joinedBurnleyas assistant groundsman after his mother rejected an offer fromSheffield Wednesdayas she objected to him", "she objected to him travelling toSheffielddaily. Club career Burnley Lawton played his first game for Burnley Reserves againstManchester City Reservesin September 1935. Though he struggled in this game, he became a regular Reserve team player by age 16.After a poor run of form fromCecil Smith, Lawton was selected ahead of Smith for theSecond Divisiongame againstDoncaster RoversatTurf Mooron 28 March 1936; aged 16 years and 174 days, this made him the youngestcentre-forwardever to play in theFootball League.Rovers centre-halfSyd Bycroft, also making his league debut, marked Lawton out of the game, which ended in a 1–1 draw.Burnley had played poorly, though Lawton was praised for his \"keen and fearless\" performance by theExpress & Newsnewspaper.He retained his place for the following game, and scored two goals in a 3–1 victory overSwansea TownatVetch Field.He picked up a groin strain in his third appearance, which caused him to miss two fixtures before he returned to the first team for the final four games of", "final four games of the1935–36season; he claimed three more goals to take his season tally to five goals from seven games. Lawton continued to train his heading skills intensely in the summer of 1936 and also playedcricketforBurnley Cricket Clubas a batsman in theLancashire League.He scored asixagainst bothLearie ConstantineandAmar Singh.He scored 369 runs in 15 completedinningsfor an average of 24.06. He turned professional at Burnley at 17 on wages of £7 a week.His grandfather attempted to negotiate a £500 signing-on fee on his behalf but was rebuffed after the club alertedCharles Sutcliffe, Secretary of the Football League, who informed them that any attempt to circumvent the league'smaximum wagewas illegal.Lawton scored in his first appearance since signing the contract after just 30 seconds before going on to record a hat-trick in a 3–1 win overTottenham Hotspur, scoring a goal with either foot and one with his head. Everton In January 1937,First DivisionclubEvertonpaid Burnley £6,500 to secure Lawton's", "to secure Lawton's services and also gave his grandfather a job as deputy groundsman atGoodison Park; the fee was a record for a player under 21.The move to Everton made him a teammate ofDixie Dean, his boyhood idol, who he was expected to gradually replace as first-choice centre-forward.He later recalled that on his way to Goodison Park on his first day as an Everton player, he was told by atramconductor that \"You're that young Lawton, aren't you? You'll never be as good as Dixie.\"Dean was finally rested on 13 February, which allowed Lawton to make his first team debut againstWolverhampton WanderersatMolineux; the match ended in a 6–2 defeat, though Lawton scored a penalty.He spent the rest of the season at inside-left, with Dean at centre-forward, and ended the1936–37campaign with four goals in 11 games.He started the1937–38season in the Reserves. He was installed as first choice centre-forward in September after Dean was dropped for punching club secretaryTheo Kelly.On 2 October, Lawton scored the winning", "scored the winning penalty in a 2–1 victory overMerseyside derbyrivalsLiverpoolatAnfield.He ended the campaign with 28 goals in 39 appearances to become thedivision's top-scorer. Everton had a young but highly effective team for the1938–39campaign, and Lawton was praised for the way he led the attack, with theEvening Standard's Roland Allen describing Lawton as a \"clever footballer, bringing his wing men into the game with shrewd flicks and widely flung and accurate passes\" after Everton recorded a 2–1 victory overArsenalatHighbury.The game against Arsenal was part of a run of six wins in the first six games of the campaign, during which time Lawton scored eight goals.Everton lost their lead at the top of the table toDerby Countyover Christmas, but returned to form and to first position by Easter.They faced a difficult final run of games, but beatChelseaand recorded two victories overSunderlandto secure the club's fifth league title, finishing four points ahead of second-place Wolverhampton Wanderers.Lawton", "Wanderers.Lawton scored 35 goals in 38 league games to finish as the division's top-scorer for the second successive season.However, in the summer he wrote toLeicester Cityto request that the club buy him from Everton; it was reported that he reached out to Leicester as they were managed byTom Bromilow, his former Burnley manager.Everton were fifth in the league and Lawton was the division's top-scorer with four goals when league football was suspended three games into the1939–40season due to the outbreak ofWorld War II.Lawton later remarked that \"I'm convinced that if it hadn't been for the War, we'd have won the Championship again, the average age of those players was about 24 or 25\". World War II Lawton continued to play for both Everton and England during the war. However, the FA decided not to award full caps for England appearances during the war. As a result, his 24 goals in 23 international games were not counted in statistics for the official England team.As was common for footballers during the", "during the war, he also made guest appearances for several clubs besides Everton, including Leicester City,Greenock Morton,Chester City,Aldershot, andTranmere Rovers.He was called up to theBritish Armyin January 1940, and his status as an England international saw him recruited to theRoyal Army Physical Training Corps.He also played for the British Army team and his Area Command team.He was posted inBirkenhead, which allowed him to appear for Everton frequently. On Christmas Day 1940, he played for Everton against Liverpool at Anfield in the morning and Tranmere Rovers atCrewe Alexandrain the afternoon.Explaining this later, he said, 'The Tranmere people came into the dressing room and asked if anyone wanted to play as they were two men short. I said, \"Go on, I'll help you out.\" And I did.'In 1942, he scored a hat-trick for England in a 5–4 win over Scotland at Hampden Park.Later in the year, he scored six goals for Aldershot in a 9–0 win overLuton Town.On 16 October 1943, he scored four goals in an 8–0", "goals in an 8–0 victory over Scotland atMaine Road. Chelsea In July 1945, Lawton handed in a transfer request at Everton as he wanted a move to a Southern club to see more of his increasingly estranged wife.In November 1945, he was sold toChelseafor a fee of £14,000.Chelsea continued to play regional wartime fixtures as national league football had not resumed for the1945–46season, and Lawton also continued his uncapped appearances for the England national team.In the summer of 1946, following his demobilisation, he coached for the FA in a summer camp in Switzerland.He scored aclub record26 goals in 34 league games in the1946–47season.However, he struggled to settle atStamford Bridge. He came into conflict with managerBilly Birrellafter refusing to go on a pre-season tour ofSwedenin 1947, which resulted in him requesting a transfer.He favoured a move to Arsenal, but the Chelsea hierarchy ruled this out.Lawton turned down an approach by Sunderland managerBill Murrayas he held out hope that Chelsea would", "that Chelsea would relent and allow him a move to Arsenal. Notts County In November 1947, Lawton was sold toNotts Countyof theThird Division Southfor aBritish record transfer feeof £20,000(equivalent to £988,400 in 2023).He made the surprise decision to drop down two divisions to be reunited with manager Arthur Stollery, his former masseur and friend at Chelsea, and because he was promised a job outside of football upon his retirement by vice-chairman Harold Walmsley.Walmsley told theNottingham Guardian Journalthat \"we are prepared to spend to the limit to put this old club back where it belongs\".He scored two goals on his home debut, a 4–2 win overBristol Roversin front of 38,000 spectators atMeadow Lane– a huge increase on previous home games of typically 6,000 to 7,000 supporters.He ended the1947–48season with 24 goals in as many games, though he was resented by the club's directors after he insisted on pay rises for his teammates and stopped the practice of director's friends and family travelling to", "travelling to away games on the team coach. He formed a productive forward partnership withJackie Sewellin the1948–49campaign and scored 23 goals in 40 league and cup appearances.County finished in mid-table despite scoring 102 goals, 15 more than champions Swansea.Stollery was sacked, and upon Lawton's suggestion, the club appointedEric Houghtonas manager after Lawton turned down the role as player-manager.Lawton and Sewell's understanding grew throughout the1949–50campaign, and Lawton finished as the division's top-scorer with 31 goals in 37 league games as County won promotion as champions, seven points ahead of second-placedNorthampton Town.Promotion was secured with a 2–0 win overlocal rivalsNottingham Forestat Meadow Lane on 22 April. However, he struggled with poor form during the1950–51season as his first marriage ended, and he came into increasing conflict with his teammates.He was angered when the club sold Jackie Sewell toSheffield Wednesdayin March 1951 – breaking Lawton's own transfer record in", "transfer record in the process – as he felt the move showed a lack of ambition from the club's directors.He also found that the well-paid job he was promised outside of football did not transpire.His tally of nine goals in 31 games in 1950–51 and 13 goals in 31 games in1951–52was disappointing, and he was made available for transfer.He voluntarily relinquished the captaincy to teammateLeon Leutyin November 1951, expressing that he no longer wanted the responsibility. Brentford In March 1952, Lawton joined Second Division sideBrentfordfor aclub record£16,000 fee.ManagerJackie Gibbonsleft the club at the start of the1952–53season and was succeeded by his assistantJimmy Bain, who proved ill-suited to management, and so in January 1953 Lawton was appointed as player-manager, with Bain as his assistant.However he lost the dressing room due to his excessive demands of the players, and the strains of management were hurting his form.Brentford also lost their best players having sold bothRon GreenwoodandJimmy", "GreenwoodandJimmy Hill.He signed two veterans in former Notts County teammateFrank BroomeandIan McPhersonto play on the wings, who, with Lawton, formed an attacking trio with a combined age of 104.They got off to a poor start to the1953–54season, and Lawton resigned as manager after theGriffin Parkcrowd began to mock the forward line by singingDear Old Pals. Arsenal In November 1953, Lawton was traded to First Division champions Arsenal for £7,500 plusJames Robertsonwho was valued at £2,500.He was signed by managerTom Whittaker, who had previously found success in bringing in veterans such asRonnie RookeandJoe Mercer.However Lawton was limited to ten appearances in the 1953–54 campaign after picking up an injury on his debut.He also played in the1953Charity Shield, scoring one goal as Arsenal beatBlackpool3–1.He scored seven goals in 20 appearances throughout the1954–55season, including winning goals against Chelsea andCardiff City.He scored a hat-trick past Cardiff City on the opening day of", "the opening day of the1955–56season, before he announced his decision to leave Arsenal to pursue a career in management eight games into the campaign. \"More than 20 years of soccer. What glorious years. Years that all the money in the world couldn't buy. I have been lucky. I have played with great clubs; I have escaped serious injury; I have played for my country; I have even captained my country; I have won many of the game's top honours. Soccer has been good to me and I hope that I have repaid the game in some small way. I have had great experiences. I have met some wonderful people. I have memories that nobody can take away from me. If I could turn the clock back 20 years, I would still go into the game as a full-time professional and I can say to any lad who is contemplating a career in football: Go ahead son ... providing you are willing to work and work hard and providing you are willing to learn the craft thoroughly. You will meet some of the grandest fellows you could ever wish to meet and you will", "meet and you will have a pleasant, healthy life and be quite well paid for it. International career Lawton was called up to play forThe Football League XIagainst aLeague of Ireland XIatWindsor Parkon 21 September 1938, and scored four goals in what finished as an 8–2 win.A month later he went on to win his first cap forEnglandon 22 October, England's first game of the1938–39 British Home Championship, a 4–2 defeat toWalesatNinian Park, and converted a penalty kick to mark his first England appearance with a goal.This made him the youngest player to score on his England debut, a record which lasted untilMarcus Rashfordbroke it in 2016.Four days after Lawton's debut, he scored again for England at Highbury in a 3–0 win over 'The Rest of Europe', a team of players selected from Italy, Germany, France, Belgium, Hungary and Norway.Later in the year he also scored in victories overNorwayandIreland.He played in all four games of 1939, scoring againstScotlandandItaly; the goal against Scotland secured a 2–1 win in", "a 2–1 win in front of 149,269 spectators atHampden Park. Newly appointed England managerWalter Winterbottomplayed Lawton in England's first official match in seven years on 28 September 1946, a 7–2 win over Ireland.He played the remaining three fixtures of 1946 and scored four goals in an 8–2 victory over theNetherlandsatLeeds Roadon 27 November.On 10 May 1947, he scored two goals playing for theGreat Britain XIin a 6–1 victory over a Rest of Europe XI that was billed as the 'Match of the Century'.Five days later he scored four goals in a 10–0 victory overPortugalatLisbon'sEstádio Nacional.On 21 September, he scored after just 12 seconds in a 5–2 win overBelgiumatHeysel Stadium. He retained his place in the England team following his club move to Notts County, and in doing so, became the first Third Division footballer to represent England when he scored from the penalty spot in a 4–2 win overSwedenon 19 November.However, he only won three further caps in 1948, his final appearance coming in a 0–0 draw", "in a 0–0 draw withDenmarkinCopenhagenon 26 September.He had become increasingly disillusioned with the England set-up, and told Winterbottom that \"if you think you can teachStanley Matthewsto play on the wing and me how to score goals, you've got another think coming!\"Winterbottom was also frustrated by Lawton's smoking habit and preferredJackie Milburnahead of Lawton.Hopes of any future comeback were ended by the emergence of powerful centre-forwardNat Lofthouse, who made his England debut in November 1950. Style of play Lawton was widely regarded as the finestcentre-forwardof his generation.He boasted a strong physique and good ball control skills, as well as a great passing range and a powerful shot.He was naturally right-footed, though worked to improve his left foot to a good enough standard to be considered a two-footed player.His greatest strength though was his ability to head the ball with power and accuracy, as he possessed muscular legs to give himself a strong jump and long hang-time, and was", "hang-time, and was also able to time his jumps to perfection.Stanley Matthews surmised that \"Quite simply, Tommy was the greatest header of the ball I ever saw.\"Lawton was never booked throughout his career. Coaching career and later life An Arsenal director helped Lawton to secure the position of player-manager atSouthern LeaguesideKettering Town. He took up the role at the club on wages of £1,500 a year in the summer of 1956.At the helm he thereafter signed several footballers such asJim Standenof Arsenal,Amos MossofAston Villa,Jack Wheelerwho played forHuddersfield Townand Brentford's Jack Goodwin. He was also successful in bringing to KetteringFulham'sBob Thomas,Harry McDonaldwho was previously withCrystal Palaceand Sunderland's Geoff Toseland.During his debut season as manager, 1956–1957, Kettering found themselves ten points clear at the top of the table by Christmas.As a result of this success, in January 1956, he turned down an approach from Notts County.Lawton then went on to foster Kettering", "to foster Kettering towards their winning of the league title in1956–57by eight points. Out of Kettering's 106 league goals, Lawton scored 15. He was appointed Notts County manager in May 1957, controversially replacing caretaker-managerFrank Broome. Broome, who had steered the club away from being relegated from the Second Division, was installed as his assistant manager.He found it tedious making new signings due to financial constraints on the part of the club.He did though take on forwardsJeff AstleandTony Hateleyas apprentices, who would both go on to have long careers in the First Division.Lawton agreed to go without his wages for six months to improve the club's finances.County were, however, relegated at the end of the1957–58season, finishing one point short of safety, and Lawton was sacked.He received a total of just three months' pay for his time at the club, having only a verbal offer of a three-year contract to fall back on and nothing in writing. After being sacked as Notts County manager,", "County manager, Lawton ran theMagna Chartapublic houseinLowdhamfrom October 1958.An employee stole £2,500 from the business, and Lawton decided to leave the pub trade after four years.He then took up a job sellinginsurance.He returned to football management with Kettering Town for the1963–64season as a caretaker following the resignation ofWally Akers. The season ended with Kettering being relegated from the Southern League Premier Division.He was offered the job permanently, but turned it down to concentrate on his job as an insurance salesman.He lost his job in insurance in 1967 and then opened a sporting goods shop that bore his name after going into partnership with a friend, but was forced to close the business after just two months due to poor sales.After a period onunemployment benefitshe found work at a betting company inNottingham. He returned to Notts County as a coach and chief scout from 1968 to 1970.He was sacked after new managerJimmy Sirreldecided to appoint his own backroom staff, and Lawton", "staff, and Lawton returned to unemployment.In May 1970, he wrote to Chelsea chairmanRichard Attenboroughasking for a loan of £250 and possible employment; Attenborough lent him £100.He was interviewed byEamonn AndrewsonITV'sTodayprogramme on his fall from England star to the unemployment line.After his financial troubles became public knowledge, a large furnishing company offered him a lucrative job as director of his own subsidiary furniture company onTottenham Court Road; however the company went intoliquidationthe following year.He continued to writechequesin the company's name, and in June 1972, pleaded guilty to seven charges ofobtaining goods and cash by deception.He was sentenced to three yearsprobation, and ordered to pay £240 compensation and £100 in costs. In 1972, atestimonial matchwas organised by Everton on Lawton's behalf to help him pay off his debts of around £6,000.However his financial situation was still bleak, and on two occasions he narrowly avoided a prison sentence for failing to pay", "for failing to pay hisratesafter an Arsenal supporters club and later an anonymous former co-worker stepped in to pay the bill for him.In August 1974, he was again found guilty of obtaining goods by deception after failing to repay a £10 debt to a publican. He was sentenced to 200 hours ofCommunity serviceand ordered to pay £40 costs.In 1984, he began writing a column for theNottingham Evening Post.Brentford also organised a testimonial match for him in May 1985. Lawton's health deteriorated in his old age, and he died in November 1996, aged 77, as a result ofpneumonia. His ashes were donated to theNational Football Museum.He was inducted into theEnglish Football Hall of Famein 2003. Personal life Lawton married Rosaleen May Kavanagh in January 1941; the marriage bore one child, Amanda.Divorce was granted with adecree nisiin March 1951 after Rosaleen was found to have committed adultery with Notts County director Adrian Van Geffen; Lawton never saw Amanda again and was not required to paychild support.Lawton", "support.Lawton married second wife Gladys Rose in September 1952, who bore him a son, Thomas Junior.Gladys was also divorced, and her ex-husband cited Lawton as a co-respondent in the divorce proceedings as the pair had begun their relationship whilst Gladys was still married; her family were staunchCatholics, and her family ostracised Gladys following her divorce.Gladys had a daughter, Carol, from her previous marriage, who Lawton raised as his own.Thomas Junior went on to playrugby unionforLeicester Tigers. He starred alongsideThora HirdandDiana Dorsin the 1953 filmThe Great Game, playing himself in a cameo role.Throughout the 1950s he went on to appear onWhat's My Line?amongst other radio and television programmes.He published a total of five books:Football is My Business(1946),Tommy Lawton's all star football book(1950),Soccer the Lawton way(1954),My Twenty Years of Soccer(1955), andWhen the Cheering Stopped(1973). Career statistics Club League War Cup International Managerial statistics Honours Player", "Honours Player Everton Notts County Arsenal England Managerial Kettering Town Individual See also References Specific General (N)Football League Third Division North; (S)Football League Third Division South", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squad_number_(association_football" ]
If the man that the SS Edmund Fitzgerald was named after was living at the time of the ship's sinking, how old was he? If he was already deceased, how long had he been dead? You may just use the year without regard for the date of birth.
Edmund Fitzgerald, the man for whom the ill-fated ship SS Edmund Fitzgerald was named was born in 1895, he was 80 years old in 1975 when she sank.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Edmund_Fitzgerald
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Fitzgerald_(disambiguation)
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Numerical reasoning | Post processing
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Edmund_Fitzgerald', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Fitzgerald_(disambiguation)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Edmund_Fitzgerald", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Fitzgerald_(disambiguation" ]
[ "SSEdmund Fitzgerald SSEdmund Fitzgeraldwas an AmericanGreat Lakes freighterthat sank inLake Superiorduring a storm on November 10, 1975, with the loss of the entire crew of 29 men. When launched on June 7, 1958, she was the largest ship on North America'sGreat Lakesand remains the largest to have sunk there. She waslocated in deep wateron November 14, 1975, by a U.S. Navy aircraft detecting magnetic anomalies, and found soon afterwards to be in two large pieces. For 17 years,Edmund Fitzgeraldcarriedtaconite(a variety ofiron ore)from mines nearDuluth, Minnesota, to iron works inDetroit, Michigan;Toledo, Ohio; and other Great Lakes ports. As a workhorse, she set seasonal haul records six times, often breaking her own record.Captain Peter Pulcer was known for piping music day or night over the ship's intercom while passing through theSt. ClairandDetroitrivers (betweenLake HuronandLake Erie), and entertaining spectators at theSoo Locks(between Lakes Superior and Huron) with a running commentary about the ship.Her size, record-breaking performance, and \"DJcaptain\" endearedEdmund Fitzgeraldto boat watchers. Carrying a full cargo of ore pellets with CaptainErnest M. McSorleyin command, she embarked on her ill-fated voyage fromSuperior, Wisconsin, near Duluth, on the afternoon of November 9, 1975. En route to a steel mill near Detroit,Edmund Fitzgeraldjoined a second taconite freighter,SSArthur M. Anderson. By the next day, the two ships were caught in asevere stormon Lake Superior, with near-hurricane-forcewinds and waves up to 35 feet (11 m) high. Shortly after 7:10 p.m.,Edmund Fitzgeraldsuddenly sank in Canadian (Ontario) waters 530 feet (88 fathoms; 160 m) deep, about 17 miles (15 nautical miles; 27 kilometers) fromWhitefish Baynear the twin cities ofSault Ste. Marie, Michigan, andSault Ste. Marie, Ontario—a distanceEdmund Fitzgeraldcould have covered in just over an hour at her top speed. Edmund Fitzgeraldpreviously reported being in significant difficulty tothe saltwater vesselAvafors:\"I have a badlist, lost both radars. And am taking heavy seas over the deck. One of the worst seas I've ever been in.\" However, no distress signals were sent before she sank; Captain McSorley's last (7:10 p.m.) message toArthur M. Andersonwas, \"We are holding our own\". Her crew of 29 perished, and no bodies were recovered. The exact cause of the sinking remains unknown, though many books, studies, and expeditions have examined it.Edmund Fitzgeraldmay have been swamped, suffered structural failure or topside damage, grounded on ashoal, or suffered from a combination of these. The disaster is one of the best known in the history of Great Lakes shipping, in part because Canadian singerGordon Lightfootmade it the subject of his 1976 popular ballad \"The Wreck of theEdmund Fitzgerald\". Lightfoot wrote the hit song after reading an article, \"The Cruelest Month\", in the November 24, 1975, issue ofNewsweek. The sinking led to changes in Great Lakes shipping regulations and practices that included mandatorysurvival suits, depth finders,positioning systems, increasedfreeboard, and more frequent inspection of vessels. History Design and construction Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance CompanyofMilwaukee, Wisconsin, invested in the iron and minerals industries on a large scale, including the construction ofEdmund Fitzgerald, which represented the first such investment by any American life insurance company.In 1957, they contractedGreat Lakes Engineering Works(GLEW), ofRiver Rouge, Michigan, to design and construct the ship \"within a foot of the maximum length allowed for passage through the soon-to-be completedSaint Lawrence Seaway.\"The ship's value at that time was $7 million (equivalent to $58.1 million in 2023).Edmund Fitzgeraldwas the firstlakerbuilt to themaximum St. Lawrence Seaway size,which was 730 feet (222.5 m) long, 75 feet (22.9 m) wide, and with a 25 foot (7.6 m) draft.Themoulded depth(roughly speaking, the vertical height of the hull) was 39 ft (12 m).The hold depth (the inside height of the cargo hold) was 33 ft 4 in (10.16 m).GLEW laid the firstkeelplate on August 7 the same year. With adeadweight capacityof 26,000long tons(29,120 short tons; 26,417 t),and a 729-foot (222 m) hull,Edmund Fitzgeraldwas the longest ship on the Great Lakes, earning her the titleQueen of the Lakesuntil September 17, 1959, when the 730-foot (222.5 m) SSMurray Baywas launched.Edmund Fitzgerald's three central cargo holdswere loaded through 21 watertightcargo hatches, each 11 by 48 feet (3.4 by 14.6 m) of5⁄16-inch-thick (7.9 mm) steel.Originally coal-fired, her boilers were converted to burnoilduring the 1971–72 winter layup.In 1969, the ship's maneuverability was improved by the installation of a diesel-poweredbow thruster. By ore freighter standards, the interior ofEdmund Fitzgeraldwas luxurious. HerJ.L. Hudson Company–designed furnishingsincluded deep pile carpeting, tiled bathrooms, drapes over theportholes, and leather swivel chairs in the guest lounge. There were two guest staterooms for passengers. Air conditioning extended to the crew quarters, which featured more amenities than usual. A largegalleyand fully stocked pantry supplied meals for two dining rooms.Edmund Fitzgerald'spilothousewas outfitted with \"state-of-the-art nautical equipment and a beautiful map room.\" Name and launch Northwestern Mutual wanted to name the ship after its president and chairman of the board, Edmund Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald's own grandfather and all great uncles had themselves been lake captains,and his father owned the Milwaukee Drydock Company, which built and repaired ships.Fitzgerald had attempted to dissuade the naming of the ship after himself, proposing the namesCentennial,Seaway,MilwaukeeandNorthwestern. The board was resolute, and Edmund abstained from voting; the 36 board members voted unanimously to name her the SSEdmund Fitzgerald.More than 15,000 people attendedEdmund Fitzgerald'schristening and launchceremony on June 7, 1958. The event was plagued by misfortunes. When Elizabeth Fitzgerald, wife of Edmund Fitzgerald, tried to christen the ship by smashing a champagne bottle over the bow, it took her three attempts to break it. A delay of 36 minutes followed while the shipyard crew struggled to release the keel blocks. Upon sideways launch, the ship created a large wave that doused the spectators and then crashed into a pier before righting herself. Other witnesses later said they swore the ship was \"trying to climb right out of the water\".On September 22, 1958,Edmund Fitzgeraldcompleted nine days ofsea trials. Career Northwestern Mutual's normal practice was to purchase ships for operation by other companies.InEdmund Fitzgerald's case, they signed a 25-year contract with Oglebay Norton Corporation to operate the vessel.Oglebay Norton immediately designatedEdmund Fitzgeraldtheflagshipof its Columbia Transportation fleet. Edmund Fitzgeraldwas a record-setting workhorse, often beating her own milestones.The vessel's record load for a single trip was 27,402 long tons (30,690 short tons; 27,842 t) in 1969.For 17 years,Edmund FitzgeraldcarriedtaconitefromMinnesota's Iron Rangemines near Duluth, Minnesota, to iron works in Detroit, Toledo, and other ports. She set seasonal haul records six different times.Her nicknames included \"Fitz\", \"Pride of the American Side\",\"Mighty Fitz\", \"Toledo Express\",\"Big Fitz\",and the \"Titanicof the Great Lakes\".LoadingEdmund Fitzgeraldwith taconite pellets took about four and a half hours, while unloading took around 14 hours. A round trip betweenSuperior, Wisconsin, and Detroit, Michigan, usually took her five days and she averaged 47 similar trips per season.The vessel's usual route was between Superior, Wisconsin, and Toledo, Ohio, although her port of destination could vary.By November 1975,Edmund Fitzgeraldhad logged an estimated 748 round trips on the Great Lakes and covered more than a million miles, \"a distance roughly equivalent to 44 trips around the world.\" Up until a few weeks before her loss, passengers had traveled on board as company guests. Frederick Stonehouse wrote: Stewards treated the guests to the entire VIP routine. The cuisine was reportedly excellent and snacks were always available in the lounge. A small but well-stocked kitchenette provided the drinks. Once each trip, the captain held a candlelight dinner for the guests, complete with mess-jacketed stewards and special \"clamdigger\" punch. Because of her size, appearance, string of records, and \"DJ captain,\"Edmund Fitzgeraldbecame a favorite of boat watchers throughout her career. Although Captain Peter Pulcer was in command ofEdmund Fitzgeraldon trips when cargo records were set, \"he is best remembered ... for piping music day or night over the ship's intercom system\" while passing through theSt. ClairandDetroit Rivers.While navigating theSoo Lockshe would often come out of the pilothouse and use a bullhorn to entertain tourists with a commentary on details aboutEdmund Fitzgerald. In 1969,Edmund Fitzgeraldreceived a safety award for eight years of operation without a time-off worker injury.The vessel ran aground in 1969, and she collided with SSHochelagain 1970. Later that same year, she struck the wall of alock, an accident repeated in 1973 and 1974. During 1974, she lost her original bow anchor in theDetroit River.None of these mishaps were considered serious or unusual.Freshwater shipsare built to last more than half a century, andEdmund Fitzgeraldwould have still had a long career ahead of her when she sank. Final voyage and wreck Edmund Fitzgeraldleft Superior, Wisconsin, at 2:15 p.m. on the afternoon of November 9, 1975,under the command of CaptainErnest M. McSorley. She was en route to the steel mill onZug Island, near Detroit, Michigan,with a cargo of 26,116 long tons (29,250 short tons; 26,535 t) of taconite ore pellets and soon reached her full speed of 16.3 miles per hour (14.2 kn; 26.2 km/h).Around 5 p.m.,Edmund Fitzgeraldjoined a second freighter under the command of Captain Jesse B. \"Bernie\" Cooper,Arthur M. Anderson, destined forGary, Indiana, out ofTwo Harbors, Minnesota.The weather forecast was not unusual for November and theNational Weather Service(NWS) predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior by 7 a.m. on November 10. SSWilfred Sykesloaded oppositeEdmund Fitzgeraldat the Burlington Northern Dock #1 and departed at 4:15 p.m., about two hours afterEdmund Fitzgerald. In contrast to the NWS forecast, Captain Dudley J. Paquette ofWilfred Sykespredicted that a major storm would directly cross Lake Superior. From the outset, he chose a route that took advantage of the protection offered by the lake's north shore to avoid the worst effects of the storm. The crew ofWilfred Sykesfollowed the radio conversations betweenEdmund FitzgeraldandArthur M. Andersonduring the first part of their trip and overheard their captains deciding to take the regular Lake Carriers' Associationdownboundroute.The NWS altered its forecast at 7:00 p.m., issuinggale warningsfor the whole of Lake Superior.Arthur M. AndersonandEdmund Fitzgeraldaltered course northward, seeking shelter along the Ontario shore,where they encountered a winter storm at 1:00 a.m. on November 10.Edmund Fitzgeraldreported winds of 52 knots (96 km/h; 60 mph) and waves 10 feet (3.0 m) high.Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykesreported that after 1 a.m., he overheard McSorley say that he had reduced the ship's speed because of the rough conditions. Paquette said he was stunned to later hear McSorley, who was not known for turning aside or slowing down, state that \"we're going to try for someleefromIsle Royale. You're walking away from us anyway … I can't stay with you.\" At 2:00 a.m. on November 10, the NWS upgraded its warnings from gale to storm, forecasting winds of 35–50 knots (65–93 km/h; 40–58 mph).Until then,Edmund Fitzgeraldhad followedArthur M. Anderson,which was travelling at a constant 14.6 miles per hour (12.7 kn; 23.5 km/h),but the fasterEdmund Fitzgeraldpulled ahead at about 3:00 a.m.As the storm center passed over the ships, they experienced shifting winds, with wind speeds temporarily dropping as wind direction changed from northeast to south and then northwest.After 1:50 p.m., whenArthur M. Andersonlogged winds of 50 knots (93 km/h; 58 mph), wind speeds again picked up rapidly, and it began to snow at 2:45 p.m., reducing visibility;Arthur M. Andersonlost sight ofEdmund Fitzgerald, which was about 16 miles (26 km) ahead at the time. Shortly after 3:30 p.m., Captain McSorley radioedArthur M. Andersonto report thatEdmund Fitzgeraldwas taking on water and had lost two vent covers and a fence railing. The vessel had also developed alist.Two ofEdmund Fitzgerald's sixbilge pumpsran continuously to discharge shipped water.McSorley said that he would slow his ship down so thatArthur M. Andersoncould close the gap between them.In a broadcast shortly afterward, theUnited States Coast Guard(USCG) warned all shipping that theSoo Lockshad been closed and they should seek safe anchorage. Shortly after 4:10 p.m., McSorley calledArthur M. Andersonagain to report a radar failure and askedArthur M. Andersonto keep track of them.Edmund Fitzgerald, effectively blind, slowed to letArthur M. Andersoncome within a 10-mile (16 km) range so she could receive radar guidance from the other ship. For a time,Arthur M. AndersondirectedEdmund Fitzgeraldtoward the relative safety ofWhitefish Bay; then, at 4:39 p.m., McSorley contacted the USCG station inGrand Marais, Michigan, to inquire whether theWhitefish Point lightand navigationbeaconwere operational. The USCG replied that their monitoring equipment indicated that both instruments were inactive.McSorley then hailed any ships in the Whitefish Point area to report the state of the navigational aids, receiving an answer from Captain Cedric Woodard ofAvaforsbetween 5:00 and 5:30 p.m. that the Whitefish Point light was on but not the radio beacon.Woodard testified to the Marine Board that he overheard McSorley say, \"Don't allow nobody on deck,\"as well as something about a vent that Woodard could not understand.Some time later, McSorley told Woodard, \"I have a 'bad list', I have lost both radars, and am taking heavy seas over the deck in one of the worst seas I have ever been in.\" By late in the afternoon of November 10, sustained winds of over 50 knots (93 km/h; 58 mph) were recorded by ships and observation points across eastern Lake Superior.Arthur M. Andersonlogged sustained winds as high as 58 knots (107 km/h; 67 mph) at 4:52 p.m.,while waves increased to as high as 25 feet (7.6 m) by 6:00 p.m.Arthur M. Andersonwas also struck by 70-to-75-knot (130 to 139 km/h; 81 to 86 mph) gustsandrogue wavesas high as 35 feet (11 m). At approximately 7:10 p.m., whenArthur M. AndersonnotifiedEdmund Fitzgeraldof anupboundship and asked how she was doing, McSorley reported, \"We are holding our own\" She was never heard from again. No distress signal was received, and ten minutes later,Arthur M. Andersonlost the ability either to reachEdmund Fitzgeraldby radio or to detect her on radar. Search Captain Cooper ofArthur M. Andersonfirst called the USCG inSault Ste. Marieat 7:39 p.m. on channel 16, the radio distress frequency. The USCG responders instructed him to call back on channel 12 because they wanted to keep their emergency channel open and they were having difficulty with their communication systems, including antennas blown down by the storm.Cooper then contacted the upbound saltwater vesselNanfriand was told that she could not pick upEdmund Fitzgeraldon her radar either. Despite repeated attempts to raise the USCG, Cooper was not successful until 7:54 p.m. when the officer on duty asked him to keep watch for a 16-foot (4.9 m) boat lost in the area.At about 8:25 p.m., Cooper again called the USCG to express his concern aboutEdmund Fitzgeraldand at 9:03 p.m. reported her missing.Petty Officer Philip Branch later testified, \"I considered it serious, but at the time it was not urgent.\" Lacking appropriate search-and-rescue vessels to respond toEdmund Fitzgerald's disaster,at approximately 9:00 p.m., the USCG askedArthur M. Andersonto turn around and look for survivors. Around 10:30 p.m., the USCG asked all commercial vessels anchored in or near Whitefish Bay to assist in the search.The initial search for survivors was carried out byArthur M. Anderson, and a second freighter,SSWilliam Clay Ford. The efforts of a third freighter, theToronto-registeredSSHilda Marjanne, were foiled by the weather. The USCG sent abuoy tender,Woodrush, from Duluth, Minnesota, but it took two and a half hours to launch and a day to travel to the search area. TheTraverse City, Michigan, USCG station launched anHU-16fixed-wing search aircraft that arrived on the scene at 10:53 p.m. while anHH-52USCG helicopter with a 3.8-million-candlepowersearchlight arrived at 1:00 a.m. on November 11.Canadian Coast Guardaircraft joined the three-day search and theOntario Provincial Policeestablished and maintained a beach patrol all along the eastern shore of Lake Superior. Although the search recovered debris, including lifeboats and rafts, none of the crew were found.On her final voyage,Edmund Fitzgerald's crew of 29 consisted of thecaptain; thefirst,second, andthird mates; fiveengineers; threeoilers; acook; awiper; two maintenance men; threewatchmen; threedeckhands; threewheelsmen; two porters; acadet; and asteward. Most of the crew were from Ohio and Wisconsin;their ages ranged from 20 (watchman Karl A. Peckol) to 63 (Captain McSorley). Edmund Fitzgeraldis among the largest and best-known vessels lost on the Great Lakes,but she is not alone on the Lake Superior seabed in that area. In the years between 1816, whenInvinciblewas lost, and 1975, whenEdmund Fitzgeraldsank, theWhitefish Pointarea had claimed at least 240 ships. Wreck discovery and surveys Wreck discovery A U.S. NavyLockheed P-3 Orionaircraft, piloted by Lt. George Conner and equipped to detectmagnetic anomaliesusually associated with submarines, found the wreck on November 14, 1975 in Canadian waters close to the international boundary at a depth of 530 feet (160 m).Edmund Fitzgeraldlies about 15 miles (13 nmi; 24 km) west of Deadman's Cove, Ontario; about 8 miles (7.0 nmi; 13 km) northwest ofPancake Bay Provincial Park; and 17 miles (15 nmi; 27 km) from the entrance toWhitefish Bayto the southeast.A further November 14–16 survey by the USCG using aside scan sonarrevealed two large objects lying close together on the lake floor. The U.S. Navy also contracted Seaward, Inc., to conduct a second survey between November 22 and 25. Underwater surveys From May 20 to 28, 1976, the U.S. Navy dived on the wreck using its unmannedsubmersible,CURV-III, and foundEdmund Fitzgeraldlying in two large pieces in 530 feet (160 m) of water. Navy estimates put the length of the bow section at 276 feet (84 m) and that of the stern section at 253 feet (77 m). The bow section stood upright in the mud, some 170 feet (52 m) from the stern section that lay capsized at a 50-degree angle from the bow. In between the two broken sections lay a large mass of taconite pellets and scattered wreckage lying about, including hatch covers and hull plating. In 1980, during a Lake Superior research dive expedition, marine explorerJean-Michel Cousteau, the son ofJacques Cousteau, sent two divers fromRVCalypsoin the first manned submersible dive toEdmund Fitzgerald.The dive was brief, and although the dive team drew no final conclusions, they speculated thatEdmund Fitzgeraldhad broken up on the surface. TheMichigan Sea Grant Programorganized a three-day dive to surveyEdmund Fitzgeraldin 1989. The primary objective was to record 3-D videotape for use in museum educational programs and the production of documentaries. The expedition used a towed survey system (TSS Mk1) and a self-propelled, tethered, free-swimmingremotely operated underwater vehicle(ROV). The Mini Rover ROV was equipped with miniature stereoscopic cameras and wide-angle lenses in order to produce 3-D images. The towed survey system and the Mini Rover ROV were designed, built and operated by Chris Nicholson of Deep Sea Systems International, Inc.Participants included theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA), theNational Geographic Society, theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers, theGreat Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society(GLSHS), and theUnited States Fish and Wildlife Service, the latter providing RVGraylingas the support vessel for the ROV.The GLSHS used part of the five hours of video footage produced during the dives in a documentary and the National Geographic Society used a segment in a broadcast. Frederick Stonehouse, who wrote one of the first books on theEdmund Fitzgeraldwreck, moderated a 1990 panel review of the video that drew no conclusions about the cause ofEdmund Fitzgerald's sinking. Canadian explorerJoseph B. MacInnisorganized and led six publicly funded dives toEdmund Fitzgeraldover a three-day period in 1994.Harbor Branch Oceanographic InstitutionprovidedEdwin A. Linkas the support vessel, and their manned submersible,Celia.The GLSHS paid $10,000 for three of its members to each join a dive and take still pictures.MacInnis concluded that the notes and video obtained during the dives did not provide an explanation whyEdmund Fitzgeraldsank.The same year, longtime sport diver Fred Shannon formed Deepquest Ltd., and organized a privately funded dive to the wreck ofEdmund Fitzgerald, using Delta Oceanographic's submersible,Delta.Deepquest Ltd. conducted seven dives and took more than 42 hours of underwater videowhile Shannon set the record for the longest submersible dive toEdmund Fitzgeraldat 211 minutes.Prior to conducting the dives, Shannon studied NOAA navigational charts and found that the international boundary had changed three times before its publication by NOAA in 1976.Shannon determined that based on GPS coordinates from the 1994 Deepquest expedition, \"at least one-third of the two acres of immediate wreckage containing the two major portions of the vessel is in U.S. waters because of an error in the position of the U.S.–Canada boundary line shown on official lake charts.\" Shannon's group discovered the remains of a crew member partly dressed in coveralls and wearing a life jacket alongside the bow of the ship, indicating that at least one of the crew was aware of the possibility of sinking.The life jacket had deteriorated canvas and \"what is thought to be six rectangular cork blocks ... clearly visible.\"Shannon concluded that \"massive and advancing structural failure\" causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto break apart on the surface and sink. MacInnis led another series of dives in 1995 to salvage the bell fromEdmund Fitzgerald.TheSault Tribe of Chippewa Indiansbacked the expedition by co-signing a loan in the amount of $250,000.Canadian engineerPhil Nuytten'satmospheric diving suit, known as theNewtsuit, was used to retrieve the bell from the ship, replace it with a replica, and put a beer can inEdmund Fitzgerald's pilothouse.That same year, Terrence Tysall and Mike Zee set multiple records when they usedtrimix gasto scuba dive toEdmund Fitzgerald. The pair are the only people known to have touched theEdmund Fitzgeraldwreck. They also set records for the deepest scuba dive on the Great Lakes and the deepest shipwreck dive, and were the first divers to reachEdmund Fitzgeraldwithout the aid of a submersible. It took six minutes to reach the wreck, six minutes to survey it, and three hours to resurface to avoiddecompression sickness, also known as \"the bends\". Restrictions on surveys Under theOntario Heritage Act, activities on registered archeological sites require a license.In March 2005, the Whitefish Point Preservation Society accused the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society (GLSHS) of conducting an unauthorized dive toEdmund Fitzgerald. Although the director of the GLSHS admitted to conducting a sonar scan of the wreck in 2002, he denied such a survey required a license at the time it was carried out. An April 2005 amendment to theOntario Heritage Actallows the Ontario government to impose a license requirement on dives, the operation of submersibles, side scan sonars, or underwater cameras within a designated radius around protected sites.Conducting any of those activities without a license would result in fines of up toCA$1 million.On the basis of the amended law, to protect wreck sites considered \"watery graves\", the Ontario government issued updated regulations in January 2006, including an area with a 500-meter (1,640 ft) radius aroundEdmund Fitzgeraldand other specifically designated marine archeological sites.In 2009, a further amendment to theOntario Heritage Actimposed licensing requirements on any type of surveying device. Hypotheses on the cause of sinking Extreme weather and sea conditions play a role in all of the published hypotheses regardingEdmund Fitzgerald's sinking, but they differ on the other causal factors. Waves and weather hypothesis In 2005, NOAA and the NWS ran a computer simulation, including weather and wave conditions, covering the period from November 9, 1975, until the early morning of November 11.Analysis of the simulation showed that two separate areas of high-speed wind appeared over Lake Superior at 4:00 p.m. on November 10. One had speeds in excess of 43 knots (80 km/h; 49 mph) and the other winds in excess of 40 knots (74 km/h; 46 mph).The southeastern part of the lake, the direction in whichEdmund Fitzgeraldwas heading, had the highest winds. Average wave heights increased to near 19 feet (5.8 m) by 7:00 p.m., November 10, and winds exceeded 50 mph (43 kn; 80 km/h) over most of southeastern Lake Superior. Edmund Fitzgeraldsank at the eastern edge of the area of high windwhere the longfetch, or distance that wind blows over water, produced significant waves averaging over 23 feet (7.0 m) by 7:00 p.m. and over 25 feet (7.6 m) at 8:00 p.m. The simulation also showed one in 100 waves reaching 36 feet (11 m) and one out of every 1,000 reaching 46 feet (14 m). Since the ship was heading east-southeastward, it is likely that the waves causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto roll heavily. At the time of the sinking, the shipArthur M. Andersonreported northwest winds of 57 mph (50 kn; 92 km/h), matching the simulation analysis result of 54 mph (47 kn; 87 km/h).The analysis further showed that the maximum sustained winds reached nearhurricane forceof about 70 mph (61 kn; 110 km/h) with gusts to 86 miles per hour (75 kn; 138 km/h) at the time and location whereEdmund Fitzgeraldsank. Rogue wave hypothesis A group of threerogue waves, often called \"three sisters,\"was reported in the vicinity ofEdmund Fitzgeraldat the time she sank.The \"three sisters\" phenomenon is said to occur on Lake Superior and refers to a sequence of three rogue waves forming that are one-third larger than normal waves. The first wave introduces an abnormally large amount of water onto the deck. This water is unable to fully drain away before the second wave strikes, adding to the surplus. The third incoming wave again adds to the two accumulated backwashes, quickly overloading the deck with too much water. Captain Cooper ofArthur M. Andersonreported that his ship was \"hit by two 30 to 35 foot seas about 6:30 p.m., one burying the aft cabins and damaging a lifeboat by pushing it right down onto the saddle. The second wave of this size, perhaps 35 foot, came over the bridge deck.\"Cooper went on to say that these two waves, possibly followed by a third, continued in the direction ofEdmund Fitzgeraldand would have struck about the time she sank.This hypothesis postulates that the \"three sisters\" compounded the twin problems ofEdmund Fitzgerald's known list and her lower speed in heavy seas that already allowed water to remain on her deck for longer than usual. The \"Edmund Fitzgerald\" episode of the 2010 television seriesDive Detectivesfeatures the wave-generating tank of theNational Research Council's Institute for Naval Technology inSt. John's, and the tank's simulation of the effect of a 17-meter (56 ft) rogue wave upon a scale model ofEdmund Fitzgerald. The simulation indicated such a rogue wave could almost completely submerge the bow or stern of the ship with water, at least temporarily. Cargo-hold flooding hypothesis The July 26, 1977, USCG Marine Casualty Report suggested that the accident was caused by ineffective hatch closures.The report concluded that these devices failed to prevent waves from inundating the cargo hold. The flooding occurred gradually and probably imperceptibly throughout the final day, finally resulting in a fatal loss of buoyancy and stability. As a result,Edmund Fitzgeraldplummeted to the bottom without warning.Video footage of the wreck site showed that most of her hatch clamps were in perfect condition. The USCG Marine board concluded that the few damaged clamps were probably the only ones fastened. As a result, ineffective hatch closure causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto flood and founder. From the beginning of the USCG inquiry, some of the crewmen's families and various labor organizations believed the USCG findings could be tainted because there were serious questions regarding their preparedness as well as licensing and rules changes.Paul Trimble, a retired USCG vice admiral and president of the Lake Carriers Association (LCA), wrote a letter to theNational Transportation Safety Board(NTSB) on September 16, 1977, that included the following statements of objection to the USCG findings: The present hatch covers are an advanced design and are considered by the entire lake shipping industry to be the most significant improvement over the telescoping leaf covers previously used for many years … The one-piece hatch covers have proven completely satisfactory in all weather conditions without a single vessel loss in almost 40 years of use … and no water accumulation in cargo holds … It was common practice for ore freighters, even in foul weather, to embark with not all cargo clamps locked in place on the hatch covers. Maritime author Wolff reported that, depending on weather conditions, all the clamps were eventually set within one to two days.Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykeswas dismissive of suggestions that unlocked hatch clamps causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto founder. He said that he commonly sailed in fine weather using the minimum number of clamps necessary to secure the hatch covers. The May 4, 1978, NTSB findings differed from the USCG. The NTSB made the following observations based on the CURV-III survey: The No. 1 hatch cover was entirely inside the No. 1 hatch and showed indications of buckling from external loading. Sections of thecoamingin way of the No. 1 hatch were fractured and buckled inward. The No. 2 hatch cover was missing and the coaming on the No. 2 hatch was fractured and buckled. Hatches Nos. 3 and 4 were covered with mud; one corner of hatch cover No. 3 could be seen in place. Hatch cover No. 5 was missing. A series of 16 consecutive hatch cover clamps were observed on the No. 5 hatch coaming. Of this series, the first and eighth were distorted or broken. All of the 14 other clamps were undamaged and in the open position. The No. 6 hatch was open and a hatch cover was standing on end vertically in the hatch. The hatch covers were missing from hatches Nos. 7 and 8 and both coamings were fractured and severely distorted. The bow section abruptly ended just aft of hatch No. 8 and the deck plating was ripped up from the separation to the forward end of hatch No. 7. The NTSB conducted computer studies,testing and analysis to determine the forces necessary to collapse the hatch coversand concluded thatEdmund Fitzgeraldsank suddenly from flooding of the cargo hold \"due to the collapse of one or more of the hatch covers under the weight of giant boarding seas\" instead of flooding gradually due to ineffective hatch closures.The NTSB dissenting opinion held thatEdmund Fitzgeraldsank suddenly and unexpectedly fromshoaling. Shoaling hypothesis The LCA believed that instead of hatch cover leakage, the more probable cause ofEdmund Fitzgerald's loss wasshoalingor grounding in the Six Fathom Shoal northwest ofCaribou Islandwhen the vessel \"unknowingly raked areef\" during the time the Whitefish Point light and radio beacon were not available as navigation aids.This hypothesis was supported by a 1976 Canadian hydrographic survey, which disclosed that an unknown shoal ran a mile farther east of Six Fathom Shoal than shown on the Canadian charts. Officers fromArthur M. Andersonobserved thatEdmund Fitzgeraldsailed through this exact area.Conjecture by proponents of the Six Fathom Shoal hypothesis concluded thatEdmund Fitzgerald's downed fence rail reported by McSorley could occur only if the ship \"hogged\" during shoaling, with the bow and stern bent downward and the midsection raised by the shoal, pulling the railing tight until the cables dislodged or tore under the strain.Divers searched the Six Fathom Shoal after the wreck occurred and found no evidence of \"a recent collision or grounding anywhere.\"Maritime authors Bishop and Stonehouse wrote that the shoaling hypothesis was later challenged on the basis of the higher quality of detail in Shannon's 1994 photography that \"explicitly show the devastation of theEdmund Fitzgerald\".Shannon's photography ofEdmund Fitzgerald's overturned stern showed \"no evidence on the bottom of the stern, the propeller or the rudder of the ship that would indicate the ship struck a shoal.\" Maritime author Stonehouse reasoned that \"unlike the Lake Carriers, the Coast Guard had no vested interest in the outcome of their investigation.\"Author Bishop reported that Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykesargued that through their support for the shoaling explanation, the LCA represented the shipping company's interests by advocating a hypothesis that held LCA member companies, theAmerican Bureau of Shipping, and the U.S. Coast Guard Service blameless. Paul Hainault, a retired professor of mechanical engineering fromMichigan Technological University, promoted a hypothesis that began as a student class project. His hypothesis held thatEdmund Fitzgeraldgrounded at 9:30 a.m. on November 10 onSuperior Shoal. This shoal, charted in 1929, is an underwater mountain in the middle of Lake Superior about 50 miles (80 km) north ofCopper Harbor, Michigan.It has sharp peaks that rise nearly to the lake surface with water depths ranging from 22 to 400 feet (6.7 to 121.9 m), making it a menace to navigation. Discovery of the shoal resulted in a change in recommended shipping routes.Aseiche, or standing wave, that occurred during the low-pressure system over Lake Superior on November 10, 1975, caused the lake to rise 3 feet (0.91 m) over the Soo Locks's gates to flood Portage Avenue in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, with 1 foot (0.3 m) of water.Hainault's hypothesis held that this seiche contributed toEdmund Fitzgeraldshoaling 200 feet (61 m) of her hull on Superior Shoal, causing the hull to be punctured mid-body. The hypothesis contended that the wave action continued to damage the hull, until the middle third dropped out like a box, leaving the ship held together by the center deck. The stern section acted as an anchor and causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto come to a full stop, causing everything to go forward. The ship broke apart on the surface within seconds. Compressed air pressure blew a hole in the starboard bow, which sank 18 degrees off course. The rear kept going forward with the engine still running, rolled to port and landed bottom up. Structural failure hypothesis Another published hypothesis contends that an already weakened structure, and modification ofEdmund Fitzgerald's winterload line(which allows heavier loading and travel lower in the water), made it possible for large waves to cause a stress fracture in the hull. This is based on the \"regular\" huge waves of the storm and does not necessarily involve rogue waves. The USCG and NTSB investigated whetherEdmund Fitzgeraldbroke apart due to structural failure of the hull and because the 1976 CURV III survey foundEdmund Fitzgerald's sections were 170 feet (52 m) from each other, the USCG's formal casualty report of July 1977 concluded that she had separated upon hitting the lake floor.The NTSB came to the same conclusion as USCG because: The proximity of the bow and stern sections on the bottom of Lake Superior indicated that the vessel sank in one piece and broke apart either when it hit bottom or as it descended. Therefore,Edmund Fitzgeralddid not sustain a massive structural failure of the hull while on the surface ... The final position of the wreckage indicated that if theEdmund Fitzgeraldhad capsized, it must have suffered a structural failure before hitting the lake bottom. The bow section would have had to right itself and the stern portion would have had to capsize before coming to rest on the bottom. It is, therefore, concluded that theEdmund Fitzgeralddid not capsize on the surface. Other authors have concluded thatEdmund Fitzgeraldmost likely broke in two on the surface before sinking due to the intense waves, like the ore carriersSSCarl D. BradleyandSSDaniel J. Morrell.After maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse moderated the panel reviewing the video footage from the 1989 ROV survey ofEdmund Fitzgerald, he concluded that the extent of taconite coverage over the wreck site showed that the stern had floated on the surface for a short time and spilled taconite into the forward section; thus the two sections of the wreck did not sink at the same time.The 1994 Shannon team found that the stern and the bow were 255 feet (78 m) apart, leading Shannon to conclude thatEdmund Fitzgeraldbroke up on the surface.He said: This placement does not support the hypothesis that the ship plunged to the bottom in one piece, breaking apart when it struck bottom. If this were true, the two sections would be much closer. In addition, the angle, repose and mounding of clay and mud at the site indicate the stern rolled over on the surface, spilling taconite ore pellets from its severed cargo hold, and then landed on portions of the cargo itself. The stress fracture hypothesis was supported by the testimony of former crewmen. Former Second Mate Richard Orgel, who served onEdmund Fitzgeraldin 1972 and 1973, testified that \"the ship had a tendency to bend and spring during storms 'like a diving board after somebody has jumped off.'\"Orgel was quoted as saying that the loss ofEdmund Fitzgeraldwas caused by hull failure, \"pure and simple. I detected undue stress in the side tunnels by examining the white enamel paint, which will crack and splinter when submitted to severe stress.\"George H. \"Red\" Burgner,Edmund Fitzgerald'sstewardfor ten seasons and winter ship-keeper for seven years, testified in a deposition that a \"loosekeel\" contributed to the vessel's loss. Burgner further testified that \"the keel and sisterkelsonswere only 'tack welded'\" and that he had personally observed that many of the welds were broken.Burgner was not asked to testify before the Marine Board of Inquiry. WhenBethlehem Steel Corporationpermanently laid upEdmund Fitzgerald'ssister ship,SSArthur B. Homer, just five years after going to considerable expense to lengthen her, questions were raised as to whether both ships had the same structural problems.The two vessels were built in the same shipyard using welded joints instead of the riveted joints used in older ore freighters. Riveted joints allow a ship to flex and work in heavy seas, while welded joints are more likely to break.Reports indicate that repairs toEdmund Fitzgerald's hull were delayed in 1975 due to plans to lengthen the ship during the upcoming winter layup.Arthur B. Homerwas lengthened to 825 feet (251 m) and placed back in service by December 1975, not long afterEdmund Fitzgeraldfoundered. In 1978, without explanation, Bethlehem Steel Corporation denied permission for the chairman of the NTSB to travel onArthur B. Homer.Arthur B. Homerwas permanently laid up in 1980 and broken for scrap in 1987. Retired GLEW naval architect Raymond Ramsay, one of the members of the design team that worked on the hull ofEdmund Fitzgerald,reviewed her increased load lines, maintenance history, along with the history of long ship hull failure and concluded thatEdmund Fitzgeraldwas not seaworthy on November 10, 1975.He stated that planningEdmund Fitzgeraldto be compatible with the constraints of the St. Lawrence Seaway had placed her hull design in a \"straight jacket .\"Edmund Fitzgerald's long-ship design was developed without the benefit ofresearch, development, test, and evaluationprinciples while computerized analytical technology was not available at the time she was built.Ramsay noted thatEdmund Fitzgerald's hull was built with an all-welded (instead of riveted) modular fabrication method,which was used for the first time in the GLEW shipyard.Ramsay concluded that increasing the hull length to 729 feet (222 m) resulted in an L/D slenderness ratio (the ratio of the length of the ship to the depth of her structure)that caused excessive multi-axial bending and springing of the hull, and that the hull should have been structurally reinforced to cope with her increased length. Topside damage hypothesis The USCG cited topside damage as a reasonable alternative reason forEdmund Fitzgeraldsinking and surmised that damage to the fence rail and vents was possibly caused by a heavy floating object such as a log.Historian and mariner Mark Thompson believes that something broke loose fromEdmund Fitzgerald's deck. He theorized that the loss of the vents resulted in flooding of two ballast tanks or a ballast tank and a walking tunnel that caused the ship to list. Thompson further conjectured that damage more extensive than Captain McSorley could detect in the pilothouse let water flood the cargo hold. He concluded that the topside damageEdmund Fitzgeraldexperienced at 3:30 p.m. on November 10, compounded by the heavy seas, was the most obvious explanation for why she sank. Possible contributing factors The USCG, NTSB, and proponents of alternative theories have all named multiple possible contributing factors to the foundering ofEdmund Fitzgerald. Weather forecasting The NWS long-range forecast on November 9, 1975, predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior and over theKeweenaw Peninsula, extending into the Lake from Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykeshad been following and charting the low-pressure system overOklahomasince November 8 and concluded that a major storm would track across eastern Lake Superior. He therefore chose a route that gaveWilfred Sykesthe most protection and took refuge inThunder Bay,Ontario, during the worst of the storm. Based on the NWS forecast,Arthur M. AndersonandEdmund Fitzgeraldinstead started their trip across Lake Superior following the regular Lake Carriers Association route, which placed them in the path of the storm.The NTSB investigation concluded that the NWS failed to accurately predict wave heights on November 10.After running computer models in 2005 using actual meteorological data from November 10, 1975, Hultquist of the NWS said ofEdmund Fitzgerald's position in the storm, \"It ended in precisely the wrong place at the absolute worst time.\" Inaccurate navigational charts After reviewing testimony thatEdmund Fitzgeraldhad passed near shoals north of Caribou Island, the USCG Marine Board examined the relevant navigational charts. They found that the Canadian 1973 navigational chart for the Six Fathom Shoal area was based on Canadian surveys from 1916 and 1919 and that the 1973 U.S. Lake Survey Chart No. 9 included the notation, \"Canadian Areas. For data concerning Canadian areas, Canadian authorities have been consulted.\"Thereafter, at the request of the Marine Board and the Commander of the USCG Ninth District, theCanadian Hydrographic Serviceconducted a survey of the area surroundingMichipicoten Islandand Caribou Island in 1976. The survey revealed that the shoal ran about 1 mile (1.6 km) farther east than shown on Canadian charts.The NTSB investigation concluded that, at the time ofEdmund Fitzgerald's foundering, Lake Survey Chart No. 9 was not detailed enough to indicate Six Fathom Shoal as a hazard to navigation. Lack of watertight bulkheads Mark Thompson, amerchant seamanand author of numerous books on Great Lakes shipping, stated that if her cargo holds had hadwatertight subdivisions, \"theEdmund Fitzgeraldcould have made it into Whitefish Bay.\"Frederick Stonehouse also held that the lack of watertightbulkheadscausedEdmund Fitzgeraldto sink. He said: The Great Lakes ore carrier is the most commercially efficient vessel in the shipping trade today. But it's nothing but a motorized barge! It's the unsafest commercial vessel afloat. It has virtually no watertight integrity. Theoretically, a one-inch puncture in the cargo hold will sink it. Stonehouse called on ship designers and builders to design lake carriers more like ships rather than \"motorized super-barges\"making the following comparison: Contrast this with the story of the SSMaumee, an oceangoing tanker that struck an iceberg near the South Pole recently. The collision tore a hole in the ship's bow large enough to drive a truck through, but theMaumeewas able to travel halfway around the world to a repair yard, without difficulty, because she was fitted with watertight bulkheads. AfterEdmund Fitzgeraldfoundered, Great Lakes shipping companies were accused of valuing cargopayloadsmore than human life,since the vessel's cargo hold of 860,950 cubic feet (24,379 m3) had been divided by two non-watertight traverse \"screen\" bulkheads. The NTSBEdmund Fitzgeraldinvestigation concluded that Great Lakes freighters should be constructed with watertight bulkheads in their cargo holds. The USCG had proposed rules for watertight bulkheads in Great Lakes vessels as early as the sinking ofDaniel J. Morrellin 1966 and did so again after the sinking ofEdmund Fitzgerald, arguing that this would allow ships to make it to refuge or at least allow crew members to abandon ship in an orderly fashion. The LCA represented the Great Lakes fleet owners and was able to forestall watertight subdivision regulationsby arguing that this would cause economic hardship for vessel operators. A few vessel operators have built Great Lakes ships with watertight subdivisions in the cargo holds since 1975, but most vessels operating on the lakes cannot prevent flooding of the entire cargo hold area. Lack of instrumentation Afathometerwas not required under USCG regulations, andEdmund Fitzgeraldlacked one,even though fathometers were available at the time of her sinking. Instead, ahand linewas the only methodEdmund Fitzgeraldhad to take depth soundings. The hand line consisted of a piece of line knotted at measured intervals with a lead weight on the end. The line was thrown over the bow of the ship and the count of the knots measured the water depth.The NTSB investigation concluded that a fathometer would have providedEdmund Fitzgeraldadditional navigational data and made her less dependent onArthur M. Andersonfor navigational assistance. Edmund Fitzgeraldhad no system to monitor the presence or amount of water in her cargo hold, even though there was always some present. The intensity of the November 10 storm would have made it difficult, if not impossible, to access the hatches from the spar deck (deck over the cargo holds). The USCG Marine Board found that flooding of the hold could not have been assessed until the water reached the top of the taconite cargo.The NTSB investigation concluded that it would have been impossible to pump water from the hold when it was filled with bulk cargo.The Marine Board noted that becauseEdmund Fitzgeraldlacked a draft-reading system, the crew had no way to determine whether the vessel had lostfreeboard(the level of a ship's deck above the water). Increased load lines, reduced freeboard The USCG increasedEdmund Fitzgerald's load line in 1969, 1971, and 1973 to allow 3 feet 3.25 inches (997 mm) less minimum freeboard thanEdmund Fitzgerald's original design allowed in 1958.This meant thatEdmund Fitzgerald's deck was only 11.5 feet (3.5 m) above the water when she faced 35-foot (11 m) waves during the November 10 storm.Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykesnoted that this change allowed loading to 4,000 tons more than whatEdmund Fitzgeraldwas designed to carry. Concerns regardingEdmund Fitzgerald's keel-welding problem surfaced during the time the USCG started increasing her load line.This increase and the resultant reduction in freeboard decreased the vessel's critical reserve buoyancy. Prior to the load-line increases she was said to be a \"good riding ship\" but afterwardsEdmund Fitzgeraldbecame a sluggish ship with slower response and recovery times. Captain McSorley said he did not like the action of a ship he described as a \"wiggling thing\" that scared him.Edmund Fitzgerald's bow hooked to one side or the other in heavy seas without recovering and made a groaning sound not heard on other ships. Maintenance NTSB investigators noted thatEdmund Fitzgerald's priorgroundingscould have caused undetected damage that led to major structural failure during the storm, since Great Lakes vessels were normallydrydockedfor inspection only once every five years.It was also alleged that when compared toEdmund Fitzgerald's previous captain (Peter Pulcer), McSorley did not keep up with routine maintenance and did not confront the mates about getting the requisite work done.After August B. Herbel Jr., president of theAmerican Society for Testing and Materials, examined photographs of the welds onEdmund Fitzgerald, he stated, \"the hull was just being held together with patching plates.\" Other questions were raised as to why the USCG did not discover and take corrective action in its pre-November 1975 inspection ofEdmund Fitzgerald, given that her hatch coamings, gaskets, and clamps were poorly maintained. Complacency On the fateful evening of November 10, 1975, McSorley reported he had never seen bigger seas in his life.Paquette, master ofWilfred Sykes,out in the same storm, said, \"I'll tell anyone that it was amonstersea washing solid water over the deck of every vessel out there.\"The USCG did not broadcast that all ships should seek safe anchorage until after 3:35 p.m. on November 10, many hours after the weather was upgraded from a gale to a storm. McSorley was known as a \"heavy weather captain\"who\"'beat hell' out of theEdmund Fitzgeraldand 'very seldom ever hauled up for weather'\".Paquette held the opinion that negligence causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto founder. He said, \"in my opinion, all the subsequent events arose because (McSorley) kept pushing that ship and didn't have enough training in weather forecasting to use common sense and pick a route out of the worst of the wind and seas.\"Paquette's vessel was the first to reach a discharge port after the November 10 storm; she was met by company attorneys who came aboardSykes.He told them thatEdmund Fitzgerald's foundering was caused by negligence.Paquette was never asked to testify during the USCG or NTSB investigations. The NTSB investigation noted that Great Lakes cargo vessels could normally avoid severe storms and called for the establishment of a limiting sea state applicable to Great Lakes bulk cargo vessels. This would restrict the operation of vessels in sea states above the limiting value.One concern was that shipping companies pressured the captains to deliver cargo as quickly and cheaply as possible regardless of bad weather.At the time ofEdmund Fitzgerald's foundering, there was no evidence that any governmental regulatory agency tried to control vessel movement in foul weather despite the historical record that hundreds of Great Lakes vessels had been wrecked in storms. The USCG took the position that only the captain could decide when it was safe to sail. The USCG Marine Board issued the following conclusion: The nature of Great Lakes shipping, with short voyages, much of the time in very protected waters, frequently with the same routine from trip to trip, leads to complacency and an overly optimistic attitude concerning the extreme weather conditions that can and do exist. The Marine Board feels that this attitude reflects itself at times in deferral of maintenance and repairs, in failure to prepare properly for heavy weather, and in the conviction that since refuges are near, safety is possible by \"running for it.\" While it is true that sailing conditions are good during the summer season, changes can occur abruptly, with severe storms and extreme weather and sea conditions arising rapidly. This tragic accident points out the need for all persons involved in Great Lakes shipping to foster increased awareness of the hazards which exist. Mark Thompson countered that \"the Coast Guard laid bare own complacency\" by blaming the sinking ofEdmund Fitzgeraldon industry-wide complacency since it had inspectedEdmund Fitzgeraldjust two weeks before she sank.The loss ofEdmund Fitzgeraldalso exposed the USCG's lack of rescue capability on Lake Superior.Thompson said that ongoing budget cuts had limited the USCG's ability to perform its historical functions. He further noted that USCG rescue vessels were unlikely to reach the scene of an incident on Lake Superior or Lake Huron within 6 to 12 hours of its occurrence. Legal settlement Undermaritime law, ships fall under the jurisdiction of theadmiralty courtsof their flag country. AsEdmund Fitzgeraldwas sailing under theU.S. flag, even though she sank in foreign (Canadian) waters, she was subject to U.S. admiralty law.With a value of $24 million,Edmund Fitzgerald's financial loss was the greatest in Great Lakes sailing history.In addition to the crew, 26,116 long tons (29,250 short tons; 26,535 t) of taconite sank along with the vessel.Two widows of crewmen filed a $1.5 million lawsuit againstEdmund Fitzgerald's owners, Northwestern Mutual, and its operators, Oglebay Norton Corporation, one week after she sank. An additional $2.1 million lawsuit was later filed. Oglebay Norton subsequently filed a petition in the U.S. District Court seeking to \"limit their liability to $817,920 in connection with other suits filed by families of crew members\".The company paid compensation to surviving families about 12 months in advance of official findings of the probable cause and on condition of imposed confidentiality agreements.Robert Hemming, a reporter and newspaper editor, reasoned in his book aboutEdmund Fitzgeraldthat the USCG's conclusions \"were benign in placing blame on either the company or the captain ... saved the Oglebay Norton from very expensive lawsuits by the families of the lost crew.\" Subsequent changes to Great Lakes shipping practice The USCG investigation ofEdmund Fitzgerald's sinking resulted in 15 recommendations regarding load lines, weathertight integrity, search and rescue capability, lifesaving equipment, crew training, loading manuals, and providing information to masters of Great Lakes vessels.NTSB's investigation resulted in 19 recommendations for the USCG, four recommendations for the American Bureau of Shipping, and two recommendations for NOAA.Of the official recommendations, the following actions and USCG regulations were put in place: Karl Bohnak, an Upper Peninsula meteorologist, covered the sinking and storm in a book on local weather history. In this book, Joe Warren, a deckhand onArthur M. Andersonduring the November 10, 1975, storm, said that the storm changed the way things were done. He stated, \"After that, trust me, when a gale came up we dropped the hook . We dropped the hook because they found out the big ones could sink.\"Mark Thompson wrote, \"Since the loss of theFitz,some captains may be more prone to go to anchor, rather than venturing out in a severe storm, but there are still too many who like to portray themselves as 'heavy weather sailors.'\" Memorials The day after the wreck,Mariners' Churchin Detroit rang its bell 29 times, once for each life lost.The church continued to hold an annual memorial, reading the names of the crewmen and ringing the church bell, until 2006 when the church broadened its memorial ceremony to commemorate all lives lost on the Great Lakes.After the death of singerGordon Lightfooton May 1, 2023, the church bell was ceremonially rung 29 times in memory of the crew, plus an additional ring in memory of Lightfoot who committed their deaths to posterity. Theship's bellwas recovered from the wreck on July 4, 1995. A replica engraved with the names of the 29 sailors who died replaced the original on the wreck.A legal document signed by 46 relatives of the deceased, officials of the Mariners' Church of Detroit and the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historic Society (GLSHS) \"donated the custodian and conservatorship\" of the bell to the GLSHS \"to be incorporated in a permanent memorial at Whitefish Point, Michigan, to honor the memory of the 29 men of the SSEdmund Fitzgerald.\"The terms of the legal agreement made the GLSHS responsible for maintaining the bell, and forbade it from selling or moving the bell or using it for commercial purposes. It provided for transferring the bell to the Mariners' Church of Detroit if the terms were violated. An uproar occurred in 1995 when a maintenance worker inSt. Ignace, Michigan, refurbished the bell by stripping the protective coating applied byMichigan State Universityexperts.The controversy continued when the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum tried to use the bell as a touring exhibit in 1996. Relatives of the crew halted this move, objecting that the bell was being used as a \"traveling trophy.\"As of 2005, the bell is on display in the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum inWhitefish PointnearParadise, Michigan. An anchor fromEdmund Fitzgeraldlost on an earlier trip was recovered from the Detroit River and is on display at theDossin Great Lakes Museumin Detroit, Michigan.The Dossin Great Lakes Museum also hosts a Lost Mariners Remembrance event each year on the evening of November 10.Artifacts on display in theSteamship Valley Campmuseum in Sault Ste. Marie, include two lifeboats, photos, a movie ofEdmund Fitzgeraldand commemorative models and paintings. Every November 10, theSplit Rock LighthousenearSilver Bay, Minnesota, emits a light in honor ofEdmund Fitzgerald. On August 8, 2007, along a remote shore of Lake Superior on the Keweenaw Peninsula, a Michigan family discovered a lone life-saving ring that appeared to have come fromEdmund Fitzgerald. It bore markings different from those of rings found at the wreck site, and was thought to be a hoax.Later it was determined that the life ring was not fromEdmund Fitzgerald, but had been lost by the owner, whose father had made it as a personal memorial. TheRoyal Canadian MintcommemoratedEdmund Fitzgeraldin 2015 with a colored silver collector coin, with a face value of $20. Musical and theater tributes Ontario singer-songwriterGordon Lightfootwrote, composed, and recorded the song \"The Wreck of theEdmund Fitzgerald\" for his 1976 albumSummertime Dream.On NPR'sWeekend Edition Saturdayon February 14, 2015, Gordon Lightfoot said he was inspired to write the song when he saw the name misspelled \"Edmond\" inNewsweekmagazine two weeks after the sinking; Lightfoot said he felt that it dishonored the memory of the 29 who died.Lightfoot's popular ballad made the sinking ofEdmund Fitzgeraldone of the best-known disasters in the history ofGreat Lakesshipping.The original lyrics of the song show a degree of artistic license compared to the events of the actual sinking: it states the destination as Cleveland instead of Detroit. Also, in light of new evidence about what happened, Lightfoot modified one line for live performances, the original stanza being: When suppertime came the old cook came on deck,Saying \"Fellas, it's too rough to feed ya.\"At 7 p.m. a main hatchway caved in,He said, \"Fellas, it's been good to know ya.\" Lightfoot changed the third line to \"At 7 p.m. it grew dark, it was then\",although possibly to \"At 7 p.m. it grew dark, it was dim\". He also changed the word \"musty\" in the lines In a musty old hall in Detroit they prayedIn the Maritime Sailors' Cathedral to \"rustic\", as the building is not actually musty (it is also not a cathedral as it is not the seat of a bishop, and its name is actually Mariners' Church, but this line was never changed). On May 2, 2023, at 3 p.m. the Mariners' Church of Detroit tolled its bell 30 times; 29 times in memory of the crew of theFitzgerald, and a 30th time in memory of Lightfoot, who died at age 84, on May 1, 2023. In 1986, writerSteven Dietzand songwriter/lyricist Eric Peltoniemi wrote the musicalTen Novemberin memory ofEdmund Fitzgerald's sinking. In 2005, the play was re-edited into a concert version calledThe Gales of November,which opened on the 30th anniversary of the sinking at theFitzgerald TheaterinSt. Paul, Minnesota. In November 2000, Shelley Russell opened a production of her play,Holdin' Our Own: The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald, at the Forest Roberts Theatre on the campus ofNorthern Michigan University. The production featured a cast of 14, 11 set on board theEdmund Fitzgeraldand three on theArthur M. Anderson. A piano concerto titledTheEdmund Fitzgeraldwas composed by American composer Geoffrey Peterson in 2002; it was premiered by theSault Symphony Orchestrain Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, in November 2005 as another 30th-anniversary commemoration. Commercialization The fame ofEdmund Fitzgerald's image and historical narrative have made it public domain and subject to commercialization.A \"cottage industry\"has evolved across the Great Lakes region from Two Harbors, Minnesota, to Whitefish Point, the incident's \"ground zero\".Memorabilia on sale include Christmas ornaments, T-shirts, coffee mugs,Edmund FitzgeraldPorter, videos, and other items commemorating the vessel and its loss. See also Notes References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Fitzgerald_(disambiguation" ]
[ "SSEdmund Fitzgerald SSEdmund Fitzgeraldwas an AmericanGreat Lakes freighterthat sank inLake Superiorduring a storm on November 10, 1975, with the loss of the entire crew of 29 men. When launched on June 7, 1958, she was the largest ship on North America'sGreat Lakesand remains the largest to have sunk there. She waslocated in deep wateron November 14, 1975, by a U.S. Navy aircraft detecting magnetic anomalies, and found soon afterwards to be in two large pieces. For 17 years,Edmund Fitzgeraldcarriedtaconite(a variety ofiron ore)from mines nearDuluth, Minnesota, to iron works inDetroit, Michigan;Toledo, Ohio; and other Great Lakes ports. As a workhorse, she set seasonal haul records six times, often breaking her own record.Captain Peter Pulcer was known for piping music day or night over the ship's intercom while passing through theSt. ClairandDetroitrivers (betweenLake HuronandLake Erie), and entertaining spectators at theSoo Locks(between Lakes Superior and Huron) with a running commentary about the ship.Her", "about the ship.Her size, record-breaking performance, and \"DJcaptain\" endearedEdmund Fitzgeraldto boat watchers. Carrying a full cargo of ore pellets with CaptainErnest M. McSorleyin command, she embarked on her ill-fated voyage fromSuperior, Wisconsin, near Duluth, on the afternoon of November 9, 1975. En route to a steel mill near Detroit,Edmund Fitzgeraldjoined a second taconite freighter,SSArthur M. Anderson. By the next day, the two ships were caught in asevere stormon Lake Superior, with near-hurricane-forcewinds and waves up to 35 feet (11 m) high. Shortly after 7:10 p.m.,Edmund Fitzgeraldsuddenly sank in Canadian (Ontario) waters 530 feet (88 fathoms; 160 m) deep, about 17 miles (15 nautical miles; 27 kilometers) fromWhitefish Baynear the twin cities ofSault Ste. Marie, Michigan, andSault Ste. Marie, Ontario—a distanceEdmund Fitzgeraldcould have covered in just over an hour at her top speed. Edmund Fitzgeraldpreviously reported being in significant difficulty tothe saltwater vesselAvafors:\"I have a", "have a badlist, lost both radars. And am taking heavy seas over the deck. One of the worst seas I've ever been in.\" However, no distress signals were sent before she sank; Captain McSorley's last (7:10 p.m.) message toArthur M. Andersonwas, \"We are holding our own\". Her crew of 29 perished, and no bodies were recovered. The exact cause of the sinking remains unknown, though many books, studies, and expeditions have examined it.Edmund Fitzgeraldmay have been swamped, suffered structural failure or topside damage, grounded on ashoal, or suffered from a combination of these. The disaster is one of the best known in the history of Great Lakes shipping, in part because Canadian singerGordon Lightfootmade it the subject of his 1976 popular ballad \"The Wreck of theEdmund Fitzgerald\". Lightfoot wrote the hit song after reading an article, \"The Cruelest Month\", in the November 24, 1975, issue ofNewsweek. The sinking led to changes in Great Lakes shipping regulations and practices that included mandatorysurvival", "mandatorysurvival suits, depth finders,positioning systems, increasedfreeboard, and more frequent inspection of vessels. History Design and construction Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance CompanyofMilwaukee, Wisconsin, invested in the iron and minerals industries on a large scale, including the construction ofEdmund Fitzgerald, which represented the first such investment by any American life insurance company.In 1957, they contractedGreat Lakes Engineering Works(GLEW), ofRiver Rouge, Michigan, to design and construct the ship \"within a foot of the maximum length allowed for passage through the soon-to-be completedSaint Lawrence Seaway.\"The ship's value at that time was $7 million (equivalent to $58.1 million in 2023).Edmund Fitzgeraldwas the firstlakerbuilt to themaximum St. Lawrence Seaway size,which was 730 feet (222.5 m) long, 75 feet (22.9 m) wide, and with a 25 foot (7.6 m) draft.Themoulded depth(roughly speaking, the vertical height of the hull) was 39 ft (12 m).The hold depth (the inside height of the", "height of the cargo hold) was 33 ft 4 in (10.16 m).GLEW laid the firstkeelplate on August 7 the same year. With adeadweight capacityof 26,000long tons(29,120 short tons; 26,417 t),and a 729-foot (222 m) hull,Edmund Fitzgeraldwas the longest ship on the Great Lakes, earning her the titleQueen of the Lakesuntil September 17, 1959, when the 730-foot (222.5 m) SSMurray Baywas launched.Edmund Fitzgerald's three central cargo holdswere loaded through 21 watertightcargo hatches, each 11 by 48 feet (3.4 by 14.6 m) of5⁄16-inch-thick (7.9 mm) steel.Originally coal-fired, her boilers were converted to burnoilduring the 1971–72 winter layup.In 1969, the ship's maneuverability was improved by the installation of a diesel-poweredbow thruster. By ore freighter standards, the interior ofEdmund Fitzgeraldwas luxurious. HerJ.L. Hudson Company–designed furnishingsincluded deep pile carpeting, tiled bathrooms, drapes over theportholes, and leather swivel chairs in the guest lounge. There were two guest staterooms for", "staterooms for passengers. Air conditioning extended to the crew quarters, which featured more amenities than usual. A largegalleyand fully stocked pantry supplied meals for two dining rooms.Edmund Fitzgerald'spilothousewas outfitted with \"state-of-the-art nautical equipment and a beautiful map room.\" Name and launch Northwestern Mutual wanted to name the ship after its president and chairman of the board, Edmund Fitzgerald. Fitzgerald's own grandfather and all great uncles had themselves been lake captains,and his father owned the Milwaukee Drydock Company, which built and repaired ships.Fitzgerald had attempted to dissuade the naming of the ship after himself, proposing the namesCentennial,Seaway,MilwaukeeandNorthwestern. The board was resolute, and Edmund abstained from voting; the 36 board members voted unanimously to name her the SSEdmund Fitzgerald.More than 15,000 people attendedEdmund Fitzgerald'schristening and launchceremony on June 7, 1958. The event was plagued by misfortunes. When Elizabeth", "When Elizabeth Fitzgerald, wife of Edmund Fitzgerald, tried to christen the ship by smashing a champagne bottle over the bow, it took her three attempts to break it. A delay of 36 minutes followed while the shipyard crew struggled to release the keel blocks. Upon sideways launch, the ship created a large wave that doused the spectators and then crashed into a pier before righting herself. Other witnesses later said they swore the ship was \"trying to climb right out of the water\".On September 22, 1958,Edmund Fitzgeraldcompleted nine days ofsea trials. Career Northwestern Mutual's normal practice was to purchase ships for operation by other companies.InEdmund Fitzgerald's case, they signed a 25-year contract with Oglebay Norton Corporation to operate the vessel.Oglebay Norton immediately designatedEdmund Fitzgeraldtheflagshipof its Columbia Transportation fleet. Edmund Fitzgeraldwas a record-setting workhorse, often beating her own milestones.The vessel's record load for a single trip was 27,402 long tons", "27,402 long tons (30,690 short tons; 27,842 t) in 1969.For 17 years,Edmund FitzgeraldcarriedtaconitefromMinnesota's Iron Rangemines near Duluth, Minnesota, to iron works in Detroit, Toledo, and other ports. She set seasonal haul records six different times.Her nicknames included \"Fitz\", \"Pride of the American Side\",\"Mighty Fitz\", \"Toledo Express\",\"Big Fitz\",and the \"Titanicof the Great Lakes\".LoadingEdmund Fitzgeraldwith taconite pellets took about four and a half hours, while unloading took around 14 hours. A round trip betweenSuperior, Wisconsin, and Detroit, Michigan, usually took her five days and she averaged 47 similar trips per season.The vessel's usual route was between Superior, Wisconsin, and Toledo, Ohio, although her port of destination could vary.By November 1975,Edmund Fitzgeraldhad logged an estimated 748 round trips on the Great Lakes and covered more than a million miles, \"a distance roughly equivalent to 44 trips around the world.\" Up until a few weeks before her loss, passengers had", "passengers had traveled on board as company guests. Frederick Stonehouse wrote: Stewards treated the guests to the entire VIP routine. The cuisine was reportedly excellent and snacks were always available in the lounge. A small but well-stocked kitchenette provided the drinks. Once each trip, the captain held a candlelight dinner for the guests, complete with mess-jacketed stewards and special \"clamdigger\" punch. Because of her size, appearance, string of records, and \"DJ captain,\"Edmund Fitzgeraldbecame a favorite of boat watchers throughout her career. Although Captain Peter Pulcer was in command ofEdmund Fitzgeraldon trips when cargo records were set, \"he is best remembered ... for piping music day or night over the ship's intercom system\" while passing through theSt. ClairandDetroit Rivers.While navigating theSoo Lockshe would often come out of the pilothouse and use a bullhorn to entertain tourists with a commentary on details aboutEdmund Fitzgerald. In 1969,Edmund Fitzgeraldreceived a safety award for", "a safety award for eight years of operation without a time-off worker injury.The vessel ran aground in 1969, and she collided with SSHochelagain 1970. Later that same year, she struck the wall of alock, an accident repeated in 1973 and 1974. During 1974, she lost her original bow anchor in theDetroit River.None of these mishaps were considered serious or unusual.Freshwater shipsare built to last more than half a century, andEdmund Fitzgeraldwould have still had a long career ahead of her when she sank. Final voyage and wreck Edmund Fitzgeraldleft Superior, Wisconsin, at 2:15 p.m. on the afternoon of November 9, 1975,under the command of CaptainErnest M. McSorley. She was en route to the steel mill onZug Island, near Detroit, Michigan,with a cargo of 26,116 long tons (29,250 short tons; 26,535 t) of taconite ore pellets and soon reached her full speed of 16.3 miles per hour (14.2 kn; 26.2 km/h).Around 5 p.m.,Edmund Fitzgeraldjoined a second freighter under the command of Captain Jesse B. \"Bernie\"", "Jesse B. \"Bernie\" Cooper,Arthur M. Anderson, destined forGary, Indiana, out ofTwo Harbors, Minnesota.The weather forecast was not unusual for November and theNational Weather Service(NWS) predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior by 7 a.m. on November 10. SSWilfred Sykesloaded oppositeEdmund Fitzgeraldat the Burlington Northern Dock #1 and departed at 4:15 p.m., about two hours afterEdmund Fitzgerald. In contrast to the NWS forecast, Captain Dudley J. Paquette ofWilfred Sykespredicted that a major storm would directly cross Lake Superior. From the outset, he chose a route that took advantage of the protection offered by the lake's north shore to avoid the worst effects of the storm. The crew ofWilfred Sykesfollowed the radio conversations betweenEdmund FitzgeraldandArthur M. Andersonduring the first part of their trip and overheard their captains deciding to take the regular Lake Carriers' Associationdownboundroute.The NWS altered its forecast at 7:00 p.m., issuinggale warningsfor the", "warningsfor the whole of Lake Superior.Arthur M. AndersonandEdmund Fitzgeraldaltered course northward, seeking shelter along the Ontario shore,where they encountered a winter storm at 1:00 a.m. on November 10.Edmund Fitzgeraldreported winds of 52 knots (96 km/h; 60 mph) and waves 10 feet (3.0 m) high.Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykesreported that after 1 a.m., he overheard McSorley say that he had reduced the ship's speed because of the rough conditions. Paquette said he was stunned to later hear McSorley, who was not known for turning aside or slowing down, state that \"we're going to try for someleefromIsle Royale. You're walking away from us anyway … I can't stay with you.\" At 2:00 a.m. on November 10, the NWS upgraded its warnings from gale to storm, forecasting winds of 35–50 knots (65–93 km/h; 40–58 mph).Until then,Edmund Fitzgeraldhad followedArthur M. Anderson,which was travelling at a constant 14.6 miles per hour (12.7 kn; 23.5 km/h),but the fasterEdmund Fitzgeraldpulled ahead at about 3:00 a.m.As the", "3:00 a.m.As the storm center passed over the ships, they experienced shifting winds, with wind speeds temporarily dropping as wind direction changed from northeast to south and then northwest.After 1:50 p.m., whenArthur M. Andersonlogged winds of 50 knots (93 km/h; 58 mph), wind speeds again picked up rapidly, and it began to snow at 2:45 p.m., reducing visibility;Arthur M. Andersonlost sight ofEdmund Fitzgerald, which was about 16 miles (26 km) ahead at the time. Shortly after 3:30 p.m., Captain McSorley radioedArthur M. Andersonto report thatEdmund Fitzgeraldwas taking on water and had lost two vent covers and a fence railing. The vessel had also developed alist.Two ofEdmund Fitzgerald's sixbilge pumpsran continuously to discharge shipped water.McSorley said that he would slow his ship down so thatArthur M. Andersoncould close the gap between them.In a broadcast shortly afterward, theUnited States Coast Guard(USCG) warned all shipping that theSoo Lockshad been closed and they should seek safe anchorage.", "safe anchorage. Shortly after 4:10 p.m., McSorley calledArthur M. Andersonagain to report a radar failure and askedArthur M. Andersonto keep track of them.Edmund Fitzgerald, effectively blind, slowed to letArthur M. Andersoncome within a 10-mile (16 km) range so she could receive radar guidance from the other ship. For a time,Arthur M. AndersondirectedEdmund Fitzgeraldtoward the relative safety ofWhitefish Bay; then, at 4:39 p.m., McSorley contacted the USCG station inGrand Marais, Michigan, to inquire whether theWhitefish Point lightand navigationbeaconwere operational. The USCG replied that their monitoring equipment indicated that both instruments were inactive.McSorley then hailed any ships in the Whitefish Point area to report the state of the navigational aids, receiving an answer from Captain Cedric Woodard ofAvaforsbetween 5:00 and 5:30 p.m. that the Whitefish Point light was on but not the radio beacon.Woodard testified to the Marine Board that he overheard McSorley say, \"Don't allow nobody on", "allow nobody on deck,\"as well as something about a vent that Woodard could not understand.Some time later, McSorley told Woodard, \"I have a 'bad list', I have lost both radars, and am taking heavy seas over the deck in one of the worst seas I have ever been in.\" By late in the afternoon of November 10, sustained winds of over 50 knots (93 km/h; 58 mph) were recorded by ships and observation points across eastern Lake Superior.Arthur M. Andersonlogged sustained winds as high as 58 knots (107 km/h; 67 mph) at 4:52 p.m.,while waves increased to as high as 25 feet (7.6 m) by 6:00 p.m.Arthur M. Andersonwas also struck by 70-to-75-knot (130 to 139 km/h; 81 to 86 mph) gustsandrogue wavesas high as 35 feet (11 m). At approximately 7:10 p.m., whenArthur M. AndersonnotifiedEdmund Fitzgeraldof anupboundship and asked how she was doing, McSorley reported, \"We are holding our own\" She was never heard from again. No distress signal was received, and ten minutes later,Arthur M. Andersonlost the ability either to", "ability either to reachEdmund Fitzgeraldby radio or to detect her on radar. Search Captain Cooper ofArthur M. Andersonfirst called the USCG inSault Ste. Marieat 7:39 p.m. on channel 16, the radio distress frequency. The USCG responders instructed him to call back on channel 12 because they wanted to keep their emergency channel open and they were having difficulty with their communication systems, including antennas blown down by the storm.Cooper then contacted the upbound saltwater vesselNanfriand was told that she could not pick upEdmund Fitzgeraldon her radar either. Despite repeated attempts to raise the USCG, Cooper was not successful until 7:54 p.m. when the officer on duty asked him to keep watch for a 16-foot (4.9 m) boat lost in the area.At about 8:25 p.m., Cooper again called the USCG to express his concern aboutEdmund Fitzgeraldand at 9:03 p.m. reported her missing.Petty Officer Philip Branch later testified, \"I considered it serious, but at the time it was not urgent.\" Lacking appropriate", "Lacking appropriate search-and-rescue vessels to respond toEdmund Fitzgerald's disaster,at approximately 9:00 p.m., the USCG askedArthur M. Andersonto turn around and look for survivors. Around 10:30 p.m., the USCG asked all commercial vessels anchored in or near Whitefish Bay to assist in the search.The initial search for survivors was carried out byArthur M. Anderson, and a second freighter,SSWilliam Clay Ford. The efforts of a third freighter, theToronto-registeredSSHilda Marjanne, were foiled by the weather. The USCG sent abuoy tender,Woodrush, from Duluth, Minnesota, but it took two and a half hours to launch and a day to travel to the search area. TheTraverse City, Michigan, USCG station launched anHU-16fixed-wing search aircraft that arrived on the scene at 10:53 p.m. while anHH-52USCG helicopter with a 3.8-million-candlepowersearchlight arrived at 1:00 a.m. on November 11.Canadian Coast Guardaircraft joined the three-day search and theOntario Provincial Policeestablished and maintained a beach patrol", "a beach patrol all along the eastern shore of Lake Superior. Although the search recovered debris, including lifeboats and rafts, none of the crew were found.On her final voyage,Edmund Fitzgerald's crew of 29 consisted of thecaptain; thefirst,second, andthird mates; fiveengineers; threeoilers; acook; awiper; two maintenance men; threewatchmen; threedeckhands; threewheelsmen; two porters; acadet; and asteward. Most of the crew were from Ohio and Wisconsin;their ages ranged from 20 (watchman Karl A. Peckol) to 63 (Captain McSorley). Edmund Fitzgeraldis among the largest and best-known vessels lost on the Great Lakes,but she is not alone on the Lake Superior seabed in that area. In the years between 1816, whenInvinciblewas lost, and 1975, whenEdmund Fitzgeraldsank, theWhitefish Pointarea had claimed at least 240 ships. Wreck discovery and surveys Wreck discovery A U.S. NavyLockheed P-3 Orionaircraft, piloted by Lt. George Conner and equipped to detectmagnetic anomaliesusually associated with submarines, found", "submarines, found the wreck on November 14, 1975 in Canadian waters close to the international boundary at a depth of 530 feet (160 m).Edmund Fitzgeraldlies about 15 miles (13 nmi; 24 km) west of Deadman's Cove, Ontario; about 8 miles (7.0 nmi; 13 km) northwest ofPancake Bay Provincial Park; and 17 miles (15 nmi; 27 km) from the entrance toWhitefish Bayto the southeast.A further November 14–16 survey by the USCG using aside scan sonarrevealed two large objects lying close together on the lake floor. The U.S. Navy also contracted Seaward, Inc., to conduct a second survey between November 22 and 25. Underwater surveys From May 20 to 28, 1976, the U.S. Navy dived on the wreck using its unmannedsubmersible,CURV-III, and foundEdmund Fitzgeraldlying in two large pieces in 530 feet (160 m) of water. Navy estimates put the length of the bow section at 276 feet (84 m) and that of the stern section at 253 feet (77 m). The bow section stood upright in the mud, some 170 feet (52 m) from the stern section that lay", "section that lay capsized at a 50-degree angle from the bow. In between the two broken sections lay a large mass of taconite pellets and scattered wreckage lying about, including hatch covers and hull plating. In 1980, during a Lake Superior research dive expedition, marine explorerJean-Michel Cousteau, the son ofJacques Cousteau, sent two divers fromRVCalypsoin the first manned submersible dive toEdmund Fitzgerald.The dive was brief, and although the dive team drew no final conclusions, they speculated thatEdmund Fitzgeraldhad broken up on the surface. TheMichigan Sea Grant Programorganized a three-day dive to surveyEdmund Fitzgeraldin 1989. The primary objective was to record 3-D videotape for use in museum educational programs and the production of documentaries. The expedition used a towed survey system (TSS Mk1) and a self-propelled, tethered, free-swimmingremotely operated underwater vehicle(ROV). The Mini Rover ROV was equipped with miniature stereoscopic cameras and wide-angle lenses in order to", "lenses in order to produce 3-D images. The towed survey system and the Mini Rover ROV were designed, built and operated by Chris Nicholson of Deep Sea Systems International, Inc.Participants included theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA), theNational Geographic Society, theUnited States Army Corps of Engineers, theGreat Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society(GLSHS), and theUnited States Fish and Wildlife Service, the latter providing RVGraylingas the support vessel for the ROV.The GLSHS used part of the five hours of video footage produced during the dives in a documentary and the National Geographic Society used a segment in a broadcast. Frederick Stonehouse, who wrote one of the first books on theEdmund Fitzgeraldwreck, moderated a 1990 panel review of the video that drew no conclusions about the cause ofEdmund Fitzgerald's sinking. Canadian explorerJoseph B. MacInnisorganized and led six publicly funded dives toEdmund Fitzgeraldover a three-day period in 1994.Harbor Branch Oceanographic", "Oceanographic InstitutionprovidedEdwin A. Linkas the support vessel, and their manned submersible,Celia.The GLSHS paid $10,000 for three of its members to each join a dive and take still pictures.MacInnis concluded that the notes and video obtained during the dives did not provide an explanation whyEdmund Fitzgeraldsank.The same year, longtime sport diver Fred Shannon formed Deepquest Ltd., and organized a privately funded dive to the wreck ofEdmund Fitzgerald, using Delta Oceanographic's submersible,Delta.Deepquest Ltd. conducted seven dives and took more than 42 hours of underwater videowhile Shannon set the record for the longest submersible dive toEdmund Fitzgeraldat 211 minutes.Prior to conducting the dives, Shannon studied NOAA navigational charts and found that the international boundary had changed three times before its publication by NOAA in 1976.Shannon determined that based on GPS coordinates from the 1994 Deepquest expedition, \"at least one-third of the two acres of immediate wreckage containing", "wreckage containing the two major portions of the vessel is in U.S. waters because of an error in the position of the U.S.–Canada boundary line shown on official lake charts.\" Shannon's group discovered the remains of a crew member partly dressed in coveralls and wearing a life jacket alongside the bow of the ship, indicating that at least one of the crew was aware of the possibility of sinking.The life jacket had deteriorated canvas and \"what is thought to be six rectangular cork blocks ... clearly visible.\"Shannon concluded that \"massive and advancing structural failure\" causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto break apart on the surface and sink. MacInnis led another series of dives in 1995 to salvage the bell fromEdmund Fitzgerald.TheSault Tribe of Chippewa Indiansbacked the expedition by co-signing a loan in the amount of $250,000.Canadian engineerPhil Nuytten'satmospheric diving suit, known as theNewtsuit, was used to retrieve the bell from the ship, replace it with a replica, and put a beer can inEdmund Fitzgerald's", "Fitzgerald's pilothouse.That same year, Terrence Tysall and Mike Zee set multiple records when they usedtrimix gasto scuba dive toEdmund Fitzgerald. The pair are the only people known to have touched theEdmund Fitzgeraldwreck. They also set records for the deepest scuba dive on the Great Lakes and the deepest shipwreck dive, and were the first divers to reachEdmund Fitzgeraldwithout the aid of a submersible. It took six minutes to reach the wreck, six minutes to survey it, and three hours to resurface to avoiddecompression sickness, also known as \"the bends\". Restrictions on surveys Under theOntario Heritage Act, activities on registered archeological sites require a license.In March 2005, the Whitefish Point Preservation Society accused the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society (GLSHS) of conducting an unauthorized dive toEdmund Fitzgerald. Although the director of the GLSHS admitted to conducting a sonar scan of the wreck in 2002, he denied such a survey required a license at the time it was carried", "time it was carried out. An April 2005 amendment to theOntario Heritage Actallows the Ontario government to impose a license requirement on dives, the operation of submersibles, side scan sonars, or underwater cameras within a designated radius around protected sites.Conducting any of those activities without a license would result in fines of up toCA$1 million.On the basis of the amended law, to protect wreck sites considered \"watery graves\", the Ontario government issued updated regulations in January 2006, including an area with a 500-meter (1,640 ft) radius aroundEdmund Fitzgeraldand other specifically designated marine archeological sites.In 2009, a further amendment to theOntario Heritage Actimposed licensing requirements on any type of surveying device. Hypotheses on the cause of sinking Extreme weather and sea conditions play a role in all of the published hypotheses regardingEdmund Fitzgerald's sinking, but they differ on the other causal factors. Waves and weather hypothesis In 2005, NOAA and the", "2005, NOAA and the NWS ran a computer simulation, including weather and wave conditions, covering the period from November 9, 1975, until the early morning of November 11.Analysis of the simulation showed that two separate areas of high-speed wind appeared over Lake Superior at 4:00 p.m. on November 10. One had speeds in excess of 43 knots (80 km/h; 49 mph) and the other winds in excess of 40 knots (74 km/h; 46 mph).The southeastern part of the lake, the direction in whichEdmund Fitzgeraldwas heading, had the highest winds. Average wave heights increased to near 19 feet (5.8 m) by 7:00 p.m., November 10, and winds exceeded 50 mph (43 kn; 80 km/h) over most of southeastern Lake Superior. Edmund Fitzgeraldsank at the eastern edge of the area of high windwhere the longfetch, or distance that wind blows over water, produced significant waves averaging over 23 feet (7.0 m) by 7:00 p.m. and over 25 feet (7.6 m) at 8:00 p.m. The simulation also showed one in 100 waves reaching 36 feet (11 m) and one out of every", "one out of every 1,000 reaching 46 feet (14 m). Since the ship was heading east-southeastward, it is likely that the waves causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto roll heavily. At the time of the sinking, the shipArthur M. Andersonreported northwest winds of 57 mph (50 kn; 92 km/h), matching the simulation analysis result of 54 mph (47 kn; 87 km/h).The analysis further showed that the maximum sustained winds reached nearhurricane forceof about 70 mph (61 kn; 110 km/h) with gusts to 86 miles per hour (75 kn; 138 km/h) at the time and location whereEdmund Fitzgeraldsank. Rogue wave hypothesis A group of threerogue waves, often called \"three sisters,\"was reported in the vicinity ofEdmund Fitzgeraldat the time she sank.The \"three sisters\" phenomenon is said to occur on Lake Superior and refers to a sequence of three rogue waves forming that are one-third larger than normal waves. The first wave introduces an abnormally large amount of water onto the deck. This water is unable to fully drain away before the second wave", "the second wave strikes, adding to the surplus. The third incoming wave again adds to the two accumulated backwashes, quickly overloading the deck with too much water. Captain Cooper ofArthur M. Andersonreported that his ship was \"hit by two 30 to 35 foot seas about 6:30 p.m., one burying the aft cabins and damaging a lifeboat by pushing it right down onto the saddle. The second wave of this size, perhaps 35 foot, came over the bridge deck.\"Cooper went on to say that these two waves, possibly followed by a third, continued in the direction ofEdmund Fitzgeraldand would have struck about the time she sank.This hypothesis postulates that the \"three sisters\" compounded the twin problems ofEdmund Fitzgerald's known list and her lower speed in heavy seas that already allowed water to remain on her deck for longer than usual. The \"Edmund Fitzgerald\" episode of the 2010 television seriesDive Detectivesfeatures the wave-generating tank of theNational Research Council's Institute for Naval Technology inSt. John's, and", "inSt. John's, and the tank's simulation of the effect of a 17-meter (56 ft) rogue wave upon a scale model ofEdmund Fitzgerald. The simulation indicated such a rogue wave could almost completely submerge the bow or stern of the ship with water, at least temporarily. Cargo-hold flooding hypothesis The July 26, 1977, USCG Marine Casualty Report suggested that the accident was caused by ineffective hatch closures.The report concluded that these devices failed to prevent waves from inundating the cargo hold. The flooding occurred gradually and probably imperceptibly throughout the final day, finally resulting in a fatal loss of buoyancy and stability. As a result,Edmund Fitzgeraldplummeted to the bottom without warning.Video footage of the wreck site showed that most of her hatch clamps were in perfect condition. The USCG Marine board concluded that the few damaged clamps were probably the only ones fastened. As a result, ineffective hatch closure causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto flood and founder. From the beginning of", "the beginning of the USCG inquiry, some of the crewmen's families and various labor organizations believed the USCG findings could be tainted because there were serious questions regarding their preparedness as well as licensing and rules changes.Paul Trimble, a retired USCG vice admiral and president of the Lake Carriers Association (LCA), wrote a letter to theNational Transportation Safety Board(NTSB) on September 16, 1977, that included the following statements of objection to the USCG findings: The present hatch covers are an advanced design and are considered by the entire lake shipping industry to be the most significant improvement over the telescoping leaf covers previously used for many years … The one-piece hatch covers have proven completely satisfactory in all weather conditions without a single vessel loss in almost 40 years of use … and no water accumulation in cargo holds … It was common practice for ore freighters, even in foul weather, to embark with not all cargo clamps locked in place on", "locked in place on the hatch covers. Maritime author Wolff reported that, depending on weather conditions, all the clamps were eventually set within one to two days.Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykeswas dismissive of suggestions that unlocked hatch clamps causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto founder. He said that he commonly sailed in fine weather using the minimum number of clamps necessary to secure the hatch covers. The May 4, 1978, NTSB findings differed from the USCG. The NTSB made the following observations based on the CURV-III survey: The No. 1 hatch cover was entirely inside the No. 1 hatch and showed indications of buckling from external loading. Sections of thecoamingin way of the No. 1 hatch were fractured and buckled inward. The No. 2 hatch cover was missing and the coaming on the No. 2 hatch was fractured and buckled. Hatches Nos. 3 and 4 were covered with mud; one corner of hatch cover No. 3 could be seen in place. Hatch cover No. 5 was missing. A series of 16 consecutive hatch cover clamps were observed", "were observed on the No. 5 hatch coaming. Of this series, the first and eighth were distorted or broken. All of the 14 other clamps were undamaged and in the open position. The No. 6 hatch was open and a hatch cover was standing on end vertically in the hatch. The hatch covers were missing from hatches Nos. 7 and 8 and both coamings were fractured and severely distorted. The bow section abruptly ended just aft of hatch No. 8 and the deck plating was ripped up from the separation to the forward end of hatch No. 7. The NTSB conducted computer studies,testing and analysis to determine the forces necessary to collapse the hatch coversand concluded thatEdmund Fitzgeraldsank suddenly from flooding of the cargo hold \"due to the collapse of one or more of the hatch covers under the weight of giant boarding seas\" instead of flooding gradually due to ineffective hatch closures.The NTSB dissenting opinion held thatEdmund Fitzgeraldsank suddenly and unexpectedly fromshoaling. Shoaling hypothesis The LCA believed that", "LCA believed that instead of hatch cover leakage, the more probable cause ofEdmund Fitzgerald's loss wasshoalingor grounding in the Six Fathom Shoal northwest ofCaribou Islandwhen the vessel \"unknowingly raked areef\" during the time the Whitefish Point light and radio beacon were not available as navigation aids.This hypothesis was supported by a 1976 Canadian hydrographic survey, which disclosed that an unknown shoal ran a mile farther east of Six Fathom Shoal than shown on the Canadian charts. Officers fromArthur M. Andersonobserved thatEdmund Fitzgeraldsailed through this exact area.Conjecture by proponents of the Six Fathom Shoal hypothesis concluded thatEdmund Fitzgerald's downed fence rail reported by McSorley could occur only if the ship \"hogged\" during shoaling, with the bow and stern bent downward and the midsection raised by the shoal, pulling the railing tight until the cables dislodged or tore under the strain.Divers searched the Six Fathom Shoal after the wreck occurred and found no evidence of", "no evidence of \"a recent collision or grounding anywhere.\"Maritime authors Bishop and Stonehouse wrote that the shoaling hypothesis was later challenged on the basis of the higher quality of detail in Shannon's 1994 photography that \"explicitly show the devastation of theEdmund Fitzgerald\".Shannon's photography ofEdmund Fitzgerald's overturned stern showed \"no evidence on the bottom of the stern, the propeller or the rudder of the ship that would indicate the ship struck a shoal.\" Maritime author Stonehouse reasoned that \"unlike the Lake Carriers, the Coast Guard had no vested interest in the outcome of their investigation.\"Author Bishop reported that Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykesargued that through their support for the shoaling explanation, the LCA represented the shipping company's interests by advocating a hypothesis that held LCA member companies, theAmerican Bureau of Shipping, and the U.S. Coast Guard Service blameless. Paul Hainault, a retired professor of mechanical engineering fromMichigan", "fromMichigan Technological University, promoted a hypothesis that began as a student class project. His hypothesis held thatEdmund Fitzgeraldgrounded at 9:30 a.m. on November 10 onSuperior Shoal. This shoal, charted in 1929, is an underwater mountain in the middle of Lake Superior about 50 miles (80 km) north ofCopper Harbor, Michigan.It has sharp peaks that rise nearly to the lake surface with water depths ranging from 22 to 400 feet (6.7 to 121.9 m), making it a menace to navigation. Discovery of the shoal resulted in a change in recommended shipping routes.Aseiche, or standing wave, that occurred during the low-pressure system over Lake Superior on November 10, 1975, caused the lake to rise 3 feet (0.91 m) over the Soo Locks's gates to flood Portage Avenue in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, with 1 foot (0.3 m) of water.Hainault's hypothesis held that this seiche contributed toEdmund Fitzgeraldshoaling 200 feet (61 m) of her hull on Superior Shoal, causing the hull to be punctured mid-body. The hypothesis", "The hypothesis contended that the wave action continued to damage the hull, until the middle third dropped out like a box, leaving the ship held together by the center deck. The stern section acted as an anchor and causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto come to a full stop, causing everything to go forward. The ship broke apart on the surface within seconds. Compressed air pressure blew a hole in the starboard bow, which sank 18 degrees off course. The rear kept going forward with the engine still running, rolled to port and landed bottom up. Structural failure hypothesis Another published hypothesis contends that an already weakened structure, and modification ofEdmund Fitzgerald's winterload line(which allows heavier loading and travel lower in the water), made it possible for large waves to cause a stress fracture in the hull. This is based on the \"regular\" huge waves of the storm and does not necessarily involve rogue waves. The USCG and NTSB investigated whetherEdmund Fitzgeraldbroke apart due to structural failure", "structural failure of the hull and because the 1976 CURV III survey foundEdmund Fitzgerald's sections were 170 feet (52 m) from each other, the USCG's formal casualty report of July 1977 concluded that she had separated upon hitting the lake floor.The NTSB came to the same conclusion as USCG because: The proximity of the bow and stern sections on the bottom of Lake Superior indicated that the vessel sank in one piece and broke apart either when it hit bottom or as it descended. Therefore,Edmund Fitzgeralddid not sustain a massive structural failure of the hull while on the surface ... The final position of the wreckage indicated that if theEdmund Fitzgeraldhad capsized, it must have suffered a structural failure before hitting the lake bottom. The bow section would have had to right itself and the stern portion would have had to capsize before coming to rest on the bottom. It is, therefore, concluded that theEdmund Fitzgeralddid not capsize on the surface. Other authors have concluded thatEdmund", "thatEdmund Fitzgeraldmost likely broke in two on the surface before sinking due to the intense waves, like the ore carriersSSCarl D. BradleyandSSDaniel J. Morrell.After maritime historian Frederick Stonehouse moderated the panel reviewing the video footage from the 1989 ROV survey ofEdmund Fitzgerald, he concluded that the extent of taconite coverage over the wreck site showed that the stern had floated on the surface for a short time and spilled taconite into the forward section; thus the two sections of the wreck did not sink at the same time.The 1994 Shannon team found that the stern and the bow were 255 feet (78 m) apart, leading Shannon to conclude thatEdmund Fitzgeraldbroke up on the surface.He said: This placement does not support the hypothesis that the ship plunged to the bottom in one piece, breaking apart when it struck bottom. If this were true, the two sections would be much closer. In addition, the angle, repose and mounding of clay and mud at the site indicate the stern rolled over on the", "rolled over on the surface, spilling taconite ore pellets from its severed cargo hold, and then landed on portions of the cargo itself. The stress fracture hypothesis was supported by the testimony of former crewmen. Former Second Mate Richard Orgel, who served onEdmund Fitzgeraldin 1972 and 1973, testified that \"the ship had a tendency to bend and spring during storms 'like a diving board after somebody has jumped off.'\"Orgel was quoted as saying that the loss ofEdmund Fitzgeraldwas caused by hull failure, \"pure and simple. I detected undue stress in the side tunnels by examining the white enamel paint, which will crack and splinter when submitted to severe stress.\"George H. \"Red\" Burgner,Edmund Fitzgerald'sstewardfor ten seasons and winter ship-keeper for seven years, testified in a deposition that a \"loosekeel\" contributed to the vessel's loss. Burgner further testified that \"the keel and sisterkelsonswere only 'tack welded'\" and that he had personally observed that many of the welds were broken.Burgner", "were broken.Burgner was not asked to testify before the Marine Board of Inquiry. WhenBethlehem Steel Corporationpermanently laid upEdmund Fitzgerald'ssister ship,SSArthur B. Homer, just five years after going to considerable expense to lengthen her, questions were raised as to whether both ships had the same structural problems.The two vessels were built in the same shipyard using welded joints instead of the riveted joints used in older ore freighters. Riveted joints allow a ship to flex and work in heavy seas, while welded joints are more likely to break.Reports indicate that repairs toEdmund Fitzgerald's hull were delayed in 1975 due to plans to lengthen the ship during the upcoming winter layup.Arthur B. Homerwas lengthened to 825 feet (251 m) and placed back in service by December 1975, not long afterEdmund Fitzgeraldfoundered. In 1978, without explanation, Bethlehem Steel Corporation denied permission for the chairman of the NTSB to travel onArthur B. Homer.Arthur B. Homerwas permanently laid up in", "laid up in 1980 and broken for scrap in 1987. Retired GLEW naval architect Raymond Ramsay, one of the members of the design team that worked on the hull ofEdmund Fitzgerald,reviewed her increased load lines, maintenance history, along with the history of long ship hull failure and concluded thatEdmund Fitzgeraldwas not seaworthy on November 10, 1975.He stated that planningEdmund Fitzgeraldto be compatible with the constraints of the St. Lawrence Seaway had placed her hull design in a \"straight jacket .\"Edmund Fitzgerald's long-ship design was developed without the benefit ofresearch, development, test, and evaluationprinciples while computerized analytical technology was not available at the time she was built.Ramsay noted thatEdmund Fitzgerald's hull was built with an all-welded (instead of riveted) modular fabrication method,which was used for the first time in the GLEW shipyard.Ramsay concluded that increasing the hull length to 729 feet (222 m) resulted in an L/D slenderness ratio (the ratio of the", "(the ratio of the length of the ship to the depth of her structure)that caused excessive multi-axial bending and springing of the hull, and that the hull should have been structurally reinforced to cope with her increased length. Topside damage hypothesis The USCG cited topside damage as a reasonable alternative reason forEdmund Fitzgeraldsinking and surmised that damage to the fence rail and vents was possibly caused by a heavy floating object such as a log.Historian and mariner Mark Thompson believes that something broke loose fromEdmund Fitzgerald's deck. He theorized that the loss of the vents resulted in flooding of two ballast tanks or a ballast tank and a walking tunnel that caused the ship to list. Thompson further conjectured that damage more extensive than Captain McSorley could detect in the pilothouse let water flood the cargo hold. He concluded that the topside damageEdmund Fitzgeraldexperienced at 3:30 p.m. on November 10, compounded by the heavy seas, was the most obvious explanation for why", "explanation for why she sank. Possible contributing factors The USCG, NTSB, and proponents of alternative theories have all named multiple possible contributing factors to the foundering ofEdmund Fitzgerald. Weather forecasting The NWS long-range forecast on November 9, 1975, predicted that a storm would pass just south of Lake Superior and over theKeweenaw Peninsula, extending into the Lake from Michigan's Upper Peninsula. Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykeshad been following and charting the low-pressure system overOklahomasince November 8 and concluded that a major storm would track across eastern Lake Superior. He therefore chose a route that gaveWilfred Sykesthe most protection and took refuge inThunder Bay,Ontario, during the worst of the storm. Based on the NWS forecast,Arthur M. AndersonandEdmund Fitzgeraldinstead started their trip across Lake Superior following the regular Lake Carriers Association route, which placed them in the path of the storm.The NTSB investigation concluded that the NWS failed", "that the NWS failed to accurately predict wave heights on November 10.After running computer models in 2005 using actual meteorological data from November 10, 1975, Hultquist of the NWS said ofEdmund Fitzgerald's position in the storm, \"It ended in precisely the wrong place at the absolute worst time.\" Inaccurate navigational charts After reviewing testimony thatEdmund Fitzgeraldhad passed near shoals north of Caribou Island, the USCG Marine Board examined the relevant navigational charts. They found that the Canadian 1973 navigational chart for the Six Fathom Shoal area was based on Canadian surveys from 1916 and 1919 and that the 1973 U.S. Lake Survey Chart No. 9 included the notation, \"Canadian Areas. For data concerning Canadian areas, Canadian authorities have been consulted.\"Thereafter, at the request of the Marine Board and the Commander of the USCG Ninth District, theCanadian Hydrographic Serviceconducted a survey of the area surroundingMichipicoten Islandand Caribou Island in 1976. The survey", "in 1976. The survey revealed that the shoal ran about 1 mile (1.6 km) farther east than shown on Canadian charts.The NTSB investigation concluded that, at the time ofEdmund Fitzgerald's foundering, Lake Survey Chart No. 9 was not detailed enough to indicate Six Fathom Shoal as a hazard to navigation. Lack of watertight bulkheads Mark Thompson, amerchant seamanand author of numerous books on Great Lakes shipping, stated that if her cargo holds had hadwatertight subdivisions, \"theEdmund Fitzgeraldcould have made it into Whitefish Bay.\"Frederick Stonehouse also held that the lack of watertightbulkheadscausedEdmund Fitzgeraldto sink. He said: The Great Lakes ore carrier is the most commercially efficient vessel in the shipping trade today. But it's nothing but a motorized barge! It's the unsafest commercial vessel afloat. It has virtually no watertight integrity. Theoretically, a one-inch puncture in the cargo hold will sink it. Stonehouse called on ship designers and builders to design lake carriers more like", "carriers more like ships rather than \"motorized super-barges\"making the following comparison: Contrast this with the story of the SSMaumee, an oceangoing tanker that struck an iceberg near the South Pole recently. The collision tore a hole in the ship's bow large enough to drive a truck through, but theMaumeewas able to travel halfway around the world to a repair yard, without difficulty, because she was fitted with watertight bulkheads. AfterEdmund Fitzgeraldfoundered, Great Lakes shipping companies were accused of valuing cargopayloadsmore than human life,since the vessel's cargo hold of 860,950 cubic feet (24,379 m3) had been divided by two non-watertight traverse \"screen\" bulkheads. The NTSBEdmund Fitzgeraldinvestigation concluded that Great Lakes freighters should be constructed with watertight bulkheads in their cargo holds. The USCG had proposed rules for watertight bulkheads in Great Lakes vessels as early as the sinking ofDaniel J. Morrellin 1966 and did so again after the sinking ofEdmund", "sinking ofEdmund Fitzgerald, arguing that this would allow ships to make it to refuge or at least allow crew members to abandon ship in an orderly fashion. The LCA represented the Great Lakes fleet owners and was able to forestall watertight subdivision regulationsby arguing that this would cause economic hardship for vessel operators. A few vessel operators have built Great Lakes ships with watertight subdivisions in the cargo holds since 1975, but most vessels operating on the lakes cannot prevent flooding of the entire cargo hold area. Lack of instrumentation Afathometerwas not required under USCG regulations, andEdmund Fitzgeraldlacked one,even though fathometers were available at the time of her sinking. Instead, ahand linewas the only methodEdmund Fitzgeraldhad to take depth soundings. The hand line consisted of a piece of line knotted at measured intervals with a lead weight on the end. The line was thrown over the bow of the ship and the count of the knots measured the water depth.The NTSB", "depth.The NTSB investigation concluded that a fathometer would have providedEdmund Fitzgeraldadditional navigational data and made her less dependent onArthur M. Andersonfor navigational assistance. Edmund Fitzgeraldhad no system to monitor the presence or amount of water in her cargo hold, even though there was always some present. The intensity of the November 10 storm would have made it difficult, if not impossible, to access the hatches from the spar deck (deck over the cargo holds). The USCG Marine Board found that flooding of the hold could not have been assessed until the water reached the top of the taconite cargo.The NTSB investigation concluded that it would have been impossible to pump water from the hold when it was filled with bulk cargo.The Marine Board noted that becauseEdmund Fitzgeraldlacked a draft-reading system, the crew had no way to determine whether the vessel had lostfreeboard(the level of a ship's deck above the water). Increased load lines, reduced freeboard The USCG increasedEdmund", "increasedEdmund Fitzgerald's load line in 1969, 1971, and 1973 to allow 3 feet 3.25 inches (997 mm) less minimum freeboard thanEdmund Fitzgerald's original design allowed in 1958.This meant thatEdmund Fitzgerald's deck was only 11.5 feet (3.5 m) above the water when she faced 35-foot (11 m) waves during the November 10 storm.Captain Paquette ofWilfred Sykesnoted that this change allowed loading to 4,000 tons more than whatEdmund Fitzgeraldwas designed to carry. Concerns regardingEdmund Fitzgerald's keel-welding problem surfaced during the time the USCG started increasing her load line.This increase and the resultant reduction in freeboard decreased the vessel's critical reserve buoyancy. Prior to the load-line increases she was said to be a \"good riding ship\" but afterwardsEdmund Fitzgeraldbecame a sluggish ship with slower response and recovery times. Captain McSorley said he did not like the action of a ship he described as a \"wiggling thing\" that scared him.Edmund Fitzgerald's bow hooked to one side or", "to one side or the other in heavy seas without recovering and made a groaning sound not heard on other ships. Maintenance NTSB investigators noted thatEdmund Fitzgerald's priorgroundingscould have caused undetected damage that led to major structural failure during the storm, since Great Lakes vessels were normallydrydockedfor inspection only once every five years.It was also alleged that when compared toEdmund Fitzgerald's previous captain (Peter Pulcer), McSorley did not keep up with routine maintenance and did not confront the mates about getting the requisite work done.After August B. Herbel Jr., president of theAmerican Society for Testing and Materials, examined photographs of the welds onEdmund Fitzgerald, he stated, \"the hull was just being held together with patching plates.\" Other questions were raised as to why the USCG did not discover and take corrective action in its pre-November 1975 inspection ofEdmund Fitzgerald, given that her hatch coamings, gaskets, and clamps were poorly maintained.", "poorly maintained. Complacency On the fateful evening of November 10, 1975, McSorley reported he had never seen bigger seas in his life.Paquette, master ofWilfred Sykes,out in the same storm, said, \"I'll tell anyone that it was amonstersea washing solid water over the deck of every vessel out there.\"The USCG did not broadcast that all ships should seek safe anchorage until after 3:35 p.m. on November 10, many hours after the weather was upgraded from a gale to a storm. McSorley was known as a \"heavy weather captain\"who\"'beat hell' out of theEdmund Fitzgeraldand 'very seldom ever hauled up for weather'\".Paquette held the opinion that negligence causedEdmund Fitzgeraldto founder. He said, \"in my opinion, all the subsequent events arose because (McSorley) kept pushing that ship and didn't have enough training in weather forecasting to use common sense and pick a route out of the worst of the wind and seas.\"Paquette's vessel was the first to reach a discharge port after the November 10 storm; she was met by", "she was met by company attorneys who came aboardSykes.He told them thatEdmund Fitzgerald's foundering was caused by negligence.Paquette was never asked to testify during the USCG or NTSB investigations. The NTSB investigation noted that Great Lakes cargo vessels could normally avoid severe storms and called for the establishment of a limiting sea state applicable to Great Lakes bulk cargo vessels. This would restrict the operation of vessels in sea states above the limiting value.One concern was that shipping companies pressured the captains to deliver cargo as quickly and cheaply as possible regardless of bad weather.At the time ofEdmund Fitzgerald's foundering, there was no evidence that any governmental regulatory agency tried to control vessel movement in foul weather despite the historical record that hundreds of Great Lakes vessels had been wrecked in storms. The USCG took the position that only the captain could decide when it was safe to sail. The USCG Marine Board issued the following conclusion:", "conclusion: The nature of Great Lakes shipping, with short voyages, much of the time in very protected waters, frequently with the same routine from trip to trip, leads to complacency and an overly optimistic attitude concerning the extreme weather conditions that can and do exist. The Marine Board feels that this attitude reflects itself at times in deferral of maintenance and repairs, in failure to prepare properly for heavy weather, and in the conviction that since refuges are near, safety is possible by \"running for it.\" While it is true that sailing conditions are good during the summer season, changes can occur abruptly, with severe storms and extreme weather and sea conditions arising rapidly. This tragic accident points out the need for all persons involved in Great Lakes shipping to foster increased awareness of the hazards which exist. Mark Thompson countered that \"the Coast Guard laid bare own complacency\" by blaming the sinking ofEdmund Fitzgeraldon industry-wide complacency since it had", "since it had inspectedEdmund Fitzgeraldjust two weeks before she sank.The loss ofEdmund Fitzgeraldalso exposed the USCG's lack of rescue capability on Lake Superior.Thompson said that ongoing budget cuts had limited the USCG's ability to perform its historical functions. He further noted that USCG rescue vessels were unlikely to reach the scene of an incident on Lake Superior or Lake Huron within 6 to 12 hours of its occurrence. Legal settlement Undermaritime law, ships fall under the jurisdiction of theadmiralty courtsof their flag country. AsEdmund Fitzgeraldwas sailing under theU.S. flag, even though she sank in foreign (Canadian) waters, she was subject to U.S. admiralty law.With a value of $24 million,Edmund Fitzgerald's financial loss was the greatest in Great Lakes sailing history.In addition to the crew, 26,116 long tons (29,250 short tons; 26,535 t) of taconite sank along with the vessel.Two widows of crewmen filed a $1.5 million lawsuit againstEdmund Fitzgerald's owners, Northwestern Mutual, and", "Mutual, and its operators, Oglebay Norton Corporation, one week after she sank. An additional $2.1 million lawsuit was later filed. Oglebay Norton subsequently filed a petition in the U.S. District Court seeking to \"limit their liability to $817,920 in connection with other suits filed by families of crew members\".The company paid compensation to surviving families about 12 months in advance of official findings of the probable cause and on condition of imposed confidentiality agreements.Robert Hemming, a reporter and newspaper editor, reasoned in his book aboutEdmund Fitzgeraldthat the USCG's conclusions \"were benign in placing blame on either the company or the captain ... saved the Oglebay Norton from very expensive lawsuits by the families of the lost crew.\" Subsequent changes to Great Lakes shipping practice The USCG investigation ofEdmund Fitzgerald's sinking resulted in 15 recommendations regarding load lines, weathertight integrity, search and rescue capability, lifesaving equipment, crew training,", "crew training, loading manuals, and providing information to masters of Great Lakes vessels.NTSB's investigation resulted in 19 recommendations for the USCG, four recommendations for the American Bureau of Shipping, and two recommendations for NOAA.Of the official recommendations, the following actions and USCG regulations were put in place: Karl Bohnak, an Upper Peninsula meteorologist, covered the sinking and storm in a book on local weather history. In this book, Joe Warren, a deckhand onArthur M. Andersonduring the November 10, 1975, storm, said that the storm changed the way things were done. He stated, \"After that, trust me, when a gale came up we dropped the hook . We dropped the hook because they found out the big ones could sink.\"Mark Thompson wrote, \"Since the loss of theFitz,some captains may be more prone to go to anchor, rather than venturing out in a severe storm, but there are still too many who like to portray themselves as 'heavy weather sailors.'\" Memorials The day after the wreck,Mariners'", "the wreck,Mariners' Churchin Detroit rang its bell 29 times, once for each life lost.The church continued to hold an annual memorial, reading the names of the crewmen and ringing the church bell, until 2006 when the church broadened its memorial ceremony to commemorate all lives lost on the Great Lakes.After the death of singerGordon Lightfooton May 1, 2023, the church bell was ceremonially rung 29 times in memory of the crew, plus an additional ring in memory of Lightfoot who committed their deaths to posterity. Theship's bellwas recovered from the wreck on July 4, 1995. A replica engraved with the names of the 29 sailors who died replaced the original on the wreck.A legal document signed by 46 relatives of the deceased, officials of the Mariners' Church of Detroit and the Great Lakes Shipwreck Historic Society (GLSHS) \"donated the custodian and conservatorship\" of the bell to the GLSHS \"to be incorporated in a permanent memorial at Whitefish Point, Michigan, to honor the memory of the 29 men of the", "the 29 men of the SSEdmund Fitzgerald.\"The terms of the legal agreement made the GLSHS responsible for maintaining the bell, and forbade it from selling or moving the bell or using it for commercial purposes. It provided for transferring the bell to the Mariners' Church of Detroit if the terms were violated. An uproar occurred in 1995 when a maintenance worker inSt. Ignace, Michigan, refurbished the bell by stripping the protective coating applied byMichigan State Universityexperts.The controversy continued when the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum tried to use the bell as a touring exhibit in 1996. Relatives of the crew halted this move, objecting that the bell was being used as a \"traveling trophy.\"As of 2005, the bell is on display in the Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum inWhitefish PointnearParadise, Michigan. An anchor fromEdmund Fitzgeraldlost on an earlier trip was recovered from the Detroit River and is on display at theDossin Great Lakes Museumin Detroit, Michigan.The Dossin Great Lakes Museum also hosts a", "Museum also hosts a Lost Mariners Remembrance event each year on the evening of November 10.Artifacts on display in theSteamship Valley Campmuseum in Sault Ste. Marie, include two lifeboats, photos, a movie ofEdmund Fitzgeraldand commemorative models and paintings. Every November 10, theSplit Rock LighthousenearSilver Bay, Minnesota, emits a light in honor ofEdmund Fitzgerald. On August 8, 2007, along a remote shore of Lake Superior on the Keweenaw Peninsula, a Michigan family discovered a lone life-saving ring that appeared to have come fromEdmund Fitzgerald. It bore markings different from those of rings found at the wreck site, and was thought to be a hoax.Later it was determined that the life ring was not fromEdmund Fitzgerald, but had been lost by the owner, whose father had made it as a personal memorial. TheRoyal Canadian MintcommemoratedEdmund Fitzgeraldin 2015 with a colored silver collector coin, with a face value of $20. Musical and theater tributes Ontario singer-songwriterGordon Lightfootwrote,", "Lightfootwrote, composed, and recorded the song \"The Wreck of theEdmund Fitzgerald\" for his 1976 albumSummertime Dream.On NPR'sWeekend Edition Saturdayon February 14, 2015, Gordon Lightfoot said he was inspired to write the song when he saw the name misspelled \"Edmond\" inNewsweekmagazine two weeks after the sinking; Lightfoot said he felt that it dishonored the memory of the 29 who died.Lightfoot's popular ballad made the sinking ofEdmund Fitzgeraldone of the best-known disasters in the history ofGreat Lakesshipping.The original lyrics of the song show a degree of artistic license compared to the events of the actual sinking: it states the destination as Cleveland instead of Detroit. Also, in light of new evidence about what happened, Lightfoot modified one line for live performances, the original stanza being: When suppertime came the old cook came on deck,Saying \"Fellas, it's too rough to feed ya.\"At 7 p.m. a main hatchway caved in,He said, \"Fellas, it's been good to know ya.\" Lightfoot changed the third", "changed the third line to \"At 7 p.m. it grew dark, it was then\",although possibly to \"At 7 p.m. it grew dark, it was dim\". He also changed the word \"musty\" in the lines In a musty old hall in Detroit they prayedIn the Maritime Sailors' Cathedral to \"rustic\", as the building is not actually musty (it is also not a cathedral as it is not the seat of a bishop, and its name is actually Mariners' Church, but this line was never changed). On May 2, 2023, at 3 p.m. the Mariners' Church of Detroit tolled its bell 30 times; 29 times in memory of the crew of theFitzgerald, and a 30th time in memory of Lightfoot, who died at age 84, on May 1, 2023. In 1986, writerSteven Dietzand songwriter/lyricist Eric Peltoniemi wrote the musicalTen Novemberin memory ofEdmund Fitzgerald's sinking. In 2005, the play was re-edited into a concert version calledThe Gales of November,which opened on the 30th anniversary of the sinking at theFitzgerald TheaterinSt. Paul, Minnesota. In November 2000, Shelley Russell opened a production of", "a production of her play,Holdin' Our Own: The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald, at the Forest Roberts Theatre on the campus ofNorthern Michigan University. The production featured a cast of 14, 11 set on board theEdmund Fitzgeraldand three on theArthur M. Anderson. A piano concerto titledTheEdmund Fitzgeraldwas composed by American composer Geoffrey Peterson in 2002; it was premiered by theSault Symphony Orchestrain Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, in November 2005 as another 30th-anniversary commemoration. Commercialization The fame ofEdmund Fitzgerald's image and historical narrative have made it public domain and subject to commercialization.A \"cottage industry\"has evolved across the Great Lakes region from Two Harbors, Minnesota, to Whitefish Point, the incident's \"ground zero\".Memorabilia on sale include Christmas ornaments, T-shirts, coffee mugs,Edmund FitzgeraldPorter, videos, and other items commemorating the vessel and its loss. See also Notes References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Fitzgerald_(disambiguation" ]
As of August 3, 2024, what is the hometown of the captain of the team that won the Stanley Cup three years before 2017?
Manhattan Beach, CA
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Stanley_Cup_Finals
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustin_Brown_(ice_hockey)
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Numerical reasoning | Post processing
['https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Stanley_Cup_Finals', 'https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustin_Brown_(ice_hockey)']
[ "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Stanley_Cup_Finals", "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustin_Brown_(ice_hockey" ]
[ "2014 Stanley Cup Finals The2014 Stanley Cup Finalswas thechampionship seriesof theNational Hockey League's (NHL)2013–14season, and the culmination of the2014 Stanley Cup playoffs. The League realigned its divisions prior to the season, and changed the structure of the playoffs, but the championship series remained the same. TheWestern ConferencechampionLos Angeles Kingsdefeated theEastern ConferencechampionNew York Rangersfour games to one to win their second championship in franchise history, marking the first time since2007that the championship series was determined in fewer than six games. Their Stanley Cup–winning run of 26 playoff games was later tied by the2019 St. Louis Bluesfor the longest of any Stanley Cup–winning team in history. Los Angeles had home ice advantage in the series, as the Kings finished with a better regular season record than the Rangers. The series started on June 4 and ended on June 13 with the Kings winning their second Stanley Cup inthree seasons. It was the first meeting between teams fromNew York CityandLos Angelesfor amajor professional sportschampionship since theYankeesand theDodgersplayed in the1981 World Series.Coincidentally, 1981 was also the last time the Rangers and the Kings had met in the postseason; that was the last season where the league did not use a geographical based playoff format and as a result any two teams could meet in any round of the postseason regardless of geography. In 1981 the Rangers eliminated the Kings during the first round of theplayoffs. Contents Paths to the Finals New York Rangers This was New York's 11th appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals, and they were seeking their fifth Cup championship overall and their first one since1994, 20 years earlier. Since their win in 1994, their only other post-season highlights were reaching the Conference Finals in 1997 and 2012. The Rangers entered the season after essentially swapping head coaches with theVancouver Canucks: the Rangers and the Canucks firedJohn TortorellaandAlain Vigneault, respectively, and then coincidentally hired the other's former coach.While Vancouver, under Tortorella's first year, failed to make the playoffs, Vigneault guided New York to 96 regular season points and second place in the newMetropolitan Division.En route, the Rangers made a major trade with theTampa Bay Lightningon March 5, acquiring Tampa Bay's captainMartin St. Louisin exchange for their own captainRyan Callahan. The transaction happened as Callahan and the Rangers were not close to terms on a new contract, while St. Louis was unhappy at his initial omission from the Olympics bySteve Yzerman(general manager of both the Lightning andTeam Canada). In the first round of the playoffs, the Rangers eliminated thePhiladelphia Flyersin seven games.Then, in the second round against thePittsburgh Penguins, New York overcame a 3–1 game deficit to win the series.In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Rangers defeated theMontreal Canadiensin six games to capture their first Eastern Conference championship in20 years.In the process, the Rangers became the first team ever to play two full seven-game series in the first two rounds of the playoffs and reach the Stanley Cup Finals, a feat later matched and exceeded in the same postseason by the Kings. Due to trading away captain Ryan Callahan and not naming a successor for the remainder of the season, Rangers were the first team since the1972–73 Chicago Black Hawksto advance to the Stanley Cup Finals without a captain. By reaching the Finals with the Rangers,Mats Zuccarellomade history when he became the firstNorwegianto play in the Stanley Cup Finals. Los Angeles Kings Los Angeles made their third appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals and sought to capture their second Cup championship after winning it in2012. Much of the core from the Kings' 2012 championship remained on the team. Los Angeles made a late regular season trade on March 5, acquiring former RangerMarian Gaborikfrom theColumbus Blue Jacketsin exchange forMatt Frattinand two draft picks.The Kings then finished the regular season in third place in thePacific Divisionwith 100 points. The Finals were the only series in the 2014 playoffs in which the Kings had home ice advantage. Los Angeles needed three consecutive game sevens to advance to the Cup Finals (breaking the aforementioned Rangers' game sevens record just a couple of days later), winning all of them on the road.The team became the fourth team in NHL playoff history to win a seven-game series after losing the first three games, defeating theSan Jose Sharksin the first round.The Kings eliminated theirlocal rivalAnaheim Ducksnext, despite squandering a 2–0 series lead and then facing a 3–2 series deficit.In a rematch of the 2013 Western Conference Final, the Kings defeated the defending Stanley Cup championChicago Blackhawksin the Western Conference Final who had forced a seventh game after trailing the series 3–1. Like their 2012 championship series, the Kings' 2014 Cup Finals was marked by a 3–0 series start of winning the first two games in overtime and the third as a shutout.With their 2014 Stanley Cup win, the Kings have the distinction of winning the first championship after the League's realignment as well as becoming the first team in the salary-cap era to win two championships in the span of three years or less.Their 2012 championship made them also the final team to win the Cup in the League's last full season before the realignment, as the 2012–13 season was shortened by a lockout.The Kings played a record 26 playoff games to win the Stanley Cup, the most ever for a champion (theSt. Louis Bluesmatched this feat in2019). Game summaries Game one The Kings overcame a two-goal deficit to defeat the Rangers 3–2 in the first game. New York built their 2–0 lead in the first period by scoring 1:42 apart.Benoit Pouliotscored first on a breakaway after stealing the puck fromDrew Doughty, then shooting pastJonathan Quick.Carl Hagelinthen recorded a short-handed goal, as his shot was initially blocked by Quick but then rebounded off ofSlava Voynov's skate into the net. The Kings' comeback began withKyle Clifford's goal late in the first period. Clifford shot it in from near the left post after receiving a pass fromJeff Carter. Doughty tied the game in the second period, beatingHenrik Lundqvistfrom the left circle. In the third period, the Kings outshot the Rangers, 20–3, but neither Lundqvist nor Quick allowed any goals. In the final minute of regulation, Quick stopped Hagelin's shot on a breakaway, and seconds later Lundqvist barely kept Carter's wrap-around shot from crossing the goal line. In overtime,Daniel Girarditurned over the puck in the New York zone, leadingMike Richardsto pass the puck toJustin Williams, who then put the puck over Lundqvist to win the game. Game two The Kings overcame three two-goal deficits to defeat the Rangers 5–4 in double overtime. Including their game seven victory in the Western Conference Final against theChicago Blackhawks, Los Angeles became the first team in Stanley Cup playoffs history to overcome three consecutive two-goal deficits. With the first game also going to overtime, it marked the third consecutive year that the first two games of the Stanley Cup Finals went to overtime. Ryan McDonagh and Mats Zuccarello scored in the first period to give the Rangers a 2–0 lead.Jarret Stollthen cut New York's lead in half at 1:46 of the second period. The teams then traded power play goals withMartin St. Louisscoring for the Rangers andWillie Mitchellfor the Kings. Eleven seconds after Mitchell's goal,Derick Brassardgave New York a 4–2 lead after miscommunication between Mitchell and Jonathan Quick behind the Kings net lead to a turnover.Dwight King's goal to cut the Rangers' lead to 4–3 early in the third period was controversial. King and McDonagh were fighting for position in front of Henrik Lundqvist whenMatt Greeneshot the puck from the right point. King made contact with Lundqvist in the crease as he touched the puck before it went into the net but no goaltender interference was called: the referee ruled that the contact occurred after the puck already sailed past Lundqvist.Marian Gaborik then tied the game with an unassisted goal at 7:36 of the third during a scramble in front of the New York net. At 10:26 of double overtime,Dustin Browndeflected Mitchell's shot from the left point into the net to give the Kings the 5–4 win. This gave the Kings a 2–0 series lead as the series shifted to New York City, despite never leading in either game during regulation time in Los Angeles. Game three This was the first Stanley Cup Finals game played in the state ofNew Yorksince Game 6 of the1999 FinalsinBuffalo. The Kings won 3–0, led by the goaltending of Jonathan Quick, who shut out the Rangers on 32 shots. The first period was marked by tight checking, and only nine shots were recorded by the two teams. Mats Zuccarello nearly scored for the Rangers at 12:37 of the first, but his shot went off the post and Quick's stick to stay out. With one second to play, Jeff Carter's shot from the slot deflected off a Rangers defenceman past Henrik Lundqvist to put the Kings ahead by one. In the second period,Jake Muzzinscored from the point on another deflection off a Rangers player. Mike Richards scored later in the period, on a two-on-one, his attempted pass deflecting off a Rangers player back to him, leaving Lundqvist out of position to make the stop. Meanwhile, Quick stopped all 17 shots the Rangers put on the net in the second, including a stick save on Derick Brassard when he appeared to be well out of position to make the save. There was no scoring in the third and the Kings took a three games to none series lead, putting the Rangers on the brink of elimination. Game four The Rangers avoided becoming the first team since1998to get swept in the Finals by defeating the Kings 2–1. In a turn-around from game three, the Kings outshot the Rangers and lost as Rangers netminder Henrik Lundqvist saved 40 out of 41 shots. Like games one and two, the Rangers scored the first two goals, on goals by Benoit Pouliot and Martin St. Louis. Dustin Brown scored for the Kings in the second period to cut the margin to 2–1. In the third period, the Kings put pressure on the Rangers and nearly tied the score when the puck slid past Lundqvist to rest on the goal line before being cleared away. Earlier, in the first period, another shot by the Kings also rested on the goal line and did not go in. In all, the Kings outshot the Rangers 15–1 in the third, but did not score. Game five The Kings clinched their second Stanley Cup in franchise history, their first since2012, by defeating the Rangers 3–2 on home ice. This was the first Stanley Cup–clinching game since2010to be determined in overtime, and the first time that the home team had the overtime Stanley Cup winner since1980. The Kings played 26 playoff games on their road to the trophy, more than any previous Stanley Cup–winning team. The Kings grabbed the lead in the first period with an even-strength goal by Justin Williams. In the second,Chris Kreiderconverted on a Rangers power play beforeBrian Boylescored a short-handed goal to put the road team up by one with 30 seconds left. In the third, Marian Gaborik tied the game at two on a Kings power play. No more goals were scored in regulation and the game went to overtime. The first overtime period featured one penalty for the Kings, but the Rangers were unable to score on the ensuing power play. With five minutes to go in the second overtime period and the Kings on a 3-on-2 breakaway, Tyler Toffoli fired a shot that Henrik Lundqvist kicked out directly toAlec Martinez, who fired it into the open net to win both the game and the series for the Kings. At that time, the Kings had outshot the Rangers 51–30. It was the longest game in Kings history until 2018. Team rosters Years indicated inboldfaceunder the \"Finals appearance\" column signify that the player won the Stanley Cup in the given year. Los Angeles Kings New York Rangers Note:Brad Richardsserved as the Rangers unofficial team captain during the2014 Stanley Cup playoffs. Richards was the alternate captain with the longest tenure in the league on the roster at the time of the playoffs. Stanley Cup engraving The 2014 Stanley Cup was presented to Kings captain Dustin Brown byNHL CommissionerGary Bettmanfollowing the Kings 3–2 overtime win over the Rangers in game five. The following Kings players and staff had their names engraved on the Stanley Cup 2013–14 Los Angeles Kings Players Coaching and administrative staff Stanley Cup engraving Television This was the last year under the League's current Canadian TV contracts withCBC(English broadcasts of the Finals) and the cable networkTSN(English broadcasts), andRDS(French broadcasts). The NHL's twelve-year contract withRogers Communicationswould then take effect beginning next season, with English-language national coverage of the Finals being sub-licensed to CBC, and French-language telecasts being sub-licensed toTVA Sports. TSN will only be showing regional games for Toronto, Ottawa and Winnipeg starting the fall of 2014. In the United States,NBCSNbroadcast games three and four, whileNBCtelevised the remaining games. NBC Sports originally planned to repeat its coverage pattern from the last few seasons: NBCSN would televise game two and three, while NBC would broadcast game one, and then games four to seven.After the League scheduled game two on the day of the2014 Belmont Stakes, coverage of games two and four were switched so NBC's telecast of the horse race would serve as lead-in programming to game two. Due to the death of a family member, NBC lead play-by-play announcerMike Emrickmissed game one.Kenny Albert, who was also the Rangers radio announcer forWEPNand announced several national games (including the Western Conference Finals) for NBC/NBCSN, filled in for Emrick in the first game. Quotes Starting back up with it now it’s Martinez in a three on two, Clifford gave it across. It’s held in a shot, save, rebound, SCORE! THE STANLEY CUP! MARTINEZ! References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustin_Brown_(ice_hockey" ]
[ "2014 Stanley Cup Finals The2014 Stanley Cup Finalswas thechampionship seriesof theNational Hockey League's (NHL)2013–14season, and the culmination of the2014 Stanley Cup playoffs. The League realigned its divisions prior to the season, and changed the structure of the playoffs, but the championship series remained the same. TheWestern ConferencechampionLos Angeles Kingsdefeated theEastern ConferencechampionNew York Rangersfour games to one to win their second championship in franchise history, marking the first time since2007that the championship series was determined in fewer than six games. Their Stanley Cup–winning run of 26 playoff games was later tied by the2019 St. Louis Bluesfor the longest of any Stanley Cup–winning team in history. Los Angeles had home ice advantage in the series, as the Kings finished with a better regular season record than the Rangers. The series started on June 4 and ended on June 13 with the Kings winning their second Stanley Cup inthree seasons. It was the first meeting between", "meeting between teams fromNew York CityandLos Angelesfor amajor professional sportschampionship since theYankeesand theDodgersplayed in the1981 World Series.Coincidentally, 1981 was also the last time the Rangers and the Kings had met in the postseason; that was the last season where the league did not use a geographical based playoff format and as a result any two teams could meet in any round of the postseason regardless of geography. In 1981 the Rangers eliminated the Kings during the first round of theplayoffs. Contents Paths to the Finals New York Rangers This was New York's 11th appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals, and they were seeking their fifth Cup championship overall and their first one since1994, 20 years earlier. Since their win in 1994, their only other post-season highlights were reaching the Conference Finals in 1997 and 2012. The Rangers entered the season after essentially swapping head coaches with theVancouver Canucks: the Rangers and the Canucks firedJohn TortorellaandAlain Vigneault,", "Vigneault, respectively, and then coincidentally hired the other's former coach.While Vancouver, under Tortorella's first year, failed to make the playoffs, Vigneault guided New York to 96 regular season points and second place in the newMetropolitan Division.En route, the Rangers made a major trade with theTampa Bay Lightningon March 5, acquiring Tampa Bay's captainMartin St. Louisin exchange for their own captainRyan Callahan. The transaction happened as Callahan and the Rangers were not close to terms on a new contract, while St. Louis was unhappy at his initial omission from the Olympics bySteve Yzerman(general manager of both the Lightning andTeam Canada). In the first round of the playoffs, the Rangers eliminated thePhiladelphia Flyersin seven games.Then, in the second round against thePittsburgh Penguins, New York overcame a 3–1 game deficit to win the series.In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Rangers defeated theMontreal Canadiensin six games to capture their first Eastern Conference championship", "championship in20 years.In the process, the Rangers became the first team ever to play two full seven-game series in the first two rounds of the playoffs and reach the Stanley Cup Finals, a feat later matched and exceeded in the same postseason by the Kings. Due to trading away captain Ryan Callahan and not naming a successor for the remainder of the season, Rangers were the first team since the1972–73 Chicago Black Hawksto advance to the Stanley Cup Finals without a captain. By reaching the Finals with the Rangers,Mats Zuccarellomade history when he became the firstNorwegianto play in the Stanley Cup Finals. Los Angeles Kings Los Angeles made their third appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals and sought to capture their second Cup championship after winning it in2012. Much of the core from the Kings' 2012 championship remained on the team. Los Angeles made a late regular season trade on March 5, acquiring former RangerMarian Gaborikfrom theColumbus Blue Jacketsin exchange forMatt Frattinand two draft", "two draft picks.The Kings then finished the regular season in third place in thePacific Divisionwith 100 points. The Finals were the only series in the 2014 playoffs in which the Kings had home ice advantage. Los Angeles needed three consecutive game sevens to advance to the Cup Finals (breaking the aforementioned Rangers' game sevens record just a couple of days later), winning all of them on the road.The team became the fourth team in NHL playoff history to win a seven-game series after losing the first three games, defeating theSan Jose Sharksin the first round.The Kings eliminated theirlocal rivalAnaheim Ducksnext, despite squandering a 2–0 series lead and then facing a 3–2 series deficit.In a rematch of the 2013 Western Conference Final, the Kings defeated the defending Stanley Cup championChicago Blackhawksin the Western Conference Final who had forced a seventh game after trailing the series 3–1. Like their 2012 championship series, the Kings' 2014 Cup Finals was marked by a 3–0 series start of", "3–0 series start of winning the first two games in overtime and the third as a shutout.With their 2014 Stanley Cup win, the Kings have the distinction of winning the first championship after the League's realignment as well as becoming the first team in the salary-cap era to win two championships in the span of three years or less.Their 2012 championship made them also the final team to win the Cup in the League's last full season before the realignment, as the 2012–13 season was shortened by a lockout.The Kings played a record 26 playoff games to win the Stanley Cup, the most ever for a champion (theSt. Louis Bluesmatched this feat in2019). Game summaries Game one The Kings overcame a two-goal deficit to defeat the Rangers 3–2 in the first game. New York built their 2–0 lead in the first period by scoring 1:42 apart.Benoit Pouliotscored first on a breakaway after stealing the puck fromDrew Doughty, then shooting pastJonathan Quick.Carl Hagelinthen recorded a short-handed goal, as his shot was initially", "shot was initially blocked by Quick but then rebounded off ofSlava Voynov's skate into the net. The Kings' comeback began withKyle Clifford's goal late in the first period. Clifford shot it in from near the left post after receiving a pass fromJeff Carter. Doughty tied the game in the second period, beatingHenrik Lundqvistfrom the left circle. In the third period, the Kings outshot the Rangers, 20–3, but neither Lundqvist nor Quick allowed any goals. In the final minute of regulation, Quick stopped Hagelin's shot on a breakaway, and seconds later Lundqvist barely kept Carter's wrap-around shot from crossing the goal line. In overtime,Daniel Girarditurned over the puck in the New York zone, leadingMike Richardsto pass the puck toJustin Williams, who then put the puck over Lundqvist to win the game. Game two The Kings overcame three two-goal deficits to defeat the Rangers 5–4 in double overtime. Including their game seven victory in the Western Conference Final against theChicago Blackhawks, Los Angeles became", "Los Angeles became the first team in Stanley Cup playoffs history to overcome three consecutive two-goal deficits. With the first game also going to overtime, it marked the third consecutive year that the first two games of the Stanley Cup Finals went to overtime. Ryan McDonagh and Mats Zuccarello scored in the first period to give the Rangers a 2–0 lead.Jarret Stollthen cut New York's lead in half at 1:46 of the second period. The teams then traded power play goals withMartin St. Louisscoring for the Rangers andWillie Mitchellfor the Kings. Eleven seconds after Mitchell's goal,Derick Brassardgave New York a 4–2 lead after miscommunication between Mitchell and Jonathan Quick behind the Kings net lead to a turnover.Dwight King's goal to cut the Rangers' lead to 4–3 early in the third period was controversial. King and McDonagh were fighting for position in front of Henrik Lundqvist whenMatt Greeneshot the puck from the right point. King made contact with Lundqvist in the crease as he touched the puck before", "the puck before it went into the net but no goaltender interference was called: the referee ruled that the contact occurred after the puck already sailed past Lundqvist.Marian Gaborik then tied the game with an unassisted goal at 7:36 of the third during a scramble in front of the New York net. At 10:26 of double overtime,Dustin Browndeflected Mitchell's shot from the left point into the net to give the Kings the 5–4 win. This gave the Kings a 2–0 series lead as the series shifted to New York City, despite never leading in either game during regulation time in Los Angeles. Game three This was the first Stanley Cup Finals game played in the state ofNew Yorksince Game 6 of the1999 FinalsinBuffalo. The Kings won 3–0, led by the goaltending of Jonathan Quick, who shut out the Rangers on 32 shots. The first period was marked by tight checking, and only nine shots were recorded by the two teams. Mats Zuccarello nearly scored for the Rangers at 12:37 of the first, but his shot went off the post and Quick's stick to", "Quick's stick to stay out. With one second to play, Jeff Carter's shot from the slot deflected off a Rangers defenceman past Henrik Lundqvist to put the Kings ahead by one. In the second period,Jake Muzzinscored from the point on another deflection off a Rangers player. Mike Richards scored later in the period, on a two-on-one, his attempted pass deflecting off a Rangers player back to him, leaving Lundqvist out of position to make the stop. Meanwhile, Quick stopped all 17 shots the Rangers put on the net in the second, including a stick save on Derick Brassard when he appeared to be well out of position to make the save. There was no scoring in the third and the Kings took a three games to none series lead, putting the Rangers on the brink of elimination. Game four The Rangers avoided becoming the first team since1998to get swept in the Finals by defeating the Kings 2–1. In a turn-around from game three, the Kings outshot the Rangers and lost as Rangers netminder Henrik Lundqvist saved 40 out of 41 shots.", "40 out of 41 shots. Like games one and two, the Rangers scored the first two goals, on goals by Benoit Pouliot and Martin St. Louis. Dustin Brown scored for the Kings in the second period to cut the margin to 2–1. In the third period, the Kings put pressure on the Rangers and nearly tied the score when the puck slid past Lundqvist to rest on the goal line before being cleared away. Earlier, in the first period, another shot by the Kings also rested on the goal line and did not go in. In all, the Kings outshot the Rangers 15–1 in the third, but did not score. Game five The Kings clinched their second Stanley Cup in franchise history, their first since2012, by defeating the Rangers 3–2 on home ice. This was the first Stanley Cup–clinching game since2010to be determined in overtime, and the first time that the home team had the overtime Stanley Cup winner since1980. The Kings played 26 playoff games on their road to the trophy, more than any previous Stanley Cup–winning team. The Kings grabbed the lead in the", "the lead in the first period with an even-strength goal by Justin Williams. In the second,Chris Kreiderconverted on a Rangers power play beforeBrian Boylescored a short-handed goal to put the road team up by one with 30 seconds left. In the third, Marian Gaborik tied the game at two on a Kings power play. No more goals were scored in regulation and the game went to overtime. The first overtime period featured one penalty for the Kings, but the Rangers were unable to score on the ensuing power play. With five minutes to go in the second overtime period and the Kings on a 3-on-2 breakaway, Tyler Toffoli fired a shot that Henrik Lundqvist kicked out directly toAlec Martinez, who fired it into the open net to win both the game and the series for the Kings. At that time, the Kings had outshot the Rangers 51–30. It was the longest game in Kings history until 2018. Team rosters Years indicated inboldfaceunder the \"Finals appearance\" column signify that the player won the Stanley Cup in the given year. Los Angeles", "year. Los Angeles Kings New York Rangers Note:Brad Richardsserved as the Rangers unofficial team captain during the2014 Stanley Cup playoffs. Richards was the alternate captain with the longest tenure in the league on the roster at the time of the playoffs. Stanley Cup engraving The 2014 Stanley Cup was presented to Kings captain Dustin Brown byNHL CommissionerGary Bettmanfollowing the Kings 3–2 overtime win over the Rangers in game five. The following Kings players and staff had their names engraved on the Stanley Cup 2013–14 Los Angeles Kings Players Coaching and administrative staff Stanley Cup engraving Television This was the last year under the League's current Canadian TV contracts withCBC(English broadcasts of the Finals) and the cable networkTSN(English broadcasts), andRDS(French broadcasts). The NHL's twelve-year contract withRogers Communicationswould then take effect beginning next season, with English-language national coverage of the Finals being sub-licensed to CBC, and French-language", "and French-language telecasts being sub-licensed toTVA Sports. TSN will only be showing regional games for Toronto, Ottawa and Winnipeg starting the fall of 2014. In the United States,NBCSNbroadcast games three and four, whileNBCtelevised the remaining games. NBC Sports originally planned to repeat its coverage pattern from the last few seasons: NBCSN would televise game two and three, while NBC would broadcast game one, and then games four to seven.After the League scheduled game two on the day of the2014 Belmont Stakes, coverage of games two and four were switched so NBC's telecast of the horse race would serve as lead-in programming to game two. Due to the death of a family member, NBC lead play-by-play announcerMike Emrickmissed game one.Kenny Albert, who was also the Rangers radio announcer forWEPNand announced several national games (including the Western Conference Finals) for NBC/NBCSN, filled in for Emrick in the first game. Quotes Starting back up with it now it’s Martinez in a three on two,", "in a three on two, Clifford gave it across. It’s held in a shot, save, rebound, SCORE! THE STANLEY CUP! MARTINEZ! References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustin_Brown_(ice_hockey" ]
What were the top 5 Billboard songs by musical groups in the year 1985?
1. "Careless Whisper" by Wham! 2. "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go" by Wham! 3. "I Want to Know What Love Is" by Foreigner 4. "Out of Touch" by Hall & Oats. 5. "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" by Tears for Fears
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Year-End_Hot_100_singles_of_1985#:~:text=Article,11
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wham!
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_to_Know_What_Love_Is
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_of_Touch
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everybody_Wants_to_Rule_the_World
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Year-End_Hot_100_singles_of_1985#:~:text=Article,11', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wham!', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_to_Know_What_Love_Is', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_of_Touch', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everybody_Wants_to_Rule_the_World']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_Year-End_Hot_100_singles_of_1985#:~:text=Article,11", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wham!", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_to_Know_What_Love_Is", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_of_Touch", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everybody_Wants_to_Rule_the_World" ]
[ "BillboardYear-End Hot 100 singles of 1985 This is a list ofBillboardmagazine's TopHot 100singlesof1985. See also References", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Wham! (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9384fdf0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/I_Want_to_Know_What_Love_Is (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93b03f40>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Out of Touch \"Out of Touch\" is a song by American duoDaryl Hall & John Oatesfrom their twelfth studioalbumBig Bam Boom(1984). The song was released as thelead singlefromBig Bam Boomon Thursday, October 4, 1984, byRCA Records. This song was their lastBillboardHot 100number-one single, topping the chart for two weeks in December 1984. It also became the duo's fourteenth consecutivetop 40hit since 1980. The song often segued from \"Dance on Your Knees\", which is the opening song of theBig Bam Boomalbum. The accompanyingmusic videofor \"Out of Touch\", featuring a gigantic drum kit, also contains the \"Dance on Your Knees\" intro, which segues into an edit of the 12-inch remix version. According to John Oates, he came up with the chorus while randomly playing around with a synthesizer that he did not know how to use. He thought it could be a song forthe Stylistics, having aPhilly sound. But in the studio the next day a co-producer told him it should be a hit for Hall & Oates themselves. Oates and Hall then co-wrote the verse. Track listing and formats US 7-inch vinyl single US 12-inch vinyl single UK 12-inch vinyl single Credits Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications ^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Music video A video was made for the song, including scenes in which Hall and Oates were inside a gigantic drum set, which Oates bangs an equally gigantic bass drum pedal into, and from which at the end of the video, both Hall and Oates escape. The video also features the word boom in gigantic letters, with Hall and Oates dancing inside the two big O letters. Uniting Nations version Englishdance musicactUniting Nationscovered \"Out of Touch\" and released it as their debut single on November 15, 2004. This version peaked at number seven on theUK Singles Chartin January 2005 and remained in the top 75 for 21 weeks. Elsewhere, the cover reached number one in Romania—where it was the most successful single of 2005—and became a top-10 hit in Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Norway. The vocals on the recording were done by vocalist and session artistJinian Wilde. Music video The music video for the song features actors Paul Spicer,Charleene Rena, Hayley-Marie Coppin, Sophie Lovell Anderson, Daniela Martins, a participant of French Big BrotherSecret Story, and one unidentified woman playingstrip poker. The women realise Spicer ischeatingby wearing anin-ear monitorwhich leads to aCCTVroom with cameras watching the girls and their cards. The video continues with the women getting their own back, and Spicer losing histrousersduring the poker game. The video ends with Spicer running out the room with his hair ruffled in hisbriefs, looking embarrassed, while the girls popchampagnecorks and continue partying. Track listings UK CD single UK 12-inch single Australian and New Zealand CD single Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications ‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References External links", "Everybody Wants to Rule the World \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" is a song by Englishpop rockbandTears for Fearsfrom their second studio albumSongs from the Big Chair(1985). It was written byRoland Orzabal,Ian Stanley, andChris Hughesand produced by Hughes. It was released on 22 March 1985 byPhonogram,Mercury, andVertigo Recordsas the third single from the album. \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" is anew waveandsynth-popsong with lyrics that detail the desire humans have for control and power and centre on themes ofcorruption. An international success, the song peaked at number two in Ireland, Australia, and the United Kingdom and at number one in Canada, New Zealand, and on both the USBillboardHot 100andCashbox. It was certified gold by bothMusic Canada(MC) and theBritish Phonographic Industry(BPI). Retrospectively, music critics have praised \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\", with some ranking the song among the decade's best. Along with \"Shout\" (1984), it is one of the band'ssignature songs. A music video received promotion fromMTV. The year of the song's release, it was featured in the ending to the science fiction comedy filmReal Genius. In 1986, the song wonBest Singleat theBrit Awards, and was re-recorded by the band as a charity single for theSport Aidcampaign the same year. \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" has been covered extensively since its release, most notably by New Zealand singerLordefor the soundtrack to the film adaptation ofThe Hunger Games: Catching Fire. Background and release \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was written byRoland Orzabal,Ian StanleyandChris Hughes, and produced by Hughes. The song was a \"last-minute\" addition during recording sessions ofSongs from the Big Chair(1985). The decision to include the song in the album came after Orzabal played two chords on hisacoustic guitarfor Hughes.It was recorded in two weeks and added as the final track on the album. According to Orzabal, the final line in the song's chorus, originally written as \"Everybody wants to go to war\", contributed to his indifference towards the track. In an interview withMixmagazine, Hughes said that \"as a piece of recording history, bland as hell\".Orzabal's unimpressed reaction to the track during their songwriting sessions prompted Hughes to convince him to record it, in a calculated effort to garner American chart success. After completing their sessions at 6 p.m., they would spend an hour reviewing each recording many times; this helped Orzabal to create the song's guitar figure and change its title.Orzabal acknowledged that theshuffle beatused in the song was \"alien\" to their way of writing music, stating it was \"jolly rather than square and rigid in the manner of \"Shout\", but it continued the process of becoming more extrovert.\"Curt Smith, the song's lead singer, said the themes were \"quite serious – it's about everybody wanting power, about warfare and the misery it causes.\" \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was first released on 22 March 1985throughPhonogram,MercuryandVertigo Recordsas the third single fromSongs from the Big Chair.The song was released for sale (as a7-inch,10-inchand12-inchvinyl set) which included its B-side, interviews from the band and different versions of the song.To accommodate the vinyl release, a CD video set was also distributed and included the song's music video along with audios of bonus tracks. Composition and lyrical interpretation \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" is anew waveandsynth-popsong.The song is set in thekeyofD majorwith a128time signatureand atempoof 112 beats per minute.The band stated that the drivingshuffle rhythmwas influenced bySimple Minds' 1983 song \"Waterfront\",andLinx's 1981 song \"Throw Away the Key\".\"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" incorporatessynthesizers,guitar,a shuffle groove,twoguitar solos,andkeyboards. According toJoe Strummer(ofThe Clash) in a 1988 interview, he was in a restaurant and saw Orzabal, whereupon he told him that \"you owe me a fiver\", explaining that the title of \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was an exact lift of the first line of the middle eight in \"Charlie Don't Surf\". According to Strummer, Orzabal simply reached into his pocket and gave him a five pound note, confirming that this had been the case.The song's lyrics detail the desire humans have for control and power.In 2017, Tal Rosenberg ofPitchforkstated that its lyrics could be applied in different scenarios such as the environment (\"Turn your back onmother nature\"), short-lived financial success (\"Help me make the most of freedom and of pleasure/Nothing ever lasts forever\"),dictatorialrule (\"Even while we sleep/We will find you\"), and theCold War(\"Holding hands while thewallscome tumbling down\"). The song's lyrics have elicited different political interpretations. A writer forThe Economistcalled the track \"a Cold War anthem\" and noted its \"timeless message\", stating that \"the song's lyrics speak to the anxieties of every age\".Marc Ambinder fromThe Atlanticused the lyrics \"Say that you'll never, never, never need it / One headline, why believe it? / Everybody wants to rule the world\" in his article about the United States government's use of \"original classified authority\" and the abuse of power between thebranches of government.Dominic Pino ofNational Reviewdescribed the track as a \"conservative pop song\", noting the lyrics' tension between \"personal ambition\" and \"channeling that personal ambition to good ends\", comparing these themes toJames Madison's concerns about private interest in theFederalist Papers.Curt Smith challenged this interpretation. Tears for Fears revisited the song and its message in a 2017 interview withYahoo! Music, stating that the song's themes were still \"just as poignant\" as they were when they first wrote it.They mentioned that they discussed the Cold War with \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" andSongs from the Big Chairbut that was the \"U.S. and Russiathen, and now the concern is more with theU.S. and Korea.\" Reception Consequence of Soundeditor Michael Roffman praised the group for being able to produce a \"timeless and influential composition\" with minimal effort. Roffman also noted that \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was appropriate when it was first released, calling it a \"meditative commentary on an era that was so corrupt economically and spiritually.\"AllMusic's Stanton Swihart expressed in his retrospective review that the group \"perfectly captured the zeitgeist of the mid-'80s while impossibly managing to also create a dreamy, timeless pop classic.\"Pitchforkcalled it a song with \"near-universal appeal\", as well as a staple for \"classic-rock radio, pharmacies, bars, and parties\".In their review for the best albums of the 1980s, Eric Henderson fromSlant Magazinestated that the song \"seems like one of the great indictments of the materialism and false triumphalism of the decade.\" \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was voted the 25th best single inThe Village Voice'sPazz & Jopcritics' poll for 1985 with 17 points, sharing the spot withTom Petty and the Heartbreakers' \"Don't Come Around Here No More\" (1985) andSade's \"Smooth Operator\" (1984).Pitchforkplaced the song at number 82 on their list for the best songs of the 80s expressing that \"underneath thesynth-popsheen, its vague message\" and its lesson in how power-driven society could be, the song was able to reach \"ReaganandMargaret-era youth fed up with political greed\".Kevin Korber fromSpectrum Cultureranked the song at 24 on his 80s decade list, calling the song a \"testament to how much of a free-for-all the pop landscape was in the 1980s\". Korber dismissed the song's vague lyrics but praised its complex melodic structure, saying it was \"both the perfect representation of its time and a timeless composition\".Trebleincluded the song at number 49 on their decade list.In 2021,Rolling Stoneranked the song at number 319 in their updated list of the500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In 1986, the song won \"Best Single\" at theBrit Awards. Band member and co-writerRoland Orzabalargued that the song deserved to win the Ivor Novello International Hit of the Year award, claiming that the winner—\"19\" byPaul Hardcastle—was not an actual song, but only a \"dialogue collage\".In 2015, 30 years after its release, the song was honoured at the annualBMI Awardsin London for achieving 6 million radio airplays.\"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" is regarded as the group'ssignature song, along with \"Shout\" (1984). \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was banned for broadcast by theBBCfor the duration of the firstGulf War(2 August 1990 – 28 February 1991) due to the song's political themes. The song was used as the title theme forDennis Millerduring the first several seasons of hisHBOtalk show,Dennis Miller Live.It was later replaced due to costs associated with licensing the song. The song was also featured in the 2008 video gameSaints Row 2. Commercial performance In the United Kingdom, \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" debuted at number 16 on theUK Singles Chart, in the issue dated 24 March 1985.On the week of 14 April 1985, the song peaked at number two, where it stayed for an additional week, both times being blocked from the top spot by \"We Are the World\" byUSA for Africa.\"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" received a gold certification by theBritish Phonographic Industry(BPI) on 13 April 2018 for 500,000 salesand re-entered the UK Singles Chart in 2022 and 2023. In addition, as of May 2023, is the 12th moststreamedsong from the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s by British artists in the United Kingdom.The song peaked at number three in Belgium,and at number two in both the Netherlands and Ireland. In the United States, \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" debuted at number 70 on theBillboardHot 100in the issue dated 16 March 1985.On the week of 27 April 1985, the song rose to number 18.On the week of 8 June 1985, the song moved 2–1, replacingWham!'s \"Everything She Wants\" (1984) as the number one on the chart;it would spend a total of two weeks in this position. The song was a commercial success in other American markets, peaking at number two on theAdult ContemporaryandTop Rock Tracksand charting at number one on theHot Dance Club Play,Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales,andCash Boxcharts.It ranks as the 345th best-charting single of all time in the United States.In Canada, the song reached the number one spot,earning a gold certification fromMusic Canada(MC) for 40,000 sales shipments on 1 May 1985. In Australia, the song reached the number two position.On the report dated 19 May 1985, the song debuted at number four on theNew Zealand Top 40 Singleschart; it would later peak at number one.It was certified Gold by theRecorded Music NZ(RMNZ) for sales of 10,000. B-side: \"Pharaohs\" \"Pharaohs\" is theB-sideto the \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" single. It samples a recording ofBBC Radio 4announcerBrian Perkinsreading theShipping Forecastfor theNorth Searegion of theUnited Kingdom.The title of the song has an identical enunciation to theFaroe Islands(\"Faroes\"), one of the places referenced in the forecast. Orzabal, Ian Stanley,Curt Smithand Hughes share writing credits.\"Pharaohs\" is included on theGroove Armadacompilation albumBack to Mine(2000).Chris Hughes wrote about the song in the liner notes ofSaturnine Martial & Lunatic(1996), saying: No matter how horrifying the conditions may really be, the voice reading the shipping forecast is deliberately calm and relaxed. Recorded atthe Wool Hallfor the B-side of 'Everybody' in a calm and relaxed way. \"Pharaohs\" shipping forecast read byBrian Perkins: There are warnings of gales in Viking, Forties, Cromarty, Forth, Fisher, Dover, Wight, Portland, Plymouth, Finisterre, Sole, Lundy, Fastnet, Shannon, Rockall, Malin, Hebrides, Bailey, Fair Isle, Faroes and Southeast Iceland.The general synopsis at one eight double-O: low just north of Viking, nine double-seven, moving steadily east-northeast.Low 300 miles south of Iceland. Atlantic low forming, moving steadily northeast.A ridge of high pressure has swayed between North and South Utsire. The area forecast for the next twenty-four hours. Viking, Forties, Cromarty, Forth. Music video The video for \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was directed byNigel Dick. It was filmed inLos Angeles, Desert Hot Springs, Palm Springs, andCabazon,California.Curt Smithadmitted toPitchforkthat the video shoot was a \"disaster\"; Dick was \"in tears\" on the second night of shooting.Smith also mentioned that there was an accident while filming the \"dirt bikes and four-wheel off-road vehicles\" scene, with one child flying out of a vehicle and smashing his head, leaving him unconscious. The video begins with Smith driving a vintageAustin-Healey 3000sports car while a toddler points toy guns in Smith's direction.The car is then seen driving through a desert, on Interstate 10, this scene is intercut with the band performing the song in a studio. Smith parks the car at the Wheel Inn diner and makes a call from a telephone booth. The camera pans to show a statue of a prospector and his donkey in the foreground. Smith leaves the diner in the car while singing the song's lyrics. The following scene shows two men in suits performing synchronised dance movements in front of two gas pumps.Shots of young people ridingthree-wheeled ATVsanddirt bikesthrough desert sand dunes are also shown. Smith is then shown singing in the desert wearing black sunglasses as many of the dirt bike and ATV riders approach from behind him and pass to either side. The music video promoted the group in America, due to \"heavy rotation\" on the music video channelMTV.HuffPosteditor Daryl Deino ranked the video at number three on their year-end list for best music videos of 1985 stating that the video \"represents pure Americana as it was in 1985\". Deino also mentioned that the video \"proves that at times, artists were able to do so much with so little.\" Formats and track listings Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the original album liner notes, the liner notes ofSaturnine Martial & Lunatic,Reverb Machine,andMix. Tears for Fears Additional personnel Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications ^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Covers and re-releases Everybody Wants to Run the World \"Everybody Wants to Run the World\" is a re-recording of the band's song \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\". The reworked single was released in May 1986 as the theme song for theSport Aidcampaign, a charitable event held to raise money for famine relief in Africa.It was a success in theUK Singles Chart, becoming the band's sixth top 5 hit, peaking at number 5 in June 1986.The song also reached number 4 in Ireland. Lorde version New ZealandsingerLorderecorded a cover of the song for thesoundtrackofThe Hunger Games: Catching Fire(2013).The cover was produced by Peter Shurkin andJoel Littlewith arrangement byMichael A. Levineand Lucas Cantor.Orzabal praised Lorde for reinventing the cover, stating that the group finds it interesting when artists take what they do and reinterpret it.For their Rule the World Tour, the duo uses this version to launch their show. Critics were positively receptive to the cover, some praised it for its darker atmosphere mood although others criticized it for stripping away the song's original upbeat composition.David Haglund fromSlatestated that while the song \"doesn't top the great original, it does memorably reinvent it\".Sam Lansky fromIdolatorcalled the cover \"haunting and melodramatic\".Conversely,Stereogumeditor Nate Patrin criticized the chorus and production but praised the \"aloof strangeness\" in Lorde's vocals for being able to carry the song \"past the usual Dramatic Reenvisionings\".PasteandExclaim!included the cover in their respective 2013 year-end lists for covers,while the former ranked it 13th on their decade-end list for covers.Her cover appeared on theNew Zealand Singles Chartat number 14.It reached number 53 in Australia,number 65 in the United Kingdom,number 93 in France,and number 27 on the U.S.Hot Rock Songschart. Weekly charts Certifications ‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Other versions Ted Leo and the Pharmacistscovered the song in 2010 for the inaugural episode ofThe A.V. Club'sA.V. Undercoverweb series. Relient Krecorded a version of the song for their 2011 cover albumIs for Karaoke. Weezercovered the song on their 2019self-titled cover album.They were joined by Orzabal and Smith to perform the song live atCoachella 2019on April 14,and again two days later onJimmy Kimmel Live!. The song wasinterpolatedbyMiley Cyrusfor a remix of \"Black Skinhead\" byKanye Westwhich leaked online in January 2016. The song appears at the end ofDespicable Me 4, whenGruand Maxime Le Mal are in prison putting on a talent show for all of the prisoners. The cover version, performed by the film's cast, also appears onthe movie's soundtrack. See also References" ]
[ "BillboardYear-End Hot 100 singles of 1985 This is a list ofBillboardmagazine's TopHot 100singlesof1985. See also References", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Wham! (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9384fdf0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/I_Want_to_Know_What_Love_Is (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93b03f40>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Out of Touch \"Out of Touch\" is a song by American duoDaryl Hall & John Oatesfrom their twelfth studioalbumBig Bam Boom(1984). The song was released as thelead singlefromBig Bam Boomon Thursday, October 4, 1984, byRCA Records. This song was their lastBillboardHot 100number-one single, topping the chart for two weeks in December 1984. It also became the duo's fourteenth consecutivetop 40hit since 1980. The song often segued from \"Dance on Your Knees\", which is the opening song of theBig Bam Boomalbum. The accompanyingmusic videofor \"Out of Touch\", featuring a gigantic drum kit, also contains the \"Dance on Your Knees\" intro, which segues into an edit of the 12-inch remix version. According to John Oates, he came up with the chorus while randomly playing around with a synthesizer that he did not know how to use. He thought it could be a song forthe Stylistics, having aPhilly sound. But in the studio the next day a co-producer told him it should be a hit for Hall & Oates themselves. Oates and Hall then co-wrote", "Hall then co-wrote the verse. Track listing and formats US 7-inch vinyl single US 12-inch vinyl single UK 12-inch vinyl single Credits Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications ^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Music video A video was made for the song, including scenes in which Hall and Oates were inside a gigantic drum set, which Oates bangs an equally gigantic bass drum pedal into, and from which at the end of the video, both Hall and Oates escape. The video also features the word boom in gigantic letters, with Hall and Oates dancing inside the two big O letters. Uniting Nations version Englishdance musicactUniting Nationscovered \"Out of Touch\" and released it as their debut single on November 15, 2004. This version peaked at number seven on theUK Singles Chartin January 2005 and remained in the top 75 for 21 weeks. Elsewhere, the cover reached number one in Romania—where it was the most successful single of 2005—and became a", "2005—and became a top-10 hit in Finland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Norway. The vocals on the recording were done by vocalist and session artistJinian Wilde. Music video The music video for the song features actors Paul Spicer,Charleene Rena, Hayley-Marie Coppin, Sophie Lovell Anderson, Daniela Martins, a participant of French Big BrotherSecret Story, and one unidentified woman playingstrip poker. The women realise Spicer ischeatingby wearing anin-ear monitorwhich leads to aCCTVroom with cameras watching the girls and their cards. The video continues with the women getting their own back, and Spicer losing histrousersduring the poker game. The video ends with Spicer running out the room with his hair ruffled in hisbriefs, looking embarrassed, while the girls popchampagnecorks and continue partying. Track listings UK CD single UK 12-inch single Australian and New Zealand CD single Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications ‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See", "Release history See also References External links", "Everybody Wants to Rule the World \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" is a song by Englishpop rockbandTears for Fearsfrom their second studio albumSongs from the Big Chair(1985). It was written byRoland Orzabal,Ian Stanley, andChris Hughesand produced by Hughes. It was released on 22 March 1985 byPhonogram,Mercury, andVertigo Recordsas the third single from the album. \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" is anew waveandsynth-popsong with lyrics that detail the desire humans have for control and power and centre on themes ofcorruption. An international success, the song peaked at number two in Ireland, Australia, and the United Kingdom and at number one in Canada, New Zealand, and on both the USBillboardHot 100andCashbox. It was certified gold by bothMusic Canada(MC) and theBritish Phonographic Industry(BPI). Retrospectively, music critics have praised \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\", with some ranking the song among the decade's best. Along with \"Shout\" (1984), it is one of the band'ssignature songs. A", "songs. A music video received promotion fromMTV. The year of the song's release, it was featured in the ending to the science fiction comedy filmReal Genius. In 1986, the song wonBest Singleat theBrit Awards, and was re-recorded by the band as a charity single for theSport Aidcampaign the same year. \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" has been covered extensively since its release, most notably by New Zealand singerLordefor the soundtrack to the film adaptation ofThe Hunger Games: Catching Fire. Background and release \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was written byRoland Orzabal,Ian StanleyandChris Hughes, and produced by Hughes. The song was a \"last-minute\" addition during recording sessions ofSongs from the Big Chair(1985). The decision to include the song in the album came after Orzabal played two chords on hisacoustic guitarfor Hughes.It was recorded in two weeks and added as the final track on the album. According to Orzabal, the final line in the song's chorus, originally written as \"Everybody wants", "as \"Everybody wants to go to war\", contributed to his indifference towards the track. In an interview withMixmagazine, Hughes said that \"as a piece of recording history, bland as hell\".Orzabal's unimpressed reaction to the track during their songwriting sessions prompted Hughes to convince him to record it, in a calculated effort to garner American chart success. After completing their sessions at 6 p.m., they would spend an hour reviewing each recording many times; this helped Orzabal to create the song's guitar figure and change its title.Orzabal acknowledged that theshuffle beatused in the song was \"alien\" to their way of writing music, stating it was \"jolly rather than square and rigid in the manner of \"Shout\", but it continued the process of becoming more extrovert.\"Curt Smith, the song's lead singer, said the themes were \"quite serious – it's about everybody wanting power, about warfare and the misery it causes.\" \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was first released on 22 March", "on 22 March 1985throughPhonogram,MercuryandVertigo Recordsas the third single fromSongs from the Big Chair.The song was released for sale (as a7-inch,10-inchand12-inchvinyl set) which included its B-side, interviews from the band and different versions of the song.To accommodate the vinyl release, a CD video set was also distributed and included the song's music video along with audios of bonus tracks. Composition and lyrical interpretation \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" is anew waveandsynth-popsong.The song is set in thekeyofD majorwith a128time signatureand atempoof 112 beats per minute.The band stated that the drivingshuffle rhythmwas influenced bySimple Minds' 1983 song \"Waterfront\",andLinx's 1981 song \"Throw Away the Key\".\"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" incorporatessynthesizers,guitar,a shuffle groove,twoguitar solos,andkeyboards. According toJoe Strummer(ofThe Clash) in a 1988 interview, he was in a restaurant and saw Orzabal, whereupon he told him that \"you owe me a fiver\", explaining that", "explaining that the title of \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was an exact lift of the first line of the middle eight in \"Charlie Don't Surf\". According to Strummer, Orzabal simply reached into his pocket and gave him a five pound note, confirming that this had been the case.The song's lyrics detail the desire humans have for control and power.In 2017, Tal Rosenberg ofPitchforkstated that its lyrics could be applied in different scenarios such as the environment (\"Turn your back onmother nature\"), short-lived financial success (\"Help me make the most of freedom and of pleasure/Nothing ever lasts forever\"),dictatorialrule (\"Even while we sleep/We will find you\"), and theCold War(\"Holding hands while thewallscome tumbling down\"). The song's lyrics have elicited different political interpretations. A writer forThe Economistcalled the track \"a Cold War anthem\" and noted its \"timeless message\", stating that \"the song's lyrics speak to the anxieties of every age\".Marc Ambinder fromThe Atlanticused the lyrics", "the lyrics \"Say that you'll never, never, never need it / One headline, why believe it? / Everybody wants to rule the world\" in his article about the United States government's use of \"original classified authority\" and the abuse of power between thebranches of government.Dominic Pino ofNational Reviewdescribed the track as a \"conservative pop song\", noting the lyrics' tension between \"personal ambition\" and \"channeling that personal ambition to good ends\", comparing these themes toJames Madison's concerns about private interest in theFederalist Papers.Curt Smith challenged this interpretation. Tears for Fears revisited the song and its message in a 2017 interview withYahoo! Music, stating that the song's themes were still \"just as poignant\" as they were when they first wrote it.They mentioned that they discussed the Cold War with \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" andSongs from the Big Chairbut that was the \"U.S. and Russiathen, and now the concern is more with theU.S. and Korea.\" Reception Consequence of", "Consequence of Soundeditor Michael Roffman praised the group for being able to produce a \"timeless and influential composition\" with minimal effort. Roffman also noted that \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was appropriate when it was first released, calling it a \"meditative commentary on an era that was so corrupt economically and spiritually.\"AllMusic's Stanton Swihart expressed in his retrospective review that the group \"perfectly captured the zeitgeist of the mid-'80s while impossibly managing to also create a dreamy, timeless pop classic.\"Pitchforkcalled it a song with \"near-universal appeal\", as well as a staple for \"classic-rock radio, pharmacies, bars, and parties\".In their review for the best albums of the 1980s, Eric Henderson fromSlant Magazinestated that the song \"seems like one of the great indictments of the materialism and false triumphalism of the decade.\" \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was voted the 25th best single inThe Village Voice'sPazz & Jopcritics' poll for 1985 with 17 points,", "with 17 points, sharing the spot withTom Petty and the Heartbreakers' \"Don't Come Around Here No More\" (1985) andSade's \"Smooth Operator\" (1984).Pitchforkplaced the song at number 82 on their list for the best songs of the 80s expressing that \"underneath thesynth-popsheen, its vague message\" and its lesson in how power-driven society could be, the song was able to reach \"ReaganandMargaret-era youth fed up with political greed\".Kevin Korber fromSpectrum Cultureranked the song at 24 on his 80s decade list, calling the song a \"testament to how much of a free-for-all the pop landscape was in the 1980s\". Korber dismissed the song's vague lyrics but praised its complex melodic structure, saying it was \"both the perfect representation of its time and a timeless composition\".Trebleincluded the song at number 49 on their decade list.In 2021,Rolling Stoneranked the song at number 319 in their updated list of the500 Greatest Songs of All Time. In 1986, the song won \"Best Single\" at theBrit Awards. Band member and", "Band member and co-writerRoland Orzabalargued that the song deserved to win the Ivor Novello International Hit of the Year award, claiming that the winner—\"19\" byPaul Hardcastle—was not an actual song, but only a \"dialogue collage\".In 2015, 30 years after its release, the song was honoured at the annualBMI Awardsin London for achieving 6 million radio airplays.\"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" is regarded as the group'ssignature song, along with \"Shout\" (1984). \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was banned for broadcast by theBBCfor the duration of the firstGulf War(2 August 1990 – 28 February 1991) due to the song's political themes. The song was used as the title theme forDennis Millerduring the first several seasons of hisHBOtalk show,Dennis Miller Live.It was later replaced due to costs associated with licensing the song. The song was also featured in the 2008 video gameSaints Row 2. Commercial performance In the United Kingdom, \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" debuted at number 16 on theUK Singles", "16 on theUK Singles Chart, in the issue dated 24 March 1985.On the week of 14 April 1985, the song peaked at number two, where it stayed for an additional week, both times being blocked from the top spot by \"We Are the World\" byUSA for Africa.\"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" received a gold certification by theBritish Phonographic Industry(BPI) on 13 April 2018 for 500,000 salesand re-entered the UK Singles Chart in 2022 and 2023. In addition, as of May 2023, is the 12th moststreamedsong from the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s by British artists in the United Kingdom.The song peaked at number three in Belgium,and at number two in both the Netherlands and Ireland. In the United States, \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" debuted at number 70 on theBillboardHot 100in the issue dated 16 March 1985.On the week of 27 April 1985, the song rose to number 18.On the week of 8 June 1985, the song moved 2–1, replacingWham!'s \"Everything She Wants\" (1984) as the number one on the chart;it would spend a total of two weeks in", "of two weeks in this position. The song was a commercial success in other American markets, peaking at number two on theAdult ContemporaryandTop Rock Tracksand charting at number one on theHot Dance Club Play,Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales,andCash Boxcharts.It ranks as the 345th best-charting single of all time in the United States.In Canada, the song reached the number one spot,earning a gold certification fromMusic Canada(MC) for 40,000 sales shipments on 1 May 1985. In Australia, the song reached the number two position.On the report dated 19 May 1985, the song debuted at number four on theNew Zealand Top 40 Singleschart; it would later peak at number one.It was certified Gold by theRecorded Music NZ(RMNZ) for sales of 10,000. B-side: \"Pharaohs\" \"Pharaohs\" is theB-sideto the \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" single. It samples a recording ofBBC Radio 4announcerBrian Perkinsreading theShipping Forecastfor theNorth Searegion of theUnited Kingdom.The title of the song has an identical enunciation to", "enunciation to theFaroe Islands(\"Faroes\"), one of the places referenced in the forecast. Orzabal, Ian Stanley,Curt Smithand Hughes share writing credits.\"Pharaohs\" is included on theGroove Armadacompilation albumBack to Mine(2000).Chris Hughes wrote about the song in the liner notes ofSaturnine Martial & Lunatic(1996), saying: No matter how horrifying the conditions may really be, the voice reading the shipping forecast is deliberately calm and relaxed. Recorded atthe Wool Hallfor the B-side of 'Everybody' in a calm and relaxed way. \"Pharaohs\" shipping forecast read byBrian Perkins: There are warnings of gales in Viking, Forties, Cromarty, Forth, Fisher, Dover, Wight, Portland, Plymouth, Finisterre, Sole, Lundy, Fastnet, Shannon, Rockall, Malin, Hebrides, Bailey, Fair Isle, Faroes and Southeast Iceland.The general synopsis at one eight double-O: low just north of Viking, nine double-seven, moving steadily east-northeast.Low 300 miles south of Iceland. Atlantic low forming, moving steadily northeast.A ridge", "northeast.A ridge of high pressure has swayed between North and South Utsire. The area forecast for the next twenty-four hours. Viking, Forties, Cromarty, Forth. Music video The video for \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\" was directed byNigel Dick. It was filmed inLos Angeles, Desert Hot Springs, Palm Springs, andCabazon,California.Curt Smithadmitted toPitchforkthat the video shoot was a \"disaster\"; Dick was \"in tears\" on the second night of shooting.Smith also mentioned that there was an accident while filming the \"dirt bikes and four-wheel off-road vehicles\" scene, with one child flying out of a vehicle and smashing his head, leaving him unconscious. The video begins with Smith driving a vintageAustin-Healey 3000sports car while a toddler points toy guns in Smith's direction.The car is then seen driving through a desert, on Interstate 10, this scene is intercut with the band performing the song in a studio. Smith parks the car at the Wheel Inn diner and makes a call from a telephone booth. The camera", "booth. The camera pans to show a statue of a prospector and his donkey in the foreground. Smith leaves the diner in the car while singing the song's lyrics. The following scene shows two men in suits performing synchronised dance movements in front of two gas pumps.Shots of young people ridingthree-wheeled ATVsanddirt bikesthrough desert sand dunes are also shown. Smith is then shown singing in the desert wearing black sunglasses as many of the dirt bike and ATV riders approach from behind him and pass to either side. The music video promoted the group in America, due to \"heavy rotation\" on the music video channelMTV.HuffPosteditor Daryl Deino ranked the video at number three on their year-end list for best music videos of 1985 stating that the video \"represents pure Americana as it was in 1985\". Deino also mentioned that the video \"proves that at times, artists were able to do so much with so little.\" Formats and track listings Credits and personnel Credits adapted from the original album liner notes, the", "liner notes, the liner notes ofSaturnine Martial & Lunatic,Reverb Machine,andMix. Tears for Fears Additional personnel Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications ^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Covers and re-releases Everybody Wants to Run the World \"Everybody Wants to Run the World\" is a re-recording of the band's song \"Everybody Wants to Rule the World\". The reworked single was released in May 1986 as the theme song for theSport Aidcampaign, a charitable event held to raise money for famine relief in Africa.It was a success in theUK Singles Chart, becoming the band's sixth top 5 hit, peaking at number 5 in June 1986.The song also reached number 4 in Ireland. Lorde version New ZealandsingerLorderecorded a cover of the song for thesoundtrackofThe Hunger Games: Catching Fire(2013).The cover was produced by Peter Shurkin andJoel Littlewith arrangement byMichael A. Levineand Lucas Cantor.Orzabal praised Lorde for reinventing the", "for reinventing the cover, stating that the group finds it interesting when artists take what they do and reinterpret it.For their Rule the World Tour, the duo uses this version to launch their show. Critics were positively receptive to the cover, some praised it for its darker atmosphere mood although others criticized it for stripping away the song's original upbeat composition.David Haglund fromSlatestated that while the song \"doesn't top the great original, it does memorably reinvent it\".Sam Lansky fromIdolatorcalled the cover \"haunting and melodramatic\".Conversely,Stereogumeditor Nate Patrin criticized the chorus and production but praised the \"aloof strangeness\" in Lorde's vocals for being able to carry the song \"past the usual Dramatic Reenvisionings\".PasteandExclaim!included the cover in their respective 2013 year-end lists for covers,while the former ranked it 13th on their decade-end list for covers.Her cover appeared on theNew Zealand Singles Chartat number 14.It reached number 53 in", "number 53 in Australia,number 65 in the United Kingdom,number 93 in France,and number 27 on the U.S.Hot Rock Songschart. Weekly charts Certifications ‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Other versions Ted Leo and the Pharmacistscovered the song in 2010 for the inaugural episode ofThe A.V. Club'sA.V. Undercoverweb series. Relient Krecorded a version of the song for their 2011 cover albumIs for Karaoke. Weezercovered the song on their 2019self-titled cover album.They were joined by Orzabal and Smith to perform the song live atCoachella 2019on April 14,and again two days later onJimmy Kimmel Live!. The song wasinterpolatedbyMiley Cyrusfor a remix of \"Black Skinhead\" byKanye Westwhich leaked online in January 2016. The song appears at the end ofDespicable Me 4, whenGruand Maxime Le Mal are in prison putting on a talent show for all of the prisoners. The cover version, performed by the film's cast, also appears onthe movie's soundtrack. See also References" ]
How many years after the first album release by The Beatles was the first solo album released by one of its members?
Five years
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles_discography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Harrison#Discography
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Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles_discography', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Harrison#Discography']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles_discography", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Harrison#Discography" ]
[ "The Beatles albums discography Worldwide, the Britishrockbandthe Beatlesreleased 12studio albums(17 in the US), 5live albums, 51compilation albums, 36extended plays(EPs), 17box sets, 22video albumsand 53music videos. In their native United Kingdom, during their active existence as a band, they released 12 studio albums (including 1 double album), 1 compilation album, and 13 EPs (including 1 double EP). The early albums released from 1962 to March 1968 were originally onParlophone, and their albums from August 1968 to 1970 were on their subsidiary labelApple. Their output also includes vault items, remixed mash-ups and anniversary box-sets. The Beatles are the biggest selling band of all time, selling over 500 million records.With the first CD releases of their albums in 1987 and 1988, the Beatles' core catalogue was harmonised worldwide to encompass their 12 original UK studio albums, the 1967 USMagical Mystery Touralbum and the newly assembledPast Masters: Volumes One and Twocompilation albums consisting of all the studio recordings released during 1962 to 1970 that are not present on the UK studio albums orMagical Mystery Tour(mainly non-album singles,B-sidesand EP tracks). When the core catalogue was reissued in remastered editions in 2009, the two volumes ofPast Masterswere combined into one double album. Since then, other past releases have been reissued in digital formats and on vinyl. The catalogue is currently distributed byUniversal Music Enterprises'Calderstone Productions. This core catalogue contains all 217 tracksintended for commercial release, either as album tracks, EP tracks, or singles, that were put out by the Beatles from 1962 to 1970. The Beatles' international discography is more complicated due to different versions of their albums sometimes being released in other countries, particularly during their early years onCapitol Recordsin North America. Prior to 1967, it was common practice for British releases to be reconfigured for the American market. The first seven British Beatles albums were converted into ten LPs for the American market, adding material from singles and the UK EPs; the band were unhappy with these reconfigurations. With the exception ofMagical Mystery Tour, studio releases fromSgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Bandin 1967 forward were uniform in both the UK and the US. The band's first eight albums were released on Parlophone. From 1968, in both the UK and the US, starting with the single \"Hey Jude\" and the albumThe Beatles(better known as \"the White Album\"), new releases appeared on the Beatles' own Apple record label, although Parlophone and Capitol catalogue numbers continued to be used for contractual reasons. The Beatles' discography was originally released on thevinylformat, with full-lengthlong plays(LPs), shorter EPs and singles. Over the years, the collection has also been released oncassette,8-track,compact disc(CD), on aUSB flash driveinMP3and 24-bitFLACformat, and on digital media streaming services. The Beatles' UK discography was first released on CD in 1987 and 1988. Between 1962 and 1968, the Beatles released their songs in bothmonoandstereoversions.The band's catalogue was remastered in both mono and stereo in 2009. Albums Original UK studio albums Notes Original US studio albums Notes Standardised studio albums Since the first release of their music onCDduring 1987–1988, the Beatles' studio albums have been standardised worldwide to the following albums: Live albums Notes Compilation albums Notes Mash-up albums Box sets Notes Extended plays Flexi discs The Beatles released seven consecutiveChristmas recordsonflexi discfor members of their UK and US fan clubs, from 1963 to 1969, ranging in length between 3:58 and 7:48. These short collections had a mix of spoken and musical messages for their official fan clubs. See also Notes References Sources External links", "George Harrison George HarrisonMBE(25 February 1943 – 29 November 2001)was an English musician, singer and songwriter who achieved international fame as the lead guitarist ofthe Beatles. Sometimes called \"the quiet Beatle\", Harrison embracedIndian cultureand helped broaden the scope ofpopular musicthrough his incorporation of Indian instrumentation andHindu-aligned spirituality in the Beatles' work. Although most of the band's songs were written byJohn Lennon and Paul McCartney, most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contained at least two Harrison compositions. His songs for the group include \"Taxman\", \"Within You Without You\", \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\". Harrison's earliest musical influences includedGeorge FormbyandDjango Reinhardt; subsequent influences wereCarl Perkins,Chet AtkinsandChuck Berry. By 1965, he had begun to lead the Beatles intofolk rockthrough his interest inBob Dylanandthe Byrds, and towardsIndian classical musicthrough his use of Indian instruments, such as thesitar, which he had become acquainted with on the set of the filmHelp!He played sitar on numerous Beatles songs, starting with \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\". Having initiated the band's embrace ofTranscendental Meditationin 1967, he subsequently developed an association with theHare Krishna movement. After theBeatles disbanded, Harrison released the triple albumAll Things Must Pass, a critically acclaimed work that produced his most successful hit single, \"My Sweet Lord\", and introduced his signature sound as a solo artist, theslide guitar. He also organised the 1971Concert for Bangladeshwith Indian musicianRavi Shankar, a precursor to laterbenefit concertssuch asLive Aid. In his role as a music and film producer, Harrison produced acts signed to the Beatles'Applerecord label before foundingDark Horse Recordsin 1974. He co-foundedHandMade Filmsin 1978, initially to produce theMonty Pythontroupe'scomedy filmThe Life of Brian(1979). Harrison released several best-selling singles and albums as a solo performer. In 1988, he co-founded theplatinum-sellingsupergrouptheTraveling Wilburys. A prolific recording artist, he was featured as a guest guitarist on tracks byBadfinger,Ronnie Wood, andBilly Preston, and collaborated on songs and music with Dylan,Eric Clapton,Ringo Starr, andTom Petty.Rolling Stonemagazine ranked him number 31 in their 2023 list of greatest guitarists of all time.He is a two-timeRock and Roll Hall of Fameinductee – as a member of the Beatles in 1988, and posthumously for his solo career in 2004. Harrison's first marriage to modelPattie Boydin 1966 ended in divorce in 1977. In the following year he marriedOlivia Arias, with whom he had a son,Dhani. A lifelong cigarette smoker, Harrison died of numerous cancers in 2001 at the age of 58, two years after surviving a knife attack by an intruder at his home,Friar Park. His remains were cremated, and the ashes were scattered according toHindu traditionin a private ceremony in theGangesandYamunarivers in India. He left an estate of almost £100 million. Early years: 1943–1958 Harrison was born at12 Arnold GroveinWavertree, Liverpool, on 25 February 1943.He was the youngest of four children of Harold Hargreaves (or Hargrove) Harrison (1909–1978) and Louise (née French;1911–1970). Harold was a bus conductor who had worked as aship's stewardon theWhite Star Line,and Louise was a shop assistant ofIrish Catholicdescent.He had one sister, Louise (16 August 1931 – 29 January 2023), and two brothers, Harold (20 July 1934 - ?) and Peter (20 July 1940 – 1 June 2007). According to Boyd, Harrison's mother was particularly supportive: \"All she wanted for her children is that they should be happy, and she recognised that nothing made George quite as happy as making music.\"Louise was an enthusiastic music fan, and she was known among friends for her loud singing voice, which at times startled visitors by rattling the Harrisons' windows.When Louise was pregnant with George, she often listened to the weekly broadcastRadio India. Harrison's biographer Joshua Greene wrote, \"Every Sunday she tuned in to mystical sounds evoked by sitars andtablas, hoping that the exotic music would bring peace and calm to the baby in the womb.\" Harrison lived at 12 Arnold Grove until 1 January 1950.A terraced house on acul-de-sac, it had an outdoor toilet, and its only heat came from a single coal fire. In the Autumn of 1949, the family was offered acouncil houseand moved to 25 Upton Green,Speke.In 1948, Harrison enrolled atDovedale Primary School.He passed theeleven-plus examand attendedLiverpool Institute High School for Boysfrom 1954 to 1959.Though the institute did offer a music course, Harrison was disappointed with the absence of guitars, and felt that the school \"moulded into being frightened\". Harrison's earliest musical influences includedGeorge Formby,Cab Calloway,Django ReinhardtandHoagy Carmichael;by the 1950s,Carl PerkinsandLonnie Doneganwere significant influences.In early 1956, he had an epiphany: while riding his bicycle, he heardElvis Presley's \"Heartbreak Hotel\" playing from a nearby house, and the song piqued his interest inrock and roll.He often sat at the back of the class drawing guitars in his schoolbooks, and later commented, \"I was totally into guitars.\"Harrison citedSlim Whitmanas another early influence: \"The first person I ever saw playing a guitar was Slim Whitman, either a photo of him in a magazine or live on television. Guitars were definitely coming in.\" When George Harrison was about 14, a friend of Harrison, Raymond Hughes, offered to sell a guitar. Harrison's mother then paid for the guitar, which cost £3.10s.– (equivalent to £110 in 2024).One of his father's friends taught Harrison how to play \"Whispering\", \"Sweet Sue\" and \"Dinah\". Inspired by Donegan's music, Harrison formed askifflegroup, the Rebels, with his brother Peter and a friend, Arthur Kelly.On the bus to school, Harrison metPaul McCartney, who also attended the Liverpool Institute, and the pair bonded over their shared love of music. The Beatles: 1958–1970 McCartney and his friendJohn Lennonwere in a skiffle group calledthe Quarrymen. In March 1958, at McCartney's urging, Harrison auditioned for the Quarrymen atRory Storm's Morgue Skiffle Club, playingArthur \"Guitar Boogie\" Smith's \"Guitar Boogie Shuffle\", but Lennon felt that Harrison, having just turned 15, was too young to join the band.McCartney arranged a second meeting, on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus, during which Harrison impressed Lennon by performing the lead guitar part for the instrumental \"Raunchy\".He began socialising with the group, filling in on guitar as needed,and then became accepted as a member.Although his father wanted him to continue his education, Harrison left school at 16 and worked for several months as an apprentice electrician atBlacklers, a local department store.During the group's first tour of Scotland, in 1960, Harrison used the pseudonym \"Carl Harrison\", in reference to Carl Perkins. In 1960, promoterAllan Williamsarranged for the band, now calling themselves the Beatles, to play at the Indra andKaiserkellerclubs inHamburg, both owned byBruno Koschmider.Their first residency in Hamburg ended prematurely when Harrison was deported for being too young to work in nightclubs.WhenBrian Epsteinbecame their manager in December 1961, he polished up their image and later secured them a recording contract withEMI.The group's first single, \"Love Me Do\", peaked at number 17 on theRecord Retailerchart, and by the time their debut album,Please Please Me, was released in early 1963,Beatlemaniahad arrived.Often serious and focused while on stage with the band, Harrison was known as \"the quiet Beatle\".That moniker arose when the Beatles arrived in the United States in early 1964, and Harrison was ill with a case ofStrep throatand a fever and was medically advised to limit speaking as much as possible until he performed onThe Ed Sullivan Showas scheduled. As such, the press noticed Harrison's apparent laconic nature in public appearances on that tour and the subsequent nickname stuck, much to Harrison's amusement.He had two lead vocal credits on the LP, including theLennon–McCartneysong \"Do You Want to Know a Secret?\", and three on their second album,With the Beatles(1963).The latter included \"Don't Bother Me\", Harrison's first solo writing credit. Harrison served as the Beatles' scout for new American releases, being especially knowledgeable aboutsoul music.By 1965'sRubber Soul, he had begun to lead the other Beatles intofolk rockthrough his interest inthe ByrdsandBob Dylan, and towardsIndian classical musicthrough his use of the sitar on \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\".He later calledRubber Soulhis \"favourite album\".Revolver(1966) included three of his compositions: \"Taxman\", selected as the album's opening track, \"Love You To\" and \"I Want to Tell You\".His drone-liketamburapart on Lennon's \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" exemplified the band's ongoing exploration of non-Western instruments,while the sitar- andtabla-based \"Love You To\" represented the Beatles' first genuine foray into Indian music.According to theethnomusicologistDavid Reck, the latter song set a precedent in popular music as an example of Asian culture being represented by Westerners respectfully and without parody.AuthorNicholas Schaffnerwrote in 1978 that following Harrison's increased association with the sitar after \"Norwegian Wood\", he became known as \"the maharaja ofraga-rock\".Harrison continued to develop his interest in non-Western instrumentation, playingswarmandalon \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". By late 1966, Harrison's interests had moved away from the Beatles. This was reflected in his choice of Easterngurusand religious leaders for inclusion on the album cover forSgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Bandin 1967.His sole composition on the album was the Indian-inspired \"Within You Without You\", to which no other Beatle contributed.He played sitar and tambura on the track, backed by musicians from the LondonAsian Music Circleondilruba, swarmandal and tabla.He later commented on theSgt. Pepperalbum: \"It was a millstone and a milestone in the music industry ... There's about half the songs I like and the other half I can't stand.\" In January 1968, he recorded the basic track for his song \"The Inner Light\" at EMI's studio inBombay, using a group of local musicians playing traditional Indian instruments.Released as the B-side to McCartney's \"Lady Madonna\", it was the first Harrison composition to appear on a Beatles single.Derived from a quotation from theTao Te Ching, the song's lyric reflected Harrison's deepening interest in Hinduism andmeditation.During the recording ofThe Beatlesthat same year, tensions within the group ran high, and drummerRingo Starrquit briefly.Harrison's four songwriting contributions to the double album included \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", which featuredEric Claptonon lead guitar, and thehorn-driven \"Savoy Truffle\". Dylan andthe Bandwere a major musical influence on Harrison at the end of his career with the Beatles.While on a visit toWoodstockin late 1968, he established a friendship with Dylan and found himself drawn to the Band's sense of communal music-making and to the creative equality among the band members, which contrasted with Lennon and McCartney's domination of the Beatles' songwriting and creative direction. This coincided with a prolific period in his songwriting and a growing desire to assert his independence from the Beatles.Tensions among the group surfaced again in January 1969, atTwickenham Studios, during the filmed rehearsals that became the 1970 documentaryLet It Be.Frustrated by the cold and sterile film studio, by Lennon's creative disengagement from the Beatles, and by what he perceived as a domineering attitude from McCartney, Harrison quit the group on 10 January. He returned 12 days later, after his bandmates had agreed to move the film project to their ownApple Studioand to abandon McCartney's plan for making a return to public performance. Relations among the Beatles were more cordial, though still strained, when the band recorded their 1969 albumAbbey Road.The LP included what Lavezzoli describes as \"two classic contributions\" from Harrison – \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\" – that saw him \"finally achieve equal songwriting status\" with Lennon and McCartney.During the album's recording, Harrison asserted more creative control than before, rejecting suggestions for changes to his music, particularly from McCartney.\"Something\" became his first A-side when issued on adouble A-sidesingle with \"Come Together\"; the song was number one in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and West Germany,and the combined sides topped theBillboardHot 100chart in the United States.In the 1970sFrank Sinatrarecorded \"Something\" twice (1970 and 1979) and later dubbed it \"the greatest love song of the past fifty years\".Lennon considered it the best song onAbbey Road, and it became the Beatles' second most covered song after \"Yesterday\". In May 1970, Harrison's song \"For You Blue\" was coupled on a US single with McCartney's \"The Long and Winding Road\" and became Harrison's second chart-topper when the sides were listed together at number one on the Hot 100.His increased productivity meant that by the time oftheir break-uphe had amassed a stockpile of unreleased compositions.While Harrison grew as a songwriter, his compositional presence on Beatles albums remained limited to two or three songs, increasing his frustration, and significantly contributing to the band's break-up.Harrison's last recording session with the Beatles was on 4 January 1970, when he, McCartney and Starr recorded overdubs to the song \"Let It Be\" for thesoundtrack album of the same name. Solo career: 1968–1987 Early solo work: 1968–1969 Before the Beatles' break-up, Harrison had already recorded and released two solo albums:Wonderwall MusicandElectronic Sound, both of which contain mainly instrumental compositions.Wonderwall Music, a soundtrack to the 1968 filmWonderwall, blends Indian and Western instrumentation, whileElectronic Soundis an experimental album that prominently features aMoog synthesizer.Released in November 1968,Wonderwall Musicwas the first solo album by a Beatle and the first LP released byApple Records.Indian musiciansAashish KhanandShivkumar Sharmaperformed on the album, which contains the experimentalsound collage\"Dream Scene\", recorded several months before Lennon's \"Revolution 9\". In December 1969, Harrison participated in a brief tour of Europe with the American groupDelaney & Bonnie and Friends.During the tour, which included Clapton,Bobby Whitlock, drummerJim Gordonand band leadersDelaneyandBonnie Bramlett, Harrison began to play slide guitar, and also began to write \"My Sweet Lord\", which became his first single as a solo artist. All Things Must Pass: 1970 For many years, Harrison was restricted in his songwriting contributions to the Beatles' albums, but he releasedAll Things Must Pass, atriple albumwith two discs of his songs and the third of recordings of Harrisonjammingwith friends.The album was regarded by many as his best work, and it topped the charts on both sides of the Atlantic.The number-onehit single\"My Sweet Lord\" and the top-ten single \"What Is Life\" were taken from the album,which was co-produced byPhil Spectorusing his \"Wall of Sound\" approach;the musicians included Starr, Clapton,Gary Wright,Billy Preston,Klaus Voormann, the whole of Delaney and Bonnie's Friends band, and the Apple groupBadfinger.On its release,All Things Must Passwas received with critical acclaim;Ben Gerson ofRolling Stonedescribed it as being \"of classic Spectorian proportions,Wagnerian,Brucknerian, the music of mountain tops and vast horizons\".Author andmusicologistIan Inglis considers the lyrics ofthe album's title track\"a recognition of the impermanence of human existence ... a simple and poignant conclusion\" to Harrison's former band.In 1971, Bright Tunes sued Harrison forcopyright infringementover \"My Sweet Lord\", owing to its similarity to the 1963Chiffonshit \"He's So Fine\".When the case was heard in theUnited States district courtin 1976, he denied deliberately plagiarising the song, but lost the case, as the judge ruled that he had done so subconsciously. In 2000, Apple Records released a thirtieth-anniversary edition of the album, and Harrison actively participated in its promotion. In an interview, he reflected on the work: \"It's just something that was like my continuation from the Beatles, really. It was me sort of getting out of the Beatles and just going my own way ... it was a very happy occasion.\"He commented on the production: \"Well, in those days it was like thereverbwas kind of used a bit more than what I would do now. In fact, I don't use reverb at all. I can't stand it ... You know, it's hard to go back to anything thirty years later and expect it to be how you would want it now.\" The Concert for Bangladesh: 1971 Harrison responded to a request from Ravi Shankar by organising a charity event, the Concert for Bangladesh, which took place on 1 August 1971. The event drew over 40,000 people to two shows in New York'sMadison Square Garden.The goal of the event was to raise money to aid starving refugees during theBangladesh Liberation War.Shankar opened the show, which featured popular musicians such as Dylan, Clapton,Leon Russell, Badfinger, Preston and Starr. A triple album,The Concert for Bangladesh, was released by Apple in December, followed by aconcert filmin 1972.Credited to \"George Harrison and Friends\", the album topped the UK chart and peaked at number 2 in the US,and went on to win theGrammy Award for Album of the Year.Tax troubles and questionable expenses later tied up many of the proceeds, but Harrison commented: \"Mainly the concert was to attract attention to the situation ... The money we raised was secondary, and although we had some money problems ... they still got plenty ... even though it was a drop in the ocean. The main thing was, we spread the word and helped get the war ended.\" Living in the Material WorldtoGeorge Harrison: 1973–1979 Harrison's 1973 albumLiving in the Material Worldheld the number one spot on theBillboardalbums chart for five weeks, and the album's single, \"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)\", also reached number one in the US.In the UK, the LP peaked at number two and the single reached number 8.The album was lavishly produced and packaged, and its dominant message was Harrison's Hindu beliefs.In Greene's opinion it \"contained many of the strongest compositions of his career\".Stephen Holden, writing inRolling Stone, felt the album was \"vastly appealing\" and \"profoundly seductive\", and that it stood \"alone as an article of faith, miraculous in its radiance\".Other reviewers were less enthusiastic, describing the release as awkward, sanctimonious and overly sentimental. In November 1974, Harrison became the first ex-Beatle to tour North America when he began his 45-dateDark Horse Tour.The shows included guest spots by his band members Billy Preston andTom Scott, and traditional and contemporary Indian music performed by \"Ravi Shankar, Family and Friends\".Despite numerous positive reviews, the consensus reaction to the tour was negative.Some fans found Shankar's significant presence to be a bizarre disappointment, and many were affronted by what Inglis described as Harrison's \"sermonizing\".Further, he reworked the lyrics to several Beatles songs,and hislaryngitis-affected vocals led to some critics calling the tour \"dark hoarse\".The author Robert Rodriguez commented: \"While the Dark Horse tour might be considered a noble failure, there were a number of fans who were tuned-in to what was being attempted. They went away ecstatic, conscious that they had just witnessed something so uplifting that it could never be repeated.\"Simon Leng called the tour \"groundbreaking\" and \"revolutionary in its presentation of Indian Music\". On 16 November 1974, Harrison and several others involved in the tour visited the White House. They were invited byPresident Gerald Ford'sson, Jack. In December, Harrison releasedDark Horse, which was an album that earned him the least favourable reviews of his career.Rolling Stonecalled it \"the chronicle of a performer out of his element, working to a deadline, enfeebling his overtaxed talents by a rush to deliver a new 'LP product', rehearse a band, and assemble a cross-country tour, all within three weeks\".The album reached number 4 on theBillboardchart and the single \"Dark Horse\" reached number 15, but they failed to make an impact in the UK.The music criticMikal GilmoredescribedDark Horseas \"one of Harrison's most fascinating works – a record about change and loss\". Harrison's final studio album for EMI and Apple Records, thesoul music-inspiredExtra Texture (Read All About It)(1975),peaked at number 8 on theBillboardchart and number 16 in the UK.Harrison considered it the least satisfactory of the three albums he had recorded sinceAll Things Must Pass.Leng identified \"bitterness and dismay\" in many of the tracks; his long-time friend Klaus Voormann commented: \"He wasn't up for it ... It was a terrible time because I think there was a lot of cocaine going around, and that's when I got out of the picture ... I didn't like his frame of mind\".He released two singles from the LP: \"You\", which reached theBillboardtop 20, and \"This Guitar (Can't Keep from Crying)\", Apple's final original single release. Thirty Three & 1/3(1976), Harrison's first album release on his own Dark Horse Records label, produced the hit singles \"This Song\" and \"Crackerbox Palace\", both of which reached the top 25 in the US.Thesurreal humourof \"Crackerbox Palace\" reflected Harrison's association withMonty Python'sEric Idle, who directed a comical music video for the song.With an emphasis on melody and musicianship, and a more subtle subject matter than the pious message of his earlier works,Thirty Three & 1/3earned Harrison his most favourable critical notices in the US sinceAll Things Must Pass.The album peaked just outside the top ten there, but outsold his previous two LPs.As part of his promotion for the release, Harrison performed onSaturday Night LivewithPaul Simon. In 1979, Harrison releasedGeorge Harrison, which followed his second marriage and the birth of his sonDhani.Co-produced byRuss Titelman,the album and the single \"Blow Away\" both made theBillboardtop 20.The album marked the beginning of Harrison's gradual retreat from the music business, with several of the songs having been written in the tranquil setting ofMauiin theHawaiian archipelago.Leng describedGeorge Harrisonas \"melodic and lush ... peaceful ... the work of a man who had lived the rock and roll dream twice over and was now embracing domestic as well as spiritual bliss\". Somewhere in EnglandtoCloud Nine: 1980–1987 Themurder of John Lennonon 8 December 1980 disturbed Harrison and reinforced his decades-long concern aboutstalkers.The tragedy was also a deep personal loss, although Harrison and Lennon had little contact in the years before Lennon was killed.Following the murder, Harrison commented: \"After all we went through together I had and still have great love and respect for John Lennon. I am shocked and stunned.\"Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had written for Starr to make the song a tribute to Lennon.\"All Those Years Ago\", which included vocal contributions from Paul and Linda McCartney, as well as Starr's original drum part, peaked at number two in the US charts.The single was included on the albumSomewhere in Englandin 1981. Harrison did not release any new albums for five years after 1982'sGone Tropporeceived little notice from critics or the public.During this period he made several guest appearances, including a 1985 performance at a tribute toCarl PerkinstitledBlue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session.In March 1986 he made a surprise appearance during the finale of theBirmingham Heart Beat Charity Concert, an event organised to raise money for theBirmingham Children's Hospital.The following year, he appeared atThe Prince's Trustconcert at London'sWembley Arena, performing \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" and \"Here Comes the Sun\".In February 1987 he joined Dylan,John FogertyandJesse Ed Davison stage for a two-hour performance with the blues musicianTaj Mahal.Harrison recalled: \"Bob rang me up and asked if I wanted to come out for the evening and see Taj Mahal ... So we went there and had a few of these Mexican beers – and had a few more ... Bob says, 'Hey, why don't we all get up and play, and you can sing?' But every time I got near the microphone, Dylan comes up and just starts singing this rubbish in my ear, trying to throw me.\" In November 1987, Harrison released the platinum albumCloud Nine.Co-produced withJeff LynneofElectric Light Orchestra(ELO), the album included Harrison's rendition ofJames Ray's\"Got My Mind Set on You\", which went to number one in the US and number two in the UK.The accompanying music video received substantial airplay,and another single, \"When We Was Fab\", a retrospective of the Beatles' career, earned twoMTV Music Video Awardsnominations in 1988.Recorded at his estate in Friar Park, Harrison's slide guitar playing featured prominently on the album, which included several of his long-time musical collaborators, including Clapton,Jim KeltnerandJim Horn.Cloud Ninereached number eight and number ten on the US and UK charts respectively, and several tracks from the album achieved placement onBillboard'sMainstream Rockchart – \"Devil's Radio\", \"This Is Love\" and \"Cloud 9\". Later career: 1988–1996 The Traveling Wilburys and return to touring: 1988–1992 In 1988, Harrison formed the Traveling Wilburys with Jeff Lynne,Roy Orbison, Bob Dylan and Tom Petty. The band had gathered in Dylan's garage to record a song for a Harrison European single release.Harrison's record company decided the track, \"Handle with Care\", was too good for its original purpose as a B-side and asked for a full album. The LP,Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1, was released in October 1988 and recorded under pseudonyms as half-brothers, supposed sons of Charles Truscott Wilbury Sr.It reached number 16 in the UK and number 3 in the US, where it was certifiedtriple platinum.Harrison's pseudonym on the album was \"Nelson Wilbury\"; he used the name \"Spike Wilbury\" for their second album. In 1989, Harrison and Starr appeared in the music video for Petty's song \"I Won't Back Down\".In October that year, Harrison assembled and releasedBest of Dark Horse 1976–1989, a compilation of his later solo work.The album included three new songs, including \"Cheer Down\", which Harrison had recently contributed to theLethal Weapon 2film soundtrack. Following Orbison's death in December 1988, the Wilburys recorded as a four-piece.Their second album, issued in October 1990, was mischievously titledTraveling Wilburys Vol. 3. According to Lynne, \"That was George's idea. He said, 'Let's confuse the buggers.'\"It peaked at number 14 in the UK and number 11 in the US, where it was certified platinum.The Wilburys never performed live, and the group did not record together again following the release of their second album. In December 1991, Harrison joined Clapton for a tour of Japan.It was Harrison's first since 1974 and no others followed.On 6 April 1992, Harrison held a benefit concert for theNatural Law Partyat theRoyal Albert Hall, his first London performance sincethe Beatles' 1969 rooftop concert.In October 1992, he performed at a Bob Dylan tribute concert atMadison Square Gardenin New York City, playing alongside Dylan, Clapton, McGuinn, Petty andNeil Young. The Beatles Anthology: 1994–1996 In 1994, Harrison began a collaboration with McCartney, Starr and producer Jeff Lynne for theBeatles Anthologyproject. This included the recording of two new Beatles songs built around solo vocal and piano tapes recorded by Lennon as well as lengthy interviews about the Beatles' career.Released in December 1995, \"Free as a Bird\" was the first new Beatles single since 1970.In March 1996, they released a second single, \"Real Love\". They also attempted to finish a third single, \"Now and Then\", but did not finish it because the audio quality of the cassette was, according to Harrison, \"fucking rubbish.\" The song was later finished by McCartney and Starr and released in 2023. He later commented on the project: \"I hope somebody does this to all my crap demos when I'm dead, make them into hit songs.\" Later life and death: 1997–2001 After theAnthologyproject, Harrison collaborated with Ravi Shankar on the latter'sChants of India. Harrison's final television appearance was aVH-1special to promote the album, taped in May 1997.Soon afterwards, Harrison was diagnosed withthroat cancer;he was treated withradiotherapy, which was thought at the time to be successful.He publicly blamed years of smoking for the illness. In January 1998, Harrison attendedCarl Perkins' funeral inJackson, Tennessee, where he performed a brief rendition of Perkins' song \"Your True Love\".In May, he represented the Beatles at London's High Court in their successful bid to gain control of unauthorised recordings made of a 1962 performance by the band at theStar-Clubin Hamburg.The following year, he was the most active of the former Beatles in promoting the reissue of their 1968 animated filmYellow Submarine. On 30 December 1999, Harrison and his wife Olivia were attacked at their home,Friar Park. The perpetrator was 34-year-oldparanoid schizophrenicman Michael Abram, who broke in and attacked Harrison with a kitchen knife, puncturing a lung and causing head injuries before he was incapacitated by Harrison's wife, who struck him repeatedly with afireplace pokerand a lamp.Harrison later commented, \"I felt exhausted and could feel the strength draining from me. I vividly remember a deliberate thrust to my chest. I could hear my lung exhaling and had blood in my mouth. I believed I had been fatally stabbed.\"Following the attack, Harrison was hospitalised with more than 40 stab wounds, and part of his punctured lung was removed.He released a statement soon afterwards regarding his assailant: \"He wasn't a burglar, and he certainly wasn't auditioning for the Traveling Wilburys.Adi Shankara, an Indian historical, spiritual and groovy-type person, once said, 'Life is fragile like a raindrop on a lotus leaf.' And you'd better believe it.\"Upon being released from a psychiatric institution in 2002, Abram said: \"If I could turn back the clock, I would give anything not to have done what I did in attacking George Harrison, but looking back on it now, I have come to understand that I was at the time not in control of my actions. I can only hope the Harrison family might somehow find it in their hearts to accept my apologies.\" The injuries inflicted on Harrison during the home invasion were downplayed by his family in their comments to the press. Having seen Harrison looking so healthy beforehand, those in his social circle believed that the attack brought about a change in him and was the cause for his cancer's return.In May 2001, it was revealed that Harrison had undergone an operation to remove a cancerous growth from one of his lungs,and in July, it was reported that he was being treated for abrain tumourat a clinic in Switzerland.While in Switzerland, Starr visited him but had to cut short his stay to travel to Boston, where his daughter was undergoing emergency brain surgery. Harrison, who was very weak, quipped: \"Do you want me to come with you?\"In November 2001, he began radiotherapy atStaten Island University Hospitalin New York City fornon–small cell lung cancerthat hadspreadto his brain.When the news was made public, Harrison, who would die within the month, bemoaned his physician's breach of privacy, and his estate later claimed damages. On 29 November 2001, Harrison died at a property belonging to McCartney, on Heather Road inBeverly Hills, California.He was 58 years old.He died in the company of Olivia, Dhani, Shankar and the latter's wife Sukanya and daughterAnoushka, and Hare Krishna devotees Shyamasundar Das andMukunda Goswami, who chanted verses from theBhagavad Gita.His final message to the world, as relayed in a statement by Olivia and Dhani, was: \"Everything else can wait, but the search for God cannot wait, and love one another.\"He wascrematedatHollywood Forever Cemetery, and his funeral was held at theSelf-Realization Fellowship Lake ShrineinPacific Palisades, California.His close family scattered his ashes according toHindu traditionin a private ceremony in theGangesandYamunarivers nearVaranasi, India.He left almost £100 million in his will. Harrison's final studio album,Brainwashed(2002), was released posthumously after it was completed by his son Dhani and Jeff Lynne.A quotation from theBhagavad Gitais included in the album's liner notes: \"There never was a time when you or I did not exist. Nor will there be any future when we shall cease to be.\"A media-only single, \"Stuck Inside a Cloud\", which Leng describes as \"a uniquely candid reaction to illness and mortality\", achieved number 27 onBillboard's Adult Contemporary chart.The single \"Any Road\", released in May 2003, peaked at number 37 on theUK Singles Chart.\"Marwa Blues\" went on to receive the2004 Grammy AwardforBest Pop Instrumental Performance, while \"Any Road\" was nominated forBest Male Pop Vocal Performance. Musicianship Guitar work Harrison's guitar work with the Beatles was varied and flexible. Although not fast or flashy, his lead guitar playing was solid and typified the more subdued lead guitar style of the early 1960s. His rhythm guitar playing was innovative, for example when he used acapoto shorten the strings on an acoustic guitar, as on theRubber Soul(1965) album and \"Here Comes the Sun\", to create a bright, sweet sound.Eric Clapton felt that Harrison was \"clearly an innovator\" as he was \"taking certain elements of R&B and rock and rockabilly and creating something unique\".Rolling StonefounderJann Wennerdescribed Harrison as \"a guitarist who was never showy but who had an innate, eloquent melodic sense. He played exquisitely in the service of the song\".Theguitar pickingstyle ofChet Atkinsand Carl Perkins influenced Harrison, giving acountry musicfeel to many of the Beatles' recordings.He identifiedChuck Berryas another early influence. In 1961, the Beatles recorded \"Cry for a Shadow\", a blues-inspired instrumental co-written by Lennon and Harrison, who is credited with composing the song's lead guitar part, building on unusual chord voicings and imitating the style of other English groups such asthe Shadows.Harrison's liberal use of thediatonic scalein his guitar playing reveals the influence ofBuddy Holly, and his interest in Berry inspired him to compose songs based on theblues scalewhile incorporating arockabillyfeel in the style of Perkins.Another of Harrison's musical techniques was the use of guitar lines written inoctaves, as on \"I'll Be on My Way\". By 1964, he had begun to develop a distinctive personal style as a guitarist, writing parts that featured the use of nonresolving tones, as with the ending chord arpeggios on \"A Hard Day's Night\".On this and other songs from the period, he used aRickenbacker 360/12– an electric guitar with twelve strings, the low eight of which are tuned in pairs, one octave apart, with the higher four being pairs tuned in unison.His use of the Rickenbacker onA Hard Day's Nighthelped to popularise the model, and the jangly sound became so prominent thatMelody Makertermed it the Beatles' \"secret weapon\".In 1965, Harrison used anexpression pedalto control his guitar's volume on \"I Need You\", creating a syncopatedflautandoeffect with the melody resolving itsdissonancethrough tonal displacements.He used the same volume-swell technique on \"Yes It Is\", applying what Everett described as \"ghostly articulation\" to the song'snatural harmonics. In 1966, Harrison contributed innovative musical ideas toRevolver. He playedbackwardsguitar on Lennon's composition \"I'm Only Sleeping\" and a guitarcounter-melodyon \"And Your Bird Can Sing\" that moved in parallel octaves above McCartney's bass downbeats.His guitar playing on \"I Want to Tell You\" exemplified the pairing of altered chordal colours with descending chromatic lines and his guitar part forSgt Pepper's \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" mirrors Lennon's vocal line in much the same way that asarangiplayer accompanies akhyalsinger in a Hindudevotional song. Everett described Harrison's guitar solo from \"Old Brown Shoe\" as \"stinging highly Claptonesque\".He identified two of the composition's significantmotifs: a bluesytrichordand adiminished triadwith roots in A and E.Huntley called the song \"a sizzling rocker with a ferocious ... solo\".In Greene's opinion, Harrison's demo for \"Old Brown Shoe\" contains \"one of the most complex lead guitar solos on any Beatles song\". Harrison's playing onAbbey Road, and in particular on \"Something\", marked a significant moment in his development as a guitarist. The song's guitar solo shows a varied range of influences, incorporating the blues guitar style of Clapton and the styles of Indiangamakas.According to author and musicologistKenneth Womack:\"'Something' meanders toward the most unforgettable of Harrison's guitar solos ... A masterpiece in simplicity, reaches toward the sublime\". AfterDelaney Bramlettinspired him to learn slide guitar, Harrison began to incorporate it into his solo work, which allowed him to mimic many traditional Indian instruments, including the sarangi and thedilruba.Leng described Harrison's slide guitar solo on Lennon's \"How Do You Sleep?\"as a departure for \"the sweet soloist of 'Something'\", calling his playing \"rightly famed ... one of Harrison's greatest guitar statements\".Lennon commented: \"That's the best he's ever fucking played in his life.\" AHawaiianinfluence is notable in much of Harrison's music, ranging from his slide guitar work onGone Troppo(1982) to his televised performance of theCab Callowaystandard \"Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea\" onukulelein 1992.Lavezzoli described Harrison's slide playing on the Grammy-winning instrumental \"Marwa Blues\" (2002) as demonstrating Hawaiian influences while comparing the melody to an Indiansarodorveena, calling it \"yet another demonstration of Harrison's unique slide approach\".Harrison was an admirer ofGeorge Formbyand a member of the Ukulele Society of Great Britain, and played a ukulele solo in the style of Formby at the end of \"Free as a Bird\".He performed at a Formby convention in 1991, and served as the honorary president of the George Formby Appreciation Society.Harrison played bass guitar on a few tracks, including the Beatles songs \"She Said She Said\", \"Golden Slumbers\", \"Birthday\" and \"Honey Pie\".He also played bass on several solo recordings, including \"Faster\", \"Wake Up My Love\" and \"Bye Bye Love\". Sitar and Indian music During the Beatles' American tour in August 1965, Harrison's friendDavid Crosbyof the Byrds introduced him toIndian classical musicand the work ofsitarmaestroRavi Shankar.Harrison described Shankar as \"the first person who ever impressed me in my life ... and he was the only person who didn't try to impress me.\"Harrison became fascinated with the sitar and immersed himself inIndian music.According to Lavezzoli, Harrison's introduction of the instrument on the Beatles' song \"Norwegian Wood\" \"opened the floodgates for Indian instrumentation in rock music, triggering what Shankar would call 'The Great Sitar Explosion' of 1966–67\".Lavezzoli recognises Harrison as \"the man most responsible for this phenomenon\". In June 1966, Harrison met Shankar at the home of Mrs Angadi of the Asian Music Circle, asked to be his student, and was accepted.Before this meeting, Harrison had recorded hisRevolvertrack \"Love You To\", contributing a sitar part that Lavezzoli describes as an \"astonishing improvement\" over \"Norwegian Wood\" and \"the most accomplished performance on sitar by any rock musician\".On 6 July, Harrison travelled to India to buy a sitar from Rikhi Ram & Sons in New Delhi.In September, following the Beatles' final tour, he returned to India to study sitar for six weeks with Shankar.He initially stayed in Bombay until fans learned of his arrival, then moved to a houseboat on a remote lake inKashmir.During this visit, he also received tutelage fromShambhu Das, Shankar's protégé. Harrison studied the instrument until 1968, when, following a discussion with Shankar about the need to find his \"roots\", an encounter with Clapton andJimi Hendrixat a hotel in New York convinced him to return to guitar playing. Harrison commented: \"I decided ... I'm not going to be a great sitar player ... because I should have started at least fifteen years earlier.\"Harrison continued to use Indian instrumentation occasionally on his solo albums and remained strongly associated with the genre.Lavezzoli groups him withPaul SimonandPeter Gabrielas the three rock musicians who have given the most \"mainstream exposure to non-Western musics, or the concept of 'world music'\". Songwriting Harrison wrote his first song, \"Don't Bother Me\", while sick in a hotel bed in Bournemouth during August 1963, as \"an exercise to see if Icouldwrite a song\", as he remembered.His songwriting ability improved throughout the Beatles' career, but his material did not earn full respect from Lennon, McCartney and producerGeorge Martinuntil near the group's break-up.In 1969, McCartney told Lennon: \"Until this year, our songs have been better than George's. Now this year his songs are at least as good as ours\".Harrison often had difficulty getting the band to record his songs.Most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contain at least two Harrison compositions; three of his songs appear onRevolver, \"the album on which Harrison came of age as a songwriter\", according to Inglis. Harrison wrote thechord progressionof \"Don't Bother Me\" almost exclusively in theDorian mode, demonstrating an interest in exotic tones that eventually culminated in his embrace of Indian music.The latter proved a strong influence on his songwriting and contributed to his innovation within the Beatles. According toMikal GilmoreofRolling Stone, \"Harrison's openness to new sounds and textures cleared new paths for his rock and roll compositions. His use of dissonance on ... 'Taxman' and 'I Want to Tell You' was revolutionary in popular music – and perhaps more originally creative than the avant-garde mannerisms that Lennon and McCartney borrowed from the music ofKarlheinz Stockhausen,Luciano Berio,Edgard VarèseandIgor Stravinsky...\" Of the 1967 Harrison song \"Within You Without You\", author Gerry Farrell said that Harrison had created a \"new form\", calling the composition \"a quintessential fusion of pop and Indian music\".Lennon called the song one of Harrison's best: \"His mind and his music are clear. There is his innate talent, he brought that sound together.\"In his next fully Indian-styled song, \"The Inner Light\", Harrison embraced theKarnatakdiscipline of Indian music, rather than theHindustanistyle he had used in \"Love You To\" and \"Within You Without You\".Writing in 1997, Farrell commented: \"It is a mark of Harrison's sincere involvement with Indian music that, nearly thirty years on, the Beatles' 'Indian' songs remain the most imaginative and successful examples of this type of fusion – for example, 'Blue Jay Way' and 'The Inner Light'.\" Beatles biographer Bob Spitz described \"Something\" as a masterpiece, and \"an intensely stirring romantic ballad that would challenge 'Yesterday' and 'Michelle' as one of the most recognizable songs they ever produced\".Inglis consideredAbbey Roada turning point in Harrison's development as a songwriter and musician. He described Harrison's two contributions to the LP, \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\", as \"exquisite\", declaring them equal to any previous Beatles songs. Collaborations From 1968 onwards, Harrison collaborated with other musicians; he brought inEric Claptonto play lead guitar on \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" for the 1968 Beatles'White Album,and collaborated withJohn Barhamon his 1968 debut solo album,Wonderwall Music, which included contributions from Clapton again, as well asPeter Torkfromthe Monkees.He played on tracks byDave Mason,Nicky Hopkins,Alvin Lee,Ronnie Wood, Billy Preston andTom Scott.Harrison co-wrote songs and music with Dylan, Clapton, Preston, Doris Troy, David Bromberg, Gary Wright, Wood, Jeff Lynne and Tom Petty, among others.Harrison's music projects during the final years of the Beatles included producing Apple Records artistsDoris Troy,Jackie Lomaxand Billy Preston. Harrison co-wrote the song \"Badge\" with Clapton, which was included onCream's 1969 album,Goodbye.Harrison played rhythm guitar on the track, using the pseudonym \"L'Angelo Misterioso\" for contractual reasons.In May 1970, he played guitar on several songs during a recording session for Dylan's albumNew Morning.Between 1971 and 1973, he co-wrote and/or produced three top ten hits for Starr: \"It Don't Come Easy\", \"Back Off Boogaloo\" and \"Photograph\".Aside from \"How Do You Sleep?\", his contributions to Lennon's 1971 albumImagineincluded a slide guitar solo on \"Gimme Some Truth\" anddobroon \"Crippled Inside\".Also that year, he produced and played slide guitar on Badfinger's top ten hit \"Day After Day\", and a dobro on Preston's \"I Wrote a Simple Song\".He worked withHarry Nilssonon \"You're Breakin' My Heart\" (1972) and withCheech & Chongon \"Basketball Jones\" (1973). In 1974, Harrison foundedDark Horse Recordsas an avenue for collaboration with other musicians.He wanted Dark Horse to serve as a creative outlet for artists, as Apple Records had for the Beatles.Eric Idle commented: \"He's extremely generous, and he backs and supports all sorts of people that you'll never, ever hear of.\"The first acts signed to the new label were Ravi Shankar and the duoSplinter. Harrison produced and made multiple musical contributions to Splinter's debut album,The Place I Love, which provided Dark Horse with its first hit, \"Costafine Town\".He also produced and played guitar andautoharpon Shankar'sShankar Family & Friends, the label's other inaugural release.Other artists signed by Dark Horse includeAttitudes,Henry McCullough, Jiva andStairsteps. Harrison collaborated with Tom Scott on Scott's 1975 albumNew York Connection, and in 1981 he played guitar on \"Walk a Thin Line\", fromMick Fleetwood'sThe Visitor.His contributions to Starr's solo career continued with \"Wrack My Brain\", a 1981 US top 40 hit written and produced by Harrison,and guitar overdubs to two tracks onVertical Man(1998).In 1996, Harrison recorded \"Distance Makes No Difference With Love\" with Carl Perkins for the latter's albumGo Cat Go!, and, in 1990, he played slide guitar on the title track of Dylan'sUnder the Red Skyalbum.In 2001, he performed as a guest musician on Jeff Lynne and Electric Light Orchestra's comeback albumZoom, and on the song \"Love Letters\" forBill Wyman's Rhythm Kings.He also co-wrote a new song with his son Dhani, \"Horse to the Water\", which was recorded on 2 October, eight weeks before his death. It appeared onJools Holland's albumSmall World, Big Band. Guitars When Harrison joined the Quarrymen in 1958, his main guitar was aHöfnerPresident Acoustic, which he soon traded for a Höfner Club 40 model.His first solid-body electric guitar was a Czech-builtJolanaFuturama/Grazioso.The guitars he used on early recordings were mainlyGretschmodels, played through aVox amplifier, including aGretsch Duo Jetthat he bought secondhand in 1961 and posed with on the album cover forCloud Nine(1987).He also bought a Gretsch Tennessean and a Gretsch Country Gentleman, which he played on \"She Loves You\", and during the Beatles' 1964 appearance onThe Ed Sullivan Show.In 1963, he bought aRickenbacker 425Fireglo, and in 1964 he acquired a Rickenbacker 360/12 guitar, which was the second of its kind to be manufactured.Harrison obtained his firstFender Stratocasterin 1965 and first used it during the recording of theHelp!album that February; he also used it when recordingRubber Soullater that year, most notably on the song \"Nowhere Man\". In early 1966, Harrison and Lennon each purchasedEpiphone Casinos, which they used onRevolver.Harrison also used aGibson J-160Eand aGibson SGStandard while recording the album.He later painted his Stratocaster in a psychedelic design that included the word \"Bebopalula\" above the pickguard and the guitar's nickname, \"Rocky\", on the headstock.He played this guitar in theMagical Mystery Tour(1967) film and throughout his solo career.In July 1968, Clapton gave him aGibson Les Paulthat had been stripped of its original finish and stained cherry red, which Harrison nicknamed \"Lucy\".Around this time, he obtained a Gibson Jumbo J-200 acoustic guitar,which he subsequently gave to Dylan to use at the1969 Isle of Wight Festival.In late 1968,Fender Musical Instruments Corporationgave Harrison a custom-madeFender TelecasterRosewood prototype, made especially for him by Philip Kubicki.In August 2017, Fender released a \"Limited Edition George Harrison Rosewood Telecaster\" modelled after a Telecaster thatRoger Rossmeisloriginally created for Harrison. Film production and HandMade films Harrison helped finance Ravi Shankar's documentaryRagaand released it throughApple Filmsin 1971.He also produced, with Apple managerAllen Klein, theConcert for Bangladeshfilm.In 1973, he produced the feature filmLittle Malcolm,but the project was lost amid the litigation surrounding the former Beatles ending their business ties with Klein. In 1973,Peter Sellersintroduced Harrison toDenis O'Brien. Soon after, the two went into business together.In 1978, to produceMonty Python's Life of Brian, they formed the film production and distribution company HandMade Films.Their opportunity for investment came afterEMI Filmswithdrew funding at the demand of their chief executive,Bernard Delfont.Harrison financed the production ofLife of Brianin part by mortgaging his home, which Idle later called \"the most anybody's ever paid for a cinema ticket in history\".The film grossed $21 million at the box office in the US.The first film distributed by HandMade Films wasThe Long Good Friday(1980), and the first they produced wasTime Bandits(1981), a co-scripted project byMonty Python'sTerry GilliamandMichael Palin.The film featured a new song by Harrison, \"Dream Away\", in the closing credits.Time Banditsbecame one of HandMade's most successful and acclaimed efforts; with a budget of $5 million, it earned $35 million in the US within ten weeks of its release. Harrison served asexecutive producerfor 23 films with HandMade, includingA Private Function(1984),Mona Lisa(1986),Shanghai Surprise(1986),Withnail and I(1987) andHow to Get Ahead in Advertising(1989).He madecameo appearancesin several of these films, including a role as anightclub singerinShanghai Surprise, for which he recorded five new songs.According to Ian Inglis, \" executive role in HandMade Films helped to sustain British cinema at a time of crisis, producing some of the country's most memorable movies of the 1980s.\"Following a series ofbox office bombsin the late 1980s, and excessive debt incurred by O'Brien which wasguaranteedby Harrison, HandMade's financial situation became precarious.The company ceased operations in 1991and was sold three years later to Paragon Entertainment, a Canadian corporation.Afterwards, Harrison sued O'Brien for $25 million for fraud and negligence, resulting in an $11.6 million judgement in 1996. Humanitarian work Harrison was involved in humanitarian and political activism throughout his life. In the 1960s, the Beatles supported thecivil rights movementand protested against theVietnam War. In early 1971, Ravi Shankar consulted Harrison about how to provide aid to the people of Bangladesh after the1970 Bhola cycloneand theBangladesh Liberation War.Harrison hastily wrote and recorded the song \"Bangla Desh\", which became pop music's firstcharity singlewhen issued by Apple Records in late July.He also pushed Apple to release Shankar'sJoi BanglaEP in an effort to raise further awareness for the cause.Shankar asked for Harrison's advice about planning a small charity event in the US. Harrison responded by organising the Concert for Bangladesh, which raised more than $240,000.Around $13.5 million was generated through the album and film releases,although most of the funds were frozen in anInternal Revenue Serviceaudit for ten years, due to Klein's failure to register the event as aUNICEFbenefit beforehand.In June 1972, UNICEF honoured Harrison and Shankar, and Klein, with the \"Child Is the Father of Man\" award at an annual ceremony in recognition of their fundraising efforts for Bangladesh. From 1980, Harrison became a vocal supporter ofGreenpeaceandCND.He also protested against the use of nuclear energy withFriends of the Earth,and helped financeVole, agreenmagazine launched by Monty Python memberTerry Jones.In 1990, he helped promote his wife Olivia'sRomanian Angel Appealon behalf of the thousands ofRomanian orphansleft abandoned by the state following thefall of Communismin Eastern Europe.Harrison recorded a benefit single, \"Nobody's Child\", with the Traveling Wilburys, and assembled a fundraising album with contributions from other artists including Clapton, Starr,Elton John,Stevie Wonder,DonovanandVan Morrison. The Concert for Bangladesh has been described as an innovative precursor for the large-scale charity rock shows that followed, includingLive Aid.The George Harrison Humanitarian Fund for UNICEF, a joint effort between the Harrison family and theUS Fund for UNICEF, aims to support programmes that help children caught in humanitarian emergencies.In December 2007, they donated $450,000 to help the victims ofCyclone Sidrin Bangladesh.On 13 October 2009, the first George Harrison Humanitarian Award went to Ravi Shankar for his efforts in saving the lives of children, and his involvement with the Concert for Bangladesh. Personal life Hinduism By the mid-1960s, Harrison had become an admirer ofIndian cultureand mysticism, introducing it to the other Beatles.During the filming ofHelp!in the Bahamas, they met the founder ofSivananda Yoga,Swami Vishnu-devananda, who gave each of them a signed copy of his book,The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga.Between the end of the last Beatles tour in 1966 and the beginning of theSgt Pepperrecording sessions, he made a pilgrimage to India with his first wife,Pattie Boyd; there, he studied sitar with Ravi Shankar, met severalgurus, and visited various holy places.In 1968,he travelled with the other BeatlestoRishikeshin northern India to study meditation withMaharishi Mahesh Yogi. Harrison's experiences with LSD in the mid-1960s served as a catalyst for his early pursuance of Hinduism. In a 1977 interview, George recalled: For me, it was like a flash. The first time I had acid, it just opened up something in my head that was inside of me, and I realized a lot of things. I didn't learn them because I already knew them, but that happened to be the key that opened the door to reveal them. From the moment I had that, I wanted to have it all the time – these thoughts about the yogis and the Himalayas, and Ravi's music. However, Harrison stopped using LSD after a disenchanting experience in San Francisco'sHaight-Ashburyneighborhood. He recounted inThe Beatles Anthology: That was the turning point for me – that's when I went right off the whole drug cult and stopped taking the dreaded lysergic acid. I had some in a little bottle – it was liquid. I put it under a microscope, and it looked like bits of old rope. I thought that I couldn't put that into my brain any more. After being given various religious texts by Shankar in 1966, he remained a lifelong advocate of the teachings ofSwami VivekanandaandParamahansa Yogananda– yogis and authors, respectively, ofRaja YogaandAutobiography of a Yogi.In mid-1969, he produced the single \"Hare Krishna Mantra\", performed by members of the LondonRadha Krishna Temple.Having also helped the Temple devotees become established in Britain, Harrison then met their leader,A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, whom he described as \"my friend ... my master\" and \"a perfect example of everything he preached\".Harrison embraced theHare Krishna tradition, particularlyjapa-yogachanting with beads, and became a lifelong devotee.In 1972 he donated hisLetchmore Heathmansion north of London to the devotees. It was later converted to a temple and renamedBhaktivedanta Manor. Regarding other faiths, he once remarked: \"All religions are branches of one big tree. It doesn't matter what you call Him just as long as you call.\"He commented on his beliefs: Krishnaactually was in a body as a person ... What makes it complicated is, if he's God, what's he doing fighting on a battlefield? It took me ages to try to figure that out, and again it was Yogananda's spiritual interpretation of theBhagavad Gitathat made me realise what it was. Our idea of Krishna andArjunaon the battlefield in the chariot. So this is the point – that we're in these bodies, which is like a kind of chariot, and we're going through this incarnation, this life, which is kind of a battlefield. The senses of the body ... are the horses pulling the chariot, and we have to get control over the chariot by getting control over the reins. And Arjuna in the end says, \"Please Krishna, you drive the chariot\" because unless we bringChristor Krishna orBuddhaor whichever of our spiritual guides ... we're going to crash our chariot, and we're going to turn over, and we're going to get killed in the battlefield. That's why we say \"Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna\", asking Krishna to come and take over the chariot. Inglis comments that, in contrast toCliff Richard's conversion to Christianity in 1966: \"Harrison's spiritual journey was seen as a serious and important development that reflected popular music's increasing maturity ... what he, and the Beatles, had managed to overturn was the paternalistic assumption that popular musicians had no role other than to stand on stage and sing their hit songs.\" Vegetarianism In line with the Hinduyogatradition,Harrison became avegetarianin the late 1960s.He remained a vegetarian on religious grounds from 1968 until his death,and spent the second half of his life as an advocate for the benefits of vegetarian diet. Family and interests Harrison married modelPattie Boydon 21 January 1966, with McCartney serving asbest man.Harrison and Boyd had met on set in 1964 during the production of the filmA Hard Day's Night, in which the 19-year-old Boyd had been cast as a schoolgirl. During a lunch break, George 'playfully' proposed to her.They separated in 1974 and their divorce was finalised in 1977.Boyd said her decision to end the marriage was due largely to George's repeated infidelities. The last infidelity culminated in an affair with Ringo's wifeMaureen, which Boyd called \"the final straw\".She characterised the last year of their marriage as \"fuelled by alcohol and cocaine\", and she stated: \"George used coke excessively, and I think it changed him ... it froze his emotions and hardened his heart.\"She subsequently moved in withEric Clapton, and they married in 1979. On 2 September 1978, Harrison marriedOlivia Trinidad Arias, who was a marketing executive for A&M Records, and later Dark Horse Records.As Dark Horse was a subsidiary of A&M,the couple had first met over the phone working on record company business,and then in person at theA&M Recordsoffices in Los Angeles in 1974.Together they had one son,Dhani Harrison, born on 1 August 1978. Harrison restored the English manor house and grounds of Friar Park, his home inHenley-on-Thames, where several of his music videos, including \"Crackerbox Palace\", were filmed; the grounds also served as the background for the cover ofAll Things Must Pass.He employed ten workers to maintain the 36-acre (15 ha) garden.Harrison commented on gardening as a form ofescapism: \"Sometimes I feel like I'm actually on the wrong planet, and it's great when I'm in my garden, but the minute I go out the gate I think: 'What the hell am I doing here?'\"His autobiography,I, Me, Mine, is dedicated \"to gardeners everywhere\".The former Beatles publicistDerek Taylorhelped Harrison write the book, which said little about the Beatles, focusing instead on Harrison's hobbies, music and lyrics.Taylor commented: \"George is not disowning the Beatles ... but it was a long time ago and actually a short part of his life.\" Harrison had an interest insports carsandmotor racing; he was one of the 100 people who purchased theMcLaren F1road car.He had collected photos of racing drivers and their cars since he was young; at 12, he had attended his first race, the1955 British Grand PrixatAintree.He wrote \"Faster\" as a tribute to theFormula Oneracing driversJackie StewartandRonnie Peterson. Proceeds from its release went to theGunnar Nilssoncancer charity, set up after the Swedish driver's death from the disease in 1978.Harrison's first extravagant car, a 1964Aston Martin DB5, was sold at auction on 7 December 2011 in London. An anonymous Beatles collector paid £350,000 for the vehicle that Harrison had bought new in January 1965. Relationships with the other Beatles For most of the Beatles' career, the relationships in the group were close. According toHunter Davies, \"the Beatles spent their lives not living a communal life, but communally living the same life. They were each other's greatest friends.\" Harrison's ex-wife Pattie Boyd described how the Beatles \"all belonged to each other\" and admitted, \"George has a lot with the others that I can never know about. Nobody, not even the wives, can break through or even comprehend it.\"Starr said, \"We really looked out for each other and we had so many laughs together. In the old days we'd have the biggest hotel suites, the whole floor of the hotel, and the four of us would end up in the bathroom, just to be with each other.\" He added, \"there were some really loving, caring moments between four people: a hotel room here and there – a really amazing closeness. Just four guys who loved each other. It was pretty sensational.\" Lennon stated that his relationship with Harrison was \"one of young follower and older guy ... was like a disciple of mine when we started.\"The two later bonded over theirLSDexperiences, finding common ground as seekers of spirituality. They took radically different paths thereafter, with, according to biographer Gary Tillery, Harrison finding God and Lennon coming to the conclusion that people are the creators of their own lives.In 1974, Harrison said of his former bandmate: \"John Lennon is a saint and he's heavy-duty, and he's great and I love him. But at the same time, he's such abastard– but that's the great thing about him, you see?\" Harrison and McCartney were the first of the Beatles to meet, having shared a school bus, and often learned and rehearsed new guitar chords together.McCartney said that he and Harrison usually shared a bedroom while touring.McCartney has referred to Harrison as his \"baby brother\".In a 1974 BBC radio interview withAlan Freeman, Harrison stated: \" ruined me as a guitar player\". In the same interview, however, Harrison stated that \"I just know that whatever we've been through, there's always been something that's tied us together.\"Perhaps the most significant obstacle to a Beatles reunion after the death of Lennon was Harrison and McCartney's personal relationship, as both men admitted that they often got on each other's nerves.Rodriguez commented: \"Even to the end of George's days, theirs was a volatile relationship\".When, in aYahoo!online chat in February 2001, he was asked if Paul \" you off\", Harrison replied \"Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass -- You know his faults -- Then let his foibles pass. Old Victorian Proverb. I'm sure there's enough about me that pisses him off, but I think we have now grown old enough to realize that we're both pretty damn cute!\" Legacy InJune 1965, Harrison and the other Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE).They received their insignia fromthe Queenat an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 26 October.In 1971, the Beatles received anAcademy Awardfor the bestOriginal Song Scorefor the filmLet It Be.The minor planet4149 Harrison, discovered in 1984, was named after him,as was a variety ofDahliaflower.In December 1992, he became the first recipient of theBillboard Century Award, an honour presented to music artists for significant bodies of work.The award recognised Harrison's \"critical role in laying the groundwork for the modern concept ofworld music\" and for his having \"advanced society's comprehension of the spiritual and altruistic power of popular music\".Rolling Stonemagazine ranked him number 11 in their list of the \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\". He is also in number 65 in the list of \"100 greatest songwriters of all time\" by the same magazine. In 2002, on the first anniversary of his death, theConcert for Georgewas held at theRoyal Albert Hall. Eric Clapton organised the event, which included performances by many of Harrison's friends and musical collaborators, including McCartney and Starr.Eric Idle, who described Harrison as \"one of the few morally good people that rock and roll has produced\", was among the performers of Monty Python's \"Lumberjack Song\".The profits from the concert went to Harrison's charity, theMaterial World Charitable Foundation. In 2004, Harrison was posthumously inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a solo artist by his former bandmates Lynne and Petty, and into theMadison Square Garden Walk of Famein 2006 for the Concert for Bangladesh.On 14 April 2009, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce awarded Harrison a star on theWalk of Famein front of theCapitol Records Building. McCartney, Lynne and Petty were present when the star was unveiled. Harrison's widow Olivia, the actorTom Hanksand Idle made speeches at the ceremony, and Harrison's son Dhani spoke the Hare Krishna mantra. A documentary film titledGeorge Harrison: Living in the Material World, directed byMartin Scorsese, was released in October 2011. The film features interviews with Olivia and Dhani Harrison, Klaus Voormann,Terry Gilliam, Starr, Clapton, McCartney, Keltner andAstrid Kirchherr. Harrison was posthumously honoured withThe Recording Academy'sGrammy Lifetime Achievement Awardat theGrammy Awardsin February 2015. AnIllinois State Historical Societymarker inBenton, Illinois, commemorates Harrison's visit in the town in 1963 to see his sister, making him the first Beatle to visit the United States.In 2017, a mural installation was unveiled in the town of Harrisonpainted by artist John Cerney.Statues of Harrison can be found around the world, including several across his native Liverpool and abustin the Shadhinotar Shagram Triangle Sculpture Garden inDhaka, Bangladesh, commemorating Harrison's contributions to Bangladeshi culture. On 24 May 2024 ablue plaquewas unveiled at Harrison's childhood home at 12 Arnold Grove in Wavertree. Discography See also Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited sources Further reading Documentaries External links" ]
[ "The Beatles albums discography Worldwide, the Britishrockbandthe Beatlesreleased 12studio albums(17 in the US), 5live albums, 51compilation albums, 36extended plays(EPs), 17box sets, 22video albumsand 53music videos. In their native United Kingdom, during their active existence as a band, they released 12 studio albums (including 1 double album), 1 compilation album, and 13 EPs (including 1 double EP). The early albums released from 1962 to March 1968 were originally onParlophone, and their albums from August 1968 to 1970 were on their subsidiary labelApple. Their output also includes vault items, remixed mash-ups and anniversary box-sets. The Beatles are the biggest selling band of all time, selling over 500 million records.With the first CD releases of their albums in 1987 and 1988, the Beatles' core catalogue was harmonised worldwide to encompass their 12 original UK studio albums, the 1967 USMagical Mystery Touralbum and the newly assembledPast Masters: Volumes One and Twocompilation albums consisting of", "consisting of all the studio recordings released during 1962 to 1970 that are not present on the UK studio albums orMagical Mystery Tour(mainly non-album singles,B-sidesand EP tracks). When the core catalogue was reissued in remastered editions in 2009, the two volumes ofPast Masterswere combined into one double album. Since then, other past releases have been reissued in digital formats and on vinyl. The catalogue is currently distributed byUniversal Music Enterprises'Calderstone Productions. This core catalogue contains all 217 tracksintended for commercial release, either as album tracks, EP tracks, or singles, that were put out by the Beatles from 1962 to 1970. The Beatles' international discography is more complicated due to different versions of their albums sometimes being released in other countries, particularly during their early years onCapitol Recordsin North America. Prior to 1967, it was common practice for British releases to be reconfigured for the American market. The first seven British", "first seven British Beatles albums were converted into ten LPs for the American market, adding material from singles and the UK EPs; the band were unhappy with these reconfigurations. With the exception ofMagical Mystery Tour, studio releases fromSgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Bandin 1967 forward were uniform in both the UK and the US. The band's first eight albums were released on Parlophone. From 1968, in both the UK and the US, starting with the single \"Hey Jude\" and the albumThe Beatles(better known as \"the White Album\"), new releases appeared on the Beatles' own Apple record label, although Parlophone and Capitol catalogue numbers continued to be used for contractual reasons. The Beatles' discography was originally released on thevinylformat, with full-lengthlong plays(LPs), shorter EPs and singles. Over the years, the collection has also been released oncassette,8-track,compact disc(CD), on aUSB flash driveinMP3and 24-bitFLACformat, and on digital media streaming services. The Beatles' UK discography", "UK discography was first released on CD in 1987 and 1988. Between 1962 and 1968, the Beatles released their songs in bothmonoandstereoversions.The band's catalogue was remastered in both mono and stereo in 2009. Albums Original UK studio albums Notes Original US studio albums Notes Standardised studio albums Since the first release of their music onCDduring 1987–1988, the Beatles' studio albums have been standardised worldwide to the following albums: Live albums Notes Compilation albums Notes Mash-up albums Box sets Notes Extended plays Flexi discs The Beatles released seven consecutiveChristmas recordsonflexi discfor members of their UK and US fan clubs, from 1963 to 1969, ranging in length between 3:58 and 7:48. These short collections had a mix of spoken and musical messages for their official fan clubs. See also Notes References Sources External links", "George Harrison George HarrisonMBE(25 February 1943 – 29 November 2001)was an English musician, singer and songwriter who achieved international fame as the lead guitarist ofthe Beatles. Sometimes called \"the quiet Beatle\", Harrison embracedIndian cultureand helped broaden the scope ofpopular musicthrough his incorporation of Indian instrumentation andHindu-aligned spirituality in the Beatles' work. Although most of the band's songs were written byJohn Lennon and Paul McCartney, most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contained at least two Harrison compositions. His songs for the group include \"Taxman\", \"Within You Without You\", \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\". Harrison's earliest musical influences includedGeorge FormbyandDjango Reinhardt; subsequent influences wereCarl Perkins,Chet AtkinsandChuck Berry. By 1965, he had begun to lead the Beatles intofolk rockthrough his interest inBob Dylanandthe Byrds, and towardsIndian classical musicthrough his use of Indian", "his use of Indian instruments, such as thesitar, which he had become acquainted with on the set of the filmHelp!He played sitar on numerous Beatles songs, starting with \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\". Having initiated the band's embrace ofTranscendental Meditationin 1967, he subsequently developed an association with theHare Krishna movement. After theBeatles disbanded, Harrison released the triple albumAll Things Must Pass, a critically acclaimed work that produced his most successful hit single, \"My Sweet Lord\", and introduced his signature sound as a solo artist, theslide guitar. He also organised the 1971Concert for Bangladeshwith Indian musicianRavi Shankar, a precursor to laterbenefit concertssuch asLive Aid. In his role as a music and film producer, Harrison produced acts signed to the Beatles'Applerecord label before foundingDark Horse Recordsin 1974. He co-foundedHandMade Filmsin 1978, initially to produce theMonty Pythontroupe'scomedy filmThe Life of Brian(1979). Harrison released several", "released several best-selling singles and albums as a solo performer. In 1988, he co-founded theplatinum-sellingsupergrouptheTraveling Wilburys. A prolific recording artist, he was featured as a guest guitarist on tracks byBadfinger,Ronnie Wood, andBilly Preston, and collaborated on songs and music with Dylan,Eric Clapton,Ringo Starr, andTom Petty.Rolling Stonemagazine ranked him number 31 in their 2023 list of greatest guitarists of all time.He is a two-timeRock and Roll Hall of Fameinductee – as a member of the Beatles in 1988, and posthumously for his solo career in 2004. Harrison's first marriage to modelPattie Boydin 1966 ended in divorce in 1977. In the following year he marriedOlivia Arias, with whom he had a son,Dhani. A lifelong cigarette smoker, Harrison died of numerous cancers in 2001 at the age of 58, two years after surviving a knife attack by an intruder at his home,Friar Park. His remains were cremated, and the ashes were scattered according toHindu traditionin a private ceremony in", "private ceremony in theGangesandYamunarivers in India. He left an estate of almost £100 million. Early years: 1943–1958 Harrison was born at12 Arnold GroveinWavertree, Liverpool, on 25 February 1943.He was the youngest of four children of Harold Hargreaves (or Hargrove) Harrison (1909–1978) and Louise (née French;1911–1970). Harold was a bus conductor who had worked as aship's stewardon theWhite Star Line,and Louise was a shop assistant ofIrish Catholicdescent.He had one sister, Louise (16 August 1931 – 29 January 2023), and two brothers, Harold (20 July 1934 - ?) and Peter (20 July 1940 – 1 June 2007). According to Boyd, Harrison's mother was particularly supportive: \"All she wanted for her children is that they should be happy, and she recognised that nothing made George quite as happy as making music.\"Louise was an enthusiastic music fan, and she was known among friends for her loud singing voice, which at times startled visitors by rattling the Harrisons' windows.When Louise was pregnant with George, she", "with George, she often listened to the weekly broadcastRadio India. Harrison's biographer Joshua Greene wrote, \"Every Sunday she tuned in to mystical sounds evoked by sitars andtablas, hoping that the exotic music would bring peace and calm to the baby in the womb.\" Harrison lived at 12 Arnold Grove until 1 January 1950.A terraced house on acul-de-sac, it had an outdoor toilet, and its only heat came from a single coal fire. In the Autumn of 1949, the family was offered acouncil houseand moved to 25 Upton Green,Speke.In 1948, Harrison enrolled atDovedale Primary School.He passed theeleven-plus examand attendedLiverpool Institute High School for Boysfrom 1954 to 1959.Though the institute did offer a music course, Harrison was disappointed with the absence of guitars, and felt that the school \"moulded into being frightened\". Harrison's earliest musical influences includedGeorge Formby,Cab Calloway,Django ReinhardtandHoagy Carmichael;by the 1950s,Carl PerkinsandLonnie Doneganwere significant influences.In", "influences.In early 1956, he had an epiphany: while riding his bicycle, he heardElvis Presley's \"Heartbreak Hotel\" playing from a nearby house, and the song piqued his interest inrock and roll.He often sat at the back of the class drawing guitars in his schoolbooks, and later commented, \"I was totally into guitars.\"Harrison citedSlim Whitmanas another early influence: \"The first person I ever saw playing a guitar was Slim Whitman, either a photo of him in a magazine or live on television. Guitars were definitely coming in.\" When George Harrison was about 14, a friend of Harrison, Raymond Hughes, offered to sell a guitar. Harrison's mother then paid for the guitar, which cost £3.10s.– (equivalent to £110 in 2024).One of his father's friends taught Harrison how to play \"Whispering\", \"Sweet Sue\" and \"Dinah\". Inspired by Donegan's music, Harrison formed askifflegroup, the Rebels, with his brother Peter and a friend, Arthur Kelly.On the bus to school, Harrison metPaul McCartney, who also attended the Liverpool", "the Liverpool Institute, and the pair bonded over their shared love of music. The Beatles: 1958–1970 McCartney and his friendJohn Lennonwere in a skiffle group calledthe Quarrymen. In March 1958, at McCartney's urging, Harrison auditioned for the Quarrymen atRory Storm's Morgue Skiffle Club, playingArthur \"Guitar Boogie\" Smith's \"Guitar Boogie Shuffle\", but Lennon felt that Harrison, having just turned 15, was too young to join the band.McCartney arranged a second meeting, on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus, during which Harrison impressed Lennon by performing the lead guitar part for the instrumental \"Raunchy\".He began socialising with the group, filling in on guitar as needed,and then became accepted as a member.Although his father wanted him to continue his education, Harrison left school at 16 and worked for several months as an apprentice electrician atBlacklers, a local department store.During the group's first tour of Scotland, in 1960, Harrison used the pseudonym \"Carl Harrison\", in reference to", "in reference to Carl Perkins. In 1960, promoterAllan Williamsarranged for the band, now calling themselves the Beatles, to play at the Indra andKaiserkellerclubs inHamburg, both owned byBruno Koschmider.Their first residency in Hamburg ended prematurely when Harrison was deported for being too young to work in nightclubs.WhenBrian Epsteinbecame their manager in December 1961, he polished up their image and later secured them a recording contract withEMI.The group's first single, \"Love Me Do\", peaked at number 17 on theRecord Retailerchart, and by the time their debut album,Please Please Me, was released in early 1963,Beatlemaniahad arrived.Often serious and focused while on stage with the band, Harrison was known as \"the quiet Beatle\".That moniker arose when the Beatles arrived in the United States in early 1964, and Harrison was ill with a case ofStrep throatand a fever and was medically advised to limit speaking as much as possible until he performed onThe Ed Sullivan Showas scheduled. As such, the press", "As such, the press noticed Harrison's apparent laconic nature in public appearances on that tour and the subsequent nickname stuck, much to Harrison's amusement.He had two lead vocal credits on the LP, including theLennon–McCartneysong \"Do You Want to Know a Secret?\", and three on their second album,With the Beatles(1963).The latter included \"Don't Bother Me\", Harrison's first solo writing credit. Harrison served as the Beatles' scout for new American releases, being especially knowledgeable aboutsoul music.By 1965'sRubber Soul, he had begun to lead the other Beatles intofolk rockthrough his interest inthe ByrdsandBob Dylan, and towardsIndian classical musicthrough his use of the sitar on \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\".He later calledRubber Soulhis \"favourite album\".Revolver(1966) included three of his compositions: \"Taxman\", selected as the album's opening track, \"Love You To\" and \"I Want to Tell You\".His drone-liketamburapart on Lennon's \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" exemplified the band's ongoing", "the band's ongoing exploration of non-Western instruments,while the sitar- andtabla-based \"Love You To\" represented the Beatles' first genuine foray into Indian music.According to theethnomusicologistDavid Reck, the latter song set a precedent in popular music as an example of Asian culture being represented by Westerners respectfully and without parody.AuthorNicholas Schaffnerwrote in 1978 that following Harrison's increased association with the sitar after \"Norwegian Wood\", he became known as \"the maharaja ofraga-rock\".Harrison continued to develop his interest in non-Western instrumentation, playingswarmandalon \"Strawberry Fields Forever\". By late 1966, Harrison's interests had moved away from the Beatles. This was reflected in his choice of Easterngurusand religious leaders for inclusion on the album cover forSgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Bandin 1967.His sole composition on the album was the Indian-inspired \"Within You Without You\", to which no other Beatle contributed.He played sitar and tambura on", "and tambura on the track, backed by musicians from the LondonAsian Music Circleondilruba, swarmandal and tabla.He later commented on theSgt. Pepperalbum: \"It was a millstone and a milestone in the music industry ... There's about half the songs I like and the other half I can't stand.\" In January 1968, he recorded the basic track for his song \"The Inner Light\" at EMI's studio inBombay, using a group of local musicians playing traditional Indian instruments.Released as the B-side to McCartney's \"Lady Madonna\", it was the first Harrison composition to appear on a Beatles single.Derived from a quotation from theTao Te Ching, the song's lyric reflected Harrison's deepening interest in Hinduism andmeditation.During the recording ofThe Beatlesthat same year, tensions within the group ran high, and drummerRingo Starrquit briefly.Harrison's four songwriting contributions to the double album included \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\", which featuredEric Claptonon lead guitar, and thehorn-driven \"Savoy Truffle\". Dylan", "Truffle\". Dylan andthe Bandwere a major musical influence on Harrison at the end of his career with the Beatles.While on a visit toWoodstockin late 1968, he established a friendship with Dylan and found himself drawn to the Band's sense of communal music-making and to the creative equality among the band members, which contrasted with Lennon and McCartney's domination of the Beatles' songwriting and creative direction. This coincided with a prolific period in his songwriting and a growing desire to assert his independence from the Beatles.Tensions among the group surfaced again in January 1969, atTwickenham Studios, during the filmed rehearsals that became the 1970 documentaryLet It Be.Frustrated by the cold and sterile film studio, by Lennon's creative disengagement from the Beatles, and by what he perceived as a domineering attitude from McCartney, Harrison quit the group on 10 January. He returned 12 days later, after his bandmates had agreed to move the film project to their ownApple Studioand to abandon", "to abandon McCartney's plan for making a return to public performance. Relations among the Beatles were more cordial, though still strained, when the band recorded their 1969 albumAbbey Road.The LP included what Lavezzoli describes as \"two classic contributions\" from Harrison – \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\" – that saw him \"finally achieve equal songwriting status\" with Lennon and McCartney.During the album's recording, Harrison asserted more creative control than before, rejecting suggestions for changes to his music, particularly from McCartney.\"Something\" became his first A-side when issued on adouble A-sidesingle with \"Come Together\"; the song was number one in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and West Germany,and the combined sides topped theBillboardHot 100chart in the United States.In the 1970sFrank Sinatrarecorded \"Something\" twice (1970 and 1979) and later dubbed it \"the greatest love song of the past fifty years\".Lennon considered it the best song onAbbey Road, and it became the Beatles' second", "the Beatles' second most covered song after \"Yesterday\". In May 1970, Harrison's song \"For You Blue\" was coupled on a US single with McCartney's \"The Long and Winding Road\" and became Harrison's second chart-topper when the sides were listed together at number one on the Hot 100.His increased productivity meant that by the time oftheir break-uphe had amassed a stockpile of unreleased compositions.While Harrison grew as a songwriter, his compositional presence on Beatles albums remained limited to two or three songs, increasing his frustration, and significantly contributing to the band's break-up.Harrison's last recording session with the Beatles was on 4 January 1970, when he, McCartney and Starr recorded overdubs to the song \"Let It Be\" for thesoundtrack album of the same name. Solo career: 1968–1987 Early solo work: 1968–1969 Before the Beatles' break-up, Harrison had already recorded and released two solo albums:Wonderwall MusicandElectronic Sound, both of which contain mainly instrumental", "mainly instrumental compositions.Wonderwall Music, a soundtrack to the 1968 filmWonderwall, blends Indian and Western instrumentation, whileElectronic Soundis an experimental album that prominently features aMoog synthesizer.Released in November 1968,Wonderwall Musicwas the first solo album by a Beatle and the first LP released byApple Records.Indian musiciansAashish KhanandShivkumar Sharmaperformed on the album, which contains the experimentalsound collage\"Dream Scene\", recorded several months before Lennon's \"Revolution 9\". In December 1969, Harrison participated in a brief tour of Europe with the American groupDelaney & Bonnie and Friends.During the tour, which included Clapton,Bobby Whitlock, drummerJim Gordonand band leadersDelaneyandBonnie Bramlett, Harrison began to play slide guitar, and also began to write \"My Sweet Lord\", which became his first single as a solo artist. All Things Must Pass: 1970 For many years, Harrison was restricted in his songwriting contributions to the Beatles' albums, but he", "albums, but he releasedAll Things Must Pass, atriple albumwith two discs of his songs and the third of recordings of Harrisonjammingwith friends.The album was regarded by many as his best work, and it topped the charts on both sides of the Atlantic.The number-onehit single\"My Sweet Lord\" and the top-ten single \"What Is Life\" were taken from the album,which was co-produced byPhil Spectorusing his \"Wall of Sound\" approach;the musicians included Starr, Clapton,Gary Wright,Billy Preston,Klaus Voormann, the whole of Delaney and Bonnie's Friends band, and the Apple groupBadfinger.On its release,All Things Must Passwas received with critical acclaim;Ben Gerson ofRolling Stonedescribed it as being \"of classic Spectorian proportions,Wagnerian,Brucknerian, the music of mountain tops and vast horizons\".Author andmusicologistIan Inglis considers the lyrics ofthe album's title track\"a recognition of the impermanence of human existence ... a simple and poignant conclusion\" to Harrison's former band.In 1971, Bright Tunes", "1971, Bright Tunes sued Harrison forcopyright infringementover \"My Sweet Lord\", owing to its similarity to the 1963Chiffonshit \"He's So Fine\".When the case was heard in theUnited States district courtin 1976, he denied deliberately plagiarising the song, but lost the case, as the judge ruled that he had done so subconsciously. In 2000, Apple Records released a thirtieth-anniversary edition of the album, and Harrison actively participated in its promotion. In an interview, he reflected on the work: \"It's just something that was like my continuation from the Beatles, really. It was me sort of getting out of the Beatles and just going my own way ... it was a very happy occasion.\"He commented on the production: \"Well, in those days it was like thereverbwas kind of used a bit more than what I would do now. In fact, I don't use reverb at all. I can't stand it ... You know, it's hard to go back to anything thirty years later and expect it to be how you would want it now.\" The Concert for Bangladesh: 1971 Harrison", "1971 Harrison responded to a request from Ravi Shankar by organising a charity event, the Concert for Bangladesh, which took place on 1 August 1971. The event drew over 40,000 people to two shows in New York'sMadison Square Garden.The goal of the event was to raise money to aid starving refugees during theBangladesh Liberation War.Shankar opened the show, which featured popular musicians such as Dylan, Clapton,Leon Russell, Badfinger, Preston and Starr. A triple album,The Concert for Bangladesh, was released by Apple in December, followed by aconcert filmin 1972.Credited to \"George Harrison and Friends\", the album topped the UK chart and peaked at number 2 in the US,and went on to win theGrammy Award for Album of the Year.Tax troubles and questionable expenses later tied up many of the proceeds, but Harrison commented: \"Mainly the concert was to attract attention to the situation ... The money we raised was secondary, and although we had some money problems ... they still got plenty ... even though it was a", "though it was a drop in the ocean. The main thing was, we spread the word and helped get the war ended.\" Living in the Material WorldtoGeorge Harrison: 1973–1979 Harrison's 1973 albumLiving in the Material Worldheld the number one spot on theBillboardalbums chart for five weeks, and the album's single, \"Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)\", also reached number one in the US.In the UK, the LP peaked at number two and the single reached number 8.The album was lavishly produced and packaged, and its dominant message was Harrison's Hindu beliefs.In Greene's opinion it \"contained many of the strongest compositions of his career\".Stephen Holden, writing inRolling Stone, felt the album was \"vastly appealing\" and \"profoundly seductive\", and that it stood \"alone as an article of faith, miraculous in its radiance\".Other reviewers were less enthusiastic, describing the release as awkward, sanctimonious and overly sentimental. In November 1974, Harrison became the first ex-Beatle to tour North America when he began", "when he began his 45-dateDark Horse Tour.The shows included guest spots by his band members Billy Preston andTom Scott, and traditional and contemporary Indian music performed by \"Ravi Shankar, Family and Friends\".Despite numerous positive reviews, the consensus reaction to the tour was negative.Some fans found Shankar's significant presence to be a bizarre disappointment, and many were affronted by what Inglis described as Harrison's \"sermonizing\".Further, he reworked the lyrics to several Beatles songs,and hislaryngitis-affected vocals led to some critics calling the tour \"dark hoarse\".The author Robert Rodriguez commented: \"While the Dark Horse tour might be considered a noble failure, there were a number of fans who were tuned-in to what was being attempted. They went away ecstatic, conscious that they had just witnessed something so uplifting that it could never be repeated.\"Simon Leng called the tour \"groundbreaking\" and \"revolutionary in its presentation of Indian Music\". On 16 November 1974, Harrison", "1974, Harrison and several others involved in the tour visited the White House. They were invited byPresident Gerald Ford'sson, Jack. In December, Harrison releasedDark Horse, which was an album that earned him the least favourable reviews of his career.Rolling Stonecalled it \"the chronicle of a performer out of his element, working to a deadline, enfeebling his overtaxed talents by a rush to deliver a new 'LP product', rehearse a band, and assemble a cross-country tour, all within three weeks\".The album reached number 4 on theBillboardchart and the single \"Dark Horse\" reached number 15, but they failed to make an impact in the UK.The music criticMikal GilmoredescribedDark Horseas \"one of Harrison's most fascinating works – a record about change and loss\". Harrison's final studio album for EMI and Apple Records, thesoul music-inspiredExtra Texture (Read All About It)(1975),peaked at number 8 on theBillboardchart and number 16 in the UK.Harrison considered it the least satisfactory of the three albums he had", "three albums he had recorded sinceAll Things Must Pass.Leng identified \"bitterness and dismay\" in many of the tracks; his long-time friend Klaus Voormann commented: \"He wasn't up for it ... It was a terrible time because I think there was a lot of cocaine going around, and that's when I got out of the picture ... I didn't like his frame of mind\".He released two singles from the LP: \"You\", which reached theBillboardtop 20, and \"This Guitar (Can't Keep from Crying)\", Apple's final original single release. Thirty Three & 1/3(1976), Harrison's first album release on his own Dark Horse Records label, produced the hit singles \"This Song\" and \"Crackerbox Palace\", both of which reached the top 25 in the US.Thesurreal humourof \"Crackerbox Palace\" reflected Harrison's association withMonty Python'sEric Idle, who directed a comical music video for the song.With an emphasis on melody and musicianship, and a more subtle subject matter than the pious message of his earlier works,Thirty Three & 1/3earned Harrison his most", "Harrison his most favourable critical notices in the US sinceAll Things Must Pass.The album peaked just outside the top ten there, but outsold his previous two LPs.As part of his promotion for the release, Harrison performed onSaturday Night LivewithPaul Simon. In 1979, Harrison releasedGeorge Harrison, which followed his second marriage and the birth of his sonDhani.Co-produced byRuss Titelman,the album and the single \"Blow Away\" both made theBillboardtop 20.The album marked the beginning of Harrison's gradual retreat from the music business, with several of the songs having been written in the tranquil setting ofMauiin theHawaiian archipelago.Leng describedGeorge Harrisonas \"melodic and lush ... peaceful ... the work of a man who had lived the rock and roll dream twice over and was now embracing domestic as well as spiritual bliss\". Somewhere in EnglandtoCloud Nine: 1980–1987 Themurder of John Lennonon 8 December 1980 disturbed Harrison and reinforced his decades-long concern aboutstalkers.The tragedy was", "tragedy was also a deep personal loss, although Harrison and Lennon had little contact in the years before Lennon was killed.Following the murder, Harrison commented: \"After all we went through together I had and still have great love and respect for John Lennon. I am shocked and stunned.\"Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had written for Starr to make the song a tribute to Lennon.\"All Those Years Ago\", which included vocal contributions from Paul and Linda McCartney, as well as Starr's original drum part, peaked at number two in the US charts.The single was included on the albumSomewhere in Englandin 1981. Harrison did not release any new albums for five years after 1982'sGone Tropporeceived little notice from critics or the public.During this period he made several guest appearances, including a 1985 performance at a tribute toCarl PerkinstitledBlue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session.In March 1986 he made a surprise appearance during the finale of theBirmingham Heart Beat Charity Concert, an event", "Concert, an event organised to raise money for theBirmingham Children's Hospital.The following year, he appeared atThe Prince's Trustconcert at London'sWembley Arena, performing \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" and \"Here Comes the Sun\".In February 1987 he joined Dylan,John FogertyandJesse Ed Davison stage for a two-hour performance with the blues musicianTaj Mahal.Harrison recalled: \"Bob rang me up and asked if I wanted to come out for the evening and see Taj Mahal ... So we went there and had a few of these Mexican beers – and had a few more ... Bob says, 'Hey, why don't we all get up and play, and you can sing?' But every time I got near the microphone, Dylan comes up and just starts singing this rubbish in my ear, trying to throw me.\" In November 1987, Harrison released the platinum albumCloud Nine.Co-produced withJeff LynneofElectric Light Orchestra(ELO), the album included Harrison's rendition ofJames Ray's\"Got My Mind Set on You\", which went to number one in the US and number two in the UK.The", "two in the UK.The accompanying music video received substantial airplay,and another single, \"When We Was Fab\", a retrospective of the Beatles' career, earned twoMTV Music Video Awardsnominations in 1988.Recorded at his estate in Friar Park, Harrison's slide guitar playing featured prominently on the album, which included several of his long-time musical collaborators, including Clapton,Jim KeltnerandJim Horn.Cloud Ninereached number eight and number ten on the US and UK charts respectively, and several tracks from the album achieved placement onBillboard'sMainstream Rockchart – \"Devil's Radio\", \"This Is Love\" and \"Cloud 9\". Later career: 1988–1996 The Traveling Wilburys and return to touring: 1988–1992 In 1988, Harrison formed the Traveling Wilburys with Jeff Lynne,Roy Orbison, Bob Dylan and Tom Petty. The band had gathered in Dylan's garage to record a song for a Harrison European single release.Harrison's record company decided the track, \"Handle with Care\", was too good for its original purpose as a", "purpose as a B-side and asked for a full album. The LP,Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1, was released in October 1988 and recorded under pseudonyms as half-brothers, supposed sons of Charles Truscott Wilbury Sr.It reached number 16 in the UK and number 3 in the US, where it was certifiedtriple platinum.Harrison's pseudonym on the album was \"Nelson Wilbury\"; he used the name \"Spike Wilbury\" for their second album. In 1989, Harrison and Starr appeared in the music video for Petty's song \"I Won't Back Down\".In October that year, Harrison assembled and releasedBest of Dark Horse 1976–1989, a compilation of his later solo work.The album included three new songs, including \"Cheer Down\", which Harrison had recently contributed to theLethal Weapon 2film soundtrack. Following Orbison's death in December 1988, the Wilburys recorded as a four-piece.Their second album, issued in October 1990, was mischievously titledTraveling Wilburys Vol. 3. According to Lynne, \"That was George's idea. He said, 'Let's confuse the buggers.'\"It", "the buggers.'\"It peaked at number 14 in the UK and number 11 in the US, where it was certified platinum.The Wilburys never performed live, and the group did not record together again following the release of their second album. In December 1991, Harrison joined Clapton for a tour of Japan.It was Harrison's first since 1974 and no others followed.On 6 April 1992, Harrison held a benefit concert for theNatural Law Partyat theRoyal Albert Hall, his first London performance sincethe Beatles' 1969 rooftop concert.In October 1992, he performed at a Bob Dylan tribute concert atMadison Square Gardenin New York City, playing alongside Dylan, Clapton, McGuinn, Petty andNeil Young. The Beatles Anthology: 1994–1996 In 1994, Harrison began a collaboration with McCartney, Starr and producer Jeff Lynne for theBeatles Anthologyproject. This included the recording of two new Beatles songs built around solo vocal and piano tapes recorded by Lennon as well as lengthy interviews about the Beatles' career.Released in December", "in December 1995, \"Free as a Bird\" was the first new Beatles single since 1970.In March 1996, they released a second single, \"Real Love\". They also attempted to finish a third single, \"Now and Then\", but did not finish it because the audio quality of the cassette was, according to Harrison, \"fucking rubbish.\" The song was later finished by McCartney and Starr and released in 2023. He later commented on the project: \"I hope somebody does this to all my crap demos when I'm dead, make them into hit songs.\" Later life and death: 1997–2001 After theAnthologyproject, Harrison collaborated with Ravi Shankar on the latter'sChants of India. Harrison's final television appearance was aVH-1special to promote the album, taped in May 1997.Soon afterwards, Harrison was diagnosed withthroat cancer;he was treated withradiotherapy, which was thought at the time to be successful.He publicly blamed years of smoking for the illness. In January 1998, Harrison attendedCarl Perkins' funeral inJackson, Tennessee, where he performed", "where he performed a brief rendition of Perkins' song \"Your True Love\".In May, he represented the Beatles at London's High Court in their successful bid to gain control of unauthorised recordings made of a 1962 performance by the band at theStar-Clubin Hamburg.The following year, he was the most active of the former Beatles in promoting the reissue of their 1968 animated filmYellow Submarine. On 30 December 1999, Harrison and his wife Olivia were attacked at their home,Friar Park. The perpetrator was 34-year-oldparanoid schizophrenicman Michael Abram, who broke in and attacked Harrison with a kitchen knife, puncturing a lung and causing head injuries before he was incapacitated by Harrison's wife, who struck him repeatedly with afireplace pokerand a lamp.Harrison later commented, \"I felt exhausted and could feel the strength draining from me. I vividly remember a deliberate thrust to my chest. I could hear my lung exhaling and had blood in my mouth. I believed I had been fatally stabbed.\"Following the", "the attack, Harrison was hospitalised with more than 40 stab wounds, and part of his punctured lung was removed.He released a statement soon afterwards regarding his assailant: \"He wasn't a burglar, and he certainly wasn't auditioning for the Traveling Wilburys.Adi Shankara, an Indian historical, spiritual and groovy-type person, once said, 'Life is fragile like a raindrop on a lotus leaf.' And you'd better believe it.\"Upon being released from a psychiatric institution in 2002, Abram said: \"If I could turn back the clock, I would give anything not to have done what I did in attacking George Harrison, but looking back on it now, I have come to understand that I was at the time not in control of my actions. I can only hope the Harrison family might somehow find it in their hearts to accept my apologies.\" The injuries inflicted on Harrison during the home invasion were downplayed by his family in their comments to the press. Having seen Harrison looking so healthy beforehand, those in his social circle believed", "circle believed that the attack brought about a change in him and was the cause for his cancer's return.In May 2001, it was revealed that Harrison had undergone an operation to remove a cancerous growth from one of his lungs,and in July, it was reported that he was being treated for abrain tumourat a clinic in Switzerland.While in Switzerland, Starr visited him but had to cut short his stay to travel to Boston, where his daughter was undergoing emergency brain surgery. Harrison, who was very weak, quipped: \"Do you want me to come with you?\"In November 2001, he began radiotherapy atStaten Island University Hospitalin New York City fornon–small cell lung cancerthat hadspreadto his brain.When the news was made public, Harrison, who would die within the month, bemoaned his physician's breach of privacy, and his estate later claimed damages. On 29 November 2001, Harrison died at a property belonging to McCartney, on Heather Road inBeverly Hills, California.He was 58 years old.He died in the company of Olivia,", "company of Olivia, Dhani, Shankar and the latter's wife Sukanya and daughterAnoushka, and Hare Krishna devotees Shyamasundar Das andMukunda Goswami, who chanted verses from theBhagavad Gita.His final message to the world, as relayed in a statement by Olivia and Dhani, was: \"Everything else can wait, but the search for God cannot wait, and love one another.\"He wascrematedatHollywood Forever Cemetery, and his funeral was held at theSelf-Realization Fellowship Lake ShrineinPacific Palisades, California.His close family scattered his ashes according toHindu traditionin a private ceremony in theGangesandYamunarivers nearVaranasi, India.He left almost £100 million in his will. Harrison's final studio album,Brainwashed(2002), was released posthumously after it was completed by his son Dhani and Jeff Lynne.A quotation from theBhagavad Gitais included in the album's liner notes: \"There never was a time when you or I did not exist. Nor will there be any future when we shall cease to be.\"A media-only single, \"Stuck", "single, \"Stuck Inside a Cloud\", which Leng describes as \"a uniquely candid reaction to illness and mortality\", achieved number 27 onBillboard's Adult Contemporary chart.The single \"Any Road\", released in May 2003, peaked at number 37 on theUK Singles Chart.\"Marwa Blues\" went on to receive the2004 Grammy AwardforBest Pop Instrumental Performance, while \"Any Road\" was nominated forBest Male Pop Vocal Performance. Musicianship Guitar work Harrison's guitar work with the Beatles was varied and flexible. Although not fast or flashy, his lead guitar playing was solid and typified the more subdued lead guitar style of the early 1960s. His rhythm guitar playing was innovative, for example when he used acapoto shorten the strings on an acoustic guitar, as on theRubber Soul(1965) album and \"Here Comes the Sun\", to create a bright, sweet sound.Eric Clapton felt that Harrison was \"clearly an innovator\" as he was \"taking certain elements of R&B and rock and rockabilly and creating something unique\".Rolling", "unique\".Rolling StonefounderJann Wennerdescribed Harrison as \"a guitarist who was never showy but who had an innate, eloquent melodic sense. He played exquisitely in the service of the song\".Theguitar pickingstyle ofChet Atkinsand Carl Perkins influenced Harrison, giving acountry musicfeel to many of the Beatles' recordings.He identifiedChuck Berryas another early influence. In 1961, the Beatles recorded \"Cry for a Shadow\", a blues-inspired instrumental co-written by Lennon and Harrison, who is credited with composing the song's lead guitar part, building on unusual chord voicings and imitating the style of other English groups such asthe Shadows.Harrison's liberal use of thediatonic scalein his guitar playing reveals the influence ofBuddy Holly, and his interest in Berry inspired him to compose songs based on theblues scalewhile incorporating arockabillyfeel in the style of Perkins.Another of Harrison's musical techniques was the use of guitar lines written inoctaves, as on \"I'll Be on My Way\". By 1964, he", "Way\". By 1964, he had begun to develop a distinctive personal style as a guitarist, writing parts that featured the use of nonresolving tones, as with the ending chord arpeggios on \"A Hard Day's Night\".On this and other songs from the period, he used aRickenbacker 360/12– an electric guitar with twelve strings, the low eight of which are tuned in pairs, one octave apart, with the higher four being pairs tuned in unison.His use of the Rickenbacker onA Hard Day's Nighthelped to popularise the model, and the jangly sound became so prominent thatMelody Makertermed it the Beatles' \"secret weapon\".In 1965, Harrison used anexpression pedalto control his guitar's volume on \"I Need You\", creating a syncopatedflautandoeffect with the melody resolving itsdissonancethrough tonal displacements.He used the same volume-swell technique on \"Yes It Is\", applying what Everett described as \"ghostly articulation\" to the song'snatural harmonics. In 1966, Harrison contributed innovative musical ideas toRevolver. He", "toRevolver. He playedbackwardsguitar on Lennon's composition \"I'm Only Sleeping\" and a guitarcounter-melodyon \"And Your Bird Can Sing\" that moved in parallel octaves above McCartney's bass downbeats.His guitar playing on \"I Want to Tell You\" exemplified the pairing of altered chordal colours with descending chromatic lines and his guitar part forSgt Pepper's \"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\" mirrors Lennon's vocal line in much the same way that asarangiplayer accompanies akhyalsinger in a Hindudevotional song. Everett described Harrison's guitar solo from \"Old Brown Shoe\" as \"stinging highly Claptonesque\".He identified two of the composition's significantmotifs: a bluesytrichordand adiminished triadwith roots in A and E.Huntley called the song \"a sizzling rocker with a ferocious ... solo\".In Greene's opinion, Harrison's demo for \"Old Brown Shoe\" contains \"one of the most complex lead guitar solos on any Beatles song\". Harrison's playing onAbbey Road, and in particular on \"Something\", marked a significant", "a significant moment in his development as a guitarist. The song's guitar solo shows a varied range of influences, incorporating the blues guitar style of Clapton and the styles of Indiangamakas.According to author and musicologistKenneth Womack:\"'Something' meanders toward the most unforgettable of Harrison's guitar solos ... A masterpiece in simplicity, reaches toward the sublime\". AfterDelaney Bramlettinspired him to learn slide guitar, Harrison began to incorporate it into his solo work, which allowed him to mimic many traditional Indian instruments, including the sarangi and thedilruba.Leng described Harrison's slide guitar solo on Lennon's \"How Do You Sleep?\"as a departure for \"the sweet soloist of 'Something'\", calling his playing \"rightly famed ... one of Harrison's greatest guitar statements\".Lennon commented: \"That's the best he's ever fucking played in his life.\" AHawaiianinfluence is notable in much of Harrison's music, ranging from his slide guitar work onGone Troppo(1982) to his televised", "to his televised performance of theCab Callowaystandard \"Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea\" onukulelein 1992.Lavezzoli described Harrison's slide playing on the Grammy-winning instrumental \"Marwa Blues\" (2002) as demonstrating Hawaiian influences while comparing the melody to an Indiansarodorveena, calling it \"yet another demonstration of Harrison's unique slide approach\".Harrison was an admirer ofGeorge Formbyand a member of the Ukulele Society of Great Britain, and played a ukulele solo in the style of Formby at the end of \"Free as a Bird\".He performed at a Formby convention in 1991, and served as the honorary president of the George Formby Appreciation Society.Harrison played bass guitar on a few tracks, including the Beatles songs \"She Said She Said\", \"Golden Slumbers\", \"Birthday\" and \"Honey Pie\".He also played bass on several solo recordings, including \"Faster\", \"Wake Up My Love\" and \"Bye Bye Love\". Sitar and Indian music During the Beatles' American tour in August 1965, Harrison's friendDavid", "friendDavid Crosbyof the Byrds introduced him toIndian classical musicand the work ofsitarmaestroRavi Shankar.Harrison described Shankar as \"the first person who ever impressed me in my life ... and he was the only person who didn't try to impress me.\"Harrison became fascinated with the sitar and immersed himself inIndian music.According to Lavezzoli, Harrison's introduction of the instrument on the Beatles' song \"Norwegian Wood\" \"opened the floodgates for Indian instrumentation in rock music, triggering what Shankar would call 'The Great Sitar Explosion' of 1966–67\".Lavezzoli recognises Harrison as \"the man most responsible for this phenomenon\". In June 1966, Harrison met Shankar at the home of Mrs Angadi of the Asian Music Circle, asked to be his student, and was accepted.Before this meeting, Harrison had recorded hisRevolvertrack \"Love You To\", contributing a sitar part that Lavezzoli describes as an \"astonishing improvement\" over \"Norwegian Wood\" and \"the most accomplished performance on sitar by any", "on sitar by any rock musician\".On 6 July, Harrison travelled to India to buy a sitar from Rikhi Ram & Sons in New Delhi.In September, following the Beatles' final tour, he returned to India to study sitar for six weeks with Shankar.He initially stayed in Bombay until fans learned of his arrival, then moved to a houseboat on a remote lake inKashmir.During this visit, he also received tutelage fromShambhu Das, Shankar's protégé. Harrison studied the instrument until 1968, when, following a discussion with Shankar about the need to find his \"roots\", an encounter with Clapton andJimi Hendrixat a hotel in New York convinced him to return to guitar playing. Harrison commented: \"I decided ... I'm not going to be a great sitar player ... because I should have started at least fifteen years earlier.\"Harrison continued to use Indian instrumentation occasionally on his solo albums and remained strongly associated with the genre.Lavezzoli groups him withPaul SimonandPeter Gabrielas the three rock musicians who have", "musicians who have given the most \"mainstream exposure to non-Western musics, or the concept of 'world music'\". Songwriting Harrison wrote his first song, \"Don't Bother Me\", while sick in a hotel bed in Bournemouth during August 1963, as \"an exercise to see if Icouldwrite a song\", as he remembered.His songwriting ability improved throughout the Beatles' career, but his material did not earn full respect from Lennon, McCartney and producerGeorge Martinuntil near the group's break-up.In 1969, McCartney told Lennon: \"Until this year, our songs have been better than George's. Now this year his songs are at least as good as ours\".Harrison often had difficulty getting the band to record his songs.Most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contain at least two Harrison compositions; three of his songs appear onRevolver, \"the album on which Harrison came of age as a songwriter\", according to Inglis. Harrison wrote thechord progressionof \"Don't Bother Me\" almost exclusively in theDorian mode, demonstrating an interest in", "an interest in exotic tones that eventually culminated in his embrace of Indian music.The latter proved a strong influence on his songwriting and contributed to his innovation within the Beatles. According toMikal GilmoreofRolling Stone, \"Harrison's openness to new sounds and textures cleared new paths for his rock and roll compositions. His use of dissonance on ... 'Taxman' and 'I Want to Tell You' was revolutionary in popular music – and perhaps more originally creative than the avant-garde mannerisms that Lennon and McCartney borrowed from the music ofKarlheinz Stockhausen,Luciano Berio,Edgard VarèseandIgor Stravinsky...\" Of the 1967 Harrison song \"Within You Without You\", author Gerry Farrell said that Harrison had created a \"new form\", calling the composition \"a quintessential fusion of pop and Indian music\".Lennon called the song one of Harrison's best: \"His mind and his music are clear. There is his innate talent, he brought that sound together.\"In his next fully Indian-styled song, \"The Inner Light\",", "\"The Inner Light\", Harrison embraced theKarnatakdiscipline of Indian music, rather than theHindustanistyle he had used in \"Love You To\" and \"Within You Without You\".Writing in 1997, Farrell commented: \"It is a mark of Harrison's sincere involvement with Indian music that, nearly thirty years on, the Beatles' 'Indian' songs remain the most imaginative and successful examples of this type of fusion – for example, 'Blue Jay Way' and 'The Inner Light'.\" Beatles biographer Bob Spitz described \"Something\" as a masterpiece, and \"an intensely stirring romantic ballad that would challenge 'Yesterday' and 'Michelle' as one of the most recognizable songs they ever produced\".Inglis consideredAbbey Roada turning point in Harrison's development as a songwriter and musician. He described Harrison's two contributions to the LP, \"Here Comes the Sun\" and \"Something\", as \"exquisite\", declaring them equal to any previous Beatles songs. Collaborations From 1968 onwards, Harrison collaborated with other musicians; he brought", "he brought inEric Claptonto play lead guitar on \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\" for the 1968 Beatles'White Album,and collaborated withJohn Barhamon his 1968 debut solo album,Wonderwall Music, which included contributions from Clapton again, as well asPeter Torkfromthe Monkees.He played on tracks byDave Mason,Nicky Hopkins,Alvin Lee,Ronnie Wood, Billy Preston andTom Scott.Harrison co-wrote songs and music with Dylan, Clapton, Preston, Doris Troy, David Bromberg, Gary Wright, Wood, Jeff Lynne and Tom Petty, among others.Harrison's music projects during the final years of the Beatles included producing Apple Records artistsDoris Troy,Jackie Lomaxand Billy Preston. Harrison co-wrote the song \"Badge\" with Clapton, which was included onCream's 1969 album,Goodbye.Harrison played rhythm guitar on the track, using the pseudonym \"L'Angelo Misterioso\" for contractual reasons.In May 1970, he played guitar on several songs during a recording session for Dylan's albumNew Morning.Between 1971 and 1973, he co-wrote and/or", "he co-wrote and/or produced three top ten hits for Starr: \"It Don't Come Easy\", \"Back Off Boogaloo\" and \"Photograph\".Aside from \"How Do You Sleep?\", his contributions to Lennon's 1971 albumImagineincluded a slide guitar solo on \"Gimme Some Truth\" anddobroon \"Crippled Inside\".Also that year, he produced and played slide guitar on Badfinger's top ten hit \"Day After Day\", and a dobro on Preston's \"I Wrote a Simple Song\".He worked withHarry Nilssonon \"You're Breakin' My Heart\" (1972) and withCheech & Chongon \"Basketball Jones\" (1973). In 1974, Harrison foundedDark Horse Recordsas an avenue for collaboration with other musicians.He wanted Dark Horse to serve as a creative outlet for artists, as Apple Records had for the Beatles.Eric Idle commented: \"He's extremely generous, and he backs and supports all sorts of people that you'll never, ever hear of.\"The first acts signed to the new label were Ravi Shankar and the duoSplinter. Harrison produced and made multiple musical contributions to Splinter's debut", "to Splinter's debut album,The Place I Love, which provided Dark Horse with its first hit, \"Costafine Town\".He also produced and played guitar andautoharpon Shankar'sShankar Family & Friends, the label's other inaugural release.Other artists signed by Dark Horse includeAttitudes,Henry McCullough, Jiva andStairsteps. Harrison collaborated with Tom Scott on Scott's 1975 albumNew York Connection, and in 1981 he played guitar on \"Walk a Thin Line\", fromMick Fleetwood'sThe Visitor.His contributions to Starr's solo career continued with \"Wrack My Brain\", a 1981 US top 40 hit written and produced by Harrison,and guitar overdubs to two tracks onVertical Man(1998).In 1996, Harrison recorded \"Distance Makes No Difference With Love\" with Carl Perkins for the latter's albumGo Cat Go!, and, in 1990, he played slide guitar on the title track of Dylan'sUnder the Red Skyalbum.In 2001, he performed as a guest musician on Jeff Lynne and Electric Light Orchestra's comeback albumZoom, and on the song \"Love Letters\" forBill", "Letters\" forBill Wyman's Rhythm Kings.He also co-wrote a new song with his son Dhani, \"Horse to the Water\", which was recorded on 2 October, eight weeks before his death. It appeared onJools Holland's albumSmall World, Big Band. Guitars When Harrison joined the Quarrymen in 1958, his main guitar was aHöfnerPresident Acoustic, which he soon traded for a Höfner Club 40 model.His first solid-body electric guitar was a Czech-builtJolanaFuturama/Grazioso.The guitars he used on early recordings were mainlyGretschmodels, played through aVox amplifier, including aGretsch Duo Jetthat he bought secondhand in 1961 and posed with on the album cover forCloud Nine(1987).He also bought a Gretsch Tennessean and a Gretsch Country Gentleman, which he played on \"She Loves You\", and during the Beatles' 1964 appearance onThe Ed Sullivan Show.In 1963, he bought aRickenbacker 425Fireglo, and in 1964 he acquired a Rickenbacker 360/12 guitar, which was the second of its kind to be manufactured.Harrison obtained his firstFender", "his firstFender Stratocasterin 1965 and first used it during the recording of theHelp!album that February; he also used it when recordingRubber Soullater that year, most notably on the song \"Nowhere Man\". In early 1966, Harrison and Lennon each purchasedEpiphone Casinos, which they used onRevolver.Harrison also used aGibson J-160Eand aGibson SGStandard while recording the album.He later painted his Stratocaster in a psychedelic design that included the word \"Bebopalula\" above the pickguard and the guitar's nickname, \"Rocky\", on the headstock.He played this guitar in theMagical Mystery Tour(1967) film and throughout his solo career.In July 1968, Clapton gave him aGibson Les Paulthat had been stripped of its original finish and stained cherry red, which Harrison nicknamed \"Lucy\".Around this time, he obtained a Gibson Jumbo J-200 acoustic guitar,which he subsequently gave to Dylan to use at the1969 Isle of Wight Festival.In late 1968,Fender Musical Instruments Corporationgave Harrison a custom-madeFender", "a custom-madeFender TelecasterRosewood prototype, made especially for him by Philip Kubicki.In August 2017, Fender released a \"Limited Edition George Harrison Rosewood Telecaster\" modelled after a Telecaster thatRoger Rossmeisloriginally created for Harrison. Film production and HandMade films Harrison helped finance Ravi Shankar's documentaryRagaand released it throughApple Filmsin 1971.He also produced, with Apple managerAllen Klein, theConcert for Bangladeshfilm.In 1973, he produced the feature filmLittle Malcolm,but the project was lost amid the litigation surrounding the former Beatles ending their business ties with Klein. In 1973,Peter Sellersintroduced Harrison toDenis O'Brien. Soon after, the two went into business together.In 1978, to produceMonty Python's Life of Brian, they formed the film production and distribution company HandMade Films.Their opportunity for investment came afterEMI Filmswithdrew funding at the demand of their chief executive,Bernard Delfont.Harrison financed the production", "the production ofLife of Brianin part by mortgaging his home, which Idle later called \"the most anybody's ever paid for a cinema ticket in history\".The film grossed $21 million at the box office in the US.The first film distributed by HandMade Films wasThe Long Good Friday(1980), and the first they produced wasTime Bandits(1981), a co-scripted project byMonty Python'sTerry GilliamandMichael Palin.The film featured a new song by Harrison, \"Dream Away\", in the closing credits.Time Banditsbecame one of HandMade's most successful and acclaimed efforts; with a budget of $5 million, it earned $35 million in the US within ten weeks of its release. Harrison served asexecutive producerfor 23 films with HandMade, includingA Private Function(1984),Mona Lisa(1986),Shanghai Surprise(1986),Withnail and I(1987) andHow to Get Ahead in Advertising(1989).He madecameo appearancesin several of these films, including a role as anightclub singerinShanghai Surprise, for which he recorded five new songs.According to Ian Inglis, \"", "to Ian Inglis, \" executive role in HandMade Films helped to sustain British cinema at a time of crisis, producing some of the country's most memorable movies of the 1980s.\"Following a series ofbox office bombsin the late 1980s, and excessive debt incurred by O'Brien which wasguaranteedby Harrison, HandMade's financial situation became precarious.The company ceased operations in 1991and was sold three years later to Paragon Entertainment, a Canadian corporation.Afterwards, Harrison sued O'Brien for $25 million for fraud and negligence, resulting in an $11.6 million judgement in 1996. Humanitarian work Harrison was involved in humanitarian and political activism throughout his life. In the 1960s, the Beatles supported thecivil rights movementand protested against theVietnam War. In early 1971, Ravi Shankar consulted Harrison about how to provide aid to the people of Bangladesh after the1970 Bhola cycloneand theBangladesh Liberation War.Harrison hastily wrote and recorded the song \"Bangla Desh\", which became", "Desh\", which became pop music's firstcharity singlewhen issued by Apple Records in late July.He also pushed Apple to release Shankar'sJoi BanglaEP in an effort to raise further awareness for the cause.Shankar asked for Harrison's advice about planning a small charity event in the US. Harrison responded by organising the Concert for Bangladesh, which raised more than $240,000.Around $13.5 million was generated through the album and film releases,although most of the funds were frozen in anInternal Revenue Serviceaudit for ten years, due to Klein's failure to register the event as aUNICEFbenefit beforehand.In June 1972, UNICEF honoured Harrison and Shankar, and Klein, with the \"Child Is the Father of Man\" award at an annual ceremony in recognition of their fundraising efforts for Bangladesh. From 1980, Harrison became a vocal supporter ofGreenpeaceandCND.He also protested against the use of nuclear energy withFriends of the Earth,and helped financeVole, agreenmagazine launched by Monty Python memberTerry", "Python memberTerry Jones.In 1990, he helped promote his wife Olivia'sRomanian Angel Appealon behalf of the thousands ofRomanian orphansleft abandoned by the state following thefall of Communismin Eastern Europe.Harrison recorded a benefit single, \"Nobody's Child\", with the Traveling Wilburys, and assembled a fundraising album with contributions from other artists including Clapton, Starr,Elton John,Stevie Wonder,DonovanandVan Morrison. The Concert for Bangladesh has been described as an innovative precursor for the large-scale charity rock shows that followed, includingLive Aid.The George Harrison Humanitarian Fund for UNICEF, a joint effort between the Harrison family and theUS Fund for UNICEF, aims to support programmes that help children caught in humanitarian emergencies.In December 2007, they donated $450,000 to help the victims ofCyclone Sidrin Bangladesh.On 13 October 2009, the first George Harrison Humanitarian Award went to Ravi Shankar for his efforts in saving the lives of children, and his", "children, and his involvement with the Concert for Bangladesh. Personal life Hinduism By the mid-1960s, Harrison had become an admirer ofIndian cultureand mysticism, introducing it to the other Beatles.During the filming ofHelp!in the Bahamas, they met the founder ofSivananda Yoga,Swami Vishnu-devananda, who gave each of them a signed copy of his book,The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga.Between the end of the last Beatles tour in 1966 and the beginning of theSgt Pepperrecording sessions, he made a pilgrimage to India with his first wife,Pattie Boyd; there, he studied sitar with Ravi Shankar, met severalgurus, and visited various holy places.In 1968,he travelled with the other BeatlestoRishikeshin northern India to study meditation withMaharishi Mahesh Yogi. Harrison's experiences with LSD in the mid-1960s served as a catalyst for his early pursuance of Hinduism. In a 1977 interview, George recalled: For me, it was like a flash. The first time I had acid, it just opened up something in my head that was", "in my head that was inside of me, and I realized a lot of things. I didn't learn them because I already knew them, but that happened to be the key that opened the door to reveal them. From the moment I had that, I wanted to have it all the time – these thoughts about the yogis and the Himalayas, and Ravi's music. However, Harrison stopped using LSD after a disenchanting experience in San Francisco'sHaight-Ashburyneighborhood. He recounted inThe Beatles Anthology: That was the turning point for me – that's when I went right off the whole drug cult and stopped taking the dreaded lysergic acid. I had some in a little bottle – it was liquid. I put it under a microscope, and it looked like bits of old rope. I thought that I couldn't put that into my brain any more. After being given various religious texts by Shankar in 1966, he remained a lifelong advocate of the teachings ofSwami VivekanandaandParamahansa Yogananda– yogis and authors, respectively, ofRaja YogaandAutobiography of a Yogi.In mid-1969, he produced", "he produced the single \"Hare Krishna Mantra\", performed by members of the LondonRadha Krishna Temple.Having also helped the Temple devotees become established in Britain, Harrison then met their leader,A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, whom he described as \"my friend ... my master\" and \"a perfect example of everything he preached\".Harrison embraced theHare Krishna tradition, particularlyjapa-yogachanting with beads, and became a lifelong devotee.In 1972 he donated hisLetchmore Heathmansion north of London to the devotees. It was later converted to a temple and renamedBhaktivedanta Manor. Regarding other faiths, he once remarked: \"All religions are branches of one big tree. It doesn't matter what you call Him just as long as you call.\"He commented on his beliefs: Krishnaactually was in a body as a person ... What makes it complicated is, if he's God, what's he doing fighting on a battlefield? It took me ages to try to figure that out, and again it was Yogananda's spiritual interpretation of theBhagavad", "of theBhagavad Gitathat made me realise what it was. Our idea of Krishna andArjunaon the battlefield in the chariot. So this is the point – that we're in these bodies, which is like a kind of chariot, and we're going through this incarnation, this life, which is kind of a battlefield. The senses of the body ... are the horses pulling the chariot, and we have to get control over the chariot by getting control over the reins. And Arjuna in the end says, \"Please Krishna, you drive the chariot\" because unless we bringChristor Krishna orBuddhaor whichever of our spiritual guides ... we're going to crash our chariot, and we're going to turn over, and we're going to get killed in the battlefield. That's why we say \"Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna\", asking Krishna to come and take over the chariot. Inglis comments that, in contrast toCliff Richard's conversion to Christianity in 1966: \"Harrison's spiritual journey was seen as a serious and important development that reflected popular music's increasing maturity ... what", "maturity ... what he, and the Beatles, had managed to overturn was the paternalistic assumption that popular musicians had no role other than to stand on stage and sing their hit songs.\" Vegetarianism In line with the Hinduyogatradition,Harrison became avegetarianin the late 1960s.He remained a vegetarian on religious grounds from 1968 until his death,and spent the second half of his life as an advocate for the benefits of vegetarian diet. Family and interests Harrison married modelPattie Boydon 21 January 1966, with McCartney serving asbest man.Harrison and Boyd had met on set in 1964 during the production of the filmA Hard Day's Night, in which the 19-year-old Boyd had been cast as a schoolgirl. During a lunch break, George 'playfully' proposed to her.They separated in 1974 and their divorce was finalised in 1977.Boyd said her decision to end the marriage was due largely to George's repeated infidelities. The last infidelity culminated in an affair with Ringo's wifeMaureen, which Boyd called \"the final", "called \"the final straw\".She characterised the last year of their marriage as \"fuelled by alcohol and cocaine\", and she stated: \"George used coke excessively, and I think it changed him ... it froze his emotions and hardened his heart.\"She subsequently moved in withEric Clapton, and they married in 1979. On 2 September 1978, Harrison marriedOlivia Trinidad Arias, who was a marketing executive for A&M Records, and later Dark Horse Records.As Dark Horse was a subsidiary of A&M,the couple had first met over the phone working on record company business,and then in person at theA&M Recordsoffices in Los Angeles in 1974.Together they had one son,Dhani Harrison, born on 1 August 1978. Harrison restored the English manor house and grounds of Friar Park, his home inHenley-on-Thames, where several of his music videos, including \"Crackerbox Palace\", were filmed; the grounds also served as the background for the cover ofAll Things Must Pass.He employed ten workers to maintain the 36-acre (15 ha) garden.Harrison", "ha) garden.Harrison commented on gardening as a form ofescapism: \"Sometimes I feel like I'm actually on the wrong planet, and it's great when I'm in my garden, but the minute I go out the gate I think: 'What the hell am I doing here?'\"His autobiography,I, Me, Mine, is dedicated \"to gardeners everywhere\".The former Beatles publicistDerek Taylorhelped Harrison write the book, which said little about the Beatles, focusing instead on Harrison's hobbies, music and lyrics.Taylor commented: \"George is not disowning the Beatles ... but it was a long time ago and actually a short part of his life.\" Harrison had an interest insports carsandmotor racing; he was one of the 100 people who purchased theMcLaren F1road car.He had collected photos of racing drivers and their cars since he was young; at 12, he had attended his first race, the1955 British Grand PrixatAintree.He wrote \"Faster\" as a tribute to theFormula Oneracing driversJackie StewartandRonnie Peterson. Proceeds from its release went to theGunnar Nilssoncancer", "Nilssoncancer charity, set up after the Swedish driver's death from the disease in 1978.Harrison's first extravagant car, a 1964Aston Martin DB5, was sold at auction on 7 December 2011 in London. An anonymous Beatles collector paid £350,000 for the vehicle that Harrison had bought new in January 1965. Relationships with the other Beatles For most of the Beatles' career, the relationships in the group were close. According toHunter Davies, \"the Beatles spent their lives not living a communal life, but communally living the same life. They were each other's greatest friends.\" Harrison's ex-wife Pattie Boyd described how the Beatles \"all belonged to each other\" and admitted, \"George has a lot with the others that I can never know about. Nobody, not even the wives, can break through or even comprehend it.\"Starr said, \"We really looked out for each other and we had so many laughs together. In the old days we'd have the biggest hotel suites, the whole floor of the hotel, and the four of us would end up in the", "would end up in the bathroom, just to be with each other.\" He added, \"there were some really loving, caring moments between four people: a hotel room here and there – a really amazing closeness. Just four guys who loved each other. It was pretty sensational.\" Lennon stated that his relationship with Harrison was \"one of young follower and older guy ... was like a disciple of mine when we started.\"The two later bonded over theirLSDexperiences, finding common ground as seekers of spirituality. They took radically different paths thereafter, with, according to biographer Gary Tillery, Harrison finding God and Lennon coming to the conclusion that people are the creators of their own lives.In 1974, Harrison said of his former bandmate: \"John Lennon is a saint and he's heavy-duty, and he's great and I love him. But at the same time, he's such abastard– but that's the great thing about him, you see?\" Harrison and McCartney were the first of the Beatles to meet, having shared a school bus, and often learned and", "often learned and rehearsed new guitar chords together.McCartney said that he and Harrison usually shared a bedroom while touring.McCartney has referred to Harrison as his \"baby brother\".In a 1974 BBC radio interview withAlan Freeman, Harrison stated: \" ruined me as a guitar player\". In the same interview, however, Harrison stated that \"I just know that whatever we've been through, there's always been something that's tied us together.\"Perhaps the most significant obstacle to a Beatles reunion after the death of Lennon was Harrison and McCartney's personal relationship, as both men admitted that they often got on each other's nerves.Rodriguez commented: \"Even to the end of George's days, theirs was a volatile relationship\".When, in aYahoo!online chat in February 2001, he was asked if Paul \" you off\", Harrison replied \"Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass -- You know his faults -- Then let his foibles pass. Old Victorian Proverb. I'm sure there's enough about me that pisses him off, but I think we have", "but I think we have now grown old enough to realize that we're both pretty damn cute!\" Legacy InJune 1965, Harrison and the other Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE).They received their insignia fromthe Queenat an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 26 October.In 1971, the Beatles received anAcademy Awardfor the bestOriginal Song Scorefor the filmLet It Be.The minor planet4149 Harrison, discovered in 1984, was named after him,as was a variety ofDahliaflower.In December 1992, he became the first recipient of theBillboard Century Award, an honour presented to music artists for significant bodies of work.The award recognised Harrison's \"critical role in laying the groundwork for the modern concept ofworld music\" and for his having \"advanced society's comprehension of the spiritual and altruistic power of popular music\".Rolling Stonemagazine ranked him number 11 in their list of the \"100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time\". He is also in number 65 in the list of \"100 greatest", "of \"100 greatest songwriters of all time\" by the same magazine. In 2002, on the first anniversary of his death, theConcert for Georgewas held at theRoyal Albert Hall. Eric Clapton organised the event, which included performances by many of Harrison's friends and musical collaborators, including McCartney and Starr.Eric Idle, who described Harrison as \"one of the few morally good people that rock and roll has produced\", was among the performers of Monty Python's \"Lumberjack Song\".The profits from the concert went to Harrison's charity, theMaterial World Charitable Foundation. In 2004, Harrison was posthumously inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameas a solo artist by his former bandmates Lynne and Petty, and into theMadison Square Garden Walk of Famein 2006 for the Concert for Bangladesh.On 14 April 2009, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce awarded Harrison a star on theWalk of Famein front of theCapitol Records Building. McCartney, Lynne and Petty were present when the star was unveiled. Harrison's widow", "Harrison's widow Olivia, the actorTom Hanksand Idle made speeches at the ceremony, and Harrison's son Dhani spoke the Hare Krishna mantra. A documentary film titledGeorge Harrison: Living in the Material World, directed byMartin Scorsese, was released in October 2011. The film features interviews with Olivia and Dhani Harrison, Klaus Voormann,Terry Gilliam, Starr, Clapton, McCartney, Keltner andAstrid Kirchherr. Harrison was posthumously honoured withThe Recording Academy'sGrammy Lifetime Achievement Awardat theGrammy Awardsin February 2015. AnIllinois State Historical Societymarker inBenton, Illinois, commemorates Harrison's visit in the town in 1963 to see his sister, making him the first Beatle to visit the United States.In 2017, a mural installation was unveiled in the town of Harrisonpainted by artist John Cerney.Statues of Harrison can be found around the world, including several across his native Liverpool and abustin the Shadhinotar Shagram Triangle Sculpture Garden inDhaka, Bangladesh, commemorating", "commemorating Harrison's contributions to Bangladeshi culture. On 24 May 2024 ablue plaquewas unveiled at Harrison's childhood home at 12 Arnold Grove in Wavertree. Discography See also Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited sources Further reading Documentaries External links" ]
How many years had passed since the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was admitted to the Union by the time Rep. Robert D. Heaton was born?
85
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_D._Heaton
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Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_D._Heaton']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_D._Heaton" ]
[ "Pennsylvania Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Pennsylvania(/ˌpɛnsɪlˈveɪniə/ⓘPEN-sil-VAY-nee-ə,lit.'Penn's forest country'), officially theCommonwealth of Pennsylvania(Pennsylvania Dutch:Pennsilfaani),is a USstatespanning theMid-Atlantic,Northeastern,Appalachian, andGreat Lakesregions of theUnited States. It bordersDelawareto its southeast,Marylandto its south,West Virginiato its southwest,Ohioand theOhio Riverto its west,Lake ErieandNew Yorkto its north, theDelaware RiverandNew Jerseyto its east, and theCanadian provinceofOntarioto its northwest viaLake Erie. Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 through a royalland granttoWilliam Penn, the son ofthe state's namesake. Prior to that, between 1638 and 1655, a southeast portion of the state was part ofNew Sweden, aSwedish Empirecolony. Established as a haven for religious and political tolerance, thecolonial-eraProvince of Pennsylvaniawas known for its relatively peaceful relations with native tribes,innovative government system, andreligious pluralism. Pennsylvania played a vital and historic role in theAmerican Revolutionand the ultimately successful quest for independence from theBritish Empire, hosting theFirstandSecond Continental Congress, leading to the adoption of theDeclaration of Independenceand the formation of theContinental Army.On December 12, 1787, Pennsylvania became the second state to ratify theU.S. Constitution.The bloodiest battle of theAmerican Civil War, atGettysburgover three days in July 1863, proved the war's turning point, leading to theUnion's preservation. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, the state's manufacturing-based economy contributed to the development of much of the nation's early infrastructure, including key bridges,skyscrapers, and military hardware used in U.S.-led victories inWorld War I,World War II, and theCold War. Pennsylvania's geographyis highly diverse. TheAppalachian Mountainsrun through the center of the state; theAlleghenyandPoconomountains span much ofNortheastern Pennsylvania; close to60% of the state is forested. While it has no ocean shoreline, it has 140 miles (225 km) of waterfront along Lake Erie and the tidal Delaware River. Pennsylvania is thefifth-most populous state in the United States, with over 13 million residents as of the2020 United States census.The state is the33rd-largestby area and has theninth-highest population densityamong all states. The largestmetropolitan statistical areais the southeasternDelaware Valley, which includes and surroundsPhiladelphia, the state'slargestandnation's sixth-most populouscity. The second-largest metropolitan area,Greater Pittsburgh, is centered in and aroundPittsburgh, the state's second-largest city. The state's subsequent five most populous cities areAllentown,Reading,Erie,Scranton, andBethlehem.The state capital isHarrisburg. History Indigenous settlement Pennsylvania's history of human habitation extends to thousands of years before the foundation of the colonialProvince of Pennsylvaniain 1681.Archaeologistsbelieve the firstsettlement of the Americasoccurred at least 15,000 years ago, during theLast Glacial Period, though it is unclear when humans first inhabited present-day Pennsylvania. Between 30,000 and 10,500 years ago,Native Americanscrossed the two continents, arriving inNorth America.Meadowcroft RockshelterinJefferson Townshipincludes the earliest known signs of human activity in Pennsylvania and perhaps all of North America,including the remains of a civilization that existed over 10,000 years ago and possibly pre-dated theClovis culture.By 1000 CE, in contrast to their nomadichunter-gathererancestors, the native population of Pennsylvania had developedagriculturaltechniques and a mixed food economy. By the timeEuropean colonization of the Americasbegan, at least two major Native American tribes inhabited Pennsylvania.The first, theLenape, spoke anAlgonquian languageand inhabited the eastern region of the state, then known asLenapehoking. It included most of present-dayNew Jerseyand theLehigh ValleyandDelaware Valleyregions in eastern and southeastern Pennsylvania. The Lenape's territory ended somewhere between theDelaware Riverin the east and theSusquehanna Riverin central Pennsylvania. The second tribe, theSusquehannock, spoke anIroquoian languageand were based inWestern PennsylvaniafromNew Yorkstate in the north toWest Virginiain the southwest, including the Susquehanna,Allegheny, andMonongahelarivers near present-dayPittsburgh.European disease and constant warfare with several neighbors and groups of Europeans weakened these tribes, and they were grossly outpaced financially as theHuronsandIroquoisblocked them from proceeding west intoOhioduring theBeaver Wars. As they lost numbers and land, the Hurons abandoned much of their western territory and moved closer to the Susquehanna River, and the Iroquois and Mohawk tribes moved further north. Northwest of the Allegheny River was the IroquoianPetun,who were fragmented into three groups during the Beaver Wars: the Petun of New York, the Wyandot of Ohio, and the Tiontatecaga of the Kanawha River in southern West Virginia. South of the Allegheny River was a nation known as Calicua,which may have been part of theMonongahela culture. 17th century In the 17th century, theDutchand theEnglisheach claimed both sides of theDelaware Riveras part of their colonial lands in America.The Dutch were the first to take possession.By June 3, 1631, the Dutch began settling theDelmarva Peninsulaby establishing theZwaanendael Colonyon the site of present-dayLewes, Delaware.In 1638, Sweden establishedNew Sweden Colonyin the region ofFort Christinaon the site of present-dayWilmington, Delaware. New Sweden claimed and, for the most part, controlled the lower Delaware River region, including parts of present-day Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, but settled few colonists there. On March 12, 1664,King Charles II of EnglandgaveJames, Duke of Yorka grant that incorporated all lands included in the original Virginia Company of Plymouth Grant and other lands. This grant was in conflict with the Dutch claim forNew Netherland, which included parts of today's Pennsylvania. On June 24, 1664, the Duke of York sold the portion of his large grant that included present-dayNew JerseytoJohn BerkeleyandGeorge Carteretfor a proprietary colony. The land was not yet in British possession, but the sale boxed in the portion of New Netherland on the West side of the Delaware River. The British conquest of New Netherland began on August 29, 1664, whenNew Amsterdamwas coerced to surrender while facing cannons on British ships inNew York Harbor.This conquest continued, and was completed in October 1664, when the British capturedFort Casimirin what today isNew Castle, Delaware. ThePeace of Bredabetween England, France, and the Netherlands confirmed the English conquest on July 21, 1667,although there were temporary reversions. On September 12, 1672, during theThird Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch reconqueredNew York Colony/New Amsterdam, establishing three County Courts, which went on to become original Counties in present-day Delaware and Pennsylvania. The one that later transferred to Pennsylvania was Upland.This was partially reversed on February 9, 1674, when theTreaty of Westminsterended the Third Anglo-Dutch War and reverted all political situations to thestatus quo ante bellum. The British retained the Dutch Counties with their Dutch names.By June 11, 1674, New York reasserted control over the outlying colonies, including Upland, and the names started to be changed to British names by November 11, 1674.Upland was partitioned on November 12, 1674, producing the general outline of the current border between Pennsylvania and Delaware. On February 28, 1681, Charles II granted a land chartertoQuakerleader William Penn to repay a debt of £16,000(around £2,100,000 in 2008, adjusting for retail inflation)owed to William's father. The transaction represents one of the largest land grants to an individual in history.Penn proposed that the land be called New Wales, but there were objections to that name, so he recommended Sylvania (from theLatinsilva: \"forest, woods\"). The King named it Pennsylvania (literally \"Penn's Woods\") in honor of Admiral Penn. The younger Penn was embarrassed at this name, fearing that people would think he had named it after himself, but King Charles would not rename the grant.Penn established a government with two innovations that were much copied in the New World: thecounty commissionandfreedom of religious conviction. What had been Upland on the Pennsylvania side of the Pennsylvania-Delaware border was renamed asChester Countywhen Pennsylvania instituted their colonial governments on March 4, 1681.Penn signed a peace treaty withTamanend, leader of the Lenape, which began a long period of friendly relations between the Quakers and the Indians.Additional treaties between Quakers and other tribes followed. Thetreatyof William Penn was never violated. 18th century Between 1730 and when the Pennsylvania Colony was shut down byParliamentwith theCurrency Actin 1764, the Pennsylvania Colony made its own paper money to account for the shortage of actual gold and silver. The paper money was calledColonial Scrip. The Colony issued bills of credit, which were as good as gold or silver coins because of their legal tender status. Since they were issued by the government and not a banking institution, it was an interest free proposition, largely defraying the expense of the government and therefore taxation of the people. It also promoted general employment and prosperity, since the government used discretion and did not issue excessive amounts that inflated the currency.Benjamin Franklinhad a hand in creating this currency, whose utility, he said, was never to be disputed. The currency also met with \"cautious approval\" byAdam Smith. TheUniversity of PennsylvaniainPhiladelphiawas founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1740, becoming one of the ninecolonial collegesand the first college established in the state and one of the first in the nation; today, it is anIvy Leagueuniversity that is ranked one the world's best universities.Dickinson CollegeinCarlislewas the first college founded after the states united.Established in 1773, Dickinson was ratified five days after theTreaty of Parison September 9, 1783, and was founded byBenjamin Rushand named afterJohn Dickinson. James Smithwrote that in 1763, \"the Indians again commenced hostilities, and were busily engaged in killing and scalping the frontier inhabitants in various parts of Pennsylvania. This state was then a Quaker government, and at the first of this war the frontiers received no assistance from the state.\"The ensuing hostilities became known asPontiac's War. After theStamp Act Congressof 1765, delegateJohn Dickinsonof Philadelphia wrote theDeclaration of Rights and Grievances. The Congress was the first meeting of theThirteen Colonies, called at the request of theMassachusettsassembly, but only nine of the 13 colonies sent delegates.Dickinson then wroteLetters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, To the Inhabitants of the British Colonies, which were published in the Pennsylvania Chronicle between December 2, 1767, and February 15, 1768. When theFounding Fathersconvened in Philadelphia in 1774, 12 colonies sent representatives to theFirst Continental Congress.TheSecond Continental Congress, which also met in Philadelphia beginning in May 1775, authored and signed theDeclaration of Independencein Philadelphia,but when Philadelphia fell to theBritishin thePhiladelphia campaign, the Continental Congress moved west, where it met at theLancastercourthouse on Saturday, September 27, 1777, and then toYork. In York, the Second Continental Congress adopted theArticles of Confederation, largely authored by Pennsylvania delegateJohn Dickinson, that formed 13 independent Statesinto a new union. Later, theConstitutionwas written, and Philadelphia was once again chosen to be cradle to the new nation.The Constitution was drafted and signed at thePennsylvania State Housein Philadelphia, now known asIndependence Hall, the same building where the Declaration of Independence was previously adopted and signed in 1776. On December 12, 1787, Pennsylvania was the second state to ratify theU.S. Constitution,five days afterDelawarebecame the first. At the time, Pennsylvania was the most ethnically and religiously diverse of the thirteen colonies. Because a third of Pennsylvania's population spokeGerman, the Constitution was presented in German so those citizens could participate in the discussion about it.Reverend Frederick Muhlenberg, aLutheranminister and thefirst Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, acted as chairman of Pennsylvania's ratifying convention. For half a century, thePennsylvania General Assemblymet at various places in the Philadelphia area before it began meeting regularly in Independence Hall in Philadelphia for 63 years.However, events such as thePaxton Boysmassacres of 1763 had made the legislature aware of the need for a central capital. In 1799, the General Assembly moved to theLancasterCourthouse. 19th century ThePennsylvania General Assemblymet in the oldDauphin CountyCourt House until December 1821when theFederal-style Hills Capitol, named for Lancaster architectStephen Hills, was constructed on a hilltop land grant of four acres set aside for a seat of state government inHarrisburgby the son and namesake ofJohn Harris, Sr., aYorkshirenative who founded a trading post and ferry on the east shore of theSusquehanna Riverin 1705.The Hills Capitol burned down on February 2, 1897, during a heavy snowstorm, presumably because of a faultyflue. The General Assembly met at a nearbyMethodist Churchuntil a new capitol could be built. Following an architectural selection contest that some alleged had been rigged,ChicagoarchitectHenry Ives Cobbwas asked to design and build a replacement building. However, the legislature had little money to allocate to the project. When they dubbed the roughly finished somewhat industrial Cobb Capitol building complete, the General Assembly refused to occupy the building. In 1901, political and popular indignation prompted a second contest that was restricted to Pennsylvania architects;Joseph Miller Hustonof Philadelphia was chosen to design the presentPennsylvania State Capitolthat incorporated Cobb's building into a magnificent public work, finished and dedicated in 1907. James Buchanan, aFranklin Countynative, served as the 15th U.S. president and was the first president to be born in Pennsylvania.TheBattle of Gettysburg, the major turning point of theAmerican Civil War, took place nearGettysburgin July 1863.An estimated 350,000 Pennsylvanians served in theUnion Armyforces, including 8,600 African Americanmilitary volunteers. The politics of Pennsylvania were for decades dominated by the financially conservativeRepublican-alignedCameron machine, established byU.S. Senator Simon Cameron,later theSecretary of WarunderPresident Abraham Lincoln. Control of the machine was subsequently passed on to Cameron's sonJ. Donald Cameron, whose ineffectiveness resulted in a transfer of power to the more shrewdMatthew Quayand finally toBoies Penrose. The post-Civil War era, known as theGilded Age, saw the continued rise of industry in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania was home to some of the largest steel companies in the world.Andrew Carnegiefounded theCarnegie Steel CompanyinPittsburghandCharles M. SchwabfoundedBethlehem SteelinBethlehem. Other titans of industry, includingJohn D. RockefellerandJay Gould, also operated in Pennsylvania. In the latter half of the 19th century, the U.S.oil industrywas born inWestern Pennsylvania, which supplied the vast majority ofkerosenefor years thereafter. As thePennsylvania oil rushdeveloped, Pennsylvania's oil boom towns, such asTitusville, rose and later fell. Coal mining, primarily in the state'sCoal Regionin the northeast region of the state, also was a major industry for much of the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1903,Milton S. Hersheybegan construction on a chocolate factory inHershey, Pennsylvania;The Hershey Companygrew to become the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America.Heinz Companywas also founded during this period. These huge companies exercised a large influence on the politics of Pennsylvania; asHenry Demarest Lloydput it, oil baron John D. Rockefeller \"had done everything with the Pennsylvania legislature except refine it\".Pennsylvania created a Department of Highways and engaged in a vast program of road-building, while railroads continued to see heavy usage. The growth of industry eventually provided middle class incomes to working-class households after the development of labor unions helped them gain living wages. However, the rise of unions also led to a rise ofunion bustingwith several private police forces springing up.Pennsylvania was the location of the first documented organized strike in North America, and Pennsylvania was the location of two hugely prominent strikes, theGreat Railroad Strike of 1877and theCoal Strike of 1902. The eight-hour day was eventually adopted, and the coal and iron police were banned. 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, Pennsylvania's economy centered on steel production,logging,coal mining,textileproduction, and other forms of industrialmanufacturing. A surge in immigration to the U.S. during the late 19th and early 20th centuries provided a steady flow of cheap labor for these industries, which often employed children and people who could not speak English fromSouthernandEastern Europe.Thousands of Pennsylvanians volunteered during theSpanish–American War. Pennsylvania was an important industrial center inWorld War I, and the state provided over 300,000 soldiers for the military. On May 31, 1918, thePittsburgh Agreementwas signed inPittsburghto declare the formation of the independent state ofCzechoslovakiawith future Czechoslovak presidentTomáš Masaryk. In 1922, 310,000 Pennsylvania miners joined theUMW General coal strike, which lasted 163 days and shut down most coal mines within the state. In 1923,President Calvin Coolidgeestablished theAllegheny National Forestunder the authority of theWeeks Actof 1911.The forest is located in the northwest part of the state inElk,Forest,McKean, andWarrenCounties for the purposes of timber production and watershed protection in theAllegheny Riverbasin. The Allegheny is the state's only national forest. Pennsylvania manufactured 6.6 percent of total U.S. military armaments produced duringWorld War II, ranking sixth among the 48 states.ThePhiladelphia Naval Shipyardserved as an important naval base, and Pennsylvania produced important military leaders, includingGeorge C. Marshall,Hap Arnold,Jacob Devers, andCarl Spaatz. During the war, over a million Pennsylvanians served in the armed forces, and moreMedals of Honorwere awarded to Pennsylvanians than to individuals from any other state. TheThree Mile Island accidentwas the most significantnuclear accidentin U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history.The state was hard-hit by the decline and restructuring of the steel industry and other heavy industries during the late 20th century. With job losses came heavy population losses, especially in the state's largest cities. Pittsburgh lost its place among thetop ten most populous cities in the United Statesby 1950, and Philadelphia dropped to the fifth and currently thesixth-largest cityafter decades of being among the top three. After 1990, as information-based industries became more important in the economy, state and local governments put more resources into the old, well-established public library system. Some localities, however, used new state funding to cut local taxes.New ethnic groups, especiallyHispanics and Latinos, began entering the state to fill low-skill jobs in agriculture and service industries. For example, inChester County,Mexicanimmigrants brought theSpanish language, increasedCatholicism, high birth rates, and cuisine when they were hired as agricultural laborers; in some rural localities, they made up half or more of the population. Stateside Puerto Ricansbuilt a large community in the state's third-largest city,Allentown, where they comprise over 40% of the city's population as of 2000. In the 20th century, as Pennsylvania's historical national and even global leadership inmininglargely ceased and itssteelmakingand other heavy manufacturing sectors slowed, the state sought to grow its service and other industries to replace the jobs and economic productivity lost from the downturn of these industries. Pittsburgh's concentration of universities has enabled it to be a leader in technology and healthcare. Similarly, Philadelphia has a concentration of university expertise. Healthcare, retail, transportation, and tourism are some of the state's growing industries of the postindustrial era. As in the rest of the nation, most residential population growth has occurred in suburban rather than central city areas, although both major cities have had significant revitalization in their downtown areas.Philadelphia anchors theseventh-largestmetropolitan areain the country and one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world, and Pittsburgh is the center of the nation's 27th-largest metropolitan areas. As of 2020, theLehigh Valleyin eastern Pennsylvania is the nation's 69th-largest metropolitan area.Pennsylvania also hassix additional metropolitan areasthat rank among the nation's 200-most populous metropolitan areas. Philadelphia forms part of theNortheast megalopolisand is associated with theNortheastern United States. Pittsburgh is part of theGreat Lakes megalopolisand is often associated with theMidwestern United StatesandRust Belt. 21st century During theSeptember 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, the small town ofShanksville, Pennsylvania, received worldwide attention afterUnited Airlines Flight 93crashed into a field inStonycreek Township, located 1.75 miles (2.82 km) north of the town. All 40 civilians and 4Al-Qaedahijackers on board were killed. The hijackers had intended to crash the plane into either theUnited States CapitolorThe White House.After learning from family members via air phone of the earlier attacks on theWorld Trade Center, however, Flight 93's passengers revolted against the hijackers and fought for control of the plane, causing it to crash. It was the only one of the four aircraft hijacked that day that never reached its intended target and the heroism of the passengers has been commemorated. Since 2003, theTekkoanimeconvention has been held annually in Pittsburgh. In October 2018, theTree of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation, aconservative Jewishsynagogue, experienced thePittsburgh synagogue shooting, which resulted in 11 fatalities.On July 13, 2024, nearButler, Pennsylvania,an assassination attempton the 45th President of the United StatesDonald Trumpoccurred. Geography Pennsylvania is 170 miles (274 km) north to south and 283 miles (455 km) east to west.Of a total 46,055 square miles (119,282 km2), 44,817 square miles (116,075 km2) are land, 490 square miles (1,269 km2) are inland waters, and 749 square miles (1,940 km2) are waters inLake Erie.It is the33rd-largest statein theUnited States.Pennsylvania has 51 miles (82 km)of coastline alongLake Erieand 57 miles (92 km)of shoreline along theDelaware Estuary. Of the originalThirteen Colonies, Pennsylvania is the only state that does not border theAtlantic Ocean. The boundaries of the state are theMason–Dixon line(39°43' N) to the south,Twelve-Mile Circleon the Pennsylvania-Delawareborder, theDelaware Riverto the east, 80°31' W to the west, and the42° Nto the north, except for a short segment on the western end where atriangleextends north toLake Erie. The state has five geographical regions:Allegheny Plateau,Ridge and Valley,Atlantic Coastal Plain,Piedmont, andErie Plain. Climate Pennsylvania's diverse topography produces a variety of climates, though the entire state experiences cold winters and humid summers. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, except for the southeastern corner, has ahumid continental climate(Köppen climate classificationDfb). The southern portion of the state has ahumid subtropicalclimate. The largest city,Philadelphia, has ahumid subtropical climate(KöppenCfa). Summers are generally hot and humid. Moving toward the mountainous interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increases, and snowfall amounts are greater. Western areas of the state, particularly locations nearLake Erie, can receive over 100 inches (250 cm) of snowfall annually, and the entire state receives plentiful precipitation throughout the year. The state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into autumn. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, such as 30 recorded tornadoes in 2011; generally speaking, these tornadoes do not cause significant damage. Municipalities Cities in Pennsylvania includePhiladelphia,Reading,Lebanon, andLancasterin the southeast,Pittsburghin the southwest, and the tri-cities ofAllentown,Bethlehem, andEastonin the central east, known as theLehigh Valley. Thenortheastincludes the formeranthracite coalmining cities ofScranton,Wilkes-Barre,Pittston,Nanticoke, andHazleton.Erieis located in the northwest.State Collegeis located in the central region.Williamsportis in the north-central region withYork,Carlisle, and the state capitalHarrisburgon theSusquehanna Riverin the east-central region of the state.AltoonaandJohnstownare in the state's west-central region. The state's three-most populated cities, in order of size, are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Allentown. Adjacent states and province Demographics As of the2020 U.S. census, Pennsylvania had a population of 13,011,844, up from 12,702,379 in 2010. Pennsylvania is thefifth-most populated statein the U.S. afterCalifornia,Texas,Florida, andNew York.In 2019, netmigrationto other states resulted in a decrease of 27,718, andimmigrationfrom other countries resulted in an increase of 127,007. Net migration to Pennsylvania was 98,289. Migration of native Pennsylvanians resulted in a decrease of 100,000 people. 7.2% of the population was foreign-born as of 2021.Pennsylvania'scenter of populationis inDuncannoninPerry County. According to theU.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's 2022Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 12,691homelesspeople in Pennsylvania. Place of origin Among Pennsylvania residents, as of 2020, nearly three out of four, 74.5%, are native to the state and were born in Pennsylvania, 18.4% were born in a different U.S. state, 1.5% were born inPuerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent(s), and 5.6% were foreign born.Foreign-born Pennsylvanians are largely from Asia (36.0%), Europe (35.9%), and Latin America (30.6%) with the remainder from Africa (5%), North America (3.1%), and Oceania (0.4%). The state's largest ancestry groups, expressed as a percentage of total people who responded with a particular ancestry for the 2010 census, wereGerman28.5%,Irish18.2%,Italian12.8%,African Americans9.6%,English8.5%,Polish7.2%, andFrench4.2%.As of 2018, the top countries of origin for Pennsylvania's immigrants wereIndia, theDominican Republic,China,Mexico, andVietnam. Race and ethnicity The vast majority of Pennsylvania's population is made up of whites, blacks and Hispanics, with the latter two being minorities and having significant populations. Non-Hispanic Whites make up the majority of Pennsylvania; they are mostly descended from German, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Italian, and English immigrants. Rural portions of South Central Pennsylvania are recognized nationally for theirAmish communities.Wyoming Valley, includingScrantonandWilkes-Barre, has the highest percentage of white residents of any metropolitan area with a population of 500,000 or above in the U.S.; in Wyoming Valley, 96.2% of the population claim to be white with no Hispanic background. The state's Hispanic or Latino American population grew by 82.6% between 2000 and 2010, marking one of the largest increases in a state's Hispanic population. The significant growth of the Hispanic or Latino population is due to migration to the state mainly fromPuerto Rico, a U.S. territory, and to a lesser extent immigration from countries such as theDominican Republic,Mexico, and variousCentralandSouth Americannations and a wave of Hispanic and Latinos leavingNew York CityandNew Jerseyfor safer and more affordable living. The majority of Hispanic or Latino Americans in Pennsylvania are ofPuerto Ricandescent.Most of the remaining Hispanic or Latino population is made up ofMexicansandDominicans, and the majority of Hispanics and Latinos are concentrated in Philadelphia, theLehigh Valley, and South Central Pennsylvania.The Hispanic or Latino population is greatest inBethlehem,Allentown,Reading,Lancaster,York, and around Philadelphia. As of 2010, the vast majority of Hispanics and Latino Americans in Pennsylvania, about 85%, live within a 150-mile (240 km) radius of Philadelphia, and about 20% live in the city itself. The Asian population swelled by almost 60%, fueled by Indian, Vietnamese, and Chinese immigration, and many Asian transplants moving toPhiladelphiafrom New York City. The rapid growth of this community has given Pennsylvania one of the largest Asian populations in the nation. The African American population grew by 13%, which was the largest increase in that population among the state's peers ofNew York,New Jersey,Ohio,Illinois, andMichigan.Pennsylvania has a high in-migration of black and Hispanic people from other nearby states with the eastern and south-central portions of the state seeing the bulk of the increases. Among the state's black population, the vast majority in the state are African American. There are also a growing number of black residents ofWest Indian,recent African, andHispanic or Latinoorigins.Most Blacks live in the Philadelphia area, Pittsburgh, or South Central Pennsylvania.Additionally, in 2020, 31,052 identified as being Native American alone, and 158,112 did in combination with one or more other races. Birth data Note: data for births ofWhite Hispanicorigin have not been collected, but included in oneHispanicgroup; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Age and poverty As of the 2010 census, Pennsylvania had the fourth-highest proportion of elderly (65+) citizens in the nation at 15.4%, compared to a national average of 13.0%.According to U.S. Census Bureau estimates, the state's poverty rate was 12.5% in 2017 compared to 13.4% for the U.S. as a whole. Languages As of 2010, 90.2% (10,710,239) of Pennsylvania residents age five and older spokeEnglishat home as aprimary languagewhile 4.1% (486,058) spokeSpanish, 0.9% (103,502) spokeGermanincludingPennsylvania Dutch, and 0.5% (56,052) spokeChinese, which includesMandarinof the population over the age of five. In total, 9.9% (1,170,628) of Pennsylvania's population age5 and older spoke amother tongueother than English. Pennsylvania Dutch language Pennsylvania Dutchis a descendant of theWest Central Germandialect family and is closest toPalatine German. Pennsylvania Dutch is still very vigorous as a first language amongOld Order AmishandOld Order Mennonites, principally in theLancaster CountyandBerks Countyareas; it is almost extinct as an everyday language outside theplain communities, though a few words have passed into English usage. Religion Religious self-identification in Pennsylvania (April 2023Franklin & Marshall Collegepoll) Of the originalThirteen Colonies, Pennsylvania andRhode Islandhad the most religious freedom.Voltaire, writing ofWilliam Pennin 1733, observed: \"The new sovereign also enacted several wise and wholesome laws for his colony, which have remained invariably the same to this day. The chief is, to ill-treat no person on account of religion, and to consider as brethren all those who believe in one God.\"One result of this uncommon freedom was a wide religiousdiversity, which continues to the present. Pennsylvania's population in 2010 was 12,702,379; of these, 6,838,440 (53.8%) were estimated to belong to some sort of organized religion. According to theAssociation of Religion Data Archives(ARDA) atPennsylvania State University, the largest religious bodies in Pennsylvania by adherents were theCatholic Churchwith 3,503,028 adherents, theUnited Methodist Churchwith 591,734 members, and theEvangelical Lutheran Church in Americawith 501,974 members. Since 2014, among the state's religious population, 73% wereChristian, according toPew Research Center.In 2020, thePublic Religion Research Instituteestimated 68% of the population identified with Christianity.As of 2014, 47% of all Pennsylvanians identified asProtestants, makingProtestantismfar and away the most prominent religious affiliation among Pennsylvanians. Among all self-identified Christians in the state, however, 24% identified asCatholics, the most of any Christian religious affiliation. In April 2023, aFranklin & Marshall Collegepoll found that a plurality of Pennsylvania residents wereunaffiliated, with the rest predominately beingProtestantorCatholic. Pennsylvania, especially theGreater Pittsburgharea, has one of the largest communities ofPresbyteriansin the nation, the third-highest by percentage of population and the largest outright in membership asProtestantChristians.TheAmerican Presbyterian Church, with about 250,000 members and 1,011 congregations, is the largest Presbyterian denomination, and thePresbyterian Church in Americais also significant, with 112 congregations and approximately 23,000 adherents; theEPChas around 50 congregations, including theECO, according to 2010 estimates. The fourth-largestProtestantdenomination, theUnited Church of Christ, has 180,000 members and 627 congregations in the state. TheAmerican Baptist Churches USA, also referred to as the Northern Baptist Convention is based inKing of Prussia. Pennsylvania was the center state of theGerman Reformeddenomination from the 1700s.Bethlehemis one of the headquarters of theMoravian Churchin the U.S. Pennsylvania also has a very largeAmishpopulation, second only toOhioamong U.S. states.As of 2000, there was a total Amish population of 47,860 in Pennsylvania and an additional 146,416Mennonitesand 91,200Brethren. The totalAnabapistpopulation includingBruderhofwas 232,631, about two percent of the population.While Pennsylvania owes its existence toQuakers, and much of the historic character of Pennsylvania is ideologically rooted in the teachings of theReligious Society of Friends(as they are officially known), practicing Quakers are a small minority of about 10,000 adherents as of 2010. Economy As of 2024, Pennsylvania'sgross state product(GSP) of $1.0 trillion is thesixth-largestamong all U.S. states behindCalifornia,Texas,New York,Florida, andIllinois.If Pennsylvaniawere an independent country, its economy, as of 2023, would rank as the 20th-largest in the world.On a per capita basis, Pennsylvania's 2021 per capita income of $68,957 ranks 21st among the 50 states.As of 2016, there were 5,354,964 people in employment in Pennsylvania with 301,484 total employer establishments. As of January 2024, the state's unemployment rate is 3.4%. The state has five manufacturing centers:Philadelphiain the southeast,Pittsburghin the southwest,Eriein the northwest,Scranton-Wilkes-Barrein the northeast, and theLehigh Valleyin the east. Pennsylvania is home to 23 of the nation's 500 largest companies that comprise theFortune500, including two that rank in the top 100,Cencora(formerly AmeriSource Bergen) inConshohocken, which is the nation's 11th-largest company, andComcastin Philadelphia, which is the 29th-largest.Philadelphia is home to six of theFortune500 companies,with more located in suburbs likeKing of Prussia; it is a leader in the financialand insurance industries. Pittsburgh is home to eightFortune500 companies, includingU.S. Steel,PPG Industries,Heinz, andGE Transportation.Hershey is home toThe Hershey Company, one of the world's largest chocolate manufacturers. In eastern Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley has become an epicenter for the growth of the U.S.logisticsindustry, includingwarehousingand theintermodal transportof goods. Like many U.S. states,Walmartis the largest private employer in Pennsylvania. The state's second-largest employer is theUniversity of Pennsylvania, anIvy Leagueprivateresearch universityin Philadelphia.Pennsylvania is home to the oldest investor-owned utility company in the U.S.,The York Water Company. As of 2018, Pennsylvania ranks first in the nation in a few economic sectors and niches, including barrels ofbeerproduced annually (3.9 million),farmers' markets(over 6,000),food processingcompanies (2,300), hardwoodlumberproduction (a billion board feet annually),mushroom farms(68),natural gasproduction,potato chipmanufacturing (24 facilities manufacturing one-fourth of the nation's total), andpretzelmanufacturing (80 percent of the nation's total). Agriculture Pennsylvania ranks 19th overall among all states in agricultural production.Its leading agricultural products aremushrooms, apples,Christmas trees,layer chickens,nursery,sod, milk,cornforsilage, grapes (includingjuice grapes), and horses production. Pennsylvania ranks eighth in the nation inwinemaking. ThePennsylvania Department of Agricultureworked with private companies to establish \"PA Preferred\" as a way to brand agricultural products grown or made in the state.The financial impact of agriculture in Pennsylvaniaincludes employment of more than 66,800 people employed by the foodmanufacturingindustry and over $1.7 billion in food productexportas of 2011. Banking The first nationally chartered bank in the U.S., theBank of North America, was founded in 1781 in Philadelphia. After a series of mergers, the Bank of North America is now part ofWells Fargo. Pennsylvania is home to the first nationally-chartered bank under the 1863National Banking Act. That year, the Pittsburgh Savings & Trust Company received a national charter and renamed itself the First National Bank of Pittsburgh as part of the National Banking Act. That bank is still in existence today asPNCand remains based in Pittsburgh. PNC is currently the state's largest and the nation's sixth-largest bank. Film ThePennsylvania Film Production Tax Creditbegan in 2004 and stimulated the development of a film industry in the state. Gambling Casino gambling was legalized in Pennsylvania in 2004. As of 2022, there are16 casinosin the state.Table games such as poker, roulette, blackjack, and craps were approved by the state legislature and signed into law in January 2010. Sports betting saw approval in 2018. Five years in, the state and local governments collected over $500 million in sportsbook tax revenue. Governance Pennsylvania has had fiveconstitutionsduring its statehood:1776,1790,1838,1874, and1968. Before that the province of Pennsylvania was governed for a century by aFrame of Government, of which there were four versions: 1682, 1683, 1696, and 1701.The capital of Pennsylvania isHarrisburg. The legislature meets there in theState Capitol. In a 2020 study, Pennsylvania was ranked as the 19th hardest state for citizens to vote in. Executive The current Governor isJosh Shapiro. The other elected officials composing the executive branch are theLieutenant GovernorAustin Davis,Attorney GeneralMichelle Henry,Auditor GeneralTimothy DeFoor, andPennsylvania TreasurerStacy Garrity. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor run as a ticket in the general election and are up for re-election every four years during the midterm elections. The elections for Attorney General, Auditor General, and Treasurer are held every four years coinciding with a Presidential election. Legislative Pennsylvania has abicameral legislaturethat was established in thePennsylvania Constitution, which was ratified in 1790. The original Frame of Government of William Penn had a unicameral legislature.TheGeneral Assemblyincludes 50senatorsand 203representatives.Kim L. Wardis currentlypresident pro temporeof the State Senate,Joe Pittmanthemajority leader, andJay Costatheminority leader.Joanna McClintonisspeakerof the House of Representatives, withMatthew Bradfordas majority leader andBryan Cutleras minority leader.As of 2023, the Republicans hold the majority in the State Senate (28-22) and the Democrats in the State House (102-101). Pennsylvania is one of only two states that currently have divided party control of the state legislature. Judiciary Pennsylvania is divided into 60 judicial districts.With the exception ofPhiladelphia County, most have district justices and justices of the peace who preside over most preliminary hearings in felony and misdemeanor offenses, all minor (summary) criminal offenses, and small civil claims.Most criminal and civil cases originate in the Courts of Common Pleas, which also serve asappellate court.TheSuperior Courthears all appeals from the Courts of Common Pleas not expressly designated to theCommonwealth CourtorSupreme Court. The Superior Court also has original jurisdiction to reviewprobable causegovernmental requests forwarrantsinwiretapsurveillance.The Commonwealth Court is limited to appeals from final orders of certain state agencies and certain designated cases from the Courts of Common Pleas.TheSupreme Court of Pennsylvaniais the state's final appellate court. All judges in Pennsylvania are elected, and thechief justiceof the state's Supreme Court is determined by seniority. Local government Pennsylvania is divided into 67counties.Counties are further subdivided into municipalities that are either incorporated as cities,boroughs, ortownships.The most populous county in Pennsylvania and24th-most populous countyin the United States isPhiladelphia County, which includes the city ofPhiladelphia, with a 2020 population of 1,603,797; the state's least populous county isCameronwith a population of 4,547. There are a total of 56 cities in Pennsylvania, which are classified by population as either first-class, second-class, or third-class cities.Philadelphia, the state's largest city with a population exceeding 1.6 million, is Pennsylvania's only first-class city.Pittsburgh(303,000) andScranton(76,000) are second-class and second-class 'A' cities, respectively.All of the state's remaining cities includingAllentown, the state's third-largest city, andReading, its fourth-largest, toParker, the state's smallest city with a population of only 820, are designated as third-class cities.First- and second-class cities are governed by a \"strong mayor\" form ofmayor–council government, whereas third-class cities are governed by either a \"weak mayor\" form of government or acouncil–manager government. Pennsylvania boroughs are generally smaller in population than the state's cities, and most of the state's cities were incorporated as boroughs prior to being designated cities.There are 958 boroughs in Pennsylvania, all of which are governed by the \"weak mayor\" form of mayor-council government.The largest borough in Pennsylvania isState College(40,501) and the smallest isCentralia. Townships are the third type of municipality in Pennsylvania and are classified as either first-class or second-class townships. There are 1,454 second-class townships and 93 first-class townships.Second-class townships can become first-class townships if they have a population density greater than 300 inhabitants per square mile (120/km2) and areferendumis passed supporting the change.Pennsylvania's largest township isUpper Darby Township(85,681), and the smallest isEast Keating Township. There is one exception to the types of municipalities in Pennsylvania:Bloomsburgwas incorporated as a town in 1870 and is, officially, the only town in the state.In 1975,McCandless Townshipadopted a home-rule charter under the name of \"Town of McCandless\", but is, legally, still a first-class township.The state has 56 cities, 958 boroughs, 93 first-class townships, 1,454 second-class townships, and one town (Bloomsburg) for a total of 2,562 municipalities. Taxation Pennsylvania had the 15th-highest state and local tax burden in the nation as of 2012, according to theTax Foundation.Residents paid a total of $83.7 billion in state and local taxes with a per capita average of $4,589 annually. Residents share 76% of the total tax burden. Many state politicians have tried to increase the share of taxes paid by out-of-state sources. Suggested revenue sources include taxing natural gas drilling as Pennsylvania is the only state without such a tax on gas drilling.Additional revenue prospects include trying to place tolls on interstate highways; specificallyInterstate 80, which is used heavily by out of state commuters with high maintenance costs. Sales taxesprovide 39% of Pennsylvania's state revenue;personal income taxes34%; motor vehicle taxes about 12%, and taxes oncigarettesand alcoholic beverages 5%.The personal income tax is a flat 3.07%. An individual's taxable income is based on the following eight types of income: compensation (salary); interest; dividends; net profits from the operation of a business, profession or farm; net gains or income from the dispositions of property; net gains or income from rents, royalties, patents and copyrights; income derived through estates or trusts; and gambling andlotterywinnings (other thanPennsylvania Lotterywinnings). Counties, municipalities, andschool districtslevy taxes on real estate. In addition, some local bodies assess awage taxon personal income. Generally, the total wage tax rate is capped at 1% of income but some municipalities withhome rulecharters may charge more than 1%. Thirty-two of Pennsylvania's sixty-seven counties levy apersonal property taxon stocks, bonds, and similar holdings. With the exception of the city ofPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania, municipalities and school districts are allowed to enact a local earned income tax within the purview of Act 32. Residents of these municipalities and school districts are required to file a local income tax return in addition to federal and state returns. This local return is filed with the local income tax collector, a private collection agency appointed by a particular county to collect the local earned income and local services tax (the latter a flat fee deducted from salaried employees working within a particular municipality or school district). Philadelphiahas its own local income taxation system. Philadelphia-based employers are required to withhold the Philadelphia wage tax from the salaries of their employees. Residents of Philadelphia working for an employer are not required to file a local return as long as their Philadelphia wage tax is fully withheld by their employer. If their employer does not withhold the Philadelphia wage tax, residents are required to register with the Revenue Department and file an Earnings Tax return. Residents of Philadelphia with self-employment income are required to file a Net Profits Tax (NPT) return, while those with business income from Philadelphia sources are required to obtain a Commercial Activity License (CAL) and pay the Business Income and Receipts Tax (BIRT) and the NPT. Residents with unearned income except interest from checking and savings accounts are required to file and pay the School Income-tax (SIT). The complexity of Pennsylvania's local tax filing system has been criticized by experts, who note that the outsourcing of collections to private entities is akin totax farmingand that many new residents are caught off guard and end up facing failure to file penalties even if they did not owe any tax. Attempts to transfer local income tax collections to the state level by having a separate local section on the state income tax return, currently the method used to collect local income taxes inNew York,Maryland,Indiana, andIowa, have been unsuccessful. State law enforcement ThePennsylvania State Policeis the chief law enforcement agency in the Pennsylvania. Politics Since the latter half of the 20th century, Pennsylvania has been perceived as a powerfulswing state, and winning Pennsylvania has since been deemed as essential toU.S. presidential candidates. Only thrice between1932and1988(1932, 1948, and1968, withFranklin D. Roosevelt,Harry S. Truman, andRichard Nixon, respectively) has a presidential candidate been able to win theWhite Housewithout carrying Pennsylvania. Between 1992 and 2016, Pennsylvania trendedDemocraticin presidential elections;Bill Clintonwon the state twice by large margins andAl Gorewon it by a slightly closer margin in 2000. In the 2004 presidential election,John F. Kerrybeat PresidentGeorge W. Bushin Pennsylvania, 2,938,095 (51%) to 2,793,847 (48%). In the 2008 presidential election, DemocratBarack ObamadefeatedRepublicanJohn McCainin Pennsylvania, 3,276,363 (54%) to 2,655,885 (44%). In the2016 United States presidential election, however, RepublicanDonald Trumpbroke the Democratic streak in the state, winning by 2,970,733 (48%) votes to 2,926,441 (47%) votes.The state returned to the Democratic column in2020by voting forJoe Bidenover Trump, 3,458,229 (50%) to 3,377,674 (49%). The state holds 19electoralvotes. In recent national elections since 1992, Pennsylvania had leaned Democratic. The state voted for the Democratic ticket for president in every election between 1992 and 2012. During the 2008 election campaign, a recruitment drive saw registered Democrats outnumber registered Republicans by 1.2 million. However, Pennsylvania has a history of electing Republican U.S. senators. From 2009 to 2011, the state was represented by two Democratic senators for the first time since 1947 after Republican SenatorArlen Specterswitched party affiliation. In 2010, Republicans recaptured a U.S. Senate seat and a majority of the state's congressional seats, control of both chambers of the state legislature, and the governorship. Democrats won back the governorship, however, four years later in the2014 election. It was the first time since a governor became eligible for reelection that an incumbent governor had been defeated in a reelection bid. Historically, Democratic strength was concentrated in Philadelphia in the southeast, the Pittsburgh, andJohnstownareas in the southwest, andScrantonandWilkes-Barrein the northeast. Republican strength was concentrated in the Philadelphia suburbs and the more rural areas in the state's central, northeastern, and western portions, some of which have long been considered among the nation's most conservative areas. Since 1992, however, the Philadelphia suburbs have swung Democratic; the brand of Republicanism there was traditionally moderate. In the 21st century, however, Pittsburgh suburbs, which historically had been Democratic strongholds, have swung more Republican. Democratic political consultantJames Carvilleonce pejoratively described Pennsylvania as \"Philadelphia in the east, Pittsburgh in the west, and Alabama in the middle\", suggesting that political power in the state was based in its two largest cities, which have been reliably Democratic, offset by the state's large rural power base, which has proven equally reliably Republican. Political analysts and editorials refer to central Pennsylvania as the \"T\" in statewide elections. The state's three valleys (Delaware,Lehigh, andWyomingValleys) andGreater Pittsburghgenerally vote Democratic, while the majority of the counties in the central part of the state vote Republican. As a result, maps showing the results of statewide elections invariably form a shape that resembles a \"T\". Pennsylvania retains thedeath penalty, although there is currently a gubernatorial hold on executions. Federal representation Pennsylvania's twoU.S. senatorsareBob Casey Jr.andJohn Fetterman, both of whom areDemocrats. Casey would seek reelection in 2024 should he seek another term. Fetterman was elected in 2022 to succeed retiringRepublicanPat Toomey. Pennsylvania has17 seatsin theU.S. House of Representativesas of 2023. Education Pennsylvania has 500 public school districts, thousands of private schools, publicly funded colleges and universities, and over 100 private institutions of higher education. Primary and secondary education Under state law, school attendance in Pennsylvania is mandatory for children between ages eight and 17, or until graduation from an accredited high school, whichever is earlier, unless students arehomeschooled.As of 2005, 83.8% of Pennsylvania residents age 18 to 24 are high school graduates; Among residents age 25 and over, 86.7% have graduated from high school. The following are the four-year graduation rates for students completing high school in 2016: Among Pennsylvania high school graduates as of 2009, 27.5% of them went on to obtain a bachelor's degree or higher degree.State students consistently do well in standardized testing. In 2007, Pennsylvania ranked 14th in the nation in mathematics, 12th in reading, and 10th in writing for eighth grade students.In 1988, thePennsylvania General Assemblypassed Act 169, which allows parents or guardians to homeschool their children as an alternative to compulsory school attendance. The law specifies varying geographic requirements and responsibilities on the part of parents and school districts. Higher education \"Pennsylvania has the fourth most higher education institutions of any state,\" according toInside Higher Ed, with 250 universities and colleges.The state is ranked 2nd among the nation’s top destinations for freshman out-of-state college students, according toNPR/PBSaffiliateWHYY, citing a study by theAssociation of Independent Colleges and Universities of Pennsylvania(AICUP).And Pennsylvania is 3rd in the nation for the quantity of \"Best Colleges\" according to theWall Street Journal. ThePennsylvania State System of Higher Education(PASSHE), which includes 14 state-owned universities and colleges, is Pennsylvania'spublic universitysystem.West Chester Universityis by far the largest of the 14 with nearly 15,000 students. TheCommonwealth System of Higher Educationis the organizing body of Pennsylvania's four state-related schools, which includePennsylvania State University,Lincoln University, theUniversity of Pittsburgh, andTemple University. There are 15 publicly funded two-yearcommunity collegesand technical schools in Pennsylvania that are separate from the PASSHE system, and many private two- and four-year technical schools, colleges, and universities. Carnegie Mellon University, Pennsylvania State University, theUniversity of Pennsylvania, and the University of Pittsburgh are members of theAssociation of American Universities, an invitation-only organization of leading research universities.Lehigh Universityis a private research university located in Bethlehem. The Pennsylvania State University is Pennsylvania'sland-grant university,Sea Grant Collegeand,Space Grant College. The University of Pennsylvania, located in Philadelphia, is considered thefirst university in the United Statesand established the country'sfirstmedical school. The University of Pennsylvania, founded inPhiladelphiain 1740 byBenjamin Franklin, is Pennsylvania's onlyIvy Leagueuniversity, and is the geographically most southern of the nation's eight Ivy League universities. TheLake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine(LECOM) is a private graduate school of medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy with a main campus in Erie, a branch campus located inGreensburg, and two additional campuses outside Pennsylvania. With over 2,200 enrolled medical students, the Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine is the largest medical school in the United States.ThePennsylvania Academy of the Fine Artsis the first and oldestart schoolin the United States.Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, now a part ofUniversity of the Sciences in Philadelphia, was the firstpharmacy schoolin the United States. Recreation Pennsylvania is home to the nation's first zoo, thePhiladelphia Zoo.Other long-accreditedAZAzoos include theErie Zooand thePittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium. TheLehigh Valley ZooandZooAmericaare other notable zoos. Pennsylvania is home to some of the most notable museums in the nation, including theAllentown Art MuseuminAllentown,Carnegie MuseumsinPittsburgh, thePhiladelphia Museum of ArtinPhiladelphia, andseveral others. One unique museum is theHoudini Museumin Scranton, the only building in the world devoted to the legendary magician.Pennsylvania is also home to theNational Aviary, located in Pittsburgh. All 121state parksin Pennsylvania feature free admission. Pennsylvania's notable amusement parks includeConneaut Lake Park,Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom,Dutch Wonderland,DelGrosso's Amusement Park,Great Wolf Lodge,Hersheypark,Idlewild Park,Kalahari Resorts Poconos,Kennywood,Knoebels,Lakemont Park,Sandcastle Waterpark,Sesame Place Philadelphia, andWaldameer Park. The largest indoor waterpark resort on theU.S. East CoastisSplash LagooninErie. The state's notable music festivals includeMusikfest, the nation's largest free music festival held annually each August inBethlehem,thePhiladelphia Folk Festival,Creation Festival, and Purple Door. TheGreat Allentown Fair, held annually at theAllentown Fairgroundssince the 19th century, is one of the nation's longest-running annual fairs. There are nearly one million licensed hunters in Pennsylvania.White-tail deer,black bear,cottontail rabbit,squirrel,turkey, andgrouseare common game species. Pennsylvania is considered one of the finestwild turkeyhunting states in the nation, alongsideTexasandAlabama. Sport hunting in Pennsylvania provides a massive boost for the state's economy. A report from The Center for Rural Pennsylvania, a legislative agency of thePennsylvania General Assembly, reported that hunting, fishing, and furtaking generated a total of $9.6 billion statewide. TheBoone and Crockett Clubreports that five of the ten largestblack bearentries came from the state.The state also has a tied record for the largest hunter shot black bear in theBoone and Crockettrecord books at 733 lb (332 kg) and askullof 23 3/16, tied with a bear shot inCaliforniain 1993.As of 2007, Pennsylvania has the second highest number of Boone and Crockett-recorded record black bears at 183, behindWisconsin's 299. Transportation ThePennsylvania Department of Transportation, abbreviated as PennDOT, is responsible for transport issues in Pennsylvania. Air Pennsylvania has seven major airports:Philadelphia International,Pittsburgh International,Lehigh Valley International,Harrisburg International,Wilkes-Barre/Scranton International,Erie International, andUniversity Park Airport. A total of 134 public-use airports are located in the state. Bus and coach Intercity bus service is provided between cities in Pennsylvania and other major points in the Northeast byBolt Bus,Fullington Trailways,Greyhound Lines,Martz Trailways,Megabus,OurBus,Trans-Bridge Lines, and variousChinatown buscompanies. In 2018,OurBusbegan offering service fromWest Chester,Malvern,King of Prussia, andFort WashingtontoNew York City. Highways and roads PennDOT owns 39,861 miles (64,150 km) of the 121,770 miles (195,970 km) of roadway in the state, making it the fifth-largest state highway system in the United States.ThePennsylvania Turnpikesystem is 535 miles (861 km) long, with the mainline portion stretching fromOhioto Philadelphia andNew Jersey.It is overseen by thePennsylvania Turnpike Commission. Another major east–west route isInterstate 80, which runs primarily in the northern tier of the state from Ohio to New Jersey at theDelaware Water Gap.Interstate 90travels the relatively short distance between Ohio and New York throughErie County, in the extreme northwestern part of the state. Primary north–south highways areInterstate 79from its terminus in Erie throughPittsburghtoWest Virginia,Interstate 81fromNew York statethroughScranton, Lackawanna CountyandHarrisburgtoMarylandandInterstate 476, which begins 7 miles (11 km) north of theDelawareborder, inChester, Delaware Countyand travels 132 miles (212 km) toClarks Summit, where it joins I-81. All but 20 miles (32 km) of I-476 is the Northeast Extension of thePennsylvania Turnpike. The highway south of the Pennsylvania Turnpike is officially called the \"Veterans Memorial Highway\", but is commonly referred to colloquially as the \"Blue Route\". Rail SEPTAis the sixth-largest transit agency in the United States and operates thecommuter,heavyandlight railtransit, andtransit busservice in the Philadelphia metropolitan area.Pittsburgh Regional Transitis the 25th-largest transit agency and provides transit bus and light rail service in and around Pittsburgh. Intercity passenger rail transit is provided byAmtrak, with the majority of traffic occurring on theKeystone Servicein the high-speedKeystone Corridorbetween Harrisburg and Philadelphia's30th Street Stationbefore heading north to New York City, and theNortheast Regional, which provides regular high-speed service up and down theNortheast Corridor. ThePennsylvanianfollows the same route from New York City to Harrisburg, but extends out to Pittsburgh. TheCapitol Limitedalso passes through Pittsburgh, as well asConnellsville, on its way from Chicago toWashington, D.C.Traveling between Chicago and New York City, theLake Shore Limitedpasses through Erie once in each direction.There are 67short-line, freight railroads operating in Pennsylvania, the highest number in any U.S. state.With more than four millioninter-city railpassengers in 2018, Philadelphia's 30th Street Station is Amtrak's third-busiest train station in the nation afterPenn StationinManhattanandUnion StationinWashington, D.C.,and North America's12th-busiesttrain station overall. Water ThePort of Pittsburghis the second-largestinland portin the United States and the 18th-largest port overall; thePort of Philadelphiais the 24th-largest port in the United States.Pennsylvania's only port on theGreat Lakesis located in Erie. TheAllegheny River Lock and Dam Twois the most-usedlockoperated by theUnited States Army Corps of Engineersof its 255 nationwide.The dam impounds theAllegheny RivernearDowntown Pittsburgh. Culture Food In 2008, author Sharon Hernes Silverman wrote in thePittsburgh Tribune-Reviewthat Pennsylvania was thesnack foodcapital of the world.It leads all other states in the manufacture ofpretzelsandpotato chips. In 1861, as theCivil Warwas beginning,Sturgis Pretzel HouseinLititzwas first to introduce the pretzel to American consumers. Two other Pennsylvania-based companies, Immergut Hand-Rolled Soft Pretzels inIntercourseandSnyder's of HanoverinHanover, are leading national pretzel manufacturers. Two of the nation's three leading potato chip companies are based in Pennsylvania:Utz Brands, which started making chips in Hanover in 1921, andWise Foods, which started making chips inBerwickthe same year; the third,Frito-Layis owned byPlano, Texas-basedPepsiCo. Additional Pennsylvania-based companies, includingHerr's SnacksinNottingham,Martin's Potato ChipsinThomasville, are popular chip manufacturers. The Hershey CompanyinHersheyis a nearly $9 billion a year company and one of the world's leading manufacturers ofchocolate; the company was founded in Hershey byMilton S. Hersheyin 1894.Gertrude Hawk Chocolatesis headquartered inDunmore. Other notable companies includeJust BorninBethlehem, makers ofHot Tamales,Mike and Ikes, the Easter favorite marshmallowPeeps, andBoyer BrothersofAltoona, which manufacturers Mallo Cups. The pretzel companyAuntie Anne'sbegan as a market-stand inDowningtown, and now has corporate headquarters inLancaster.Traditional Pennsylvania Dutch foods include chicken potpie, ham potpie, schnitz un knepp (dried apples, ham, and dumplings),fasnachts(raised doughnuts), scrapple, pretzels, bologna, chow-chow, andShoofly pie.Martin's Famous Pastry Shoppe, headquartered inChambersburg, Pennsylvania, specializes in potato bread, anothertraditional Pennsylvania Dutch food.D.G. Yuengling & Son, America's oldest brewery, has been brewing beer inPottsvillesince 1829. Among the regional foods associated with Philadelphia arecheesesteaks,hoagies,soft pretzels,Italian water ice,Irish potato candy,scrapple,Tastykake, andstrombolis. In Pittsburgh, tomato ketchup was improved byHenry John Heinzfrom 1876 to the early 20th century. Famous to a lesser extent than Heinz ketchup is the Pittsburgh'sPrimanti Brothers Restaurantsandwiches,pierogies, andcity chicken. In northeastern Pennsylvania, Italian heritage has popularized a variety of pizza styles. Outside ofScranton, inOld Forge, there are dozens of Italian restaurants specializing in pizza made with thick, light crust, and American cheese.New York–style pizzais popular inWilkes-Barre.Eriealso has its share of foods, including Greek sauce andsponge candy.Sauerkrautalong with pork and mashed potatoes is a traditional meal on New Year's Day in Pennsylvania; its tradition began with thePennsylvania Dutchwho believe the meal leads to good luck in the new year to come. Sports Professional sports Pennsylvania is home to eight major league professional sports teams: thePhiladelphia PhilliesandPittsburgh PiratesofMajor League Baseball, thePhiladelphia 76ersof theNBA, thePhiladelphia EaglesandPittsburgh Steelersof theNFL, thePhiladelphia FlyersandPittsburgh Penguinsof theNHL, and thePhiladelphia UnionofMajor League Soccer. Among them, these teams have accumulated sevenWorld Serieschampionships (with the Pirates winning five and Phillies winning two), 16National Leaguepennants (with the Pirates winning nine and Phillies winning seven), three pre-Super Bowlera NFL championships (all won by the Eagles), sevenSuper Bowlchampionships (with the Steelers winning six and the Eagles one), two NBA championships (both won by the 76ers), and sevenStanley Cupchampionships (with the Penguins winning five and Flyers winning two). Withfive professional sports teamsand some of the most passionate sports fans in the nation,Philadelphiais often described as the “nation's best sports city.” In addition to its two Major League Baseball franchises, Pennsylvania is home to twoTriple-A-level teams, the highest level ofMinor League Baseballplay. TheLehigh Valley IronPigs, affiliated with the Philadelphia Phillies, are based inAllentown, where they play atCoca-Cola Park. TheScranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders, affiliated with theNew York Yankees, are based inMoosic, where they play atPNC Field. Pennsylvania is home to fourDouble-A level baseballteams: theAltoona Curve,Erie SeaWolves,Harrisburg Senators, andReading Fightin Phils. Pennsylvania has twocollegiate summer baseballteams affiliated with theMLB Draft League: theState College SpikesandWilliamsport Crosscutters. In independent baseball, the state has three teams, theLancaster Barnstormers,Washington Wild Things, andYork Revolution. In addition to its two National Hockey League teams, Pennsylvania has threeAmerican Hockey Leagueice hockeyteams: theHershey Bearsaffiliated with theWashington Capitals, theLehigh Valley Phantomsaffiliated with the Philadelphia Flyers, and theWilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguinsaffiliated with the Pittsburgh Penguins. It also has anECHL-level ice hockey team, theReading Royals, and anArena Football Leagueteam, thePhiladelphia Soul. These Pennsylvania-based developmental-level professional teams have accumulated 12Triple-Aand Double-A baseball league titles (Altoona Curve (1) Reading Fightin Phils (4), and Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Senators (6)), 3ArenaBowlchampionships (Soul), and 11Calder Cups(Bears). In addition to the Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer, Pennsylvania has twolower levelprofessional soccer teams:Philadelphia Union IIofMLS Next Proand thePittsburgh Riverhounds SCof theUSL Championship. Since 1959, theLittle League World Serieshas been held annually in August inSouth Williamsportnear whereLittle League Baseballwas founded inWilliamsport. In professional golf,Arnold Palmer, one of the 20th century's most accomplished professional golfers, comes fromLatrobe, andJim Furyk, a currentPGAplayer grew up near inLancaster. PGA tournaments in Pennsylvania include the 84 Lumber Classic played at Nemacolin Woodlands Resort inFarmingtonand the Northeast Pennsylvania Classic played at Glenmaura National Golf Club in Moosi. Philadelphia is home toLOVE Parkacross fromCity Hall, a popularskateboardlocation that hostedESPN'sX Gamesin 2001 and 2002. Motorsports In motorsports, theMario Andrettidynasty of race drivers hails fromNazarethin theLehigh Valley. Pennsylvania racetracks includeJennerstown SpeedwayinJennerstown,Lake Erie SpeedwayinNorth East,Lernerville SpeedwayinSarver, andPocono RacewayinLong Pond, which is home to twoNASCAR Cup Seriesraces and anIndyCar Seriesrace. The state is also home toMaple Grove Raceway, nearReading, which hosts majorNational Hot Rod Association-sanctioned drag racing events each year. There are also twomotocrossrace tracks that host a round of the AMA Toyota Motocross Championships in Pennsylvania.High Point Racewayis located inMount Morris, Pennsylvania, and Steel City is located inDelmont, Pennsylvania. Horse racingtracks in Pennsylvania includeThe MeadowsinNorth Strabane Township,Mohegan Pennsylvaniain Wilkes-Barre,Penn NationalinGrantville,Presque Isle DownsinSummit Township, andParx Racing,Harrah's Philadelphiain Chester, which was the home course ofSmarty Jones, winner of the2004 Kentucky Derbyand2004 Preakness Stakes. Harrah's Philadelphia also hostsharness racingand Presque Isle Downs also hoststhoroughbred racing. College sports Incollege football, three Pennsylvania universities compete inNCAA Division I, the highest level of sanctioned collegiate play in the sport:Penn Statein theBig Ten Conference,Pittin theAtlantic Coast Conference, andTemplein theAmerican Athletic Conference. Over their respective college football histories, Penn State claims twonational championships(1982 and 1986) and seven undefeated seasons (1887, 1912, 1968, 1969, 1973, 1986, and 1994) and Pitt has won nine national championships (1915, 1916, 1918, 1929, 1931, 1934, 1936, 1937, and 1976) and had eight undefeated seasons (1904, 1910, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1920, 1937, and 1976).Penn State plays its home games atBeaver Stadium, a 106,572-capacity stadium that is thesecond-largest stadium in the nation; the team is coached byJames Franklin. Pitt plays its home games atAcrisure Stadium, a 68,400-capacity stadium it shares with thePittsburgh Steelers; the team is coached byPat Narduzzi. Over their respective histories, four additional Pennsylvania universities and colleges have won national college football championships:LafayetteinEaston(1896),VillanovainVillanova(2009),Pennin Philadelphia (1895, 1897, 1904, and 1908),andWashington & JeffersoninWashington(1921). Incollege basketball, five Philadelphia andPhiladelphia-areauniversities, collectively known as theBig Five, have a rich tradition in NCAA Division I basketball. National titles in college basketball have been won byLa Salle(1954),Temple(1938),Penn(1920 and 1921),Pitt(1928 and 1930), andVillanova(1985, 2016, and 2018). Pennsylvania has several universities and colleges known as national leaders incollege wrestling.Penn State, coached byCael Sanderson, has won tenNCAA Division I Wrestling Championshipsin its history, second most among all universities and colleges afterOklahoma State.LehighinBethlehemhas had 28 NCAA Division I individual champions over its history. Nicknames Since 1802, Pennsylvania has been known as theKeystone State, which remains the state's most popular and widely-used nickname.The nickname \"Keystone State\" originates with the agricultural and architectural term \"keystone\", and is based on the central role that Pennsylvania played geographically and functionally among the originalThirteen Coloniesfrom which the nation was established, the important founding documents, including theDeclaration of IndependenceandU.S. Constitution, that were signed and ratified in Pennsylvania, and the early central role that Pennsylvania played in the nation's early manufacturing and agricultural economic development. Less commonly, Pennsylvania is sometimes referred to asthe Coal State,the Oil State, andthe Steel State, each developed in recognition of the important role these respective industries played in the state in the 19th and 20th centuries.The State of Independenceappears on several current day road signs entering Pennsylvania from bordering states. Pennsylvania residents and those of surrounding states commonly refer to Pennsylvania by the state's abbreviation,PA. While it is no longer in common use, Pennsylvania was historically sometimes referred to by the nicknameQuaker Stateduring thecolonial erabased on the influential role thatWilliam Pennand otherQuakersplayed in establishing thefirst frame of governmentconstitution for the Province of Pennsylvania that guaranteedlibertyofconscience, which was a reflection of Penn's knowledge of the hostility Quakers confronted when they opposed religious rituals, taking oaths, violence, war, and military service, and what they viewed as ostentatiousfrippery. Notable people Sister regions See also Notes References Citations Sources Web sources Books External links 41°N78°W / 41°N 78°W /41; -78 (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania)", "Robert D. Heaton Robert Douglas Heaton(July 1, 1873 – June 11, 1933) was20th CenturyAmerican businessman and politician who served two terms as aRepublicanmember of theU.S. House of RepresentativesfromPennsylvaniafrom 1915 to 1919. Biography Robert D. Heaton was born in Raven Run,Pennsylvania. He moved toAshland, Pennsylvania, with his parents in 1886. He attended theCanandaigua AcademyinCanandaigua, New York, theNew York Military AcademyatCornwall, New York, and theUniversity of PennsylvaniaatPhiladelphia. He is identified with many business enterprises of the State and county. Congress Heaton was an unsuccessful candidate for election in1910, and was elected as a Republican to theSixty-fourthandSixty-fifthCongresses. He did not seek renomination in1918, having become a candidate for thePennsylvania State Senate. Later activities He was a member of the State Senate from 1919 to 1932. He resumed his former business activities, and served as a member of the board of trustees of the Ashland State Hospital. Death and burial He died inAshland, Pennsylvania, aged 59, and is interred in the family cemetery inJim Thorpe, Pennsylvania. Sources This article about a member of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]
[ "Pennsylvania Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Pennsylvania(/ˌpɛnsɪlˈveɪniə/ⓘPEN-sil-VAY-nee-ə,lit.'Penn's forest country'), officially theCommonwealth of Pennsylvania(Pennsylvania Dutch:Pennsilfaani),is a USstatespanning theMid-Atlantic,Northeastern,Appalachian, andGreat Lakesregions of theUnited States. It bordersDelawareto its southeast,Marylandto its south,West Virginiato its southwest,Ohioand theOhio Riverto its west,Lake ErieandNew Yorkto its north, theDelaware RiverandNew Jerseyto its east, and theCanadian provinceofOntarioto its northwest viaLake Erie. Pennsylvania was founded in 1681 through a royalland granttoWilliam Penn, the son ofthe state's namesake. Prior to that, between 1638 and 1655, a southeast portion of the state was part ofNew Sweden, aSwedish Empirecolony. Established as a haven for religious and political tolerance, thecolonial-eraProvince of Pennsylvaniawas known for its relatively peaceful relations with native tribes,innovative government system,", "government system, andreligious pluralism. Pennsylvania played a vital and historic role in theAmerican Revolutionand the ultimately successful quest for independence from theBritish Empire, hosting theFirstandSecond Continental Congress, leading to the adoption of theDeclaration of Independenceand the formation of theContinental Army.On December 12, 1787, Pennsylvania became the second state to ratify theU.S. Constitution.The bloodiest battle of theAmerican Civil War, atGettysburgover three days in July 1863, proved the war's turning point, leading to theUnion's preservation. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, the state's manufacturing-based economy contributed to the development of much of the nation's early infrastructure, including key bridges,skyscrapers, and military hardware used in U.S.-led victories inWorld War I,World War II, and theCold War. Pennsylvania's geographyis highly diverse. TheAppalachian Mountainsrun through the center of the state; theAlleghenyandPoconomountains span much", "span much ofNortheastern Pennsylvania; close to60% of the state is forested. While it has no ocean shoreline, it has 140 miles (225 km) of waterfront along Lake Erie and the tidal Delaware River. Pennsylvania is thefifth-most populous state in the United States, with over 13 million residents as of the2020 United States census.The state is the33rd-largestby area and has theninth-highest population densityamong all states. The largestmetropolitan statistical areais the southeasternDelaware Valley, which includes and surroundsPhiladelphia, the state'slargestandnation's sixth-most populouscity. The second-largest metropolitan area,Greater Pittsburgh, is centered in and aroundPittsburgh, the state's second-largest city. The state's subsequent five most populous cities areAllentown,Reading,Erie,Scranton, andBethlehem.The state capital isHarrisburg. History Indigenous settlement Pennsylvania's history of human habitation extends to thousands of years before the foundation of the colonialProvince of Pennsylvaniain", "of Pennsylvaniain 1681.Archaeologistsbelieve the firstsettlement of the Americasoccurred at least 15,000 years ago, during theLast Glacial Period, though it is unclear when humans first inhabited present-day Pennsylvania. Between 30,000 and 10,500 years ago,Native Americanscrossed the two continents, arriving inNorth America.Meadowcroft RockshelterinJefferson Townshipincludes the earliest known signs of human activity in Pennsylvania and perhaps all of North America,including the remains of a civilization that existed over 10,000 years ago and possibly pre-dated theClovis culture.By 1000 CE, in contrast to their nomadichunter-gathererancestors, the native population of Pennsylvania had developedagriculturaltechniques and a mixed food economy. By the timeEuropean colonization of the Americasbegan, at least two major Native American tribes inhabited Pennsylvania.The first, theLenape, spoke anAlgonquian languageand inhabited the eastern region of the state, then known asLenapehoking. It included most of", "It included most of present-dayNew Jerseyand theLehigh ValleyandDelaware Valleyregions in eastern and southeastern Pennsylvania. The Lenape's territory ended somewhere between theDelaware Riverin the east and theSusquehanna Riverin central Pennsylvania. The second tribe, theSusquehannock, spoke anIroquoian languageand were based inWestern PennsylvaniafromNew Yorkstate in the north toWest Virginiain the southwest, including the Susquehanna,Allegheny, andMonongahelarivers near present-dayPittsburgh.European disease and constant warfare with several neighbors and groups of Europeans weakened these tribes, and they were grossly outpaced financially as theHuronsandIroquoisblocked them from proceeding west intoOhioduring theBeaver Wars. As they lost numbers and land, the Hurons abandoned much of their western territory and moved closer to the Susquehanna River, and the Iroquois and Mohawk tribes moved further north. Northwest of the Allegheny River was the IroquoianPetun,who were fragmented into three groups", "into three groups during the Beaver Wars: the Petun of New York, the Wyandot of Ohio, and the Tiontatecaga of the Kanawha River in southern West Virginia. South of the Allegheny River was a nation known as Calicua,which may have been part of theMonongahela culture. 17th century In the 17th century, theDutchand theEnglisheach claimed both sides of theDelaware Riveras part of their colonial lands in America.The Dutch were the first to take possession.By June 3, 1631, the Dutch began settling theDelmarva Peninsulaby establishing theZwaanendael Colonyon the site of present-dayLewes, Delaware.In 1638, Sweden establishedNew Sweden Colonyin the region ofFort Christinaon the site of present-dayWilmington, Delaware. New Sweden claimed and, for the most part, controlled the lower Delaware River region, including parts of present-day Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, but settled few colonists there. On March 12, 1664,King Charles II of EnglandgaveJames, Duke of Yorka grant that incorporated all lands included in", "lands included in the original Virginia Company of Plymouth Grant and other lands. This grant was in conflict with the Dutch claim forNew Netherland, which included parts of today's Pennsylvania. On June 24, 1664, the Duke of York sold the portion of his large grant that included present-dayNew JerseytoJohn BerkeleyandGeorge Carteretfor a proprietary colony. The land was not yet in British possession, but the sale boxed in the portion of New Netherland on the West side of the Delaware River. The British conquest of New Netherland began on August 29, 1664, whenNew Amsterdamwas coerced to surrender while facing cannons on British ships inNew York Harbor.This conquest continued, and was completed in October 1664, when the British capturedFort Casimirin what today isNew Castle, Delaware. ThePeace of Bredabetween England, France, and the Netherlands confirmed the English conquest on July 21, 1667,although there were temporary reversions. On September 12, 1672, during theThird Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch", "War, the Dutch reconqueredNew York Colony/New Amsterdam, establishing three County Courts, which went on to become original Counties in present-day Delaware and Pennsylvania. The one that later transferred to Pennsylvania was Upland.This was partially reversed on February 9, 1674, when theTreaty of Westminsterended the Third Anglo-Dutch War and reverted all political situations to thestatus quo ante bellum. The British retained the Dutch Counties with their Dutch names.By June 11, 1674, New York reasserted control over the outlying colonies, including Upland, and the names started to be changed to British names by November 11, 1674.Upland was partitioned on November 12, 1674, producing the general outline of the current border between Pennsylvania and Delaware. On February 28, 1681, Charles II granted a land chartertoQuakerleader William Penn to repay a debt of £16,000(around £2,100,000 in 2008, adjusting for retail inflation)owed to William's father. The transaction represents one of the largest land grants", "largest land grants to an individual in history.Penn proposed that the land be called New Wales, but there were objections to that name, so he recommended Sylvania (from theLatinsilva: \"forest, woods\"). The King named it Pennsylvania (literally \"Penn's Woods\") in honor of Admiral Penn. The younger Penn was embarrassed at this name, fearing that people would think he had named it after himself, but King Charles would not rename the grant.Penn established a government with two innovations that were much copied in the New World: thecounty commissionandfreedom of religious conviction. What had been Upland on the Pennsylvania side of the Pennsylvania-Delaware border was renamed asChester Countywhen Pennsylvania instituted their colonial governments on March 4, 1681.Penn signed a peace treaty withTamanend, leader of the Lenape, which began a long period of friendly relations between the Quakers and the Indians.Additional treaties between Quakers and other tribes followed. Thetreatyof William Penn was never", "Penn was never violated. 18th century Between 1730 and when the Pennsylvania Colony was shut down byParliamentwith theCurrency Actin 1764, the Pennsylvania Colony made its own paper money to account for the shortage of actual gold and silver. The paper money was calledColonial Scrip. The Colony issued bills of credit, which were as good as gold or silver coins because of their legal tender status. Since they were issued by the government and not a banking institution, it was an interest free proposition, largely defraying the expense of the government and therefore taxation of the people. It also promoted general employment and prosperity, since the government used discretion and did not issue excessive amounts that inflated the currency.Benjamin Franklinhad a hand in creating this currency, whose utility, he said, was never to be disputed. The currency also met with \"cautious approval\" byAdam Smith. TheUniversity of PennsylvaniainPhiladelphiawas founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1740, becoming one of the", "becoming one of the ninecolonial collegesand the first college established in the state and one of the first in the nation; today, it is anIvy Leagueuniversity that is ranked one the world's best universities.Dickinson CollegeinCarlislewas the first college founded after the states united.Established in 1773, Dickinson was ratified five days after theTreaty of Parison September 9, 1783, and was founded byBenjamin Rushand named afterJohn Dickinson. James Smithwrote that in 1763, \"the Indians again commenced hostilities, and were busily engaged in killing and scalping the frontier inhabitants in various parts of Pennsylvania. This state was then a Quaker government, and at the first of this war the frontiers received no assistance from the state.\"The ensuing hostilities became known asPontiac's War. After theStamp Act Congressof 1765, delegateJohn Dickinsonof Philadelphia wrote theDeclaration of Rights and Grievances. The Congress was the first meeting of theThirteen Colonies, called at the request of", "at the request of theMassachusettsassembly, but only nine of the 13 colonies sent delegates.Dickinson then wroteLetters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, To the Inhabitants of the British Colonies, which were published in the Pennsylvania Chronicle between December 2, 1767, and February 15, 1768. When theFounding Fathersconvened in Philadelphia in 1774, 12 colonies sent representatives to theFirst Continental Congress.TheSecond Continental Congress, which also met in Philadelphia beginning in May 1775, authored and signed theDeclaration of Independencein Philadelphia,but when Philadelphia fell to theBritishin thePhiladelphia campaign, the Continental Congress moved west, where it met at theLancastercourthouse on Saturday, September 27, 1777, and then toYork. In York, the Second Continental Congress adopted theArticles of Confederation, largely authored by Pennsylvania delegateJohn Dickinson, that formed 13 independent Statesinto a new union. Later, theConstitutionwas written, and Philadelphia was once again", "was once again chosen to be cradle to the new nation.The Constitution was drafted and signed at thePennsylvania State Housein Philadelphia, now known asIndependence Hall, the same building where the Declaration of Independence was previously adopted and signed in 1776. On December 12, 1787, Pennsylvania was the second state to ratify theU.S. Constitution,five days afterDelawarebecame the first. At the time, Pennsylvania was the most ethnically and religiously diverse of the thirteen colonies. Because a third of Pennsylvania's population spokeGerman, the Constitution was presented in German so those citizens could participate in the discussion about it.Reverend Frederick Muhlenberg, aLutheranminister and thefirst Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, acted as chairman of Pennsylvania's ratifying convention. For half a century, thePennsylvania General Assemblymet at various places in the Philadelphia area before it began meeting regularly in Independence Hall in Philadelphia for 63 years.However,", "63 years.However, events such as thePaxton Boysmassacres of 1763 had made the legislature aware of the need for a central capital. In 1799, the General Assembly moved to theLancasterCourthouse. 19th century ThePennsylvania General Assemblymet in the oldDauphin CountyCourt House until December 1821when theFederal-style Hills Capitol, named for Lancaster architectStephen Hills, was constructed on a hilltop land grant of four acres set aside for a seat of state government inHarrisburgby the son and namesake ofJohn Harris, Sr., aYorkshirenative who founded a trading post and ferry on the east shore of theSusquehanna Riverin 1705.The Hills Capitol burned down on February 2, 1897, during a heavy snowstorm, presumably because of a faultyflue. The General Assembly met at a nearbyMethodist Churchuntil a new capitol could be built. Following an architectural selection contest that some alleged had been rigged,ChicagoarchitectHenry Ives Cobbwas asked to design and build a replacement building. However, the legislature", "the legislature had little money to allocate to the project. When they dubbed the roughly finished somewhat industrial Cobb Capitol building complete, the General Assembly refused to occupy the building. In 1901, political and popular indignation prompted a second contest that was restricted to Pennsylvania architects;Joseph Miller Hustonof Philadelphia was chosen to design the presentPennsylvania State Capitolthat incorporated Cobb's building into a magnificent public work, finished and dedicated in 1907. James Buchanan, aFranklin Countynative, served as the 15th U.S. president and was the first president to be born in Pennsylvania.TheBattle of Gettysburg, the major turning point of theAmerican Civil War, took place nearGettysburgin July 1863.An estimated 350,000 Pennsylvanians served in theUnion Armyforces, including 8,600 African Americanmilitary volunteers. The politics of Pennsylvania were for decades dominated by the financially conservativeRepublican-alignedCameron machine, established byU.S. Senator", "byU.S. Senator Simon Cameron,later theSecretary of WarunderPresident Abraham Lincoln. Control of the machine was subsequently passed on to Cameron's sonJ. Donald Cameron, whose ineffectiveness resulted in a transfer of power to the more shrewdMatthew Quayand finally toBoies Penrose. The post-Civil War era, known as theGilded Age, saw the continued rise of industry in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania was home to some of the largest steel companies in the world.Andrew Carnegiefounded theCarnegie Steel CompanyinPittsburghandCharles M. SchwabfoundedBethlehem SteelinBethlehem. Other titans of industry, includingJohn D. RockefellerandJay Gould, also operated in Pennsylvania. In the latter half of the 19th century, the U.S.oil industrywas born inWestern Pennsylvania, which supplied the vast majority ofkerosenefor years thereafter. As thePennsylvania oil rushdeveloped, Pennsylvania's oil boom towns, such asTitusville, rose and later fell. Coal mining, primarily in the state'sCoal Regionin the northeast region of the", "region of the state, also was a major industry for much of the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1903,Milton S. Hersheybegan construction on a chocolate factory inHershey, Pennsylvania;The Hershey Companygrew to become the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America.Heinz Companywas also founded during this period. These huge companies exercised a large influence on the politics of Pennsylvania; asHenry Demarest Lloydput it, oil baron John D. Rockefeller \"had done everything with the Pennsylvania legislature except refine it\".Pennsylvania created a Department of Highways and engaged in a vast program of road-building, while railroads continued to see heavy usage. The growth of industry eventually provided middle class incomes to working-class households after the development of labor unions helped them gain living wages. However, the rise of unions also led to a rise ofunion bustingwith several private police forces springing up.Pennsylvania was the location of the first documented organized strike in North", "strike in North America, and Pennsylvania was the location of two hugely prominent strikes, theGreat Railroad Strike of 1877and theCoal Strike of 1902. The eight-hour day was eventually adopted, and the coal and iron police were banned. 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, Pennsylvania's economy centered on steel production,logging,coal mining,textileproduction, and other forms of industrialmanufacturing. A surge in immigration to the U.S. during the late 19th and early 20th centuries provided a steady flow of cheap labor for these industries, which often employed children and people who could not speak English fromSouthernandEastern Europe.Thousands of Pennsylvanians volunteered during theSpanish–American War. Pennsylvania was an important industrial center inWorld War I, and the state provided over 300,000 soldiers for the military. On May 31, 1918, thePittsburgh Agreementwas signed inPittsburghto declare the formation of the independent state ofCzechoslovakiawith future Czechoslovak", "future Czechoslovak presidentTomáš Masaryk. In 1922, 310,000 Pennsylvania miners joined theUMW General coal strike, which lasted 163 days and shut down most coal mines within the state. In 1923,President Calvin Coolidgeestablished theAllegheny National Forestunder the authority of theWeeks Actof 1911.The forest is located in the northwest part of the state inElk,Forest,McKean, andWarrenCounties for the purposes of timber production and watershed protection in theAllegheny Riverbasin. The Allegheny is the state's only national forest. Pennsylvania manufactured 6.6 percent of total U.S. military armaments produced duringWorld War II, ranking sixth among the 48 states.ThePhiladelphia Naval Shipyardserved as an important naval base, and Pennsylvania produced important military leaders, includingGeorge C. Marshall,Hap Arnold,Jacob Devers, andCarl Spaatz. During the war, over a million Pennsylvanians served in the armed forces, and moreMedals of Honorwere awarded to Pennsylvanians than to individuals from any", "from any other state. TheThree Mile Island accidentwas the most significantnuclear accidentin U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history.The state was hard-hit by the decline and restructuring of the steel industry and other heavy industries during the late 20th century. With job losses came heavy population losses, especially in the state's largest cities. Pittsburgh lost its place among thetop ten most populous cities in the United Statesby 1950, and Philadelphia dropped to the fifth and currently thesixth-largest cityafter decades of being among the top three. After 1990, as information-based industries became more important in the economy, state and local governments put more resources into the old, well-established public library system. Some localities, however, used new state funding to cut local taxes.New ethnic groups, especiallyHispanics and Latinos, began entering the state to fill low-skill jobs in agriculture and service industries. For example, inChester County,Mexicanimmigrants brought", "brought theSpanish language, increasedCatholicism, high birth rates, and cuisine when they were hired as agricultural laborers; in some rural localities, they made up half or more of the population. Stateside Puerto Ricansbuilt a large community in the state's third-largest city,Allentown, where they comprise over 40% of the city's population as of 2000. In the 20th century, as Pennsylvania's historical national and even global leadership inmininglargely ceased and itssteelmakingand other heavy manufacturing sectors slowed, the state sought to grow its service and other industries to replace the jobs and economic productivity lost from the downturn of these industries. Pittsburgh's concentration of universities has enabled it to be a leader in technology and healthcare. Similarly, Philadelphia has a concentration of university expertise. Healthcare, retail, transportation, and tourism are some of the state's growing industries of the postindustrial era. As in the rest of the nation, most residential", "most residential population growth has occurred in suburban rather than central city areas, although both major cities have had significant revitalization in their downtown areas.Philadelphia anchors theseventh-largestmetropolitan areain the country and one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world, and Pittsburgh is the center of the nation's 27th-largest metropolitan areas. As of 2020, theLehigh Valleyin eastern Pennsylvania is the nation's 69th-largest metropolitan area.Pennsylvania also hassix additional metropolitan areasthat rank among the nation's 200-most populous metropolitan areas. Philadelphia forms part of theNortheast megalopolisand is associated with theNortheastern United States. Pittsburgh is part of theGreat Lakes megalopolisand is often associated with theMidwestern United StatesandRust Belt. 21st century During theSeptember 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, the small town ofShanksville, Pennsylvania, received worldwide attention afterUnited Airlines Flight 93crashed", "Flight 93crashed into a field inStonycreek Township, located 1.75 miles (2.82 km) north of the town. All 40 civilians and 4Al-Qaedahijackers on board were killed. The hijackers had intended to crash the plane into either theUnited States CapitolorThe White House.After learning from family members via air phone of the earlier attacks on theWorld Trade Center, however, Flight 93's passengers revolted against the hijackers and fought for control of the plane, causing it to crash. It was the only one of the four aircraft hijacked that day that never reached its intended target and the heroism of the passengers has been commemorated. Since 2003, theTekkoanimeconvention has been held annually in Pittsburgh. In October 2018, theTree of Life – Or L'Simcha Congregation, aconservative Jewishsynagogue, experienced thePittsburgh synagogue shooting, which resulted in 11 fatalities.On July 13, 2024, nearButler, Pennsylvania,an assassination attempton the 45th President of the United StatesDonald Trumpoccurred. Geography", "Geography Pennsylvania is 170 miles (274 km) north to south and 283 miles (455 km) east to west.Of a total 46,055 square miles (119,282 km2), 44,817 square miles (116,075 km2) are land, 490 square miles (1,269 km2) are inland waters, and 749 square miles (1,940 km2) are waters inLake Erie.It is the33rd-largest statein theUnited States.Pennsylvania has 51 miles (82 km)of coastline alongLake Erieand 57 miles (92 km)of shoreline along theDelaware Estuary. Of the originalThirteen Colonies, Pennsylvania is the only state that does not border theAtlantic Ocean. The boundaries of the state are theMason–Dixon line(39°43' N) to the south,Twelve-Mile Circleon the Pennsylvania-Delawareborder, theDelaware Riverto the east, 80°31' W to the west, and the42° Nto the north, except for a short segment on the western end where atriangleextends north toLake Erie. The state has five geographical regions:Allegheny Plateau,Ridge and Valley,Atlantic Coastal Plain,Piedmont, andErie Plain. Climate Pennsylvania's diverse topography", "diverse topography produces a variety of climates, though the entire state experiences cold winters and humid summers. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, except for the southeastern corner, has ahumid continental climate(Köppen climate classificationDfb). The southern portion of the state has ahumid subtropicalclimate. The largest city,Philadelphia, has ahumid subtropical climate(KöppenCfa). Summers are generally hot and humid. Moving toward the mountainous interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increases, and snowfall amounts are greater. Western areas of the state, particularly locations nearLake Erie, can receive over 100 inches (250 cm) of snowfall annually, and the entire state receives plentiful precipitation throughout the year. The state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into autumn. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, such as 30 recorded tornadoes in 2011; generally speaking,", "generally speaking, these tornadoes do not cause significant damage. Municipalities Cities in Pennsylvania includePhiladelphia,Reading,Lebanon, andLancasterin the southeast,Pittsburghin the southwest, and the tri-cities ofAllentown,Bethlehem, andEastonin the central east, known as theLehigh Valley. Thenortheastincludes the formeranthracite coalmining cities ofScranton,Wilkes-Barre,Pittston,Nanticoke, andHazleton.Erieis located in the northwest.State Collegeis located in the central region.Williamsportis in the north-central region withYork,Carlisle, and the state capitalHarrisburgon theSusquehanna Riverin the east-central region of the state.AltoonaandJohnstownare in the state's west-central region. The state's three-most populated cities, in order of size, are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Allentown. Adjacent states and province Demographics As of the2020 U.S. census, Pennsylvania had a population of 13,011,844, up from 12,702,379 in 2010. Pennsylvania is thefifth-most populated statein the U.S.", "statein the U.S. afterCalifornia,Texas,Florida, andNew York.In 2019, netmigrationto other states resulted in a decrease of 27,718, andimmigrationfrom other countries resulted in an increase of 127,007. Net migration to Pennsylvania was 98,289. Migration of native Pennsylvanians resulted in a decrease of 100,000 people. 7.2% of the population was foreign-born as of 2021.Pennsylvania'scenter of populationis inDuncannoninPerry County. According to theU.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's 2022Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 12,691homelesspeople in Pennsylvania. Place of origin Among Pennsylvania residents, as of 2020, nearly three out of four, 74.5%, are native to the state and were born in Pennsylvania, 18.4% were born in a different U.S. state, 1.5% were born inPuerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent(s), and 5.6% were foreign born.Foreign-born Pennsylvanians are largely from Asia (36.0%), Europe (35.9%), and Latin America (30.6%) with the", "(30.6%) with the remainder from Africa (5%), North America (3.1%), and Oceania (0.4%). The state's largest ancestry groups, expressed as a percentage of total people who responded with a particular ancestry for the 2010 census, wereGerman28.5%,Irish18.2%,Italian12.8%,African Americans9.6%,English8.5%,Polish7.2%, andFrench4.2%.As of 2018, the top countries of origin for Pennsylvania's immigrants wereIndia, theDominican Republic,China,Mexico, andVietnam. Race and ethnicity The vast majority of Pennsylvania's population is made up of whites, blacks and Hispanics, with the latter two being minorities and having significant populations. Non-Hispanic Whites make up the majority of Pennsylvania; they are mostly descended from German, Irish, Scottish, Welsh, Italian, and English immigrants. Rural portions of South Central Pennsylvania are recognized nationally for theirAmish communities.Wyoming Valley, includingScrantonandWilkes-Barre, has the highest percentage of white residents of any metropolitan area with a", "area with a population of 500,000 or above in the U.S.; in Wyoming Valley, 96.2% of the population claim to be white with no Hispanic background. The state's Hispanic or Latino American population grew by 82.6% between 2000 and 2010, marking one of the largest increases in a state's Hispanic population. The significant growth of the Hispanic or Latino population is due to migration to the state mainly fromPuerto Rico, a U.S. territory, and to a lesser extent immigration from countries such as theDominican Republic,Mexico, and variousCentralandSouth Americannations and a wave of Hispanic and Latinos leavingNew York CityandNew Jerseyfor safer and more affordable living. The majority of Hispanic or Latino Americans in Pennsylvania are ofPuerto Ricandescent.Most of the remaining Hispanic or Latino population is made up ofMexicansandDominicans, and the majority of Hispanics and Latinos are concentrated in Philadelphia, theLehigh Valley, and South Central Pennsylvania.The Hispanic or Latino population is greatest", "is greatest inBethlehem,Allentown,Reading,Lancaster,York, and around Philadelphia. As of 2010, the vast majority of Hispanics and Latino Americans in Pennsylvania, about 85%, live within a 150-mile (240 km) radius of Philadelphia, and about 20% live in the city itself. The Asian population swelled by almost 60%, fueled by Indian, Vietnamese, and Chinese immigration, and many Asian transplants moving toPhiladelphiafrom New York City. The rapid growth of this community has given Pennsylvania one of the largest Asian populations in the nation. The African American population grew by 13%, which was the largest increase in that population among the state's peers ofNew York,New Jersey,Ohio,Illinois, andMichigan.Pennsylvania has a high in-migration of black and Hispanic people from other nearby states with the eastern and south-central portions of the state seeing the bulk of the increases. Among the state's black population, the vast majority in the state are African American. There are also a growing number of", "a growing number of black residents ofWest Indian,recent African, andHispanic or Latinoorigins.Most Blacks live in the Philadelphia area, Pittsburgh, or South Central Pennsylvania.Additionally, in 2020, 31,052 identified as being Native American alone, and 158,112 did in combination with one or more other races. Birth data Note: data for births ofWhite Hispanicorigin have not been collected, but included in oneHispanicgroup; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Age and poverty As of the 2010 census, Pennsylvania had the fourth-highest proportion of elderly (65+) citizens in the nation at 15.4%, compared to a national average of 13.0%.According to U.S. Census Bureau estimates, the state's poverty rate was 12.5% in 2017 compared to 13.4% for the U.S. as a whole. Languages As of 2010, 90.2% (10,710,239) of Pennsylvania residents age five and older spokeEnglishat home as aprimary languagewhile 4.1% (486,058) spokeSpanish, 0.9% (103,502) spokeGermanincludingPennsylvania Dutch, and 0.5% (56,052)", "and 0.5% (56,052) spokeChinese, which includesMandarinof the population over the age of five. In total, 9.9% (1,170,628) of Pennsylvania's population age5 and older spoke amother tongueother than English. Pennsylvania Dutch language Pennsylvania Dutchis a descendant of theWest Central Germandialect family and is closest toPalatine German. Pennsylvania Dutch is still very vigorous as a first language amongOld Order AmishandOld Order Mennonites, principally in theLancaster CountyandBerks Countyareas; it is almost extinct as an everyday language outside theplain communities, though a few words have passed into English usage. Religion Religious self-identification in Pennsylvania (April 2023Franklin & Marshall Collegepoll) Of the originalThirteen Colonies, Pennsylvania andRhode Islandhad the most religious freedom.Voltaire, writing ofWilliam Pennin 1733, observed: \"The new sovereign also enacted several wise and wholesome laws for his colony, which have remained invariably the same to this day. The chief is, to", "The chief is, to ill-treat no person on account of religion, and to consider as brethren all those who believe in one God.\"One result of this uncommon freedom was a wide religiousdiversity, which continues to the present. Pennsylvania's population in 2010 was 12,702,379; of these, 6,838,440 (53.8%) were estimated to belong to some sort of organized religion. According to theAssociation of Religion Data Archives(ARDA) atPennsylvania State University, the largest religious bodies in Pennsylvania by adherents were theCatholic Churchwith 3,503,028 adherents, theUnited Methodist Churchwith 591,734 members, and theEvangelical Lutheran Church in Americawith 501,974 members. Since 2014, among the state's religious population, 73% wereChristian, according toPew Research Center.In 2020, thePublic Religion Research Instituteestimated 68% of the population identified with Christianity.As of 2014, 47% of all Pennsylvanians identified asProtestants, makingProtestantismfar and away the most prominent religious affiliation", "affiliation among Pennsylvanians. Among all self-identified Christians in the state, however, 24% identified asCatholics, the most of any Christian religious affiliation. In April 2023, aFranklin & Marshall Collegepoll found that a plurality of Pennsylvania residents wereunaffiliated, with the rest predominately beingProtestantorCatholic. Pennsylvania, especially theGreater Pittsburgharea, has one of the largest communities ofPresbyteriansin the nation, the third-highest by percentage of population and the largest outright in membership asProtestantChristians.TheAmerican Presbyterian Church, with about 250,000 members and 1,011 congregations, is the largest Presbyterian denomination, and thePresbyterian Church in Americais also significant, with 112 congregations and approximately 23,000 adherents; theEPChas around 50 congregations, including theECO, according to 2010 estimates. The fourth-largestProtestantdenomination, theUnited Church of Christ, has 180,000 members and 627 congregations in the state.", "in the state. TheAmerican Baptist Churches USA, also referred to as the Northern Baptist Convention is based inKing of Prussia. Pennsylvania was the center state of theGerman Reformeddenomination from the 1700s.Bethlehemis one of the headquarters of theMoravian Churchin the U.S. Pennsylvania also has a very largeAmishpopulation, second only toOhioamong U.S. states.As of 2000, there was a total Amish population of 47,860 in Pennsylvania and an additional 146,416Mennonitesand 91,200Brethren. The totalAnabapistpopulation includingBruderhofwas 232,631, about two percent of the population.While Pennsylvania owes its existence toQuakers, and much of the historic character of Pennsylvania is ideologically rooted in the teachings of theReligious Society of Friends(as they are officially known), practicing Quakers are a small minority of about 10,000 adherents as of 2010. Economy As of 2024, Pennsylvania'sgross state product(GSP) of $1.0 trillion is thesixth-largestamong all U.S. states behindCalifornia,Texas,New", "York,Florida, andIllinois.If Pennsylvaniawere an independent country, its economy, as of 2023, would rank as the 20th-largest in the world.On a per capita basis, Pennsylvania's 2021 per capita income of $68,957 ranks 21st among the 50 states.As of 2016, there were 5,354,964 people in employment in Pennsylvania with 301,484 total employer establishments. As of January 2024, the state's unemployment rate is 3.4%. The state has five manufacturing centers:Philadelphiain the southeast,Pittsburghin the southwest,Eriein the northwest,Scranton-Wilkes-Barrein the northeast, and theLehigh Valleyin the east. Pennsylvania is home to 23 of the nation's 500 largest companies that comprise theFortune500, including two that rank in the top 100,Cencora(formerly AmeriSource Bergen) inConshohocken, which is the nation's 11th-largest company, andComcastin Philadelphia, which is the 29th-largest.Philadelphia is home to six of theFortune500 companies,with more located in suburbs likeKing of Prussia; it is a leader in the", "is a leader in the financialand insurance industries. Pittsburgh is home to eightFortune500 companies, includingU.S. Steel,PPG Industries,Heinz, andGE Transportation.Hershey is home toThe Hershey Company, one of the world's largest chocolate manufacturers. In eastern Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley has become an epicenter for the growth of the U.S.logisticsindustry, includingwarehousingand theintermodal transportof goods. Like many U.S. states,Walmartis the largest private employer in Pennsylvania. The state's second-largest employer is theUniversity of Pennsylvania, anIvy Leagueprivateresearch universityin Philadelphia.Pennsylvania is home to the oldest investor-owned utility company in the U.S.,The York Water Company. As of 2018, Pennsylvania ranks first in the nation in a few economic sectors and niches, including barrels ofbeerproduced annually (3.9 million),farmers' markets(over 6,000),food processingcompanies (2,300), hardwoodlumberproduction (a billion board feet annually),mushroom farms(68),natural", "farms(68),natural gasproduction,potato chipmanufacturing (24 facilities manufacturing one-fourth of the nation's total), andpretzelmanufacturing (80 percent of the nation's total). Agriculture Pennsylvania ranks 19th overall among all states in agricultural production.Its leading agricultural products aremushrooms, apples,Christmas trees,layer chickens,nursery,sod, milk,cornforsilage, grapes (includingjuice grapes), and horses production. Pennsylvania ranks eighth in the nation inwinemaking. ThePennsylvania Department of Agricultureworked with private companies to establish \"PA Preferred\" as a way to brand agricultural products grown or made in the state.The financial impact of agriculture in Pennsylvaniaincludes employment of more than 66,800 people employed by the foodmanufacturingindustry and over $1.7 billion in food productexportas of 2011. Banking The first nationally chartered bank in the U.S., theBank of North America, was founded in 1781 in Philadelphia. After a series of mergers, the Bank of North", "the Bank of North America is now part ofWells Fargo. Pennsylvania is home to the first nationally-chartered bank under the 1863National Banking Act. That year, the Pittsburgh Savings & Trust Company received a national charter and renamed itself the First National Bank of Pittsburgh as part of the National Banking Act. That bank is still in existence today asPNCand remains based in Pittsburgh. PNC is currently the state's largest and the nation's sixth-largest bank. Film ThePennsylvania Film Production Tax Creditbegan in 2004 and stimulated the development of a film industry in the state. Gambling Casino gambling was legalized in Pennsylvania in 2004. As of 2022, there are16 casinosin the state.Table games such as poker, roulette, blackjack, and craps were approved by the state legislature and signed into law in January 2010. Sports betting saw approval in 2018. Five years in, the state and local governments collected over $500 million in sportsbook tax revenue. Governance Pennsylvania has had", "has had fiveconstitutionsduring its statehood:1776,1790,1838,1874, and1968. Before that the province of Pennsylvania was governed for a century by aFrame of Government, of which there were four versions: 1682, 1683, 1696, and 1701.The capital of Pennsylvania isHarrisburg. The legislature meets there in theState Capitol. In a 2020 study, Pennsylvania was ranked as the 19th hardest state for citizens to vote in. Executive The current Governor isJosh Shapiro. The other elected officials composing the executive branch are theLieutenant GovernorAustin Davis,Attorney GeneralMichelle Henry,Auditor GeneralTimothy DeFoor, andPennsylvania TreasurerStacy Garrity. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor run as a ticket in the general election and are up for re-election every four years during the midterm elections. The elections for Attorney General, Auditor General, and Treasurer are held every four years coinciding with a Presidential election. Legislative Pennsylvania has abicameral legislaturethat was established in", "was established in thePennsylvania Constitution, which was ratified in 1790. The original Frame of Government of William Penn had a unicameral legislature.TheGeneral Assemblyincludes 50senatorsand 203representatives.Kim L. Wardis currentlypresident pro temporeof the State Senate,Joe Pittmanthemajority leader, andJay Costatheminority leader.Joanna McClintonisspeakerof the House of Representatives, withMatthew Bradfordas majority leader andBryan Cutleras minority leader.As of 2023, the Republicans hold the majority in the State Senate (28-22) and the Democrats in the State House (102-101). Pennsylvania is one of only two states that currently have divided party control of the state legislature. Judiciary Pennsylvania is divided into 60 judicial districts.With the exception ofPhiladelphia County, most have district justices and justices of the peace who preside over most preliminary hearings in felony and misdemeanor offenses, all minor (summary) criminal offenses, and small civil claims.Most criminal and civil", "criminal and civil cases originate in the Courts of Common Pleas, which also serve asappellate court.TheSuperior Courthears all appeals from the Courts of Common Pleas not expressly designated to theCommonwealth CourtorSupreme Court. The Superior Court also has original jurisdiction to reviewprobable causegovernmental requests forwarrantsinwiretapsurveillance.The Commonwealth Court is limited to appeals from final orders of certain state agencies and certain designated cases from the Courts of Common Pleas.TheSupreme Court of Pennsylvaniais the state's final appellate court. All judges in Pennsylvania are elected, and thechief justiceof the state's Supreme Court is determined by seniority. Local government Pennsylvania is divided into 67counties.Counties are further subdivided into municipalities that are either incorporated as cities,boroughs, ortownships.The most populous county in Pennsylvania and24th-most populous countyin the United States isPhiladelphia County, which includes the city ofPhiladelphia,", "ofPhiladelphia, with a 2020 population of 1,603,797; the state's least populous county isCameronwith a population of 4,547. There are a total of 56 cities in Pennsylvania, which are classified by population as either first-class, second-class, or third-class cities.Philadelphia, the state's largest city with a population exceeding 1.6 million, is Pennsylvania's only first-class city.Pittsburgh(303,000) andScranton(76,000) are second-class and second-class 'A' cities, respectively.All of the state's remaining cities includingAllentown, the state's third-largest city, andReading, its fourth-largest, toParker, the state's smallest city with a population of only 820, are designated as third-class cities.First- and second-class cities are governed by a \"strong mayor\" form ofmayor–council government, whereas third-class cities are governed by either a \"weak mayor\" form of government or acouncil–manager government. Pennsylvania boroughs are generally smaller in population than the state's cities, and most of the", "and most of the state's cities were incorporated as boroughs prior to being designated cities.There are 958 boroughs in Pennsylvania, all of which are governed by the \"weak mayor\" form of mayor-council government.The largest borough in Pennsylvania isState College(40,501) and the smallest isCentralia. Townships are the third type of municipality in Pennsylvania and are classified as either first-class or second-class townships. There are 1,454 second-class townships and 93 first-class townships.Second-class townships can become first-class townships if they have a population density greater than 300 inhabitants per square mile (120/km2) and areferendumis passed supporting the change.Pennsylvania's largest township isUpper Darby Township(85,681), and the smallest isEast Keating Township. There is one exception to the types of municipalities in Pennsylvania:Bloomsburgwas incorporated as a town in 1870 and is, officially, the only town in the state.In 1975,McCandless Townshipadopted a home-rule charter under", "charter under the name of \"Town of McCandless\", but is, legally, still a first-class township.The state has 56 cities, 958 boroughs, 93 first-class townships, 1,454 second-class townships, and one town (Bloomsburg) for a total of 2,562 municipalities. Taxation Pennsylvania had the 15th-highest state and local tax burden in the nation as of 2012, according to theTax Foundation.Residents paid a total of $83.7 billion in state and local taxes with a per capita average of $4,589 annually. Residents share 76% of the total tax burden. Many state politicians have tried to increase the share of taxes paid by out-of-state sources. Suggested revenue sources include taxing natural gas drilling as Pennsylvania is the only state without such a tax on gas drilling.Additional revenue prospects include trying to place tolls on interstate highways; specificallyInterstate 80, which is used heavily by out of state commuters with high maintenance costs. Sales taxesprovide 39% of Pennsylvania's state revenue;personal income", "income taxes34%; motor vehicle taxes about 12%, and taxes oncigarettesand alcoholic beverages 5%.The personal income tax is a flat 3.07%. An individual's taxable income is based on the following eight types of income: compensation (salary); interest; dividends; net profits from the operation of a business, profession or farm; net gains or income from the dispositions of property; net gains or income from rents, royalties, patents and copyrights; income derived through estates or trusts; and gambling andlotterywinnings (other thanPennsylvania Lotterywinnings). Counties, municipalities, andschool districtslevy taxes on real estate. In addition, some local bodies assess awage taxon personal income. Generally, the total wage tax rate is capped at 1% of income but some municipalities withhome rulecharters may charge more than 1%. Thirty-two of Pennsylvania's sixty-seven counties levy apersonal property taxon stocks, bonds, and similar holdings. With the exception of the city ofPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania,", "Pennsylvania, municipalities and school districts are allowed to enact a local earned income tax within the purview of Act 32. Residents of these municipalities and school districts are required to file a local income tax return in addition to federal and state returns. This local return is filed with the local income tax collector, a private collection agency appointed by a particular county to collect the local earned income and local services tax (the latter a flat fee deducted from salaried employees working within a particular municipality or school district). Philadelphiahas its own local income taxation system. Philadelphia-based employers are required to withhold the Philadelphia wage tax from the salaries of their employees. Residents of Philadelphia working for an employer are not required to file a local return as long as their Philadelphia wage tax is fully withheld by their employer. If their employer does not withhold the Philadelphia wage tax, residents are required to register with the", "register with the Revenue Department and file an Earnings Tax return. Residents of Philadelphia with self-employment income are required to file a Net Profits Tax (NPT) return, while those with business income from Philadelphia sources are required to obtain a Commercial Activity License (CAL) and pay the Business Income and Receipts Tax (BIRT) and the NPT. Residents with unearned income except interest from checking and savings accounts are required to file and pay the School Income-tax (SIT). The complexity of Pennsylvania's local tax filing system has been criticized by experts, who note that the outsourcing of collections to private entities is akin totax farmingand that many new residents are caught off guard and end up facing failure to file penalties even if they did not owe any tax. Attempts to transfer local income tax collections to the state level by having a separate local section on the state income tax return, currently the method used to collect local income taxes inNew York,Maryland,Indiana,", "andIowa, have been unsuccessful. State law enforcement ThePennsylvania State Policeis the chief law enforcement agency in the Pennsylvania. Politics Since the latter half of the 20th century, Pennsylvania has been perceived as a powerfulswing state, and winning Pennsylvania has since been deemed as essential toU.S. presidential candidates. Only thrice between1932and1988(1932, 1948, and1968, withFranklin D. Roosevelt,Harry S. Truman, andRichard Nixon, respectively) has a presidential candidate been able to win theWhite Housewithout carrying Pennsylvania. Between 1992 and 2016, Pennsylvania trendedDemocraticin presidential elections;Bill Clintonwon the state twice by large margins andAl Gorewon it by a slightly closer margin in 2000. In the 2004 presidential election,John F. Kerrybeat PresidentGeorge W. Bushin Pennsylvania, 2,938,095 (51%) to 2,793,847 (48%). In the 2008 presidential election, DemocratBarack ObamadefeatedRepublicanJohn McCainin Pennsylvania, 3,276,363 (54%) to 2,655,885 (44%). In the2016", "(44%). In the2016 United States presidential election, however, RepublicanDonald Trumpbroke the Democratic streak in the state, winning by 2,970,733 (48%) votes to 2,926,441 (47%) votes.The state returned to the Democratic column in2020by voting forJoe Bidenover Trump, 3,458,229 (50%) to 3,377,674 (49%). The state holds 19electoralvotes. In recent national elections since 1992, Pennsylvania had leaned Democratic. The state voted for the Democratic ticket for president in every election between 1992 and 2012. During the 2008 election campaign, a recruitment drive saw registered Democrats outnumber registered Republicans by 1.2 million. However, Pennsylvania has a history of electing Republican U.S. senators. From 2009 to 2011, the state was represented by two Democratic senators for the first time since 1947 after Republican SenatorArlen Specterswitched party affiliation. In 2010, Republicans recaptured a U.S. Senate seat and a majority of the state's congressional seats, control of both chambers of the state", "of the state legislature, and the governorship. Democrats won back the governorship, however, four years later in the2014 election. It was the first time since a governor became eligible for reelection that an incumbent governor had been defeated in a reelection bid. Historically, Democratic strength was concentrated in Philadelphia in the southeast, the Pittsburgh, andJohnstownareas in the southwest, andScrantonandWilkes-Barrein the northeast. Republican strength was concentrated in the Philadelphia suburbs and the more rural areas in the state's central, northeastern, and western portions, some of which have long been considered among the nation's most conservative areas. Since 1992, however, the Philadelphia suburbs have swung Democratic; the brand of Republicanism there was traditionally moderate. In the 21st century, however, Pittsburgh suburbs, which historically had been Democratic strongholds, have swung more Republican. Democratic political consultantJames Carvilleonce pejoratively described", "described Pennsylvania as \"Philadelphia in the east, Pittsburgh in the west, and Alabama in the middle\", suggesting that political power in the state was based in its two largest cities, which have been reliably Democratic, offset by the state's large rural power base, which has proven equally reliably Republican. Political analysts and editorials refer to central Pennsylvania as the \"T\" in statewide elections. The state's three valleys (Delaware,Lehigh, andWyomingValleys) andGreater Pittsburghgenerally vote Democratic, while the majority of the counties in the central part of the state vote Republican. As a result, maps showing the results of statewide elections invariably form a shape that resembles a \"T\". Pennsylvania retains thedeath penalty, although there is currently a gubernatorial hold on executions. Federal representation Pennsylvania's twoU.S. senatorsareBob Casey Jr.andJohn Fetterman, both of whom areDemocrats. Casey would seek reelection in 2024 should he seek another term. Fetterman was elected", "was elected in 2022 to succeed retiringRepublicanPat Toomey. Pennsylvania has17 seatsin theU.S. House of Representativesas of 2023. Education Pennsylvania has 500 public school districts, thousands of private schools, publicly funded colleges and universities, and over 100 private institutions of higher education. Primary and secondary education Under state law, school attendance in Pennsylvania is mandatory for children between ages eight and 17, or until graduation from an accredited high school, whichever is earlier, unless students arehomeschooled.As of 2005, 83.8% of Pennsylvania residents age 18 to 24 are high school graduates; Among residents age 25 and over, 86.7% have graduated from high school. The following are the four-year graduation rates for students completing high school in 2016: Among Pennsylvania high school graduates as of 2009, 27.5% of them went on to obtain a bachelor's degree or higher degree.State students consistently do well in standardized testing. In 2007, Pennsylvania ranked", "Pennsylvania ranked 14th in the nation in mathematics, 12th in reading, and 10th in writing for eighth grade students.In 1988, thePennsylvania General Assemblypassed Act 169, which allows parents or guardians to homeschool their children as an alternative to compulsory school attendance. The law specifies varying geographic requirements and responsibilities on the part of parents and school districts. Higher education \"Pennsylvania has the fourth most higher education institutions of any state,\" according toInside Higher Ed, with 250 universities and colleges.The state is ranked 2nd among the nation’s top destinations for freshman out-of-state college students, according toNPR/PBSaffiliateWHYY, citing a study by theAssociation of Independent Colleges and Universities of Pennsylvania(AICUP).And Pennsylvania is 3rd in the nation for the quantity of \"Best Colleges\" according to theWall Street Journal. ThePennsylvania State System of Higher Education(PASSHE), which includes 14 state-owned universities and", "universities and colleges, is Pennsylvania'spublic universitysystem.West Chester Universityis by far the largest of the 14 with nearly 15,000 students. TheCommonwealth System of Higher Educationis the organizing body of Pennsylvania's four state-related schools, which includePennsylvania State University,Lincoln University, theUniversity of Pittsburgh, andTemple University. There are 15 publicly funded two-yearcommunity collegesand technical schools in Pennsylvania that are separate from the PASSHE system, and many private two- and four-year technical schools, colleges, and universities. Carnegie Mellon University, Pennsylvania State University, theUniversity of Pennsylvania, and the University of Pittsburgh are members of theAssociation of American Universities, an invitation-only organization of leading research universities.Lehigh Universityis a private research university located in Bethlehem. The Pennsylvania State University is Pennsylvania'sland-grant university,Sea Grant Collegeand,Space Grant", "Grant College. The University of Pennsylvania, located in Philadelphia, is considered thefirst university in the United Statesand established the country'sfirstmedical school. The University of Pennsylvania, founded inPhiladelphiain 1740 byBenjamin Franklin, is Pennsylvania's onlyIvy Leagueuniversity, and is the geographically most southern of the nation's eight Ivy League universities. TheLake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine(LECOM) is a private graduate school of medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy with a main campus in Erie, a branch campus located inGreensburg, and two additional campuses outside Pennsylvania. With over 2,200 enrolled medical students, the Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine is the largest medical school in the United States.ThePennsylvania Academy of the Fine Artsis the first and oldestart schoolin the United States.Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, now a part ofUniversity of the Sciences in Philadelphia, was the firstpharmacy schoolin the United States. Recreation Pennsylvania", "Pennsylvania is home to the nation's first zoo, thePhiladelphia Zoo.Other long-accreditedAZAzoos include theErie Zooand thePittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium. TheLehigh Valley ZooandZooAmericaare other notable zoos. Pennsylvania is home to some of the most notable museums in the nation, including theAllentown Art MuseuminAllentown,Carnegie MuseumsinPittsburgh, thePhiladelphia Museum of ArtinPhiladelphia, andseveral others. One unique museum is theHoudini Museumin Scranton, the only building in the world devoted to the legendary magician.Pennsylvania is also home to theNational Aviary, located in Pittsburgh. All 121state parksin Pennsylvania feature free admission. Pennsylvania's notable amusement parks includeConneaut Lake Park,Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom,Dutch Wonderland,DelGrosso's Amusement Park,Great Wolf Lodge,Hersheypark,Idlewild Park,Kalahari Resorts Poconos,Kennywood,Knoebels,Lakemont Park,Sandcastle Waterpark,Sesame Place Philadelphia, andWaldameer Park. The largest indoor waterpark resort on theU.S.", "resort on theU.S. East CoastisSplash LagooninErie. The state's notable music festivals includeMusikfest, the nation's largest free music festival held annually each August inBethlehem,thePhiladelphia Folk Festival,Creation Festival, and Purple Door. TheGreat Allentown Fair, held annually at theAllentown Fairgroundssince the 19th century, is one of the nation's longest-running annual fairs. There are nearly one million licensed hunters in Pennsylvania.White-tail deer,black bear,cottontail rabbit,squirrel,turkey, andgrouseare common game species. Pennsylvania is considered one of the finestwild turkeyhunting states in the nation, alongsideTexasandAlabama. Sport hunting in Pennsylvania provides a massive boost for the state's economy. A report from The Center for Rural Pennsylvania, a legislative agency of thePennsylvania General Assembly, reported that hunting, fishing, and furtaking generated a total of $9.6 billion statewide. TheBoone and Crockett Clubreports that five of the ten largestblack bearentries", "bearentries came from the state.The state also has a tied record for the largest hunter shot black bear in theBoone and Crockettrecord books at 733 lb (332 kg) and askullof 23 3/16, tied with a bear shot inCaliforniain 1993.As of 2007, Pennsylvania has the second highest number of Boone and Crockett-recorded record black bears at 183, behindWisconsin's 299. Transportation ThePennsylvania Department of Transportation, abbreviated as PennDOT, is responsible for transport issues in Pennsylvania. Air Pennsylvania has seven major airports:Philadelphia International,Pittsburgh International,Lehigh Valley International,Harrisburg International,Wilkes-Barre/Scranton International,Erie International, andUniversity Park Airport. A total of 134 public-use airports are located in the state. Bus and coach Intercity bus service is provided between cities in Pennsylvania and other major points in the Northeast byBolt Bus,Fullington Trailways,Greyhound Lines,Martz Trailways,Megabus,OurBus,Trans-Bridge Lines, and", "Lines, and variousChinatown buscompanies. In 2018,OurBusbegan offering service fromWest Chester,Malvern,King of Prussia, andFort WashingtontoNew York City. Highways and roads PennDOT owns 39,861 miles (64,150 km) of the 121,770 miles (195,970 km) of roadway in the state, making it the fifth-largest state highway system in the United States.ThePennsylvania Turnpikesystem is 535 miles (861 km) long, with the mainline portion stretching fromOhioto Philadelphia andNew Jersey.It is overseen by thePennsylvania Turnpike Commission. Another major east–west route isInterstate 80, which runs primarily in the northern tier of the state from Ohio to New Jersey at theDelaware Water Gap.Interstate 90travels the relatively short distance between Ohio and New York throughErie County, in the extreme northwestern part of the state. Primary north–south highways areInterstate 79from its terminus in Erie throughPittsburghtoWest Virginia,Interstate 81fromNew York statethroughScranton, Lackawanna", "Lackawanna CountyandHarrisburgtoMarylandandInterstate 476, which begins 7 miles (11 km) north of theDelawareborder, inChester, Delaware Countyand travels 132 miles (212 km) toClarks Summit, where it joins I-81. All but 20 miles (32 km) of I-476 is the Northeast Extension of thePennsylvania Turnpike. The highway south of the Pennsylvania Turnpike is officially called the \"Veterans Memorial Highway\", but is commonly referred to colloquially as the \"Blue Route\". Rail SEPTAis the sixth-largest transit agency in the United States and operates thecommuter,heavyandlight railtransit, andtransit busservice in the Philadelphia metropolitan area.Pittsburgh Regional Transitis the 25th-largest transit agency and provides transit bus and light rail service in and around Pittsburgh. Intercity passenger rail transit is provided byAmtrak, with the majority of traffic occurring on theKeystone Servicein the high-speedKeystone Corridorbetween Harrisburg and Philadelphia's30th Street Stationbefore heading north to New York City,", "to New York City, and theNortheast Regional, which provides regular high-speed service up and down theNortheast Corridor. ThePennsylvanianfollows the same route from New York City to Harrisburg, but extends out to Pittsburgh. TheCapitol Limitedalso passes through Pittsburgh, as well asConnellsville, on its way from Chicago toWashington, D.C.Traveling between Chicago and New York City, theLake Shore Limitedpasses through Erie once in each direction.There are 67short-line, freight railroads operating in Pennsylvania, the highest number in any U.S. state.With more than four millioninter-city railpassengers in 2018, Philadelphia's 30th Street Station is Amtrak's third-busiest train station in the nation afterPenn StationinManhattanandUnion StationinWashington, D.C.,and North America's12th-busiesttrain station overall. Water ThePort of Pittsburghis the second-largestinland portin the United States and the 18th-largest port overall; thePort of Philadelphiais the 24th-largest port in the United", "port in the United States.Pennsylvania's only port on theGreat Lakesis located in Erie. TheAllegheny River Lock and Dam Twois the most-usedlockoperated by theUnited States Army Corps of Engineersof its 255 nationwide.The dam impounds theAllegheny RivernearDowntown Pittsburgh. Culture Food In 2008, author Sharon Hernes Silverman wrote in thePittsburgh Tribune-Reviewthat Pennsylvania was thesnack foodcapital of the world.It leads all other states in the manufacture ofpretzelsandpotato chips. In 1861, as theCivil Warwas beginning,Sturgis Pretzel HouseinLititzwas first to introduce the pretzel to American consumers. Two other Pennsylvania-based companies, Immergut Hand-Rolled Soft Pretzels inIntercourseandSnyder's of HanoverinHanover, are leading national pretzel manufacturers. Two of the nation's three leading potato chip companies are based in Pennsylvania:Utz Brands, which started making chips in Hanover in 1921, andWise Foods, which started making chips inBerwickthe same year; the third,Frito-Layis owned", "owned byPlano, Texas-basedPepsiCo. Additional Pennsylvania-based companies, includingHerr's SnacksinNottingham,Martin's Potato ChipsinThomasville, are popular chip manufacturers. The Hershey CompanyinHersheyis a nearly $9 billion a year company and one of the world's leading manufacturers ofchocolate; the company was founded in Hershey byMilton S. Hersheyin 1894.Gertrude Hawk Chocolatesis headquartered inDunmore. Other notable companies includeJust BorninBethlehem, makers ofHot Tamales,Mike and Ikes, the Easter favorite marshmallowPeeps, andBoyer BrothersofAltoona, which manufacturers Mallo Cups. The pretzel companyAuntie Anne'sbegan as a market-stand inDowningtown, and now has corporate headquarters inLancaster.Traditional Pennsylvania Dutch foods include chicken potpie, ham potpie, schnitz un knepp (dried apples, ham, and dumplings),fasnachts(raised doughnuts), scrapple, pretzels, bologna, chow-chow, andShoofly pie.Martin's Famous Pastry Shoppe, headquartered inChambersburg, Pennsylvania, specializes in", "specializes in potato bread, anothertraditional Pennsylvania Dutch food.D.G. Yuengling & Son, America's oldest brewery, has been brewing beer inPottsvillesince 1829. Among the regional foods associated with Philadelphia arecheesesteaks,hoagies,soft pretzels,Italian water ice,Irish potato candy,scrapple,Tastykake, andstrombolis. In Pittsburgh, tomato ketchup was improved byHenry John Heinzfrom 1876 to the early 20th century. Famous to a lesser extent than Heinz ketchup is the Pittsburgh'sPrimanti Brothers Restaurantsandwiches,pierogies, andcity chicken. In northeastern Pennsylvania, Italian heritage has popularized a variety of pizza styles. Outside ofScranton, inOld Forge, there are dozens of Italian restaurants specializing in pizza made with thick, light crust, and American cheese.New York–style pizzais popular inWilkes-Barre.Eriealso has its share of foods, including Greek sauce andsponge candy.Sauerkrautalong with pork and mashed potatoes is a traditional meal on New Year's Day in Pennsylvania; its", "Pennsylvania; its tradition began with thePennsylvania Dutchwho believe the meal leads to good luck in the new year to come. Sports Professional sports Pennsylvania is home to eight major league professional sports teams: thePhiladelphia PhilliesandPittsburgh PiratesofMajor League Baseball, thePhiladelphia 76ersof theNBA, thePhiladelphia EaglesandPittsburgh Steelersof theNFL, thePhiladelphia FlyersandPittsburgh Penguinsof theNHL, and thePhiladelphia UnionofMajor League Soccer. Among them, these teams have accumulated sevenWorld Serieschampionships (with the Pirates winning five and Phillies winning two), 16National Leaguepennants (with the Pirates winning nine and Phillies winning seven), three pre-Super Bowlera NFL championships (all won by the Eagles), sevenSuper Bowlchampionships (with the Steelers winning six and the Eagles one), two NBA championships (both won by the 76ers), and sevenStanley Cupchampionships (with the Penguins winning five and Flyers winning two). Withfive professional sports teamsand", "sports teamsand some of the most passionate sports fans in the nation,Philadelphiais often described as the “nation's best sports city.” In addition to its two Major League Baseball franchises, Pennsylvania is home to twoTriple-A-level teams, the highest level ofMinor League Baseballplay. TheLehigh Valley IronPigs, affiliated with the Philadelphia Phillies, are based inAllentown, where they play atCoca-Cola Park. TheScranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders, affiliated with theNew York Yankees, are based inMoosic, where they play atPNC Field. Pennsylvania is home to fourDouble-A level baseballteams: theAltoona Curve,Erie SeaWolves,Harrisburg Senators, andReading Fightin Phils. Pennsylvania has twocollegiate summer baseballteams affiliated with theMLB Draft League: theState College SpikesandWilliamsport Crosscutters. In independent baseball, the state has three teams, theLancaster Barnstormers,Washington Wild Things, andYork Revolution. In addition to its two National Hockey League teams, Pennsylvania has", "Pennsylvania has threeAmerican Hockey Leagueice hockeyteams: theHershey Bearsaffiliated with theWashington Capitals, theLehigh Valley Phantomsaffiliated with the Philadelphia Flyers, and theWilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguinsaffiliated with the Pittsburgh Penguins. It also has anECHL-level ice hockey team, theReading Royals, and anArena Football Leagueteam, thePhiladelphia Soul. These Pennsylvania-based developmental-level professional teams have accumulated 12Triple-Aand Double-A baseball league titles (Altoona Curve (1) Reading Fightin Phils (4), and Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Senators (6)), 3ArenaBowlchampionships (Soul), and 11Calder Cups(Bears). In addition to the Philadelphia Union of Major League Soccer, Pennsylvania has twolower levelprofessional soccer teams:Philadelphia Union IIofMLS Next Proand thePittsburgh Riverhounds SCof theUSL Championship. Since 1959, theLittle League World Serieshas been held annually in August inSouth Williamsportnear whereLittle League Baseballwas founded inWilliamsport. In", "inWilliamsport. In professional golf,Arnold Palmer, one of the 20th century's most accomplished professional golfers, comes fromLatrobe, andJim Furyk, a currentPGAplayer grew up near inLancaster. PGA tournaments in Pennsylvania include the 84 Lumber Classic played at Nemacolin Woodlands Resort inFarmingtonand the Northeast Pennsylvania Classic played at Glenmaura National Golf Club in Moosi. Philadelphia is home toLOVE Parkacross fromCity Hall, a popularskateboardlocation that hostedESPN'sX Gamesin 2001 and 2002. Motorsports In motorsports, theMario Andrettidynasty of race drivers hails fromNazarethin theLehigh Valley. Pennsylvania racetracks includeJennerstown SpeedwayinJennerstown,Lake Erie SpeedwayinNorth East,Lernerville SpeedwayinSarver, andPocono RacewayinLong Pond, which is home to twoNASCAR Cup Seriesraces and anIndyCar Seriesrace. The state is also home toMaple Grove Raceway, nearReading, which hosts majorNational Hot Rod Association-sanctioned drag racing events each year. There are also", "There are also twomotocrossrace tracks that host a round of the AMA Toyota Motocross Championships in Pennsylvania.High Point Racewayis located inMount Morris, Pennsylvania, and Steel City is located inDelmont, Pennsylvania. Horse racingtracks in Pennsylvania includeThe MeadowsinNorth Strabane Township,Mohegan Pennsylvaniain Wilkes-Barre,Penn NationalinGrantville,Presque Isle DownsinSummit Township, andParx Racing,Harrah's Philadelphiain Chester, which was the home course ofSmarty Jones, winner of the2004 Kentucky Derbyand2004 Preakness Stakes. Harrah's Philadelphia also hostsharness racingand Presque Isle Downs also hoststhoroughbred racing. College sports Incollege football, three Pennsylvania universities compete inNCAA Division I, the highest level of sanctioned collegiate play in the sport:Penn Statein theBig Ten Conference,Pittin theAtlantic Coast Conference, andTemplein theAmerican Athletic Conference. Over their respective college football histories, Penn State claims twonational championships(1982", "championships(1982 and 1986) and seven undefeated seasons (1887, 1912, 1968, 1969, 1973, 1986, and 1994) and Pitt has won nine national championships (1915, 1916, 1918, 1929, 1931, 1934, 1936, 1937, and 1976) and had eight undefeated seasons (1904, 1910, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1920, 1937, and 1976).Penn State plays its home games atBeaver Stadium, a 106,572-capacity stadium that is thesecond-largest stadium in the nation; the team is coached byJames Franklin. Pitt plays its home games atAcrisure Stadium, a 68,400-capacity stadium it shares with thePittsburgh Steelers; the team is coached byPat Narduzzi. Over their respective histories, four additional Pennsylvania universities and colleges have won national college football championships:LafayetteinEaston(1896),VillanovainVillanova(2009),Pennin Philadelphia (1895, 1897, 1904, and 1908),andWashington & JeffersoninWashington(1921). Incollege basketball, five Philadelphia andPhiladelphia-areauniversities, collectively known as theBig Five, have a rich tradition in", "a rich tradition in NCAA Division I basketball. National titles in college basketball have been won byLa Salle(1954),Temple(1938),Penn(1920 and 1921),Pitt(1928 and 1930), andVillanova(1985, 2016, and 2018). Pennsylvania has several universities and colleges known as national leaders incollege wrestling.Penn State, coached byCael Sanderson, has won tenNCAA Division I Wrestling Championshipsin its history, second most among all universities and colleges afterOklahoma State.LehighinBethlehemhas had 28 NCAA Division I individual champions over its history. Nicknames Since 1802, Pennsylvania has been known as theKeystone State, which remains the state's most popular and widely-used nickname.The nickname \"Keystone State\" originates with the agricultural and architectural term \"keystone\", and is based on the central role that Pennsylvania played geographically and functionally among the originalThirteen Coloniesfrom which the nation was established, the important founding documents, including theDeclaration of", "theDeclaration of IndependenceandU.S. Constitution, that were signed and ratified in Pennsylvania, and the early central role that Pennsylvania played in the nation's early manufacturing and agricultural economic development. Less commonly, Pennsylvania is sometimes referred to asthe Coal State,the Oil State, andthe Steel State, each developed in recognition of the important role these respective industries played in the state in the 19th and 20th centuries.The State of Independenceappears on several current day road signs entering Pennsylvania from bordering states. Pennsylvania residents and those of surrounding states commonly refer to Pennsylvania by the state's abbreviation,PA. While it is no longer in common use, Pennsylvania was historically sometimes referred to by the nicknameQuaker Stateduring thecolonial erabased on the influential role thatWilliam Pennand otherQuakersplayed in establishing thefirst frame of governmentconstitution for the Province of Pennsylvania that", "Pennsylvania that guaranteedlibertyofconscience, which was a reflection of Penn's knowledge of the hostility Quakers confronted when they opposed religious rituals, taking oaths, violence, war, and military service, and what they viewed as ostentatiousfrippery. Notable people Sister regions See also Notes References Citations Sources Web sources Books External links 41°N78°W / 41°N 78°W /41; -78 (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania)", "Robert D. Heaton Robert Douglas Heaton(July 1, 1873 – June 11, 1933) was20th CenturyAmerican businessman and politician who served two terms as aRepublicanmember of theU.S. House of RepresentativesfromPennsylvaniafrom 1915 to 1919. Biography Robert D. Heaton was born in Raven Run,Pennsylvania. He moved toAshland, Pennsylvania, with his parents in 1886. He attended theCanandaigua AcademyinCanandaigua, New York, theNew York Military AcademyatCornwall, New York, and theUniversity of PennsylvaniaatPhiladelphia. He is identified with many business enterprises of the State and county. Congress Heaton was an unsuccessful candidate for election in1910, and was elected as a Republican to theSixty-fourthandSixty-fifthCongresses. He did not seek renomination in1918, having become a candidate for thePennsylvania State Senate. Later activities He was a member of the State Senate from 1919 to 1932. He resumed his former business activities, and served as a member of the board of trustees of the Ashland State Hospital.", "State Hospital. Death and burial He died inAshland, Pennsylvania, aged 59, and is interred in the family cemetery inJim Thorpe, Pennsylvania. Sources This article about a member of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]
What is the difference between the number of years served in the seventh-ratified US state's House of Delegates between that state's senator elected in 2007 and his uncle?
The seventh-ratified US state is Maryland. The senator of Maryland elected in 2007 is Ben Cardin. Ben Cardin served 20 years (1967 to 1987) and his uncle, Maurice Cardin, served 15 years (1951 to 1966) in the Maryland House of Delegates. 20 - 15 = 5 years difference, with Ben serving 5 more years.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Maryland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Cardin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Cardin
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Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Maryland', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Cardin', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Cardin']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Maryland", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Cardin", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Cardin" ]
[ "List of states and territories of the United States TheUnited States of Americais afederal republicconsisting of 50states, afederal district(Washington, D.C., thecapital cityof the United States), five majorterritories, and variousminor islands.Both the states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions.TheTenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionallows states to exercise all powers of government not delegated to the federal government. Each state has its ownconstitutionand government, and all states and their residents are represented in the federalCongress, abicamerallegislature consisting of theSenateand theHouse of Representatives. Each state elects two senators, while representatives aredistributedamong the states inproportionto the most recentconstitutionallymandated decennialcensus.Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in theElectoral College, the body that elects thepresident of the United States, equal to the total of representatives and senators in Congress from that state.The federal district does not have representatives in the Senate, but has a non-votingdelegatein the House, and it is also entitled to electors in the Electoral College. Congress canadmitmore states, but it cannot create a new state from territory of an existing state or merge two or more states into one without the consent of all states involved, and each new state is admitted on anequal footingwith the existing states. The United States has control over fourteen territories. Five of them (American Samoa,Guam, theNorthern Mariana Islands,Puerto Rico, and theUnited States Virgin Islands) have a permanent, nonmilitary population, while nine of them (the United States Minor Outlying Islands) do not. With the exception ofNavassa Island, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, which are located in theCaribbean, all territories are located in thePacific Ocean. One territory,Palmyra Atoll, is considered to beincorporated, meaning the full body of the Constitution has been applied to it; the other territories areunincorporated, meaning the Constitution does not fully apply to them. Ten territories (the Minor Outlying Islands and American Samoa) are considered to beunorganized, meaning they have not had anorganic actenacted by Congress; the four other territories areorganized, meaning an organic act has been enacted by Congress. The five inhabited territories each have limited autonomy in addition to having territorial legislatures and governors, but residents cannot vote in federal elections, although all are represented by non-voting delegates in the House. The largest state by population isCalifornia, with a population of 39,538,223 people, while the smallest isWyoming, with a population of 576,851 people; the federal district has a larger population (689,545) than both Wyoming andVermont. The largest state by area isAlaska, encompassing 665,384 square miles (1,723,340 km2), while the smallest isRhode Island, encompassing 1,545 square miles (4,000 km2). The most recent states to be admitted, Alaska andHawaii, were admitted in 1959. The largest territory by population is Puerto Rico, with a population of 3,285,874 people (larger than 21 states), while the smallest is the Northern Mariana Islands, with a population of 47,329 people. Puerto Rico is the largest territory by area, encompassing 5,325 square miles (13,790 km2); the smallest territory,Kingman Reef, encompasses only 0.005 square miles (0.013 km2). States Federal district Territories Inhabited territories Uninhabited territories Disputed territories See also Explanatory notes References External links", "List of United States senators from Maryland This is a list ofUnited States senatorsfromMaryland, which ratified theUnited States ConstitutionApril 28, 1788, becoming the seventh state to do so.To provide for continuity of government, the framers divided senators into staggered classes that serve six-year terms, and Maryland's senators are in the first and third classes.Before the passage of theSeventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1913, which allowed for direct election of senators, Maryland's senators were chosen by theMaryland General Assembly, which ratified the amendment on April 1, 2010. Until the assembly appointedGeorge L. WellingtonofCumberlandin 1897, senators in class 3 were chosen from theEastern Shorewhile senators in class 1 were chosen from the remainder of the state.Barbara Mikulskihas been Maryland's longest-serving senator (1987–2017). List of senators See also References", "Ben Cardin Benjamin Louis Cardin(born October 5, 1943) is an American lawyer and politician serving as theseniorUnited States senatorfromMaryland, a seat he has held since 2007. A member of theDemocratic Party, he was theU.S. representativeforMaryland's 3rd congressional districtfrom 1987 to 2007. Cardin served in theMaryland House of Delegatesfrom 1967 to 1987 and asits speakerfrom 1979 to 1987. Cardin has never lost an election in his entire political career. Cardin was elected as U.S. senator to succeedPaul Sarbanesin2006, defeatingRepublicanMichael Steele, thelieutenant governor of Maryland, by a margin of 54% to 44%. He was reelected in2012taking 56% of the vote.He became Maryland's senior U.S. senator on January 3, 2017, uponBarbara Mikulski's retirement. Cardin won reelection to a third term in2018, taking 65% of the vote. Cardin will retire rather than run for reelection in 2024. Early life and career Benjamin Louis Cardin was born inBaltimore,Maryland.The family name was originally \"Kardonsky\", before it was changed to \"Cardin\". Cardin's grandparents wereRussian Jewish immigrants. His maternal grandfather, Benjamin Green, operated a neighborhoodgrocery storethat later turned into awholesalefood distributioncompany.His mother Dora was a schoolteacher and his father,Meyer Cardin, served in theMaryland House of Delegates(1935–1937) and later sat on the Baltimore City Supreme Bench (1961–1977). Cardin and his family attended theModern OrthodoxBeth Tfiloh Congregationnear their home, with which the family had been affiliated for three generations. Cardin attendedBaltimore City College, graduating in 1961. In 1964, he earned aBachelor of Arts degreecum laudefrom theUniversity of Pittsburgh,where he was a member of thePi Lambda Phifraternity. He earned aJuris Doctorfrom theUniversity of Maryland School of Lawin 1967, graduating first in his class.Cardin was admitted to theMaryland Barthat same year, and joined the private practice of Rosen and Esterson until 1978. Early political career Maryland House of Delegates While still in law school, Cardin was elected to theMaryland House of Delegatesin November 1966.He held the seat once held by his uncle, Maurice Cardin, who had decided to not run for re-election so that his nephew could instead pursue the seat. He waschairmanof theWays & Means Committeefrom 1974 to 1979, then served as the 103rdSpeaker of the Houseuntil he left office.At age 35, he was the youngest Speaker in Maryland history at the time.As Speaker, he was involved with reform efforts involving Maryland's property tax system, school financing formula, and ethical standards for elected officials. U.S. House of Representatives In 1986, with CongresswomanBarbara Mikulskimounting what would be a successful bid for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by retiring SenatorCharles Mathias, Cardin ran for Mikulski's seat representing the3rd congressional district, which covered a large slice of inner Baltimore, as well as several close-in suburbs. Cardin won the Democratic nomination with 82 percent of the vote—the real contest in this heavily Democratic district. He won the general election with 79 percent of the vote against aperennial candidate,RepublicanRoss Z. Pierpont. Cardin served as one of theHouse impeachment managersthat successfully prosecuted the case in the 1989impeachment trialof JudgeWalter Nixon. Cardin was reelected nine times, rarely facing serious opposition and even running unopposed in 1992. In the 2000 round ofredistricting, his district was redrawn to add significant portions ofAnne Arundel County, including the state capital ofAnnapolis. His last two opponents hailed from Anne Arundel and nearly carried the district's portion of that county. In the House, Cardin was involved with fiscal issues, pension reform, and health care. His legislation to increase the amount individuals can store in their401kplans andIRAswas passed in 2001. His bill to expandMedicareto include preventive benefits such ascolorectal,prostate,mammogram, andosteoporosisscreening was also enacted. He also authored legislation to provide a Medicare prescription drug benefit for chronic illnesses; fund graduate medical education; and guarantee coverage for emergency services. Cardin has also advocated, via proposed legislation,welfarereform. His bill to increase education and support services forfosterchildren between ages 18 and 21 was signed into law in 1999.He authored bills to expand child support, improve thewelfare-to-workprogram, and increase the child care tax credit. In 1998, Cardin was appointed chairman of the Special Study Commission on Maryland Public Ethics Law by theMaryland General Assembly. In 1997, he co-chaired the Bipartisan Ethics Task Force in an effort to reform ethics procedures in the House of Representatives. He also held leadership positions on the Organization, Study and Review Committee and theSteering Committeeof theHouse Democratic Caucus, and served as Senior DemocraticWhip. Cardin has been commended for his work with fiscal policy. He has been honored byWorthmagazine and byTreasury and Risk Managementfor his work protectingretirement plansand government-supported medical care for the elderly. He has also received scores of 100 percent from theLeague of Conservation Votersand theNAACP, indicating stances that are in favor of environmental protection andcivil rights. Cardin was also one of 133 members of Congress to vote against the 2002Iraq Resolution. House committee assignments As of May 2006, Cardin served on the followingHouse committees: U.S. Senate Elections 2006 On April 26, 2005, Cardin announced that he would seek theU.S. Senateseat of long-standing senatorPaul Sarbanes(D-MD), following the announcement by Sarbanes that he would not be running for re-election in 2006. On September 12, 2006, Cardin faced a challenging primary battle with other Maryland Democrats, includingAllan Lichtman,Josh Rales,Dennis F. Rasmussen, and his former House colleagueKweisi Mfume. Cardin won, however, with 44 percent of the vote, compared to 40 percent for Mfume, five percent for Rales, and two percent for Rasmussen. Cardin won election on November 7, 2006, defeating Republican challengerMichael Steele54 percent to 44 percent.Cardin became the third consecutive Representative from Maryland's 3rd congressional district to be elected senator (following Sarbanes and Mikulski).John Sarbanes, Paul's son, succeeded Cardin in the 3rd district. 2012 Cardin ran for re-election to a second term in 2012. He turned back a primary challenge from State SenatorC. Anthony Muse, defeating him 74% to 16%, with seven other candidates taking the remaining 10%. In the general election, he faced RepublicanDan Bongino, a formerUnited States Secret Serviceagent, IndependentRob Sobhani, an economist and businessman, and LibertarianImad-ad-Dean Ahmad, President of theMinaret of Freedom Institute. Cardin easily won the election, taking 56% of the vote to Bongino's 26.3%, Sobhani's 16.4% and Ahmad's 1%. 2018 Cardin was re-elected for a third term in 2018. 2024 On May 1, 2023, Cardin announced that he would retire and not seek re-election in2024. Tenure Cardin was participating in the certification of the2021 United States Electoral College vote countwhen theJanuary 6 United States Capitol attackhappened. Cardin was on the Senate chamber floor when the rioters breached the Capitol. He was \"ushered quickly — and I do mean quickly — away from the Capitol\" after Vice PresidentMike Pencewas removed from the chambers.During the attack, while Cardin hid with other senators in a safe location, he tweeted, blaming PresidentDonald Trumpfor encouraging the rioters. He called for Trump to stop the protestors so the event would end \"peacefully.\"Cardin also compared the police involvement during the attack to that seen duringBlack Lives Matterprotests, calling it a \"stark contrast.\"After the Capitol was secure, Cardin joined Congress to certify the count. After, he said that Trump should be held accountable for the insurrection and called for Republican leaders to tell Trump that he needs to resign.Two days later, on January 8, Cardin called for the invocation of theTwenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitutionor impeachment to remove Trump. In 2024, Cardin advocated for the federal government to fund the reconstruction of theFrancis Scott Key BridgeinBaltimoreafter it collapsed when a ship crashed into it. Senate committee assignments Source: Cardin was selected by Majority LeaderChuck Schumerto fill in forDianne Feinsteinon the Judiciary Committee until she returned. In 2015, Cardin became theranking Democratic memberon theSenate Foreign Relations Committeeafter the departure ofSenator Robert Menendezas ranking Democrat and chairman.Two weeks after Menendez departure, Cardin was credited with facilitating achievement of a unanimous committee vote in favor of themarkupfor the bill on the USA's involvement in thenegotiationswithIranon nuclear technology.Senator Menendez returned to chair the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 2021. Caucus membership Legislation sponsored The following is an incomplete list of legislation that Cardin has sponsored: International experience Cardin has been a Commissioner on theCommission on Security and Cooperation in Europe(the U.S. Helsinki Commission) since 1993, serving as Ranking Member from 2003 to 2006.He subsequently served two terms as co-chair of the commission, from 2007 to 2008, and 2011 to 2012; and also two terms as chair, from 2009 to 2010, and 2013 to 2014.From 2015 to 2016 he was again ranking member.In 2006 he was elected vice president of theOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly, and served through 2014. Honors Cardin holds honorary degrees from several institutions, including theUniversity of Baltimore School of Law(1990);University of Maryland, Baltimore(1993);Baltimore Hebrew University(1994);Goucher College(1996); and Villa Julie College (2007). As of 2016Cardin sits on the board of visitors of theUniversity of Maryland School of Law, his law school alma mater. From 1988 to 1995, he chaired the Maryland Legal Services Corp. Through much of his political career, he has continued to work with law policy. From 1988 to 1999, Cardin served on theSt. Mary's College of Marylandboard of trustees, and in 2002, he was appointed to the St. Mary's Advisory Board for the Study of Democracy. In 1999, he was appointed to theGoucher Collegeboard of trustees. Cardin has been awarded the following foreign honor: Political positions On a list byCongressional Quarterlyof the members of Congress who were most supportive of PresidentBarack Obama's legislative agenda in 2009, Cardin was tied for fifth most supportive senator with five other senators.In 2013,National Journalrated him as tied with six other Democratic senators for fifth most liberal senator.TheAmerican Conservative Uniongave him a 4% lifetime conservative rating in 2020. Agriculture In June 2019, Cardin and eighteen other Democratic senators sent a letter to USDA Inspector General (IG) Phyllis K. Fong with the request that the IG investigate USDA instances of retaliation and political decision-making and asserted that not conducting an investigation would mean these \"actions could be perceived as a part of this administration's broader pattern of not only discounting the value of federal employees, but suppressing, undermining, discounting, and wholesale ignoring scientific data produced by their own qualified scientists.\" Death penalty Senator Cardin is a supporter of the death penalty but says it should only be applied to the \"worst of the worst\". Economy In March 2019, Cardin was one of six senators to sign a letter to theFederal Trade Commissionrequesting it \"use its rulemaking authority, along with other tools, in order to combat the scourge of non-compete clauses rigging our economy against workers\" and espousing the view that such provisions \"harm employees by limiting their ability to find alternate work, which leaves them with little leverage to bargain for better wages or working conditions with their immediate employer.\" The senators furthered that the FTC had the responsibility of protecting both consumers and workers and needed to \"act decisively\" to address their concerns over \"serious anti-competitive harms from the proliferation of non-competes in the economy.\" Education In 2007, Cardin supported theUnited States Public Service AcademyAct. The Act would serve to create \"an undergraduate institution devoted to developing civilian leaders.\" Like the Military Academies, this would give students 4 years of tuition-free education in exchange for 5 years of public service upon graduation. Environment Liberal environmentalists criticized Cardin for compromising too much while working with conservative James Inhofe on an amendment to Cardin's Chesapeake Bay legislation.Josh Saks, senior legislative representative for water resources campaigns with the National Wildlife Federation, praised Cardin as \"the lead voice for clean water and the restoration of America's great waters in Congress.\" In November 2018, Cardin was one of twenty-five Democratic senators to cosponsor a resolution specifying key findings of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change report and National Climate Assessment. The resolution affirmed the senators' acceptance of the findings and their support for bold action towardaddressing climate change. In March 2019, Cardin was one of eleven senators to sponsor the Climate Security Act of 2019, legislation forming a new group within the State Department that would have the responsibility for developing strategies to integrate climate science and data into operations of national security as well as restoring the post of special envoy for the Arctic, which had been dismantled by President Trump in 2017. The proposed envoy would advise the president and the administration on the potential effects of climate on national security and be responsible for facilitating all interagency communication between federal science and security agencies. Elections In October 2018, Cardin cosponsored, together withChris Van HollenandSusan Collins, a bipartisan bill that if passed would block \"any persons from foreign adversaries from owning or having control over vendors administering U.S. elections.\" Protect Our Elections Act would make companies involved in administering elections reveal foreign owners, and informing local, state and federal authorities if said ownership changes. Companies failing to comply would face fines of $100,000. Equal Rights Amendment Cardin has sponsored legislation in support of theEqual Rights Amendment. Gun control Cardin has an \"F\" rating from theNRA Political Victory Fund. In 2013, he co-sponsored the Large Capacity Ammunition Feeding Device Act in an effort to ban large-capacity ammunition. In response to theOrlando nightclub shooting, Cardin questioned the legality of military style assault weapons stating that \"in my observations in Maryland, I don't know too many people who need to have that type of weapon in order to do hunting in my state or to keep themselves safe.\" Cardin opposed the 2016 sale of approximately 26,000 assault rifles to the national police of the Philippines. His opposition led to the U.S. State Department halting the sale. In the wake of the2017 Las Vegas shooting, Cardin stated thatthoughts and prayerswere not going to save more people from dying in mass shootings.He also made a call for action to change gun laws, stating onTwitterthat \"Automatic weapons aren't needed to hunt deer or ducks; they're meant to kill people.\"In response to the shooting, Cardin sponsoredDianne Feinstein's proposal to banbump stocks, which were used by the shooter to kill 58 individuals and injure over 500. Journalism In July 2019, Cardin andRob Portmanintroduced the Fallen Journalists Memorial Act, a bill that would create a new memorial that would be privately funded and constructed on federal lands within Washington, D.C. in order to honor journalists, photographers, and broadcasters that have died in the line of duty. Healthcare In the 111th Congress, Cardin helped secure dental benefits in the State Children's Health Insurance Plan. In August 2019, Cardin was one of nineteen senators to sign a letter toUnited States Secretary of the TreasurySteve MnuchinandUnited States Secretary of Health and Human ServicesAlex Azarrequesting data from the Trump administration in order to aid in the comprehension of states and Congress on potential consequences in the event that the Texas v. United States Affordable Care Act (ACA) lawsuit prevailed in courts, citing that an overhaul of the present health care system would form \"an enormous hole in the pocketbooks of the people we serve as well as wreck state budgets\". In October 2019, Cardin was one of twenty-seven senators to sign a letter to Senate Majority LeaderMitch McConnelland Senate Minority LeaderChuck Schumeradvocating for the passage of the Community Health Investment, Modernization, and Excellence (CHIME) Act, which was set to expire the following month. The senators warned that if the funding for the Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was allowed to expire, it \"would cause an estimated 2,400 site closures, 47,000 lost jobs, and threaten the health care of approximately 9 million Americans.\" Housing In April 2019, Cardin was one of forty-one senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising theUnited States Department of Housing and Urban Development'sSection 4 Capacity Building program as authorizing \"HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country\" and expressing disappointment that President Trump's budget \"has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development.\" The senators wrote of their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020. International policy On October 31, 2011, Cardin endorsed the proposal for theUnited Nations Parliamentary Assembly(UNPA). He is one of only six persons who served as members of the United States Congress ever to do so and is the only one who did so while in office. Cardin has often supported positions that aim to strengthen America's relationship with Israel.In 2017, Cardin sponsored a bill, the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (S. 720), that would penalize commercial businesses that wanted to aid International NGOs and/or organizations in boycotting Israel.Cardin has argued that Israel's human rights record should not be considered in regard to sending U.S. military aid to Israel. He supported civilian nuclear cooperation with India. Weeks after the2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaignandUmbrella Movementbroke out which demandsgenuine universal suffrage among other goals, Cardin among bipartisan colleagues joined U.S. senatorSherrod Brownand Rep.Chris Smith's effort to introduceHong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Actwhich would update theUnited States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992and U.S. commitment toHong Kong's freedom and democracy. \"Civil societyanddemocratic freedomsare under attack around the world andHong Kong is on the front lines. The United States has a responsibility to protecthuman rightsand defend againstthese threats,\" Cardin, chairman of theSenate Foreign Relations East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommitteesaid. In July 2017, Cardin voted in favor of theCountering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Actthat placedsanctions on Irantogether withRussiaandNorth Korea.On October 11, 2017, in a joint statement, Cardin and SenatorJohn McCainquestioned the Trump administration's commitment to the sanctions bill. In October 2017, Cardin condemned thegenocideof theRohingya Muslimminority inMyanmarand called for a stronger response to the crisis. In August 2018, Cardin and 16 other lawmakers urged the Trump administration to impose sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Act against Chinese officials who are responsible forhuman rights abusesagainst theUyghurMuslimminority in western China'sXinjiangregion.They wrote: \"The detention of as many as a million or more Uyghurs and other predominantly Muslim ethnic minorities in 'political reeducation' centers or camps requires a tough, targeted, and global response.\" Cardin condemned PresidentErdoğan's wide-rangingcrackdown on dissentfollowing a failed July 2016 coup in America's NATO allyTurkey. In April 2019, Cardin was one of thirty-four senators to sign a letter to President Trump encouraging him \"to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America\", asserting that Trump had \"consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance\" since becoming president and that he was \"personally undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity\" through preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S., citing the funding's helping to improve conditions in those countries. In 2023 Senator Cardin became the chair of theUnited States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.According toJewish Insider, Cardin's office communicated to some activists that it does not have a plan to move theMahsa Amini Human rights and Security Accountability Act (MAHSA Act)forward through the committee, likely killing the bipartisan Iran sanctions bill. Online privacy Cardin supportsNet Neutrality, as shown by his vote during the109th Congressin favor of the Markey Amendment to H.R. 5252 which would add Net Neutrality provisions to the federal telecommunications code.Cardin also supportsCombating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act, which gives DOJ the tools to target those site owners who are engaged in illegal digital piracy. Taxes Cardin is opposed to eliminating the tax deduction for charitable donations and supports raising taxes on higher-income earners.During a December 20, 2012, interview withMaria BartiromoonCNBC, Cardin stated, \"We're now a few days away from Christmas. The easiest way to get the revenues is to get the rates from the higher income, uh, taxpayers.\"In response to the question, \"Are you prepared to vote to limit the loophole of charitable deductions?\" Cardin responded, \"No.\" Cardin has, on multiple occasions, introduced a bill to adopt a \"Progressive Consumption Tax\", which is a variation of Michael J. Graetz'sCompetitive Tax Plan.This tax reform would abolish income tax for a large portion of American taxpayers, replacing the lost revenue with a 10%value-added tax. As of 2022, the Progressive Consumption Tax has not made it out of committee. Cardin spoke out after thePandora Paperswere revealed in 2021. Cardin said, \"The Pandora Papers are a wake-up call to all who care about the future of democracy. Thirty years after the end of the Cold War, it is time for democracies to band together and demand an end to the unprecedented corruption that has come to be the defining feature of the global order. We must purge the dirty money from our systems and deny kleptocrats safe haven.\" Whistleblowers In November 2011, Cardin's intended update of the 1917 Espionage Act upset some public disclosure advocates. They complained that it \"would make it harder for federal employees to expose government fraud and abuse.\" Israel Cardin is a co-sponsor of a Senate resolution expressing objection to theUN Security Council Resolution 2334, which condemnedIsraeli settlement buildingin the occupiedPalestinian territoriesas a violation of international law. Cardin said that \"Congress will take action against efforts at the UN, or beyond, that use Resolution 2334 to target Israel.\" Cardin supported PresidentDonald Trump's decision torecognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital. He stated: \"Jerusalem is the capital of the State of Israel and the location of the US Embassy should reflect this fact.\" Cardin and SenatorRob Portman(R-Ohio) proposed theIsrael Anti-Boycott Actin late 2018 which would make it illegal for companies to engage in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in theIsraeli-occupied territories.The bill would expand theExport Administration Act(EAA) to foreign boycotts imposed by international organizations like theEuropean Union,Arab Leagueand theUnited Nations. Cardin and Portman were strongly in promotion of the bill, and worked to integrate it into larger spending legislation to be signed by then-President Trump. In January 2024, Cardin rejectedBernie Sanders' resolution that would have required the State Department to report to Congress on any evidence ofhuman rights violationsby Israel inGaza.In May 2024, Cardin stated that \"Israel has not violated International Humanitarian Law\" and \"military assistance to support Israel's security remains in the U.S. interest and should continue.\" Personal life Cardin married high school sweetheart Myrna Edelman, a teacher,on November 24, 1964. They have a daughter, Deborah. Their son Michael (born 1967 or 1968) died ofsuicideon March 24, 1998,at age 30. In 2002, Cardin's 32-year-old nephew,Jon S. Cardin, was elected as a Delegate representing the 11th district of western Baltimore County. With the 11th legislative district overlapping the 3rd congressional district, there were two Cardins on the ticket in this area in 2002. Present at Jon's swearing in was the oldest living former member of the House of Delegates at 95 years of age, Meyer Cardin, Jon's grandfather and Ben's father. Also in attendance was Cardin, who remarked, \"The next generation's taking over.\" Volunteer service For many years Cardin served on the board of trustees forSt. Mary's College of Maryland. He was very active on the board and also played key roles in the establishment of theCenter for the Study of Democracyat the college, where he also served on the advisory board. Electoral history Notes and references Notes References See also Further reading External links", "Maurice Cardin Maurice Cardin(July 19, 1909 – March 23, 2009) was an American politician who served in theMaryland House of DelegatesfromBaltimoreCity's 5th district from 1951 to 1966.His nephew is current MarylandU.S. SenatorBen Cardin, who took over his seat in the Maryland House of Delegates when he retired from politics. He died of heart failure on March 23, 2009, inLake Worth Beach, Floridaat age 99. References This article about a Maryland politician is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]
[ "List of states and territories of the United States TheUnited States of Americais afederal republicconsisting of 50states, afederal district(Washington, D.C., thecapital cityof the United States), five majorterritories, and variousminor islands.Both the states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions.TheTenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionallows states to exercise all powers of government not delegated to the federal government. Each state has its ownconstitutionand government, and all states and their residents are represented in the federalCongress, abicamerallegislature consisting of theSenateand theHouse of Representatives. Each state elects two senators, while representatives aredistributedamong the states inproportionto the most recentconstitutionallymandated decennialcensus.Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in theElectoral College, the body that elects thepresident of the United States, equal to the total of representatives", "of representatives and senators in Congress from that state.The federal district does not have representatives in the Senate, but has a non-votingdelegatein the House, and it is also entitled to electors in the Electoral College. Congress canadmitmore states, but it cannot create a new state from territory of an existing state or merge two or more states into one without the consent of all states involved, and each new state is admitted on anequal footingwith the existing states. The United States has control over fourteen territories. Five of them (American Samoa,Guam, theNorthern Mariana Islands,Puerto Rico, and theUnited States Virgin Islands) have a permanent, nonmilitary population, while nine of them (the United States Minor Outlying Islands) do not. With the exception ofNavassa Island, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, which are located in theCaribbean, all territories are located in thePacific Ocean. One territory,Palmyra Atoll, is considered to beincorporated, meaning the full body of the", "full body of the Constitution has been applied to it; the other territories areunincorporated, meaning the Constitution does not fully apply to them. Ten territories (the Minor Outlying Islands and American Samoa) are considered to beunorganized, meaning they have not had anorganic actenacted by Congress; the four other territories areorganized, meaning an organic act has been enacted by Congress. The five inhabited territories each have limited autonomy in addition to having territorial legislatures and governors, but residents cannot vote in federal elections, although all are represented by non-voting delegates in the House. The largest state by population isCalifornia, with a population of 39,538,223 people, while the smallest isWyoming, with a population of 576,851 people; the federal district has a larger population (689,545) than both Wyoming andVermont. The largest state by area isAlaska, encompassing 665,384 square miles (1,723,340 km2), while the smallest isRhode Island, encompassing 1,545 square", "1,545 square miles (4,000 km2). The most recent states to be admitted, Alaska andHawaii, were admitted in 1959. The largest territory by population is Puerto Rico, with a population of 3,285,874 people (larger than 21 states), while the smallest is the Northern Mariana Islands, with a population of 47,329 people. Puerto Rico is the largest territory by area, encompassing 5,325 square miles (13,790 km2); the smallest territory,Kingman Reef, encompasses only 0.005 square miles (0.013 km2). States Federal district Territories Inhabited territories Uninhabited territories Disputed territories See also Explanatory notes References External links", "List of United States senators from Maryland This is a list ofUnited States senatorsfromMaryland, which ratified theUnited States ConstitutionApril 28, 1788, becoming the seventh state to do so.To provide for continuity of government, the framers divided senators into staggered classes that serve six-year terms, and Maryland's senators are in the first and third classes.Before the passage of theSeventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1913, which allowed for direct election of senators, Maryland's senators were chosen by theMaryland General Assembly, which ratified the amendment on April 1, 2010. Until the assembly appointedGeorge L. WellingtonofCumberlandin 1897, senators in class 3 were chosen from theEastern Shorewhile senators in class 1 were chosen from the remainder of the state.Barbara Mikulskihas been Maryland's longest-serving senator (1987–2017). List of senators See also References", "Ben Cardin Benjamin Louis Cardin(born October 5, 1943) is an American lawyer and politician serving as theseniorUnited States senatorfromMaryland, a seat he has held since 2007. A member of theDemocratic Party, he was theU.S. representativeforMaryland's 3rd congressional districtfrom 1987 to 2007. Cardin served in theMaryland House of Delegatesfrom 1967 to 1987 and asits speakerfrom 1979 to 1987. Cardin has never lost an election in his entire political career. Cardin was elected as U.S. senator to succeedPaul Sarbanesin2006, defeatingRepublicanMichael Steele, thelieutenant governor of Maryland, by a margin of 54% to 44%. He was reelected in2012taking 56% of the vote.He became Maryland's senior U.S. senator on January 3, 2017, uponBarbara Mikulski's retirement. Cardin won reelection to a third term in2018, taking 65% of the vote. Cardin will retire rather than run for reelection in 2024. Early life and career Benjamin Louis Cardin was born inBaltimore,Maryland.The family name was originally \"Kardonsky\",", "\"Kardonsky\", before it was changed to \"Cardin\". Cardin's grandparents wereRussian Jewish immigrants. His maternal grandfather, Benjamin Green, operated a neighborhoodgrocery storethat later turned into awholesalefood distributioncompany.His mother Dora was a schoolteacher and his father,Meyer Cardin, served in theMaryland House of Delegates(1935–1937) and later sat on the Baltimore City Supreme Bench (1961–1977). Cardin and his family attended theModern OrthodoxBeth Tfiloh Congregationnear their home, with which the family had been affiliated for three generations. Cardin attendedBaltimore City College, graduating in 1961. In 1964, he earned aBachelor of Arts degreecum laudefrom theUniversity of Pittsburgh,where he was a member of thePi Lambda Phifraternity. He earned aJuris Doctorfrom theUniversity of Maryland School of Lawin 1967, graduating first in his class.Cardin was admitted to theMaryland Barthat same year, and joined the private practice of Rosen and Esterson until 1978. Early political career", "political career Maryland House of Delegates While still in law school, Cardin was elected to theMaryland House of Delegatesin November 1966.He held the seat once held by his uncle, Maurice Cardin, who had decided to not run for re-election so that his nephew could instead pursue the seat. He waschairmanof theWays & Means Committeefrom 1974 to 1979, then served as the 103rdSpeaker of the Houseuntil he left office.At age 35, he was the youngest Speaker in Maryland history at the time.As Speaker, he was involved with reform efforts involving Maryland's property tax system, school financing formula, and ethical standards for elected officials. U.S. House of Representatives In 1986, with CongresswomanBarbara Mikulskimounting what would be a successful bid for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by retiring SenatorCharles Mathias, Cardin ran for Mikulski's seat representing the3rd congressional district, which covered a large slice of inner Baltimore, as well as several close-in suburbs. Cardin won the Democratic", "won the Democratic nomination with 82 percent of the vote—the real contest in this heavily Democratic district. He won the general election with 79 percent of the vote against aperennial candidate,RepublicanRoss Z. Pierpont. Cardin served as one of theHouse impeachment managersthat successfully prosecuted the case in the 1989impeachment trialof JudgeWalter Nixon. Cardin was reelected nine times, rarely facing serious opposition and even running unopposed in 1992. In the 2000 round ofredistricting, his district was redrawn to add significant portions ofAnne Arundel County, including the state capital ofAnnapolis. His last two opponents hailed from Anne Arundel and nearly carried the district's portion of that county. In the House, Cardin was involved with fiscal issues, pension reform, and health care. His legislation to increase the amount individuals can store in their401kplans andIRAswas passed in 2001. His bill to expandMedicareto include preventive benefits such ascolorectal,prostate,mammogram,", "andosteoporosisscreening was also enacted. He also authored legislation to provide a Medicare prescription drug benefit for chronic illnesses; fund graduate medical education; and guarantee coverage for emergency services. Cardin has also advocated, via proposed legislation,welfarereform. His bill to increase education and support services forfosterchildren between ages 18 and 21 was signed into law in 1999.He authored bills to expand child support, improve thewelfare-to-workprogram, and increase the child care tax credit. In 1998, Cardin was appointed chairman of the Special Study Commission on Maryland Public Ethics Law by theMaryland General Assembly. In 1997, he co-chaired the Bipartisan Ethics Task Force in an effort to reform ethics procedures in the House of Representatives. He also held leadership positions on the Organization, Study and Review Committee and theSteering Committeeof theHouse Democratic Caucus, and served as Senior DemocraticWhip. Cardin has been commended for his work with fiscal", "work with fiscal policy. He has been honored byWorthmagazine and byTreasury and Risk Managementfor his work protectingretirement plansand government-supported medical care for the elderly. He has also received scores of 100 percent from theLeague of Conservation Votersand theNAACP, indicating stances that are in favor of environmental protection andcivil rights. Cardin was also one of 133 members of Congress to vote against the 2002Iraq Resolution. House committee assignments As of May 2006, Cardin served on the followingHouse committees: U.S. Senate Elections 2006 On April 26, 2005, Cardin announced that he would seek theU.S. Senateseat of long-standing senatorPaul Sarbanes(D-MD), following the announcement by Sarbanes that he would not be running for re-election in 2006. On September 12, 2006, Cardin faced a challenging primary battle with other Maryland Democrats, includingAllan Lichtman,Josh Rales,Dennis F. Rasmussen, and his former House colleagueKweisi Mfume. Cardin won, however, with 44 percent of the", "44 percent of the vote, compared to 40 percent for Mfume, five percent for Rales, and two percent for Rasmussen. Cardin won election on November 7, 2006, defeating Republican challengerMichael Steele54 percent to 44 percent.Cardin became the third consecutive Representative from Maryland's 3rd congressional district to be elected senator (following Sarbanes and Mikulski).John Sarbanes, Paul's son, succeeded Cardin in the 3rd district. 2012 Cardin ran for re-election to a second term in 2012. He turned back a primary challenge from State SenatorC. Anthony Muse, defeating him 74% to 16%, with seven other candidates taking the remaining 10%. In the general election, he faced RepublicanDan Bongino, a formerUnited States Secret Serviceagent, IndependentRob Sobhani, an economist and businessman, and LibertarianImad-ad-Dean Ahmad, President of theMinaret of Freedom Institute. Cardin easily won the election, taking 56% of the vote to Bongino's 26.3%, Sobhani's 16.4% and Ahmad's 1%. 2018 Cardin was re-elected for a", "re-elected for a third term in 2018. 2024 On May 1, 2023, Cardin announced that he would retire and not seek re-election in2024. Tenure Cardin was participating in the certification of the2021 United States Electoral College vote countwhen theJanuary 6 United States Capitol attackhappened. Cardin was on the Senate chamber floor when the rioters breached the Capitol. He was \"ushered quickly — and I do mean quickly — away from the Capitol\" after Vice PresidentMike Pencewas removed from the chambers.During the attack, while Cardin hid with other senators in a safe location, he tweeted, blaming PresidentDonald Trumpfor encouraging the rioters. He called for Trump to stop the protestors so the event would end \"peacefully.\"Cardin also compared the police involvement during the attack to that seen duringBlack Lives Matterprotests, calling it a \"stark contrast.\"After the Capitol was secure, Cardin joined Congress to certify the count. After, he said that Trump should be held accountable for the insurrection and", "insurrection and called for Republican leaders to tell Trump that he needs to resign.Two days later, on January 8, Cardin called for the invocation of theTwenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitutionor impeachment to remove Trump. In 2024, Cardin advocated for the federal government to fund the reconstruction of theFrancis Scott Key BridgeinBaltimoreafter it collapsed when a ship crashed into it. Senate committee assignments Source: Cardin was selected by Majority LeaderChuck Schumerto fill in forDianne Feinsteinon the Judiciary Committee until she returned. In 2015, Cardin became theranking Democratic memberon theSenate Foreign Relations Committeeafter the departure ofSenator Robert Menendezas ranking Democrat and chairman.Two weeks after Menendez departure, Cardin was credited with facilitating achievement of a unanimous committee vote in favor of themarkupfor the bill on the USA's involvement in thenegotiationswithIranon nuclear technology.Senator Menendez returned to chair the Senate Foreign", "the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 2021. Caucus membership Legislation sponsored The following is an incomplete list of legislation that Cardin has sponsored: International experience Cardin has been a Commissioner on theCommission on Security and Cooperation in Europe(the U.S. Helsinki Commission) since 1993, serving as Ranking Member from 2003 to 2006.He subsequently served two terms as co-chair of the commission, from 2007 to 2008, and 2011 to 2012; and also two terms as chair, from 2009 to 2010, and 2013 to 2014.From 2015 to 2016 he was again ranking member.In 2006 he was elected vice president of theOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly, and served through 2014. Honors Cardin holds honorary degrees from several institutions, including theUniversity of Baltimore School of Law(1990);University of Maryland, Baltimore(1993);Baltimore Hebrew University(1994);Goucher College(1996); and Villa Julie College (2007). As of 2016Cardin sits on the board of visitors", "board of visitors of theUniversity of Maryland School of Law, his law school alma mater. From 1988 to 1995, he chaired the Maryland Legal Services Corp. Through much of his political career, he has continued to work with law policy. From 1988 to 1999, Cardin served on theSt. Mary's College of Marylandboard of trustees, and in 2002, he was appointed to the St. Mary's Advisory Board for the Study of Democracy. In 1999, he was appointed to theGoucher Collegeboard of trustees. Cardin has been awarded the following foreign honor: Political positions On a list byCongressional Quarterlyof the members of Congress who were most supportive of PresidentBarack Obama's legislative agenda in 2009, Cardin was tied for fifth most supportive senator with five other senators.In 2013,National Journalrated him as tied with six other Democratic senators for fifth most liberal senator.TheAmerican Conservative Uniongave him a 4% lifetime conservative rating in 2020. Agriculture In June 2019, Cardin and eighteen other Democratic", "other Democratic senators sent a letter to USDA Inspector General (IG) Phyllis K. Fong with the request that the IG investigate USDA instances of retaliation and political decision-making and asserted that not conducting an investigation would mean these \"actions could be perceived as a part of this administration's broader pattern of not only discounting the value of federal employees, but suppressing, undermining, discounting, and wholesale ignoring scientific data produced by their own qualified scientists.\" Death penalty Senator Cardin is a supporter of the death penalty but says it should only be applied to the \"worst of the worst\". Economy In March 2019, Cardin was one of six senators to sign a letter to theFederal Trade Commissionrequesting it \"use its rulemaking authority, along with other tools, in order to combat the scourge of non-compete clauses rigging our economy against workers\" and espousing the view that such provisions \"harm employees by limiting their ability to find alternate work, which", "work, which leaves them with little leverage to bargain for better wages or working conditions with their immediate employer.\" The senators furthered that the FTC had the responsibility of protecting both consumers and workers and needed to \"act decisively\" to address their concerns over \"serious anti-competitive harms from the proliferation of non-competes in the economy.\" Education In 2007, Cardin supported theUnited States Public Service AcademyAct. The Act would serve to create \"an undergraduate institution devoted to developing civilian leaders.\" Like the Military Academies, this would give students 4 years of tuition-free education in exchange for 5 years of public service upon graduation. Environment Liberal environmentalists criticized Cardin for compromising too much while working with conservative James Inhofe on an amendment to Cardin's Chesapeake Bay legislation.Josh Saks, senior legislative representative for water resources campaigns with the National Wildlife Federation, praised Cardin as \"the", "Cardin as \"the lead voice for clean water and the restoration of America's great waters in Congress.\" In November 2018, Cardin was one of twenty-five Democratic senators to cosponsor a resolution specifying key findings of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change report and National Climate Assessment. The resolution affirmed the senators' acceptance of the findings and their support for bold action towardaddressing climate change. In March 2019, Cardin was one of eleven senators to sponsor the Climate Security Act of 2019, legislation forming a new group within the State Department that would have the responsibility for developing strategies to integrate climate science and data into operations of national security as well as restoring the post of special envoy for the Arctic, which had been dismantled by President Trump in 2017. The proposed envoy would advise the president and the administration on the potential effects of climate on national security and be responsible for facilitating all", "facilitating all interagency communication between federal science and security agencies. Elections In October 2018, Cardin cosponsored, together withChris Van HollenandSusan Collins, a bipartisan bill that if passed would block \"any persons from foreign adversaries from owning or having control over vendors administering U.S. elections.\" Protect Our Elections Act would make companies involved in administering elections reveal foreign owners, and informing local, state and federal authorities if said ownership changes. Companies failing to comply would face fines of $100,000. Equal Rights Amendment Cardin has sponsored legislation in support of theEqual Rights Amendment. Gun control Cardin has an \"F\" rating from theNRA Political Victory Fund. In 2013, he co-sponsored the Large Capacity Ammunition Feeding Device Act in an effort to ban large-capacity ammunition. In response to theOrlando nightclub shooting, Cardin questioned the legality of military style assault weapons stating that \"in my observations in", "my observations in Maryland, I don't know too many people who need to have that type of weapon in order to do hunting in my state or to keep themselves safe.\" Cardin opposed the 2016 sale of approximately 26,000 assault rifles to the national police of the Philippines. His opposition led to the U.S. State Department halting the sale. In the wake of the2017 Las Vegas shooting, Cardin stated thatthoughts and prayerswere not going to save more people from dying in mass shootings.He also made a call for action to change gun laws, stating onTwitterthat \"Automatic weapons aren't needed to hunt deer or ducks; they're meant to kill people.\"In response to the shooting, Cardin sponsoredDianne Feinstein's proposal to banbump stocks, which were used by the shooter to kill 58 individuals and injure over 500. Journalism In July 2019, Cardin andRob Portmanintroduced the Fallen Journalists Memorial Act, a bill that would create a new memorial that would be privately funded and constructed on federal lands within Washington,", "within Washington, D.C. in order to honor journalists, photographers, and broadcasters that have died in the line of duty. Healthcare In the 111th Congress, Cardin helped secure dental benefits in the State Children's Health Insurance Plan. In August 2019, Cardin was one of nineteen senators to sign a letter toUnited States Secretary of the TreasurySteve MnuchinandUnited States Secretary of Health and Human ServicesAlex Azarrequesting data from the Trump administration in order to aid in the comprehension of states and Congress on potential consequences in the event that the Texas v. United States Affordable Care Act (ACA) lawsuit prevailed in courts, citing that an overhaul of the present health care system would form \"an enormous hole in the pocketbooks of the people we serve as well as wreck state budgets\". In October 2019, Cardin was one of twenty-seven senators to sign a letter to Senate Majority LeaderMitch McConnelland Senate Minority LeaderChuck Schumeradvocating for the passage of the Community", "of the Community Health Investment, Modernization, and Excellence (CHIME) Act, which was set to expire the following month. The senators warned that if the funding for the Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was allowed to expire, it \"would cause an estimated 2,400 site closures, 47,000 lost jobs, and threaten the health care of approximately 9 million Americans.\" Housing In April 2019, Cardin was one of forty-one senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising theUnited States Department of Housing and Urban Development'sSection 4 Capacity Building program as authorizing \"HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country\" and expressing disappointment that President Trump's budget \"has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development.\" The senators wrote of their hope that the", "their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020. International policy On October 31, 2011, Cardin endorsed the proposal for theUnited Nations Parliamentary Assembly(UNPA). He is one of only six persons who served as members of the United States Congress ever to do so and is the only one who did so while in office. Cardin has often supported positions that aim to strengthen America's relationship with Israel.In 2017, Cardin sponsored a bill, the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (S. 720), that would penalize commercial businesses that wanted to aid International NGOs and/or organizations in boycotting Israel.Cardin has argued that Israel's human rights record should not be considered in regard to sending U.S. military aid to Israel. He supported civilian nuclear cooperation with India. Weeks after the2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaignandUmbrella Movementbroke out which demandsgenuine universal suffrage among other goals, Cardin among bipartisan colleagues joined", "colleagues joined U.S. senatorSherrod Brownand Rep.Chris Smith's effort to introduceHong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Actwhich would update theUnited States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992and U.S. commitment toHong Kong's freedom and democracy. \"Civil societyanddemocratic freedomsare under attack around the world andHong Kong is on the front lines. The United States has a responsibility to protecthuman rightsand defend againstthese threats,\" Cardin, chairman of theSenate Foreign Relations East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommitteesaid. In July 2017, Cardin voted in favor of theCountering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Actthat placedsanctions on Irantogether withRussiaandNorth Korea.On October 11, 2017, in a joint statement, Cardin and SenatorJohn McCainquestioned the Trump administration's commitment to the sanctions bill. In October 2017, Cardin condemned thegenocideof theRohingya Muslimminority inMyanmarand called for a stronger response to the crisis. In August 2018, Cardin and 16 other", "Cardin and 16 other lawmakers urged the Trump administration to impose sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Act against Chinese officials who are responsible forhuman rights abusesagainst theUyghurMuslimminority in western China'sXinjiangregion.They wrote: \"The detention of as many as a million or more Uyghurs and other predominantly Muslim ethnic minorities in 'political reeducation' centers or camps requires a tough, targeted, and global response.\" Cardin condemned PresidentErdoğan's wide-rangingcrackdown on dissentfollowing a failed July 2016 coup in America's NATO allyTurkey. In April 2019, Cardin was one of thirty-four senators to sign a letter to President Trump encouraging him \"to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America\", asserting that Trump had \"consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance\" since becoming president and that he was \"personally undermining", "undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity\" through preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S., citing the funding's helping to improve conditions in those countries. In 2023 Senator Cardin became the chair of theUnited States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.According toJewish Insider, Cardin's office communicated to some activists that it does not have a plan to move theMahsa Amini Human rights and Security Accountability Act (MAHSA Act)forward through the committee, likely killing the bipartisan Iran sanctions bill. Online privacy Cardin supportsNet Neutrality, as shown by his vote during the109th Congressin favor of the Markey Amendment to H.R. 5252 which would add Net Neutrality provisions to the federal telecommunications code.Cardin also supportsCombating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act, which gives DOJ the tools to target", "the tools to target those site owners who are engaged in illegal digital piracy. Taxes Cardin is opposed to eliminating the tax deduction for charitable donations and supports raising taxes on higher-income earners.During a December 20, 2012, interview withMaria BartiromoonCNBC, Cardin stated, \"We're now a few days away from Christmas. The easiest way to get the revenues is to get the rates from the higher income, uh, taxpayers.\"In response to the question, \"Are you prepared to vote to limit the loophole of charitable deductions?\" Cardin responded, \"No.\" Cardin has, on multiple occasions, introduced a bill to adopt a \"Progressive Consumption Tax\", which is a variation of Michael J. Graetz'sCompetitive Tax Plan.This tax reform would abolish income tax for a large portion of American taxpayers, replacing the lost revenue with a 10%value-added tax. As of 2022, the Progressive Consumption Tax has not made it out of committee. Cardin spoke out after thePandora Paperswere revealed in 2021. Cardin said, \"The", "Cardin said, \"The Pandora Papers are a wake-up call to all who care about the future of democracy. Thirty years after the end of the Cold War, it is time for democracies to band together and demand an end to the unprecedented corruption that has come to be the defining feature of the global order. We must purge the dirty money from our systems and deny kleptocrats safe haven.\" Whistleblowers In November 2011, Cardin's intended update of the 1917 Espionage Act upset some public disclosure advocates. They complained that it \"would make it harder for federal employees to expose government fraud and abuse.\" Israel Cardin is a co-sponsor of a Senate resolution expressing objection to theUN Security Council Resolution 2334, which condemnedIsraeli settlement buildingin the occupiedPalestinian territoriesas a violation of international law. Cardin said that \"Congress will take action against efforts at the UN, or beyond, that use Resolution 2334 to target Israel.\" Cardin supported PresidentDonald Trump's decision", "Trump's decision torecognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital. He stated: \"Jerusalem is the capital of the State of Israel and the location of the US Embassy should reflect this fact.\" Cardin and SenatorRob Portman(R-Ohio) proposed theIsrael Anti-Boycott Actin late 2018 which would make it illegal for companies to engage in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in theIsraeli-occupied territories.The bill would expand theExport Administration Act(EAA) to foreign boycotts imposed by international organizations like theEuropean Union,Arab Leagueand theUnited Nations. Cardin and Portman were strongly in promotion of the bill, and worked to integrate it into larger spending legislation to be signed by then-President Trump. In January 2024, Cardin rejectedBernie Sanders' resolution that would have required the State Department to report to Congress on any evidence ofhuman rights violationsby Israel inGaza.In May 2024, Cardin stated that \"Israel has not violated International Humanitarian Law\" and \"military", "Law\" and \"military assistance to support Israel's security remains in the U.S. interest and should continue.\" Personal life Cardin married high school sweetheart Myrna Edelman, a teacher,on November 24, 1964. They have a daughter, Deborah. Their son Michael (born 1967 or 1968) died ofsuicideon March 24, 1998,at age 30. In 2002, Cardin's 32-year-old nephew,Jon S. Cardin, was elected as a Delegate representing the 11th district of western Baltimore County. With the 11th legislative district overlapping the 3rd congressional district, there were two Cardins on the ticket in this area in 2002. Present at Jon's swearing in was the oldest living former member of the House of Delegates at 95 years of age, Meyer Cardin, Jon's grandfather and Ben's father. Also in attendance was Cardin, who remarked, \"The next generation's taking over.\" Volunteer service For many years Cardin served on the board of trustees forSt. Mary's College of Maryland. He was very active on the board and also played key roles in the", "key roles in the establishment of theCenter for the Study of Democracyat the college, where he also served on the advisory board. Electoral history Notes and references Notes References See also Further reading External links", "Maurice Cardin Maurice Cardin(July 19, 1909 – March 23, 2009) was an American politician who served in theMaryland House of DelegatesfromBaltimoreCity's 5th district from 1951 to 1966.His nephew is current MarylandU.S. SenatorBen Cardin, who took over his seat in the Maryland House of Delegates when he retired from politics. He died of heart failure on March 23, 2009, inLake Worth Beach, Floridaat age 99. References This article about a Maryland politician is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]
Of the Jason Statham movies that came out the year Dennis Hopper died, which could he have lived to see the premiere of?
13
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Hopper
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Statham
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13_(2010_film)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expendables_(2010_film)
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Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Hopper', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Statham', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13_(2010_film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expendables_(2010_film)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Hopper", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Statham", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13_(2010_film", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expendables_(2010_film" ]
[ "Dennis Hopper Dennis Lee Hopper(May 17, 1936 – May 29, 2010) was an American actor and film director. He is known for his roles as mentally disturbed outsiders and rebels. He earned prizes from theCannes Film FestivalandVenice International Film Festivalas well as nominations for twoAcademy Awards, aPrimetime Emmy Awardand twoGolden Globe Awards. Hopper studied acting at theOld Globe Theatrein San Diego and theActors Studioin New York. Hopper also began a prolific and acclaimed photography career in the 1960s. Hopper made his first television appearance in 1954, and soon after appeared in two of the films that madeJames Deanfamous,Rebel Without a Cause(1955) andGiant(1956). He then acted inGunfight at the O.K. Corral(1957),The Sons of Katie Elder(1965),Cool Hand Luke(1967),Hang 'Em High(1968) andTrue Grit(1969). Hopper made his directorial film debut withEasy Rider(1969), which he and co-starPeter Fondawrote withTerry Southern. The film earned Hopper aCannes Film FestivalAward and a nomination for theAcademy Award for Best Original Screenplay. He became frequentlytypecastas mentally disturbed outsiders in such films asMad Dog Morgan(1976),The American Friend(1977),Apocalypse Now(1979),Rumble Fish(1983), andBlue Velvet(1986). He received anAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actornomination for his role inHoosiers(1986). His later film roles includedTrue Romance(1993),Speed(1994),Waterworld(1995) andElegy(2009). He appeared posthumously in the long-delayedThe Other Side of the Wind(2018), which had previously been filmed in the early 1970s. Other directorial credits for Hopper includeThe Last Movie(1971),Out of the Blue(1980),Colors(1988), andThe Hot Spot(1990). He receivedPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movienomination for his role inParis Trout(1991). His other television roles include in theHBOfilmDoublecrossed(1991),24(2002), theNBCseriesE-Ring(2005–2006), and theStarzseriesCrash(2008–2009). Early life and education Hopper was born on May 17, 1936, inDodge City, Kansas, to Marjorie Mae (née Davis; July 12, 1917 – January 12, 2007)and Jay Millard Hopper(June 23, 1916 – August 7, 1982). He had Scottish ancestors.Hopper had two younger brothers, Marvin and David. After World War II, the family moved to Kansas City, Missouri, where the young Hopper attended Saturday art classes at theKansas City Art Institute. When he was 13, Hopper and his family moved to San Diego, where his mother worked as a lifeguard instructor and his father was a post office manager, having previously served in theOffice of Strategic Services, the precursor to theCentral Intelligence Agency, in World War II in theChina Burma India Theater.Hopper was voted most likely to succeed atHelix High School, where he was active in the drama club, speech and choir.It was there that he developed an interest in acting, studying at theOld Globe Theatrein San Diego, and theActors Studioin New York City (he studied withLee Strasbergfor five years). Hopper struck up a friendship with actorVincent Price, whose passion for art influenced Hopper's interest in art. He was especially fond of the plays ofWilliam Shakespeare. Career 1954–1966: Early roles Hopper was reported to have had an uncredited role inJohnny Guitarin 1954, but he was quoted as saying he was not in Hollywood when the film was made.Hopper made his debut on film in two roles withJames Dean(whom he admired immensely) inRebel Without a Cause(1955) andGiant(1956). Dean's death in a car accident in September 1955 affected the young Hopper deeply and it was shortly afterward that he got into a confrontation with veteran directorHenry Hathawayon the filmFrom Hell to Texas(1958). Hopper reportedly forced Hathaway to shoot more than 80 takes of a scene over several days before he acquiesced to Hathaway's direction. After filming was finally completed, Hathaway allegedly told Hopper that his career in Hollywood was finished. In his bookLast Train to Memphis, American popular music historianPeter Guralnicksays that in 1956, whenElvis Presleywas making his first film in Hollywood, Hopper was roommates with fellow actorNick Adamsand the three became friends and socialized together. In 1959, Hopper moved to New York to studyMethod actingunderLee Strasbergat theActors Studio.In 1961, Hopper played his first lead role inNight Tide, an atmospheric supernatural thriller involving a mermaid in an amusement park. In a December 1994 interview on theCharlie Rose Show, Hopper creditedJohn Waynewith saving his career, as Hopper acknowledged that because of his insolent behavior, he could not find work in Hollywood for seven years. Hopper stated that, because of his marriage to Brooke Hayward, he was the son-in-law of actressMargaret Sullavan, a friend of John Wayne, and Wayne hired Hopper for a role inThe Sons of Katie Elder(1965), also directed by Hathaway, which enabled Hopper to restart his film career. Hopper debuted in an episode of the Richard Boone television seriesMedicin 1955, portraying a youngepileptic. He appeared in the first episode of the popular TV seriesThe Rifleman(1958–1963) as the troubled orphan protagonist Vernon Tippet who is exploited by his greedy uncle. The series starredChuck Connorsand the premiere episode \"The Sharpshooter\" was written bySam Peckinpah.Hopper subsequently appeared in over 140 episodes of television shows such asGunsmoke,Bonanza,Petticoat Junction,The Twilight Zone,The Barbara Stanwyck Show,The Defenders,The Investigators,The Legend of Jesse James,Entourage,The Big Valley,The Time Tunnel, andCombat!. 1967–1986: Breakthrough and acclaim Hopper had a supporting role as the bet-taker, \"Babalugats\", inCool Hand Luke(1967). In 1968, Hopper teamed withPeter Fonda,Terry SouthernandJack Nicholsonto makeEasy Rider, which premiered in July 1969. With the release ofTrue Grita month earlier, Hopper had starring roles in two major box-office films that summer. Hopper won wide acclaim as the director for his improvisational methods and innovative editing forEasy Rider.The production was plagued by creative differences and personal acrimony between Fonda and Hopper, the dissolution of Hopper's marriage toBrooke Hayward, his unwillingness to leave the editor's desk and his accelerating abuse of drugs and alcohol.Hopper said ofEasy Rider: \"The cocaine problem in the United States is really because of me. There was no cocaine beforeEasy Rideron the street. AfterEasy Rider, it was everywhere\". Besides showing drug use on film, it was one of the first films to portray the hippie lifestyle. Hopper became arole modelfor some male youths who rejected traditional jobs and traditional American culture, partly exemplified by Fonda's long sideburns and Hopper wearing shoulder-length hair and a long mustache. They were denied rooms in motels and proper service in restaurants as a result of their radical looks.Their long hair became a point of contention in various scenes during the film.Journalist Ann Hornaday wrote: \"With its portrait ofcountercultureheroes raising their middle fingers to the uptight middle-class hypocrisies,Easy Riderbecame the cinematic symbol of the 1960s, a celluloid anthem to freedom, macho bravado and anti-establishment rebellion\".Film critic Matthew Hays wrote \"no other persona better signifies the lost idealism of the 1960s than that of Dennis Hopper\". Hopper was unable to capitalize on hisEasy Ridersuccess for several years. In 1970 he filmedThe Last Movie, cowritten byStewart Sternand photographed byLászló Kovácsin Peru, and completed production in 1971. It won the prestigious CIDALC Award at that year's Venice Film Festival, but Universal Studios leaders expected a blockbuster likeEasy Rider, and did not like the film or give it an enthusiastic release, while American film audiences found it confounding – as convoluted as an abstract painting. On viewing the first release print, fresh from the lab, in his screening room at Universal,MCAfounderJules C. Steinrose from his chair and said, \"I just don't understand this younger generation.\"During the tumultuous editing process, Hopper ensconced himself at theMabel Dodge Luhan Housein Taos, New Mexico, which he had purchased in 1970,for almost an entire year. In between contesting Fonda's rights to the majority of the residual profits fromEasy Rider, he married singerMichelle PhillipsofThe Mamas and the PapasonHalloweenof 1970. The marriage lasted eight days. Hopper acted in another John Wayne film,True Grit(1969), and during its production, he became well acquainted with Wayne. In both of the films with Wayne, Hopper's character is killed in the presence of Wayne's character, to whom he utters his dying words. On September 30, 1970, Hopper appeared on the second episode of season 2 ofThe Johnny Cash Showwhere he sang a duet with Cash entitled \"Goin' Up Goin' Down\". Cash said the song was written byKris Kristoffersonabout Hopper. Hopper added that Kristofferson had written some songs for his Peruvian-shot movieThe Last Movie, in which Kristofferson appeared in his debut role withJulie Adams.Hopper also recitedRudyard Kipling's famous poemIf—during his appearance.Hopper was able to sustain his lifestyle and a measure of celebrity by acting in numerouslow budgetand European films throughout the 1970s as the archetypal \"tormented maniac\", includingMad Dog Morgan(1976),Tracks(1976), andThe American Friend(1977). WithFrancis Ford Coppola's blockbusterApocalypse Now(1979), Hopper returned to prominence as a hyper-manic Vietnam-era photojournalist. Stepping in for an overwhelmed director, Hopper won praise in 1980 for his directing and acting inOut of the Blue. Immediately thereafter, Hopper starred as an addled short-order cook \"Cracker\" in theNeil Young/Dean Stockwelllow-budget collaborationHuman Highway. Production was reportedly often delayed by his unreliable behavior.Peter Biskindstates in theNew HollywoodhistoryEasy Riders, Raging Bullsthat Hopper's cocaine intake had reached three grams a day by this time, complemented by 30 beers, and some marijuana andCuba libres. After staging a \"suicide attempt\" (really more of a daredevil act) in a coffin using 17 sticks of dynamite during an \"art happening\" at the Rice University Media Center (filmed by professor and documentary filmmaker Brian Huberman),and later disappearing into the Mexican desert during a particularly extravagant bender, Hopper entered adrug rehabilitationprogram in 1983. Though Hopper gave critically acclaimed performances in Coppola'sRumble Fish(1983) andSam Peckinpah'sThe Osterman Weekend(1983), it was not until he portrayed the gas-huffing, obscenity-screaming villainFrank BoothinDavid Lynch'sBlue Velvet(1986) that his career truly revived. On reading the script Hopper said to Lynch: \"You have to let me play Frank Booth. Because I am Frank Booth!\"He won critical acclaim and several awards for this role, and in the same year received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his role as an alcoholic assistant basketball coach inHoosiers. Also in 1986, Hopper portrayed Lt. Enright in thecomedy horrorThe Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. 1987–2009: Later work and final roles In 1987 he acted in theneo-noirthrillerBlack WidowalongsideDebra Winger, the action comedyStraight to Hell, the adventure filmRunning Out of LuckstarringMick Jaggerand the romantic comedyThe Pick-up ArtiststarringMolly RingwaldandRobert Downey Jr.In 1988, he directedColors, a critically acclaimedpolice proceduralabout gang violence in Los Angeles starringSean PennandRobert Duvall. Hopper plays an aging hippie prankster in the 1990 comedyFlashback, fleeing in aFurthur-like old bus to the tune of Steppenwolf's \"Born to Be Wild\". Hopper teamed with Nike in the early 1990s to make a series of television commercials. He appeared as a \"crazed referee\" in those ads.Hopper appeared on the final two episodes of the cult 1991 television showFishing with Johnwith hostJohn Lurie. He was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Moviefor the 1991 HBO filmParis Trout.Shortly thereafter, he played drug smuggler andDEAinformantBarry Sealin the HBO filmDoublecrossed. He starred asKing KoopainSuper Mario Bros., a 1993 critical and commercial failure loosely based on the video game of the same name.In 1993, he played Clifford Worley inTrue Romance. He co-starred in the 1994 blockbusterSpeedwithKeanu ReevesandSandra Bullock, and as magic-phobicH.P. Lovecraftin the TV movieWitch Hunt. In 1995, Hopper played a greedy TV self-help guru, Dr. Luther Waxling inSearch and Destroy. The same year, he starred as Deacon, the one-eyed nemesis ofKevin CostnerinWaterworld. And in 1996 he starred in the science fiction comedySpace Truckersdirected byStuart Gordon. Also in 1996 he appeared as art dealer Bruno Bischofberger in Basquiat. Hopper was originally cast as Christof in the 1998Peter Weirfilm,The Truman Show, but left during the filming due to \"creative differences\"; he was replaced byEd Harris.In 1999, he starred inThe Prophet's Game(a dark thriller), directed byDavid Worthand also starringStephanie Zimbalist, Robert Yocum,Sondra Locke,Joe PennyandTracey Birdsall. In 2003, Hopper was in the running for the dual lead in the indie horror dramaFirecracker, but was ousted at the last minute in favor ofMike Patton. In 2005, Hopper played Paul Kaufman in George A. Romero'sLand of the Dead. He portrayed villainVictor Drazenin the first season of the popular action drama24. Hopper starred as a U.S. Army colonel in the 2005 television seriesE-Ring, a drama set atThe Pentagon, but the series was canceled after 14 episodes aired. Hopper appeared in all 22 episodes that were filmed. He also played the part of record producer Ben Cendars in the Starz television seriesCrash, which lasted two seasons (26 episodes). In 2008, Hopper starred inAn American Carol. In 2008 he also played The Death inWim Wenders'Palermo Shooting. His last major feature film appearance was in the 2008 filmElegywithBen Kingsley,Penélope CruzandDebbie Harry. For his last performance, he was the voice of Tony, the alpha-male of the Eastern wolf pack in the 2010 animated filmAlpha and Omega. He died before the movie was released. This brought the directors to dedicate the film to his memory at the beginning of the movie credits. Hopper filmed scenes forThe Other Side of the Windin 1971, appearing as himself; after decades of legal, financial and technical delays, the film was finally released onNetflixin 2018. Photography and art Hopper had several artistic pursuits beyond film. He was a prolific photographer, painter, and sculptor. Hopper's fascination with art began with painting lessons at theNelson-Atkins Museumwhile still a child in Kansas City, Missouri.Early in his career, he painted and wrote poetry, though many of his works were destroyed in the 1961Bel Air Fire, which burned hundreds of homes, including his and his wife's, on Stone Canyon RoadinBel Air.His painting style ranges fromabstract impressionismtophotorealismand often includes references to his cinematic work and to other artists. Ostracized by the Hollywood film studios due to his reputation for being a \"difficult\" actor, Hopper turned to photography in 1961 with a camera bought for him by his first wifeBrooke Hayward.During this period he created the cover art for theIke & Tina TurneralbumRiver Deep – Mountain High(released in 1966).He became a prolific photographer, and noted writerTerry Southernprofiled Hopper inBetter Homes and Gardensas an up-and-coming photographer \"to watch\" in the mid-1960s.Hopper's early photography is known for portraits from the 1960s, and he began shooting portraits forVogueand other magazines. His photographs of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s 1963 March on Washington and the 1965 civil-rights march inSelma, Alabama, were published. His intimate and unguarded images ofAndy Warhol,Jane Fonda,The Byrds,Paul Newman,Jasper Johns,Claes Oldenburg,Robert Rauschenberg,James Brown,Peter Fonda,Ed Ruscha,the Grateful Dead,Michael McClure, andTimothy Leary, among others, became the subject of gallery and museum shows and were collected in several books, including1712 North Crescent Heights. The book, whose title refers to the house where he lived with Hayward in theHollywood Hillsin the 1960s, was edited by his daughterMarin Hopper.In 1960–67, before the making ofEasy Rider, Hopper created 18,000 images that chronicled the remarkable artists, musicians, actors, places, happenings, demonstrations, and concerts of that period.Dennis Hopper: Photographs 1961–1967was published in February 2011, byTaschen.German film directorWim Wenderssaid of Hopper that if \"he'd only been a photographer, he'd be one of the great photographers of the twentieth century.\"InThe New Yorker, Hopper, as photographer, was described as \"a compelling, important, and weirdly omnipresent chronicler of his times.\" Hopper began working as a painter and a poet as well as a collector of art in the 1960s as well, particularlyPop Art. Over his lifetime he amassed a formidable array of 20th- and 21st-century art, including many ofJulian Schnabel's works (such as a shattered-plate portrait of Hopper); numerous works from his early cohorts, such asEd Ruscha,Edward Kienholz,Roy Lichtenstein(Sinking Sun, 1964),and Warhol (Double Mona Lisa, 1963);and pieces by contemporary artists such asDamien HirstandRobin Rhode. He was involved in L.A.'sFerusandVirginia Dwangalleries in the 1960s, and he was a longtime friend and supporter to New York dealerTony Shafrazi.One of the first art works Hopper owned was an early print ofAndy Warhol'sCampbell's Soup Cansbought for US$75. Hopper also once owned Warhol'sMao, which he shot one evening in a fit of paranoia, the two bullet holes possibly adding to the print's value. The print sold at Christie's, New York, for US$302,500 in January 2011. During his lifetime, Hopper's own work as well as his collection was shown in monographic and group exhibitions around the world including the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota; the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; theState Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; MAK Vienna: Austrian Museum of Applied Arts/Contemporary Art, Vienna; the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; and the Cinémathèque Française, Paris, and the Australian Centre for the Moving Image, Melbourne. In March 2010, it was announced that Hopper was on the \"short list\" for Jeffrey Deitch's inaugural show at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (MOCA).In April 2010, Deitch confirmed that Hopper's work, curated by Julian Schnabel, will indeed be the focus of his debut at MOCA.The title of the exhibition,Double Standard, was taken from Hopper's iconic 1961 photograph of the two Standard Oil signs seen through an automobile windshield at the intersection of Santa Monica Boulevard, Melrose Avenue, and North Doheny Drive on historicRoute 66in Los Angeles. The image was reproduced on the invitation forEd Ruscha's second solo exhibition at Ferus Gallery in 1964. In 2011, Barricade Books published film historian Peter L. Winkler's biography,Dennis Hopper: The Wild Ride of a Hollywood Rebel.In 2013, HarperCollins publishedHopper: A Journey into the American Dream, a biography by American writerTom Folsom. On theGorillazalbumDemon Days, Hopper narrates the song \"Fire Coming Out of the Monkey's Head\". In the late 1980s, Hopper purchased a trio of nearly identical two-story, loft-style condominiums at 330 Indiana Avenue in Venice Beach, California – one made of concrete, one of plywood, and one of green roofing shingles – built byFrank Gehryand two artist friends of Hopper's,Chuck Arnoldiand Laddie John Dill, in 1981.In 1987, he commissioned an industrial-style main residence, with a corrugated metal exterior designed by Brian Murphy, as a place to display his artwork. Personal life According toRolling Stonemagazine, Hopper was \"one of Hollywood's most notorious drug addicts\" for 20 years. He spent much of the 1970s and early 1980s living as an \"outcast\" inTaos, New Mexico, after the success ofEasy Rider. Hopper was also \"notorious for his troubled relationships with women\", includingMichelle Phillips, who divorced him after eight days of marriage.Hopper was married five times: Hopper has been widely reported to be the godfather of actressAmber Tamblyn;in a 2009 interview withParade, Tamblyn explained that \"godfather\" was \"just a loose term\" for Hopper,Dean StockwellandNeil Young, three famous friends ofher father's, who were always around the house when she was growing up, and who were big influences on her life. In 1994,Rip Tornfiled a defamation lawsuit against Hopper over a story Hopper told onThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Hopper claimed that Torn pulled a knife on him during pre-production of the filmEasy Rider. According to Hopper, Torn was originally cast in the film but was replaced withJack Nicholsonafter the incident. According to Torn's suit, it was actually Hopper who pulled the knife on him. A judge ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was ordered to pay US$475,000 in damages. Hopper then appealed but the judge again ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was required to pay another US$475,000 in punitive damages. According to Newsmeat, Hopper donated US$2,000 to theRepublican National Committeein 2004 and an equal amount in 2005.Hopper donated $600 to Irish political partySinn Féin. Hopper was honored with the rank of commander ofFrance's National Order of Arts and Letters, at a ceremony in Paris. Despite being a Republican, Hopper supportedBarack Obamain the2008 presidential election.Hopper confirmed this in anelection dayappearance on theABCdaytime showThe View. He said his reason for not voting Republican was the selection ofSarah Palinas the Republicanvice presidential candidate. Hopper was a longtime friend of actressSally Kirkland, who admitted in a 2021Reelzdocumentary that they had aone-night standearly on in their friendship. Divorce from Victoria Duffy On January 14, 2010, Hopper filed for divorce from his fifth wife Victoria Duffy.After citing her \"outrageous conduct\" and stating she was \"insane\", \"inhuman\" and \"volatile\", Hopper was granted a restraining order against her on February 11, 2010, and as a result, she was forbidden to come within 10 feet (3 m) of him or contact him.On March 9, 2010, Duffy refused to move out of the Hopper home, despite the court's order that she do so by March 15. On April 5, 2010, a court ruled that Duffy could continue living on Hopper's property, and that he must pay US$12,000 per month spousal and child support for their daughter Galen. Hopper did not attend the hearing.On May 12, 2010, a hearing was held before Judge Amy Pellman in downtown Los Angeles Superior Court. Though Hopper died two weeks later, Duffy insisted at the hearing that he was well enough to be deposed.The hearing also dealt with who would be the beneficiary on Hopper's life insurance policy, which listed his wife as a beneficiary.A very ill Hopper did not appear in court though his estranged wife did. Despite Duffy's bid to be named the sole beneficiary of Hopper's million-dollar policy, the judge ruled against her and limited her claim to one-quarter of the policy. The remaining US$750,000 was to go to his estate. Illness and death On September 28, 2009, Hopper, then 73, was reportedly taken by ambulance to an unidentified Manhattan hospital wearing an oxygen mask and \"with numerous tubes visible\".On October 2, he was discharged after receiving treatment for dehydration. On October 29, 2009, Hopper's manager Sam Maydew reported that he had been diagnosed with advancedprostate cancer.In January 2010, it was reported that Hopper's cancer hadmetastasizedto his bones. On March 18, 2010, he was honored with the 2,403rd star on theHollywood Walk of Famein front ofGrauman's Egyptian TheatreonHollywood Boulevard.Surrounded by family, fans, and friends—includingJack Nicholson,Viggo Mortensen,David Lynch, andMichael Madsen—he attended its addition to the sidewalk six days later. By March 2010, Hopper reportedly weighed only 100 pounds (45 kg) and was unable to carry on long conversations.According to papers filed in his divorce court case, Hopper wasterminally illand was unable to undergochemotherapyto treat his prostate cancer. Hopper died at his home in the coastalVenicedistrict of Los Angeles, on May 29, 2010, at age 74.His funeral took place on June 3, 2010, atSan Francisco de Asis Mission ChurchinRanchos de Taos, New Mexico. His body was buried at the Jesus Nazareno Cemetery in Ranchos de Taos. The filmAlpha and Omega, which was among his last film roles, was dedicated to him, as was the 2011 filmRestless, which starred his son Henry Hopper. Filmography Other works Books Exhibitions Archive The moving image collection of Dennis Hopper is held at theAcademy Film Archive. The Dennis Hopper Trust Collection represents Hopper's directorial efforts. Awards and nominations References Bibliography Further reading External links", "Jason Statham Jason Statham(/ˈsteɪθəm/STAY-thəm; born 26 July 1967) is an English actor, producer, and former model and diver. He is known for portraying tough, gritty, or violent characters in variousaction thrillerfilms, and has been credited for leading the resurgence of action films during the 2000s and 2010s.By 2017, his films had grossed over£1.1 billion ($1.5 billion), making him one of the industry's mostbankable stars. Statham began practisingChinese martial arts,kickboxing, andkaraterecreationally in his youth while working at local market stalls. An avidfootballeranddiver, he was a member ofBritain's national diving teamand competed forEnglandin the1990 Commonwealth Games. Shortly after, he was asked to model forFrench Connection,Tommy Hilfiger, andLevi'sin various advertising campaigns. Statham's history of working at market stalls inspired his casting in theGuy Ritchiecrime filmsLock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels(1998) andSnatch(2000). The commercial success of these films led him to star asFrank Martinin theTransportertrilogy(2002–2008). After starring in a variety of heist and action thriller films such asThe Italian Job(2003),Crank(2006),War(2007),The Bank Job(2008),The Mechanic(2011),Spy(2015), andMechanic: Resurrection(2016), he established himself as a Hollywood leading man. He has since starred in the ensemble action seriesThe Expendables(2010–2023) and asDeckard Shawin theFast & Furiousfranchise, including the spin-offHobbs & Shaw(2019). Early life Jason Statham was born inShirebrookon 26 July 1967,the son of dancer Eileen (née Yates) and street seller Barry Statham.His father also worked odd jobs as a house painter, coal miner, and singer in theCanary Islands.Statham moved toGreat Yarmouth, where he initially chose not to follow his father's career working the local market stalls, instead practisingmartial arts. He grew up alongside football playerVinnie Jones, with whom he would later act; Jones introduced him tofootball, and Statham went on to play for the localgrammar school, which he attended from 1978 to 1983. He was also a passionate aboutdiving, practising daily to perfect his techniques.He was a member of Britain'sNational Swimming Squadfor 12 years,and competed for England at the1990 Commonwealth Gamesin the 10 metre, 3 metre, and 1 metre events.He said in a 2003 interview that his time with the national squad was a \"great experience\" that taught him \"discipline, focus, and certainly out of trouble\". Statham was spotted by the sports modelling agency Sports Promotions while training at London'sCrystal Palace National Sports Centre. He was signed byTommy Hilfiger, Griffin, andLevi'sfor various modelling contracts during their 1996 spring and summer collections.In 1997, he became a model for the clothing brandFrench Connection. A spokesperson for the high street clothing chain said, \"We chose Jason because we wanted our model to look like a normal guy. His look is just right for now: very masculine and not too male-modelly.\"However, he was still forced to follow in his father's footsteps as a street seller to make ends meet, stating that he sold \"fake perfume and jewellery on street corners\".He made small appearances in a few music videos, including \"Comin' On\" byThe Shamenin 1993, \"Run to the Sun\" byErasurein 1994,and \"Dream a Little Dream of Me\" byThe Beautiful Southin 1995. Career 2000–2010: Rise to prominence While working as a model for French Connection, Statham was introduced to fledgling filmmakerGuy Ritchie,who was developing a film and needed to fill the role of a streetwise con artist. After learning about Statham's past as a market stall salesman, Ritchie cast him in the crime comedy thrillerLock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels(1998).The film was well received by both critics and audiences, and helped put Statham in the public eye; for his role, he was paid£5,000.Statham's second collaboration with Ritchie came withSnatch(2000), which earned more than $80 million at the box office. For his role inSnatch, he was paid £15,000.He was then able to break into Hollywood and appeared in two films in 2001: the science fiction action horror filmGhosts of Marsand the science fiction martial arts action filmThe One. Statham was offered more film roles and was cast in the lead role of driver Frank Martin in the action filmThe Transporter(2002), written byLuc Besson.The film spawned two sequels,Transporter 2(2005) andTransporter 3(2008). He also played supporting roles inMean Machine(2002),The Italian Job(2003),and as the lead villain inCellular(2004). In 2005, Statham was once again cast by Ritchie to star in his new project,Revolver, which was a critical and box office failure.He played a dramatic role in theindependent filmLondonin 2006. That same year he played the lead role in the action filmCrank. Statham was asked to promoteCrankduring the 2006San Diego Comic-Con Convention.In 2008, Statham starred in the British crime thrillerThe Bank JobandDeath Race, a remake ofDeath Race 2000(1975). American film criticArmond Whitehailed Statham's ascension as an action film star. On the occasion ofDeath Race, White championed Statham's \"best track record of any contemporary movie star.\"Later in 2008, White praised Statham'sTransporter 3as a great example of kineticpop art. Chris Hewitt ofEmpire Magazine, noted the film as \"a dour, drab affair\", but credited the film with \"establishing Statham as a new action hero, as at ease with gruff one-liners as he was with Jackie Chan-esque high-kicking\". In 2009, Statham started to develop a new movie written byDavid PeoplesandJanet Peoples. Statham stated \"We've got a movie we're trying to do, written by David Peoples and Janet Peoples, in the vein of an old film,The Treasure of the Sierra Madre. It's not a remake or anything, but it's a little bit like that, about relationships and how greed contaminates the relationships these three people have. The working title isThe Grabbers.\"He reprised his role as Chev Chelios in the 2009 sequelCrank: High Voltage. In 2010, Statham appeared alongside fellow action starsSylvester Stallone,Jet Li,Dolph LundgrenandMickey Rourke, among others, in theensembleaction filmThe Expendables. Statham playsLee Christmas, a former SAS soldier and expert atclose quarters combatusing knives.The film was commercially successful, opening at number one at the box office in the United States, the United Kingdom, China and India, and grossed a total of $274 million worldwide. 2011–2015: Commercial expansion In his first film of 2011, Statham starred inthe remakeof the 1972Charles BronsonfilmThe Mechanicas Arthur Bishop. Atheatrical trailerdepicting Statham's character \"shooting a man's head off\"was banned from circulationby theAdvertising Standards Authorityfor showing excessive violence.His role inThe Mechanicwas positively reviewed by the critics both in the United States and the United Kingdom.The Guardianpraised his performance as possessing a \"now-customary efficiency\" in attaining \"an entertaining hitman thriller\".The New York Timesnoted Statham as \"sleek as a bullet\"; and the film \"a more powerful recharge\" of the original.UK newspaper,The Daily Telegraphhailed Statham as \"England's best export to action movies in just about forever, a businesslike brute with gentlemanly soul.\"He returned to British film by starring in the police dramaBlitzasDetective SergeantTom Brant. The film received mixed reviews with Cath Clake ofThe Guardianreviewing it as \"not half bad\" and \"oddly entertaining\".He was then cast in the action filmKiller Elite. The film was based on real events, which were the subject ofSir Ranulph Fiennes' novelThe Feather Men. Statham played an assassin named Danny who comes out of retirement to save an old friend, played byRobert De Niro.The film grossed returned a negative budget, and was panned by the critics. In August 2011, he began filmingParkerfor directorTaylor Hackford; the film was released in January 2013. Statham playedParker, the criminal antihero previously played byMel Gibsonin 1999'sPaybackand byLee Marvinin 1967'sPoint Blank(though their characters were given different surnames).A. O. ScottofThe New York Timessaid of the actor in the film: \", who seems to be made entirely of muscle and scar tissue, is comfortable with his limitations as an actor. His Parker, in any case, is more of an axiom than a fully rounded human being.\"A 2012BBC Newsreport estimated that his ten-year film career to date (2002 to 2012) yielded over one billion dollars in the box office, making him one of the industry's mostbankablestars.He was signed on to reprise his role as Lee Christmas inThe Expendables 2in 2012. In 2013, Statham had a cameo appearance at the end ofFast & Furious 6asthe brotherof the film's antagonist Owen Shaw (Luke Evans).He reprised the character, this time as the main antagonist, inFurious 7, which was released in April 2015.He also starred oppositeJames Francoin the thrillerHomefront, written bySylvester Stallone,and headlined the British thrillerHummingbird. The latter film was praised by critics for pushing Statham's acting abilities to new heights. His \"attempt to develop his 'brand' by trying more adventurous parts\" noted byThe Guardian'sMark Kermode, \" his dramatic palette\".Statham made a cameo in the 2014 music videoSummerofCalvin Harrisas one of the car racers. In 2014, he returned as Lee Christmas inThe Expendables 3.Although critically panned,the film would go on to gross $215 million against a $90 million budget. In 2015 he starred in the action comedySpyalongsideMelissa McCarthy,Jude Law, andRose Byrne. The film, a commercial success, was particularly praised for showcasing Statham's comedic side in contrast to his more serious roles.According to an article byEmpiremagazine, aSpy 2was development in late 2015, with more screen time dedicated for Statham's character, Rick Ford.He was nominated for theCritic's Choice Awardfor Best Actor in a Comedy for his role inSpy. Statham was offered a three-film contract toreboottheTransporterseriesin late 2015, but turned it down because he was not given the script before the signing date and unhappy with its compensation package.According to an article byThe Guardian, Statham expressed interest in playingJames Bondin the upcomingSpectrefilm. Its author, Steve Rose noted that \"there was no doubt Statham can walk the Bond walk. And talking his talk can hardly be an issue with a character whose accent has fluctuated betweenSean Connery's Scottish brogue andTimothy Dalton's Welsh.\"After the interview there were multiple calls from critics and the public to instate him as James Bond in a future film. 2016–present: Continued success The sequel to his 2011 filmThe Mechanicwas scheduled for production in late 2016 and announced to open asMechanic: Resurrection.The film went on to become highly commercially successfully in international film markets grossing $109.4 million worldwide.According toForbes, the film was Statham's \"seventh-biggest earner\" and most commercially successful solo film venture of his career. In February 2017, he starred alongsideGal Gadotin a 30-secondSuper Bowl advertisementforWix.comduringSuper Bowl LI.CNETreported that the advertisement reached 22 million user impressions.Statham was asked to re-join theFast & Furiousfranchise once more in 2016. The ensuing film,The Fate of the Furious, was released in April 2017 to commercial success. While the film overall received mixed reviews, Statham was praised for his comedic timing and onscreen chemistry with contemporaries.The film went on to be thethird highest-grossing film of 2017and the12th highest-grossing film of all time. Spy 2was confirmed on 15 February 2018.But later in 2018, Feig explained that although a sequel toSpycould still happen, \"there hasn't been any interest from the studio\" in the project. Statham played the lead, former Naval captain Jonas Taylor, in the 2018 action-horror filmThe Meg, which was released on 10 August. The film would go on to gross $527.8 million worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing U.S.-Chinese co-production of all time. In 2019, Statham reprised his role as Deckard Shaw again inFast & Furious Presents: Hobbs & Shaw, a spin-off of theFast & Furiousfranchise focusing on his andDwayne Johnson's characters.The film grossed $758 million worldwide, becoming thetenth highest-grossing film of 2019, and received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for Statham's performance. In 2022, Statham established his own production company, Punch Palace Productions. Public image An article by Adam Gabbatt inThe Guardiannoted that Statham's character contributions to his industry and film niche are \"tough uncompromising\".Some critics note his presence as a \"defining feature\" that signals to movie-goers the content of a film.The same exposé commented, \"You know what you're getting with a Jason Statham film. He will beat people up. He will crash cars. He will do an unconvincing American accent.\"Statham's impact on the action-thriller genre has been seen by Gabbatt as a replacement of the same undertaken byArnold Schwarzenegger,Sylvester Stallone, andJean-Claude Van Dammeduring their runs as headliners throughout the 1980s and 1990s.Statham himself cites Stallone,Bruce Lee,Paul Newman,Steve McQueen, andClint Eastwoodas his inspirations. An article byTimes Higher Educationreported thatManchester University Presscommissioned an academic study analysing the impact Statham has had on the British and American film industries from his debut in 1998 to 2018. According to the article, professors Steven Gerrard and Robert Shail are looking to show \"the changing face of British cinematic masculinity\" into \"one that embraces cinema across a wide range of projects, but one that also uses cross-textual media in his output\". In popular media In 2003, Statham appeared in three British television commercials for theKit Katchocolate bar. Described as a \"break philosopher\", he philosophised about salmon swimming upstream, a Mexican fisherman, and the relative speeds and ages of animals, before ending with a reminder that \"taking a break\" (alluding to the Kit Kat slogan) is an important part of life. In the comic book seriesUltimate Spider-Man, that series' version of the villainVulturewas rendered by artistMark Bagleyto resemble actor Statham, per writerBrian Michael Bendis' instructions. In theTwenty One Pilotssong \"Pet Cheetah\" released in 2018, Statham is mentioned in the lyrics. Personal life Statham has been in a relationship with modelRosie Huntington-Whiteleysince 2010.The couple announced their engagement in January 2016.Their son was born in June 2017.Their daughter was born on 2 February 2022.They lived in California for a number of yearsbefore moving back to London in 2020. Statham enjoys wakeboarding, jet skiing, wind surfing, and rock climbing.While filming on location in Bulgaria forThe Expendables 3, he drove a truck off the road inVarnaand crashed into theBlack Seadue to malfunctioning brakes. In a 2013 interview withVanity Fair, Statham advocated forstunt performersto be given their own category at theAcademy Awards: \"All of the stunt men, these are the unsung heroes. They really are. Nobody is giving them any credibility. They're risking their necks. And then you've got poncy actors pretending like they're doing .\" In 2014, Statham was inducted into theInternational Sports Hall of Fame. Filmography Film Video games Music videos Commercials Awards and nominations Notes References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13_(2010_film", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expendables_(2010_film" ]
[ "Dennis Hopper Dennis Lee Hopper(May 17, 1936 – May 29, 2010) was an American actor and film director. He is known for his roles as mentally disturbed outsiders and rebels. He earned prizes from theCannes Film FestivalandVenice International Film Festivalas well as nominations for twoAcademy Awards, aPrimetime Emmy Awardand twoGolden Globe Awards. Hopper studied acting at theOld Globe Theatrein San Diego and theActors Studioin New York. Hopper also began a prolific and acclaimed photography career in the 1960s. Hopper made his first television appearance in 1954, and soon after appeared in two of the films that madeJames Deanfamous,Rebel Without a Cause(1955) andGiant(1956). He then acted inGunfight at the O.K. Corral(1957),The Sons of Katie Elder(1965),Cool Hand Luke(1967),Hang 'Em High(1968) andTrue Grit(1969). Hopper made his directorial film debut withEasy Rider(1969), which he and co-starPeter Fondawrote withTerry Southern. The film earned Hopper aCannes Film FestivalAward and a nomination for theAcademy", "for theAcademy Award for Best Original Screenplay. He became frequentlytypecastas mentally disturbed outsiders in such films asMad Dog Morgan(1976),The American Friend(1977),Apocalypse Now(1979),Rumble Fish(1983), andBlue Velvet(1986). He received anAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actornomination for his role inHoosiers(1986). His later film roles includedTrue Romance(1993),Speed(1994),Waterworld(1995) andElegy(2009). He appeared posthumously in the long-delayedThe Other Side of the Wind(2018), which had previously been filmed in the early 1970s. Other directorial credits for Hopper includeThe Last Movie(1971),Out of the Blue(1980),Colors(1988), andThe Hot Spot(1990). He receivedPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movienomination for his role inParis Trout(1991). His other television roles include in theHBOfilmDoublecrossed(1991),24(2002), theNBCseriesE-Ring(2005–2006), and theStarzseriesCrash(2008–2009). Early life and education Hopper was born on May 17, 1936, inDodge", "17, 1936, inDodge City, Kansas, to Marjorie Mae (née Davis; July 12, 1917 – January 12, 2007)and Jay Millard Hopper(June 23, 1916 – August 7, 1982). He had Scottish ancestors.Hopper had two younger brothers, Marvin and David. After World War II, the family moved to Kansas City, Missouri, where the young Hopper attended Saturday art classes at theKansas City Art Institute. When he was 13, Hopper and his family moved to San Diego, where his mother worked as a lifeguard instructor and his father was a post office manager, having previously served in theOffice of Strategic Services, the precursor to theCentral Intelligence Agency, in World War II in theChina Burma India Theater.Hopper was voted most likely to succeed atHelix High School, where he was active in the drama club, speech and choir.It was there that he developed an interest in acting, studying at theOld Globe Theatrein San Diego, and theActors Studioin New York City (he studied withLee Strasbergfor five years). Hopper struck up a friendship with", "a friendship with actorVincent Price, whose passion for art influenced Hopper's interest in art. He was especially fond of the plays ofWilliam Shakespeare. Career 1954–1966: Early roles Hopper was reported to have had an uncredited role inJohnny Guitarin 1954, but he was quoted as saying he was not in Hollywood when the film was made.Hopper made his debut on film in two roles withJames Dean(whom he admired immensely) inRebel Without a Cause(1955) andGiant(1956). Dean's death in a car accident in September 1955 affected the young Hopper deeply and it was shortly afterward that he got into a confrontation with veteran directorHenry Hathawayon the filmFrom Hell to Texas(1958). Hopper reportedly forced Hathaway to shoot more than 80 takes of a scene over several days before he acquiesced to Hathaway's direction. After filming was finally completed, Hathaway allegedly told Hopper that his career in Hollywood was finished. In his bookLast Train to Memphis, American popular music historianPeter Guralnicksays that", "Guralnicksays that in 1956, whenElvis Presleywas making his first film in Hollywood, Hopper was roommates with fellow actorNick Adamsand the three became friends and socialized together. In 1959, Hopper moved to New York to studyMethod actingunderLee Strasbergat theActors Studio.In 1961, Hopper played his first lead role inNight Tide, an atmospheric supernatural thriller involving a mermaid in an amusement park. In a December 1994 interview on theCharlie Rose Show, Hopper creditedJohn Waynewith saving his career, as Hopper acknowledged that because of his insolent behavior, he could not find work in Hollywood for seven years. Hopper stated that, because of his marriage to Brooke Hayward, he was the son-in-law of actressMargaret Sullavan, a friend of John Wayne, and Wayne hired Hopper for a role inThe Sons of Katie Elder(1965), also directed by Hathaway, which enabled Hopper to restart his film career. Hopper debuted in an episode of the Richard Boone television seriesMedicin 1955, portraying a", "1955, portraying a youngepileptic. He appeared in the first episode of the popular TV seriesThe Rifleman(1958–1963) as the troubled orphan protagonist Vernon Tippet who is exploited by his greedy uncle. The series starredChuck Connorsand the premiere episode \"The Sharpshooter\" was written bySam Peckinpah.Hopper subsequently appeared in over 140 episodes of television shows such asGunsmoke,Bonanza,Petticoat Junction,The Twilight Zone,The Barbara Stanwyck Show,The Defenders,The Investigators,The Legend of Jesse James,Entourage,The Big Valley,The Time Tunnel, andCombat!. 1967–1986: Breakthrough and acclaim Hopper had a supporting role as the bet-taker, \"Babalugats\", inCool Hand Luke(1967). In 1968, Hopper teamed withPeter Fonda,Terry SouthernandJack Nicholsonto makeEasy Rider, which premiered in July 1969. With the release ofTrue Grita month earlier, Hopper had starring roles in two major box-office films that summer. Hopper won wide acclaim as the director for his improvisational methods and innovative editing", "innovative editing forEasy Rider.The production was plagued by creative differences and personal acrimony between Fonda and Hopper, the dissolution of Hopper's marriage toBrooke Hayward, his unwillingness to leave the editor's desk and his accelerating abuse of drugs and alcohol.Hopper said ofEasy Rider: \"The cocaine problem in the United States is really because of me. There was no cocaine beforeEasy Rideron the street. AfterEasy Rider, it was everywhere\". Besides showing drug use on film, it was one of the first films to portray the hippie lifestyle. Hopper became arole modelfor some male youths who rejected traditional jobs and traditional American culture, partly exemplified by Fonda's long sideburns and Hopper wearing shoulder-length hair and a long mustache. They were denied rooms in motels and proper service in restaurants as a result of their radical looks.Their long hair became a point of contention in various scenes during the film.Journalist Ann Hornaday wrote: \"With its portrait", "\"With its portrait ofcountercultureheroes raising their middle fingers to the uptight middle-class hypocrisies,Easy Riderbecame the cinematic symbol of the 1960s, a celluloid anthem to freedom, macho bravado and anti-establishment rebellion\".Film critic Matthew Hays wrote \"no other persona better signifies the lost idealism of the 1960s than that of Dennis Hopper\". Hopper was unable to capitalize on hisEasy Ridersuccess for several years. In 1970 he filmedThe Last Movie, cowritten byStewart Sternand photographed byLászló Kovácsin Peru, and completed production in 1971. It won the prestigious CIDALC Award at that year's Venice Film Festival, but Universal Studios leaders expected a blockbuster likeEasy Rider, and did not like the film or give it an enthusiastic release, while American film audiences found it confounding – as convoluted as an abstract painting. On viewing the first release print, fresh from the lab, in his screening room at Universal,MCAfounderJules C. Steinrose from his chair and said, \"I", "chair and said, \"I just don't understand this younger generation.\"During the tumultuous editing process, Hopper ensconced himself at theMabel Dodge Luhan Housein Taos, New Mexico, which he had purchased in 1970,for almost an entire year. In between contesting Fonda's rights to the majority of the residual profits fromEasy Rider, he married singerMichelle PhillipsofThe Mamas and the PapasonHalloweenof 1970. The marriage lasted eight days. Hopper acted in another John Wayne film,True Grit(1969), and during its production, he became well acquainted with Wayne. In both of the films with Wayne, Hopper's character is killed in the presence of Wayne's character, to whom he utters his dying words. On September 30, 1970, Hopper appeared on the second episode of season 2 ofThe Johnny Cash Showwhere he sang a duet with Cash entitled \"Goin' Up Goin' Down\". Cash said the song was written byKris Kristoffersonabout Hopper. Hopper added that Kristofferson had written some songs for his Peruvian-shot movieThe Last Movie, in", "Last Movie, in which Kristofferson appeared in his debut role withJulie Adams.Hopper also recitedRudyard Kipling's famous poemIf—during his appearance.Hopper was able to sustain his lifestyle and a measure of celebrity by acting in numerouslow budgetand European films throughout the 1970s as the archetypal \"tormented maniac\", includingMad Dog Morgan(1976),Tracks(1976), andThe American Friend(1977). WithFrancis Ford Coppola's blockbusterApocalypse Now(1979), Hopper returned to prominence as a hyper-manic Vietnam-era photojournalist. Stepping in for an overwhelmed director, Hopper won praise in 1980 for his directing and acting inOut of the Blue. Immediately thereafter, Hopper starred as an addled short-order cook \"Cracker\" in theNeil Young/Dean Stockwelllow-budget collaborationHuman Highway. Production was reportedly often delayed by his unreliable behavior.Peter Biskindstates in theNew HollywoodhistoryEasy Riders, Raging Bullsthat Hopper's cocaine intake had reached three grams a day by this time,", "a day by this time, complemented by 30 beers, and some marijuana andCuba libres. After staging a \"suicide attempt\" (really more of a daredevil act) in a coffin using 17 sticks of dynamite during an \"art happening\" at the Rice University Media Center (filmed by professor and documentary filmmaker Brian Huberman),and later disappearing into the Mexican desert during a particularly extravagant bender, Hopper entered adrug rehabilitationprogram in 1983. Though Hopper gave critically acclaimed performances in Coppola'sRumble Fish(1983) andSam Peckinpah'sThe Osterman Weekend(1983), it was not until he portrayed the gas-huffing, obscenity-screaming villainFrank BoothinDavid Lynch'sBlue Velvet(1986) that his career truly revived. On reading the script Hopper said to Lynch: \"You have to let me play Frank Booth. Because I am Frank Booth!\"He won critical acclaim and several awards for this role, and in the same year received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his role as an alcoholic assistant basketball", "basketball coach inHoosiers. Also in 1986, Hopper portrayed Lt. Enright in thecomedy horrorThe Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. 1987–2009: Later work and final roles In 1987 he acted in theneo-noirthrillerBlack WidowalongsideDebra Winger, the action comedyStraight to Hell, the adventure filmRunning Out of LuckstarringMick Jaggerand the romantic comedyThe Pick-up ArtiststarringMolly RingwaldandRobert Downey Jr.In 1988, he directedColors, a critically acclaimedpolice proceduralabout gang violence in Los Angeles starringSean PennandRobert Duvall. Hopper plays an aging hippie prankster in the 1990 comedyFlashback, fleeing in aFurthur-like old bus to the tune of Steppenwolf's \"Born to Be Wild\". Hopper teamed with Nike in the early 1990s to make a series of television commercials. He appeared as a \"crazed referee\" in those ads.Hopper appeared on the final two episodes of the cult 1991 television showFishing with Johnwith hostJohn Lurie. He was nominated for thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited", "Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Moviefor the 1991 HBO filmParis Trout.Shortly thereafter, he played drug smuggler andDEAinformantBarry Sealin the HBO filmDoublecrossed. He starred asKing KoopainSuper Mario Bros., a 1993 critical and commercial failure loosely based on the video game of the same name.In 1993, he played Clifford Worley inTrue Romance. He co-starred in the 1994 blockbusterSpeedwithKeanu ReevesandSandra Bullock, and as magic-phobicH.P. Lovecraftin the TV movieWitch Hunt. In 1995, Hopper played a greedy TV self-help guru, Dr. Luther Waxling inSearch and Destroy. The same year, he starred as Deacon, the one-eyed nemesis ofKevin CostnerinWaterworld. And in 1996 he starred in the science fiction comedySpace Truckersdirected byStuart Gordon. Also in 1996 he appeared as art dealer Bruno Bischofberger in Basquiat. Hopper was originally cast as Christof in the 1998Peter Weirfilm,The Truman Show, but left during the filming due to \"creative differences\"; he was replaced byEd Harris.In 1999, he", "Harris.In 1999, he starred inThe Prophet's Game(a dark thriller), directed byDavid Worthand also starringStephanie Zimbalist, Robert Yocum,Sondra Locke,Joe PennyandTracey Birdsall. In 2003, Hopper was in the running for the dual lead in the indie horror dramaFirecracker, but was ousted at the last minute in favor ofMike Patton. In 2005, Hopper played Paul Kaufman in George A. Romero'sLand of the Dead. He portrayed villainVictor Drazenin the first season of the popular action drama24. Hopper starred as a U.S. Army colonel in the 2005 television seriesE-Ring, a drama set atThe Pentagon, but the series was canceled after 14 episodes aired. Hopper appeared in all 22 episodes that were filmed. He also played the part of record producer Ben Cendars in the Starz television seriesCrash, which lasted two seasons (26 episodes). In 2008, Hopper starred inAn American Carol. In 2008 he also played The Death inWim Wenders'Palermo Shooting. His last major feature film appearance was in the 2008 filmElegywithBen", "filmElegywithBen Kingsley,Penélope CruzandDebbie Harry. For his last performance, he was the voice of Tony, the alpha-male of the Eastern wolf pack in the 2010 animated filmAlpha and Omega. He died before the movie was released. This brought the directors to dedicate the film to his memory at the beginning of the movie credits. Hopper filmed scenes forThe Other Side of the Windin 1971, appearing as himself; after decades of legal, financial and technical delays, the film was finally released onNetflixin 2018. Photography and art Hopper had several artistic pursuits beyond film. He was a prolific photographer, painter, and sculptor. Hopper's fascination with art began with painting lessons at theNelson-Atkins Museumwhile still a child in Kansas City, Missouri.Early in his career, he painted and wrote poetry, though many of his works were destroyed in the 1961Bel Air Fire, which burned hundreds of homes, including his and his wife's, on Stone Canyon RoadinBel Air.His painting style ranges fromabstract", "ranges fromabstract impressionismtophotorealismand often includes references to his cinematic work and to other artists. Ostracized by the Hollywood film studios due to his reputation for being a \"difficult\" actor, Hopper turned to photography in 1961 with a camera bought for him by his first wifeBrooke Hayward.During this period he created the cover art for theIke & Tina TurneralbumRiver Deep – Mountain High(released in 1966).He became a prolific photographer, and noted writerTerry Southernprofiled Hopper inBetter Homes and Gardensas an up-and-coming photographer \"to watch\" in the mid-1960s.Hopper's early photography is known for portraits from the 1960s, and he began shooting portraits forVogueand other magazines. His photographs of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s 1963 March on Washington and the 1965 civil-rights march inSelma, Alabama, were published. His intimate and unguarded images ofAndy Warhol,Jane Fonda,The Byrds,Paul Newman,Jasper Johns,Claes Oldenburg,Robert Rauschenberg,James Brown,Peter Fonda,Ed", "Fonda,Ed Ruscha,the Grateful Dead,Michael McClure, andTimothy Leary, among others, became the subject of gallery and museum shows and were collected in several books, including1712 North Crescent Heights. The book, whose title refers to the house where he lived with Hayward in theHollywood Hillsin the 1960s, was edited by his daughterMarin Hopper.In 1960–67, before the making ofEasy Rider, Hopper created 18,000 images that chronicled the remarkable artists, musicians, actors, places, happenings, demonstrations, and concerts of that period.Dennis Hopper: Photographs 1961–1967was published in February 2011, byTaschen.German film directorWim Wenderssaid of Hopper that if \"he'd only been a photographer, he'd be one of the great photographers of the twentieth century.\"InThe New Yorker, Hopper, as photographer, was described as \"a compelling, important, and weirdly omnipresent chronicler of his times.\" Hopper began working as a painter and a poet as well as a collector of art in the 1960s as well, particularlyPop", "particularlyPop Art. Over his lifetime he amassed a formidable array of 20th- and 21st-century art, including many ofJulian Schnabel's works (such as a shattered-plate portrait of Hopper); numerous works from his early cohorts, such asEd Ruscha,Edward Kienholz,Roy Lichtenstein(Sinking Sun, 1964),and Warhol (Double Mona Lisa, 1963);and pieces by contemporary artists such asDamien HirstandRobin Rhode. He was involved in L.A.'sFerusandVirginia Dwangalleries in the 1960s, and he was a longtime friend and supporter to New York dealerTony Shafrazi.One of the first art works Hopper owned was an early print ofAndy Warhol'sCampbell's Soup Cansbought for US$75. Hopper also once owned Warhol'sMao, which he shot one evening in a fit of paranoia, the two bullet holes possibly adding to the print's value. The print sold at Christie's, New York, for US$302,500 in January 2011. During his lifetime, Hopper's own work as well as his collection was shown in monographic and group exhibitions around the world including the", "world including the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota; the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; theState Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; MAK Vienna: Austrian Museum of Applied Arts/Contemporary Art, Vienna; the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; and the Cinémathèque Française, Paris, and the Australian Centre for the Moving Image, Melbourne. In March 2010, it was announced that Hopper was on the \"short list\" for Jeffrey Deitch's inaugural show at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (MOCA).In April 2010, Deitch confirmed that Hopper's work, curated by Julian Schnabel, will indeed be the focus of his debut at MOCA.The title of the exhibition,Double Standard, was taken from Hopper's iconic 1961 photograph of the two Standard Oil signs seen through an automobile windshield at the intersection of Santa Monica Boulevard, Melrose Avenue, and North Doheny Drive on historicRoute 66in Los Angeles. The image was reproduced on the invitation forEd Ruscha's", "forEd Ruscha's second solo exhibition at Ferus Gallery in 1964. In 2011, Barricade Books published film historian Peter L. Winkler's biography,Dennis Hopper: The Wild Ride of a Hollywood Rebel.In 2013, HarperCollins publishedHopper: A Journey into the American Dream, a biography by American writerTom Folsom. On theGorillazalbumDemon Days, Hopper narrates the song \"Fire Coming Out of the Monkey's Head\". In the late 1980s, Hopper purchased a trio of nearly identical two-story, loft-style condominiums at 330 Indiana Avenue in Venice Beach, California – one made of concrete, one of plywood, and one of green roofing shingles – built byFrank Gehryand two artist friends of Hopper's,Chuck Arnoldiand Laddie John Dill, in 1981.In 1987, he commissioned an industrial-style main residence, with a corrugated metal exterior designed by Brian Murphy, as a place to display his artwork. Personal life According toRolling Stonemagazine, Hopper was \"one of Hollywood's most notorious drug addicts\" for 20 years. He spent much of", "He spent much of the 1970s and early 1980s living as an \"outcast\" inTaos, New Mexico, after the success ofEasy Rider. Hopper was also \"notorious for his troubled relationships with women\", includingMichelle Phillips, who divorced him after eight days of marriage.Hopper was married five times: Hopper has been widely reported to be the godfather of actressAmber Tamblyn;in a 2009 interview withParade, Tamblyn explained that \"godfather\" was \"just a loose term\" for Hopper,Dean StockwellandNeil Young, three famous friends ofher father's, who were always around the house when she was growing up, and who were big influences on her life. In 1994,Rip Tornfiled a defamation lawsuit against Hopper over a story Hopper told onThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno. Hopper claimed that Torn pulled a knife on him during pre-production of the filmEasy Rider. According to Hopper, Torn was originally cast in the film but was replaced withJack Nicholsonafter the incident. According to Torn's suit, it was actually Hopper who pulled the", "who pulled the knife on him. A judge ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was ordered to pay US$475,000 in damages. Hopper then appealed but the judge again ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was required to pay another US$475,000 in punitive damages. According to Newsmeat, Hopper donated US$2,000 to theRepublican National Committeein 2004 and an equal amount in 2005.Hopper donated $600 to Irish political partySinn Féin. Hopper was honored with the rank of commander ofFrance's National Order of Arts and Letters, at a ceremony in Paris. Despite being a Republican, Hopper supportedBarack Obamain the2008 presidential election.Hopper confirmed this in anelection dayappearance on theABCdaytime showThe View. He said his reason for not voting Republican was the selection ofSarah Palinas the Republicanvice presidential candidate. Hopper was a longtime friend of actressSally Kirkland, who admitted in a 2021Reelzdocumentary that they had aone-night standearly on in their friendship. Divorce from Victoria Duffy On January", "Duffy On January 14, 2010, Hopper filed for divorce from his fifth wife Victoria Duffy.After citing her \"outrageous conduct\" and stating she was \"insane\", \"inhuman\" and \"volatile\", Hopper was granted a restraining order against her on February 11, 2010, and as a result, she was forbidden to come within 10 feet (3 m) of him or contact him.On March 9, 2010, Duffy refused to move out of the Hopper home, despite the court's order that she do so by March 15. On April 5, 2010, a court ruled that Duffy could continue living on Hopper's property, and that he must pay US$12,000 per month spousal and child support for their daughter Galen. Hopper did not attend the hearing.On May 12, 2010, a hearing was held before Judge Amy Pellman in downtown Los Angeles Superior Court. Though Hopper died two weeks later, Duffy insisted at the hearing that he was well enough to be deposed.The hearing also dealt with who would be the beneficiary on Hopper's life insurance policy, which listed his wife as a beneficiary.A very ill", "very ill Hopper did not appear in court though his estranged wife did. Despite Duffy's bid to be named the sole beneficiary of Hopper's million-dollar policy, the judge ruled against her and limited her claim to one-quarter of the policy. The remaining US$750,000 was to go to his estate. Illness and death On September 28, 2009, Hopper, then 73, was reportedly taken by ambulance to an unidentified Manhattan hospital wearing an oxygen mask and \"with numerous tubes visible\".On October 2, he was discharged after receiving treatment for dehydration. On October 29, 2009, Hopper's manager Sam Maydew reported that he had been diagnosed with advancedprostate cancer.In January 2010, it was reported that Hopper's cancer hadmetastasizedto his bones. On March 18, 2010, he was honored with the 2,403rd star on theHollywood Walk of Famein front ofGrauman's Egyptian TheatreonHollywood Boulevard.Surrounded by family, fans, and friends—includingJack Nicholson,Viggo Mortensen,David Lynch, andMichael Madsen—he attended its", "attended its addition to the sidewalk six days later. By March 2010, Hopper reportedly weighed only 100 pounds (45 kg) and was unable to carry on long conversations.According to papers filed in his divorce court case, Hopper wasterminally illand was unable to undergochemotherapyto treat his prostate cancer. Hopper died at his home in the coastalVenicedistrict of Los Angeles, on May 29, 2010, at age 74.His funeral took place on June 3, 2010, atSan Francisco de Asis Mission ChurchinRanchos de Taos, New Mexico. His body was buried at the Jesus Nazareno Cemetery in Ranchos de Taos. The filmAlpha and Omega, which was among his last film roles, was dedicated to him, as was the 2011 filmRestless, which starred his son Henry Hopper. Filmography Other works Books Exhibitions Archive The moving image collection of Dennis Hopper is held at theAcademy Film Archive. The Dennis Hopper Trust Collection represents Hopper's directorial efforts. Awards and nominations References Bibliography Further reading External links", "Jason Statham Jason Statham(/ˈsteɪθəm/STAY-thəm; born 26 July 1967) is an English actor, producer, and former model and diver. He is known for portraying tough, gritty, or violent characters in variousaction thrillerfilms, and has been credited for leading the resurgence of action films during the 2000s and 2010s.By 2017, his films had grossed over£1.1 billion ($1.5 billion), making him one of the industry's mostbankable stars. Statham began practisingChinese martial arts,kickboxing, andkaraterecreationally in his youth while working at local market stalls. An avidfootballeranddiver, he was a member ofBritain's national diving teamand competed forEnglandin the1990 Commonwealth Games. Shortly after, he was asked to model forFrench Connection,Tommy Hilfiger, andLevi'sin various advertising campaigns. Statham's history of working at market stalls inspired his casting in theGuy Ritchiecrime filmsLock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels(1998) andSnatch(2000). The commercial success of these films led him to star", "led him to star asFrank Martinin theTransportertrilogy(2002–2008). After starring in a variety of heist and action thriller films such asThe Italian Job(2003),Crank(2006),War(2007),The Bank Job(2008),The Mechanic(2011),Spy(2015), andMechanic: Resurrection(2016), he established himself as a Hollywood leading man. He has since starred in the ensemble action seriesThe Expendables(2010–2023) and asDeckard Shawin theFast & Furiousfranchise, including the spin-offHobbs & Shaw(2019). Early life Jason Statham was born inShirebrookon 26 July 1967,the son of dancer Eileen (née Yates) and street seller Barry Statham.His father also worked odd jobs as a house painter, coal miner, and singer in theCanary Islands.Statham moved toGreat Yarmouth, where he initially chose not to follow his father's career working the local market stalls, instead practisingmartial arts. He grew up alongside football playerVinnie Jones, with whom he would later act; Jones introduced him tofootball, and Statham went on to play for the", "on to play for the localgrammar school, which he attended from 1978 to 1983. He was also a passionate aboutdiving, practising daily to perfect his techniques.He was a member of Britain'sNational Swimming Squadfor 12 years,and competed for England at the1990 Commonwealth Gamesin the 10 metre, 3 metre, and 1 metre events.He said in a 2003 interview that his time with the national squad was a \"great experience\" that taught him \"discipline, focus, and certainly out of trouble\". Statham was spotted by the sports modelling agency Sports Promotions while training at London'sCrystal Palace National Sports Centre. He was signed byTommy Hilfiger, Griffin, andLevi'sfor various modelling contracts during their 1996 spring and summer collections.In 1997, he became a model for the clothing brandFrench Connection. A spokesperson for the high street clothing chain said, \"We chose Jason because we wanted our model to look like a normal guy. His look is just right for now: very masculine and not too male-modelly.\"However, he", "he was still forced to follow in his father's footsteps as a street seller to make ends meet, stating that he sold \"fake perfume and jewellery on street corners\".He made small appearances in a few music videos, including \"Comin' On\" byThe Shamenin 1993, \"Run to the Sun\" byErasurein 1994,and \"Dream a Little Dream of Me\" byThe Beautiful Southin 1995. Career 2000–2010: Rise to prominence While working as a model for French Connection, Statham was introduced to fledgling filmmakerGuy Ritchie,who was developing a film and needed to fill the role of a streetwise con artist. After learning about Statham's past as a market stall salesman, Ritchie cast him in the crime comedy thrillerLock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels(1998).The film was well received by both critics and audiences, and helped put Statham in the public eye; for his role, he was paid£5,000.Statham's second collaboration with Ritchie came withSnatch(2000), which earned more than $80 million at the box office. For his role inSnatch, he was paid", "he was paid £15,000.He was then able to break into Hollywood and appeared in two films in 2001: the science fiction action horror filmGhosts of Marsand the science fiction martial arts action filmThe One. Statham was offered more film roles and was cast in the lead role of driver Frank Martin in the action filmThe Transporter(2002), written byLuc Besson.The film spawned two sequels,Transporter 2(2005) andTransporter 3(2008). He also played supporting roles inMean Machine(2002),The Italian Job(2003),and as the lead villain inCellular(2004). In 2005, Statham was once again cast by Ritchie to star in his new project,Revolver, which was a critical and box office failure.He played a dramatic role in theindependent filmLondonin 2006. That same year he played the lead role in the action filmCrank. Statham was asked to promoteCrankduring the 2006San Diego Comic-Con Convention.In 2008, Statham starred in the British crime thrillerThe Bank JobandDeath Race, a remake ofDeath Race 2000(1975). American film criticArmond", "film criticArmond Whitehailed Statham's ascension as an action film star. On the occasion ofDeath Race, White championed Statham's \"best track record of any contemporary movie star.\"Later in 2008, White praised Statham'sTransporter 3as a great example of kineticpop art. Chris Hewitt ofEmpire Magazine, noted the film as \"a dour, drab affair\", but credited the film with \"establishing Statham as a new action hero, as at ease with gruff one-liners as he was with Jackie Chan-esque high-kicking\". In 2009, Statham started to develop a new movie written byDavid PeoplesandJanet Peoples. Statham stated \"We've got a movie we're trying to do, written by David Peoples and Janet Peoples, in the vein of an old film,The Treasure of the Sierra Madre. It's not a remake or anything, but it's a little bit like that, about relationships and how greed contaminates the relationships these three people have. The working title isThe Grabbers.\"He reprised his role as Chev Chelios in the 2009 sequelCrank: High Voltage. In 2010,", "Voltage. In 2010, Statham appeared alongside fellow action starsSylvester Stallone,Jet Li,Dolph LundgrenandMickey Rourke, among others, in theensembleaction filmThe Expendables. Statham playsLee Christmas, a former SAS soldier and expert atclose quarters combatusing knives.The film was commercially successful, opening at number one at the box office in the United States, the United Kingdom, China and India, and grossed a total of $274 million worldwide. 2011–2015: Commercial expansion In his first film of 2011, Statham starred inthe remakeof the 1972Charles BronsonfilmThe Mechanicas Arthur Bishop. Atheatrical trailerdepicting Statham's character \"shooting a man's head off\"was banned from circulationby theAdvertising Standards Authorityfor showing excessive violence.His role inThe Mechanicwas positively reviewed by the critics both in the United States and the United Kingdom.The Guardianpraised his performance as possessing a \"now-customary efficiency\" in attaining \"an entertaining hitman thriller\".The New", "thriller\".The New York Timesnoted Statham as \"sleek as a bullet\"; and the film \"a more powerful recharge\" of the original.UK newspaper,The Daily Telegraphhailed Statham as \"England's best export to action movies in just about forever, a businesslike brute with gentlemanly soul.\"He returned to British film by starring in the police dramaBlitzasDetective SergeantTom Brant. The film received mixed reviews with Cath Clake ofThe Guardianreviewing it as \"not half bad\" and \"oddly entertaining\".He was then cast in the action filmKiller Elite. The film was based on real events, which were the subject ofSir Ranulph Fiennes' novelThe Feather Men. Statham played an assassin named Danny who comes out of retirement to save an old friend, played byRobert De Niro.The film grossed returned a negative budget, and was panned by the critics. In August 2011, he began filmingParkerfor directorTaylor Hackford; the film was released in January 2013. Statham playedParker, the criminal antihero previously played byMel Gibsonin", "byMel Gibsonin 1999'sPaybackand byLee Marvinin 1967'sPoint Blank(though their characters were given different surnames).A. O. ScottofThe New York Timessaid of the actor in the film: \", who seems to be made entirely of muscle and scar tissue, is comfortable with his limitations as an actor. His Parker, in any case, is more of an axiom than a fully rounded human being.\"A 2012BBC Newsreport estimated that his ten-year film career to date (2002 to 2012) yielded over one billion dollars in the box office, making him one of the industry's mostbankablestars.He was signed on to reprise his role as Lee Christmas inThe Expendables 2in 2012. In 2013, Statham had a cameo appearance at the end ofFast & Furious 6asthe brotherof the film's antagonist Owen Shaw (Luke Evans).He reprised the character, this time as the main antagonist, inFurious 7, which was released in April 2015.He also starred oppositeJames Francoin the thrillerHomefront, written bySylvester Stallone,and headlined the British thrillerHummingbird. The", "The latter film was praised by critics for pushing Statham's acting abilities to new heights. His \"attempt to develop his 'brand' by trying more adventurous parts\" noted byThe Guardian'sMark Kermode, \" his dramatic palette\".Statham made a cameo in the 2014 music videoSummerofCalvin Harrisas one of the car racers. In 2014, he returned as Lee Christmas inThe Expendables 3.Although critically panned,the film would go on to gross $215 million against a $90 million budget. In 2015 he starred in the action comedySpyalongsideMelissa McCarthy,Jude Law, andRose Byrne. The film, a commercial success, was particularly praised for showcasing Statham's comedic side in contrast to his more serious roles.According to an article byEmpiremagazine, aSpy 2was development in late 2015, with more screen time dedicated for Statham's character, Rick Ford.He was nominated for theCritic's Choice Awardfor Best Actor in a Comedy for his role inSpy. Statham was offered a three-film contract toreboottheTransporterseriesin late 2015, but", "late 2015, but turned it down because he was not given the script before the signing date and unhappy with its compensation package.According to an article byThe Guardian, Statham expressed interest in playingJames Bondin the upcomingSpectrefilm. Its author, Steve Rose noted that \"there was no doubt Statham can walk the Bond walk. And talking his talk can hardly be an issue with a character whose accent has fluctuated betweenSean Connery's Scottish brogue andTimothy Dalton's Welsh.\"After the interview there were multiple calls from critics and the public to instate him as James Bond in a future film. 2016–present: Continued success The sequel to his 2011 filmThe Mechanicwas scheduled for production in late 2016 and announced to open asMechanic: Resurrection.The film went on to become highly commercially successfully in international film markets grossing $109.4 million worldwide.According toForbes, the film was Statham's \"seventh-biggest earner\" and most commercially successful solo film venture of his", "film venture of his career. In February 2017, he starred alongsideGal Gadotin a 30-secondSuper Bowl advertisementforWix.comduringSuper Bowl LI.CNETreported that the advertisement reached 22 million user impressions.Statham was asked to re-join theFast & Furiousfranchise once more in 2016. The ensuing film,The Fate of the Furious, was released in April 2017 to commercial success. While the film overall received mixed reviews, Statham was praised for his comedic timing and onscreen chemistry with contemporaries.The film went on to be thethird highest-grossing film of 2017and the12th highest-grossing film of all time. Spy 2was confirmed on 15 February 2018.But later in 2018, Feig explained that although a sequel toSpycould still happen, \"there hasn't been any interest from the studio\" in the project. Statham played the lead, former Naval captain Jonas Taylor, in the 2018 action-horror filmThe Meg, which was released on 10 August. The film would go on to gross $527.8 million worldwide, becoming the", "becoming the highest-grossing U.S.-Chinese co-production of all time. In 2019, Statham reprised his role as Deckard Shaw again inFast & Furious Presents: Hobbs & Shaw, a spin-off of theFast & Furiousfranchise focusing on his andDwayne Johnson's characters.The film grossed $758 million worldwide, becoming thetenth highest-grossing film of 2019, and received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for Statham's performance. In 2022, Statham established his own production company, Punch Palace Productions. Public image An article by Adam Gabbatt inThe Guardiannoted that Statham's character contributions to his industry and film niche are \"tough uncompromising\".Some critics note his presence as a \"defining feature\" that signals to movie-goers the content of a film.The same exposé commented, \"You know what you're getting with a Jason Statham film. He will beat people up. He will crash cars. He will do an unconvincing American accent.\"Statham's impact on the action-thriller genre has been seen by", "has been seen by Gabbatt as a replacement of the same undertaken byArnold Schwarzenegger,Sylvester Stallone, andJean-Claude Van Dammeduring their runs as headliners throughout the 1980s and 1990s.Statham himself cites Stallone,Bruce Lee,Paul Newman,Steve McQueen, andClint Eastwoodas his inspirations. An article byTimes Higher Educationreported thatManchester University Presscommissioned an academic study analysing the impact Statham has had on the British and American film industries from his debut in 1998 to 2018. According to the article, professors Steven Gerrard and Robert Shail are looking to show \"the changing face of British cinematic masculinity\" into \"one that embraces cinema across a wide range of projects, but one that also uses cross-textual media in his output\". In popular media In 2003, Statham appeared in three British television commercials for theKit Katchocolate bar. Described as a \"break philosopher\", he philosophised about salmon swimming upstream, a Mexican fisherman, and the relative", "and the relative speeds and ages of animals, before ending with a reminder that \"taking a break\" (alluding to the Kit Kat slogan) is an important part of life. In the comic book seriesUltimate Spider-Man, that series' version of the villainVulturewas rendered by artistMark Bagleyto resemble actor Statham, per writerBrian Michael Bendis' instructions. In theTwenty One Pilotssong \"Pet Cheetah\" released in 2018, Statham is mentioned in the lyrics. Personal life Statham has been in a relationship with modelRosie Huntington-Whiteleysince 2010.The couple announced their engagement in January 2016.Their son was born in June 2017.Their daughter was born on 2 February 2022.They lived in California for a number of yearsbefore moving back to London in 2020. Statham enjoys wakeboarding, jet skiing, wind surfing, and rock climbing.While filming on location in Bulgaria forThe Expendables 3, he drove a truck off the road inVarnaand crashed into theBlack Seadue to malfunctioning brakes. In a 2013 interview withVanity Fair,", "withVanity Fair, Statham advocated forstunt performersto be given their own category at theAcademy Awards: \"All of the stunt men, these are the unsung heroes. They really are. Nobody is giving them any credibility. They're risking their necks. And then you've got poncy actors pretending like they're doing .\" In 2014, Statham was inducted into theInternational Sports Hall of Fame. Filmography Film Video games Music videos Commercials Awards and nominations Notes References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13_(2010_film", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expendables_(2010_film" ]
Which prime minister has been in office between 2017 and 2022 and also shares their middle name with a former monarch of Scotland.
Theresa (Mary) May
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_Truss
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishi_Sunak
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs
null
null
null
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Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_Truss', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishi_Sunak', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa_May", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_Truss", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishi_Sunak", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scottish_monarchs" ]
[ "List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom Theprime minister of the United Kingdomis the principal minister of the crown ofHis Majesty's Government, and the head of theBritish Cabinet. There is no specific date for when the office of prime minister first appeared, as the role was not created but rather evolved over time through a merger of duties.The term was regularly, if informally, used byRobert Walpoleby the 1730s.It was used in theHouse of Commonsas early as 1805,and it was certainly in parliamentary use by the 1880s,although did not become the official title until 1905, whenArthur Balfourwas prime minister. Historians generally considerRobert Walpole, who led the government of theKingdom of Great Britainfor over twenty years from 1721,to be the first prime minister. Walpole is also the longest-serving British prime minister by this definition.The first prime minister of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandwasWilliam Pitt the Youngerat its creation on 1 January 1801.The first to use the title in an official act wasBenjamin Disraeliwho signed the1878 Treaty of Berlinas \"Prime Minister of Her Britannic Majesty\". In 1905, the post of prime minister was officially given recognition in theorder of precedence,with the incumbentHenry Campbell-Bannermanthe first officially referred to as \"prime minister\". The first prime minister of the currentUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Irelandupon its effective creation in 1922 (when 26 Irish counties seceded and created theIrish Free State) wasBonar Law,although the country was not renamed officially until 1927, whenStanley Baldwinwas the serving prime minister. The incumbent prime minister isKeir Starmer, who assumed the office on 5 July 2024. Before the Kingdom of Great Britain Before theUnion of England and Scotlandin 1707, theTreasuryofEnglandwas led by theLord High Treasurer.By the lateTudor period, the Lord High Treasurer was regarded as one of theGreat Officers of State,and was often (though not always) the dominant figure in government:Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset(lord high treasurer, 1547–1549),served aslord protectorto his young nephew KingEdward VI;William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley(lord high treasurer, 1572–1598),was thedominant ministerto QueenElizabeth I;Burghley's sonRobert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, succeeded his father asChief Ministerto Elizabeth (1598–1603) and was eventually appointed by KingJames Ias lord high treasurer (1608–1612). By the lateStuart period, the Treasury was often run not by a single individual (i.e., the lord high treasurer) but by acommissionoflords of the Treasury,led by thefirst lord of the Treasury. The last lords high treasurer,Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin(1702–1710) andRobert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford(1711–1714),ran the government ofQueen Anne. From 1707 to 1721 Following the succession ofGeorge Iin 1714, the arrangement of a commission of lords of the Treasury (as opposed to a single lord high treasurer) became permanent.For the next three years, the government was headed byCharles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, who was appointedSecretary of State for the Northern Department.Subsequently, LordsStanhopeandSunderlandran the government jointly,with Stanhope managing foreign affairs and Sunderland domestic.Stanhope died in February 1721 and Sunderland resigned two months later;Townshend andRobert Walpolewere then invited to form the next government.From that point, the holder of theofficeof first lord also usually (albeit unofficially) held the status of prime minister. It was not until theEdwardian erathat the titleprime ministerwas constitutionally recognised.The prime minister still holds the office of first lord by constitutional convention,the only exceptions being theEarl of Chathamand theMarquess of Salisbury. Since 1721 Prime ministers Disputed prime ministers Due to the gradual evolution of the post of prime minister, the title is applied to early prime ministers only retrospectively;this has sometimes given rise to academic dispute.William Pulteney, 1st Earl of BathandJames Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegraveare sometimes listed as prime ministers.Bath was invited toform a ministrybyGeorge IIwhenHenry Pelhamresigned in 1746,as was Waldegrave in 1757 after the dismissal ofWilliam Pitt the Elder,who dominated the affairs of governmentduring the Seven Years' War. Neither was able to command sufficient parliamentary support to form a government; Bath stepped down after two daysand Waldegrave after four.Modern academic consensus does not consider either man to have held office as prime minister;they are therefore listed separately. List notes Timeline See also References Citations Works cited Further reading External links", "Theresa May Theresa Mary May, Baroness May of Maidenhead,PC(/təˈriːzə/;néeBrasier; born 1 October 1956), is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United KingdomandLeader of the Conservative Partyfrom 2016 to 2019. She previously served asHome Secretaryfrom 2010 to 2016. She wasMember of Parliament(MP) forMaidenheadfrom 1997 to 2024, and has been a member of theHouse of Lordssince August 2024. May is the second female British prime minister, afterMargaret Thatcher, and the first woman to have held two of theGreat Offices of State. Ideologically, May is aone-nation conservative. May grew up inOxfordshireand attendedSt Hugh's College, Oxford. After graduating in 1977, she worked at theBank of Englandand theAssociation for Payment Clearing Services. She also served as a councillor for Durnsford inMerton. After two unsuccessful attempts to be elected to theHouse of Commons, she was elected as the MP for the new seat of Maidenhead at the1997 general election. From 1999 to 2010, May held several roles inshadow cabinetsand wasChair of the Conservative Partyfrom 2002 to 2003. Followingthe formationof thecoalition governmentafter the2010 general election, May was appointed home secretary andminister for women and equalities, giving up the latter role in 2012. Reappointed after the Conservatives won the2015 general election, she became the longest-serving home secretary in more than 60 years. Duringher tenure as home secretary, she pursued reform of thePolice Federation, implemented a harder line ondrugs policy, including banningkhat, and furtherrestricted immigration. She oversaw the introduction of electedpolice and crime commissioners, the deportation ofAbu Qatadaand the creation of theCollege of Policingand theNational Crime Agency. Although she supported the unsuccessfulremain campaign, May supportedBrexitfollowing the outcome of the2016 referendum. Shewas electedand appointed prime minister unopposed to succeedDavid CameronafterAndrea Leadsomwithdrew from the contest. As prime minister, May began the process of withdrawing the UK from the EU, triggeringArticle 50in March 2017. In April, she announceda snap general election, with the aim of strengthening her hand inBrexit negotiationsand highlighting her \"strong and stable\" leadership. This resulted in ahung parliamentwith the number of Conservative seats reduced to 317 (from 330), despite the highest vote share since 1983 and the largest increase in electoral support enjoyed by a governing party since 1832. The loss of anoverall majorityprompted her to entera confidence-and-supply arrangementwith theDemocratic Unionist Party(DUP) of Northern Ireland to supporta minority government. Following the 2017 election,May's premiershipcontinued to be dominated by Brexit, in particular by her government's negotiations with the EU, adhering to theChequers plan, which led to a draftBrexit withdrawal agreement. Other events that occurred during May's premiership includedterrorist attacks in Westminster,at the Manchester Arenaandat London Bridge, theGrenfell Tower fireand theWindrush scandal. Her government announced theNHS Long Term Planand was responsible for negotiating and approving the near-entirety of the UK'sterms of exitfrom the EU.May was also a prominent figure in leading the international condemnation and response to Russia over thepoisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripalin March 2018. May survived two votes of no confidence in December 2018 andin January 2019, but after versions of her draft withdrawal agreementwere rejected by Parliamentthree times and her party's poor performance in the2019 European Parliament election, she left office in July and was succeeded byBoris Johnson, her formerforeign secretary. May remained in the House of Commons as abackbencheruntil she stood down at the2024 general election, and was succeeded as MP for Maidenhead by theLiberal Democrats'Joshua Reynolds. She was elevated to the House of Lords later that year as Baroness May of Maidenhead. Inhistorical rankings of prime ministers, academics and journalists have ranked May in the bottom fourth quartile. Early life and education Theresa May was born on 1 October 1956 inEastbourne, Sussex. She is the only child of Zaidee Mary (née Barnes; 1928–1982) and Hubert Brasier (1917–1981).Her father was aChurch of Englandclergyman (and anAnglo-Catholic)who was chaplain of an Eastbourne hospital.He later became vicar ofEnstonewithHeythropand finally ofSt Mary'sat Wheatley, to the east of Oxford.May's mother was a supporter of the Conservative Party.Her father died in 1981, from injuries sustained in a car accident, and her mother ofmultiple sclerosisthe following year.May later stated she was \"sorry they never saw me elected as a Member of Parliament\". May initially attended Heythrop Primary School, a state school in Heythrop, followed by St. Juliana's Convent School for Girls, aRoman Catholicindependent school inBegbroke, which closed in 1984. At the age of 13, May won a place at the former Holton Park Girls' Grammar School, a state school inWheatley.During her time as a pupil, the Oxfordshire education system was reorganised, and the school became the newWheatley Park Comprehensive School.May attended theUniversity of Oxford, readgeographyatSt Hugh's College, and graduated with a second classBAdegree in 1977.She was taught political geography at St Hugh's byJohn Patten, Baron Patten, a future ConservativeSecretary of State for EducationunderJohn Major.At St Hugh's, May's contemporaries included the barrister Alicia Collinson, wife of May's future deputyDamian Green; businesswomanLouise Patten; and Emma Hood, wife of former Oxford University Vice-ChancellorJohn Hood. May worked at a bakery on Saturdays to earn pocket money and was a \"tall, fashion-conscious young woman who from an early age spoke of her ambition to be the first woman prime minister,\" according to those who knew her.A university friend, Pat Frankland, said, \"I cannot remember a time when she did not have political ambitions.\" Early career Between 1977 and 1983, May worked at theBank of England. From 1985 to 1997, she was a financial consultant at theAssociation for Payment Clearing Services(APACS).She served as Head of the European Affairs Unit from 1989 to 1996 and Senior Adviser on International Affairs from 1996 to 1997 in the organisation. May served as a councillor for Durnsford wardon theBorough Councilof theLondon Borough of Mertonfrom 1986 to 1994, where she was Chairman of Education (1988–1990) and Deputy Group Leader and Housing Spokesman (1992–1994). In the1992 general electionMay was the Conservative Party candidate for the safe Labour seat ofNorth West Durham, placing second to incumbent MPHilary Armstrong, with future Liberal Democrat leaderTim Farronplacing third.May then stood at the1994 Barking by-election, which was prompted by the death of Labour MPJo Richardson. The seat had been continuously held by Labour since it was created in 1945, and Labour candidateMargaret Hodgewas expected to win easily, which she did. May placed a distant third. Election Around 18 months ahead of the1997 general election, May was selected as the Conservative candidate forMaidenhead, a new seat which was created from parts of thesafeseats ofWindsor and MaidenheadandWokingham.She was elected comfortably with 25,344 votes (49.8%), almost double the total of second-placed Andrew Terence Ketteringham of the Liberal Democrats, who took 13,363 votes (26.3%).Despite this, her party suffered their worst defeat in over 150 years. Early parliamentary career Having enteredParliament, May became a member ofWilliam Hague's front-benchOppositionteam, as Shadow Spokesman for Schools, Disabled People and Women (1998–1999). She became the first of the 1997 MPs to enter the Shadow Cabinet when in 1999 she was appointed Shadow Education and Employment Secretary. After the2001 electionthe new Conservative leaderIain Duncan Smithkept her in the Shadow Cabinet, moving her to the Transport portfolio. May was appointed the first femaleChairman of the Conservative Partyin July 2002. During her speech at the 2002 Conservative Party Conference, she explained why, in her view, her party must change: \"You know what people call us? The Nasty Party. In recent years a number of politicians have behaved disgracefully and then compounded their offences by trying to evade responsibility. We all know who they are. Let's face it, some of them have stood on this platform.\"She accused some unnamed colleagues of trying to \"make political capital out of demonising minorities\", and charged others with indulging themselves \"in petty feuding or sniping instead of getting behind a leader who is doing an enormous amount to change a party which has suffered two landslide defeats\". She admitted that constituency selection committees seemed to prefer candidates they would \"be happy to have a drink with on a Sunday morning\", continuing to say, \"At the last general election 38 new Tory MPs were elected. Of that total, only one was a woman and none was from an ethnic minority. Is that fair? Is one half of the population entitled to only one place out of 38?\" In 2003, afterMichael Howard's election as Conservative Party and Opposition Leader in November that year, May was appointed ShadowSecretary of State for Transport and the Environment. In June 2004, she was moved to becomeShadow Secretary of State for the Family. Following the2005 general electionshe was also made ShadowSecretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. AfterDavid Cameron's election as Conservative Party and Opposition Leader, he appointed May asShadow Leader of the House of Commonsin December 2005 and asShadow Minister for Women and Equalityin July 2007. In January 2009, May was made ShadowSecretary of State for Work and Pensions. On 6 May 2010, May was re-elected MP for Maidenhead with an increased majority of 16,769 – 60% of the vote. This followed an earlier failed attempt by the Liberal Democrats to unseat her in 2005, as one of that party's leading \"decapitation-strategy\" targets. Home Secretary Following theformationof thecoalition governmentafter the2010 general electionon 12 May 2010, May was appointedHome SecretaryandMinister for Women and Equalitiesby Prime Minister David Cameron as part of his first Cabinet. She became the fourth woman to hold one of the BritishGreat Offices of State, afterMargaret Thatcher(Prime Minister),Margaret Beckett(Foreign Secretary) andJacqui Smith(Home Secretary).As Home Secretary, May was also a member of theNational Security Council.She was the longest-serving Home Secretary for over 60 years, sinceJames Chuter Edewho served over six years and two months from August 1945 to October 1951. May's appointment as Home Secretary was somewhat unexpected, withChris Graylinghaving served as shadow Home Secretary in opposition. May's debut as Home Secretary involved overturning several of the previous Labour government's measures on data collection and surveillance in England and Wales. By way of a government bill which became theIdentity Documents Act 2010, she brought about the abolition of the Labour government'sNational Identity Cardand database schemeand reformed the regulations on the retention of DNA samples for suspects and controls on the use ofCCTVcameras. In May 2010, May announced the adjournment of the deportation to the United States of alleged computer hackerGary McKinnon.She also suspended the registration scheme for carers of children and vulnerable people, with May saying that the measures were \"draconian. You were assumed to be guilty until you were proven innocent, and told you were able to work with children.\"On 4 August 2010, it was reported that May was scrapping the former Labour government's proposed \"go orders\" scheme to protect women fromdomestic violenceby banning abusers from the victim's home. In June 2010, May faced her first major national security incident as Home Secretary with theCumbria shootings.She delivered her first major speech in theHouse of Commonsas Home Secretary in a statement on this incident,later visiting the victims with the Prime Minister.Also in June 2010, May banned the Indian Muslim preacherZakir Naikfrom entering the United Kingdom. According toThe Daily Telegraph, a Home Office official who disagreed with this decision was suspended.In late June 2010, May announced plans for a temporary cap on UK visas for non-EU migrants.The move raised concerns about the impact on the British economy. In August 2013, May supported the detention ofDavid Miranda, partner ofGuardianjournalistGlenn Greenwald, under theTerrorism Act 2000, saying that critics of the Metropolitan Police action needed to \"think about what they are condoning\".Lib Dem peer and former Director of Public ProsecutionsKen Macdonaldaccused May of an \"ugly and unhelpful\" attempt to implicate those who were concerned about the police action of \"condoning terrorism\".The High Court subsequently acknowledged there were \"indirect implications for press freedom\" but ruled the detention legal.A 2016 ruling by theCourt of Appealfound that the provision of the Terrorism Act used for Miranda's detention was \"incompatible with theEuropean convention on human rights\", but that the detention itself was lawful. May also championed legislation popularly dubbed theSnooper's Charter, requiring internet and mobile service providers to keep records of internet usage, voice calls, messages and email for up to a year in case police requested access to the records while investigating a crime. The Liberal Democrats had blocked thefirst attempt,but after the Conservative Party obtained a majority in the 2015 general election May announced a newDraft Investigatory Powers Billsimilar to the Draft Communications Data Bill, although with more limited powers and additional oversight. Police and crime Speaking at theAssociation of Chief Police Officers(ACPO) conference in June 2010, May announced radical cuts to the Home Office budget, likely to lead to a reduction in police numbers.In July 2010, May presented the House of Commons with proposals for a fundamental review of the previous Labour government's security and counter-terrorism legislation, including \"stop and search\" powers, and her intention to review the 28-day limit on detaining terrorist suspects without charge. In July 2010, May announced a package of reforms to policing in England and Wales in theHouse of Commons.The previous Labour Government's central crime agency,Soca (Serious Organised Crime Agency), was to be replaced by a newNational Crime Agency. In common with the Conservative Party 2010 general election manifesto's flagship proposal for a \"Big Society\" based on voluntary action, May also proposed increasing the role of civilian \"reservists\" for crime control. The reforms were rejected by the OppositionLabour Party. Following the actions of some members ofBlack Blocin vandalising allegedlytax-avoidingshops and businesses on the day of the March 2011 TUC march, the Home Secretary unveiled reformscurbing the right to protest, including giving police extra powers to remove masked individuals and to police social networking sites to preventillegal protestwithout police consent or notification. In 2012, despite inquiries by bothScotland Yardand theIndependent Police Complaints Commissionruling that there was no new evidence to warrant further investigation, after discussions withDoreen Lawrence, May commissionedMark Ellisonto review Scotland Yard's investigations into alleged police corruption.The report was presented to Parliament by May on 6 March 2014.Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe,Commissioner of the Metropolitan Policesaid the report, which has prompted an inquiry into undercover policing, was \"devastating\". In July 2013, May welcomed the fact that crime had fallen by more than 10% under the coalition government, while still being able to make savings. She said that this was partly due to the government removing red tape and scrapping targets to allow the police to concentrate on crime-fighting. In 2014, May delivered a speech to thePolice Federation, in which she criticised aspects of the culture of the police force.In the speech, she said: When you remember the list of recent revelations about police misconduct, it is not enough to mouth platitudes about \"a fewbad apples\". The problem might lie with a minority of officers, but it is still a significant problem and a problem that needs to be addressed ... according to one survey carried out recently, only 42% of black people from a Caribbean background trust the police. That is simply not sustainable ... I will soon publish proposals to strengthen the protections available to whistleblowers in the police. I am creating a new criminal offence of police corruption. And I am determined that the use of stop and search must come down, become more targeted and lead to more arrests. On 9 December 2010, in the wake of violentstudent demonstrationsin central London against increases to higher-educationtuition fees, May praised the actions of the police in controlling the demonstrations but was described byThe Daily Telegraphas \"under growing political pressure\" due to her handling of the protests. In December 2010, May declared that deployment of water cannon by police forces in mainland Britain was an operational decision which had been \"resisted until now by senior police officers.\"She rejected their use following thewidespread rioting in summer 2011and said: \"the way we police in Britain is not through use of water cannon. The way we police in Britain is through consent of communities.\" May said: \"I condemn utterly the violence in Tottenham... Such disregard for public safety and property will not be tolerated, and the Metropolitan Police have my full support in restoring order.\" In the aftermath of the riots May urged the identification of as many as possible of the young criminals involved. She said: \"when I was in Manchester last week, the issue was raised to me about the anonymity of juveniles who are found guilty of crimes of this sort. The Crown Prosecution Service is to order prosecutors to apply for anonymity to be lifted in any youth case they think is in the public interest. The law currently protects the identity of any suspect under the age of 18, even if they are convicted, but it also allows for an application to have such restrictions lifted, if deemed appropriate.\" May added that \"what I've asked for is that CPS guidance should go to prosecutors to say that where possible, they should be asking for the anonymity of juveniles who are found guilty of criminal activity to be lifted\". Anti-social behaviour In July 2010, May proposed to review the previousLabourGovernment's anti-social behaviour legislation signalling the abolition of the \"Anti-Social Behaviour Order\" (ASBO). She identified the policy's high level of failure with almost half of ASBOs breached between 2000 and 2008, leading to \"fast-track\" criminal convictions. May proposed a less punitive, community-based approach to tackling social disorder. May suggested that anti-social behaviour policy \"must be turned on its head\", reversing the ASBO's role as the flagship crime control policy legislation under Labour.Former Labour Home SecretariesDavid Blunkett(who introduced ASBOs) andAlan Johnsonexpressed their disapproval of the proposals. Drug policy In July 2013, May decided to ban the stimulantkhat, against the advice of theAdvisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs(ACMD). The council reached the conclusion that there was \"insufficient evidence\" it caused health problems.Explaining the change in the classification May said: \"The decision to bring khat under control is finely balanced and takes into account the expert scientific advice and these broader concerns\", and pointed out that the product had already been banned in the majority of other EU member states, as well as most of the G8 countries including Canada and the US.A report on khat use by the ACMD published in January 2013 had noted the product had been associated with \"acute psychotic episodes\", \"chronic liver disease\" and family breakdown. However, it concluded that there is no risk of harm for most users, and recommended that khat remain uncontrolled due to lack of evidence for these associations. Liberal Democrat ministerNorman Bakeraccused May of suppressing proposals to treat rather than prosecute minor drug offenders from a report into drug policy commissioned by the Home Office.The Home Office denied that its officials had considered this as part of their strategy. Baker cited difficulties in working with May as the reason for his resignation from the Home Office in the run-up to the 2015 general election. Immigration In 2010, May promised to bring the level of net migration down to less than 100,000.The Independentreported in February 2015, \"TheOffice for National Statistics(ONS) announced a net flow of 298,000 migrants to the UK in the 12 months to September 2014—up from 210,000 in the previous year.\"In total, 624,000 peoplemigrated to the UKin the year ending September 2014 and 327,000 left in the same period. Statistics showed \"significant increases in migration among both non-EU citizens—up 49,000 to 292,000—and EU citizens, which rose by 43,000 to 251,000.\" In May 2012 she toldThe Daily Telegraphof her intention \"to create here in Britain areally hostile environmentfor illegal migration\". May rejected the European Union's proposal ofcompulsory refugee quotas.She said that it was important to help people living in war-zone regions and refugee camps but \"not the ones who are strong and rich enough to come to Europe\".In May 2016,The Daily Telegraphreported that she had tried to save £4m by rejecting an intelligence project to use aircraft surveillance to detect illegal immigrant boats. Family migration In June 2012, May announced that new restrictions would be introduced to reduce the number of non-European Economic Areafamily migrants. The changes were mostly intended to apply to new applicants after 9 July 2012. The newly introduced rules came into effect on 9 July 2012 allowing only those British citizens earning more than £18,600 to bring their spouses or their children to live with them in the UK. This figure would rise significantly in cases where visa applications are also made for children. They also increased the current two-year probationary period for partners to 5 years. The rules also prevent any adult and elderly dependents from settling in the UK unless they can demonstrate that, as a result of age, illness ordisability, they require a level of long-term personal care that can only be provided by a relative in the UK. TheHouse of Lordswas concerned about the immigration issue and therefore addressed the PM in Parliament as to whether she had examined the impact on communities and families on modest incomes, but it received no direct response.The human rights groupLibertyconcluded that the new rules showed scant regard to the impact they would have on genuine families.TheAll-Party Parliamentary Groupon Migration conducted an evidence based inquiry into the impact of the rules and concluded in their report that the rules were causing very young children to be separated from their parents and could exileBritish citizensfrom the UK. Deportation decisions At the Conservative Party Conference in October 2011, while arguing that the Human Rights Act needed to be amended, May gave the example of a foreign national who the Courts ruled was allowed to remain in the UK, \"because—and I am not making this up—he had a pet cat\". In response, the Royal Courts of Justice issued a statement, denying that this was the reason for the tribunal's decision in that case, and stating that the real reason was that he was in a genuine relationship with a British partner, and owning a pet cat was simply one of many pieces of evidence given to show that the relationship was \"genuine\". The Home Office had failed to apply its own rules for dealing with unmarried partners of people settled in the UK.Amnesty International said May's comments only fuelled \"myths and misconceptions\" about the Human Rights Act and Justice SecretaryKenneth Clarkesubsequently called May's comments \"laughable and childlike.\" In June 2012, May was found incontempt of courtby Judge Barry Cotter, and stood accused of \"totally unacceptable and regrettable behaviour\", being said to have shown complete disregard for a legal agreement to free an Algerian from a UK Immigration Detention Centre. As she eventually allowed the prisoner to be freed, May avoided further sanctions including fines or imprisonment. May responded to a Supreme Court decision in November 2013 to overturn her predecessorJacqui Smith's revocation of Iraqi-born terror suspect Al Jedda's British citizenship by ordering it to be revoked for a second time, making him the first person to be stripped twice of British citizenship. May was accused byLord Roberts of Llandudnoof being willing to allow someone to die \"to score a political point\" over the deportation of mentally ill Nigerian man Isa Muazu.According to Muazu's solicitor, May had arranged for the asylum seeker, who was said to be \"near death\" after a 100-day hunger strike, to be deported by a chartered private jet.To strengthen the Home Office's tough stance, an \"end of life\" plan was reportedly offered to Muazu, who was one of a number of hunger strikers at theHarmondsworth Immigration Removal Centre. Abu Qatada deportation In July 2013,Abu Qatada, a radical cleric arrested in 2002, was deported toJordanafter a decade-long battle that had cost the nation £1.7 million in legal fees,and several prior Home Secretaries had not resolved.The deportation was the result of a treaty negotiated by May in April 2013, under which Jordan agreed to give Qatada a fair trial, by not using evidence that may have been obtained against him through torture. May pointed to Qatada's deportation as a triumph, guaranteeing in September 2013 that \"he will not be returning to the UK\", and declaring in her 2016 leadership campaign announcement that she was told that she \"couldn't deport Abu Qatada\" but that she \"flew to Jordan and negotiated the treaty that got him out of Britain for good\".The Qatada deportation also shaped May's views on theEuropean Convention on Human RightsandEuropean Court of Human Rights, saying that they had \"moved the goalposts\" and had a \"crazy interpretation of our human rights laws\", as a result, May has since campaigned against the institutions, saying that British withdrawal from them should be considered. \"Go Home\" advertisements In August 2013, the Home Office engaged in an advertising campaign directed at illegal immigrants.The advertisements, in the form of mobile advertising hoardings on the back of lorries, told illegal immigrants to \"go home or face arrest\", with an image of a person in handcuffs, and were deployed in six London boroughs with substantial ethnic minority populations. They were widely criticised as creating ahostile atmospherefor members of ethnic minority groups.The shadow Home Secretary,Yvette Cooper, described their language as being reminiscent of that used by theNational Frontin the 1970s.An adjudication by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) said that \"the claim was misleading and had not been substantiated\" was followed by the advertisements being withdrawn after being banned by the ASA. Passport backlog In mid 2014, the Passport Office faced a backlog in developing processing passport applications, with around 30,000 applications hit by delays.David Cameron suggested this had come about due to the Passport Office's receiving an \"above normal\" 300,000-rise in applications.It was revealed, however, that May had been warned the year before, in July 2013, that a surge of 350,000 extra applications could occur owing to the closure of processing overseas under Chancellor Osborne's programme of cuts.Around £674,000 was paid to staff who helped clear the backlog. Windrush scandal In April 2018, May'shostile environment policybecame the focus of British politics in what came to be known as theWindrush scandal, in which members of theWindrush generationof Afro-Caribbean Britons were threatened with deportation by the Home Office and in at least 83 cases, illegally deported from the UK.The policy also affected the lives of many thousands of people who were in the United Kingdom legally by causing them to be sacked from employment,preventing access to health care, illegally demanding money,exiling them and preventing their return to the UK,and leaving them destitute. The scandal led to the resignation of May's successorAmber Ruddas Home Secretary,and her replacement bySajid Javid.Responding to questions in Parliament on the Windrush scandal on 25 April, May maintained that the hostile environment policy would remain government policy. Birmingham schools row In June 2014, an inflamed public argument arose between Home Office andEducationMinisters about responsibility foralleged extremism in Birmingham schools.Prime MinisterDavid Cameronintervened to resolve the row, insisting that May sack herSpecial AdvisorFiona Cunningham(now Hill) for releasing on May's website a confidential letter to May's colleagues,and thatMichael Gove, the Education Secretary, apologise to the Home Office'shead of Security and Counter-Terrorism,Charles Farr, for uncomplimentary briefings of him appearing on the front page ofThe Times. Minister for Women and Equalities May held the office ofMinister for Women and Equalitiesin parallel to her office of Home Secretary from 2010 to September 2012, when this role was taken over byMaria Miller. May's appointment as Minister for Women and Equalities was controversial, and was met with criticism by many in theLGBT communitydue to May's record of consistently opposingLGBT rightsfrom 1997 to 2004:she voted against equalising the age of consent in 1998, she spoke in favour ofSection 28in 2001,and she spoke against greateradoption rights for homosexualsin 2002.May later stated, during an appearance on the BBC'sQuestion Timein 2010, that she had \"changed her mind\" on gay adoption.Writing forPinkNewsin June 2010, May detailed proposals for improving LGBT rights including measures to tackle homophobia in sport, advocating British society's need for \"cultural change\". In July 2010, May stated she would be supporting the previous Labour Government's Anti-Discrimination Laws enshrined in theEquality Act 2010despite having previously opposed it.The Equality Act came into effect in England, Wales and Scotland on 1 October 2010.She did however announce that a clause she dubbed \"Harman's Law\"which would have requiredpublic bodiesto consider how they can reduce socio-economic inequalities when making decisions about spending and serviceswould be scrapped on the grounds that it was \"unworkable\". Leadership bid In June 2016, May announced her candidacy for the leadership of the Conservative Party to succeedDavid Cameron, who resigned following the outcome of theEuropean Union membership referendumin which 52 per cent of voters voted in favour of leaving the EU. May emphasised the need for unity within the party regardless of positions on leaving the EU, saying she could bring \"strong leadership\" and a \"positive vision\" for the country's future. Despite having backed a vote to remain in the EU, she insisted that there would be no second referendum, saying: \"The campaign was fought... and the public gave their verdict. There must be no attempts to remain inside the EU, no attempts to rejoin it through the back door... Brexit means Brexit\". An opinion poll that day found 47 per cent of people choosing May as their preferred candidate to be prime minister. May's supporters included a number of Cabinet ministers, such asAmber Rudd,Chris Grayling,Justine Greening,Jeremy Hunt,Michael FallonandPatrick McLoughlin.She received the most votes in the first round of voting on 5 July, receiving support from 165 MPs, with rivalsAndrea Leadsomreceiving 66 votes andMichael Gove48.The two candidates with the fewest votes,Liam FoxandStephen Crabb, immediately announced their support for May.May came in first place in the second ballot on 7 July with an overwhelming majority of 199 MPs, compared with 84 for Leadsom and 46 for Gove, who was eliminated.Afterwards, May stated that she was delighted with her support among MPs, and she progressed to a vote of the Conservative Party membership against Leadsom. In July, Leadsom announced her withdrawal from the leadership contest hours after May had made her first official campaign speech, saying her lack of support amongst Conservative MPs compared to May would be too great a hindrance to becoming a credible prime minister.As the sole remaining candidate, May was formally declared Leader of the Conservative Party that evening. Premiership (2016–2019) Appointment On 13 July 2016, two days after becoming Leader of the Conservative Party, May was appointed prime minister byQueenElizabeth II, becoming the second female British prime minister afterMargaret Thatcher.Addressing the world's media outside10 Downing Street, May said that she was \"honoured and humbled\" to become prime minister. On becoming prime minister, May became the first woman to have held two of theGreat Offices of State. Responding to some calls for an early general election, \"sources close to Mrs May\" said there was no need for such an election.In a speech after her appointment, May emphasised the term \"Unionist\" in the name of theConservative Party, reminding all of \"the precious, precious bond between England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.\"By 15 July, May had travelled toEdinburghto meet with First MinisterNicola Sturgeonto reinforce the bond between Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom. \"I'm coming here to show my commitment to preserving this special union that has endured for centuries,\" she explained. Cabinet changes May's first Cabinet appointment was described byReutersas \"one of the most sweeping government reshuffles for decades\", and called \"a brutal cull\" byThe Daily Telegraph.Nine of Cameron's ministers, including several prominent members, were sacked or resigned from their posts.The early appointments were interpreted both as an effort to reunite the Conservative Party in the wake of the UK's vote to leave the EU and as \"a shift to the right,\" according toThe Guardian.ITV's Political EditorRobert Pestoncommented: \"Her rhetoric is more left-wing than Cameron's was, her cabinet is more right-wing than his was.\"Although May had supported remaining in the EU, she appointed several of the most prominent advocates ofBrexitto key Cabinet positions responsible for negotiating theUnited Kingdom withdrawal from the European Union, includingBoris JohnsonasForeign Secretary,David DavisasBrexit Secretary, andLiam FoxasInternational Trade Secretary, the latter two being new positions.Other key appointees includedAmber RuddasHome SecretaryandPhilip HammondasChancellor of the Exchequer. First term (2016–2017) TheFirst May ministrydelayed the final approval for theHinkley Point C nuclear power stationin July 2016, a project which May had objected to when she was Home Secretary.Herpolitical adviserNick Timothywrote an article in 2015 to oppose China's involvement in sensitive sectors. He said that the government was \"selling ournational securityto China\" withoutrationalconcerns and \"the Government seems intent on ignoring the evidence and presumably the advice of the security and intelligence agencies\". In July 2016, whenGeorge Kerevanasked her whether she would be prepared to authorise the killing of a hundred thousand innocent persons by a nuclear strike; during the \"Tridentdebate\" inside theHouse of Commons, May said \"Yes. And I have to say to the honourable gentleman: the whole point of a deterrent is that our enemies need to know that we would be prepared to use it. Unlikesome suggestionsthat we could have a nuclear deterrent but not actually be willing to use it, which come from theLabour Partyfrontbench.\" On 20 July, May attended her firstPrime Minister's Questionssince taking office, then afterwards made her firstoverseas trip as prime minister, visiting Berlin for talks with German ChancellorAngela Merkel. During the visit, May said that she would not triggerArticle 50 of the Treaty of Lisbon—the process for withdrawing from the European Union—before 2017, suggesting it would take time for the UK to negotiate a \"sensible and orderly departure\" from the EU. However, although Merkel said it was right for the UK to \"take a moment\" before beginning the process, she urged May to provide more clarity on a timetable for negotiations. Shortly before travelling to Berlin, May had also announced that in the wake of the referendum, Britain would relinquish thepresidency of the Council of the European Union, which passes between member states every six months on a rotation basis, and that the UK had been scheduled to hold in the second half of 2017. May supported theSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemenand defended selling arms toSaudi Arabia,which is accused of committing war crimes in Yemen,insisting that Britain's close relationship with Saudi Arabia was \"helping keep people on the streets of Britain safe\". On 21 January 2017, following theinauguration of Donald Trumpas US President, theWhite Houseannounced that May would meet the President on 27 January, making her the first foreign leader to meet Trump since he took office on 20 January.In a joint press conference, May indicated an interest in increased trade between the United States and the United Kingdom. She also affirmed a desire to maintain an American involvement in NATO.May was criticised by members of major parties, including her own, for refusing to condemn Trump'sExecutive Order 13769, as well as for inviting Trump to a state visit withQueen Elizabeth II. In January 2017, when it came to light that a Trident test had malfunctioned in June 2016, May refused to confirm whether she knew about the incident when she addressed parliament. May's Chancellor,Philip Hammond, continued government policies of freezing benefits in his 2017 budget. 2017 general election In May announced that she would call a parliamentary vote to hold anearly general electionon 8 June, saying that it was the \"only way to guarantee certainty and security for years ahead\".May had previously ruled out an early election on five occasions over nine months.The election was the first snap election held under theFixed-term Parliaments Act 2011after MPs gave May the two-thirdssuper-majorityrequired. Unveiling the Conservative manifesto inHalifaxon 18 May, May promised a \"mainstream government that would deliver for mainstream Britain\".It proposed to balance the budget by 2025, raise spending on the NHS by £8bn per annum and on schools by £4bn per annum by 2022, remove the ban on new grammar schools,means-testthewinter fuel allowance, replace thestate pension\"triple lock\" with a \"double lock\" and require executive pay to be approved by a vote of shareholders.It also contained May's previously-announced flagship energy reform of acap on gas and electricity bills for householdson standard variable tariffs.It dropped the 2015 pledge to not raise income tax or national insurance contributions but maintained a commitment to freezeVAT.Newsovereign wealth fundsfor infrastructure, rules to prevent foreign takeovers of \"critical national infrastructure\" andinstitutes of technologywere also proposed.The manifesto was noted for its intervention in industry, lack of tax cuts and increased spending commitments on public services.On Brexit it committed to leaving the single market andcustoms unionwhile seeking a \"deep and special partnership\" and promised a vote in parliament on the final agreement. The manifesto also proposed reforms tosocial care in Englandthat would raise the threshold for free care from £23,250 to £100,000 while including property in the means test and permitting deferred payment after death.After attracting substantial media attention, four days after the manifesto launch May stated that the proposed social care reforms would now include an \"absolute limit\" on costs in contrast to the rejection of a cap in the manifesto.She criticised the \"fake\" portrayal of the policy in recent days by Labour and other critics who had termed it a \"dementia tax\".Evening StandardeditorGeorge Osbornecalled the policy change a \"U-turn\".The Financial Timescontrasted her \"Strong and Stable\" leadership slogan with her own record of nine rapid U-turns claiming she was \"making a habit of retreating from policies.\" The general election in June resulted in a hung parliament, prompting her to broker adealwithNorthern Ireland'sDemocratic Unionist Party(DUP), involving £1 billion of additional public funding for Northern Ireland. Second term (2017–2019) Less than two weeks after the 2017 State Opening of Parliament, May ordered a fullpublic inquiryinto thecontaminated blood scandal.For this she was widely praised as successive governments going back to the 1980s had refused such an inquiry, some though speculated that May had simply been forced to announce the inquiry after a group legal action and news of fresh evidence were brought by Jason Evans.Additionally, Andy Burnham had threatened to take evidence to the police if an inquiry were not announced.With over 1,000 core participants, theInfected Blood Inquiryis the biggest public inquiry ever held in the UK. Myanmar May is the first British prime minister to visitBuenos Airesafter theFalklands War.In November 2017, May said theactionsofMyanmar Armyand police against theRohingya Muslimminority inMyanmar\"looks like ethnic cleansing\".According to May, \"it is something for which the Burmese authorities – and especially the military – must take full responsibility.\"From the 2017 general election to December 2017, May suffered no defeats in whipped votes in the House of Commons.On 13 December 2017, May lost a vote on theEU Withdrawal Billby 309 votes to 305, due to 11 Conservatives voting against the government, includingStephen Hammondwho was then vice-chairman of the Conservative Party. Russia May accused Russia of \"threatening the international order\", \"seeking to weaponise information\" and \"deploying its state-run media organisations to plant fake stories\".She further suggested the country had been meddling in the2017 German federal electionin contradiction of German government officials and security experts, who had dismissed the possibility. May's government accused Russia for orchestrating thepoisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal. The UK's official assessment of this incident was supported by 28 other countries, who expelled an unprecedented total of 153 Russian diplomats. May said in the House of Commons on 12 March: It is now clear that Mr Skripal and his daughter were poisoned with a military-grade nerve agent of a type developed by Russia. This is part of a group of nerve agents known as 'Novichok'. Based on the positive identification of this chemical agent by world-leading experts at the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory at Porton Down; our knowledge that Russia has previously produced this agent and would still be capable of doing so; Russia's record of conducting state-sponsored assassinations; and our assessment that Russia views some defectors as legitimate targets for assassinations; the Government has concluded that it is highly likely that Russia was responsible for the act against Sergei and Yulia Skripal. Mr Speaker, there are therefore only two plausible explanations for what happened in Salisbury on 4 March. Either this was a direct act by the Russian State against our country. Or the Russian government lost control of this potentially catastrophically damaging nerve agent and allowed it to get into the hands of others. China May promised to confront China on human rights but was praised inCommunist Party-controlledmediafor \"sidestepping\"human rights in Chinaduring her first official visit to the country.TheGlobal Timessaid: \"For the Prime Minister, the losses outweigh the gains if she appeases the British media at the cost of the visit's friendly atmosphere.\" Assassination plot In 2017,Islamic StateterroristNaa'imur Zakariyah Rahmanwas foiled in a plot to assassinate May atDowning Street. Turkey In May 2018, during a three-day state visit to the UK by Turkish presidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan, May declared that Britain is a \"true friend\" ofTurkey, but she added that \"It is important that in defence of democracy, which has been facing extraordinary pressures from thefailed coup, instability across the border from Syria and fromKurdish terrorism, Turkey does not lose sight of the values it is seeking to defend.\" Contempt of Parliament On 4 December 2018, on a motion passed by MPs by 311 to 293 votes,theMay Governmentwas found incontempt of Parliament; the firstgovernmentto be found in contempt in history.The vote was triggered by the government failing to lay before Parliament any legal advice on the proposed withdrawal agreement on the terms of theUK's departure from the European Union, after ahumble addressfor a return was unanimously agreed to by the House of Commons on 13 November 2018. The government then agreed to publish the full legal adviceforBrexitthat was given to thePrime Ministerby theAttorney Generalduring negotiations with theEuropean Union. Vote of confidence (Conservative Party) In December 2018, May faced a vote of confidence in her leadership of the Conservative Party over opposition to hernegotiated Brexit deal, after the number of Conservative MPs exceeded the 48 no-confidence letter threshold that the1922 Committee Chairman, SirGraham Bradyrequired for the vote of confidence to be held.May won the vote with 200 Conservative MPs voting for her, compared to 117 voting against.As part of her speech to theParliamentary Conservative Partybefore the confidence vote was opened, it was reported that May conceded that she would step down as prime minister after deliveringBrexitand would not lead the Conservative Party into the next General Election in exchange for Conservative MPs voting to have confidence in her leadership so that she would be able to keep the party, Parliament and the UK stable during the final stages of Brexit. May later confirmed this toBBC NewsPolitical editor,Laura Kuenssbergafter meeting EU leaders, includingJean-Claude Junckerin Brussels. Vote of no confidence (House of Commons) On 17 December 2018 in theHouse of Commons, theLeader of the OppositionandLabour Party Leader,Jeremy Corbyn, tabled amotion of no confidencein May'spremiership, citing May's refusal to set the date for themeaningful voteon her Brexit deal before Christmas, and instead pushing it back to mid-January.The following day thegovernmentrefused to allow time for the motion to be debated.John Bercow,Speaker of the House of Commons, confirmed that they were under no obligation to do so.Following the defeat of May's Brexit deal on 15 January 2019, Corbyn tabled amotion of no confidencein the Government, to be voted on by parliament the following evening.The motion was defeated by 325 votes to 306; a majority of 19. Brexit deal defeats In January 2019, May's government was defeated in the House of Commons by a margin of 230 votes (202 in favour and 432 opposed) in a vote on her deal to leave the European Union (\"first meaningful vote\"). It was the largest majority against a United Kingdom government in history. In March, May was again defeated in the Commons by 149 votes (242 in favour and 391 against) on her latest deal after she secured last-minute concessions from the EU (\"second meaningful vote\").May was then again defeated by 58 votes in the Commons (286 in favour and 344 against) on the withdrawal deal but not the political declaration (\"third meaningful vote\"). Resignation I will shortly leave the job that it has been the honour of my life to hold – the second female Prime Minister but certainly not the last. I do so with no ill-will, but with enormous and enduring gratitude to have had the opportunity to serve the country I love. On 27 March 2019 at a meeting of the1922 Committee, May confirmed that she will \"not lead the UK in the next stage ofBrexitnegotiations\", meaning she was expected to resign after the third meaningful vote, if it had passed successfully.However, no date was stated, and her reported wording was ambiguous and thus carried no binding force.On 29 March, the third meaningful vote was defeated, and while May did not state anything in regards to standing down, Corbyn stated that if May could not find an alternative to her deal \"she must go, not at an indeterminate date in the future but now.\" On 22 April it was announced that the leaders of 70Conservative Associationshad signed a petition calling for a vote of no confidence. Under party rules an Extraordinary General Meeting must be convened if one is demanded by 65 associations. The non-binding vote, to be determined by 800 of the party's senior officials, would be the first time such an instance has occurred.On 24 April, the party's1922 Committeeruled out changing the leadership challenge rules, but its chair,Graham Brady, asked for clarity on when May would step down from office. On 24 May she confirmed that she would resign asConservative Party leaderon 7 June,stating, \"it is now clear to me that it is in the best interests of the country for a new prime minister to leadthat effort.\"She continued to serve as prime minister until she tendered her resignation tothe Queenon 24 July. This coincided with the arrival ofBoris Johnsonas prime minister, who waselectedby the Conservative Party membership.By constitutional convention May did not step down until she assured the Queen that Johnson would be able to command the confidence of the House of Commons. In one of May's lastPrime Minister's Questions,Barry Sheerman, the Labour MP forHuddersfield, urged May not to \"cut and run\" and instead reconsider her resignation. May responded by saying she would return to the role of a backbench MP after leaving office. On 24 July 2019, May ended her consecutive service at the frontbench since 1998 when she had been appointed Shadow Spokesman for Schools, Disabled People and Women. Ministerial resignations May's premiership had 51 resignations with 33 relating to Brexit. These included 12 departures from the Cabinet. The pace and number of resignations have been described as 'unprecedented' by theInstitute for Government,with resignations impacting the functioning of the government.In less than three years, May received more resignations thanThatcher(11 years) orBlair(10 years). TheChief WhipJulian Smithdescribed May's Cabinet as exhibiting the 'worst cabinet ill-discipline in history'. Public opinion May had a high approval rating during her first week as prime minister. The results of an Ipsos MORI survey released in July 2016 indicated that 55% of those surveyed believed that May was a suitable PM while only 23% believed that the Labour Leader Jeremy Corbyn would make a good prime minister. AComRespoll taken in September 2016 after her election suggested May was seen as substantially more \"in touch with ordinary British people\" than her predecessor David Cameron and a majority of voters saw her as \"the right person to unite the country\". At the beginning of 2017, nearly six months after becoming prime minister, aComResfound May was the most popular UK politician with a net rating of +9 which was described as the longest honeymoon period enjoyed by any sitting Conservative prime minister since the end of the Second World War. The Conservative Party had a 21-point lead over Labour in a poll released the day before May announced a snap electionbut this lead narrowed substantially.In mid-June, following the election, a YouGov poll showed that May's popularity had dropped to a rating of −34.In April 2018, May had a higher approval rating than Corbyn for the first time since the general election, leading him by −13 to −23. Plans to reformsocial carecame to dominate the Conservative election campaign during the 2017 snap election, with some arguing it ultimately cost May her majority.May's promisedgreen paperon the future of adult social care was plagued by frequent delays, ultimately never materialising during her premiership.A December 2019 poll bylearning disabilitiescharity Hft found that 59% of social care providers in England believed that the situation in social care worsened under May's premiership, compared to just 3% who said it was slightly better. Political positions May has identified herself with theone-nation conservativeposition within her party. Since coming into prominence as a front-bench politician, May's public image has divided media opinion, especially from some in the traditionalist right-wing press.Commenting on May's debut as Home Secretary, Anne Perkins ofThe Guardianobserved that \"she'll be nobody's stooge\",whileCristina OdoneofThe Daily Telegraphpredicted her to be \"the rising star\" of the Coalition Government.Allegra Stratton, then withThe Guardian, praised May as showing managerial acumen. Describing her as aliberal Conservative, theFinancial Timescharacterised May as a \"non-ideological politician with a ruthless streak who gets on with the job\", in doing so comparing her to German ChancellorAngela Merkel.Conversely, inThe Independent, Rebecca Glover of the Policy Innovation Research Unit contrasted May toBoris Johnson, claiming that she was \"staunchly more conservative, more anti-immigration, and more isolationist\" than he was. During her leadership campaign, May said that \"We need an economy that works for everyone\", pledging to crack down on executive pay by making shareholders' votes binding rather than advisory and to put workers onto company boards(although she later claimed that the last pledge was not to be mandatory), policies thatThe Guardiandescribes as going further than theLabour Party's2015 general electionmanifesto. After she became prime minister, May's first speech espoused the left, with a promise to combat the \"burning injustice\" in British society and to create a union \"between all of our citizens\" and promising to be an advocate for the \"ordinary working-class family\" and not for the affluent in the UK. \"The government I lead will be driven not by the interests of the privileged few but by yours. We will do everything we can to give you more control over your lives ... When we take the big calls, we'll think not of the powerful, but you. When we pass new laws we'll listen not to the mighty, but to you. When it comes to taxes we'll prioritise not the wealthy but you.\" May has described herself as a personal supporter of fox hunting with hounds, saying that foxes' numbers had to be controlled and that hunting them with dogs was the most humane way to do it. The Conservative manifesto for the 2017 election included a pledge to hold a parliamentary vote to repeal theHunting Act 2004, which prohibits a range of hunting activities. After the Conservatives' manifesto for the 2017 election was released, some people, includingFraser NelsonofThe Spectator,called her a \"red Tory\", saying that she had moved her party to the left in politics.Politicocalled her policies \"Mayism\", saying that Mayism was \"a working-class conservatism openly critical of the \"cult of individualism\" and globalization\". May praised the former prime ministerWinston Churchilland has a portrait of Churchill on the wall of her study. May's spokesman said: \"The prime minister has quoted and referenced Sir Winston Churchill on many occasion and acknowledged him as one of the great prime ministers of the 20th century.\" May welcomed the arrest of WikiLeaks founderJulian Assange, saying that \"no one is above the law.\"Assange had fled to the Ecuadorian embassy in London in 2012 after being accused of sexual assault in Sweden. He is also wanted by the US for \"conspiracy to commit computer intrusion\" relating to the Wikileaks release of classified material in 2010, including footage of US soldiers killing civilians in Iraq. Foreign policy In 2003, Mayvoted to approve the invasion of Iraqand in 2013 voted in favour ofBritish military interventionin theSyrian civil war. TheMay Ministrydelayed the final approval for theHinkley Point C nuclear power stationin July 2016, a project which May had objected to when she was Home Secretary.Herpolitical adviserNick Timothywrote an article in 2015 to oppose People's Republic of China's involvement in sensitive sectors. He said that the government was \"selling ournational securityto China\" withoutrationalconcerns and \"the Government seems intent on ignoring the evidence and presumably the advice of the security and intelligence agencies.\" Politicians and human rights activists urged Theresa May's government to vote against Saudi Arabian retention of the membership of theUN Human Rights Council.Amnesty International's UK Foreign Policy Programme Director Polly Truscott said: \"Rather than turning a blind eye to Saudi Arabia's continuing bully tactics, the UK should publicly hold the Saudi authorities to account for its appalling human rights record and the ongoingwar crimes in Yemenand should stop selling weapons to Saudi as a matter of urgency.\"May defended selling arms to Saudi Arabia stating that close ties with the country \"keep people on the streets of Britain safe\". Economic policy Prior to her premiership, May outlined plans to backtrack on the longstanding government plan to achieve a surplus by 2020, following the UK'swithdrawal from the European Union. With uncertainty surrounding the economic outlook,Chancellor of the ExchequerPhilip Hammondhas suggested that the government'sAutumn Statementmay be used to \"reset\" economic policy. In 2015, while May was Home Secretary, an 18% funding cut in the police force had taken place with the loss of around 20,000 police officers. Before theManchester Arena bombingand after theParis attacks, she was warned by aManchestersenior police officer that the cuts in the force andcommunity policingrisked terror attacks in the city due to the lack of resources to undertake proper intelligence and anti-terrorist measures. In May and Hammond's 2017 budget, continued government policies were confirmed regarding freezing benefits. May's government published aGreen Paperin November 2016 which considered forcing companies to reveal the difference between what their CEOs are paid and what their ordinary workers are paid.On 1 January 2019 new regulations came into force for UK listed companies with over 250 employees to annually disclose the ratio of their CEO's pay to the median, lower quartile, and upper quartile pay of their UK employees. Workers' representatives Before her premiership began, May said that she planned to have workers represented on company boards, saying \"If I'm prime minister ... we're going to have not just consumers represented on company boards, but workers as well.\"May aimed to put workers' and consumers' representatives on boards to make them more accountable.Nils Pratley, a journalist atThe Guardian, wrote in July \"Fundamental principles of Britain's boardroom governance are being rethought. It is a very welcome development. In the more enlightened quarters of the UK corporate world, they can see that boardroom pay has eroded trust in business.\"Workers' representatives, it appeared, would have made UK companies more like those in Germany and France.May was accused of backtracking in November 2016 when she said that firms would not be forced to adopt the proposal, saying \"there are a number of ways in which that can be achieved\". Environmental policy Following the impact ofBlue Planet IIin 2017, the May administration outlined plans to approve further green policy. A particular focus has been on plastic and its impact on the environment. Her government's \"25 Year Environment Plan\" was published in January 2018:targets were set for achievement of a number of environmental benefits with dates ranging from 2025 to 2060.In March 2018, May announced plans for a plastic deposit scheme modelled on a similar policy in Norway to boost recycling. EU and Brexit May publicly stated her support for the UK remaining in the EU during the 2016 referendum campaign, but did not campaign extensively in the referendum and criticised aspects of the EU in a speech.It was speculated by political journalists that May had sought to minimise her involvement in the debate to strengthen her position as a future candidate for the Conservative party leadership.Some in David Cameron's ministry likened May to a \"submarine\" on the issue ofBrexitdue to her perceived indifference towards the referendum and the EU. In a leaked recording prior to the Brexit referendum, May stated: I think the economic arguments are clear. I think being part of a 500-million trading bloc is significant for us. I think, as I was saying to you a little earlier, that one of the issues is that a lot of people will invest here in the UK because it is the UK in Europe. If we were not in Europe, I think there would be firms and companies who would be looking to say, do they need to develop a mainland Europe presence rather than a UK presence? So I think there are definite benefits for us in economic terms. May also said Britain was more secure as part of the EU due to the European arrest warrant and Europe-wide information sharing among other factors. She said, \"There are definitely things we can do as members of the European Union that I think keep us more safe\". May's public reticence during the referendum campaign resulted in tensions with David Cameron and his pro-EU team.Following the referendum and her election as party leader, May signalled that she would support full withdrawal from the EU and prioritise immigration controls over remaining within the single market, leading some to contrast this with her earlier remarks on the earlier economic arguments.She later went on to say before the2017 United Kingdom general electionthat she would be willing to leave the EU without a deal, saying that \"no deal is better than a bad deal. We have to be prepared to walk out\".TheLib Demleader,Tim Farron, said it was \"disappointing that Theresa May lacked the political courage to warn the public as she did a bunch of bankers in private about the devastating economic effects of Brexit. More disappointing is that now she is supposedly in charge, she is blithely ignoring her own warnings and is prepared to inflict an act of monumental self-harm on the UK economy by pulling Britain out of the single market.\"Phil Wilsonfor theOpen Britaingroup said, \"It's good to know that privately Theresa May thinks what many of us have been saying publicly for a long time, leaving the single market would be bad for businesses and for our economy. Now she is prime minister, Theresa May is in an unrivalled position to act on her previous concerns, starting by putting membership of the single market at the heart of her government's negotiating position.\" On 22 September 2017, May officially made public the details of her Brexit proposal during a speech inFlorence,urging the European Union to maintain a transitional period of two years after Brexit during which trade terms remain unaltered.During this period, the UK would also continue to honour its budget commitments of about €10 billion per annum, and accept immigration from Europe.Her speech was criticised by leading EuroscepticNigel Farage.The European Union's Brexit negotiatorMichel Barnierwelcomed May's proposal as \"constructive,\"but said it also \"must be translated into negotiating positions to make meaningful progress.\" May did not initially wish to give MPs a vote on withdrawal from theEuropean Union.Nicky Morganstated \"in 2016 MPs aren't asking for a veto but they do want a say and we hope the Prime Minister will remember her earlier words\".Anna SoubryandNick Cleggalso called for more parliamentary involvement.In November 2016, theHigh Courtruled inR (Miller) v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Unionthat parliament must vote on the decision to leave the EU but May appealed to theSupreme Court.Nicola Sturgeon, ScottishFirst Ministerhas joined the case as did representatives from Wales and Northern Ireland. Sturgeon felt that theScottish Parliamentshould also consent to the UK triggering of Article 50. She said she was not seeking to prevent England and Wales leaving but wanted to preserve Scotland's place in the EU.In the end the Supreme Court required a vote in the UK parliament. May was accused of not having a plan if Brexit talks broke down. There were fears that if talks failed Britain could be left trading underWTOrules which it was feared by some analysts would seriously damage jobs and livelihoods in Britain and Europe. May's ministers repeatedly promised to walk away from a bad final deal but, it was argued by some commentators, had no plans for how to manage without a deal.Ivan Rogersdescribed May's Brexit strategy as \"an accident waiting to happen\". He said completing Brexit was \"guaranteed\" to take a decade and alleged May's hopes of a trade deal made to order meant that instability in the next few months was \"quite likely\". In late October 2018, the National Audit Office claimed that it was already too late to prepare the necessary Irish border security checks in the event of aNo-dealscenario—a weakness that could be exploited by criminals. On 5 February 2019, May gave a speech to business leaders in Belfast to address Brexit stating the United Kingdom's relationship with Ireland was closer than the 26 other members of the EU. She affirmed the government's \"absolute\" commitment to the Good Friday Agreement and stated that Britain would seek to have no hard border in Northern Ireland. It was reported in 2020 that former MI6 operativeChristopher Steeleaccused May, while Boris Johnson was foreign secretary, of ignoring claims that Russia may have secretly funded Brexit. Steele accuses May's government of selling British interests short by not taking matters further: \"In this case, political considerations seemed to outweigh national security interests. If so, in my view, HMG made a serious mistake in balancing matters of strategic importance to our country.\" In July 2020 theIntelligence and Security Committeereport on Russia was released. It stated that the British government and intelligence agencies failed to conduct any assessment of Russian attempts to interfere with the 2016 Brexit referendum. It stated the government \"had not seen or sought evidence of successful interference in UK democratic processes\".Stewart Hosie, SNP member said \"The report reveals that no one in government knew if Russia interfered in or sought to influence the referendum because they did not want to know\". However, the report stated no firm conclusion could be ascertained on whether the Kremlin had or had not successfully interfered in the referendum. Feminism In 2005, May co-founded the mentoring and pressure groupWomen2Win. This group and May's personal efforts have been credited with increasing the number of Conservative women MPs and with supporting them. In government she lobbied for improvements to maternity leave, and as Home Secretary she acted onFGMand introduced a law oncoercive control. However, she has been criticised for the financial cuts made by her government, which have been claimed to have had the greatest impact on poor and vulnerable women. Same-sex relationships In 1998, May voted againstlowering the age of consent for homosexual acts.May was also a supporter ofSection 28, calling a failed repeal in 2000 to be \"a victory for commonsense\".She was absent for the vote when it was successfully repealed in 2003.She also voted against theAdoption and Children Act 2002that allowed same-sex couples to adopt. Beginning in 2012, however, May expressed support for the introduction ofsame-sex marriageby recording a video for theOut4Marriagecampaign,in which she stated \"I believe if two people care for each other, if they love each other, if they want to commit to each other... then they should be able to get married and marriage should be for everyone\".In May 2013, May voted in favour of theMarriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill, which legalised same-sex marriage inEngland and Wales.In 2017, May apologised for her past votes while taking credit for helping advance LGBT rights within her party. Post-premiership (2019–present) After leaving10 Downing Street, May took her place on the backbenches, remaining an MP to \"devote her full time\" to her constituency of Maidenhead, Berkshire.In the2019 general electionshe was re-elected as the constituency's MP. In May 2020, May criticisedDominic Cummingswhen he brokelockdown rulesduring theCOVID-19 pandemic.She abstained in the vote on the second lockdown in Parliament. On 13 July 2021, May was one of 24 Conservative MPs who voted against their party, defying the whip for the first time in 24 years, over the government's proposal to cut its foreign aid budget. She criticised the government, saying in an address to Parliament, \"We made a promise to the poorest people in the world. The Government have broken that promise.\" Amid thePartygatescandal, May was critical ofBoris Johnsonafter the publication of the summary of theSue Gray report, stating \"either my right honourable friend had not read the rules or didn't understand what they meant and others around him, or they didn't think the rules applied to Number 10. Which was it?\" On 16 March 2022, Russia banned May from visiting the country overits invasion of Ukraine. In September 2023, the House of Commons official portrait of May by artist Saied Dai was unveiled.In a radio interview withNick Robinsonshe said that her Brexit deal would have been better and that she regretted saying \"nothing has changed\".Also in that month, May's book titledThe Abuse of Power - Confronting Injustice in Public Lifewas published.In October 2023, May appeared as the guest star in 2 episodes ofThe Rest Is Politics: Leading, hosted byAlastair Campbell, and a former minister in her government,Rory Stewart. In March 2023, May was reselected as the Conservative candidate for Maidenhead at the2024 general election,however in March 2024, May announced that she would not seek re-election as an MP at the general election, joininga record number of Conservative MPs standing down at the election. May said she is spending much of her time on causes \"close to my heart\": \"These causes have been taking an increasing amount of my time. Because of this, after much careful thought and consideration, I have realised that, looking ahead, I would no longer be able to do my job as an MP in the way I believe is right and my constituents deserve.\"Prime MinisterRishi Sunakcalled May a \"relentless campaigner\" who had been \"fiercely loyal\" to Maidenhead, and added that she \"defines what it means to be a public servant\". Her predecessorDavid Cameroncalled her \"a brilliant public servant\" who could \"hold her head high\", and said she had done much to \"modernise the Conservative Party and promote women in public life\".Leader of the OppositionKeir Starmerthanked May for her service, saying that she had \"served this House and her constituents with a real sense of duty\" and added that her \"unwavering commitment to ending modern slavery is commented by all of us.\"She was succeeded as MP for Maidenhead byLiberal DemocratJoshua Reynolds, the first liberal MP to be elected to represent this constituency in over 100 years. May has been mentioned as a possible candidate to replace NATO Secretary-GeneralJens Stoltenbergfollowing his retirement. In June 2021, British Secretary of State for DefenceBen Wallaceexpressed support for a potential May candidacy, saying \"she would be an excellent candidate.\"Following her retirement from the House of Commons, May has been identified as a potential candidate in the2024 University of Oxford Chancellor electionto succeedChris Patten. Peerage After standing down as an MP, May was nominated for alife peeragein the2024 Dissolution Honours.She was createdBaroness May of Maidenhead, of Sonning in the Royal County of Berkshire, on 21 August 2024.She wasintroducedto theHouse of Lordson 12 September 2024. Personal life May has been married toSir Philip May, aninvestment relationship manager,since 6 September 1980.It has been reported that former prime minister of PakistanBenazir Bhuttointroduced the two during their time at Oxford.May credits future Australian prime ministerMalcolm Turnbullfor encouraging Philip to propose to her.May has expressed regret that she and her husband did not have children.The Mays are passionatewalkers, and they regularly spend their holidays hiking in theSwiss Alps.May is also acricketfan, stating that SirGeoffrey Boycottwas one of her sporting heroes.She also enjoys cooking, and has said that she owns 100 cookery books. Philip has said that she \"is a very good cook\". May and her husband reside in the Thames village ofSonningwhich is within her former constituency.She is the first cousin once removed of the Labour MPAlistair Strathern. May is a member of theChurch of Englandand regularly worships at church (usually atSt Andrew's, Sonning) on Sundays.The daughter of an Anglican priest, Hubert Brasier, May has said that her Christian faith \"is part of me. It is part of who I am and therefore how I approach things\".She was raised in theAnglo-CatholicorHigh Churchtradition of Anglicanism, of which herMirfield-trainedfather was a proponent. May is known for a love of fashion, and in particular of distinctive shoes; she wore leopard-print shoes at her 'Nasty Party' speech in 2002, as well as her final Cabinet meeting as Home Secretary in 2016. OnDesert Island Discsin 2014, she chose a subscription toVogueas her luxury item.However, she has been critical of the media focusing on her fashion instead of her achievements as a politician. May was diagnosed withdiabetes mellitus type 1in November 2012. She is treated with dailyinsulininjections. Honours and arms Commonwealth honours Foreign honours Scholastic Honorary degrees Freedom of the City Memberships and Fellowships Awards Prior to and since her appointment to Government, May has actively supported a variety of campaigns on policy issues in her constituency and at national level. She has spoken at theFawcett Societypromoting the cross-party issue of gender equality. She is the Patron ofReading UniversityConservative Association, in Berkshire (the county of her Maidenhead constituency).Her activism has earned her a number of awards. She was nominated as one of the Society's Inspiring Women of 2006.In February 2013,BBC Radio 4'sWoman's Hourdescribed her as Britain's second-most powerful woman after QueenElizabeth II;May was Home Secretary at the time, and the most senior woman in that government. In 2001 she was made aLiverymanof theWorshipful Company of Marketors. In September 2017, she was listed byForbesas the second most powerful woman in the world, behindAngela Merkel. Arms See also References Further reading External links", "Boris Johnson Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson(born 19 June 1964) is a British politician and writer who served asPrime Minister of the United KingdomandLeader of the Conservative Partyfrom 2019 to 2022. He was previouslyForeign Secretaryfrom 2016 to 2018 andMayor of Londonfrom 2008 to 2016. He wasMember of Parliament(MP) forHenleyfrom 2001 to 2008 andUxbridge and South Ruislipfrom 2015 to 2023. In his youth Johnson attendedEton CollegeandBalliol College, Oxford, and he was electedPresident of the Oxford Unionin 1986. In 1989 he began writing forThe Daily Telegraph, and from 1999 to 2005 he was the editor ofThe Spectator. He became a member of theShadow CabinetofMichael Howardin 2001 before being dismissed over a claim that he had lied about an extramarital affair. After Howard resigned Johnson became a member ofDavid Cameron'sShadow Cabinet. Hewas elected Mayor of London in 2008and resigned from theHouse of Commonsto focus his attention on the mayoralty. He wasre-elected mayor in 2012, but did not run for re-election in2016. At the2015 general electionhe was elected MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip. Johnson was a prominent figure in theBrexit campaignin the2016 European Union membership referendum. After the referendum Prime MinisterTheresa Mayappointed him foreign secretary. He resigned from the position in 2018 in protest at both theChequers Agreementand May's approach to Brexit. Johnson succeeded May as prime minister. Here-opened Brexit negotiationswith the European Union and in early September heprorogued Parliament; theSupreme Courtlater ruled the prorogation to have been unlawful. After agreeing to a revised Brexit withdrawal agreement butfailing to win parliamentary support, Johnson called asnap general electionto be held in December 2019, in which he won alandslide victory. During Johnson's premiership, the governmentrespondedto theCOVID-19 pandemicby introducing variousemergency powersto mitigate its impact and approved anationwide vaccination programme. He also responded to theRussian invasion of Ukraineby imposingsanctions on Russiaand authorisingforeign aid and weapons shipmentsto Ukraine.In thePartygatescandal it was found that numerous parties had been held at10 Downing Streetduringnational COVID-19 lockdowns, and COVID-19 social distancing laws were breached by 83 individuals, including Johnson, who in April 2022 was issued with afixed penalty notice. The publishing of theSue Gray reportin May 2022 and a widespread sense of dissatisfaction led in June 2022 to avote of confidence in his leadershipamongst Conservative MPs, which he won. In July 2022, revelations over hisappointment of Chris Pincheras deputychief whip of the partywhile knowing of allegations of sexual misconduct against him led to amass resignation of members of his governmentand to Johnson announcing his resignation as prime minister. He was succeeded as prime minister byLiz Truss, his foreign secretary. He remained in the House of Commons as abackbencheruntil 9 June 2023, when he received the draft of theCommons Privileges Committee investigation into his conductthat unanimously found that he had lied to the Commons on numerous occasions. Johnson resigned his position as MP the same day. Johnson is acontroversial figurein British politics. His supporters have praised him for being humorous, witty, and entertaining, with an appeal reaching beyond traditional Conservative Party voters, viewing him as an electoral asset to the party. Conversely, his critics have accused him of lying,elitism,cronyism, andbigotry. During his premiership his supporters praised him for \"getting Brexit done\", overseeing the UK's COVID-19 vaccination programme, which was amongst the fastest in the world, and being one of the first world leaders to offerhumanitarian support to Ukrainefollowing the Russian invasion of the country. His tenure also encompassed several controversies and scandals, and is viewed as the most scandalous premiership of modern times by historians and biographers alike. Early life and education Childhood Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson was born on 19 June 1964 in theUpper East SideofManhattan, New York City,toStanley Johnson, then studying economics atColumbia University,andCharlotte Fawcett,an artist, whose fatherSir James Fawcett, was a prominentbarristerand president of theEuropean Commission of Human Rightsfrom 1972 to 1981.Johnson is one of only two British prime ministers to have been anAmerican citizen(seeHonorary citizenship of the United States).Johnson's parents returned to the UK in September 1964 so Charlotte could study at theUniversity of Oxford.She lived with her son inSummertown, Oxford, and in September 1965 she gave birth to a daughter,Rachel.In July 1965, the family moved toCrouch Endinnorth London,and in February 1966 they relocated to Washington, DC, where Stanley worked with theWorld Bank.Stanley then took a job with a policy panel onpopulation control, and moved the family toNorwalk, Connecticut, in June.A third child, Leo, was born in September 1967. The family returned to the UK in 1969, and lived at West Nethercote Farm, Somerset, Stanley's family home inExmoor.His father was regularly absent, leaving Johnson to be raised largely by his mother, assisted byau pairs.As a child, Johnson was quiet, studious,and deaf, resulting in several operations to insertgrommetsinto his ears.He and his siblings were encouraged to engage in intellectual activities from a young age.Johnson's earliest recorded ambition was to be \"world king\".Having no other friends, the siblings became very close. In late 1969, the family moved toMaida Valein west London, while Stanley began post-graduate research at theLondon School of Economics.In 1970, Charlotte and the children briefly returned to Nethercote, where Johnson attended Winsford Village School, before returning to London to settle inPrimrose Hill,where they were educated at Primrose Hill Primary School.A fourth child,Joseph, was born in late 1971. After Stanley secured employment at theEuropean Commissionin April 1973, he moved his family toUccle, Brussels, where Johnson attended theEuropean School, Brussels Iand learnt to speak French.Charlotte had anervous breakdownand was hospitalised with depression, after which Johnson and his siblings were sent back to the UK in 1975 to attendAshdown House, a preparatory boarding school in East Sussex.There, he developed interests inrugby,Ancient Greek, andLatin.In December 1978 his parents' relationship broke down; they divorced in 1980,and Charlotte moved toNotting Hill, London, where her children joined her for much of their time. Eton and Oxford: 1977–1987 As a kid I was extremely spotty, extremely nerdy and horriblyswotty. My idea of a really good time was to travel across London on the tube to visit theBritish Museum. — Boris Johnson Johnson gained aKing's Scholarshipto study atEton College, a boarding school nearWindsor, Berkshire.Arriving in the autumn term of 1977,he began going by his middle name Boris,and developed \"the eccentric English persona\" for which he became famous.He denounced Catholicism and joined theChurch of England.School reports complained about his idleness, complacency, and lateness,but he was popular at Eton. Johnson's friends were largely from the wealthy upper classes; his best friends wereDarius GuppyandCharles Spencer. Both would go on to accompany him at theUniversity of Oxfordand remained his friends into adulthood.Johnson excelled inEnglishand theClassics, winning prizes in both,and became secretary of the schooldebating societyand editor of the school newspaper.In late 1981, he became a member ofPop,a small, self-selecting elite group of school prefects. After leaving Eton, Johnson went on agap yearto Australia, where he taught English and Latin atTimbertop, anOutward Bound-inspired campus ofGeelong Grammar, an independent boarding school. Johnson won a scholarship to readLiterae humanioresatBalliol College, Oxford, a four-year course in Classics, ancient languages, literature, history, and philosophy.Matriculatingin late 1983,he was one of a generation of Oxford undergraduates who dominated British politics and media in the early 21st century, including Cameron,William Hague,Michael Gove,Jeremy HuntandNick Boles.While at Oxford, Johnson joined the college'srugby unionteam as atighthead prop.To his later regret, he joined theBullingdon Club, an exclusive drinking society notorious for vandalism.Many years later,a group photographincluding himself and Cameron in Bullingdon Club formal dress led to much negative press coverage. While at Oxford, he began a relationship withAllegra Mostyn-Owen, cover girl forTatlermagazine and daughter ofChristie's EducationchairmanWilliam Mostyn-Owen. They became engaged. Johnson was popular and well known at Oxford.Alongside Guppy, he edited the university's satirical magazineTributary.In 1984, Johnson was elected secretary of theOxford Union,and campaigned unsuccessfully for the position ofUnion President.In 1986, Johnson ran successfully for President,but his term was not distinguished or memorable,and questions were raised regarding his competence and seriousness.At graduation, Johnson was awarded anupper second-classdegree,and was deeply unhappy he did not receive a first. Early career The TimesandThe Daily Telegraph: 1987–1994 In September 1987, Johnson and Mostyn-Owen married.They settled inWest Kensington, London.In late 1987, through family connections, he began work as a graduate trainee atThe Times.Scandal erupted when Johnson wrote an article for the newspaper on the archaeological discovery ofEdward II's palace, having invented a quote which he falsely attributed to the historianColin Lucas, his godfather. After the paper's editor,Charles Wilson, learnt of the matter, he dismissed Johnson. Johnson secured employment on the lead-writing desk ofThe Daily Telegraph, having met its editor,Max Hastings, while at university.His articles appealed to the newspaper's Conservative-voting \"Middle England\" readership,and he was known for his distinctive literary style, replete with old-fashioned phrasing and for regularly referring to the readership as \"my friends\".In early 1989, Johnson was appointed to the newspaper's Brussels bureau to report on the European Commission,remaining in the post until 1994.A strong critic of the integrationist Commission presidentJacques Delors, he established himself as one of the city's fewEuroscepticjournalists.He wrote articles abouteuromyths: that Brussels had recruited sniffer dogs to ensure that all manure smelt the same,they were about to dictate the acceptable curve of British bananas,limit the power of their vacuum cleanersand order women to return their old sex toys.He wrote that euro notes made people impotent and that a plan to blow up theBerlaymont buildingwas in place because asbestos cladding made the building too dangerous to inhabit.Many of his fellow journalists were critical of his articles, saying they often contained lies designed to discredit the commission.The Europhile Conservative politicianChris Pattenlater said that Johnson was \"one of the greatest exponents of fake journalism\".Johnson opposed banning handguns after theDunblane school massacre, writing in his column \"Nanny is confiscating their toys. It is like one of those vastIndian programmes of compulsory vasectomy.\" According to one of his biographers,Sonia Purnell, – who was Johnson's Brussels deputy– he helped make Euroscepticism \"an attractive and emotionally resonant cause for the Right\", whereas it had been associated previously with the Left.Johnson's articles exacerbated tensions between the Conservative Party's Eurosceptic and Europhile factions. As a result, he earned the mistrust of many party members.His writings were also a key influence on the emergence of the euroscepticUK Independence Party(UKIP) in the early 1990s.Conrad Black, then proprietor ofThe Daily Telegraph, said Johnson \"was such an effective correspondent for us in Brussels that he greatly influenced British opinion on this country's relations with Europe\". In February 1990, Johnson's wife Allegra broke up with him; after several attempts at reconciliation, their marriage ended in April 1993.He began a relationship with childhood friendMarina Wheeler, who had moved to Brussels in 1990.They were married in May 1993.Soon after, Marina gave birth to a daughter.Johnson and his new wife settled inIslington, north London,an area known for its association with the left-liberalintelligentsia. Under the influence of thismilieuand of his wife, Johnson moved in a more liberal direction on issues such asclimate change,LGBT rightsand race relations.While in Islington, the couple had three more children, all given the surname Johnson-Wheeler.They were sent to the local Canonbury Primary School and then to private secondary schools.Devoting much time to his children, Johnson wrote a book of verse,The Perils of the Pushy Parents: A Cautionary Tale, which was published to largely poor reviews. Political columnist: 1994–1999 Back in London, Hastings turned down Johnson's request to become awar reporter,instead promoting him to assistant editor and chief political columnist.Johnson's column received praise for being ideologically eclectic and distinctively written, and earned him Commentator of the Year Award at theWhat the Papers Sayawards.Some critics condemned his writing style as bigotry; in columns he used the words \"piccaninnies\" and \"watermelon smiles\" when referring to Africans, championed European colonialism in Ugandaand referred to gay men as \"tank-topped bumboys\". In 1993, Johnson outlined his desire to run as a Conservative in the1994 European Parliament elections.Andrew Mitchellconvinced Major not to veto Johnson's candidacy, but Johnson could not find a constituency.He turned his attention to obtaining a seat in the House of Commons instead. After being rejected as Conservative candidate forHolborn and St. Pancras, he was selected the Conservative candidate forClwyd Southin north Wales, then aLabour Partysafe seat. Spending six weeks campaigning, he attained 9,091 votes (23 per cent) in the1997 general election, losing to Labour candidateMartyn Jones. Scandal erupted in June 1995 when a recording of a 1990 telephone conversation between Johnson and his friendDarius Guppywas made public.In it, Guppy said that his criminal activities involving insurance fraud were being investigated byNews of the Worldjournalist Stuart Collier, and he asked Johnson to provide him with Collier's private address, seeking to have the latter beaten. Johnson agreed, although he expressed concern that he would be associated with the attack.When the phone conversation was published, Johnson stated that ultimately he had not obliged Guppy's request. Hastings reprimanded Johnson but did not dismiss him. Johnson was given a regular column inThe Spectator, sister publication toThe Daily Telegraph, which attracted mixed reviews and was often thought rushed.In 1999, he was also given a column reviewing new cars in the American men's monthly magazineGQ.The large number of parking fines that Johnson acquired while testing cars frustrated staff.AtThe Daily TelegraphandThe Spectator, he was consistently late delivering copy, forcing staff to stay late to accommodate him; some related that if they published without his work, he would shout at them with expletives. Johnson's April 1998 appearance on the BBC's satirical current affairs showHave I Got News for Youbrought him national fame.He was invited back on to later episodes, including as a guest presenter; for his 2003 appearance, Johnson was nominated for theBAFTA Television Award for Best Entertainment Performance.After these appearances, he came to be recognised on the street, and was invited to appear on other shows, such asTop Gear,Parkinson,Breakfast with Frost, andQuestion Time. The Spectatorand MP for Henley: 1999–2008 In July 1999, Conrad Black offered Johnson the editorship ofThe Spectatoron the condition he abandon his parliamentary aspirations; Johnson agreed.While retainingThe Spectator's traditional right-wing bent, Johnson welcomed contributions from leftist writers and cartoonists.Under Johnson's editorship, the magazine's circulation grew by 10% to 62,000 and it became profitable.His editorship also drew criticism; some opined that under himThe Spectatoravoided serious issues,while colleagues became annoyed that he was regularly absent from the office, meetings, and events.He gained a reputation as a poor political pundit because of incorrect political predictions.His father-in-lawCharles Wheelerand others strongly criticised him for allowingSpectatorcolumnistTaki Theodoracopulosto publish racist and antisemitic language. Journalist Charlotte Edwardes wrote inThe Timesin 2019 that Johnson had squeezed her thigh at a private lunch at theSpectatorin 1999 and that another woman had told her he had done the same to her. A spokesman denied the allegation. In 2004, Johnson published an editorial inThe Spectatorafter the murder ofKen Bigleysuggesting that Liverpudlians were wallowing in their victim status and \"hooked on grief\" over theHillsborough disaster, which Johnson partly blamed on \"drunken fans\".In an appendix added to a later edition of his 2005 bookThe Dream of Rome,Tell MAMAand theMuslim Council of Britaincriticised Johnson for arguingIslamhas caused theMuslim worldto be \"literally centuries behind\" the West. Becoming an MP The selection of Boris Johnson ... confirms the Tory Party's increasing weakness for celebrity personalities over the dreary exigencies of politics. Johnson, for all his gifts, is unlikely to grace any future Tory cabinet. Indeed, he is not known for his excessive interest in serious policy matters, and it is hard to see him grubbing away at administrative detail as an obscure, hardworking junior minister for social security. To maintain his funny man reputation he will no doubt find himself refining hisBertie Woosterinterpretation to the point where the impersonation becomes the man. –Max Hastings,London Evening Standard, FollowingMichael Heseltine's retirement, Johnson decided to stand as Conservative candidate forHenley, a Conservative safe seat inOxfordshire.The local Conservative branch selected him although it was split over Johnson's candidacy. Some thought him amusing and charming while others disliked his flippant attitude and perceived lack of knowledge of the local area.Assisted by his television fame, Johnson won the seat in the2001 general election.Alongside his Islington home, Johnson bought a farmhouse outsideThamein his new constituency.He regularly attended Henley social events and occasionally wrote for theHenley Standard.His constituency surgeries proved popular, and he joined local campaigns to stop the closure ofTownlands Hospitaland the localair ambulance. In Parliament, Johnson was appointed to astanding committeeassessing theProceeds of Crime Bill, but missed many of its meetings.Despite his credentials as a public speaker, his speeches in the House of Commons were widely deemed lacklustre.He attended around half of Commons votes,usually supporting the Conservativeparty line.Infree votes, he demonstrated a more socially liberal attitude, supporting theGender Recognition Act 2004and the repeal ofSection 28.However, in 2001, Johnson had spoken out against plans to repeal Section 28, saying it was \"Labour's appalling agenda, encouraging the teaching of homosexuality in schools\".After initially stating he would not, hesupportedthe government's plans to join the United States in the2003 invasion of Iraq,and in April 2003 visited occupied Baghdad.In August 2004, he backed unsuccessfulimpeachment proceduresagainst Prime MinisterTony Blairfor \"high crimes and misdemeanours\" regarding the war,and in December 2006 described the invasion as \"a colossal mistake and misadventure\". Although labelling Johnson \"ineffably duplicitous\" for breaking his promise not to become an MP, Black decided not to dismiss him because he \"helped promote the magazine and raise its circulation\".Johnson remained editor ofThe Spectator, while also writing columns forThe Daily TelegraphandGQ, and making television appearances.His 2001 book,Friends, Voters, Countrymen: Jottings on the Stump, recounted that year's election campaign,while 2003'sLend Me Your Earscollected previously published columns and articles.In 2004,HarperCollinspublished his first novel:Seventy-Two Virgins: A Comedy of Errorsrevolved around the life of a Conservative MP and contained autobiographical elements.Responding to criticism that he was juggling too many jobs, he citedWinston ChurchillandBenjamin Disraelias exemplars who combined political and literary careers.To manage stress, he took up jogging and cycling,and became so well known for the latter that Gimson suggested he was \"perhaps the most famous cyclist in Britain\". FollowingWilliam Hague's resignation as Conservative leader, the party electedIain Duncan Smith.Johnson had a strained relationship with Duncan Smith, andThe Spectatorbecame critical of his party leadership.Duncan Smith was succeeded byMichael Howardin November 2003; Howard deemed Johnson to be the most popular Conservative politician with the electorate and appointed him vice-chairman of the party, responsible for overseeing its electoral campaign.In his Shadow Cabinet reshuffle of May 2004, Howard appointed Johnson as shadow arts minister.In October, Howard ordered Johnson to apologise publicly inLiverpoolfor publishing aSpectatorarticle – anonymously written bySimon Heffer– which said the crowds at theHillsborough disasterhad contributed to the incident and that Liverpudlians had a predilection for reliance on thewelfare state. In November 2004, the tabloids revealed that since 2000 Johnson had been having an affair withSpectatorcolumnistPetronella Wyatt, resulting in two abortions.Johnson denied the allegations but they were subsequently proven to be true, and Howard dismissed him as vice-chairman and shadow arts minister when he refused to resign. Second term At the2005 general election, Johnson was re-elected MP for Henley.Labour won the election and Howard stood down as Conservative leader; Johnson backedDavid Cameronas his successor.After Cameron was elected, he appointed Johnson as the shadow higher education minister.Interested in streamlining university funding,Johnson supported Labour'sproposed top-up fees.He campaigned in 2006 to become theRector of the University of Edinburgh, but his support for top-up fees damaged his campaign, and he came third. In April 2006, theNews of the Worldalleged that Johnson was having an affair with journalist Anna Fazackerley; the pair did not comment, and shortly afterwards Johnson began employing Fazackerley.In September 2006, Papua New Guinea'sHigh Commissionprotested after he compared the Conservatives' frequently changing leadership tocannibalism in the country. In 2005,The Spectator's new chief executive,Andrew Neil, dismissed Johnson as editor.To make up for this loss of income, Johnson negotiated withThe Daily Telegraphto raise his salary from £200,000 to £250,000, averaging £5,000 per column.He presented apopular historytelevision show,The Dream of Rome, which was broadcast in January 2006; a book followed in February.A sequel,After Rome, focused on early Islamic history.In 2007, he earned £540,000, making him the third-highest-earning MP that year. Mayor of London (2008–2016) Mayoral election: 2007–2008 In September, Johnson was selected as the Conservative candidate forMayor of Londonafter a public London-wideprimary.Johnson's campaign focused on reducing youth crime, making public transport safer, and replacing thearticulated buseswith an updated version of theAEC Routemaster.Targeting the Conservative-leaning suburbs ofouter London, it capitalised on perceptions that the Labour Mayoralty had neglected them in favour ofinner London.His campaign emphasised his popularity, even among those who opposed his policies,with opponents complaining a common attitude among voters was: \"I'm voting for Boris because he is a laugh.\"The campaign of Labour incumbentKen Livingstoneportrayed Johnson as an out-of-touchtoffand bigot. In the election, Johnson received 43% and Livingstone 37% of first-preference votes; when second-preference votes were added, Johnson was victorious with 53% to Livingstone's 47%.Johnson subsequently announced his intention to stand down as MP for Henley. First term: 2008–2012 After Johnson became mayor, those in City Hall deemed too closely allied to Livingstone's administration had their employment terminated.Johnson appointedTim Parkeras his deputy mayor, but after Parker began taking increasing control at City Hall, Johnson dismissed him.Many in the Conservative Party initially distanced themselves from Johnson's administration, fearing it would be damaging for the2010 general election. During the campaign, Johnson had confided toBrian Paddickhe was unsure how he would maintain his lifestyle on the mayoral salary of £140,000 a year.He agreed to continue hisDaily Telegraphcolumn, thus earning a further £250,000 a year.His team believed this would cause controversy and made him promise to donate 20% of hisDaily Telegraphsalary to a charitable cause. Johnson resented this, and ultimately did not pay the full 20%.Controversy erupted when on theBBC'sHARDtalkhe referred to the £250,000 salary as \"chicken feed\"; this was at the time approximately 10 times the average yearly wage for a British worker. During his first administration, Johnson was embroiled in several personal scandals. After moving to a new house in Islington, he built a shed without obtainingplanning permission; after neighbours complained, he dismantled it.The press also accused him of having an affair with Helen Macintyre and of fathering her child, allegations that he did not deny.Johnson was accused of warningDamian Greenthat police were planning to arrest him; Johnson denied the claims.He was accused ofcronyism,in particular for appointingVeronica Wadleyas the chair of London'sArts Council.In theparliamentary expenses scandal, he was accused of excessive expenses claims for taxis.Johnson remained a popular figure in London with a strong celebrity status in the city. Policies Johnson made no major changes to the mayoral system of the previous administration.However, he did reverse several other measures implemented by Livingstone: ending the city's oil deal with Venezuela, abolishingThe Londonernewsletter, and scrapping the half-yearly inspections ofblack cabs, which was reinstated three years later.Abolishing the western wing of thecongestion chargingzone,he cancelled plans to increase the congestion charge forfour-wheel-drive vehicles.He was subsequently accused of failing to publish an independent report on air pollution commissioned by theGreater London Authority, which revealed the city breached legal limits onnitrogen dioxidelevels. Johnson retained Livingstone projects such asCrossrailand the2012 Olympic Games, but was accused of trying to take credit for them.He introduced a public bicycle scheme that had been mooted by Livingstone's administration; colloquially known as \"Boris Bikes\", the part privately financed system was a significant financial loss but proved popular.Despite Johnson's support of cycling, and his much-publicised identity as a cyclist, some cycling groups argued he had failed to make the city's roads safer for cyclists.As per his election pledge, he commissioned the development of theNew Routemasterbuses for central London.He also ordered the construction of acable car systemthat crossed theRiver Thamesbetween theGreenwich Peninsulaand theRoyal Docks. Johnson's first policy initiative was a ban on drinking alcohol on public transport.He announced plans to extend pay-as-you-goOyster cardsto national rail services in London.A pledge in Johnson's manifesto was to retain Tube ticket offices, in opposition to Livingstone's proposal to close up to 40.On 2 July 2008, the Mayor's office announced the closure plan was to be abandoned.On 21 November 2013,Transport for Londonannounced that all London Underground ticket offices would close by 2015.In financing these projects, Johnson's administration borrowed £100 million,while public transport fares were increased by 50%. During his first term, Johnson was perceived as having moved leftward on certain issues, supporting theLondon Living Wageand endorsing an amnesty for illegal migrants.He tried placating critics who had deemed him a bigot by appearing atLondon's gay pride paradeand praising ethnic minority newspapers.Johnson broke from the traditional protocol of those in public office not publicly commenting on other nations' elections by endorsingBarack Obamafor the2008 United States presidential election. Relations with the police, finance, and the media Johnson appointed himself chair of theMetropolitan Police Authority(MPA), and in October 2008 successfully pushed for the resignation of Metropolitan Police CommissionerIan Blair, after Blair was criticised for allegedly handing contracts to friends and for his handling of thedeath of Jean Charles de Menezes.This earned Johnson respect among Conservatives, who interpreted it as his first act of strength.Johnson resigned as chairman of the MPA in January 2010,but throughout his mayoralty was highly supportive of the Metropolitan Police, particularly during the controversy surrounding thedeath of Ian Tomlinson.Overall crime in London fell during his administration, but his claim that serious youth crime had decreased proved to be false, and he acknowledged the error.He was criticised for his response to the2011 London riots. Johnson championed London's financial sector and denounced what he saw as \"banker bashing\" following thefinancial crisis of 2007–08,condemning theanti-capitalistOccupy Londonmovement that appeared in 2011.He collected donations from the city's wealthy for a charitable enterprise, the Mayor's Fund, which he had established to aid disadvantaged youths. It initially announced the fund would raise £100 million, but by 2010 it had only earnt £1.5 million.He also maintained extensive personal contacts throughout the British media,which resulted in widespread favourable press coverage of his administration.In turn he remained largely supportive of his friends in the media, includingRupert Murdoch, during theNews International phone hacking scandal. The formation of the Forensic Audit Panel was announced on 8 May 2008. The panel was tasked with monitoring and investigating financial management at theLondon Development Agencyand theGreater London Authority.Johnson's announcement was criticised by Labour for the perceived politicisation of this nominally independent panel.The head of the panel,Patience Wheatcroft, was married to a Conservative councillorand three of the four remaining panel members also had close links to the Conservatives. Re-election campaign Up for re-election in 2012, Johnson again hired Crosby to orchestrate his campaign.Before the election, Johnson publishedJohnson's Life of London, a work of popular history that historianA. N. Wilsoncharacterised as a \"coded plea\" for votes.Polls suggested that while Livingstone's approach to transport was preferred, voters in London placed greater trust in Johnson on crime and the economy.Johnson's campaign emphasised the accusation that Livingstone was guilty oftax evasion, for which Livingstone called Johnson a \"bare-faced liar\".Political scientist Andrew Crines believed that Livingstone's campaign focused on criticising Johnson rather than presenting an alternate and progressive vision of London's future.Johnson wasre-elected. Second term: 2012–2016 After a successful bid under Livingstone in 2005, London hosted the2012 Summer Olympics, with Johnson as board co-chair.He improved transportation around London by making more tickets available and adding buses around the capital when thousands of spectators were temporary visitors.Johnson was accused of covering up pollution ahead of the games by deploying dust suppressants to remove air particulates near monitoring stations.In November 2013, Johnson announced major changes to the operation of theLondon Underground, including the extension of operating hours. All staffed ticket offices were replaced with automated ticketing systems. Johnson was close friends with American entrepreneurand modelJennifer Arcuri, withThe Sunday Timesdescribing him as a regular visitor to her flat,and implying they were in a sexual relationship.Arcuri and her company, Innotech, were awarded substantial government grants, and Johnson intervened to allow her onto three trade mission trips.The Sunday Timessaid in September 2019 that Johnson failed to declare his personal relationship as a conflict of interest.The Greater London Authority referred the matter to theIndependent Office for Police Conduct(IOPC) \"so it can assess whether or not it is necessary to investigate the former mayor of London for the criminal offence of misconduct in public office\", for the Mayor is also London'spolice and crime commissioner.On 9 November 2019 it was revealed that the IOPC had decided to publish its report after the general election on 12 December.The IOPC eventually issued its report in May 2020, concluding that, although there was no basis for any criminal charge, there was evidence that the close relationship between Johnson and Arcuri had influenced decisions, that Johnson should have declared an interest, and that his failure to do this could have breached the London Assembly's code of conduct. In 2015, Johnson criticised then-presidential candidateDonald Trump's false comments that there wereno-go zones in Londoninaccessible for non-Muslims. Johnson said Trump was \"betraying a quite stupefying ignorance that makes him frankly unfit to hold the office of President of the United States\",becoming the first senior politician in the UK to declare Trump unfit for office, but rejecting calls for him to be banned from the country.In 2016, he said he was \"genuinely worried that could become president\", telling ITV'sTom Bradbythat being mistaken for Trump in New York was \"one of the worst moments\" of his life. Johnson did not run for a third mayoral and stepped down on 5 May 2016 followingthe election. AYouGovpoll commissioned at the end of Johnson's term revealed that 52% of Londoners believed he did a \"good job\" while 29% believed he did a \"bad job\". Return to Parliament Johnson initially said that he would not return to the House of Commons while mayor.After much media speculation, in August 2014 he sought selection as the Conservative candidate for thesafe seatofUxbridge and South Ruislipat the2015 general election.In the2015 general election, Johnson was elected. There was speculation that he had returned to Parliament because he wanted to replace Cameron as Conservative leader and prime minister. Brexit campaign: 2015–2016 In February 2016, Johnson endorsedVote Leavein the \"Out\" campaign for the2016 European Union membership referendum.Following this announcement, which was interpreted by financial markets as making Brexit more probable, thepound sterlingslumped by nearly 2% against the US dollar, reaching its lowest level since March 2009. In April 2016, in response to a comment by PresidentBarack Obamathat Britain should remain in the European Union, Johnson wrote an \"ancestral dislike\" of Britain owing to his \"part-Kenyan\" background may have shaped Obama's views.Several politicians condemned his comments as racist and unacceptable.Conversely, former Conservative Party leaderIain Duncan SmithandUK Independence Party(UKIP) leaderNigel Faragedefended them. Johnson supported Vote Leave's statement that the government was committed toTurkish accession to the EU. Vote Leave was accused of implying that 80 million Turks would come to the UK if it stayed in the EU. When interviewed in January 2019, he said he had not mentioned Turkey during the campaign.On 22 June 2016, Johnson declared 23 June could be \"Britain's independence day\" in a televised debate. Following the victory of the \"Leave\" campaign, Cameron resigned. Johnson was widely regarded as the front-runner to succeed him.Johnson announced he would not stand in theConservative leadership election.Shortly before this, Michael Gove, hitherto a Johnson ally, concluded that Johnson \"cannot provide the leadership or build the team for the task ahead\".The Daily Telegraphcalled Gove's comments \"the most spectacular political assassination in a generation\".Johnson endorsedAndrea Leadsom's candidature, but she dropped out, leaving Theresa May to be elected uncontested. Foreign Secretary: 2016–2018 May appointed Johnsonforeign secretaryin July 2016.Analysts saw the appointment as a tactic to weaken Johnson politically: the new positions of \"Brexit secretary\" andinternational trade secretaryleft the foreign secretary as a figurehead.Johnson's appointment ensured he would often be out of the country and unable to mobilise backbenchers against her, while forcing him to take responsibility for problems caused by withdrawing from the EU. Some journalists and foreign politicians criticised Johnson's appointment because of his controversial statements about other countries.His tenure attracted criticism from diplomats and foreign policy experts.A number of diplomats, FCO staff and foreign ministers who worked with Johnson compared his leadership unfavourably to previous foreign secretaries for his perceived lack of conviction or substantive positions on foreign policy issues.A senior official in Obama's government suggested Johnson's appointment would push the US further towardsGermanyat the expense of theSpecial Relationshipwith the UK.On one occasion Egyptian presidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisiwalked out of a meeting with Johnson after a meeting did not \"get beyond the pleasantries\". Johnson's visit to Turkey in September 2016 was somewhat tense because he had wonDouglas Murray's offensive poetry competition about the President of Turkey,Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, four months earlier.When questioned by a journalist whether he would apologise for the poem, Johnson dismissed the matter as \"trivia\".Johnson pledged to helpTurkey join the EUand expressed support for Erdogan's government.Johnson described theGülen movementas a \"cult\" and supportedTurkey's post-coup purges. Johnson supported theSaudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemenand refused to block UK arms sales to Saudi Arabia.In September 2016, human rights groups accused him of blocking the UN inquiry into Saudi war crimes in Yemen.Given the UK-Saudi alliance, in December 2016, he attracted attention for commenting the Saudis were akin to the Iranians in \"puppeteering and playingproxy wars\".In November 2017, Johnson told theForeign Affairs Select CommitteethatNazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe– a British-Iranian citizen imprisoned in Iran after being arrested for training citizen journalists and bloggers in aBBC World Service Trustproject – had been \"simply teaching people journalism\". Facing criticism, Johnson stated he had been misquoted and that nothing he said had justified Zaghari-Ratcliffe's sentence.In May 2018, Johnson backedtheIran nuclear deal framework, despite Donald Trump's withdrawal. In April 2017, Johnson said thatGibraltar's sovereigntywas \"not going to change\" after Brexit.Johnson promised while inNorthern Irelandthat Brexit would leave the Irish border \"absolutely unchanged\".Johnson visitedAnguillaandTortolain September 2017 to confirm the UK's commitment to helping restoreBritish territoriesdevastated byHurricane Irma.In September 2017, he was criticised for reciting lines fromRudyard Kipling's poemMandalaywhile visiting aMyanmartemple; the British ambassador, who was with him, suggested it was \"not appropriate\".In October 2017, he faced criticism for stating the Libyan city ofSirtecould become an economic success likeDubai: \"all they have to do is clear the dead bodies away\". Initially favouring a less hostile approach to Russia,Johnson soon backed a more aggressive policy.Following the March 2018poisoning of Sergei and Yulia SkripalinSalisbury, an act which the UK government blamed on Russia,Johnson comparedVladimir Putin's hosting of theWorld Cup in RussiatoAdolf Hitler's hosting of theOlympic Games in Berlinin 1936.Russia's Foreign Ministry denounced Johnson's \"unacceptable and unworthy\" parallel towards Russia, a \"nation thatlost millions of livesin fighting Nazism\".Johnson described theNord Stream 2gas pipeline from Russia to Germany as \"divisive\" and a \"threat\" that left Europe dependent on a \"malign Russia\" for itsenergy supplies. Johnson condemned thepersecutionofRohingya Muslimsin Myanmar,comparing the situation with thedisplacement of Palestiniansin 1948.Johnson supported theTurkish invasion of northern Syriaaimed at ousting theSyrian KurdsfromAfrin.He accused theUNHRCof focusing disproportionately on theIsraeli–Palestinian conflictand Israel'soccupationof thePalestinian territories. In a September 2017 op-ed, Johnson reiterated the UK would regain control of £350m a week after Brexit, suggesting it go to theNational Health Service(NHS).Cabinet colleagues subsequently criticised him for reviving the assertion.Following the2017 general election, Johnson denied media reports he intended to challenge May's leadership.In a February 2018 letter to May, Johnson suggested that Northern Ireland may have to accept border controls after Brexit and that it would not seriously affect trade, having initially said a hard border would be unthinkable.In June, he was reported as having said \"fuck business\" when asked about corporate concerns regarding a 'hard' Brexit. Secret recordings obtained byBuzzFeed Newsin June 2018 revealed Johnson's dissatisfaction with Prime Minister Theresa May's negotiating style, accusing her of being too collaborative with the European Union in Brexit negotiations. Comparing May's approach to that of the US president Donald Trump – who at the time was engaged in a combative trade war with the EU because it raised tariffs on metal – Johnson said: \"Imagine Trump doing Brexit. He'd go in bloody hard ... There'd be all sorts of breakdowns, all sorts of chaos. Everyone would think he'd gone mad. But actually you might get somewhere.\" He accused individuals of scaremongering over a Brexit \"meltdown\", saying \"No panic.Pro bono publico, no bloody panic. It's going to be all right in the end.\" In April 2018, Johnson travelled to Italy to attend a party at thePalazzo Terranova, owned by the formerKGBagentAlexander Lebedevand hosted by his sonEvgeny. He travelled without security protection or other officials,and did not document the trip, which led to accusations of Johnson having misled parliament.In June 2023, it was revealed that Lord Simon McDonald, the most senior civil servant of his department, was not aware of the trip. Johnson stated that \"no government business was discussed\" at the event as far as he was aware.Lebedev's villa was monitored by the Italian secret service at the time, who, according to aChannel 4documentary, suspected it to be used for espionage activities.Johnson granted a peerage toEvgenyin 2020, against the advice of theMI6, and met with criticism over potential security concerns. In July 2018, three days after thecabinethad its meeting to agree on aBrexit strategy,Johnson, along with Brexit secretaryDavid Davis,resigned his post. Return to the backbenches: 2018–2019 Johnson returned to the role of abackbench MP. In July, he delivered a resignation speech, stating \"it is not too late to save Brexit\".In January 2019, Johnson came under criticism for remarks he had made during the 2016 Leave campaign regarding the prospect of Turkish accession to the European Union; he denied making such remarks.In March 2019, he was criticized for saying that expenditure on investigating historic allegations of child abuse was money \"spaffed up the wall\". Journalism In July 2018, Johnson signed a 12‑month contract to write articles for theTelegraph Media Group.TheAdvisory Committee on Business Appointments(ACOBA) reported that this was a breach of theMinisterial Code.Johnson was ordered to apologise for failing to declare £50,000 of earnings. TheParliamentary Commissioner for Standardsfound the errors were not inadvertent, and that Johnson had failed on nine occasions to make declarations within the rules. In September 2018, Johnson wrote: \"We have opened ourselves to perpetual political blackmail. We have wrapped a suicide vest around the British constitution – and handed the detonator toMichel Barnier.\" Senior Tories heavily criticised him, withAlan Duncanof the Foreign Office vowing to ensure the comments marked \"the political end of Boris Johnson\".In April 2019, theIndependent Press Standards Organisationruled that a claim in a 6 January 2019 article inThe Daily Telegraph, \"The British people won't be scared into backing a woeful Brexit deal nobody voted for\", authored by Johnson,that a no-dealBrexitwas \"by some margin preferred by the British public\" was false, and \"represented a failure to take care over the accuracy of the article in breach of Clause 1 (i)\" of its guidelines, and required that a correction be published. 2019 Conservative Party leadership election On 12 June 2019, Johnson launched his campaign for theConservative Party leadership election, saying, \"we must leave the EU on 31 October.\"On the campaign trail, Johnson warned of \"catastrophic consequences for voter trust in politics\" if the government pushed the EU for further delays. He advocated removing thebackstopfrom any Brexit deal. On 25 and 26 August, he announced plans to retain £7 or £9 billion of the £39 billion divorce payment the UK is due to transfer to the EU upon withdrawal.Johnson initially pledged to cut income tax for earners of more than £50,000 but backed away from this plan in June 2019 after coming under criticism in a televisedBBCdebate. Johnson was elected leader with 92,153 votes (66%) to Hunt's 46,656 (34%). Premiership (2019–2022) First term (July–December 2019) On 24 July 2019, the day following Johnson's election as Conservative Party leader, QueenElizabeth IIacceptedTheresa May's resignation and appointed Johnson as prime minister. This made Johnson the first prime minister to be born outsideBritish territories.Johnson appointedDominic Cummingsas his senior advisor. Brexit policy In hisfirst speech as PM, Johnson said that the United Kingdom would leave the European Union on 31 October 2019 with orwithout a deal, and promised to remove theIrish backstopfrom the withdrawal agreement.Johnson declared his intention tore-open negotiations, but talks did not immediately resume as the EU refused to accept Johnson's condition that the backstop be removed.On 28 August 2019, UK and EU negotiators agreed to resume regular meetings. Also on 28 August 2019, Johnson declared he had asked the Queen toprorogue Parliamentfrom 10 September, reducing the time in which Parliament could block a no-deal Brexit and causing apolitical controversy.The Queen atPrivy Councilapproved prorogation later the same day, and it began on 10 September, scheduled to last until 14 October.Some suggestedthat this prorogation amounted to aself-coup, and on 31 August 2019, protests occurred throughout the United Kingdom.By 2 September 2019, three separate court cases challenging Johnson's action were in progress or scheduled to take place,and on 11 September, three Scottish judges ruled the prorogation of the UK Parliament to be unlawful.On 12 September, Johnson denied lying to the Queen over suspension of the Parliament, while a Belfast Court rejected claims that his Brexit plans would have a negative impact on Northern Ireland's peace policy.On 24 September, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that Johnson's advice to prorogue Parliament was unlawful, and therefore the prorogation was rendered null. When Parliament resumed on 3 September 2019, Johnson indicated he would call a general election under theFixed-term Parliaments Actafter opposition and rebel Conservative MPs successfully voted against the government to take control of the order of business to prevent a no-deal exit.Despite government opposition, theBenn Act, a bill to block a no-deal exit, passed the Commons on 4 September 2019, causing Johnson to propose a general election on 15 October.His motion was unsuccessful as it failed to command the support of two-thirds of the House. In October 2019, following bilateral talks between Johnson andTaoiseachLeo Varadkar,the UK and EU agreed to arevised deal, whichreplaced the backstopwith a newNorthern Ireland Protocol. First Cabinet JohnsonappointedhisCabineton 24 July 2019,dismissing 11 senior ministers and accepting the resignation of six others.The mass dismissal was the most extensive postwar Cabinet reorganisation without a change in the ruling party. Among other appointments, Johnson madeDominic RaabtheFirst Secretary of Stateand foreign secretary and appointedSajid JavidandPriti Patelas theChancellor of the ExchequerandHome Secretary, respectively. Loss of working majority On 3 September 2019,Phillip Leecrossed the floorto theLiberal Democratsfollowing a disagreement with Johnson'sBrexitpolicy. This left the government without aworking majorityin the House of Commons.Later that day,21 Conservative MPshad the partywhipwithdrawn for defying party orders and supporting an opposition motion.(The whip was restored to 10 former Conservative ministers on 29 October.) On 5 September 2019, Johnson's brotherJo Johnsonresigned from the government and announced that he would step down as MP, describing his position as \"torn between family and national interest\".Two days later,Amber Ruddresigned asSecretary of State for Work and Pensionsand from the Conservative Party, describing the withdrawal of the party whip as an \"assault on decency and democracy\". 2019 general election In October 2019, Parliament was dissolved, and an election called for 12 December. The election resulted in the Conservative Party winning 43.6% of the vote and a parliamentary landslide majority of 80 seats.A key slogan used in the Conservative campaign was \"Get Brexit Done\". Second term (December 2019 – September 2022) Second Cabinet Johnsonreshuffled his cabinetin February 2020.Five Cabinet ministers were sacked, including theNorthern Ireland secretaryJulian Smith, a decision that was criticised by several politicians and commentators following his success in restoring theNorthern Ireland Executivedevolved government.Chancellor of the ExchequerSajid Javidresigned from the Cabinet and was replaced byRishi Sunak; Javid later returned to Johnson's Cabinet asSecretary of State for Health and Social Carein June 2021 following the resignation ofMatt Hancock. Johnson reshuffled his cabinet again in September 2021. Changes included the dismissal ofEducation SecretaryGavin Williamsonwho had received significant criticism for his handling of disruption to education during the COVID-19 pandemic.Dominic Raabwas moved from foreign secretary todeputy prime ministerandjustice secretary. Raab was replaced as foreign secretary byLiz Truss. COVID-19 pandemic TheCOVID-19 pandemicemerged as a serious crisis within the first few months of Johnson's second term.Johnson's non-attendance of fiveCOBRbriefings during the early months and the failure of the UK government to prepare for and control the outbreak has been criticised.The UK was among the last majorEuropean states to close schools, ban public events and order alockdown.This response is thought by some scientists to have contributed to the UK's high death toll from COVID-19, which as of January 2021was among the highest in the world. Reutersreported that scientists were critical of Johnson both for acting too slowly to stop the spread of COVID-19 and for mishandling the government's response;PoliticoquotedChief Medical OfficerChris Whittyas saying that an earlier initial lockdown would have significantly lowered the death toll.TheBMJpublished several editorials critical of the policies adopted during the country's public health response.Johnson's public communication over the virus and the UK's test and trace system were also criticised. On 3 March 2020, Johnson claimed to have shaken hands with COVID-19 patients in hospital on the same day thatSAGEhad advised the government to warn the public not to shake hands and minimise physical contact,though it was unclear whether the hospital he visited actually contained any coronavirus patients.He continued to shake hands publicly in the following days.On 23 March, aCOVID-19 lockdownwas imposed throughout the UK, except for a few limited purposes, backed up bynew legal powers. On 27 March, it was announced that Johnson had tested positive forCOVID-19.On 5 April, he was admitted to a hospital.The next day, he was moved to the hospital's intensive care unit.Johnson left intensive care on 9 April,and left hospital three days later to recuperate atChequers.After a fortnight at Chequers, he returned to Downing Street on 26 April.Johnson later said that he had been givenemergency oxygenwhile in intensive care, and that doctors had made preparations in case he died. Ascandalin May 2020 involved Johnson's chief political advisorDominic Cummings, who made a trip with his family toDurhamduring the March 2020 lockdown while experiencing COVID-19 symptoms. Both Cummings and Johnson rejected widespread calls that Cummings resign.Johnson's defence of Cummings and his refusal to sack him caused a widespread backlash.This resulted in a loss of confidence in the government and specifically its response to the pandemic, referred to as 'the Cummings effect' inThe Lancet. Concerns were raised in the study that this could affect the public's compliance with pandemic restrictions. The Johnson ministry wasaccused of cronyism in their assignment of contractsrelated to the pandemic response. Procurement of government contracts for key COVID-19 supplies became less transparent as a result of emergency measures bypassing the usual competitive tendering process.In October 2020, Johnson conceded that the UK'stest and tracesystem and its specially developedcontact tracing app, which had been criticised for their cost and operational issues, had caused \"frustrations\". Johnson reportedly resisted calls from SAGE and within the government to enact a second lockdown throughout September as COVID-19 infections rose.In April 2021, Johnson denied allegations he had said he would rather \"let the bodies pile high in their thousands\" on 30 October 2020.The government enacted a second national lockdown on 31 October.Throughout December 2020, COVID-19 cases across the UK rose significantly, straining emergency services and hospitals.In response, the government enacted further restrictions to large parts of southern and eastern England and on 21 December shortened a planned household mixing period over Christmas. Britain beganits COVID-19 vaccination programmein December 2020.Half of UK adults had received at least their first vaccine dose by 20 March 2021.A third lockdown for the whole of England was introduced on 6 January 2021.Record numbers of infections and daily deaths were recorded in the UK throughout January, and the government began exploring quarantine procedures on arrival.Johnson said he was \"deeply sorry\" and \"take full responsibility\" as the UK passed 100,000 deaths from COVID-19, the first European country to do so, on 26 January. In July 2021, Johnson announced that most generalised public health restrictions in England would be lifted and replaced by recommendations. This took place despite an increase in cases driven by theDelta variant.In September 2021, Johnson was pictured in a cabinet meeting, with \"at least 30 people crammed shoulder-to-shoulder\", without anyone wearing masks and with all windows apparently closed, contradicting government advice.Johnson was also photographed without a face mask during a visit to a hospital in November. In December 2021, more stringent \"Plan B\" restrictions for England were put forward, a partial renewal of previous measures due to the increased incidence of theSARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. These proposals included face coverings to be required in more public settings, guidance towork from homewherever possible, and requirements ofCOVID-19 passportsto enter certain venues.The government experienced the largest rebellion of Conservative MPs during Johnson's premiership, in opposition to these measures. Immigration In 2019, Johnson promised to reduce net migration to the United Kingdom (the number of people immigrating minus the number emigrating) below 250,000 per year by the next election.In 2021, net migration to the UK was 488,000,up from 184,000 in 2019 before the COVID-19 pandemic.Most of the migrants came from non-EU countries. As a result of Brexit, more EU nationals left the UK than arrived. In 2021, Johnson's government launched ascheme for Hongkongersfollowing theHong Kong national security law, with more than 200,000 Hong Kong residents immigrating to the UK. Long-term net migration to the UK reached a record high of 764,000 in 2022,with immigration at 1.26 million and emigration at 493,000. Legislative agenda At theState Opening of Parliament on 11 May 2021, a range of proposed laws were announced, including theDissolution and Calling of Parliament Bill, which would restore theroyal prerogativeto dissolve Parliament; aHigher Education (Freedom of Speech) Billto combatdeplatformingat universities;anOnline Safety Billthat would impose a statutoryduty of careon online companies and empowerOfcomto block particular websites;and anAnimal Welfare (Sentience) Billthat would legally recognise animal sentience. Further laws would introducemandatory voter identificationat general elections, reform the national immigration system, and implement alevelling up policyto reduce imbalances between areas. 2021 Downing Street refurbishment controversy In April 2021, Cummings alleged that Johnson had arranged for donors to \"secretly pay\" for renovations on the private residence at 11 Downing Street.On 27 April Johnson asked the Cabinet Secretary,Simon Case, to hold a review about the refurbishment.On 28 April, theElectoral Commissionannounced it had opened a formal investigation.On the same day Johnson said that he had not broken any laws over the refurbishment and had met the requirements he was obliged to meet.DuringPrime Minister's Questions, the leader of the opposition,Keir Starmer, asked: \"Whoinitiallypaid for the redecoration of his Downing Street flat?\"; Johnson responded: \"I paid for Downing Street's refurbishment personally.\" On 28 MayLord Geidtpublished a report on the allegations which concluded that Johnson did not breach the Ministerial Code and that no conflict, or reasonably perceived conflict, of interest arose. However, Lord Geidt expressed that it was \"unwise\" for Johnson to have proceeded without \"more rigorous regard for how this would be funded\".The Electoral Commission reported on 9 December that it found that the Conservative Party had failed to follow the law in not accurately reporting donations to the party from Lord Brownlow and imposed a £17,800 fine on the party.The Heraldsaid the commission's report outlined how, in March, all the money paid by Brownlow and his company had been reimbursed, as had the payments made by the Conservative Party and Cabinet Office.Downing Street had said at the time that the full cost of the works had been met personally by the prime minister. Owen Paterson controversy In November 2021, Johnson backed a motion to block the suspension ofOwen Paterson, a Conservative MP found to have abused his position by theindependent standards commissionerafter undertaking paid lobbying.The motion called for the creation of a new Conservative-majority committee to examine reforms of the standards investigation process.Many Conservative MPs refused to support the motion, and 13 defied athree-line whipto vote against it.Following the announcement by opposition parties that they would boycott the new committee, and faced with a backlash in the media and from MPs of all parties, the government announced that a new vote would take place on whether Paterson should be suspended.Paterson announced his resignation as an MP the same day.Aby-electionin Paterson's former constituency ofNorth Shropshiresaw theLiberal Democratcandidate,Helen Morgan, overturn a Conservative majority of nearly 23,000,theseventh largest swing in United Kingdom by-election history. Partygate scandal In December 2021, reports emerged thatsocial gatherings of government and Conservative Party staffin Downing Street had taken place ahead of Christmas 2020 against COVID-19 regulations. Johnson denied these allegations.Following a leaked video showing Downing Street staff joking about a \"fictional party\", at a press conference rehearsal recorded days after one alleged party took place, Johnson apologised for the contents of the video and suggested he had been misled but had now ordered an inquiry. On 10 January 2022,ITV Newsreported that a planned party had taken place on 20 May 2020, during the first lockdown. ITV had obtained an email sent by principal private secretaryMartin Reynoldsto staff inviting them to \"socially distanced drinks\" in the garden of No. 10.At the time, people outdoors were not allowed to meet more than one person from outside their household.Two eyewitnesses later alleged that Johnson and Symonds attended, contradicting Johnson's insistence in December 2021 that there were \"no parties\". On 12 January 2022, Johnson apologised to MPs in the Commons for \"attending an event in the Downing Street garden during the first lockdown\",stating he believed it was \"a work event\".He said that MPs should await the outcome of the independent inquiry, led by senior civil servantSue Gray, which he said \"will report as soon as possible\".There were calls across the House for Johnson to resign. On 19 January,Bury SouthMPChristian Wakeforddefected from the Conservative Party to the Labour Party.Conservative former ministerDavid Daviscalled for Johnson to resign, quotingLeo Amerycalling onNeville Chamberlainto resign during theNorway Debatein 1940, and saying: \"You have sat there too long for all the good you have done. In the name of God, go.\" On 25 January, theMetropolitan Police's chief commander,Cressida Dick, announced that they were commencing investigations into the Downing Street Parties.An abbreviated version of theSue Gray reportinto the controversy was released on 31 January, where Gray concluded there was a \"failure of leadership\" over the events that she had examined. The release of the full report was delayed pending the Metropolitan Police's investigation. In April 2022, Johnson was issued afixed penalty noticeas police determined that he committed a criminal offence by breaching the COVID-19 lockdown regulations.Johnson therefore became the first prime minister in British history to have been sanctioned for breaking the law while in office. According to Downing Street insiders, Johnson was involved in instigating a party on the occasion ofLee Cainleaving Number 10. What had begun as press office drinks became a party after Johnson arrived, gave a speech and poured drinks for staff.Labour's deputy leader,Angela Raynersaid, \"If the latest reports are true, it would mean that not only did the prime minister attend parties, but he had a hand in instigating at least one of them. He has deliberately misled the British people at every turn. The prime minister has demeaned his office.\"On 21 April, MPs voted to refer Johnson to theParliamentary Privileges Committeeto investigate whether he knowingly misled Parliament.Steve Bakersaid Johnson's \"marvellous contrition... only lasted as long as it took to get out of the headmaster's study\". Following theMay 2022 local elections, many leading Conservatives in areas where the Conservatives had done badly blamed Johnson and calling on Johnson to resign.On 6 June,Graham Bradyannounced that the threshold for a vote on Johnson's leadership had been passed; the vote was scheduled for later that same day. On 3 March 2023, an interim report from theCommons Select Committee of Privilegessaid there was evidence that \"strongly suggests\" breaches of coronavirus regulations would have been \"obvious\" to Johnson.The report also said \"There is evidence that those who were advising Mr Johnson about what to say to the press and in the House were themselves struggling to contend that some gatherings were within the rules\".Johnson said none of the evidence showed he \"knowingly\" misled Parliament.The report stated that the Commons may have been misled on multiple occasions and Johnson \"did not correct the statements earliest opportunity\".The committee also stated that Johnson had \"personal knowledge\" over lockdown gatherings in No 10, which he could have disclosed. Starmer slur controversy While speaking in the House of Commons in January 2022, Johnson falsely blamed Starmer for the non-prosecution of the serial sex offenderJimmy Savilewhen Starmer wasDirector of Public Prosecutionsin theCrown Prosecution Service. Starmer was DPP in the years immediately prior to Savile's death but there is no evidence he was involved in the decision to not have him prosecuted.A few days later, Johnson defended his comments but conceded that Starmer \"had nothing to do personally with those decisions\" by the CPS not to investigate Savile. Vote of confidence In the week prior to and throughout thePlatinum Jubilee of Elizabeth IIin June 2022, it had been speculated that a vote of confidence in Johnson's leadership of the Conservative Party might soon occur.On 6 June 2022, the Conservative Party announced that Johnson would face a vote of confidence in his leadership of the party, after at least 54 Conservative MPs wrote no-confidence letters to SirGraham Brady, the chairman of the1922 Committee. Johnson won the vote, with 211 in favour and 148 against.The number of rebel MPs was larger than had been expected.The result was described by Keir Starmer as the \"beginning of the end\" for Johnson's premiership. June 2022 by-elections Following heavy Conservative defeats in the 23 June 2022 by-elections inWakefieldandTiverton and Honiton, former party leader Michael Howard called for Johnson to resign, saying: \" biggest asset has always been his ability to win votes but I'm afraid yesterday's results make it clear that he no longer has that ability.\" Oliver Dowden, the Co-Chairman of the Conservative Party, resigned saying: \"somebody must take responsibility\".Johnson announced that he had no intention of changing or resigning; senior Conservatives accused him of increasingly \"delusional\" behaviour.On 26 June 2022 Johnson said: \"At the moment I'm thinking actively about the third term and what could happen then, but I will review that when I get to it.\" He also claimed that he intended to stay as prime minister until the mid-2030s, although Number 10 later said that he had been joking. Pincher scandal Government Deputy Chief WhipChris Pincherresigned on 30 June 2022, saying he had \"drunk far too much\" the night before at theCarlton ClubinSt James's, London, and having \"embarrassed myself and other people\".It was later alleged that he sexually assaulted two men,and he was suspended as an MP.On 3 July 2022 six new allegations against Pincher emerged, involving behaviour over a decade. Johnson allegedly referred to Pincher as \"handsy\" and Cummings said Johnson joked about him being \"Pincher by name, pincher by nature\" in 2020, leading to calls for Johnson to explain how much he knew about Pincher's behaviour.Ministers initially said that Johnson was unaware of any specific complaints against Pincher when he was appointed as deputy chief whip. The BBC then reported, however, that an official complaint and subsequent investigation into Pincher, while he was at the Foreign Office (July 2019 to February 2020), had confirmed his misconduct, and that Johnson had been made aware at that time.SirSimon McDonald, formerPermanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, later said that the prime minister had been briefed \"in person\" about Pincher. Mass resignations On 5 July 2022, Sunak and Javid resigned within minutes of each other,followed over the next 24 hours by 11 other ministers, as well as Conservative MPs fromparliamentary private secretaryand other Government positions;otherbackbenchersalso withdrew their support for Johnson. Many of the MPs stated that the Pincher affair had led them to change their minds on the suitability of Johnson to be prime minister.It was reported on 6 July that Johnson could face another confidence vote, with members of the 1922 Committee considering changing the rules as soon as that evening to allow this to happen.By 6 July, there had been a total of 31 resignations.As of May 2022, the government comprised 122 ministers. Announcement of resignation By the morning of 7 July, the newly installedChancellor of the Exchequer,Nadhim Zahawi, publicly stated his belief that Johnson should resign. Within hours, the BBC and other media reported Johnson's intention to resign. Johnson announced his resignation at 12.30 pm. I know that there will be many who are relieved, but perhaps quite a few who will be disappointed. And I want you to know how sad I am to give up the best job in the world - but them's the breaks. Upon reports of his resignation, thepound sterlingtemporarily strengthened in value, and UK stocks rose.He remained as prime minister until September, while the Conservative Party chose a new leader.On 5 September 2022, it was announced thatLiz Trusshad won theConservative leadership election. She became prime minister the next day.During his farewell speech outside 10 Downing Street on 6 September 2022 Johnson referred to the Roman statesmanCincinnatus. Some commentators noted that, while, as Johnson said, Cincinnatus returned to his plough, he was also later recalled to power. Environmental policies In November 2020, Johnson announced a 10-point plan for a \"green industrial revolution\", to include ending the sale of petrol anddieselcars and vans by 2030,quadrupling the amount ofoffshore wind powercapacity within a decade, funding emissions-cutting proposals, and spurning a proposedgreen post-COVID-19 recovery.In 2021, the Johnson government announced plans to cutcarbon emissionsby 78% by 2035. Johnson announced that the UK would join the Global Methane Pledge to cutmethane emissionsby 30% by 2030 at theCOP26summit, which the UK hosted.Before the summit, representatives ofGreenpeaceandFriends of the Earthcriticised Johnson's comments on plans to introduce \"enforceable limits\" on carbon emissions for other countries, which they accused of being unsubstantive,and his government faced criticism from environmental groups for cutting taxes on domestic air travel, given theenvironmental impact of aviation. In April 2022, Johnson announced that eight morenuclear reactorswould be built on existingnuclear power plantsites and called for an expansion in wind energy.Under these plans, up to 95% of the UK's electricity could come fromlow-carbon powersources by 2030. Foreign policy Johnson supported theEuropean Union–Mercosur Free Trade Agreement,which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas.Johnson's government placed importance on the \"Special Relationship\" with theUnited States.In 2022, his government introduced anasylum dealwhereby people entering the UK illegally would be sent toRwanda. Hong Kong and China Johnson said in July 2019 that his government would be very \"pro-China\" in an interview with the Hong Kong broadcasterPhoenix TV. He voiced support for Chinese presidentXi Jinping's infrastructure investment effort, theBelt and Road Initiative, and promised to keep the United Kingdom \"the most open economy in Europe\" forChinese investment. In June 2020, Johnson announced that if China were to continue pursuing theHong Kong national security law, the UK would offer 350,000Hong Kong residentswho areBritish National (Overseas) passportholders, and 2.6 million other eligible individuals, the chance to move to the UK.China accused the UK of interfering in its internal affairs. Johnson declined to describe the Chinese government'streatment of the Uyghur peopleas \"genocide\", despite use of the term by the United States.Johnson's government argued that genocide should be decided by the International Criminal Court.Nevertheless, he called what is happening to theUyghursin Xinjiang as \"utterly abhorrent\". The UK joined theAUKUSdefence pact with the United States and Australia in September 2021. The pact was denounced by Chinaand caused a French backlash, as it usurped existingplans for Australia to procure French submarines. Afghanistan On 8 July 2021, the day after saying he was \"apprehensive\" about the future of Afghanistan following what was then theimpending withdrawal of US troops, while announcing the near completion of British troop withdrawal from Afghanistan, Johnson expressed the view that there was \"no military path to victory for theTaliban\".Following thefall of Kabul to the Taliban, he blamed the United States for the crisis,saying thatNATOalliance members \"could not continue this US-led mission, a mission conceived and executed in support of America, without American logistics, without US air power and without American might\". UK–EU trade negotiation Following the formalwithdrawal from the European Unionin January 2020, Johnson's government enteredtrade negotiations with the EU.Fisheries was a major topicof the negotiations.On 16 October 2020 Johnson said that the UK \"must get ready\" for no trade deal with the EU.It was announced on 24 December 2020that theEU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreementhad been reached; it came into force formally on 1 May. Afisheries dispute between the UK and Franceoccurred shortly afterwards. Introduction of new UK border checks were delayed until 2022 to minimise the disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2022, Johnson readied a draft that would unilaterally change parts of theNorthern Ireland Protocol, citing issues with medical supplies and cuts in VAT. One of the thornier points of contention involves safety regulations for food and plants, where the British government is opposed to a closer alignment with existing EU regulations. The EU rebuffed the idea of changing the text of the treaty to accommodate the British. A unilateral override by the UK would be tantamount to a breach of the agreement. As Johnson sought a more conciliatory tone, sources within the government began to stress that the draft is designed to be an \"insurance policy\" and would take years to become law. Russia and Ukraine In November 2021, Johnson warned that the European Union faces \"a choice\" between \"sticking up for Ukraine\" and approving theNord Stream 2natural gas pipeline from Russia to Europe. During theprelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Johnson's government warned the Russian Government not to invadeDonbas.Johnson andVladimir Putinagreed in a phone call to work towards a \"peaceful resolution\".On 1 February 2022, Johnson arrived inKyivon a diplomatic visit.He called the presence of theRussian Armed Forcesnear theRussia–Ukraine border\"the biggest security crisis that Europe has faced for decades\".The Kremlin denied that it wanted to attack Ukraine.On 20 February 2022, Johnson warned that Russia is planning the \"biggest war in Europe since1945\" as Putin intends to invade and encircle Kyiv.On 21 February 2022, Johnson condemnedRussia's diplomatic recognitionof twoself-proclaimedrepublics in Donbas. On 24 February 2022, Johnson condemned theRussian invasion of Ukraine, and ensured the UK joined ininternational sanctionson Russian banks andoligarchs.He later announced the UK would phase outRussian oilby the end of 2022. On 9 April 2022, Johnson travelled to Kyiv and met thePresident of Ukraine,Volodymyr Zelenskyy.On 16 April 2022, Russia'sMinistry for Foreign Affairsbanned Johnson and a number of senior British politicians from visiting Russia, saying that Britain aimed to isolate Russia politically and supply \"the Kyiv regime with lethal weapons and coordinating similar efforts on the part of NATO\". Within Ukraine, Johnson is praised by many as a supporter of anti-Russian sanctions andmilitary aid for Ukraine.On 3 May, Johnsonvirtually addressedtheUkrainian Parliament, becoming the first world leader to speak in Ukraine since the invasion. He pledged an extra £300m in military aid to Ukraine, praised Ukraine's resistance to Russia as its \"finest hour\" and said that the West had been \"too slow to grasp what was actually happening\" prior to Russia's invasion.In July 2022, Johnson warned that it would be a mistake to cease fire andfreeze the conflict.In August 2022, Johnson blamed Vladimir Putin for the emergingglobal energy crisis. Post-premiership (2022–present) After stepping down, Johnson reverted to being a backbench MP.Following thedeath of Queen Elizabeth II, Johnson took part inCharles III'sAccession Council. AfterLiz Trussannounced her resignation as Conservative Party leader on 20 October 2022, Johnson received more than the 100 MPs' nominations required to stand in theleadership election,but soon announced that he would not stand. In May 2023, Johnson was referred to the police by the Cabinet Office regarding previously unknown potential breaches of COVID regulations between June 2020 and May 2021,to which Johnson's office issued a statement criticising the \"unfounded suggestions\" which \"has all the hallmarks of yet another politically motivated stitch-up\". On 9 June 2023, the publication of his2022 Prime Minister's Resignation Honoursled to a public feud with Sunak.Johnson supporterNadine Dorriesannounced that she was resigning as an MP due to not being included as a peer on the honours list.The same day, after receiving a confidential report from a committee of theHouse of Commonsthat was looking into whether he had lied to Parliament over lockdown-breaking parties, Johnson announced his resignation as MP.His resignation statement said he is \"not alone in thinking that there is a witch-hunt under way, to take revenge for Brexit and ultimately to reverse the 2016 referendum result\". On 15 June, the Commons Privileges Committee published their report, which concluded that Johnson lied to and deliberately misled the House of Commons over Partygate, misled the Committee themselves during the hearing, and acted in contempt of the Committee itself through a \"campaign of abuse and intimidation\".The report noted that had Johnson still been an MP, the Committee would have recommended he be suspended from Parliament for 90 days.The contents of the report represented a recommendation to the House of Commons,which accepted the report by 354 votes to seven. On 16 June, Johnson was unveiled as a new columnist for theDaily Mail. The news websitePolitico Europereported that Johnson would be paid a \"very-high six-figure sum\".Johnson reportedly informed theAdvisory Committee on Business Appointmentshalf an hour before the columnist assignment was publicly announced. The committee ruled that Johnson committed a \"clear breach\" of the rules since he had not sought its advice on the matter within an appropriate timeframe. In October 2023, Johnson announced he would join the television channelGB Newsas a commentator and programme maker for thenext general electionandUS presidential election. Johnson condemnedHamas' attackon Israel, saying \"there can be no moral equivalence between the terrorism of Hamas and the actions of the Israeli Defense Forces\". He rejected calls for a ceasefire in theGaza Stripduring theIsrael–Hamas war, and criticisedpro-Palestinian protests in the UK.On 5 November 2023, Johnson visited Israel to express solidarity. In February 2024, Johnson had a private meeting with the president of Venezuela,Nicolás Maduro.In March 2024,The Timesreported that Johnson is expected to campaign for the Conservatives in the next General Election. On 2 May 2024 Johnson was turned away from his polling station for theThames Valley Police and Crime Commissioner, after forgetting to bringvalid photographic identification, a requirement of theElections Act, which Johnson introduced while in office. When he arrived he had nothing to prove his identity except the sleeve of his copy ofProspectmagazine, on which his name and address had been printed. He said that when he returned a few minutes later, with hisdriving licence, he was then able to vote.During the2024 general election, Johnson campaigned for the Conservatives, who lost the election in a landslide to Labour. Johnson's memoirsUnleashedare scheduled to be released in October 2024. Political positions and ideology free-market, tolerant, broadly libertarian (though perhaps not ultra-libertarian), inclined to see the merit of traditions, anti-regulation, pro-immigrant, pro-standing on your own two feet, pro-alcohol, pro-hunting, pro-motorist and ready to defend to the death the right ofGlenn Hoddle to believe in reincarnation. — Boris Johnson, 2011 Ideologically, Johnson has been described as a \"One-Nation Tory\".Political scientists have described Johnson's political positions as ambiguous and contradictory, encompassingnativist, authoritarian andfree markettendencies on the one hand, and one-nationliberal conservatismon the other.Some scholars have questioned Johnson's commitment to one-nation conservativism, instead characterising his ideology as flexible and populist.Purnell stated that Johnson regularly changed his opinion on political issues, commenting on what she perceived to be \"an ideological emptiness beneath the staunch Tory exterior\". During his tenure as mayor, Johnson gained a reputation as \"a liberal, centre-ground politician\", according toBusiness Insider.In 2012, the political scientistTony Traversdescribed Johnson as \"a fairly classic—that is, small-state—mildlyeuroscepticConservative\" who also embraced \"modern social liberalism\".The Guardianstated that while mayor, Johnson blended economic and social liberalism,withThe Economistsaying that in doing so Johnson \"transcends his Tory identity\" and adopts a more libertarian perspective.According to political scientist Richard Hayton, Johnson's premiership was about Brexit, which served as a \"national cause\". Johnson evoked the discourse ofpopular sovereigntyandanti-establishmentpopulism to portray Parliament as seeking to \"sabotage\" Brexit, and in doing so, presented himself \"as the true representative of 'the people'\". Scholars ofcomparative politicshave drawn comparisons between Johnson and other populist leaders such as Donald Trump andViktor Orban.Some commentators have likened Johnson's political style toTrumpism,although others have argued that Johnson's stance on matters such as social policy, immigration and free trade is liberal.Johnson biographer Gimson wrote that Johnson is economically and socially \"a genuine liberal\", although he retains a \"Tory element\" through his \"love of existing institutions, and a recognition of the inevitability of hierarchy\".In 2019, reacting to reports inThe Sun, that Johnson had told cabinet colleagues he was \"basically a Brexity Hezza\", former deputy leader of the Conservative PartyMichael Heseltinewrote: \"I fear that any traces of liberal conservatism that still exist within the prime minister have long since been captured by the rightwing, foreigner-bashing, inward-looking view of the world that has come to characterise his fellow Brexiters.\" Environment Johnson expressedclimate scepticalviews in several columns,conflating the distinction between weather and climate and highlighting a factually incorrect claim by weather forecaster and conspiracy theoristPiers Corbynthat reduced solar activity could lead to a \"mini-Ice Age\". Bloomberg Newssuggested that Johnson's interest in climate change increased after becoming prime minister, and suggested this could have been influenced by his wifeCarrie Symondsand fatherStanley Johnson, who are both environmental campaigners. In 2019 and 2020, Johnson expressed support for the UK to have\"net-zero\" greenhouse gas emissionsby 2050and spoke about increasing ambition for mitigating climate change throughcarbon capture and storageand arenewable energy transition.During the2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Johnson called for greater efforts towardsclimate change mitigation,and welcomed the prospect ofcoal phase-out. It was reported in 2022 that Johnson was convinced of thescientific consensus on climate changefollowing a briefing by the chief scientist of theMet Officein January 2020, and subsequently made the issue a priority for his government. According toTheyWorkForYouas of 2022, Johnson has \"generally voted against\" what it described as \"key measures to preventclimate change\"while an MP,and other sources confirm this. Immigration and the European Union Purnell believed it was the influence of Johnson's maternal family that led to him developing \"a genuine abhorrence of racial discrimination\".In 2003, Johnson said, \"I am not by any means an ultra-Eurosceptic. In some ways, I am a bit of a fan of theEuropean Union. If we did not have one, we would invent something like it.\"As mayor, Johnson was known as a supporter ofimmigration.From 2009, he advocated a referendum on Britain's EU membership. In 2018, during Brexit negotiations, Johnson called for Britain to leave theSingle Marketand advocated a more liberal approach to immigration than that of Prime Minister May.He stated many people believed thatBritain's EU membershiphad led to the suppression of British wages and said the EU was intent on creating a \"superstate\" that would seek to rob Britain of its sovereignty.In 2019, Johnson said he would take Britain out of the EU on 31 October whether there was a trade deal in place or not.Johnson also stated his opposition to areferendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement. On 19 August 2019, Johnson wrote a letter to the EU asking for the removal of the \"backstop\" accord. The president of the European Council,Donald Tusk, rejected the proposal.On 26 August 2019, Johnson said that Britain would not pay £39 billion for the withdrawal agreement were the UK to leave without a deal. The European Parliament Brexit coordinatorGuy Verhofstadtsaid there would be no further negotiation unless the UK agreed to pay the entire sum. Unionism and devolution Johnson described himself as a \"fervent and passionateunionist\".He proposed building anIrish Sea Bridge, but he later scrapped this initiative. The devolved administrations have criticised theInternal Market Billfor its re-centralisation of control over commerce. Public image Johnson has said that \"humour is a utensil that you can use to sugar the pill and to get important points across\".He is said to have a genuine desire to be liked.Johnson has been described as having a light-hearted and charming persona;many biographers and commentators suggest he has put significant effort into developing this version of himself.He has also been described as heavily focused on his own interests,with an often vitriolic or irresponsible way of conducting himself in private. Johnson has been described as a divisive, controversial figure in British politics.Supporters have praised him as witty and entertaining.Johnson has been accused of lying or making misleading statements throughout his career,and has been compared to former US presidentDonald Trump.He has been considered a figure with broad appeal outside of the usual Conservative support base.Johnson's premiership has been described by historians as the most controversial and scandal-affected since that ofDavid Lloyd Georgeabout a century earlier. Personal life Since Johnson was born in New York City to British parents, he heldBritish-Americandual citizenship. In 2015, he agreed to paycapital gains taxto theUS tax authoritieson a property that he inherited in the UK.He renounced his US citizenship the following year.Johnson has knowledge of French, Italian, German, Spanish,LatinandAncient Greek,frequently makingclassicalallusions in his newspaper columns and his speeches. Sonia Purnellwrote in 2011 that Johnson was a \"highly evasive figure\" when it came to his personal life,who remained detached from others and who had few intimate friends.Among friends and family, Johnson is more commonly known as Al (short for his forename Alexander), rather than Boris. In 2007, Johnson said he had smokedcannabisbefore he went to university.He has also said he had usedcocaine.Johnson partakes in cycling, tennis andpilates, and returned to road running in 2023.He was consideredobesein 2018 andoverweightin 2020, and has spoken of making efforts to lose weight. Johnson previously owned a £1.3 million buy-to-let townhouse inCamberwell, South London. According toHM Land Registrydocuments, he bought the four-bedroom property with his then-girlfriendCarrie Symondsin July 2019. The register of MPs' interests states that Johnson had a rental income of at least £10,000 a year.In 2023, Johnson and Symonds boughtBrightwell Manor, a £3.8 million moated mansion inBrightwell-cum-Sotwell, Oxfordshire. Religion Johnson was baptisedCatholicand laterconfirmedin theChurch of England,but has said that his faith \"comes and goes\"and that he is not a serious practising Christian.In 2020, his son Wilfred was baptised Catholic.Johnson and Symonds married in a Catholic ceremony atWestminster Cathedralon 29 May 2021.Since he was baptised Catholic, but his previous weddings were not conferred by the Catholic Church, the Catholic Church considered them putatively invalid. Johnson holds ancient Greek statesmanPericlesas a personal hero.According to Johnson's biographer, Andrew Gimson, regarding ancient Greek andRoman polytheism: \"it is clear that is inspired by the Romans, and even more by the Greeks, and repelled by theearly Christians\".Johnson viewssecular humanismpositively and sees it as owing more to theclassical worldthan to Christian thinking.However, in 2021, Johnson was asked if he held pre-Christian beliefs, which he denied, saying, \"Christianity is a superb ethical system and I would count myself as a kind of very, very bad Christian... Christianity makes a lot of sense to me.\" Relationships In 1987, Johnson marriedAllegra Mostyn-Owen, daughter of the art historianWilliam Mostyn-Owenand Italian writerGaia Servadio.The couple's marriage ended in divorce orannulmentin 1993and 12 days later Johnson marriedMarina Wheeler, a barrister, daughter of journalistCharles Wheeler.Five weeks later, their first child was born.They have four children:Lara Lettice, Milo Arthur, Cassia Peaches and Theodore Apollo. Between 2000 and 2004, Johnson had an affair withSpectatorcolumnistPetronella Wyattwhen he was its editor, resulting in a terminated pregnancy and amiscarriage.In April 2006, theNews of the Worldalleged that Johnson was having an affair withGuardianjournalist Anna Fazackerley. The pair did not comment; shortly afterward, Johnson employed Fazackerley. In 2009, Johnson fathered a daughter with Helen Macintyre, an arts consultant.In September 2021, Johnson stated that he had six children, thereby denying the existence of further illegitimate children. In September 2018, Johnson and Wheeler issued a statement confirming that they had separated months earlier;they divorced in 2020. Jennifer Arcurisaid that she had an affair with Johnson from 2012 to 2016. In 2019, Johnson was living withCarrie Symonds, the daughter ofMatthew Symonds, co-founder ofThe Independentnewspaper.Johnson and Symonds became engaged in late 2019and their son, Wilfred Lawrie Nicholas Johnson,was born in April 2020. On 29 May 2021, Johnson married Symonds atWestminster Cathedral.Their daughter, Romy Iris Charlotte Johnson,was born in December 2021.Their third child, a son named Frank Alfred Odysseus Johnson, was born in July 2023. Family and ancestors Johnson is the eldest of the four children ofStanley Johnson, a formerConservativemember of the European Parliament, and the painterCharlotte Johnson Wahl(née Fawcett),the daughter of SirJames Fawcett, president of theEuropean Commission of Human Rights.His younger siblings areRachel Johnson, a writer and journalist, Leo Johnson, a broadcaster,andJo Johnson, ex-minister of state and former Conservative MP forOrpington, who resigned from his brother's government in September 2019and is now a member of theHouse of Lords. Johnson's stepmother, Jenny, the second wife of his father Stanley, is the stepdaughter ofTeddy Sieff, the former chairman ofMarks & Spencer.Having been a member of the Conservatives between 2008 and 2011, Rachel Johnson joined the Liberal Democrats in 2017.She stood as a candidate forChange UKin the2019 European Elections.Johnson also has two half-siblings,Juliaand Maximilian, through his father's later marriage to Jennifer Kidd. Johnson's paternal grandfather, Wilfred Johnson, was an RAF pilot inCoastal Commandduring the Second World War.Wilfred Johnson's father was theOttomanInterior Ministerand journalistAli Kemal. Ali Kemal's father was aTurkwhile his mother was aCircassianreputedly ofslaveorigin.His other paternal ancestry includes English, German and French; one of his German ancestors was said to be theillegitimatedaughter ofPrince Paul of Württembergand thus a descendant ofGeorge II of Great Britain,which was later confirmed on an episode ofWho Do You Think You Are? Johnson's mother is the granddaughter ofElias Avery Lowe, apalaeographerand aRussian Jewishimmigrant to the US,andPennsylvania-bornHelen Tracy Lowe-Porter, a translator ofThomas Mann.Referring to his varied ancestry, Johnson has described himself as a \"one-man melting pot\".Johnson was given the middle name \"Boris\" after a White Russian émigré named Boris Litwin, who was a friend of his parents. Honours Works Notes References Footnotes Sources Further reading External links", "Liz Truss Mary Elizabeth Truss(born 26 July 1975) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United KingdomandLeader of the Conservative Partyfrom September to October 2022. On her fiftieth dayin office, she stepped down amida government crisis, making her theshortest-serving prime ministerin British history. Themember of Parliament(MP) forSouth West Norfolkfrom 2010 to 2024, Truss held variousCabinetpositions under three prime ministers—David Cameron,Theresa MayandBoris Johnson—lastly asforeign secretaryfrom 2021 to 2022. Truss studiedphilosophy, politics and economicsatMerton College, Oxford, and was the president of theOxford University Liberal Democrats. In 1996 she joined theConservative Party. She worked atRoyal Dutch ShellandCable & Wirelessand was the deputy director of the think tankReform. After two unsuccessful attempts to be elected to theHouse of Commons, she became the MP for South West Norfolk at the2010 general election. As abackbenchershe called for reform in several policy areas including the economy, childcare and mathematics in education. Truss co-founded theFree Enterprise Groupof Conservative MPs and wrote or co-wrote a number of papers and books, includingAfter the CoalitionandBritannia Unchained. Truss was theparliamentary under-secretary of state for childcare and educationfrom 2012 to 2014 before Cameron appointed hersecretary of state for the environment, food and rural affairsina cabinet reshuffle. Although she campaigned for the UK to remain in theEuropean Union, Truss supportedBrexitfollowing the outcome of the2016 referendum. Following Cameron's resignation in 2016 his successor, Theresa May, appointed hersecretary of state for justiceandlord chancellor, making Truss the first woman to serve as lord chancellor in the office's thousand-year history; in the aftermath of the2017 general electionshe was demoted tochief secretary to the Treasury. After May announced her resignation in May 2019 Truss supported Johnson's successful bid to become Conservative leader and prime minister. He appointed Trusssecretary of state for international tradeandpresident of the Board of Tradein July and subsequently to the additional role ofminister for women and equalitiesin September. Johnson promoted Truss to foreign secretary in the2021 cabinet reshuffle; during her time in the position she led negotiations on theNorthern Ireland Protocoland theUK's response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In September 2022 Truss defeatedRishi Sunakina leadership electionto succeed Johnson, who had resigned because of anearlier government crisis, and was appointed as prime minister byElizabeth IItwo days beforethe monarch's death; her government's business was subsequently suspended during anational mourning periodof ten days. In response to therising cost of livingandincreased energy prices,her ministryannounced theEnergy Price Guarantee. The government then announcedlarge-scale tax cuts and borrowing, which led to financial instability and were largely reversed. Facing mounting criticism and loss of confidence in her leadership, Truss announced her resignation as leader of the Conservative Party on 20 October. Sunak waselected unopposedas her successor, and appointed prime minister on 25 October. After spending the duration ofSunak's premiershipon the backbenches, Trusslost her seatat the2024 general election. Early life and education (1975–1996) Mary Elizabeth Truss was born on 26 July 1975 at theJohn Radcliffe HospitalinOxford, England.She was the second child ofJohnand Priscilla Truss (néeGrasby); the year before Truss's birth, their first son, Matthew, had died.Truss was known by her middle name,Elizabeth, from early childhood, with her father—a professor ofpure mathematicsat theUniversity of Leeds—using it regularly, which she preferred;after being given a badge with \"Mary\" on it on her first day of school, Truss asked her teacher that it be changed.She later described her parents' politics as being \"to the left ofLabour\";her mother, a teacher and nurse, was a member of theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament.When Truss stood for election as a Conservative, her mother agreed to campaign with her but her father declined to do so.Her parents divorced in 2003. he stands out in my memory as a sort of strange, unfocused force, hugely in favour of action and change... it was always hard to see the aim of it all, or where it might lead, except that she would be at the centre of it. Julian Gloveron Truss, his former schoolmate. In 1977 Truss and her parents moved to Warsaw, but returned to Britain after John and Priscilla found it \"quite grim\".After living briefly inKidderminster,Worcestershire, the family moved toPaisleyin Scotland when Truss was four years old, where she attended West Primary School.In 1985 they moved south toLeeds, where Truss attendedRoundhay School; she later said in 2022 that at the school she \"saw kids... being let down\", a claim which was criticised as inaccurate by several former Roundhay pupils.When Truss was 12 she and her family spent a year inBurnaby, British Columbia, where she attended Parkcrest Elementary School whilst her father taught atSimon Fraser University.Truss praised the Canadian curriculum and the attitude that it was \"really good to be top of the class\", which she contrasted with her education at Roundhay. Truss's parents had initially wanted her to study at theUniversity of Cambridge, but Truss instead elected to go toOxfordin what her biographers, Cole and Heale, call a \"bout of teenage rebellion\".She applied toMerton Collegebut was insteadpooledto the all-women'sSt Hilda's College; annoyed, she then complained to both colleges, after which she was accepted by Merton and began her studies there in September 1993.Truss readphilosophy, politics and economicsand graduated in 1996.During her time at university, Truss was active in theLiberal Democratsand was a member of the Oxford Reform Club.She became the president of theOxford University Liberal Democratsin her first yearand a member of the national executive committee ofLiberal Democrat Youth and Students(LDYS) in 1995.During Truss's previous, unsuccessful bid for the LDYS executive, the party's leader,Paddy Ashdown, said she was \"a good debater and is utterly fearless\".As a Liberal Democrat, Truss supported theabolition of the monarchyand thelegalisation of cannabis,and campaigned against theCriminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.However, by November 1995 Truss had become critical of the Liberal Democrats, as she \"realised the Tory Party was saying quite sane things\"; in her last year at the university, she resigned from the LDYS.By 1996 Truss had joined the Conservative Party. Career Employment and candidatures (1996–2010) From 1996 to 2000 Truss worked forRoyal Dutch Shell, living inLewishamandGreenwichand qualifying as achartered management accountant.In 2000 she was employed byCable & Wirelessand rose to the position of economic director before leaving in 2005;one of her colleagues there, the LabourpeerGeorge Robertson, said that Truss \"had a passion for politics... she fresh minded, enthusiastic and the Tory Party needed people like that\".In January 2008, after losing her first two elections, Truss became the deputy director ofReform, acentre-rightthink tank, where she advocated for more focus on countering serious andorganised crimeand higher standards in schools and action to tackle what Reform perceived as Britain's \"falling competitiveness\".She co-authoredThe Value of Mathematics,Fit for Purpose,A New Level,Back To Blackand other reports. Whilst working at Shell, Truss served as the chair of theLewisham DeptfordConservative Associationfrom 1998 to 2000, having been introduced to the branch by her friend and later Conservative MPJackie Doyle-Price.During this time, at a reception at theGreenwichConservative Association, Truss met her future husband,Hugh O'Leary,whom she married in 2000 and with whom she has two daughters: Frances (born 2006) and Liberty (born 2008).Truss unsuccessfully stood for election twice inGreenwich London Borough Council: forVanbrugh ward in 1998andBlackheath Westcombe in 2002.The deputy leader of Greenwich Conservatives, Graeme Coombes, recalled in 2022 that Truss \"said she was hoping to stand for Parliament... she was destined for bigger and better things\".However, Alex Grant, the candidate who had defeated Truss in 2002, called her \"largely invisible during the campaign\".Inthe 2006 council election, Truss was elected forElthamSouth,but did not seek re-election to the council in2010, standing down the day she became an MP. At the2001 general electionTruss was selected for thesafeLabour seat ofHemsworth,West Yorkshire, coming a distant second but achieving a 3.2 per centswingto the Conservatives, thought impressive by her party colleagues.The election saw the Conservatives make a net gain of one seat, which was considered a disappointment;the party leaderWilliam Haguesubsequently resigned, with Truss supporting the formerdefence secretaryMichael Portillo's unsuccessful leadership campaign. In January 2005 Sue Catling, the parliamentary candidate for theCalder Valleyconstituency, was forced to resign by the local Conservative Association because of an affair with the association's chairman.Catling claimed that the members of the party that had opposed her were sexist and said that she was \"accused of everything except murder and paedophilia\".Truss, who was selected as the candidate for the seat,narrowly lostto the Labour incumbent after an active Conservative campaign whichThe Yorkshire Postdescribed as \"Blitzkrieg\".Beginning in 2004, Truss embarked on an 18-month affair with the Conservative MPMark Field, which ended shortly after the following year's election. Following the 2005 general electionDavid CameronreplacedMichael Howardas leader, and Truss was added tothe party's A-List, a list of potential Conservative candidates;in October 2009 she was selected for the constituency ofSouth West Norfolkby members of the local Conservative Association, winning over 50 per cent of the vote in the first round of the final against 5 other candidates, including the future deputy prime ministerThérèse Coffey.Shortly after her selection, some members of the constituency association objected to Truss's selection because of her failure to declare her affair with Field.The Mail on Sundaywas the first to report on the affair, and party members claimed to have been misled over Truss's \"skeleton in the cupboard\".A motion was proposed to terminate Truss's candidature; the proponents of Truss's deselection were branded the \"TurnipTaliban\" by Conservative Party officials and the press, including by theMail,a reference to stereotypes about Norfolk being a county of farmers.There was also controversy over the fact that Truss was not from Norfolk, with some in the association asking for a local candidate and saying that she had been \"parachuted in\".On 16 November, the motion was put to the association: following both sides making their arguments, including what Cole and Heale call an \"impassioned\" speech from Truss, it was defeated by 132 votes to 37. Backbencher (2010–2012) Truss was elected as an MP in the2010 general election, which saw 148 other Conservatives become MPs for the first time;many of whatThe Independentdescribed as the \"golden generation\" would later reach high ranks in government.The Conservatives did not reach anoverall majorityin theHouse of Commonsand entered intoa coalition governmentwith the Liberal Democrats, with Cameron becoming prime minister.Following her election to Parliament, Truss campaigned for issues relating to her constituency, including the retention of theTornado GR4airbase atRAF Marhamin her constituency;the replacement of the old aircraft with around 150 newF-35 strike fighters;the conversion of theA11west ofThetfordinto adual carriageway, which was completed in 2014;and preventing a waste incinerator being built inKing's Lynn.Truss co-founded theFree Enterprise Group(FEG)—a grouping of over 30ThatcheriteConservative MPs—in October 2011; the month prior, she had co-authoredAfter the Coalitionwith some of the people that would later join the FEG:Priti Patel,Kwasi Kwarteng,Dominic RaabandChris Skidmore. The book advocated for a number of policies, including a reduction in the top rate of tax to 40 pence per pound and the introduction of acarbon taxto reduce pollution.On the publication, Truss wrote: Our message must be that the state cannot do everything: while the government can help, it can never fully solve any individual's problems. The NHScan't keep you healthy if you don't eat or exercise properly. A teacher can't get you the grades if you aren't prepared to work. Thejob centrecan't find you work if you aren't prepared to write a CV. Another book by the same authors,Britannia Unchained, was published in September 2012. The book attracted controversy for claiming that \"the British are among the worst idlers in the world. We work among the lowest hours, we retire early and our productivity is poor\".In 2022 Truss stated that the authors had each written a different chapter of the book; Raab had written the chapter which contained that claim.Truss soon became well known amongst members of Parliament in Norfolk for her frequentphoto opsbut was well respected amongst Conservative MPs, who recognised her as dedicated and hard-working, and by staff as attentive to local issues.Some of Truss's earliest contributions to parliamentary discourse were on the subject of education:she advocated for more rigorous teaching in school subjects, especially mathematics,calling for mathematics lessons to be compulsory for all students until the age of 18 and expressing concern about a perceived overreliance on calculators fromprimary schoolpupils.Truss criticised \"media studiesthe same value asfurther maths\" and suggested in 2011 that students should have to sitGCSEsfor \"5 traditional academic subjects\". Education under-secretary (2012–2014) ou're a great minister, I loved what you did, but we really couldn't go ahead with this one. You're one of the first ministers I've appointed to do something and you've just done it. David Cameron speaking to Truss about her childcare proposal. In September 2012 Truss was appointed as parliamentary under-secretary of state for education and stepped back from the leadership of the FEG, with Kwarteng taking her place.Truss was pleased with her appointment, and praisedMichael Gove, thesecretary of statefor the department; she also formed a friendly rivalry with the futurehealth secretaryMatt Hancock.In January 2013, Truss wrote awhite paper—More Great Childcare—in which she proposed increasing the maximum number of childrenchildminderscould look after at a time from three to four, as a means of reducing childcare costs.The press, including Conservative-leaning papers likeThe Daily TelegraphandThe Times, were largely hostile to the plan. The former claimed that prices would not fall; the latter claimed that \"her appointment signal a rapid deregulation of the sector\"; and theGuardiancolumnistPolly Toynbeechallenged Truss to demonstrate how to care for so many children on her own.Following a negative response fromtrade unionsand childminders, Truss met with the deputy prime minister,Nick Clegg, who told her that \"some of this is fine\" but the maximum childminder increase went \"much too far\", and advised her to revise the proposal;Truss ignored Clegg and pushed ahead with the plan, angering Clegg, who then blocked the proposals.Truss also announced proposals to reformA-levelsby concentrating exams at the end of two-year courses and said that the UK should attempt to \"out-educate\" countries in Asia. Environment secretary (2014–2016) In July 2014 duringa cabinet reshuffle, Truss was appointedsecretary of stateat thedepartment of environment, food and rural affairs(Defra);the changes to the Cabinet made it one third women.She was originally to be made a minister of state, but Cameron changed his mind on the morning of the reshuffle.Her predecessorOwen Paterson\"stormed out\" of Cameron's Commons study when told he was to be dismissed; nevertheless, he gave Truss his phone number and offered his support.Paterson was dismissed partly because of hisculling plans for badgers with tuberculosis, which Truss later supported.Early actions at the department included setting up a \"food crime unit\" to prevent incidents similar to the2013 horse meat scandal, approving planning for theThames Tideway Tunneland development ofFlood Re, a scheme designed to insure homes at a high risk of flooding. According to the academicDieter Helm, Truss, having \"no obvious interest\" in environmental matters, saw Defra instead as \"but a first step on a political ladder she wanted to climb upasap\".She was, along with the Treasury, keen to cut the budgets of bodies such asNatural Englandand theEnvironment Agency, placing them under stricter direct departmental control:Rory Stewart, one of Truss'sjunior ministersduring her second term as environment secretary, claimed that she saw the department \"very much in terms of budgets cuts\".Under Truss, Defra launched a ten-year strategy to counter falling bee populations,approved the limited temporary lifting of aEuropean Unionban on the use of twoneonicotinoidpesticidesand cut subsidies forsolar panelson agricultural land.Following the2015 general electionTruss was reappointed as environment secretary, although Helm writes that her second period at Defra \"saw little change... do as little as possible was the political objective\". At theConservative Party conferencein September 2014 Truss made a speech in which she said \"we import two thirds of our cheese. That is a disgrace\" and \"in December, I'll be in Beijing, opening up new pork markets\".Four days after Truss delivered the speech, parts of the video were featured on the satirical panel showHave I Got News For You;the awkward, stilted delivery led her to be mocked and clips of the speech went viral online.In March the following year Truss was one of two cabinet ministers to vote against the government's proposal to mandateplain packagingfor cigarettes.When she had been asked previously about the issue during a constituency meeting, Truss said \"when it comes to things like this, I take a morelibertarianapproach... I don't know if it's the government's role to regulate this\".During the2016 referendum on leaving the European Union, Truss endorsedRemain, saying that the Conservatives had \"a golden chance to reform Britain over the next few years\" and to avoid \" that time negotiating Britain's exit from the European Union\".The referendum resulted in the defeat of Remain and Cameron's resignation; thehome secretaryTheresa Maywonthe ensuing leadership electionand subsequently became leader of the Conservative Party and prime minister. Justice secretary and lord chancellor (2016–2017) In July 2016 Truss was appointed assecretary of state for justiceandlord chancellorin thefirst May ministry, becoming the first female lord chancellor in the office's thousand-year history.May's decision to appoint her was criticised by theminister of state for justice,Edward Faulks, who resigned from the government, questioning whether Truss would \"have the clout to be able to stand up to the Prime Minister when necessary, on behalf of the judges\".Other Conservative members of Parliament criticised Truss's appointment owing to her lack of legal experience; in response, Truss's supporters accused one of the MPs,Bob Neill, of \"thinly veiled misogyny\". Before Truss's arrival, the budget of theMinistry of Justice—which is responsible for the administration ofBritish prisons—had been subjected to successive cuts under the coalition government. The cuts were blamed for the prisons' rising rates of violence owing to the consequential drop in prison officer numbers.Truss lobbied thechancellor of the Exchequer,Philip Hammond, for £104 million in order to hire an additional 2,500 officers, which Hammond reluctantly delivered.In November 2016, Truss was accused of failing to support the judiciary after three judges of theHigh Courtwere criticised by politicians and by theDaily Mail—which ran with the headline \"Enemies of the People\"—forruling against the governmenton whetherArticle 50—which would begin the process of leaving the EU—could be triggered without Parliament's approval.A former lord chancellor,Charlie Falconer, suggested that, like her immediate predecessors, Truss lacked legal expertise and called for her to be dismissed as justice secretary as her perceived inadequate response \" to the judges that they have lost their constitutional protector\".She denied that she had failed to defend them, writing: An independent judiciary is the cornerstone of the rule of law, vital to our constitution and freedoms. It is my duty as lord chancellor to defend that independence. I swore to do so under my oath of office. I take that very seriously, and I will always do so. Chief secretary to the Treasury (2017–2019) In June, following the2017 general election, May demoted Truss from justice secretary tochief secretary to the Treasury, meaning she could attend cabinet meetings but was not a full member;Truss was enraged and called the demotion \"incredibly unfair\" and was, according to one of her friends, \"seething for a good couple of days\".Despite what Cole and Heale describe as her \"knocked\" confidence from the demotion, Truss soon began to contribute to the department, using it, according to a Treasury worker, \"like her own personal think tank\" by asking for research and advice onmonetary policy.In her first few months there, she was largely left out of decision-making processes by Hammond, who was described by Kwarteng as \"quite a closed, centrally controlling chancellor\"; nevertheless, Truss and the Chancellor were reported to have a good relationship.Beginning in December 2017 she developed an enthusiasm for cultivating her presence onTwitterandInstagram; Truss began to plan ministerial visits aroundphoto opsfor her social media.Some of her civil servants were reported as finding her tenure as chief secretary \"exhausting\", owing to her work schedule and asking them multiplication questions, a tactic she had first employed as an MP.Despite her governmental role, Truss remained relatively unknown by the public, with only seven per cent recognising her in March 2019. In June 2018 Truss gave a speech criticising rules and regulations which she said \"just g in the way of consumers' choices and lifestyles\", including the government's efforts to reduce alcohol consumption and unhealthy eating habits, and warned that raising taxes could see the Conservatives being \"crushed\" at the polls.She also attacked colleagues who she said should realise \"it's notmachojust to demand more money\",a jibe at the defence secretaryGavin Williamson, who had mounted a largely unsuccessful campaign for an extra £20 billion for his department, including threatening to write \"Liz Truss blocked your pay\" to everybody in the British Armed Forces.Truss's speech, which also mocked Michael Gove, was criticised by Hammond;Ed Vaizey, an ally of Gove's; and Gove himself;a speech she gave in November similarly joked about Matt Hancock, the newly appointed home secretary,Sajid Javid, and the health secretary,Jeremy Hunt.Before May's resignation announcement on 24 May 2019 Truss had sought the opinion of her colleagues on whether she could credibly stand and courted media attention.As it became apparent she could not win, she ruled herself out the day after May announced her resignation and subsequently endorsed the formerforeign secretaryBoris Johnson, the first minister to do so. International trade secretary (2019–2021) After Johnson became prime minister Truss was widely expected to be promoted because of her endorsement of his leadership campaign; it was thought she might have been appointed chancellor orbusiness secretary, but she was instead promoted to the position ofsecretary of state for international tradeandpresident of the Board of Trade.Following the resignation ofAmber Rudd, Truss was additionally appointedminister for women and equalitiesin September that year.Shortly after becoming international trade secretary, Truss embarked on international trips to the US, New Zealand, Australia and Japan.Truss met with her American counterpartRobert Lighthizeron her first trip to the US, where she gave what Cole and Heale describe as an \"incendiary\" speech on a potential US–UK trade deal. In Australia she made unscripted comments on their free-trade negotiations with the UK; both events were to the dismay of Downing Street officials.Sebastian Paynedescribed Truss's tenure as international trade secretary as \"enthusiastic yet disruptive\".She continued to document her trips through social media. In February 2020a reshuffletook place followingthe general electionwhich had been held in December.Truss feared that she would be dismissed after the comments she had made on her previous international trips, but Johnson decided to keep her in post following Javid's resignation as chancellor.During her time at the department Truss became notorious for leaking information.Dominic Cummings, Johnson's chief adviser, later wrote that Truss was \"the only minister I shouted at in Number 10\" because of her \"compulsive pathological leaking\".Truss's pursuit of a trade deal with the US concerned some in theNational Farmers' Union(NFU), which worried about an influx of lower-quality food products if passed; the NFU, along withThe Mail on Sunday, campaigned against such a deal in May.TheCOVID-19 lockdownseliminated international travel, and Truss instead attended virtual meetings. By early 2021 Truss's attempted US trade deal was deemed futile.Instead, she focused onjoiningtheComprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, which necessitatedfree trade agreementswith Australia,Japanand New Zealand.The Australia deal, finalised in December, was described by one of Truss's aides as \"the hardest thing she's ever got through\"; the New Zealand deal was agreed to shortly thereafter.By mid-2021 she had started to ingratiate herself with the parliamentary party in anticipation of a leadership election.In September plans for aNational Insuranceincrease were opposed by Truss; Downing Street expected her resignation, but Truss later decided against it. Foreign secretary (2021–2022) In September 2021, during acabinet reshuffle, Johnson promoted Truss from international trade secretary to secretary of state for foreign, Commonwealth and development affairs, replacingDominic Raab, who had been criticised for holidaying inCreteduring theFall of Kabul;the move was despite Johnson finding Truss \"flaky\", according to the historianAnthony Seldon.Truss became the second woman to occupy the office and kept the post of equalities minister.Her early actions as foreign secretary included negotiating at theUnited Nations General Assemblyfor the release ofNazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe;meeting with her Japanese, Canadian and German counterparts; mounting an unsuccessful attempt to join theUnited States–Mexico–Canada Agreement;and a visit to Estonia where—likeMargaret ThatcherinWest Germany—she was photographed in a tank, with the pictures generating both praise and mockery. ho was the person to get the job? Someone who'd been in international trade and travelled around the world for two-and-a-half years. That was a natural promotion. Kwasi Kwartengon Truss's promotion to foreign secretary. In early 2022 Truss's attention was directed towards abuild-up of Russian troopsnear theRussia–Ukraine border.Truss supported a plan whichdeclassifieda large amount of intelligence on Russia, releasing it to the public for the first time in order to weaken the Russian government in the event of an invasion.On 10 February 2022 she met the Russian foreign ministerSergey Lavrovin Moscow, becoming the first British minister to go on a diplomatic trip there since the2018 Salisbury poisonings.The meeting was, according to Payne, a \"disaster\": Lavrov described it as being \"between the dumb and the deaf\", and the two ministers spoke over each other and found it difficult to communicate.Five days later, Truss stated that the world was on the \"brink of war in Europe\",which transpired in the early hours of 24 February asRussia invaded Ukraine.Before the invasion and during its immediate aftermath, Truss advocated forsanctions on Russiaand encouraged otherG7leaders to impose them;in March 2022 she stated that the sanctions would end only in the event of a \"full ceasefire and withdrawal\".Johnson praised Truss's actions, saying that \"she was always terrific on Ukraine... other governmentsfaffedaround... she was very clear and focused\". Throughout the first half of 2022 Johnson's position as prime minister became increasingly unstable owing to successive scandalsdamaging his governmentand his personal reputation,includingPartygate, which resulted in him and the chancellorRishi Sunakreceivingfixed penalty notices.During this time, Truss announced theNorthern Ireland Protocol Bill, which was intended to overhaul theNorthern Ireland Protocol, including measures to free goods produced in Great Britain from what she described as \"unnecessary bureaucracy\" entering Northern Ireland.The plan was criticised by theEuropean Commissionbut was received well by theEuropean Research Group—aEuroscepticfaction within the parliamentary Conservative party—and the right-wing Northern IrishDemocratic Unionist Party.Amid mounting pressure on Johnson following theChris Pincher scandal, on 5 July Sunak and Javid resigned within minutes of each other. Johnson again considered giving Truss the chancellorship, but decided against it owing to what Payne calls the \"fragile geopolitical situation\" and instead selectedNadhim Zahawias Sunak's replacement.However, Johnson's premiership proved untenable and on 7 July he announced his resignation as leader of the Conservative Party, a move which Truss called \"the right decision\". Leadership election (July–September 2022) On 10 July Truss announced her intention to run in theleadership electionto replace Johnson. She pledged to cut taxes, said she would \"fight the election as a Conservative and govern as a Conservative\" and would take \"immediate action to help people deal with the cost of living\".She said she would cancel a planned rise incorporation taxand reverse the increase in National Insurance rates, funded by delaying the date by which the national debt was planned to fall, as part of a \"long-term plan to bring down the size of the state and the tax burden\".The political scientistVernon Bogdanorsaid in a 2022 article that \" appreciated that winning over the membership required not detailed policy proposals but the creation of a mood\". Truss received 50 votes on the first of Conservative MPs'5 ballots, with the number of votes cast for her increasing in each;on 20 JulyTruss and Sunak were chosen by the parliamentary party to be put forward to the membership for the final leadership vote, with Truss receiving 113 votes to Sunak's 137.In the membership vote, the leader of the1922 Committee,Graham Brady, announced on 5 September that 43 per cent of ballots were for Sunak and 57 per cent for Truss, making her the new leader.In Truss's victory speech, she said that she would deliver on her campaign promises and pledged to win a \"great victory\" for the Conservatives at thenext general election. Premiership (2022) Cabinet and death of Elizabeth II As the leader of the Conservative Party, the majority party in the House of Commons, Truss was appointed as prime minister byElizabeth IIatBalmoral Castleon 6 September 2022 and began to select her cabinet ministers.With the appointment of Kwarteng as chancellor of the Exchequer,James Cleverlyas foreign secretary andSuella Bravermanas home secretary, for the first time in British history, no white men held any of theGreat Offices of State.Other appointments included Thérèse Coffey as deputy prime minister and health secretary,Jacob Rees-Moggas business secretary,Kemi Badenochas international trade secretary,Kit Malthouseas education secretary,Penny Mordauntasleader of the House of CommonsandMichelle Donelanasculture secretary.Truss retainedBen Wallaceas defence secretary,Alok Sharmaaspresident for COP26,Alister JackasScotland secretary,Robert BucklandasWales secretaryandJames Heappeyasminister of state for the armed forces and veterans.Her cabinet was composed almost entirely of those who had supported her during the leadership contest. Truss was the fifteenth and final Britishprime minister to serve under Elizabeth II, who died on 8 September, two days after appointing Truss.She was told in the early morning that the Queen was unwell and likely to survive a \"matter of hours, not days\";Truss ordered black clothes from her Greenwich home in anticipation of the Queen's death, as she had not yet had time to move her belongings to Westminster.Upon Elizabeth's death, Truss delivered a statement outside 10 Downing Street paying tribute to her: Queen Elizabeth II was the rock on which modern Britain was built. Our country has grown and flourished under her reign. Britain is the great country it is today because of her.... Through thick and thin, Queen Elizabeth II provided us with the stability and the strength that we needed. She was the very spirit of Great Britain, and that spirit will endure. On 10 September Truss attendedCharles III's accession ceremonyand took an oath of allegiance to the King with fellow senior MPs.On 19 September she attendedthe Queen's funeral serviceinWestminster Abbey, reading the secondlesson. Domestic policies and mini-budget On 8 September, in response to theongoing cost of living crisis, Truss announced theEnergy Price Guarantee, which was planned to cap average household energy bills at £2,500 per year,costing between 31 and £140 billion for the two years it covered.Truss, who announced the measure in the House of Commons, made an effort to keep the energy cap and the tax plan announcements—which the Chancellor was planned to unveil—separate. On 23 September Kwarteng announced acontroversial mini-budgetwhich proposed cutting taxation significantly, including abolishing the 45 per centrateof income tax and the proposedHealth and Social Care Levy, cuttingstamp dutyand the basic rate ofincome taxand cancelling rises in National Insurance contributions andcorporation tax;the package, which had been constructed by Truss and Kwarteng together,was to be funded by borrowing and was intended to stimulategrowth.The mini-budget was received badly by financial markets because it included temporary spending measures whilst permanently cutting tax rates.It was blamed for the pound falling to its lowest ever rate against theUS dollar(US$1.033)and prompteda responsefrom theBank of Englandwhich, amongst other measures, bought upgovernment bonds; the public reaction was also broadly negative.The mini-budget was criticised by theInternational Monetary Fund,the US presidentJoe Biden,the Labour Party and many within Truss's party, including the senior politicians Michael Gove andGrant Shapps. Government crisis and resignation I think it's ashamblesand a disgrace... I hope all those people that put Liz Truss in Number 10, I hope it was worth it. I hope it was worth it for theministerial red box, I hope it was worth it to sit round the Cabinet table because the damage they have done to our party is extraordinary. Charles Walker's remarks on the market fallout, subsequent government crisis and Conservative unpopularity. After initially defending the mini-budget, on 3 October Truss instructed Kwarteng to reverse the abolition of the 45 per cent income tax additional rate.She later reversed the cut in corporation tax and dismissed Kwarteng, replacing him with Jeremy Hunt on 14 October.Hunt reversed many of the remaining policies announced in the mini-budget, leading to further instability;because of Truss's perceived weakness, he was described by some Conservative MPs and newspapers as thede factoprime minister.During this time, Truss became increasingly unpopular with the public, and contributed to a large fall in support for the Conservatives;in October, she became the most unpopular prime minister in British history,with her personal approval rating recorded in one survey as nine per cent.She was pilloried in national and international press as au-turner,and a chaoticvote on frackingalong with the resignation of Braverman as home secretary compounded a rapid deterioration of confidence in her leadership.On 19 October, in response to aquestionby the leader of the opposition,Keir Starmer, Truss said that she was a \"fighter and not a quitter\", quoting a 2001 phrase byPeter Mandelson. Shortly before noon on 20 October, Truss's forty-fifth day in office, Brady held a meeting with Truss where she asked if she would be able to remain in office;his response was \"I don't think so, Prime Minister\".At 1:35 pm, Truss announced her resignation as the leader of the Conservative Party and as prime minister. She gave the following 89-second-long statement: I came into office at a time of great economic and international instability. Families and businesses were worried about how to pay their bills. Putin's illegal war in Ukraine threatens the security of our whole continent. And our country has been held back by for too long by low economic growth. I was elected by the Conservative Party with a mandate to change this. We delivered on energy bills and on cutting National Insurance. And we set out a vision for a low-tax, high-growth economy that would take advantage of the freedoms of Brexit. I recognise though, given the situation, I cannot deliver the mandate on which I was elected by the Conservative Party. I have therefore spoken to His Majesty the King to notify him that I am resigning as leader of the Conservative Party. This morning I met the chairman of the 1922 Committee, Sir Graham Brady. We've agreed there will be a leadership election to be completed within the next week. This will ensure that we remain on a path to deliver our fiscal plans and maintain our country's economic stability and national security. I will remain as prime minister until a successor has been chosen. Thank you. Heale describes a \"funerealatmosphere\" within the government in the days following her resignation statement.She wassucceededby Sunak as leader of the Conservative Party on 24 October and the next day advised the King to appoint him as the new prime minister;Sunak went on to further reverse many of the economic measures she had made as prime minister but retained Hunt as chancellor.Resigning on her fiftieth day, Truss became theshortest-serving prime ministerin British history, surpassingGeorge Canning, who was prime minister for 119 days in 1827.The short length of her premiership was the subject of much ridicule, includinga livestream of a head of lettuce, started the week prior, which invited viewers to speculate whether Truss would resign before the lettuce wilted. Post-premiership (2022–present) Truss was reselected as the Conservative candidate for South West Norfolk in February 2023and in August that year, she submitted the list ofher resignation honours,which were released in December to coincide with the2024 New Year Honours.In early September 2023 she announced her memoirs about her time as prime minister,Ten Years to Save the West,which was published in April 2024.That same month, Truss gave a speech to theInstitute for Governmentthink tank in which she blamed \"groupthink\" amongst officials and the media for the collapse of her premiership.Similarly, in October at the Conservative Party Conference, she held an event dubbed the \"Great British Growth Rally\" which was attended by hundreds of Conservative Party members, in contrast to government ministers who gave speeches to a hall which was, according to theTelegraph, \"at times almost empty\".In February 2024 she co-launched thePopular Conservatismgroup with others including Jacob Rees-Mogg,Lee Andersonand Priti Patel and spoke at its inaugural event.The2024 general election, held on 4 July, resulted in Trusslosing her seat, in which she was defending a majority of over 26,000, to the Labour challenger,Terry Jermy;the result was described as aPortillo momentbyThe Spectator, a right-leaning magazine. Political positions Domestic issues Truss haseconomically liberalviews and supportsfree tradeandderegulation.She supports theneoliberalphilosophy ofsupply-side economics, often referred to as \"trickle-down economics\".After Truss's dismissal of Kwarteng and Hunt's reversal of many of the mini-budget's economic measures, theBBC's political editorFaisal Islamwrote that \"Trussonomicsis dead\". During her time as a Liberal Democrat, Truss supported the abolition of the monarchy. In 2022 a video of a 19-year-old Truss at the 1994Liberal Democrat conferencecriticising the notion of people being \"born to rule\" resurfaced;in an interview withLBCduring her leadership campaign, Truss stated that \"almost as soon as I made the speech, I regretted it\".In 2021 Truss stated that the Conservatives should \"reject thezero-sum gameofidentity politics, the illiberalism ofcancel culture, and thesoft bigotry of low expectationsthat holds so many people back\".She voted tolegalisesame-sex marriagebut has opposed the expansion oftransgender rights.Truss spoke againstgender self-identification, stating that \"medical checks are important\" and that \"only women have a cervix\".Despite initially supporting single-sex toilets being restricted on the basis of biological sex, she later said in February 2022 that the government was not interested in enacting such a measure. Foreign policy Truss was described as ahawkishforeign secretary.She called for Britain to reduce itseconomic dependency on ChinaandRussiaand supported certain diplomatic and economic sanctions imposed by the British government against the former.Truss has supportedTaiwanin the context of deterioratingcross-strait relationsbut, citing precedent, refused to visit the island as prime ministerand condemned the Chinese government'streatment of the Uyghur peopleas \"genocide\".In 2022 she called Saudi Arabia an ally of Britain but said she was not \"condoning\" the country's policies, including itshandling of human rightsand itstreatment of women. Truss supported the United Kingdom remaining in the European Union during the 2016 referendum.Since the referendum, Truss has supported Brexit, and publicly stated in 2017 that she had changed her mind.During the July 2022 leadership election Truss said that \"I was wrong and I am prepared to admit I was wrong\". Notes and references Notes References Sources Books and journals News Websites and others Further reading External links", "Rishi Sunak Rishi Sunak(born 12 May 1980) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 2022 to 2024. He has beenLeader of the Conservative Partysince October 2022; after thegeneral election in July 2024, he becameLeader of the Opposition. The firstBritish Asianto hold those offices, he previously held twoCabinetpositions underBoris Johnson, latterly asChancellor of the Exchequerfrom 2020 to 2022. Sunak has beenMember of Parliament(MP) forRichmond and Northallerton, previouslyRichmond (Yorks), since 2015. He is the most recentConservative Partyprime minister. Sunak was born inSouthamptonto parents of Indian descent who immigrated to Britain from East Africa in the 1960s. He was educated atWinchester College, studiedphilosophy, politics and economicsatLincoln College, Oxford, and earned aMaster of Business AdministrationfromStanford Universityin California as aFulbright Scholar. During his time at Oxford University, Sunak undertook an internship atConservative Central Office, and joined the Conservatives. After graduating, Sunak worked forGoldman Sachsand later as a partner at thehedge fundfirmsthe Children's Investment Fund ManagementandTheleme Partners. Sunak was elected to theHouse of Commonsat the2015 general election. As abackbencher, Sunak supported the successful campaign forBrexitin the2016 European Union membership referendum. Sunak was appointed to the junior ministerial position ofParliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Local GovernmentbyTheresa Mayin 2019, and was appointed to the cabinet-attending role ofChief Secretary to the Treasuryby Johnson in 2019. In 2020, Sunak was promoted to Chancellor of the Exchequer. Duringhis time in the position, Sunak was prominent in thegovernment's financial responseto theCOVID-19 pandemicand itseconomic impact, including thefurloughandEat Out to Help Outschemes, and was also prominent in the government's response to thecost-of living crisis. He resigned as chancellor in July 2022 amida government crisisthat culminated in Johnson's resignation, and stood in theleadership electionto succeed him. He received the most votes in each of the series of MP votes, but lost the members' vote toLiz Truss. After spending the duration ofTruss's premiershipon the backbenches, Sunak was elected unopposed in theleadership electionto succeed Truss, who resigned amid anothergovernment crisis; aged 42 at the time he became prime minister, Sunak became the youngest prime minister sinceThe Earl of Liverpoolin 1812. Duringhis premiership, Sunak attempted to improve the economy and stabilise national politics. He outlined five key priorities: halving inflation, growing the economy, cutting debt, reducingNational Health Servicewaiting lists, and stopping the illegalsmall-boat crossings of the English Channelby enacting theRwanda asylum plan. On foreign policy, Sunak authorisedforeign aid and weapons shipmentstoUkrainein response to theRussian invasion of the country, and pledged support forIsraelafter theattackswhich began theIsrael–Hamas warwhilst later calling for a ceasefire in theGaza Strip. He did not avert further unpopularity for the Conservatives, reflected in the party's poor performances in the2023and2024 local elections. Sunak called a general election for July 2024 despite being widely expected to call the election in the autumn; the Conservatives lost this election in a landslide to the oppositionLabour Partyled byKeir Starmer, ending 14 years of Conservative government. After leaving office, Sunak became Leader of the Opposition and has remained Conservative leader while theleadership electionto replace him is taking place, and formed ashadow cabinet. He also intends to remain as a backbench MP for the next five years. As chancellor, Sunak received high approval and popularity ratings in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, although his popularity later declined amid the cost-of living crisis in 2022. Early life and education (1980–2001) Rishi Sunak was born on 12 May 1980 inSouthampton General HospitalinSouthampton, Hampshire,toEast African-bornHindu parents of Indian Punjabi descent.His father was born in theKenya Colonyin 1949, while his mother was born in theTanganyika Territory(modern-dayTanzania).His paternal grandfather Ramdas Sunak had migrated fromGujranwala, located in present-dayPakistan, to the Kenyan capital ofNairobiin 1935, while his maternal grandfather, Raghubir Berry, grew up inPunjabbefore eventually moving to Tanzania as an engineer.Both of Sunak's parents had moved to the UK in 1966.While in the UK they eventually met and would get married in 1977. Sunak attended Stroud School, apreparatory schoolinRomsey, and later studied atWinchester Collegeas a dayboy, becominghead boyof the college.He worked as a waiter, at the curry house Kuti's Brasserie in Southampton, during his summer holidays.He readphilosophy, politics and economicsatLincoln College, Oxford, graduating with afirstin 2001.During his time at university, he undertook an internship atConservative Campaign Headquartersand joined theConservative Party.In 2006 Sunak earned aMaster of Business Administrationdegree fromStanford Universityas aFulbright Scholar. Sunak's paternal grandfather was fromGujranwala(in present-day Pakistan), while his maternal grandfather was fromLudhiana(in present-day India); both cities at the time were part of thePunjab provinceinBritish India. His grandparents migrated to East Africa, and then to the United Kingdom in the 1960s.His father was born and raised in theColony and Protectorate of Kenya(present-day Kenya), and was ageneral practitionerin theNational Health Service(NHS). His mother, born inTanganyika(which later became part ofTanzania), was a pharmacist who owned the Sunak Pharmacy in Southampton between 1995 and 2014, and has a degree fromAston University.Sunak is the eldest of three siblings.His brother is a psychologist and his sister works in New York as chief of strategy and planning at Education Cannot Wait, the United Nations Global Fund for Education in Emergencies and Protracted Crises. Career Business career (2001–2015) Sunak worked as an analyst for theinvestment bankGoldman Sachsbetween 2001 and 2004.He then worked forhedge fundmanagement firmThe Children's Investment Fund Management(TCI), becoming a partner in September 2006.He left in November 2009to join former colleagues in California at a new hedge fund firm, Theleme Partners, which launched in October 2010 with $700 million under management (equivalent to$978 millionin 2023).At both hedge funds, his boss wasPatrick Degorce.Sunak was also a director of the investment firm Catamaran Ventures, owned by his father-in-law, the Indian businessmanN. R. Narayana MurthyofInfosys, between 2013 and 2015. Backbencher (2015–2018) Sunak was selected as the Conservative candidate forRichmond (Yorks)in October 2014.The seat was previously held byWilliam Hague.In the same year Sunak was head of theBlack and Minority Ethnic(BME) Research Unit of the conservative think tankPolicy Exchange, for which he co-wrote a report on BME communities in the UK.He was elected as MP for the constituency at the2015 general electionwith a majority of 19,550 (36.2%).During the 2015–2017 Parliament he was a member of theEnvironment, Food and Rural Affairs Select Committee. Sunak supported the successful campaign to leave theEuropean Unionin the2016 European Union membership referendum, criticising the EU's immigration laws: \"We are discriminating against countries with whom we have ties of history, language and culture\"That year, he wrote a report for theThatcheritethink tankCentre for Policy Studiessupporting the establishment offree portsafterBrexit, and the following year wrote a report advocating the creation of a retail bond market forsmall and medium-sized enterprises.Following Cameron's resignation, Sunak endorsedMichael Govein the2016 Conservative Party leadership election, and later endorsed successful candidateTheresa Mayafter Gove was eliminated in the second round of voting. Sunak was re-elected at the2017 general electionwith an increased majority of 23,108 (40.5%).In the same year, Sunak wrote a paper for Policy Exchange on the importance and fragility of the UK's undersea infrastructure.Sunak was re-elected at the2019 general electionwith an increased majority of 27,210 (47.2%).Following boundary changes in the2024 general election, Sunak won the seat ofRichmond and Northallerton, which replaced his former seat of Richmond (Yorks), with a majority of 23,059 (51.4). Local government under-secretary (2018–2019) Sunak was appointed to a junior ministerial position in May'ssecond governmentasParliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Local Governmentin the2018 cabinet reshuffle.Sunak voted for May'sBrexit withdrawal agreementon all three occasions, and voted against asecond referendum on any withdrawal agreement. May's withdrawal agreement was rejected by Parliament three times, leading to May announcing her resignation in May 2019. Sunak supportedBoris Johnson's successful bid to succeed May in the2019 Conservative Party leadership electionand co-wrote an article with fellow MPsRobert JenrickandOliver Dowdento advocate for Johnson during the campaign in June. Chief secretary to the Treasury (2019–2020) Sunak was appointed to the senior cabinet role ofchief secretary to the Treasuryby Johnson, serving underSajid Javid.He became a member of thePrivy Councilthe next day.During the 2019 general election, Sunak represented the Conservatives in debates. Chancellor of the Exchequer (2020–2022) In the weeks leading up toJohnson's first cabinet reshufflein February 2020, a number of briefings in the press had suggested that a new economic ministry led by Sunak might be established, to reduce the power and political influence of the Treasury.By February 2020, it was reported that Javid would remain in his role as Chancellor and that Sunak would stay on as Chief Secretary to the Treasury, in order to \"keep an eye\" on Javid. On 13 February 2020, the day of the reshuffle, Javid resigned as Chancellor, following a meeting with Johnson. During the meeting, Johnson had offered to allow Javid to keep his position on the condition that he dismiss all his advisers at the Treasury and replace them with ones selected by 10 Downing Street.Upon resigning, Javid told thePress Associationthat \"no self-respecting minister would accept those terms\".Sunak was promoted to chancellor to replace Javid as part of Johnson's first cabinet reshuffle later that day. COVID-19 pandemic In response to the first confirmedCOVID-19cases in January 2020, Sunak introduced advice for travellers coming from affected countries in late January and February 2020, and begancontact tracing, although this was later abandoned.There were further societal restrictions on the public asthe virus spread across the country in the following weeks, initially resisting more stringent measures introduced elsewhere inEuropeandAsia.On 23 March 2020, asCOVID-19 had become a pandemicand began rapidly spreading across the country, Sunak became prominent inthe government's response to the pandemicand itseconomic impact. On 20 March 2020, Sunak gave a statement on COVID-19, saying: Now, more than any time in our history, we will be judged by our capacity for compassion. Our ability to come through this, won’t just be down to what government or businesses do, but by the individual acts of kindness that we show each other. When this is over, we want to look back on this moment and remember the many small acts of kindness done by us and to us. We want to look back on this time and remember how we thought first of others and acted with decency. We want to look back on this time and remember how, in the face of a generation-defining moment, we undertook a collective national effort - and we stood together. It’s on all of us. Furlough scheme Sunak introduced a programme providing £330 billion in emergency support for businesses,as well as theCoronavirus Job Retentionfurloughscheme for employees. This was the first time a British government had created such an employee retention scheme.The scheme was introduced on 20 March 2020 as providing grants to employers to pay 80% of a staff wage and employment costs each month, up to a total of £2,500 per person per month.The cost was estimated at £14 billion a month to run. The furlough scheme initially ran for three months and was backdated to 1 March. Following a three-week extension of the countrywide lockdown the scheme was extended by Sunak until the end of June 2020.At the end of May, Sunak extended the scheme until the end of October 2020. The decision to extend the job retention scheme was made to avoid or defer mass redundancies, company bankruptcies and potential unemployment levels not seen since the 1930s.In March 2021, Sunak announced that the scheme had been extended once more until September 2021. Eat Out to Help Out In July 2020, Sunak unveiled a plan for a further £30 billion of spending which included astamp dutyholiday, a cut tovalue-added tax(VAT) for the hospitality sector, a job retention bonus for employers and the Eat Out to Help Out scheme,aimed at supporting and creating jobs in thehospitality industry. The government subsidised food and soft drinks at participating cafes, pubs and restaurants at 50%, up to £10 per person. The offer was available from 3 to 31 August on Monday to Wednesday each week.In total, the scheme subsidised £849 million in meals. Patrick VallanceandChris Whittywere not informed of the scheme.Some considered the scheme to be a success in boosting the hospitality industry,whilst others disagreed.A 2020 study found that the scheme contributed to a rise in COVID-19 infection, which Johnson acknowledged but the Treasury rejected.It was later said by Vallance during theCOVID-19 Inquirythat Sunak had not informed medical advisers of the scheme until it was announced, whereas written evidence from Sunak said that the scheme had been discussed with medical advisers, including Vallance, and they had not objected. Cost of living crisis and energy crisis Amid the risingcost of livingandenergycrises, Sunak intensified efforts to respond to the crisis in May 2022, with a £5 billionwindfall taxon energy companies to help fund a £15 billion support package for the public. The package included every household getting a £400 discount on energy bills, which would be in addition to a £150 council tax refund the government had already ordered. For about 8 million of the UK's lowest income households, a further £650 payment was announced. Additionally, pensioners or those with disability would qualify for extra payments, on top of the £550 that every household gets, and the £650 they would receive if they had a low income. Budgets Sunak presented his first budget, Delivering on Our Promises to the British People, on 11 March 2020. It was scheduled to be followed by another budget in the autumn, but in September 2020 he announced that budget would be scrapped because of the COVID-19 pandemic, stating \"now is not the right time to outline long-term plans – people want to see us focused on the here and now\".Instead, additional statements were given by the chancellor in bothsummerandautumn. The Winter Economy Plan was delivered by Sunak on 24 September 2020. The purpose of the statement was to announce measures aimed at further helping to promote economic recovery following the impact of COVID-19. The plan aimed to further promote economic recovery while preserving jobs and businesses which were considered viable. After asecond lockdown in Englandon 31 October 2020, the programme was extended several times, until 30 September 2021. The July 2020 summer statement (also known as the coronavirus mini-budget) was delivered by Sunak on 8 July 2020. The purpose of the statement was to announce measures aimed at helping to promote economic recovery following the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The statement was delivered to the House of Commons, where Sunak unveiled a spending package worth £30bn. Concerns were subsequently raised by organisations includingHM Revenue and Customsand theInstitute for Fiscal Studiesabout the statement's impact, as well as its cost-effectiveness, while at least one major retailer declined to take advantage of a financial bonus scheme intended for rehiring employees placed on furlough during the pandemic. In his March 2021 budget, Sunak emphasized the effect the COVID-19 pandemic has had on the economy, with 700,000 people losing their jobs, the economy shrinking by 10% (the largest fall in 300 years), and the highest borrowing outside wartime.The budget included an increase in the rate of corporation tax from 19% to 25% in 2023, a five-year freeze in the tax-free personal allowance and the higher rate income tax threshold, and the extension of the furlough scheme until the end of September.Sunak was the first Chancellor to raise thecorporation tax ratesinceLabour'sDenis Healeyin 1974. In October 2021, Sunak made his third and final budget statement, which included substantial spending promises related to science and education.The budget increased in-work support through theUniversal Creditsystem by increasing the work allowances by £500 a year, and reducing the post-tax deduction taper rate from 63% to 55%.£560 million of investment was announced for theLevelling Up White Paper.Many of the announcements to be made in the budget were previewed before budget day, drawing criticism and anger from the House of Commons. In response to the criticism, Sunak said the budget \"begins the work of preparing for a new economy\". Sunak made what would ultimately be his final budget, his spring statement, on 23 March 2022. He cutfuel duty, removed VAT on energy saving equipment (such as solar panels and insulation) and reduced national insurance payments for small businesses and, while continuing with aplanned national insurance risein April, he promised to align the primary threshold with the basic personal income allowance as of July. He also promised a reduction inincome taxin 2024. Sunak also provided some funding which was intended to help vulnerable people cope with the cost of living. Other actions Sunak hosted aG7summit in London in June 2021.A tax reform agreement was signed, which in principle sought to establish aglobal minimum taxon multinationals and online technology companies.In October 2021, theOECDsigned an accord to join the tax reform plan.Later that month, Sunak attendedCOP26in Glasgow.During his speech given on 3 November, he said that he felt optimism despite daunting challenges and that by bringing together finance ministers, businesses and investors, COP26 could begin to deliver targets from theParis Agreement. Resignation On 5 July 2022, Sunak and Javid resigned almost simultaneously amid a scandal surrounding thesexual harassment allegationsagainstChris Pincher, which arose after it was revealed that Johnson had promoted Pincher to the position of Deputy Chief Whip while knowing of the allegations beforehand.Sunak was the second of 61 Conservative MPs to resign during the government crisis.He was succeeded as chancellor byNadhim Zahawi. Following the resignations of Sunak and Javid, numerous junior ministers and among theparliamentary private secretary(PPS) also resigned, most of whom cited a lack of honesty and integrity on the part of Johnson. In the following 24 hours, 36 MPs resigned from their roles in government and Johnson announced his resignation. In his resignation letter Sunak said: The public rightly expect government to be conducted properly, competently and seriously. I recognise this may be my last ministerial job, but I believe these standards are worth fighting for and that is why I am resigning. It has become clear to me that our approaches are fundamentally too different. I am sad to be leaving Government but I have reluctantly come to the conclusion that we cannot continue like this. Conservative leadership bids On 8 July 2022, Sunak announced his candidacy in theleadership electionto replace Johnson.Sunak launched his campaign in a video posted to social media, writing that he would \"restore trust, rebuild the economy and reunite the country\".He said that his values were \"patriotism, fairness, hard work\",and pledged to \"crack down on gender neutral language\".During the campaign, Sunak pledged to included tax cuts only when inflation was under control, scrapping of the 5% VAT rate on household energy for one year, introducing a temporary £10 fine for patients who fail to attend GP appointments, capping of refugee numbers, and a tightening of the definition of asylum.On 20 July, Sunak and Foreign SecretaryLiz Trussemerged as the final two candidates in the contest on 20 July to be put forward to the membership for the final leadership vote. He had received the most votes in each of the series of MP votes with Sunak receiving 137 to Truss's 113 in the final round.Sunak opposed Truss' economic plans and predicted they would result in economic damage, saying \"Liz, we have to be honest. Borrowing your way out of inflation isn’t a plan, it’s a fairytale.” A spokesperson for Sunak later said: “The reality is that Truss cannot deliver a support package as well as come good on £50bn worth of unfunded, permanent tax cuts in one go. To do so would mean increasing borrowing to historic and dangerous levels, putting the public finances in serious jeopardy and plunging the economy into an inflation spiral.\" In the membership vote, Truss received 57.4% of the vote, making her the new leader.Sunak responded by offering his support to Truss, saying \"It’s right we now unite behind the new PM, Liz Truss, as she steers the country through difficult times.\"He spent the duration ofTruss's premiershipon the backbenches. As Sunak predicted, Truss announcedlarge-scale tax cuts and borrowing in a mini-budgeton 23 September, which was widely criticised and – after it rapidly led to financial instability – largely reversed.She announced her resignation on 20 October 2022 amida government crisis, triggering aleadership contest.On 22 October, it was reported that Sunak had the required number of supporters—100 members of the House of Commons—to run in the ballot on 24 October. The total number of MPs who publicly declared support passed 100 on the afternoon of 22 October.On 23 October, Sunak declared that he would stand for election.After Johnson ruled himself out of the race andPenny Mordauntwithdrew her candidacy, Sunak was announced as the new leader on 24 October. Premiership (2022–2024) As the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons, Sunak was appointed as prime minister byCharles IIIon 25 October 2022, becoming the firstBritish Asianto take the office. At 42, Sunak became the youngest prime minister sinceRobert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, in 1812.In his first speech as prime minister, Sunak said that Truss \"was not wrong\" to want to improve growth and that he \"admired her restlessness to create change\", but admitted that \"some mistakes were made\", and that he was elected prime minister in part to fix them: I will place economic stability and confidence at the heart of this government’s agenda. I will unite our country, not with words, but with action. I will work day in and day out to deliver for you. This government will have integrity, professionalism and accountability at every level. Trust is earned. And I will earn yours. Cabinet Sunak selected his cabinet ministers after his appointment as prime minister.Jeremy Huntwas appointedChancellor of the Exchequer, andDominic Raabwas also re-appointed as deputy prime minister and Justice Secretary, he later resigned from these roles in April 2023 and was replaced by Oliver Dowden.James Cleverlywas appointedForeign SecretarywithSuella BravermanasHome Secretary.Ben Wallacewas appointedSecretary of State for Defence.Michael Govewas appointedLevelling Up Secretary,Grant Shappswas appointed asSecretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, and Penny Mordaunt became Leader of the House of Commons and Lord President of the council. Other key appointments includedSimon HartasParliamentary Secretary to the TreasuryandChief Whipof the House of Commons,Nadhim ZahawiasChairman of the Conservative Party, Oliver Dowden asChancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster,Thérèse CoffeyasEnvironment Secretary,Mel StrideasWork and Pensions SecretaryandMark Harperas Transport Secretary. Reshuffles Sunak'sfirst cabinet reshuffle in February 2023saw a significant restructuring ofgovernment departments. New departments included those forBusiness and Trade,Energy Security and Net Zero, andScience, Innovation and Technology. TheDepartment for International Tradeand theDepartment for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategywere split and merged into other departments. Ministers who joined the cabinet in the first reshuffle includedGreg Handstook over as chairman from Zahawi, though later resigned and replaced byRichard Holden.Lucy FrazerbecameSecretary of State for Culture, Media and Sporttaking over from Donelan.Rachel Macleanleft the backbenches and joined theDepartment for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities.Sunak'slast cabinet reshuffle in November 2023saw the return of former prime minister David Cameron to government following a seven-year absence from frontline politics, replacing James Cleverly as foreign secretary. It also saw the departures of Braverman and Coffey from government and Hands from the cabinet, and the appointment ofLaura TrottasChief Secretary to the Treasury. Foreign policy In February 2023, Sunak negotiated a proposed agreement with the EU onNorthern Ireland's trading arrangements which was published as theWindsor Framework.On 27 February, Sunak delivered a statement to the House of Commons, saying that the proposed agreement \"protects Northern Ireland's place in our Union.On 22 March, the date of the parliamentary vote, 22 Conservative MPs and six DUP MPs voted against the government legislation.The vote ultimately passed by 515 votes to 29. Immigration In 2019 the Conservative Party andBoris Johnsonpledged to reduce net migration below 250,000 per year, but Sunak said in 2023 that the priority was not to reduce legal immigration but to stopillegal immigration.Nearly 30,000 undocumented migrants crossed the Channel in small boats to the UK in 2023.Long-termnet migration to the United Kingdom(the number of people immigrating minus the number emigrating) reached a record high of 764,000 in 2022,with legal immigration at 1.26 million and emigration at 493,000.Of the 1,218,000 legal migrants coming to the UK in 2023, only 10% were EU Nationals. Sunak continued theRwanda asylum planto have asylum seekers and illegal immigrants sent toRwandafor processing.After the plan was blocked by theUK's Court of Appealin June 2023 due to concerns over international law and the possibility ofrefoulement(persecution of those sent to Rwanda), Sunak vowed to appeal against the verdict to theSupreme Court. On 15 November 2023, the Supreme Court upheld the ruling and declared the plan unlawful.In response, Sunak sent Cleverly to Rwanda to negotiate a treaty with Rwanda focused on preventing refoulement which must now be ratified by the British and Rwandan Parliaments.The government also introduced theSafety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Bill, emergency legislation giving ministers the power to disapply sections of theHuman Rights Act 1998and certain aspects of international law in order to allow them to declare Rwanda a safe country according to UK law.The bill was criticised by many on the right of the party for not going far enough, resulting in the resignation of the minister for immigration, Robert Jenrick. On 12 December 2023 Sunak secured a government majority of 44 for the Safety of Rwanda Bill, despite the opposition of all other parties and abstentions from members of theEuropean Research Group. Russia and Ukraine Following the15 November missile explosion in Poland, Sunak met US PresidentJoe Bidenand delivered a speech about it.Sunak later met Ukrainian PresidentVolodymyr Zelenskyy, and pledged to give Ukraine £50 million in aid. After meeting Zelenskyy, Sunak said: \"I am proud of how theUK stood with Ukrainefrom the very beginning. And I am here today to say the UK and our allies will continue to stand with Ukraine, as it fights to end this barbarous war and deliver a just peace.\" Sunak visited Ukraine on 12 January 2024 to sign a new U.K.-Ukraine Agreement on Security Cooperation with Zelenskyy promising £2.5 billion in military aid to Ukraine, including long-range missiles, artillery ammunition, air defence and maritime security, in addition to £200 million to be spent on military drones, making the UK the largest deliverer of drones to Ukraine out of any nation according to Downing Street. Israel and Palestine In October 2023, Hamaslaunched a surprise attack on Israelthatdevolved into a warand a growinghumanitarian crisis in the Gaza Strip. Sunak pledged theUK's support for Israeland declared that Israel \"has an absolute right to defend itself\".Sunak backed calls for humanitarian pauses to allow for aid to be brought into Gaza, although he initially rejected calls for a full ceasefire as he argued that this would only benefit Hamas. Israel used British-supplied weapons in the war.However, Sunak later condemned the high number ofcivilian casualtiesin Gaza and called for a \"sustainable ceasefire\" in which all Israeli hostages were returned to Israel, attacks against Israel ceased and humanitarian aid was allowed into Gaza.His government supported thetwo-state solutionas a resolution to the conflict. When theInternational Criminal CourtprosecutorKarim Ahmad Khanannounced that he would seek to charge Israeli prime ministerBenjamin Netanyahuwith war crimes, Sunak criticised the move as \"unhelpful\" and accused Khan of drawing a moral equivalence between Israel and Hamas. Local election results Sunak was faced with the task of rebuilding the Conservatives' reputation which had been significantly damaged by thecontroversies and scandals of the previous yearand the Truss ministry. While their poll ratings recovered slightly over the following months, it still wasn't enough to bring them back to pre-Truss levels. Sunak contested his firstlocal electionsas leader on 4 May 2023, where the Conservatives suffered heavy losses. Two months later, on 20 July 2023, they lost two seats in by-elections;oneto Labour andoneto the Liberal Democrats. Their fortunes remained unchanged throughout policy changes of the following year, such as the shelving of theHS2northern phase in October. The Conservatives lost two further seats in by-elections on 15 February 2024. In March 2024, there were suggestions that Sunak could face a leadership challenge before the upcominggeneral election— which was expected within the calendar year — if the Conservatives perform poorly at thelocal electionson 2 May.Sunak however said he would resist a challenge, even if that ends up being the case.As predicted, 2 May saw grim showing for the Conservatives, who suffered their worst local election results since1996. Additionally, they lost another seat to Labour in theBlackpool South by-election, and narrowly lost theWest Midlands mayoral electionin a knife-edge vote. Sunak's premiership was described as more stable than that of his two predecessors, while still not being able to represent a turnaround for the Conservatives. 2024 general election and resignation On the afternoon of 22 May 2024, Sunak announced that he had asked the King to call a general election for 4 July 2024, surprising his own MPs.Though Sunak had the option to wait until December 2024 to call the election, he said that he decided on the date because he believed that the economy was improving, and that \"falling inflation and net migration figures would reinforce the Conservatives' election message of 'sticking to the plan'\". Sunak sought to rebuild the Conservative's reputation following a slump in popularity after the short-lived Truss ministry and a slew of controversies including Partygate that irreparably damaged Johnson's ministry,through campaigning on stabilising the economy, the Rwanda asylum plan, further strengthening theState Pension, and introducingNational Service. He released the Conservative manifestoClear Plan. Bold Action. Secure Future.on 11 June, addressing the economy, taxes, welfare, expanding free childcare, education, healthcare, environment, energy, transport, and crime.Sunak stated during the general election campaign that if his party lost the election he intended to remain as a backbench MP for the next 5 years.On 6 June 2024, the 80th anniversary ofD-Day, Sunak was heavily criticised for leaving commemoration events early to do an interview with ITV,including by veterans.Sunak apologised three times over the following week. Labour won a landslide victory in the general election, ending 14 years of Conservative government. A record number of Conservative MPs eitherstood downorlost their seats at the election. Three Cabinet members stood down and eight full members and four who attended Cabinet lost their seats, the highest number of sitting cabinet seat losses in history.Sunak conceded the election on 5 July. In his resignation speech before tending his resignation to the King, Sunak apologised to Conservative voters and candidates for the party's heavy defeat, and announced his intention to resign as party leader once a new leader is elected. He also offered support to the incoming prime ministerKeir Starmer, saying he was \"a decent, public-spirited man\" he respected and expressed hope he would be successful. To all the Conservative candidates and campaigners who worked tirelessly but without success, I am sorry that we could not deliver what your efforts deserved. It pains me to think how many good colleagues, who contributed so much to their communities and our country, will now no longer sit in the House of Commons. I thank them for their hard work, and their service. Following this result, I will step down as party leader, not immediately, but once the formal arrangements for selecting my successor are in place. It is important that after 14 years in government the Conservative Party rebuilds, but also that it takes up its crucial role in Opposition professionally and effectively. Post-premiership (2024–present) Leader of the Opposition (2024–present) After Starmer succeeded Sunak as prime minister, Sunak immediately becameLeader of the Oppositionand formed hisshadow cabineton 8 July. Most members of Sunak's cabinet heading into the 2024 general election were given the same portfolios in the shadow cabinet, including former chancellor Jeremy Hunt, who becameshadow chancellor, and former home secretary James Cleverly, who becameshadow home secretary.Former foreign secretary David Cameron chose to retire from frontline politics, with his former deputyAndrew Mitchellbecomingshadow foreign secretaryinstead.Richard Holden resigned asparty chairman, and was succeeded byRichard Fullerin an interim capacity outside shadow cabinet. Sunak appointed new officeholders to the portfolios held by the eleven cabinet ministers who lost their seats in the election, includingEdward Argar, who becameshadow justice secretaryafter the outgoing justice secretaryAlex Chalklost his seat, as well asHelen Whately, who becameshadow transport secretaryafter the outgoing transport secretaryMark Harperalso lost his seat.Among other noteworthy appointments, Kemi Badenoch became theshadow housing, communities and local government secretaryand former deputy prime minister Oliver Dowden becamedeputy leader of the opposition. Sunak will remain leader until his successor is elected in the2024 Conservative Party leadership election, which is expected to take place later in the year.Responding to the2024 State Opening of Parliament, Sunak said his party would not oppose the government \"for the sake of it\", but would hold them to account on their election promises. On proposals to change planning laws, Sunak said that though such changes were needed \"a system that does not allow local people to have a say will damage public consent for more housing in the long term\".While he respected Starmer's decision to scrap the Rwanda asylum plan, Sunak said that there needed to be an alternative deterrent, otherwise \"a large number of those who crossed the Channel illegally will end up remaining here\". On the Government benches life comes at you fast. Soon you might be fortunate enough to be tapped on the shoulder and be offered a junior ministerial role, then you’ll find yourself attending cabinet, then in the cabinet and then when the prime minister’s position becomes untenable you might end up being called to the highest office. And before you know it you have a bright future behind you and you’re left wondering whether you can credibly be an elder statesman at the age of 44. Political positions Sunak has been described as a moderate within his party with atechnocraticor managerial leadership style.According toEuronews, Sunak is \"frequently perceived as a pragmatist and as belonging to the centre-ground of the Conservative Party\".He opposedthe economic policies of Truss,and although described as a fellowThatcherite, he is viewed as lesseconomically liberalthan Truss. In April 2023, Sunak's perception as a centrist contrasted with descriptions of his government's policies on transgender and migration issues as beingsocially conservative, with Jessica Elgot ofThe Guardiandescribing Sunak as \"perhaps the most socially conservative PM of his generation\".Robert Shrimsley of theFinancial Timesdescribed Sunak as someone whose \"easy manner, career in global finance and ethnic background might suggest a more cosmopolitan conservative\", even though he is socially conservative and pragmatic.Meanwhile, theNew Statesmandescribed Sunak as uneasily straddling bothliberal-conservativeandnational-conservativeinstincts.In July 2023,The Economistdescribed him as \"the most right-wing Conservative prime minister sinceMargaret Thatcher\". Public image Following his appointment as chancellor, Sunak arrived in public discourse from relative obscurity.Some political commentators saw Sunak's appointment as signalling the end of the Treasury's independence from Downing Street, with Robert Shrimsley, chief political commentator of theFinancial Times, arguing that \"good government often depends on senior ministers – and the Chancellor in particular – being able to fight bad ideas\". In the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, he was popular by the standards of British politics, described by one analyst as having \"better ratings than any politician since the heydays of Tony Blair\".Various polls showed Sunak remained overwhelmingly popular among Conservative supporters and many other Britons throughout 2020.In anIpsos MORIpoll in September 2020, Sunak had the highest satisfaction score of any British chancellor since Labour's Denis Healey in April 1978, and was widely seen as the favourite to become the next Conservative leader.Sunak developed acult media following, with jokes and gossip about his attractiveness widespread on social media and in magazines, gaining the nickname \"Dishi Rishi\". Public attitudes towards Sunak remained broadly positive in 2021,though his popularity declined steadily over time.By early 2022, with the cost of living becoming a growing focus of public concern, Sunak's response as chancellor was perceived as inadequate and he received some of his lowest approval ratings, which continued as the Sunak family's financial affairs came under scrutiny.By the time he resigned as chancellor in July 2022, Sunak's approval ratings slightly recovered.In October 2022, following his appointment as prime minister, Sunak's personal favourability ratings increased.By July 2023, Sunak's approval ratings had decreased back to a similar level to when he resigned as chancellor.TheNew Statesmannamed him as the second most powerful right-wing figure of 2023, behind onlyNigel Farage.By his resignation as prime minister in July 2024, he had his lowest approval ratings to date.Following the 2024 general election, Sunak has received praise for being gracious in defeat, with some commentators recommending for the Conservatives to keep him on as leader. Personal life In August 2009, Sunak marriedAkshata Murty, the daughter ofN. R. Narayana MurthyandSudha Murty. His father-in-law is the founder of the technology companyInfosys, in which Murty owns a stake.Sunak and Murty met while studying atStanford Universityin the US; they have two daughters: the first born in 2011 and the second in 2013.In November 2020, Sunak was reported byThe Guardianto have not declared a significant amount of his wife and family's financial interests on the register of ministers' interests, including a combined £1.7billion shareholding in the Indian companyInfosys. Ministers are required to declare interests that are \"relevant\" to their responsibilities and \"which might be thought to give rise to a conflict\" with their public duties.The independent adviser on ministers' interests investigated and concluded that Sunak had not broken any rules. In early 2022, newspapers reported that Murty hadnon-domiciled status, meaning she did not have to paytaxon income earned abroad while living in the UK.The status cost approximately £30,000 to secure, and allowed her to avoid paying an estimated £20 million in UK taxes.On 8 April Murty issued a statement saying that she would pay UK taxes on her global income, and that she regretted the issue had become \"a distraction for husband\". An inquiry was set up to identify the source of the leak regarding her tax status.Reporting around this time also revealed that Sunak had continued to hold United States'permanent resident(green card) status he had acquired in the 2000s until 2021, including for 18 months after he was made chancellor, which required filing annual US tax returns.An investigation into both his wife's tax status and his residency status found that Sunak had not broken any ministerial rules. Sunak and Murty own several houses, including one in North Yorkshire; amewshouse inEarl's Courtin central London; a flat on theOld Brompton Road,South Kensington; and a penthouse apartment onOcean AvenueinSanta Monica, California.In April 2022, it was reported that Sunak and Murty had moved out of the flat above 10 Downing Street to a newly refurbished West London home for domestic reasons.In October 2022, the Sunaks resumed residence of their former official home at 10 Downing Street, this time as prime minister and reversing the trend started in 1997 of prime ministers living in the four-bedroom flat above11 Downing Street. In April 2022, amid thePartygatescandal, Sunak was issued afixed penalty noticeby the police who believed he had committed offences under COVID-19 regulations by attending a birthday gathering for Boris Johnson on 19 June 2020. The police also issued 125 fixed penalty notices to 82 other individuals, including Johnson and his wifeCarrie Symonds, who all apologised and paid the penalties.After receiving the penalty notice, Sunak said he was \"extremely and sincerely sorry\" for the hurt caused by him attending the party, and that he respected the police's decision to give him a fine.In January 2023, Sunak was issued a fixed penalty notice byLancashire Constabularyafter a social media video of him failing to wear aseat beltin a moving vehicle was published.Sunak apologised for the incident and said he made a \"brief error of judgment\". Sunak is ateetotaller.He stated in 2022 that he had seven dental fillings due to excessive consumption ofCoca-Colawhen he was younger, and expressed a strong preference forMexican Coke.He was previously a governor of theEast London Science School.Sunak has aLabradorcalled Nova and is a cricket and horse racing enthusiast.As chancellor, Sunak rose early for a dailyPelotonworkout and was a fan of fitness instructorCody Rigsby. Sunak is a close friend ofThe Spectator'sformer political editorJames Forsyth, whom he has known since their school days. Sunak was the best man at Forsyth's wedding to the journalistAllegra Stratton, and they are godparents to each other's children.He appointed Forsyth as his political secretary in December 2022. Sunak is a steadfastSouthampton F.C.fan.When asked what his ideal job would be if he was not a politician, he replied that if he could \"run Southampton Football Club\" he would be a \"very happy man\". Sunak is a Hindu and identifies as British Indian, stating that he is \"thoroughly British\" but with an Indian religious and cultural heritage.He took his oath as an MP at theHouse of Commonson theBhagavad Gita.During thecoronation of Charles III, Sunak gave a reading from the New Testament book ofEpistle to the Colossians– Colossians 1:9–17.After themurder of George Floydby police officerDerek Chauvin, Sunak said he had also faced racism in his life. Speaking about his childhood during the 2024 general election campaign, Sunak said his parents \"wanted to put everything into our education and that was a priority\" and that he didn't haveSky TVgrowing up. See also Notes References Further reading External links Leader of the OppositionRishi Sunak Shadow Chancellor of the ExchequerJeremy Hunt Shadow Foreign SecretaryAndrew Mitchell Shadow Home SecretaryJames Cleverly", "List of Scottish monarchs Themonarch of Scotlandwas thehead of stateof theKingdom of Scotland. According to tradition,Kenneth I MacAlpin(Cináed mac Ailpín) was the founder and first King of the Kingdom of Scotland (although he never held the title historically, being King of the Picts instead). TheKingdom of the Pictsjust became known as theKingdom of AlbainScottish Gaelic, which later became known inScotsand English asScotland; the terms are retained in both languages to this day. By the late 11th century at the very latest, Scottish kings were using the termrex Scottorum, or King of Scots, to refer to themselves in Latin. TheKingdom of Scotlandwas merged with theKingdom of Englandto form a singleKingdom of Great Britainin 1707. Thus,Queen Annebecame the last monarch of the ancient kingdoms of Scotland and England and the first of Great Britain, although the kingdoms had shared a monarch since 1603 (seeUnion of the Crowns). Her uncleCharles IIwas the last monarch to becrownedin Scotland, atSconein 1651. He had a second coronation in England ten years later. Heraldry List of monarchs of Scotland House of Alpin (848–1034) The reign of Kenneth MacAlpin begins what is often called theHouse of Alpin, an entirely modern concept. The descendants of Kenneth MacAlpin were divided into two branches; the crown would alternate between the two, the death of a king from one branch often hastened by war or assassination by apretenderfrom the other. Malcolm II was the last king of the House of Alpin; in his reign, he successfully crushed all opposition to him and, having no sons, was able to pass the crown to his daughter's son, Duncan I, who inaugurated the House of Dunkeld. *Eochiad was a son of Run, King of Strathclyde, but his mother was a daughter of Kenneth I. Evidence of his reign is unclear. He may have never actually been king and if he was, he was co-king with Giric. ¤Amlaíb is known only by a reference to his death in 977, which reports him as King of Alba; since Kenneth II is known to have still been King in 972–973, Amlaíb must have taken power between 973 and 977. House of Dunkeld (1034–1040) Duncan succeeded to the throne as the maternal grandson of Malcolm II. The House of Dunkeld was therefore closely related to the House of Alpin. Duncan was killed in battle by Macbeth, another maternal grandson of Malcolm II. House of Moray (1040–1058) Macbeth came to power in 1040 after killing Duncan I in battle and had a long and relatively successful reign. Macbeth was a cousin of Duncan and was a maternal grandson of Malcolm II. In a series of battles between 1057 and 1058, Duncan's son Malcolm III defeated and killed Macbeth and Macbeth's stepson and heir Lulach and became the king, thereby passing the throne back to the House of Dunkeld. Grandson of Malcolm II (son of second daughter)Cousin of Duncan I House of Dunkeld (restored) (1058–1286) In a series of battles between 1057 and 1058, Duncan's son Malcolm III defeated and killed Macbeth and Macbeth's stepson and heir Lulach, claiming the throne. The dynastic feuds did not end there: on Malcolm III's death in battle, his brother Donald III, known as \"Bán\", claimed the throne, expelling Malcolm III's sons from Scotland. A civil war in the family ensued, with Donald III and Malcolm III's son Edmund opposed by Malcolm III's English-backed sons, led first by Duncan II and then by Edgar. Edgar triumphed, sending his uncle and brother to monasteries. After the reign of David I, the Scottish throne was passed according to rules ofprimogeniture, moving from father to son, or where not possible, brother to brother. Alexander III was the last ruler from the house of Dunkeld, and having no sons, the throne was inherited by his granddaughterMargaret, Maid of Norway. House of Sverre (1286–1290) Margaret, Maid of Norwayinherited the throne in 1286, but died in 1290 in Orkney on her way to be crowned. During her absence, Scotland was ruled by a set ofguardians. After her death, Scotland entered a period of interregnum, where 13 contenders fought for the throne and ultimately,John Balliolsucceeded. The status of Margaret, as a Scottish monarch is debated by historians. She was never crowned,and her contemporaries in Scotland described her as \"queen\" very rarely, referring to her instead as Scotland's \"lady\", \"heir\", or \"lady and heir\".On the other hand, documents issued from late 1286 no longer refer to the \"king whosoever he may be\", indicating that the throne may have been regarded as already occupied by Margaret. In modern historiography she is nearly unanimously called \"queen\", and reference books give 19 March 1286, the date of Alexander III's death, as the start of her reign. First Interregnum (1286–1292) The First Interregnum began upon the death of Alexander III of Scotland in 1286. Alexander's only surviving descendant was his granddaughterMargaret, Maid of Norway, a young child, who inherited the throne in 1286. A set of guardians were appointed to rule Scotland in her absence since she was living in Norway where her fatherEric IIwas king. She was finally sent to Scotland in 1290 but died before arriving in Scotland. The next king of Scots was not determined until completion of anarbitrationin 1292. House of Balliol (1292–1296) The death of Margaret of Norway began a two-year interregnum in Scotland caused by a succession crisis. With her death, the descent ofWilliam Ibecame extinct and there was no obvious heir.Thirteen candidatespresented themselves; the most prominent wereJohn Balliol, great-grandson of William I's younger brother David of Huntingdon, andRobert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale, grandson of David of Huntingdon. The Scottish magnates invitedEdward I of Englandto arbitrate the claims. He did so but forced the Scots to swear allegiance to him as overlord. Eventually, it was decided that John Balliol should become king. He proved weak and incapable and, in 1296, was forced to abdicate by Edward I who then attempted to annex Scotland into the Kingdom of England. c.25 November 1314Picardy,France Second Interregnum (1296–1306) John Balliolabdicated in March 1296. That same monthEdward Iinvaded Scotland. The second set of guardians were appointed under Edward I who ruled from 1296 to 1306, until the election ofRobert the Bruceas the king of Scotland. House of Bruce (1306–1371) For ten years, Scotland had no king. The Scots, however, refused to tolerate English rule. FirstWilliam WallaceandAndrew Moray, then John Comyn, and finallyRobert the Bruce(the grandson of the 1292 competitor, Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale who in turn was the grandson of David of Huntingdon, younger brother ofWilliam I) fought against the English. Bruce and his supporters had murdered their rival to the throne of Scotland,John Comyn,Lord of Badenoch, on 10 February 1306 at Greyfriars Church inDumfries. Shortly after in 1306, Robert was crowned King of Scots at Scone. Robert Bruce was then hunted down for his crime of murder, and subsequently, he escaped to the outskirt islands, leaving the country completely leaderless, and the English invaded once again. Bruce returned a year later and gained support for his cause. His energy, and the corresponding replacement of the vigorous Edward I with his weaker son Edward II in 1307, allowed Scotland to free itself from English rule. At theBattle of Bannockburnin 1314, the Scots routed the English, and by 1328 the English had agreed by treaty to accept Scottish independence. Robert's son, David, acceded to the throne as a child. The English renewed their war with Scotland, and David was forced to flee the kingdom byEdward Balliol, son of King John, who managed to get himself crowned (1332–1356) and to give away Scotland's southern counties to England before being driven out again. David spent much of his life in exile, first in freedom with his ally, France, and then in prison in England. He was only able to return to Scotland in 1357. Upon his death, childless, in 1371, the House of Bruce came to an end. House of Balliol (Disputed claimant) (1332–1356) Edward Balliolwas the son of KingJohn Balliol, who had himself ruled for four years following his election in theGreat Cause. Following his abdication, John Balliol lived out his life in obscurity inPicardy, France. During the minority of David II, Edward Balliol seized the opportunity to assert his claim to the throne, and backed by the English, he defeated the forces of David's regency and was himself crowned king atSconein 1332. He was quickly defeated by loyalist forces and sent back to England. With English support, he would mount two more attempts to seize the throne again, in 1333 and 1335, each time his actual control of the throne was brief before being sent back to England, for the last time in 1336. When David returned from exile in 1341 to rule in his own right, Edward lost most of his support. When David II was captured in battle in 1346, Edward made one last attempt to seize the throne for himself but had little support and the campaign fizzled before it gained much traction. In 1356 he renounced all claims to the throne. House of Stewart/Stuart (1371–1651) Robert the Stewart was a grandson of Robert I by the latter's daughter, Marjorie. Having been born in 1316, he was older than his uncle, David II. Consequently, he was at his accession a middle-aged man, already 55, and unable to reign vigorously, a problem also faced by his son Robert III, who also ascended in middle age at 53 in 1390, and suffered lasting damage in a horse-riding accident. These two were followed by a series of regencies, caused by the youth of the succeeding five boy kings. Consequently, the Stewart era saw periods of royal inertia, during which the nobles usurped power from the crown, followed by periods of personal rule by the monarch, during which he or she would attempt to address the issues created by their minority and the long-term effects of previous reigns. Governing Scotland became increasingly difficult, as the powerful nobility became increasingly intractable. James I's attempts to curb the disorder of the realm ended in his assassination. James III was killed in a civil war between himself and the nobility, led by his son. When James IV, who had governed sternly and suppressed the aristocrats, died in the Battle of Flodden, his wife Margaret Tudor, who had been nominated regent for their young son James V, was unseated by noble feuding, and James V's wife, Mary of Guise, succeeded in ruling Scotland during the regency for her young daughter Mary I only by dividing and conquering the noble factions, distributing French bribes with a liberal hand. Finally, Mary I, the daughter of James V, found herself unable to govern Scotland faced with the surliness of the aristocracy and the intransigence of the population, who favored Calvinism and disapproved of her Catholicism. She was forced to abdicate, and fled to England, where she was imprisoned in various castles and manor houses for eighteen years and finally executed for treason against the English queen Elizabeth I. Upon her abdication, her son, fathered byHenry, Lord Darnley, a junior member of the Stewart family, becameKing as James VI. James VI became King of England and Ireland as James I in 1603 when his cousin Elizabeth I died. Thereafter, although the two crowns of England and Scotland remained separate, the monarchy was based chiefly in England.Charles I, James's son, found himself faced with the Civil War. The resultant conflict lasted eight years and ended in his execution. The English Parliament then decreed their monarchy to be at an end. The Scots Parliament, after some deliberation, broke their links with England and declared thatCharles II, son, and heir of Charles I, would become King. He ruled until 1651 when the armies ofOliver Cromwelloccupied Scotland and drove him into exile. Third Interregnum (1651–1660) House of Stuart (restored) (1660–1707) With theScottish Restoration, the Stuarts became Kings of Scotland once more but Scotland's rights were not respected. During the reign of Charles II, the Scottish Parliament was dissolved andJameswas appointed Governor of Scotland. James II himself became James VII in 1685. His Catholicism was not tolerated, and he was driven out of England after three years. In his place came his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange, the ruler of the Dutch Republic. The two were accepted as monarchs of Scotland after a period of deliberation by the Scottish Parliament and ruled together as William II and Mary II. An attempt to establish a Scottish colonial empire through theDarien Scheme, in rivalry to that of England, failed, leaving the Scottish nobles who financed the venture for their profit bankrupt. This coincided with the accession ofQueen Anne, daughter of James VII. Anne had multiple children but none of these survived her, leaving as her heir her half-brother, James, then living in exile in France. The English favored the Protestant Sophia of Hanover (a granddaughter of James VI) as heir. Many Scots preferred Prince James, who as a Stuart was a Scot by ancestry, and threatened to break the Union of Crowns between England and Scotland by choosing him for themselves. To preserve the union, the English elaborated a plan whereby the two Kingdoms of Scotland and England would merge into a single Kingdom, theKingdom of Great Britain, ruled by a common monarch, and with a single Parliament. Both national parliaments agreed to this (the Scots albeit reluctantly, motivated primarily by the national finances), and some subterfuge as a total majority of signatories were needed to ratify the Scottish parliament's assent, bribes, and payments. Thereafter, although monarchs continued to rule over the nation of Scotland, they did so first asmonarchs of Great Britain, and from 1801 of the United Kingdom. Acts of Union TheActs of Unionwere twinParliamentary Actspassed during 1706 and 1707 by theParliament of Englandand theParliament of Scotland, putting into effect the terms of theTreaty of Union, agreed on 22 July 1706, following prolonged negotiation between Queen Anne's Commissioners representing both parliaments. The Acts joined theKingdom of Englandand theKingdom of Scotlandto form a unitedKingdom of Great Britain. Scotland and England had shared a common monarch since theUnion of the Crownsin 1603 when the Scottish kingJames VIsucceeded to the English throne. Although described as a Union of Crowns, before the Acts of Union of 1707, the crowns of the two separate kingdoms had rested on the same head. Three unsuccessful attempts (in 1606, 1667, and 1689) were made to unite the two kingdoms by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that the idea had the will of both political establishments to succeed, thereby bringing the two separate states together under a single parliament as well as a single monarch. Later claimants James VII continued to claim the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland. When he died in 1701, his son James inherited his father's claims and called himself James VIII of Scotland and III of England and Ireland. He would continue to do so all his life, even after the Kingdoms of England and Scotland were ended by their merging as the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1715, a year after the death of his half-sister, Queen Anne, and the accession of their cousin George of Hanover, James landed in Scotland and attempted to claim the throne. He failed and was forced to flee back to the Continent. A second attempt by his son Charles, on behalf of his father, in 1745–6, also failed. Both James's children died without legitimate issue, bringing the Stuart family to an end. After 1807, the Jacobite claims passed first to theHouse of Savoy(1807–1840), then to the Modenese branch of theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine(1840–1919), and finally to theHouse of Wittelsbach(since 1919). The current heir isFranz, Duke of Bavaria. Neither he nor any of his predecessors since 1807 have pursued their claim. In 1971, Ugandan PresidentIdi Aminproclaimed himself to be theuncrownedking of Scotland,although this claim gained no international recognition. Timeline of Scottish monarchs Coronation oath The Scottish coronation oath sworn byJames VI,Charles I, andCharles IIand approved by theParliament of Scotlandin 1567: I, N.N., promise faithfully, in the presence of the eternal, my God, that I, enduring the whole Course of my Life, shall serve the same Eternal, my God, to the utmost of my Power, accordingly as he required in his most Holy Word, revealed and contained in the New andOld Testament; and according to the same Word shall maintain the true Religion of Jesus Christ, the preaching of his Holy Word, and due and right administration of hisSacraments, now received and practised within this Realm; and shall abolish and oppose all false Religion contrary to the same; and shall rule the People committed to my Charge, according to the Will and Command of God, revealed in his foresaid Word, and according to the lovable Laws and Constitutions received in this Realm, in no way repugnant to the said Word of the Eternal, my God; and shall procure to my utmost to theKirkof God and whole Christian people true and perfect Peace in all times coming; the Rights and Rents, with all just privileges of the Crown of Scotland, I shall preserve and keep inviolate, neither shall I transfer nor alienate the same; I shall forbid and repress in all Estates and all Degrees theft, Oppression and all kind of Wrong; in all Judgements, I shall command and procure that Justice and Equity be kept to all creatures without exception, as he be merciful to me and you that is the Lord and Father of all Mercies; and out of all my lands and empire I shall be careful to root out allHeresyand Enemies to the true Worship of God, that shall be convicted by the true Kirk of God of the foresaid Crimes; and these Things above-written I faithfully affirm by my solemn Oath. The coronation oath sworn byWilliam II,Mary IIandAnnewas approved by the Parliament of Scotland on 18 April 1689.The oath was as follows: WE William and Mary, King and Queen of Scotland, faithfully promise and swear, by this our solemn Oath, in presence of the Eternal God, that during the whole Course of our Life we will serve the same Eternal God, to the uttermost of our Power, according as he has required in his most Holy Word, revealed and contained in the New and Old Testament; and according to the same Word shall maintain the true Religion of Christ Jesus, the preaching of his Holy Word, and the due and right Ministration of the Sacraments, now received and preached within the Realm of Scotland; and shall abolish and gainstand all false Religion contrary to the same, and shall rule the People committed to our Charge, according to the Will and Command of God, revealed in his aforesaid Word, and according to the laudable Laws and Constitutions received in this Realm, no ways repugnant to the said Word of the Eternal God; and shall procure, to the utmost of our power, to the Kirk of God, and whole Christian People, true and perfect Peace in all time coming. That we shall preserve and keep inviolated the Rights and Rents, with all just Privileges of the Crown of Scotland, neither shall we transfer nor alienate the same; that we shall forbid and repress in all Estates and Degrees, Reif, Oppression and all kind of Wrong. And we shall command and procure, that Justice and Equity in all Judgments be kept to all Persons without exception, us the Lord and Father of all Mercies shall be merciful to us. And we shall be careful to root out all Heretics and Enemies to the true Worship of God, that shall be convicted by the true Kirk of God, of the aforesaid Crimes, out of our Lands and Empire of Scotland. And we faithfully affirm the Things above-written by our solemn Oath. See also Notes References Bibliography External links" ]
[ "List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom Theprime minister of the United Kingdomis the principal minister of the crown ofHis Majesty's Government, and the head of theBritish Cabinet. There is no specific date for when the office of prime minister first appeared, as the role was not created but rather evolved over time through a merger of duties.The term was regularly, if informally, used byRobert Walpoleby the 1730s.It was used in theHouse of Commonsas early as 1805,and it was certainly in parliamentary use by the 1880s,although did not become the official title until 1905, whenArthur Balfourwas prime minister. Historians generally considerRobert Walpole, who led the government of theKingdom of Great Britainfor over twenty years from 1721,to be the first prime minister. Walpole is also the longest-serving British prime minister by this definition.The first prime minister of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandwasWilliam Pitt the Youngerat its creation on 1 January 1801.The first to use the", "first to use the title in an official act wasBenjamin Disraeliwho signed the1878 Treaty of Berlinas \"Prime Minister of Her Britannic Majesty\". In 1905, the post of prime minister was officially given recognition in theorder of precedence,with the incumbentHenry Campbell-Bannermanthe first officially referred to as \"prime minister\". The first prime minister of the currentUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Irelandupon its effective creation in 1922 (when 26 Irish counties seceded and created theIrish Free State) wasBonar Law,although the country was not renamed officially until 1927, whenStanley Baldwinwas the serving prime minister. The incumbent prime minister isKeir Starmer, who assumed the office on 5 July 2024. Before the Kingdom of Great Britain Before theUnion of England and Scotlandin 1707, theTreasuryofEnglandwas led by theLord High Treasurer.By the lateTudor period, the Lord High Treasurer was regarded as one of theGreat Officers of State,and was often (though not always) the dominant", "the dominant figure in government:Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset(lord high treasurer, 1547–1549),served aslord protectorto his young nephew KingEdward VI;William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley(lord high treasurer, 1572–1598),was thedominant ministerto QueenElizabeth I;Burghley's sonRobert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, succeeded his father asChief Ministerto Elizabeth (1598–1603) and was eventually appointed by KingJames Ias lord high treasurer (1608–1612). By the lateStuart period, the Treasury was often run not by a single individual (i.e., the lord high treasurer) but by acommissionoflords of the Treasury,led by thefirst lord of the Treasury. The last lords high treasurer,Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin(1702–1710) andRobert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford(1711–1714),ran the government ofQueen Anne. From 1707 to 1721 Following the succession ofGeorge Iin 1714, the arrangement of a commission of lords of the Treasury (as opposed to a single lord high treasurer) became permanent.For the next three years,", "next three years, the government was headed byCharles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, who was appointedSecretary of State for the Northern Department.Subsequently, LordsStanhopeandSunderlandran the government jointly,with Stanhope managing foreign affairs and Sunderland domestic.Stanhope died in February 1721 and Sunderland resigned two months later;Townshend andRobert Walpolewere then invited to form the next government.From that point, the holder of theofficeof first lord also usually (albeit unofficially) held the status of prime minister. It was not until theEdwardian erathat the titleprime ministerwas constitutionally recognised.The prime minister still holds the office of first lord by constitutional convention,the only exceptions being theEarl of Chathamand theMarquess of Salisbury. Since 1721 Prime ministers Disputed prime ministers Due to the gradual evolution of the post of prime minister, the title is applied to early prime ministers only retrospectively;this has sometimes given rise to", "given rise to academic dispute.William Pulteney, 1st Earl of BathandJames Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegraveare sometimes listed as prime ministers.Bath was invited toform a ministrybyGeorge IIwhenHenry Pelhamresigned in 1746,as was Waldegrave in 1757 after the dismissal ofWilliam Pitt the Elder,who dominated the affairs of governmentduring the Seven Years' War. Neither was able to command sufficient parliamentary support to form a government; Bath stepped down after two daysand Waldegrave after four.Modern academic consensus does not consider either man to have held office as prime minister;they are therefore listed separately. List notes Timeline See also References Citations Works cited Further reading External links", "Theresa May Theresa Mary May, Baroness May of Maidenhead,PC(/təˈriːzə/;néeBrasier; born 1 October 1956), is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United KingdomandLeader of the Conservative Partyfrom 2016 to 2019. She previously served asHome Secretaryfrom 2010 to 2016. She wasMember of Parliament(MP) forMaidenheadfrom 1997 to 2024, and has been a member of theHouse of Lordssince August 2024. May is the second female British prime minister, afterMargaret Thatcher, and the first woman to have held two of theGreat Offices of State. Ideologically, May is aone-nation conservative. May grew up inOxfordshireand attendedSt Hugh's College, Oxford. After graduating in 1977, she worked at theBank of Englandand theAssociation for Payment Clearing Services. She also served as a councillor for Durnsford inMerton. After two unsuccessful attempts to be elected to theHouse of Commons, she was elected as the MP for the new seat of Maidenhead at the1997 general election. From 1999 to 2010, May held several", "May held several roles inshadow cabinetsand wasChair of the Conservative Partyfrom 2002 to 2003. Followingthe formationof thecoalition governmentafter the2010 general election, May was appointed home secretary andminister for women and equalities, giving up the latter role in 2012. Reappointed after the Conservatives won the2015 general election, she became the longest-serving home secretary in more than 60 years. Duringher tenure as home secretary, she pursued reform of thePolice Federation, implemented a harder line ondrugs policy, including banningkhat, and furtherrestricted immigration. She oversaw the introduction of electedpolice and crime commissioners, the deportation ofAbu Qatadaand the creation of theCollege of Policingand theNational Crime Agency. Although she supported the unsuccessfulremain campaign, May supportedBrexitfollowing the outcome of the2016 referendum. Shewas electedand appointed prime minister unopposed to succeedDavid CameronafterAndrea Leadsomwithdrew from the contest. As prime", "contest. As prime minister, May began the process of withdrawing the UK from the EU, triggeringArticle 50in March 2017. In April, she announceda snap general election, with the aim of strengthening her hand inBrexit negotiationsand highlighting her \"strong and stable\" leadership. This resulted in ahung parliamentwith the number of Conservative seats reduced to 317 (from 330), despite the highest vote share since 1983 and the largest increase in electoral support enjoyed by a governing party since 1832. The loss of anoverall majorityprompted her to entera confidence-and-supply arrangementwith theDemocratic Unionist Party(DUP) of Northern Ireland to supporta minority government. Following the 2017 election,May's premiershipcontinued to be dominated by Brexit, in particular by her government's negotiations with the EU, adhering to theChequers plan, which led to a draftBrexit withdrawal agreement. Other events that occurred during May's premiership includedterrorist attacks in Westminster,at the Manchester", "the Manchester Arenaandat London Bridge, theGrenfell Tower fireand theWindrush scandal. Her government announced theNHS Long Term Planand was responsible for negotiating and approving the near-entirety of the UK'sterms of exitfrom the EU.May was also a prominent figure in leading the international condemnation and response to Russia over thepoisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripalin March 2018. May survived two votes of no confidence in December 2018 andin January 2019, but after versions of her draft withdrawal agreementwere rejected by Parliamentthree times and her party's poor performance in the2019 European Parliament election, she left office in July and was succeeded byBoris Johnson, her formerforeign secretary. May remained in the House of Commons as abackbencheruntil she stood down at the2024 general election, and was succeeded as MP for Maidenhead by theLiberal Democrats'Joshua Reynolds. She was elevated to the House of Lords later that year as Baroness May of Maidenhead. Inhistorical rankings of prime", "rankings of prime ministers, academics and journalists have ranked May in the bottom fourth quartile. Early life and education Theresa May was born on 1 October 1956 inEastbourne, Sussex. She is the only child of Zaidee Mary (née Barnes; 1928–1982) and Hubert Brasier (1917–1981).Her father was aChurch of Englandclergyman (and anAnglo-Catholic)who was chaplain of an Eastbourne hospital.He later became vicar ofEnstonewithHeythropand finally ofSt Mary'sat Wheatley, to the east of Oxford.May's mother was a supporter of the Conservative Party.Her father died in 1981, from injuries sustained in a car accident, and her mother ofmultiple sclerosisthe following year.May later stated she was \"sorry they never saw me elected as a Member of Parliament\". May initially attended Heythrop Primary School, a state school in Heythrop, followed by St. Juliana's Convent School for Girls, aRoman Catholicindependent school inBegbroke, which closed in 1984. At the age of 13, May won a place at the former Holton Park Girls' Grammar", "Park Girls' Grammar School, a state school inWheatley.During her time as a pupil, the Oxfordshire education system was reorganised, and the school became the newWheatley Park Comprehensive School.May attended theUniversity of Oxford, readgeographyatSt Hugh's College, and graduated with a second classBAdegree in 1977.She was taught political geography at St Hugh's byJohn Patten, Baron Patten, a future ConservativeSecretary of State for EducationunderJohn Major.At St Hugh's, May's contemporaries included the barrister Alicia Collinson, wife of May's future deputyDamian Green; businesswomanLouise Patten; and Emma Hood, wife of former Oxford University Vice-ChancellorJohn Hood. May worked at a bakery on Saturdays to earn pocket money and was a \"tall, fashion-conscious young woman who from an early age spoke of her ambition to be the first woman prime minister,\" according to those who knew her.A university friend, Pat Frankland, said, \"I cannot remember a time when she did not have political ambitions.\" Early", "ambitions.\" Early career Between 1977 and 1983, May worked at theBank of England. From 1985 to 1997, she was a financial consultant at theAssociation for Payment Clearing Services(APACS).She served as Head of the European Affairs Unit from 1989 to 1996 and Senior Adviser on International Affairs from 1996 to 1997 in the organisation. May served as a councillor for Durnsford wardon theBorough Councilof theLondon Borough of Mertonfrom 1986 to 1994, where she was Chairman of Education (1988–1990) and Deputy Group Leader and Housing Spokesman (1992–1994). In the1992 general electionMay was the Conservative Party candidate for the safe Labour seat ofNorth West Durham, placing second to incumbent MPHilary Armstrong, with future Liberal Democrat leaderTim Farronplacing third.May then stood at the1994 Barking by-election, which was prompted by the death of Labour MPJo Richardson. The seat had been continuously held by Labour since it was created in 1945, and Labour candidateMargaret Hodgewas expected to win easily,", "to win easily, which she did. May placed a distant third. Election Around 18 months ahead of the1997 general election, May was selected as the Conservative candidate forMaidenhead, a new seat which was created from parts of thesafeseats ofWindsor and MaidenheadandWokingham.She was elected comfortably with 25,344 votes (49.8%), almost double the total of second-placed Andrew Terence Ketteringham of the Liberal Democrats, who took 13,363 votes (26.3%).Despite this, her party suffered their worst defeat in over 150 years. Early parliamentary career Having enteredParliament, May became a member ofWilliam Hague's front-benchOppositionteam, as Shadow Spokesman for Schools, Disabled People and Women (1998–1999). She became the first of the 1997 MPs to enter the Shadow Cabinet when in 1999 she was appointed Shadow Education and Employment Secretary. After the2001 electionthe new Conservative leaderIain Duncan Smithkept her in the Shadow Cabinet, moving her to the Transport portfolio. May was appointed the first", "appointed the first femaleChairman of the Conservative Partyin July 2002. During her speech at the 2002 Conservative Party Conference, she explained why, in her view, her party must change: \"You know what people call us? The Nasty Party. In recent years a number of politicians have behaved disgracefully and then compounded their offences by trying to evade responsibility. We all know who they are. Let's face it, some of them have stood on this platform.\"She accused some unnamed colleagues of trying to \"make political capital out of demonising minorities\", and charged others with indulging themselves \"in petty feuding or sniping instead of getting behind a leader who is doing an enormous amount to change a party which has suffered two landslide defeats\". She admitted that constituency selection committees seemed to prefer candidates they would \"be happy to have a drink with on a Sunday morning\", continuing to say, \"At the last general election 38 new Tory MPs were elected. Of that total, only one was a woman", "one was a woman and none was from an ethnic minority. Is that fair? Is one half of the population entitled to only one place out of 38?\" In 2003, afterMichael Howard's election as Conservative Party and Opposition Leader in November that year, May was appointed ShadowSecretary of State for Transport and the Environment. In June 2004, she was moved to becomeShadow Secretary of State for the Family. Following the2005 general electionshe was also made ShadowSecretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. AfterDavid Cameron's election as Conservative Party and Opposition Leader, he appointed May asShadow Leader of the House of Commonsin December 2005 and asShadow Minister for Women and Equalityin July 2007. In January 2009, May was made ShadowSecretary of State for Work and Pensions. On 6 May 2010, May was re-elected MP for Maidenhead with an increased majority of 16,769 – 60% of the vote. This followed an earlier failed attempt by the Liberal Democrats to unseat her in 2005, as one of that party's leading", "party's leading \"decapitation-strategy\" targets. Home Secretary Following theformationof thecoalition governmentafter the2010 general electionon 12 May 2010, May was appointedHome SecretaryandMinister for Women and Equalitiesby Prime Minister David Cameron as part of his first Cabinet. She became the fourth woman to hold one of the BritishGreat Offices of State, afterMargaret Thatcher(Prime Minister),Margaret Beckett(Foreign Secretary) andJacqui Smith(Home Secretary).As Home Secretary, May was also a member of theNational Security Council.She was the longest-serving Home Secretary for over 60 years, sinceJames Chuter Edewho served over six years and two months from August 1945 to October 1951. May's appointment as Home Secretary was somewhat unexpected, withChris Graylinghaving served as shadow Home Secretary in opposition. May's debut as Home Secretary involved overturning several of the previous Labour government's measures on data collection and surveillance in England and Wales. By way of a government", "way of a government bill which became theIdentity Documents Act 2010, she brought about the abolition of the Labour government'sNational Identity Cardand database schemeand reformed the regulations on the retention of DNA samples for suspects and controls on the use ofCCTVcameras. In May 2010, May announced the adjournment of the deportation to the United States of alleged computer hackerGary McKinnon.She also suspended the registration scheme for carers of children and vulnerable people, with May saying that the measures were \"draconian. You were assumed to be guilty until you were proven innocent, and told you were able to work with children.\"On 4 August 2010, it was reported that May was scrapping the former Labour government's proposed \"go orders\" scheme to protect women fromdomestic violenceby banning abusers from the victim's home. In June 2010, May faced her first major national security incident as Home Secretary with theCumbria shootings.She delivered her first major speech in theHouse of Commonsas", "of Commonsas Home Secretary in a statement on this incident,later visiting the victims with the Prime Minister.Also in June 2010, May banned the Indian Muslim preacherZakir Naikfrom entering the United Kingdom. According toThe Daily Telegraph, a Home Office official who disagreed with this decision was suspended.In late June 2010, May announced plans for a temporary cap on UK visas for non-EU migrants.The move raised concerns about the impact on the British economy. In August 2013, May supported the detention ofDavid Miranda, partner ofGuardianjournalistGlenn Greenwald, under theTerrorism Act 2000, saying that critics of the Metropolitan Police action needed to \"think about what they are condoning\".Lib Dem peer and former Director of Public ProsecutionsKen Macdonaldaccused May of an \"ugly and unhelpful\" attempt to implicate those who were concerned about the police action of \"condoning terrorism\".The High Court subsequently acknowledged there were \"indirect implications for press freedom\" but ruled the", "but ruled the detention legal.A 2016 ruling by theCourt of Appealfound that the provision of the Terrorism Act used for Miranda's detention was \"incompatible with theEuropean convention on human rights\", but that the detention itself was lawful. May also championed legislation popularly dubbed theSnooper's Charter, requiring internet and mobile service providers to keep records of internet usage, voice calls, messages and email for up to a year in case police requested access to the records while investigating a crime. The Liberal Democrats had blocked thefirst attempt,but after the Conservative Party obtained a majority in the 2015 general election May announced a newDraft Investigatory Powers Billsimilar to the Draft Communications Data Bill, although with more limited powers and additional oversight. Police and crime Speaking at theAssociation of Chief Police Officers(ACPO) conference in June 2010, May announced radical cuts to the Home Office budget, likely to lead to a reduction in police numbers.In", "police numbers.In July 2010, May presented the House of Commons with proposals for a fundamental review of the previous Labour government's security and counter-terrorism legislation, including \"stop and search\" powers, and her intention to review the 28-day limit on detaining terrorist suspects without charge. In July 2010, May announced a package of reforms to policing in England and Wales in theHouse of Commons.The previous Labour Government's central crime agency,Soca (Serious Organised Crime Agency), was to be replaced by a newNational Crime Agency. In common with the Conservative Party 2010 general election manifesto's flagship proposal for a \"Big Society\" based on voluntary action, May also proposed increasing the role of civilian \"reservists\" for crime control. The reforms were rejected by the OppositionLabour Party. Following the actions of some members ofBlack Blocin vandalising allegedlytax-avoidingshops and businesses on the day of the March 2011 TUC march, the Home Secretary unveiled", "Secretary unveiled reformscurbing the right to protest, including giving police extra powers to remove masked individuals and to police social networking sites to preventillegal protestwithout police consent or notification. In 2012, despite inquiries by bothScotland Yardand theIndependent Police Complaints Commissionruling that there was no new evidence to warrant further investigation, after discussions withDoreen Lawrence, May commissionedMark Ellisonto review Scotland Yard's investigations into alleged police corruption.The report was presented to Parliament by May on 6 March 2014.Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe,Commissioner of the Metropolitan Policesaid the report, which has prompted an inquiry into undercover policing, was \"devastating\". In July 2013, May welcomed the fact that crime had fallen by more than 10% under the coalition government, while still being able to make savings. She said that this was partly due to the government removing red tape and scrapping targets to allow the police to concentrate on", "to concentrate on crime-fighting. In 2014, May delivered a speech to thePolice Federation, in which she criticised aspects of the culture of the police force.In the speech, she said: When you remember the list of recent revelations about police misconduct, it is not enough to mouth platitudes about \"a fewbad apples\". The problem might lie with a minority of officers, but it is still a significant problem and a problem that needs to be addressed ... according to one survey carried out recently, only 42% of black people from a Caribbean background trust the police. That is simply not sustainable ... I will soon publish proposals to strengthen the protections available to whistleblowers in the police. I am creating a new criminal offence of police corruption. And I am determined that the use of stop and search must come down, become more targeted and lead to more arrests. On 9 December 2010, in the wake of violentstudent demonstrationsin central London against increases to higher-educationtuition fees, May", "fees, May praised the actions of the police in controlling the demonstrations but was described byThe Daily Telegraphas \"under growing political pressure\" due to her handling of the protests. In December 2010, May declared that deployment of water cannon by police forces in mainland Britain was an operational decision which had been \"resisted until now by senior police officers.\"She rejected their use following thewidespread rioting in summer 2011and said: \"the way we police in Britain is not through use of water cannon. The way we police in Britain is through consent of communities.\" May said: \"I condemn utterly the violence in Tottenham... Such disregard for public safety and property will not be tolerated, and the Metropolitan Police have my full support in restoring order.\" In the aftermath of the riots May urged the identification of as many as possible of the young criminals involved. She said: \"when I was in Manchester last week, the issue was raised to me about the anonymity of juveniles who are", "juveniles who are found guilty of crimes of this sort. The Crown Prosecution Service is to order prosecutors to apply for anonymity to be lifted in any youth case they think is in the public interest. The law currently protects the identity of any suspect under the age of 18, even if they are convicted, but it also allows for an application to have such restrictions lifted, if deemed appropriate.\" May added that \"what I've asked for is that CPS guidance should go to prosecutors to say that where possible, they should be asking for the anonymity of juveniles who are found guilty of criminal activity to be lifted\". Anti-social behaviour In July 2010, May proposed to review the previousLabourGovernment's anti-social behaviour legislation signalling the abolition of the \"Anti-Social Behaviour Order\" (ASBO). She identified the policy's high level of failure with almost half of ASBOs breached between 2000 and 2008, leading to \"fast-track\" criminal convictions. May proposed a less punitive, community-based approach", "approach to tackling social disorder. May suggested that anti-social behaviour policy \"must be turned on its head\", reversing the ASBO's role as the flagship crime control policy legislation under Labour.Former Labour Home SecretariesDavid Blunkett(who introduced ASBOs) andAlan Johnsonexpressed their disapproval of the proposals. Drug policy In July 2013, May decided to ban the stimulantkhat, against the advice of theAdvisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs(ACMD). The council reached the conclusion that there was \"insufficient evidence\" it caused health problems.Explaining the change in the classification May said: \"The decision to bring khat under control is finely balanced and takes into account the expert scientific advice and these broader concerns\", and pointed out that the product had already been banned in the majority of other EU member states, as well as most of the G8 countries including Canada and the US.A report on khat use by the ACMD published in January 2013 had noted the product had been", "product had been associated with \"acute psychotic episodes\", \"chronic liver disease\" and family breakdown. However, it concluded that there is no risk of harm for most users, and recommended that khat remain uncontrolled due to lack of evidence for these associations. Liberal Democrat ministerNorman Bakeraccused May of suppressing proposals to treat rather than prosecute minor drug offenders from a report into drug policy commissioned by the Home Office.The Home Office denied that its officials had considered this as part of their strategy. Baker cited difficulties in working with May as the reason for his resignation from the Home Office in the run-up to the 2015 general election. Immigration In 2010, May promised to bring the level of net migration down to less than 100,000.The Independentreported in February 2015, \"TheOffice for National Statistics(ONS) announced a net flow of 298,000 migrants to the UK in the 12 months to September 2014—up from 210,000 in the previous year.\"In total, 624,000", "total, 624,000 peoplemigrated to the UKin the year ending September 2014 and 327,000 left in the same period. Statistics showed \"significant increases in migration among both non-EU citizens—up 49,000 to 292,000—and EU citizens, which rose by 43,000 to 251,000.\" In May 2012 she toldThe Daily Telegraphof her intention \"to create here in Britain areally hostile environmentfor illegal migration\". May rejected the European Union's proposal ofcompulsory refugee quotas.She said that it was important to help people living in war-zone regions and refugee camps but \"not the ones who are strong and rich enough to come to Europe\".In May 2016,The Daily Telegraphreported that she had tried to save £4m by rejecting an intelligence project to use aircraft surveillance to detect illegal immigrant boats. Family migration In June 2012, May announced that new restrictions would be introduced to reduce the number of non-European Economic Areafamily migrants. The changes were mostly intended to apply to new applicants after 9", "applicants after 9 July 2012. The newly introduced rules came into effect on 9 July 2012 allowing only those British citizens earning more than £18,600 to bring their spouses or their children to live with them in the UK. This figure would rise significantly in cases where visa applications are also made for children. They also increased the current two-year probationary period for partners to 5 years. The rules also prevent any adult and elderly dependents from settling in the UK unless they can demonstrate that, as a result of age, illness ordisability, they require a level of long-term personal care that can only be provided by a relative in the UK. TheHouse of Lordswas concerned about the immigration issue and therefore addressed the PM in Parliament as to whether she had examined the impact on communities and families on modest incomes, but it received no direct response.The human rights groupLibertyconcluded that the new rules showed scant regard to the impact they would have on genuine", "have on genuine families.TheAll-Party Parliamentary Groupon Migration conducted an evidence based inquiry into the impact of the rules and concluded in their report that the rules were causing very young children to be separated from their parents and could exileBritish citizensfrom the UK. Deportation decisions At the Conservative Party Conference in October 2011, while arguing that the Human Rights Act needed to be amended, May gave the example of a foreign national who the Courts ruled was allowed to remain in the UK, \"because—and I am not making this up—he had a pet cat\". In response, the Royal Courts of Justice issued a statement, denying that this was the reason for the tribunal's decision in that case, and stating that the real reason was that he was in a genuine relationship with a British partner, and owning a pet cat was simply one of many pieces of evidence given to show that the relationship was \"genuine\". The Home Office had failed to apply its own rules for dealing with unmarried partners of", "partners of people settled in the UK.Amnesty International said May's comments only fuelled \"myths and misconceptions\" about the Human Rights Act and Justice SecretaryKenneth Clarkesubsequently called May's comments \"laughable and childlike.\" In June 2012, May was found incontempt of courtby Judge Barry Cotter, and stood accused of \"totally unacceptable and regrettable behaviour\", being said to have shown complete disregard for a legal agreement to free an Algerian from a UK Immigration Detention Centre. As she eventually allowed the prisoner to be freed, May avoided further sanctions including fines or imprisonment. May responded to a Supreme Court decision in November 2013 to overturn her predecessorJacqui Smith's revocation of Iraqi-born terror suspect Al Jedda's British citizenship by ordering it to be revoked for a second time, making him the first person to be stripped twice of British citizenship. May was accused byLord Roberts of Llandudnoof being willing to allow someone to die \"to score a political", "score a political point\" over the deportation of mentally ill Nigerian man Isa Muazu.According to Muazu's solicitor, May had arranged for the asylum seeker, who was said to be \"near death\" after a 100-day hunger strike, to be deported by a chartered private jet.To strengthen the Home Office's tough stance, an \"end of life\" plan was reportedly offered to Muazu, who was one of a number of hunger strikers at theHarmondsworth Immigration Removal Centre. Abu Qatada deportation In July 2013,Abu Qatada, a radical cleric arrested in 2002, was deported toJordanafter a decade-long battle that had cost the nation £1.7 million in legal fees,and several prior Home Secretaries had not resolved.The deportation was the result of a treaty negotiated by May in April 2013, under which Jordan agreed to give Qatada a fair trial, by not using evidence that may have been obtained against him through torture. May pointed to Qatada's deportation as a triumph, guaranteeing in September 2013 that \"he will not be returning to the UK\",", "to the UK\", and declaring in her 2016 leadership campaign announcement that she was told that she \"couldn't deport Abu Qatada\" but that she \"flew to Jordan and negotiated the treaty that got him out of Britain for good\".The Qatada deportation also shaped May's views on theEuropean Convention on Human RightsandEuropean Court of Human Rights, saying that they had \"moved the goalposts\" and had a \"crazy interpretation of our human rights laws\", as a result, May has since campaigned against the institutions, saying that British withdrawal from them should be considered. \"Go Home\" advertisements In August 2013, the Home Office engaged in an advertising campaign directed at illegal immigrants.The advertisements, in the form of mobile advertising hoardings on the back of lorries, told illegal immigrants to \"go home or face arrest\", with an image of a person in handcuffs, and were deployed in six London boroughs with substantial ethnic minority populations. They were widely criticised as creating ahostile", "creating ahostile atmospherefor members of ethnic minority groups.The shadow Home Secretary,Yvette Cooper, described their language as being reminiscent of that used by theNational Frontin the 1970s.An adjudication by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) said that \"the claim was misleading and had not been substantiated\" was followed by the advertisements being withdrawn after being banned by the ASA. Passport backlog In mid 2014, the Passport Office faced a backlog in developing processing passport applications, with around 30,000 applications hit by delays.David Cameron suggested this had come about due to the Passport Office's receiving an \"above normal\" 300,000-rise in applications.It was revealed, however, that May had been warned the year before, in July 2013, that a surge of 350,000 extra applications could occur owing to the closure of processing overseas under Chancellor Osborne's programme of cuts.Around £674,000 was paid to staff who helped clear the backlog. Windrush scandal In April 2018,", "In April 2018, May'shostile environment policybecame the focus of British politics in what came to be known as theWindrush scandal, in which members of theWindrush generationof Afro-Caribbean Britons were threatened with deportation by the Home Office and in at least 83 cases, illegally deported from the UK.The policy also affected the lives of many thousands of people who were in the United Kingdom legally by causing them to be sacked from employment,preventing access to health care, illegally demanding money,exiling them and preventing their return to the UK,and leaving them destitute. The scandal led to the resignation of May's successorAmber Ruddas Home Secretary,and her replacement bySajid Javid.Responding to questions in Parliament on the Windrush scandal on 25 April, May maintained that the hostile environment policy would remain government policy. Birmingham schools row In June 2014, an inflamed public argument arose between Home Office andEducationMinisters about responsibility foralleged extremism", "extremism in Birmingham schools.Prime MinisterDavid Cameronintervened to resolve the row, insisting that May sack herSpecial AdvisorFiona Cunningham(now Hill) for releasing on May's website a confidential letter to May's colleagues,and thatMichael Gove, the Education Secretary, apologise to the Home Office'shead of Security and Counter-Terrorism,Charles Farr, for uncomplimentary briefings of him appearing on the front page ofThe Times. Minister for Women and Equalities May held the office ofMinister for Women and Equalitiesin parallel to her office of Home Secretary from 2010 to September 2012, when this role was taken over byMaria Miller. May's appointment as Minister for Women and Equalities was controversial, and was met with criticism by many in theLGBT communitydue to May's record of consistently opposingLGBT rightsfrom 1997 to 2004:she voted against equalising the age of consent in 1998, she spoke in favour ofSection 28in 2001,and she spoke against greateradoption rights for homosexualsin 2002.May", "2002.May later stated, during an appearance on the BBC'sQuestion Timein 2010, that she had \"changed her mind\" on gay adoption.Writing forPinkNewsin June 2010, May detailed proposals for improving LGBT rights including measures to tackle homophobia in sport, advocating British society's need for \"cultural change\". In July 2010, May stated she would be supporting the previous Labour Government's Anti-Discrimination Laws enshrined in theEquality Act 2010despite having previously opposed it.The Equality Act came into effect in England, Wales and Scotland on 1 October 2010.She did however announce that a clause she dubbed \"Harman's Law\"which would have requiredpublic bodiesto consider how they can reduce socio-economic inequalities when making decisions about spending and serviceswould be scrapped on the grounds that it was \"unworkable\". Leadership bid In June 2016, May announced her candidacy for the leadership of the Conservative Party to succeedDavid Cameron, who resigned following the outcome of theEuropean", "of theEuropean Union membership referendumin which 52 per cent of voters voted in favour of leaving the EU. May emphasised the need for unity within the party regardless of positions on leaving the EU, saying she could bring \"strong leadership\" and a \"positive vision\" for the country's future. Despite having backed a vote to remain in the EU, she insisted that there would be no second referendum, saying: \"The campaign was fought... and the public gave their verdict. There must be no attempts to remain inside the EU, no attempts to rejoin it through the back door... Brexit means Brexit\". An opinion poll that day found 47 per cent of people choosing May as their preferred candidate to be prime minister. May's supporters included a number of Cabinet ministers, such asAmber Rudd,Chris Grayling,Justine Greening,Jeremy Hunt,Michael FallonandPatrick McLoughlin.She received the most votes in the first round of voting on 5 July, receiving support from 165 MPs, with rivalsAndrea Leadsomreceiving 66 votes andMichael", "66 votes andMichael Gove48.The two candidates with the fewest votes,Liam FoxandStephen Crabb, immediately announced their support for May.May came in first place in the second ballot on 7 July with an overwhelming majority of 199 MPs, compared with 84 for Leadsom and 46 for Gove, who was eliminated.Afterwards, May stated that she was delighted with her support among MPs, and she progressed to a vote of the Conservative Party membership against Leadsom. In July, Leadsom announced her withdrawal from the leadership contest hours after May had made her first official campaign speech, saying her lack of support amongst Conservative MPs compared to May would be too great a hindrance to becoming a credible prime minister.As the sole remaining candidate, May was formally declared Leader of the Conservative Party that evening. Premiership (2016–2019) Appointment On 13 July 2016, two days after becoming Leader of the Conservative Party, May was appointed prime minister byQueenElizabeth II, becoming the second female", "the second female British prime minister afterMargaret Thatcher.Addressing the world's media outside10 Downing Street, May said that she was \"honoured and humbled\" to become prime minister. On becoming prime minister, May became the first woman to have held two of theGreat Offices of State. Responding to some calls for an early general election, \"sources close to Mrs May\" said there was no need for such an election.In a speech after her appointment, May emphasised the term \"Unionist\" in the name of theConservative Party, reminding all of \"the precious, precious bond between England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.\"By 15 July, May had travelled toEdinburghto meet with First MinisterNicola Sturgeonto reinforce the bond between Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom. \"I'm coming here to show my commitment to preserving this special union that has endured for centuries,\" she explained. Cabinet changes May's first Cabinet appointment was described byReutersas \"one of the most sweeping government", "sweeping government reshuffles for decades\", and called \"a brutal cull\" byThe Daily Telegraph.Nine of Cameron's ministers, including several prominent members, were sacked or resigned from their posts.The early appointments were interpreted both as an effort to reunite the Conservative Party in the wake of the UK's vote to leave the EU and as \"a shift to the right,\" according toThe Guardian.ITV's Political EditorRobert Pestoncommented: \"Her rhetoric is more left-wing than Cameron's was, her cabinet is more right-wing than his was.\"Although May had supported remaining in the EU, she appointed several of the most prominent advocates ofBrexitto key Cabinet positions responsible for negotiating theUnited Kingdom withdrawal from the European Union, includingBoris JohnsonasForeign Secretary,David DavisasBrexit Secretary, andLiam FoxasInternational Trade Secretary, the latter two being new positions.Other key appointees includedAmber RuddasHome SecretaryandPhilip HammondasChancellor of the Exchequer. First term", "First term (2016–2017) TheFirst May ministrydelayed the final approval for theHinkley Point C nuclear power stationin July 2016, a project which May had objected to when she was Home Secretary.Herpolitical adviserNick Timothywrote an article in 2015 to oppose China's involvement in sensitive sectors. He said that the government was \"selling ournational securityto China\" withoutrationalconcerns and \"the Government seems intent on ignoring the evidence and presumably the advice of the security and intelligence agencies\". In July 2016, whenGeorge Kerevanasked her whether she would be prepared to authorise the killing of a hundred thousand innocent persons by a nuclear strike; during the \"Tridentdebate\" inside theHouse of Commons, May said \"Yes. And I have to say to the honourable gentleman: the whole point of a deterrent is that our enemies need to know that we would be prepared to use it. Unlikesome suggestionsthat we could have a nuclear deterrent but not actually be willing to use it, which come from", "it, which come from theLabour Partyfrontbench.\" On 20 July, May attended her firstPrime Minister's Questionssince taking office, then afterwards made her firstoverseas trip as prime minister, visiting Berlin for talks with German ChancellorAngela Merkel. During the visit, May said that she would not triggerArticle 50 of the Treaty of Lisbon—the process for withdrawing from the European Union—before 2017, suggesting it would take time for the UK to negotiate a \"sensible and orderly departure\" from the EU. However, although Merkel said it was right for the UK to \"take a moment\" before beginning the process, she urged May to provide more clarity on a timetable for negotiations. Shortly before travelling to Berlin, May had also announced that in the wake of the referendum, Britain would relinquish thepresidency of the Council of the European Union, which passes between member states every six months on a rotation basis, and that the UK had been scheduled to hold in the second half of 2017. May supported theSaudi", "supported theSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemenand defended selling arms toSaudi Arabia,which is accused of committing war crimes in Yemen,insisting that Britain's close relationship with Saudi Arabia was \"helping keep people on the streets of Britain safe\". On 21 January 2017, following theinauguration of Donald Trumpas US President, theWhite Houseannounced that May would meet the President on 27 January, making her the first foreign leader to meet Trump since he took office on 20 January.In a joint press conference, May indicated an interest in increased trade between the United States and the United Kingdom. She also affirmed a desire to maintain an American involvement in NATO.May was criticised by members of major parties, including her own, for refusing to condemn Trump'sExecutive Order 13769, as well as for inviting Trump to a state visit withQueen Elizabeth II. In January 2017, when it came to light that a Trident test had malfunctioned in June 2016, May refused to confirm whether she knew about", "she knew about the incident when she addressed parliament. May's Chancellor,Philip Hammond, continued government policies of freezing benefits in his 2017 budget. 2017 general election In May announced that she would call a parliamentary vote to hold anearly general electionon 8 June, saying that it was the \"only way to guarantee certainty and security for years ahead\".May had previously ruled out an early election on five occasions over nine months.The election was the first snap election held under theFixed-term Parliaments Act 2011after MPs gave May the two-thirdssuper-majorityrequired. Unveiling the Conservative manifesto inHalifaxon 18 May, May promised a \"mainstream government that would deliver for mainstream Britain\".It proposed to balance the budget by 2025, raise spending on the NHS by £8bn per annum and on schools by £4bn per annum by 2022, remove the ban on new grammar schools,means-testthewinter fuel allowance, replace thestate pension\"triple lock\" with a \"double lock\" and require executive pay", "executive pay to be approved by a vote of shareholders.It also contained May's previously-announced flagship energy reform of acap on gas and electricity bills for householdson standard variable tariffs.It dropped the 2015 pledge to not raise income tax or national insurance contributions but maintained a commitment to freezeVAT.Newsovereign wealth fundsfor infrastructure, rules to prevent foreign takeovers of \"critical national infrastructure\" andinstitutes of technologywere also proposed.The manifesto was noted for its intervention in industry, lack of tax cuts and increased spending commitments on public services.On Brexit it committed to leaving the single market andcustoms unionwhile seeking a \"deep and special partnership\" and promised a vote in parliament on the final agreement. The manifesto also proposed reforms tosocial care in Englandthat would raise the threshold for free care from £23,250 to £100,000 while including property in the means test and permitting deferred payment after death.After", "after death.After attracting substantial media attention, four days after the manifesto launch May stated that the proposed social care reforms would now include an \"absolute limit\" on costs in contrast to the rejection of a cap in the manifesto.She criticised the \"fake\" portrayal of the policy in recent days by Labour and other critics who had termed it a \"dementia tax\".Evening StandardeditorGeorge Osbornecalled the policy change a \"U-turn\".The Financial Timescontrasted her \"Strong and Stable\" leadership slogan with her own record of nine rapid U-turns claiming she was \"making a habit of retreating from policies.\" The general election in June resulted in a hung parliament, prompting her to broker adealwithNorthern Ireland'sDemocratic Unionist Party(DUP), involving £1 billion of additional public funding for Northern Ireland. Second term (2017–2019) Less than two weeks after the 2017 State Opening of Parliament, May ordered a fullpublic inquiryinto thecontaminated blood scandal.For this she was widely", "this she was widely praised as successive governments going back to the 1980s had refused such an inquiry, some though speculated that May had simply been forced to announce the inquiry after a group legal action and news of fresh evidence were brought by Jason Evans.Additionally, Andy Burnham had threatened to take evidence to the police if an inquiry were not announced.With over 1,000 core participants, theInfected Blood Inquiryis the biggest public inquiry ever held in the UK. Myanmar May is the first British prime minister to visitBuenos Airesafter theFalklands War.In November 2017, May said theactionsofMyanmar Armyand police against theRohingya Muslimminority inMyanmar\"looks like ethnic cleansing\".According to May, \"it is something for which the Burmese authorities – and especially the military – must take full responsibility.\"From the 2017 general election to December 2017, May suffered no defeats in whipped votes in the House of Commons.On 13 December 2017, May lost a vote on theEU Withdrawal Billby", "Withdrawal Billby 309 votes to 305, due to 11 Conservatives voting against the government, includingStephen Hammondwho was then vice-chairman of the Conservative Party. Russia May accused Russia of \"threatening the international order\", \"seeking to weaponise information\" and \"deploying its state-run media organisations to plant fake stories\".She further suggested the country had been meddling in the2017 German federal electionin contradiction of German government officials and security experts, who had dismissed the possibility. May's government accused Russia for orchestrating thepoisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal. The UK's official assessment of this incident was supported by 28 other countries, who expelled an unprecedented total of 153 Russian diplomats. May said in the House of Commons on 12 March: It is now clear that Mr Skripal and his daughter were poisoned with a military-grade nerve agent of a type developed by Russia. This is part of a group of nerve agents known as 'Novichok'. Based on the", "Based on the positive identification of this chemical agent by world-leading experts at the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory at Porton Down; our knowledge that Russia has previously produced this agent and would still be capable of doing so; Russia's record of conducting state-sponsored assassinations; and our assessment that Russia views some defectors as legitimate targets for assassinations; the Government has concluded that it is highly likely that Russia was responsible for the act against Sergei and Yulia Skripal. Mr Speaker, there are therefore only two plausible explanations for what happened in Salisbury on 4 March. Either this was a direct act by the Russian State against our country. Or the Russian government lost control of this potentially catastrophically damaging nerve agent and allowed it to get into the hands of others. China May promised to confront China on human rights but was praised inCommunist Party-controlledmediafor \"sidestepping\"human rights in Chinaduring her first", "her first official visit to the country.TheGlobal Timessaid: \"For the Prime Minister, the losses outweigh the gains if she appeases the British media at the cost of the visit's friendly atmosphere.\" Assassination plot In 2017,Islamic StateterroristNaa'imur Zakariyah Rahmanwas foiled in a plot to assassinate May atDowning Street. Turkey In May 2018, during a three-day state visit to the UK by Turkish presidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğan, May declared that Britain is a \"true friend\" ofTurkey, but she added that \"It is important that in defence of democracy, which has been facing extraordinary pressures from thefailed coup, instability across the border from Syria and fromKurdish terrorism, Turkey does not lose sight of the values it is seeking to defend.\" Contempt of Parliament On 4 December 2018, on a motion passed by MPs by 311 to 293 votes,theMay Governmentwas found incontempt of Parliament; the firstgovernmentto be found in contempt in history.The vote was triggered by the government failing to lay before", "to lay before Parliament any legal advice on the proposed withdrawal agreement on the terms of theUK's departure from the European Union, after ahumble addressfor a return was unanimously agreed to by the House of Commons on 13 November 2018. The government then agreed to publish the full legal adviceforBrexitthat was given to thePrime Ministerby theAttorney Generalduring negotiations with theEuropean Union. Vote of confidence (Conservative Party) In December 2018, May faced a vote of confidence in her leadership of the Conservative Party over opposition to hernegotiated Brexit deal, after the number of Conservative MPs exceeded the 48 no-confidence letter threshold that the1922 Committee Chairman, SirGraham Bradyrequired for the vote of confidence to be held.May won the vote with 200 Conservative MPs voting for her, compared to 117 voting against.As part of her speech to theParliamentary Conservative Partybefore the confidence vote was opened, it was reported that May conceded that she would step down as", "would step down as prime minister after deliveringBrexitand would not lead the Conservative Party into the next General Election in exchange for Conservative MPs voting to have confidence in her leadership so that she would be able to keep the party, Parliament and the UK stable during the final stages of Brexit. May later confirmed this toBBC NewsPolitical editor,Laura Kuenssbergafter meeting EU leaders, includingJean-Claude Junckerin Brussels. Vote of no confidence (House of Commons) On 17 December 2018 in theHouse of Commons, theLeader of the OppositionandLabour Party Leader,Jeremy Corbyn, tabled amotion of no confidencein May'spremiership, citing May's refusal to set the date for themeaningful voteon her Brexit deal before Christmas, and instead pushing it back to mid-January.The following day thegovernmentrefused to allow time for the motion to be debated.John Bercow,Speaker of the House of Commons, confirmed that they were under no obligation to do so.Following the defeat of May's Brexit deal on 15", "Brexit deal on 15 January 2019, Corbyn tabled amotion of no confidencein the Government, to be voted on by parliament the following evening.The motion was defeated by 325 votes to 306; a majority of 19. Brexit deal defeats In January 2019, May's government was defeated in the House of Commons by a margin of 230 votes (202 in favour and 432 opposed) in a vote on her deal to leave the European Union (\"first meaningful vote\"). It was the largest majority against a United Kingdom government in history. In March, May was again defeated in the Commons by 149 votes (242 in favour and 391 against) on her latest deal after she secured last-minute concessions from the EU (\"second meaningful vote\").May was then again defeated by 58 votes in the Commons (286 in favour and 344 against) on the withdrawal deal but not the political declaration (\"third meaningful vote\"). Resignation I will shortly leave the job that it has been the honour of my life to hold – the second female Prime Minister but certainly not the last. I do", "not the last. I do so with no ill-will, but with enormous and enduring gratitude to have had the opportunity to serve the country I love. On 27 March 2019 at a meeting of the1922 Committee, May confirmed that she will \"not lead the UK in the next stage ofBrexitnegotiations\", meaning she was expected to resign after the third meaningful vote, if it had passed successfully.However, no date was stated, and her reported wording was ambiguous and thus carried no binding force.On 29 March, the third meaningful vote was defeated, and while May did not state anything in regards to standing down, Corbyn stated that if May could not find an alternative to her deal \"she must go, not at an indeterminate date in the future but now.\" On 22 April it was announced that the leaders of 70Conservative Associationshad signed a petition calling for a vote of no confidence. Under party rules an Extraordinary General Meeting must be convened if one is demanded by 65 associations. The non-binding vote, to be determined by 800 of", "by 800 of the party's senior officials, would be the first time such an instance has occurred.On 24 April, the party's1922 Committeeruled out changing the leadership challenge rules, but its chair,Graham Brady, asked for clarity on when May would step down from office. On 24 May she confirmed that she would resign asConservative Party leaderon 7 June,stating, \"it is now clear to me that it is in the best interests of the country for a new prime minister to leadthat effort.\"She continued to serve as prime minister until she tendered her resignation tothe Queenon 24 July. This coincided with the arrival ofBoris Johnsonas prime minister, who waselectedby the Conservative Party membership.By constitutional convention May did not step down until she assured the Queen that Johnson would be able to command the confidence of the House of Commons. In one of May's lastPrime Minister's Questions,Barry Sheerman, the Labour MP forHuddersfield, urged May not to \"cut and run\" and instead reconsider her resignation. May", "resignation. May responded by saying she would return to the role of a backbench MP after leaving office. On 24 July 2019, May ended her consecutive service at the frontbench since 1998 when she had been appointed Shadow Spokesman for Schools, Disabled People and Women. Ministerial resignations May's premiership had 51 resignations with 33 relating to Brexit. These included 12 departures from the Cabinet. The pace and number of resignations have been described as 'unprecedented' by theInstitute for Government,with resignations impacting the functioning of the government.In less than three years, May received more resignations thanThatcher(11 years) orBlair(10 years). TheChief WhipJulian Smithdescribed May's Cabinet as exhibiting the 'worst cabinet ill-discipline in history'. Public opinion May had a high approval rating during her first week as prime minister. The results of an Ipsos MORI survey released in July 2016 indicated that 55% of those surveyed believed that May was a suitable PM while only 23%", "PM while only 23% believed that the Labour Leader Jeremy Corbyn would make a good prime minister. AComRespoll taken in September 2016 after her election suggested May was seen as substantially more \"in touch with ordinary British people\" than her predecessor David Cameron and a majority of voters saw her as \"the right person to unite the country\". At the beginning of 2017, nearly six months after becoming prime minister, aComResfound May was the most popular UK politician with a net rating of +9 which was described as the longest honeymoon period enjoyed by any sitting Conservative prime minister since the end of the Second World War. The Conservative Party had a 21-point lead over Labour in a poll released the day before May announced a snap electionbut this lead narrowed substantially.In mid-June, following the election, a YouGov poll showed that May's popularity had dropped to a rating of −34.In April 2018, May had a higher approval rating than Corbyn for the first time since the general election, leading", "election, leading him by −13 to −23. Plans to reformsocial carecame to dominate the Conservative election campaign during the 2017 snap election, with some arguing it ultimately cost May her majority.May's promisedgreen paperon the future of adult social care was plagued by frequent delays, ultimately never materialising during her premiership.A December 2019 poll bylearning disabilitiescharity Hft found that 59% of social care providers in England believed that the situation in social care worsened under May's premiership, compared to just 3% who said it was slightly better. Political positions May has identified herself with theone-nation conservativeposition within her party. Since coming into prominence as a front-bench politician, May's public image has divided media opinion, especially from some in the traditionalist right-wing press.Commenting on May's debut as Home Secretary, Anne Perkins ofThe Guardianobserved that \"she'll be nobody's stooge\",whileCristina OdoneofThe Daily Telegraphpredicted her to", "her to be \"the rising star\" of the Coalition Government.Allegra Stratton, then withThe Guardian, praised May as showing managerial acumen. Describing her as aliberal Conservative, theFinancial Timescharacterised May as a \"non-ideological politician with a ruthless streak who gets on with the job\", in doing so comparing her to German ChancellorAngela Merkel.Conversely, inThe Independent, Rebecca Glover of the Policy Innovation Research Unit contrasted May toBoris Johnson, claiming that she was \"staunchly more conservative, more anti-immigration, and more isolationist\" than he was. During her leadership campaign, May said that \"We need an economy that works for everyone\", pledging to crack down on executive pay by making shareholders' votes binding rather than advisory and to put workers onto company boards(although she later claimed that the last pledge was not to be mandatory), policies thatThe Guardiandescribes as going further than theLabour Party's2015 general electionmanifesto. After she became prime", "she became prime minister, May's first speech espoused the left, with a promise to combat the \"burning injustice\" in British society and to create a union \"between all of our citizens\" and promising to be an advocate for the \"ordinary working-class family\" and not for the affluent in the UK. \"The government I lead will be driven not by the interests of the privileged few but by yours. We will do everything we can to give you more control over your lives ... When we take the big calls, we'll think not of the powerful, but you. When we pass new laws we'll listen not to the mighty, but to you. When it comes to taxes we'll prioritise not the wealthy but you.\" May has described herself as a personal supporter of fox hunting with hounds, saying that foxes' numbers had to be controlled and that hunting them with dogs was the most humane way to do it. The Conservative manifesto for the 2017 election included a pledge to hold a parliamentary vote to repeal theHunting Act 2004, which prohibits a range of hunting", "a range of hunting activities. After the Conservatives' manifesto for the 2017 election was released, some people, includingFraser NelsonofThe Spectator,called her a \"red Tory\", saying that she had moved her party to the left in politics.Politicocalled her policies \"Mayism\", saying that Mayism was \"a working-class conservatism openly critical of the \"cult of individualism\" and globalization\". May praised the former prime ministerWinston Churchilland has a portrait of Churchill on the wall of her study. May's spokesman said: \"The prime minister has quoted and referenced Sir Winston Churchill on many occasion and acknowledged him as one of the great prime ministers of the 20th century.\" May welcomed the arrest of WikiLeaks founderJulian Assange, saying that \"no one is above the law.\"Assange had fled to the Ecuadorian embassy in London in 2012 after being accused of sexual assault in Sweden. He is also wanted by the US for \"conspiracy to commit computer intrusion\" relating to the Wikileaks release of classified", "of classified material in 2010, including footage of US soldiers killing civilians in Iraq. Foreign policy In 2003, Mayvoted to approve the invasion of Iraqand in 2013 voted in favour ofBritish military interventionin theSyrian civil war. TheMay Ministrydelayed the final approval for theHinkley Point C nuclear power stationin July 2016, a project which May had objected to when she was Home Secretary.Herpolitical adviserNick Timothywrote an article in 2015 to oppose People's Republic of China's involvement in sensitive sectors. He said that the government was \"selling ournational securityto China\" withoutrationalconcerns and \"the Government seems intent on ignoring the evidence and presumably the advice of the security and intelligence agencies.\" Politicians and human rights activists urged Theresa May's government to vote against Saudi Arabian retention of the membership of theUN Human Rights Council.Amnesty International's UK Foreign Policy Programme Director Polly Truscott said: \"Rather than turning a", "than turning a blind eye to Saudi Arabia's continuing bully tactics, the UK should publicly hold the Saudi authorities to account for its appalling human rights record and the ongoingwar crimes in Yemenand should stop selling weapons to Saudi as a matter of urgency.\"May defended selling arms to Saudi Arabia stating that close ties with the country \"keep people on the streets of Britain safe\". Economic policy Prior to her premiership, May outlined plans to backtrack on the longstanding government plan to achieve a surplus by 2020, following the UK'swithdrawal from the European Union. With uncertainty surrounding the economic outlook,Chancellor of the ExchequerPhilip Hammondhas suggested that the government'sAutumn Statementmay be used to \"reset\" economic policy. In 2015, while May was Home Secretary, an 18% funding cut in the police force had taken place with the loss of around 20,000 police officers. Before theManchester Arena bombingand after theParis attacks, she was warned by aManchestersenior police", "police officer that the cuts in the force andcommunity policingrisked terror attacks in the city due to the lack of resources to undertake proper intelligence and anti-terrorist measures. In May and Hammond's 2017 budget, continued government policies were confirmed regarding freezing benefits. May's government published aGreen Paperin November 2016 which considered forcing companies to reveal the difference between what their CEOs are paid and what their ordinary workers are paid.On 1 January 2019 new regulations came into force for UK listed companies with over 250 employees to annually disclose the ratio of their CEO's pay to the median, lower quartile, and upper quartile pay of their UK employees. Workers' representatives Before her premiership began, May said that she planned to have workers represented on company boards, saying \"If I'm prime minister ... we're going to have not just consumers represented on company boards, but workers as well.\"May aimed to put workers' and consumers' representatives on", "representatives on boards to make them more accountable.Nils Pratley, a journalist atThe Guardian, wrote in July \"Fundamental principles of Britain's boardroom governance are being rethought. It is a very welcome development. In the more enlightened quarters of the UK corporate world, they can see that boardroom pay has eroded trust in business.\"Workers' representatives, it appeared, would have made UK companies more like those in Germany and France.May was accused of backtracking in November 2016 when she said that firms would not be forced to adopt the proposal, saying \"there are a number of ways in which that can be achieved\". Environmental policy Following the impact ofBlue Planet IIin 2017, the May administration outlined plans to approve further green policy. A particular focus has been on plastic and its impact on the environment. Her government's \"25 Year Environment Plan\" was published in January 2018:targets were set for achievement of a number of environmental benefits with dates ranging from 2025", "ranging from 2025 to 2060.In March 2018, May announced plans for a plastic deposit scheme modelled on a similar policy in Norway to boost recycling. EU and Brexit May publicly stated her support for the UK remaining in the EU during the 2016 referendum campaign, but did not campaign extensively in the referendum and criticised aspects of the EU in a speech.It was speculated by political journalists that May had sought to minimise her involvement in the debate to strengthen her position as a future candidate for the Conservative party leadership.Some in David Cameron's ministry likened May to a \"submarine\" on the issue ofBrexitdue to her perceived indifference towards the referendum and the EU. In a leaked recording prior to the Brexit referendum, May stated: I think the economic arguments are clear. I think being part of a 500-million trading bloc is significant for us. I think, as I was saying to you a little earlier, that one of the issues is that a lot of people will invest here in the UK because it is", "UK because it is the UK in Europe. If we were not in Europe, I think there would be firms and companies who would be looking to say, do they need to develop a mainland Europe presence rather than a UK presence? So I think there are definite benefits for us in economic terms. May also said Britain was more secure as part of the EU due to the European arrest warrant and Europe-wide information sharing among other factors. She said, \"There are definitely things we can do as members of the European Union that I think keep us more safe\". May's public reticence during the referendum campaign resulted in tensions with David Cameron and his pro-EU team.Following the referendum and her election as party leader, May signalled that she would support full withdrawal from the EU and prioritise immigration controls over remaining within the single market, leading some to contrast this with her earlier remarks on the earlier economic arguments.She later went on to say before the2017 United Kingdom general electionthat she", "electionthat she would be willing to leave the EU without a deal, saying that \"no deal is better than a bad deal. We have to be prepared to walk out\".TheLib Demleader,Tim Farron, said it was \"disappointing that Theresa May lacked the political courage to warn the public as she did a bunch of bankers in private about the devastating economic effects of Brexit. More disappointing is that now she is supposedly in charge, she is blithely ignoring her own warnings and is prepared to inflict an act of monumental self-harm on the UK economy by pulling Britain out of the single market.\"Phil Wilsonfor theOpen Britaingroup said, \"It's good to know that privately Theresa May thinks what many of us have been saying publicly for a long time, leaving the single market would be bad for businesses and for our economy. Now she is prime minister, Theresa May is in an unrivalled position to act on her previous concerns, starting by putting membership of the single market at the heart of her government's negotiating position.\"", "position.\" On 22 September 2017, May officially made public the details of her Brexit proposal during a speech inFlorence,urging the European Union to maintain a transitional period of two years after Brexit during which trade terms remain unaltered.During this period, the UK would also continue to honour its budget commitments of about €10 billion per annum, and accept immigration from Europe.Her speech was criticised by leading EuroscepticNigel Farage.The European Union's Brexit negotiatorMichel Barnierwelcomed May's proposal as \"constructive,\"but said it also \"must be translated into negotiating positions to make meaningful progress.\" May did not initially wish to give MPs a vote on withdrawal from theEuropean Union.Nicky Morganstated \"in 2016 MPs aren't asking for a veto but they do want a say and we hope the Prime Minister will remember her earlier words\".Anna SoubryandNick Cleggalso called for more parliamentary involvement.In November 2016, theHigh Courtruled inR (Miller) v Secretary of State for", "of State for Exiting the European Unionthat parliament must vote on the decision to leave the EU but May appealed to theSupreme Court.Nicola Sturgeon, ScottishFirst Ministerhas joined the case as did representatives from Wales and Northern Ireland. Sturgeon felt that theScottish Parliamentshould also consent to the UK triggering of Article 50. She said she was not seeking to prevent England and Wales leaving but wanted to preserve Scotland's place in the EU.In the end the Supreme Court required a vote in the UK parliament. May was accused of not having a plan if Brexit talks broke down. There were fears that if talks failed Britain could be left trading underWTOrules which it was feared by some analysts would seriously damage jobs and livelihoods in Britain and Europe. May's ministers repeatedly promised to walk away from a bad final deal but, it was argued by some commentators, had no plans for how to manage without a deal.Ivan Rogersdescribed May's Brexit strategy as \"an accident waiting to happen\". He", "to happen\". He said completing Brexit was \"guaranteed\" to take a decade and alleged May's hopes of a trade deal made to order meant that instability in the next few months was \"quite likely\". In late October 2018, the National Audit Office claimed that it was already too late to prepare the necessary Irish border security checks in the event of aNo-dealscenario—a weakness that could be exploited by criminals. On 5 February 2019, May gave a speech to business leaders in Belfast to address Brexit stating the United Kingdom's relationship with Ireland was closer than the 26 other members of the EU. She affirmed the government's \"absolute\" commitment to the Good Friday Agreement and stated that Britain would seek to have no hard border in Northern Ireland. It was reported in 2020 that former MI6 operativeChristopher Steeleaccused May, while Boris Johnson was foreign secretary, of ignoring claims that Russia may have secretly funded Brexit. Steele accuses May's government of selling British interests short by not", "short by not taking matters further: \"In this case, political considerations seemed to outweigh national security interests. If so, in my view, HMG made a serious mistake in balancing matters of strategic importance to our country.\" In July 2020 theIntelligence and Security Committeereport on Russia was released. It stated that the British government and intelligence agencies failed to conduct any assessment of Russian attempts to interfere with the 2016 Brexit referendum. It stated the government \"had not seen or sought evidence of successful interference in UK democratic processes\".Stewart Hosie, SNP member said \"The report reveals that no one in government knew if Russia interfered in or sought to influence the referendum because they did not want to know\". However, the report stated no firm conclusion could be ascertained on whether the Kremlin had or had not successfully interfered in the referendum. Feminism In 2005, May co-founded the mentoring and pressure groupWomen2Win. This group and May's", "group and May's personal efforts have been credited with increasing the number of Conservative women MPs and with supporting them. In government she lobbied for improvements to maternity leave, and as Home Secretary she acted onFGMand introduced a law oncoercive control. However, she has been criticised for the financial cuts made by her government, which have been claimed to have had the greatest impact on poor and vulnerable women. Same-sex relationships In 1998, May voted againstlowering the age of consent for homosexual acts.May was also a supporter ofSection 28, calling a failed repeal in 2000 to be \"a victory for commonsense\".She was absent for the vote when it was successfully repealed in 2003.She also voted against theAdoption and Children Act 2002that allowed same-sex couples to adopt. Beginning in 2012, however, May expressed support for the introduction ofsame-sex marriageby recording a video for theOut4Marriagecampaign,in which she stated \"I believe if two people care for each other, if they love", "other, if they love each other, if they want to commit to each other... then they should be able to get married and marriage should be for everyone\".In May 2013, May voted in favour of theMarriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill, which legalised same-sex marriage inEngland and Wales.In 2017, May apologised for her past votes while taking credit for helping advance LGBT rights within her party. Post-premiership (2019–present) After leaving10 Downing Street, May took her place on the backbenches, remaining an MP to \"devote her full time\" to her constituency of Maidenhead, Berkshire.In the2019 general electionshe was re-elected as the constituency's MP. In May 2020, May criticisedDominic Cummingswhen he brokelockdown rulesduring theCOVID-19 pandemic.She abstained in the vote on the second lockdown in Parliament. On 13 July 2021, May was one of 24 Conservative MPs who voted against their party, defying the whip for the first time in 24 years, over the government's proposal to cut its foreign aid budget. She criticised", "She criticised the government, saying in an address to Parliament, \"We made a promise to the poorest people in the world. The Government have broken that promise.\" Amid thePartygatescandal, May was critical ofBoris Johnsonafter the publication of the summary of theSue Gray report, stating \"either my right honourable friend had not read the rules or didn't understand what they meant and others around him, or they didn't think the rules applied to Number 10. Which was it?\" On 16 March 2022, Russia banned May from visiting the country overits invasion of Ukraine. In September 2023, the House of Commons official portrait of May by artist Saied Dai was unveiled.In a radio interview withNick Robinsonshe said that her Brexit deal would have been better and that she regretted saying \"nothing has changed\".Also in that month, May's book titledThe Abuse of Power - Confronting Injustice in Public Lifewas published.In October 2023, May appeared as the guest star in 2 episodes ofThe Rest Is Politics: Leading, hosted", "Leading, hosted byAlastair Campbell, and a former minister in her government,Rory Stewart. In March 2023, May was reselected as the Conservative candidate for Maidenhead at the2024 general election,however in March 2024, May announced that she would not seek re-election as an MP at the general election, joininga record number of Conservative MPs standing down at the election. May said she is spending much of her time on causes \"close to my heart\": \"These causes have been taking an increasing amount of my time. Because of this, after much careful thought and consideration, I have realised that, looking ahead, I would no longer be able to do my job as an MP in the way I believe is right and my constituents deserve.\"Prime MinisterRishi Sunakcalled May a \"relentless campaigner\" who had been \"fiercely loyal\" to Maidenhead, and added that she \"defines what it means to be a public servant\". Her predecessorDavid Cameroncalled her \"a brilliant public servant\" who could \"hold her head high\", and said she had done much", "she had done much to \"modernise the Conservative Party and promote women in public life\".Leader of the OppositionKeir Starmerthanked May for her service, saying that she had \"served this House and her constituents with a real sense of duty\" and added that her \"unwavering commitment to ending modern slavery is commented by all of us.\"She was succeeded as MP for Maidenhead byLiberal DemocratJoshua Reynolds, the first liberal MP to be elected to represent this constituency in over 100 years. May has been mentioned as a possible candidate to replace NATO Secretary-GeneralJens Stoltenbergfollowing his retirement. In June 2021, British Secretary of State for DefenceBen Wallaceexpressed support for a potential May candidacy, saying \"she would be an excellent candidate.\"Following her retirement from the House of Commons, May has been identified as a potential candidate in the2024 University of Oxford Chancellor electionto succeedChris Patten. Peerage After standing down as an MP, May was nominated for alife", "nominated for alife peeragein the2024 Dissolution Honours.She was createdBaroness May of Maidenhead, of Sonning in the Royal County of Berkshire, on 21 August 2024.She wasintroducedto theHouse of Lordson 12 September 2024. Personal life May has been married toSir Philip May, aninvestment relationship manager,since 6 September 1980.It has been reported that former prime minister of PakistanBenazir Bhuttointroduced the two during their time at Oxford.May credits future Australian prime ministerMalcolm Turnbullfor encouraging Philip to propose to her.May has expressed regret that she and her husband did not have children.The Mays are passionatewalkers, and they regularly spend their holidays hiking in theSwiss Alps.May is also acricketfan, stating that SirGeoffrey Boycottwas one of her sporting heroes.She also enjoys cooking, and has said that she owns 100 cookery books. Philip has said that she \"is a very good cook\". May and her husband reside in the Thames village ofSonningwhich is within her former", "within her former constituency.She is the first cousin once removed of the Labour MPAlistair Strathern. May is a member of theChurch of Englandand regularly worships at church (usually atSt Andrew's, Sonning) on Sundays.The daughter of an Anglican priest, Hubert Brasier, May has said that her Christian faith \"is part of me. It is part of who I am and therefore how I approach things\".She was raised in theAnglo-CatholicorHigh Churchtradition of Anglicanism, of which herMirfield-trainedfather was a proponent. May is known for a love of fashion, and in particular of distinctive shoes; she wore leopard-print shoes at her 'Nasty Party' speech in 2002, as well as her final Cabinet meeting as Home Secretary in 2016. OnDesert Island Discsin 2014, she chose a subscription toVogueas her luxury item.However, she has been critical of the media focusing on her fashion instead of her achievements as a politician. May was diagnosed withdiabetes mellitus type 1in November 2012. She is treated with dailyinsulininjections.", "Honours and arms Commonwealth honours Foreign honours Scholastic Honorary degrees Freedom of the City Memberships and Fellowships Awards Prior to and since her appointment to Government, May has actively supported a variety of campaigns on policy issues in her constituency and at national level. She has spoken at theFawcett Societypromoting the cross-party issue of gender equality. She is the Patron ofReading UniversityConservative Association, in Berkshire (the county of her Maidenhead constituency).Her activism has earned her a number of awards. She was nominated as one of the Society's Inspiring Women of 2006.In February 2013,BBC Radio 4'sWoman's Hourdescribed her as Britain's second-most powerful woman after QueenElizabeth II;May was Home Secretary at the time, and the most senior woman in that government. In 2001 she was made aLiverymanof theWorshipful Company of Marketors. In September 2017, she was listed byForbesas the second most powerful woman in the world, behindAngela Merkel. Arms See also", "Arms See also References Further reading External links", "Boris Johnson Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson(born 19 June 1964) is a British politician and writer who served asPrime Minister of the United KingdomandLeader of the Conservative Partyfrom 2019 to 2022. He was previouslyForeign Secretaryfrom 2016 to 2018 andMayor of Londonfrom 2008 to 2016. He wasMember of Parliament(MP) forHenleyfrom 2001 to 2008 andUxbridge and South Ruislipfrom 2015 to 2023. In his youth Johnson attendedEton CollegeandBalliol College, Oxford, and he was electedPresident of the Oxford Unionin 1986. In 1989 he began writing forThe Daily Telegraph, and from 1999 to 2005 he was the editor ofThe Spectator. He became a member of theShadow CabinetofMichael Howardin 2001 before being dismissed over a claim that he had lied about an extramarital affair. After Howard resigned Johnson became a member ofDavid Cameron'sShadow Cabinet. Hewas elected Mayor of London in 2008and resigned from theHouse of Commonsto focus his attention on the mayoralty. He wasre-elected mayor in 2012, but did not run for", "but did not run for re-election in2016. At the2015 general electionhe was elected MP for Uxbridge and South Ruislip. Johnson was a prominent figure in theBrexit campaignin the2016 European Union membership referendum. After the referendum Prime MinisterTheresa Mayappointed him foreign secretary. He resigned from the position in 2018 in protest at both theChequers Agreementand May's approach to Brexit. Johnson succeeded May as prime minister. Here-opened Brexit negotiationswith the European Union and in early September heprorogued Parliament; theSupreme Courtlater ruled the prorogation to have been unlawful. After agreeing to a revised Brexit withdrawal agreement butfailing to win parliamentary support, Johnson called asnap general electionto be held in December 2019, in which he won alandslide victory. During Johnson's premiership, the governmentrespondedto theCOVID-19 pandemicby introducing variousemergency powersto mitigate its impact and approved anationwide vaccination programme. He also responded to", "also responded to theRussian invasion of Ukraineby imposingsanctions on Russiaand authorisingforeign aid and weapons shipmentsto Ukraine.In thePartygatescandal it was found that numerous parties had been held at10 Downing Streetduringnational COVID-19 lockdowns, and COVID-19 social distancing laws were breached by 83 individuals, including Johnson, who in April 2022 was issued with afixed penalty notice. The publishing of theSue Gray reportin May 2022 and a widespread sense of dissatisfaction led in June 2022 to avote of confidence in his leadershipamongst Conservative MPs, which he won. In July 2022, revelations over hisappointment of Chris Pincheras deputychief whip of the partywhile knowing of allegations of sexual misconduct against him led to amass resignation of members of his governmentand to Johnson announcing his resignation as prime minister. He was succeeded as prime minister byLiz Truss, his foreign secretary. He remained in the House of Commons as abackbencheruntil 9 June 2023, when he received", "when he received the draft of theCommons Privileges Committee investigation into his conductthat unanimously found that he had lied to the Commons on numerous occasions. Johnson resigned his position as MP the same day. Johnson is acontroversial figurein British politics. His supporters have praised him for being humorous, witty, and entertaining, with an appeal reaching beyond traditional Conservative Party voters, viewing him as an electoral asset to the party. Conversely, his critics have accused him of lying,elitism,cronyism, andbigotry. During his premiership his supporters praised him for \"getting Brexit done\", overseeing the UK's COVID-19 vaccination programme, which was amongst the fastest in the world, and being one of the first world leaders to offerhumanitarian support to Ukrainefollowing the Russian invasion of the country. His tenure also encompassed several controversies and scandals, and is viewed as the most scandalous premiership of modern times by historians and biographers alike. Early", "alike. Early life and education Childhood Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson was born on 19 June 1964 in theUpper East SideofManhattan, New York City,toStanley Johnson, then studying economics atColumbia University,andCharlotte Fawcett,an artist, whose fatherSir James Fawcett, was a prominentbarristerand president of theEuropean Commission of Human Rightsfrom 1972 to 1981.Johnson is one of only two British prime ministers to have been anAmerican citizen(seeHonorary citizenship of the United States).Johnson's parents returned to the UK in September 1964 so Charlotte could study at theUniversity of Oxford.She lived with her son inSummertown, Oxford, and in September 1965 she gave birth to a daughter,Rachel.In July 1965, the family moved toCrouch Endinnorth London,and in February 1966 they relocated to Washington, DC, where Stanley worked with theWorld Bank.Stanley then took a job with a policy panel onpopulation control, and moved the family toNorwalk, Connecticut, in June.A third child, Leo, was born in", "Leo, was born in September 1967. The family returned to the UK in 1969, and lived at West Nethercote Farm, Somerset, Stanley's family home inExmoor.His father was regularly absent, leaving Johnson to be raised largely by his mother, assisted byau pairs.As a child, Johnson was quiet, studious,and deaf, resulting in several operations to insertgrommetsinto his ears.He and his siblings were encouraged to engage in intellectual activities from a young age.Johnson's earliest recorded ambition was to be \"world king\".Having no other friends, the siblings became very close. In late 1969, the family moved toMaida Valein west London, while Stanley began post-graduate research at theLondon School of Economics.In 1970, Charlotte and the children briefly returned to Nethercote, where Johnson attended Winsford Village School, before returning to London to settle inPrimrose Hill,where they were educated at Primrose Hill Primary School.A fourth child,Joseph, was born in late 1971. After Stanley secured employment at", "employment at theEuropean Commissionin April 1973, he moved his family toUccle, Brussels, where Johnson attended theEuropean School, Brussels Iand learnt to speak French.Charlotte had anervous breakdownand was hospitalised with depression, after which Johnson and his siblings were sent back to the UK in 1975 to attendAshdown House, a preparatory boarding school in East Sussex.There, he developed interests inrugby,Ancient Greek, andLatin.In December 1978 his parents' relationship broke down; they divorced in 1980,and Charlotte moved toNotting Hill, London, where her children joined her for much of their time. Eton and Oxford: 1977–1987 As a kid I was extremely spotty, extremely nerdy and horriblyswotty. My idea of a really good time was to travel across London on the tube to visit theBritish Museum. — Boris Johnson Johnson gained aKing's Scholarshipto study atEton College, a boarding school nearWindsor, Berkshire.Arriving in the autumn term of 1977,he began going by his middle name Boris,and developed \"the", "developed \"the eccentric English persona\" for which he became famous.He denounced Catholicism and joined theChurch of England.School reports complained about his idleness, complacency, and lateness,but he was popular at Eton. Johnson's friends were largely from the wealthy upper classes; his best friends wereDarius GuppyandCharles Spencer. Both would go on to accompany him at theUniversity of Oxfordand remained his friends into adulthood.Johnson excelled inEnglishand theClassics, winning prizes in both,and became secretary of the schooldebating societyand editor of the school newspaper.In late 1981, he became a member ofPop,a small, self-selecting elite group of school prefects. After leaving Eton, Johnson went on agap yearto Australia, where he taught English and Latin atTimbertop, anOutward Bound-inspired campus ofGeelong Grammar, an independent boarding school. Johnson won a scholarship to readLiterae humanioresatBalliol College, Oxford, a four-year course in Classics, ancient languages, literature,", "literature, history, and philosophy.Matriculatingin late 1983,he was one of a generation of Oxford undergraduates who dominated British politics and media in the early 21st century, including Cameron,William Hague,Michael Gove,Jeremy HuntandNick Boles.While at Oxford, Johnson joined the college'srugby unionteam as atighthead prop.To his later regret, he joined theBullingdon Club, an exclusive drinking society notorious for vandalism.Many years later,a group photographincluding himself and Cameron in Bullingdon Club formal dress led to much negative press coverage. While at Oxford, he began a relationship withAllegra Mostyn-Owen, cover girl forTatlermagazine and daughter ofChristie's EducationchairmanWilliam Mostyn-Owen. They became engaged. Johnson was popular and well known at Oxford.Alongside Guppy, he edited the university's satirical magazineTributary.In 1984, Johnson was elected secretary of theOxford Union,and campaigned unsuccessfully for the position ofUnion President.In 1986, Johnson ran", "1986, Johnson ran successfully for President,but his term was not distinguished or memorable,and questions were raised regarding his competence and seriousness.At graduation, Johnson was awarded anupper second-classdegree,and was deeply unhappy he did not receive a first. Early career The TimesandThe Daily Telegraph: 1987–1994 In September 1987, Johnson and Mostyn-Owen married.They settled inWest Kensington, London.In late 1987, through family connections, he began work as a graduate trainee atThe Times.Scandal erupted when Johnson wrote an article for the newspaper on the archaeological discovery ofEdward II's palace, having invented a quote which he falsely attributed to the historianColin Lucas, his godfather. After the paper's editor,Charles Wilson, learnt of the matter, he dismissed Johnson. Johnson secured employment on the lead-writing desk ofThe Daily Telegraph, having met its editor,Max Hastings, while at university.His articles appealed to the newspaper's Conservative-voting \"Middle England\"", "\"Middle England\" readership,and he was known for his distinctive literary style, replete with old-fashioned phrasing and for regularly referring to the readership as \"my friends\".In early 1989, Johnson was appointed to the newspaper's Brussels bureau to report on the European Commission,remaining in the post until 1994.A strong critic of the integrationist Commission presidentJacques Delors, he established himself as one of the city's fewEuroscepticjournalists.He wrote articles abouteuromyths: that Brussels had recruited sniffer dogs to ensure that all manure smelt the same,they were about to dictate the acceptable curve of British bananas,limit the power of their vacuum cleanersand order women to return their old sex toys.He wrote that euro notes made people impotent and that a plan to blow up theBerlaymont buildingwas in place because asbestos cladding made the building too dangerous to inhabit.Many of his fellow journalists were critical of his articles, saying they often contained lies designed to", "lies designed to discredit the commission.The Europhile Conservative politicianChris Pattenlater said that Johnson was \"one of the greatest exponents of fake journalism\".Johnson opposed banning handguns after theDunblane school massacre, writing in his column \"Nanny is confiscating their toys. It is like one of those vastIndian programmes of compulsory vasectomy.\" According to one of his biographers,Sonia Purnell, – who was Johnson's Brussels deputy– he helped make Euroscepticism \"an attractive and emotionally resonant cause for the Right\", whereas it had been associated previously with the Left.Johnson's articles exacerbated tensions between the Conservative Party's Eurosceptic and Europhile factions. As a result, he earned the mistrust of many party members.His writings were also a key influence on the emergence of the euroscepticUK Independence Party(UKIP) in the early 1990s.Conrad Black, then proprietor ofThe Daily Telegraph, said Johnson \"was such an effective correspondent for us in Brussels that he", "in Brussels that he greatly influenced British opinion on this country's relations with Europe\". In February 1990, Johnson's wife Allegra broke up with him; after several attempts at reconciliation, their marriage ended in April 1993.He began a relationship with childhood friendMarina Wheeler, who had moved to Brussels in 1990.They were married in May 1993.Soon after, Marina gave birth to a daughter.Johnson and his new wife settled inIslington, north London,an area known for its association with the left-liberalintelligentsia. Under the influence of thismilieuand of his wife, Johnson moved in a more liberal direction on issues such asclimate change,LGBT rightsand race relations.While in Islington, the couple had three more children, all given the surname Johnson-Wheeler.They were sent to the local Canonbury Primary School and then to private secondary schools.Devoting much time to his children, Johnson wrote a book of verse,The Perils of the Pushy Parents: A Cautionary Tale, which was published to largely", "to largely poor reviews. Political columnist: 1994–1999 Back in London, Hastings turned down Johnson's request to become awar reporter,instead promoting him to assistant editor and chief political columnist.Johnson's column received praise for being ideologically eclectic and distinctively written, and earned him Commentator of the Year Award at theWhat the Papers Sayawards.Some critics condemned his writing style as bigotry; in columns he used the words \"piccaninnies\" and \"watermelon smiles\" when referring to Africans, championed European colonialism in Ugandaand referred to gay men as \"tank-topped bumboys\". In 1993, Johnson outlined his desire to run as a Conservative in the1994 European Parliament elections.Andrew Mitchellconvinced Major not to veto Johnson's candidacy, but Johnson could not find a constituency.He turned his attention to obtaining a seat in the House of Commons instead. After being rejected as Conservative candidate forHolborn and St. Pancras, he was selected the Conservative candidate", "candidate forClwyd Southin north Wales, then aLabour Partysafe seat. Spending six weeks campaigning, he attained 9,091 votes (23 per cent) in the1997 general election, losing to Labour candidateMartyn Jones. Scandal erupted in June 1995 when a recording of a 1990 telephone conversation between Johnson and his friendDarius Guppywas made public.In it, Guppy said that his criminal activities involving insurance fraud were being investigated byNews of the Worldjournalist Stuart Collier, and he asked Johnson to provide him with Collier's private address, seeking to have the latter beaten. Johnson agreed, although he expressed concern that he would be associated with the attack.When the phone conversation was published, Johnson stated that ultimately he had not obliged Guppy's request. Hastings reprimanded Johnson but did not dismiss him. Johnson was given a regular column inThe Spectator, sister publication toThe Daily Telegraph, which attracted mixed reviews and was often thought rushed.In 1999, he was also", "1999, he was also given a column reviewing new cars in the American men's monthly magazineGQ.The large number of parking fines that Johnson acquired while testing cars frustrated staff.AtThe Daily TelegraphandThe Spectator, he was consistently late delivering copy, forcing staff to stay late to accommodate him; some related that if they published without his work, he would shout at them with expletives. Johnson's April 1998 appearance on the BBC's satirical current affairs showHave I Got News for Youbrought him national fame.He was invited back on to later episodes, including as a guest presenter; for his 2003 appearance, Johnson was nominated for theBAFTA Television Award for Best Entertainment Performance.After these appearances, he came to be recognised on the street, and was invited to appear on other shows, such asTop Gear,Parkinson,Breakfast with Frost, andQuestion Time. The Spectatorand MP for Henley: 1999–2008 In July 1999, Conrad Black offered Johnson the editorship ofThe Spectatoron the condition", "the condition he abandon his parliamentary aspirations; Johnson agreed.While retainingThe Spectator's traditional right-wing bent, Johnson welcomed contributions from leftist writers and cartoonists.Under Johnson's editorship, the magazine's circulation grew by 10% to 62,000 and it became profitable.His editorship also drew criticism; some opined that under himThe Spectatoravoided serious issues,while colleagues became annoyed that he was regularly absent from the office, meetings, and events.He gained a reputation as a poor political pundit because of incorrect political predictions.His father-in-lawCharles Wheelerand others strongly criticised him for allowingSpectatorcolumnistTaki Theodoracopulosto publish racist and antisemitic language. Journalist Charlotte Edwardes wrote inThe Timesin 2019 that Johnson had squeezed her thigh at a private lunch at theSpectatorin 1999 and that another woman had told her he had done the same to her. A spokesman denied the allegation. In 2004, Johnson published an", "published an editorial inThe Spectatorafter the murder ofKen Bigleysuggesting that Liverpudlians were wallowing in their victim status and \"hooked on grief\" over theHillsborough disaster, which Johnson partly blamed on \"drunken fans\".In an appendix added to a later edition of his 2005 bookThe Dream of Rome,Tell MAMAand theMuslim Council of Britaincriticised Johnson for arguingIslamhas caused theMuslim worldto be \"literally centuries behind\" the West. Becoming an MP The selection of Boris Johnson ... confirms the Tory Party's increasing weakness for celebrity personalities over the dreary exigencies of politics. Johnson, for all his gifts, is unlikely to grace any future Tory cabinet. Indeed, he is not known for his excessive interest in serious policy matters, and it is hard to see him grubbing away at administrative detail as an obscure, hardworking junior minister for social security. To maintain his funny man reputation he will no doubt find himself refining hisBertie Woosterinterpretation to the point", "to the point where the impersonation becomes the man. –Max Hastings,London Evening Standard, FollowingMichael Heseltine's retirement, Johnson decided to stand as Conservative candidate forHenley, a Conservative safe seat inOxfordshire.The local Conservative branch selected him although it was split over Johnson's candidacy. Some thought him amusing and charming while others disliked his flippant attitude and perceived lack of knowledge of the local area.Assisted by his television fame, Johnson won the seat in the2001 general election.Alongside his Islington home, Johnson bought a farmhouse outsideThamein his new constituency.He regularly attended Henley social events and occasionally wrote for theHenley Standard.His constituency surgeries proved popular, and he joined local campaigns to stop the closure ofTownlands Hospitaland the localair ambulance. In Parliament, Johnson was appointed to astanding committeeassessing theProceeds of Crime Bill, but missed many of its meetings.Despite his credentials as a", "credentials as a public speaker, his speeches in the House of Commons were widely deemed lacklustre.He attended around half of Commons votes,usually supporting the Conservativeparty line.Infree votes, he demonstrated a more socially liberal attitude, supporting theGender Recognition Act 2004and the repeal ofSection 28.However, in 2001, Johnson had spoken out against plans to repeal Section 28, saying it was \"Labour's appalling agenda, encouraging the teaching of homosexuality in schools\".After initially stating he would not, hesupportedthe government's plans to join the United States in the2003 invasion of Iraq,and in April 2003 visited occupied Baghdad.In August 2004, he backed unsuccessfulimpeachment proceduresagainst Prime MinisterTony Blairfor \"high crimes and misdemeanours\" regarding the war,and in December 2006 described the invasion as \"a colossal mistake and misadventure\". Although labelling Johnson \"ineffably duplicitous\" for breaking his promise not to become an MP, Black decided not to dismiss him", "not to dismiss him because he \"helped promote the magazine and raise its circulation\".Johnson remained editor ofThe Spectator, while also writing columns forThe Daily TelegraphandGQ, and making television appearances.His 2001 book,Friends, Voters, Countrymen: Jottings on the Stump, recounted that year's election campaign,while 2003'sLend Me Your Earscollected previously published columns and articles.In 2004,HarperCollinspublished his first novel:Seventy-Two Virgins: A Comedy of Errorsrevolved around the life of a Conservative MP and contained autobiographical elements.Responding to criticism that he was juggling too many jobs, he citedWinston ChurchillandBenjamin Disraelias exemplars who combined political and literary careers.To manage stress, he took up jogging and cycling,and became so well known for the latter that Gimson suggested he was \"perhaps the most famous cyclist in Britain\". FollowingWilliam Hague's resignation as Conservative leader, the party electedIain Duncan Smith.Johnson had a strained", "had a strained relationship with Duncan Smith, andThe Spectatorbecame critical of his party leadership.Duncan Smith was succeeded byMichael Howardin November 2003; Howard deemed Johnson to be the most popular Conservative politician with the electorate and appointed him vice-chairman of the party, responsible for overseeing its electoral campaign.In his Shadow Cabinet reshuffle of May 2004, Howard appointed Johnson as shadow arts minister.In October, Howard ordered Johnson to apologise publicly inLiverpoolfor publishing aSpectatorarticle – anonymously written bySimon Heffer– which said the crowds at theHillsborough disasterhad contributed to the incident and that Liverpudlians had a predilection for reliance on thewelfare state. In November 2004, the tabloids revealed that since 2000 Johnson had been having an affair withSpectatorcolumnistPetronella Wyatt, resulting in two abortions.Johnson denied the allegations but they were subsequently proven to be true, and Howard dismissed him as vice-chairman and", "vice-chairman and shadow arts minister when he refused to resign. Second term At the2005 general election, Johnson was re-elected MP for Henley.Labour won the election and Howard stood down as Conservative leader; Johnson backedDavid Cameronas his successor.After Cameron was elected, he appointed Johnson as the shadow higher education minister.Interested in streamlining university funding,Johnson supported Labour'sproposed top-up fees.He campaigned in 2006 to become theRector of the University of Edinburgh, but his support for top-up fees damaged his campaign, and he came third. In April 2006, theNews of the Worldalleged that Johnson was having an affair with journalist Anna Fazackerley; the pair did not comment, and shortly afterwards Johnson began employing Fazackerley.In September 2006, Papua New Guinea'sHigh Commissionprotested after he compared the Conservatives' frequently changing leadership tocannibalism in the country. In 2005,The Spectator's new chief executive,Andrew Neil, dismissed Johnson as", "Johnson as editor.To make up for this loss of income, Johnson negotiated withThe Daily Telegraphto raise his salary from £200,000 to £250,000, averaging £5,000 per column.He presented apopular historytelevision show,The Dream of Rome, which was broadcast in January 2006; a book followed in February.A sequel,After Rome, focused on early Islamic history.In 2007, he earned £540,000, making him the third-highest-earning MP that year. Mayor of London (2008–2016) Mayoral election: 2007–2008 In September, Johnson was selected as the Conservative candidate forMayor of Londonafter a public London-wideprimary.Johnson's campaign focused on reducing youth crime, making public transport safer, and replacing thearticulated buseswith an updated version of theAEC Routemaster.Targeting the Conservative-leaning suburbs ofouter London, it capitalised on perceptions that the Labour Mayoralty had neglected them in favour ofinner London.His campaign emphasised his popularity, even among those who opposed his policies,with", "his policies,with opponents complaining a common attitude among voters was: \"I'm voting for Boris because he is a laugh.\"The campaign of Labour incumbentKen Livingstoneportrayed Johnson as an out-of-touchtoffand bigot. In the election, Johnson received 43% and Livingstone 37% of first-preference votes; when second-preference votes were added, Johnson was victorious with 53% to Livingstone's 47%.Johnson subsequently announced his intention to stand down as MP for Henley. First term: 2008–2012 After Johnson became mayor, those in City Hall deemed too closely allied to Livingstone's administration had their employment terminated.Johnson appointedTim Parkeras his deputy mayor, but after Parker began taking increasing control at City Hall, Johnson dismissed him.Many in the Conservative Party initially distanced themselves from Johnson's administration, fearing it would be damaging for the2010 general election. During the campaign, Johnson had confided toBrian Paddickhe was unsure how he would maintain his", "would maintain his lifestyle on the mayoral salary of £140,000 a year.He agreed to continue hisDaily Telegraphcolumn, thus earning a further £250,000 a year.His team believed this would cause controversy and made him promise to donate 20% of hisDaily Telegraphsalary to a charitable cause. Johnson resented this, and ultimately did not pay the full 20%.Controversy erupted when on theBBC'sHARDtalkhe referred to the £250,000 salary as \"chicken feed\"; this was at the time approximately 10 times the average yearly wage for a British worker. During his first administration, Johnson was embroiled in several personal scandals. After moving to a new house in Islington, he built a shed without obtainingplanning permission; after neighbours complained, he dismantled it.The press also accused him of having an affair with Helen Macintyre and of fathering her child, allegations that he did not deny.Johnson was accused of warningDamian Greenthat police were planning to arrest him; Johnson denied the claims.He was accused", "was accused ofcronyism,in particular for appointingVeronica Wadleyas the chair of London'sArts Council.In theparliamentary expenses scandal, he was accused of excessive expenses claims for taxis.Johnson remained a popular figure in London with a strong celebrity status in the city. Policies Johnson made no major changes to the mayoral system of the previous administration.However, he did reverse several other measures implemented by Livingstone: ending the city's oil deal with Venezuela, abolishingThe Londonernewsletter, and scrapping the half-yearly inspections ofblack cabs, which was reinstated three years later.Abolishing the western wing of thecongestion chargingzone,he cancelled plans to increase the congestion charge forfour-wheel-drive vehicles.He was subsequently accused of failing to publish an independent report on air pollution commissioned by theGreater London Authority, which revealed the city breached legal limits onnitrogen dioxidelevels. Johnson retained Livingstone projects such", "projects such asCrossrailand the2012 Olympic Games, but was accused of trying to take credit for them.He introduced a public bicycle scheme that had been mooted by Livingstone's administration; colloquially known as \"Boris Bikes\", the part privately financed system was a significant financial loss but proved popular.Despite Johnson's support of cycling, and his much-publicised identity as a cyclist, some cycling groups argued he had failed to make the city's roads safer for cyclists.As per his election pledge, he commissioned the development of theNew Routemasterbuses for central London.He also ordered the construction of acable car systemthat crossed theRiver Thamesbetween theGreenwich Peninsulaand theRoyal Docks. Johnson's first policy initiative was a ban on drinking alcohol on public transport.He announced plans to extend pay-as-you-goOyster cardsto national rail services in London.A pledge in Johnson's manifesto was to retain Tube ticket offices, in opposition to Livingstone's proposal to close up to", "to close up to 40.On 2 July 2008, the Mayor's office announced the closure plan was to be abandoned.On 21 November 2013,Transport for Londonannounced that all London Underground ticket offices would close by 2015.In financing these projects, Johnson's administration borrowed £100 million,while public transport fares were increased by 50%. During his first term, Johnson was perceived as having moved leftward on certain issues, supporting theLondon Living Wageand endorsing an amnesty for illegal migrants.He tried placating critics who had deemed him a bigot by appearing atLondon's gay pride paradeand praising ethnic minority newspapers.Johnson broke from the traditional protocol of those in public office not publicly commenting on other nations' elections by endorsingBarack Obamafor the2008 United States presidential election. Relations with the police, finance, and the media Johnson appointed himself chair of theMetropolitan Police Authority(MPA), and in October 2008 successfully pushed for the resignation of", "the resignation of Metropolitan Police CommissionerIan Blair, after Blair was criticised for allegedly handing contracts to friends and for his handling of thedeath of Jean Charles de Menezes.This earned Johnson respect among Conservatives, who interpreted it as his first act of strength.Johnson resigned as chairman of the MPA in January 2010,but throughout his mayoralty was highly supportive of the Metropolitan Police, particularly during the controversy surrounding thedeath of Ian Tomlinson.Overall crime in London fell during his administration, but his claim that serious youth crime had decreased proved to be false, and he acknowledged the error.He was criticised for his response to the2011 London riots. Johnson championed London's financial sector and denounced what he saw as \"banker bashing\" following thefinancial crisis of 2007–08,condemning theanti-capitalistOccupy Londonmovement that appeared in 2011.He collected donations from the city's wealthy for a charitable enterprise, the Mayor's Fund, which", "Mayor's Fund, which he had established to aid disadvantaged youths. It initially announced the fund would raise £100 million, but by 2010 it had only earnt £1.5 million.He also maintained extensive personal contacts throughout the British media,which resulted in widespread favourable press coverage of his administration.In turn he remained largely supportive of his friends in the media, includingRupert Murdoch, during theNews International phone hacking scandal. The formation of the Forensic Audit Panel was announced on 8 May 2008. The panel was tasked with monitoring and investigating financial management at theLondon Development Agencyand theGreater London Authority.Johnson's announcement was criticised by Labour for the perceived politicisation of this nominally independent panel.The head of the panel,Patience Wheatcroft, was married to a Conservative councillorand three of the four remaining panel members also had close links to the Conservatives. Re-election campaign Up for re-election in 2012, Johnson", "in 2012, Johnson again hired Crosby to orchestrate his campaign.Before the election, Johnson publishedJohnson's Life of London, a work of popular history that historianA. N. Wilsoncharacterised as a \"coded plea\" for votes.Polls suggested that while Livingstone's approach to transport was preferred, voters in London placed greater trust in Johnson on crime and the economy.Johnson's campaign emphasised the accusation that Livingstone was guilty oftax evasion, for which Livingstone called Johnson a \"bare-faced liar\".Political scientist Andrew Crines believed that Livingstone's campaign focused on criticising Johnson rather than presenting an alternate and progressive vision of London's future.Johnson wasre-elected. Second term: 2012–2016 After a successful bid under Livingstone in 2005, London hosted the2012 Summer Olympics, with Johnson as board co-chair.He improved transportation around London by making more tickets available and adding buses around the capital when thousands of spectators were temporary", "were temporary visitors.Johnson was accused of covering up pollution ahead of the games by deploying dust suppressants to remove air particulates near monitoring stations.In November 2013, Johnson announced major changes to the operation of theLondon Underground, including the extension of operating hours. All staffed ticket offices were replaced with automated ticketing systems. Johnson was close friends with American entrepreneurand modelJennifer Arcuri, withThe Sunday Timesdescribing him as a regular visitor to her flat,and implying they were in a sexual relationship.Arcuri and her company, Innotech, were awarded substantial government grants, and Johnson intervened to allow her onto three trade mission trips.The Sunday Timessaid in September 2019 that Johnson failed to declare his personal relationship as a conflict of interest.The Greater London Authority referred the matter to theIndependent Office for Police Conduct(IOPC) \"so it can assess whether or not it is necessary to investigate the former mayor", "the former mayor of London for the criminal offence of misconduct in public office\", for the Mayor is also London'spolice and crime commissioner.On 9 November 2019 it was revealed that the IOPC had decided to publish its report after the general election on 12 December.The IOPC eventually issued its report in May 2020, concluding that, although there was no basis for any criminal charge, there was evidence that the close relationship between Johnson and Arcuri had influenced decisions, that Johnson should have declared an interest, and that his failure to do this could have breached the London Assembly's code of conduct. In 2015, Johnson criticised then-presidential candidateDonald Trump's false comments that there wereno-go zones in Londoninaccessible for non-Muslims. Johnson said Trump was \"betraying a quite stupefying ignorance that makes him frankly unfit to hold the office of President of the United States\",becoming the first senior politician in the UK to declare Trump unfit for office, but rejecting", "but rejecting calls for him to be banned from the country.In 2016, he said he was \"genuinely worried that could become president\", telling ITV'sTom Bradbythat being mistaken for Trump in New York was \"one of the worst moments\" of his life. Johnson did not run for a third mayoral and stepped down on 5 May 2016 followingthe election. AYouGovpoll commissioned at the end of Johnson's term revealed that 52% of Londoners believed he did a \"good job\" while 29% believed he did a \"bad job\". Return to Parliament Johnson initially said that he would not return to the House of Commons while mayor.After much media speculation, in August 2014 he sought selection as the Conservative candidate for thesafe seatofUxbridge and South Ruislipat the2015 general election.In the2015 general election, Johnson was elected. There was speculation that he had returned to Parliament because he wanted to replace Cameron as Conservative leader and prime minister. Brexit campaign: 2015–2016 In February 2016, Johnson endorsedVote Leavein", "Leavein the \"Out\" campaign for the2016 European Union membership referendum.Following this announcement, which was interpreted by financial markets as making Brexit more probable, thepound sterlingslumped by nearly 2% against the US dollar, reaching its lowest level since March 2009. In April 2016, in response to a comment by PresidentBarack Obamathat Britain should remain in the European Union, Johnson wrote an \"ancestral dislike\" of Britain owing to his \"part-Kenyan\" background may have shaped Obama's views.Several politicians condemned his comments as racist and unacceptable.Conversely, former Conservative Party leaderIain Duncan SmithandUK Independence Party(UKIP) leaderNigel Faragedefended them. Johnson supported Vote Leave's statement that the government was committed toTurkish accession to the EU. Vote Leave was accused of implying that 80 million Turks would come to the UK if it stayed in the EU. When interviewed in January 2019, he said he had not mentioned Turkey during the campaign.On 22 June", "campaign.On 22 June 2016, Johnson declared 23 June could be \"Britain's independence day\" in a televised debate. Following the victory of the \"Leave\" campaign, Cameron resigned. Johnson was widely regarded as the front-runner to succeed him.Johnson announced he would not stand in theConservative leadership election.Shortly before this, Michael Gove, hitherto a Johnson ally, concluded that Johnson \"cannot provide the leadership or build the team for the task ahead\".The Daily Telegraphcalled Gove's comments \"the most spectacular political assassination in a generation\".Johnson endorsedAndrea Leadsom's candidature, but she dropped out, leaving Theresa May to be elected uncontested. Foreign Secretary: 2016–2018 May appointed Johnsonforeign secretaryin July 2016.Analysts saw the appointment as a tactic to weaken Johnson politically: the new positions of \"Brexit secretary\" andinternational trade secretaryleft the foreign secretary as a figurehead.Johnson's appointment ensured he would often be out of the country", "out of the country and unable to mobilise backbenchers against her, while forcing him to take responsibility for problems caused by withdrawing from the EU. Some journalists and foreign politicians criticised Johnson's appointment because of his controversial statements about other countries.His tenure attracted criticism from diplomats and foreign policy experts.A number of diplomats, FCO staff and foreign ministers who worked with Johnson compared his leadership unfavourably to previous foreign secretaries for his perceived lack of conviction or substantive positions on foreign policy issues.A senior official in Obama's government suggested Johnson's appointment would push the US further towardsGermanyat the expense of theSpecial Relationshipwith the UK.On one occasion Egyptian presidentAbdel Fattah el-Sisiwalked out of a meeting with Johnson after a meeting did not \"get beyond the pleasantries\". Johnson's visit to Turkey in September 2016 was somewhat tense because he had wonDouglas Murray's offensive", "Murray's offensive poetry competition about the President of Turkey,Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, four months earlier.When questioned by a journalist whether he would apologise for the poem, Johnson dismissed the matter as \"trivia\".Johnson pledged to helpTurkey join the EUand expressed support for Erdogan's government.Johnson described theGülen movementas a \"cult\" and supportedTurkey's post-coup purges. Johnson supported theSaudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemenand refused to block UK arms sales to Saudi Arabia.In September 2016, human rights groups accused him of blocking the UN inquiry into Saudi war crimes in Yemen.Given the UK-Saudi alliance, in December 2016, he attracted attention for commenting the Saudis were akin to the Iranians in \"puppeteering and playingproxy wars\".In November 2017, Johnson told theForeign Affairs Select CommitteethatNazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe– a British-Iranian citizen imprisoned in Iran after being arrested for training citizen journalists and bloggers in aBBC World Service", "aBBC World Service Trustproject – had been \"simply teaching people journalism\". Facing criticism, Johnson stated he had been misquoted and that nothing he said had justified Zaghari-Ratcliffe's sentence.In May 2018, Johnson backedtheIran nuclear deal framework, despite Donald Trump's withdrawal. In April 2017, Johnson said thatGibraltar's sovereigntywas \"not going to change\" after Brexit.Johnson promised while inNorthern Irelandthat Brexit would leave the Irish border \"absolutely unchanged\".Johnson visitedAnguillaandTortolain September 2017 to confirm the UK's commitment to helping restoreBritish territoriesdevastated byHurricane Irma.In September 2017, he was criticised for reciting lines fromRudyard Kipling's poemMandalaywhile visiting aMyanmartemple; the British ambassador, who was with him, suggested it was \"not appropriate\".In October 2017, he faced criticism for stating the Libyan city ofSirtecould become an economic success likeDubai: \"all they have to do is clear the dead bodies away\". Initially", "away\". Initially favouring a less hostile approach to Russia,Johnson soon backed a more aggressive policy.Following the March 2018poisoning of Sergei and Yulia SkripalinSalisbury, an act which the UK government blamed on Russia,Johnson comparedVladimir Putin's hosting of theWorld Cup in RussiatoAdolf Hitler's hosting of theOlympic Games in Berlinin 1936.Russia's Foreign Ministry denounced Johnson's \"unacceptable and unworthy\" parallel towards Russia, a \"nation thatlost millions of livesin fighting Nazism\".Johnson described theNord Stream 2gas pipeline from Russia to Germany as \"divisive\" and a \"threat\" that left Europe dependent on a \"malign Russia\" for itsenergy supplies. Johnson condemned thepersecutionofRohingya Muslimsin Myanmar,comparing the situation with thedisplacement of Palestiniansin 1948.Johnson supported theTurkish invasion of northern Syriaaimed at ousting theSyrian KurdsfromAfrin.He accused theUNHRCof focusing disproportionately on theIsraeli–Palestinian conflictand Israel'soccupationof", "thePalestinian territories. In a September 2017 op-ed, Johnson reiterated the UK would regain control of £350m a week after Brexit, suggesting it go to theNational Health Service(NHS).Cabinet colleagues subsequently criticised him for reviving the assertion.Following the2017 general election, Johnson denied media reports he intended to challenge May's leadership.In a February 2018 letter to May, Johnson suggested that Northern Ireland may have to accept border controls after Brexit and that it would not seriously affect trade, having initially said a hard border would be unthinkable.In June, he was reported as having said \"fuck business\" when asked about corporate concerns regarding a 'hard' Brexit. Secret recordings obtained byBuzzFeed Newsin June 2018 revealed Johnson's dissatisfaction with Prime Minister Theresa May's negotiating style, accusing her of being too collaborative with the European Union in Brexit negotiations. Comparing May's approach to that of the US president Donald Trump – who at the time", "– who at the time was engaged in a combative trade war with the EU because it raised tariffs on metal – Johnson said: \"Imagine Trump doing Brexit. He'd go in bloody hard ... There'd be all sorts of breakdowns, all sorts of chaos. Everyone would think he'd gone mad. But actually you might get somewhere.\" He accused individuals of scaremongering over a Brexit \"meltdown\", saying \"No panic.Pro bono publico, no bloody panic. It's going to be all right in the end.\" In April 2018, Johnson travelled to Italy to attend a party at thePalazzo Terranova, owned by the formerKGBagentAlexander Lebedevand hosted by his sonEvgeny. He travelled without security protection or other officials,and did not document the trip, which led to accusations of Johnson having misled parliament.In June 2023, it was revealed that Lord Simon McDonald, the most senior civil servant of his department, was not aware of the trip. Johnson stated that \"no government business was discussed\" at the event as far as he was aware.Lebedev's villa was", "villa was monitored by the Italian secret service at the time, who, according to aChannel 4documentary, suspected it to be used for espionage activities.Johnson granted a peerage toEvgenyin 2020, against the advice of theMI6, and met with criticism over potential security concerns. In July 2018, three days after thecabinethad its meeting to agree on aBrexit strategy,Johnson, along with Brexit secretaryDavid Davis,resigned his post. Return to the backbenches: 2018–2019 Johnson returned to the role of abackbench MP. In July, he delivered a resignation speech, stating \"it is not too late to save Brexit\".In January 2019, Johnson came under criticism for remarks he had made during the 2016 Leave campaign regarding the prospect of Turkish accession to the European Union; he denied making such remarks.In March 2019, he was criticized for saying that expenditure on investigating historic allegations of child abuse was money \"spaffed up the wall\". Journalism In July 2018, Johnson signed a 12‑month contract to write", "contract to write articles for theTelegraph Media Group.TheAdvisory Committee on Business Appointments(ACOBA) reported that this was a breach of theMinisterial Code.Johnson was ordered to apologise for failing to declare £50,000 of earnings. TheParliamentary Commissioner for Standardsfound the errors were not inadvertent, and that Johnson had failed on nine occasions to make declarations within the rules. In September 2018, Johnson wrote: \"We have opened ourselves to perpetual political blackmail. We have wrapped a suicide vest around the British constitution – and handed the detonator toMichel Barnier.\" Senior Tories heavily criticised him, withAlan Duncanof the Foreign Office vowing to ensure the comments marked \"the political end of Boris Johnson\".In April 2019, theIndependent Press Standards Organisationruled that a claim in a 6 January 2019 article inThe Daily Telegraph, \"The British people won't be scared into backing a woeful Brexit deal nobody voted for\", authored by Johnson,that a no-dealBrexitwas", "a no-dealBrexitwas \"by some margin preferred by the British public\" was false, and \"represented a failure to take care over the accuracy of the article in breach of Clause 1 (i)\" of its guidelines, and required that a correction be published. 2019 Conservative Party leadership election On 12 June 2019, Johnson launched his campaign for theConservative Party leadership election, saying, \"we must leave the EU on 31 October.\"On the campaign trail, Johnson warned of \"catastrophic consequences for voter trust in politics\" if the government pushed the EU for further delays. He advocated removing thebackstopfrom any Brexit deal. On 25 and 26 August, he announced plans to retain £7 or £9 billion of the £39 billion divorce payment the UK is due to transfer to the EU upon withdrawal.Johnson initially pledged to cut income tax for earners of more than £50,000 but backed away from this plan in June 2019 after coming under criticism in a televisedBBCdebate. Johnson was elected leader with 92,153 votes (66%) to Hunt's", "(66%) to Hunt's 46,656 (34%). Premiership (2019–2022) First term (July–December 2019) On 24 July 2019, the day following Johnson's election as Conservative Party leader, QueenElizabeth IIacceptedTheresa May's resignation and appointed Johnson as prime minister. This made Johnson the first prime minister to be born outsideBritish territories.Johnson appointedDominic Cummingsas his senior advisor. Brexit policy In hisfirst speech as PM, Johnson said that the United Kingdom would leave the European Union on 31 October 2019 with orwithout a deal, and promised to remove theIrish backstopfrom the withdrawal agreement.Johnson declared his intention tore-open negotiations, but talks did not immediately resume as the EU refused to accept Johnson's condition that the backstop be removed.On 28 August 2019, UK and EU negotiators agreed to resume regular meetings. Also on 28 August 2019, Johnson declared he had asked the Queen toprorogue Parliamentfrom 10 September, reducing the time in which Parliament could block a", "could block a no-deal Brexit and causing apolitical controversy.The Queen atPrivy Councilapproved prorogation later the same day, and it began on 10 September, scheduled to last until 14 October.Some suggestedthat this prorogation amounted to aself-coup, and on 31 August 2019, protests occurred throughout the United Kingdom.By 2 September 2019, three separate court cases challenging Johnson's action were in progress or scheduled to take place,and on 11 September, three Scottish judges ruled the prorogation of the UK Parliament to be unlawful.On 12 September, Johnson denied lying to the Queen over suspension of the Parliament, while a Belfast Court rejected claims that his Brexit plans would have a negative impact on Northern Ireland's peace policy.On 24 September, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that Johnson's advice to prorogue Parliament was unlawful, and therefore the prorogation was rendered null. When Parliament resumed on 3 September 2019, Johnson indicated he would call a general election under", "election under theFixed-term Parliaments Actafter opposition and rebel Conservative MPs successfully voted against the government to take control of the order of business to prevent a no-deal exit.Despite government opposition, theBenn Act, a bill to block a no-deal exit, passed the Commons on 4 September 2019, causing Johnson to propose a general election on 15 October.His motion was unsuccessful as it failed to command the support of two-thirds of the House. In October 2019, following bilateral talks between Johnson andTaoiseachLeo Varadkar,the UK and EU agreed to arevised deal, whichreplaced the backstopwith a newNorthern Ireland Protocol. First Cabinet JohnsonappointedhisCabineton 24 July 2019,dismissing 11 senior ministers and accepting the resignation of six others.The mass dismissal was the most extensive postwar Cabinet reorganisation without a change in the ruling party. Among other appointments, Johnson madeDominic RaabtheFirst Secretary of Stateand foreign secretary and appointedSajid", "and appointedSajid JavidandPriti Patelas theChancellor of the ExchequerandHome Secretary, respectively. Loss of working majority On 3 September 2019,Phillip Leecrossed the floorto theLiberal Democratsfollowing a disagreement with Johnson'sBrexitpolicy. This left the government without aworking majorityin the House of Commons.Later that day,21 Conservative MPshad the partywhipwithdrawn for defying party orders and supporting an opposition motion.(The whip was restored to 10 former Conservative ministers on 29 October.) On 5 September 2019, Johnson's brotherJo Johnsonresigned from the government and announced that he would step down as MP, describing his position as \"torn between family and national interest\".Two days later,Amber Ruddresigned asSecretary of State for Work and Pensionsand from the Conservative Party, describing the withdrawal of the party whip as an \"assault on decency and democracy\". 2019 general election In October 2019, Parliament was dissolved, and an election called for 12 December. The", "12 December. The election resulted in the Conservative Party winning 43.6% of the vote and a parliamentary landslide majority of 80 seats.A key slogan used in the Conservative campaign was \"Get Brexit Done\". Second term (December 2019 – September 2022) Second Cabinet Johnsonreshuffled his cabinetin February 2020.Five Cabinet ministers were sacked, including theNorthern Ireland secretaryJulian Smith, a decision that was criticised by several politicians and commentators following his success in restoring theNorthern Ireland Executivedevolved government.Chancellor of the ExchequerSajid Javidresigned from the Cabinet and was replaced byRishi Sunak; Javid later returned to Johnson's Cabinet asSecretary of State for Health and Social Carein June 2021 following the resignation ofMatt Hancock. Johnson reshuffled his cabinet again in September 2021. Changes included the dismissal ofEducation SecretaryGavin Williamsonwho had received significant criticism for his handling of disruption to education during the", "during the COVID-19 pandemic.Dominic Raabwas moved from foreign secretary todeputy prime ministerandjustice secretary. Raab was replaced as foreign secretary byLiz Truss. COVID-19 pandemic TheCOVID-19 pandemicemerged as a serious crisis within the first few months of Johnson's second term.Johnson's non-attendance of fiveCOBRbriefings during the early months and the failure of the UK government to prepare for and control the outbreak has been criticised.The UK was among the last majorEuropean states to close schools, ban public events and order alockdown.This response is thought by some scientists to have contributed to the UK's high death toll from COVID-19, which as of January 2021was among the highest in the world. Reutersreported that scientists were critical of Johnson both for acting too slowly to stop the spread of COVID-19 and for mishandling the government's response;PoliticoquotedChief Medical OfficerChris Whittyas saying that an earlier initial lockdown would have significantly lowered the death", "lowered the death toll.TheBMJpublished several editorials critical of the policies adopted during the country's public health response.Johnson's public communication over the virus and the UK's test and trace system were also criticised. On 3 March 2020, Johnson claimed to have shaken hands with COVID-19 patients in hospital on the same day thatSAGEhad advised the government to warn the public not to shake hands and minimise physical contact,though it was unclear whether the hospital he visited actually contained any coronavirus patients.He continued to shake hands publicly in the following days.On 23 March, aCOVID-19 lockdownwas imposed throughout the UK, except for a few limited purposes, backed up bynew legal powers. On 27 March, it was announced that Johnson had tested positive forCOVID-19.On 5 April, he was admitted to a hospital.The next day, he was moved to the hospital's intensive care unit.Johnson left intensive care on 9 April,and left hospital three days later to recuperate atChequers.After a", "atChequers.After a fortnight at Chequers, he returned to Downing Street on 26 April.Johnson later said that he had been givenemergency oxygenwhile in intensive care, and that doctors had made preparations in case he died. Ascandalin May 2020 involved Johnson's chief political advisorDominic Cummings, who made a trip with his family toDurhamduring the March 2020 lockdown while experiencing COVID-19 symptoms. Both Cummings and Johnson rejected widespread calls that Cummings resign.Johnson's defence of Cummings and his refusal to sack him caused a widespread backlash.This resulted in a loss of confidence in the government and specifically its response to the pandemic, referred to as 'the Cummings effect' inThe Lancet. Concerns were raised in the study that this could affect the public's compliance with pandemic restrictions. The Johnson ministry wasaccused of cronyism in their assignment of contractsrelated to the pandemic response. Procurement of government contracts for key COVID-19 supplies became less", "became less transparent as a result of emergency measures bypassing the usual competitive tendering process.In October 2020, Johnson conceded that the UK'stest and tracesystem and its specially developedcontact tracing app, which had been criticised for their cost and operational issues, had caused \"frustrations\". Johnson reportedly resisted calls from SAGE and within the government to enact a second lockdown throughout September as COVID-19 infections rose.In April 2021, Johnson denied allegations he had said he would rather \"let the bodies pile high in their thousands\" on 30 October 2020.The government enacted a second national lockdown on 31 October.Throughout December 2020, COVID-19 cases across the UK rose significantly, straining emergency services and hospitals.In response, the government enacted further restrictions to large parts of southern and eastern England and on 21 December shortened a planned household mixing period over Christmas. Britain beganits COVID-19 vaccination programmein December", "December 2020.Half of UK adults had received at least their first vaccine dose by 20 March 2021.A third lockdown for the whole of England was introduced on 6 January 2021.Record numbers of infections and daily deaths were recorded in the UK throughout January, and the government began exploring quarantine procedures on arrival.Johnson said he was \"deeply sorry\" and \"take full responsibility\" as the UK passed 100,000 deaths from COVID-19, the first European country to do so, on 26 January. In July 2021, Johnson announced that most generalised public health restrictions in England would be lifted and replaced by recommendations. This took place despite an increase in cases driven by theDelta variant.In September 2021, Johnson was pictured in a cabinet meeting, with \"at least 30 people crammed shoulder-to-shoulder\", without anyone wearing masks and with all windows apparently closed, contradicting government advice.Johnson was also photographed without a face mask during a visit to a hospital in November. In", "in November. In December 2021, more stringent \"Plan B\" restrictions for England were put forward, a partial renewal of previous measures due to the increased incidence of theSARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant. These proposals included face coverings to be required in more public settings, guidance towork from homewherever possible, and requirements ofCOVID-19 passportsto enter certain venues.The government experienced the largest rebellion of Conservative MPs during Johnson's premiership, in opposition to these measures. Immigration In 2019, Johnson promised to reduce net migration to the United Kingdom (the number of people immigrating minus the number emigrating) below 250,000 per year by the next election.In 2021, net migration to the UK was 488,000,up from 184,000 in 2019 before the COVID-19 pandemic.Most of the migrants came from non-EU countries. As a result of Brexit, more EU nationals left the UK than arrived. In 2021, Johnson's government launched ascheme for Hongkongersfollowing theHong Kong national", "Kong national security law, with more than 200,000 Hong Kong residents immigrating to the UK. Long-term net migration to the UK reached a record high of 764,000 in 2022,with immigration at 1.26 million and emigration at 493,000. Legislative agenda At theState Opening of Parliament on 11 May 2021, a range of proposed laws were announced, including theDissolution and Calling of Parliament Bill, which would restore theroyal prerogativeto dissolve Parliament; aHigher Education (Freedom of Speech) Billto combatdeplatformingat universities;anOnline Safety Billthat would impose a statutoryduty of careon online companies and empowerOfcomto block particular websites;and anAnimal Welfare (Sentience) Billthat would legally recognise animal sentience. Further laws would introducemandatory voter identificationat general elections, reform the national immigration system, and implement alevelling up policyto reduce imbalances between areas. 2021 Downing Street refurbishment controversy In April 2021, Cummings alleged that", "alleged that Johnson had arranged for donors to \"secretly pay\" for renovations on the private residence at 11 Downing Street.On 27 April Johnson asked the Cabinet Secretary,Simon Case, to hold a review about the refurbishment.On 28 April, theElectoral Commissionannounced it had opened a formal investigation.On the same day Johnson said that he had not broken any laws over the refurbishment and had met the requirements he was obliged to meet.DuringPrime Minister's Questions, the leader of the opposition,Keir Starmer, asked: \"Whoinitiallypaid for the redecoration of his Downing Street flat?\"; Johnson responded: \"I paid for Downing Street's refurbishment personally.\" On 28 MayLord Geidtpublished a report on the allegations which concluded that Johnson did not breach the Ministerial Code and that no conflict, or reasonably perceived conflict, of interest arose. However, Lord Geidt expressed that it was \"unwise\" for Johnson to have proceeded without \"more rigorous regard for how this would be funded\".The", "be funded\".The Electoral Commission reported on 9 December that it found that the Conservative Party had failed to follow the law in not accurately reporting donations to the party from Lord Brownlow and imposed a £17,800 fine on the party.The Heraldsaid the commission's report outlined how, in March, all the money paid by Brownlow and his company had been reimbursed, as had the payments made by the Conservative Party and Cabinet Office.Downing Street had said at the time that the full cost of the works had been met personally by the prime minister. Owen Paterson controversy In November 2021, Johnson backed a motion to block the suspension ofOwen Paterson, a Conservative MP found to have abused his position by theindependent standards commissionerafter undertaking paid lobbying.The motion called for the creation of a new Conservative-majority committee to examine reforms of the standards investigation process.Many Conservative MPs refused to support the motion, and 13 defied athree-line whipto vote against", "whipto vote against it.Following the announcement by opposition parties that they would boycott the new committee, and faced with a backlash in the media and from MPs of all parties, the government announced that a new vote would take place on whether Paterson should be suspended.Paterson announced his resignation as an MP the same day.Aby-electionin Paterson's former constituency ofNorth Shropshiresaw theLiberal Democratcandidate,Helen Morgan, overturn a Conservative majority of nearly 23,000,theseventh largest swing in United Kingdom by-election history. Partygate scandal In December 2021, reports emerged thatsocial gatherings of government and Conservative Party staffin Downing Street had taken place ahead of Christmas 2020 against COVID-19 regulations. Johnson denied these allegations.Following a leaked video showing Downing Street staff joking about a \"fictional party\", at a press conference rehearsal recorded days after one alleged party took place, Johnson apologised for the contents of the video and", "of the video and suggested he had been misled but had now ordered an inquiry. On 10 January 2022,ITV Newsreported that a planned party had taken place on 20 May 2020, during the first lockdown. ITV had obtained an email sent by principal private secretaryMartin Reynoldsto staff inviting them to \"socially distanced drinks\" in the garden of No. 10.At the time, people outdoors were not allowed to meet more than one person from outside their household.Two eyewitnesses later alleged that Johnson and Symonds attended, contradicting Johnson's insistence in December 2021 that there were \"no parties\". On 12 January 2022, Johnson apologised to MPs in the Commons for \"attending an event in the Downing Street garden during the first lockdown\",stating he believed it was \"a work event\".He said that MPs should await the outcome of the independent inquiry, led by senior civil servantSue Gray, which he said \"will report as soon as possible\".There were calls across the House for Johnson to resign. On 19 January,Bury", "On 19 January,Bury SouthMPChristian Wakeforddefected from the Conservative Party to the Labour Party.Conservative former ministerDavid Daviscalled for Johnson to resign, quotingLeo Amerycalling onNeville Chamberlainto resign during theNorway Debatein 1940, and saying: \"You have sat there too long for all the good you have done. In the name of God, go.\" On 25 January, theMetropolitan Police's chief commander,Cressida Dick, announced that they were commencing investigations into the Downing Street Parties.An abbreviated version of theSue Gray reportinto the controversy was released on 31 January, where Gray concluded there was a \"failure of leadership\" over the events that she had examined. The release of the full report was delayed pending the Metropolitan Police's investigation. In April 2022, Johnson was issued afixed penalty noticeas police determined that he committed a criminal offence by breaching the COVID-19 lockdown regulations.Johnson therefore became the first prime minister in British history to", "British history to have been sanctioned for breaking the law while in office. According to Downing Street insiders, Johnson was involved in instigating a party on the occasion ofLee Cainleaving Number 10. What had begun as press office drinks became a party after Johnson arrived, gave a speech and poured drinks for staff.Labour's deputy leader,Angela Raynersaid, \"If the latest reports are true, it would mean that not only did the prime minister attend parties, but he had a hand in instigating at least one of them. He has deliberately misled the British people at every turn. The prime minister has demeaned his office.\"On 21 April, MPs voted to refer Johnson to theParliamentary Privileges Committeeto investigate whether he knowingly misled Parliament.Steve Bakersaid Johnson's \"marvellous contrition... only lasted as long as it took to get out of the headmaster's study\". Following theMay 2022 local elections, many leading Conservatives in areas where the Conservatives had done badly blamed Johnson and calling", "Johnson and calling on Johnson to resign.On 6 June,Graham Bradyannounced that the threshold for a vote on Johnson's leadership had been passed; the vote was scheduled for later that same day. On 3 March 2023, an interim report from theCommons Select Committee of Privilegessaid there was evidence that \"strongly suggests\" breaches of coronavirus regulations would have been \"obvious\" to Johnson.The report also said \"There is evidence that those who were advising Mr Johnson about what to say to the press and in the House were themselves struggling to contend that some gatherings were within the rules\".Johnson said none of the evidence showed he \"knowingly\" misled Parliament.The report stated that the Commons may have been misled on multiple occasions and Johnson \"did not correct the statements earliest opportunity\".The committee also stated that Johnson had \"personal knowledge\" over lockdown gatherings in No 10, which he could have disclosed. Starmer slur controversy While speaking in the House of Commons in", "House of Commons in January 2022, Johnson falsely blamed Starmer for the non-prosecution of the serial sex offenderJimmy Savilewhen Starmer wasDirector of Public Prosecutionsin theCrown Prosecution Service. Starmer was DPP in the years immediately prior to Savile's death but there is no evidence he was involved in the decision to not have him prosecuted.A few days later, Johnson defended his comments but conceded that Starmer \"had nothing to do personally with those decisions\" by the CPS not to investigate Savile. Vote of confidence In the week prior to and throughout thePlatinum Jubilee of Elizabeth IIin June 2022, it had been speculated that a vote of confidence in Johnson's leadership of the Conservative Party might soon occur.On 6 June 2022, the Conservative Party announced that Johnson would face a vote of confidence in his leadership of the party, after at least 54 Conservative MPs wrote no-confidence letters to SirGraham Brady, the chairman of the1922 Committee. Johnson won the vote, with 211 in", "vote, with 211 in favour and 148 against.The number of rebel MPs was larger than had been expected.The result was described by Keir Starmer as the \"beginning of the end\" for Johnson's premiership. June 2022 by-elections Following heavy Conservative defeats in the 23 June 2022 by-elections inWakefieldandTiverton and Honiton, former party leader Michael Howard called for Johnson to resign, saying: \" biggest asset has always been his ability to win votes but I'm afraid yesterday's results make it clear that he no longer has that ability.\" Oliver Dowden, the Co-Chairman of the Conservative Party, resigned saying: \"somebody must take responsibility\".Johnson announced that he had no intention of changing or resigning; senior Conservatives accused him of increasingly \"delusional\" behaviour.On 26 June 2022 Johnson said: \"At the moment I'm thinking actively about the third term and what could happen then, but I will review that when I get to it.\" He also claimed that he intended to stay as prime minister until the", "minister until the mid-2030s, although Number 10 later said that he had been joking. Pincher scandal Government Deputy Chief WhipChris Pincherresigned on 30 June 2022, saying he had \"drunk far too much\" the night before at theCarlton ClubinSt James's, London, and having \"embarrassed myself and other people\".It was later alleged that he sexually assaulted two men,and he was suspended as an MP.On 3 July 2022 six new allegations against Pincher emerged, involving behaviour over a decade. Johnson allegedly referred to Pincher as \"handsy\" and Cummings said Johnson joked about him being \"Pincher by name, pincher by nature\" in 2020, leading to calls for Johnson to explain how much he knew about Pincher's behaviour.Ministers initially said that Johnson was unaware of any specific complaints against Pincher when he was appointed as deputy chief whip. The BBC then reported, however, that an official complaint and subsequent investigation into Pincher, while he was at the Foreign Office (July 2019 to February 2020),", "to February 2020), had confirmed his misconduct, and that Johnson had been made aware at that time.SirSimon McDonald, formerPermanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, later said that the prime minister had been briefed \"in person\" about Pincher. Mass resignations On 5 July 2022, Sunak and Javid resigned within minutes of each other,followed over the next 24 hours by 11 other ministers, as well as Conservative MPs fromparliamentary private secretaryand other Government positions;otherbackbenchersalso withdrew their support for Johnson. Many of the MPs stated that the Pincher affair had led them to change their minds on the suitability of Johnson to be prime minister.It was reported on 6 July that Johnson could face another confidence vote, with members of the 1922 Committee considering changing the rules as soon as that evening to allow this to happen.By 6 July, there had been a total of 31 resignations.As of May 2022, the government comprised 122 ministers. Announcement of resignation By the", "resignation By the morning of 7 July, the newly installedChancellor of the Exchequer,Nadhim Zahawi, publicly stated his belief that Johnson should resign. Within hours, the BBC and other media reported Johnson's intention to resign. Johnson announced his resignation at 12.30 pm. I know that there will be many who are relieved, but perhaps quite a few who will be disappointed. And I want you to know how sad I am to give up the best job in the world - but them's the breaks. Upon reports of his resignation, thepound sterlingtemporarily strengthened in value, and UK stocks rose.He remained as prime minister until September, while the Conservative Party chose a new leader.On 5 September 2022, it was announced thatLiz Trusshad won theConservative leadership election. She became prime minister the next day.During his farewell speech outside 10 Downing Street on 6 September 2022 Johnson referred to the Roman statesmanCincinnatus. Some commentators noted that, while, as Johnson said, Cincinnatus returned to his", "returned to his plough, he was also later recalled to power. Environmental policies In November 2020, Johnson announced a 10-point plan for a \"green industrial revolution\", to include ending the sale of petrol anddieselcars and vans by 2030,quadrupling the amount ofoffshore wind powercapacity within a decade, funding emissions-cutting proposals, and spurning a proposedgreen post-COVID-19 recovery.In 2021, the Johnson government announced plans to cutcarbon emissionsby 78% by 2035. Johnson announced that the UK would join the Global Methane Pledge to cutmethane emissionsby 30% by 2030 at theCOP26summit, which the UK hosted.Before the summit, representatives ofGreenpeaceandFriends of the Earthcriticised Johnson's comments on plans to introduce \"enforceable limits\" on carbon emissions for other countries, which they accused of being unsubstantive,and his government faced criticism from environmental groups for cutting taxes on domestic air travel, given theenvironmental impact of aviation. In April 2022,", "In April 2022, Johnson announced that eight morenuclear reactorswould be built on existingnuclear power plantsites and called for an expansion in wind energy.Under these plans, up to 95% of the UK's electricity could come fromlow-carbon powersources by 2030. Foreign policy Johnson supported theEuropean Union–Mercosur Free Trade Agreement,which would form one of the world's largest free trade areas.Johnson's government placed importance on the \"Special Relationship\" with theUnited States.In 2022, his government introduced anasylum dealwhereby people entering the UK illegally would be sent toRwanda. Hong Kong and China Johnson said in July 2019 that his government would be very \"pro-China\" in an interview with the Hong Kong broadcasterPhoenix TV. He voiced support for Chinese presidentXi Jinping's infrastructure investment effort, theBelt and Road Initiative, and promised to keep the United Kingdom \"the most open economy in Europe\" forChinese investment. In June 2020, Johnson announced that if China were to", "if China were to continue pursuing theHong Kong national security law, the UK would offer 350,000Hong Kong residentswho areBritish National (Overseas) passportholders, and 2.6 million other eligible individuals, the chance to move to the UK.China accused the UK of interfering in its internal affairs. Johnson declined to describe the Chinese government'streatment of the Uyghur peopleas \"genocide\", despite use of the term by the United States.Johnson's government argued that genocide should be decided by the International Criminal Court.Nevertheless, he called what is happening to theUyghursin Xinjiang as \"utterly abhorrent\". The UK joined theAUKUSdefence pact with the United States and Australia in September 2021. The pact was denounced by Chinaand caused a French backlash, as it usurped existingplans for Australia to procure French submarines. Afghanistan On 8 July 2021, the day after saying he was \"apprehensive\" about the future of Afghanistan following what was then theimpending withdrawal of US troops,", "of US troops, while announcing the near completion of British troop withdrawal from Afghanistan, Johnson expressed the view that there was \"no military path to victory for theTaliban\".Following thefall of Kabul to the Taliban, he blamed the United States for the crisis,saying thatNATOalliance members \"could not continue this US-led mission, a mission conceived and executed in support of America, without American logistics, without US air power and without American might\". UK–EU trade negotiation Following the formalwithdrawal from the European Unionin January 2020, Johnson's government enteredtrade negotiations with the EU.Fisheries was a major topicof the negotiations.On 16 October 2020 Johnson said that the UK \"must get ready\" for no trade deal with the EU.It was announced on 24 December 2020that theEU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreementhad been reached; it came into force formally on 1 May. Afisheries dispute between the UK and Franceoccurred shortly afterwards. Introduction of new UK border checks were", "border checks were delayed until 2022 to minimise the disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. In May 2022, Johnson readied a draft that would unilaterally change parts of theNorthern Ireland Protocol, citing issues with medical supplies and cuts in VAT. One of the thornier points of contention involves safety regulations for food and plants, where the British government is opposed to a closer alignment with existing EU regulations. The EU rebuffed the idea of changing the text of the treaty to accommodate the British. A unilateral override by the UK would be tantamount to a breach of the agreement. As Johnson sought a more conciliatory tone, sources within the government began to stress that the draft is designed to be an \"insurance policy\" and would take years to become law. Russia and Ukraine In November 2021, Johnson warned that the European Union faces \"a choice\" between \"sticking up for Ukraine\" and approving theNord Stream 2natural gas pipeline from Russia to Europe. During theprelude to the", "theprelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Johnson's government warned the Russian Government not to invadeDonbas.Johnson andVladimir Putinagreed in a phone call to work towards a \"peaceful resolution\".On 1 February 2022, Johnson arrived inKyivon a diplomatic visit.He called the presence of theRussian Armed Forcesnear theRussia–Ukraine border\"the biggest security crisis that Europe has faced for decades\".The Kremlin denied that it wanted to attack Ukraine.On 20 February 2022, Johnson warned that Russia is planning the \"biggest war in Europe since1945\" as Putin intends to invade and encircle Kyiv.On 21 February 2022, Johnson condemnedRussia's diplomatic recognitionof twoself-proclaimedrepublics in Donbas. On 24 February 2022, Johnson condemned theRussian invasion of Ukraine, and ensured the UK joined ininternational sanctionson Russian banks andoligarchs.He later announced the UK would phase outRussian oilby the end of 2022. On 9 April 2022, Johnson travelled to Kyiv and met thePresident of", "met thePresident of Ukraine,Volodymyr Zelenskyy.On 16 April 2022, Russia'sMinistry for Foreign Affairsbanned Johnson and a number of senior British politicians from visiting Russia, saying that Britain aimed to isolate Russia politically and supply \"the Kyiv regime with lethal weapons and coordinating similar efforts on the part of NATO\". Within Ukraine, Johnson is praised by many as a supporter of anti-Russian sanctions andmilitary aid for Ukraine.On 3 May, Johnsonvirtually addressedtheUkrainian Parliament, becoming the first world leader to speak in Ukraine since the invasion. He pledged an extra £300m in military aid to Ukraine, praised Ukraine's resistance to Russia as its \"finest hour\" and said that the West had been \"too slow to grasp what was actually happening\" prior to Russia's invasion.In July 2022, Johnson warned that it would be a mistake to cease fire andfreeze the conflict.In August 2022, Johnson blamed Vladimir Putin for the emergingglobal energy crisis. Post-premiership (2022–present) After", "After stepping down, Johnson reverted to being a backbench MP.Following thedeath of Queen Elizabeth II, Johnson took part inCharles III'sAccession Council. AfterLiz Trussannounced her resignation as Conservative Party leader on 20 October 2022, Johnson received more than the 100 MPs' nominations required to stand in theleadership election,but soon announced that he would not stand. In May 2023, Johnson was referred to the police by the Cabinet Office regarding previously unknown potential breaches of COVID regulations between June 2020 and May 2021,to which Johnson's office issued a statement criticising the \"unfounded suggestions\" which \"has all the hallmarks of yet another politically motivated stitch-up\". On 9 June 2023, the publication of his2022 Prime Minister's Resignation Honoursled to a public feud with Sunak.Johnson supporterNadine Dorriesannounced that she was resigning as an MP due to not being included as a peer on the honours list.The same day, after receiving a confidential report from a", "report from a committee of theHouse of Commonsthat was looking into whether he had lied to Parliament over lockdown-breaking parties, Johnson announced his resignation as MP.His resignation statement said he is \"not alone in thinking that there is a witch-hunt under way, to take revenge for Brexit and ultimately to reverse the 2016 referendum result\". On 15 June, the Commons Privileges Committee published their report, which concluded that Johnson lied to and deliberately misled the House of Commons over Partygate, misled the Committee themselves during the hearing, and acted in contempt of the Committee itself through a \"campaign of abuse and intimidation\".The report noted that had Johnson still been an MP, the Committee would have recommended he be suspended from Parliament for 90 days.The contents of the report represented a recommendation to the House of Commons,which accepted the report by 354 votes to seven. On 16 June, Johnson was unveiled as a new columnist for theDaily Mail. The news websitePolitico", "websitePolitico Europereported that Johnson would be paid a \"very-high six-figure sum\".Johnson reportedly informed theAdvisory Committee on Business Appointmentshalf an hour before the columnist assignment was publicly announced. The committee ruled that Johnson committed a \"clear breach\" of the rules since he had not sought its advice on the matter within an appropriate timeframe. In October 2023, Johnson announced he would join the television channelGB Newsas a commentator and programme maker for thenext general electionandUS presidential election. Johnson condemnedHamas' attackon Israel, saying \"there can be no moral equivalence between the terrorism of Hamas and the actions of the Israeli Defense Forces\". He rejected calls for a ceasefire in theGaza Stripduring theIsrael–Hamas war, and criticisedpro-Palestinian protests in the UK.On 5 November 2023, Johnson visited Israel to express solidarity. In February 2024, Johnson had a private meeting with the president of Venezuela,Nicolás Maduro.In March", "Maduro.In March 2024,The Timesreported that Johnson is expected to campaign for the Conservatives in the next General Election. On 2 May 2024 Johnson was turned away from his polling station for theThames Valley Police and Crime Commissioner, after forgetting to bringvalid photographic identification, a requirement of theElections Act, which Johnson introduced while in office. When he arrived he had nothing to prove his identity except the sleeve of his copy ofProspectmagazine, on which his name and address had been printed. He said that when he returned a few minutes later, with hisdriving licence, he was then able to vote.During the2024 general election, Johnson campaigned for the Conservatives, who lost the election in a landslide to Labour. Johnson's memoirsUnleashedare scheduled to be released in October 2024. Political positions and ideology free-market, tolerant, broadly libertarian (though perhaps not ultra-libertarian), inclined to see the merit of traditions, anti-regulation, pro-immigrant,", "pro-immigrant, pro-standing on your own two feet, pro-alcohol, pro-hunting, pro-motorist and ready to defend to the death the right ofGlenn Hoddle to believe in reincarnation. — Boris Johnson, 2011 Ideologically, Johnson has been described as a \"One-Nation Tory\".Political scientists have described Johnson's political positions as ambiguous and contradictory, encompassingnativist, authoritarian andfree markettendencies on the one hand, and one-nationliberal conservatismon the other.Some scholars have questioned Johnson's commitment to one-nation conservativism, instead characterising his ideology as flexible and populist.Purnell stated that Johnson regularly changed his opinion on political issues, commenting on what she perceived to be \"an ideological emptiness beneath the staunch Tory exterior\". During his tenure as mayor, Johnson gained a reputation as \"a liberal, centre-ground politician\", according toBusiness Insider.In 2012, the political scientistTony Traversdescribed Johnson as \"a fairly classic—that", "fairly classic—that is, small-state—mildlyeuroscepticConservative\" who also embraced \"modern social liberalism\".The Guardianstated that while mayor, Johnson blended economic and social liberalism,withThe Economistsaying that in doing so Johnson \"transcends his Tory identity\" and adopts a more libertarian perspective.According to political scientist Richard Hayton, Johnson's premiership was about Brexit, which served as a \"national cause\". Johnson evoked the discourse ofpopular sovereigntyandanti-establishmentpopulism to portray Parliament as seeking to \"sabotage\" Brexit, and in doing so, presented himself \"as the true representative of 'the people'\". Scholars ofcomparative politicshave drawn comparisons between Johnson and other populist leaders such as Donald Trump andViktor Orban.Some commentators have likened Johnson's political style toTrumpism,although others have argued that Johnson's stance on matters such as social policy, immigration and free trade is liberal.Johnson biographer Gimson wrote that", "Gimson wrote that Johnson is economically and socially \"a genuine liberal\", although he retains a \"Tory element\" through his \"love of existing institutions, and a recognition of the inevitability of hierarchy\".In 2019, reacting to reports inThe Sun, that Johnson had told cabinet colleagues he was \"basically a Brexity Hezza\", former deputy leader of the Conservative PartyMichael Heseltinewrote: \"I fear that any traces of liberal conservatism that still exist within the prime minister have long since been captured by the rightwing, foreigner-bashing, inward-looking view of the world that has come to characterise his fellow Brexiters.\" Environment Johnson expressedclimate scepticalviews in several columns,conflating the distinction between weather and climate and highlighting a factually incorrect claim by weather forecaster and conspiracy theoristPiers Corbynthat reduced solar activity could lead to a \"mini-Ice Age\". Bloomberg Newssuggested that Johnson's interest in climate change increased after becoming", "after becoming prime minister, and suggested this could have been influenced by his wifeCarrie Symondsand fatherStanley Johnson, who are both environmental campaigners. In 2019 and 2020, Johnson expressed support for the UK to have\"net-zero\" greenhouse gas emissionsby 2050and spoke about increasing ambition for mitigating climate change throughcarbon capture and storageand arenewable energy transition.During the2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference, Johnson called for greater efforts towardsclimate change mitigation,and welcomed the prospect ofcoal phase-out. It was reported in 2022 that Johnson was convinced of thescientific consensus on climate changefollowing a briefing by the chief scientist of theMet Officein January 2020, and subsequently made the issue a priority for his government. According toTheyWorkForYouas of 2022, Johnson has \"generally voted against\" what it described as \"key measures to preventclimate change\"while an MP,and other sources confirm this. Immigration and the European Union", "the European Union Purnell believed it was the influence of Johnson's maternal family that led to him developing \"a genuine abhorrence of racial discrimination\".In 2003, Johnson said, \"I am not by any means an ultra-Eurosceptic. In some ways, I am a bit of a fan of theEuropean Union. If we did not have one, we would invent something like it.\"As mayor, Johnson was known as a supporter ofimmigration.From 2009, he advocated a referendum on Britain's EU membership. In 2018, during Brexit negotiations, Johnson called for Britain to leave theSingle Marketand advocated a more liberal approach to immigration than that of Prime Minister May.He stated many people believed thatBritain's EU membershiphad led to the suppression of British wages and said the EU was intent on creating a \"superstate\" that would seek to rob Britain of its sovereignty.In 2019, Johnson said he would take Britain out of the EU on 31 October whether there was a trade deal in place or not.Johnson also stated his opposition to areferendum on the", "areferendum on the Brexit withdrawal agreement. On 19 August 2019, Johnson wrote a letter to the EU asking for the removal of the \"backstop\" accord. The president of the European Council,Donald Tusk, rejected the proposal.On 26 August 2019, Johnson said that Britain would not pay £39 billion for the withdrawal agreement were the UK to leave without a deal. The European Parliament Brexit coordinatorGuy Verhofstadtsaid there would be no further negotiation unless the UK agreed to pay the entire sum. Unionism and devolution Johnson described himself as a \"fervent and passionateunionist\".He proposed building anIrish Sea Bridge, but he later scrapped this initiative. The devolved administrations have criticised theInternal Market Billfor its re-centralisation of control over commerce. Public image Johnson has said that \"humour is a utensil that you can use to sugar the pill and to get important points across\".He is said to have a genuine desire to be liked.Johnson has been described as having a light-hearted and", "a light-hearted and charming persona;many biographers and commentators suggest he has put significant effort into developing this version of himself.He has also been described as heavily focused on his own interests,with an often vitriolic or irresponsible way of conducting himself in private. Johnson has been described as a divisive, controversial figure in British politics.Supporters have praised him as witty and entertaining.Johnson has been accused of lying or making misleading statements throughout his career,and has been compared to former US presidentDonald Trump.He has been considered a figure with broad appeal outside of the usual Conservative support base.Johnson's premiership has been described by historians as the most controversial and scandal-affected since that ofDavid Lloyd Georgeabout a century earlier. Personal life Since Johnson was born in New York City to British parents, he heldBritish-Americandual citizenship. In 2015, he agreed to paycapital gains taxto theUS tax authoritieson a", "tax authoritieson a property that he inherited in the UK.He renounced his US citizenship the following year.Johnson has knowledge of French, Italian, German, Spanish,LatinandAncient Greek,frequently makingclassicalallusions in his newspaper columns and his speeches. Sonia Purnellwrote in 2011 that Johnson was a \"highly evasive figure\" when it came to his personal life,who remained detached from others and who had few intimate friends.Among friends and family, Johnson is more commonly known as Al (short for his forename Alexander), rather than Boris. In 2007, Johnson said he had smokedcannabisbefore he went to university.He has also said he had usedcocaine.Johnson partakes in cycling, tennis andpilates, and returned to road running in 2023.He was consideredobesein 2018 andoverweightin 2020, and has spoken of making efforts to lose weight. Johnson previously owned a £1.3 million buy-to-let townhouse inCamberwell, South London. According toHM Land Registrydocuments, he bought the four-bedroom property with his", "property with his then-girlfriendCarrie Symondsin July 2019. The register of MPs' interests states that Johnson had a rental income of at least £10,000 a year.In 2023, Johnson and Symonds boughtBrightwell Manor, a £3.8 million moated mansion inBrightwell-cum-Sotwell, Oxfordshire. Religion Johnson was baptisedCatholicand laterconfirmedin theChurch of England,but has said that his faith \"comes and goes\"and that he is not a serious practising Christian.In 2020, his son Wilfred was baptised Catholic.Johnson and Symonds married in a Catholic ceremony atWestminster Cathedralon 29 May 2021.Since he was baptised Catholic, but his previous weddings were not conferred by the Catholic Church, the Catholic Church considered them putatively invalid. Johnson holds ancient Greek statesmanPericlesas a personal hero.According to Johnson's biographer, Andrew Gimson, regarding ancient Greek andRoman polytheism: \"it is clear that is inspired by the Romans, and even more by the Greeks, and repelled by theearly", "by theearly Christians\".Johnson viewssecular humanismpositively and sees it as owing more to theclassical worldthan to Christian thinking.However, in 2021, Johnson was asked if he held pre-Christian beliefs, which he denied, saying, \"Christianity is a superb ethical system and I would count myself as a kind of very, very bad Christian... Christianity makes a lot of sense to me.\" Relationships In 1987, Johnson marriedAllegra Mostyn-Owen, daughter of the art historianWilliam Mostyn-Owenand Italian writerGaia Servadio.The couple's marriage ended in divorce orannulmentin 1993and 12 days later Johnson marriedMarina Wheeler, a barrister, daughter of journalistCharles Wheeler.Five weeks later, their first child was born.They have four children:Lara Lettice, Milo Arthur, Cassia Peaches and Theodore Apollo. Between 2000 and 2004, Johnson had an affair withSpectatorcolumnistPetronella Wyattwhen he was its editor, resulting in a terminated pregnancy and amiscarriage.In April 2006, theNews of the Worldalleged that", "Worldalleged that Johnson was having an affair withGuardianjournalist Anna Fazackerley. The pair did not comment; shortly afterward, Johnson employed Fazackerley. In 2009, Johnson fathered a daughter with Helen Macintyre, an arts consultant.In September 2021, Johnson stated that he had six children, thereby denying the existence of further illegitimate children. In September 2018, Johnson and Wheeler issued a statement confirming that they had separated months earlier;they divorced in 2020. Jennifer Arcurisaid that she had an affair with Johnson from 2012 to 2016. In 2019, Johnson was living withCarrie Symonds, the daughter ofMatthew Symonds, co-founder ofThe Independentnewspaper.Johnson and Symonds became engaged in late 2019and their son, Wilfred Lawrie Nicholas Johnson,was born in April 2020. On 29 May 2021, Johnson married Symonds atWestminster Cathedral.Their daughter, Romy Iris Charlotte Johnson,was born in December 2021.Their third child, a son named Frank Alfred Odysseus Johnson, was born in July", "was born in July 2023. Family and ancestors Johnson is the eldest of the four children ofStanley Johnson, a formerConservativemember of the European Parliament, and the painterCharlotte Johnson Wahl(née Fawcett),the daughter of SirJames Fawcett, president of theEuropean Commission of Human Rights.His younger siblings areRachel Johnson, a writer and journalist, Leo Johnson, a broadcaster,andJo Johnson, ex-minister of state and former Conservative MP forOrpington, who resigned from his brother's government in September 2019and is now a member of theHouse of Lords. Johnson's stepmother, Jenny, the second wife of his father Stanley, is the stepdaughter ofTeddy Sieff, the former chairman ofMarks & Spencer.Having been a member of the Conservatives between 2008 and 2011, Rachel Johnson joined the Liberal Democrats in 2017.She stood as a candidate forChange UKin the2019 European Elections.Johnson also has two half-siblings,Juliaand Maximilian, through his father's later marriage to Jennifer Kidd. Johnson's paternal", "Johnson's paternal grandfather, Wilfred Johnson, was an RAF pilot inCoastal Commandduring the Second World War.Wilfred Johnson's father was theOttomanInterior Ministerand journalistAli Kemal. Ali Kemal's father was aTurkwhile his mother was aCircassianreputedly ofslaveorigin.His other paternal ancestry includes English, German and French; one of his German ancestors was said to be theillegitimatedaughter ofPrince Paul of Württembergand thus a descendant ofGeorge II of Great Britain,which was later confirmed on an episode ofWho Do You Think You Are? Johnson's mother is the granddaughter ofElias Avery Lowe, apalaeographerand aRussian Jewishimmigrant to the US,andPennsylvania-bornHelen Tracy Lowe-Porter, a translator ofThomas Mann.Referring to his varied ancestry, Johnson has described himself as a \"one-man melting pot\".Johnson was given the middle name \"Boris\" after a White Russian émigré named Boris Litwin, who was a friend of his parents. Honours Works Notes References Footnotes Sources Further reading", "Further reading External links", "Liz Truss Mary Elizabeth Truss(born 26 July 1975) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United KingdomandLeader of the Conservative Partyfrom September to October 2022. On her fiftieth dayin office, she stepped down amida government crisis, making her theshortest-serving prime ministerin British history. Themember of Parliament(MP) forSouth West Norfolkfrom 2010 to 2024, Truss held variousCabinetpositions under three prime ministers—David Cameron,Theresa MayandBoris Johnson—lastly asforeign secretaryfrom 2021 to 2022. Truss studiedphilosophy, politics and economicsatMerton College, Oxford, and was the president of theOxford University Liberal Democrats. In 1996 she joined theConservative Party. She worked atRoyal Dutch ShellandCable & Wirelessand was the deputy director of the think tankReform. After two unsuccessful attempts to be elected to theHouse of Commons, she became the MP for South West Norfolk at the2010 general election. As abackbenchershe called for reform in several policy", "in several policy areas including the economy, childcare and mathematics in education. Truss co-founded theFree Enterprise Groupof Conservative MPs and wrote or co-wrote a number of papers and books, includingAfter the CoalitionandBritannia Unchained. Truss was theparliamentary under-secretary of state for childcare and educationfrom 2012 to 2014 before Cameron appointed hersecretary of state for the environment, food and rural affairsina cabinet reshuffle. Although she campaigned for the UK to remain in theEuropean Union, Truss supportedBrexitfollowing the outcome of the2016 referendum. Following Cameron's resignation in 2016 his successor, Theresa May, appointed hersecretary of state for justiceandlord chancellor, making Truss the first woman to serve as lord chancellor in the office's thousand-year history; in the aftermath of the2017 general electionshe was demoted tochief secretary to the Treasury. After May announced her resignation in May 2019 Truss supported Johnson's successful bid to become", "bid to become Conservative leader and prime minister. He appointed Trusssecretary of state for international tradeandpresident of the Board of Tradein July and subsequently to the additional role ofminister for women and equalitiesin September. Johnson promoted Truss to foreign secretary in the2021 cabinet reshuffle; during her time in the position she led negotiations on theNorthern Ireland Protocoland theUK's response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In September 2022 Truss defeatedRishi Sunakina leadership electionto succeed Johnson, who had resigned because of anearlier government crisis, and was appointed as prime minister byElizabeth IItwo days beforethe monarch's death; her government's business was subsequently suspended during anational mourning periodof ten days. In response to therising cost of livingandincreased energy prices,her ministryannounced theEnergy Price Guarantee. The government then announcedlarge-scale tax cuts and borrowing, which led to financial instability and were largely", "and were largely reversed. Facing mounting criticism and loss of confidence in her leadership, Truss announced her resignation as leader of the Conservative Party on 20 October. Sunak waselected unopposedas her successor, and appointed prime minister on 25 October. After spending the duration ofSunak's premiershipon the backbenches, Trusslost her seatat the2024 general election. Early life and education (1975–1996) Mary Elizabeth Truss was born on 26 July 1975 at theJohn Radcliffe HospitalinOxford, England.She was the second child ofJohnand Priscilla Truss (néeGrasby); the year before Truss's birth, their first son, Matthew, had died.Truss was known by her middle name,Elizabeth, from early childhood, with her father—a professor ofpure mathematicsat theUniversity of Leeds—using it regularly, which she preferred;after being given a badge with \"Mary\" on it on her first day of school, Truss asked her teacher that it be changed.She later described her parents' politics as being \"to the left ofLabour\";her mother,", "mother, a teacher and nurse, was a member of theCampaign for Nuclear Disarmament.When Truss stood for election as a Conservative, her mother agreed to campaign with her but her father declined to do so.Her parents divorced in 2003. he stands out in my memory as a sort of strange, unfocused force, hugely in favour of action and change... it was always hard to see the aim of it all, or where it might lead, except that she would be at the centre of it. Julian Gloveron Truss, his former schoolmate. In 1977 Truss and her parents moved to Warsaw, but returned to Britain after John and Priscilla found it \"quite grim\".After living briefly inKidderminster,Worcestershire, the family moved toPaisleyin Scotland when Truss was four years old, where she attended West Primary School.In 1985 they moved south toLeeds, where Truss attendedRoundhay School; she later said in 2022 that at the school she \"saw kids... being let down\", a claim which was criticised as inaccurate by several former Roundhay pupils.When Truss was 12", "Truss was 12 she and her family spent a year inBurnaby, British Columbia, where she attended Parkcrest Elementary School whilst her father taught atSimon Fraser University.Truss praised the Canadian curriculum and the attitude that it was \"really good to be top of the class\", which she contrasted with her education at Roundhay. Truss's parents had initially wanted her to study at theUniversity of Cambridge, but Truss instead elected to go toOxfordin what her biographers, Cole and Heale, call a \"bout of teenage rebellion\".She applied toMerton Collegebut was insteadpooledto the all-women'sSt Hilda's College; annoyed, she then complained to both colleges, after which she was accepted by Merton and began her studies there in September 1993.Truss readphilosophy, politics and economicsand graduated in 1996.During her time at university, Truss was active in theLiberal Democratsand was a member of the Oxford Reform Club.She became the president of theOxford University Liberal Democratsin her first yearand a member", "yearand a member of the national executive committee ofLiberal Democrat Youth and Students(LDYS) in 1995.During Truss's previous, unsuccessful bid for the LDYS executive, the party's leader,Paddy Ashdown, said she was \"a good debater and is utterly fearless\".As a Liberal Democrat, Truss supported theabolition of the monarchyand thelegalisation of cannabis,and campaigned against theCriminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.However, by November 1995 Truss had become critical of the Liberal Democrats, as she \"realised the Tory Party was saying quite sane things\"; in her last year at the university, she resigned from the LDYS.By 1996 Truss had joined the Conservative Party. Career Employment and candidatures (1996–2010) From 1996 to 2000 Truss worked forRoyal Dutch Shell, living inLewishamandGreenwichand qualifying as achartered management accountant.In 2000 she was employed byCable & Wirelessand rose to the position of economic director before leaving in 2005;one of her colleagues there, the LabourpeerGeorge", "LabourpeerGeorge Robertson, said that Truss \"had a passion for politics... she fresh minded, enthusiastic and the Tory Party needed people like that\".In January 2008, after losing her first two elections, Truss became the deputy director ofReform, acentre-rightthink tank, where she advocated for more focus on countering serious andorganised crimeand higher standards in schools and action to tackle what Reform perceived as Britain's \"falling competitiveness\".She co-authoredThe Value of Mathematics,Fit for Purpose,A New Level,Back To Blackand other reports. Whilst working at Shell, Truss served as the chair of theLewisham DeptfordConservative Associationfrom 1998 to 2000, having been introduced to the branch by her friend and later Conservative MPJackie Doyle-Price.During this time, at a reception at theGreenwichConservative Association, Truss met her future husband,Hugh O'Leary,whom she married in 2000 and with whom she has two daughters: Frances (born 2006) and Liberty (born 2008).Truss unsuccessfully stood", "stood for election twice inGreenwich London Borough Council: forVanbrugh ward in 1998andBlackheath Westcombe in 2002.The deputy leader of Greenwich Conservatives, Graeme Coombes, recalled in 2022 that Truss \"said she was hoping to stand for Parliament... she was destined for bigger and better things\".However, Alex Grant, the candidate who had defeated Truss in 2002, called her \"largely invisible during the campaign\".Inthe 2006 council election, Truss was elected forElthamSouth,but did not seek re-election to the council in2010, standing down the day she became an MP. At the2001 general electionTruss was selected for thesafeLabour seat ofHemsworth,West Yorkshire, coming a distant second but achieving a 3.2 per centswingto the Conservatives, thought impressive by her party colleagues.The election saw the Conservatives make a net gain of one seat, which was considered a disappointment;the party leaderWilliam Haguesubsequently resigned, with Truss supporting the formerdefence secretaryMichael Portillo's", "Portillo's unsuccessful leadership campaign. In January 2005 Sue Catling, the parliamentary candidate for theCalder Valleyconstituency, was forced to resign by the local Conservative Association because of an affair with the association's chairman.Catling claimed that the members of the party that had opposed her were sexist and said that she was \"accused of everything except murder and paedophilia\".Truss, who was selected as the candidate for the seat,narrowly lostto the Labour incumbent after an active Conservative campaign whichThe Yorkshire Postdescribed as \"Blitzkrieg\".Beginning in 2004, Truss embarked on an 18-month affair with the Conservative MPMark Field, which ended shortly after the following year's election. Following the 2005 general electionDavid CameronreplacedMichael Howardas leader, and Truss was added tothe party's A-List, a list of potential Conservative candidates;in October 2009 she was selected for the constituency ofSouth West Norfolkby members of the local Conservative Association,", "Association, winning over 50 per cent of the vote in the first round of the final against 5 other candidates, including the future deputy prime ministerThérèse Coffey.Shortly after her selection, some members of the constituency association objected to Truss's selection because of her failure to declare her affair with Field.The Mail on Sundaywas the first to report on the affair, and party members claimed to have been misled over Truss's \"skeleton in the cupboard\".A motion was proposed to terminate Truss's candidature; the proponents of Truss's deselection were branded the \"TurnipTaliban\" by Conservative Party officials and the press, including by theMail,a reference to stereotypes about Norfolk being a county of farmers.There was also controversy over the fact that Truss was not from Norfolk, with some in the association asking for a local candidate and saying that she had been \"parachuted in\".On 16 November, the motion was put to the association: following both sides making their arguments, including what", "including what Cole and Heale call an \"impassioned\" speech from Truss, it was defeated by 132 votes to 37. Backbencher (2010–2012) Truss was elected as an MP in the2010 general election, which saw 148 other Conservatives become MPs for the first time;many of whatThe Independentdescribed as the \"golden generation\" would later reach high ranks in government.The Conservatives did not reach anoverall majorityin theHouse of Commonsand entered intoa coalition governmentwith the Liberal Democrats, with Cameron becoming prime minister.Following her election to Parliament, Truss campaigned for issues relating to her constituency, including the retention of theTornado GR4airbase atRAF Marhamin her constituency;the replacement of the old aircraft with around 150 newF-35 strike fighters;the conversion of theA11west ofThetfordinto adual carriageway, which was completed in 2014;and preventing a waste incinerator being built inKing's Lynn.Truss co-founded theFree Enterprise Group(FEG)—a grouping of over", "grouping of over 30ThatcheriteConservative MPs—in October 2011; the month prior, she had co-authoredAfter the Coalitionwith some of the people that would later join the FEG:Priti Patel,Kwasi Kwarteng,Dominic RaabandChris Skidmore. The book advocated for a number of policies, including a reduction in the top rate of tax to 40 pence per pound and the introduction of acarbon taxto reduce pollution.On the publication, Truss wrote: Our message must be that the state cannot do everything: while the government can help, it can never fully solve any individual's problems. The NHScan't keep you healthy if you don't eat or exercise properly. A teacher can't get you the grades if you aren't prepared to work. Thejob centrecan't find you work if you aren't prepared to write a CV. Another book by the same authors,Britannia Unchained, was published in September 2012. The book attracted controversy for claiming that \"the British are among the worst idlers in the world. We work among the lowest hours, we retire early and our", "early and our productivity is poor\".In 2022 Truss stated that the authors had each written a different chapter of the book; Raab had written the chapter which contained that claim.Truss soon became well known amongst members of Parliament in Norfolk for her frequentphoto opsbut was well respected amongst Conservative MPs, who recognised her as dedicated and hard-working, and by staff as attentive to local issues.Some of Truss's earliest contributions to parliamentary discourse were on the subject of education:she advocated for more rigorous teaching in school subjects, especially mathematics,calling for mathematics lessons to be compulsory for all students until the age of 18 and expressing concern about a perceived overreliance on calculators fromprimary schoolpupils.Truss criticised \"media studiesthe same value asfurther maths\" and suggested in 2011 that students should have to sitGCSEsfor \"5 traditional academic subjects\". Education under-secretary (2012–2014) ou're a great minister, I loved what you did,", "loved what you did, but we really couldn't go ahead with this one. You're one of the first ministers I've appointed to do something and you've just done it. David Cameron speaking to Truss about her childcare proposal. In September 2012 Truss was appointed as parliamentary under-secretary of state for education and stepped back from the leadership of the FEG, with Kwarteng taking her place.Truss was pleased with her appointment, and praisedMichael Gove, thesecretary of statefor the department; she also formed a friendly rivalry with the futurehealth secretaryMatt Hancock.In January 2013, Truss wrote awhite paper—More Great Childcare—in which she proposed increasing the maximum number of childrenchildminderscould look after at a time from three to four, as a means of reducing childcare costs.The press, including Conservative-leaning papers likeThe Daily TelegraphandThe Times, were largely hostile to the plan. The former claimed that prices would not fall; the latter claimed that \"her appointment signal a", "signal a rapid deregulation of the sector\"; and theGuardiancolumnistPolly Toynbeechallenged Truss to demonstrate how to care for so many children on her own.Following a negative response fromtrade unionsand childminders, Truss met with the deputy prime minister,Nick Clegg, who told her that \"some of this is fine\" but the maximum childminder increase went \"much too far\", and advised her to revise the proposal;Truss ignored Clegg and pushed ahead with the plan, angering Clegg, who then blocked the proposals.Truss also announced proposals to reformA-levelsby concentrating exams at the end of two-year courses and said that the UK should attempt to \"out-educate\" countries in Asia. Environment secretary (2014–2016) In July 2014 duringa cabinet reshuffle, Truss was appointedsecretary of stateat thedepartment of environment, food and rural affairs(Defra);the changes to the Cabinet made it one third women.She was originally to be made a minister of state, but Cameron changed his mind on the morning of the", "the morning of the reshuffle.Her predecessorOwen Paterson\"stormed out\" of Cameron's Commons study when told he was to be dismissed; nevertheless, he gave Truss his phone number and offered his support.Paterson was dismissed partly because of hisculling plans for badgers with tuberculosis, which Truss later supported.Early actions at the department included setting up a \"food crime unit\" to prevent incidents similar to the2013 horse meat scandal, approving planning for theThames Tideway Tunneland development ofFlood Re, a scheme designed to insure homes at a high risk of flooding. According to the academicDieter Helm, Truss, having \"no obvious interest\" in environmental matters, saw Defra instead as \"but a first step on a political ladder she wanted to climb upasap\".She was, along with the Treasury, keen to cut the budgets of bodies such asNatural Englandand theEnvironment Agency, placing them under stricter direct departmental control:Rory Stewart, one of Truss'sjunior ministersduring her second term as", "her second term as environment secretary, claimed that she saw the department \"very much in terms of budgets cuts\".Under Truss, Defra launched a ten-year strategy to counter falling bee populations,approved the limited temporary lifting of aEuropean Unionban on the use of twoneonicotinoidpesticidesand cut subsidies forsolar panelson agricultural land.Following the2015 general electionTruss was reappointed as environment secretary, although Helm writes that her second period at Defra \"saw little change... do as little as possible was the political objective\". At theConservative Party conferencein September 2014 Truss made a speech in which she said \"we import two thirds of our cheese. That is a disgrace\" and \"in December, I'll be in Beijing, opening up new pork markets\".Four days after Truss delivered the speech, parts of the video were featured on the satirical panel showHave I Got News For You;the awkward, stilted delivery led her to be mocked and clips of the speech went viral online.In March the", "online.In March the following year Truss was one of two cabinet ministers to vote against the government's proposal to mandateplain packagingfor cigarettes.When she had been asked previously about the issue during a constituency meeting, Truss said \"when it comes to things like this, I take a morelibertarianapproach... I don't know if it's the government's role to regulate this\".During the2016 referendum on leaving the European Union, Truss endorsedRemain, saying that the Conservatives had \"a golden chance to reform Britain over the next few years\" and to avoid \" that time negotiating Britain's exit from the European Union\".The referendum resulted in the defeat of Remain and Cameron's resignation; thehome secretaryTheresa Maywonthe ensuing leadership electionand subsequently became leader of the Conservative Party and prime minister. Justice secretary and lord chancellor (2016–2017) In July 2016 Truss was appointed assecretary of state for justiceandlord chancellorin thefirst May ministry, becoming the first", "becoming the first female lord chancellor in the office's thousand-year history.May's decision to appoint her was criticised by theminister of state for justice,Edward Faulks, who resigned from the government, questioning whether Truss would \"have the clout to be able to stand up to the Prime Minister when necessary, on behalf of the judges\".Other Conservative members of Parliament criticised Truss's appointment owing to her lack of legal experience; in response, Truss's supporters accused one of the MPs,Bob Neill, of \"thinly veiled misogyny\". Before Truss's arrival, the budget of theMinistry of Justice—which is responsible for the administration ofBritish prisons—had been subjected to successive cuts under the coalition government. The cuts were blamed for the prisons' rising rates of violence owing to the consequential drop in prison officer numbers.Truss lobbied thechancellor of the Exchequer,Philip Hammond, for £104 million in order to hire an additional 2,500 officers, which Hammond reluctantly", "Hammond reluctantly delivered.In November 2016, Truss was accused of failing to support the judiciary after three judges of theHigh Courtwere criticised by politicians and by theDaily Mail—which ran with the headline \"Enemies of the People\"—forruling against the governmenton whetherArticle 50—which would begin the process of leaving the EU—could be triggered without Parliament's approval.A former lord chancellor,Charlie Falconer, suggested that, like her immediate predecessors, Truss lacked legal expertise and called for her to be dismissed as justice secretary as her perceived inadequate response \" to the judges that they have lost their constitutional protector\".She denied that she had failed to defend them, writing: An independent judiciary is the cornerstone of the rule of law, vital to our constitution and freedoms. It is my duty as lord chancellor to defend that independence. I swore to do so under my oath of office. I take that very seriously, and I will always do so. Chief secretary to the Treasury", "to the Treasury (2017–2019) In June, following the2017 general election, May demoted Truss from justice secretary tochief secretary to the Treasury, meaning she could attend cabinet meetings but was not a full member;Truss was enraged and called the demotion \"incredibly unfair\" and was, according to one of her friends, \"seething for a good couple of days\".Despite what Cole and Heale describe as her \"knocked\" confidence from the demotion, Truss soon began to contribute to the department, using it, according to a Treasury worker, \"like her own personal think tank\" by asking for research and advice onmonetary policy.In her first few months there, she was largely left out of decision-making processes by Hammond, who was described by Kwarteng as \"quite a closed, centrally controlling chancellor\"; nevertheless, Truss and the Chancellor were reported to have a good relationship.Beginning in December 2017 she developed an enthusiasm for cultivating her presence onTwitterandInstagram; Truss began to plan ministerial", "to plan ministerial visits aroundphoto opsfor her social media.Some of her civil servants were reported as finding her tenure as chief secretary \"exhausting\", owing to her work schedule and asking them multiplication questions, a tactic she had first employed as an MP.Despite her governmental role, Truss remained relatively unknown by the public, with only seven per cent recognising her in March 2019. In June 2018 Truss gave a speech criticising rules and regulations which she said \"just g in the way of consumers' choices and lifestyles\", including the government's efforts to reduce alcohol consumption and unhealthy eating habits, and warned that raising taxes could see the Conservatives being \"crushed\" at the polls.She also attacked colleagues who she said should realise \"it's notmachojust to demand more money\",a jibe at the defence secretaryGavin Williamson, who had mounted a largely unsuccessful campaign for an extra £20 billion for his department, including threatening to write \"Liz Truss blocked your", "Truss blocked your pay\" to everybody in the British Armed Forces.Truss's speech, which also mocked Michael Gove, was criticised by Hammond;Ed Vaizey, an ally of Gove's; and Gove himself;a speech she gave in November similarly joked about Matt Hancock, the newly appointed home secretary,Sajid Javid, and the health secretary,Jeremy Hunt.Before May's resignation announcement on 24 May 2019 Truss had sought the opinion of her colleagues on whether she could credibly stand and courted media attention.As it became apparent she could not win, she ruled herself out the day after May announced her resignation and subsequently endorsed the formerforeign secretaryBoris Johnson, the first minister to do so. International trade secretary (2019–2021) After Johnson became prime minister Truss was widely expected to be promoted because of her endorsement of his leadership campaign; it was thought she might have been appointed chancellor orbusiness secretary, but she was instead promoted to the position ofsecretary of state", "of state for international tradeandpresident of the Board of Trade.Following the resignation ofAmber Rudd, Truss was additionally appointedminister for women and equalitiesin September that year.Shortly after becoming international trade secretary, Truss embarked on international trips to the US, New Zealand, Australia and Japan.Truss met with her American counterpartRobert Lighthizeron her first trip to the US, where she gave what Cole and Heale describe as an \"incendiary\" speech on a potential US–UK trade deal. In Australia she made unscripted comments on their free-trade negotiations with the UK; both events were to the dismay of Downing Street officials.Sebastian Paynedescribed Truss's tenure as international trade secretary as \"enthusiastic yet disruptive\".She continued to document her trips through social media. In February 2020a reshuffletook place followingthe general electionwhich had been held in December.Truss feared that she would be dismissed after the comments she had made on her previous", "on her previous international trips, but Johnson decided to keep her in post following Javid's resignation as chancellor.During her time at the department Truss became notorious for leaking information.Dominic Cummings, Johnson's chief adviser, later wrote that Truss was \"the only minister I shouted at in Number 10\" because of her \"compulsive pathological leaking\".Truss's pursuit of a trade deal with the US concerned some in theNational Farmers' Union(NFU), which worried about an influx of lower-quality food products if passed; the NFU, along withThe Mail on Sunday, campaigned against such a deal in May.TheCOVID-19 lockdownseliminated international travel, and Truss instead attended virtual meetings. By early 2021 Truss's attempted US trade deal was deemed futile.Instead, she focused onjoiningtheComprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, which necessitatedfree trade agreementswith Australia,Japanand New Zealand.The Australia deal, finalised in December, was described by one of", "described by one of Truss's aides as \"the hardest thing she's ever got through\"; the New Zealand deal was agreed to shortly thereafter.By mid-2021 she had started to ingratiate herself with the parliamentary party in anticipation of a leadership election.In September plans for aNational Insuranceincrease were opposed by Truss; Downing Street expected her resignation, but Truss later decided against it. Foreign secretary (2021–2022) In September 2021, during acabinet reshuffle, Johnson promoted Truss from international trade secretary to secretary of state for foreign, Commonwealth and development affairs, replacingDominic Raab, who had been criticised for holidaying inCreteduring theFall of Kabul;the move was despite Johnson finding Truss \"flaky\", according to the historianAnthony Seldon.Truss became the second woman to occupy the office and kept the post of equalities minister.Her early actions as foreign secretary included negotiating at theUnited Nations General Assemblyfor the release ofNazanin", "release ofNazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe;meeting with her Japanese, Canadian and German counterparts; mounting an unsuccessful attempt to join theUnited States–Mexico–Canada Agreement;and a visit to Estonia where—likeMargaret ThatcherinWest Germany—she was photographed in a tank, with the pictures generating both praise and mockery. ho was the person to get the job? Someone who'd been in international trade and travelled around the world for two-and-a-half years. That was a natural promotion. Kwasi Kwartengon Truss's promotion to foreign secretary. In early 2022 Truss's attention was directed towards abuild-up of Russian troopsnear theRussia–Ukraine border.Truss supported a plan whichdeclassifieda large amount of intelligence on Russia, releasing it to the public for the first time in order to weaken the Russian government in the event of an invasion.On 10 February 2022 she met the Russian foreign ministerSergey Lavrovin Moscow, becoming the first British minister to go on a diplomatic trip there since the2018", "there since the2018 Salisbury poisonings.The meeting was, according to Payne, a \"disaster\": Lavrov described it as being \"between the dumb and the deaf\", and the two ministers spoke over each other and found it difficult to communicate.Five days later, Truss stated that the world was on the \"brink of war in Europe\",which transpired in the early hours of 24 February asRussia invaded Ukraine.Before the invasion and during its immediate aftermath, Truss advocated forsanctions on Russiaand encouraged otherG7leaders to impose them;in March 2022 she stated that the sanctions would end only in the event of a \"full ceasefire and withdrawal\".Johnson praised Truss's actions, saying that \"she was always terrific on Ukraine... other governmentsfaffedaround... she was very clear and focused\". Throughout the first half of 2022 Johnson's position as prime minister became increasingly unstable owing to successive scandalsdamaging his governmentand his personal reputation,includingPartygate, which resulted in him and the", "in him and the chancellorRishi Sunakreceivingfixed penalty notices.During this time, Truss announced theNorthern Ireland Protocol Bill, which was intended to overhaul theNorthern Ireland Protocol, including measures to free goods produced in Great Britain from what she described as \"unnecessary bureaucracy\" entering Northern Ireland.The plan was criticised by theEuropean Commissionbut was received well by theEuropean Research Group—aEuroscepticfaction within the parliamentary Conservative party—and the right-wing Northern IrishDemocratic Unionist Party.Amid mounting pressure on Johnson following theChris Pincher scandal, on 5 July Sunak and Javid resigned within minutes of each other. Johnson again considered giving Truss the chancellorship, but decided against it owing to what Payne calls the \"fragile geopolitical situation\" and instead selectedNadhim Zahawias Sunak's replacement.However, Johnson's premiership proved untenable and on 7 July he announced his resignation as leader of the Conservative Party, a", "Party, a move which Truss called \"the right decision\". Leadership election (July–September 2022) On 10 July Truss announced her intention to run in theleadership electionto replace Johnson. She pledged to cut taxes, said she would \"fight the election as a Conservative and govern as a Conservative\" and would take \"immediate action to help people deal with the cost of living\".She said she would cancel a planned rise incorporation taxand reverse the increase in National Insurance rates, funded by delaying the date by which the national debt was planned to fall, as part of a \"long-term plan to bring down the size of the state and the tax burden\".The political scientistVernon Bogdanorsaid in a 2022 article that \" appreciated that winning over the membership required not detailed policy proposals but the creation of a mood\". Truss received 50 votes on the first of Conservative MPs'5 ballots, with the number of votes cast for her increasing in each;on 20 JulyTruss and Sunak were chosen by the parliamentary party to", "party to be put forward to the membership for the final leadership vote, with Truss receiving 113 votes to Sunak's 137.In the membership vote, the leader of the1922 Committee,Graham Brady, announced on 5 September that 43 per cent of ballots were for Sunak and 57 per cent for Truss, making her the new leader.In Truss's victory speech, she said that she would deliver on her campaign promises and pledged to win a \"great victory\" for the Conservatives at thenext general election. Premiership (2022) Cabinet and death of Elizabeth II As the leader of the Conservative Party, the majority party in the House of Commons, Truss was appointed as prime minister byElizabeth IIatBalmoral Castleon 6 September 2022 and began to select her cabinet ministers.With the appointment of Kwarteng as chancellor of the Exchequer,James Cleverlyas foreign secretary andSuella Bravermanas home secretary, for the first time in British history, no white men held any of theGreat Offices of State.Other appointments included Thérèse Coffey as", "Thérèse Coffey as deputy prime minister and health secretary,Jacob Rees-Moggas business secretary,Kemi Badenochas international trade secretary,Kit Malthouseas education secretary,Penny Mordauntasleader of the House of CommonsandMichelle Donelanasculture secretary.Truss retainedBen Wallaceas defence secretary,Alok Sharmaaspresident for COP26,Alister JackasScotland secretary,Robert BucklandasWales secretaryandJames Heappeyasminister of state for the armed forces and veterans.Her cabinet was composed almost entirely of those who had supported her during the leadership contest. Truss was the fifteenth and final Britishprime minister to serve under Elizabeth II, who died on 8 September, two days after appointing Truss.She was told in the early morning that the Queen was unwell and likely to survive a \"matter of hours, not days\";Truss ordered black clothes from her Greenwich home in anticipation of the Queen's death, as she had not yet had time to move her belongings to Westminster.Upon Elizabeth's death, Truss", "death, Truss delivered a statement outside 10 Downing Street paying tribute to her: Queen Elizabeth II was the rock on which modern Britain was built. Our country has grown and flourished under her reign. Britain is the great country it is today because of her.... Through thick and thin, Queen Elizabeth II provided us with the stability and the strength that we needed. She was the very spirit of Great Britain, and that spirit will endure. On 10 September Truss attendedCharles III's accession ceremonyand took an oath of allegiance to the King with fellow senior MPs.On 19 September she attendedthe Queen's funeral serviceinWestminster Abbey, reading the secondlesson. Domestic policies and mini-budget On 8 September, in response to theongoing cost of living crisis, Truss announced theEnergy Price Guarantee, which was planned to cap average household energy bills at £2,500 per year,costing between 31 and £140 billion for the two years it covered.Truss, who announced the measure in the House of Commons, made an", "of Commons, made an effort to keep the energy cap and the tax plan announcements—which the Chancellor was planned to unveil—separate. On 23 September Kwarteng announced acontroversial mini-budgetwhich proposed cutting taxation significantly, including abolishing the 45 per centrateof income tax and the proposedHealth and Social Care Levy, cuttingstamp dutyand the basic rate ofincome taxand cancelling rises in National Insurance contributions andcorporation tax;the package, which had been constructed by Truss and Kwarteng together,was to be funded by borrowing and was intended to stimulategrowth.The mini-budget was received badly by financial markets because it included temporary spending measures whilst permanently cutting tax rates.It was blamed for the pound falling to its lowest ever rate against theUS dollar(US$1.033)and prompteda responsefrom theBank of Englandwhich, amongst other measures, bought upgovernment bonds; the public reaction was also broadly negative.The mini-budget was criticised by", "was criticised by theInternational Monetary Fund,the US presidentJoe Biden,the Labour Party and many within Truss's party, including the senior politicians Michael Gove andGrant Shapps. Government crisis and resignation I think it's ashamblesand a disgrace... I hope all those people that put Liz Truss in Number 10, I hope it was worth it. I hope it was worth it for theministerial red box, I hope it was worth it to sit round the Cabinet table because the damage they have done to our party is extraordinary. Charles Walker's remarks on the market fallout, subsequent government crisis and Conservative unpopularity. After initially defending the mini-budget, on 3 October Truss instructed Kwarteng to reverse the abolition of the 45 per cent income tax additional rate.She later reversed the cut in corporation tax and dismissed Kwarteng, replacing him with Jeremy Hunt on 14 October.Hunt reversed many of the remaining policies announced in the mini-budget, leading to further instability;because of Truss's perceived", "Truss's perceived weakness, he was described by some Conservative MPs and newspapers as thede factoprime minister.During this time, Truss became increasingly unpopular with the public, and contributed to a large fall in support for the Conservatives;in October, she became the most unpopular prime minister in British history,with her personal approval rating recorded in one survey as nine per cent.She was pilloried in national and international press as au-turner,and a chaoticvote on frackingalong with the resignation of Braverman as home secretary compounded a rapid deterioration of confidence in her leadership.On 19 October, in response to aquestionby the leader of the opposition,Keir Starmer, Truss said that she was a \"fighter and not a quitter\", quoting a 2001 phrase byPeter Mandelson. Shortly before noon on 20 October, Truss's forty-fifth day in office, Brady held a meeting with Truss where she asked if she would be able to remain in office;his response was \"I don't think so, Prime Minister\".At 1:35 pm,", "1:35 pm, Truss announced her resignation as the leader of the Conservative Party and as prime minister. She gave the following 89-second-long statement: I came into office at a time of great economic and international instability. Families and businesses were worried about how to pay their bills. Putin's illegal war in Ukraine threatens the security of our whole continent. And our country has been held back by for too long by low economic growth. I was elected by the Conservative Party with a mandate to change this. We delivered on energy bills and on cutting National Insurance. And we set out a vision for a low-tax, high-growth economy that would take advantage of the freedoms of Brexit. I recognise though, given the situation, I cannot deliver the mandate on which I was elected by the Conservative Party. I have therefore spoken to His Majesty the King to notify him that I am resigning as leader of the Conservative Party. This morning I met the chairman of the 1922 Committee, Sir Graham Brady. We've agreed", "Brady. We've agreed there will be a leadership election to be completed within the next week. This will ensure that we remain on a path to deliver our fiscal plans and maintain our country's economic stability and national security. I will remain as prime minister until a successor has been chosen. Thank you. Heale describes a \"funerealatmosphere\" within the government in the days following her resignation statement.She wassucceededby Sunak as leader of the Conservative Party on 24 October and the next day advised the King to appoint him as the new prime minister;Sunak went on to further reverse many of the economic measures she had made as prime minister but retained Hunt as chancellor.Resigning on her fiftieth day, Truss became theshortest-serving prime ministerin British history, surpassingGeorge Canning, who was prime minister for 119 days in 1827.The short length of her premiership was the subject of much ridicule, includinga livestream of a head of lettuce, started the week prior, which invited viewers", "invited viewers to speculate whether Truss would resign before the lettuce wilted. Post-premiership (2022–present) Truss was reselected as the Conservative candidate for South West Norfolk in February 2023and in August that year, she submitted the list ofher resignation honours,which were released in December to coincide with the2024 New Year Honours.In early September 2023 she announced her memoirs about her time as prime minister,Ten Years to Save the West,which was published in April 2024.That same month, Truss gave a speech to theInstitute for Governmentthink tank in which she blamed \"groupthink\" amongst officials and the media for the collapse of her premiership.Similarly, in October at the Conservative Party Conference, she held an event dubbed the \"Great British Growth Rally\" which was attended by hundreds of Conservative Party members, in contrast to government ministers who gave speeches to a hall which was, according to theTelegraph, \"at times almost empty\".In February 2024 she co-launched", "she co-launched thePopular Conservatismgroup with others including Jacob Rees-Mogg,Lee Andersonand Priti Patel and spoke at its inaugural event.The2024 general election, held on 4 July, resulted in Trusslosing her seat, in which she was defending a majority of over 26,000, to the Labour challenger,Terry Jermy;the result was described as aPortillo momentbyThe Spectator, a right-leaning magazine. Political positions Domestic issues Truss haseconomically liberalviews and supportsfree tradeandderegulation.She supports theneoliberalphilosophy ofsupply-side economics, often referred to as \"trickle-down economics\".After Truss's dismissal of Kwarteng and Hunt's reversal of many of the mini-budget's economic measures, theBBC's political editorFaisal Islamwrote that \"Trussonomicsis dead\". During her time as a Liberal Democrat, Truss supported the abolition of the monarchy. In 2022 a video of a 19-year-old Truss at the 1994Liberal Democrat conferencecriticising the notion of people being \"born to rule\" resurfaced;in an", "resurfaced;in an interview withLBCduring her leadership campaign, Truss stated that \"almost as soon as I made the speech, I regretted it\".In 2021 Truss stated that the Conservatives should \"reject thezero-sum gameofidentity politics, the illiberalism ofcancel culture, and thesoft bigotry of low expectationsthat holds so many people back\".She voted tolegalisesame-sex marriagebut has opposed the expansion oftransgender rights.Truss spoke againstgender self-identification, stating that \"medical checks are important\" and that \"only women have a cervix\".Despite initially supporting single-sex toilets being restricted on the basis of biological sex, she later said in February 2022 that the government was not interested in enacting such a measure. Foreign policy Truss was described as ahawkishforeign secretary.She called for Britain to reduce itseconomic dependency on ChinaandRussiaand supported certain diplomatic and economic sanctions imposed by the British government against the former.Truss has", "former.Truss has supportedTaiwanin the context of deterioratingcross-strait relationsbut, citing precedent, refused to visit the island as prime ministerand condemned the Chinese government'streatment of the Uyghur peopleas \"genocide\".In 2022 she called Saudi Arabia an ally of Britain but said she was not \"condoning\" the country's policies, including itshandling of human rightsand itstreatment of women. Truss supported the United Kingdom remaining in the European Union during the 2016 referendum.Since the referendum, Truss has supported Brexit, and publicly stated in 2017 that she had changed her mind.During the July 2022 leadership election Truss said that \"I was wrong and I am prepared to admit I was wrong\". Notes and references Notes References Sources Books and journals News Websites and others Further reading External links", "Rishi Sunak Rishi Sunak(born 12 May 1980) is a British politician who served asPrime Minister of the United Kingdomfrom 2022 to 2024. He has beenLeader of the Conservative Partysince October 2022; after thegeneral election in July 2024, he becameLeader of the Opposition. The firstBritish Asianto hold those offices, he previously held twoCabinetpositions underBoris Johnson, latterly asChancellor of the Exchequerfrom 2020 to 2022. Sunak has beenMember of Parliament(MP) forRichmond and Northallerton, previouslyRichmond (Yorks), since 2015. He is the most recentConservative Partyprime minister. Sunak was born inSouthamptonto parents of Indian descent who immigrated to Britain from East Africa in the 1960s. He was educated atWinchester College, studiedphilosophy, politics and economicsatLincoln College, Oxford, and earned aMaster of Business AdministrationfromStanford Universityin California as aFulbright Scholar. During his time at Oxford University, Sunak undertook an internship atConservative Central Office,", "Central Office, and joined the Conservatives. After graduating, Sunak worked forGoldman Sachsand later as a partner at thehedge fundfirmsthe Children's Investment Fund ManagementandTheleme Partners. Sunak was elected to theHouse of Commonsat the2015 general election. As abackbencher, Sunak supported the successful campaign forBrexitin the2016 European Union membership referendum. Sunak was appointed to the junior ministerial position ofParliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Local GovernmentbyTheresa Mayin 2019, and was appointed to the cabinet-attending role ofChief Secretary to the Treasuryby Johnson in 2019. In 2020, Sunak was promoted to Chancellor of the Exchequer. Duringhis time in the position, Sunak was prominent in thegovernment's financial responseto theCOVID-19 pandemicand itseconomic impact, including thefurloughandEat Out to Help Outschemes, and was also prominent in the government's response to thecost-of living crisis. He resigned as chancellor in July 2022 amida government crisisthat", "crisisthat culminated in Johnson's resignation, and stood in theleadership electionto succeed him. He received the most votes in each of the series of MP votes, but lost the members' vote toLiz Truss. After spending the duration ofTruss's premiershipon the backbenches, Sunak was elected unopposed in theleadership electionto succeed Truss, who resigned amid anothergovernment crisis; aged 42 at the time he became prime minister, Sunak became the youngest prime minister sinceThe Earl of Liverpoolin 1812. Duringhis premiership, Sunak attempted to improve the economy and stabilise national politics. He outlined five key priorities: halving inflation, growing the economy, cutting debt, reducingNational Health Servicewaiting lists, and stopping the illegalsmall-boat crossings of the English Channelby enacting theRwanda asylum plan. On foreign policy, Sunak authorisedforeign aid and weapons shipmentstoUkrainein response to theRussian invasion of the country, and pledged support forIsraelafter theattackswhich began", "began theIsrael–Hamas warwhilst later calling for a ceasefire in theGaza Strip. He did not avert further unpopularity for the Conservatives, reflected in the party's poor performances in the2023and2024 local elections. Sunak called a general election for July 2024 despite being widely expected to call the election in the autumn; the Conservatives lost this election in a landslide to the oppositionLabour Partyled byKeir Starmer, ending 14 years of Conservative government. After leaving office, Sunak became Leader of the Opposition and has remained Conservative leader while theleadership electionto replace him is taking place, and formed ashadow cabinet. He also intends to remain as a backbench MP for the next five years. As chancellor, Sunak received high approval and popularity ratings in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, although his popularity later declined amid the cost-of living crisis in 2022. Early life and education (1980–2001) Rishi Sunak was born on 12 May 1980 inSouthampton", "1980 inSouthampton General HospitalinSouthampton, Hampshire,toEast African-bornHindu parents of Indian Punjabi descent.His father was born in theKenya Colonyin 1949, while his mother was born in theTanganyika Territory(modern-dayTanzania).His paternal grandfather Ramdas Sunak had migrated fromGujranwala, located in present-dayPakistan, to the Kenyan capital ofNairobiin 1935, while his maternal grandfather, Raghubir Berry, grew up inPunjabbefore eventually moving to Tanzania as an engineer.Both of Sunak's parents had moved to the UK in 1966.While in the UK they eventually met and would get married in 1977. Sunak attended Stroud School, apreparatory schoolinRomsey, and later studied atWinchester Collegeas a dayboy, becominghead boyof the college.He worked as a waiter, at the curry house Kuti's Brasserie in Southampton, during his summer holidays.He readphilosophy, politics and economicsatLincoln College, Oxford, graduating with afirstin 2001.During his time at university, he undertook an internship", "an internship atConservative Campaign Headquartersand joined theConservative Party.In 2006 Sunak earned aMaster of Business Administrationdegree fromStanford Universityas aFulbright Scholar. Sunak's paternal grandfather was fromGujranwala(in present-day Pakistan), while his maternal grandfather was fromLudhiana(in present-day India); both cities at the time were part of thePunjab provinceinBritish India. His grandparents migrated to East Africa, and then to the United Kingdom in the 1960s.His father was born and raised in theColony and Protectorate of Kenya(present-day Kenya), and was ageneral practitionerin theNational Health Service(NHS). His mother, born inTanganyika(which later became part ofTanzania), was a pharmacist who owned the Sunak Pharmacy in Southampton between 1995 and 2014, and has a degree fromAston University.Sunak is the eldest of three siblings.His brother is a psychologist and his sister works in New York as chief of strategy and planning at Education Cannot Wait, the United Nations", "the United Nations Global Fund for Education in Emergencies and Protracted Crises. Career Business career (2001–2015) Sunak worked as an analyst for theinvestment bankGoldman Sachsbetween 2001 and 2004.He then worked forhedge fundmanagement firmThe Children's Investment Fund Management(TCI), becoming a partner in September 2006.He left in November 2009to join former colleagues in California at a new hedge fund firm, Theleme Partners, which launched in October 2010 with $700 million under management (equivalent to$978 millionin 2023).At both hedge funds, his boss wasPatrick Degorce.Sunak was also a director of the investment firm Catamaran Ventures, owned by his father-in-law, the Indian businessmanN. R. Narayana MurthyofInfosys, between 2013 and 2015. Backbencher (2015–2018) Sunak was selected as the Conservative candidate forRichmond (Yorks)in October 2014.The seat was previously held byWilliam Hague.In the same year Sunak was head of theBlack and Minority Ethnic(BME) Research Unit of the conservative think", "conservative think tankPolicy Exchange, for which he co-wrote a report on BME communities in the UK.He was elected as MP for the constituency at the2015 general electionwith a majority of 19,550 (36.2%).During the 2015–2017 Parliament he was a member of theEnvironment, Food and Rural Affairs Select Committee. Sunak supported the successful campaign to leave theEuropean Unionin the2016 European Union membership referendum, criticising the EU's immigration laws: \"We are discriminating against countries with whom we have ties of history, language and culture\"That year, he wrote a report for theThatcheritethink tankCentre for Policy Studiessupporting the establishment offree portsafterBrexit, and the following year wrote a report advocating the creation of a retail bond market forsmall and medium-sized enterprises.Following Cameron's resignation, Sunak endorsedMichael Govein the2016 Conservative Party leadership election, and later endorsed successful candidateTheresa Mayafter Gove was eliminated in the second", "in the second round of voting. Sunak was re-elected at the2017 general electionwith an increased majority of 23,108 (40.5%).In the same year, Sunak wrote a paper for Policy Exchange on the importance and fragility of the UK's undersea infrastructure.Sunak was re-elected at the2019 general electionwith an increased majority of 27,210 (47.2%).Following boundary changes in the2024 general election, Sunak won the seat ofRichmond and Northallerton, which replaced his former seat of Richmond (Yorks), with a majority of 23,059 (51.4). Local government under-secretary (2018–2019) Sunak was appointed to a junior ministerial position in May'ssecond governmentasParliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Local Governmentin the2018 cabinet reshuffle.Sunak voted for May'sBrexit withdrawal agreementon all three occasions, and voted against asecond referendum on any withdrawal agreement. May's withdrawal agreement was rejected by Parliament three times, leading to May announcing her resignation in May 2019. Sunak", "in May 2019. Sunak supportedBoris Johnson's successful bid to succeed May in the2019 Conservative Party leadership electionand co-wrote an article with fellow MPsRobert JenrickandOliver Dowdento advocate for Johnson during the campaign in June. Chief secretary to the Treasury (2019–2020) Sunak was appointed to the senior cabinet role ofchief secretary to the Treasuryby Johnson, serving underSajid Javid.He became a member of thePrivy Councilthe next day.During the 2019 general election, Sunak represented the Conservatives in debates. Chancellor of the Exchequer (2020–2022) In the weeks leading up toJohnson's first cabinet reshufflein February 2020, a number of briefings in the press had suggested that a new economic ministry led by Sunak might be established, to reduce the power and political influence of the Treasury.By February 2020, it was reported that Javid would remain in his role as Chancellor and that Sunak would stay on as Chief Secretary to the Treasury, in order to \"keep an eye\" on Javid. On 13", "on Javid. On 13 February 2020, the day of the reshuffle, Javid resigned as Chancellor, following a meeting with Johnson. During the meeting, Johnson had offered to allow Javid to keep his position on the condition that he dismiss all his advisers at the Treasury and replace them with ones selected by 10 Downing Street.Upon resigning, Javid told thePress Associationthat \"no self-respecting minister would accept those terms\".Sunak was promoted to chancellor to replace Javid as part of Johnson's first cabinet reshuffle later that day. COVID-19 pandemic In response to the first confirmedCOVID-19cases in January 2020, Sunak introduced advice for travellers coming from affected countries in late January and February 2020, and begancontact tracing, although this was later abandoned.There were further societal restrictions on the public asthe virus spread across the country in the following weeks, initially resisting more stringent measures introduced elsewhere inEuropeandAsia.On 23 March 2020, asCOVID-19 had become", "had become a pandemicand began rapidly spreading across the country, Sunak became prominent inthe government's response to the pandemicand itseconomic impact. On 20 March 2020, Sunak gave a statement on COVID-19, saying: Now, more than any time in our history, we will be judged by our capacity for compassion. Our ability to come through this, won’t just be down to what government or businesses do, but by the individual acts of kindness that we show each other. When this is over, we want to look back on this moment and remember the many small acts of kindness done by us and to us. We want to look back on this time and remember how we thought first of others and acted with decency. We want to look back on this time and remember how, in the face of a generation-defining moment, we undertook a collective national effort - and we stood together. It’s on all of us. Furlough scheme Sunak introduced a programme providing £330 billion in emergency support for businesses,as well as theCoronavirus Job", "theCoronavirus Job Retentionfurloughscheme for employees. This was the first time a British government had created such an employee retention scheme.The scheme was introduced on 20 March 2020 as providing grants to employers to pay 80% of a staff wage and employment costs each month, up to a total of £2,500 per person per month.The cost was estimated at £14 billion a month to run. The furlough scheme initially ran for three months and was backdated to 1 March. Following a three-week extension of the countrywide lockdown the scheme was extended by Sunak until the end of June 2020.At the end of May, Sunak extended the scheme until the end of October 2020. The decision to extend the job retention scheme was made to avoid or defer mass redundancies, company bankruptcies and potential unemployment levels not seen since the 1930s.In March 2021, Sunak announced that the scheme had been extended once more until September 2021. Eat Out to Help Out In July 2020, Sunak unveiled a plan for a further £30 billion of", "£30 billion of spending which included astamp dutyholiday, a cut tovalue-added tax(VAT) for the hospitality sector, a job retention bonus for employers and the Eat Out to Help Out scheme,aimed at supporting and creating jobs in thehospitality industry. The government subsidised food and soft drinks at participating cafes, pubs and restaurants at 50%, up to £10 per person. The offer was available from 3 to 31 August on Monday to Wednesday each week.In total, the scheme subsidised £849 million in meals. Patrick VallanceandChris Whittywere not informed of the scheme.Some considered the scheme to be a success in boosting the hospitality industry,whilst others disagreed.A 2020 study found that the scheme contributed to a rise in COVID-19 infection, which Johnson acknowledged but the Treasury rejected.It was later said by Vallance during theCOVID-19 Inquirythat Sunak had not informed medical advisers of the scheme until it was announced, whereas written evidence from Sunak said that the scheme had been discussed", "had been discussed with medical advisers, including Vallance, and they had not objected. Cost of living crisis and energy crisis Amid the risingcost of livingandenergycrises, Sunak intensified efforts to respond to the crisis in May 2022, with a £5 billionwindfall taxon energy companies to help fund a £15 billion support package for the public. The package included every household getting a £400 discount on energy bills, which would be in addition to a £150 council tax refund the government had already ordered. For about 8 million of the UK's lowest income households, a further £650 payment was announced. Additionally, pensioners or those with disability would qualify for extra payments, on top of the £550 that every household gets, and the £650 they would receive if they had a low income. Budgets Sunak presented his first budget, Delivering on Our Promises to the British People, on 11 March 2020. It was scheduled to be followed by another budget in the autumn, but in September 2020 he announced that budget", "that budget would be scrapped because of the COVID-19 pandemic, stating \"now is not the right time to outline long-term plans – people want to see us focused on the here and now\".Instead, additional statements were given by the chancellor in bothsummerandautumn. The Winter Economy Plan was delivered by Sunak on 24 September 2020. The purpose of the statement was to announce measures aimed at further helping to promote economic recovery following the impact of COVID-19. The plan aimed to further promote economic recovery while preserving jobs and businesses which were considered viable. After asecond lockdown in Englandon 31 October 2020, the programme was extended several times, until 30 September 2021. The July 2020 summer statement (also known as the coronavirus mini-budget) was delivered by Sunak on 8 July 2020. The purpose of the statement was to announce measures aimed at helping to promote economic recovery following the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The statement was delivered to the House of", "to the House of Commons, where Sunak unveiled a spending package worth £30bn. Concerns were subsequently raised by organisations includingHM Revenue and Customsand theInstitute for Fiscal Studiesabout the statement's impact, as well as its cost-effectiveness, while at least one major retailer declined to take advantage of a financial bonus scheme intended for rehiring employees placed on furlough during the pandemic. In his March 2021 budget, Sunak emphasized the effect the COVID-19 pandemic has had on the economy, with 700,000 people losing their jobs, the economy shrinking by 10% (the largest fall in 300 years), and the highest borrowing outside wartime.The budget included an increase in the rate of corporation tax from 19% to 25% in 2023, a five-year freeze in the tax-free personal allowance and the higher rate income tax threshold, and the extension of the furlough scheme until the end of September.Sunak was the first Chancellor to raise thecorporation tax ratesinceLabour'sDenis Healeyin 1974. In October", "1974. In October 2021, Sunak made his third and final budget statement, which included substantial spending promises related to science and education.The budget increased in-work support through theUniversal Creditsystem by increasing the work allowances by £500 a year, and reducing the post-tax deduction taper rate from 63% to 55%.£560 million of investment was announced for theLevelling Up White Paper.Many of the announcements to be made in the budget were previewed before budget day, drawing criticism and anger from the House of Commons. In response to the criticism, Sunak said the budget \"begins the work of preparing for a new economy\". Sunak made what would ultimately be his final budget, his spring statement, on 23 March 2022. He cutfuel duty, removed VAT on energy saving equipment (such as solar panels and insulation) and reduced national insurance payments for small businesses and, while continuing with aplanned national insurance risein April, he promised to align the primary threshold with the", "threshold with the basic personal income allowance as of July. He also promised a reduction inincome taxin 2024. Sunak also provided some funding which was intended to help vulnerable people cope with the cost of living. Other actions Sunak hosted aG7summit in London in June 2021.A tax reform agreement was signed, which in principle sought to establish aglobal minimum taxon multinationals and online technology companies.In October 2021, theOECDsigned an accord to join the tax reform plan.Later that month, Sunak attendedCOP26in Glasgow.During his speech given on 3 November, he said that he felt optimism despite daunting challenges and that by bringing together finance ministers, businesses and investors, COP26 could begin to deliver targets from theParis Agreement. Resignation On 5 July 2022, Sunak and Javid resigned almost simultaneously amid a scandal surrounding thesexual harassment allegationsagainstChris Pincher, which arose after it was revealed that Johnson had promoted Pincher to the position of", "to the position of Deputy Chief Whip while knowing of the allegations beforehand.Sunak was the second of 61 Conservative MPs to resign during the government crisis.He was succeeded as chancellor byNadhim Zahawi. Following the resignations of Sunak and Javid, numerous junior ministers and among theparliamentary private secretary(PPS) also resigned, most of whom cited a lack of honesty and integrity on the part of Johnson. In the following 24 hours, 36 MPs resigned from their roles in government and Johnson announced his resignation. In his resignation letter Sunak said: The public rightly expect government to be conducted properly, competently and seriously. I recognise this may be my last ministerial job, but I believe these standards are worth fighting for and that is why I am resigning. It has become clear to me that our approaches are fundamentally too different. I am sad to be leaving Government but I have reluctantly come to the conclusion that we cannot continue like this. Conservative leadership bids", "leadership bids On 8 July 2022, Sunak announced his candidacy in theleadership electionto replace Johnson.Sunak launched his campaign in a video posted to social media, writing that he would \"restore trust, rebuild the economy and reunite the country\".He said that his values were \"patriotism, fairness, hard work\",and pledged to \"crack down on gender neutral language\".During the campaign, Sunak pledged to included tax cuts only when inflation was under control, scrapping of the 5% VAT rate on household energy for one year, introducing a temporary £10 fine for patients who fail to attend GP appointments, capping of refugee numbers, and a tightening of the definition of asylum.On 20 July, Sunak and Foreign SecretaryLiz Trussemerged as the final two candidates in the contest on 20 July to be put forward to the membership for the final leadership vote. He had received the most votes in each of the series of MP votes with Sunak receiving 137 to Truss's 113 in the final round.Sunak opposed Truss' economic plans and", "economic plans and predicted they would result in economic damage, saying \"Liz, we have to be honest. Borrowing your way out of inflation isn’t a plan, it’s a fairytale.” A spokesperson for Sunak later said: “The reality is that Truss cannot deliver a support package as well as come good on £50bn worth of unfunded, permanent tax cuts in one go. To do so would mean increasing borrowing to historic and dangerous levels, putting the public finances in serious jeopardy and plunging the economy into an inflation spiral.\" In the membership vote, Truss received 57.4% of the vote, making her the new leader.Sunak responded by offering his support to Truss, saying \"It’s right we now unite behind the new PM, Liz Truss, as she steers the country through difficult times.\"He spent the duration ofTruss's premiershipon the backbenches. As Sunak predicted, Truss announcedlarge-scale tax cuts and borrowing in a mini-budgeton 23 September, which was widely criticised and – after it rapidly led to financial instability –", "instability – largely reversed.She announced her resignation on 20 October 2022 amida government crisis, triggering aleadership contest.On 22 October, it was reported that Sunak had the required number of supporters—100 members of the House of Commons—to run in the ballot on 24 October. The total number of MPs who publicly declared support passed 100 on the afternoon of 22 October.On 23 October, Sunak declared that he would stand for election.After Johnson ruled himself out of the race andPenny Mordauntwithdrew her candidacy, Sunak was announced as the new leader on 24 October. Premiership (2022–2024) As the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons, Sunak was appointed as prime minister byCharles IIIon 25 October 2022, becoming the firstBritish Asianto take the office. At 42, Sunak became the youngest prime minister sinceRobert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, in 1812.In his first speech as prime minister, Sunak said that Truss \"was not wrong\" to want to improve growth and that he \"admired her", "he \"admired her restlessness to create change\", but admitted that \"some mistakes were made\", and that he was elected prime minister in part to fix them: I will place economic stability and confidence at the heart of this government’s agenda. I will unite our country, not with words, but with action. I will work day in and day out to deliver for you. This government will have integrity, professionalism and accountability at every level. Trust is earned. And I will earn yours. Cabinet Sunak selected his cabinet ministers after his appointment as prime minister.Jeremy Huntwas appointedChancellor of the Exchequer, andDominic Raabwas also re-appointed as deputy prime minister and Justice Secretary, he later resigned from these roles in April 2023 and was replaced by Oliver Dowden.James Cleverlywas appointedForeign SecretarywithSuella BravermanasHome Secretary.Ben Wallacewas appointedSecretary of State for Defence.Michael Govewas appointedLevelling Up Secretary,Grant Shappswas appointed asSecretary of State for", "of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, and Penny Mordaunt became Leader of the House of Commons and Lord President of the council. Other key appointments includedSimon HartasParliamentary Secretary to the TreasuryandChief Whipof the House of Commons,Nadhim ZahawiasChairman of the Conservative Party, Oliver Dowden asChancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster,Thérèse CoffeyasEnvironment Secretary,Mel StrideasWork and Pensions SecretaryandMark Harperas Transport Secretary. Reshuffles Sunak'sfirst cabinet reshuffle in February 2023saw a significant restructuring ofgovernment departments. New departments included those forBusiness and Trade,Energy Security and Net Zero, andScience, Innovation and Technology. TheDepartment for International Tradeand theDepartment for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategywere split and merged into other departments. Ministers who joined the cabinet in the first reshuffle includedGreg Handstook over as chairman from Zahawi, though later resigned and replaced byRichard", "replaced byRichard Holden.Lucy FrazerbecameSecretary of State for Culture, Media and Sporttaking over from Donelan.Rachel Macleanleft the backbenches and joined theDepartment for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities.Sunak'slast cabinet reshuffle in November 2023saw the return of former prime minister David Cameron to government following a seven-year absence from frontline politics, replacing James Cleverly as foreign secretary. It also saw the departures of Braverman and Coffey from government and Hands from the cabinet, and the appointment ofLaura TrottasChief Secretary to the Treasury. Foreign policy In February 2023, Sunak negotiated a proposed agreement with the EU onNorthern Ireland's trading arrangements which was published as theWindsor Framework.On 27 February, Sunak delivered a statement to the House of Commons, saying that the proposed agreement \"protects Northern Ireland's place in our Union.On 22 March, the date of the parliamentary vote, 22 Conservative MPs and six DUP MPs voted against the", "voted against the government legislation.The vote ultimately passed by 515 votes to 29. Immigration In 2019 the Conservative Party andBoris Johnsonpledged to reduce net migration below 250,000 per year, but Sunak said in 2023 that the priority was not to reduce legal immigration but to stopillegal immigration.Nearly 30,000 undocumented migrants crossed the Channel in small boats to the UK in 2023.Long-termnet migration to the United Kingdom(the number of people immigrating minus the number emigrating) reached a record high of 764,000 in 2022,with legal immigration at 1.26 million and emigration at 493,000.Of the 1,218,000 legal migrants coming to the UK in 2023, only 10% were EU Nationals. Sunak continued theRwanda asylum planto have asylum seekers and illegal immigrants sent toRwandafor processing.After the plan was blocked by theUK's Court of Appealin June 2023 due to concerns over international law and the possibility ofrefoulement(persecution of those sent to Rwanda), Sunak vowed to appeal against the", "appeal against the verdict to theSupreme Court. On 15 November 2023, the Supreme Court upheld the ruling and declared the plan unlawful.In response, Sunak sent Cleverly to Rwanda to negotiate a treaty with Rwanda focused on preventing refoulement which must now be ratified by the British and Rwandan Parliaments.The government also introduced theSafety of Rwanda (Asylum and Immigration) Bill, emergency legislation giving ministers the power to disapply sections of theHuman Rights Act 1998and certain aspects of international law in order to allow them to declare Rwanda a safe country according to UK law.The bill was criticised by many on the right of the party for not going far enough, resulting in the resignation of the minister for immigration, Robert Jenrick. On 12 December 2023 Sunak secured a government majority of 44 for the Safety of Rwanda Bill, despite the opposition of all other parties and abstentions from members of theEuropean Research Group. Russia and Ukraine Following the15 November missile", "November missile explosion in Poland, Sunak met US PresidentJoe Bidenand delivered a speech about it.Sunak later met Ukrainian PresidentVolodymyr Zelenskyy, and pledged to give Ukraine £50 million in aid. After meeting Zelenskyy, Sunak said: \"I am proud of how theUK stood with Ukrainefrom the very beginning. And I am here today to say the UK and our allies will continue to stand with Ukraine, as it fights to end this barbarous war and deliver a just peace.\" Sunak visited Ukraine on 12 January 2024 to sign a new U.K.-Ukraine Agreement on Security Cooperation with Zelenskyy promising £2.5 billion in military aid to Ukraine, including long-range missiles, artillery ammunition, air defence and maritime security, in addition to £200 million to be spent on military drones, making the UK the largest deliverer of drones to Ukraine out of any nation according to Downing Street. Israel and Palestine In October 2023, Hamaslaunched a surprise attack on Israelthatdevolved into a warand a growinghumanitarian crisis in the", "crisis in the Gaza Strip. Sunak pledged theUK's support for Israeland declared that Israel \"has an absolute right to defend itself\".Sunak backed calls for humanitarian pauses to allow for aid to be brought into Gaza, although he initially rejected calls for a full ceasefire as he argued that this would only benefit Hamas. Israel used British-supplied weapons in the war.However, Sunak later condemned the high number ofcivilian casualtiesin Gaza and called for a \"sustainable ceasefire\" in which all Israeli hostages were returned to Israel, attacks against Israel ceased and humanitarian aid was allowed into Gaza.His government supported thetwo-state solutionas a resolution to the conflict. When theInternational Criminal CourtprosecutorKarim Ahmad Khanannounced that he would seek to charge Israeli prime ministerBenjamin Netanyahuwith war crimes, Sunak criticised the move as \"unhelpful\" and accused Khan of drawing a moral equivalence between Israel and Hamas. Local election results Sunak was faced with the task", "faced with the task of rebuilding the Conservatives' reputation which had been significantly damaged by thecontroversies and scandals of the previous yearand the Truss ministry. While their poll ratings recovered slightly over the following months, it still wasn't enough to bring them back to pre-Truss levels. Sunak contested his firstlocal electionsas leader on 4 May 2023, where the Conservatives suffered heavy losses. Two months later, on 20 July 2023, they lost two seats in by-elections;oneto Labour andoneto the Liberal Democrats. Their fortunes remained unchanged throughout policy changes of the following year, such as the shelving of theHS2northern phase in October. The Conservatives lost two further seats in by-elections on 15 February 2024. In March 2024, there were suggestions that Sunak could face a leadership challenge before the upcominggeneral election— which was expected within the calendar year — if the Conservatives perform poorly at thelocal electionson 2 May.Sunak however said he would", "said he would resist a challenge, even if that ends up being the case.As predicted, 2 May saw grim showing for the Conservatives, who suffered their worst local election results since1996. Additionally, they lost another seat to Labour in theBlackpool South by-election, and narrowly lost theWest Midlands mayoral electionin a knife-edge vote. Sunak's premiership was described as more stable than that of his two predecessors, while still not being able to represent a turnaround for the Conservatives. 2024 general election and resignation On the afternoon of 22 May 2024, Sunak announced that he had asked the King to call a general election for 4 July 2024, surprising his own MPs.Though Sunak had the option to wait until December 2024 to call the election, he said that he decided on the date because he believed that the economy was improving, and that \"falling inflation and net migration figures would reinforce the Conservatives' election message of 'sticking to the plan'\". Sunak sought to rebuild the", "to rebuild the Conservative's reputation following a slump in popularity after the short-lived Truss ministry and a slew of controversies including Partygate that irreparably damaged Johnson's ministry,through campaigning on stabilising the economy, the Rwanda asylum plan, further strengthening theState Pension, and introducingNational Service. He released the Conservative manifestoClear Plan. Bold Action. Secure Future.on 11 June, addressing the economy, taxes, welfare, expanding free childcare, education, healthcare, environment, energy, transport, and crime.Sunak stated during the general election campaign that if his party lost the election he intended to remain as a backbench MP for the next 5 years.On 6 June 2024, the 80th anniversary ofD-Day, Sunak was heavily criticised for leaving commemoration events early to do an interview with ITV,including by veterans.Sunak apologised three times over the following week. Labour won a landslide victory in the general election, ending 14 years of Conservative", "of Conservative government. A record number of Conservative MPs eitherstood downorlost their seats at the election. Three Cabinet members stood down and eight full members and four who attended Cabinet lost their seats, the highest number of sitting cabinet seat losses in history.Sunak conceded the election on 5 July. In his resignation speech before tending his resignation to the King, Sunak apologised to Conservative voters and candidates for the party's heavy defeat, and announced his intention to resign as party leader once a new leader is elected. He also offered support to the incoming prime ministerKeir Starmer, saying he was \"a decent, public-spirited man\" he respected and expressed hope he would be successful. To all the Conservative candidates and campaigners who worked tirelessly but without success, I am sorry that we could not deliver what your efforts deserved. It pains me to think how many good colleagues, who contributed so much to their communities and our country, will now no longer sit in", "no longer sit in the House of Commons. I thank them for their hard work, and their service. Following this result, I will step down as party leader, not immediately, but once the formal arrangements for selecting my successor are in place. It is important that after 14 years in government the Conservative Party rebuilds, but also that it takes up its crucial role in Opposition professionally and effectively. Post-premiership (2024–present) Leader of the Opposition (2024–present) After Starmer succeeded Sunak as prime minister, Sunak immediately becameLeader of the Oppositionand formed hisshadow cabineton 8 July. Most members of Sunak's cabinet heading into the 2024 general election were given the same portfolios in the shadow cabinet, including former chancellor Jeremy Hunt, who becameshadow chancellor, and former home secretary James Cleverly, who becameshadow home secretary.Former foreign secretary David Cameron chose to retire from frontline politics, with his former deputyAndrew Mitchellbecomingshadow", "foreign secretaryinstead.Richard Holden resigned asparty chairman, and was succeeded byRichard Fullerin an interim capacity outside shadow cabinet. Sunak appointed new officeholders to the portfolios held by the eleven cabinet ministers who lost their seats in the election, includingEdward Argar, who becameshadow justice secretaryafter the outgoing justice secretaryAlex Chalklost his seat, as well asHelen Whately, who becameshadow transport secretaryafter the outgoing transport secretaryMark Harperalso lost his seat.Among other noteworthy appointments, Kemi Badenoch became theshadow housing, communities and local government secretaryand former deputy prime minister Oliver Dowden becamedeputy leader of the opposition. Sunak will remain leader until his successor is elected in the2024 Conservative Party leadership election, which is expected to take place later in the year.Responding to the2024 State Opening of Parliament, Sunak said his party would not oppose the government \"for the sake of it\", but would", "of it\", but would hold them to account on their election promises. On proposals to change planning laws, Sunak said that though such changes were needed \"a system that does not allow local people to have a say will damage public consent for more housing in the long term\".While he respected Starmer's decision to scrap the Rwanda asylum plan, Sunak said that there needed to be an alternative deterrent, otherwise \"a large number of those who crossed the Channel illegally will end up remaining here\". On the Government benches life comes at you fast. Soon you might be fortunate enough to be tapped on the shoulder and be offered a junior ministerial role, then you’ll find yourself attending cabinet, then in the cabinet and then when the prime minister’s position becomes untenable you might end up being called to the highest office. And before you know it you have a bright future behind you and you’re left wondering whether you can credibly be an elder statesman at the age of 44. Political positions Sunak has been", "Sunak has been described as a moderate within his party with atechnocraticor managerial leadership style.According toEuronews, Sunak is \"frequently perceived as a pragmatist and as belonging to the centre-ground of the Conservative Party\".He opposedthe economic policies of Truss,and although described as a fellowThatcherite, he is viewed as lesseconomically liberalthan Truss. In April 2023, Sunak's perception as a centrist contrasted with descriptions of his government's policies on transgender and migration issues as beingsocially conservative, with Jessica Elgot ofThe Guardiandescribing Sunak as \"perhaps the most socially conservative PM of his generation\".Robert Shrimsley of theFinancial Timesdescribed Sunak as someone whose \"easy manner, career in global finance and ethnic background might suggest a more cosmopolitan conservative\", even though he is socially conservative and pragmatic.Meanwhile, theNew Statesmandescribed Sunak as uneasily straddling", "uneasily straddling bothliberal-conservativeandnational-conservativeinstincts.In July 2023,The Economistdescribed him as \"the most right-wing Conservative prime minister sinceMargaret Thatcher\". Public image Following his appointment as chancellor, Sunak arrived in public discourse from relative obscurity.Some political commentators saw Sunak's appointment as signalling the end of the Treasury's independence from Downing Street, with Robert Shrimsley, chief political commentator of theFinancial Times, arguing that \"good government often depends on senior ministers – and the Chancellor in particular – being able to fight bad ideas\". In the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, he was popular by the standards of British politics, described by one analyst as having \"better ratings than any politician since the heydays of Tony Blair\".Various polls showed Sunak remained overwhelmingly popular among Conservative supporters and many other Britons throughout 2020.In anIpsos MORIpoll in September 2020, Sunak had the", "2020, Sunak had the highest satisfaction score of any British chancellor since Labour's Denis Healey in April 1978, and was widely seen as the favourite to become the next Conservative leader.Sunak developed acult media following, with jokes and gossip about his attractiveness widespread on social media and in magazines, gaining the nickname \"Dishi Rishi\". Public attitudes towards Sunak remained broadly positive in 2021,though his popularity declined steadily over time.By early 2022, with the cost of living becoming a growing focus of public concern, Sunak's response as chancellor was perceived as inadequate and he received some of his lowest approval ratings, which continued as the Sunak family's financial affairs came under scrutiny.By the time he resigned as chancellor in July 2022, Sunak's approval ratings slightly recovered.In October 2022, following his appointment as prime minister, Sunak's personal favourability ratings increased.By July 2023, Sunak's approval ratings had decreased back to a similar", "back to a similar level to when he resigned as chancellor.TheNew Statesmannamed him as the second most powerful right-wing figure of 2023, behind onlyNigel Farage.By his resignation as prime minister in July 2024, he had his lowest approval ratings to date.Following the 2024 general election, Sunak has received praise for being gracious in defeat, with some commentators recommending for the Conservatives to keep him on as leader. Personal life In August 2009, Sunak marriedAkshata Murty, the daughter ofN. R. Narayana MurthyandSudha Murty. His father-in-law is the founder of the technology companyInfosys, in which Murty owns a stake.Sunak and Murty met while studying atStanford Universityin the US; they have two daughters: the first born in 2011 and the second in 2013.In November 2020, Sunak was reported byThe Guardianto have not declared a significant amount of his wife and family's financial interests on the register of ministers' interests, including a combined £1.7billion shareholding in the Indian", "in the Indian companyInfosys. Ministers are required to declare interests that are \"relevant\" to their responsibilities and \"which might be thought to give rise to a conflict\" with their public duties.The independent adviser on ministers' interests investigated and concluded that Sunak had not broken any rules. In early 2022, newspapers reported that Murty hadnon-domiciled status, meaning she did not have to paytaxon income earned abroad while living in the UK.The status cost approximately £30,000 to secure, and allowed her to avoid paying an estimated £20 million in UK taxes.On 8 April Murty issued a statement saying that she would pay UK taxes on her global income, and that she regretted the issue had become \"a distraction for husband\". An inquiry was set up to identify the source of the leak regarding her tax status.Reporting around this time also revealed that Sunak had continued to hold United States'permanent resident(green card) status he had acquired in the 2000s until 2021, including for 18 months", "for 18 months after he was made chancellor, which required filing annual US tax returns.An investigation into both his wife's tax status and his residency status found that Sunak had not broken any ministerial rules. Sunak and Murty own several houses, including one in North Yorkshire; amewshouse inEarl's Courtin central London; a flat on theOld Brompton Road,South Kensington; and a penthouse apartment onOcean AvenueinSanta Monica, California.In April 2022, it was reported that Sunak and Murty had moved out of the flat above 10 Downing Street to a newly refurbished West London home for domestic reasons.In October 2022, the Sunaks resumed residence of their former official home at 10 Downing Street, this time as prime minister and reversing the trend started in 1997 of prime ministers living in the four-bedroom flat above11 Downing Street. In April 2022, amid thePartygatescandal, Sunak was issued afixed penalty noticeby the police who believed he had committed offences under COVID-19 regulations by attending", "by attending a birthday gathering for Boris Johnson on 19 June 2020. The police also issued 125 fixed penalty notices to 82 other individuals, including Johnson and his wifeCarrie Symonds, who all apologised and paid the penalties.After receiving the penalty notice, Sunak said he was \"extremely and sincerely sorry\" for the hurt caused by him attending the party, and that he respected the police's decision to give him a fine.In January 2023, Sunak was issued a fixed penalty notice byLancashire Constabularyafter a social media video of him failing to wear aseat beltin a moving vehicle was published.Sunak apologised for the incident and said he made a \"brief error of judgment\". Sunak is ateetotaller.He stated in 2022 that he had seven dental fillings due to excessive consumption ofCoca-Colawhen he was younger, and expressed a strong preference forMexican Coke.He was previously a governor of theEast London Science School.Sunak has aLabradorcalled Nova and is a cricket and horse racing enthusiast.As chancellor,", "chancellor, Sunak rose early for a dailyPelotonworkout and was a fan of fitness instructorCody Rigsby. Sunak is a close friend ofThe Spectator'sformer political editorJames Forsyth, whom he has known since their school days. Sunak was the best man at Forsyth's wedding to the journalistAllegra Stratton, and they are godparents to each other's children.He appointed Forsyth as his political secretary in December 2022. Sunak is a steadfastSouthampton F.C.fan.When asked what his ideal job would be if he was not a politician, he replied that if he could \"run Southampton Football Club\" he would be a \"very happy man\". Sunak is a Hindu and identifies as British Indian, stating that he is \"thoroughly British\" but with an Indian religious and cultural heritage.He took his oath as an MP at theHouse of Commonson theBhagavad Gita.During thecoronation of Charles III, Sunak gave a reading from the New Testament book ofEpistle to the Colossians– Colossians 1:9–17.After themurder of George Floydby police officerDerek Chauvin,", "Chauvin, Sunak said he had also faced racism in his life. Speaking about his childhood during the 2024 general election campaign, Sunak said his parents \"wanted to put everything into our education and that was a priority\" and that he didn't haveSky TVgrowing up. See also Notes References Further reading External links Leader of the OppositionRishi Sunak Shadow Chancellor of the ExchequerJeremy Hunt Shadow Foreign SecretaryAndrew Mitchell Shadow Home SecretaryJames Cleverly", "List of Scottish monarchs Themonarch of Scotlandwas thehead of stateof theKingdom of Scotland. According to tradition,Kenneth I MacAlpin(Cináed mac Ailpín) was the founder and first King of the Kingdom of Scotland (although he never held the title historically, being King of the Picts instead). TheKingdom of the Pictsjust became known as theKingdom of AlbainScottish Gaelic, which later became known inScotsand English asScotland; the terms are retained in both languages to this day. By the late 11th century at the very latest, Scottish kings were using the termrex Scottorum, or King of Scots, to refer to themselves in Latin. TheKingdom of Scotlandwas merged with theKingdom of Englandto form a singleKingdom of Great Britainin 1707. Thus,Queen Annebecame the last monarch of the ancient kingdoms of Scotland and England and the first of Great Britain, although the kingdoms had shared a monarch since 1603 (seeUnion of the Crowns). Her uncleCharles IIwas the last monarch to becrownedin Scotland, atSconein 1651. He", "atSconein 1651. He had a second coronation in England ten years later. Heraldry List of monarchs of Scotland House of Alpin (848–1034) The reign of Kenneth MacAlpin begins what is often called theHouse of Alpin, an entirely modern concept. The descendants of Kenneth MacAlpin were divided into two branches; the crown would alternate between the two, the death of a king from one branch often hastened by war or assassination by apretenderfrom the other. Malcolm II was the last king of the House of Alpin; in his reign, he successfully crushed all opposition to him and, having no sons, was able to pass the crown to his daughter's son, Duncan I, who inaugurated the House of Dunkeld. *Eochiad was a son of Run, King of Strathclyde, but his mother was a daughter of Kenneth I. Evidence of his reign is unclear. He may have never actually been king and if he was, he was co-king with Giric. ¤Amlaíb is known only by a reference to his death in 977, which reports him as King of Alba; since Kenneth II is known to have still", "known to have still been King in 972–973, Amlaíb must have taken power between 973 and 977. House of Dunkeld (1034–1040) Duncan succeeded to the throne as the maternal grandson of Malcolm II. The House of Dunkeld was therefore closely related to the House of Alpin. Duncan was killed in battle by Macbeth, another maternal grandson of Malcolm II. House of Moray (1040–1058) Macbeth came to power in 1040 after killing Duncan I in battle and had a long and relatively successful reign. Macbeth was a cousin of Duncan and was a maternal grandson of Malcolm II. In a series of battles between 1057 and 1058, Duncan's son Malcolm III defeated and killed Macbeth and Macbeth's stepson and heir Lulach and became the king, thereby passing the throne back to the House of Dunkeld. Grandson of Malcolm II (son of second daughter)Cousin of Duncan I House of Dunkeld (restored) (1058–1286) In a series of battles between 1057 and 1058, Duncan's son Malcolm III defeated and killed Macbeth and Macbeth's stepson and heir Lulach,", "and heir Lulach, claiming the throne. The dynastic feuds did not end there: on Malcolm III's death in battle, his brother Donald III, known as \"Bán\", claimed the throne, expelling Malcolm III's sons from Scotland. A civil war in the family ensued, with Donald III and Malcolm III's son Edmund opposed by Malcolm III's English-backed sons, led first by Duncan II and then by Edgar. Edgar triumphed, sending his uncle and brother to monasteries. After the reign of David I, the Scottish throne was passed according to rules ofprimogeniture, moving from father to son, or where not possible, brother to brother. Alexander III was the last ruler from the house of Dunkeld, and having no sons, the throne was inherited by his granddaughterMargaret, Maid of Norway. House of Sverre (1286–1290) Margaret, Maid of Norwayinherited the throne in 1286, but died in 1290 in Orkney on her way to be crowned. During her absence, Scotland was ruled by a set ofguardians. After her death, Scotland entered a period of interregnum, where 13", "where 13 contenders fought for the throne and ultimately,John Balliolsucceeded. The status of Margaret, as a Scottish monarch is debated by historians. She was never crowned,and her contemporaries in Scotland described her as \"queen\" very rarely, referring to her instead as Scotland's \"lady\", \"heir\", or \"lady and heir\".On the other hand, documents issued from late 1286 no longer refer to the \"king whosoever he may be\", indicating that the throne may have been regarded as already occupied by Margaret. In modern historiography she is nearly unanimously called \"queen\", and reference books give 19 March 1286, the date of Alexander III's death, as the start of her reign. First Interregnum (1286–1292) The First Interregnum began upon the death of Alexander III of Scotland in 1286. Alexander's only surviving descendant was his granddaughterMargaret, Maid of Norway, a young child, who inherited the throne in 1286. A set of guardians were appointed to rule Scotland in her absence since she was living in Norway where", "in Norway where her fatherEric IIwas king. She was finally sent to Scotland in 1290 but died before arriving in Scotland. The next king of Scots was not determined until completion of anarbitrationin 1292. House of Balliol (1292–1296) The death of Margaret of Norway began a two-year interregnum in Scotland caused by a succession crisis. With her death, the descent ofWilliam Ibecame extinct and there was no obvious heir.Thirteen candidatespresented themselves; the most prominent wereJohn Balliol, great-grandson of William I's younger brother David of Huntingdon, andRobert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale, grandson of David of Huntingdon. The Scottish magnates invitedEdward I of Englandto arbitrate the claims. He did so but forced the Scots to swear allegiance to him as overlord. Eventually, it was decided that John Balliol should become king. He proved weak and incapable and, in 1296, was forced to abdicate by Edward I who then attempted to annex Scotland into the Kingdom of England. c.25 November", "c.25 November 1314Picardy,France Second Interregnum (1296–1306) John Balliolabdicated in March 1296. That same monthEdward Iinvaded Scotland. The second set of guardians were appointed under Edward I who ruled from 1296 to 1306, until the election ofRobert the Bruceas the king of Scotland. House of Bruce (1306–1371) For ten years, Scotland had no king. The Scots, however, refused to tolerate English rule. FirstWilliam WallaceandAndrew Moray, then John Comyn, and finallyRobert the Bruce(the grandson of the 1292 competitor, Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale who in turn was the grandson of David of Huntingdon, younger brother ofWilliam I) fought against the English. Bruce and his supporters had murdered their rival to the throne of Scotland,John Comyn,Lord of Badenoch, on 10 February 1306 at Greyfriars Church inDumfries. Shortly after in 1306, Robert was crowned King of Scots at Scone. Robert Bruce was then hunted down for his crime of murder, and subsequently, he escaped to the outskirt islands, leaving", "islands, leaving the country completely leaderless, and the English invaded once again. Bruce returned a year later and gained support for his cause. His energy, and the corresponding replacement of the vigorous Edward I with his weaker son Edward II in 1307, allowed Scotland to free itself from English rule. At theBattle of Bannockburnin 1314, the Scots routed the English, and by 1328 the English had agreed by treaty to accept Scottish independence. Robert's son, David, acceded to the throne as a child. The English renewed their war with Scotland, and David was forced to flee the kingdom byEdward Balliol, son of King John, who managed to get himself crowned (1332–1356) and to give away Scotland's southern counties to England before being driven out again. David spent much of his life in exile, first in freedom with his ally, France, and then in prison in England. He was only able to return to Scotland in 1357. Upon his death, childless, in 1371, the House of Bruce came to an end. House of Balliol (Disputed", "Balliol (Disputed claimant) (1332–1356) Edward Balliolwas the son of KingJohn Balliol, who had himself ruled for four years following his election in theGreat Cause. Following his abdication, John Balliol lived out his life in obscurity inPicardy, France. During the minority of David II, Edward Balliol seized the opportunity to assert his claim to the throne, and backed by the English, he defeated the forces of David's regency and was himself crowned king atSconein 1332. He was quickly defeated by loyalist forces and sent back to England. With English support, he would mount two more attempts to seize the throne again, in 1333 and 1335, each time his actual control of the throne was brief before being sent back to England, for the last time in 1336. When David returned from exile in 1341 to rule in his own right, Edward lost most of his support. When David II was captured in battle in 1346, Edward made one last attempt to seize the throne for himself but had little support and the campaign fizzled before it", "fizzled before it gained much traction. In 1356 he renounced all claims to the throne. House of Stewart/Stuart (1371–1651) Robert the Stewart was a grandson of Robert I by the latter's daughter, Marjorie. Having been born in 1316, he was older than his uncle, David II. Consequently, he was at his accession a middle-aged man, already 55, and unable to reign vigorously, a problem also faced by his son Robert III, who also ascended in middle age at 53 in 1390, and suffered lasting damage in a horse-riding accident. These two were followed by a series of regencies, caused by the youth of the succeeding five boy kings. Consequently, the Stewart era saw periods of royal inertia, during which the nobles usurped power from the crown, followed by periods of personal rule by the monarch, during which he or she would attempt to address the issues created by their minority and the long-term effects of previous reigns. Governing Scotland became increasingly difficult, as the powerful nobility became increasingly", "became increasingly intractable. James I's attempts to curb the disorder of the realm ended in his assassination. James III was killed in a civil war between himself and the nobility, led by his son. When James IV, who had governed sternly and suppressed the aristocrats, died in the Battle of Flodden, his wife Margaret Tudor, who had been nominated regent for their young son James V, was unseated by noble feuding, and James V's wife, Mary of Guise, succeeded in ruling Scotland during the regency for her young daughter Mary I only by dividing and conquering the noble factions, distributing French bribes with a liberal hand. Finally, Mary I, the daughter of James V, found herself unable to govern Scotland faced with the surliness of the aristocracy and the intransigence of the population, who favored Calvinism and disapproved of her Catholicism. She was forced to abdicate, and fled to England, where she was imprisoned in various castles and manor houses for eighteen years and finally executed for treason", "for treason against the English queen Elizabeth I. Upon her abdication, her son, fathered byHenry, Lord Darnley, a junior member of the Stewart family, becameKing as James VI. James VI became King of England and Ireland as James I in 1603 when his cousin Elizabeth I died. Thereafter, although the two crowns of England and Scotland remained separate, the monarchy was based chiefly in England.Charles I, James's son, found himself faced with the Civil War. The resultant conflict lasted eight years and ended in his execution. The English Parliament then decreed their monarchy to be at an end. The Scots Parliament, after some deliberation, broke their links with England and declared thatCharles II, son, and heir of Charles I, would become King. He ruled until 1651 when the armies ofOliver Cromwelloccupied Scotland and drove him into exile. Third Interregnum (1651–1660) House of Stuart (restored) (1660–1707) With theScottish Restoration, the Stuarts became Kings of Scotland once more but Scotland's rights were not", "rights were not respected. During the reign of Charles II, the Scottish Parliament was dissolved andJameswas appointed Governor of Scotland. James II himself became James VII in 1685. His Catholicism was not tolerated, and he was driven out of England after three years. In his place came his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange, the ruler of the Dutch Republic. The two were accepted as monarchs of Scotland after a period of deliberation by the Scottish Parliament and ruled together as William II and Mary II. An attempt to establish a Scottish colonial empire through theDarien Scheme, in rivalry to that of England, failed, leaving the Scottish nobles who financed the venture for their profit bankrupt. This coincided with the accession ofQueen Anne, daughter of James VII. Anne had multiple children but none of these survived her, leaving as her heir her half-brother, James, then living in exile in France. The English favored the Protestant Sophia of Hanover (a granddaughter of James VI) as heir.", "James VI) as heir. Many Scots preferred Prince James, who as a Stuart was a Scot by ancestry, and threatened to break the Union of Crowns between England and Scotland by choosing him for themselves. To preserve the union, the English elaborated a plan whereby the two Kingdoms of Scotland and England would merge into a single Kingdom, theKingdom of Great Britain, ruled by a common monarch, and with a single Parliament. Both national parliaments agreed to this (the Scots albeit reluctantly, motivated primarily by the national finances), and some subterfuge as a total majority of signatories were needed to ratify the Scottish parliament's assent, bribes, and payments. Thereafter, although monarchs continued to rule over the nation of Scotland, they did so first asmonarchs of Great Britain, and from 1801 of the United Kingdom. Acts of Union TheActs of Unionwere twinParliamentary Actspassed during 1706 and 1707 by theParliament of Englandand theParliament of Scotland, putting into effect the terms of theTreaty of", "of theTreaty of Union, agreed on 22 July 1706, following prolonged negotiation between Queen Anne's Commissioners representing both parliaments. The Acts joined theKingdom of Englandand theKingdom of Scotlandto form a unitedKingdom of Great Britain. Scotland and England had shared a common monarch since theUnion of the Crownsin 1603 when the Scottish kingJames VIsucceeded to the English throne. Although described as a Union of Crowns, before the Acts of Union of 1707, the crowns of the two separate kingdoms had rested on the same head. Three unsuccessful attempts (in 1606, 1667, and 1689) were made to unite the two kingdoms by Acts of Parliament, but it was not until the early 18th century that the idea had the will of both political establishments to succeed, thereby bringing the two separate states together under a single parliament as well as a single monarch. Later claimants James VII continued to claim the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland. When he died in 1701, his son James inherited his", "James inherited his father's claims and called himself James VIII of Scotland and III of England and Ireland. He would continue to do so all his life, even after the Kingdoms of England and Scotland were ended by their merging as the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1715, a year after the death of his half-sister, Queen Anne, and the accession of their cousin George of Hanover, James landed in Scotland and attempted to claim the throne. He failed and was forced to flee back to the Continent. A second attempt by his son Charles, on behalf of his father, in 1745–6, also failed. Both James's children died without legitimate issue, bringing the Stuart family to an end. After 1807, the Jacobite claims passed first to theHouse of Savoy(1807–1840), then to the Modenese branch of theHouse of Habsburg-Lorraine(1840–1919), and finally to theHouse of Wittelsbach(since 1919). The current heir isFranz, Duke of Bavaria. Neither he nor any of his predecessors since 1807 have pursued their claim. In 1971, Ugandan PresidentIdi", "PresidentIdi Aminproclaimed himself to be theuncrownedking of Scotland,although this claim gained no international recognition. Timeline of Scottish monarchs Coronation oath The Scottish coronation oath sworn byJames VI,Charles I, andCharles IIand approved by theParliament of Scotlandin 1567: I, N.N., promise faithfully, in the presence of the eternal, my God, that I, enduring the whole Course of my Life, shall serve the same Eternal, my God, to the utmost of my Power, accordingly as he required in his most Holy Word, revealed and contained in the New andOld Testament; and according to the same Word shall maintain the true Religion of Jesus Christ, the preaching of his Holy Word, and due and right administration of hisSacraments, now received and practised within this Realm; and shall abolish and oppose all false Religion contrary to the same; and shall rule the People committed to my Charge, according to the Will and Command of God, revealed in his foresaid Word, and according to the lovable Laws and", "lovable Laws and Constitutions received in this Realm, in no way repugnant to the said Word of the Eternal, my God; and shall procure to my utmost to theKirkof God and whole Christian people true and perfect Peace in all times coming; the Rights and Rents, with all just privileges of the Crown of Scotland, I shall preserve and keep inviolate, neither shall I transfer nor alienate the same; I shall forbid and repress in all Estates and all Degrees theft, Oppression and all kind of Wrong; in all Judgements, I shall command and procure that Justice and Equity be kept to all creatures without exception, as he be merciful to me and you that is the Lord and Father of all Mercies; and out of all my lands and empire I shall be careful to root out allHeresyand Enemies to the true Worship of God, that shall be convicted by the true Kirk of God of the foresaid Crimes; and these Things above-written I faithfully affirm by my solemn Oath. The coronation oath sworn byWilliam II,Mary IIandAnnewas approved by the Parliament", "by the Parliament of Scotland on 18 April 1689.The oath was as follows: WE William and Mary, King and Queen of Scotland, faithfully promise and swear, by this our solemn Oath, in presence of the Eternal God, that during the whole Course of our Life we will serve the same Eternal God, to the uttermost of our Power, according as he has required in his most Holy Word, revealed and contained in the New and Old Testament; and according to the same Word shall maintain the true Religion of Christ Jesus, the preaching of his Holy Word, and the due and right Ministration of the Sacraments, now received and preached within the Realm of Scotland; and shall abolish and gainstand all false Religion contrary to the same, and shall rule the People committed to our Charge, according to the Will and Command of God, revealed in his aforesaid Word, and according to the laudable Laws and Constitutions received in this Realm, no ways repugnant to the said Word of the Eternal God; and shall procure, to the utmost of our power, to", "of our power, to the Kirk of God, and whole Christian People, true and perfect Peace in all time coming. That we shall preserve and keep inviolated the Rights and Rents, with all just Privileges of the Crown of Scotland, neither shall we transfer nor alienate the same; that we shall forbid and repress in all Estates and Degrees, Reif, Oppression and all kind of Wrong. And we shall command and procure, that Justice and Equity in all Judgments be kept to all Persons without exception, us the Lord and Father of all Mercies shall be merciful to us. And we shall be careful to root out all Heretics and Enemies to the true Worship of God, that shall be convicted by the true Kirk of God, of the aforesaid Crimes, out of our Lands and Empire of Scotland. And we faithfully affirm the Things above-written by our solemn Oath. See also Notes References Bibliography External links" ]
David Fincher has two movies in the 90's that have numbers in the title. What is the number in the title of David Fincher's later-released movie multiplied by the ratio of the sum of all of the molars in an aardvark over the number of adult teeth in a dog?
13/3 or 4.333... (infinitely repeating decimal)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fincher
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardvark
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppy_teething
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Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fincher', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardvark', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppy_teething']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Fincher", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardvark", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppy_teething" ]
[ "David Fincher David Andrew Leo Fincher(born August 28, 1962) is an American film director.His films, most of which arepsychological thrillers, have collectively grossed over $2.1 billion worldwide and have receivednumerous accolades, including three nominations for theAcademy Awardsfor Best Director. He has also received fourPrimetime Emmy Awards, twoGrammy Awards, aBAFTA Award, and aGolden Globe Award. Fincher co-founded the production companyPropaganda Filmsin 1986. He directed numerous music videos for the company, includingMadonna's \"Express Yourself\" in 1989 and \"Vogue\" in 1990, both of which won him theMTV Video Music Award for Best Direction. He received twoGrammy Awards for Best Music Videofor \"Love Is Strong\" (1994) bythe Rolling Stonesand \"Suit & Tie\" (2013) byJustin TimberlakefeaturingJay-Z. He made his feature film debut withAlien 3(1992) and gained his breakthrough withSeven(1995). He has since directedThe Game(1997),Fight Club(1999),Panic Room(2002),Zodiac(2007),The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo(2011),Gone Girl(2014), andThe Killer(2023). He received nominations for theAcademy Award for Best Directorfor the dramasThe Curious Case of Benjamin Button(2008),The Social Network(2010), andMank(2020). In television, Fincher has served as an executive producer and director for theNetflixseriesHouse of Cards(2013–2018) andMindhunter(2017–2019), winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Seriesfor thepilot episodeof the former. He also executive produced and co-created the Netflix animated seriesLove, Death & Robots(2019–present) which received threePrimetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program. Early life David Andrew Leo Fincherwas born inDenveron August 28, 1962.His mother, Claire Mae (née Boettcher), was a mental health nurse fromSouth Dakotawho worked in drug addiction programs. His father,Howard Kelly \"Jack\" Fincher(1930–2003), was an author fromOklahomawho worked as a reporter and bureau chief forLifemagazine.When Fincher was two years old, the family moved toSan Anselmo, California, where he counted filmmakerGeorge Lucasamong his neighbors.He became fascinated with filmmaking at the age of eight and began making films on an8mm camera.In a 2012 interview, he said: I was eight years old and I saw a documentary on the making ofButch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. It had never occurred to me that movies didn't take place in real time. I knew that they were fake, I knew that the people were acting, but it had never occurred to me that it could take four months to make a movie! It showed the entire company with all these rental horses and moving trailers to shoot a scene on top of a train. They would hire somebody who looked likeRobert Redfordto jump onto the train. It never occurred to me that there were hours between each of these shots. The actual circus of it was invisible, as it should be, but in seeing that I became obsessed with the idea of \"How?\" It was the ultimate magic trick. The notion that24 still photographsare shown in such quick succession that movement is imparted from it—wow! And I thought that there would never be anything that would be as interesting as that to do with the rest of my life. As a teenager, Fincher moved toAshland, Oregon, where he attendedAshland High School. He directed plays and designed sets and lighting after school, was a non-union projectionist at Varsity Theatre, and worked as a production assistant at theKOBInews station inMedford. He supported himself by working as a busboy, dishwasher, and fry cook. Career 1983–1991: Early work While establishing himself in the film industry, Fincher was employed atJohn Korty's studio as a production head. Gaining further experience, he became a visual effects producer, working on the animatedTwice Upon a Time(1983) with George Lucas.He was hired byIndustrial Light & Magic(ILM) in 1983 as an assistant cameraman andmattephotographerand worked onReturn of the Jedi(1983) andIndiana Jones and the Temple of Doom(1984).In 1984, he left ILM to direct a television commercial for theAmerican Cancer Societythat depicted a fetus smoking a cigarette. This quickly brought Fincher to the attention of producers in Los Angeles, and he was soon given the opportunity to directRick Springfield's 1985 documentary,The Beat of the Live Drum.Set on a directing career, Fincher co-founded production companyPropaganda Filmsand started directing commercials and music videos.Other directors such asMichael Bay,Antoine Fuqua,Michel Gondry,Spike Jonze,Alex Proyas,Paul Rachman,Mark Romanek,Zack SnyderandGore Verbinskialso honed their skills at Propaganda Films before moving on to feature films. Fincher directed TV commercials for many companies includingLevi's,Converse,Nike,Pepsi,Revlon,Sony,Coca-ColaandChanel, although he loathed doing them.Starting in 1984, Fincher began his foray into music videos. He directed videos for various artists including singer-songwriters Rick Springfield,Don Henley,Martha Davis,Paula Abdul, rock bandthe Outfield, and R&B singerJermaine Stewart.Fincher's 1990 music video for \"Freedom! '90\" was one of the most successful forGeorge Michael. He directedMichael Jackson's \"Who Is It\",Aerosmith's \"Janie's Got A Gun\" andBilly Idol's \"Cradle of Love\". ForMadonna, he directed the videos for \"Express Yourself\", \"Oh Father\", \"Bad Girl\" and \"Vogue\".Theblack-and-whitevideo for \"Vogue\" took inspiration from the films of the 1920s and 1930s and has been frequently cited as one of the best videos of all time.Between 1984 and 1993, Fincher was credited as a director for 53 music videos.He referred to the production of music videos as his own \"film school\", in which he learned how to work efficiently within a small budget and time frame. 1992–2000: Breakthrough In 1990,20th Century Foxhired Fincher to replaceVincent Wardas the director for thescience-fictionhorrorAlien 3(1992), his film directorial debut.It was the third installment in theAlienfranchisestarringSigourney Weaver. The film was released in May 1992 to a mixed reception from critics and was considered weaker than the preceding films.From the beginning,Alien 3was hampered by studio intervention and several abandoned scripts.Peter Traversof theRolling Stonecalled the film \"bold and haunting\", despite the \"struggle of nine writers\" and \"studio interference\". The film received anAcademy Awardnomination forBest Visual Effects.Years later, Fincher publicly expressed his dismay and subsequently disowned the film. In the bookDirector's Cut: Picturing Hollywood in the 21st Century, Fincher blames the producers for their lack of trust in him.In an interview withThe Guardianin 2009, he stated, \"No one hated it more than me; to this day, no one hates it more than me.\" After this critical disappointment, Fincher eschewed reading film scripts or directing another project.He briefly retreated to directing commercials and music videos, including the video for the song \"Love Is Strong\" bythe Rolling Stonesin 1994, which won theGrammy AwardforBest Music Video.Shortly, Fincher decided to make a foray back into film. He readAndrew Kevin Walker's original screenplay forSeven(1995), which had been revised byJeremiah Chechik, the director attached to the project at one point. Fincher expressed no interest in directing the revised version, soNew Line Cinemaagreed to keep the original ending.StarringBrad Pitt,Morgan Freeman,Gwyneth Paltrow,R. Lee Ermey, andKevin Spacey, it tells the story of two detectives who attempt to identify aserial killerwho bases his murders on theChristianseven deadly sins.Sevenwas positively received by film critics and was one of the highest-earning films of 1995, grossing more than $320 million worldwide.Writing forSight and Sound, John Wrathall said it \"stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre sinceManhunter\" andRoger Ebertopined thatSevenis \"one of the darkest and most merciless films ever made in the Hollywood mainstream.\" FollowingSeven, Fincher directed a music video for \"6th Avenue Heartache\" bythe Wallflowersand went on to direct his third feature film, the mystery thrillerThe Game(1997), written by the duoJohn Brancato and Michael Ferris.Fincher also hiredSevenscreenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker to contribute and polish the script.Filmed on location in San Francisco, the story follows an investment banker, played byMichael Douglas, who receives an unusual gift from his younger brother (Sean Penn), where he becomes involved in a \"game\" that integrates with his everyday life, making him unable to differentiate between game and reality.Almar Haflidason of theBBCwas critical of the ending, but praised the visuals—\"Fincher does a marvelous job of turning ordinary city locations into frightening backdrops, where every corner turned is another step into the unknown\".UponThe Game's release in September 1997, the film received generally favorable reviews but performed moderately at the box office.The Gamewas later included in theCriterion Collection. In August 1997, Fincher agreed to directFight Club, based on the 1996novel of the same namebyChuck Palahniuk. It was his second film with 20th Century Fox after the troubled production ofAlien 3.Starring Brad Pitt,Edward NortonandHelena Bonham Carter, the film is about a nameless office worker suffering from insomnia, who meets a salesman, and together form an underground fighting club as a form of therapy. Fox struggled with the marketing of the film, and were concerned that it would have a limited audience.Fight Clubpremiered on October 15, 1999, in the United States to a polarized response and modest box office success; the film grossed $100.9 million against a budget of $63 million.Initially, many critics thought the film was \"a violent and dangerous express train of masochism and aggression.\"However, in following years,Fight Clubbecame a cult favorite and gained acknowledgement for its multilayered themes; the film has been the source ofcritical analysis from academics and film critics. 2001–2010: Continued success In 2001, Fincher served as an executive producer for the first season ofThe Hire, a series of short films to promoteBMWautomobiles. The films were released on the internet in 2001.Next in 2002, Fincher returned to another feature film, a thriller titledPanic Room. The story follows a single mother and her daughter who hide in a safe room of their new home, during ahome invasionby a trio. StarringJodie Foster(who replacedNicole Kidman),Forest Whitaker,Kristen Stewart,Dwight Yoakam, andJared Leto,it was theatrically released on March 29, 2002, after a month delay, to critical acclaim and commercial success. In North America, the film earned $96.4 million. In other countries, it grossed $100 million for a worldwide $196.4 million.Mick LaSalle of theSan Francisco Chroniclepraised the filmmakers for their \"fair degree of ingenuity... for 88 minutes of excitement\" and the convincing performance given by Foster.Fincher acknowledgedPanic Roomfor being more mainstream, describing the film, \"It's supposed to be a popcorn movie—there are no great, overriding implications. It's just about survival.\" Five years afterPanic Room, Fincher returned on March 2, 2007, withZodiac, a thriller based onRobert Graysmith's books about the search for theZodiac, a real life serial murderer who terrorized communities between the late 1960s and early 1970s.Fincher first learned of the project after being approached by producerBrad Fischer; he was intrigued by the story due to his childhood personal experience. \"The highway patrol had been following our school buses\", he recalled. His father told him, \"There's a serial killer who has killed four or five people... who's threatened to... shoot the children as they come off the bus.\" After extensive research on the case with fellow producers, Fincher formed a principal cast ofJake Gyllenhaal,Mark Ruffalo,Robert Downey Jr.,Anthony EdwardsandBrian Cox. It was the first of Fincher's films to be shot indigital, with aThomson ViperFilmStreamHDcamera. However, high-speed film cameras were used for particular murder scenes.Zodiacwas well received, appearing in more than two hundred top ten lists (onlyNo Country for Old MenandThere Will Be Bloodappeared in more).However, the film struggled at the United States box office, earning $33 million, but did better overseas with a gross of $51.7 million.Worldwide,Zodiacwas a moderate success.Despite a campaign byParamount Pictures, the film did not receive any Academy Award or Golden Globe nominations. In 2008, Fincher was attached to a film adaptation of the science-fiction novel,Rendezvous with RamabyArthur C. Clarke, however, Fincher said the film is unlikely to go ahead due to problems with the script.His next project wasThe Curious Case of Benjamin Button(2008), an adaptation ofF. Scott Fitzgerald's eponymous1923 short story, about a man who is born as a seventy-year-old baby and ages in reverse. The romantic-drama marked Fincher's third collaboration with Brad Pitt, who stars oppositeCate Blanchett. The budget for the film was estimated to be $167 million, with very expensive visual effects utilized for Pitt's character. Filming started in November 2006 inNew Orleans, taking advantage of Louisiana's film incentive.The film was theatrically released on December 25, 2008, in the United States to a commercial success and warm reception.Writing for theUSA Today, Claudia Puig praises the \"graceful and poignant\" tale despite it being \"overlong and not as emotionally involving as it could be\".The film received thirteenAcademy Awardnominations, includingBest Picture,Best Directorfor Fincher,Best Actorfor Pitt, andBest Supporting ActressforTaraji P. Henson, and won three, forBest Art Direction,Best Makeup, andBest Visual Effects. Fincher directed the 2010 filmThe Social Network, a biographical drama aboutFacebookfounder,Mark Zuckerbergand his legal battles. The screenplay was written byAaron Sorkin, who adapted it from the bookThe Accidental Billionaires.It starsJesse Eisenbergas Zuckerberg, with a supporting cast ofAndrew Garfield,Justin Timberlake,Armie HammerandMax Minghella. Principal photography started in October 2009 inCambridge, Massachusettsand the film was released one year later.The Social Networkwas also a commercial success, earning $224.9 million worldwide.At the83rd Academy Awards, the film received eight nominations and won three awards; soundtrack composersTrent ReznorandAtticus Rosswon forBest Original Score, and the other two awards were forBest Adapted ScreenplayandBest Film Editing.The film received awards forBest Motion Picture – Drama,Best Director,Best Screenplay, andBest Original Scoreat the68th Golden Globe Awards.Critics including Roger Ebert, complimented the writing, describing the film as having \"spellbinding dialogue. It makes an untellable story clear and fascinating\". 2011–present: Established filmmaker In 2011, Fincher followed the success ofThe Social NetworkwithThe Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, a psychological thriller based on the novel by Swedish writerStieg Larsson. ScreenwriterSteven Zaillianspent three months analyzing the novel, writing notes and deleting elements to achieve a suitable running time.FeaturingDaniel Craigas journalistMikael BlomkvistandRooney MaraasLisbeth Salander, it follows Blomkvist's investigation to solve what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared four decades ago. To maintain the novel's setting, the film was primarily shot in Sweden. The soundtrack, composed by collaborators Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, was described byA. O. ScottofThe New York Timesas, \"unnerving and powerful\".Upon the film's release in December, reviews were generally favorable, according to review aggregatorMetacritic.Scott adds, \"Mr. Fincher creates a persuasive ambience of political menace and moral despair\". Philip French ofThe Guardianpraises the \"authentic, quirky detail\" and faithful adaptation.The film received five Academy Award nominations, includingBest Actressfor Mara, and won the award for Best Film Editing.In 2012, Fincher signed a first look deal with Regency Enterprises. In 2013, Fincher served as an executive producer for theNetflixtelevision seriesHouse of Cards, a political thriller about a Congressman's quest for revenge, of which he also directed the first two episodes.The series received positive reviews, earning ninePrimetime Emmynominations, includingOutstanding Drama Series. Fincher won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Seriesfor the first episode.He also directed a music video for the first time since 2005, \"Suit & Tie\" by Justin Timberlake andJay-Z, which won a Grammy Award for Best Music Video. In 2014, Fincher signed a deal withHBOfor three television series -Utopia(an adaptation of theBritish series, to be written byGillian Flynn),Shakedown, andVideosyncrazy. In August 2015, budget disputes between him and the network halted production.Three years later, in 2018,Utopiawas picked up byAmazon Studios, with Gillian Flynn as creator. Fincher directedGone Girl(2014), an adaptation of Gillian Flynn's novelof the same name, starringBen AffleckandRosamund Pike.He even met with Flynn to discuss his interest in the project before a director was selected.Set inMissouri, the story begins as amysterythat follows the events surrounding Nick Dunne (Affleck), who becomes the prime suspect in the sudden disappearance of his wifeAmy(Pike). A critical and commercial success, the film earned $369 million worldwide against a $61 million budget, making it Fincher's highest-grossing work to date.Writing forSalonmagazine, Andrew O'Hehir praises the \"tremendous ensemble cast who mesh marvelously\", adding, \"All the technical command of image, sound and production design for which Fincher is justly famous is here as well.\"Gone Girlgarnered awards and nominations in avarious categories; Pike earned anAcademy Awardnomination forBest Actressand Fincher received his thirdGolden Globenomination for Best Director. Between 2016 and 2019, Fincher directed, produced and served as showrunner for another series,Mindhunter, starringHolt McCallanyandJonathan Groff. The series, based on the bookMind Hunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit, debuted on Netflix worldwide on October 13, 2017.He has expressed interest in eventually making a third season ofMindhunter, which was put on indefinite hold in 2020.In 2023, Fincher confirmed that Netflix will not be making a third season ofMindhunter, saying \"I'm very proud of the first two seasons. But it's a very expensive show and, in the eyes of Netflix, we didn't attract enough of an audience to justify such an investment .\" In June 2017, Jim Gianopulos of Paramount Pictures announced that a sequel toWorld War Zwas \"in advanced development\" with Fincher and Brad Pitt.ProducersDede GardnerandJeremy Kleinersaid that Fincher would begin directing it in June 2019.However, in February 2019, Paramount cancelled the project.As of 2019, Fincher serves as an executive producer forLove, Death & Robots, an animated science-fiction web series for Netflix. In July 2019, Fincher signed on to directMank, abiopicaboutCitizen KanescreenwriterHerman J. Mankiewicz.Mankreceived a limited theatrical release on November 13, 2020, and was made available on Netflix on December 4.Gary Oldmanportrayed Mankiewicz,and the film received ten Academy Award nominations, winning two forBest CinematographyandBest Production Design. Fincher served as an executive producer on a series titledVoir(2021) for Netflix.In 2022, Fincher made his first foray in animation directing an episode for the third season ofLove, Death & Robots. The episode is titled \"Bad Travelling\" and was written bySevenscreenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker.In February 2021, it was reported that Fincher would directan adaptationof the graphic novelThe Killerfor Netflix, with Andrew Kevin Walker writing the screenplay andMichael Fassbenderattached to star.It premiered at the80th Venice International Film Festival. It began a limited theatrical release in October 2023 and was subsequently released on Netflix on 10 November. Filmmaking style and techniques Influences Fincher did not attend film school. He has listed filmmakersGeorge Roy Hill,Alfred Hitchcock,Stanley Kubrick,Alan J. Pakula,Ridley Scott, andMartin Scorseseas his major influences.His personal favorite films includeRear Window(1954),Lawrence of Arabia(1962),The Graduate(1967),Paper Moon(1973),American Graffiti(1973),Jaws(1975),All the President's Men(1976),Taxi Driver(1976),Close Encounters of the Third Kind(1977), andZelig(1983).He suggested that his filmPanic Roomis a combination ofRear WindowandStraw Dogs(1971). ForSeven, Fincher and cinematographerDarius Khondjiwere inspired by filmsThe French Connection(1971) andKlute(1971), as well as the work of photographerRobert Frank.He has cited graphic designerSaul Bassas an inspiration for his films'title sequences; Bass designed many such sequences for prominent directors, including Hitchcock and Kubrick. Method Those are the moments where moviemaking is not like writing, and it's not like the theater, and it's not like performance art, and it's not like sculpting. It's truly its own discipline. There's nothing else like it in those moments where you go, wow, here's an intent that was probably never even thought of by the guy who wrote the book. And yet this person who may or may not have even read the source material has found this thing. That, for me, after the previsualization, is the most exciting part of the whole. —Fincher onserendipityduring filmmaking. Fincher's filmmaking process always begins with extensive research and preparation, although he has said the process is different every time: \"I enjoy reading a script that you can see in your head, and then I enjoy the casting and I enjoy the rehearsal, and I enjoy all the meetings about what it should be, what it could be, what it might be.\"He has admitted to havingautocratictendencies and prefers tomicromanageevery aspect of a film's production.Icelandic film producerSigurjón Sighvatsson, with whom Fincher has collaborated for decades, has said that \" was always a rebel... always challenging the status quo\". Known for his perfectionism and meticulous eye for detail, Fincher performs thorough research when casting actors to ensure their suitability for the part. His colleague Max Daly said, \"He's really good at finding the one detail that was missed. He knows more than anybody.\"ProducerLaura Ziskinsaid of him, \"He's just scary smart, sort of smarter than everyone else in the room.\"He approaches editing like \"intricate mathematical problems\".Long-time collaboratorAngus Wallsaid that editingZodiacwas like \"putting together aSwiss watch... all the pieces are so beautifully machined\". He elaborated, \" is incredibly specific. He never settles. And there's a purity that shows in his work.\" When working with actors, Fincher is known to demand a grueling series of takes to capture a scene perfectly.For instance, theZodiaccast members were required to do upwards of 70 takes for certain scenes, much to the displeasure of Jake Gyllenhaal.Rooney Mara had to endure 99 takes for a scene inThe Social Networkand said that Fincher enjoys challenging people.Gone Girlaveraged 50 takes per scene. In one of the episodes forMindhunter, it was reported that a nine-minute scene took 11 hours to shoot.When asked about this method, Fincher said, \"I hate earnestness in performance... usually by take 17 the earnestness is gone.\" He added that he wants a scene to be as natural and authentic as possible.Some actors appreciate this approach, arguing that the subtle adjustments have a big difference in the way a scene is carried. Others have been critical, withR. Lee Ermeystating, \" wants puppets. He doesn't want actors that are creative.\" Fincher prefers shooting withReddigital cameras, under natural or pre-existing light conditions rather than using elaboratelighting setups.Fincher is known to usecomputer-generated imagery, which is mostly unnoticeable to the viewer.He does not normally usehand-held camerasduring filming, instead preferring cameras on atripod. He said, \"Handheld has a powerful psychological stranglehold. It means something specific and I don't want to cloud what's going on with too much meaning.\"He has experimented with the disembodied camera movement, notably inPanic Room, where the camera glides around the house to give the impression of surveillance by an unseen observer. Style and themes One element of Fincher's visual style is the specific way in which he usestilt,pan, andtrackin the camera movements. When a character is in motion or expressing emotions, the camera moves at the exact same speed and direction as their body. The movements are choreographed precisely between the actors and camera operators. The resulting effect helps the audience connect with the character to understand their feelings.Similarly, in his music videos, Fincher appreciated that the visuals should enhance the listening experience. He wouldcutaround the vocals, and let the choreography finish before cutting the shot. Camera movements are synchronized to the beat of the music. Some regard Fincher as anauteurfilmmaker, although he dislikes being associated with that term.Much of his work is influenced by classicalfilm noirandneo noirgenres.Fincher's visual style also includes using monochromatic anddesaturatedcolors of blue, green, and yellow, representing the world that the characters are in. InThe Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, Fincher uses heavy desaturation for certain scenes, and increases or decreases the effect based on the story or characters' emotions.Erik Messerschmidt, cinematographer forMindhunter, explained the color palette: \"The show has a desaturated green-yellow look... helps give the show its period feel.\" He states the effect is achieved through production design, costumes, and filming locations—not necessarily through lighting used on set. Fincher also favors detailed and pronounced shadows, as well as using minimal light.When asked about his use of dim lighting, he said bright lights make the color of skin appear unnatural, and that the lights and colors in his films represent \"the way the world looks to \". Fincher has explored themes ofmartyrdom,alienation, anddehumanizationof modern culture.In addition to the wider themes of good and evil, his characters are usually troubled, discontented, and flawed; they are often unable to socialize and suffer from loneliness.InSeven,Zodiac, andThe Social Network, themes of pressure and obsession are explored, leading to the character's downfall. Quoting historian Frank Krutnik, the writer Piers McCarthy argues that \"the protagonists of these films are not totally in control of their actions but are subject to darker, inner impulses\". In a 2017 interview, Fincher explained his fascination of sinister themes: \"There was always a house in any neighborhood that I ever lived in that all the kids on the street wondered, 'What are those people up to?' We sort of attach the sinister to the mundane in order to make things interesting... I think it's also because in order for something to be evil, it almost has to cloak itself as something else.\"Fincher once stated, \"I think people are perverts. I've maintained that. That's the foundation of my career.\" Collaborators Over the course of his career, Fincher has shown loyalty to many members of his cast and crew. As a music video director, he collaborated withPaula Abdulfive times, as well asMadonnaandRick Springfieldfour times each. Once he made the transition to feature films, he castBrad Pittin three of them. He said of Pitt, \"On-screen and off-screen, Brad's the ultimate guy... he has such a great ease with who he is.\"Bob Stephenson,Michael Massee, Christopher John Fields,John Getz,Elias Koteas,Zach Grenier,Charles Dance,Rooney Mara,Jared Leto,Arliss Howard, and Richmond Arquette have also appeared in at least two of his films. Fight Clubwas scored by theDust Brothers, who at that point had never scored a film. Describing their working relationship with Fincher, they said he \"was not hanging over our shoulders telling us what to do\" and that the only direction he gave was to make the music sound as great as the score fromThe Graduate(1967).Nine Inch NailsmembersTrent ReznorandAtticus Rosscomposed the music forThe Social Network,The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo,Gone Girl,Mank, andThe Killer. The musicians describe their working relationship as \"collaborative, respectful, and inspiring\" although quipped that it \"hasn't gotten any easier\".Many years before the duo worked with Fincher, he arranged for a remix of the Nine Inch Nails song \"Closer\" to play over the opening credits ofSeven.Howard Shorecomposed the scores forSeven,The Game, andPanic Room. Darius Khondji andJeff Cronenwethhave served as cinematographers for Fincher's films. Khondji said, \"Fincher deserves a lot of credit. It was his influence that pushed me to experiment and got me as far as I did.\"Fincher has hired sound designerRen Klycein all his films since 1995 and trusts him \"implicitly\".He has worked with film editor Angus Wall since 1988. Wall has worked on seven of his films, five of which as editor. Donald Graham Burthas served as a production designer for six filmsand Bob Wagner has served as an assistant director for six.Casting director Laray Mayfield has worked with Fincher for over 20 years.In a 2010 interview, Fincher said, \"You don't have to love all of your co-collaborators, but you do have to respect them. And when you do, when you realize that people bring stuff to the table that's not necessarily your experience, but if you allow yourself to relate to it, it can enrich the buffet that you're going to bring with you into the editing room.\" Personal life Fincher married model Donya Fiorentino (sister of actressLinda Fiorentino). They had one daughter together,before divorcing in 1995.Fincher married producerCeán Chaffinin 1996. Filmography Awards and recognitions Tim Walker ofThe Independentpraised Fincher's work, stating \"His portrayals of the modern psyche have a power and precision that few film-makers can match.\"In 2003, Fincher was ranked 39th inThe Guardian's 40 best directors.In 2012,The Guardianlisted him again in their ranking of 23 best film directors in the world, applauding \"his ability to sustain tone and tension\".In 2016, ZodiacandThe Social Networkappeared in theBBC's100 Greatest Films of the 21st Centurylist.In addition to films, Fincher has often been admired for producing some of the most creative music videos. Fincher received threeAcademy Award for Best Directornominations forThe Curious Case of Benjamin Button(2008),The Social Network(2010), andMank(2020). He won both theBAFTA Award for Best Directionand theGolden Globe Award for Best DirectorforThe Social Network. He also received twoGrammy Awardsfor \"Love Is Strong\" (1995) byThe Rolling Stonesand \"Suit & Tie\" (2013) byJustin TimberlakeandJay-Zas well as fourPrimetime Emmy AwardsforPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama SeriesforHouse of Cards(2013) and threePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Animated ProgramforLove, Death & Robots. See also References Bibliography External links", "Aardvark See text Aardvarks(/ˈɑːrdvɑːrk/ARD-vark;Orycteropus afer) are medium-sized, burrowing,nocturnalmammals native to Africa.They have a long snout, similar to that of a pig, which is used to sniff out food. Aardvarks are the only livingspeciesof the orderTubulidentata,although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. They areafrotheres, acladethat also includeselephants,manatees, andhyraxes. They are found over much of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. Nocturnal feeders, aardvarks subsist on ants and termites by using their sharp claws and powerful legs to dig the insects out of their hills. Aardvarks also dig to create burrows in which to live and rear their young. Aardvarks are listed as \"least concern\" by theIUCN, although their numbers are decreasing. Name and taxonomy Name The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the \"African ant bear\",\"anteater\" (not to be confused with theSouth American anteaters), or the \"Cape anteater\"after theCape of Good Hope. The name \"aardvark\" isAfrikaans(pronounced) and comes from earlier Afrikaanserdvark.It means \"earthpig\" or \"ground pig\" (aarde:'earth',vark:'pig, young pig'), because of its burrowing habits. The nameOrycteropusmeans \"burrowing foot\", and the nameaferrefers to Africa.The name of the aardvark's order,Tubulidentata,comes from the tubule-style teeth. Taxonomy The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalianorderTubulidentata,in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genusOrycteropus, the sole surviving genus in the familyOrycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to theSouth Americananteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance.The similarities are the outcome ofconvergent evolution.The closest living relatives of the aardvark are theelephant shrews,tenrecidae, andgolden moles.Along withsirenians,hyraxes,elephants,and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorderAfrotheria.Studies of the brain have shown the similarities withCondylarthra. Evolutionary history Based on his study of fossils,Bryan Pattersonhas concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared inAfricaaround the end of thePaleocene.Theptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade toTubulidentataor as a grade leading to true tubulidentates. The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probablyMyorycteropus africanusfromKenyanMiocenedeposits.The earliest example from the genusOrycteropuswasOrycteropus mauritanicus, found inAlgeriain deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya.Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughoutEuropeand theNear East. The mysterious PleistocenePlesiorycteropusfromMadagascarwas originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during theEocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe thatPlesiorycteropusis a relative of golden moles andtenrecsthat achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution. Subspecies The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed: The1911 Encyclopædia Britannicaalso mentionsO. a. capensisor Cape ant-bear from South Africa. Description The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched backand is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs.The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robustnailwhich is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between aclawand a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considereddigitigrade, it appears at times to beplantigrade. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles.A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone (CCCB). The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favourable environment for plants and a variety of animals.Digging is also facilitated by its forearm's unusually stout ulna and radius. An aardvark's weight is typically between 60 and 80 kilograms (130–180 lb).An aardvark's length is usually between 105 and 130 centimetres (3.44–4.27 ft),and can reach lengths of 2.2 metres (7 ft 3 in) when its tail (which can be up to 70 centimetres (28 in)) is taken into account. It is 60 centimetres (24 in) tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about 100 centimetres (3.3 ft).It is thelargestmember of the proposed cladeAfroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-grey in colour and often stained reddish-brown bysoil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair.The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3–4 hairs.The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. Head The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but completezygomatic arch.The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is theirteeth. Instead of having apulp cavity, each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form ofdentine), with individual pulp canals, held together bycementum.The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500.The teeth have noenamelcoating and are worn away and regrow continuously.The aardvark is born with conventional incisors andcaninesat the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of thejaw, and have adental formulaof:0.0.2-3.30.0.2.3These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition.The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars.The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains tennasal conchae, more than any other placental mammal. The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair.The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modifiedmimetic muscles.The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions,but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature.Its nose is made up of moreturbinatebones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5.With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moistepithelium, which is the location of the olfactory bulb.The nose contains nineolfactory bulbs, more than any other mammal.Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as itsolfactory lobeis very developed.The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed onantsandtermites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as 30 centimetres (12 in) long)and elaborate structures supporting a keensense of smell.The ears, which are very effective,are disproportionately long, about 20–25 centimetres (7.9–9.8 in) long.The eyes are small for its head, and consist only ofrods. Digestive system The aardvark's stomach has a muscularpyloricarea that acts as agizzardto grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary.Itscecumis large.Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland.Itssalivary glandsare highly developed and almost completely ring the neck;their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness.The female has two pairs ofteatsin the inguinal region. Geneticallyspeaking, the aardvark is aliving fossil, as itschromosomesare highly conserved, reflecting much of the earlyeutherianarrangement before the divergence of the major moderntaxa. Habitat and range Aardvarks are found insub-Saharan Africa, where suitablehabitat(savannas,grasslands,woodlandsandbushland) and food (i.e.,antsandtermites) is available.They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day.The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth.They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging.They have been documented as high as 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions including the coastal areas ofNamibia,Ivory Coast, andGhana. They are not found in Madagascar. Ecology and behaviour Aardvarks live for up to 23 years incaptivity.Its keen hearing warns it of predators:lions,leopards, cheetahs,African wild dogs,hyenas, andpythons.Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat.Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet.They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker.They will also dig to escape as they can. Sometimes, when pressed, aardvarks can dig extremely quickly. Feeding The aardvark isnocturnaland is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively onantsandtermites(myrmecophagy);the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is theaardvark cucumber.In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark.They avoid eating the Africandriver antand red ants.Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive.An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing 10 to 30 kilometres (6.2 to 18.6 mi). While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again. During a foraging period, they will stop to dig a V-shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location.When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number ofinsectswith its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils.When successful, the aardvark's long (up to 30 centimetres (12 in))tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers.Termite mounds alone do not provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns 10–40 metres (33–131 ft) long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals.The trampled grass and dung attract termites from theOdontotermes,Microtermes, andPseudacanthotermesgenera. On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of night (roughly the four hours between 8:00p.m. and 12:00a.m.); however, they do not seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between 2 and 5 kilometres (1.2 and 3.1 mi) per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as 30 kilometres (19 mi) in a night. Aardvarks shift their circadian rhythms to more diurnal activity patterns in response to a reduced food supply. This survival tactic may signify an increased risk of imminent mortality. Vocalisation The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance.It makes a bleating sound if frightened.When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear. Movement The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents.It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes,but otherwise moves fairly slowly. When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be 10 metres (33 ft) away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging. Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark alsoexcavatesburrows in which to live, which generally fall into one of three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes.Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the mainburrowis also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as 13 metres (43 ft).These burrows can be large enough for a person to enter.The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like theAfrican wild dog,ant-eating chat,Nycteris thebaicaandwarthogs.Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season.Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature.If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws.The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavatedantnest, which also serves as protection from itspredators. Reproduction Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after agestationperiod of seven months,one cub weighing around 1.7–1.9 kilograms (3.7–4.2 lb)is born during May–July.When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession.After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright.After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing.It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks,and is weaned between three monthsand 16 weeks.At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the nextmating season,and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age. Conservation Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers,however, this is possibly because they are not readily seen.There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It has received an official designation from the IUCN asleast concern.However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically. Recent research suggests that aardvarks may be particularly vulnerable to alterations in temperature caused by climate change.Droughtsnegatively impact the availability of termites and ants, which comprise the bulk of an aardvark's diet.Nocturnal species faced with resource scarcity may increase their diurnal activity to spare the energy costs of staying warm at night, but this comes at the cost of withstanding high temperatures during the day. A study on aardvarks in theKalahari Desertsaw that five out of six aardvarks being studied perished following a drought.Aardvarks that survive droughts can take long periods of time to regain health and optimal thermoregulatory physiology, reducing the reproductive potential of the species. Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one wasLondon Zooin 1869, which had an animal fromSouth Africa. Mythology and popular culture InAfrican folklore, the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response tosoldier ants.Hausamagicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission.Also, some tribes, such as theMargbetu,Ayanda, andLogo,will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms.The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures.In the mythology of theDagbonpeople of Ghana, the aardvark is believed to possess superpowers.TheDagombasbelieve this animal can transfigure into and interact with humans. The ancientEgyptian godSetis usually depicted with the head of anunidentified animal, whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship. Thetitular characterand his families fromArthur, an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced byWGBH, shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark.In the first book of the series,Arthur's Nose(1976), he has a long, aardvark-like nose,but in later books, his face becomes more rounded. Otis the Aardvarkwas a puppet character used onChildren's BBCprogramming. An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoonThe Ant and the Aardvarkas well as in the Canadian animated seriesThe Raccoons. The supersonic fighter-bomberF-111/FB-111was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadronVF-114was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flyingF-4sand thenF-14s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic stripB.C., which the F-4 was said to resemble. Cerebus the Aardvarkis a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim. Footnotes References External links", "Puppy teething Puppies first start with sucking from the time of being a newborn up to the time they start teething.Puppiesaround the age of two weeks old start to experience teething. Teething is the process by which a puppy'sdeciduous teethcome in and then fall out to make way for theirpermanent teeth. By 5–6 weeks of life, all of the deciduous teeth have come in, puppies will grow in a set of 28 deciduous teeth or needle teeth. Permanent teeth will start coming in around 12–16 weeks, and puppies will eventually end up with 42 permanent teeth. The process of teething is painful to puppies much like babies. During this process puppies will experience increased salivation, loss of appetite, and extreme irritability when the teeth do erupt from the gums. The gums will swell and become tender to palpation just prior to the tooth coming in. Puppies may exhibit excessive chewing, nipping, and drooling. If there is an extreme change in behavior, it is recommended to visit the veterinarian as soon as possible for an exam. Owners that would like to do an oral exam on their own must be prepared for potential aggressive behavior. Some ways that dog owners can help their puppies during this painful teething stage is to ensure that your puppy has something to chew on that is soothing for them. Large carrots are recommended for puppies to teethe on and also are nutritious.Often times pet owners will freeze teething toys to soothe their dogs irritated gums. Veterinarians do recommendchew toyshelp relieve teething pain.It is important that puppies get durable toys so that they can not accidentally swallow plastic or large pieces of fabric since puppy teeth are very sharp and durable.As your puppy's adult teeth start to grow in it is important to start maintaining the dog's dental health. It is recommended to brush your puppy's teeth every day and work with a veterinarian to schedule yearly dental exams and cleanings.If teething turns into aggressive biting, it is not advised to remove healthy canine teeth due to the fact that this does not address the actual problem at hand. Additionally, this could cause oral pathologic conditions that can be expensive to treat and require anesthesia. See also References" ]
[ "David Fincher David Andrew Leo Fincher(born August 28, 1962) is an American film director.His films, most of which arepsychological thrillers, have collectively grossed over $2.1 billion worldwide and have receivednumerous accolades, including three nominations for theAcademy Awardsfor Best Director. He has also received fourPrimetime Emmy Awards, twoGrammy Awards, aBAFTA Award, and aGolden Globe Award. Fincher co-founded the production companyPropaganda Filmsin 1986. He directed numerous music videos for the company, includingMadonna's \"Express Yourself\" in 1989 and \"Vogue\" in 1990, both of which won him theMTV Video Music Award for Best Direction. He received twoGrammy Awards for Best Music Videofor \"Love Is Strong\" (1994) bythe Rolling Stonesand \"Suit & Tie\" (2013) byJustin TimberlakefeaturingJay-Z. He made his feature film debut withAlien 3(1992) and gained his breakthrough withSeven(1995). He has since directedThe Game(1997),Fight Club(1999),Panic Room(2002),Zodiac(2007),The Girl with the Dragon", "with the Dragon Tattoo(2011),Gone Girl(2014), andThe Killer(2023). He received nominations for theAcademy Award for Best Directorfor the dramasThe Curious Case of Benjamin Button(2008),The Social Network(2010), andMank(2020). In television, Fincher has served as an executive producer and director for theNetflixseriesHouse of Cards(2013–2018) andMindhunter(2017–2019), winning thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Seriesfor thepilot episodeof the former. He also executive produced and co-created the Netflix animated seriesLove, Death & Robots(2019–present) which received threePrimetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program. Early life David Andrew Leo Fincherwas born inDenveron August 28, 1962.His mother, Claire Mae (née Boettcher), was a mental health nurse fromSouth Dakotawho worked in drug addiction programs. His father,Howard Kelly \"Jack\" Fincher(1930–2003), was an author fromOklahomawho worked as a reporter and bureau chief forLifemagazine.When Fincher was two", "Fincher was two years old, the family moved toSan Anselmo, California, where he counted filmmakerGeorge Lucasamong his neighbors.He became fascinated with filmmaking at the age of eight and began making films on an8mm camera.In a 2012 interview, he said: I was eight years old and I saw a documentary on the making ofButch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. It had never occurred to me that movies didn't take place in real time. I knew that they were fake, I knew that the people were acting, but it had never occurred to me that it could take four months to make a movie! It showed the entire company with all these rental horses and moving trailers to shoot a scene on top of a train. They would hire somebody who looked likeRobert Redfordto jump onto the train. It never occurred to me that there were hours between each of these shots. The actual circus of it was invisible, as it should be, but in seeing that I became obsessed with the idea of \"How?\" It was the ultimate magic trick. The notion that24 still", "notion that24 still photographsare shown in such quick succession that movement is imparted from it—wow! And I thought that there would never be anything that would be as interesting as that to do with the rest of my life. As a teenager, Fincher moved toAshland, Oregon, where he attendedAshland High School. He directed plays and designed sets and lighting after school, was a non-union projectionist at Varsity Theatre, and worked as a production assistant at theKOBInews station inMedford. He supported himself by working as a busboy, dishwasher, and fry cook. Career 1983–1991: Early work While establishing himself in the film industry, Fincher was employed atJohn Korty's studio as a production head. Gaining further experience, he became a visual effects producer, working on the animatedTwice Upon a Time(1983) with George Lucas.He was hired byIndustrial Light & Magic(ILM) in 1983 as an assistant cameraman andmattephotographerand worked onReturn of the Jedi(1983) andIndiana Jones and the Temple of Doom(1984).In", "of Doom(1984).In 1984, he left ILM to direct a television commercial for theAmerican Cancer Societythat depicted a fetus smoking a cigarette. This quickly brought Fincher to the attention of producers in Los Angeles, and he was soon given the opportunity to directRick Springfield's 1985 documentary,The Beat of the Live Drum.Set on a directing career, Fincher co-founded production companyPropaganda Filmsand started directing commercials and music videos.Other directors such asMichael Bay,Antoine Fuqua,Michel Gondry,Spike Jonze,Alex Proyas,Paul Rachman,Mark Romanek,Zack SnyderandGore Verbinskialso honed their skills at Propaganda Films before moving on to feature films. Fincher directed TV commercials for many companies includingLevi's,Converse,Nike,Pepsi,Revlon,Sony,Coca-ColaandChanel, although he loathed doing them.Starting in 1984, Fincher began his foray into music videos. He directed videos for various artists including singer-songwriters Rick Springfield,Don Henley,Martha Davis,Paula Abdul, rock bandthe", "Abdul, rock bandthe Outfield, and R&B singerJermaine Stewart.Fincher's 1990 music video for \"Freedom! '90\" was one of the most successful forGeorge Michael. He directedMichael Jackson's \"Who Is It\",Aerosmith's \"Janie's Got A Gun\" andBilly Idol's \"Cradle of Love\". ForMadonna, he directed the videos for \"Express Yourself\", \"Oh Father\", \"Bad Girl\" and \"Vogue\".Theblack-and-whitevideo for \"Vogue\" took inspiration from the films of the 1920s and 1930s and has been frequently cited as one of the best videos of all time.Between 1984 and 1993, Fincher was credited as a director for 53 music videos.He referred to the production of music videos as his own \"film school\", in which he learned how to work efficiently within a small budget and time frame. 1992–2000: Breakthrough In 1990,20th Century Foxhired Fincher to replaceVincent Wardas the director for thescience-fictionhorrorAlien 3(1992), his film directorial debut.It was the third installment in theAlienfranchisestarringSigourney Weaver. The film was released in May", "was released in May 1992 to a mixed reception from critics and was considered weaker than the preceding films.From the beginning,Alien 3was hampered by studio intervention and several abandoned scripts.Peter Traversof theRolling Stonecalled the film \"bold and haunting\", despite the \"struggle of nine writers\" and \"studio interference\". The film received anAcademy Awardnomination forBest Visual Effects.Years later, Fincher publicly expressed his dismay and subsequently disowned the film. In the bookDirector's Cut: Picturing Hollywood in the 21st Century, Fincher blames the producers for their lack of trust in him.In an interview withThe Guardianin 2009, he stated, \"No one hated it more than me; to this day, no one hates it more than me.\" After this critical disappointment, Fincher eschewed reading film scripts or directing another project.He briefly retreated to directing commercials and music videos, including the video for the song \"Love Is Strong\" bythe Rolling Stonesin 1994, which won theGrammy", "which won theGrammy AwardforBest Music Video.Shortly, Fincher decided to make a foray back into film. He readAndrew Kevin Walker's original screenplay forSeven(1995), which had been revised byJeremiah Chechik, the director attached to the project at one point. Fincher expressed no interest in directing the revised version, soNew Line Cinemaagreed to keep the original ending.StarringBrad Pitt,Morgan Freeman,Gwyneth Paltrow,R. Lee Ermey, andKevin Spacey, it tells the story of two detectives who attempt to identify aserial killerwho bases his murders on theChristianseven deadly sins.Sevenwas positively received by film critics and was one of the highest-earning films of 1995, grossing more than $320 million worldwide.Writing forSight and Sound, John Wrathall said it \"stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre sinceManhunter\" andRoger Ebertopined thatSevenis \"one of the darkest and most merciless films ever made in the Hollywood mainstream.\" FollowingSeven, Fincher directed a", "Fincher directed a music video for \"6th Avenue Heartache\" bythe Wallflowersand went on to direct his third feature film, the mystery thrillerThe Game(1997), written by the duoJohn Brancato and Michael Ferris.Fincher also hiredSevenscreenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker to contribute and polish the script.Filmed on location in San Francisco, the story follows an investment banker, played byMichael Douglas, who receives an unusual gift from his younger brother (Sean Penn), where he becomes involved in a \"game\" that integrates with his everyday life, making him unable to differentiate between game and reality.Almar Haflidason of theBBCwas critical of the ending, but praised the visuals—\"Fincher does a marvelous job of turning ordinary city locations into frightening backdrops, where every corner turned is another step into the unknown\".UponThe Game's release in September 1997, the film received generally favorable reviews but performed moderately at the box office.The Gamewas later included in theCriterion", "in theCriterion Collection. In August 1997, Fincher agreed to directFight Club, based on the 1996novel of the same namebyChuck Palahniuk. It was his second film with 20th Century Fox after the troubled production ofAlien 3.Starring Brad Pitt,Edward NortonandHelena Bonham Carter, the film is about a nameless office worker suffering from insomnia, who meets a salesman, and together form an underground fighting club as a form of therapy. Fox struggled with the marketing of the film, and were concerned that it would have a limited audience.Fight Clubpremiered on October 15, 1999, in the United States to a polarized response and modest box office success; the film grossed $100.9 million against a budget of $63 million.Initially, many critics thought the film was \"a violent and dangerous express train of masochism and aggression.\"However, in following years,Fight Clubbecame a cult favorite and gained acknowledgement for its multilayered themes; the film has been the source ofcritical analysis from academics and", "from academics and film critics. 2001–2010: Continued success In 2001, Fincher served as an executive producer for the first season ofThe Hire, a series of short films to promoteBMWautomobiles. The films were released on the internet in 2001.Next in 2002, Fincher returned to another feature film, a thriller titledPanic Room. The story follows a single mother and her daughter who hide in a safe room of their new home, during ahome invasionby a trio. StarringJodie Foster(who replacedNicole Kidman),Forest Whitaker,Kristen Stewart,Dwight Yoakam, andJared Leto,it was theatrically released on March 29, 2002, after a month delay, to critical acclaim and commercial success. In North America, the film earned $96.4 million. In other countries, it grossed $100 million for a worldwide $196.4 million.Mick LaSalle of theSan Francisco Chroniclepraised the filmmakers for their \"fair degree of ingenuity... for 88 minutes of excitement\" and the convincing performance given by Foster.Fincher acknowledgedPanic Roomfor being", "Roomfor being more mainstream, describing the film, \"It's supposed to be a popcorn movie—there are no great, overriding implications. It's just about survival.\" Five years afterPanic Room, Fincher returned on March 2, 2007, withZodiac, a thriller based onRobert Graysmith's books about the search for theZodiac, a real life serial murderer who terrorized communities between the late 1960s and early 1970s.Fincher first learned of the project after being approached by producerBrad Fischer; he was intrigued by the story due to his childhood personal experience. \"The highway patrol had been following our school buses\", he recalled. His father told him, \"There's a serial killer who has killed four or five people... who's threatened to... shoot the children as they come off the bus.\" After extensive research on the case with fellow producers, Fincher formed a principal cast ofJake Gyllenhaal,Mark Ruffalo,Robert Downey Jr.,Anthony EdwardsandBrian Cox. It was the first of Fincher's films to be shot indigital, with", "indigital, with aThomson ViperFilmStreamHDcamera. However, high-speed film cameras were used for particular murder scenes.Zodiacwas well received, appearing in more than two hundred top ten lists (onlyNo Country for Old MenandThere Will Be Bloodappeared in more).However, the film struggled at the United States box office, earning $33 million, but did better overseas with a gross of $51.7 million.Worldwide,Zodiacwas a moderate success.Despite a campaign byParamount Pictures, the film did not receive any Academy Award or Golden Globe nominations. In 2008, Fincher was attached to a film adaptation of the science-fiction novel,Rendezvous with RamabyArthur C. Clarke, however, Fincher said the film is unlikely to go ahead due to problems with the script.His next project wasThe Curious Case of Benjamin Button(2008), an adaptation ofF. Scott Fitzgerald's eponymous1923 short story, about a man who is born as a seventy-year-old baby and ages in reverse. The romantic-drama marked Fincher's third collaboration with Brad", "with Brad Pitt, who stars oppositeCate Blanchett. The budget for the film was estimated to be $167 million, with very expensive visual effects utilized for Pitt's character. Filming started in November 2006 inNew Orleans, taking advantage of Louisiana's film incentive.The film was theatrically released on December 25, 2008, in the United States to a commercial success and warm reception.Writing for theUSA Today, Claudia Puig praises the \"graceful and poignant\" tale despite it being \"overlong and not as emotionally involving as it could be\".The film received thirteenAcademy Awardnominations, includingBest Picture,Best Directorfor Fincher,Best Actorfor Pitt, andBest Supporting ActressforTaraji P. Henson, and won three, forBest Art Direction,Best Makeup, andBest Visual Effects. Fincher directed the 2010 filmThe Social Network, a biographical drama aboutFacebookfounder,Mark Zuckerbergand his legal battles. The screenplay was written byAaron Sorkin, who adapted it from the bookThe Accidental Billionaires.It", "Billionaires.It starsJesse Eisenbergas Zuckerberg, with a supporting cast ofAndrew Garfield,Justin Timberlake,Armie HammerandMax Minghella. Principal photography started in October 2009 inCambridge, Massachusettsand the film was released one year later.The Social Networkwas also a commercial success, earning $224.9 million worldwide.At the83rd Academy Awards, the film received eight nominations and won three awards; soundtrack composersTrent ReznorandAtticus Rosswon forBest Original Score, and the other two awards were forBest Adapted ScreenplayandBest Film Editing.The film received awards forBest Motion Picture – Drama,Best Director,Best Screenplay, andBest Original Scoreat the68th Golden Globe Awards.Critics including Roger Ebert, complimented the writing, describing the film as having \"spellbinding dialogue. It makes an untellable story clear and fascinating\". 2011–present: Established filmmaker In 2011, Fincher followed the success ofThe Social NetworkwithThe Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, a psychological", "a psychological thriller based on the novel by Swedish writerStieg Larsson. ScreenwriterSteven Zaillianspent three months analyzing the novel, writing notes and deleting elements to achieve a suitable running time.FeaturingDaniel Craigas journalistMikael BlomkvistandRooney MaraasLisbeth Salander, it follows Blomkvist's investigation to solve what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared four decades ago. To maintain the novel's setting, the film was primarily shot in Sweden. The soundtrack, composed by collaborators Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, was described byA. O. ScottofThe New York Timesas, \"unnerving and powerful\".Upon the film's release in December, reviews were generally favorable, according to review aggregatorMetacritic.Scott adds, \"Mr. Fincher creates a persuasive ambience of political menace and moral despair\". Philip French ofThe Guardianpraises the \"authentic, quirky detail\" and faithful adaptation.The film received five Academy Award nominations, includingBest Actressfor", "Actressfor Mara, and won the award for Best Film Editing.In 2012, Fincher signed a first look deal with Regency Enterprises. In 2013, Fincher served as an executive producer for theNetflixtelevision seriesHouse of Cards, a political thriller about a Congressman's quest for revenge, of which he also directed the first two episodes.The series received positive reviews, earning ninePrimetime Emmynominations, includingOutstanding Drama Series. Fincher won thePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Seriesfor the first episode.He also directed a music video for the first time since 2005, \"Suit & Tie\" by Justin Timberlake andJay-Z, which won a Grammy Award for Best Music Video. In 2014, Fincher signed a deal withHBOfor three television series -Utopia(an adaptation of theBritish series, to be written byGillian Flynn),Shakedown, andVideosyncrazy. In August 2015, budget disputes between him and the network halted production.Three years later, in 2018,Utopiawas picked up byAmazon Studios, with", "Studios, with Gillian Flynn as creator. Fincher directedGone Girl(2014), an adaptation of Gillian Flynn's novelof the same name, starringBen AffleckandRosamund Pike.He even met with Flynn to discuss his interest in the project before a director was selected.Set inMissouri, the story begins as amysterythat follows the events surrounding Nick Dunne (Affleck), who becomes the prime suspect in the sudden disappearance of his wifeAmy(Pike). A critical and commercial success, the film earned $369 million worldwide against a $61 million budget, making it Fincher's highest-grossing work to date.Writing forSalonmagazine, Andrew O'Hehir praises the \"tremendous ensemble cast who mesh marvelously\", adding, \"All the technical command of image, sound and production design for which Fincher is justly famous is here as well.\"Gone Girlgarnered awards and nominations in avarious categories; Pike earned anAcademy Awardnomination forBest Actressand Fincher received his thirdGolden Globenomination for Best Director. Between 2016", "Between 2016 and 2019, Fincher directed, produced and served as showrunner for another series,Mindhunter, starringHolt McCallanyandJonathan Groff. The series, based on the bookMind Hunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit, debuted on Netflix worldwide on October 13, 2017.He has expressed interest in eventually making a third season ofMindhunter, which was put on indefinite hold in 2020.In 2023, Fincher confirmed that Netflix will not be making a third season ofMindhunter, saying \"I'm very proud of the first two seasons. But it's a very expensive show and, in the eyes of Netflix, we didn't attract enough of an audience to justify such an investment .\" In June 2017, Jim Gianopulos of Paramount Pictures announced that a sequel toWorld War Zwas \"in advanced development\" with Fincher and Brad Pitt.ProducersDede GardnerandJeremy Kleinersaid that Fincher would begin directing it in June 2019.However, in February 2019, Paramount cancelled the project.As of 2019, Fincher serves as an executive producer", "executive producer forLove, Death & Robots, an animated science-fiction web series for Netflix. In July 2019, Fincher signed on to directMank, abiopicaboutCitizen KanescreenwriterHerman J. Mankiewicz.Mankreceived a limited theatrical release on November 13, 2020, and was made available on Netflix on December 4.Gary Oldmanportrayed Mankiewicz,and the film received ten Academy Award nominations, winning two forBest CinematographyandBest Production Design. Fincher served as an executive producer on a series titledVoir(2021) for Netflix.In 2022, Fincher made his first foray in animation directing an episode for the third season ofLove, Death & Robots. The episode is titled \"Bad Travelling\" and was written bySevenscreenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker.In February 2021, it was reported that Fincher would directan adaptationof the graphic novelThe Killerfor Netflix, with Andrew Kevin Walker writing the screenplay andMichael Fassbenderattached to star.It premiered at the80th Venice International Film Festival. It began a", "It began a limited theatrical release in October 2023 and was subsequently released on Netflix on 10 November. Filmmaking style and techniques Influences Fincher did not attend film school. He has listed filmmakersGeorge Roy Hill,Alfred Hitchcock,Stanley Kubrick,Alan J. Pakula,Ridley Scott, andMartin Scorseseas his major influences.His personal favorite films includeRear Window(1954),Lawrence of Arabia(1962),The Graduate(1967),Paper Moon(1973),American Graffiti(1973),Jaws(1975),All the President's Men(1976),Taxi Driver(1976),Close Encounters of the Third Kind(1977), andZelig(1983).He suggested that his filmPanic Roomis a combination ofRear WindowandStraw Dogs(1971). ForSeven, Fincher and cinematographerDarius Khondjiwere inspired by filmsThe French Connection(1971) andKlute(1971), as well as the work of photographerRobert Frank.He has cited graphic designerSaul Bassas an inspiration for his films'title sequences; Bass designed many such sequences for prominent directors, including Hitchcock and Kubrick.", "and Kubrick. Method Those are the moments where moviemaking is not like writing, and it's not like the theater, and it's not like performance art, and it's not like sculpting. It's truly its own discipline. There's nothing else like it in those moments where you go, wow, here's an intent that was probably never even thought of by the guy who wrote the book. And yet this person who may or may not have even read the source material has found this thing. That, for me, after the previsualization, is the most exciting part of the whole. —Fincher onserendipityduring filmmaking. Fincher's filmmaking process always begins with extensive research and preparation, although he has said the process is different every time: \"I enjoy reading a script that you can see in your head, and then I enjoy the casting and I enjoy the rehearsal, and I enjoy all the meetings about what it should be, what it could be, what it might be.\"He has admitted to havingautocratictendencies and prefers tomicromanageevery aspect of a film's", "aspect of a film's production.Icelandic film producerSigurjón Sighvatsson, with whom Fincher has collaborated for decades, has said that \" was always a rebel... always challenging the status quo\". Known for his perfectionism and meticulous eye for detail, Fincher performs thorough research when casting actors to ensure their suitability for the part. His colleague Max Daly said, \"He's really good at finding the one detail that was missed. He knows more than anybody.\"ProducerLaura Ziskinsaid of him, \"He's just scary smart, sort of smarter than everyone else in the room.\"He approaches editing like \"intricate mathematical problems\".Long-time collaboratorAngus Wallsaid that editingZodiacwas like \"putting together aSwiss watch... all the pieces are so beautifully machined\". He elaborated, \" is incredibly specific. He never settles. And there's a purity that shows in his work.\" When working with actors, Fincher is known to demand a grueling series of takes to capture a scene perfectly.For instance, theZodiaccast", "theZodiaccast members were required to do upwards of 70 takes for certain scenes, much to the displeasure of Jake Gyllenhaal.Rooney Mara had to endure 99 takes for a scene inThe Social Networkand said that Fincher enjoys challenging people.Gone Girlaveraged 50 takes per scene. In one of the episodes forMindhunter, it was reported that a nine-minute scene took 11 hours to shoot.When asked about this method, Fincher said, \"I hate earnestness in performance... usually by take 17 the earnestness is gone.\" He added that he wants a scene to be as natural and authentic as possible.Some actors appreciate this approach, arguing that the subtle adjustments have a big difference in the way a scene is carried. Others have been critical, withR. Lee Ermeystating, \" wants puppets. He doesn't want actors that are creative.\" Fincher prefers shooting withReddigital cameras, under natural or pre-existing light conditions rather than using elaboratelighting setups.Fincher is known to usecomputer-generated imagery, which is", "imagery, which is mostly unnoticeable to the viewer.He does not normally usehand-held camerasduring filming, instead preferring cameras on atripod. He said, \"Handheld has a powerful psychological stranglehold. It means something specific and I don't want to cloud what's going on with too much meaning.\"He has experimented with the disembodied camera movement, notably inPanic Room, where the camera glides around the house to give the impression of surveillance by an unseen observer. Style and themes One element of Fincher's visual style is the specific way in which he usestilt,pan, andtrackin the camera movements. When a character is in motion or expressing emotions, the camera moves at the exact same speed and direction as their body. The movements are choreographed precisely between the actors and camera operators. The resulting effect helps the audience connect with the character to understand their feelings.Similarly, in his music videos, Fincher appreciated that the visuals should enhance the listening", "the listening experience. He wouldcutaround the vocals, and let the choreography finish before cutting the shot. Camera movements are synchronized to the beat of the music. Some regard Fincher as anauteurfilmmaker, although he dislikes being associated with that term.Much of his work is influenced by classicalfilm noirandneo noirgenres.Fincher's visual style also includes using monochromatic anddesaturatedcolors of blue, green, and yellow, representing the world that the characters are in. InThe Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, Fincher uses heavy desaturation for certain scenes, and increases or decreases the effect based on the story or characters' emotions.Erik Messerschmidt, cinematographer forMindhunter, explained the color palette: \"The show has a desaturated green-yellow look... helps give the show its period feel.\" He states the effect is achieved through production design, costumes, and filming locations—not necessarily through lighting used on set. Fincher also favors detailed and pronounced shadows,", "pronounced shadows, as well as using minimal light.When asked about his use of dim lighting, he said bright lights make the color of skin appear unnatural, and that the lights and colors in his films represent \"the way the world looks to \". Fincher has explored themes ofmartyrdom,alienation, anddehumanizationof modern culture.In addition to the wider themes of good and evil, his characters are usually troubled, discontented, and flawed; they are often unable to socialize and suffer from loneliness.InSeven,Zodiac, andThe Social Network, themes of pressure and obsession are explored, leading to the character's downfall. Quoting historian Frank Krutnik, the writer Piers McCarthy argues that \"the protagonists of these films are not totally in control of their actions but are subject to darker, inner impulses\". In a 2017 interview, Fincher explained his fascination of sinister themes: \"There was always a house in any neighborhood that I ever lived in that all the kids on the street wondered, 'What are those", "'What are those people up to?' We sort of attach the sinister to the mundane in order to make things interesting... I think it's also because in order for something to be evil, it almost has to cloak itself as something else.\"Fincher once stated, \"I think people are perverts. I've maintained that. That's the foundation of my career.\" Collaborators Over the course of his career, Fincher has shown loyalty to many members of his cast and crew. As a music video director, he collaborated withPaula Abdulfive times, as well asMadonnaandRick Springfieldfour times each. Once he made the transition to feature films, he castBrad Pittin three of them. He said of Pitt, \"On-screen and off-screen, Brad's the ultimate guy... he has such a great ease with who he is.\"Bob Stephenson,Michael Massee, Christopher John Fields,John Getz,Elias Koteas,Zach Grenier,Charles Dance,Rooney Mara,Jared Leto,Arliss Howard, and Richmond Arquette have also appeared in at least two of his films. Fight Clubwas scored by theDust Brothers, who at", "Brothers, who at that point had never scored a film. Describing their working relationship with Fincher, they said he \"was not hanging over our shoulders telling us what to do\" and that the only direction he gave was to make the music sound as great as the score fromThe Graduate(1967).Nine Inch NailsmembersTrent ReznorandAtticus Rosscomposed the music forThe Social Network,The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo,Gone Girl,Mank, andThe Killer. The musicians describe their working relationship as \"collaborative, respectful, and inspiring\" although quipped that it \"hasn't gotten any easier\".Many years before the duo worked with Fincher, he arranged for a remix of the Nine Inch Nails song \"Closer\" to play over the opening credits ofSeven.Howard Shorecomposed the scores forSeven,The Game, andPanic Room. Darius Khondji andJeff Cronenwethhave served as cinematographers for Fincher's films. Khondji said, \"Fincher deserves a lot of credit. It was his influence that pushed me to experiment and got me as far as I did.\"Fincher", "as I did.\"Fincher has hired sound designerRen Klycein all his films since 1995 and trusts him \"implicitly\".He has worked with film editor Angus Wall since 1988. Wall has worked on seven of his films, five of which as editor. Donald Graham Burthas served as a production designer for six filmsand Bob Wagner has served as an assistant director for six.Casting director Laray Mayfield has worked with Fincher for over 20 years.In a 2010 interview, Fincher said, \"You don't have to love all of your co-collaborators, but you do have to respect them. And when you do, when you realize that people bring stuff to the table that's not necessarily your experience, but if you allow yourself to relate to it, it can enrich the buffet that you're going to bring with you into the editing room.\" Personal life Fincher married model Donya Fiorentino (sister of actressLinda Fiorentino). They had one daughter together,before divorcing in 1995.Fincher married producerCeán Chaffinin 1996. Filmography Awards and recognitions Tim Walker", "Tim Walker ofThe Independentpraised Fincher's work, stating \"His portrayals of the modern psyche have a power and precision that few film-makers can match.\"In 2003, Fincher was ranked 39th inThe Guardian's 40 best directors.In 2012,The Guardianlisted him again in their ranking of 23 best film directors in the world, applauding \"his ability to sustain tone and tension\".In 2016, ZodiacandThe Social Networkappeared in theBBC's100 Greatest Films of the 21st Centurylist.In addition to films, Fincher has often been admired for producing some of the most creative music videos. Fincher received threeAcademy Award for Best Directornominations forThe Curious Case of Benjamin Button(2008),The Social Network(2010), andMank(2020). He won both theBAFTA Award for Best Directionand theGolden Globe Award for Best DirectorforThe Social Network. He also received twoGrammy Awardsfor \"Love Is Strong\" (1995) byThe Rolling Stonesand \"Suit & Tie\" (2013) byJustin TimberlakeandJay-Zas well as fourPrimetime Emmy AwardsforPrimetime", "AwardsforPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama SeriesforHouse of Cards(2013) and threePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Animated ProgramforLove, Death & Robots. See also References Bibliography External links", "Aardvark See text Aardvarks(/ˈɑːrdvɑːrk/ARD-vark;Orycteropus afer) are medium-sized, burrowing,nocturnalmammals native to Africa.They have a long snout, similar to that of a pig, which is used to sniff out food. Aardvarks are the only livingspeciesof the orderTubulidentata,although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. They areafrotheres, acladethat also includeselephants,manatees, andhyraxes. They are found over much of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. Nocturnal feeders, aardvarks subsist on ants and termites by using their sharp claws and powerful legs to dig the insects out of their hills. Aardvarks also dig to create burrows in which to live and rear their young. Aardvarks are listed as \"least concern\" by theIUCN, although their numbers are decreasing. Name and taxonomy Name The aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the \"African ant bear\",\"anteater\" (not to be confused with theSouth American anteaters), or the \"Cape", "or the \"Cape anteater\"after theCape of Good Hope. The name \"aardvark\" isAfrikaans(pronounced) and comes from earlier Afrikaanserdvark.It means \"earthpig\" or \"ground pig\" (aarde:'earth',vark:'pig, young pig'), because of its burrowing habits. The nameOrycteropusmeans \"burrowing foot\", and the nameaferrefers to Africa.The name of the aardvark's order,Tubulidentata,comes from the tubule-style teeth. Taxonomy The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalianorderTubulidentata,in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genusOrycteropus, the sole surviving genus in the familyOrycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to theSouth Americananteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance.The similarities are the outcome ofconvergent evolution.The closest living relatives of the aardvark are theelephant shrews,tenrecidae, andgolden moles.Along withsirenians,hyraxes,elephants,and their", "their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorderAfrotheria.Studies of the brain have shown the similarities withCondylarthra. Evolutionary history Based on his study of fossils,Bryan Pattersonhas concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared inAfricaaround the end of thePaleocene.Theptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade toTubulidentataor as a grade leading to true tubulidentates. The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probablyMyorycteropus africanusfromKenyanMiocenedeposits.The earliest example from the genusOrycteropuswasOrycteropus mauritanicus, found inAlgeriain deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya.Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughoutEuropeand theNear East. The mysterious PleistocenePlesiorycteropusfromMadagascarwas originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that", "from ancestors that entered the island during theEocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe thatPlesiorycteropusis a relative of golden moles andtenrecsthat achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution. Subspecies The aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed: The1911 Encyclopædia Britannicaalso mentionsO. a. capensisor Cape ant-bear from South Africa. Description The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched backand is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs.The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robustnailwhich is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between aclawand a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is", "the aardvark is considereddigitigrade, it appears at times to beplantigrade. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles.A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone (CCCB). The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favourable environment for plants and a variety of animals.Digging is also facilitated by its forearm's unusually stout ulna and radius. An aardvark's weight is typically between 60 and 80 kilograms (130–180 lb).An aardvark's length is usually between 105 and 130 centimetres (3.44–4.27 ft),and can reach lengths of 2.2 metres (7 ft 3 in) when its tail (which can be up to 70 centimetres (28 in)) is taken into account. It is 60 centimetres (24 in) tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about 100 centimetres (3.3 ft).It is thelargestmember of the proposed cladeAfroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale", "aardvark is pale yellowish-grey in colour and often stained reddish-brown bysoil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair.The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3–4 hairs.The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. Head The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but completezygomatic arch.The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is theirteeth. Instead of having apulp cavity, each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form ofdentine), with individual pulp canals, held together bycementum.The number of columns is", "of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500.The teeth have noenamelcoating and are worn away and regrow continuously.The aardvark is born with conventional incisors andcaninesat the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of thejaw, and have adental formulaof:0.0.2-3.30.0.2.3These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition.The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars.The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains tennasal conchae, more than any other placental mammal. The sides of the nostrils are thick with hair.The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modifiedmimetic muscles.The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions,but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature.Its nose is made up of moreturbinatebones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with", "to dogs with 4 to 5.With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moistepithelium, which is the location of the olfactory bulb.The nose contains nineolfactory bulbs, more than any other mammal.Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as itsolfactory lobeis very developed.The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed onantsandtermites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as 30 centimetres (12 in) long)and elaborate structures supporting a keensense of smell.The ears, which are very effective,are disproportionately long, about 20–25 centimetres (7.9–9.8 in) long.The eyes are small for its head, and consist only ofrods. Digestive system The aardvark's stomach has a muscularpyloricarea that acts as agizzardto grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary.Itscecumis large.Both sexes emit a strong", "sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland.Itssalivary glandsare highly developed and almost completely ring the neck;their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness.The female has two pairs ofteatsin the inguinal region. Geneticallyspeaking, the aardvark is aliving fossil, as itschromosomesare highly conserved, reflecting much of the earlyeutherianarrangement before the divergence of the major moderntaxa. Habitat and range Aardvarks are found insub-Saharan Africa, where suitablehabitat(savannas,grasslands,woodlandsandbushland) and food (i.e.,antsandtermites) is available.They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day.The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth.They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging.They have been documented as high as 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to", "all the way to South Africa with few exceptions including the coastal areas ofNamibia,Ivory Coast, andGhana. They are not found in Madagascar. Ecology and behaviour Aardvarks live for up to 23 years incaptivity.Its keen hearing warns it of predators:lions,leopards, cheetahs,African wild dogs,hyenas, andpythons.Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat.Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet.They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker.They will also dig to escape as they can. Sometimes, when pressed, aardvarks can dig extremely quickly. Feeding The aardvark isnocturnaland is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively onantsandtermites(myrmecophagy);the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is theaardvark cucumber.In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship", "relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark.They avoid eating the Africandriver antand red ants.Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive.An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing 10 to 30 kilometres (6.2 to 18.6 mi). While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again. During a foraging period, they will stop to dig a", "will stop to dig a V-shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location.When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number ofinsectswith its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils.When successful, the aardvark's long (up to 30 centimetres (12 in))tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers.Termite mounds alone do not provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns 10–40 metres (33–131", "metres (33–131 ft) long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals.The trampled grass and dung attract termites from theOdontotermes,Microtermes, andPseudacanthotermesgenera. On a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of night (roughly the four hours between 8:00p.m. and 12:00a.m.); however, they do not seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between 2 and 5 kilometres (1.2 and 3.1 mi) per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as 30 kilometres (19 mi) in a night. Aardvarks shift their circadian rhythms to more diurnal activity patterns in response to a reduced food supply. This survival tactic may signify an increased risk of imminent mortality. Vocalisation The aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft", "it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance.It makes a bleating sound if frightened.When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear. Movement The aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents.It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes,but otherwise moves fairly slowly. When leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be 10 metres (33 ft) away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging. Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark alsoexcavatesburrows in which to live, which generally fall into one of three categories: burrows made", "burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes.Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the mainburrowis also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as 13 metres (43 ft).These burrows can be large enough for a person to enter.The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like theAfrican wild dog,ant-eating chat,Nycteris thebaicaandwarthogs.Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season.Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature.If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel", "out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws.The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavatedantnest, which also serves as protection from itspredators. Reproduction Aardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after agestationperiod of seven months,one cub weighing around 1.7–1.9 kilograms (3.7–4.2 lb)is born during May–July.When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession.After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright.After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing.It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks,and is weaned between three monthsand 16 weeks.At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the nextmating season,and is sexually mature from approximately", "from approximately two years of age. Conservation Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers,however, this is possibly because they are not readily seen.There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It has received an official designation from the IUCN asleast concern.However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically. Recent research suggests that aardvarks may be particularly vulnerable to alterations in temperature caused by climate change.Droughtsnegatively impact the availability of termites and ants, which", "and ants, which comprise the bulk of an aardvark's diet.Nocturnal species faced with resource scarcity may increase their diurnal activity to spare the energy costs of staying warm at night, but this comes at the cost of withstanding high temperatures during the day. A study on aardvarks in theKalahari Desertsaw that five out of six aardvarks being studied perished following a drought.Aardvarks that survive droughts can take long periods of time to regain health and optimal thermoregulatory physiology, reducing the reproductive potential of the species. Aardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one wasLondon Zooin 1869, which had an animal fromSouth Africa. Mythology and popular culture InAfrican folklore, the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response tosoldier ants.Hausamagicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of", "in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission.Also, some tribes, such as theMargbetu,Ayanda, andLogo,will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms.The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures.In the mythology of theDagbonpeople of Ghana, the aardvark is believed to possess superpowers.TheDagombasbelieve this animal can transfigure into and interact with humans. The ancientEgyptian godSetis usually depicted with the head of anunidentified animal, whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship. Thetitular characterand his families fromArthur, an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced byWGBH, shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark.In the first book of the series,Arthur's Nose(1976), he has a", "he has a long, aardvark-like nose,but in later books, his face becomes more rounded. Otis the Aardvarkwas a puppet character used onChildren's BBCprogramming. An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoonThe Ant and the Aardvarkas well as in the Canadian animated seriesThe Raccoons. The supersonic fighter-bomberF-111/FB-111was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadronVF-114was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flyingF-4sand thenF-14s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic stripB.C., which the F-4 was said to resemble. Cerebus the Aardvarkis a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim. Footnotes References External links", "Puppy teething Puppies first start with sucking from the time of being a newborn up to the time they start teething.Puppiesaround the age of two weeks old start to experience teething. Teething is the process by which a puppy'sdeciduous teethcome in and then fall out to make way for theirpermanent teeth. By 5–6 weeks of life, all of the deciduous teeth have come in, puppies will grow in a set of 28 deciduous teeth or needle teeth. Permanent teeth will start coming in around 12–16 weeks, and puppies will eventually end up with 42 permanent teeth. The process of teething is painful to puppies much like babies. During this process puppies will experience increased salivation, loss of appetite, and extreme irritability when the teeth do erupt from the gums. The gums will swell and become tender to palpation just prior to the tooth coming in. Puppies may exhibit excessive chewing, nipping, and drooling. If there is an extreme change in behavior, it is recommended to visit the veterinarian as soon as possible for", "as possible for an exam. Owners that would like to do an oral exam on their own must be prepared for potential aggressive behavior. Some ways that dog owners can help their puppies during this painful teething stage is to ensure that your puppy has something to chew on that is soothing for them. Large carrots are recommended for puppies to teethe on and also are nutritious.Often times pet owners will freeze teething toys to soothe their dogs irritated gums. Veterinarians do recommendchew toyshelp relieve teething pain.It is important that puppies get durable toys so that they can not accidentally swallow plastic or large pieces of fabric since puppy teeth are very sharp and durable.As your puppy's adult teeth start to grow in it is important to start maintaining the dog's dental health. It is recommended to brush your puppy's teeth every day and work with a veterinarian to schedule yearly dental exams and cleanings.If teething turns into aggressive biting, it is not advised to remove healthy canine teeth due", "canine teeth due to the fact that this does not address the actual problem at hand. Additionally, this could cause oral pathologic conditions that can be expensive to treat and require anesthesia. See also References" ]
What is the name of the popular vantage point that is featured in the 1980 comedy film "The Gods Must Be Crazy", and which provincial nature reserve is it located in as of 2024?
God's Window in Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gods_Must_Be_Crazy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyde_River_Canyon_Nature_Reserve#God.27s_Window
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyde_River_Canyon_Nature_Reserve
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gods_Must_Be_Crazy', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyde_River_Canyon_Nature_Reserve#God.27s_Window', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyde_River_Canyon_Nature_Reserve']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gods_Must_Be_Crazy", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyde_River_Canyon_Nature_Reserve#God.27s_Window", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyde_River_Canyon_Nature_Reserve" ]
[ "The Gods Must Be Crazy The Gods Must Be Crazyis a 1980comedy filmwritten, produced, edited and directed byJamie Uys. An international co-production of South Africa and Botswana, it is the first film inThe Gods Must Be Crazyseries. Set inSouthern Africa, the film stars NamibianSanfarmerNǃxau ǂTomaas Xi, ahunter-gathererof theKalahari Desertwhose tribe discovers a glassCoca-Colabottle dropped from an aeroplane, and believe it to be a gift from their gods. When Xi sets out to return the bottle to the gods, his journey becomes intertwined with that of a biologist (Marius Weyers), a newly hired village school teacher (Sandra Prinsloo), and a band of guerrilla terrorists. The Gods Must Be Crazywas released inSouth Africaon 10 September 1980 bySter-Kinekor, and broke several box office records in the country, becoming the most financially successfulSouth African filmever produced at the time.The film was a commercial and critical success in most other countries, but took longer to find success in the United States, where it was eventually re-released in 1984 by20th Century Fox,with its originalAfrikaansdialogue beingdubbedinto English. Despite its success, the film attracted criticism for its depiction of race and perceived ignorance of discrimination andapartheidin South Africa. In 1989, it was followed by asequelThe Gods Must Be Crazy II. Plot Xi and his San tribelive happily in the Kalahari Desert, away fromindustrial civilization. One day, a glassCoca-Colabottle is thrown out of an aeroplane by a pilot and falls to the ground unbroken. Initially, Xi's people assume the bottle to be a gift from their gods, just as they believe plants and animals are, and find many uses for it. Unlike other gifts, however, there is only one glass bottle, which causes unforeseen conflict within the tribe. As a result, Xi decides to make a pilgrimage to the edge of the world and dispose of the divisive object. Along the way, Xi encounters biologist Andrew Steyn, who is studying themanureof wildlife; Steyn's assistant and mechanic, M'pudi; Kate Thompson, a woman who quit her job as a journalist inJohannesburgto become a village school teacher; and eventually a band of guerrillas led by Sam Boga, who are being pursued by government troops after a failed assassination attempt. In a fictitious town called Biryani, northwest of Botswana, Boga's men kill three cabinet members and injure two others in an attempt on the president's life, sending the military in hot pursuit. Steyn is tasked with bringing Thompson to the village where she will teach, but he is awkward and clumsy around her. TheirLand Roverstalls while trying to ford a deep river; he hoists it out with a winch, but it continues lifting the vehicle to a very high treetop level while a forgetful Steyn is distracted extricating Thompson from await-a-bit tree. She more than once mistakes his attempts to evade wild animals, and putting out an evening campfire, as advances towards her. Eventually, a snobbishsafaritour guide named Jack Hind arrives, and takes Thompson the rest of the way to the village. One day, Xi happens upon a herd of goats, and shoots one with atranquilizer arrow, planning to eat it. He is arrested and sentenced to jail. M'pudi, who once lived with the San and can speak the San language, is discontent with the verdict. He and Steyn arrange to hire Xi as atrackerfor the remainder of his sentence in lieu of prison time, and teach Xi how to drive Steyn's Land Rover. Meanwhile, the guerrillas invade Thompson'sschool, taking her and the students as hostages as they make their escape to a neighbouring country. Steyn, M'pudi and Xi, immersed in theirfieldwork, find that they are along the terrorists' and children's path, and observe their movements with atelescope. They manage to immobilize six of the eight guerrillas using makeshift tranquilizer darts launched by Xi with a miniature bow, allowing Thompson and the children to confiscate the guerillas' firearms. Steyn and M'pudi apprehend the remaining two guerrillas by frightening one with a snake and by shooting at a tree above the other, causinglatexto drip from the tree and irritate his skin. Jack Hind arrives and takes Thompson and the children away, taking credit for the rescue that Steyn, M'pudi and Xi had actually planned and executed. Later, with Xi's term over, Steyn pays his wages and sends him on his way. Xi has never seen papermoney (banknotes)before, and throws them on the ground. Steyn and M'pudi then drive from their camp to visit Thompson, where Steyn attempts to explain his tendency to be uncoordinated in her presence, but accidentally and repeatedly knocks over a number of objects in the process. Thompson finds his efforts endearing, and kisses Steyn. Xi eventually arrives atGod's Window, the top of a cliff with a solid layer of low-lying clouds obscuring the landscape below. Convinced that he has reached the edge of the world, he throws the bottle off thecliff, and returns to his family. Cast Director Jamie Uys appears in an uncredited role as the Reverend. Production Development and casting After I madeAnimals Are Beautiful People, I went back to the Kalahari very often to visit the Bushmen. The more I visited, the more I discovered this thing about them: they don't have a sense of property. They don't know about ownership. If I put my jacket down, one of them would put it on. They share everything. Where they are, there is nothing you can own. It seems so different from the rest of us, who will kill one another over a diamond, because of its scarcity value. – director Jamie Uys on the San people. Jamie Uys conceived the premise ofThe Gods Must Be Crazywhile making the 1974documentaryAnimals Are Beautiful People.The documentary was filmed partially on the Kalahari Desert, where Uys first encountered the San people and \"fell in love with them\".Uys chose a Coca-Cola bottle as the object that the San people would discover and covet inThe Gods Must Be Crazybecause he felt that the bottle was representative of \"our plastic society\", and because it \"is a beautiful thing, if you've never seen glass before\". Uys noted that he modelled the character of Andrew Steyn after himself: \"I used to be awkward like that, especially with women. But then, I think most young guys knock things over with their first girl\". After writing the script forThe Gods Must Be Crazy, Uys reportedly spent three months traversing the Kalahari Desert with aninterpreter, searching for a San person to play the role of Xi in the film.Visiting areas of the desert inhabited by the San, Uys took photographs of individuals he felt he might cast, and then \"marked thelongitude and latitude, so we could find them again\". Uys decided to cast Namibian San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma as Xi, and later recalled that \"At first didn't understand, because they have no word for work. Then the interpreter asked, 'Would you like to come with us for some days?'\"N!xau agreed and flew with Uys by aeroplane toWindhoek, Namibia, which served as a base for the film's production.Uys stated that \"the airplane didn't impress him at all. He thinks we are magicians, so he believes we can do anything. Nothing impressed him\".In his hotel room, N!xau agreed to use the toilet, but slept on the floor rather than on the provided bed. However, according to author Josef Gugler, Uys \" the production of the film. The stories he told reviewers varied\".Unlike what was presented inThe Gods Must Be Crazy, N!xau did not lead ahunter-gathererlifestyle; he grew up as aherderon a farm in Botswana, before moving to Namibia to work as a cook.In the 1980 documentary filmNǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman, directed byJohn Marshall, footage of the filming ofThe Gods Must Be Crazyis used.The documentary shows San restricted to living in a reservation established by South African authorities inTsumkwe, Namibia.The San there are shown to not be hunter-gatherers; they are instead dependent on the government for food and other aid, with some suffering fromtuberculosis. Filming The Gods Must Be Crazywas shot in Tsumkwe, Namibia,as well as in Botswana. According to Uys, N!xau would be flown back to his home in the Kalahari Desert every three or four weeks to prevent him from suffering fromculture shock.During his time in urban areas, N!xau learned to smoke and acquired an affinity for liquor andsake.Uys said that he paid N!xau $300 for his first 10 days of work, but that the money was reportedly blown away by wind.N!xau was then compensated with 12 head of cattle.In 1985, Uys said that he had sent N!xau $100 a month since filming, which N!xau used at a trading store 100 km (60 miles) from his hunting ground;Uys also stated that a $20,000trust accountin N!xau's name had been established. A scene in which arhinocerosstomps out a fire is based in aBurmeselegend about fire-eating rhinos, which is not widely known in Africa and appears not to be based in fact. Soundtrack Release Box office The Gods Must Be Crazywas initially released in South Africa on 10 September 1980 bySter-KinekorPictures.Within its first four days of its release, the film broke box office records in every city in South Africa.It became the highest-grossing film of 1982 in Japan, where it was released under the titleBushman.Executive producer Boet Troskie sold the distribution rights to the film to 45 countries. For its release in the United States, the originalAfrikaansdialogue wasdubbedinto English, and voiceover work was provided for!KungandTswanalines.The film initially received a limited American release throughJensen Farley Picturesin 1982, but performed poorly in at least half a dozen test cities.However, the film would eventually find critical and commercial success when it was re-released by20th Century Foxon 9 July 1984,becoming the highest-grossing foreign film released in the United States at the time.The film also played at the Music Hall Theater inBeverly Hills, Californiafor at least eight months. Within its first four years of release,The Gods Must Be Crazyhad grossed$90 millionworldwide.As of 2014, the film has grossedR1.8 billion (approx.$200 million) worldwide, including over$60 millionin the United States. Critical reception Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three stars out of four, concluding that \"it might be easy to make a farce about screwball happenings in the desert, but it's a lot harder to create a funny interaction between nature and human nature. This movie's a nice little treasure\".Varietystated that the film's \"main virtues are its striking, widescreen visuals of unusual locations, and the sheer educational value of its narration\". In his review of the film forThe New York Times, criticVincent Canbywrote that \"watching Jamie Uys'sGods Must Be Crazy, one might suspect that there were no such things asapartheidor theImmorality Actor even South Africa\".Though he called the film \"often genuinely, nonpolitically funny\", he noted that \"there's also something disturbing about the film\", in that \"we tend to feel that any South African work that doesn't actively condemn apartheid has the secondary effect of condoning it, if only through silence\". On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes,The Gods Must Be Crazyhas an approval rating of 86% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10.OnMetacritic, which uses aweighted average, the film has a score of 73 out of 100 based on six reviews, indicating \"generally favourable reviews\". Home media In mid-November 1986,The Gods Must Be Crazywas released onVHSin the U.S. byCBS/Foxon its Playhouse Video label. In 2004,The Gods Must Be Crazywas released onDVDbySony Pictures Entertainment.It was also released on DVD as adouble featurewithThe Gods Must Be Crazy II. Controversies The Gods Must Be Crazyattracted criticism for its perpetuation of racial stereotypes and ignorance of discrimination and apartheid in South Africa.In the U.S., the film was reportedlypicketedby theNational Conference of Black Lawyersand other anti-apartheid groups when it screened at the 68th Street Playhouse in New York City. Accusations of patronization BothNew York Timescritic Vincent Canby and author Josef Gugler called the film \"patronizing\" towards the San people.Canby wrote that the San in the film \"are seen to be frightfully quaint if not downright cute\", and compared the film's narrator's statement that the San \"must be the most contented people in the world\" to \"exactly the sort of thing thatMussolinimight have said when he got those trains running on time\".Gugler considered both the film's narrator and the character of Mpudi condescending, writing that \"even if Mpudi feels for the San people, he is just as patronizing as the narrator: 'They are the sweetest little buggers'\".In response to accusations of patronization, Uys said that \"I don't think the film is patronizing. When the Bushman is with us in the city, I do patronize him, because he's stupid. But in the desert, he patronizes me, because I'm stupid and he's brilliant\". Criticisms related to apartheid In 1985,cultural anthropologistToby Alice Volkman wrote that money was \"a pressing concern\" for the San whenThe Gods Must Be Crazywas filmed, with many of them dependent on government aid and purchased food;she noted that many San enlisted in theSouth African Armydue to the high wages it paid.She wrote: \"Because the myth of Bushman innocence and bliss underlies the popularity ofThe Gods Must Be Crazy, it is no surprise that Mr. Uys would like us to believe in it. There is, however, little to laugh about in Bushmanland: 1,000 demoralized, formerly independent foragers crowd into a squalid, tubercular homeland, getting by on handouts of cornmeal and sugar, drinkingJohnny Walkerorhome brew, fighting with one another and joining the South African Army\". The following year, Canadian anthropologistRichard Borshay Leecalled the film \"an amusing but thinly disguised piece of South African propaganda in which a peculiar element of South African white mythology receives prominent attention\".Lee wrote that \"the notion that some San in the 1980s remain untouched by 'civilization' is a cruel joke. The San have been the subject of a century of rapid social change and especially in the last twenty years have been forced to endure all the 'benefits' of South Africa's apartheid policies in Namibia\". Gugler wrote that the guerrillas in the film are depicted as \"bad Africans dangerous and destructive all right, but they are also indolent and inept. In the end, even Kate Thompson gets to disarm one of them. Their leader, Sam Boga, articulates what the film is showing us about African guerrillas: 'Why do I have to work with amateurs?' He, in turn, serves to confirm the apartheid credo that Africans would be happy with the White dispensation were it not for foreigners fomenting discontent and making trouble\".Gugler goes on to state that Uys \" the myths of apartheid: an ordered world with Whites on top, a world where Africans are content but for the interference of outsiders\". When asked about his thoughts on apartheid, Uys commented that \"I think it's a mess. We've done some silly, naughty things that we're ashamed of. We're trying to dismantle it, but it's a very complicated thing. If you go too slow, it's bad, and if you go too fast, it will ruin the economy and everyone will starve. I hope I'm not a racist, but everybody likes to think of himself as not racist, and I don't think that any of us can swear we're not racist. If it means you hate the coloured man, I'm not racist. If it means you choose to marry a girl of your own colour, is that racist, too? If the two are in love, it doesn't matter. But I chose a white girl as my wife\". Sequel and related films The Gods Must Be Crazywas followed by an officialsequel,The Gods Must Be Crazy II, released byColumbia Picturesin 1989. It was written and directed by Uys, and again stars N!xau. An unofficial sequel,Crazy Safari(also titledThe Gods Must Be Crazy III), followed, a Hong Kong film starring N!xau. Other unofficial sequels includeCrazy Hong Kong(The Gods Must Be Crazy IV) andThe Gods Must Be Funny in China(The Gods Must Be Crazy V). Two other unrelated films,Jewel of the GodsandThere's a Zulu On My Stoep, were marketed in some territories as sequels toThe Gods Must Be Crazy. Legacy Irish Spring soap had a 1989 commercial parodying the film. The video for the song \"Take Me to Your Leader\" by American rock bandIncubuspays homage to the film. Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links", "Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve(orMotlatse Canyon Provincial Nature Reserve) is situated in theDrakensbergescarpment region of easternMpumalanga,South Africa. The reserve protects theBlyde River Canyon, including sections of theOhrigstadandBlyde Riversand the geological formations around Bourke's Luck Potholes, where theTreur Rivertumbles into the Blyde below. Southwards of the canyon, the reserve follows the escarpment, to include the Devil's and God's Window, the latter a popular viewpoint to the lowveld at the reserve's southern extremity. The Mogologolo (1,794 m),Mariepskop(1,944 m) and Hebronberg (1,767 m) massifs are partially included in the reserve. Elevation varies from 560 m to 1,944 m above sea level.Its resort areas are F.H. Odendaal and Swadeni, the latter only accessible fromLimpopoprovince. The area of approximately 29,000 hectares (290 km2) is administered by theMpumalanga Parks Board. Bourke's Luck Potholes This geological feature and day visitors' attraction, named after prospectorBernard Thomas Bourke(brother ofEddie Bourke), is situated at the confluence of theTreurandBlyde Rivers, on the reserve's western boundary24°40′28″S30°48′39″E / 24.67444°S 30.81083°E /-24.67444; 30.81083 (Bourke's Luck Potholes). The reserve's nature conservation headquarters is located here, beside the village of Moremela, at the canyon's southern, or upper reaches. Bourke's Luck Potholes marks the beginning of theBlyde River Canyon. Sustainedkolksin the Treur River'splunge poolshave eroded a number of cylindrical potholes orgiant's kettles, which can be viewed from the crags above. It was named after a local prospector, Tom Bourke, who predicted the presence of gold, though he found none himself.Thepedestrian bridgesconnect the variousoverlooksof the potholes and the gorge downstream. The Three Rondavels The Three Rondavels are three round, grass-covered mountain tops with somewhat pointed peaks. They quite closely resemble the traditional round or ovalrondavelsor African homesteads, which are made with local materials. Sometimes they are also called the Three Sisters, though this may confuse them with a similar threesome visible from theN1 roadin theNorthern Cape, very far to the south. The names of the peaks commemorate a 19th-century chief, Maripi, and three of his wives. The flat-topped peak adjacent to the rondavels is Mapjaneng, \"the chief\", who is remembered for opposing invadingSwazisin a memorable battle. The three rondavels are named for three of his more troublesome wives – Magabolle, Mogoladikwe and Maseroto. Behind the rondavels the distant high plateau ofMariepskopmay be visible. Beside the dam, the isolated Thabaneng hill is known as the \"sundial\" or \"mountain with a shadow that moves\". It is said that the position of its shadow indicates the time of day. On a clear day the lookout point provides extensive views. From here one looks over the canyon to the Three Rondavels on the other side, which is flanked on various sides by promontories of the northernDrakensbergrange. The formation of the attractive sedimentary formations are explained geologically as the slow erosion of underlying soft stone, leaving exposed the more resistant quartzite and shale that form the rondavels. God's Window God's Window24°52′28″S30°53′29″E / 24.87444°S 30.89139°E /-24.87444; 30.89139 (God's Window)is a popular vantage point along theDrakensbergescarpment, at the southern extremity of the Nature Reserve. Here, sheer cliffs plunge over 700 metres to the Lowveld. From this escarpment—a mostly unbroken rampart of cliffs—opens a vista into the Lowveld expanse and escarpment forests, theEden-like aesthetic appearance of which prompted the name.On a clear day it is possible to see over theKruger National Parktowards theLebombo Mountainson the border withMozambique. God's Window features prominently in the plot of the 1980cult filmThe Gods Must Be Crazy. Near the end of the movie, theBushmancharacter Xi (played byNamibianbush farmerN!xau) travels to God's Window, and due to some low-lying cloud cover believes it to be the end of the Earth. The original Window is a rock that is set further back on a private farm and due to quarry operations and tree plantation farming, this actual rock that looks like a square window could not be used. The site was moved by the government to the edge of the escarpment. A viewing platform24°52′35.8″S30°53′19.6″E / 24.876611°S 30.888778°E /-24.876611; 30.888778 (God's Window viewing platform)near the car park gives extensive views down the gorge to the plain below. Fauna The high plateaus are inhabited bymountain reedbuck,baboontroops androck hyraxes.Impala,kudu,blue wildebeest,waterbuckandzebraroam the wooded lowveld area.Hippoandcrocodileare present in theBlyderivierpoort Dam. Three species offlat geckowere described in 2014 from the reserve and its vicinity. TheBlyde River flat gecko, discovered in 1991, is as yet only known from the cliff face of one of the three rondavels,while theMariepskop flat geckowas discovered on nearbyMariepskopin 1982.TheAbel Erasmus flat geckois known to occur at Bourke's Luck inside the reserve. Exotic fish likesmallmouth bass,brownandrainbow troutoccur in the river, which have reduced the range of the localTreur river barbto upper catchments of the Blyde River system.Thanks to reintroductions after its rediscovery in the 1970s, it now flourishes here.TheNatal mountain catfishoccurs as an isolated population in theLimpoposystem, and the Belvedere creek is the only place in the Limpopo system where theRosefin barbis found. African fish eagleandAfrican finfootare found along the Blyde River. The lowveld woodlands harbourpurple-crested lourie,emerald cuckoo,red-backed mannikin,golden-tailed woodpecker,gorgeous bushshrike,white-faced owland a number ofraptorslikewhite-backed vulture,gymnogene,black-chested snake eagle,Wahlberg's eagleandlong-crested eagle. A number of raptors frequent the mountains and cliffs, includingcape vulture,black eagle,jackal buzzard,peregrine falcon,lanner falconandrock kestrel. Birds associated with flowering plants of the higher slopes includeGurney's sugarbirdandmalachite sunbird. A breeding colony ofbald ibisoccurs in the grassy uplands, besides small numbers ofcape eagle-owlandred-breasted sparrowhawk. Forest birds includecrowned eagle,Knysna lourie,cinnamon dove,olive bushshrike,green twinspotandwood owl. Flora The reserve's vegetation is classified as the Northeastern Drakensberg High-Mountain Sourveld ecoregion, an area prone to lightning-induced burning. Its very diverse flora is ascribed to the variation in altitude and rainfall (541 mm to 2,776 mm p.a.), and the extremes in geology andpedology.It is topographically complex with a variety of habitats which include grassland plateaus, wetlands and sponge areas, grassland slopes,afromontaneforest,riparian forest, moist woodlands, dry woodlands andshrublands. Its four veld types are Afromontane Forest, North-eastern Mountain Sour Grassland, Sour Lowveld Bushveld and Mixed Lowveld Bushveld. Around a 1,000 plant species have been recorded. This includescycads, of which theBlyde river cycadis almost endemic to the reserve, with some 200 individuals remaining.A variety oforchid,lilyandprotea(generaProtea,FaureaandLeucospermum) species occur, including theBlyde river proteawhich is endemic to the canyon,and theescarpment pincushionof which about 30 plants are present.Tree fernsgrow along seepages in the uplands. Indigenous forest covers 2,111 ha of the nature reserve, or 7.3% of its surface area. These are fragmented into some 60 patches between 0.21 ha and 567 ha in extent. They are assigned to two forest communities, high altitude moist and low altitude dry afromontane forest. The altitudinal gradient accounts for most of their variation in plant communities. General area The reserve is fringed to the east by theMariepskopandKlaserie Waterfall Nature Reserves, and theMapulanengforestry region, below the escarpment. National Park status had been considered, if some adjacent areas were to be incorporated and their forestry activities discontinued. Percy FitzPatrickand George Fullerton's summer quarters as transport riders during the 1880s was situated atParadise Camp24°55′24″S30°52′08″E / 24.92333°S 30.86889°E /-24.92333; 30.86889 (Paradise Camp), some 6 km south of God's Window, and similarly perched on the edge of the escarpment. Close to God's Window are several waterfalls, includingBerlin FallsandLisbon Falls. References External links", "Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve(orMotlatse Canyon Provincial Nature Reserve) is situated in theDrakensbergescarpment region of easternMpumalanga,South Africa. The reserve protects theBlyde River Canyon, including sections of theOhrigstadandBlyde Riversand the geological formations around Bourke's Luck Potholes, where theTreur Rivertumbles into the Blyde below. Southwards of the canyon, the reserve follows the escarpment, to include the Devil's and God's Window, the latter a popular viewpoint to the lowveld at the reserve's southern extremity. The Mogologolo (1,794 m),Mariepskop(1,944 m) and Hebronberg (1,767 m) massifs are partially included in the reserve. Elevation varies from 560 m to 1,944 m above sea level.Its resort areas are F.H. Odendaal and Swadeni, the latter only accessible fromLimpopoprovince. The area of approximately 29,000 hectares (290 km2) is administered by theMpumalanga Parks Board. Bourke's Luck Potholes This geological feature and day visitors' attraction, named after prospectorBernard Thomas Bourke(brother ofEddie Bourke), is situated at the confluence of theTreurandBlyde Rivers, on the reserve's western boundary24°40′28″S30°48′39″E / 24.67444°S 30.81083°E /-24.67444; 30.81083 (Bourke's Luck Potholes). The reserve's nature conservation headquarters is located here, beside the village of Moremela, at the canyon's southern, or upper reaches. Bourke's Luck Potholes marks the beginning of theBlyde River Canyon. Sustainedkolksin the Treur River'splunge poolshave eroded a number of cylindrical potholes orgiant's kettles, which can be viewed from the crags above. It was named after a local prospector, Tom Bourke, who predicted the presence of gold, though he found none himself.Thepedestrian bridgesconnect the variousoverlooksof the potholes and the gorge downstream. The Three Rondavels The Three Rondavels are three round, grass-covered mountain tops with somewhat pointed peaks. They quite closely resemble the traditional round or ovalrondavelsor African homesteads, which are made with local materials. Sometimes they are also called the Three Sisters, though this may confuse them with a similar threesome visible from theN1 roadin theNorthern Cape, very far to the south. The names of the peaks commemorate a 19th-century chief, Maripi, and three of his wives. The flat-topped peak adjacent to the rondavels is Mapjaneng, \"the chief\", who is remembered for opposing invadingSwazisin a memorable battle. The three rondavels are named for three of his more troublesome wives – Magabolle, Mogoladikwe and Maseroto. Behind the rondavels the distant high plateau ofMariepskopmay be visible. Beside the dam, the isolated Thabaneng hill is known as the \"sundial\" or \"mountain with a shadow that moves\". It is said that the position of its shadow indicates the time of day. On a clear day the lookout point provides extensive views. From here one looks over the canyon to the Three Rondavels on the other side, which is flanked on various sides by promontories of the northernDrakensbergrange. The formation of the attractive sedimentary formations are explained geologically as the slow erosion of underlying soft stone, leaving exposed the more resistant quartzite and shale that form the rondavels. God's Window God's Window24°52′28″S30°53′29″E / 24.87444°S 30.89139°E /-24.87444; 30.89139 (God's Window)is a popular vantage point along theDrakensbergescarpment, at the southern extremity of the Nature Reserve. Here, sheer cliffs plunge over 700 metres to the Lowveld. From this escarpment—a mostly unbroken rampart of cliffs—opens a vista into the Lowveld expanse and escarpment forests, theEden-like aesthetic appearance of which prompted the name.On a clear day it is possible to see over theKruger National Parktowards theLebombo Mountainson the border withMozambique. God's Window features prominently in the plot of the 1980cult filmThe Gods Must Be Crazy. Near the end of the movie, theBushmancharacter Xi (played byNamibianbush farmerN!xau) travels to God's Window, and due to some low-lying cloud cover believes it to be the end of the Earth. The original Window is a rock that is set further back on a private farm and due to quarry operations and tree plantation farming, this actual rock that looks like a square window could not be used. The site was moved by the government to the edge of the escarpment. A viewing platform24°52′35.8″S30°53′19.6″E / 24.876611°S 30.888778°E /-24.876611; 30.888778 (God's Window viewing platform)near the car park gives extensive views down the gorge to the plain below. Fauna The high plateaus are inhabited bymountain reedbuck,baboontroops androck hyraxes.Impala,kudu,blue wildebeest,waterbuckandzebraroam the wooded lowveld area.Hippoandcrocodileare present in theBlyderivierpoort Dam. Three species offlat geckowere described in 2014 from the reserve and its vicinity. TheBlyde River flat gecko, discovered in 1991, is as yet only known from the cliff face of one of the three rondavels,while theMariepskop flat geckowas discovered on nearbyMariepskopin 1982.TheAbel Erasmus flat geckois known to occur at Bourke's Luck inside the reserve. Exotic fish likesmallmouth bass,brownandrainbow troutoccur in the river, which have reduced the range of the localTreur river barbto upper catchments of the Blyde River system.Thanks to reintroductions after its rediscovery in the 1970s, it now flourishes here.TheNatal mountain catfishoccurs as an isolated population in theLimpoposystem, and the Belvedere creek is the only place in the Limpopo system where theRosefin barbis found. African fish eagleandAfrican finfootare found along the Blyde River. The lowveld woodlands harbourpurple-crested lourie,emerald cuckoo,red-backed mannikin,golden-tailed woodpecker,gorgeous bushshrike,white-faced owland a number ofraptorslikewhite-backed vulture,gymnogene,black-chested snake eagle,Wahlberg's eagleandlong-crested eagle. A number of raptors frequent the mountains and cliffs, includingcape vulture,black eagle,jackal buzzard,peregrine falcon,lanner falconandrock kestrel. Birds associated with flowering plants of the higher slopes includeGurney's sugarbirdandmalachite sunbird. A breeding colony ofbald ibisoccurs in the grassy uplands, besides small numbers ofcape eagle-owlandred-breasted sparrowhawk. Forest birds includecrowned eagle,Knysna lourie,cinnamon dove,olive bushshrike,green twinspotandwood owl. Flora The reserve's vegetation is classified as the Northeastern Drakensberg High-Mountain Sourveld ecoregion, an area prone to lightning-induced burning. Its very diverse flora is ascribed to the variation in altitude and rainfall (541 mm to 2,776 mm p.a.), and the extremes in geology andpedology.It is topographically complex with a variety of habitats which include grassland plateaus, wetlands and sponge areas, grassland slopes,afromontaneforest,riparian forest, moist woodlands, dry woodlands andshrublands. Its four veld types are Afromontane Forest, North-eastern Mountain Sour Grassland, Sour Lowveld Bushveld and Mixed Lowveld Bushveld. Around a 1,000 plant species have been recorded. This includescycads, of which theBlyde river cycadis almost endemic to the reserve, with some 200 individuals remaining.A variety oforchid,lilyandprotea(generaProtea,FaureaandLeucospermum) species occur, including theBlyde river proteawhich is endemic to the canyon,and theescarpment pincushionof which about 30 plants are present.Tree fernsgrow along seepages in the uplands. Indigenous forest covers 2,111 ha of the nature reserve, or 7.3% of its surface area. These are fragmented into some 60 patches between 0.21 ha and 567 ha in extent. They are assigned to two forest communities, high altitude moist and low altitude dry afromontane forest. The altitudinal gradient accounts for most of their variation in plant communities. General area The reserve is fringed to the east by theMariepskopandKlaserie Waterfall Nature Reserves, and theMapulanengforestry region, below the escarpment. National Park status had been considered, if some adjacent areas were to be incorporated and their forestry activities discontinued. Percy FitzPatrickand George Fullerton's summer quarters as transport riders during the 1880s was situated atParadise Camp24°55′24″S30°52′08″E / 24.92333°S 30.86889°E /-24.92333; 30.86889 (Paradise Camp), some 6 km south of God's Window, and similarly perched on the edge of the escarpment. Close to God's Window are several waterfalls, includingBerlin FallsandLisbon Falls. References External links" ]
[ "The Gods Must Be Crazy The Gods Must Be Crazyis a 1980comedy filmwritten, produced, edited and directed byJamie Uys. An international co-production of South Africa and Botswana, it is the first film inThe Gods Must Be Crazyseries. Set inSouthern Africa, the film stars NamibianSanfarmerNǃxau ǂTomaas Xi, ahunter-gathererof theKalahari Desertwhose tribe discovers a glassCoca-Colabottle dropped from an aeroplane, and believe it to be a gift from their gods. When Xi sets out to return the bottle to the gods, his journey becomes intertwined with that of a biologist (Marius Weyers), a newly hired village school teacher (Sandra Prinsloo), and a band of guerrilla terrorists. The Gods Must Be Crazywas released inSouth Africaon 10 September 1980 bySter-Kinekor, and broke several box office records in the country, becoming the most financially successfulSouth African filmever produced at the time.The film was a commercial and critical success in most other countries, but took longer to find success in the United States,", "the United States, where it was eventually re-released in 1984 by20th Century Fox,with its originalAfrikaansdialogue beingdubbedinto English. Despite its success, the film attracted criticism for its depiction of race and perceived ignorance of discrimination andapartheidin South Africa. In 1989, it was followed by asequelThe Gods Must Be Crazy II. Plot Xi and his San tribelive happily in the Kalahari Desert, away fromindustrial civilization. One day, a glassCoca-Colabottle is thrown out of an aeroplane by a pilot and falls to the ground unbroken. Initially, Xi's people assume the bottle to be a gift from their gods, just as they believe plants and animals are, and find many uses for it. Unlike other gifts, however, there is only one glass bottle, which causes unforeseen conflict within the tribe. As a result, Xi decides to make a pilgrimage to the edge of the world and dispose of the divisive object. Along the way, Xi encounters biologist Andrew Steyn, who is studying themanureof wildlife; Steyn's assistant", "Steyn's assistant and mechanic, M'pudi; Kate Thompson, a woman who quit her job as a journalist inJohannesburgto become a village school teacher; and eventually a band of guerrillas led by Sam Boga, who are being pursued by government troops after a failed assassination attempt. In a fictitious town called Biryani, northwest of Botswana, Boga's men kill three cabinet members and injure two others in an attempt on the president's life, sending the military in hot pursuit. Steyn is tasked with bringing Thompson to the village where she will teach, but he is awkward and clumsy around her. TheirLand Roverstalls while trying to ford a deep river; he hoists it out with a winch, but it continues lifting the vehicle to a very high treetop level while a forgetful Steyn is distracted extricating Thompson from await-a-bit tree. She more than once mistakes his attempts to evade wild animals, and putting out an evening campfire, as advances towards her. Eventually, a snobbishsafaritour guide named Jack Hind arrives, and", "Hind arrives, and takes Thompson the rest of the way to the village. One day, Xi happens upon a herd of goats, and shoots one with atranquilizer arrow, planning to eat it. He is arrested and sentenced to jail. M'pudi, who once lived with the San and can speak the San language, is discontent with the verdict. He and Steyn arrange to hire Xi as atrackerfor the remainder of his sentence in lieu of prison time, and teach Xi how to drive Steyn's Land Rover. Meanwhile, the guerrillas invade Thompson'sschool, taking her and the students as hostages as they make their escape to a neighbouring country. Steyn, M'pudi and Xi, immersed in theirfieldwork, find that they are along the terrorists' and children's path, and observe their movements with atelescope. They manage to immobilize six of the eight guerrillas using makeshift tranquilizer darts launched by Xi with a miniature bow, allowing Thompson and the children to confiscate the guerillas' firearms. Steyn and M'pudi apprehend the remaining two guerrillas by", "two guerrillas by frightening one with a snake and by shooting at a tree above the other, causinglatexto drip from the tree and irritate his skin. Jack Hind arrives and takes Thompson and the children away, taking credit for the rescue that Steyn, M'pudi and Xi had actually planned and executed. Later, with Xi's term over, Steyn pays his wages and sends him on his way. Xi has never seen papermoney (banknotes)before, and throws them on the ground. Steyn and M'pudi then drive from their camp to visit Thompson, where Steyn attempts to explain his tendency to be uncoordinated in her presence, but accidentally and repeatedly knocks over a number of objects in the process. Thompson finds his efforts endearing, and kisses Steyn. Xi eventually arrives atGod's Window, the top of a cliff with a solid layer of low-lying clouds obscuring the landscape below. Convinced that he has reached the edge of the world, he throws the bottle off thecliff, and returns to his family. Cast Director Jamie Uys appears in an uncredited", "in an uncredited role as the Reverend. Production Development and casting After I madeAnimals Are Beautiful People, I went back to the Kalahari very often to visit the Bushmen. The more I visited, the more I discovered this thing about them: they don't have a sense of property. They don't know about ownership. If I put my jacket down, one of them would put it on. They share everything. Where they are, there is nothing you can own. It seems so different from the rest of us, who will kill one another over a diamond, because of its scarcity value. – director Jamie Uys on the San people. Jamie Uys conceived the premise ofThe Gods Must Be Crazywhile making the 1974documentaryAnimals Are Beautiful People.The documentary was filmed partially on the Kalahari Desert, where Uys first encountered the San people and \"fell in love with them\".Uys chose a Coca-Cola bottle as the object that the San people would discover and covet inThe Gods Must Be Crazybecause he felt that the bottle was representative of \"our plastic", "of \"our plastic society\", and because it \"is a beautiful thing, if you've never seen glass before\". Uys noted that he modelled the character of Andrew Steyn after himself: \"I used to be awkward like that, especially with women. But then, I think most young guys knock things over with their first girl\". After writing the script forThe Gods Must Be Crazy, Uys reportedly spent three months traversing the Kalahari Desert with aninterpreter, searching for a San person to play the role of Xi in the film.Visiting areas of the desert inhabited by the San, Uys took photographs of individuals he felt he might cast, and then \"marked thelongitude and latitude, so we could find them again\". Uys decided to cast Namibian San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma as Xi, and later recalled that \"At first didn't understand, because they have no word for work. Then the interpreter asked, 'Would you like to come with us for some days?'\"N!xau agreed and flew with Uys by aeroplane toWindhoek, Namibia, which served as a base for the film's", "base for the film's production.Uys stated that \"the airplane didn't impress him at all. He thinks we are magicians, so he believes we can do anything. Nothing impressed him\".In his hotel room, N!xau agreed to use the toilet, but slept on the floor rather than on the provided bed. However, according to author Josef Gugler, Uys \" the production of the film. The stories he told reviewers varied\".Unlike what was presented inThe Gods Must Be Crazy, N!xau did not lead ahunter-gathererlifestyle; he grew up as aherderon a farm in Botswana, before moving to Namibia to work as a cook.In the 1980 documentary filmNǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman, directed byJohn Marshall, footage of the filming ofThe Gods Must Be Crazyis used.The documentary shows San restricted to living in a reservation established by South African authorities inTsumkwe, Namibia.The San there are shown to not be hunter-gatherers; they are instead dependent on the government for food and other aid, with some suffering fromtuberculosis. Filming The Gods", "Filming The Gods Must Be Crazywas shot in Tsumkwe, Namibia,as well as in Botswana. According to Uys, N!xau would be flown back to his home in the Kalahari Desert every three or four weeks to prevent him from suffering fromculture shock.During his time in urban areas, N!xau learned to smoke and acquired an affinity for liquor andsake.Uys said that he paid N!xau $300 for his first 10 days of work, but that the money was reportedly blown away by wind.N!xau was then compensated with 12 head of cattle.In 1985, Uys said that he had sent N!xau $100 a month since filming, which N!xau used at a trading store 100 km (60 miles) from his hunting ground;Uys also stated that a $20,000trust accountin N!xau's name had been established. A scene in which arhinocerosstomps out a fire is based in aBurmeselegend about fire-eating rhinos, which is not widely known in Africa and appears not to be based in fact. Soundtrack Release Box office The Gods Must Be Crazywas initially released in South Africa on 10 September 1980", "10 September 1980 bySter-KinekorPictures.Within its first four days of its release, the film broke box office records in every city in South Africa.It became the highest-grossing film of 1982 in Japan, where it was released under the titleBushman.Executive producer Boet Troskie sold the distribution rights to the film to 45 countries. For its release in the United States, the originalAfrikaansdialogue wasdubbedinto English, and voiceover work was provided for!KungandTswanalines.The film initially received a limited American release throughJensen Farley Picturesin 1982, but performed poorly in at least half a dozen test cities.However, the film would eventually find critical and commercial success when it was re-released by20th Century Foxon 9 July 1984,becoming the highest-grossing foreign film released in the United States at the time.The film also played at the Music Hall Theater inBeverly Hills, Californiafor at least eight months. Within its first four years of release,The Gods Must Be Crazyhad", "Must Be Crazyhad grossed$90 millionworldwide.As of 2014, the film has grossedR1.8 billion (approx.$200 million) worldwide, including over$60 millionin the United States. Critical reception Roger Ebertof theChicago Sun-Timesgave the film three stars out of four, concluding that \"it might be easy to make a farce about screwball happenings in the desert, but it's a lot harder to create a funny interaction between nature and human nature. This movie's a nice little treasure\".Varietystated that the film's \"main virtues are its striking, widescreen visuals of unusual locations, and the sheer educational value of its narration\". In his review of the film forThe New York Times, criticVincent Canbywrote that \"watching Jamie Uys'sGods Must Be Crazy, one might suspect that there were no such things asapartheidor theImmorality Actor even South Africa\".Though he called the film \"often genuinely, nonpolitically funny\", he noted that \"there's also something disturbing about the film\", in that \"we tend to feel that any", "to feel that any South African work that doesn't actively condemn apartheid has the secondary effect of condoning it, if only through silence\". On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes,The Gods Must Be Crazyhas an approval rating of 86% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10.OnMetacritic, which uses aweighted average, the film has a score of 73 out of 100 based on six reviews, indicating \"generally favourable reviews\". Home media In mid-November 1986,The Gods Must Be Crazywas released onVHSin the U.S. byCBS/Foxon its Playhouse Video label. In 2004,The Gods Must Be Crazywas released onDVDbySony Pictures Entertainment.It was also released on DVD as adouble featurewithThe Gods Must Be Crazy II. Controversies The Gods Must Be Crazyattracted criticism for its perpetuation of racial stereotypes and ignorance of discrimination and apartheid in South Africa.In the U.S., the film was reportedlypicketedby theNational Conference of Black Lawyersand other anti-apartheid groups when it screened at the", "it screened at the 68th Street Playhouse in New York City. Accusations of patronization BothNew York Timescritic Vincent Canby and author Josef Gugler called the film \"patronizing\" towards the San people.Canby wrote that the San in the film \"are seen to be frightfully quaint if not downright cute\", and compared the film's narrator's statement that the San \"must be the most contented people in the world\" to \"exactly the sort of thing thatMussolinimight have said when he got those trains running on time\".Gugler considered both the film's narrator and the character of Mpudi condescending, writing that \"even if Mpudi feels for the San people, he is just as patronizing as the narrator: 'They are the sweetest little buggers'\".In response to accusations of patronization, Uys said that \"I don't think the film is patronizing. When the Bushman is with us in the city, I do patronize him, because he's stupid. But in the desert, he patronizes me, because I'm stupid and he's brilliant\". Criticisms related to apartheid In", "to apartheid In 1985,cultural anthropologistToby Alice Volkman wrote that money was \"a pressing concern\" for the San whenThe Gods Must Be Crazywas filmed, with many of them dependent on government aid and purchased food;she noted that many San enlisted in theSouth African Armydue to the high wages it paid.She wrote: \"Because the myth of Bushman innocence and bliss underlies the popularity ofThe Gods Must Be Crazy, it is no surprise that Mr. Uys would like us to believe in it. There is, however, little to laugh about in Bushmanland: 1,000 demoralized, formerly independent foragers crowd into a squalid, tubercular homeland, getting by on handouts of cornmeal and sugar, drinkingJohnny Walkerorhome brew, fighting with one another and joining the South African Army\". The following year, Canadian anthropologistRichard Borshay Leecalled the film \"an amusing but thinly disguised piece of South African propaganda in which a peculiar element of South African white mythology receives prominent attention\".Lee wrote that", "wrote that \"the notion that some San in the 1980s remain untouched by 'civilization' is a cruel joke. The San have been the subject of a century of rapid social change and especially in the last twenty years have been forced to endure all the 'benefits' of South Africa's apartheid policies in Namibia\". Gugler wrote that the guerrillas in the film are depicted as \"bad Africans dangerous and destructive all right, but they are also indolent and inept. In the end, even Kate Thompson gets to disarm one of them. Their leader, Sam Boga, articulates what the film is showing us about African guerrillas: 'Why do I have to work with amateurs?' He, in turn, serves to confirm the apartheid credo that Africans would be happy with the White dispensation were it not for foreigners fomenting discontent and making trouble\".Gugler goes on to state that Uys \" the myths of apartheid: an ordered world with Whites on top, a world where Africans are content but for the interference of outsiders\". When asked about his thoughts on", "his thoughts on apartheid, Uys commented that \"I think it's a mess. We've done some silly, naughty things that we're ashamed of. We're trying to dismantle it, but it's a very complicated thing. If you go too slow, it's bad, and if you go too fast, it will ruin the economy and everyone will starve. I hope I'm not a racist, but everybody likes to think of himself as not racist, and I don't think that any of us can swear we're not racist. If it means you hate the coloured man, I'm not racist. If it means you choose to marry a girl of your own colour, is that racist, too? If the two are in love, it doesn't matter. But I chose a white girl as my wife\". Sequel and related films The Gods Must Be Crazywas followed by an officialsequel,The Gods Must Be Crazy II, released byColumbia Picturesin 1989. It was written and directed by Uys, and again stars N!xau. An unofficial sequel,Crazy Safari(also titledThe Gods Must Be Crazy III), followed, a Hong Kong film starring N!xau. Other unofficial sequels includeCrazy Hong", "includeCrazy Hong Kong(The Gods Must Be Crazy IV) andThe Gods Must Be Funny in China(The Gods Must Be Crazy V). Two other unrelated films,Jewel of the GodsandThere's a Zulu On My Stoep, were marketed in some territories as sequels toThe Gods Must Be Crazy. Legacy Irish Spring soap had a 1989 commercial parodying the film. The video for the song \"Take Me to Your Leader\" by American rock bandIncubuspays homage to the film. Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links", "Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve(orMotlatse Canyon Provincial Nature Reserve) is situated in theDrakensbergescarpment region of easternMpumalanga,South Africa. The reserve protects theBlyde River Canyon, including sections of theOhrigstadandBlyde Riversand the geological formations around Bourke's Luck Potholes, where theTreur Rivertumbles into the Blyde below. Southwards of the canyon, the reserve follows the escarpment, to include the Devil's and God's Window, the latter a popular viewpoint to the lowveld at the reserve's southern extremity. The Mogologolo (1,794 m),Mariepskop(1,944 m) and Hebronberg (1,767 m) massifs are partially included in the reserve. Elevation varies from 560 m to 1,944 m above sea level.Its resort areas are F.H. Odendaal and Swadeni, the latter only accessible fromLimpopoprovince. The area of approximately 29,000 hectares (290 km2) is administered by theMpumalanga Parks Board. Bourke's Luck Potholes This geological feature and day visitors'", "and day visitors' attraction, named after prospectorBernard Thomas Bourke(brother ofEddie Bourke), is situated at the confluence of theTreurandBlyde Rivers, on the reserve's western boundary24°40′28″S30°48′39″E / 24.67444°S 30.81083°E /-24.67444; 30.81083 (Bourke's Luck Potholes). The reserve's nature conservation headquarters is located here, beside the village of Moremela, at the canyon's southern, or upper reaches. Bourke's Luck Potholes marks the beginning of theBlyde River Canyon. Sustainedkolksin the Treur River'splunge poolshave eroded a number of cylindrical potholes orgiant's kettles, which can be viewed from the crags above. It was named after a local prospector, Tom Bourke, who predicted the presence of gold, though he found none himself.Thepedestrian bridgesconnect the variousoverlooksof the potholes and the gorge downstream. The Three Rondavels The Three Rondavels are three round, grass-covered mountain tops with somewhat pointed peaks. They quite closely resemble the traditional round or", "round or ovalrondavelsor African homesteads, which are made with local materials. Sometimes they are also called the Three Sisters, though this may confuse them with a similar threesome visible from theN1 roadin theNorthern Cape, very far to the south. The names of the peaks commemorate a 19th-century chief, Maripi, and three of his wives. The flat-topped peak adjacent to the rondavels is Mapjaneng, \"the chief\", who is remembered for opposing invadingSwazisin a memorable battle. The three rondavels are named for three of his more troublesome wives – Magabolle, Mogoladikwe and Maseroto. Behind the rondavels the distant high plateau ofMariepskopmay be visible. Beside the dam, the isolated Thabaneng hill is known as the \"sundial\" or \"mountain with a shadow that moves\". It is said that the position of its shadow indicates the time of day. On a clear day the lookout point provides extensive views. From here one looks over the canyon to the Three Rondavels on the other side, which is flanked on various sides by", "on various sides by promontories of the northernDrakensbergrange. The formation of the attractive sedimentary formations are explained geologically as the slow erosion of underlying soft stone, leaving exposed the more resistant quartzite and shale that form the rondavels. God's Window God's Window24°52′28″S30°53′29″E / 24.87444°S 30.89139°E /-24.87444; 30.89139 (God's Window)is a popular vantage point along theDrakensbergescarpment, at the southern extremity of the Nature Reserve. Here, sheer cliffs plunge over 700 metres to the Lowveld. From this escarpment—a mostly unbroken rampart of cliffs—opens a vista into the Lowveld expanse and escarpment forests, theEden-like aesthetic appearance of which prompted the name.On a clear day it is possible to see over theKruger National Parktowards theLebombo Mountainson the border withMozambique. God's Window features prominently in the plot of the 1980cult filmThe Gods Must Be Crazy. Near the end of the movie, theBushmancharacter Xi (played byNamibianbush", "byNamibianbush farmerN!xau) travels to God's Window, and due to some low-lying cloud cover believes it to be the end of the Earth. The original Window is a rock that is set further back on a private farm and due to quarry operations and tree plantation farming, this actual rock that looks like a square window could not be used. The site was moved by the government to the edge of the escarpment. A viewing platform24°52′35.8″S30°53′19.6″E / 24.876611°S 30.888778°E /-24.876611; 30.888778 (God's Window viewing platform)near the car park gives extensive views down the gorge to the plain below. Fauna The high plateaus are inhabited bymountain reedbuck,baboontroops androck hyraxes.Impala,kudu,blue wildebeest,waterbuckandzebraroam the wooded lowveld area.Hippoandcrocodileare present in theBlyderivierpoort Dam. Three species offlat geckowere described in 2014 from the reserve and its vicinity. TheBlyde River flat gecko, discovered in 1991, is as yet only known from the cliff face of one of the three", "of one of the three rondavels,while theMariepskop flat geckowas discovered on nearbyMariepskopin 1982.TheAbel Erasmus flat geckois known to occur at Bourke's Luck inside the reserve. Exotic fish likesmallmouth bass,brownandrainbow troutoccur in the river, which have reduced the range of the localTreur river barbto upper catchments of the Blyde River system.Thanks to reintroductions after its rediscovery in the 1970s, it now flourishes here.TheNatal mountain catfishoccurs as an isolated population in theLimpoposystem, and the Belvedere creek is the only place in the Limpopo system where theRosefin barbis found. African fish eagleandAfrican finfootare found along the Blyde River. The lowveld woodlands harbourpurple-crested lourie,emerald cuckoo,red-backed mannikin,golden-tailed woodpecker,gorgeous bushshrike,white-faced owland a number ofraptorslikewhite-backed vulture,gymnogene,black-chested snake eagle,Wahlberg's eagleandlong-crested eagle. A number of raptors frequent the mountains and cliffs, includingcape", "includingcape vulture,black eagle,jackal buzzard,peregrine falcon,lanner falconandrock kestrel. Birds associated with flowering plants of the higher slopes includeGurney's sugarbirdandmalachite sunbird. A breeding colony ofbald ibisoccurs in the grassy uplands, besides small numbers ofcape eagle-owlandred-breasted sparrowhawk. Forest birds includecrowned eagle,Knysna lourie,cinnamon dove,olive bushshrike,green twinspotandwood owl. Flora The reserve's vegetation is classified as the Northeastern Drakensberg High-Mountain Sourveld ecoregion, an area prone to lightning-induced burning. Its very diverse flora is ascribed to the variation in altitude and rainfall (541 mm to 2,776 mm p.a.), and the extremes in geology andpedology.It is topographically complex with a variety of habitats which include grassland plateaus, wetlands and sponge areas, grassland slopes,afromontaneforest,riparian forest, moist woodlands, dry woodlands andshrublands. Its four veld types are Afromontane Forest, North-eastern Mountain Sour", "Mountain Sour Grassland, Sour Lowveld Bushveld and Mixed Lowveld Bushveld. Around a 1,000 plant species have been recorded. This includescycads, of which theBlyde river cycadis almost endemic to the reserve, with some 200 individuals remaining.A variety oforchid,lilyandprotea(generaProtea,FaureaandLeucospermum) species occur, including theBlyde river proteawhich is endemic to the canyon,and theescarpment pincushionof which about 30 plants are present.Tree fernsgrow along seepages in the uplands. Indigenous forest covers 2,111 ha of the nature reserve, or 7.3% of its surface area. These are fragmented into some 60 patches between 0.21 ha and 567 ha in extent. They are assigned to two forest communities, high altitude moist and low altitude dry afromontane forest. The altitudinal gradient accounts for most of their variation in plant communities. General area The reserve is fringed to the east by theMariepskopandKlaserie Waterfall Nature Reserves, and theMapulanengforestry region, below the escarpment.", "the escarpment. National Park status had been considered, if some adjacent areas were to be incorporated and their forestry activities discontinued. Percy FitzPatrickand George Fullerton's summer quarters as transport riders during the 1880s was situated atParadise Camp24°55′24″S30°52′08″E / 24.92333°S 30.86889°E /-24.92333; 30.86889 (Paradise Camp), some 6 km south of God's Window, and similarly perched on the edge of the escarpment. Close to God's Window are several waterfalls, includingBerlin FallsandLisbon Falls. References External links", "Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve(orMotlatse Canyon Provincial Nature Reserve) is situated in theDrakensbergescarpment region of easternMpumalanga,South Africa. The reserve protects theBlyde River Canyon, including sections of theOhrigstadandBlyde Riversand the geological formations around Bourke's Luck Potholes, where theTreur Rivertumbles into the Blyde below. Southwards of the canyon, the reserve follows the escarpment, to include the Devil's and God's Window, the latter a popular viewpoint to the lowveld at the reserve's southern extremity. The Mogologolo (1,794 m),Mariepskop(1,944 m) and Hebronberg (1,767 m) massifs are partially included in the reserve. Elevation varies from 560 m to 1,944 m above sea level.Its resort areas are F.H. Odendaal and Swadeni, the latter only accessible fromLimpopoprovince. The area of approximately 29,000 hectares (290 km2) is administered by theMpumalanga Parks Board. Bourke's Luck Potholes This geological feature and day visitors'", "and day visitors' attraction, named after prospectorBernard Thomas Bourke(brother ofEddie Bourke), is situated at the confluence of theTreurandBlyde Rivers, on the reserve's western boundary24°40′28″S30°48′39″E / 24.67444°S 30.81083°E /-24.67444; 30.81083 (Bourke's Luck Potholes). The reserve's nature conservation headquarters is located here, beside the village of Moremela, at the canyon's southern, or upper reaches. Bourke's Luck Potholes marks the beginning of theBlyde River Canyon. Sustainedkolksin the Treur River'splunge poolshave eroded a number of cylindrical potholes orgiant's kettles, which can be viewed from the crags above. It was named after a local prospector, Tom Bourke, who predicted the presence of gold, though he found none himself.Thepedestrian bridgesconnect the variousoverlooksof the potholes and the gorge downstream. The Three Rondavels The Three Rondavels are three round, grass-covered mountain tops with somewhat pointed peaks. They quite closely resemble the traditional round or", "round or ovalrondavelsor African homesteads, which are made with local materials. Sometimes they are also called the Three Sisters, though this may confuse them with a similar threesome visible from theN1 roadin theNorthern Cape, very far to the south. The names of the peaks commemorate a 19th-century chief, Maripi, and three of his wives. The flat-topped peak adjacent to the rondavels is Mapjaneng, \"the chief\", who is remembered for opposing invadingSwazisin a memorable battle. The three rondavels are named for three of his more troublesome wives – Magabolle, Mogoladikwe and Maseroto. Behind the rondavels the distant high plateau ofMariepskopmay be visible. Beside the dam, the isolated Thabaneng hill is known as the \"sundial\" or \"mountain with a shadow that moves\". It is said that the position of its shadow indicates the time of day. On a clear day the lookout point provides extensive views. From here one looks over the canyon to the Three Rondavels on the other side, which is flanked on various sides by", "on various sides by promontories of the northernDrakensbergrange. The formation of the attractive sedimentary formations are explained geologically as the slow erosion of underlying soft stone, leaving exposed the more resistant quartzite and shale that form the rondavels. God's Window God's Window24°52′28″S30°53′29″E / 24.87444°S 30.89139°E /-24.87444; 30.89139 (God's Window)is a popular vantage point along theDrakensbergescarpment, at the southern extremity of the Nature Reserve. Here, sheer cliffs plunge over 700 metres to the Lowveld. From this escarpment—a mostly unbroken rampart of cliffs—opens a vista into the Lowveld expanse and escarpment forests, theEden-like aesthetic appearance of which prompted the name.On a clear day it is possible to see over theKruger National Parktowards theLebombo Mountainson the border withMozambique. God's Window features prominently in the plot of the 1980cult filmThe Gods Must Be Crazy. Near the end of the movie, theBushmancharacter Xi (played byNamibianbush", "byNamibianbush farmerN!xau) travels to God's Window, and due to some low-lying cloud cover believes it to be the end of the Earth. The original Window is a rock that is set further back on a private farm and due to quarry operations and tree plantation farming, this actual rock that looks like a square window could not be used. The site was moved by the government to the edge of the escarpment. A viewing platform24°52′35.8″S30°53′19.6″E / 24.876611°S 30.888778°E /-24.876611; 30.888778 (God's Window viewing platform)near the car park gives extensive views down the gorge to the plain below. Fauna The high plateaus are inhabited bymountain reedbuck,baboontroops androck hyraxes.Impala,kudu,blue wildebeest,waterbuckandzebraroam the wooded lowveld area.Hippoandcrocodileare present in theBlyderivierpoort Dam. Three species offlat geckowere described in 2014 from the reserve and its vicinity. TheBlyde River flat gecko, discovered in 1991, is as yet only known from the cliff face of one of the three", "of one of the three rondavels,while theMariepskop flat geckowas discovered on nearbyMariepskopin 1982.TheAbel Erasmus flat geckois known to occur at Bourke's Luck inside the reserve. Exotic fish likesmallmouth bass,brownandrainbow troutoccur in the river, which have reduced the range of the localTreur river barbto upper catchments of the Blyde River system.Thanks to reintroductions after its rediscovery in the 1970s, it now flourishes here.TheNatal mountain catfishoccurs as an isolated population in theLimpoposystem, and the Belvedere creek is the only place in the Limpopo system where theRosefin barbis found. African fish eagleandAfrican finfootare found along the Blyde River. The lowveld woodlands harbourpurple-crested lourie,emerald cuckoo,red-backed mannikin,golden-tailed woodpecker,gorgeous bushshrike,white-faced owland a number ofraptorslikewhite-backed vulture,gymnogene,black-chested snake eagle,Wahlberg's eagleandlong-crested eagle. A number of raptors frequent the mountains and cliffs, includingcape", "includingcape vulture,black eagle,jackal buzzard,peregrine falcon,lanner falconandrock kestrel. Birds associated with flowering plants of the higher slopes includeGurney's sugarbirdandmalachite sunbird. A breeding colony ofbald ibisoccurs in the grassy uplands, besides small numbers ofcape eagle-owlandred-breasted sparrowhawk. Forest birds includecrowned eagle,Knysna lourie,cinnamon dove,olive bushshrike,green twinspotandwood owl. Flora The reserve's vegetation is classified as the Northeastern Drakensberg High-Mountain Sourveld ecoregion, an area prone to lightning-induced burning. Its very diverse flora is ascribed to the variation in altitude and rainfall (541 mm to 2,776 mm p.a.), and the extremes in geology andpedology.It is topographically complex with a variety of habitats which include grassland plateaus, wetlands and sponge areas, grassland slopes,afromontaneforest,riparian forest, moist woodlands, dry woodlands andshrublands. Its four veld types are Afromontane Forest, North-eastern Mountain Sour", "Mountain Sour Grassland, Sour Lowveld Bushveld and Mixed Lowveld Bushveld. Around a 1,000 plant species have been recorded. This includescycads, of which theBlyde river cycadis almost endemic to the reserve, with some 200 individuals remaining.A variety oforchid,lilyandprotea(generaProtea,FaureaandLeucospermum) species occur, including theBlyde river proteawhich is endemic to the canyon,and theescarpment pincushionof which about 30 plants are present.Tree fernsgrow along seepages in the uplands. Indigenous forest covers 2,111 ha of the nature reserve, or 7.3% of its surface area. These are fragmented into some 60 patches between 0.21 ha and 567 ha in extent. They are assigned to two forest communities, high altitude moist and low altitude dry afromontane forest. The altitudinal gradient accounts for most of their variation in plant communities. General area The reserve is fringed to the east by theMariepskopandKlaserie Waterfall Nature Reserves, and theMapulanengforestry region, below the escarpment.", "the escarpment. National Park status had been considered, if some adjacent areas were to be incorporated and their forestry activities discontinued. Percy FitzPatrickand George Fullerton's summer quarters as transport riders during the 1880s was situated atParadise Camp24°55′24″S30°52′08″E / 24.92333°S 30.86889°E /-24.92333; 30.86889 (Paradise Camp), some 6 km south of God's Window, and similarly perched on the edge of the escarpment. Close to God's Window are several waterfalls, includingBerlin FallsandLisbon Falls. References External links" ]
What was the age difference between the inventor of Barbie and the inventor of Hot Wheels?
6 months and 26 days.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbie
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Wheels
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Handler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Handler
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Numerical reasoning | Post processing | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbie', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Wheels', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Handler', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Handler']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbie", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Wheels", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Handler", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliot_Handler" ]
[ "Barbie Barbieis afashion dollcreated by American businesswomanRuth Handler, manufactured by American toy and entertainment companyMatteland introduced on March 9, 1959. The toy was based on the GermanBild Lillidoll which Handler had purchased while in Europe. The figurehead of an eponymous brand that includes a range of fashion dolls and accessories, Barbie has been an important part of the toyfashiondoll market for over six decades. Mattel has sold over a billion Barbie dolls, making it the company's largest and most profitable line.The brand has expanded intoa multimedia franchisesince 1984, including video games,animated films, television/web series, and alive-action film. Barbie and her male counterpart,Ken, have been described as the two most popular dolls in the world.Mattel generates a large portion of Barbie's revenue through relatedmerchandise—accessories, clothes, friends, and relatives of Barbie. Writing forJournal of Popular Culturein 1977, Don Richard Cox noted that Barbie has a significant impact on social values by conveying characteristics of female independence, and with her multitude of accessories, an idealized upscale lifestyle that can be shared with affluent friends. History Development Ruth Handlerwatched her daughter Barbara play with paper dolls, and noticed that she often enjoyed giving them adult roles. At the time, most children's toy dolls were representations of infants. Realizing that there could be a gap in the market, Handler suggested the idea of an adult-bodied doll to her husbandElliot, a co-founder of theMatteltoy company. He was unenthusiastic about the idea, as were Mattel's directors. During a trip to Switzerland in 1956 with her children Barbara andKenneth, Ruth Handler came across a German toy doll calledBild Lilli.The adult-figured doll was exactly what Handler had in mind, so she purchased three of them. She gave one to her daughter and took the others back to Mattel. The Lilli doll was based on a popular character appearing in a satiricalcomic stripdrawn by Reinhard Beuthin for the newspaperBild.The Lilli doll was first sold inWest Germanyin 1955, and although it was initially sold to adults, it became popular with children who enjoyed dressing her up in outfits that were available separately. Upon her return to the United States, Handler redesigned the doll (with help from local inventor-designerJack Ryan) and the doll was given a new name,Barbie, after Handler's daughter Barbara. The doll made its debut at theAmerican International Toy FairinNew York Cityon March 9, 1959.This date is also used as Barbie's official birthday. Launch The first Barbie doll wore a black-and-white zebra striped swimsuit and signature topknotponytail, and was available as either ablondeorbrunette. The doll was marketed as a \"Teen-age Fashion Model\", with her clothes created by Mattel fashion designer Charlotte Johnson. Analysts expected the doll to perform poorly due to her adult appearance and widespread assumptions about consumer preferences at the time. Ruth Handler believed it was important for Barbie to have an adult appearance, but earlymarket researchshowed that some parents were unhappy about the doll's chest, which had distinct breasts. Barbie sold about 350,000 units in her first year, beating market expectations and generatingupside riskfor investors. Sales of BarbieexceededMattel's ability to produce her for the first three years of her run. The market stabilized for the next decade while volume and margin increased by exportingrefurbisheddolls toJapan. Barbie was manufactured in Japan during this time, with her clothes hand-stitched by Japanese homeworkers. Louis Marx and Companysued Mattel in March 1961. After licensing Lilli, they claimed that Mattel had \"infringed on Greiner & Hausser's patent for Bild-Lilli's hip joint\", and also claimed that Barbie was \"a direct take-off and copy\" of Bild-Lilli. The company additionally claimed that Mattel \"falsely and misleadingly represented itself as having originated the design\". Mattel counter-claimed and the case was settled out of court in 1963. In 1964, Mattel bought Greiner & Hausser's copyright and patent rights for the Bild-Lilli doll for $21,600. Barbie's appearance has been changed many times, most notably in 1971 when the doll's eyes were adjusted to look forwards rather than having the demure sideways glance of the original model. This would be the last adjustment Ruth would make to her own creation as, three years later, she and her husband Elliot were removed from their posts at Mattel after an investigation found them guilty of issuing false and misleading financial reports. Barbie was one of the first toys to have a marketing strategy based extensively on television advertising, which has been copied widely by other toys. In 2006, it was estimated that over a billion Barbie dolls had been sold worldwide in over 150 countries, with Mattel claiming that three Barbie dolls are sold every second. Sales of Barbie dolls declined sharply from 2014 to 2016.According toMarketWatch, the release of the 2023 filmBarbieis expected to create \"significant growth\" for the brand until at least 2030.As well as reinvigorated sales, the release of the film triggered a fashion trend known as \"Barbiecore\"and a film-related cultural phenomena namedBarbenheimer. Appearances in media Since 1984, in response to a rise ofdigitalandinteractive mediaand a gradual decline in toys and doll sales at that time, Barbie has been featured in an eponymousmedia franchisebeginning with the release of two eponymous video games,one that yearandanother in 1991and twosyndicatedtelevision specialsreleased in 1987;Barbie and the Rockers: Out of This Worldandits sequel. She then began to appear as avirtual actressina seriesofdirect-to-videoanimated feature films withBarbie in the Nutcrackerin 2001,which were also broadcast onNickelodeonin the United States as promotional specials until 2017.Since 2017, the film series were revamped asstreaming televisionfilms, branded as animated \"specials\" and released throughstreaming mediaservices, primarily onNetflix. At the time of the release ofBarbie in the Pink Shoeson February 26, 2013, the film series have sold over 110 million units globally.Since 2012, she has appeared in severaltelevisionandweb series; includingBarbie: Life in the Dreamhouse,Barbie: Dreamtopia,Barbie: Dreamhouse Adventures,Barbie: It Takes TwoandBarbie: A Touch of Magic. Aside in lead roles, she has appeared as a supporting character in theToy Storyfilmsbetween itssecondandthird sequelswith a cameo at thefourthand theMy Scenemedia franchise.In 2015, Barbie began appearing as avloggeronYouTubecalledBarbie Vloggerwhere she talks about her fictional life, fashion,friends and family, and even charged topics such asmental healthandracism.She was portrayed by Australian actressMargot Robbieina live-action film adaptationreleased on July 21, 2023, byWarner Bros. Picturesin the United States. Fictional biography Barbie's full name isBarbara Millicent Robertsand her parents' names are given as George and Margaret Roberts from the fictional town of Willows,Wisconsin, in a series of novels published byRandom Housein the 1960s.In those novels, Barbie attended Willows High School; while in theGeneration Girlbooks, published byGolden Booksin 1999, she attended the fictional Manhattan International High School in New York City (based on the real-lifeStuyvesant High School). She has an on-off romantic relationship with her then-boyfriendKen(full name \"Kenneth Sean Carson\"), who first appeared in 1961. Anews releasefrom Mattel in February 2004 announced that Barbie and Ken had decided to split up,but in February 2006, they were hoping to rekindle their relationship after Ken had a makeover.In 2011, Mattel launched a campaign for Ken to win Barbie's affections back.The pair officially reunited inValentine's Day2011.Beginning withBarbie Dreamhouse Adventuresin 2018, the pair are seen as just friends or next-door neighbors until a brief return to pre-2018 aesthetics in the 2023 television show,Barbie: A Touch of Magic. Mattel has created a range of companions and relatives for Barbie. She has three younger sisters:Skipper,Stacie, andChelsea(named Kelly until 2011).Her sisters have co-starred in many entries of theBarbiefilm series, starting withBarbie & Her Sisters in A Pony Talefrom 2013. 'Retired' members of Barbie's family includedTodd(twin brother to Stacie),Krissy(a baby sister), andFrancie(cousin). Barbie's friends includeHispanicTeresa,Midge,African AmericanChristie, and Steven (Christie's boyfriend). Barbie was also friendly withBlaine, an Australian surfer, during her split with Ken in 2004. Barbie has had over 40 pets including cats and dogs, horses, apanda, a lion cub, and azebra. She has owned a wide range of vehicles, including pinkBeetleandCorvetteconvertibles, trailers, andJeeps. She also holds apilot's license, and operates commercial airliners in addition to serving as aflight attendant. Barbie'scareersare designed to show that women can take on a variety of roles in life, and the doll has been sold with a wide range of titles includingMiss Astronaut Barbie(1965),Doctor Barbie(1988), andNascar Barbie(1998). Legacy and influence Barbie has become acultural iconand has been given honors that are rare in the toy world. In 1974, a section ofTimes Squarein New York City was renamed Barbie Boulevard for a week. TheMusée des Arts Décoratifs, Parisat the Louvre held a Barbie exhibit in 2016. The exhibit featured 700 Barbie dolls over two floors as well as works by contemporary artists and documents (newspapers, photos, video) that contextualize Barbie. In 1986, the artistAndy Warholcreated a painting of Barbie. The painting sold at auction atChristie's, London for $1.1million. In 2015, The Andy Warhol Foundation then teamed up with Mattel to create an Andy Warhol Barbie. Outsider artistAl Carbeetook thousands of photographs of Barbie and created countless collages and dioramas featuring Barbie in various settings.Carbee was the subject of the 2013 feature-length documentaryMagical Universe. Carbee's collage art was presented in the 2016 Barbie exhibit at theMusée des Arts Décoratifs, Parisin the section about visuals artists who have been inspired by Barbie. In 2013, inTaiwan, the first Barbie-themed restaurant called \"Barbie Café\" opened under the Sinlaku group. TheEconomisthas emphasized the importance of Barbie to children's imagination: From her early days as a teenage fashion model, Barbie has appeared as an astronaut, surgeon, Olympic athlete, downhill skier, aerobics instructor, TV news reporter, vet, rock star, doctor, army officer, air force pilot, summit diplomat, rap musician, presidential candidate (party undefined), baseball player, scuba diver, lifeguard, fire-fighter, engineer, dentist, and many more. When Barbie first burst into the toy shops, just as the 1960s were breaking, the doll market consisted mostly of babies, designed for girls to cradle, rock and feed. By creating a doll with adult features, Mattel enabled girls to become anything they want. On September 7, 2021, following the debut of thestreamingtelevision filmBarbie: Big City, Big DreamsonNetflix, Barbie joined forces withGrammy Award-nominated music producer, songwriter, singer and actressEster Deanand Girls Make Beats – an organization dedicated to expanding the female presence ofmusic producers,DJsandaudio engineers– to inspire more girls to explore a future in music production. Mattel Adventure Park In 2023, Mattel broke ground on a theme park nearPhoenix, Arizona. The park is to open in 2024 and highlights Mattel's toys, including a Barbie Beach House, aThomas & Friendsthemed ride, and aHot Wheelsgo-kart race track.The theme park will take place at theVAI Resort complex, located 15 miles (24 km) west ofPhoenix, Arizona. 50th anniversary In 2009, Barbie celebrated her 50th birthday. The celebrations included a runway show in New York for theMercedes-Benz Fashion Week.The event showcased fashions contributed by fifty well-knownhaute couturiersincludingDiane von Fürstenberg,Vera Wang,Calvin Klein,Bob Mackie, andChristian Louboutin. Barbie Dream Gap Project In 2019, Mattel launched the \"Barbie Dream Gap Project\" to raise awareness of the phenomenon known as the \"Dream Gap\": beginning at the age of five, girls begin to doubt their own intelligence, where boys do not. This leads to boys pursuing careers requiring a higher intelligence, and girls being underrepresented in those careers.As an example, in the U.S., 33% of sitting judges are female. This statistic inspired the release of Judge Barbie in four different skin tones and hairstyles with judge robes and a gavel accessory. Thank You Heroes In May 2020, in response to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Mattel announced a new line of career dolls modeled after the first responders and essential workers of 2020. For every doll purchased, Mattel donated a doll to the First Responders Children's Foundation. Habitat for Humanity In February 2022, Mattel celebrated its 60-year anniversary of the Barbie Dreamhouse by partnering with Habitat for Humanity International. Mattel committed to taking on 60 projects, including new construction, home preservation, and neighborhood revitalization. Bad influence concerns In July 1992, Mattel releasedTeen Talk Barbie, which spoke a number of phrases including \"Will we ever have enough clothes?\", \"I love shopping!\", and \"Wanna have a pizza party?\" Each doll was programmed to say four out of 270 possible phrases, so that no two given dolls were likely to be the same (the number of possible combinations is 270!/(266!4!) = 216,546,345). One of these 270 phrases was \"Math class is tough!\", which led to criticism from theAmerican Association of University Women; about 1.5% of all the dolls sold said the phrase. The doll was often erroneously misattributed in the media as having said \"Math is hard!\"In October 1992, Mattel announced thatTeen Talk Barbiewould no longer say \"Math class is tough!\", and offered a swap to anyone who owned a doll that did. In 2002, Mattel introduced a line of pregnantMidge(and baby) dolls, but thisHappy Familyline was quickly pulled from the market due to complaints that she promoted teen pregnancy, though Midge was supposed to be a married adult. In September 2003, the Middle Eastern country ofSaudi Arabiaoutlawed the sale of Barbie dolls and franchises, stating that they did not conform to the ideals ofIslam. TheCommittee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vicewarned, \"Jewish Barbie dolls, with their revealing clothes and shameful postures,accessoriesand tools are a symbol of decadence to thepervertedWest. Let us beware of her dangers and be careful.\"The 2003 Saudi ban was temporary.In Muslim-majority nations, there is an alternative doll calledFulla, which was introduced in November 2003 and is equivalent to Barbie, but is designed specifically to represent traditional Islamic values. Fulla is not manufactured by Mattel (although Mattel still licenses Fulla dolls and franchises for sale in certain markets), and (as of January 2021) the \"Jewish\" Barbie brand is still available in otherMuslim-majority countries includingEgyptandIndonesia.InIran, theSara and Dara dolls, which were introduced in March 2002, are available as an alternative to Barbie, even though they have not been as successful. In November 2014, Mattel received criticism over the bookI Can Be a Computer Engineer, which depicted Barbie as personallyinept at computers, requiring her two male friends complete all of the necessary tasks to restore two laptops after she accidentallyinfectsher and her sister's laptop with amalware-laced USB flash drive, before ultimately getting credit for recovering her sister's school project.Critics felt that the characterization of Barbie as asoftware designerlackinglow-level technical skillswas sexist, as other books in theI Can Be...series depicted Barbie as someone who was totally competent in those jobs and did not require outside assistance from others.Mattel later removed the book from sale onAmazonin response to the criticism,and the company released a \"Computer Engineer Barbie\" doll who was a game programmer rather thangame designer. Diversity \"ColoredFrancie\" made her debut in 1967, and she is sometimes described as the firstAfrican-AmericanBarbie doll. However, she was produced using the existing head molds for the white Francie doll and lacked distinct African characteristics other than dark skin. The first African-American doll in the Barbie range is usually regarded as Christie, who made her debut in 1968.Black Barbie was launched in 1980 but still had Caucasian features. In 1990, Mattel created a focus group with African-American children and parents, early childhood specialists, and clinical psychologist, Darlene Powell Hudson. Instead of using the same molds for the Caucasian Barbies, new ones were created. In addition, facial features, skin tones, hair texture, and names were all altered. The body shapes looked different, but the proportions were the same to ensure clothing and accessories were interchangeable.In September 2009, Mattel introduced the So In Style range, which was intended to create a more realistic depiction of African-American people than previous dolls. Starting in 1980, it produced Hispanic dolls, and later came models from across the globe. For example, in 2007, it introduced \"Cinco de MayoBarbie\" wearing a ruffled red, white, and green dress (echoing the Mexican flag).Hispanicmagazine reports that: ne of the most dramatic developments in Barbie's history came when she embraced multi-culturalism and was released in a wide variety of native costumes, hair colors and skin tones to more closely resemble the girls who idolized her. Among these were Cinco De Mayo Barbie, Spanish Barbie, Peruvian Barbie, Mexican Barbie and Puerto Rican Barbie. She also has had close Hispanic friends, such as Teresa. Professor Emilie Rose Aguilo-Perez argued that over time, Mattel shifted from ambiguous Hispanic presentations in their dolls to one that is more assertive in its \"Latinx\" marketing and product labeling. Mattel has responded to criticisms pointing to a lack of diversity in the line.In 2016, Mattel expanded the So In Style line to include seven skin tones, twenty-two eye colors, and twenty-four hairstyles. Part of the reason for this change was due to declining sales.The brand now offers over 22skin tones, 94hair colors, 13eye colorsand fivebody types. Mattel teamed up withNabiscoto launch a cross-promotion Barbie doll withOreocookiesin 1997 and 2001. While the 1997 release of the doll was only released in awhiteversion, for the 2001 release Mattel manufactured both a white and ablackversion. The 2001 releaseBarbie Oreo School Time Funwas marketed as someone with whom young girls could play after class and share \"America's favorite cookie\". Critics argued that in the African American community,Oreois a derogatory term meaning that the person is \"black on the outside and white on the inside\", like the chocolate sandwich cookie itself. In May 1997, Mattel introducedShare a Smile Becky, a doll in a pinkwheelchair. Kjersti Johnson, a 17-year-old high school student inTacoma, Washingtonwithcerebral palsy, pointed out that the doll would not fit into theelevatorof Barbie's $100 Dream House. Mattel announced that it would redesign the house in the future to accommodate the doll. In July 2024, Mattel released the firstblindBarbie in collaboration with theAmerican Foundation for the Blind.Alongside this, the company also launched a black Barbie withDown syndrome. Role model Barbies In March 2018, in time forInternational Women's Day, Mattel unveiled the \"Barbie Celebrates Role Models\" campaign with a line of 17 dolls, informally known as \"sheroes\", from diverse backgrounds \"to showcase examples of extraordinary women\".Mattel developed this collection in response to mothers concerned about their daughters having positive female role models.Dolls in this collection includeFrida Kahlo,Patti Jenkins,Chloe Kim,Nicola Adams,Ibtihaj Muhammad,Bindi Irwin,Amelia Earhart,Misty Copeland,Helene Darroze,Katherine Johnson,Sara Gama,Martyna Wojciechowska,Gabby Douglas,Guan Xiaotong,Ava Duvernay,Yuan Yuan Tan,Iris Apfel,Ashley GrahamandLeyla Piedayesh.In 2020, the company announced a new release of \"shero\" dolls, including Paralympic championMadison de Rozario,and world four-time sabre championOlga Kharlan.In July 2021, Mattel released aNaomi OsakaBarbie doll as a part of the 'Barbie Role Model' series. Osaka originally partnered with Barbie two years earlier.A month earlier, aJulie Bishopdoll was released to acknowledge the former Australian politician,as was one for general practitionerKirby Whitefor her work during theCOVID-19 pandemicin Australia.In August 2021 a Barbie modelled afterEuropean Space AgencyastronautSamantha Cristoforettiwas released. Collecting The standard range of Barbie dolls and related accessories are manufactured to approximately 1/6 scale, which is also known asplayscale.The standard dolls are approximately11+1⁄2inches (29 cm) tall. Mattel estimates that there are well over 100,000 avid Barbie collectors. Ninety percent are women, at an average age of 40, purchasing more than twenty Barbie dolls each year. Forty-five percent of them spend upwards of $1000 a year. Vintage Barbie dolls from the early years are the most valuable atauction, and while the original Barbie was sold for $3.00 in 1959, a mint boxed Barbie from 1959 sold for $3552.50 oneBayin October 2004.On September 26, 2006, a Barbie doll set a world record at auction of £9,000sterling(US$17,000) atChristie'sin London. The doll was a Barbie in Midnight Red from 1965 and was part of a private collection of 4,000 Barbie dolls being sold by two Dutch women, Ietje Raebel and her daughter Marina. In recent years, Mattel has sold a wide range of Barbie dolls aimed specifically at collectors, includingporcelainversions, vintage reproductions, and depictions of Barbie as a range of characters from film and television series such asThe MunstersandStar Trek.There are also collector's edition dolls depicting Barbie dolls with a range of different ethnic identities.In 2004, Mattel introduced the Color Tier system for its collector's edition Barbie dolls including pink, silver, gold, and platinum, depending on how many of the dolls are produced.In 2020, Mattel introduced theDia De Los Muertoscollectible Barbie doll, the second collectible released as part of the company's La Catrina line which was launched in 2019. Parodies and lawsuits Barbie has frequently been the target ofparody: Competition from Bratz dolls In May 2001,MGA Entertainmentlaunched theBratzseries of dolls, a move that gave Barbie her first serious competition in the fashion doll market. In 2004, sales figures showed that Bratz dolls were outselling Barbie dolls in the United Kingdom, althoughMattelmaintained that in terms of the number of dolls, clothes, and accessories sold, Barbie remained the leading brand.In 2005, figures showed that sales of Barbie dolls had fallen by 30% in the United States, and by 18% worldwide, with much of the drop being attributed to the popularity of Bratz dolls. In December 2006, Mattel sued MGA Entertainment for $1 billion, alleging that Bratz creatorCarter Bryantwas working for Mattel when he developed the idea forBratz.On July 17, 2008, a federal jury agreed that the Bratz line was created by Carter Bryant while he was working for Mattel and that MGA and its chief executive officerIsaac Larianwere liable for converting Mattel property for their own use and intentionally interfering with the contractual duties owed by Bryant to Mattel.On August 26, the jury found that Mattel would have to be paid $100 million in damages. On December 3, 2008, U.S. District Judge Stephen Larson banned MGA from selling Bratz. He allowed the company to continue selling the dolls until the winter holiday season ended.On appeal, a stay was granted by theU.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit; the Court also overturned the District Court's original ruling for Mattel, where MGA Entertainment was ordered to forfeit the entireBratzbrand. Mattel Inc.andMGA Entertainment Inc.returned to court on January 18, 2011, to renew their battle over who ownsBratz, which this time included accusations from both companies that the other side stole trade secrets.On April 21, 2011, a federal jury returned a verdict supporting MGA.On August 5, 2011, Mattel was also ordered to pay MGA $310 million for attorney fees, stealing trade secrets, and false claims rather than the $88.5 million issued in April. In August 2009, MGA introduced a range of dolls calledMoxie Girlz, intended as a replacement for Bratz dolls. Effects on body image From the start, some have complained that \"the blonde, plastic doll conveyed an unrealistic body image to girls.\" Criticisms of Barbie are often centered around concerns that children consider Barbie a role model and will attempt to emulate her. One of the most common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for a young woman, leading to a risk that girls who attempt to emulate her will becomeanorexic. Unrealistic body proportions in Barbie dolls have been connected to someeating disordersin children. A standard Barbie doll is 11.5 inches (29 cm) tall, giving a height of 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) at 1/6 scale. Barbie's vital statistics have been estimated at 36 inches (91 cm) (chest), 18 inches (46 cm) (waist) and 33 inches (84 cm) (hips). According to research by the University Central Hospital in Helsinki, Finland, she would lack the 17 to 22 percent body fat required for a woman tomenstruate.In 1963, the outfit \"Barbie Baby-Sits\" came with a book titledHow to Lose Weightwhich advised: \"Don't eat!\"The same book was included in another ensemble called \"Slumber Party\" in 1965 along with a pink bathroom scale permanently set at 110 pounds (50 kg),which would be underweight for a woman 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) tall.Mattel said that the waist of the Barbie doll was made small because the waistbands of her clothes, along with their seams, snaps, and zippers, added bulk to her figure.In 1997, Barbie's body mold was redesigned and given a wider waist, with Mattel saying that this would make the doll better suited to contemporary fashion designs. In 2016, Mattel introduced a range of new body types: 'tall', 'petite', and 'curvy', releasing them exclusively as part of the Barbie Fashionistas line. 'Curvy Barbie' received a great deal of media attentionand even made the cover ofTimemagazine with the headline \"Now Can We Stop Talking About My Body?\".Despite the curvy doll's body shape being equivalent to a US size 4 in clothing,some children reportedly regarded her as \"fat\". Although Barbie had been criticized for its unrealistic-looking \"tall and petite\" dolls, the company has been offering more dolls set to more realistic standards in order to help promote a positive body image. \"Barbie syndrome\" \"Barbie syndrome\" is a term that has been used to depict the desire to have a physicalappearanceand lifestyle representative of the Barbie doll. It is most often associated with pre-teenage andadolescentgirls but is applicable to any age group or gender. A person with Barbie syndrome attempts to emulate the doll's physical appearance, even though the doll has unattainable body proportions.This syndrome is seen as a form ofbody dysmorphic disorderand results in various eating disorders as well as an obsession with cosmetic surgery. Ukrainian modelValeria Lukyanovahas received attention from the press, due in part to her appearance having been modified based on the physique of Barbie.She stated that she has only had breast implants and relies heavily on make up and contacts to alter her appearance.Similarly,Lacey Wildd, an American reality television personality frequently referred to as \"Million Dollar Barbie\", has also undergone 12 breast augmentation surgeries to become \"the extreme Barbie\". Jessica Alves, prior to coming out as transgender, underwent over £373,000 worth of cosmetic procedures to match the appearance of Barbie's male counterpart, garnering her the nickname the \"Human Ken Doll\". These procedures have included multiple nose jobs, six pack ab implants, a buttock lift, and hair and chest implants.Sporting the same nickname,Justin Jedlica, the American businessman, has also received multiple cosmetic surgeries to enhance his Ken-like appearance. In 2006, researchers Helga Dittmar, Emma Halliwell, and Suzanne Ive conducted an experiment testing how dolls, including Barbie, affect self-image in young girls. Dittmar, Halliwell, and Ive gave picture books to girls age 5–8, one with photos of Barbie and the other with photos of Emme, a doll with more realistic physical features. The girls were then asked about their ideal body size. Their research found that the girls who were exposed to the images of Barbie had significantly lower self-esteem than the girls who had photos of Emme.However,Benjamin Radfordnoted that the answer may not be this simple since this research also showed that the age of the girl was a significant factor in the influence the doll had on her self esteem. Notable designers See also Notes References Further reading External links", "Hot Wheels Hot Wheelsis an American media franchise and brand ofscale modelcarsinvented byElliot Handlerand introduced by his companyMattelon May 18, 1968.It was the primary competitor ofMatchboxuntil Mattel bought Matchbox ownerTyco Toysin 1997. Manyautomobile manufacturershave since licensed Hot Wheels to make scale models of their cars, allowing the use of original designblueprintsand detailing. Although Hot Wheels were originally intended to be children's toys, they have become popular with adult collectors, for whomlimited editionmodels are now made available. History 1968 The original Hot Wheels were made byElliot Handler.Handler discovered his son Kenneth playing with Matchbox cars and decided to create a line to compete with Matchbox. Hot Wheels were originally conceived by Handler to be more like \"hot rod\" cars (i.e.,customized/modified or evencaricaturizedor fantasy cars, often withbig rear tires,superchargers, flame paint-jobs, outlandish proportions, hood blowers, etc.), as compared to Matchbox cars which were generally small-scale models of production cars.He began producing the cars with assistance from fellow engineerJack Ryan. The flame logo was designed by Rick Irons, an art director working at Mattel at the time. The Sweet 16 The first line of Hot Wheels cars, known asThe Original Sweet 16was manufactured in 1967. These were the first of the Red Line Series, named for the tires which had a redpin stripeon their sides. There were sixteen castings released, eleven of them designed byHarry Bentley Bradleywith assistance from Handler and Ryan.The first one produced was a dark blue \"CustomCamaro\".Bradley was from the car industry and had designed the body for the (full-sized)Dodge Deoraconcept car and theCustom Fleetside, (based on his own customized 1966 El Camino). Racing track set In addition to the cars themselves, Mattel produced a racing track set (sold separately). Though it would be updated throughout the years, the original track set consists of a series of bright orange road sections (pieced together to form an oblong, circular race track), with one (or sometimes two) \"superchargers\" (faux service stations through which cars passed on the tracks, featuring battery-powered spinning wheels, which would propel the cars along the tracks).Hot Wheels' use of wide, hard-plastic tires created much less friction and tracked more smoothly than the narrow metal or plastic wheels used on contemporary Matchbox cars. Hot Wheels cars were designed to roll easily and at high speeds, which was a great innovation at the time. 1968 The Hot Wheels brand was a staggering success. The series completelydisrupted the industryfor smalldie-cast carmodels from 1968 onward, forcing the competition at Matchbox and elsewhere to completely rethink their concepts, and to scramble to try to recover lost ground. Harry Bentley Bradley did not think that would be the case and had quit Mattel to go back to the car industry. When the company asked him to come back, he recommended a good friend, Ira Gilford. Gilford, who had just leftChrysler, quickly accepted the job of designing the next Hot Wheels models. Some of Hot Wheels' greatest cars, such as theTwinMillandSplittin' Image, came from Ira Gilford's drawing board.The Twin Mill was introduced in 1969 and was used to create the company's first full-scale replica car in 2001. The success of the 1968 line was solidified and consolidated with the 1969 releases, with which Hot Wheels effectively established itself as the hottest brand of small toy car models in the USA.Splittin' Image,Torero,Turbofire, andTwin Millwere part of the \"Show & Go\" series and are the very first original in-house designs by Hot Wheels. The initial prototypes of theBeachBombwere faithful to the shape of a realVW Type 2 \"bus\", and had twosurfboardssticking out the back window, in a nod to the VW's perceived association with the surfing community and the slang term for a person who spends much time surfing—a \"beach bum\".During the fledgling Hot Wheels era, Mattel wanted to make sure that each of the cars could be used with any of the playsets and stunt track sets. Unfortunately, testing showed that this early version (now known among collectors as theRear-Loader Beach Bomb, or \"RLBB\") was too narrow to roll effectively on Hot Wheels track or be powered by the Super Charger, and was too top-heavy to negotiate high-speed corners. Hot Wheels designers Howard Rees and Larry Wood modified the casting, extending the side fenders to accommodate the track width, as well as providing a new place on the vehicle to store each of the plastic surfboards. The roof was also cut away and replaced by a full-lengthsunroof, to lower thecenter of gravity. Nicknamed theSide-loaderby collectors, this was the production version of the Beach Bomb. TheRear-Loader Beach Bombis widely considered the \"Holy Grail\", or ultimate pinnacle, of a serious Hot Wheels collection. An unknown number were made as test subjects and given to employees. A regular productionBeach Bombmay be worth up to $600, depending on condition. Market prices onRLBBshowever, have easily reached the five-figure plateau, ranging from $70,000 to $120,000.ThePetersen Automotive Museumin Los Angeles had a pinkRLBBin its Hot Wheels exhibit, displayed alone on a rotating platform under glass. The Hot Wheels Collectors Club released a new, updated version of theRear Loading Beach Bombin 2002 as alimited edition. 1970s 1970 was a very successful year for Hot Wheels, so Mattel came up with a newadvertising sloganfor the cars: \"Go With the Winner\".43 new cars appeared that year, including theSizzlersandHeavyweightslines. Howard Rees, who worked with Ira Gilford, was tired of designing cars. He wanted to work on theMajor Matt Masonaction figuretoy line-up. Rees had a good friend by the name of Larry Wood, whom he worked with atForddesigning cars. When Wood found out about Hot Wheels at a party Rees was holding, Rees offered him the job of designing Hot Wheels models. Wood accepted, and, by the end of the week, Wood was working at Mattel, where his first design was theTri-Baby. Larry Wood retired in 2019 after over 40 years of designing cars. Another designer, Paul Tam, joined Wood and Gilford. Tam's first design was theWhip Creamer.Tam continued to work for Mattel until 1973. Among the many fantastic designs Tam thought up for Hot Wheels, some of the collector's favorites includeEvil Weevil(aVolkswagen Beetlewith two engines),Open Fire(anAMC Gremlinwith six wheels),Six Shooter(another six-wheeled car), and the rareDouble Header(co-designed with Larry Wood). The year 1970 introduced \"the Snakeandthe Mongoose\", a manufactured 'rivalry' between two professionaldrag racerscalling themselves \"the Snake\" and \"theMongoose\" for the purposes of publicity. This was notably drag racing's first major non-automotivecorporate sponsor, and the beginning of theNHRA’s booming popularity with large-budget teams and championships. 1970 also introduced the first 'Silver Series', which contained three silver-painted models: theBoss Hoss, theHeavyChevy, and theKing 'Kuda, which were only obtainable through a mail-in offer that included a membership to the Hot Wheels Club. These three cars featured \"supercharged\" engines (featuring largeRoots blowers) without hoods, and openexhaust headers, after the style of drag racing cars of the era. Popular among children, these 'Silver Cars' were considered faster than the rest of the Hot Wheels lineup, because they were supposedly heavier than the other gravity models, but the accuracy of this claim has never been tested under scientific conditions. However, 1972 and 1973 were slow years. Only seven new models were made in 1972. Of the 24 models appearing for 1973, only three were new models. Also the cars changed from Mattel's in-houseSpectraflamecolors to mostly drab, solidenamelcolors, which mainstream Hot Wheels cars still use today. Due to low sales, and the fact that the majority of thecastingswere not re-used in later years, the 1972-3 models are known to be very collectible. In 1974, Hot Wheels introduced its 'FlyingColors' line, and added flashy decals and\"tampo-printed\"paint designs which helped revitalize sales. As with the lower-friction wheels in 1968, this innovation was revolutionary in the industry, and—although far less effective in terms of sales impact than in 1968—was copied by the competition, who did not want to be outmaneuvered again by Mattel product strategists. In 1977, the 'Redline Wheel' was phased out, with the red lines no longer being printed on the wheels. This cut costs, but also reflected that the prototypical \"red line tires\" popular on high-speed-rated automotive tires during the era ofmuscle carsandPolyglastires were no longer popular. During this period, there was a trend away from wildhot rodsand fantastic cars, and a move to more realistic cars and trucks, like the competitor Matchbox. 1977–1988: The 'Blackwalls' era In 1981,Hot Oneswheels were introduced, which had gold-painted hubs, and claimed to have thinner axles for greater speed, along with additional suspension compliance that older production Hot Wheels lacked.Ultra Hot Wheelswere introduced in 1984, and looked something like the cast alloy wheels found on a 1980s-era high-trimRenault Fuegoor aMazda 626, with three parallel dark lines cutting diagonally across the flat chrome face of the wheel, all three broken in the center to form six individual shorter lines. These new \"Ultra Hots\" claimed further speed improvements. Hot Wheels started offering models based on 1980s-erasportsandeconomy cars, like thePontiac FieroorDodge Omni 024, in addition to their typical 'hot rod' andmuscle carstyle offerings. In 1983, a new style of wheel calledReal Riderswas introduced, which featured real rubber tires.Despite the fact that they were very popular, the Real Riders line was short-lived, because of high production costs. In the late 1980s, the so-calledBlueCardblister packcolor scheme was introduced, which would become the basis of Hot Wheels colors still used today (original blister packs were red and yellow). Two other innovations were introduced briefly in Hot Wheels cars in the 1980s –Thermal Color Changepaint, and rotating 'crash panel' vehicles (\"Crack-Ups\"). The former was able to change color on exposure to hot or cold water, and there was an initial release of 20 different cars, available as sets of three vehicles. The latter were vehicles with a panel that, on contact, would rotate to reveal a reverse side that appeared to be heavily dented. Variations in crash panels included front, rear and side panels, the last of whose mechanism has proven to be the most durable. In the 1980s, Hot Wheels had gotten into a controversy withGeneral Motors'Chevrolet Motors Division. In 1982, theChevrolet Corvettehad ended the curvaceous \"Mako Shark\" body style that had been in production for almost 15 years, and GM announced that the Corvette would be redesigned. In 1983, Chevrolet started to produce the all-newC4 Corvettebut had assembly line problems which pushed production back 6 months causing GM's Marketing Department to label all 1983s as 1984s once they got production perfected so it would seem to the public that the all-new C4 Corvette came out early rather than late. But Hot Wheels saw what the new model of Corvette was going to look like before GM's official unveiling, and they designed a die-cast version of the 1984 Corvette. GM was angered and almost pulled its licensing with Mattel, but this controversy helped Corvette enthusiasts see what the new Corvette was going to look like. The 1984 Corvette production ran for 1.5 model years covering half of the remaining 1983 model year and ending on time for the 1985 model year. In conjunction withEpyxSoftware, Mattel released acomputer gameedition of Hot Wheels for various8-bitplatformsin 1985, as part of the Computer Activity Toys series. 1989–1994: The collector number era In 1989, Mattel released collector numbers. Each car had its own number.The cards were all blue, for all blister packs released from 1989 to 1994. Numbers included went as high as 274; however, these were skip numbered, and numbers such as 48, 61, and 173 were not used. 1995–1999: The Treasure Hunt era The year 1995 brought a major change to the Hot Wheels line, where the cars were split up into series. One was the 1995 Model Series, which included all of that year's new castings. In 1996, the Model Series was renamed to First Editions. 1995 also saw the introduction of theTreasure Hunt Series(see below). The rest of the series included four cars with paint schemes that followed a theme. For example, thePearl Drivercars all hadpearlescentpaint. Sales for the series models soared with another program also introduced that year called theBonusCarprogram, causing stores across the nation to have shortages. Purchasing the four car sets and sending in the packaging backs plus a handling fee gave you the opportunity to collect the bonus cars, 1 each released for each quarter of the year starting in 1996 through at least 2000. Several new wheel designs were also introduced in the 1990s. Mattel bought Tyco Toys in 1997. Along with the purchase came the company's old competitor Matchbox. Arguably the two dominant companies in matchbox-sized cars were now under one roof. In 1998, Mattel celebrated the 30th anniversary of the Hot Wheels brand by replicating various cars and individual packaging from its 30-year history and packaging these replicated vehicles in special 30th Anniversary boxes. In 1999, Hot Wheels Interactive was launched. 2000s A new generation of Hot Wheels Designers came in. Eric Tscherne and Fraser Campbell along with former designer Paul Tam's son, Alec Tam, joined the design team. Tscherne'sSeared Tuner(formerlySho-Stopper) graced the mainline packaging from 2000 to 2003. TheDeora II, one of only two Hot Wheels concept cars ever made into full-size, functional cars, was also released this year. In 2001, Mattel created a Hot Wheels collectors website. Also in 2001, Mattel issued 240 mainline releases consisting of 12Treasure Hunts, 36First Editions, 12Segment Serieswith four cars each, and 144 open stock cars. Popular models that debuted include theHyperMiteandFrightBike. For 2002, the mainline consisted of 12Treasure Hunts, 42First Editions, 15Segment Seriesof 4 cars each, and 126 open stock cars. Popular new models included the `68Cougarand theNissan Skyline GT-R. Some cars from the first editions series are theBackdraft,Overbored454, andSuper Tsunami. 2003 Hot Wheels celebrated its 35th anniversary with a full-length animated film calledHot Wheels Highway 35 World Race. This movie tied into theHighway 35line of cars that featured 35 classic Hot Wheels cars with special graphics and co-molded wheels. 2004 In 2004, Hot Wheels unveiled its \"Hot 100\" line of 100 new models. These included mostly short-lived lines of cartoonish vehicles such as'Tooned(vehicles based on the largerHotTunerzline of Hot Wheels created by Eric Tscherne),Blings(boxy bodies and big wheels),Hardnoze(enlarged fronts),Crooze(stretched out bodies), andFatbax(super-wide rear wheels and short bodies).Fatbaxmodels included vehicles such as theToyota SupraandCorvette C6. These vehicles did not sell as well as Mattel expected, and many could still be found in stores throughout 2005. Mattel also released 2004First Editionscars with unpaintedZamacbodies. They were sold throughToys 'R' Usand were made in limited numbers. 2005 and 2006 In 2005, Hot Wheels continued with new \"extreme\" castings for the 2nd year, debuting theTorpedoesline (skinny bodies and outboard wheels) andDrop Tops(flattened rooflines and wheel arches that extend above the car's roofline), in addition to 20 \"Realistix\" models. The rest of the line included the standard 12Treasure Hunts, 10Track Aces, 50Segment SeriesCars, and 50Open Stock Models. FourVolkswagen\"MysteryCars\" were offered as a special mail-in promo. EachMysteryCarcame with a special voucher. Upon collection of all 4 vouchers, one was able to send away for a special 13thTreasureHunt, aVW Drag Bus. Hot Wheels also unveiled its new \"Faster than Ever\" line of cars, which had specialnickel-platedaxles, along with bronze-coloredOpen-Hole 5 Spokewheels. These adjustments supposedly reducefrictiondramatically, resulting in cars that are called the \"Faster than Ever\" series. The first run of these cars were available for a limited time only, from the beginning of October towards the end of November 2005. Also, a continuation of the movieHighway 35calledHot Wheels AcceleRacerswas created, taking place two years after the events ofHighway 35. It is featured in four movies and many short segments where the drivers (old ones, gangs, like Teku, Metal Maniacs, the evil Racing Drones, and the stealthy Silencerz). All of the shorts and previews of the movies were placed on a temporary website that was deleted shortly after the last movie. 2006 was the final year of the First Editions series consisting of 38 cars for that year including aToyota AE86, 2006Honda Civic Si,Plymouth Superbirdand 2007Cadillac Escaladealongside with fantasy models like theNerve Hammer,Pharodox,Semi-Psychoas well as the fan-favouriteBone Shaker, Larry Wood's most popular design to date. 2007 and 2008 In 2007, Mattel released 36New Models(formerlyFirst Editions), 12Treasure Hunts(with a hard-to-find regular version and even rarer \"Super Treasure Hunt\" version of each with rubberReal Ridertires and Spectraflame paint),12 'Teams' of 4 cars each (formerlySegment Series), 24CodeCars(codes imprinted inside the packaging that can be used to unlock web content), 12Track Stars(formerlyTrack Aces), 24Mystery Cars(packaged on a card with an opaque blister, so the buyer cannot see which car is inside without opening it), and 24All-Stars(formerlyOpen Stock). In late 2006, a new package design for 2007 was released. Some 2006 cars and all 2007 cars are packaged on a blister card with the new design. Hot Wheels released a series calledModifighters, which are similar toTransformersexcept for the fact that they were originally cars and were modified into robots. TheModifightersnames are: Streetwyse, Skullface, Live Wire, Bedlam, Nightlife, Mr. Big, and Quick-Tyme. In 2008, all the series and vehicles were relatively similar to 2007's cars. Approximately 180 to 200 new vehicles were released. 2009 and 2010 In 2009, Mattel released 42New Models, 12Treasure Hunts, 12Track Stars, 24Mystery Cars, 10Segment Seriesof 10 cars, and introduced theIndy Car Seriesdrivers. Mattel released its first-ever animated episodictelevision seriescalledHot Wheels Battle Force 5, which was a co-production between Canadian animation giantsNelvanaandWildBrain. The US version of the series debuted onCartoon Networkon August 29, 2009.. 2011 2011 saw the release of 244 cars beginning with the 2011 New Car Series which includes theLamborghini Gallardo LP570-4 Superleggera, Custom2011 Camaro, and theDeLorean time machinefrom theBack to the Future series. This was followed by the 15-carTreasure Huntseries with1957 Chevyand1958 Chevy Impala, 15Track Starsincluding the 2010Formula Streetseries, the10x10series, theThrill Racersseries, and 22HW Video Game Heroeswhich were packaged with codes for an internet computer game. The new series \"Team Hot Wheels\" appear in late 2011. 2012 2012 saw the release of 247 cars, beginning with the 2012New Car Serieswhich includes theLamborghini Aventador,Ford Mustang Boss 302 Laguna Seca,KITTfromKnight Rider, and the ever-popularScooby-DooMystery Machine. 2012 also saw the release of two vehicles from theAngry Birdsvideo game franchise, consisting of the Red Bird and the green Minion Pig. 2013 2013 saw the release of 250 cars includingStunt,Racing,Imagination,City, andShowroom, all of which contain sub-series. 2013 also saw a change in the look of the packaging cards which includes a quartet of helmetedmotorcycleriders standing behind the flame logo and theTreasure Huntseries cards no longer marked with atreasure chest. Some of those cars includeRodzilla,Fangula,Twin Mill III(3),BoneShakerandBajaBoneShaker. General Motors also released a specialChevrolet Camaro Hot Wheels Edition, which was a blueconvertiblethat offered various Hot-Wheels-themed decorations throughout the car. 2014 2014 saw 250 mainstream cars released with similar segments to 2013. Variousplaysetsand other non-car merchandise were also released this year. 2014 also marked the end of the license agreement between Mattel andFerrari, meaning the 2014 release ofFerrari 5 Packwould be the last for Mattel, and the 2015 blackFerrari 599XXwas the last Ferrari model appearing in mainstream, both regular model and its Treasure Hunt variant. 2016 2016 lineup was similar to 2015 and 2014 in terms of segments, and the design of the card was overhauled. Some car names were TBD (To Be Determined) or 2016 (Coming Soon). They're now divided into mini collections with their corresponding segments and their icons printed on the card. Some of them includeHW Showroom,BMW(100th anniversary of BMW),HW Screen Time(Cars and characters seen on television, video games, and movies), andHWSnowStormers. New models include theCruiseBruiser,SideRipper,GrassChomper, and the'16 Acura NSX, while other models first see their release in the mainline series, such as the'52Hudson Hornet. 2017–present 2017 saw a major change in casting numbering. Since that moment, recolors are named with a different number than the original, thus causing the number limit of cars to expand to 365. The idea of numbering a casting with a number corresponding to their own series was also aborted. There were also some new mainline series introduced, such asExperimotors(cars with moving parts, or a secondary purpose),Holiday Racers(cars that have a holiday based theme),Factory Fresh(a series including newer, sometimes older castings with fabric painting) andCamaro Fifty(a series dedicated to theChevrolet Camaro, and its 50th anniversary). In 2018, Hot Wheels celebrated its 50th anniversary. The style of the blister cards were changed again, depicting a city in the background of the car, thus emulating a \"Hot Wheels City\" theme. For that year, each blister card had a 50th Anniversary logo. Hot Wheels also launched several collector-focused lines for that year, includingFavorites, which was a series that consisted of 11 highly detailed vehicles (which were based on real cars), all with metal bodies and rubber tires. For this year, Hot Wheels also launched adisplay case, which could hold up to 48 cars, and could either stand up on its own (via attachable \"feet\") or be mounted on a wall. Each display case came with an exclusive car. On October 4, 2018, Hot Wheels filed a new trademark for the mottoit's not the same without the flame. In 2019, a seal was added in the bottom left corner of the blister card with the motto. On February 18, 2021, the Hot Wheels Mars Perseverance Rover was released; a die-cast scale model latest vehicle in its Space mini-collections inspired by theNASA-launchedPerseverance rover. Hot Wheels designer Ryu Asada died on March 23, 2021, at age 42, after years of suffering from cancer.That same year, Hot Wheels began a partnership withMilestone S.r.l.to release their first game,Hot Wheels Unleashed, in which came out on September 30, 2021. On March 7, 2023,NBCordered a reality competition series known asHot Wheels: Ultimate ChallengewithRutledge Woodas hostwhich premiered on May 30. On September 28, 2023,NetflixannouncedHot Wheels Let's Race, a new animated series adaptationwhich premiered on March 4, 2024. On October 9, 2024,Formula Oneannounced a new multi-year partnership with Hot Wheels. The partnership starts in 2024 with the release of a one-of-a-kind F1 car, before the full Hot Wheels range – featuring teams’ cars and products – is released in 2025. Hot Wheels Legends Tour Starting in 2018, Hot Wheels launched a new program called theHot Wheels Legends Tour. This program was originally launched to commemorate Hot Wheels's 50th anniversary. Each year, there are 18 Legends Tour events that are held at variousWalmartlocations across the United States. Over 111,000 people attend and about 5,000 cars are entered at those events. At each event, one car is picked to be recreated as a potential new Hot Wheels casting. After all the events for that year conclude, one finalist is then picked to be the winner, and their car then gets recreated as a new Hot Wheels casting next year. Hot Wheels are looking for vehicles that embody the fun and creative spirit of Hot Wheels, which is their main selling point. Hot Wheels Legends Tour winners \"Sweet 16\" line TheSweet 16was the first production line of Hot Wheels for the year 1968. The lineup consisted of the following: Collectables Through the years, Hot Wheels cars have been collected mostly by children. However, since the late 1990s, there has been an increase in the number of adult collectors. Mattel estimates that 41 million children grew up playing with the toys, the average collector has over 1,550 cars, and children between the ages of 5 and 15 have an average of 41 cars. Most believe the collecting craze started with theTreasureHuntsin 1995. Mike Strauss has been called the father of Hot Wheels collecting; he has organized two collectors' events each year in some form since 1986. The first event was the Annual Hot Wheels Collectors Convention, normally held each year in the fall. The convention occurred in various locations around the country until 2001, when the first Annual Hot Wheels Collectors Nationals was put together. Since then, the Conventions are held each year in southern California. The Hot Wheels Collectors Nationals rotate among cities outside of California during the spring. Strauss has also published the quarterly Hot Wheels Newsletter since 1986 and was one of the first to unite collectors all over the world. He also writesTomart's Price Guide To Hot Wheels, a book listing history, car descriptions and values, which is used by almost every collector to learn more about the hobby and their collection. Strauss sold his collection in 2011 and retired from the Hot Wheels Newsletter. There are hundreds, perhaps even thousands, of web pages dedicated to Hot Wheels collecting. Collectors are seeking everything related to Hot Wheels, from only new castings to only Red Lines and everything in between. For the most part, it is a relatively inexpensive hobby, when compared withcoin collecting,stamp collectingorBarbiecollecting, with mainline cars costing about $0.97-$1.08 (USD) at retail. The price has not changed much in almost 40 years, although in real terms the models have dropped significantly in price (a Hot Wheels car cost $0.98 in 1968 and costs $0.98 today, in spite of inflation). After the cars are no longer available at retail the cost can vary significantly. A common car may sell for less than retail, while some of the more difficult cars can sell for many hundred or even thousands of dollars. The highest price paid for a Hot Wheels car was close to $70,000 in 2000 for a pre-production version of aVolkswagen Rear Loader Beach Bomb(the asking price was $72,000). The Beach Bomb is a VW microbus with a pair of surfboards poking out the rear window. This design failed initial testing, proving to be top-heavy and not functional with the Power Booster track accessory. A widened version with the surfboards mounted in side slots was designed and released for the 1969 model year, making the \"rear loader\" version a rarity and very sought-after piece. As of 2018, there are about 50 \"rear loaders\" known to exist. Dates on cars The date on the base of a Hot Wheels car (Example: ©2008 Mattel) is the copyright date for the casting of the car, not a production date or release year. The date is usually the year before the car was first released, but not always. For example, a car in the 2001 First Editions series called Evil Twin, was released in 2001 but the year dated on the bottom of the car is 2000. Sometimes, the copyright will be the same year as the casting's first release. This usually happens with cars released toward the end of a model year. There are a few cases where the copyright is several years before a car's first release. The copyright date will usually not change through the lifetime of a casting. For example, the Twin Mill, first released in 1969, still had a 1969 copyright date on the 2019 mainline releases of the car. If the tooling for a car has a major change at some point in its life, the copyright date might be changed or amended to reflect the change. For example, Quick Bite, first released in 1984 as the Good Humor Truck, had a tooling update before 2018, so its date reads 1983, '17 on the base of the 2018 release. There are a few exceptions where the copyright date applies only to the base of a car instead of to the entire car. Those exceptions are mostly funny car castings where the same base was used with various different bodies over the years. Since the year 2008, Hot Wheels cars have had a code stamped or printed on the base. This is a \"base code\". This base code can be used to identify exactly when an individual car was produced in the Hot Wheels factory. The code begins with a letter, followed by a two-digit number. The letter for the year 2018 was \"L\". The letter is then followed by two numbers, which represent the week of that particular year the car was manufactured. For example, a car with the date stamp of \"L42\" was produced on the forty-second week of 2018. Some cars have 4-digit date codes on the base. These date codes are more specific than the 3-digit codes as they indicate the day a car was made instead of just the week. For the 4-digit codes, the first 3 digits indicate the day of the year and the last digit is the year. A date code of 1987 would indicate the car was made on the 198th day of 2017 (July 17). A code of 0250 would be the 25th day of 2010 (or 2020; depending on the car). Date codes only indicate when a specific car was made. They do not necessarily reflect the model release year of a particular car. Mainline production changes to the next model year right around the middle of the calendar year at the end of June/beginning of July. Premiums and other special series lines often run later in the calendar year before changing production to the next year. Hot Wheels Classics TheHotWheelsClassicsline was an immediate hit with enthusiasts everywhere. The new line focused onmuscle cars,hot rods, and other offbeat vehicles (such as a go-kart, a motor home and even an airplane), many from the company's first ten years (1968–78) of production. The series is also used to debut several different castings, such as the1965 Chevy Malibuor the1972 Ford Ranchero. Series 1 from 2005 consisted of 25 models, each with all-metal body and chassis, decked out with Spectraflame paint, in packages similar to those used from 1968 to 1972. Each car had a retail price of about three to four dollars (USD) and each of the 25 cars were released with 7 or 8 different colors. Models included the1957 Chevy Bel Air(pictured at the right), the1963 Ford T-Bird, and the1965 Pontiac GTO. There were also track sets in similar retro packaging, and1:18 scaleHot Wheels Classics. The Classics version of thePurplePassionwas released withReal Riderstires atSan Diego Comic-Con. Mattel also produced aClassicsOlds 442in Spectraflame blue for the 2005 Toy Fair. In late 2005, Series 2 now consisted of 30 models including the1967 Camaro Convertible, the1969 Dodge Charger, and a1965 Mustang GT. There was also supposed to be a separateMustang Funny Car(as listed on the blisterpack rear checklist) but this was apparently changed to aPlymouth Barracuda Funny Carduring production. In 2006, a Series 3 line of Classics was introduced, again containing 30 models with multiple colors of each vehicle. Models included the'69 Pontiac Firebird, aMeyers Manxdune buggy, and theRichard Petty'70 Plymouth \"Superbird\". In 2007, Series 4 debuted with just fifteen models. However, in recognition of the 40th anniversary there were two packaging versions available - models came with a collectible metal badge (featuring a portrait of the involved vehicle) or were sold alone as in the previous three series. Models included aVW Karmann Ghia, a'68 Mercury Cougar, and the\"Red Baron\" hot rod. For its 40th anniversary in 2008, Hot Wheels celebrated the making of its four billionth car with the production of a diamond-studded model worth US$140,000. It had 2,700 diamond chips, a total of almost 23karats, and was cast inwhite gold, withrubiesserving as taillights. In 2009, Series 5 has 30 models. For the first time, there are chase cars in the classics series. These cars featureRealRidersrubber tires. A few models included areCopper Stopper,1970 Pontiac GTO, andHammerSled. Special model lines Hot Wheels has also released slightly larger, more detailed models, such as the originalGranToros(1/43 scale) from 1970, and theDropstarsline (a model line of \"blinged\" cars). Also in this larger scale are theHIN(Hot Import Nights),G-MachinesandCustomslines. These lines were introduced in 2004–2005. Hot Wheels has produced many replicascale modelsin the industry standard 1/43, 1/24 and 1/18 scales. In 2004, it released a 1/12 scale replica of theC6 Corvette. Hot Wheels also in the early 1990s introduced a series known as the California Customs. A line of cars that had a California theme. Other lines from Hot Wheels include:R-R-Rumblers & Chopcycles(motorcycles introduced in 1971),Hotbirds(metal airplanes),Sizzlers,XV Racers,Hot TunerzandStockerz. Over the years, Mattel has also teamed up with other retail organizations to produce special models available through those retailers. The list of retailers includesAvon,Chuck E. Cheese, Dinty Moore,FAO Schwarz, Full Grid,General Mills,Getty, HEB, Hills,Hormel, Hughes Family Markets,JC Penney,JC Whitney,Kay-Bee Toys,K-Mart,Kellogg's,Kool-Aid,Kroger,Lexmark, Liberty Promotions (contracted the series of special models forJiffy LubeandPenske),Little Debbie Snacks,Malt-O-Meal,McDonald's,Mervyn's,Otter Pops,Rose's Discount Stores,Shell,Target,Tony's Pizza,Toys \"R\" Us,Union 76,Valvoline,Van de Kamp's,Walmart, and White's Guide to Collecting, as well as severalMajor League Baseballfranchises to name a few. In 2016, Hot Wheels released a special collection for the 50th anniversary of theBeatles’ 1966 song “Yellow Submarine.” The collections includes five cars, aVW microbusand a yellow submarine. Made by other companies In some cases, Hot Wheels dies have been sold or acquired by other companies once Mattel has finished using them. One example were early dies that made their way to Argentina and were reproduced asMukys, though not with spectra-flame paints or the same quality as seen in Mattel's products. Hot Wheels Elite and Hot Wheels Mattel Hot Wheels have a series namedHot Wheels EliteandHot Wheels Mattel. TheEliteHot Wheels are 1:18, 1:43 and 1:50 highly detaileddiecast; the majority of them being based onFerraris. They are more expensive than theMattelmodels which aren't as highly detailed. TheEliteversions are licensed byFerrari. The Hot WheelsEliteseries have a \"mini\" series which can be seen on the website. Two of the popular limited 1:18 Hot WheelsEliteseries' are theFerrari in MusicandCult Classics. The music series features singers' and rappers' Ferraris, includingJamiroquai'sJay Kay'sBlackEnzo Ferrari. Car Culture In 2016, Hot Wheels started a new line of Collector's models, in a line calledCar Culture. Car Culture is Hot Wheels' line of Premium 1:64 models with metal bodies and bases, two-piece wheels with rubber tires, and more detailed decorations. Intended for adult collectors primarily, these models retail for roughly 6-7 times the cost of a mainstream 1:64 Hot Wheels model. These cars retail for over three times the retail price of a \"basic\" car, and are produced in significantly fewer numbers. This line debuted with the release of \"Japan Historics\", a set of five Japanesesports cars. Every year at least four more sets are introduced. AllCar Culturesets have five cars, and often have new castings created for the sets. The number five spot in the set is usually reserved for the newest casting in the set.Car Culturecars are typically based on real automobiles; however in 2018, Hot Wheels introduced a set called \"TeamTransport\", which included some fantasy truck castings. The fact that some of the trucks are unlicensed allows the castings to be universally used in anyTeam Transportset regardless of theme (for example, a Chevrolet-branded truck would not make sense in a Ford-themed set). Although \"TeamTransport\" is labeled under theCar Cultureline, they are a separate category ofCar Culturevehicles than the usual 5-car sets, possessing differentbarcodesand prices. In 2018, for Hot Wheels' 50th Anniversary, Car Culture card sizes were increased, along with the amount of decorations on the cars. A Hot Wheels \"50th anniversary\" logo was also placed beside the set's name on the packaging. Treasure Huntseries TreasureHunt(sometimesT-Hunt) is a line of Hot Wheels cars, introduced byMattelin 1995. It consisted of 12 cars every year (15 beginning in 2011) with one or two released per month. The original production run was 10,000 of each car worldwide; that number has since risen due to the increasing demand for and popularity of Hot Wheels as a collector's item. Treasure Hunt vehicles are identifiable by a label on the package. The blister card said \"TreasureHunt\" or \"T-Hunt\" on a green bar, sometimes with an illustration of atreasure chest. Since 2013,TreasureHuntsdo not have the green stripe anymore; instead, the cars are recognizable with a \"flame in a circle logo\" on the vehicle and behind it on the card. The cars were decorated with flashy designs and special \"rubber\" wheels before 2007. In 2007, Mattel introduced a two-tieredTreasure Huntsystem. A regularTreasure Huntwill feature normal enamel paint and normal wheels like other Hot Wheels cars. The production of these is rumored to be greater than previous T-Hunts.\"Super\" Treasure Huntsare much harder to find. LikeTreasureHuntsof the past, aSuper Treasure Huntfeatures premium wheels and Spectraflame paint, as well as (starting in 2015), a golden-colored circle-flame logo printed on the card behind the car. Many Hot Wheels collectors have noticed in recent times that the US Basic mixes are more likely to have aSuper Treasure Huntin them compared to International Mixes. Before 2013, all 12Treasure Huntcars of a year were released in both regular and super versions. In 2012,Super Treasure Huntscame with special paint and wheels, but with series designation on the card. However, the regularT-huntsretained a specialT-Huntseries card. Mattel stopped using special cards for allTreasureHuntsin 2013. Some U.S. releases in 2014 had the phrase \"This symbol on the vehicle lets you know it is hard to find and highly collectible\". However, in 2016, this was changed to \"Congratulations! This symbol means you just found a collectable treasure-hunt car!\". This would be under a silver flame logo on the card forT-Hunts. In 2015, Supers featured a gold logo on the card. Generally, Hot Wheels has targeted both kids and adults with theT-Huntseries, focusing more on the adult collecting market with Supers. Live-action film adaptation On January 30, 2003,Columbia Picturesannounced they had gained exclusive rights to developing a feature film based on the toy lineHot WheelswithMcGattached to direct.Although unwritten, the premise involved a young man \"trying to reconcile with his father. It's a kid who steals his dad's racecar and ends up going through a sort ofBack to the Futureportal into this world, and he has to reconcile his relationship with his father.\" In 2006, McG said that he dropped out as director and chose to produce instead.The film was to be produced byColumbia Pictures,Flying Glass of Milk FilmsandSilver Pictures, under license toMattel. In 2009, with no recent developments, the film was put intoturnaround, and the rights were handed over toWarner Bros. Pictures.Joel Silvertook over producing withMatt Nixwriting the script. On June 17, 2011, it was announced thatLegendary Pictureswas developing a film based on Hot Wheels due to the success ofFast Fiveby developing an edgier film.On July 10, 2013,Simon CraneandJuan Carlos Fresnadillowere named as the frontrunners to direct the film, withArt Marcum and Matt Hollowaywriting the film, intended to be moreMission: ImpossiblethanThe Fast and the Furious.On September 28, 2016,Justin Linsigned on to direct the film, which will be produced through his production company Perfect Storm Entertainment.On August 1, 2017, Lin revealed that the film was still in development.It was speculated that the film would be released as an animated direct sequel to 2003'sHot Wheels: World Raceand will be receive additional animation development fromPlayground Gameswho collaborated with Mattel in 2017 to create theForza Horizon 3: Hot Wheelsvideo game.However the option expired and returned to Mattel. In late January 2019,Mattel Filmsand Warner Bros. Pictures agreed to partner on a Hot Wheels film. It was announced on September 25, 2020, byThe Hollywood Reporterthat Warner Bros. has hired Neil Widener and Gavin James to write the film. On April 25, 2022, it was announced thatBad Robotwill produce the film.On January 23, 2023, Dalton Leeb and Nicholas Jacobson-Larson were announced to write the film. Sizzlers TheSizzlerswere a 1970s Hot Wheels spin off with a built-in motor and a tiny rechargeable battery. (TheX-V racersof the 1990s were similar.) They were introduced in 1970 and became immediately popular.Sizzlersrun on the regular \"orange\" Hot Wheels track, and Mattel created special race sets with U-Turns, multi-level spirals and loops to take advantage of the cars' electric motor. Two lane race sets such as the California/8 race set were developed that allowedSizzlersto race side-by side, until Mattel created the blackFat Trackwhich is three lanes wide with steep banked curves and designed to allowSizzlersto run free. In action, Sizzlers supposedly display a unique, competitive \"passing action\" when running on theFat Track, as if each car were piloted by an impatient driver trying to jockey ahead of the rest. TheFat Tracksets included the \"Big O\", \"California 500\", and \"Super Circuit\" race sets, and accessories such as the \"Scramble Start\" (a four-car starting gate), \"Lap Computer\" four car lap counter, and \"Race-Timer\" stop watch. Six cars were made in 1970, 12 cars were made in 1971, and 4 cars were made in 1972. The\"Fat Daddy\" Sizzlers(oversized bodies with huge tires) were introduced in 1973. Mattel put the Sizzlers on a hiatus after that year, and in 1976 they createdSizzlers II. That next year, theNight Ridin' Sizzlers(which had headlights you could turn on or off) were created. Mattel permanently stoppedSizzlersproduction in 1978. They were replaced by another spin off namedScorchers. TheScorcherswere\"pull back\" carswhich wound a clock spring when pulled backwards a short distance, which then propelled them forward for several feet. Sizzlersare charged with four or twoD batterychargers called theJuice MachineandGoose Pumprespectively. Later, thePower Pitwas introduced—which was an electric charger that plugged into any householdACoutlet and resembled a race track garage orpit stop. A 90-second charge of the tiny internalNiCadbattery gives up to five minutes of useful run time. It was claimed by advertisers that the 90-second charge time was \"the longest minute and a half in a kid's life\" as they waited impatiently for the car to charge sufficiently to get back into the race. TheSizzlerelectric technology spun off into theHotline Trains, which ran on track similar to regular Hot Wheels, and theEarthshakersconstruction vehicles. Both lines of vehicles were charged using theSizzler Juice MachineorPower Pit. In the 1990s, Mattel's trademark on the \"Sizzlers\" name had lapsed and toy companyPlaying Mantisreleased a new Sizzlers line based aroundNASCARstock carmodels and copied theFat Trackas the \"Stocker 400\" and \"Mach 500\" track sets to capitalize on the booming popularity of NASCAR in that decade. TheJuice Machinewas renamed the \"Mega-Charger\" and incorporated a more efficient \"trickle charge\" rather than the \"dump charge\" of the original machines. Interest in the toys began to increase once again. They were taken off the market after Mattel filed a lawsuit against Playing Mantis. However,Sizzlersreturned again in 2006, when Mattel struck an exclusive deal withTargetstores to re-releaseSizzlerscars, the \"Big O\" Fat track, Juice Machine and car carrying case—all in the original packaging from the 1970s. As of January 2009, the Sizzlers line has been discontinued by Target. In 2011,Sizzlershave been re-released asCars 2characters, and were sold at Target stores. This line was calledCharge Upsand released under the Mattelbrand namebut not as part of the Hot Wheels line. Promotion and sponsorships Hot Wheels appeared in the 2016Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. Motorsports Starting in 1970, professional drag racersDon Prudhomme(\"The Snake\") andTom McEwen(\"The Mongoose\") were sponsored by Hot Wheels, and later on, Hot Wheels created theSnake and Mongoose Drag Setin 1970. Later somewhere in 1972, the second versions of both driver's self-titledfunny carswere released, when McEwen had theMongoose 2, and Prudhomme had theSnake 2. The drag set remained the same. Then, Hot Wheels maderail-typedragster versions of them, based on the actual funny cars and was featured in theWild Wheelie Set. Later in Hot Wheels' lifespan, the normal drag set with Snake and Mongoose were still being produced. The latest set with the Snake and Mongoose is in theDrag-Strip Demonslineup. In 1970, Hot Wheels sponsoredTrans-Am SeriesdriverDan Gurneyand hisAll American Racerscar.In 1992, Hot Wheels sponsored the Trans-Am car ofJack Baldwinas he went on to win that year's championship. Hot Wheels signed a sponsorship deal in 1997 withNASCARdriverKyle Pettyand the No. 44PE2 Motorsportscarand thus began making replicas of NASCAR stock cars. Three years later, Hot Wheels joined theCraftsman Truck Seriesteam ofCarlos Contrerasand the No. 12 truck.In 2004, Hot Wheels sponsored the No. 99 car ofJeff Burtonfor one race atDarlington Raceway.Six years later, the company returned to NASCAR to sponsor the No. 7JR Motorsportscar ofDanica PatrickatMichigan International Speedway.Hot Wheels made another one-off sponsorship in 2021 for NASCAR driverJade Buford's No. 48Big Machine Racing Teamcar atDarlington Raceway; Buford's paint scheme for the race was modeled after Gurney's Trans-Am car. In 1999, Hot Wheels partnered with fiveFormula Oneteams to manufacture scale model Formula One cars.In 2016, Hot Wheels opened theRace to Winexhibit atThe Children's Museum of Indianapolisto promote the100th Indianapolis 500. From 1999 to 2018, Hot Wheels had aMonster Jamlicense to release monster truck diecasts and field a Hot Wheels-themed truck in the real-life shows. The partnership ended in 2019 afterFeld Entertainmentsigned a new ten year toy licensing deal withSpin Masterfor Monster Jam,diecast production stopped and the Hot Wheels team retired. Soon after, Hot Wheels created the Hot Wheels Monster Trucks line and the Hot Wheels Monster Trucks Live show with the non-Monster Jam owned version of theBigfoottruck as a competitor. Monster Jam claimed this as a plagiarism, causing controversy. At the2002 24 Hours of Le Mans, Hot Wheels logos appeared on the sidepods of the pair of MG-Lola EX257 prototypes entered by MG Sport & Racing. Hot Wheels is a partner and sponsor of the Australian stunt riderMatt Mingay's Stuntz Inc team,and also sponsors him in theStadium Super Trucks.After Mingay suffered serious facial injuries at theDetroit Belle Isle Grand Prixin 2016,Robby Gordondrove the No. 2 Hot Wheels truck at theTownsville Street Circuit.Hot Wheels andCastrolreturned to support Mingay when he made his racing return in 2020. Video games Various video games based on Hot Wheels have been released for numerous consoles, PC's and mobile devices: Pinball A coin-operated pinball machine based on Hot Wheels cars and the Hot Wheels CityYouTubeseries was released by American Pinball in June 2020. See also References External links", "Ruth Handler Ruth Marianna Handler(néeMosko; November 4, 1916 – April 27, 2002) was an American business magnate and inventor. She is best known for inventing theBarbie dollin 1959,and being co-founder of toy manufacturerMattelwith her husbandElliot, as well as serving as the company's first president from 1945 to 1975. The Handlers were forced to resign from Mattel in 1975 after theSecurities and Exchange Commissioninvestigated the company for falsifying financial documents. Handler was prominently characterized in the 2023 filmBarbie. Early life Ruth Marianna Moskowas born on November 4, 1916 inDenver, Colorado, toPolish-Jewishimmigrants Jacob Moskowicz, a blacksmith, and Ida Moskowicz (née-Rubenstein).She was the youngest of ten children.When she was six months old, her parents sent her to live with her older sister Sarah. She stayed with Sarah until she was 19and developed an enthusiasm for business by working at Sarah’s drugstore/soda fountain. In 1932, Ruth fell in love with Izzy Handler,an art student. The summer of her sophomore year atUniversity of Denver, she went to Los Angeles and landed a job atParamount Studio. Ruth and Izzy married in 1938 in Denver. Returning to California, Ruth encouraged her husband to become known by his middle name, Elliot.Ruth returned to work at Paramount and Elliot was employed as a lighting fixture designer. Mattel Elliot became interested in furniture-making, and decided to make furniture from two plastics,LuciteandPlexiglas. At Ruth's suggestion, they started a furniture business where Ruth was in charge of sales, and she landed contracts with businesses such asDouglas Aircraft Company. Business executiveHarold \"Matt\" Matsonjoined the Handlers' company, which they renamed Mattel by combining \"Matson\" and \"Elliot\".(Elliot later said that they were unable to think of a way to include Ruth's name.)When sales fell during World War II, Mattel began making toy furniture. Its success spurred the company's transition to toy manufacturing. Barbie Observing her daughter Barbara and friends having fun with paper dolls and role-play adult scenarios, Ruth noticed a market void.Dolls available at that time were mainly babies and toddlers; no dolls were available that resembled adults. During a trip to Europe in 1956 with Barbara and her son Kenneth, Ruth came acrossBild Lilli,a German doll. In an interview with Mary G. Lord, author ofForever Barbie,Handler said that she saw the doll inLucerne, Switzerland. However, the book points out that on other occasions Handler said that she saw it inZürichorVienna. The adult-figured doll was exactly what Ruth had in mind. She purchased three, gave one to her daughter, and took the others to Mattel. The Lilli doll was based on a popular character in a satirical comic strip drawn by Reinhard Beuthin for the newspaperBild.The Lilli doll was first sold in 1955 in Germany, and although initially sold to adults, it became popular with children who enjoyed dressing it in outfits that were available separately. On return to the US, Handler redesigned the doll with help from local inventor-designerJack Ryan. She named the doll Barbie after her daughter Barbara, and said that Barbie was from Willows, Wisconsin. Premiering on March 9, 1959 at theAmerican International Toy Fairin New York City,the first Barbie doll cost $3 and was an instant hit.In its first year, 300,000 were sold. The Handlers and Mattel later added a boyfriend for Barbie, namedKenafter the Handlers' son.Eventually a huge range of Barbie dolls was released, portrayed with more than 125 careers,and Barbie became known for her versatility and fashion. The Handlers added cars, sports gear, clothes, and doll furniture to their Barbie products. Later years Handler was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1970. She had amodified radical mastectomy, which was often done at the time to combat the disease. She spent less time at Mattel to focus on improving her health. Her loss of self-esteem affected her leadership, and she lost control of her business. In a 1980 interview, she said: \"When I conceived Barbie, I believed it was important to a little girl’s self-esteem to play with a doll that breasts. Now I find it even more important to return that self-esteem to women who have lost theirs.” Due to difficulties in finding a good breast prosthesis, Handler decided to make her own. With the help of new business partner Peyton Massey, and under her new company, Ruthton Corp., she manufactured a more realistic version of a woman's breast called Nearly Me, aiming to boost women's confidence regardless of their health. The invention became quite popular;first ladyBetty Fordwas fitted for one after a mastectomy. Handler received various awards for her philanthropy and business activities. She was chosen Woman of the Year in Business by theLos Angeles Times, inducted into theToy Industry Hall of Fameby the Toy Manufacturers of America, received the Volunteer Achievement Award from theAmerican Cancer Society, and was the inaugural Woman of Distinction of theUnited Jewish Appeal. Following several investigations into fraudulent financial reports, Handler resigned from Mattel in 1975. Investigations continued, and she was charged with fraud and false reporting by theU.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. She pleadedno contestand was fined $57,000 (equivalent to $270,000 in 2023) and sentenced to 2,500 hours of community service. She blamed her illness for making her \"unfocused\" on her business. Handler died on April 27, 2002 in California from complications during surgery forcolon cancer. She was 85. In popular culture Handler is portrayed in the 2023 filmBarbieby actressRhea Perlman. In the film, the ghost of an elderly Handler resides in an office on the 17th floor of Mattel headquarters in Los Angeles. There she meets the movie's stereotypical Barbie (Margot Robbie). Later, while advising Barbie, Handler tells her about her creation and how it related to her daughter, Barbara. Barbie then takes the name \"Barbara Handler\" as her own. The film stirred a wave of media coverage of Handler. References Further reading External links", "Elliot Handler Elliot Handler(April 9, 1916 – July 21, 2011) was an American inventor, business magnate, and the co-founder ofMattel. With his wife,Ruth Handler, he developed some of the biggest-selling toys in American history, includingBarbie,Chatty Cathy,Creepy Crawlers, andHot Wheels. Early life Isadore \"Izzy\" Elliot Handler was born to aJewishfamily inChicago, Illinois, on April 9, 1916. Handler's parents wereUkrainianJews who largely spokeYiddishwithin their household. The family moved out of Chicago, and Handler grew up on the west side ofDenver, Colorado.He studiedindustrial designat theArt Center College of DesigninPasadena, California. In 1929, he met his future wifeRuth Moskoat aB'nai B'rithdance for teenagers.They dated on and off for years, and were married in June 1938. Shortly after their marriage, his new wife Ruth requested he change his name: partially due to her preferring his middle name \"Elliot\" over \"Izzy\", and partially from her fears ofAmerican antisemitismtoward an obviously Jewish name like Isadore. He complied. The couple had two children: Barbara, who was the namesake ofBarbiedolls; andKenneth, the namesake ofKendolls.While a struggling art student and designer of light fixtures, Handler partnered with Harold Matson to design a realistic-looking miniature piano that received roughly 300,000 orders; however, they mispriced the product and lost a dime on each one produced. Mattel Mattelreceived its name from business partnersHarold \"Matt\" MatsonandElliot Handler in 1945. Elliot's wife, Ruth, took Matson's role when the Handlers bought his share in the late 1940s. Handler holds credit for developing the first talking dollChatty Cathy,using apull stringtalking mechanism, revolutionizing the toy industry. Mattel continued to develop a number of talking toys, including Chatty Baby, Tiny Chatty Baby, andCharmin' Chatty. Toys were made for cartoon favorites such asBugs BunnyandPorky Pig, and for television characters such asHerman MunsterandMr. Ed. When Handler's daughter Barbara married Allan Segal, they created Allan, Ken's friend. The 1965 talking doll Baby Cheryl was named after the Handlers' first grandchild, and the Todd doll in the Barbie line was named after their grandson. Handler was primarily responsible for two additional Mattel product lines. In 1966, Mattel introduced smaller dolls calledLiddle Kiddles. Handler claimed he wanted them to resemble little children in neighborhoods across America. They were sculpted by doll artist Martha Armstrong-Hand. Kiddles were a great success and continued to be produced in different versions until the early 1970s. Another product line wasHot Wheels, introduced in 1968, which gave rise to 10,000 different models. First called Mattel Creations, the company has become the largest toy maker in the world in terms of revenue. In April 2006, Mattel honored Handler with a 90th birthday party at its headquarters inEl Segundo, California. Guests included his daughter Barbara Segal, the namesake of the Barbie doll. Personal life Handler died ofheart failureat home inCentury City, a district ofLos Angeles, California, at age 95 on July 21, 2011.Ruth Handler, Elliot's wife, died in 2002; their son Ken died in 1994. Notes References" ]
[ "Barbie Barbieis afashion dollcreated by American businesswomanRuth Handler, manufactured by American toy and entertainment companyMatteland introduced on March 9, 1959. The toy was based on the GermanBild Lillidoll which Handler had purchased while in Europe. The figurehead of an eponymous brand that includes a range of fashion dolls and accessories, Barbie has been an important part of the toyfashiondoll market for over six decades. Mattel has sold over a billion Barbie dolls, making it the company's largest and most profitable line.The brand has expanded intoa multimedia franchisesince 1984, including video games,animated films, television/web series, and alive-action film. Barbie and her male counterpart,Ken, have been described as the two most popular dolls in the world.Mattel generates a large portion of Barbie's revenue through relatedmerchandise—accessories, clothes, friends, and relatives of Barbie. Writing forJournal of Popular Culturein 1977, Don Richard Cox noted that Barbie has a significant", "has a significant impact on social values by conveying characteristics of female independence, and with her multitude of accessories, an idealized upscale lifestyle that can be shared with affluent friends. History Development Ruth Handlerwatched her daughter Barbara play with paper dolls, and noticed that she often enjoyed giving them adult roles. At the time, most children's toy dolls were representations of infants. Realizing that there could be a gap in the market, Handler suggested the idea of an adult-bodied doll to her husbandElliot, a co-founder of theMatteltoy company. He was unenthusiastic about the idea, as were Mattel's directors. During a trip to Switzerland in 1956 with her children Barbara andKenneth, Ruth Handler came across a German toy doll calledBild Lilli.The adult-figured doll was exactly what Handler had in mind, so she purchased three of them. She gave one to her daughter and took the others back to Mattel. The Lilli doll was based on a popular character appearing in a satiricalcomic", "in a satiricalcomic stripdrawn by Reinhard Beuthin for the newspaperBild.The Lilli doll was first sold inWest Germanyin 1955, and although it was initially sold to adults, it became popular with children who enjoyed dressing her up in outfits that were available separately. Upon her return to the United States, Handler redesigned the doll (with help from local inventor-designerJack Ryan) and the doll was given a new name,Barbie, after Handler's daughter Barbara. The doll made its debut at theAmerican International Toy FairinNew York Cityon March 9, 1959.This date is also used as Barbie's official birthday. Launch The first Barbie doll wore a black-and-white zebra striped swimsuit and signature topknotponytail, and was available as either ablondeorbrunette. The doll was marketed as a \"Teen-age Fashion Model\", with her clothes created by Mattel fashion designer Charlotte Johnson. Analysts expected the doll to perform poorly due to her adult appearance and widespread assumptions about consumer preferences at", "preferences at the time. Ruth Handler believed it was important for Barbie to have an adult appearance, but earlymarket researchshowed that some parents were unhappy about the doll's chest, which had distinct breasts. Barbie sold about 350,000 units in her first year, beating market expectations and generatingupside riskfor investors. Sales of BarbieexceededMattel's ability to produce her for the first three years of her run. The market stabilized for the next decade while volume and margin increased by exportingrefurbisheddolls toJapan. Barbie was manufactured in Japan during this time, with her clothes hand-stitched by Japanese homeworkers. Louis Marx and Companysued Mattel in March 1961. After licensing Lilli, they claimed that Mattel had \"infringed on Greiner & Hausser's patent for Bild-Lilli's hip joint\", and also claimed that Barbie was \"a direct take-off and copy\" of Bild-Lilli. The company additionally claimed that Mattel \"falsely and misleadingly represented itself as having originated the design\".", "the design\". Mattel counter-claimed and the case was settled out of court in 1963. In 1964, Mattel bought Greiner & Hausser's copyright and patent rights for the Bild-Lilli doll for $21,600. Barbie's appearance has been changed many times, most notably in 1971 when the doll's eyes were adjusted to look forwards rather than having the demure sideways glance of the original model. This would be the last adjustment Ruth would make to her own creation as, three years later, she and her husband Elliot were removed from their posts at Mattel after an investigation found them guilty of issuing false and misleading financial reports. Barbie was one of the first toys to have a marketing strategy based extensively on television advertising, which has been copied widely by other toys. In 2006, it was estimated that over a billion Barbie dolls had been sold worldwide in over 150 countries, with Mattel claiming that three Barbie dolls are sold every second. Sales of Barbie dolls declined sharply from 2014 to", "from 2014 to 2016.According toMarketWatch, the release of the 2023 filmBarbieis expected to create \"significant growth\" for the brand until at least 2030.As well as reinvigorated sales, the release of the film triggered a fashion trend known as \"Barbiecore\"and a film-related cultural phenomena namedBarbenheimer. Appearances in media Since 1984, in response to a rise ofdigitalandinteractive mediaand a gradual decline in toys and doll sales at that time, Barbie has been featured in an eponymousmedia franchisebeginning with the release of two eponymous video games,one that yearandanother in 1991and twosyndicatedtelevision specialsreleased in 1987;Barbie and the Rockers: Out of This Worldandits sequel. She then began to appear as avirtual actressina seriesofdirect-to-videoanimated feature films withBarbie in the Nutcrackerin 2001,which were also broadcast onNickelodeonin the United States as promotional specials until 2017.Since 2017, the film series were revamped asstreaming televisionfilms, branded as animated", "branded as animated \"specials\" and released throughstreaming mediaservices, primarily onNetflix. At the time of the release ofBarbie in the Pink Shoeson February 26, 2013, the film series have sold over 110 million units globally.Since 2012, she has appeared in severaltelevisionandweb series; includingBarbie: Life in the Dreamhouse,Barbie: Dreamtopia,Barbie: Dreamhouse Adventures,Barbie: It Takes TwoandBarbie: A Touch of Magic. Aside in lead roles, she has appeared as a supporting character in theToy Storyfilmsbetween itssecondandthird sequelswith a cameo at thefourthand theMy Scenemedia franchise.In 2015, Barbie began appearing as avloggeronYouTubecalledBarbie Vloggerwhere she talks about her fictional life, fashion,friends and family, and even charged topics such asmental healthandracism.She was portrayed by Australian actressMargot Robbieina live-action film adaptationreleased on July 21, 2023, byWarner Bros. Picturesin the United States. Fictional biography Barbie's full name isBarbara Millicent", "isBarbara Millicent Robertsand her parents' names are given as George and Margaret Roberts from the fictional town of Willows,Wisconsin, in a series of novels published byRandom Housein the 1960s.In those novels, Barbie attended Willows High School; while in theGeneration Girlbooks, published byGolden Booksin 1999, she attended the fictional Manhattan International High School in New York City (based on the real-lifeStuyvesant High School). She has an on-off romantic relationship with her then-boyfriendKen(full name \"Kenneth Sean Carson\"), who first appeared in 1961. Anews releasefrom Mattel in February 2004 announced that Barbie and Ken had decided to split up,but in February 2006, they were hoping to rekindle their relationship after Ken had a makeover.In 2011, Mattel launched a campaign for Ken to win Barbie's affections back.The pair officially reunited inValentine's Day2011.Beginning withBarbie Dreamhouse Adventuresin 2018, the pair are seen as just friends or next-door neighbors until a brief return to", "a brief return to pre-2018 aesthetics in the 2023 television show,Barbie: A Touch of Magic. Mattel has created a range of companions and relatives for Barbie. She has three younger sisters:Skipper,Stacie, andChelsea(named Kelly until 2011).Her sisters have co-starred in many entries of theBarbiefilm series, starting withBarbie & Her Sisters in A Pony Talefrom 2013. 'Retired' members of Barbie's family includedTodd(twin brother to Stacie),Krissy(a baby sister), andFrancie(cousin). Barbie's friends includeHispanicTeresa,Midge,African AmericanChristie, and Steven (Christie's boyfriend). Barbie was also friendly withBlaine, an Australian surfer, during her split with Ken in 2004. Barbie has had over 40 pets including cats and dogs, horses, apanda, a lion cub, and azebra. She has owned a wide range of vehicles, including pinkBeetleandCorvetteconvertibles, trailers, andJeeps. She also holds apilot's license, and operates commercial airliners in addition to serving as aflight attendant. Barbie'scareersare designed", "designed to show that women can take on a variety of roles in life, and the doll has been sold with a wide range of titles includingMiss Astronaut Barbie(1965),Doctor Barbie(1988), andNascar Barbie(1998). Legacy and influence Barbie has become acultural iconand has been given honors that are rare in the toy world. In 1974, a section ofTimes Squarein New York City was renamed Barbie Boulevard for a week. TheMusée des Arts Décoratifs, Parisat the Louvre held a Barbie exhibit in 2016. The exhibit featured 700 Barbie dolls over two floors as well as works by contemporary artists and documents (newspapers, photos, video) that contextualize Barbie. In 1986, the artistAndy Warholcreated a painting of Barbie. The painting sold at auction atChristie's, London for $1.1million. In 2015, The Andy Warhol Foundation then teamed up with Mattel to create an Andy Warhol Barbie. Outsider artistAl Carbeetook thousands of photographs of Barbie and created countless collages and dioramas featuring Barbie in various", "Barbie in various settings.Carbee was the subject of the 2013 feature-length documentaryMagical Universe. Carbee's collage art was presented in the 2016 Barbie exhibit at theMusée des Arts Décoratifs, Parisin the section about visuals artists who have been inspired by Barbie. In 2013, inTaiwan, the first Barbie-themed restaurant called \"Barbie Café\" opened under the Sinlaku group. TheEconomisthas emphasized the importance of Barbie to children's imagination: From her early days as a teenage fashion model, Barbie has appeared as an astronaut, surgeon, Olympic athlete, downhill skier, aerobics instructor, TV news reporter, vet, rock star, doctor, army officer, air force pilot, summit diplomat, rap musician, presidential candidate (party undefined), baseball player, scuba diver, lifeguard, fire-fighter, engineer, dentist, and many more. When Barbie first burst into the toy shops, just as the 1960s were breaking, the doll market consisted mostly of babies, designed for girls to cradle, rock and feed. By creating", "feed. By creating a doll with adult features, Mattel enabled girls to become anything they want. On September 7, 2021, following the debut of thestreamingtelevision filmBarbie: Big City, Big DreamsonNetflix, Barbie joined forces withGrammy Award-nominated music producer, songwriter, singer and actressEster Deanand Girls Make Beats – an organization dedicated to expanding the female presence ofmusic producers,DJsandaudio engineers– to inspire more girls to explore a future in music production. Mattel Adventure Park In 2023, Mattel broke ground on a theme park nearPhoenix, Arizona. The park is to open in 2024 and highlights Mattel's toys, including a Barbie Beach House, aThomas & Friendsthemed ride, and aHot Wheelsgo-kart race track.The theme park will take place at theVAI Resort complex, located 15 miles (24 km) west ofPhoenix, Arizona. 50th anniversary In 2009, Barbie celebrated her 50th birthday. The celebrations included a runway show in New York for theMercedes-Benz Fashion Week.The event showcased", "event showcased fashions contributed by fifty well-knownhaute couturiersincludingDiane von Fürstenberg,Vera Wang,Calvin Klein,Bob Mackie, andChristian Louboutin. Barbie Dream Gap Project In 2019, Mattel launched the \"Barbie Dream Gap Project\" to raise awareness of the phenomenon known as the \"Dream Gap\": beginning at the age of five, girls begin to doubt their own intelligence, where boys do not. This leads to boys pursuing careers requiring a higher intelligence, and girls being underrepresented in those careers.As an example, in the U.S., 33% of sitting judges are female. This statistic inspired the release of Judge Barbie in four different skin tones and hairstyles with judge robes and a gavel accessory. Thank You Heroes In May 2020, in response to theCOVID-19 pandemic, Mattel announced a new line of career dolls modeled after the first responders and essential workers of 2020. For every doll purchased, Mattel donated a doll to the First Responders Children's Foundation. Habitat for Humanity In February", "In February 2022, Mattel celebrated its 60-year anniversary of the Barbie Dreamhouse by partnering with Habitat for Humanity International. Mattel committed to taking on 60 projects, including new construction, home preservation, and neighborhood revitalization. Bad influence concerns In July 1992, Mattel releasedTeen Talk Barbie, which spoke a number of phrases including \"Will we ever have enough clothes?\", \"I love shopping!\", and \"Wanna have a pizza party?\" Each doll was programmed to say four out of 270 possible phrases, so that no two given dolls were likely to be the same (the number of possible combinations is 270!/(266!4!) = 216,546,345). One of these 270 phrases was \"Math class is tough!\", which led to criticism from theAmerican Association of University Women; about 1.5% of all the dolls sold said the phrase. The doll was often erroneously misattributed in the media as having said \"Math is hard!\"In October 1992, Mattel announced thatTeen Talk Barbiewould no longer say \"Math class is tough!\", and", "is tough!\", and offered a swap to anyone who owned a doll that did. In 2002, Mattel introduced a line of pregnantMidge(and baby) dolls, but thisHappy Familyline was quickly pulled from the market due to complaints that she promoted teen pregnancy, though Midge was supposed to be a married adult. In September 2003, the Middle Eastern country ofSaudi Arabiaoutlawed the sale of Barbie dolls and franchises, stating that they did not conform to the ideals ofIslam. TheCommittee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vicewarned, \"Jewish Barbie dolls, with their revealing clothes and shameful postures,accessoriesand tools are a symbol of decadence to thepervertedWest. Let us beware of her dangers and be careful.\"The 2003 Saudi ban was temporary.In Muslim-majority nations, there is an alternative doll calledFulla, which was introduced in November 2003 and is equivalent to Barbie, but is designed specifically to represent traditional Islamic values. Fulla is not manufactured by Mattel (although Mattel still", "Mattel still licenses Fulla dolls and franchises for sale in certain markets), and (as of January 2021) the \"Jewish\" Barbie brand is still available in otherMuslim-majority countries includingEgyptandIndonesia.InIran, theSara and Dara dolls, which were introduced in March 2002, are available as an alternative to Barbie, even though they have not been as successful. In November 2014, Mattel received criticism over the bookI Can Be a Computer Engineer, which depicted Barbie as personallyinept at computers, requiring her two male friends complete all of the necessary tasks to restore two laptops after she accidentallyinfectsher and her sister's laptop with amalware-laced USB flash drive, before ultimately getting credit for recovering her sister's school project.Critics felt that the characterization of Barbie as asoftware designerlackinglow-level technical skillswas sexist, as other books in theI Can Be...series depicted Barbie as someone who was totally competent in those jobs and did not require outside", "not require outside assistance from others.Mattel later removed the book from sale onAmazonin response to the criticism,and the company released a \"Computer Engineer Barbie\" doll who was a game programmer rather thangame designer. Diversity \"ColoredFrancie\" made her debut in 1967, and she is sometimes described as the firstAfrican-AmericanBarbie doll. However, she was produced using the existing head molds for the white Francie doll and lacked distinct African characteristics other than dark skin. The first African-American doll in the Barbie range is usually regarded as Christie, who made her debut in 1968.Black Barbie was launched in 1980 but still had Caucasian features. In 1990, Mattel created a focus group with African-American children and parents, early childhood specialists, and clinical psychologist, Darlene Powell Hudson. Instead of using the same molds for the Caucasian Barbies, new ones were created. In addition, facial features, skin tones, hair texture, and names were all altered. The body", "altered. The body shapes looked different, but the proportions were the same to ensure clothing and accessories were interchangeable.In September 2009, Mattel introduced the So In Style range, which was intended to create a more realistic depiction of African-American people than previous dolls. Starting in 1980, it produced Hispanic dolls, and later came models from across the globe. For example, in 2007, it introduced \"Cinco de MayoBarbie\" wearing a ruffled red, white, and green dress (echoing the Mexican flag).Hispanicmagazine reports that: ne of the most dramatic developments in Barbie's history came when she embraced multi-culturalism and was released in a wide variety of native costumes, hair colors and skin tones to more closely resemble the girls who idolized her. Among these were Cinco De Mayo Barbie, Spanish Barbie, Peruvian Barbie, Mexican Barbie and Puerto Rican Barbie. She also has had close Hispanic friends, such as Teresa. Professor Emilie Rose Aguilo-Perez argued that over time, Mattel", "over time, Mattel shifted from ambiguous Hispanic presentations in their dolls to one that is more assertive in its \"Latinx\" marketing and product labeling. Mattel has responded to criticisms pointing to a lack of diversity in the line.In 2016, Mattel expanded the So In Style line to include seven skin tones, twenty-two eye colors, and twenty-four hairstyles. Part of the reason for this change was due to declining sales.The brand now offers over 22skin tones, 94hair colors, 13eye colorsand fivebody types. Mattel teamed up withNabiscoto launch a cross-promotion Barbie doll withOreocookiesin 1997 and 2001. While the 1997 release of the doll was only released in awhiteversion, for the 2001 release Mattel manufactured both a white and ablackversion. The 2001 releaseBarbie Oreo School Time Funwas marketed as someone with whom young girls could play after class and share \"America's favorite cookie\". Critics argued that in the African American community,Oreois a derogatory term meaning that the person is \"black on", "person is \"black on the outside and white on the inside\", like the chocolate sandwich cookie itself. In May 1997, Mattel introducedShare a Smile Becky, a doll in a pinkwheelchair. Kjersti Johnson, a 17-year-old high school student inTacoma, Washingtonwithcerebral palsy, pointed out that the doll would not fit into theelevatorof Barbie's $100 Dream House. Mattel announced that it would redesign the house in the future to accommodate the doll. In July 2024, Mattel released the firstblindBarbie in collaboration with theAmerican Foundation for the Blind.Alongside this, the company also launched a black Barbie withDown syndrome. Role model Barbies In March 2018, in time forInternational Women's Day, Mattel unveiled the \"Barbie Celebrates Role Models\" campaign with a line of 17 dolls, informally known as \"sheroes\", from diverse backgrounds \"to showcase examples of extraordinary women\".Mattel developed this collection in response to mothers concerned about their daughters having positive female role models.Dolls in", "models.Dolls in this collection includeFrida Kahlo,Patti Jenkins,Chloe Kim,Nicola Adams,Ibtihaj Muhammad,Bindi Irwin,Amelia Earhart,Misty Copeland,Helene Darroze,Katherine Johnson,Sara Gama,Martyna Wojciechowska,Gabby Douglas,Guan Xiaotong,Ava Duvernay,Yuan Yuan Tan,Iris Apfel,Ashley GrahamandLeyla Piedayesh.In 2020, the company announced a new release of \"shero\" dolls, including Paralympic championMadison de Rozario,and world four-time sabre championOlga Kharlan.In July 2021, Mattel released aNaomi OsakaBarbie doll as a part of the 'Barbie Role Model' series. Osaka originally partnered with Barbie two years earlier.A month earlier, aJulie Bishopdoll was released to acknowledge the former Australian politician,as was one for general practitionerKirby Whitefor her work during theCOVID-19 pandemicin Australia.In August 2021 a Barbie modelled afterEuropean Space AgencyastronautSamantha Cristoforettiwas released. Collecting The standard range of Barbie dolls and related accessories are manufactured to", "are manufactured to approximately 1/6 scale, which is also known asplayscale.The standard dolls are approximately11+1⁄2inches (29 cm) tall. Mattel estimates that there are well over 100,000 avid Barbie collectors. Ninety percent are women, at an average age of 40, purchasing more than twenty Barbie dolls each year. Forty-five percent of them spend upwards of $1000 a year. Vintage Barbie dolls from the early years are the most valuable atauction, and while the original Barbie was sold for $3.00 in 1959, a mint boxed Barbie from 1959 sold for $3552.50 oneBayin October 2004.On September 26, 2006, a Barbie doll set a world record at auction of £9,000sterling(US$17,000) atChristie'sin London. The doll was a Barbie in Midnight Red from 1965 and was part of a private collection of 4,000 Barbie dolls being sold by two Dutch women, Ietje Raebel and her daughter Marina. In recent years, Mattel has sold a wide range of Barbie dolls aimed specifically at collectors, includingporcelainversions, vintage reproductions, and", "reproductions, and depictions of Barbie as a range of characters from film and television series such asThe MunstersandStar Trek.There are also collector's edition dolls depicting Barbie dolls with a range of different ethnic identities.In 2004, Mattel introduced the Color Tier system for its collector's edition Barbie dolls including pink, silver, gold, and platinum, depending on how many of the dolls are produced.In 2020, Mattel introduced theDia De Los Muertoscollectible Barbie doll, the second collectible released as part of the company's La Catrina line which was launched in 2019. Parodies and lawsuits Barbie has frequently been the target ofparody: Competition from Bratz dolls In May 2001,MGA Entertainmentlaunched theBratzseries of dolls, a move that gave Barbie her first serious competition in the fashion doll market. In 2004, sales figures showed that Bratz dolls were outselling Barbie dolls in the United Kingdom, althoughMattelmaintained that in terms of the number of dolls, clothes, and accessories", "and accessories sold, Barbie remained the leading brand.In 2005, figures showed that sales of Barbie dolls had fallen by 30% in the United States, and by 18% worldwide, with much of the drop being attributed to the popularity of Bratz dolls. In December 2006, Mattel sued MGA Entertainment for $1 billion, alleging that Bratz creatorCarter Bryantwas working for Mattel when he developed the idea forBratz.On July 17, 2008, a federal jury agreed that the Bratz line was created by Carter Bryant while he was working for Mattel and that MGA and its chief executive officerIsaac Larianwere liable for converting Mattel property for their own use and intentionally interfering with the contractual duties owed by Bryant to Mattel.On August 26, the jury found that Mattel would have to be paid $100 million in damages. On December 3, 2008, U.S. District Judge Stephen Larson banned MGA from selling Bratz. He allowed the company to continue selling the dolls until the winter holiday season ended.On appeal, a stay was granted", "a stay was granted by theU.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit; the Court also overturned the District Court's original ruling for Mattel, where MGA Entertainment was ordered to forfeit the entireBratzbrand. Mattel Inc.andMGA Entertainment Inc.returned to court on January 18, 2011, to renew their battle over who ownsBratz, which this time included accusations from both companies that the other side stole trade secrets.On April 21, 2011, a federal jury returned a verdict supporting MGA.On August 5, 2011, Mattel was also ordered to pay MGA $310 million for attorney fees, stealing trade secrets, and false claims rather than the $88.5 million issued in April. In August 2009, MGA introduced a range of dolls calledMoxie Girlz, intended as a replacement for Bratz dolls. Effects on body image From the start, some have complained that \"the blonde, plastic doll conveyed an unrealistic body image to girls.\" Criticisms of Barbie are often centered around concerns that children consider Barbie a role model and will", "role model and will attempt to emulate her. One of the most common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for a young woman, leading to a risk that girls who attempt to emulate her will becomeanorexic. Unrealistic body proportions in Barbie dolls have been connected to someeating disordersin children. A standard Barbie doll is 11.5 inches (29 cm) tall, giving a height of 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) at 1/6 scale. Barbie's vital statistics have been estimated at 36 inches (91 cm) (chest), 18 inches (46 cm) (waist) and 33 inches (84 cm) (hips). According to research by the University Central Hospital in Helsinki, Finland, she would lack the 17 to 22 percent body fat required for a woman tomenstruate.In 1963, the outfit \"Barbie Baby-Sits\" came with a book titledHow to Lose Weightwhich advised: \"Don't eat!\"The same book was included in another ensemble called \"Slumber Party\" in 1965 along with a pink bathroom scale permanently set at 110 pounds (50 kg),which would be underweight", "be underweight for a woman 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) tall.Mattel said that the waist of the Barbie doll was made small because the waistbands of her clothes, along with their seams, snaps, and zippers, added bulk to her figure.In 1997, Barbie's body mold was redesigned and given a wider waist, with Mattel saying that this would make the doll better suited to contemporary fashion designs. In 2016, Mattel introduced a range of new body types: 'tall', 'petite', and 'curvy', releasing them exclusively as part of the Barbie Fashionistas line. 'Curvy Barbie' received a great deal of media attentionand even made the cover ofTimemagazine with the headline \"Now Can We Stop Talking About My Body?\".Despite the curvy doll's body shape being equivalent to a US size 4 in clothing,some children reportedly regarded her as \"fat\". Although Barbie had been criticized for its unrealistic-looking \"tall and petite\" dolls, the company has been offering more dolls set to more realistic standards in order to help promote a positive", "promote a positive body image. \"Barbie syndrome\" \"Barbie syndrome\" is a term that has been used to depict the desire to have a physicalappearanceand lifestyle representative of the Barbie doll. It is most often associated with pre-teenage andadolescentgirls but is applicable to any age group or gender. A person with Barbie syndrome attempts to emulate the doll's physical appearance, even though the doll has unattainable body proportions.This syndrome is seen as a form ofbody dysmorphic disorderand results in various eating disorders as well as an obsession with cosmetic surgery. Ukrainian modelValeria Lukyanovahas received attention from the press, due in part to her appearance having been modified based on the physique of Barbie.She stated that she has only had breast implants and relies heavily on make up and contacts to alter her appearance.Similarly,Lacey Wildd, an American reality television personality frequently referred to as \"Million Dollar Barbie\", has also undergone 12 breast augmentation", "breast augmentation surgeries to become \"the extreme Barbie\". Jessica Alves, prior to coming out as transgender, underwent over £373,000 worth of cosmetic procedures to match the appearance of Barbie's male counterpart, garnering her the nickname the \"Human Ken Doll\". These procedures have included multiple nose jobs, six pack ab implants, a buttock lift, and hair and chest implants.Sporting the same nickname,Justin Jedlica, the American businessman, has also received multiple cosmetic surgeries to enhance his Ken-like appearance. In 2006, researchers Helga Dittmar, Emma Halliwell, and Suzanne Ive conducted an experiment testing how dolls, including Barbie, affect self-image in young girls. Dittmar, Halliwell, and Ive gave picture books to girls age 5–8, one with photos of Barbie and the other with photos of Emme, a doll with more realistic physical features. The girls were then asked about their ideal body size. Their research found that the girls who were exposed to the images of Barbie had significantly", "had significantly lower self-esteem than the girls who had photos of Emme.However,Benjamin Radfordnoted that the answer may not be this simple since this research also showed that the age of the girl was a significant factor in the influence the doll had on her self esteem. Notable designers See also Notes References Further reading External links", "Hot Wheels Hot Wheelsis an American media franchise and brand ofscale modelcarsinvented byElliot Handlerand introduced by his companyMattelon May 18, 1968.It was the primary competitor ofMatchboxuntil Mattel bought Matchbox ownerTyco Toysin 1997. Manyautomobile manufacturershave since licensed Hot Wheels to make scale models of their cars, allowing the use of original designblueprintsand detailing. Although Hot Wheels were originally intended to be children's toys, they have become popular with adult collectors, for whomlimited editionmodels are now made available. History 1968 The original Hot Wheels were made byElliot Handler.Handler discovered his son Kenneth playing with Matchbox cars and decided to create a line to compete with Matchbox. Hot Wheels were originally conceived by Handler to be more like \"hot rod\" cars (i.e.,customized/modified or evencaricaturizedor fantasy cars, often withbig rear tires,superchargers, flame paint-jobs, outlandish proportions, hood blowers, etc.), as compared to Matchbox", "to Matchbox cars which were generally small-scale models of production cars.He began producing the cars with assistance from fellow engineerJack Ryan. The flame logo was designed by Rick Irons, an art director working at Mattel at the time. The Sweet 16 The first line of Hot Wheels cars, known asThe Original Sweet 16was manufactured in 1967. These were the first of the Red Line Series, named for the tires which had a redpin stripeon their sides. There were sixteen castings released, eleven of them designed byHarry Bentley Bradleywith assistance from Handler and Ryan.The first one produced was a dark blue \"CustomCamaro\".Bradley was from the car industry and had designed the body for the (full-sized)Dodge Deoraconcept car and theCustom Fleetside, (based on his own customized 1966 El Camino). Racing track set In addition to the cars themselves, Mattel produced a racing track set (sold separately). Though it would be updated throughout the years, the original track set consists of a series of bright orange road", "bright orange road sections (pieced together to form an oblong, circular race track), with one (or sometimes two) \"superchargers\" (faux service stations through which cars passed on the tracks, featuring battery-powered spinning wheels, which would propel the cars along the tracks).Hot Wheels' use of wide, hard-plastic tires created much less friction and tracked more smoothly than the narrow metal or plastic wheels used on contemporary Matchbox cars. Hot Wheels cars were designed to roll easily and at high speeds, which was a great innovation at the time. 1968 The Hot Wheels brand was a staggering success. The series completelydisrupted the industryfor smalldie-cast carmodels from 1968 onward, forcing the competition at Matchbox and elsewhere to completely rethink their concepts, and to scramble to try to recover lost ground. Harry Bentley Bradley did not think that would be the case and had quit Mattel to go back to the car industry. When the company asked him to come back, he recommended a good friend,", "a good friend, Ira Gilford. Gilford, who had just leftChrysler, quickly accepted the job of designing the next Hot Wheels models. Some of Hot Wheels' greatest cars, such as theTwinMillandSplittin' Image, came from Ira Gilford's drawing board.The Twin Mill was introduced in 1969 and was used to create the company's first full-scale replica car in 2001. The success of the 1968 line was solidified and consolidated with the 1969 releases, with which Hot Wheels effectively established itself as the hottest brand of small toy car models in the USA.Splittin' Image,Torero,Turbofire, andTwin Millwere part of the \"Show & Go\" series and are the very first original in-house designs by Hot Wheels. The initial prototypes of theBeachBombwere faithful to the shape of a realVW Type 2 \"bus\", and had twosurfboardssticking out the back window, in a nod to the VW's perceived association with the surfing community and the slang term for a person who spends much time surfing—a \"beach bum\".During the fledgling Hot Wheels era,", "Hot Wheels era, Mattel wanted to make sure that each of the cars could be used with any of the playsets and stunt track sets. Unfortunately, testing showed that this early version (now known among collectors as theRear-Loader Beach Bomb, or \"RLBB\") was too narrow to roll effectively on Hot Wheels track or be powered by the Super Charger, and was too top-heavy to negotiate high-speed corners. Hot Wheels designers Howard Rees and Larry Wood modified the casting, extending the side fenders to accommodate the track width, as well as providing a new place on the vehicle to store each of the plastic surfboards. The roof was also cut away and replaced by a full-lengthsunroof, to lower thecenter of gravity. Nicknamed theSide-loaderby collectors, this was the production version of the Beach Bomb. TheRear-Loader Beach Bombis widely considered the \"Holy Grail\", or ultimate pinnacle, of a serious Hot Wheels collection. An unknown number were made as test subjects and given to employees. A regular productionBeach Bombmay", "Bombmay be worth up to $600, depending on condition. Market prices onRLBBshowever, have easily reached the five-figure plateau, ranging from $70,000 to $120,000.ThePetersen Automotive Museumin Los Angeles had a pinkRLBBin its Hot Wheels exhibit, displayed alone on a rotating platform under glass. The Hot Wheels Collectors Club released a new, updated version of theRear Loading Beach Bombin 2002 as alimited edition. 1970s 1970 was a very successful year for Hot Wheels, so Mattel came up with a newadvertising sloganfor the cars: \"Go With the Winner\".43 new cars appeared that year, including theSizzlersandHeavyweightslines. Howard Rees, who worked with Ira Gilford, was tired of designing cars. He wanted to work on theMajor Matt Masonaction figuretoy line-up. Rees had a good friend by the name of Larry Wood, whom he worked with atForddesigning cars. When Wood found out about Hot Wheels at a party Rees was holding, Rees offered him the job of designing Hot Wheels models. Wood accepted, and, by the end of the", "by the end of the week, Wood was working at Mattel, where his first design was theTri-Baby. Larry Wood retired in 2019 after over 40 years of designing cars. Another designer, Paul Tam, joined Wood and Gilford. Tam's first design was theWhip Creamer.Tam continued to work for Mattel until 1973. Among the many fantastic designs Tam thought up for Hot Wheels, some of the collector's favorites includeEvil Weevil(aVolkswagen Beetlewith two engines),Open Fire(anAMC Gremlinwith six wheels),Six Shooter(another six-wheeled car), and the rareDouble Header(co-designed with Larry Wood). The year 1970 introduced \"the Snakeandthe Mongoose\", a manufactured 'rivalry' between two professionaldrag racerscalling themselves \"the Snake\" and \"theMongoose\" for the purposes of publicity. This was notably drag racing's first major non-automotivecorporate sponsor, and the beginning of theNHRA’s booming popularity with large-budget teams and championships. 1970 also introduced the first 'Silver Series', which contained three", "contained three silver-painted models: theBoss Hoss, theHeavyChevy, and theKing 'Kuda, which were only obtainable through a mail-in offer that included a membership to the Hot Wheels Club. These three cars featured \"supercharged\" engines (featuring largeRoots blowers) without hoods, and openexhaust headers, after the style of drag racing cars of the era. Popular among children, these 'Silver Cars' were considered faster than the rest of the Hot Wheels lineup, because they were supposedly heavier than the other gravity models, but the accuracy of this claim has never been tested under scientific conditions. However, 1972 and 1973 were slow years. Only seven new models were made in 1972. Of the 24 models appearing for 1973, only three were new models. Also the cars changed from Mattel's in-houseSpectraflamecolors to mostly drab, solidenamelcolors, which mainstream Hot Wheels cars still use today. Due to low sales, and the fact that the majority of thecastingswere not re-used in later years, the 1972-3 models", "the 1972-3 models are known to be very collectible. In 1974, Hot Wheels introduced its 'FlyingColors' line, and added flashy decals and\"tampo-printed\"paint designs which helped revitalize sales. As with the lower-friction wheels in 1968, this innovation was revolutionary in the industry, and—although far less effective in terms of sales impact than in 1968—was copied by the competition, who did not want to be outmaneuvered again by Mattel product strategists. In 1977, the 'Redline Wheel' was phased out, with the red lines no longer being printed on the wheels. This cut costs, but also reflected that the prototypical \"red line tires\" popular on high-speed-rated automotive tires during the era ofmuscle carsandPolyglastires were no longer popular. During this period, there was a trend away from wildhot rodsand fantastic cars, and a move to more realistic cars and trucks, like the competitor Matchbox. 1977–1988: The 'Blackwalls' era In 1981,Hot Oneswheels were introduced, which had gold-painted hubs, and claimed", "hubs, and claimed to have thinner axles for greater speed, along with additional suspension compliance that older production Hot Wheels lacked.Ultra Hot Wheelswere introduced in 1984, and looked something like the cast alloy wheels found on a 1980s-era high-trimRenault Fuegoor aMazda 626, with three parallel dark lines cutting diagonally across the flat chrome face of the wheel, all three broken in the center to form six individual shorter lines. These new \"Ultra Hots\" claimed further speed improvements. Hot Wheels started offering models based on 1980s-erasportsandeconomy cars, like thePontiac FieroorDodge Omni 024, in addition to their typical 'hot rod' andmuscle carstyle offerings. In 1983, a new style of wheel calledReal Riderswas introduced, which featured real rubber tires.Despite the fact that they were very popular, the Real Riders line was short-lived, because of high production costs. In the late 1980s, the so-calledBlueCardblister packcolor scheme was introduced, which would become the basis of", "become the basis of Hot Wheels colors still used today (original blister packs were red and yellow). Two other innovations were introduced briefly in Hot Wheels cars in the 1980s –Thermal Color Changepaint, and rotating 'crash panel' vehicles (\"Crack-Ups\"). The former was able to change color on exposure to hot or cold water, and there was an initial release of 20 different cars, available as sets of three vehicles. The latter were vehicles with a panel that, on contact, would rotate to reveal a reverse side that appeared to be heavily dented. Variations in crash panels included front, rear and side panels, the last of whose mechanism has proven to be the most durable. In the 1980s, Hot Wheels had gotten into a controversy withGeneral Motors'Chevrolet Motors Division. In 1982, theChevrolet Corvettehad ended the curvaceous \"Mako Shark\" body style that had been in production for almost 15 years, and GM announced that the Corvette would be redesigned. In 1983, Chevrolet started to produce the all-newC4", "the all-newC4 Corvettebut had assembly line problems which pushed production back 6 months causing GM's Marketing Department to label all 1983s as 1984s once they got production perfected so it would seem to the public that the all-new C4 Corvette came out early rather than late. But Hot Wheels saw what the new model of Corvette was going to look like before GM's official unveiling, and they designed a die-cast version of the 1984 Corvette. GM was angered and almost pulled its licensing with Mattel, but this controversy helped Corvette enthusiasts see what the new Corvette was going to look like. The 1984 Corvette production ran for 1.5 model years covering half of the remaining 1983 model year and ending on time for the 1985 model year. In conjunction withEpyxSoftware, Mattel released acomputer gameedition of Hot Wheels for various8-bitplatformsin 1985, as part of the Computer Activity Toys series. 1989–1994: The collector number era In 1989, Mattel released collector numbers. Each car had its own", "car had its own number.The cards were all blue, for all blister packs released from 1989 to 1994. Numbers included went as high as 274; however, these were skip numbered, and numbers such as 48, 61, and 173 were not used. 1995–1999: The Treasure Hunt era The year 1995 brought a major change to the Hot Wheels line, where the cars were split up into series. One was the 1995 Model Series, which included all of that year's new castings. In 1996, the Model Series was renamed to First Editions. 1995 also saw the introduction of theTreasure Hunt Series(see below). The rest of the series included four cars with paint schemes that followed a theme. For example, thePearl Drivercars all hadpearlescentpaint. Sales for the series models soared with another program also introduced that year called theBonusCarprogram, causing stores across the nation to have shortages. Purchasing the four car sets and sending in the packaging backs plus a handling fee gave you the opportunity to collect the bonus cars, 1 each released for", "1 each released for each quarter of the year starting in 1996 through at least 2000. Several new wheel designs were also introduced in the 1990s. Mattel bought Tyco Toys in 1997. Along with the purchase came the company's old competitor Matchbox. Arguably the two dominant companies in matchbox-sized cars were now under one roof. In 1998, Mattel celebrated the 30th anniversary of the Hot Wheels brand by replicating various cars and individual packaging from its 30-year history and packaging these replicated vehicles in special 30th Anniversary boxes. In 1999, Hot Wheels Interactive was launched. 2000s A new generation of Hot Wheels Designers came in. Eric Tscherne and Fraser Campbell along with former designer Paul Tam's son, Alec Tam, joined the design team. Tscherne'sSeared Tuner(formerlySho-Stopper) graced the mainline packaging from 2000 to 2003. TheDeora II, one of only two Hot Wheels concept cars ever made into full-size, functional cars, was also released this year. In 2001, Mattel created a Hot Wheels", "a Hot Wheels collectors website. Also in 2001, Mattel issued 240 mainline releases consisting of 12Treasure Hunts, 36First Editions, 12Segment Serieswith four cars each, and 144 open stock cars. Popular models that debuted include theHyperMiteandFrightBike. For 2002, the mainline consisted of 12Treasure Hunts, 42First Editions, 15Segment Seriesof 4 cars each, and 126 open stock cars. Popular new models included the `68Cougarand theNissan Skyline GT-R. Some cars from the first editions series are theBackdraft,Overbored454, andSuper Tsunami. 2003 Hot Wheels celebrated its 35th anniversary with a full-length animated film calledHot Wheels Highway 35 World Race. This movie tied into theHighway 35line of cars that featured 35 classic Hot Wheels cars with special graphics and co-molded wheels. 2004 In 2004, Hot Wheels unveiled its \"Hot 100\" line of 100 new models. These included mostly short-lived lines of cartoonish vehicles such as'Tooned(vehicles based on the largerHotTunerzline of Hot Wheels created by Eric", "created by Eric Tscherne),Blings(boxy bodies and big wheels),Hardnoze(enlarged fronts),Crooze(stretched out bodies), andFatbax(super-wide rear wheels and short bodies).Fatbaxmodels included vehicles such as theToyota SupraandCorvette C6. These vehicles did not sell as well as Mattel expected, and many could still be found in stores throughout 2005. Mattel also released 2004First Editionscars with unpaintedZamacbodies. They were sold throughToys 'R' Usand were made in limited numbers. 2005 and 2006 In 2005, Hot Wheels continued with new \"extreme\" castings for the 2nd year, debuting theTorpedoesline (skinny bodies and outboard wheels) andDrop Tops(flattened rooflines and wheel arches that extend above the car's roofline), in addition to 20 \"Realistix\" models. The rest of the line included the standard 12Treasure Hunts, 10Track Aces, 50Segment SeriesCars, and 50Open Stock Models. FourVolkswagen\"MysteryCars\" were offered as a special mail-in promo. EachMysteryCarcame with a special voucher. Upon collection of", "Upon collection of all 4 vouchers, one was able to send away for a special 13thTreasureHunt, aVW Drag Bus. Hot Wheels also unveiled its new \"Faster than Ever\" line of cars, which had specialnickel-platedaxles, along with bronze-coloredOpen-Hole 5 Spokewheels. These adjustments supposedly reducefrictiondramatically, resulting in cars that are called the \"Faster than Ever\" series. The first run of these cars were available for a limited time only, from the beginning of October towards the end of November 2005. Also, a continuation of the movieHighway 35calledHot Wheels AcceleRacerswas created, taking place two years after the events ofHighway 35. It is featured in four movies and many short segments where the drivers (old ones, gangs, like Teku, Metal Maniacs, the evil Racing Drones, and the stealthy Silencerz). All of the shorts and previews of the movies were placed on a temporary website that was deleted shortly after the last movie. 2006 was the final year of the First Editions series consisting of 38 cars", "of 38 cars for that year including aToyota AE86, 2006Honda Civic Si,Plymouth Superbirdand 2007Cadillac Escaladealongside with fantasy models like theNerve Hammer,Pharodox,Semi-Psychoas well as the fan-favouriteBone Shaker, Larry Wood's most popular design to date. 2007 and 2008 In 2007, Mattel released 36New Models(formerlyFirst Editions), 12Treasure Hunts(with a hard-to-find regular version and even rarer \"Super Treasure Hunt\" version of each with rubberReal Ridertires and Spectraflame paint),12 'Teams' of 4 cars each (formerlySegment Series), 24CodeCars(codes imprinted inside the packaging that can be used to unlock web content), 12Track Stars(formerlyTrack Aces), 24Mystery Cars(packaged on a card with an opaque blister, so the buyer cannot see which car is inside without opening it), and 24All-Stars(formerlyOpen Stock). In late 2006, a new package design for 2007 was released. Some 2006 cars and all 2007 cars are packaged on a blister card with the new design. Hot Wheels released a series", "released a series calledModifighters, which are similar toTransformersexcept for the fact that they were originally cars and were modified into robots. TheModifightersnames are: Streetwyse, Skullface, Live Wire, Bedlam, Nightlife, Mr. Big, and Quick-Tyme. In 2008, all the series and vehicles were relatively similar to 2007's cars. Approximately 180 to 200 new vehicles were released. 2009 and 2010 In 2009, Mattel released 42New Models, 12Treasure Hunts, 12Track Stars, 24Mystery Cars, 10Segment Seriesof 10 cars, and introduced theIndy Car Seriesdrivers. Mattel released its first-ever animated episodictelevision seriescalledHot Wheels Battle Force 5, which was a co-production between Canadian animation giantsNelvanaandWildBrain. The US version of the series debuted onCartoon Networkon August 29, 2009.. 2011 2011 saw the release of 244 cars beginning with the 2011 New Car Series which includes theLamborghini Gallardo LP570-4 Superleggera, Custom2011 Camaro, and theDeLorean time machinefrom theBack to the Future", "to the Future series. This was followed by the 15-carTreasure Huntseries with1957 Chevyand1958 Chevy Impala, 15Track Starsincluding the 2010Formula Streetseries, the10x10series, theThrill Racersseries, and 22HW Video Game Heroeswhich were packaged with codes for an internet computer game. The new series \"Team Hot Wheels\" appear in late 2011. 2012 2012 saw the release of 247 cars, beginning with the 2012New Car Serieswhich includes theLamborghini Aventador,Ford Mustang Boss 302 Laguna Seca,KITTfromKnight Rider, and the ever-popularScooby-DooMystery Machine. 2012 also saw the release of two vehicles from theAngry Birdsvideo game franchise, consisting of the Red Bird and the green Minion Pig. 2013 2013 saw the release of 250 cars includingStunt,Racing,Imagination,City, andShowroom, all of which contain sub-series. 2013 also saw a change in the look of the packaging cards which includes a quartet of helmetedmotorcycleriders standing behind the flame logo and theTreasure Huntseries cards no longer marked with", "longer marked with atreasure chest. Some of those cars includeRodzilla,Fangula,Twin Mill III(3),BoneShakerandBajaBoneShaker. General Motors also released a specialChevrolet Camaro Hot Wheels Edition, which was a blueconvertiblethat offered various Hot-Wheels-themed decorations throughout the car. 2014 2014 saw 250 mainstream cars released with similar segments to 2013. Variousplaysetsand other non-car merchandise were also released this year. 2014 also marked the end of the license agreement between Mattel andFerrari, meaning the 2014 release ofFerrari 5 Packwould be the last for Mattel, and the 2015 blackFerrari 599XXwas the last Ferrari model appearing in mainstream, both regular model and its Treasure Hunt variant. 2016 2016 lineup was similar to 2015 and 2014 in terms of segments, and the design of the card was overhauled. Some car names were TBD (To Be Determined) or 2016 (Coming Soon). They're now divided into mini collections with their corresponding segments and their icons printed on the card. Some", "on the card. Some of them includeHW Showroom,BMW(100th anniversary of BMW),HW Screen Time(Cars and characters seen on television, video games, and movies), andHWSnowStormers. New models include theCruiseBruiser,SideRipper,GrassChomper, and the'16 Acura NSX, while other models first see their release in the mainline series, such as the'52Hudson Hornet. 2017–present 2017 saw a major change in casting numbering. Since that moment, recolors are named with a different number than the original, thus causing the number limit of cars to expand to 365. The idea of numbering a casting with a number corresponding to their own series was also aborted. There were also some new mainline series introduced, such asExperimotors(cars with moving parts, or a secondary purpose),Holiday Racers(cars that have a holiday based theme),Factory Fresh(a series including newer, sometimes older castings with fabric painting) andCamaro Fifty(a series dedicated to theChevrolet Camaro, and its 50th anniversary). In 2018, Hot Wheels", "In 2018, Hot Wheels celebrated its 50th anniversary. The style of the blister cards were changed again, depicting a city in the background of the car, thus emulating a \"Hot Wheels City\" theme. For that year, each blister card had a 50th Anniversary logo. Hot Wheels also launched several collector-focused lines for that year, includingFavorites, which was a series that consisted of 11 highly detailed vehicles (which were based on real cars), all with metal bodies and rubber tires. For this year, Hot Wheels also launched adisplay case, which could hold up to 48 cars, and could either stand up on its own (via attachable \"feet\") or be mounted on a wall. Each display case came with an exclusive car. On October 4, 2018, Hot Wheels filed a new trademark for the mottoit's not the same without the flame. In 2019, a seal was added in the bottom left corner of the blister card with the motto. On February 18, 2021, the Hot Wheels Mars Perseverance Rover was released; a die-cast scale model latest vehicle in its Space", "in its Space mini-collections inspired by theNASA-launchedPerseverance rover. Hot Wheels designer Ryu Asada died on March 23, 2021, at age 42, after years of suffering from cancer.That same year, Hot Wheels began a partnership withMilestone S.r.l.to release their first game,Hot Wheels Unleashed, in which came out on September 30, 2021. On March 7, 2023,NBCordered a reality competition series known asHot Wheels: Ultimate ChallengewithRutledge Woodas hostwhich premiered on May 30. On September 28, 2023,NetflixannouncedHot Wheels Let's Race, a new animated series adaptationwhich premiered on March 4, 2024. On October 9, 2024,Formula Oneannounced a new multi-year partnership with Hot Wheels. The partnership starts in 2024 with the release of a one-of-a-kind F1 car, before the full Hot Wheels range – featuring teams’ cars and products – is released in 2025. Hot Wheels Legends Tour Starting in 2018, Hot Wheels launched a new program called theHot Wheels Legends Tour. This program was originally launched to", "launched to commemorate Hot Wheels's 50th anniversary. Each year, there are 18 Legends Tour events that are held at variousWalmartlocations across the United States. Over 111,000 people attend and about 5,000 cars are entered at those events. At each event, one car is picked to be recreated as a potential new Hot Wheels casting. After all the events for that year conclude, one finalist is then picked to be the winner, and their car then gets recreated as a new Hot Wheels casting next year. Hot Wheels are looking for vehicles that embody the fun and creative spirit of Hot Wheels, which is their main selling point. Hot Wheels Legends Tour winners \"Sweet 16\" line TheSweet 16was the first production line of Hot Wheels for the year 1968. The lineup consisted of the following: Collectables Through the years, Hot Wheels cars have been collected mostly by children. However, since the late 1990s, there has been an increase in the number of adult collectors. Mattel estimates that 41 million children grew up playing", "grew up playing with the toys, the average collector has over 1,550 cars, and children between the ages of 5 and 15 have an average of 41 cars. Most believe the collecting craze started with theTreasureHuntsin 1995. Mike Strauss has been called the father of Hot Wheels collecting; he has organized two collectors' events each year in some form since 1986. The first event was the Annual Hot Wheels Collectors Convention, normally held each year in the fall. The convention occurred in various locations around the country until 2001, when the first Annual Hot Wheels Collectors Nationals was put together. Since then, the Conventions are held each year in southern California. The Hot Wheels Collectors Nationals rotate among cities outside of California during the spring. Strauss has also published the quarterly Hot Wheels Newsletter since 1986 and was one of the first to unite collectors all over the world. He also writesTomart's Price Guide To Hot Wheels, a book listing history, car descriptions and values, which", "and values, which is used by almost every collector to learn more about the hobby and their collection. Strauss sold his collection in 2011 and retired from the Hot Wheels Newsletter. There are hundreds, perhaps even thousands, of web pages dedicated to Hot Wheels collecting. Collectors are seeking everything related to Hot Wheels, from only new castings to only Red Lines and everything in between. For the most part, it is a relatively inexpensive hobby, when compared withcoin collecting,stamp collectingorBarbiecollecting, with mainline cars costing about $0.97-$1.08 (USD) at retail. The price has not changed much in almost 40 years, although in real terms the models have dropped significantly in price (a Hot Wheels car cost $0.98 in 1968 and costs $0.98 today, in spite of inflation). After the cars are no longer available at retail the cost can vary significantly. A common car may sell for less than retail, while some of the more difficult cars can sell for many hundred or even thousands of dollars. The", "of dollars. The highest price paid for a Hot Wheels car was close to $70,000 in 2000 for a pre-production version of aVolkswagen Rear Loader Beach Bomb(the asking price was $72,000). The Beach Bomb is a VW microbus with a pair of surfboards poking out the rear window. This design failed initial testing, proving to be top-heavy and not functional with the Power Booster track accessory. A widened version with the surfboards mounted in side slots was designed and released for the 1969 model year, making the \"rear loader\" version a rarity and very sought-after piece. As of 2018, there are about 50 \"rear loaders\" known to exist. Dates on cars The date on the base of a Hot Wheels car (Example: ©2008 Mattel) is the copyright date for the casting of the car, not a production date or release year. The date is usually the year before the car was first released, but not always. For example, a car in the 2001 First Editions series called Evil Twin, was released in 2001 but the year dated on the bottom of the car is", "of the car is 2000. Sometimes, the copyright will be the same year as the casting's first release. This usually happens with cars released toward the end of a model year. There are a few cases where the copyright is several years before a car's first release. The copyright date will usually not change through the lifetime of a casting. For example, the Twin Mill, first released in 1969, still had a 1969 copyright date on the 2019 mainline releases of the car. If the tooling for a car has a major change at some point in its life, the copyright date might be changed or amended to reflect the change. For example, Quick Bite, first released in 1984 as the Good Humor Truck, had a tooling update before 2018, so its date reads 1983, '17 on the base of the 2018 release. There are a few exceptions where the copyright date applies only to the base of a car instead of to the entire car. Those exceptions are mostly funny car castings where the same base was used with various different bodies over the years. Since the", "years. Since the year 2008, Hot Wheels cars have had a code stamped or printed on the base. This is a \"base code\". This base code can be used to identify exactly when an individual car was produced in the Hot Wheels factory. The code begins with a letter, followed by a two-digit number. The letter for the year 2018 was \"L\". The letter is then followed by two numbers, which represent the week of that particular year the car was manufactured. For example, a car with the date stamp of \"L42\" was produced on the forty-second week of 2018. Some cars have 4-digit date codes on the base. These date codes are more specific than the 3-digit codes as they indicate the day a car was made instead of just the week. For the 4-digit codes, the first 3 digits indicate the day of the year and the last digit is the year. A date code of 1987 would indicate the car was made on the 198th day of 2017 (July 17). A code of 0250 would be the 25th day of 2010 (or 2020; depending on the car). Date codes only indicate when a specific", "when a specific car was made. They do not necessarily reflect the model release year of a particular car. Mainline production changes to the next model year right around the middle of the calendar year at the end of June/beginning of July. Premiums and other special series lines often run later in the calendar year before changing production to the next year. Hot Wheels Classics TheHotWheelsClassicsline was an immediate hit with enthusiasts everywhere. The new line focused onmuscle cars,hot rods, and other offbeat vehicles (such as a go-kart, a motor home and even an airplane), many from the company's first ten years (1968–78) of production. The series is also used to debut several different castings, such as the1965 Chevy Malibuor the1972 Ford Ranchero. Series 1 from 2005 consisted of 25 models, each with all-metal body and chassis, decked out with Spectraflame paint, in packages similar to those used from 1968 to 1972. Each car had a retail price of about three to four dollars (USD) and each of the 25 cars", "each of the 25 cars were released with 7 or 8 different colors. Models included the1957 Chevy Bel Air(pictured at the right), the1963 Ford T-Bird, and the1965 Pontiac GTO. There were also track sets in similar retro packaging, and1:18 scaleHot Wheels Classics. The Classics version of thePurplePassionwas released withReal Riderstires atSan Diego Comic-Con. Mattel also produced aClassicsOlds 442in Spectraflame blue for the 2005 Toy Fair. In late 2005, Series 2 now consisted of 30 models including the1967 Camaro Convertible, the1969 Dodge Charger, and a1965 Mustang GT. There was also supposed to be a separateMustang Funny Car(as listed on the blisterpack rear checklist) but this was apparently changed to aPlymouth Barracuda Funny Carduring production. In 2006, a Series 3 line of Classics was introduced, again containing 30 models with multiple colors of each vehicle. Models included the'69 Pontiac Firebird, aMeyers Manxdune buggy, and theRichard Petty'70 Plymouth \"Superbird\". In 2007, Series 4 debuted with just", "4 debuted with just fifteen models. However, in recognition of the 40th anniversary there were two packaging versions available - models came with a collectible metal badge (featuring a portrait of the involved vehicle) or were sold alone as in the previous three series. Models included aVW Karmann Ghia, a'68 Mercury Cougar, and the\"Red Baron\" hot rod. For its 40th anniversary in 2008, Hot Wheels celebrated the making of its four billionth car with the production of a diamond-studded model worth US$140,000. It had 2,700 diamond chips, a total of almost 23karats, and was cast inwhite gold, withrubiesserving as taillights. In 2009, Series 5 has 30 models. For the first time, there are chase cars in the classics series. These cars featureRealRidersrubber tires. A few models included areCopper Stopper,1970 Pontiac GTO, andHammerSled. Special model lines Hot Wheels has also released slightly larger, more detailed models, such as the originalGranToros(1/43 scale) from 1970, and theDropstarsline (a model line of", "(a model line of \"blinged\" cars). Also in this larger scale are theHIN(Hot Import Nights),G-MachinesandCustomslines. These lines were introduced in 2004–2005. Hot Wheels has produced many replicascale modelsin the industry standard 1/43, 1/24 and 1/18 scales. In 2004, it released a 1/12 scale replica of theC6 Corvette. Hot Wheels also in the early 1990s introduced a series known as the California Customs. A line of cars that had a California theme. Other lines from Hot Wheels include:R-R-Rumblers & Chopcycles(motorcycles introduced in 1971),Hotbirds(metal airplanes),Sizzlers,XV Racers,Hot TunerzandStockerz. Over the years, Mattel has also teamed up with other retail organizations to produce special models available through those retailers. The list of retailers includesAvon,Chuck E. Cheese, Dinty Moore,FAO Schwarz, Full Grid,General Mills,Getty, HEB, Hills,Hormel, Hughes Family Markets,JC Penney,JC Whitney,Kay-Bee Toys,K-Mart,Kellogg's,Kool-Aid,Kroger,Lexmark, Liberty Promotions (contracted the series of", "the series of special models forJiffy LubeandPenske),Little Debbie Snacks,Malt-O-Meal,McDonald's,Mervyn's,Otter Pops,Rose's Discount Stores,Shell,Target,Tony's Pizza,Toys \"R\" Us,Union 76,Valvoline,Van de Kamp's,Walmart, and White's Guide to Collecting, as well as severalMajor League Baseballfranchises to name a few. In 2016, Hot Wheels released a special collection for the 50th anniversary of theBeatles’ 1966 song “Yellow Submarine.” The collections includes five cars, aVW microbusand a yellow submarine. Made by other companies In some cases, Hot Wheels dies have been sold or acquired by other companies once Mattel has finished using them. One example were early dies that made their way to Argentina and were reproduced asMukys, though not with spectra-flame paints or the same quality as seen in Mattel's products. Hot Wheels Elite and Hot Wheels Mattel Hot Wheels have a series namedHot Wheels EliteandHot Wheels Mattel. TheEliteHot Wheels are 1:18, 1:43 and 1:50 highly detaileddiecast; the majority of them", "majority of them being based onFerraris. They are more expensive than theMattelmodels which aren't as highly detailed. TheEliteversions are licensed byFerrari. The Hot WheelsEliteseries have a \"mini\" series which can be seen on the website. Two of the popular limited 1:18 Hot WheelsEliteseries' are theFerrari in MusicandCult Classics. The music series features singers' and rappers' Ferraris, includingJamiroquai'sJay Kay'sBlackEnzo Ferrari. Car Culture In 2016, Hot Wheels started a new line of Collector's models, in a line calledCar Culture. Car Culture is Hot Wheels' line of Premium 1:64 models with metal bodies and bases, two-piece wheels with rubber tires, and more detailed decorations. Intended for adult collectors primarily, these models retail for roughly 6-7 times the cost of a mainstream 1:64 Hot Wheels model. These cars retail for over three times the retail price of a \"basic\" car, and are produced in significantly fewer numbers. This line debuted with the release of \"Japan Historics\", a set of five", "a set of five Japanesesports cars. Every year at least four more sets are introduced. AllCar Culturesets have five cars, and often have new castings created for the sets. The number five spot in the set is usually reserved for the newest casting in the set.Car Culturecars are typically based on real automobiles; however in 2018, Hot Wheels introduced a set called \"TeamTransport\", which included some fantasy truck castings. The fact that some of the trucks are unlicensed allows the castings to be universally used in anyTeam Transportset regardless of theme (for example, a Chevrolet-branded truck would not make sense in a Ford-themed set). Although \"TeamTransport\" is labeled under theCar Cultureline, they are a separate category ofCar Culturevehicles than the usual 5-car sets, possessing differentbarcodesand prices. In 2018, for Hot Wheels' 50th Anniversary, Car Culture card sizes were increased, along with the amount of decorations on the cars. A Hot Wheels \"50th anniversary\" logo was also placed beside the", "placed beside the set's name on the packaging. Treasure Huntseries TreasureHunt(sometimesT-Hunt) is a line of Hot Wheels cars, introduced byMattelin 1995. It consisted of 12 cars every year (15 beginning in 2011) with one or two released per month. The original production run was 10,000 of each car worldwide; that number has since risen due to the increasing demand for and popularity of Hot Wheels as a collector's item. Treasure Hunt vehicles are identifiable by a label on the package. The blister card said \"TreasureHunt\" or \"T-Hunt\" on a green bar, sometimes with an illustration of atreasure chest. Since 2013,TreasureHuntsdo not have the green stripe anymore; instead, the cars are recognizable with a \"flame in a circle logo\" on the vehicle and behind it on the card. The cars were decorated with flashy designs and special \"rubber\" wheels before 2007. In 2007, Mattel introduced a two-tieredTreasure Huntsystem. A regularTreasure Huntwill feature normal enamel paint and normal wheels like other Hot Wheels cars.", "Hot Wheels cars. The production of these is rumored to be greater than previous T-Hunts.\"Super\" Treasure Huntsare much harder to find. LikeTreasureHuntsof the past, aSuper Treasure Huntfeatures premium wheels and Spectraflame paint, as well as (starting in 2015), a golden-colored circle-flame logo printed on the card behind the car. Many Hot Wheels collectors have noticed in recent times that the US Basic mixes are more likely to have aSuper Treasure Huntin them compared to International Mixes. Before 2013, all 12Treasure Huntcars of a year were released in both regular and super versions. In 2012,Super Treasure Huntscame with special paint and wheels, but with series designation on the card. However, the regularT-huntsretained a specialT-Huntseries card. Mattel stopped using special cards for allTreasureHuntsin 2013. Some U.S. releases in 2014 had the phrase \"This symbol on the vehicle lets you know it is hard to find and highly collectible\". However, in 2016, this was changed to \"Congratulations! This", "This symbol means you just found a collectable treasure-hunt car!\". This would be under a silver flame logo on the card forT-Hunts. In 2015, Supers featured a gold logo on the card. Generally, Hot Wheels has targeted both kids and adults with theT-Huntseries, focusing more on the adult collecting market with Supers. Live-action film adaptation On January 30, 2003,Columbia Picturesannounced they had gained exclusive rights to developing a feature film based on the toy lineHot WheelswithMcGattached to direct.Although unwritten, the premise involved a young man \"trying to reconcile with his father. It's a kid who steals his dad's racecar and ends up going through a sort ofBack to the Futureportal into this world, and he has to reconcile his relationship with his father.\" In 2006, McG said that he dropped out as director and chose to produce instead.The film was to be produced byColumbia Pictures,Flying Glass of Milk FilmsandSilver Pictures, under license toMattel. In 2009, with no recent developments, the film", "the film was put intoturnaround, and the rights were handed over toWarner Bros. Pictures.Joel Silvertook over producing withMatt Nixwriting the script. On June 17, 2011, it was announced thatLegendary Pictureswas developing a film based on Hot Wheels due to the success ofFast Fiveby developing an edgier film.On July 10, 2013,Simon CraneandJuan Carlos Fresnadillowere named as the frontrunners to direct the film, withArt Marcum and Matt Hollowaywriting the film, intended to be moreMission: ImpossiblethanThe Fast and the Furious.On September 28, 2016,Justin Linsigned on to direct the film, which will be produced through his production company Perfect Storm Entertainment.On August 1, 2017, Lin revealed that the film was still in development.It was speculated that the film would be released as an animated direct sequel to 2003'sHot Wheels: World Raceand will be receive additional animation development fromPlayground Gameswho collaborated with Mattel in 2017 to create theForza Horizon 3: Hot Wheelsvideo", "3: Hot Wheelsvideo game.However the option expired and returned to Mattel. In late January 2019,Mattel Filmsand Warner Bros. Pictures agreed to partner on a Hot Wheels film. It was announced on September 25, 2020, byThe Hollywood Reporterthat Warner Bros. has hired Neil Widener and Gavin James to write the film. On April 25, 2022, it was announced thatBad Robotwill produce the film.On January 23, 2023, Dalton Leeb and Nicholas Jacobson-Larson were announced to write the film. Sizzlers TheSizzlerswere a 1970s Hot Wheels spin off with a built-in motor and a tiny rechargeable battery. (TheX-V racersof the 1990s were similar.) They were introduced in 1970 and became immediately popular.Sizzlersrun on the regular \"orange\" Hot Wheels track, and Mattel created special race sets with U-Turns, multi-level spirals and loops to take advantage of the cars' electric motor. Two lane race sets such as the California/8 race set were developed that allowedSizzlersto race side-by side, until Mattel created the blackFat", "the blackFat Trackwhich is three lanes wide with steep banked curves and designed to allowSizzlersto run free. In action, Sizzlers supposedly display a unique, competitive \"passing action\" when running on theFat Track, as if each car were piloted by an impatient driver trying to jockey ahead of the rest. TheFat Tracksets included the \"Big O\", \"California 500\", and \"Super Circuit\" race sets, and accessories such as the \"Scramble Start\" (a four-car starting gate), \"Lap Computer\" four car lap counter, and \"Race-Timer\" stop watch. Six cars were made in 1970, 12 cars were made in 1971, and 4 cars were made in 1972. The\"Fat Daddy\" Sizzlers(oversized bodies with huge tires) were introduced in 1973. Mattel put the Sizzlers on a hiatus after that year, and in 1976 they createdSizzlers II. That next year, theNight Ridin' Sizzlers(which had headlights you could turn on or off) were created. Mattel permanently stoppedSizzlersproduction in 1978. They were replaced by another spin off namedScorchers. TheScorcherswere\"pull", "back\" carswhich wound a clock spring when pulled backwards a short distance, which then propelled them forward for several feet. Sizzlersare charged with four or twoD batterychargers called theJuice MachineandGoose Pumprespectively. Later, thePower Pitwas introduced—which was an electric charger that plugged into any householdACoutlet and resembled a race track garage orpit stop. A 90-second charge of the tiny internalNiCadbattery gives up to five minutes of useful run time. It was claimed by advertisers that the 90-second charge time was \"the longest minute and a half in a kid's life\" as they waited impatiently for the car to charge sufficiently to get back into the race. TheSizzlerelectric technology spun off into theHotline Trains, which ran on track similar to regular Hot Wheels, and theEarthshakersconstruction vehicles. Both lines of vehicles were charged using theSizzler Juice MachineorPower Pit. In the 1990s, Mattel's trademark on the \"Sizzlers\" name had lapsed and toy companyPlaying Mantisreleased a", "Mantisreleased a new Sizzlers line based aroundNASCARstock carmodels and copied theFat Trackas the \"Stocker 400\" and \"Mach 500\" track sets to capitalize on the booming popularity of NASCAR in that decade. TheJuice Machinewas renamed the \"Mega-Charger\" and incorporated a more efficient \"trickle charge\" rather than the \"dump charge\" of the original machines. Interest in the toys began to increase once again. They were taken off the market after Mattel filed a lawsuit against Playing Mantis. However,Sizzlersreturned again in 2006, when Mattel struck an exclusive deal withTargetstores to re-releaseSizzlerscars, the \"Big O\" Fat track, Juice Machine and car carrying case—all in the original packaging from the 1970s. As of January 2009, the Sizzlers line has been discontinued by Target. In 2011,Sizzlershave been re-released asCars 2characters, and were sold at Target stores. This line was calledCharge Upsand released under the Mattelbrand namebut not as part of the Hot Wheels line. Promotion and sponsorships Hot", "sponsorships Hot Wheels appeared in the 2016Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. Motorsports Starting in 1970, professional drag racersDon Prudhomme(\"The Snake\") andTom McEwen(\"The Mongoose\") were sponsored by Hot Wheels, and later on, Hot Wheels created theSnake and Mongoose Drag Setin 1970. Later somewhere in 1972, the second versions of both driver's self-titledfunny carswere released, when McEwen had theMongoose 2, and Prudhomme had theSnake 2. The drag set remained the same. Then, Hot Wheels maderail-typedragster versions of them, based on the actual funny cars and was featured in theWild Wheelie Set. Later in Hot Wheels' lifespan, the normal drag set with Snake and Mongoose were still being produced. The latest set with the Snake and Mongoose is in theDrag-Strip Demonslineup. In 1970, Hot Wheels sponsoredTrans-Am SeriesdriverDan Gurneyand hisAll American Racerscar.In 1992, Hot Wheels sponsored the Trans-Am car ofJack Baldwinas he went on to win that year's championship. Hot Wheels signed a sponsorship deal", "a sponsorship deal in 1997 withNASCARdriverKyle Pettyand the No. 44PE2 Motorsportscarand thus began making replicas of NASCAR stock cars. Three years later, Hot Wheels joined theCraftsman Truck Seriesteam ofCarlos Contrerasand the No. 12 truck.In 2004, Hot Wheels sponsored the No. 99 car ofJeff Burtonfor one race atDarlington Raceway.Six years later, the company returned to NASCAR to sponsor the No. 7JR Motorsportscar ofDanica PatrickatMichigan International Speedway.Hot Wheels made another one-off sponsorship in 2021 for NASCAR driverJade Buford's No. 48Big Machine Racing Teamcar atDarlington Raceway; Buford's paint scheme for the race was modeled after Gurney's Trans-Am car. In 1999, Hot Wheels partnered with fiveFormula Oneteams to manufacture scale model Formula One cars.In 2016, Hot Wheels opened theRace to Winexhibit atThe Children's Museum of Indianapolisto promote the100th Indianapolis 500. From 1999 to 2018, Hot Wheels had aMonster Jamlicense to release monster truck diecasts and field a Hot", "and field a Hot Wheels-themed truck in the real-life shows. The partnership ended in 2019 afterFeld Entertainmentsigned a new ten year toy licensing deal withSpin Masterfor Monster Jam,diecast production stopped and the Hot Wheels team retired. Soon after, Hot Wheels created the Hot Wheels Monster Trucks line and the Hot Wheels Monster Trucks Live show with the non-Monster Jam owned version of theBigfoottruck as a competitor. Monster Jam claimed this as a plagiarism, causing controversy. At the2002 24 Hours of Le Mans, Hot Wheels logos appeared on the sidepods of the pair of MG-Lola EX257 prototypes entered by MG Sport & Racing. Hot Wheels is a partner and sponsor of the Australian stunt riderMatt Mingay's Stuntz Inc team,and also sponsors him in theStadium Super Trucks.After Mingay suffered serious facial injuries at theDetroit Belle Isle Grand Prixin 2016,Robby Gordondrove the No. 2 Hot Wheels truck at theTownsville Street Circuit.Hot Wheels andCastrolreturned to support Mingay when he made his racing", "he made his racing return in 2020. Video games Various video games based on Hot Wheels have been released for numerous consoles, PC's and mobile devices: Pinball A coin-operated pinball machine based on Hot Wheels cars and the Hot Wheels CityYouTubeseries was released by American Pinball in June 2020. See also References External links", "Ruth Handler Ruth Marianna Handler(néeMosko; November 4, 1916 – April 27, 2002) was an American business magnate and inventor. She is best known for inventing theBarbie dollin 1959,and being co-founder of toy manufacturerMattelwith her husbandElliot, as well as serving as the company's first president from 1945 to 1975. The Handlers were forced to resign from Mattel in 1975 after theSecurities and Exchange Commissioninvestigated the company for falsifying financial documents. Handler was prominently characterized in the 2023 filmBarbie. Early life Ruth Marianna Moskowas born on November 4, 1916 inDenver, Colorado, toPolish-Jewishimmigrants Jacob Moskowicz, a blacksmith, and Ida Moskowicz (née-Rubenstein).She was the youngest of ten children.When she was six months old, her parents sent her to live with her older sister Sarah. She stayed with Sarah until she was 19and developed an enthusiasm for business by working at Sarah’s drugstore/soda fountain. In 1932, Ruth fell in love with Izzy Handler,an art student.", "art student. The summer of her sophomore year atUniversity of Denver, she went to Los Angeles and landed a job atParamount Studio. Ruth and Izzy married in 1938 in Denver. Returning to California, Ruth encouraged her husband to become known by his middle name, Elliot.Ruth returned to work at Paramount and Elliot was employed as a lighting fixture designer. Mattel Elliot became interested in furniture-making, and decided to make furniture from two plastics,LuciteandPlexiglas. At Ruth's suggestion, they started a furniture business where Ruth was in charge of sales, and she landed contracts with businesses such asDouglas Aircraft Company. Business executiveHarold \"Matt\" Matsonjoined the Handlers' company, which they renamed Mattel by combining \"Matson\" and \"Elliot\".(Elliot later said that they were unable to think of a way to include Ruth's name.)When sales fell during World War II, Mattel began making toy furniture. Its success spurred the company's transition to toy manufacturing. Barbie Observing her", "Observing her daughter Barbara and friends having fun with paper dolls and role-play adult scenarios, Ruth noticed a market void.Dolls available at that time were mainly babies and toddlers; no dolls were available that resembled adults. During a trip to Europe in 1956 with Barbara and her son Kenneth, Ruth came acrossBild Lilli,a German doll. In an interview with Mary G. Lord, author ofForever Barbie,Handler said that she saw the doll inLucerne, Switzerland. However, the book points out that on other occasions Handler said that she saw it inZürichorVienna. The adult-figured doll was exactly what Ruth had in mind. She purchased three, gave one to her daughter, and took the others to Mattel. The Lilli doll was based on a popular character in a satirical comic strip drawn by Reinhard Beuthin for the newspaperBild.The Lilli doll was first sold in 1955 in Germany, and although initially sold to adults, it became popular with children who enjoyed dressing it in outfits that were available separately. On return to", "On return to the US, Handler redesigned the doll with help from local inventor-designerJack Ryan. She named the doll Barbie after her daughter Barbara, and said that Barbie was from Willows, Wisconsin. Premiering on March 9, 1959 at theAmerican International Toy Fairin New York City,the first Barbie doll cost $3 and was an instant hit.In its first year, 300,000 were sold. The Handlers and Mattel later added a boyfriend for Barbie, namedKenafter the Handlers' son.Eventually a huge range of Barbie dolls was released, portrayed with more than 125 careers,and Barbie became known for her versatility and fashion. The Handlers added cars, sports gear, clothes, and doll furniture to their Barbie products. Later years Handler was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1970. She had amodified radical mastectomy, which was often done at the time to combat the disease. She spent less time at Mattel to focus on improving her health. Her loss of self-esteem affected her leadership, and she lost control of her business. In a 1980", "business. In a 1980 interview, she said: \"When I conceived Barbie, I believed it was important to a little girl’s self-esteem to play with a doll that breasts. Now I find it even more important to return that self-esteem to women who have lost theirs.” Due to difficulties in finding a good breast prosthesis, Handler decided to make her own. With the help of new business partner Peyton Massey, and under her new company, Ruthton Corp., she manufactured a more realistic version of a woman's breast called Nearly Me, aiming to boost women's confidence regardless of their health. The invention became quite popular;first ladyBetty Fordwas fitted for one after a mastectomy. Handler received various awards for her philanthropy and business activities. She was chosen Woman of the Year in Business by theLos Angeles Times, inducted into theToy Industry Hall of Fameby the Toy Manufacturers of America, received the Volunteer Achievement Award from theAmerican Cancer Society, and was the inaugural Woman of Distinction of", "of Distinction of theUnited Jewish Appeal. Following several investigations into fraudulent financial reports, Handler resigned from Mattel in 1975. Investigations continued, and she was charged with fraud and false reporting by theU.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. She pleadedno contestand was fined $57,000 (equivalent to $270,000 in 2023) and sentenced to 2,500 hours of community service. She blamed her illness for making her \"unfocused\" on her business. Handler died on April 27, 2002 in California from complications during surgery forcolon cancer. She was 85. In popular culture Handler is portrayed in the 2023 filmBarbieby actressRhea Perlman. In the film, the ghost of an elderly Handler resides in an office on the 17th floor of Mattel headquarters in Los Angeles. There she meets the movie's stereotypical Barbie (Margot Robbie). Later, while advising Barbie, Handler tells her about her creation and how it related to her daughter, Barbara. Barbie then takes the name \"Barbara Handler\" as her own. The", "as her own. The film stirred a wave of media coverage of Handler. References Further reading External links", "Elliot Handler Elliot Handler(April 9, 1916 – July 21, 2011) was an American inventor, business magnate, and the co-founder ofMattel. With his wife,Ruth Handler, he developed some of the biggest-selling toys in American history, includingBarbie,Chatty Cathy,Creepy Crawlers, andHot Wheels. Early life Isadore \"Izzy\" Elliot Handler was born to aJewishfamily inChicago, Illinois, on April 9, 1916. Handler's parents wereUkrainianJews who largely spokeYiddishwithin their household. The family moved out of Chicago, and Handler grew up on the west side ofDenver, Colorado.He studiedindustrial designat theArt Center College of DesigninPasadena, California. In 1929, he met his future wifeRuth Moskoat aB'nai B'rithdance for teenagers.They dated on and off for years, and were married in June 1938. Shortly after their marriage, his new wife Ruth requested he change his name: partially due to her preferring his middle name \"Elliot\" over \"Izzy\", and partially from her fears ofAmerican antisemitismtoward an obviously Jewish", "an obviously Jewish name like Isadore. He complied. The couple had two children: Barbara, who was the namesake ofBarbiedolls; andKenneth, the namesake ofKendolls.While a struggling art student and designer of light fixtures, Handler partnered with Harold Matson to design a realistic-looking miniature piano that received roughly 300,000 orders; however, they mispriced the product and lost a dime on each one produced. Mattel Mattelreceived its name from business partnersHarold \"Matt\" MatsonandElliot Handler in 1945. Elliot's wife, Ruth, took Matson's role when the Handlers bought his share in the late 1940s. Handler holds credit for developing the first talking dollChatty Cathy,using apull stringtalking mechanism, revolutionizing the toy industry. Mattel continued to develop a number of talking toys, including Chatty Baby, Tiny Chatty Baby, andCharmin' Chatty. Toys were made for cartoon favorites such asBugs BunnyandPorky Pig, and for television characters such asHerman MunsterandMr. Ed. When Handler's", "Ed. When Handler's daughter Barbara married Allan Segal, they created Allan, Ken's friend. The 1965 talking doll Baby Cheryl was named after the Handlers' first grandchild, and the Todd doll in the Barbie line was named after their grandson. Handler was primarily responsible for two additional Mattel product lines. In 1966, Mattel introduced smaller dolls calledLiddle Kiddles. Handler claimed he wanted them to resemble little children in neighborhoods across America. They were sculpted by doll artist Martha Armstrong-Hand. Kiddles were a great success and continued to be produced in different versions until the early 1970s. Another product line wasHot Wheels, introduced in 1968, which gave rise to 10,000 different models. First called Mattel Creations, the company has become the largest toy maker in the world in terms of revenue. In April 2006, Mattel honored Handler with a 90th birthday party at its headquarters inEl Segundo, California. Guests included his daughter Barbara Segal, the namesake of the Barbie", "of the Barbie doll. Personal life Handler died ofheart failureat home inCentury City, a district ofLos Angeles, California, at age 95 on July 21, 2011.Ruth Handler, Elliot's wife, died in 2002; their son Ken died in 1994. Notes References" ]
I have an element in mind and would like you to identify the person it was named after. Here's a clue: The element's atomic number is 9 higher than that of an element discovered by the scientist who discovered Zirconium in the same year.
Mendelevium is named after Dmitri Mendeleev.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelevium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelevium', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelevium", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table" ]
[ "Zirconium Zirconiumis achemical element; it hassymbolZrandatomic number40. First identified in 1789, isolated in impure form in 1824, and manufactured at scale by 1925, pure zirconium is a lustroustransition metalwith a greyish-white color that closely resembleshafniumand, to a lesser extent,titanium. It is solid at room temperature,ductile,malleableandcorrosion-resistant. The namezirconiumis derived from the name of the mineralzircon, the most important source of zirconium. The word is related toPersianzargun(zircon;zar-gun, \"gold-like\" or \"as gold\").Besides zircon, zirconium occurs in over 140 other minerals, includingbaddeleyiteandeudialyte; most zirconium is produced as a byproduct of minerals mined for titanium andtin. Zirconium forms a variety ofinorganiccompounds, such aszirconium dioxide, andorganometallic compounds, such aszirconocene dichloride. Fiveisotopesoccur naturally, four of which are stable. The metal and its alloys are mainly used as arefractoryandopacifier; pure zirconium plays a vital role in the construction ofnuclear reactorsdue to strong resistance to corrosion and low nuclear reaction cross section, and in space vehicles and turbine blades where high heat resistance is necessary. Zirconium also finds uses inflashbulbs, biomedical applications such asdental implantsandprosthetics,deodorant, andwater purificationsystems. Zirconium compounds have no known biological role, though the element is widely distributed in nature and appears in small quantities in biological systems without adverse effects. There is no indication of zirconium as a carcinogen. The main hazards posed by zirconium are flammability in powder form and irritation of the eyes. Characteristics Zirconium is alustrous, greyish-white, soft, ductile, malleable metal that is solid at room temperature, though it is hard andbrittleat lesser purities.In powder form, zirconium is highly flammable, but the solid form is much less prone to ignition. Zirconium is highly resistant to corrosion by alkalis, acids, salt water and other agents.However, it will dissolve inhydrochloricandsulfuric acid, especially whenfluorineis present.Alloyswithzincaremagneticat less than 35 K. Themelting pointof zirconium is 1855 °C (3371 °F), and theboiling pointis 4409 °C (7968 °F).Zirconium has anelectronegativityof 1.33 on the Pauling scale. Of the elements within thed-blockwith known electronegativities, zirconium has the fourth lowest electronegativity afterhafnium,yttrium, andlutetium. At room temperature zirconium exhibits a hexagonally close-packed crystal structure, α-Zr, which changes to β-Zr, a body-centered cubic crystal structure, at 863 °C. Zirconium exists in the β-phase until the melting point. Isotopes Naturally occurring zirconium is composed of five isotopes.90Zr,91Zr,92Zr and94Zr are stable, although94Zr is predicted to undergodouble beta decay(not observed experimentally) with ahalf-lifeof more than 1.10×1017years.96Zr has a half-life of 2.34×1019years, and is the longest-lived radioisotope of zirconium. Of these natural isotopes,90Zr is the most common, making up 51.45% of all zirconium.96Zr is the least common, comprising only 2.80% of zirconium. Thirty-three artificial isotopes of zirconium have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 77 to 114.93Zris the longest-lived artificial isotope, with a half-life of 1.61×106years. Radioactive isotopes at or above mass number 93 decay byelectron emission, whereas those at or below 89 decay bypositron emission. The only exception is88Zr, which decays byelectron capture. Thirteen isotopes of zirconium also exist asmetastable isomers:83m1Zr,83m2Zr,85mZr,87mZr,88mZr,89mZr,90m1Zr,90m2Zr,91mZr,97mZr,98mZr,99mZr, and108mZr. Of these,97mZr has the shortest half-life at 104.8 nanoseconds.89mZr is the longest lived with a half-life of 4.161 minutes. Occurrence Zirconium has a concentration of about 130 mg/kg within theEarth's crustand about 0.026 μg/L insea water. It is the 18th most abundant element in the crust.It is not found in nature as anative metal, reflecting its intrinsic instability with respect to water. The principal commercial source of zirconium iszircon(ZrSiO4), asilicate mineral,which is found primarily in Australia, Brazil, India, Russia, South Africa and the United States, as well as in smaller deposits around the world.As of 2013, two-thirds of zircon mining occurs in Australia and South Africa.Zircon resources exceed 60 milliontonnesworldwideand annual worldwide zirconium production is approximately 900,000 tonnes.Zirconium also occurs in more than 140 other minerals, including the commercially useful oresbaddeleyiteandeudialyte. Zirconium is relatively abundant inS-type stars, and has been detected in the sun and in meteorites. Lunar rock samples brought back from severalApollomissions to the moon have a high zirconium oxide content relative to terrestrial rocks. EPR spectroscopyhas been used in investigations of the unusual 3+ valence state of zirconium. The EPR spectrum of Zr3+, which has been initially observed as a parasitic signal in Fe‐doped single crystals of ScPO4, was definitively identified by preparing single crystals of ScPO4doped with isotopically enriched (94.6%)91Zr. Single crystals of LuPO4and YPO4doped with both naturally abundant and isotopically enriched Zr have also been grown and investigated. Production Occurrence Zirconium is a by-product formed after mining and processing of thetitaniummineralsilmeniteandrutile, as well astinmining.From 2003 to 2007, while prices for the mineral zircon steadily increased from $360 to $840 per tonne, the price for unwrought zirconium metal decreased from $39,900 to $22,700 per ton. Zirconium metal is much more expensive thanzirconbecause the reduction processes are costly. Collected from coastal waters, zircon-bearing sand is purified byspiral concentratorsto separate lighter materials, which are then returned to the water because they are natural components of beach sand. Usingmagnetic separation, the titanium oresilmeniteandrutileare removed. Most zircon is used directly in commercial applications, but a small percentage is converted to the metal. Most Zr metal is produced by the reduction of thezirconium(IV) chloridewithmagnesiummetal in theKroll process.The resulting metal issintereduntil sufficiently ductile for metalworking. Separation of zirconium and hafnium Commercial zirconium metal typically contains 1–3% ofhafnium,which is usually not problematic because the chemical properties of hafnium and zirconium are very similar. Their neutron-absorbing properties differ strongly, however, necessitating the separation of hafnium from zirconium for nuclear reactors.Several separation schemes are in use.Theliquid-liquid extractionof thethiocyanate-oxide derivatives exploits the fact that the hafnium derivative is slightly more soluble inmethyl isobutyl ketonethan in water. This method accounts for roughly two-thirds of pure zirconium production,though other methods are being researched;for instance, in India, a TBP-nitrate solvent extraction process is used for the separation of zirconium from other metals.Zr and Hf can also be separated byfractional crystallizationof potassium hexafluorozirconate (K2ZrF6), which is less soluble in water than the analogous hafnium derivative.Fractional distillationof the tetrachlorides, also calledextractive distillation, is also used. Vacuumarc melting, combined with the use of hot extruding techniques andsupercooledcopper hearths, is capable of producing zirconium that has been purified of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Hafnium must be removed from zirconium for nuclear applications because hafnium has a neutron absorption cross-section 600 times greater than zirconium.The separated hafnium can be used for reactorcontrol rods. Compounds Like othertransition metals, zirconium forms a wide range ofinorganic compoundsandcoordination complexes.In general, these compounds are colourless diamagnetic solids wherein zirconium has theoxidation state+4. Some organometallic compounds are considered to have Zr(II) oxidation state.Non-equilibrium oxidation states between 0 and 4 have been detected during zirconium oxidation. Oxides, nitrides, and carbides The most common oxide iszirconium dioxide, ZrO2, also known aszirconia. This clear to white-coloured solid has exceptionalfracture toughness(for a ceramic) and chemical resistance, especially in itscubicform.These properties make zirconia useful as athermal barriercoating,although it is also a commondiamondsubstitute.Zirconium monoxide, ZrO, is also known andS-type starsare recognised by detection of its emission lines. Zirconium tungstatehas the unusual property of shrinking in all dimensions when heated, whereas most other substances expand when heated.Zirconyl chlorideis one of the few water-soluble zirconium complexes, with the formula Cl8. Zirconium carbideandzirconium nitrideare refractory solids. Both are highlycorrosion-resistant and find uses in high-temperature resistant coatings and cutting tools.Zirconium hydride phases are known to form when zirconium alloys are exposed to large quantities ofhydrogenover time; due to the brittleness of zirconium hydrides relative to zirconium alloys, the mitigation of zirconium hydride formation was highly studied during the development of the first commercialnuclear reactors, in which zirconium carbide was a frequently used material. Lead zirconate titanate(PZT) is the most commonly usedpiezoelectricmaterial, being used astransducersandactuatorsin medical andmicroelectromechanical systemsapplications. Halides and pseudohalides All four common halides are known,ZrF4,ZrCl4,ZrBr4, andZrI4. All have polymeric structures and are far less volatile than the corresponding titanium tetrahalides; they find applications in the formation of organic complexes such aszirconocene dichloride.All tend tohydrolyseto give the so-called oxyhalides and dioxides. Fusion of the tetrahalides with additional metal gives lower zirconium halides (e.g.ZrCl3). These adopt a layered structure, conducting within the layers but not perpendicular thereto. The corresponding tetraalkoxidesare also known. Unlike the halides, the alkoxides dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Dihydrogen hexafluorozirconate is used in the metal finishing industry as an etching agent to promote paint adhesion. Organic derivatives Organozirconium chemistryis key toZiegler–Natta catalysts, used to producepolypropylene. This application exploits the ability of zirconium to reversibly form bonds to carbon. Zirconocene dibromide ((C5H5)2ZrBr2), reported in 1952 by Birmingham andWilkinson, was the first organozirconium compound.Schwartz's reagent, prepared in 1970 by P. C. Wailes and H. Weigold,is ametalloceneused inorganic synthesisfor transformations ofalkenesandalkynes. Many complexes of Zr(II) are derivatives of zirconocene,one example being (C5Me5)2Zr(CO)2. History The zirconium-containing mineral zircon and related minerals (jargoon,jacinth, or hyacinth,ligure) were mentioned in biblical writings.The mineral was not known to contain a new element until 1789,whenKlaprothanalyzed a jargoon from the island of Ceylon (nowSri Lanka). He named the new element Zirkonerde (zirconia),related to thePersianzargun(zircon;zar-gun, \"gold-like\" or \"as gold\").Humphry Davyattempted to isolate this new element in 1808 throughelectrolysis, but failed.Zirconium metal was first obtained in an impure form in 1824 byBerzeliusby heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride in an iron tube. Thecrystal bar process(also known as theIodide Process), discovered byAnton Eduard van ArkelandJan Hendrik de Boerin 1925, was the first industrial process for the commercial production of metallic zirconium. It involves the formation and subsequentthermal decompositionofzirconium tetraiodide(ZrI4), and was superseded in 1945 by the much cheaperKroll processdeveloped byWilliam Justin Kroll, in which zirconium tetrachloride (ZrCl4) is reduced by magnesium: ZrCl4+2Mg⟶Zr+2MgCl2{\\displaystyle {\\ce {ZrCl4 + 2Mg -> Zr + 2MgCl2}}} Applications Approximately 900,000 tonnes of zirconium ores were mined in 1995, mostly as zircon. Most zircon is used directly in high-temperature applications. Because it is refractory, hard, and resistant to chemical attack, zircon finds many applications. Its main use is as an opacifier, conferring a white, opaque appearance to ceramic materials. Because of its chemical resistance, zircon is also used in aggressive environments, such as moulds for molten metals. Zirconium dioxide(ZrO2) is used in laboratory crucibles, in metallurgical furnaces, and as a refractory materialBecause it is mechanically strong and flexible, it can besinteredintoceramic knivesand other blades.Zircon (ZrSiO4) andcubic zirconia(ZrO2) are cut into gemstones for use in jewelry. Zirconium dioxide is a component in someabrasives, such as grinding wheels andsandpaper.Zircon is also used indating of rocksfrom about the time of the Earth's formation through the measurement of its inherentradioisotopes, most oftenuraniumandlead. A small fraction of the zircon is converted to the metal, which finds various niche applications. Because of zirconium's excellent resistance to corrosion, it is often used as an alloying agent in materials that are exposed to aggressive environments, such as surgical appliances, light filaments, and watch cases. The high reactivity of zirconium with oxygen at high temperatures is exploited in some specialised applications such as explosive primers and asgettersinvacuum tubes.Zirconium powder is used as a degassing agent in electron tubes, while zirconium wire and sheets are utilized for grid andanodesupports.Burning zirconium was used as a light source in somephotographic flashbulbs. Zirconium powder with amesh sizefrom 10 to 80 is occasionally used in pyrotechnic compositions to generatesparks. The high reactivity of zirconium leads to bright white sparks. Nuclear applications Cladding for nuclear reactor fuels consumes about 1% of the zirconium supply,mainly in the form ofzircaloys. The desired properties of these alloys are a low neutron-capturecross-sectionand resistance to corrosion under normal service conditions.Efficient methods for removing the hafnium impurities were developed to serve this purpose. One disadvantage of zirconium alloys is the reactivity with water, producinghydrogen, leading to degradation of thefuel rod cladding: Zr+2H2O⟶ZrO2+2H2{\\displaystyle {\\ce {Zr + 2H2O -> ZrO2 + 2H2}}} Hydrolysis is very slow below 100 °C, but rapid at temperature above 900 °C. Most metals undergo similar reactions. The redox reaction is relevant to the instability offuel assembliesat high temperatures.This reaction occurred in the reactors 1, 2 and 3 of theFukushima I Nuclear Power Plant(Japan) after the reactor cooling was interrupted by theearthquake and tsunamidisaster of March 11, 2011, leading to theFukushima I nuclear accidents. After venting the hydrogen in the maintenance hall of those three reactors, the mixture of hydrogen with atmosphericoxygenexploded, severely damaging the installations and at least one of the containment buildings. Zirconium is a constituent ofuranium zirconium hydrides, nuclear fuels used inresearch reactors. Space and aeronautic industries Materials fabricated from zirconium metal and ZrO2are used in space vehicles where resistance to heat is needed. High temperature parts such as combustors, blades, and vanes injet enginesand stationarygas turbinesare increasingly being protected by thinceramiclayers and/or paintable coatings, usually composed of a mixture of zirconia andyttria. Zirconium is also used as a material of first choice forhydrogen peroxide(H2O2) tanks, propellant lines, valves, and thrusters, inpropulsion space systemssuch as these equipping theSierra Space'sDream Chaserspaceplanewhere thethrustis provided by thecombustionofkeroseneand hydrogen peroxide, a powerful, but unstable,oxidizer. The reason is that zirconium has an excellentcorrosion resistancetoH2O2and, above all, do notcatalyseits spontaneous self-decomposition as theionsof manytransition metalsdo. Medical uses Zirconium-bearing compounds are used in many biomedical applications, including dental implants andcrowns, knee and hip replacements, middle-earossicularchain reconstruction, and other restorative andprostheticdevices. Zirconium bindsurea, a property that has been utilized extensively to the benefit of patients withchronic kidney disease.For example, zirconium is a primary component of thesorbentcolumn dependent dialysate regeneration and recirculation system known as the REDY system, which was first introduced in 1973. More than 2,000,000dialysistreatments have been performed using the sorbent column in the REDY system.Although the REDY system was superseded in the 1990s by less expensive alternatives, new sorbent-based dialysis systems are being evaluated and approved by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration(FDA). Renal Solutions developed the DIALISORB technology, a portable, low water dialysis system. Also, developmental versions of a Wearable Artificial Kidney have incorporated sorbent-based technologies. Sodium zirconium cyclosilicateis used by mouth in the treatment ofhyperkalemia. It is a selective sorbent designed to trappotassiumions in preference to otherionsthroughout the gastrointestinal tract. Mixtures of monomeric and polymeric Zr4+and Al3+complexes withhydroxide,chlorideandglycine, calledaluminium zirconium glycinesalts, are used in a preparation as anantiperspirantin manydeodorantproducts. It has been used since the early 1960s, as it was determined more efficacious as an antiperspirant than contemporary active ingredients such asaluminium chlorohydrate. Defunct applications Zirconium carbonate (3ZrO2·CO2·H2O) was used in lotions to treatpoison ivybut was discontinued because it occasionally caused skin reactions. Safety Although zirconium has no known biological role, the human body contains, on average, 250 milligrams of zirconium, and daily intake is approximately 4.15 milligrams (3.5 milligrams from food and 0.65 milligrams from water), depending on dietary habits.Zirconium is widely distributed in nature and is found in all biological systems, for example: 2.86 μg/g in whole wheat, 3.09 μg/g in brown rice, 0.55 μg/g inspinach, 1.23 μg/g in eggs, and 0.86 μg/g in ground beef.Further, zirconium is commonly used in commercial products (e.g.deodorantsticks, aerosolantiperspirants) and also in water purification (e.g. control ofphosphoruspollution, bacteria- and pyrogen-contaminated water). Short-term exposure to zirconium powder can cause irritation, but only contact with the eyes requires medical attention.Persistent exposure tozirconium tetrachlorideresults in increased mortality in rats and guinea pigs and a decrease of bloodhemoglobinandred blood cellsin dogs. However, in a study of 20 rats given a standard diet containing ~4% zirconium oxide, there were no adverse effects on growth rate, blood and urine parameters, or mortality.The U.S.Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for zirconium exposure is 5 mg/m3over an 8-hour workday. TheNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health(NIOSH)recommended exposure limit(REL) is 5 mg/m3over an 8-hour workday and a short term limit of 10 mg/m3. At levels of 25 mg/m3, zirconium isimmediately dangerous to life and health.However, zirconium is not considered an industrial health hazard.Furthermore, reports of zirconium-related adverse reactions are rare and, in general, rigorous cause-and-effect relationships have not been established.No evidence has been validated that zirconium is carcinogenic or genotoxic. Among the numerous radioactive isotopes of zirconium,93Zr is among the most common. It is released as aproduct of nuclear fissionof235U and239Pu, mainly in nuclear power plants and during nuclear weapons tests in the 1950s and 1960s. It has a very long half-life (1.53 million years), its decay emits only low energy radiations, and it is not considered particularly hazardous. See also Notes References External links", "Martin Heinrich Klaproth Martin Heinrich Klaproth(1 December 1743 – 1 January 1817) was a Germanchemist.He trained and worked for much of his life as anapothecary, moving in later life to the university. His shop became the second-largest apothecary in Berlin, and the most productive artisanal chemical research center in Europe. Klaproth was a major systematizer ofanalytical chemistry,and an independent inventor ofgravimetric analysis.His attention to detail and refusal to ignore discrepancies in results led to improvements in the use of apparatus. He was a major figure in understanding the composition of minerals and characterizing the elements.Klaproth discovereduranium(1789)andzirconium(1789). He was also involved in the discovery or co-discovery oftitanium(1795),strontium(1793),cerium(1803), andchromium(1797) and confirmed the previous discoveries oftellurium(1798) andberyllium(1798). Klaproth was a member and director of theBerlin Academy of Sciences.He was recognized internationally as a member of theRoyal Societyin London,theInstitut de France, and theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Career Klaproth was born inWernigerode.He was the son of atailor, and attended the Latin school at Wernigerode for four years. For much of his life he followed the profession ofapothecary. In 1759, when he was 16 years old, he apprenticed at Quedlinburg. In 1764, he became a journeyman. He trained in pharmacies atQuedlinburg(1759–1766);Hanover(1766–1768, withAugust Hermann Brande); Berlin (1768); andDanzig(1770). In 1771, Klaproth returned to Berlin to work forValentin Rose the Elderas manager of his business. Following Rose's death, Klaproth passed the required examinations to become senior manager. Following his marriage in 1780, he was able to buy his own establishment, the Apotheke zum Baren. Between 1782 and 1800, Klaproth published 84 papers based on researches carried out in the Apotheke's laboratory. His shop was the most productive site of artisanal chemistry investigations in Europe at that time. Beginning in 1782, he was the assessor of pharmacy for the examining board of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 Klaproth was appointed lecturer inchemistryto thePrussianRoyal Artillery. In 1788, Klaproth became an unsalaried member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1800, he became the salaried director of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He sold the apothecary and moved to the academy, where he convinced the university to build a new laboratory. Upon completion in 1802, Klaproth moved the equipment from his apothecary laboratory into the new building.When theUniversity of Berlinwas founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of chemistry. He died in Berlin on New Year's Day in 1817. Contributions An exact and conscientious worker, Klaproth did much to improve and systematise the processes ofanalytical chemistryandmineralogy. His appreciation of the value of quantitative methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents of theLavoisieriandoctrines outside France. Klaproth was the first to discoveruranium, identifying it first intorbernitebut doing the majority of his research on it with the mineralpitchblende.On 24 September 1789 he announced his discovery to the Royal Prussian Academy of sciences in Berlin.He also discoveredzirconiumin 1789,separating it in the form of its “earth” zirconia, oxide ZrO2.Klaproth analyzed a brightly-colored form of the mineral called \"hyacinth\" from Ceylon. He gave the new element the name zirconium based on its Persian name \"zargun\", gold-colored.: 515 Klaproth characterised uranium and zirconium as distinctelements, though he was unable to isolate them. Klaproth independently discoveredcerium(1803), arare earth element, around the same time asJöns Jacob BerzeliusandWilhelm Hisinger, in the winter of 1803. William Gregorof Cornwall was the first to identify the elementtitaniumin 1791, correctly concluding that he had found a new element in the oreilmenitefrom the Menachan valley. He proposed the name \"menachanite\", but his discovery attracted little attention.: 497Klaproth verified the presence of an oxide of an unknown element in the orerutilefrom Hungary in 1795. Klaproth suggested the name \"titanium\". It was later determined that menachanite and titanium were the same element, from two different minerals, and Klaproth's name was adopted. Klaproth clarified the composition of numerous substances until then imperfectly known, including compounds of then newly recognised elementstellurium,strontiumandchromium.Chromiumwas discovered in 1797 byLouis Nicolas Vauquelinand independently discovered in 1798 by Klaproth and byTobias Lowitz, in a mineral from the Ural mountains.: 578–580Klaproth confirmed chromium's independent status as an element. The existence oftelluriumwas first suggested in 1783 byFranz-Joseph Mueller von Reichenstein, an Austrian mining engineer who was examining Transylvanian gold samples. Tellurium was also discovered independently by HungarianPál Kitaibelin 1789. Mueller sent some of his mineral to Klaproth in 1796. Klaproth isolated the new substance and confirmed the identification of the new elementtelluriumin 1798. He credited Mueller as its discoverer, and suggested that theheavy metalbe named \"tellus\", Latin for 'earth'.: 1067: 12–16 In 1790Adair CrawfordandWilliam Cruickshankdetermined that the mineralstrontianite, found nearStrontianin Scotland, was different from barium-based minerals.Klaproth was one of several scientists involved in the characterization ofstrontiumcompounds and minerals.Klaproth,Thomas Charles Hope, andRichard Kirwanindependently studied and reported on the properties of strontianite, the preparation of compounds of strontium, and their differentiation from those of barium. In September 1793, Klaproth published on the separation of strontium frombarium, and in 1794 on the preparation of strontium oxide and strontium hydroxide.In 1808,Humphry Davybecame the first to successfully isolate the pure element. Louis Nicolas Vauquelinreported the existence of a new element common to emerald and beryl in 1798, and suggested that it be named \"glucine\". Klaproth confirmed the presence of a new element, and became involved in a lengthy and ongoing debate over its name by suggesting \"beryllia\". The element was first isolated in 1828, independently byFriedrich WöhlerandAntoine Bussy. Only in 1949 didIUPACrule exclusively in favor of the nameberyllium.: 348–352 Klaproth published extensively, collecting over 200 papers by himself inBeiträge zur chemischen Kenntnis der Mineralkörper(5 vols., 1795–1810) andChemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts(1815). He also published aChemisches Wörterbuch(1807–1810), and edited a revised edition ofF. A. C. Gren'sHandbuch der Chemie(1806). Klaproth became a foreign member of theRoyal Societyof Londonin 1795,and a foreign member of theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciencesin 1804.He also belonged to theInstitut de France. The craterKlaprothon theMoonis named after him. In 1823, botanistCarl Sigismund Kunthpublished a genus offlowering plants(belonging to the familyLoasaceae), from Central America asKlaprothiain his honour. His sonJuliuswas a famousorientalist. Works Bibliography Additional resources See also References External links", "Uranium Uraniumis achemical elementwith thesymbolUandatomic number92. It is a silvery-greymetalin theactinideseries of theperiodic table. A uranium atom has 92protonsand 92electrons, of which 6 arevalence electrons. Uraniumradioactively decays, usually by emitting analpha particle. Thehalf-lifeof this decay varies between 159,200 and 4.5 billion years for differentisotopes, making them useful for dating theage of the Earth. The most common isotopes innatural uraniumareuranium-238(which has 146neutronsand accounts for over 99% of uranium on Earth) anduranium-235(which has 143 neutrons). Uranium has the highestatomic weightof theprimordiallyoccurring elements. Itsdensityis about 70% higher than that ofleadand slightly lower than that ofgoldortungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a fewparts per millionin soil, rock and water, and is commerciallyextractedfrom uranium-bearingmineralssuch asuraninite. Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its uniquenuclearproperties. Uranium-235 is the only naturally occurringfissileisotope, which makes it widely used innuclear power plantsandnuclear weapons. However, because of the low abundance of uranium-235 in natural uranium (which is, overwhelmingly, mostly uranium-238), uranium needs to undergoenrichmentso that enough uranium-235 is present. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons and isfertile, meaning it can betransmutedto fissileplutonium-239in anuclear reactor. Another fissile isotope,uranium-233, can be produced from naturalthoriumand is studied for future industrial use in nuclear technology. Uranium-238 has a small probability forspontaneous fissionor even induced fission with fast neutrons; uranium-235, and to a lesser degree uranium-233, have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons. In sufficient concentration, these isotopes maintain a sustainednuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat innuclear power reactorsand produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. The primary civilian use for uranium harnesses the heat energy to produce electricity.Depleted uranium(238U) is used inkinetic energy penetratorsandarmor plating. The 1789discoveryof uranium in the mineralpitchblendeis credited toMartin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the recently discovered planetUranus.Eugène-Melchior Péligotwas the first person to isolate the metal, and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 byHenri Becquerel. Research byOtto Hahn,Lise Meitner,Enrico Fermiand others, such asJ. Robert Oppenheimerstarting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in thenuclear powerindustry and inLittle Boy, thefirst nuclear weapon used in war. An ensuingarms raceduring theCold Warbetween theUnited Statesand theSoviet Unionproduced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium-derivedplutonium-239. Dismantling of these weapons and related nuclear facilities is carried out within variousnuclear disarmamentprograms and costs billions of dollars. Weapon-grade uranium obtained from nuclear weapons is diluted with uranium-238 and reused as fuel for nuclear reactors.Spent nuclear fuelformsradioactive waste, which mostly consists of uranium-238 and poses a significant health threat andenvironmental impact. Characteristics Uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactivemetal. It has aMohs hardnessof 6, sufficient to scratch glass and roughly equal to that oftitanium,rhodium,manganeseandniobium. It ismalleable,ductile, slightlyparamagnetic, stronglyelectropositiveand a poorelectrical conductor.Uranium metal has a very highdensityof 19.1 g/cm3,denser thanlead(11.3 g/cm3),but slightly less dense thantungstenandgold(19.3 g/cm3). Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metallic elements (exceptnoble gases) and theircompounds, with reactivity increasing with temperature.Hydrochloricandnitric acidsdissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element very slowly.When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer ofuranium oxide.Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted intouranium dioxideor other chemical forms usable in industry. Uranium-235 was the first isotope that was found to befissile. Other naturally occurring isotopes are fissionable, but not fissile. On bombardment with slow neutrons, uranium-235 most of the time splits into two smallernuclei, releasing nuclearbinding energyand more neutrons. If too many of these neutrons are absorbed by other uranium-235 nuclei, anuclear chain reactionoccurs that results in a burst of heat or (in some circumstances) an explosion. In a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction is slowed and controlled by aneutron poison, absorbing some of the free neutrons. Such neutron absorbent materials are often part of reactorcontrol rods(seenuclear reactor physicsfor a description of this process of reactor control). As little as 15 lb (6.8 kg) of uranium-235 can be used to make an atomic bomb.The nuclear weapon detonated overHiroshima, calledLittle Boy, relied on uranium fission. However, the first nuclear bomb (theGadgetused atTrinity) and the bomb that was detonated over Nagasaki (Fat Man) were both plutonium bombs. Uranium metal has threeallotropicforms: Applications Military The major application of uranium in the military sector is in high-density penetrators. This ammunition consists ofdepleted uranium(DU) alloyed with 1–2% other elements, such astitaniumormolybdenum.At high impact speed, the density, hardness, andpyrophoricityof the projectile enable the destruction of heavily armored targets. Tank armor and other removablevehicle armorcan also be hardened with depleted uranium plates. The use of depleted uranium became politically and environmentally contentious after the use of such munitions by the US, UK and other countries during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised questions concerning uranium compounds left in the soil (seeGulf War syndrome). Depleted uranium is also used as a shielding material in some containers used to store and transport radioactive materials. While the metal itself is radioactive, its high density makes it more effective thanleadin halting radiation from strong sources such asradium.Other uses of depleted uranium include counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, as ballast for missilere-entry vehiclesand as a shielding material.Due to its high density, this material is found ininertial guidance systemsand ingyroscopiccompasses.Depleted uranium is preferred over similarly dense metals due to its ability to be easily machined and cast as well as its relatively low cost.The main risk of exposure to depleted uranium is chemical poisoning byuranium oxiderather than radioactivity (uranium being only a weakalpha emitter). During the later stages ofWorld War II, the entireCold War, and to a lesser extent afterwards, uranium-235 has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons. Initially, two major types of fission bombs were built: a relatively simple device that uses uranium-235 and a more complicated mechanism that usesplutonium-239derived from uranium-238. Later, a much more complicated and far more powerful type of fission/fusion bomb (thermonuclear weapon) was built, that uses a plutonium-based device to cause a mixture oftritiumanddeuteriumto undergonuclear fusion. Such bombs are jacketed in a non-fissile (unenriched) uranium case, and they derive more than half their power from the fission of this material byfast neutronsfrom the nuclear fusion process. Civilian The main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to fuelnuclear power plants. One kilogram of uranium-235 can theoretically produce about 20terajoulesof energy (2×1013joules), assuming complete fission; as muchenergyas 1.5 million kilograms (1,500tonnes) ofcoal. Commercialnuclear powerplants use fuel that is typically enriched to around 3% uranium-235.TheCANDUandMagnoxdesigns are the only commercial reactors capable of using unenriched uranium fuel. Fuel used forUnited States Navyreactors is typically highly enriched inuranium-235(the exact values areclassified). In abreeder reactor, uranium-238 can also be converted into plutonium-239 through the following reaction: Before (and, occasionally, after) the discovery of radioactivity, uranium was primarily used in small amounts for yellow glass and pottery glazes, such asuranium glassand inFiestaware. The discovery and isolation ofradiumin uranium ore (pitchblende) byMarie Curiesparked the development of uranium mining to extract the radium, which was used to make glow-in-the-dark paints for clock and aircraft dials.This left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a waste product, since it takes three tonnes of uranium to extract one gram of radium. This waste product was diverted to the glazing industry, making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant. Besides the pottery glazes,uranium tileglazes accounted for the bulk of the use, including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be produced in green, yellow,mauve, black, blue, red and other colors. Uranium was also used inphotographicchemicals (especiallyuranium nitrateas atoner),in lamp filaments forstage lightingbulbs,to improve the appearance ofdentures,and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes. Uranium salts aremordantsof silk or wool.Uranyl acetateanduranyl formateare used as electron-dense \"stains\" intransmission electron microscopy, to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and innegative stainingofviruses, isolatedcell organellesandmacromolecules. The discovery of the radioactivity of uranium ushered in additional scientific and practical uses of the element. The longhalf-lifeof uranium-238 (4.47×109years) makes it well-suited for use in estimating the age of the earliestigneous rocksand for other types ofradiometric dating, includinguranium–thorium dating,uranium–lead datinganduranium–uranium dating. Uranium metal is used forX-raytargets in the making of high-energy X-rays. History Pre-discovery use The use ofpitchblende, uranium in its naturaloxideform, dates back to at least the year 79 AD, when it was used in theRoman Empireto add a yellow color toceramicglazes.Yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on CapePosillipoin theBay of Naples, Italy, by R. T. Gunther of theUniversity of Oxfordin 1912.Starting in the lateMiddle Ages, pitchblende was extracted from theHabsburgsilver mines inJoachimsthal,Bohemia(now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic) in theOre Mountains, and was used as a coloring agent in the localglassmakingindustry.In the early 19th century, the world's only known sources of uranium ore were these mines. Discovery Thediscoveryof the element is credited to the German chemistMartin Heinrich Klaproth. While he was working in his experimental laboratory inBerlinin 1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likelysodium diuranate) by dissolvingpitchblendeinnitric acidand neutralizing the solution withsodium hydroxide.Klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet-undiscovered element and heated it withcharcoalto obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was anoxide of uranium).He named the newly discovered element after the planetUranus(named after the primordialGreek god of the sky), which had been discovered eight years earlier byWilliam Herschel. In 1841,Eugène-Melchior Péligot, Professor of Analytical Chemistry at theConservatoire National des Arts et Métiers(Central School of Arts and Manufactures) inParis, isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heatinguranium tetrachloridewithpotassium. Henri Becquereldiscovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896.Becquerel made the discovery in Paris by leaving a sample of a uranium salt, K2UO2(SO4)2(potassium uranyl sulfate), on top of an unexposedphotographic platein a drawer and noting that the plate had become \"fogged\".He determined that a form of invisible light or rays emitted by uranium had exposed the plate. During World War I when theCentral Powerssuffered a shortage of molybdenum to make artillery gun barrels and high speed tool steels, they routinely usedferrouraniumalloy as a substitute, as it presents many of the same physical characteristics as molybdenum. When this practice became known in 1916 the US government requested several prominent universities to research the use of uranium in manufacturing and metalwork. Tools made with these formulas remained in use for several decades,until theManhattan Projectand theCold Warplaced a large demand on uranium for fission research and weapon development. Fission research A team led byEnrico Fermiin 1934 found that bombarding uranium with neutrons producesbeta rays(electronsorpositronsfrom the elements produced; seebeta particle).The fission products were at first mistaken for new elements with atomic numbers 93 and 94, which the Dean of theSapienza University of Rome,Orso Mario Corbino, namedausenium and hesperium, respectively.The experiments leading to the discovery of uranium's ability to fission (break apart) into lighter elements and releasebinding energywere conducted byOtto HahnandFritz Strassmannin Hahn's laboratory in Berlin.Lise Meitnerand her nephew, physicistOtto Robert Frisch, published the physical explanation in February 1939 and named the process \"nuclear fission\".Soon after, Fermi hypothesized that fission of uranium might release enough neutrons to sustain a fission reaction. Confirmation of this hypothesis came in 1939, and later work found that on average about 2.5 neutrons are released by each fission of uranium-235.Fermi urgedAlfred O. C. Nierto separate uranium isotopes for determination of the fissile component, and on 29 February 1940, Nier used an instrument he built at theUniversity of Minnesotato separate the world's firsturanium-235sample in the Tate Laboratory. UsingColumbia University'scyclotron,John Dunningconfirmed the sample to be the isolated fissile material on 1 March.Further work found that the far more common uranium-238 isotope can betransmutedinto plutonium, which, like uranium-235, is also fissile by thermal neutrons. These discoveries led numerous countries to begin working on the development of nuclear weapons andnuclear power. Despite fission having been discovered in Germany, theUranverein(\"uranium club\") Germany's wartime project to research nuclear power and/or weapons was hampered by limited resources, infighting, the exile or non-involvement of several prominent scientists in the field and several crucial mistakes such as failing to account for impurities in available graphite samples which made it appear less suitable as aneutron moderatorthan it is in reality. Germany's attempts to build anatural uranium/heavy waterreactor had not come close to reaching criticality by the time the Americans reachedHaigerloch, the site of the last German wartime reactor experiment. On 2 December 1942, as part of theManhattan Project, another team led by Enrico Fermi was able to initiate the first artificial self-sustainednuclear chain reaction,Chicago Pile-1. An initial plan using enriched uranium-235 was abandoned as it was as yet unavailable in sufficient quantities.Working in a lab below the stands ofStagg Fieldat theUniversity of Chicago, the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 360 tonnes ofgraphite, 53 tonnes ofuranium oxide, and 5.5 tonnes of uranium metal, most of which was supplied byWestinghouse Lamp Plantin a makeshift production process. Nuclear weaponry Two types of atomic bomb were developed by the United States duringWorld War II: a uranium-based device (codenamed \"Little Boy\") whose fissile material was highlyenriched uranium, and a plutonium-based device (seeTrinity testand \"Fat Man\") whose plutonium was derived from uranium-238. Little Boy became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated overHiroshima,Japan, on 6 August 1945. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes ofTNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed about 75,000 people (seeAtomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki).Initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare, and thatnuclear proliferationcould be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks, but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world. Reactors TheX-10 Graphite ReactoratOak Ridge National Laboratory(ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, formerly known as the Clinton Pile and X-10 Pile, was the world's second artificial nuclear reactor (after Enrico Fermi's Chicago Pile) and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation.Argonne National Laboratory'sExperimental Breeder Reactor I, located at the Atomic Energy Commission's National Reactor Testing Station nearArco, Idaho, became the first nuclear reactor to create electricity on 20 December 1951.Initially, four 150-watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor, but improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole facility (later, the town of Arco became the first in the world to have all itselectricitycome from nuclear power generated byBORAX-III, another reactor designed and operated byArgonne National Laboratory).The world's first commercial scale nuclear power station,Obninskin theSoviet Union, began generation with its reactor AM-1 on 27 June 1954. Other early nuclear power plants wereCalder Hallin England, which began generation on 17 October 1956,and theShippingport Atomic Power StationinPennsylvania, which began on 26 May 1958. Nuclear power was used for the first time for propulsion by asubmarine, theUSSNautilus, in 1954. Prehistoric naturally occurring fission In 1972, French physicistFrancis Perrindiscovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at theOklo mineinGabon, Africa, collectively known as theOklo Fossil Reactors. The ore deposit is 1.7 billion years old; then, uranium-235 constituted about 3% of uranium on Earth.This is high enough to permit a sustained chain reaction, if other supporting conditions exist. The capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the health-threateningnuclear wasteproducts has been cited by the U.S. federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at theYucca Mountain nuclear waste repository. Contamination and the Cold War legacy Above-groundnuclear testsby the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1950s and early 1960s and byFranceinto the 1970s and 1980sspread a significant amount offalloutfrom uraniumdaughter isotopesaround the world.Additional fallout and pollution occurred from severalnuclear accidents. Uranium miners have a higher incidence ofcancer. An excess risk of lung cancer amongNavajouranium miners, for example, has been documented and linked to their occupation.TheRadiation Exposure Compensation Act, a 1990 law in the US, required $100,000 in \"compassion payments\" to uranium miners diagnosed with cancer or other respiratory ailments. During theCold Warbetween the Soviet Union and the United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium. After thebreak-up of the Soviet Unionin 1991, an estimated 600 short tons (540 metric tons) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads) had been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in theRussian Federationand several other former Soviet states.Police inAsia,Europe, andSouth Americaon at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 haveintercepted shipmentsof smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was from ex-Soviet sources.From 1993 to 2005 theMaterial Protection, Control, and Accounting Program, operated by thefederal government of the United States, spent about US$550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia. This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. Safety of nuclear facilities in Russia has been significantly improved since the stabilization of political and economical turmoil of the early 1990s. For example, in 1993 there were 29 incidents ranking above level 1 on theInternational Nuclear Event Scale, and this number dropped under four per year in 1995–2003. The number of employees receiving annual radiation doses above 20mSv, which is equivalent to a single full-bodyCT scan,saw a strong decline around 2000. In November 2015, the Russian government approved a federal program for nuclear and radiation safety for 2016 to 2030 with a budget of 562 billion rubles (ca. 8 billionUSD). Its key issue is \"the deferred liabilities accumulated during the 70 years of the nuclear industry, particularly during the time of the Soviet Union\". About 73% of the budget will be spent on decommissioning aged and obsolete nuclear reactors and nuclear facilities, especially those involved in state defense programs; 20% will go in processing and disposal of nuclear fuel and radioactive waste, and 5% into monitoring and ensuring of nuclear and radiation safety. Occurrence Uranium is anaturally occurringelement found in low levels in all rock, soil, and water. It is the highest-numbered element found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements.Uranium is the48th most abundant elementin the Earth’s crust.The decay of uranium,thorium, andpotassium-40in Earth'smantleis thought to be the main source of heatthat keeps the Earth'souter corein the liquid state and drivesmantle convection, which in turn drivesplate tectonics. Uranium'sconcentration in the Earth's crustis (depending on the reference) 2 to 4 parts per million,or about 40 times as abundant assilver.The Earth's crust from the surface to 25 km (15 mi) down is calculated to contain 1017kg (2×1017lb) of uranium while theoceansmay contain 1013kg (2×1013lb).The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0.7 to 11 parts per million (up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphatefertilizers),and its concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion. Uranium is more plentiful thanantimony,tin,cadmium,mercury, or silver, and it is about as abundant asarsenicormolybdenum.Uranium is found in hundreds of minerals, including uraninite (the most common uraniumore),carnotite,autunite,uranophane,torbernite, andcoffinite.Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such asphosphaterock deposits, and minerals such aslignite, andmonazitesands in uranium-rich ores(it is recovered commercially from sources with as little as 0.1% uranium). Origin Like all elements withatomic weightshigher than that ofiron, uranium is only naturally formed by ther-process(rapid neutron capture) insupernovaeandneutron star mergers.Primordial thorium and uranium are only produced in the r-process, because thes-process(slow neutron capture) is too slow and cannot pass the gap of instability after bismuth.Besides the two extant primordial uranium isotopes,235U and238U, the r-process also produced significant quantities of236U, which has a shorter half-life and so is anextinct radionuclide, having long since decayed completely to232Th. Further uranium-236 was produced by the decay of244Pu, accounting for the observed higher-than-expected abundance of thorium and lower-than-expected abundance of uranium.While the natural abundance of uranium has been supplemented by the decay of extinct242Pu(half-life 375,000 years) and247Cm (half-life 16 million years), producing238U and235U respectively, this occurred to an almost negligible extent due to the shorter half-lives of these parents and their lower production than236U and244Pu, the parents of thorium: the247Cm/235U ratio at the formation of the Solar System was(7.0±1.6)×10−5. Biotic and abiotic Some bacteria, such asShewanella putrefaciens,Geobacter metallireducensand some strains ofBurkholderia fungorum, use uranium for their growth and convert U(VI) to U(IV).Recent research suggests that this pathway includes reduction of the soluble U(VI) via an intermediate U(V) pentavalent state.Other organisms, such as thelichenTrapelia involutaormicroorganismssuch as thebacteriumCitrobacter, can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times the level of their environment.Citrobacterspecies absorburanylions when givenglycerol phosphate(or other similar organic phosphates). After one day, one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals; this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used inbioremediationtodecontaminateuranium-polluted water.The proteobacteriumGeobacterhas also been shown to bioremediate uranium in ground water.The mycorrhizal fungusGlomus intraradicesincreases uranium content in the roots of its symbiotic plant. In nature, uranium(VI) forms highly soluble carbonate complexes at alkaline pH. This leads to an increase in mobility and availability of uranium to groundwater and soil from nuclear wastes which leads to health hazards. However, it is difficult to precipitate uranium as phosphate in the presence of excess carbonate at alkaline pH. ASphingomonassp. strain BSAR-1 has been found to express a high activityalkaline phosphatase(PhoK) that has been applied for bioprecipitation of uranium as uranyl phosphate species from alkaline solutions. The precipitation ability was enhanced by overexpressing PhoK protein inE. coli. Plantsabsorb some uranium from soil. Dry weight concentrations of uranium in plants range from 5 to 60 parts per billion, and ash from burnt wood can have concentrations up to 4 parts per million.Dry weight concentrations of uranium infoodplants are typically lower with one to two micrograms per day ingested through the food people eat. Production and mining Worldwide production of uranium in 2021 was 48,332tonnes, of which 21,819 t (45%) was mined inKazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries areNamibia(5,753 t),Canada(4,693 t),Australia(4,192 t),Uzbekistan(3,500 t), andRussia(2,635 t). Uranium ore is mined in several ways:open pit,underground,in-situ leaching, andborehole mining.Low-grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0.01 to 0.25% uranium oxides. Extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore.High-grade ores found inAthabasca Basindeposits inSaskatchewan, Canada can contain up to 23% uranium oxides on average.Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either anacidoralkali. Theleachateis subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, calledyellowcake, contains at least 75% uranium oxides U3O8. Yellowcake is thencalcinedto remove impurities from the milling process before refining and conversion. Commercial-grade uranium can be produced through thereductionof uraniumhalideswithalkalioralkaline earth metals.Uranium metal can also be prepared throughelectrolysisofKUF5orUF4, dissolved in moltencalcium chloride(CaCl2) andsodium chloride(NaCl) solution.Very pure uranium is produced through thethermal decompositionof uraniumhalideson a hot filament. Resources and reserves It is estimated that 6.1 million tonnes of uranium exists in ores that are economically viable at US$130 per kg of uranium,while 35 million tonnes are classed as mineral resources (reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction). Australia has 28% of the world's known uranium ore reservesand the world's largest single uranium deposit is located at theOlympic DamMine inSouth Australia.There is a significant reserve of uranium inBakouma, asub-prefecturein theprefectureofMbomouin theCentral African Republic. Some uranium also originates from dismantled nuclear weapons.For example, in 1993–2013 Russia supplied the United States with 15,000 tonnes of low-enriched uranium within theMegatons to Megawatts Program. An additional 4.6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be dissolved insea water(Japanesescientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea water usingion exchangerswas technically feasible).There have been experiments to extract uranium from sea water,but the yield has been low due to the carbonate present in the water. In 2012,ORNLresearchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed HiCap which performs surface retention of solid or gas molecules, atoms or ions and also effectively removes toxic metals from water, according to results verified by researchers atPacific Northwest National Laboratory. Supplies In 2005, ten countries accounted for the majority of the world's concentrated uranium oxides:Canada(27.9%),Australia(22.8%),Kazakhstan(10.5%),Russia(8.0%),Namibia(7.5%),Niger(7.4%),Uzbekistan(5.5%), theUnited States(2.5%),Argentina(2.1%) andUkraine(1.9%).In 2008, Kazakhstan was forecast to increase production and become the world's largest supplier of uranium by 2009;Kazakhstan has dominated the world's uranium market since 2010. In 2021, its share was 45.1%, followed by Namibia (11.9%), Canada (9.7%), Australia (8.7%), Uzbekistan (7.2%), Niger (4.7%), Russia (5.5%), China (3.9%), India (1.3%), Ukraine (0.9%), and South Africa (0.8%), with a world total production of 48,332 tonnes.Most uranium was produced not by conventional underground mining of ores (29% of production), but byin situ leaching(66%). In the late 1960s, UN geologists discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves inSomalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating the deposits at over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons. The ultimate available supply is believed to be sufficient for at least the next 85 years,though some studies indicate underinvestment in the late twentieth century may produce supply problems in the 21st century.Uranium deposits seem to be log-normal distributed. There is a 300-fold increase in the amount of uranium recoverable for each tenfold decrease in ore grade.In other words, there is little high grade ore and proportionately much more low grade ore available. Compounds Oxidation states and oxides Oxides Calcined uranium yellowcake, as produced in many large mills, contains a distribution of uranium oxidation species in various forms ranging from most oxidized to least oxidized. Particles with short residence times in a calciner will generally be less oxidized than those with long retention times or particles recovered in the stack scrubber. Uranium content is usually referenced toU3O8, which dates to the days of theManhattan ProjectwhenU3O8was used as an analytical chemistry reporting standard. Phase relationshipsin the uranium-oxygen system are complex. The most important oxidation states of uranium are uranium(IV) and uranium(VI), and their two correspondingoxidesare, respectively,uranium dioxide(UO2) anduranium trioxide(UO3).Otheruranium oxidessuch asuranium monoxide(UO),diuranium pentoxide(U2O5), anduranium peroxide(UO4·2H2O) also exist. The most common forms of uranium oxide aretriuranium octoxide(U3O8) andUO2.Both oxide forms are solids that have low solubility in water and are relatively stable over a wide range of environmental conditions. Triuranium octoxide is (depending on conditions) the most stable compound of uranium and is the form most commonly found in nature. Uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is most commonly used as a nuclear reactor fuel.At ambient temperatures,UO2will gradually convert toU3O8. Because of their stability, uranium oxides are generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage or disposal. Aqueous chemistry Salts of manyoxidation statesof uranium are water-solubleand may be studied inaqueous solutions. The most common ionic forms areU3+(brown-red),U4+(green),UO+2(unstable), andUO2+2(yellow), for U(III), U(IV), U(V), and U(VI), respectively.A fewsolidand semi-metallic compounds such as UO andUSexist for the formal oxidation state uranium(II), but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that state. Ions ofU3+liberatehydrogenfromwaterand are therefore considered to be highly unstable. TheUO2+2ion represents the uranium(VI) state and is known to form compounds such asuranyl carbonate,uranyl chlorideanduranyl sulfate.UO2+2also formscomplexeswith variousorganicchelatingagents, the most commonly encountered of which isuranyl acetate. Unlike the uranyl salts of uranium andpolyatomic ionuranium-oxide cationic forms, theuranates, salts containing a polyatomic uranium-oxide anion, are generally not water-soluble. Carbonates The interactions of carbonate anions with uranium(VI) cause thePourbaix diagramto change greatly when the medium is changed from water to a carbonate containing solution. While the vast majority of carbonates are insoluble in water (students are often taught that all carbonates other than those of alkali metals are insoluble in water), uranium carbonates are often soluble in water. This is because a U(VI) cation is able to bind two terminal oxides and three or more carbonates to form anionic complexes. Effects of pH The uranium fraction diagrams in the presence of carbonate illustrate this further: when the pH of a uranium(VI) solution increases, the uranium is converted to a hydrated uranium oxide hydroxide and at high pHs it becomes an anionic hydroxide complex. When carbonate is added, uranium is converted to a series of carbonate complexes if the pH is increased. One effect of these reactions is increased solubility of uranium in the pH range 6 to 8, a fact that has a direct bearing on the long term stability of spent uranium dioxide nuclear fuels. Hydrides, carbides and nitrides Uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) reacts withhydrogento formuranium hydride. Even higher temperatures will reversibly remove the hydrogen. This property makes uranium hydrides convenient starting materials to create reactive uranium powder along with various uraniumcarbide,nitride, andhalidecompounds.Two crystal modifications of uranium hydride exist: an α form that is obtained at low temperatures and a β form that is created when the formation temperature is above 250 °C. Uranium carbidesanduranium nitridesare both relativelyinertsemimetalliccompounds that are minimally soluble inacids, react with water, and can ignite inairto formU3O8.Carbides of uranium include uranium monocarbide (UC), uranium dicarbide (UC2), and diuranium tricarbide (U2C3). Both UC andUC2are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal tocarbon monoxideat high temperatures. Stable below 1800 °C,U2C3is prepared by subjecting a heated mixture of UC andUC2to mechanical stress.Uranium nitrides obtained by direct exposure of the metal tonitrogeninclude uranium mononitride (UN), uranium dinitride (UN2), and diuranium trinitride (U2N3). Halides All uranium fluorides are created usinguranium tetrafluoride(UF4);UF4itself is prepared by hydrofluorination of uranium dioxide.Reduction ofUF4with hydrogen at 1000 °C producesuranium trifluoride(UF3). Under the right conditions of temperature and pressure, the reaction of solidUF4with gaseousuranium hexafluoride(UF6) can form the intermediate fluorides ofU2F9,U4F17, andUF5. At room temperatures,UF6has a highvapor pressure, making it useful in thegaseous diffusionprocess to separate the rare uranium-235 from the common uranium-238 isotope. This compound can be prepared from uranium dioxide and uranium hydride by the following process: The resultingUF6, a white solid, is highlyreactive(by fluorination), easilysublimes(emitting a vapor that behaves as a nearlyideal gas), and is the most volatile compound of uranium known to exist. One method of preparinguranium tetrachloride(UCl4) is to directly combinechlorinewith either uranium metal or uranium hydride. The reduction ofUCl4by hydrogen producesuranium trichloride(UCl3) while the higher chlorides of uranium are prepared by reaction with additional chlorine.All uranium chlorides react with water and air. Bromidesandiodidesof uranium are formed by direct reaction of, respectively,bromineandiodinewith uranium or by addingUH3to those element's acids.Known examples include:UBr3,UBr4,UI3, andUI4.UI5has never been prepared. Uranium oxyhalides are water-soluble and includeUO2F2,UOCl2,UO2Cl2, andUO2Br2. Stability of the oxyhalides decrease as theatomic weightof the component halide increases. Isotopes Uranium, like all elements with an atomic number greater than 82, has nostable isotopes. All isotopes of uranium areradioactivebecause thestrong nuclear forcedoes not prevail overelectromagnetic repulsionin nuclides containing more than 82 protons.Nevertheless, the two most stable isotopes,238U and235U, havehalf-liveslong enough to occur in nature asprimordial radionuclides, with measurable quantities having survived since the formation of the Earth.These twonuclides, along withthorium-232, are the only confirmed primordial nuclides heavier than nearly-stablebismuth-209. Natural uraniumconsists of three major isotopes: uranium-238 (99.28% natural abundance), uranium-235 (0.71%), and uranium-234 (0.0054%). There are also five other trace isotopes: uranium-240, a decay product ofplutonium-244;uranium-239, which is formed when238U undergoes spontaneous fission, releasing neutrons that are captured by another238U atom; uranium-237, which is formed when238U captures a neutron but emits two more, which then decays toneptunium-237;uranium-236, which occurs in trace quantities due to neutron capture on235U and as a decay product of plutonium-244;and finally,uranium-233, which is formed in thedecay chainof neptunium-237. Additionally,uranium-232would be produced by thedouble beta decayof naturalthorium-232, though this energetically possible process has never been observed. Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a half-life of about4.463×109years,roughly theage of the Earth. Uranium-238 is predominantly an alpha emitter, decaying to thorium-234. It ultimately decays through theuranium series, which has 18 members, intolead-206.Uranium-238 is not fissile, but is a fertile isotope, because afterneutron activationit can be converted to plutonium-239, another fissile isotope. Indeed, the238U nucleus can absorb one neutron to produce the radioactive isotopeuranium-239.239U decays bybeta emissiontoneptunium-239, also a beta-emitter, that decays in its turn, within a few days into plutonium-239.239Pu was used as fissile material in the firstatomic bombdetonated in the \"Trinity test\" on 16 July 1945 inNew Mexico. Uranium-235 has a half-life of about7.04×108years; it is the next most stable uranium isotope after238U and is also predominantly an alpha emitter, decaying to thorium-231.Uranium-235 is important for bothnuclear reactorsandnuclear weapons, because it is the only uranium isotope existing in nature on Earth in significant amounts that is fissile. This means that it can be split into two or three fragments (fission products) by thermal neutrons.The decay chain of235U, which is called theactinium series, has 15 members and eventually decays into lead-207.The constant rates of decay in these decay series makes the comparison of the ratios of parent todaughter elementsuseful in radiometric dating. Uranium-236 has a half-life of2.342×107yearsand is not found in significant quantities in nature. The half-life of uranium-236 is too short for it to be primordial, though it has been identified as anextinctprogenitor of its alpha decay daughter, thorium-232.Uranium-236 occurs inspent nuclear fuelwhen neutron capture on235U does not induce fission, or as a decay product ofplutonium-240. Uranium-236 is not fertile, as three more neutron captures are required to produce fissile239Pu, and is not itself fissile; as such, it is considered long-lived radioactive waste. Uranium-234 is a member of the uranium series and occurs in equilibrium with its progenitor,238U; it undergoes alpha decay with a half-life of 245,500 yearsand decays to lead-206 through a series of relatively short-lived isotopes. Uranium-233 undergoes alpha decay with a half-life of 160,000 years and, like235U, is fissile.It can be bred fromthorium-232via neutron bombardment, usually in a nuclear reactor; this process is known as thethorium fuel cycle. Owing to the fissility of233U and the greater natural abundance of thorium (three times that of uranium),233U has been investigated for use as nuclear fuel as a possible alternative to235U and239Pu,though is not in widespread use as of 2022.The decay chain of uranium-233 forms part of theneptunium seriesand ends at nearly-stable bismuth-209 (half-life2.01×1019years)and stablethallium-205. Uranium-232is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 68.9 years.This isotope is produced as a byproduct in production of233U and is considered a nuisance, as it is not fissile and decays through short-lived alpha andgamma emitterssuch as208Tl.It is also expected that thorium-232 should be able to undergodouble beta decay, which would produce uranium-232, but this has not yet been observed experimentally. All isotopes from232U to236U inclusive have minorcluster decaybranches (less than10−10%), and all these bar233U, in addition to238U, have minorspontaneous fissionbranches;the greatestbranching ratiofor spontaneous fission is about5×10−5% for238U, or about one in every two million decays.The shorter-lived trace isotopes237U and239U exclusively undergobeta decay, with respective half-lives of 6.752 days and 23.45 minutes. In total, 28 isotopes of uranium have been identified, ranging inmass numberfrom 214to 242, with the exception of 220.Among the uranium isotopes not found in natural samples or nuclear fuel, the longest-lived is230U, an alpha emitter with a half-life of 20.23 days.This isotope has been considered for use intargeted alpha-particle therapy(TAT).All other isotopes have half-lives shorter than one hour, except for231U (half-life 4.2 days) and240U (half-life 14.1 hours).The shortest-lived known isotope is221U, with a half-life of 660 nanoseconds, and it is expected that the hitherto unknown220U has an even shorter half-life.The proton-rich isotopes lighter than232U primarily undergo alpha decay, except for229U and231U, which decay toprotactinium isotopesviapositron emissionandelectron capture, respectively; the neutron-rich240U,241U, and242U undergobeta decayto formneptunium isotopes. Enrichment In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2742%) and uranium-235 (0.7204%).Isotope separationconcentrates (enriches) the fissile uranium-235 for nuclear weapons and most nuclear power plants, except forgas cooled reactorsandpressurized heavy water reactors. Most neutrons released by a fissioning atom of uranium-235 must impact other uranium-235 atoms to sustain thenuclear chain reaction. The concentration and amount of uranium-235 needed to achieve this is called a 'critical mass'. To be considered 'enriched', the uranium-235 fraction should be between 3% and 5%.This process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of uranium-235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of uranium-238, called depleted uranium or 'DU'. To be considered 'depleted', the235U concentration should be no more than 0.3%.The price of uranium has risen since 2001, so enrichment tailings containing more than 0.35% uranium-235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price ofdepleted uranium hexafluorideabove $130 per kilogram in July 2007 from $5 in 2001. Thegas centrifugeprocess, where gaseousuranium hexafluoride(UF6) is separated by the difference in molecular weight between235UF6and238UF6using high-speedcentrifuges, is the cheapest and leading enrichment process.Thegaseous diffusionprocess had been the leading method for enrichment and was used in theManhattan Project. In this process, uranium hexafluoride is repeatedlydiffusedthrough asilver-zincmembrane, and the different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (since uranium-238 is heavier it diffuses slightly slower than uranium-235).Themolecular laser isotope separationmethod employs alaserbeam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235 and fluorine. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to precipitate from the solution.An alternative laser method of enrichment is known asatomic vapor laser isotope separation(AVLIS) and employs visibletunable laserssuch asdye lasers.Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion. The only significant deviation from the235U to238U ratio in any known natural samples occurs inOklo,Gabon, wherenatural nuclear fission reactorsconsumed some of the235U some two billion years ago when the ratio of235U to238U was more akin to that oflow enriched uraniumallowing regular (\"light\") water to act as aneutron moderatorakin to the process in humanmadelight water reactors. The existence of such natural fission reactors which had been theoretically predicted beforehand was proven as the slight deviation of235U concentration from the expected values were discovered duringuranium enrichmentin France. Subsequent investigations to rule out any nefarious human action (such as stealing of235U) confirmed the theory by finding isotope ratios of commonfission products(or rather their stable daughter nuclides) in line with the values expected for fission but deviating from the values expected for non-fission derived samples of those elements. Human exposure A person can be exposed to uranium (or itsradioactive daughters, such asradon) by inhaling dust in air or by ingesting contaminated water and food. The amount of uranium in air is usually very small; however, people who work in factories that processphosphatefertilizers, live near government facilities that made or tested nuclear weapons, live or work near a modern battlefield where depleted uraniumweaponshave been used, or live or work near acoal-fired power plant, facilities that mine or process uranium ore, or enrich uranium for reactor fuel, may have increased exposure to uranium.Houses or structures that are over uranium deposits (either natural or man-made slag deposits) may have an increased incidence of exposure to radon gas. TheOccupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) has set thepermissible exposure limitfor uranium exposure in the workplace as 0.25 mg/m3over an 8-hour workday. TheNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health(NIOSH) has set arecommended exposure limit(REL) of 0.2 mg/m3over an 8-hour workday and a short-term limit of 0.6 mg/m3. At 10 mg/m3, uranium isimmediately dangerous to life and health. Most ingested uranium is excreted duringdigestion. Only 0.5% is absorbed when insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested, whereas absorption of the more solubleuranylion can be up to 5%.However, soluble uranium compounds tend to quickly pass through the body, whereas insoluble uranium compounds, especially when inhaled by way of dust into thelungs, pose a more serious exposure hazard. After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends tobioaccumulateand stay for many years inbonetissue because of uranium's affinity for phosphates.Incorporated uranium becomesuranylions, which accumulate in bone, liver, kidney, and reproductive tissues. Radiological and chemical toxicity of uranium combine by the fact that elements of high atomic number Z like uranium exhibit phantom or secondary radiotoxicity through absorption of natural background gamma and X-rays and re-emission of photoelectrons, which in combination with the high affinity of uranium to the phosphate moiety of DNA cause increased single and double strand DNA breaks. Uranium is not absorbed through the skin, andalpha particlesreleased by uranium cannot penetrate the skin. Uranium can be decontaminated from steel surfacesandaquifers. Effects and precautions Normal functioning of thekidney,brain,liver,heart, and other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because, besides being weakly radioactive, uranium is atoxic metal.Uranium is also areproductive toxicant.Radiological effects are generally local because alpha radiation, the primary form of238U decay, has a very short range, and will not penetrate skin. Alpha radiation from inhaled uranium has been demonstrated to cause lung cancer in exposed nuclear workers.While the CDC has published one study that no humancancerhas been seen as a result of exposure to natural or depleted uranium,exposure to uranium and its decay products, especiallyradon, is a significant health threat.Exposure tostrontium-90,iodine-131, and other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons. Although accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration ofuranium hexafluoridehas resulted in human fatalities, those deaths were associated with the generation of highly toxic hydrofluoric acid anduranyl fluoriderather than with uranium itself.Finely divided uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium ispyrophoric; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature. Uranium metal is commonly handled with gloves as a sufficient precaution.Uranium concentrate is handled and contained so as to ensure that people do not inhale or ingest it. See also Notes References Sources cited External links", "Mendelevium Mendeleviumis asynthetic chemical element; it hassymbolMd(formerlyMv) andatomic number101. A metallicradioactivetransuranium elementin theactinideseries, it is the first element by atomic number that currently cannot be produced inmacroscopicquantities byneutronbombardment oflighter elements. It is the third-to-last actinide and the ninthtransuranic elementand the first transfermium. It can only be produced inparticle acceleratorsby bombarding lighter elements with charged particles. Seventeenisotopesare known; the most stable is258Md withhalf-life51.59 days; however, the shorter-lived256Md (half-life 77.7minutes) is most commonly used in chemistry because it can be produced on a larger scale. Mendelevium was discovered by bombardingeinsteiniumwithalpha particlesin 1955, the method still used to produce it today. It is named afterDmitri Mendeleev, the father of theperiodic table. Using availablemicrogramquantities of einsteinium-253, over a million mendelevium atoms may be made each hour. The chemistry of mendelevium is typical for the late actinides, with a preponderance of the +3 oxidation state but also an accessible +2 oxidation state. All known isotopes of mendelevium have short half-lives; there are currently no uses for it outside basicscientific research, and only small amounts are produced. Discovery Mendelevium was the ninthtransuranic elementto be synthesized. It was firstsynthesizedbyAlbert Ghiorso,Glenn T. Seaborg,Gregory Robert Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey, and team leaderStanley G. Thompsonin early 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. The team produced256Md (half-lifeof 77.7 minutes) when they bombarded an253Estarget consisting of only abillion(109) einsteinium atoms withalpha particles(heliumnuclei) in theBerkeley Radiation Laboratory's 60-inchcyclotron, thus increasing the target's atomic number by two.256Md thus became the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time. In total, seventeen mendelevium atoms were produced.This discovery was part of a program, begun in 1952, that irradiatedplutoniumwith neutrons to transmute it into heavier actinides.This method was necessary as the previous method used to synthesize transuranic elements,neutron capture, could not work because of a lack of knownbeta decayingisotopes of fermiumthat would produce isotopes of the next element, mendelevium, and also due to the very short half-life tospontaneous fissionof258Fmthat thus constituted a hard limit to the success of the neutron capture process. To predict if the production of mendelevium would be possible, the team made use of a rough calculation. The number of atoms that would be produced would be approximately equal to the product of the number of atoms of target material, the target's cross section, the ion beam intensity, and the time of bombardment; this last factor was related to the half-life of the product when bombarding for a time on the order of its half-life. This gave one atom per experiment. Thus under optimum conditions, the preparation of only one atom of element 101 per experiment could be expected. This calculation demonstrated that it was feasible to go ahead with the experiment.The target material, einsteinium-253, could be produced readily from irradiatingplutonium: one year of irradiation would give a billion atoms, and its three-weekhalf-lifemeant that the element 101 experiments could be conducted in one week after the produced einsteinium was separated and purified to make the target. However, it was necessary to upgrade the cyclotron to obtain the needed intensity of 1014alpha particles per second; Seaborg applied for the necessary funds. While Seaborg applied for funding, Harvey worked on the einsteinium target, while Thomson and Choppin focused on methods for chemical isolation. Choppin suggested usingα-hydroxyisobutyric acidto separate the mendelevium atoms from those of the lighter actinides.The actual synthesis was done by a recoil technique, introduced by Albert Ghiorso. In this technique, the einsteinium was placed on the opposite side of the target from the beam, so that the recoiling mendelevium atoms would get enoughmomentumto leave the target and be caught on a catcher foil made of gold. This recoil target was made by an electroplating technique, developed by Alfred Chetham-Strode. This technique gave a very high yield, which was absolutely necessary when working with such a rare and valuable product as the einsteinium target material.The recoil target consisted of 109atoms of253Es which were deposited electrolytically on a thin gold foil. It was bombarded by 41MeValpha particlesin theBerkeley cyclotronwith a very high beam density of 6×1013particles per second over an area of 0.05 cm2. The target was cooled by water orliquid helium, and the foil could be replaced. Initial experiments were carried out in September 1954. No alpha decay was seen from mendelevium atoms; thus, Ghiorso suggested that the mendelevium had all decayed byelectron capturetofermiumand that the experiment should be repeated to search instead forspontaneous fissionevents.The repetition of the experiment happened in February 1955. On the day of discovery, 19 February, alpha irradiation of the einsteinium target occurred in three three-hour sessions. The cyclotron was in theUniversity of Californiacampus, while the Radiation Laboratory was on the next hill. To deal with this situation, a complex procedure was used: Ghiorso took the catcher foils (there were three targets and three foils) from the cyclotron to Harvey, who would useaqua regiato dissolve it and pass it through ananion-exchangeresincolumn to separate out thetransuranium elementsfrom the gold and other products.The resultant drops entered atest tube, which Choppin and Ghiorso took in a car to get to the Radiation Laboratory as soon as possible. There Thompson and Choppin used acation-exchange resin column and the α-hydroxyisobutyric acid. The solution drops were collected onplatinumdisks and dried under heat lamps. The three disks were expected to contain respectively the fermium, no new elements, and the mendelevium. Finally, they were placed in their own counters, which were connected to recorders such that spontaneous fission events would be recorded as huge deflections in a graph showing the number and time of the decays. There thus was no direct detection, but by observation of spontaneous fission events arising from its electron-capture daughter256Fm. The first one was identified with a \"hooray\" followed by a \"double hooray\" and a \"triple hooray\". The fourth one eventually officially proved the chemical identification of the 101st element, mendelevium. In total, five decays were reported up until 4 a.m. Seaborg was notified and the team left to sleep.Additional analysis and further experimentation showed the produced mendelevium isotope to have mass 256 and to decay by electron capture to fermium-256 with a half-life of 157.6 minutes. We thought it fitting that there be an element named for the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, who had developed the periodic table. In nearly all our experiments discovering transuranium elements, we'd depended on his method of predicting chemical properties based on the element's position in the table. But in the middle of the Cold War, naming an element for a Russian was a somewhat bold gesture that did not sit well with some American critics. Being the first of the second hundred of the chemical elements, it was decided that the element would be named \"mendelevium\" after the Russian chemistDmitri Mendeleev, father of theperiodic table. Because this discovery came during theCold War, Seaborg had to request permission of the government of theUnited Statesto propose that the element be named for a Russian, but it was granted.The name \"mendelevium\" was accepted by theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry(IUPAC) in 1955 with symbol \"Mv\",which was changed to \"Md\" in the next IUPAC General Assembly (Paris, 1957). Characteristics Physical In theperiodic table, mendelevium is located to the right of the actinidefermium, to the left of the actinidenobelium, and below the lanthanidethulium. Mendelevium metal has not yet been prepared in bulk quantities, and bulk preparation is currently impossible.Nevertheless, a number of predictions and some preliminary experimental results have been done regarding its properties. The lanthanides and actinides, in the metallic state, can exist as either divalent (such aseuropiumandytterbium) or trivalent (most other lanthanides) metals. The former have fns2configurations, whereas the latter have fn−1d1s2configurations. In 1975, Johansson and Rosengren examined the measured and predicted values for thecohesive energies(enthalpiesof crystallization) of the metalliclanthanidesandactinides, both as divalent and trivalent metals.The conclusion was that the increased binding energy of the 5f126d17s2configuration over the 5f137s2configuration for mendelevium was not enough to compensate for the energy needed to promote one 5f electron to 6d, as is true also for the very late actinides: thuseinsteinium,fermium, mendelevium, andnobeliumwere expected to be divalent metals.The increasing predominance of the divalent state well before the actinide series concludes is attributed to therelativisticstabilization of the 5f electrons, which increases with increasing atomic number.Thermochromatographicstudies with trace quantities of mendelevium by Zvara and Hübener from 1976 to 1982 confirmed this prediction.In 1990, Haire and Gibson estimated mendelevium metal to have anenthalpy of sublimationbetween 134 and 142 kJ/mol.Divalent mendelevium metal should have ametallic radiusof around194±10pm.Like the other divalent late actinides (except the once again trivalentlawrencium), metallic mendelevium should assume aface-centered cubiccrystal structure.Mendelevium's melting point has been estimated at 800 °C, the same value as that predicted for the neighboring element nobelium.Its density is predicted to be around10.3±0.7 g/cm3. Chemical The chemistry of mendelevium is mostly known only in solution, in which it can take on the +3 or +2oxidation states. The +1 state has also been reported, but has not yet been confirmed. Before mendelevium's discovery,Seaborgand Katz predicted that it should be predominantly trivalent in aqueous solution and hence should behave similarly to other tripositive lanthanides and actinides. After the synthesis of mendelevium in 1955, these predictions were confirmed, first in the observation at its discovery that itelutedjust after fermium in the trivalent actinide elution sequence from a cation-exchange column of resin, and later the 1967 observation that mendelevium could form insolublehydroxidesandfluoridesthat coprecipitated with trivalent lanthanide salts.Cation-exchange and solvent extraction studies led to the conclusion that mendelevium was a trivalent actinide with an ionic radius somewhat smaller than that of the previous actinide, fermium.Mendelevium can formcoordination complexeswith 1,2-cyclohexanedinitrilotetraacetic acid (DCTA). Inreducingconditions, mendelevium(III) can be easily reduced to mendelevium(II), which is stable in aqueous solution.Thestandard reduction potentialof theE°(Md3+→Md2+) couple was variously estimated in 1967 as −0.10 V or −0.20 V:later 2013 experiments established the value as−0.16±0.05 V.In comparison,E°(Md3+→Md0) should be around −1.74 V, andE°(Md2+→Md0) should be around −2.5 V.Mendelevium(II)'s elution behavior has been compared with that ofstrontium(II) andeuropium(II). In 1973, mendelevium(I) was reported to have been produced by Russian scientists, who obtained it by reducing higher oxidation states of mendelevium withsamarium(II). It was found to be stable in neutral water–ethanolsolution and behomologoustocaesium(I). However, later experiments found no evidence for mendelevium(I) and found that mendelevium behaved like divalent elements when reduced, not like the monovalentalkali metals.Nevertheless, the Russian team conducted further studies on thethermodynamicsof cocrystallizing mendelevium with alkali metalchlorides, and concluded that mendelevium(I) had formed and could form mixed crystals with divalent elements, thus cocrystallizing with them. The status of the +1 oxidation state is still tentative. The electrode potentialE°(Md4+→Md3+) was predicted in 1975 to be +5.4 V; 1967 experiments with the strong oxidizing agentsodium bismuthatewere unable to oxidize mendelevium(III) to mendelevium(IV). Atomic A mendelevium atom has 101 electrons. They are expected to be arranged in the configuration 5f137s2(ground stateterm symbol2F7/2), although experimental verification of this electron configuration had not yet been made as of 2006. The fifteen electrons in the 5f and 7s subshells arevalence electrons.In forming compounds, three valence electrons may be lost, leaving behind a 5f12core: this conforms to the trend set by the other actinides with their 5fnelectron configurations in the tripositive state. The firstionization potentialof mendelevium was measured to be at most (6.58 ± 0.07)eVin 1974, based on the assumption that the 7s electrons would ionize before the 5f ones;this value has since not yet been refined further due to mendelevium's scarcity and high radioactivity.The ionic radius ofhexacoordinateMd3+had been preliminarily estimated in 1978 to be around 91.2 pm;1988 calculations based on the logarithmic trend betweendistribution coefficientsand ionic radius produced a value of 89.6 pm, as well as anenthalpy of hydrationof−3654±12 kJ/mol.Md2+should have an ionic radius of 115 pm and hydration enthalpy −1413 kJ/mol; Md+should have ionic radius 117 pm. Isotopes Seventeen isotopes of mendelevium are known, with mass numbers from 244 to 260; all are radioactive.Additionally, 14nuclear isomersare known.Of these, the longest-lived isotope is258Md with a half-life of 51.59 days, and the longest-lived isomer is258mMd with a half-life of 57.0 minutes.Nevertheless, the shorter-lived256Md (half-life 1.295 hours) is more often used in chemical experimentation because it can be produced in larger quantities fromalpha particleirradiation of einsteinium.After258Md, the next most stable mendelevium isotopes are260Md with a half-life of 27.8 days,257Md with a half-life of 5.52 hours,259Md with a half-life of 1.60 hours, and256Md with a half-life of 1.295 hours. All of the remaining mendelevium isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 5 minutes. The half-lives of mendelevium isotopes mostly increase smoothly from244Md onwards, reaching a maximum at258Md.Experiments and predictions suggest that the half-lives will then decrease, apart from260Md with a half-life of 27.8 days,asspontaneous fissionbecomes the dominant decay modedue to the mutual repulsion of the protons posing a limit to the island of relative stability of long-lived nuclei in theactinideseries.In addition, mendelevium is the element with the highest atomic number that has a known isotope with a half-life longer than one day. Mendelevium-256, the chemically most important isotope of mendelevium, decays throughelectron capture90% of the time andalpha decay10% of the time.It is most easily detected through thespontaneous fissionof its electron capture daughterfermium-256, but in the presence of other nuclides that undergo spontaneous fission, alpha decays at the characteristic energies for mendelevium-256 (7.205 and 7.139MeV) can provide more useful identification. Production and isolation The lightest isotopes (244Md to247Md) are mostly produced through bombardment ofbismuthtargets withargonions, while slightly heavier ones (248Md to253Md) are produced by bombardingplutoniumandamericiumtargets with ions ofcarbonandnitrogen. The most important and most stable isotopes are in the range from254Md to258Md and are produced through bombardment ofeinsteiniumwith alpha particles: einsteinium-253, −254, and −255 can all be used.259Md is produced as adaughterof259No, and260Md can be produced in atransfer reactionbetween einsteinium-254 andoxygen-18.Typically, the most commonly used isotope256Md is produced by bombarding either einsteinium-253 or −254 with alpha particles: einsteinium-254 is preferred when available because it has a longer half-life and therefore can be used as a target for longer.Using available microgram quantities of einsteinium,femtogramquantities of mendelevium-256 may be produced. The recoilmomentumof the produced mendelevium-256 atoms is used to bring them physically far away from the einsteinium target from which they are produced, bringing them onto a thin foil of metal (usuallyberyllium,aluminium,platinum, orgold) just behind the target in a vacuum.This eliminates the need for immediate chemical separation, which is both costly and prevents reusing of the expensive einsteinium target.The mendelevium atoms are then trapped in a gas atmosphere (frequentlyhelium), and a gas jet from a small opening in the reaction chamber carries the mendelevium along.Using a longcapillary tube, and includingpotassium chlorideaerosols in the helium gas, the mendelevium atoms can be transported over tens ofmetersto be chemically analyzed and have their quantity determined.The mendelevium can then be separated from the foil material and otherfission productsby applying acid to the foil and thencoprecipitatingthe mendelevium withlanthanum fluoride, then using acation-exchangeresin column with a 10%ethanolsolution saturated withhydrochloric acid, acting as aneluant. However, if the foil is made of gold and thin enough, it is enough to simply dissolve the gold inaqua regiabefore separating the trivalent actinides from the gold usinganion-exchangechromatography, the eluant being 6 M hydrochloric acid. Mendelevium can finally be separated from the other trivalent actinides using selective elution from a cation-exchange resin column, the eluant being ammonia α-HIB.Using the gas-jet method often renders the first two steps unnecessary.The above procedure is the most commonly used one for the separation of transeinsteinium elements. Another possible way to separate the trivalent actinides is via solvent extraction chromatography using bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (abbreviated as HDEHP) as the stationary organic phase andnitric acidas the mobile aqueous phase. The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation-exchange resin column, so that the heavier actinides elute later. The mendelevium separated by this method has the advantage of being free of organic complexing agent compared to the resin column; the disadvantage is that mendelevium then elutes very late in the elution sequence, after fermium. Another method to isolate mendelevium exploits the distinct elution properties of Md2+from those of Es3+and Fm3+. The initial steps are the same as above, and employs HDEHP for extraction chromatography, but coprecipitates the mendelevium with terbium fluoride instead of lanthanum fluoride. Then, 50 mg ofchromiumis added to the mendelevium to reduce it to the +2 state in 0.1 M hydrochloric acid withzincormercury.The solvent extraction then proceeds, and while the trivalent and tetravalent lanthanides and actinides remain on the column, mendelevium(II) does not and stays in the hydrochloric acid. It is then reoxidized to the +3 state usinghydrogen peroxideand then isolated by selective elution with 2 M hydrochloric acid (to remove impurities, including chromium) and finally 6 M hydrochloric acid (to remove the mendelevium).It is also possible to use a column of cationite and zinc amalgam, using 1 M hydrochloric acid as an eluant, reducing Md(III) to Md(II) where it behaves like thealkaline earth metals.Thermochromatographic chemical isolation could be achieved using the volatile mendeleviumhexafluoroacetylacetonate: the analogous fermium compound is also known and is also volatile. Toxicity Though few people come in contact with mendelevium, theInternational Commission on Radiological Protectionhas set annual exposure limits for the most stable isotope. For mendelevium-258, the ingestion limit was set at 9×105becquerels(1 Bq = 1 decay per second). Given the half-life of this isotope, this is only 2.48 ng (nanograms). The inhalation limit is at 6000 Bq or 16.5 pg (picogram). Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links", "Periodic table Theperiodic table, also known as theperiodic table of the elements, is an ordered arrangement of thechemical elementsinto rows (\"periods\") and columns (\"groups\"). It is aniconofchemistryand is widely used inphysicsand other sciences. It is a depiction of theperiodic law, which states that when the elements are arranged in order of theiratomic numbersan approximaterecurrence of their propertiesis evident. The table is divided into four roughly rectangular areas calledblocks. Elements in the same group tend to show similar chemical characteristics. Vertical, horizontal and diagonaltrendscharacterize the periodic table.Metalliccharacter increases going down a group and from right to left across a period.Nonmetalliccharacter increases going from the bottom left of the periodic table to the top right. The first periodic table to become generally accepted was that of the Russian chemistDmitri Mendeleevin 1869; he formulated the periodic law as a dependence of chemical properties onatomic mass. As not all elements were then known, there were gaps in his periodic table, and Mendeleev successfully used the periodic law topredict some properties of some of the missing elements. The periodic law was recognized as a fundamental discovery in the late 19th century. It was explained early in the 20th century, with the discovery ofatomic numbersand associated pioneering work inquantum mechanics, both ideas serving to illuminate the internal structure of the atom. A recognisably modern form of the table was reached in 1945 withGlenn T. Seaborg's discovery that theactinideswere in fact f-block rather than d-block elements. The periodic table and law are now a central and indispensable part of modern chemistry. The periodic table continues to evolve with the progress of science. In nature, only elements up to atomic number 94 exist;to go further, it was necessary tosynthesizenew elements in the laboratory. By 2010, the first 118 elements were known, thereby completing the first seven rows of the table;however, chemical characterization is still needed for the heaviest elements to confirm that their properties match their positions. New discoveries will extend the tablebeyond these seven rows, though it is not yet known how many more elements are possible; moreover, theoretical calculations suggest that this unknown region will not follow the patterns of the known part of the table. Some scientific discussion also continues regarding whether some elements are correctly positioned in today's table. Manyalternative representationsof the periodic law exist, and there is some discussion as to whether there is an optimal form of the periodic table. Structure 1 Each chemical element has a uniqueatomic number(Z— for \"Zahl\", German for \"number\") representing the number ofprotonsin itsnucleus.Each distinct atomic number therefore corresponds to a class of atom: these classes are called thechemical elements.The chemical elements are what the periodic table classifies and organizes.Hydrogenis the element with atomic number 1;helium, atomic number 2;lithium, atomic number 3; and so on. Each of these names can be further abbreviated by a one- or two-letterchemical symbol; those for hydrogen, helium, and lithium are respectively H, He, and Li.Neutrons do not affect the atom's chemical identity, but do affect its weight. Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are calledisotopesof the same chemical element.Naturally occurring elements usually occur as mixes of different isotopes; since each isotope usually occurs with a characteristic abundance, naturally occurring elements have well-definedatomic weights, defined as the average mass of a naturally occurring atom of that element.All elements have multipleisotopes, variants with the same number of protons but different numbers ofneutrons. For example,carbonhas three naturally occurring isotopes: all of itsatomshave six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. When atomic mass is shown, it is usually the weighted average of naturally occurring isotopes; but if no isotopes occur naturally in significant quantities, the mass of the most stable isotope usually appears, often in parentheses. In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number. A new row (period) is started when a newelectron shellhas its firstelectron. Columns (groups) are determined by theelectron configurationof the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g.oxygen,sulfur, andseleniumare in the same column because they all have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it. Today, 118 elements are known, the first 94 of which are known to occur naturally on Earth at present.The remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118), occur only when synthesized in laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 areprimordialand 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements. A few of the latter are so rare that they were not discovered in nature, but were synthesized in the laboratory before it was determined that they do exist in nature after all:technetium(element 43),promethium(element 61),astatine(element 85),neptunium(element 93), andplutonium(element 94).No element heavier thaneinsteinium(element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor hasastatine;francium(element 87) has been only photographed in the form oflightemitted from microscopic quantities (300,000 atoms).Of the 94 natural elements, eighty have a stable isotope and one more (bismuth) has an almost-stable isotope (with ahalf-lifeof 2.01×1019years, over a billion times theage of the universe).Two more,thoriumanduranium, have isotopes undergoingradioactive decaywith a half-life comparable to theage of the Earth. The stable elements plus bismuth, thorium, and uranium make up the 83primordialelements that survived from the Earth's formation.The remaining eleven natural elements decay quickly enough that their continued trace occurrence rests primarily on being constantly regenerated as intermediate products of the decay of thorium and uranium.All 24 known artificial elements are radioactive. Group names and numbers Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases). The f-block groups are ignored in this numbering.Groups can also be named by their first element, e.g. the \"scandium group\" for group 3.Previously, groups were known byRoman numerals. In theUnited States, the Roman numerals were followed by either an \"A\" if the group was in thes-orp-block, or a \"B\" if the group was in thed-block. The Roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today's naming convention (e.g. thegroup 4 elementswere group IVB, and thegroup 14 elementswere group IVA). InEurope, the lettering was similar, except that \"A\" was used for groups 1 through 7, and \"B\" was used for groups 11 through 17. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple-sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the newIUPAC(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) naming system (1–18) was put into use, and the old group names (I–VIII) were deprecated. Presentation forms 32 columns 18 columns For reasons of space,the periodic table is commonly presented with the f-block elements cut out and positioned as a distinct part below the main body.This reduces the number of element columns from 32 to 18. Both forms represent the same periodic table.The form with the f-block included in the main body is sometimes called the 32-columnor long form;the form with the f-block cut out the 18-columnor medium-long form.The 32-column form has the advantage of showing all elements in their correct sequence, but it has the disadvantage of requiring more space.The form chosen is an editorial choice, and does not imply any change of scientific claim or statement. For example, when discussingthe composition of group 3, the options can be shown equally (unprejudiced) in both forms. Periodic tables usually at least show the elements' symbols; many also provide supplementary information about the elements, either via colour-coding or as data in the cells. The above table shows the names and atomic numbers of the elements, and also their blocks, natural occurrences andstandard atomic weights. For the short-lived elements without standard atomic weights, the mass number of the most stable known isotope is used instead. Other tables may include properties such as state of matter, melting and boiling points, densities, as well as provide different classifications of the elements. Electron configurations The periodic table is a graphic description of the periodic law,which states that the properties and atomic structures of the chemical elements are aperiodic functionof theiratomic number.Elements are placed in the periodic table according to theirelectron configurations,the periodic recurrences of which explain thetrendsin properties across the periodic table. An electron can be thought of as inhabiting anatomic orbital, which characterizes the probability it can be found in any particular region around the atom. Their energies arequantised, which is to say that they can only take discrete values. Furthermore, electrons obey thePauli exclusion principle: different electrons must always be in different states. This allows classification of the possible states an electron can take in various energy levels known as shells, divided into individual subshells, which each contain one or more orbitals. Each orbital can contain up to two electrons: they are distinguished by a quantity known asspin, conventionally labelled \"up\" or \"down\".In a cold atom (one in its ground state), electrons arrange themselves in such a way that the total energy they have is minimized by occupying the lowest-energy orbitals available.Only the outermost electrons (so-calledvalence electrons) have enough energy to break free of the nucleus and participate in chemical reactions with other atoms. The others are calledcore electrons. Elements are known with up to the first seven shells occupied. The first shell contains only one orbital, a spherical s orbital. As it is in the first shell, this is called the 1s orbital. This can hold up to two electrons. The second shell similarly contains a 2s orbital, and it also contains three dumbbell-shaped 2p orbitals, and can thus fill up to eight electrons (2×1 + 2×3 = 8). The third shell contains one 3s orbital, three 3p orbitals, and five 3d orbitals, and thus has a capacity of 2×1 + 2×3 + 2×5 = 18. The fourth shell contains one 4s orbital, three 4p orbitals, five 4d orbitals, and seven 4f orbitals, thus leading to a capacity of 2×1 + 2×3 + 2×5 + 2×7 = 32.Higher shells contain more types of orbitals that continue the pattern, but such types of orbitals are not filled in the ground states of known elements.The subshell types are characterized by thequantum numbers. Four numbers describe an orbital in an atom completely: theprincipal quantum numbern, theazimuthal quantum numberℓ (the orbital type), theorbital magnetic quantum numbermℓ, and thespin magnetic quantum numberms. Order of subshell filling The sequence in which the subshells are filled is given in most cases by theAufbau principle, also known as the Madelung or Klechkovsky rule (afterErwin MadelungandVsevolod Klechkovskyrespectively). This rule was first observed empirically by Madelung, and Klechkovsky and later authors gave it theoretical justification.The shells overlap in energies, and the Madelung rule specifies the sequence of filling according to: Here the sign ≪ means \"much less than\" as opposed to < meaning just \"less than\".Phrased differently, electrons enter orbitals in order of increasingn+ ℓ, and if two orbitals are available with the same value ofn+ ℓ, the one with lowernis occupied first.In general, orbitals with the same value ofn+ ℓ are similar in energy, but in the case of the s-orbitals (with ℓ = 0), quantum effects raise their energy to approach that of the nextn+ ℓ group. Hence the periodic table is usually drawn to begin each row (often called a period) with the filling of a new s-orbital, which corresponds to the beginning of a new shell.Thus, with the exception of the first row, each period length appears twice: The overlaps get quite close at the point where the d-orbitals enter the picture,and the order can shift slightly with atomic numberand atomic charge. Starting from the simplest atom, this lets us build up the periodic table one at a time in order of atomic number, by considering the cases of single atoms. Inhydrogen, there is only one electron, which must go in the lowest-energy orbital 1s. Thiselectron configurationis written 1s1, where the superscript indicates the number of electrons in the subshell.Heliumadds a second electron, which also goes into 1s, completely filling the first shell and giving the configuration 1s2. Starting from the third element,lithium, the first shell is full, so its third electron occupies a 2s orbital, giving a 1s22s1configuration. The 2s electron is lithium's only valence electron, as the 1s subshell is now too tightly bound to the nucleus to participate in chemical bonding to other atoms: such a shell is called a \"core shell\". The 1s subshell is a core shell for all elements from lithium onward. The 2s subshell is completed by the next elementberyllium(1s22s2). The following elements then proceed to fill the 2p subshell.Boron(1s22s22p1) puts its new electron in a 2p orbital;carbon(1s22s22p2) fills a second 2p orbital; and withnitrogen(1s22s22p3) all three 2p orbitals become singly occupied. This is consistent withHund's rule, which states that atoms usually prefer to singly occupy each orbital of the same type before filling them with the second electron.Oxygen(1s22s22p4),fluorine(1s22s22p5), andneon(1s22s22p6) then complete the already singly filled 2p orbitals; the last of these fills the second shell completely. Starting from element 11,sodium, the second shell is full, making the second shell a core shell for this and all heavier elements. The eleventh electron begins the filling of the third shell by occupying a 3s orbital, giving a configuration of 1s22s22p63s1for sodium. This configuration is abbreviated 3s1, where represents neon's configuration.Magnesium( 3s2) finishes this 3s orbital, and the following six elementsaluminium,silicon,phosphorus,sulfur,chlorine, andargonfill the three 3p orbitals ( 3s23p1through 3s23p6).This creates an analogous series in which the outer shell structures of sodium through argon are analogous to those of lithium through neon, and is the basis for the periodicity of chemical properties that the periodic table illustrates:at regular but changing intervals of atomic numbers, the properties of the chemical elements approximately repeat. The first eighteen elements can thus be arranged as the start of a periodic table. Elements in the same column have the same number of valence electrons and have analogous valence electron configurations: these columns are called groups. The single exception is helium, which has two valence electrons like beryllium and magnesium, but is typically placed in the column of neon and argon to emphasise that its outer shell is full. (Some contemporary authors question even this single exception, preferring to consistently follow the valence configurations and place helium over beryllium.) There are eight columns in this periodic table fragment, corresponding to at most eight outer-shell electrons.A period begins when a new shell starts filling.Finally, the colouring illustrates theblocks: the elements in the s-block (coloured red) are filling s-orbitals, while those in the p-block (coloured yellow) are filling p-orbitals. Starting the next row, forpotassiumandcalciumthe 4s subshell is the lowest in energy, and therefore they fill it.Potassium adds one electron to the 4s shell ( 4s1), and calcium then completes it ( 4s2). However, starting fromscandium( 3d14s2) the 3d subshell becomes the next highest in energy. The 4s and 3d subshells have approximately the same energy and they compete for filling the electrons, and so the occupation is not quite consistently filling the 3d orbitals one at a time. The precise energy ordering of 3d and 4s changes along the row, and also changes depending on how many electrons are removed from the atom. For example, due to the repulsion between the 3d electrons and the 4s ones, atchromiumthe 4s energy level becomes slightly higher than 3d, and so it becomes more profitable for a chromium atom to have a 3d54s1configuration than an 3d44s2one. A similar anomaly occurs atcopper, whose atom has a 3d104s1configuration rather than the expected 3d94s2.These are violations of the Madelung rule. Such anomalies, however, do not have any chemical significance:most chemistry is not about isolated gaseous atoms,and the various configurations are so close in energy to each otherthat the presence of a nearby atom can shift the balance.Therefore, the periodic table ignores them and considers only idealized configurations. Atzinc( 3d104s2), the 3d orbitals are completely filled with a total of ten electrons.Next come the 4p orbitals, completing the row, which are filled progressively bygallium( 3d104s24p1) throughkrypton( 3d104s24p6), in a manner analogous to the previous p-block elements.From gallium onwards, the 3d orbitals form part of the electronic core, and no longer participate in chemistry.The s- and p-block elements, which fill their outer shells, are calledmain-group elements; the d-block elements (coloured blue below), which fill an inner shell, are calledtransition elements(or transition metals, since they are all metals). The next eighteen elements fill the 5s orbitals (rubidiumandstrontium), then 4d (yttriumthroughcadmium, again with a few anomalies along the way), and then 5p (indiumthroughxenon).Again, from indium onward the 4d orbitals are in the core.Hence the fifth row has the same structure as the fourth. The sixth row of the table likewise starts with two s-block elements:caesiumandbarium.After this, the first f-block elements (coloured green below) begin to appear, starting withlanthanum. These are sometimes termed inner transition elements.As there are now not only 4f but also 5d and 6s subshells at similar energies, competition occurs once again with many irregular configurations;this resulted in some dispute about where exactly the f-block is supposed to begin, but most who study the matter agree that it starts at lanthanum in accordance with the Aufbau principle.Even though lanthanum does not itself fill the 4f subshell as a single atom, because of repulsion between electrons,its 4f orbitals are low enough in energy to participate in chemistry.Atytterbium, the seven 4f orbitals are completely filled with fourteen electrons; thereafter, a series of ten transition elements (lutetiumthroughmercury) follows,and finally six main-group elements (thalliumthroughradon) complete the period.From lutetium onwards the 4f orbitals are in the core,and from thallium onwards so are the 5d orbitals. The seventh row is analogous to the sixth row: 7s fills (franciumandradium), then 5f (actiniumtonobelium), then 6d (lawrenciumtocopernicium), and finally 7p (nihoniumtooganesson).Starting from lawrencium the 5f orbitals are in the core,and probably the 6d orbitals join the core starting from nihonium.Again there are a few anomalies along the way:for example, as single atoms neither actinium northoriumactually fills the 5f subshell, and lawrencium does not fill the 6d shell, but all these subshells can still become filled in chemical environments.For a very long time, the seventh row was incomplete as most of its elements do not occur in nature. The missingelements beyond uraniumstarted to be synthesized in the laboratory in 1940, when neptunium was made.(However, the first element to be discovered by synthesis rather than in nature was technetium in 1937.) The row was completed with the synthesis oftennessinein 2010(the last elementoganessonhad already been made in 2002),and the last elements in this seventh row were given names in 2016. This completes the modern periodic table, with all seven rows completely filled to capacity. Electron configuration table The following table shows the electron configuration of a neutral gas-phase atom of each element. Different configurations can be favoured in different chemical environments.The main-group elements have entirely regular electron configurations; the transition and inner transition elements show twenty irregularities due to the aforementioned competition between subshells close in energy level. For the last ten elements (109–118), experimental data is lackingand therefore calculated configurations have been shown instead.Completely filled subshells have been greyed out. Variations Period 1 Although the modern periodic table is standard today, the placement of the period 1 elements hydrogen and helium remains an open issue under discussion, and some variation can be found.Following their respective s1and s2electron configurations, hydrogen would be placed in group 1, and helium would be placed in group 2.The group 1 placement of hydrogen is common, but helium is almost always placed in group 18 with the other noble gases.The debate has to do with conflicting understandings of the extent to which chemical or electronic properties should decide periodic table placement. Like the group 1 metals, hydrogen has one electron in its outermost shelland typically loses its only electron in chemical reactions.Hydrogen has some metal-like chemical properties, being able to displace some metals from theirsalts.But it forms a diatomic nonmetallic gas at standard conditions, unlike the alkali metals which are reactive solid metals. This and hydrogen's formation ofhydrides, in which it gains an electron, brings it close to the properties of thehalogenswhich do the same(though it is rarer for hydrogen to form H−than H+).Moreover, the lightest two halogens (fluorineandchlorine) are gaseous like hydrogen at standard conditions.Some properties of hydrogen are not a good fit for either group: hydrogen is neither highly oxidizing nor highly reducing and is not reactive with water.Hydrogen thus has properties corresponding to both those of the alkali metals and the halogens, but matches neither group perfectly, and is thus difficult to place by its chemistry.Therefore, while the electronic placement of hydrogen in group 1 predominates, some rarer arrangements show either hydrogen in group 17,duplicate hydrogen in both groups 1 and 17,or float it separately from all groups.This last option has nonetheless been criticized by the chemist and philosopher of scienceEric Scerrion the grounds that it appears to imply that hydrogen is above the periodic law altogether, unlike all the other elements. Helium is the only element that routinely occupies a position in the periodic table that is not consistent with its electronic structure. It has two electrons in its outermost shell, whereas the other noble gases have eight; and it is an s-block element, whereas all other noble gases are p-block elements. However it is unreactive at standard conditions, and has a full outer shell: these properties are like the noble gases in group 18, but not at all like the reactive alkaline earth metals of group 2. For these reasons helium is nearly universally placed in group 18which its properties best match;a proposal to move helium to group 2 was rejected by IUPAC in 1988 for these reasons.Nonetheless, helium is still occasionally placed in group 2 today,and some of its physical and chemical properties are closer to the group 2 elements and support the electronic placement.Solid helium crystallises in ahexagonal close-packedstructure, which matches beryllium and magnesium in group 2, but not the other noble gases in group 18.Recent theoretical developments in noble gas chemistry, in which helium is expected to show slightly less inertness than neon and to form (HeO)(LiF)2with a structure similar to the analogous beryllium compound (but with no expected neon analogue), have resulted in more chemists advocating a placement of helium in group 2. This relates to the electronic argument, as the reason for neon's greater inertness is repulsion from its filled p-shell that helium lacks, though realistically it is unlikely that helium-containing molecules will be stable outside extreme low-temperature conditions (around 10K). Thefirst-row anomalyin the periodic table has additionally been cited to support moving helium to group 2. It arises because the first orbital of any type is unusually small, since unlike its higher analogues, it does not experience interelectronic repulsion from a smaller orbital of the same type. This makes the first row of elements in each block unusually small, and such elements tend to exhibit characteristic kinds of anomalies for their group. Some chemists arguing for the repositioning of helium have pointed out that helium exhibits these anomalies if it is placed in group 2, but not if it is placed in group 18: on the other hand, neon, which would be the first group 18 element if helium was removed from that spot, does exhibit those anomalies.The relationship between helium and beryllium is then argued to resemble that between hydrogen and lithium, a placement which is much more commonly accepted.For example, because of this trend in the sizes of orbitals, a large difference in atomic radii between the first and second members of each main group is seen in groups 1 and 13–17: it exists between neon and argon, and between helium and beryllium, but not between helium and neon. This similarly affects the noble gases' boiling points and solubilities in water, where helium is too close to neon, and the large difference characteristic between the first two elements of a group appears only between neon and argon. Moving helium to group 2 makes this trend consistent in groups 2 and 18 as well, by making helium the first group 2 element and neon the first group 18 element: both exhibit the characteristic properties of a kainosymmetric first element of a group.The group 18 placement of helium nonetheless remains near-universal due to its extreme inertness.Additionally, tables that float both hydrogen and helium outside all groups may rarely be encountered. Group 3 In many periodic tables, the f-block is shifted one element to the right, so that lanthanum and actinium become d-block elements in group 3, and Ce–Lu and Th–Lr form the f-block. Thus the d-block is split into two very uneven portions. This is a holdover from early mistaken measurements of electron configurations; modern measurements are more consistent with the form with lutetium and lawrencium in group 3, and with La–Yb and Ac–No as the f-block. The 4f shell is completely filled at ytterbium, and for that reasonLev LandauandEvgeny Lifshitzin 1948 considered it incorrect to group lutetium as an f-block element.They did not yet take the step of removing lanthanum from the d-block as well, butJun Kondōrealized in 1963 that lanthanum's low-temperaturesuperconductivityimplied the activity of its 4f shell.In 1965, David C. Hamilton linked this observation to its position in the periodic table, and argued that the f-block should be composed of the elements La–Yb and Ac–No.Since then, physical, chemical, and electronic evidence has supported this assignment.The issue was brought to wide attention byWilliam B. Jensenin 1982,and the reassignment of lutetium and lawrencium to group 3 was supported by IUPAC reports dating from 1988 (when the 1–18 group numbers were recommended)and 2021.The variation nonetheless still exists because most textbook writers are not aware of the issue. A third form can sometimes be encountered in which the spaces below yttrium in group 3 are left empty, such as the table appearing on the IUPAC web site,but this creates an inconsistency with quantum mechanics by making the f-block 15 elements wide (La–Lu and Ac–Lr) even though only 14 electrons can fit in an f-subshell.There is moreover some confusion in the literature on which elements are then implied to be in group 3.While the 2021 IUPAC report noted that 15-element-wide f-blocks are supported by some practitioners of a specialized branch ofrelativistic quantum mechanicsfocusing on the properties ofsuperheavy elements, the project's opinion was that such interest-dependent concerns should not have any bearing on how the periodic table is presented to \"the general chemical and scientific community\".Other authors focusing on superheavy elements since clarified that the \"15th entry of the f-block represents the first slot of the d-block which is left vacant to indicate the place of the f-block inserts\", which would imply that this form still has lutetium and lawrencium (the 15th entries in question) as d-block elements in group 3.Indeed, when IUPAC publications expand the table to 32 columns, they make this clear and place lutetium and lawrencium under yttrium in group 3. Several arguments in favour of Sc-Y-La-Ac can be encountered in the literature,but they have been challenged as being logically inconsistent.For example, it has been argued that lanthanum and actinium cannot be f-block elements because as individual gas-phase atoms, they have not begun to fill the f-subshells.But the same is true of thorium which is never disputed as an f-block element,and this argument overlooks the problem on the other end: that the f-shells complete filling at ytterbium and nobelium, matching the Sc-Y-Lu-Lr form, and not at lutetium and lawrencium as the Sc-Y-La-Ac form would have it.Not only are such exceptional configurations in the minority,but they have also in any case never been considered as relevant for positioning any other elements on the periodic table: in gaseous atoms, the d-shells complete their filling at copper, palladium, and gold, but it is universally accepted by chemists that these configurations are exceptional and that the d-block really ends in accordance with the Madelung rule at zinc, cadmium, and mercury.The relevant fact for placementis that lanthanum and actinium (like thorium) have valence f-orbitals that can become occupied in chemical environments, whereas lutetium and lawrencium do not:their f-shells are in the core, and cannot be used for chemical reactions.Thus the relationship between yttrium and lanthanum is only a secondary relationship between elements with the same number of valence electrons but different kinds of valence orbitals, such as that between chromium and uranium; whereas the relationship between yttrium and lutetium is primary, sharing both valence electron count and valence orbital type. Periodic trends As chemical reactions involve the valence electrons,elements with similar outer electron configurations may be expected to react similarly and form compounds with similar proportions of elements in them.Such elements are placed in the same group, and thus there tend to be clear similarities and trends in chemical behaviour as one proceeds down a group.As analogous configurations occur at regular intervals, the properties of the elements thus exhibit periodic recurrences, hence the name of the periodic table and the periodic law. These periodic recurrences were noticed well before the underlying theory that explains them was developed. Atomic radius Historically, the physical size of atoms was unknown until the early 20th century. The first calculated estimate of the atomic radius of hydrogen was published by physicistArthur Haasin 1910 to within an order of magnitude (a factor of 10) of the accepted value, theBohr radius(~0.529 Å). In his model, Haas used a single-electron configuration based on the classical atomic model proposed byJ. J. Thomsonin 1904, often called theplum-pudding model. Atomic radii(the size of atoms) are dependent on the sizes of their outermost orbitals.They generally decrease going left to right along the main-group elements, because the nuclear charge increases but the outer electrons are still in the same shell. However, going down a column, the radii generally increase, because the outermost electrons are in higher shells that are thus further away from the nucleus.The first row of each block is abnormally small, due to an effect calledkainosymmetryor primogenic repulsion:the 1s, 2p, 3d, and 4f subshells have no inner analogues. For example, the 2p orbitals do not experience strong repulsion from the 1s and 2s orbitals, which have quite different angular charge distributions, and hence are not very large; but the 3p orbitals experience strong repulsion from the 2p orbitals, which have similar angular charge distributions. Thus higher s-, p-, d-, and f-subshells experience strong repulsion from their inner analogues, which have approximately the same angular distribution of charge, and must expand to avoid this. This makes significant differences arise between the small 2p elements, which prefermultiple bonding, and the larger 3p and higher p-elements, which do not.Similar anomalies arise for the 1s, 2p, 3d, 4f, and the hypothetical 5g elements:the degree of this first-row anomaly is highest for the s-block, is moderate for the p-block, and is less pronounced for the d- and f-blocks. In the transition elements, an inner shell is filling, but the size of the atom is still determined by the outer electrons. The increasing nuclear charge across the series and the increased number of inner electrons for shielding somewhat compensate each other, so the decrease in radius is smaller.The 4p and 5d atoms, coming immediately after new types of transition series are first introduced, are smaller than would have been expected,because the added core 3d and 4f subshells provide only incomplete shielding of the nuclear charge for the outer electrons. Hence for example gallium atoms are slightly smaller than aluminium atoms.Together with kainosymmetry, this results in an even-odd difference between the periods (except in the s-block)that is sometimes known as secondary periodicity: elements in even periods have smaller atomic radii and prefer to lose fewer electrons, while elements in odd periods (except the first) differ in the opposite direction. Thus for example many properties in the p-block show a zigzag rather than a smooth trend along the group. For example, phosphorus and antimony in odd periods of group 15 readily reach the +5 oxidation state, whereas nitrogen, arsenic, and bismuth in even periods prefer to stay at +3.A similar situation holds for the d-block, with lutetium through tungsten atoms being slightly smaller than yttrium through molybdenum atoms respectively. Thallium and lead atoms are about the same size as indium and tin atoms respectively, but from bismuth to radon the 6p atoms are larger than the analogous 5p atoms. This happens because when atomic nuclei become highly charged,special relativitybecomes needed to gauge the effect of the nucleus on the electron cloud. Theserelativistic effectsresult in heavy elements increasingly having differing properties compared to their lighter homologues in the periodic table.Spin–orbit interactionsplits the p-subshell: one p-orbital is relativistically stabilized and shrunken (it fills in thallium and lead), but the other two (filling in bismuth through radon) are relativistically destabilized and expanded.Relativistic effects also explain whygoldis golden andmercuryis a liquid at room temperature.They are expected to become very strong in the late seventh period, potentially leading to a collapse of periodicity.Electron configurations are only clearly known until element 108 (hassium), and experimental chemistry beyond 108 has only been done for 112 (copernicium), 113 (nihonium), and 114 (flerovium), so the chemical characterization of the heaviest elements remains a topic of current research. The trend that atomic radii decrease from left to right is also present inionic radii, though it is more difficult to examine because the most common ions of consecutive elements normally differ in charge. Ions with the same electron configuration decrease in size as their atomic number rises, due to increased attraction from the more positively charged nucleus: thus for example ionic radii decrease in the series Se2−, Br−, Rb+, Sr2+, Y3+, Zr4+, Nb5+, Mo6+, Tc7+. Ions of the same element get smaller as more electrons are removed, because the attraction from the nucleus begins to outweigh the repulsion between electrons that causes electron clouds to expand: thus for example ionic radii decrease in the series V2+, V3+, V4+, V5+. Ionisation energy The firstionisation energyof an atom is the energy required to remove an electron from it. This varies with the atomic radius: ionisation energy increases left to right and down to up, because electrons that are closer to the nucleus are held more tightly and are more difficult to remove. Ionisation energy thus is minimized at the first element of each period – hydrogen and thealkali metals– and then generally rises until it reaches thenoble gasat the right edge of the period.There are some exceptions to this trend, such as oxygen, where the electron being removed is paired and thus interelectronic repulsion makes it easier to remove than expected. In the transition series, the outer electrons are preferentially lost even though the inner orbitals are filling. For example, in the 3d series, the 4s electrons are lost first even though the 3d orbitals are being filled. The shielding effect of adding an extra 3d electron approximately compensates the rise in nuclear charge, and therefore the ionisation energies stay mostly constant, though there is a small increase especially at the end of each transition series. As metal atoms tend to lose electrons in chemical reactions, ionisation energy is generally correlated with chemical reactivity, although there are other factors involved as well. Electron affinity The opposite property to ionisation energy is theelectron affinity, which is the energy released when adding an electron to the atom.A passing electron will be more readily attracted to an atom if it feels the pull of the nucleus more strongly, and especially if there is an available partially filled outer orbital that can accommodate it. Therefore, electron affinity tends to increase down to up and left to right. The exception is the last column, the noble gases, which have a full shell and have no room for another electron. This gives thehalogensin the next-to-last column the highest electron affinities. Some atoms, like the noble gases, have no electron affinity: they cannot form stable gas-phase anions.(They can form metastableresonancesif the incoming electron arrives with enough kinetic energy, but these inevitably and rapidlyautodetach: for example, the lifetime of the most long-lived He−level is about 359 microseconds.)The noble gases, having high ionisation energies and no electron affinity, have little inclination towards gaining or losing electrons and are generally unreactive. Some exceptions to the trends occur: oxygen and fluorine have lower electron affinities than their heavier homologues sulfur and chlorine, because they are small atoms and hence the newly added electron would experience significant repulsion from the already present ones. For the nonmetallic elements, electron affinity likewise somewhat correlates with reactivity, but not perfectly since other factors are involved. For example, fluorine has a lower electron affinity than chlorine (because of extreme interelectronic repulsion for the very small fluorine atom), but is more reactive. Valence and oxidation states Thevalenceof an element can be defined either as the number of hydrogen atoms that can combine with it to form a simple binary hydride, or as twice the number of oxygen atoms that can combine with it to form a simple binary oxide (that is, not aperoxideor asuperoxide).The valences of the main-group elements are directly related to the group number: the hydrides in the main groups 1–2 and 13–17 follow the formulae MH, MH2, MH3, MH4, MH3, MH2, and finally MH. The highest oxides instead increase in valence, following the formulae M2O, MO, M2O3, MO2, M2O5, MO3, M2O7.Today the notion of valence has been extended by that of theoxidation state, which is the formal charge left on an element when all other elements in a compound have been removed as their ions. The electron configuration suggests a ready explanation from the number of electrons available for bonding;indeed, the number of valence electrons starts at 1 in group 1, and then increases towards the right side of the periodic table, only resetting at 3 whenever each new block starts. Thus in period 6, Cs–Ba have 1–2 valence electrons; La–Yb have 3–16; Lu–Hg have 3–12; and Tl–Rn have 3–8.However, towards the right side of the d- and f-blocks, the theoretical maximum corresponding to using all valence electrons is not achievable at all;the same situation affects oxygen, fluorine, and the light noble gases up to krypton. A full explanation requires considering the energy that would be released in forming compounds with different valences rather than simply considering electron configurations alone.For example, magnesium forms Mg2+rather than Mg+cations when dissolved in water, because the latter would spontaneouslydisproportionateinto Mg0and Mg2+cations. This is because theenthalpyof hydration (surrounding the cation with water molecules) increases in magnitude with the charge and radius of the ion. In Mg+, the outermost orbital (which determines ionic radius) is still 3s, so the hydration enthalpy is small and insufficient to compensate the energy required to remove the electron; but ionizing again to Mg2+uncovers the core 2p subshell, making the hydration enthalpy large enough to allow magnesium(II) compounds to form. For similar reasons, the common oxidation states of the heavier p-block elements (where the ns electrons become lower in energy than the np) tend to vary by steps of 2, because that is necessary to uncover an inner subshell and decrease the ionic radius (e.g. Tl+uncovers 6s, and Tl3+uncovers 5d, so once thallium loses two electrons it tends to lose the third one as well). Analogous arguments based onorbital hybridizationcan be used for the less electronegative p-block elements. For transition metals, common oxidation states are nearly always at least +2 for similar reasons (uncovering the next subshell); this holds even for the metals with anomalous dx+1s1or dx+2s0configurations (except forsilver), because repulsion between d-electrons means that the movement of the second electron from the s- to the d-subshell does not appreciably change its ionisation energy.Because ionizing the transition metals further does not uncover any new inner subshells, their oxidation states tend to vary by steps of 1 instead.The lanthanides and late actinides generally show a stable +3 oxidation state, removing the outer s-electrons and then (usually) one electron from the (n−2)f-orbitals, that are similar in energy to ns.The common and maximum oxidation states of the d- and f-block elements tend to depend on the ionisation energies. As the energy difference between the (n−1)d and ns orbitals rises along each transition series, it becomes less energetically favourable to ionize further electrons. Thus, the early transition metal groups tend to prefer higher oxidation states, but the +2 oxidation state becomes more stable for the late transition metal groups. The highest formal oxidation state thus increases from +3 at the beginning of each d-block row, to +7 or +8 in the middle (e.g.OsO4), and then decrease to +2 at the end.The lanthanides and late actinides usually have high fourth ionisation energies and hence rarely surpass the +3 oxidation state, whereas early actinides have low fourth ionisation energies and so for example neptunium and plutonium can reach +7.The very last actinides go further than the lanthanides towards low oxidation states: mendelevium is more easily reduced to the +2 state than thulium or even europium (the lanthanide with the most stable +2 state, on account of its half-filled f-shell), and nobelium outright favours +2 over +3, in contrast to ytterbium. As elements in the same group share the same valence configurations, they usually exhibit similar chemical behaviour. For example, thealkali metalsin the first group all have one valence electron, and form a very homogeneous class of elements: they are all soft and reactive metals. However, there are many factors involved, and groups can often be rather heterogeneous. For instance, hydrogen also has one valence electron and is in the same group as the alkali metals, but its chemical behaviour is quite different. The stable elements ofgroup 14comprise a nonmetal (carbon), two semiconductors (siliconandgermanium), and two metals (tinandlead); they are nonetheless united by having four valence electrons.This often leads to similarities in maximum and minimum oxidation states (e.g.sulfurandseleniumingroup 16both have maximum oxidation state +6, as inSO3andSeO3, and minimum oxidation state −2, as insulfidesandselenides); but not always (e.g.oxygenis not known to form oxidation state +6, despite being in the same group as sulfur and selenium). Electronegativity Another important property of elements is theirelectronegativity. Atoms can formcovalent bondsto each other by sharing electrons in pairs, creating an overlap of valence orbitals. The degree to which each atom attracts the shared electron pair depends on the atom's electronegativity– the tendency of an atom towards gaining or losing electrons.The more electronegative atom will tend to attract the electron pair more, and the less electronegative (or more electropositive) one will attract it less. In extreme cases, the electron can be thought of as having been passed completely from the more electropositive atom to the more electronegative one, though this is a simplification. The bond then binds two ions, one positive (having given up the electron) and one negative (having accepted it), and is termed anionic bond. Electronegativity depends on how strongly the nucleus can attract an electron pair, and so it exhibits a similar variation to the other properties already discussed: electronegativity tends to fall going up to down, and rise going left to right. The alkali and alkaline earth metals are among the most electropositive elements, while the chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases are among the most electronegative ones. Electronegativity is generally measured on the Pauling scale, on which the most electronegative reactive atom (fluorine) is given electronegativity 4.0, and the least electronegative atom (caesium) is given electronegativity 0.79.In factneonis the most electronegative element, but the Pauling scale cannot measure its electronegativity because it does not form covalent bonds with most elements. An element's electronegativity varies with the identity and number of the atoms it is bonded to, as well as how many electrons it has already lost: an atom becomes more electronegative when it has lost more electrons.This sometimes makes a large difference: lead in the +2 oxidation state has electronegativity 1.87 on the Pauling scale, while lead in the +4 oxidation state has electronegativity 2.33. Metallicity A simple substance is a substance formed from atoms of one chemical element. The simple substances of the more electronegative atoms tend to share electrons (form covalent bonds) with each other. They form either small molecules (like hydrogen or oxygen, whose atoms bond in pairs) or giant structures stretching indefinitely (like carbon or silicon). The noble gases simply stay as single atoms, as they already have a full shell.Substances composed of discrete molecules or single atoms are held together by weaker attractive forces between the molecules, such as theLondon dispersion force: as electrons move within the molecules, they create momentary imbalances of electrical charge, which induce similar imbalances on nearby molecules and create synchronized movements of electrons across many neighbouring molecules. The more electropositive atoms, however, tend to instead lose electrons, creating a \"sea\" of electrons engulfing cations.The outer orbitals of one atom overlap to share electrons with all its neighbours, creating a giant structure of molecular orbitals extending over all the atoms.This negatively charged \"sea\" pulls on all the ions and keeps them together in ametallic bond. Elements forming such bonds are often calledmetals; those which do not are often callednonmetals.Some elements can form multiple simple substances with different structures: these are calledallotropes. For example,diamondandgraphiteare two allotropes of carbon. The metallicity of an element can be predicted from electronic properties. When atomic orbitals overlap during metallic or covalent bonding, they create both bonding and antibondingmolecular orbitalsof equal capacity, with the antibonding orbitals of higher energy. Net bonding character occurs when there are more electrons in the bonding orbitals than there are in the antibonding orbitals. Metallic bonding is thus possible when the number of electrons delocalized by each atom is less than twice the number of orbitals contributing to the overlap. This is the situation for elements in groups 1 through 13; they also have too few valence electrons to form giant covalent structures where all atoms take equivalent positions, and so almost all of them metallise. The exceptions are hydrogen and boron, which have too high an ionisation energy. Hydrogen thus forms a covalent H2molecule, and boron forms a giant covalent structure based on icosahedral B12clusters. In a metal, the bonding and antibonding orbitals have overlapping energies, creating a single band that electrons can freely flow through, allowing for electrical conduction. In group 14, both metallic and covalent bonding become possible. In a diamond crystal, covalent bonds between carbon atoms are strong, because they have a small atomic radius and thus the nucleus has more of a hold on the electrons. Therefore, the bonding orbitals that result are much lower in energy than the antibonding orbitals, and there is no overlap, so electrical conduction becomes impossible: carbon is a nonmetal. However, covalent bonding becomes weaker for larger atoms and the energy gap between the bonding and antibonding orbitals decreases. Therefore, silicon and germanium have smallerband gapsand aresemiconductorsat ambient conditions: electrons can cross the gap when thermally excited. (Boron is also a semiconductor at ambient conditions.) The band gap disappears in tin, so that tin and lead become metals.As the temperature rises, all nonmetals develop some semiconducting properties, to a greater or lesser extent depending on the size of the band gap. Thus metals and nonmetals may be distinguished by the temperature dependence of their electrical conductivity: a metal's conductivity lowers as temperature rises (because thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to flow freely), whereas a nonmetal's conductivity rises (as more electrons may be excited to cross the gap). Elements in groups 15 through 17 have too many electrons to form giant covalent molecules that stretch in all three dimensions. For the lighter elements, the bonds in small diatomic molecules are so strong that a condensed phase is disfavoured: thus nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), white phosphorus and yellow arsenic (P4and As4), sulfur and red selenium (S8and Se8), and the stable halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2) readily form covalent molecules with few atoms. The heavier ones tend to form long chains (e.g. red phosphorus, grey selenium, tellurium) or layered structures (e.g. carbon as graphite, black phosphorus, grey arsenic, antimony, bismuth) that only extend in one or two rather than three dimensions. Both kinds of structures can be found as allotropes of phosphorus, arsenic, and selenium, although the long-chained allotropes are more stable in all three. As these structures do not use all their orbitals for bonding, they end up with bonding, nonbonding, and antibonding bands in order of increasing energy. Similarly to group 14, the band gaps shrink for the heavier elements and free movement of electrons between the chains or layers becomes possible. Thus for example black phosphorus, black arsenic, grey selenium, tellurium, and iodine are semiconductors; grey arsenic, antimony, and bismuth aresemimetals(exhibiting quasi-metallic conduction, with a very small band overlap); and polonium and probably astatine are true metals.Finally, the natural group 18 elements all stay as individual atoms. The dividing line between metals and nonmetals is roughly diagonal from top left to bottom right, with the transition series appearing to the left of this diagonal (as they have many available orbitals for overlap). This is expected, as metallicity tends to be correlated with electropositivity and the willingness to lose electrons, which increases right to left and up to down. Thus the metals greatly outnumber the nonmetals. Elements near the borderline are difficult to classify: they tend to have properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals, and may have some properties characteristic of both. They are often termed semimetals ormetalloids.The term \"semimetal\" used in this sense should not be confused with its strict physical sense having to do with band structure: bismuth is physically a semimetal, but is generally considered a metal by chemists. The following table considers the most stable allotropes at standard conditions. The elements coloured yellow form simple substances that are well-characterised by metallic bonding. Elements coloured light blue form giant network covalent structures, whereas those coloured dark blue form small covalently bonded molecules that are held together by weakervan der Waals forces. The noble gases are coloured in violet: their molecules are single atoms and no covalent bonding occurs. Greyed-out cells are for elements which have not been prepared in sufficient quantities for their most stable allotropes to have been characterized in this way. Theoretical considerations and current experimental evidence suggest that all of those elements would metallise if they could form condensed phases,except perhaps for oganesson. MetallicNetwork covalentMolecularcovalentSingle atomsUnknownBackground colorshows bonding of simple substances in theperiodic table. If there are several, the most stable allotrope is considered. Generally, metals are shiny and dense.They usually have high melting and boiling points due to the strength of the metallic bond, and are often malleable and ductile (easily stretched and shaped) because the atoms can move relative to each other without breaking the metallic bond.They conduct electricity because their electrons are free to move in all three dimensions. Similarly, they conduct heat, which is transferred by the electrons as extrakinetic energy: they move faster. These properties persist in the liquid state, as although the crystal structure is destroyed on melting, the atoms still touch and the metallic bond persists, though it is weakened.Metals tend to be reactive towards nonmetals.Some exceptions can be found to these generalizations: for example, beryllium, chromium,manganese,antimony,bismuth,and uranium are brittle (not an exhaustive list);chromium is extremely hard;gallium, rubidium, caesium, and mercury are liquid at or close to room temperature;andnoble metalssuch as gold are chemically very inert. Nonmetals exhibit different properties. Those forming giant covalent crystals exhibit high melting and boiling points, as it takes considerable energy to overcome the strong covalent bonds. Those forming discrete molecules are held together mostly by dispersion forces, which are more easily overcome; thus they tend to have lower melting and boiling points,and many are liquids or gases at room temperature.Nonmetals are often dull-looking. They tend to be reactive towards metals, except for the noble gases, which are inert towards most substances.They are brittle when solid as their atoms are held tightly in place. They are less dense and conduct electricity poorly,because there are no mobile electrons.Near the borderline, band gaps are small and thus many elements in that region are semiconductors, such as silicon, germanium,and tellurium.Selenium has both a semiconducting grey allotrope and an insulating red allotrope; arsenic has a metallic grey allotrope, a semiconducting black allotrope, and an insulating yellow allotrope (though the last is unstable at ambient conditions).Again there are exceptions; for example, diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known materials, greater than any metal. It is common to designate a class of metalloids straddling the boundary between metals and nonmetals, as elements in that region are intermediate in both physical and chemical properties.However, no consensus exists in the literature for precisely which elements should be so designated. When such a category is used, silicon, germanium, arsenic, and tellurium are almost always included, and boron and antimony usually are; but most sources include other elements as well, without agreement on which extra elements should be added, and some others subtract from this list instead.For example, unlike all the other elements generally considered metalloids or nonmetals, antimony's only stable form has metallic conductivity. Moreover, the element resembles bismuth and, more generally, the other p-block metals in its physical and chemical behaviour. On this basis some authors have argued that it is better classified as a metal than as a metalloid.On the other hand, selenium has some semiconducting properties in its most stable form (though it also has insulating allotropes) and it has been argued that it should be considered a metalloid– though this situation also holds for phosphorus,which is a much rarer inclusion among the metalloids. Further manifestations of periodicity There are some other relationships throughout the periodic table between elements that are not in the same group, such as thediagonal relationshipsbetween elements that are diagonally adjacent (e.g. lithium and magnesium).Some similarities can also be found between the main groups and the transition metal groups, or between the early actinides and early transition metals, when the elements have the same number of valence electrons. Thus uranium somewhat resembles chromium and tungsten in group 6,as all three have six valence electrons.Relationships between elements with the same number of valence electrons but different types of valence orbital have been called secondary or isodonor relationships: they usually have the same maximum oxidation states, but not the same minimum oxidation states. For example, chlorine and manganese both have +7 as their maximum oxidation state (e.g.Cl2O7andMn2O7), but their respective minimum oxidation states are −1 (e.g.HCl) and −3 (K2). Elements with the same number of valence vacancies but different numbers of valence electrons are related by a tertiary or isoacceptor relationship: they usually have similar minimum but not maximum oxidation states. For example, hydrogen and chlorine both have −1 as their minimum oxidation state (inhydridesandchlorides), but hydrogen's maximum oxidation state is +1 (e.g.H2O) while chlorine's is +7. Many other physical properties of the elements exhibit periodic variation in accordance with the periodic law, such asmelting points,boiling points,heats of fusion,heats of vaporization,atomisation energy, and so on. Similar periodic variations appear for the compounds of the elements, which can be observed by comparing hydrides, oxides, sulfides, halides, and so on.Chemical properties are more difficult to describe quantitatively, but likewise exhibit their own periodicities. Examples include the variation in theacidicandbasicproperties of the elements and their compounds, the stabilities of compounds, and methods of isolating the elements.Periodicity is and has been used very widely to predict the properties of unknown new elements and new compounds, and is central to modern chemistry. Classification of elements Many terms have been used in the literature to describe sets of elements that behave similarly. The group namesalkali metal,alkaline earth metal,triel,tetrel,pnictogen,chalcogen,halogen, andnoble gasare acknowledged by IUPAC; the other groups can be referred to by their number, or by their first element (e.g., group 6 is the chromium group).Some divide the p-block elements from groups 13 to 16 by metallicity,although there is neither an IUPAC definition nor a precise consensus on exactly which elements should be considered metals, nonmetals, or semi-metals (sometimes called metalloids).Neither is there a consensus on what the metals succeeding the transition metals ought to be called, withpost-transition metalandpoor metalbeing among the possibilities having been used. Some advanced monographs exclude the elements of group 12 from the transition metals on the grounds of their sometimes quite different chemical properties, but this is not a universal practiceand IUPAC does not presently mention it as allowable in itsPrinciples of Chemical Nomenclature. Thelanthanidesare considered to be the elements La–Lu, which are all very similar to each other: historically they included only Ce–Lu, but lanthanum became included by common usage.Therare earth elements(or rare earth metals) add scandium and yttrium to the lanthanides.Analogously, theactinidesare considered to be the elements Ac–Lr (historically Th–Lr),although variation of properties in this set is much greater than within the lanthanides.IUPAC recommends the nameslanthanoidsandactinoidsto avoid ambiguity, as the -ide suffix typically denotes a negative ion; howeverlanthanidesandactinidesremain common.With the increasing recognition of lutetium and lawrencium as d-block elements, some authors began to define the lanthanides as La–Yb and the actinides as Ac–No, matching the f-block.Thetransactinidesorsuperheavy elementsare the short-lived elements beyond the actinides, starting at lawrencium or rutherfordium (depending on where the actinides are taken to end). Many more categorizations exist and are used according to certain disciplines. In astrophysics, a metal is defined as any element with atomic number greater than 2, i.e. anything except hydrogen and helium.The term \"semimetal\" has a different definition in physics than it does in chemistry: bismuth is a semimetal by physical definitions, but chemists generally consider it a metal.A few terms are widely used, but without any very formal definition, such as \"heavy metal\", which has been given such a wide range of definitions that it has been criticized as \"effectively meaningless\". The scope of terms varies significantly between authors. For example, according to IUPAC, the noble gases extend to include the whole group, including the very radioactive superheavy element oganesson.However, among those who specialize in the superheavy elements, this is not often done: in this case \"noble gas\" is typically taken to imply the unreactive behaviour of the lighter elements of the group. Since calculations generally predict that oganesson should not be particularly inert due to relativistic effects, and may not even be a gas at room temperature if it could be produced in bulk, its status as a noble gas is often questioned in this context.Furthermore, national variations are sometimes encountered: in Japan, alkaline earth metals often do not include beryllium and magnesium as their behaviour is different from the heavier group 2 metals. History Early history In 1817, German physicistJohann Wolfgang Döbereinerbegan to formulate one of the earliest attempts to classify the elements.In 1829, he found that he could form some of the elements into groups of three, with the members of each group having related properties. He termed these groupstriads.Chlorine, bromine, and iodine formed a triad; as did calcium, strontium, and barium; lithium, sodium, and potassium; and sulfur, selenium, and tellurium. Today, all these triads form part of modern-day groups: the halogens, alkaline earth metals, alkali metals, and chalcogens.Various chemists continued his work and were able to identify more and more relationships between small groups of elements. However, they could not build one scheme that encompassed them all. John Newlandspublished a letter in theChemical Newsin February 1863 on the periodicity among the chemical elements.In 1864 Newlands published an article in theChemical Newsshowing that if the elements are arranged in the order of their atomic weights, those having consecutive numbers frequently either belong to the same group or occupy similar positions in different groups, and he pointed out that each eighth element starting from a given one is in this arrangement a kind of repetition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music (The Law of Octaves).However, Newlands's formulation only worked well for the main-group elements, and encountered serious problems with the others. German chemistLothar Meyernoted the sequences of similar chemical and physical properties repeated at periodic intervals. According to him, if the atomic weights were plotted as ordinates (i.e. vertically) and the atomic volumes as abscissas (i.e. horizontally)—the curve obtained a series of maximums and minimums—the mostelectropositiveelements would appear at the peaks of the curve in the order of their atomic weights. In 1864, a book of his was published; it contained an early version of the periodic table containing 28 elements, and classified elements into six families by theirvalence—for the first time, elements had been grouped according to their valence. Works on organizing the elements by atomic weight had until then been stymied by inaccurate measurements of the atomic weights.In 1868, he revised his table, but this revision was published as a draft only after his death. Mendeleev The definitive breakthrough came from the Russian chemistDmitri Mendeleev. Although other chemists (including Meyer) had found some other versions of the periodic system at about the same time, Mendeleev was the most dedicated to developing and defending his system, and it was his system that most affected the scientific community.On 17 February 1869 (1 March 1869 in the Gregorian calendar), Mendeleev began arranging the elements and comparing them by their atomic weights. He began with a few elements, and over the course of the day his system grew until it encompassed most of the known elements. After he found a consistent arrangement, his printed table appeared in May 1869 in the journal of the Russian Chemical Society.When elements did not appear to fit in the system, he boldly predicted that either valencies or atomic weights had been measured incorrectly, or that there was a missing element yet to be discovered.In 1871, Mendeleev published a long article, including an updated form of his table, that made his predictions for unknown elements explicit. Mendeleev predicted the properties of three of these unknown elements in detail: as they would be missing heavier homologues of boron, aluminium, and silicon, he named them eka-boron, eka-aluminium, and eka-silicon (\"eka\" being Sanskrit for \"one\").: 45 In 1875, the French chemistPaul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, working without knowledge of Mendeleev's prediction, discovered a new element in a sample of the mineralsphalerite, and named it gallium. He isolated the element and began determining its properties. Mendeleev, reading de Boisbaudran's publication, sent a letter claiming that gallium was his predicted eka-aluminium. Although Lecoq de Boisbaudran was initially sceptical, and suspected that Mendeleev was trying to take credit for his discovery, he later admitted that Mendeleev was correct.In 1879, the Swedish chemistLars Fredrik Nilsondiscovered a new element, which he named scandium: it turned out to be eka-boron. Eka-silicon was found in 1886 by German chemistClemens Winkler, who named it germanium. The properties of gallium, scandium, and germanium matched what Mendeleev had predicted.In 1889, Mendeleev noted at the Faraday Lecture to the Royal Institution in London that he had not expected to live long enough \"to mention their discovery to the Chemical Society of Great Britain as a confirmation of the exactitude and generality of the periodic law\".Even the discovery of the noble gases at the close of the 19th century, which Mendeleev had not predicted, fitted neatly into his scheme as an eighth main group. Mendeleev nevertheless had some trouble fitting the known lanthanides into his scheme, as they did not exhibit the periodic change in valencies that the other elements did. After much investigation, the Czech chemistBohuslav Braunersuggested in 1902 that the lanthanides could all be placed together in one group on the periodic table. He named this the \"asteroid hypothesis\" as an astronomical analogy: just as there is anasteroid beltinstead of a single planet between Mars and Jupiter, so the place below yttrium was thought to be occupied by all the lanthanides instead of just one element. Atomic number After the internal structure of the atom was probed, amateur Dutch physicistAntonius van den Broekproposed in 1913 that the nuclear charge determined the placement of elements in the periodic table.The New Zealand physicistErnest Rutherfordcoined the word \"atomic number\" for this nuclear charge.In van den Broek's published article he illustrated the first electronic periodic table showing the elements arranged according to the number of their electrons.Rutherford confirmed in his 1914 paper that Bohr had accepted the view of van den Broek. The same year, English physicistHenry MoseleyusingX-ray spectroscopyconfirmed van den Broek's proposal experimentally. Moseley determined the value of the nuclear charge of each element fromaluminiumtogoldand showed that Mendeleev's ordering actually places the elements in sequential order by nuclear charge.Nuclear charge is identical toprotoncount and determines the value of theatomic number(Z) of each element. Using atomic number gives a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements. Moseley's research immediately resolved discrepancies between atomic weight and chemical properties; these were cases such as tellurium and iodine, where atomic number increases but atomic weight decreases.Although Moseley was soon killed in World War I, the Swedish physicistManne Siegbahncontinued his work up touranium, and established that it was the element with the highest atomic number then known (92).Based on Moseley and Siegbahn's research, it was also known which atomic numbers corresponded to missing elements yet to be found: 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, and 87.(Element 75 had in fact already been found by Japanese chemistMasataka Ogawain 1908 and namednipponium, but he mistakenly assigned it as element 43 instead of 75 and so his discovery was not generally recognized until later. The contemporarily accepted discovery of element 75 came in 1925, whenWalter Noddack,Ida Tacke, andOtto Bergindependently rediscovered it and gave it its present name,rhenium.) The dawn of atomic physics also clarified the situation ofisotopes. In thedecay chainsof the primordial radioactive elements thorium and uranium, it soon became evident that there were many apparent new elements that had different atomic weights but exactly the same chemical properties. In 1913,Frederick Soddycoined the term \"isotope\" to describe this situation, and considered isotopes to merely be different forms of the same chemical element. This furthermore clarified discrepancies such as tellurium and iodine: tellurium's natural isotopic composition is weighted towards heavier isotopes than iodine's, but tellurium has a lower atomic number. Electron shells The Danish physicistNiels BohrappliedMax Planck's idea of quantization to the atom. He concluded that the energy levels of electrons were quantised: only a discrete set of stable energy states were allowed. Bohr then attempted to understand periodicity through electron configurations, surmising in 1913 that the inner electrons should be responsible for the chemical properties of the element.In 1913, he produced the first electronic periodic table based on a quantum atom. Bohr called his electron shells \"rings\" in 1913: atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing, \"We see, further, that a ring ofnelectrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of charge ne unlessn< 8.\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \"rings of electrons will only join if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8.\" However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons: \"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neonN= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur.\" His proposed electron configurations for the atoms (shown to the right) mostly do not accord with those now known.They were improved further after the work ofArnold SommerfeldandEdmund Stonerdiscovered more quantum numbers. The first one to systematically expand and correct the chemical potentials of Bohr's atomic theory wasWalther Kosselin 1914 and in 1916. Kossel explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\" In a 1919 paper,Irving Langmuirpostulated the existence of \"cells\" which we now call orbitals, which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \"equidistant layers\" which we now call shells. He made an exception for the first shell to only contain two electrons.The chemistCharles Rugeley Burysuggested in 1921 that eight and eighteen electrons in a shell form stable configurations. Bury proposed that the electron configurations in transitional elements depended upon the valence electrons in their outer shell.He introduced the wordtransitionto describe the elements now known astransition metalsor transition elements.Bohr's theory was vindicated by the discovery of element 72:Georges Urbainclaimed to have discovered it as therare earth elementceltium, but Bury and Bohr had predicted that element 72 could not be a rare earth element and had to be a homologue ofzirconium.Dirk CosterandGeorg von Hevesysearched for the element in zirconium ores and found element 72, which they namedhafniumafter Bohr's hometown ofCopenhagen(Hafniain Latin).Urbain's celtium proved to be simply purifiedlutetium(element 71).Hafnium and rhenium thus became the last stable elements to be discovered. Prompted by Bohr,Wolfgang Paulitook up the problem of electron configurations in 1923. Pauli extended Bohr's scheme to use fourquantum numbers, and formulated hisexclusion principlewhich stated that no two electrons could have the same four quantum numbers. This explained the lengths of the periods in the periodic table (2, 8, 18, and 32), which corresponded to the number of electrons that each shell could occupy.In 1925,Friedrich Hundarrived at configurations close to the modern ones.As a result of these advances, periodicity became based on the number of chemically active or valence electrons rather than by the valences of the elements.TheAufbau principlethat describes the electron configurations of the elements was first empirically observed byErwin Madelungin 1926,though the first to publish it wasVladimir Karapetoffin 1930.In 1961,Vsevolod Klechkovskyderived the first part of the Madelung rule (that orbitals fill in order of increasingn+ ℓ) from theThomas–Fermi model;the complete rule was derived from a similar potential in 1971 by Yury N. Demkov and Valentin N. Ostrovsky. The quantum theory clarified the transition metals and lanthanides as forming their own separate groups, transitional between the main groups, although some chemists had already proposed tables showing them this way before then: the English chemist Henry Bassett did so in 1892, the Danish chemistJulius Thomsenin 1895, and the Swiss chemistAlfred Wernerin 1905. Bohr used Thomsen's form in his 1922 Nobel Lecture; Werner's form is very similar to the modern 32-column form. In particular, this supplanted Brauner's asteroidal hypothesis. The exact position of the lanthanides, and thus the composition ofgroup 3, remained under dispute for decades longer because their electron configurations were initially measured incorrectly.On chemical grounds Bassett, Werner, and Bury grouped scandium and yttrium with lutetium rather than lanthanum (the former two left an empty space below yttrium as lutetium had not yet been discovered).Hund assumed in 1927 that all the lanthanide atoms had configuration 4f0−145d16s2, on account of their prevailing trivalency. It is now known that the relationship between chemistry and electron configuration is more complicated than that.Early spectroscopic evidence seemed to confirm these configurations, and thus the periodic table was structured to have group 3 as scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium, with fourteen f-elements breaking up the d-block between lanthanum and hafnium.But it was later discovered that this is only true for four of the fifteen lanthanides (lanthanum, cerium, gadolinium, and lutetium), and that the other lanthanide atoms do not have a d-electron. In particular, ytterbium completes the 4f shell and thus Soviet physicists Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz noted in 1948 that lutetium is correctly regarded as a d-block rather than an f-block element;that bulk lanthanum is an f-metal was first suggested byJun Kondōin 1963, on the grounds of its low-temperaturesuperconductivity.This clarified the importance of looking at low-lying excited states of atoms that can play a role in chemical environments when classifying elements by block and positioning them on the table.Many authors subsequently rediscovered this correction based on physical, chemical, and electronic concerns and applied it to all the relevant elements, thus making group 3 contain scandium, yttrium, lutetium, and lawrenciumand having lanthanum through ytterbium and actinium through nobelium as the f-block rows:this corrected version achieves consistency with the Madelung rule and vindicates Bassett, Werner, and Bury's initial chemical placement. In 1988, IUPAC released a report supporting this composition of group 3,a decision that was reaffirmed in 2021.Variation can still be found in textbooks on the composition of group 3,and some argumentation against this format is still published today,but chemists and physicists who have considered the matter largely agree on group 3 containing scandium, yttrium, lutetium, and lawrencium and challenge the counterarguments as being inconsistent. Synthetic elements By 1936, the pool of missing elements from hydrogen to uranium had shrunk to four: elements 43, 61, 85, and 87 remained missing. Element 43 eventually became the first element to be synthesized artificially via nuclear reactions rather than discovered in nature. It was discovered in 1937 by Italian chemistsEmilio SegrèandCarlo Perrier, who named their discoverytechnetium, after the Greek word for \"artificial\".Elements 61 (promethium) and 85 (astatine) were likewise produced artificially in 1945 and 1940 respectively; element 87 (francium) became the last element to be discovered in nature, by French chemistMarguerite Pereyin 1939.The elements beyond uranium were likewise discovered artificially, starting withEdwin McMillanandPhilip Abelson's 1940 discovery ofneptunium(via bombardment of uranium with neutrons).Glenn T. Seaborgand his team at theLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory(LBNL) continued discovering transuranium elements, starting withplutoniumin 1941, and discovered that contrary to previous thinking, the elements from actinium onwards were congeners of the lanthanides rather than transition metals.Bassett (1892), Werner (1905), and the French engineerCharles Janet(1928) had previously suggested this, but their ideas did not then receive general acceptance.Seaborg thus called them the actinides.Elements up to 101 (named mendelevium in honour of Mendeleev) were synthesized up to 1955, either through neutron or alpha-particle irradiation, or in nuclear explosions in the cases of 99 (einsteinium) and 100 (fermium). A significant controversy arose with elements 102 through 106 in the 1960s and 1970s, as competition arose between the LBNL team (now led byAlbert Ghiorso) and a team of Soviet scientists at theJoint Institute for Nuclear Research(JINR) led byGeorgy Flyorov. Each team claimed discovery, and in some cases each proposed their own name for the element, creating anelement naming controversythat lasted decades. These elements were made by bombardment of actinides with light ions.IUPAC at first adopted a hands-off approach, preferring to wait and see if a consensus would be forthcoming. But as it was also the height of theCold War, it became clear that this would not happen. As such, IUPAC and theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Physics(IUPAP) created aTransfermium Working Group(TWG, fermium being element 100) in 1985 to set out criteria for discovery,which were published in 1991.After some further controversy, these elements received their final names in 1997, including seaborgium (106) in honour of Seaborg. The TWG's criteria were used to arbitrate later element discovery claims from LBNL and JINR, as well as from research institutes in Germany (GSI) and Japan (Riken).Currently, consideration of discovery claims is performed by aIUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party. After priority was assigned, the elements were officially added to the periodic table, and the discoverers were invited to propose their names.By 2016, this had occurred for all elements up to 118, therefore completing the periodic table's first seven rows.The discoveries of elements beyond 106 were made possible by techniques devised byYuri Oganessianat the JINR: cold fusion (bombardment of lead and bismuth by heavy ions) made possible the 1981–2004 discoveries of elements 107 through 112 at GSI and 113 at Riken, and he led the JINR team (in collaboration with American scientists) to discover elements 114 through 118 using hot fusion (bombardment of actinides by calcium ions) in 1998–2010.The heaviest known element, oganesson (118), is named in Oganessian's honour. Element 114 is named flerovium in honour of his predecessor and mentor Flyorov. In celebration of the periodic table's 150th anniversary, theUnited Nationsdeclared the year 2019 as the International Year of the Periodic Table, celebrating \"one of the most significant achievements in science\".The discovery criteria set down by the TWG were updated in 2020 in response to experimental and theoretical progress that had not been foreseen in 1991.Today, the periodic table is among the most recognisable icons of chemistry.IUPAC is involved today with many processes relating to the periodic table: the recognition and naming of new elements, recommending group numbers and collective names, and the updating of atomic weights. Future extension beyond the seventh period The most recently named elements – nihonium (113), moscovium (115), tennessine (117), and oganesson (118) – completed the seventh row of the periodic table.Future elements would have to begin aneighth row. These elements may be referred to either by their atomic numbers (e.g. \"element 164\"), or by the IUPACsystematic element namesadopted in 1978, which directly relate to the atomic numbers (e.g. \"unhexquadium\" for element 164, derived from Latinunus\"one\", Greekhexa\"six\", Latinquadra\"four\", and the traditional-iumsuffix for metallic elements).All attempts to synthesize such elements have failed so far. An attempt to make element 119 has been ongoing since 2018 at the Riken research institute in Japan. The LBNL in the United States, the JINR in Russia, and the Heavy Ion Research Facility inLanzhou(HIRFL) in China also plan to make their own attempts at synthesizing the first few period 8 elements. If the eighth period followed the pattern set by the earlier periods, then it would contain fifty elements, filling the 8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, and finally 8p subshells in that order. But by this point, relativistic effects should result in significant deviations from the Madelung rule. Various different models have been suggested for the configurations of eighth-period elements, as well as how to show the results in a periodic table. All agree that the eighth period should begin like the previous ones with two 8s elements, 119 and120. However, after that the massive energetic overlaps between the 5g, 6f, 7d, and 8p subshells means that they all begin to fill together, and it is not clear how to separate out specific 5g and 6f series.Elements121through 156 thus do not fit well as chemical analogues of any previous group in the earlier parts of the table,although they have sometimes been placed as 5g, 6f, and other series to formally reflect their electron configurations.Eric Scerri has raised the question of whether an extended periodic table should take into account the failure of the Madelung rule in this region, or if such exceptions should be ignored.The shell structure may also be fairly formal at this point: already the electron distribution in an oganesson atom is expected to be rather uniform, with no discernible shell structure. The situation from elements 157 to 172 should return to normalcy and be more reminiscent of the earlier rows.The heavy p-shells are split by thespin–orbit interaction: one p-orbital (p1/2) is more stabilized, and the other two (p3/2) are destabilized. (Such shifts in the quantum numbers happen for all types of shells, but it makes the biggest difference to the order for the p-shells.) It is likely that by element 157, the filled 8s and 8p1/2shells with four electrons in total have sunk into the core. Beyond the core, the next orbitals are 7d and 9s at similar energies, followed by 9p1/2and 8p3/2at similar energies, and then a large gap.Thus, the 9s and 9p1/2orbitals in essence replace the 8s and 8p1/2ones, making elements 157–172 probably chemically analogous to groups 3–18: for example, element 164 would appear two places below lead in group 14 under the usual pattern, but is calculated to be very analogous to palladium in group 10 instead.Thus, it takes fifty-four elements rather than fifty to reach the next noble element after 118.However, while these conclusions about elements 157 through 172's chemistry are generally agreed by models,there is disagreement on whether the periodic table should be drawn to reflect chemical analogies, or if it should reflect likely formal electron configurations, which should be quite different from earlier periods and are not agreed between sources. Discussion about the format of the eighth row thus continues. Beyond element 172, calculation is complicated by the 1s electron energy level becoming imaginary. Such a situation does have physical interpretation, and does not in itself pose an electronic limit to the periodic table, but the correct way to incorporate such states into multi-electron calculations is still an open problem. This would need to be solved to continue calculating the periodic table's structure beyond this point. Nuclear stability will likely prove a decisive factor constraining the number of possible elements. It depends on the balance between the electric repulsion between protons and the strong force binding protons and neutrons together.Protons and neutrons are arranged inshells, just like electrons, and so a closed shell can significantly increase stability: the known superheavy nuclei exist because of such a shell closure, probably at around 114–126protons and 184 neutrons.They are probably close to a predictedisland of stability, where superheavy nuclides should be more long-lived than expected: predictions for the longest-lived nuclides on the island range from microseconds to millions of years.It should nonetheless be noted that these are essentially extrapolations into an unknown part of the chart of nuclides, and systematic model uncertainties need to be taken into account. As the closed shells are passed, the stabilizing effect should vanish:thus, superheavy nuclides with more than 184 neutrons are expected to have much shorter lifetimes, spontaneously fissioning within 10−15seconds. If this is so, then it would not make sense to consider them chemical elements: IUPAC defines an element to exist only if the nucleus lives longer than 10−14seconds, the time needed for it to gather an electron cloud. Nonetheless, theoretical estimates of half-lives are very model-dependent, ranging over many orders of magnitude.The extreme repulsion between protons is predicted to result in exotic nuclear topologies, with bubbles, rings, and tori expected: this further complicates extrapolation.It is not clear if any further-out shell closures exist, due to an expected smearing out of distinct nuclear shells (as is already expected for the electron shells at oganesson).Furthermore, even if later shell closures exist, it is not clear if they would allow such heavy elements to exist.As such, it may be that the periodic table practically ends around element 120, as elements become too short-lived to observe, and then too short-lived to have chemistry; the era of discovering new elements would thus be close to its end.If another proton shell closure beyond 126 does exist, then it probably occurs around 164;thus the region where periodicity fails more or less matches the region of instability between the shell closures. Alternatively,quark mattermay become stable at high mass numbers, in which the nucleus is composed of freely flowingupanddown quarksinstead of binding them into protons and neutrons; this would create acontinent of stabilityinstead of an island.Other effects may come into play: for example, in very heavy elements the 1s electrons are likely to spend a significant amount of time so close to the nucleus that they are actually inside it, which would make them vulnerable toelectron capture. Even if eighth-row elements can exist, producing them is likely to be difficult, and it should become even more difficult as atomic number rises.Although the 8s elements 119 and 120 are expected to be reachable with present means, the elements beyond that are expected to require new technology,if they can be produced at all.Experimentally characterizing these elements chemically would also pose a great challenge. Alternative periodic tables The periodic law may be represented in multiple ways, of which the standard periodic table is only one.Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev's table in 1869,Edward G. Mazurshad collected an estimated 700 different published versions of the periodic table.Many forms retain the rectangular structure, includingCharles Janet's left-step periodic table (pictured below), and the modernised form of Mendeleev's original 8-column layout that is still common in Russia. Other periodic table formats have been shaped much more exotically, such as spirals (Otto Theodor Benfey's pictured to the right), circles and triangles. Alternative periodic tables are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent in traditional periodic tables, with different ones skewed more towards emphasizing chemistry or physics at either end.The standard form, which remains by far the most common, is somewhere in the middle. The many different forms of the periodic table have prompted the questions of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of the periodic table, and if so, what it might be. There are no current consensus answers to either question.Janet's left-step table is being increasingly discussed as a candidate for being the optimal or most fundamental form; Scerri has written in support of it, as it clarifies helium's nature as an s-block element, increases regularity by having all period lengths repeated, faithfully follows Madelung's rule by making each period correspond to one value ofn+ℓ,and regularises atomic number triads and the first-row anomaly trend. While he notes that its placement of helium atop the alkaline earth metals can be seen a disadvantage from a chemical perspective, he counters this by appealing to the first-row anomaly, pointing out that the periodic table \"fundamentally reduces to quantum mechanics\", and that it is concerned with \"abstract elements\" and hence atomic properties rather than macroscopic properties. See also Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links" ]
[ "Zirconium Zirconiumis achemical element; it hassymbolZrandatomic number40. First identified in 1789, isolated in impure form in 1824, and manufactured at scale by 1925, pure zirconium is a lustroustransition metalwith a greyish-white color that closely resembleshafniumand, to a lesser extent,titanium. It is solid at room temperature,ductile,malleableandcorrosion-resistant. The namezirconiumis derived from the name of the mineralzircon, the most important source of zirconium. The word is related toPersianzargun(zircon;zar-gun, \"gold-like\" or \"as gold\").Besides zircon, zirconium occurs in over 140 other minerals, includingbaddeleyiteandeudialyte; most zirconium is produced as a byproduct of minerals mined for titanium andtin. Zirconium forms a variety ofinorganiccompounds, such aszirconium dioxide, andorganometallic compounds, such aszirconocene dichloride. Fiveisotopesoccur naturally, four of which are stable. The metal and its alloys are mainly used as arefractoryandopacifier; pure zirconium plays a vital", "plays a vital role in the construction ofnuclear reactorsdue to strong resistance to corrosion and low nuclear reaction cross section, and in space vehicles and turbine blades where high heat resistance is necessary. Zirconium also finds uses inflashbulbs, biomedical applications such asdental implantsandprosthetics,deodorant, andwater purificationsystems. Zirconium compounds have no known biological role, though the element is widely distributed in nature and appears in small quantities in biological systems without adverse effects. There is no indication of zirconium as a carcinogen. The main hazards posed by zirconium are flammability in powder form and irritation of the eyes. Characteristics Zirconium is alustrous, greyish-white, soft, ductile, malleable metal that is solid at room temperature, though it is hard andbrittleat lesser purities.In powder form, zirconium is highly flammable, but the solid form is much less prone to ignition. Zirconium is highly resistant to corrosion by alkalis, acids, salt", "acids, salt water and other agents.However, it will dissolve inhydrochloricandsulfuric acid, especially whenfluorineis present.Alloyswithzincaremagneticat less than 35 K. Themelting pointof zirconium is 1855 °C (3371 °F), and theboiling pointis 4409 °C (7968 °F).Zirconium has anelectronegativityof 1.33 on the Pauling scale. Of the elements within thed-blockwith known electronegativities, zirconium has the fourth lowest electronegativity afterhafnium,yttrium, andlutetium. At room temperature zirconium exhibits a hexagonally close-packed crystal structure, α-Zr, which changes to β-Zr, a body-centered cubic crystal structure, at 863 °C. Zirconium exists in the β-phase until the melting point. Isotopes Naturally occurring zirconium is composed of five isotopes.90Zr,91Zr,92Zr and94Zr are stable, although94Zr is predicted to undergodouble beta decay(not observed experimentally) with ahalf-lifeof more than 1.10×1017years.96Zr has a half-life of 2.34×1019years, and is the longest-lived radioisotope of zirconium. Of", "of zirconium. Of these natural isotopes,90Zr is the most common, making up 51.45% of all zirconium.96Zr is the least common, comprising only 2.80% of zirconium. Thirty-three artificial isotopes of zirconium have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 77 to 114.93Zris the longest-lived artificial isotope, with a half-life of 1.61×106years. Radioactive isotopes at or above mass number 93 decay byelectron emission, whereas those at or below 89 decay bypositron emission. The only exception is88Zr, which decays byelectron capture. Thirteen isotopes of zirconium also exist asmetastable isomers:83m1Zr,83m2Zr,85mZr,87mZr,88mZr,89mZr,90m1Zr,90m2Zr,91mZr,97mZr,98mZr,99mZr, and108mZr. Of these,97mZr has the shortest half-life at 104.8 nanoseconds.89mZr is the longest lived with a half-life of 4.161 minutes. Occurrence Zirconium has a concentration of about 130 mg/kg within theEarth's crustand about 0.026 μg/L insea water. It is the 18th most abundant element in the crust.It is not found in nature as anative", "nature as anative metal, reflecting its intrinsic instability with respect to water. The principal commercial source of zirconium iszircon(ZrSiO4), asilicate mineral,which is found primarily in Australia, Brazil, India, Russia, South Africa and the United States, as well as in smaller deposits around the world.As of 2013, two-thirds of zircon mining occurs in Australia and South Africa.Zircon resources exceed 60 milliontonnesworldwideand annual worldwide zirconium production is approximately 900,000 tonnes.Zirconium also occurs in more than 140 other minerals, including the commercially useful oresbaddeleyiteandeudialyte. Zirconium is relatively abundant inS-type stars, and has been detected in the sun and in meteorites. Lunar rock samples brought back from severalApollomissions to the moon have a high zirconium oxide content relative to terrestrial rocks. EPR spectroscopyhas been used in investigations of the unusual 3+ valence state of zirconium. The EPR spectrum of Zr3+, which has been initially observed", "initially observed as a parasitic signal in Fe‐doped single crystals of ScPO4, was definitively identified by preparing single crystals of ScPO4doped with isotopically enriched (94.6%)91Zr. Single crystals of LuPO4and YPO4doped with both naturally abundant and isotopically enriched Zr have also been grown and investigated. Production Occurrence Zirconium is a by-product formed after mining and processing of thetitaniummineralsilmeniteandrutile, as well astinmining.From 2003 to 2007, while prices for the mineral zircon steadily increased from $360 to $840 per tonne, the price for unwrought zirconium metal decreased from $39,900 to $22,700 per ton. Zirconium metal is much more expensive thanzirconbecause the reduction processes are costly. Collected from coastal waters, zircon-bearing sand is purified byspiral concentratorsto separate lighter materials, which are then returned to the water because they are natural components of beach sand. Usingmagnetic separation, the titanium oresilmeniteandrutileare", "removed. Most zircon is used directly in commercial applications, but a small percentage is converted to the metal. Most Zr metal is produced by the reduction of thezirconium(IV) chloridewithmagnesiummetal in theKroll process.The resulting metal issintereduntil sufficiently ductile for metalworking. Separation of zirconium and hafnium Commercial zirconium metal typically contains 1–3% ofhafnium,which is usually not problematic because the chemical properties of hafnium and zirconium are very similar. Their neutron-absorbing properties differ strongly, however, necessitating the separation of hafnium from zirconium for nuclear reactors.Several separation schemes are in use.Theliquid-liquid extractionof thethiocyanate-oxide derivatives exploits the fact that the hafnium derivative is slightly more soluble inmethyl isobutyl ketonethan in water. This method accounts for roughly two-thirds of pure zirconium production,though other methods are being researched;for instance, in India, a TBP-nitrate solvent", "TBP-nitrate solvent extraction process is used for the separation of zirconium from other metals.Zr and Hf can also be separated byfractional crystallizationof potassium hexafluorozirconate (K2ZrF6), which is less soluble in water than the analogous hafnium derivative.Fractional distillationof the tetrachlorides, also calledextractive distillation, is also used. Vacuumarc melting, combined with the use of hot extruding techniques andsupercooledcopper hearths, is capable of producing zirconium that has been purified of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Hafnium must be removed from zirconium for nuclear applications because hafnium has a neutron absorption cross-section 600 times greater than zirconium.The separated hafnium can be used for reactorcontrol rods. Compounds Like othertransition metals, zirconium forms a wide range ofinorganic compoundsandcoordination complexes.In general, these compounds are colourless diamagnetic solids wherein zirconium has theoxidation state+4. Some organometallic compounds are", "compounds are considered to have Zr(II) oxidation state.Non-equilibrium oxidation states between 0 and 4 have been detected during zirconium oxidation. Oxides, nitrides, and carbides The most common oxide iszirconium dioxide, ZrO2, also known aszirconia. This clear to white-coloured solid has exceptionalfracture toughness(for a ceramic) and chemical resistance, especially in itscubicform.These properties make zirconia useful as athermal barriercoating,although it is also a commondiamondsubstitute.Zirconium monoxide, ZrO, is also known andS-type starsare recognised by detection of its emission lines. Zirconium tungstatehas the unusual property of shrinking in all dimensions when heated, whereas most other substances expand when heated.Zirconyl chlorideis one of the few water-soluble zirconium complexes, with the formula Cl8. Zirconium carbideandzirconium nitrideare refractory solids. Both are highlycorrosion-resistant and find uses in high-temperature resistant coatings and cutting tools.Zirconium hydride", "hydride phases are known to form when zirconium alloys are exposed to large quantities ofhydrogenover time; due to the brittleness of zirconium hydrides relative to zirconium alloys, the mitigation of zirconium hydride formation was highly studied during the development of the first commercialnuclear reactors, in which zirconium carbide was a frequently used material. Lead zirconate titanate(PZT) is the most commonly usedpiezoelectricmaterial, being used astransducersandactuatorsin medical andmicroelectromechanical systemsapplications. Halides and pseudohalides All four common halides are known,ZrF4,ZrCl4,ZrBr4, andZrI4. All have polymeric structures and are far less volatile than the corresponding titanium tetrahalides; they find applications in the formation of organic complexes such aszirconocene dichloride.All tend tohydrolyseto give the so-called oxyhalides and dioxides. Fusion of the tetrahalides with additional metal gives lower zirconium halides (e.g.ZrCl3). These adopt a layered structure,", "layered structure, conducting within the layers but not perpendicular thereto. The corresponding tetraalkoxidesare also known. Unlike the halides, the alkoxides dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Dihydrogen hexafluorozirconate is used in the metal finishing industry as an etching agent to promote paint adhesion. Organic derivatives Organozirconium chemistryis key toZiegler–Natta catalysts, used to producepolypropylene. This application exploits the ability of zirconium to reversibly form bonds to carbon. Zirconocene dibromide ((C5H5)2ZrBr2), reported in 1952 by Birmingham andWilkinson, was the first organozirconium compound.Schwartz's reagent, prepared in 1970 by P. C. Wailes and H. Weigold,is ametalloceneused inorganic synthesisfor transformations ofalkenesandalkynes. Many complexes of Zr(II) are derivatives of zirconocene,one example being (C5Me5)2Zr(CO)2. History The zirconium-containing mineral zircon and related minerals (jargoon,jacinth, or hyacinth,ligure) were mentioned in biblical writings.The mineral", "mineral was not known to contain a new element until 1789,whenKlaprothanalyzed a jargoon from the island of Ceylon (nowSri Lanka). He named the new element Zirkonerde (zirconia),related to thePersianzargun(zircon;zar-gun, \"gold-like\" or \"as gold\").Humphry Davyattempted to isolate this new element in 1808 throughelectrolysis, but failed.Zirconium metal was first obtained in an impure form in 1824 byBerzeliusby heating a mixture of potassium and potassium zirconium fluoride in an iron tube. Thecrystal bar process(also known as theIodide Process), discovered byAnton Eduard van ArkelandJan Hendrik de Boerin 1925, was the first industrial process for the commercial production of metallic zirconium. It involves the formation and subsequentthermal decompositionofzirconium tetraiodide(ZrI4), and was superseded in 1945 by the much cheaperKroll processdeveloped byWilliam Justin Kroll, in which zirconium tetrachloride (ZrCl4) is reduced by magnesium: ZrCl4+2Mg⟶Zr+2MgCl2{\\displaystyle {\\ce {ZrCl4 + 2Mg -> Zr + 2MgCl2}}}", "-> Zr + 2MgCl2}}} Applications Approximately 900,000 tonnes of zirconium ores were mined in 1995, mostly as zircon. Most zircon is used directly in high-temperature applications. Because it is refractory, hard, and resistant to chemical attack, zircon finds many applications. Its main use is as an opacifier, conferring a white, opaque appearance to ceramic materials. Because of its chemical resistance, zircon is also used in aggressive environments, such as moulds for molten metals. Zirconium dioxide(ZrO2) is used in laboratory crucibles, in metallurgical furnaces, and as a refractory materialBecause it is mechanically strong and flexible, it can besinteredintoceramic knivesand other blades.Zircon (ZrSiO4) andcubic zirconia(ZrO2) are cut into gemstones for use in jewelry. Zirconium dioxide is a component in someabrasives, such as grinding wheels andsandpaper.Zircon is also used indating of rocksfrom about the time of the Earth's formation through the measurement of its inherentradioisotopes, most", "most oftenuraniumandlead. A small fraction of the zircon is converted to the metal, which finds various niche applications. Because of zirconium's excellent resistance to corrosion, it is often used as an alloying agent in materials that are exposed to aggressive environments, such as surgical appliances, light filaments, and watch cases. The high reactivity of zirconium with oxygen at high temperatures is exploited in some specialised applications such as explosive primers and asgettersinvacuum tubes.Zirconium powder is used as a degassing agent in electron tubes, while zirconium wire and sheets are utilized for grid andanodesupports.Burning zirconium was used as a light source in somephotographic flashbulbs. Zirconium powder with amesh sizefrom 10 to 80 is occasionally used in pyrotechnic compositions to generatesparks. The high reactivity of zirconium leads to bright white sparks. Nuclear applications Cladding for nuclear reactor fuels consumes about 1% of the zirconium supply,mainly in the form", "in the form ofzircaloys. The desired properties of these alloys are a low neutron-capturecross-sectionand resistance to corrosion under normal service conditions.Efficient methods for removing the hafnium impurities were developed to serve this purpose. One disadvantage of zirconium alloys is the reactivity with water, producinghydrogen, leading to degradation of thefuel rod cladding: Zr+2H2O⟶ZrO2+2H2{\\displaystyle {\\ce {Zr + 2H2O -> ZrO2 + 2H2}}} Hydrolysis is very slow below 100 °C, but rapid at temperature above 900 °C. Most metals undergo similar reactions. The redox reaction is relevant to the instability offuel assembliesat high temperatures.This reaction occurred in the reactors 1, 2 and 3 of theFukushima I Nuclear Power Plant(Japan) after the reactor cooling was interrupted by theearthquake and tsunamidisaster of March 11, 2011, leading to theFukushima I nuclear accidents. After venting the hydrogen in the maintenance hall of those three reactors, the mixture of hydrogen with", "of hydrogen with atmosphericoxygenexploded, severely damaging the installations and at least one of the containment buildings. Zirconium is a constituent ofuranium zirconium hydrides, nuclear fuels used inresearch reactors. Space and aeronautic industries Materials fabricated from zirconium metal and ZrO2are used in space vehicles where resistance to heat is needed. High temperature parts such as combustors, blades, and vanes injet enginesand stationarygas turbinesare increasingly being protected by thinceramiclayers and/or paintable coatings, usually composed of a mixture of zirconia andyttria. Zirconium is also used as a material of first choice forhydrogen peroxide(H2O2) tanks, propellant lines, valves, and thrusters, inpropulsion space systemssuch as these equipping theSierra Space'sDream Chaserspaceplanewhere thethrustis provided by thecombustionofkeroseneand hydrogen peroxide, a powerful, but unstable,oxidizer. The reason is that zirconium has an excellentcorrosion resistancetoH2O2and, above all, do", "above all, do notcatalyseits spontaneous self-decomposition as theionsof manytransition metalsdo. Medical uses Zirconium-bearing compounds are used in many biomedical applications, including dental implants andcrowns, knee and hip replacements, middle-earossicularchain reconstruction, and other restorative andprostheticdevices. Zirconium bindsurea, a property that has been utilized extensively to the benefit of patients withchronic kidney disease.For example, zirconium is a primary component of thesorbentcolumn dependent dialysate regeneration and recirculation system known as the REDY system, which was first introduced in 1973. More than 2,000,000dialysistreatments have been performed using the sorbent column in the REDY system.Although the REDY system was superseded in the 1990s by less expensive alternatives, new sorbent-based dialysis systems are being evaluated and approved by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration(FDA). Renal Solutions developed the DIALISORB technology, a portable, low water dialysis", "low water dialysis system. Also, developmental versions of a Wearable Artificial Kidney have incorporated sorbent-based technologies. Sodium zirconium cyclosilicateis used by mouth in the treatment ofhyperkalemia. It is a selective sorbent designed to trappotassiumions in preference to otherionsthroughout the gastrointestinal tract. Mixtures of monomeric and polymeric Zr4+and Al3+complexes withhydroxide,chlorideandglycine, calledaluminium zirconium glycinesalts, are used in a preparation as anantiperspirantin manydeodorantproducts. It has been used since the early 1960s, as it was determined more efficacious as an antiperspirant than contemporary active ingredients such asaluminium chlorohydrate. Defunct applications Zirconium carbonate (3ZrO2·CO2·H2O) was used in lotions to treatpoison ivybut was discontinued because it occasionally caused skin reactions. Safety Although zirconium has no known biological role, the human body contains, on average, 250 milligrams of zirconium, and daily intake is", "and daily intake is approximately 4.15 milligrams (3.5 milligrams from food and 0.65 milligrams from water), depending on dietary habits.Zirconium is widely distributed in nature and is found in all biological systems, for example: 2.86 μg/g in whole wheat, 3.09 μg/g in brown rice, 0.55 μg/g inspinach, 1.23 μg/g in eggs, and 0.86 μg/g in ground beef.Further, zirconium is commonly used in commercial products (e.g.deodorantsticks, aerosolantiperspirants) and also in water purification (e.g. control ofphosphoruspollution, bacteria- and pyrogen-contaminated water). Short-term exposure to zirconium powder can cause irritation, but only contact with the eyes requires medical attention.Persistent exposure tozirconium tetrachlorideresults in increased mortality in rats and guinea pigs and a decrease of bloodhemoglobinandred blood cellsin dogs. However, in a study of 20 rats given a standard diet containing ~4% zirconium oxide, there were no adverse effects on growth rate, blood and urine parameters, or mortality.The", "or mortality.The U.S.Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for zirconium exposure is 5 mg/m3over an 8-hour workday. TheNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health(NIOSH)recommended exposure limit(REL) is 5 mg/m3over an 8-hour workday and a short term limit of 10 mg/m3. At levels of 25 mg/m3, zirconium isimmediately dangerous to life and health.However, zirconium is not considered an industrial health hazard.Furthermore, reports of zirconium-related adverse reactions are rare and, in general, rigorous cause-and-effect relationships have not been established.No evidence has been validated that zirconium is carcinogenic or genotoxic. Among the numerous radioactive isotopes of zirconium,93Zr is among the most common. It is released as aproduct of nuclear fissionof235U and239Pu, mainly in nuclear power plants and during nuclear weapons tests in the 1950s and 1960s. It has a very long half-life (1.53 million years), its decay emits only low energy", "only low energy radiations, and it is not considered particularly hazardous. See also Notes References External links", "Martin Heinrich Klaproth Martin Heinrich Klaproth(1 December 1743 – 1 January 1817) was a Germanchemist.He trained and worked for much of his life as anapothecary, moving in later life to the university. His shop became the second-largest apothecary in Berlin, and the most productive artisanal chemical research center in Europe. Klaproth was a major systematizer ofanalytical chemistry,and an independent inventor ofgravimetric analysis.His attention to detail and refusal to ignore discrepancies in results led to improvements in the use of apparatus. He was a major figure in understanding the composition of minerals and characterizing the elements.Klaproth discovereduranium(1789)andzirconium(1789). He was also involved in the discovery or co-discovery oftitanium(1795),strontium(1793),cerium(1803), andchromium(1797) and confirmed the previous discoveries oftellurium(1798) andberyllium(1798). Klaproth was a member and director of theBerlin Academy of Sciences.He was recognized internationally as a member of", "as a member of theRoyal Societyin London,theInstitut de France, and theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Career Klaproth was born inWernigerode.He was the son of atailor, and attended the Latin school at Wernigerode for four years. For much of his life he followed the profession ofapothecary. In 1759, when he was 16 years old, he apprenticed at Quedlinburg. In 1764, he became a journeyman. He trained in pharmacies atQuedlinburg(1759–1766);Hanover(1766–1768, withAugust Hermann Brande); Berlin (1768); andDanzig(1770). In 1771, Klaproth returned to Berlin to work forValentin Rose the Elderas manager of his business. Following Rose's death, Klaproth passed the required examinations to become senior manager. Following his marriage in 1780, he was able to buy his own establishment, the Apotheke zum Baren. Between 1782 and 1800, Klaproth published 84 papers based on researches carried out in the Apotheke's laboratory. His shop was the most productive site of artisanal chemistry investigations in Europe at that", "in Europe at that time. Beginning in 1782, he was the assessor of pharmacy for the examining board of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 Klaproth was appointed lecturer inchemistryto thePrussianRoyal Artillery. In 1788, Klaproth became an unsalaried member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1800, he became the salaried director of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He sold the apothecary and moved to the academy, where he convinced the university to build a new laboratory. Upon completion in 1802, Klaproth moved the equipment from his apothecary laboratory into the new building.When theUniversity of Berlinwas founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of chemistry. He died in Berlin on New Year's Day in 1817. Contributions An exact and conscientious worker, Klaproth did much to improve and systematise the processes ofanalytical chemistryandmineralogy. His appreciation of the value of quantitative methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents of theLavoisieriandoctrines outside France.", "outside France. Klaproth was the first to discoveruranium, identifying it first intorbernitebut doing the majority of his research on it with the mineralpitchblende.On 24 September 1789 he announced his discovery to the Royal Prussian Academy of sciences in Berlin.He also discoveredzirconiumin 1789,separating it in the form of its “earth” zirconia, oxide ZrO2.Klaproth analyzed a brightly-colored form of the mineral called \"hyacinth\" from Ceylon. He gave the new element the name zirconium based on its Persian name \"zargun\", gold-colored.: 515 Klaproth characterised uranium and zirconium as distinctelements, though he was unable to isolate them. Klaproth independently discoveredcerium(1803), arare earth element, around the same time asJöns Jacob BerzeliusandWilhelm Hisinger, in the winter of 1803. William Gregorof Cornwall was the first to identify the elementtitaniumin 1791, correctly concluding that he had found a new element in the oreilmenitefrom the Menachan valley. He proposed the name \"menachanite\", but", "\"menachanite\", but his discovery attracted little attention.: 497Klaproth verified the presence of an oxide of an unknown element in the orerutilefrom Hungary in 1795. Klaproth suggested the name \"titanium\". It was later determined that menachanite and titanium were the same element, from two different minerals, and Klaproth's name was adopted. Klaproth clarified the composition of numerous substances until then imperfectly known, including compounds of then newly recognised elementstellurium,strontiumandchromium.Chromiumwas discovered in 1797 byLouis Nicolas Vauquelinand independently discovered in 1798 by Klaproth and byTobias Lowitz, in a mineral from the Ural mountains.: 578–580Klaproth confirmed chromium's independent status as an element. The existence oftelluriumwas first suggested in 1783 byFranz-Joseph Mueller von Reichenstein, an Austrian mining engineer who was examining Transylvanian gold samples. Tellurium was also discovered independently by HungarianPál Kitaibelin 1789. Mueller sent some of", "sent some of his mineral to Klaproth in 1796. Klaproth isolated the new substance and confirmed the identification of the new elementtelluriumin 1798. He credited Mueller as its discoverer, and suggested that theheavy metalbe named \"tellus\", Latin for 'earth'.: 1067: 12–16 In 1790Adair CrawfordandWilliam Cruickshankdetermined that the mineralstrontianite, found nearStrontianin Scotland, was different from barium-based minerals.Klaproth was one of several scientists involved in the characterization ofstrontiumcompounds and minerals.Klaproth,Thomas Charles Hope, andRichard Kirwanindependently studied and reported on the properties of strontianite, the preparation of compounds of strontium, and their differentiation from those of barium. In September 1793, Klaproth published on the separation of strontium frombarium, and in 1794 on the preparation of strontium oxide and strontium hydroxide.In 1808,Humphry Davybecame the first to successfully isolate the pure element. Louis Nicolas Vauquelinreported the", "the existence of a new element common to emerald and beryl in 1798, and suggested that it be named \"glucine\". Klaproth confirmed the presence of a new element, and became involved in a lengthy and ongoing debate over its name by suggesting \"beryllia\". The element was first isolated in 1828, independently byFriedrich WöhlerandAntoine Bussy. Only in 1949 didIUPACrule exclusively in favor of the nameberyllium.: 348–352 Klaproth published extensively, collecting over 200 papers by himself inBeiträge zur chemischen Kenntnis der Mineralkörper(5 vols., 1795–1810) andChemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts(1815). He also published aChemisches Wörterbuch(1807–1810), and edited a revised edition ofF. A. C. Gren'sHandbuch der Chemie(1806). Klaproth became a foreign member of theRoyal Societyof Londonin 1795,and a foreign member of theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciencesin 1804.He also belonged to theInstitut de France. The craterKlaprothon theMoonis named after him. In 1823, botanistCarl Sigismund Kunthpublished a genus", "a genus offlowering plants(belonging to the familyLoasaceae), from Central America asKlaprothiain his honour. His sonJuliuswas a famousorientalist. Works Bibliography Additional resources See also References External links", "Uranium Uraniumis achemical elementwith thesymbolUandatomic number92. It is a silvery-greymetalin theactinideseries of theperiodic table. A uranium atom has 92protonsand 92electrons, of which 6 arevalence electrons. Uraniumradioactively decays, usually by emitting analpha particle. Thehalf-lifeof this decay varies between 159,200 and 4.5 billion years for differentisotopes, making them useful for dating theage of the Earth. The most common isotopes innatural uraniumareuranium-238(which has 146neutronsand accounts for over 99% of uranium on Earth) anduranium-235(which has 143 neutrons). Uranium has the highestatomic weightof theprimordiallyoccurring elements. Itsdensityis about 70% higher than that ofleadand slightly lower than that ofgoldortungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a fewparts per millionin soil, rock and water, and is commerciallyextractedfrom uranium-bearingmineralssuch asuraninite. Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its uniquenuclearproperties. Uranium-235 is the only", "is the only naturally occurringfissileisotope, which makes it widely used innuclear power plantsandnuclear weapons. However, because of the low abundance of uranium-235 in natural uranium (which is, overwhelmingly, mostly uranium-238), uranium needs to undergoenrichmentso that enough uranium-235 is present. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons and isfertile, meaning it can betransmutedto fissileplutonium-239in anuclear reactor. Another fissile isotope,uranium-233, can be produced from naturalthoriumand is studied for future industrial use in nuclear technology. Uranium-238 has a small probability forspontaneous fissionor even induced fission with fast neutrons; uranium-235, and to a lesser degree uranium-233, have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons. In sufficient concentration, these isotopes maintain a sustainednuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat innuclear power reactorsand produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. The primary civilian use for uranium harnesses", "uranium harnesses the heat energy to produce electricity.Depleted uranium(238U) is used inkinetic energy penetratorsandarmor plating. The 1789discoveryof uranium in the mineralpitchblendeis credited toMartin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the recently discovered planetUranus.Eugène-Melchior Péligotwas the first person to isolate the metal, and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 byHenri Becquerel. Research byOtto Hahn,Lise Meitner,Enrico Fermiand others, such asJ. Robert Oppenheimerstarting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in thenuclear powerindustry and inLittle Boy, thefirst nuclear weapon used in war. An ensuingarms raceduring theCold Warbetween theUnited Statesand theSoviet Unionproduced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium-derivedplutonium-239. Dismantling of these weapons and related nuclear facilities is carried out within variousnuclear disarmamentprograms and costs billions of dollars. Weapon-grade uranium obtained from nuclear", "from nuclear weapons is diluted with uranium-238 and reused as fuel for nuclear reactors.Spent nuclear fuelformsradioactive waste, which mostly consists of uranium-238 and poses a significant health threat andenvironmental impact. Characteristics Uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactivemetal. It has aMohs hardnessof 6, sufficient to scratch glass and roughly equal to that oftitanium,rhodium,manganeseandniobium. It ismalleable,ductile, slightlyparamagnetic, stronglyelectropositiveand a poorelectrical conductor.Uranium metal has a very highdensityof 19.1 g/cm3,denser thanlead(11.3 g/cm3),but slightly less dense thantungstenandgold(19.3 g/cm3). Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metallic elements (exceptnoble gases) and theircompounds, with reactivity increasing with temperature.Hydrochloricandnitric acidsdissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element very slowly.When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with a", "coated with a dark layer ofuranium oxide.Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted intouranium dioxideor other chemical forms usable in industry. Uranium-235 was the first isotope that was found to befissile. Other naturally occurring isotopes are fissionable, but not fissile. On bombardment with slow neutrons, uranium-235 most of the time splits into two smallernuclei, releasing nuclearbinding energyand more neutrons. If too many of these neutrons are absorbed by other uranium-235 nuclei, anuclear chain reactionoccurs that results in a burst of heat or (in some circumstances) an explosion. In a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction is slowed and controlled by aneutron poison, absorbing some of the free neutrons. Such neutron absorbent materials are often part of reactorcontrol rods(seenuclear reactor physicsfor a description of this process of reactor control). As little as 15 lb (6.8 kg) of uranium-235 can be used to make an atomic bomb.The nuclear weapon detonated overHiroshima, calledLittle", "calledLittle Boy, relied on uranium fission. However, the first nuclear bomb (theGadgetused atTrinity) and the bomb that was detonated over Nagasaki (Fat Man) were both plutonium bombs. Uranium metal has threeallotropicforms: Applications Military The major application of uranium in the military sector is in high-density penetrators. This ammunition consists ofdepleted uranium(DU) alloyed with 1–2% other elements, such astitaniumormolybdenum.At high impact speed, the density, hardness, andpyrophoricityof the projectile enable the destruction of heavily armored targets. Tank armor and other removablevehicle armorcan also be hardened with depleted uranium plates. The use of depleted uranium became politically and environmentally contentious after the use of such munitions by the US, UK and other countries during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised questions concerning uranium compounds left in the soil (seeGulf War syndrome). Depleted uranium is also used as a shielding material in some containers", "in some containers used to store and transport radioactive materials. While the metal itself is radioactive, its high density makes it more effective thanleadin halting radiation from strong sources such asradium.Other uses of depleted uranium include counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, as ballast for missilere-entry vehiclesand as a shielding material.Due to its high density, this material is found ininertial guidance systemsand ingyroscopiccompasses.Depleted uranium is preferred over similarly dense metals due to its ability to be easily machined and cast as well as its relatively low cost.The main risk of exposure to depleted uranium is chemical poisoning byuranium oxiderather than radioactivity (uranium being only a weakalpha emitter). During the later stages ofWorld War II, the entireCold War, and to a lesser extent afterwards, uranium-235 has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons. Initially, two major types of fission bombs were built: a relatively simple", "a relatively simple device that uses uranium-235 and a more complicated mechanism that usesplutonium-239derived from uranium-238. Later, a much more complicated and far more powerful type of fission/fusion bomb (thermonuclear weapon) was built, that uses a plutonium-based device to cause a mixture oftritiumanddeuteriumto undergonuclear fusion. Such bombs are jacketed in a non-fissile (unenriched) uranium case, and they derive more than half their power from the fission of this material byfast neutronsfrom the nuclear fusion process. Civilian The main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to fuelnuclear power plants. One kilogram of uranium-235 can theoretically produce about 20terajoulesof energy (2×1013joules), assuming complete fission; as muchenergyas 1.5 million kilograms (1,500tonnes) ofcoal. Commercialnuclear powerplants use fuel that is typically enriched to around 3% uranium-235.TheCANDUandMagnoxdesigns are the only commercial reactors capable of using unenriched uranium fuel. Fuel used forUnited", "Fuel used forUnited States Navyreactors is typically highly enriched inuranium-235(the exact values areclassified). In abreeder reactor, uranium-238 can also be converted into plutonium-239 through the following reaction: Before (and, occasionally, after) the discovery of radioactivity, uranium was primarily used in small amounts for yellow glass and pottery glazes, such asuranium glassand inFiestaware. The discovery and isolation ofradiumin uranium ore (pitchblende) byMarie Curiesparked the development of uranium mining to extract the radium, which was used to make glow-in-the-dark paints for clock and aircraft dials.This left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a waste product, since it takes three tonnes of uranium to extract one gram of radium. This waste product was diverted to the glazing industry, making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant. Besides the pottery glazes,uranium tileglazes accounted for the bulk of the use, including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be produced in", "can be produced in green, yellow,mauve, black, blue, red and other colors. Uranium was also used inphotographicchemicals (especiallyuranium nitrateas atoner),in lamp filaments forstage lightingbulbs,to improve the appearance ofdentures,and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes. Uranium salts aremordantsof silk or wool.Uranyl acetateanduranyl formateare used as electron-dense \"stains\" intransmission electron microscopy, to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and innegative stainingofviruses, isolatedcell organellesandmacromolecules. The discovery of the radioactivity of uranium ushered in additional scientific and practical uses of the element. The longhalf-lifeof uranium-238 (4.47×109years) makes it well-suited for use in estimating the age of the earliestigneous rocksand for other types ofradiometric dating, includinguranium–thorium dating,uranium–lead datinganduranium–uranium dating. Uranium metal is used forX-raytargets in the making of high-energy X-rays.", "high-energy X-rays. History Pre-discovery use The use ofpitchblende, uranium in its naturaloxideform, dates back to at least the year 79 AD, when it was used in theRoman Empireto add a yellow color toceramicglazes.Yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on CapePosillipoin theBay of Naples, Italy, by R. T. Gunther of theUniversity of Oxfordin 1912.Starting in the lateMiddle Ages, pitchblende was extracted from theHabsburgsilver mines inJoachimsthal,Bohemia(now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic) in theOre Mountains, and was used as a coloring agent in the localglassmakingindustry.In the early 19th century, the world's only known sources of uranium ore were these mines. Discovery Thediscoveryof the element is credited to the German chemistMartin Heinrich Klaproth. While he was working in his experimental laboratory inBerlinin 1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likelysodium diuranate) by dissolvingpitchblendeinnitric acidand neutralizing the solution withsodium", "solution withsodium hydroxide.Klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet-undiscovered element and heated it withcharcoalto obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was anoxide of uranium).He named the newly discovered element after the planetUranus(named after the primordialGreek god of the sky), which had been discovered eight years earlier byWilliam Herschel. In 1841,Eugène-Melchior Péligot, Professor of Analytical Chemistry at theConservatoire National des Arts et Métiers(Central School of Arts and Manufactures) inParis, isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heatinguranium tetrachloridewithpotassium. Henri Becquereldiscovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896.Becquerel made the discovery in Paris by leaving a sample of a uranium salt, K2UO2(SO4)2(potassium uranyl sulfate), on top of an unexposedphotographic platein a drawer and noting that the plate had become \"fogged\".He determined that a form of invisible light or", "invisible light or rays emitted by uranium had exposed the plate. During World War I when theCentral Powerssuffered a shortage of molybdenum to make artillery gun barrels and high speed tool steels, they routinely usedferrouraniumalloy as a substitute, as it presents many of the same physical characteristics as molybdenum. When this practice became known in 1916 the US government requested several prominent universities to research the use of uranium in manufacturing and metalwork. Tools made with these formulas remained in use for several decades,until theManhattan Projectand theCold Warplaced a large demand on uranium for fission research and weapon development. Fission research A team led byEnrico Fermiin 1934 found that bombarding uranium with neutrons producesbeta rays(electronsorpositronsfrom the elements produced; seebeta particle).The fission products were at first mistaken for new elements with atomic numbers 93 and 94, which the Dean of theSapienza University of Rome,Orso Mario Corbino,", "Mario Corbino, namedausenium and hesperium, respectively.The experiments leading to the discovery of uranium's ability to fission (break apart) into lighter elements and releasebinding energywere conducted byOtto HahnandFritz Strassmannin Hahn's laboratory in Berlin.Lise Meitnerand her nephew, physicistOtto Robert Frisch, published the physical explanation in February 1939 and named the process \"nuclear fission\".Soon after, Fermi hypothesized that fission of uranium might release enough neutrons to sustain a fission reaction. Confirmation of this hypothesis came in 1939, and later work found that on average about 2.5 neutrons are released by each fission of uranium-235.Fermi urgedAlfred O. C. Nierto separate uranium isotopes for determination of the fissile component, and on 29 February 1940, Nier used an instrument he built at theUniversity of Minnesotato separate the world's firsturanium-235sample in the Tate Laboratory. UsingColumbia University'scyclotron,John Dunningconfirmed the sample to be the", "sample to be the isolated fissile material on 1 March.Further work found that the far more common uranium-238 isotope can betransmutedinto plutonium, which, like uranium-235, is also fissile by thermal neutrons. These discoveries led numerous countries to begin working on the development of nuclear weapons andnuclear power. Despite fission having been discovered in Germany, theUranverein(\"uranium club\") Germany's wartime project to research nuclear power and/or weapons was hampered by limited resources, infighting, the exile or non-involvement of several prominent scientists in the field and several crucial mistakes such as failing to account for impurities in available graphite samples which made it appear less suitable as aneutron moderatorthan it is in reality. Germany's attempts to build anatural uranium/heavy waterreactor had not come close to reaching criticality by the time the Americans reachedHaigerloch, the site of the last German wartime reactor experiment. On 2 December 1942, as part of", "1942, as part of theManhattan Project, another team led by Enrico Fermi was able to initiate the first artificial self-sustainednuclear chain reaction,Chicago Pile-1. An initial plan using enriched uranium-235 was abandoned as it was as yet unavailable in sufficient quantities.Working in a lab below the stands ofStagg Fieldat theUniversity of Chicago, the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 360 tonnes ofgraphite, 53 tonnes ofuranium oxide, and 5.5 tonnes of uranium metal, most of which was supplied byWestinghouse Lamp Plantin a makeshift production process. Nuclear weaponry Two types of atomic bomb were developed by the United States duringWorld War II: a uranium-based device (codenamed \"Little Boy\") whose fissile material was highlyenriched uranium, and a plutonium-based device (seeTrinity testand \"Fat Man\") whose plutonium was derived from uranium-238. Little Boy became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated overHiroshima,Japan, on 6 August 1945.", "on 6 August 1945. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes ofTNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed about 75,000 people (seeAtomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki).Initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare, and thatnuclear proliferationcould be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks, but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world. Reactors TheX-10 Graphite ReactoratOak Ridge National Laboratory(ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, formerly known as the Clinton Pile and X-10 Pile, was the world's second artificial nuclear reactor (after Enrico Fermi's Chicago Pile) and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation.Argonne National Laboratory'sExperimental Breeder Reactor I, located at the Atomic Energy Commission's National Reactor Testing Station nearArco, Idaho, became the first nuclear reactor to create electricity on 20 December 1951.Initially, four 150-watt", "four 150-watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor, but improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole facility (later, the town of Arco became the first in the world to have all itselectricitycome from nuclear power generated byBORAX-III, another reactor designed and operated byArgonne National Laboratory).The world's first commercial scale nuclear power station,Obninskin theSoviet Union, began generation with its reactor AM-1 on 27 June 1954. Other early nuclear power plants wereCalder Hallin England, which began generation on 17 October 1956,and theShippingport Atomic Power StationinPennsylvania, which began on 26 May 1958. Nuclear power was used for the first time for propulsion by asubmarine, theUSSNautilus, in 1954. Prehistoric naturally occurring fission In 1972, French physicistFrancis Perrindiscovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at theOklo mineinGabon, Africa, collectively known as theOklo Fossil Reactors. The ore deposit", "The ore deposit is 1.7 billion years old; then, uranium-235 constituted about 3% of uranium on Earth.This is high enough to permit a sustained chain reaction, if other supporting conditions exist. The capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the health-threateningnuclear wasteproducts has been cited by the U.S. federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at theYucca Mountain nuclear waste repository. Contamination and the Cold War legacy Above-groundnuclear testsby the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1950s and early 1960s and byFranceinto the 1970s and 1980sspread a significant amount offalloutfrom uraniumdaughter isotopesaround the world.Additional fallout and pollution occurred from severalnuclear accidents. Uranium miners have a higher incidence ofcancer. An excess risk of lung cancer amongNavajouranium miners, for example, has been documented and linked to their occupation.TheRadiation Exposure Compensation Act, a 1990 law in the US, required", "in the US, required $100,000 in \"compassion payments\" to uranium miners diagnosed with cancer or other respiratory ailments. During theCold Warbetween the Soviet Union and the United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium. After thebreak-up of the Soviet Unionin 1991, an estimated 600 short tons (540 metric tons) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads) had been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in theRussian Federationand several other former Soviet states.Police inAsia,Europe, andSouth Americaon at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 haveintercepted shipmentsof smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was from ex-Soviet sources.From 1993 to 2005 theMaterial Protection, Control, and Accounting Program, operated by thefederal government of the United States, spent about US$550 million to help safeguard uranium and", "uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia. This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. Safety of nuclear facilities in Russia has been significantly improved since the stabilization of political and economical turmoil of the early 1990s. For example, in 1993 there were 29 incidents ranking above level 1 on theInternational Nuclear Event Scale, and this number dropped under four per year in 1995–2003. The number of employees receiving annual radiation doses above 20mSv, which is equivalent to a single full-bodyCT scan,saw a strong decline around 2000. In November 2015, the Russian government approved a federal program for nuclear and radiation safety for 2016 to 2030 with a budget of 562 billion rubles (ca. 8 billionUSD). Its key issue is \"the deferred liabilities accumulated during the 70 years of the nuclear industry, particularly during the time of the Soviet Union\". About 73% of the budget will be spent on decommissioning aged and obsolete nuclear", "obsolete nuclear reactors and nuclear facilities, especially those involved in state defense programs; 20% will go in processing and disposal of nuclear fuel and radioactive waste, and 5% into monitoring and ensuring of nuclear and radiation safety. Occurrence Uranium is anaturally occurringelement found in low levels in all rock, soil, and water. It is the highest-numbered element found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements.Uranium is the48th most abundant elementin the Earth’s crust.The decay of uranium,thorium, andpotassium-40in Earth'smantleis thought to be the main source of heatthat keeps the Earth'souter corein the liquid state and drivesmantle convection, which in turn drivesplate tectonics. Uranium'sconcentration in the Earth's crustis (depending on the reference) 2 to 4 parts per million,or about 40 times as abundant assilver.The Earth's crust from the surface to 25 km (15 mi) down is calculated to contain 1017kg (2×1017lb) of uranium", "of uranium while theoceansmay contain 1013kg (2×1013lb).The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0.7 to 11 parts per million (up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphatefertilizers),and its concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion. Uranium is more plentiful thanantimony,tin,cadmium,mercury, or silver, and it is about as abundant asarsenicormolybdenum.Uranium is found in hundreds of minerals, including uraninite (the most common uraniumore),carnotite,autunite,uranophane,torbernite, andcoffinite.Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such asphosphaterock deposits, and minerals such aslignite, andmonazitesands in uranium-rich ores(it is recovered commercially from sources with as little as 0.1% uranium). Origin Like all elements withatomic weightshigher than that ofiron, uranium is only naturally formed by ther-process(rapid neutron capture) insupernovaeandneutron star mergers.Primordial thorium and uranium are only produced in the r-process,", "in the r-process, because thes-process(slow neutron capture) is too slow and cannot pass the gap of instability after bismuth.Besides the two extant primordial uranium isotopes,235U and238U, the r-process also produced significant quantities of236U, which has a shorter half-life and so is anextinct radionuclide, having long since decayed completely to232Th. Further uranium-236 was produced by the decay of244Pu, accounting for the observed higher-than-expected abundance of thorium and lower-than-expected abundance of uranium.While the natural abundance of uranium has been supplemented by the decay of extinct242Pu(half-life 375,000 years) and247Cm (half-life 16 million years), producing238U and235U respectively, this occurred to an almost negligible extent due to the shorter half-lives of these parents and their lower production than236U and244Pu, the parents of thorium: the247Cm/235U ratio at the formation of the Solar System was(7.0±1.6)×10−5. Biotic and abiotic Some bacteria, such asShewanella", "such asShewanella putrefaciens,Geobacter metallireducensand some strains ofBurkholderia fungorum, use uranium for their growth and convert U(VI) to U(IV).Recent research suggests that this pathway includes reduction of the soluble U(VI) via an intermediate U(V) pentavalent state.Other organisms, such as thelichenTrapelia involutaormicroorganismssuch as thebacteriumCitrobacter, can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times the level of their environment.Citrobacterspecies absorburanylions when givenglycerol phosphate(or other similar organic phosphates). After one day, one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals; this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used inbioremediationtodecontaminateuranium-polluted water.The proteobacteriumGeobacterhas also been shown to bioremediate uranium in ground water.The mycorrhizal fungusGlomus intraradicesincreases uranium content in the roots of its symbiotic plant. In nature, uranium(VI) forms", "uranium(VI) forms highly soluble carbonate complexes at alkaline pH. This leads to an increase in mobility and availability of uranium to groundwater and soil from nuclear wastes which leads to health hazards. However, it is difficult to precipitate uranium as phosphate in the presence of excess carbonate at alkaline pH. ASphingomonassp. strain BSAR-1 has been found to express a high activityalkaline phosphatase(PhoK) that has been applied for bioprecipitation of uranium as uranyl phosphate species from alkaline solutions. The precipitation ability was enhanced by overexpressing PhoK protein inE. coli. Plantsabsorb some uranium from soil. Dry weight concentrations of uranium in plants range from 5 to 60 parts per billion, and ash from burnt wood can have concentrations up to 4 parts per million.Dry weight concentrations of uranium infoodplants are typically lower with one to two micrograms per day ingested through the food people eat. Production and mining Worldwide production of uranium in 2021 was", "uranium in 2021 was 48,332tonnes, of which 21,819 t (45%) was mined inKazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries areNamibia(5,753 t),Canada(4,693 t),Australia(4,192 t),Uzbekistan(3,500 t), andRussia(2,635 t). Uranium ore is mined in several ways:open pit,underground,in-situ leaching, andborehole mining.Low-grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0.01 to 0.25% uranium oxides. Extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore.High-grade ores found inAthabasca Basindeposits inSaskatchewan, Canada can contain up to 23% uranium oxides on average.Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either anacidoralkali. Theleachateis subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, calledyellowcake, contains at least 75% uranium oxides U3O8. Yellowcake is thencalcinedto remove impurities from the milling process before refining and conversion. Commercial-grade uranium can be produced", "can be produced through thereductionof uraniumhalideswithalkalioralkaline earth metals.Uranium metal can also be prepared throughelectrolysisofKUF5orUF4, dissolved in moltencalcium chloride(CaCl2) andsodium chloride(NaCl) solution.Very pure uranium is produced through thethermal decompositionof uraniumhalideson a hot filament. Resources and reserves It is estimated that 6.1 million tonnes of uranium exists in ores that are economically viable at US$130 per kg of uranium,while 35 million tonnes are classed as mineral resources (reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction). Australia has 28% of the world's known uranium ore reservesand the world's largest single uranium deposit is located at theOlympic DamMine inSouth Australia.There is a significant reserve of uranium inBakouma, asub-prefecturein theprefectureofMbomouin theCentral African Republic. Some uranium also originates from dismantled nuclear weapons.For example, in 1993–2013 Russia supplied the United States with 15,000 tonnes of", "15,000 tonnes of low-enriched uranium within theMegatons to Megawatts Program. An additional 4.6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be dissolved insea water(Japanesescientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea water usingion exchangerswas technically feasible).There have been experiments to extract uranium from sea water,but the yield has been low due to the carbonate present in the water. In 2012,ORNLresearchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed HiCap which performs surface retention of solid or gas molecules, atoms or ions and also effectively removes toxic metals from water, according to results verified by researchers atPacific Northwest National Laboratory. Supplies In 2005, ten countries accounted for the majority of the world's concentrated uranium oxides:Canada(27.9%),Australia(22.8%),Kazakhstan(10.5%),Russia(8.0%),Namibia(7.5%),Niger(7.4%),Uzbekistan(5.5%), theUnited States(2.5%),Argentina(2.1%) andUkraine(1.9%).In 2008, Kazakhstan", "2008, Kazakhstan was forecast to increase production and become the world's largest supplier of uranium by 2009;Kazakhstan has dominated the world's uranium market since 2010. In 2021, its share was 45.1%, followed by Namibia (11.9%), Canada (9.7%), Australia (8.7%), Uzbekistan (7.2%), Niger (4.7%), Russia (5.5%), China (3.9%), India (1.3%), Ukraine (0.9%), and South Africa (0.8%), with a world total production of 48,332 tonnes.Most uranium was produced not by conventional underground mining of ores (29% of production), but byin situ leaching(66%). In the late 1960s, UN geologists discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves inSomalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating the deposits at over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons. The ultimate available supply is believed to be sufficient for at least the next 85 years,though some studies indicate underinvestment in the late twentieth century may produce supply problems in the", "problems in the 21st century.Uranium deposits seem to be log-normal distributed. There is a 300-fold increase in the amount of uranium recoverable for each tenfold decrease in ore grade.In other words, there is little high grade ore and proportionately much more low grade ore available. Compounds Oxidation states and oxides Oxides Calcined uranium yellowcake, as produced in many large mills, contains a distribution of uranium oxidation species in various forms ranging from most oxidized to least oxidized. Particles with short residence times in a calciner will generally be less oxidized than those with long retention times or particles recovered in the stack scrubber. Uranium content is usually referenced toU3O8, which dates to the days of theManhattan ProjectwhenU3O8was used as an analytical chemistry reporting standard. Phase relationshipsin the uranium-oxygen system are complex. The most important oxidation states of uranium are uranium(IV) and uranium(VI), and their two correspondingoxidesare,", "respectively,uranium dioxide(UO2) anduranium trioxide(UO3).Otheruranium oxidessuch asuranium monoxide(UO),diuranium pentoxide(U2O5), anduranium peroxide(UO4·2H2O) also exist. The most common forms of uranium oxide aretriuranium octoxide(U3O8) andUO2.Both oxide forms are solids that have low solubility in water and are relatively stable over a wide range of environmental conditions. Triuranium octoxide is (depending on conditions) the most stable compound of uranium and is the form most commonly found in nature. Uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is most commonly used as a nuclear reactor fuel.At ambient temperatures,UO2will gradually convert toU3O8. Because of their stability, uranium oxides are generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage or disposal. Aqueous chemistry Salts of manyoxidation statesof uranium are water-solubleand may be studied inaqueous solutions. The most common ionic forms areU3+(brown-red),U4+(green),UO+2(unstable), andUO2+2(yellow), for U(III), U(IV), U(V), and", "U(IV), U(V), and U(VI), respectively.A fewsolidand semi-metallic compounds such as UO andUSexist for the formal oxidation state uranium(II), but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that state. Ions ofU3+liberatehydrogenfromwaterand are therefore considered to be highly unstable. TheUO2+2ion represents the uranium(VI) state and is known to form compounds such asuranyl carbonate,uranyl chlorideanduranyl sulfate.UO2+2also formscomplexeswith variousorganicchelatingagents, the most commonly encountered of which isuranyl acetate. Unlike the uranyl salts of uranium andpolyatomic ionuranium-oxide cationic forms, theuranates, salts containing a polyatomic uranium-oxide anion, are generally not water-soluble. Carbonates The interactions of carbonate anions with uranium(VI) cause thePourbaix diagramto change greatly when the medium is changed from water to a carbonate containing solution. While the vast majority of carbonates are insoluble in water (students are often taught that all carbonates other than", "other than those of alkali metals are insoluble in water), uranium carbonates are often soluble in water. This is because a U(VI) cation is able to bind two terminal oxides and three or more carbonates to form anionic complexes. Effects of pH The uranium fraction diagrams in the presence of carbonate illustrate this further: when the pH of a uranium(VI) solution increases, the uranium is converted to a hydrated uranium oxide hydroxide and at high pHs it becomes an anionic hydroxide complex. When carbonate is added, uranium is converted to a series of carbonate complexes if the pH is increased. One effect of these reactions is increased solubility of uranium in the pH range 6 to 8, a fact that has a direct bearing on the long term stability of spent uranium dioxide nuclear fuels. Hydrides, carbides and nitrides Uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) reacts withhydrogento formuranium hydride. Even higher temperatures will reversibly remove the hydrogen. This property makes uranium hydrides", "uranium hydrides convenient starting materials to create reactive uranium powder along with various uraniumcarbide,nitride, andhalidecompounds.Two crystal modifications of uranium hydride exist: an α form that is obtained at low temperatures and a β form that is created when the formation temperature is above 250 °C. Uranium carbidesanduranium nitridesare both relativelyinertsemimetalliccompounds that are minimally soluble inacids, react with water, and can ignite inairto formU3O8.Carbides of uranium include uranium monocarbide (UC), uranium dicarbide (UC2), and diuranium tricarbide (U2C3). Both UC andUC2are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal tocarbon monoxideat high temperatures. Stable below 1800 °C,U2C3is prepared by subjecting a heated mixture of UC andUC2to mechanical stress.Uranium nitrides obtained by direct exposure of the metal tonitrogeninclude uranium mononitride (UN), uranium dinitride (UN2), and diuranium trinitride (U2N3). Halides All uranium fluorides are", "fluorides are created usinguranium tetrafluoride(UF4);UF4itself is prepared by hydrofluorination of uranium dioxide.Reduction ofUF4with hydrogen at 1000 °C producesuranium trifluoride(UF3). Under the right conditions of temperature and pressure, the reaction of solidUF4with gaseousuranium hexafluoride(UF6) can form the intermediate fluorides ofU2F9,U4F17, andUF5. At room temperatures,UF6has a highvapor pressure, making it useful in thegaseous diffusionprocess to separate the rare uranium-235 from the common uranium-238 isotope. This compound can be prepared from uranium dioxide and uranium hydride by the following process: The resultingUF6, a white solid, is highlyreactive(by fluorination), easilysublimes(emitting a vapor that behaves as a nearlyideal gas), and is the most volatile compound of uranium known to exist. One method of preparinguranium tetrachloride(UCl4) is to directly combinechlorinewith either uranium metal or uranium hydride. The reduction ofUCl4by hydrogen producesuranium trichloride(UCl3)", "trichloride(UCl3) while the higher chlorides of uranium are prepared by reaction with additional chlorine.All uranium chlorides react with water and air. Bromidesandiodidesof uranium are formed by direct reaction of, respectively,bromineandiodinewith uranium or by addingUH3to those element's acids.Known examples include:UBr3,UBr4,UI3, andUI4.UI5has never been prepared. Uranium oxyhalides are water-soluble and includeUO2F2,UOCl2,UO2Cl2, andUO2Br2. Stability of the oxyhalides decrease as theatomic weightof the component halide increases. Isotopes Uranium, like all elements with an atomic number greater than 82, has nostable isotopes. All isotopes of uranium areradioactivebecause thestrong nuclear forcedoes not prevail overelectromagnetic repulsionin nuclides containing more than 82 protons.Nevertheless, the two most stable isotopes,238U and235U, havehalf-liveslong enough to occur in nature asprimordial radionuclides, with measurable quantities having survived since the formation of the Earth.These twonuclides,", "twonuclides, along withthorium-232, are the only confirmed primordial nuclides heavier than nearly-stablebismuth-209. Natural uraniumconsists of three major isotopes: uranium-238 (99.28% natural abundance), uranium-235 (0.71%), and uranium-234 (0.0054%). There are also five other trace isotopes: uranium-240, a decay product ofplutonium-244;uranium-239, which is formed when238U undergoes spontaneous fission, releasing neutrons that are captured by another238U atom; uranium-237, which is formed when238U captures a neutron but emits two more, which then decays toneptunium-237;uranium-236, which occurs in trace quantities due to neutron capture on235U and as a decay product of plutonium-244;and finally,uranium-233, which is formed in thedecay chainof neptunium-237. Additionally,uranium-232would be produced by thedouble beta decayof naturalthorium-232, though this energetically possible process has never been observed. Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a half-life of", "with a half-life of about4.463×109years,roughly theage of the Earth. Uranium-238 is predominantly an alpha emitter, decaying to thorium-234. It ultimately decays through theuranium series, which has 18 members, intolead-206.Uranium-238 is not fissile, but is a fertile isotope, because afterneutron activationit can be converted to plutonium-239, another fissile isotope. Indeed, the238U nucleus can absorb one neutron to produce the radioactive isotopeuranium-239.239U decays bybeta emissiontoneptunium-239, also a beta-emitter, that decays in its turn, within a few days into plutonium-239.239Pu was used as fissile material in the firstatomic bombdetonated in the \"Trinity test\" on 16 July 1945 inNew Mexico. Uranium-235 has a half-life of about7.04×108years; it is the next most stable uranium isotope after238U and is also predominantly an alpha emitter, decaying to thorium-231.Uranium-235 is important for bothnuclear reactorsandnuclear weapons, because it is the only uranium isotope existing in nature on Earth in", "nature on Earth in significant amounts that is fissile. This means that it can be split into two or three fragments (fission products) by thermal neutrons.The decay chain of235U, which is called theactinium series, has 15 members and eventually decays into lead-207.The constant rates of decay in these decay series makes the comparison of the ratios of parent todaughter elementsuseful in radiometric dating. Uranium-236 has a half-life of2.342×107yearsand is not found in significant quantities in nature. The half-life of uranium-236 is too short for it to be primordial, though it has been identified as anextinctprogenitor of its alpha decay daughter, thorium-232.Uranium-236 occurs inspent nuclear fuelwhen neutron capture on235U does not induce fission, or as a decay product ofplutonium-240. Uranium-236 is not fertile, as three more neutron captures are required to produce fissile239Pu, and is not itself fissile; as such, it is considered long-lived radioactive waste. Uranium-234 is a member of the uranium", "of the uranium series and occurs in equilibrium with its progenitor,238U; it undergoes alpha decay with a half-life of 245,500 yearsand decays to lead-206 through a series of relatively short-lived isotopes. Uranium-233 undergoes alpha decay with a half-life of 160,000 years and, like235U, is fissile.It can be bred fromthorium-232via neutron bombardment, usually in a nuclear reactor; this process is known as thethorium fuel cycle. Owing to the fissility of233U and the greater natural abundance of thorium (three times that of uranium),233U has been investigated for use as nuclear fuel as a possible alternative to235U and239Pu,though is not in widespread use as of 2022.The decay chain of uranium-233 forms part of theneptunium seriesand ends at nearly-stable bismuth-209 (half-life2.01×1019years)and stablethallium-205. Uranium-232is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 68.9 years.This isotope is produced as a byproduct in production of233U and is considered a nuisance, as it is not fissile and decays through", "and decays through short-lived alpha andgamma emitterssuch as208Tl.It is also expected that thorium-232 should be able to undergodouble beta decay, which would produce uranium-232, but this has not yet been observed experimentally. All isotopes from232U to236U inclusive have minorcluster decaybranches (less than10−10%), and all these bar233U, in addition to238U, have minorspontaneous fissionbranches;the greatestbranching ratiofor spontaneous fission is about5×10−5% for238U, or about one in every two million decays.The shorter-lived trace isotopes237U and239U exclusively undergobeta decay, with respective half-lives of 6.752 days and 23.45 minutes. In total, 28 isotopes of uranium have been identified, ranging inmass numberfrom 214to 242, with the exception of 220.Among the uranium isotopes not found in natural samples or nuclear fuel, the longest-lived is230U, an alpha emitter with a half-life of 20.23 days.This isotope has been considered for use intargeted alpha-particle therapy(TAT).All other isotopes", "other isotopes have half-lives shorter than one hour, except for231U (half-life 4.2 days) and240U (half-life 14.1 hours).The shortest-lived known isotope is221U, with a half-life of 660 nanoseconds, and it is expected that the hitherto unknown220U has an even shorter half-life.The proton-rich isotopes lighter than232U primarily undergo alpha decay, except for229U and231U, which decay toprotactinium isotopesviapositron emissionandelectron capture, respectively; the neutron-rich240U,241U, and242U undergobeta decayto formneptunium isotopes. Enrichment In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2742%) and uranium-235 (0.7204%).Isotope separationconcentrates (enriches) the fissile uranium-235 for nuclear weapons and most nuclear power plants, except forgas cooled reactorsandpressurized heavy water reactors. Most neutrons released by a fissioning atom of uranium-235 must impact other uranium-235 atoms to sustain thenuclear chain reaction. The concentration and amount of uranium-235 needed to achieve this is", "to achieve this is called a 'critical mass'. To be considered 'enriched', the uranium-235 fraction should be between 3% and 5%.This process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of uranium-235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of uranium-238, called depleted uranium or 'DU'. To be considered 'depleted', the235U concentration should be no more than 0.3%.The price of uranium has risen since 2001, so enrichment tailings containing more than 0.35% uranium-235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price ofdepleted uranium hexafluorideabove $130 per kilogram in July 2007 from $5 in 2001. Thegas centrifugeprocess, where gaseousuranium hexafluoride(UF6) is separated by the difference in molecular weight between235UF6and238UF6using high-speedcentrifuges, is the cheapest and leading enrichment process.Thegaseous diffusionprocess had been the leading method for enrichment and was used in theManhattan Project. In this process, uranium hexafluoride is repeatedlydiffusedthrough", "asilver-zincmembrane, and the different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (since uranium-238 is heavier it diffuses slightly slower than uranium-235).Themolecular laser isotope separationmethod employs alaserbeam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235 and fluorine. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to precipitate from the solution.An alternative laser method of enrichment is known asatomic vapor laser isotope separation(AVLIS) and employs visibletunable laserssuch asdye lasers.Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion. The only significant deviation from the235U to238U ratio in any known natural samples occurs inOklo,Gabon, wherenatural nuclear fission reactorsconsumed some of the235U some two billion years ago when the ratio of235U to238U was more akin to that oflow enriched uraniumallowing regular (\"light\") water to act as aneutron moderatorakin to the process in humanmadelight water reactors. The existence of such natural", "of such natural fission reactors which had been theoretically predicted beforehand was proven as the slight deviation of235U concentration from the expected values were discovered duringuranium enrichmentin France. Subsequent investigations to rule out any nefarious human action (such as stealing of235U) confirmed the theory by finding isotope ratios of commonfission products(or rather their stable daughter nuclides) in line with the values expected for fission but deviating from the values expected for non-fission derived samples of those elements. Human exposure A person can be exposed to uranium (or itsradioactive daughters, such asradon) by inhaling dust in air or by ingesting contaminated water and food. The amount of uranium in air is usually very small; however, people who work in factories that processphosphatefertilizers, live near government facilities that made or tested nuclear weapons, live or work near a modern battlefield where depleted uraniumweaponshave been used, or live or work near", "live or work near acoal-fired power plant, facilities that mine or process uranium ore, or enrich uranium for reactor fuel, may have increased exposure to uranium.Houses or structures that are over uranium deposits (either natural or man-made slag deposits) may have an increased incidence of exposure to radon gas. TheOccupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) has set thepermissible exposure limitfor uranium exposure in the workplace as 0.25 mg/m3over an 8-hour workday. TheNational Institute for Occupational Safety and Health(NIOSH) has set arecommended exposure limit(REL) of 0.2 mg/m3over an 8-hour workday and a short-term limit of 0.6 mg/m3. At 10 mg/m3, uranium isimmediately dangerous to life and health. Most ingested uranium is excreted duringdigestion. Only 0.5% is absorbed when insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested, whereas absorption of the more solubleuranylion can be up to 5%.However, soluble uranium compounds tend to quickly pass through the body, whereas insoluble", "whereas insoluble uranium compounds, especially when inhaled by way of dust into thelungs, pose a more serious exposure hazard. After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends tobioaccumulateand stay for many years inbonetissue because of uranium's affinity for phosphates.Incorporated uranium becomesuranylions, which accumulate in bone, liver, kidney, and reproductive tissues. Radiological and chemical toxicity of uranium combine by the fact that elements of high atomic number Z like uranium exhibit phantom or secondary radiotoxicity through absorption of natural background gamma and X-rays and re-emission of photoelectrons, which in combination with the high affinity of uranium to the phosphate moiety of DNA cause increased single and double strand DNA breaks. Uranium is not absorbed through the skin, andalpha particlesreleased by uranium cannot penetrate the skin. Uranium can be decontaminated from steel surfacesandaquifers. Effects and precautions Normal functioning of", "functioning of thekidney,brain,liver,heart, and other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because, besides being weakly radioactive, uranium is atoxic metal.Uranium is also areproductive toxicant.Radiological effects are generally local because alpha radiation, the primary form of238U decay, has a very short range, and will not penetrate skin. Alpha radiation from inhaled uranium has been demonstrated to cause lung cancer in exposed nuclear workers.While the CDC has published one study that no humancancerhas been seen as a result of exposure to natural or depleted uranium,exposure to uranium and its decay products, especiallyradon, is a significant health threat.Exposure tostrontium-90,iodine-131, and other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons. Although accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration ofuranium hexafluoridehas resulted in human fatalities, those deaths were", "those deaths were associated with the generation of highly toxic hydrofluoric acid anduranyl fluoriderather than with uranium itself.Finely divided uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium ispyrophoric; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature. Uranium metal is commonly handled with gloves as a sufficient precaution.Uranium concentrate is handled and contained so as to ensure that people do not inhale or ingest it. See also Notes References Sources cited External links", "Mendelevium Mendeleviumis asynthetic chemical element; it hassymbolMd(formerlyMv) andatomic number101. A metallicradioactivetransuranium elementin theactinideseries, it is the first element by atomic number that currently cannot be produced inmacroscopicquantities byneutronbombardment oflighter elements. It is the third-to-last actinide and the ninthtransuranic elementand the first transfermium. It can only be produced inparticle acceleratorsby bombarding lighter elements with charged particles. Seventeenisotopesare known; the most stable is258Md withhalf-life51.59 days; however, the shorter-lived256Md (half-life 77.7minutes) is most commonly used in chemistry because it can be produced on a larger scale. Mendelevium was discovered by bombardingeinsteiniumwithalpha particlesin 1955, the method still used to produce it today. It is named afterDmitri Mendeleev, the father of theperiodic table. Using availablemicrogramquantities of einsteinium-253, over a million mendelevium atoms may be made each hour. The", "made each hour. The chemistry of mendelevium is typical for the late actinides, with a preponderance of the +3 oxidation state but also an accessible +2 oxidation state. All known isotopes of mendelevium have short half-lives; there are currently no uses for it outside basicscientific research, and only small amounts are produced. Discovery Mendelevium was the ninthtransuranic elementto be synthesized. It was firstsynthesizedbyAlbert Ghiorso,Glenn T. Seaborg,Gregory Robert Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey, and team leaderStanley G. Thompsonin early 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. The team produced256Md (half-lifeof 77.7 minutes) when they bombarded an253Estarget consisting of only abillion(109) einsteinium atoms withalpha particles(heliumnuclei) in theBerkeley Radiation Laboratory's 60-inchcyclotron, thus increasing the target's atomic number by two.256Md thus became the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time. In total, seventeen mendelevium atoms were produced.This", "were produced.This discovery was part of a program, begun in 1952, that irradiatedplutoniumwith neutrons to transmute it into heavier actinides.This method was necessary as the previous method used to synthesize transuranic elements,neutron capture, could not work because of a lack of knownbeta decayingisotopes of fermiumthat would produce isotopes of the next element, mendelevium, and also due to the very short half-life tospontaneous fissionof258Fmthat thus constituted a hard limit to the success of the neutron capture process. To predict if the production of mendelevium would be possible, the team made use of a rough calculation. The number of atoms that would be produced would be approximately equal to the product of the number of atoms of target material, the target's cross section, the ion beam intensity, and the time of bombardment; this last factor was related to the half-life of the product when bombarding for a time on the order of its half-life. This gave one atom per experiment. Thus under", "Thus under optimum conditions, the preparation of only one atom of element 101 per experiment could be expected. This calculation demonstrated that it was feasible to go ahead with the experiment.The target material, einsteinium-253, could be produced readily from irradiatingplutonium: one year of irradiation would give a billion atoms, and its three-weekhalf-lifemeant that the element 101 experiments could be conducted in one week after the produced einsteinium was separated and purified to make the target. However, it was necessary to upgrade the cyclotron to obtain the needed intensity of 1014alpha particles per second; Seaborg applied for the necessary funds. While Seaborg applied for funding, Harvey worked on the einsteinium target, while Thomson and Choppin focused on methods for chemical isolation. Choppin suggested usingα-hydroxyisobutyric acidto separate the mendelevium atoms from those of the lighter actinides.The actual synthesis was done by a recoil technique, introduced by Albert Ghiorso. In", "Albert Ghiorso. In this technique, the einsteinium was placed on the opposite side of the target from the beam, so that the recoiling mendelevium atoms would get enoughmomentumto leave the target and be caught on a catcher foil made of gold. This recoil target was made by an electroplating technique, developed by Alfred Chetham-Strode. This technique gave a very high yield, which was absolutely necessary when working with such a rare and valuable product as the einsteinium target material.The recoil target consisted of 109atoms of253Es which were deposited electrolytically on a thin gold foil. It was bombarded by 41MeValpha particlesin theBerkeley cyclotronwith a very high beam density of 6×1013particles per second over an area of 0.05 cm2. The target was cooled by water orliquid helium, and the foil could be replaced. Initial experiments were carried out in September 1954. No alpha decay was seen from mendelevium atoms; thus, Ghiorso suggested that the mendelevium had all decayed byelectron", "decayed byelectron capturetofermiumand that the experiment should be repeated to search instead forspontaneous fissionevents.The repetition of the experiment happened in February 1955. On the day of discovery, 19 February, alpha irradiation of the einsteinium target occurred in three three-hour sessions. The cyclotron was in theUniversity of Californiacampus, while the Radiation Laboratory was on the next hill. To deal with this situation, a complex procedure was used: Ghiorso took the catcher foils (there were three targets and three foils) from the cyclotron to Harvey, who would useaqua regiato dissolve it and pass it through ananion-exchangeresincolumn to separate out thetransuranium elementsfrom the gold and other products.The resultant drops entered atest tube, which Choppin and Ghiorso took in a car to get to the Radiation Laboratory as soon as possible. There Thompson and Choppin used acation-exchange resin column and the α-hydroxyisobutyric acid. The solution drops were collected onplatinumdisks and", "onplatinumdisks and dried under heat lamps. The three disks were expected to contain respectively the fermium, no new elements, and the mendelevium. Finally, they were placed in their own counters, which were connected to recorders such that spontaneous fission events would be recorded as huge deflections in a graph showing the number and time of the decays. There thus was no direct detection, but by observation of spontaneous fission events arising from its electron-capture daughter256Fm. The first one was identified with a \"hooray\" followed by a \"double hooray\" and a \"triple hooray\". The fourth one eventually officially proved the chemical identification of the 101st element, mendelevium. In total, five decays were reported up until 4 a.m. Seaborg was notified and the team left to sleep.Additional analysis and further experimentation showed the produced mendelevium isotope to have mass 256 and to decay by electron capture to fermium-256 with a half-life of 157.6 minutes. We thought it fitting that there be", "that there be an element named for the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, who had developed the periodic table. In nearly all our experiments discovering transuranium elements, we'd depended on his method of predicting chemical properties based on the element's position in the table. But in the middle of the Cold War, naming an element for a Russian was a somewhat bold gesture that did not sit well with some American critics. Being the first of the second hundred of the chemical elements, it was decided that the element would be named \"mendelevium\" after the Russian chemistDmitri Mendeleev, father of theperiodic table. Because this discovery came during theCold War, Seaborg had to request permission of the government of theUnited Statesto propose that the element be named for a Russian, but it was granted.The name \"mendelevium\" was accepted by theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry(IUPAC) in 1955 with symbol \"Mv\",which was changed to \"Md\" in the next IUPAC General Assembly (Paris, 1957).", "(Paris, 1957). Characteristics Physical In theperiodic table, mendelevium is located to the right of the actinidefermium, to the left of the actinidenobelium, and below the lanthanidethulium. Mendelevium metal has not yet been prepared in bulk quantities, and bulk preparation is currently impossible.Nevertheless, a number of predictions and some preliminary experimental results have been done regarding its properties. The lanthanides and actinides, in the metallic state, can exist as either divalent (such aseuropiumandytterbium) or trivalent (most other lanthanides) metals. The former have fns2configurations, whereas the latter have fn−1d1s2configurations. In 1975, Johansson and Rosengren examined the measured and predicted values for thecohesive energies(enthalpiesof crystallization) of the metalliclanthanidesandactinides, both as divalent and trivalent metals.The conclusion was that the increased binding energy of the 5f126d17s2configuration over the 5f137s2configuration for mendelevium was not enough to", "was not enough to compensate for the energy needed to promote one 5f electron to 6d, as is true also for the very late actinides: thuseinsteinium,fermium, mendelevium, andnobeliumwere expected to be divalent metals.The increasing predominance of the divalent state well before the actinide series concludes is attributed to therelativisticstabilization of the 5f electrons, which increases with increasing atomic number.Thermochromatographicstudies with trace quantities of mendelevium by Zvara and Hübener from 1976 to 1982 confirmed this prediction.In 1990, Haire and Gibson estimated mendelevium metal to have anenthalpy of sublimationbetween 134 and 142 kJ/mol.Divalent mendelevium metal should have ametallic radiusof around194±10pm.Like the other divalent late actinides (except the once again trivalentlawrencium), metallic mendelevium should assume aface-centered cubiccrystal structure.Mendelevium's melting point has been estimated at 800 °C, the same value as that predicted for the neighboring element", "neighboring element nobelium.Its density is predicted to be around10.3±0.7 g/cm3. Chemical The chemistry of mendelevium is mostly known only in solution, in which it can take on the +3 or +2oxidation states. The +1 state has also been reported, but has not yet been confirmed. Before mendelevium's discovery,Seaborgand Katz predicted that it should be predominantly trivalent in aqueous solution and hence should behave similarly to other tripositive lanthanides and actinides. After the synthesis of mendelevium in 1955, these predictions were confirmed, first in the observation at its discovery that itelutedjust after fermium in the trivalent actinide elution sequence from a cation-exchange column of resin, and later the 1967 observation that mendelevium could form insolublehydroxidesandfluoridesthat coprecipitated with trivalent lanthanide salts.Cation-exchange and solvent extraction studies led to the conclusion that mendelevium was a trivalent actinide with an ionic radius somewhat smaller than that of the", "than that of the previous actinide, fermium.Mendelevium can formcoordination complexeswith 1,2-cyclohexanedinitrilotetraacetic acid (DCTA). Inreducingconditions, mendelevium(III) can be easily reduced to mendelevium(II), which is stable in aqueous solution.Thestandard reduction potentialof theE°(Md3+→Md2+) couple was variously estimated in 1967 as −0.10 V or −0.20 V:later 2013 experiments established the value as−0.16±0.05 V.In comparison,E°(Md3+→Md0) should be around −1.74 V, andE°(Md2+→Md0) should be around −2.5 V.Mendelevium(II)'s elution behavior has been compared with that ofstrontium(II) andeuropium(II). In 1973, mendelevium(I) was reported to have been produced by Russian scientists, who obtained it by reducing higher oxidation states of mendelevium withsamarium(II). It was found to be stable in neutral water–ethanolsolution and behomologoustocaesium(I). However, later experiments found no evidence for mendelevium(I) and found that mendelevium behaved like divalent elements when reduced, not like the", "not like the monovalentalkali metals.Nevertheless, the Russian team conducted further studies on thethermodynamicsof cocrystallizing mendelevium with alkali metalchlorides, and concluded that mendelevium(I) had formed and could form mixed crystals with divalent elements, thus cocrystallizing with them. The status of the +1 oxidation state is still tentative. The electrode potentialE°(Md4+→Md3+) was predicted in 1975 to be +5.4 V; 1967 experiments with the strong oxidizing agentsodium bismuthatewere unable to oxidize mendelevium(III) to mendelevium(IV). Atomic A mendelevium atom has 101 electrons. They are expected to be arranged in the configuration 5f137s2(ground stateterm symbol2F7/2), although experimental verification of this electron configuration had not yet been made as of 2006. The fifteen electrons in the 5f and 7s subshells arevalence electrons.In forming compounds, three valence electrons may be lost, leaving behind a 5f12core: this conforms to the trend set by the other actinides with their", "with their 5fnelectron configurations in the tripositive state. The firstionization potentialof mendelevium was measured to be at most (6.58 ± 0.07)eVin 1974, based on the assumption that the 7s electrons would ionize before the 5f ones;this value has since not yet been refined further due to mendelevium's scarcity and high radioactivity.The ionic radius ofhexacoordinateMd3+had been preliminarily estimated in 1978 to be around 91.2 pm;1988 calculations based on the logarithmic trend betweendistribution coefficientsand ionic radius produced a value of 89.6 pm, as well as anenthalpy of hydrationof−3654±12 kJ/mol.Md2+should have an ionic radius of 115 pm and hydration enthalpy −1413 kJ/mol; Md+should have ionic radius 117 pm. Isotopes Seventeen isotopes of mendelevium are known, with mass numbers from 244 to 260; all are radioactive.Additionally, 14nuclear isomersare known.Of these, the longest-lived isotope is258Md with a half-life of 51.59 days, and the longest-lived isomer is258mMd with a half-life of 57.0", "a half-life of 57.0 minutes.Nevertheless, the shorter-lived256Md (half-life 1.295 hours) is more often used in chemical experimentation because it can be produced in larger quantities fromalpha particleirradiation of einsteinium.After258Md, the next most stable mendelevium isotopes are260Md with a half-life of 27.8 days,257Md with a half-life of 5.52 hours,259Md with a half-life of 1.60 hours, and256Md with a half-life of 1.295 hours. All of the remaining mendelevium isotopes have half-lives that are less than an hour, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 5 minutes. The half-lives of mendelevium isotopes mostly increase smoothly from244Md onwards, reaching a maximum at258Md.Experiments and predictions suggest that the half-lives will then decrease, apart from260Md with a half-life of 27.8 days,asspontaneous fissionbecomes the dominant decay modedue to the mutual repulsion of the protons posing a limit to the island of relative stability of long-lived nuclei in theactinideseries.In", "addition, mendelevium is the element with the highest atomic number that has a known isotope with a half-life longer than one day. Mendelevium-256, the chemically most important isotope of mendelevium, decays throughelectron capture90% of the time andalpha decay10% of the time.It is most easily detected through thespontaneous fissionof its electron capture daughterfermium-256, but in the presence of other nuclides that undergo spontaneous fission, alpha decays at the characteristic energies for mendelevium-256 (7.205 and 7.139MeV) can provide more useful identification. Production and isolation The lightest isotopes (244Md to247Md) are mostly produced through bombardment ofbismuthtargets withargonions, while slightly heavier ones (248Md to253Md) are produced by bombardingplutoniumandamericiumtargets with ions ofcarbonandnitrogen. The most important and most stable isotopes are in the range from254Md to258Md and are produced through bombardment ofeinsteiniumwith alpha particles: einsteinium-253, −254, and", "−254, and −255 can all be used.259Md is produced as adaughterof259No, and260Md can be produced in atransfer reactionbetween einsteinium-254 andoxygen-18.Typically, the most commonly used isotope256Md is produced by bombarding either einsteinium-253 or −254 with alpha particles: einsteinium-254 is preferred when available because it has a longer half-life and therefore can be used as a target for longer.Using available microgram quantities of einsteinium,femtogramquantities of mendelevium-256 may be produced. The recoilmomentumof the produced mendelevium-256 atoms is used to bring them physically far away from the einsteinium target from which they are produced, bringing them onto a thin foil of metal (usuallyberyllium,aluminium,platinum, orgold) just behind the target in a vacuum.This eliminates the need for immediate chemical separation, which is both costly and prevents reusing of the expensive einsteinium target.The mendelevium atoms are then trapped in a gas atmosphere (frequentlyhelium), and a gas jet", "and a gas jet from a small opening in the reaction chamber carries the mendelevium along.Using a longcapillary tube, and includingpotassium chlorideaerosols in the helium gas, the mendelevium atoms can be transported over tens ofmetersto be chemically analyzed and have their quantity determined.The mendelevium can then be separated from the foil material and otherfission productsby applying acid to the foil and thencoprecipitatingthe mendelevium withlanthanum fluoride, then using acation-exchangeresin column with a 10%ethanolsolution saturated withhydrochloric acid, acting as aneluant. However, if the foil is made of gold and thin enough, it is enough to simply dissolve the gold inaqua regiabefore separating the trivalent actinides from the gold usinganion-exchangechromatography, the eluant being 6 M hydrochloric acid. Mendelevium can finally be separated from the other trivalent actinides using selective elution from a cation-exchange resin column, the eluant being ammonia α-HIB.Using the gas-jet method", "the gas-jet method often renders the first two steps unnecessary.The above procedure is the most commonly used one for the separation of transeinsteinium elements. Another possible way to separate the trivalent actinides is via solvent extraction chromatography using bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (abbreviated as HDEHP) as the stationary organic phase andnitric acidas the mobile aqueous phase. The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation-exchange resin column, so that the heavier actinides elute later. The mendelevium separated by this method has the advantage of being free of organic complexing agent compared to the resin column; the disadvantage is that mendelevium then elutes very late in the elution sequence, after fermium. Another method to isolate mendelevium exploits the distinct elution properties of Md2+from those of Es3+and Fm3+. The initial steps are the same as above, and employs HDEHP for extraction chromatography, but coprecipitates the mendelevium with terbium fluoride", "terbium fluoride instead of lanthanum fluoride. Then, 50 mg ofchromiumis added to the mendelevium to reduce it to the +2 state in 0.1 M hydrochloric acid withzincormercury.The solvent extraction then proceeds, and while the trivalent and tetravalent lanthanides and actinides remain on the column, mendelevium(II) does not and stays in the hydrochloric acid. It is then reoxidized to the +3 state usinghydrogen peroxideand then isolated by selective elution with 2 M hydrochloric acid (to remove impurities, including chromium) and finally 6 M hydrochloric acid (to remove the mendelevium).It is also possible to use a column of cationite and zinc amalgam, using 1 M hydrochloric acid as an eluant, reducing Md(III) to Md(II) where it behaves like thealkaline earth metals.Thermochromatographic chemical isolation could be achieved using the volatile mendeleviumhexafluoroacetylacetonate: the analogous fermium compound is also known and is also volatile. Toxicity Though few people come in contact with mendelevium,", "with mendelevium, theInternational Commission on Radiological Protectionhas set annual exposure limits for the most stable isotope. For mendelevium-258, the ingestion limit was set at 9×105becquerels(1 Bq = 1 decay per second). Given the half-life of this isotope, this is only 2.48 ng (nanograms). The inhalation limit is at 6000 Bq or 16.5 pg (picogram). Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links", "Periodic table Theperiodic table, also known as theperiodic table of the elements, is an ordered arrangement of thechemical elementsinto rows (\"periods\") and columns (\"groups\"). It is aniconofchemistryand is widely used inphysicsand other sciences. It is a depiction of theperiodic law, which states that when the elements are arranged in order of theiratomic numbersan approximaterecurrence of their propertiesis evident. The table is divided into four roughly rectangular areas calledblocks. Elements in the same group tend to show similar chemical characteristics. Vertical, horizontal and diagonaltrendscharacterize the periodic table.Metalliccharacter increases going down a group and from right to left across a period.Nonmetalliccharacter increases going from the bottom left of the periodic table to the top right. The first periodic table to become generally accepted was that of the Russian chemistDmitri Mendeleevin 1869; he formulated the periodic law as a dependence of chemical properties onatomic mass. As not", "mass. As not all elements were then known, there were gaps in his periodic table, and Mendeleev successfully used the periodic law topredict some properties of some of the missing elements. The periodic law was recognized as a fundamental discovery in the late 19th century. It was explained early in the 20th century, with the discovery ofatomic numbersand associated pioneering work inquantum mechanics, both ideas serving to illuminate the internal structure of the atom. A recognisably modern form of the table was reached in 1945 withGlenn T. Seaborg's discovery that theactinideswere in fact f-block rather than d-block elements. The periodic table and law are now a central and indispensable part of modern chemistry. The periodic table continues to evolve with the progress of science. In nature, only elements up to atomic number 94 exist;to go further, it was necessary tosynthesizenew elements in the laboratory. By 2010, the first 118 elements were known, thereby completing the first seven rows of the", "seven rows of the table;however, chemical characterization is still needed for the heaviest elements to confirm that their properties match their positions. New discoveries will extend the tablebeyond these seven rows, though it is not yet known how many more elements are possible; moreover, theoretical calculations suggest that this unknown region will not follow the patterns of the known part of the table. Some scientific discussion also continues regarding whether some elements are correctly positioned in today's table. Manyalternative representationsof the periodic law exist, and there is some discussion as to whether there is an optimal form of the periodic table. Structure 1 Each chemical element has a uniqueatomic number(Z— for \"Zahl\", German for \"number\") representing the number ofprotonsin itsnucleus.Each distinct atomic number therefore corresponds to a class of atom: these classes are called thechemical elements.The chemical elements are what the periodic table classifies and organizes.Hydrogenis", "the element with atomic number 1;helium, atomic number 2;lithium, atomic number 3; and so on. Each of these names can be further abbreviated by a one- or two-letterchemical symbol; those for hydrogen, helium, and lithium are respectively H, He, and Li.Neutrons do not affect the atom's chemical identity, but do affect its weight. Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are calledisotopesof the same chemical element.Naturally occurring elements usually occur as mixes of different isotopes; since each isotope usually occurs with a characteristic abundance, naturally occurring elements have well-definedatomic weights, defined as the average mass of a naturally occurring atom of that element.All elements have multipleisotopes, variants with the same number of protons but different numbers ofneutrons. For example,carbonhas three naturally occurring isotopes: all of itsatomshave six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very", "and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. When atomic mass is shown, it is usually the weighted average of naturally occurring isotopes; but if no isotopes occur naturally in significant quantities, the mass of the most stable isotope usually appears, often in parentheses. In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number. A new row (period) is started when a newelectron shellhas its firstelectron. Columns (groups) are determined by theelectron configurationof the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g.oxygen,sulfur, andseleniumare in the same column because they all have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements", "the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it. Today, 118 elements are known, the first 94 of which are known to occur naturally on Earth at present.The remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118), occur only when synthesized in laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 areprimordialand 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements. A few of the latter are so rare that they were not discovered in nature, but were synthesized in the laboratory before it was determined that they do exist in nature after all:technetium(element 43),promethium(element 61),astatine(element 85),neptunium(element 93), andplutonium(element 94).No element heavier thaneinsteinium(element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor hasastatine;francium(element 87) has been only photographed in the form oflightemitted from", "oflightemitted from microscopic quantities (300,000 atoms).Of the 94 natural elements, eighty have a stable isotope and one more (bismuth) has an almost-stable isotope (with ahalf-lifeof 2.01×1019years, over a billion times theage of the universe).Two more,thoriumanduranium, have isotopes undergoingradioactive decaywith a half-life comparable to theage of the Earth. The stable elements plus bismuth, thorium, and uranium make up the 83primordialelements that survived from the Earth's formation.The remaining eleven natural elements decay quickly enough that their continued trace occurrence rests primarily on being constantly regenerated as intermediate products of the decay of thorium and uranium.All 24 known artificial elements are radioactive. Group names and numbers Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases). The f-block groups are ignored in this numbering.Groups can also", "can also be named by their first element, e.g. the \"scandium group\" for group 3.Previously, groups were known byRoman numerals. In theUnited States, the Roman numerals were followed by either an \"A\" if the group was in thes-orp-block, or a \"B\" if the group was in thed-block. The Roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today's naming convention (e.g. thegroup 4 elementswere group IVB, and thegroup 14 elementswere group IVA). InEurope, the lettering was similar, except that \"A\" was used for groups 1 through 7, and \"B\" was used for groups 11 through 17. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple-sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the newIUPAC(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) naming system (1–18) was put into use, and the old group names (I–VIII) were deprecated. Presentation forms 32 columns 18 columns For reasons of space,the periodic table is commonly presented with the f-block elements cut out and positioned as a", "and positioned as a distinct part below the main body.This reduces the number of element columns from 32 to 18. Both forms represent the same periodic table.The form with the f-block included in the main body is sometimes called the 32-columnor long form;the form with the f-block cut out the 18-columnor medium-long form.The 32-column form has the advantage of showing all elements in their correct sequence, but it has the disadvantage of requiring more space.The form chosen is an editorial choice, and does not imply any change of scientific claim or statement. For example, when discussingthe composition of group 3, the options can be shown equally (unprejudiced) in both forms. Periodic tables usually at least show the elements' symbols; many also provide supplementary information about the elements, either via colour-coding or as data in the cells. The above table shows the names and atomic numbers of the elements, and also their blocks, natural occurrences andstandard atomic weights. For the short-lived", "For the short-lived elements without standard atomic weights, the mass number of the most stable known isotope is used instead. Other tables may include properties such as state of matter, melting and boiling points, densities, as well as provide different classifications of the elements. Electron configurations The periodic table is a graphic description of the periodic law,which states that the properties and atomic structures of the chemical elements are aperiodic functionof theiratomic number.Elements are placed in the periodic table according to theirelectron configurations,the periodic recurrences of which explain thetrendsin properties across the periodic table. An electron can be thought of as inhabiting anatomic orbital, which characterizes the probability it can be found in any particular region around the atom. Their energies arequantised, which is to say that they can only take discrete values. Furthermore, electrons obey thePauli exclusion principle: different electrons must always be in", "must always be in different states. This allows classification of the possible states an electron can take in various energy levels known as shells, divided into individual subshells, which each contain one or more orbitals. Each orbital can contain up to two electrons: they are distinguished by a quantity known asspin, conventionally labelled \"up\" or \"down\".In a cold atom (one in its ground state), electrons arrange themselves in such a way that the total energy they have is minimized by occupying the lowest-energy orbitals available.Only the outermost electrons (so-calledvalence electrons) have enough energy to break free of the nucleus and participate in chemical reactions with other atoms. The others are calledcore electrons. Elements are known with up to the first seven shells occupied. The first shell contains only one orbital, a spherical s orbital. As it is in the first shell, this is called the 1s orbital. This can hold up to two electrons. The second shell similarly contains a 2s orbital, and it", "2s orbital, and it also contains three dumbbell-shaped 2p orbitals, and can thus fill up to eight electrons (2×1 + 2×3 = 8). The third shell contains one 3s orbital, three 3p orbitals, and five 3d orbitals, and thus has a capacity of 2×1 + 2×3 + 2×5 = 18. The fourth shell contains one 4s orbital, three 4p orbitals, five 4d orbitals, and seven 4f orbitals, thus leading to a capacity of 2×1 + 2×3 + 2×5 + 2×7 = 32.Higher shells contain more types of orbitals that continue the pattern, but such types of orbitals are not filled in the ground states of known elements.The subshell types are characterized by thequantum numbers. Four numbers describe an orbital in an atom completely: theprincipal quantum numbern, theazimuthal quantum numberℓ (the orbital type), theorbital magnetic quantum numbermℓ, and thespin magnetic quantum numberms. Order of subshell filling The sequence in which the subshells are filled is given in most cases by theAufbau principle, also known as the Madelung or Klechkovsky rule (afterErwin", "rule (afterErwin MadelungandVsevolod Klechkovskyrespectively). This rule was first observed empirically by Madelung, and Klechkovsky and later authors gave it theoretical justification.The shells overlap in energies, and the Madelung rule specifies the sequence of filling according to: Here the sign ≪ means \"much less than\" as opposed to < meaning just \"less than\".Phrased differently, electrons enter orbitals in order of increasingn+ ℓ, and if two orbitals are available with the same value ofn+ ℓ, the one with lowernis occupied first.In general, orbitals with the same value ofn+ ℓ are similar in energy, but in the case of the s-orbitals (with ℓ = 0), quantum effects raise their energy to approach that of the nextn+ ℓ group. Hence the periodic table is usually drawn to begin each row (often called a period) with the filling of a new s-orbital, which corresponds to the beginning of a new shell.Thus, with the exception of the first row, each period length appears twice: The overlaps get quite close at the point", "close at the point where the d-orbitals enter the picture,and the order can shift slightly with atomic numberand atomic charge. Starting from the simplest atom, this lets us build up the periodic table one at a time in order of atomic number, by considering the cases of single atoms. Inhydrogen, there is only one electron, which must go in the lowest-energy orbital 1s. Thiselectron configurationis written 1s1, where the superscript indicates the number of electrons in the subshell.Heliumadds a second electron, which also goes into 1s, completely filling the first shell and giving the configuration 1s2. Starting from the third element,lithium, the first shell is full, so its third electron occupies a 2s orbital, giving a 1s22s1configuration. The 2s electron is lithium's only valence electron, as the 1s subshell is now too tightly bound to the nucleus to participate in chemical bonding to other atoms: such a shell is called a \"core shell\". The 1s subshell is a core shell for all elements from lithium onward.", "lithium onward. The 2s subshell is completed by the next elementberyllium(1s22s2). The following elements then proceed to fill the 2p subshell.Boron(1s22s22p1) puts its new electron in a 2p orbital;carbon(1s22s22p2) fills a second 2p orbital; and withnitrogen(1s22s22p3) all three 2p orbitals become singly occupied. This is consistent withHund's rule, which states that atoms usually prefer to singly occupy each orbital of the same type before filling them with the second electron.Oxygen(1s22s22p4),fluorine(1s22s22p5), andneon(1s22s22p6) then complete the already singly filled 2p orbitals; the last of these fills the second shell completely. Starting from element 11,sodium, the second shell is full, making the second shell a core shell for this and all heavier elements. The eleventh electron begins the filling of the third shell by occupying a 3s orbital, giving a configuration of 1s22s22p63s1for sodium. This configuration is abbreviated 3s1, where represents neon's configuration.Magnesium( 3s2) finishes", "3s2) finishes this 3s orbital, and the following six elementsaluminium,silicon,phosphorus,sulfur,chlorine, andargonfill the three 3p orbitals ( 3s23p1through 3s23p6).This creates an analogous series in which the outer shell structures of sodium through argon are analogous to those of lithium through neon, and is the basis for the periodicity of chemical properties that the periodic table illustrates:at regular but changing intervals of atomic numbers, the properties of the chemical elements approximately repeat. The first eighteen elements can thus be arranged as the start of a periodic table. Elements in the same column have the same number of valence electrons and have analogous valence electron configurations: these columns are called groups. The single exception is helium, which has two valence electrons like beryllium and magnesium, but is typically placed in the column of neon and argon to emphasise that its outer shell is full. (Some contemporary authors question even this single exception,", "single exception, preferring to consistently follow the valence configurations and place helium over beryllium.) There are eight columns in this periodic table fragment, corresponding to at most eight outer-shell electrons.A period begins when a new shell starts filling.Finally, the colouring illustrates theblocks: the elements in the s-block (coloured red) are filling s-orbitals, while those in the p-block (coloured yellow) are filling p-orbitals. Starting the next row, forpotassiumandcalciumthe 4s subshell is the lowest in energy, and therefore they fill it.Potassium adds one electron to the 4s shell ( 4s1), and calcium then completes it ( 4s2). However, starting fromscandium( 3d14s2) the 3d subshell becomes the next highest in energy. The 4s and 3d subshells have approximately the same energy and they compete for filling the electrons, and so the occupation is not quite consistently filling the 3d orbitals one at a time. The precise energy ordering of 3d and 4s changes along the row, and also changes", "and also changes depending on how many electrons are removed from the atom. For example, due to the repulsion between the 3d electrons and the 4s ones, atchromiumthe 4s energy level becomes slightly higher than 3d, and so it becomes more profitable for a chromium atom to have a 3d54s1configuration than an 3d44s2one. A similar anomaly occurs atcopper, whose atom has a 3d104s1configuration rather than the expected 3d94s2.These are violations of the Madelung rule. Such anomalies, however, do not have any chemical significance:most chemistry is not about isolated gaseous atoms,and the various configurations are so close in energy to each otherthat the presence of a nearby atom can shift the balance.Therefore, the periodic table ignores them and considers only idealized configurations. Atzinc( 3d104s2), the 3d orbitals are completely filled with a total of ten electrons.Next come the 4p orbitals, completing the row, which are filled progressively bygallium( 3d104s24p1) throughkrypton( 3d104s24p6), in a manner", "in a manner analogous to the previous p-block elements.From gallium onwards, the 3d orbitals form part of the electronic core, and no longer participate in chemistry.The s- and p-block elements, which fill their outer shells, are calledmain-group elements; the d-block elements (coloured blue below), which fill an inner shell, are calledtransition elements(or transition metals, since they are all metals). The next eighteen elements fill the 5s orbitals (rubidiumandstrontium), then 4d (yttriumthroughcadmium, again with a few anomalies along the way), and then 5p (indiumthroughxenon).Again, from indium onward the 4d orbitals are in the core.Hence the fifth row has the same structure as the fourth. The sixth row of the table likewise starts with two s-block elements:caesiumandbarium.After this, the first f-block elements (coloured green below) begin to appear, starting withlanthanum. These are sometimes termed inner transition elements.As there are now not only 4f but also 5d and 6s subshells at similar", "at similar energies, competition occurs once again with many irregular configurations;this resulted in some dispute about where exactly the f-block is supposed to begin, but most who study the matter agree that it starts at lanthanum in accordance with the Aufbau principle.Even though lanthanum does not itself fill the 4f subshell as a single atom, because of repulsion between electrons,its 4f orbitals are low enough in energy to participate in chemistry.Atytterbium, the seven 4f orbitals are completely filled with fourteen electrons; thereafter, a series of ten transition elements (lutetiumthroughmercury) follows,and finally six main-group elements (thalliumthroughradon) complete the period.From lutetium onwards the 4f orbitals are in the core,and from thallium onwards so are the 5d orbitals. The seventh row is analogous to the sixth row: 7s fills (franciumandradium), then 5f (actiniumtonobelium), then 6d (lawrenciumtocopernicium), and finally 7p (nihoniumtooganesson).Starting from lawrencium the 5f", "lawrencium the 5f orbitals are in the core,and probably the 6d orbitals join the core starting from nihonium.Again there are a few anomalies along the way:for example, as single atoms neither actinium northoriumactually fills the 5f subshell, and lawrencium does not fill the 6d shell, but all these subshells can still become filled in chemical environments.For a very long time, the seventh row was incomplete as most of its elements do not occur in nature. The missingelements beyond uraniumstarted to be synthesized in the laboratory in 1940, when neptunium was made.(However, the first element to be discovered by synthesis rather than in nature was technetium in 1937.) The row was completed with the synthesis oftennessinein 2010(the last elementoganessonhad already been made in 2002),and the last elements in this seventh row were given names in 2016. This completes the modern periodic table, with all seven rows completely filled to capacity. Electron configuration table The following table shows the electron", "shows the electron configuration of a neutral gas-phase atom of each element. Different configurations can be favoured in different chemical environments.The main-group elements have entirely regular electron configurations; the transition and inner transition elements show twenty irregularities due to the aforementioned competition between subshells close in energy level. For the last ten elements (109–118), experimental data is lackingand therefore calculated configurations have been shown instead.Completely filled subshells have been greyed out. Variations Period 1 Although the modern periodic table is standard today, the placement of the period 1 elements hydrogen and helium remains an open issue under discussion, and some variation can be found.Following their respective s1and s2electron configurations, hydrogen would be placed in group 1, and helium would be placed in group 2.The group 1 placement of hydrogen is common, but helium is almost always placed in group 18 with the other noble gases.The", "noble gases.The debate has to do with conflicting understandings of the extent to which chemical or electronic properties should decide periodic table placement. Like the group 1 metals, hydrogen has one electron in its outermost shelland typically loses its only electron in chemical reactions.Hydrogen has some metal-like chemical properties, being able to displace some metals from theirsalts.But it forms a diatomic nonmetallic gas at standard conditions, unlike the alkali metals which are reactive solid metals. This and hydrogen's formation ofhydrides, in which it gains an electron, brings it close to the properties of thehalogenswhich do the same(though it is rarer for hydrogen to form H−than H+).Moreover, the lightest two halogens (fluorineandchlorine) are gaseous like hydrogen at standard conditions.Some properties of hydrogen are not a good fit for either group: hydrogen is neither highly oxidizing nor highly reducing and is not reactive with water.Hydrogen thus has properties corresponding to both", "to both those of the alkali metals and the halogens, but matches neither group perfectly, and is thus difficult to place by its chemistry.Therefore, while the electronic placement of hydrogen in group 1 predominates, some rarer arrangements show either hydrogen in group 17,duplicate hydrogen in both groups 1 and 17,or float it separately from all groups.This last option has nonetheless been criticized by the chemist and philosopher of scienceEric Scerrion the grounds that it appears to imply that hydrogen is above the periodic law altogether, unlike all the other elements. Helium is the only element that routinely occupies a position in the periodic table that is not consistent with its electronic structure. It has two electrons in its outermost shell, whereas the other noble gases have eight; and it is an s-block element, whereas all other noble gases are p-block elements. However it is unreactive at standard conditions, and has a full outer shell: these properties are like the noble gases in group 18, but", "in group 18, but not at all like the reactive alkaline earth metals of group 2. For these reasons helium is nearly universally placed in group 18which its properties best match;a proposal to move helium to group 2 was rejected by IUPAC in 1988 for these reasons.Nonetheless, helium is still occasionally placed in group 2 today,and some of its physical and chemical properties are closer to the group 2 elements and support the electronic placement.Solid helium crystallises in ahexagonal close-packedstructure, which matches beryllium and magnesium in group 2, but not the other noble gases in group 18.Recent theoretical developments in noble gas chemistry, in which helium is expected to show slightly less inertness than neon and to form (HeO)(LiF)2with a structure similar to the analogous beryllium compound (but with no expected neon analogue), have resulted in more chemists advocating a placement of helium in group 2. This relates to the electronic argument, as the reason for neon's greater inertness is", "inertness is repulsion from its filled p-shell that helium lacks, though realistically it is unlikely that helium-containing molecules will be stable outside extreme low-temperature conditions (around 10K). Thefirst-row anomalyin the periodic table has additionally been cited to support moving helium to group 2. It arises because the first orbital of any type is unusually small, since unlike its higher analogues, it does not experience interelectronic repulsion from a smaller orbital of the same type. This makes the first row of elements in each block unusually small, and such elements tend to exhibit characteristic kinds of anomalies for their group. Some chemists arguing for the repositioning of helium have pointed out that helium exhibits these anomalies if it is placed in group 2, but not if it is placed in group 18: on the other hand, neon, which would be the first group 18 element if helium was removed from that spot, does exhibit those anomalies.The relationship between helium and beryllium is then", "beryllium is then argued to resemble that between hydrogen and lithium, a placement which is much more commonly accepted.For example, because of this trend in the sizes of orbitals, a large difference in atomic radii between the first and second members of each main group is seen in groups 1 and 13–17: it exists between neon and argon, and between helium and beryllium, but not between helium and neon. This similarly affects the noble gases' boiling points and solubilities in water, where helium is too close to neon, and the large difference characteristic between the first two elements of a group appears only between neon and argon. Moving helium to group 2 makes this trend consistent in groups 2 and 18 as well, by making helium the first group 2 element and neon the first group 18 element: both exhibit the characteristic properties of a kainosymmetric first element of a group.The group 18 placement of helium nonetheless remains near-universal due to its extreme inertness.Additionally, tables that float both", "that float both hydrogen and helium outside all groups may rarely be encountered. Group 3 In many periodic tables, the f-block is shifted one element to the right, so that lanthanum and actinium become d-block elements in group 3, and Ce–Lu and Th–Lr form the f-block. Thus the d-block is split into two very uneven portions. This is a holdover from early mistaken measurements of electron configurations; modern measurements are more consistent with the form with lutetium and lawrencium in group 3, and with La–Yb and Ac–No as the f-block. The 4f shell is completely filled at ytterbium, and for that reasonLev LandauandEvgeny Lifshitzin 1948 considered it incorrect to group lutetium as an f-block element.They did not yet take the step of removing lanthanum from the d-block as well, butJun Kondōrealized in 1963 that lanthanum's low-temperaturesuperconductivityimplied the activity of its 4f shell.In 1965, David C. Hamilton linked this observation to its position in the periodic table, and argued that the f-block", "that the f-block should be composed of the elements La–Yb and Ac–No.Since then, physical, chemical, and electronic evidence has supported this assignment.The issue was brought to wide attention byWilliam B. Jensenin 1982,and the reassignment of lutetium and lawrencium to group 3 was supported by IUPAC reports dating from 1988 (when the 1–18 group numbers were recommended)and 2021.The variation nonetheless still exists because most textbook writers are not aware of the issue. A third form can sometimes be encountered in which the spaces below yttrium in group 3 are left empty, such as the table appearing on the IUPAC web site,but this creates an inconsistency with quantum mechanics by making the f-block 15 elements wide (La–Lu and Ac–Lr) even though only 14 electrons can fit in an f-subshell.There is moreover some confusion in the literature on which elements are then implied to be in group 3.While the 2021 IUPAC report noted that 15-element-wide f-blocks are supported by some practitioners of a specialized", "of a specialized branch ofrelativistic quantum mechanicsfocusing on the properties ofsuperheavy elements, the project's opinion was that such interest-dependent concerns should not have any bearing on how the periodic table is presented to \"the general chemical and scientific community\".Other authors focusing on superheavy elements since clarified that the \"15th entry of the f-block represents the first slot of the d-block which is left vacant to indicate the place of the f-block inserts\", which would imply that this form still has lutetium and lawrencium (the 15th entries in question) as d-block elements in group 3.Indeed, when IUPAC publications expand the table to 32 columns, they make this clear and place lutetium and lawrencium under yttrium in group 3. Several arguments in favour of Sc-Y-La-Ac can be encountered in the literature,but they have been challenged as being logically inconsistent.For example, it has been argued that lanthanum and actinium cannot be f-block elements because as individual", "as individual gas-phase atoms, they have not begun to fill the f-subshells.But the same is true of thorium which is never disputed as an f-block element,and this argument overlooks the problem on the other end: that the f-shells complete filling at ytterbium and nobelium, matching the Sc-Y-Lu-Lr form, and not at lutetium and lawrencium as the Sc-Y-La-Ac form would have it.Not only are such exceptional configurations in the minority,but they have also in any case never been considered as relevant for positioning any other elements on the periodic table: in gaseous atoms, the d-shells complete their filling at copper, palladium, and gold, but it is universally accepted by chemists that these configurations are exceptional and that the d-block really ends in accordance with the Madelung rule at zinc, cadmium, and mercury.The relevant fact for placementis that lanthanum and actinium (like thorium) have valence f-orbitals that can become occupied in chemical environments, whereas lutetium and lawrencium do", "and lawrencium do not:their f-shells are in the core, and cannot be used for chemical reactions.Thus the relationship between yttrium and lanthanum is only a secondary relationship between elements with the same number of valence electrons but different kinds of valence orbitals, such as that between chromium and uranium; whereas the relationship between yttrium and lutetium is primary, sharing both valence electron count and valence orbital type. Periodic trends As chemical reactions involve the valence electrons,elements with similar outer electron configurations may be expected to react similarly and form compounds with similar proportions of elements in them.Such elements are placed in the same group, and thus there tend to be clear similarities and trends in chemical behaviour as one proceeds down a group.As analogous configurations occur at regular intervals, the properties of the elements thus exhibit periodic recurrences, hence the name of the periodic table and the periodic law. These periodic", "law. These periodic recurrences were noticed well before the underlying theory that explains them was developed. Atomic radius Historically, the physical size of atoms was unknown until the early 20th century. The first calculated estimate of the atomic radius of hydrogen was published by physicistArthur Haasin 1910 to within an order of magnitude (a factor of 10) of the accepted value, theBohr radius(~0.529 Å). In his model, Haas used a single-electron configuration based on the classical atomic model proposed byJ. J. Thomsonin 1904, often called theplum-pudding model. Atomic radii(the size of atoms) are dependent on the sizes of their outermost orbitals.They generally decrease going left to right along the main-group elements, because the nuclear charge increases but the outer electrons are still in the same shell. However, going down a column, the radii generally increase, because the outermost electrons are in higher shells that are thus further away from the nucleus.The first row of each block is", "of each block is abnormally small, due to an effect calledkainosymmetryor primogenic repulsion:the 1s, 2p, 3d, and 4f subshells have no inner analogues. For example, the 2p orbitals do not experience strong repulsion from the 1s and 2s orbitals, which have quite different angular charge distributions, and hence are not very large; but the 3p orbitals experience strong repulsion from the 2p orbitals, which have similar angular charge distributions. Thus higher s-, p-, d-, and f-subshells experience strong repulsion from their inner analogues, which have approximately the same angular distribution of charge, and must expand to avoid this. This makes significant differences arise between the small 2p elements, which prefermultiple bonding, and the larger 3p and higher p-elements, which do not.Similar anomalies arise for the 1s, 2p, 3d, 4f, and the hypothetical 5g elements:the degree of this first-row anomaly is highest for the s-block, is moderate for the p-block, and is less pronounced for the d- and f-blocks.", "d- and f-blocks. In the transition elements, an inner shell is filling, but the size of the atom is still determined by the outer electrons. The increasing nuclear charge across the series and the increased number of inner electrons for shielding somewhat compensate each other, so the decrease in radius is smaller.The 4p and 5d atoms, coming immediately after new types of transition series are first introduced, are smaller than would have been expected,because the added core 3d and 4f subshells provide only incomplete shielding of the nuclear charge for the outer electrons. Hence for example gallium atoms are slightly smaller than aluminium atoms.Together with kainosymmetry, this results in an even-odd difference between the periods (except in the s-block)that is sometimes known as secondary periodicity: elements in even periods have smaller atomic radii and prefer to lose fewer electrons, while elements in odd periods (except the first) differ in the opposite direction. Thus for example many properties in", "many properties in the p-block show a zigzag rather than a smooth trend along the group. For example, phosphorus and antimony in odd periods of group 15 readily reach the +5 oxidation state, whereas nitrogen, arsenic, and bismuth in even periods prefer to stay at +3.A similar situation holds for the d-block, with lutetium through tungsten atoms being slightly smaller than yttrium through molybdenum atoms respectively. Thallium and lead atoms are about the same size as indium and tin atoms respectively, but from bismuth to radon the 6p atoms are larger than the analogous 5p atoms. This happens because when atomic nuclei become highly charged,special relativitybecomes needed to gauge the effect of the nucleus on the electron cloud. Theserelativistic effectsresult in heavy elements increasingly having differing properties compared to their lighter homologues in the periodic table.Spin–orbit interactionsplits the p-subshell: one p-orbital is relativistically stabilized and shrunken (it fills in thallium and", "in thallium and lead), but the other two (filling in bismuth through radon) are relativistically destabilized and expanded.Relativistic effects also explain whygoldis golden andmercuryis a liquid at room temperature.They are expected to become very strong in the late seventh period, potentially leading to a collapse of periodicity.Electron configurations are only clearly known until element 108 (hassium), and experimental chemistry beyond 108 has only been done for 112 (copernicium), 113 (nihonium), and 114 (flerovium), so the chemical characterization of the heaviest elements remains a topic of current research. The trend that atomic radii decrease from left to right is also present inionic radii, though it is more difficult to examine because the most common ions of consecutive elements normally differ in charge. Ions with the same electron configuration decrease in size as their atomic number rises, due to increased attraction from the more positively charged nucleus: thus for example ionic radii decrease", "radii decrease in the series Se2−, Br−, Rb+, Sr2+, Y3+, Zr4+, Nb5+, Mo6+, Tc7+. Ions of the same element get smaller as more electrons are removed, because the attraction from the nucleus begins to outweigh the repulsion between electrons that causes electron clouds to expand: thus for example ionic radii decrease in the series V2+, V3+, V4+, V5+. Ionisation energy The firstionisation energyof an atom is the energy required to remove an electron from it. This varies with the atomic radius: ionisation energy increases left to right and down to up, because electrons that are closer to the nucleus are held more tightly and are more difficult to remove. Ionisation energy thus is minimized at the first element of each period – hydrogen and thealkali metals– and then generally rises until it reaches thenoble gasat the right edge of the period.There are some exceptions to this trend, such as oxygen, where the electron being removed is paired and thus interelectronic repulsion makes it easier to remove than", "to remove than expected. In the transition series, the outer electrons are preferentially lost even though the inner orbitals are filling. For example, in the 3d series, the 4s electrons are lost first even though the 3d orbitals are being filled. The shielding effect of adding an extra 3d electron approximately compensates the rise in nuclear charge, and therefore the ionisation energies stay mostly constant, though there is a small increase especially at the end of each transition series. As metal atoms tend to lose electrons in chemical reactions, ionisation energy is generally correlated with chemical reactivity, although there are other factors involved as well. Electron affinity The opposite property to ionisation energy is theelectron affinity, which is the energy released when adding an electron to the atom.A passing electron will be more readily attracted to an atom if it feels the pull of the nucleus more strongly, and especially if there is an available partially filled outer orbital that can", "orbital that can accommodate it. Therefore, electron affinity tends to increase down to up and left to right. The exception is the last column, the noble gases, which have a full shell and have no room for another electron. This gives thehalogensin the next-to-last column the highest electron affinities. Some atoms, like the noble gases, have no electron affinity: they cannot form stable gas-phase anions.(They can form metastableresonancesif the incoming electron arrives with enough kinetic energy, but these inevitably and rapidlyautodetach: for example, the lifetime of the most long-lived He−level is about 359 microseconds.)The noble gases, having high ionisation energies and no electron affinity, have little inclination towards gaining or losing electrons and are generally unreactive. Some exceptions to the trends occur: oxygen and fluorine have lower electron affinities than their heavier homologues sulfur and chlorine, because they are small atoms and hence the newly added electron would experience", "would experience significant repulsion from the already present ones. For the nonmetallic elements, electron affinity likewise somewhat correlates with reactivity, but not perfectly since other factors are involved. For example, fluorine has a lower electron affinity than chlorine (because of extreme interelectronic repulsion for the very small fluorine atom), but is more reactive. Valence and oxidation states Thevalenceof an element can be defined either as the number of hydrogen atoms that can combine with it to form a simple binary hydride, or as twice the number of oxygen atoms that can combine with it to form a simple binary oxide (that is, not aperoxideor asuperoxide).The valences of the main-group elements are directly related to the group number: the hydrides in the main groups 1–2 and 13–17 follow the formulae MH, MH2, MH3, MH4, MH3, MH2, and finally MH. The highest oxides instead increase in valence, following the formulae M2O, MO, M2O3, MO2, M2O5, MO3, M2O7.Today the notion of valence has been", "of valence has been extended by that of theoxidation state, which is the formal charge left on an element when all other elements in a compound have been removed as their ions. The electron configuration suggests a ready explanation from the number of electrons available for bonding;indeed, the number of valence electrons starts at 1 in group 1, and then increases towards the right side of the periodic table, only resetting at 3 whenever each new block starts. Thus in period 6, Cs–Ba have 1–2 valence electrons; La–Yb have 3–16; Lu–Hg have 3–12; and Tl–Rn have 3–8.However, towards the right side of the d- and f-blocks, the theoretical maximum corresponding to using all valence electrons is not achievable at all;the same situation affects oxygen, fluorine, and the light noble gases up to krypton. A full explanation requires considering the energy that would be released in forming compounds with different valences rather than simply considering electron configurations alone.For example, magnesium forms", "magnesium forms Mg2+rather than Mg+cations when dissolved in water, because the latter would spontaneouslydisproportionateinto Mg0and Mg2+cations. This is because theenthalpyof hydration (surrounding the cation with water molecules) increases in magnitude with the charge and radius of the ion. In Mg+, the outermost orbital (which determines ionic radius) is still 3s, so the hydration enthalpy is small and insufficient to compensate the energy required to remove the electron; but ionizing again to Mg2+uncovers the core 2p subshell, making the hydration enthalpy large enough to allow magnesium(II) compounds to form. For similar reasons, the common oxidation states of the heavier p-block elements (where the ns electrons become lower in energy than the np) tend to vary by steps of 2, because that is necessary to uncover an inner subshell and decrease the ionic radius (e.g. Tl+uncovers 6s, and Tl3+uncovers 5d, so once thallium loses two electrons it tends to lose the third one as well). Analogous arguments based", "arguments based onorbital hybridizationcan be used for the less electronegative p-block elements. For transition metals, common oxidation states are nearly always at least +2 for similar reasons (uncovering the next subshell); this holds even for the metals with anomalous dx+1s1or dx+2s0configurations (except forsilver), because repulsion between d-electrons means that the movement of the second electron from the s- to the d-subshell does not appreciably change its ionisation energy.Because ionizing the transition metals further does not uncover any new inner subshells, their oxidation states tend to vary by steps of 1 instead.The lanthanides and late actinides generally show a stable +3 oxidation state, removing the outer s-electrons and then (usually) one electron from the (n−2)f-orbitals, that are similar in energy to ns.The common and maximum oxidation states of the d- and f-block elements tend to depend on the ionisation energies. As the energy difference between the (n−1)d and ns orbitals rises along", "rises along each transition series, it becomes less energetically favourable to ionize further electrons. Thus, the early transition metal groups tend to prefer higher oxidation states, but the +2 oxidation state becomes more stable for the late transition metal groups. The highest formal oxidation state thus increases from +3 at the beginning of each d-block row, to +7 or +8 in the middle (e.g.OsO4), and then decrease to +2 at the end.The lanthanides and late actinides usually have high fourth ionisation energies and hence rarely surpass the +3 oxidation state, whereas early actinides have low fourth ionisation energies and so for example neptunium and plutonium can reach +7.The very last actinides go further than the lanthanides towards low oxidation states: mendelevium is more easily reduced to the +2 state than thulium or even europium (the lanthanide with the most stable +2 state, on account of its half-filled f-shell), and nobelium outright favours +2 over +3, in contrast to ytterbium. As elements in", "As elements in the same group share the same valence configurations, they usually exhibit similar chemical behaviour. For example, thealkali metalsin the first group all have one valence electron, and form a very homogeneous class of elements: they are all soft and reactive metals. However, there are many factors involved, and groups can often be rather heterogeneous. For instance, hydrogen also has one valence electron and is in the same group as the alkali metals, but its chemical behaviour is quite different. The stable elements ofgroup 14comprise a nonmetal (carbon), two semiconductors (siliconandgermanium), and two metals (tinandlead); they are nonetheless united by having four valence electrons.This often leads to similarities in maximum and minimum oxidation states (e.g.sulfurandseleniumingroup 16both have maximum oxidation state +6, as inSO3andSeO3, and minimum oxidation state −2, as insulfidesandselenides); but not always (e.g.oxygenis not known to form oxidation state +6, despite being in the same", "being in the same group as sulfur and selenium). Electronegativity Another important property of elements is theirelectronegativity. Atoms can formcovalent bondsto each other by sharing electrons in pairs, creating an overlap of valence orbitals. The degree to which each atom attracts the shared electron pair depends on the atom's electronegativity– the tendency of an atom towards gaining or losing electrons.The more electronegative atom will tend to attract the electron pair more, and the less electronegative (or more electropositive) one will attract it less. In extreme cases, the electron can be thought of as having been passed completely from the more electropositive atom to the more electronegative one, though this is a simplification. The bond then binds two ions, one positive (having given up the electron) and one negative (having accepted it), and is termed anionic bond. Electronegativity depends on how strongly the nucleus can attract an electron pair, and so it exhibits a similar variation to the", "variation to the other properties already discussed: electronegativity tends to fall going up to down, and rise going left to right. The alkali and alkaline earth metals are among the most electropositive elements, while the chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases are among the most electronegative ones. Electronegativity is generally measured on the Pauling scale, on which the most electronegative reactive atom (fluorine) is given electronegativity 4.0, and the least electronegative atom (caesium) is given electronegativity 0.79.In factneonis the most electronegative element, but the Pauling scale cannot measure its electronegativity because it does not form covalent bonds with most elements. An element's electronegativity varies with the identity and number of the atoms it is bonded to, as well as how many electrons it has already lost: an atom becomes more electronegative when it has lost more electrons.This sometimes makes a large difference: lead in the +2 oxidation state has electronegativity 1.87 on the", "1.87 on the Pauling scale, while lead in the +4 oxidation state has electronegativity 2.33. Metallicity A simple substance is a substance formed from atoms of one chemical element. The simple substances of the more electronegative atoms tend to share electrons (form covalent bonds) with each other. They form either small molecules (like hydrogen or oxygen, whose atoms bond in pairs) or giant structures stretching indefinitely (like carbon or silicon). The noble gases simply stay as single atoms, as they already have a full shell.Substances composed of discrete molecules or single atoms are held together by weaker attractive forces between the molecules, such as theLondon dispersion force: as electrons move within the molecules, they create momentary imbalances of electrical charge, which induce similar imbalances on nearby molecules and create synchronized movements of electrons across many neighbouring molecules. The more electropositive atoms, however, tend to instead lose electrons, creating a \"sea\" of", "creating a \"sea\" of electrons engulfing cations.The outer orbitals of one atom overlap to share electrons with all its neighbours, creating a giant structure of molecular orbitals extending over all the atoms.This negatively charged \"sea\" pulls on all the ions and keeps them together in ametallic bond. Elements forming such bonds are often calledmetals; those which do not are often callednonmetals.Some elements can form multiple simple substances with different structures: these are calledallotropes. For example,diamondandgraphiteare two allotropes of carbon. The metallicity of an element can be predicted from electronic properties. When atomic orbitals overlap during metallic or covalent bonding, they create both bonding and antibondingmolecular orbitalsof equal capacity, with the antibonding orbitals of higher energy. Net bonding character occurs when there are more electrons in the bonding orbitals than there are in the antibonding orbitals. Metallic bonding is thus possible when the number of electrons", "number of electrons delocalized by each atom is less than twice the number of orbitals contributing to the overlap. This is the situation for elements in groups 1 through 13; they also have too few valence electrons to form giant covalent structures where all atoms take equivalent positions, and so almost all of them metallise. The exceptions are hydrogen and boron, which have too high an ionisation energy. Hydrogen thus forms a covalent H2molecule, and boron forms a giant covalent structure based on icosahedral B12clusters. In a metal, the bonding and antibonding orbitals have overlapping energies, creating a single band that electrons can freely flow through, allowing for electrical conduction. In group 14, both metallic and covalent bonding become possible. In a diamond crystal, covalent bonds between carbon atoms are strong, because they have a small atomic radius and thus the nucleus has more of a hold on the electrons. Therefore, the bonding orbitals that result are much lower in energy than the", "in energy than the antibonding orbitals, and there is no overlap, so electrical conduction becomes impossible: carbon is a nonmetal. However, covalent bonding becomes weaker for larger atoms and the energy gap between the bonding and antibonding orbitals decreases. Therefore, silicon and germanium have smallerband gapsand aresemiconductorsat ambient conditions: electrons can cross the gap when thermally excited. (Boron is also a semiconductor at ambient conditions.) The band gap disappears in tin, so that tin and lead become metals.As the temperature rises, all nonmetals develop some semiconducting properties, to a greater or lesser extent depending on the size of the band gap. Thus metals and nonmetals may be distinguished by the temperature dependence of their electrical conductivity: a metal's conductivity lowers as temperature rises (because thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to flow freely), whereas a nonmetal's conductivity rises (as more electrons may be excited to cross the", "to cross the gap). Elements in groups 15 through 17 have too many electrons to form giant covalent molecules that stretch in all three dimensions. For the lighter elements, the bonds in small diatomic molecules are so strong that a condensed phase is disfavoured: thus nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), white phosphorus and yellow arsenic (P4and As4), sulfur and red selenium (S8and Se8), and the stable halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2) readily form covalent molecules with few atoms. The heavier ones tend to form long chains (e.g. red phosphorus, grey selenium, tellurium) or layered structures (e.g. carbon as graphite, black phosphorus, grey arsenic, antimony, bismuth) that only extend in one or two rather than three dimensions. Both kinds of structures can be found as allotropes of phosphorus, arsenic, and selenium, although the long-chained allotropes are more stable in all three. As these structures do not use all their orbitals for bonding, they end up with bonding, nonbonding, and antibonding bands in order of", "bands in order of increasing energy. Similarly to group 14, the band gaps shrink for the heavier elements and free movement of electrons between the chains or layers becomes possible. Thus for example black phosphorus, black arsenic, grey selenium, tellurium, and iodine are semiconductors; grey arsenic, antimony, and bismuth aresemimetals(exhibiting quasi-metallic conduction, with a very small band overlap); and polonium and probably astatine are true metals.Finally, the natural group 18 elements all stay as individual atoms. The dividing line between metals and nonmetals is roughly diagonal from top left to bottom right, with the transition series appearing to the left of this diagonal (as they have many available orbitals for overlap). This is expected, as metallicity tends to be correlated with electropositivity and the willingness to lose electrons, which increases right to left and up to down. Thus the metals greatly outnumber the nonmetals. Elements near the borderline are difficult to classify: they", "to classify: they tend to have properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals, and may have some properties characteristic of both. They are often termed semimetals ormetalloids.The term \"semimetal\" used in this sense should not be confused with its strict physical sense having to do with band structure: bismuth is physically a semimetal, but is generally considered a metal by chemists. The following table considers the most stable allotropes at standard conditions. The elements coloured yellow form simple substances that are well-characterised by metallic bonding. Elements coloured light blue form giant network covalent structures, whereas those coloured dark blue form small covalently bonded molecules that are held together by weakervan der Waals forces. The noble gases are coloured in violet: their molecules are single atoms and no covalent bonding occurs. Greyed-out cells are for elements which have not been prepared in sufficient quantities for their most stable allotropes to", "allotropes to have been characterized in this way. Theoretical considerations and current experimental evidence suggest that all of those elements would metallise if they could form condensed phases,except perhaps for oganesson. MetallicNetwork covalentMolecularcovalentSingle atomsUnknownBackground colorshows bonding of simple substances in theperiodic table. If there are several, the most stable allotrope is considered. Generally, metals are shiny and dense.They usually have high melting and boiling points due to the strength of the metallic bond, and are often malleable and ductile (easily stretched and shaped) because the atoms can move relative to each other without breaking the metallic bond.They conduct electricity because their electrons are free to move in all three dimensions. Similarly, they conduct heat, which is transferred by the electrons as extrakinetic energy: they move faster. These properties persist in the liquid state, as although the crystal structure is destroyed on melting, the atoms", "melting, the atoms still touch and the metallic bond persists, though it is weakened.Metals tend to be reactive towards nonmetals.Some exceptions can be found to these generalizations: for example, beryllium, chromium,manganese,antimony,bismuth,and uranium are brittle (not an exhaustive list);chromium is extremely hard;gallium, rubidium, caesium, and mercury are liquid at or close to room temperature;andnoble metalssuch as gold are chemically very inert. Nonmetals exhibit different properties. Those forming giant covalent crystals exhibit high melting and boiling points, as it takes considerable energy to overcome the strong covalent bonds. Those forming discrete molecules are held together mostly by dispersion forces, which are more easily overcome; thus they tend to have lower melting and boiling points,and many are liquids or gases at room temperature.Nonmetals are often dull-looking. They tend to be reactive towards metals, except for the noble gases, which are inert towards most substances.They are", "substances.They are brittle when solid as their atoms are held tightly in place. They are less dense and conduct electricity poorly,because there are no mobile electrons.Near the borderline, band gaps are small and thus many elements in that region are semiconductors, such as silicon, germanium,and tellurium.Selenium has both a semiconducting grey allotrope and an insulating red allotrope; arsenic has a metallic grey allotrope, a semiconducting black allotrope, and an insulating yellow allotrope (though the last is unstable at ambient conditions).Again there are exceptions; for example, diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known materials, greater than any metal. It is common to designate a class of metalloids straddling the boundary between metals and nonmetals, as elements in that region are intermediate in both physical and chemical properties.However, no consensus exists in the literature for precisely which elements should be so designated. When such a category is used, silicon,", "is used, silicon, germanium, arsenic, and tellurium are almost always included, and boron and antimony usually are; but most sources include other elements as well, without agreement on which extra elements should be added, and some others subtract from this list instead.For example, unlike all the other elements generally considered metalloids or nonmetals, antimony's only stable form has metallic conductivity. Moreover, the element resembles bismuth and, more generally, the other p-block metals in its physical and chemical behaviour. On this basis some authors have argued that it is better classified as a metal than as a metalloid.On the other hand, selenium has some semiconducting properties in its most stable form (though it also has insulating allotropes) and it has been argued that it should be considered a metalloid– though this situation also holds for phosphorus,which is a much rarer inclusion among the metalloids. Further manifestations of periodicity There are some other relationships throughout", "throughout the periodic table between elements that are not in the same group, such as thediagonal relationshipsbetween elements that are diagonally adjacent (e.g. lithium and magnesium).Some similarities can also be found between the main groups and the transition metal groups, or between the early actinides and early transition metals, when the elements have the same number of valence electrons. Thus uranium somewhat resembles chromium and tungsten in group 6,as all three have six valence electrons.Relationships between elements with the same number of valence electrons but different types of valence orbital have been called secondary or isodonor relationships: they usually have the same maximum oxidation states, but not the same minimum oxidation states. For example, chlorine and manganese both have +7 as their maximum oxidation state (e.g.Cl2O7andMn2O7), but their respective minimum oxidation states are −1 (e.g.HCl) and −3 (K2). Elements with the same number of valence vacancies but different numbers of", "numbers of valence electrons are related by a tertiary or isoacceptor relationship: they usually have similar minimum but not maximum oxidation states. For example, hydrogen and chlorine both have −1 as their minimum oxidation state (inhydridesandchlorides), but hydrogen's maximum oxidation state is +1 (e.g.H2O) while chlorine's is +7. Many other physical properties of the elements exhibit periodic variation in accordance with the periodic law, such asmelting points,boiling points,heats of fusion,heats of vaporization,atomisation energy, and so on. Similar periodic variations appear for the compounds of the elements, which can be observed by comparing hydrides, oxides, sulfides, halides, and so on.Chemical properties are more difficult to describe quantitatively, but likewise exhibit their own periodicities. Examples include the variation in theacidicandbasicproperties of the elements and their compounds, the stabilities of compounds, and methods of isolating the elements.Periodicity is and has been used", "and has been used very widely to predict the properties of unknown new elements and new compounds, and is central to modern chemistry. Classification of elements Many terms have been used in the literature to describe sets of elements that behave similarly. The group namesalkali metal,alkaline earth metal,triel,tetrel,pnictogen,chalcogen,halogen, andnoble gasare acknowledged by IUPAC; the other groups can be referred to by their number, or by their first element (e.g., group 6 is the chromium group).Some divide the p-block elements from groups 13 to 16 by metallicity,although there is neither an IUPAC definition nor a precise consensus on exactly which elements should be considered metals, nonmetals, or semi-metals (sometimes called metalloids).Neither is there a consensus on what the metals succeeding the transition metals ought to be called, withpost-transition metalandpoor metalbeing among the possibilities having been used. Some advanced monographs exclude the elements of group 12 from the transition", "from the transition metals on the grounds of their sometimes quite different chemical properties, but this is not a universal practiceand IUPAC does not presently mention it as allowable in itsPrinciples of Chemical Nomenclature. Thelanthanidesare considered to be the elements La–Lu, which are all very similar to each other: historically they included only Ce–Lu, but lanthanum became included by common usage.Therare earth elements(or rare earth metals) add scandium and yttrium to the lanthanides.Analogously, theactinidesare considered to be the elements Ac–Lr (historically Th–Lr),although variation of properties in this set is much greater than within the lanthanides.IUPAC recommends the nameslanthanoidsandactinoidsto avoid ambiguity, as the -ide suffix typically denotes a negative ion; howeverlanthanidesandactinidesremain common.With the increasing recognition of lutetium and lawrencium as d-block elements, some authors began to define the lanthanides as La–Yb and the actinides as Ac–No, matching the", "Ac–No, matching the f-block.Thetransactinidesorsuperheavy elementsare the short-lived elements beyond the actinides, starting at lawrencium or rutherfordium (depending on where the actinides are taken to end). Many more categorizations exist and are used according to certain disciplines. In astrophysics, a metal is defined as any element with atomic number greater than 2, i.e. anything except hydrogen and helium.The term \"semimetal\" has a different definition in physics than it does in chemistry: bismuth is a semimetal by physical definitions, but chemists generally consider it a metal.A few terms are widely used, but without any very formal definition, such as \"heavy metal\", which has been given such a wide range of definitions that it has been criticized as \"effectively meaningless\". The scope of terms varies significantly between authors. For example, according to IUPAC, the noble gases extend to include the whole group, including the very radioactive superheavy element oganesson.However, among those who", "among those who specialize in the superheavy elements, this is not often done: in this case \"noble gas\" is typically taken to imply the unreactive behaviour of the lighter elements of the group. Since calculations generally predict that oganesson should not be particularly inert due to relativistic effects, and may not even be a gas at room temperature if it could be produced in bulk, its status as a noble gas is often questioned in this context.Furthermore, national variations are sometimes encountered: in Japan, alkaline earth metals often do not include beryllium and magnesium as their behaviour is different from the heavier group 2 metals. History Early history In 1817, German physicistJohann Wolfgang Döbereinerbegan to formulate one of the earliest attempts to classify the elements.In 1829, he found that he could form some of the elements into groups of three, with the members of each group having related properties. He termed these groupstriads.Chlorine, bromine, and iodine formed a triad; as did", "a triad; as did calcium, strontium, and barium; lithium, sodium, and potassium; and sulfur, selenium, and tellurium. Today, all these triads form part of modern-day groups: the halogens, alkaline earth metals, alkali metals, and chalcogens.Various chemists continued his work and were able to identify more and more relationships between small groups of elements. However, they could not build one scheme that encompassed them all. John Newlandspublished a letter in theChemical Newsin February 1863 on the periodicity among the chemical elements.In 1864 Newlands published an article in theChemical Newsshowing that if the elements are arranged in the order of their atomic weights, those having consecutive numbers frequently either belong to the same group or occupy similar positions in different groups, and he pointed out that each eighth element starting from a given one is in this arrangement a kind of repetition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music (The Law of Octaves).However, Newlands's", "Newlands's formulation only worked well for the main-group elements, and encountered serious problems with the others. German chemistLothar Meyernoted the sequences of similar chemical and physical properties repeated at periodic intervals. According to him, if the atomic weights were plotted as ordinates (i.e. vertically) and the atomic volumes as abscissas (i.e. horizontally)—the curve obtained a series of maximums and minimums—the mostelectropositiveelements would appear at the peaks of the curve in the order of their atomic weights. In 1864, a book of his was published; it contained an early version of the periodic table containing 28 elements, and classified elements into six families by theirvalence—for the first time, elements had been grouped according to their valence. Works on organizing the elements by atomic weight had until then been stymied by inaccurate measurements of the atomic weights.In 1868, he revised his table, but this revision was published as a draft only after his death. Mendeleev", "death. Mendeleev The definitive breakthrough came from the Russian chemistDmitri Mendeleev. Although other chemists (including Meyer) had found some other versions of the periodic system at about the same time, Mendeleev was the most dedicated to developing and defending his system, and it was his system that most affected the scientific community.On 17 February 1869 (1 March 1869 in the Gregorian calendar), Mendeleev began arranging the elements and comparing them by their atomic weights. He began with a few elements, and over the course of the day his system grew until it encompassed most of the known elements. After he found a consistent arrangement, his printed table appeared in May 1869 in the journal of the Russian Chemical Society.When elements did not appear to fit in the system, he boldly predicted that either valencies or atomic weights had been measured incorrectly, or that there was a missing element yet to be discovered.In 1871, Mendeleev published a long article, including an updated form of", "an updated form of his table, that made his predictions for unknown elements explicit. Mendeleev predicted the properties of three of these unknown elements in detail: as they would be missing heavier homologues of boron, aluminium, and silicon, he named them eka-boron, eka-aluminium, and eka-silicon (\"eka\" being Sanskrit for \"one\").: 45 In 1875, the French chemistPaul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, working without knowledge of Mendeleev's prediction, discovered a new element in a sample of the mineralsphalerite, and named it gallium. He isolated the element and began determining its properties. Mendeleev, reading de Boisbaudran's publication, sent a letter claiming that gallium was his predicted eka-aluminium. Although Lecoq de Boisbaudran was initially sceptical, and suspected that Mendeleev was trying to take credit for his discovery, he later admitted that Mendeleev was correct.In 1879, the Swedish chemistLars Fredrik Nilsondiscovered a new element, which he named scandium: it turned out to be eka-boron.", "to be eka-boron. Eka-silicon was found in 1886 by German chemistClemens Winkler, who named it germanium. The properties of gallium, scandium, and germanium matched what Mendeleev had predicted.In 1889, Mendeleev noted at the Faraday Lecture to the Royal Institution in London that he had not expected to live long enough \"to mention their discovery to the Chemical Society of Great Britain as a confirmation of the exactitude and generality of the periodic law\".Even the discovery of the noble gases at the close of the 19th century, which Mendeleev had not predicted, fitted neatly into his scheme as an eighth main group. Mendeleev nevertheless had some trouble fitting the known lanthanides into his scheme, as they did not exhibit the periodic change in valencies that the other elements did. After much investigation, the Czech chemistBohuslav Braunersuggested in 1902 that the lanthanides could all be placed together in one group on the periodic table. He named this the \"asteroid hypothesis\" as an astronomical", "as an astronomical analogy: just as there is anasteroid beltinstead of a single planet between Mars and Jupiter, so the place below yttrium was thought to be occupied by all the lanthanides instead of just one element. Atomic number After the internal structure of the atom was probed, amateur Dutch physicistAntonius van den Broekproposed in 1913 that the nuclear charge determined the placement of elements in the periodic table.The New Zealand physicistErnest Rutherfordcoined the word \"atomic number\" for this nuclear charge.In van den Broek's published article he illustrated the first electronic periodic table showing the elements arranged according to the number of their electrons.Rutherford confirmed in his 1914 paper that Bohr had accepted the view of van den Broek. The same year, English physicistHenry MoseleyusingX-ray spectroscopyconfirmed van den Broek's proposal experimentally. Moseley determined the value of the nuclear charge of each element fromaluminiumtogoldand showed that Mendeleev's ordering", "ordering actually places the elements in sequential order by nuclear charge.Nuclear charge is identical toprotoncount and determines the value of theatomic number(Z) of each element. Using atomic number gives a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements. Moseley's research immediately resolved discrepancies between atomic weight and chemical properties; these were cases such as tellurium and iodine, where atomic number increases but atomic weight decreases.Although Moseley was soon killed in World War I, the Swedish physicistManne Siegbahncontinued his work up touranium, and established that it was the element with the highest atomic number then known (92).Based on Moseley and Siegbahn's research, it was also known which atomic numbers corresponded to missing elements yet to be found: 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, and 87.(Element 75 had in fact already been found by Japanese chemistMasataka Ogawain 1908 and namednipponium, but he mistakenly assigned it as element 43 instead of 75 and so his discovery was not", "discovery was not generally recognized until later. The contemporarily accepted discovery of element 75 came in 1925, whenWalter Noddack,Ida Tacke, andOtto Bergindependently rediscovered it and gave it its present name,rhenium.) The dawn of atomic physics also clarified the situation ofisotopes. In thedecay chainsof the primordial radioactive elements thorium and uranium, it soon became evident that there were many apparent new elements that had different atomic weights but exactly the same chemical properties. In 1913,Frederick Soddycoined the term \"isotope\" to describe this situation, and considered isotopes to merely be different forms of the same chemical element. This furthermore clarified discrepancies such as tellurium and iodine: tellurium's natural isotopic composition is weighted towards heavier isotopes than iodine's, but tellurium has a lower atomic number. Electron shells The Danish physicistNiels BohrappliedMax Planck's idea of quantization to the atom. He concluded that the energy levels of", "energy levels of electrons were quantised: only a discrete set of stable energy states were allowed. Bohr then attempted to understand periodicity through electron configurations, surmising in 1913 that the inner electrons should be responsible for the chemical properties of the element.In 1913, he produced the first electronic periodic table based on a quantum atom. Bohr called his electron shells \"rings\" in 1913: atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing, \"We see, further, that a ring ofnelectrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of charge ne unlessn< 8.\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \"rings of electrons will only join if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8.\" However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight", "would contain eight electrons: \"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neonN= 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur.\" His proposed electron configurations for the atoms (shown to the right) mostly do not accord with those now known.They were improved further after the work ofArnold SommerfeldandEdmund Stonerdiscovered more quantum numbers. The first one to systematically expand and correct the chemical potentials of Bohr's atomic theory wasWalther Kosselin 1914 and in 1916. Kossel explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of", "the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\" In a 1919 paper,Irving Langmuirpostulated the existence of \"cells\" which we now call orbitals, which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \"equidistant layers\" which we now call shells. He made an exception for the first shell to only contain two electrons.The chemistCharles Rugeley Burysuggested in 1921 that eight and eighteen electrons in a shell form stable configurations. Bury proposed that the electron configurations in transitional elements depended upon the valence electrons in their outer shell.He introduced the wordtransitionto describe the elements now known astransition metalsor transition elements.Bohr's theory was vindicated by the discovery of element 72:Georges Urbainclaimed to have discovered it as therare earth elementceltium, but Bury", "but Bury and Bohr had predicted that element 72 could not be a rare earth element and had to be a homologue ofzirconium.Dirk CosterandGeorg von Hevesysearched for the element in zirconium ores and found element 72, which they namedhafniumafter Bohr's hometown ofCopenhagen(Hafniain Latin).Urbain's celtium proved to be simply purifiedlutetium(element 71).Hafnium and rhenium thus became the last stable elements to be discovered. Prompted by Bohr,Wolfgang Paulitook up the problem of electron configurations in 1923. Pauli extended Bohr's scheme to use fourquantum numbers, and formulated hisexclusion principlewhich stated that no two electrons could have the same four quantum numbers. This explained the lengths of the periods in the periodic table (2, 8, 18, and 32), which corresponded to the number of electrons that each shell could occupy.In 1925,Friedrich Hundarrived at configurations close to the modern ones.As a result of these advances, periodicity became based on the number of chemically active or valence", "active or valence electrons rather than by the valences of the elements.TheAufbau principlethat describes the electron configurations of the elements was first empirically observed byErwin Madelungin 1926,though the first to publish it wasVladimir Karapetoffin 1930.In 1961,Vsevolod Klechkovskyderived the first part of the Madelung rule (that orbitals fill in order of increasingn+ ℓ) from theThomas–Fermi model;the complete rule was derived from a similar potential in 1971 by Yury N. Demkov and Valentin N. Ostrovsky. The quantum theory clarified the transition metals and lanthanides as forming their own separate groups, transitional between the main groups, although some chemists had already proposed tables showing them this way before then: the English chemist Henry Bassett did so in 1892, the Danish chemistJulius Thomsenin 1895, and the Swiss chemistAlfred Wernerin 1905. Bohr used Thomsen's form in his 1922 Nobel Lecture; Werner's form is very similar to the modern 32-column form. In particular, this", "In particular, this supplanted Brauner's asteroidal hypothesis. The exact position of the lanthanides, and thus the composition ofgroup 3, remained under dispute for decades longer because their electron configurations were initially measured incorrectly.On chemical grounds Bassett, Werner, and Bury grouped scandium and yttrium with lutetium rather than lanthanum (the former two left an empty space below yttrium as lutetium had not yet been discovered).Hund assumed in 1927 that all the lanthanide atoms had configuration 4f0−145d16s2, on account of their prevailing trivalency. It is now known that the relationship between chemistry and electron configuration is more complicated than that.Early spectroscopic evidence seemed to confirm these configurations, and thus the periodic table was structured to have group 3 as scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium, with fourteen f-elements breaking up the d-block between lanthanum and hafnium.But it was later discovered that this is only true for four of the", "for four of the fifteen lanthanides (lanthanum, cerium, gadolinium, and lutetium), and that the other lanthanide atoms do not have a d-electron. In particular, ytterbium completes the 4f shell and thus Soviet physicists Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz noted in 1948 that lutetium is correctly regarded as a d-block rather than an f-block element;that bulk lanthanum is an f-metal was first suggested byJun Kondōin 1963, on the grounds of its low-temperaturesuperconductivity.This clarified the importance of looking at low-lying excited states of atoms that can play a role in chemical environments when classifying elements by block and positioning them on the table.Many authors subsequently rediscovered this correction based on physical, chemical, and electronic concerns and applied it to all the relevant elements, thus making group 3 contain scandium, yttrium, lutetium, and lawrenciumand having lanthanum through ytterbium and actinium through nobelium as the f-block rows:this corrected version achieves consistency", "consistency with the Madelung rule and vindicates Bassett, Werner, and Bury's initial chemical placement. In 1988, IUPAC released a report supporting this composition of group 3,a decision that was reaffirmed in 2021.Variation can still be found in textbooks on the composition of group 3,and some argumentation against this format is still published today,but chemists and physicists who have considered the matter largely agree on group 3 containing scandium, yttrium, lutetium, and lawrencium and challenge the counterarguments as being inconsistent. Synthetic elements By 1936, the pool of missing elements from hydrogen to uranium had shrunk to four: elements 43, 61, 85, and 87 remained missing. Element 43 eventually became the first element to be synthesized artificially via nuclear reactions rather than discovered in nature. It was discovered in 1937 by Italian chemistsEmilio SegrèandCarlo Perrier, who named their discoverytechnetium, after the Greek word for \"artificial\".Elements 61 (promethium) and 85", "(promethium) and 85 (astatine) were likewise produced artificially in 1945 and 1940 respectively; element 87 (francium) became the last element to be discovered in nature, by French chemistMarguerite Pereyin 1939.The elements beyond uranium were likewise discovered artificially, starting withEdwin McMillanandPhilip Abelson's 1940 discovery ofneptunium(via bombardment of uranium with neutrons).Glenn T. Seaborgand his team at theLawrence Berkeley National Laboratory(LBNL) continued discovering transuranium elements, starting withplutoniumin 1941, and discovered that contrary to previous thinking, the elements from actinium onwards were congeners of the lanthanides rather than transition metals.Bassett (1892), Werner (1905), and the French engineerCharles Janet(1928) had previously suggested this, but their ideas did not then receive general acceptance.Seaborg thus called them the actinides.Elements up to 101 (named mendelevium in honour of Mendeleev) were synthesized up to 1955, either through neutron or", "through neutron or alpha-particle irradiation, or in nuclear explosions in the cases of 99 (einsteinium) and 100 (fermium). A significant controversy arose with elements 102 through 106 in the 1960s and 1970s, as competition arose between the LBNL team (now led byAlbert Ghiorso) and a team of Soviet scientists at theJoint Institute for Nuclear Research(JINR) led byGeorgy Flyorov. Each team claimed discovery, and in some cases each proposed their own name for the element, creating anelement naming controversythat lasted decades. These elements were made by bombardment of actinides with light ions.IUPAC at first adopted a hands-off approach, preferring to wait and see if a consensus would be forthcoming. But as it was also the height of theCold War, it became clear that this would not happen. As such, IUPAC and theInternational Union of Pure and Applied Physics(IUPAP) created aTransfermium Working Group(TWG, fermium being element 100) in 1985 to set out criteria for discovery,which were published in 1991.After", "in 1991.After some further controversy, these elements received their final names in 1997, including seaborgium (106) in honour of Seaborg. The TWG's criteria were used to arbitrate later element discovery claims from LBNL and JINR, as well as from research institutes in Germany (GSI) and Japan (Riken).Currently, consideration of discovery claims is performed by aIUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party. After priority was assigned, the elements were officially added to the periodic table, and the discoverers were invited to propose their names.By 2016, this had occurred for all elements up to 118, therefore completing the periodic table's first seven rows.The discoveries of elements beyond 106 were made possible by techniques devised byYuri Oganessianat the JINR: cold fusion (bombardment of lead and bismuth by heavy ions) made possible the 1981–2004 discoveries of elements 107 through 112 at GSI and 113 at Riken, and he led the JINR team (in collaboration with American scientists) to discover elements 114 through", "114 through 118 using hot fusion (bombardment of actinides by calcium ions) in 1998–2010.The heaviest known element, oganesson (118), is named in Oganessian's honour. Element 114 is named flerovium in honour of his predecessor and mentor Flyorov. In celebration of the periodic table's 150th anniversary, theUnited Nationsdeclared the year 2019 as the International Year of the Periodic Table, celebrating \"one of the most significant achievements in science\".The discovery criteria set down by the TWG were updated in 2020 in response to experimental and theoretical progress that had not been foreseen in 1991.Today, the periodic table is among the most recognisable icons of chemistry.IUPAC is involved today with many processes relating to the periodic table: the recognition and naming of new elements, recommending group numbers and collective names, and the updating of atomic weights. Future extension beyond the seventh period The most recently named elements – nihonium (113), moscovium (115), tennessine (117),", "tennessine (117), and oganesson (118) – completed the seventh row of the periodic table.Future elements would have to begin aneighth row. These elements may be referred to either by their atomic numbers (e.g. \"element 164\"), or by the IUPACsystematic element namesadopted in 1978, which directly relate to the atomic numbers (e.g. \"unhexquadium\" for element 164, derived from Latinunus\"one\", Greekhexa\"six\", Latinquadra\"four\", and the traditional-iumsuffix for metallic elements).All attempts to synthesize such elements have failed so far. An attempt to make element 119 has been ongoing since 2018 at the Riken research institute in Japan. The LBNL in the United States, the JINR in Russia, and the Heavy Ion Research Facility inLanzhou(HIRFL) in China also plan to make their own attempts at synthesizing the first few period 8 elements. If the eighth period followed the pattern set by the earlier periods, then it would contain fifty elements, filling the 8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, and finally 8p subshells in that order. But by", "that order. But by this point, relativistic effects should result in significant deviations from the Madelung rule. Various different models have been suggested for the configurations of eighth-period elements, as well as how to show the results in a periodic table. All agree that the eighth period should begin like the previous ones with two 8s elements, 119 and120. However, after that the massive energetic overlaps between the 5g, 6f, 7d, and 8p subshells means that they all begin to fill together, and it is not clear how to separate out specific 5g and 6f series.Elements121through 156 thus do not fit well as chemical analogues of any previous group in the earlier parts of the table,although they have sometimes been placed as 5g, 6f, and other series to formally reflect their electron configurations.Eric Scerri has raised the question of whether an extended periodic table should take into account the failure of the Madelung rule in this region, or if such exceptions should be ignored.The shell structure", "shell structure may also be fairly formal at this point: already the electron distribution in an oganesson atom is expected to be rather uniform, with no discernible shell structure. The situation from elements 157 to 172 should return to normalcy and be more reminiscent of the earlier rows.The heavy p-shells are split by thespin–orbit interaction: one p-orbital (p1/2) is more stabilized, and the other two (p3/2) are destabilized. (Such shifts in the quantum numbers happen for all types of shells, but it makes the biggest difference to the order for the p-shells.) It is likely that by element 157, the filled 8s and 8p1/2shells with four electrons in total have sunk into the core. Beyond the core, the next orbitals are 7d and 9s at similar energies, followed by 9p1/2and 8p3/2at similar energies, and then a large gap.Thus, the 9s and 9p1/2orbitals in essence replace the 8s and 8p1/2ones, making elements 157–172 probably chemically analogous to groups 3–18: for example, element 164 would appear two places below", "two places below lead in group 14 under the usual pattern, but is calculated to be very analogous to palladium in group 10 instead.Thus, it takes fifty-four elements rather than fifty to reach the next noble element after 118.However, while these conclusions about elements 157 through 172's chemistry are generally agreed by models,there is disagreement on whether the periodic table should be drawn to reflect chemical analogies, or if it should reflect likely formal electron configurations, which should be quite different from earlier periods and are not agreed between sources. Discussion about the format of the eighth row thus continues. Beyond element 172, calculation is complicated by the 1s electron energy level becoming imaginary. Such a situation does have physical interpretation, and does not in itself pose an electronic limit to the periodic table, but the correct way to incorporate such states into multi-electron calculations is still an open problem. This would need to be solved to continue", "solved to continue calculating the periodic table's structure beyond this point. Nuclear stability will likely prove a decisive factor constraining the number of possible elements. It depends on the balance between the electric repulsion between protons and the strong force binding protons and neutrons together.Protons and neutrons are arranged inshells, just like electrons, and so a closed shell can significantly increase stability: the known superheavy nuclei exist because of such a shell closure, probably at around 114–126protons and 184 neutrons.They are probably close to a predictedisland of stability, where superheavy nuclides should be more long-lived than expected: predictions for the longest-lived nuclides on the island range from microseconds to millions of years.It should nonetheless be noted that these are essentially extrapolations into an unknown part of the chart of nuclides, and systematic model uncertainties need to be taken into account. As the closed shells are passed, the stabilizing", "the stabilizing effect should vanish:thus, superheavy nuclides with more than 184 neutrons are expected to have much shorter lifetimes, spontaneously fissioning within 10−15seconds. If this is so, then it would not make sense to consider them chemical elements: IUPAC defines an element to exist only if the nucleus lives longer than 10−14seconds, the time needed for it to gather an electron cloud. Nonetheless, theoretical estimates of half-lives are very model-dependent, ranging over many orders of magnitude.The extreme repulsion between protons is predicted to result in exotic nuclear topologies, with bubbles, rings, and tori expected: this further complicates extrapolation.It is not clear if any further-out shell closures exist, due to an expected smearing out of distinct nuclear shells (as is already expected for the electron shells at oganesson).Furthermore, even if later shell closures exist, it is not clear if they would allow such heavy elements to exist.As such, it may be that the periodic table", "the periodic table practically ends around element 120, as elements become too short-lived to observe, and then too short-lived to have chemistry; the era of discovering new elements would thus be close to its end.If another proton shell closure beyond 126 does exist, then it probably occurs around 164;thus the region where periodicity fails more or less matches the region of instability between the shell closures. Alternatively,quark mattermay become stable at high mass numbers, in which the nucleus is composed of freely flowingupanddown quarksinstead of binding them into protons and neutrons; this would create acontinent of stabilityinstead of an island.Other effects may come into play: for example, in very heavy elements the 1s electrons are likely to spend a significant amount of time so close to the nucleus that they are actually inside it, which would make them vulnerable toelectron capture. Even if eighth-row elements can exist, producing them is likely to be difficult, and it should become even more", "become even more difficult as atomic number rises.Although the 8s elements 119 and 120 are expected to be reachable with present means, the elements beyond that are expected to require new technology,if they can be produced at all.Experimentally characterizing these elements chemically would also pose a great challenge. Alternative periodic tables The periodic law may be represented in multiple ways, of which the standard periodic table is only one.Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev's table in 1869,Edward G. Mazurshad collected an estimated 700 different published versions of the periodic table.Many forms retain the rectangular structure, includingCharles Janet's left-step periodic table (pictured below), and the modernised form of Mendeleev's original 8-column layout that is still common in Russia. Other periodic table formats have been shaped much more exotically, such as spirals (Otto Theodor Benfey's pictured to the right), circles and triangles. Alternative periodic tables are often", "tables are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent in traditional periodic tables, with different ones skewed more towards emphasizing chemistry or physics at either end.The standard form, which remains by far the most common, is somewhere in the middle. The many different forms of the periodic table have prompted the questions of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of the periodic table, and if so, what it might be. There are no current consensus answers to either question.Janet's left-step table is being increasingly discussed as a candidate for being the optimal or most fundamental form; Scerri has written in support of it, as it clarifies helium's nature as an s-block element, increases regularity by having all period lengths repeated, faithfully follows Madelung's rule by making each period correspond to one value ofn+ℓ,and regularises atomic number triads and the first-row anomaly trend. While he notes that its", "he notes that its placement of helium atop the alkaline earth metals can be seen a disadvantage from a chemical perspective, he counters this by appealing to the first-row anomaly, pointing out that the periodic table \"fundamentally reduces to quantum mechanics\", and that it is concerned with \"abstract elements\" and hence atomic properties rather than macroscopic properties. See also Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links" ]
Which leap year happened exactly halfway between the birth of Shoghi Effendi and the founding of the college he attended?
1580
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoghi_Effendi
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1580
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoghi_Effendi', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1580']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoghi_Effendi", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1580" ]
[ "Shoghi Effendi Shoghí Effendi(/ˈʃoʊɡiːɛˈfɛndi/;Persian:شوقی افندی; 1 March 1897– 4 November 1957) was anOttoman-born Iranian religious figure and theGuardian of the Baháʼí Faithfrom 1921 to 1957.As the grandson and successor ofʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was responsible for creatinga series of teaching plansthat oversaw the expansion of theBaháʼí Faithto a number of new countries, and also translated many of thewritten works of crucial Baháʼí leaders.Upon his death in 1957, theHands of the Cause, which included his Canadian wifeRúhíyyih Khánum, took on the role of overseeing the transfer of the religion's supreme legal authority to theUniversal House of Justice, which has held elections every five years since 1963. Effendi, anAfnán, was bornShoghí RabbáníinʻAkká(Acre) where he spent his early life,but later went on to study inHaifaandBeirut, gaining an arts degree from theSyrian Protestant Collegein 1918 and then serving as ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's secretary and translator.In 1920, he attendedBalliol College, Oxford, where he studied political science and economics, but his second year was interrupted by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death, which led to his appointment as the Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith at the age of 24. For 36 years, Effendi spearheaded the effort to grow and protect the religion globally. He sent out more than 17,500 letters, mostly in Persian and English, directing and keeping up with the progress ofexisting Baháʼí communities, responding totheir persecution across the Middle East, coordinating teaching efforts, and building up theBaháʼí World Centrein and around Haifa.He appointed 32 living individuals (and 10 posthumously) as prestigious Hands of the Cause,and also presided over the community's enlargement from 1,034 localities in 1935 to 2,700 localities in 1953 and further to 14,437 localities in 1963.From the beginning to the end of his leadership, the total population of Baháʼís around the world grew from 100,000 to 400,000 people. Among the Baháʼí community, Effendi is commonly referred to as simply \"The Guardian\" in honour of his unique role as the only Guardian in thehistory of the Baháʼí Faith.His works are all published under his chosen titleEffendi, as opposed to his birth name Rabbání. He is buried atNew Southgate Cemeteryin the city ofLondon. Background Born in ʻAkká in theAcre Sanjakof theOttoman Empirein March 1897, Shoghi Effendi was related to theBábthrough his father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází, and toBaháʼu'lláhthrough his mother, Ḍíyáʼíyyih Khánum, the eldest daughter ofʻAbdu'l-Bahá. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, who provided much of his initial training, greatly influenced Shoghi Effendi from the early years of his life. Shoghi Effendi learned prayers from his grandfather, who encouraged him to chant. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also insisted that people address the child as \"Shoghi Effendi\", (\"Effendi\" signifies \"Sir\"), rather than simply as \"Shoghi\", as a mark of respect towards him. From his early years, Shoghi Effendi was introduced to the suffering which accompanied the Baháʼís in ʻAkká, including the attacks byMírzá Muhammad ʻAlíagainst ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. As a young boy, he was aware of the desire of SultanAbdul Hamid II(reigned 1876–1909) to banish ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to the deserts ofNorth Africa, where he was expected to perish. At one point, Shoghi Effendi was warned not to drink coffee in the homes of any of the Baháʼís in the fear that he would be poisoned. Tablet from ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Being ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's eldest grandson, the first son of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's eldest daughter Ḍíyáʼíyyih Khánum, Shoghi Effendi had a special relationship with his grandfather. Zia Baghdadi, a contemporary Baháʼí, relates that when Shoghi Effendi was only five years of age, he pestered his grandfather to write atabletfor him, which ʻAbdu'l-Bahá obliged: He is God! O My Shoghi, I have no time to talk, leave me alone! You said write, I have written. What else should be done? Now is not the time for you to read and write. It is the time for jumping about and chanting O My God! Therefore, memorize the prayers of the Blessed Beauty and chant them that I may hear them. Because there is no time for anything else. Shoghi Effendi then set out to memorize a number of prayers, and chanted them as loud as he could. This caused family members to ask ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to quieten him down, a request which he apparently refused. Education Shoghi Effendi received his early education at home with the other children in the household, then attended a FrenchChristian Brothersschool inHaifa, and later boarded at another Catholic school inBeirut.He was to accompany his grandfather on hisjourneys to the Westbut was unable to proceed after port authorities in Naples prevented Shoghi Effendi from continuing due ostensibly to health reasons. He later attended the Syrian Protestant College (later known as theAmerican University of Beirut) for his final years of high school and first years of university, where he earned an arts degree in 1918.He reports being very unhappy in school and often returned on vacations to Haifa to spend time with ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. During his studies, he dedicated himself to masteringEnglish—adding this language to thePersian,Turkish,ArabicandFrenchlanguages in which he was already fluent—so that he could translate the letters of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and serve as his secretary. Shoghi Effendi was protected fromWorld War Idue to the neutrality of the Syrian Protestant College. Though political tensions in 1917 meant the college was closed briefly, student life continued. In the summer of 1918 ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's life was in critical danger until the entry ofGeneral Allenby's troops to Haifa. With theArmisticelooming and having completed his studies Shoghi Effendi was ready to return to his grandfather, and in Autumn of 1918 he went back to Haifa to assist ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in his mounting correspondence, spending nearly two years of constant companionship with him.In a private letter to a friend from late 1918 Shoghi Effendi reflects on the untold sufferings of the War but anticipates that \"this is indeed the era of service\". After his time in Haifa he went toBalliol College, Oxford, inEngland, where he matriculated in \"EconomicsandSocial Sciences\", while still perfecting his translation skills.Shoghi Effendi was happy during his time in Balliol. Accounts from his contemporaries remember him as a cheerful and popular student. He was acquainted with futureBritish prime ministerAnthony Edenbut they were not close friends. His studies were interspersed with occasional trips around the United Kingdom to meet Baháʼí communities. Shoghi Effendi was particularly touched meeting the small group of Baháʼís fromManchester.During this period Shoghi Effendi began what would be a life-long affinity to aspects of British culture such as readingThe Timesevery day and his love forEnglish literature. Death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá While studying in England, on 29 November 1921, the news of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death reached Shoghi Effendi, which, according toWellesley Tudor Pole, the deliverer of the cable, left him \"in a state of collapse\". After spending a couple of days withJohn Esslemont,and after some passport difficulties, he sailed from England accompanied withSara Blomfieldand his sister Ruhangiz on 16 December and arrived in Haifa on 29 December. A few days later he openedʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament, which was addressed to Shoghi Effendi.In it, he was appointed as ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith. Private life Shoghi Effendi's personal life was largely subordinate to his work as Guardian of the religion.His lack of secretarial support with the mass of correspondence had left a pattern of hard work inHaifainterspersed with occasional summer breaks to Europe—in the early years often to theSwiss Alps. In 1929 and 1940 he also travelled throughAfricafrom south to north.In public, Shoghi Effendi was variously described as composed and highly informed in international affairs. In private, his contemporaries remembered him as warm, informal and humorous. Shoghi Effendi would sleep very little and usually ate only once a day. He was short in stature, with dark hair, an olive complexion and hazel eyes. He was noted as not resembling his grandfather ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (who was taller and had blue eyes) but his great-grandfather Baháʼu'lláh. Shoghi Effendi had a great love for theEnglish language.He was an avid fan ofEnglish literature, and his style reflects his love of the language of theKing James Bible.He was noted for speaking English in clippedreceived pronunciation,andPersianin anIsfahanidialect, inherited from his grandmother. Shoghi Effendi held Iranian (Persian) nationality throughout his life and travelled on an Iranian passport, although he never visited Iran. Marriage On March 24, 1937,Shoghi Effendi marriedMary Maxwell, later known as Rúhíyyih Khánum, a Canadian. She was the only child ofMay Maxwell, a disciple of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, andWilliam Sutherland Maxwell, a Canadian architect. Shoghi Effendi had first met Mary as a girl when she came on pilgrimage with her mother in 1923.She made another pilgrimage as a teenager with two of her mother's close friends. With Shoghi Effendi's encouragement, Mary became an active Baháʼí teacher and a letter written to him described her as \"a beautiful and most refreshing girl to know\". In 1936, Shoghi Effendi wrote to Mary and her mother, inviting them to visit Haifa. They arrived in January 1937, and a discreet courtship between Shoghi Effendi and Mary ensued. At the time of their marriage, Mary was 26 years old and a tall, athletic woman who had spent 18 months living inNazi Germanywith her cousin before coming to Haifa. The couple exchanged vows in the room ofBahíyyih Khánumin the House of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Haifa. The ceremony was brief, simple, and quiet, with Rúhíyyih Khánum wearing black. Only a select few were aware of the wedding, including the witnesses and a small group of Haifa residents. Consequently, the news of the marriage came as a significant surprise to the global Baháʼí community when Shoghi Effendi's mother cabled the Baháʼís. Announce Assemblies celebration marriage beloved Guardian. Inestimable honour conferred upon handmaid of Baháʼu'lláh Ruhiyyih Khanum Miss Mary Maxwell. Union of East and West proclaimed by Baháʼí Faith cemented. Ziaiyyih mother of Guardian. While Shoghi Effendi and Rúhíyyih Khánum never had children, Rúhíyyih Khánum became his constant companion and helpmate; in 1941, she became Shoghi Effendi's principal secretary in English.In a rare public statement, revealing his private sentiments, in 1951 he described his wife as \"my helpmate, my shield in warding off the darts of Covenant breakers and my tireless collaborator in the arduous tasks I shoulder\". Accomplishments Shoghi Effendi's leadership focused on two aspects: developing the administration of the religion and spreading it around the world. Administration The Baháʼí community was relatively small and undeveloped when he assumed leadership of the religion, and he strengthened and developed it over many years to support the administrative structure envisioned by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Under Shoghi Effendi's direction,National Spiritual Assemblieswere formed and many thousands ofLocal Spiritual Assemblieswere created. He coordinated plans and resources to raise several of the continentalBaháʼí Houses of Worshiparound the world; construction of which continued into the 1950s. Starting in the late 1940s, after the establishment of the State ofIsrael, he started to develop theBaháʼí World CentreinHaifa, including the construction of the superstructure of theShrine of the Báb, theInternational Archives, and the gardens at theShrine of Baháʼu'lláh. In 1951 he appointed theInternational Baháʼí Councilto act as a precursor to the Universal House of Justice, and appointed 32 livingHands of the Cause— the highest rank of service available, whose main function was to propagate and protect the religion. Growth From the time of his appointment as Guardian until his death the Baháʼí Faith grew from 100,000 to 400,000 members, capitalizing on prior growth andsetting the stage for more. The countries and territories in which Baháʼís had representation went from 35 to 250.As Guardian and head of the religion, Shoghi Effendi communicated his vision to the Baháʼís of the world through his numerous letters and his meetings with pilgrims to Palestine. Starting in 1937, he set into motion a series ofsystematic plansto establish Baháʼí communities in all countries.ATen Year Crusadewas carried out from 1953 to 1963 with ambitious goals for expansion into almost every country and territory of the world. Other In a more secular cause, prior toWorld War IIhe supported the work of restoration-foresterRichard St. Barbe Bakerto reforest Palestine, introducing him to religious leaders from the major faiths of the region, from whom backing was secured for reforestation. Leadership style As a young student of twenty-four, Shoghi Effendi was initially shocked at the appointment as Guardian. He was also mourning the death of his grandfather to whom he had great attachment. The trauma of this culminated in him making retreats to theSwiss Alps. However, despite his youth, Shoghi Effendi had a clear idea of the goal he had for the religion.Oxford educated and Western in his style of dress, Shoghi Effendi was a stark contrast to his grandfatherʻAbdu'l-Bahá. He distanced himself from the local clergy and notability, and travelled little to visit Baháʼís unlike his grandfather. Correspondence and pilgrims were the way that Shoghi Effendi conveyed his messages. His talks are the subject to a great number of \"pilgrim notes\". He also was concerned with matters dealing with Baháʼí belief and practice — as Guardian he was empowered to interpret the writings of Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, and these were authoritative and binding, as specified in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will.His leadership style was however, quite different from that of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, in that he signed his letters to the Baháʼís as \"your true brother\",and he did not refer to his own personal role, but instead to the institution of the guardianship.He requested that he be referred in letters and verbal addresses always as Shoghi Effendi, as opposed to any other appellation.He also distanced himself as a local notable.He was critical of the Baháʼís referring to him as a holy personage, asking them not to celebrate his birthday or have his picture on display. Translations and writings In his lifetime, Shoghi Effendi translated into English many of the writings of theBáb,Baháʼu'lláhandʻAbdu'l-Bahá, including theHidden Wordsin 1929, theKitáb-i-Íqánin 1931,Gleaningsin 1935 andEpistle to the Son of the Wolfin 1941.He also translated such historical texts asThe Dawn-Breakers.His significance is not just that of a translator, but also that of the designated and authoritative interpreter of the Baháʼí writings. His translations, therefore, are a guideline for all future translations of the Baháʼí writings. The vast majority of his writings were in the style of letters to Baháʼís from all parts of the globe. These letters, of which 17,500 have been collected thus far,are believed to number a total of 34,000 unique works.They ranged from routine correspondence regarding the affairs of Baháʼís around the world to lengthy letters to the Baháʼís of the world addressing specific themes. Some of his longer letters and collections of letters includeWorld Order of Baháʼu'lláh,Advent of Divine Justice, andPromised Day is Come. Other letters included statements on Baháʼí beliefs, history, morality, principles, administration and law. He also wrote obituaries of some distinguished Baháʼís. Many of his letters to individuals and assemblies have been compiled into several books which stand out as significant sources of literature for Baháʼís around the world.The only actual book he ever wrote wasGod Passes Byin 1944 to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the religion. The book, which is in English, is an interpretive history of the first century of the Bábí and Baháʼí Faiths. A shorter Persian language version was also written. Opposition Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlíwas ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's half brother and was mentioned by Baháʼu'lláh as having a station \"beneath\" that of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad ʻAli later fought ʻAbdu'l-Bahá for leadership and was ultimately excommunicated, along with several others in the Haifa/ʻAkká area who supported him. When Shoghi Effendi was appointed Guardian Muhammad ʻAli tried to revive his claim to leadership, suggesting that Baháʼu'lláh's mention of him in theKitáb-i-'Ahdamounted to a succession of leadership. Throughout Shoghi Effendi's life, nearly all remaining family members and descendants of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá were expelled by him ascovenant-breakerswhen they didn't abide by Shoghi Effendi's request to cut contact with covenant-breakers, as specified by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.Other branches ofBaháʼu'lláh's familyhad already been declared Covenant-breakers in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament. At the time of his death, there were no living descendants of Baháʼu'lláh that remained loyal to him. Unexpected death Shoghi Effendi's death came unexpectedly inLondon, on 4 November 1957, as he was travelling to Britain and caught theAsian Flu,during thepandemicwhich killed two million worldwide, and he is buried there inNew Southgate Cemetery.His wife sent the followingcable: Shoghi Effendi beloved of all hearts sacred trust given believers by Master passed away sudden heart attack in sleep following Asiatic flu. Urge believers remain steadfast cling institution Hands lovingly reared recently reinforced emphasized by beloved Guardian. Only oneness heart oneness purpose can befittingly testify loyalty all National Assemblies believers departed Guardian who sacrificed self utterly for service Faith. Future hereditary Guardians were envisioned in the Baháʼí scripture by appointment from one to the next. Each Guardian was to be appointed by the previous from among themale descendants of Baháʼu'lláh, preferably according toprimogeniture.The appointment was to be made during the Guardian's lifetime and clearly assented to by a group ofHands of the Cause.At the time of Shoghi Effendi's death, all living male descendants of Baháʼu'lláh had been declaredCovenant-breakersby either ʻAbdu'l-Bahá or Shoghi Effendi, leaving no suitable living candidates. This created a severe crisis of leadership.The 27 living Hands gathered in a series of six secret conclaves (or signed agreements if they were absent) to decide how to navigate the uncharted situation.The Hands of the Cause unanimously voted it was impossible to legitimately recognize and assent to a successor.They made an announcement on 25 November 1957 to assume control of the Faith, certified that Shoghi Effendi had left no will or appointment of successor, said that no appointment could have been made, and elected nine of their members to stay at theBaháʼí World Centrein Haifa to exercise the executive functions of the Guardian (these were known as the Custodians). Ministry of the Custodians In Shoghi Effendi's final message to the Baha'i World, dated October 1957, he named the Hands of the Cause of God, \"the Chief Stewards of Baháʼu'lláh's embryonic World Commonwealth.\"Following the death of Shoghi Effendi, the Baháʼí Faith was temporarily stewarded by theHands of the Cause, who elected among themselves nine \"Custodians\" to serve in Haifa as the head of the Faith. They oversaw the transition of theInternational Baháʼí Councilinto theUniversal House of Justice.This stewardship oversaw the execution of the final years of Shoghi Effendi's ordinances of the ten year crusade (which lasted until 1963) culminating and transitioning to the election and establishment of the Universal House of Justice, at the first Baha'i World Congress in 1963. As early as January 1959,Mason Remey, one of the custodial Hands, believed that he was the second Guardian and successor to Shoghi Effendi.That summer after a conclave of the Hands in Haifa, Remey abandoned his position and moved to Washington D.C., then soon after announced his claim to absolute leadership, causing a minorschismthat attracted about 100 followers, mostly in the United States.Remey was excommunicated by a unanimous decision of the remaining 26 Hands. Although initially disturbed, the mainstream Baháʼís paid little attention to his movement within a few years. Election of the Universal House of Justice At the end of theTen Year Crusadein 1963, the Universal House of Justice was first elected. It was authorized to adjudicate on situations not covered in scripture. As its first order of business, the Universal House of Justice evaluated the situation caused by the fact that the Guardian had not appointed a successor. It determined that under the circumstances, given the criteria for succession described in theWill and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, there was no legitimate way for another Guardian to be appointed.Therefore, although theWill and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Baháleaves provisions for a succession of Guardians, Shoghi Effendi remains the first and last occupant of this office.Bahá'u'lláhenvisioned a scenario in theKitáb-i-Aqdasin which the line of Guardians would be broken prior to the establishment of the Universal House of Justice, and in the interim theHands of the Cause of Godwould administer the affairs of the Baha'i community. Guardianship The institution of the 'Guardian' provided a hereditary line of heads of the religion, in many respects similar to theShia Imamate.Each Guardian was to be appointed by the previous from among themale descendants of Baháʼu'lláh, preferably according toprimogeniture.The appointment was to be made during the Guardian's lifetime and clearly assented to by a group ofHands of the Cause.The Guardian would be the head of theUniversal House of Justice, and had the authority to expel its members. He would also be responsible for the receipt ofHuqúqu'lláh, appoint newHands of the Cause, provide \"authoritative and binding\" interpretations of the Baháʼí writings, and excommunicateCovenant-breakers. The issue of successorship to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was in the minds of early Baháʼís, and although theUniversal House of Justicewas an institution mentioned by Baháʼu'lláh, the institution of the Guardianship was not clearly introduced until theWill and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Baháwas publicly read after his death. In the will, Shoghi Effendi found that he had been designated as \"the Sign of God, the chosen branch, the Guardian of the Cause of God\". He also learned that he had been designated as this when he was still a small child. As Guardian, he was appointed as head of the religion, someone to whom the Baháʼís had to look for guidance. Shoghi Effendi on the Guardianship Building on the foundation that had been established in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will, Shoghi Effendi elaborated on the role of the Guardian in several works, includingBaháʼí Administrationand theWorld Order of Baháʼu'lláh.In those works, he went to great lengths to emphasize that he himself and any future Guardian should never be viewed as equal to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, or regarded as a holy person. He asked Baháʼís not to celebrate his birthday or have his picture on display.In his correspondences, Shoghi Effendi signed his letters to Baháʼís as \"brother\" and \"co-worker,\" to the extent that even when addressing youth, he referred to himself as \"Your True Brother.\" Shoghi Effendi wrote that the infallibility of his interpretations only extended to matters relating to the Baháʼí Faith and not subjects such as economics and science. In his writings, Shoghi Effendi delineates a distinct separation of powers between the \"twin pillars\" of the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice.The roles of the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice are complementary, the former providing authoritative interpretation, and the latter providing flexibility and the authority to adjudicate on \"questions that are obscure and matters that are not expressly recorded in the Book.\"Shoghi Effendi went into detail explaining that the institutions are interdependent and had their own specific spheres of jurisdiction.For example, the Guardian could define the sphere of legislative action and request that a particular decision be reconsidered, but could not dictate the constitution, override the decisions, or influence the election of the Universal House of Justice.In explaining the importance of the Guardianship, Shoghi Effendi wrote that without it the World Order of Baháʼu'lláh would be \"mutilated.\"In its legislation the Universal House of Justice turns to the mass of interpretation left by Shoghi Effendi. Ancestry See also Notes Citations References Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b935ad3f0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/1580 (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93699240>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Shoghi Effendi Shoghí Effendi(/ˈʃoʊɡiːɛˈfɛndi/;Persian:شوقی افندی; 1 March 1897– 4 November 1957) was anOttoman-born Iranian religious figure and theGuardian of the Baháʼí Faithfrom 1921 to 1957.As the grandson and successor ofʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was responsible for creatinga series of teaching plansthat oversaw the expansion of theBaháʼí Faithto a number of new countries, and also translated many of thewritten works of crucial Baháʼí leaders.Upon his death in 1957, theHands of the Cause, which included his Canadian wifeRúhíyyih Khánum, took on the role of overseeing the transfer of the religion's supreme legal authority to theUniversal House of Justice, which has held elections every five years since 1963. Effendi, anAfnán, was bornShoghí RabbáníinʻAkká(Acre) where he spent his early life,but later went on to study inHaifaandBeirut, gaining an arts degree from theSyrian Protestant Collegein 1918 and then serving as ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's secretary and translator.In 1920, he attendedBalliol College, Oxford, where he", "Oxford, where he studied political science and economics, but his second year was interrupted by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death, which led to his appointment as the Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith at the age of 24. For 36 years, Effendi spearheaded the effort to grow and protect the religion globally. He sent out more than 17,500 letters, mostly in Persian and English, directing and keeping up with the progress ofexisting Baháʼí communities, responding totheir persecution across the Middle East, coordinating teaching efforts, and building up theBaháʼí World Centrein and around Haifa.He appointed 32 living individuals (and 10 posthumously) as prestigious Hands of the Cause,and also presided over the community's enlargement from 1,034 localities in 1935 to 2,700 localities in 1953 and further to 14,437 localities in 1963.From the beginning to the end of his leadership, the total population of Baháʼís around the world grew from 100,000 to 400,000 people. Among the Baháʼí community, Effendi is commonly referred to as simply", "to as simply \"The Guardian\" in honour of his unique role as the only Guardian in thehistory of the Baháʼí Faith.His works are all published under his chosen titleEffendi, as opposed to his birth name Rabbání. He is buried atNew Southgate Cemeteryin the city ofLondon. Background Born in ʻAkká in theAcre Sanjakof theOttoman Empirein March 1897, Shoghi Effendi was related to theBábthrough his father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází, and toBaháʼu'lláhthrough his mother, Ḍíyáʼíyyih Khánum, the eldest daughter ofʻAbdu'l-Bahá. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, who provided much of his initial training, greatly influenced Shoghi Effendi from the early years of his life. Shoghi Effendi learned prayers from his grandfather, who encouraged him to chant. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also insisted that people address the child as \"Shoghi Effendi\", (\"Effendi\" signifies \"Sir\"), rather than simply as \"Shoghi\", as a mark of respect towards him. From his early years, Shoghi Effendi was introduced to the suffering which accompanied the Baháʼís in ʻAkká, including the attacks", "the attacks byMírzá Muhammad ʻAlíagainst ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. As a young boy, he was aware of the desire of SultanAbdul Hamid II(reigned 1876–1909) to banish ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to the deserts ofNorth Africa, where he was expected to perish. At one point, Shoghi Effendi was warned not to drink coffee in the homes of any of the Baháʼís in the fear that he would be poisoned. Tablet from ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Being ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's eldest grandson, the first son of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's eldest daughter Ḍíyáʼíyyih Khánum, Shoghi Effendi had a special relationship with his grandfather. Zia Baghdadi, a contemporary Baháʼí, relates that when Shoghi Effendi was only five years of age, he pestered his grandfather to write atabletfor him, which ʻAbdu'l-Bahá obliged: He is God! O My Shoghi, I have no time to talk, leave me alone! You said write, I have written. What else should be done? Now is not the time for you to read and write. It is the time for jumping about and chanting O My God! Therefore, memorize the prayers of the Blessed Beauty and chant", "Beauty and chant them that I may hear them. Because there is no time for anything else. Shoghi Effendi then set out to memorize a number of prayers, and chanted them as loud as he could. This caused family members to ask ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to quieten him down, a request which he apparently refused. Education Shoghi Effendi received his early education at home with the other children in the household, then attended a FrenchChristian Brothersschool inHaifa, and later boarded at another Catholic school inBeirut.He was to accompany his grandfather on hisjourneys to the Westbut was unable to proceed after port authorities in Naples prevented Shoghi Effendi from continuing due ostensibly to health reasons. He later attended the Syrian Protestant College (later known as theAmerican University of Beirut) for his final years of high school and first years of university, where he earned an arts degree in 1918.He reports being very unhappy in school and often returned on vacations to Haifa to spend time with ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.", "with ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. During his studies, he dedicated himself to masteringEnglish—adding this language to thePersian,Turkish,ArabicandFrenchlanguages in which he was already fluent—so that he could translate the letters of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and serve as his secretary. Shoghi Effendi was protected fromWorld War Idue to the neutrality of the Syrian Protestant College. Though political tensions in 1917 meant the college was closed briefly, student life continued. In the summer of 1918 ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's life was in critical danger until the entry ofGeneral Allenby's troops to Haifa. With theArmisticelooming and having completed his studies Shoghi Effendi was ready to return to his grandfather, and in Autumn of 1918 he went back to Haifa to assist ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in his mounting correspondence, spending nearly two years of constant companionship with him.In a private letter to a friend from late 1918 Shoghi Effendi reflects on the untold sufferings of the War but anticipates that \"this is indeed the era of service\". After his", "service\". After his time in Haifa he went toBalliol College, Oxford, inEngland, where he matriculated in \"EconomicsandSocial Sciences\", while still perfecting his translation skills.Shoghi Effendi was happy during his time in Balliol. Accounts from his contemporaries remember him as a cheerful and popular student. He was acquainted with futureBritish prime ministerAnthony Edenbut they were not close friends. His studies were interspersed with occasional trips around the United Kingdom to meet Baháʼí communities. Shoghi Effendi was particularly touched meeting the small group of Baháʼís fromManchester.During this period Shoghi Effendi began what would be a life-long affinity to aspects of British culture such as readingThe Timesevery day and his love forEnglish literature. Death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá While studying in England, on 29 November 1921, the news of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death reached Shoghi Effendi, which, according toWellesley Tudor Pole, the deliverer of the cable, left him \"in a state of collapse\". After", "of collapse\". After spending a couple of days withJohn Esslemont,and after some passport difficulties, he sailed from England accompanied withSara Blomfieldand his sister Ruhangiz on 16 December and arrived in Haifa on 29 December. A few days later he openedʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament, which was addressed to Shoghi Effendi.In it, he was appointed as ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith. Private life Shoghi Effendi's personal life was largely subordinate to his work as Guardian of the religion.His lack of secretarial support with the mass of correspondence had left a pattern of hard work inHaifainterspersed with occasional summer breaks to Europe—in the early years often to theSwiss Alps. In 1929 and 1940 he also travelled throughAfricafrom south to north.In public, Shoghi Effendi was variously described as composed and highly informed in international affairs. In private, his contemporaries remembered him as warm, informal and humorous. Shoghi Effendi would sleep very little and", "very little and usually ate only once a day. He was short in stature, with dark hair, an olive complexion and hazel eyes. He was noted as not resembling his grandfather ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (who was taller and had blue eyes) but his great-grandfather Baháʼu'lláh. Shoghi Effendi had a great love for theEnglish language.He was an avid fan ofEnglish literature, and his style reflects his love of the language of theKing James Bible.He was noted for speaking English in clippedreceived pronunciation,andPersianin anIsfahanidialect, inherited from his grandmother. Shoghi Effendi held Iranian (Persian) nationality throughout his life and travelled on an Iranian passport, although he never visited Iran. Marriage On March 24, 1937,Shoghi Effendi marriedMary Maxwell, later known as Rúhíyyih Khánum, a Canadian. She was the only child ofMay Maxwell, a disciple of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, andWilliam Sutherland Maxwell, a Canadian architect. Shoghi Effendi had first met Mary as a girl when she came on pilgrimage with her mother in 1923.She", "mother in 1923.She made another pilgrimage as a teenager with two of her mother's close friends. With Shoghi Effendi's encouragement, Mary became an active Baháʼí teacher and a letter written to him described her as \"a beautiful and most refreshing girl to know\". In 1936, Shoghi Effendi wrote to Mary and her mother, inviting them to visit Haifa. They arrived in January 1937, and a discreet courtship between Shoghi Effendi and Mary ensued. At the time of their marriage, Mary was 26 years old and a tall, athletic woman who had spent 18 months living inNazi Germanywith her cousin before coming to Haifa. The couple exchanged vows in the room ofBahíyyih Khánumin the House of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Haifa. The ceremony was brief, simple, and quiet, with Rúhíyyih Khánum wearing black. Only a select few were aware of the wedding, including the witnesses and a small group of Haifa residents. Consequently, the news of the marriage came as a significant surprise to the global Baháʼí community when Shoghi Effendi's mother", "Effendi's mother cabled the Baháʼís. Announce Assemblies celebration marriage beloved Guardian. Inestimable honour conferred upon handmaid of Baháʼu'lláh Ruhiyyih Khanum Miss Mary Maxwell. Union of East and West proclaimed by Baháʼí Faith cemented. Ziaiyyih mother of Guardian. While Shoghi Effendi and Rúhíyyih Khánum never had children, Rúhíyyih Khánum became his constant companion and helpmate; in 1941, she became Shoghi Effendi's principal secretary in English.In a rare public statement, revealing his private sentiments, in 1951 he described his wife as \"my helpmate, my shield in warding off the darts of Covenant breakers and my tireless collaborator in the arduous tasks I shoulder\". Accomplishments Shoghi Effendi's leadership focused on two aspects: developing the administration of the religion and spreading it around the world. Administration The Baháʼí community was relatively small and undeveloped when he assumed leadership of the religion, and he strengthened and developed it over many years to", "over many years to support the administrative structure envisioned by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Under Shoghi Effendi's direction,National Spiritual Assemblieswere formed and many thousands ofLocal Spiritual Assemblieswere created. He coordinated plans and resources to raise several of the continentalBaháʼí Houses of Worshiparound the world; construction of which continued into the 1950s. Starting in the late 1940s, after the establishment of the State ofIsrael, he started to develop theBaháʼí World CentreinHaifa, including the construction of the superstructure of theShrine of the Báb, theInternational Archives, and the gardens at theShrine of Baháʼu'lláh. In 1951 he appointed theInternational Baháʼí Councilto act as a precursor to the Universal House of Justice, and appointed 32 livingHands of the Cause— the highest rank of service available, whose main function was to propagate and protect the religion. Growth From the time of his appointment as Guardian until his death the Baháʼí Faith grew from 100,000 to 400,000", "100,000 to 400,000 members, capitalizing on prior growth andsetting the stage for more. The countries and territories in which Baháʼís had representation went from 35 to 250.As Guardian and head of the religion, Shoghi Effendi communicated his vision to the Baháʼís of the world through his numerous letters and his meetings with pilgrims to Palestine. Starting in 1937, he set into motion a series ofsystematic plansto establish Baháʼí communities in all countries.ATen Year Crusadewas carried out from 1953 to 1963 with ambitious goals for expansion into almost every country and territory of the world. Other In a more secular cause, prior toWorld War IIhe supported the work of restoration-foresterRichard St. Barbe Bakerto reforest Palestine, introducing him to religious leaders from the major faiths of the region, from whom backing was secured for reforestation. Leadership style As a young student of twenty-four, Shoghi Effendi was initially shocked at the appointment as Guardian. He was also mourning the death", "mourning the death of his grandfather to whom he had great attachment. The trauma of this culminated in him making retreats to theSwiss Alps. However, despite his youth, Shoghi Effendi had a clear idea of the goal he had for the religion.Oxford educated and Western in his style of dress, Shoghi Effendi was a stark contrast to his grandfatherʻAbdu'l-Bahá. He distanced himself from the local clergy and notability, and travelled little to visit Baháʼís unlike his grandfather. Correspondence and pilgrims were the way that Shoghi Effendi conveyed his messages. His talks are the subject to a great number of \"pilgrim notes\". He also was concerned with matters dealing with Baháʼí belief and practice — as Guardian he was empowered to interpret the writings of Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, and these were authoritative and binding, as specified in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will.His leadership style was however, quite different from that of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, in that he signed his letters to the Baháʼís as \"your true brother\",and he", "brother\",and he did not refer to his own personal role, but instead to the institution of the guardianship.He requested that he be referred in letters and verbal addresses always as Shoghi Effendi, as opposed to any other appellation.He also distanced himself as a local notable.He was critical of the Baháʼís referring to him as a holy personage, asking them not to celebrate his birthday or have his picture on display. Translations and writings In his lifetime, Shoghi Effendi translated into English many of the writings of theBáb,Baháʼu'lláhandʻAbdu'l-Bahá, including theHidden Wordsin 1929, theKitáb-i-Íqánin 1931,Gleaningsin 1935 andEpistle to the Son of the Wolfin 1941.He also translated such historical texts asThe Dawn-Breakers.His significance is not just that of a translator, but also that of the designated and authoritative interpreter of the Baháʼí writings. His translations, therefore, are a guideline for all future translations of the Baháʼí writings. The vast majority of his writings were in the", "were in the style of letters to Baháʼís from all parts of the globe. These letters, of which 17,500 have been collected thus far,are believed to number a total of 34,000 unique works.They ranged from routine correspondence regarding the affairs of Baháʼís around the world to lengthy letters to the Baháʼís of the world addressing specific themes. Some of his longer letters and collections of letters includeWorld Order of Baháʼu'lláh,Advent of Divine Justice, andPromised Day is Come. Other letters included statements on Baháʼí beliefs, history, morality, principles, administration and law. He also wrote obituaries of some distinguished Baháʼís. Many of his letters to individuals and assemblies have been compiled into several books which stand out as significant sources of literature for Baháʼís around the world.The only actual book he ever wrote wasGod Passes Byin 1944 to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the religion. The book, which is in English, is an interpretive history of the first century of", "first century of the Bábí and Baháʼí Faiths. A shorter Persian language version was also written. Opposition Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlíwas ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's half brother and was mentioned by Baháʼu'lláh as having a station \"beneath\" that of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad ʻAli later fought ʻAbdu'l-Bahá for leadership and was ultimately excommunicated, along with several others in the Haifa/ʻAkká area who supported him. When Shoghi Effendi was appointed Guardian Muhammad ʻAli tried to revive his claim to leadership, suggesting that Baháʼu'lláh's mention of him in theKitáb-i-'Ahdamounted to a succession of leadership. Throughout Shoghi Effendi's life, nearly all remaining family members and descendants of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá were expelled by him ascovenant-breakerswhen they didn't abide by Shoghi Effendi's request to cut contact with covenant-breakers, as specified by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.Other branches ofBaháʼu'lláh's familyhad already been declared Covenant-breakers in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's Will and Testament. At the time of his death, there were", "death, there were no living descendants of Baháʼu'lláh that remained loyal to him. Unexpected death Shoghi Effendi's death came unexpectedly inLondon, on 4 November 1957, as he was travelling to Britain and caught theAsian Flu,during thepandemicwhich killed two million worldwide, and he is buried there inNew Southgate Cemetery.His wife sent the followingcable: Shoghi Effendi beloved of all hearts sacred trust given believers by Master passed away sudden heart attack in sleep following Asiatic flu. Urge believers remain steadfast cling institution Hands lovingly reared recently reinforced emphasized by beloved Guardian. Only oneness heart oneness purpose can befittingly testify loyalty all National Assemblies believers departed Guardian who sacrificed self utterly for service Faith. Future hereditary Guardians were envisioned in the Baháʼí scripture by appointment from one to the next. Each Guardian was to be appointed by the previous from among themale descendants of Baháʼu'lláh, preferably according", "according toprimogeniture.The appointment was to be made during the Guardian's lifetime and clearly assented to by a group ofHands of the Cause.At the time of Shoghi Effendi's death, all living male descendants of Baháʼu'lláh had been declaredCovenant-breakersby either ʻAbdu'l-Bahá or Shoghi Effendi, leaving no suitable living candidates. This created a severe crisis of leadership.The 27 living Hands gathered in a series of six secret conclaves (or signed agreements if they were absent) to decide how to navigate the uncharted situation.The Hands of the Cause unanimously voted it was impossible to legitimately recognize and assent to a successor.They made an announcement on 25 November 1957 to assume control of the Faith, certified that Shoghi Effendi had left no will or appointment of successor, said that no appointment could have been made, and elected nine of their members to stay at theBaháʼí World Centrein Haifa to exercise the executive functions of the Guardian (these were known as the Custodians).", "as the Custodians). Ministry of the Custodians In Shoghi Effendi's final message to the Baha'i World, dated October 1957, he named the Hands of the Cause of God, \"the Chief Stewards of Baháʼu'lláh's embryonic World Commonwealth.\"Following the death of Shoghi Effendi, the Baháʼí Faith was temporarily stewarded by theHands of the Cause, who elected among themselves nine \"Custodians\" to serve in Haifa as the head of the Faith. They oversaw the transition of theInternational Baháʼí Councilinto theUniversal House of Justice.This stewardship oversaw the execution of the final years of Shoghi Effendi's ordinances of the ten year crusade (which lasted until 1963) culminating and transitioning to the election and establishment of the Universal House of Justice, at the first Baha'i World Congress in 1963. As early as January 1959,Mason Remey, one of the custodial Hands, believed that he was the second Guardian and successor to Shoghi Effendi.That summer after a conclave of the Hands in Haifa, Remey abandoned his", "Remey abandoned his position and moved to Washington D.C., then soon after announced his claim to absolute leadership, causing a minorschismthat attracted about 100 followers, mostly in the United States.Remey was excommunicated by a unanimous decision of the remaining 26 Hands. Although initially disturbed, the mainstream Baháʼís paid little attention to his movement within a few years. Election of the Universal House of Justice At the end of theTen Year Crusadein 1963, the Universal House of Justice was first elected. It was authorized to adjudicate on situations not covered in scripture. As its first order of business, the Universal House of Justice evaluated the situation caused by the fact that the Guardian had not appointed a successor. It determined that under the circumstances, given the criteria for succession described in theWill and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, there was no legitimate way for another Guardian to be appointed.Therefore, although theWill and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Baháleaves provisions", "provisions for a succession of Guardians, Shoghi Effendi remains the first and last occupant of this office.Bahá'u'lláhenvisioned a scenario in theKitáb-i-Aqdasin which the line of Guardians would be broken prior to the establishment of the Universal House of Justice, and in the interim theHands of the Cause of Godwould administer the affairs of the Baha'i community. Guardianship The institution of the 'Guardian' provided a hereditary line of heads of the religion, in many respects similar to theShia Imamate.Each Guardian was to be appointed by the previous from among themale descendants of Baháʼu'lláh, preferably according toprimogeniture.The appointment was to be made during the Guardian's lifetime and clearly assented to by a group ofHands of the Cause.The Guardian would be the head of theUniversal House of Justice, and had the authority to expel its members. He would also be responsible for the receipt ofHuqúqu'lláh, appoint newHands of the Cause, provide \"authoritative and binding\" interpretations of", "interpretations of the Baháʼí writings, and excommunicateCovenant-breakers. The issue of successorship to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was in the minds of early Baháʼís, and although theUniversal House of Justicewas an institution mentioned by Baháʼu'lláh, the institution of the Guardianship was not clearly introduced until theWill and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Baháwas publicly read after his death. In the will, Shoghi Effendi found that he had been designated as \"the Sign of God, the chosen branch, the Guardian of the Cause of God\". He also learned that he had been designated as this when he was still a small child. As Guardian, he was appointed as head of the religion, someone to whom the Baháʼís had to look for guidance. Shoghi Effendi on the Guardianship Building on the foundation that had been established in ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's will, Shoghi Effendi elaborated on the role of the Guardian in several works, includingBaháʼí Administrationand theWorld Order of Baháʼu'lláh.In those works, he went to great lengths to emphasize that he", "emphasize that he himself and any future Guardian should never be viewed as equal to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, or regarded as a holy person. He asked Baháʼís not to celebrate his birthday or have his picture on display.In his correspondences, Shoghi Effendi signed his letters to Baháʼís as \"brother\" and \"co-worker,\" to the extent that even when addressing youth, he referred to himself as \"Your True Brother.\" Shoghi Effendi wrote that the infallibility of his interpretations only extended to matters relating to the Baháʼí Faith and not subjects such as economics and science. In his writings, Shoghi Effendi delineates a distinct separation of powers between the \"twin pillars\" of the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice.The roles of the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice are complementary, the former providing authoritative interpretation, and the latter providing flexibility and the authority to adjudicate on \"questions that are obscure and matters that are not expressly recorded in the", "recorded in the Book.\"Shoghi Effendi went into detail explaining that the institutions are interdependent and had their own specific spheres of jurisdiction.For example, the Guardian could define the sphere of legislative action and request that a particular decision be reconsidered, but could not dictate the constitution, override the decisions, or influence the election of the Universal House of Justice.In explaining the importance of the Guardianship, Shoghi Effendi wrote that without it the World Order of Baháʼu'lláh would be \"mutilated.\"In its legislation the Universal House of Justice turns to the mass of interpretation left by Shoghi Effendi. Ancestry See also Notes Citations References Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Balliol_College,_Oxford (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b935ad3f0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/1580 (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93699240>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
How many years after Ghengis Khan died did World War II begin?
712 years
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II
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Numerical reasoning | Post processing | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" ]
[ "Genghis Khan Genghis Khan(bornTemüjin;c.1162– August 1227), also known asChinggis Khan,was the founder and firstkhanof theMongol Empire. After spending most of his life uniting theMongol tribes, he launcheda series of military campaigns, conquering large parts ofChinaandCentral Asia. Born between 1155 and 1167and given the name Temüjin, he was the eldest child ofYesugei, a Mongol chieftain of theBorjigin clan, and his wifeHö'elün. When Temüjin was eight, his father died and his family was abandoned by its tribe. Reduced to near-poverty, Temüjin killedhis older half-brotherto secure his familial position. His charismatic personality helped to attract his first followers and to form alliances with two prominentsteppeleaders namedJamukhaandToghrul; they worked together to retrieve Temüjin's newlywed wifeBörte, who had been kidnapped by raiders. As his reputation grew, his relationship with Jamukha deteriorated into open warfare. Temüjin wasbadly defeatedinc.1187, and may have spent the following years as a subject of theJin dynasty; upon reemerging in 1196, he swiftly began gaining power. Toghrul came to view Temüjin as a threat andlaunched a surprise attack on himin 1203. Temüjin retreated, thenregroupedand overpowered Toghrul; after defeating theNaiman tribeand executing Jamukha, he was left as the sole ruler on the Mongolian steppe. Temüjin formally adopted the title \"Genghis Khan\", the meaning of which is uncertain, at an assembly in 1206. Carrying out reforms designed to ensure long-term stability, he transformed the Mongols' tribal structure into an integratedmeritocracydedicated to the service of the ruling family. After thwarting acoupattempt from a powerfulshaman, Genghis began to consolidate his power. In 1209, he led a large-scale raid into the neighbouringWestern Xia, who agreed to Mongol terms the following year. He then launcheda campaign against the Jin dynasty, which lasted for four years and ended in 1215 withthe captureof the Jin capitalZhongdu. His generalJebeannexed the Central Asian state ofQara Khitaiin 1218. Genghis was provoked to invade theKhwarazmian Empirethe following year by the execution of his envoys;the campaign toppled the Khwarazmian stateand devastated the regions ofTransoxianaandKhorasan, while Jebe and his colleagueSubutailed an expedition that reachedGeorgiaandKievan Rus'. In 1227, Genghis died while subduing the rebellious Western Xia; following a two-yearinterregnum, his third son and heirÖgedeiacceded to the throne in 1229. Genghis Khan remains a controversial figure. He was generous and intensely loyal to his followers, but ruthless towards his enemies. He welcomed advice from diverse sources in his quest for world domination, for which he believed the shamanic supreme deityTengrihad destined him.The Mongol armyunder Genghis killed millions of people, yet his conquests also facilitated unprecedented commercial and cultural exchange over a vast geographical area. He is remembered as a backwards, savage tyrant inRussiaand theArab world, while recent Western scholarship has begun to reassess its previous view of him as a barbarian warlord. He was posthumouslydeifiedinMongolia; modern Mongolians recognise him as the founding father of their nation. Name and title There is no universalromanisationsystem used forMongolian; as a result, modern spellings of Mongolian names vary greatly and may result in considerably different pronunciations from the original.Thehonorificmost commonly rendered as \"Genghis\" ultimately derives from the Mongolianᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ, which may be romanised asČinggis. This was adapted into Chinese as成吉思Chéngjísī, and into Persian asچنگیزČəngīz. AsArabiclacks a sound similar to, represented in the Mongolian and Persian romanisations by ⟨č⟩, writers transcribed the name asJ̌ingiz, whileSyriacauthors usedŠīngīz. In addition to \"Genghis\", introduced into English during the 18th century based on a misreading of Persian sources, modern English spellings include \"Chinggis\", \"Chingis\", \"Jinghis\", and \"Jengiz\".His birth name \"Temüjin\" (ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ;鐵木真Tiěmùzhēn) is sometimes also spelled \"Temuchin\" in English. When Genghis's grandsonKublai Khanestablished theYuan dynastyin 1271, he bestowed thetemple nameTaizu(太祖, meaning 'Supreme Progenitor') and theposthumous nameShengwu Huangdi(聖武皇帝, meaning 'Holy-Martial Emperor') upon his grandfather. Kublai's great-grandsonKülüg Khanlater expanded this title intoFatian Qiyun Shengwu Huangdi(法天啟運聖武皇帝, meaning 'Interpreter of the Heavenly Law, Initiator of the Good Fortune, Holy-Martial Emperor'). Sources As the sources are written in more than a dozen languages from across Eurasia, modern historians have found it difficult to compile information on the life of Genghis Khan.All accounts of his adolescence andrise to powerderive from two Mongolian-language sources—theSecret History of the Mongols, and theAltan Debter(Golden Book). The latter, now lost, served as inspiration for two Chinese chronicles—the 14th-centuryHistory of Yuanand theShengwu qinzheng lu(Campaigns of Genghis Khan).TheHistory of Yuan, while poorly edited, provides a large amount of detail on individual campaigns and people; theShengwuis more disciplined in its chronology, but does not criticise Genghis and occasionally contains errors. TheSecret Historysurvived through beingtransliteratedintoChinese charactersduring the 14th and 15th centuries.Its historicity has been disputed: the 20th-century sinologistArthur Waleyconsidered it a literary work with no historiographical value, but more recent historians have given the work much more credence.Although it is clear that the work's chronology is suspect and that some passages were removed or modified for better narration, theSecret Historyis valued highly because the anonymous author is often critical of Genghis Khan: in addition to presenting him as indecisive and as having aphobia of dogs, theSecret Historyalso recounts taboo events such as hisfratricideand the possibility of his son Jochi's illegitimacy. Multiple chronicles in Persian have also survived, which display a mix of positive and negative attitudes towards Genghis Khan and the Mongols. BothMinhaj-i Siraj JuzjaniandAta-Malik Juvaynicompleted their respective histories in 1260.Juzjani was an eyewitness to the brutality of the Mongol conquests, and the hostility of his chronicle reflects his experiences.His contemporary Juvayni, who had travelled twice to Mongolia and attained a high position in the administration ofa Mongol successor state, was more sympathetic; his account is the most reliable for Genghis Khan's western campaigns.The most important Persian source is theJami' al-tawarikh(Compendium of Chronicles) compiled byRashid al-Dinon the order of Genghis's descendantGhazanin the early 14th century. Ghazan allowed Rashid privileged access to both confidential Mongol sources such as theAltan Debterand to experts on the Mongol oral tradition, including Kublai Khan's ambassadorBolad Chingsang. As he was writing an official chronicle, Rashid censored inconvenient or taboo details. There are many other contemporary histories which include additional information on Genghis Khan and the Mongols, although their neutrality and reliability are often suspect. Additional Chinese sources include the chronicles of the dynasties conquered by the Mongols, and the Song diplomatZhao Hong, who visited the Mongols in 1221.Arabic sources include a contemporary biography of the Khwarazmian princeJalal al-Dinby his companional-Nasawi. There are also several later Christian chronicles, including theGeorgian Chronicles, and works by European travellers such asCarpiniandMarco Polo. Early life Birth and childhood The year of Temüjin's birth is disputed, as historians favour different dates: 1155, 1162 or 1167. Some traditions place his birth in theYear of the Pig, which was either 1155 or 1167.While a dating to 1155 is supported by the writings of both Zhao Hong and Rashid al-Din, other major sources such as theHistory of Yuanand theShengwufavour the year 1162.The 1167 dating, favoured by the sinologistPaul Pelliot, is derived from a minor source—a text of the Yuan artistYang Weizhen—but is more compatible with the events of Genghis Khan's life than a 1155 placement, which implies that he did not have children until after the age of thirty and continued actively campaigning into his seventh decade.1162 is the date accepted by most historians;the historian Paul Ratchnevsky noted that Temüjin himself may not have known the truth.The location of Temüjin's birth, which theSecret Historyrecords asDelüün Boldogon theOnon River, is similarly debated: it has been placed at eitherDadalinKhentii Provinceor in southernAgin-Buryat Okrug, Russia. Temüjin was born into theBorjiginclan of theMongol tribetoYesügei, a chieftain who claimed descent from the legendary warlordBodonchar Munkhag, and his principal wifeHö'elün, originally of theOlkhonudclan, whom Yesügei had abducted from herMerkitbridegroom Chiledu.The origin of his birth name is contested: the earliest traditions hold that his father had just returned from a successful campaign against theTatarswith a captive named Temüchin-uge, after whom he named the newborn in celebration of his victory, while later traditions highlight theroottemür(meaning 'iron') and connect to theories that \"Temüjin\" means 'blacksmith'. Several legends surround Temüjin's birth. The most prominent is that he was born clutching ablood clotin his hand, a motif in Asian folklore indicating the child would be a warrior.Others claimed that Hö'elün wasimpregnated by a ray of lightwhich announced the child's destiny, a legend which echoed that of the mythical Borjigin ancestorAlan Gua.Yesügei and Hö'elün had three younger sons after Temüjin:Qasar,Hachiun, andTemüge, as well as one daughter,Temülün. Temüjin also had two half-brothers,BehterandBelgutei, from Yesügei's secondary wifeSochigel, whose identity is uncertain. The siblings grew up at Yesugei's main camp on the banks of the Onon, where they learned how to ride a horse and shoot a bow. When Temüjin was eight years old, his father decided to betroth him to a suitable girl. Yesügei took his heir to the pastures of Hö'elün's prestigiousOnggirattribe, which had intermarried with the Mongols on many previous occasions. There, he arranged a betrothal between Temüjin andBörte, the daughter of an Onggirat chieftain namedDei Sechen. As the betrothal meant Yesügei would gain a powerful ally and as Börte commanded a highbride price, Dei Sechen held the stronger negotiating position, and demanded that Temüjin remain in his household to work off his future debt.Accepting this condition, Yesügei requested a meal from a band of Tatars he encountered while riding homewards alone, relying on the steppe tradition of hospitality to strangers. However, the Tatars recognised their old enemy and slipped poison into his food. Yesügei gradually sickened but managed to return home; close to death, he requested a trusted retainer called Münglig to retrieve Temüjin from the Onggirat. He died soon after. Adolescence Yesügei's death shattered the unity of his people, which included members of the Borjigin,Tayichiud, and other clans. As Temüjin was not yet ten and Behter around two years older, neither was considered experienced enough to rule. The Tayichiud faction excluded Hö'elün from theancestor worshipceremonies which followed a ruler's death and soon abandoned her camp. TheSecret Historyrelates that the entire Borjigin clan followed, despite Hö'elün's attempts to shame them into staying by appealing to their honour.Rashid al-Din and theShengwuhowever imply that Yesügei's brothers stood by the widow. It is possible that Hö'elün may have refused to join inlevirate marriagewith one, resulting in later tensions, or that the author of theSecret Historydramatised the situation.All the sources agree that most of Yesügei's people renounced his family in favour of the Tayichiuds and that Hö'elün's family were reduced to a much harsher life.Taking up ahunter-gathererlifestyle, they collected roots and nuts, hunted for small animals, and caught fish. Tensions developed as the children grew older. Both Temüjin and Behter had claims to be their father's heir: although Temüjin was the child of Yesügei's chief wife, Behter was at least two years his senior. There was even the possibility that, as permitted under levirate law, Behter could marry Hö'elün upon attaining hismajorityand become Temüjin's stepfather.As the friction, exacerbated by frequent disputes over the division of hunting spoils, intensified, Temüjin and his younger brother Qasar ambushed and killed Behter. This taboo act was omitted from the official chronicles but not from theSecret History, which recounts that Hö'elün angrily reprimanded her sons. Behter's younger full-brother Belgutei did not seek vengeance, and became one of Temüjin's highest-ranking followers alongside Qasar.Around this time, Temüjin developed a close friendship withJamukha, another boy of aristocratic descent; theSecret Historynotes that they exchangedknucklebonesand arrows as gifts and swore theandapact—the traditional oath of Mongolblood brothers–at eleven. As the family lacked allies, Temüjin was taken prisoner on multiple occasions.Captured by the Tayichiuds, he escaped during a feast and hid first in the Onon and then in the tent ofSorkan-Shira, a man who had seen him in the river and not raised the alarm. Sorkan-Shira sheltered Temüjin for three days at great personal risk before helping him to escape.Temüjin was assisted on another occasion byBo'orchu, an adolescent who aided him in retrieving stolen horses. Soon afterwards, Bo'orchu joined Temüjin's camp as his firstnökor('personal companion';pl.nökod).These incidents, related by theSecret History, are indicative of the emphasis its author put on Genghis' personal charisma. Rise to power Early campaigns Temüjin returned to Dei Sechen to marry Börte when he reached theage of majorityat fifteen. Delighted to see the son-in-law he feared had died, Dei Sechen consented to the marriage and accompanied the newlyweds back to Temüjin's camp; his wife Čotan presented Hö'elün with an expensivesablecloak.Seeking a patron, Temüjin chose to regift the cloak toToghrul,khan(ruler) of theKeraittribe, who had fought alongside Yesügei and sworn theandapact with him. Toghrul ruled a vast territory in central Mongolia but distrusted many of his followers. In need of loyal replacements, he was delighted with the valuable gift and welcomed Temüjin into his protection. The two grew close, and Temüjin began to build a following, asnökodsuch asJelmeentered into his service.Temüjin and Börte had their first child, a daughter named Qojin, around this time. Soon afterwards, seeking revenge for Yesügei's abduction of Hö'elün, around 300 Merkits raided Temüjin's camp. While Temüjin and his brothers were able to hide onBurkhan Khaldun mountain, Börte and Sochigel were abducted. In accordance with levirate law, Börte was given in marriage to the younger brother of the now-deceased Chiledu.Temüjin appealed for aid from Toghrul and his childhoodandaJamukha, who had risen to become chief of theJadarantribe. Both chiefs were willing to field armies of 20,000 warriors, and with Jamukha in command, the campaign was soon won. A now-pregnant Börte was recovered successfully and soon gave birth to a son,Jochi; although Temüjin raised him as his own, questions over his true paternity followed Jochi throughout his life.This is narrated in theSecret Historyand contrasts with Rashid al-Din's account, which protects the family's reputation by removing any hint of illegitimacy.Over the next decade and a half, Temüjin and Börte had three more sons (Chagatai,Ögedei, andTolui) and four more daughters (Checheyigen,Alaqa, Tümelün, andAl-Altan). The followers of Temüjin and Jamukha camped together for a year and a half, during which their leaders reforged theirandapact and slept together under one blanket, according to theSecret History. The source presents this period as close friends bonding, but Ratchnevsky questioned if Temüjin actually entered into Jamukha's service in return for the assistance with the Merkits.Tensions arose and the two leaders parted, ostensibly on account of a cryptic remark made by Jamukha on the subject of camping;in any case, Temüjin followed the advice of Hö'elün and Börte and began to build an independent following. The major tribal rulers remained with Jamukha, but forty-one leaders gave their support to Temüjin along with many commoners: these includedSubutaiand others of theUriankhai, theBarulas, the Olkhonuds, and many more.Many were attracted by Temüjin's reputation as a fair and generous lord who could offer better lives, while hisshamansprophesied that heaven had allocated him a great destiny. Temüjin was soon acclaimed by his close followers as khan of the Mongols.Toghrul was pleased at his vassal's elevation but Jamukha was resentful. Tensions escalated into open hostility, and in around 1187 the two leaders clashed in battleat Dalan Baljut: the two forces were evenly matched but Temüjin suffered a clear defeat. Later chroniclers including Rashid al-Din instead state that he was victorious but their accounts contradict themselves and each other. Modern historians such as Ratchnevsky and Timothy May consider it very likely that Temüjin spent a large portion of the decade following the clash at Dalan Baljut as a servant of the JurchenJin dynastyinNorth China.Zhao Hong recorded that the future Genghis Khan spent several years as a slave of the Jin. Formerly seen as an expression of nationalistic arrogance, the statement is now thought to be based in fact, especially as no other source convincingly explains Temüjin's activities between Dalan Baljut andc.1195.Taking refuge across the border was a common practice both for disaffected steppe leaders and disgraced Chinese officials. Temüjin's reemergence having retained significant power indicates that he probably profited in the service of the Jin. As he later overthrew that state, such an episode, detrimental to Mongol prestige, was omitted from all their sources. Zhao Hong was bound by no such taboos. Defeating rivals The sources do not agree on the events of Temüjin's return to the steppe. In early summer 1196, he participated in a joint campaign with the Jin against the Tatars, who had begun to act contrary to Jin interests. As a reward, the Jin awarded him the honorificcha-ut kuri, the meaning of which probably approximated \"commander of hundreds\" inJurchen. At around the same time, he assisted Toghrul with reclaiming the lordship of the Kereit, which had been usurped by one of Toghrul's relatives with the support of the powerfulNaiman tribe.The actions of 1196 fundamentally changed Temüjin's position in the steppe—although nominally still Toghrul's vassal, he wasde factoan equal ally. Jamukha behaved cruelly following his victory at Dalan Baljut—he allegedlyboiled seventy prisoners aliveand humiliated the corpses of leaders who had opposed him. A number of disaffected followers, including Yesügei's follower Münglig and his sons,defectedto Temüjin as a consequence; they were also probably attracted by his newfound wealth.Temüjin subdued the disobedientJurkintribe that had previously offended him at a feast and refused to participate in the Tatar campaign. After executing their leaders, he had Belgutei symbolically break a leading Jurkin's back in a stagedwrestlingmatch in retribution. This latter incident, which contravened Mongol customs of justice, was only noted by the author of theSecret History, who openly disapproved. These events occurred c. 1197. During the following years, Temüjin and Toghrul campaigned against the Merkits, the Naimans, and the Tatars; sometimes separately and sometimes together. In around 1201, a collection of dissatisfied tribes including the Onggirat, the Tayichiud, and the Tatars swore to break the domination of the Borjigin-Kereit alliance, electing Jamukha as their leader andgurkhan(lit.'\"khan of the tribes\"'). After some initial successes, Temüjin and Toghrul routed this loose confederationat Yedi Qunan, and Jamukha was forced to beg for Toghrul's clemency.Desiring complete supremacy in eastern Mongolia, Temüjin defeated first the Tayichiud and then, in 1202, the Tatars; after both campaigns, he executed the clan leaders and took the remaining warriors into his service. These included Sorkan-Shira, who had come to his aid previously, and a young warrior namedJebe, who, by killing Temüjin's horse and refusing to hide that fact, had displayed martial ability and personal courage. The absorption of the Tatars left three military powers in the steppe: the Naimans in the west, the Mongols in the east, and the Kereit in between.Seeking to cement his position, Temüjin proposed that his son Jochi marry one of Toghrul's daughters. Led by Toghrul's son Senggum, the Kereit elite believed the proposal to be an attempt to gain control over their tribe, while the doubts over Jochi's parentage would have offended them further. In addition, Jamukha drew attention to the threat Temüjin posed to the traditional steppearistocracyby his habit of promoting commoners to high positions, which subverted social norms. Yielding eventually to these demands, Toghrul attempted to lure his vassal into an ambush, but his plans were overheard by two herdsmen. Temüjin was able to gather some of his forces, but was soundly defeated at theBattle of Qalaqaljid Sands. \" raised his hands and looking up at Heaven swore, saying \"If I am able to achieve my 'Great Work', I shall share with you men the sweet and the bitter. If I break this word, may I be like the water of the River, drunk up by others.\"Among officers and men there was none who was not moved to tears. TheHistory of Yuan, vol 120 (1370) Retreating southeast to Baljuna, an unidentified lake or river, Temüjin waited for his scattered forces to regroup: Bo'orchu had lost his horse and was forced to flee on foot, while Temüjin's badly wounded sonÖgedeihad been transported and tended to byBorokhula, a leading warrior. Temüjin called in every possible ally and swore a famousoath of loyalty, later known as theBaljuna Covenant, to his faithful followers, which subsequently granted them great prestige.The oath-takers of Baljuna were a veryheterogeneousgroup—men from nine different tribes who included Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists, united only by loyalty to Temüjin and to each other. This group became a model for the later empire, termed a \"proto-government of a proto-nation\" by historianJohn Man.The Baljuna Covenant was omitted from theSecret History—as the group was predominantly non-Mongol, the author presumably wished to downplay the role of other tribes. Aruse de guerreinvolving Qasar allowed the Mongols to ambush the Kereit at the Jej'er Heights, but though the ensuing battle still lasted three days, it ended in adecisive victoryfor Temüjin. Toghrul and Senggum were both forced to flee, and while the latter escaped toTibet, Toghrul was killed by a Naiman who did not recognise him. Temüjin sealed his victory by absorbing the Kereit elite into his own tribe: he took the princessIbaqaas a wife, and married her sisterSorghaghtaniand nieceDoquzto his youngest son Tolui.The ranks of the Naimans had swelled due to the arrival of Jamukha and others defeated by the Mongols, and they prepared for war. Temüjin was informed of these events byAlaqush, the sympathetic ruler of theOngudtribe. In May 1204, at theBattle of Chakirmautin theAltai Mountains, the Naimans were decisively defeated: their leaderTayang Khanwas killed, and his sonKuchlugwas forced to flee west.The Merkits were decimated later that year, while Jamukha, who had abandoned the Naimans at Chakirmaut, was betrayed to Temüjin by companions who were executed for their lack of loyalty. According to theSecret History, Jamukha convinced his childhoodandato execute him honourably; other accounts state that he was killed bydismemberment. Early reign: reforms and Chinese campaigns (1206–1215) Kurultaiof 1206 and reforms Now sole ruler of the steppe, Temüjin held a large assembly called akurultaiat the source of the Onon River in 1206.Here, he formally adopted the title \"Genghis Khan\", the etymology and meaning of which have been much debated. Some commentators hold that the title had no meaning, simply representing Temüjin's eschewal of the traditionalgurkhantitle, which had been accorded to Jamukha and was thus of lesser worth.Another theory suggests that the word \"Genghis\" bears connotations of strength, firmness, hardness, or righteousness.A third hypothesis proposes that the title is related to theTurkictängiz('ocean'), the title \"Genghis Khan\" would mean \"master of the ocean\", and as the ocean was believed to surround the earth, the title thus ultimately implied \"Universal Ruler\". Having attained control over one million people,Genghis Khan began a \"social revolution\", in May's words.As traditional tribal systems had primarily evolved to benefit small clans and families, they were unsuitable as the foundations for larger states and had been the downfall of previous steppe confederations. Genghis thus began a series of administrative reforms designed to suppress the power of tribal affiliations and to replace them with unconditional loyalty to the khan and the ruling family.As most of the traditional tribal leaders had been killed during his rise to power, Genghis was able to reconstruct the Mongol social hierarchy in his favour. The highest tier was occupied solely by his and his brothers' families, who became known as thealtan uruq(lit.'Golden Family') orchaghan yasun(lit.'white bone'); underneath them came theqara yasun(lit.'black bone'; sometimesqarachu), composed of the surviving pre-empire aristocracy and the most important of the new families. To break any concept of tribal loyalty, Mongol society was reorganised into a military decimal system. Every man between the age of fifteen and seventy was conscripted into aminqan(pl.minkad), a unit of a thousand soldiers, which was further subdivided into units of hundreds (jaghun,pl.jaghat) and tens (arban,pl.arbat).The units also encompassed each man's household, meaning that each militaryminqanwas supported by aminqanof households in what May has termed \"amilitary–industrial complex\". Eachminqanoperated as both a political and social unit, while the warriors of defeated tribes were dispersed to differentminqadto make it difficult for them to rebel as a single body. This was intended to ensure the disappearance of old tribal identities, replacing them with loyalty to the \"Great Mongol State\", and to commanders who had gained their rank through merit and loyalty to the khan.This particular reform proved extremely effective—even after thedivision of the Mongol Empire, fragmentation never happened along tribal lines. Instead, the descendants of Genghis continued to reign unchallenged, in some cases until as late as the 1700s, and even powerful non-imperial dynasts such asTimurandEdiguwere compelled to rule from behind a puppet ruler of his lineage. Genghis's seniornökodwere appointed to the highest ranks and received the greatest honours. Bo'orchu andMuqaliwere each given ten thousand men to lead as commanders of the right and left wings of the army respectively.The othernökodwere each given commands of one of the ninety-fiveminkad. In a display of Genghis' meritocratic ideals, many of these men were born to low social status: Ratchnevsky cited Jelme and Subutai, the sons of blacksmiths, in addition to a carpenter, a shepherd, and even the two herdsmen who had warned Temüjin of Toghrul's plans in 1203.As a special privilege, Genghis allowed certain loyal commanders to retain the tribal identities of their units. Alaqush of the Ongud was allowed to retain five thousand warriors of his tribe because his son had entered into an alliance pact with Genghis, marrying his daughter Alaqa. A key tool which underpinned these reforms was the expansion of thekeshig('bodyguard'). After Temüjin defeated Toghrul in 1203, he had appropriated this Kereit institution in a minor form, but at the 1206kurultaiits numbers were greatly expanded, from 1,150 to 10,000 men. Thekeshigwas not only the khan's bodyguard, but his household staff, a military academy, and the centre of governmental administration.All the warriors in this elite corps were brothers or sons of military commanders and were essentially hostages. The members of thekeshignevertheless received special privileges and direct access to the khan, whom they served and who in return evaluated their capabilities and their potential to govern or command.Commanders such as Subutai,Chormaqan, andBaijuall started out in thekeshig, before being given command of their own force. Consolidation of power (1206–1210) From 1204 to 1209, Genghis Khan was predominantly focused on consolidating and maintaining his new nation.He faced a challenge from theshamanKokechu, whose father Münglig had been allowed to marry Hö'elün after he defected to Temüjin. Kokechu, who had proclaimed Temüjin as Genghis Khan and taken theTengristtitle \"Teb Tenggeri\" (lit.\"Wholly Heavenly\") on account of his sorcery, was very influential among the Mongol commoners and sought to divide the imperial family.Genghis's brother Qasar was the first of Kokechu's targets—always distrusted by his brother, Qasar was humiliated and almost imprisoned on false charges before Hö'elün intervened by publicly reprimanding Genghis. Nevertheless, Kokechu's power steadily increased, and he publicly shamed Temüge, Genghis's youngest brother, when he attempted to intervene.Börte saw that Kokechu was a threat to Genghis's power and warned her husband, who still superstitiously revered the shaman but now recognised the political threat he posed. Genghis allowed Temüge to arrange Kokechu's death, and then usurped the shaman's position as the Mongols' highest spiritual authority. During these years, the Mongols imposed their control on surrounding areas. Genghis dispatched Jochi northwards in 1207 to subjugate theHoi-yin Irgen, a collection of tribes on the edge of theSiberian taiga. Having secured a marriage alliance with theOiratsand defeated theYenisei Kyrgyz, he took control of the region's trade in grain and furs, as well as itsgold mines.Mongol armies also rode westwards, defeating the Naiman-Merkit alliance on theRiver Irtyshin late 1208. Their khan was killed and Kuchlug fled intoCentral Asia.Led byBarchuk, theUyghursfreed themselves from the suzerainty of theQara Khitaiand pledged themselves to Genghis in 1211 as the firstsedentary societyto submit to the Mongols. The Mongols had started raiding the border settlements of theTangut-ledWestern Xiakingdom in 1205, ostensibly in retaliation for allowing Senggum, Toghrul's son, refuge.More prosaic explanations include rejuvenating the depleted Mongol economy with an influx of fresh goods andlivestock,or simply subjugating a semi-hostile state to protect the nascent Mongol nation.Most Xia troops were stationed along the southern and eastern borders of the kingdom to guard against attacks from theSongandJindynasties respectively, while its northern border relied only on theGobi desertfor protection.After a raid in 1207 sacked the Xia fortress ofWulahai, Genghis decided to personally leada full-scale invasionin 1209. Wulahai was captured again in May and the Mongols advanced on the capital Zhongxing (modern-dayYinchuan) but suffered a reverse against a Xia army. After a two-month stalemate, Genghis broke the deadlock with afeigned retreat; the Xia forces were deceived out of their defensive positions and overpowered.Although Zhongxing was now mostly undefended, the Mongols lacked anysiege equipmentbetter than crudebattering ramsand were unable to progress the siege.The Xia requested aid from the Jin, butEmperor Zhangzongrejected the plea. Genghis's attempt to redirect theYellow Riverinto the city with a dam initially worked, but the poorly-constructedearthworksbroke—possibly breached by the Xia—in January 1210 and the Mongol camp was flooded, forcing them to retreat. A peace treaty was soon formalised: the Xia emperorXiangzongsubmitted and handed over tribute, including his daughter Chaka, in exchange for the Mongol withdrawal. Campaign against the Jin (1211–1215) Wanyan Yongjiusurped the Jin throne in 1209. He had previously served on the steppe frontier and Genghis greatly disliked him.When asked to submit and pay the annual tribute to Yongji in 1210, Genghis instead mocked the emperor, spat, and rode away from the Jin envoy—a challenge that meant war.Despite the possibility of being outnumbered eight-to-one by 600,000 Jin soldiers, Genghis had prepared to invade the Jin since learning in 1206 that the state was wracked by internal instabilities.Genghis had two aims: to take vengeance for past wrongs committed by the Jin, foremost among which was the death ofAmbaghai Khanin the mid-12th century, and to win the vast amounts of plunder his troops and vassals expected. After calling for akurultaiin March 1211, Genghis launchedhis invasion of Jin Chinain May, reaching theouter ring of Jin defencesthe following month. Theseborderfortifications were guarded by Alaqush's Ongud, who allowed the Mongols to pass without difficulty.The three-prongedchevauchéeaimed both to plunder and burn a vast area of Jin territory to deprive them of supplies and popular legitimacy, and to secure themountain passeswhich allowed access to theNorth China Plain.The Jin lost numerous towns and were hindered by a series of defections, the most prominent of which led directly to Muqali's victory at theBattle of Huan'erzhuiin autumn 1211.The campaign was halted in 1212 when Genghis was wounded by an arrow during the unsuccessful siege of Xijing (modernDatong).Following this failure, Genghis set up a corps ofsiege engineers, which recruited 500 Jin experts over the next two years. The defences ofJuyong Passhad been strongly reinforced by the time the conflict resumed in 1213, but a Mongol detachment led by Jebe managed to infiltrate the pass and surprise the elite Jin defenders, opening the road to the Jin capitalZhongdu(modern-dayBeijing).The Jin administration began to disintegrate: after theKhitans, a tribe subject to the Jin, entered open rebellion, Hushahu, the commander of the forces at Xijing, abandoned his post and staged a coup in Zhongdu, killing Yongji and installing his own puppet ruler,Xuanzong.This governmental breakdown was fortunate for Genghis's forces; emboldened by their victories, they had seriously overreached and lost the initiative. Unable to do more than camp before Zhongdu'sfortificationswhile his army suffered from an epidemic and famine—they resorted tocannibalismaccording toCarpini, who may have been exaggerating—Genghis opened peace negotiations despite his commanders' militance.He secured tribute, including 3,000 horses, 500 slaves, a Jin princess, and massive amounts of gold and silk, before lifting the siege and setting off homewards in May 1214. As the northern Jin lands had been ravaged by plague and war, Xuanzong moved the capital andimperial court600 kilometres (370 mi) southwards toKaifeng.Interpreting this as an attempt to regroup in the south and then restart the war, Genghis concluded the terms of the peace treaty had been broken. He immediately prepared to return and capture Zhongdu.According to Christopher Atwood, it was only at this juncture that Genghis decided to fully conquer northern China.Muqali captured numerous towns inLiaodongduring winter 1214–15, and although the inhabitants of Zhongdu surrendered to Genghis on 31 May 1215, the city was sacked.When Genghis returned to Mongolia in early 1216, Muqali was left in command in China.He waged a brutal but effective campaign against the unstable Jin regime until his death in 1223. Later reign: western expansion and return to China (1216–1227) Defeating rebellions and Qara Khitai (1216–1218) In 1207, Genghis had appointed a man named Qorchi as governor of the subdued Hoi-yin Irgen tribes in Siberia. Appointed not for his talents but for prior services rendered, Qorchi's tendency to abduct women asconcubinesfor hisharemcaused the tribes to rebel and take him prisoner in early 1216. The following year, they ambushed and killedBoroqul, one of Genghis's highest-rankingnökod.The khan was livid at the loss of his close friend and prepared to lead a retaliatory campaign; eventually dissuaded from this course, he dispatched his eldest son Jochi and aDörbetcommander. They managed to surprise and defeat the rebels, securing control over this economically important region. Kuchlug, theNaimanprince who had been defeated in 1204, had usurped the throne of the Central Asian Qara Khitai dynasty between 1211 and 1213. He was a greedy and arbitrary ruler who probably earned the enmity of the nativeIslamicpopulace whom he attempted toforcibly converttoBuddhism.Genghis reckoned that Kuchlug could be a threat to his empire, and Jebe was sent with an army of 20,000 cavalry to the city ofKashgar; he undermined Kuchlug's rule by emphasising the Mongol policies of religious tolerance and gained the loyalty of the local elite.Kuchlug was forced to flee southwards to thePamir Mountains, but was captured by local hunters. Jebe had him beheaded and paraded his corpse through Qara Khitai, proclaiming the end of religious persecution in the region. Invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221) Genghis had now attained complete control of the eastern portion of theSilk Road, and his territory bordered that of theKhwarazmian Empire, which ruled over much of Central Asia,PersiaandAfghanistan.Merchants from both sides were eager to restart trading, which had halted during Kuchlug's rule; the Khwarazmian rulerMuhammad IIdispatched an envoy shortly after the Mongol capture of Zhongdu, while Genghis instructedhis merchantsto obtain the high-quality textiles and steel of Central and Western Asia.Many members of thealtan uruqinvested in one particular caravan of 450 merchants which set off to Khwarazmia in 1218 with a large quantity of wares.Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarazmian border town ofOtrar, decided to massacre the merchants on grounds ofespionageand seize the goods; Muhammad had grown suspicious of Genghis's intentions and either supported Inalchuq or turned a blind eye.A Mongol ambassador was sent with two companions to avert war, but Muhammad killed him and humiliated his companions. The killing of an envoy infuriated Genghis, who resolved to leave Muqali with a small force in North China and invade Khwarazmia with most of his army. Muhammad's empire was large but disunited: he ruled alongside his motherTerken Khatunin what the historianPeter Goldenterms \"an uneasy diarchy\", while the Khwarazmian nobility and populace were discontented with his warring and the centralisation of government. For these reasons and others he declined to meet the Mongols in the field, instead garrisoning his unruly troops in his major cities.This allowed the lightly armoured, highly mobile Mongol armies uncontested superiority outside city walls.Otrar was besiegedin autumn 1219—the siege dragged on for five months, but in February 1220 the city fell and Inalchuq was executed.Genghis had meanwhile divided his forces. Leaving his sons Chagatai andÖgedeito besiege the city, he had sent Jochi northwards down theSyr Daryariver and another force southwards into centralTransoxiana, while he and Tolui took the main Mongol army across theKyzylkum Desert, surprising the garrison ofBukharain apincer movement. Bukhara's citadel was capturedin February 1220 and Genghis moved against Muhammad's residenceSamarkand, whichfell the following month.Bewildered by the speed of the Mongol conquests, Muhammad fled fromBalkh, closely followed by Jebe and Subutai; the two generals pursued the Khwarazmshah until he died fromdysentryon aCaspian Seaisland in winter 1220–21, having nominated his eldest sonJalal al-Dinas his successor.Jebe and Subutai then set out on a 7,500-kilometre (4,700 mi)-expedition around theCaspian Sea. Later called theGreat Raid, this lasted four years and saw the Mongols come into contact with Europe for the first time.Meanwhile, the Khwarazmian capital ofGurganjwas being besieged by Genghis's three eldest sons.The long siegeended in spring 1221 amid brutal urban conflict.Jalal al-Din moved southwards to Afghanistan, gathering forces on the way and defeating a Mongol unit under the command ofShigi Qutuqu, Genghis's adopted son, in theBattle of Parwan.Jalal was weakened by arguments among his commanders, and after losing decisively at theBattle of the Indusin November 1221, he was compelled to escape across theIndus riverinto India. Genghis's youngest son Tolui was concurrently conductinga brutal campaignin the regions ofKhorasan. Every city that resisted was destroyed—Nishapur,MervandHerat, three of the largest and wealthiest cities in the world, were all annihilated.This campaign established Genghis's lasting image as a ruthless, inhumane conqueror. Contemporary Persian historians placed the death toll from the three sieges alone at over 5.7 million—a number regarded as grossly exaggerated by modern scholars.Nevertheless, even a total death toll of 1.25 million for the entire campaign, as estimated by John Man, would have been a demographic catastrophe. Return to China and final campaign (1222–1227) Genghis abruptly halted his Central Asian campaigns in 1221.Initially aiming to return viaIndia, Genghis realised that the heat and humidity of the South Asian climate impeded his army's skills, while theomenswere additionally unfavourable.Although the Mongols spent much of 1222 repeatedly overcoming rebellions in Khorasan, they withdrew completely from the region to avoid overextending themselves, setting their new frontier on theAmu Daryariver.During his lengthy return journey, Genghis prepared a new administrative division which would govern the conquered territories, appointingdarughachi(commissioners,lit.\"those who press the seal\") andbasqaq(local officials) to manage the region back to normalcy.He also summoned and spoke with theTaoistpatriarchChangchunin theHindu Kush. The khan listened attentively to Changchun's teachings and granted his followers numerous privileges, includingtax exemptionsand authority over all monks throughout the empire—a grant which the Taoists later used to try to gain superiority over Buddhism. The usual reason given for the halting of the campaign is that theWestern Xia, having declined to provide auxiliaries for the 1219 invasion, had additionally disobeyed Muqali in his campaign against the remaining Jin inShaanxi.May has disputed this, arguing that the Xia fought in concert with Muqali until his death in 1223, when, frustrated by Mongol control and sensing an opportunity with Genghis campaigning in Central Asia, they ceased fighting.In either case, Genghis initially attempted to resolve the situation diplomatically, but when the Xia elite failed to come to an agreement on the hostages they were to send to the Mongols, he lost patience. Returning to Mongolia in early 1225, Genghis spent the year in preparation for a campaign against them. This began in the first months of 1226 with the capture ofKhara-Khotoon the Xia's western border.The invasion proceeded apace. Genghis ordered that the cities of theGansu Corridorbe sacked one by one, grantingclemencyonly to a few.Having crossed theYellow Riverin autumn, the Mongols besieged present-dayLingwu, located just 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of the Xia capitalZhongxing, in November. On 4 December, Genghis decisively defeated a Xiarelief army; the khan left the siege of the capital to his generals and moved southwards with Subutai to plunder and secure Jin territories. Death and aftermath Genghis fell from his horse while hunting in the winter of 1226–27 and became increasingly ill during the following months. This slowed the siege of Zhongxing's progress, as his sons and commanders urged him to end the campaign and return to Mongolia to recover, arguing that the Xia would still be there another year.Incensed by insults from Xia's leading commander, Genghis insisted that the siege be continued. He died on either 18 or 25 August 1227, but his death was kept a closely guarded secret and Zhongxing, unaware, fell the following month. The city was put to the sword and its population was treated with extreme savagery—the Xia civilization was essentially extinguished in what Man described as a \"very successfulethnocide\".The exact nature of the khan's death has been the subject of intense speculation. Rashid al-Din and theHistory of Yuanmention he suffered from an illness—possiblymalaria,typhus, orbubonic plague.Marco Poloclaimed that he was shot by an arrow during a siege, whileCarpinireported that Genghis wasstruck by lightning. Legends sprang up around the event—the most famous recounts how the beautiful Gurbelchin, formerly the Xia emperor's wife, injured Genghis's genitals with a dagger during sex. After his death, Genghis was transported back to Mongolia and buried on or near the sacredBurkhan Khaldunpeak in theKhentii Mountains, on a site he had chosen years before.Specific details of thefuneral processionand burial were not made public knowledge; the mountain, declaredikh khorig(lit.\"Great Taboo\"; i.e. prohibited zone), was out of bounds to all but itsUriankhaiguard. When Ögedei acceded to the throne in 1229, the grave was honoured with three days of offerings and the sacrifice of thirty maidens.Ratchnevsky theorised that the Mongols, who had no knowledge ofembalming techniques, may have buried the khan in theOrdosto avoid his body decomposing in the summer heat while en route to Mongolia; Atwood rejects this hypothesis. Succession The tribes of the Mongol steppe had no fixed succession system, but often defaulted to some form ofultimogeniture—succession of the youngest son—because he would have had the least time to gain a following for himself and needed the help of his father's inheritance.However, this type of inheritance applied only to property, not to titles. TheSecret Historyrecords that Genghis chose his successor while preparing for the Khwarazmian campaigns in 1219; Rashid al-Din, on the other hand, states that the decision came before Genghis's final campaign against the Xia.Regardless of the date, there were five possible candidates: Genghis's four sons and his youngest brother Temüge, who had the weakest claim and who was never seriously considered.Even though there was a strong possibility Jochi was illegitimate, Genghis was not particularly concerned by this;nevertheless, he and Jochi became increasingly estranged over time, due to Jochi's preoccupation with his own appanage. After the siege of Gurganj, where he only reluctantly participated in besieging the wealthy city that would become part of his territory, he failed to give Genghis the normal share of the booty, which exacerbated the tensions.Genghis was angered by Jochi's refusal to return to him in 1223, and was considering sending Ögedei and Chagatai to bring him to heel when news came that Jochi had died from an illness. Chagatai's attitude towards Jochi's possible succession—he had termed his elder brother \"a Merkit bastard\" and had brawled with him in front of their father—led Genghis to view him as uncompromising, arrogant, and narrow-minded, despite his great knowledge ofMongol legal customs.His elimination left Ögedei and Tolui as the two primary candidates. Tolui was unquestionably superior in military terms—his campaign in Khorasan had broken the Khwarazmian Empire, while his elder brother was far less able as a commander.Ögedei was also known todrink excessivelyeven by Mongol standards—it eventually caused his death in 1241.However, he possessed talents all his brothers lacked—he was generous and generally well-liked. Aware of his own lack of military skill, he was able to trust his capable subordinates, and unlike his elder brothers, compromise on issues; he was also more likely to preserve Mongol traditions than Tolui, whose wife Sorghaghtani, herself aNestorian Christian, was a patron of many religions including Islam. Ögedei was thus recognised as the heir to the Mongol throne. Serving asregentafter Genghis's death, Tolui established a precedent for the customary traditions after a khan's death. These included the halting of all military offensives involving Mongol troops, the establishment of a lengthy mourning period overseen by the regent, and the holding of akurultaiwhich would nominate successors and select them.For Tolui, this presented an opportunity. He was still a viable candidate for succession and had the support of the family of Jochi. Any generalkurultai, attended by the commanders Genghis had promoted and honoured, would however observe their former ruler's desires without question and appoint Ögedei as ruler. It has been suggested that Tolui's reluctance to hold thekurultaiwas driven by the knowledge of the threat it posed to his ambitions.In the end, Tolui had to be persuaded by the advisorYelü Chucaito hold thekurultai; in 1229, it crowned Ögedei as khan, with Tolui in attendance. Family Börte, whom Temüjin marriedc.1178, remained his senior wife.She gave birth to four sons and five daughters, who all became influential figures in the empire.Genghis granted Börte's sons lands and property through theMongol appanage system,while he secured marriage alliances by marrying her daughters to important families.Her children were: After Börte's final childbirth, Temüjin began to acquire a number of junior wives through conquest. These wives had all previously been princesses or queens, and Temüjin married them to demonstrate his political ascendancy. They included the Kereit princessIbaqa; the Tatar sistersYesugenandYesui;Qulan, a Merkit; Gürbesu, the queen of the NaimanTayang Khan; and two Chinese princesses, Chaqa and Qiguo, of the Western Xia and Jin dynasties respectively.The children of these junior wives were always subservient to those of Börte, with daughters married off to seal lesser alliances and sons, such as Qulan's childKölgen, never a candidate for succession. Character and achievements No eyewitness description or contemporaneous depiction of Genghis Khan survives.The Persian chronicler Juzjani and the Song diplomat Zhao Hong provide the two earliest descriptions.Both recorded that he was tall and strong with a powerful stature. Zhao wrote that Genghis had a broad brow and long beard while Juzjani commented on his cat's eyes and lack of grey hair. TheSecret Historyrecords that Börte's father remarked on his \"flashing eyes and lively face\" when meeting him. Atwood has suggested that many of Genghis Khan's values, especially the emphasis he placed on an orderly society, derive from his turbulent youth.He valued loyalty above all and mutual fidelity became a cornerstone of his new nation.Genghis did not find it difficult to gain the allegiance of others: he was superbly charismatic even as a youth, as shown by the number of people who left existing social roles behind to join him.Although his trust was hard to earn, if he felt loyalty was assured, he granted his total confidence in return.Recognised for his generosity towards his followers, Genghis unhesitatingly rewarded previous assistance. Thenökodmost honoured at the 1206 kurultai were those who had accompanied him since the beginning, and those who had sworn the Baljuna Covenant with him at his lowest point.He took responsibility for the families ofnökodkilled in battle or who otherwise fell on hard times by raising a tax to provide them with clothing and sustenance. Heaven grew weary of the excessive pride and luxury in China ... I am from the barbaric North ... I wear the same clothing and eat the same food as the cowherds and horse-herders. We make the same sacrifices and we share our riches. I look upon the nation as a new-born child and I care for my soldiers as if they were my brothers. Genghis Khan's letter toChangchun The principal source of steppe wealth was post-battle plunder, of which a leader would normally claim a large share; Genghis eschewed this custom, choosing instead to divide booty equally between himself and all his men.Disliking any form of luxury, he extolled the simple life of the nomad in a letter to Changchun, and objected to being addressed with obsequious flattery. He encouraged his companions to address him informally, give him advice, and criticise his mistakes.Genghis's openness to criticism and willingness to learn saw him seeking the knowledge of family members, companions, neighbouring states, and enemies.He sought and gained knowledge of sophisticated weaponry from China and the Muslim world, appropriated theUyghur alphabetwith the help of the captured scribeTata-tonga, and employed numerous specialists across legal, commercial, and administrative fields.He also understood the need for a smooth succession and modern historians agree he showed good judgement in choosing his heir. Although he is today renowned for his military conquests, very little is known about Genghis's personal generalship. His skills were more suited to identifying potential commanders.His institution of a meritocraticcommand structuregave the Mongol army military superiority, even though it was not technologically or tactically innovative.The army that Genghis created was characterised by its draconiandiscipline, its ability to gather and usemilitary intelligenceefficiently, a mastery ofpsychological warfare, and a willingness to be utterly ruthless.Genghis thoroughly enjoyed exacting vengeance on his enemies—the concept lay at the heart ofachi qari'ulqu(lit.'\"good for good, evil for evil\"'), the steppe code of justice. In exceptional circumstances, such as when Muhammad of Khwarazm executed his envoys, the need for vengeance overrode all other considerations. Genghis came to believe the supreme deityTengrihad ordained a great destiny for him. Initially, the bounds of this ambition were limited only to Mongolia, but as success followed success and the reach of the Mongol nation expanded, he and his followers came to believe he was embodied withsuu(lit.''divine grace'').Believing that he had an intimate connection with Heaven, anyone who did not recognise his right to world power was treated as an enemy. This viewpoint allowed Genghis to rationalise any hypocritical or duplicitous moments on his own part, such as killing hisandaJamukha or killingnökodwho wavered in their loyalties. Legacy and historical assessment Genghis Khan left a vast and controversial legacy. His unification of the Mongol tribes and his foundation of thelargest contiguous state in world history\"permanently alter the worldview of European, Islamic, East Asian civilizations\", according to Atwood.His conquests enabled the creation ofEurasiantrading systems unprecedented in their scale, which brought wealth and security to the tribes.Although he very likely did not codify the written body of laws known as theGreatYasa,he did reorganise the legal system and establish a powerful judicial authority underShigi Qutuqu. On the other hand, his conquests were ruthless and brutal. The prosperous civilizations of China, Central Asia, and Persia were devastated by the Mongol assaults, and underwent multi-generational trauma and suffering as a result.Perhaps Genghis's greatest failing was his inability to create a working succession system—his division of his empire intoappanages, meant to ensure stability, actually did the reverse, as local and state-wide interests diverged and the empirebegan splittinginto theGolden Horde, theChagatai Khanate, theIlkhanate, and theYuan dynastyin the late 1200s.In the mid-1990s, theWashington Postacclaimed Genghis Khan as the \"man of the millennium\" who \"embodied the half-civilized, half-savage duality of the human race\".This complex image has remained prevalent in modern scholarship, with historians emphasising both Genghis Khan's positive and negative contributions. Mongolia For many centuries, Genghis was remembered in Mongolia as a religious figure, not a political one. AfterAltan Khanconverted toTibetan Buddhismin the late 1500s, Genghis wasdeifiedand given a central role in the Mongolian religious tradition.As a deity, Genghis drew upon Buddhist, shamanistic, andfolk traditions: for example, he was defined as a new incarnation of achakravartin(idealised ruler) likeAshoka, or ofVajrapani, the martialbodhisattva; he was connected genealogically to theBuddhaand to ancient Buddhist kings; he was invoked during weddings and festivals; and he took a large role inancestor venerationrituals.He also became the focus point of asleeping hero legend, which says he will return to help the Mongol people in a time of great need.His cult was centred at thenaiman chagan ordon(lit.'\"Eight White Yurts\"'), todaya mausoleuminInner Mongolia, China. In the 19th and early 20th century, Genghis began to be viewed as thenational heroof the Mongolian people. Foreign powers recognised this: during itsoccupation of Inner Mongolia,Imperial Japanfunded the construction of a temple to Genghis, while both theKuomintangand theChinese Communist Partyused the memory of Genghis to woo potential allies in theChinese Civil War.This attitude was maintained duringWorld War II, when theSoviet-alignedMongolian People's Republicpromoted Genghis to build patriotic zeal against invaders; however, as he was a non-Russian hero who could serve as ananticommunistfigurehead, this attitude swiftly changed after the war's end. According to May, Genghis \"was condemned as afeudaland reactionary lord exploited the people.\"His cult was repressed, the alphabet he chose was replaced with theCyrillic script, and celebrations planned for the 800th anniversary of his birth in 1962 were cancelled and denigrated after loud Soviet complaints. Because Chinese historians were largely more favourable towards him than their Soviet circumstances, Genghis played a minor role in theSino-Soviet split. The arrival of the policies ofglasnostandperestroikain the 1980s paved the way for official rehabilitation. Less than two years afterthe 1990 revolution, Lenin Avenue in the capital Ulaanbaatar was renamed Chinggis Khan Avenue.Since then, Mongolia has namedChinggis Khaan International Airportand erected a large statue inSükhbaatar Square(which was itself renamed after Genghis between 2013 and 2016). His visage appears on items ranging frompostage stampsandhigh-value banknotesto brands of alcohol and toilet paper. In 2006, the Mongolian parliament officially discussed the trivialization of his name through excessive advertising. Modern Mongolians tend to downplay Genghis's military conquests in favour of his political and civil legacy—they view the destructive campaigns as \"a product of their time\", in the words of the historian Michal Biran, and secondary to his other contributions to Mongolian and world history.His policies—such his use of thekurultai, his establishment of the rule of law through an independent judiciary, and human rights—are seen as the foundations that allowed the creation of the modern, democratic Mongolian state. Viewed as someone who brought peace and knowledge rather than war and destruction, Genghis Khan is idealised for making Mongolia the centre of international culture for a period.He is generally recognised as the founding father of Mongolia. Elsewhere The historical and modernMuslim worldhas associated Genghis Khan with a myriad of ideologies and beliefs.Its first instinct, as Islamic thought had never previously envisioned being ruled by a non-Muslim power, was to view Genghis as the herald ofthe approaching Judgement Day. Over time, as the world failed to end and as his descendants began converting to Islam, Muslims began to see Genghis as an instrument of God's will who was destined to strengthen the Muslim world by cleansing its innate corruption. In post-Mongol Asia, Genghis was also a source of political legitimacy, becausehis descendantshad been recognised as the only ones entitled to reign. As a result, aspiring potentates not descended from him had to justify their rule, either by nominating puppet rulers of Genghis's dynasty, or by stressing their own connections to him.Most notably, the great conquerorTimur, who establishedhis own empirein Central Asia, did both: he was obliged to pay homage to Genghis's descendantsSoyurgatmishandSultan Mahmud, and his propaganda campaigns vastly exaggerated the prominence of his ancestorQarachar Noyan, one of Genghis's lesser commanders, depicting him as Genghis's blood relative and second-in-command. He also married at least two of Genghis's descendants.Babur, the founder of theMughal Empirein India,in turn derived his authority through his descent from both Timur and Genghis.Until the eighteenth century in Central Asia, Genghis was considered the progenitor of the social order, and was second only to the prophetMuhammadin legal authority. With the rise ofArab nationalismin the nineteenth century, theArab worldbegan to view Genghis increasingly negatively. Today, he is perceived as the ultimate \"accursed enemy\", a \"barbarian savage who began the demolition of civilization which culminated in \" by his grandsonHulegu.Similarly, Genghis is viewed extremely negatively in Russia, where historians have consistently portrayed the rule of the Golden Horde—the \"Tatar Yoke\"—as backwards, destructive, inimical to all progress, and the reason for all of Russia's flaws.His treatment in modern Central Asia and Turkey is more ambivalent: his position as a non-Muslim means other national traditions and heroes, such as Timur and theSeljuks, are viewed more highly. Under the Yuan dynasty in China, Genghis was revered as the nation's creator, and he remained in this position even after the foundation of theMing dynastyin 1368. Although the late Ming somewhat disavowed his memory, the positive viewpoint was restored under theManchuQing dynasty(1644–1911), who positioned themselves as his heirs. The rise of 20th-centuryChinese nationalisminitially caused the denigration of Genghis as a traumatic occupier, but he was later resurrected as a useful political symbol on a variety of issues. ModernChinese historiographyhas generally viewed Genghis positively and he has been portrayed as a Chinese hero.In contemporary Japan, he is most known forthe legendthat he was originallyMinamoto no Yoshitsune, a samurai and tragic hero who was forced to commitseppukuin 1189. The Western world, never directly affected by Genghis, has viewed him in shifting and contrasting ways. During the 14th century, as shown by the works of Marco Polo andGeoffrey Chaucer, he was seen as a just and wise ruler, but during the eighteenth century he came to embody theEnlightenmentstereotype of a tyrannical Oriental despot, and by the twentieth century he represented a prototypical barbarian warlord. In recent decades, Western scholarship has become increasingly nuanced, viewing Genghis as a more complex individual. References Notes Citations Bibliography", "World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \"spheres of influence\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\"cash and carry\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\"living space\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidalstate\".Soviet POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links" ]
[ "Genghis Khan Genghis Khan(bornTemüjin;c.1162– August 1227), also known asChinggis Khan,was the founder and firstkhanof theMongol Empire. After spending most of his life uniting theMongol tribes, he launcheda series of military campaigns, conquering large parts ofChinaandCentral Asia. Born between 1155 and 1167and given the name Temüjin, he was the eldest child ofYesugei, a Mongol chieftain of theBorjigin clan, and his wifeHö'elün. When Temüjin was eight, his father died and his family was abandoned by its tribe. Reduced to near-poverty, Temüjin killedhis older half-brotherto secure his familial position. His charismatic personality helped to attract his first followers and to form alliances with two prominentsteppeleaders namedJamukhaandToghrul; they worked together to retrieve Temüjin's newlywed wifeBörte, who had been kidnapped by raiders. As his reputation grew, his relationship with Jamukha deteriorated into open warfare. Temüjin wasbadly defeatedinc.1187, and may have spent the following years as a", "years as a subject of theJin dynasty; upon reemerging in 1196, he swiftly began gaining power. Toghrul came to view Temüjin as a threat andlaunched a surprise attack on himin 1203. Temüjin retreated, thenregroupedand overpowered Toghrul; after defeating theNaiman tribeand executing Jamukha, he was left as the sole ruler on the Mongolian steppe. Temüjin formally adopted the title \"Genghis Khan\", the meaning of which is uncertain, at an assembly in 1206. Carrying out reforms designed to ensure long-term stability, he transformed the Mongols' tribal structure into an integratedmeritocracydedicated to the service of the ruling family. After thwarting acoupattempt from a powerfulshaman, Genghis began to consolidate his power. In 1209, he led a large-scale raid into the neighbouringWestern Xia, who agreed to Mongol terms the following year. He then launcheda campaign against the Jin dynasty, which lasted for four years and ended in 1215 withthe captureof the Jin capitalZhongdu. His generalJebeannexed the Central", "the Central Asian state ofQara Khitaiin 1218. Genghis was provoked to invade theKhwarazmian Empirethe following year by the execution of his envoys;the campaign toppled the Khwarazmian stateand devastated the regions ofTransoxianaandKhorasan, while Jebe and his colleagueSubutailed an expedition that reachedGeorgiaandKievan Rus'. In 1227, Genghis died while subduing the rebellious Western Xia; following a two-yearinterregnum, his third son and heirÖgedeiacceded to the throne in 1229. Genghis Khan remains a controversial figure. He was generous and intensely loyal to his followers, but ruthless towards his enemies. He welcomed advice from diverse sources in his quest for world domination, for which he believed the shamanic supreme deityTengrihad destined him.The Mongol armyunder Genghis killed millions of people, yet his conquests also facilitated unprecedented commercial and cultural exchange over a vast geographical area. He is remembered as a backwards, savage tyrant inRussiaand theArab world, while recent", "world, while recent Western scholarship has begun to reassess its previous view of him as a barbarian warlord. He was posthumouslydeifiedinMongolia; modern Mongolians recognise him as the founding father of their nation. Name and title There is no universalromanisationsystem used forMongolian; as a result, modern spellings of Mongolian names vary greatly and may result in considerably different pronunciations from the original.Thehonorificmost commonly rendered as \"Genghis\" ultimately derives from the Mongolianᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ, which may be romanised asČinggis. This was adapted into Chinese as成吉思Chéngjísī, and into Persian asچنگیزČəngīz. AsArabiclacks a sound similar to, represented in the Mongolian and Persian romanisations by ⟨č⟩, writers transcribed the name asJ̌ingiz, whileSyriacauthors usedŠīngīz. In addition to \"Genghis\", introduced into English during the 18th century based on a misreading of Persian sources, modern English spellings include \"Chinggis\", \"Chingis\", \"Jinghis\", and \"Jengiz\".His birth name", "birth name \"Temüjin\" (ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ;鐵木真Tiěmùzhēn) is sometimes also spelled \"Temuchin\" in English. When Genghis's grandsonKublai Khanestablished theYuan dynastyin 1271, he bestowed thetemple nameTaizu(太祖, meaning 'Supreme Progenitor') and theposthumous nameShengwu Huangdi(聖武皇帝, meaning 'Holy-Martial Emperor') upon his grandfather. Kublai's great-grandsonKülüg Khanlater expanded this title intoFatian Qiyun Shengwu Huangdi(法天啟運聖武皇帝, meaning 'Interpreter of the Heavenly Law, Initiator of the Good Fortune, Holy-Martial Emperor'). Sources As the sources are written in more than a dozen languages from across Eurasia, modern historians have found it difficult to compile information on the life of Genghis Khan.All accounts of his adolescence andrise to powerderive from two Mongolian-language sources—theSecret History of the Mongols, and theAltan Debter(Golden Book). The latter, now lost, served as inspiration for two Chinese chronicles—the 14th-centuryHistory of Yuanand theShengwu qinzheng lu(Campaigns of Genghis", "of Genghis Khan).TheHistory of Yuan, while poorly edited, provides a large amount of detail on individual campaigns and people; theShengwuis more disciplined in its chronology, but does not criticise Genghis and occasionally contains errors. TheSecret Historysurvived through beingtransliteratedintoChinese charactersduring the 14th and 15th centuries.Its historicity has been disputed: the 20th-century sinologistArthur Waleyconsidered it a literary work with no historiographical value, but more recent historians have given the work much more credence.Although it is clear that the work's chronology is suspect and that some passages were removed or modified for better narration, theSecret Historyis valued highly because the anonymous author is often critical of Genghis Khan: in addition to presenting him as indecisive and as having aphobia of dogs, theSecret Historyalso recounts taboo events such as hisfratricideand the possibility of his son Jochi's illegitimacy. Multiple chronicles in Persian have also", "Persian have also survived, which display a mix of positive and negative attitudes towards Genghis Khan and the Mongols. BothMinhaj-i Siraj JuzjaniandAta-Malik Juvaynicompleted their respective histories in 1260.Juzjani was an eyewitness to the brutality of the Mongol conquests, and the hostility of his chronicle reflects his experiences.His contemporary Juvayni, who had travelled twice to Mongolia and attained a high position in the administration ofa Mongol successor state, was more sympathetic; his account is the most reliable for Genghis Khan's western campaigns.The most important Persian source is theJami' al-tawarikh(Compendium of Chronicles) compiled byRashid al-Dinon the order of Genghis's descendantGhazanin the early 14th century. Ghazan allowed Rashid privileged access to both confidential Mongol sources such as theAltan Debterand to experts on the Mongol oral tradition, including Kublai Khan's ambassadorBolad Chingsang. As he was writing an official chronicle, Rashid censored inconvenient or taboo", "or taboo details. There are many other contemporary histories which include additional information on Genghis Khan and the Mongols, although their neutrality and reliability are often suspect. Additional Chinese sources include the chronicles of the dynasties conquered by the Mongols, and the Song diplomatZhao Hong, who visited the Mongols in 1221.Arabic sources include a contemporary biography of the Khwarazmian princeJalal al-Dinby his companional-Nasawi. There are also several later Christian chronicles, including theGeorgian Chronicles, and works by European travellers such asCarpiniandMarco Polo. Early life Birth and childhood The year of Temüjin's birth is disputed, as historians favour different dates: 1155, 1162 or 1167. Some traditions place his birth in theYear of the Pig, which was either 1155 or 1167.While a dating to 1155 is supported by the writings of both Zhao Hong and Rashid al-Din, other major sources such as theHistory of Yuanand theShengwufavour the year 1162.The 1167 dating, favoured by", "dating, favoured by the sinologistPaul Pelliot, is derived from a minor source—a text of the Yuan artistYang Weizhen—but is more compatible with the events of Genghis Khan's life than a 1155 placement, which implies that he did not have children until after the age of thirty and continued actively campaigning into his seventh decade.1162 is the date accepted by most historians;the historian Paul Ratchnevsky noted that Temüjin himself may not have known the truth.The location of Temüjin's birth, which theSecret Historyrecords asDelüün Boldogon theOnon River, is similarly debated: it has been placed at eitherDadalinKhentii Provinceor in southernAgin-Buryat Okrug, Russia. Temüjin was born into theBorjiginclan of theMongol tribetoYesügei, a chieftain who claimed descent from the legendary warlordBodonchar Munkhag, and his principal wifeHö'elün, originally of theOlkhonudclan, whom Yesügei had abducted from herMerkitbridegroom Chiledu.The origin of his birth name is contested: the earliest traditions hold that his", "hold that his father had just returned from a successful campaign against theTatarswith a captive named Temüchin-uge, after whom he named the newborn in celebration of his victory, while later traditions highlight theroottemür(meaning 'iron') and connect to theories that \"Temüjin\" means 'blacksmith'. Several legends surround Temüjin's birth. The most prominent is that he was born clutching ablood clotin his hand, a motif in Asian folklore indicating the child would be a warrior.Others claimed that Hö'elün wasimpregnated by a ray of lightwhich announced the child's destiny, a legend which echoed that of the mythical Borjigin ancestorAlan Gua.Yesügei and Hö'elün had three younger sons after Temüjin:Qasar,Hachiun, andTemüge, as well as one daughter,Temülün. Temüjin also had two half-brothers,BehterandBelgutei, from Yesügei's secondary wifeSochigel, whose identity is uncertain. The siblings grew up at Yesugei's main camp on the banks of the Onon, where they learned how to ride a horse and shoot a bow. When", "shoot a bow. When Temüjin was eight years old, his father decided to betroth him to a suitable girl. Yesügei took his heir to the pastures of Hö'elün's prestigiousOnggirattribe, which had intermarried with the Mongols on many previous occasions. There, he arranged a betrothal between Temüjin andBörte, the daughter of an Onggirat chieftain namedDei Sechen. As the betrothal meant Yesügei would gain a powerful ally and as Börte commanded a highbride price, Dei Sechen held the stronger negotiating position, and demanded that Temüjin remain in his household to work off his future debt.Accepting this condition, Yesügei requested a meal from a band of Tatars he encountered while riding homewards alone, relying on the steppe tradition of hospitality to strangers. However, the Tatars recognised their old enemy and slipped poison into his food. Yesügei gradually sickened but managed to return home; close to death, he requested a trusted retainer called Münglig to retrieve Temüjin from the Onggirat. He died soon after.", "He died soon after. Adolescence Yesügei's death shattered the unity of his people, which included members of the Borjigin,Tayichiud, and other clans. As Temüjin was not yet ten and Behter around two years older, neither was considered experienced enough to rule. The Tayichiud faction excluded Hö'elün from theancestor worshipceremonies which followed a ruler's death and soon abandoned her camp. TheSecret Historyrelates that the entire Borjigin clan followed, despite Hö'elün's attempts to shame them into staying by appealing to their honour.Rashid al-Din and theShengwuhowever imply that Yesügei's brothers stood by the widow. It is possible that Hö'elün may have refused to join inlevirate marriagewith one, resulting in later tensions, or that the author of theSecret Historydramatised the situation.All the sources agree that most of Yesügei's people renounced his family in favour of the Tayichiuds and that Hö'elün's family were reduced to a much harsher life.Taking up ahunter-gathererlifestyle, they collected", "they collected roots and nuts, hunted for small animals, and caught fish. Tensions developed as the children grew older. Both Temüjin and Behter had claims to be their father's heir: although Temüjin was the child of Yesügei's chief wife, Behter was at least two years his senior. There was even the possibility that, as permitted under levirate law, Behter could marry Hö'elün upon attaining hismajorityand become Temüjin's stepfather.As the friction, exacerbated by frequent disputes over the division of hunting spoils, intensified, Temüjin and his younger brother Qasar ambushed and killed Behter. This taboo act was omitted from the official chronicles but not from theSecret History, which recounts that Hö'elün angrily reprimanded her sons. Behter's younger full-brother Belgutei did not seek vengeance, and became one of Temüjin's highest-ranking followers alongside Qasar.Around this time, Temüjin developed a close friendship withJamukha, another boy of aristocratic descent; theSecret Historynotes that they", "that they exchangedknucklebonesand arrows as gifts and swore theandapact—the traditional oath of Mongolblood brothers–at eleven. As the family lacked allies, Temüjin was taken prisoner on multiple occasions.Captured by the Tayichiuds, he escaped during a feast and hid first in the Onon and then in the tent ofSorkan-Shira, a man who had seen him in the river and not raised the alarm. Sorkan-Shira sheltered Temüjin for three days at great personal risk before helping him to escape.Temüjin was assisted on another occasion byBo'orchu, an adolescent who aided him in retrieving stolen horses. Soon afterwards, Bo'orchu joined Temüjin's camp as his firstnökor('personal companion';pl.nökod).These incidents, related by theSecret History, are indicative of the emphasis its author put on Genghis' personal charisma. Rise to power Early campaigns Temüjin returned to Dei Sechen to marry Börte when he reached theage of majorityat fifteen. Delighted to see the son-in-law he feared had died, Dei Sechen consented to the", "consented to the marriage and accompanied the newlyweds back to Temüjin's camp; his wife Čotan presented Hö'elün with an expensivesablecloak.Seeking a patron, Temüjin chose to regift the cloak toToghrul,khan(ruler) of theKeraittribe, who had fought alongside Yesügei and sworn theandapact with him. Toghrul ruled a vast territory in central Mongolia but distrusted many of his followers. In need of loyal replacements, he was delighted with the valuable gift and welcomed Temüjin into his protection. The two grew close, and Temüjin began to build a following, asnökodsuch asJelmeentered into his service.Temüjin and Börte had their first child, a daughter named Qojin, around this time. Soon afterwards, seeking revenge for Yesügei's abduction of Hö'elün, around 300 Merkits raided Temüjin's camp. While Temüjin and his brothers were able to hide onBurkhan Khaldun mountain, Börte and Sochigel were abducted. In accordance with levirate law, Börte was given in marriage to the younger brother of the now-deceased", "of the now-deceased Chiledu.Temüjin appealed for aid from Toghrul and his childhoodandaJamukha, who had risen to become chief of theJadarantribe. Both chiefs were willing to field armies of 20,000 warriors, and with Jamukha in command, the campaign was soon won. A now-pregnant Börte was recovered successfully and soon gave birth to a son,Jochi; although Temüjin raised him as his own, questions over his true paternity followed Jochi throughout his life.This is narrated in theSecret Historyand contrasts with Rashid al-Din's account, which protects the family's reputation by removing any hint of illegitimacy.Over the next decade and a half, Temüjin and Börte had three more sons (Chagatai,Ögedei, andTolui) and four more daughters (Checheyigen,Alaqa, Tümelün, andAl-Altan). The followers of Temüjin and Jamukha camped together for a year and a half, during which their leaders reforged theirandapact and slept together under one blanket, according to theSecret History. The source presents this period as close friends", "as close friends bonding, but Ratchnevsky questioned if Temüjin actually entered into Jamukha's service in return for the assistance with the Merkits.Tensions arose and the two leaders parted, ostensibly on account of a cryptic remark made by Jamukha on the subject of camping;in any case, Temüjin followed the advice of Hö'elün and Börte and began to build an independent following. The major tribal rulers remained with Jamukha, but forty-one leaders gave their support to Temüjin along with many commoners: these includedSubutaiand others of theUriankhai, theBarulas, the Olkhonuds, and many more.Many were attracted by Temüjin's reputation as a fair and generous lord who could offer better lives, while hisshamansprophesied that heaven had allocated him a great destiny. Temüjin was soon acclaimed by his close followers as khan of the Mongols.Toghrul was pleased at his vassal's elevation but Jamukha was resentful. Tensions escalated into open hostility, and in around 1187 the two leaders clashed in battleat Dalan", "in battleat Dalan Baljut: the two forces were evenly matched but Temüjin suffered a clear defeat. Later chroniclers including Rashid al-Din instead state that he was victorious but their accounts contradict themselves and each other. Modern historians such as Ratchnevsky and Timothy May consider it very likely that Temüjin spent a large portion of the decade following the clash at Dalan Baljut as a servant of the JurchenJin dynastyinNorth China.Zhao Hong recorded that the future Genghis Khan spent several years as a slave of the Jin. Formerly seen as an expression of nationalistic arrogance, the statement is now thought to be based in fact, especially as no other source convincingly explains Temüjin's activities between Dalan Baljut andc.1195.Taking refuge across the border was a common practice both for disaffected steppe leaders and disgraced Chinese officials. Temüjin's reemergence having retained significant power indicates that he probably profited in the service of the Jin. As he later overthrew that", "overthrew that state, such an episode, detrimental to Mongol prestige, was omitted from all their sources. Zhao Hong was bound by no such taboos. Defeating rivals The sources do not agree on the events of Temüjin's return to the steppe. In early summer 1196, he participated in a joint campaign with the Jin against the Tatars, who had begun to act contrary to Jin interests. As a reward, the Jin awarded him the honorificcha-ut kuri, the meaning of which probably approximated \"commander of hundreds\" inJurchen. At around the same time, he assisted Toghrul with reclaiming the lordship of the Kereit, which had been usurped by one of Toghrul's relatives with the support of the powerfulNaiman tribe.The actions of 1196 fundamentally changed Temüjin's position in the steppe—although nominally still Toghrul's vassal, he wasde factoan equal ally. Jamukha behaved cruelly following his victory at Dalan Baljut—he allegedlyboiled seventy prisoners aliveand humiliated the corpses of leaders who had opposed him. A number of", "him. A number of disaffected followers, including Yesügei's follower Münglig and his sons,defectedto Temüjin as a consequence; they were also probably attracted by his newfound wealth.Temüjin subdued the disobedientJurkintribe that had previously offended him at a feast and refused to participate in the Tatar campaign. After executing their leaders, he had Belgutei symbolically break a leading Jurkin's back in a stagedwrestlingmatch in retribution. This latter incident, which contravened Mongol customs of justice, was only noted by the author of theSecret History, who openly disapproved. These events occurred c. 1197. During the following years, Temüjin and Toghrul campaigned against the Merkits, the Naimans, and the Tatars; sometimes separately and sometimes together. In around 1201, a collection of dissatisfied tribes including the Onggirat, the Tayichiud, and the Tatars swore to break the domination of the Borjigin-Kereit alliance, electing Jamukha as their leader andgurkhan(lit.'\"khan of the tribes\"').", "of the tribes\"'). After some initial successes, Temüjin and Toghrul routed this loose confederationat Yedi Qunan, and Jamukha was forced to beg for Toghrul's clemency.Desiring complete supremacy in eastern Mongolia, Temüjin defeated first the Tayichiud and then, in 1202, the Tatars; after both campaigns, he executed the clan leaders and took the remaining warriors into his service. These included Sorkan-Shira, who had come to his aid previously, and a young warrior namedJebe, who, by killing Temüjin's horse and refusing to hide that fact, had displayed martial ability and personal courage. The absorption of the Tatars left three military powers in the steppe: the Naimans in the west, the Mongols in the east, and the Kereit in between.Seeking to cement his position, Temüjin proposed that his son Jochi marry one of Toghrul's daughters. Led by Toghrul's son Senggum, the Kereit elite believed the proposal to be an attempt to gain control over their tribe, while the doubts over Jochi's parentage would have", "would have offended them further. In addition, Jamukha drew attention to the threat Temüjin posed to the traditional steppearistocracyby his habit of promoting commoners to high positions, which subverted social norms. Yielding eventually to these demands, Toghrul attempted to lure his vassal into an ambush, but his plans were overheard by two herdsmen. Temüjin was able to gather some of his forces, but was soundly defeated at theBattle of Qalaqaljid Sands. \" raised his hands and looking up at Heaven swore, saying \"If I am able to achieve my 'Great Work', I shall share with you men the sweet and the bitter. If I break this word, may I be like the water of the River, drunk up by others.\"Among officers and men there was none who was not moved to tears. TheHistory of Yuan, vol 120 (1370) Retreating southeast to Baljuna, an unidentified lake or river, Temüjin waited for his scattered forces to regroup: Bo'orchu had lost his horse and was forced to flee on foot, while Temüjin's badly wounded sonÖgedeihad been", "sonÖgedeihad been transported and tended to byBorokhula, a leading warrior. Temüjin called in every possible ally and swore a famousoath of loyalty, later known as theBaljuna Covenant, to his faithful followers, which subsequently granted them great prestige.The oath-takers of Baljuna were a veryheterogeneousgroup—men from nine different tribes who included Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists, united only by loyalty to Temüjin and to each other. This group became a model for the later empire, termed a \"proto-government of a proto-nation\" by historianJohn Man.The Baljuna Covenant was omitted from theSecret History—as the group was predominantly non-Mongol, the author presumably wished to downplay the role of other tribes. Aruse de guerreinvolving Qasar allowed the Mongols to ambush the Kereit at the Jej'er Heights, but though the ensuing battle still lasted three days, it ended in adecisive victoryfor Temüjin. Toghrul and Senggum were both forced to flee, and while the latter escaped toTibet, Toghrul was", "Toghrul was killed by a Naiman who did not recognise him. Temüjin sealed his victory by absorbing the Kereit elite into his own tribe: he took the princessIbaqaas a wife, and married her sisterSorghaghtaniand nieceDoquzto his youngest son Tolui.The ranks of the Naimans had swelled due to the arrival of Jamukha and others defeated by the Mongols, and they prepared for war. Temüjin was informed of these events byAlaqush, the sympathetic ruler of theOngudtribe. In May 1204, at theBattle of Chakirmautin theAltai Mountains, the Naimans were decisively defeated: their leaderTayang Khanwas killed, and his sonKuchlugwas forced to flee west.The Merkits were decimated later that year, while Jamukha, who had abandoned the Naimans at Chakirmaut, was betrayed to Temüjin by companions who were executed for their lack of loyalty. According to theSecret History, Jamukha convinced his childhoodandato execute him honourably; other accounts state that he was killed bydismemberment. Early reign: reforms and Chinese campaigns", "Chinese campaigns (1206–1215) Kurultaiof 1206 and reforms Now sole ruler of the steppe, Temüjin held a large assembly called akurultaiat the source of the Onon River in 1206.Here, he formally adopted the title \"Genghis Khan\", the etymology and meaning of which have been much debated. Some commentators hold that the title had no meaning, simply representing Temüjin's eschewal of the traditionalgurkhantitle, which had been accorded to Jamukha and was thus of lesser worth.Another theory suggests that the word \"Genghis\" bears connotations of strength, firmness, hardness, or righteousness.A third hypothesis proposes that the title is related to theTurkictängiz('ocean'), the title \"Genghis Khan\" would mean \"master of the ocean\", and as the ocean was believed to surround the earth, the title thus ultimately implied \"Universal Ruler\". Having attained control over one million people,Genghis Khan began a \"social revolution\", in May's words.As traditional tribal systems had primarily evolved to benefit small clans and", "small clans and families, they were unsuitable as the foundations for larger states and had been the downfall of previous steppe confederations. Genghis thus began a series of administrative reforms designed to suppress the power of tribal affiliations and to replace them with unconditional loyalty to the khan and the ruling family.As most of the traditional tribal leaders had been killed during his rise to power, Genghis was able to reconstruct the Mongol social hierarchy in his favour. The highest tier was occupied solely by his and his brothers' families, who became known as thealtan uruq(lit.'Golden Family') orchaghan yasun(lit.'white bone'); underneath them came theqara yasun(lit.'black bone'; sometimesqarachu), composed of the surviving pre-empire aristocracy and the most important of the new families. To break any concept of tribal loyalty, Mongol society was reorganised into a military decimal system. Every man between the age of fifteen and seventy was conscripted into aminqan(pl.minkad), a unit of", "a unit of a thousand soldiers, which was further subdivided into units of hundreds (jaghun,pl.jaghat) and tens (arban,pl.arbat).The units also encompassed each man's household, meaning that each militaryminqanwas supported by aminqanof households in what May has termed \"amilitary–industrial complex\". Eachminqanoperated as both a political and social unit, while the warriors of defeated tribes were dispersed to differentminqadto make it difficult for them to rebel as a single body. This was intended to ensure the disappearance of old tribal identities, replacing them with loyalty to the \"Great Mongol State\", and to commanders who had gained their rank through merit and loyalty to the khan.This particular reform proved extremely effective—even after thedivision of the Mongol Empire, fragmentation never happened along tribal lines. Instead, the descendants of Genghis continued to reign unchallenged, in some cases until as late as the 1700s, and even powerful non-imperial dynasts such asTimurandEdiguwere", "asTimurandEdiguwere compelled to rule from behind a puppet ruler of his lineage. Genghis's seniornökodwere appointed to the highest ranks and received the greatest honours. Bo'orchu andMuqaliwere each given ten thousand men to lead as commanders of the right and left wings of the army respectively.The othernökodwere each given commands of one of the ninety-fiveminkad. In a display of Genghis' meritocratic ideals, many of these men were born to low social status: Ratchnevsky cited Jelme and Subutai, the sons of blacksmiths, in addition to a carpenter, a shepherd, and even the two herdsmen who had warned Temüjin of Toghrul's plans in 1203.As a special privilege, Genghis allowed certain loyal commanders to retain the tribal identities of their units. Alaqush of the Ongud was allowed to retain five thousand warriors of his tribe because his son had entered into an alliance pact with Genghis, marrying his daughter Alaqa. A key tool which underpinned these reforms was the expansion of thekeshig('bodyguard'). After", "After Temüjin defeated Toghrul in 1203, he had appropriated this Kereit institution in a minor form, but at the 1206kurultaiits numbers were greatly expanded, from 1,150 to 10,000 men. Thekeshigwas not only the khan's bodyguard, but his household staff, a military academy, and the centre of governmental administration.All the warriors in this elite corps were brothers or sons of military commanders and were essentially hostages. The members of thekeshignevertheless received special privileges and direct access to the khan, whom they served and who in return evaluated their capabilities and their potential to govern or command.Commanders such as Subutai,Chormaqan, andBaijuall started out in thekeshig, before being given command of their own force. Consolidation of power (1206–1210) From 1204 to 1209, Genghis Khan was predominantly focused on consolidating and maintaining his new nation.He faced a challenge from theshamanKokechu, whose father Münglig had been allowed to marry Hö'elün after he defected to", "he defected to Temüjin. Kokechu, who had proclaimed Temüjin as Genghis Khan and taken theTengristtitle \"Teb Tenggeri\" (lit.\"Wholly Heavenly\") on account of his sorcery, was very influential among the Mongol commoners and sought to divide the imperial family.Genghis's brother Qasar was the first of Kokechu's targets—always distrusted by his brother, Qasar was humiliated and almost imprisoned on false charges before Hö'elün intervened by publicly reprimanding Genghis. Nevertheless, Kokechu's power steadily increased, and he publicly shamed Temüge, Genghis's youngest brother, when he attempted to intervene.Börte saw that Kokechu was a threat to Genghis's power and warned her husband, who still superstitiously revered the shaman but now recognised the political threat he posed. Genghis allowed Temüge to arrange Kokechu's death, and then usurped the shaman's position as the Mongols' highest spiritual authority. During these years, the Mongols imposed their control on surrounding areas. Genghis dispatched Jochi", "dispatched Jochi northwards in 1207 to subjugate theHoi-yin Irgen, a collection of tribes on the edge of theSiberian taiga. Having secured a marriage alliance with theOiratsand defeated theYenisei Kyrgyz, he took control of the region's trade in grain and furs, as well as itsgold mines.Mongol armies also rode westwards, defeating the Naiman-Merkit alliance on theRiver Irtyshin late 1208. Their khan was killed and Kuchlug fled intoCentral Asia.Led byBarchuk, theUyghursfreed themselves from the suzerainty of theQara Khitaiand pledged themselves to Genghis in 1211 as the firstsedentary societyto submit to the Mongols. The Mongols had started raiding the border settlements of theTangut-ledWestern Xiakingdom in 1205, ostensibly in retaliation for allowing Senggum, Toghrul's son, refuge.More prosaic explanations include rejuvenating the depleted Mongol economy with an influx of fresh goods andlivestock,or simply subjugating a semi-hostile state to protect the nascent Mongol nation.Most Xia troops were stationed", "were stationed along the southern and eastern borders of the kingdom to guard against attacks from theSongandJindynasties respectively, while its northern border relied only on theGobi desertfor protection.After a raid in 1207 sacked the Xia fortress ofWulahai, Genghis decided to personally leada full-scale invasionin 1209. Wulahai was captured again in May and the Mongols advanced on the capital Zhongxing (modern-dayYinchuan) but suffered a reverse against a Xia army. After a two-month stalemate, Genghis broke the deadlock with afeigned retreat; the Xia forces were deceived out of their defensive positions and overpowered.Although Zhongxing was now mostly undefended, the Mongols lacked anysiege equipmentbetter than crudebattering ramsand were unable to progress the siege.The Xia requested aid from the Jin, butEmperor Zhangzongrejected the plea. Genghis's attempt to redirect theYellow Riverinto the city with a dam initially worked, but the poorly-constructedearthworksbroke—possibly breached by the Xia—in", "by the Xia—in January 1210 and the Mongol camp was flooded, forcing them to retreat. A peace treaty was soon formalised: the Xia emperorXiangzongsubmitted and handed over tribute, including his daughter Chaka, in exchange for the Mongol withdrawal. Campaign against the Jin (1211–1215) Wanyan Yongjiusurped the Jin throne in 1209. He had previously served on the steppe frontier and Genghis greatly disliked him.When asked to submit and pay the annual tribute to Yongji in 1210, Genghis instead mocked the emperor, spat, and rode away from the Jin envoy—a challenge that meant war.Despite the possibility of being outnumbered eight-to-one by 600,000 Jin soldiers, Genghis had prepared to invade the Jin since learning in 1206 that the state was wracked by internal instabilities.Genghis had two aims: to take vengeance for past wrongs committed by the Jin, foremost among which was the death ofAmbaghai Khanin the mid-12th century, and to win the vast amounts of plunder his troops and vassals expected. After calling for", "After calling for akurultaiin March 1211, Genghis launchedhis invasion of Jin Chinain May, reaching theouter ring of Jin defencesthe following month. Theseborderfortifications were guarded by Alaqush's Ongud, who allowed the Mongols to pass without difficulty.The three-prongedchevauchéeaimed both to plunder and burn a vast area of Jin territory to deprive them of supplies and popular legitimacy, and to secure themountain passeswhich allowed access to theNorth China Plain.The Jin lost numerous towns and were hindered by a series of defections, the most prominent of which led directly to Muqali's victory at theBattle of Huan'erzhuiin autumn 1211.The campaign was halted in 1212 when Genghis was wounded by an arrow during the unsuccessful siege of Xijing (modernDatong).Following this failure, Genghis set up a corps ofsiege engineers, which recruited 500 Jin experts over the next two years. The defences ofJuyong Passhad been strongly reinforced by the time the conflict resumed in 1213, but a Mongol detachment led", "detachment led by Jebe managed to infiltrate the pass and surprise the elite Jin defenders, opening the road to the Jin capitalZhongdu(modern-dayBeijing).The Jin administration began to disintegrate: after theKhitans, a tribe subject to the Jin, entered open rebellion, Hushahu, the commander of the forces at Xijing, abandoned his post and staged a coup in Zhongdu, killing Yongji and installing his own puppet ruler,Xuanzong.This governmental breakdown was fortunate for Genghis's forces; emboldened by their victories, they had seriously overreached and lost the initiative. Unable to do more than camp before Zhongdu'sfortificationswhile his army suffered from an epidemic and famine—they resorted tocannibalismaccording toCarpini, who may have been exaggerating—Genghis opened peace negotiations despite his commanders' militance.He secured tribute, including 3,000 horses, 500 slaves, a Jin princess, and massive amounts of gold and silk, before lifting the siege and setting off homewards in May 1214. As the", "in May 1214. As the northern Jin lands had been ravaged by plague and war, Xuanzong moved the capital andimperial court600 kilometres (370 mi) southwards toKaifeng.Interpreting this as an attempt to regroup in the south and then restart the war, Genghis concluded the terms of the peace treaty had been broken. He immediately prepared to return and capture Zhongdu.According to Christopher Atwood, it was only at this juncture that Genghis decided to fully conquer northern China.Muqali captured numerous towns inLiaodongduring winter 1214–15, and although the inhabitants of Zhongdu surrendered to Genghis on 31 May 1215, the city was sacked.When Genghis returned to Mongolia in early 1216, Muqali was left in command in China.He waged a brutal but effective campaign against the unstable Jin regime until his death in 1223. Later reign: western expansion and return to China (1216–1227) Defeating rebellions and Qara Khitai (1216–1218) In 1207, Genghis had appointed a man named Qorchi as governor of the subdued Hoi-yin", "the subdued Hoi-yin Irgen tribes in Siberia. Appointed not for his talents but for prior services rendered, Qorchi's tendency to abduct women asconcubinesfor hisharemcaused the tribes to rebel and take him prisoner in early 1216. The following year, they ambushed and killedBoroqul, one of Genghis's highest-rankingnökod.The khan was livid at the loss of his close friend and prepared to lead a retaliatory campaign; eventually dissuaded from this course, he dispatched his eldest son Jochi and aDörbetcommander. They managed to surprise and defeat the rebels, securing control over this economically important region. Kuchlug, theNaimanprince who had been defeated in 1204, had usurped the throne of the Central Asian Qara Khitai dynasty between 1211 and 1213. He was a greedy and arbitrary ruler who probably earned the enmity of the nativeIslamicpopulace whom he attempted toforcibly converttoBuddhism.Genghis reckoned that Kuchlug could be a threat to his empire, and Jebe was sent with an army of 20,000 cavalry to the", "cavalry to the city ofKashgar; he undermined Kuchlug's rule by emphasising the Mongol policies of religious tolerance and gained the loyalty of the local elite.Kuchlug was forced to flee southwards to thePamir Mountains, but was captured by local hunters. Jebe had him beheaded and paraded his corpse through Qara Khitai, proclaiming the end of religious persecution in the region. Invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221) Genghis had now attained complete control of the eastern portion of theSilk Road, and his territory bordered that of theKhwarazmian Empire, which ruled over much of Central Asia,PersiaandAfghanistan.Merchants from both sides were eager to restart trading, which had halted during Kuchlug's rule; the Khwarazmian rulerMuhammad IIdispatched an envoy shortly after the Mongol capture of Zhongdu, while Genghis instructedhis merchantsto obtain the high-quality textiles and steel of Central and Western Asia.Many members of thealtan uruqinvested in one particular caravan of 450 merchants which set", "merchants which set off to Khwarazmia in 1218 with a large quantity of wares.Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarazmian border town ofOtrar, decided to massacre the merchants on grounds ofespionageand seize the goods; Muhammad had grown suspicious of Genghis's intentions and either supported Inalchuq or turned a blind eye.A Mongol ambassador was sent with two companions to avert war, but Muhammad killed him and humiliated his companions. The killing of an envoy infuriated Genghis, who resolved to leave Muqali with a small force in North China and invade Khwarazmia with most of his army. Muhammad's empire was large but disunited: he ruled alongside his motherTerken Khatunin what the historianPeter Goldenterms \"an uneasy diarchy\", while the Khwarazmian nobility and populace were discontented with his warring and the centralisation of government. For these reasons and others he declined to meet the Mongols in the field, instead garrisoning his unruly troops in his major cities.This allowed the lightly armoured,", "lightly armoured, highly mobile Mongol armies uncontested superiority outside city walls.Otrar was besiegedin autumn 1219—the siege dragged on for five months, but in February 1220 the city fell and Inalchuq was executed.Genghis had meanwhile divided his forces. Leaving his sons Chagatai andÖgedeito besiege the city, he had sent Jochi northwards down theSyr Daryariver and another force southwards into centralTransoxiana, while he and Tolui took the main Mongol army across theKyzylkum Desert, surprising the garrison ofBukharain apincer movement. Bukhara's citadel was capturedin February 1220 and Genghis moved against Muhammad's residenceSamarkand, whichfell the following month.Bewildered by the speed of the Mongol conquests, Muhammad fled fromBalkh, closely followed by Jebe and Subutai; the two generals pursued the Khwarazmshah until he died fromdysentryon aCaspian Seaisland in winter 1220–21, having nominated his eldest sonJalal al-Dinas his successor.Jebe and Subutai then set out on a 7,500-kilometre (4,700", "(4,700 mi)-expedition around theCaspian Sea. Later called theGreat Raid, this lasted four years and saw the Mongols come into contact with Europe for the first time.Meanwhile, the Khwarazmian capital ofGurganjwas being besieged by Genghis's three eldest sons.The long siegeended in spring 1221 amid brutal urban conflict.Jalal al-Din moved southwards to Afghanistan, gathering forces on the way and defeating a Mongol unit under the command ofShigi Qutuqu, Genghis's adopted son, in theBattle of Parwan.Jalal was weakened by arguments among his commanders, and after losing decisively at theBattle of the Indusin November 1221, he was compelled to escape across theIndus riverinto India. Genghis's youngest son Tolui was concurrently conductinga brutal campaignin the regions ofKhorasan. Every city that resisted was destroyed—Nishapur,MervandHerat, three of the largest and wealthiest cities in the world, were all annihilated.This campaign established Genghis's lasting image as a ruthless, inhumane conqueror.", "inhumane conqueror. Contemporary Persian historians placed the death toll from the three sieges alone at over 5.7 million—a number regarded as grossly exaggerated by modern scholars.Nevertheless, even a total death toll of 1.25 million for the entire campaign, as estimated by John Man, would have been a demographic catastrophe. Return to China and final campaign (1222–1227) Genghis abruptly halted his Central Asian campaigns in 1221.Initially aiming to return viaIndia, Genghis realised that the heat and humidity of the South Asian climate impeded his army's skills, while theomenswere additionally unfavourable.Although the Mongols spent much of 1222 repeatedly overcoming rebellions in Khorasan, they withdrew completely from the region to avoid overextending themselves, setting their new frontier on theAmu Daryariver.During his lengthy return journey, Genghis prepared a new administrative division which would govern the conquered territories, appointingdarughachi(commissioners,lit.\"those who press the seal\")", "press the seal\") andbasqaq(local officials) to manage the region back to normalcy.He also summoned and spoke with theTaoistpatriarchChangchunin theHindu Kush. The khan listened attentively to Changchun's teachings and granted his followers numerous privileges, includingtax exemptionsand authority over all monks throughout the empire—a grant which the Taoists later used to try to gain superiority over Buddhism. The usual reason given for the halting of the campaign is that theWestern Xia, having declined to provide auxiliaries for the 1219 invasion, had additionally disobeyed Muqali in his campaign against the remaining Jin inShaanxi.May has disputed this, arguing that the Xia fought in concert with Muqali until his death in 1223, when, frustrated by Mongol control and sensing an opportunity with Genghis campaigning in Central Asia, they ceased fighting.In either case, Genghis initially attempted to resolve the situation diplomatically, but when the Xia elite failed to come to an agreement on the hostages", "on the hostages they were to send to the Mongols, he lost patience. Returning to Mongolia in early 1225, Genghis spent the year in preparation for a campaign against them. This began in the first months of 1226 with the capture ofKhara-Khotoon the Xia's western border.The invasion proceeded apace. Genghis ordered that the cities of theGansu Corridorbe sacked one by one, grantingclemencyonly to a few.Having crossed theYellow Riverin autumn, the Mongols besieged present-dayLingwu, located just 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of the Xia capitalZhongxing, in November. On 4 December, Genghis decisively defeated a Xiarelief army; the khan left the siege of the capital to his generals and moved southwards with Subutai to plunder and secure Jin territories. Death and aftermath Genghis fell from his horse while hunting in the winter of 1226–27 and became increasingly ill during the following months. This slowed the siege of Zhongxing's progress, as his sons and commanders urged him to end the campaign and return to", "and return to Mongolia to recover, arguing that the Xia would still be there another year.Incensed by insults from Xia's leading commander, Genghis insisted that the siege be continued. He died on either 18 or 25 August 1227, but his death was kept a closely guarded secret and Zhongxing, unaware, fell the following month. The city was put to the sword and its population was treated with extreme savagery—the Xia civilization was essentially extinguished in what Man described as a \"very successfulethnocide\".The exact nature of the khan's death has been the subject of intense speculation. Rashid al-Din and theHistory of Yuanmention he suffered from an illness—possiblymalaria,typhus, orbubonic plague.Marco Poloclaimed that he was shot by an arrow during a siege, whileCarpinireported that Genghis wasstruck by lightning. Legends sprang up around the event—the most famous recounts how the beautiful Gurbelchin, formerly the Xia emperor's wife, injured Genghis's genitals with a dagger during sex. After his death,", "After his death, Genghis was transported back to Mongolia and buried on or near the sacredBurkhan Khaldunpeak in theKhentii Mountains, on a site he had chosen years before.Specific details of thefuneral processionand burial were not made public knowledge; the mountain, declaredikh khorig(lit.\"Great Taboo\"; i.e. prohibited zone), was out of bounds to all but itsUriankhaiguard. When Ögedei acceded to the throne in 1229, the grave was honoured with three days of offerings and the sacrifice of thirty maidens.Ratchnevsky theorised that the Mongols, who had no knowledge ofembalming techniques, may have buried the khan in theOrdosto avoid his body decomposing in the summer heat while en route to Mongolia; Atwood rejects this hypothesis. Succession The tribes of the Mongol steppe had no fixed succession system, but often defaulted to some form ofultimogeniture—succession of the youngest son—because he would have had the least time to gain a following for himself and needed the help of his father's", "of his father's inheritance.However, this type of inheritance applied only to property, not to titles. TheSecret Historyrecords that Genghis chose his successor while preparing for the Khwarazmian campaigns in 1219; Rashid al-Din, on the other hand, states that the decision came before Genghis's final campaign against the Xia.Regardless of the date, there were five possible candidates: Genghis's four sons and his youngest brother Temüge, who had the weakest claim and who was never seriously considered.Even though there was a strong possibility Jochi was illegitimate, Genghis was not particularly concerned by this;nevertheless, he and Jochi became increasingly estranged over time, due to Jochi's preoccupation with his own appanage. After the siege of Gurganj, where he only reluctantly participated in besieging the wealthy city that would become part of his territory, he failed to give Genghis the normal share of the booty, which exacerbated the tensions.Genghis was angered by Jochi's refusal to return to him", "to return to him in 1223, and was considering sending Ögedei and Chagatai to bring him to heel when news came that Jochi had died from an illness. Chagatai's attitude towards Jochi's possible succession—he had termed his elder brother \"a Merkit bastard\" and had brawled with him in front of their father—led Genghis to view him as uncompromising, arrogant, and narrow-minded, despite his great knowledge ofMongol legal customs.His elimination left Ögedei and Tolui as the two primary candidates. Tolui was unquestionably superior in military terms—his campaign in Khorasan had broken the Khwarazmian Empire, while his elder brother was far less able as a commander.Ögedei was also known todrink excessivelyeven by Mongol standards—it eventually caused his death in 1241.However, he possessed talents all his brothers lacked—he was generous and generally well-liked. Aware of his own lack of military skill, he was able to trust his capable subordinates, and unlike his elder brothers, compromise on issues; he was also more", "he was also more likely to preserve Mongol traditions than Tolui, whose wife Sorghaghtani, herself aNestorian Christian, was a patron of many religions including Islam. Ögedei was thus recognised as the heir to the Mongol throne. Serving asregentafter Genghis's death, Tolui established a precedent for the customary traditions after a khan's death. These included the halting of all military offensives involving Mongol troops, the establishment of a lengthy mourning period overseen by the regent, and the holding of akurultaiwhich would nominate successors and select them.For Tolui, this presented an opportunity. He was still a viable candidate for succession and had the support of the family of Jochi. Any generalkurultai, attended by the commanders Genghis had promoted and honoured, would however observe their former ruler's desires without question and appoint Ögedei as ruler. It has been suggested that Tolui's reluctance to hold thekurultaiwas driven by the knowledge of the threat it posed to his", "it posed to his ambitions.In the end, Tolui had to be persuaded by the advisorYelü Chucaito hold thekurultai; in 1229, it crowned Ögedei as khan, with Tolui in attendance. Family Börte, whom Temüjin marriedc.1178, remained his senior wife.She gave birth to four sons and five daughters, who all became influential figures in the empire.Genghis granted Börte's sons lands and property through theMongol appanage system,while he secured marriage alliances by marrying her daughters to important families.Her children were: After Börte's final childbirth, Temüjin began to acquire a number of junior wives through conquest. These wives had all previously been princesses or queens, and Temüjin married them to demonstrate his political ascendancy. They included the Kereit princessIbaqa; the Tatar sistersYesugenandYesui;Qulan, a Merkit; Gürbesu, the queen of the NaimanTayang Khan; and two Chinese princesses, Chaqa and Qiguo, of the Western Xia and Jin dynasties respectively.The children of these junior wives were always", "wives were always subservient to those of Börte, with daughters married off to seal lesser alliances and sons, such as Qulan's childKölgen, never a candidate for succession. Character and achievements No eyewitness description or contemporaneous depiction of Genghis Khan survives.The Persian chronicler Juzjani and the Song diplomat Zhao Hong provide the two earliest descriptions.Both recorded that he was tall and strong with a powerful stature. Zhao wrote that Genghis had a broad brow and long beard while Juzjani commented on his cat's eyes and lack of grey hair. TheSecret Historyrecords that Börte's father remarked on his \"flashing eyes and lively face\" when meeting him. Atwood has suggested that many of Genghis Khan's values, especially the emphasis he placed on an orderly society, derive from his turbulent youth.He valued loyalty above all and mutual fidelity became a cornerstone of his new nation.Genghis did not find it difficult to gain the allegiance of others: he was superbly charismatic even as a", "even as a youth, as shown by the number of people who left existing social roles behind to join him.Although his trust was hard to earn, if he felt loyalty was assured, he granted his total confidence in return.Recognised for his generosity towards his followers, Genghis unhesitatingly rewarded previous assistance. Thenökodmost honoured at the 1206 kurultai were those who had accompanied him since the beginning, and those who had sworn the Baljuna Covenant with him at his lowest point.He took responsibility for the families ofnökodkilled in battle or who otherwise fell on hard times by raising a tax to provide them with clothing and sustenance. Heaven grew weary of the excessive pride and luxury in China ... I am from the barbaric North ... I wear the same clothing and eat the same food as the cowherds and horse-herders. We make the same sacrifices and we share our riches. I look upon the nation as a new-born child and I care for my soldiers as if they were my brothers. Genghis Khan's letter toChangchun The", "toChangchun The principal source of steppe wealth was post-battle plunder, of which a leader would normally claim a large share; Genghis eschewed this custom, choosing instead to divide booty equally between himself and all his men.Disliking any form of luxury, he extolled the simple life of the nomad in a letter to Changchun, and objected to being addressed with obsequious flattery. He encouraged his companions to address him informally, give him advice, and criticise his mistakes.Genghis's openness to criticism and willingness to learn saw him seeking the knowledge of family members, companions, neighbouring states, and enemies.He sought and gained knowledge of sophisticated weaponry from China and the Muslim world, appropriated theUyghur alphabetwith the help of the captured scribeTata-tonga, and employed numerous specialists across legal, commercial, and administrative fields.He also understood the need for a smooth succession and modern historians agree he showed good judgement in choosing his heir.", "choosing his heir. Although he is today renowned for his military conquests, very little is known about Genghis's personal generalship. His skills were more suited to identifying potential commanders.His institution of a meritocraticcommand structuregave the Mongol army military superiority, even though it was not technologically or tactically innovative.The army that Genghis created was characterised by its draconiandiscipline, its ability to gather and usemilitary intelligenceefficiently, a mastery ofpsychological warfare, and a willingness to be utterly ruthless.Genghis thoroughly enjoyed exacting vengeance on his enemies—the concept lay at the heart ofachi qari'ulqu(lit.'\"good for good, evil for evil\"'), the steppe code of justice. In exceptional circumstances, such as when Muhammad of Khwarazm executed his envoys, the need for vengeance overrode all other considerations. Genghis came to believe the supreme deityTengrihad ordained a great destiny for him. Initially, the bounds of this ambition were", "this ambition were limited only to Mongolia, but as success followed success and the reach of the Mongol nation expanded, he and his followers came to believe he was embodied withsuu(lit.''divine grace'').Believing that he had an intimate connection with Heaven, anyone who did not recognise his right to world power was treated as an enemy. This viewpoint allowed Genghis to rationalise any hypocritical or duplicitous moments on his own part, such as killing hisandaJamukha or killingnökodwho wavered in their loyalties. Legacy and historical assessment Genghis Khan left a vast and controversial legacy. His unification of the Mongol tribes and his foundation of thelargest contiguous state in world history\"permanently alter the worldview of European, Islamic, East Asian civilizations\", according to Atwood.His conquests enabled the creation ofEurasiantrading systems unprecedented in their scale, which brought wealth and security to the tribes.Although he very likely did not codify the written body of laws known", "body of laws known as theGreatYasa,he did reorganise the legal system and establish a powerful judicial authority underShigi Qutuqu. On the other hand, his conquests were ruthless and brutal. The prosperous civilizations of China, Central Asia, and Persia were devastated by the Mongol assaults, and underwent multi-generational trauma and suffering as a result.Perhaps Genghis's greatest failing was his inability to create a working succession system—his division of his empire intoappanages, meant to ensure stability, actually did the reverse, as local and state-wide interests diverged and the empirebegan splittinginto theGolden Horde, theChagatai Khanate, theIlkhanate, and theYuan dynastyin the late 1200s.In the mid-1990s, theWashington Postacclaimed Genghis Khan as the \"man of the millennium\" who \"embodied the half-civilized, half-savage duality of the human race\".This complex image has remained prevalent in modern scholarship, with historians emphasising both Genghis Khan's positive and negative", "and negative contributions. Mongolia For many centuries, Genghis was remembered in Mongolia as a religious figure, not a political one. AfterAltan Khanconverted toTibetan Buddhismin the late 1500s, Genghis wasdeifiedand given a central role in the Mongolian religious tradition.As a deity, Genghis drew upon Buddhist, shamanistic, andfolk traditions: for example, he was defined as a new incarnation of achakravartin(idealised ruler) likeAshoka, or ofVajrapani, the martialbodhisattva; he was connected genealogically to theBuddhaand to ancient Buddhist kings; he was invoked during weddings and festivals; and he took a large role inancestor venerationrituals.He also became the focus point of asleeping hero legend, which says he will return to help the Mongol people in a time of great need.His cult was centred at thenaiman chagan ordon(lit.'\"Eight White Yurts\"'), todaya mausoleuminInner Mongolia, China. In the 19th and early 20th century, Genghis began to be viewed as thenational heroof the Mongolian people.", "Mongolian people. Foreign powers recognised this: during itsoccupation of Inner Mongolia,Imperial Japanfunded the construction of a temple to Genghis, while both theKuomintangand theChinese Communist Partyused the memory of Genghis to woo potential allies in theChinese Civil War.This attitude was maintained duringWorld War II, when theSoviet-alignedMongolian People's Republicpromoted Genghis to build patriotic zeal against invaders; however, as he was a non-Russian hero who could serve as ananticommunistfigurehead, this attitude swiftly changed after the war's end. According to May, Genghis \"was condemned as afeudaland reactionary lord exploited the people.\"His cult was repressed, the alphabet he chose was replaced with theCyrillic script, and celebrations planned for the 800th anniversary of his birth in 1962 were cancelled and denigrated after loud Soviet complaints. Because Chinese historians were largely more favourable towards him than their Soviet circumstances, Genghis played a minor role in", "a minor role in theSino-Soviet split. The arrival of the policies ofglasnostandperestroikain the 1980s paved the way for official rehabilitation. Less than two years afterthe 1990 revolution, Lenin Avenue in the capital Ulaanbaatar was renamed Chinggis Khan Avenue.Since then, Mongolia has namedChinggis Khaan International Airportand erected a large statue inSükhbaatar Square(which was itself renamed after Genghis between 2013 and 2016). His visage appears on items ranging frompostage stampsandhigh-value banknotesto brands of alcohol and toilet paper. In 2006, the Mongolian parliament officially discussed the trivialization of his name through excessive advertising. Modern Mongolians tend to downplay Genghis's military conquests in favour of his political and civil legacy—they view the destructive campaigns as \"a product of their time\", in the words of the historian Michal Biran, and secondary to his other contributions to Mongolian and world history.His policies—such his use of thekurultai, his establishment", "his establishment of the rule of law through an independent judiciary, and human rights—are seen as the foundations that allowed the creation of the modern, democratic Mongolian state. Viewed as someone who brought peace and knowledge rather than war and destruction, Genghis Khan is idealised for making Mongolia the centre of international culture for a period.He is generally recognised as the founding father of Mongolia. Elsewhere The historical and modernMuslim worldhas associated Genghis Khan with a myriad of ideologies and beliefs.Its first instinct, as Islamic thought had never previously envisioned being ruled by a non-Muslim power, was to view Genghis as the herald ofthe approaching Judgement Day. Over time, as the world failed to end and as his descendants began converting to Islam, Muslims began to see Genghis as an instrument of God's will who was destined to strengthen the Muslim world by cleansing its innate corruption. In post-Mongol Asia, Genghis was also a source of political legitimacy,", "legitimacy, becausehis descendantshad been recognised as the only ones entitled to reign. As a result, aspiring potentates not descended from him had to justify their rule, either by nominating puppet rulers of Genghis's dynasty, or by stressing their own connections to him.Most notably, the great conquerorTimur, who establishedhis own empirein Central Asia, did both: he was obliged to pay homage to Genghis's descendantsSoyurgatmishandSultan Mahmud, and his propaganda campaigns vastly exaggerated the prominence of his ancestorQarachar Noyan, one of Genghis's lesser commanders, depicting him as Genghis's blood relative and second-in-command. He also married at least two of Genghis's descendants.Babur, the founder of theMughal Empirein India,in turn derived his authority through his descent from both Timur and Genghis.Until the eighteenth century in Central Asia, Genghis was considered the progenitor of the social order, and was second only to the prophetMuhammadin legal authority. With the rise ofArab", "the rise ofArab nationalismin the nineteenth century, theArab worldbegan to view Genghis increasingly negatively. Today, he is perceived as the ultimate \"accursed enemy\", a \"barbarian savage who began the demolition of civilization which culminated in \" by his grandsonHulegu.Similarly, Genghis is viewed extremely negatively in Russia, where historians have consistently portrayed the rule of the Golden Horde—the \"Tatar Yoke\"—as backwards, destructive, inimical to all progress, and the reason for all of Russia's flaws.His treatment in modern Central Asia and Turkey is more ambivalent: his position as a non-Muslim means other national traditions and heroes, such as Timur and theSeljuks, are viewed more highly. Under the Yuan dynasty in China, Genghis was revered as the nation's creator, and he remained in this position even after the foundation of theMing dynastyin 1368. Although the late Ming somewhat disavowed his memory, the positive viewpoint was restored under theManchuQing dynasty(1644–1911), who", "who positioned themselves as his heirs. The rise of 20th-centuryChinese nationalisminitially caused the denigration of Genghis as a traumatic occupier, but he was later resurrected as a useful political symbol on a variety of issues. ModernChinese historiographyhas generally viewed Genghis positively and he has been portrayed as a Chinese hero.In contemporary Japan, he is most known forthe legendthat he was originallyMinamoto no Yoshitsune, a samurai and tragic hero who was forced to commitseppukuin 1189. The Western world, never directly affected by Genghis, has viewed him in shifting and contrasting ways. During the 14th century, as shown by the works of Marco Polo andGeoffrey Chaucer, he was seen as a just and wise ruler, but during the eighteenth century he came to embody theEnlightenmentstereotype of a tyrannical Oriental despot, and by the twentieth century he represented a prototypical barbarian warlord. In recent decades, Western scholarship has become increasingly nuanced, viewing Genghis as a more", "Genghis as a more complex individual. References Notes Citations Bibliography", "World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese", "GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \"spheres of influence\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic.", "of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand", "of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of", "of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of", "invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day),", "1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere", "created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman", "in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von", "1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty", "drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its", "step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian", "fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union", "Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and", "Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces", "Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom", "the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak", "state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had", "Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish", "thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany", "war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of", "other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of", "from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began", "both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping", "Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of", "postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\"cash and carry\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December", "1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean", "Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at", "acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been", "Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be", "Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite", "theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\"living space\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of", "(theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to", "forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations", "relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for", "resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet", "of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to", "of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the", "or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These", "andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon", "attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the", "in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European", "U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late", "naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were", "the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck", "Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941,", "November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver", "managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important", "of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had", "German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany,", "of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included", "the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis", "by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several", "reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory", "control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed", "the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province", "the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive", "to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves", "last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler", "30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of", "other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout", "agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August", "of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement", "a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million", "which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides", "was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered", "Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global", "The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by", "and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that", "suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated", "an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that", "reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and", "of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidalstate\".Soviet POWswere", "POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as", "which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central", "and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in", "the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world", "almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial", "during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to", "capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of", "low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World", "been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle", "urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the", "the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links" ]
What date did the Lego Avatar theme debut? How many years are there between the release of the original movie and the release of the Lego theme?
The debut date was October 1st, 2022. It debuted 13 years after the release of the movie.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lego_Avatar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar_(franchise)
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Numerical reasoning | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lego_Avatar', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar_(franchise)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lego_Avatar", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar_(franchise" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Lego_Avatar (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b931ac580>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar_(franchise" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Lego_Avatar (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b931ac580>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar_(franchise" ]
Two famous modernist writers were born and died on the same year. Who were they, which of them was alive for the longest, and by how many days?
Virginia Woolf and James Joyce. Virginia Woolf lived 82 days longer.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modernist_writers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modernist_writers', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modernist_writers", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" ]
[ "List of modernist writers Literary modernismhas its origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America. Modernism is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional styles of poetry and prose. Modernists experimented with literary form and expression, adhering toEzra Pound's maxim to \"Make it new\".The modernist literary movement was driven by a conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and express the new sensibilities of their time.It is debatable when the modernist literary movement began, though some have chosen 1910 as roughly marking the beginning and quotenovelistVirginia Woolf, who declared that human nature underwent a fundamental change \"on or about December 1910.\"But modernism was already stirring by 1899, with works such asJoseph Conrad's (1857–1924)Heart of Darkness, whileAlfred Jarry's (1873–1907)absurdistplay,Ubu Roiappeared even earlier, in 1896.Knut Hamsun's (1859–1952)Hunger(1890) is a groundbreaking modernist novel andMysteries(1892) pioneers moderniststream of consciousnessmethod. When modernism ends is debatable. ThoughThe Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literaturesees Modernism ending by c.1939,with regard to British and American literature, \"When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred\".Clement Greenberg sees Modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts.In fact many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally speaking they were no longer producing major works. The termlate modernismis also sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930.Among modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 wereWallace Stevens,Gottfried Benn,T. S. Eliot,Anna Akhmatova,William Faulkner,Dorothy Richardson,John Cowper Powys, andEzra Pound.Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important modernist poemBriggflattsin 1965. In additionHermann Broch'sThe Death of Virgilwas published in 1945 andThomas Mann'sDoctor Faustusin 1947.Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a \"later modernist\".Beckett is a writer with roots in theexpressionisttradition of modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, includingMolloy(1951),En attendant Godot(1953),Happy Days(1961),Rockaby(1981). The poetsCharles Olson(1910-1970) andJ. H. Prynne(1936- ) are, amongst other writing in the second half of the 20th century, who have been described as late modernists. The following is a list of significant modernist writers: References See also", "James Joyce James Augustine Aloysius Joyce(2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet andliterary critic. He contributed to themodernistavant-gardemovement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce's novelUlysses(1922) is a landmark in which the episodes ofHomer'sOdysseyare paralleled in a variety of literary styles, particularlystream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story collectionDubliners(1914), and the novelsA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man(1916) andFinnegans Wake(1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and occasional journalism. Joyce was born inDublininto a middle-class family. He attended the JesuitClongowes Wood Collegein County Kildare, then, briefly, the Christian Brothers–runO'Connell School. Despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father's unpredictable finances, he excelled at the JesuitBelvedere Collegeand graduated fromUniversity College Dublinin 1902. In 1904, he met his future wife,Nora Barnacle, and they moved to mainland Europe. He briefly worked inPulaand then moved toTriesteinAustria-Hungary, working as an English instructor. Except for an eight-month stay in Rome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin, Joyce resided there until 1915. In Trieste, he published his book of poemsChamber Musicand his short story collectionDubliners, and he began serially publishingA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manin the English magazineThe Egoist. During most of World War I, Joyce lived inZürich, Switzerland, and worked onUlysses. After the war, he briefly returned to Trieste and then moved to Paris in 1920, which became his primary residence until 1940. Ulysseswas first published in Paris in 1922, but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity. Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed until the mid-1930s, when publication finally became legal. Joyce started his next major work,Finnegans Wake, in 1923, publishing it sixteen years later in 1939. Between these years, Joyce travelled widely. He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony in London in 1931. He made a number of trips to Switzerland, frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter,Lucia. When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, Joyce moved back to Zürich in 1940. He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer, at age 58. Ulyssesfrequently ranks high in lists of great books, and the academic literature analysing his work is extensive and ongoing. Many writers, film-makers, and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations, such as his meticulous attention to detail, use ofinterior monologue,wordplay, and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development. Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there.Ulyssesin particular is set in the streets and alleyways of the city. Joyce is quoted as saying, \"For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal.\" Early life Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square,Rathgar,Dublin, Ireland,toJohn Stanislaus Joyceand Mary Jane \"May\" (néeMurray). He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings. He was baptised with the nameJames Augustine Joyceaccording to therites of the Roman Catholic Churchin the nearby St Joseph's Church inTerenureon 5 February 1882 by Rev. John O'Mulloy.His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.John Stanislaus Joyce's family came fromFermoyinCounty Cork, where they owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's paternal grandfather, James Augustine, married Ellen O'Connell, daughter of John O'Connell, a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties inCork City. Ellen's family claimed kinship with the political leaderDaniel O'Connell, who had helped secureCatholic emancipationfor the Irish in 1829. Joyce's father was appointed rate collector byDublin Corporationin 1887. The family moved to the fashionable small town ofBray, 12 miles (19 km) from Dublin. Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time, leading to his lifelongfear of dogs.He later developed afear of thunderstorms,which he acquired through a superstitious aunt who had described them as a sign of God's wrath. In 1891, nine-year-old Joyce wrote the poem \"Et Tu, Healy\" on the death ofCharles Stewart Parnellthat his father printed and distributed to friends.The poem expressed the sentiments of the elder Joyce,who was angry at Parnell's apparent betrayal by theIrish Catholic Church, theIrish Parliamentary Party, and theBritish Liberal Partythat resulted in a collaborative failure to secureIrish Home Rulein theBritish Parliament.This sense of betrayal, particularly by the church, left a lasting impression that Joyce expressed in his life and art. That year, his family began to slide into poverty, worsened by his father's drinking and financial mismanagement.John Joyce's name was published inStubbs' Gazette, a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts, in November 1891, and he was temporarily suspended from work.In January 1893, he was dismissed with a reduced pension. Joyce began his education in 1888 atClongowes Wood College, aJesuitboarding school nearClane, County Kildare, but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees.He studied at home and briefly attended theChristian Brothers O'Connell Schoolon North Richmond Street, Dublin. Joyce's father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priestJohn Conmee, who knew the family. Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brotherStanislausto attend the Jesuits' Dublin school,Belvedere College, without fees starting in 1893.In 1895, Joyce, now aged 13, was elected by his peers to join theSodality of Our Lady.Joyce spent five years at Belvedere, his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in theRatio Studiorum(Plan of Studies).He displayed his writing talent by winning first place for English composition in his final two yearsbefore graduating in 1898. University years Joyce enrolled atUniversity Collegein 1898 to study English, French and Italian.While there, he was exposed to thescholasticismofThomas Aquinas, which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life.He participated in many of Dublin's theatrical and literary circles. His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation, most notably,George Clancy,Tom KettleandFrancis Sheehy-Skeffington.Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work.His first publication—a laudatory review ofHenrik Ibsen'sWhen We Dead Awaken—was printed inThe Fortnightly Reviewin 1900. Inspired by Ibsen's works, Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegianand wrote a play,A Brilliant Career,which he later destroyed. In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19-year-old Irish- and English-speaking unmarried student living with his parents, six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness Road) inClontarf, Dublin.During this year he became friends withOliver St. John Gogarty,the model forBuck MulliganinUlysses.In November, Joyce wrote an article,The Day of the Rabblement, criticising theIrish Literary Theatrefor its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen,Leo Tolstoy, andGerhart Hauptmann.He protested against nostalgic Irishpopulismand argued for an outward-looking, cosmopolitan literature.Because he mentionedGabriele D'Annunzio's novelIl fuoco(The Flame),which was on theRoman Catholic list of prohibited books, his college magazine refused to print it. Joyce and Sheehy-Skeffington—who had also had an article rejected—had their essays jointly printed and distributed.Arthur Griffithdecried the censorship of Joyce's work in his newspaperUnited Irishman. Joyce graduated from theRoyal University of Irelandin October 1902. He considered studying medicineand began attending lectures at theCatholic University Medical Schoolin Dublin.When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education, he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris,where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics, chemistry, and biology at the École de Médecine.By the end of January 1903, he had given up plans to study medicinebut he stayed in Paris, often reading late in theBibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève.He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water, the cold weather, and his change of diet,appealing for money his family could ill-afford. Post-university years in Dublin In April 1903, Joyce learned his mother was dyingand immediately returned to Ireland.He would tend to her, reading aloud from drafts that would eventually be worked into his unfinished novelStephen Hero.During her final days, she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make hisconfessionand to takecommunion.She died on 13 August.Afterwards, Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.John Joyce's drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death, and the family began to fall apart.Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues,and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books. Joyce's life began to change when he metNora Barnacleon 10 June 1904. She was a twenty-year-old woman fromGalway city, who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid.They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904,walking through the Dublin suburb ofRingsend, where Nora masturbated him.This event was commemorated as the date for the action ofUlysses, known in popular culture as \"Bloomsday\" in honour of the novel's main characterLeopold Bloom.This began a relationship that continued for thirty-seven years until Joyce died.Soon after this outing, Joyce, who had been carousing with his colleagues,approached a young woman inSt Stephen's Greenand was beaten up by her companion. He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter, who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist ofUlysses. Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer.On 8 May 1904, he was a contestant in theFeis Ceoil,an Irishmusic competitionfor promising composers, instrumentalists and singers.In the months before the contest, Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors, Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O'Brien.He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books.For the contest, Joyce had to sing three songs. He did well with the first two, but when he was told he had tosight readthe third, he refused.Joyce won the third-place medal anyway.After the contest, Palmieri wrote Joyce thatLuigi Denza, the composer of the popular song \"Funiculì, Funiculà\" who was the judge for the contest,spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight-reading and lack of sufficient training.Palmieri even offered to give Joyce free singing lessons afterwards. Joyce refused the lessons, but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year.His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora's devotion to him.Although Joyce did not ultimately pursue a singing career, he would include thousands of musical allusions in his literary works. Throughout 1904, Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation. On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examiningaestheticscalledA Portrait of the Artist,but it was rejected by the intellectual journalDana. He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth that he calledStephen Herothat he labored over for years but eventually abandoned.He wrote a satirical poem called \"The Holy Office\",which parodiedW. B. Yeats's poem \"To Ireland in the Coming Times\"and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival.It too was rejected for publication; this time for being \"unholy\".He wrote the collection of poemsChamber Musicat this time;which was also rejected.He did publish three poems, one inDanaand two inThe Speaker,andGeorge William Russellpublished three of Joyce's short stories in theIrish Homestead. These stories—\"The Sisters\", \"Eveline\", and \"After the Race\"—were the beginnings ofDubliners. In September 1904, Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into aMartello towernear Dublin, which Gogarty was renting.Within a week, Joyce left when Gogarty and another roommate, Dermot Chenevix Trench, fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.With the help of funds fromLady Gregoryand a few other acquaintances, Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later. 1904–1906: Zürich, Pula and Trieste Zürich and Pula In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure fundsbefore heading on toZürich. Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at theBerlitz Language School, but when he arrived there was no position.The couple stayed in Zürich for a little over a week.The director of the school sent Joyce on toTrieste,which was part of theAustro-Hungarian Empireuntil the First World War.There was no vacancy there either.The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him inPola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base,where he mainly taught English to naval officers.Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had already become pregnant.Joyce soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola,and his wife Clothilde. By the beginning of 1905, both families were living together.Joyce kept writing when he could. He completed a short story forDubliners, \"Clay\", and worked on his novelStephen Hero.He disliked Pola, calling it a \"back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia\",and soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste. First stay in Trieste Joyce moved to Trieste in March 1905 aged 23. He taught English at the Berlitz school.That June he published the satirical poem \"Holy Office\".After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio,on 27 July 1905,He convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and attained a position for him at the Berlitz school. Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived that October, although most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis. During this period Joyce completing 24 chapters ofStephen Heroand all but the final story ofDubliners,but was unable to getDublinerspublished. Although the London publisherGrant Richardshad a contract with Joyce, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial; English law could not protect them if brought to court for circulating indecent language.Richards and Joyce went back and forth trying to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's artistic integrity. As they negotiated, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully. He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement. Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920.Although he would temporarily stay in Rome, travel to Dublin and emigrating to Zürich during World War I— it became a second Dublin for himand played an important role in his development as a writer.He completedDubliners,reworkedStephen HerointoA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, wrote his only published playExilesand decided to makeUlyssesa full-length novel as he worked through his notes and jottings,working out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people,and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced byFuturism.There are even words of the Triestine dialect inFinnegans Wake.Joyce was introduced to the Greek Orthodox liturgy in Trieste. Under its influence, he rewrote his first short story and would later draw on it in creating the liturgical parodies inUlysses. 1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin Rome In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher forDubliners, Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July. Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,but it had a large impact on his writing.Though his new job took up most of his time, he revisedDublinersand worked onStephen Hero.Rome was the birthplace of the idea for \"The Dead\", which would become the final story ofDubliners,and forUlysses,which was originally conceived as a short story.His stay in the city was one of his inspirations forExiles.While there, he read the socialist historianGuglielmo Ferreroin depth.Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jewswould find their way intoUlysses, particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.In London,Elkin MathewspublishedChamber Musicon the recommendation of the British poetArthur Symons.Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.He left Rome after only seven months. Second stay in Trieste Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part-time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen nameItalo Svevo, was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.Joyce learned much of what he knew aboutJudaismfrom him.The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block withA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaperPiccolo della Sera, was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italianirredentistsin Trieste. He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle of the Irish from British rule.Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures at Trieste's Università Popolare on Ireland and the arts,as well as onWilliam Shakespeare's playHamlet. In May, Joyce was struck by an attack ofrheumatic fever,which left him incapacitated for weeks.The illness exacerbatedeye problemsthat plagued him for the rest of his life.While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.During his convalescence, he was able to finish \"The Dead\", the last story ofDubliners. Although a heavy drinker,Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.He reworkedStephen Heroas the more concise and interiorA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He completed the third chapter by Apriland translatedJohn Millington Synge'sRiders to the Seainto Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.He even took singing lessons again.Joyce had been looking for an English publisher forDublinersbut was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned byGeorge Roberts. Visits to Dublin In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family, his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway.He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at hisalma mater, which had become University College Dublin.He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing theDubliners.He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine businessmen and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, theVolta Cinematograph.It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen. From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture on Hamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at theUniversity of Padua.He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In 1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly in the summer.While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication ofDublinerscame to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an invective against Roberts, \"Gas from a Burner\".He never went to Dublin again. Publication ofDublinersandA Portrait Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publishDubliners. It was issued on 15 June 1914,eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate inEzra Pound, who was living in London.On the advice of Yeats,Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem fromChamber Music, \"I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land\" in the journalDes Imagistes. They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were both published and publicized. After Pound persuadedDora MarsdentoseriallypublishA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manin the London literary magazineThe Egoist,Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completedA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manby 1914;resumedExiles, completing it in 1915;started the noveletteGiacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned;and began draftingUlysses. In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zürich in neutral Switzerland. 1915–1920: Zürich and Trieste Zürich Joyce arrived in Zürich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.During the war, he was kept under surveillance by both the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services. Joyce's first concern was earning a living. One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months. Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from theRoyal Literary Fundin 1915 and a grant from the Britishcivil listthe following year.Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editorHarriet Shaw Weaver, who operatedThe Egoist, and the psychotherapistEdith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zürich studying underCarl Jung.Weaver financially supported Joyce throughout the entirety of his life and even paid for his funeral.Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well;the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland.However, health problems remained a constant issue. During their time in Zürich, both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as \"nervous breakdowns\"and he had to undergo many eye surgeries. Ulysses During the war, Zürich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community. Joyce's regular evening hangout was the Cafe Pfauen,where he got to know a number of the artists living in the city at the time, including the sculptorAugust Suterand the painterFrank Budgen.He often used the time spent with them as material forUlysses.He made the acquaintance of the writerStefan Zweig,who organised the premiere ofExilesin Munich in August 1919.He became aware ofDada, which was coming into its own at theCabaret Voltaire.He may have even met theMarxisttheoretician and revolutionaryVladimir Leninat the Cafe Odeon,a place they both frequented. Joyce kept up his interest in music. He metFerruccio Busoni,staged music withOtto Luening, and learned music theory fromPhilipp Jarnach.Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way intoUlysses, particularly the \"Sirens\" section. Joyce avoided public discussion of the war's politics and maintained strict neutrality.He made few comments about the 1916Easter Risingin Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement,he disagreed with its violence.He stayed intently focused onUlyssesand the ongoing struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of \"The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man\" inThe Egoisthad been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published byB. W. Huebschin 1916.In 1918, Pound got a commitment fromMargaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazineThe Little Review, to publishUlyssesserially. The English Players Joyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager. The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort,and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such asOscar Wilde,George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.For Synge'sRiders to the Sea, Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage,which he did again whenRobert Browning'sIn a Balconywas staged. He hoped the company would eventually stage his play,Exiles,but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of theGreat Influenza epidemicof 1918, though the company continued until 1920. Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit.Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role inThe Importance of Being Earnest. Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zürich. Third stay in Trieste By 1919, Joyce was in financial straits again. McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung,and Zürich had become expensive to live in after the war. Furthermore, he was becoming isolated as the city's emigres returned home. In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed. The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in post-war recovery.Eight months after his return, Joyce went toSirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920. 1920–1941: Paris and Zürich Paris When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.For the first four months, he stayed withLudmila Savitzkyand metSylvia Beach, who ran theRive Gauchebookshop,Shakespeare and Company.Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support,and becoming one of Joyce's publishers.Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the internationalmodernistartist community.Joyce metValery Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the Frenchand supervised the French translation ofUlysses.Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for twenty years, though they never settled into a single location for long. Publication ofUlysses Joyce finished writingUlyssesnear the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyerJohn Quinn,Margaret Anderson and her co-editorJane Heaphad begun serially publishing it inThe Little Reviewin March 1918but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the \"Nausicaa\" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with theNew York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.Thetrial proceedingscontinued until February 1921, when both Anderson and Healy, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenityand ordered to cease publishingUlysses.Huebsch, who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.Weaver was unable to find an English printer,and the novel wasbannedfor obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936. Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printingUlysses, Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver mailed books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.They were then smuggled into both countries.Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, \"bootleg\" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisherSamuel Roth, who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a courtenjoinedpublication.Ulysseswas not legally published in the United States until 1934 after JudgeJohn M. Woolseyruled inUnited States v. One Book Called Ulyssesthat the book was not obscene. Finnegans Wake In 1923, Joyce began his next work, anexperimental novelthat eventually becameFinnegans Wake.It would take sixteen years to complete.At first, Joyce called itWork in Progress, which was the nameFord Madox Fordused in April 1924 when he published its \"Mamalujo\" episode in his magazine,The Transatlantic Review. In 1926,EugeneandMariaJolas serialised the novel in their magazine,transition. When parts of the novel first came out, some of Joyce's supporters—like Stanislaus, Pound, and Weaver—wrote negatively about it,and it was criticised by writers likeSeán Ó Faoláin,Wyndham Lewis, andRebecca West.In response, Joyce and the Jolases organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titledOur Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress, which included writings bySamuel BeckettandWilliam Carlos Williams.An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to marketWork in Progressto a larger audience.Joyce publicly revealed the novel's title asFinnegans Wakein 1939,the same year he completed it. It was published in London byFaber and Faberwith the assistance of T. S. Eliot. Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations,but his vision severely declined.By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly.He even had all of his teeth removed because of infection.At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finishFinnegans Wake, asking the Irish authorJames Stephensto complete it if something should happen. Joyce's financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.Despite these issues, he publishedPomes Penyeachin 1927, a collection of thirteen poems that he wrote in Trieste, Zürich and Paris. Marriage in London In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence in London once more,primarily to assure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on theelectoral roll, and became liable forjury service. After living together for twenty-seven years, Joyce and Nora got married at theRegister Office in Kensingtonon 4 July 1931.Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness. He planned to return, but never did and later became disaffected with England. In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgeryor for treatment for Lucia,who was diagnosed withschizophrenia.Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung, who had previously written thatUlysseswas similar to schizophrenic writing.Jung suggested that she and her father were two people going into a river, except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was falling.In spite of Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death. Final return to Zürich In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.As early as 1938, Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution.After thefall of Francein 1940, Joyce and his family fled fromNazi occupation, returning to Zürich a final time. Death On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zürich for aperforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the following day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, at age 58. His body was buried in theFluntern Cemeteryin Zürich. Swiss tenorMax Meilisang \"Addio terra, addio cielo\" fromMonteverdi'sL'Orfeoat the burial service.Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all of his life, and although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, only the British consul attended the funeral. WhenJoseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, was informed of Joyce's death by Frank Cremins,chargé d'affairesatBern, Walshe responded, \"Please wire details of Joyce's death. If possible find out did he die a Catholic? Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral.\"Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent \"honour grave\", with a seated portrait statue by American artistMilton Hebaldnearby. Nora, whom he had married in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976. After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains,despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomatJohn J. Slocum.In October 2019, a motion was put toDublin City Councilto plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.The proposal immediately became controversial, with theIrish Timescommenting: \"... it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read\". Political views Throughout his life, Joyce stayed actively interested in Irish national politicsand in its relationship to British colonialism.He studiedsocialismandanarchism.He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist view influenced byBenjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay \"The Soul of Man Under Socialism\".He described his opinions as \"those of a socialist artist\".Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned,but his later works still reflect his commitment.He remained sympathetic to individualism and critical of coercive ideologies such as nationalism.His novels address socialist, anarchist and Irish nationalist issues.Ulysseshas been read as a novel critiquing the effect of British colonialism on the Irish people.Finnegans Wakehas been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics,the interrelationship between colonialism and race,and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism. Joyce's politics is reflected in his attitude toward his British passport. He wrote about the negative effects of British occupation in Ireland and was sympathetic to the attempts of the Irish to free themselves from it.In 1907, he expressed his support for the earlySinn Féinmovement before the establishment of theIrish Free Statein 1922.However, throughout his life, Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish one.When he had a choice, he opted to renew his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State,and he chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to leaveVichy Francemore easily.His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally,his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics,and his dismay over the Irish Free State's political alignment with the Catholic Church. Religious views Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.Firsthand statements by himand Stanislaus,attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic, though his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education.Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church. When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Fridayor occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox services, stating that he liked the ceremonies better. Some critics have argued that Joyce firmly rejected the Catholic faith.He lapsed from the Church early in lifeand Nora refused to allow a Catholic service when he died.His works frequently critique, ridicule, and blaspheme Catholicism,and he appropriates Catholic rituals and concepts for his own artistic purposes.Nevertheless, Catholic critics have argued that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith,wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it.They argue thatUlyssesandFinnegans Wakeare expressions of a Catholic sensibility,insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by the characters in his novel do not represent the views of Joyce the author. Other critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation,a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life, politics, and personal development.Joyce's attitude toward Catholicism has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted the power of Catholicism and another who maintained his allegiance to its traditions.He has been compared to the medievalepiscopi vagantes(wandering bishops), who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought. Joyce's responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion ofUlysses, Joyce was asked, \"When did you leave the Catholic Church?\" He answered, \"That's for the Church to say.\" Major works Dubliners Dublinersis a collection of 15 short stories first published in 1914,that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century. The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak. Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination. Many of the characters inDublinerslater appear in minor roles in Joyce's novelUlysses.The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists. Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people. This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the novelStephen Hero, which was abandoned in 1905. It is aKünstlerroman, a kind ofcoming-of-age noveldepicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonistStephen Dedalusand his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such asstream of consciousness,interior monologue, and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings are evident throughout this novel. Exilesand poetry Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play,Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to \"The Dead\" (the final story inDubliners) and forward toUlysses, which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition. He published three books of poetry.The first full-length collection wasChamber Music(1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics. It led to his inclusion in theImagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes \"Gas from a Burner\" (1912),Pomes Penyeach(1927), and \"Ecce Puer\" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). These were published by theBlack Sun PressinCollected Poems(1936). Ulysses The action ofUlyssesstarts on 16 June 1904 at 8am and ends sometime after 2am the following morning. Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy. The novel consists of 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style.Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode inHomer'sOdyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.Ulyssessets the characters and incidents of theOdysseyin 1904 Dublin, representingOdysseus(Ulysses),Penelope, andTelemachusin the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wifeMolly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus. It uses humour–including parody, satire and comedy– to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models. Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titlesso the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure. Ulyssescan be read as a study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings to create a sense of fastidious detail.Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition ofThom's Directory—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature. Finnegans Wake Finnegans Wakeis an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousnessand literary allusionto their extremes. Although the work can be read from beginning to end, Joyce's writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read nonlinearly. Much of the wordplay stems from the work being written in peculiar and obscure English, based mainly oncomplex multilevel puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than, that used byLewis CarrollinJabberwockyand draws on a wide range of languages.The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream. The metaphysics ofGiordano BrunoofNola, who Joyce had read in his youth,plays an important role inFinnegans Wake, as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed.Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history—in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos—structures the text's narrative,as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book:Finnegans Wakeopens with the words \"riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs\"and ends \"A way a lone a last a loved a long the\".In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle. Legacy Joyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.Ulyssesis a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations into the power of language.Its emphasis on the details of everyday life has opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers,andFinnegans Wakehas become one of the key texts for Frenchpost-structuralism. The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keeps them open to constant reinterpretation.They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce's studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions. In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide. Collections, museums, and study centres TheNational Library of Irelandholds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, theMuseum of Literature Ireland,the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has both a small permanent Joyce-related collection, and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include \"Copy No. 1\" ofUlysses.Dedicated centres in Dublin include theJames Joyce CentreinNorth Great George's Street, theJames Joyce Tower and MuseuminSandycoveat the Martello tower where Joyce briefly lived and where he set the opening scene inUlysses, and theDublin Writers Museum.University College Londonholds the only major research collection of Joyce's work in the United Kingdom, including first editions of all of Joyce's major works, many other editions and translations, as well as critical and background literature. Bibliography Novel Series Stephen Dedalus Finnegan Short Stories Poetry collections Play Posthumous Non-fiction Notes References Citations Sources Books Journal articles Online sources External links Joyce Papers, National Library of Ireland Electronic editions Resources", "Virginia Woolf Adeline Virginia Woolf(/wʊlf/;néeStephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941) was an English writer. She is considered one of the most importantmodernist20th-century authors. She pioneered the use ofstream of consciousnessas a narrative device. Woolf was born into an affluent household inSouth Kensington, London. She was the seventh child ofJulia Prinsep JacksonandLeslie Stephenin a blended family of eight that included the modernist painterVanessa Bell. She was home-schooled in English classics andVictorian literaturefrom a young age. From 1897 to 1901, she attended the Ladies' Department ofKing's College London. There, she studied classics and history, coming into contact with early reformers of women's higher education and thewomen's rightsmovement. After her father's death in 1904, the Stephen family moved from Kensington to the morebohemianBloomsbury, where, in conjunction with the brothers' intellectual friends, they formed the artistic and literaryBloomsbury Group. In 1912, she marriedLeonard Woolf, and in 1917, the couple founded theHogarth Press, which published much of her work. They rented a home in Sussex and permanently settled there in 1940. Woolf began writing professionally in 1900. During the inter-war period, Woolf was an important part of London's literary and artistic society. In 1915, she published her first novel,The Voyage Out, through her half-brother's publishing house,Gerald Duckworth and Company. Her best-known works include the novelsMrs Dalloway(1925),To the Lighthouse(1927) andOrlando(1928). She is also known for her essays, such asA Room of One's Own(1929). Woolf became one of the central subjects of the 1970s movement offeminist criticism. Her works, translated into more than 50 languages, have attracted attention and widespread commentary for inspiring feminism. A large body of writing is dedicated to her life and work. She has been the subject of plays, novels, and films. Woolf is commemorated by statues, societies dedicated to her work, and a building at theUniversity of London. Life Early life Virginia Woolf was born Adeline Virginia Stephen on 25 January 1882 at 22Hyde Park GateinSouth Kensington, London,toJulia (née Jackson)andSir Leslie Stephen. Her father was a writer, historian, essayist, biographer, and mountaineer,described byHelena Swanwickas a \"gaunt figure with a ragged red brown beard ... a formidable man.\"Her mother was a noted philanthropist, and her side of the family containedJulia Margaret Cameron, a celebrated photographer, andLady Henry Somerset, a campaigner for women's rights.Virginia was named after her aunt Adeline, but because of her aunt's recent death the family decided not to use her first name. Both of the Stephens had children from previous marriages. Julia, from her marriage to barristerHerbert Duckworth, hadGeorge, Stella, andGerald;Leslie had Laura from a marriage to Minny Thackeray, a daughter ofWilliam Makepeace Thackeray.Both former spouses had died suddenly, Duckworth of an abscess and Minny Stephen in childbirth.Leslie and Julia Stephen had four children together:Vanessa,Thoby, Virginia, andAdrian. Virginia lived at 22 Hyde Park Gate until her father's death in 1904.She was, as she described it, \"born into a large connection, born not of rich parents, but of well-to-do parents, born into a very communicative, literate, letter writing, visiting, articulate, late nineteenth century world.\"The house was described as dimly-lit, crowded with furniture and paintings.Within it, the younger Stephens made a close-knit group. Virginia showed an early affinity for writing. By the age of five she was writing letters. A fascination with books helped form a bond between her and her father.From the age of 10, with her sister Vanessa, she began an illustrated family newspaper, theHyde Park Gate News, chronicling life and events within the Stephen family,and modelled on the popular magazineTit-Bits.Virginia would run theHyde Park Gate Newsuntil 1895, a few weeks before her mother's death.In 1897 Virginia began her first diary,which she kept for the next twelve years. Talland House In the spring of 1882, Leslie rented a large white house inSt Ives, Cornwall.The family would spend three months each summer there for the first 13 years of Virginia's life.Although the house had limited amenities, its main attraction was the view overlooking Porthminster Bay towards theGodrevy Lighthouse.The happy summers spent at Talland House would later influence Woolf's novelsJacob's Room,To the LighthouseandThe Waves. Both at Hyde Park Gate and Talland House, the family socialised with much of the country's literary and artistic circles. Frequent guests included literary figures such asHenry JamesandGeorge Meredith, as well asJames Russell Lowell.The family did not return after 1894; a hotel was constructed in front of the house which blocked the sea view, and Julia Stephen died in May the following year. Sexual abuse In the 1939 essay \"A Sketch of the Past\" Woolf first wrote about experiencing sexual abuse by Gerald Duckworth at a young age. There is speculation that this contributed to her mental health issues later in life.There are also suggestions of sexual impropriety from George Duckworth during the period that he was caring for the Stephen sisters. Adolescence Julia Stephen fell ill with influenza in February 1895, and never properly recovered, dying on 5 May, when Virginia was only 13.This precipitated what Virginia later identified as her first \"breakdown\"—for months afterwards she was nervous and agitated, and she wrote very little for the subsequent two years. Stella Duckworth took on a parental role.She married in April 1897, but moved to a house very close to the Stephens to continue to support the family. However, she fell ill on honeymoon and died on 19 July 1897.Subsequently George Duckworth took it upon himself to act as the head of the household, andbring Vanessa and Virginia out into society.This was not a rite of passage that resonated with either girl; Virginia's view was that \"Society in those days was a very competent, perfectly complacent, ruthless machine. A girl had no chance against its fangs. No other desires—say to paint, or to write—could be taken seriously.\"Her priority was her writing;she began a new diary at the start of 1897 and filled notebooks with fragments and literary sketches. Leslie Stephen died in February 1904, which caused Virginia to suffer another period of mental instability from April to September, and led to at least one suicide attempt.Woolf later described the period of 1897–1904 as \"the seven unhappy years.\" Education As was common at the time, Julia Stephen did not believe in formal education for her daughters.Virginia was educated in a piecemeal fashion by her parents: Julia taught her Latin, French, and history, while Leslie taught her mathematics. She also received piano lessons.She also had unrestricted access to her father's vast library, exposing her to much of the literary canon.This resulted in a greater depth of reading than any of her Cambridge contemporaries.Later, Virginia recalled: Even today there may be parents who would doubt the wisdom of allowing a girl of fifteen the free run of a large and quite unexpurgated library. But my father allowed it. There were certain facts – very briefly, very shyly he referred to them. Yet \"Read what you like\", he said, and all his books...were to be had without asking. Another source was the conversation of their father's friends, to whom she was exposed.Leslie Stephen described his circle as \"most of the literary people of mark...clever young writers and barristers, chiefly of the radical persuasion...we used to meet on Wednesday and Sunday evenings, to smoke and drink and discuss the universe and the reform movement\". From 1897 Virginia received private tuition in Latin and Ancient Greek. One of her tutors wasClara Pater, and another wasJanet Case, with whom she formed a lasting friendship and who involved her in thesuffrage movement.Virginia also attended a number of lectures at theKing's CollegeLadies' Department. Although Virginia could not attend Cambridge, she was to be profoundly influenced by her brother Thoby's experiences there. When Thoby went to Trinity in 1899, he befriended a circle of young men, includingClive Bell,Lytton Strachey,Leonard Woolf(whom Virginia would later marry), andSaxon Sydney-Turner, to whom he would introduce his sisters at theTrinity May Ballin 1900.These men formed a reading group they named the Midnight Society, which the Stephen sisters would later be invited to. Bloomsbury (1904–1912) Gordon Square After their father's death, Vanessa and Adrian decided to sell 22 Hyde Park Gate in South Kensington and move toBloomsbury. This was a much cheaper area—they had not inherited much and were unsure about their finances. The Duckworth brothers did not join the Stephens in their new home; Gerald did not wish to, and George got married during the preparations, leaving to live with his new wife.Virginia lived in the house for brief periods in the autumn – she was sent away to Cambridge and Yorkshire for her health – and settled there permanently in December 1904. From March 1905 the Stephens began to entertain their brother Thoby's intellectual friends at Gordon Square. The circle, who were largely members of theCambridge Apostles, includedSaxon Sydney-Turner,Lytton Strachey,Clive BellandDesmond MacCarthy. Their social gatherings, referred to as \"Thursday evenings\", were a vision of recreating Trinity College.This circle formed the nucleus of the intellectual circle of writers and artists known as theBloomsbury Group.Later, it would includeJohn Maynard Keynes,Duncan Grant,E. M. Forster,Roger Fry, Leonard Woolf, andDavid Garnett. Virginia began teaching evening classes on a voluntary basis atMorley College, and would continue intermittently for the next two years. This work would later influence themes of class and education in her novelMrs Dalloway.She made some money from reviews, including some published in church paperThe Guardianand theNational Review, capitalising on her father's literary reputation in order to earn commissions. Vanessa added another event to their calendar with the \"Friday Club\", dedicated to the discussion of the fine arts.This introduced some new people into their circle, including Vanessa's friends from theRoyal Academy of ArtsandSlade School of Fine Art(where she had been studying),such asHenry LambandGwen Darwin, and also the eighteen-year-oldKatherine Laird (\"Ka\") Cox, who was about to attendNewnham College, Cambridge.Cox would become Virginia's intimate friend. These new members brought the Bloomsbury Group into contact with another, slightly younger, group of Cambridge intellectuals who Virginia would refer to as the \"Neo-Pagans\". The Friday Club continued until 1912 or 1913. In the autumn of 1906 the siblings travelled to Greece and Turkey with Violet Dickinson.During the trip Vanessa fell ill withappendicitis. Both Violet and Thoby contractedtyphoid fever; Thoby died on 20 November. Two days after Thoby's death, Vanessa accepted a previous proposal of marriage from Clive Bell.As a couple, their interest inavant-gardeart would have an important influence on Woolf's further development as an author. Fitzroy Square and Brunswick Square After Vanessa's marriage, Virginia and Adrian moved into 29Fitzroy Square, still very close to Gordon Square.The house had previously been occupied byGeorge Bernard Shaw, and the area had been populated by artists since the previous century. Duncan Grant lived there, and Roger Fry would move there in 1913.Virginia resented the wealth that Vanessa's marriage had given her; Virginia and Adrian lived more humbly by comparison. The siblings resumed the Thursday Club at their new home,while Gordon Square became the venue for a play-reading society.During this period, the group began to increasingly explore progressive ideas, with open discussions of members' homosexual inclinations, and nude dancing from Vanessa, who in 1910 went so far as to propose a libertarian society with sexual freedom for all. Virginia appears not to have shown interest in practising the group'sfree loveideology, finding an outlet for her sexual desires only in writing.Around this time she began work on her first novel,Melymbrosia, which eventually becameThe Voyage Out(1915). In November 1911 Virginia and Adrian moved to a larger house at 38Brunswick Square, and invited John Maynard Keynes, Duncan Grant and Leonard Woolf to become lodgers there.Virginia saw it as a new opportunity: \"We are going to try all kinds of experiments\", she toldOttoline Morrell.This arrangement for a single woman living among men was considered scandalous. Dreadnoughthoax Several members of the Bloomsbury Group attained notoriety in 1910 with theDreadnoughthoax, in which they posed as a royalAbyssinianentourage (with Virginia as \"Prince Mendax\") and received a tour of theHMS Dreadnoughtby Virginia's cousinCommander Fisher, who was not aware of the joke.Horace de Vere Cole, who had been one of the masterminds of the hoax along with Adrian, later leaked the story to the press and informed the Foreign Office, leading to general outrage from the establishment. Asham House (1911–1919) During the latter Bloomsbury years Virginia travelled frequently with friends and family, to Dorset and Cornwall as well as further afield to Paris, Italy and Bayreuth. These trips were intended to avoid her suffering exhaustion from extended periods in London.The question arose of Virginia needing a quiet country retreat close to London, for the sake of her still-fragile mental health.In the winter of 1910 she and Adrian stayed atLewesand started exploring the area of Sussex around the town.She soon found a property in nearbyFirle, which she named \"Little Talland House\"; she maintained a relationship with that area for the rest of her life, tending to spend her time either in Sussex or London. In September 1911 she and Leonard Woolf found Asham Housenearby, and Virginia and Vanessa took a joint lease on it.Located at the end of a tree-lined road, the house was in a Regency-Gothic style, \"flat, pale, serene, yellow-washed\", remote, without electricity or water and allegedly haunted.The sisters had two housewarming parties in January 1912. Virginia recorded the events of the weekends and holidays she spent there in herAsham Diary, part of which was later published asA Writer's Diaryin 1953. In terms of creative writing,The Voyage Outwas completed there, and much ofNight and Day.The house itself inspired the short story \"A Haunted House\", published inA Haunted House and Other Short Stories.Asham provided Woolf with much-needed relief from the pace of London life, and was where she found a happiness that she expressed in her diary on 5 May 1919: \"Oh, but how happy we've been at Asheham! It was a most melodious time. Everything went so freely; – but I can't analyse all the sources of my joy\". While at Asham, in 1916 Leonard and Virginia found a farmhouse to let about four miles away, which they thought would be ideal for her sister. Eventually, Vanessa came down to inspect it, and took possession in October of that year, as a summer home for her family. TheCharleston Farmhousewas to become the summer gathering place for the Bloomsbury Group. Marriage and war (1912–1920) Leonard Woolfwas one of Thoby Stephen's friends at Trinity College, Cambridge, and had encountered the Stephen sisters in Thoby's rooms while visiting forMay Weekbetween 1899 and 1904. He recalled that in \"white dresses and large hats, with parasols in their hands, their beauty literally took one's breath away\".In 1904 Leonard Woolf left Britain for a civil service position inCeylon,but returned for a year's leave in 1911 after letters from Lytton Strachey describing Virginia's beauty enticed him back.He and Virginia attended social engagements together, and he moved into Brunswick Square as a tenant in December of that year. Leonard proposed to Virginia on 11 January 1912.Initially she expressed reluctance, but the two continued courting. Leonard decided not to return to Ceylon and resigned his post. On 29 May Virginia declared her love for Leonard,and they married on 10 August atSt Pancras Town Hall. The couple spent their honeymoon first at Asham and theQuantock Hillsbefore travelling to the south of France and on to Spain and Italy. On their return they moved toClifford's Inn,and began to divide their time between London and Asham. Virginia Woolf had completed a penultimate draft of her first novelThe Voyage Outbefore her wedding, but undertook large-scale alterations to the manuscript between December 1912 and March 1913. The work was subsequently accepted by her half-brother Gerald Duckworth's publishing house, and she found the process of reading and correcting the proofs extremely emotionally difficult.This led to one of several breakdowns over the subsequent two years; Woolf attempted suicide on 9 September 1913 with an overdose ofVeronal, being saved with the help of Maynard Keynes' surgeon brotherGeoffrey Keyneswho drove Leonard toSt Bartholomew's Hospitalto fetch a stomach pump.Woolf's illness led to Duckworth delaying the publication ofThe Voyage Outuntil 26 March 1915. In the autumn of 1914 the couple moved to a house onRichmond Green,and in late March 1915 they moved to Hogarth House, also inRichmond, after which they namedtheir publishing housein 1917.The decision to move to London's suburbs was made for the sake of Woolf's health.Many of Woolf's circle of friends were against the war, and Woolf herself opposed it from a standpoint of pacifism and anti-censorship.Leonard was exempted from theintroduction of conscription in 1916on medical grounds.The Woolfs employed two servants at the recommendation ofRoger Fryin 1916; Lottie Hope worked for a number of other Bloomsbury Group members, andNellie Boxallwould stay with them until 1934. The Woolfs spent parts of the period of theFirst World Warin Asham, but were obliged by the owner to leave in 1919.\"In despair\" they purchased the Round House in Lewes, a converted windmill, for £300. No sooner had they bought the Round House, thanMonk's Housein nearbyRodmellcame up for auction, aweatherboardedhouse with oak-beamed rooms, said to date from the 15th or 16th century.The Woolfs sold the Round House and purchased Monk's House for £700.Monk's House also lacked running water, but came with an acre of garden, and had a view across the Ouse towards the hills of theSouth Downs. Leonard Woolf describes this view as being unchanged since the days ofChaucer.The Woolfs would retain Monk's House until the end of Virginia's life; it became their permanent home after their London home was bombed, and it was where she completedBetween the Actsin early 1941, which was followed by her final breakdown and suicide in the nearby River Ouse on 28 March. Further works (1920–1940) Memoir Club 1920 saw a postwar reconstitution of the Bloomsbury Group, under the title of theMemoir Club, which as the name suggests focussed on self-writing, in the manner ofProust'sA La Recherche, and inspired some of the more influential books of the 20th century. The Group, which had been scattered by the war, was reconvened byMary ('Molly') MacCarthywho called them \"Bloomsberries\", and operated under rules derived from theCambridge Apostles, an elite university debating society that a number of them had been members of. These rules emphasised candour and openness. Among the 125 memoirs presented, Virginia contributed three that were published posthumously in 1976, in the autobiographical anthologyMoments of Being. These were22 Hyde Park Gate(1921),Old Bloomsbury(1922) andAm I a Snob?(1936). Vita Sackville-West On 14 December 1922Woolf met the writer and gardenerVita Sackville-West,wife ofHarold Nicolson. This period was to prove fruitful for both authors, Woolf producing three novels,To the Lighthouse(1927),Orlando(1928), andThe Waves(1931) as well as a number of essays, including \"Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown\" (1924) and \"A Letter to a Young Poet\" (1932).The two women remained friends until Woolf's death in 1941. Virginia Woolf also remained close to her surviving siblings, Adrian and Vanessa. Further novels and non-fiction Between 1924 and 1940 the Woolfs returned to Bloomsbury, taking out a ten-year lease at 52Tavistock Square,from where they ran theHogarth Pressfrom the basement, where Virginia also had her writing room. 1925 saw the publication ofMrs Dallowayin May followed by her collapse while at Charleston in August. In 1927, her next novel,To the Lighthouse, was published, and the following year she lectured onWomen & Fictionat Cambridge University and publishedOrlandoin October. Her two Cambridge lectures then became the basis for her major essayA Room of One's Ownin 1929.Virginia wrote only one drama,Freshwater, based on her great-auntJulia Margaret Cameron, and produced at her sister's studio onFitzroy Streetin 1935. 1936 saw the publication ofThe Years, which had its origin in a lecture Woolf gave to the National Society for Women's Service in 1931, an edited version of which would later be published as \"Professions for Women\".Another collapse of her health followed the novel's completionThe Years. The Woolf's final residence in London was at 37Mecklenburgh Square(1939–1940), destroyed duringthe Blitzin September 1940; a month later their previous home on Tavistock Square was also destroyed. After that, they made Sussex their permanent home. Death After completing the manuscript of her last novel (posthumously published),Between the Acts(1941), Woolf fell into a depression similar to one which she had earlier experienced. The onset of the Second World War, the destruction of her London home duringthe Blitz, and the cool reception given toher biographyof her late friendRoger Fryall worsened her condition until she was unable to work.When Leonard enlisted in theHome Guard, Virginia disapproved. She held fast to herpacifismand criticised her husband for wearing what she considered to be \"the silly uniform of the Home Guard\". After the Second World War began, Woolf's diary indicates that she was obsessed with death, which figured more and more as her mood darkened.On 28 March 1941, Woolf drowned herself by walking into the fast-flowingRiver Ousenear her home, after placing a large stone in her pocket.Her body was not found until 18 April.Her husband buried her cremated remains beneath an elm tree in the garden ofMonk's House, their home inRodmell, Sussex. In her suicide note, addressed to her husband, she wrote: Dearest, I feel certain that I am going mad again. I feel we can't go through another of those terrible times. And I shan't recover this time. I begin to hear voices, and I can't concentrate. So I am doing what seems the best thing to do. You have given me the greatest possible happiness. You have been in every way all that anyone could be. I don't think two people could have been happier till this terrible disease came. I can't fight it any longer. I know that I am spoiling your life, that without me you could work. And you will I know. You see I can't even write this properly. I can't read. What I want to say is I owe all the happiness of my life to you. You have been entirely patient with me and incredibly good. I want to say that—everybody knows it. If anybody could have saved me it would have been you. Everything has gone from me but the certainty of your goodness. I can't go on spoiling your life any longer. I don't think two people could have been happier than we have been. V. Mental health Much examination has been made of Woolf's mental health. From the age of 13, following the death of her mother, Woolf suffered periodic mood swings.However,Hermione Leeasserts that Woolf was not \"mad\"; she was merely a woman who suffered from and struggled with illness for much of her life, a woman of \"exceptional courage, intelligence and stoicism\", who made the best use, and achieved the best understanding she could of that illness. Her mother's death in 1895, \"the greatest disaster that could happen\",precipitated a crisis for which their family doctor, Dr Seton, prescribed rest, stopping lessons and writing, and regular walks supervised by Stella.Yet just two years later, Stella too was dead, bringing on Virginia's first expressed wish for death at the age of fifteen. This was a scenario she would later recreate in \"Time Passes\" (To the Lighthouse, 1927). The death of her father in 1904 provoked her most alarming collapse, on 10 May, when she threw herself out a window and she was briefly institutionalisedunder the care of her father's friend, the eminent psychiatristGeorge Savage. She spent time recovering at the house of Stella's friend Violet Dickinson, and at her auntCaroline Emelia Stephen's house in Cambridge,and by January 1905, Savage considered her cured. Her brother Thoby's death in 1906 marked a \"decade of deaths\" that ended her childhood and adolescence. On Savage's recommendation, Virginia spent three short periods in 1910, 1912, and 1913 at Burley House at 15 Cambridge Park,Twickenham, described as \"a private nursing home for women with nervous disorder\" run by Miss Jean Thomas.By the end of February 1910, she was becoming increasingly restless, and Savage suggested being away from London. Vanessa rented Moat House, outside Canterbury, in June, but there was no improvement, so Savage sent her to Burley for a \"rest cure\". This involved partial isolation, deprivation of literature, and force-feeding,and after six weeks she was able to convalesce in Cornwall and Dorset during the autumn. She loathed the experience; writing to her sister on 28 July,she described how she found the religious atmosphere stifling and the institution ugly, and informed Vanessa that to escape \"I shall soon have to jump out of a window\".The threat of being sent back would later lead to her contemplating suicide.Despite her protests, Savage would refer her back in 1912 for insomnia and in 1913 for depression. On emerging from Burley House in September 1913, she sought further opinions from two other physicians on the 13th: Maurice Wright, andHenry Head, who had beenHenry James's physician. Both recommended she return to Burley House. Distraught, she returned home and attempted suicide by taking an overdose of 100grainsofveronal(a barbiturate) and nearly dying. On recovery, she went to Dalingridge Hall, George Duckworth's home inEast Grinstead, Sussex, to convalesce on 30 September,returning toAshamon 18 November. She remained unstable over the next two years, with another incident involving veronal that she claimed was an 'accident', and consulted another psychiatrist in April 1914,Maurice Craig, who explained that she was not sufficiently psychotic to be certified or committed to an institution. The rest of the summer of 1914 went better for her, and they moved to Richmond, but in February 1915, just asThe Voyage Outwas due to be published, she relapsed once more, and remained in poor health for most of that year.Then she began to recover, following 20 years of ill health.Nevertheless, there was a feeling among those around her that she was now permanently changed, and not for the better. Over the rest of her life, she suffered recurrent bouts of depression. In 1940, a number of factors appeared to overwhelm her. Her biography of Roger Fry had been published in July, and she had been disappointed in its reception. The horrors of war depressed her, and their London homes had been destroyed in the Blitz in September and October. Woolf had completedBetween the Acts(published posthumously in 1941) in November, and completing a novel was frequently accompanied by exhaustion.Her health became increasingly a matter of concern, culminating in her decision to end her life on 28 March 1941. She also suffered many physical ailments such as headache, back-ache, fevers and faints, which related closely to her psychological stress. These often lasted for weeks or even months, and impeded her work: \"What a gap! ... for 60 days; & those days spent in wearisome headache, jumping pulse, aching back, frets, fidgets, lying awake, sleeping draughts, sedatives,digitalis, going for a little walk, & plunging back into bed again.\" Though this instability would frequently affect her social life, she was able to continue her literary productivity with few interruptions throughout her life. Woolf herself provides not only a vivid picture of her symptoms in her diaries and letters, but also her response to the demons that haunted her and at times made her long for death:\"But it is always a question whether I wish to avoid these glooms... These 9 weeks give one a plunge into deep waters... One goes down into the well & nothing protects one from the assault of truth.\" Psychiatry had little to offer Woolf, but she recognised that writing was one of the behaviours that enabled her to cope with her illness:\"The only way I keep afloat... is by working... Directly I stop working I feel that I am sinking down, down. And as usual, I feel that if I sink further I shall reach the truth.\"Sinking under water was Woolf's metaphor for both the effects of depression and psychosis— but also for finding truth, and ultimately was her choice of death. Throughout her life, Woolf struggled, without success, to find meaning in her illness: on the one hand, an impediment, on the other, something she visualised as an essential part of who she was, and a necessary condition of her art.Her experiences informed her work, such as the character of Septimus Warren Smith inMrs Dalloway(1925), who, like Woolf, was haunted by the dead, and ultimately takes his own life rather than be admitted to a sanitorium. Leonard Woolf relates how during the 30 years they were married, they consulted many doctors in theHarley Streetarea, and although they were given a diagnosis ofneurasthenia, he felt they had little understanding of the causes or nature. The proposed solution was simple—as long as she lived a quiet life without any physical or mental exertion, she was well. On the other hand, any mental, emotional, or physical strain resulted in a reappearance of her symptoms, beginning with a headache, followed by insomnia and thoughts that started to race. Her remedy was simple: to retire to bed in a darkened room, following which the symptoms slowly subsided. Modern scholars, including her nephew and biographer,Quentin Bell,have suggested her breakdowns and subsequent recurring depressive periods were influenced by the sexual abuse which she and her sister Vanessa were subjected to by their half-brothersGeorgeandGerald Duckworth(which Woolf recalls in her autobiographical essays \"A Sketch of the Past\" and \"22 Hyde Park Gate\"). Biographers point out that when Stella died in 1897, there was no counterbalance to control George's predation, and his nighttime prowling.\"22 Hyde Park Gate\" ends with the sentence \"The old ladies of Kensington and Belgravia never knew that George Duckworth was not only father and mother, brother and sister to those poor Stephen girls; he was their lover also.\" It is likely that other factors also played a part. It has been suggested that they includegenetic predisposition.Virginia's father, Leslie Stephen, suffered from depression, and her half-sister Laura was institutionalised. Many of Virginia's symptoms, including persistent headache, insomnia, irritability, and anxiety, resembled those of her father's.Another factor is the pressure she placed upon herself in her work; for instance, her breakdown of 1913 was at least partly triggered by the need to finishThe Voyage Out. Virginia herself hinted that her illness was related to how she saw the repressed position of women in society when she wroteA Room of One's Own.in a 1930 letter toEthel Smyth: As an experience, madness is terrific I can assure you, and not to be sniffed at; and in its lava I still find most of the things I write about. It shoots out of one everything shaped, final, not in mere driblets, as sanity does. And the six months—not three—that I lay in bed taught me a good deal about what is called oneself. Thomas Caramagnoand others,in discussing her illness, oppose the \"neurotic-genius\" way of looking at mental illness, where creativity and mental illness are conceptualised as linked rather than antithetical.Stephen Trombleydescribes Woolf as having a confrontational relationship with her doctors, and possibly being a woman who is a \"victim of male medicine\", referring to the lack of understanding, particularly at the time, about mental illness. Sexuality The Bloomsbury Group held very progressive views regarding sexuality and rejected the austere strictness of Victorian society. The majority of its members were homosexual or bisexual. Woolf had several affairs with women, the most notable being withVita Sackville-West. The two women developed a deep connection; Vita was arguably one of the few people in Virginia's adult life that she was truly close to. told Ethel that she only really loved three people: Leonard, Vanessa, and myself, which annoyed Ethel but pleased me – Vita Sackville-West's letter to husband Harold Nicolson, dated 28 September 1939 During their relationship, both women saw the peak of their literary careers, with the titular protagonist of Woolf's acclaimedOrlando: A Biographybeing inspired by Sackville-West. The pair remained lovers for a decade and stayed close friends for the rest of Woolf's life.Woolf had said to Sackville-West she disliked masculinity. dislikes the possessiveness and love of domination in men. In fact she dislikes the quality of masculinity ; says that women stimulate her imagination, by their grace & their art of life – Vita Sackville-West's diary, dated 26 September 1928 Among her other notable affairs were those withSibyl Colefax,Lady Ottoline Morrell, andMary Hutchinson.Some surmise that she may have fallen in love with Madge Symonds, the wife of one of her uncles.Madge Symonds was described as one of Woolf's early loves in Sackville-West's diary.She also fell in love with Violet Dickinson, although there is some confusion as to whether the two consummated their relationship. Virginia initially declined marriage proposals from her future husband, Leonard. She even went so far as to tell him that she was not physically attracted to him, but later declared that she did love him, and eventually agreed to marriage.Woolf preferred female lovers to male lovers, and did not seem to be sexually attracted to men. This aversion may have been connected to her experiences of sexual abuse as a child. I sometimes think that if I married you, I could have everything—and then—is it the sexual side of it that comes between us? As I told you brutally the other day, I feel no physical attraction in you. –Letter to Leonard from Virginia dated May 1, 1912 Leonard became the love of her life. Although their sexual relationship was questionable, they loved each other deeply and formed a strong and supportive marriage that led to the formation of their publishing house as well as several of her writings. Though Virginia had affairs with and attractions to women during their marriage, both she and Leonard maintained a mutual love and respect for one another. Work Woolf is considered to be one of the most important 20th-century novelists.Amodernist, she was one of the pioneers of usingstream of consciousnessas anarrative device, alongside contemporaries such asMarcel Proust,Dorothy RichardsonandJames Joyce.Woolf's reputation was at its greatest during the 1930s, but declined considerably following the Second World War. The growth offeminist criticismin the 1970s helped re-establish her reputation. Virginia submitted her first article in 1890, to a competition inTit-Bits. Although it was rejected, this shipboard romance by the 8-year-old would presage her first novel 25 years later, as would contributions to theHyde Park News, such as the model letter \"to show young people the right way to express what is in their hearts\", a subtle commentary on her mother's legendary matchmaking.She transitioned from juvenilia to professional journalism in 1904 at the age of 22. Violet Dickinson introduced her toKathleen Lyttelton, the editor of theWomen's SupplementofThe Guardian, a Church of England newspaper. Invited to submit a 1,500-word article, Virginia sent Lyttelton a review ofWilliam Dean Howells'The Son of Royal Langbirthand an essay about her visit toHaworththat year,Haworth, November 1904.The review was published anonymously on 4 December, and the essay on the 21st.In 1905, Woolf began writing forThe Times Literary Supplement. Woolf would go on to publish novels and essays as a public intellectual to both critical and popular acclaim. Much of her work was self-published through theHogarth Press. \"Virginia Woolf's peculiarities as a fiction writer have tended to obscure her central strength: she is arguably the majorlyricalnovelist in the English language. Her novels are highly experimental: a narrative, frequently uneventful and commonplace, is refracted—and sometimes almost dissolved—in the characters' receptive consciousness. Intense lyricism and stylistic virtuosity fuse to create a world overabundant with auditory and visual impressions.\"\"The intensity of Virginia Woolf's poetic vision elevates the ordinary, sometimes banal settings\"—often wartime environments—\"of most of her novels.\" Though at least one biography of Virginia Woolf appeared in her lifetime, the first authoritative study of her life was published in 1972 by her nephew Quentin Bell.Hermione Lee's 1996 biographyVirginia Woolfprovides a thorough and authoritative examination of Woolf's life and work, which she discussed in an interview in 1997.In 2001,Louise DeSalvoand Mitchell A. Leaska editedThe Letters of Vita Sackville-West and Virginia Woolf. Julia Briggs'sVirginia Woolf: An Inner Life(2005) focuses on Woolf's writing, including her novels and her commentary on the creative process, to illuminate her life. The sociologist Pierre Bourdieu also uses Woolf's literature to understand and analyse gender domination. Woolf biographerGillian Gillnotes that Woolf's traumatic experience of sexual abuse by her half-brothers during her childhood influenced her advocacy of protection of vulnerable children from similar experiences.Biljana Dojčinovićhas discussed the issues surrounding translations of Woolf to Serbian as a \"border-crossing\". Themes Woolf's fiction has been studied for its insight into many themes including war, shell shock, witchcraft, and the role of social class in contemporary modern British society.In the postwarMrs Dalloway(1925), Woolf addresses the moral dilemma of war and its effectsand provides an authentic voice for soldiers returning from the First World War, suffering from shell shock, in the person of Septimus Smith.InA Room of One's Own(1929) Woolf equates historical accusations of witchcraft with creativity and genius among women \"When, however, one reads of a witch being ducked, of a woman possessed by devils...then I think we are on the track of a lost novelist, a suppressed poet, of some mute and inglorious Jane Austen\".Throughout her work Woolf tried to evaluate the degree to which her privileged backgroundframedthe lens through which she viewed class.She both examined her own position as someone who would be considered an elitist snob, but attacked the class structure of Britain as she found it. In her 1936 essayAm I a Snob?she examined her values and those of the privileged circle she existed in. She concluded she was, and subsequent critics and supporters have tried to deal with the dilemma of being both elite and a social critic. The sea is a recurring motif in Woolf's work. Noting Woolf's early memory of listening to waves break in Cornwall, Katharine Smyth writes inThe Paris Reviewthat \"the radiance cresting water would be consecrated again and again in her writing, saturating not only essays, diaries, and letters but alsoJacob's Room,The Waves, andTo the Lighthouse.\"Patrizia A. Muscogiuri explains that \"seascapes, sailing, diving and the sea itself are aspects of nature and of human beings' relationship with it which frequently inspired Virginia Woolf's writing.\"This trope is deeply embedded in her texts' structure and grammar; James Antoniou notes inSydney Morning Heraldhow \"Woolf made a virtue of thesemicolon, the shape and function of which resembles the wave, her most famous motif.\" Despite the considerable conceptual difficulties, given Woolf's idiosyncratic use of language,her works have been translated into over 50 languages.Some writers, such as the BelgianMarguerite Yourcenar, had rather tense encounters with her, while others, such as the ArgentinianJorge Luis Borges, produced versions that were highly controversial. Drama Virginia Woolf researched the life of her great-aunt, the photographerJulia Margaret Cameron, publishing her findings in an essay titled \"Pattledom\" (1925),and later in her introduction to her 1926 edition of Cameron's photographs.She had begun work on a play based on an episode in Cameron's life in 1923, but abandoned it. Finally it was performed on 18 January 1935 at the studio of her sister,Vanessa Bellon Fitzroy Street in 1935.Woolf directed it herself, and the cast were mainly members of the Bloomsbury Group, including herself.Freshwateris a short three act comedy satirising theVictorian era, only performed once in Woolf's lifetime. Beneath the comedic elements, there is an exploration of both generational change and artistic freedom. Both Cameron and Woolf fought against the class and gender dynamics of Victorianismand the play shows links to bothTo the LighthouseandA Room of One's Ownthat would follow. Non-fiction Woolf wrote a body of autobiographical work and more than 500 essays and reviews,some of which, likeA Room of One's Own(1929) were of book length. Not all were published in her lifetime. Shortly after her death, Leonard Woolf produced an edited edition of unpublished essays titledThe Moment and other Essays, published by the Hogarth Press in 1947. Many of these were originally lectures that she gave,and several more volumes of essays followed, such asThe Captain's Death Bed: and other essays(1950). A Room of One's Own Among Woolf's non-fiction works, one of the best known isA Room of One's Own(1929), a book-length essay. Considered a key work of feminist literary criticism, it was written following two lectures she delivered on \"Women and Fiction\" at Cambridge University the previous year. In it, she examines the historical disempowerment women have faced in many spheres, including social, educational and financial. One of her more famous dicta is contained within the book \"A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction\". Much of her argument (\"to show you how I arrived at this opinion about the room and the money\") is developed through the \"unsolved problems\" of women and fiction writing to arrive at her conclusion, although she claimed that was only \"an opinion upon one minor point\".In doing so, she states a good deal about the nature of women and fiction, employing a quasi-fictional style as she examines where women writers failed because of lack of resources and opportunities, examining along the way the experiences of theBrontës,George EliotandGeorge Sand, as well as the fictional character ofShakespeare's sister, equipped with the same genius but not position. She contrasted these women who accepted a deferential status withJane Austen, who wrote entirely as a woman. Hogarth Press Virginia had taken up book-binding as a pastime in October 1901, at the age of 19.The Woolfs had been discussing setting up a publishing house for some time – Leonard intended for it to give Virginia a rest from the strain of writing, and therefore help her fragile mental health. Additionally, publishing her works under their own outfit would save her from the stress of submitting her work to an external company, which contributed to her breakdown during the process of publishing her first novelThe Voyage Out.The Woolfs obtained their own hand-printing press in April 1917 and set it up on their dining room table at Hogarth House, thus beginning theHogarth Press. The first publication wasTwo Storiesin July 1917, consisting of \"The Mark on the Wall\" by Virginia Woolf (which has been described as \"Woolf's first foray into modernism\") and \"Three Jews\" by Leonard Woolf. The accompanying illustrations byDora Carringtonwere a success, leading Virginia to remark that the press was \"specially good at printing pictures, and we see that we must make a practice of always having pictures.\" The process took two and a half months with a production run of 150 copies.Other short short stories followed, includingKew Gardens(1919) with awoodblockby Vanessa Bell asfrontispiece.Subsequently Bell added further illustrations, adorning each page of the text. Unlike its contemporary small printers, who specialised in expensive artisanal reprints, the Woolfs concentrated on living avant-garde authors,and over the subsequent five years printed works by a number of authors includingKatherine Mansfield,T.S. Eliot,E. M. Forster, Clive Bell and Roger Fry. They also produced translations of Russian works withS. S. Koteliansky, and the first translation of the complete works ofSigmund Freud.They acquired a larger press in 1921 and began to sell directly to booksellers.In 1938 Virginia sold her share of the company toJohn Lehmann,who had started working for Hogarth Press seven years previously.The Press eventually became Leonard's only source of income, but his association with it ended in 1946, after publishing 527 titles, and Hogarth is now an imprint ofPenguin Random House. The Press also produced explicitly political works. Pamphlets had fallen out of fashion due to the high production costs and low revenue, but the Hogarth Press produced several series on contemporary issues of international politics, challenging colonialism and critiquing Soviet Russia and Italian fascism.The Woolfs also published political fiction, includingTurbott Wolfe(1926) byWilliam PlomerandIn a Province(1934) byLaurens van der Post, which concern South African racial policies and revolutionary movements respectively.Virginia Woolf saw a link between international politics and feminism, publishing a biography of Indian feminist activistSaroj Nalini Duttand the memoirs ofsuffragetteElizabeth Robins.Scholar Ursula McTaggart argues that the Hogarth Press shaped and represented Woolf's later concept of an \"Outsiders' Society\", a non-organised group of women who would resist \"the patriarchal fascism of war and nationalism\" by exerting influence through private actions, as described inThree Guineas. In this view, the readers and authors form a loose network, with the Press providing the means to exchange ideas. Influences Michel Lackey argues that a major influence on Woolf, from 1912 onward, was Russian literature and Woolf adopted many of its aesthetic conventions.The style ofFyodor Dostoyevskywith his depiction of a fluid mind in operation helped to influence Woolf's writings about a \"discontinuous writing process\", though Woolf objected to Dostoyevsky's obsession with \"psychological extremity\" and the \"tumultuous flux of emotions\" in his characters together with his right-wing, monarchist politics as Dostoyevsky was an ardent supporter of the autocracy of theRussian Empire.In contrast to her objections to Dostoyevsky's \"exaggerated emotional pitch\", Woolf found much to admire in the work ofAnton ChekhovandLeo Tolstoy.Woolf admired Chekhov for his stories of ordinary people living their lives, doing banal things and plots that had no neat endings.From Tolstoy, Woolf drew lessons about how a novelist should depict a character's psychological state and the interior tension within.Lackey notes that, fromIvan Turgenev, Woolf drew the lessons that there are multiple \"I's\" when writing a novel, and the novelist needed to balance those multiple versions of him- or herself to balance the \"mundane facts\" of a story vs. the writer's overarching vision, which required a \"total passion\" for art. The American writerHenry David Thoreaualso influenced Woolf. In a 1917 essay, she praised Thoreau for his statement \"The millions are awake enough for physical labor, but only one in hundreds of millions is awake enough to a poetic or divine life. To be awake is to be alive.\" They both aimed to capture 'the moment'––as Walter Pater says, \"to burn always with this hard, gem-like flame.\"Woolf praised Thoreau for his \"simplicity\" in finding \"a way for setting free the delicate and complicated machinery of the soul\".Like Thoreau, Woolf believed that it was silence that set the mind free to really contemplate and understand the world.Both authors believed in a certain transcendental, mystical approach to life and writing, where even banal things could be capable of generating deep emotions if one had enough silence and the presence of mind to appreciate them.Woolf and Thoreau were both concerned with the difficulty of human relationships in the modern age. Woolf's preface toOrlandocreditsDaniel Defoe,Sir Thomas Browne,Laurence Sterne,Sir Walter Scott,Lord Macaulay,Emily Brontë,Thomas de Quincey, andWalter Pateras influences.Among her contemporaries, Woolf was influenced byMarcel Proust, writing toRoger Fry, \"Oh if I could write like that!\" Virginia Woolf and her mother The intense scrutiny of Virginia Woolf's literary output has led to speculation as to her mother's influence, including psychoanalytic studies of mother and daughter.Her memories of her mother are memories of an obsession,starting with her first major breakdown on her mother's death in 1895, the loss having a profound lifelong effect.In many ways, her mother's profound influence on Virginia Woolf is conveyed in the latter's recollections, \"there she is; beautiful, emphatic ... closer than any of the living are, lighting our random lives as with a burning torch, infinitely noble and delightful to her children\". Woolf's understanding of her mother and family evolved considerably between 1907 and 1940, in which the somewhat distant, yet revered figure, becomes more nuanced and complete.She described her mother as an \"invisible presence\" in her life, and Ellen Rosenman argues that the mother-daughter relationship is a constant in Woolf's writing.She describes how Woolf'smodernismneeds to be viewed in relationship to her ambivalence towards her Victorian mother, the centre of the former's female identity, and her voyage to her own sense of autonomy. To Woolf, \"Saint Julia\" was both a martyr whose perfectionism was intimidating and a source of deprivation, by her absences real and virtual and premature death.Julia's influence and memory pervades Woolf's life and work. \"She has haunted me\", she wrote. Historical feminism According to the 2007 bookFeminism: From Mary Wollstonecraft to Betty Friedanby Bhaskar A. Shukla, \"Recently, studies of Virginia Woolf have focused on feminist and lesbian themes in her work, such as in the 1997 collection of critical essays,Virginia Woolf: Lesbian Readings, edited by Eileen Barrett and Patricia Cramer.\"In 1928, Woolf took a grassroots approach to informing and inspiring feminism. She addressed undergraduate women at the ODTAA Society atGirton College, Cambridge, and the Arts Society at Newnham College, with two papers that eventually becameA Room of One's Own(1929). Woolf's best-known nonfiction works,A Room of One's Own(1929) andThree Guineas(1938), examine the difficulties that female writers and intellectuals faced because men held disproportionate legal and economic power, as well as the future of women in education and society.InThe Second Sex(1949),Simone de Beauvoircounts, of all women who ever lived, only three female writers—Emily Brontë, Woolf and \"sometimes\"Katherine Mansfield— have explored \"the given\". Views In her lifetime, Woolf was outspoken on many topics that were considered controversial, some of which are now considered progressive, others regressive.She was an ardentfeministat a time when women's rights were barely recognised, andanti-colonialist, anti-imperialist and apacifistwhenchauvinismwas popular. On the other hand, she has been criticised for views on class and race in her private writings and published works. Like many of her contemporaries, some of her writing is now considered offensive. As a result, she is considered polarising, a revolutionary feminist and socialist hero or a purveyor ofhate speech. Works such asA Room of One's Own(1929) andThree Guineas(1938) are frequently taught as icons of feminist literature in courses that would be very critical of some of her views expressed elsewhere.She has also been the recipient of considerablehomophobicandmisogynistcriticism. Humanist views Virginia Woolf was born into a non-religious family and is regarded, along with fellow members of the Bloomsbury groupE. M. ForsterandG. E. Moore, as ahumanist. Both her parents were prominentagnostic atheists. Her father,Leslie Stephen, had become famous in polite society for his writings which expressed and publicised reasons to doubt the veracity of religion. Stephen was also President of theWest London Ethical Society, an earlyhumanistorganisation, and helped to found theUnion of Ethical Societiesin 1896. Woolf's mother,Julia Stephen, wrote the bookAgnostic Women(1880), which argued that agnosticism (defined here as something more like atheism) could be a highly moral approach to life. Woolf was a critic of Christianity. In a letter toEthel Smyth, she gave a scathing denunciation of the religion, seeing it as self-righteous \"egotism\" and stating \"my Jew has more religion in one toenail—more human love, in one hair\".Woolf stated in her private letters that she thought of herself as an atheist. She thought there were no Gods; no one was to blame; and so she evolved this atheist's religion of doing good for the sake of goodness. Controversies Hermione Leecites a number of extracts from Woolf's writings that many, including Lee, would consider offensive, and these criticisms can be traced back as far as those ofWyndham LewisandQ. D. Leavisin the 1920s and 1930s.Other authors provide more nuanced contextual interpretations, and stress the complexity of her character and the apparent inherent contradictions in analysing her apparent flaws.She could certainly be off-hand, rude and even cruel in her dealings with other authors, translators and biographers, such as her treatment ofRuth Gruber.Some authors, includingDavid Daiches, Brenda Silver, Alison Light and otherpostcolonialfeminists, dismiss her (and modernist authors in general) as privileged, elitist,classist, racist, andantisemitic. Woolf's tendentious expressions, including prejudicial feelings against disabled people, have often been the topic of academic criticism: The first quotation is from a diary entry of September 1920 and runs: \"The fact is the lower classes are detestable.\" The remainder follow the first in reproducing stereotypes standard to upper-class and upper-middle class life in the early 20th century: \"imbeciles should certainly be killed\"; \"Jews\" are greasy; a \"crowd\" is both an ontological \"mass\" and is, again, \"detestable\"; \"Germans\" are akin to vermin; some \"baboon faced intellectuals\" mix with \"sad green dressed negroes and negresses, looking like chimpanzees\" at a peace conference; Kensington High St. revolts one's stomach with its innumerable \"women of incredible mediocrity, drab as dishwater\". Antisemitism Often accused ofantisemitism,the treatment ofJudaismandJewsby Woolf is far from straightforward.She was happily married to an irreligious Jewish man (Leonard Woolf) who had no connection with or knowledge of his people while she generally characterised Jewish characters with negative stereotypes. For instance, she described some of the Jewish characters in her work in terms that suggested they were physically repulsive or dirty. On the other hand, she could criticise her own views: \"How I hated marrying a Jew — how I hated their nasal voices and their oriental jewellery, and their noses and their wattles — what a snob I was: for they have immense vitality, and I think I like that quality best of all\" (Letter to Ethel Smyth 1930).These attitudes have been construed to reflect, not so much antisemitism, but social status; she married outside her social class. Leonard, \"a penniless Jew from Putney\", lacked the material status of the Stephens and their circle. While travelling on a cruise to Portugal, she protested at finding \"a great manyPortuguese Jewson board, and other repulsive objects, but we keep clear of them\".Furthermore, she wrote in her diary: \"I do not like the Jewish voice; I do not like the Jewish laugh.\" Her 1938 short story, written during Hitler's rule, \"The Duchess and the Jeweller\" (originally titled \"The Duchess and the Jew\") has been considered antisemitic. Some believe that Woolf and her husband Leonard came to despise and fear the 1930s'fascismand antisemitism. Her 1938 bookThree Guineaswas an indictment of fascism and what Woolf described as a recurring propensity amongpatriarchalsocieties to enforce repressive societal mores by violence.And yet, her 1938 story \"The Duchess and the Jeweller\" was so deeply hateful in its depiction of Jews thatHarper's Bazaarasked her to modify it before publication; she reluctantly complied. Legacy Virginia Woolf is known for her contributions to 20th-century literature and her essays, as well as the influence she has had on literary, particularly feminist criticism. A number of authors have stated that their work was influenced by her, includingMargaret Atwood,Michael Cunningham,Gabriel García Márquez,andToni Morrison.Her iconic imageis instantly recognisable from the Beresford portrait of her at twenty (at the top of this page) to the Beck and Macgregor portrait in her mother's dress inVogueat 44 (seeFry (1913)) orMan Ray's cover ofTimemagazine (seeRay (1937)) at 55.More postcards of Woolf are sold by theNational Portrait Gallery, London than of any other person.Her image is ubiquitous, and can be found on products ranging from tea towels to T-shirts. Virginia Woolf is studied around the world, with organisations devoted to her, such as the Virginia Woolf Society of Great Britain,and The Virginia Woolf Society of Japan.In addition, trusts—such as the Asham Trust—encourage writers in her honour. Monuments and memorials In 2013, Woolf was honoured by her alma mater of King's College London with the opening of the Virginia Woolf Building onKingsway,together with an exhibit depicting her accompanied by the quotation \"London itself perpetually attracts, stimulates, gives me a play & a story & a poem\" from her 1926 diary.Busts of Virginia Woolf have been erected at her home in Rodmell, Sussex and at Tavistock Square, London, where she lived between 1924 and 1939. In 2014, she was one of the inaugural honorees in theRainbow Honor Walk, awalk of fameinSan Francisco'sCastro neighbourhoodnotingLGBTQpeople who have \"made significant contributions in their fields\". A campaign was launched in 2018 to erect a statue of Woolf in Richmond-upon-Thames, where she lived for 10 years.In November 2022 the statue, created by sculptor Laury Dizengremel, was unveiled. It depicts Woolf on a bench overlooking the River Thames, and is the first full-size statue of Woolf. Portrayals Adaptations Selected works Woolf's most notable works include the following. Novels Essays and essay collections Other Notes References Bibliography Books and theses Biography: Virginia Woolf Mental health Biography: Other Literary commentary Bloomsbury Chapters and contributions Articles Journals Dictionaries and encyclopaedias Newspapers and magazines Websites and documents British Library Virginia Woolf's homes and venues Images Audiovisual media By Woolf Novels Short stories Essays Essay collections Contributions Autobiographical writing Diaries and notebooks Letters External links Written works Archival material Audio media Visual media" ]
[ "List of modernist writers Literary modernismhas its origins in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mainly in Europe and North America. Modernism is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional styles of poetry and prose. Modernists experimented with literary form and expression, adhering toEzra Pound's maxim to \"Make it new\".The modernist literary movement was driven by a conscious desire to overturn traditional modes of representation and express the new sensibilities of their time.It is debatable when the modernist literary movement began, though some have chosen 1910 as roughly marking the beginning and quotenovelistVirginia Woolf, who declared that human nature underwent a fundamental change \"on or about December 1910.\"But modernism was already stirring by 1899, with works such asJoseph Conrad's (1857–1924)Heart of Darkness, whileAlfred Jarry's (1873–1907)absurdistplay,Ubu Roiappeared even earlier, in 1896.Knut Hamsun's (1859–1952)Hunger(1890) is a groundbreaking modernist novel", "modernist novel andMysteries(1892) pioneers moderniststream of consciousnessmethod. When modernism ends is debatable. ThoughThe Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literaturesees Modernism ending by c.1939,with regard to British and American literature, \"When (if) Modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to Modernism occurred\".Clement Greenberg sees Modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts.In fact many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally speaking they were no longer producing major works. The termlate modernismis also sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930.Among modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 wereWallace Stevens,Gottfried Benn,T. S. Eliot,Anna Akhmatova,William Faulkner,Dorothy Richardson,John Cowper Powys, andEzra Pound.Basil Bunting, born in 1901, published his most important modernist poemBriggflattsin 1965.", "1965. In additionHermann Broch'sThe Death of Virgilwas published in 1945 andThomas Mann'sDoctor Faustusin 1947.Samuel Beckett, who died in 1989, has been described as a \"later modernist\".Beckett is a writer with roots in theexpressionisttradition of modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, includingMolloy(1951),En attendant Godot(1953),Happy Days(1961),Rockaby(1981). The poetsCharles Olson(1910-1970) andJ. H. Prynne(1936- ) are, amongst other writing in the second half of the 20th century, who have been described as late modernists. The following is a list of significant modernist writers: References See also", "James Joyce James Augustine Aloysius Joyce(2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet andliterary critic. He contributed to themodernistavant-gardemovement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce's novelUlysses(1922) is a landmark in which the episodes ofHomer'sOdysseyare paralleled in a variety of literary styles, particularlystream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story collectionDubliners(1914), and the novelsA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man(1916) andFinnegans Wake(1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and occasional journalism. Joyce was born inDublininto a middle-class family. He attended the JesuitClongowes Wood Collegein County Kildare, then, briefly, the Christian Brothers–runO'Connell School. Despite the chaotic family life imposed by his father's unpredictable finances, he excelled at the JesuitBelvedere Collegeand graduated fromUniversity College Dublinin", "College Dublinin 1902. In 1904, he met his future wife,Nora Barnacle, and they moved to mainland Europe. He briefly worked inPulaand then moved toTriesteinAustria-Hungary, working as an English instructor. Except for an eight-month stay in Rome working as a correspondence clerk and three visits to Dublin, Joyce resided there until 1915. In Trieste, he published his book of poemsChamber Musicand his short story collectionDubliners, and he began serially publishingA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manin the English magazineThe Egoist. During most of World War I, Joyce lived inZürich, Switzerland, and worked onUlysses. After the war, he briefly returned to Trieste and then moved to Paris in 1920, which became his primary residence until 1940. Ulysseswas first published in Paris in 1922, but its publication in the United Kingdom and the United States was prohibited because of its perceived obscenity. Copies were smuggled into both countries and pirated versions were printed until the mid-1930s, when", "the mid-1930s, when publication finally became legal. Joyce started his next major work,Finnegans Wake, in 1923, publishing it sixteen years later in 1939. Between these years, Joyce travelled widely. He and Nora were married in a civil ceremony in London in 1931. He made a number of trips to Switzerland, frequently seeking treatment for his increasingly severe eye problems and psychological help for his daughter,Lucia. When France was occupied by Germany during World War II, Joyce moved back to Zürich in 1940. He died there in 1941 after surgery for a perforated ulcer, at age 58. Ulyssesfrequently ranks high in lists of great books, and the academic literature analysing his work is extensive and ongoing. Many writers, film-makers, and other artists have been influenced by his stylistic innovations, such as his meticulous attention to detail, use ofinterior monologue,wordplay, and the radical transformation of traditional plot and character development. Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, his", "spent abroad, his fictional universe centres on Dublin and is largely populated by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there.Ulyssesin particular is set in the streets and alleyways of the city. Joyce is quoted as saying, \"For myself, I always write about Dublin, because if I can get to the heart of Dublin I can get to the heart of all the cities of the world. In the particular is contained the universal.\" Early life Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 at 41 Brighton Square,Rathgar,Dublin, Ireland,toJohn Stanislaus Joyceand Mary Jane \"May\" (néeMurray). He was the eldest of ten surviving siblings. He was baptised with the nameJames Augustine Joyceaccording to therites of the Roman Catholic Churchin the nearby St Joseph's Church inTerenureon 5 February 1882 by Rev. John O'Mulloy.His godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann.John Stanislaus Joyce's family came fromFermoyinCounty Cork, where they owned a small salt and lime works. Joyce's paternal grandfather, James", "grandfather, James Augustine, married Ellen O'Connell, daughter of John O'Connell, a Cork alderman who owned a drapery business and other properties inCork City. Ellen's family claimed kinship with the political leaderDaniel O'Connell, who had helped secureCatholic emancipationfor the Irish in 1829. Joyce's father was appointed rate collector byDublin Corporationin 1887. The family moved to the fashionable small town ofBray, 12 miles (19 km) from Dublin. Joyce was attacked by a dog around this time, leading to his lifelongfear of dogs.He later developed afear of thunderstorms,which he acquired through a superstitious aunt who had described them as a sign of God's wrath. In 1891, nine-year-old Joyce wrote the poem \"Et Tu, Healy\" on the death ofCharles Stewart Parnellthat his father printed and distributed to friends.The poem expressed the sentiments of the elder Joyce,who was angry at Parnell's apparent betrayal by theIrish Catholic Church, theIrish Parliamentary Party, and theBritish Liberal Partythat", "Liberal Partythat resulted in a collaborative failure to secureIrish Home Rulein theBritish Parliament.This sense of betrayal, particularly by the church, left a lasting impression that Joyce expressed in his life and art. That year, his family began to slide into poverty, worsened by his father's drinking and financial mismanagement.John Joyce's name was published inStubbs' Gazette, a blacklist of debtors and bankrupts, in November 1891, and he was temporarily suspended from work.In January 1893, he was dismissed with a reduced pension. Joyce began his education in 1888 atClongowes Wood College, aJesuitboarding school nearClane, County Kildare, but had to leave in 1891 when his father could no longer pay the fees.He studied at home and briefly attended theChristian Brothers O'Connell Schoolon North Richmond Street, Dublin. Joyce's father then had a chance meeting with the Jesuit priestJohn Conmee, who knew the family. Conmee arranged for Joyce and his brotherStanislausto attend the Jesuits' Dublin", "the Jesuits' Dublin school,Belvedere College, without fees starting in 1893.In 1895, Joyce, now aged 13, was elected by his peers to join theSodality of Our Lady.Joyce spent five years at Belvedere, his intellectual formation guided by the principles of Jesuit education laid down in theRatio Studiorum(Plan of Studies).He displayed his writing talent by winning first place for English composition in his final two yearsbefore graduating in 1898. University years Joyce enrolled atUniversity Collegein 1898 to study English, French and Italian.While there, he was exposed to thescholasticismofThomas Aquinas, which had a strong influence on his thought for the rest of his life.He participated in many of Dublin's theatrical and literary circles. His closest colleagues included leading Irish figures of his generation, most notably,George Clancy,Tom KettleandFrancis Sheehy-Skeffington.Many of the acquaintances he made at this time appeared in his work.His first publication—a laudatory review ofHenrik Ibsen'sWhen We", "Ibsen'sWhen We Dead Awaken—was printed inThe Fortnightly Reviewin 1900. Inspired by Ibsen's works, Joyce sent him a fan letter in Norwegianand wrote a play,A Brilliant Career,which he later destroyed. In 1901 the National Census of Ireland listed Joyce as a 19-year-old Irish- and English-speaking unmarried student living with his parents, six sisters and three brothers at Royal Terrace (now Inverness Road) inClontarf, Dublin.During this year he became friends withOliver St. John Gogarty,the model forBuck MulliganinUlysses.In November, Joyce wrote an article,The Day of the Rabblement, criticising theIrish Literary Theatrefor its unwillingness to produce the works of playwrights like Ibsen,Leo Tolstoy, andGerhart Hauptmann.He protested against nostalgic Irishpopulismand argued for an outward-looking, cosmopolitan literature.Because he mentionedGabriele D'Annunzio's novelIl fuoco(The Flame),which was on theRoman Catholic list of prohibited books, his college magazine refused to print it. Joyce and", "print it. Joyce and Sheehy-Skeffington—who had also had an article rejected—had their essays jointly printed and distributed.Arthur Griffithdecried the censorship of Joyce's work in his newspaperUnited Irishman. Joyce graduated from theRoyal University of Irelandin October 1902. He considered studying medicineand began attending lectures at theCatholic University Medical Schoolin Dublin.When the medical school refused to provide a tutoring position to help finance his education, he left Dublin to study medicine in Paris,where he received permission to attend the course for a certificate in physics, chemistry, and biology at the École de Médecine.By the end of January 1903, he had given up plans to study medicinebut he stayed in Paris, often reading late in theBibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève.He frequently wrote home claiming ill health due to the water, the cold weather, and his change of diet,appealing for money his family could ill-afford. Post-university years in Dublin In April 1903, Joyce learned his", "Joyce learned his mother was dyingand immediately returned to Ireland.He would tend to her, reading aloud from drafts that would eventually be worked into his unfinished novelStephen Hero.During her final days, she unsuccessfully tried to get him to make hisconfessionand to takecommunion.She died on 13 August.Afterwards, Joyce and Stanislaus refused to kneel with other members of the family praying at her bedside.John Joyce's drinking and abusiveness increased in the months following her death, and the family began to fall apart.Joyce spent much of his time carousing with Gogarty and his medical school colleagues,and tried to scrape together a living by reviewing books. Joyce's life began to change when he metNora Barnacleon 10 June 1904. She was a twenty-year-old woman fromGalway city, who was working in Dublin as a chambermaid.They had their first outing together on 16 June 1904,walking through the Dublin suburb ofRingsend, where Nora masturbated him.This event was commemorated as the date for the action", "date for the action ofUlysses, known in popular culture as \"Bloomsday\" in honour of the novel's main characterLeopold Bloom.This began a relationship that continued for thirty-seven years until Joyce died.Soon after this outing, Joyce, who had been carousing with his colleagues,approached a young woman inSt Stephen's Greenand was beaten up by her companion. He was picked up and dusted off by an acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who took him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter, who was rumoured to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife, became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the protagonist ofUlysses. Joyce was a talented tenor and explored becoming a musical performer.On 8 May 1904, he was a contestant in theFeis Ceoil,an Irishmusic competitionfor promising composers, instrumentalists and singers.In the months before the contest, Joyce took singing lessons with two voice instructors, Benedetto Palmieri and Vincent O'Brien.He paid the entry fee by pawning some of his books.For", "of his books.For the contest, Joyce had to sing three songs. He did well with the first two, but when he was told he had tosight readthe third, he refused.Joyce won the third-place medal anyway.After the contest, Palmieri wrote Joyce thatLuigi Denza, the composer of the popular song \"Funiculì, Funiculà\" who was the judge for the contest,spoke highly of his voice and would have given him first place but for the sight-reading and lack of sufficient training.Palmieri even offered to give Joyce free singing lessons afterwards. Joyce refused the lessons, but kept singing in Dublin concerts that year.His performance at a concert given on 27 August may have solidified Nora's devotion to him.Although Joyce did not ultimately pursue a singing career, he would include thousands of musical allusions in his literary works. Throughout 1904, Joyce sought to develop his literary reputation. On 7 January he attempted to publish a prose work examiningaestheticscalledA Portrait of the Artist,but it was rejected by the", "was rejected by the intellectual journalDana. He then reworked it into a fictional novel of his youth that he calledStephen Herothat he labored over for years but eventually abandoned.He wrote a satirical poem called \"The Holy Office\",which parodiedW. B. Yeats's poem \"To Ireland in the Coming Times\"and once more mocked the Irish Literary Revival.It too was rejected for publication; this time for being \"unholy\".He wrote the collection of poemsChamber Musicat this time;which was also rejected.He did publish three poems, one inDanaand two inThe Speaker,andGeorge William Russellpublished three of Joyce's short stories in theIrish Homestead. These stories—\"The Sisters\", \"Eveline\", and \"After the Race\"—were the beginnings ofDubliners. In September 1904, Joyce was having difficulties finding a place to live and moved into aMartello towernear Dublin, which Gogarty was renting.Within a week, Joyce left when Gogarty and another roommate, Dermot Chenevix Trench, fired a pistol in the middle of the night at some pans", "night at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed.With the help of funds fromLady Gregoryand a few other acquaintances, Joyce and Nora left Ireland less than a month later. 1904–1906: Zürich, Pula and Trieste Zürich and Pula In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure fundsbefore heading on toZürich. Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at theBerlitz Language School, but when he arrived there was no position.The couple stayed in Zürich for a little over a week.The director of the school sent Joyce on toTrieste,which was part of theAustro-Hungarian Empireuntil the First World War.There was no vacancy there either.The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him inPola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base,where he mainly taught English to naval officers.Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had already become pregnant.Joyce soon became", "soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola,and his wife Clothilde. By the beginning of 1905, both families were living together.Joyce kept writing when he could. He completed a short story forDubliners, \"Clay\", and worked on his novelStephen Hero.He disliked Pola, calling it a \"back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia\",and soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste. First stay in Trieste Joyce moved to Trieste in March 1905 aged 23. He taught English at the Berlitz school.That June he published the satirical poem \"Holy Office\".After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio,on 27 July 1905,He convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and attained a position for him at the Berlitz school. Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived that October, although most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis. During this period Joyce completing", "Joyce completing 24 chapters ofStephen Heroand all but the final story ofDubliners,but was unable to getDublinerspublished. Although the London publisherGrant Richardshad a contract with Joyce, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial; English law could not protect them if brought to court for circulating indecent language.Richards and Joyce went back and forth trying to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's artistic integrity. As they negotiated, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully. He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement. Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920.Although he would temporarily stay in Rome, travel to Dublin and emigrating to Zürich during World War I— it became a second Dublin for himand played an important role in his development as a writer.He completedDubliners,reworkedStephen HerointoA Portrait of the", "Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, wrote his only published playExilesand decided to makeUlyssesa full-length novel as he worked through his notes and jottings,working out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people,and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced byFuturism.There are even words of the Triestine dialect inFinnegans Wake.Joyce was introduced to the Greek Orthodox liturgy in Trieste. Under its influence, he rewrote his first short story and would later draw on it in creating the liturgical parodies inUlysses. 1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin Rome In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher forDubliners, Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence", "a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July. Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,but it had a large impact on his writing.Though his new job took up most of his time, he revisedDublinersand worked onStephen Hero.Rome was the birthplace of the idea for \"The Dead\", which would become the final story ofDubliners,and forUlysses,which was originally conceived as a short story.His stay in the city was one of his inspirations forExiles.While there, he read the socialist historianGuglielmo Ferreroin depth.Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jewswould find their way intoUlysses, particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.In London,Elkin MathewspublishedChamber Musicon the recommendation of the British poetArthur Symons.Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he", "and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.He left Rome after only seven months. Second stay in Trieste Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part-time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen nameItalo Svevo, was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.Joyce learned much of what he knew aboutJudaismfrom him.The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block withA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaperPiccolo della Sera, was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italianirredentistsin Trieste. He indirectly", "He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle of the Irish from British rule.Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures at Trieste's Università Popolare on Ireland and the arts,as well as onWilliam Shakespeare's playHamlet. In May, Joyce was struck by an attack ofrheumatic fever,which left him incapacitated for weeks.The illness exacerbatedeye problemsthat plagued him for the rest of his life.While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.During his convalescence, he was able to finish \"The Dead\", the last story ofDubliners. Although a heavy drinker,Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.He reworkedStephen Heroas the more concise and interiorA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He completed the third chapter by Apriland translatedJohn Millington Synge'sRiders to the Seainto Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.He even took singing lessons again.Joyce had been looking for an English publisher", "English publisher forDublinersbut was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned byGeorge Roberts. Visits to Dublin In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family, his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway.He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at hisalma mater, which had become University College Dublin.He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing theDubliners.He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine businessmen and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, theVolta Cinematograph.It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.He returned to Trieste in", "to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen. From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture on Hamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at theUniversity of Padua.He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In 1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly in the summer.While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication ofDublinerscame to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an", "he wrote an invective against Roberts, \"Gas from a Burner\".He never went to Dublin again. Publication ofDublinersandA Portrait Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publishDubliners. It was issued on 15 June 1914,eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate inEzra Pound, who was living in London.On the advice of Yeats,Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem fromChamber Music, \"I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land\" in the journalDes Imagistes. They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were both published and publicized. After Pound persuadedDora MarsdentoseriallypublishA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manin the London literary magazineThe Egoist,Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completedA Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manby 1914;resumedExiles, completing it in 1915;started the", "in 1915;started the noveletteGiacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned;and began draftingUlysses. In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zürich in neutral Switzerland. 1915–1920: Zürich and Trieste Zürich Joyce arrived in Zürich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.During the war, he was kept under surveillance by both the British and", "the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services. Joyce's first concern was earning a living. One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months. Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from theRoyal Literary Fundin 1915 and a grant from the Britishcivil listthe following year.Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editorHarriet Shaw Weaver, who operatedThe Egoist, and the psychotherapistEdith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zürich studying underCarl Jung.Weaver financially supported Joyce throughout the entirety of his life and even paid for his funeral.Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well;the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland.However, health problems remained a constant issue. During their time in Zürich, both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as \"nervous breakdowns\"and he had to undergo many eye surgeries.", "many eye surgeries. Ulysses During the war, Zürich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community. Joyce's regular evening hangout was the Cafe Pfauen,where he got to know a number of the artists living in the city at the time, including the sculptorAugust Suterand the painterFrank Budgen.He often used the time spent with them as material forUlysses.He made the acquaintance of the writerStefan Zweig,who organised the premiere ofExilesin Munich in August 1919.He became aware ofDada, which was coming into its own at theCabaret Voltaire.He may have even met theMarxisttheoretician and revolutionaryVladimir Leninat the Cafe Odeon,a place they both frequented. Joyce kept up his interest in music. He metFerruccio Busoni,staged music withOtto Luening, and learned music theory fromPhilipp Jarnach.Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way intoUlysses, particularly the \"Sirens\" section. Joyce avoided public discussion of the war's politics and maintained strict neutrality.He", "neutrality.He made few comments about the 1916Easter Risingin Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement,he disagreed with its violence.He stayed intently focused onUlyssesand the ongoing struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of \"The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man\" inThe Egoisthad been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published byB. W. Huebschin 1916.In 1918, Pound got a commitment fromMargaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazineThe Little Review, to publishUlyssesserially. The English Players Joyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager. The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort,and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such asOscar Wilde,George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.For Synge'sRiders to the Sea, Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage,which he did again", "he did again whenRobert Browning'sIn a Balconywas staged. He hoped the company would eventually stage his play,Exiles,but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of theGreat Influenza epidemicof 1918, though the company continued until 1920. Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit.Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role inThe Importance of Being Earnest. Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zürich. Third stay in Trieste By 1919, Joyce was in financial straits again. McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung,and Zürich had become expensive to live in after the war. Furthermore, he was becoming isolated as the", "isolated as the city's emigres returned home. In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed. The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in post-war recovery.Eight months after his return, Joyce went toSirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920. 1920–1941: Paris and Zürich Paris When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.For the first four months, he stayed withLudmila Savitzkyand metSylvia Beach, who ran theRive Gauchebookshop,Shakespeare and Company.Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support,and becoming one of Joyce's publishers.Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the internationalmodernistartist community.Joyce metValery Larbaud, who", "Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the Frenchand supervised the French translation ofUlysses.Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for twenty years, though they never settled into a single location for long. Publication ofUlysses Joyce finished writingUlyssesnear the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyerJohn Quinn,Margaret Anderson and her co-editorJane Heaphad begun serially publishing it inThe Little Reviewin March 1918but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the \"Nausicaa\" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with theNew York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.Thetrial proceedingscontinued until February 1921, when both Anderson and Healy, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenityand ordered to cease publishingUlysses.Huebsch, who had expressed", "who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.Weaver was unable to find an English printer,and the novel wasbannedfor obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936. Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printingUlysses, Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver mailed books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.They were then smuggled into both countries.Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, \"bootleg\" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisherSamuel Roth, who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a courtenjoinedpublication.Ulysseswas not legally published in the United States until 1934 after JudgeJohn M. Woolseyruled inUnited States v. One Book Called", "v. One Book Called Ulyssesthat the book was not obscene. Finnegans Wake In 1923, Joyce began his next work, anexperimental novelthat eventually becameFinnegans Wake.It would take sixteen years to complete.At first, Joyce called itWork in Progress, which was the nameFord Madox Fordused in April 1924 when he published its \"Mamalujo\" episode in his magazine,The Transatlantic Review. In 1926,EugeneandMariaJolas serialised the novel in their magazine,transition. When parts of the novel first came out, some of Joyce's supporters—like Stanislaus, Pound, and Weaver—wrote negatively about it,and it was criticised by writers likeSeán Ó Faoláin,Wyndham Lewis, andRebecca West.In response, Joyce and the Jolases organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titledOur Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress, which included writings bySamuel BeckettandWilliam Carlos Williams.An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to marketWork in Progressto a larger", "Progressto a larger audience.Joyce publicly revealed the novel's title asFinnegans Wakein 1939,the same year he completed it. It was published in London byFaber and Faberwith the assistance of T. S. Eliot. Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations,but his vision severely declined.By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly.He even had all of his teeth removed because of infection.At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finishFinnegans Wake, asking the Irish authorJames Stephensto complete it if something should happen. Joyce's financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.Despite these issues, he publishedPomes Penyeachin 1927, a collection of thirteen poems that he wrote in Trieste, Zürich and Paris. Marriage in London In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence", "a residence in London once more,primarily to assure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on theelectoral roll, and became liable forjury service. After living together for twenty-seven years, Joyce and Nora got married at theRegister Office in Kensingtonon 4 July 1931.Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness. He planned to return, but never did and later became disaffected with England. In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgeryor for treatment for Lucia,who was diagnosed withschizophrenia.Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung, who had previously written thatUlysseswas similar to schizophrenic writing.Jung suggested that she and her father were two people going into a river, except that", "river, except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was falling.In spite of Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death. Final return to Zürich In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.As early as 1938, Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution.After thefall of Francein 1940, Joyce and his family fled fromNazi occupation, returning to Zürich a final time. Death On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zürich for aperforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the following day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, at age 58. His body was buried in theFluntern Cemeteryin Zürich. Swiss tenorMax Meilisang \"Addio terra, addio cielo\" fromMonteverdi'sL'Orfeoat the burial service.Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all of his life, and although two senior Irish diplomats were in", "diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, only the British consul attended the funeral. WhenJoseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, was informed of Joyce's death by Frank Cremins,chargé d'affairesatBern, Walshe responded, \"Please wire details of Joyce's death. If possible find out did he die a Catholic? Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral.\"Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent \"honour grave\", with a seated portrait statue by American artistMilton Hebaldnearby. Nora, whom he had married in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976. After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains,despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomatJohn J. Slocum.In October 2019, a motion was put toDublin City Councilto plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of", "and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.The proposal immediately became controversial, with theIrish Timescommenting: \"... it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read\". Political views Throughout his life, Joyce stayed actively interested in Irish national politicsand in its relationship to British colonialism.He studiedsocialismandanarchism.He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist view influenced byBenjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay \"The Soul of Man Under Socialism\".He described his opinions as \"those of a socialist artist\".Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.After leaving", "rule.After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned,but his later works still reflect his commitment.He remained sympathetic to individualism and critical of coercive ideologies such as nationalism.His novels address socialist, anarchist and Irish nationalist issues.Ulysseshas been read as a novel critiquing the effect of British colonialism on the Irish people.Finnegans Wakehas been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics,the interrelationship between colonialism and race,and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism. Joyce's politics is reflected in his attitude toward his British passport. He wrote about the negative effects of British occupation in Ireland and was sympathetic to the attempts of the Irish to free themselves from it.In 1907, he expressed his support for the earlySinn Féinmovement before the establishment of theIrish Free Statein 1922.However, throughout his life, Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish", "for an Irish one.When he had a choice, he opted to renew his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State,and he chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to leaveVichy Francemore easily.His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally,his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics,and his dismay over the Irish Free State's political alignment with the Catholic Church. Religious views Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.Firsthand statements by himand Stanislaus,attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic, though his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education.Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church. When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Fridayor occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox", "Eastern Orthodox services, stating that he liked the ceremonies better. Some critics have argued that Joyce firmly rejected the Catholic faith.He lapsed from the Church early in lifeand Nora refused to allow a Catholic service when he died.His works frequently critique, ridicule, and blaspheme Catholicism,and he appropriates Catholic rituals and concepts for his own artistic purposes.Nevertheless, Catholic critics have argued that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith,wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it.They argue thatUlyssesandFinnegans Wakeare expressions of a Catholic sensibility,insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by the characters in his novel do not represent the views of Joyce the author. Other critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation,a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life, politics, and personal development.Joyce's attitude toward Catholicism has been", "has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted the power of Catholicism and another who maintained his allegiance to its traditions.He has been compared to the medievalepiscopi vagantes(wandering bishops), who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought. Joyce's responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion ofUlysses, Joyce was asked, \"When did you leave the Catholic Church?\" He answered, \"That's for the Church to say.\" Major works Dubliners Dublinersis a collection of 15 short stories first published in 1914,that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century. The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak. Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a", "a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination. Many of the characters inDublinerslater appear in minor roles in Joyce's novelUlysses.The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists. Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people. This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the novelStephen Hero, which was abandoned in 1905. It is aKünstlerroman, a kind ofcoming-of-age noveldepicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonistStephen Dedalusand his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such asstream of consciousness,interior monologue, and references to a", "and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings are evident throughout this novel. Exilesand poetry Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play,Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to \"The Dead\" (the final story inDubliners) and forward toUlysses, which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition. He published three books of poetry.The first full-length collection wasChamber Music(1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics. It led to his inclusion in theImagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes \"Gas from a Burner\" (1912),Pomes Penyeach(1927), and \"Ecce Puer\" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). These were published by theBlack Sun PressinCollected Poems(1936). Ulysses The action", "Ulysses The action ofUlyssesstarts on 16 June 1904 at 8am and ends sometime after 2am the following morning. Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy. The novel consists of 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style.Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode inHomer'sOdyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.Ulyssessets the characters and incidents of theOdysseyin 1904 Dublin, representingOdysseus(Ulysses),Penelope, andTelemachusin the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wifeMolly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus. It uses humour–including parody, satire and comedy– to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models. Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titlesso the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure. Ulyssescan be read as a study of Dublin in", "study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings to create a sense of fastidious detail.Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition ofThom's Directory—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature. Finnegans Wake Finnegans Wakeis an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousnessand literary allusionto their extremes. Although the work can be read from beginning to end, Joyce's writing transforms", "writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read nonlinearly. Much of the wordplay stems from the work being written in peculiar and obscure English, based mainly oncomplex multilevel puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than, that used byLewis CarrollinJabberwockyand draws on a wide range of languages.The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream. The metaphysics ofGiordano BrunoofNola, who Joyce had read in his youth,plays an important role inFinnegans Wake, as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed.Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history—in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos—structures the text's narrative,as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book:Finnegans Wakeopens with the words", "with the words \"riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs\"and ends \"A way a lone a last a loved a long the\".In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle. Legacy Joyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.Ulyssesis a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations into the power of language.Its emphasis on the details of everyday life has opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers,andFinnegans Wakehas become one of the key texts for Frenchpost-structuralism. The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keeps them open to constant", "open to constant reinterpretation.They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce's studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions. In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide. Collections, museums, and study centres TheNational Library of Irelandholds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, theMuseum of Literature Ireland,the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has both a small permanent Joyce-related collection, and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include \"Copy No. 1\" ofUlysses.Dedicated centres in Dublin include theJames Joyce", "theJames Joyce CentreinNorth Great George's Street, theJames Joyce Tower and MuseuminSandycoveat the Martello tower where Joyce briefly lived and where he set the opening scene inUlysses, and theDublin Writers Museum.University College Londonholds the only major research collection of Joyce's work in the United Kingdom, including first editions of all of Joyce's major works, many other editions and translations, as well as critical and background literature. Bibliography Novel Series Stephen Dedalus Finnegan Short Stories Poetry collections Play Posthumous Non-fiction Notes References Citations Sources Books Journal articles Online sources External links Joyce Papers, National Library of Ireland Electronic editions Resources", "Virginia Woolf Adeline Virginia Woolf(/wʊlf/;néeStephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941) was an English writer. She is considered one of the most importantmodernist20th-century authors. She pioneered the use ofstream of consciousnessas a narrative device. Woolf was born into an affluent household inSouth Kensington, London. She was the seventh child ofJulia Prinsep JacksonandLeslie Stephenin a blended family of eight that included the modernist painterVanessa Bell. She was home-schooled in English classics andVictorian literaturefrom a young age. From 1897 to 1901, she attended the Ladies' Department ofKing's College London. There, she studied classics and history, coming into contact with early reformers of women's higher education and thewomen's rightsmovement. After her father's death in 1904, the Stephen family moved from Kensington to the morebohemianBloomsbury, where, in conjunction with the brothers' intellectual friends, they formed the artistic and literaryBloomsbury Group. In 1912, she", "Group. In 1912, she marriedLeonard Woolf, and in 1917, the couple founded theHogarth Press, which published much of her work. They rented a home in Sussex and permanently settled there in 1940. Woolf began writing professionally in 1900. During the inter-war period, Woolf was an important part of London's literary and artistic society. In 1915, she published her first novel,The Voyage Out, through her half-brother's publishing house,Gerald Duckworth and Company. Her best-known works include the novelsMrs Dalloway(1925),To the Lighthouse(1927) andOrlando(1928). She is also known for her essays, such asA Room of One's Own(1929). Woolf became one of the central subjects of the 1970s movement offeminist criticism. Her works, translated into more than 50 languages, have attracted attention and widespread commentary for inspiring feminism. A large body of writing is dedicated to her life and work. She has been the subject of plays, novels, and films. Woolf is commemorated by statues, societies dedicated to her", "dedicated to her work, and a building at theUniversity of London. Life Early life Virginia Woolf was born Adeline Virginia Stephen on 25 January 1882 at 22Hyde Park GateinSouth Kensington, London,toJulia (née Jackson)andSir Leslie Stephen. Her father was a writer, historian, essayist, biographer, and mountaineer,described byHelena Swanwickas a \"gaunt figure with a ragged red brown beard ... a formidable man.\"Her mother was a noted philanthropist, and her side of the family containedJulia Margaret Cameron, a celebrated photographer, andLady Henry Somerset, a campaigner for women's rights.Virginia was named after her aunt Adeline, but because of her aunt's recent death the family decided not to use her first name. Both of the Stephens had children from previous marriages. Julia, from her marriage to barristerHerbert Duckworth, hadGeorge, Stella, andGerald;Leslie had Laura from a marriage to Minny Thackeray, a daughter ofWilliam Makepeace Thackeray.Both former spouses had died suddenly, Duckworth of an abscess", "of an abscess and Minny Stephen in childbirth.Leslie and Julia Stephen had four children together:Vanessa,Thoby, Virginia, andAdrian. Virginia lived at 22 Hyde Park Gate until her father's death in 1904.She was, as she described it, \"born into a large connection, born not of rich parents, but of well-to-do parents, born into a very communicative, literate, letter writing, visiting, articulate, late nineteenth century world.\"The house was described as dimly-lit, crowded with furniture and paintings.Within it, the younger Stephens made a close-knit group. Virginia showed an early affinity for writing. By the age of five she was writing letters. A fascination with books helped form a bond between her and her father.From the age of 10, with her sister Vanessa, she began an illustrated family newspaper, theHyde Park Gate News, chronicling life and events within the Stephen family,and modelled on the popular magazineTit-Bits.Virginia would run theHyde Park Gate Newsuntil 1895, a few weeks before her mother's", "before her mother's death.In 1897 Virginia began her first diary,which she kept for the next twelve years. Talland House In the spring of 1882, Leslie rented a large white house inSt Ives, Cornwall.The family would spend three months each summer there for the first 13 years of Virginia's life.Although the house had limited amenities, its main attraction was the view overlooking Porthminster Bay towards theGodrevy Lighthouse.The happy summers spent at Talland House would later influence Woolf's novelsJacob's Room,To the LighthouseandThe Waves. Both at Hyde Park Gate and Talland House, the family socialised with much of the country's literary and artistic circles. Frequent guests included literary figures such asHenry JamesandGeorge Meredith, as well asJames Russell Lowell.The family did not return after 1894; a hotel was constructed in front of the house which blocked the sea view, and Julia Stephen died in May the following year. Sexual abuse In the 1939 essay \"A Sketch of the Past\" Woolf first wrote about", "first wrote about experiencing sexual abuse by Gerald Duckworth at a young age. There is speculation that this contributed to her mental health issues later in life.There are also suggestions of sexual impropriety from George Duckworth during the period that he was caring for the Stephen sisters. Adolescence Julia Stephen fell ill with influenza in February 1895, and never properly recovered, dying on 5 May, when Virginia was only 13.This precipitated what Virginia later identified as her first \"breakdown\"—for months afterwards she was nervous and agitated, and she wrote very little for the subsequent two years. Stella Duckworth took on a parental role.She married in April 1897, but moved to a house very close to the Stephens to continue to support the family. However, she fell ill on honeymoon and died on 19 July 1897.Subsequently George Duckworth took it upon himself to act as the head of the household, andbring Vanessa and Virginia out into society.This was not a rite of passage that resonated with either", "with either girl; Virginia's view was that \"Society in those days was a very competent, perfectly complacent, ruthless machine. A girl had no chance against its fangs. No other desires—say to paint, or to write—could be taken seriously.\"Her priority was her writing;she began a new diary at the start of 1897 and filled notebooks with fragments and literary sketches. Leslie Stephen died in February 1904, which caused Virginia to suffer another period of mental instability from April to September, and led to at least one suicide attempt.Woolf later described the period of 1897–1904 as \"the seven unhappy years.\" Education As was common at the time, Julia Stephen did not believe in formal education for her daughters.Virginia was educated in a piecemeal fashion by her parents: Julia taught her Latin, French, and history, while Leslie taught her mathematics. She also received piano lessons.She also had unrestricted access to her father's vast library, exposing her to much of the literary canon.This resulted in a", "resulted in a greater depth of reading than any of her Cambridge contemporaries.Later, Virginia recalled: Even today there may be parents who would doubt the wisdom of allowing a girl of fifteen the free run of a large and quite unexpurgated library. But my father allowed it. There were certain facts – very briefly, very shyly he referred to them. Yet \"Read what you like\", he said, and all his books...were to be had without asking. Another source was the conversation of their father's friends, to whom she was exposed.Leslie Stephen described his circle as \"most of the literary people of mark...clever young writers and barristers, chiefly of the radical persuasion...we used to meet on Wednesday and Sunday evenings, to smoke and drink and discuss the universe and the reform movement\". From 1897 Virginia received private tuition in Latin and Ancient Greek. One of her tutors wasClara Pater, and another wasJanet Case, with whom she formed a lasting friendship and who involved her in thesuffrage movement.Virginia", "movement.Virginia also attended a number of lectures at theKing's CollegeLadies' Department. Although Virginia could not attend Cambridge, she was to be profoundly influenced by her brother Thoby's experiences there. When Thoby went to Trinity in 1899, he befriended a circle of young men, includingClive Bell,Lytton Strachey,Leonard Woolf(whom Virginia would later marry), andSaxon Sydney-Turner, to whom he would introduce his sisters at theTrinity May Ballin 1900.These men formed a reading group they named the Midnight Society, which the Stephen sisters would later be invited to. Bloomsbury (1904–1912) Gordon Square After their father's death, Vanessa and Adrian decided to sell 22 Hyde Park Gate in South Kensington and move toBloomsbury. This was a much cheaper area—they had not inherited much and were unsure about their finances. The Duckworth brothers did not join the Stephens in their new home; Gerald did not wish to, and George got married during the preparations, leaving to live with his new", "live with his new wife.Virginia lived in the house for brief periods in the autumn – she was sent away to Cambridge and Yorkshire for her health – and settled there permanently in December 1904. From March 1905 the Stephens began to entertain their brother Thoby's intellectual friends at Gordon Square. The circle, who were largely members of theCambridge Apostles, includedSaxon Sydney-Turner,Lytton Strachey,Clive BellandDesmond MacCarthy. Their social gatherings, referred to as \"Thursday evenings\", were a vision of recreating Trinity College.This circle formed the nucleus of the intellectual circle of writers and artists known as theBloomsbury Group.Later, it would includeJohn Maynard Keynes,Duncan Grant,E. M. Forster,Roger Fry, Leonard Woolf, andDavid Garnett. Virginia began teaching evening classes on a voluntary basis atMorley College, and would continue intermittently for the next two years. This work would later influence themes of class and education in her novelMrs Dalloway.She made some money from", "some money from reviews, including some published in church paperThe Guardianand theNational Review, capitalising on her father's literary reputation in order to earn commissions. Vanessa added another event to their calendar with the \"Friday Club\", dedicated to the discussion of the fine arts.This introduced some new people into their circle, including Vanessa's friends from theRoyal Academy of ArtsandSlade School of Fine Art(where she had been studying),such asHenry LambandGwen Darwin, and also the eighteen-year-oldKatherine Laird (\"Ka\") Cox, who was about to attendNewnham College, Cambridge.Cox would become Virginia's intimate friend. These new members brought the Bloomsbury Group into contact with another, slightly younger, group of Cambridge intellectuals who Virginia would refer to as the \"Neo-Pagans\". The Friday Club continued until 1912 or 1913. In the autumn of 1906 the siblings travelled to Greece and Turkey with Violet Dickinson.During the trip Vanessa fell ill withappendicitis. Both Violet and", "Both Violet and Thoby contractedtyphoid fever; Thoby died on 20 November. Two days after Thoby's death, Vanessa accepted a previous proposal of marriage from Clive Bell.As a couple, their interest inavant-gardeart would have an important influence on Woolf's further development as an author. Fitzroy Square and Brunswick Square After Vanessa's marriage, Virginia and Adrian moved into 29Fitzroy Square, still very close to Gordon Square.The house had previously been occupied byGeorge Bernard Shaw, and the area had been populated by artists since the previous century. Duncan Grant lived there, and Roger Fry would move there in 1913.Virginia resented the wealth that Vanessa's marriage had given her; Virginia and Adrian lived more humbly by comparison. The siblings resumed the Thursday Club at their new home,while Gordon Square became the venue for a play-reading society.During this period, the group began to increasingly explore progressive ideas, with open discussions of members' homosexual inclinations, and", "inclinations, and nude dancing from Vanessa, who in 1910 went so far as to propose a libertarian society with sexual freedom for all. Virginia appears not to have shown interest in practising the group'sfree loveideology, finding an outlet for her sexual desires only in writing.Around this time she began work on her first novel,Melymbrosia, which eventually becameThe Voyage Out(1915). In November 1911 Virginia and Adrian moved to a larger house at 38Brunswick Square, and invited John Maynard Keynes, Duncan Grant and Leonard Woolf to become lodgers there.Virginia saw it as a new opportunity: \"We are going to try all kinds of experiments\", she toldOttoline Morrell.This arrangement for a single woman living among men was considered scandalous. Dreadnoughthoax Several members of the Bloomsbury Group attained notoriety in 1910 with theDreadnoughthoax, in which they posed as a royalAbyssinianentourage (with Virginia as \"Prince Mendax\") and received a tour of theHMS Dreadnoughtby Virginia's cousinCommander Fisher,", "Fisher, who was not aware of the joke.Horace de Vere Cole, who had been one of the masterminds of the hoax along with Adrian, later leaked the story to the press and informed the Foreign Office, leading to general outrage from the establishment. Asham House (1911–1919) During the latter Bloomsbury years Virginia travelled frequently with friends and family, to Dorset and Cornwall as well as further afield to Paris, Italy and Bayreuth. These trips were intended to avoid her suffering exhaustion from extended periods in London.The question arose of Virginia needing a quiet country retreat close to London, for the sake of her still-fragile mental health.In the winter of 1910 she and Adrian stayed atLewesand started exploring the area of Sussex around the town.She soon found a property in nearbyFirle, which she named \"Little Talland House\"; she maintained a relationship with that area for the rest of her life, tending to spend her time either in Sussex or London. In September 1911 she and Leonard Woolf found", "Leonard Woolf found Asham Housenearby, and Virginia and Vanessa took a joint lease on it.Located at the end of a tree-lined road, the house was in a Regency-Gothic style, \"flat, pale, serene, yellow-washed\", remote, without electricity or water and allegedly haunted.The sisters had two housewarming parties in January 1912. Virginia recorded the events of the weekends and holidays she spent there in herAsham Diary, part of which was later published asA Writer's Diaryin 1953. In terms of creative writing,The Voyage Outwas completed there, and much ofNight and Day.The house itself inspired the short story \"A Haunted House\", published inA Haunted House and Other Short Stories.Asham provided Woolf with much-needed relief from the pace of London life, and was where she found a happiness that she expressed in her diary on 5 May 1919: \"Oh, but how happy we've been at Asheham! It was a most melodious time. Everything went so freely; – but I can't analyse all the sources of my joy\". While at Asham, in 1916 Leonard and", "in 1916 Leonard and Virginia found a farmhouse to let about four miles away, which they thought would be ideal for her sister. Eventually, Vanessa came down to inspect it, and took possession in October of that year, as a summer home for her family. TheCharleston Farmhousewas to become the summer gathering place for the Bloomsbury Group. Marriage and war (1912–1920) Leonard Woolfwas one of Thoby Stephen's friends at Trinity College, Cambridge, and had encountered the Stephen sisters in Thoby's rooms while visiting forMay Weekbetween 1899 and 1904. He recalled that in \"white dresses and large hats, with parasols in their hands, their beauty literally took one's breath away\".In 1904 Leonard Woolf left Britain for a civil service position inCeylon,but returned for a year's leave in 1911 after letters from Lytton Strachey describing Virginia's beauty enticed him back.He and Virginia attended social engagements together, and he moved into Brunswick Square as a tenant in December of that year. Leonard proposed to", "Leonard proposed to Virginia on 11 January 1912.Initially she expressed reluctance, but the two continued courting. Leonard decided not to return to Ceylon and resigned his post. On 29 May Virginia declared her love for Leonard,and they married on 10 August atSt Pancras Town Hall. The couple spent their honeymoon first at Asham and theQuantock Hillsbefore travelling to the south of France and on to Spain and Italy. On their return they moved toClifford's Inn,and began to divide their time between London and Asham. Virginia Woolf had completed a penultimate draft of her first novelThe Voyage Outbefore her wedding, but undertook large-scale alterations to the manuscript between December 1912 and March 1913. The work was subsequently accepted by her half-brother Gerald Duckworth's publishing house, and she found the process of reading and correcting the proofs extremely emotionally difficult.This led to one of several breakdowns over the subsequent two years; Woolf attempted suicide on 9 September 1913 with an", "1913 with an overdose ofVeronal, being saved with the help of Maynard Keynes' surgeon brotherGeoffrey Keyneswho drove Leonard toSt Bartholomew's Hospitalto fetch a stomach pump.Woolf's illness led to Duckworth delaying the publication ofThe Voyage Outuntil 26 March 1915. In the autumn of 1914 the couple moved to a house onRichmond Green,and in late March 1915 they moved to Hogarth House, also inRichmond, after which they namedtheir publishing housein 1917.The decision to move to London's suburbs was made for the sake of Woolf's health.Many of Woolf's circle of friends were against the war, and Woolf herself opposed it from a standpoint of pacifism and anti-censorship.Leonard was exempted from theintroduction of conscription in 1916on medical grounds.The Woolfs employed two servants at the recommendation ofRoger Fryin 1916; Lottie Hope worked for a number of other Bloomsbury Group members, andNellie Boxallwould stay with them until 1934. The Woolfs spent parts of the period of theFirst World Warin Asham, but", "Warin Asham, but were obliged by the owner to leave in 1919.\"In despair\" they purchased the Round House in Lewes, a converted windmill, for £300. No sooner had they bought the Round House, thanMonk's Housein nearbyRodmellcame up for auction, aweatherboardedhouse with oak-beamed rooms, said to date from the 15th or 16th century.The Woolfs sold the Round House and purchased Monk's House for £700.Monk's House also lacked running water, but came with an acre of garden, and had a view across the Ouse towards the hills of theSouth Downs. Leonard Woolf describes this view as being unchanged since the days ofChaucer.The Woolfs would retain Monk's House until the end of Virginia's life; it became their permanent home after their London home was bombed, and it was where she completedBetween the Actsin early 1941, which was followed by her final breakdown and suicide in the nearby River Ouse on 28 March. Further works (1920–1940) Memoir Club 1920 saw a postwar reconstitution of the Bloomsbury Group, under the title of", "under the title of theMemoir Club, which as the name suggests focussed on self-writing, in the manner ofProust'sA La Recherche, and inspired some of the more influential books of the 20th century. The Group, which had been scattered by the war, was reconvened byMary ('Molly') MacCarthywho called them \"Bloomsberries\", and operated under rules derived from theCambridge Apostles, an elite university debating society that a number of them had been members of. These rules emphasised candour and openness. Among the 125 memoirs presented, Virginia contributed three that were published posthumously in 1976, in the autobiographical anthologyMoments of Being. These were22 Hyde Park Gate(1921),Old Bloomsbury(1922) andAm I a Snob?(1936). Vita Sackville-West On 14 December 1922Woolf met the writer and gardenerVita Sackville-West,wife ofHarold Nicolson. This period was to prove fruitful for both authors, Woolf producing three novels,To the Lighthouse(1927),Orlando(1928), andThe Waves(1931) as well as a number of essays,", "a number of essays, including \"Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown\" (1924) and \"A Letter to a Young Poet\" (1932).The two women remained friends until Woolf's death in 1941. Virginia Woolf also remained close to her surviving siblings, Adrian and Vanessa. Further novels and non-fiction Between 1924 and 1940 the Woolfs returned to Bloomsbury, taking out a ten-year lease at 52Tavistock Square,from where they ran theHogarth Pressfrom the basement, where Virginia also had her writing room. 1925 saw the publication ofMrs Dallowayin May followed by her collapse while at Charleston in August. In 1927, her next novel,To the Lighthouse, was published, and the following year she lectured onWomen & Fictionat Cambridge University and publishedOrlandoin October. Her two Cambridge lectures then became the basis for her major essayA Room of One's Ownin 1929.Virginia wrote only one drama,Freshwater, based on her great-auntJulia Margaret Cameron, and produced at her sister's studio onFitzroy Streetin 1935. 1936 saw the publication", "saw the publication ofThe Years, which had its origin in a lecture Woolf gave to the National Society for Women's Service in 1931, an edited version of which would later be published as \"Professions for Women\".Another collapse of her health followed the novel's completionThe Years. The Woolf's final residence in London was at 37Mecklenburgh Square(1939–1940), destroyed duringthe Blitzin September 1940; a month later their previous home on Tavistock Square was also destroyed. After that, they made Sussex their permanent home. Death After completing the manuscript of her last novel (posthumously published),Between the Acts(1941), Woolf fell into a depression similar to one which she had earlier experienced. The onset of the Second World War, the destruction of her London home duringthe Blitz, and the cool reception given toher biographyof her late friendRoger Fryall worsened her condition until she was unable to work.When Leonard enlisted in theHome Guard, Virginia disapproved. She held fast to herpacifismand", "to herpacifismand criticised her husband for wearing what she considered to be \"the silly uniform of the Home Guard\". After the Second World War began, Woolf's diary indicates that she was obsessed with death, which figured more and more as her mood darkened.On 28 March 1941, Woolf drowned herself by walking into the fast-flowingRiver Ousenear her home, after placing a large stone in her pocket.Her body was not found until 18 April.Her husband buried her cremated remains beneath an elm tree in the garden ofMonk's House, their home inRodmell, Sussex. In her suicide note, addressed to her husband, she wrote: Dearest, I feel certain that I am going mad again. I feel we can't go through another of those terrible times. And I shan't recover this time. I begin to hear voices, and I can't concentrate. So I am doing what seems the best thing to do. You have given me the greatest possible happiness. You have been in every way all that anyone could be. I don't think two people could have been happier till this", "happier till this terrible disease came. I can't fight it any longer. I know that I am spoiling your life, that without me you could work. And you will I know. You see I can't even write this properly. I can't read. What I want to say is I owe all the happiness of my life to you. You have been entirely patient with me and incredibly good. I want to say that—everybody knows it. If anybody could have saved me it would have been you. Everything has gone from me but the certainty of your goodness. I can't go on spoiling your life any longer. I don't think two people could have been happier than we have been. V. Mental health Much examination has been made of Woolf's mental health. From the age of 13, following the death of her mother, Woolf suffered periodic mood swings.However,Hermione Leeasserts that Woolf was not \"mad\"; she was merely a woman who suffered from and struggled with illness for much of her life, a woman of \"exceptional courage, intelligence and stoicism\", who made the best use, and achieved the", "and achieved the best understanding she could of that illness. Her mother's death in 1895, \"the greatest disaster that could happen\",precipitated a crisis for which their family doctor, Dr Seton, prescribed rest, stopping lessons and writing, and regular walks supervised by Stella.Yet just two years later, Stella too was dead, bringing on Virginia's first expressed wish for death at the age of fifteen. This was a scenario she would later recreate in \"Time Passes\" (To the Lighthouse, 1927). The death of her father in 1904 provoked her most alarming collapse, on 10 May, when she threw herself out a window and she was briefly institutionalisedunder the care of her father's friend, the eminent psychiatristGeorge Savage. She spent time recovering at the house of Stella's friend Violet Dickinson, and at her auntCaroline Emelia Stephen's house in Cambridge,and by January 1905, Savage considered her cured. Her brother Thoby's death in 1906 marked a \"decade of deaths\" that ended her childhood and adolescence. On", "and adolescence. On Savage's recommendation, Virginia spent three short periods in 1910, 1912, and 1913 at Burley House at 15 Cambridge Park,Twickenham, described as \"a private nursing home for women with nervous disorder\" run by Miss Jean Thomas.By the end of February 1910, she was becoming increasingly restless, and Savage suggested being away from London. Vanessa rented Moat House, outside Canterbury, in June, but there was no improvement, so Savage sent her to Burley for a \"rest cure\". This involved partial isolation, deprivation of literature, and force-feeding,and after six weeks she was able to convalesce in Cornwall and Dorset during the autumn. She loathed the experience; writing to her sister on 28 July,she described how she found the religious atmosphere stifling and the institution ugly, and informed Vanessa that to escape \"I shall soon have to jump out of a window\".The threat of being sent back would later lead to her contemplating suicide.Despite her protests, Savage would refer her back in", "refer her back in 1912 for insomnia and in 1913 for depression. On emerging from Burley House in September 1913, she sought further opinions from two other physicians on the 13th: Maurice Wright, andHenry Head, who had beenHenry James's physician. Both recommended she return to Burley House. Distraught, she returned home and attempted suicide by taking an overdose of 100grainsofveronal(a barbiturate) and nearly dying. On recovery, she went to Dalingridge Hall, George Duckworth's home inEast Grinstead, Sussex, to convalesce on 30 September,returning toAshamon 18 November. She remained unstable over the next two years, with another incident involving veronal that she claimed was an 'accident', and consulted another psychiatrist in April 1914,Maurice Craig, who explained that she was not sufficiently psychotic to be certified or committed to an institution. The rest of the summer of 1914 went better for her, and they moved to Richmond, but in February 1915, just asThe Voyage Outwas due to be published, she", "be published, she relapsed once more, and remained in poor health for most of that year.Then she began to recover, following 20 years of ill health.Nevertheless, there was a feeling among those around her that she was now permanently changed, and not for the better. Over the rest of her life, she suffered recurrent bouts of depression. In 1940, a number of factors appeared to overwhelm her. Her biography of Roger Fry had been published in July, and she had been disappointed in its reception. The horrors of war depressed her, and their London homes had been destroyed in the Blitz in September and October. Woolf had completedBetween the Acts(published posthumously in 1941) in November, and completing a novel was frequently accompanied by exhaustion.Her health became increasingly a matter of concern, culminating in her decision to end her life on 28 March 1941. She also suffered many physical ailments such as headache, back-ache, fevers and faints, which related closely to her psychological stress. These often", "stress. These often lasted for weeks or even months, and impeded her work: \"What a gap! ... for 60 days; & those days spent in wearisome headache, jumping pulse, aching back, frets, fidgets, lying awake, sleeping draughts, sedatives,digitalis, going for a little walk, & plunging back into bed again.\" Though this instability would frequently affect her social life, she was able to continue her literary productivity with few interruptions throughout her life. Woolf herself provides not only a vivid picture of her symptoms in her diaries and letters, but also her response to the demons that haunted her and at times made her long for death:\"But it is always a question whether I wish to avoid these glooms... These 9 weeks give one a plunge into deep waters... One goes down into the well & nothing protects one from the assault of truth.\" Psychiatry had little to offer Woolf, but she recognised that writing was one of the behaviours that enabled her to cope with her illness:\"The only way I keep afloat... is by", "afloat... is by working... Directly I stop working I feel that I am sinking down, down. And as usual, I feel that if I sink further I shall reach the truth.\"Sinking under water was Woolf's metaphor for both the effects of depression and psychosis— but also for finding truth, and ultimately was her choice of death. Throughout her life, Woolf struggled, without success, to find meaning in her illness: on the one hand, an impediment, on the other, something she visualised as an essential part of who she was, and a necessary condition of her art.Her experiences informed her work, such as the character of Septimus Warren Smith inMrs Dalloway(1925), who, like Woolf, was haunted by the dead, and ultimately takes his own life rather than be admitted to a sanitorium. Leonard Woolf relates how during the 30 years they were married, they consulted many doctors in theHarley Streetarea, and although they were given a diagnosis ofneurasthenia, he felt they had little understanding of the causes or nature. The proposed", "The proposed solution was simple—as long as she lived a quiet life without any physical or mental exertion, she was well. On the other hand, any mental, emotional, or physical strain resulted in a reappearance of her symptoms, beginning with a headache, followed by insomnia and thoughts that started to race. Her remedy was simple: to retire to bed in a darkened room, following which the symptoms slowly subsided. Modern scholars, including her nephew and biographer,Quentin Bell,have suggested her breakdowns and subsequent recurring depressive periods were influenced by the sexual abuse which she and her sister Vanessa were subjected to by their half-brothersGeorgeandGerald Duckworth(which Woolf recalls in her autobiographical essays \"A Sketch of the Past\" and \"22 Hyde Park Gate\"). Biographers point out that when Stella died in 1897, there was no counterbalance to control George's predation, and his nighttime prowling.\"22 Hyde Park Gate\" ends with the sentence \"The old ladies of Kensington and Belgravia never", "and Belgravia never knew that George Duckworth was not only father and mother, brother and sister to those poor Stephen girls; he was their lover also.\" It is likely that other factors also played a part. It has been suggested that they includegenetic predisposition.Virginia's father, Leslie Stephen, suffered from depression, and her half-sister Laura was institutionalised. Many of Virginia's symptoms, including persistent headache, insomnia, irritability, and anxiety, resembled those of her father's.Another factor is the pressure she placed upon herself in her work; for instance, her breakdown of 1913 was at least partly triggered by the need to finishThe Voyage Out. Virginia herself hinted that her illness was related to how she saw the repressed position of women in society when she wroteA Room of One's Own.in a 1930 letter toEthel Smyth: As an experience, madness is terrific I can assure you, and not to be sniffed at; and in its lava I still find most of the things I write about. It shoots out of one", "shoots out of one everything shaped, final, not in mere driblets, as sanity does. And the six months—not three—that I lay in bed taught me a good deal about what is called oneself. Thomas Caramagnoand others,in discussing her illness, oppose the \"neurotic-genius\" way of looking at mental illness, where creativity and mental illness are conceptualised as linked rather than antithetical.Stephen Trombleydescribes Woolf as having a confrontational relationship with her doctors, and possibly being a woman who is a \"victim of male medicine\", referring to the lack of understanding, particularly at the time, about mental illness. Sexuality The Bloomsbury Group held very progressive views regarding sexuality and rejected the austere strictness of Victorian society. The majority of its members were homosexual or bisexual. Woolf had several affairs with women, the most notable being withVita Sackville-West. The two women developed a deep connection; Vita was arguably one of the few people in Virginia's adult life that", "adult life that she was truly close to. told Ethel that she only really loved three people: Leonard, Vanessa, and myself, which annoyed Ethel but pleased me – Vita Sackville-West's letter to husband Harold Nicolson, dated 28 September 1939 During their relationship, both women saw the peak of their literary careers, with the titular protagonist of Woolf's acclaimedOrlando: A Biographybeing inspired by Sackville-West. The pair remained lovers for a decade and stayed close friends for the rest of Woolf's life.Woolf had said to Sackville-West she disliked masculinity. dislikes the possessiveness and love of domination in men. In fact she dislikes the quality of masculinity ; says that women stimulate her imagination, by their grace & their art of life – Vita Sackville-West's diary, dated 26 September 1928 Among her other notable affairs were those withSibyl Colefax,Lady Ottoline Morrell, andMary Hutchinson.Some surmise that she may have fallen in love with Madge Symonds, the wife of one of her uncles.Madge", "of her uncles.Madge Symonds was described as one of Woolf's early loves in Sackville-West's diary.She also fell in love with Violet Dickinson, although there is some confusion as to whether the two consummated their relationship. Virginia initially declined marriage proposals from her future husband, Leonard. She even went so far as to tell him that she was not physically attracted to him, but later declared that she did love him, and eventually agreed to marriage.Woolf preferred female lovers to male lovers, and did not seem to be sexually attracted to men. This aversion may have been connected to her experiences of sexual abuse as a child. I sometimes think that if I married you, I could have everything—and then—is it the sexual side of it that comes between us? As I told you brutally the other day, I feel no physical attraction in you. –Letter to Leonard from Virginia dated May 1, 1912 Leonard became the love of her life. Although their sexual relationship was questionable, they loved each other deeply", "each other deeply and formed a strong and supportive marriage that led to the formation of their publishing house as well as several of her writings. Though Virginia had affairs with and attractions to women during their marriage, both she and Leonard maintained a mutual love and respect for one another. Work Woolf is considered to be one of the most important 20th-century novelists.Amodernist, she was one of the pioneers of usingstream of consciousnessas anarrative device, alongside contemporaries such asMarcel Proust,Dorothy RichardsonandJames Joyce.Woolf's reputation was at its greatest during the 1930s, but declined considerably following the Second World War. The growth offeminist criticismin the 1970s helped re-establish her reputation. Virginia submitted her first article in 1890, to a competition inTit-Bits. Although it was rejected, this shipboard romance by the 8-year-old would presage her first novel 25 years later, as would contributions to theHyde Park News, such as the model letter \"to show", "letter \"to show young people the right way to express what is in their hearts\", a subtle commentary on her mother's legendary matchmaking.She transitioned from juvenilia to professional journalism in 1904 at the age of 22. Violet Dickinson introduced her toKathleen Lyttelton, the editor of theWomen's SupplementofThe Guardian, a Church of England newspaper. Invited to submit a 1,500-word article, Virginia sent Lyttelton a review ofWilliam Dean Howells'The Son of Royal Langbirthand an essay about her visit toHaworththat year,Haworth, November 1904.The review was published anonymously on 4 December, and the essay on the 21st.In 1905, Woolf began writing forThe Times Literary Supplement. Woolf would go on to publish novels and essays as a public intellectual to both critical and popular acclaim. Much of her work was self-published through theHogarth Press. \"Virginia Woolf's peculiarities as a fiction writer have tended to obscure her central strength: she is arguably the majorlyricalnovelist in the English", "in the English language. Her novels are highly experimental: a narrative, frequently uneventful and commonplace, is refracted—and sometimes almost dissolved—in the characters' receptive consciousness. Intense lyricism and stylistic virtuosity fuse to create a world overabundant with auditory and visual impressions.\"\"The intensity of Virginia Woolf's poetic vision elevates the ordinary, sometimes banal settings\"—often wartime environments—\"of most of her novels.\" Though at least one biography of Virginia Woolf appeared in her lifetime, the first authoritative study of her life was published in 1972 by her nephew Quentin Bell.Hermione Lee's 1996 biographyVirginia Woolfprovides a thorough and authoritative examination of Woolf's life and work, which she discussed in an interview in 1997.In 2001,Louise DeSalvoand Mitchell A. Leaska editedThe Letters of Vita Sackville-West and Virginia Woolf. Julia Briggs'sVirginia Woolf: An Inner Life(2005) focuses on Woolf's writing, including her novels and her commentary on", "her commentary on the creative process, to illuminate her life. The sociologist Pierre Bourdieu also uses Woolf's literature to understand and analyse gender domination. Woolf biographerGillian Gillnotes that Woolf's traumatic experience of sexual abuse by her half-brothers during her childhood influenced her advocacy of protection of vulnerable children from similar experiences.Biljana Dojčinovićhas discussed the issues surrounding translations of Woolf to Serbian as a \"border-crossing\". Themes Woolf's fiction has been studied for its insight into many themes including war, shell shock, witchcraft, and the role of social class in contemporary modern British society.In the postwarMrs Dalloway(1925), Woolf addresses the moral dilemma of war and its effectsand provides an authentic voice for soldiers returning from the First World War, suffering from shell shock, in the person of Septimus Smith.InA Room of One's Own(1929) Woolf equates historical accusations of witchcraft with creativity and genius among women", "genius among women \"When, however, one reads of a witch being ducked, of a woman possessed by devils...then I think we are on the track of a lost novelist, a suppressed poet, of some mute and inglorious Jane Austen\".Throughout her work Woolf tried to evaluate the degree to which her privileged backgroundframedthe lens through which she viewed class.She both examined her own position as someone who would be considered an elitist snob, but attacked the class structure of Britain as she found it. In her 1936 essayAm I a Snob?she examined her values and those of the privileged circle she existed in. She concluded she was, and subsequent critics and supporters have tried to deal with the dilemma of being both elite and a social critic. The sea is a recurring motif in Woolf's work. Noting Woolf's early memory of listening to waves break in Cornwall, Katharine Smyth writes inThe Paris Reviewthat \"the radiance cresting water would be consecrated again and again in her writing, saturating not only essays, diaries,", "essays, diaries, and letters but alsoJacob's Room,The Waves, andTo the Lighthouse.\"Patrizia A. Muscogiuri explains that \"seascapes, sailing, diving and the sea itself are aspects of nature and of human beings' relationship with it which frequently inspired Virginia Woolf's writing.\"This trope is deeply embedded in her texts' structure and grammar; James Antoniou notes inSydney Morning Heraldhow \"Woolf made a virtue of thesemicolon, the shape and function of which resembles the wave, her most famous motif.\" Despite the considerable conceptual difficulties, given Woolf's idiosyncratic use of language,her works have been translated into over 50 languages.Some writers, such as the BelgianMarguerite Yourcenar, had rather tense encounters with her, while others, such as the ArgentinianJorge Luis Borges, produced versions that were highly controversial. Drama Virginia Woolf researched the life of her great-aunt, the photographerJulia Margaret Cameron, publishing her findings in an essay titled \"Pattledom\"", "titled \"Pattledom\" (1925),and later in her introduction to her 1926 edition of Cameron's photographs.She had begun work on a play based on an episode in Cameron's life in 1923, but abandoned it. Finally it was performed on 18 January 1935 at the studio of her sister,Vanessa Bellon Fitzroy Street in 1935.Woolf directed it herself, and the cast were mainly members of the Bloomsbury Group, including herself.Freshwateris a short three act comedy satirising theVictorian era, only performed once in Woolf's lifetime. Beneath the comedic elements, there is an exploration of both generational change and artistic freedom. Both Cameron and Woolf fought against the class and gender dynamics of Victorianismand the play shows links to bothTo the LighthouseandA Room of One's Ownthat would follow. Non-fiction Woolf wrote a body of autobiographical work and more than 500 essays and reviews,some of which, likeA Room of One's Own(1929) were of book length. Not all were published in her lifetime. Shortly after her death,", "after her death, Leonard Woolf produced an edited edition of unpublished essays titledThe Moment and other Essays, published by the Hogarth Press in 1947. Many of these were originally lectures that she gave,and several more volumes of essays followed, such asThe Captain's Death Bed: and other essays(1950). A Room of One's Own Among Woolf's non-fiction works, one of the best known isA Room of One's Own(1929), a book-length essay. Considered a key work of feminist literary criticism, it was written following two lectures she delivered on \"Women and Fiction\" at Cambridge University the previous year. In it, she examines the historical disempowerment women have faced in many spheres, including social, educational and financial. One of her more famous dicta is contained within the book \"A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction\". Much of her argument (\"to show you how I arrived at this opinion about the room and the money\") is developed through the \"unsolved problems\" of women and", "of women and fiction writing to arrive at her conclusion, although she claimed that was only \"an opinion upon one minor point\".In doing so, she states a good deal about the nature of women and fiction, employing a quasi-fictional style as she examines where women writers failed because of lack of resources and opportunities, examining along the way the experiences of theBrontës,George EliotandGeorge Sand, as well as the fictional character ofShakespeare's sister, equipped with the same genius but not position. She contrasted these women who accepted a deferential status withJane Austen, who wrote entirely as a woman. Hogarth Press Virginia had taken up book-binding as a pastime in October 1901, at the age of 19.The Woolfs had been discussing setting up a publishing house for some time – Leonard intended for it to give Virginia a rest from the strain of writing, and therefore help her fragile mental health. Additionally, publishing her works under their own outfit would save her from the stress of submitting", "of submitting her work to an external company, which contributed to her breakdown during the process of publishing her first novelThe Voyage Out.The Woolfs obtained their own hand-printing press in April 1917 and set it up on their dining room table at Hogarth House, thus beginning theHogarth Press. The first publication wasTwo Storiesin July 1917, consisting of \"The Mark on the Wall\" by Virginia Woolf (which has been described as \"Woolf's first foray into modernism\") and \"Three Jews\" by Leonard Woolf. The accompanying illustrations byDora Carringtonwere a success, leading Virginia to remark that the press was \"specially good at printing pictures, and we see that we must make a practice of always having pictures.\" The process took two and a half months with a production run of 150 copies.Other short short stories followed, includingKew Gardens(1919) with awoodblockby Vanessa Bell asfrontispiece.Subsequently Bell added further illustrations, adorning each page of the text. Unlike its contemporary small", "contemporary small printers, who specialised in expensive artisanal reprints, the Woolfs concentrated on living avant-garde authors,and over the subsequent five years printed works by a number of authors includingKatherine Mansfield,T.S. Eliot,E. M. Forster, Clive Bell and Roger Fry. They also produced translations of Russian works withS. S. Koteliansky, and the first translation of the complete works ofSigmund Freud.They acquired a larger press in 1921 and began to sell directly to booksellers.In 1938 Virginia sold her share of the company toJohn Lehmann,who had started working for Hogarth Press seven years previously.The Press eventually became Leonard's only source of income, but his association with it ended in 1946, after publishing 527 titles, and Hogarth is now an imprint ofPenguin Random House. The Press also produced explicitly political works. Pamphlets had fallen out of fashion due to the high production costs and low revenue, but the Hogarth Press produced several series on contemporary issues of", "issues of international politics, challenging colonialism and critiquing Soviet Russia and Italian fascism.The Woolfs also published political fiction, includingTurbott Wolfe(1926) byWilliam PlomerandIn a Province(1934) byLaurens van der Post, which concern South African racial policies and revolutionary movements respectively.Virginia Woolf saw a link between international politics and feminism, publishing a biography of Indian feminist activistSaroj Nalini Duttand the memoirs ofsuffragetteElizabeth Robins.Scholar Ursula McTaggart argues that the Hogarth Press shaped and represented Woolf's later concept of an \"Outsiders' Society\", a non-organised group of women who would resist \"the patriarchal fascism of war and nationalism\" by exerting influence through private actions, as described inThree Guineas. In this view, the readers and authors form a loose network, with the Press providing the means to exchange ideas. Influences Michel Lackey argues that a major influence on Woolf, from 1912 onward, was Russian", "onward, was Russian literature and Woolf adopted many of its aesthetic conventions.The style ofFyodor Dostoyevskywith his depiction of a fluid mind in operation helped to influence Woolf's writings about a \"discontinuous writing process\", though Woolf objected to Dostoyevsky's obsession with \"psychological extremity\" and the \"tumultuous flux of emotions\" in his characters together with his right-wing, monarchist politics as Dostoyevsky was an ardent supporter of the autocracy of theRussian Empire.In contrast to her objections to Dostoyevsky's \"exaggerated emotional pitch\", Woolf found much to admire in the work ofAnton ChekhovandLeo Tolstoy.Woolf admired Chekhov for his stories of ordinary people living their lives, doing banal things and plots that had no neat endings.From Tolstoy, Woolf drew lessons about how a novelist should depict a character's psychological state and the interior tension within.Lackey notes that, fromIvan Turgenev, Woolf drew the lessons that there are multiple \"I's\" when writing a", "when writing a novel, and the novelist needed to balance those multiple versions of him- or herself to balance the \"mundane facts\" of a story vs. the writer's overarching vision, which required a \"total passion\" for art. The American writerHenry David Thoreaualso influenced Woolf. In a 1917 essay, she praised Thoreau for his statement \"The millions are awake enough for physical labor, but only one in hundreds of millions is awake enough to a poetic or divine life. To be awake is to be alive.\" They both aimed to capture 'the moment'––as Walter Pater says, \"to burn always with this hard, gem-like flame.\"Woolf praised Thoreau for his \"simplicity\" in finding \"a way for setting free the delicate and complicated machinery of the soul\".Like Thoreau, Woolf believed that it was silence that set the mind free to really contemplate and understand the world.Both authors believed in a certain transcendental, mystical approach to life and writing, where even banal things could be capable of generating deep emotions if one", "emotions if one had enough silence and the presence of mind to appreciate them.Woolf and Thoreau were both concerned with the difficulty of human relationships in the modern age. Woolf's preface toOrlandocreditsDaniel Defoe,Sir Thomas Browne,Laurence Sterne,Sir Walter Scott,Lord Macaulay,Emily Brontë,Thomas de Quincey, andWalter Pateras influences.Among her contemporaries, Woolf was influenced byMarcel Proust, writing toRoger Fry, \"Oh if I could write like that!\" Virginia Woolf and her mother The intense scrutiny of Virginia Woolf's literary output has led to speculation as to her mother's influence, including psychoanalytic studies of mother and daughter.Her memories of her mother are memories of an obsession,starting with her first major breakdown on her mother's death in 1895, the loss having a profound lifelong effect.In many ways, her mother's profound influence on Virginia Woolf is conveyed in the latter's recollections, \"there she is; beautiful, emphatic ... closer than any of the living are, lighting", "are, lighting our random lives as with a burning torch, infinitely noble and delightful to her children\". Woolf's understanding of her mother and family evolved considerably between 1907 and 1940, in which the somewhat distant, yet revered figure, becomes more nuanced and complete.She described her mother as an \"invisible presence\" in her life, and Ellen Rosenman argues that the mother-daughter relationship is a constant in Woolf's writing.She describes how Woolf'smodernismneeds to be viewed in relationship to her ambivalence towards her Victorian mother, the centre of the former's female identity, and her voyage to her own sense of autonomy. To Woolf, \"Saint Julia\" was both a martyr whose perfectionism was intimidating and a source of deprivation, by her absences real and virtual and premature death.Julia's influence and memory pervades Woolf's life and work. \"She has haunted me\", she wrote. Historical feminism According to the 2007 bookFeminism: From Mary Wollstonecraft to Betty Friedanby Bhaskar A.", "Bhaskar A. Shukla, \"Recently, studies of Virginia Woolf have focused on feminist and lesbian themes in her work, such as in the 1997 collection of critical essays,Virginia Woolf: Lesbian Readings, edited by Eileen Barrett and Patricia Cramer.\"In 1928, Woolf took a grassroots approach to informing and inspiring feminism. She addressed undergraduate women at the ODTAA Society atGirton College, Cambridge, and the Arts Society at Newnham College, with two papers that eventually becameA Room of One's Own(1929). Woolf's best-known nonfiction works,A Room of One's Own(1929) andThree Guineas(1938), examine the difficulties that female writers and intellectuals faced because men held disproportionate legal and economic power, as well as the future of women in education and society.InThe Second Sex(1949),Simone de Beauvoircounts, of all women who ever lived, only three female writers—Emily Brontë, Woolf and \"sometimes\"Katherine Mansfield— have explored \"the given\". Views In her lifetime, Woolf was outspoken on many", "outspoken on many topics that were considered controversial, some of which are now considered progressive, others regressive.She was an ardentfeministat a time when women's rights were barely recognised, andanti-colonialist, anti-imperialist and apacifistwhenchauvinismwas popular. On the other hand, she has been criticised for views on class and race in her private writings and published works. Like many of her contemporaries, some of her writing is now considered offensive. As a result, she is considered polarising, a revolutionary feminist and socialist hero or a purveyor ofhate speech. Works such asA Room of One's Own(1929) andThree Guineas(1938) are frequently taught as icons of feminist literature in courses that would be very critical of some of her views expressed elsewhere.She has also been the recipient of considerablehomophobicandmisogynistcriticism. Humanist views Virginia Woolf was born into a non-religious family and is regarded, along with fellow members of the Bloomsbury groupE. M.", "groupE. M. ForsterandG. E. Moore, as ahumanist. Both her parents were prominentagnostic atheists. Her father,Leslie Stephen, had become famous in polite society for his writings which expressed and publicised reasons to doubt the veracity of religion. Stephen was also President of theWest London Ethical Society, an earlyhumanistorganisation, and helped to found theUnion of Ethical Societiesin 1896. Woolf's mother,Julia Stephen, wrote the bookAgnostic Women(1880), which argued that agnosticism (defined here as something more like atheism) could be a highly moral approach to life. Woolf was a critic of Christianity. In a letter toEthel Smyth, she gave a scathing denunciation of the religion, seeing it as self-righteous \"egotism\" and stating \"my Jew has more religion in one toenail—more human love, in one hair\".Woolf stated in her private letters that she thought of herself as an atheist. She thought there were no Gods; no one was to blame; and so she evolved this atheist's religion of doing good for the sake", "good for the sake of goodness. Controversies Hermione Leecites a number of extracts from Woolf's writings that many, including Lee, would consider offensive, and these criticisms can be traced back as far as those ofWyndham LewisandQ. D. Leavisin the 1920s and 1930s.Other authors provide more nuanced contextual interpretations, and stress the complexity of her character and the apparent inherent contradictions in analysing her apparent flaws.She could certainly be off-hand, rude and even cruel in her dealings with other authors, translators and biographers, such as her treatment ofRuth Gruber.Some authors, includingDavid Daiches, Brenda Silver, Alison Light and otherpostcolonialfeminists, dismiss her (and modernist authors in general) as privileged, elitist,classist, racist, andantisemitic. Woolf's tendentious expressions, including prejudicial feelings against disabled people, have often been the topic of academic criticism: The first quotation is from a diary entry of September 1920 and runs: \"The fact is", "runs: \"The fact is the lower classes are detestable.\" The remainder follow the first in reproducing stereotypes standard to upper-class and upper-middle class life in the early 20th century: \"imbeciles should certainly be killed\"; \"Jews\" are greasy; a \"crowd\" is both an ontological \"mass\" and is, again, \"detestable\"; \"Germans\" are akin to vermin; some \"baboon faced intellectuals\" mix with \"sad green dressed negroes and negresses, looking like chimpanzees\" at a peace conference; Kensington High St. revolts one's stomach with its innumerable \"women of incredible mediocrity, drab as dishwater\". Antisemitism Often accused ofantisemitism,the treatment ofJudaismandJewsby Woolf is far from straightforward.She was happily married to an irreligious Jewish man (Leonard Woolf) who had no connection with or knowledge of his people while she generally characterised Jewish characters with negative stereotypes. For instance, she described some of the Jewish characters in her work in terms that suggested they were", "suggested they were physically repulsive or dirty. On the other hand, she could criticise her own views: \"How I hated marrying a Jew — how I hated their nasal voices and their oriental jewellery, and their noses and their wattles — what a snob I was: for they have immense vitality, and I think I like that quality best of all\" (Letter to Ethel Smyth 1930).These attitudes have been construed to reflect, not so much antisemitism, but social status; she married outside her social class. Leonard, \"a penniless Jew from Putney\", lacked the material status of the Stephens and their circle. While travelling on a cruise to Portugal, she protested at finding \"a great manyPortuguese Jewson board, and other repulsive objects, but we keep clear of them\".Furthermore, she wrote in her diary: \"I do not like the Jewish voice; I do not like the Jewish laugh.\" Her 1938 short story, written during Hitler's rule, \"The Duchess and the Jeweller\" (originally titled \"The Duchess and the Jew\") has been considered antisemitic. Some", "antisemitic. Some believe that Woolf and her husband Leonard came to despise and fear the 1930s'fascismand antisemitism. Her 1938 bookThree Guineaswas an indictment of fascism and what Woolf described as a recurring propensity amongpatriarchalsocieties to enforce repressive societal mores by violence.And yet, her 1938 story \"The Duchess and the Jeweller\" was so deeply hateful in its depiction of Jews thatHarper's Bazaarasked her to modify it before publication; she reluctantly complied. Legacy Virginia Woolf is known for her contributions to 20th-century literature and her essays, as well as the influence she has had on literary, particularly feminist criticism. A number of authors have stated that their work was influenced by her, includingMargaret Atwood,Michael Cunningham,Gabriel García Márquez,andToni Morrison.Her iconic imageis instantly recognisable from the Beresford portrait of her at twenty (at the top of this page) to the Beck and Macgregor portrait in her mother's dress inVogueat 44 (seeFry", "44 (seeFry (1913)) orMan Ray's cover ofTimemagazine (seeRay (1937)) at 55.More postcards of Woolf are sold by theNational Portrait Gallery, London than of any other person.Her image is ubiquitous, and can be found on products ranging from tea towels to T-shirts. Virginia Woolf is studied around the world, with organisations devoted to her, such as the Virginia Woolf Society of Great Britain,and The Virginia Woolf Society of Japan.In addition, trusts—such as the Asham Trust—encourage writers in her honour. Monuments and memorials In 2013, Woolf was honoured by her alma mater of King's College London with the opening of the Virginia Woolf Building onKingsway,together with an exhibit depicting her accompanied by the quotation \"London itself perpetually attracts, stimulates, gives me a play & a story & a poem\" from her 1926 diary.Busts of Virginia Woolf have been erected at her home in Rodmell, Sussex and at Tavistock Square, London, where she lived between 1924 and 1939. In 2014, she was one of the inaugural", "of the inaugural honorees in theRainbow Honor Walk, awalk of fameinSan Francisco'sCastro neighbourhoodnotingLGBTQpeople who have \"made significant contributions in their fields\". A campaign was launched in 2018 to erect a statue of Woolf in Richmond-upon-Thames, where she lived for 10 years.In November 2022 the statue, created by sculptor Laury Dizengremel, was unveiled. It depicts Woolf on a bench overlooking the River Thames, and is the first full-size statue of Woolf. Portrayals Adaptations Selected works Woolf's most notable works include the following. Novels Essays and essay collections Other Notes References Bibliography Books and theses Biography: Virginia Woolf Mental health Biography: Other Literary commentary Bloomsbury Chapters and contributions Articles Journals Dictionaries and encyclopaedias Newspapers and magazines Websites and documents British Library Virginia Woolf's homes and venues Images Audiovisual media By Woolf Novels Short stories Essays Essay collections Contributions", "Contributions Autobiographical writing Diaries and notebooks Letters External links Written works Archival material Audio media Visual media" ]
If you add up the birth years of Emma Watson, Daniel Radcliffe and Rupert Grint, what is the sum?
5967
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Radcliffe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Watson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Grint
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Radcliffe', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Watson', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Grint']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Radcliffe", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Watson", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert_Grint" ]
[ "Daniel Radcliffe Daniel Jacob Radcliffe(born 23 July 1989)is an English actor. He rose to fame at age 12 when he began portrayingHarry Potterin theHarry Potterfilm series. Radcliffe plays Potter in all eight films in the series, beginning withHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone(2001) and concluding withHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2(2011). Radcliffe branched out to stage acting in 2007, starring in theWest EndandBroadwayproductions ofEquus. He returned to Broadway in the musicalHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying(2011), earning aGrammy Awardnomination. His other Broadway roles includeMartin McDonagh's dramaThe Cripple of Inishmaan(2014) andStephen Sondheim's musicalMerrily We Roll Along(2023), the latter of which earned him aTony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical. He also starred in the London revivals ofTom Stoppard'sRosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead(2017) andSamuel Beckett'sEndgame(2020). Radcliffe also expanded his film roles, acting in a variety of genres such as the horror filmThe Woman in Black(2012), surreal dramaSwiss Army Man(2016), thrillerNow You See Me 2(2016), and comedyThe Lost City(2022). He also portrayedAllen Ginsbergin the biopicKill Your Darlings(2013) and\"Weird Al\" Yankovicin the musical parodyWeird: The Al Yankovic Story(2022). The latter earned him nominations for aPrimetime Emmy Awardand aBritish Academy Television Award. He also played multiple roles in the anthology comedy television seriesMiracle Workersfrom 2019 to 2023. Radcliffe has contributed to various charities, includingDemelza Hospice Care for Childrenandthe Trevor Project; the latter awarded him its Hero Award in 2011 for his advocacy withLGBTQyouth. Early life and education Daniel Jacob Radcliffe was born atQueen Charlotte's and Chelsea HospitalinHammersmith, London, Englandon 23 July 1989,the only child of casting agent Marcia Jeannine Gresham (née Jacobson)and literary agent Alan George Radcliffe.HisJewish mother, born in South Africa, traces her ancestry toAshkenazi Jewishimmigrants from Germany, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia,and was raised in the English town ofWestcliff-on-SeainEssex.HisNorthern Irishfather was raised in a \"very working-class\"Protestantfamily inBanbridgeinCounty Down.In 2019, he explored both sides of his family history in theBBCgenealogy seriesWho Do You Think You Are?Radcliffe's parents had both acted as children.As a casting agent, his mother was involved in BBC productions includingThe Inspector Lynley Mysteries. Radcliffe was educated at threeprivate schoolsfor boys inLondon:Redcliffe School,Sussex House School,and theCity of London School.After the release of the firstHarry Potterfilm, attending school proved difficult for him as some fellow pupils became hostile, though he states they were just trying to \"have a crack at the kid that plays Harry Potter\" rather than acting out of jealousy.As his acting career began to consume his schedule, he continued his education through on-set tutors. He has admitted to not being a very good student, considering school useless and finding the work \"really difficult\".He achieved A grades in the threeAS levelexams that he took in 2006, but decided to take a break from education and did not attend university.Part of his reasoning was he already knew he wanted to be an actor and screenwriter, and it would be difficult to have a normal university experience. Career 1999–2001: Acting debut and early career Radcliffe first expressed a desire to act at age five.After one of his mother's casting agent friends secured him an audition, he made his acting debut at age ten inBBC One'stwo-part adaptationof theCharles DickensnovelDavid Copperfield(1999),portraying thetitle characteras a young boy.He made his film debut inThe Tailor of Panama(2001), an American film based onJohn le Carré's 1996 spy novel, which was a moderate commercial success. 2001–2011: Stardom withHarry Potter In 2000, producerDavid Heymanmet Radcliffe while he was at the theatre with his father, a well-known literary agent who Heyman was friends with.He asked him to audition for the role ofHarry Potterfor thefilm adaptationofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the best-selling book by British authorJ. K. Rowling.Rowling had been searching for an unknown British actor to personify the character, and the film's directorChris Columbusrecalled thinking, \"This is what I want. This is Harry Potter\" after he saw a video of the young actor inDavid Copperfield.Eight months later, following several auditions, Radcliffe was selected to play the part.Rowling endorsed the selection, saying: \"I don't think Chris Columbus could have found a better Harry.\"Radcliffe's parents originally turned down the offer, as they had been told that it would involve six films shot in Los Angeles.Warner Bros.instead offered Radcliffe a two-film contract with shooting in the UK;Radcliffe was unsure at the time if he would act in more than twoHarry Potterfilms. The release ofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stonetook place in 2001. Radcliffe received a seven-figure salary for the lead role, but asserted that the fee was \"not that important\" to him;his parents chose to invest the money for him.The film was highly popular and was met with positive reviews, and critics took notice of Radcliffe:\"Radcliffe is the embodiment of every reader's imagination. It is wonderful to see a young hero who is so scholarly looking and filled with curiosity and who connects with very real emotions, from solemn intelligence and the delight of discovery to deep family longing,\" wrote Bob Graham of theSan Francisco Chronicle. A year later, Radcliffe starred inHarry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second installment of the series. Reviewers were positive about the lead actors' performances but had polarising opinions on the film overall.Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban(2004) was the third film in the series. Radcliffe's performance was criticised byThe New York Timesfilm criticA. O. Scott, who felt that co-starEmma Watsonhad to carry him with her performance.Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire(2005) was the second-highest grossingHarry Potterfilm at that point,and Radcliffe singled out the humour as a reason for the film's creative success. The future of the franchise was put into question when Radcliffe, Watson, and co-starRupert Grinthesitated to sign on to continue their roles. By March 2007, however, Radcliffe had signed for the finalHarry Potterfilms; his signing put an end to weeks of press \"speculation that he would be denied the role due to his involvement inEquus\", in which he had performed nude onstage.Radcliffe reprised the role of Harry for the fifth time inHarry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix(2007). Radcliffe stated that directorDavid Yatesand co-starImelda StauntonmadeOrder of the Phoenixthe \"most fun\" film to work on in the series.His performance earned him several award nominations, and he received the 2008National Movie Awardfor \"Best Male Performance\".Radcliffe, Grint, and Watson left imprints of their hands, feet, and wands in front ofGrauman's Chinese Theatrein Hollywood.Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the series' sixth instalment, was released in July 2009. Radcliffe received nominations for \"Best Male Performance\" and \"Global Superstar\" at the2010 MTV Movie Awards. For financial and scripting reasons, the lastHarry Potterbook (Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows) was divided into two films that were shot back-to-back.This decision drew criticism from the series' fans, but Radcliffe defended the split, stating that it would have been impossible to properly adapt the final novel into a single film. The two-film finale,Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1andPart 2, was released in November 2010 and July 2011, respectively. WhileDeathly Hallows – Part 1grossed $960 million,Deathly Hallows – Part 2grossed more than $1.3 billion worldwide; as of May 2019, it was the11th-highest-grossing filmof all time.Deathly Hallows – Part 2was critically acclaimed, as was Radcliffe's performance; Ann Hornaday ofThe Washington Postasked, \"Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors\"?CriticRex Reedremarked, \"Frankly, I'm sorry to see go\";Roger Ebertgave the film a highly positive review, but felt that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson were \"upstaged by the supporting .\" Radcliffe acknowledged that some people would never be able to separate him from the Harry Potter character; however, he has said he is \"proud to be associated with this film series forever.\"Despite positive feelings about the films, he has no interest in doing moreHarry Potterfilms. After Rowling hinted about writing an eighth book, Radcliffe was asked if he would do anotherHarry Potterfilm, to which he replied, \" very doubtful. I think 10 years is a long time to spend with one character\".Despite devoting so much time to the series, Radcliffe has asserted that he did not miss out on a childhood like other child actors, remarking, \"I've been given a much better perspective on life by doing Potter.\" 2002–2008: West End and Broadway Theatre debut In 2002, Radcliffe made his stage debut as a celebrity guest in aWest Endproduction ofThe Play What I Wrote, directed byKenneth Branagh—who also appeared with him in the secondHarry Potterfilm.He appeared in the filmDecember Boys, an Australian family drama about four orphans that was shot in 2005 and released to theaters in mid-September 2007.On 13 April 2006, a portrait of Radcliffe byStuart Pearson Wrightwas unveiled as part of a new exhibition opening at theNational Theatre, before being moved to theNational Portrait Gallery. In 2007, Radcliffe co-starred withCarey MulliganinMy Boy Jack, a television drama film shown onITV. The film received mostly positive reviews,with several critics praising Radcliffe's performance as an eighteen-year-old who goes missing in action during a battle.Radcliffe stated, \"For many people my age, the First World War is just a topic in a history book. But I've always been fascinated by the subject and think it's as relevant today as it ever was.\"Later that year, he published several poems under thepen nameJacob Gershon—a combination of his middle name and theHebrewversion of his mother's maiden name Gresham—in the underground fashion magazineRubbish. At age seventeen, in a bid to demonstrate that he was prepared for adult roles,Radcliffe starred in a West End revival ofPeter Shaffer's playEquusat theGielgud Theatre. The piece had not been revived since its first run in 1973.Radcliffe took on the lead roleof Alan Strang, a stable boy who has an obsession with horses. Advance sales topped £1.7 million. The role generated significant pre-opening media interest, as Radcliffe performed a nude scene.Equusopened on 27 February 2007 and ran until 9 June 2007.Radcliffe's performance was acclaimed,as critics were impressed by the nuance and depth of hisagainst-typerole.Charles SpencerofThe Telegraphwrote that the actor \"displays a dramatic power and an electrifying stage presence that marks a tremendous leap forward.\" He added: \"I never thought I would find the diminutive (but perfectly formed) Radcliffe a sinister figure, but as Alan Strang ... there are moments when he seems genuinely scary in his rage and confusion.\"The production transferred toBroadwayat theBroadhurst Theatrein September 2008. Radcliffe continued in the lead role, starring alongsideKate Mulgrew,Anna Camp, and hisHarry Potterco-starRichard Griffiths.Radcliffe was nervous about reprising the role on Broadway as he considered American audiences to be more discerning than those in London.Radcliffe's performance was nominated for aDrama Desk Award. 2010–2018: Return to Broadway and independent films After voicing a character inThe Simpsonsepisode \"Treehouse of Horror XXI\" in late 2010,Radcliffe debuted as J. Pierrepont Finch in a 2011 Broadway revival ofHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Tryingat theAl Hirschfeld Theatre.The role had previously been played byRobert MorseandMatthew Broderick.Other cast members includedJohn Larroquette,Rose HemingwayandMary Faber.Both the actor and production received favourable reviews,withUSA Todaycommenting: \"Radcliffe ultimately succeeds not by overshadowing his fellow cast members, but by working in conscientious harmony with them – and having a blast in the process.\"Radcliffe's performance in the show earned him Drama Desk Award,Drama League AwardandOuter Critics Circle Awardnominations.The production itself later received nineTony Awardnominations.Radcliffe left the show on 1 January 2012. Radcliffe's first post-Harry Potterproject was the 2012 horror filmThe Woman in Black, adapted from the1983 novelbySusan Hill. The film was released on 3 February 2012 in the United States and Canada, and was released on 10 February in the UK. Radcliffe portrays a man sent to deal with the legal matters of a mysterious woman who has just died, and soon after he begins to experience strange events and hauntings from the ghost of a woman dressed in black.He has said he was \"incredibly excited\" to be part of the film and described the script as \"beautifully written\". In 2013, he portrayed AmericanbeatpoetAllen Ginsbergin thethrillerdramaKill Your Darlings, directed byJohn Krokidas.He also starred in an Irish-Canadian romantic comedy filmThe F Word(2013) directed by Michael Dowseand written byElan Mastai, based onTJ Daweand Michael Rinaldi's playToothpaste and Cigarsand then he starred inHorns, an American dark fantasy horror film directed byAlexandre Aja.Both of the films premiered at the38th Toronto International Film Festival.Also in 2013, Radcliffe performed at theNoël Coward Theatrein the stage play revival ofMartin McDonagh's dark comedyThe Cripple of Inishmaanas the lead, Billy Claven,for which he won the WhatsOnStage Award for Best Actor in a Play. Radcliffe starred asIgorin a science fiction horror filmVictor Frankenstein(2015), directed byPaul McGuiganand written byMax Landis. The film was based on contemporary adaptations of Mary Shelley's 1818 novelFrankenstein.He also starred asSam Houser, one of the founders ofRockstar Games, in the biographical drama filmThe Gamechangers. Radcliffe starred in the action adventure filmNow You See Me 2(2016) alongsideMark Ruffalo,Jesse Eisenberg, andWoody Harrelson.playing a technological prodigy, entrepreneur, criminal mastermind and a main leading antagonist all along withMichael Caine's character named Arthur Tressler (of whom Radcliffe's character is revealed to be the son), who whilst in turn resents magic.In 2016, Radcliffe portrayed Manny, a talkative corpse, in the indie filmSwiss Army ManwithPaul Dano.That same year, He also starred in critically acclaimed independent filmImperium(2016) withToni Collette, andTracy Letts. He played Nate Foster, an idealistic FBI agent who goes undercover to take down a radical white supremacy group.The film received an 84% onRotten Tomatoeswith the consensus reading, \"The unsettlingImperiumboasts troublingly timely themes and a talented cast led by Daniel Radcliffe as an undercover FBI agent infiltrating a ring of white supremacists.\" Radcliffe starredoff-BroadwayatThe Public Theaterin adocumentary theatrepiece titledPrivacy, playing the role of The Writer.In 2017, he starred as Yossi Ghinsberg in the thrillerJungle, which was based on an internationally best-selling memoir of the same name byYossi Ghinsberg.In 2018, Radcliffe portrayed a pilot smuggling drugs across borders in the independent action-thrillerBeast of Burdendirected by Jesper Ganslandt.Radcliffe returned to Broadway in the ninety-minute comedy playThe Lifespan of a FactatStudio 54 TheatrewithBobby CannavaleandCherry Jones. The play revolves around a determined young fact checker who goes up against his demanding editor and an unorthodox author. 2019–present: Career expansion In 2019, Radcliffe starred as Craig in theTBScomedy limited seriesMiracle Workersbased on the book bySimon Rich.The show's second season premiered on 28 January 2020. He voice–starred as Rex Dasher, a secret agent who helps Marla, in the animated filmPlaymobil: The Moviedirected byLino DiSalvo.In 2020, Radcliffe starred as Miles in the action comedy filmGuns Akimbodirected byJason Lei Howdenand co-starringSamara WeavingandNatasha Liu Bordizzo.He also starred asTim Jenkinin thethriller filmEscape from Pretoria, based on the real-life prison escape by three youngpolitical prisonersfrom jail in South Africa in 1979.He also played the role of Prince Frederick in the Netflix specialUnbreakable Kimmy SchmidtoppositeEllie Kemper.Radcliffe reunited with multiple cast members of theHarry Potterfilm series for anHBO Maxspecial titledHarry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts, which was released on 1 January 2022.Radcliffe stars as the villain in the action-adventure comedy filmThe Lost City, oppositeSandra BullockandChanning Tatum.He portrayed musician\"Weird Al\" YankovicinWeird: The Al Yankovic Story, a biographical parody film produced forThe Roku Channel,for which he received his firstPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination. In early 2022, Radcliffe returned to the stage acting alongsideJonathan GroffandLindsay Mendezin theNew York Theatre Workshoprevival of theStephen SondheimmusicalMerrily We Roll Along, in which he played Charley Kringas.The revival started on 21 November 2022 and opened on 12 December 2022, running for a limited engagement through 8 January 2023,before transferring to a critically acclaimed run on Broadway.The production closed on July 7, 2024.For his performance, Radcliffe won his firstTony AwardforBest Featured Actor in a Musical, his first major award win ever.Radcliffe will appear alongsideJessica BielandEthan Hawkein the upcoming filmBatso, which will be directed by American film director Kyle Marvin. Other ventures Philanthropy Radcliffe has lent his support to various charitable organisations. He designed the Cu-Bed for Habitat's VIP Kids range (a cube made of eight smaller ones which can be made into a bed, chaise-longue or chair)with all the royalties from the sale of the bed going directly to his favourite charity, Demelza House Children's Hospice inSittingbourne, Kent.Radcliffe has urged fans to make donations to the charity's Candle for Care programme in lieu of giving him Christmas presents. In 2008, he was among several celebrities who donated their old glasses to an exhibit honouring victims ofthe Holocaust.During the Broadway run ofEquushe auctioned off a pair of jeans and other items worn in the show, for New-York-basedBroadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDSand was a presenter at the 2011 Gypsy of the Year competition.He has also made donations in support ofGet Connected UK, a London-based free confidential nationalhelplinefor troubled youth. Political and social views Radcliffe is a supporter of theLabour Party.He previously supported theLiberal Democrats,and endorsed then-Lib Dem leaderNick Cleggin the2010 general election. In 2012, however, he switched his political alignment to Labour, citing disillusionment with the performance of Clegg and the Liberal Democratswhile in government, and approving of then-Labour leaderEd Miliband.In 2015, he endorsedJeremy Corbyn'sLabour Party leadership campaign. He toldThe Big Issue, \"I feel like this show of sincerity by a man who has been around long enough and stuck to his beliefs long enough that he knows them and doesn't have to be scripted is what is making people sit up and get excited. It is great.\" Radcliffe supportsabolishing the British monarchyandreplacing it with a republic.He also supportsBritish unionism, and opposed the2014 Scottish independence referendumbecause he \"personally like the UK being how it is\". Radcliffe is supportive of theLGBTQ community. Speaking out againsthomophobia, he began filmingpublic service announcementsin 2009 forThe Trevor Project, promoting awareness of gay teen suicide prevention.He first learnt of the organisation while performingEquuson Broadway in 2008and has contributed financially to it.He said in a 2010 interview, \"I have always hated anybody who is not tolerant of gay men or lesbians or bisexuals. Now I am in the very fortunate position where I can actually help or do something about it.\" In the same interview, he stressed the importance of public figures advocating for equal rights.He received The Trevor Project's Hero Award in 2011 for his contributions.In June 2020, amid controversy overHarry PotterauthorJ. K. Rowling'sremarks on gender identity— which many have condemned astransphobic, although Rowling has strongly denied this— Radcliffe penned an essay published by The Trevor Project in which he voiced support for thetransgender communityand expressed regret that Rowling's statements had damaged fans' experience of theHarry Potterbooks. Personal life Radcliffe splits his time between homes in theFulhamarea of Londonand theWest Villageneighbourhood of New York City'sManhattanborough.He has been in a relationship with American actressErin Darkesince 2012, after having met on the set ofKill Your Darlings.In March 2023, they were confirmed to be expecting their first child together.Darke gave birth to a son the following month.Radcliffe called fatherhood \"the literal best thing that ever happened.\" In 2008, Radcliffe revealed that he has a mild form of the neurological disorderdyspraxia, which sometimes prevents him from doing simple activities such as writing or tying his shoelaces. He said, \"I was having a hard time at school, in terms of being crap at everything, with no discernible talent.\" Radcliffe has expressed his fondness for hip hop music and admitted to having \"an obsession with memorising complicated, lyrically intricate and fast songs\". On 28 October 2014, he rhymed the 1999Blackalicioussong \"Alphabet Aerobics\" during an appearance onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. Radcliffe is close to his family, whom he credits for keeping him grounded.In August 2010, he becameteetotalafter finding himself becoming too reliant on alcohol.In March 2020, he appeared as the guest onBBC Radio 4'sDesert Island Discs, where he discussed his alcohol misuse during his teens and his decision to become teetotal, and how his parents' support and staying in his native England helped him cope with fame. Radcliffe stated of his beliefs in 2012: \"There was never faith in the house. I think of myself as being Jewish and Irish, despite the fact that I'm English.\"He has said that his family are \"Christmas treeJews,\"and he said: \"I'm an atheist, but I'm very proud of being Jewish. It means I have a good work ethic, and you get Jewish humour and you're allowed to tell Jewish jokes.\"In 2009, he stated that he was anatheistand said, \"I'm very relaxed about . I don't preach my atheism, but I have a huge amount of respect for people likeRichard Dawkinswho do. Anything he does on television, I will watch.\"He said in 2012, \"I'm an atheist, and a militant atheist when religion starts impacting on legislation.\"In 2019, he described himself as \"agnosticleaning toward atheism\".In 2009, Radcliffe stated that although he considers himself a \"fiercepatriot\", he is not aroyalist, adding that themonarchy\"symbolized a lot of what is wrong with the country\". His favourite films include12 Angry Men,A Matter of Life and Death,Dr. Strangelove,Little Miss SunshineandJason and the Argonauts.He has said that his favorite novel isThe Master and MargaritabyMikhail Bulgakov, and that his favorite Harry Potter book isHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.He is also an avidping-pongplayer. While on the set of the 2013 filmHorns, Radcliffe accidentally drankantifreeze, which caused him to become \"horrendously ill\" for \"a disgusting, feverish three days.\" Radcliffe was reported to have earned £1 million for the firstHarry Potterfilm,around £15 million for the sixth,and around £39 million for the final two movies combined.In all, he is estimated to have made a total of £75.4 million from the entire franchise.He appeared on theSunday TimesRich Listin 2006, which estimated his personal fortune to be £14 million, making him one of the richest young people in the UK.In March 2009, he was ranked at number one on theForbes\"Most Valuable Young Stars\" list,and by AprilThe Daily Telegraphmeasured his net worth at £30 million, making him the 12th richest young person in the UK.Radcliffe was considered to be the richest teenager in England later that year.In February 2010, he was named the sixth highest-paid Hollywood male starand placed at number five onForbes'December list of Hollywood's highest-grossing actorswith a film revenue of US$780 million, mainly due toHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallowsbeing released that year.As of 2021, Radcliffe's net worth is estimated at £95 million. Acting credits and accolades Explanatory notes References External links", "Emma Watson Emma Charlotte Duerre Watson(born 15 April 1990) is an English actress. Known for her roles in bothblockbustersandindependent films, she has receiveda selection of accolades, including aYoung Artist Awardand threeMTV Movie Awards. Watson has been ranked among the world's highest-paid actresses byForbesandVanity Fair, and was named one of the100 most influential people in the worldbyTimemagazine in 2015.Watson was also listed byForbesas an honouree on theForbes 30 under 30list in 2015 and 2016. Watson attended theDragon Schooland trained in acting at theOxfordbranch ofStagecoach Theatre Arts. As a child, she rose to stardom after landing her first professional acting role asHermione Grangerin theHarry Potterfilm series, having previously acted only in school plays. Watson made her first major forays beyond the Potter franchise starring inBallet Shoes(2007), and lent her voice toThe Tale of Despereaux(2008). After the finalHarry Potterfilm, she took on a supporting role inMy Week with Marilyn(2011), before starring as Sam, a flirtatious, free-spirited student inThe Perks of Being a Wallflower(2012), to critical success. Further acclaim came from portrayingAlexis NeiersinSofia Coppola'sThe Bling Ring(2013) and the titular character's adoptive daughter inDarren Aronofsky's biblical epicNoah(2014). That same year, Watson was honoured by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Arts, winning British Artist of the Year. She also starred asBellein the live-action musical romantic fantasyBeauty and the Beast(2017), and asMeg MarchinGreta Gerwig's coming-of-age dramaLittle Women(2019). From 2011 to 2014, Watson split her time between working on films and continuing her education, graduating fromBrown Universitywith abachelor's degreeinEnglish literaturein May 2014. That year, she was appointed aUN WomenGoodwill Ambassadorand helped launch the UN Women campaignHeForShe, which advocates forgender equality. In 2018, she helped launchTime's Up UKas a founding member. Watson was appointed to aG7advisory body for women's rights in 2019, consulting with leaders onforeign policy. Her modelling work has included campaigns forBurberryandLancôme. She also lent her name to a clothing line for the sustainable brandPeople Tree. From 2020 to 2023, she sat on the board of directors ofKering, a luxury brand group, in her capacity as an advocate forsustainable fashion. Early life and education Emma Charlotte Duerre Watsonwas born on 15 April 1990 inParis, to English lawyers Chris Watson and Jacqueline Luesby.Watson lived inMaisons-Laffittenear Paris until age five. Her parents divorced when she was five, and Watson moved to England to live with her mother inOxfordshirewhile spending weekends at her father's house in London.Watson has said she speaks some French, though \"not as well\" as she used to.After moving toOxfordwith her mother and brother, she attended theDragon School, remaining there until 2003.From age six, she wanted to become an actress,and trained at the Oxford branch ofStagecoach Theatre Arts, a part-time theatre school where she studied singing, dancing, and acting. By age ten, Watson had performed in Stagecoach productions and school plays includingArthur: The Young YearsandThe Happy Prince,but she had never acted professionally prior to theHarry Potterseries. After the Dragon School, Watson moved on toHeadington School, Oxford.While on film sets, she and her castmates were tutored for up to five hours a day.In June 2006, she tookGCSEschool examinations in ten subjects, achieving eight A* and two A grades. In May 2007, she tookAS levelsin English, Geography, Art, and History of Art. The following year, she dropped History of Art to pursue the threeA levels, receiving an A grade in each subject. Watson took agap yearafter finishing secondary school,to filmHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Parts 1&2beginning in February 2009,but asserted that she intended to continue her studiesand later confirmed she had chosenBrown UniversityinProvidence, Rhode Island.In March 2011, after 18 months at the university, Watson announced she was deferring her course for \"a semester or two\",though she attendedWorcester College, Oxfordduring the 2011–12 academic year as part of theVisiting Student Programme.In a 2014 interview onThe Ellen DeGeneres Show, Watson said just before graduation that it took five years to finish her degree instead of four because, owing to her acting work, she \"ended up taking two full semesters off\".On 25 May 2014, she graduated from Brown University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature.In 2023, she began a course of Master of Studies in creative writing at the University of Oxford, where she matriculated atLady Margaret Hall. Acting career 1999–2009:Harry Potterand worldwide recognition In 1999, casting began forHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the film adaptation of British authorJ. K. Rowling's best-sellingnovel.Casting agents found Watson through her Oxford theatre teacher. She had acted in school plays, but had no film acting experience. Her first audition took place when she was nine years old.Although Watson had to audition a total of eight times before earning the role, Rowling supported her casting after her firstscreen test.Prior to casting Watson, the producers consideredHatty Jonesfor the role. The release ofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stonein 2001 was Watson's debut screen performance. The film broke records for opening-day sales and opening-weekend takings and was the highest-grossing film of 2001.Critics singled out Watson for particular acclaim;The Daily Telegraphcalled her performance \"admirable\",andIGNsaid she \"stole the show\".Watson was nominated for five awards for her performance inPhilosopher's Stone, winning theYoung Artist Awardfor Leading Young Actress.She was chosen as one ofEntertainment Weekly's Breakout Performers of 2001. A year later, Watson reprised her role as Hermione inHarry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second instalment of the series. Reviewers praised the lead actors' performances. TheLos Angeles Timessaid Watson and her co-stars had matured between films,whileThe Timescriticised directorChris Columbusfor \"under-employing\" Watson's hugely popular character.Watson received an Otto Award from the German magazineBravofor her performance. In 2004,Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkabanwas released. Watson was appreciative of the more assertive role Hermione played, calling her \"charismatic\" and \"a fantastic role to play\".Critics lauded Watson's performance;A. O. ScottofThe New York Timesremarked: \"Luckily Mr. Radcliffe's blandness is offset by Ms. Watson's spiky impatience. Harry may show off his expanding wizardly skills ... but Hermione ... earns the loudest applause with a decidedly unmagical punch toDraco Malfoy's deserving nose.\"AlthoughPrisoner of Azkabanproved to be the lowest-grossingHarry Potterfilm in the entire series, Watson's performance won her two Otto Awards and the Child Performance of the Year award fromTotal Film. WithHarry Potter and the Goblet of Fire(2005), both Watson and theHarry Potterfilm series reached new milestones. The film set records for aHarry Potteropening weekend and opening weekend in the UK. Critics praised the increasing maturity of Watson and her teenage co-stars;The New York Timescalled her performance \"touchingly earnest\",andPeter BradshawofThe Guardianwrote that \"Watson's gutsy, confident performance nicely shows that inside and outside the world of magic there is a growing discrepancy between a teenage girl's status and her accelerating emotional and intellectual development.\"For Watson, much of the film's humour sprang from the tension among the three lead characters as they matured. She said, \"I loved all the arguing. ... I think it's much more realistic that they would argue and that there would be problems.\"Nominated for three awards forGoblet of Fire, Watson won a bronzeOtto Award.Watson almost quit the franchise afterGoblet of Fire, saying, \"I think I was scared. I don’t know if you ever felt like it got to a tipping point where you were like, 'this is kind of forever now.'\" In 2006, Watson played Hermione inThe Queen's Handbag, a special mini-episode ofHarry Potterin celebration ofQueen Elizabeth II's 80th birthday.The fifth film in theHarry Potterseries,Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, was released in 2007. A huge financial success, the film set a record worldwide opening-weekend gross of $332.7 million.Watson won the inauguralNational Movie Awardfor Best Female Performance.As the fame of the actress and the series continued to rise, Watson and herHarry Potterco-stars Daniel Radcliffe and Rupert Grint left imprints of their hands, feet and wands in front ofGrauman's Chinese Theatrein Hollywood on 9 July 2007.That month, Watson's work on theHarry Potterseries was said to have earned her more than £10 million, and she acknowledged she would never have to work for money again. Prior to the release ofOrder of the Phoenix, the future of theHarry Potterseries was in jeopardy, as all three lead actors were hesitant to sign on to continue their roles for the final installments.Watson was considerably more ambivalent than her co-stars during renegotiations.She explained that the decision was significant, as the films represented a further four-year commitment to the role, but eventually conceded that she \"could never let Hermione go\",signing for the role on 23 March 2007. Watson's first non-Potterrole was the 2007 BBC filmBallet Shoes, atelevision adaptationof the1936 novel of the same namebyNoel Streatfeild.The film's director,Sandra Goldbacher, commented that Watson was \"perfect\" for the starring role of aspiring actress Pauline Fossil: \"She has a piercing, delicate aura that makes you want to gaze and gaze at her.\"Ballet Shoeswas broadcast in the UK onBoxing Dayto 5.7 million viewers, to mixed reviews.The following year, she voiced the character Princess Pea in theanimationThe Tale of Despereaux, a children's comedy, based onthe 2003 novel of the same name, byKate DiCamillo, starringMatthew Broderick, withHarry Potterco-starRobbie Coltranealso starring in the film.The Tale of Despereauxwas released in December 2008 and grossed $87 million worldwide. Principal photographyfor the sixthHarry Potterfilm began in late 2007, with Watson's part being filmed from 18 December to 17 May 2008.Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Princepremiered on 15 July 2009,having been delayed from November 2008.With the lead actors in their late teens, critics were increasingly willing to review them on the same level as the rest of the franchise's all-star cast, which theLos Angeles Timesdescribed as \"a comprehensive guide to contemporary UK acting\".The Washington Postfelt Watson had given \" most charming performance to date\",whileThe Daily Telegraphdescribed the lead actors as \"newly liberated and energised, eager to give all they have to what's left of the series\". Watson's filming for the final instalment,Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, began on 18 February 2009and ended on 12 June 2010.For financial and scripting reasons, the original book was divided into two films which were shot consecutively.Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1was released in November 2010 while the second film was released in July 2011.Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2became a commercial and critical success. Thehighest-grossing filmin the franchise, it grossed more than $1.3 billion worldwide and proved to be Watson's most commercially successful film to date. 2010–2016: Independent films and mainstream work Watson appeared in a music video forOne Night Only, after meeting lead singerGeorge Craigat the 2010 Winter/Summer Burberry advertising campaign. The video, \"Say You Don't Want It\", was screened onChannel 4on 26 June 2010 and released on 16 August.In her first post-Harry Potterfilm, Watson appeared inMy Week with Marilyn(2011) as Lucy, a wardrobe assistant who briefly dates protagonist Colin Clark, portrayed byEddie Redmayne. In May 2010, Watson was reported to be in talks to star inStephen Chbosky'sThe Perks of Being a Wallflower,based on the1999 novel of the same name. Filming began in summer of 2011, and the film was released in September 2012.Watson starred oppositeLogan Lermanas Sam, a high school senior who befriends a fellow student called Charlie (Lerman), and helps him through hisfreshmanyear. The film opened to favourable reviews; David Sexton of theEvening Standardopined that Watson's performance was \"plausible and touching\",whileThe Atlanticreviewer thought that Watson \"sheds the memory of a decade playing Hermione in theHarry Potterseries with an about-face as a flirtatious but insecure free spirit. Watson joined the cast of the satirical crime filmThe Bling Ringon 29 February 2012,TheSofia Coppola-directed film is based on the real-lifeBling Ringrobberies, with Watson playing a fictionalised version ofAlexis Neiers, a television personality who was one of seven teenagers involved in the robberies. The film was released in 2013. While the film mostly received mixed reviews, critics gave almost unanimous praise for Watson's performance. Adam White ofThe Independentlater stated that \"She prove remarkable.... Watson oozes casual disdain. Her sticky American vocal fry is clipped and monotone, as if she's swallowed a Kardashian for breakfast.\"Watson also had a supporting role in the apocalyptic comedyThis Is the End(2013), in which she,Seth Rogen,James Francoand many others played \"exaggerated versions of themselves\"and Watson memorably dropped the \"f-bomb\".She said she could not pass up the opportunity to make her first comedy and \"work with some of the best comedians in the world right now\". In June 2012, Watson was confirmed for the role as Ila,Shem's wife, inDarren Aronofsky'sNoah, which began filming the following month, and was released in March 2014.Watson referred to the role as \"physically very demanding\" given the usage ofspecial effectsand did extensive research onchildbirthto effectively portray a scene in the film.The film, a box office success, received mixed reviews for its direction and casting;Vanity Fairwrote that \"Watson anchors the film's rawest emotional scenes.... Sitting on an Icelandic beach withRussell Crowe, her hair wild and eyes burning, Watson is quiet but ferocious.\"In March 2013, it was reported that Watson was in negotiations to star as the title character inKenneth Branagh'slive-action Disney adaptationofCinderella.Watson was offered the role, but turned it down because she did not connect with the character.The role ultimately went toLily James. Watson performed the background vocals in the second chorus of the song \"Pantomime\" by singer Ben Hammersley, alongsideÓlafur Arnalds. The song was released on 20 January 2014. Watson joinedJudi Dench,Robert Downey Jr.,Mike Leigh,Julia Louis-Dreyfus, andMark Ruffaloas recipients of the 2014Britannia Awards, presented on 30 October in Los Angeles. Watson was awarded British Artist of the Year and she dedicated the prize to Millie, her pet hamster who died as Watson was filmingHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone.Watson starred in two 2015 releases, the thrillersColonia, oppositeDaniel BrühlandMichael Nyqvist;andRegressionbyAlejandro Amenábar, alongsideEthan Hawkeand herHarry Potterco-starDavid Thewlis.Both of these films received generally negative reviews;The Daily Telegraphcritic blamedRegression's script for her \"pure dramatic cardboard\" role.She also appeared in an episode of BBC'sThe Vicar of Dibley, in which she played Reverend Iris.In February 2016, Watson announced she was taking a year-long break from acting. She planned to spend the time on her \"personal development\" and her women's rights work. 2017–present: Recent career and hiatus Watson starred asBellein the2017 live-action Disney adaptationofBeauty and the Beastdirected byBill Condon, and starring oppositeDan Stevensas theBeast.She was given autonomy within Belle's portrayal; she re-characterised her as an assistant to her inventor father and incorporatedbloomersandbootsinto her wardrobe.The film grossed over $1.2 billion at the worldwide box office and emerged as thesecond-highest-grossing film of 2017and the 17th-highest-grossing film of all time.Her reported fee was $3 million upfront withprofit participation, bringing her salary up to $15 million.The film garnered positive reviews;Richard Roeperof theChicago Sun-Timesthought her performance was \"all pluck and spunk and sass and smarts and fierce independence as Belle\".Watson later said \"When I finished the film, it kind of felt like I had made that transition into being a woman on-screen\". In the same year, she starred oppositeTom Hanksin thefilm adaptationofDave Eggers' novelThe Circleas Mae Holland, who begins working at a powerful tech corporation and enters a perilous situation concerningsurveillanceand freedom.The film received negative reviews but was a moderate box office success.In 2019, Watson starred asMeg MarchinGreta Gerwig'sadaptationofLouisa May Alcott's novelLittle Women, co-starring withSaoirse Ronan,Florence Pugh,Laura Dern,Timothée Chalamet, andMeryl Streep.On the premise, Watson has stated \"I think was good literary device to explain that there's not one way to be a feminist.... way of being a feminist is making the choice – because that's really, for me anyway, what feminism is about. Her choice is that she wants to be a full-time mother and wife.\"Forbesstated that \"Watson has perhaps the most challenging role, as the proverbialstraight womanof the sisters who is put on the defensive when her dreams end up being the most conventional of the lot.\"The film was critically acclaimed and grossed over $218 million against its $40 million budget. In 2020, Watson discussed her future career plans, stating: \"Having been so public in making films and being so active on social in my activism, I am curious to embrace a role where I work to amplify more voices, to continue to learn from those with different experiences\", adding that her work would include \"fewer red carpets and more conference meetings\".In 2021, various reports surfaced stating that Watson was engaged or retiring.Watson and her representatives refuted these reports; she later labelled the speculation asclickbaitand cited her relative public absence to continuedsocial distancingduring theCOVID-19 pandemic.In 2022, Watson reunited with multiple cast members of theHarry Potterfilm series for anHBO Maxspecial titledHarry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts.The following year, Watson revealed in an interview with theFinancial Timesthat a reason why she had not acted in almost five years was because she \"wasn't very happy\" with the profession and that she felt \"a bit caged\". However, she went on to say that she will \"absolutely\" return to acting while also saying, \"But I'm happy to sit and wait for the next right thing. I love what I do. It's finding a way to do it where I don't have to fracture myself into different faces and people. And I just don't want to switch into robot mode any more.\" Fashion career In 2005, Watson began her modelling career with a photo shoot forTeen Vogue, which made her the youngest person to cover the magazine.Three years later, the British press reported that Watson was to replaceKeira Knightleyas the face ofChanel, but this was denied by both parties.In June 2009, following several months of rumours, Watson confirmed she would be partnering withBurberryas the face of their Autumn/Winter 2009 campaign, for which she received an estimated six-figure fee.She also appeared in Burberry's 2010 Spring/Summer campaign alongside her brother Alex, musicians George Craig and Matt Gilmour, and model Max Hurd.In February 2011, Watson was awarded the Style Icon award from BritishEllebyDame Vivienne Westwood.Watson continued her involvement in fashion advertising when she announced she had been chosen as the face ofLancômein March 2011. In September 2009, Watson announced her involvement withPeople Tree, afair tradefashion brand.Watson worked as a creative adviser for the company to create a spring line of clothing, which was released in February 2010;the range featured styles inspired by southern France and London.The collection, described byThe Timesas \"very clever\" despite their \"quiet hope that would become tangled at the first hemp-woven hurdle\",was widely publicised in magazines such asTeen Vogue,Cosmopolitan, andPeople. Watson, who was not paid for the collaboration,admitted that competition for the range was minimal,but argued that \"Fashion is a great way to empower people and give them skills; rather than give cash to charity you can help people by buying the clothes they make and supporting things they take pride in\"; adding, \"I think young people like me are becoming increasingly aware of the humanitarian issues surroundingfast fashionand want to make good choices but there aren't many options out there.\"Watson continued her involvement with People Tree, resulting in the release of a 2010 Autumn/Winter collection. In 2013,Madame Tussaudsin London unveiled a wax statue of Watson wearing anElie Saabhaute couturedesign donated to the museum by the designer. A spokesperson for the museum stated, \" is one of the most requested personalities by our guests. She's a trueEnglish roseknown and loved by millions of film and fashion fans around the world\".Watson was awarded Best British Style at the 2014British Fashion Awards.The competition includedDavid Beckham,Amal Clooney,Kate Moss, and Keira Knightley. Watson has been described as \"an early adopter ofsustainable fashion\" and is noted for dressing ethically on the red carpet.She wore aCalvin Kleingown to the 2016Met Galamade out of recycled plastic bottles.Watson has supported Good On You, an app that acts as a directory for the sustainability level of fashion brands.In 2017, she began updating an Instagram account entitled \"The Press Tour\", detailing the ethical brands she wore during the press tours for films such asBeauty and the BeastandThe Circle. Watson guest-edited the March 2018 issue ofVogue Australiafocusing on fashion sustainability, and was photographed byPeter Lindberghfor the magazine.In January 2020, she partnered with consignment website ThredUP to launch a \"Fashion Footprint Calculator\", which allows website visitors to calculate thecarbon impactof their wardrobes and ways to reduce it. In June 2020, Watson was appointed the youngest member of the board of directors ofKering, the owner of various fashion brands such asGucciandYves Saint Laurent. Watson will chair Kering's sustainability committee. Kering chairmanFrançois-Henri Pinaultpraised the new board members' \"knowledge and competences, and the multiplicity of their backgrounds and perspectives\".Watson stated she \"hope to influence decisions that will impact future generations and the world that we leave them\" and was \"extremely excited\" to collaborate with theKering Foundationas part of theirwomen's rightswork and looked forward to making a difference \"behind the scenes\".She served in this capacity until 2023. In August 2022, Watson became the face ofPradaBeauty's new fragrance Paradoxe. She starred in, directed, wrote and narrated the short film for the fragrance's promotional campaign.In January 2024, Watson became the face of Prada's Re-Nylon collection, the sustainable product line of the brand. Activism and advocacy \"It is time that we all perceive gender on a spectrum not as two opposing sets of ideals. I want men to take up this mantle. So their daughters, sisters and mothers can be free from prejudice but also so that their sons have permission to be vulnerable and human too and in doing so be a more true and complete version of themselves.\" —Part of Watson's address at theheadquarters of the United Nationsto launch theHeForShecampaign, 2014 Watson is an outspokenfeminist.She has promoted education for girls, travelling to Bangladesh and Zambia to do so.In July 2014, she was appointed aUN WomenGoodwill ambassador.That September, an admittedly nervous Watsondelivered an address atUN Headquartersin New York City to launch the UN Women campaignHeForShe, which aims to urge men to advocate forgender equality. In that speech she said she began questioning gender-based assumptions at age eight when she was called \"bossy\", a trait she has attributed to her being a \"perfectionist\",whilst boys were not, and at 14 when she was \"sexualised by certain elements of the media\".Watson's speech described feminism as \"the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities\" and declared that the perception of feminism as being \"man-hating\" is something that \"has to stop\".The speech made worldwide headlines from both major news outlets andfashion blogs, and the organisation's website crashed after press coverage of the event.Watson later said she received threats within less than twelve hours of making the speech, which left her \"raging. If they were trying to put me off , it did the opposite.\" Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, the executive director of UN Women, stated, \"For a time, there was a conversation about whether 'feminism' was a good thing or a bad thing... gave us the word back.\"In 2015,Malala Yousafzaitold Watson she decided to call herself a feminist after hearing her speech. Also in September, Watson made her first country visit as a UN Women Goodwill ambassador to Uruguay, where she gave a speech at theLegislative PalaceinMontevideohighlighting the need for women's political participation.In November 2014, Watson designed aPaddington Bearstatue, one of fifty located around London prior to the release of the filmPaddington, which was auctioned to raise funds for theNational Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children(NSPCC).In December, theMs. Foundation for Womennamed Watson its Feminist Celebrity of 2014, following an online poll.Watson also gave a speech about gender equality in January 2015, at theWorld Economic Forum's annual winter meeting. Watson took the top spot on theAskMen\"Top 99 Outstanding Women 2015\" list on the strength of having \"thrown her back\" into women's rights issues.In the same year, Watson was included on theTime100list of the world's most influential people, her first-ever appearance on the list. For its recap, formerNew York TimeseditorJill Abramsonnoted Watson's \"gutsy, smart take on feminism\" and called her effort to get men involved \"refreshing\". Watson has citedGloria SteinemandMaya Angelouas influences.In January 2016, Watson started a feministGoodreadsbook club:Our Shared Shelf.The goal of the club is to share feminist ideas and encourage discussion on the topic. One book is selected per month and is discussed in the last week of that month.The first book to be selected wasMy Life on the Roadby Steinem, whom Watson would later interview that February at the How to: Academy in London.Our Shared Shelfceased updates in January 2020, but continues to be open as a discussion board for recommendations. On 2016International Day of the Girl Child, Watson visited Malawi to meet with traditional chiefs and girls who returned to school after being freed from child marriage.Watson has partnered with organisations such as Book Fairies and Books on the Underground to leave literature on public transit for consumption. In March 2017, Watson received backlash for aVanity Fairphoto shoot in which one of the shots had her breasts partly visible, for which some in the news media accused her of hypocrisy.Bemused by the controversy, she argued that \"feminism is not a stick with which to beat other women\" but is instead about freedom, liberation and equality, adding, \"I really don't know what my tits have to do with it.\" Watson has discussed herwhite privilegein feminist spaces;in an interview withBritishVogue, she commented, \"I saw 'white feminism' coming up again and again, and I was like, 'Hey, this is clearly something that I have to meaningfully engage with. I have to understand this better\".She has written about intersectionality forOur Shared Shelf, discussing her self-reflection on \"What are the ways I have benefited from being white? In what ways do I support and uphold a system that is structurally racist?\" Watson is a founding member ofTime's Up UKand coordinated its launch at the71st British Academy Film Awards.Watson also assisted in the establishment of nationwide industry guidelines on bullying and harassment, implemented by theBritish Film InstituteandBritish Academy of Film and Television Arts.She donated £1 million to Time's Up UK in February 2018 and later helped set up the organisation's Justice and Equality Fund in October, which donated to women's groups across the country.Marai Larasi, an activist on the issue of violence against women, was her guest to the2018 Golden Globe Awards. In July 2019, Watson helped launch a legalhelplinefor people who have sufferedsexual harassmentin the workplace. Legal advice is provided by Rights of Women, a charity which works to help women through the law.In the same year, she joined aG7gender equality advisory group convened by thepresident of France,Emmanuel Macron, to \"call on G7 to make political and economic advances for women within their own countries\" as well as a \"centerpiece offoreign policy\".She attended their first meeting at theÉlysée Palacein Paris in February and attended the45th G7 summitin August as part of the committee. In an interview withParis Lees, she voiced her support fortransgender rights, reiterating this onTwitteramidst controversy concerning Rowling'sremarks on gender identity.Watson has spoken out in support of theBlack Lives Mattermovement; in June 2020, she shared anti-racism educational resources on social media in support of theGeorge Floyd protestsafter initially participating inBlackout Tuesday, and uploaded a podcast episode ontoSpotifyinterviewingReni Eddo-Lodgeabout her bookWhy I'm No Longer Talking to White People About Race. In July 2020, she partnered with Lodge and the WOW Foundation to spearhead a project reimagining theLondon Underground Map, renaming the 270 stops to spotlight women and non-binary people who have shaped the city's history. The initiative will consult writers, museums, and librarians and is set to be published byHaymarket BooksonInternational Women's Day2021.Watson was among the 400 signatories in a letter calling for the UK government to include women in \"decision-making roles\" at the2021 United Nations Climate Change Conferencein Glasgow. In June 2021, it was reported that Watson was part of a group of investors funding $12.5 million into FabricNano, a startup developing sustainable alternatives topetrochemicalproducts.In January 2022, Watson showed support for the Palestine cause by posting an image of a pro-Palestinian protest with a \"Solidarity is a verb\" banner on Instagram. This received backlash from former Israeli science ministerDanny Danon, who posted on Twitter, \"10 points from Gryffindor for being an antisemite\". Israeli ambassador to the UNGilad Erdanalso criticised her. Danon's comment was criticised byLeah Greenberg, a co-executive director ofIndivisible ProjectandConservative PartypeerSayeeda Warsi.More than forty people, includingSusan Sarandon,Mark Ruffalo,Miriam Margolyes,Gael García Bernal,Peter Capaldi,Maxine Peake,Viggo Mortensen,Steve CooganandCharles Dance, supported Watson in a letter organised by Artists for Palestine UK. Watson is an activist forenvironmental justiceandclimate change mitigation.In 2019, Swedish researchers fromLund Universityanalysed thecarbon footprintsof ten celebrities including Watson's.Watson's carbon footprint was the lowest of the celebrities analysed, but herCO2emissionsfrom flying alone was still 15.1 tons of CO2– three times the global average. At the2021 United Nations Climate Change ConferenceinGlasgow, Watson hosted a panel on climate change with guests including climate activistGreta Thunberg. Public image Watson has often been cited as arole model, though she shies away from the term, stating that \"it puts the fear of god into \".Her impact on teenage girls' view of women's rights has been referred to as the \"Emma Watson effect\", with respondents from aNational Citizen Servicesurvey stating that her work in activism had inspired them to label themselves feminists.In her initial post-Harry Pottercareer, she was noted to focus on smaller films rather than big-budget studio films.Adam White ofThe Independentstates that Watson's acting style possesses \"a very human sensitivity and quiet strength.\" Describing Watson's off-screen persona,Derek BlasbergofVanity Fairhas called her \"shy\", \"friendly, intelligent, and down to earth.\" Steinem has described her as \"way more like a real person than a movie star\", while authorbell hooksconsiders her to be part of \"a very different, new breed who are interested in being whole and having a holistic life, as opposed to being identified with just wealth and fame.\" Watson's character inHarry Potterhas had a significant impact on pop culture; the actress has commented, \"I have met fans my face tattooed on their bod. I've met people who used theHarry Potterbooks to get through cancer. I don't know how to explain it, but theHarry Potterphenomenon steps into a different zone.\" Watson has been the subject of substantial media attention since the beginning of her career; on her eighteenth birthday she was photographed by paparazzi attempting to take pictures up her skirt, and she has been victim of numerousstalkingthreats. Watson does not takeselfieswith fans, citing security concerns, and instead prefers to talk one-on-one during interactions. In March 2009, she was ranked sixth on theForbeslist of \"Most Valuable Young Stars\"and in February 2010, she was Hollywood's highest-paid female star, having earned an estimated £19 million in 2009.In 2017,Forbesranked her among the world's highest-paid actresses, with annual earnings of $14 million.In 2013, Watson was BritishGQ's Woman of the Year and toppedEmpire's list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars.Watson was found to be the sixth most admired woman in the world in global surveys conducted byYouGovin 2020. Personal life When asked about her faith in 2014, Watson described herself as a spiritualuniversalist.In February 2016, Watson was appointedvisiting fellowatLady Margaret Hall,Oxford University. Watson was in a relationship with Tech entrepreneur William ‘Mack’ Knight, from 2017 for two years.and had a relationship with corporate executive Brandon Green, from 2021 ending in 2023.She remains close withTom Felton, fellow actor, having first met him on the Harry Potter movie set in 1999. On coping with intense fame from a young age, she has said that remaining rooted in her own identity helped her eventually \"find peace\".In 2013, she had become certified to teach yoga and meditation. As part of this certification, she attended a week-long meditation course at a Canadian facility, in which residents are not allowed to speak, in order \"to figure out how to be at home with myself\".Regarding her meditation training, she stated in an interview withElle Australiathat an uncertain future meant finding \"a way to always feel safe and at home within myself. Because I can never rely on a physical place.\" Filmography Film Television Music videos Theme park attractions Authored articles Recognition and accolades Throughout her career, Watson has received several awards and nominations, including aYoung Artist Awardfor her portrayal ofHermione GrangerinHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone(2001). Additionally, she received nominations for threeCritics' Choice Movie Awards, fourEmpire Awards, 14MTV Movie & TV Awards(winning three), sixPeople's Choice Awards(winning two), 12Teen Choice Awards(winning eight). Watson's efforts in activism and philanthropy, most notably her support ofwomen's rightsand her role in launching theUN WomencampaignHeForShe, has received widespread media recognition and acclaim. Watson was listed among the100 most influential people in the worldbyTimemagazine in 2015. She has received several recognitions for her style, from theTeen Choice AwardsandBritish Fashion Awards. See also Notes References Further reading External links", "Rupert Grint Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Rupert Alexander Lloyd Grint(/ɡrɪnt/; born 24 August 1988) is an English actor. He rose to fame for his role asRon Weasleyin theHarry Potterfilm series, for which he was cast at age eleven, having previously acted only in school plays and his local theatre group. Grint portrayed Weasley in all eight films in the series, beginning withHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone(2001) and concluding withHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2(2011). Since then, he has continued his work on film, television, and theatre. Beginning in 2002, Grint began to work outside of theHarry Potterfranchise, with a co-leading role inThunderpants. He starred in thedramedyDriving Lessons(2006) and the dramaCherrybomb(2009) and co-starred in the comedyWild Target(2010). After theHarry Potterseries concluded, he appeared in the filmsInto the White(2012),Charlie Countryman(2013),CBGB(2013),Moonwalkers(2015), andKnock at the Cabin(2023). Grint made his stage debut in 2013 inMojoat theHarold Pinter Theatre. He executive-produced and starred in the television seriesSnatch, based on thefilm of the same name. He has also starred in the black comedy seriesSick Note, the mystery thriller miniseriesThe ABC Murders, and the psychological horror seriesServant. Early life Grint was born on 24 August 1988 inHarlow, Essex, to Nigel Grint, a dealer in racing memorabilia, and Joanne Grint (née Parsons).He is the eldest of five siblings.He has said that his earliest goal in life was to become anice cream man.He grew up inWatton-at-Stone, Hertfordshire,and was educated atRichard Hale School, inHertford.Grint was raised aCatholicand said he \"feared God\" as a child. While in school, he took an avid interest in theatre. He began performing in school productions and joined the Top Hat Stage and Screen School, a local theatre group that cast him as a fish inNoah's Arkand a donkey in a nativity play. He continued participating in school plays as he moved into secondary school.Nonetheless, he had never acted professionally prior to theHarry Potterseries.He left school at sixteen to focus on his acting career, saying he \"didn't really like school that much\". Career 1999–2011:Harry Potterand worldwide recognition Starting in 1999, casting began for thefilm adaptationofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the best-selling novel byJ. K. Rowling. Rowling insisted the cast be British and assisted Susie Figgis and directorChris Columbusin casting the roles.Grint, a fan of the book series, chose to audition for the role ofRon Weasley, one ofHarry Potter's best friends atHogwarts. Having seen aNewsroundreport about the open casting, he sent in a video of himself rapping about how he wished to receive the role, and the casting team asked for a meeting with him.In August 2000,Daniel Radcliffe,Emma Watson, and Grint were selected to play Harry,Hermione Granger, and Ron.Grint is the oldest member of the trio.The release ofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stonein 2001 was Grint's debut screen performance.Breaking records for opening-day sales and opening-weekend takings, it was the year's highest-grossing film.With a total of US$974 million in its theatrical run, it stands as the series' second most commercially successful entry.It was critically well-received, scoring mainly positive reviews. However, a number of critics found the adaption's faithfulness to the book both its best and worst quality.Grint won aSatellite Awardin the category of Outstanding New Talent, and aYoung Artist Awardfor Most Promising Young Newcomer. A year later, Grint again starred as Ron inHarry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets(2002). It opened to positive reviews and critics generally enjoyed the lead actors' performances. BothLos Angeles TimesandNew York Magazineobserved that Grint and his peers had matured between films,with the latter pointing out that Grint had become \"more proficient\" and said they missed \"the amateurish ardour\" the actor and Watson carried inPhilosopher's Stone.Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban(2004) was released on 31 May in the UK. The film sees all three of its lead characters hover on the brink of adolescence, \"and while they look braver and more capable than before, the dangers they face seem far more grave and their vulnerability more intense.\"Alfonso Cuaróntook over direction forPrisoner of Azkaban,which remains the lowest-grossingHarry Potterfilm with US$795 million in revenue.Nonetheless, it was the second highest-grossing movie of 2004, behindShrek 2. In 2005, Grint reprised his role for the fourth film in the series –Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The adaptation, unlike previous films, explored romantic elements and included more humour.In a 2005 interview withIGN, all three lead actors singled out humour as a reason for the film's success.It was directed byMike Newell, whom Grint characterised as \"really loud and not afraid to swear at you, but he was really cool.\"Goblet of Fireis one of the series' best-reviewed instalments, and is noted for its characters' maturity and sophistication, darker and more complex plotline, and the quality of the screenplay and lead actors' performances. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the fifth film in theHarry Potterfranchise, was released to cinemas in 2007. A huge financial success, it set a record worldwide opening-weekend gross of US$394 million, supersedingSpider-Man 3.It was directed by a new filmmaker,David Yates,who directed all of the subsequentPotterfilms. Grint said the laid-back director was \"really good\" and helped keep the material fresh.Grint and hisHarry Potterco-stars left imprints of their hands, feet andwandsin front ofGrauman's Chinese Theaterin Hollywood. On 15 July 2009, the series' sixth instalment,Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, was released and again set box office records.In its theatrical run, it earned US$933 million ticket sales.It is also one of the most positively reviewed Harry Potter films, with critics praising its \"emotionally satisfying\" story, direction, cinematography, visual design and music.Grint observed a change in Ron in this entry, pointing out that his once insecure, often overshadowed character started to become more secure and even began to show a dark side. He found it fun to personify a more emotional Ron.Between 2009 and 2010, Grint's work received three award nominations, including one win—an Otto Award from the German magazineBravo. Despite the previous films' successes, the franchise's future was put into question when the three lead actors had reservations about signing on for the final two films.However, by March 2007, Grint agreed to return for the last installments.For financial and scripting reasons, the final book was divided into two films, shot back-to-back,with filming concluding in June 2010.After completing the final film, Grint said: \"I mean it literally has been my childhood, and suddenly it all came down to really just one random scene, with us jumping through a fireplace, and then it was over. ...it's very odd. Because suddenly it was all over, just like that. It was really emotional for all of us, realising that we're never going to be doing this again.\" Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1(2010) was released in November and grossed over US$950 million.It set several box office recordsand received mostly favourable reviews.Grint's portrayal of Ron again earned him critical praise. Reviewing the adaption forSlate,Dana Stevenscalled all three of the leads \"terrific\".Although he disliked the film,Joe MorgensternofThe Wall Street Journalwrote that \"Grint has grown up to be a skilful actor who knows the value of a slow burn\".Grint's performance brought him nominations from the MTV Movie Awards and National Movie Awards forBest Fightand Performance of the Year in 2011.He reprised his role for the seventh time inHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2, the finalHarry Potterinstalment. It resumed from where the previous film left off, and included a lot of action, whereasPart 1had focused more on character development.Grint, along with the film,was critically acclaimed:Ann HornadayofThe Washington Postwrote, \"Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors?\".The film broke several box office records, including biggest midnight release,biggest first-day opening,and biggest opening-weekend.Deathly Hallows – Part 2became thefourth highest-grossing film of all time.Harry Potterauthor J. K. Rowling gave a speech at the world premiere ofHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2on 7 July 2011 in London. She said that there were sevenHarry Potterfilm series cast members whom she called \"The Big Seven\"; Grint was one of them, withDaniel Radcliffe,Emma Watson,Tom Felton,Matthew Lewis,Evanna LynchandBonnie Wright. 2002–2011: Concurrent film work duringHarry Potter In 2002, Grint starred in his first non-Harry Potterfilm,Thunderpants, which revolves around Patrick (played by Bruce Cook) whose remarkable capacity for flatulence scores him a job as an astronaut. In this film, Grint played the co-lead role of Alan, ananosmicboy who is Patrick's only friend. It was generally ignored by critics and audiences. Most critics who did take notice of it did not respond well to it, with one writing: \"This film should be shown in prisons so that inmates have a good reason to never return.\"Grint also appeared inDriving Lessons, a comedy drama released in 2006, starring oppositeJulie Walters. It met with a mixed reception by critics, but his portrayal of an oppressed teenage boy was generally praised.Alt Film Guide's Andre Soares wrote: \"Grint, on the other hand, is a revelation . . . displays an innate naturalness mixed with personal charisma that turn a potentially pathetic Christian freak into a humorous, thoroughly likable – if more than a little awkward – young man\". In July 2008, it was announced that Grint would star in the drama filmCherrybombwithRobert SheehanandKimberley Nixon. Grint found shooting this film very different from theHarry Potterfilms, as he had to adjust to doing a dozen scenes per day.Grint's character—Malachy, a worker atBelfast—goes to great lengths to impress his boss's daughter, with whom he is infatuated. This film, like his next project, involved him playing violent roles.Despite premiering at the 2009Berlin International Film Festival, the film was initially unable to find a distributor. An online campaign by Grint's fans was credited with helping to secure a distribution deal in the UK in 2010. Jonathan Lynndirected Grint inWild Target, a 2010 comedy thriller, where he starred withEmily BluntandBill Nighy. A remake of the 1993 French filmCible Emouvante, it was made on a relatively small budget of US$8 million.It was a commercial failure, earning only US$3.4 million,and garnered mostly negative reviews in the media, which criticised it for dishonouring the original film and wasting the comedic potential of its cast.However, Grint also attracted some positive notice: \"It's nice to see Rupert Grint perform well in a role other than that of Ron Weasley, and it's clear that he's got a career ahead of him.\" In January 2011, Grint made acameo appearanceon theBBCpopular comedy showCome Fly with Me,starring comedy duoMatt LucasandDavid Walliams(Little Britain).In March 2011, he was cast as the lead character in the small-budgetanti-warNorwegian filmInto the White, directed byPetter Næss.Principal photographystarted in April, and the film, which was shot on location,was released in 2012. It is based on a real incident that took place on 27 April 1940, when GermanLuftwaffepilot Horst Schopis's bomber was shot down at Grotli by aRoyal NavyFleet Air ArmBlackburn Skua, which then crash-landed. The several German and British crew members found shelter by chance during a harsh winter there. In August 2011, Grint did a photo shoot with his friend andHarry Potterco-starTom Feltonin Los Angeles for the autumn/winter collection of the fashion labelBand of Outsiders.In September 2011, it was announced that Grint would voice a character in thefilm adaptation of Postman Patalong withDavid Tennant,Stephen ManganandJim Broadbent; it was released in May 2014.Grint also appears in the music video forEd Sheeran's song \"Lego House\", released on 20 October 2011. 2012–present: Further work, theatre, and television In March 2012, the \"Visit Britain\" TV ad was released, featuring Grint alongsideJulie Walters,Michelle DockeryandStephen Fry, promoting holidaying at home in the UK. Later that month,Varietyreported that Grint had been cast alongsideChloë Grace MoretzinThe Drummer, a biopic film about drummerDennis Wilsonofthe Beach Boys. That day,The Hollywood Reporterconfirmed it and announced that filming would begin 15 June 2012 in California andSavannah, Georgia. On 25 July 2012, Grint carried the 2012 London Olympic torch during theOlympic Torch Relay, part of the London2012 Summer Olympics. He told theBBC Newsthat it was an \"overwhelming\" experience that he \"hoped to remember forever\",and toldThe Daily Telegraph,\"It was amazing, it was really overwhelming. It's just such an honour to be a part of this. I'm really proud\".In October 2012, he narratedWe Are Aliens, a 25-minute 3D Planetarium Fulldome film about the possibility of other intelligent life in the universe. On 13 February 2013,The Hollywood Reporter's Live Feed announced that Grint would star in a television pilot forCBScalledSuper Clyde.It did not become a series. In July 2013, it was confirmed that Grint would make his stage debut in the second run ofJez Butterworth's black comedyMojo, with Grint playing Sweets, a hood who \"pops amphetamines like Smarties\" and \"does a sort of double act, full of comic menace\". The play, which also starredBrendan Coyle,Ben WhishawandDaniel Mays, was based on real-life events, and ran from 26 October 2013 to 8 February 2014 at theHarold Pinter Theatrein London.Grint won theWhatsOnStage Awardfor Best London Newcomer for his role. In September 2013,The Hollywood Reporterconfirmed that Grint would star in an adaptation ofMacbethcalledEnemy of Man, also featuringSean Bean,Charles Dance,Jason Flemyng,James D'Arcy,Neil MaskellandJoe Gilgun, and directed byVincent Regan.Filming began in January 2014 in the United Kingdom.In June 2014, it was announced that Grint would make hisBroadwaydebut as Frank Finger in the playIt's Only a Playat theGerald Schoenfeld Theatre, appearing withMatthew Broderick,Nathan Lane,Stockard Channing, andMegan Mullally. It ran from 28 August 2014 to 4 January 2015. Since 2019, Grint has starred as Julian Pearce in theApple TV+psychological horror seriesServant. The series has been critically praised.In December 2021, the show was renewed for its fourth and final season. Grint starred in the 2022Netflixanthology seriesGuillermo del Toro's Cabinet of Curiositiesand inM. Night Shyamalan's 2023 thriller filmKnock at the Cabin.He also reunited with multiple cast members of theHarry Potterfilm series for anHBO Maxspecial,Harry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts, which premiered on 1 January 2022. Personal life Grint has been in a relationship with actressGeorgia Groomesince 2011.They have a daughter, Wednesday, born in May 2020.He joinedInstagramin November 2020, posting a photo of himself holding his newborn daughter.He reached one million followers within four hours and one minute of creating his account, breaking the previousGuinness World Recordstitle for the fastest time to reach one million followers on the platform. As Grint's earliest ambition was to be an ice cream man, he bought anice cream truckwith the money he earned from theHarry Potter seriesand sold ice cream to local customers. He took part in the2012 Summer Olympics torch relay, carrying the flame throughHendonin northwest London to outsideMiddlesex University. Grint is a keenfootballfan and an avid supporter ofTottenham Hotspur. Philanthropy Grint has supported various charitable organisations, including donating personal itemsto charity auctions. He participated in the Wacky Rally in 2010 withJames and Oliver Phelps, which raised money for Britain'sRoyal National Lifeboat Institution.He was one of more than 40 people to produce designs for the Chrysalis Collection for Keech Hospice Care in Luton. His piece, a painted butterfly, was auctioned oneBayin March 2010.In May 2011, with other celebrities, he took part in the \"Make Mine Milk\" ad campaign to promote daily milk drinking. His ads were seen on posters and the sides of thousands of buses across the United Kingdom.Since 2011, he has supported the Little Star Award for Cancer Research UK. \"I think that it's wonderful that Cancer Research UK is helping to bring a little bit of magic to the children's lives in this way,\" he said. Filmography Film Television Stage Video games Music Other roles Awards and nominations See also References External links" ]
[ "Daniel Radcliffe Daniel Jacob Radcliffe(born 23 July 1989)is an English actor. He rose to fame at age 12 when he began portrayingHarry Potterin theHarry Potterfilm series. Radcliffe plays Potter in all eight films in the series, beginning withHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone(2001) and concluding withHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2(2011). Radcliffe branched out to stage acting in 2007, starring in theWest EndandBroadwayproductions ofEquus. He returned to Broadway in the musicalHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying(2011), earning aGrammy Awardnomination. His other Broadway roles includeMartin McDonagh's dramaThe Cripple of Inishmaan(2014) andStephen Sondheim's musicalMerrily We Roll Along(2023), the latter of which earned him aTony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical. He also starred in the London revivals ofTom Stoppard'sRosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead(2017) andSamuel Beckett'sEndgame(2020). Radcliffe also expanded his film roles, acting in a variety of genres such", "of genres such as the horror filmThe Woman in Black(2012), surreal dramaSwiss Army Man(2016), thrillerNow You See Me 2(2016), and comedyThe Lost City(2022). He also portrayedAllen Ginsbergin the biopicKill Your Darlings(2013) and\"Weird Al\" Yankovicin the musical parodyWeird: The Al Yankovic Story(2022). The latter earned him nominations for aPrimetime Emmy Awardand aBritish Academy Television Award. He also played multiple roles in the anthology comedy television seriesMiracle Workersfrom 2019 to 2023. Radcliffe has contributed to various charities, includingDemelza Hospice Care for Childrenandthe Trevor Project; the latter awarded him its Hero Award in 2011 for his advocacy withLGBTQyouth. Early life and education Daniel Jacob Radcliffe was born atQueen Charlotte's and Chelsea HospitalinHammersmith, London, Englandon 23 July 1989,the only child of casting agent Marcia Jeannine Gresham (née Jacobson)and literary agent Alan George Radcliffe.HisJewish mother, born in South Africa, traces her ancestry", "traces her ancestry toAshkenazi Jewishimmigrants from Germany, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia,and was raised in the English town ofWestcliff-on-SeainEssex.HisNorthern Irishfather was raised in a \"very working-class\"Protestantfamily inBanbridgeinCounty Down.In 2019, he explored both sides of his family history in theBBCgenealogy seriesWho Do You Think You Are?Radcliffe's parents had both acted as children.As a casting agent, his mother was involved in BBC productions includingThe Inspector Lynley Mysteries. Radcliffe was educated at threeprivate schoolsfor boys inLondon:Redcliffe School,Sussex House School,and theCity of London School.After the release of the firstHarry Potterfilm, attending school proved difficult for him as some fellow pupils became hostile, though he states they were just trying to \"have a crack at the kid that plays Harry Potter\" rather than acting out of jealousy.As his acting career began to consume his schedule, he continued his education through on-set tutors. He has admitted to not", "has admitted to not being a very good student, considering school useless and finding the work \"really difficult\".He achieved A grades in the threeAS levelexams that he took in 2006, but decided to take a break from education and did not attend university.Part of his reasoning was he already knew he wanted to be an actor and screenwriter, and it would be difficult to have a normal university experience. Career 1999–2001: Acting debut and early career Radcliffe first expressed a desire to act at age five.After one of his mother's casting agent friends secured him an audition, he made his acting debut at age ten inBBC One'stwo-part adaptationof theCharles DickensnovelDavid Copperfield(1999),portraying thetitle characteras a young boy.He made his film debut inThe Tailor of Panama(2001), an American film based onJohn le Carré's 1996 spy novel, which was a moderate commercial success. 2001–2011: Stardom withHarry Potter In 2000, producerDavid Heymanmet Radcliffe while he was at the theatre with his father, a", "with his father, a well-known literary agent who Heyman was friends with.He asked him to audition for the role ofHarry Potterfor thefilm adaptationofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the best-selling book by British authorJ. K. Rowling.Rowling had been searching for an unknown British actor to personify the character, and the film's directorChris Columbusrecalled thinking, \"This is what I want. This is Harry Potter\" after he saw a video of the young actor inDavid Copperfield.Eight months later, following several auditions, Radcliffe was selected to play the part.Rowling endorsed the selection, saying: \"I don't think Chris Columbus could have found a better Harry.\"Radcliffe's parents originally turned down the offer, as they had been told that it would involve six films shot in Los Angeles.Warner Bros.instead offered Radcliffe a two-film contract with shooting in the UK;Radcliffe was unsure at the time if he would act in more than twoHarry Potterfilms. The release ofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's", "the Philosopher's Stonetook place in 2001. Radcliffe received a seven-figure salary for the lead role, but asserted that the fee was \"not that important\" to him;his parents chose to invest the money for him.The film was highly popular and was met with positive reviews, and critics took notice of Radcliffe:\"Radcliffe is the embodiment of every reader's imagination. It is wonderful to see a young hero who is so scholarly looking and filled with curiosity and who connects with very real emotions, from solemn intelligence and the delight of discovery to deep family longing,\" wrote Bob Graham of theSan Francisco Chronicle. A year later, Radcliffe starred inHarry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second installment of the series. Reviewers were positive about the lead actors' performances but had polarising opinions on the film overall.Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban(2004) was the third film in the series. Radcliffe's performance was criticised byThe New York Timesfilm criticA. O. Scott, who felt", "O. Scott, who felt that co-starEmma Watsonhad to carry him with her performance.Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire(2005) was the second-highest grossingHarry Potterfilm at that point,and Radcliffe singled out the humour as a reason for the film's creative success. The future of the franchise was put into question when Radcliffe, Watson, and co-starRupert Grinthesitated to sign on to continue their roles. By March 2007, however, Radcliffe had signed for the finalHarry Potterfilms; his signing put an end to weeks of press \"speculation that he would be denied the role due to his involvement inEquus\", in which he had performed nude onstage.Radcliffe reprised the role of Harry for the fifth time inHarry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix(2007). Radcliffe stated that directorDavid Yatesand co-starImelda StauntonmadeOrder of the Phoenixthe \"most fun\" film to work on in the series.His performance earned him several award nominations, and he received the 2008National Movie Awardfor \"Best Male", "Awardfor \"Best Male Performance\".Radcliffe, Grint, and Watson left imprints of their hands, feet, and wands in front ofGrauman's Chinese Theatrein Hollywood.Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the series' sixth instalment, was released in July 2009. Radcliffe received nominations for \"Best Male Performance\" and \"Global Superstar\" at the2010 MTV Movie Awards. For financial and scripting reasons, the lastHarry Potterbook (Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows) was divided into two films that were shot back-to-back.This decision drew criticism from the series' fans, but Radcliffe defended the split, stating that it would have been impossible to properly adapt the final novel into a single film. The two-film finale,Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1andPart 2, was released in November 2010 and July 2011, respectively. WhileDeathly Hallows – Part 1grossed $960 million,Deathly Hallows – Part 2grossed more than $1.3 billion worldwide; as of May 2019, it was the11th-highest-grossing filmof all", "filmof all time.Deathly Hallows – Part 2was critically acclaimed, as was Radcliffe's performance; Ann Hornaday ofThe Washington Postasked, \"Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors\"?CriticRex Reedremarked, \"Frankly, I'm sorry to see go\";Roger Ebertgave the film a highly positive review, but felt that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson were \"upstaged by the supporting .\" Radcliffe acknowledged that some people would never be able to separate him from the Harry Potter character; however, he has said he is \"proud to be associated with this film series forever.\"Despite positive feelings about the films, he has no interest in doing moreHarry Potterfilms. After Rowling hinted about writing an eighth book, Radcliffe was asked if he would do anotherHarry Potterfilm, to which he replied, \" very doubtful. I think 10 years is a long time to spend with one character\".Despite devoting so much time to the series, Radcliffe has asserted that he did not miss out on a childhood", "out on a childhood like other child actors, remarking, \"I've been given a much better perspective on life by doing Potter.\" 2002–2008: West End and Broadway Theatre debut In 2002, Radcliffe made his stage debut as a celebrity guest in aWest Endproduction ofThe Play What I Wrote, directed byKenneth Branagh—who also appeared with him in the secondHarry Potterfilm.He appeared in the filmDecember Boys, an Australian family drama about four orphans that was shot in 2005 and released to theaters in mid-September 2007.On 13 April 2006, a portrait of Radcliffe byStuart Pearson Wrightwas unveiled as part of a new exhibition opening at theNational Theatre, before being moved to theNational Portrait Gallery. In 2007, Radcliffe co-starred withCarey MulliganinMy Boy Jack, a television drama film shown onITV. The film received mostly positive reviews,with several critics praising Radcliffe's performance as an eighteen-year-old who goes missing in action during a battle.Radcliffe stated, \"For many people my age, the First", "my age, the First World War is just a topic in a history book. But I've always been fascinated by the subject and think it's as relevant today as it ever was.\"Later that year, he published several poems under thepen nameJacob Gershon—a combination of his middle name and theHebrewversion of his mother's maiden name Gresham—in the underground fashion magazineRubbish. At age seventeen, in a bid to demonstrate that he was prepared for adult roles,Radcliffe starred in a West End revival ofPeter Shaffer's playEquusat theGielgud Theatre. The piece had not been revived since its first run in 1973.Radcliffe took on the lead roleof Alan Strang, a stable boy who has an obsession with horses. Advance sales topped £1.7 million. The role generated significant pre-opening media interest, as Radcliffe performed a nude scene.Equusopened on 27 February 2007 and ran until 9 June 2007.Radcliffe's performance was acclaimed,as critics were impressed by the nuance and depth of hisagainst-typerole.Charles SpencerofThe", "SpencerofThe Telegraphwrote that the actor \"displays a dramatic power and an electrifying stage presence that marks a tremendous leap forward.\" He added: \"I never thought I would find the diminutive (but perfectly formed) Radcliffe a sinister figure, but as Alan Strang ... there are moments when he seems genuinely scary in his rage and confusion.\"The production transferred toBroadwayat theBroadhurst Theatrein September 2008. Radcliffe continued in the lead role, starring alongsideKate Mulgrew,Anna Camp, and hisHarry Potterco-starRichard Griffiths.Radcliffe was nervous about reprising the role on Broadway as he considered American audiences to be more discerning than those in London.Radcliffe's performance was nominated for aDrama Desk Award. 2010–2018: Return to Broadway and independent films After voicing a character inThe Simpsonsepisode \"Treehouse of Horror XXI\" in late 2010,Radcliffe debuted as J. Pierrepont Finch in a 2011 Broadway revival ofHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Tryingat theAl", "Tryingat theAl Hirschfeld Theatre.The role had previously been played byRobert MorseandMatthew Broderick.Other cast members includedJohn Larroquette,Rose HemingwayandMary Faber.Both the actor and production received favourable reviews,withUSA Todaycommenting: \"Radcliffe ultimately succeeds not by overshadowing his fellow cast members, but by working in conscientious harmony with them – and having a blast in the process.\"Radcliffe's performance in the show earned him Drama Desk Award,Drama League AwardandOuter Critics Circle Awardnominations.The production itself later received nineTony Awardnominations.Radcliffe left the show on 1 January 2012. Radcliffe's first post-Harry Potterproject was the 2012 horror filmThe Woman in Black, adapted from the1983 novelbySusan Hill. The film was released on 3 February 2012 in the United States and Canada, and was released on 10 February in the UK. Radcliffe portrays a man sent to deal with the legal matters of a mysterious woman who has just died, and soon after he begins", "after he begins to experience strange events and hauntings from the ghost of a woman dressed in black.He has said he was \"incredibly excited\" to be part of the film and described the script as \"beautifully written\". In 2013, he portrayed AmericanbeatpoetAllen Ginsbergin thethrillerdramaKill Your Darlings, directed byJohn Krokidas.He also starred in an Irish-Canadian romantic comedy filmThe F Word(2013) directed by Michael Dowseand written byElan Mastai, based onTJ Daweand Michael Rinaldi's playToothpaste and Cigarsand then he starred inHorns, an American dark fantasy horror film directed byAlexandre Aja.Both of the films premiered at the38th Toronto International Film Festival.Also in 2013, Radcliffe performed at theNoël Coward Theatrein the stage play revival ofMartin McDonagh's dark comedyThe Cripple of Inishmaanas the lead, Billy Claven,for which he won the WhatsOnStage Award for Best Actor in a Play. Radcliffe starred asIgorin a science fiction horror filmVictor Frankenstein(2015), directed byPaul", "directed byPaul McGuiganand written byMax Landis. The film was based on contemporary adaptations of Mary Shelley's 1818 novelFrankenstein.He also starred asSam Houser, one of the founders ofRockstar Games, in the biographical drama filmThe Gamechangers. Radcliffe starred in the action adventure filmNow You See Me 2(2016) alongsideMark Ruffalo,Jesse Eisenberg, andWoody Harrelson.playing a technological prodigy, entrepreneur, criminal mastermind and a main leading antagonist all along withMichael Caine's character named Arthur Tressler (of whom Radcliffe's character is revealed to be the son), who whilst in turn resents magic.In 2016, Radcliffe portrayed Manny, a talkative corpse, in the indie filmSwiss Army ManwithPaul Dano.That same year, He also starred in critically acclaimed independent filmImperium(2016) withToni Collette, andTracy Letts. He played Nate Foster, an idealistic FBI agent who goes undercover to take down a radical white supremacy group.The film received an 84% onRotten Tomatoeswith the", "Tomatoeswith the consensus reading, \"The unsettlingImperiumboasts troublingly timely themes and a talented cast led by Daniel Radcliffe as an undercover FBI agent infiltrating a ring of white supremacists.\" Radcliffe starredoff-BroadwayatThe Public Theaterin adocumentary theatrepiece titledPrivacy, playing the role of The Writer.In 2017, he starred as Yossi Ghinsberg in the thrillerJungle, which was based on an internationally best-selling memoir of the same name byYossi Ghinsberg.In 2018, Radcliffe portrayed a pilot smuggling drugs across borders in the independent action-thrillerBeast of Burdendirected by Jesper Ganslandt.Radcliffe returned to Broadway in the ninety-minute comedy playThe Lifespan of a FactatStudio 54 TheatrewithBobby CannavaleandCherry Jones. The play revolves around a determined young fact checker who goes up against his demanding editor and an unorthodox author. 2019–present: Career expansion In 2019, Radcliffe starred as Craig in theTBScomedy limited seriesMiracle Workersbased on the", "Workersbased on the book bySimon Rich.The show's second season premiered on 28 January 2020. He voice–starred as Rex Dasher, a secret agent who helps Marla, in the animated filmPlaymobil: The Moviedirected byLino DiSalvo.In 2020, Radcliffe starred as Miles in the action comedy filmGuns Akimbodirected byJason Lei Howdenand co-starringSamara WeavingandNatasha Liu Bordizzo.He also starred asTim Jenkinin thethriller filmEscape from Pretoria, based on the real-life prison escape by three youngpolitical prisonersfrom jail in South Africa in 1979.He also played the role of Prince Frederick in the Netflix specialUnbreakable Kimmy SchmidtoppositeEllie Kemper.Radcliffe reunited with multiple cast members of theHarry Potterfilm series for anHBO Maxspecial titledHarry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts, which was released on 1 January 2022.Radcliffe stars as the villain in the action-adventure comedy filmThe Lost City, oppositeSandra BullockandChanning Tatum.He portrayed musician\"Weird Al\" YankovicinWeird: The", "The Al Yankovic Story, a biographical parody film produced forThe Roku Channel,for which he received his firstPrimetime Emmy Awardnomination. In early 2022, Radcliffe returned to the stage acting alongsideJonathan GroffandLindsay Mendezin theNew York Theatre Workshoprevival of theStephen SondheimmusicalMerrily We Roll Along, in which he played Charley Kringas.The revival started on 21 November 2022 and opened on 12 December 2022, running for a limited engagement through 8 January 2023,before transferring to a critically acclaimed run on Broadway.The production closed on July 7, 2024.For his performance, Radcliffe won his firstTony AwardforBest Featured Actor in a Musical, his first major award win ever.Radcliffe will appear alongsideJessica BielandEthan Hawkein the upcoming filmBatso, which will be directed by American film director Kyle Marvin. Other ventures Philanthropy Radcliffe has lent his support to various charitable organisations. He designed the Cu-Bed for Habitat's VIP Kids range (a cube made of", "(a cube made of eight smaller ones which can be made into a bed, chaise-longue or chair)with all the royalties from the sale of the bed going directly to his favourite charity, Demelza House Children's Hospice inSittingbourne, Kent.Radcliffe has urged fans to make donations to the charity's Candle for Care programme in lieu of giving him Christmas presents. In 2008, he was among several celebrities who donated their old glasses to an exhibit honouring victims ofthe Holocaust.During the Broadway run ofEquushe auctioned off a pair of jeans and other items worn in the show, for New-York-basedBroadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDSand was a presenter at the 2011 Gypsy of the Year competition.He has also made donations in support ofGet Connected UK, a London-based free confidential nationalhelplinefor troubled youth. Political and social views Radcliffe is a supporter of theLabour Party.He previously supported theLiberal Democrats,and endorsed then-Lib Dem leaderNick Cleggin the2010 general election. In 2012, however,", "In 2012, however, he switched his political alignment to Labour, citing disillusionment with the performance of Clegg and the Liberal Democratswhile in government, and approving of then-Labour leaderEd Miliband.In 2015, he endorsedJeremy Corbyn'sLabour Party leadership campaign. He toldThe Big Issue, \"I feel like this show of sincerity by a man who has been around long enough and stuck to his beliefs long enough that he knows them and doesn't have to be scripted is what is making people sit up and get excited. It is great.\" Radcliffe supportsabolishing the British monarchyandreplacing it with a republic.He also supportsBritish unionism, and opposed the2014 Scottish independence referendumbecause he \"personally like the UK being how it is\". Radcliffe is supportive of theLGBTQ community. Speaking out againsthomophobia, he began filmingpublic service announcementsin 2009 forThe Trevor Project, promoting awareness of gay teen suicide prevention.He first learnt of the organisation while performingEquuson Broadway", "Broadway in 2008and has contributed financially to it.He said in a 2010 interview, \"I have always hated anybody who is not tolerant of gay men or lesbians or bisexuals. Now I am in the very fortunate position where I can actually help or do something about it.\" In the same interview, he stressed the importance of public figures advocating for equal rights.He received The Trevor Project's Hero Award in 2011 for his contributions.In June 2020, amid controversy overHarry PotterauthorJ. K. Rowling'sremarks on gender identity— which many have condemned astransphobic, although Rowling has strongly denied this— Radcliffe penned an essay published by The Trevor Project in which he voiced support for thetransgender communityand expressed regret that Rowling's statements had damaged fans' experience of theHarry Potterbooks. Personal life Radcliffe splits his time between homes in theFulhamarea of Londonand theWest Villageneighbourhood of New York City'sManhattanborough.He has been in a relationship with American", "with American actressErin Darkesince 2012, after having met on the set ofKill Your Darlings.In March 2023, they were confirmed to be expecting their first child together.Darke gave birth to a son the following month.Radcliffe called fatherhood \"the literal best thing that ever happened.\" In 2008, Radcliffe revealed that he has a mild form of the neurological disorderdyspraxia, which sometimes prevents him from doing simple activities such as writing or tying his shoelaces. He said, \"I was having a hard time at school, in terms of being crap at everything, with no discernible talent.\" Radcliffe has expressed his fondness for hip hop music and admitted to having \"an obsession with memorising complicated, lyrically intricate and fast songs\". On 28 October 2014, he rhymed the 1999Blackalicioussong \"Alphabet Aerobics\" during an appearance onThe Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. Radcliffe is close to his family, whom he credits for keeping him grounded.In August 2010, he becameteetotalafter finding himself", "finding himself becoming too reliant on alcohol.In March 2020, he appeared as the guest onBBC Radio 4'sDesert Island Discs, where he discussed his alcohol misuse during his teens and his decision to become teetotal, and how his parents' support and staying in his native England helped him cope with fame. Radcliffe stated of his beliefs in 2012: \"There was never faith in the house. I think of myself as being Jewish and Irish, despite the fact that I'm English.\"He has said that his family are \"Christmas treeJews,\"and he said: \"I'm an atheist, but I'm very proud of being Jewish. It means I have a good work ethic, and you get Jewish humour and you're allowed to tell Jewish jokes.\"In 2009, he stated that he was anatheistand said, \"I'm very relaxed about . I don't preach my atheism, but I have a huge amount of respect for people likeRichard Dawkinswho do. Anything he does on television, I will watch.\"He said in 2012, \"I'm an atheist, and a militant atheist when religion starts impacting on legislation.\"In 2019,", "2019, he described himself as \"agnosticleaning toward atheism\".In 2009, Radcliffe stated that although he considers himself a \"fiercepatriot\", he is not aroyalist, adding that themonarchy\"symbolized a lot of what is wrong with the country\". His favourite films include12 Angry Men,A Matter of Life and Death,Dr. Strangelove,Little Miss SunshineandJason and the Argonauts.He has said that his favorite novel isThe Master and MargaritabyMikhail Bulgakov, and that his favorite Harry Potter book isHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.He is also an avidping-pongplayer. While on the set of the 2013 filmHorns, Radcliffe accidentally drankantifreeze, which caused him to become \"horrendously ill\" for \"a disgusting, feverish three days.\" Radcliffe was reported to have earned £1 million for the firstHarry Potterfilm,around £15 million for the sixth,and around £39 million for the final two movies combined.In all, he is estimated to have made a total of £75.4 million from the entire franchise.He appeared on theSunday", "on theSunday TimesRich Listin 2006, which estimated his personal fortune to be £14 million, making him one of the richest young people in the UK.In March 2009, he was ranked at number one on theForbes\"Most Valuable Young Stars\" list,and by AprilThe Daily Telegraphmeasured his net worth at £30 million, making him the 12th richest young person in the UK.Radcliffe was considered to be the richest teenager in England later that year.In February 2010, he was named the sixth highest-paid Hollywood male starand placed at number five onForbes'December list of Hollywood's highest-grossing actorswith a film revenue of US$780 million, mainly due toHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallowsbeing released that year.As of 2021, Radcliffe's net worth is estimated at £95 million. Acting credits and accolades Explanatory notes References External links", "Emma Watson Emma Charlotte Duerre Watson(born 15 April 1990) is an English actress. Known for her roles in bothblockbustersandindependent films, she has receiveda selection of accolades, including aYoung Artist Awardand threeMTV Movie Awards. Watson has been ranked among the world's highest-paid actresses byForbesandVanity Fair, and was named one of the100 most influential people in the worldbyTimemagazine in 2015.Watson was also listed byForbesas an honouree on theForbes 30 under 30list in 2015 and 2016. Watson attended theDragon Schooland trained in acting at theOxfordbranch ofStagecoach Theatre Arts. As a child, she rose to stardom after landing her first professional acting role asHermione Grangerin theHarry Potterfilm series, having previously acted only in school plays. Watson made her first major forays beyond the Potter franchise starring inBallet Shoes(2007), and lent her voice toThe Tale of Despereaux(2008). After the finalHarry Potterfilm, she took on a supporting role inMy Week with Marilyn(2011),", "with Marilyn(2011), before starring as Sam, a flirtatious, free-spirited student inThe Perks of Being a Wallflower(2012), to critical success. Further acclaim came from portrayingAlexis NeiersinSofia Coppola'sThe Bling Ring(2013) and the titular character's adoptive daughter inDarren Aronofsky's biblical epicNoah(2014). That same year, Watson was honoured by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Arts, winning British Artist of the Year. She also starred asBellein the live-action musical romantic fantasyBeauty and the Beast(2017), and asMeg MarchinGreta Gerwig's coming-of-age dramaLittle Women(2019). From 2011 to 2014, Watson split her time between working on films and continuing her education, graduating fromBrown Universitywith abachelor's degreeinEnglish literaturein May 2014. That year, she was appointed aUN WomenGoodwill Ambassadorand helped launch the UN Women campaignHeForShe, which advocates forgender equality. In 2018, she helped launchTime's Up UKas a founding member. Watson was appointed to", "was appointed to aG7advisory body for women's rights in 2019, consulting with leaders onforeign policy. Her modelling work has included campaigns forBurberryandLancôme. She also lent her name to a clothing line for the sustainable brandPeople Tree. From 2020 to 2023, she sat on the board of directors ofKering, a luxury brand group, in her capacity as an advocate forsustainable fashion. Early life and education Emma Charlotte Duerre Watsonwas born on 15 April 1990 inParis, to English lawyers Chris Watson and Jacqueline Luesby.Watson lived inMaisons-Laffittenear Paris until age five. Her parents divorced when she was five, and Watson moved to England to live with her mother inOxfordshirewhile spending weekends at her father's house in London.Watson has said she speaks some French, though \"not as well\" as she used to.After moving toOxfordwith her mother and brother, she attended theDragon School, remaining there until 2003.From age six, she wanted to become an actress,and trained at the Oxford branch", "the Oxford branch ofStagecoach Theatre Arts, a part-time theatre school where she studied singing, dancing, and acting. By age ten, Watson had performed in Stagecoach productions and school plays includingArthur: The Young YearsandThe Happy Prince,but she had never acted professionally prior to theHarry Potterseries. After the Dragon School, Watson moved on toHeadington School, Oxford.While on film sets, she and her castmates were tutored for up to five hours a day.In June 2006, she tookGCSEschool examinations in ten subjects, achieving eight A* and two A grades. In May 2007, she tookAS levelsin English, Geography, Art, and History of Art. The following year, she dropped History of Art to pursue the threeA levels, receiving an A grade in each subject. Watson took agap yearafter finishing secondary school,to filmHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Parts 1&2beginning in February 2009,but asserted that she intended to continue her studiesand later confirmed she had chosenBrown UniversityinProvidence, Rhode", "Rhode Island.In March 2011, after 18 months at the university, Watson announced she was deferring her course for \"a semester or two\",though she attendedWorcester College, Oxfordduring the 2011–12 academic year as part of theVisiting Student Programme.In a 2014 interview onThe Ellen DeGeneres Show, Watson said just before graduation that it took five years to finish her degree instead of four because, owing to her acting work, she \"ended up taking two full semesters off\".On 25 May 2014, she graduated from Brown University with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature.In 2023, she began a course of Master of Studies in creative writing at the University of Oxford, where she matriculated atLady Margaret Hall. Acting career 1999–2009:Harry Potterand worldwide recognition In 1999, casting began forHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the film adaptation of British authorJ. K. Rowling's best-sellingnovel.Casting agents found Watson through her Oxford theatre teacher. She had acted in school plays, but", "school plays, but had no film acting experience. Her first audition took place when she was nine years old.Although Watson had to audition a total of eight times before earning the role, Rowling supported her casting after her firstscreen test.Prior to casting Watson, the producers consideredHatty Jonesfor the role. The release ofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stonein 2001 was Watson's debut screen performance. The film broke records for opening-day sales and opening-weekend takings and was the highest-grossing film of 2001.Critics singled out Watson for particular acclaim;The Daily Telegraphcalled her performance \"admirable\",andIGNsaid she \"stole the show\".Watson was nominated for five awards for her performance inPhilosopher's Stone, winning theYoung Artist Awardfor Leading Young Actress.She was chosen as one ofEntertainment Weekly's Breakout Performers of 2001. A year later, Watson reprised her role as Hermione inHarry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the second instalment of the series. Reviewers", "series. Reviewers praised the lead actors' performances. TheLos Angeles Timessaid Watson and her co-stars had matured between films,whileThe Timescriticised directorChris Columbusfor \"under-employing\" Watson's hugely popular character.Watson received an Otto Award from the German magazineBravofor her performance. In 2004,Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkabanwas released. Watson was appreciative of the more assertive role Hermione played, calling her \"charismatic\" and \"a fantastic role to play\".Critics lauded Watson's performance;A. O. ScottofThe New York Timesremarked: \"Luckily Mr. Radcliffe's blandness is offset by Ms. Watson's spiky impatience. Harry may show off his expanding wizardly skills ... but Hermione ... earns the loudest applause with a decidedly unmagical punch toDraco Malfoy's deserving nose.\"AlthoughPrisoner of Azkabanproved to be the lowest-grossingHarry Potterfilm in the entire series, Watson's performance won her two Otto Awards and the Child Performance of the Year award fromTotal Film.", "fromTotal Film. WithHarry Potter and the Goblet of Fire(2005), both Watson and theHarry Potterfilm series reached new milestones. The film set records for aHarry Potteropening weekend and opening weekend in the UK. Critics praised the increasing maturity of Watson and her teenage co-stars;The New York Timescalled her performance \"touchingly earnest\",andPeter BradshawofThe Guardianwrote that \"Watson's gutsy, confident performance nicely shows that inside and outside the world of magic there is a growing discrepancy between a teenage girl's status and her accelerating emotional and intellectual development.\"For Watson, much of the film's humour sprang from the tension among the three lead characters as they matured. She said, \"I loved all the arguing. ... I think it's much more realistic that they would argue and that there would be problems.\"Nominated for three awards forGoblet of Fire, Watson won a bronzeOtto Award.Watson almost quit the franchise afterGoblet of Fire, saying, \"I think I was scared. I don’t", "was scared. I don’t know if you ever felt like it got to a tipping point where you were like, 'this is kind of forever now.'\" In 2006, Watson played Hermione inThe Queen's Handbag, a special mini-episode ofHarry Potterin celebration ofQueen Elizabeth II's 80th birthday.The fifth film in theHarry Potterseries,Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, was released in 2007. A huge financial success, the film set a record worldwide opening-weekend gross of $332.7 million.Watson won the inauguralNational Movie Awardfor Best Female Performance.As the fame of the actress and the series continued to rise, Watson and herHarry Potterco-stars Daniel Radcliffe and Rupert Grint left imprints of their hands, feet and wands in front ofGrauman's Chinese Theatrein Hollywood on 9 July 2007.That month, Watson's work on theHarry Potterseries was said to have earned her more than £10 million, and she acknowledged she would never have to work for money again. Prior to the release ofOrder of the Phoenix, the future of theHarry", "future of theHarry Potterseries was in jeopardy, as all three lead actors were hesitant to sign on to continue their roles for the final installments.Watson was considerably more ambivalent than her co-stars during renegotiations.She explained that the decision was significant, as the films represented a further four-year commitment to the role, but eventually conceded that she \"could never let Hermione go\",signing for the role on 23 March 2007. Watson's first non-Potterrole was the 2007 BBC filmBallet Shoes, atelevision adaptationof the1936 novel of the same namebyNoel Streatfeild.The film's director,Sandra Goldbacher, commented that Watson was \"perfect\" for the starring role of aspiring actress Pauline Fossil: \"She has a piercing, delicate aura that makes you want to gaze and gaze at her.\"Ballet Shoeswas broadcast in the UK onBoxing Dayto 5.7 million viewers, to mixed reviews.The following year, she voiced the character Princess Pea in theanimationThe Tale of Despereaux, a children's comedy, based onthe", "comedy, based onthe 2003 novel of the same name, byKate DiCamillo, starringMatthew Broderick, withHarry Potterco-starRobbie Coltranealso starring in the film.The Tale of Despereauxwas released in December 2008 and grossed $87 million worldwide. Principal photographyfor the sixthHarry Potterfilm began in late 2007, with Watson's part being filmed from 18 December to 17 May 2008.Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Princepremiered on 15 July 2009,having been delayed from November 2008.With the lead actors in their late teens, critics were increasingly willing to review them on the same level as the rest of the franchise's all-star cast, which theLos Angeles Timesdescribed as \"a comprehensive guide to contemporary UK acting\".The Washington Postfelt Watson had given \" most charming performance to date\",whileThe Daily Telegraphdescribed the lead actors as \"newly liberated and energised, eager to give all they have to what's left of the series\". Watson's filming for the final instalment,Harry Potter and the Deathly", "and the Deathly Hallows, began on 18 February 2009and ended on 12 June 2010.For financial and scripting reasons, the original book was divided into two films which were shot consecutively.Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1was released in November 2010 while the second film was released in July 2011.Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2became a commercial and critical success. Thehighest-grossing filmin the franchise, it grossed more than $1.3 billion worldwide and proved to be Watson's most commercially successful film to date. 2010–2016: Independent films and mainstream work Watson appeared in a music video forOne Night Only, after meeting lead singerGeorge Craigat the 2010 Winter/Summer Burberry advertising campaign. The video, \"Say You Don't Want It\", was screened onChannel 4on 26 June 2010 and released on 16 August.In her first post-Harry Potterfilm, Watson appeared inMy Week with Marilyn(2011) as Lucy, a wardrobe assistant who briefly dates protagonist Colin Clark, portrayed byEddie", "portrayed byEddie Redmayne. In May 2010, Watson was reported to be in talks to star inStephen Chbosky'sThe Perks of Being a Wallflower,based on the1999 novel of the same name. Filming began in summer of 2011, and the film was released in September 2012.Watson starred oppositeLogan Lermanas Sam, a high school senior who befriends a fellow student called Charlie (Lerman), and helps him through hisfreshmanyear. The film opened to favourable reviews; David Sexton of theEvening Standardopined that Watson's performance was \"plausible and touching\",whileThe Atlanticreviewer thought that Watson \"sheds the memory of a decade playing Hermione in theHarry Potterseries with an about-face as a flirtatious but insecure free spirit. Watson joined the cast of the satirical crime filmThe Bling Ringon 29 February 2012,TheSofia Coppola-directed film is based on the real-lifeBling Ringrobberies, with Watson playing a fictionalised version ofAlexis Neiers, a television personality who was one of seven teenagers involved in the", "involved in the robberies. The film was released in 2013. While the film mostly received mixed reviews, critics gave almost unanimous praise for Watson's performance. Adam White ofThe Independentlater stated that \"She prove remarkable.... Watson oozes casual disdain. Her sticky American vocal fry is clipped and monotone, as if she's swallowed a Kardashian for breakfast.\"Watson also had a supporting role in the apocalyptic comedyThis Is the End(2013), in which she,Seth Rogen,James Francoand many others played \"exaggerated versions of themselves\"and Watson memorably dropped the \"f-bomb\".She said she could not pass up the opportunity to make her first comedy and \"work with some of the best comedians in the world right now\". In June 2012, Watson was confirmed for the role as Ila,Shem's wife, inDarren Aronofsky'sNoah, which began filming the following month, and was released in March 2014.Watson referred to the role as \"physically very demanding\" given the usage ofspecial effectsand did extensive research", "extensive research onchildbirthto effectively portray a scene in the film.The film, a box office success, received mixed reviews for its direction and casting;Vanity Fairwrote that \"Watson anchors the film's rawest emotional scenes.... Sitting on an Icelandic beach withRussell Crowe, her hair wild and eyes burning, Watson is quiet but ferocious.\"In March 2013, it was reported that Watson was in negotiations to star as the title character inKenneth Branagh'slive-action Disney adaptationofCinderella.Watson was offered the role, but turned it down because she did not connect with the character.The role ultimately went toLily James. Watson performed the background vocals in the second chorus of the song \"Pantomime\" by singer Ben Hammersley, alongsideÓlafur Arnalds. The song was released on 20 January 2014. Watson joinedJudi Dench,Robert Downey Jr.,Mike Leigh,Julia Louis-Dreyfus, andMark Ruffaloas recipients of the 2014Britannia Awards, presented on 30 October in Los Angeles. Watson was awarded British Artist of", "British Artist of the Year and she dedicated the prize to Millie, her pet hamster who died as Watson was filmingHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone.Watson starred in two 2015 releases, the thrillersColonia, oppositeDaniel BrühlandMichael Nyqvist;andRegressionbyAlejandro Amenábar, alongsideEthan Hawkeand herHarry Potterco-starDavid Thewlis.Both of these films received generally negative reviews;The Daily Telegraphcritic blamedRegression's script for her \"pure dramatic cardboard\" role.She also appeared in an episode of BBC'sThe Vicar of Dibley, in which she played Reverend Iris.In February 2016, Watson announced she was taking a year-long break from acting. She planned to spend the time on her \"personal development\" and her women's rights work. 2017–present: Recent career and hiatus Watson starred asBellein the2017 live-action Disney adaptationofBeauty and the Beastdirected byBill Condon, and starring oppositeDan Stevensas theBeast.She was given autonomy within Belle's portrayal; she re-characterised her", "her as an assistant to her inventor father and incorporatedbloomersandbootsinto her wardrobe.The film grossed over $1.2 billion at the worldwide box office and emerged as thesecond-highest-grossing film of 2017and the 17th-highest-grossing film of all time.Her reported fee was $3 million upfront withprofit participation, bringing her salary up to $15 million.The film garnered positive reviews;Richard Roeperof theChicago Sun-Timesthought her performance was \"all pluck and spunk and sass and smarts and fierce independence as Belle\".Watson later said \"When I finished the film, it kind of felt like I had made that transition into being a woman on-screen\". In the same year, she starred oppositeTom Hanksin thefilm adaptationofDave Eggers' novelThe Circleas Mae Holland, who begins working at a powerful tech corporation and enters a perilous situation concerningsurveillanceand freedom.The film received negative reviews but was a moderate box office success.In 2019, Watson starred asMeg MarchinGreta", "asMeg MarchinGreta Gerwig'sadaptationofLouisa May Alcott's novelLittle Women, co-starring withSaoirse Ronan,Florence Pugh,Laura Dern,Timothée Chalamet, andMeryl Streep.On the premise, Watson has stated \"I think was good literary device to explain that there's not one way to be a feminist.... way of being a feminist is making the choice – because that's really, for me anyway, what feminism is about. Her choice is that she wants to be a full-time mother and wife.\"Forbesstated that \"Watson has perhaps the most challenging role, as the proverbialstraight womanof the sisters who is put on the defensive when her dreams end up being the most conventional of the lot.\"The film was critically acclaimed and grossed over $218 million against its $40 million budget. In 2020, Watson discussed her future career plans, stating: \"Having been so public in making films and being so active on social in my activism, I am curious to embrace a role where I work to amplify more voices, to continue to learn from those with", "from those with different experiences\", adding that her work would include \"fewer red carpets and more conference meetings\".In 2021, various reports surfaced stating that Watson was engaged or retiring.Watson and her representatives refuted these reports; she later labelled the speculation asclickbaitand cited her relative public absence to continuedsocial distancingduring theCOVID-19 pandemic.In 2022, Watson reunited with multiple cast members of theHarry Potterfilm series for anHBO Maxspecial titledHarry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts.The following year, Watson revealed in an interview with theFinancial Timesthat a reason why she had not acted in almost five years was because she \"wasn't very happy\" with the profession and that she felt \"a bit caged\". However, she went on to say that she will \"absolutely\" return to acting while also saying, \"But I'm happy to sit and wait for the next right thing. I love what I do. It's finding a way to do it where I don't have to fracture myself into different", "into different faces and people. And I just don't want to switch into robot mode any more.\" Fashion career In 2005, Watson began her modelling career with a photo shoot forTeen Vogue, which made her the youngest person to cover the magazine.Three years later, the British press reported that Watson was to replaceKeira Knightleyas the face ofChanel, but this was denied by both parties.In June 2009, following several months of rumours, Watson confirmed she would be partnering withBurberryas the face of their Autumn/Winter 2009 campaign, for which she received an estimated six-figure fee.She also appeared in Burberry's 2010 Spring/Summer campaign alongside her brother Alex, musicians George Craig and Matt Gilmour, and model Max Hurd.In February 2011, Watson was awarded the Style Icon award from BritishEllebyDame Vivienne Westwood.Watson continued her involvement in fashion advertising when she announced she had been chosen as the face ofLancômein March 2011. In September 2009, Watson announced her involvement", "her involvement withPeople Tree, afair tradefashion brand.Watson worked as a creative adviser for the company to create a spring line of clothing, which was released in February 2010;the range featured styles inspired by southern France and London.The collection, described byThe Timesas \"very clever\" despite their \"quiet hope that would become tangled at the first hemp-woven hurdle\",was widely publicised in magazines such asTeen Vogue,Cosmopolitan, andPeople. Watson, who was not paid for the collaboration,admitted that competition for the range was minimal,but argued that \"Fashion is a great way to empower people and give them skills; rather than give cash to charity you can help people by buying the clothes they make and supporting things they take pride in\"; adding, \"I think young people like me are becoming increasingly aware of the humanitarian issues surroundingfast fashionand want to make good choices but there aren't many options out there.\"Watson continued her involvement with People Tree, resulting", "Tree, resulting in the release of a 2010 Autumn/Winter collection. In 2013,Madame Tussaudsin London unveiled a wax statue of Watson wearing anElie Saabhaute couturedesign donated to the museum by the designer. A spokesperson for the museum stated, \" is one of the most requested personalities by our guests. She's a trueEnglish roseknown and loved by millions of film and fashion fans around the world\".Watson was awarded Best British Style at the 2014British Fashion Awards.The competition includedDavid Beckham,Amal Clooney,Kate Moss, and Keira Knightley. Watson has been described as \"an early adopter ofsustainable fashion\" and is noted for dressing ethically on the red carpet.She wore aCalvin Kleingown to the 2016Met Galamade out of recycled plastic bottles.Watson has supported Good On You, an app that acts as a directory for the sustainability level of fashion brands.In 2017, she began updating an Instagram account entitled \"The Press Tour\", detailing the ethical brands she wore during the press tours for", "the press tours for films such asBeauty and the BeastandThe Circle. Watson guest-edited the March 2018 issue ofVogue Australiafocusing on fashion sustainability, and was photographed byPeter Lindberghfor the magazine.In January 2020, she partnered with consignment website ThredUP to launch a \"Fashion Footprint Calculator\", which allows website visitors to calculate thecarbon impactof their wardrobes and ways to reduce it. In June 2020, Watson was appointed the youngest member of the board of directors ofKering, the owner of various fashion brands such asGucciandYves Saint Laurent. Watson will chair Kering's sustainability committee. Kering chairmanFrançois-Henri Pinaultpraised the new board members' \"knowledge and competences, and the multiplicity of their backgrounds and perspectives\".Watson stated she \"hope to influence decisions that will impact future generations and the world that we leave them\" and was \"extremely excited\" to collaborate with theKering Foundationas part of theirwomen's rightswork and", "rightswork and looked forward to making a difference \"behind the scenes\".She served in this capacity until 2023. In August 2022, Watson became the face ofPradaBeauty's new fragrance Paradoxe. She starred in, directed, wrote and narrated the short film for the fragrance's promotional campaign.In January 2024, Watson became the face of Prada's Re-Nylon collection, the sustainable product line of the brand. Activism and advocacy \"It is time that we all perceive gender on a spectrum not as two opposing sets of ideals. I want men to take up this mantle. So their daughters, sisters and mothers can be free from prejudice but also so that their sons have permission to be vulnerable and human too and in doing so be a more true and complete version of themselves.\" —Part of Watson's address at theheadquarters of the United Nationsto launch theHeForShecampaign, 2014 Watson is an outspokenfeminist.She has promoted education for girls, travelling to Bangladesh and Zambia to do so.In July 2014, she was appointed aUN", "was appointed aUN WomenGoodwill ambassador.That September, an admittedly nervous Watsondelivered an address atUN Headquartersin New York City to launch the UN Women campaignHeForShe, which aims to urge men to advocate forgender equality. In that speech she said she began questioning gender-based assumptions at age eight when she was called \"bossy\", a trait she has attributed to her being a \"perfectionist\",whilst boys were not, and at 14 when she was \"sexualised by certain elements of the media\".Watson's speech described feminism as \"the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities\" and declared that the perception of feminism as being \"man-hating\" is something that \"has to stop\".The speech made worldwide headlines from both major news outlets andfashion blogs, and the organisation's website crashed after press coverage of the event.Watson later said she received threats within less than twelve hours of making the speech, which left her \"raging. If they were trying to put me off , it", "to put me off , it did the opposite.\" Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, the executive director of UN Women, stated, \"For a time, there was a conversation about whether 'feminism' was a good thing or a bad thing... gave us the word back.\"In 2015,Malala Yousafzaitold Watson she decided to call herself a feminist after hearing her speech. Also in September, Watson made her first country visit as a UN Women Goodwill ambassador to Uruguay, where she gave a speech at theLegislative PalaceinMontevideohighlighting the need for women's political participation.In November 2014, Watson designed aPaddington Bearstatue, one of fifty located around London prior to the release of the filmPaddington, which was auctioned to raise funds for theNational Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children(NSPCC).In December, theMs. Foundation for Womennamed Watson its Feminist Celebrity of 2014, following an online poll.Watson also gave a speech about gender equality in January 2015, at theWorld Economic Forum's annual winter meeting.", "winter meeting. Watson took the top spot on theAskMen\"Top 99 Outstanding Women 2015\" list on the strength of having \"thrown her back\" into women's rights issues.In the same year, Watson was included on theTime100list of the world's most influential people, her first-ever appearance on the list. For its recap, formerNew York TimeseditorJill Abramsonnoted Watson's \"gutsy, smart take on feminism\" and called her effort to get men involved \"refreshing\". Watson has citedGloria SteinemandMaya Angelouas influences.In January 2016, Watson started a feministGoodreadsbook club:Our Shared Shelf.The goal of the club is to share feminist ideas and encourage discussion on the topic. One book is selected per month and is discussed in the last week of that month.The first book to be selected wasMy Life on the Roadby Steinem, whom Watson would later interview that February at the How to: Academy in London.Our Shared Shelfceased updates in January 2020, but continues to be open as a discussion board for recommendations. On", "recommendations. On 2016International Day of the Girl Child, Watson visited Malawi to meet with traditional chiefs and girls who returned to school after being freed from child marriage.Watson has partnered with organisations such as Book Fairies and Books on the Underground to leave literature on public transit for consumption. In March 2017, Watson received backlash for aVanity Fairphoto shoot in which one of the shots had her breasts partly visible, for which some in the news media accused her of hypocrisy.Bemused by the controversy, she argued that \"feminism is not a stick with which to beat other women\" but is instead about freedom, liberation and equality, adding, \"I really don't know what my tits have to do with it.\" Watson has discussed herwhite privilegein feminist spaces;in an interview withBritishVogue, she commented, \"I saw 'white feminism' coming up again and again, and I was like, 'Hey, this is clearly something that I have to meaningfully engage with. I have to understand this better\".She has", "better\".She has written about intersectionality forOur Shared Shelf, discussing her self-reflection on \"What are the ways I have benefited from being white? In what ways do I support and uphold a system that is structurally racist?\" Watson is a founding member ofTime's Up UKand coordinated its launch at the71st British Academy Film Awards.Watson also assisted in the establishment of nationwide industry guidelines on bullying and harassment, implemented by theBritish Film InstituteandBritish Academy of Film and Television Arts.She donated £1 million to Time's Up UK in February 2018 and later helped set up the organisation's Justice and Equality Fund in October, which donated to women's groups across the country.Marai Larasi, an activist on the issue of violence against women, was her guest to the2018 Golden Globe Awards. In July 2019, Watson helped launch a legalhelplinefor people who have sufferedsexual harassmentin the workplace. Legal advice is provided by Rights of Women, a charity which works to help", "which works to help women through the law.In the same year, she joined aG7gender equality advisory group convened by thepresident of France,Emmanuel Macron, to \"call on G7 to make political and economic advances for women within their own countries\" as well as a \"centerpiece offoreign policy\".She attended their first meeting at theÉlysée Palacein Paris in February and attended the45th G7 summitin August as part of the committee. In an interview withParis Lees, she voiced her support fortransgender rights, reiterating this onTwitteramidst controversy concerning Rowling'sremarks on gender identity.Watson has spoken out in support of theBlack Lives Mattermovement; in June 2020, she shared anti-racism educational resources on social media in support of theGeorge Floyd protestsafter initially participating inBlackout Tuesday, and uploaded a podcast episode ontoSpotifyinterviewingReni Eddo-Lodgeabout her bookWhy I'm No Longer Talking to White People About Race. In July 2020, she partnered with Lodge and the WOW", "Lodge and the WOW Foundation to spearhead a project reimagining theLondon Underground Map, renaming the 270 stops to spotlight women and non-binary people who have shaped the city's history. The initiative will consult writers, museums, and librarians and is set to be published byHaymarket BooksonInternational Women's Day2021.Watson was among the 400 signatories in a letter calling for the UK government to include women in \"decision-making roles\" at the2021 United Nations Climate Change Conferencein Glasgow. In June 2021, it was reported that Watson was part of a group of investors funding $12.5 million into FabricNano, a startup developing sustainable alternatives topetrochemicalproducts.In January 2022, Watson showed support for the Palestine cause by posting an image of a pro-Palestinian protest with a \"Solidarity is a verb\" banner on Instagram. This received backlash from former Israeli science ministerDanny Danon, who posted on Twitter, \"10 points from Gryffindor for being an antisemite\". Israeli", "Israeli ambassador to the UNGilad Erdanalso criticised her. Danon's comment was criticised byLeah Greenberg, a co-executive director ofIndivisible ProjectandConservative PartypeerSayeeda Warsi.More than forty people, includingSusan Sarandon,Mark Ruffalo,Miriam Margolyes,Gael García Bernal,Peter Capaldi,Maxine Peake,Viggo Mortensen,Steve CooganandCharles Dance, supported Watson in a letter organised by Artists for Palestine UK. Watson is an activist forenvironmental justiceandclimate change mitigation.In 2019, Swedish researchers fromLund Universityanalysed thecarbon footprintsof ten celebrities including Watson's.Watson's carbon footprint was the lowest of the celebrities analysed, but herCO2emissionsfrom flying alone was still 15.1 tons of CO2– three times the global average. At the2021 United Nations Climate Change ConferenceinGlasgow, Watson hosted a panel on climate change with guests including climate activistGreta Thunberg. Public image Watson has often been cited as arole model, though she shies away", "she shies away from the term, stating that \"it puts the fear of god into \".Her impact on teenage girls' view of women's rights has been referred to as the \"Emma Watson effect\", with respondents from aNational Citizen Servicesurvey stating that her work in activism had inspired them to label themselves feminists.In her initial post-Harry Pottercareer, she was noted to focus on smaller films rather than big-budget studio films.Adam White ofThe Independentstates that Watson's acting style possesses \"a very human sensitivity and quiet strength.\" Describing Watson's off-screen persona,Derek BlasbergofVanity Fairhas called her \"shy\", \"friendly, intelligent, and down to earth.\" Steinem has described her as \"way more like a real person than a movie star\", while authorbell hooksconsiders her to be part of \"a very different, new breed who are interested in being whole and having a holistic life, as opposed to being identified with just wealth and fame.\" Watson's character inHarry Potterhas had a significant impact on", "impact on pop culture; the actress has commented, \"I have met fans my face tattooed on their bod. I've met people who used theHarry Potterbooks to get through cancer. I don't know how to explain it, but theHarry Potterphenomenon steps into a different zone.\" Watson has been the subject of substantial media attention since the beginning of her career; on her eighteenth birthday she was photographed by paparazzi attempting to take pictures up her skirt, and she has been victim of numerousstalkingthreats. Watson does not takeselfieswith fans, citing security concerns, and instead prefers to talk one-on-one during interactions. In March 2009, she was ranked sixth on theForbeslist of \"Most Valuable Young Stars\"and in February 2010, she was Hollywood's highest-paid female star, having earned an estimated £19 million in 2009.In 2017,Forbesranked her among the world's highest-paid actresses, with annual earnings of $14 million.In 2013, Watson was BritishGQ's Woman of the Year and toppedEmpire's list of the 100", "list of the 100 Sexiest Movie Stars.Watson was found to be the sixth most admired woman in the world in global surveys conducted byYouGovin 2020. Personal life When asked about her faith in 2014, Watson described herself as a spiritualuniversalist.In February 2016, Watson was appointedvisiting fellowatLady Margaret Hall,Oxford University. Watson was in a relationship with Tech entrepreneur William ‘Mack’ Knight, from 2017 for two years.and had a relationship with corporate executive Brandon Green, from 2021 ending in 2023.She remains close withTom Felton, fellow actor, having first met him on the Harry Potter movie set in 1999. On coping with intense fame from a young age, she has said that remaining rooted in her own identity helped her eventually \"find peace\".In 2013, she had become certified to teach yoga and meditation. As part of this certification, she attended a week-long meditation course at a Canadian facility, in which residents are not allowed to speak, in order \"to figure out how to be at home", "how to be at home with myself\".Regarding her meditation training, she stated in an interview withElle Australiathat an uncertain future meant finding \"a way to always feel safe and at home within myself. Because I can never rely on a physical place.\" Filmography Film Television Music videos Theme park attractions Authored articles Recognition and accolades Throughout her career, Watson has received several awards and nominations, including aYoung Artist Awardfor her portrayal ofHermione GrangerinHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone(2001). Additionally, she received nominations for threeCritics' Choice Movie Awards, fourEmpire Awards, 14MTV Movie & TV Awards(winning three), sixPeople's Choice Awards(winning two), 12Teen Choice Awards(winning eight). Watson's efforts in activism and philanthropy, most notably her support ofwomen's rightsand her role in launching theUN WomencampaignHeForShe, has received widespread media recognition and acclaim. Watson was listed among the100 most influential people in the", "people in the worldbyTimemagazine in 2015. She has received several recognitions for her style, from theTeen Choice AwardsandBritish Fashion Awards. See also Notes References Further reading External links", "Rupert Grint Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Rupert Alexander Lloyd Grint(/ɡrɪnt/; born 24 August 1988) is an English actor. He rose to fame for his role asRon Weasleyin theHarry Potterfilm series, for which he was cast at age eleven, having previously acted only in school plays and his local theatre group. Grint portrayed Weasley in all eight films in the series, beginning withHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone(2001) and concluding withHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2(2011). Since then, he has continued his work on film, television, and theatre. Beginning in 2002, Grint began to work outside of theHarry Potterfranchise, with a co-leading role inThunderpants. He starred in thedramedyDriving Lessons(2006) and the dramaCherrybomb(2009) and co-starred in the comedyWild Target(2010). After theHarry Potterseries concluded, he appeared in the filmsInto the White(2012),Charlie Countryman(2013),CBGB(2013),Moonwalkers(2015), andKnock at the Cabin(2023). Grint made his", "Grint made his stage debut in 2013 inMojoat theHarold Pinter Theatre. He executive-produced and starred in the television seriesSnatch, based on thefilm of the same name. He has also starred in the black comedy seriesSick Note, the mystery thriller miniseriesThe ABC Murders, and the psychological horror seriesServant. Early life Grint was born on 24 August 1988 inHarlow, Essex, to Nigel Grint, a dealer in racing memorabilia, and Joanne Grint (née Parsons).He is the eldest of five siblings.He has said that his earliest goal in life was to become anice cream man.He grew up inWatton-at-Stone, Hertfordshire,and was educated atRichard Hale School, inHertford.Grint was raised aCatholicand said he \"feared God\" as a child. While in school, he took an avid interest in theatre. He began performing in school productions and joined the Top Hat Stage and Screen School, a local theatre group that cast him as a fish inNoah's Arkand a donkey in a nativity play. He continued participating in school plays as he moved into", "as he moved into secondary school.Nonetheless, he had never acted professionally prior to theHarry Potterseries.He left school at sixteen to focus on his acting career, saying he \"didn't really like school that much\". Career 1999–2011:Harry Potterand worldwide recognition Starting in 1999, casting began for thefilm adaptationofHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the best-selling novel byJ. K. Rowling. Rowling insisted the cast be British and assisted Susie Figgis and directorChris Columbusin casting the roles.Grint, a fan of the book series, chose to audition for the role ofRon Weasley, one ofHarry Potter's best friends atHogwarts. Having seen aNewsroundreport about the open casting, he sent in a video of himself rapping about how he wished to receive the role, and the casting team asked for a meeting with him.In August 2000,Daniel Radcliffe,Emma Watson, and Grint were selected to play Harry,Hermione Granger, and Ron.Grint is the oldest member of the trio.The release ofHarry Potter and the", "Potter and the Philosopher's Stonein 2001 was Grint's debut screen performance.Breaking records for opening-day sales and opening-weekend takings, it was the year's highest-grossing film.With a total of US$974 million in its theatrical run, it stands as the series' second most commercially successful entry.It was critically well-received, scoring mainly positive reviews. However, a number of critics found the adaption's faithfulness to the book both its best and worst quality.Grint won aSatellite Awardin the category of Outstanding New Talent, and aYoung Artist Awardfor Most Promising Young Newcomer. A year later, Grint again starred as Ron inHarry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets(2002). It opened to positive reviews and critics generally enjoyed the lead actors' performances. BothLos Angeles TimesandNew York Magazineobserved that Grint and his peers had matured between films,with the latter pointing out that Grint had become \"more proficient\" and said they missed \"the amateurish ardour\" the actor and", "the actor and Watson carried inPhilosopher's Stone.Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban(2004) was released on 31 May in the UK. The film sees all three of its lead characters hover on the brink of adolescence, \"and while they look braver and more capable than before, the dangers they face seem far more grave and their vulnerability more intense.\"Alfonso Cuaróntook over direction forPrisoner of Azkaban,which remains the lowest-grossingHarry Potterfilm with US$795 million in revenue.Nonetheless, it was the second highest-grossing movie of 2004, behindShrek 2. In 2005, Grint reprised his role for the fourth film in the series –Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The adaptation, unlike previous films, explored romantic elements and included more humour.In a 2005 interview withIGN, all three lead actors singled out humour as a reason for the film's success.It was directed byMike Newell, whom Grint characterised as \"really loud and not afraid to swear at you, but he was really cool.\"Goblet of Fireis one of", "of Fireis one of the series' best-reviewed instalments, and is noted for its characters' maturity and sophistication, darker and more complex plotline, and the quality of the screenplay and lead actors' performances. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the fifth film in theHarry Potterfranchise, was released to cinemas in 2007. A huge financial success, it set a record worldwide opening-weekend gross of US$394 million, supersedingSpider-Man 3.It was directed by a new filmmaker,David Yates,who directed all of the subsequentPotterfilms. Grint said the laid-back director was \"really good\" and helped keep the material fresh.Grint and hisHarry Potterco-stars left imprints of their hands, feet andwandsin front ofGrauman's Chinese Theaterin Hollywood. On 15 July 2009, the series' sixth instalment,Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, was released and again set box office records.In its theatrical run, it earned US$933 million ticket sales.It is also one of the most positively reviewed Harry Potter films,", "Harry Potter films, with critics praising its \"emotionally satisfying\" story, direction, cinematography, visual design and music.Grint observed a change in Ron in this entry, pointing out that his once insecure, often overshadowed character started to become more secure and even began to show a dark side. He found it fun to personify a more emotional Ron.Between 2009 and 2010, Grint's work received three award nominations, including one win—an Otto Award from the German magazineBravo. Despite the previous films' successes, the franchise's future was put into question when the three lead actors had reservations about signing on for the final two films.However, by March 2007, Grint agreed to return for the last installments.For financial and scripting reasons, the final book was divided into two films, shot back-to-back,with filming concluding in June 2010.After completing the final film, Grint said: \"I mean it literally has been my childhood, and suddenly it all came down to really just one random scene, with", "random scene, with us jumping through a fireplace, and then it was over. ...it's very odd. Because suddenly it was all over, just like that. It was really emotional for all of us, realising that we're never going to be doing this again.\" Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1(2010) was released in November and grossed over US$950 million.It set several box office recordsand received mostly favourable reviews.Grint's portrayal of Ron again earned him critical praise. Reviewing the adaption forSlate,Dana Stevenscalled all three of the leads \"terrific\".Although he disliked the film,Joe MorgensternofThe Wall Street Journalwrote that \"Grint has grown up to be a skilful actor who knows the value of a slow burn\".Grint's performance brought him nominations from the MTV Movie Awards and National Movie Awards forBest Fightand Performance of the Year in 2011.He reprised his role for the seventh time inHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2, the finalHarry Potterinstalment. It resumed from where the", "from where the previous film left off, and included a lot of action, whereasPart 1had focused more on character development.Grint, along with the film,was critically acclaimed:Ann HornadayofThe Washington Postwrote, \"Who could have predicted that Radcliffe, Grint and Watson would turn out to be good actors?\".The film broke several box office records, including biggest midnight release,biggest first-day opening,and biggest opening-weekend.Deathly Hallows – Part 2became thefourth highest-grossing film of all time.Harry Potterauthor J. K. Rowling gave a speech at the world premiere ofHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2on 7 July 2011 in London. She said that there were sevenHarry Potterfilm series cast members whom she called \"The Big Seven\"; Grint was one of them, withDaniel Radcliffe,Emma Watson,Tom Felton,Matthew Lewis,Evanna LynchandBonnie Wright. 2002–2011: Concurrent film work duringHarry Potter In 2002, Grint starred in his first non-Harry Potterfilm,Thunderpants, which revolves around Patrick", "around Patrick (played by Bruce Cook) whose remarkable capacity for flatulence scores him a job as an astronaut. In this film, Grint played the co-lead role of Alan, ananosmicboy who is Patrick's only friend. It was generally ignored by critics and audiences. Most critics who did take notice of it did not respond well to it, with one writing: \"This film should be shown in prisons so that inmates have a good reason to never return.\"Grint also appeared inDriving Lessons, a comedy drama released in 2006, starring oppositeJulie Walters. It met with a mixed reception by critics, but his portrayal of an oppressed teenage boy was generally praised.Alt Film Guide's Andre Soares wrote: \"Grint, on the other hand, is a revelation . . . displays an innate naturalness mixed with personal charisma that turn a potentially pathetic Christian freak into a humorous, thoroughly likable – if more than a little awkward – young man\". In July 2008, it was announced that Grint would star in the drama filmCherrybombwithRobert", "SheehanandKimberley Nixon. Grint found shooting this film very different from theHarry Potterfilms, as he had to adjust to doing a dozen scenes per day.Grint's character—Malachy, a worker atBelfast—goes to great lengths to impress his boss's daughter, with whom he is infatuated. This film, like his next project, involved him playing violent roles.Despite premiering at the 2009Berlin International Film Festival, the film was initially unable to find a distributor. An online campaign by Grint's fans was credited with helping to secure a distribution deal in the UK in 2010. Jonathan Lynndirected Grint inWild Target, a 2010 comedy thriller, where he starred withEmily BluntandBill Nighy. A remake of the 1993 French filmCible Emouvante, it was made on a relatively small budget of US$8 million.It was a commercial failure, earning only US$3.4 million,and garnered mostly negative reviews in the media, which criticised it for dishonouring the original film and wasting the comedic potential of its cast.However, Grint", "cast.However, Grint also attracted some positive notice: \"It's nice to see Rupert Grint perform well in a role other than that of Ron Weasley, and it's clear that he's got a career ahead of him.\" In January 2011, Grint made acameo appearanceon theBBCpopular comedy showCome Fly with Me,starring comedy duoMatt LucasandDavid Walliams(Little Britain).In March 2011, he was cast as the lead character in the small-budgetanti-warNorwegian filmInto the White, directed byPetter Næss.Principal photographystarted in April, and the film, which was shot on location,was released in 2012. It is based on a real incident that took place on 27 April 1940, when GermanLuftwaffepilot Horst Schopis's bomber was shot down at Grotli by aRoyal NavyFleet Air ArmBlackburn Skua, which then crash-landed. The several German and British crew members found shelter by chance during a harsh winter there. In August 2011, Grint did a photo shoot with his friend andHarry Potterco-starTom Feltonin Los Angeles for the autumn/winter collection of", "collection of the fashion labelBand of Outsiders.In September 2011, it was announced that Grint would voice a character in thefilm adaptation of Postman Patalong withDavid Tennant,Stephen ManganandJim Broadbent; it was released in May 2014.Grint also appears in the music video forEd Sheeran's song \"Lego House\", released on 20 October 2011. 2012–present: Further work, theatre, and television In March 2012, the \"Visit Britain\" TV ad was released, featuring Grint alongsideJulie Walters,Michelle DockeryandStephen Fry, promoting holidaying at home in the UK. Later that month,Varietyreported that Grint had been cast alongsideChloë Grace MoretzinThe Drummer, a biopic film about drummerDennis Wilsonofthe Beach Boys. That day,The Hollywood Reporterconfirmed it and announced that filming would begin 15 June 2012 in California andSavannah, Georgia. On 25 July 2012, Grint carried the 2012 London Olympic torch during theOlympic Torch Relay, part of the London2012 Summer Olympics. He told theBBC Newsthat it was an", "Newsthat it was an \"overwhelming\" experience that he \"hoped to remember forever\",and toldThe Daily Telegraph,\"It was amazing, it was really overwhelming. It's just such an honour to be a part of this. I'm really proud\".In October 2012, he narratedWe Are Aliens, a 25-minute 3D Planetarium Fulldome film about the possibility of other intelligent life in the universe. On 13 February 2013,The Hollywood Reporter's Live Feed announced that Grint would star in a television pilot forCBScalledSuper Clyde.It did not become a series. In July 2013, it was confirmed that Grint would make his stage debut in the second run ofJez Butterworth's black comedyMojo, with Grint playing Sweets, a hood who \"pops amphetamines like Smarties\" and \"does a sort of double act, full of comic menace\". The play, which also starredBrendan Coyle,Ben WhishawandDaniel Mays, was based on real-life events, and ran from 26 October 2013 to 8 February 2014 at theHarold Pinter Theatrein London.Grint won theWhatsOnStage Awardfor Best London Newcomer", "London Newcomer for his role. In September 2013,The Hollywood Reporterconfirmed that Grint would star in an adaptation ofMacbethcalledEnemy of Man, also featuringSean Bean,Charles Dance,Jason Flemyng,James D'Arcy,Neil MaskellandJoe Gilgun, and directed byVincent Regan.Filming began in January 2014 in the United Kingdom.In June 2014, it was announced that Grint would make hisBroadwaydebut as Frank Finger in the playIt's Only a Playat theGerald Schoenfeld Theatre, appearing withMatthew Broderick,Nathan Lane,Stockard Channing, andMegan Mullally. It ran from 28 August 2014 to 4 January 2015. Since 2019, Grint has starred as Julian Pearce in theApple TV+psychological horror seriesServant. The series has been critically praised.In December 2021, the show was renewed for its fourth and final season. Grint starred in the 2022Netflixanthology seriesGuillermo del Toro's Cabinet of Curiositiesand inM. Night Shyamalan's 2023 thriller filmKnock at the Cabin.He also reunited with multiple cast members of theHarry", "members of theHarry Potterfilm series for anHBO Maxspecial,Harry Potter 20th Anniversary: Return to Hogwarts, which premiered on 1 January 2022. Personal life Grint has been in a relationship with actressGeorgia Groomesince 2011.They have a daughter, Wednesday, born in May 2020.He joinedInstagramin November 2020, posting a photo of himself holding his newborn daughter.He reached one million followers within four hours and one minute of creating his account, breaking the previousGuinness World Recordstitle for the fastest time to reach one million followers on the platform. As Grint's earliest ambition was to be an ice cream man, he bought anice cream truckwith the money he earned from theHarry Potter seriesand sold ice cream to local customers. He took part in the2012 Summer Olympics torch relay, carrying the flame throughHendonin northwest London to outsideMiddlesex University. Grint is a keenfootballfan and an avid supporter ofTottenham Hotspur. Philanthropy Grint has supported various charitable", "various charitable organisations, including donating personal itemsto charity auctions. He participated in the Wacky Rally in 2010 withJames and Oliver Phelps, which raised money for Britain'sRoyal National Lifeboat Institution.He was one of more than 40 people to produce designs for the Chrysalis Collection for Keech Hospice Care in Luton. His piece, a painted butterfly, was auctioned oneBayin March 2010.In May 2011, with other celebrities, he took part in the \"Make Mine Milk\" ad campaign to promote daily milk drinking. His ads were seen on posters and the sides of thousands of buses across the United Kingdom.Since 2011, he has supported the Little Star Award for Cancer Research UK. \"I think that it's wonderful that Cancer Research UK is helping to bring a little bit of magic to the children's lives in this way,\" he said. Filmography Film Television Stage Video games Music Other roles Awards and nominations See also References External links" ]
The creator of the animated series Family Guy was supposed to be on one of the planes that was involved in the 9/11 attacks but he arrived too late to board. Altogether, how many letters are in the name of the city from which his missed fight departed that day?
6 (Boston)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Guy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_MacFarlane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_11
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Multiple constraints | Post processing
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Guy', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_MacFarlane', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_11']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Guy", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seth_MacFarlane", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines_Flight_11" ]
[ "Family Guy Family Guyis an Americananimated sitcomcreated bySeth MacFarlanefor theFox Broadcasting Company. The series premiered on January 31, 1999, followingSuper Bowl XXXIII, with the rest of the first season airing from April 11, 1999. The show centers around theGriffins, adysfunctional familyconsisting of parentsPeterandLois, their children,Meg,Chris, andStewie, and theiranthropomorphicpet dog,Brian. Set in the fictional city ofQuahog,Rhode Island, the show exhibits much of its humor in the form ofmetafictionalcutaway gagsthat often lampoonAmerican culture. The family was conceived by MacFarlane after he developed two animated films,The Life of LarryandLarry & Steve. MacFarlane redesigned the films' protagonist, Larry, and his dog, Steve, and renamed them Peter and Brian, respectively. MacFarlane pitched a seven-minute pilot to Fox in December 1998, and the show was greenlit and began production.Family Guy'scancellation was announced shortly after thethird seasonhad aired in 2002, withone unaired episodeeventually premiering onAdult Swimin 2003, finishing the series' original run. Favorable DVD sales and highratingsfrom syndicated reruns since then convinced Fox to revive the show in 2004; afourth seasonbegan airing the following year, on May 1, 2005. Since its premiere,Family Guyhas received generally positive reviews. In 2009, it was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the first time an animated series had been nominated for the award sinceThe Flintstonesin 1961. In 2013,TV GuiderankedFamily Guyas the ninth-greatest TV cartoon.The series has also garnered considerable amounts ofcriticism and controversy, ranging from storylines and character stereotypes, to allegations of racism, homophobia, and misogyny. Manytie-inmedia based on the show have been released, includingStewie Griffin: The Untold Story, astraight-to-DVDspecial released in 2005;Family Guy: Live in Vegas, a soundtrack-DVD combo released in 2005, featuring music from the show as well as music created by MacFarlane andWalter Murphy; avideo gameandpinball machine, released in 2006 and 2007, respectively; since 2005, six books published byHarper Adult; andLaugh It Up, Fuzzball: The Family Guy Trilogy(2010), a collection of three episodes parodying theoriginalStar Warstrilogy. Aspin-offseries,The Cleveland Show, featuringCleveland Brown, aired from September 27, 2009, to May 19, 2013. On January 26, 2023, Fox announced that the series had been renewed for seasons 22 and 23, taking the show through the 2024–25 television season.Season 22 premiered on October 1, 2023.Family Guymoved to Wednesday nights beginning March 6, 2024, marking the show's first weeknight airings since 2002. Premise Characters The show centers around the adventures and activities of the dysfunctionalGriffin family, consisting of fatherPeter Griffin, a bumbling and clumsy yet well-intentionedblue-collar worker; his wifeLois, a stay-at-home mother and piano teacher (in early episodes) who is a member of the affluentPewterschmidt family;Meg, their often bullied teenage daughter who is constantly ridiculed or ignored by the family;Chris, their awkward teenage son, who is overweight, unintelligent, unathletic, and in many respects a younger version of his father; andStewie, their diabolical infant son of ambiguous sexual orientation who is an adult-manneredevil geniusand uses stereotypicalarchvillainphrases. Living with the family is their witty, smoking,martini-swilling, sarcastic, English-speaking anthropomorphic dogBrian, although he is still considered a pet in many ways. Recurring characters appear alongside the Griffin family. These include the family's neighbors: sex-crazed airline pilot bachelorGlenn Quagmire; deli owner/mail carrierCleveland Brownand his wife Loretta (laterDonna);paraplegicpolice officerJoe Swanson, his wifeBonnie, their sonKevinand their baby daughterSusie; neurotic Jewish pharmacistMort Goldman, his wifeMuriel, and their geeky and annoying sonNeil, and elderly child molesterHerbert. TVnews anchorsTom TuckerandDiane Simmons,Asian reporterTricia Takanawa, andBlaccu-WeathermeteorologistOllie Williamsalso make frequent appearances. ActorJames Woodsguest stars as himself in multiple episodes, as didAdam West, prior to his death. Setting The primary setting ofFamily Guyis Quahog (/ˈk(w)oʊhɒɡ/K(W)OH-hog), afictional cityinRhode Islandthat was founded by Peter's ancestor, Griffin Peterson. MacFarlane resided in Providence during his time as a student atRhode Island School of Design, and the show contains distinct Rhode Island landmarks similar to real-world locations.MacFarlane often borrows the names of Rhode Island locations and icons such asPawtucketandBuddy Ciancifor use in the show. MacFarlane, in an interview with Providence's Fox affiliateWNAC-TV, stated that the town is modeled afterCranston, Rhode Island. Episodes Production Development MacFarlane conceivedFamily Guyin 1995 while studying animation at theRhode Island School of Design(RISD).During college, he created his thesis film titledThe Life of Larry,which was submitted by his professor at RISD toHanna-Barbera. MacFarlane was hired by the company.In 1996, MacFarlane created a sequel toThe Life of LarrytitledLarry and Steve, which featured a middle-aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve; the short was broadcast in 1997 as one ofCartoon Network'sWorld Premiere Toons. Executives atFoxsaw theLarryshorts and contracted MacFarlane to create a series, titledFamily Guy, based on the characters.Fox proposed that MacFarlane complete a 15-minute short and gave him a budget of $50,000.Several aspects ofFamily Guywere inspired by theLarryshorts.While MacFarlane worked on the series, the characters of Larry and his dog Steve slowly evolved into Peter and Brian.MacFarlane stated that the difference betweenThe Life of LarryandFamily Guywas that \"Life of Larrywas shown primarily in my dorm room andFamily Guywas shown after theSuper Bowl.\"After the pilot aired, the series was given thegreenlight. MacFarlane drew inspiration from several sitcoms such asThe SimpsonsandAll in the Family.Premises were drawn from several 1980sSaturday-morning cartoonshe watched as a child, such asThe Fonz and the Happy Days GangandRubik, the Amazing Cube. The Griffin family first appeared on the demo that MacFarlane pitched to Fox on May 15, 1998.Family Guywas originally planned to start out as short movies for the sketch showMad TV, but the plan changed, becauseMADtv's budget was not large enough to support animation production. MacFarlane noted that he then wanted to pitch it to Fox, as he thought that it was the place to create a prime-time animation show.Family Guywas originally pitched to Fox in the same year asKing of the Hill, but the show was not bought until years later, whenKing of the Hillbecame successful. Executive producers MacFarlane has served as anexecutive producerthroughout the show's entire history. The first executive producers wereDavid Zuckerman,Lolee Aries, David Pritchard, and Mike Wolf.Family Guyhas had many executive producers in its history, includingDaniel Palladino,Kara Vallow, andDanny Smith.David A. Goodmanjoined the show as a co-executive producer in season three and eventually became an executive producer. Writing The first team of writers assembled for the show consisted ofChris Sheridan,Danny Smith,Gary Janetti,Ricky Blitt,Neil Goldman,Garrett Donovan,Matt Weitzman, andMike Barker.The writing process ofFamily Guytypically starts with 14 writers that take turns writing the scripts; when a script is finished it is given to the rest of the writers to read. These scripts generally includecutaway gags. Various gags are pitched to MacFarlane and the rest of the staff, and those deemed the funniest are included in the episode. MacFarlane has explained that it normally takes 10 months to produce an episode because the show uses hand-drawn animation. The show rarely comments on current events for this reason.The show's initial writers had never written for an animated show, and most came from live-action sitcoms. MacFarlane explained that he is a fan of 1930s and 1940s radio programs, particularly the radio thriller anthologySuspense, which led him to give early episodes ominous titles like \"Death Has a Shadow\" and \"Mind Over Murder.\" MacFarlane said that the team dropped the naming convention after individual episodes became hard to identify, and the novelty wore off.For the first few months of production, the writers shared one office, lent to them by theKing of the Hillproduction crew. Credited with 19 episodes,Steve Callaghanis the most prolific writer on theFamily Guystaff. Many of the writers that have left the show have gone on to create or produce other successful series.Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovanco-wrote 13 episodes for the NBC sitcomScrubsduring their eight-year run on the show, while also serving as co-producers and working their way up to executive producers.Mike BarkerandMatt Weitzmanleft the show and went on to create the long-running and still ongoing adult animated seriesAmerican Dad!MacFarlane is also a co-creator ofAmerican Dad!On November 4, 2013, it was announced that Barker had departedAmerican Dad!during its run as well, after 10 seasons of serving as producer and co-showrunner over the series. During the2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, official production of the show halted for most of December 2007 and for various periods afterward. Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane's final approval, which he termed \"a colossal dick move\" in an interview withVariety. Though MacFarlane refused to work on the show, his contract under Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it would subsequently produce.Production officially resumed after the end of the strike, with regularly airing episodes recommencing on February 17, 2008.According to MacFarlane, in 2009, it cost about $2 million to make an episode ofFamily Guy. During his September 2017AMAonReddit, MacFarlane revealed that he had not written for the show since 2010, choosing instead to focus on production and voice acting. On May 12, 2023, it was announced that the showrunners ofFamily Guy, including Seth MacFarlane, would temporarily leave the show as a result of the2023 Writers Guild of America Strike.They returned to the show on September 27, 2023, once the strike was declared to be over. Voice cast Seth MacFarlane voices three of the show's main characters:Peter Griffin,Brian Griffin, andStewie Griffin.Since MacFarlane had a strong vision for these characters, he chose to voice them himself, believing it would be easier than for someone else to attempt it.MacFarlane drew inspiration for the voice of Peter from a security guard he overheard talking while attending the Rhode Island School of Design.Stewie's voice was based on the voice of English actorRex Harrison,especially his performance in the 1964 musical drama filmMy Fair Lady.MacFarlane uses his regular speaking voice when playing Brian.MacFarlane also provides the voices for various other recurring and one-time-only characters, most prominently those of the Griffins' neighborGlenn Quagmire, news anchorTom Tucker, and Lois' father,Carter Pewterschmidt. Alex Borsteinvoices Peter's wifeLois Griffin,Asian correspondent Tricia Takanawa,Loretta Brown, and Lois' mother,Babs Pewterschmidt.Borstein was asked to provide a voice for the pilot while she was working onMADtv. She had not met MacFarlane or seen any of his artwork and said it was \"really sight unseen\".At the time, Borstein was performing in a stage show in Los Angeles. She played a redheaded mother whose voice she had based on one of her cousins. Seth Greenprimarily voicesChris GriffinandNeil Goldman.Green stated that he did an impression of the characterBuffalo Billfrom the thriller filmThe Silence of the Lambsduring his audition. Mila KunisandLacey Chaberthave both voicedMeg Griffin.Chabert left the series after the first season because of time conflicts with schoolwork (at the time) and her role onParty of Five. When Kunis auditioned for the role, she was called back by MacFarlane, who instructed her to speak slower. He then told her to come back another time and enunciate more. Once she claimed that she had it under control, MacFarlane hired her.Archival recordings of Lacey Chabert's voice that she provided as Meg Griffin are used in thetenth seasonepisode \"Back to the Pilot\" in which Brian and Stewie go back in time to the events of \"Death Has a Shadow.\" Mike HenryvoicesHerbert,Bruce the Performance Artist,Consuela, theGreased-up Deaf Guy, and until 2021,Cleveland Brown.Henry met MacFarlane at the Rhode Island School of Design and kept in touch with him after they graduated.A few years later, MacFarlane contacted him about being part of the show; he agreed and came on as a writer and voice actor.During the show's first four seasons, he was credited as a guest star, but beginning withseason five's \"Prick Up Your Ears\", he has been credited as a main cast member.On June 26, 2020, after twenty years of voicing the character, Mike Henry announced on Twitter that he was stepping down from voicing Cleveland, stating \"persons of color should play characters of color.\"On September 25, 2020, it was announced thatArif Zahirwould take over as the voice of Cleveland. Other recurring cast members includePatrick WarburtonasJoe Swanson,Jennifer TillyasBonnie Swanson,John G. BrennanasMort GoldmanandHorace the bartender,Carlos AlazraquiasJonathan Weed,Adam CarollaandNorm MacdonaldasDeath,Lori AlanasDiane Simmons,Phil LaMarrasOllie Williamsand Judge Dignified Q. Blackman,andKevin Michael Richardsonas Jerome. Fellow cartoonistButch Hartmanhas made guest voice appearances in episodes as various characters.Also, writerDanny Smithvoices various recurring characters, such asErnie the Giant Chicken.Alexandra Breckenridgealso appears as many various characters.Adam Westappeared as theeponymousMayor Adam West, until his death in 2017. Episodes often feature guest voices from a wide range of professions, including actors, athletes, authors, bands, musicians, and scientists. Many guest voices star as themselves.Leslie Uggamswas the first to appear as herself, in the fourth episode of the first season, \"Mind Over Murder\".The episode \"Not All Dogs Go to Heaven\" guest starred the entire cast ofStar Trek: The Next Generation, includingPatrick Stewart,Jonathan Frakes,Brent Spiner,LeVar Burton,Gates McFadden,Michael Dorn,Wil Wheaton,Marina Sirtis, and evenDenise Crosby(season 1 asTasha Yar), playing themselves; this is the episode with the most guest stars of the seventh season. Early history and cancellation Family Guyofficially premiered after Fox's broadcast ofSuper Bowl XXXIIIon January 31, 1999, with \"Death Has a Shadow\". The show debuted to 22 million viewers and immediately generated controversy regarding its adult content.The show returned on April 11, 1999, with \"I Never Met the Dead Man\".Family Guygarnered decent ratings in Fox's 8:30 pm slot on Sunday, scheduled betweenThe SimpsonsandThe X-Files.At the end of its first season, the show ranked No. 33 in theNielsen ratings, with 12.8 million households tuning in.The show launched its second season in a new time slot, Thursday at 9 pm, on September 23, 1999.Family Guywas pitted against NBC'sFrasier, and the series' ratings declined sharply.Subsequently, Fox removedFamily Guyfrom its schedule and began airing episodes irregularly. The show returned on March 7, 2000, at 8:30 pm on Tuesdays, where it was constantly beaten in the ratings byABC's then-new breakout hitWho Wants to Be a Millionaire, coming in at No. 114 in the Nielsen ratings with 6.32 million households tuning in.Fox announced that the show had been canceled in May 2000, at the end of the second season.However, following a last-minute reprieve, on July 24, 2000, Fox ordered 13 additional episodes ofFamily Guyto form a third season. The show returned on November 8, 2001, once again in a tough time slot: Thursday nights at 8:00 pm. This slot brought it into competition withSurvivorandFriends(a situation that was later referenced inStewie Griffin: The Untold Story).During its second and third seasons, Fox frequently moved the show around to different days and time slots with little or no notice and, consequently, the show's ratings suffered.Upon Fox's annual unveiling of its 2002 fall line-up on May 15, 2002,Family Guywas absent.Fox announced that the show had been officially canceled shortly thereafter. Cult success and revival Fox attempted to sell the rights for reruns of the show, but finding networks that were interested was difficult;Cartoon Networkeventually bought the rights \"basically for free\", according to the president of20th Century Fox Television.Family Guypremiered in reruns on Adult Swim on April 20, 2003, and immediately became the block's top-rated program, dominating late-night viewing in its time period versus cable and broadcast competition and boosting viewership by 239%.The complete first and second seasons were released on DVD the same week the show premiered on Adult Swim, and the show became a cult phenomenon, selling 400,000 copies within one month.Sales of the DVD set reached 2.2 million copies,becoming the best-selling television DVD of 2003and the second-highest-selling television DVD ever, behind the first season ofComedy Central'sChappelle's Show.The third-season DVD release also sold more than a million copies.The show's popularity in DVD sales and reruns rekindled Fox's interest,and, on May 20, 2004, Fox ordered 35 new episodes ofFamily Guy, marking the first revival of a television show based on DVD sales. \"North by North Quahog\", which premiered May 1, 2005, was the first episode to be broadcast after the show's hiatus. It was written by MacFarlane and directed byPeter Shin.MacFarlane believed the show's three-year hiatus was beneficial, because animated shows do not normally have hiatuses, and towards the end of their seasons, \"... you see a lot more sex jokes andbodily functionjokes and signs of a fatigued staff that their brains are just fried\".With \"North by North Quahog\", the writing staff tried to keep the show \" exactly as it was\" before its cancellation, and \"None of us had any desire to make it look any slicker\".The episode was watched by 11.85 million viewers,the show's highest ratings since the airing of thefirst seasonepisode \"Brian: Portrait of a Dog\". Lawsuits In March 2007, comedianCarol Burnettfiled a $6 million lawsuit against 20th Century Fox, claiming that hercharwomancartoon character had been portrayed on the show without her permission. She stated it was a trademark infringement and that Fox violated her publicity rights.On June 4, 2007, United States District JudgeDean D. Pregersonrejected the lawsuit, stating that the parody was protected under theFirst Amendment, citingHustler Magazine v. Falwellas a precedent. On October 3, 2007,Bourne Co. Music Publishersfiled a lawsuit accusing the show ofinfringing its copyrighton the song \"When You Wish Upon a Star\", through a parody song titled \"I Need a Jew\" appearing in the episode \"When You Wish Upon a Weinstein\". Bourne Co., the sole United States copyright owner of the song, alleged the parody pairs a \"thinly veiled\" copy of its music withantisemiticlyrics. Named in the suit were20th Century Fox Film Corp.,Fox Broadcasting Co.,Cartoon Network,MacFarlane, andMurphy; the suit sought to stop the program's distribution and asked for unspecified damages.Bourne argued that \"I Need a Jew\" uses the copyrighted melody of \"When You Wish Upon a Star\" without commenting on that song, and that it was therefore not a First Amendment-protected parody per the ruling inCampbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.On March 16, 2009, United States District JudgeDeborah Battsheld thatFamily Guydid not infringe on Bourne's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode. In December 2007,Family Guywas again accused of copyright infringement when actorArt Metranofiled a lawsuit regarding a scene inStewie Griffin: The Untold Story, in which Jesus performs Metrano's signature \"magic\" act involving absurd \"faux\" magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune \"Fine and Dandy\".20th Century Fox, MacFarlane, Callaghan and Borstein were all named in the suit.In July 2009, a federal district court judge rejected Fox's motion to dismiss, saying that the first three fair use factors involved – \"purpose and character of the use\", \"nature of the infringed work\" and \"amount and substantiality of the taking\" – counted in Metrano's favor, while the fourth – \"economic impact\" – had to await more fact-finding. In denying the dismissal, the court held that the reference in the scene made light of Jesus and his followers – not Metrano or his act.The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms. Hallmarks \"Road to\" episodes The \"Road to\" episodes are a series of hallmark travel episodes.They are a parody of the sevenRoad to ...comedy films starringBing CrosbyandBob Hope.These episodes have always involvedStewieandBrianin some foreign, supernatural or science-fiction location, unrelated to the show's normal location in Quahog. The first, titled \"Road to Rhode Island\", aired on May 30, 2000, during thesecond season. The episodes are known for featuring elaboratemusical numbers, similar to theRoadfilms.The episodes contain several trademarks, including a special version of the opening sequence, custommusical cuesand musical numbers, and parodies of science fiction and fantasy films. The original idea for the \"Road to\" episodes came from MacFarlane, as he is a fan of the films of Crosby, Hope andDorothy Lamour. The first episode was directed byDan Povenmire, who would direct the rest of the \"Road to\" episodes until the episode \"Road to Rupert\", at which point he had left the show to createPhineas and FerbwithJeff \"Swampy\" Marsh.Series regular Greg Colton then took over Povenmire's role as director of the \"Road to\" episodes. The \"Road to\" episodes are generally considered by critics and fans to be some of the greatest in the series, thanks to the developing relationship between Stewie and Brian and the strong plotlines of the episodes themselves. Humor Family Guyuses the film-making technique ofcutaways, which occur in the majority ofFamily Guyepisodes.Emphasis is often placed on gags which make reference to social phenomena and/or modern cultural icons. Early episodes based much of their comedy on Stewie's \"super villain\" antics, such as his constant plans for total world domination, his evil experiments, plans and inventions to get rid of things he dislikes, and his constant attempts atmatricide. As the series progressed, the writers and MacFarlane agreed that his personality and the jokes were starting to feel dated, so they began writing him with a different personality.Family Guyoften includesself-referentialhumor. The most common form is jokes about the Fox network, and occasions where the charactersbreak the fourth wallby addressing the audience. For example, in \"North by North Quahog\", the first episode that aired after the show's revival, included Peter telling the family that they had been canceled because Fox had to make room in their schedule for shows likeDark Angel,Titus,Undeclared,Action,That '80s Show,Wonderfalls,Fastlane,Andy Richter Controls the Universe,Skin,Girls Club,Cracking Up,The Pitts,Firefly,Get Real,FreakyLinks,Wanda at Large,Costello,The Lone Gunmen,A Minute with Stan Hooper,Normal, Ohio,Pasadena,Harsh Realm,Keen Eddie,The $treet,The American Embassy,Cedric the Entertainer Presents,The Tick,Luis, andGreg the Bunny. Lois asks whether there is any hope, to which Peter replies that if all these shows are canceled they might have a chance; the shows were indeed canceled duringFamily Guy's hiatus. The show usescatchphrases, and most of the primary and secondary characters have them. Notable expressions include Quagmire's \"Giggity giggity goo\", Peter's \"Freakin' sweet\", Cleveland's \"Oh, that's nasty\", and Joe's \"Bring it on!\"The use of many of these catchphrases declined in later seasons. The episode \"Big Man on Hippocampus\" mocks catchphrase-based humor: when Peter, who has forgotten everything about his life, is introduced to Meg, he exclaims \"D'oh!\", to which Lois replies, \"No, Peter, that's not your catchphrase.\" Reception and legacy In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook Likesfound that, like other satirical comedies,Family Guy\"is most popular in cities. The show's popularity was more correlated withsupport for Hillary Clintonthan any other show\".As of 2008, the franchise has generated$1 billionin total revenue, including$400 millionfromTV syndication,$400 millionfromDVDsales, and$200 millionfrom merchandise sales. Ratings Family Guyexperienced a significant increase in viewership following its availability on various streaming platforms, with a particularly notable rise in popularity onHulu. In 2018, it ranked among the most-watched TV series on the streaming serviceSling TV.In 2020, Hulu announced thatFamily Guywas one of the top five most-watched non-sports and non-news related live shows on the streaming service.Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, estimated that the series was watched for 910 million minutes from July 29 to August 4, 2024.The following week, it garnered 881 million minutes of viewing time from August 5 to August 11, 2024, making it the sixth most-streamed television show overall.From August 12 to August 18, 2024,Family Guygenerated 834 million minutes of viewership, ranking it as the eighth most-streamed television show overall.From August 26 to September 1, 2024, it amassed more than 1 billion minutes of viewing time, securing its position as the third most-streamed series overall. Critical reception Family Guyhas received generally positive reviews, particularly for its pop culture references, blue humor, satire, and non-sequitur storytelling.Catherine Seipp ofNational Review Onlinedescribed it as a \"nasty but extremely funny\" cartoon.Caryn James ofThe New York Timescalled it a show with an \"outrageously satirical family\" that \"includes plenty of comic possibilities and parodies\".The Sydney Morning HeraldnamedFamily Guythe \"Show of the Week\" on April 21, 2009, hailing it a \"pop culture-heavy masterpiece\".Frazier Moore fromThe Seattle Timescalled it an \"endless craving for humor about bodily emissions\". He thought it was \"breathtakingly smart\" and said a \"blend of the ingenious with the raw helps account for its much broader appeal\". He summarized it as \"rude, crude and deliciously wrong\".The New Yorker's Nancy Franklin said thatFamily Guyis becoming one of the best animated shows; she commented on its ribaldry and popularity.The show has become a hit onHulu; it is the second-highest viewed show afterSaturday Night Live.IGNcalledFamily Guya great show and commented that it has gotten better since its revival. They stated that they cannot imagine another half-hour sitcom that provides as many laughs asFamily Guy.Empirepraised the show and its writers for creating really hilarious moments with unlikely material. They commented that one of the reasons they love the show is because nothing is sacred—it makes jokes and gags of almost everything.Robin Pierson ofThe TV Criticpraised the series as \"a different kind of animated comedy which clearly sets out to do jokes which other cartoons can't do.\"Family Guyhas proven popular in the United Kingdom, regularly obtaining between 700,000 and 1 million viewers for re-runs onBBC Three. The series has attracted many celebrities.Robert Downey Jr.telephoned the show production staff and asked if he could produce or assist in an episode's creation, as his son is a fan of the show; the producers subsequently created a character for Downey.Lauren Conradmet MacFarlane while recording aLaguna Beachclip for the episode \"Prick Up Your Ears\" (season 5, 2006).She has watchedFamily Guyfor years and considers Stewie her favorite character.Commenting on his appearance in the episode \"Big Man on Hippocampus\" (season 8, 2010), actorDwayne Johnsonstated that he was a \"big fan\" ofFamily Guy.Johnson befriended MacFarlane after he had a minor role in Johnson's 2010 filmTooth Fairy.R&B singerRihannahas admitted to being a fan ofFamily Guy,as has pop singerBritney Spears; she tries to imitate Stewie's English accent.Spears, who was mocked for her personal problems in theSouth Parkepisode \"Britney's New Look\" in 2008, offered to appear in a cameo to hit back at the similar animated show, but MacFarlane declined, stating that he did not want to start a feud with the series. Awards Family Guyand its cast have been nominated for 27Emmy Awards, with 8 wins. MacFarlane won theOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceaward for his performance as Stewie;Murphy and MacFarlane won the Outstanding Music and Lyrics award for the song \"You Got a Lot to See\" from the episode \"Brian Wallows and Peter's Swallows\";Steven Fontiwon the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode \"No Chris Left Behind\";and Greg Colton won the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode \"Road to the Multiverse\".The show was nominated for elevenAnnie Awards, and won three times, twice in 2006 and once in 2008.In 2009, it was nominated for an Emmy forOutstanding Comedy Series, becoming the first animated program to be nominated in this category sinceThe Flintstonesin 1961.The Simpsonswas almost nominated in 1993, but voters were hesitant to pit cartoons against live action programs.The show was nominated for aGrammyin 2011.Family Guyhas been nominated and has won various other awards, including theTeen Choice Awardsand thePeople's Choice Awards.In the 1,000th issue ofEntertainment Weekly, Brian Griffin was selected as the dog for \"The Perfect TV Family\".Wizard Magazinerated Stewie the 95th-greatest villain of all time.British newspaperThe TimesratedFamily Guythe 45th-best American show in 2009.IGN rankedFamily Guynumber seven in the \"Top 100 Animated Series\" and number six in the \"Top 25 Primetime Animated Series of All Time\".Empirenamed it the twelfth-greatest TV show of all time in 2008.In 2005, viewers of the UK television channelChannel 4votedFamily Guynumber 5 on their list of the 100 Greatest Cartoons.Brian was awarded the 2009 Stoner of the Year award byHigh Timesfor the episode \"420\", marking the first time an animated character received the honor.In 2004 and 2007, TV Guide rankedFamily Guynumber 12 and number 15 in their list of top cult shows ever.Family Guyhas garnered sixGolden Reel Awardsnominations, winning three times.In 2013,TV GuiderankedFamily Guythe ninth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time. Criticism and controversy One of the initial critics to give the show negative reviews was Ken Tucker fromEntertainment Weekly; he called it \"The Simpsonsas conceived by a singularly sophomoric mind that lacks any reference point beyond other TV shows\".TheParents Television Council(PTC), a conservative non-profitwatchdog, has attacked the series since its premiere and has branded various episodes as \"Worst TV Show of the Week\".In May 2000, the PTC launched a letter-writing campaign to the Fox network in an effort to persuade the network to cancel the show.The PTC has placed the show on their annual lists of \"Worst Prime-Time Shows for Family Viewing\" in 2000, 2005, and 2006.TheFederal Communications Commission(FCC) has received multiple petitions requesting that the show be blocked from broadcasting onindecencygrounds.Tucker and the PTC have both accused the show of portraying religion negatively, and of being racist.Because of the PTC, some advertisers have canceled their contracts after reviewing the content of the episodes, claiming it to be unsuitable.Critics have compared the show's humor and characters with those ofThe Simpsons. Various episodes of the show have generated controversy. In \"420\" (season seven, 2009), Brian decides to start a campaign tolegalize cannabisin Quahog; theVenezuelan governmentreacted negatively to the episode and bannedFamily Guyfrom airing on their local networks, which generally syndicate American programming. Venezuelanjustice ministerTareck El Aissami, citing the promotion of the use of cannabis, stated that any cable stations that did not stop airing the series would be fined;the government showed a clip which featured Brian and Stewie singing the praises of marijuana as a demonstration of how the United States supports cannabis use.In \"Extra Large Medium\" (season eight, 2010) a character named Ellen (who hasDown syndrome) states that her mother is the formerGovernor of Alaska, which strongly implies that her mother isSarah Palin, the only woman to have served in the office of governor in the state. Sarah Palin, the mother ofa child with Down syndrome, criticized the episode in an appearance onThe O'Reilly Factor, calling those who made the show \"cruel, cold-hearted people\". Broadcast and streaming In the United States, the show currently airs onComedy Central,Freeform,FX, andFXX. The show was syndicated toAdult SwimandTBSfrom 2003 to 2021, sharing the rights to the first fifteen seasons. It was syndicated to various local stations from 2007 to 2024.In April 2019,FX Networksbegan airing reruns of season 16 on FXX, with season 17 debuting that October, and shared off-network rights to both seasons with sister channel Freeform. After Adult Swim and TBS' rights expired on September 18, 2021, FXX and Freeform began airing the first fifteen seasons. The show also joined FX's lineup that same month. These deals did not affect the syndication rights held by local broadcast stations. The show's departure from Adult Swim on September 18, 2021, was commemorated with a remembrance bumper created by the network, which played after the final airing (the episode \"Stewie is Enceinte\"). The bumper showed animations of several Adult Swim characters bidding farewell toFamily Guy, including shots of Peter crying at the beginning and the Griffin family waving goodbye towards the end. On August 14, 2024, it was announced thatFamily Guywould begin airing on Comedy Central as part of a licensing deal betweenParamount(parent company of Comedy Central) andDisney(which retains some ownership of Fox and also holds streaming rights to the show). This deal will be effective on September 2, 2024. New episodes will continue to air on Fox, and reruns will continue to air on FX Networks as the Paramount-Disney deal is non-exclusive. In the United States, the series is available for streaming exclusively onHulu. Additionally, Hulu will launch two holiday specials ofFamily Guyin late 2024, marking the first time a new episode of the show airs on a streaming platform;Internationally,Family Guyis available to stream onStar on Disney+.The first such special premiered on October 14, 2024.The United States is the only country where the show is not available on eitherDisney+orStar+. Initially,Family Guywas not available to stream on Disney+ in Latin America, as it had been available on the standalone serviceStar+, however, Star+ content merged with Disney+ content on June 26, 2024, and Star+ was discontinued altogether on July 24, 2024. Family Guypremiered in Australia on April 9, 1999, on theSeven Network, in 2000 onFox8, and on7mateon September 27, 2010.Initially, only 2 seasons were available to stream on Disney+ Star due to pre-existing contracts. The other 17 seasons were added on December 1, 2021, after the contract expired. In Canada, the series premiered January 31, 1999, onGlobaland September 1, 2003, onTeletoon at Night. Beginning in the 2015–2016 season, the show moved toCitytv; the show would once again return to the channel in 2023.Starting in November 2021, the series moved toDisney+.In addition to Teletoon at Night, the show has been syndicated to TVtropolis (nowDTour),Adult Swim Canada, andFX Canada. Since 2024,CHCHand Citytv share the broadcast rights to the series due to scheduling issues. The show airs in India onStar World Premiere,in Ireland on3e,and in New Zealand onTVNZ Duke; previously it screened on defunct channelFour. In the United Kingdom,Family Guypremiered in September 1999, originally onChannel 4andSky One. In January 2005,Fox UK(then known as FX) began broadcasting the show.From October 2005,BBC Twostarted screeningFamily Guybefore the show moved toBBC Threein September 2006.Beginning with season 14, the show moved toITV2, premiering on February 29, 2016,while the BBC would continue to hold the rights for past seasons until 2017. In South Korea, the show premiered January 11, 2008, onTooniverse. Franchise Books Family Guy: It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married Onewas written by executive story editorCherry Chevapravatdumrongand actressAlex Borstein. The book was first published on May 8, 2007.The book is a biographical monologue by Lois Griffin covering a portion of her life, spanning from her memories of growing up to her attempted run for mayor in the town of Quahog. Though the book primarily consists of a loose narrative monologue by Lois, it is also interspersed with sections from other characters such as Peter Griffin. The book covers events featured in theFamily Guyepisode \"It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One\", with which it shares a title. It was published in the United Kingdom in 2007 byOrion Books. A comic book based on theFamily Guyuniverse was produced. Published byTitan Comics, edited bySteve White, and illustrated byAnthony Williamsand S. L. Gallant, the writing and the illustrations were supervised by the show's producers.The first comic book was released on July 27, 2011. Live performances As promotion for the show and as Newman described \" expand interest in the show beyond its diehard fans\",Fox organized fourFamily Guy Live!performances, which featured cast members reading old episodes aloud. The cast also performed musical numbers from theFamily Guy: Live in Vegascomedy album.The stage shows were an extension of a performance by the cast during the 2004Montreal Comedy Festival.TheFamily Guy Live!performances, which took place in Los Angeles and New York, sold out and were attended by around 1,200 people each. At the59th Annual Primetime Emmy Awardsin 2007, MacFarlane performed (as the digitally inserted Stewie and Brian) the ceremony's opening number. He performed a song insulting modern television to the tune of the song \"The Fellas at the Freakin' F.C.C.\" performed in the episode \"PTV\". The song insulted TV shows such asTwo and a Half Men,Desperate Housewives, andScrubs, as well as thefinal sceneofThe Sopranos. In 2009, a special televised performance show aired, titledFamily Guy Presents Seth & Alex's Almost Live Comedy Show, in which voice actorsAlex Borsteinand MacFarlane performed songs from the show, as well as a parody ofLady Gaga's song \"Poker Face\" in the voice ofMarlee Matlin, who appeared on stage as a guest during the performance. Some new animated gags also appeared in the show. Film In a July 22, 2007, interview withThe Hollywood Reporter, MacFarlane announced that he may start working on a feature film, although \"nothing's official.\"InTV Weekon July 18, 2008, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically releasedFamily Guyfeature film sometime \"within the next year.\"He came up with an idea for the story, \"something that you could not do on the show, which is the only reason to do a movie.\" He later went on to say he imagines the film to be \"an old-style musical with dialogue\" similar toThe Sound of Music, saying that he would \"really be trying to capture, musically, that feel.\"On October 13, 2011, MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for aFamily Guyfilm had been made, and that it would be written by him and series co-producer Ricky Blitt. On November 30, 2012, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce aFamily Guyfilm.The project was put on hold while MacFarlane worked onTed 2. On August 10, 2018, Fox announced that a live-action/animated film based on the series is in development. In July 2019, MacFarlane confirmed that there will be aFamily Guymovie. DuringPaleyFestin April 2024, MacFarlane revealed that he has known what the plot of the film would be for the past 15 years, but had not had the time to write it. Spin-off MacFarlane co-created—alongsideMike HenryandRichard Appel—theFamily Guyspin-offThe Cleveland Show, which premiered September 27, 2009. They began discussing the project in 2007. Video games TheFamily Guy Video Game!is a 2006action gamereleased by2K Gamesand developed byHigh Voltage Software. Family Guy: Back to the Multiverse, which is centered around the episode \"Road to the Multiverse\", was released on November 20, 2012. Family Guy: The Quest for Stufflaunched on iOS and Android on April 10, 2014. Animation Throwdown: The Quest For Cards, a card game with content and characters from five animated television shows from Fox –Family Guy,Futurama,American Dad!,Bob's BurgersandKing of the Hill– was released in 2016 byKongregate. Family Guy: Another Freakin' Mobile Gamewas released on iOS on April 25, 2017. Warped Kart Racersis a racing game that was released onApple Arcadein May 2022. The game features the entire Griffin family, and includes characters fromAmerican Dad!,King of the HillandSolar Opposites. Merchandise As of 2009, six books have been released about theFamily Guyuniverse, all published byHarperCollinssince 2005.The first,Family Guy: Stewie's Guide to World Domination(ISBN978-0-06-077321-2) by Steve Callahan, was released on April 26, 2005. Written in the style of agraphic novel, the plot follows Stewie's plans to rule the world.Other books includeFamily Guy: It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One(ISBN978-0-7528-7593-4), which covers the events of theepisode of the same name;andFamily Guy and Philosophy: A Cure for the Petarded(ISBN978-1-4051-6316-3), a collection of 17 essays exploring the connections between the series and historical philosophers.A book written from Brian's point of view (written byAndrew Goldberg) was published in 2006, calledBrian Griffin's Guide to Booze, Broads and the Lost Art of Being a Man. Family Guyhas been commercially successful in the home market.The show was the first to be resurrected because of high DVD sales.The first volume, covering the show's first two seasons, sold 1.67 million units, topping TV DVD sales in 2003, while the second volume sold another million units.Volumes six and seven debuted at fifth place in United States DVD sales;volume seven was the highest-selling television DVD, selling 171,000 units by June 21, 2009.Family Guy Presents Blue Harvest, the DVD featuring theStar Warsspecial \"Blue Harvest\", was released on January 15, 2008, and premiered at the top of United States DVD sales.The DVD was the firstFamily GuyDVD to include a digital copy for download to the iPod.In 2004, the first series ofFamily Guytoy figurines was released byMezco Toyz; each member of the Griffin family had their own toy, with the exception of Stewie, of whom two different figures were made.Over the course of two years, four more series of toy figures were released, with various forms of Peter.In 2008, the character Peter appeared in advertisements forSubway Restaurants, promoting the restaurant's massive feast sandwich. See also References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links", "Seth MacFarlane Seth Woodbury MacFarlane(/məkˈfɑːrlɪn/; born October 26, 1973) is an American actor, animator, writer, producer, director, comedian, and singer. He is best known as the creator and star of the television seriesFamily Guy(since 1999) andThe Orville(2017–2022), and co-creator of the television seriesAmerican Dad!(since 2005) andThe Cleveland Show(2009–2013). He also co-wrote, directed, and starred in the filmsTed(2012) and its sequelTed 2(2015), andA Million Ways to Die in the West(2014). MacFarlane is a graduate of theRhode Island School of Design(RISD), where he studied animation.He was recruited to Hollywood as an animator and writer forHanna-Barbera's television seriesJohnny Bravo,Cow and ChickenandDexter's Laboratory; during this time, he created the animated shortLarry & Steve—a loose precursor ofFamily Guy—forWhat a Cartoon!. In 2008, he created the online seriesSeth MacFarlane's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy. MacFarlane has also made guest appearances as an actor on live action shows includingGilmore Girls,Star Trek: Enterprise,The War at Home, andFlashForward. MacFarlane has won several awards for his work onFamily Guy, including fivePrimetime Emmy Awards. In 2009, he won theWebby Awardfor Film & Video Person of the Year. MacFarlane has performed as a vocalist at theHollywood Bowl,Carnegie Hall, and theRoyal Albert Hall. He has released eight studio albums, in the vein ofFrank Sinatra, with influences fromjazz orchestrations, andHollywood musicalsbeginning withMusic Is Better Than Wordsin 2011. MacFarlane has received fiveGrammy Awardnominations for his work.He has frequently collaborated with artists such asSara Bareilles,Norah Jones, andElizabeth Gillieson his albums.He hosted the85th Academy Awardsin 2013 and was nominated forBest Original Songfor \"Everybody Needs a Best Friend\" fromTed. MacFarlane was executive producer of theNeil deGrasse Tyson-hostedCosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, an update of the 1980sCosmosserieshosted byCarl Sagan.He received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2019 and was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Famein 2020. Early life and education MacFarlane was born and raised inKent, Connecticut.His parents, Ronald Milton MacFarlane (b. 1946) and Ann Perry (née Sager; 1947–2010), were born inNewburyport, Massachusetts.His younger sisterRachaelis also a voice actress. His maternal grandfather,Arthur Sager, competed in the1928 Summer Olympicsintrack and field. MacFarlane's parents met in 1970 when they lived and worked inBoston, Massachusetts, and married later that year.They moved to Kent in 1972, where Ann began working in the admissions office atSouth Kent School. She later worked in the college guidance and admissions offices at theKent School, a selectivecollege preparatory school, where Ronald was a teacher. As a child, MacFarlane developed an interest in illustration, and at the age of two he began drawingcartooncharacters such asFred FlintstoneandWoody Woodpecker.By age five, he knew he wanted to pursue a career in animation, and began by creatingflip booksafter his parents found a book on the subject for him.Four years later, at nine, he began publishing a weekly comic strip,Walter Crouton, forThe Kent Good Times Dispatch, the local newspaper; it paid him five dollars per week.MacFarlane said in an October 2011 interview that as a child he was always \"weirdly fascinated by theCommunionceremony\". He created a strip with a character kneeling at the altar taking Communion and asking \"Can I have fries with that?\" The paper printed it and he got an \"angry letter\" from the local priest; it led to \"sort of a little mini-controversy\" in the town.MacFarlane received his high school diploma in 1991 from the Kent School.While there, he continued experimenting with animation, and his parents gave him an8 mmcamera. After graduating from high school, MacFarlane attended theRhode Island School of Design(RISD), where he majored in animation. As a student, he intended to work forDisney, but changed his mind after seeingThe Simpsons.During his time at RISD, he performed stand-up comedy.He also starred in many student films, meeting futureFamily Guycast memberMike Henry, whose brother Patrick was MacFarlane's classmate.In his senior year, he made his thesis film,The Life of Larry, which became the inspiration forFamily Guy.A professor submitted his film to the animation studioHanna-Barbera, where he was later hired.He graduated in 1995 with aBachelor of Fine Artsdegree. Career Television career Hanna-Barbera years MacFarlane was recruited during the senior film festival by development executive Ellen Cockrill and PresidentFred Seibert.He went to work at Hanna-Barbera (then Hanna-Barbera Cartoons) based on the writing content ofThe Life of Larry, rather than on his drawing abilities. He was one of only a few people hired by the company solely based on writing talent.He worked as an animator and writer for Cartoon Network'sCartoon Cartoonsseries.He created a sequel toThe Life of LarryentitledLarry & Steve, featuring a middle-aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve. The short was broadcast as one ofCartoon Network'sWorld Premiere Toons. He described the atmosphere at Hanna-Barbera as resembling an \"old-fashioned Hollywood structure, where you move from one show to another or you jump from a writing job on one show to a storyboard job on another\". MacFarlane worked on three television series during his tenure at the studio:Dexter's Laboratory,Cow and Chicken, andJohnny Bravo.Working as both a writer andstoryboard artist, MacFarlane spent the most time onJohnny Bravo. He found it easier to develop his own style atJohnny Bravothrough the show's process of scriptwriting, whichDexter's LaboratoryandCow and Chickendid not use.As a part of theJohnny Bravocrew, he met actors and voiceover artists such asAdam WestandJack SheldonofSchoolhouse Rock!fame. These meetings later became significant to the production and success of hisFamily Guyseries. He also did freelance work forWalt Disney Television Animation, writing forJungle Cubs, and forNelvana, where he wrote forAce Ventura: Pet Detective. Through strict observation of writing elements such as story progression, character stakes and plot points, MacFarlane found the work for Disney was, from a writing standpoint, very valuable in preparation for his career (particularly onAce Ventura).He also created and wrote a short titledZoomatesforFrederator Studios'Oh Yeah! CartoonsonNickelodeon.Executives at theFox Broadcasting Companysaw bothLarryshorts and negotiations soon began for a prime-time animated series. Family Guy Although MacFarlane enjoyed working at Hanna-Barbera, he felt his real calling was for prime-time animation, which would allow a much edgier style of humor.He first pitchedFamily Guyto Fox during his tenure at Hanna-Barbera. A development executive there, who was trying to get back into prime-time business, introduced MacFarlane to Leslie Kolins and Mike Darnell, heads of the alternative comedy department at Fox. After the success ofKing of the Hillin 1997, MacFarlane called Kolins once more to ask about a possible second pitch for the series. Fox offered the young writer a strange deal: They gave him a budget of $50,000 (equivalent to $95,000 in 2023) to produce a pilot that could lead to a series (most episodes of animated prime-time productions cost at least $1 million).Recalling the experience in an interview withThe New York Times, MacFarlane said: \"I spent about six months with no sleep and no life, just drawing like crazy in my kitchen and doing this pilot.\" After six months, MacFarlane returned to Fox with a \"very, very simply, crudely animated film—with just enough to get the tone of the show across\" to present to the executives, who loved the pilot and immediately ordered the series.In July 1998, they announced the purchase ofFamily Guyfor a January 1999 debut.Family Guywas originally intended to be a series of shorts onMADtv, much in the same wayThe Simpsonshad begun onThe Tracey Ullman Showa decade earlier. Negotiations for the show'sMADtvconnection fell through early on as a result of budgetary concerns.At age 24, MacFarlane was television's youngest executive producer. Family Guyfirst aired January 31, 1999.MacFarlane's work in animatingFamily Guywas influenced byJackie Gleasonand Hanna-Barbera along with examples fromThe SimpsonsandAll in the Family.In addition to writing three episodes, \"Death Has a Shadow\", \"Family Guy Viewer Mail 1\", and \"North by North Quahog\", MacFarlane voicesFamily Guy's main male characters ofPeter Griffin,Stewie Griffin,Brian Griffin, andGlenn Quagmire, as well as Tom Tucker, his son Jake Tucker, and other characters. Bolstered by high DVD sales and fan loyalty,Family Guydeveloped into a $1-billion franchise.On May 4, 2008, after approximately2+1⁄2years of negotiations, MacFarlane reached a $100-million agreement with Fox to keepFamily GuyandAmerican Dad!until 2012. It made him the world's highest paid television writer. MacFarlane's success withFamily Guyopened doors to other ventures relating to the show. On April 26, 2005, he and composerWalter MurphycreatedFamily Guy: Live in Vegas. The soundtrack features a Broadway show tune theme, and MacFarlane voiced Stewie in the track \"Stewie's Sexy Party\".A fan of Broadway musicals,MacFarlane comments on using musicals as a component ofFamily Guy: I love the lush orchestration and old-fashioned melody writing ... it just gets you excited, that kind of music\", he said. \"It's very optimistic. And it's fun. The one thing that's missing for me from popular music today is fun. Guys like Crosby, or Sinatra, orDean Martin, orMel Tormé these are guys who sounded like they were having a great time. AFamily Guyvideo gamewas released in 2006.Two years later, in August 2007, MacFarlane closed a digital content production deal with AdSense.He takes cast members on the road to voice characters in front of live audiences.Family Guy Liveprovides fans with the opportunity to hear future scripts. In mid-2007, Chicago fans had the opportunity to hear the then upcoming sixth-season premiere \"Blue Harvest\". Shows have played inMontreal, New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles. On July 22, 2007, in an interview withThe Hollywood Reporter, MacFarlane announced that he might start work on a feature film, although \"nothing's official\".In September 2007,Ricky BlittgaveTV.coman interview confirming that he had already started working on the script.Then inTV Weekon July 18, 2008, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically releasedFamily Guyfeature film sometime \"within the next year\".He came up with an idea for the story, \"something that you could not do on the show, which is the only reason to do a movie\". He later went on to say he imagines the film to be \"an old-style musical with dialogue\" similar toThe Sound of Music, saying that he would \"really be trying to capture, musically, that feel\".On October 13, 2011, MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for aFamily Guyfilm had been made, and that he would write it with series co-producer Ricky Blitt.On November 30, 2012, he confirmed plans for the project.The project was put on hold while MacFarlane worked onTed 2.In 2018, Fox announced that a live-action/animated film based on the series is in development.MacFarlane stepped away from the series in 2011 to work onTedand other projects, and has only been associated with the show as a voice actor since then. Despite its popularity,Family Guyhas often beencriticized.TheParents Television Councilhas been a frequent critic. It organized a letter-writing campaign to remove it from Fox's lineup,and filed complaints with theFederal Communications Commissionalleging that some of its episodes contained indecent content.MacFarlane has responded to the PTC's criticism by saying, among other things: \"That's like getting hate mail fromHitler. They're literally terrible human beings.\" Family Guyhas been cancelled twice, although strong fan support and DVD sales have caused Fox to reconsider.MacFarlane mentioned how these cancellations affected the lineup of writers: \"One of the positive aspects ofFamily Guyconstantly being pulled off is that we were always having to re staff writers.\" During its sixth season, episodes ofFamily GuyandAmerican Dad!were delayed from regular broadcast due to the2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. MacFarlane participated in the strike to support the writers, and Fox aired threeFamily Guyepisodes without his permission. The strike ended on February 12, 2008,and the series resumed airing regularly, beginning with \"Back to the Woods\". American Dad! MacFarlane has a second long-running, successfuladultanimated seriesinAmerican Dad!which has been in production since early 2005. To date, it is his only animated series that has never been cancelled, though it did undergo a network relocation from Fox toTBSon October 20, 2014, following its11th season. TBS announced on July 16, 2013, that they had picked up the series for a 15-episode12th season. The purpose of the network relocation was originally to make room for new comedies on FOX, such asMulaneyand another animated series from Seth MacFarlane calledBordertownon Fox's now-defunct \"Animation Domination\" programming block. While MacFarlane does extensivevoice actingwork forAmerican Dad!, he has left much of itscreative directionup toMatt WeitzmanandMike Barker, feeling it helps give the series its own voice and identity.It was announced on November 4, 2013, that Barker would departAmerican Dad!after 10 seasons as producer/co-showrunner. American Dad!was first shown afterSuper Bowl XXXIX, debuting with the episode \"Pilot\", which MacFarlane co-wrote. This February 6, 2005, series premiere was somewhat of an early sneak preview as the program did not begin airing regularly until May 1, 2005.Because of atypical scheduling of the show'sfirst 7 episodes,American Dad!has a controversialseason number discrepancyin which many are divided as to how many seasons the program has had. Beyond division between media journalists and fans, there have been conflicting reports as to what season the show is in even betweenAmerican Dad!creators and the show's official website—both from its original Fox website and now from TBS website.AtSan Diego Comic-Conin 2013, Barker hinted that anAmerican Dad!movie—centering on the Roger character and set from his birth planet—is in the works and partially written. However, at San Diego Comic-Con in 2022, Weitzman revealed plans for the film were scrapped. MacFarlane has described the initial seasons ofAmerican Dad!as being similar toAll in the Family, likeningtitle characterStan Smith's originallybigotedpersona toArchie Bunker.MacFarlane has also stated that his inspiration to createAmerican Dad!derived from his and Weitzman's exasperation withGeorge W. Bush's policies as former United States President.After the early couple of seasons however, the series discontinued using these elements ofpolitical satireand began to serve up its own brand of entertainment and humor.MacFarlane was described as having difficulty understanding the series in its early going; however, he heavily warmed up to the series after its early seasons once he felt the show truly came into its own. His fellow co-creators have sensed this through MacFarlane's greatly increased attention to the series after its early seasons. MacFarlane has also revealed he is anAmerican Dad!fan himself. He has taken note of the positive reaction to the \"Roger\" character by fans via his Twitter. The show focuses on the Smith family: Stan Smith, the endangering,dog-eat-dog, rash and inconsiderate head of the household. He has an exaggeratedly large chin and masculine manner about him. As the family'sbreadwinner, he works as aCIAofficer and was initially portrayed in the series as an old-fashioned conservative bigot but has since grown out of these traits (the show is known for itsstory arcelements and otherdistinguishing plot techniques); Stan'sparadoxicallymoralistic yet simultaneously inappropriate, corrupt wife,Francine; and their two children, new-age hippie daughterHayleyand nerdy sonSteve. Accompanying the Smith family are three additional main characters, two of which belong tonon-humanspecies: zany, shocking, blithely cruel and rascally alien Roger, who'sfull of disguises/alter egosand has few if any limits on his behaviors. He was rescued by Stan fromArea 51;Klaus, the man-in-a-fish-body pet. Klaus's unenviable situation came about from the brain of an East GermanOlympicskier being shrunk and transplanted into a fish body; andJeff Fischer, Hayley's boyfriend turned \"whipped\" husband, known for his infatuation with Hayley's mom, Francine.Together, the Smiths and their three housemates run what is only at a first glance the typicalmiddle-class Americanlifestyle, but is anything but. MacFarlane provides the voices of Stan and Roger, basing Roger's voice onPaul Lynde(who played Uncle Arthur inBewitched).His sister Rachael MacFarlane provides the voice of Hayley. The Cleveland Show MacFarlane developed aFamily Guyspin-off calledThe Cleveland Show, which focuses on the character ofCleveland Brownand his family. The idea for the show originated from a suggestion byFamily Guywriter and voice of Cleveland, Mike Henry. Fox ordered 22 episodes and the series first aired on September 27, 2009. The show, which was picked up to air a first season consisting of 22 episodes,was picked up by Fox for a second season, consisting of 13 episodes, bringing the total number to 35 episodes. The announcement was made on May 3, 2009, before the first season even premiered.Due to strong ratings, Fox picked up the back nine episodes of season 2, making a 22-episode season and bringing the total episode count of the show to 44.The series ended on May 19, 2013, with a total of 4 seasons and 88 episodes. The character of Cleveland and his family returned toFamily Guyin the episode \"He's Bla-ack!\". This is the only animated series created by MacFarlane that does not have him voicing the main character. MacFarlane did, however, play the character Tim the Bear until season 3 episode 10.Jess Harnellvoiced Tim from season 3 episode 11 onwards. Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy In 2008, MacFarlane released a series ofwebisodesknown asSeth MacFarlane's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedywith its animated shorts sponsored byBurger Kingand released weekly. The Orville In 2016, MacFarlane began producing the sci-fi comedy-drama seriesThe Orville, in which he also stars asCaptain Edward \"Ed\" Mercer.MacFarlane originally wroteThe Orvilleas aspec script, which was given a 13-episode order by Fox in May 2016, making it the first live-action television series created by MacFarlane.The series premiered on September 10, 2017.Despite the first season receiving negative reviews, it was renewed for a second season.The second season premiered on December 30, 2018, and received better reviews. The series was renewed for a third season by Fox, however the series would move over toHulu.This season is the show's first on Hulu, after airing its previous two seasons on Fox, as well as the first to premiere since The Walt Disney Company's March 2019acquisition of 20th Century Fox.The season was originally scheduled to premiere in 2020 but was delayed due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.The third season titled asThe Orville: New Horizonspremiered on June 2, 2022.Due to the pandemic, an episode of third season was scrapped, which MacFarlane subsequently turned into a novel, titledThe Orville: Sympathy for the Devil. Television producing MacFarlane was the executive producer of a live-action sitcom starringRob CorddrycalledThe Winner. The plot has a man named Glen discussing the time he matured at 32 and has him pursuing his only love after she moves in next door. Glen meets her son and both become good friends.The show ran on Fox for six episodes in Spring 2007. In August 2011, Fox ordered a 13-part updated series ofCosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey. MacFarlane co-produced the series withAnn DruyanandSteven Soter. The new series is hosted byNeil deGrasse Tysonand began airing on the channel in March 2014, with repeats airing on theNational Geographic Channelon the next night.In addition to serving as one of the executive producers, MacFarlane provided voices for characters during the animated portions of the series. MacFarlane returned to executive produce and provide voices to its sequel series,Cosmos: Possible Worlds, which aired in 2020. In 2013 and 2014, MacFarlane produced one season of a live-action sitcom calledDads.The series, revolves around Eli, played bySeth Green, and Warner, played byGiovanni Ribisi, two successful guys in their 30s whose world is turned upside down when their dads move in with them. MacFarlane,Alec SulkinandWellesley Wildexecutive-produced the series, with Sulkin and Wild writing. In 2014, MacFarlane executive produced a two-season, 20-episode series calledBlunt TalkforStarz.The series followed an English newscaster who moves to Los Angeles with his alcoholic manservant and the baggage of several failed marriages to host a sanctimonious talk show. In 2009, MacFarlane began work on the animated seriesBordertown.The series is set in Texas and follows a border patrol agent and a Mexican immigrant, satirizing America's changing cultural landscape. It ran for 13 episodes in the first half of 2016, on Fox. Television hosting MacFarlane has participated in theComedy Central Roasts. MacFarlane is the only person to serve as roastmaster for more than one roast. In 2010, he filled this role for the roast ofDavid Hasselhoff.The following year he was roastmaster at the roasts ofDonald TrumpandCharlie Sheen. On October 1, 2012, it was announced that MacFarlane would host the85th Academy Awardson February 24, 2013.He also presented the nominees with actressEmma Stone, on January 10, 2013. In addition to hosting, MacFarlane was also nominated in theAcademy Award for Best Original Songcategory for co-writing the theme song \"Everybody Needs a Best Friend\" for his filmTedwith Walter Murphy.Critical response to MacFarlane's performance was mixed. ColumnistOwen GleibermanofEntertainment Weeklycommented \"By calling constant attention to the naughty factor,\" MacFarlane created \"an echo chamber of outrage, working a little too hard to top himself with faux-scandalous gags about race, Jews in Hollywood, and the killing of Abraham Lincoln.\"Tim Goodman ofThe Hollywood Reporterpraised MacFarlane's performance saying that he did \"impressively better than one would have wagered.\" He also noted that he added \"plenty of niceties with a little bit of theRicky Gervaisbite-the-hand-that-feeds-you thing and worked the juxtaposition rather nicely.\"He stirred up controversy in the form of a musical number titled \"We Saw Your Boobs\". On October 29, 2014, it was announced that MacFarlane would host theBreakthrough Prizeceremony. The event was held inSilicon Valleyand televised on November 15, 2014, onDiscovery ChannelandScience, and globally on November 22, 2014, onBBC World News.He returned to host the following year. Film career Ted MacFarlane made his directorial live-action film debut with the release ofTedin 2012. He announced that he was directing it on an episode ofConanthat aired on February 10, 2011. Along with directing the film, he also wrote the screenplay, served as producer, and starred as the title character. Tedtells the story of John Bennett (Mark Wahlberg) and his talking teddy bear (MacFarlane) who keeps John and his girlfriend Lori Collins (Mila Kunis) from moving on with their lives. The film received generally favorable reviews from both critics and audiences, and was a box office success, opening with the highest weekend gross of all time for an original R-rated comedy.Internationally, the movie is currently the highest-grossing original R-rated comedy of all time, beatingThe Hangover. A sequel,Ted 2, was released on June 26, 2015. It was announced in June 2021 thatPeacockhad given a straight to series order for a prequel series. In addition to serving as executive producer for the series, MacFarlane reprises his role as Ted. Due to its prequel nature, Wahlberg and Kunis do not reprise their roles. A Million Ways to Die in the West MacFarlane co-wrote and starred in his second film,A Million Ways to Die in the West. Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild were also co-writers for the film. The film follows a cowardly sheep farmer (MacFarlane) who loses a gunfight and sees his girlfriend leave him for another man. When a mysterious woman rides into town, she helps him find his courage. But when her outlaw husband arrives seeking revenge, the farmer must put his newfound courage to the test.The film was met with mixed to negative reviews from critics. On January 27, 2014, MacFarlane announced that he wrote acompanion novelbased on the film's script, which was released on March 4, 2014.An audio-book version was also made available, narrated byJonathan Frakes.MacFarlane wrote the book on weekends during shooting for the film, partially due to boredom. Music career Record deal and albums In 2010, MacFarlane signed a record deal withUniversal Republic Records.He released his debut album,Music Is Better Than Words, in 2011. The album is abig band/standardsalbum drawing on his training in and attraction to \"theGreat American Songbookand particularly the early- to late-'50s era of orchestration\".The album featured duets withNorah JonesandSara Bareilles. It was nominated in theBest Traditional Pop Vocal Albumand theBest Engineered Album, Non-Classicalcategories at the54th Grammy Awards.It received a score of 52 out of 100 onMetacritic's compilation of music critic reviews.In 2014, he released his second studio album and first Christmas albumHoliday for Swing.It received mostly positive reviews.In 2015, his third studio albumNo One Ever Tells Youwas nominated for aGrammy Awardfor Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album.In 2016, he was honored byBarbara Sinatraat the 28th annual Frank Sinatra Celebrity Invitational. He released his fourth studio album,In Full Swing, in 2017,again featuring songs composed byJoel McNeely.Three singles were released from it: \"That Face\",\"Almost Like Being in Love\",and \"Have You Met Miss Jones?\"The album was nominated for two Grammy Awards for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album andBest Arrangement, Instrumental and Vocals.In 2019, for his fifth studio albumOnce in a While,MacFarlane worked with composer Andrew Cottee. In 2020, MacFarlane released his sixth studio album,Great Songs from Stage & Screen,with composerBruce Broughton, who he works with onThe Orville, to compose the album.Like his previous four albums, he recorded a majority of the songs atAbbey Road Studios. However, much of the albums post-production work was done at home due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.In 2022, he released his seventh studio album,Blue Skies.In November 2023, MacFarlane released a collaborative Christmas album with Gillies titledWe Wish You the Merriest. The lead single of the same name was dropped on the day of the announcement. Collaborations He was featured on Calabria Foti's 2013 single \"Let's Fall in Love\".In 2016, he recorded the song \"Pure Imagination\" as a duet withBarbra Streisandfor her albumEncore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway.MacFarlane sang numerousshow tuneswithAriana Grandeon an episode ofCarpool Karaoke: The Seriesin 2017. During theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, MacFarlane andElizabeth Gilliescollaborated on a series of songs, eight in total, on a playlist entitled,Songs from HomeonSpotify.MacFarlane was featured inMeghan Trainor’s Christmas album,A Very Trainor Christmasand did a cover of \"White Christmas\". The single debuted at number 24 on theAdult Contemporarychart issued dated November 14, 2020, the third holiday entry for both, and it later peaked at number 1 on the chart.In 2023, MacFarlane was co-featured alongsideRedmanandStatik Selektahon the album track \"Self Medication\", fromLogic's eighth studio albumCollege Park. Other projects MacFarlane was executive producer of a 2020 feature film adaptingClive Barker’s novelBooks of Bloodfor Hulu, directed byBrannon Braga. In 2020, he signed a $200 million deal withNBCUniversalto develop television projects for both internal and external networks, including the company’s then-developing streaming service Peacock.Among these projects isThe End is Nye, hosted byBill Nye, a six episode series exploring and explaining six apocalyptic scenarios. MacFarlane is executive producer and will make small appearances in each episode. It premiered on the service on August 25, 2022. In January 2021, it was announced that MacFarlane had been hired to develop a reboot ofThe Naked Gun. After MacFarlane had previously expressed interest in castingLiam Neesonas Frank Drebin Jr. in 2015, the filmmaker was hired by the studio. Neeson revealed that the filmmaker alongside Paramount Pictures had approached him with a pitch to star in the movie.In June of the same year, Neeson stated that MacFarlane was working on a new draft of the script, with the studio additionally negotiating the filmmaker's potential role as director. He expressed excitement for the project and the opportunity to explore a more comedic role, should he decide to star in the movie; while stating that development on the project is ongoing.In October 2022, the film was officially greenlit with Neeson in the lead role. The film will be directed byAkiva Schaffer, Dan Gregor and Doug Mand were hired to write a new draft of the script, from a previous draft with contributions fromMark Hentemann, Alec Sulkin and MacFarlane himself. MacFarlane and Erica Huggins will serve as producers. Guest appearances MacFarlane has appeared in sitcoms, comedy and news programs, independent films, and other animated shows. In 2002, MacFarlane appeared in theGilmore Girlsepisode \"Lorelai's Graduation Day\".On November 5, 2006, MacFarlane guest starred on Fox'sThe War at Homeas \"Hillary's Date\", an unnamed 33-year-old man who secretly dates teenaged Hillary in the episode \"I Wash My Hands of You\".MacFarlane also appeared as the engineer Ensign Rivers onStar Trek: Enterprisein the third-season episode \"The Forgotten\" and the fourth-season episode \"Affliction\". During 2006, MacFarlane had a role in the independent filmLife is Short.He has been a frequent guest on the radio talkshowLoveline, hosted by Dr.Drew Pinsky. MacFarlane appeared on the November 11, 2006, episode of Fox's comedy showMADtv.MacFarlane has also appeared on news shows and late night television shows such asJimmy Kimmel Live!andLate Show with David Letterman.Three months later on March 24, 2007, MacFarlane was interviewed on Fox'sTalkshow with Spike Feresten,and closed the show by singing the Frank Sinatra song \"You Make Me Feel So Young\".He also provided Stewie's voice when he appeared as abrain tumor-induced hallucination toSeeley Boothin an episode ofBones, writing his own dialogue for the episode.On May 8, 2009, MacFarlane was a guest onReal Time with Bill Maher. Other thanFamily GuyandAmerican Dad!, MacFarlane voices characters in other cartoon shows and films. He voiced Wayne \"The Brain\" McClain in an episode ofAqua Teen Hunger Force.He has also voiced various characters onAdult Swim'sRobot Chicken, including a parody ofLion-OandEmperor Palpatineas well as Peter Griffin in the Season 2 premiere – he even parodied himself in the Season 4 premiere, in which he renewed the show simply by mentioning it in aFamily Guy-like cutaway after its fictitious cancellation at the end of Season 3. He also played the villain \"The Manotaur\" inBob Boyle's animated kids seriesYin Yang Yo!.In addition, MacFarlane voiced Johann Kraus in the 2008 filmHellboy II: The Golden Army.He also had a guest appearance in the animated filmFuturama: Into the Wild Green Yonderwhere he sings \"That Was Then (And This is Too)\", the opening theme.He had also starred in a commercial for Hulu in which he plays an alien presenting Hulu as an \"evil plot to destroy the world\", progressively as his famousFamily GuyandAmerican Dad!characters. He also lent his voice to the series finale movie of the Comedy Central series,Drawn Together. MacFarlane played Ziggy in the 2010 filmTooth Fairy. In August 2010, he appeared as a guest voice-over in a sci-fi themed episode of Disney'sPhineas and Ferbentitled \"Nerds of a Feather\".On September 15, 2012, MacFarlane hosted the season premiere ofSaturday Night Live, with musical guestFrank Ocean.The episode was MacFarlane's first appearance on the show. MacFarlane had a cameo in the 2013 filmMovie 43.MacFarlane collaborated withMatt Groeningon an episode ofThe SimpsonsandFuturama.In 2016, he had a voice role in the animated filmSing, as well as serving as a major performer on the film's soundtrack.In 2017, he appeared inSteven Soderbergh's heist comedyLogan Lucky, alongsideChanning TatumandAdam Driver.In 2019, MacFarlane appeared in theShowtimelimited seriesThe Loudest Voice. Artistry Musical style MacFarlane has abaritonevoice.He is a pianist and singer who, in his early years, trained withLee and Sally Sweetland, the vocal coaches of Barbra Streisand and Frank Sinatra. In an interview withNPR, he commented on their training style: \"They really drill you. They teach you the old-style way of singing, back when you had no electronic help ... show your teeth. If you look at old photos of Sinatra while he's singing, there's a lot of very exposed teeth. That was something Lee Sweetland hit on day in and day out, and correctly so, because it just brightens the whole performance.\"In 2009, MacFarlane appeared as a vocalist at theBBC Promswith theJohn Wilson Orchestrain Prom 22,A Celebration of Classic MGM Film Musicals.In 2010, he reappeared at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a Christmas concert special. In 2012, it was announced he would again appear at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a concert celebrating Broadway musicals.In 2015, MacFarlane again appeared at The Proms as a vocalist with the John Wilson Orchestra, this time in a Sinatra program.Regarding his musical passion, MacFarlane has said, \"I love and am fascinated by exciting orchestration—what you can do with a band that size—and I think in many ways it's a lost art.\"His music is predominantlyvocal jazz, show tunes andswing.He also usesmusical comedyin his shows and movies. Influences MacFarlane has said that his comedy influences includeWoody Allen,Jackie Gleason,Mel Brooks,Monty Python,Matt Groening, andNorman Lear;while his musical influences include Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin,Vic Damone,Johnny Mercer,Bing Crosby,Bobby Darin,Gordon MacRaeand theRat Pack. Activism Political views MacFarlane is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.He has donated over $200,000 to variousDemocratic congressional committeesand to the2008 presidential campaignof then-U.S. SenatorBarack Obama.He has stated that he supports thelegalization of cannabis. In 2015, MacFarlane endorsedBernie Sandersfor the2016 U.S. presidential election, and he introduced Sanders onstage at a Los Angeles rally.After the primaries, he supportedHillary Clintonfor president during the general election.In 2019, he supportedPete Buttigiegin the2020 U.S. presidential election.After the primaries, he endorsedJoe Bidenfor president during the general election.He endorsed Biden again for the2024 U.S. presidential election.After Bidenwithdrew his candidacy, MacFarlane endorsedKamala Harris. Gay rights advocacy MacFarlane is a supporter ofgay rights. In 2008, prior to the holding of theObergefell v. Hodgescase by theUnited States Supreme Court, MacFarlane called it \"infuriating and idiotic\" that two gay partners \"have to go through this fuckingdog and pony actwhen they stop at a hotel and the guy behind the counter says, 'You want one room or two?'\" He went on to say: \"I'm incredibly passionate about my support for thegay communityand what they're dealing with at this current point in time.\" In recognition of \"his active, passionate commitment tohumanistvalues, and his fearless support of equal marriage rights and other social justice issues\", MacFarlane was named the Harvard Humanist of the Year in 2011. Speaking engagements MacFarlane is a frequent speaking guest on college campuses.On April 16, 2006, he was invited byStanford University's ASSU Speakers' Bureau to address an audience of over 1,000 at Memorial Auditorium.He was invited byHarvard University's class of 2006 to deliver the \"class day\" address on June 7, 2006. He spoke as himself, and also as Peter Griffin, Stewie Griffin and Glenn Quagmire.He has also spoken atGeorge Washington University,Washington University in St. Louis,theUniversity of Texas at Austin,theUniversity of Missouri,Bowling Green State University,Loyola Marymount University,andUniversity of California, Los Angeles. 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike During the2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, MacFarlane publicly sided with the Writers Guild, and fully participated in the strike.Official production ofFamily Guywas halted for most of December 2007 and various periods afterwards. Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane's final approval, and although he refused to work on the show during the strike, his contract with Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it subsequently produced.Rumors of continued production onFamily Guyprompted the statement from MacFarlane that \".....it would just be a colossal dick move if they did that\".During the strike, MacFarlane wrote an inside joke into an episode ofFamily GuyaboutJon Stewart's choice to return to the air and undermine the writers ofThe Daily Show, causing Stewart to respond with an angry phone-call, harassing MacFarlane and arguing his point.The strike ended on February 12, 2008. 2023 WGA and SAG-AFTRA strike During the2023 Writers Guild of America strikeand the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike, MacFarlane donated $1 million to The Entertainment Community Fund to Support Film and Television Workers During Strikes. The Entertainment Community, formerly The Actors Fund, is there to help provide financial assistance for industry workers during theSAG-AFTRAandWGAstrikes. The Seth MacFarlane Collection of the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Archive In 2012, MacFarlane donated money to create The Seth MacFarlane Collection of theCarl Saganand Ann Druyan Archive at theLibrary of Congress. MacFarlane said, \"The work of Carl Sagan has been a profound influence in my life, and the life of every individual who recognizes the importance of humanity's ongoing commitment to the exploration of our universe The continuance of our journey outward into space should always occupy some part of our collective attention, regardless of whateverSnookidid last week.\"The collection opened on November 12, 2013. Film preservation On April 20, 2024 MacFarlane partnered withMartin Scorseseto showcaseBack From the Ink: Restored Animated Shortsat the2024 TCM Classic Film Festival. MacFarlane and Scorsese funded the restoration, and worked with theUCLA Film and Television ArchiveandThe Film FoundationwithParamount Pictures Archives. Personal life MacFarlane lives inBeverly Hills, California.He is not married nor does he have any children. In a 2004 interview withThe Daily Princetonian, he noted his similarities to Brian Griffin fromFamily Guy: \"I have some Brian type issues from time to time—looking for the right person—but I date as much as the next guy.\" MacFarlane gave a speech at his alma mater, the Rhode Island School of Design, on September 10, 2001;the next morning he was scheduled to return to Los Angeles onAmerican Airlines Flight 11, one of the planes hijacked in theSeptember 11 attacks. Due to ahangoverafter the previous night's celebrations and an incorrect departure time (8:15 a.m. instead of 7:45 a.m.) from histravel agent,he arrived atLogan International Airportabout ten minutes too late to board the flight, as the gates had been closed.Speaking of his experience of missing the fatal trip, MacFarlane said: The only reason it hasn't really affected me as it maybe could have is I didn't really know that I was in any danger until after it was over, so I never had that panic moment. After the fact, it was sobering, but people have a lot of close calls; you're crossing the street and you almost get hit by a car... This one just happened to be related to something massive. I really can't let it affect me because I'm a comedy writer. I have to put that in the back of my head. TheFamily Guyepisode \"Boy (Dog) Meets Girl (Dog)\" references the incident. On July 16, 2010, MacFarlane's mother, Ann Perry Sager, died from cancer. Her death was reported byLarry Kingon his showLarry King Live, who acknowledged a conversation he had with her during an interview with MacFarlane in May 2010. From 2012 to 2013, MacFarlane was in a relationship with the British actressEmilia Clarke. MacFarlane is a self-describedatheist, explaining his beliefs, \"I do not believe in God. I'm an atheist. I consider myself a critical thinker, and it fascinates me that in the 21st century most people still believe in, asGeorge Carlinputs it, 'the invisible man living in the sky'.\" Lawsuits On October 3, 2007,Bourne Co. Music Publishersfiled a lawsuit accusingFamily Guyofinfringing its copyrighton the song \"When You Wish Upon a Star\", through a parody song titled \"I Need a Jew\" appearing in the episode \"When You Wish Upon a Weinstein\". Bourne Co., which holds the copyright, alleged the parody pairs a \"thinly veiled\" copy of their music withanti semiticlyrics. Named in the suit were MacFarlane, 20th Century Fox Film Corp., Fox Broadcasting Co., Cartoon Network and Walter Murphy; the suit sought to stop the program's distribution and asked for unspecified damages.Bourne argued that \"I Need a Jew\" uses the copyrighted melody of \"When You Wish Upon a Star\" without commenting on that song, and that it was therefore not aFirst Amendment-protected parody per the ruling inCampbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.On March 16, 2009, United States District JudgeDeborah Battsheld thatFamily Guydid not infringe on Bourne's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode. In December 2007,Family Guywas again accused of copyright infringement when actorArt Metranofiled a lawsuit regarding a scene inStewie Griffin: The Untold Story, in which Jesus performs Metrano's signature magic parody act, involving absurd faux magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune \"Fine and Dandy\".MacFarlane,20th Century Fox,Steve Callaghan, and Alex Borstein were all named in the suit.In July 2009, a federal district court judge rejected Fox's motion to dismiss, saying that the first three fair use factors involved—\"purpose and character of the use\", \"nature of the infringed work\", and \"amount and substantiality of the taking\"—counted in Metrano's favor, while the fourth—\"economic impact\"—had to await more fact-finding. In denying the dismissal, the court held that the reference in the scene made light of Jesus and his followers—not Metrano or his act.The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms. On July 16, 2014, MacFarlane was served with a lawsuit from the production company of a series of Internet videos calledCharlie the Abusive Teddy Bearclaiming thatTedinfringes on the copyright of its videos due to the Ted bear largely matching the background story, persona, voice tone, attitude, and dialogue of the Charlie bear.The suit was dismissed with prejudice on March 23, 2015, after the plaintiffs conceded Ted was independently created and withdrew the suit. Awards and nominations MacFarlane has been nominated for twenty-fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsfor his work onFamily Guyand has won five times, in 2000, 2002, 2016, 2017 and 2019.He has been nominated for five Grammy Awards for his work inFamily Guy: Live in Vegas,Music Is Better Than Words,Family Guy,No One Ever Tells YouandIn Full Swing.He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for co-writing the opening song, \"Everybody Needs a Best Friend\", from his filmTedwith the film's composer Walter Murphy. He has received numerous awards from other organizations, including theAnnie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Productionand theSaturn Award for Best Television Presentationfor theFamily Guyepisode titled \"Blue Harvest\", theMTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Duoand theEmpire Award for Best ComedyforTed.In 2019, MacFarlane received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fameat 6259 Hollywood Blvd.In 2020, he was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Fame. In 2022, a new species ofHyloscirtusfrog(Hyloscirtus sethmacfarlanei) was described fromEcuadorand named after him. Filmography Discography Written works References External links", "American Airlines Flight 11 American Airlines Flight 11was a domesticpassenger flightthat was hijacked by fiveal-Qaedaterrorists on the morning of September 11, 2001, as part of theSeptember 11 attacks. The hijacked airliner was deliberately crashed into theNorth Towerof theWorld Trade Centercomplex inNew York City, killing everyone still alive aboard the flight and resulting in the deaths of more than one thousandpeople in the top 18 stories of the skyscraper in addition to causing the demise of numerous others below the trapped floors, making it not only thedeadliest of the four suicide attacksexecuted that morning in terms of both plane and ground fatalities, but also the single deadliest act of terrorism in human historyand thedeadliest plane crash of all time.The aircraft involved, aBoeing 767-200ERwith 92 passengers and crew, was flyingAmerican Airlines' daily scheduled morningtranscontinental servicefromBoston Logan International AirportinMassachusettstoLos Angeles International AirportinCalifornia. The airplane left the runway at 07:59. Not more than 15 minutes after takeoff, thehijackersinjured two people, murdered one, and breached the cockpit while forcing the passengers and crew to the rear of the aircraft against their will. The assailants quickly overpowered both the captain and the first officer and possibly killed them, allowing lead hijackerMohamed Attato take over the controls, having intensively trained as a pilot in the lead-up to the attacks. Air traffic controllers suspected that the flight was in distress because the crew were no longer responding. They realized the plane had been hijacked when Atta's falsely reassuring announcements for the hostages were transmitted to air traffic control instead of the cabin's PA system as intended. Two flight attendants were able to contactAmerican Airlinesand passed along information relevant to the situation, in particular casualties suffered by the passengers and crew. Atta flew the plane into the tower's north face from floors 93 through 99 at 08:46local time. The impact was witnessed by countless people in the streets of New York City as well as the nearby state ofNew Jersey, but few video recordings captured the moment.Jules Naudetcaptured the only known footage clearly depicting Flight 11's impact. The media quickly began reporting on the incident and speculated that the crash had been an accident. Seventeen minutes later,United Airlines Flight 175crashed into the World Trade Center'sSouth Towerat 09:03, instantly dispelling any notion it was accidental. The damage caused by the plane and the fires ignited by its crash caused the North Tower to collapse at 10:28 that morning, resulting in hundreds of additional casualties. While therecovery effortat theWorld Trade Center sitedid lead to the discovery and identification of body fragments from certain individuals who boarded Flight11, many have not been identified. Flight The aircraft involved in the hijacking was a Boeing 767-200ER withregistration numberN334AAThe capacity of the aircraft was 158passengers (9 in first class, 30 in business class and 119 in economy class), but the September11 flight carried 81passengers and 11crew members. This was a light load at 58percent capacity, but higher than the averageload factorfor Flight11 on Tuesday mornings of 39percent in the months preceding September11.The crew members wereCaptainJohn Ogonowski(50),First OfficerThomas McGuinness Jr. (42) (a former Navyfighter pilot), purser Karen Martin and flight attendants Barbara Arestegui, Jeffrey Collman, Sara Low, Kathleen Nicosia,Betty Ong, Jean Roger, Dianne Snyder, andAmy Sweeney. All 92 people on board were killed,includingFrasiercreator and executive producerDavid Angell, his wife Lynn Angell, actressBerry Berenson(widow of fellow actorAnthony Perkins), andAkamai Technologiesco-founderDaniel Lewin.Family GuycreatorSeth MacFarlanehad been scheduled to be on the flight but overslept due to ahangoverand arrived at the airport too late.ActorMark Wahlbergwas also scheduled to be on the flight but changed his plans and canceled his ticket the day before.Actress Leighanne Littrell, wife ofBackstreet BoyssingerBrian Littrell, had also previously been booked on the flight but, like Wahlberg, changed her plans. Boarding Portland, Maine Mohamed Atta, the ringleader of the attacks, and fellow hijackerAbdulaziz al-Omariarrived atPortland International JetportinMaineat 05:41 Eastern Daylight Time on September11, 2001. At the Portland ticket counter, Atta asked ticket agent Mike Tuohey for his boarding pass for Flight 11. When Tuohey told Atta he would have to check in a second time when he reached Logan, Atta appeared on the verge of anger, telling Tuohey that he had been assured he would have \"one-step check-in.\" Out of concern he wasracially profilingAtta as an Arab terrorist, Tuohey did not budge or rise to his hostility, and simply told him that he would better hurry if he did not want to miss the flight. Although Atta still looked cross, he and Omari left the ticket counter for the Portland airport's security checkpoint. They boardedColgan AirFlight5930, which was scheduled to depart at 06:00 and fly to Boston. Both hijackers hadfirst classtickets with a connecting flight to Los Angeles; Atta checked in two bags, a green Travel Gear bag and a black Travelpro bag,while Omari checked in none.When they checked in, theComputer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System(CAPPS) selected Atta for extra luggage scrutiny, but he boarded without incident. The flight from Portland departed on time and arrived in Boston at 06:45. Three other hijackers,Waleed al-Shehri,Wail al-Shehri, andSatam al-Suqami, arrived at Logan Airport at the same time, having left their rental car in the airport parking facility. At 06:52,Marwan al-Shehhi, the hijacker pilot of United Airlines Flight 175, made a call from a pay phone in Logan Airport to Atta's cell phone. This call was apparently to confirm that the attacks were ready to begin. Boston, Massachusetts Since they were not given boarding passes for Flight11 in Portland, Atta and Omari checked in and went through security in Boston.Suqami, Wail al-Shehri, and Waleed al-Shehri also checked in for the flight in Boston. Wail al-Shehri and Suqami each checked one bag; Waleed al-Shehri did not check any bags.CAPPS selected all three for a detailed luggage check.As the CAPPS' screening was only for luggage, the three hijackers did not undergo any extra scrutiny at the passenger security checkpoint. First Officer Lynn Howland had just arrived in Boston after copiloting the flight from San Francisco that would be redesignated American Flight 11. As she walked off the aircraft and entered the passenger lounge, Atta approached her and asked if she would be flying the plane back across the country. When Howland told him she just brought the aircraft in, Atta turned his back and walked away. As he boarded Flight 11, Atta asked a gate agent whether the two bags he had checked earlier in Portland had been loaded onto the plane. In the rushed check-in after the flight from Portland, airline officials did not load Atta's bags on Flight11.Seized after the attacks, the bags contained papers from Atta's studies in Germany and Egypt; Alomari's international driver's license and passport; a videocassette for a Boeing 757 flight simulator; and a folding knife and pepper spray. They also contained \"The Last Night\" document, with instructions to the hijackers and preparations for martyrdom and death. Further, the bags' contents identified the names of all 19 hijackers for the four crashed, September 11th flights. By 07:40, all five hijackers were aboard the flight, scheduled to depart at 07:45.Atta sat inbusiness classseat 8D with al-Omari in 8G and Suqami in 10B. Waleed and Wail al-Shehri sat in first class seats 2B and 2A.Shortly before takeoff, American Airlines flight service manager Michael Woodward walked aboard for a final check. He briefly passed Atta, making note of this passenger's brooding expression, and then left the plane.At 07:46, one minute behind schedule, the aircraft received clearance to push back from Gate B32,and was cleared to taxi to the runway at 07:50. The aircraft began its takeoff roll from Logan International Airport at 07:59 from runway4R. Hijacking The9/11 Commissionestimated that the hijacking began at 08:14when the pilots stopped responding to requests from theBoston Air Route Traffic Control Center(Boston ARTCC).At 08:13:29, as the aircraft was passing over central Massachusetts at 26,000 feet (7,900 m), the pilots responded to a request from Boston ARTCC to make a 20-degree turn to the right. At 08:13:47, Boston ARTCC told the pilots to ascend to a cruising altitude of 35,000 feet (11,000 m), but received no response.At 08:16, the aircraft leveled off at 29,000 feet (8,800 m)and shortly thereafter deviated from its scheduled path. At 08:17:59, flight controllers at Boston Center heard a brief, unknown sound on the radio frequency used by Flight 11 and other nearby flights, a noise that was later described as sounding like a scream.Boston ARTCC made multiple attempts to talk to Flight11 without reply.The commission believes that the hijackers were in absolute control of the aircraft by 08:20,: 51six minutes after launching their assault. The flight's Mode-Ctranspondersignal was then switched off by someone in the cockpit at 08:21.At 08:23 and 08:25,Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System(ACARS) tried to contact the flight. The first message read, \"Good morning, ATC looking for you on 135.32\"; the other read, \"Please contact Boston Center ASAP. They have lost radio contact and your transponder signal.\" Flight 11 did not reply. Reports from flight attendants According to flight attendants Amy Sweeney and Betty Ong, who contacted American Airlines during the hijacking, the hijackers had stabbed flight attendants Karen Martin and Barbara Arestegui and slashed passengerDaniel Lewin's throat.It is unknown how the hijackers gained access to the cockpit; FAA rules at the time required that the doors remain closed and locked during flight. Ong said she thought that the hijackers had \"jammed their way\" in. The commission suggested they attacked the flight attendants to get a cockpit key, to force one of them to open the cockpit door, or to lure the captain or first officer out of the cockpit.It is theorized that the al-Shehri brothers made the first move by attacking Martin and Arestegui. Sweeney said that Martin was badly injured and being given oxygen. Sweeney and Ong said Arestegui's injuries were not as serious. Ong said she heard loud arguing after the hijackers entered the cockpit.It is believed that the hijackers either killed or incapacitated Ogonowski and McGuinness.Sweeney said that one of the hijackers had shown her a device with red and yellow wires that appeared to be a bomb.Ong and Sweeney said that the coach passengers did not seem to fully understand the peril, and were under the impression that there was a routine medical emergency in the front section of the plane, and that the other flight attendants were helping passengers and finding medical supplies.Ong said Lewin appeared to be dead, while Sweeney said that Suqami had attacked Lewin. Lewin was seated in 9B, and Suqami sat directly behind him in 10B. One version of events is that Suqami attacked Lewin, unprovoked, to frighten other passengers and crew into compliance.Alternatively, Lewin, an American-IsraeliInternet entrepreneur who understood Arabic, and had served as an officer in the eliteSayeret Matkalspecial operations unit of theIsrael Defense Forces,may have attempted to stop the hijacking, and confronted one of the hijackers in front of him, unaware of Suqami behind him.Lewin is believed to be the first fatality in the 9/11 attacks.During a four-minute call to the American Airlines operations center, Ong provided information about lack of communication with the cockpit, lack of access to the cockpit, and that she thought someone had sprayedMacein the business class cabin.She also provided the seat locations of the hijackers, which later helped investigators to determine their identities. Hijacker's transmissions At 08:24:38, a hijacker broadcast to Boston ARTCC.Air traffic controllersheard the hijacker announce, \"We have some planes. Just stay quiet and you'll be O.K. We are returning to the airport.\" At 08:24:56 he announced, \"Nobody move. Everything will be okay. If you try to make any moves, you'll endanger yourself and the airplane. Just stay quiet.\" As Atta spoke English fluently, he likely made the transmissions. It is also possible that Atta's seatmate, al-Omari, accompanied him into the cockpit.Atta apparently tried to make an announcement to the passengers, but keyed the wrong switch and instead his voice was picked up and recorded by air traffic controllers.After Atta's transmissions and the inability to contact the airliner, air traffic controllers at Boston ARTCC realized that Flight 11 was being hijacked.At 08:26, after crossing the Massachusetts-New York border, the plane turned 100 degrees to the south, following theHudson Riverthat would lead directly toNew York City.At 08:32, theFederal Aviation Administration(FAA) Command Center inHerndon, Virginia, notified FAA headquarters. At 08:33:59, the hijacker announced a third and final transmission: \"Nobody move, please. We are going back to the airport. Don't try to make any stupid moves.\"At 08:37:08, the pilots of United Airlines Flight175 verified Flight11's location and heading to flight control.Seconds before their plane was also hijacked, at 8:42 a.m., the pilots of Flight 175 informed New York Center that they previously heard a suspicious announcement over the radio as they were climbing out of Logan 28 minutes earlier, which would have been around the same time Flight 11 was hijacked. This particular transmission was never picked up by controllers on the ground unlike the other three, but the pilots reported hearing the words, \"Everyone, stay in your seats.\": 38 Fighter jets dispatched Boston ARTCC bypassed standard protocols and directly contacted theNorth American Aerospace Defense Command(NORAD)Northeast Air Defense Sector(NEADS) inRome, New York.NEADS called on twoF-15fighter jets atOtis Air National Guard BaseinMashpee, Massachusetts, to intercept. Officials at Otis spent a few minutes getting authorization for the fighters to take off.The order to dispatch the fighters at Otis was given at 08:46, and the F-15s took off at 08:53,roughly seven minutes after American Airlines Flight11 had already crashed into the North Tower. Of the four hijacked aircraft on 9/11, the nine minutes of advance notification about the hijacking of Flight11 was the most time that NORAD had to respond before the aircraft crashed into its intended target. Crash At 8:37 a.m., Flight 11 began a rapid descent of 3,200 feet per minute toward New York City, gradually losing speed. Three minutes before impact, Atta completed his final turn toward Manhattan,flying south over the city in the direction of the World Trade Center. At 08:46,flight attendant Amy Sweeney panicked that her plane was \"flying way too low\" just as Atta deliberately crashed into the North Tower. The airplane, traveling about 440 miles per hour (710 km/h; 200 m/s; 380 kn) and loaded with around 10,000 U.S. gallons (38,000 L; 8,300 imp gal) of jet fuel, struck the skyscraper's northern façade between floors 93 and 99, its nose impacting the 96th floor.Hundreds were killed instantly, including everyone on the aircraft and numerous workers in the North Tower.Many who had been outside of the path of the crashing airliner were incinerated as its fuel exploded.: 73Studies suggest that as many as 1,426 people may have been present on the top 18 floors of the North Tower when it was struck almost midway into its central core.The core housed three stairwells (A, B and C) extending from the roof to the ground floor, with a distance of just 70 feet (21 metres) between each one in the impact region.The size of the hijacked 767 easily severed all three, trapping close to a thousand crash survivors.All stairwells from floors 93 up to 99 were destroyed or blocked and elevator service was disrupted from the 50th floor upward.: 74The airplane descended downward at an angle of about 10 degrees at impact, pushing rubble into stairwells as many as six stories below where it hit; consequently, the 92nd floor was also sealed off from the rest of the tower when falling debris from Flight 11's impact zone walled off each of its stairwells.The highest survivors in the North Tower came from the 91st floor, while anyone above was left to burn alive, asphyxiate, succumb to toxic exposure from ignited chemicals or be killed in the tower's eventual collapse. Some 100–200 people plummeted from the upper floors, most of whom died by jumping to escape the intense heat, smoke and flames.Light-to-moderate damage was reported on every floor from ground level to the 92nd, including collapsed walls, missing ceiling tiles, severed wires and smashed windows. The sprinkler system was severed by the impact, causing flooding on various floors throughout the tower. Moreover, burning jet fuel was channeled through the building via elevator shafts and ductwork,igniting small-scale fires on many floors between the 77th and 91st. Three major flash fires occurred in the 78th and 44th floor skylobbies as well as the main lobby at the base, causing fatal burns nearly a hundred floors below the impact.The shockwave was felt in both towers.: 87The northern and western façades of the South Tower were battered by debrisand a limited number of windows were broken by the explosion. Prevailing winds from the northwest caused the top of the South Tower to become engulfed by the thick smoke pouring southeast, and a number of employees at that altitude reported that the fumes began filtering into their floors alongside the intense heat. Countless people in both the city and state of New York as well as the adjacent state ofNew Jerseysaw first-hand what had happened to the North Tower, and the smoke billowing over the horizon very quickly became visible from parts ofConnecticutas well. Despite this, only four people happened to be recording at 08:46. French cameramanJules Naudet, who was filming a documentary about the FDNY, rode with Battalion 1 to investigate a suspected gas leak in a storm drain at the intersection of Church and Lispenard streets, where he caught the only known clear footage of the plane flying into the tower. Pavel Hlava, a Czech immigrant, unknowingly taped the plane from far away while preparing to drive into theBrooklyn–Battery TunnelfromBrooklyn. Just south of the World Trade Center, the New York City-based television stationWNYWhad been filming in nearbyCity Hall Parkwhen Flight11 crashed into the tower offscreen. Reporter Dick Oliver picked up the camera and recorded the immediate aftermath.Awebcamset up byWolfgang Staehleat an art exhibit in Brooklyn to take images ofLower Manhattanevery four seconds also captured stills of Flight11 flying towards the North Tower and the explosion that followed. Some reporters claimed that the plane that struck the North Tower was a \"small, twin-engine jet,\" despite the size of the hole in the skyscraper. At 08:55, senior advisor to the presidentKarl Roveconveyed this misleading information to PresidentGeorge W. Bushas he arrived atEmma E. Booker Elementary SchoolinSarasota, Florida; the president's surmise was that the crash \"must have been caused by pilot error.\"Shortly after, in an on-air phone call from his office at the CNN New York bureau, CNN vice president of finance Sean Murtagh reported that a large passenger commercial jet had hit the World Trade Center,and other television networks began interrupting regular broadcasting with news of the crash within minutes. The general assumption was that Flight 11's crash was a tragic accident, although some news stations suggested it could have been on purpose. Though many people in the South Tower chose to evacuate after seeing what had happened in the North Tower, thePort Authoritymade the decision not to initiate an immediate full-scale evacuation of the South Tower immediately following the first plane crash, operating under the assumption that it was an accident.Seventeen minutes after the first impact, the World Trade Center's South Tower was hit by United Airlines Flight 175, confirming to the entire world that it was in fact deliberate. Aftermath After the crash, the North Tower burned for 102minutes beforecollapsingat 10:28. Although the impact itself caused extensive structural damage, the long-lasting fire ignited by jet fuel was blamed for the structural failure of the tower.In addition to the aircraft passengers and building occupants, hundreds of rescue workers also died when the tower collapsed.Despite being the first of the two buildings to be hit, the North Tower was the second to collapse. Furthermore, it stood for nearly twice as long after being struck as the South Tower, with the latter burning for only 56 minutes before collapsing. This is because Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower at a lower speed and much higher up than Flight 175 did into the South Tower, leading to there being far less structural weight above the impact zone; the North Tower had 11 floors above the point of impact while the South Tower had more than twice that amount.Cantor Fitzgerald L.P., an investment bank on floors 101–105 of the North Tower, lost 658employees, considerably more than any other employer. Rescue workers at theWorld Trade Center sitebegan to discover body fragments from Flight11 victims within days of the attack. Some workers found bodies strapped to airplane seats and discovered the remains of a flight attendant with her hands bound, suggesting the hijackers might have usedplastic handcuffs.Within a year, medical examiners had identified the remains of 33victims who had been on board Flight11.They identified two other Flight11 victims, includingpurserKaren Martin, in 2006, while other unrelated body fragments were discovered nearGround Zeroaround the same time.In April 2007, examiners using newerDNAtechnology identified another Flight11 victim.The remains of two hijackers, potentially from Flight11, were also identified and removed fromMemorial Parkin Manhattan.The remains of the other hijackers have not been identified and are buried with other unidentified remains at this park. Suqami's passport survived the crash and landed in the street below. Soaked in jet fuel, it was picked up by a passerby who gave it to aNew York City Police Department(NYPD) detective shortly before the South Tower collapsed.Investigators retrieved Mohamed Atta's luggage, which had not been loaded onto the flight. In it, they found Omari's passport and driver's license, a videocassette for a Boeing 757 flight simulator, a folding knife, and pepper spray.Ina recording, a few months later in Afghanistan,Al Qaeda's leader,Osama bin Laden, took responsibility for the attack. The attack on the World Trade Center exceeded even bin Laden's expectations: he had expected only the floors above the plane strikes to collapse.Theflight recordersfor Flight11 and Flight175 were never found. After the attacks, theflight numberfor the scheduled flight on the same route with the same takeoff time was changed, and as of 2024, is flown using anAirbus A321instead of a Boeing 767. An American flag is flown on the jet bridge of gate B32 from which Flight11 departed Logan Airport.An American flag is also flown on the jet bridge of gate 65B at Los Angeles Airport, where Flight 11 was scheduled to arrive. In 2002, the first recipients of the annualMadeline Amy SweeneyAward for Civilian Bravery were Sweeney and Ong. Ogonowski also received a posthumous award. They were all residents of Massachusetts. Relatives of all three accepted the awards on their behalf. On April 26, 2013, a piece of the wing flap mechanism from a Boeing 767 was discovered wedged between two buildings at Park Place, near where otherlanding gearparts were found.Theonboard defibrillatorfrom Flight11 was found in 2014 during roadworks nearLiberty Street. At theNational September 11 Memorial, the names of the 87victims of Flight11 are inscribed on the North Pool, on Panels N-1 and N-2, and Panels N-74 – N-76. See also Notes References Works cited External links" ]
[ "Family Guy Family Guyis an Americananimated sitcomcreated bySeth MacFarlanefor theFox Broadcasting Company. The series premiered on January 31, 1999, followingSuper Bowl XXXIII, with the rest of the first season airing from April 11, 1999. The show centers around theGriffins, adysfunctional familyconsisting of parentsPeterandLois, their children,Meg,Chris, andStewie, and theiranthropomorphicpet dog,Brian. Set in the fictional city ofQuahog,Rhode Island, the show exhibits much of its humor in the form ofmetafictionalcutaway gagsthat often lampoonAmerican culture. The family was conceived by MacFarlane after he developed two animated films,The Life of LarryandLarry & Steve. MacFarlane redesigned the films' protagonist, Larry, and his dog, Steve, and renamed them Peter and Brian, respectively. MacFarlane pitched a seven-minute pilot to Fox in December 1998, and the show was greenlit and began production.Family Guy'scancellation was announced shortly after thethird seasonhad aired in 2002, withone unaired", "withone unaired episodeeventually premiering onAdult Swimin 2003, finishing the series' original run. Favorable DVD sales and highratingsfrom syndicated reruns since then convinced Fox to revive the show in 2004; afourth seasonbegan airing the following year, on May 1, 2005. Since its premiere,Family Guyhas received generally positive reviews. In 2009, it was nominated for aPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the first time an animated series had been nominated for the award sinceThe Flintstonesin 1961. In 2013,TV GuiderankedFamily Guyas the ninth-greatest TV cartoon.The series has also garnered considerable amounts ofcriticism and controversy, ranging from storylines and character stereotypes, to allegations of racism, homophobia, and misogyny. Manytie-inmedia based on the show have been released, includingStewie Griffin: The Untold Story, astraight-to-DVDspecial released in 2005;Family Guy: Live in Vegas, a soundtrack-DVD combo released in 2005, featuring music from the show as well as", "the show as well as music created by MacFarlane andWalter Murphy; avideo gameandpinball machine, released in 2006 and 2007, respectively; since 2005, six books published byHarper Adult; andLaugh It Up, Fuzzball: The Family Guy Trilogy(2010), a collection of three episodes parodying theoriginalStar Warstrilogy. Aspin-offseries,The Cleveland Show, featuringCleveland Brown, aired from September 27, 2009, to May 19, 2013. On January 26, 2023, Fox announced that the series had been renewed for seasons 22 and 23, taking the show through the 2024–25 television season.Season 22 premiered on October 1, 2023.Family Guymoved to Wednesday nights beginning March 6, 2024, marking the show's first weeknight airings since 2002. Premise Characters The show centers around the adventures and activities of the dysfunctionalGriffin family, consisting of fatherPeter Griffin, a bumbling and clumsy yet well-intentionedblue-collar worker; his wifeLois, a stay-at-home mother and piano teacher (in early episodes) who is a member of", "who is a member of the affluentPewterschmidt family;Meg, their often bullied teenage daughter who is constantly ridiculed or ignored by the family;Chris, their awkward teenage son, who is overweight, unintelligent, unathletic, and in many respects a younger version of his father; andStewie, their diabolical infant son of ambiguous sexual orientation who is an adult-manneredevil geniusand uses stereotypicalarchvillainphrases. Living with the family is their witty, smoking,martini-swilling, sarcastic, English-speaking anthropomorphic dogBrian, although he is still considered a pet in many ways. Recurring characters appear alongside the Griffin family. These include the family's neighbors: sex-crazed airline pilot bachelorGlenn Quagmire; deli owner/mail carrierCleveland Brownand his wife Loretta (laterDonna);paraplegicpolice officerJoe Swanson, his wifeBonnie, their sonKevinand their baby daughterSusie; neurotic Jewish pharmacistMort Goldman, his wifeMuriel, and their geeky and annoying sonNeil, and elderly", "and elderly child molesterHerbert. TVnews anchorsTom TuckerandDiane Simmons,Asian reporterTricia Takanawa, andBlaccu-WeathermeteorologistOllie Williamsalso make frequent appearances. ActorJames Woodsguest stars as himself in multiple episodes, as didAdam West, prior to his death. Setting The primary setting ofFamily Guyis Quahog (/ˈk(w)oʊhɒɡ/K(W)OH-hog), afictional cityinRhode Islandthat was founded by Peter's ancestor, Griffin Peterson. MacFarlane resided in Providence during his time as a student atRhode Island School of Design, and the show contains distinct Rhode Island landmarks similar to real-world locations.MacFarlane often borrows the names of Rhode Island locations and icons such asPawtucketandBuddy Ciancifor use in the show. MacFarlane, in an interview with Providence's Fox affiliateWNAC-TV, stated that the town is modeled afterCranston, Rhode Island. Episodes Production Development MacFarlane conceivedFamily Guyin 1995 while studying animation at theRhode Island School of Design(RISD).During", "Design(RISD).During college, he created his thesis film titledThe Life of Larry,which was submitted by his professor at RISD toHanna-Barbera. MacFarlane was hired by the company.In 1996, MacFarlane created a sequel toThe Life of LarrytitledLarry and Steve, which featured a middle-aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve; the short was broadcast in 1997 as one ofCartoon Network'sWorld Premiere Toons. Executives atFoxsaw theLarryshorts and contracted MacFarlane to create a series, titledFamily Guy, based on the characters.Fox proposed that MacFarlane complete a 15-minute short and gave him a budget of $50,000.Several aspects ofFamily Guywere inspired by theLarryshorts.While MacFarlane worked on the series, the characters of Larry and his dog Steve slowly evolved into Peter and Brian.MacFarlane stated that the difference betweenThe Life of LarryandFamily Guywas that \"Life of Larrywas shown primarily in my dorm room andFamily Guywas shown after theSuper Bowl.\"After the pilot aired, the series", "aired, the series was given thegreenlight. MacFarlane drew inspiration from several sitcoms such asThe SimpsonsandAll in the Family.Premises were drawn from several 1980sSaturday-morning cartoonshe watched as a child, such asThe Fonz and the Happy Days GangandRubik, the Amazing Cube. The Griffin family first appeared on the demo that MacFarlane pitched to Fox on May 15, 1998.Family Guywas originally planned to start out as short movies for the sketch showMad TV, but the plan changed, becauseMADtv's budget was not large enough to support animation production. MacFarlane noted that he then wanted to pitch it to Fox, as he thought that it was the place to create a prime-time animation show.Family Guywas originally pitched to Fox in the same year asKing of the Hill, but the show was not bought until years later, whenKing of the Hillbecame successful. Executive producers MacFarlane has served as anexecutive producerthroughout the show's entire history. The first executive producers wereDavid Zuckerman,Lolee", "Zuckerman,Lolee Aries, David Pritchard, and Mike Wolf.Family Guyhas had many executive producers in its history, includingDaniel Palladino,Kara Vallow, andDanny Smith.David A. Goodmanjoined the show as a co-executive producer in season three and eventually became an executive producer. Writing The first team of writers assembled for the show consisted ofChris Sheridan,Danny Smith,Gary Janetti,Ricky Blitt,Neil Goldman,Garrett Donovan,Matt Weitzman, andMike Barker.The writing process ofFamily Guytypically starts with 14 writers that take turns writing the scripts; when a script is finished it is given to the rest of the writers to read. These scripts generally includecutaway gags. Various gags are pitched to MacFarlane and the rest of the staff, and those deemed the funniest are included in the episode. MacFarlane has explained that it normally takes 10 months to produce an episode because the show uses hand-drawn animation. The show rarely comments on current events for this reason.The show's initial writers", "initial writers had never written for an animated show, and most came from live-action sitcoms. MacFarlane explained that he is a fan of 1930s and 1940s radio programs, particularly the radio thriller anthologySuspense, which led him to give early episodes ominous titles like \"Death Has a Shadow\" and \"Mind Over Murder.\" MacFarlane said that the team dropped the naming convention after individual episodes became hard to identify, and the novelty wore off.For the first few months of production, the writers shared one office, lent to them by theKing of the Hillproduction crew. Credited with 19 episodes,Steve Callaghanis the most prolific writer on theFamily Guystaff. Many of the writers that have left the show have gone on to create or produce other successful series.Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovanco-wrote 13 episodes for the NBC sitcomScrubsduring their eight-year run on the show, while also serving as co-producers and working their way up to executive producers.Mike BarkerandMatt Weitzmanleft the show and", "the show and went on to create the long-running and still ongoing adult animated seriesAmerican Dad!MacFarlane is also a co-creator ofAmerican Dad!On November 4, 2013, it was announced that Barker had departedAmerican Dad!during its run as well, after 10 seasons of serving as producer and co-showrunner over the series. During the2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, official production of the show halted for most of December 2007 and for various periods afterward. Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane's final approval, which he termed \"a colossal dick move\" in an interview withVariety. Though MacFarlane refused to work on the show, his contract under Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it would subsequently produce.Production officially resumed after the end of the strike, with regularly airing episodes recommencing on February 17, 2008.According to MacFarlane, in 2009, it cost about $2 million to make an episode ofFamily Guy. During his September 2017AMAonReddit, MacFarlane", "MacFarlane revealed that he had not written for the show since 2010, choosing instead to focus on production and voice acting. On May 12, 2023, it was announced that the showrunners ofFamily Guy, including Seth MacFarlane, would temporarily leave the show as a result of the2023 Writers Guild of America Strike.They returned to the show on September 27, 2023, once the strike was declared to be over. Voice cast Seth MacFarlane voices three of the show's main characters:Peter Griffin,Brian Griffin, andStewie Griffin.Since MacFarlane had a strong vision for these characters, he chose to voice them himself, believing it would be easier than for someone else to attempt it.MacFarlane drew inspiration for the voice of Peter from a security guard he overheard talking while attending the Rhode Island School of Design.Stewie's voice was based on the voice of English actorRex Harrison,especially his performance in the 1964 musical drama filmMy Fair Lady.MacFarlane uses his regular speaking voice when playing", "voice when playing Brian.MacFarlane also provides the voices for various other recurring and one-time-only characters, most prominently those of the Griffins' neighborGlenn Quagmire, news anchorTom Tucker, and Lois' father,Carter Pewterschmidt. Alex Borsteinvoices Peter's wifeLois Griffin,Asian correspondent Tricia Takanawa,Loretta Brown, and Lois' mother,Babs Pewterschmidt.Borstein was asked to provide a voice for the pilot while she was working onMADtv. She had not met MacFarlane or seen any of his artwork and said it was \"really sight unseen\".At the time, Borstein was performing in a stage show in Los Angeles. She played a redheaded mother whose voice she had based on one of her cousins. Seth Greenprimarily voicesChris GriffinandNeil Goldman.Green stated that he did an impression of the characterBuffalo Billfrom the thriller filmThe Silence of the Lambsduring his audition. Mila KunisandLacey Chaberthave both voicedMeg Griffin.Chabert left the series after the first season because of time conflicts with", "time conflicts with schoolwork (at the time) and her role onParty of Five. When Kunis auditioned for the role, she was called back by MacFarlane, who instructed her to speak slower. He then told her to come back another time and enunciate more. Once she claimed that she had it under control, MacFarlane hired her.Archival recordings of Lacey Chabert's voice that she provided as Meg Griffin are used in thetenth seasonepisode \"Back to the Pilot\" in which Brian and Stewie go back in time to the events of \"Death Has a Shadow.\" Mike HenryvoicesHerbert,Bruce the Performance Artist,Consuela, theGreased-up Deaf Guy, and until 2021,Cleveland Brown.Henry met MacFarlane at the Rhode Island School of Design and kept in touch with him after they graduated.A few years later, MacFarlane contacted him about being part of the show; he agreed and came on as a writer and voice actor.During the show's first four seasons, he was credited as a guest star, but beginning withseason five's \"Prick Up Your Ears\", he has been credited", "has been credited as a main cast member.On June 26, 2020, after twenty years of voicing the character, Mike Henry announced on Twitter that he was stepping down from voicing Cleveland, stating \"persons of color should play characters of color.\"On September 25, 2020, it was announced thatArif Zahirwould take over as the voice of Cleveland. Other recurring cast members includePatrick WarburtonasJoe Swanson,Jennifer TillyasBonnie Swanson,John G. BrennanasMort GoldmanandHorace the bartender,Carlos AlazraquiasJonathan Weed,Adam CarollaandNorm MacdonaldasDeath,Lori AlanasDiane Simmons,Phil LaMarrasOllie Williamsand Judge Dignified Q. Blackman,andKevin Michael Richardsonas Jerome. Fellow cartoonistButch Hartmanhas made guest voice appearances in episodes as various characters.Also, writerDanny Smithvoices various recurring characters, such asErnie the Giant Chicken.Alexandra Breckenridgealso appears as many various characters.Adam Westappeared as theeponymousMayor Adam West, until his death in 2017. Episodes often", "Episodes often feature guest voices from a wide range of professions, including actors, athletes, authors, bands, musicians, and scientists. Many guest voices star as themselves.Leslie Uggamswas the first to appear as herself, in the fourth episode of the first season, \"Mind Over Murder\".The episode \"Not All Dogs Go to Heaven\" guest starred the entire cast ofStar Trek: The Next Generation, includingPatrick Stewart,Jonathan Frakes,Brent Spiner,LeVar Burton,Gates McFadden,Michael Dorn,Wil Wheaton,Marina Sirtis, and evenDenise Crosby(season 1 asTasha Yar), playing themselves; this is the episode with the most guest stars of the seventh season. Early history and cancellation Family Guyofficially premiered after Fox's broadcast ofSuper Bowl XXXIIIon January 31, 1999, with \"Death Has a Shadow\". The show debuted to 22 million viewers and immediately generated controversy regarding its adult content.The show returned on April 11, 1999, with \"I Never Met the Dead Man\".Family Guygarnered decent ratings in Fox's 8:30", "in Fox's 8:30 pm slot on Sunday, scheduled betweenThe SimpsonsandThe X-Files.At the end of its first season, the show ranked No. 33 in theNielsen ratings, with 12.8 million households tuning in.The show launched its second season in a new time slot, Thursday at 9 pm, on September 23, 1999.Family Guywas pitted against NBC'sFrasier, and the series' ratings declined sharply.Subsequently, Fox removedFamily Guyfrom its schedule and began airing episodes irregularly. The show returned on March 7, 2000, at 8:30 pm on Tuesdays, where it was constantly beaten in the ratings byABC's then-new breakout hitWho Wants to Be a Millionaire, coming in at No. 114 in the Nielsen ratings with 6.32 million households tuning in.Fox announced that the show had been canceled in May 2000, at the end of the second season.However, following a last-minute reprieve, on July 24, 2000, Fox ordered 13 additional episodes ofFamily Guyto form a third season. The show returned on November 8, 2001, once again in a tough time slot: Thursday", "time slot: Thursday nights at 8:00 pm. This slot brought it into competition withSurvivorandFriends(a situation that was later referenced inStewie Griffin: The Untold Story).During its second and third seasons, Fox frequently moved the show around to different days and time slots with little or no notice and, consequently, the show's ratings suffered.Upon Fox's annual unveiling of its 2002 fall line-up on May 15, 2002,Family Guywas absent.Fox announced that the show had been officially canceled shortly thereafter. Cult success and revival Fox attempted to sell the rights for reruns of the show, but finding networks that were interested was difficult;Cartoon Networkeventually bought the rights \"basically for free\", according to the president of20th Century Fox Television.Family Guypremiered in reruns on Adult Swim on April 20, 2003, and immediately became the block's top-rated program, dominating late-night viewing in its time period versus cable and broadcast competition and boosting viewership by 239%.The", "by 239%.The complete first and second seasons were released on DVD the same week the show premiered on Adult Swim, and the show became a cult phenomenon, selling 400,000 copies within one month.Sales of the DVD set reached 2.2 million copies,becoming the best-selling television DVD of 2003and the second-highest-selling television DVD ever, behind the first season ofComedy Central'sChappelle's Show.The third-season DVD release also sold more than a million copies.The show's popularity in DVD sales and reruns rekindled Fox's interest,and, on May 20, 2004, Fox ordered 35 new episodes ofFamily Guy, marking the first revival of a television show based on DVD sales. \"North by North Quahog\", which premiered May 1, 2005, was the first episode to be broadcast after the show's hiatus. It was written by MacFarlane and directed byPeter Shin.MacFarlane believed the show's three-year hiatus was beneficial, because animated shows do not normally have hiatuses, and towards the end of their seasons, \"... you see a lot more", "you see a lot more sex jokes andbodily functionjokes and signs of a fatigued staff that their brains are just fried\".With \"North by North Quahog\", the writing staff tried to keep the show \" exactly as it was\" before its cancellation, and \"None of us had any desire to make it look any slicker\".The episode was watched by 11.85 million viewers,the show's highest ratings since the airing of thefirst seasonepisode \"Brian: Portrait of a Dog\". Lawsuits In March 2007, comedianCarol Burnettfiled a $6 million lawsuit against 20th Century Fox, claiming that hercharwomancartoon character had been portrayed on the show without her permission. She stated it was a trademark infringement and that Fox violated her publicity rights.On June 4, 2007, United States District JudgeDean D. Pregersonrejected the lawsuit, stating that the parody was protected under theFirst Amendment, citingHustler Magazine v. Falwellas a precedent. On October 3, 2007,Bourne Co. Music Publishersfiled a lawsuit accusing the show ofinfringing its", "ofinfringing its copyrighton the song \"When You Wish Upon a Star\", through a parody song titled \"I Need a Jew\" appearing in the episode \"When You Wish Upon a Weinstein\". Bourne Co., the sole United States copyright owner of the song, alleged the parody pairs a \"thinly veiled\" copy of its music withantisemiticlyrics. Named in the suit were20th Century Fox Film Corp.,Fox Broadcasting Co.,Cartoon Network,MacFarlane, andMurphy; the suit sought to stop the program's distribution and asked for unspecified damages.Bourne argued that \"I Need a Jew\" uses the copyrighted melody of \"When You Wish Upon a Star\" without commenting on that song, and that it was therefore not a First Amendment-protected parody per the ruling inCampbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.On March 16, 2009, United States District JudgeDeborah Battsheld thatFamily Guydid not infringe on Bourne's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode. In December 2007,Family Guywas again accused of copyright infringement when actorArt", "when actorArt Metranofiled a lawsuit regarding a scene inStewie Griffin: The Untold Story, in which Jesus performs Metrano's signature \"magic\" act involving absurd \"faux\" magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune \"Fine and Dandy\".20th Century Fox, MacFarlane, Callaghan and Borstein were all named in the suit.In July 2009, a federal district court judge rejected Fox's motion to dismiss, saying that the first three fair use factors involved – \"purpose and character of the use\", \"nature of the infringed work\" and \"amount and substantiality of the taking\" – counted in Metrano's favor, while the fourth – \"economic impact\" – had to await more fact-finding. In denying the dismissal, the court held that the reference in the scene made light of Jesus and his followers – not Metrano or his act.The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms. Hallmarks \"Road to\" episodes The \"Road to\" episodes are a series of hallmark travel episodes.They are a parody of the sevenRoad to ...comedy films", "to ...comedy films starringBing CrosbyandBob Hope.These episodes have always involvedStewieandBrianin some foreign, supernatural or science-fiction location, unrelated to the show's normal location in Quahog. The first, titled \"Road to Rhode Island\", aired on May 30, 2000, during thesecond season. The episodes are known for featuring elaboratemusical numbers, similar to theRoadfilms.The episodes contain several trademarks, including a special version of the opening sequence, custommusical cuesand musical numbers, and parodies of science fiction and fantasy films. The original idea for the \"Road to\" episodes came from MacFarlane, as he is a fan of the films of Crosby, Hope andDorothy Lamour. The first episode was directed byDan Povenmire, who would direct the rest of the \"Road to\" episodes until the episode \"Road to Rupert\", at which point he had left the show to createPhineas and FerbwithJeff \"Swampy\" Marsh.Series regular Greg Colton then took over Povenmire's role as director of the \"Road to\" episodes. The", "to\" episodes. The \"Road to\" episodes are generally considered by critics and fans to be some of the greatest in the series, thanks to the developing relationship between Stewie and Brian and the strong plotlines of the episodes themselves. Humor Family Guyuses the film-making technique ofcutaways, which occur in the majority ofFamily Guyepisodes.Emphasis is often placed on gags which make reference to social phenomena and/or modern cultural icons. Early episodes based much of their comedy on Stewie's \"super villain\" antics, such as his constant plans for total world domination, his evil experiments, plans and inventions to get rid of things he dislikes, and his constant attempts atmatricide. As the series progressed, the writers and MacFarlane agreed that his personality and the jokes were starting to feel dated, so they began writing him with a different personality.Family Guyoften includesself-referentialhumor. The most common form is jokes about the Fox network, and occasions where the charactersbreak the", "charactersbreak the fourth wallby addressing the audience. For example, in \"North by North Quahog\", the first episode that aired after the show's revival, included Peter telling the family that they had been canceled because Fox had to make room in their schedule for shows likeDark Angel,Titus,Undeclared,Action,That '80s Show,Wonderfalls,Fastlane,Andy Richter Controls the Universe,Skin,Girls Club,Cracking Up,The Pitts,Firefly,Get Real,FreakyLinks,Wanda at Large,Costello,The Lone Gunmen,A Minute with Stan Hooper,Normal, Ohio,Pasadena,Harsh Realm,Keen Eddie,The $treet,The American Embassy,Cedric the Entertainer Presents,The Tick,Luis, andGreg the Bunny. Lois asks whether there is any hope, to which Peter replies that if all these shows are canceled they might have a chance; the shows were indeed canceled duringFamily Guy's hiatus. The show usescatchphrases, and most of the primary and secondary characters have them. Notable expressions include Quagmire's \"Giggity giggity goo\", Peter's \"Freakin' sweet\",", "\"Freakin' sweet\", Cleveland's \"Oh, that's nasty\", and Joe's \"Bring it on!\"The use of many of these catchphrases declined in later seasons. The episode \"Big Man on Hippocampus\" mocks catchphrase-based humor: when Peter, who has forgotten everything about his life, is introduced to Meg, he exclaims \"D'oh!\", to which Lois replies, \"No, Peter, that's not your catchphrase.\" Reception and legacy In 2016, aNew York Timesstudy of the 50 TV shows with the mostFacebook Likesfound that, like other satirical comedies,Family Guy\"is most popular in cities. The show's popularity was more correlated withsupport for Hillary Clintonthan any other show\".As of 2008, the franchise has generated$1 billionin total revenue, including$400 millionfromTV syndication,$400 millionfromDVDsales, and$200 millionfrom merchandise sales. Ratings Family Guyexperienced a significant increase in viewership following its availability on various streaming platforms, with a particularly notable rise in popularity onHulu. In 2018, it ranked among", "it ranked among the most-watched TV series on the streaming serviceSling TV.In 2020, Hulu announced thatFamily Guywas one of the top five most-watched non-sports and non-news related live shows on the streaming service.Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, estimated that the series was watched for 910 million minutes from July 29 to August 4, 2024.The following week, it garnered 881 million minutes of viewing time from August 5 to August 11, 2024, making it the sixth most-streamed television show overall.From August 12 to August 18, 2024,Family Guygenerated 834 million minutes of viewership, ranking it as the eighth most-streamed television show overall.From August 26 to September 1, 2024, it amassed more than 1 billion minutes of viewing time, securing its position as the third most-streamed series overall. Critical reception Family Guyhas received generally positive reviews, particularly for its pop culture references, blue humor, satire, and non-sequitur", "and non-sequitur storytelling.Catherine Seipp ofNational Review Onlinedescribed it as a \"nasty but extremely funny\" cartoon.Caryn James ofThe New York Timescalled it a show with an \"outrageously satirical family\" that \"includes plenty of comic possibilities and parodies\".The Sydney Morning HeraldnamedFamily Guythe \"Show of the Week\" on April 21, 2009, hailing it a \"pop culture-heavy masterpiece\".Frazier Moore fromThe Seattle Timescalled it an \"endless craving for humor about bodily emissions\". He thought it was \"breathtakingly smart\" and said a \"blend of the ingenious with the raw helps account for its much broader appeal\". He summarized it as \"rude, crude and deliciously wrong\".The New Yorker's Nancy Franklin said thatFamily Guyis becoming one of the best animated shows; she commented on its ribaldry and popularity.The show has become a hit onHulu; it is the second-highest viewed show afterSaturday Night Live.IGNcalledFamily Guya great show and commented that it has gotten better since its revival. They", "its revival. They stated that they cannot imagine another half-hour sitcom that provides as many laughs asFamily Guy.Empirepraised the show and its writers for creating really hilarious moments with unlikely material. They commented that one of the reasons they love the show is because nothing is sacred—it makes jokes and gags of almost everything.Robin Pierson ofThe TV Criticpraised the series as \"a different kind of animated comedy which clearly sets out to do jokes which other cartoons can't do.\"Family Guyhas proven popular in the United Kingdom, regularly obtaining between 700,000 and 1 million viewers for re-runs onBBC Three. The series has attracted many celebrities.Robert Downey Jr.telephoned the show production staff and asked if he could produce or assist in an episode's creation, as his son is a fan of the show; the producers subsequently created a character for Downey.Lauren Conradmet MacFarlane while recording aLaguna Beachclip for the episode \"Prick Up Your Ears\" (season 5, 2006).She has", "5, 2006).She has watchedFamily Guyfor years and considers Stewie her favorite character.Commenting on his appearance in the episode \"Big Man on Hippocampus\" (season 8, 2010), actorDwayne Johnsonstated that he was a \"big fan\" ofFamily Guy.Johnson befriended MacFarlane after he had a minor role in Johnson's 2010 filmTooth Fairy.R&B singerRihannahas admitted to being a fan ofFamily Guy,as has pop singerBritney Spears; she tries to imitate Stewie's English accent.Spears, who was mocked for her personal problems in theSouth Parkepisode \"Britney's New Look\" in 2008, offered to appear in a cameo to hit back at the similar animated show, but MacFarlane declined, stating that he did not want to start a feud with the series. Awards Family Guyand its cast have been nominated for 27Emmy Awards, with 8 wins. MacFarlane won theOutstanding Voice-Over Performanceaward for his performance as Stewie;Murphy and MacFarlane won the Outstanding Music and Lyrics award for the song \"You Got a Lot to See\" from the episode \"Brian", "the episode \"Brian Wallows and Peter's Swallows\";Steven Fontiwon the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode \"No Chris Left Behind\";and Greg Colton won the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode \"Road to the Multiverse\".The show was nominated for elevenAnnie Awards, and won three times, twice in 2006 and once in 2008.In 2009, it was nominated for an Emmy forOutstanding Comedy Series, becoming the first animated program to be nominated in this category sinceThe Flintstonesin 1961.The Simpsonswas almost nominated in 1993, but voters were hesitant to pit cartoons against live action programs.The show was nominated for aGrammyin 2011.Family Guyhas been nominated and has won various other awards, including theTeen Choice Awardsand thePeople's Choice Awards.In the 1,000th issue ofEntertainment Weekly, Brian Griffin was selected as the dog for \"The Perfect TV Family\".Wizard Magazinerated Stewie the", "Stewie the 95th-greatest villain of all time.British newspaperThe TimesratedFamily Guythe 45th-best American show in 2009.IGN rankedFamily Guynumber seven in the \"Top 100 Animated Series\" and number six in the \"Top 25 Primetime Animated Series of All Time\".Empirenamed it the twelfth-greatest TV show of all time in 2008.In 2005, viewers of the UK television channelChannel 4votedFamily Guynumber 5 on their list of the 100 Greatest Cartoons.Brian was awarded the 2009 Stoner of the Year award byHigh Timesfor the episode \"420\", marking the first time an animated character received the honor.In 2004 and 2007, TV Guide rankedFamily Guynumber 12 and number 15 in their list of top cult shows ever.Family Guyhas garnered sixGolden Reel Awardsnominations, winning three times.In 2013,TV GuiderankedFamily Guythe ninth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time. Criticism and controversy One of the initial critics to give the show negative reviews was Ken Tucker fromEntertainment Weekly; he called it \"The Simpsonsas conceived by a", "conceived by a singularly sophomoric mind that lacks any reference point beyond other TV shows\".TheParents Television Council(PTC), a conservative non-profitwatchdog, has attacked the series since its premiere and has branded various episodes as \"Worst TV Show of the Week\".In May 2000, the PTC launched a letter-writing campaign to the Fox network in an effort to persuade the network to cancel the show.The PTC has placed the show on their annual lists of \"Worst Prime-Time Shows for Family Viewing\" in 2000, 2005, and 2006.TheFederal Communications Commission(FCC) has received multiple petitions requesting that the show be blocked from broadcasting onindecencygrounds.Tucker and the PTC have both accused the show of portraying religion negatively, and of being racist.Because of the PTC, some advertisers have canceled their contracts after reviewing the content of the episodes, claiming it to be unsuitable.Critics have compared the show's humor and characters with those ofThe Simpsons. Various episodes of the", "episodes of the show have generated controversy. In \"420\" (season seven, 2009), Brian decides to start a campaign tolegalize cannabisin Quahog; theVenezuelan governmentreacted negatively to the episode and bannedFamily Guyfrom airing on their local networks, which generally syndicate American programming. Venezuelanjustice ministerTareck El Aissami, citing the promotion of the use of cannabis, stated that any cable stations that did not stop airing the series would be fined;the government showed a clip which featured Brian and Stewie singing the praises of marijuana as a demonstration of how the United States supports cannabis use.In \"Extra Large Medium\" (season eight, 2010) a character named Ellen (who hasDown syndrome) states that her mother is the formerGovernor of Alaska, which strongly implies that her mother isSarah Palin, the only woman to have served in the office of governor in the state. Sarah Palin, the mother ofa child with Down syndrome, criticized the episode in an appearance onThe O'Reilly", "onThe O'Reilly Factor, calling those who made the show \"cruel, cold-hearted people\". Broadcast and streaming In the United States, the show currently airs onComedy Central,Freeform,FX, andFXX. The show was syndicated toAdult SwimandTBSfrom 2003 to 2021, sharing the rights to the first fifteen seasons. It was syndicated to various local stations from 2007 to 2024.In April 2019,FX Networksbegan airing reruns of season 16 on FXX, with season 17 debuting that October, and shared off-network rights to both seasons with sister channel Freeform. After Adult Swim and TBS' rights expired on September 18, 2021, FXX and Freeform began airing the first fifteen seasons. The show also joined FX's lineup that same month. These deals did not affect the syndication rights held by local broadcast stations. The show's departure from Adult Swim on September 18, 2021, was commemorated with a remembrance bumper created by the network, which played after the final airing (the episode \"Stewie is Enceinte\"). The bumper showed", "The bumper showed animations of several Adult Swim characters bidding farewell toFamily Guy, including shots of Peter crying at the beginning and the Griffin family waving goodbye towards the end. On August 14, 2024, it was announced thatFamily Guywould begin airing on Comedy Central as part of a licensing deal betweenParamount(parent company of Comedy Central) andDisney(which retains some ownership of Fox and also holds streaming rights to the show). This deal will be effective on September 2, 2024. New episodes will continue to air on Fox, and reruns will continue to air on FX Networks as the Paramount-Disney deal is non-exclusive. In the United States, the series is available for streaming exclusively onHulu. Additionally, Hulu will launch two holiday specials ofFamily Guyin late 2024, marking the first time a new episode of the show airs on a streaming platform;Internationally,Family Guyis available to stream onStar on Disney+.The first such special premiered on October 14, 2024.The United States is the", "States is the only country where the show is not available on eitherDisney+orStar+. Initially,Family Guywas not available to stream on Disney+ in Latin America, as it had been available on the standalone serviceStar+, however, Star+ content merged with Disney+ content on June 26, 2024, and Star+ was discontinued altogether on July 24, 2024. Family Guypremiered in Australia on April 9, 1999, on theSeven Network, in 2000 onFox8, and on7mateon September 27, 2010.Initially, only 2 seasons were available to stream on Disney+ Star due to pre-existing contracts. The other 17 seasons were added on December 1, 2021, after the contract expired. In Canada, the series premiered January 31, 1999, onGlobaland September 1, 2003, onTeletoon at Night. Beginning in the 2015–2016 season, the show moved toCitytv; the show would once again return to the channel in 2023.Starting in November 2021, the series moved toDisney+.In addition to Teletoon at Night, the show has been syndicated to TVtropolis (nowDTour),Adult Swim Canada,", "Swim Canada, andFX Canada. Since 2024,CHCHand Citytv share the broadcast rights to the series due to scheduling issues. The show airs in India onStar World Premiere,in Ireland on3e,and in New Zealand onTVNZ Duke; previously it screened on defunct channelFour. In the United Kingdom,Family Guypremiered in September 1999, originally onChannel 4andSky One. In January 2005,Fox UK(then known as FX) began broadcasting the show.From October 2005,BBC Twostarted screeningFamily Guybefore the show moved toBBC Threein September 2006.Beginning with season 14, the show moved toITV2, premiering on February 29, 2016,while the BBC would continue to hold the rights for past seasons until 2017. In South Korea, the show premiered January 11, 2008, onTooniverse. Franchise Books Family Guy: It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married Onewas written by executive story editorCherry Chevapravatdumrongand actressAlex Borstein. The book was first published on May 8, 2007.The book is a biographical monologue by Lois Griffin covering a", "Griffin covering a portion of her life, spanning from her memories of growing up to her attempted run for mayor in the town of Quahog. Though the book primarily consists of a loose narrative monologue by Lois, it is also interspersed with sections from other characters such as Peter Griffin. The book covers events featured in theFamily Guyepisode \"It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One\", with which it shares a title. It was published in the United Kingdom in 2007 byOrion Books. A comic book based on theFamily Guyuniverse was produced. Published byTitan Comics, edited bySteve White, and illustrated byAnthony Williamsand S. L. Gallant, the writing and the illustrations were supervised by the show's producers.The first comic book was released on July 27, 2011. Live performances As promotion for the show and as Newman described \" expand interest in the show beyond its diehard fans\",Fox organized fourFamily Guy Live!performances, which featured cast members reading old episodes aloud. The cast also performed", "cast also performed musical numbers from theFamily Guy: Live in Vegascomedy album.The stage shows were an extension of a performance by the cast during the 2004Montreal Comedy Festival.TheFamily Guy Live!performances, which took place in Los Angeles and New York, sold out and were attended by around 1,200 people each. At the59th Annual Primetime Emmy Awardsin 2007, MacFarlane performed (as the digitally inserted Stewie and Brian) the ceremony's opening number. He performed a song insulting modern television to the tune of the song \"The Fellas at the Freakin' F.C.C.\" performed in the episode \"PTV\". The song insulted TV shows such asTwo and a Half Men,Desperate Housewives, andScrubs, as well as thefinal sceneofThe Sopranos. In 2009, a special televised performance show aired, titledFamily Guy Presents Seth & Alex's Almost Live Comedy Show, in which voice actorsAlex Borsteinand MacFarlane performed songs from the show, as well as a parody ofLady Gaga's song \"Poker Face\" in the voice ofMarlee Matlin, who", "Matlin, who appeared on stage as a guest during the performance. Some new animated gags also appeared in the show. Film In a July 22, 2007, interview withThe Hollywood Reporter, MacFarlane announced that he may start working on a feature film, although \"nothing's official.\"InTV Weekon July 18, 2008, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically releasedFamily Guyfeature film sometime \"within the next year.\"He came up with an idea for the story, \"something that you could not do on the show, which is the only reason to do a movie.\" He later went on to say he imagines the film to be \"an old-style musical with dialogue\" similar toThe Sound of Music, saying that he would \"really be trying to capture, musically, that feel.\"On October 13, 2011, MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for aFamily Guyfilm had been made, and that it would be written by him and series co-producer Ricky Blitt. On November 30, 2012, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce aFamily Guyfilm.The project was put on hold while MacFarlane worked", "MacFarlane worked onTed 2. On August 10, 2018, Fox announced that a live-action/animated film based on the series is in development. In July 2019, MacFarlane confirmed that there will be aFamily Guymovie. DuringPaleyFestin April 2024, MacFarlane revealed that he has known what the plot of the film would be for the past 15 years, but had not had the time to write it. Spin-off MacFarlane co-created—alongsideMike HenryandRichard Appel—theFamily Guyspin-offThe Cleveland Show, which premiered September 27, 2009. They began discussing the project in 2007. Video games TheFamily Guy Video Game!is a 2006action gamereleased by2K Gamesand developed byHigh Voltage Software. Family Guy: Back to the Multiverse, which is centered around the episode \"Road to the Multiverse\", was released on November 20, 2012. Family Guy: The Quest for Stufflaunched on iOS and Android on April 10, 2014. Animation Throwdown: The Quest For Cards, a card game with content and characters from five animated television shows from Fox –Family", "from Fox –Family Guy,Futurama,American Dad!,Bob's BurgersandKing of the Hill– was released in 2016 byKongregate. Family Guy: Another Freakin' Mobile Gamewas released on iOS on April 25, 2017. Warped Kart Racersis a racing game that was released onApple Arcadein May 2022. The game features the entire Griffin family, and includes characters fromAmerican Dad!,King of the HillandSolar Opposites. Merchandise As of 2009, six books have been released about theFamily Guyuniverse, all published byHarperCollinssince 2005.The first,Family Guy: Stewie's Guide to World Domination(ISBN978-0-06-077321-2) by Steve Callahan, was released on April 26, 2005. Written in the style of agraphic novel, the plot follows Stewie's plans to rule the world.Other books includeFamily Guy: It Takes a Village Idiot, and I Married One(ISBN978-0-7528-7593-4), which covers the events of theepisode of the same name;andFamily Guy and Philosophy: A Cure for the Petarded(ISBN978-1-4051-6316-3), a collection of 17 essays exploring the connections", "the connections between the series and historical philosophers.A book written from Brian's point of view (written byAndrew Goldberg) was published in 2006, calledBrian Griffin's Guide to Booze, Broads and the Lost Art of Being a Man. Family Guyhas been commercially successful in the home market.The show was the first to be resurrected because of high DVD sales.The first volume, covering the show's first two seasons, sold 1.67 million units, topping TV DVD sales in 2003, while the second volume sold another million units.Volumes six and seven debuted at fifth place in United States DVD sales;volume seven was the highest-selling television DVD, selling 171,000 units by June 21, 2009.Family Guy Presents Blue Harvest, the DVD featuring theStar Warsspecial \"Blue Harvest\", was released on January 15, 2008, and premiered at the top of United States DVD sales.The DVD was the firstFamily GuyDVD to include a digital copy for download to the iPod.In 2004, the first series ofFamily Guytoy figurines was released byMezco", "released byMezco Toyz; each member of the Griffin family had their own toy, with the exception of Stewie, of whom two different figures were made.Over the course of two years, four more series of toy figures were released, with various forms of Peter.In 2008, the character Peter appeared in advertisements forSubway Restaurants, promoting the restaurant's massive feast sandwich. See also References Informational notes Citations Bibliography External links", "Seth MacFarlane Seth Woodbury MacFarlane(/məkˈfɑːrlɪn/; born October 26, 1973) is an American actor, animator, writer, producer, director, comedian, and singer. He is best known as the creator and star of the television seriesFamily Guy(since 1999) andThe Orville(2017–2022), and co-creator of the television seriesAmerican Dad!(since 2005) andThe Cleveland Show(2009–2013). He also co-wrote, directed, and starred in the filmsTed(2012) and its sequelTed 2(2015), andA Million Ways to Die in the West(2014). MacFarlane is a graduate of theRhode Island School of Design(RISD), where he studied animation.He was recruited to Hollywood as an animator and writer forHanna-Barbera's television seriesJohnny Bravo,Cow and ChickenandDexter's Laboratory; during this time, he created the animated shortLarry & Steve—a loose precursor ofFamily Guy—forWhat a Cartoon!. In 2008, he created the online seriesSeth MacFarlane's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy. MacFarlane has also made guest appearances as an actor on live action shows", "live action shows includingGilmore Girls,Star Trek: Enterprise,The War at Home, andFlashForward. MacFarlane has won several awards for his work onFamily Guy, including fivePrimetime Emmy Awards. In 2009, he won theWebby Awardfor Film & Video Person of the Year. MacFarlane has performed as a vocalist at theHollywood Bowl,Carnegie Hall, and theRoyal Albert Hall. He has released eight studio albums, in the vein ofFrank Sinatra, with influences fromjazz orchestrations, andHollywood musicalsbeginning withMusic Is Better Than Wordsin 2011. MacFarlane has received fiveGrammy Awardnominations for his work.He has frequently collaborated with artists such asSara Bareilles,Norah Jones, andElizabeth Gillieson his albums.He hosted the85th Academy Awardsin 2013 and was nominated forBest Original Songfor \"Everybody Needs a Best Friend\" fromTed. MacFarlane was executive producer of theNeil deGrasse Tyson-hostedCosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, an update of the 1980sCosmosserieshosted byCarl Sagan.He received a star on", "received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2019 and was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Famein 2020. Early life and education MacFarlane was born and raised inKent, Connecticut.His parents, Ronald Milton MacFarlane (b. 1946) and Ann Perry (née Sager; 1947–2010), were born inNewburyport, Massachusetts.His younger sisterRachaelis also a voice actress. His maternal grandfather,Arthur Sager, competed in the1928 Summer Olympicsintrack and field. MacFarlane's parents met in 1970 when they lived and worked inBoston, Massachusetts, and married later that year.They moved to Kent in 1972, where Ann began working in the admissions office atSouth Kent School. She later worked in the college guidance and admissions offices at theKent School, a selectivecollege preparatory school, where Ronald was a teacher. As a child, MacFarlane developed an interest in illustration, and at the age of two he began drawingcartooncharacters such asFred FlintstoneandWoody Woodpecker.By age five, he knew he wanted to pursue a career", "to pursue a career in animation, and began by creatingflip booksafter his parents found a book on the subject for him.Four years later, at nine, he began publishing a weekly comic strip,Walter Crouton, forThe Kent Good Times Dispatch, the local newspaper; it paid him five dollars per week.MacFarlane said in an October 2011 interview that as a child he was always \"weirdly fascinated by theCommunionceremony\". He created a strip with a character kneeling at the altar taking Communion and asking \"Can I have fries with that?\" The paper printed it and he got an \"angry letter\" from the local priest; it led to \"sort of a little mini-controversy\" in the town.MacFarlane received his high school diploma in 1991 from the Kent School.While there, he continued experimenting with animation, and his parents gave him an8 mmcamera. After graduating from high school, MacFarlane attended theRhode Island School of Design(RISD), where he majored in animation. As a student, he intended to work forDisney, but changed his mind after", "his mind after seeingThe Simpsons.During his time at RISD, he performed stand-up comedy.He also starred in many student films, meeting futureFamily Guycast memberMike Henry, whose brother Patrick was MacFarlane's classmate.In his senior year, he made his thesis film,The Life of Larry, which became the inspiration forFamily Guy.A professor submitted his film to the animation studioHanna-Barbera, where he was later hired.He graduated in 1995 with aBachelor of Fine Artsdegree. Career Television career Hanna-Barbera years MacFarlane was recruited during the senior film festival by development executive Ellen Cockrill and PresidentFred Seibert.He went to work at Hanna-Barbera (then Hanna-Barbera Cartoons) based on the writing content ofThe Life of Larry, rather than on his drawing abilities. He was one of only a few people hired by the company solely based on writing talent.He worked as an animator and writer for Cartoon Network'sCartoon Cartoonsseries.He created a sequel toThe Life of LarryentitledLarry & Steve,", "& Steve, featuring a middle-aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve. The short was broadcast as one ofCartoon Network'sWorld Premiere Toons. He described the atmosphere at Hanna-Barbera as resembling an \"old-fashioned Hollywood structure, where you move from one show to another or you jump from a writing job on one show to a storyboard job on another\". MacFarlane worked on three television series during his tenure at the studio:Dexter's Laboratory,Cow and Chicken, andJohnny Bravo.Working as both a writer andstoryboard artist, MacFarlane spent the most time onJohnny Bravo. He found it easier to develop his own style atJohnny Bravothrough the show's process of scriptwriting, whichDexter's LaboratoryandCow and Chickendid not use.As a part of theJohnny Bravocrew, he met actors and voiceover artists such asAdam WestandJack SheldonofSchoolhouse Rock!fame. These meetings later became significant to the production and success of hisFamily Guyseries. He also did freelance work forWalt Disney", "work forWalt Disney Television Animation, writing forJungle Cubs, and forNelvana, where he wrote forAce Ventura: Pet Detective. Through strict observation of writing elements such as story progression, character stakes and plot points, MacFarlane found the work for Disney was, from a writing standpoint, very valuable in preparation for his career (particularly onAce Ventura).He also created and wrote a short titledZoomatesforFrederator Studios'Oh Yeah! CartoonsonNickelodeon.Executives at theFox Broadcasting Companysaw bothLarryshorts and negotiations soon began for a prime-time animated series. Family Guy Although MacFarlane enjoyed working at Hanna-Barbera, he felt his real calling was for prime-time animation, which would allow a much edgier style of humor.He first pitchedFamily Guyto Fox during his tenure at Hanna-Barbera. A development executive there, who was trying to get back into prime-time business, introduced MacFarlane to Leslie Kolins and Mike Darnell, heads of the alternative comedy department", "comedy department at Fox. After the success ofKing of the Hillin 1997, MacFarlane called Kolins once more to ask about a possible second pitch for the series. Fox offered the young writer a strange deal: They gave him a budget of $50,000 (equivalent to $95,000 in 2023) to produce a pilot that could lead to a series (most episodes of animated prime-time productions cost at least $1 million).Recalling the experience in an interview withThe New York Times, MacFarlane said: \"I spent about six months with no sleep and no life, just drawing like crazy in my kitchen and doing this pilot.\" After six months, MacFarlane returned to Fox with a \"very, very simply, crudely animated film—with just enough to get the tone of the show across\" to present to the executives, who loved the pilot and immediately ordered the series.In July 1998, they announced the purchase ofFamily Guyfor a January 1999 debut.Family Guywas originally intended to be a series of shorts onMADtv, much in the same wayThe Simpsonshad begun onThe Tracey", "begun onThe Tracey Ullman Showa decade earlier. Negotiations for the show'sMADtvconnection fell through early on as a result of budgetary concerns.At age 24, MacFarlane was television's youngest executive producer. Family Guyfirst aired January 31, 1999.MacFarlane's work in animatingFamily Guywas influenced byJackie Gleasonand Hanna-Barbera along with examples fromThe SimpsonsandAll in the Family.In addition to writing three episodes, \"Death Has a Shadow\", \"Family Guy Viewer Mail 1\", and \"North by North Quahog\", MacFarlane voicesFamily Guy's main male characters ofPeter Griffin,Stewie Griffin,Brian Griffin, andGlenn Quagmire, as well as Tom Tucker, his son Jake Tucker, and other characters. Bolstered by high DVD sales and fan loyalty,Family Guydeveloped into a $1-billion franchise.On May 4, 2008, after approximately2+1⁄2years of negotiations, MacFarlane reached a $100-million agreement with Fox to keepFamily GuyandAmerican Dad!until 2012. It made him the world's highest paid television writer. MacFarlane's", "MacFarlane's success withFamily Guyopened doors to other ventures relating to the show. On April 26, 2005, he and composerWalter MurphycreatedFamily Guy: Live in Vegas. The soundtrack features a Broadway show tune theme, and MacFarlane voiced Stewie in the track \"Stewie's Sexy Party\".A fan of Broadway musicals,MacFarlane comments on using musicals as a component ofFamily Guy: I love the lush orchestration and old-fashioned melody writing ... it just gets you excited, that kind of music\", he said. \"It's very optimistic. And it's fun. The one thing that's missing for me from popular music today is fun. Guys like Crosby, or Sinatra, orDean Martin, orMel Tormé these are guys who sounded like they were having a great time. AFamily Guyvideo gamewas released in 2006.Two years later, in August 2007, MacFarlane closed a digital content production deal with AdSense.He takes cast members on the road to voice characters in front of live audiences.Family Guy Liveprovides fans with the opportunity to hear future scripts.", "future scripts. In mid-2007, Chicago fans had the opportunity to hear the then upcoming sixth-season premiere \"Blue Harvest\". Shows have played inMontreal, New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles. On July 22, 2007, in an interview withThe Hollywood Reporter, MacFarlane announced that he might start work on a feature film, although \"nothing's official\".In September 2007,Ricky BlittgaveTV.coman interview confirming that he had already started working on the script.Then inTV Weekon July 18, 2008, MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically releasedFamily Guyfeature film sometime \"within the next year\".He came up with an idea for the story, \"something that you could not do on the show, which is the only reason to do a movie\". He later went on to say he imagines the film to be \"an old-style musical with dialogue\" similar toThe Sound of Music, saying that he would \"really be trying to capture, musically, that feel\".On October 13, 2011, MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for aFamily Guyfilm had been made,", "had been made, and that he would write it with series co-producer Ricky Blitt.On November 30, 2012, he confirmed plans for the project.The project was put on hold while MacFarlane worked onTed 2.In 2018, Fox announced that a live-action/animated film based on the series is in development.MacFarlane stepped away from the series in 2011 to work onTedand other projects, and has only been associated with the show as a voice actor since then. Despite its popularity,Family Guyhas often beencriticized.TheParents Television Councilhas been a frequent critic. It organized a letter-writing campaign to remove it from Fox's lineup,and filed complaints with theFederal Communications Commissionalleging that some of its episodes contained indecent content.MacFarlane has responded to the PTC's criticism by saying, among other things: \"That's like getting hate mail fromHitler. They're literally terrible human beings.\" Family Guyhas been cancelled twice, although strong fan support and DVD sales have caused Fox to", "have caused Fox to reconsider.MacFarlane mentioned how these cancellations affected the lineup of writers: \"One of the positive aspects ofFamily Guyconstantly being pulled off is that we were always having to re staff writers.\" During its sixth season, episodes ofFamily GuyandAmerican Dad!were delayed from regular broadcast due to the2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. MacFarlane participated in the strike to support the writers, and Fox aired threeFamily Guyepisodes without his permission. The strike ended on February 12, 2008,and the series resumed airing regularly, beginning with \"Back to the Woods\". American Dad! MacFarlane has a second long-running, successfuladultanimated seriesinAmerican Dad!which has been in production since early 2005. To date, it is his only animated series that has never been cancelled, though it did undergo a network relocation from Fox toTBSon October 20, 2014, following its11th season. TBS announced on July 16, 2013, that they had picked up the series for a", "up the series for a 15-episode12th season. The purpose of the network relocation was originally to make room for new comedies on FOX, such asMulaneyand another animated series from Seth MacFarlane calledBordertownon Fox's now-defunct \"Animation Domination\" programming block. While MacFarlane does extensivevoice actingwork forAmerican Dad!, he has left much of itscreative directionup toMatt WeitzmanandMike Barker, feeling it helps give the series its own voice and identity.It was announced on November 4, 2013, that Barker would departAmerican Dad!after 10 seasons as producer/co-showrunner. American Dad!was first shown afterSuper Bowl XXXIX, debuting with the episode \"Pilot\", which MacFarlane co-wrote. This February 6, 2005, series premiere was somewhat of an early sneak preview as the program did not begin airing regularly until May 1, 2005.Because of atypical scheduling of the show'sfirst 7 episodes,American Dad!has a controversialseason number discrepancyin which many are divided as to how many seasons the", "many seasons the program has had. Beyond division between media journalists and fans, there have been conflicting reports as to what season the show is in even betweenAmerican Dad!creators and the show's official website—both from its original Fox website and now from TBS website.AtSan Diego Comic-Conin 2013, Barker hinted that anAmerican Dad!movie—centering on the Roger character and set from his birth planet—is in the works and partially written. However, at San Diego Comic-Con in 2022, Weitzman revealed plans for the film were scrapped. MacFarlane has described the initial seasons ofAmerican Dad!as being similar toAll in the Family, likeningtitle characterStan Smith's originallybigotedpersona toArchie Bunker.MacFarlane has also stated that his inspiration to createAmerican Dad!derived from his and Weitzman's exasperation withGeorge W. Bush's policies as former United States President.After the early couple of seasons however, the series discontinued using these elements ofpolitical satireand began to", "satireand began to serve up its own brand of entertainment and humor.MacFarlane was described as having difficulty understanding the series in its early going; however, he heavily warmed up to the series after its early seasons once he felt the show truly came into its own. His fellow co-creators have sensed this through MacFarlane's greatly increased attention to the series after its early seasons. MacFarlane has also revealed he is anAmerican Dad!fan himself. He has taken note of the positive reaction to the \"Roger\" character by fans via his Twitter. The show focuses on the Smith family: Stan Smith, the endangering,dog-eat-dog, rash and inconsiderate head of the household. He has an exaggeratedly large chin and masculine manner about him. As the family'sbreadwinner, he works as aCIAofficer and was initially portrayed in the series as an old-fashioned conservative bigot but has since grown out of these traits (the show is known for itsstory arcelements and otherdistinguishing plot techniques);", "plot techniques); Stan'sparadoxicallymoralistic yet simultaneously inappropriate, corrupt wife,Francine; and their two children, new-age hippie daughterHayleyand nerdy sonSteve. Accompanying the Smith family are three additional main characters, two of which belong tonon-humanspecies: zany, shocking, blithely cruel and rascally alien Roger, who'sfull of disguises/alter egosand has few if any limits on his behaviors. He was rescued by Stan fromArea 51;Klaus, the man-in-a-fish-body pet. Klaus's unenviable situation came about from the brain of an East GermanOlympicskier being shrunk and transplanted into a fish body; andJeff Fischer, Hayley's boyfriend turned \"whipped\" husband, known for his infatuation with Hayley's mom, Francine.Together, the Smiths and their three housemates run what is only at a first glance the typicalmiddle-class Americanlifestyle, but is anything but. MacFarlane provides the voices of Stan and Roger, basing Roger's voice onPaul Lynde(who played Uncle Arthur inBewitched).His sister", "sister Rachael MacFarlane provides the voice of Hayley. The Cleveland Show MacFarlane developed aFamily Guyspin-off calledThe Cleveland Show, which focuses on the character ofCleveland Brownand his family. The idea for the show originated from a suggestion byFamily Guywriter and voice of Cleveland, Mike Henry. Fox ordered 22 episodes and the series first aired on September 27, 2009. The show, which was picked up to air a first season consisting of 22 episodes,was picked up by Fox for a second season, consisting of 13 episodes, bringing the total number to 35 episodes. The announcement was made on May 3, 2009, before the first season even premiered.Due to strong ratings, Fox picked up the back nine episodes of season 2, making a 22-episode season and bringing the total episode count of the show to 44.The series ended on May 19, 2013, with a total of 4 seasons and 88 episodes. The character of Cleveland and his family returned toFamily Guyin the episode \"He's Bla-ack!\". This is the only animated series created", "series created by MacFarlane that does not have him voicing the main character. MacFarlane did, however, play the character Tim the Bear until season 3 episode 10.Jess Harnellvoiced Tim from season 3 episode 11 onwards. Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy In 2008, MacFarlane released a series ofwebisodesknown asSeth MacFarlane's Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedywith its animated shorts sponsored byBurger Kingand released weekly. The Orville In 2016, MacFarlane began producing the sci-fi comedy-drama seriesThe Orville, in which he also stars asCaptain Edward \"Ed\" Mercer.MacFarlane originally wroteThe Orvilleas aspec script, which was given a 13-episode order by Fox in May 2016, making it the first live-action television series created by MacFarlane.The series premiered on September 10, 2017.Despite the first season receiving negative reviews, it was renewed for a second season.The second season premiered on December 30, 2018, and received better reviews. The series was renewed for a third season by Fox, however the series", "however the series would move over toHulu.This season is the show's first on Hulu, after airing its previous two seasons on Fox, as well as the first to premiere since The Walt Disney Company's March 2019acquisition of 20th Century Fox.The season was originally scheduled to premiere in 2020 but was delayed due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.The third season titled asThe Orville: New Horizonspremiered on June 2, 2022.Due to the pandemic, an episode of third season was scrapped, which MacFarlane subsequently turned into a novel, titledThe Orville: Sympathy for the Devil. Television producing MacFarlane was the executive producer of a live-action sitcom starringRob CorddrycalledThe Winner. The plot has a man named Glen discussing the time he matured at 32 and has him pursuing his only love after she moves in next door. Glen meets her son and both become good friends.The show ran on Fox for six episodes in Spring 2007. In August 2011, Fox ordered a 13-part updated series ofCosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey. MacFarlane", "Odyssey. MacFarlane co-produced the series withAnn DruyanandSteven Soter. The new series is hosted byNeil deGrasse Tysonand began airing on the channel in March 2014, with repeats airing on theNational Geographic Channelon the next night.In addition to serving as one of the executive producers, MacFarlane provided voices for characters during the animated portions of the series. MacFarlane returned to executive produce and provide voices to its sequel series,Cosmos: Possible Worlds, which aired in 2020. In 2013 and 2014, MacFarlane produced one season of a live-action sitcom calledDads.The series, revolves around Eli, played bySeth Green, and Warner, played byGiovanni Ribisi, two successful guys in their 30s whose world is turned upside down when their dads move in with them. MacFarlane,Alec SulkinandWellesley Wildexecutive-produced the series, with Sulkin and Wild writing. In 2014, MacFarlane executive produced a two-season, 20-episode series calledBlunt TalkforStarz.The series followed an English", "followed an English newscaster who moves to Los Angeles with his alcoholic manservant and the baggage of several failed marriages to host a sanctimonious talk show. In 2009, MacFarlane began work on the animated seriesBordertown.The series is set in Texas and follows a border patrol agent and a Mexican immigrant, satirizing America's changing cultural landscape. It ran for 13 episodes in the first half of 2016, on Fox. Television hosting MacFarlane has participated in theComedy Central Roasts. MacFarlane is the only person to serve as roastmaster for more than one roast. In 2010, he filled this role for the roast ofDavid Hasselhoff.The following year he was roastmaster at the roasts ofDonald TrumpandCharlie Sheen. On October 1, 2012, it was announced that MacFarlane would host the85th Academy Awardson February 24, 2013.He also presented the nominees with actressEmma Stone, on January 10, 2013. In addition to hosting, MacFarlane was also nominated in theAcademy Award for Best Original Songcategory for", "Songcategory for co-writing the theme song \"Everybody Needs a Best Friend\" for his filmTedwith Walter Murphy.Critical response to MacFarlane's performance was mixed. ColumnistOwen GleibermanofEntertainment Weeklycommented \"By calling constant attention to the naughty factor,\" MacFarlane created \"an echo chamber of outrage, working a little too hard to top himself with faux-scandalous gags about race, Jews in Hollywood, and the killing of Abraham Lincoln.\"Tim Goodman ofThe Hollywood Reporterpraised MacFarlane's performance saying that he did \"impressively better than one would have wagered.\" He also noted that he added \"plenty of niceties with a little bit of theRicky Gervaisbite-the-hand-that-feeds-you thing and worked the juxtaposition rather nicely.\"He stirred up controversy in the form of a musical number titled \"We Saw Your Boobs\". On October 29, 2014, it was announced that MacFarlane would host theBreakthrough Prizeceremony. The event was held inSilicon Valleyand televised on November 15, 2014,", "November 15, 2014, onDiscovery ChannelandScience, and globally on November 22, 2014, onBBC World News.He returned to host the following year. Film career Ted MacFarlane made his directorial live-action film debut with the release ofTedin 2012. He announced that he was directing it on an episode ofConanthat aired on February 10, 2011. Along with directing the film, he also wrote the screenplay, served as producer, and starred as the title character. Tedtells the story of John Bennett (Mark Wahlberg) and his talking teddy bear (MacFarlane) who keeps John and his girlfriend Lori Collins (Mila Kunis) from moving on with their lives. The film received generally favorable reviews from both critics and audiences, and was a box office success, opening with the highest weekend gross of all time for an original R-rated comedy.Internationally, the movie is currently the highest-grossing original R-rated comedy of all time, beatingThe Hangover. A sequel,Ted 2, was released on June 26, 2015. It was announced in June 2021", "in June 2021 thatPeacockhad given a straight to series order for a prequel series. In addition to serving as executive producer for the series, MacFarlane reprises his role as Ted. Due to its prequel nature, Wahlberg and Kunis do not reprise their roles. A Million Ways to Die in the West MacFarlane co-wrote and starred in his second film,A Million Ways to Die in the West. Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild were also co-writers for the film. The film follows a cowardly sheep farmer (MacFarlane) who loses a gunfight and sees his girlfriend leave him for another man. When a mysterious woman rides into town, she helps him find his courage. But when her outlaw husband arrives seeking revenge, the farmer must put his newfound courage to the test.The film was met with mixed to negative reviews from critics. On January 27, 2014, MacFarlane announced that he wrote acompanion novelbased on the film's script, which was released on March 4, 2014.An audio-book version was also made available, narrated byJonathan", "narrated byJonathan Frakes.MacFarlane wrote the book on weekends during shooting for the film, partially due to boredom. Music career Record deal and albums In 2010, MacFarlane signed a record deal withUniversal Republic Records.He released his debut album,Music Is Better Than Words, in 2011. The album is abig band/standardsalbum drawing on his training in and attraction to \"theGreat American Songbookand particularly the early- to late-'50s era of orchestration\".The album featured duets withNorah JonesandSara Bareilles. It was nominated in theBest Traditional Pop Vocal Albumand theBest Engineered Album, Non-Classicalcategories at the54th Grammy Awards.It received a score of 52 out of 100 onMetacritic's compilation of music critic reviews.In 2014, he released his second studio album and first Christmas albumHoliday for Swing.It received mostly positive reviews.In 2015, his third studio albumNo One Ever Tells Youwas nominated for aGrammy Awardfor Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album.In 2016, he was honored", "he was honored byBarbara Sinatraat the 28th annual Frank Sinatra Celebrity Invitational. He released his fourth studio album,In Full Swing, in 2017,again featuring songs composed byJoel McNeely.Three singles were released from it: \"That Face\",\"Almost Like Being in Love\",and \"Have You Met Miss Jones?\"The album was nominated for two Grammy Awards for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album andBest Arrangement, Instrumental and Vocals.In 2019, for his fifth studio albumOnce in a While,MacFarlane worked with composer Andrew Cottee. In 2020, MacFarlane released his sixth studio album,Great Songs from Stage & Screen,with composerBruce Broughton, who he works with onThe Orville, to compose the album.Like his previous four albums, he recorded a majority of the songs atAbbey Road Studios. However, much of the albums post-production work was done at home due to theCOVID-19 pandemic.In 2022, he released his seventh studio album,Blue Skies.In November 2023, MacFarlane released a collaborative Christmas album with Gillies", "album with Gillies titledWe Wish You the Merriest. The lead single of the same name was dropped on the day of the announcement. Collaborations He was featured on Calabria Foti's 2013 single \"Let's Fall in Love\".In 2016, he recorded the song \"Pure Imagination\" as a duet withBarbra Streisandfor her albumEncore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway.MacFarlane sang numerousshow tuneswithAriana Grandeon an episode ofCarpool Karaoke: The Seriesin 2017. During theCOVID-19 pandemicin 2020, MacFarlane andElizabeth Gilliescollaborated on a series of songs, eight in total, on a playlist entitled,Songs from HomeonSpotify.MacFarlane was featured inMeghan Trainor’s Christmas album,A Very Trainor Christmasand did a cover of \"White Christmas\". The single debuted at number 24 on theAdult Contemporarychart issued dated November 14, 2020, the third holiday entry for both, and it later peaked at number 1 on the chart.In 2023, MacFarlane was co-featured alongsideRedmanandStatik Selektahon the album track \"Self Medication\", fromLogic's", "fromLogic's eighth studio albumCollege Park. Other projects MacFarlane was executive producer of a 2020 feature film adaptingClive Barker’s novelBooks of Bloodfor Hulu, directed byBrannon Braga. In 2020, he signed a $200 million deal withNBCUniversalto develop television projects for both internal and external networks, including the company’s then-developing streaming service Peacock.Among these projects isThe End is Nye, hosted byBill Nye, a six episode series exploring and explaining six apocalyptic scenarios. MacFarlane is executive producer and will make small appearances in each episode. It premiered on the service on August 25, 2022. In January 2021, it was announced that MacFarlane had been hired to develop a reboot ofThe Naked Gun. After MacFarlane had previously expressed interest in castingLiam Neesonas Frank Drebin Jr. in 2015, the filmmaker was hired by the studio. Neeson revealed that the filmmaker alongside Paramount Pictures had approached him with a pitch to star in the movie.In June of the", "June of the same year, Neeson stated that MacFarlane was working on a new draft of the script, with the studio additionally negotiating the filmmaker's potential role as director. He expressed excitement for the project and the opportunity to explore a more comedic role, should he decide to star in the movie; while stating that development on the project is ongoing.In October 2022, the film was officially greenlit with Neeson in the lead role. The film will be directed byAkiva Schaffer, Dan Gregor and Doug Mand were hired to write a new draft of the script, from a previous draft with contributions fromMark Hentemann, Alec Sulkin and MacFarlane himself. MacFarlane and Erica Huggins will serve as producers. Guest appearances MacFarlane has appeared in sitcoms, comedy and news programs, independent films, and other animated shows. In 2002, MacFarlane appeared in theGilmore Girlsepisode \"Lorelai's Graduation Day\".On November 5, 2006, MacFarlane guest starred on Fox'sThe War at Homeas \"Hillary's Date\", an unnamed", "Date\", an unnamed 33-year-old man who secretly dates teenaged Hillary in the episode \"I Wash My Hands of You\".MacFarlane also appeared as the engineer Ensign Rivers onStar Trek: Enterprisein the third-season episode \"The Forgotten\" and the fourth-season episode \"Affliction\". During 2006, MacFarlane had a role in the independent filmLife is Short.He has been a frequent guest on the radio talkshowLoveline, hosted by Dr.Drew Pinsky. MacFarlane appeared on the November 11, 2006, episode of Fox's comedy showMADtv.MacFarlane has also appeared on news shows and late night television shows such asJimmy Kimmel Live!andLate Show with David Letterman.Three months later on March 24, 2007, MacFarlane was interviewed on Fox'sTalkshow with Spike Feresten,and closed the show by singing the Frank Sinatra song \"You Make Me Feel So Young\".He also provided Stewie's voice when he appeared as abrain tumor-induced hallucination toSeeley Boothin an episode ofBones, writing his own dialogue for the episode.On May 8, 2009, MacFarlane", "8, 2009, MacFarlane was a guest onReal Time with Bill Maher. Other thanFamily GuyandAmerican Dad!, MacFarlane voices characters in other cartoon shows and films. He voiced Wayne \"The Brain\" McClain in an episode ofAqua Teen Hunger Force.He has also voiced various characters onAdult Swim'sRobot Chicken, including a parody ofLion-OandEmperor Palpatineas well as Peter Griffin in the Season 2 premiere – he even parodied himself in the Season 4 premiere, in which he renewed the show simply by mentioning it in aFamily Guy-like cutaway after its fictitious cancellation at the end of Season 3. He also played the villain \"The Manotaur\" inBob Boyle's animated kids seriesYin Yang Yo!.In addition, MacFarlane voiced Johann Kraus in the 2008 filmHellboy II: The Golden Army.He also had a guest appearance in the animated filmFuturama: Into the Wild Green Yonderwhere he sings \"That Was Then (And This is Too)\", the opening theme.He had also starred in a commercial for Hulu in which he plays an alien presenting Hulu as an", "Hulu as an \"evil plot to destroy the world\", progressively as his famousFamily GuyandAmerican Dad!characters. He also lent his voice to the series finale movie of the Comedy Central series,Drawn Together. MacFarlane played Ziggy in the 2010 filmTooth Fairy. In August 2010, he appeared as a guest voice-over in a sci-fi themed episode of Disney'sPhineas and Ferbentitled \"Nerds of a Feather\".On September 15, 2012, MacFarlane hosted the season premiere ofSaturday Night Live, with musical guestFrank Ocean.The episode was MacFarlane's first appearance on the show. MacFarlane had a cameo in the 2013 filmMovie 43.MacFarlane collaborated withMatt Groeningon an episode ofThe SimpsonsandFuturama.In 2016, he had a voice role in the animated filmSing, as well as serving as a major performer on the film's soundtrack.In 2017, he appeared inSteven Soderbergh's heist comedyLogan Lucky, alongsideChanning TatumandAdam Driver.In 2019, MacFarlane appeared in theShowtimelimited seriesThe Loudest Voice. Artistry Musical style", "Musical style MacFarlane has abaritonevoice.He is a pianist and singer who, in his early years, trained withLee and Sally Sweetland, the vocal coaches of Barbra Streisand and Frank Sinatra. In an interview withNPR, he commented on their training style: \"They really drill you. They teach you the old-style way of singing, back when you had no electronic help ... show your teeth. If you look at old photos of Sinatra while he's singing, there's a lot of very exposed teeth. That was something Lee Sweetland hit on day in and day out, and correctly so, because it just brightens the whole performance.\"In 2009, MacFarlane appeared as a vocalist at theBBC Promswith theJohn Wilson Orchestrain Prom 22,A Celebration of Classic MGM Film Musicals.In 2010, he reappeared at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a Christmas concert special. In 2012, it was announced he would again appear at the Proms with the John Wilson Orchestra in a concert celebrating Broadway musicals.In 2015, MacFarlane again appeared at The", "appeared at The Proms as a vocalist with the John Wilson Orchestra, this time in a Sinatra program.Regarding his musical passion, MacFarlane has said, \"I love and am fascinated by exciting orchestration—what you can do with a band that size—and I think in many ways it's a lost art.\"His music is predominantlyvocal jazz, show tunes andswing.He also usesmusical comedyin his shows and movies. Influences MacFarlane has said that his comedy influences includeWoody Allen,Jackie Gleason,Mel Brooks,Monty Python,Matt Groening, andNorman Lear;while his musical influences include Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin,Vic Damone,Johnny Mercer,Bing Crosby,Bobby Darin,Gordon MacRaeand theRat Pack. Activism Political views MacFarlane is a supporter of theDemocratic Party.He has donated over $200,000 to variousDemocratic congressional committeesand to the2008 presidential campaignof then-U.S. SenatorBarack Obama.He has stated that he supports thelegalization of cannabis. In 2015, MacFarlane endorsedBernie Sandersfor the2016 U.S.", "the2016 U.S. presidential election, and he introduced Sanders onstage at a Los Angeles rally.After the primaries, he supportedHillary Clintonfor president during the general election.In 2019, he supportedPete Buttigiegin the2020 U.S. presidential election.After the primaries, he endorsedJoe Bidenfor president during the general election.He endorsed Biden again for the2024 U.S. presidential election.After Bidenwithdrew his candidacy, MacFarlane endorsedKamala Harris. Gay rights advocacy MacFarlane is a supporter ofgay rights. In 2008, prior to the holding of theObergefell v. Hodgescase by theUnited States Supreme Court, MacFarlane called it \"infuriating and idiotic\" that two gay partners \"have to go through this fuckingdog and pony actwhen they stop at a hotel and the guy behind the counter says, 'You want one room or two?'\" He went on to say: \"I'm incredibly passionate about my support for thegay communityand what they're dealing with at this current point in time.\" In recognition of \"his active, passionate", "active, passionate commitment tohumanistvalues, and his fearless support of equal marriage rights and other social justice issues\", MacFarlane was named the Harvard Humanist of the Year in 2011. Speaking engagements MacFarlane is a frequent speaking guest on college campuses.On April 16, 2006, he was invited byStanford University's ASSU Speakers' Bureau to address an audience of over 1,000 at Memorial Auditorium.He was invited byHarvard University's class of 2006 to deliver the \"class day\" address on June 7, 2006. He spoke as himself, and also as Peter Griffin, Stewie Griffin and Glenn Quagmire.He has also spoken atGeorge Washington University,Washington University in St. Louis,theUniversity of Texas at Austin,theUniversity of Missouri,Bowling Green State University,Loyola Marymount University,andUniversity of California, Los Angeles. 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike During the2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, MacFarlane publicly sided with the Writers Guild, and fully participated in the", "participated in the strike.Official production ofFamily Guywas halted for most of December 2007 and various periods afterwards. Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane's final approval, and although he refused to work on the show during the strike, his contract with Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it subsequently produced.Rumors of continued production onFamily Guyprompted the statement from MacFarlane that \".....it would just be a colossal dick move if they did that\".During the strike, MacFarlane wrote an inside joke into an episode ofFamily GuyaboutJon Stewart's choice to return to the air and undermine the writers ofThe Daily Show, causing Stewart to respond with an angry phone-call, harassing MacFarlane and arguing his point.The strike ended on February 12, 2008. 2023 WGA and SAG-AFTRA strike During the2023 Writers Guild of America strikeand the2023 SAG-AFTRA strike, MacFarlane donated $1 million to The Entertainment Community Fund to Support Film and Television Workers During", "Workers During Strikes. The Entertainment Community, formerly The Actors Fund, is there to help provide financial assistance for industry workers during theSAG-AFTRAandWGAstrikes. The Seth MacFarlane Collection of the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Archive In 2012, MacFarlane donated money to create The Seth MacFarlane Collection of theCarl Saganand Ann Druyan Archive at theLibrary of Congress. MacFarlane said, \"The work of Carl Sagan has been a profound influence in my life, and the life of every individual who recognizes the importance of humanity's ongoing commitment to the exploration of our universe The continuance of our journey outward into space should always occupy some part of our collective attention, regardless of whateverSnookidid last week.\"The collection opened on November 12, 2013. Film preservation On April 20, 2024 MacFarlane partnered withMartin Scorseseto showcaseBack From the Ink: Restored Animated Shortsat the2024 TCM Classic Film Festival. MacFarlane and Scorsese funded the restoration,", "the restoration, and worked with theUCLA Film and Television ArchiveandThe Film FoundationwithParamount Pictures Archives. Personal life MacFarlane lives inBeverly Hills, California.He is not married nor does he have any children. In a 2004 interview withThe Daily Princetonian, he noted his similarities to Brian Griffin fromFamily Guy: \"I have some Brian type issues from time to time—looking for the right person—but I date as much as the next guy.\" MacFarlane gave a speech at his alma mater, the Rhode Island School of Design, on September 10, 2001;the next morning he was scheduled to return to Los Angeles onAmerican Airlines Flight 11, one of the planes hijacked in theSeptember 11 attacks. Due to ahangoverafter the previous night's celebrations and an incorrect departure time (8:15 a.m. instead of 7:45 a.m.) from histravel agent,he arrived atLogan International Airportabout ten minutes too late to board the flight, as the gates had been closed.Speaking of his experience of missing the fatal trip, MacFarlane", "trip, MacFarlane said: The only reason it hasn't really affected me as it maybe could have is I didn't really know that I was in any danger until after it was over, so I never had that panic moment. After the fact, it was sobering, but people have a lot of close calls; you're crossing the street and you almost get hit by a car... This one just happened to be related to something massive. I really can't let it affect me because I'm a comedy writer. I have to put that in the back of my head. TheFamily Guyepisode \"Boy (Dog) Meets Girl (Dog)\" references the incident. On July 16, 2010, MacFarlane's mother, Ann Perry Sager, died from cancer. Her death was reported byLarry Kingon his showLarry King Live, who acknowledged a conversation he had with her during an interview with MacFarlane in May 2010. From 2012 to 2013, MacFarlane was in a relationship with the British actressEmilia Clarke. MacFarlane is a self-describedatheist, explaining his beliefs, \"I do not believe in God. I'm an atheist. I consider myself a", "I consider myself a critical thinker, and it fascinates me that in the 21st century most people still believe in, asGeorge Carlinputs it, 'the invisible man living in the sky'.\" Lawsuits On October 3, 2007,Bourne Co. Music Publishersfiled a lawsuit accusingFamily Guyofinfringing its copyrighton the song \"When You Wish Upon a Star\", through a parody song titled \"I Need a Jew\" appearing in the episode \"When You Wish Upon a Weinstein\". Bourne Co., which holds the copyright, alleged the parody pairs a \"thinly veiled\" copy of their music withanti semiticlyrics. Named in the suit were MacFarlane, 20th Century Fox Film Corp., Fox Broadcasting Co., Cartoon Network and Walter Murphy; the suit sought to stop the program's distribution and asked for unspecified damages.Bourne argued that \"I Need a Jew\" uses the copyrighted melody of \"When You Wish Upon a Star\" without commenting on that song, and that it was therefore not aFirst Amendment-protected parody per the ruling inCampbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.On March 16,", "Inc.On March 16, 2009, United States District JudgeDeborah Battsheld thatFamily Guydid not infringe on Bourne's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode. In December 2007,Family Guywas again accused of copyright infringement when actorArt Metranofiled a lawsuit regarding a scene inStewie Griffin: The Untold Story, in which Jesus performs Metrano's signature magic parody act, involving absurd faux magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune \"Fine and Dandy\".MacFarlane,20th Century Fox,Steve Callaghan, and Alex Borstein were all named in the suit.In July 2009, a federal district court judge rejected Fox's motion to dismiss, saying that the first three fair use factors involved—\"purpose and character of the use\", \"nature of the infringed work\", and \"amount and substantiality of the taking\"—counted in Metrano's favor, while the fourth—\"economic impact\"—had to await more fact-finding. In denying the dismissal, the court held that the reference in the scene made light of", "scene made light of Jesus and his followers—not Metrano or his act.The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms. On July 16, 2014, MacFarlane was served with a lawsuit from the production company of a series of Internet videos calledCharlie the Abusive Teddy Bearclaiming thatTedinfringes on the copyright of its videos due to the Ted bear largely matching the background story, persona, voice tone, attitude, and dialogue of the Charlie bear.The suit was dismissed with prejudice on March 23, 2015, after the plaintiffs conceded Ted was independently created and withdrew the suit. Awards and nominations MacFarlane has been nominated for twenty-fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsfor his work onFamily Guyand has won five times, in 2000, 2002, 2016, 2017 and 2019.He has been nominated for five Grammy Awards for his work inFamily Guy: Live in Vegas,Music Is Better Than Words,Family Guy,No One Ever Tells YouandIn Full Swing.He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song for co-writing the", "for co-writing the opening song, \"Everybody Needs a Best Friend\", from his filmTedwith the film's composer Walter Murphy. He has received numerous awards from other organizations, including theAnnie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Productionand theSaturn Award for Best Television Presentationfor theFamily Guyepisode titled \"Blue Harvest\", theMTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Duoand theEmpire Award for Best ComedyforTed.In 2019, MacFarlane received a star on theHollywood Walk of Fameat 6259 Hollywood Blvd.In 2020, he was inducted into theTelevision Hall of Fame. In 2022, a new species ofHyloscirtusfrog(Hyloscirtus sethmacfarlanei) was described fromEcuadorand named after him. Filmography Discography Written works References External links", "American Airlines Flight 11 American Airlines Flight 11was a domesticpassenger flightthat was hijacked by fiveal-Qaedaterrorists on the morning of September 11, 2001, as part of theSeptember 11 attacks. The hijacked airliner was deliberately crashed into theNorth Towerof theWorld Trade Centercomplex inNew York City, killing everyone still alive aboard the flight and resulting in the deaths of more than one thousandpeople in the top 18 stories of the skyscraper in addition to causing the demise of numerous others below the trapped floors, making it not only thedeadliest of the four suicide attacksexecuted that morning in terms of both plane and ground fatalities, but also the single deadliest act of terrorism in human historyand thedeadliest plane crash of all time.The aircraft involved, aBoeing 767-200ERwith 92 passengers and crew, was flyingAmerican Airlines' daily scheduled morningtranscontinental servicefromBoston Logan International AirportinMassachusettstoLos Angeles International AirportinCalifornia.", "The airplane left the runway at 07:59. Not more than 15 minutes after takeoff, thehijackersinjured two people, murdered one, and breached the cockpit while forcing the passengers and crew to the rear of the aircraft against their will. The assailants quickly overpowered both the captain and the first officer and possibly killed them, allowing lead hijackerMohamed Attato take over the controls, having intensively trained as a pilot in the lead-up to the attacks. Air traffic controllers suspected that the flight was in distress because the crew were no longer responding. They realized the plane had been hijacked when Atta's falsely reassuring announcements for the hostages were transmitted to air traffic control instead of the cabin's PA system as intended. Two flight attendants were able to contactAmerican Airlinesand passed along information relevant to the situation, in particular casualties suffered by the passengers and crew. Atta flew the plane into the tower's north face from floors 93 through 99 at", "93 through 99 at 08:46local time. The impact was witnessed by countless people in the streets of New York City as well as the nearby state ofNew Jersey, but few video recordings captured the moment.Jules Naudetcaptured the only known footage clearly depicting Flight 11's impact. The media quickly began reporting on the incident and speculated that the crash had been an accident. Seventeen minutes later,United Airlines Flight 175crashed into the World Trade Center'sSouth Towerat 09:03, instantly dispelling any notion it was accidental. The damage caused by the plane and the fires ignited by its crash caused the North Tower to collapse at 10:28 that morning, resulting in hundreds of additional casualties. While therecovery effortat theWorld Trade Center sitedid lead to the discovery and identification of body fragments from certain individuals who boarded Flight11, many have not been identified. Flight The aircraft involved in the hijacking was a Boeing 767-200ER withregistration numberN334AAThe capacity of", "capacity of the aircraft was 158passengers (9 in first class, 30 in business class and 119 in economy class), but the September11 flight carried 81passengers and 11crew members. This was a light load at 58percent capacity, but higher than the averageload factorfor Flight11 on Tuesday mornings of 39percent in the months preceding September11.The crew members wereCaptainJohn Ogonowski(50),First OfficerThomas McGuinness Jr. (42) (a former Navyfighter pilot), purser Karen Martin and flight attendants Barbara Arestegui, Jeffrey Collman, Sara Low, Kathleen Nicosia,Betty Ong, Jean Roger, Dianne Snyder, andAmy Sweeney. All 92 people on board were killed,includingFrasiercreator and executive producerDavid Angell, his wife Lynn Angell, actressBerry Berenson(widow of fellow actorAnthony Perkins), andAkamai Technologiesco-founderDaniel Lewin.Family GuycreatorSeth MacFarlanehad been scheduled to be on the flight but overslept due to ahangoverand arrived at the airport too late.ActorMark Wahlbergwas also scheduled to be", "scheduled to be on the flight but changed his plans and canceled his ticket the day before.Actress Leighanne Littrell, wife ofBackstreet BoyssingerBrian Littrell, had also previously been booked on the flight but, like Wahlberg, changed her plans. Boarding Portland, Maine Mohamed Atta, the ringleader of the attacks, and fellow hijackerAbdulaziz al-Omariarrived atPortland International JetportinMaineat 05:41 Eastern Daylight Time on September11, 2001. At the Portland ticket counter, Atta asked ticket agent Mike Tuohey for his boarding pass for Flight 11. When Tuohey told Atta he would have to check in a second time when he reached Logan, Atta appeared on the verge of anger, telling Tuohey that he had been assured he would have \"one-step check-in.\" Out of concern he wasracially profilingAtta as an Arab terrorist, Tuohey did not budge or rise to his hostility, and simply told him that he would better hurry if he did not want to miss the flight. Although Atta still looked cross, he and Omari left the ticket", "left the ticket counter for the Portland airport's security checkpoint. They boardedColgan AirFlight5930, which was scheduled to depart at 06:00 and fly to Boston. Both hijackers hadfirst classtickets with a connecting flight to Los Angeles; Atta checked in two bags, a green Travel Gear bag and a black Travelpro bag,while Omari checked in none.When they checked in, theComputer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System(CAPPS) selected Atta for extra luggage scrutiny, but he boarded without incident. The flight from Portland departed on time and arrived in Boston at 06:45. Three other hijackers,Waleed al-Shehri,Wail al-Shehri, andSatam al-Suqami, arrived at Logan Airport at the same time, having left their rental car in the airport parking facility. At 06:52,Marwan al-Shehhi, the hijacker pilot of United Airlines Flight 175, made a call from a pay phone in Logan Airport to Atta's cell phone. This call was apparently to confirm that the attacks were ready to begin. Boston, Massachusetts Since they were not given", "they were not given boarding passes for Flight11 in Portland, Atta and Omari checked in and went through security in Boston.Suqami, Wail al-Shehri, and Waleed al-Shehri also checked in for the flight in Boston. Wail al-Shehri and Suqami each checked one bag; Waleed al-Shehri did not check any bags.CAPPS selected all three for a detailed luggage check.As the CAPPS' screening was only for luggage, the three hijackers did not undergo any extra scrutiny at the passenger security checkpoint. First Officer Lynn Howland had just arrived in Boston after copiloting the flight from San Francisco that would be redesignated American Flight 11. As she walked off the aircraft and entered the passenger lounge, Atta approached her and asked if she would be flying the plane back across the country. When Howland told him she just brought the aircraft in, Atta turned his back and walked away. As he boarded Flight 11, Atta asked a gate agent whether the two bags he had checked earlier in Portland had been loaded onto the plane.", "onto the plane. In the rushed check-in after the flight from Portland, airline officials did not load Atta's bags on Flight11.Seized after the attacks, the bags contained papers from Atta's studies in Germany and Egypt; Alomari's international driver's license and passport; a videocassette for a Boeing 757 flight simulator; and a folding knife and pepper spray. They also contained \"The Last Night\" document, with instructions to the hijackers and preparations for martyrdom and death. Further, the bags' contents identified the names of all 19 hijackers for the four crashed, September 11th flights. By 07:40, all five hijackers were aboard the flight, scheduled to depart at 07:45.Atta sat inbusiness classseat 8D with al-Omari in 8G and Suqami in 10B. Waleed and Wail al-Shehri sat in first class seats 2B and 2A.Shortly before takeoff, American Airlines flight service manager Michael Woodward walked aboard for a final check. He briefly passed Atta, making note of this passenger's brooding expression, and then left", "and then left the plane.At 07:46, one minute behind schedule, the aircraft received clearance to push back from Gate B32,and was cleared to taxi to the runway at 07:50. The aircraft began its takeoff roll from Logan International Airport at 07:59 from runway4R. Hijacking The9/11 Commissionestimated that the hijacking began at 08:14when the pilots stopped responding to requests from theBoston Air Route Traffic Control Center(Boston ARTCC).At 08:13:29, as the aircraft was passing over central Massachusetts at 26,000 feet (7,900 m), the pilots responded to a request from Boston ARTCC to make a 20-degree turn to the right. At 08:13:47, Boston ARTCC told the pilots to ascend to a cruising altitude of 35,000 feet (11,000 m), but received no response.At 08:16, the aircraft leveled off at 29,000 feet (8,800 m)and shortly thereafter deviated from its scheduled path. At 08:17:59, flight controllers at Boston Center heard a brief, unknown sound on the radio frequency used by Flight 11 and other nearby flights, a noise", "flights, a noise that was later described as sounding like a scream.Boston ARTCC made multiple attempts to talk to Flight11 without reply.The commission believes that the hijackers were in absolute control of the aircraft by 08:20,: 51six minutes after launching their assault. The flight's Mode-Ctranspondersignal was then switched off by someone in the cockpit at 08:21.At 08:23 and 08:25,Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System(ACARS) tried to contact the flight. The first message read, \"Good morning, ATC looking for you on 135.32\"; the other read, \"Please contact Boston Center ASAP. They have lost radio contact and your transponder signal.\" Flight 11 did not reply. Reports from flight attendants According to flight attendants Amy Sweeney and Betty Ong, who contacted American Airlines during the hijacking, the hijackers had stabbed flight attendants Karen Martin and Barbara Arestegui and slashed passengerDaniel Lewin's throat.It is unknown how the hijackers gained access to the cockpit; FAA", "to the cockpit; FAA rules at the time required that the doors remain closed and locked during flight. Ong said she thought that the hijackers had \"jammed their way\" in. The commission suggested they attacked the flight attendants to get a cockpit key, to force one of them to open the cockpit door, or to lure the captain or first officer out of the cockpit.It is theorized that the al-Shehri brothers made the first move by attacking Martin and Arestegui. Sweeney said that Martin was badly injured and being given oxygen. Sweeney and Ong said Arestegui's injuries were not as serious. Ong said she heard loud arguing after the hijackers entered the cockpit.It is believed that the hijackers either killed or incapacitated Ogonowski and McGuinness.Sweeney said that one of the hijackers had shown her a device with red and yellow wires that appeared to be a bomb.Ong and Sweeney said that the coach passengers did not seem to fully understand the peril, and were under the impression that there was a routine medical", "a routine medical emergency in the front section of the plane, and that the other flight attendants were helping passengers and finding medical supplies.Ong said Lewin appeared to be dead, while Sweeney said that Suqami had attacked Lewin. Lewin was seated in 9B, and Suqami sat directly behind him in 10B. One version of events is that Suqami attacked Lewin, unprovoked, to frighten other passengers and crew into compliance.Alternatively, Lewin, an American-IsraeliInternet entrepreneur who understood Arabic, and had served as an officer in the eliteSayeret Matkalspecial operations unit of theIsrael Defense Forces,may have attempted to stop the hijacking, and confronted one of the hijackers in front of him, unaware of Suqami behind him.Lewin is believed to be the first fatality in the 9/11 attacks.During a four-minute call to the American Airlines operations center, Ong provided information about lack of communication with the cockpit, lack of access to the cockpit, and that she thought someone had", "thought someone had sprayedMacein the business class cabin.She also provided the seat locations of the hijackers, which later helped investigators to determine their identities. Hijacker's transmissions At 08:24:38, a hijacker broadcast to Boston ARTCC.Air traffic controllersheard the hijacker announce, \"We have some planes. Just stay quiet and you'll be O.K. We are returning to the airport.\" At 08:24:56 he announced, \"Nobody move. Everything will be okay. If you try to make any moves, you'll endanger yourself and the airplane. Just stay quiet.\" As Atta spoke English fluently, he likely made the transmissions. It is also possible that Atta's seatmate, al-Omari, accompanied him into the cockpit.Atta apparently tried to make an announcement to the passengers, but keyed the wrong switch and instead his voice was picked up and recorded by air traffic controllers.After Atta's transmissions and the inability to contact the airliner, air traffic controllers at Boston ARTCC realized that Flight 11 was being", "Flight 11 was being hijacked.At 08:26, after crossing the Massachusetts-New York border, the plane turned 100 degrees to the south, following theHudson Riverthat would lead directly toNew York City.At 08:32, theFederal Aviation Administration(FAA) Command Center inHerndon, Virginia, notified FAA headquarters. At 08:33:59, the hijacker announced a third and final transmission: \"Nobody move, please. We are going back to the airport. Don't try to make any stupid moves.\"At 08:37:08, the pilots of United Airlines Flight175 verified Flight11's location and heading to flight control.Seconds before their plane was also hijacked, at 8:42 a.m., the pilots of Flight 175 informed New York Center that they previously heard a suspicious announcement over the radio as they were climbing out of Logan 28 minutes earlier, which would have been around the same time Flight 11 was hijacked. This particular transmission was never picked up by controllers on the ground unlike the other three, but the pilots reported hearing the", "hearing the words, \"Everyone, stay in your seats.\": 38 Fighter jets dispatched Boston ARTCC bypassed standard protocols and directly contacted theNorth American Aerospace Defense Command(NORAD)Northeast Air Defense Sector(NEADS) inRome, New York.NEADS called on twoF-15fighter jets atOtis Air National Guard BaseinMashpee, Massachusetts, to intercept. Officials at Otis spent a few minutes getting authorization for the fighters to take off.The order to dispatch the fighters at Otis was given at 08:46, and the F-15s took off at 08:53,roughly seven minutes after American Airlines Flight11 had already crashed into the North Tower. Of the four hijacked aircraft on 9/11, the nine minutes of advance notification about the hijacking of Flight11 was the most time that NORAD had to respond before the aircraft crashed into its intended target. Crash At 8:37 a.m., Flight 11 began a rapid descent of 3,200 feet per minute toward New York City, gradually losing speed. Three minutes before impact, Atta completed his final", "completed his final turn toward Manhattan,flying south over the city in the direction of the World Trade Center. At 08:46,flight attendant Amy Sweeney panicked that her plane was \"flying way too low\" just as Atta deliberately crashed into the North Tower. The airplane, traveling about 440 miles per hour (710 km/h; 200 m/s; 380 kn) and loaded with around 10,000 U.S. gallons (38,000 L; 8,300 imp gal) of jet fuel, struck the skyscraper's northern façade between floors 93 and 99, its nose impacting the 96th floor.Hundreds were killed instantly, including everyone on the aircraft and numerous workers in the North Tower.Many who had been outside of the path of the crashing airliner were incinerated as its fuel exploded.: 73Studies suggest that as many as 1,426 people may have been present on the top 18 floors of the North Tower when it was struck almost midway into its central core.The core housed three stairwells (A, B and C) extending from the roof to the ground floor, with a distance of just 70 feet (21 metres)", "70 feet (21 metres) between each one in the impact region.The size of the hijacked 767 easily severed all three, trapping close to a thousand crash survivors.All stairwells from floors 93 up to 99 were destroyed or blocked and elevator service was disrupted from the 50th floor upward.: 74The airplane descended downward at an angle of about 10 degrees at impact, pushing rubble into stairwells as many as six stories below where it hit; consequently, the 92nd floor was also sealed off from the rest of the tower when falling debris from Flight 11's impact zone walled off each of its stairwells.The highest survivors in the North Tower came from the 91st floor, while anyone above was left to burn alive, asphyxiate, succumb to toxic exposure from ignited chemicals or be killed in the tower's eventual collapse. Some 100–200 people plummeted from the upper floors, most of whom died by jumping to escape the intense heat, smoke and flames.Light-to-moderate damage was reported on every floor from ground level to the", "ground level to the 92nd, including collapsed walls, missing ceiling tiles, severed wires and smashed windows. The sprinkler system was severed by the impact, causing flooding on various floors throughout the tower. Moreover, burning jet fuel was channeled through the building via elevator shafts and ductwork,igniting small-scale fires on many floors between the 77th and 91st. Three major flash fires occurred in the 78th and 44th floor skylobbies as well as the main lobby at the base, causing fatal burns nearly a hundred floors below the impact.The shockwave was felt in both towers.: 87The northern and western façades of the South Tower were battered by debrisand a limited number of windows were broken by the explosion. Prevailing winds from the northwest caused the top of the South Tower to become engulfed by the thick smoke pouring southeast, and a number of employees at that altitude reported that the fumes began filtering into their floors alongside the intense heat. Countless people in both the city and", "both the city and state of New York as well as the adjacent state ofNew Jerseysaw first-hand what had happened to the North Tower, and the smoke billowing over the horizon very quickly became visible from parts ofConnecticutas well. Despite this, only four people happened to be recording at 08:46. French cameramanJules Naudet, who was filming a documentary about the FDNY, rode with Battalion 1 to investigate a suspected gas leak in a storm drain at the intersection of Church and Lispenard streets, where he caught the only known clear footage of the plane flying into the tower. Pavel Hlava, a Czech immigrant, unknowingly taped the plane from far away while preparing to drive into theBrooklyn–Battery TunnelfromBrooklyn. Just south of the World Trade Center, the New York City-based television stationWNYWhad been filming in nearbyCity Hall Parkwhen Flight11 crashed into the tower offscreen. Reporter Dick Oliver picked up the camera and recorded the immediate aftermath.Awebcamset up byWolfgang Staehleat an art", "Staehleat an art exhibit in Brooklyn to take images ofLower Manhattanevery four seconds also captured stills of Flight11 flying towards the North Tower and the explosion that followed. Some reporters claimed that the plane that struck the North Tower was a \"small, twin-engine jet,\" despite the size of the hole in the skyscraper. At 08:55, senior advisor to the presidentKarl Roveconveyed this misleading information to PresidentGeorge W. Bushas he arrived atEmma E. Booker Elementary SchoolinSarasota, Florida; the president's surmise was that the crash \"must have been caused by pilot error.\"Shortly after, in an on-air phone call from his office at the CNN New York bureau, CNN vice president of finance Sean Murtagh reported that a large passenger commercial jet had hit the World Trade Center,and other television networks began interrupting regular broadcasting with news of the crash within minutes. The general assumption was that Flight 11's crash was a tragic accident, although some news stations suggested it", "suggested it could have been on purpose. Though many people in the South Tower chose to evacuate after seeing what had happened in the North Tower, thePort Authoritymade the decision not to initiate an immediate full-scale evacuation of the South Tower immediately following the first plane crash, operating under the assumption that it was an accident.Seventeen minutes after the first impact, the World Trade Center's South Tower was hit by United Airlines Flight 175, confirming to the entire world that it was in fact deliberate. Aftermath After the crash, the North Tower burned for 102minutes beforecollapsingat 10:28. Although the impact itself caused extensive structural damage, the long-lasting fire ignited by jet fuel was blamed for the structural failure of the tower.In addition to the aircraft passengers and building occupants, hundreds of rescue workers also died when the tower collapsed.Despite being the first of the two buildings to be hit, the North Tower was the second to collapse. Furthermore, it", "Furthermore, it stood for nearly twice as long after being struck as the South Tower, with the latter burning for only 56 minutes before collapsing. This is because Flight 11 crashed into the North Tower at a lower speed and much higher up than Flight 175 did into the South Tower, leading to there being far less structural weight above the impact zone; the North Tower had 11 floors above the point of impact while the South Tower had more than twice that amount.Cantor Fitzgerald L.P., an investment bank on floors 101–105 of the North Tower, lost 658employees, considerably more than any other employer. Rescue workers at theWorld Trade Center sitebegan to discover body fragments from Flight11 victims within days of the attack. Some workers found bodies strapped to airplane seats and discovered the remains of a flight attendant with her hands bound, suggesting the hijackers might have usedplastic handcuffs.Within a year, medical examiners had identified the remains of 33victims who had been on board", "had been on board Flight11.They identified two other Flight11 victims, includingpurserKaren Martin, in 2006, while other unrelated body fragments were discovered nearGround Zeroaround the same time.In April 2007, examiners using newerDNAtechnology identified another Flight11 victim.The remains of two hijackers, potentially from Flight11, were also identified and removed fromMemorial Parkin Manhattan.The remains of the other hijackers have not been identified and are buried with other unidentified remains at this park. Suqami's passport survived the crash and landed in the street below. Soaked in jet fuel, it was picked up by a passerby who gave it to aNew York City Police Department(NYPD) detective shortly before the South Tower collapsed.Investigators retrieved Mohamed Atta's luggage, which had not been loaded onto the flight. In it, they found Omari's passport and driver's license, a videocassette for a Boeing 757 flight simulator, a folding knife, and pepper spray.Ina recording, a few months later in", "few months later in Afghanistan,Al Qaeda's leader,Osama bin Laden, took responsibility for the attack. The attack on the World Trade Center exceeded even bin Laden's expectations: he had expected only the floors above the plane strikes to collapse.Theflight recordersfor Flight11 and Flight175 were never found. After the attacks, theflight numberfor the scheduled flight on the same route with the same takeoff time was changed, and as of 2024, is flown using anAirbus A321instead of a Boeing 767. An American flag is flown on the jet bridge of gate B32 from which Flight11 departed Logan Airport.An American flag is also flown on the jet bridge of gate 65B at Los Angeles Airport, where Flight 11 was scheduled to arrive. In 2002, the first recipients of the annualMadeline Amy SweeneyAward for Civilian Bravery were Sweeney and Ong. Ogonowski also received a posthumous award. They were all residents of Massachusetts. Relatives of all three accepted the awards on their behalf. On April 26, 2013, a piece of the wing", "a piece of the wing flap mechanism from a Boeing 767 was discovered wedged between two buildings at Park Place, near where otherlanding gearparts were found.Theonboard defibrillatorfrom Flight11 was found in 2014 during roadworks nearLiberty Street. At theNational September 11 Memorial, the names of the 87victims of Flight11 are inscribed on the North Pool, on Panels N-1 and N-2, and Panels N-74 – N-76. See also Notes References Works cited External links" ]
What is the difference between the fastest recorded swimming speed of a fish, and the fastest record for swimming the 50m freestyle in the 2020 Tokyo Olympics in meters per second?
34.30 m/s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fastest_animals#Fish
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_records_in_swimming
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Numerical reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fastest_animals#Fish', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_records_in_swimming']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fastest_animals#Fish", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_records_in_swimming" ]
[ "Fastest animals This is a list of thefastest animalsin the world, by types of animal. Fastest organism Theperegrine falconis the fastest bird, and the fastest member of theanimal kingdom, with adivingspeed of over 300 km/h (190 mph).The fastest land animal is thecheetah. Among the fastest animals in the sea is theblack marlin, with uncertain and conflicting reports of recorded speeds. When drawing comparisons between different classes of animals, an alternative unit is sometimes used for organisms:body length per second. On this basis the 'fastest' organism on earth, relative to its body length, is the Southern Californian mite,Paratarsotomus macropalpis, which has a speed of 322 body lengths per second.The equivalent speed for a human, running as fast as this mite, would be 1,300 mph (2,092 km/h),or approximatelyMach1.7. The speed of theP. macropalpisis far in excess of the previous record holder, the Australiantiger beetleRivacindela hudsoni, which is the fastest insect in the world relative to body size, with a recorded speed of 1.86 metres per second (6.7 km/h; 4.2 mph), or 171 body lengths per second.Thecheetah, the fastest land mammal, scores at only 16 body lengths per second. Invertebrates Fish Due to physical constraints, fish may be incapable of exceeding swim speeds of 36 km/h (22 mph).The larger reported figures below are therefore highly questionable: Amphibians Reptiles Birds 240–320 km/h (150–200 mph) The highest reliably measured running speed for ostriches is 61 km/h (38 mph), obtained by speedometer reading when a car was chasing an ostrich in a straight line chase to force it to move as fast as it could.Although there are reports of speeds of 72–97 km/h (45–60 mph) for ostriches, none are confirmed. Mammals A widely quoted top speed figure of 71 mph (114 km/h) has been discredited due to lax and questionable methodology.The highest speed reliably and rigorously measured in cheetahs in a straight line is 29 m/s (104 km/h), as an average of 3 runs over a 201.2-meter (220 yards) course (starting from start line already running). Top speed data is result of dividing distance by time spent. Pronghorns can reach a top speed of 60 mph (97 km/h) in good conditions, and a top speed of 50 mph (80 km/h) normally.They can reach speeds of 72 km/h (45 mph) in a 2-3 km course.Estimated by observing the odometer when the animal ran at its maximum speed, alongside a vehicle. Estimated by observing the odometer when an animal ran at its maximum speed, alongside a vehicle on a road. Estimated by observing the odometer when an animal ran at its maximum speed, alongside a vehicle on a road. Estimated by observing the odometer when an animal ran at its maximum speed, alongside a vehicle on a road. American black bear Sprinting (100 m):37.58 km/h (23.35 mph) Long distance (marathon):20.99 km/h (13.04 mph) At distances greater than400 metres, the human body requires oxygen to sustain such paces, and speed significantly tapers at this point. Themile runworld record is held byHicham El Guerroujwith a time of 3:43.13, corresponding to 26.25 km/h (16.31 mph). Themarathonworld record is held byKelvin Kiptumwith a time of 2:00:35, corresponding to 20.99 km/h (13.04 mph). The world record for longest distance run continuously is held byDean Karnazes, who ran 563 km (350 mi) in 80 hours 44 minutes without stopping. In the absence of significant external factors, non-athletic humanstend to walkat about 1.4 m/s (5.0 km/h; 3.1 mph) and run at about 5.1 m/s (18 km/h; 11 mph).Although humans are capable of walking at speeds from nearly 0 m/s to upwards of 2.5 m/s (9.0 km/h; 5.6 mph) and running one mile (1.6 kilometers) in anywhere between 4–15 minutes, humans typically choose to use only a small range within these speeds. Compared to other land animals, humans areexceptionally capableofendurance—over very long distances, able to outrun every other species on landexcept certain dogs. See also Notes References", "List of Olympic records in swimming TheInternational Olympic Committeerecognises the fastest performances in pool-basedswimming eventsat theOlympic Games. Men's swimming has been part of the official program of the Summer Olympics since the Games' modern inception in 1896; it was not until 1912 that women's events were held. The swimming events at the1896 Olympic Gameswere held in a bay in theAegean Seawith swimmers being required to swim to the shore—Hungarian swimmerAlfréd Hajóswon two gold medals that year, saying \"My will to live completely overcame my desire to win.\"The1900 Summer Olympic Gamesin Paris had the swimming events take place in theRiver Seine, and the events at the1908 Summer Olympicswere held in a 100-metre pool surrounded by an athletics track in theWhite City Stadiumin London. Races are held in four swimming categories:freestyle,backstroke,breaststrokeandbutterfly, over varying distances and in either individual orrelay raceevents.Medley swimmingraces are also held, both individually and in relays, in which all four swimming categories are used. In theSwimming at the 2024 Summer Olympicsin Paris, both men and women competed in eighteen events in the pool. Of the 35 pool-based events, swimmers from the United States hold fifteen records, Australia five, France four, China, Canada and South Africa two each, and one each to Ireland, Great Britain,Russian Olympic Committee, Hungary, and Sweden. Nineteen of the current Olympic records were set at the 2024 Summer Olympics, seven in 2020, five in 2016, one in 2012, and three in 2008. Men's records ♦ denotes a performance that is also a currentworld record. Statistics are correct as of the end of the 2024 Olympics and include only those events which are currently recognised by theIOCas Olympic events. Women's records ♦ denotes a performance that is also a currentworld record. Statistics are correct as of the end of the 2024 Olympics and include only those events which are currently recognised by theIOCas Olympic events. Mixed records ♦ denotes a performance that is also a currentworld record. Statistics are correct as of the end of the 2024 Olympics and include only those events which are currently recognised by theIOCas Olympic events. Footnotes References" ]
[ "Fastest animals This is a list of thefastest animalsin the world, by types of animal. Fastest organism Theperegrine falconis the fastest bird, and the fastest member of theanimal kingdom, with adivingspeed of over 300 km/h (190 mph).The fastest land animal is thecheetah. Among the fastest animals in the sea is theblack marlin, with uncertain and conflicting reports of recorded speeds. When drawing comparisons between different classes of animals, an alternative unit is sometimes used for organisms:body length per second. On this basis the 'fastest' organism on earth, relative to its body length, is the Southern Californian mite,Paratarsotomus macropalpis, which has a speed of 322 body lengths per second.The equivalent speed for a human, running as fast as this mite, would be 1,300 mph (2,092 km/h),or approximatelyMach1.7. The speed of theP. macropalpisis far in excess of the previous record holder, the Australiantiger beetleRivacindela hudsoni, which is the fastest insect in the world relative to body size,", "to body size, with a recorded speed of 1.86 metres per second (6.7 km/h; 4.2 mph), or 171 body lengths per second.Thecheetah, the fastest land mammal, scores at only 16 body lengths per second. Invertebrates Fish Due to physical constraints, fish may be incapable of exceeding swim speeds of 36 km/h (22 mph).The larger reported figures below are therefore highly questionable: Amphibians Reptiles Birds 240–320 km/h (150–200 mph) The highest reliably measured running speed for ostriches is 61 km/h (38 mph), obtained by speedometer reading when a car was chasing an ostrich in a straight line chase to force it to move as fast as it could.Although there are reports of speeds of 72–97 km/h (45–60 mph) for ostriches, none are confirmed. Mammals A widely quoted top speed figure of 71 mph (114 km/h) has been discredited due to lax and questionable methodology.The highest speed reliably and rigorously measured in cheetahs in a straight line is 29 m/s (104 km/h), as an average of 3 runs over a 201.2-meter (220 yards)", "(220 yards) course (starting from start line already running). Top speed data is result of dividing distance by time spent. Pronghorns can reach a top speed of 60 mph (97 km/h) in good conditions, and a top speed of 50 mph (80 km/h) normally.They can reach speeds of 72 km/h (45 mph) in a 2-3 km course.Estimated by observing the odometer when the animal ran at its maximum speed, alongside a vehicle. Estimated by observing the odometer when an animal ran at its maximum speed, alongside a vehicle on a road. Estimated by observing the odometer when an animal ran at its maximum speed, alongside a vehicle on a road. Estimated by observing the odometer when an animal ran at its maximum speed, alongside a vehicle on a road. American black bear Sprinting (100 m):37.58 km/h (23.35 mph) Long distance (marathon):20.99 km/h (13.04 mph) At distances greater than400 metres, the human body requires oxygen to sustain such paces, and speed significantly tapers at this point. Themile runworld record is held byHicham El", "is held byHicham El Guerroujwith a time of 3:43.13, corresponding to 26.25 km/h (16.31 mph). Themarathonworld record is held byKelvin Kiptumwith a time of 2:00:35, corresponding to 20.99 km/h (13.04 mph). The world record for longest distance run continuously is held byDean Karnazes, who ran 563 km (350 mi) in 80 hours 44 minutes without stopping. In the absence of significant external factors, non-athletic humanstend to walkat about 1.4 m/s (5.0 km/h; 3.1 mph) and run at about 5.1 m/s (18 km/h; 11 mph).Although humans are capable of walking at speeds from nearly 0 m/s to upwards of 2.5 m/s (9.0 km/h; 5.6 mph) and running one mile (1.6 kilometers) in anywhere between 4–15 minutes, humans typically choose to use only a small range within these speeds. Compared to other land animals, humans areexceptionally capableofendurance—over very long distances, able to outrun every other species on landexcept certain dogs. See also Notes References", "List of Olympic records in swimming TheInternational Olympic Committeerecognises the fastest performances in pool-basedswimming eventsat theOlympic Games. Men's swimming has been part of the official program of the Summer Olympics since the Games' modern inception in 1896; it was not until 1912 that women's events were held. The swimming events at the1896 Olympic Gameswere held in a bay in theAegean Seawith swimmers being required to swim to the shore—Hungarian swimmerAlfréd Hajóswon two gold medals that year, saying \"My will to live completely overcame my desire to win.\"The1900 Summer Olympic Gamesin Paris had the swimming events take place in theRiver Seine, and the events at the1908 Summer Olympicswere held in a 100-metre pool surrounded by an athletics track in theWhite City Stadiumin London. Races are held in four swimming categories:freestyle,backstroke,breaststrokeandbutterfly, over varying distances and in either individual orrelay raceevents.Medley swimmingraces are also held, both individually and", "individually and in relays, in which all four swimming categories are used. In theSwimming at the 2024 Summer Olympicsin Paris, both men and women competed in eighteen events in the pool. Of the 35 pool-based events, swimmers from the United States hold fifteen records, Australia five, France four, China, Canada and South Africa two each, and one each to Ireland, Great Britain,Russian Olympic Committee, Hungary, and Sweden. Nineteen of the current Olympic records were set at the 2024 Summer Olympics, seven in 2020, five in 2016, one in 2012, and three in 2008. Men's records ♦ denotes a performance that is also a currentworld record. Statistics are correct as of the end of the 2024 Olympics and include only those events which are currently recognised by theIOCas Olympic events. Women's records ♦ denotes a performance that is also a currentworld record. Statistics are correct as of the end of the 2024 Olympics and include only those events which are currently recognised by theIOCas Olympic events. Mixed", "events. Mixed records ♦ denotes a performance that is also a currentworld record. Statistics are correct as of the end of the 2024 Olympics and include only those events which are currently recognised by theIOCas Olympic events. Footnotes References" ]
Demi Moore shares a birthday with which costar from the movies "Margin Call" and "Deconstructing Harry"?
Stanley Tucci
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstructing_Harry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margin_Call
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Tucci
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demi_Moore
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstructing_Harry', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margin_Call', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Tucci', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demi_Moore']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstructing_Harry", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margin_Call", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Tucci", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demi_Moore" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Deconstructing_Harry (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ca5f60>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Margin_Call (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ca7100>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Stanley_Tucci (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ca7940>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Demi_Moore (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93c641c0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Deconstructing_Harry (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ca5f60>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Margin_Call (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ca7100>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Stanley_Tucci (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ca7940>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Demi_Moore (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93c641c0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
Which political leader of the countries where the Potsdam agreement and the Wellington Convention were signed was older on the 1st of July 1905?
Richard Seddon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_Convention
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_New_Zealand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chancellors_of_Germany
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Seddon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_von_B%C3%BClow
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_Convention', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_New_Zealand', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chancellors_of_Germany', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Seddon', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_von_B%C3%BClow']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Agreement", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_Convention", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_New_Zealand", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chancellors_of_Germany", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Seddon", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_von_B%C3%BClow" ]
[ "Potsdam Agreement ThePotsdam Agreement(German:Potsdamer Abkommen) was the agreement among three of theAllies of World War II: theUnited Kingdom, theUnited States, and theSoviet Unionafter the war ended in Europe on 1 August 1945 and it was published the next day. A product of thePotsdam Conference, it concerned the military occupation and reconstruction ofGermany, itsborder, and the entireEuropean Theatre of Warterritory. It also addressed Germany'sdemilitarisation,reparations, the prosecution ofwar criminalsand themass expulsion of ethnic Germansfrom various parts of Europe. France was not invited to the conference but formally remained one of the powers occupying Germany. Executed as a communiqué, the agreement was not apeace treatyaccording tointernational law, although it created accomplished facts. It was superseded by theTreaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germanysigned on 12 September 1990. AsDe Gaullehad not been invited to the Conference, the French resisted implementing the Potsdam Agreements within their occupation zone. In particular, the French refused to resettle any expelled Germans from the east. Moreover, the French did not accept any obligation to abide by the Potsdam Agreement in the proceedings of the Allied Control Council; in particular resisting all proposals to establish common policies and institutions across Germany as a whole (for example France separated Saarland from Germany to establishits protectorateon 16 February 1946), and anything that they feared might lead to the emergence of an eventual unified German government. Overview After theend of World War II in Europe(1939–1945), and the decisions of the earlierTehran,CasablancaandYalta Conferences, the Allies assumed supreme authority over Germany by theBerlin Declarationof June 5, 1945. At thePotsdam Conferencethe Western Allies were presented withStalin'sfait accompliawarding Soviet-occupied Poland the river Oder as its western border,placing the entire Soviet Occupation Zone east of it (with the exception of theKaliningradenclave), includingPomerania, most ofEast Prussia, andDanzig, under Polish administration. The German population who had not fled were expelled and their properties acquisitioned by the state.President Truman and the British delegations protested at these actions. The Three Power Conference took place from 17 July to 2 August 1945, in which they adopted theProtocol of the Proceedings, August 1, 1945, signed atCecilienhofPalace inPotsdam. The signatories were General SecretaryJoseph Stalin, PresidentHarry S. Truman, and Prime MinisterClement Attlee, who, as a result of theBritish general election of 1945, had replacedWinston Churchillas the UK's representative. The three powers also agreed to inviteFranceandChinato participate as members of the Council of Foreign Ministers established to oversee the agreement. TheProvisional Government of the French Republicaccepted the invitation on August 7, with the key reservation that it would not accepta prioriany commitment to the eventual reconstitution of a central government in Germany. James F. Byrneswrote \"we specifically refrained from promising to support at the German Peace Conference any particular line as the western frontier of Poland.\" The Berlin Protocol declared: \"The three heads of government reaffirm their opinion that the final delimitation of the western frontier of Poland should await the peace settlement.\" Byrnes continues: \"In the light of this history, it is difficult to credit with good faith any person who asserts that Poland's western boundary was fixed by the conferences, or that there was a promise that it would be established at some particular place.\"Despite this, theOder-Neisse Linewas set as Poland's provisional (and therefore theoretically subject to change) western frontier in Article 8 of the Agreement but was not finalized as Poland's permanent western frontier until the 1990German-Polish Border Treaty, having been recognized by East Germany in 1950 (in theTreaty of Zgorzelec) and acquiesced to by West Germany in 1970 (in theTreaty of Moscow (1970)and theTreaty of Warsaw (1970)). Protocol In the Potsdam Agreement (Berlin Conference) the Allies (UK, USSR, US) agreed on the following matters: The Three Governments have taken note of the discussions which have been proceeding in recent weeks in London between British, United States, Soviet and French representatives with a view to reaching agreement on the methods of trial of those major war criminals whose crimes under theMoscow Declarationof October 1943 have no particular geographical localization. The Three Governments reaffirm their intention to bring these criminals to swift and sure justice. They hope that the negotiations in London will result in speedy agreement being reached for this purpose, and they regard it as a matter of great importance that the trial of these major criminals should begin at the earliest possible date. The first list of defendants will be published before 1st September. he three Governments have also charged the Council of Foreign Ministers with the task of preparing peace treaties forBulgaria,Finland,HungaryandRomania. The conclusion of Peace Treaties with recognized democratic governments in these States will also enable the three Governments to support applications from them for membership of the United Nations. The three Governments agree to examine each separately in the near future in the light of the conditions then prevailing, the establishment of diplomatic relations with Finland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary to the extent possible prior to the conclusion of peace treaties with those countries. The Three Governments, having considered the question in all its aspects, recognize that the transfer to Germany of German populations, or elements thereof, remaining in Poland,Czechoslovakiaand Hungary, will have to be undertaken. They agree that any transfers that take place should be effected in an orderly and humane manner. Moreover, towards concluding thePacific Theatre of War, the Potsdam Conference issued thePotsdam Declaration, the Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender (26 July 1945) wherein the Western Allies (UK, US, USSR) and theNationalist Chinaof GeneralChiang Kai-shekasked Japan to surrender or be destroyed. Aftermath Already during the Potsdam Conference, on 30 July 1945, theAllied Control Councilwas constituted in Berlin to execute the Allied resolutions (the \"Four Ds\"): Territorial changes The northern half of the German province ofEast Prussia, occupied by theRed Armyduring itsEast Prussian Offensivefollowed by itsevacuationin winter 1945, had already been incorporated into Soviet territory as theKaliningrad Oblast. The Western Allies promised to support the annexation of the territory north of theBraunsberg–Goldapline when a Final German Peace Treaty was held. The Allies had acknowledged the legitimacy of the PolishProvisional Government of National Unity, which was about to form a Sovietsatellite state. Urged by Stalin, the UK and the US gave in to put the German territories east of theOder–Neisse linefrom theBalticcoast west ofŚwinoujścieup to theCzechoslovakborder \"under Polish administration\"; allegedly confusing theLusatian Neisseand theGlatzer Neisserivers. The proposal of an Oder-Bober-Queisline was rejected by the Soviet delegation. The cession included the formerFree City of Danzigand the seaport ofStettinon the mouth of theOderRiver (Szczecin Lagoon), vital for theUpper Silesian Industrial Region. Post-war, 'Germany as a whole' would consist solely of aggregate territories of the respective zones of occupation. As all former German territories east of the Oder-Neisse line were excluded from the Soviet Occupation Zone, they were consequently excluded from 'Germany as a whole'. Expulsions In the course of the proceedings, and after the German statekilledaround 5-6 million Polish citizens during the war,Polish communistshad begun to suppress the German population west of the Bóbr river to underline their demand for a border on the Lusatian Neisse. The Allied resolution on the \"orderly transfer\" of German population became the legitimation of the expulsion of Germans from the nebulous parts ofCentral Europe, if they had not already fled from the advancing Red Army. The expulsion of ethnic Germans by the Poles concerned, in addition to Germans within areas behind the 1937 Polish border in the West (such as in most of the old Prussian province of West Prussia), the territories placed \"under Polish administration\" pending a Final German Peace Treaty, i.e. southern East Prussia (Masuria),Farther Pomerania, theNew Marchregion of the formerProvince of Brandenburg, the districts of theGrenzmarkPosen-West Prussia,Lower Silesiaand those parts ofUpper Silesiathat had remained with Germany after the 1921Upper Silesia plebiscite. It further affected the German minority living within the territory of the formerSecond Polish RepublicinGreater Poland, eastern Upper Silesia,Chełmno Landand thePolish Corridorwith Danzig. TheGermans in Czechoslovakia(34% of the population of the territory of what is now the Czech Republic), known asSudeten Germansbut alsoCarpathian Germans, were expelled from theSudetenlandregion where they formed a majority, from linguistic enclaves in centralBohemiaandMoravia, as well as from the city ofPrague. Though the Potsdam Agreement referred only to Poland, Czechoslovakia andHungary, expulsions also occurred inRomania, where theTransylvanian Saxonsweredeportedand their property seized, and inYugoslavia. In the Soviet territories, Germans were expelled from northern East Prussia (Oblast Kaliningrad) but also from the adjacent LithuanianKlaipeda Regionand other lands settled byBaltic Germans. See also References External links", "Wellington Convention TheWellington Convention(formally, theConvention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets in the South Pacific) is a 1989multilateral treatywhereby states agreed to prohibit the use of fishingdriftnetslonger than 2.5 kilometres in theSouth Pacific.The Wellington Convention played a role in the 1991United Nations General Assembly'sresolutioncalling for a global moratorium of driftnet fishing on thehigh seas. Creation, signatures, and ratifications The Convention was concluded atWellingtonon 24 November 1989. It was opened for signature to states which have territory within the South Pacific. The Convention was signed byAustralia,Cook Islands,Fiji,France,Kiribati,Marshall Islands,Federated States of Micronesia,New Zealand,Niue,Palau,Solomon Islands,Tuvalu,United States, andVanuatu. Of the states that signed the Convention, it has not been ratified by France, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.Samoa, which did not sign the Convention, has acceded to it. Additionally,Papua New Guineahas notified New Zealand—the depositary state—that the prohibitions of the Convention had been taken into account when Papua New Guinea enacted its Fisheries Act 1994. Global moratorium of driftnet fishing On 20 December 1991, the UN General Assembly passed the Resolution on Large-scale Pelagic Driftnet Fishing and its Impact on the Living Marine Resources of the World's Oceans and Seas.The resolution called for a worldwide moratorium on driftnet fishing and cited the entry into force of the Wellington Convention as contributing support to such a moratorium. Protocols The Convention has two Protocols that supplement it. Both were concluded atNoumea,New Caledoniaon 20 October 2000 Ratification of Protocol I allows states that do not have territory in the Convention Area to nevertheless agree that they will prohibit their nationals and their fishing vessels from using driftnets while fishing in the Convention Area. Protocol I has been ratified only by the United States; it entered into force for the U.S. on 28 February 1992. Ratification of Protocol II allows states that do not have territory in the Convention Area but have territory in the waters that are contiguous to the Convention Area to nevertheless agree that they will prohibit their nationals and their fishing vessels from using driftnets while fishing in the Convention Area. Protocol II has been ratified byChile(5 October 1993) andCanada(28 August 1998). Notes References External links", "List of prime ministers of New Zealand Theprime minister of New Zealandis the country'shead of governmentand the leader of theCabinet, whose powers and responsibilities are defined byconvention.Officially, the prime minister is appointed by thegovernor-general, but by convention, the prime minister must have the confidence of theHouse of Representatives.The prime minister is always a member of parliament. Originally, prime ministers headed loosecoalitionsofindependents, which were often unstable; since the advent ofpolitical parties, the prime minister is usually the leader of the largest party represented in the house.Since 1935, every prime minister has been a member of either theNationalparty or theLabourparty, reflecting their domination ofNew Zealand politics.After the introduction ofmixed-member proportionalvoting in 1996, prime ministers have usually needed to negotiate agreements with smaller parties to maintain a majority in Parliament. The title of the office was originally \"colonial secretary\", which was formally changed to \"premier\" in 1869.That title remained in use almost exclusively for more than 30 years, untilRichard Seddonchanged it to \"prime minister\" during his tenure in the office; he used the title officially at the1902 Colonial Conference. Some historians regardJames FitzGeraldas New Zealand's first prime minister, although a more conventional view is that neither he nor his successor (Thomas Forsaith) should properly be given that title, as New Zealand did not yet haveresponsible governmentwhen they served.Most commonly,Henry Sewell, whoserved during 1856, is regarded as New Zealand's first premier.Beginning with Sewell, 42 individuals have so far held the premiership,not includingHugh Watt, who wasacting prime ministerfollowing the death ofNorman Kirk. Eight prime ministers have held the position for more than one period in office. Richard Seddon, prime minister for thirteen years between 1893 and 1906, held the office for the longest term.The youngest prime minister wasEdward Stafford, who assumed office at age 37, and the oldest wasWalter Nash, who left office at age 78.Three prime ministers have been women, a count equalled byIceland,Lithuania,Polandand the United Kingdom, and only surpassed byFinlandandSwitzerland. The current prime minister isChristopher Luxon, who assumed office on 27 November 2023. List of officeholders Thepartiesshown are those to which the heads of government belonged at the time they held office and theelectoral districtsshown are those they represented while in office. Several prime ministers belonged to parties other than those given and represented other electorates before and after their time in office. A number in brackets indicates the prime minister served a previous term in office. †Died in office Timeline See also References", "List of chancellors of Germany Thechancellor of Germanyis the political leader ofGermanyand the head of thefederal government. The office holder is responsible for selecting all other members of the government and chairingcabinetmeetings. The office was created in theNorth German Confederationin 1867,whenOtto von Bismarckbecame the first chancellor. With theunification of Germanyand establishment of theGerman Empirein 1871, the Confederation evolved into a German nation-state and its leader became known as the chancellor of Germany.Originally, the chancellor was only responsible to theemperor. This changed with the constitutional reform in 1918, when the Parliament was given the right to dismiss the chancellor. Under the 1919WeimarConstitutionthe chancellors were appointed by the directly electedpresident, but were responsible to Parliament. The constitution was set aside during the 1933–1945Nazi regime. During theAllied occupation, no independent German government and no chancellor existed; and the office was not reconstituted in East Germany, thus the head of government of East Germany was chairman of theCouncil of Ministers. The1949 Basic Lawmade the chancellor the most important office in West Germany, while diminishing the role of thepresident. North German Confederation (1867–1871) TheNorth German Confederationcame into existence after theGerman Confederationwas dissolved following the Prussian victory in theAustro-Prussian Warof 1866. The chancellor was appointed by theBundespräsidium,a position that was held constitutionally by thePrussian king. German Reich (1871–1945) German Empire (1871–1918) TheGerman Empirewas born out of the North German Confederation as result of theFranco-Prussian War(1870/71). ThePräsidium(the Prussian king), which now had also the titleEmperor, named the chancellor. Political parties:NoneCentre Weimar Republic (1918–1933) On 9 November 1918, Chancellor Max von Baden handed over his office toFriedrich Ebert. Ebert continued to serve as head of government during the three months between theend of the German Empire in November 1918and the first gathering of the National Assembly in February 1919 as Chairman of theCouncil of the People's Deputies, until 29 December 1918 together withUSPDLeaderHugo Haase. TheWeimar Constitutionof 1919 set the framework for theWeimar Republic. The chancellors were officially installed by the president; in some cases the chancellor did not have a majority in parliament. Political parties:SPDCentreDVPNSDAPNone Nazi Germany (1933–1945) Soon afterAdolf Hitler was appointed as chancellor in 1933, the GermanReichstag(parliament) passed the so-calledEnabling Act(German:Ermächtigungsgesetz), officially titled \"Law for Removing the Distress of People and Reich\" (German:Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich), which effectively gave the chancellor the power of adictator. This event marked the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning ofNazi Germany.Hitler thereupon destroyed all democratic systems and consolidated all power to himself. After the death of presidentPaul von Hindenburgin 1934, Hitler merged the offices of chancellor and president in his own person and called himselfFührerund Reichskanzler. Political parties:NSDAP Federal Republic of Germany (1949–present) In 1949, two separate German states were established: theFederal Republic of Germany(known as West Germany) and theGerman Democratic Republic(known as East Germany). The list below gives the chancellors of West Germany; thegovernmentof East Germany was headed by thechairman of the Council of Ministers.In 1990, East Germany was dissolved as it merged with West Germany; Germany wasreunified. It retained the name of the Federal Republic of Germany. Political parties:CDU(4)SPD(4)Independent(1) Timeline See also References", "Richard Seddon Prime Minister of New Zealand General elections Richard John SeddonPC(22 June 1845 – 10 June 1906) was a New Zealand politician who served as the 15thpremier (prime minister) of New Zealandfrom 1893 until his death. In office for thirteen years, he is to date New Zealand'slongest-serving head of government. Seddon was born inEccleston, Lancashire, England. He arrived in New Zealand in 1866.His prominence in local politics gained him a seat in theHouse of Representativesin 1879. Seddon became a key member of theLiberal Partyunder the leadership ofJohn Ballance. When theLiberal Governmentcame to power in 1891 Seddon was appointed to several portfolios, includingMinister of Public Works. Seddon succeeded to the leadership of the Liberal Party following Ballance's death in 1893, inheriting a bill forwomen's suffrage, which was passed the same year despite Seddon's opposition to it. Seddon's government achieved many social and economic changes, such as the introduction ofold age pensions. His personal popularity, charisma and strength overcame dissent from within his cabinet.This has been described as firmly establishing \"Seddonism\", a colloquial term for Seddon's strand ofnationalist conservatism, as New Zealand's dominant political ideology.His government also purchased vast amounts of land from theMāori, aided by his alliesAlfred CadmanandJames Carrollas theMinisters of Native Affairs. He spent the1899 general electiontrying to relieve New Zealand's parliament of the independent politicians who had so greatly dominated the country's organised national politics since its provenance, in which he triumphed greatly.Animperialistin foreign policy, his attempt to incorporateFijiinto New Zealand failed, but he successfully annexed theCook Islandsin 1901. Seddon's government supported Britain with troops in theSecond Boer War(1899–1902) and supported preferential trade between British colonies. Seddon was regarded as deeply regionalist; the late Professor of History atVictoria University of Wellington,D.A. Hamer, described him as \"an intensely parochial politician... a great fighter for the interests ofWest Coastersbut with no interest in or knowledge about wider New Zealand problems\".His heritage from the region defined him not only as a politician, but as a man; he became well-known for the \"uncouth\" stereotypes of the generally West CoastPākehāpopulation of the time, expressed in his lack of education, boisterous and aggressive persona, and his dialectal tendency to drop hisaitches. Seddon continued to live on the West Coast of the South Island throughout his premiership, only coming toWellingtonon a regular basis very reluctantly, from the late 1890s. Seddon was also described as a man of secret brooding, who secretly battled anxiety and depression beneath his public surface ofrodomontadeand bravado; he hid his personal struggles to ensure his enemies would not feel pleasure knowing they had hurt him. Despite his personal insecurities, dominating and almost illiberal viewpoints, and erratic nature, he inspired serious and long-lasting loyalty among his cabinet members. Leading the Liberal Party until his death, the party afterwards struggled to recover, going through a string of leaders before essentially giving way to New Zealand's modern two-party system of what would become theLabourandNationalParties.Ironically, this was something Seddon had been instrumental in creating, through his successful attempt at suppressing New Zealand's previously dominant political cohort ofindependents.Despite being derisively known as \"King Dick\" for his autocratic style,and criticised for his actions on Māori land deprivation and his views onrace(especially towardsChinese), he has nonetheless been named as one of the greatest, most influential, and most widely known politicians in New Zealand history. Early life and family Seddon was born in the town ofEccleston, nearSt Helens in Lancashire, England, on 22 June 1845.His father Thomas Seddon (born 1817) was a school headmaster, and his mother Jane Lindsay was a teacher; they married on 8 February 1842 at Christ Church, Eccleston. Richard was the third of their eight children. Despite this background, Seddon did not perform well at school, and was described as unruly. Despite his parents' attempt to give him aclassicaleducation, Seddon developed an interest in engineering, but was removed from school at age 12. After working on his grandfather Richard's farm atBarrow NookHall for two years,Seddon was an apprentice atDaglish'sFoundryinSutton. He later worked atVauxhall foundryinLiverpool,where he attained a Board of Trade Certificate as a mechanical engineer.During his time in Lancashire, he was heavily influenced bysocial liberalism, and many of its ideas would form part of his political philosophy as a politician. On 15 June 1862, at the age of 16, Seddon decided to emigrate toAustralia, working his passage to Melbourne on theSSGreat Britain.He later provided his reasoning: \"A restlessness to get away to see new, broad lands seized me: My work was irksome. I felt cramped.\"He entered the railway workshops atWilliamstown, and also worked in the goldfields atBendigo; he did not meet with any great success. In either 1865 or 1866, he became engaged to Louisa Jane Spotswood, but her family would not permit marriage until Seddon was financially secure. Seddon moved to New Zealand'sWest Coastin 1866. Initially, he worked the goldfields inWaimea. He is believed to have prospered here, and he returned briefly to Melbourne to marry Louisa. He established a store, and then expanded his business to include the sale of alcohol, becoming apublican. He was followed to the West Coast by his older sister Phoebe, younger brothers Edward and Jim and younger sister Mary.Phoebe married William Cunliffe on 9 May 1863 at Holy Trinity Church Eccleston. Their son Bill was Labour MPDavid Cunliffe's grandfather, making Richard Seddon David Cunliffe's great-great-uncle. Local politics Seddon first entered politics in 1870, when he ran unsuccessfully for theWestland County Council, finishing third. The same year, he was elected to the Arahura Road Board. He ran again for the County Council in 1872, finishing a distant third. In 1874 Seddon stood for the newly createdWestland Provincial Counciland was elected for Arahura. He established himself as a broadly effective, if rather bellicose, advocate for miners' interests. He also took an interest in education during this time.He lost this position with theabolition of the provincesin 1876, and was elected instead to the newly reconstituted county council.In 1876 he stood for Parliament in the two-memberHokitika electorateand placed fourth out of five candidates. Kumarabecame a prominent goldmining town. Seddon was elected its first Mayor in 1877. He had staked a claim in Kumara the previous year, and had shortly afterwards moved his business there. Despite occasional financial troubles (he filed for bankruptcy in 1878), his political career prospered. Entry to Parliament In the1879 election, he stood for Parliament again, and was elected. He represented Hokitika to 1881, thenKumarafrom 1881 to 1890, thenWestlandfrom 1890 to his death in 1906. His sonTom Seddonsucceeded him as MP for Westland. In Parliament, Seddon aligned himself withGeorge Grey, a formerGovernorturned Premier. Seddon later claimed to be particularly close to Grey, although some historians believe that this was an invention for political purposes. Initially, Seddon was derided by many members of Parliament, who mocked his \"provincial\" accent (which tended to drop the letter \"h\") and his lack of formal education. He nevertheless proved quite effective in Parliament, being particularly good at \"stonewalling\" certain legislation. His political focus was on issues of concern to his West Coast constituents. He specialised on mining issues, became a recognised authority on the topic, and chaired the goldfields committee in 1887 and 1888. He aggressively proclaimed a populist anti-elitist philosophy in many speeches and toast. \"It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy people and the landowners against the middle classes and the labouring classes,\" he explained. Liberal Party Seddon joined the nascentLiberal Party, led byJohn Ballance, following theDecember 1890general election. Their platform was for reform in the areas of land and labour.They were greatly helped by the abolition ofplural voting, which allowed landowners in each district they owned land in to vote in them. Seddon was sworn into his firstministerialpositions when the Liberals came to power in January 1891.He became minister of public works, mines, defence, and marine. He promoted co-operative contract system for road-making and other public works projects. Unlike Ballance who believed inclassical liberalism, Seddon did not have any great commitment to anyideology. Rather, he saw the Liberals as champions of \"the common man\" against large commercial interests and major landowners.His strong advocacy for what he saw as the interests of ordinary New Zealanders won him considerable popularity. Attacks by the opposition, which generally focused on his lack of education and sophistication (one opponent said that he was only \"partially civilised\") reinforced his growing reputation as an enemy of elitism. Seddon quickly became popular across the country. Some of his colleagues, however, were not as happy, accusing him of puttingpopulismahead of principle, and of being ananti-intellectual. John Ballance, now Premier, had a deep commitment to liberal causes such aswomen's suffrageandMāorirights, which Seddon was not always as enthusiastic about. Nevertheless, many people in the Liberal Party believed that Seddon's popularity was a huge asset for the party, and Seddon developed a substantial following. Premiership Ballance fell seriously ill in 1892 and made Seddon acting leader of the House. After Ballance's death in April 1893, the GovernorDavid Boyle, 7th Earl of Glasgowasked Seddon, as the acting leader of the house, to form a new ministry. Despite the refusal ofWilliam Pember ReevesandThomas Mackenzieto accept his leadership, Seddon managed to secure the backing of his Liberal Party colleagues as interim leader, with an understanding being reached that a full vote would occur when Parliament resumed sitting.Seddon's most prominent challenger wasRobert Stout, a former Premier for two separate terms. Like Ballance, Stout had a strong belief in classical-liberal principles. Ballance himself had preferred Stout as his successor,but had died before being able to secure this aim. Stout was not a member of the House of Representatives at the time of Ballance's death, and only re-entered following theby-election in Inangahuaon 8 June 1893. Despite Seddon's promise, however, there was no vote on the party leadership and therefore the premiership. By convincing his party colleagues that a leadership contest would split the party in two, or at least leave deep divisions, Seddon managed to secure a permanent hold on the leadership.Stout continued to be one of his strongest critics and led the campaign for women's suffrage despite Seddon's opposition. Eventually Stout left the Liberal Party in 1896 and remained in the house as an independent until 1898. In 1899, however, Seddon recommended Stout to the Governor as the nextChief Justice of New Zealand. Women's suffrage John Ballance, founder of the Liberal Party, had been a strong supporter of voting rights for women, declaring his belief in the \"absolute equality of the sexes\".At the time women's suffrage was closely linked to thetemperance movement, which sought prohibition of alcohol. As a former publican and self-styled \"Champion of the Common Man\" Seddon initially opposed women's suffrage. In July 1893, two months after Seddon became Premier, the second of two majorpetitions for women's suffragewas presented to the House. This resulted in considerable debate within the Liberal Party.John Hall, a former conservative premier, moved a Bill to enact women's suffrage. Seddon's opponents within the party, led by Stout (also an advocate of temperance), managed to gather enough support for the Bill to be passed despite Seddon's opposition. When Seddon realised that the passage of the bill was inevitable, he changed his position, claiming to accept the people's will. In actuality, however, he took strong measures to ensure that theLegislative Councilwould vote down the Bill, as it had done previously. Seddon's tactics in lobbying the council were seen by many as underhand, and two Councillors, despite opposing suffrage, voted in favour of the bill in protest. The Bill was grantedRoyal Assentin September. Nonetheless, at the1893 general electionin November, Seddon's Liberal Party managed to increase its majority. Alcohol licensing The debate on women's suffrage exposed deep divisions within the Liberal Party between more doctrinaire liberals, broadly led by Stout, and \"popular\" liberals, led by Seddon. This division was again highlighted by the debate over alcohol licensing. Seddon moved the radical Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Bill in 1893to introduce licensing districts where a majority could vote for continuance (continued liquor licensing in that district) or reduction of licences or no liquor licences at all. Votes were to be taken every three years at general elections and licensing districts were matched to electoral districts. Old-age pensions One of the policies for which Seddon is most remembered is his Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, which established the basis of thewelfare statelater expanded byMichael Joseph Savageand theLabour Party. Seddon put considerable weight behind the scheme, despite considerable opposition from many quarters. Its successful passage is often seen as a testament to Seddon's political power and influence. Foreign policy In the sphere of foreign policy, Seddon was a notable supporter of theBritish Empire. After he attended theColonial Conference in London in 1897, he became known \"as one of the pillars of British imperialism\", and he was a strong supporter of theSecond Boer Warand sponsored preferential tariffs for trade with Britain. He is also noted for his support of New Zealand's own \"imperial\" designs – Seddon believed that New Zealand should play a major role in thePacific Islandsas a \"Britain of the South\". Seddon's plans focused mainly on establishing New Zealand dominion overFijiandSamoa. However, his expansionist policies were discouraged by theImperial Government. Only theCook Islandscame under New Zealand's control during his term in office. Immigration Seddon was firmly opposedChineseimmigration to New Zealand, harbouring an ethnic prejudice against them stemming from his years in the goldfields. Although Chinese immigrants were invited to New Zealand by the Dunedin Chamber of Commerce, prejudice against them quickly led to calls for restrictions on immigration. Following the example of anti-Chinese poll taxes enacted by California in 1852 and by Australian states in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s,John Hall's government passed the Chinese Immigration Act 1881. This imposed a £10 tax per Chinese person entering New Zealand, and permitted only one Chinese immigrant for every 10 tons of cargo. Richard Seddon's government increased the tax to £100 per head in 1896 ($20,990 in modernNew Zealand dollars), and tightened the other restriction to only one Chinese immigrant for every 200 tons of cargo. Seddon compared Chinese people to monkeys, and so used theYellow Perilconspiracy theory to promoteracialistpolitics in New Zealand. In 1879, in his first political speech, Seddon said that New Zealand did not wish her shores \"deluged with Asiatic Tartars. I would sooner address white men than these Chinese. You can't talk to them, you can't reason with them. All you can get from them is 'No savvy'.\" Style of government Seddon was a strong premier, and enforced his authority with great vigour. At one point, he even commented that \"A president is all we require\", and thatCabinetcould be abolished. His opponents, both within the Liberal Party and in opposition, accused him of being an autocrat – the label \"King Dick\" was first applied to him at this point. Seddon accumulated a large number of portfolios for himself, including that ofMinister of Finance(from which he displacedJoseph Ward),Minister of Labour(from which he displacedWilliam Pember Reeves),Minister of Education,Minister of Defence,Minister of Native Affairs, andMinister of Immigration. Seddon was also accused ofcronyism– his friends and allies, particularly those from the West Coast, were given various political positions, while his enemies within the Liberal Party were frequently denied important office. Many of Seddon's appointees were not qualified for the positions that they received – Seddon valued loyalty above ability. One account, possibly apocryphal, claims that he installed an ally as a senior civil servant despite the man being illiterate. He was also accused ofnepotism– in 1905, it was claimed that one of his sons had received an unauthorised payment, but this claim was proved false. SirCarl Berendsenrecalled seeing Seddon in 1906 as a Department of Education junior innocently bearing what was an unwelcome document. A replacement was needed for a small native school. The inspectors had picked out three outstanding candidates, but Seddon picked out the last on the lengthy list; he had no academic qualifications and had just been released from gaol for embezzlement. When the Premier appointed the gentlemen from gaol, Departmental officials returned the papers and called attention to his criminal record. Berendsen cowered in the corner while with a snarl Seddon grasped his pen and wrote once more in very large letters, \"Appoint Mr X\". Berendsen noted though that when an Editor was required for the new School Journal, Departmental officials had agreed on the best man, but the Massey Government (which had replaced the Liberal Government) was \"quite shameless in devotion to the principle of the loaves and fishes... and the Minister of the day appointed the third choice\". As Minister of Native Affairs, Seddon took a generally \"sympathetic\" but \"paternalistic\" approach. As Minister of Immigration, he was well known for his hostility to Chinese immigration – the so-called \"Yellow Peril\" was an important part of his populist rhetoric, and he compared Chinese people tomonkeys. In his first political speech in 1879 he had declared New Zealand did not wish her shores to be \"deluged with Asiatic Tartars. I would sooner address white men than these Chinese. You can't talk to them, you can't reason with them. All you can get from them is 'No savvy'.\" Successive governments had also shown a lack of firmness in dealing with Māori, he said: \"The colony, instead of importingGatling gunswith which to fight Maori, should wage war with locomotives\"... pushing through roads and railways and compulsorily purchasing \"the land on both sides\". Religion and freemasonry Seddon was anAnglican. Seddon became aFreemasonin 1868 when he was initiated into Pacific Lodge No 1229 (under theUnited Grand Lodge of England) in Hokitika.The lodge is still extant, but has since relocated to Christchurch.In 1898, while premier, he was electedGrand Masterof New Zealand,and served in that role for two years. Honours Seddon attended Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee and received herJubilee Medaland an appointment in thePrivy Council. In 1902 he attended thecoronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandraand received hisCoronation Medal.During the same visit, he received theFreedom of the Boroughof his home-town St Helens during a visit there in July 1902,and the Freedom of the City ofEdinburghand an honorary degreeLL.D.from theUniversity of Edinburghduring a visit to the city later the same month.He was also presented with the HonoraryFreedomof theWorshipful Company of Tallow Chandlerson 8 August 1902. He twice refused a knighthood, wanting to be seen as aman of the people. Death Seddon remained Prime Minister for 13 years, but gradually, calls for him to retire became more frequent. Various attempts to replace him withJoseph Wardmet with failure. In June 1906, while returning from a trip to Australia on the shipOswestry Grange, he was sitting with his wife in his cabin waiting to be called to dinner when he suddenly placed his head on his wife's shoulder, and said, \"Oh, mother,\" before expiring of a massive heart attack at 6.20 pm on 10 June.Immediately following his death the ship, which was 110 miles (180 km) from Sydney Heads, turned back to port, its flag at half-mast.He died 12 days before his 61st birthday, .On the eve of his departure, he had sent a number of telegrams, among whom was one to the premier of Victoria,Thomas Bent, which contained the words, “Just leaving for God's own country”. News of his death provoked numerous public gestures of grief, which included black-bordered displays in shop windows and several public monuments, including a memorial lamp post outside theSt Helens Hospitalin Pitt Street Auckland. Seddon’s funeral was held on 21 June 1906 and he was buried inWellington's Bolton Street Cemetery, nowBolton Street Memorial Park. Joseph Ward was away in London at the time of Seddon's death. He succeeded Seddon as Prime Minister nearly two months later, on 6 August 1906. Personal life Seddon married Louisa Jane Spotswood on 13 January 1869 in Trinity Church, Williamstown, Victoria, Australia. Lousia was born on 28 May 1851 in Williamstown, Victoria, Australia to Anna Victoria (nee Normandale) and John Stuart Spotswood.After a long illness Louisa died at her home, \"Eeeleston,” in Wellington on 9 July 1931.Flags were flown at half-mast, on various Government buildings on the day of her funeral. The couple had the following eleven children with nine surviving to adulthood. Legacy He is considered by academics and historians to be one of New Zealand's greatest and most revered prime ministers.Seddon centralised government decision-making around himself—at his peak he exercised \"almost one-man, one-party rule\"—and, in doing so, he established the premiership as thede factomost important political office in New Zealand. Seddon's sonThomasreplaced him as MP forWestlandin the by-election following his death. When Thomas met formerUS PresidentTheodore Rooseveltin 1918, he expressed admiration for his late father, particularly the labour legislation his government passed. Atown in New Zealandand asuburbof Melbourne, Australia are named after him. Wellington Zoo was originally created when a young lion was presented to Prime Minister Richard Seddon by the Bostock and Wombwell Circus. Seddon created the Zoo from this single specimen and the lion was later named King Dick in the Prime Minister's honour. The stuffed body of King Dick (the lion) is displayed on the ground floor of theMuseum of Wellington City & Sea. St Mary's Church in Addington, Christchurch also has a memorial bell tower to Richard Seddon. TheDuke of Argyllunveiled a memorial to Seddon inSt Paul's Cathedral, London, in 1910.It shows a portrait of Seddon with the inscription \"To the memory of Richard John Seddon prime minister of New Zealand 1893–1906 imperialist statesman reformer born June 22nd 1845 at St Helens Lancashire buried at Observatory Hill Wellington New Zealand\" Seddon memorial Following Seddon's death plans were put in place to erect a suitable memorial which would also incorporate a Seddon family mausoleum. It was quickly agreed that the existing Colonial Time Service Observatory on top of Observatory Hill (today part ofBolton Street Memorial Park) should be torn down to make way for it.A new observatory was later constructed on the site of the former Garden coast defence battery at the top of the Botanic Gardens. The memorial was designed by government architectJohn Campbelland constructed by Edwards and Son of Wellington with the above ground portion consisting of reinforced concrete faced with Coromandel granite.It cost £2,746.Constructed between 1908 and 1910the memorial is topped by a bronze female figure approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) in height and weighing 2 long tons (2,000 kg) symbolising the “Zealandia”, the country mourning its dead.Costing approximately £500, the figure was designed at the London studio of sculptorHenry Pooleand cast by Alexander Parlanti.The concrete crypt underneath contains the body of Seddon, his wife Louisa, their daughter Mary Stuart Hay and memorial to their son Captain Richard Spotswood Seddon, who was killed in 1918 while serving in France. The family remains were temporally removed when between 2021 and December 2022 when the memorial was restored and seismically strengthened by the installation of a structural steel frame in the crypt and central void, combined with the installation of 17 post-tension tie rods. Statues of Seddon A 9 feet 6 inches (2.90 m) high bronze statue on a 15 feet (4.6 m) pedestal of Aberdeen granite to Seddon was erected facing Molesworth Street in front of the main entrance toParliament Buildings.It was commissioned by then prime minister Sir Jospeh Ward from SirThomas Brock. The statue has him wearing a frock coat which was based on the one that he had worn while speaking at Papawai near Greytown. The coat had been brought to Brock in 1905 by Louisa Seddon and her daughter Mary.The statue was paid for by jointly by the government and the public and. Its completion was delayed by the landscaping of the grounds and the completion of Seddon’s memorial.At a public event attended by 1,500 people on 26 June 1915 the statue was unveiled by the Governor-General, Lord Liverpool.Among those attending were members of Seddon’s family, the prime minister William Massey, Sir Joseph Ward and Sir John Luke, mayor of Wellington. In October 1966 anti-Vietnam war protestors painted “No New Zealand Troops in Vietnam” across the plinth. In November 1988 a group protesting against the signing of the Antarctic convention and the risk they believed it posed to wildlife enclosed the statue in a giant penguin suit. In February 2022, an anti-mandate and anti-lockdown Covid-19 protestor tagged it with a Nazi Swastika and the words “Freedom” and “Truth”. Since 11 November 1981 the statue has had a Historic Places category 1 listing. Another statue ofSeddonhas a prominent position in the West Coast town ofHokitika. Notes and references Notes References Further reading External links", "Bernhard von Bülow Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin, Prince of Bülow(German:Bernhard Heinrich Karl MartinFürstvon BülowGerman:;3 May 1849 – 28 October 1929) was a Germanstatesmanwho served as thechancellor of the German Empireandminister-president of Prussiafrom 1900 to 1909. A fervent supporter ofWeltpolitik, Bülow devoted his chancellorship to transforming Germany into a global power. Despite presiding over sustained economic growth and major technological advancements within his country, his government's foreign policy did much to antagonize France and Great Britain thereby contributing significantly to the outbreak of theWorld War I, a conflict that resulted in the fall of theGerman Empire. Born into a prominent family of Danish-German aristocrats, Bülow entered the German foreign service after his father,Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, was appointed foreign secretary inOtto von Bismarck's government. He held several diplomatic posts, including German ambassador to Rome, before being appointed foreign secretary in 1897 byWilhelm II. Three years later, he was appointed chancellor following the resignation of thePrince of Hohenlohe. As chancellor, Bülow promoted cautious and conservative domestic policies while pursuing an ambitious and expansionist policy in foreign affairs. His open challenge toFrance's growing control overMoroccosparked theFirst Moroccan Crisis, which aggravated the French and the British and helped strengthen theEntente Cordiale. In 1908, Wilhelm's indiscreet remarks were published during theDaily TelegraphAffair, causing significant damage to German foreign relations and the Kaiser's prestige. Bülow was blamed for failing to prevent the blunder and, having lost the support of both the Kaiser and theReichstag, he resigned in 1909 and was succeeded byTheobald von Bethmann Hollweg. Bülow moved to Rome after his resignation. He came out of retirement in late 1914 to serve as interim ambassador to Italy, but was unable to bring KingVictor Emmanuel IIIto the side of theCentral Powers. Bülow died in Rome in 1929 at the age of 80. Early life He was born atKlein-Flottbeck,Holstein(now part ofAltona,Hamburg). His father,Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, was aDanishandGermanstatesman and member of an oldHouse of Bülow, while his mother was a wealthy heiress, Louise Victorine Rücker (1821–1894). His brother, Major-General Karl Ulrich von Bülow, was a cavalry commander during World War I. Bülow attributed his grasp ofEnglishandFrenchto having learnt it from governesses as a young child. His father spoke French, and his mother spoke English, as was common in Hamburg society. In 1856, his father was sent to the Federal Diet in Frankfurt to represent Holstein and Lauenburg, whenOtto von Bismarckwas also there to represent Prussia. He became a great friend of Bismarck's son Herbert when they played together. At 13, the family moved toNeustrelitzwhen his father became Chief Minister to theGrand Duke of Mecklenburg, where Bernhard attended the Frankfort gymnasium, before attending Lausanne, Leipzig and Berlin Universities. He volunteered for military service during theFranco-Prussian Warand became a lance-corporal in the King's Hussar Regiment. In December 1870, the squadron was in action nearAmiens, and he later described charging and killing French riflemen with his sabre. He was promoted to lieutenant and was invited to remain in the army after the war but declined. He completed his law degree at theUniversity of Greifswaldin 1872. Afterwards, he entered first the Prussian Civil Service and then the diplomatic service.His religion wasLutheran Early career In 1873 his father became State Secretary for Foreign Affairs in the German government, serving under Bismarck. Bülow entered the diplomatic corps. His first short assignments were to Rome, St. Petersburg, Vienna and thenAthens.In 1876, he was appointed attaché to the German embassy inParis, attended theCongress of Berlinas a secretary and became second secretary to the embassy in 1880. In 1884, he had hoped to be posted to London but instead became first secretary at the embassy inSt. Petersburg. On the way to his new assignment, he stayed for a couple of days atVarzinwith the Bismarck family. Bismarck explained that he considered relations with Russia much more important than with Britain and so he had posted Bülow there. Bismarck reported himself as impressed by Bülow's calmness and demeanour during the interview.In Russia, he acted aschargé d'affairesin 1887 and advocated theethnic cleansingof Poles from Polish territories of the German Empire in a future armed conflict.Bülow wrote regularly to the Foreign Office, complaining about his superior, Ambassador Schweinitz, who, however, was well-liked. Bülow earned for himself a reputation as only a schemer. In 1885,Friedrich von Holsteinnoted that Bülow was attempting to havePrince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürstremoved as ambassador to France to get the post despite meanwhile exchanging friendly letters with him. On 9 January 1886, still in St. Petersburg, he marriedMaria Anna Zoe Rosalia Beccadelli di Bologna, Principessa di Camporeale, Marchesa di Altavilla, whose first marriage with Count Karl von Dönhoff had been annulled by theHoly Seein 1884. The princess, an accomplished pianist and pupil ofFranz Liszt, was a stepdaughter ofMarco Minghettiand the daughter of Donna Laura Minghetti (née Acton). She had been married for sixteen years and had three children. Bülow previously had numerous love affairs, but the marriage was intended to further his career. In 1888, he was offered the choice of appointments toWashington, DC, orBucharest, and chose Bucharest, as Maria objected to the prospect of traveling to the United States and leaving her family behind. He spent the next five years scheming to be appointed to Rome, where his wife was well connected. KingUmberto I of Italywas persuaded to write to Kaiser Wilhelm that he would be pleased if Bülow became ambassador there, which occurred in 1893. State Secretary for Foreign Affairs On 21 June 1897 Bülow received a telegram instructing him to go to Kiel to speak to Wilhelm. On the way, he stopped at Frankfurt while changing trains and spoke toPhilipp, Prince of Eulenburg. Eulenburg explained that Wilhelm wanted a newState Secretary for Foreign Affairsand urged Bülow to take the post, which his father had once held. Eulenburg also passed on advice about how best to manage Wilhelm, who lived on praise and could not stand to be contradicted. In Berlin, Bülow first spoke toFriedrich von Holstein, who was head of the political department of the German Foreign Office. Holstein advised him that although he would have preferred the present Secretary,Adolf Marschall von Bieberstein, to stay in his post, Wilhelm was determined to replace him and that he would prefer the successor to be Bülow. Perhaps Bülow might be able to find him an ambassador's post in due course. Chancellor Hohenlohe, desperate to retire because of old age, urged Bülow to take the position with an eye to succeeding him as chancellor. Bülow urged Hohenlohe to continue in office for as long as he could. On 26 June, Bülow met with the Kaiser, who advised that it would be one of the new secretary's main tasks to set about building a world-class fleet capable of taking on the British without precipitating a war. Bülow asked for time to consider the offer, and on 3 August, he accepted. The two men formed a good working relationship. Rather than oppose Wilhelm, which some of his predecessors had done, Bülow agreed with him on all matters by sometimes privately relying on Wilhelm's bad memory and frequent changes of opinion to take the action that he thought best and ignore Wilhelm had instructed. The post of State Secretary was subordinate to that of the Chancellor and under Bismarck's chancellorship, it had been only a functionary. Under Bülow, that was largely reversed, Hohenlohe being content to let Bülow manage foreign affairs with his principal adviser, Holstein. Wilhelm would call on Bülow every morning to discuss state affairs but would rarely see the chancellor. Imperial State Secretary Bülow also held a seat in the Prussian government. Although Wilhelm was emperor of all Germany, he was also king of Prussia. As Foreign Secretary, Bülow was chiefly responsible for carrying out the policy of colonial expansion with which the emperor was identified. He was welcomed by the Foreign Office because he was the first professional diplomat to be placed in charge since Bismarck's resignation in 1890.Bülow had been wary of accepting the post if Holstein remained as Imperial First Councillor, as Holstein had in practice held great authority in recent years. Holstein was regarded as indispensable because of his long experience in office, rank, cunning and phenomenal memory. Eulenburg advised Bülow to stake out a firm but working relationship immediately on his arrival, and both succeeded in working together.In 1899, on bringing to a successful conclusion the negotiations by which Germany acquired theCaroline Islands, he was raised to the rank ofCount. In October 1900, Bülow was summoned to Wilhelm's hunting retreat at Hubertsstock, where Wilhelm asked Bülow to become Chancellor of the German Empire and Prime Minister of Prussia. Bülow queried whether he was the best man for the job. Wilhelm admitted he would have preferred Eulenburg on a personal level but was not sure he was sufficiently able. On 16 October, Bülow was summoned again to Homburg, where the Kaiser met his train in person. Wilhelm explained that Hohenlohe had announced he could no longer be and so Bülow accepted the job. A replacement State Secretary was necessary, which was first offered to Holstein, who turned it down since he preferred not to take a position that required appearing before the Reichstag. The post was given to BaronOswald von Richthofen, who had already been serving as undersecretary to Bülow. It was made clear that the State Secretary's post would now revert to the subordinate role it had played in Bismarck's time, with Holstein remaining the more important adviser on foreign affairs. Chancellor Bülow's mornings were reserved for Wilhelm, who would visit the chancellery every morning when in Berlin. His determination to remain on Wilhelm's good side was remarkable, even for those accustomed to his irascible manner. Wilhelm's household controller noted, \"Whenever, by oversight, he expresses an opinion in disagreement with the emperor, he remains silent for a few moments and then says the exact contrary, with the preface, 'as Your Majesty so wisely remarked'\". He gave up tobacco, beer, coffee and liqueurs and took 35 minutes of exercise every morning and would ride in good weather through theTiergarten. He would, on Sundays, take long walks in the woods. In 1905, at 56, he led his old Hussars regiment at the gallop in an imperial parade and was rewarded by an appointment to the rank of major general. Wilhelm remarked to Eulenburg in 1901, \"Since I have Bülow I can sleep peacefully\".His first conspicuous act as chancellor was a masterly defence in theReichstagof German imperialism inChina. Bülow often spent his time defending German foreign policy there, to say nothing of covering for the Kaiser's many undiplomatic gaffes. In a speech in November 1906, Bülow introduced the concept of \"encirclement\" to the Reichstag that triggered the Teutonic press to blameDer Krieg in der Gegenwart.To Germany, theTriple Ententewas a disaster, but he put a brave face on it. Domestic policy and politics Various reforms were also introduced during his tenure, including an extension of the period in which workers could claim accident insurance (1900), the making of industrial arbitration courts compulsory for towns with a population of more than 20,000 (1901) and an extension of health insurance and further controls on child labour (1903). A polling booth law was introduced that improved the secret ballot in 1904. Two years later, payment for Reichstag deputies was introduced. In preparation forthe 1907 election, Bülow created the \"Bülow Bloc\" of parties that were fervently antisocialist and anticlerical, devoutly patriotic, enthusiastically imperialist, and loyal to the Kaiser and the Fatherland. WhatBebellabeled the \"Hottentot election\" was a disaster for the Social Democrats, who lost almost half their seats. However, Bülow was unable to turn the election coalition into a stable bloc in parliament Bülow also produced proposals for theexpropriation of landsfromPrussian Polandfor purposes of German settlement. In 1908, after the passing of an expropriation bill in the Diet, Bülow quelled concerns fromCardinal Koppthat the bill was too extreme.Other protesters of Bülow's expropriation bills included Polish authorHenryk Sienkiewicz, who pleaded publicly to the global intellectual community for support. Economic policy Under pressure from theJunker-dominatedAgrarian League, Bülow passed atariff in 1902that increased the duties on agriculture.As a result, the German grain production became one of the most protected in the world.Bülow's government also negotiated a series of commercial treaties with other European countries that came into force in March 1906. Foreign policy Bülow served as foreign minister, 1897–1909. To gain a stronger voice in world affairs he encouraged Admiral Tirpitz'snaval expansion policy. Expecting Britain to be defeated by Russia he planned to pick up some colonies of the British Empire. He miscalculated, and alienated Britain even more, as it moved closer to an alliance with France and Russia.Bülow was motivated by domestic political concerns in his support of Tirpitz naval policy. In 1898 he said that such a policy would \"mobilize the best patriotic forces\" and \"appeal to the highest national emotions\" which would in turn \"keep the non-Socialist workers away from Social Democracy\" and pull the worker away from \"the ensnarements of the socialists and accustom him to the monarchical order\". Britain still held the balance of power in Europe. France and Britain had been colonial rivals and had a long mutual opposition, but KingEdward VIIwas determined to boost British popularity in France by a personal tour. Serious negotiations for theEntente Cordialebegan between the French ambassador to London,Paul Cambon, and the British Foreign Secretary,Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne. As part of settling differences, France agreed not to dispute British control of Egypt if Britain agreed to France's claims to Morocco. On 24 March 1904, France formally informed the German ambassador of the new Anglo-French Convention.Prince Hugo von Radolin, the ambassador, responded that he felt the agreement natural and justified. The German press noted that the deal in Morocco did not harm national interests and that the French intervention to restore order in the country might help German trade. Still, Bülow was cynical and took theSocial Darwinist's view that expansion was a fact of life. His policy was unclear, even to the generals. Although not swayed by bellicose generals, he followed a central planning agenda. If Prussia was euphoric, Bülow remained ambitious for imperial grandiosity and world power. Commercial growth in iron, steel, mining, railways and ironclads, and a new navy was driven by huge outputs and highly-competitive contractors.His chauvinism was extensive, a defensive embrasure against British alliance-building on which Germany would reject negotiations. He had promised to reply directly to British Colonial SecretaryJoseph Chamberlainbut thought better of it: \"it is the English who must make advances to us\". That unintentionally entrenched the Entente. Bülow assured the British ambassador that he was pleased to see Britain and France settling their differences. He informed the Reichstag that Germany had no objections to the deal and no concerns about German interests in Morocco.Holstein had a different view: intervention in Moroccan affairs was governed by theTreaty of Madrid. Holstein argued that Germany had been sidelined by not being included in the negotiations and that Morocco was a country that showed promise for German influence and trade, which must eventually suffer if it came under French control. Previously he had dismissed any possibility of agreement between France and Britain.France now offered military assistance to Morocco to improve order in the country.Bülow responded by supporting the position of an independent Morocco, encouraging the United States to become involved and threatened war if France intervened. He was now convinced that the new friendliness between France and Britain was a threat to Germany, particularly if the accord deepened, but France was ill-prepared for war. Despite the possible risks of assassination, Bülow persuaded Wilhelm to make a visit to Tangier in 1905, where he made a speech supporting Morocco's independence, but his presence there simultaneously demonstrated Germany's determination to maintain its own influence. Algeciras Conference A friendly German naval presence in Morocco and a military base nearby could threaten the British or the important trade routes through the Mediterranean. The British continued to support beleaguered French Foreign MinisterTheophile Delcassé. Lansdowne had been surprised by the German reaction, but Britain might take on the fledgling German fleet before it grew too large. On 3 June 1905,Abdelaziz of Morocco, prompted by Germany, rejected the French offer of assistance and called for an international conference. On 6 June, after Delcassé had resigned, news spread to Berlin. The following morning, Bülow was elevated to the rank of prince (Fürst). The occasion coincided with the marriage of the crown prince and echoed the elevation of Bismarck to prince in the Hall of Mirrors at thePalace of Versailles.Germany continued to press for further French concessions. Bülow carefully instructed Radolin and also spoke to the French ambassador in Berlin. However, the effect was somewhat the reverse of what he intended by hardening the resolve of French PremierMaurice Rouvierto resist further demands forrapprochement. The Algeciras Conference commenced on 16 January 1906 atAlgeciras Town Hall. During the conference, a British fleet of 20 battleships, with accompanying cruisers and destroyers, visited the port town, and all of the delegates were invited on board. The conference went badly for Germany, with a vote against German proposals that was 10–3. Holstein wished to threaten war against France, but Bülow ordered Holstein to take no further part in the conference. No satisfactory outcome for Germany was in sight by April, which left the only course of action to wind it down as best he could. The result was received badly in Germany, with objections raised in the press. On 5 April 1906, Bülow was obliged to appear before the Reichstag to defend the outcome, and during a heated exchange, he collapsed and was carried from the hall. At first, it was thought he had suffered a fatal stroke.Lord Fitzmaurice, in the BritishHouse of Lords, compared the incident with that of the death ofWilliam Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, a compliment that was much appreciated in Germany. Bülow's collapse was ascribed to overwork andinfluenzabut, after a month's rest, he was able to resume his duties. Scandal In 1907, during theHarden–Eulenburg Affair,Adolf Brand, the founding editor of the homosexual periodicalDer Eigene, printed a pamphlet alleging that Bülow had been blackmailed for engaging in homosexual practices and was morally obligated to opposeParagraph 175of the German penal code, which outlawed homosexuality. Sued for slander and brought to trial on 7 November 1907, Brand asserted that Bülow had embraced and kissed his private secretary, Privy CouncilorMax Scheefer, at all-male gatherings hosted by Eulenburg.Testifying in his own defense, Bülow denied the accusation but remarked he had heard unsavoury rumours about Eulenburg.Taking the stand, Eulenburg defended himself against Brand's charge by denying that he had ever held such events and claimed that he had never engaged in same-sex acts, which subsequently led to a perjury trial. Despite concluding testimony by the chief of the Berlin police that Bülow may have been the victim of a homosexual blackmailer, he easily prevailed in court, and Brand was sent to prison. Daily TelegraphAffair In November 1907, Wilhelm made a long-planned state visit to Britain. He had attempted to cancel the visit because of the recent scandals, but it went ahead and was so successful that he decided to remain in Britain for a holiday. He rented a house for the purpose from ColonelEdward Montague Stuart-Wortleyand spoke freely to its owner while he was there. After he had departed, Stuart-Wortley wrote an article forThe Daily Telegraphabout the conversations, submitted it to Wilhelm and requested approval for its publication. The English manuscript was passed to Bülow to review for publication. Wilhelm had asked Bülow not to pass on the article to the Foreign Office, but Bülow instead sent it unread to State SecretaryWilhelm von Schoenand requested an official translation and the addition of any amendments that might be necessary. Since Schoen was away, it instead went to the undersecretary, Stemrich. He read it but passed it without comment to Reinhold Klehmet, who interpreted his instructions as meaning to correct any errors of fact but not otherwise to comment. The manuscript was returned to Bülow, still unread, to Wilhelm, who saw no reason not to publish. It duly appeared in print and caused a storm. In the interview, Wilhelm expressed many controversial and offensive opinions: Wilhelm thus managed to offend Japanese, French, Russian and especially British sensibilities. Even Germans were outraged, as he claimed to have helped the British with their war against theBoers, whom most Germans had supported. Bülow accused the Foreign Office of failing to comment properly on the article. The office responded that it was his role to decide on publication in such a situation. Although Bülow denied having read the article, how he could have failed to do so remained unclear because of Wilhelm's continuous record of public gaffes. Questions arose as to Wilhelm's competence to rule and the role he should be permitted under the constitution. The matter was to be debated in the Reichstag, where Bülow would have to defend his own position and that of Wilhelm. Bülow wrote to Wilhelm and successfully offered to resign unless Wilhelm could give him full support in the matter. Bülow arranged the publication of a defence of the events inNorddeutsch Allgemeine Zeitung, which glossed over Wilhelm's remarks and concentrated on the failings of the Foreign Office in not examining the article properly. It explained that Bülow had offered to take full responsibility for the office's failings, but Wilhelm had refused to accept his resignation. Bülow succeeded in turning away criticism from himself in the Reichstag and finished his speech to cheering from the assembly. Holstein observed that the nature of the comments meant that he could almost certainly not have defended Wilhelm for making them and that Bülow could not have done otherwise: disputing the factual accuracy of much of what Wilhelm had said and leaving blame for events squarely with him. His explanation was that the comments had been made with the best of intentions and would certainly not be repeated. He declared his conviction that the disastrous effects of the interview would induce Wilhelm to observe strict reserve, even in private conversations, or neither he nor any successor could assume responsibility. Wilhelm was due to be away from Germany during the Reichstag debate, on a trip to Austria, and received much criticism for not staying at home. Wilhelm queried whether he ought to cancel the trip, but Bülow advised him to continue with it. Holstein asked Bülow about Wilhelm's absence; Bülow denied advising Wilhelm to go. Matters were not improved when during the visit, CountDietrich von Hülsen-Haeseler, the chief of theGerman Imperial Military Cabinet, died from a heart attack atDonaueschingen, the estate ofPrince Max von Fürstenberg. On Wilhelm's return, Bülow persuaded him to endorse a statement that he concurred with Bülow's statements to the Reichstag. Wilhelm was now close to breakdown and considering abdication. Wilhelm withdrew from public appearances for six weeks, which was generally seen as an act of penitence rather than the consequence of his depression. Public opinion began to reflect on whether the Chancellor had failed to advise him properly and then failed to defend Wilhelm's actions in the Reichstag. Wilhelm's own view of the affair began to change to blaming Bülow for failing to warn him of the difficulties that the article would cause. He determined that Bülow would have to be replaced. In June 1909, difficulties arose in obtaining additional finance for ongoing ship construction. Wilhelm warned Bülow that if he failed to carry a majority for imposing inheritance taxes, Bülow would have to resign. He was defeated by eight votes. On board the royal yacht,Hohenzollern, on 26 June, Bülow offered his resignation, exactly twelve years after accepting the office. On 14 July, the resignation was announced, andTheobald von Bethmann Hollwegbecame the new Chancellor. Wilhelm dined with the Bülows and expressed his regret that the prince was determined to resign. He observed that he had been informed that some of those who voted against the inheritance tax had done so out of animosity against Bülow and his handling of theTelegraphaffair, rather out of opposition to the tax. For his services to the state, Bülow was awarded theOrder of the Black Eagleset in diamonds. Later life After his resignation in 1909, Bülow lived principally at the villa inRomethat he had purchased for his retirement. Part of the summer was usually spent by him atKlein Flottbek, near Hamburg, or on the island ofNorderney. A large fortune left him by a cousin, a Hamburg merchant, enabled him to live in elegant leisure and to make his house in Rome a centre of literary and political society. He employed his leisure in writing for the centenary celebrations of theWars of Liberation, a remarkable book on Imperial Germany, extolling its achievements and defending the main lines of his own foreign policy.In a revised edition of his book on Imperial Germany, published after the start of theFirst World War, he omitted or altered many passages that seemed compromising in light of the war like his policy of lulling Britain into a false sense of security while the German Navy was being constructed. He was understood to be in deeply malodorous company with Wilhelm, who never forgave him his attitude and action with regard to a 1908 interview inThe Daily Telegraph. Wartime diplomat In 1914–1915, Bülow was the ambassador to Italy but failed to bring KingVictor Emmanuel IIIto join theCentral Powers. Italy had declared its neutrality at the outbreak of the war but intimated on 5 July 1914 through diplomatic channels that Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia was aggressive and provocative. On 9 December 1914,Sidney Sonninoaddressed the Austrian Note to the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister,Count Berchtold, to call attention to Article VII of the treaty by which Italy participated in the Triple Alliance, with particular reference to the clause that bound Austria-Hungary, if it disturbed the status quo in the Balkans even by a temporary occupation of Serbian territory, to come to an agreement with Italy and to arrange for compensations. The questions of the Trentino Agreement andTriestewere thus formally opened. Austria-Hungary manifested great reluctance to enter upon the question of compensations, but Germany was more alert to its own concerns. Bülow was, therefore, entrusted with the temporary charge of the German embassy in Rome since the actual ambassador, Flotow, went on sick leave (19 December 1914). Bülow at once plunged into active negotiations and was sympathetic with Italian demands for compensation. He had, however, to fight the intransigence of Hungarian Prime MinisterIstván Tisza, and Tisza's nominee, who was Berchtold's successor,Baron von Burian. Bülow was from the first for the complete cession of the Trentino region to Italy, but Austria-Hungary was willing to cede only part of it. Sonnino pointed out that Italian feeling would not be satisfied even with the whole of the Trentino but would also, in accordance with itsirredentism, demand Trieste. Bülow continued to urge that all he could mediate for was the Trentino but that Austria would fight to keep Trieste. In early April 1915, Italy's secret negotiations demanded the Trentino, Trieste and theCurzolane Islands, off the coast ofDalmatia. Austria-Hungary recognised Italian sovereignty overValona. However, negotiations dragged on until the middle of May, when Bülow made a grave but characteristic tactical mistake. He induced the former Italian Prime MinisterGiovanni Giolittito come toRomefromTurinin the hope of preventing a rupture and bringing about the acceptance of the Austro-Hungarian terms. Prime MinisterAntonio Salandrasuddenly resigned. There was a great outburst of popular indignation, fanned by the impassioned eloquence ofd'Annunzioand expressed in demonstrations in front of theQuirinal, the royal palace, and on theCapitoline Hill, the centre of Rome. After a great majority in the Italian Parliament had on 20 May supported Salandra, a general mobilisation was ordered on 22 May, and the formal declaration of war against Austria-Hungary followed on 23 May 1915.The next day, Bülow left Rome.He regarded his task as impossible in any case, and on returning, he remarked: \"Morale and attitude of the German people: A-1. Political leadership: Z-Minus\". Considered for chancellorship He lived in Berlin, but after the peace he again resided in Rome for part of every year and spent the rest of the year in Germany. His name was mentioned in a ministerial crisis of 1921, as a possible chancellor.Although many of the leading figures in the Reichstag, includingMatthias Erzberger, hoped that Bülow would succeed Bethmann Hollweg, who resigned in 1917, he was entirely unacceptable to the vast majority of both the German people and the Reichstag. He died on 28 October 1929 in Rome. Personality Bülow spoke several languages and was a charming conversationalist. He was comfortably at home in high society and could entertain and impress even his opponents. He was thought by some colleagues to be untrustworthy:Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechterreferred to him as \"the Eel\".Once he had obtained power and position in the German government, he had no overarching ideas of what to do with them, allowing others to guide policy. His character made him a good choice to work with Kaiser Wilhelm II, who required agreement and flattery from his senior ministers, even if they sometimes then ignored his instructions. He wrote four volumes of autobiography, to be published after his death, which markedly altered public perception of his character, as they included his candid and malicious descriptions of others. He was a fine debater in theReichstagbut was generally lazy in carrying out his duties. He was described byFriedrich von Holstein, who was for 30 years the first councillor in the foreign department and a major influence on policy throughout that time, as having \"read moreMachiavellithan he could digest\". His mother-in-law claimed, \"Bernhard makes a secret out of everything\". Honours German orders and decorations Foreign orders and decorations Notes References Further reading Primary sources External links" ]
[ "Potsdam Agreement ThePotsdam Agreement(German:Potsdamer Abkommen) was the agreement among three of theAllies of World War II: theUnited Kingdom, theUnited States, and theSoviet Unionafter the war ended in Europe on 1 August 1945 and it was published the next day. A product of thePotsdam Conference, it concerned the military occupation and reconstruction ofGermany, itsborder, and the entireEuropean Theatre of Warterritory. It also addressed Germany'sdemilitarisation,reparations, the prosecution ofwar criminalsand themass expulsion of ethnic Germansfrom various parts of Europe. France was not invited to the conference but formally remained one of the powers occupying Germany. Executed as a communiqué, the agreement was not apeace treatyaccording tointernational law, although it created accomplished facts. It was superseded by theTreaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germanysigned on 12 September 1990. AsDe Gaullehad not been invited to the Conference, the French resisted implementing the Potsdam", "the Potsdam Agreements within their occupation zone. In particular, the French refused to resettle any expelled Germans from the east. Moreover, the French did not accept any obligation to abide by the Potsdam Agreement in the proceedings of the Allied Control Council; in particular resisting all proposals to establish common policies and institutions across Germany as a whole (for example France separated Saarland from Germany to establishits protectorateon 16 February 1946), and anything that they feared might lead to the emergence of an eventual unified German government. Overview After theend of World War II in Europe(1939–1945), and the decisions of the earlierTehran,CasablancaandYalta Conferences, the Allies assumed supreme authority over Germany by theBerlin Declarationof June 5, 1945. At thePotsdam Conferencethe Western Allies were presented withStalin'sfait accompliawarding Soviet-occupied Poland the river Oder as its western border,placing the entire Soviet Occupation Zone east of it (with the", "of it (with the exception of theKaliningradenclave), includingPomerania, most ofEast Prussia, andDanzig, under Polish administration. The German population who had not fled were expelled and their properties acquisitioned by the state.President Truman and the British delegations protested at these actions. The Three Power Conference took place from 17 July to 2 August 1945, in which they adopted theProtocol of the Proceedings, August 1, 1945, signed atCecilienhofPalace inPotsdam. The signatories were General SecretaryJoseph Stalin, PresidentHarry S. Truman, and Prime MinisterClement Attlee, who, as a result of theBritish general election of 1945, had replacedWinston Churchillas the UK's representative. The three powers also agreed to inviteFranceandChinato participate as members of the Council of Foreign Ministers established to oversee the agreement. TheProvisional Government of the French Republicaccepted the invitation on August 7, with the key reservation that it would not accepta prioriany commitment to", "commitment to the eventual reconstitution of a central government in Germany. James F. Byrneswrote \"we specifically refrained from promising to support at the German Peace Conference any particular line as the western frontier of Poland.\" The Berlin Protocol declared: \"The three heads of government reaffirm their opinion that the final delimitation of the western frontier of Poland should await the peace settlement.\" Byrnes continues: \"In the light of this history, it is difficult to credit with good faith any person who asserts that Poland's western boundary was fixed by the conferences, or that there was a promise that it would be established at some particular place.\"Despite this, theOder-Neisse Linewas set as Poland's provisional (and therefore theoretically subject to change) western frontier in Article 8 of the Agreement but was not finalized as Poland's permanent western frontier until the 1990German-Polish Border Treaty, having been recognized by East Germany in 1950 (in theTreaty of Zgorzelec) and", "of Zgorzelec) and acquiesced to by West Germany in 1970 (in theTreaty of Moscow (1970)and theTreaty of Warsaw (1970)). Protocol In the Potsdam Agreement (Berlin Conference) the Allies (UK, USSR, US) agreed on the following matters: The Three Governments have taken note of the discussions which have been proceeding in recent weeks in London between British, United States, Soviet and French representatives with a view to reaching agreement on the methods of trial of those major war criminals whose crimes under theMoscow Declarationof October 1943 have no particular geographical localization. The Three Governments reaffirm their intention to bring these criminals to swift and sure justice. They hope that the negotiations in London will result in speedy agreement being reached for this purpose, and they regard it as a matter of great importance that the trial of these major criminals should begin at the earliest possible date. The first list of defendants will be published before 1st September. he three", "September. he three Governments have also charged the Council of Foreign Ministers with the task of preparing peace treaties forBulgaria,Finland,HungaryandRomania. The conclusion of Peace Treaties with recognized democratic governments in these States will also enable the three Governments to support applications from them for membership of the United Nations. The three Governments agree to examine each separately in the near future in the light of the conditions then prevailing, the establishment of diplomatic relations with Finland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary to the extent possible prior to the conclusion of peace treaties with those countries. The Three Governments, having considered the question in all its aspects, recognize that the transfer to Germany of German populations, or elements thereof, remaining in Poland,Czechoslovakiaand Hungary, will have to be undertaken. They agree that any transfers that take place should be effected in an orderly and humane manner. Moreover, towards concluding", "towards concluding thePacific Theatre of War, the Potsdam Conference issued thePotsdam Declaration, the Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender (26 July 1945) wherein the Western Allies (UK, US, USSR) and theNationalist Chinaof GeneralChiang Kai-shekasked Japan to surrender or be destroyed. Aftermath Already during the Potsdam Conference, on 30 July 1945, theAllied Control Councilwas constituted in Berlin to execute the Allied resolutions (the \"Four Ds\"): Territorial changes The northern half of the German province ofEast Prussia, occupied by theRed Armyduring itsEast Prussian Offensivefollowed by itsevacuationin winter 1945, had already been incorporated into Soviet territory as theKaliningrad Oblast. The Western Allies promised to support the annexation of the territory north of theBraunsberg–Goldapline when a Final German Peace Treaty was held. The Allies had acknowledged the legitimacy of the PolishProvisional Government of National Unity, which was about to form a Sovietsatellite state. Urged", "state. Urged by Stalin, the UK and the US gave in to put the German territories east of theOder–Neisse linefrom theBalticcoast west ofŚwinoujścieup to theCzechoslovakborder \"under Polish administration\"; allegedly confusing theLusatian Neisseand theGlatzer Neisserivers. The proposal of an Oder-Bober-Queisline was rejected by the Soviet delegation. The cession included the formerFree City of Danzigand the seaport ofStettinon the mouth of theOderRiver (Szczecin Lagoon), vital for theUpper Silesian Industrial Region. Post-war, 'Germany as a whole' would consist solely of aggregate territories of the respective zones of occupation. As all former German territories east of the Oder-Neisse line were excluded from the Soviet Occupation Zone, they were consequently excluded from 'Germany as a whole'. Expulsions In the course of the proceedings, and after the German statekilledaround 5-6 million Polish citizens during the war,Polish communistshad begun to suppress the German population west of the Bóbr river to", "the Bóbr river to underline their demand for a border on the Lusatian Neisse. The Allied resolution on the \"orderly transfer\" of German population became the legitimation of the expulsion of Germans from the nebulous parts ofCentral Europe, if they had not already fled from the advancing Red Army. The expulsion of ethnic Germans by the Poles concerned, in addition to Germans within areas behind the 1937 Polish border in the West (such as in most of the old Prussian province of West Prussia), the territories placed \"under Polish administration\" pending a Final German Peace Treaty, i.e. southern East Prussia (Masuria),Farther Pomerania, theNew Marchregion of the formerProvince of Brandenburg, the districts of theGrenzmarkPosen-West Prussia,Lower Silesiaand those parts ofUpper Silesiathat had remained with Germany after the 1921Upper Silesia plebiscite. It further affected the German minority living within the territory of the formerSecond Polish RepublicinGreater Poland, eastern Upper Silesia,Chełmno Landand", "Landand thePolish Corridorwith Danzig. TheGermans in Czechoslovakia(34% of the population of the territory of what is now the Czech Republic), known asSudeten Germansbut alsoCarpathian Germans, were expelled from theSudetenlandregion where they formed a majority, from linguistic enclaves in centralBohemiaandMoravia, as well as from the city ofPrague. Though the Potsdam Agreement referred only to Poland, Czechoslovakia andHungary, expulsions also occurred inRomania, where theTransylvanian Saxonsweredeportedand their property seized, and inYugoslavia. In the Soviet territories, Germans were expelled from northern East Prussia (Oblast Kaliningrad) but also from the adjacent LithuanianKlaipeda Regionand other lands settled byBaltic Germans. See also References External links", "Wellington Convention TheWellington Convention(formally, theConvention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets in the South Pacific) is a 1989multilateral treatywhereby states agreed to prohibit the use of fishingdriftnetslonger than 2.5 kilometres in theSouth Pacific.The Wellington Convention played a role in the 1991United Nations General Assembly'sresolutioncalling for a global moratorium of driftnet fishing on thehigh seas. Creation, signatures, and ratifications The Convention was concluded atWellingtonon 24 November 1989. It was opened for signature to states which have territory within the South Pacific. The Convention was signed byAustralia,Cook Islands,Fiji,France,Kiribati,Marshall Islands,Federated States of Micronesia,New Zealand,Niue,Palau,Solomon Islands,Tuvalu,United States, andVanuatu. Of the states that signed the Convention, it has not been ratified by France, Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.Samoa, which did not sign the Convention, has acceded to it. Additionally,Papua New", "New Guineahas notified New Zealand—the depositary state—that the prohibitions of the Convention had been taken into account when Papua New Guinea enacted its Fisheries Act 1994. Global moratorium of driftnet fishing On 20 December 1991, the UN General Assembly passed the Resolution on Large-scale Pelagic Driftnet Fishing and its Impact on the Living Marine Resources of the World's Oceans and Seas.The resolution called for a worldwide moratorium on driftnet fishing and cited the entry into force of the Wellington Convention as contributing support to such a moratorium. Protocols The Convention has two Protocols that supplement it. Both were concluded atNoumea,New Caledoniaon 20 October 2000 Ratification of Protocol I allows states that do not have territory in the Convention Area to nevertheless agree that they will prohibit their nationals and their fishing vessels from using driftnets while fishing in the Convention Area. Protocol I has been ratified only by the United States; it entered into force for the", "into force for the U.S. on 28 February 1992. Ratification of Protocol II allows states that do not have territory in the Convention Area but have territory in the waters that are contiguous to the Convention Area to nevertheless agree that they will prohibit their nationals and their fishing vessels from using driftnets while fishing in the Convention Area. Protocol II has been ratified byChile(5 October 1993) andCanada(28 August 1998). Notes References External links", "List of prime ministers of New Zealand Theprime minister of New Zealandis the country'shead of governmentand the leader of theCabinet, whose powers and responsibilities are defined byconvention.Officially, the prime minister is appointed by thegovernor-general, but by convention, the prime minister must have the confidence of theHouse of Representatives.The prime minister is always a member of parliament. Originally, prime ministers headed loosecoalitionsofindependents, which were often unstable; since the advent ofpolitical parties, the prime minister is usually the leader of the largest party represented in the house.Since 1935, every prime minister has been a member of either theNationalparty or theLabourparty, reflecting their domination ofNew Zealand politics.After the introduction ofmixed-member proportionalvoting in 1996, prime ministers have usually needed to negotiate agreements with smaller parties to maintain a majority in Parliament. The title of the office was originally \"colonial secretary\",", "secretary\", which was formally changed to \"premier\" in 1869.That title remained in use almost exclusively for more than 30 years, untilRichard Seddonchanged it to \"prime minister\" during his tenure in the office; he used the title officially at the1902 Colonial Conference. Some historians regardJames FitzGeraldas New Zealand's first prime minister, although a more conventional view is that neither he nor his successor (Thomas Forsaith) should properly be given that title, as New Zealand did not yet haveresponsible governmentwhen they served.Most commonly,Henry Sewell, whoserved during 1856, is regarded as New Zealand's first premier.Beginning with Sewell, 42 individuals have so far held the premiership,not includingHugh Watt, who wasacting prime ministerfollowing the death ofNorman Kirk. Eight prime ministers have held the position for more than one period in office. Richard Seddon, prime minister for thirteen years between 1893 and 1906, held the office for the longest term.The youngest prime minister", "prime minister wasEdward Stafford, who assumed office at age 37, and the oldest wasWalter Nash, who left office at age 78.Three prime ministers have been women, a count equalled byIceland,Lithuania,Polandand the United Kingdom, and only surpassed byFinlandandSwitzerland. The current prime minister isChristopher Luxon, who assumed office on 27 November 2023. List of officeholders Thepartiesshown are those to which the heads of government belonged at the time they held office and theelectoral districtsshown are those they represented while in office. Several prime ministers belonged to parties other than those given and represented other electorates before and after their time in office. A number in brackets indicates the prime minister served a previous term in office. †Died in office Timeline See also References", "List of chancellors of Germany Thechancellor of Germanyis the political leader ofGermanyand the head of thefederal government. The office holder is responsible for selecting all other members of the government and chairingcabinetmeetings. The office was created in theNorth German Confederationin 1867,whenOtto von Bismarckbecame the first chancellor. With theunification of Germanyand establishment of theGerman Empirein 1871, the Confederation evolved into a German nation-state and its leader became known as the chancellor of Germany.Originally, the chancellor was only responsible to theemperor. This changed with the constitutional reform in 1918, when the Parliament was given the right to dismiss the chancellor. Under the 1919WeimarConstitutionthe chancellors were appointed by the directly electedpresident, but were responsible to Parliament. The constitution was set aside during the 1933–1945Nazi regime. During theAllied occupation, no independent German government and no chancellor existed; and the office", "and the office was not reconstituted in East Germany, thus the head of government of East Germany was chairman of theCouncil of Ministers. The1949 Basic Lawmade the chancellor the most important office in West Germany, while diminishing the role of thepresident. North German Confederation (1867–1871) TheNorth German Confederationcame into existence after theGerman Confederationwas dissolved following the Prussian victory in theAustro-Prussian Warof 1866. The chancellor was appointed by theBundespräsidium,a position that was held constitutionally by thePrussian king. German Reich (1871–1945) German Empire (1871–1918) TheGerman Empirewas born out of the North German Confederation as result of theFranco-Prussian War(1870/71). ThePräsidium(the Prussian king), which now had also the titleEmperor, named the chancellor. Political parties:NoneCentre Weimar Republic (1918–1933) On 9 November 1918, Chancellor Max von Baden handed over his office toFriedrich Ebert. Ebert continued to serve as head of government during", "government during the three months between theend of the German Empire in November 1918and the first gathering of the National Assembly in February 1919 as Chairman of theCouncil of the People's Deputies, until 29 December 1918 together withUSPDLeaderHugo Haase. TheWeimar Constitutionof 1919 set the framework for theWeimar Republic. The chancellors were officially installed by the president; in some cases the chancellor did not have a majority in parliament. Political parties:SPDCentreDVPNSDAPNone Nazi Germany (1933–1945) Soon afterAdolf Hitler was appointed as chancellor in 1933, the GermanReichstag(parliament) passed the so-calledEnabling Act(German:Ermächtigungsgesetz), officially titled \"Law for Removing the Distress of People and Reich\" (German:Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich), which effectively gave the chancellor the power of adictator. This event marked the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning ofNazi Germany.Hitler thereupon destroyed all democratic systems and consolidated all", "consolidated all power to himself. After the death of presidentPaul von Hindenburgin 1934, Hitler merged the offices of chancellor and president in his own person and called himselfFührerund Reichskanzler. Political parties:NSDAP Federal Republic of Germany (1949–present) In 1949, two separate German states were established: theFederal Republic of Germany(known as West Germany) and theGerman Democratic Republic(known as East Germany). The list below gives the chancellors of West Germany; thegovernmentof East Germany was headed by thechairman of the Council of Ministers.In 1990, East Germany was dissolved as it merged with West Germany; Germany wasreunified. It retained the name of the Federal Republic of Germany. Political parties:CDU(4)SPD(4)Independent(1) Timeline See also References", "Richard Seddon Prime Minister of New Zealand General elections Richard John SeddonPC(22 June 1845 – 10 June 1906) was a New Zealand politician who served as the 15thpremier (prime minister) of New Zealandfrom 1893 until his death. In office for thirteen years, he is to date New Zealand'slongest-serving head of government. Seddon was born inEccleston, Lancashire, England. He arrived in New Zealand in 1866.His prominence in local politics gained him a seat in theHouse of Representativesin 1879. Seddon became a key member of theLiberal Partyunder the leadership ofJohn Ballance. When theLiberal Governmentcame to power in 1891 Seddon was appointed to several portfolios, includingMinister of Public Works. Seddon succeeded to the leadership of the Liberal Party following Ballance's death in 1893, inheriting a bill forwomen's suffrage, which was passed the same year despite Seddon's opposition to it. Seddon's government achieved many social and economic changes, such as the introduction ofold age pensions. His", "age pensions. His personal popularity, charisma and strength overcame dissent from within his cabinet.This has been described as firmly establishing \"Seddonism\", a colloquial term for Seddon's strand ofnationalist conservatism, as New Zealand's dominant political ideology.His government also purchased vast amounts of land from theMāori, aided by his alliesAlfred CadmanandJames Carrollas theMinisters of Native Affairs. He spent the1899 general electiontrying to relieve New Zealand's parliament of the independent politicians who had so greatly dominated the country's organised national politics since its provenance, in which he triumphed greatly.Animperialistin foreign policy, his attempt to incorporateFijiinto New Zealand failed, but he successfully annexed theCook Islandsin 1901. Seddon's government supported Britain with troops in theSecond Boer War(1899–1902) and supported preferential trade between British colonies. Seddon was regarded as deeply regionalist; the late Professor of History atVictoria", "History atVictoria University of Wellington,D.A. Hamer, described him as \"an intensely parochial politician... a great fighter for the interests ofWest Coastersbut with no interest in or knowledge about wider New Zealand problems\".His heritage from the region defined him not only as a politician, but as a man; he became well-known for the \"uncouth\" stereotypes of the generally West CoastPākehāpopulation of the time, expressed in his lack of education, boisterous and aggressive persona, and his dialectal tendency to drop hisaitches. Seddon continued to live on the West Coast of the South Island throughout his premiership, only coming toWellingtonon a regular basis very reluctantly, from the late 1890s. Seddon was also described as a man of secret brooding, who secretly battled anxiety and depression beneath his public surface ofrodomontadeand bravado; he hid his personal struggles to ensure his enemies would not feel pleasure knowing they had hurt him. Despite his personal insecurities, dominating and almost", "and almost illiberal viewpoints, and erratic nature, he inspired serious and long-lasting loyalty among his cabinet members. Leading the Liberal Party until his death, the party afterwards struggled to recover, going through a string of leaders before essentially giving way to New Zealand's modern two-party system of what would become theLabourandNationalParties.Ironically, this was something Seddon had been instrumental in creating, through his successful attempt at suppressing New Zealand's previously dominant political cohort ofindependents.Despite being derisively known as \"King Dick\" for his autocratic style,and criticised for his actions on Māori land deprivation and his views onrace(especially towardsChinese), he has nonetheless been named as one of the greatest, most influential, and most widely known politicians in New Zealand history. Early life and family Seddon was born in the town ofEccleston, nearSt Helens in Lancashire, England, on 22 June 1845.His father Thomas Seddon (born 1817) was a school", "1817) was a school headmaster, and his mother Jane Lindsay was a teacher; they married on 8 February 1842 at Christ Church, Eccleston. Richard was the third of their eight children. Despite this background, Seddon did not perform well at school, and was described as unruly. Despite his parents' attempt to give him aclassicaleducation, Seddon developed an interest in engineering, but was removed from school at age 12. After working on his grandfather Richard's farm atBarrow NookHall for two years,Seddon was an apprentice atDaglish'sFoundryinSutton. He later worked atVauxhall foundryinLiverpool,where he attained a Board of Trade Certificate as a mechanical engineer.During his time in Lancashire, he was heavily influenced bysocial liberalism, and many of its ideas would form part of his political philosophy as a politician. On 15 June 1862, at the age of 16, Seddon decided to emigrate toAustralia, working his passage to Melbourne on theSSGreat Britain.He later provided his reasoning: \"A restlessness to get away", "to get away to see new, broad lands seized me: My work was irksome. I felt cramped.\"He entered the railway workshops atWilliamstown, and also worked in the goldfields atBendigo; he did not meet with any great success. In either 1865 or 1866, he became engaged to Louisa Jane Spotswood, but her family would not permit marriage until Seddon was financially secure. Seddon moved to New Zealand'sWest Coastin 1866. Initially, he worked the goldfields inWaimea. He is believed to have prospered here, and he returned briefly to Melbourne to marry Louisa. He established a store, and then expanded his business to include the sale of alcohol, becoming apublican. He was followed to the West Coast by his older sister Phoebe, younger brothers Edward and Jim and younger sister Mary.Phoebe married William Cunliffe on 9 May 1863 at Holy Trinity Church Eccleston. Their son Bill was Labour MPDavid Cunliffe's grandfather, making Richard Seddon David Cunliffe's great-great-uncle. Local politics Seddon first entered politics in", "entered politics in 1870, when he ran unsuccessfully for theWestland County Council, finishing third. The same year, he was elected to the Arahura Road Board. He ran again for the County Council in 1872, finishing a distant third. In 1874 Seddon stood for the newly createdWestland Provincial Counciland was elected for Arahura. He established himself as a broadly effective, if rather bellicose, advocate for miners' interests. He also took an interest in education during this time.He lost this position with theabolition of the provincesin 1876, and was elected instead to the newly reconstituted county council.In 1876 he stood for Parliament in the two-memberHokitika electorateand placed fourth out of five candidates. Kumarabecame a prominent goldmining town. Seddon was elected its first Mayor in 1877. He had staked a claim in Kumara the previous year, and had shortly afterwards moved his business there. Despite occasional financial troubles (he filed for bankruptcy in 1878), his political career prospered.", "career prospered. Entry to Parliament In the1879 election, he stood for Parliament again, and was elected. He represented Hokitika to 1881, thenKumarafrom 1881 to 1890, thenWestlandfrom 1890 to his death in 1906. His sonTom Seddonsucceeded him as MP for Westland. In Parliament, Seddon aligned himself withGeorge Grey, a formerGovernorturned Premier. Seddon later claimed to be particularly close to Grey, although some historians believe that this was an invention for political purposes. Initially, Seddon was derided by many members of Parliament, who mocked his \"provincial\" accent (which tended to drop the letter \"h\") and his lack of formal education. He nevertheless proved quite effective in Parliament, being particularly good at \"stonewalling\" certain legislation. His political focus was on issues of concern to his West Coast constituents. He specialised on mining issues, became a recognised authority on the topic, and chaired the goldfields committee in 1887 and 1888. He aggressively proclaimed a populist", "a populist anti-elitist philosophy in many speeches and toast. \"It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy people and the landowners against the middle classes and the labouring classes,\" he explained. Liberal Party Seddon joined the nascentLiberal Party, led byJohn Ballance, following theDecember 1890general election. Their platform was for reform in the areas of land and labour.They were greatly helped by the abolition ofplural voting, which allowed landowners in each district they owned land in to vote in them. Seddon was sworn into his firstministerialpositions when the Liberals came to power in January 1891.He became minister of public works, mines, defence, and marine. He promoted co-operative contract system for road-making and other public works projects. Unlike Ballance who believed inclassical liberalism, Seddon did not have any great commitment to anyideology. Rather, he saw the Liberals as champions of \"the common man\" against large commercial interests and major landowners.His strong", "strong advocacy for what he saw as the interests of ordinary New Zealanders won him considerable popularity. Attacks by the opposition, which generally focused on his lack of education and sophistication (one opponent said that he was only \"partially civilised\") reinforced his growing reputation as an enemy of elitism. Seddon quickly became popular across the country. Some of his colleagues, however, were not as happy, accusing him of puttingpopulismahead of principle, and of being ananti-intellectual. John Ballance, now Premier, had a deep commitment to liberal causes such aswomen's suffrageandMāorirights, which Seddon was not always as enthusiastic about. Nevertheless, many people in the Liberal Party believed that Seddon's popularity was a huge asset for the party, and Seddon developed a substantial following. Premiership Ballance fell seriously ill in 1892 and made Seddon acting leader of the House. After Ballance's death in April 1893, the GovernorDavid Boyle, 7th Earl of Glasgowasked Seddon, as the", "Seddon, as the acting leader of the house, to form a new ministry. Despite the refusal ofWilliam Pember ReevesandThomas Mackenzieto accept his leadership, Seddon managed to secure the backing of his Liberal Party colleagues as interim leader, with an understanding being reached that a full vote would occur when Parliament resumed sitting.Seddon's most prominent challenger wasRobert Stout, a former Premier for two separate terms. Like Ballance, Stout had a strong belief in classical-liberal principles. Ballance himself had preferred Stout as his successor,but had died before being able to secure this aim. Stout was not a member of the House of Representatives at the time of Ballance's death, and only re-entered following theby-election in Inangahuaon 8 June 1893. Despite Seddon's promise, however, there was no vote on the party leadership and therefore the premiership. By convincing his party colleagues that a leadership contest would split the party in two, or at least leave deep divisions, Seddon managed to", "Seddon managed to secure a permanent hold on the leadership.Stout continued to be one of his strongest critics and led the campaign for women's suffrage despite Seddon's opposition. Eventually Stout left the Liberal Party in 1896 and remained in the house as an independent until 1898. In 1899, however, Seddon recommended Stout to the Governor as the nextChief Justice of New Zealand. Women's suffrage John Ballance, founder of the Liberal Party, had been a strong supporter of voting rights for women, declaring his belief in the \"absolute equality of the sexes\".At the time women's suffrage was closely linked to thetemperance movement, which sought prohibition of alcohol. As a former publican and self-styled \"Champion of the Common Man\" Seddon initially opposed women's suffrage. In July 1893, two months after Seddon became Premier, the second of two majorpetitions for women's suffragewas presented to the House. This resulted in considerable debate within the Liberal Party.John Hall, a former conservative", "former conservative premier, moved a Bill to enact women's suffrage. Seddon's opponents within the party, led by Stout (also an advocate of temperance), managed to gather enough support for the Bill to be passed despite Seddon's opposition. When Seddon realised that the passage of the bill was inevitable, he changed his position, claiming to accept the people's will. In actuality, however, he took strong measures to ensure that theLegislative Councilwould vote down the Bill, as it had done previously. Seddon's tactics in lobbying the council were seen by many as underhand, and two Councillors, despite opposing suffrage, voted in favour of the bill in protest. The Bill was grantedRoyal Assentin September. Nonetheless, at the1893 general electionin November, Seddon's Liberal Party managed to increase its majority. Alcohol licensing The debate on women's suffrage exposed deep divisions within the Liberal Party between more doctrinaire liberals, broadly led by Stout, and \"popular\" liberals, led by Seddon. This", "led by Seddon. This division was again highlighted by the debate over alcohol licensing. Seddon moved the radical Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Bill in 1893to introduce licensing districts where a majority could vote for continuance (continued liquor licensing in that district) or reduction of licences or no liquor licences at all. Votes were to be taken every three years at general elections and licensing districts were matched to electoral districts. Old-age pensions One of the policies for which Seddon is most remembered is his Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, which established the basis of thewelfare statelater expanded byMichael Joseph Savageand theLabour Party. Seddon put considerable weight behind the scheme, despite considerable opposition from many quarters. Its successful passage is often seen as a testament to Seddon's political power and influence. Foreign policy In the sphere of foreign policy, Seddon was a notable supporter of theBritish Empire. After he attended theColonial Conference in London", "in London in 1897, he became known \"as one of the pillars of British imperialism\", and he was a strong supporter of theSecond Boer Warand sponsored preferential tariffs for trade with Britain. He is also noted for his support of New Zealand's own \"imperial\" designs – Seddon believed that New Zealand should play a major role in thePacific Islandsas a \"Britain of the South\". Seddon's plans focused mainly on establishing New Zealand dominion overFijiandSamoa. However, his expansionist policies were discouraged by theImperial Government. Only theCook Islandscame under New Zealand's control during his term in office. Immigration Seddon was firmly opposedChineseimmigration to New Zealand, harbouring an ethnic prejudice against them stemming from his years in the goldfields. Although Chinese immigrants were invited to New Zealand by the Dunedin Chamber of Commerce, prejudice against them quickly led to calls for restrictions on immigration. Following the example of anti-Chinese poll taxes enacted by California in", "by California in 1852 and by Australian states in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s,John Hall's government passed the Chinese Immigration Act 1881. This imposed a £10 tax per Chinese person entering New Zealand, and permitted only one Chinese immigrant for every 10 tons of cargo. Richard Seddon's government increased the tax to £100 per head in 1896 ($20,990 in modernNew Zealand dollars), and tightened the other restriction to only one Chinese immigrant for every 200 tons of cargo. Seddon compared Chinese people to monkeys, and so used theYellow Perilconspiracy theory to promoteracialistpolitics in New Zealand. In 1879, in his first political speech, Seddon said that New Zealand did not wish her shores \"deluged with Asiatic Tartars. I would sooner address white men than these Chinese. You can't talk to them, you can't reason with them. All you can get from them is 'No savvy'.\" Style of government Seddon was a strong premier, and enforced his authority with great vigour. At one point, he even commented that \"A", "commented that \"A president is all we require\", and thatCabinetcould be abolished. His opponents, both within the Liberal Party and in opposition, accused him of being an autocrat – the label \"King Dick\" was first applied to him at this point. Seddon accumulated a large number of portfolios for himself, including that ofMinister of Finance(from which he displacedJoseph Ward),Minister of Labour(from which he displacedWilliam Pember Reeves),Minister of Education,Minister of Defence,Minister of Native Affairs, andMinister of Immigration. Seddon was also accused ofcronyism– his friends and allies, particularly those from the West Coast, were given various political positions, while his enemies within the Liberal Party were frequently denied important office. Many of Seddon's appointees were not qualified for the positions that they received – Seddon valued loyalty above ability. One account, possibly apocryphal, claims that he installed an ally as a senior civil servant despite the man being illiterate. He was", "illiterate. He was also accused ofnepotism– in 1905, it was claimed that one of his sons had received an unauthorised payment, but this claim was proved false. SirCarl Berendsenrecalled seeing Seddon in 1906 as a Department of Education junior innocently bearing what was an unwelcome document. A replacement was needed for a small native school. The inspectors had picked out three outstanding candidates, but Seddon picked out the last on the lengthy list; he had no academic qualifications and had just been released from gaol for embezzlement. When the Premier appointed the gentlemen from gaol, Departmental officials returned the papers and called attention to his criminal record. Berendsen cowered in the corner while with a snarl Seddon grasped his pen and wrote once more in very large letters, \"Appoint Mr X\". Berendsen noted though that when an Editor was required for the new School Journal, Departmental officials had agreed on the best man, but the Massey Government (which had replaced the Liberal", "the Liberal Government) was \"quite shameless in devotion to the principle of the loaves and fishes... and the Minister of the day appointed the third choice\". As Minister of Native Affairs, Seddon took a generally \"sympathetic\" but \"paternalistic\" approach. As Minister of Immigration, he was well known for his hostility to Chinese immigration – the so-called \"Yellow Peril\" was an important part of his populist rhetoric, and he compared Chinese people tomonkeys. In his first political speech in 1879 he had declared New Zealand did not wish her shores to be \"deluged with Asiatic Tartars. I would sooner address white men than these Chinese. You can't talk to them, you can't reason with them. All you can get from them is 'No savvy'.\" Successive governments had also shown a lack of firmness in dealing with Māori, he said: \"The colony, instead of importingGatling gunswith which to fight Maori, should wage war with locomotives\"... pushing through roads and railways and compulsorily purchasing \"the land on both", "\"the land on both sides\". Religion and freemasonry Seddon was anAnglican. Seddon became aFreemasonin 1868 when he was initiated into Pacific Lodge No 1229 (under theUnited Grand Lodge of England) in Hokitika.The lodge is still extant, but has since relocated to Christchurch.In 1898, while premier, he was electedGrand Masterof New Zealand,and served in that role for two years. Honours Seddon attended Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee and received herJubilee Medaland an appointment in thePrivy Council. In 1902 he attended thecoronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandraand received hisCoronation Medal.During the same visit, he received theFreedom of the Boroughof his home-town St Helens during a visit there in July 1902,and the Freedom of the City ofEdinburghand an honorary degreeLL.D.from theUniversity of Edinburghduring a visit to the city later the same month.He was also presented with the HonoraryFreedomof theWorshipful Company of Tallow Chandlerson 8 August 1902. He twice refused a knighthood, wanting", "knighthood, wanting to be seen as aman of the people. Death Seddon remained Prime Minister for 13 years, but gradually, calls for him to retire became more frequent. Various attempts to replace him withJoseph Wardmet with failure. In June 1906, while returning from a trip to Australia on the shipOswestry Grange, he was sitting with his wife in his cabin waiting to be called to dinner when he suddenly placed his head on his wife's shoulder, and said, \"Oh, mother,\" before expiring of a massive heart attack at 6.20 pm on 10 June.Immediately following his death the ship, which was 110 miles (180 km) from Sydney Heads, turned back to port, its flag at half-mast.He died 12 days before his 61st birthday, .On the eve of his departure, he had sent a number of telegrams, among whom was one to the premier of Victoria,Thomas Bent, which contained the words, “Just leaving for God's own country”. News of his death provoked numerous public gestures of grief, which included black-bordered displays in shop windows and", "in shop windows and several public monuments, including a memorial lamp post outside theSt Helens Hospitalin Pitt Street Auckland. Seddon’s funeral was held on 21 June 1906 and he was buried inWellington's Bolton Street Cemetery, nowBolton Street Memorial Park. Joseph Ward was away in London at the time of Seddon's death. He succeeded Seddon as Prime Minister nearly two months later, on 6 August 1906. Personal life Seddon married Louisa Jane Spotswood on 13 January 1869 in Trinity Church, Williamstown, Victoria, Australia. Lousia was born on 28 May 1851 in Williamstown, Victoria, Australia to Anna Victoria (nee Normandale) and John Stuart Spotswood.After a long illness Louisa died at her home, \"Eeeleston,” in Wellington on 9 July 1931.Flags were flown at half-mast, on various Government buildings on the day of her funeral. The couple had the following eleven children with nine surviving to adulthood. Legacy He is considered by academics and historians to be one of New Zealand's greatest and most revered", "and most revered prime ministers.Seddon centralised government decision-making around himself—at his peak he exercised \"almost one-man, one-party rule\"—and, in doing so, he established the premiership as thede factomost important political office in New Zealand. Seddon's sonThomasreplaced him as MP forWestlandin the by-election following his death. When Thomas met formerUS PresidentTheodore Rooseveltin 1918, he expressed admiration for his late father, particularly the labour legislation his government passed. Atown in New Zealandand asuburbof Melbourne, Australia are named after him. Wellington Zoo was originally created when a young lion was presented to Prime Minister Richard Seddon by the Bostock and Wombwell Circus. Seddon created the Zoo from this single specimen and the lion was later named King Dick in the Prime Minister's honour. The stuffed body of King Dick (the lion) is displayed on the ground floor of theMuseum of Wellington City & Sea. St Mary's Church in Addington, Christchurch also has a", "also has a memorial bell tower to Richard Seddon. TheDuke of Argyllunveiled a memorial to Seddon inSt Paul's Cathedral, London, in 1910.It shows a portrait of Seddon with the inscription \"To the memory of Richard John Seddon prime minister of New Zealand 1893–1906 imperialist statesman reformer born June 22nd 1845 at St Helens Lancashire buried at Observatory Hill Wellington New Zealand\" Seddon memorial Following Seddon's death plans were put in place to erect a suitable memorial which would also incorporate a Seddon family mausoleum. It was quickly agreed that the existing Colonial Time Service Observatory on top of Observatory Hill (today part ofBolton Street Memorial Park) should be torn down to make way for it.A new observatory was later constructed on the site of the former Garden coast defence battery at the top of the Botanic Gardens. The memorial was designed by government architectJohn Campbelland constructed by Edwards and Son of Wellington with the above ground portion consisting of reinforced", "of reinforced concrete faced with Coromandel granite.It cost £2,746.Constructed between 1908 and 1910the memorial is topped by a bronze female figure approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) in height and weighing 2 long tons (2,000 kg) symbolising the “Zealandia”, the country mourning its dead.Costing approximately £500, the figure was designed at the London studio of sculptorHenry Pooleand cast by Alexander Parlanti.The concrete crypt underneath contains the body of Seddon, his wife Louisa, their daughter Mary Stuart Hay and memorial to their son Captain Richard Spotswood Seddon, who was killed in 1918 while serving in France. The family remains were temporally removed when between 2021 and December 2022 when the memorial was restored and seismically strengthened by the installation of a structural steel frame in the crypt and central void, combined with the installation of 17 post-tension tie rods. Statues of Seddon A 9 feet 6 inches (2.90 m) high bronze statue on a 15 feet (4.6 m) pedestal of Aberdeen granite to", "Aberdeen granite to Seddon was erected facing Molesworth Street in front of the main entrance toParliament Buildings.It was commissioned by then prime minister Sir Jospeh Ward from SirThomas Brock. The statue has him wearing a frock coat which was based on the one that he had worn while speaking at Papawai near Greytown. The coat had been brought to Brock in 1905 by Louisa Seddon and her daughter Mary.The statue was paid for by jointly by the government and the public and. Its completion was delayed by the landscaping of the grounds and the completion of Seddon’s memorial.At a public event attended by 1,500 people on 26 June 1915 the statue was unveiled by the Governor-General, Lord Liverpool.Among those attending were members of Seddon’s family, the prime minister William Massey, Sir Joseph Ward and Sir John Luke, mayor of Wellington. In October 1966 anti-Vietnam war protestors painted “No New Zealand Troops in Vietnam” across the plinth. In November 1988 a group protesting against the signing of the", "the signing of the Antarctic convention and the risk they believed it posed to wildlife enclosed the statue in a giant penguin suit. In February 2022, an anti-mandate and anti-lockdown Covid-19 protestor tagged it with a Nazi Swastika and the words “Freedom” and “Truth”. Since 11 November 1981 the statue has had a Historic Places category 1 listing. Another statue ofSeddonhas a prominent position in the West Coast town ofHokitika. Notes and references Notes References Further reading External links", "Bernhard von Bülow Bernhard Heinrich Karl Martin, Prince of Bülow(German:Bernhard Heinrich Karl MartinFürstvon BülowGerman:;3 May 1849 – 28 October 1929) was a Germanstatesmanwho served as thechancellor of the German Empireandminister-president of Prussiafrom 1900 to 1909. A fervent supporter ofWeltpolitik, Bülow devoted his chancellorship to transforming Germany into a global power. Despite presiding over sustained economic growth and major technological advancements within his country, his government's foreign policy did much to antagonize France and Great Britain thereby contributing significantly to the outbreak of theWorld War I, a conflict that resulted in the fall of theGerman Empire. Born into a prominent family of Danish-German aristocrats, Bülow entered the German foreign service after his father,Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, was appointed foreign secretary inOtto von Bismarck's government. He held several diplomatic posts, including German ambassador to Rome, before being appointed foreign secretary in", "secretary in 1897 byWilhelm II. Three years later, he was appointed chancellor following the resignation of thePrince of Hohenlohe. As chancellor, Bülow promoted cautious and conservative domestic policies while pursuing an ambitious and expansionist policy in foreign affairs. His open challenge toFrance's growing control overMoroccosparked theFirst Moroccan Crisis, which aggravated the French and the British and helped strengthen theEntente Cordiale. In 1908, Wilhelm's indiscreet remarks were published during theDaily TelegraphAffair, causing significant damage to German foreign relations and the Kaiser's prestige. Bülow was blamed for failing to prevent the blunder and, having lost the support of both the Kaiser and theReichstag, he resigned in 1909 and was succeeded byTheobald von Bethmann Hollweg. Bülow moved to Rome after his resignation. He came out of retirement in late 1914 to serve as interim ambassador to Italy, but was unable to bring KingVictor Emmanuel IIIto the side of theCentral Powers. Bülow", "Powers. Bülow died in Rome in 1929 at the age of 80. Early life He was born atKlein-Flottbeck,Holstein(now part ofAltona,Hamburg). His father,Bernhard Ernst von Bülow, was aDanishandGermanstatesman and member of an oldHouse of Bülow, while his mother was a wealthy heiress, Louise Victorine Rücker (1821–1894). His brother, Major-General Karl Ulrich von Bülow, was a cavalry commander during World War I. Bülow attributed his grasp ofEnglishandFrenchto having learnt it from governesses as a young child. His father spoke French, and his mother spoke English, as was common in Hamburg society. In 1856, his father was sent to the Federal Diet in Frankfurt to represent Holstein and Lauenburg, whenOtto von Bismarckwas also there to represent Prussia. He became a great friend of Bismarck's son Herbert when they played together. At 13, the family moved toNeustrelitzwhen his father became Chief Minister to theGrand Duke of Mecklenburg, where Bernhard attended the Frankfort gymnasium, before attending Lausanne, Leipzig", "Lausanne, Leipzig and Berlin Universities. He volunteered for military service during theFranco-Prussian Warand became a lance-corporal in the King's Hussar Regiment. In December 1870, the squadron was in action nearAmiens, and he later described charging and killing French riflemen with his sabre. He was promoted to lieutenant and was invited to remain in the army after the war but declined. He completed his law degree at theUniversity of Greifswaldin 1872. Afterwards, he entered first the Prussian Civil Service and then the diplomatic service.His religion wasLutheran Early career In 1873 his father became State Secretary for Foreign Affairs in the German government, serving under Bismarck. Bülow entered the diplomatic corps. His first short assignments were to Rome, St. Petersburg, Vienna and thenAthens.In 1876, he was appointed attaché to the German embassy inParis, attended theCongress of Berlinas a secretary and became second secretary to the embassy in 1880. In 1884, he had hoped to be posted to London", "be posted to London but instead became first secretary at the embassy inSt. Petersburg. On the way to his new assignment, he stayed for a couple of days atVarzinwith the Bismarck family. Bismarck explained that he considered relations with Russia much more important than with Britain and so he had posted Bülow there. Bismarck reported himself as impressed by Bülow's calmness and demeanour during the interview.In Russia, he acted aschargé d'affairesin 1887 and advocated theethnic cleansingof Poles from Polish territories of the German Empire in a future armed conflict.Bülow wrote regularly to the Foreign Office, complaining about his superior, Ambassador Schweinitz, who, however, was well-liked. Bülow earned for himself a reputation as only a schemer. In 1885,Friedrich von Holsteinnoted that Bülow was attempting to havePrince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürstremoved as ambassador to France to get the post despite meanwhile exchanging friendly letters with him. On 9 January 1886, still in St. Petersburg,", "in St. Petersburg, he marriedMaria Anna Zoe Rosalia Beccadelli di Bologna, Principessa di Camporeale, Marchesa di Altavilla, whose first marriage with Count Karl von Dönhoff had been annulled by theHoly Seein 1884. The princess, an accomplished pianist and pupil ofFranz Liszt, was a stepdaughter ofMarco Minghettiand the daughter of Donna Laura Minghetti (née Acton). She had been married for sixteen years and had three children. Bülow previously had numerous love affairs, but the marriage was intended to further his career. In 1888, he was offered the choice of appointments toWashington, DC, orBucharest, and chose Bucharest, as Maria objected to the prospect of traveling to the United States and leaving her family behind. He spent the next five years scheming to be appointed to Rome, where his wife was well connected. KingUmberto I of Italywas persuaded to write to Kaiser Wilhelm that he would be pleased if Bülow became ambassador there, which occurred in 1893. State Secretary for Foreign Affairs On 21 June", "Affairs On 21 June 1897 Bülow received a telegram instructing him to go to Kiel to speak to Wilhelm. On the way, he stopped at Frankfurt while changing trains and spoke toPhilipp, Prince of Eulenburg. Eulenburg explained that Wilhelm wanted a newState Secretary for Foreign Affairsand urged Bülow to take the post, which his father had once held. Eulenburg also passed on advice about how best to manage Wilhelm, who lived on praise and could not stand to be contradicted. In Berlin, Bülow first spoke toFriedrich von Holstein, who was head of the political department of the German Foreign Office. Holstein advised him that although he would have preferred the present Secretary,Adolf Marschall von Bieberstein, to stay in his post, Wilhelm was determined to replace him and that he would prefer the successor to be Bülow. Perhaps Bülow might be able to find him an ambassador's post in due course. Chancellor Hohenlohe, desperate to retire because of old age, urged Bülow to take the position with an eye to succeeding", "eye to succeeding him as chancellor. Bülow urged Hohenlohe to continue in office for as long as he could. On 26 June, Bülow met with the Kaiser, who advised that it would be one of the new secretary's main tasks to set about building a world-class fleet capable of taking on the British without precipitating a war. Bülow asked for time to consider the offer, and on 3 August, he accepted. The two men formed a good working relationship. Rather than oppose Wilhelm, which some of his predecessors had done, Bülow agreed with him on all matters by sometimes privately relying on Wilhelm's bad memory and frequent changes of opinion to take the action that he thought best and ignore Wilhelm had instructed. The post of State Secretary was subordinate to that of the Chancellor and under Bismarck's chancellorship, it had been only a functionary. Under Bülow, that was largely reversed, Hohenlohe being content to let Bülow manage foreign affairs with his principal adviser, Holstein. Wilhelm would call on Bülow every", "call on Bülow every morning to discuss state affairs but would rarely see the chancellor. Imperial State Secretary Bülow also held a seat in the Prussian government. Although Wilhelm was emperor of all Germany, he was also king of Prussia. As Foreign Secretary, Bülow was chiefly responsible for carrying out the policy of colonial expansion with which the emperor was identified. He was welcomed by the Foreign Office because he was the first professional diplomat to be placed in charge since Bismarck's resignation in 1890.Bülow had been wary of accepting the post if Holstein remained as Imperial First Councillor, as Holstein had in practice held great authority in recent years. Holstein was regarded as indispensable because of his long experience in office, rank, cunning and phenomenal memory. Eulenburg advised Bülow to stake out a firm but working relationship immediately on his arrival, and both succeeded in working together.In 1899, on bringing to a successful conclusion the negotiations by which Germany", "by which Germany acquired theCaroline Islands, he was raised to the rank ofCount. In October 1900, Bülow was summoned to Wilhelm's hunting retreat at Hubertsstock, where Wilhelm asked Bülow to become Chancellor of the German Empire and Prime Minister of Prussia. Bülow queried whether he was the best man for the job. Wilhelm admitted he would have preferred Eulenburg on a personal level but was not sure he was sufficiently able. On 16 October, Bülow was summoned again to Homburg, where the Kaiser met his train in person. Wilhelm explained that Hohenlohe had announced he could no longer be and so Bülow accepted the job. A replacement State Secretary was necessary, which was first offered to Holstein, who turned it down since he preferred not to take a position that required appearing before the Reichstag. The post was given to BaronOswald von Richthofen, who had already been serving as undersecretary to Bülow. It was made clear that the State Secretary's post would now revert to the subordinate role it had", "role it had played in Bismarck's time, with Holstein remaining the more important adviser on foreign affairs. Chancellor Bülow's mornings were reserved for Wilhelm, who would visit the chancellery every morning when in Berlin. His determination to remain on Wilhelm's good side was remarkable, even for those accustomed to his irascible manner. Wilhelm's household controller noted, \"Whenever, by oversight, he expresses an opinion in disagreement with the emperor, he remains silent for a few moments and then says the exact contrary, with the preface, 'as Your Majesty so wisely remarked'\". He gave up tobacco, beer, coffee and liqueurs and took 35 minutes of exercise every morning and would ride in good weather through theTiergarten. He would, on Sundays, take long walks in the woods. In 1905, at 56, he led his old Hussars regiment at the gallop in an imperial parade and was rewarded by an appointment to the rank of major general. Wilhelm remarked to Eulenburg in 1901, \"Since I have Bülow I can sleep", "Bülow I can sleep peacefully\".His first conspicuous act as chancellor was a masterly defence in theReichstagof German imperialism inChina. Bülow often spent his time defending German foreign policy there, to say nothing of covering for the Kaiser's many undiplomatic gaffes. In a speech in November 1906, Bülow introduced the concept of \"encirclement\" to the Reichstag that triggered the Teutonic press to blameDer Krieg in der Gegenwart.To Germany, theTriple Ententewas a disaster, but he put a brave face on it. Domestic policy and politics Various reforms were also introduced during his tenure, including an extension of the period in which workers could claim accident insurance (1900), the making of industrial arbitration courts compulsory for towns with a population of more than 20,000 (1901) and an extension of health insurance and further controls on child labour (1903). A polling booth law was introduced that improved the secret ballot in 1904. Two years later, payment for Reichstag deputies was introduced.", "was introduced. In preparation forthe 1907 election, Bülow created the \"Bülow Bloc\" of parties that were fervently antisocialist and anticlerical, devoutly patriotic, enthusiastically imperialist, and loyal to the Kaiser and the Fatherland. WhatBebellabeled the \"Hottentot election\" was a disaster for the Social Democrats, who lost almost half their seats. However, Bülow was unable to turn the election coalition into a stable bloc in parliament Bülow also produced proposals for theexpropriation of landsfromPrussian Polandfor purposes of German settlement. In 1908, after the passing of an expropriation bill in the Diet, Bülow quelled concerns fromCardinal Koppthat the bill was too extreme.Other protesters of Bülow's expropriation bills included Polish authorHenryk Sienkiewicz, who pleaded publicly to the global intellectual community for support. Economic policy Under pressure from theJunker-dominatedAgrarian League, Bülow passed atariff in 1902that increased the duties on agriculture.As a result, the German", "result, the German grain production became one of the most protected in the world.Bülow's government also negotiated a series of commercial treaties with other European countries that came into force in March 1906. Foreign policy Bülow served as foreign minister, 1897–1909. To gain a stronger voice in world affairs he encouraged Admiral Tirpitz'snaval expansion policy. Expecting Britain to be defeated by Russia he planned to pick up some colonies of the British Empire. He miscalculated, and alienated Britain even more, as it moved closer to an alliance with France and Russia.Bülow was motivated by domestic political concerns in his support of Tirpitz naval policy. In 1898 he said that such a policy would \"mobilize the best patriotic forces\" and \"appeal to the highest national emotions\" which would in turn \"keep the non-Socialist workers away from Social Democracy\" and pull the worker away from \"the ensnarements of the socialists and accustom him to the monarchical order\". Britain still held the balance of", "held the balance of power in Europe. France and Britain had been colonial rivals and had a long mutual opposition, but KingEdward VIIwas determined to boost British popularity in France by a personal tour. Serious negotiations for theEntente Cordialebegan between the French ambassador to London,Paul Cambon, and the British Foreign Secretary,Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne. As part of settling differences, France agreed not to dispute British control of Egypt if Britain agreed to France's claims to Morocco. On 24 March 1904, France formally informed the German ambassador of the new Anglo-French Convention.Prince Hugo von Radolin, the ambassador, responded that he felt the agreement natural and justified. The German press noted that the deal in Morocco did not harm national interests and that the French intervention to restore order in the country might help German trade. Still, Bülow was cynical and took theSocial Darwinist's view that expansion was a fact of life. His policy was unclear,", "policy was unclear, even to the generals. Although not swayed by bellicose generals, he followed a central planning agenda. If Prussia was euphoric, Bülow remained ambitious for imperial grandiosity and world power. Commercial growth in iron, steel, mining, railways and ironclads, and a new navy was driven by huge outputs and highly-competitive contractors.His chauvinism was extensive, a defensive embrasure against British alliance-building on which Germany would reject negotiations. He had promised to reply directly to British Colonial SecretaryJoseph Chamberlainbut thought better of it: \"it is the English who must make advances to us\". That unintentionally entrenched the Entente. Bülow assured the British ambassador that he was pleased to see Britain and France settling their differences. He informed the Reichstag that Germany had no objections to the deal and no concerns about German interests in Morocco.Holstein had a different view: intervention in Moroccan affairs was governed by theTreaty of Madrid.", "of Madrid. Holstein argued that Germany had been sidelined by not being included in the negotiations and that Morocco was a country that showed promise for German influence and trade, which must eventually suffer if it came under French control. Previously he had dismissed any possibility of agreement between France and Britain.France now offered military assistance to Morocco to improve order in the country.Bülow responded by supporting the position of an independent Morocco, encouraging the United States to become involved and threatened war if France intervened. He was now convinced that the new friendliness between France and Britain was a threat to Germany, particularly if the accord deepened, but France was ill-prepared for war. Despite the possible risks of assassination, Bülow persuaded Wilhelm to make a visit to Tangier in 1905, where he made a speech supporting Morocco's independence, but his presence there simultaneously demonstrated Germany's determination to maintain its own influence. Algeciras", "Algeciras Conference A friendly German naval presence in Morocco and a military base nearby could threaten the British or the important trade routes through the Mediterranean. The British continued to support beleaguered French Foreign MinisterTheophile Delcassé. Lansdowne had been surprised by the German reaction, but Britain might take on the fledgling German fleet before it grew too large. On 3 June 1905,Abdelaziz of Morocco, prompted by Germany, rejected the French offer of assistance and called for an international conference. On 6 June, after Delcassé had resigned, news spread to Berlin. The following morning, Bülow was elevated to the rank of prince (Fürst). The occasion coincided with the marriage of the crown prince and echoed the elevation of Bismarck to prince in the Hall of Mirrors at thePalace of Versailles.Germany continued to press for further French concessions. Bülow carefully instructed Radolin and also spoke to the French ambassador in Berlin. However, the effect was somewhat the reverse", "the reverse of what he intended by hardening the resolve of French PremierMaurice Rouvierto resist further demands forrapprochement. The Algeciras Conference commenced on 16 January 1906 atAlgeciras Town Hall. During the conference, a British fleet of 20 battleships, with accompanying cruisers and destroyers, visited the port town, and all of the delegates were invited on board. The conference went badly for Germany, with a vote against German proposals that was 10–3. Holstein wished to threaten war against France, but Bülow ordered Holstein to take no further part in the conference. No satisfactory outcome for Germany was in sight by April, which left the only course of action to wind it down as best he could. The result was received badly in Germany, with objections raised in the press. On 5 April 1906, Bülow was obliged to appear before the Reichstag to defend the outcome, and during a heated exchange, he collapsed and was carried from the hall. At first, it was thought he had suffered a fatal stroke.Lord", "a fatal stroke.Lord Fitzmaurice, in the BritishHouse of Lords, compared the incident with that of the death ofWilliam Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, a compliment that was much appreciated in Germany. Bülow's collapse was ascribed to overwork andinfluenzabut, after a month's rest, he was able to resume his duties. Scandal In 1907, during theHarden–Eulenburg Affair,Adolf Brand, the founding editor of the homosexual periodicalDer Eigene, printed a pamphlet alleging that Bülow had been blackmailed for engaging in homosexual practices and was morally obligated to opposeParagraph 175of the German penal code, which outlawed homosexuality. Sued for slander and brought to trial on 7 November 1907, Brand asserted that Bülow had embraced and kissed his private secretary, Privy CouncilorMax Scheefer, at all-male gatherings hosted by Eulenburg.Testifying in his own defense, Bülow denied the accusation but remarked he had heard unsavoury rumours about Eulenburg.Taking the stand, Eulenburg defended himself against Brand's", "against Brand's charge by denying that he had ever held such events and claimed that he had never engaged in same-sex acts, which subsequently led to a perjury trial. Despite concluding testimony by the chief of the Berlin police that Bülow may have been the victim of a homosexual blackmailer, he easily prevailed in court, and Brand was sent to prison. Daily TelegraphAffair In November 1907, Wilhelm made a long-planned state visit to Britain. He had attempted to cancel the visit because of the recent scandals, but it went ahead and was so successful that he decided to remain in Britain for a holiday. He rented a house for the purpose from ColonelEdward Montague Stuart-Wortleyand spoke freely to its owner while he was there. After he had departed, Stuart-Wortley wrote an article forThe Daily Telegraphabout the conversations, submitted it to Wilhelm and requested approval for its publication. The English manuscript was passed to Bülow to review for publication. Wilhelm had asked Bülow not to pass on the", "not to pass on the article to the Foreign Office, but Bülow instead sent it unread to State SecretaryWilhelm von Schoenand requested an official translation and the addition of any amendments that might be necessary. Since Schoen was away, it instead went to the undersecretary, Stemrich. He read it but passed it without comment to Reinhold Klehmet, who interpreted his instructions as meaning to correct any errors of fact but not otherwise to comment. The manuscript was returned to Bülow, still unread, to Wilhelm, who saw no reason not to publish. It duly appeared in print and caused a storm. In the interview, Wilhelm expressed many controversial and offensive opinions: Wilhelm thus managed to offend Japanese, French, Russian and especially British sensibilities. Even Germans were outraged, as he claimed to have helped the British with their war against theBoers, whom most Germans had supported. Bülow accused the Foreign Office of failing to comment properly on the article. The office responded that it was", "that it was his role to decide on publication in such a situation. Although Bülow denied having read the article, how he could have failed to do so remained unclear because of Wilhelm's continuous record of public gaffes. Questions arose as to Wilhelm's competence to rule and the role he should be permitted under the constitution. The matter was to be debated in the Reichstag, where Bülow would have to defend his own position and that of Wilhelm. Bülow wrote to Wilhelm and successfully offered to resign unless Wilhelm could give him full support in the matter. Bülow arranged the publication of a defence of the events inNorddeutsch Allgemeine Zeitung, which glossed over Wilhelm's remarks and concentrated on the failings of the Foreign Office in not examining the article properly. It explained that Bülow had offered to take full responsibility for the office's failings, but Wilhelm had refused to accept his resignation. Bülow succeeded in turning away criticism from himself in the Reichstag and finished his", "and finished his speech to cheering from the assembly. Holstein observed that the nature of the comments meant that he could almost certainly not have defended Wilhelm for making them and that Bülow could not have done otherwise: disputing the factual accuracy of much of what Wilhelm had said and leaving blame for events squarely with him. His explanation was that the comments had been made with the best of intentions and would certainly not be repeated. He declared his conviction that the disastrous effects of the interview would induce Wilhelm to observe strict reserve, even in private conversations, or neither he nor any successor could assume responsibility. Wilhelm was due to be away from Germany during the Reichstag debate, on a trip to Austria, and received much criticism for not staying at home. Wilhelm queried whether he ought to cancel the trip, but Bülow advised him to continue with it. Holstein asked Bülow about Wilhelm's absence; Bülow denied advising Wilhelm to go. Matters were not improved", "were not improved when during the visit, CountDietrich von Hülsen-Haeseler, the chief of theGerman Imperial Military Cabinet, died from a heart attack atDonaueschingen, the estate ofPrince Max von Fürstenberg. On Wilhelm's return, Bülow persuaded him to endorse a statement that he concurred with Bülow's statements to the Reichstag. Wilhelm was now close to breakdown and considering abdication. Wilhelm withdrew from public appearances for six weeks, which was generally seen as an act of penitence rather than the consequence of his depression. Public opinion began to reflect on whether the Chancellor had failed to advise him properly and then failed to defend Wilhelm's actions in the Reichstag. Wilhelm's own view of the affair began to change to blaming Bülow for failing to warn him of the difficulties that the article would cause. He determined that Bülow would have to be replaced. In June 1909, difficulties arose in obtaining additional finance for ongoing ship construction. Wilhelm warned Bülow that if he", "Bülow that if he failed to carry a majority for imposing inheritance taxes, Bülow would have to resign. He was defeated by eight votes. On board the royal yacht,Hohenzollern, on 26 June, Bülow offered his resignation, exactly twelve years after accepting the office. On 14 July, the resignation was announced, andTheobald von Bethmann Hollwegbecame the new Chancellor. Wilhelm dined with the Bülows and expressed his regret that the prince was determined to resign. He observed that he had been informed that some of those who voted against the inheritance tax had done so out of animosity against Bülow and his handling of theTelegraphaffair, rather out of opposition to the tax. For his services to the state, Bülow was awarded theOrder of the Black Eagleset in diamonds. Later life After his resignation in 1909, Bülow lived principally at the villa inRomethat he had purchased for his retirement. Part of the summer was usually spent by him atKlein Flottbek, near Hamburg, or on the island ofNorderney. A large fortune", "A large fortune left him by a cousin, a Hamburg merchant, enabled him to live in elegant leisure and to make his house in Rome a centre of literary and political society. He employed his leisure in writing for the centenary celebrations of theWars of Liberation, a remarkable book on Imperial Germany, extolling its achievements and defending the main lines of his own foreign policy.In a revised edition of his book on Imperial Germany, published after the start of theFirst World War, he omitted or altered many passages that seemed compromising in light of the war like his policy of lulling Britain into a false sense of security while the German Navy was being constructed. He was understood to be in deeply malodorous company with Wilhelm, who never forgave him his attitude and action with regard to a 1908 interview inThe Daily Telegraph. Wartime diplomat In 1914–1915, Bülow was the ambassador to Italy but failed to bring KingVictor Emmanuel IIIto join theCentral Powers. Italy had declared its neutrality at the", "neutrality at the outbreak of the war but intimated on 5 July 1914 through diplomatic channels that Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia was aggressive and provocative. On 9 December 1914,Sidney Sonninoaddressed the Austrian Note to the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister,Count Berchtold, to call attention to Article VII of the treaty by which Italy participated in the Triple Alliance, with particular reference to the clause that bound Austria-Hungary, if it disturbed the status quo in the Balkans even by a temporary occupation of Serbian territory, to come to an agreement with Italy and to arrange for compensations. The questions of the Trentino Agreement andTriestewere thus formally opened. Austria-Hungary manifested great reluctance to enter upon the question of compensations, but Germany was more alert to its own concerns. Bülow was, therefore, entrusted with the temporary charge of the German embassy in Rome since the actual ambassador, Flotow, went on sick leave (19 December 1914). Bülow at once plunged", "at once plunged into active negotiations and was sympathetic with Italian demands for compensation. He had, however, to fight the intransigence of Hungarian Prime MinisterIstván Tisza, and Tisza's nominee, who was Berchtold's successor,Baron von Burian. Bülow was from the first for the complete cession of the Trentino region to Italy, but Austria-Hungary was willing to cede only part of it. Sonnino pointed out that Italian feeling would not be satisfied even with the whole of the Trentino but would also, in accordance with itsirredentism, demand Trieste. Bülow continued to urge that all he could mediate for was the Trentino but that Austria would fight to keep Trieste. In early April 1915, Italy's secret negotiations demanded the Trentino, Trieste and theCurzolane Islands, off the coast ofDalmatia. Austria-Hungary recognised Italian sovereignty overValona. However, negotiations dragged on until the middle of May, when Bülow made a grave but characteristic tactical mistake. He induced the former Italian Prime", "Italian Prime MinisterGiovanni Giolittito come toRomefromTurinin the hope of preventing a rupture and bringing about the acceptance of the Austro-Hungarian terms. Prime MinisterAntonio Salandrasuddenly resigned. There was a great outburst of popular indignation, fanned by the impassioned eloquence ofd'Annunzioand expressed in demonstrations in front of theQuirinal, the royal palace, and on theCapitoline Hill, the centre of Rome. After a great majority in the Italian Parliament had on 20 May supported Salandra, a general mobilisation was ordered on 22 May, and the formal declaration of war against Austria-Hungary followed on 23 May 1915.The next day, Bülow left Rome.He regarded his task as impossible in any case, and on returning, he remarked: \"Morale and attitude of the German people: A-1. Political leadership: Z-Minus\". Considered for chancellorship He lived in Berlin, but after the peace he again resided in Rome for part of every year and spent the rest of the year in Germany. His name was mentioned in a", "was mentioned in a ministerial crisis of 1921, as a possible chancellor.Although many of the leading figures in the Reichstag, includingMatthias Erzberger, hoped that Bülow would succeed Bethmann Hollweg, who resigned in 1917, he was entirely unacceptable to the vast majority of both the German people and the Reichstag. He died on 28 October 1929 in Rome. Personality Bülow spoke several languages and was a charming conversationalist. He was comfortably at home in high society and could entertain and impress even his opponents. He was thought by some colleagues to be untrustworthy:Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechterreferred to him as \"the Eel\".Once he had obtained power and position in the German government, he had no overarching ideas of what to do with them, allowing others to guide policy. His character made him a good choice to work with Kaiser Wilhelm II, who required agreement and flattery from his senior ministers, even if they sometimes then ignored his instructions. He wrote four volumes of autobiography,", "of autobiography, to be published after his death, which markedly altered public perception of his character, as they included his candid and malicious descriptions of others. He was a fine debater in theReichstagbut was generally lazy in carrying out his duties. He was described byFriedrich von Holstein, who was for 30 years the first councillor in the foreign department and a major influence on policy throughout that time, as having \"read moreMachiavellithan he could digest\". His mother-in-law claimed, \"Bernhard makes a secret out of everything\". Honours German orders and decorations Foreign orders and decorations Notes References Further reading Primary sources External links" ]
Who was the winner of Tour de France the same year that a major catastrophic crash happened at Circuit de la Sarthe in Le Mans, France?
Louison Bobet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_Le_Mans_disaster
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tour_de_France_general_classification_winners
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_Le_Mans_disaster', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tour_de_France_general_classification_winners']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_Le_Mans_disaster", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Tour_de_France_general_classification_winners" ]
[ "1955 Le Mans disaster The1955 Le Mans disasterwas a major crash that occurred on 11 June 1955 during the24 Hours of Le Mansmotor race atCircuit de la SartheinLe Mans,Sarthe,France. Large pieces of debris flew into the crowd, killing 83 spectators and French driverPierre Levegh, and injuring around 120 more. It was the most catastrophic crash in motorsport history, prompting multiple countries in Europe to ban motorsports nationwide;Switzerlandonly lifted its ban in 2022. The crash started whenJaguardriverMike Hawthornpulled to the right side of the track in front ofAustin-HealeydriverLance Macklinand started braking for hispit stop. Macklin swerved out from behind the slowing Jaguar into the path of Levegh, who was passing on the left in his much fasterMercedes-Benz 300 SLR. Levegh rear-ended Macklin at high speed, overriding Macklin's car and launching his own car through the air. Levegh's car skipped over a protective earthenbermat 200 km/h (125 mph) and made at least two impacts within the spectator area, the last of which caused the car to disintegrate, throwing him onto the track where he was instantly killed. Large pieces of debris, including the Mercedes'engine block,radiator,front suspension, andbonnet(hood), were sent flying into the packed spectator area in front of the grandstand. The rear of Levegh's car landed on the berm and exploded into flames. There was much debate over blame for the disaster. The official inquiry held none of the drivers specifically responsible and criticised the layout of the 30-year-old track, which had not been designed for cars as fast as those involved in the crash. Before the crash There was great anticipation for the1955 24 Hours of Le Mans, asFerrari,Jaguar, andMercedes-Benzhad all won the race previously and all three automakers had arrived with new and improved cars. The Ferraris, current champions at the time, were very fast but fragile and prone to mechanical failure. Jaguar concentrated their racing almost exclusively on Le Mans and had a very experienced driver lineup includingFormula 1(F1) Ferrari driverMike Hawthorn. After conquering F1, Mercedes-Benz had debuted its new300 SLRin that year'sWorld Sportscar Championship, including a record-setting win at theMille MigliaforStirling Moss. The 300 SLR featured a body made of an ultra-lightweightmagnesiumalloy calledElektron. The car lacked the more effective state-of-the-artdisc brakesfeatured on the rivalJaguar D-Type, instead incorporating inboarddrum brakesand a largeair brakebehind the driver that could be raised to increase drag and slow the car. Mercedes team managerAlfred Neubauerassembled a multinational team for the race: pairing his two best driversJuan Manuel FangioandStirling Mossin the lead car, 1952 race winnerKarl Klingwith FrenchmanAndré Simon(both also in the current F1 team), and AmericanJohn Fitchwith one of the elder statesmen of French motor racing,Pierre Levegh. It had been Levegh's unprecedented solo drive in the1952 racethat failed in the last hour, which allowed Mercedes-Benz their first Le Mans victory. Aside from two layout changes to make the circuit shorter, theCircuit de la Sarthewas largely unaltered since the inception of the race in1923, when top speeds of cars were typically in the region of 100 km/h (60 mph). By 1955, top speeds for the leading cars were over 270 km/h (170 mph). That said, the circuit had been resurfaced and widened after theSecond World War. The pits and grandstands had been reconstructed, but there were no barriers between the pit lane and the racing line, and only a 4 ft (1.2 m) earthen bank between the track and the spectators. The cars had noseat belts; the drivers reasoned that it was preferable to be thrown clear in a collision rather than be crushed or trapped in a burning car. The 1955 race began at 4pm on Saturday, and, as predicted, the lead cars ofEugenio Castellotti(Ferrari), Hawthorn (Jaguar), and Fangio (Mercedes-Benz) were at the head of the field in the first hour. The other team cars were being kept on tighter leashes to conserve the cars, but still racing in the top ten. Going into the second hour, Castellotti started dropping back, but Hawthorn and Fangio continued the duel, swapping the lead and dropping the lap record further and further, lapping most of the field. The accident happened at 6:26 pm, at the end of lap 35, when the first pit stops for the leading cars were starting. The Crash Immediate cause On lap 35, Hawthorn and Fangio were racing as hard as ever. In his biography, Hawthorn said he was \"momentarily mesmerized by the legend of the Mercedes superiority ... Then I came to my senses and thought 'Damn it, why should a German car beat a British car.'\"The lap before, Hawthorn's pit crew had signalled for him tocome in the next lap. He had just lapped Levegh (running sixth) after Arnage (one of the corners of the race track) and was determined to keep Fangio at bay for as long as he could.Coming out of the Maison Blanche portion of the course, he rapidly caughtLance Macklinin hisAustin Healey 100S, who had seen him and moved over to the right to let him pass. Putting another lap on Macklin coming up to the main straight, Hawthorn then raised his hand to indicate he was pitting and pulled across to the right (from Hawthorn's testimony).What caught Macklin out though was that Hawthorn, using the Jaguar's advanced disc brakes, braked hard enough to slow his Jaguar from such a speed in time. Collision There were two key factors regarding the track layout at that time – first, there was no designated deceleration lane for cars coming into the pits, and second, that just before the main straight, there was a very slight right-hand kink in the road just after which Hawthorn started braking. Macklin, who also braked hard, ran off the right-hand edge of the track, throwing up dust. Noticing that Hawthorn was slowing down, Macklin swerved left to avoid Hawthorn, whether it was an instinctive reaction, a loss of control from going onto the change of road-surface, or his car's disc brakes operating unevenly. As a result, Macklin's car veered across to the centre of the track, briefly out of control. This put him into the way of Levegh's Mercedes, closing in at over 200 km/h (120 mph), intent on doing another lap and in front of Fangio, who was patiently waiting to pass. Levegh had no time to evade, and with possibly his last action, raised his hand, warning Fangio, thereby probably saving Fangio's life. With his eyes shut, Fangio – with his own quick reflexes – squeezed through the carnage and brushed Hawthorn's then-stationary Jaguar in the pits, allowing him to pass unscathed. Levegh's front-right wheel rode up onto the rear-left corner of Macklin's car, which acted as a ramp and launched Levegh's car into the air, flying over spectators and rolling end over end for 80 metres (260 ft).Levegh was thrown out of his tumbling car and hit the ground, crushing his skull upon impact and killing him instantly. The critical kink in the road put the car on a direct trajectory toward the packed terraces and grandstand. The car landed on the earthen embankment between the spectators and the track, bounced, then slammed into a concrete stairwell structure and disintegrated. The momentum of the heaviest components of the car – theengine block,radiator, andfront suspension– hurtled straight on into the crowd for almost 100 metres (330 ft), crushing all in their path.Thebonnetlid scythed through the air, \"decapitatingtightly jammed spectators like aguillotine\".Spectators who had climbed onto ladders and scaffolding to get a better view of the track, and those crowding to use the underpass to get to the pits, found themselves in the way of the lethal debris. Jaguar driverDuncan Hamilton, watching from the pit wall, recalled, \"The scene on the other side of the road was indescribable. The dead and dying were everywhere; the cries of pain, anguish, and despair screamed catastrophe. I stood as if in a dream, too horrified to even think.\" When the rest of Levegh's car landed on the embankment, the rear-mounted fuel tank exploded. The fuel fire raised the temperature of the remaining Elektron bodywork past its ignition temperature, which was lower than that of other metal alloys due to its high magnesium content. The alloy burst into white-hot flames, showering the track and crowd with magnesium embers, made worse by rescue workers unfamiliar withmagnesium fireswho poured water onto the inferno, greatly intensifying the flames.As a result, the car burned for several hours. Meanwhile, Macklin's car, heavily damaged, rammed the left-side barrier, then veered to the right of the track into the pit lane, narrowly missing Kling's Mercedes-Benz,Roberto Mieres'sMaserati, andDon Beauman's Jaguar, all of which were already in the pits refuelling before the accident. Macklin's car hit the unprotected pit-wall, just short of theCunninghamand Mercedes-Benz pits whereShellandLockheedequipment were stationed, running down a policeman, a photographer and two officials (all seriously injured), then rebounded back across the track again to end up skating down the left-side fence for a second time. Macklin survived the incident without serious injury, jumping out of the wreck and over the bank. Aftermath Following hours Hawthorn had overshot his pits and stopped. Getting out, he was immediately ordered by his team to get back in and do another lap to get away from the total confusion and danger. When he pit stopped during the next lap, he staggered out of the car completely distraught, adamant that he had caused the catastrophe.Ivor BuebandNorman Dewis, both Le Mans debutants, had to step into their respective cars for their first driver stints. Bueb in particular was very reluctant, but given Hawthorn's condition had no choice, as Dewis firmly pointed out to him. John Fitch, Levegh's American co-driver, had suited up and was ready to take over the car at the upcoming pit stop, and was standing with Levegh's wife, Denise Bouillin. They saw the whole catastrophe unfold.Levegh's lifeless body, severely burned, lay in full view on the pavement until agendarmehauled down a banner to cover it. Levegh's wife was inconsolable and Fitch stayed with her until she could be comforted.Half an hour after the crash Fitch realised that news was probably being broadcast on the radio, and he needed to telephone his family to reassure them that he was not the driver of the crashed car.When he got to the media centre to use a telephone, he got his first inkling of the sheer enormity of the disaster, overhearing a reporter filing that 48 deaths were already confirmed.When Fitch returned to his pit, he urged the Mercedes team to withdraw from the race, as continuing to compete would be apublic relationsdisaster for Mercedes-Benz regardless of whether they won or lost.Team manager Alfred Neubauer had already reached the same conclusion, but did not have the authority to make such a decision. Despite expectations for the race to bered-flaggedand stopped entirely, race officials, led by race directorCharles Faroux, kept the race running. In the days after the disaster, several explanations were offered by Faroux for this course of action. They included: After an emergency meeting and vote of Mercedes-Benz company directors by telephone inStuttgart,West Germany, Neubauer finally got the call approving his team's withdrawal just before midnight. Waiting until 1:45 am, when many spectators had left, he stepped onto the track and quietly called his cars into the pits, at the time running first and third.Their retirement was briefly announced over the public address system. The Mercedes trucks were packed up and gone by morning. Chief engineerRudolf Uhlenhauthad gone to the Jaguar pits to ask if the Jaguar team would respond in kind, out of respect for the crash victims. Jaguar team manager\"Lofty\" Englanddeclined. Conclusion of the race Hawthorn and the Jaguar team kept racing. With the Mercedes team withdrawn and the Ferraris all out of commission, Jaguar's main competition had gone. Hawthorn and Bueb won the race by a margin of five laps fromAston Martin. The weather had closed in on Sunday morning and there was no victory celebration. However, a press photograph showed Hawthorn smiling on the podium drinking from the victor's bottle of champagne. The French magazineL'Auto-Journalpublished it with the sarcastic caption, \"À votre santé, Monsieur Hawthorn!\" (In English, \"To your health ('Cheers'), Mr. Hawthorn!\") After the race Accounts put the death toll at 80 to 84 (spectators plus Levegh), either by flying debris or from the fire, with a further 120 to 178 injured. Other observers estimated the toll to be much higher.It has remained the most catastrophic crash in motorsport history. Aspecial Masswas held in the morning in theLe Mans Cathedralfor the first funerals of the victims. The death toll led to an immediate temporary ban on motorsports inFrance,Spain,Switzerland,West Germany, and other nations, until racetracks could be brought to a higher safety standard. In theUnited States, theAmerican Automobile Association(AAA) dissolved theirContest Boardthat had been the primary sanctioning body for motorsport in the US (including theIndianapolis 500) since 1904. It decided that auto racing detracted from its primary goals, and theUnited States Automobile Clubwas formed to take over the race sanctioning and officiating. Most countries lifted their racing bans within a year after the disaster. France in particular, as the host of Le Mans, lifted their complete ban on 14 September 1955. On that date, the Ministry of the Interior released new regulations for racing events and codified the approval process that future racing events would need to follow.In contrast, Switzerland's ban persisted for decades. This forced Swiss racing promoters to organize circuit events in foreign countries including France, Italy, and West Germany. In 2003, theFederal Assembly of Switzerlandstarted a lengthy discussion about whether this ban should be lifted. The discussion focused on traffic policy and environmental questions rather than on safety. On 10 June 2009, theStänderat(upper houseof the Swiss parliament) defeated a proposal to lift the ban for the second time.In 2015, the ban was relaxed forelectric vehiclesonly, such as cars involved inFormula Eelectric racing.The ban was lifted in May 2022. The next round of the World Sportscar Championship at theNürburgringwas cancelled, as was the non-championshipCarrera Panamericana. The rest of the1955 World Sportscar Championship seasonwas completed, with the remaining two races at the BritishRAC Tourist Trophyand the ItalianTarga Florio, although they were not run until September and October, several months after the catastrophe. Mercedes-Benz won both of these events, and was able to secure the constructors championship for the season. Having achieved that, Mercedes withdrew from motorsport. The horror of the crash caused some drivers present, including Americans Fitch (after completing the season with Mercedes),Phil Walters(who had been offered a drive with Ferrari for the rest of the season), andSherwood Johnston, to retire from racing. Macklin also decided to retire after being involved in another fatal crash, during the1955 RAC Tourist Trophyrace atDundrod Circuit. Fangio never raced at Le Mans again. At the Circuit de la Sarthe, the audience stands at the pits were demolished. Much recrimination was directed at Hawthorn, saying that he had suddenly cut in front of Macklin and slammed on the brakes near the entrance to the pits, forcing Macklin to take desperate evasive action into the path of Levegh. This became the semi-official pronouncement of the Mercedes team and Macklin's story.The Jaguar team in turn questioned the fitness and competence of Macklin and Levegh as drivers.The initial media accounts were wildly inaccurate, as shown by subsequent analysis of photographic evidence conducted byRoad & Trackeditor (and 1955 second-place finisher)Paul Frèrein 1975.Additional details emerged when the stills reviewed by Frère were converted to video form. The media also speculated on the violent fire that engulfed the wreck, which intensified when fire marshals poured their water-based extinguishers on the flames. They suggested that Mercedes-Benz had tampered with the official fuel-supply with an explosive additive, but the intensity of the fire was due instead to the magnesium-alloy construction of thechassis. Neubauer got the French authorities to test residual fuel left in the wreck's fuel injection and the result vindicated the company. Opinions differed widely amongst the other drivers as to who was directly to blame for the crash, and such differences remain even today. Macklin claimed that Hawthorn's move to the pits was sudden, causing an emergency that led him to swerve into Levegh's path. Years later Fitch claimed, based on his own recollection and from what he heard from others, that Hawthorn had caused it. Dewis ventured the opinions that Macklin's move around Hawthorn was careless and that Levegh was not competent to meet the demands of driving at the speeds the 300SLR was capable of. Both Jaguar and Mercedes-Benz issued official statements, mainly in self-defence against the accusations levelled against them and their drivers. Neubauer limited himself to suggesting improvements to the pit straight and making pit-stops safer. Macklin, on reading Hawthorn's 1958 autobiography,Challenge Me the Race, was embittered when he found that Hawthorn now disclaimed all responsibility for the crash without identifying who had caused it. With Levegh dead, Macklin presumed that Hawthorn's implication was that he (Macklin) had been responsible, and he began alibelaction. The action was still unresolved when Hawthorn was killed in a non-racing crash on theGuildfordbypass in 1959, coincidentally while overtaking a Mercedes-Benz in his Jaguar. The official government inquiry into the accident called officials, drivers, and team personnel to be questioned and give evidence. The wreckage was examined and tested and, finally, returned to Mercedes-Benz nearly twelve months after the catastrophe.In the end the enquiry ruled that no specific driver was responsible for the crash, and that it was merely a terrible racing incident. The death of the spectators was blamed on inadequate safety standards for the track design.Tony Roltand other drivers had been raising concerns about the pit straight since 1953. Legacy Over the next year, theAutomobile Club de l'Ouest(ACO) set about making extensive track improvements and infrastructure changes at the Circuit de la Sarthe—the pit straight was redesigned and widened to remove the kink just before the start-finish line, and to give room for a deceleration lane. The pits complex was pulled down and rebuilt, giving more room to the teams, but thereby limiting spaces to only 52 starters rather than the previous 60. The grandstand was demolished and rebuilt with new spectator terraces and a wide ditch between them and the racetrack.Track safety technology and practices evolved slowly until F1 driverJackie Stewartorganized a campaign to advocate for better safety measures ten years later. Stewart's campaign gained momentum after the deaths ofLorenzo BandiniandJim Clark. Fitch became a major safety advocate and began active development of safer road cars and racing circuits. He invented traffic safety devices currently in use on highways, including the sand-and-air-filledFitch barrels. Macklin's Austin-Healey 100 was sold to several private buyers before appearing on the public auction block. In 1969, it was bought for£155 (equivalent to £3,222 in 2023).In December 2011, the car, estimated to raise £800,000 before the auction,was sold for £843,000.The car retained the original engine SPL 261-BN,but was reported to be in 'barn find' condition.It was then restored to its original condition. After the accident Mercedes-Benz withdrew from motorsports until 1985, although the withdrawal had already been decided before the race and had not been caused by the accident.After returning tosports car racingin the mid 1980s, initially as an engine supplier, Mercedes went on to win the 1989 Le Mans race in partnership withSauber Motorsport. Mercedes went on to compete in the championship during the 1990s as a works team before withdrawing for a second and final time in 1999, following a series of spectacular but non-fatal crashes of theMercedes-Benz CLR. See also References Citations Bibliography External links", "List of Tour de France general classification winners TheTour de Franceis an annualroad bicycle raceheld over 23 days in July. Established in 1903 by newspaperL'Auto, the Tour is the best-known and most prestigious of cycling's three \"Grand Tours\"; the others are theGiro d'Italiaand theVuelta a España.The race usually covers approximately 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi), passing through France and neighbouring countries such as Belgium.The race is broken into day-long stages. Individual finishing times for each stage are totalled to determine the overall winner at the end of the race. The course changes every year, but has always finished in Paris; since1975, it has finished along theChamps-Élysées. The rider with the lowest aggregate time at the end of each day wears the yellow jersey, representing the leader of thegeneral classification. There are other jerseys as well: the green jersey, worn by the leader of thepoints classification; the polka dot jersey, worn by the leader of themountains classification; and the white jersey, worn by the leader of theyoung rider classification. Jacques Anquetil,Eddy Merckx,Bernard Hinault, andMiguel Indurain, have won the most Tours with five each. Indurain is the only man to win five consecutive Tours.Henri Cornetis the youngest winner; he won in1904, just short of his 20th birthday.Firmin Lambotis the oldest winner, he was 36 years, 4 months old when he won in1922.French cyclists have won the most Tours; 21 cyclists have won 36 Tours among them. Belgian cyclists are second with 18 victories, and Spanish riders are third with 12 wins.The most recent winner is Slovenian riderTadej Pogačar, who won the2024 Tour. After it emerged thatLance Armstronghad usedperformance-enhancing drugs, in October 2012, theUnion Cycliste Internationale(UCI) stripped Armstrong of the seven consecutive Tour general classification titles between1999and2005. History TheTour de Francewas established in 1903 by the newspaperL'Auto, in an attempt to increase its sales. The first race was won by FrenchmanMaurice Garin. He won again the next year, but was disqualified after allegations that he had been transported by car or rail arose.Henri Cornetbecame the winner after the dispute was settled; he is the youngest to win the Tour. Following the scandals in 1904, the scoring system was changed from being time-based to a point-based system, in which the cyclist who has the fewest points at the end of the race is victorious. This system lasted until1912, when the time-based system was re-introduced. French cyclists were successful in the early Tours; the first non-Frenchman to win the Tour wasFrançois FaberofLuxembourg, who won in1909. Belgian riders were more successful before and after theFirst World War(which suspended the Tour from 1915 to 1918). In the 1920s, trade teams dominated the Tour; cyclists such asNicolas Frantzwon the Tour with theAlcyonteam. However, when Alcyon cyclistMaurice De Waelewon the Tour in1929while ill, the organisers decided to introduce national teams the following year, to stop team tactics from undermining the race. Because of theSecond World War, the Tour de France wassuspendedfrom 1940 to 1946. After theSecond World War, no one dominated the Tour untilLouison Bobet, who won three consecutive Tours from1953to1955—he was the first person to achieve this feat.This was bettered by the French cyclistJacques Anquetil, who won four successive Tours from1961to1964. Anquetil, who also won in1957, became the first to win five Tours.Anquetil's five victories were matched when Belgian cyclistEddy Merckxwon four successive Tours from1969to1972and the1974Tour. Merckx is the only person to have won the general, points and king of the mountains classifications in the same Tour. He achieved this in 1969, when he won his first Tour. Merckx looked to be heading for a record sixth Tour victory in1975, butBernard Thévenetbeat him, becoming the first French winner in seven years. Thévenet won again in1977; however, he was eclipsed in following years by fellow FrenchmanBernard Hinault, who won consecutive Tours in1978and1979. Hinault won the Tour at his first attempt in 1978; becoming one of 11 cyclists (including Anquetil, Merckx,Hugo KobletandFausto Coppi) managed to do so.In1980, Hinault was going for a third consecutive win, but had to pull out because of tendinitis, and the Tour was won byJoop Zoetemelk.Hinault returned in1981and won that race as well as the one after that. Hinault sat out the Tour in1983, and another Frenchman—Laurent Fignon—achieved victory. Fignon won again the following year, beating Hinault; Hinault recovered in1985to win his fifth Tour. AmericanGreg LeMondbecame the first non-European to win the Tour in1986. LeMond missed out in 1987 and 1988, but returned in 1989 to win the Tour by finishing eight seconds ahead of Laurent Fignon, the smallest winning margin in the Tour's history. LeMond also won in 1990.In1991, SpaniardMiguel Indurainwon his first Tour. Indurain came to dominate the Tour, winning four more Tours consecutively—making him the first person to win five consecutive Tours.He tried to win a record-high sixth Tour in1996, but was beaten byBjarne Riis, who later admitted to usingErythropoietin.Jan UllrichandMarco Pantaniwon in1997and1998, respectively; however, Pantani's victory was overshadowed bydoping scandals. The1999Tour saw the first victory ofLance Armstrong,which was followed by six more, for a total of seven consecutive victories.He was later stripped of his titles in October 2012, when it emerged he had usedperformance-enhancing drugsthroughout much of his career, including the Tour de France victories.Floyd Landiswon the Tour in2006, but was later stripped of his title, after a drug-control test demonstrated the presence of askewed testosterone/epitestosteroneratio.Óscar Pereirowas subsequently awarded the victory.Alberto Contadorwon the2007Tour with theDiscovery Channel. The 2007 Tour was also marred bydoping scandals, thus Contador was unable to defend his title in2008, as hisAstanateam was banned for its part in the controversy. Fellow SpaniardCarlos SastreofTeam CSCwon.Contador and Astana returned in2009to regain the title. He won the Tour again in2010, but was later stripped of his title after he was found guilty of doping. Runner-upAndy Schleckwas awarded the victory. Cadel Evansbecame the first Australian to win the Tour in2011.The following year,Bradley Wigginsbecame the first British cyclist to win the Tour.Chris Froomebecame the second successive British winner in2013, which was the 100th edition of the race.He could not defend his title the following year, as he crashed out in stage 5, withVincenzo Nibaliwinning his first Tour.Froome regained the title in2015and then successfully defended it in2016, the first rider in over 20 years to do so.Froome won the Tour for a third consecutive year in2017.He was unsuccessful in his attempts to win a fourth Tour in succession in2018 edition, Froome's teammate,Geraint Thomas, was the winner instead.Thomas was unable to win for a second year in succession in2019. He finished second behind his teammateEgan Bernal, who became the first Colombian cyclist to win the Tour. The 2020 Tour was postponed to commence on 29 August, following the French government's extension of a ban on mass gatherings after the worldwideCOVID-19outbreak.This was the first time since the end of World War II that the Tour de France was not held in the month of July.It was won byTadej Pogačar, who became the first Slovenian rider to win the race as well as one of the youngest winners in Tour history. He repeated as champion in the 2021 edition. The following year,Jonas Vingegaardbecame the first Danish rider since 1996 to win the race. Vingegaard won again the following year; he won the 2023 edition by 7 minutes and 29 seconds from Pogačar.Pogačar regained the general classification in 2024 and became the first person to win the Giro and Tour in the same year since Pantani in 1998. Winners Multiple winners The following riders have won the Tour de France on more than one occasion. Alberto Contadorwon three Tours, but was stripped of one following an anti-doping violation. Lance Armstrongwas removed from the head of the list after having all seven of his Tour victories stripped when he was found guilty of repeated doping offences. By nationality See also Footnotes References" ]
[ "1955 Le Mans disaster The1955 Le Mans disasterwas a major crash that occurred on 11 June 1955 during the24 Hours of Le Mansmotor race atCircuit de la SartheinLe Mans,Sarthe,France. Large pieces of debris flew into the crowd, killing 83 spectators and French driverPierre Levegh, and injuring around 120 more. It was the most catastrophic crash in motorsport history, prompting multiple countries in Europe to ban motorsports nationwide;Switzerlandonly lifted its ban in 2022. The crash started whenJaguardriverMike Hawthornpulled to the right side of the track in front ofAustin-HealeydriverLance Macklinand started braking for hispit stop. Macklin swerved out from behind the slowing Jaguar into the path of Levegh, who was passing on the left in his much fasterMercedes-Benz 300 SLR. Levegh rear-ended Macklin at high speed, overriding Macklin's car and launching his own car through the air. Levegh's car skipped over a protective earthenbermat 200 km/h (125 mph) and made at least two impacts within the spectator area,", "the spectator area, the last of which caused the car to disintegrate, throwing him onto the track where he was instantly killed. Large pieces of debris, including the Mercedes'engine block,radiator,front suspension, andbonnet(hood), were sent flying into the packed spectator area in front of the grandstand. The rear of Levegh's car landed on the berm and exploded into flames. There was much debate over blame for the disaster. The official inquiry held none of the drivers specifically responsible and criticised the layout of the 30-year-old track, which had not been designed for cars as fast as those involved in the crash. Before the crash There was great anticipation for the1955 24 Hours of Le Mans, asFerrari,Jaguar, andMercedes-Benzhad all won the race previously and all three automakers had arrived with new and improved cars. The Ferraris, current champions at the time, were very fast but fragile and prone to mechanical failure. Jaguar concentrated their racing almost exclusively on Le Mans and had a very", "Mans and had a very experienced driver lineup includingFormula 1(F1) Ferrari driverMike Hawthorn. After conquering F1, Mercedes-Benz had debuted its new300 SLRin that year'sWorld Sportscar Championship, including a record-setting win at theMille MigliaforStirling Moss. The 300 SLR featured a body made of an ultra-lightweightmagnesiumalloy calledElektron. The car lacked the more effective state-of-the-artdisc brakesfeatured on the rivalJaguar D-Type, instead incorporating inboarddrum brakesand a largeair brakebehind the driver that could be raised to increase drag and slow the car. Mercedes team managerAlfred Neubauerassembled a multinational team for the race: pairing his two best driversJuan Manuel FangioandStirling Mossin the lead car, 1952 race winnerKarl Klingwith FrenchmanAndré Simon(both also in the current F1 team), and AmericanJohn Fitchwith one of the elder statesmen of French motor racing,Pierre Levegh. It had been Levegh's unprecedented solo drive in the1952 racethat failed in the last hour, which", "last hour, which allowed Mercedes-Benz their first Le Mans victory. Aside from two layout changes to make the circuit shorter, theCircuit de la Sarthewas largely unaltered since the inception of the race in1923, when top speeds of cars were typically in the region of 100 km/h (60 mph). By 1955, top speeds for the leading cars were over 270 km/h (170 mph). That said, the circuit had been resurfaced and widened after theSecond World War. The pits and grandstands had been reconstructed, but there were no barriers between the pit lane and the racing line, and only a 4 ft (1.2 m) earthen bank between the track and the spectators. The cars had noseat belts; the drivers reasoned that it was preferable to be thrown clear in a collision rather than be crushed or trapped in a burning car. The 1955 race began at 4pm on Saturday, and, as predicted, the lead cars ofEugenio Castellotti(Ferrari), Hawthorn (Jaguar), and Fangio (Mercedes-Benz) were at the head of the field in the first hour. The other team cars were being", "cars were being kept on tighter leashes to conserve the cars, but still racing in the top ten. Going into the second hour, Castellotti started dropping back, but Hawthorn and Fangio continued the duel, swapping the lead and dropping the lap record further and further, lapping most of the field. The accident happened at 6:26 pm, at the end of lap 35, when the first pit stops for the leading cars were starting. The Crash Immediate cause On lap 35, Hawthorn and Fangio were racing as hard as ever. In his biography, Hawthorn said he was \"momentarily mesmerized by the legend of the Mercedes superiority ... Then I came to my senses and thought 'Damn it, why should a German car beat a British car.'\"The lap before, Hawthorn's pit crew had signalled for him tocome in the next lap. He had just lapped Levegh (running sixth) after Arnage (one of the corners of the race track) and was determined to keep Fangio at bay for as long as he could.Coming out of the Maison Blanche portion of the course, he rapidly caughtLance", "rapidly caughtLance Macklinin hisAustin Healey 100S, who had seen him and moved over to the right to let him pass. Putting another lap on Macklin coming up to the main straight, Hawthorn then raised his hand to indicate he was pitting and pulled across to the right (from Hawthorn's testimony).What caught Macklin out though was that Hawthorn, using the Jaguar's advanced disc brakes, braked hard enough to slow his Jaguar from such a speed in time. Collision There were two key factors regarding the track layout at that time – first, there was no designated deceleration lane for cars coming into the pits, and second, that just before the main straight, there was a very slight right-hand kink in the road just after which Hawthorn started braking. Macklin, who also braked hard, ran off the right-hand edge of the track, throwing up dust. Noticing that Hawthorn was slowing down, Macklin swerved left to avoid Hawthorn, whether it was an instinctive reaction, a loss of control from going onto the change of", "onto the change of road-surface, or his car's disc brakes operating unevenly. As a result, Macklin's car veered across to the centre of the track, briefly out of control. This put him into the way of Levegh's Mercedes, closing in at over 200 km/h (120 mph), intent on doing another lap and in front of Fangio, who was patiently waiting to pass. Levegh had no time to evade, and with possibly his last action, raised his hand, warning Fangio, thereby probably saving Fangio's life. With his eyes shut, Fangio – with his own quick reflexes – squeezed through the carnage and brushed Hawthorn's then-stationary Jaguar in the pits, allowing him to pass unscathed. Levegh's front-right wheel rode up onto the rear-left corner of Macklin's car, which acted as a ramp and launched Levegh's car into the air, flying over spectators and rolling end over end for 80 metres (260 ft).Levegh was thrown out of his tumbling car and hit the ground, crushing his skull upon impact and killing him instantly. The critical kink in the road", "kink in the road put the car on a direct trajectory toward the packed terraces and grandstand. The car landed on the earthen embankment between the spectators and the track, bounced, then slammed into a concrete stairwell structure and disintegrated. The momentum of the heaviest components of the car – theengine block,radiator, andfront suspension– hurtled straight on into the crowd for almost 100 metres (330 ft), crushing all in their path.Thebonnetlid scythed through the air, \"decapitatingtightly jammed spectators like aguillotine\".Spectators who had climbed onto ladders and scaffolding to get a better view of the track, and those crowding to use the underpass to get to the pits, found themselves in the way of the lethal debris. Jaguar driverDuncan Hamilton, watching from the pit wall, recalled, \"The scene on the other side of the road was indescribable. The dead and dying were everywhere; the cries of pain, anguish, and despair screamed catastrophe. I stood as if in a dream, too horrified to even think.\"", "to even think.\" When the rest of Levegh's car landed on the embankment, the rear-mounted fuel tank exploded. The fuel fire raised the temperature of the remaining Elektron bodywork past its ignition temperature, which was lower than that of other metal alloys due to its high magnesium content. The alloy burst into white-hot flames, showering the track and crowd with magnesium embers, made worse by rescue workers unfamiliar withmagnesium fireswho poured water onto the inferno, greatly intensifying the flames.As a result, the car burned for several hours. Meanwhile, Macklin's car, heavily damaged, rammed the left-side barrier, then veered to the right of the track into the pit lane, narrowly missing Kling's Mercedes-Benz,Roberto Mieres'sMaserati, andDon Beauman's Jaguar, all of which were already in the pits refuelling before the accident. Macklin's car hit the unprotected pit-wall, just short of theCunninghamand Mercedes-Benz pits whereShellandLockheedequipment were stationed, running down a policeman, a", "down a policeman, a photographer and two officials (all seriously injured), then rebounded back across the track again to end up skating down the left-side fence for a second time. Macklin survived the incident without serious injury, jumping out of the wreck and over the bank. Aftermath Following hours Hawthorn had overshot his pits and stopped. Getting out, he was immediately ordered by his team to get back in and do another lap to get away from the total confusion and danger. When he pit stopped during the next lap, he staggered out of the car completely distraught, adamant that he had caused the catastrophe.Ivor BuebandNorman Dewis, both Le Mans debutants, had to step into their respective cars for their first driver stints. Bueb in particular was very reluctant, but given Hawthorn's condition had no choice, as Dewis firmly pointed out to him. John Fitch, Levegh's American co-driver, had suited up and was ready to take over the car at the upcoming pit stop, and was standing with Levegh's wife, Denise", "wife, Denise Bouillin. They saw the whole catastrophe unfold.Levegh's lifeless body, severely burned, lay in full view on the pavement until agendarmehauled down a banner to cover it. Levegh's wife was inconsolable and Fitch stayed with her until she could be comforted.Half an hour after the crash Fitch realised that news was probably being broadcast on the radio, and he needed to telephone his family to reassure them that he was not the driver of the crashed car.When he got to the media centre to use a telephone, he got his first inkling of the sheer enormity of the disaster, overhearing a reporter filing that 48 deaths were already confirmed.When Fitch returned to his pit, he urged the Mercedes team to withdraw from the race, as continuing to compete would be apublic relationsdisaster for Mercedes-Benz regardless of whether they won or lost.Team manager Alfred Neubauer had already reached the same conclusion, but did not have the authority to make such a decision. Despite expectations for the race to", "for the race to bered-flaggedand stopped entirely, race officials, led by race directorCharles Faroux, kept the race running. In the days after the disaster, several explanations were offered by Faroux for this course of action. They included: After an emergency meeting and vote of Mercedes-Benz company directors by telephone inStuttgart,West Germany, Neubauer finally got the call approving his team's withdrawal just before midnight. Waiting until 1:45 am, when many spectators had left, he stepped onto the track and quietly called his cars into the pits, at the time running first and third.Their retirement was briefly announced over the public address system. The Mercedes trucks were packed up and gone by morning. Chief engineerRudolf Uhlenhauthad gone to the Jaguar pits to ask if the Jaguar team would respond in kind, out of respect for the crash victims. Jaguar team manager\"Lofty\" Englanddeclined. Conclusion of the race Hawthorn and the Jaguar team kept racing. With the Mercedes team withdrawn and the", "withdrawn and the Ferraris all out of commission, Jaguar's main competition had gone. Hawthorn and Bueb won the race by a margin of five laps fromAston Martin. The weather had closed in on Sunday morning and there was no victory celebration. However, a press photograph showed Hawthorn smiling on the podium drinking from the victor's bottle of champagne. The French magazineL'Auto-Journalpublished it with the sarcastic caption, \"À votre santé, Monsieur Hawthorn!\" (In English, \"To your health ('Cheers'), Mr. Hawthorn!\") After the race Accounts put the death toll at 80 to 84 (spectators plus Levegh), either by flying debris or from the fire, with a further 120 to 178 injured. Other observers estimated the toll to be much higher.It has remained the most catastrophic crash in motorsport history. Aspecial Masswas held in the morning in theLe Mans Cathedralfor the first funerals of the victims. The death toll led to an immediate temporary ban on motorsports inFrance,Spain,Switzerland,West Germany, and other nations,", "and other nations, until racetracks could be brought to a higher safety standard. In theUnited States, theAmerican Automobile Association(AAA) dissolved theirContest Boardthat had been the primary sanctioning body for motorsport in the US (including theIndianapolis 500) since 1904. It decided that auto racing detracted from its primary goals, and theUnited States Automobile Clubwas formed to take over the race sanctioning and officiating. Most countries lifted their racing bans within a year after the disaster. France in particular, as the host of Le Mans, lifted their complete ban on 14 September 1955. On that date, the Ministry of the Interior released new regulations for racing events and codified the approval process that future racing events would need to follow.In contrast, Switzerland's ban persisted for decades. This forced Swiss racing promoters to organize circuit events in foreign countries including France, Italy, and West Germany. In 2003, theFederal Assembly of Switzerlandstarted a lengthy", "a lengthy discussion about whether this ban should be lifted. The discussion focused on traffic policy and environmental questions rather than on safety. On 10 June 2009, theStänderat(upper houseof the Swiss parliament) defeated a proposal to lift the ban for the second time.In 2015, the ban was relaxed forelectric vehiclesonly, such as cars involved inFormula Eelectric racing.The ban was lifted in May 2022. The next round of the World Sportscar Championship at theNürburgringwas cancelled, as was the non-championshipCarrera Panamericana. The rest of the1955 World Sportscar Championship seasonwas completed, with the remaining two races at the BritishRAC Tourist Trophyand the ItalianTarga Florio, although they were not run until September and October, several months after the catastrophe. Mercedes-Benz won both of these events, and was able to secure the constructors championship for the season. Having achieved that, Mercedes withdrew from motorsport. The horror of the crash caused some drivers present,", "drivers present, including Americans Fitch (after completing the season with Mercedes),Phil Walters(who had been offered a drive with Ferrari for the rest of the season), andSherwood Johnston, to retire from racing. Macklin also decided to retire after being involved in another fatal crash, during the1955 RAC Tourist Trophyrace atDundrod Circuit. Fangio never raced at Le Mans again. At the Circuit de la Sarthe, the audience stands at the pits were demolished. Much recrimination was directed at Hawthorn, saying that he had suddenly cut in front of Macklin and slammed on the brakes near the entrance to the pits, forcing Macklin to take desperate evasive action into the path of Levegh. This became the semi-official pronouncement of the Mercedes team and Macklin's story.The Jaguar team in turn questioned the fitness and competence of Macklin and Levegh as drivers.The initial media accounts were wildly inaccurate, as shown by subsequent analysis of photographic evidence conducted byRoad & Trackeditor (and 1955", "(and 1955 second-place finisher)Paul Frèrein 1975.Additional details emerged when the stills reviewed by Frère were converted to video form. The media also speculated on the violent fire that engulfed the wreck, which intensified when fire marshals poured their water-based extinguishers on the flames. They suggested that Mercedes-Benz had tampered with the official fuel-supply with an explosive additive, but the intensity of the fire was due instead to the magnesium-alloy construction of thechassis. Neubauer got the French authorities to test residual fuel left in the wreck's fuel injection and the result vindicated the company. Opinions differed widely amongst the other drivers as to who was directly to blame for the crash, and such differences remain even today. Macklin claimed that Hawthorn's move to the pits was sudden, causing an emergency that led him to swerve into Levegh's path. Years later Fitch claimed, based on his own recollection and from what he heard from others, that Hawthorn had caused it.", "had caused it. Dewis ventured the opinions that Macklin's move around Hawthorn was careless and that Levegh was not competent to meet the demands of driving at the speeds the 300SLR was capable of. Both Jaguar and Mercedes-Benz issued official statements, mainly in self-defence against the accusations levelled against them and their drivers. Neubauer limited himself to suggesting improvements to the pit straight and making pit-stops safer. Macklin, on reading Hawthorn's 1958 autobiography,Challenge Me the Race, was embittered when he found that Hawthorn now disclaimed all responsibility for the crash without identifying who had caused it. With Levegh dead, Macklin presumed that Hawthorn's implication was that he (Macklin) had been responsible, and he began alibelaction. The action was still unresolved when Hawthorn was killed in a non-racing crash on theGuildfordbypass in 1959, coincidentally while overtaking a Mercedes-Benz in his Jaguar. The official government inquiry into the accident called officials,", "called officials, drivers, and team personnel to be questioned and give evidence. The wreckage was examined and tested and, finally, returned to Mercedes-Benz nearly twelve months after the catastrophe.In the end the enquiry ruled that no specific driver was responsible for the crash, and that it was merely a terrible racing incident. The death of the spectators was blamed on inadequate safety standards for the track design.Tony Roltand other drivers had been raising concerns about the pit straight since 1953. Legacy Over the next year, theAutomobile Club de l'Ouest(ACO) set about making extensive track improvements and infrastructure changes at the Circuit de la Sarthe—the pit straight was redesigned and widened to remove the kink just before the start-finish line, and to give room for a deceleration lane. The pits complex was pulled down and rebuilt, giving more room to the teams, but thereby limiting spaces to only 52 starters rather than the previous 60. The grandstand was demolished and rebuilt with new", "rebuilt with new spectator terraces and a wide ditch between them and the racetrack.Track safety technology and practices evolved slowly until F1 driverJackie Stewartorganized a campaign to advocate for better safety measures ten years later. Stewart's campaign gained momentum after the deaths ofLorenzo BandiniandJim Clark. Fitch became a major safety advocate and began active development of safer road cars and racing circuits. He invented traffic safety devices currently in use on highways, including the sand-and-air-filledFitch barrels. Macklin's Austin-Healey 100 was sold to several private buyers before appearing on the public auction block. In 1969, it was bought for£155 (equivalent to £3,222 in 2023).In December 2011, the car, estimated to raise £800,000 before the auction,was sold for £843,000.The car retained the original engine SPL 261-BN,but was reported to be in 'barn find' condition.It was then restored to its original condition. After the accident Mercedes-Benz withdrew from motorsports until", "motorsports until 1985, although the withdrawal had already been decided before the race and had not been caused by the accident.After returning tosports car racingin the mid 1980s, initially as an engine supplier, Mercedes went on to win the 1989 Le Mans race in partnership withSauber Motorsport. Mercedes went on to compete in the championship during the 1990s as a works team before withdrawing for a second and final time in 1999, following a series of spectacular but non-fatal crashes of theMercedes-Benz CLR. See also References Citations Bibliography External links", "List of Tour de France general classification winners TheTour de Franceis an annualroad bicycle raceheld over 23 days in July. Established in 1903 by newspaperL'Auto, the Tour is the best-known and most prestigious of cycling's three \"Grand Tours\"; the others are theGiro d'Italiaand theVuelta a España.The race usually covers approximately 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi), passing through France and neighbouring countries such as Belgium.The race is broken into day-long stages. Individual finishing times for each stage are totalled to determine the overall winner at the end of the race. The course changes every year, but has always finished in Paris; since1975, it has finished along theChamps-Élysées. The rider with the lowest aggregate time at the end of each day wears the yellow jersey, representing the leader of thegeneral classification. There are other jerseys as well: the green jersey, worn by the leader of thepoints classification; the polka dot jersey, worn by the leader of themountains classification; and", "classification; and the white jersey, worn by the leader of theyoung rider classification. Jacques Anquetil,Eddy Merckx,Bernard Hinault, andMiguel Indurain, have won the most Tours with five each. Indurain is the only man to win five consecutive Tours.Henri Cornetis the youngest winner; he won in1904, just short of his 20th birthday.Firmin Lambotis the oldest winner, he was 36 years, 4 months old when he won in1922.French cyclists have won the most Tours; 21 cyclists have won 36 Tours among them. Belgian cyclists are second with 18 victories, and Spanish riders are third with 12 wins.The most recent winner is Slovenian riderTadej Pogačar, who won the2024 Tour. After it emerged thatLance Armstronghad usedperformance-enhancing drugs, in October 2012, theUnion Cycliste Internationale(UCI) stripped Armstrong of the seven consecutive Tour general classification titles between1999and2005. History TheTour de Francewas established in 1903 by the newspaperL'Auto, in an attempt to increase its sales. The first race", "The first race was won by FrenchmanMaurice Garin. He won again the next year, but was disqualified after allegations that he had been transported by car or rail arose.Henri Cornetbecame the winner after the dispute was settled; he is the youngest to win the Tour. Following the scandals in 1904, the scoring system was changed from being time-based to a point-based system, in which the cyclist who has the fewest points at the end of the race is victorious. This system lasted until1912, when the time-based system was re-introduced. French cyclists were successful in the early Tours; the first non-Frenchman to win the Tour wasFrançois FaberofLuxembourg, who won in1909. Belgian riders were more successful before and after theFirst World War(which suspended the Tour from 1915 to 1918). In the 1920s, trade teams dominated the Tour; cyclists such asNicolas Frantzwon the Tour with theAlcyonteam. However, when Alcyon cyclistMaurice De Waelewon the Tour in1929while ill, the organisers decided to introduce national", "introduce national teams the following year, to stop team tactics from undermining the race. Because of theSecond World War, the Tour de France wassuspendedfrom 1940 to 1946. After theSecond World War, no one dominated the Tour untilLouison Bobet, who won three consecutive Tours from1953to1955—he was the first person to achieve this feat.This was bettered by the French cyclistJacques Anquetil, who won four successive Tours from1961to1964. Anquetil, who also won in1957, became the first to win five Tours.Anquetil's five victories were matched when Belgian cyclistEddy Merckxwon four successive Tours from1969to1972and the1974Tour. Merckx is the only person to have won the general, points and king of the mountains classifications in the same Tour. He achieved this in 1969, when he won his first Tour. Merckx looked to be heading for a record sixth Tour victory in1975, butBernard Thévenetbeat him, becoming the first French winner in seven years. Thévenet won again in1977; however, he was eclipsed in following", "in following years by fellow FrenchmanBernard Hinault, who won consecutive Tours in1978and1979. Hinault won the Tour at his first attempt in 1978; becoming one of 11 cyclists (including Anquetil, Merckx,Hugo KobletandFausto Coppi) managed to do so.In1980, Hinault was going for a third consecutive win, but had to pull out because of tendinitis, and the Tour was won byJoop Zoetemelk.Hinault returned in1981and won that race as well as the one after that. Hinault sat out the Tour in1983, and another Frenchman—Laurent Fignon—achieved victory. Fignon won again the following year, beating Hinault; Hinault recovered in1985to win his fifth Tour. AmericanGreg LeMondbecame the first non-European to win the Tour in1986. LeMond missed out in 1987 and 1988, but returned in 1989 to win the Tour by finishing eight seconds ahead of Laurent Fignon, the smallest winning margin in the Tour's history. LeMond also won in 1990.In1991, SpaniardMiguel Indurainwon his first Tour. Indurain came to dominate the Tour, winning four more", "winning four more Tours consecutively—making him the first person to win five consecutive Tours.He tried to win a record-high sixth Tour in1996, but was beaten byBjarne Riis, who later admitted to usingErythropoietin.Jan UllrichandMarco Pantaniwon in1997and1998, respectively; however, Pantani's victory was overshadowed bydoping scandals. The1999Tour saw the first victory ofLance Armstrong,which was followed by six more, for a total of seven consecutive victories.He was later stripped of his titles in October 2012, when it emerged he had usedperformance-enhancing drugsthroughout much of his career, including the Tour de France victories.Floyd Landiswon the Tour in2006, but was later stripped of his title, after a drug-control test demonstrated the presence of askewed testosterone/epitestosteroneratio.Óscar Pereirowas subsequently awarded the victory.Alberto Contadorwon the2007Tour with theDiscovery Channel. The 2007 Tour was also marred bydoping scandals, thus Contador was unable to defend his title in2008,", "his title in2008, as hisAstanateam was banned for its part in the controversy. Fellow SpaniardCarlos SastreofTeam CSCwon.Contador and Astana returned in2009to regain the title. He won the Tour again in2010, but was later stripped of his title after he was found guilty of doping. Runner-upAndy Schleckwas awarded the victory. Cadel Evansbecame the first Australian to win the Tour in2011.The following year,Bradley Wigginsbecame the first British cyclist to win the Tour.Chris Froomebecame the second successive British winner in2013, which was the 100th edition of the race.He could not defend his title the following year, as he crashed out in stage 5, withVincenzo Nibaliwinning his first Tour.Froome regained the title in2015and then successfully defended it in2016, the first rider in over 20 years to do so.Froome won the Tour for a third consecutive year in2017.He was unsuccessful in his attempts to win a fourth Tour in succession in2018 edition, Froome's teammate,Geraint Thomas, was the winner instead.Thomas was", "instead.Thomas was unable to win for a second year in succession in2019. He finished second behind his teammateEgan Bernal, who became the first Colombian cyclist to win the Tour. The 2020 Tour was postponed to commence on 29 August, following the French government's extension of a ban on mass gatherings after the worldwideCOVID-19outbreak.This was the first time since the end of World War II that the Tour de France was not held in the month of July.It was won byTadej Pogačar, who became the first Slovenian rider to win the race as well as one of the youngest winners in Tour history. He repeated as champion in the 2021 edition. The following year,Jonas Vingegaardbecame the first Danish rider since 1996 to win the race. Vingegaard won again the following year; he won the 2023 edition by 7 minutes and 29 seconds from Pogačar.Pogačar regained the general classification in 2024 and became the first person to win the Giro and Tour in the same year since Pantani in 1998. Winners Multiple winners The following", "The following riders have won the Tour de France on more than one occasion. Alberto Contadorwon three Tours, but was stripped of one following an anti-doping violation. Lance Armstrongwas removed from the head of the list after having all seven of his Tour victories stripped when he was found guilty of repeated doping offences. By nationality See also Footnotes References" ]
The inventor of the first true pinhole camera was also the first to correctly explain what theory?
The Theory of Vision
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" ]
[ "Photography Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Photographyis theart, application, and practice of creatingimagesby recordinglight, either electronically by means of animage sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such asphotographic film. It is employed in many fields of science, manufacturing (e.g.,photolithography), and business, as well as its more direct uses for art,filmandvideo production, recreational purposes, hobby, andmass communication.A person who makes photographs is called aphotographer. Typically, alensis used tofocusthe light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside acameraduring a timedexposure. With an electronic image sensor, this produces anelectrical chargeat eachpixel, which iselectronically processedand stored in adigital image filefor subsequent display or processing. The result withphotographic emulsionis an invisiblelatent image, which is later chemically\"developed\"into a visible image, eithernegativeorpositive, depending on the purpose of the photographic material and the method ofprocessing. A negative image on film is traditionally used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as aprint, either by using anenlargeror bycontact printing. Etymology The word \"photography\" was created from the Greek rootsφωτός(phōtós), genitive ofφῶς(phōs), \"light\"andγραφή(graphé) \"representation by means of lines\" or \"drawing\",together meaning \"drawing with light\". Several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently.Hércules Florence, a French painter and inventor living in Campinas,Brazil, used the French form of the word,photographie, in private notes which a Brazilian historian believes were written in 1834.This claim is widely reported but is not yet largely recognized internationally. The first use of the word by Florence became widely known after the research of Boris Kossoy in 1980. The German newspaperVossische Zeitungof 25 February 1839 contained an article entitledPhotographie, discussing several priority claims – especiallyHenry Fox Talbot's – regarding Daguerre's claim of invention.The article is the earliest known occurrence of the word in public print.It was signed \"J.M.\", believed to have been Berlin astronomerJohann von Maedler.The astronomerJohn Herschelis also credited with coining the word, independent of Talbot, in 1839. The inventorsNicéphore Niépce, Talbot, andLouis Daguerreseem not to have known or used the word \"photography\", but referred to their processes as \"Heliography\" (Niépce), \"Photogenic Drawing\"/\"Talbotype\"/\"Calotype\" (Talbot), and \"Daguerreotype\" (Daguerre). History Precursor technologies Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, relating to seeing an image and capturing the image. The discovery of thecamera obscura(\"dark chamber\" inLatin) that provides an image of a scene dates back toancient China. Greek mathematiciansAristotleandEuclidindependently described a camera obscura in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematicianAnthemius of Trallesused a type of camera obscura in his experiments. TheArab physicistIbn al-Haytham(Alhazen) (965–1040) also invented a camera obscura as well as the first truepinhole camera.The invention of the camera has been traced back to the work of Ibn al-Haytham.While the effects of a single light passing through a pinhole had been described earlier,Ibn al-Haytham gave the first correct analysis of the camera obscura,including the first geometrical and quantitative descriptions of the phenomenon,and was the first to use a screen in a dark room so that an image from one side of a hole in the surface could be projected onto a screen on the other side.He also first understood the relationship between thefocal pointand the pinhole,and performed early experiments withafterimages, laying the foundations for the invention of photography in the 19th century. Leonardo da Vincimentions natural camerae obscurae that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper.Renaissancepainters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. It is a box with a small hole in one side, which allows specific light rays to enter, projecting an inverted image onto a viewing screen or paper. The birth of photography was then concerned with inventing means to capture and keep the image produced by the camera obscura.Albertus Magnus(1193–1280) discoveredsilver nitrate,andGeorg Fabricius(1516–1571) discoveredsilver chloride,and the techniques described inIbn al-Haytham'sBook of Opticsare capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials. Daniele Barbarodescribed adiaphragmin 1566.Wilhelm Hombergdescribed how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.Around 1717,Johann Heinrich Schulzeused a light-sensitive slurry to capture images of cut-out letters on a bottle and on that basis many German sources and some international ones credit Schulze as the inventor of photography.The fiction bookGiphantie, published in 1760, by French authorTiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography. In June 1802,BritishinventorThomas Wedgwoodmade the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance.He used paper or white leather treated withsilver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that \"the images formed by means of a camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver.\" The shadow images eventually darkened all over. Invention The first permanentphotoetchingwas an image produced in 1822 by the French inventorNicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it.Niépce was successful again in 1825. In 1826 he made theView from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of a real-world scene, as formed in acamera obscuraby alens). Because Niépce's camera photographs required an extremely longexposure(at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve hisbitumenprocess or replace it with one that was more practical. In partnership withLouis Daguerre, he worked out post-exposure processing methods that produced visually superior results and replaced the bitumen with a more light-sensitive resin, but hours of exposure in the camera were still required. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy. Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitivesilver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light-fast and permanent. Daguerre's efforts culminated in what would later be named thedaguerreotypeprocess. The essential elements—a silver-plated surface sensitized byiodinevapor, developed bymercuryvapor, and \"fixed\" with hot saturatedsaltwater—were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the several-minutes-long exposure to be visible. The existence of Daguerre's process was publicly announced, without details, on 7 January 1839. The news created an international sensation. France soon agreed to pay Daguerre a pension in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of France, which occurred when complete working instructions were unveiled on 19 August 1839. In that same year, American photographerRobert Corneliusis credited with taking the earliest surviving photographic self-portrait. In Brazil,Hercules Florencehad apparently started working out a silver-salt-based paper process in 1832, later naming itPhotographie. Meanwhile, aBritishinventor,William Fox Talbot, had succeeded in making crude but reasonably light-fast silver images on paper as early as 1834 but had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention in January 1839, Talbot published his hitherto secret method and set about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot's paper-based photography typically required hours-longexposuresin the camera, but in 1840 he created thecalotypeprocess, which used thechemical developmentof alatent imageto greatly reduce the exposure needed and compete with the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot's process, unlike Daguerre's, created a translucentnegativewhich could be used to print multiple positive copies; this is the basis of most modern chemical photography up to the present day, as daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a camera.Talbot's famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window inLacock Abbey, one of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in existence. In March 1837,Steinheil, along withFranz von Kobell, usedsilver chlorideand a cardboard camera to make pictures innegativeof theFrauenkircheand other buildings in Munich, then taking another picture of the negative to get apositive, the actual black and white reproduction of a view on the object. The pictures produced were round with a diameter of 4 cm, the method was later named the \"Steinheil method\". In France,Hippolyte Bayardinvented his own process for producing direct positive paper prints and claimed to have invented photography earlier than Daguerre or Talbot. British chemistJohn Herschelmade many contributions to the new field. He invented thecyanotypeprocess, later familiar as the \"blueprint\". He was the first to use the terms \"photography\", \"negative\" and \"positive\". He had discovered in 1819 thatsodium thiosulphatewas a solvent of silver halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to \"fix\" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light-fast. He made the firstglass negativein late 1839. In the March 1851 issue ofThe Chemist,Frederick Scott Archerpublished his wet platecollodion process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are three subsets to the collodion process; theAmbrotype(a positive image on glass), theFerrotypeor Tintype (a positive image on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to make positive prints onalbumenor salted paper. Many advances inphotographic glass platesand printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1891,Gabriel Lippmannintroduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of theinterferenceof light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1908. Glass plates were the medium for most original camera photography from the late 1850s until the general introduction of flexible plastic films during the 1890s. Although the convenience of the film greatly popularized amateur photography, early films were somewhat more expensive and of markedly lower optical quality than their glass plate equivalents, and until the late 1910s they were not available in the large formats preferred by most professional photographers, so the new medium did not immediately or completely replace the old. Because of the superior dimensional stability of glass, the use of plates for some scientific applications, such asastrophotography, continued into the 1990s, and in the niche field of laserholography, it has persisted into the 21st century. Film Hurter and Driffieldbegan pioneering work on thelight sensitivityof photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised. The first flexible photographic roll film was marketed byGeorge Eastman, founder ofKodakin 1885, but this original \"film\" was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and transferred to a hardened gelatin support. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammablenitrocelluloseknown as nitrate film. Althoughcellulose acetateor \"safety film\" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,at first it found only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed forX-rayfilms until 1933, and although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm motion pictures until it was finally discontinued in 1951. Films remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats.Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts and professional photographers. The distinctive \"look\" of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density-to-exposure (H&D curve) with film vs. linear response curve for digital CCD sensors),(2) resolution, and (3) continuity of tone. Black-and-white Originally, all photography wasmonochrome, orblack-and-white. Even after color film was readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost, chemical stability, and its \"classic\" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define black-and-white photography.Monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray but can involve shades of one particularhuedepending on the process. Thecyanotypeprocess, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. Thealbumen printprocess, publicly revealed in 1847, produces brownish tones. Manyphotographerscontinue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-processed silver-halide-based materials. Some full-color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black-and-white results, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Monochrome printing or electronic display can be used to salvage certain photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in their original form; sometimes when presented as black-and-white or single-color-toned images they are found to be more effective. Although color photography has long predominated, monochrome images are still produced, mostly for artistic reasons. Almost alldigital camerashave an option to shoot in monochrome, and almost all image editing software can combine or selectively discardRGBcolor channels to produce a monochrome image from one shot in color. Color Color photographywas explored beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not \"fix\" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light. The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by Scottish physicistJames Clerk Maxwellin 1855.The foundation of virtually all practical color processes, Maxwell's idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and bluefilters.This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, anadditive methodof color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposingcarbon printsof the three images made in theircomplementary colors, asubtractive methodof color reproduction pioneered byLouis Ducos du Hauronin the late 1860s. Russian photographerSergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskiimade extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on different parts of an oblongplate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color \"fringes\" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images. Implementation of color photography was hindered by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemistHermann Vogelin 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity ofemulsionssteadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability. Autochrome, the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by theLumière brothersin 1907. Autochromeplatesincorporated amosaiccolor filter layer made of dyed grains ofpotato starch, which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic image fragments. After an Autochrome plate wasreversal processedto produce a positivetransparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by theadditive method. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of additive color screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s. Kodachrome, the first modern \"integral tripack\" (or \"monopack\") color film, was introduced byKodakin 1935. It captured the three color components in a multi-layeremulsion. One layer was sensitized to record the red-dominated part of thespectrum, another layer recorded only the green part and a third recorded only the blue. Without specialfilm processing, the result would simply be three superimposed black-and-white images, butcomplementarycyan, magenta, and yellow dye images were created in those layers by addingcolor couplersduring a complex processing procedure. Agfa'ssimilarly structuredAgfacolorNeu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently, available color films still employ a multi-layer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa's product. Instant color film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced byPolaroidin 1963. Color photographymay form images as positive transparencies, which can be used in aslide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment. After a transition period centered around 1995–2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive \"look\". Digital In 1981,Sonyunveiled the first consumer camera to use acharge-coupled devicefor imaging, eliminating the need for film: theSony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. The first digital camera to both record and save images in a digital format was the Fujix DS-1P created by Fujifilm in 1988. In 1991, Kodak unveiled theDCS 100, the first commercially available digital single-lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other thanphotojournalismand professional photography, commercialdigital photographywas born. Digital imaging uses an electronicimage sensorto record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film.An important difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resistsphoto manipulationbecause it involvesfilmandphotographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications. Digital photography dominates the 21st century. More than 99% of photographs taken around the world are through digital cameras, increasingly through smartphones. Techniques A large variety of photographic techniques and media are used in the process of capturing images for photography. These include the camera; dualphotography; full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared media; light field photography; and other imaging techniques. Cameras The camera is the image-forming device, and aphotographic plate,photographic filmor asiliconelectronicimage sensoris the capture medium. The respective recording medium can be the plate or film itself, or a digital magnetic or electronic memory. Photographers control the camera and lens to \"expose\" the light recording material to the required amount of light to form a \"latent image\" (on plate or film) orRAW file(in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image.Digital camerasuse an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such ascharge-coupled device(CCD) orcomplementary metal–oxide–semiconductor(CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on a paper. The camera (or 'camera obscura') is a dark room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all light is excluded except the light that forms the image. It was discovered and used in the 16th century by painters. The subject being photographed, however, must be illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept dark while the object to be photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was common for reproduction photography of flat copy when large film negatives were used (seeProcess camera). As soon as photographic materials became \"fast\" (sensitive) enough for takingcandidor surreptitious pictures, small \"detective\" cameras were made, some actually disguised as a book or handbag or pocket watch (theTickacamera) or even worn hidden behind anAscotnecktie with a tie pin that was really the lens. Themovie camerais a type of photographic camera that takes a rapid sequence of photographs on recording medium. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a \"frame\". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the \"frame rate\" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. Stereoscopic Photographs, both monochrome and color, can be captured and displayed through two side-by-side images that emulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motion.While known colloquially as \"3-D\" photography, the more accurate term is stereoscopy. Such cameras have long been realized by using film and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cell phone cameras). Dualphotography Dualphotography consists of photographing a scene from both sides of a photographic device at once (e.g. camera for back-to-back dualphotography, or two networked cameras for portal-plane dualphotography). The dualphoto apparatus can be used to simultaneously capture both the subject and the photographer, or both sides of a geographical place at once, thus adding a supplementary narrative layer to that of a single image. Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared Ultravioletandinfraredfilms have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction infull spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions. Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infraredhot mirrorfilter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm. Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters). Uses of full spectrum photography are forfine art photography,geology,forensicsand law enforcement. Layering Layering is a photographiccompositiontechnique that manipulates the foreground, subject or middle-ground, and background layers in a way that they all work together to tell a story through the image.Layers may be incorporated by altering the focal length, distorting the perspective by positioning the camera in a certain spot.People, movement, light and a variety of objects can be used in layering. Light field Digital methods of image capture and display processing have enabled the new technology of \"light field photography\" (also known as synthetic aperture photography). This process allows focusing at various depths of field to be selectedafterthe photograph has been captured.As explained byMichael Faradayin 1846, the \"light field\" is understood as 5-dimensional, with each point in 3-D space having attributes of two more angles that define the direction of each ray passing through that point. These additional vector attributes can be captured optically through the use ofmicrolensesat each pixel point within the 2-dimensional image sensor. Every pixel of the final image is actually a selection from each sub-array located under each microlens, as identified by a post-image capture focus algorithm. Other Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, aphotocopyorxerographymachine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of staticelectrical chargesrather than photographic medium, hence the termelectrophotography.Photogramsare images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of animage scannerto produce digital pictures. Types Amateur Amateur photographers take photos for personal use, as ahobbyor out of casual interest, rather than as a business or job. The quality of amateur work can be comparable to that of many professionals. Amateurs can fill a gap in subjects or topics that might not otherwise be photographed if they are not commercially useful or salable. Amateur photography grew during the late 19th century due to the popularization of the hand-held camera.Twenty-first centurysocial mediaand near-ubiquitouscamera phoneshave made photographic and video recording pervasive in everyday life. In the mid-2010ssmartphonecameras added numerous automatic assistance features likecolor management,autofocusface detectionandimage stabilizationthat significantly decreased skill and effort needed to take high quality images. Commercial Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid forimagesrather thanworks of art. In this light, money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. The commercial photographic world could include: Art During the 20th century, bothfine art photographyanddocumentary photographybecame accepted by theEnglish-speakingart world and thegallerysystem. In the United States, a handful of photographers, includingAlfred Stieglitz,Edward Steichen,John Szarkowski,F. Holland Day, andEdward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is calledPictorialism, often usingsoft focusfor a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston,Ansel Adams, and others formed theGroup f/64to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else. Theaestheticsof photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes itbeautifulto the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images \"written with light\";Nicéphore Niépce,Louis Daguerre, and others among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art. Clive Bellin his classic essayArtstates that only \"significant form\" can distinguish art from what is not art. There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible – significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions. On 7 February 2007, Sotheby's London sold the 2001 photograph99 Cent II Diptychonfor an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder, making it the most expensive at the time. Conceptual photographyturns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract. In parallel to this development, the then largely separate interface between painting and photography was closed in the second half of the 20th century with thechemigramofPierre Cordierand thechemogramofJosef H. Neumann.In 1974 the chemograms by Josef H. Neumann concluded the separation of the painterly background and the photographic layer by showing the picture elements in a symbiosis that had never existed before, as an unmistakable unique specimen, in a simultaneous painterly and at the same time real photographic perspective, using lenses, within a photographic layer, united in colors and shapes. This Neumannchemogramfrom the 1970s thus differs from the beginning of the previously created cameralesschemigramsof aPierre Cordierand thephotogramMan RayorLászló Moholy-Nagyof the previous decades. These works of art were almost simultaneous with the invention of photography by various important artists who characterizedHippolyte Bayard,Thomas Wedgwood,William Henry Fox Talbotin their early stages, and later Man Ray and László Moholy-Nagy in the twenties and by the painter in the thirtiesEdmund KestingandChristian Schadby draping objects directly onto appropriately sensitized photo paper and using a light source without a camera. Photojournalism Photojournalismis a particular form of photography (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images, but in some cases the term also refers to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (e.g.,documentary photography, social documentary photography,street photographyorcelebrity photography) by complying with a rigid ethical framework which demands that the work be both honest and impartial whilst telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be well informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a creative format that is not only informative, but also entertaining, includingsports photography. Science and forensics The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording scientific phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipsesfor example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (inphotomicroscopy) and formacro photographyof larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recordingcrime scenesand the scenes of accidents, such as theWootton bridge collapsein 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for use in legal cases are collectively known asforensic photography. Crime scene photos are usually taken from three vantage points: overview, mid-range, and close-up. In 1845Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of theKew Observatory, invented the first successful camera to make continuous recordings of meteorological and geomagnetic parameters. Different machines produced 12- or 24- hour photographic traces of the minute-by-minute variations ofatmospheric pressure, temperature,humidity,atmospheric electricity, and the three components ofgeomagnetic forces. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century.Charles Brookea little later developed similar instruments for theGreenwich Observatory. Science regularly uses image technology that has derived from the design of thepinhole camerato avoid distortions that can be caused by lenses.X-raymachines are similar in design to pinhole cameras, with high-grade filters and laser radiation.Photography has become universal in recording events and data in science and engineering, and atcrime scenesor accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such asinfrared photographyandultraviolet photography, as well asspectroscopy. Those methods were first used in theVictorian eraand improved much further since that time. The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an \"Ion\" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film. Wildlife photography Wildlife photography involves capturing images of various forms of wildlife. Unlike other forms of photography such as product or food photography, successful wildlife photography requires a photographer to choose the right place and right time when specific wildlife are present and active. It often requires great patience and considerable skill and command of the right photographic equipment. Social and cultural implications There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In herOn Photography(1977),Susan Sontagdismisses the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community.Sontag argues, \"To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one's self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power.\"Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines, it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation. Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its effect on society. InAlfred Hitchcock'sRear Window(1954), the camera is presented as promoting voyeurism. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'. The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate – all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment. Digital imaging has raised ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post-processing. Manyphotojournalistshave declared they will notcroptheir pictures or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make \"photomontages\", passing them as \"real\" photographs. Today's technology has madeimage editingrelatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allowdigital fingerprintingof photos to detect tampering for purposes offorensic photography. Photography is one of thenew mediaforms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly,photos of warandpornographyare causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that \"to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed\". Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality. One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a \"touristgaze\"in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a \"reverse gaze\"through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images. Law Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting ofcopyrightor moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as aFirst Amendment rightand anyone is free to photograph anything seen in public spaces as long as it is in plain view.In the UK, a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.In South Africa, any person may photograph any other person, without their permission, in public spaces and the only specific restriction placed on what may not be photographed by government is related to anything classed as national security. Each country has different laws. See also References Further reading Introduction History Reference works Other books External links", "Ibn al-Haytham Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham(LatinizedasAlhazen;/ælˈhæzən/; full nameAbū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haythamأبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم;c.965– c.1040) was a medievalmathematician,astronomer, andphysicistof theIslamic Golden Agefrom present-day Iraq.Referred to as \"the father of modern optics\",he made significant contributions to the principles ofopticsandvisual perceptionin particular. His most influential work is titledKitāb al-Manāẓir(Arabic:كتاب المناظر, \"Book of Optics\"), written during 1011–1021, which survived in a Latin edition.The works of Alhazen were frequently cited during the scientific revolution byIsaac Newton,Johannes Kepler,Christiaan Huygens, andGalileo Galilei. Ibn al-Haytham was the first to correctly explain the theory of vision,and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience.He also stated the principle of least time for refraction which would later becomeFermat's principle.He made major contributions to catoptrics and dioptrics by studying reflection, refraction and nature of images formed by light rays.Ibn al-Haytham was an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be supported by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical reasoning—an early pioneer in thescientific methodfive centuries beforeRenaissance scientists,he is sometimes described as the world's \"first true scientist\".He was also apolymath, writing onphilosophy,theologyandmedicine. Born inBasra, he spent most of his productive period in theFatimidcapital ofCairoand earned his living authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities.Ibn al-Haytham is sometimes given thebynameal-Baṣrīafter his birthplace,oral-Miṣrī(\"the Egyptian\").Al-Haytham was dubbed the \"SecondPtolemy\" byAbu'l-Hasan Bayhaqiand \"The Physicist\" byJohn Peckham.Ibn al-Haytham paved the way for the modern science of physical optics. Biography Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was born c. 965 to a family ofAraborPersianorigin inBasra,Iraq, which was at the time part of theBuyid emirate. His initial influences were in the study of religion and service to the community. At the time, society had a number of conflicting views of religion that he ultimately sought to step aside from religion. This led to him delving into the study of mathematics and science.He held a position with the title ofvizierin his native Basra, As he claimed to be able to regulate the flooding of the Nile, he was invited by the Fatimid Caliphal-Hakim bi-Amr Allahto the seat of the caliphateCairo, in order to realise a hydraulic project at Aswan. However, Ibn al-Haytham was forced to concede the impracticability of his project. Upon his return to Cairo, he was given an administrative post. After he proved unable to fulfill this task as well, he contracted the ire of the caliphAl-Hakim,and is said to have been forced into hiding until the caliph's death in 1021, after which his confiscated possessions were returned to him.Legend has it that Alhazenfeigned madnessand was kept under house arrest during this period.During this time, he wrote his influentialBook of Optics. Alhazen continued to live in Cairo, in the neighborhood of the famousUniversity of al-Azhar, and lived from the proceeds of his literary productionuntil his death in c. 1040.(A copy ofApollonius'Conics, written in Ibn al-Haytham's own handwriting exists inAya Sofya: (MS Aya Sofya 2762, 307 fob., dated Safar 415 A.H. ).): Note 2 Among his students were Sorkhab (Sohrab), a Persian fromSemnan, andAbu al-Wafa Mubashir ibn Fatek, an Egyptian prince. Book of Optics Alhazen's most famous work is his seven-volume treatise onopticsKitab al-Manazir(Book of Optics), written from 1011 to 1021.In it, Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain that vision occurs when light reflects from an object and then passes to one's eyes,and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience. Opticswastranslated into Latinby an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century. This work enjoyed a great reputation during theMiddle Ages. The Latin version ofDe aspectibuswas translated at the end of the 14th century into Italian vernacular, under the titleDe li aspecti. It was printed byFriedrich Risnerin 1572, with the titleOpticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus(English: Treasury of Optics: seven books by the Arab Alhazen, first edition; by the same, on twilight and the height of clouds).Risner is also the author of the name variant \"Alhazen\"; before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen.Works by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in theBibliothèque nationaleinParisin 1834 by E. A. Sedillot. In all, A. Mark Smith has accounted for 18 full or near-complete manuscripts, and five fragments, which are preserved in 14 locations, including one in theBodleian LibraryatOxford, and one in the library ofBruges. Theory of optics Two major theories on vision prevailed inclassical antiquity. The first theory, theemission theory, was supported by such thinkers asEuclidandPtolemy, who believed that sight worked by theeyeemittingraysoflight. The second theory, theintromission theorysupported byAristotleand his followers, had physical forms entering the eye from an object. Previous Islamic writers (such asal-Kindi) had argued essentially on Euclidean, Galenist, or Aristotelian lines. The strongest influence on theBook of Opticswas from Ptolemy'sOptics, while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based on Galen's account.Alhazen's achievement was to come up with a theory that successfully combined parts of the mathematical ray arguments of Euclid, the medical tradition ofGalen, and the intromission theories of Aristotle. Alhazen's intromission theory followed al-Kindi (and broke with Aristotle) in asserting that \"from each point of every colored body, illuminated by any light, issue light and color along every straight line that can be drawn from that point\".This left him with the problem of explaining how a coherent image was formed from many independent sources of radiation; in particular, every point of an object would send rays to every point on the eye. What Alhazen needed was for each point on an object to correspond to one point only on the eye.He attempted to resolve this by asserting that the eye would only perceive perpendicular rays from the object—for any one point on the eye, only the ray that reached it directly, without being refracted by any other part of the eye, would be perceived. He argued, using a physical analogy, that perpendicular rays were stronger than oblique rays: in the same way that a ball thrown directly at a board might break the board, whereas a ball thrown obliquely at the board would glance off, perpendicular rays were stronger than refracted rays, and it was only perpendicular rays which were perceived by the eye. As there was only one perpendicular ray that would enter the eye at any one point, and all these rays would converge on the centre of the eye in a cone, this allowed him to resolve the problem of each point on an object sending many rays to the eye; if only the perpendicular ray mattered, then he had a one-to-one correspondence and the confusion could be resolved.He later asserted (in book seven of theOptics) that other rays would be refracted through the eye and perceivedas ifperpendicular.His arguments regarding perpendicular rays do not clearly explain whyonlyperpendicular rays were perceived; why would the weaker oblique rays not be perceived more weakly?His later argument that refracted rays would be perceived as if perpendicular does not seem persuasive.However, despite its weaknesses, no other theory of the time was so comprehensive, and it was enormously influential, particularly in Western Europe. Directly or indirectly, hisDe Aspectibus(Book of Optics) inspired much activity in optics between the 13th and 17th centuries.Kepler's later theory of theretinalimage (which resolved the problem of the correspondence of points on an object and points in the eye) built directly on the conceptual framework of Alhazen. Alhazen showed through experiment that light travels in straight lines, and carried out various experiments withlenses,mirrors,refraction, andreflection.His analyses of reflection and refraction considered the vertical and horizontal components of light rays separately. Alhazen studied the process of sight, the structure of the eye, image formation in the eye, and thevisual system. Ian P. Howard argued in a 1996Perceptionarticle that Alhazen should be credited with many discoveries and theories previously attributed to Western Europeans writing centuries later. For example, he described what became in the 19th centuryHering's law of equal innervation. He wrote a description of verticalhoropters600 years beforeAguiloniusthat is actually closer to the modern definition than Aguilonius's—and his work onbinocular disparitywas repeated by Panum in 1858.Craig Aaen-Stockdale, while agreeing that Alhazen should be credited with many advances, has expressed some caution, especially when considering Alhazen in isolation fromPtolemy, with whom Alhazen was extremely familiar. Alhazen corrected a significant error of Ptolemy regarding binocular vision, but otherwise his account is very similar; Ptolemy also attempted to explain what is now called Hering's law.In general, Alhazen built on and expanded the optics of Ptolemy. In a more detailed account of Ibn al-Haytham's contribution to the study of binocular vision based on Lejeuneand Sabra,Raynaudshowed that the concepts of correspondence, homonymous and crossed diplopia were in place in Ibn al-Haytham's optics. But contrary to Howard, he explained why Ibn al-Haytham did not give the circular figure of the horopter and why, by reasoning experimentally, he was in fact closer to the discovery of Panum's fusional area than that of the Vieth-Müller circle. In this regard, Ibn al-Haytham's theory of binocular vision faced two main limits: the lack of recognition of the role of the retina, and obviously the lack of an experimental investigation of ocular tracts. Alhazen's most original contribution was that, after describing how he thought the eye was anatomically constructed, he went on to consider how this anatomy would behave functionally as an optical system.His understanding ofpinhole projectionfrom his experiments appears to have influenced his consideration of image inversion in the eye,which he sought to avoid.He maintained that the rays that fell perpendicularly on the lens (or glacial humor as he called it) were further refracted outward as they left the glacial humor and the resulting image thus passed upright into the optic nerve at the back of the eye.He followedGalenin believing that thelenswas the receptive organ of sight, although some of his work hints that he thought theretinawas also involved. Alhazen's synthesis of light and vision adhered to the Aristotelian scheme, exhaustively describing the process of vision in a logical, complete fashion. His research incatoptrics(the study of optical systems using mirrors) was centred on spherical andparabolicmirrors andspherical aberration. He made the observation that the ratio between theangle of incidenceandrefractiondoes not remain constant, and investigated themagnifyingpower of alens. Law of reflection Alhazen was the first physicist to give complete statement of the law of reflection.He was first to state that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in a same plane perpendicular to reflecting plane. Alhazen's problem His work oncatoptricsin Book V of the Book of Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen's problem, first formulated byPtolemyin 150 AD. It comprises drawing lines from two points in theplaneof a circle meeting at a point on thecircumferenceand making equal angles with thenormalat that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circularbilliard tableat which a player must aim a cue ball at a given point to make it bounce off the table edge and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, \"Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer.\" This leads to anequation of the fourth degree.This eventually led Alhazen to derive a formula for the sum offourth powers, where previously only the formulas for the sums of squares and cubes had been stated. His method can be readily generalized to find the formula for the sum of any integral powers, although he did not himself do this (perhaps because he only needed the fourth power to calculate the volume of the paraboloid he was interested in). He used his result on sums of integral powers to perform what would now be called anintegration, where the formulas for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of aparaboloid.Alhazen eventually solved the problem usingconic sectionsand a geometric proof. His solution was extremely long and complicated and may not have been understood by mathematicians reading him in Latin translation. Later mathematicians usedDescartes' analytical methods to analyse the problem.An algebraic solution to the problem was finally found in 1965 by Jack M. Elkin, an actuarian.Other solutions were discovered in 1989, by Harald Riedeand in 1997 by theOxfordmathematicianPeter M. Neumann.Recently,Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories(MERL) researchers solved the extension of Alhazen's problem to general rotationally symmetric quadric mirrors including hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptical mirrors. Camera Obscura Thecamera obscurawas known to theancient Chinese, and was described by theHan ChinesepolymathShen Kuoin his scientific bookDream Pool Essays, published in the year 1088 C.E.Aristotlehad discussed the basic principle behind it in hisProblems, but Alhazen's work contained the first clear description ofcamera obscura.and early analysisof the device. Ibn al-Haytham used acamera obscuramainly to observe a partial solar eclipse.In his essay, Ibn al-Haytham writes that he observed the sickle-like shape of the sun at the time of an eclipse. The introduction reads as follows: \"The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moonsickle.\" It is admitted that his findings solidified the importance in the history of thecamera obscurabut this treatise is important in many other respects. Ancient optics and medieval optics were divided into optics and burning mirrors. Optics proper mainly focused on the study of vision, while burning mirrors focused on the properties of light and luminous rays.On the shape of the eclipseis probably one of the first attempts made by Ibn al-Haytham to articulate these two sciences. Very often Ibn al-Haytham's discoveries benefited from the intersection of mathematical and experimental contributions. This is the case withOn the shape of the eclipse. Besides the fact that this treatise allowed more people to study partial eclipses of the sun, it especially allowed to better understand how the camera obscura works. This treatise is a physico-mathematical study of image formation inside the camera obscura. Ibn al-Haytham takes an experimental approach, and determines the result by varying the size and the shape of the aperture, the focal length of the camera, the shape and intensity of the light source. In his work he explains the inversion of the image in the camera obscura,the fact that the image is similar to the source when the hole is small, but also the fact that the image can differ from the source when the hole is large. All these results are produced by using a point analysis of the image. Refractometer In the seventh tract of his book of optics, Alhazen described an apparatus for experimenting with various cases of refraction, in order to investigate the relations between the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction and the angle of deflection. This apparatus was a modified version of an apparatus used by Ptolemy for similar purpose. Unconscious inference Alhazen basically states the concept of unconscious inference in his discussion of colour before adding that the inferential step between sensing colour and differentiating it is shorter than the time taken between sensing and any other visible characteristic (aside from light), and that \"time is so short as not to be clearly apparent to the beholder.\" Naturally, this suggests that the colour and form are perceived elsewhere. Alhazen goes on to say that information must travel to the central nerve cavity for processing and: the sentient organ does not sense the forms that reach it from the visible objects until after it has been affected by these forms; thus it does not sense color as color or light as light until after it has been affected by the form of color or light. Now the affectation received by the sentient organ from the form of color or of light is a certain change; and change must take place in time; .....and it is in the time during which the form extends from the sentient organ's surface to the cavity of the common nerve, and in (the time) following that, that the sensitive faculty, which exists in the whole of the sentient body will perceive color as color...Thus the last sentient's perception of color as such and of light as such takes place at a time following that in which the form arrives from the surface of the sentient organ to the cavity of the common nerve. Color constancy Alhazen explainedcolor constancyby observing that the light reflected from an object is modified by the object's color. He explained that the quality of the light and the color of the object are mixed, and the visual system separates light and color. In Book II, Chapter 3 he writes: Again the light does not travel from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the color, nor does the form of the color pass from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the light. Neither the form of the light nor that of the color existing in the colored object can pass except as mingled together and the last sentient can only perceive them as mingled together. Nevertheless, the sentient perceives that the visible object is luminous and that the light seen in the object is other than the color and that these are two properties. Other contributions TheKitab al-Manazir(Book of Optics) describes several experimental observations that Alhazen made and how he used his results to explain certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies. He conducted experiments withprojectilesand concluded that only the impact ofperpendicularprojectiles on surfaces was forceful enough to make them penetrate, whereas surfaces tended to deflectobliqueprojectile strikes. For example, to explain refraction from a rare to a dense medium, he used the mechanical analogy of an iron ball thrown at a thin slate covering a wide hole in a metal sheet. A perpendicular throw breaks the slate and passes through, whereas an oblique one with equal force and from an equal distance does not.He also used this result to explain how intense, direct light hurts the eye, using a mechanical analogy: Alhazen associated 'strong' lights with perpendicular rays and 'weak' lights with oblique ones. The obvious answer to the problem of multiple rays and the eye was in the choice of the perpendicular ray, since only one such ray from each point on the surface of the object could penetrate the eye. Sudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be considered the founder ofexperimental psychology, for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception andoptical illusions.Khaleefa has also argued that Alhazen should also be considered the \"founder ofpsychophysics\", a sub-discipline and precursor to modern psychology.Although Alhazen made many subjective reports regarding vision, there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and the claim has been rebuffed. Alhazen offered an explanation of theMoon illusion, an illusion that played an important role in the scientific tradition of medieval Europe.Many authors repeated explanations that attempted to solve the problem of the Moon appearing larger near the horizon than it does when higher up in the sky. Alhazen argued against Ptolemy's refraction theory, and defined the problem in terms of perceived, rather than real, enlargement. He said that judging the distance of an object depends on there being an uninterrupted sequence of intervening bodies between the object and the observer. When the Moon is high in the sky there are no intervening objects, so the Moon appears close. The perceived size of an object of constant angular size varies with its perceived distance. Therefore, the Moon appears closer and smaller high in the sky, and further and larger on the horizon. Through works byRoger Bacon,John Pechamand Witelo based on Alhazen's explanation, the Moon illusion gradually came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon, with the refraction theory being rejected in the 17th century.Although Alhazen is often credited with the perceived distance explanation, he was not the first author to offer it.Cleomedes(c.2nd century) gave this account (in addition to refraction), and he credited it toPosidonius(c.135–50 BCE).Ptolemy may also have offered this explanation in hisOptics, but the text is obscure.Alhazen's writings were more widely available in the Middle Ages than those of these earlier authors, and that probably explains why Alhazen received the credit. Scientific method Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. The duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and ... attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. An aspect associated with Alhazen's optical research is related to systemic and methodological reliance on experimentation (i'tibar)(Arabic: اختبار) andcontrolled testingin his scientific inquiries. Moreover, his experimental directives rested on combining classical physics (ilm tabi'i) with mathematics (ta'alim; geometry in particular). This mathematical-physical approach to experimental science supported most of his propositions inKitab al-Manazir(The Optics;De aspectibusorPerspectivae)and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics anddioptrics(the study of the reflection and refraction of light, respectively). According to Matthias Schramm,Alhazen \"was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of themoonlightthrough two smallaperturesonto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up.\"G. J. Toomer expressed some skepticism regarding Schramm's view,partly because at the time (1964) theBook of Opticshad not yet been fully translated from Arabic, and Toomer was concerned that without context, specific passages might be read anachronistically. While acknowledging Alhazen's importance in developing experimental techniques, Toomer argued that Alhazen should not be considered in isolation from other Islamic and ancient thinkers.Toomer concluded his review by saying that it would not be possible to assess Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics without translating more of Alhazen's work and fully investigating his influence on later medieval writers. Other works on physics Optical treatises Besides theBook of Optics, Alhazen wrote several other treatises on the same subject, including hisRisala fi l-Daw'(Treatise on Light). He investigated the properties ofluminance, therainbow,eclipses,twilight, andmoonlight. Experiments with mirrors and the refractive interfaces between air, water, and glass cubes, hemispheres, and quarter-spheres provided the foundation for his theories oncatoptrics. Celestial physics Alhazen discussed thephysicsof the celestial region in hisEpitome of Astronomy, arguing that Ptolemaic models must be understood in terms of physical objects rather than abstract hypotheses—in other words that it should be possible to create physical models where (for example) none of the celestial bodies would collide with each other. The suggestion of mechanical models for the Earth centredPtolemaic model\"greatly contributed to the eventual triumph of the Ptolemaic system among the Christians of the West\". Alhazen's determination to root astronomy in the realm of physical objects was important, however, because it meant astronomical hypotheses \"were accountable to thelaws of physics\", and could be criticised and improved upon in those terms. He also wroteMaqala fi daw al-qamar(On the Light of the Moon). Mechanics In his work, Alhazen discussed theories on themotionof a body. Astronomical works On the Configuration of the World In hisOn the Configuration of the WorldAlhazen presented a detailed description of the physical structure of the earth: The earth as a whole is a round sphere whose center is the center of the world. It is stationary in its middle, fixed in it and not moving in any direction nor moving with any of the varieties of motion, but always at rest. The book is a non-technical explanation of Ptolemy'sAlmagest, which was eventually translated intoHebrewandLatinin the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently had an influence on astronomers such asGeorg von Peuerbachduring the EuropeanMiddle AgesandRenaissance. Doubts Concerning Ptolemy In hisAl-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs, variously translated asDoubts Concerning PtolemyorAporias against Ptolemy, published at some time between 1025 and 1028, Alhazen criticizedPtolemy'sAlmagest,Planetary Hypotheses, andOptics, pointing out various contradictions he found in these works, particularly in astronomy. Ptolemy'sAlmagestconcerned mathematical theories regarding the motion of the planets, whereas theHypothesesconcerned what Ptolemy thought was the actual configuration of the planets. Ptolemy himself acknowledged that his theories and configurations did not always agree with each other, arguing that this was not a problem provided it did not result in noticeable error, but Alhazen was particularly scathing in his criticism of the inherent contradictions in Ptolemy's works.He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy, especially theequant, failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion, and noted the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles: Ptolemy assumed an arrangement (hay'a) that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist... or a man to imagine a circle in the heavens, and to imagine the planet moving in it does not bring about the planet's motion. Having pointed out the problems, Alhazen appears to have intended to resolve the contradictions he pointed out in Ptolemy in a later work. Alhazen believed there was a \"true configuration\" of the planets that Ptolemy had failed to grasp. He intended to complete and repair Ptolemy's system, not to replace it completely.In theDoubts Concerning PtolemyAlhazen set out his views on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge and the need to question existing authorities and theories: Truth is sought for itself the truths, are immersed in uncertainties not immune from error... He held that the criticism of existing theories—which dominated this book—holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge. Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets Alhazen'sThe Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planetswas writtenc.1038. Only one damaged manuscript has been found, with only the introduction and the first section, on the theory of planetary motion, surviving. (There was also a second section on astronomical calculation, and a third section, on astronomical instruments.) Following on from hisDoubts on Ptolemy, Alhazen described a new, geometry-based planetary model, describing the motions of the planets in terms of spherical geometry, infinitesimal geometry and trigonometry. He kept a geocentric universe and assumed that celestial motions are uniformly circular, which required the inclusion ofepicyclesto explain observed motion, but he managed to eliminate Ptolemy'sequant. In general, his model didn't try to provide a causal explanation of the motions, but concentrated on providing a complete, geometric description that could explain observed motions without the contradictions inherent in Ptolemy's model. Other astronomical works Alhazen wrote a total of twenty-five astronomical works, some concerning technical issues such asExact Determination of the Meridian, a second group concerning accurate astronomical observation, a third group concerning various astronomical problems and questions such as the location of theMilky Way; Alhazen made the first systematic effort of evaluating the Milky Way's parallax, combining Ptolemy's data and his own. He concluded that the parallax is (probably very much) smaller than Lunar parallax, and the Milky way should be a celestial object. Though he was not the first who argued that the Milky Way does not belong to the atmosphere, he is the first who did quantitative analysis for the claim.The fourth group consists of ten works on astronomical theory, including theDoubtsandModel of the Motionsdiscussed above. Mathematical works Inmathematics, Alhazen built on the mathematical works ofEuclidandThabit ibn Qurraand worked on \"the beginnings of the link betweenalgebraandgeometry\". Alhazen made developments inconic sectionsand number theory. He developed a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula. Geometry Alhazen explored what is now known as theEuclideanparallel postulate, the fifthpostulateinEuclid'sElements, using aproof by contradiction,and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geometry.He formulated theLambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the \"Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral\".He was criticised by Omar Khayyam who pointed that Aristotle had condemned the use ofmotion in geometry. In elementary geometry, Alhazen attempted to solve the problem ofsquaring the circleusing the area oflunes(crescent shapes), but later gave up on the impossible task.The two lunes formed from aright triangleby erecting a semicircle on each of the triangle's sides, inward for the hypotenuse and outward for the other two sides, are known as thelunes of Alhazen; they have the same total area as the triangle itself. Number theory Alhazen's contributions tonumber theoryinclude his work onperfect numbers. In hisAnalysis and Synthesis, he may have been the first to state that every even perfect number is of the form 2n−1(2n− 1) where 2n− 1 isprime, but he was not able to prove this result;Eulerlater proved it in the 18th century, and it is now called theEuclid–Euler theorem. Alhazen solved problems involvingcongruencesusing what is now calledWilson's theorem. In hisOpuscula, Alhazen considers the solution of a system of congruences, and gives two general methods of solution. His first method, the canonical method, involved Wilson's theorem, while his second method involved a version of theChinese remainder theorem. Calculus Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of aparaboloid. He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula. Other works Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals Alhazen also wrote aTreatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals, although no copies have survived. It appears to have been concerned with the question of whether animals could react to music, for example whether a camel would increase or decrease its pace. Engineering Inengineering, one account of his career as acivil engineerhas him summoned to Egypt by the FatimidCaliph,Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, to regulate thefloodingof theNileRiver. He carried out a detailed scientific study of the annualinundationof the Nile River, and he drew plans for building adam, at the site of the modern-dayAswan Dam. His field work, however, later made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and he soonfeigned madnessso he could avoid punishment from the Caliph. Philosophy In hisTreatise on Place, Alhazen disagreed withAristotle's view that nature abhors avoid, and he usedgeometryin an attempt to demonstrate that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body.Abd-el-latif, a supporter of Aristotle's philosophical view of place, later criticized the work inFi al-Radd 'ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan(A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham's place) for its geometrization of place. Alhazen also discussedspace perceptionand itsepistemologicalimplications in hisBook of Optics. In \"tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhazen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things.\" Theology Alhazen was a Muslim and most sources report that he was a Sunni and a follower of theAsh'arischool.Ziauddin Sardarsays that some of the greatestMuslim scientists, such as Ibn al-Haytham andAbū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, who were pioneers of thescientific method, were themselves followers of the Ashʿari school of Islamic theology.Like other Ashʿarites who believed that faith ortaqlidshould apply only to Islam and not to any ancientHellenisticauthorities,Ibn al-Haytham's view thattaqlidshould apply only toprophets of Islamand not to any other authorities formed the basis for much of hisscientific skepticismand criticism againstPtolemyand other ancient authorities in hisDoubts Concerning PtolemyandBook of Optics. Alhazen wrote a work on Islamic theology in which he discussed prophethood and developed a system of philosophical criteria to discern its false claimants in his time.He also wrote a treatise entitledFinding the Direction of Qibla by Calculationin which he discussed finding theQibla, where prayers (salat) are directed towards, mathematically. There are occasional references to theology or religious sentiment in his technical works, e.g. inDoubts Concerning Ptolemy: Truth is sought for its own sake ... Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough. For the truths are plunged in obscurity. ... God, however, has not preserved the scientist from error and has not safeguarded science from shortcomings and faults. If this had been the case, scientists would not have disagreed upon any point of science... InThe Winding Motion: From the statements made by the noble Shaykh, it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy's words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences. Regarding the relation of objective truth and God: I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge. Legacy Alhazen made significant contributions to optics, number theory, geometry, astronomy and natural philosophy. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment. His main work,Kitab al-Manazir(Book of Optics), was known in theMuslim worldmainly, but not exclusively, through the thirteenth-century commentary byKamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī, theTanqīḥal-Manāẓirli-dhawī l-abṣār wa l-baṣā'ir.Inal-Andalus, it was used by the eleventh-century prince of theBanu Hud dynastyofZaragossaand author of an important mathematical text,al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd. A Latin translation of theKitab al-Manazirwas made probably in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century.This translation was read by and greatly influenced a number of scholars in Christian Europe including:Roger Bacon,Robert Grosseteste,Witelo,Giambattista della Porta,Leonardo da Vinci,Galileo Galilei,Christiaan Huygens,René Descartes,andJohannes Kepler.Meanwhile, in the Islamic world, Alhazen's work influencedAverroes' writings on optics,and his legacy was further advanced through the 'reforming' of hisOpticsby Persian scientistKamal al-Din al-Farisi(died c. 1320) in the latter'sKitab Tanqih al-Manazir(The Revision ofOptics).Alhazen wrote as many as 200 books, although only 55 have survived. Some of his treatises on optics survived only through Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books oncosmologywere translated into Latin,Hebrewand other languages. H. J. J. Winter, a British historian of science, summing up the importance of Ibn al-Haytham in the history ofphysicswrote: After the death of Archimedes no really great physicist appeared until Ibn al-Haytham. If, therefore, we confine our interest only to the history of physics, there is a long period of over twelve hundred years during which the Golden Age of Greece gave way to the era of Muslim Scholasticism, and the experimental spirit of the noblest physicist of Antiquity lived again in the Arab Scholar from Basra. Although only one commentary on Alhazen's optics has survived the Islamic Middle Ages,Geoffrey Chaucermentions the work inThe Canterbury Tales: \"They spoke of Alhazen and Vitello,And Aristotle, who wrote, in their lives,On strange mirrors and optical instruments.\" Theimpact craterAlhazenon the Moon is named in his honour,as was theasteroid59239 Alhazen.In honour of Alhazen, theAga Khan University(Pakistan) named its Ophthalmology endowed chair as \"The Ibn-e-Haitham Associate Professor and Chief of Ophthalmology\". The 2015International Year of Lightcelebrated the 1000th anniversary of the works on optics by Ibn Al-Haytham. In 2014, the \"Hiding in the Light\" episode ofCosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, presented byNeil deGrasse Tyson, focused on the accomplishments of Ibn al-Haytham. He was voiced byAlfred Molinain the episode. Over forty years previously,Jacob Bronowskipresented Alhazen's work in a similar television documentary (and the corresponding book),The Ascent of Man. In episode 5 (The Music of the Spheres), Bronowski remarked that in his view, Alhazen was \"the one really original scientific mind that Arab culture produced\", whose theory of optics was not improved on till the time of Newton and Leibniz. UNESCOdeclared 2015 theInternational Year of Lightand its Director-General Irina Bokova dubbed Ibn al-Haytham 'the father of optics'.Amongst others, this was to celebrate Ibn Al-Haytham's achievements in optics, mathematics and astronomy. An international campaign, created by the1001 Inventionsorganisation, titled1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haythamfeaturing a series of interactive exhibits, workshops and live shows about his work, partnering with science centers, science festivals, museums, and educational institutions, as well as digital and social media platforms.The campaign also produced and released the short educational film1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haytham. Ibn al-Haytham appears on the 10,000 dinar banknote of theIraqi dinar, series 2003. List of works According to medieval biographers, Alhazen wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects, of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other subjects.Not all his surviving works have yet been studied, but some of the ones that have are given below. Lost works See also Notes References Sources Further reading Primary Secondary External links" ]
[ "Photography Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Photographyis theart, application, and practice of creatingimagesby recordinglight, either electronically by means of animage sensor, or chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such asphotographic film. It is employed in many fields of science, manufacturing (e.g.,photolithography), and business, as well as its more direct uses for art,filmandvideo production, recreational purposes, hobby, andmass communication.A person who makes photographs is called aphotographer. Typically, alensis used tofocusthe light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside acameraduring a timedexposure. With an electronic image sensor, this produces anelectrical chargeat eachpixel, which iselectronically processedand stored in adigital image filefor subsequent display or processing. The result withphotographic emulsionis an invisiblelatent image, which is later chemically\"developed\"into a visible image,", "a visible image, eithernegativeorpositive, depending on the purpose of the photographic material and the method ofprocessing. A negative image on film is traditionally used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as aprint, either by using anenlargeror bycontact printing. Etymology The word \"photography\" was created from the Greek rootsφωτός(phōtós), genitive ofφῶς(phōs), \"light\"andγραφή(graphé) \"representation by means of lines\" or \"drawing\",together meaning \"drawing with light\". Several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently.Hércules Florence, a French painter and inventor living in Campinas,Brazil, used the French form of the word,photographie, in private notes which a Brazilian historian believes were written in 1834.This claim is widely reported but is not yet largely recognized internationally. The first use of the word by Florence became widely known after the research of Boris Kossoy in 1980. The German newspaperVossische Zeitungof 25", "Zeitungof 25 February 1839 contained an article entitledPhotographie, discussing several priority claims – especiallyHenry Fox Talbot's – regarding Daguerre's claim of invention.The article is the earliest known occurrence of the word in public print.It was signed \"J.M.\", believed to have been Berlin astronomerJohann von Maedler.The astronomerJohn Herschelis also credited with coining the word, independent of Talbot, in 1839. The inventorsNicéphore Niépce, Talbot, andLouis Daguerreseem not to have known or used the word \"photography\", but referred to their processes as \"Heliography\" (Niépce), \"Photogenic Drawing\"/\"Talbotype\"/\"Calotype\" (Talbot), and \"Daguerreotype\" (Daguerre). History Precursor technologies Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, relating to seeing an image and capturing the image. The discovery of thecamera obscura(\"dark chamber\" inLatin) that provides an image of a scene dates back toancient China. Greek mathematiciansAristotleandEuclidindependently described", "described a camera obscura in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematicianAnthemius of Trallesused a type of camera obscura in his experiments. TheArab physicistIbn al-Haytham(Alhazen) (965–1040) also invented a camera obscura as well as the first truepinhole camera.The invention of the camera has been traced back to the work of Ibn al-Haytham.While the effects of a single light passing through a pinhole had been described earlier,Ibn al-Haytham gave the first correct analysis of the camera obscura,including the first geometrical and quantitative descriptions of the phenomenon,and was the first to use a screen in a dark room so that an image from one side of a hole in the surface could be projected onto a screen on the other side.He also first understood the relationship between thefocal pointand the pinhole,and performed early experiments withafterimages, laying the foundations for the invention of photography in the 19th century. Leonardo da Vincimentions natural camerae", "natural camerae obscurae that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper.Renaissancepainters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. It is a box with a small hole in one side, which allows specific light rays to enter, projecting an inverted image onto a viewing screen or paper. The birth of photography was then concerned with inventing means to capture and keep the image produced by the camera obscura.Albertus Magnus(1193–1280) discoveredsilver nitrate,andGeorg Fabricius(1516–1571) discoveredsilver chloride,and the techniques described inIbn al-Haytham'sBook of Opticsare capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials. Daniele Barbarodescribed adiaphragmin 1566.Wilhelm Hombergdescribed how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.Around 1717,Johann Heinrich", "Heinrich Schulzeused a light-sensitive slurry to capture images of cut-out letters on a bottle and on that basis many German sources and some international ones credit Schulze as the inventor of photography.The fiction bookGiphantie, published in 1760, by French authorTiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography. In June 1802,BritishinventorThomas Wedgwoodmade the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance.He used paper or white leather treated withsilver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that \"the images formed by means of a camera obscura have been found too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver.\" The shadow images eventually darkened all over. Invention The first permanentphotoetchingwas an image produced in 1822 by the French", "1822 by the French inventorNicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it.Niépce was successful again in 1825. In 1826 he made theView from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of a real-world scene, as formed in acamera obscuraby alens). Because Niépce's camera photographs required an extremely longexposure(at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve hisbitumenprocess or replace it with one that was more practical. In partnership withLouis Daguerre, he worked out post-exposure processing methods that produced visually superior results and replaced the bitumen with a more light-sensitive resin, but hours of exposure in the camera were still required. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy. Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre then redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitivesilver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years earlier", "many years earlier because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light-fast and permanent. Daguerre's efforts culminated in what would later be named thedaguerreotypeprocess. The essential elements—a silver-plated surface sensitized byiodinevapor, developed bymercuryvapor, and \"fixed\" with hot saturatedsaltwater—were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the several-minutes-long exposure to be visible. The existence of Daguerre's process was publicly announced, without details, on 7 January 1839. The news created an international sensation. France soon agreed to pay Daguerre a pension in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of", "as the gift of France, which occurred when complete working instructions were unveiled on 19 August 1839. In that same year, American photographerRobert Corneliusis credited with taking the earliest surviving photographic self-portrait. In Brazil,Hercules Florencehad apparently started working out a silver-salt-based paper process in 1832, later naming itPhotographie. Meanwhile, aBritishinventor,William Fox Talbot, had succeeded in making crude but reasonably light-fast silver images on paper as early as 1834 but had kept his work secret. After reading about Daguerre's invention in January 1839, Talbot published his hitherto secret method and set about improving on it. At first, like other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot's paper-based photography typically required hours-longexposuresin the camera, but in 1840 he created thecalotypeprocess, which used thechemical developmentof alatent imageto greatly reduce the exposure needed and compete with the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms,", "and calotype forms, Talbot's process, unlike Daguerre's, created a translucentnegativewhich could be used to print multiple positive copies; this is the basis of most modern chemical photography up to the present day, as daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a camera.Talbot's famous tiny paper negative of the Oriel window inLacock Abbey, one of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest camera negative in existence. In March 1837,Steinheil, along withFranz von Kobell, usedsilver chlorideand a cardboard camera to make pictures innegativeof theFrauenkircheand other buildings in Munich, then taking another picture of the negative to get apositive, the actual black and white reproduction of a view on the object. The pictures produced were round with a diameter of 4 cm, the method was later named the \"Steinheil method\". In France,Hippolyte Bayardinvented his own process for producing direct positive paper prints and claimed to have invented", "to have invented photography earlier than Daguerre or Talbot. British chemistJohn Herschelmade many contributions to the new field. He invented thecyanotypeprocess, later familiar as the \"blueprint\". He was the first to use the terms \"photography\", \"negative\" and \"positive\". He had discovered in 1819 thatsodium thiosulphatewas a solvent of silver halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to \"fix\" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light-fast. He made the firstglass negativein late 1839. In the March 1851 issue ofThe Chemist,Frederick Scott Archerpublished his wet platecollodion process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced it. There are three subsets to the collodion process; theAmbrotype(a positive image on glass), theFerrotypeor Tintype (a positive image on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to make positive prints onalbumenor salted paper.", "salted paper. Many advances inphotographic glass platesand printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1891,Gabriel Lippmannintroduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of theinterferenceof light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1908. Glass plates were the medium for most original camera photography from the late 1850s until the general introduction of flexible plastic films during the 1890s. Although the convenience of the film greatly popularized amateur photography, early films were somewhat more expensive and of markedly lower optical quality than their glass plate equivalents, and until the late 1910s they were not available in the large formats preferred by most professional photographers, so the new medium did not immediately or completely replace the old. Because of the superior dimensional stability of glass, the use of plates for some scientific", "for some scientific applications, such asastrophotography, continued into the 1990s, and in the niche field of laserholography, it has persisted into the 21st century. Film Hurter and Driffieldbegan pioneering work on thelight sensitivityof photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised. The first flexible photographic roll film was marketed byGeorge Eastman, founder ofKodakin 1885, but this original \"film\" was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and transferred to a hardened gelatin support. The first transparent plastic roll film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammablenitrocelluloseknown as nitrate film. Althoughcellulose acetateor \"safety film\" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,at first it found only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more", "slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed forX-rayfilms until 1933, and although safety film was always used for 16 mm and 8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm motion pictures until it was finally discontinued in 1951. Films remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats.Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used by enthusiasts and professional photographers. The distinctive \"look\" of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density-to-exposure (H&D curve) with film vs. linear response curve for digital CCD sensors),(2) resolution, and (3) continuity of tone. Black-and-white Originally, all photography wasmonochrome, orblack-and-white. Even after color film was readily available,", "readily available, black-and-white photography continued to dominate for decades, due to its lower cost, chemical stability, and its \"classic\" photographic look. The tones and contrast between light and dark areas define black-and-white photography.Monochromatic pictures are not necessarily composed of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of gray but can involve shades of one particularhuedepending on the process. Thecyanotypeprocess, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. Thealbumen printprocess, publicly revealed in 1847, produces brownish tones. Manyphotographerscontinue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-processed silver-halide-based materials. Some full-color digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black-and-white results, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Monochrome printing or electronic display can be used to salvage certain photographs", "certain photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in their original form; sometimes when presented as black-and-white or single-color-toned images they are found to be more effective. Although color photography has long predominated, monochrome images are still produced, mostly for artistic reasons. Almost alldigital camerashave an option to shoot in monochrome, and almost all image editing software can combine or selectively discardRGBcolor channels to produce a monochrome image from one shot in color. Color Color photographywas explored beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not \"fix\" the photograph to prevent the color from quickly fading when exposed to white light. The first permanent color photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle first published by Scottish physicistJames Clerk Maxwellin 1855.The foundation of virtually all practical color processes, Maxwell's idea was to", "idea was to take three separate black-and-white photographs through red, green and bluefilters.This provides the photographer with the three basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, anadditive methodof color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposingcarbon printsof the three images made in theircomplementary colors, asubtractive methodof color reproduction pioneered byLouis Ducos du Hauronin the late 1860s. Russian photographerSergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskiimade extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the three color-filtered images on different parts of an oblongplate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color \"fringes\" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared as brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images.", "or printed images. Implementation of color photography was hindered by the limited sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blue, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to red. The discovery of dye sensitization by photochemistHermann Vogelin 1873 suddenly made it possible to add sensitivity to green, yellow and even red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity ofemulsionssteadily reduced the once-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing it ever closer to commercial viability. Autochrome, the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by theLumière brothersin 1907. Autochromeplatesincorporated amosaiccolor filter layer made of dyed grains ofpotato starch, which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic image fragments. After an Autochrome plate wasreversal processedto produce a positivetransparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each", "to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the eye, synthesizing the color of the subject by theadditive method. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of additive color screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s. Kodachrome, the first modern \"integral tripack\" (or \"monopack\") color film, was introduced byKodakin 1935. It captured the three color components in a multi-layeremulsion. One layer was sensitized to record the red-dominated part of thespectrum, another layer recorded only the green part and a third recorded only the blue. Without specialfilm processing, the result would simply be three superimposed black-and-white images, butcomplementarycyan, magenta, and yellow dye images were created in those layers by addingcolor couplersduring a complex processing procedure. Agfa'ssimilarly structuredAgfacolorNeu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the", "into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently, available color films still employ a multi-layer emulsion and the same principles, most closely resembling Agfa's product. Instant color film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two after the exposure, was introduced byPolaroidin 1963. Color photographymay form images as positive transparencies, which can be used in aslide projector, or as color negatives intended for use in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated paper. The latter is now the most common form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment. After a transition period centered around 1995–2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive \"look\". Digital In 1981,Sonyunveiled the first consumer", "the first consumer camera to use acharge-coupled devicefor imaging, eliminating the need for film: theSony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television, and the camera was not fully digital. The first digital camera to both record and save images in a digital format was the Fujix DS-1P created by Fujifilm in 1988. In 1991, Kodak unveiled theDCS 100, the first commercially available digital single-lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other thanphotojournalismand professional photography, commercialdigital photographywas born. Digital imaging uses an electronicimage sensorto record the image as a set of electronic data rather than as chemical changes on film.An important difference between digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resistsphoto manipulationbecause it involvesfilmandphotographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is", "that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications. Digital photography dominates the 21st century. More than 99% of photographs taken around the world are through digital cameras, increasingly through smartphones. Techniques A large variety of photographic techniques and media are used in the process of capturing images for photography. These include the camera; dualphotography; full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared media; light field photography; and other imaging techniques. Cameras The camera is the image-forming device, and aphotographic plate,photographic filmor asiliconelectronicimage sensoris the capture medium. The respective recording medium can be the plate or film itself, or a digital magnetic or electronic memory. Photographers control the camera and lens to \"expose\" the light recording material to the required amount of light to form a \"latent image\" (on plate or film) orRAW file(in digital cameras) which, after", "which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image.Digital camerasuse an electronic image sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such ascharge-coupled device(CCD) orcomplementary metal–oxide–semiconductor(CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can be reproduced on a paper. The camera (or 'camera obscura') is a dark room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all light is excluded except the light that forms the image. It was discovered and used in the 16th century by painters. The subject being photographed, however, must be illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept dark while the object to be photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was common for reproduction photography of flat copy when large film negatives were used (seeProcess camera). As soon as photographic materials became \"fast\" (sensitive) enough for takingcandidor surreptitious pictures, small \"detective\" cameras", "\"detective\" cameras were made, some actually disguised as a book or handbag or pocket watch (theTickacamera) or even worn hidden behind anAscotnecktie with a tie pin that was really the lens. Themovie camerais a type of photographic camera that takes a rapid sequence of photographs on recording medium. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the movie camera takes a series of images, each called a \"frame\". This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the \"frame rate\" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the illusion of motion. Stereoscopic Photographs, both monochrome and color, can be captured and displayed through two side-by-side images that emulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motion.While known colloquially as \"3-D\" photography, the more", "the more accurate term is stereoscopy. Such cameras have long been realized by using film and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cell phone cameras). Dualphotography Dualphotography consists of photographing a scene from both sides of a photographic device at once (e.g. camera for back-to-back dualphotography, or two networked cameras for portal-plane dualphotography). The dualphoto apparatus can be used to simultaneously capture both the subject and the photographer, or both sides of a geographical place at once, thus adding a supplementary narrative layer to that of a single image. Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared Ultravioletandinfraredfilms have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography have opened a new direction infull spectrum photography, where careful filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared lead to new artistic visions. Modified digital cameras can", "digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infraredhot mirrorfilter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm. Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared pass or a wide spectrally transmitting filter allows the camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the red, green and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red and somewhat lesser the green and blue micro-filters). Uses of full spectrum photography are forfine art photography,geology,forensicsand law enforcement. Layering Layering is a", "Layering is a photographiccompositiontechnique that manipulates the foreground, subject or middle-ground, and background layers in a way that they all work together to tell a story through the image.Layers may be incorporated by altering the focal length, distorting the perspective by positioning the camera in a certain spot.People, movement, light and a variety of objects can be used in layering. Light field Digital methods of image capture and display processing have enabled the new technology of \"light field photography\" (also known as synthetic aperture photography). This process allows focusing at various depths of field to be selectedafterthe photograph has been captured.As explained byMichael Faradayin 1846, the \"light field\" is understood as 5-dimensional, with each point in 3-D space having attributes of two more angles that define the direction of each ray passing through that point. These additional vector attributes can be captured optically through the use ofmicrolensesat each pixel point within", "pixel point within the 2-dimensional image sensor. Every pixel of the final image is actually a selection from each sub-array located under each microlens, as identified by a post-image capture focus algorithm. Other Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, aphotocopyorxerographymachine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of staticelectrical chargesrather than photographic medium, hence the termelectrophotography.Photogramsare images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic paper, without the use of a camera. Objects can also be placed directly on the glass of animage scannerto produce digital pictures. Types Amateur Amateur photographers take photos for personal use, as ahobbyor out of casual interest, rather than as a business or job. The quality of amateur work can be comparable to that of many professionals. Amateurs can fill a gap in subjects or topics that might not otherwise be photographed if they are not commercially", "not commercially useful or salable. Amateur photography grew during the late 19th century due to the popularization of the hand-held camera.Twenty-first centurysocial mediaand near-ubiquitouscamera phoneshave made photographic and video recording pervasive in everyday life. In the mid-2010ssmartphonecameras added numerous automatic assistance features likecolor management,autofocusface detectionandimage stabilizationthat significantly decreased skill and effort needed to take high quality images. Commercial Commercial photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the photographer is paid forimagesrather thanworks of art. In this light, money could be paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. The commercial photographic world could include: Art During the 20th century, bothfine art photographyanddocumentary photographybecame accepted by theEnglish-speakingart world and thegallerysystem. In the United States, a handful of photographers, includingAlfred", "includingAlfred Stieglitz,Edward Steichen,John Szarkowski,F. Holland Day, andEdward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This movement is calledPictorialism, often usingsoft focusfor a dreamy, 'romantic' look. In reaction to that, Weston,Ansel Adams, and others formed theGroup f/64to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph as a (sharply focused) thing in itself and not an imitation of something else. Theaestheticsof photography is a matter that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically art, then photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such as determining what component of a photograph makes itbeautifulto the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images \"written with light\";Nicéphore Niépce,Louis Daguerre, and others among the very", "among the very earliest photographers were met with acclaim, but some questioned if their work met the definitions and purposes of art. Clive Bellin his classic essayArtstates that only \"significant form\" can distinguish art from what is not art. There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our aesthetic emotions? What quality is common to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto's frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Only one answer seems possible – significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, certain forms and relations of forms, stir our aesthetic emotions. On 7 February 2007, Sotheby's London sold the 2001 photograph99 Cent II Diptychonfor an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder, making", "bidder, making it the most expensive at the time. Conceptual photographyturns a concept or idea into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are real objects, the subject is strictly abstract. In parallel to this development, the then largely separate interface between painting and photography was closed in the second half of the 20th century with thechemigramofPierre Cordierand thechemogramofJosef H. Neumann.In 1974 the chemograms by Josef H. Neumann concluded the separation of the painterly background and the photographic layer by showing the picture elements in a symbiosis that had never existed before, as an unmistakable unique specimen, in a simultaneous painterly and at the same time real photographic perspective, using lenses, within a photographic layer, united in colors and shapes. This Neumannchemogramfrom the 1970s thus differs from the beginning of the previously created cameralesschemigramsof aPierre Cordierand thephotogramMan RayorLászló Moholy-Nagyof the previous decades.", "previous decades. These works of art were almost simultaneous with the invention of photography by various important artists who characterizedHippolyte Bayard,Thomas Wedgwood,William Henry Fox Talbotin their early stages, and later Man Ray and László Moholy-Nagy in the twenties and by the painter in the thirtiesEdmund KestingandChristian Schadby draping objects directly onto appropriately sensitized photo paper and using a light source without a camera. Photojournalism Photojournalismis a particular form of photography (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer only to still images, but in some cases the term also refers to video used in broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (e.g.,documentary photography, social documentary photography,street photographyorcelebrity photography) by complying with a rigid ethical", "a rigid ethical framework which demands that the work be both honest and impartial whilst telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be well informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a creative format that is not only informative, but also entertaining, includingsports photography. Science and forensics The camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording scientific phenomena from the first use by Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipsesfor example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (inphotomicroscopy) and formacro photographyof larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recordingcrime scenesand the scenes of accidents, such as theWootton bridge collapsein 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for use in", "for use in legal cases are collectively known asforensic photography. Crime scene photos are usually taken from three vantage points: overview, mid-range, and close-up. In 1845Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of theKew Observatory, invented the first successful camera to make continuous recordings of meteorological and geomagnetic parameters. Different machines produced 12- or 24- hour photographic traces of the minute-by-minute variations ofatmospheric pressure, temperature,humidity,atmospheric electricity, and the three components ofgeomagnetic forces. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century.Charles Brookea little later developed similar instruments for theGreenwich Observatory. Science regularly uses image technology that has derived from the design of thepinhole camerato avoid distortions that can be caused by lenses.X-raymachines are similar in design to pinhole cameras, with high-grade filters and laser", "filters and laser radiation.Photography has become universal in recording events and data in science and engineering, and atcrime scenesor accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such asinfrared photographyandultraviolet photography, as well asspectroscopy. Those methods were first used in theVictorian eraand improved much further since that time. The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith University, Australia. They used an electric field to trap an \"Ion\" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic film. Wildlife photography Wildlife photography involves capturing images of various forms of wildlife. Unlike other forms of photography such as product or food photography, successful wildlife photography requires a photographer to choose the right place and right time when specific wildlife are present and active. It often requires great patience and considerable skill and command of the right", "of the right photographic equipment. Social and cultural implications There are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In herOn Photography(1977),Susan Sontagdismisses the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject within the photographic community.Sontag argues, \"To photograph is to appropriate the thing photographed. It means putting one's self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like power.\"Photographers decide what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reflect a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines, it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation. Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its effect on society. InAlfred Hitchcock'sRear Window(1954), the camera is presented as promoting voyeurism. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the act of photographing is more than passive observing'. The", "observing'. The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may presume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate – all activities that, unlike the sexual push and shove, can be conducted from a distance, and with some detachment. Digital imaging has raised ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post-processing. Manyphotojournalistshave declared they will notcroptheir pictures or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make \"photomontages\", passing them as \"real\" photographs. Today's technology has madeimage editingrelatively simple for even the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allowdigital fingerprintingof photos to detect tampering for purposes offorensic photography. Photography is one of thenew mediaforms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing", "that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and society at large have been raised. Particularly,photos of warandpornographyare causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that \"to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed\". Desensitization discussion goes hand in hand with debates about censored images. Sontag writes of her concern that the ability to censor pictures means the photographer has the ability to construct reality. One of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a \"touristgaze\"in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has also been argued that there exists a \"reverse gaze\"through which indigenous photographees can position the tourist photographer as a shallow consumer of images. Law Photography is both restricted and protected by the law in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically achieved through the granting", "the granting ofcopyrightor moral rights to the photographer. In the United States, photography is protected as aFirst Amendment rightand anyone is free to photograph anything seen in public spaces as long as it is in plain view.In the UK, a recent law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to prevent people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.In South Africa, any person may photograph any other person, without their permission, in public spaces and the only specific restriction placed on what may not be photographed by government is related to anything classed as national security. Each country has different laws. See also References Further reading Introduction History Reference works Other books External links", "Ibn al-Haytham Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham(LatinizedasAlhazen;/ælˈhæzən/; full nameAbū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haythamأبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم;c.965– c.1040) was a medievalmathematician,astronomer, andphysicistof theIslamic Golden Agefrom present-day Iraq.Referred to as \"the father of modern optics\",he made significant contributions to the principles ofopticsandvisual perceptionin particular. His most influential work is titledKitāb al-Manāẓir(Arabic:كتاب المناظر, \"Book of Optics\"), written during 1011–1021, which survived in a Latin edition.The works of Alhazen were frequently cited during the scientific revolution byIsaac Newton,Johannes Kepler,Christiaan Huygens, andGalileo Galilei. Ibn al-Haytham was the first to correctly explain the theory of vision,and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience.He also stated the principle of least time for refraction which would later becomeFermat's principle.He made major", "made major contributions to catoptrics and dioptrics by studying reflection, refraction and nature of images formed by light rays.Ibn al-Haytham was an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be supported by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical reasoning—an early pioneer in thescientific methodfive centuries beforeRenaissance scientists,he is sometimes described as the world's \"first true scientist\".He was also apolymath, writing onphilosophy,theologyandmedicine. Born inBasra, he spent most of his productive period in theFatimidcapital ofCairoand earned his living authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities.Ibn al-Haytham is sometimes given thebynameal-Baṣrīafter his birthplace,oral-Miṣrī(\"the Egyptian\").Al-Haytham was dubbed the \"SecondPtolemy\" byAbu'l-Hasan Bayhaqiand \"The Physicist\" byJohn Peckham.Ibn al-Haytham paved the way for the modern science of physical optics. Biography Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was born c. 965 to a family", "c. 965 to a family ofAraborPersianorigin inBasra,Iraq, which was at the time part of theBuyid emirate. His initial influences were in the study of religion and service to the community. At the time, society had a number of conflicting views of religion that he ultimately sought to step aside from religion. This led to him delving into the study of mathematics and science.He held a position with the title ofvizierin his native Basra, As he claimed to be able to regulate the flooding of the Nile, he was invited by the Fatimid Caliphal-Hakim bi-Amr Allahto the seat of the caliphateCairo, in order to realise a hydraulic project at Aswan. However, Ibn al-Haytham was forced to concede the impracticability of his project. Upon his return to Cairo, he was given an administrative post. After he proved unable to fulfill this task as well, he contracted the ire of the caliphAl-Hakim,and is said to have been forced into hiding until the caliph's death in 1021, after which his confiscated possessions were returned to", "were returned to him.Legend has it that Alhazenfeigned madnessand was kept under house arrest during this period.During this time, he wrote his influentialBook of Optics. Alhazen continued to live in Cairo, in the neighborhood of the famousUniversity of al-Azhar, and lived from the proceeds of his literary productionuntil his death in c. 1040.(A copy ofApollonius'Conics, written in Ibn al-Haytham's own handwriting exists inAya Sofya: (MS Aya Sofya 2762, 307 fob., dated Safar 415 A.H. ).): Note 2 Among his students were Sorkhab (Sohrab), a Persian fromSemnan, andAbu al-Wafa Mubashir ibn Fatek, an Egyptian prince. Book of Optics Alhazen's most famous work is his seven-volume treatise onopticsKitab al-Manazir(Book of Optics), written from 1011 to 1021.In it, Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain that vision occurs when light reflects from an object and then passes to one's eyes,and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience.", "experience. Opticswastranslated into Latinby an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century. This work enjoyed a great reputation during theMiddle Ages. The Latin version ofDe aspectibuswas translated at the end of the 14th century into Italian vernacular, under the titleDe li aspecti. It was printed byFriedrich Risnerin 1572, with the titleOpticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus(English: Treasury of Optics: seven books by the Arab Alhazen, first edition; by the same, on twilight and the height of clouds).Risner is also the author of the name variant \"Alhazen\"; before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen.Works by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in theBibliothèque nationaleinParisin 1834 by E. A. Sedillot. In all, A. Mark Smith has accounted for 18 full or near-complete manuscripts, and five fragments, which are preserved in 14 locations, including one in theBodleian", "one in theBodleian LibraryatOxford, and one in the library ofBruges. Theory of optics Two major theories on vision prevailed inclassical antiquity. The first theory, theemission theory, was supported by such thinkers asEuclidandPtolemy, who believed that sight worked by theeyeemittingraysoflight. The second theory, theintromission theorysupported byAristotleand his followers, had physical forms entering the eye from an object. Previous Islamic writers (such asal-Kindi) had argued essentially on Euclidean, Galenist, or Aristotelian lines. The strongest influence on theBook of Opticswas from Ptolemy'sOptics, while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based on Galen's account.Alhazen's achievement was to come up with a theory that successfully combined parts of the mathematical ray arguments of Euclid, the medical tradition ofGalen, and the intromission theories of Aristotle. Alhazen's intromission theory followed al-Kindi (and broke with Aristotle) in asserting that \"from each point of", "\"from each point of every colored body, illuminated by any light, issue light and color along every straight line that can be drawn from that point\".This left him with the problem of explaining how a coherent image was formed from many independent sources of radiation; in particular, every point of an object would send rays to every point on the eye. What Alhazen needed was for each point on an object to correspond to one point only on the eye.He attempted to resolve this by asserting that the eye would only perceive perpendicular rays from the object—for any one point on the eye, only the ray that reached it directly, without being refracted by any other part of the eye, would be perceived. He argued, using a physical analogy, that perpendicular rays were stronger than oblique rays: in the same way that a ball thrown directly at a board might break the board, whereas a ball thrown obliquely at the board would glance off, perpendicular rays were stronger than refracted rays, and it was only perpendicular", "only perpendicular rays which were perceived by the eye. As there was only one perpendicular ray that would enter the eye at any one point, and all these rays would converge on the centre of the eye in a cone, this allowed him to resolve the problem of each point on an object sending many rays to the eye; if only the perpendicular ray mattered, then he had a one-to-one correspondence and the confusion could be resolved.He later asserted (in book seven of theOptics) that other rays would be refracted through the eye and perceivedas ifperpendicular.His arguments regarding perpendicular rays do not clearly explain whyonlyperpendicular rays were perceived; why would the weaker oblique rays not be perceived more weakly?His later argument that refracted rays would be perceived as if perpendicular does not seem persuasive.However, despite its weaknesses, no other theory of the time was so comprehensive, and it was enormously influential, particularly in Western Europe. Directly or indirectly, hisDe Aspectibus(Book", "Aspectibus(Book of Optics) inspired much activity in optics between the 13th and 17th centuries.Kepler's later theory of theretinalimage (which resolved the problem of the correspondence of points on an object and points in the eye) built directly on the conceptual framework of Alhazen. Alhazen showed through experiment that light travels in straight lines, and carried out various experiments withlenses,mirrors,refraction, andreflection.His analyses of reflection and refraction considered the vertical and horizontal components of light rays separately. Alhazen studied the process of sight, the structure of the eye, image formation in the eye, and thevisual system. Ian P. Howard argued in a 1996Perceptionarticle that Alhazen should be credited with many discoveries and theories previously attributed to Western Europeans writing centuries later. For example, he described what became in the 19th centuryHering's law of equal innervation. He wrote a description of verticalhoropters600 years beforeAguiloniusthat", "is actually closer to the modern definition than Aguilonius's—and his work onbinocular disparitywas repeated by Panum in 1858.Craig Aaen-Stockdale, while agreeing that Alhazen should be credited with many advances, has expressed some caution, especially when considering Alhazen in isolation fromPtolemy, with whom Alhazen was extremely familiar. Alhazen corrected a significant error of Ptolemy regarding binocular vision, but otherwise his account is very similar; Ptolemy also attempted to explain what is now called Hering's law.In general, Alhazen built on and expanded the optics of Ptolemy. In a more detailed account of Ibn al-Haytham's contribution to the study of binocular vision based on Lejeuneand Sabra,Raynaudshowed that the concepts of correspondence, homonymous and crossed diplopia were in place in Ibn al-Haytham's optics. But contrary to Howard, he explained why Ibn al-Haytham did not give the circular figure of the horopter and why, by reasoning experimentally, he was in fact closer to the discovery", "to the discovery of Panum's fusional area than that of the Vieth-Müller circle. In this regard, Ibn al-Haytham's theory of binocular vision faced two main limits: the lack of recognition of the role of the retina, and obviously the lack of an experimental investigation of ocular tracts. Alhazen's most original contribution was that, after describing how he thought the eye was anatomically constructed, he went on to consider how this anatomy would behave functionally as an optical system.His understanding ofpinhole projectionfrom his experiments appears to have influenced his consideration of image inversion in the eye,which he sought to avoid.He maintained that the rays that fell perpendicularly on the lens (or glacial humor as he called it) were further refracted outward as they left the glacial humor and the resulting image thus passed upright into the optic nerve at the back of the eye.He followedGalenin believing that thelenswas the receptive organ of sight, although some of his work hints that he", "work hints that he thought theretinawas also involved. Alhazen's synthesis of light and vision adhered to the Aristotelian scheme, exhaustively describing the process of vision in a logical, complete fashion. His research incatoptrics(the study of optical systems using mirrors) was centred on spherical andparabolicmirrors andspherical aberration. He made the observation that the ratio between theangle of incidenceandrefractiondoes not remain constant, and investigated themagnifyingpower of alens. Law of reflection Alhazen was the first physicist to give complete statement of the law of reflection.He was first to state that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in a same plane perpendicular to reflecting plane. Alhazen's problem His work oncatoptricsin Book V of the Book of Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen's problem, first formulated byPtolemyin 150 AD. It comprises drawing lines from two points in theplaneof a circle meeting at a point on", "at a point on thecircumferenceand making equal angles with thenormalat that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circularbilliard tableat which a player must aim a cue ball at a given point to make it bounce off the table edge and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, \"Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer.\" This leads to anequation of the fourth degree.This eventually led Alhazen to derive a formula for the sum offourth powers, where previously only the formulas for the sums of squares and cubes had been stated. His method can be readily generalized to find the formula for the sum of any integral powers, although he did not himself do this (perhaps because he only needed the fourth power to calculate the volume of the paraboloid he was interested in). He used his result on sums of integral powers to perform what would now", "what would now be called anintegration, where the formulas for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of aparaboloid.Alhazen eventually solved the problem usingconic sectionsand a geometric proof. His solution was extremely long and complicated and may not have been understood by mathematicians reading him in Latin translation. Later mathematicians usedDescartes' analytical methods to analyse the problem.An algebraic solution to the problem was finally found in 1965 by Jack M. Elkin, an actuarian.Other solutions were discovered in 1989, by Harald Riedeand in 1997 by theOxfordmathematicianPeter M. Neumann.Recently,Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories(MERL) researchers solved the extension of Alhazen's problem to general rotationally symmetric quadric mirrors including hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptical mirrors. Camera Obscura Thecamera obscurawas known to theancient Chinese, and was described by theHan ChinesepolymathShen Kuoin his scientific bookDream Pool", "bookDream Pool Essays, published in the year 1088 C.E.Aristotlehad discussed the basic principle behind it in hisProblems, but Alhazen's work contained the first clear description ofcamera obscura.and early analysisof the device. Ibn al-Haytham used acamera obscuramainly to observe a partial solar eclipse.In his essay, Ibn al-Haytham writes that he observed the sickle-like shape of the sun at the time of an eclipse. The introduction reads as follows: \"The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moonsickle.\" It is admitted that his findings solidified the importance in the history of thecamera obscurabut this treatise is important in many other respects. Ancient optics and medieval optics were divided into optics and burning mirrors. Optics proper mainly focused on the study of vision, while burning mirrors focused on the properties of light and", "of light and luminous rays.On the shape of the eclipseis probably one of the first attempts made by Ibn al-Haytham to articulate these two sciences. Very often Ibn al-Haytham's discoveries benefited from the intersection of mathematical and experimental contributions. This is the case withOn the shape of the eclipse. Besides the fact that this treatise allowed more people to study partial eclipses of the sun, it especially allowed to better understand how the camera obscura works. This treatise is a physico-mathematical study of image formation inside the camera obscura. Ibn al-Haytham takes an experimental approach, and determines the result by varying the size and the shape of the aperture, the focal length of the camera, the shape and intensity of the light source. In his work he explains the inversion of the image in the camera obscura,the fact that the image is similar to the source when the hole is small, but also the fact that the image can differ from the source when the hole is large. All these", "is large. All these results are produced by using a point analysis of the image. Refractometer In the seventh tract of his book of optics, Alhazen described an apparatus for experimenting with various cases of refraction, in order to investigate the relations between the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction and the angle of deflection. This apparatus was a modified version of an apparatus used by Ptolemy for similar purpose. Unconscious inference Alhazen basically states the concept of unconscious inference in his discussion of colour before adding that the inferential step between sensing colour and differentiating it is shorter than the time taken between sensing and any other visible characteristic (aside from light), and that \"time is so short as not to be clearly apparent to the beholder.\" Naturally, this suggests that the colour and form are perceived elsewhere. Alhazen goes on to say that information must travel to the central nerve cavity for processing and: the sentient organ does not sense", "does not sense the forms that reach it from the visible objects until after it has been affected by these forms; thus it does not sense color as color or light as light until after it has been affected by the form of color or light. Now the affectation received by the sentient organ from the form of color or of light is a certain change; and change must take place in time; .....and it is in the time during which the form extends from the sentient organ's surface to the cavity of the common nerve, and in (the time) following that, that the sensitive faculty, which exists in the whole of the sentient body will perceive color as color...Thus the last sentient's perception of color as such and of light as such takes place at a time following that in which the form arrives from the surface of the sentient organ to the cavity of the common nerve. Color constancy Alhazen explainedcolor constancyby observing that the light reflected from an object is modified by the object's color. He explained that the quality of", "that the quality of the light and the color of the object are mixed, and the visual system separates light and color. In Book II, Chapter 3 he writes: Again the light does not travel from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the color, nor does the form of the color pass from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the light. Neither the form of the light nor that of the color existing in the colored object can pass except as mingled together and the last sentient can only perceive them as mingled together. Nevertheless, the sentient perceives that the visible object is luminous and that the light seen in the object is other than the color and that these are two properties. Other contributions TheKitab al-Manazir(Book of Optics) describes several experimental observations that Alhazen made and how he used his results to explain certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies. He conducted experiments withprojectilesand concluded that only the impact ofperpendicularprojectiles on", "on surfaces was forceful enough to make them penetrate, whereas surfaces tended to deflectobliqueprojectile strikes. For example, to explain refraction from a rare to a dense medium, he used the mechanical analogy of an iron ball thrown at a thin slate covering a wide hole in a metal sheet. A perpendicular throw breaks the slate and passes through, whereas an oblique one with equal force and from an equal distance does not.He also used this result to explain how intense, direct light hurts the eye, using a mechanical analogy: Alhazen associated 'strong' lights with perpendicular rays and 'weak' lights with oblique ones. The obvious answer to the problem of multiple rays and the eye was in the choice of the perpendicular ray, since only one such ray from each point on the surface of the object could penetrate the eye. Sudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be considered the founder ofexperimental psychology, for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception andoptical", "andoptical illusions.Khaleefa has also argued that Alhazen should also be considered the \"founder ofpsychophysics\", a sub-discipline and precursor to modern psychology.Although Alhazen made many subjective reports regarding vision, there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and the claim has been rebuffed. Alhazen offered an explanation of theMoon illusion, an illusion that played an important role in the scientific tradition of medieval Europe.Many authors repeated explanations that attempted to solve the problem of the Moon appearing larger near the horizon than it does when higher up in the sky. Alhazen argued against Ptolemy's refraction theory, and defined the problem in terms of perceived, rather than real, enlargement. He said that judging the distance of an object depends on there being an uninterrupted sequence of intervening bodies between the object and the observer. When the Moon is high in the sky there are no intervening objects, so the Moon appears close. The", "appears close. The perceived size of an object of constant angular size varies with its perceived distance. Therefore, the Moon appears closer and smaller high in the sky, and further and larger on the horizon. Through works byRoger Bacon,John Pechamand Witelo based on Alhazen's explanation, the Moon illusion gradually came to be accepted as a psychological phenomenon, with the refraction theory being rejected in the 17th century.Although Alhazen is often credited with the perceived distance explanation, he was not the first author to offer it.Cleomedes(c.2nd century) gave this account (in addition to refraction), and he credited it toPosidonius(c.135–50 BCE).Ptolemy may also have offered this explanation in hisOptics, but the text is obscure.Alhazen's writings were more widely available in the Middle Ages than those of these earlier authors, and that probably explains why Alhazen received the credit. Scientific method Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients", "of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. The duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and ... attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. An aspect associated with Alhazen's optical research is related to systemic and methodological reliance on experimentation (i'tibar)(Arabic: اختبار) andcontrolled testingin his scientific inquiries. Moreover, his experimental directives rested on combining classical physics (ilm tabi'i) with mathematics (ta'alim; geometry in particular). This", "particular). This mathematical-physical approach to experimental science supported most of his propositions inKitab al-Manazir(The Optics;De aspectibusorPerspectivae)and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics anddioptrics(the study of the reflection and refraction of light, respectively). According to Matthias Schramm,Alhazen \"was the first to make a systematic use of the method of varying the experimental conditions in a constant and uniform manner, in an experiment showing that the intensity of the light-spot formed by the projection of themoonlightthrough two smallaperturesonto a screen diminishes constantly as one of the apertures is gradually blocked up.\"G. J. Toomer expressed some skepticism regarding Schramm's view,partly because at the time (1964) theBook of Opticshad not yet been fully translated from Arabic, and Toomer was concerned that without context, specific passages might be read anachronistically. While acknowledging Alhazen's importance in", "importance in developing experimental techniques, Toomer argued that Alhazen should not be considered in isolation from other Islamic and ancient thinkers.Toomer concluded his review by saying that it would not be possible to assess Schramm's claim that Ibn al-Haytham was the true founder of modern physics without translating more of Alhazen's work and fully investigating his influence on later medieval writers. Other works on physics Optical treatises Besides theBook of Optics, Alhazen wrote several other treatises on the same subject, including hisRisala fi l-Daw'(Treatise on Light). He investigated the properties ofluminance, therainbow,eclipses,twilight, andmoonlight. Experiments with mirrors and the refractive interfaces between air, water, and glass cubes, hemispheres, and quarter-spheres provided the foundation for his theories oncatoptrics. Celestial physics Alhazen discussed thephysicsof the celestial region in hisEpitome of Astronomy, arguing that Ptolemaic models must be understood in terms of", "in terms of physical objects rather than abstract hypotheses—in other words that it should be possible to create physical models where (for example) none of the celestial bodies would collide with each other. The suggestion of mechanical models for the Earth centredPtolemaic model\"greatly contributed to the eventual triumph of the Ptolemaic system among the Christians of the West\". Alhazen's determination to root astronomy in the realm of physical objects was important, however, because it meant astronomical hypotheses \"were accountable to thelaws of physics\", and could be criticised and improved upon in those terms. He also wroteMaqala fi daw al-qamar(On the Light of the Moon). Mechanics In his work, Alhazen discussed theories on themotionof a body. Astronomical works On the Configuration of the World In hisOn the Configuration of the WorldAlhazen presented a detailed description of the physical structure of the earth: The earth as a whole is a round sphere whose center is the center of the world. It is", "of the world. It is stationary in its middle, fixed in it and not moving in any direction nor moving with any of the varieties of motion, but always at rest. The book is a non-technical explanation of Ptolemy'sAlmagest, which was eventually translated intoHebrewandLatinin the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently had an influence on astronomers such asGeorg von Peuerbachduring the EuropeanMiddle AgesandRenaissance. Doubts Concerning Ptolemy In hisAl-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs, variously translated asDoubts Concerning PtolemyorAporias against Ptolemy, published at some time between 1025 and 1028, Alhazen criticizedPtolemy'sAlmagest,Planetary Hypotheses, andOptics, pointing out various contradictions he found in these works, particularly in astronomy. Ptolemy'sAlmagestconcerned mathematical theories regarding the motion of the planets, whereas theHypothesesconcerned what Ptolemy thought was the actual configuration of the planets. Ptolemy himself acknowledged that his theories and configurations did not always", "did not always agree with each other, arguing that this was not a problem provided it did not result in noticeable error, but Alhazen was particularly scathing in his criticism of the inherent contradictions in Ptolemy's works.He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy, especially theequant, failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion, and noted the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles: Ptolemy assumed an arrangement (hay'a) that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist... or a man to imagine a circle in the heavens, and to imagine the planet moving in it does not bring about the planet's motion. Having pointed out the problems,", "out the problems, Alhazen appears to have intended to resolve the contradictions he pointed out in Ptolemy in a later work. Alhazen believed there was a \"true configuration\" of the planets that Ptolemy had failed to grasp. He intended to complete and repair Ptolemy's system, not to replace it completely.In theDoubts Concerning PtolemyAlhazen set out his views on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge and the need to question existing authorities and theories: Truth is sought for itself the truths, are immersed in uncertainties not immune from error... He held that the criticism of existing theories—which dominated this book—holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge. Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets Alhazen'sThe Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planetswas writtenc.1038. Only one damaged manuscript has been found, with only the introduction and the first section, on the theory of planetary motion, surviving. (There was also a second section on", "a second section on astronomical calculation, and a third section, on astronomical instruments.) Following on from hisDoubts on Ptolemy, Alhazen described a new, geometry-based planetary model, describing the motions of the planets in terms of spherical geometry, infinitesimal geometry and trigonometry. He kept a geocentric universe and assumed that celestial motions are uniformly circular, which required the inclusion ofepicyclesto explain observed motion, but he managed to eliminate Ptolemy'sequant. In general, his model didn't try to provide a causal explanation of the motions, but concentrated on providing a complete, geometric description that could explain observed motions without the contradictions inherent in Ptolemy's model. Other astronomical works Alhazen wrote a total of twenty-five astronomical works, some concerning technical issues such asExact Determination of the Meridian, a second group concerning accurate astronomical observation, a third group concerning various astronomical problems and", "problems and questions such as the location of theMilky Way; Alhazen made the first systematic effort of evaluating the Milky Way's parallax, combining Ptolemy's data and his own. He concluded that the parallax is (probably very much) smaller than Lunar parallax, and the Milky way should be a celestial object. Though he was not the first who argued that the Milky Way does not belong to the atmosphere, he is the first who did quantitative analysis for the claim.The fourth group consists of ten works on astronomical theory, including theDoubtsandModel of the Motionsdiscussed above. Mathematical works Inmathematics, Alhazen built on the mathematical works ofEuclidandThabit ibn Qurraand worked on \"the beginnings of the link betweenalgebraandgeometry\". Alhazen made developments inconic sectionsand number theory. He developed a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula. Geometry Alhazen explored what is now known as theEuclideanparallel postulate, the", "postulate, the fifthpostulateinEuclid'sElements, using aproof by contradiction,and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geometry.He formulated theLambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the \"Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral\".He was criticised by Omar Khayyam who pointed that Aristotle had condemned the use ofmotion in geometry. In elementary geometry, Alhazen attempted to solve the problem ofsquaring the circleusing the area oflunes(crescent shapes), but later gave up on the impossible task.The two lunes formed from aright triangleby erecting a semicircle on each of the triangle's sides, inward for the hypotenuse and outward for the other two sides, are known as thelunes of Alhazen; they have the same total area as the triangle itself. Number theory Alhazen's contributions tonumber theoryinclude his work onperfect numbers. In hisAnalysis and Synthesis, he may have been the first to state that every even perfect number is of the form 2n−1(2n− 1) where 2n− 1 isprime, but", "2n− 1 isprime, but he was not able to prove this result;Eulerlater proved it in the 18th century, and it is now called theEuclid–Euler theorem. Alhazen solved problems involvingcongruencesusing what is now calledWilson's theorem. In hisOpuscula, Alhazen considers the solution of a system of congruences, and gives two general methods of solution. His first method, the canonical method, involved Wilson's theorem, while his second method involved a version of theChinese remainder theorem. Calculus Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of aparaboloid. He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula. Other works Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals Alhazen also wrote aTreatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals, although no copies have survived. It appears to have been concerned with the question of", "the question of whether animals could react to music, for example whether a camel would increase or decrease its pace. Engineering Inengineering, one account of his career as acivil engineerhas him summoned to Egypt by the FatimidCaliph,Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, to regulate thefloodingof theNileRiver. He carried out a detailed scientific study of the annualinundationof the Nile River, and he drew plans for building adam, at the site of the modern-dayAswan Dam. His field work, however, later made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and he soonfeigned madnessso he could avoid punishment from the Caliph. Philosophy In hisTreatise on Place, Alhazen disagreed withAristotle's view that nature abhors avoid, and he usedgeometryin an attempt to demonstrate that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body.Abd-el-latif, a supporter of Aristotle's philosophical view of place, later criticized the work inFi al-Radd 'ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan(A", "fi al-makan(A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham's place) for its geometrization of place. Alhazen also discussedspace perceptionand itsepistemologicalimplications in hisBook of Optics. In \"tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhazen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things.\" Theology Alhazen was a Muslim and most sources report that he was a Sunni and a follower of theAsh'arischool.Ziauddin Sardarsays that some of the greatestMuslim scientists, such as Ibn al-Haytham andAbū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, who were pioneers of thescientific method, were themselves followers of the Ashʿari school of Islamic theology.Like other Ashʿarites who believed that faith ortaqlidshould apply only to Islam and not to any ancientHellenisticauthorities,Ibn al-Haytham's view thattaqlidshould apply only toprophets of Islamand not to any", "Islamand not to any other authorities formed the basis for much of hisscientific skepticismand criticism againstPtolemyand other ancient authorities in hisDoubts Concerning PtolemyandBook of Optics. Alhazen wrote a work on Islamic theology in which he discussed prophethood and developed a system of philosophical criteria to discern its false claimants in his time.He also wrote a treatise entitledFinding the Direction of Qibla by Calculationin which he discussed finding theQibla, where prayers (salat) are directed towards, mathematically. There are occasional references to theology or religious sentiment in his technical works, e.g. inDoubts Concerning Ptolemy: Truth is sought for its own sake ... Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough. For the truths are plunged in obscurity. ... God, however, has not preserved the scientist from error and has not safeguarded science from shortcomings and faults. If this had been the case, scientists would not have disagreed upon any point of science...", "point of science... InThe Winding Motion: From the statements made by the noble Shaykh, it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy's words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences. Regarding the relation of objective truth and God: I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge. Legacy Alhazen made significant contributions to optics, number theory, geometry, astronomy and natural philosophy. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment. His main work,Kitab al-Manazir(Book of Optics), was known in theMuslim worldmainly, but not exclusively, through", "through the thirteenth-century commentary byKamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī, theTanqīḥal-Manāẓirli-dhawī l-abṣār wa l-baṣā'ir.Inal-Andalus, it was used by the eleventh-century prince of theBanu Hud dynastyofZaragossaand author of an important mathematical text,al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd. A Latin translation of theKitab al-Manazirwas made probably in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century.This translation was read by and greatly influenced a number of scholars in Christian Europe including:Roger Bacon,Robert Grosseteste,Witelo,Giambattista della Porta,Leonardo da Vinci,Galileo Galilei,Christiaan Huygens,René Descartes,andJohannes Kepler.Meanwhile, in the Islamic world, Alhazen's work influencedAverroes' writings on optics,and his legacy was further advanced through the 'reforming' of hisOpticsby Persian scientistKamal al-Din al-Farisi(died c. 1320) in the latter'sKitab Tanqih al-Manazir(The Revision ofOptics).Alhazen wrote as many as 200 books, although only 55 have survived. Some of his treatises on optics survived", "on optics survived only through Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books oncosmologywere translated into Latin,Hebrewand other languages. H. J. J. Winter, a British historian of science, summing up the importance of Ibn al-Haytham in the history ofphysicswrote: After the death of Archimedes no really great physicist appeared until Ibn al-Haytham. If, therefore, we confine our interest only to the history of physics, there is a long period of over twelve hundred years during which the Golden Age of Greece gave way to the era of Muslim Scholasticism, and the experimental spirit of the noblest physicist of Antiquity lived again in the Arab Scholar from Basra. Although only one commentary on Alhazen's optics has survived the Islamic Middle Ages,Geoffrey Chaucermentions the work inThe Canterbury Tales: \"They spoke of Alhazen and Vitello,And Aristotle, who wrote, in their lives,On strange mirrors and optical instruments.\" Theimpact craterAlhazenon the Moon is named in his honour,as was theasteroid59239", "theasteroid59239 Alhazen.In honour of Alhazen, theAga Khan University(Pakistan) named its Ophthalmology endowed chair as \"The Ibn-e-Haitham Associate Professor and Chief of Ophthalmology\". The 2015International Year of Lightcelebrated the 1000th anniversary of the works on optics by Ibn Al-Haytham. In 2014, the \"Hiding in the Light\" episode ofCosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, presented byNeil deGrasse Tyson, focused on the accomplishments of Ibn al-Haytham. He was voiced byAlfred Molinain the episode. Over forty years previously,Jacob Bronowskipresented Alhazen's work in a similar television documentary (and the corresponding book),The Ascent of Man. In episode 5 (The Music of the Spheres), Bronowski remarked that in his view, Alhazen was \"the one really original scientific mind that Arab culture produced\", whose theory of optics was not improved on till the time of Newton and Leibniz. UNESCOdeclared 2015 theInternational Year of Lightand its Director-General Irina Bokova dubbed Ibn al-Haytham 'the father of", "'the father of optics'.Amongst others, this was to celebrate Ibn Al-Haytham's achievements in optics, mathematics and astronomy. An international campaign, created by the1001 Inventionsorganisation, titled1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haythamfeaturing a series of interactive exhibits, workshops and live shows about his work, partnering with science centers, science festivals, museums, and educational institutions, as well as digital and social media platforms.The campaign also produced and released the short educational film1001 Inventions and the World of Ibn Al-Haytham. Ibn al-Haytham appears on the 10,000 dinar banknote of theIraqi dinar, series 2003. List of works According to medieval biographers, Alhazen wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects, of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of", "and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other subjects.Not all his surviving works have yet been studied, but some of the ones that have are given below. Lost works See also Notes References Sources Further reading Primary Secondary External links" ]
What was the word that featured the least in the longest recorded quotation by the chimpanzee named after the recipient of the 2011 Sydney Peace Prize?
You
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Peace_Prize
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky#In_academia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nim_Chimpsky#Quotations
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Peace_Prize', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky#In_academia', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nim_Chimpsky#Quotations']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Peace_Prize", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky#In_academia", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nim_Chimpsky#Quotations" ]
[ "Sydney Peace Prize TheSydney Peace Prizeis awarded by theSydney Peace Foundation,a non profit organisation associated with theUniversity of Sydney. The prize promotes peace with justice and the practice of nonviolence. It aims to encourage public interest and discussion about issues of peace,social justice, human rights, and non-violent conflict resolution. Support TheCity of Sydneyis a major supporter of the Sydney Peace Prize. This involves a significant financial contribution along with other in-kind support in order to foster peace with justice. The prize Over three months each year, the Sydney Peace Prize jury – comprising seven individuals who represent corporate, media, academic and community sector interests – assesses the merits of the nominees' efforts to promote peace with justice. It is awarded to an organisation or individual: Considerations The jury has been prepared to make some controversial choices. Sydney Peace Foundation Founder, Emeritus ProfessorStuart Rees, said, \"The initiators of the Sydney Peace Prize aimed to influence public interest in peace with justice, an ideal which is often perceived as controversial. The choice of a non-controversial candidate for a peace prize would be a safe option but unlikely to prompt debate or to increase understanding. Consensus usually encourages compliance, often anaesthetises and seldom informs.\" Prize winners Gold medal for Peace with Justice The foundation also occasionally awards a special gold medal for significant contributions to peace and justice. Winners of the gold medal includeSouth AfricanstatesmanNelson Mandela, 14thDalai LamaTenzin Gyatso, JapaneseBuddhistleaderDaisaku Ikeda,WikiLeakspublisherJulian Assange,Costa RicanChristina Figueresand Australian bandMidnight Oil. Notes External links", "Noam Chomsky Active Defunct Publications Works Avram Noam Chomsky(/noʊmˈtʃɒmski/ⓘnohmCHOM-skee; born December 7, 1928) is an American professor andpublic intellectualknown for his work inlinguistics,political activism, andsocial criticism. Sometimes called \"the father of modern linguistics\",Chomsky is also a major figure inanalytic philosophyand one of the founders of the field ofcognitive science. He is a laureate professor of linguistics at theUniversity of Arizonaand aninstitute professoremeritus at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT). Among the most cited living authors, Chomsky has written more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, and politics. In addition to his work in linguistics, since the 1960s Chomsky has been an influential voice on theAmerican leftas a consistent critic ofU.S. foreign policy,contemporary capitalism, andcorporate influenceon political institutions and the media. Born toAshkenazi Jewishimmigrants inPhiladelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest inanarchismfrom alternative bookstores inNew York City. He studied at theUniversity of Pennsylvania. During his postgraduate work in theHarvard Society of Fellows, Chomsky developed the theory oftransformational grammarfor which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark workSyntactic Structures, which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was aNational Science Foundationfellow at theInstitute for Advanced Study. He created or co-created theuniversal grammartheory, thegenerative grammartheory, theChomsky hierarchy, and theminimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguisticbehaviorism, and was particularly critical of the work ofB. F. Skinner. An outspokenopponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which he saw as an act ofAmerican imperialism, in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for hisanti-waressay \"The Responsibility of Intellectuals\". Becoming associated with theNew Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on PresidentRichard Nixon'slist of political opponents. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in thelinguistics wars. In collaboration withEdward S. Herman, Chomsky later articulated thepropaganda modelofmedia criticisminManufacturing Consent, and worked to expose theIndonesian occupation of East Timor. His defense of unconditionalfreedom of speech, including that ofHolocaust denial, generated significant controversy in theFaurisson affairof the 1980s. Chomsky's commentary on theCambodian genocideand theBosnian genocidealso generated controversy. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the2003 invasion of Iraqand supporting theOccupy movement. Ananti-Zionist, Chomsky considersIsrael's treatment of Palestiniansto be worse thanSouth African–style apartheid,and criticizes U.S. support for Israel. Chomsky is widely recognized as having helped to spark thecognitive revolutionin thehuman sciences, contributing to the development of a newcognitivisticframework for the study of language and the mind. Chomsky remains a leading critic ofU.S. foreign policy, contemporarycapitalism, U.S. involvement and Israel's role in theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict, andmass media. Chomsky and his ideas are highly influential in theanti-capitalistandanti-imperialistmovements. Since 2017, he has been Agnese Nelms Haury Chair in the Agnese Nelms Haury Program in Environment and Social Justice at theUniversity of Arizona. Life Childhood: 1928–1945 Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in theEast Oak Laneneighborhood ofPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.His parents,William Chomskyand Elsie Simonofsky, wereJewishimmigrants.William had fled theRussian Empirein 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimoresweatshopsand Hebrew elementary schools before attending university.After moving to Philadelphia, William became principal of theCongregation Mikveh Israelreligious school and joined theGratz Collegefaculty. He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be \"well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, concerned about improving and enhancing the world, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all\", a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son.Elsie, who also taught at Mikveh Israel, shared her leftist politics and care for social issues with her sons. Noam's only sibling, David Eli Chomsky (1934–2021), was born five years later, and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia.The brothers were close, though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive. They were raised Jewish, being taughtHebrewand regularly involved with discussing the political theories ofZionism; the family was particularly influenced by theLeft Zionistwritings ofAhad Ha'am.He facedantisemitismas a child, particularly from Philadelphia's Irish and German communities. Chomsky attended the independent,DeweyiteOak Lane Country Day Schooland Philadelphia'sCentral High School, where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies, but was troubled by the school's hierarchical and domineering teaching methods.He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College, where his father taught. Chomsky has described his parents as \"normalRoosevelt Democrats\" withcenter-left politics, but relatives involved in theInternational Ladies' Garment Workers' Unionexposed him tosocialismandfar-left politics.He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs.Chomsky himself often visited left-wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city, voraciously reading political literature.He became absorbed in the story of the 1939fall of Barcelonaand suppression of theSpanish anarchosyndicalistmovement, writing his first article on the topic at the age of 10.That he came to identify with anarchism first rather than another leftist movement, he described as a \"lucky accident\".Chomsky was firmlyanti-Bolshevikby his early teens. University: 1945–1955 In 1945, at the age of 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at theUniversity of Pennsylvania, where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learningArabic.Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew.Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to akibbutzinMandatory Palestine,but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the linguistZellig Harris, whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject.Chomsky'sBAhonors thesis, \"Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew\", applied Harris's methods to the language.Chomsky revised this thesis for hisMA, which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book.He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage ofNelson Goodman. From 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was a member of theSociety of FellowsatHarvard University, where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation.Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply,Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopherWillard Van Orman Quinewas based there. Both Quine and a visiting philosopher,J. L. Austinof theUniversity of Oxford, strongly influenced Chomsky.In 1952, Chomsky published his first academic article inThe Journal of Symbolic Logic.Highly critical of the establishedbehavioristcurrents in linguistics, in 1954, he presented his ideas at lectures at theUniversity of ChicagoandYale University.He had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas ontransformational grammar; he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it, and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part ofThe Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory.Harvard professorGeorge Armitage Millerwas impressed by Chomsky's thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers inmathematical linguistics.Chomsky's doctorate exempted him fromcompulsory military service, which was otherwise due to begin in 1955. In 1947, Chomsky began a romantic relationship withCarol Doris Schatz, whom he had known since early childhood. They married in 1949.After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to theAllstonarea of Boston and remained there until 1965, when they relocated to the suburb ofLexington.The couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe in 1953.He enjoyed living inHashomer Hatzair'sHaZore'akibbutzwhile in Israel, but was appalled by his interactions with Jewish nationalism,anti-Arab racismand, within the kibbutz's leftist community,Stalinism.On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journalFraye Arbeter Shtimeand became enamored with the ideas ofRudolf Rocker, a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link betweenanarchismandclassical liberalism.Chomsky also read other political thinkers: the anarchistsMikhail BakuninandDiego Abad de Santillán, democratic socialistsGeorge Orwell,Bertrand Russell, andDwight Macdonald, and works by MarxistsKarl Liebknecht,Karl Korsch, andRosa Luxemburg.His politics were reaffirmed by Orwell's depiction ofBarcelona's functioning anarchist society inHomage to Catalonia(1938).Chomsky read the leftist journalPolitics, which furthered his interest in anarchism,and thecouncil communistperiodicalLiving Marxism, though he rejected the Marxist orthodoxy of its editor,Paul Mattick. Early career: 1955–1966 Chomsky befriended two linguists at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT)—Morris HalleandRoman Jakobson—the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955. At MIT, Chomsky spent half his time on amechanical translationproject and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy.He described MIT as open to experimentation where he was free to pursue his idiosyncratic interests.MIT promoted him to the position ofassociate professorin 1957, and over the next year he was also a visiting professor atColumbia University.The Chomskys had their first child,Aviva, that same year.He also published his first book on linguistics,Syntactic Structures, a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris–Bloomfieldtrend in the field.Responses to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused \"significant upheaval\" in the discipline.The linguistJohn Lyonslater asserted thatSyntactic Structures\"revolutionized the scientific study of language\".From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was aNational Science Foundationfellow at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey. Chomsky's provocative critique ofB. F. Skinner, who viewed language as learned behavior, and its challenge to the dominant behaviorist paradigm thrust Chomsky into the limelight. Chomsky argued that behaviorism underplayed the role of human creativity in learning language and overplayed the role of external conditions in influencing verbal behavior.He proceeded to found MIT's graduate program in linguistics with Halle. In 1961, Chomskyreceived tenureand became afull professorin the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics.He was appointed plenary speaker at the NinthInternational Congress of Linguists, held in 1962 inCambridge, Massachusetts, which established him as thede factospokesperson of American linguistics.Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military-sponsored project to teach computers to understand natural English commands from military generals. Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including inAspects of the Theory of Syntax(1965),Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar(1966), andCartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought(1966).Along with Halle, he also edited theStudies in Languageseries of books forHarper and Row.As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work, Chomsky lectured at theUniversity of California, Berkeley, in 1966.These lectures were published asLanguage and Mindin 1968.In the late 1960s, a high-profile intellectual rift later known as thelinguistic warsdeveloped between Chomsky and some of his colleagues and doctoral students—includingPaul Postal,John Ross,George Lakoff, andJames D. McCawley—who contended that Chomsky's syntax-based, interpretivist linguistics did not properly account for semantic context (general semantics). A post hoc assessment of this period concluded that the opposing programs ultimately were complementary, each informing the other. Anti-war activism and dissent: 1967–1975 t does not require very far-reaching, specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam. And, in fact, to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding. It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one's analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise. —Chomsky on the Vietnam War Chomsky joinedprotests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam Warin 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes.His 1967 critique of U.S. involvement, \"The Responsibility of Intellectuals\", among other contributions toThe New York Review of Books, debuted Chomsky as a public dissident.This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky's first political book,American Power and the New Mandarins.He followed this with further political books, includingAt War with Asia(1970),The Backroom Boys(1973),For Reasons of State(1973), andPeace in the Middle East?(1974), published byPantheon Books.These publications led to Chomsky's association with the AmericanNew Leftmovement,though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectualsHerbert MarcuseandErich Frommand preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals.Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period. Chomsky also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students whorefused the draft, and was arrested while participating in ananti-warteach-inoutside the Pentagon.During this time, Chomsky co-founded the anti-war collectiveRESISTwithMitchell Goodman,Denise Levertov,William Sloane Coffin, andDwight Macdonald.Although he questioned the objectives of the1968 student protests,Chomsky regularly gave lectures to student activist groups and, with his colleague Louis Kampf, ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative-dominatedpolitical sciencedepartment.When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT, Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT's oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense.Chomsky has acknowledged that his MIT lab's funding at this time came from the military.He later said he considered resigning from MIT during the Vietnam War.There has since been a wide-ranging debate about what effects Chomsky's employment at MIT had on his political and linguistic ideas. Chomsky's anti-war activism led to his arrest on multiple occasions and he was on PresidentRichard Nixon's master list of political opponents.Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience, and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or joblessness.Chomsky's scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs.In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam'sHanoi University of Science and Technologyand toured war refugee camps inLaos. In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of theWar Resisters League. Chomsky's work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as hereceived multiple honorary doctorates.He deliveredpublic lecturesat theUniversity of Cambridge,Columbia University(Woodbridge Lectures), andStanford University.His appearance in a1971 debatewith Frenchcontinental philosopherMichel Foucaultpositioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead ofanalytic philosophy.He continued to publish extensively on linguistics, producingStudies on Semantics in Generative Grammar(1972),an enlarged edition ofLanguage and Mind(1972),andReflections on Language(1975).In 1974 Chomsky became acorresponding fellow of the British Academy. Edward S. Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980 In the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory.His political talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military.In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating withEdward S. Herman, who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam.Together they wroteCounter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, a book that criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media's failure to cover it. Warner Modular published it in 1973, butits parent companydisapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies destroyed. While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support fromMichael Albert'sSouth End Press, an activist-oriented publishing company.In 1979, South End published Chomsky and Herman's revisedCounter-Revolutionary Violenceas the two-volumeThe Political Economy of Human Rights,which compares U.S. media reactions to theCambodian genocideand theIndonesian occupation of East Timor. It argues that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy.Chomsky's response included two testimonials before the United Nations'Special Committee on Decolonization, successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation, and meetings with refugees inLisbon.Marxist academicSteven Lukesmost prominently publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leaderPol Pot.Herman said that the controversy \"imposed a serious personal cost\" on Chomsky,who considered the personal criticism less important than the evidence that \"mainstream intelligentsia suppressed or justified the crimes of their own states\". Chomsky had long publicly criticizedNazism, andtotalitarianismmore generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historianRobert Faurissonto advocate a position widely characterized asHolocaust denial. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 bookMémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire.Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson,and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations.Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologistWerner Cohnlater published an analysis of the affair titledPartners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers.The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career,especially in France. Critique of propaganda and international affairs In 1985, during theNicaraguan Contra War—in which the U.S. supported thecontra militiaagainst theSandinistagovernment—Chomsky traveled toManaguato meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics.Many of these lectures were published in 1987 asOn Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures.In 1983 he publishedThe Fateful Triangle, which argued that the U.S. had continually used theIsraeli–Palestinian conflictfor its own ends.In 1988, Chomsky visited thePalestinian territoriesto witness the impact of Israeli occupation. Chomsky and Herman'sManufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media(1988) outlines theirpropaganda modelfor understanding mainstream media. Even in countries without official censorship, they argued, the news is censored through five filters that greatly influence both what and how news is presented.The book receiveda 1992 film adaptation.In 1989, Chomsky publishedNecessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies,in which he suggests that a worthwhile democracy requires that its citizens undertake intellectual self-defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them.By the 1980s, Chomsky's students had become prominent linguists who, in turn, expanded and revised his linguistic theories. In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before.Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance.The lectures he gave on the subject were published asPowers and Prospectsin 1996.As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalistJohn Pilger.After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999, the Australian-ledInternational Force for East Timorarrived as a peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under theTimor Gap Treaty. Chomsky was widely interviewed after theSeptember 11 attacksin 2001 as the American public attempted to make sense of the attacks.He argued that the ensuingWar on Terrorwas not a new development but a continuation of U.S. foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era.He gave theD.T. LakdawalaMemorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001,and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists.Chomsky's 2003Hegemony or Survivalarticulated what he called the United States' \"imperialgrand strategy\" and critiqued theIraq Warand other aspects of the War on Terror.Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period. During the2014 Scottish independence referendum, Chomsky supported Scottish independence. Retirement Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002,but continued to conduct research and seminars on campus as anemeritus.That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being aco-defendantand amid international media attention, theSecurity Courtsdropped the charge on the first day.During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds' human rights.A supporter of theWorld Social Forum, he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India. Chomsky supported the 2011Occupy movement, speaking at encampments and publishing on the movement, which he called a reaction to a 30-yearclass war.The 2015 documentaryRequiem for the American Dreamsummarizes his views on capitalism andeconomic inequalitythrough a \"75-minuteteach-in\". In 2015 Chomsky and his wife purchased a residence inSão Paulo,Brazil, and began splitting their time between Brazil and the U.S. Chomsky taught a short-term politics course at theUniversity of Arizonain 2017and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, his duties including teaching and public seminars.His salary was covered by philanthropic donations. After astrokein June 2023, Chomsky moved to Brazil full-time;this was not publicly reported until June 2024. Linguistic theory What started as purely linguistic research ... has led, through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition, to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man. The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory ... The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans (species specific), leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes. —Edward Marcotteon the significance of Chomsky's linguistic theory The basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies inbiolinguistics, the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited.He argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences.In adopting this position Chomsky rejects theradical behavioristpsychology ofB. F. Skinner, who viewed speech, thought, and all behavior as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species.Chomsky argues that hisnativist, internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of \"rationalism\" and contrasts with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of \"empiricism\",which contends that all knowledge, including language, comes from external stimuli.Historians have disputed Chomsky's claim about rationalism on the basis that his theory of innate grammar excludespropositional knowledgeand instead focuses on innate learning capacities or structures. Universal grammar Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of theirnative languages. He bases his argument on observations about humanlanguage acquisitionand describes a \"poverty of the stimulus\": an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the richlinguistic competencethey attain. For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowablesyntactic variantswithin their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and producean infinite number of sentences, including ones that have never before been uttered, in that language.To explain this, Chomsky proposed that the primary linguistic data must be supplemented by aninnate linguistic capacity. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable ofinductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky referred to this difference in capacity as thelanguage acquisition device, and suggested that linguists needed to determine both what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute \"universal grammar\".Multiple researchers have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language,the lack of crosslinguistic surface universals,and the unproven link between innate/universal structures and the structures of specific languages.Michael Tomasellohas challenged Chomsky's theory of innate syntactic knowledge as based on theory and not behavioral observation.The empirical basis of poverty of the stimulus arguments has been challenged byGeoffrey Pullumand others, leading to back-and-forth debate in thelanguage acquisitionliterature.Recent work has also suggested that somerecurrent neural networkarchitectures can learn hierarchical structure without an explicit constraint. Transformational-generative grammar Transformational-generative grammaris a broad theory used to model, encode, and deduce a native speaker's linguistic capabilities.These models, or \"formal grammars\", show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages.Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s, whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades.\"Transformations\" refers to syntactic relationships within language, e.g., being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person.Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of bothdeep structures and surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and conceptual meaning. Transformational-generative grammar usesmathematical notationto express the rules that govern the connection between meaning and sound (deep and surface structures, respectively). By this theory, linguistic principles canmathematically generatepotential sentence structures in a language. Chomsky is commonly credited with inventing transformational-generative grammar, but his original contribution was considered modest when he first published his theory. In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbookSyntactic Structures, he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated byZellig Harris, who was Chomsky's PhD supervisor, and byCharles F. Hockett.Their method is derived from the work of the Danish structural linguistLouis Hjelmslev, who introducedalgorithmic grammarto general linguistics.Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, Chomsky grouped logically possible phrase-structure grammar types into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as theChomsky hierarchy. This classification remains relevant toformal language theoryandtheoretical computer science, especiallyprogramming language theory,compilerconstruction, andautomata theory.Chomsky'sSyntactic Structuresbecame, beyond generative linguistics as such, a catalyst for connecting what inHjelmslev's andJesperson's time was the beginnings ofstructural linguistics, which has becomecognitive linguistics. Transformational grammar was the dominant research paradigm through the mid-1970s. The derivativegovernment and binding theoryreplaced it and remained influential through the early 1990s,when linguists turned to a \"minimalist\" approach to grammar. This research focused on theprinciples and parametersframework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data.The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky,asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply.In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as \"deep structure\" and \"surface structure\" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or \"logical forms\".When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech. Political views The second major area to which Chomsky has contributed—and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says—is his work on sociopolitical analysis; political, social, and economic history; and critical assessment of current political circumstance. In Chomsky's view, although those in power might—and do—try to obscure their intentions and to defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens, it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to. —James McGilvray, 2014 Chomsky is a prominent political dissident.His political views have changed little since his childhood,when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition.He usually identifies as ananarcho-syndicalistor alibertarian socialist.He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs: liberty, community, and freedom of association.Unlike some other socialists, such as Marxists, Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science,but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories. In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elitecorporatocracy, which uses corporate media, advertising, andthink tanksto promote its own propaganda. His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure.Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by \"common sense\", critical thinking, and understanding the roles of self-interest and self-deception,and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding.He argues that, as such an intellectual, it is his duty to use hissocial privilege, resources, and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles. Although he has participated indirect actiondemonstrations—joining protests, being arrested, organizing groups—Chomsky's primary political outlet is education, i.e., free public lessons.He is a longtime member of theIndustrial Workers of the Worldinternational union,as was his father. United States foreign policy Chomsky has been a prominent critic of \"American imperialism\",but is not a pacifist, believingWorld War IIwas justified as America's last defensive war.He believes thatU.S. foreign policy's basic principle is the establishment of \"open societies\" that are economically and politically controlled by the U.S. and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper.He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power.When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective.He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; by criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them.Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and U.S. actions in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East. Chomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States.He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because itsliberal democraticelectoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy.His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies.He urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves. Chomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict, arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement.He also criticizes the U.S.'s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement inSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, highlighting that Saudi Arabia has \"one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world\". Chomsky called theRussian invasion of Ukrainea criminal act of aggression and noted thatRussia was committing major war crimesin the country. He considered support for Ukraine's self-defense legitimate and said Ukraine should be given enough military aid to defend itself, but not enough to cause \"an escalation\".His criticism of the war focused on the United States.He alleged that the U.S. rejected any compromise with Russia and that this might have provoked the invasion.According to Chomsky, the U.S. was arming Ukraine only to weaken Russia, and Ukrainian requests for heavy weaponry were untrue \"Western propaganda\", despite Ukraine's PresidentVolodymyr Zelenskyrepeatedly asking for them.More than a year into the invasion, Chomsky argued that Russia was waging the war \"more humanely\" than the U.S. did theinvasion of Iraq. Capitalism and socialism In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike ofcapitalismand the pursuit of material wealth.At the same time, he developed a disdain forauthoritarian socialism, as represented by theMarxist–Leninistpolicies of the Soviet Union.Rather than accepting the common view among U.S. economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control (whether state or private).He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really democratic,because, in his view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy.He has stated his opposition toruling elites, among them institutions like theIMF,World Bank, andGATT(precursor to theWTO). Chomsky highlights that, since the 1970s,the U.S. has become increasingly economically unequalas a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the unilateral rescinding of theBretton Woods financial control agreementby the U.S.He characterizes the U.S. as ade factoone-party state, viewing both theRepublican PartyandDemocratic Partyas manifestations of a single \"Business Party\" controlled by corporate and financial interests.Chomsky highlights that, within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite. Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably.Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions.He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval. Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of theclassical liberalideas of theAge of Enlightenment,arguing that his ideological position revolves around \"nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being\".He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct worker control of themeans of productionand government byworkers' councils, who would select temporary and revocable representatives to meet together at general assemblies.The point of this self-governance is to make each citizen, inThomas Jefferson's words, \"a direct participator in the government of affairs.\"He believes that there will be no need for political parties.By controlling their productive life, he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose.He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated, specially remunerated, or communally shared. Israeli–Palestinian conflict Chomsky has written prolifically about theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict, aiming to raise public awareness of it.Alabor Zionistwho later became what is today considered ananti-Zionist, Chomsky has criticized theIsraeli settlementsin theIsraeli-occupiedWest Bank, which he likens to asettler colony.He has said that the 1947United Nations Partition Plan for Palestinewas a bad decision, but given therealpolitikof the situation, he has also considered atwo-state solutionon the condition that the nation-states exist on equal terms. Chomsky has said that characterizingIsrael's treatment of the Palestinians as apartheid, similar to the system that existed in South Africa, would be a \"gift to Israel\", as he has long held that \"theOccupied Territoriesare much worse than South Africa\".South Africa depended on its black population for labor, but Chomsky argues the same is not true of Israel, which in his view seeks to make the situation for Palestinians under its occupation unlivable, especially in theWest Bankand theGaza Strip, where \"atrocities\" take place every day.He also argues that, unlike South Africa, Israel has not sought the international community's approval, but rather relies solely on U.S. support.Chomsky has said that the Israeli-ledblockadeof theGaza Striphas turned it into a \"concentration camp\" and expressed similar fears to Israeli intellectualYeshayahu Leibowitz's 1990s warning that the continued occupation of thePalestinian territoriescould turnIsraeli Jewsinto \"Judeo-Nazis\". Chomsky has said that Leibowitz's warning \"was a direct reflection of the continued occupation, the humiliation of people, the degradation, and the terrorist attacks by the Israeli government\".He has also called the U.S. a violent state that exports violence by supporting Israeli \"atrocities\" against the Palestinians and said that listening to American mainstream media, includingCBS, is like listening to \"Israeli propaganda agencies\". Chomsky was denied entry to theWest Bankin 2010 because ofhis criticisms of Israel. He had been invited to deliver a lecture atBir Zeit Universityand was to meet with Palestinian Prime MinisterSalam Fayyad.AnIsraeli Foreign Ministryspokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake. In his 1983 bookThe Fateful Triangle, Chomsky criticized thePalestinian Liberation Organizationfor its \"self-destructiveness\" and \"suicidal character\" and disapproved of its programs of \"armed struggle\" and \"erratic violence\". He also criticized the Arab governments as not \"decent\".Given what he has described as his very Jewish upbringing with deeply Zionist activist parents, Chomsky's views have drawn controversy and criticism. They are rooted in thekibbutzimand socialist binational cooperation.In a 2014 interview onDemocracy Now!, Chomsky said that the charter ofHamas, which calls for Israel's destruction, \"means practically nothing\", having been created \"by a small group of people under siege, under attack in 1988\". He compared it to the electoral program of theLikudparty, which, he said, \"states explicitly that there can never be a Palestinian state west of the Jordan River. And they not only state it in their charter, that's a call for the destruction of Palestine, explicit call for it\". Mass media and propaganda Chomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology,social and political power,mass media, and state policy.One of his best-known works,Manufacturing Consent, dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship, by government-guided \"free market\" forces, is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union.As he argues, the mainstream press is corporate-owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests.Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well-meaning, he argues that the mass media's choices of topics and issues, the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests, and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state's ideology:although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties, it will not undermine the wider state-corporate nexus of which it is a part.As evidence, he highlights that the U.S. mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators.He also points to examples of important news stories that the U.S. mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country, including the murder of Black PantherFred Hamptonwith possibleFBIinvolvement, the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U.S.-fundedContras, and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict.To remedy this situation, Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media. Chomsky considers mostconspiracy theoriesfruitless, distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives.He separates his Propaganda Model from conspiracy in that he is describing institutions following their natural imperatives rather than collusive forces with secret controls.Instead of supporting the educational system as an antidote, he believes that most education is counterproductive.Chomsky describesmass educationas a system solely intended to turn farmers from independent producers into unthinking industrial employees. Reactions of critics and counter-criticism: 1980s–present In the 2004 bookThe Anti-Chomsky Reader,Peter CollierandDavid Horowitzaccuse Chomsky ofcherry-pickingfacts to suit his theories.Horowitz has also criticized Chomsky'santi-Americanism: For 40 years Noam Chomsky has turned out book after book, pamphlet after pamphlet and speech after speech with one message, and one message alone: America is the Great Satan; it is the fount of evil in the world. In Chomsky's demented universe, America is responsible not only for its own bad deeds, but for the bad deeds of others, including those of the terrorists who struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. In this attitude he is the medium for all those who now search the ruins of Manhattan not for the victims and the American dead, but for the \"root causes\" of the catastrophe that befell them. For theconservativepublic policythink tanktheHoover Institution, Peter Schweizer wrote in January 2006, \"Chomsky favors the estate tax and massive income redistribution—just not the redistribution of his income.\" Schweizer criticized Chomsky for setting up an estate plan and protecting his own intellectual property as it relates to his published works, as well as the high speaking fees that Chomsky received on a regular basis, around $9,000–$12,000 per talk at that time. Chomsky has been accused of treating socialist or communist regimes with credulity and examining capitalist regimes with greater scrutiny or criticism: Chomsky's analysis of U.S. actions plunged deep into dark U.S. machinations, but when traveling among the Communists he rested content with appearances. The countryside outside Hanoi, he reported inThe New York Review of Books, displayed \"a high degree of democratic participation at the village and regional levels.\" But how could he tell? Chomsky did not speak Vietnamese, and so he depended on government translators, tour guides, and handlers for information. In Vietnamese hands, the clear-eyed skepticism turned into willing credulousness. According to Nikolas Kozloff, writing forAl Jazeerain September 2012, Chomsky \"has drawn the world's attention to the various misdeeds of the US and its proxies around the world, and for that he deserves credit. Yet, in seeking to avoid controversy at all costs Chomsky has turned into something of an ideologue. Scour the Chomsky web site and you won't find significant discussion of Belarus or Latin America's flirtation with outside authoritarian leaders, for that matter.\" Political activistGeorge Monbiothas argued that \"Part of the problem is that a kind of cult has developed around Noam Chomsky andJohn Pilger, which cannot believe they could ever be wrong, and produces ever more elaborate conspiracy theories to justify their mistakes.\" Anarchist and primitivistJohn Zerzanhas accused Chomsky of not being a real anarchist, saying that he is instead \"a liberal-leftist politically, and downright reactionary in his academic specialty, linguistic theory. Chomsky is also, by all accounts, a generous, sincere, tireless activist—which does not, unfortunately, ensure his thinking has liberatory value.\" Defenders of Chomsky have countered that he has been censored or left out of public debate. Claims of this nature date to theReagan era. Writing forThe Washington Postin February 1988,Saul Landauwrote, \"It is unhealthy that Chomsky's insights are excluded from the policy debate. His relentless prosecutorial prose, with a hint of Talmudic whine and the rationalist anarchism of Tom Paine, may reflect a justified frustration.\" Philosophy Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, includingphilosophy of mind,philosophy of language, andphilosophy of science.In these fields he is credited with ushering in the \"cognitive revolution\",a significantparadigm shiftthat rejectedlogical positivism, the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think aboutlanguageand themind.Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-centuryrationalistideals.His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism than behaviorism.He named one of his key worksCartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought(1966).This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky's interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology.In the philosophy of language, Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations. Chomsky's famous1971 debateonhuman naturewith the French philosopherMichel Foucaultwas a symbolic clash of theanalyticandcontinentalphilosophy traditions, represented by Chomsky and Foucault, respectively.It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century. Foucault held that any definition of human nature is connected to our present-day conceptions of ourselves; Chomsky held that human nature contained universals such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason.Chomsky criticizedpostmodernismandFrench philosophygenerally, arguing that the obscure language of postmodern, leftist philosophers gives little aid to the working classes.He has also debated analytic philosophers, includingTyler Burge,Donald Davidson,Michael Dummett,Saul Kripke,Thomas Nagel,Hilary Putnam,Willard Van Orman Quine, andJohn Searle. Chomsky's contributions spanintellectualand world history, including the history of philosophy.Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing, such as rhetorically implying that his readers already know something to be true, which engages the reader more actively in assessing the veracity of his claims. Personal life Chomsky endeavors to separate his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism from each other.An intensely private person,he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him.McGilvray suggests that Chomsky is not motivated by a desire for fame, but impelled to tell what he perceives as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so.Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world's population;nevertheless, he characterizes himself as a \"worker\", albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill.He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the U.S., he subscribes toThe Boston Globe,The New York Times,The Wall Street Journal,Financial Times, andThe Christian Science Monitor.Chomsky is not religious but has expressed approval of forms of religion such asliberation theology. Chomsky is known to use charged language (\"corrupt\", \"fascist\", \"fraudulent\") when describing established political and academic figures, which can polarize his audience but is in keeping with his belief that much scholarship is self-serving.His colleagueSteven Pinkerhas said that Chomsky \"portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric\", and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives.Chomsky avoidsacademic conferences, including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences.His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores; in 1969, when Chomsky heard thatWalt Rostow, a major architect of the Vietnam war, wanted to return to work at MIT, Chomsky threatened \"to protest publicly\" if Rostow were denied a position at MIT. In 1989, when Pentagon adviserJohn Deutchapplied to be president of MIT, Chomsky supported his candidacy. Later, when Deutch became head of the CIA,The New York Timesquoted Chomsky as saying, \"He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I've ever met.... If somebody's got to be running the CIA, I'm glad it's him.\" Chomsky was married toCarol Doris(néeSchatz) from 1949 until her death in 2008.They had three children together:Aviva(b. 1957), Diane (b. 1960), and Harry (b. 1967).In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman.They have owned a residence in Wasserman's native country of Brazil since 2015. In 2023, Chomsky suffered a massive stroke and was flown to a hospital inSão Paulo, Brazil, to recuperate.He can no longer walk or communicate, making his return to public life improbable,but he continues to follow current events such as theIsrael–Hamas war.He was discharged in June 2024 to continue his recovery at home.The same month, Chomskytrended on social mediaamid false reports of his death. Periodicals retractedpremature obituaries. Reception and influence voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy: from computer science to neuroscience, from anthropology to education, mathematics and literary criticism. If we include Chomsky's political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred, and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action. —Sperlich, 2006 Chomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology.In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time,Chomsky has a dual legacy as a leader and luminary in both linguistics and the realm ofpolitical dissent.Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by mainstream media, and he is regarded as being \"on the outer margin of acceptability\".Chomsky's public image and social reputation often color his work's public reception. In academia McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the \"cognitive revolution\" in linguistics,and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal,natural science,moving it away from the procedural form ofstructural linguisticsdominant during the mid-20th century.As such, some have called Chomsky \"the father of modern linguistics\".Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become \"the most dynamic and influential\" school of thought in the field.By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy,and aMinnesota State University Moorheadpoll rankedSyntactic Structuresas the single most important work incognitive science.In addition, his work inautomata theoryand the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known incomputer science, and he is much cited incomputational linguistics. Chomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline ofbehaviorist psychology;in addition, he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science.Some arguments inevolutionary psychologyare derived from his research results;Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study inanimal language acquisitionat Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability. ACM Turing AwardwinnerDonald Knuthcredited Chomsky's work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics, linguistics, and computer science.IBMcomputer scientistJohn Backus, another Turing Award winner, used some of Chomsky's concepts to help him developFORTRAN, the first widely used high-levelcomputer programming language.Chomsky's theory of generative grammar has also influenced work inmusic theoryandanalysis, such asFred Lerdahl's andRay Jackendoff'sgenerative theory of tonal music. Chomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead.He was cited within theArts and Humanities Citation Indexmore often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992.Chomsky was also extensively cited in theSocial Sciences Citation IndexandScience Citation Indexduring the same period. The librarian who conducted the research said that the statistics show that \"he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines... it seems that you can't write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky.\"As a result of his influence, there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non-Chomskyan linguistics. Their disputes are often acrimonious.Additionally, according to journalistMaya Jaggi, Chomsky is among the most quoted sources in the humanities, ranking alongsideMarx,Shakespeareandthe Bible. In politics Chomsky's status as the \"most-quoted living author\" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics.Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as \"one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people\";journalistJohn Pilgerhas described him as a \"genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive.\"Arundhati Royhas called him \"one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time\",andEdward Saidthought him \"one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions\".Fred Hallidayhas said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a \"guru\" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements.The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media,also exerting a significant influence on the growth ofalternative media, including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work. Despite this broad influence, university departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi.Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as manysocial scientistsclaim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so.Some have responded to these criticisms by questioning the critics' motives and their understanding of Chomsky's ideas. Sperlich, for instance, says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press.Likewise, according to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics \"do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text\". Chomsky drew criticism for not calling theBosnian War'sSrebrenica massacrea \"genocide\".While he did not deny the fact of the massacre,which he called \"a horror story and major crime\", he felt the massacre did not meet thedefinition of genocide.Critics have accused Chomsky ofdenying the Bosnian genocide. Chomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to aFreedom of Information Act(FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law.He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East but has refused uniformed police protection.German news magazineDer Spiegeldescribed Chomsky as \"the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred\",while AmericanconservativecommentatorDavid Horowitzcalled him \"the most devious, the most dishonest and ... the most treacherous intellect in America\", whose work is infused with \"anti-American dementia\" and evidences his \"pathological hatred of his own country\".Writing inCommentarymagazine, the journalistJonathan Kaydescribed Chomsky as \"a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says\". Chomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and ananti-Semite.Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints,Werner Cohncalled Chomsky \"the most important patron\" of theneo-Nazimovement.TheAnti-Defamation League(ADL) called him a Holocaust denier,describing him as a \"dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims\".In turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by \"Stalinist types\" who oppose democracy in Israel.The lawyerAlan Dershowitzhas called Chomsky a \"false prophet of the left\";Chomsky called Dershowitz \"a complete liar\" who is on \"a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation\".In early 2016, PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğanof Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed anopen lettercondemning Erdoğan for hisanti-Kurdish repressionand double standards on terrorism.Chomsky accused Erdoğan of hypocrisy, noting that Erdoğan supportsal-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate,theal-Nusra Front. Academic achievements, awards, and honors In 1970, the LondonTimesnamed Chomsky one of the \"makers of the twentieth century\".He was voted the world's leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazineForeign Policyand British magazineProspect.New Statesmanreaders listed Chomsky among the world's foremost heroes in 2006. In the United States he is aMember of the National Academy of Sciences, theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences, theLinguistic Society of America, theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science, theAmerican Philosophical Association,and theAmerican Philosophical Society.Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of theBritish Academy, an honorary member of theBritish Psychological Society, a member of theDeutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina,and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of theSerbian Academy of Sciences and Arts.He received a 1971Guggenheim Fellowship, the 1984American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology, the 1988Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the 1996Helmholtz Medal,the 1999Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science,the 2010Erich Fromm Prize,and theBritish Academy's 2014Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics.He is also a two-time winner of theNCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language(1987 and 1989).He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award fromThe Asiatic Society. Chomsky received the 2004Carl-von-OssietzkyPrize from the city ofOldenburg, Germany, to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic.He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from theLiterary and Historical Society of University College Dublin.He received the 2008 President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of theNational University of Ireland, Galway.Since 2009, he has been an honorary member ofInternational Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters(IAPTI).He received the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarshipand was inducted intoIEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for \"significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems.\"Chomsky has anErdős numberof four. In 2011, the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace Prize for anti-war activities over five decades.For his work in human rights, peace, and social criticism, he received the 2011Sydney Peace Prize,theSretenje Orderin 2015,the 2017Seán MacBride Peace Prizeand the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award. Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including theUniversity of Londonand theUniversity of Chicago(1967),Loyola University ChicagoandSwarthmore College(1970),Bard College(1971),Delhi University(1972), theUniversity of Massachusetts(1973), and theInternational School for Advanced Studies(2012).Public lectures given by Chomsky include the 1969John Locke Lectures,1975Whidden Lectures,1977Huizinga Lecture, and 1988Massey Lectures. Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is theeponymfora bee species,a frog species,anasteroid,and a building complex at the Indian universityJamia Millia Islamia.ActorViggo Mortensenand avant-garde guitaristBucketheaddedicated their 2003 albumPandemoniumfromamericato Chomsky. Selected bibliography Linguistics Politics See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links", "Nim Chimpsky Neam\"Nim\"Chimpsky(November 19, 1973 – March 10, 2000) was achimpanzeeused in a study to determine whetherchimps could learn a human language,American Sign Language(ASL). The project was led byHerbert S. TerraceofColumbia Universitywith linguistic analysis bypsycholinguistThomas Bever. Chimpsky was named as apunon linguistNoam Chomsky, who posited that humans are \"wired\" to develop language. Over the course of Project Nim, the infant chimp was shuttled between locations and a revolving group of roughly 60 caregivers, including teenagers and grad students, few of whom were proficient in sign language.Four years into the project, Nim became too difficult to manage and was returned to the Institute for Primate Studies in Oklahoma. After reviewing the results, Terrace concluded that Nim mimicked signs from his teachers in order to get a reward. Terrace argued that Nim did not initiate conversation or create sentences. Terrace said that he had not noticed this throughout the duration of the study but only upon reviewing video tape.Terrace ultimately became a popularly cited critic ofape languagestudies. Project Nim Herbert Terrace, a professory of Psychology atColumbia University, launched Project Nim in 1973, six years after R. Allen andBeatrix Gardnerbegan testing a chimpanzee's ability to acquireAmerican Sign Languagewith ProjectWashoe. Terrace named the infant chimpanzee as a pun onNoam Chomsky. With this project, Terrace intended to challenge Chomsky's assertion that onlyhumanscan use language.(Terrace's mentor,B.F. Skinner, a key figure inbehaviorism, was known as an academic target and rival of Chomsky.) Nim's early years Nim's life history is detailed in Elizabeth Hess's seminal biography,Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human(2008), which became the basis for a 2011 documentary film directed byJames Marsh,Project Nim(see below). Nim was born at the Institute for Primate Studies inNorman,Oklahoma. A few days after his birth, he was taken from his sedated mother and placed in theNew York Cityhome of Stephanie LaFarge. LaFarge was a former grad student of Terrace's with three children and four stepchildren.LaFarge \"knew nothing\" about chimps and instantly recognized that the arrangement would be a problem.The LaFarge household was unconventional: she breastfed the chimp (though she had no milk)and smoked pot with him.Stephanie LaFarge and her daughter Jennie Lee used signs sporadically, focusing instead on play and establishing trust, which they saw as a developmental need. They did not maintain records of Nim's development and did not support the harsh discipline practices that Terrace and his lead trainer at the time demanded. (This included the use of cattle prodsand forcing Nim into a small, dark box when he misbehaved.). By mutual agreement two years later, Nim was moved out of the LaFargebrownstoneand into a large house inRiverdale, where a grad student,Laura-Ann Petitto, took over as primary caregiver. After the move to Riverdale, Nim exhibited symptoms of intense anxiety. For the first few weeks, he refused to be alone for even a minute.When left with a new person, he would rip off his clothes and pee and poop all over the room.His habit of \"sinking his teeth into human flesh\" -- which started before he was a year old -- became both more frequent and more damaging. Adding further complication, Terrace became romantically involved with Petitto. (He had also been sexually involved with LaFarge but the relationship ended years before Project Nim.) After he \"abruptly\" ended the relationship, Petitto quit,cutting off Nim (again) from his closet companion and maternal figure. Terrace's two other full-timers quit around the same time.In the wake of these turnovers, Nim's behavior deteriorated further; he became more aggressive and less compliant with sign-language sessions. Problems with the study A number of factors were problematic in the study of Nim’s signing abilities, including definition of language, turnover of staff, varying teaching methods, and the trauma inflicted upon Nim and the other chimpanzees as they were being taught. For any such psychological study to be ethical, participants ought to be able to give informed consent to experiments. Another problem with the study was the quality (and number) of people working with Nim. There were about 60 total, mostly volunteers, and few were proficient in sign language.Mary Wambaugh, a deaf woman fluent in ASL, joined the team three years into the study and raised concerns that the others were improperly signing. She told Terrace that Nim was being taught apidginversion of the language, not proper ASL, which has a structure and set of rules. As Hess, observed, this made sense given the study's heavy reliance on students and untrained volunteers. The caregivers signed word-by-word, the same way Nim did. Another significant problem involved Nim's classrooom. Nim performed his signs most fluidly and creatively when playing with his (human) friends at \"home\" — \"home\" being initially the LaFarge brownstoneand, later, the Riverdale mansion.Yet Terrace needed Nim to work primarily in a space at Columbia, a windowless, noisy, 15' square \"dungeon.\"Terrace described the challenges with the space inNim: In the classroom, the slightest noise would make Nim jump into the arms of a teacher. At times, he was so scared he tried to hide under his teacher's skirt. The squeals of rats caused him to panic. And he would rock back-and-forth on the floor. Joyce Butler, who took over as primary caregiver after Petitto quit, said that Nim was nearly impossible to wrangle in the classroom and would repeatedly ask to leave by signing \"dirty\" to go to the bathroom. Butler and her fellow caregivers fought Terrace over his requirement that Nim attend the classroom daily. Eventually, they refused to take him there. As difficulties with staff, funding concerns, and Nim's behavior came to a head, Terrace called an end to the study. Over intense resistance from staff, he sent Nim back to the Institute for Primate Studies in 1977and then set about analyzing his data. Terrace's conclusions While Nim was in New York, Terrace believed he was learning sign language. But in reviewing the data, Terrace came to a conclusion that surprised most everyone involved: Nim, he said, was not using language at all.Terrace said that he changed his mind when watching videotapes of Nim (in his classroom). Language requires the use of sentences, and Nim didn't use sentences. Though Nim recognized and used signs, Terrace said he did not initiate conversation. When Nim combined signs, they tended to be highly repetitive and filled with \"wild cards\" -- words like ME, HUG, NIM, and MORE.For example, Nim's longest utterance, 16 signs, was: \"Give orange me give eat orange me eat orange give me eat orange give me you.\"The videotapes, Terrace argued, proved that Nim mimicked his teachers and used signs strictly to get a reward, not unlike a dog or horse. Terrace's results shocked some of Nim's trainers and contradicted his earlier observations, including those in his bookNim(1979). That said, his findings regarding the Nim data were generally accepted as accurate. Among the many problems with Terrace's project (see above), he did not build inblind controls, making Project Nim vulnerable to theClever Hanseffect. Controversy erupted over the fact that Terrace did not restrict his analysis to Nim. He claimed that otherapesin other sign language research projects—most notably,Washoeand gorillaKoko—were mere mimmicks as well. He made these claims after examining brief video clips of the apes taken from a NOVA documentaryand a film by Allen andBeatrix Gardner.Terrace's criticisms of other ape research led to heated debates, with many scholars contesting Terrace's claims. The arguments back-and-forth were summarized at that time by Jean Marx inScience(1980) and Dava Sobel (1979) and Eugene Lindenin theNew York Times. Terrace ultimately became a popularly cited critic ofape languagestudies. Life after Project Nim Nim's return to the Institute of Primate Studies (IPS) in Oklahoma was by all accounts traumatic. By contemporary standards, IPS was a dreary facility. The apes spent most of their time in relatively small cages with concrete floors. But IPS founder William Lemmon recognized the critical importance of apes' social interactions and connected the cages so that chimps had access to each other. He also provided a better, healthier diet than the standard monkey chow. Compared to many zoos and other research facilities at the time, the IPS chimps fared relatively well. Nim's celebrity was unique, but many of the IPS chimps had similarly been raised by humans. Like Nim, they were returned to IPS when they started growing up and exhibiting wild behaviors. Also like Nim, they had never met members of their own species before. The switch from a human environment to concrete cages with alien beasts caused intense stress and, in some cases, self-mutilation. But Nim's depression turned out to be relatively short-lived compared to other new arrivals at IPS.Though terrified of the other chimps at first, Nim made new friends. Also, several students inRoger Fouts' sign language program enjoyed working with Nim and took him out for walks on the grounds. Nim continued to use signs, including STONE SMOKE TIME NOW to requestmarijuana.One IPS student, Bob Ingersoll, took a particular interest in Nim and advocated for him in the turmoil that was to follow. In the early 1980s,University of Oklahomawithdrew its support of the IPS. Faced with the loss of funding, William Lemmon arranged to gradually sell off chimps to aNew York University(NYU) biomedical lab,LEMSIP. (Roger Fouts, who had been working with several IPS chimps, had suddenly left for a new position in Washington, takingWashoeandLouliswith him.) Beginning in December 1981, IPS started sending chimps to LEMSIP, including many, like Nim, who had been used in sign language research. Staff at LEMSIP began noticing the chimps usingASLto communicate with them, so vet James Mahoney posted signs around the facility to help the staff understand the chimps' gestures. When Bob Ingersoll found out about the LEMSIP plan, he called his Nim contacts to launch a protest and press campaign. He also contactedJane Goodall, who wrote a letter to the University of Oklahoma on the chimps' behalf.Henry Herrman, a lawyer who had caught wind of the story in the Boston Globereached out to Terrace, who had been quoted, to offer his services. His call to Terrace proved to be fortuitous. Other IPS personnel made a few calls that ultimately led to a CBS news story. When CBS News interviewed Terrace, Terrace said he was shocked to hear about the move and, referring to his contact with Herrman, announced that he would be filing a lawsuit to stop it. (According to James Mahoney of LEMSIP, Terrace had known about the move for several months and only acted outraged when the press attention hit.) Though NYU initially ignored the press, the mounting legal threats and negative attention made holding on to the celebrity chimp — Nim — no longer worth it for the university. NYU arranged to send Nim and fellow chimp Ally back to IPS. Nim had been at LEMSIP for less than a month. The other sign language-trained chimps remained at LEMSIP. The press by then had moved on. In 1983, philanthropistCleveland Amorystepped in to buy Nim, by now a celebrity, and brought him to his equinesanctuary, Black Beauty Ranch, inTexas. As the only chimpanzee at the Ranch, Nim sank into a deep depression. Nim would gesture to staff but they did not sign back. When Ingersoll came to visit, Nim signed BOB, OUT, KEY.Ingersoll urged Amory to get a companion for Nim but was ignored. Meanwhile, Nim studied the locks on his cage and would periodically escape and run into the manager's house, raid the refrigerator, and sometimes turn on the TV. Once, in the process, he threw the pet poodle against a wall, killing it. A year after Nim's arrival, Amory arranged to adopt another chimp, Sally. In her biography of Nim, Hess writes that the chimps became inseparable. Nim taught Sally how to sign DRINK, BANANA and GUM, three of the words he used most frequently at the ranch.He was frequently seen signing SORRY to Sally after they had a squabble.Nim still escaped, but a new manager handled those escapes differently. When Nim and Sally showed up at his house, he would act happy to see them and let them stay until they got bored. By keeping tensions low, he found, the chimps did not need to be darted. After almost ten years with Nim, Sally died, sending Nim once again into severe distress. After hearing about Sally's death, Ingersoll arranged to help get three new chimp companions for Nim: Kitty, Midge, and Lulu. The chimps thrived as a small group until March 10, 2000, when Nim died suddenly of a heart attack. He was 26 years old, about half his average life expectancy. In media Project Nim, a documentary film byJames Marshabout the Nim study, explores the story (and the wealth of archival footage) to consider ethical issues, the emotional experiences of the participants, and the deeper issues the experiment raised. The film is based onNim Chimpsky, the biography by Elizabeth Hess, and Hess is credited as the writer. This documentary (produced by BBC Films, Red Box Films, and Passion Films) opened the 2011Sundance Film Festival.The film was released in theaters on July 8, 2011 by Roadside Attractionsand on DVD on February 7, 2012. Terrace wrote an op-ed in response to what he considered a negative portrayal of his Nim project, stating that the filmmakers inaccurately equated his study's negative results with \"failure.\" References Key sources Notes See also External links" ]
[ "Sydney Peace Prize TheSydney Peace Prizeis awarded by theSydney Peace Foundation,a non profit organisation associated with theUniversity of Sydney. The prize promotes peace with justice and the practice of nonviolence. It aims to encourage public interest and discussion about issues of peace,social justice, human rights, and non-violent conflict resolution. Support TheCity of Sydneyis a major supporter of the Sydney Peace Prize. This involves a significant financial contribution along with other in-kind support in order to foster peace with justice. The prize Over three months each year, the Sydney Peace Prize jury – comprising seven individuals who represent corporate, media, academic and community sector interests – assesses the merits of the nominees' efforts to promote peace with justice. It is awarded to an organisation or individual: Considerations The jury has been prepared to make some controversial choices. Sydney Peace Foundation Founder, Emeritus ProfessorStuart Rees, said, \"The initiators of the", "initiators of the Sydney Peace Prize aimed to influence public interest in peace with justice, an ideal which is often perceived as controversial. The choice of a non-controversial candidate for a peace prize would be a safe option but unlikely to prompt debate or to increase understanding. Consensus usually encourages compliance, often anaesthetises and seldom informs.\" Prize winners Gold medal for Peace with Justice The foundation also occasionally awards a special gold medal for significant contributions to peace and justice. Winners of the gold medal includeSouth AfricanstatesmanNelson Mandela, 14thDalai LamaTenzin Gyatso, JapaneseBuddhistleaderDaisaku Ikeda,WikiLeakspublisherJulian Assange,Costa RicanChristina Figueresand Australian bandMidnight Oil. Notes External links", "Noam Chomsky Active Defunct Publications Works Avram Noam Chomsky(/noʊmˈtʃɒmski/ⓘnohmCHOM-skee; born December 7, 1928) is an American professor andpublic intellectualknown for his work inlinguistics,political activism, andsocial criticism. Sometimes called \"the father of modern linguistics\",Chomsky is also a major figure inanalytic philosophyand one of the founders of the field ofcognitive science. He is a laureate professor of linguistics at theUniversity of Arizonaand aninstitute professoremeritus at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT). Among the most cited living authors, Chomsky has written more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, and politics. In addition to his work in linguistics, since the 1960s Chomsky has been an influential voice on theAmerican leftas a consistent critic ofU.S. foreign policy,contemporary capitalism, andcorporate influenceon political institutions and the media. Born toAshkenazi Jewishimmigrants inPhiladelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest", "an early interest inanarchismfrom alternative bookstores inNew York City. He studied at theUniversity of Pennsylvania. During his postgraduate work in theHarvard Society of Fellows, Chomsky developed the theory oftransformational grammarfor which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark workSyntactic Structures, which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was aNational Science Foundationfellow at theInstitute for Advanced Study. He created or co-created theuniversal grammartheory, thegenerative grammartheory, theChomsky hierarchy, and theminimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguisticbehaviorism, and was particularly critical of the work ofB. F. Skinner. An outspokenopponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which he saw as an act ofAmerican imperialism, in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for hisanti-waressay", "hisanti-waressay \"The Responsibility of Intellectuals\". Becoming associated with theNew Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on PresidentRichard Nixon'slist of political opponents. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in thelinguistics wars. In collaboration withEdward S. Herman, Chomsky later articulated thepropaganda modelofmedia criticisminManufacturing Consent, and worked to expose theIndonesian occupation of East Timor. His defense of unconditionalfreedom of speech, including that ofHolocaust denial, generated significant controversy in theFaurisson affairof the 1980s. Chomsky's commentary on theCambodian genocideand theBosnian genocidealso generated controversy. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the2003 invasion of Iraqand supporting theOccupy movement. Ananti-Zionist, Chomsky considersIsrael's treatment of Palestiniansto be worse thanSouth", "be worse thanSouth African–style apartheid,and criticizes U.S. support for Israel. Chomsky is widely recognized as having helped to spark thecognitive revolutionin thehuman sciences, contributing to the development of a newcognitivisticframework for the study of language and the mind. Chomsky remains a leading critic ofU.S. foreign policy, contemporarycapitalism, U.S. involvement and Israel's role in theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict, andmass media. Chomsky and his ideas are highly influential in theanti-capitalistandanti-imperialistmovements. Since 2017, he has been Agnese Nelms Haury Chair in the Agnese Nelms Haury Program in Environment and Social Justice at theUniversity of Arizona. Life Childhood: 1928–1945 Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in theEast Oak Laneneighborhood ofPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania.His parents,William Chomskyand Elsie Simonofsky, wereJewishimmigrants.William had fled theRussian Empirein 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimoresweatshopsand Hebrew elementary schools before", "schools before attending university.After moving to Philadelphia, William became principal of theCongregation Mikveh Israelreligious school and joined theGratz Collegefaculty. He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be \"well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, concerned about improving and enhancing the world, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all\", a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son.Elsie, who also taught at Mikveh Israel, shared her leftist politics and care for social issues with her sons. Noam's only sibling, David Eli Chomsky (1934–2021), was born five years later, and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia.The brothers were close, though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive. They were raised Jewish, being taughtHebrewand regularly involved with discussing the political theories ofZionism; the family was particularly influenced by theLeft Zionistwritings ofAhad Ha'am.He", "ofAhad Ha'am.He facedantisemitismas a child, particularly from Philadelphia's Irish and German communities. Chomsky attended the independent,DeweyiteOak Lane Country Day Schooland Philadelphia'sCentral High School, where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies, but was troubled by the school's hierarchical and domineering teaching methods.He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College, where his father taught. Chomsky has described his parents as \"normalRoosevelt Democrats\" withcenter-left politics, but relatives involved in theInternational Ladies' Garment Workers' Unionexposed him tosocialismandfar-left politics.He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs.Chomsky himself often visited left-wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city, voraciously reading political literature.He became absorbed in the story of the 1939fall of Barcelonaand suppression of", "suppression of theSpanish anarchosyndicalistmovement, writing his first article on the topic at the age of 10.That he came to identify with anarchism first rather than another leftist movement, he described as a \"lucky accident\".Chomsky was firmlyanti-Bolshevikby his early teens. University: 1945–1955 In 1945, at the age of 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at theUniversity of Pennsylvania, where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learningArabic.Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew.Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to akibbutzinMandatory Palestine,but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the linguistZellig Harris, whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject.Chomsky'sBAhonors thesis, \"Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew\",", "of Modern Hebrew\", applied Harris's methods to the language.Chomsky revised this thesis for hisMA, which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book.He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage ofNelson Goodman. From 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was a member of theSociety of FellowsatHarvard University, where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation.Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply,Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopherWillard Van Orman Quinewas based there. Both Quine and a visiting philosopher,J. L. Austinof theUniversity of Oxford, strongly influenced Chomsky.In 1952, Chomsky published his first academic article inThe Journal of Symbolic Logic.Highly critical of the establishedbehavioristcurrents in linguistics, in 1954, he presented his ideas at lectures at theUniversity of ChicagoandYale University.He had not been registered as a student at", "as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas ontransformational grammar; he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it, and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part ofThe Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory.Harvard professorGeorge Armitage Millerwas impressed by Chomsky's thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers inmathematical linguistics.Chomsky's doctorate exempted him fromcompulsory military service, which was otherwise due to begin in 1955. In 1947, Chomsky began a romantic relationship withCarol Doris Schatz, whom he had known since early childhood. They married in 1949.After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to theAllstonarea of Boston and remained there until 1965, when they relocated to the suburb ofLexington.The couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe in 1953.He enjoyed living inHashomer Hatzair'sHaZore'akibbutzwhile in Israel, but", "in Israel, but was appalled by his interactions with Jewish nationalism,anti-Arab racismand, within the kibbutz's leftist community,Stalinism.On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journalFraye Arbeter Shtimeand became enamored with the ideas ofRudolf Rocker, a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link betweenanarchismandclassical liberalism.Chomsky also read other political thinkers: the anarchistsMikhail BakuninandDiego Abad de Santillán, democratic socialistsGeorge Orwell,Bertrand Russell, andDwight Macdonald, and works by MarxistsKarl Liebknecht,Karl Korsch, andRosa Luxemburg.His politics were reaffirmed by Orwell's depiction ofBarcelona's functioning anarchist society inHomage to Catalonia(1938).Chomsky read the leftist journalPolitics, which furthered his interest in anarchism,and thecouncil communistperiodicalLiving Marxism, though he rejected the Marxist orthodoxy of its editor,Paul Mattick. Early career: 1955–1966 Chomsky befriended", "Chomsky befriended two linguists at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology(MIT)—Morris HalleandRoman Jakobson—the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955. At MIT, Chomsky spent half his time on amechanical translationproject and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy.He described MIT as open to experimentation where he was free to pursue his idiosyncratic interests.MIT promoted him to the position ofassociate professorin 1957, and over the next year he was also a visiting professor atColumbia University.The Chomskys had their first child,Aviva, that same year.He also published his first book on linguistics,Syntactic Structures, a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris–Bloomfieldtrend in the field.Responses to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused \"significant upheaval\" in the discipline.The linguistJohn Lyonslater asserted thatSyntactic Structures\"revolutionized the scientific study of", "scientific study of language\".From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was aNational Science Foundationfellow at theInstitute for Advanced StudyinPrinceton, New Jersey. Chomsky's provocative critique ofB. F. Skinner, who viewed language as learned behavior, and its challenge to the dominant behaviorist paradigm thrust Chomsky into the limelight. Chomsky argued that behaviorism underplayed the role of human creativity in learning language and overplayed the role of external conditions in influencing verbal behavior.He proceeded to found MIT's graduate program in linguistics with Halle. In 1961, Chomskyreceived tenureand became afull professorin the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics.He was appointed plenary speaker at the NinthInternational Congress of Linguists, held in 1962 inCambridge, Massachusetts, which established him as thede factospokesperson of American linguistics.Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military-sponsored project to teach computers to understand natural English commands from military", "from military generals. Chomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including inAspects of the Theory of Syntax(1965),Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar(1966), andCartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought(1966).Along with Halle, he also edited theStudies in Languageseries of books forHarper and Row.As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work, Chomsky lectured at theUniversity of California, Berkeley, in 1966.These lectures were published asLanguage and Mindin 1968.In the late 1960s, a high-profile intellectual rift later known as thelinguistic warsdeveloped between Chomsky and some of his colleagues and doctoral students—includingPaul Postal,John Ross,George Lakoff, andJames D. McCawley—who contended that Chomsky's syntax-based, interpretivist linguistics did not properly account for semantic context (general semantics). A post hoc assessment of this period concluded that the opposing programs ultimately were", "ultimately were complementary, each informing the other. Anti-war activism and dissent: 1967–1975 t does not require very far-reaching, specialized knowledge to perceive that the United States was invading South Vietnam. And, in fact, to take apart the system of illusions and deception which functions to prevent understanding of contemporary reality not a task that requires extraordinary skill or understanding. It requires the kind of normal skepticism and willingness to apply one's analytical skills that almost all people have and that they can exercise. —Chomsky on the Vietnam War Chomsky joinedprotests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam Warin 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes.His 1967 critique of U.S. involvement, \"The Responsibility of Intellectuals\", among other contributions toThe New York Review of Books, debuted Chomsky as a public dissident.This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky's first political", "first political book,American Power and the New Mandarins.He followed this with further political books, includingAt War with Asia(1970),The Backroom Boys(1973),For Reasons of State(1973), andPeace in the Middle East?(1974), published byPantheon Books.These publications led to Chomsky's association with the AmericanNew Leftmovement,though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectualsHerbert MarcuseandErich Frommand preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals.Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period. Chomsky also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students whorefused the draft, and was arrested while participating in ananti-warteach-inoutside the Pentagon.During this time, Chomsky co-founded the anti-war collectiveRESISTwithMitchell Goodman,Denise Levertov,William Sloane Coffin, andDwight Macdonald.Although he questioned the objectives of the1968 student protests,Chomsky regularly gave", "regularly gave lectures to student activist groups and, with his colleague Louis Kampf, ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative-dominatedpolitical sciencedepartment.When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT, Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT's oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense.Chomsky has acknowledged that his MIT lab's funding at this time came from the military.He later said he considered resigning from MIT during the Vietnam War.There has since been a wide-ranging debate about what effects Chomsky's employment at MIT had on his political and linguistic ideas. Chomsky's anti-war activism led to his arrest on multiple occasions and he was on PresidentRichard Nixon's master list of political opponents.Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience, and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the", "to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or joblessness.Chomsky's scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs.In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam'sHanoi University of Science and Technologyand toured war refugee camps inLaos. In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of theWar Resisters League. Chomsky's work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as hereceived multiple honorary doctorates.He deliveredpublic lecturesat theUniversity of Cambridge,Columbia University(Woodbridge Lectures), andStanford University.His appearance in a1971 debatewith Frenchcontinental philosopherMichel Foucaultpositioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead ofanalytic philosophy.He continued to publish extensively on linguistics, producingStudies on Semantics in Generative Grammar(1972),an enlarged edition ofLanguage and Mind(1972),andReflections on Language(1975).In 1974 Chomsky became acorresponding fellow", "fellow of the British Academy. Edward S. Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980 In the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory.His political talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military.In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating withEdward S. Herman, who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam.Together they wroteCounter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, a book that criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media's failure to cover it. Warner Modular published it in 1973, butits parent companydisapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies destroyed. While mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support fromMichael Albert'sSouth End Press, an activist-oriented publishing company.In 1979, South End published Chomsky and", "Chomsky and Herman's revisedCounter-Revolutionary Violenceas the two-volumeThe Political Economy of Human Rights,which compares U.S. media reactions to theCambodian genocideand theIndonesian occupation of East Timor. It argues that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy.Chomsky's response included two testimonials before the United Nations'Special Committee on Decolonization, successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation, and meetings with refugees inLisbon.Marxist academicSteven Lukesmost prominently publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leaderPol Pot.Herman said that the controversy \"imposed a serious personal cost\" on Chomsky,who considered the personal criticism less important than the evidence that \"mainstream intelligentsia suppressed or justified the crimes of their own states\". Chomsky had long publicly criticizedNazism,", "criticizedNazism, andtotalitarianismmore generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historianRobert Faurissonto advocate a position widely characterized asHolocaust denial. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 bookMémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire.Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson,and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations.Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologistWerner Cohnlater published an analysis of the affair titledPartners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers.The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career,especially in France. Critique of propaganda and international affairs In 1985, during theNicaraguan Contra War—in which the U.S. supported thecontra militiaagainst", "militiaagainst theSandinistagovernment—Chomsky traveled toManaguato meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics.Many of these lectures were published in 1987 asOn Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures.In 1983 he publishedThe Fateful Triangle, which argued that the U.S. had continually used theIsraeli–Palestinian conflictfor its own ends.In 1988, Chomsky visited thePalestinian territoriesto witness the impact of Israeli occupation. Chomsky and Herman'sManufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media(1988) outlines theirpropaganda modelfor understanding mainstream media. Even in countries without official censorship, they argued, the news is censored through five filters that greatly influence both what and how news is presented.The book receiveda 1992 film adaptation.In 1989, Chomsky publishedNecessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies,in which he suggests that a worthwhile democracy requires that its", "requires that its citizens undertake intellectual self-defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them.By the 1980s, Chomsky's students had become prominent linguists who, in turn, expanded and revised his linguistic theories. In the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before.Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance.The lectures he gave on the subject were published asPowers and Prospectsin 1996.As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalistJohn Pilger.After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999, the Australian-ledInternational Force for East Timorarrived as a peacekeeping force;", "peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under theTimor Gap Treaty. Chomsky was widely interviewed after theSeptember 11 attacksin 2001 as the American public attempted to make sense of the attacks.He argued that the ensuingWar on Terrorwas not a new development but a continuation of U.S. foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era.He gave theD.T. LakdawalaMemorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001,and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists.Chomsky's 2003Hegemony or Survivalarticulated what he called the United States' \"imperialgrand strategy\" and critiqued theIraq Warand other aspects of the War on Terror.Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period. During the2014 Scottish independence referendum, Chomsky supported Scottish independence. Retirement Chomsky retired from MIT in 2002,but continued to conduct", "to conduct research and seminars on campus as anemeritus.That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being aco-defendantand amid international media attention, theSecurity Courtsdropped the charge on the first day.During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds' human rights.A supporter of theWorld Social Forum, he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India. Chomsky supported the 2011Occupy movement, speaking at encampments and publishing on the movement, which he called a reaction to a 30-yearclass war.The 2015 documentaryRequiem for the American Dreamsummarizes his views on capitalism andeconomic inequalitythrough a \"75-minuteteach-in\". In 2015 Chomsky and his wife purchased a residence inSão Paulo,Brazil, and began splitting their time between Brazil and the U.S. Chomsky taught a short-term", "taught a short-term politics course at theUniversity of Arizonain 2017and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, his duties including teaching and public seminars.His salary was covered by philanthropic donations. After astrokein June 2023, Chomsky moved to Brazil full-time;this was not publicly reported until June 2024. Linguistic theory What started as purely linguistic research ... has led, through involvement in political causes and an identification with an older philosophic tradition, to no less than an attempt to formulate an overall theory of man. The roots of this are manifest in the linguistic theory ... The discovery of cognitive structures common to the human race but only to humans (species specific), leads quite easily to thinking of unalienable human attributes. —Edward Marcotteon the significance of Chomsky's linguistic theory The basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies inbiolinguistics, the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning", "underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited.He argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences.In adopting this position Chomsky rejects theradical behavioristpsychology ofB. F. Skinner, who viewed speech, thought, and all behavior as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species.Chomsky argues that hisnativist, internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of \"rationalism\" and contrasts with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of \"empiricism\",which contends that all knowledge, including language, comes from external stimuli.Historians have disputed Chomsky's claim about", "claim about rationalism on the basis that his theory of innate grammar excludespropositional knowledgeand instead focuses on innate learning capacities or structures. Universal grammar Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of theirnative languages. He bases his argument on observations about humanlanguage acquisitionand describes a \"poverty of the stimulus\": an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the richlinguistic competencethey attain. For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowablesyntactic variantswithin their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and producean infinite number of sentences, including ones that have never before been uttered, in that language.To explain this, Chomsky proposed that the primary linguistic data must be", "data must be supplemented by aninnate linguistic capacity. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable ofinductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky referred to this difference in capacity as thelanguage acquisition device, and suggested that linguists needed to determine both what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute \"universal grammar\".Multiple researchers have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language,the lack of crosslinguistic surface universals,and the unproven link between innate/universal structures and the structures of specific languages.Michael Tomasellohas challenged Chomsky's theory of innate syntactic knowledge as", "knowledge as based on theory and not behavioral observation.The empirical basis of poverty of the stimulus arguments has been challenged byGeoffrey Pullumand others, leading to back-and-forth debate in thelanguage acquisitionliterature.Recent work has also suggested that somerecurrent neural networkarchitectures can learn hierarchical structure without an explicit constraint. Transformational-generative grammar Transformational-generative grammaris a broad theory used to model, encode, and deduce a native speaker's linguistic capabilities.These models, or \"formal grammars\", show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages.Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s, whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades.\"Transformations\" refers to syntactic relationships within language, e.g., being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person.Chomsky's theory posits that language", "that language consists of bothdeep structures and surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and conceptual meaning. Transformational-generative grammar usesmathematical notationto express the rules that govern the connection between meaning and sound (deep and surface structures, respectively). By this theory, linguistic principles canmathematically generatepotential sentence structures in a language. Chomsky is commonly credited with inventing transformational-generative grammar, but his original contribution was considered modest when he first published his theory. In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbookSyntactic Structures, he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated byZellig Harris, who was Chomsky's PhD supervisor, and byCharles F. Hockett.Their method is derived from the work of the Danish structural linguistLouis Hjelmslev, who introducedalgorithmic grammarto general linguistics.Based", "linguistics.Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, Chomsky grouped logically possible phrase-structure grammar types into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as theChomsky hierarchy. This classification remains relevant toformal language theoryandtheoretical computer science, especiallyprogramming language theory,compilerconstruction, andautomata theory.Chomsky'sSyntactic Structuresbecame, beyond generative linguistics as such, a catalyst for connecting what inHjelmslev's andJesperson's time was the beginnings ofstructural linguistics, which has becomecognitive linguistics. Transformational grammar was the dominant research paradigm through the mid-1970s. The derivativegovernment and binding theoryreplaced it and remained influential through the early 1990s,when linguists turned to a \"minimalist\" approach to grammar. This research focused on theprinciples and parametersframework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open", "by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data.The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky,asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply.In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as \"deep structure\" and \"surface structure\" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or \"logical forms\".When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech. Political views The second major area to", "major area to which Chomsky has contributed—and surely the best known in terms of the number of people in his audience and the ease of understanding what he writes and says—is his work on sociopolitical analysis; political, social, and economic history; and critical assessment of current political circumstance. In Chomsky's view, although those in power might—and do—try to obscure their intentions and to defend their actions in ways that make them acceptable to citizens, it is easy for anyone who is willing to be critical and consider the facts to discern what they are up to. —James McGilvray, 2014 Chomsky is a prominent political dissident.His political views have changed little since his childhood,when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition.He usually identifies as ananarcho-syndicalistor alibertarian socialist.He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs: liberty,", "needs: liberty, community, and freedom of association.Unlike some other socialists, such as Marxists, Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science,but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories. In Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elitecorporatocracy, which uses corporate media, advertising, andthink tanksto promote its own propaganda. His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure.Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by \"common sense\", critical thinking, and understanding the roles of self-interest and self-deception,and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding.He argues that, as such an intellectual, it is his duty to use hissocial privilege, resources, and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles. Although he has", "Although he has participated indirect actiondemonstrations—joining protests, being arrested, organizing groups—Chomsky's primary political outlet is education, i.e., free public lessons.He is a longtime member of theIndustrial Workers of the Worldinternational union,as was his father. United States foreign policy Chomsky has been a prominent critic of \"American imperialism\",but is not a pacifist, believingWorld War IIwas justified as America's last defensive war.He believes thatU.S. foreign policy's basic principle is the establishment of \"open societies\" that are economically and politically controlled by the U.S. and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper.He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power.When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective.He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and", "of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; by criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them.Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and U.S. actions in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East. Chomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States.He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because itsliberal democraticelectoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy.His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies.He urges people to", "urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves. Chomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict, arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement.He also criticizes the U.S.'s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement inSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, highlighting that Saudi Arabia has \"one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world\". Chomsky called theRussian invasion of Ukrainea criminal act of aggression and noted thatRussia was committing major war crimesin the country. He considered support for Ukraine's self-defense legitimate and said Ukraine should be given enough military aid to defend itself, but not enough to cause \"an escalation\".His criticism of the war focused on the United States.He alleged that the U.S. rejected any compromise with Russia and that this might have", "this might have provoked the invasion.According to Chomsky, the U.S. was arming Ukraine only to weaken Russia, and Ukrainian requests for heavy weaponry were untrue \"Western propaganda\", despite Ukraine's PresidentVolodymyr Zelenskyrepeatedly asking for them.More than a year into the invasion, Chomsky argued that Russia was waging the war \"more humanely\" than the U.S. did theinvasion of Iraq. Capitalism and socialism In his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike ofcapitalismand the pursuit of material wealth.At the same time, he developed a disdain forauthoritarian socialism, as represented by theMarxist–Leninistpolicies of the Soviet Union.Rather than accepting the common view among U.S. economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control (whether state or private).He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really", "are not really democratic,because, in his view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy.He has stated his opposition toruling elites, among them institutions like theIMF,World Bank, andGATT(precursor to theWTO). Chomsky highlights that, since the 1970s,the U.S. has become increasingly economically unequalas a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the unilateral rescinding of theBretton Woods financial control agreementby the U.S.He characterizes the U.S. as ade factoone-party state, viewing both theRepublican PartyandDemocratic Partyas manifestations of a single \"Business Party\" controlled by corporate and financial interests.Chomsky highlights that, within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite. Noting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes", "Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably.Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions.He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval. Chomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of theclassical liberalideas of theAge of Enlightenment,arguing that his ideological position revolves around \"nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being\".He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct", "future with direct worker control of themeans of productionand government byworkers' councils, who would select temporary and revocable representatives to meet together at general assemblies.The point of this self-governance is to make each citizen, inThomas Jefferson's words, \"a direct participator in the government of affairs.\"He believes that there will be no need for political parties.By controlling their productive life, he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose.He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated, specially remunerated, or communally shared. Israeli–Palestinian conflict Chomsky has written prolifically about theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict, aiming to raise public awareness of it.Alabor Zionistwho later became what is today considered ananti-Zionist, Chomsky has criticized theIsraeli settlementsin theIsraeli-occupiedWest Bank, which he likens to asettler colony.He has said that the 1947United Nations Partition Plan for", "Partition Plan for Palestinewas a bad decision, but given therealpolitikof the situation, he has also considered atwo-state solutionon the condition that the nation-states exist on equal terms. Chomsky has said that characterizingIsrael's treatment of the Palestinians as apartheid, similar to the system that existed in South Africa, would be a \"gift to Israel\", as he has long held that \"theOccupied Territoriesare much worse than South Africa\".South Africa depended on its black population for labor, but Chomsky argues the same is not true of Israel, which in his view seeks to make the situation for Palestinians under its occupation unlivable, especially in theWest Bankand theGaza Strip, where \"atrocities\" take place every day.He also argues that, unlike South Africa, Israel has not sought the international community's approval, but rather relies solely on U.S. support.Chomsky has said that the Israeli-ledblockadeof theGaza Striphas turned it into a \"concentration camp\" and expressed similar fears to Israeli", "fears to Israeli intellectualYeshayahu Leibowitz's 1990s warning that the continued occupation of thePalestinian territoriescould turnIsraeli Jewsinto \"Judeo-Nazis\". Chomsky has said that Leibowitz's warning \"was a direct reflection of the continued occupation, the humiliation of people, the degradation, and the terrorist attacks by the Israeli government\".He has also called the U.S. a violent state that exports violence by supporting Israeli \"atrocities\" against the Palestinians and said that listening to American mainstream media, includingCBS, is like listening to \"Israeli propaganda agencies\". Chomsky was denied entry to theWest Bankin 2010 because ofhis criticisms of Israel. He had been invited to deliver a lecture atBir Zeit Universityand was to meet with Palestinian Prime MinisterSalam Fayyad.AnIsraeli Foreign Ministryspokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake. In his 1983 bookThe Fateful Triangle, Chomsky criticized thePalestinian Liberation Organizationfor its", "Organizationfor its \"self-destructiveness\" and \"suicidal character\" and disapproved of its programs of \"armed struggle\" and \"erratic violence\". He also criticized the Arab governments as not \"decent\".Given what he has described as his very Jewish upbringing with deeply Zionist activist parents, Chomsky's views have drawn controversy and criticism. They are rooted in thekibbutzimand socialist binational cooperation.In a 2014 interview onDemocracy Now!, Chomsky said that the charter ofHamas, which calls for Israel's destruction, \"means practically nothing\", having been created \"by a small group of people under siege, under attack in 1988\". He compared it to the electoral program of theLikudparty, which, he said, \"states explicitly that there can never be a Palestinian state west of the Jordan River. And they not only state it in their charter, that's a call for the destruction of Palestine, explicit call for it\". Mass media and propaganda Chomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology,social and", "ideology,social and political power,mass media, and state policy.One of his best-known works,Manufacturing Consent, dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship, by government-guided \"free market\" forces, is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union.As he argues, the mainstream press is corporate-owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests.Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well-meaning, he argues that the mass media's choices of topics and issues, the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests, and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state's ideology:although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties, it will not undermine the wider state-corporate nexus of which it is a part.As evidence, he", "evidence, he highlights that the U.S. mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators.He also points to examples of important news stories that the U.S. mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country, including the murder of Black PantherFred Hamptonwith possibleFBIinvolvement, the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U.S.-fundedContras, and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict.To remedy this situation, Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media. Chomsky considers mostconspiracy theoriesfruitless, distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives.He separates his Propaganda Model from conspiracy in that he is describing institutions following their natural imperatives rather than collusive", "than collusive forces with secret controls.Instead of supporting the educational system as an antidote, he believes that most education is counterproductive.Chomsky describesmass educationas a system solely intended to turn farmers from independent producers into unthinking industrial employees. Reactions of critics and counter-criticism: 1980s–present In the 2004 bookThe Anti-Chomsky Reader,Peter CollierandDavid Horowitzaccuse Chomsky ofcherry-pickingfacts to suit his theories.Horowitz has also criticized Chomsky'santi-Americanism: For 40 years Noam Chomsky has turned out book after book, pamphlet after pamphlet and speech after speech with one message, and one message alone: America is the Great Satan; it is the fount of evil in the world. In Chomsky's demented universe, America is responsible not only for its own bad deeds, but for the bad deeds of others, including those of the terrorists who struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. In this attitude he is the medium for all those who now search", "who now search the ruins of Manhattan not for the victims and the American dead, but for the \"root causes\" of the catastrophe that befell them. For theconservativepublic policythink tanktheHoover Institution, Peter Schweizer wrote in January 2006, \"Chomsky favors the estate tax and massive income redistribution—just not the redistribution of his income.\" Schweizer criticized Chomsky for setting up an estate plan and protecting his own intellectual property as it relates to his published works, as well as the high speaking fees that Chomsky received on a regular basis, around $9,000–$12,000 per talk at that time. Chomsky has been accused of treating socialist or communist regimes with credulity and examining capitalist regimes with greater scrutiny or criticism: Chomsky's analysis of U.S. actions plunged deep into dark U.S. machinations, but when traveling among the Communists he rested content with appearances. The countryside outside Hanoi, he reported inThe New York Review of Books, displayed \"a high", "displayed \"a high degree of democratic participation at the village and regional levels.\" But how could he tell? Chomsky did not speak Vietnamese, and so he depended on government translators, tour guides, and handlers for information. In Vietnamese hands, the clear-eyed skepticism turned into willing credulousness. According to Nikolas Kozloff, writing forAl Jazeerain September 2012, Chomsky \"has drawn the world's attention to the various misdeeds of the US and its proxies around the world, and for that he deserves credit. Yet, in seeking to avoid controversy at all costs Chomsky has turned into something of an ideologue. Scour the Chomsky web site and you won't find significant discussion of Belarus or Latin America's flirtation with outside authoritarian leaders, for that matter.\" Political activistGeorge Monbiothas argued that \"Part of the problem is that a kind of cult has developed around Noam Chomsky andJohn Pilger, which cannot believe they could ever be wrong, and produces ever more elaborate", "ever more elaborate conspiracy theories to justify their mistakes.\" Anarchist and primitivistJohn Zerzanhas accused Chomsky of not being a real anarchist, saying that he is instead \"a liberal-leftist politically, and downright reactionary in his academic specialty, linguistic theory. Chomsky is also, by all accounts, a generous, sincere, tireless activist—which does not, unfortunately, ensure his thinking has liberatory value.\" Defenders of Chomsky have countered that he has been censored or left out of public debate. Claims of this nature date to theReagan era. Writing forThe Washington Postin February 1988,Saul Landauwrote, \"It is unhealthy that Chomsky's insights are excluded from the policy debate. His relentless prosecutorial prose, with a hint of Talmudic whine and the rationalist anarchism of Tom Paine, may reflect a justified frustration.\" Philosophy Chomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, includingphilosophy of mind,philosophy of language, andphilosophy of science.In these", "of science.In these fields he is credited with ushering in the \"cognitive revolution\",a significantparadigm shiftthat rejectedlogical positivism, the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think aboutlanguageand themind.Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-centuryrationalistideals.His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism than behaviorism.He named one of his key worksCartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought(1966).This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky's interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology.In the philosophy of language, Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations. Chomsky's famous1971 debateonhuman", "debateonhuman naturewith the French philosopherMichel Foucaultwas a symbolic clash of theanalyticandcontinentalphilosophy traditions, represented by Chomsky and Foucault, respectively.It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century. Foucault held that any definition of human nature is connected to our present-day conceptions of ourselves; Chomsky held that human nature contained universals such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason.Chomsky criticizedpostmodernismandFrench philosophygenerally, arguing that the obscure language of postmodern, leftist philosophers gives little aid to the working classes.He has also debated analytic philosophers, includingTyler Burge,Donald Davidson,Michael Dummett,Saul Kripke,Thomas Nagel,Hilary Putnam,Willard Van Orman Quine, andJohn Searle. Chomsky's contributions spanintellectualand world history, including the history of philosophy.Irony is a recurring characteristic of his", "of his writing, such as rhetorically implying that his readers already know something to be true, which engages the reader more actively in assessing the veracity of his claims. Personal life Chomsky endeavors to separate his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism from each other.An intensely private person,he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him.McGilvray suggests that Chomsky is not motivated by a desire for fame, but impelled to tell what he perceives as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so.Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world's population;nevertheless, he characterizes himself as a \"worker\", albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill.He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the U.S., he subscribes toThe Boston Globe,The New York Times,The Wall Street Journal,Financial Times, andThe Christian Science Monitor.Chomsky is not religious but has expressed", "but has expressed approval of forms of religion such asliberation theology. Chomsky is known to use charged language (\"corrupt\", \"fascist\", \"fraudulent\") when describing established political and academic figures, which can polarize his audience but is in keeping with his belief that much scholarship is self-serving.His colleagueSteven Pinkerhas said that Chomsky \"portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric\", and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives.Chomsky avoidsacademic conferences, including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences.His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores; in 1969, when Chomsky heard thatWalt Rostow, a major architect of the Vietnam war, wanted to return to work at MIT, Chomsky threatened \"to protest publicly\" if Rostow were denied a position at MIT. In", "position at MIT. In 1989, when Pentagon adviserJohn Deutchapplied to be president of MIT, Chomsky supported his candidacy. Later, when Deutch became head of the CIA,The New York Timesquoted Chomsky as saying, \"He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I've ever met.... If somebody's got to be running the CIA, I'm glad it's him.\" Chomsky was married toCarol Doris(néeSchatz) from 1949 until her death in 2008.They had three children together:Aviva(b. 1957), Diane (b. 1960), and Harry (b. 1967).In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman.They have owned a residence in Wasserman's native country of Brazil since 2015. In 2023, Chomsky suffered a massive stroke and was flown to a hospital inSão Paulo, Brazil, to recuperate.He can no longer walk or communicate, making his return to public life improbable,but he continues to follow current events such as theIsrael–Hamas war.He was discharged in June 2024 to continue his recovery at home.The same month, Chomskytrended on social mediaamid false reports of his death.", "of his death. Periodicals retractedpremature obituaries. Reception and influence voice is heard in academia beyond linguistics and philosophy: from computer science to neuroscience, from anthropology to education, mathematics and literary criticism. If we include Chomsky's political activism then the boundaries become quite blurred, and it comes as no surprise that Chomsky is increasingly seen as enemy number one by those who inhabit that wide sphere of reactionary discourse and action. —Sperlich, 2006 Chomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology.In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time,Chomsky has a dual legacy as a leader and luminary in both linguistics and the realm ofpolitical dissent.Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by mainstream media, and he is regarded as", "he is regarded as being \"on the outer margin of acceptability\".Chomsky's public image and social reputation often color his work's public reception. In academia McGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the \"cognitive revolution\" in linguistics,and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal,natural science,moving it away from the procedural form ofstructural linguisticsdominant during the mid-20th century.As such, some have called Chomsky \"the father of modern linguistics\".Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become \"the most dynamic and influential\" school of thought in the field.By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy,and aMinnesota State University Moorheadpoll rankedSyntactic Structuresas the single most important work incognitive science.In addition, his work inautomata theoryand the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known incomputer science, and he is much cited", "he is much cited incomputational linguistics. Chomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline ofbehaviorist psychology;in addition, he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science.Some arguments inevolutionary psychologyare derived from his research results;Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study inanimal language acquisitionat Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability. ACM Turing AwardwinnerDonald Knuthcredited Chomsky's work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics, linguistics, and computer science.IBMcomputer scientistJohn Backus, another Turing Award winner, used some of Chomsky's concepts to help him developFORTRAN, the first widely used high-levelcomputer programming language.Chomsky's theory of generative grammar has also influenced work inmusic theoryandanalysis, such asFred Lerdahl's andRay Jackendoff'sgenerative theory", "theory of tonal music. Chomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead.He was cited within theArts and Humanities Citation Indexmore often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992.Chomsky was also extensively cited in theSocial Sciences Citation IndexandScience Citation Indexduring the same period. The librarian who conducted the research said that the statistics show that \"he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines... it seems that you can't write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky.\"As a result of his influence, there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non-Chomskyan linguistics. Their disputes are often acrimonious.Additionally, according to journalistMaya Jaggi, Chomsky is among the most quoted sources in the humanities, ranking alongsideMarx,Shakespeareandthe Bible. In politics Chomsky's status as the \"most-quoted living author\" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics.Chomsky", "linguistics.Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as \"one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people\";journalistJohn Pilgerhas described him as a \"genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive.\"Arundhati Royhas called him \"one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time\",andEdward Saidthought him \"one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions\".Fred Hallidayhas said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a \"guru\" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements.The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media,also exerting a significant influence on the growth ofalternative media, including radio, publishers, and the", "publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work. Despite this broad influence, university departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi.Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as manysocial scientistsclaim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so.Some have responded to these criticisms by questioning the critics' motives and their understanding of Chomsky's ideas. Sperlich, for instance, says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press.Likewise, according to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics \"do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text\". Chomsky drew", "text\". Chomsky drew criticism for not calling theBosnian War'sSrebrenica massacrea \"genocide\".While he did not deny the fact of the massacre,which he called \"a horror story and major crime\", he felt the massacre did not meet thedefinition of genocide.Critics have accused Chomsky ofdenying the Bosnian genocide. Chomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to aFreedom of Information Act(FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law.He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East but has refused uniformed police protection.German news magazineDer Spiegeldescribed Chomsky as \"the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred\",while AmericanconservativecommentatorDavid Horowitzcalled him", "Horowitzcalled him \"the most devious, the most dishonest and ... the most treacherous intellect in America\", whose work is infused with \"anti-American dementia\" and evidences his \"pathological hatred of his own country\".Writing inCommentarymagazine, the journalistJonathan Kaydescribed Chomsky as \"a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says\". Chomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and ananti-Semite.Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints,Werner Cohncalled Chomsky \"the most important patron\" of theneo-Nazimovement.TheAnti-Defamation League(ADL) called him a Holocaust denier,describing him as a \"dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims\".In turn, Chomsky has", "turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by \"Stalinist types\" who oppose democracy in Israel.The lawyerAlan Dershowitzhas called Chomsky a \"false prophet of the left\";Chomsky called Dershowitz \"a complete liar\" who is on \"a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation\".In early 2016, PresidentRecep Tayyip Erdoğanof Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed anopen lettercondemning Erdoğan for hisanti-Kurdish repressionand double standards on terrorism.Chomsky accused Erdoğan of hypocrisy, noting that Erdoğan supportsal-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate,theal-Nusra Front. Academic achievements, awards, and honors In 1970, the LondonTimesnamed Chomsky one of the \"makers of the twentieth century\".He was voted the world's leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazineForeign Policyand British magazineProspect.New Statesmanreaders listed Chomsky among the world's foremost heroes in 2006. In the United States he is", "United States he is aMember of the National Academy of Sciences, theAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences, theLinguistic Society of America, theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science, theAmerican Philosophical Association,and theAmerican Philosophical Society.Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of theBritish Academy, an honorary member of theBritish Psychological Society, a member of theDeutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina,and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of theSerbian Academy of Sciences and Arts.He received a 1971Guggenheim Fellowship, the 1984American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology, the 1988Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the 1996Helmholtz Medal,the 1999Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science,the 2010Erich Fromm Prize,and theBritish Academy's 2014Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics.He is also a two-time winner of theNCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and", "to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language(1987 and 1989).He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award fromThe Asiatic Society. Chomsky received the 2004Carl-von-OssietzkyPrize from the city ofOldenburg, Germany, to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic.He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from theLiterary and Historical Society of University College Dublin.He received the 2008 President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of theNational University of Ireland, Galway.Since 2009, he has been an honorary member ofInternational Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters(IAPTI).He received the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarshipand was inducted intoIEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for \"significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems.\"Chomsky has anErdős numberof four. In 2011, the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace", "the US Peace Prize for anti-war activities over five decades.For his work in human rights, peace, and social criticism, he received the 2011Sydney Peace Prize,theSretenje Orderin 2015,the 2017Seán MacBride Peace Prizeand the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award. Chomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including theUniversity of Londonand theUniversity of Chicago(1967),Loyola University ChicagoandSwarthmore College(1970),Bard College(1971),Delhi University(1972), theUniversity of Massachusetts(1973), and theInternational School for Advanced Studies(2012).Public lectures given by Chomsky include the 1969John Locke Lectures,1975Whidden Lectures,1977Huizinga Lecture, and 1988Massey Lectures. Various tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is theeponymfora bee species,a frog species,anasteroid,and a building complex at the Indian universityJamia Millia Islamia.ActorViggo Mortensenand avant-garde guitaristBucketheaddedicated their 2003 albumPandemoniumfromamericato Chomsky.", "Chomsky. Selected bibliography Linguistics Politics See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links", "Nim Chimpsky Neam\"Nim\"Chimpsky(November 19, 1973 – March 10, 2000) was achimpanzeeused in a study to determine whetherchimps could learn a human language,American Sign Language(ASL). The project was led byHerbert S. TerraceofColumbia Universitywith linguistic analysis bypsycholinguistThomas Bever. Chimpsky was named as apunon linguistNoam Chomsky, who posited that humans are \"wired\" to develop language. Over the course of Project Nim, the infant chimp was shuttled between locations and a revolving group of roughly 60 caregivers, including teenagers and grad students, few of whom were proficient in sign language.Four years into the project, Nim became too difficult to manage and was returned to the Institute for Primate Studies in Oklahoma. After reviewing the results, Terrace concluded that Nim mimicked signs from his teachers in order to get a reward. Terrace argued that Nim did not initiate conversation or create sentences. Terrace said that he had not noticed this throughout the duration of the study but", "of the study but only upon reviewing video tape.Terrace ultimately became a popularly cited critic ofape languagestudies. Project Nim Herbert Terrace, a professory of Psychology atColumbia University, launched Project Nim in 1973, six years after R. Allen andBeatrix Gardnerbegan testing a chimpanzee's ability to acquireAmerican Sign Languagewith ProjectWashoe. Terrace named the infant chimpanzee as a pun onNoam Chomsky. With this project, Terrace intended to challenge Chomsky's assertion that onlyhumanscan use language.(Terrace's mentor,B.F. Skinner, a key figure inbehaviorism, was known as an academic target and rival of Chomsky.) Nim's early years Nim's life history is detailed in Elizabeth Hess's seminal biography,Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human(2008), which became the basis for a 2011 documentary film directed byJames Marsh,Project Nim(see below). Nim was born at the Institute for Primate Studies inNorman,Oklahoma. A few days after his birth, he was taken from his sedated mother and placed in", "and placed in theNew York Cityhome of Stephanie LaFarge. LaFarge was a former grad student of Terrace's with three children and four stepchildren.LaFarge \"knew nothing\" about chimps and instantly recognized that the arrangement would be a problem.The LaFarge household was unconventional: she breastfed the chimp (though she had no milk)and smoked pot with him.Stephanie LaFarge and her daughter Jennie Lee used signs sporadically, focusing instead on play and establishing trust, which they saw as a developmental need. They did not maintain records of Nim's development and did not support the harsh discipline practices that Terrace and his lead trainer at the time demanded. (This included the use of cattle prodsand forcing Nim into a small, dark box when he misbehaved.). By mutual agreement two years later, Nim was moved out of the LaFargebrownstoneand into a large house inRiverdale, where a grad student,Laura-Ann Petitto, took over as primary caregiver. After the move to Riverdale, Nim exhibited symptoms of", "symptoms of intense anxiety. For the first few weeks, he refused to be alone for even a minute.When left with a new person, he would rip off his clothes and pee and poop all over the room.His habit of \"sinking his teeth into human flesh\" -- which started before he was a year old -- became both more frequent and more damaging. Adding further complication, Terrace became romantically involved with Petitto. (He had also been sexually involved with LaFarge but the relationship ended years before Project Nim.) After he \"abruptly\" ended the relationship, Petitto quit,cutting off Nim (again) from his closet companion and maternal figure. Terrace's two other full-timers quit around the same time.In the wake of these turnovers, Nim's behavior deteriorated further; he became more aggressive and less compliant with sign-language sessions. Problems with the study A number of factors were problematic in the study of Nim’s signing abilities, including definition of language, turnover of staff, varying teaching methods,", "teaching methods, and the trauma inflicted upon Nim and the other chimpanzees as they were being taught. For any such psychological study to be ethical, participants ought to be able to give informed consent to experiments. Another problem with the study was the quality (and number) of people working with Nim. There were about 60 total, mostly volunteers, and few were proficient in sign language.Mary Wambaugh, a deaf woman fluent in ASL, joined the team three years into the study and raised concerns that the others were improperly signing. She told Terrace that Nim was being taught apidginversion of the language, not proper ASL, which has a structure and set of rules. As Hess, observed, this made sense given the study's heavy reliance on students and untrained volunteers. The caregivers signed word-by-word, the same way Nim did. Another significant problem involved Nim's classrooom. Nim performed his signs most fluidly and creatively when playing with his (human) friends at \"home\" — \"home\" being initially", "being initially the LaFarge brownstoneand, later, the Riverdale mansion.Yet Terrace needed Nim to work primarily in a space at Columbia, a windowless, noisy, 15' square \"dungeon.\"Terrace described the challenges with the space inNim: In the classroom, the slightest noise would make Nim jump into the arms of a teacher. At times, he was so scared he tried to hide under his teacher's skirt. The squeals of rats caused him to panic. And he would rock back-and-forth on the floor. Joyce Butler, who took over as primary caregiver after Petitto quit, said that Nim was nearly impossible to wrangle in the classroom and would repeatedly ask to leave by signing \"dirty\" to go to the bathroom. Butler and her fellow caregivers fought Terrace over his requirement that Nim attend the classroom daily. Eventually, they refused to take him there. As difficulties with staff, funding concerns, and Nim's behavior came to a head, Terrace called an end to the study. Over intense resistance from staff, he sent Nim back to the", "Nim back to the Institute for Primate Studies in 1977and then set about analyzing his data. Terrace's conclusions While Nim was in New York, Terrace believed he was learning sign language. But in reviewing the data, Terrace came to a conclusion that surprised most everyone involved: Nim, he said, was not using language at all.Terrace said that he changed his mind when watching videotapes of Nim (in his classroom). Language requires the use of sentences, and Nim didn't use sentences. Though Nim recognized and used signs, Terrace said he did not initiate conversation. When Nim combined signs, they tended to be highly repetitive and filled with \"wild cards\" -- words like ME, HUG, NIM, and MORE.For example, Nim's longest utterance, 16 signs, was: \"Give orange me give eat orange me eat orange give me eat orange give me you.\"The videotapes, Terrace argued, proved that Nim mimicked his teachers and used signs strictly to get a reward, not unlike a dog or horse. Terrace's results shocked some of Nim's trainers and", "Nim's trainers and contradicted his earlier observations, including those in his bookNim(1979). That said, his findings regarding the Nim data were generally accepted as accurate. Among the many problems with Terrace's project (see above), he did not build inblind controls, making Project Nim vulnerable to theClever Hanseffect. Controversy erupted over the fact that Terrace did not restrict his analysis to Nim. He claimed that otherapesin other sign language research projects—most notably,Washoeand gorillaKoko—were mere mimmicks as well. He made these claims after examining brief video clips of the apes taken from a NOVA documentaryand a film by Allen andBeatrix Gardner.Terrace's criticisms of other ape research led to heated debates, with many scholars contesting Terrace's claims. The arguments back-and-forth were summarized at that time by Jean Marx inScience(1980) and Dava Sobel (1979) and Eugene Lindenin theNew York Times. Terrace ultimately became a popularly cited critic ofape languagestudies. Life", "Life after Project Nim Nim's return to the Institute of Primate Studies (IPS) in Oklahoma was by all accounts traumatic. By contemporary standards, IPS was a dreary facility. The apes spent most of their time in relatively small cages with concrete floors. But IPS founder William Lemmon recognized the critical importance of apes' social interactions and connected the cages so that chimps had access to each other. He also provided a better, healthier diet than the standard monkey chow. Compared to many zoos and other research facilities at the time, the IPS chimps fared relatively well. Nim's celebrity was unique, but many of the IPS chimps had similarly been raised by humans. Like Nim, they were returned to IPS when they started growing up and exhibiting wild behaviors. Also like Nim, they had never met members of their own species before. The switch from a human environment to concrete cages with alien beasts caused intense stress and, in some cases, self-mutilation. But Nim's depression turned out to be", "turned out to be relatively short-lived compared to other new arrivals at IPS.Though terrified of the other chimps at first, Nim made new friends. Also, several students inRoger Fouts' sign language program enjoyed working with Nim and took him out for walks on the grounds. Nim continued to use signs, including STONE SMOKE TIME NOW to requestmarijuana.One IPS student, Bob Ingersoll, took a particular interest in Nim and advocated for him in the turmoil that was to follow. In the early 1980s,University of Oklahomawithdrew its support of the IPS. Faced with the loss of funding, William Lemmon arranged to gradually sell off chimps to aNew York University(NYU) biomedical lab,LEMSIP. (Roger Fouts, who had been working with several IPS chimps, had suddenly left for a new position in Washington, takingWashoeandLouliswith him.) Beginning in December 1981, IPS started sending chimps to LEMSIP, including many, like Nim, who had been used in sign language research. Staff at LEMSIP began noticing the chimps usingASLto", "chimps usingASLto communicate with them, so vet James Mahoney posted signs around the facility to help the staff understand the chimps' gestures. When Bob Ingersoll found out about the LEMSIP plan, he called his Nim contacts to launch a protest and press campaign. He also contactedJane Goodall, who wrote a letter to the University of Oklahoma on the chimps' behalf.Henry Herrman, a lawyer who had caught wind of the story in the Boston Globereached out to Terrace, who had been quoted, to offer his services. His call to Terrace proved to be fortuitous. Other IPS personnel made a few calls that ultimately led to a CBS news story. When CBS News interviewed Terrace, Terrace said he was shocked to hear about the move and, referring to his contact with Herrman, announced that he would be filing a lawsuit to stop it. (According to James Mahoney of LEMSIP, Terrace had known about the move for several months and only acted outraged when the press attention hit.) Though NYU initially ignored the press, the mounting", "press, the mounting legal threats and negative attention made holding on to the celebrity chimp — Nim — no longer worth it for the university. NYU arranged to send Nim and fellow chimp Ally back to IPS. Nim had been at LEMSIP for less than a month. The other sign language-trained chimps remained at LEMSIP. The press by then had moved on. In 1983, philanthropistCleveland Amorystepped in to buy Nim, by now a celebrity, and brought him to his equinesanctuary, Black Beauty Ranch, inTexas. As the only chimpanzee at the Ranch, Nim sank into a deep depression. Nim would gesture to staff but they did not sign back. When Ingersoll came to visit, Nim signed BOB, OUT, KEY.Ingersoll urged Amory to get a companion for Nim but was ignored. Meanwhile, Nim studied the locks on his cage and would periodically escape and run into the manager's house, raid the refrigerator, and sometimes turn on the TV. Once, in the process, he threw the pet poodle against a wall, killing it. A year after Nim's arrival, Amory arranged to adopt", "arranged to adopt another chimp, Sally. In her biography of Nim, Hess writes that the chimps became inseparable. Nim taught Sally how to sign DRINK, BANANA and GUM, three of the words he used most frequently at the ranch.He was frequently seen signing SORRY to Sally after they had a squabble.Nim still escaped, but a new manager handled those escapes differently. When Nim and Sally showed up at his house, he would act happy to see them and let them stay until they got bored. By keeping tensions low, he found, the chimps did not need to be darted. After almost ten years with Nim, Sally died, sending Nim once again into severe distress. After hearing about Sally's death, Ingersoll arranged to help get three new chimp companions for Nim: Kitty, Midge, and Lulu. The chimps thrived as a small group until March 10, 2000, when Nim died suddenly of a heart attack. He was 26 years old, about half his average life expectancy. In media Project Nim, a documentary film byJames Marshabout the Nim study, explores the story", "explores the story (and the wealth of archival footage) to consider ethical issues, the emotional experiences of the participants, and the deeper issues the experiment raised. The film is based onNim Chimpsky, the biography by Elizabeth Hess, and Hess is credited as the writer. This documentary (produced by BBC Films, Red Box Films, and Passion Films) opened the 2011Sundance Film Festival.The film was released in theaters on July 8, 2011 by Roadside Attractionsand on DVD on February 7, 2012. Terrace wrote an op-ed in response to what he considered a negative portrayal of his Nim project, stating that the filmmakers inaccurately equated his study's negative results with \"failure.\" References Key sources Notes See also External links" ]
As of 1st August 2024, How much younger is the current youngest US House Representative than the American folk hero who died at the Alamo when they were elected to the US House of Representatives?
14 years younger
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davy_Crockett
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Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamo', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davy_Crockett']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Alamo", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davy_Crockett" ]
[ "List of current members of the United States House of Representatives This is a list of individuals serving in theUnited States House of Representatives(as of September 23, 2024, the118th Congress).The membership of the House comprises 435 seats for representatives from the50 states,apportionedbypopulation, as well as six seats for non-voting delegates fromU.S. territoriesand theDistrict of Columbia. There are currently 432 members. Leadership Presiding officer Majority leadership (Republican) Minority leadership (Democratic) Regional membership Vacancies Partisan affiliation by state As of September 23, 2024: List of representatives Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University(MBA) Emergency physician Chief of Staff to Rep.Marty Meehan Activist Brigham Young University(JD) List of delegates See also References", "Battle of the Alamo TheBattle of the Alamo(February 23 – March 6, 1836) was a pivotal event and military engagement in theTexas Revolution. Following a13-day siege,Mexicantroops underPresidentGeneral Antonio López de Santa Annareclaimed theAlamo Missionnear San Antonio de Béxar (modern-daySan Antonio,Texas, United States). About one hundred Texians were then garrisoned at the mission, with around a hundred subsequent reinforcements led by eventual Alamo co-commandersJames BowieandWilliam B. Travis. On February 23, approximately 1,500 Mexicans marched into San Antonio de Béxar as the first step in a campaign to retake Texas. In the early morning hours of March 6, the Mexican Army advanced on the Alamo. After repelling two attacks, the Texians were unable to fend off a third attack. As Mexican soldiers scaled the walls, most of the Texian fighters withdrew into interior buildings. Those who were unable to reach these points were slain by the Mexican cavalry as they attempted to escape. Between five and seven Texians may have surrendered; if so, they were quickly executed. Subsequently almost all of the Texian inhabitants were killed. Several noncombatants were sent toGonzalesto spread word of the Texian defeat. The news sparked both a strong rush to join the Texian army and a panic, known as \"TheRunaway Scrape\", in which the Texian army, most settlers, and the government of the new, self-proclaimed but officially unrecognizedRepublic of Texasfled eastward toward the U.S. ahead of the advancing Mexican Army. Santa Anna's refusal to take prisoners during the battle inspired manyTexiansandTejanosto join theTexian Army. Motivated by a desire for revenge, as well as their written desire to preserve a border open to immigration and the importation and practice ofslavery, the Texians defeated the Mexican Army at theBattle of San Jacinto, on April 21, 1836, ending the conquering of the Mexican state ofCoahuila y Tejasby the newly formedRepublic of Texas. Within Mexico, the battle has often been overshadowed by events from theMexican–American Warof 1846–1848. In 19th-century Texas, the Alamo complex gradually became known as a battle site rather than a former mission. The Texas Legislature purchased the land and buildings in the early part of the 20th century and designated the Alamo chapel as an official Texas State Shrine. The Alamo has been the subject of numerous non-fiction works beginning in 1843. Most Americans, however, are more familiar with the myths and legends spread by many of the movie and television adaptations,including the 1950sDisneyminiseriesDavy CrockettandJohn Wayne's 1960 filmThe Alamo. Background In 1835, there was a drastic shift in the Mexican nation. The triumph of conservative forces in the elections unleashed a series of events that culminated on October 23, 1835, under a new constitution, after the repeal of the federalistConstitution of 1824.Las Siete Leyes(Spanish:), or Seven Laws, were a series ofconstitutionalchanges that fundamentally altered the organizational structure ofMexico, ending thefirst federal periodand creating aunitary republic, officially the Mexican Republic (Spanish:República Mexicana).Formalized underPresidentAntonio López de Santa Annaon 15 December 1835, they were enacted in 1836. They were intended to centralize and strengthen the national government. The aim of the previous constitution was to create a political system that would emulate the success of the United States, but after a decade of political turmoil, economic stagnation, and threats and actual foreign invasion, conservatives concluded that a better path for Mexico was centralized power. The new policies, the bans of slaveryand immigration chief among them, and the increased enforcement of laws and import tariffs, incited many immigrants to revolt.The border region ofMexican Texaswas largely populated by immigrants from the United States, some legal but most illegal. Some of these immigrants brought large numbers of slaves with them, so that by 1836, there were about 5,000 enslaved persons in a total non-native population estimated at 38,470.These people were accustomed to a federalist government which made special exemptions from Mexican law just for them, and to extensive individual rights including the right to own slaves, and they were quite vocal in their displeasure at Mexico's law enforcement and shift towards centralism.The centralized government ended local federal exemptions to the ban on slavery, which had been negotiated byStephen Austinand others. Already suspicious after previous United States attempts to purchase Mexican Texas,Mexican authorities blamed much of the Texian unrest on United States immigrants, most of whom had entered illegally and made little effort to adapt to the Mexican culture and who continued to hold people in slavery when slavery had been abolished in Mexico. In October, Texians engaged Mexican troops in the first official battle of theTexas Revolution.Determined to quell the rebellion of immigrants, Santa Anna began assembling a large force, the Army of Operations in Texas, to restore order.Most of his soldiers were raw recruits,and many had been forciblyconscripted. TheTexianssystematically defeated the Mexican troops already stationed in Texas. The last group of Mexican soldiers in the region—commanded by Santa Anna's brother-in-law, GeneralMartín Perfecto de Cos—surrendered on December 9 following thesiege of Béxar.By this point, theTexian Armywas dominated by very recent arrivals to the region, primarily illegal immigrants from the United States. Many Texas settlers, unprepared for a long campaign, had returned home.Angered by what he perceived to be United States interference in Mexican affairs, Santa Annaspearheadeda resolution classifying foreign immigrants found fighting in Texas aspirates. The resolution effectively banned the taking of prisoners of war: in this period of time, captured pirates were executed immediately.Santa Anna reiterated this message in a strongly worded letter to United States PresidentAndrew Jackson. This letter was not widely distributed, and it is unlikely that most of the United States recruits serving in the Texian Army were aware that there would be no prisoners of war. When Mexican troops departed San Antonio de Béxar (nowSan Antonio, Texas, USA) Texian soldiers captured the Mexican garrison at theAlamo Mission, a formerSpanish religious outpostwhich had been converted to a makeshift fort by the recently expelled Mexican Army.Described by Santa Anna as an \"irregular fortification hardly worthy of the name\",the Alamo had been designed to withstand an assault by Indigenous attackers, not an artillery-equipped army.The complex sprawled across 3 acres (1.2 ha), providing almost 1,320 feet (400 m) of perimeter to defend.An interior plaza was bordered on the east by the chapel and to the south by a one-story building known as the Low Barracks.A wooden palisade stretched between these two buildings.The two-story Long Barracks extended north from the chapel.At the northern corner of the east wall stood a cattle pen and horse corral.The walls surrounding the complex were at least 2.75 feet (0.84 m) thick and ranged from 9–12 ft (2.7–3.7 m) high. To compensate for the lack of firing ports, Texian engineer Green B. Jameson constructed catwalks to allow defenders to fire over the walls; this method, however, left the rifleman's upper body exposed.Mexican forces had left behind 19 cannons, which Jameson installed along the walls. A large 18-pounder had arrived in Texas with the New Orleans Greys. Jameson positioned this cannon in the southwest corner of the compound. He boasted to Texian Army commanderSam Houstonthat the Texians could \"whip 10 to 1 with our artillery\". Prelude to battle The Texian garrison was woefully undermanned and underprovisioned, with fewer than 100 soldiers remaining by January 6, 1836.ColonelJames C. Neill, the acting Alamo commander, wrote to theprovisional government: \"If there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it\".Neill requested additional troops and supplies, stressing that the garrison was likely to be unable to withstand a siege lasting longer than four days.The Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance.Four different men claimed to have been given command over the entire army.On January 14, Neill approached one of them,Sam Houston, for assistance in gathering supplies, clothing, and ammunition. Houston could not spare the number of men necessary to mount a successful defense.Instead, he sent ColonelJames Bowiewith 30 men to remove the artillery from the Alamo and destroy the complex.Bowie was unable to transport the artillery since the Alamo garrison lacked the necessary draft animals. Neill soon persuaded Bowie that the location held strategic importance.In a letter to GovernorHenry Smith, Bowie argued that \"the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontierpicquetguard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march towards the Sabine.\"The letter to Smith ended, \"Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy.\"Bowie also wrote to the provisional government, asking for \"men, money, rifles, and cannon powder\".Few reinforcements were authorized; cavalry officerWilliam B. Travisarrived in Béxar with 30 men on February 3. Five days later, a small group of volunteers arrived, including the famous frontiersman and former U.S. CongressmanDavid Crockettof Tennessee. On February 11, Neill left the Alamo, determined to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies.He transferred command to Travis, the highest-ranking regular army officer in the garrison.Volunteers comprised much of the garrison, and they were unwilling to accept Travis as their leader.The men instead elected Bowie, who had a reputation as a fierce fighter, as their commander. Bowie celebrated by getting very intoxicated and creating havoc in Béxar. To mitigate the resulting ill feelings, Bowie agreed to share command with Travis. As the Texians struggled to find men and supplies, Santa Anna continued to gather men atSan Luis Potosi; by the end of 1835, his army numbered 6,019 soldiers.Rather than advance along the coast, where supplies and reinforcements could be easily delivered by sea, Santa Anna ordered his army inland to Béxar, the political center of Texas and the site of Cos's defeat.The army began its march north in late December.Officers used the long journey to train the men. Many of the new recruits did not know how to aim their muskets, and many refused to fire from the shoulder because of the strong recoil. Progress was slow. There were not enough mules to transport all of the supplies, and many of the teamsters, all civilians, quit when their pay was delayed. The manysoldaderas– women and children who followed the army – consumed much of the already scarce supplies. The soldiers were soon reduced to partial rations.On February 12 they crossed theRio Grande.Temperatures in Texas reached record lows, and by February 13 an estimated 15–16 inches (38–41 cm) of snow had fallen. Hypothermia, dysentery, andComancheraiding parties took a heavy toll on the Mexican soldiers. On February 21, Santa Anna and his vanguard reached the banks of theMedina River, 25 miles (40 km) from Béxar.Unaware of the Mexican Army's proximity, the majority of the Alamo garrison joined Béxar residents at afiesta.After learning of the planned celebration, Santa Anna ordered GeneralJoaquín Ramírez y Sesmato immediately seize the unprotected Alamo, but sudden rains halted that raid. Siege Investment In the early hours of February 23, residents began fleeing Béxar, fearing the Mexican army's imminent arrival. Although unconvinced by the reports, Travis stationed a soldier in theSan Fernando churchbell tower, the highest location in town, to watch for signs of an approaching force. Several hours later, Texian scouts reported seeing Mexican troops 1.5 miles (2.4 km) outside the town.Few arrangements had been made for a potential siege. One group of Texians scrambled to herd cattle into the Alamo, while others scrounged for food in the recently abandoned houses.Several members of the garrison who had been living in town brought their families with them when they reported to the Alamo. Among these wereAlmaron Dickinson, who brought his wifeSusannaand their infant daughter Angelina; Bowie, who was accompanied by his deceased wife's cousins, Gertrudis Navarro andJuana Navarro Alsbury, and Alsbury's young son;andGregorio Esparza, whose family climbed through the window of the Alamo chapel after the Mexican army arrived.Other members of the garrison failed to report for duty; most of the men working outside Béxar did not try to sneak past Mexican lines. I reply to you, according to the order of His Excellency, that the Mexican army cannot come to terms under any conditions with rebellious foreigners to whom there is no recourse left, if they wish to save their lives, than to place themselves immediately at the disposal of the Supreme Government from whom alone they may expect clemency after some considerations. response of José Bartres to Texian requests for an honorable surrender, as quoted in the journal ofJuan Almonte By late afternoon Béxar was occupied by about 1,500 Mexican soldiers.When the Mexican troops raised a blood-red flag signifyingno quarter, Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo's largest cannon.Believing that Travis had acted hastily, Bowie sent Jameson to meet with Santa Anna.Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own representative, CaptainAlbert Martin.Both emissaries met with ColonelJuan Almonteand José Bartres. According to Almonte, the Texians asked for an honorable surrender but were informed that any surrender must be unconditional.On learning this, Bowie and Travis mutually agreed to fire the cannon again. Skirmishes The first night of the siege was relatively quiet.Over the next few days, Mexican soldiers established artillery batteries, initially about 1,000 feet (300 m) from the south and east walls of theAlamo.A third battery was positioned southeast of the fort. Each night the batteries inched closer to the Alamo walls.During the first week of the siege more than 200 cannonballs landed in the Alamo plaza. At first, the Texians matched Mexican artillery fire, often reusing the Mexican cannonballs.On February 26 Travis ordered the artillery to conserve powder and shot. Two notable events occurred on Wednesday, February 24. At some point that day, Bowie collapsed from illness,leaving Travis in sole command of the garrison.Late that afternoon, two Mexican scouts became the first fatalities of the siege.The following morning, 200–300 Mexican soldiers crossed theSan Antonio Riverand took cover in abandoned shacks near the Alamo walls.Several Texians ventured out to burn the hutswhile Texians within the Alamo provided cover fire.After a two-hour skirmish, the Mexican troops retreated to Béxar.Six Mexican soldiers were killed and four others were wounded.No Texians were injured. Ablue northerblew in on February 25, dropping the temperature to 39 °F (4 °C).Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures.Texian attempts to gather firewood were thwarted by Mexican troops.On the evening of February 26 Colonel Juan Bringas engaged several Texians who were burning more huts.According to historian J.R. Edmondson, one Texian was killed.Four days later, Texians shot and killed Private First-Class Secundino Alvarez, a soldier from one of two battalions that Santa Anna had stationed on two sides of the Alamo. By March 1, the number of Mexican casualties was nine dead and four wounded, while the Texian garrison had lost only one man. Reinforcements I am determined to sustain myself as long as possible & die like a soldier who never forgets what is due to his own honor & that of his country. VICTORY OR DEATH. excerpt fromWilliam B. Travis's letter \"To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World\". Santa Anna posted one company east of the Alamo, on the road toGonzales.Almonte and 800dragoonswere stationed along the road toGoliad.Throughout the siege these towns had received multiple couriers, dispatched by Travis to plead for reinforcements and supplies.The most famous of his missives, written February 24, was addressedTo the People of Texas & All Americans in the World. According to historian Mary Deborah Petite, the letter is \"considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism.\"Copies of the letter were distributed across Texas,and eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe.At the end of the first day of the siege, Santa Anna's troops were reinforced by 600 men under GeneralJoaquin Ramirez y Sesma, bringing the Mexican army up to more than 2,000 men. As news of the siege spread throughout Texas, potential reinforcements gathered in Gonzales. They hoped to rendezvous with ColonelJames Fannin, who was expected to arrive from Goliad with his garrison.On February 26, after days of indecision, Fannin ordered 320 men, four cannons, and several supply wagons to march towards the Alamo, 90 miles (140 km) away. This group traveled less than 1.0 mile (1.6 km) before turning back.Fannin blamed the retreat on his officers; the officers and enlisted men accused Fannin of aborting the mission. Texians gathered in Gonzales were unaware of Fannin's return to Goliad, and most continued to wait. Impatient with the delay, on February 27 Travis ordered Samuel G. Bastian to go to Gonzales \"to hurry up reinforcements\".According to historian Thomas Ricks Lindley, Bastian encountered the Gonzales Ranging Company led by LieutenantGeorge C. Kimbleand Travis' courier to Gonzales, Albert Martin, who had tired of waiting for Fannin. A Mexican patrol attacked, driving off four of the men including Bastian.In the darkness, the Texians fired on the remaining 32 men, whom they assumed were Mexican soldiers. One man was wounded, and his English curses convinced the occupiers to open the gates. On March 3, the Texians watched from the walls as approximately 1,000 Mexicans marched into Béxar. The Mexican army celebrated loudly throughout the afternoon, both in honor of their reinforcements and at the news that troops under GeneralJosé de Urreahad soundly defeated Texian ColonelFrank W. Johnsonat theBattle of San Patricioon February 27.Most of the Texians in the Alamo believed that Sesma had been leading the Mexican forces during the siege, and they mistakenly attributed the celebration to the arrival of Santa Anna. The reinforcements brought the number of Mexican soldiers in Béxar to almost 3,100. The arrival of the Mexican reinforcements prompted Travis to send three men, includingDavy Crockett, to find Fannin's force, which he still believed to be en route.The scouts discovered a large group of Texians camped 20 miles (32 km) from the Alamo.Lindley's research indicates that up to 50 of these men had come from Goliad after Fannin's aborted rescue mission. The others had left Gonzales several days earlier.Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texian force broke through Mexican lines and entered the Alamo. Mexican soldiers drove a second group across the prairie. Assault preparations On March 4, the day after his reinforcements arrived, Santa Anna proposed an assault on the Alamo. Many of his senior officers recommended that they wait for two 12-pounder cannons anticipated to arrive on March 7.That evening, a local woman, likely Bowie's cousin-in-lawJuana Navarro Alsbury, approached Santa Anna to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo occupiers.According to many historians, this visit probably increased Santa Anna's impatience; as historian Timothy Todish noted, \"there would have been little glory in a bloodless victory\".The following morning, Santa Anna announced to his staff that the assault would take place early on March 6. Santa Anna arranged for troops from Béxar to be excused from the front lines so that they would not be forced to fight their own families. Legend holds that at some point on March 5, Travis gathered his men and explained that an attack was imminent, and that they were greatly outnumbered by the Mexican Army. He supposedly drew aline in the groundand asked those willing to die for the Texian cause to cross and stand alongside him; only one man (Moses Rose) was said to have declined.Most scholars disregard this tale as there is no primary source evidence to support it (the story only surfaced decades after the battle in a third-hand account).Travis apparently did, at some point prior to the final assault, assemble the men for a conference to inform them of the dire situation and giving them the chance to either escape or stay and die for the cause. Susanna Dickinson recalled Travis announcing that any men who wished to escape should let it be known and step out of ranks. The last Texian verified to have left the Alamo was James Allen, a courier who carried personal messages from Travis and several of the other men on March 5. Final assault Exterior fighting At 10 p.m. on March 5, the Mexican artillery ceased their bombardment. As Santa Anna had anticipated, the exhausted Texians soon fell into the first uninterrupted sleep many of them had since the siege began.Just after midnight, more than 2,000 Mexican soldiers began preparing for the final assault.Fewer than 1,800 were divided into fourcolumns, commanded by Cos, Colonel Francisco Duque, Colonel José María Romero and Colonel Juan Morales.Veterans were positioned on the outside of the columns to better control the new recruits and conscripts in the middle.As a precaution, 500 Mexican cavalry were positioned around the Alamo to prevent the escape of either Texian or Mexican soldiers. Santa Anna remained in camp with the 400 reserves.Despite the bitter cold, the soldiers were ordered not to wear overcoats which could impede their movements.Clouds concealed the moon and thus the movements of the soldiers. At 5:30 a.m. troops silently advanced. Cos and his men approached the northwest corner of the Alamo,while Duque led his men from the northwest towards a repaired breach in the Alamo's north wall.The column commanded by Romero marched towards the east wall, and Morales's column aimed for the low parapet by the chapel. The three Texian sentinels stationed outside the walls were killed in their sleep,allowing Mexican soldiers to approach undetected within musket range of the walls.At this point, the silence was broken by shouts of\"¡Viva Santa Anna!\"and music from the buglers.The noise woke the Texians.Most of the noncombatants gathered in the churchsacristyfor safety.Travis rushed to his post yelling, \"Come on boys, the Mexicans are upon us and we'll give them hell!\"and, as he passed a group of Tejanos,\"¡No rendirse, muchachos!\"(\"Don't surrender, boys\"). In the initial moments of the assault, Mexican troops were at a disadvantage. Their column formation allowed only the front rows of soldiers to fire safely.Unaware of the dangers, the untrained recruits in the ranks \"blindly fir their guns\", injuring or killing the troops in front of them.The tight concentration of troops also offered an excellent target for the Texian artillery.Lackingcanister shot, Texians filled their cannon with any metal they could find, including door hinges, nails, and chopped-up horseshoes, essentially turning the cannon into giant shotguns.According to the diary ofJosé Enrique de la Peña, \"a single cannon volley did away with half the company of chasseurs fromToluca\".Duque fell from his horse after sustaining a wound in his thigh and was almost trampled by his own men. GeneralManuel Castrillónquickly assumed command of Duque's column. Although some in the front of the Mexican ranks wavered, soldiers in the rear pushed them on.As the troops massed against the walls, Texians were forced to lean over the walls to shoot, leaving them exposed to Mexican fire. Travis became one of the first occupiers to die, shot while firing his shotgun into the soldiers below him, though one source says that he drew his sword and stabbed a Mexican officer who had stormed the wall before succumbing to his injury.Few of the Mexican ladders reached the walls.The few soldiers who were able to climb the ladders were quickly killed or beaten back. As the Texians discharged their previously loaded rifles, they found it increasingly difficult to reload while attempting to keep Mexican soldiers from scaling the walls. Mexican soldiers withdrew and regrouped, but their second attack was repulsed. Fifteen minutes into the battle, they attacked a third time.During the third strike, Romero's column, aiming for the east wall, was exposed to cannon fire and shifted to the north, mingling with the second column.Cos' column, under fire from Texians on the west wall, also veered north.When Santa Anna saw that the bulk of his army was massed against the north wall, he feared a rout; \"panicked\", he sent the reserves into the same area.The Mexican soldiers closest to the north wall realized that the makeshift wall contained many gaps and toeholds. One of the first to scale the 12-foot (3.7 m) wall was GeneralJuan Amador; at his challenge, his men began swarming up the wall. Amador opened theposternin the north wall, allowing Mexican soldiers to pour into the complex.Others climbed through gun ports in the west wall, which had few occupiers.As the Texian occupiers abandoned the north wall and the northern end of the west wall,Texian gunners at the south end of the mission turned their cannon towards the north and fired into the advancing Mexican soldiers. This left the south end of the mission unprotected; within minutes Mexican soldiers had climbed the walls and killed the gunners, gaining control of the Alamo's 18-pounder cannon.By this time Romero's men had taken the east wall of the compound and were pouring in through the cattle pen. Interior fighting Great God, Sue, the Mexicans are inside our walls! If they spare you, save my child Last words of Texian defenderAlmaron Dickinsonto his wifeSusannaas he prepared to defend the chapel. As previously planned, most of the Texians fell back to the barracks and the chapel. Holes had been carved in the walls to allow the Texians to fire.Unable to reach the barracks, Texians stationed along the west wall headed west for the San Antonio River. When the cavalry charged, the Texians took cover and began firing from a ditch. Sesma was forced to send reinforcements, and the Texians were eventually killed. Sesma reported that this skirmish involved 50 Texians, but Edmondson believes that number was inflated. The occupiers in the cattle pen retreated into the horse corral. After discharging their weapons, the small band of Texians scrambled over the low wall, circled behind the church and raced on foot for the east prairie, which appeared empty.As the Mexican cavalry advanced on the group, Almaron Dickinson and his artillery crew turned a cannon around and fired into the cavalry, probably inflicting casualties. Nevertheless, all of the escaping Texians were killed. The last Texian group to remain in the open were Crockett and his men, defending the low wall in front of the church. Unable to reload, they used their rifles as clubs and fought with knives. After a volley of fire and a wave of Mexicanbayonets, the few remaining Texians in this group fell back towards the church.The Mexican army now controlled all of the outer walls and the interior of the Alamo compound except for the church and rooms along the east and west walls.Mexican soldiers turned their attention to a Texian flag waving from the roof of one building. Four Mexicans were killed before theflag of Mexicowas raised in that location. For the next hour, the Mexican army worked to secure complete control of the Alamo.Many of the remaining occupiers were ensconced in the fortified barracks rooms.In the confusion, the Texians had neglected tospiketheir cannon before retreating. Mexican soldiers turned the cannon towards the barracks.As each door was blown off, Mexican soldiers would fire a volley of muskets into the dark room, then charge in forhand-to-hand combat. Too sick to participate in the battle, Bowie likely died in bed. Eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of his death. Some witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie's room, bayonet him, and carry him alive from the room.Others claimed that Bowie shot himself or was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head.According to historian Wallace Chariton, the \"most popular, and probably the most accurate\"version is that Bowie died on his cot, \"back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and hisfamous knife.\" The last of the Texians to die were the 11 men manning the two 12-pounder cannons in the chapel.A shot from the 18-pounder cannon destroyed the barricades at the front of the church, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. Dickinson's crew fired their cannon from theapseinto the Mexican soldiers at the door. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson,Gregorio EsparzaandJames Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death.Texian Robert Evans, the master of ordnance, had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder.Had he succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church and killed the women and children hiding in the sacristy. As soldiers approached the sacristy, one of the young sons of occupier Anthony Wolf stood to pull a blanket over his shoulders.In the dark, Mexican soldiers mistook him for an adult and killed him.Possibly the last Texian to die in battle was Jacob Walker,who, wounded, ran to a corner and was bayoneted in front ofSusanna Dickinson.Another Texian, Brigido Guerrero, also sought refuge in the sacristy.Guerrero, who had deserted from the Mexican Army in December 1835, was spared after convincing the soldiers he was a Texian prisoner. By 6:30 a.m. the battle for the Alamo was over.Mexican soldiers inspected each corpse, bayoneting any body that moved.Even with all of the Texians dead, Mexican soldiers continued to shoot, some killing each other in the confusion. Mexican generals were unable to stop the bloodlust and appealed to Santa Anna for help. Although the general showed himself, the violence continued and the buglers were finally ordered to sound a retreat. For 15 minutes after that, soldiers continued to fire into dead bodies. Aftermath Casualties According to many accounts of the battle, between five and seven Texians surrendered.Incensed that his orders had been ignored, Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the survivors.Weeks after the battle, stories circulated that Crockett was among those who surrendered.Ben, a former United States slave who cooked for one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found surrounded by \"no less than sixteen Mexican corpses\".Historians disagree on which version of Crockett's death is accurate. Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle \"was but a small affair\".Another officer then remarked that \"with another such victory as this, we'll go to the devil\".In his initial report Santa Anna claimed that 600 Texians had been killed, with only 70 Mexican soldiers killed and 300 wounded.His secretary, Ramón Martínez Caro, reported 400 killed.Other estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers killed ranged from 60 to 200, with an additional 250–300 wounded.Some people, historians, and survivors such asSusanna Dickinsonhave estimated that over 1,000-1,600 Mexican soldiers were killed and wounded, but it is most likely that total casualties were less than 600. Texian Dr. J. H. Barnard who tended the Mexican soldiers reported 300-400 dead and 200-300 wounded.Most Alamo historians place the number of Mexican casualties at 400–600.This would represent about one quarter of the over 2,000 Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which Todish remarks is \"a tremendous casualty rate by any standards\".Most eyewitnesses counted between 182 and 257 Texians killed.Some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier. Mexican soldiers were buried in the local cemetery, Campo Santo.Shortly after the battle, Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro proposed that a monument should be erected to the fallen Mexican soldiers. Cos rejected the idea. The Texian bodies were stacked and burned.The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza. His brother Francisco, an officer in Santa Anna's army, received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial.The ashes were left where they fell until February 1837, whenJuan Seguínreturned to Béxar to examine the remains. A simple coffin inscribed with the names Travis, Crockett, and Bowie was filled with ashes from the funeral pyres.According to a March 28, 1837, article in theTelegraph and Texas Register,Seguín buried the coffin under a peach tree grove. The spot was not marked and cannot now be identified.Seguín later claimed that he had placed the coffin in front of the altar at theSan Fernando Cathedral. In July 1936 a coffin was discovered buried in that location, but according to historian Wallace Chariton, it is unlikely to actually contain the remains of the Alamo defenders. Fragments of uniforms were found in the coffin and the Texian soldiers who fought at the Alamo were known not to wear uniforms. Texian survivors In an attempt to convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the Texian rebellion, Santa Anna spared Travis' slave,Joe.The day after the battle, he interviewed each noncombatant individually. Impressed with Susanna Dickinson, Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended toJuana Navarro Alsburyalthough her son was of similar age.Each woman was given a blanket and two silverpesos.Alsbury and the otherTejanowomen were allowed to return to their homes in Béxar; Dickinson, her daughter and Joe were sent to Gonzales, escorted by Ben. They were encouraged to relate the events of the battle, and to inform the remainder of the Texian forces that Santa Anna's army was unbeatable. Impact on revolution During the siege, newly elected delegates from across Texas met at theConvention of 1836. On March 2, the delegatesdeclared independence, forming theRepublic of Texas. Four days later, the delegates at the convention received a dispatch Travis had written March 3 warning of his dire situation. Unaware that the Alamo had fallen,Robert Pottercalled for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain inWashington-on-the-Brazosto develop a constitution. After being appointed sole commander of all Texian troops, Houston journeyed to Gonzales to take command of the 400 volunteers who were still waiting for Fannin to lead them to the Alamo. Within hours of Houston's arrival on March 11, Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived with news that the Alamo had fallen and all Texians were slain.Hoping to halt a panic, Houston arrested the men as enemy spies. They were released hours later when Susanna Dickinson and Joe reached Gonzales and confirmed the report.Realizing that the Mexican army would soon advance towards the Texian settlements, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered his new army to retreat.This sparked a mass exodus, known as theRunaway Scrape, and most Texians, including members of the new government, fled east. Despite their losses at the Alamo, the Mexican army in Texas still outnumbered the Texian army by almost six to one.Santa Anna assumed that knowledge of the disparity in troop numbers and the fate of the Texian soldiers at the Alamo would quell the resistance,and that Texian soldiers would quickly leave the territory.News of the Alamo's fall had the opposite effect, and men flocked to join Houston's army.TheNew York Posteditorialized that \"had treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren\". On the afternoon of April 21 the Texian army attacked Santa Anna's camp nearLynchburg Ferry. The Mexican army was taken by surprise, and theBattle of San Jacintowas essentially over after 18 minutes. During the fighting, many of the Texian soldiers repeatedly cried \"Remember the Alamo!\" as they slaughtered fleeing Mexican troops.Santa Anna was captured the following day, and reportedly told Houston: \"That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished.\" Houston replied, \"You should have remembered that at the Alamo\". Santa Anna's life was spared, and he was forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the province and bestowing some legitimacy on the new republic. Legacy Following the battle, Santa Anna was alternately viewed as a national hero or a pariah. Mexican perceptions of the battle often mirrored the prevailing viewpoint.Santa Anna had been disgraced following his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto, and many Mexican accounts of the battle were written by men who had been, or had become, his outspoken critics. Petite and many other historians believe that some of the stories, such as the execution of Crockett, may have been invented to further discredit Santa Anna.In Mexican history, the Texas campaign, including the Battle of the Alamo, was soon overshadowed by theMexican–American Warof 1846–1848. In San Antonio de Béxar, the largelyTejanopopulation viewed the Alamo complex as more than just a battle site; it represented decades of assistance—as a mission, a hospital, or a military post.As the English-speaking population increased, the complex became best known for the battle. Focus has centered primarily on the Texian occupiers, with little emphasis given to the role of theTejanosoldiers who served in the Texian army or the actions of the Mexican army.In the early 20th century the Texas Legislature purchased the property and appointed theDaughters of the Republic of Texasas permanent caretakersof what is now an official state shrine.In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands acenotaph, designed byPompeo Coppini, which commemorates the Texians andTejanoswho died during the battle.According to Bill Groneman'sBattlefields of Texas, the Alamo has become \"the most popular tourist site in Texas\". The first English-language histories of the battle were written and published byTexas Rangerand amateur historianJohn Henry Brown.The next major treatment of the battle was Reuben Potter'sThe Fall of the Alamo, published inThe Magazine of American Historyin 1878. Potter based his work on interviews with many of the Mexican survivors of the battle.The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle,John Myers Myers'The Alamo, was published in 1948.In the decades since, the battle has featured prominently in many non-fiction works. According to Todishet al., \"there can be little doubt that most Americans have probably formed many of their opinions on what occurred at the Alamo not from books, but from the various movies made about the battle.\"The first film version of the battle appeared in 1911, whenGaston MélièsdirectedThe Immortal Alamo.The battle became more widely known after it was featured in the 1950sDisneyminiseriesDavy Crockett, which was largely based on myth.Within several years,John Waynedirected and starred in one of the best-known, but questionably accurate, film versions, 1960'sThe Alamo.Another film also calledThe Alamowas released in 2004.CNNdescribed it as possibly \"the most character-driven of all the movies made on the subject\". It is also considered more faithful to the actual events than other movies. Several songwriters have been inspired by the Battle of the Alamo.Tennessee Ernie Ford's \"The Ballad of Davy Crockett\" spent 16 weeks on thecountry musiccharts, peaking at No. 4 in 1955.Marty Robbinsrecorded a version of the song \"The Ballad of the Alamo\" in 1960 which spent 13 weeks on the pop charts, peaking at No. 34.Jane Bowers' song \"Remember the Alamo\" has been recorded by artists includingJohnny Cash,Willie Nelson,andDonovan.British hard rock bandBabe Ruth's 1972 song \"The Mexican\" pictures the conflict through the eyes of a Mexican soldier. Singer-songwriterPhil Collinscollected hundreds of items related to the battle, narrated a light and sound show about the Alamo, and has spoken at related events.In 2014 Collins donated his entire collection to the Alamo via the State of Texas. The U.S. Postal Service issued two postage stamps in commemoration of Texas Statehoodand the Battle of Alamo.The \"Remember the Alamo\" battle cry, as well as the Alamo Mission itself appear on the current version of the reverse side of theseal of Texas. The battle also featured in episode 13 ofThe Time Tunnel, \"The Alamo\", first aired in 1966, and episode 5 of season one of the TV seriesTimeless, aired 2016. As of 2023, the Alamo Trust (which operates the site) seeks to expand the property to build an Alamo museum.To do so, it would have to useeminent domainto seize a property containing an Alamo-themed bar called Moses Rose's Hideout (named after an Alamo deserter) that has operated for 12 years (circ. 2023).The Alamo Trust claims that if the bar owner continues to refuse to sell his property, it will put the $400 million property at stake.Conversely, the bar owner says that he wishes to participate in the economic success of adding an Alamo museum and that there is a certain unjust irony of seizing his property to expand the Alamo. See also Explanatory notes Citations General and cited references Further reading External links", "Davy Crockett David Crockett(August 17, 1786 – March 6, 1836) was an Americanfolk hero,frontiersman, soldier, and politician. He is often referred to in popular culture as the \"King of the Wild Frontier\". He representedTennesseein theU.S. House of Representativesand served in theTexas Revolution. Crockett grew up inEast Tennessee, where he gained a reputation for hunting and storytelling. He was made a colonel in themilitiaofLawrence County, Tennesseeand was elected to the Tennessee state legislature in 1821. In 1827, he was elected to the U.S. Congress where he vehemently opposed many of the policies of PresidentAndrew Jackson, especially theIndian Removal Act. Crockett's opposition to Jackson's policies led to his defeat in the 1831 elections. He was re-elected in 1833, then narrowly lost in 1835, prompting his angry departure to Texas (then the Mexican state ofTejas) shortly thereafter. In early 1836, he took part in theTexas Revolutionand died at theBattle of the Alamo. It is unclear whether he died in battle or was executed after being captured by the Mexican Army. Crockett became famous during his lifetime for larger-than-life exploits popularized by stage plays and almanacs. After his death, he continued to be credited with acts of mythical proportion. These led in the 20th century to television and film portrayals, and he became one of the best-known American folk heroes. Family and early life Davy Crockett was paternally of French andScotch-Irishdescent, while maternally of English descent. The Crocketts were mostly of French-Huguenotancestry, although the family had settled inUlsterin the north ofIrelandbefore migrating to the Americas.The earliest known paternal ancestor was Gabriel Gustave de Crocketagne, whose son Antoine de Saussure Peronette de Crocketagne was given a commission in theHousehold TroopsunderKing Louis XIVof France. Antoine married Louise de Saix and emigrated to theKingdom of Irelandwith her, changing the family name to Crockett.Their son Joseph Louiswas born and raised in Ireland, possibly being born, according to local tradition, near eitherCastledergorDonemana, both villages in the northwest ofCounty Tyronein the west of Ulster; Joseph Louis Crockett later married Sarah Stewart, who was also from west Ulster, she being anUlster-Scotfrom just outside the village ofManorcunninghamin the Laggan district in the east ofCounty Donegal.Joseph and Sarah emigrated to New York, where their son William David was born in 1709. He married Elizabeth Boulay. William and Elizabeth's son David (paternal grandfather of Davy Crockett) was born in Pennsylvania and married Elizabeth Hedge. Historical records indicate that David and Elizabeth were the parents of William, David Jr., Robert, Alexander, James, Joseph, andJohn(the father of Davy Crockett); they may have had additional children whose records have not yet been found. John was born c. 1753 inFrederick County, Virginia.The family moved toTryon County, North Carolinac. 1768. In 1776, the family moved to northeastTennessee, in the area of modernHawkins County.John was one of theOvermountain Menwho fought in theBattle of Kings Mountainduring theAmerican Revolutionary War.He was away as a militia volunteer in 1777 when his parents David and Elizabeth were killed at their home near modernRogersvillebyCreeksandChickamauga Cherokeesled by war chiefDragging Canoe.John's brother Joseph was wounded in the skirmish. His brother James was taken prisoner and held for seventeen years. John married Rebecca Hawkins in 1780.Nine children of John and Rebecca have been verified by historians and Crockett descendants: Nathan, William, Aaron, James, David, John, Elizabeth, Rebecca, and Margaret Catharine.Their son David (nicknamed Davy) was born August 17, 1786 and was named after John's father.Crockett's English ancestry comes from his mother Rebecca Hawkins, as the earliest ancestor arrived inGloucester County, Virginiain 1658. John Crockett was active in local politics and an advocate of the independentState of Franklin.Davy Crockett was born in that area, which is now inGreene County, Tennessee, close to theNolichucky Riverand near the community ofLimestone. A replica of Davy Crockett’s birthplace cabin stands near the site, situated in theDavy Crockett Birthplace State Park John continually struggled to make ends meet, and the Crocketts moved to a tract of land on Lick Creek in 1792.John sold that tract of land in 1794 and moved the family to Cove Creek, where he built agristmillwith partner Thomas Galbraith.A flood destroyed the gristmill and the Crockett homestead. The Crocketts then moved to Mossy Creek inJefferson County, Tennessee, but John forfeited his property in bankruptcy in 1795.The family next moved on to property owned by a Quaker named John Canady — an Irish surname with variant spellings; for example, Crockett’s autobiography referred to the property owner as “John Kennedy”.AtMorristownin theSouthwest Territory, John built a tavern on a stage coach route; theCrockett Tavern Museumnow stands on that site. When David was 12 years old, his fatherindenturedhim to Jacob Siler to help with the Crockett family indebtedness. He helped tend Siler's cattle as acowboyon a 400-mile (640 km) trip to nearNatural BridgeinVirginia. He was well treated and paid for his services but, after several weeks in Virginia, he decided to return home to Tennessee.The next year, John enrolled his sons in school, but David playedhookeyafter an altercation with a fellow student. Upon learning of this, John attempted to whip him but was outrun by his son. David then joined acattle drivetoFront Royal, Virginia, for Jesse Cheek.Upon completion of that trip, he joined teamster Adam Myers on a trip toGerrardstown, West Virginia.In between trips with Myers, he worked for farmer John Gray.After leaving Myers, he journeyed toChristiansburg, Virginia, where he apprenticed for the next four years with hatter Elijah Griffith. In 1802, David journeyed by foot back to his father's tavern in Tennessee.His father was in debt to Abraham Wilson for $36 (equivalent to $767 in 2023), so David was hired out to Wilson to pay off the debt.Later, he worked off a $40 debt to John Canady.Once the debts were paid, John Crockett told his son that he was free to leave. David returned to Canady's employment, where he stayed for four years. Marriages and children Crockett fell in love with John Canady's niece Amy Summer, who was engaged to Canady's son Robert.While serving as part of the wedding party, Crockett met Margaret Elder. He persuaded her to marry him, and a marriage contract was drawn up on October 21, 1805. However,Margaret had also become engaged to another young man at the same time, whom she married instead of Crockett. He met Polly Finley and her mother Jean at a harvest festival.Although friendly towards him in the beginning, Jean Finley eventually felt Crockett was not the man for her daughter.Crockett declared his intentions to marry Polly, regardless of whether the ceremony was allowed to take place in her parents' home or had to be performed elsewhere. He arranged for a justice of the peace and took out a marriage license on August 12, 1806. On August 16, he rode to Polly's house with family and friends, determined to ride off with Polly to be married elsewhere. Polly's father pleaded with Crockett to have the wedding in the Finley home. Crockett agreed only after Jean apologized for her past treatment of him. The newlyweds settled on land near Polly's parents, and their first child,John Wesley Crockett, who became a United States Congressman,was born July 10, 1807.Their second child, William Finley Crockett, was born November 25, 1808.In October 1811, the family relocated toLincoln County.Their third child Margaret Finley (Polly) Crockett was born on November 25, 1812.The Crocketts then moved toFranklin Countyin 1813. He named the new home on Beans Creek \"Kentuck\".His wife died in March 1815,and Crockett asked his brother John and his sister-in-law to move in with him to help care for the children.That same year, he married the widow Elizabeth Patton, who had a daughter, Margaret Ann, and a son, George.David and Elizabeth's son, Robert Patton, was born September 16, 1816.Daughter Rebecca Elvira was born December 25, 1818.Daughter Matilda was born August 2, 1821. David Crockett family tree Tennessee militia service Andrew Jacksonwas appointed major general of the Tennesseemilitiain 1802.TheFort Mims massacreoccurred nearMobile,Mississippi Territory, on August 30, 1813, and became a rallying cry for theCreek War.On September 20, Crockett left his family and enlisted as a scout for a term of 90 days withFrancis Jones's Company of Mounted Rifleman,part of the Second Regiment of Volunteer Mounted Riflemen.They served under ColonelJohn Coffeein the war, marching south into present-dayAlabamaand taking an active part in the fighting.Crockett often hunted wild game for the soldiers, and felt better suited to that role than killing Creek warriors.He served until December 24, 1813. TheWar of 1812was being waged concurrently with the Creek War. After theTreaty of Fort Jacksonin August 1814, Andrew Jackson, then with theU.S. Army, wantedthe Britishforces ousted fromSpanish Floridaand asked for support from the Tennessee militia. Crockett re-enlisted as third sergeant for a six-month term with the Tennessee Mounted Gunmen under Captain John Cowan on September 28, 1814.Crockett's unit saw little of the main action because they were days behind the rest of the troops and were focused mostly on foraging for food. Crockett returned home in December.He was still on a military reserve status until March 1815, so he hired a young man to fulfill the remainder of his service. Public career In 1817, Crockett moved the family to new acreage inLawrence County, where he first entered public office as a commissioner helping to configure the new county's boundaries.On November 25, the state legislature appointed him county justice of the peace.On March 27, 1818, he was elected lieutenant colonel of theFifty-seventh Regiment of Tennessee Militia, defeating candidate Daniel Matthews for the position.By 1819, Crockett was operating multiple businesses in the area and felt his public responsibilities were beginning to consume so much of his time and energy that he had little left for either family or business. He resigned from the office of justice of the peace and from his position with the regiment. Tennessee General Assembly In 1821, he resigned as commissioner and successfully ran for a seat in the Tennessee General Assembly,representingLawrenceandHickmancounties.It was this election where Crockett honed his anecdotal oratory skills.He was appointed to the Committee of Propositions and Grievances on September 17, 1821, and served through the first session that ended November 17, as well as the special session called by the governor in the summer of 1822, ending on August 24.He favored legislation to ease the tax burden on the poor.Crockett spent his entire legislative career fighting for the rights of impoverished settlers who he felt dangled on the precipice of losing title to their land due to the state's complicated system of grants.He supported 1821 gubernatorial candidateWilliam Carroll, over Andrew Jackson's endorsed candidate Edward Ward. Less than two weeks after Crockett's 1821 election to the General Assembly, a flood of theTennessee Riverdestroyed Crockett's businesses.In November, Elizabeth's father Robert Patton deeded 800 acres (320 ha) of hisCarroll Countyproperty to Crockett.Crockett sold off most of the acreage to help settle his debts, and moved his family to the remaining acreage on theObion River, which remained in Carroll County until 1825 when the boundaries were reconfigured and put it in Gibson County.In 1823, he ran against Andrew Jackson's nephew-in-law William Edward Butlerand won a seat in the General Assembly representing the counties of Carroll, Humphreys, Perry, Henderson and Madison.He served in the first session, which ran from September through the end of November 1823, and in the second session that ran September through the end of November 1824, championing the rights of the impoverished farmers.During Andrew Jackson's election to the United States Senate in 1823, Crockett backed his opponentJohn Williams. United States House of Representatives On October 25, 1824, Crockett notified his constituents of his intention to run in the 1825 election for a seat in theU.S. House of Representatives. He lost that election to incumbentAdam Rankin Alexander.A chance meeting in 1826 gained him the encouragement ofMemphismayor Marcus Brutus Winchesterto try again to win a seat in Congress.TheJackson Gazettepublished a letter from Crockett on September 15, 1826, announcing his intention of again challenging Rankin, and stating his opposition to the policies of PresidentJohn Quincy Adamsand Secretary of StateHenry Clayand to Rankin's position on the cotton tariff.Militia veteran William Arnold also entered the race, and Crockett easily defeated both political opponents for the 1827–29 term.He arrived in Washington, D.C. and took up residence at Mrs. Ball's Boarding House, where a number of other legislators lived when Congress was in session.Jackson was elected as president in1828. Crockett continued his legislative focus on settlers getting a fair deal for land titles, offering H.R. 27 amendment to a bill sponsored byJames K. Polk. I believed it was a wicked, unjust measure.... I voted against this Indian bill, and my conscience yet tells me that I gave a good honest vote, and one that I believe will not make me ashamed in the day of judgement. —David Crockett,A Narrative of the Life of David Crockett Crockett was re-elected for the 1829–31 session,once again defeating Adam Rankin Alexander.He introduced H.R. 185 amendment to the land bill on January 29, 1830, but it was defeated on May 3.On February 25, 1830, he introduced a resolution to abolish theUnited States Military AcademyatWest Point, New Yorkbecause he felt that it was public money going to benefit the sons of wealthy men.He spoke out against Congress giving $100,000 to the widow ofStephen Decatur, citing that Congress was not empowered to do that.He opposed Jackson's 1830Indian Removal Actand was the only member of the Tennessee delegation to vote against it.CherokeechiefJohn Rosssent him a letter on January 13, 1831, expressing his thanks for Crockett's vote.His vote was not popular with his own district, and he was defeated in the 1831 election byWilliam Fitzgerald. Crockett ran against Fitzgerald again in the 1833 election and was returned to Congress, serving until 1835.On January 2, 1834, he introduced the land title resolution H.R. 126, but it never made it as far as being debated on the House floor.He was defeated for re-election in the August 1835 election byAdam Huntsman.During his last term in Congress, he collaborated withKentuckyCongressmanThomas Chiltonto write his autobiography, which was published by E. L. Carey and A. Hart in 1834 asA Narrative of the Life of David Crockett, Written by Himself,and he went east to promote the book. In 1836, newspapers published the now-famous quotation attributed to Crockett upon his return to his home state: I told the people of my district that I would serve them as faithfully as I had done; but if not, they might go to hell, and I would go to Texas. Despite Crockett’s lack of public support or opposition to the institution ofslavery in the United States, he did enslave people. Texas Revolution By December 1834, Crockett was writing to friends about moving toTexasif Jackson's chosen successorMartin Van Burenwas elected president. The next year, he discussed with his friendBenjamin McCullochraising a company of volunteers to take to Texas in the expectation that a revolution was imminent.His departure to Texas was delayed by a court appearance in the last week of October as co-executor of his deceased father-in-law's estate; he finally left his home nearRutherfordin West Tennessee with three other men on November 1, 1835, to explore Texas.His youngest child Matilda later wrote that she distinctly remembered the last time that she saw her father: He was dressed in his hunting suit, wearing acoonskin cap, and carried a fine rifle presented to him by friends in Philadelphia. ... He seemed very confident the morning he went away that he would soon have us all to join him in Texas. Crockett traveled with 30 well-armed men toJackson, Tennessee, where he gave a speech from the steps of theMadison Countycourthouse, and they arrived inLittle Rock, Arkansas, on November 12, 1835. The local newspapers reported that hundreds of people swarmed into town to get a look at Crockett, and a group of leading citizens put on a dinner in his honor that night at the Jeffries Hotel. Crockett spoke \"mainly to the subject of Texan independence\", as well as Washington politics. Crockett arrived inNacogdoches, Texas, in early January 1836. On January 14, he and 65 other men signed an oath before Judge John Forbes to the Provisional Government of Texas for six months: \"I have taken the oath of government and have enrolled my name as a volunteer and will set out for theRio Grandein a few days with the volunteers from the United States.\" Each man was promised about 4,600 acres (1,900 ha) of land as payment. On February 6, he and five other men rode intoSan Antonio de Bexarand camped just outside the town. Crockett arrived at theAlamo Mission in San Antonioon February 8.A Mexican army arrived on February 23 led by GeneralAntonio López de Santa Anna, surprising the men garrisoned in the Alamo, and the Mexican soldiers immediatelyinitiated a siege.Santa Anna ordered his artillery to keep up a near-constant bombardment. The guns were moved closer to the Alamo each day, increasing their effectiveness. On February 25, 200–300 Mexican soldiers crossed the San Antonio River and took cover in abandoned shacks approximately 90 to 100 yards (82 to 91 m) from the Alamo walls.The soldiers intended to use the huts as cover to establish another artillery position, although manyTexiansassumed that they actually were launching an assault on the fort.Several men volunteered to burn the huts.To provide cover, the Alamo cannons firedgrapeshotat the Mexican soldiers, and Crockett and his men fired rifles, while other defenders reloaded extra weapons for them to use in maintaining a steady fire. The battle was over within 90 minutes,and the Mexican soldiers retreated.There were limited stores of powder and shot inside the Alamo, and Alamo commanderWilliam Barret Travisordered the artillery to stop returning fire on February 26 so as to conserve precious ammunition. Crockett and his men were encouraged to keep shooting, as they were unusually effective. As the siege progressed, Travis sent many messages asking for reinforcements. Several messengers were sent toJames Fanninwho commanded the group of Texian soldiers atPresidio La BahiainGoliad, Texas. Fannin decided that it was too risky to reinforce the Alamo, although historian Thomas Ricks Lindley concludes that up to 50 of Fannin's men left his command to go to Bexar.These men would have reached Cibolo Creek on the afternoon of March 3, 35 miles (56 km) from the Alamo, where they joined another group of men who also planned to join the garrison. There was a skirmish between Mexican and Texian troops that same night outside the Alamo.HistorianWalter Lordspeculates that the Texians were creating a diversion to allow their courier John Smith to evade Mexican pickets.However, Alamo survivorSusannah Dickinsonsaid in 1876 that Travis sent out three men shortly after dark on March 3, probably a response to the arrival of Mexican reinforcements. The three men—including Crockett—were sent to find Fannin.Lindley states that Crockett and one of the other men found the force of Texians waiting along Cibolo Creek just before midnight; they had advanced to within 20 miles (32 km) of the Alamo. Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texian force managed to break through the Mexican lines and enter the Alamo. A second group was driven across the prairie by Mexican cavalry. The siege ended on March 6 when the Mexican army attacked just before dawn while the defenders were sleeping. The daily artillery bombardment had been suspended, perhaps a ploy to encourage the natural human reaction to a cessation of constant strain. But the garrison awakened and the final fight began. Most of the noncombatants gathered in the churchsacristyfor safety. According to Dickinson, Crockett paused briefly in the chapel to say a prayer before running to his post.The Mexican soldiers climbed up the north outer walls of the Alamo complex, and most of the Texians fell back to the barracks and the chapel, as previously planned.Crockett and his men, however, were too far from the barracks to take shelterand were the last remaining group to be in the open. They defended the low wall in front of the church, using their rifles as clubs and relying on knives, as the action was too furious to allow reloading. After a volley and a charge withbayonets, Mexican soldiers pushed the few remaining defenders back toward the church. TheBattle of the Alamolasted almost 90 minutes,and all of the defenders were killed. Santa Anna ordered his men to take their bodies to a nearby stand of trees, where they were stacked together and wood piled on top.That evening, they lit a fire and burned their bodies to ashes.The ashes were left undisturbed until February 1837, when Juan Seguin and his cavalry returned to Bexar to examine the remains. A local carpenter created a simple coffin, and ashes from the funeral pyres were placed inside. The names of Travis, Crockett, andBowiewere inscribed on the lid.The coffin is thought to have been buried in a peach tree grove, but the spot was not marked and can no longer be identified. Death David Crockett died at the Alamo on the morning of March 6, 1836, at the age of 49. Accounts from survivors of the battle differ on the manner of Crockett's death, with stories ranging from Crockett putting up a heroic last stand to the account that he surrendered along with several other men and was executed. To further confusion, historians have been able to back up opposing theories with \"voluminous evidence\". Controversy The popular mythology of Crockett's death in American culture is one of a heroic last stand, a tale that is backed up by some historical evidence. For example, a formerAfrican-American slavenamed Ben, who had acted as cook for one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found in the barracks surrounded by \"no less than sixteen Mexican corpses\", with Crockett's knife buried in one of them.There is, however, historical evidence countering the popular myth, with stories of a Crockett surrender and execution circulating as far back as just a few weeks after the battle. The counter myth picked up historical steam, when, in 1955, Jesús Sánchez Garza discovered the memoirs ofJosé Enrique de la Peña, a Mexican officer present at the Battle of the Alamo, and self-published it asLa Rebelión de Texas – Manuscrito Inédito de 1836 por un Oficial de Santa Anna.Texas A&M University Presspublished the English translation in 1975With Santa Anna in Texas: A Personal Narrative of the Revolution. The English publication caused a scandal within the United States, as it asserted that Crockett did not die in battle, but was executed soon thereafter.The translator of the English publication, Carmen Perry, the former librarian of theDaughters of the Republic of Texas, was harassed with anonymous letters and intimidating phone calls by Crockett loyalists who considered the mere suggestion that Crockett had not died fighting blasphemous. Some have questioned the validity of the text. Author and retired firefighter William Groneman III posited that the journals were made up of several different types of paper from several different paper manufacturers, all cut down to fit.LongtimeJohn Wayneenthusiast Joseph Mussoalso questioned the validity of de la Peña's diary, basing his suspicions on the timing of the diary's release, and the fact that historical interest in the topic rose around the same time as theWalt Disneymini-seriesDavy Crockettwas released in 1955. Some questions were answered when, in 2001, archivist David Gracy published a detailed analysis of the manuscript, including lab results. He found, among other things, that the paper and ink were of a type used by the Mexican army in the 1830s, and the handwriting matched that on other documents in the Mexican military archives that were written or signed by de la Peña. As for those who have questioned de la Peña's ability to identify any of the Alamo defenders by name, historians believe that de la Peña likely witnessed or was told about executions of the Alamo survivors. And while some claim neither he nor his comrades would have known who those men were,others conclude that the \"enormous weight of evidence\" is in favor of the surrender-execution hypothesis.However, several survivors and first-hand witnesses to the battle claimed Crockett fought to the death. Legacy One of Crockett's sayings, many of which were published in almanacs between 1835 and 1856 (along with those ofDaniel BooneandKit Carson), was: \"Always be sure you are right, then go ahead.\" While serving in the United States House of Representatives, Crockett became aFreemason. He entrusted his masonic apron to a friend in Tennessee before leaving for Texas, and it was inherited by the friend's descendant in Kentucky. In 1967, theU.S. Postal Serviceissued a 5-cent stamp commemorating Davy Crockett. Namesakes Tennessee Texas Miscellaneous Monuments In popular culture Television Walt Disneyadapted Crockett's stories into atelevision miniseriestitledDavy Crockett, which aired in 1954 and 1955 onWalt Disney's Disneyland. The series popularized the image of Crockett, portrayed byFess Parker, wearing acoonskin cap, and originated the song \"The Ballad of Davy Crockett\". The first three parts of the series were edited into afeature-length moviefor theaters. Crockett's stories were used by the French animationStudios Animagefor a 1994 animated series titledDavy Crockett. A 2009 episode ofMythBusterstested whether Crockett could split a bullet in half on the blade of an ax 40 yards (37 m) away, and concluded that it would indeed be possible to do so. Film In films, Crockett has been played by: Theatre Prose fiction Crockett appears in at least two shortalternate historyworks: \"Chickasaw Slave\" byJudith MoffettinMike Resnick's anthologyAlternate Presidents(1992), where Crockett is the seventh President of the United States, and \"Empire\" byWilliam SandersinHarry Turtledove's anthologyAlternate Generals II(2002) where Crockett fights for EmperorNapoleon IofLouisianain a conflict analogous to theWar of 1812.Crockett is also a character inGore Vidal's novelBurras a congressman from Tennessee. Comics Columbia Featuressyndicated acomic strip,Davy Crockett, Frontiersman, from June 20, 1955, until 1959. Stories were byFrance Herronand the artwork was ghosted in early 1956 byJack Kirby. See also Notes Explanatory footnotes Citations General and cited references Further reading Numerous books have been written about David Crockett, including the first one that bears his name as its author. External links" ]
[ "List of current members of the United States House of Representatives This is a list of individuals serving in theUnited States House of Representatives(as of September 23, 2024, the118th Congress).The membership of the House comprises 435 seats for representatives from the50 states,apportionedbypopulation, as well as six seats for non-voting delegates fromU.S. territoriesand theDistrict of Columbia. There are currently 432 members. Leadership Presiding officer Majority leadership (Republican) Minority leadership (Democratic) Regional membership Vacancies Partisan affiliation by state As of September 23, 2024: List of representatives Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University(MBA) Emergency physician Chief of Staff to Rep.Marty Meehan Activist Brigham Young University(JD) List of delegates See also References", "Battle of the Alamo TheBattle of the Alamo(February 23 – March 6, 1836) was a pivotal event and military engagement in theTexas Revolution. Following a13-day siege,Mexicantroops underPresidentGeneral Antonio López de Santa Annareclaimed theAlamo Missionnear San Antonio de Béxar (modern-daySan Antonio,Texas, United States). About one hundred Texians were then garrisoned at the mission, with around a hundred subsequent reinforcements led by eventual Alamo co-commandersJames BowieandWilliam B. Travis. On February 23, approximately 1,500 Mexicans marched into San Antonio de Béxar as the first step in a campaign to retake Texas. In the early morning hours of March 6, the Mexican Army advanced on the Alamo. After repelling two attacks, the Texians were unable to fend off a third attack. As Mexican soldiers scaled the walls, most of the Texian fighters withdrew into interior buildings. Those who were unable to reach these points were slain by the Mexican cavalry as they attempted to escape. Between five and seven", "five and seven Texians may have surrendered; if so, they were quickly executed. Subsequently almost all of the Texian inhabitants were killed. Several noncombatants were sent toGonzalesto spread word of the Texian defeat. The news sparked both a strong rush to join the Texian army and a panic, known as \"TheRunaway Scrape\", in which the Texian army, most settlers, and the government of the new, self-proclaimed but officially unrecognizedRepublic of Texasfled eastward toward the U.S. ahead of the advancing Mexican Army. Santa Anna's refusal to take prisoners during the battle inspired manyTexiansandTejanosto join theTexian Army. Motivated by a desire for revenge, as well as their written desire to preserve a border open to immigration and the importation and practice ofslavery, the Texians defeated the Mexican Army at theBattle of San Jacinto, on April 21, 1836, ending the conquering of the Mexican state ofCoahuila y Tejasby the newly formedRepublic of Texas. Within Mexico, the battle has often been", "has often been overshadowed by events from theMexican–American Warof 1846–1848. In 19th-century Texas, the Alamo complex gradually became known as a battle site rather than a former mission. The Texas Legislature purchased the land and buildings in the early part of the 20th century and designated the Alamo chapel as an official Texas State Shrine. The Alamo has been the subject of numerous non-fiction works beginning in 1843. Most Americans, however, are more familiar with the myths and legends spread by many of the movie and television adaptations,including the 1950sDisneyminiseriesDavy CrockettandJohn Wayne's 1960 filmThe Alamo. Background In 1835, there was a drastic shift in the Mexican nation. The triumph of conservative forces in the elections unleashed a series of events that culminated on October 23, 1835, under a new constitution, after the repeal of the federalistConstitution of 1824.Las Siete Leyes(Spanish:), or Seven Laws, were a series ofconstitutionalchanges that fundamentally altered the", "altered the organizational structure ofMexico, ending thefirst federal periodand creating aunitary republic, officially the Mexican Republic (Spanish:República Mexicana).Formalized underPresidentAntonio López de Santa Annaon 15 December 1835, they were enacted in 1836. They were intended to centralize and strengthen the national government. The aim of the previous constitution was to create a political system that would emulate the success of the United States, but after a decade of political turmoil, economic stagnation, and threats and actual foreign invasion, conservatives concluded that a better path for Mexico was centralized power. The new policies, the bans of slaveryand immigration chief among them, and the increased enforcement of laws and import tariffs, incited many immigrants to revolt.The border region ofMexican Texaswas largely populated by immigrants from the United States, some legal but most illegal. Some of these immigrants brought large numbers of slaves with them, so that by 1836, there", "that by 1836, there were about 5,000 enslaved persons in a total non-native population estimated at 38,470.These people were accustomed to a federalist government which made special exemptions from Mexican law just for them, and to extensive individual rights including the right to own slaves, and they were quite vocal in their displeasure at Mexico's law enforcement and shift towards centralism.The centralized government ended local federal exemptions to the ban on slavery, which had been negotiated byStephen Austinand others. Already suspicious after previous United States attempts to purchase Mexican Texas,Mexican authorities blamed much of the Texian unrest on United States immigrants, most of whom had entered illegally and made little effort to adapt to the Mexican culture and who continued to hold people in slavery when slavery had been abolished in Mexico. In October, Texians engaged Mexican troops in the first official battle of theTexas Revolution.Determined to quell the rebellion of immigrants,", "of immigrants, Santa Anna began assembling a large force, the Army of Operations in Texas, to restore order.Most of his soldiers were raw recruits,and many had been forciblyconscripted. TheTexianssystematically defeated the Mexican troops already stationed in Texas. The last group of Mexican soldiers in the region—commanded by Santa Anna's brother-in-law, GeneralMartín Perfecto de Cos—surrendered on December 9 following thesiege of Béxar.By this point, theTexian Armywas dominated by very recent arrivals to the region, primarily illegal immigrants from the United States. Many Texas settlers, unprepared for a long campaign, had returned home.Angered by what he perceived to be United States interference in Mexican affairs, Santa Annaspearheadeda resolution classifying foreign immigrants found fighting in Texas aspirates. The resolution effectively banned the taking of prisoners of war: in this period of time, captured pirates were executed immediately.Santa Anna reiterated this message in a strongly worded", "a strongly worded letter to United States PresidentAndrew Jackson. This letter was not widely distributed, and it is unlikely that most of the United States recruits serving in the Texian Army were aware that there would be no prisoners of war. When Mexican troops departed San Antonio de Béxar (nowSan Antonio, Texas, USA) Texian soldiers captured the Mexican garrison at theAlamo Mission, a formerSpanish religious outpostwhich had been converted to a makeshift fort by the recently expelled Mexican Army.Described by Santa Anna as an \"irregular fortification hardly worthy of the name\",the Alamo had been designed to withstand an assault by Indigenous attackers, not an artillery-equipped army.The complex sprawled across 3 acres (1.2 ha), providing almost 1,320 feet (400 m) of perimeter to defend.An interior plaza was bordered on the east by the chapel and to the south by a one-story building known as the Low Barracks.A wooden palisade stretched between these two buildings.The two-story Long Barracks extended", "Barracks extended north from the chapel.At the northern corner of the east wall stood a cattle pen and horse corral.The walls surrounding the complex were at least 2.75 feet (0.84 m) thick and ranged from 9–12 ft (2.7–3.7 m) high. To compensate for the lack of firing ports, Texian engineer Green B. Jameson constructed catwalks to allow defenders to fire over the walls; this method, however, left the rifleman's upper body exposed.Mexican forces had left behind 19 cannons, which Jameson installed along the walls. A large 18-pounder had arrived in Texas with the New Orleans Greys. Jameson positioned this cannon in the southwest corner of the compound. He boasted to Texian Army commanderSam Houstonthat the Texians could \"whip 10 to 1 with our artillery\". Prelude to battle The Texian garrison was woefully undermanned and underprovisioned, with fewer than 100 soldiers remaining by January 6, 1836.ColonelJames C. Neill, the acting Alamo commander, wrote to theprovisional government: \"If there has ever been a dollar", "ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it\".Neill requested additional troops and supplies, stressing that the garrison was likely to be unable to withstand a siege lasting longer than four days.The Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance.Four different men claimed to have been given command over the entire army.On January 14, Neill approached one of them,Sam Houston, for assistance in gathering supplies, clothing, and ammunition. Houston could not spare the number of men necessary to mount a successful defense.Instead, he sent ColonelJames Bowiewith 30 men to remove the artillery from the Alamo and destroy the complex.Bowie was unable to transport the artillery since the Alamo garrison lacked the necessary draft animals. Neill soon persuaded Bowie that the location held strategic importance.In a letter to GovernorHenry Smith, Bowie argued that \"the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the", "It serves as the frontierpicquetguard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march towards the Sabine.\"The letter to Smith ended, \"Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy.\"Bowie also wrote to the provisional government, asking for \"men, money, rifles, and cannon powder\".Few reinforcements were authorized; cavalry officerWilliam B. Travisarrived in Béxar with 30 men on February 3. Five days later, a small group of volunteers arrived, including the famous frontiersman and former U.S. CongressmanDavid Crockettof Tennessee. On February 11, Neill left the Alamo, determined to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies.He transferred command to Travis, the highest-ranking regular army officer in the garrison.Volunteers comprised much of the garrison, and they were unwilling to accept Travis as their leader.The men instead elected Bowie, who had a", "Bowie, who had a reputation as a fierce fighter, as their commander. Bowie celebrated by getting very intoxicated and creating havoc in Béxar. To mitigate the resulting ill feelings, Bowie agreed to share command with Travis. As the Texians struggled to find men and supplies, Santa Anna continued to gather men atSan Luis Potosi; by the end of 1835, his army numbered 6,019 soldiers.Rather than advance along the coast, where supplies and reinforcements could be easily delivered by sea, Santa Anna ordered his army inland to Béxar, the political center of Texas and the site of Cos's defeat.The army began its march north in late December.Officers used the long journey to train the men. Many of the new recruits did not know how to aim their muskets, and many refused to fire from the shoulder because of the strong recoil. Progress was slow. There were not enough mules to transport all of the supplies, and many of the teamsters, all civilians, quit when their pay was delayed. The manysoldaderas– women and children", "women and children who followed the army – consumed much of the already scarce supplies. The soldiers were soon reduced to partial rations.On February 12 they crossed theRio Grande.Temperatures in Texas reached record lows, and by February 13 an estimated 15–16 inches (38–41 cm) of snow had fallen. Hypothermia, dysentery, andComancheraiding parties took a heavy toll on the Mexican soldiers. On February 21, Santa Anna and his vanguard reached the banks of theMedina River, 25 miles (40 km) from Béxar.Unaware of the Mexican Army's proximity, the majority of the Alamo garrison joined Béxar residents at afiesta.After learning of the planned celebration, Santa Anna ordered GeneralJoaquín Ramírez y Sesmato immediately seize the unprotected Alamo, but sudden rains halted that raid. Siege Investment In the early hours of February 23, residents began fleeing Béxar, fearing the Mexican army's imminent arrival. Although unconvinced by the reports, Travis stationed a soldier in theSan Fernando churchbell tower, the", "tower, the highest location in town, to watch for signs of an approaching force. Several hours later, Texian scouts reported seeing Mexican troops 1.5 miles (2.4 km) outside the town.Few arrangements had been made for a potential siege. One group of Texians scrambled to herd cattle into the Alamo, while others scrounged for food in the recently abandoned houses.Several members of the garrison who had been living in town brought their families with them when they reported to the Alamo. Among these wereAlmaron Dickinson, who brought his wifeSusannaand their infant daughter Angelina; Bowie, who was accompanied by his deceased wife's cousins, Gertrudis Navarro andJuana Navarro Alsbury, and Alsbury's young son;andGregorio Esparza, whose family climbed through the window of the Alamo chapel after the Mexican army arrived.Other members of the garrison failed to report for duty; most of the men working outside Béxar did not try to sneak past Mexican lines. I reply to you, according to the order of His Excellency,", "of His Excellency, that the Mexican army cannot come to terms under any conditions with rebellious foreigners to whom there is no recourse left, if they wish to save their lives, than to place themselves immediately at the disposal of the Supreme Government from whom alone they may expect clemency after some considerations. response of José Bartres to Texian requests for an honorable surrender, as quoted in the journal ofJuan Almonte By late afternoon Béxar was occupied by about 1,500 Mexican soldiers.When the Mexican troops raised a blood-red flag signifyingno quarter, Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo's largest cannon.Believing that Travis had acted hastily, Bowie sent Jameson to meet with Santa Anna.Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own representative, CaptainAlbert Martin.Both emissaries met with ColonelJuan Almonteand José Bartres. According to Almonte, the Texians asked for an honorable surrender but were informed that any surrender must be unconditional.On", "be unconditional.On learning this, Bowie and Travis mutually agreed to fire the cannon again. Skirmishes The first night of the siege was relatively quiet.Over the next few days, Mexican soldiers established artillery batteries, initially about 1,000 feet (300 m) from the south and east walls of theAlamo.A third battery was positioned southeast of the fort. Each night the batteries inched closer to the Alamo walls.During the first week of the siege more than 200 cannonballs landed in the Alamo plaza. At first, the Texians matched Mexican artillery fire, often reusing the Mexican cannonballs.On February 26 Travis ordered the artillery to conserve powder and shot. Two notable events occurred on Wednesday, February 24. At some point that day, Bowie collapsed from illness,leaving Travis in sole command of the garrison.Late that afternoon, two Mexican scouts became the first fatalities of the siege.The following morning, 200–300 Mexican soldiers crossed theSan Antonio Riverand took cover in abandoned shacks near", "shacks near the Alamo walls.Several Texians ventured out to burn the hutswhile Texians within the Alamo provided cover fire.After a two-hour skirmish, the Mexican troops retreated to Béxar.Six Mexican soldiers were killed and four others were wounded.No Texians were injured. Ablue northerblew in on February 25, dropping the temperature to 39 °F (4 °C).Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures.Texian attempts to gather firewood were thwarted by Mexican troops.On the evening of February 26 Colonel Juan Bringas engaged several Texians who were burning more huts.According to historian J.R. Edmondson, one Texian was killed.Four days later, Texians shot and killed Private First-Class Secundino Alvarez, a soldier from one of two battalions that Santa Anna had stationed on two sides of the Alamo. By March 1, the number of Mexican casualties was nine dead and four wounded, while the Texian garrison had lost only one man. Reinforcements I am determined to sustain myself as long as possible & die like a", "& die like a soldier who never forgets what is due to his own honor & that of his country. VICTORY OR DEATH. excerpt fromWilliam B. Travis's letter \"To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World\". Santa Anna posted one company east of the Alamo, on the road toGonzales.Almonte and 800dragoonswere stationed along the road toGoliad.Throughout the siege these towns had received multiple couriers, dispatched by Travis to plead for reinforcements and supplies.The most famous of his missives, written February 24, was addressedTo the People of Texas & All Americans in the World. According to historian Mary Deborah Petite, the letter is \"considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism.\"Copies of the letter were distributed across Texas,and eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe.At the end of the first day of the siege, Santa Anna's troops were reinforced by 600 men under GeneralJoaquin Ramirez y Sesma, bringing the Mexican army up to more than 2,000 men. As", "than 2,000 men. As news of the siege spread throughout Texas, potential reinforcements gathered in Gonzales. They hoped to rendezvous with ColonelJames Fannin, who was expected to arrive from Goliad with his garrison.On February 26, after days of indecision, Fannin ordered 320 men, four cannons, and several supply wagons to march towards the Alamo, 90 miles (140 km) away. This group traveled less than 1.0 mile (1.6 km) before turning back.Fannin blamed the retreat on his officers; the officers and enlisted men accused Fannin of aborting the mission. Texians gathered in Gonzales were unaware of Fannin's return to Goliad, and most continued to wait. Impatient with the delay, on February 27 Travis ordered Samuel G. Bastian to go to Gonzales \"to hurry up reinforcements\".According to historian Thomas Ricks Lindley, Bastian encountered the Gonzales Ranging Company led by LieutenantGeorge C. Kimbleand Travis' courier to Gonzales, Albert Martin, who had tired of waiting for Fannin. A Mexican patrol attacked, driving", "attacked, driving off four of the men including Bastian.In the darkness, the Texians fired on the remaining 32 men, whom they assumed were Mexican soldiers. One man was wounded, and his English curses convinced the occupiers to open the gates. On March 3, the Texians watched from the walls as approximately 1,000 Mexicans marched into Béxar. The Mexican army celebrated loudly throughout the afternoon, both in honor of their reinforcements and at the news that troops under GeneralJosé de Urreahad soundly defeated Texian ColonelFrank W. Johnsonat theBattle of San Patricioon February 27.Most of the Texians in the Alamo believed that Sesma had been leading the Mexican forces during the siege, and they mistakenly attributed the celebration to the arrival of Santa Anna. The reinforcements brought the number of Mexican soldiers in Béxar to almost 3,100. The arrival of the Mexican reinforcements prompted Travis to send three men, includingDavy Crockett, to find Fannin's force, which he still believed to be en", "believed to be en route.The scouts discovered a large group of Texians camped 20 miles (32 km) from the Alamo.Lindley's research indicates that up to 50 of these men had come from Goliad after Fannin's aborted rescue mission. The others had left Gonzales several days earlier.Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texian force broke through Mexican lines and entered the Alamo. Mexican soldiers drove a second group across the prairie. Assault preparations On March 4, the day after his reinforcements arrived, Santa Anna proposed an assault on the Alamo. Many of his senior officers recommended that they wait for two 12-pounder cannons anticipated to arrive on March 7.That evening, a local woman, likely Bowie's cousin-in-lawJuana Navarro Alsbury, approached Santa Anna to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo occupiers.According to many historians, this visit probably increased Santa Anna's impatience; as historian Timothy Todish noted, \"there would have been little glory in a bloodless victory\".The following", "following morning, Santa Anna announced to his staff that the assault would take place early on March 6. Santa Anna arranged for troops from Béxar to be excused from the front lines so that they would not be forced to fight their own families. Legend holds that at some point on March 5, Travis gathered his men and explained that an attack was imminent, and that they were greatly outnumbered by the Mexican Army. He supposedly drew aline in the groundand asked those willing to die for the Texian cause to cross and stand alongside him; only one man (Moses Rose) was said to have declined.Most scholars disregard this tale as there is no primary source evidence to support it (the story only surfaced decades after the battle in a third-hand account).Travis apparently did, at some point prior to the final assault, assemble the men for a conference to inform them of the dire situation and giving them the chance to either escape or stay and die for the cause. Susanna Dickinson recalled Travis announcing that any men", "that any men who wished to escape should let it be known and step out of ranks. The last Texian verified to have left the Alamo was James Allen, a courier who carried personal messages from Travis and several of the other men on March 5. Final assault Exterior fighting At 10 p.m. on March 5, the Mexican artillery ceased their bombardment. As Santa Anna had anticipated, the exhausted Texians soon fell into the first uninterrupted sleep many of them had since the siege began.Just after midnight, more than 2,000 Mexican soldiers began preparing for the final assault.Fewer than 1,800 were divided into fourcolumns, commanded by Cos, Colonel Francisco Duque, Colonel José María Romero and Colonel Juan Morales.Veterans were positioned on the outside of the columns to better control the new recruits and conscripts in the middle.As a precaution, 500 Mexican cavalry were positioned around the Alamo to prevent the escape of either Texian or Mexican soldiers. Santa Anna remained in camp with the 400 reserves.Despite the", "the bitter cold, the soldiers were ordered not to wear overcoats which could impede their movements.Clouds concealed the moon and thus the movements of the soldiers. At 5:30 a.m. troops silently advanced. Cos and his men approached the northwest corner of the Alamo,while Duque led his men from the northwest towards a repaired breach in the Alamo's north wall.The column commanded by Romero marched towards the east wall, and Morales's column aimed for the low parapet by the chapel. The three Texian sentinels stationed outside the walls were killed in their sleep,allowing Mexican soldiers to approach undetected within musket range of the walls.At this point, the silence was broken by shouts of\"¡Viva Santa Anna!\"and music from the buglers.The noise woke the Texians.Most of the noncombatants gathered in the churchsacristyfor safety.Travis rushed to his post yelling, \"Come on boys, the Mexicans are upon us and we'll give them hell!\"and, as he passed a group of Tejanos,\"¡No rendirse, muchachos!\"(\"Don't surrender,", "surrender, boys\"). In the initial moments of the assault, Mexican troops were at a disadvantage. Their column formation allowed only the front rows of soldiers to fire safely.Unaware of the dangers, the untrained recruits in the ranks \"blindly fir their guns\", injuring or killing the troops in front of them.The tight concentration of troops also offered an excellent target for the Texian artillery.Lackingcanister shot, Texians filled their cannon with any metal they could find, including door hinges, nails, and chopped-up horseshoes, essentially turning the cannon into giant shotguns.According to the diary ofJosé Enrique de la Peña, \"a single cannon volley did away with half the company of chasseurs fromToluca\".Duque fell from his horse after sustaining a wound in his thigh and was almost trampled by his own men. GeneralManuel Castrillónquickly assumed command of Duque's column. Although some in the front of the Mexican ranks wavered, soldiers in the rear pushed them on.As the troops massed against the", "massed against the walls, Texians were forced to lean over the walls to shoot, leaving them exposed to Mexican fire. Travis became one of the first occupiers to die, shot while firing his shotgun into the soldiers below him, though one source says that he drew his sword and stabbed a Mexican officer who had stormed the wall before succumbing to his injury.Few of the Mexican ladders reached the walls.The few soldiers who were able to climb the ladders were quickly killed or beaten back. As the Texians discharged their previously loaded rifles, they found it increasingly difficult to reload while attempting to keep Mexican soldiers from scaling the walls. Mexican soldiers withdrew and regrouped, but their second attack was repulsed. Fifteen minutes into the battle, they attacked a third time.During the third strike, Romero's column, aiming for the east wall, was exposed to cannon fire and shifted to the north, mingling with the second column.Cos' column, under fire from Texians on the west wall, also veered", "wall, also veered north.When Santa Anna saw that the bulk of his army was massed against the north wall, he feared a rout; \"panicked\", he sent the reserves into the same area.The Mexican soldiers closest to the north wall realized that the makeshift wall contained many gaps and toeholds. One of the first to scale the 12-foot (3.7 m) wall was GeneralJuan Amador; at his challenge, his men began swarming up the wall. Amador opened theposternin the north wall, allowing Mexican soldiers to pour into the complex.Others climbed through gun ports in the west wall, which had few occupiers.As the Texian occupiers abandoned the north wall and the northern end of the west wall,Texian gunners at the south end of the mission turned their cannon towards the north and fired into the advancing Mexican soldiers. This left the south end of the mission unprotected; within minutes Mexican soldiers had climbed the walls and killed the gunners, gaining control of the Alamo's 18-pounder cannon.By this time Romero's men had taken", "men had taken the east wall of the compound and were pouring in through the cattle pen. Interior fighting Great God, Sue, the Mexicans are inside our walls! If they spare you, save my child Last words of Texian defenderAlmaron Dickinsonto his wifeSusannaas he prepared to defend the chapel. As previously planned, most of the Texians fell back to the barracks and the chapel. Holes had been carved in the walls to allow the Texians to fire.Unable to reach the barracks, Texians stationed along the west wall headed west for the San Antonio River. When the cavalry charged, the Texians took cover and began firing from a ditch. Sesma was forced to send reinforcements, and the Texians were eventually killed. Sesma reported that this skirmish involved 50 Texians, but Edmondson believes that number was inflated. The occupiers in the cattle pen retreated into the horse corral. After discharging their weapons, the small band of Texians scrambled over the low wall, circled behind the church and raced on foot for the east", "foot for the east prairie, which appeared empty.As the Mexican cavalry advanced on the group, Almaron Dickinson and his artillery crew turned a cannon around and fired into the cavalry, probably inflicting casualties. Nevertheless, all of the escaping Texians were killed. The last Texian group to remain in the open were Crockett and his men, defending the low wall in front of the church. Unable to reload, they used their rifles as clubs and fought with knives. After a volley of fire and a wave of Mexicanbayonets, the few remaining Texians in this group fell back towards the church.The Mexican army now controlled all of the outer walls and the interior of the Alamo compound except for the church and rooms along the east and west walls.Mexican soldiers turned their attention to a Texian flag waving from the roof of one building. Four Mexicans were killed before theflag of Mexicowas raised in that location. For the next hour, the Mexican army worked to secure complete control of the Alamo.Many of the remaining", "of the remaining occupiers were ensconced in the fortified barracks rooms.In the confusion, the Texians had neglected tospiketheir cannon before retreating. Mexican soldiers turned the cannon towards the barracks.As each door was blown off, Mexican soldiers would fire a volley of muskets into the dark room, then charge in forhand-to-hand combat. Too sick to participate in the battle, Bowie likely died in bed. Eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of his death. Some witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie's room, bayonet him, and carry him alive from the room.Others claimed that Bowie shot himself or was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head.According to historian Wallace Chariton, the \"most popular, and probably the most accurate\"version is that Bowie died on his cot, \"back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and hisfamous knife.\" The last of the Texians to die were the 11 men manning the two 12-pounder cannons in the chapel.A shot from", "chapel.A shot from the 18-pounder cannon destroyed the barricades at the front of the church, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. Dickinson's crew fired their cannon from theapseinto the Mexican soldiers at the door. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson,Gregorio EsparzaandJames Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death.Texian Robert Evans, the master of ordnance, had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder.Had he succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church and killed the women and children hiding in the sacristy. As soldiers approached the sacristy, one of the young sons of occupier Anthony Wolf stood to pull a blanket over his shoulders.In the dark, Mexican soldiers mistook him for an adult and killed him.Possibly the last Texian to die in battle was Jacob", "in battle was Jacob Walker,who, wounded, ran to a corner and was bayoneted in front ofSusanna Dickinson.Another Texian, Brigido Guerrero, also sought refuge in the sacristy.Guerrero, who had deserted from the Mexican Army in December 1835, was spared after convincing the soldiers he was a Texian prisoner. By 6:30 a.m. the battle for the Alamo was over.Mexican soldiers inspected each corpse, bayoneting any body that moved.Even with all of the Texians dead, Mexican soldiers continued to shoot, some killing each other in the confusion. Mexican generals were unable to stop the bloodlust and appealed to Santa Anna for help. Although the general showed himself, the violence continued and the buglers were finally ordered to sound a retreat. For 15 minutes after that, soldiers continued to fire into dead bodies. Aftermath Casualties According to many accounts of the battle, between five and seven Texians surrendered.Incensed that his orders had been ignored, Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the", "execution of the survivors.Weeks after the battle, stories circulated that Crockett was among those who surrendered.Ben, a former United States slave who cooked for one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found surrounded by \"no less than sixteen Mexican corpses\".Historians disagree on which version of Crockett's death is accurate. Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle \"was but a small affair\".Another officer then remarked that \"with another such victory as this, we'll go to the devil\".In his initial report Santa Anna claimed that 600 Texians had been killed, with only 70 Mexican soldiers killed and 300 wounded.His secretary, Ramón Martínez Caro, reported 400 killed.Other estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers killed ranged from 60 to 200, with an additional 250–300 wounded.Some people, historians, and survivors such asSusanna Dickinsonhave estimated that over 1,000-1,600 Mexican soldiers were killed and wounded, but it is most likely that total", "likely that total casualties were less than 600. Texian Dr. J. H. Barnard who tended the Mexican soldiers reported 300-400 dead and 200-300 wounded.Most Alamo historians place the number of Mexican casualties at 400–600.This would represent about one quarter of the over 2,000 Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which Todish remarks is \"a tremendous casualty rate by any standards\".Most eyewitnesses counted between 182 and 257 Texians killed.Some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier. Mexican soldiers were buried in the local cemetery, Campo Santo.Shortly after the battle, Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro proposed that a monument should be erected to the fallen Mexican soldiers. Cos rejected the idea. The Texian bodies were stacked and burned.The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza. His brother Francisco, an", "Francisco, an officer in Santa Anna's army, received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial.The ashes were left where they fell until February 1837, whenJuan Seguínreturned to Béxar to examine the remains. A simple coffin inscribed with the names Travis, Crockett, and Bowie was filled with ashes from the funeral pyres.According to a March 28, 1837, article in theTelegraph and Texas Register,Seguín buried the coffin under a peach tree grove. The spot was not marked and cannot now be identified.Seguín later claimed that he had placed the coffin in front of the altar at theSan Fernando Cathedral. In July 1936 a coffin was discovered buried in that location, but according to historian Wallace Chariton, it is unlikely to actually contain the remains of the Alamo defenders. Fragments of uniforms were found in the coffin and the Texian soldiers who fought at the Alamo were known not to wear uniforms. Texian survivors In an attempt to convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the", "government over the Texian rebellion, Santa Anna spared Travis' slave,Joe.The day after the battle, he interviewed each noncombatant individually. Impressed with Susanna Dickinson, Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended toJuana Navarro Alsburyalthough her son was of similar age.Each woman was given a blanket and two silverpesos.Alsbury and the otherTejanowomen were allowed to return to their homes in Béxar; Dickinson, her daughter and Joe were sent to Gonzales, escorted by Ben. They were encouraged to relate the events of the battle, and to inform the remainder of the Texian forces that Santa Anna's army was unbeatable. Impact on revolution During the siege, newly elected delegates from across Texas met at theConvention of 1836. On March 2, the delegatesdeclared independence, forming theRepublic of Texas. Four days later, the delegates at the convention received a dispatch Travis had written", "Travis had written March 3 warning of his dire situation. Unaware that the Alamo had fallen,Robert Pottercalled for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain inWashington-on-the-Brazosto develop a constitution. After being appointed sole commander of all Texian troops, Houston journeyed to Gonzales to take command of the 400 volunteers who were still waiting for Fannin to lead them to the Alamo. Within hours of Houston's arrival on March 11, Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived with news that the Alamo had fallen and all Texians were slain.Hoping to halt a panic, Houston arrested the men as enemy spies. They were released hours later when Susanna Dickinson and Joe reached Gonzales and confirmed the report.Realizing that the Mexican army would soon advance towards the Texian settlements, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered his new army to retreat.This sparked a mass exodus, known as theRunaway", "known as theRunaway Scrape, and most Texians, including members of the new government, fled east. Despite their losses at the Alamo, the Mexican army in Texas still outnumbered the Texian army by almost six to one.Santa Anna assumed that knowledge of the disparity in troop numbers and the fate of the Texian soldiers at the Alamo would quell the resistance,and that Texian soldiers would quickly leave the territory.News of the Alamo's fall had the opposite effect, and men flocked to join Houston's army.TheNew York Posteditorialized that \"had treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren\". On the afternoon of April 21 the Texian army attacked Santa Anna's camp nearLynchburg Ferry. The Mexican army was taken by surprise, and theBattle of San Jacintowas essentially over after 18 minutes. During the fighting,", "the fighting, many of the Texian soldiers repeatedly cried \"Remember the Alamo!\" as they slaughtered fleeing Mexican troops.Santa Anna was captured the following day, and reportedly told Houston: \"That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished.\" Houston replied, \"You should have remembered that at the Alamo\". Santa Anna's life was spared, and he was forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the province and bestowing some legitimacy on the new republic. Legacy Following the battle, Santa Anna was alternately viewed as a national hero or a pariah. Mexican perceptions of the battle often mirrored the prevailing viewpoint.Santa Anna had been disgraced following his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto, and many Mexican accounts of the battle were written by men who had been, or had become, his outspoken critics. Petite and many other historians believe that some of the", "that some of the stories, such as the execution of Crockett, may have been invented to further discredit Santa Anna.In Mexican history, the Texas campaign, including the Battle of the Alamo, was soon overshadowed by theMexican–American Warof 1846–1848. In San Antonio de Béxar, the largelyTejanopopulation viewed the Alamo complex as more than just a battle site; it represented decades of assistance—as a mission, a hospital, or a military post.As the English-speaking population increased, the complex became best known for the battle. Focus has centered primarily on the Texian occupiers, with little emphasis given to the role of theTejanosoldiers who served in the Texian army or the actions of the Mexican army.In the early 20th century the Texas Legislature purchased the property and appointed theDaughters of the Republic of Texasas permanent caretakersof what is now an official state shrine.In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands acenotaph, designed byPompeo Coppini, which commemorates the", "commemorates the Texians andTejanoswho died during the battle.According to Bill Groneman'sBattlefields of Texas, the Alamo has become \"the most popular tourist site in Texas\". The first English-language histories of the battle were written and published byTexas Rangerand amateur historianJohn Henry Brown.The next major treatment of the battle was Reuben Potter'sThe Fall of the Alamo, published inThe Magazine of American Historyin 1878. Potter based his work on interviews with many of the Mexican survivors of the battle.The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle,John Myers Myers'The Alamo, was published in 1948.In the decades since, the battle has featured prominently in many non-fiction works. According to Todishet al., \"there can be little doubt that most Americans have probably formed many of their opinions on what occurred at the Alamo not from books, but from the various movies made about the battle.\"The first film version of the battle appeared in 1911, whenGaston MélièsdirectedThe", "MélièsdirectedThe Immortal Alamo.The battle became more widely known after it was featured in the 1950sDisneyminiseriesDavy Crockett, which was largely based on myth.Within several years,John Waynedirected and starred in one of the best-known, but questionably accurate, film versions, 1960'sThe Alamo.Another film also calledThe Alamowas released in 2004.CNNdescribed it as possibly \"the most character-driven of all the movies made on the subject\". It is also considered more faithful to the actual events than other movies. Several songwriters have been inspired by the Battle of the Alamo.Tennessee Ernie Ford's \"The Ballad of Davy Crockett\" spent 16 weeks on thecountry musiccharts, peaking at No. 4 in 1955.Marty Robbinsrecorded a version of the song \"The Ballad of the Alamo\" in 1960 which spent 13 weeks on the pop charts, peaking at No. 34.Jane Bowers' song \"Remember the Alamo\" has been recorded by artists includingJohnny Cash,Willie Nelson,andDonovan.British hard rock bandBabe Ruth's 1972 song \"The Mexican\"", "song \"The Mexican\" pictures the conflict through the eyes of a Mexican soldier. Singer-songwriterPhil Collinscollected hundreds of items related to the battle, narrated a light and sound show about the Alamo, and has spoken at related events.In 2014 Collins donated his entire collection to the Alamo via the State of Texas. The U.S. Postal Service issued two postage stamps in commemoration of Texas Statehoodand the Battle of Alamo.The \"Remember the Alamo\" battle cry, as well as the Alamo Mission itself appear on the current version of the reverse side of theseal of Texas. The battle also featured in episode 13 ofThe Time Tunnel, \"The Alamo\", first aired in 1966, and episode 5 of season one of the TV seriesTimeless, aired 2016. As of 2023, the Alamo Trust (which operates the site) seeks to expand the property to build an Alamo museum.To do so, it would have to useeminent domainto seize a property containing an Alamo-themed bar called Moses Rose's Hideout (named after an Alamo deserter) that has operated for 12", "has operated for 12 years (circ. 2023).The Alamo Trust claims that if the bar owner continues to refuse to sell his property, it will put the $400 million property at stake.Conversely, the bar owner says that he wishes to participate in the economic success of adding an Alamo museum and that there is a certain unjust irony of seizing his property to expand the Alamo. See also Explanatory notes Citations General and cited references Further reading External links", "Davy Crockett David Crockett(August 17, 1786 – March 6, 1836) was an Americanfolk hero,frontiersman, soldier, and politician. He is often referred to in popular culture as the \"King of the Wild Frontier\". He representedTennesseein theU.S. House of Representativesand served in theTexas Revolution. Crockett grew up inEast Tennessee, where he gained a reputation for hunting and storytelling. He was made a colonel in themilitiaofLawrence County, Tennesseeand was elected to the Tennessee state legislature in 1821. In 1827, he was elected to the U.S. Congress where he vehemently opposed many of the policies of PresidentAndrew Jackson, especially theIndian Removal Act. Crockett's opposition to Jackson's policies led to his defeat in the 1831 elections. He was re-elected in 1833, then narrowly lost in 1835, prompting his angry departure to Texas (then the Mexican state ofTejas) shortly thereafter. In early 1836, he took part in theTexas Revolutionand died at theBattle of the Alamo. It is unclear whether he died in", "whether he died in battle or was executed after being captured by the Mexican Army. Crockett became famous during his lifetime for larger-than-life exploits popularized by stage plays and almanacs. After his death, he continued to be credited with acts of mythical proportion. These led in the 20th century to television and film portrayals, and he became one of the best-known American folk heroes. Family and early life Davy Crockett was paternally of French andScotch-Irishdescent, while maternally of English descent. The Crocketts were mostly of French-Huguenotancestry, although the family had settled inUlsterin the north ofIrelandbefore migrating to the Americas.The earliest known paternal ancestor was Gabriel Gustave de Crocketagne, whose son Antoine de Saussure Peronette de Crocketagne was given a commission in theHousehold TroopsunderKing Louis XIVof France. Antoine married Louise de Saix and emigrated to theKingdom of Irelandwith her, changing the family name to Crockett.Their son Joseph Louiswas born", "Louiswas born and raised in Ireland, possibly being born, according to local tradition, near eitherCastledergorDonemana, both villages in the northwest ofCounty Tyronein the west of Ulster; Joseph Louis Crockett later married Sarah Stewart, who was also from west Ulster, she being anUlster-Scotfrom just outside the village ofManorcunninghamin the Laggan district in the east ofCounty Donegal.Joseph and Sarah emigrated to New York, where their son William David was born in 1709. He married Elizabeth Boulay. William and Elizabeth's son David (paternal grandfather of Davy Crockett) was born in Pennsylvania and married Elizabeth Hedge. Historical records indicate that David and Elizabeth were the parents of William, David Jr., Robert, Alexander, James, Joseph, andJohn(the father of Davy Crockett); they may have had additional children whose records have not yet been found. John was born c. 1753 inFrederick County, Virginia.The family moved toTryon County, North Carolinac. 1768. In 1776, the family moved to", "the family moved to northeastTennessee, in the area of modernHawkins County.John was one of theOvermountain Menwho fought in theBattle of Kings Mountainduring theAmerican Revolutionary War.He was away as a militia volunteer in 1777 when his parents David and Elizabeth were killed at their home near modernRogersvillebyCreeksandChickamauga Cherokeesled by war chiefDragging Canoe.John's brother Joseph was wounded in the skirmish. His brother James was taken prisoner and held for seventeen years. John married Rebecca Hawkins in 1780.Nine children of John and Rebecca have been verified by historians and Crockett descendants: Nathan, William, Aaron, James, David, John, Elizabeth, Rebecca, and Margaret Catharine.Their son David (nicknamed Davy) was born August 17, 1786 and was named after John's father.Crockett's English ancestry comes from his mother Rebecca Hawkins, as the earliest ancestor arrived inGloucester County, Virginiain 1658. John Crockett was active in local politics and an advocate of the", "an advocate of the independentState of Franklin.Davy Crockett was born in that area, which is now inGreene County, Tennessee, close to theNolichucky Riverand near the community ofLimestone. A replica of Davy Crockett’s birthplace cabin stands near the site, situated in theDavy Crockett Birthplace State Park John continually struggled to make ends meet, and the Crocketts moved to a tract of land on Lick Creek in 1792.John sold that tract of land in 1794 and moved the family to Cove Creek, where he built agristmillwith partner Thomas Galbraith.A flood destroyed the gristmill and the Crockett homestead. The Crocketts then moved to Mossy Creek inJefferson County, Tennessee, but John forfeited his property in bankruptcy in 1795.The family next moved on to property owned by a Quaker named John Canady — an Irish surname with variant spellings; for example, Crockett’s autobiography referred to the property owner as “John Kennedy”.AtMorristownin theSouthwest Territory, John built a tavern on a stage coach route;", "stage coach route; theCrockett Tavern Museumnow stands on that site. When David was 12 years old, his fatherindenturedhim to Jacob Siler to help with the Crockett family indebtedness. He helped tend Siler's cattle as acowboyon a 400-mile (640 km) trip to nearNatural BridgeinVirginia. He was well treated and paid for his services but, after several weeks in Virginia, he decided to return home to Tennessee.The next year, John enrolled his sons in school, but David playedhookeyafter an altercation with a fellow student. Upon learning of this, John attempted to whip him but was outrun by his son. David then joined acattle drivetoFront Royal, Virginia, for Jesse Cheek.Upon completion of that trip, he joined teamster Adam Myers on a trip toGerrardstown, West Virginia.In between trips with Myers, he worked for farmer John Gray.After leaving Myers, he journeyed toChristiansburg, Virginia, where he apprenticed for the next four years with hatter Elijah Griffith. In 1802, David journeyed by foot back to his father's", "to his father's tavern in Tennessee.His father was in debt to Abraham Wilson for $36 (equivalent to $767 in 2023), so David was hired out to Wilson to pay off the debt.Later, he worked off a $40 debt to John Canady.Once the debts were paid, John Crockett told his son that he was free to leave. David returned to Canady's employment, where he stayed for four years. Marriages and children Crockett fell in love with John Canady's niece Amy Summer, who was engaged to Canady's son Robert.While serving as part of the wedding party, Crockett met Margaret Elder. He persuaded her to marry him, and a marriage contract was drawn up on October 21, 1805. However,Margaret had also become engaged to another young man at the same time, whom she married instead of Crockett. He met Polly Finley and her mother Jean at a harvest festival.Although friendly towards him in the beginning, Jean Finley eventually felt Crockett was not the man for her daughter.Crockett declared his intentions to marry Polly, regardless of whether the", "of whether the ceremony was allowed to take place in her parents' home or had to be performed elsewhere. He arranged for a justice of the peace and took out a marriage license on August 12, 1806. On August 16, he rode to Polly's house with family and friends, determined to ride off with Polly to be married elsewhere. Polly's father pleaded with Crockett to have the wedding in the Finley home. Crockett agreed only after Jean apologized for her past treatment of him. The newlyweds settled on land near Polly's parents, and their first child,John Wesley Crockett, who became a United States Congressman,was born July 10, 1807.Their second child, William Finley Crockett, was born November 25, 1808.In October 1811, the family relocated toLincoln County.Their third child Margaret Finley (Polly) Crockett was born on November 25, 1812.The Crocketts then moved toFranklin Countyin 1813. He named the new home on Beans Creek \"Kentuck\".His wife died in March 1815,and Crockett asked his brother John and his sister-in-law to", "sister-in-law to move in with him to help care for the children.That same year, he married the widow Elizabeth Patton, who had a daughter, Margaret Ann, and a son, George.David and Elizabeth's son, Robert Patton, was born September 16, 1816.Daughter Rebecca Elvira was born December 25, 1818.Daughter Matilda was born August 2, 1821. David Crockett family tree Tennessee militia service Andrew Jacksonwas appointed major general of the Tennesseemilitiain 1802.TheFort Mims massacreoccurred nearMobile,Mississippi Territory, on August 30, 1813, and became a rallying cry for theCreek War.On September 20, Crockett left his family and enlisted as a scout for a term of 90 days withFrancis Jones's Company of Mounted Rifleman,part of the Second Regiment of Volunteer Mounted Riflemen.They served under ColonelJohn Coffeein the war, marching south into present-dayAlabamaand taking an active part in the fighting.Crockett often hunted wild game for the soldiers, and felt better suited to that role than killing Creek", "than killing Creek warriors.He served until December 24, 1813. TheWar of 1812was being waged concurrently with the Creek War. After theTreaty of Fort Jacksonin August 1814, Andrew Jackson, then with theU.S. Army, wantedthe Britishforces ousted fromSpanish Floridaand asked for support from the Tennessee militia. Crockett re-enlisted as third sergeant for a six-month term with the Tennessee Mounted Gunmen under Captain John Cowan on September 28, 1814.Crockett's unit saw little of the main action because they were days behind the rest of the troops and were focused mostly on foraging for food. Crockett returned home in December.He was still on a military reserve status until March 1815, so he hired a young man to fulfill the remainder of his service. Public career In 1817, Crockett moved the family to new acreage inLawrence County, where he first entered public office as a commissioner helping to configure the new county's boundaries.On November 25, the state legislature appointed him county justice of the", "justice of the peace.On March 27, 1818, he was elected lieutenant colonel of theFifty-seventh Regiment of Tennessee Militia, defeating candidate Daniel Matthews for the position.By 1819, Crockett was operating multiple businesses in the area and felt his public responsibilities were beginning to consume so much of his time and energy that he had little left for either family or business. He resigned from the office of justice of the peace and from his position with the regiment. Tennessee General Assembly In 1821, he resigned as commissioner and successfully ran for a seat in the Tennessee General Assembly,representingLawrenceandHickmancounties.It was this election where Crockett honed his anecdotal oratory skills.He was appointed to the Committee of Propositions and Grievances on September 17, 1821, and served through the first session that ended November 17, as well as the special session called by the governor in the summer of 1822, ending on August 24.He favored legislation to ease the tax burden on the", "tax burden on the poor.Crockett spent his entire legislative career fighting for the rights of impoverished settlers who he felt dangled on the precipice of losing title to their land due to the state's complicated system of grants.He supported 1821 gubernatorial candidateWilliam Carroll, over Andrew Jackson's endorsed candidate Edward Ward. Less than two weeks after Crockett's 1821 election to the General Assembly, a flood of theTennessee Riverdestroyed Crockett's businesses.In November, Elizabeth's father Robert Patton deeded 800 acres (320 ha) of hisCarroll Countyproperty to Crockett.Crockett sold off most of the acreage to help settle his debts, and moved his family to the remaining acreage on theObion River, which remained in Carroll County until 1825 when the boundaries were reconfigured and put it in Gibson County.In 1823, he ran against Andrew Jackson's nephew-in-law William Edward Butlerand won a seat in the General Assembly representing the counties of Carroll, Humphreys, Perry, Henderson and", "Henderson and Madison.He served in the first session, which ran from September through the end of November 1823, and in the second session that ran September through the end of November 1824, championing the rights of the impoverished farmers.During Andrew Jackson's election to the United States Senate in 1823, Crockett backed his opponentJohn Williams. United States House of Representatives On October 25, 1824, Crockett notified his constituents of his intention to run in the 1825 election for a seat in theU.S. House of Representatives. He lost that election to incumbentAdam Rankin Alexander.A chance meeting in 1826 gained him the encouragement ofMemphismayor Marcus Brutus Winchesterto try again to win a seat in Congress.TheJackson Gazettepublished a letter from Crockett on September 15, 1826, announcing his intention of again challenging Rankin, and stating his opposition to the policies of PresidentJohn Quincy Adamsand Secretary of StateHenry Clayand to Rankin's position on the cotton tariff.Militia", "tariff.Militia veteran William Arnold also entered the race, and Crockett easily defeated both political opponents for the 1827–29 term.He arrived in Washington, D.C. and took up residence at Mrs. Ball's Boarding House, where a number of other legislators lived when Congress was in session.Jackson was elected as president in1828. Crockett continued his legislative focus on settlers getting a fair deal for land titles, offering H.R. 27 amendment to a bill sponsored byJames K. Polk. I believed it was a wicked, unjust measure.... I voted against this Indian bill, and my conscience yet tells me that I gave a good honest vote, and one that I believe will not make me ashamed in the day of judgement. —David Crockett,A Narrative of the Life of David Crockett Crockett was re-elected for the 1829–31 session,once again defeating Adam Rankin Alexander.He introduced H.R. 185 amendment to the land bill on January 29, 1830, but it was defeated on May 3.On February 25, 1830, he introduced a resolution to abolish theUnited", "abolish theUnited States Military AcademyatWest Point, New Yorkbecause he felt that it was public money going to benefit the sons of wealthy men.He spoke out against Congress giving $100,000 to the widow ofStephen Decatur, citing that Congress was not empowered to do that.He opposed Jackson's 1830Indian Removal Actand was the only member of the Tennessee delegation to vote against it.CherokeechiefJohn Rosssent him a letter on January 13, 1831, expressing his thanks for Crockett's vote.His vote was not popular with his own district, and he was defeated in the 1831 election byWilliam Fitzgerald. Crockett ran against Fitzgerald again in the 1833 election and was returned to Congress, serving until 1835.On January 2, 1834, he introduced the land title resolution H.R. 126, but it never made it as far as being debated on the House floor.He was defeated for re-election in the August 1835 election byAdam Huntsman.During his last term in Congress, he collaborated withKentuckyCongressmanThomas Chiltonto write his", "Chiltonto write his autobiography, which was published by E. L. Carey and A. Hart in 1834 asA Narrative of the Life of David Crockett, Written by Himself,and he went east to promote the book. In 1836, newspapers published the now-famous quotation attributed to Crockett upon his return to his home state: I told the people of my district that I would serve them as faithfully as I had done; but if not, they might go to hell, and I would go to Texas. Despite Crockett’s lack of public support or opposition to the institution ofslavery in the United States, he did enslave people. Texas Revolution By December 1834, Crockett was writing to friends about moving toTexasif Jackson's chosen successorMartin Van Burenwas elected president. The next year, he discussed with his friendBenjamin McCullochraising a company of volunteers to take to Texas in the expectation that a revolution was imminent.His departure to Texas was delayed by a court appearance in the last week of October as co-executor of his deceased", "of his deceased father-in-law's estate; he finally left his home nearRutherfordin West Tennessee with three other men on November 1, 1835, to explore Texas.His youngest child Matilda later wrote that she distinctly remembered the last time that she saw her father: He was dressed in his hunting suit, wearing acoonskin cap, and carried a fine rifle presented to him by friends in Philadelphia. ... He seemed very confident the morning he went away that he would soon have us all to join him in Texas. Crockett traveled with 30 well-armed men toJackson, Tennessee, where he gave a speech from the steps of theMadison Countycourthouse, and they arrived inLittle Rock, Arkansas, on November 12, 1835. The local newspapers reported that hundreds of people swarmed into town to get a look at Crockett, and a group of leading citizens put on a dinner in his honor that night at the Jeffries Hotel. Crockett spoke \"mainly to the subject of Texan independence\", as well as Washington politics. Crockett arrived inNacogdoches,", "inNacogdoches, Texas, in early January 1836. On January 14, he and 65 other men signed an oath before Judge John Forbes to the Provisional Government of Texas for six months: \"I have taken the oath of government and have enrolled my name as a volunteer and will set out for theRio Grandein a few days with the volunteers from the United States.\" Each man was promised about 4,600 acres (1,900 ha) of land as payment. On February 6, he and five other men rode intoSan Antonio de Bexarand camped just outside the town. Crockett arrived at theAlamo Mission in San Antonioon February 8.A Mexican army arrived on February 23 led by GeneralAntonio López de Santa Anna, surprising the men garrisoned in the Alamo, and the Mexican soldiers immediatelyinitiated a siege.Santa Anna ordered his artillery to keep up a near-constant bombardment. The guns were moved closer to the Alamo each day, increasing their effectiveness. On February 25, 200–300 Mexican soldiers crossed the San Antonio River and took cover in abandoned shacks", "in abandoned shacks approximately 90 to 100 yards (82 to 91 m) from the Alamo walls.The soldiers intended to use the huts as cover to establish another artillery position, although manyTexiansassumed that they actually were launching an assault on the fort.Several men volunteered to burn the huts.To provide cover, the Alamo cannons firedgrapeshotat the Mexican soldiers, and Crockett and his men fired rifles, while other defenders reloaded extra weapons for them to use in maintaining a steady fire. The battle was over within 90 minutes,and the Mexican soldiers retreated.There were limited stores of powder and shot inside the Alamo, and Alamo commanderWilliam Barret Travisordered the artillery to stop returning fire on February 26 so as to conserve precious ammunition. Crockett and his men were encouraged to keep shooting, as they were unusually effective. As the siege progressed, Travis sent many messages asking for reinforcements. Several messengers were sent toJames Fanninwho commanded the group of Texian", "the group of Texian soldiers atPresidio La BahiainGoliad, Texas. Fannin decided that it was too risky to reinforce the Alamo, although historian Thomas Ricks Lindley concludes that up to 50 of Fannin's men left his command to go to Bexar.These men would have reached Cibolo Creek on the afternoon of March 3, 35 miles (56 km) from the Alamo, where they joined another group of men who also planned to join the garrison. There was a skirmish between Mexican and Texian troops that same night outside the Alamo.HistorianWalter Lordspeculates that the Texians were creating a diversion to allow their courier John Smith to evade Mexican pickets.However, Alamo survivorSusannah Dickinsonsaid in 1876 that Travis sent out three men shortly after dark on March 3, probably a response to the arrival of Mexican reinforcements. The three men—including Crockett—were sent to find Fannin.Lindley states that Crockett and one of the other men found the force of Texians waiting along Cibolo Creek just before midnight; they had", "midnight; they had advanced to within 20 miles (32 km) of the Alamo. Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texian force managed to break through the Mexican lines and enter the Alamo. A second group was driven across the prairie by Mexican cavalry. The siege ended on March 6 when the Mexican army attacked just before dawn while the defenders were sleeping. The daily artillery bombardment had been suspended, perhaps a ploy to encourage the natural human reaction to a cessation of constant strain. But the garrison awakened and the final fight began. Most of the noncombatants gathered in the churchsacristyfor safety. According to Dickinson, Crockett paused briefly in the chapel to say a prayer before running to his post.The Mexican soldiers climbed up the north outer walls of the Alamo complex, and most of the Texians fell back to the barracks and the chapel, as previously planned.Crockett and his men, however, were too far from the barracks to take shelterand were the last remaining group to be in the", "group to be in the open. They defended the low wall in front of the church, using their rifles as clubs and relying on knives, as the action was too furious to allow reloading. After a volley and a charge withbayonets, Mexican soldiers pushed the few remaining defenders back toward the church. TheBattle of the Alamolasted almost 90 minutes,and all of the defenders were killed. Santa Anna ordered his men to take their bodies to a nearby stand of trees, where they were stacked together and wood piled on top.That evening, they lit a fire and burned their bodies to ashes.The ashes were left undisturbed until February 1837, when Juan Seguin and his cavalry returned to Bexar to examine the remains. A local carpenter created a simple coffin, and ashes from the funeral pyres were placed inside. The names of Travis, Crockett, andBowiewere inscribed on the lid.The coffin is thought to have been buried in a peach tree grove, but the spot was not marked and can no longer be identified. Death David Crockett died at the", "died at the Alamo on the morning of March 6, 1836, at the age of 49. Accounts from survivors of the battle differ on the manner of Crockett's death, with stories ranging from Crockett putting up a heroic last stand to the account that he surrendered along with several other men and was executed. To further confusion, historians have been able to back up opposing theories with \"voluminous evidence\". Controversy The popular mythology of Crockett's death in American culture is one of a heroic last stand, a tale that is backed up by some historical evidence. For example, a formerAfrican-American slavenamed Ben, who had acted as cook for one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found in the barracks surrounded by \"no less than sixteen Mexican corpses\", with Crockett's knife buried in one of them.There is, however, historical evidence countering the popular myth, with stories of a Crockett surrender and execution circulating as far back as just a few weeks after the battle. The counter", "battle. The counter myth picked up historical steam, when, in 1955, Jesús Sánchez Garza discovered the memoirs ofJosé Enrique de la Peña, a Mexican officer present at the Battle of the Alamo, and self-published it asLa Rebelión de Texas – Manuscrito Inédito de 1836 por un Oficial de Santa Anna.Texas A&M University Presspublished the English translation in 1975With Santa Anna in Texas: A Personal Narrative of the Revolution. The English publication caused a scandal within the United States, as it asserted that Crockett did not die in battle, but was executed soon thereafter.The translator of the English publication, Carmen Perry, the former librarian of theDaughters of the Republic of Texas, was harassed with anonymous letters and intimidating phone calls by Crockett loyalists who considered the mere suggestion that Crockett had not died fighting blasphemous. Some have questioned the validity of the text. Author and retired firefighter William Groneman III posited that the journals were made up of several", "made up of several different types of paper from several different paper manufacturers, all cut down to fit.LongtimeJohn Wayneenthusiast Joseph Mussoalso questioned the validity of de la Peña's diary, basing his suspicions on the timing of the diary's release, and the fact that historical interest in the topic rose around the same time as theWalt Disneymini-seriesDavy Crockettwas released in 1955. Some questions were answered when, in 2001, archivist David Gracy published a detailed analysis of the manuscript, including lab results. He found, among other things, that the paper and ink were of a type used by the Mexican army in the 1830s, and the handwriting matched that on other documents in the Mexican military archives that were written or signed by de la Peña. As for those who have questioned de la Peña's ability to identify any of the Alamo defenders by name, historians believe that de la Peña likely witnessed or was told about executions of the Alamo survivors. And while some claim neither he nor his", "neither he nor his comrades would have known who those men were,others conclude that the \"enormous weight of evidence\" is in favor of the surrender-execution hypothesis.However, several survivors and first-hand witnesses to the battle claimed Crockett fought to the death. Legacy One of Crockett's sayings, many of which were published in almanacs between 1835 and 1856 (along with those ofDaniel BooneandKit Carson), was: \"Always be sure you are right, then go ahead.\" While serving in the United States House of Representatives, Crockett became aFreemason. He entrusted his masonic apron to a friend in Tennessee before leaving for Texas, and it was inherited by the friend's descendant in Kentucky. In 1967, theU.S. Postal Serviceissued a 5-cent stamp commemorating Davy Crockett. Namesakes Tennessee Texas Miscellaneous Monuments In popular culture Television Walt Disneyadapted Crockett's stories into atelevision miniseriestitledDavy Crockett, which aired in 1954 and 1955 onWalt Disney's Disneyland. The series", "The series popularized the image of Crockett, portrayed byFess Parker, wearing acoonskin cap, and originated the song \"The Ballad of Davy Crockett\". The first three parts of the series were edited into afeature-length moviefor theaters. Crockett's stories were used by the French animationStudios Animagefor a 1994 animated series titledDavy Crockett. A 2009 episode ofMythBusterstested whether Crockett could split a bullet in half on the blade of an ax 40 yards (37 m) away, and concluded that it would indeed be possible to do so. Film In films, Crockett has been played by: Theatre Prose fiction Crockett appears in at least two shortalternate historyworks: \"Chickasaw Slave\" byJudith MoffettinMike Resnick's anthologyAlternate Presidents(1992), where Crockett is the seventh President of the United States, and \"Empire\" byWilliam SandersinHarry Turtledove's anthologyAlternate Generals II(2002) where Crockett fights for EmperorNapoleon IofLouisianain a conflict analogous to theWar of 1812.Crockett is also a", "is also a character inGore Vidal's novelBurras a congressman from Tennessee. Comics Columbia Featuressyndicated acomic strip,Davy Crockett, Frontiersman, from June 20, 1955, until 1959. Stories were byFrance Herronand the artwork was ghosted in early 1956 byJack Kirby. See also Notes Explanatory footnotes Citations General and cited references Further reading Numerous books have been written about David Crockett, including the first one that bears his name as its author. External links" ]
Frank Jevons was the 9th Master of Hatfield College. His death came how many years after the death of his predecessor in the same role?
5 years
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatfield_College,_Durham
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Jevons
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Robertson_(bishop)
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Numerical reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatfield_College,_Durham', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Jevons', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Robertson_(bishop)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatfield_College,_Durham", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Jevons", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Robertson_(bishop" ]
[ "Hatfield College, Durham Hatfield Collegeis one of theconstituent collegesofDurham Universityin England. It occupies a city centre site above theRiver Wearon theWorld Heritage Sitepeninsula, lying adjacent toNorth Baileyand only a short distance fromDurham Cathedral. Taking its name froma medieval Prince-Bishop of Durham, the college was founded in 1846 asBishop Hatfield's HallbyDavid Melville, a formerOxford don. Melville disliked the 'rich living' of patrician undergraduates atUniversity College, and hoped to nurture a collegiate experience that would be affordable to those of limited means; and in which the students and staff were to be regarded as part of a single community. In line with his ambitions, the college pioneered the concept of cateredresidences for students, where all meals were taken in the hall, and occupants charged fixed prices for board and lodgings — this system became the norm for Durham colleges, and later on atOxford and Cambridge, before spreading worldwide. As the 20th century progressed, Hatfield was increasingly characterised by its irreverent atmosphere among undergraduates, reputation for academic indifference, sporting achievement — especially in rugby — and possessing a high intake of students fromEnglish public schools. College administration, on the other hand, preferred to highlight the willingness of students to get involved in a wide variety of university activities; and argued that 'Hatfield man', contrary to hisreactionaryimage, had often been at the forefront of significant reform on campus. College architecture is an eclectic blend of buildings from a variety of styles and periods. The sloping main courtyard contains an eighteenth-century dining hall, the restrainedJacobethanMelville Building (designed byAnthony Salvin), aVictorian Gothicchapel, and the 'inoffensiveneo-Georgian' C Stairs. The trend for revivalist and traditional buildings was disposed of with the modern Jevons Building, located in the college's second courtyard, which interprets older forms in a more 'contemporary' manner. After many decades as a single-sex institution, the first female undergraduates were formally admitted inMichaelmas term1988. History Early years The establishment of the college in 1846 as a furnished and catered residence with set fees was a revolutionary idea, but later became the general standard foruniversity accommodationin the modern sense: an \"arrangement where students would be provided with furnished rooms and meals for a flat fee\".Previously, university students were expected to furnish their rooms themselves.This concept came from the young founding master, David Melville, who believed his model would make a university education more affordable.Essentially, the three principles were that rooms would be furnished and let out to students with shared servants, meals would be provided and eaten in the college hall, and college battels (bills) were set in advance.This system made Hatfield a more economical choice when compared toUniversity College, whose students were generally wealthier, and ensured that student numbers at Hatfield built up steadily.Melville's model was introduced to the wider university after an endorsement from theRoyal Commissionof 1862. Although not intended as atheological college, for the first 50 years the majority of students tended towards theology, while senior staff members and the principal werein holy orders. UnderWilliam Sanday(1876–1883) student numbers rose considerably, prompting a desperate search for extra rooms. It was forced to rent 3 South Bailey (now part ofSt John's College) in 1879 to accommodate them.Though Hatfield was run on the most economical lines, student poverty was a frequent problem. Dr Joseph Fowler, who, apart from his roles as Chaplain and Senior Tutor in the college, acted as Bursar, allowed undergraduates to take on some debt and even loaned them money, often employingrather creative accounting practisesin the process.In 1880, a tennis court was installed for the first time, occupying roughly the same space as the current one.In the 1890s, the college purchased Bailey House and the Rectory (despite its name, most previous occupants were laymen) to accommodate more students.As the end of the century drew closer, the balance of undergraduate students rapidly shifted away from theology. In 1900, there were 49 arts students who had matriculated within the previous 3 years, and 20 in theology.By 1904, just 9 theology undergraduates are recorded, compared to 57 in arts. Inter-war Theinter-war periodsaw a decline in college fortunes. In the first two decades of the 20th century, Hatfield had experienced a sharp fall in numbers. This was caused initially by the decision to isolate science courses at thecampus in Newcastle, an increased tendency to train priests at specialised colleges, poor finances, and finally the outbreak of theFirst World War.For 15 years after 1897, total students in residence numbered above 100.This had fallen to 69 in 1916, 2 in 1917, and to 3 in 1918.After the war finished there was a temporary leap to more than 60 undergraduates, but by 1923 there were just 14 men on the college books.In 1924, a new science department was established in Durham, and this, along with the active recruiting efforts of new Master Arthur Robinson (1923–1940), achieved gains in student numbers.Within five years of Robinson's appointment they had quintupled from the low of 1923. However, theeconomic crisis of the 1920screated uncertainty. Hatfield had more students thanUniversity Collegeyet lacked the facilities, especially kitchens, to accommodate them.University College, on the other hand, was comparatively undersubscribed. To address this, the two colleges effectively amalgamated under the guidance ofAngus Macfarlane-Grieve, and all meals were taken together in theGreat Hall of University College, while each college retained its own set of officers and clubs.Unhappy with this arrangement, some Hatfielders expressed their separate identity in trivial ways: for example, using a different door to enter the Castle dining hall than theUniversity Collegestudents, and, in contrast to theUniversity Collegecontingent – turning to face the High Table during grace. The political situation in Europe impacted college activities: during one memorablerag weekin 1936, Hatfield students staged a mock Nazi procession to the nearby Market Square, with participants dressing in jackboots,brown shirts, and fascist armbands.One of them, Joe Crouch, a fluent German speaker, comically impersonatedAdolf Hitlerand delivered an impromptu speech to the assembled crowd.In 1938, fears of animpending warresulted in the construction of anair raid shelter, with dons and servants digging trenches in the Master's garden (now Dunham Court).Gas maskswere issued to college residents.Meanwhile, a recent decline in the number offreshers, and the death that year of John Hall How, the Master of University College, gave rise to rumours that Hatfield would be annexed to its older neighbour. World War II In October 1939, Hatfielders were barred from their own college when the university decided to use Hatfield as a temporary site for the newNeville's Cross College, an institution for training women teachers. Having spent over a decade taking meals in Castle, they would now be prevented from using Hatfield buildings altogether.Without its own buildings and Master, and the issue of the ongoing war, Hatfield was in a poor position to recruit new students, an era later described as the \"wilderness years\" by college archivist Arthur Moyes. However, the college received an unexpected new lease of life when theRoyal Air Forceestablished short courses at the university for some of its cadets, and soon these cadets made up half of the Hatfield student body. This led the university to postpone plans to merge Hatfield with University College.Plans were revived again in 1943, but met the strong opposition of Hatfield dons, especiallyHedley Sparks.In 1946, the centenary year of the college, members formed theHatfield Associationto both represent alumni and demonstrate to the university council that Hatfield was supported. Post-war The university finally decided that from October 1949, Hatfield would be reestablished as an independent college – withVindolandaarchaeologistEric Birley(1949–1956) appointed to serve as the new Master.The post-war period saw Hatfield once again faced with the familiar problem of squeezing in a larger student population, as the war had created a growing backlog. More buildings were constructed and refurbished.Moreover, accommodation was acquired away from the main site and theSenior Common Roomwas established. In 1962, it was decided that a brass plaque should be fixed to the college gates identifying the establishment asHatfield College.Just 24 hours after installation, a group of students from a rival Bailey college were caught trying to remove the plaque as a sporting trophy.In 1963, the college received its first taste ofstudent protest, when a \"militant minority group of young gentlemen united under the banner ofInternational Socialism\".Around the same time students voted to boycott formal dinners after a row with Master Thomas Whitworth (1957–1979) over whether or not jeans counted as formal wear. Reforms were subsequently introduced. Joint standing committees, composed equally of staff and students, were set up to \"deliberate almost every conceivable topic\" and the undergraduate Senior Man was allowed to take part in meetings of the college's governing body.By 1971, a \"liberal and balanced\" Governing Body had been achieved: consisting of 4 college tutors, 4 elected tutors, 4 delegates from the Junior Common Room, and a representative from the Hatfield Association alumni group.Writing in the same year, a satisfied Whitworth was able to boast of warding off the \"mischievous opportunism\" of student \"exhibitionists\". Modern The leadership of James Barber (1980–1996) was a period of significant change. Student numbers rose, increasing to over 650 by the time Barber finished his tenure in office.Living out became compulsory for students for at least part of their career, and many existing buildings were either rebuilt or refurbished to make room for students: The Rectory was remodeled, C & D Stairs were refurbished, the Main Hall was repaired, and Jevons' was redecorated.AMiddle Common Roomfor the postgraduate community was added in Kitchen Stairs. In 1981, theFormal Ballwas renamed 'The Lion in Winter', which it has been called ever since.More comically, 'C Scales', a goldfish, was elected as a member of the JCR in 1982 and put forward as a potentialDurham Student UnionPresident.In 1984, the JCR was sued by representatives of the bandMudafter a student ruined four speakers by pouring beer into anamplifierduring a performance at a college ball. Hatfield also became co-educational, which at the time was only 'grudgingly accepted' by the college.In 1985, talk of going mixed was stimulated by the low numbers of applicants selecting Hatfield as their preference, and a recent decline in academic standards – with the college finishing bottom of the results table the previous year.Ignoring threats of hooliganism, the Senior Common Room decided in May of that year to push forward with plans to go mixed.In March 1987, a student referendum was held, with 79.2% voting for the college to remain men only.The Senate decided that, despite the referendum result, the college would in fact go mixed – and the first female undergraduates arrived the following year.The first femaleSenior Manheld the post in 1992.Her election win, by a single vote, prompted some students to declare a mock 'week of mourning' and walk around the college wearing black arm bands. Buildings Main Court The oldest part of the college site is likely what is now the dining room, believed to date back to the 17th century.It originally formed part of a town house owned by a wealthy member of local society, and was converted in 1760 into acoaching inn, The Red Lion – a stopping point for coaches travelling between London and Edinburgh.During this time it also hosted concerts, probably featuring the work of composers likeCharles AvisonandJohn Garth.In 1799 the old coaching inn reverted to being a private residence.In 1845, it was sold to the university, and emerged as the first component of the newly founded Hatfield College the following year.Much more extensive when first occupied by Hatfield, since then \"substantial parts of the building\" have been replaced by newer structures.Apart from the dining room, what remains are spaces adjoining it that were once used by travellers, but are now filled by theSenior Common Room(SCR) – formerly acard room– the SCR dining room; and finally, on the higher floors, the 'D Stairs' student accommodation block, which comprises 13 twin rooms.D Staircase has had a reputation for being haunted by afemale spirit, recognisable by the aroma of a distinctive perfume. At the west end of the dining room is Kitchen Block, which features the main kitchens as well as a small number of student rooms and offices on the higher floors.'C Stairs', holding the C accommodation block, was officially opened in 1932 byLord Halifax.It replaced an earlier section of the coaching inn used since the founding of the college.Designed byAnthony Salvin, A & B Stairs – also used for undergraduate housing – was completed in 1849 at a cost of £4,000, and was the first purpose-built part of the college.Containing A and B accommodation blocks, it was renamed and rededicated as the Melville Building in 2005 after a £1million refurbishment.AuthorJosceline Dimbleby, the great-great-granddaughter of David Melville, was invited to perform the ceremony. The Rectory was acquired in 1897, and is the administrative hub of the college, encompassing as it does the offices of the Master, the Vice-Master & Senior Tutor, the Assistant Senior Tutor, the Chaplain, the Senior Administrative Secretary, the Senior Tutor's Secretary, the Finance Officer and the Hatfield Trust/Association.The Birley Room, used for social functions, can be found at the ground floor of the Rectory.Added to the college at the same time as the Rectory, Hatfield Cottage is in between theredundant churchof St Mary-le-Bow (now theDurham Museum and Heritage Centre) and Gatehouse Block. It is where the Middle Common Room (MCR) is now located, having moved from its former space in Kitchen Block. Gatehouse Block is to the right of the entrance and houses theporters' lodge. It also has single and twin use student rooms.In 1961 the college had begun a project to replace the remnants of a much older gatehouse that was in poor condition. The new pseudo-Georgianreplacement was completed by Easter 1962 for a total cost of £55,000.To provide an unbroken front to the North Bailey, decorative gates and railings were installed in the aftermath. Dunham Court Named after alumnusKingsley Dunham, Dunham Court is the second quadrangle of the college.Accessed through an underpass by the chapel, it comprises two buildings, Jevons (Frank Jevons) and Pace (Edward Pace). An influx of extra students after the war stimulated demand for more accommodation and the garden of the old Jevon's House provided the available space. The new building, described byPevsneras \"friendly\", with a \"nice rhythm of windows towards the river\", was finished in 1950 and named after former Vice-Master Edward Pace. The college commenced the largest building project in its history when it demolished old Jevon's House, a \"property of advanced decrepitude\" once occupied by the bare-knuckle boxer and politicianJohn Gullybefore its purchase by the university.As parts of the building had become dangerous by this point, the entire structure had to be removed.Construction of the newmoderniststyle Jevons Building, which would complete the new Dunham Court, began in June 1966. It was officially unveiled in a ceremony in June 1968, attended by both Kingsley Dunham andLord Lieutenant of DurhamJames Duff.It won aCivic Trust Awardthe following year.In 1972 a fishpond, since removed, was constructed in the centre of the court at the encouragement of senior college officers. Both buildings contain rooms and social spaces: the college bar and café is located in Jevons, while Pace has a TV lounge, a music room, a kitchen, two gyms, and the JCR Common Room. Chapel The college chapel was conceived in 1851 and built by 1854, funded by donations by alumni and topped up with a loan of £150 from the university.Designed byBishop Cosin's Hallchaplain,James Turner(also a trained architect), it containshead sculpturesofWilliam Van Mildert, the founder of the university, andWarden Thorp, the first Vice-Chancellor. Commemorative oak panels mark the fallen of theFirst World War, with abook of remembrancenaming those lost in theSecond World War.The chapel houses aHarrison & Harrisonorgan, which is used to accompany services and for recitals. In 2001, it was refurbished at the cost of £65,000. When Hatfield was founded, attendance at cathedral services was compulsory; and once the chapel was constructed attendance at these services was obligatory for the next 80 years.Since then, the chapel has been described as making up an \"important but minority interest\" within the college. Hatfield offers eightchoral scholarshipsannually, after an audition and interview process with the chaplain during first term.The choir is led by a student choral director, supported by anorgan scholarand deputy organ scholar.It is mainly made up of students who support regular worship in the chapel, but also sing at other churches and cathedrals, with annual tours undertaken both at home and abroad.A further scholarship, the Matthew Fantom Organ Scholarship, is available to those students in the early stages of learning to play the organ and who would not be ready to apply for the regular organ scholarships. Other buildings Opposite the gatehouse on North Bailey is Bailey House, an accommodation block which provides 50 single rooms, plus a communal and kitchen area on the ground floor.Palmers Garth is located across theKingsgate Bridgeover the River Wear. It offers 8 twin and 41 single rooms for 57 students.The building was formerly used for administration by the university, and once hosted the careers service until it was handed over to Hatfield College in 1991. The postgraduate accommodation site is James Barber House, or JBH for short, a self-catered residence on nearby Church Street. Named after former Master James Barber, it was completed byDurham County Councilas Palatine House in 1968, and originally a care home for the elderly before its purchase by the college in 2006. College traditions Arms From its foundation, the college used as its arms the personal shield ofThomas Hatfield(Azure, a chevron or, between three lions rampant argent).Thecrestwas made circular in design and was accompanied with theLatinmotto \"Vel Primus Vel Cum Primis\", which literally means \"Either First or With the First\", though is now loosely interpreted by the college as \"Be the Best you can Be\". In 1954, the college learned that its crest was unregistered with theCollege of Arms, and its display, including the use of Bishop Hatfield's shield, was both inappropriate and illegal.Consequently, it sought a grant of its own from the College of Arms, which was approved.The new arms were based on Hatfield's shield, but todifferencethe college's arms from the bishop's, a crown and plumes above the shield was added, with anermineborder and the college motto scrolled underneath. This new crest was more \"official\" looking but tricky to reproduce.Rodney Lucas, a student in the 1950s, was asked to produce freehand drawings of the college arms (one with the crest and one without) for use in the annualHatfield Record.The design without the crest was ultimately chosen and appeared for years on college stationary.In June 1994, Lucas contacted the college with a new rendering of the college arms made on a computer, which was subsequently adopted.The commercial design for the arms was changed once again in 2005. Academic dress Similar to mostBailey Colleges, the wearing of the undergraduate academicgownis required for formal events, including to thematriculationceremony and all formal dinners held in college. Formals InMichaelmas term(first term), formal dinners are held twice each week, on Tuesday and Friday.Epiphany term(second term) sees this reduced to mainly Fridays, while few formals are held duringEaster term(third term) as students' attention is increasingly focused on exams and assignments.AHigh table, consisting of senior staff, is also present during formal meals. Unique to Hatfield is the tradition of 'spooning', in which students bang spoons on the edge of the table or on silverware for several minutes before the formal starts.The act immediately ceases when the High Table walks in. Grace Benedicte Deus, qui pascis nos a iuventute nostra et praebes cibum omni carni, reple gaudio et laetitia corda nostra, ut nos, quod satis est habentes, abundemus in omne opus bonum. Per Jesum Christum, Dominum Nostrum, cui tecum et Spiritu Sancto, sit omnis honor, laus et imperium in saecula saeculorum. Amen. This can be translated as: Blessed God, who feedest us from our youth, and providest food for all flesh, fill our hearts with joy and gladness, that we, having enough to satisfy us, may abound in every good work, through Jesus Christ our Lord, to whom with thee and the Holy Spirit, be all honour and praise and power for all ages. Amen. Since 1846 thegracehas been read at all formal meals in college.It is popular at alumni dinners, where an attempt to read the grace in English was badly received by guests. Widely used in the fourth century and based on earlier Hebrew prayers, it was translated from the Greek and adopted byOriel College, Oxford. Hatfield copied it practically verbatim; the college believes this was likely influenced by the Rev. Henry Jenkyns, a Fellow of Oriel before becoming Professor of Greek and Classical Literature at Durham. Hatfield Day Hatfield Day is a day of festivities held every June to celebrate the end of exams. Traditions include 'Storming the Castle', in which Hatfield students wake up early to rush the courtyard of University College and sing college songs. By the 1980s Hatfield Day was 'not an occasion to which children or maiden aunts could be invited'.Problems included offensive student pranks, vandalism, and an inability to contain events within the confines of the college.Arrests were not unknown.The Hatfield Day of 1984 requiredCounty Durham Fire Brigadeto extinguish a fire set by a student. With the admission of female undergraduates, Hatfield Day became notably 'less coarse' as women members of JCR now 'exerted an influence' on behaviour. Songs The college song was formerlyGreen Grow the Rushes, O. It was replaced in 1952 with a surprising selection: 'If I Should Plant a Tiny Seed of Love' byBallard Macdonald. This 'mournful Edwardian ballad' came to be the 'rallying song of an increasingly macho Hatfield'. As of 2012, other long-established college songs includedTwo Little Boys,Jerusalem, andSwing Low, Sweet Chariot. Student body As of the 2017/18 academic year, Hatfield College has a population of 1,339 students.There are 1,007 full-time undergraduates and 3 part-time undergraduates.Postgraduate figures include 55 students on full-time postgraduate research programs and 111 studying for full-time postgraduate taught programs, plus a further 94 part-time postgraduate students (research and taught) as well as 69distance learningstudents. Common rooms TheJunior Common Room(JCR) is for undergraduates in the college. It annually elects an executive committee consisting of 10 members, including an impartial chair, who run the JCR in conjunction with college officers.Unlike other colleges, Hatfield exclusively retainsSenior Manas its title for the head of the JCR, having rejected a motion to move to \"JCR President\" in May 2014.A motion to allow the incumbent to choose between \"Senior Man\", \"Senior Woman\" or \"Senior Student\" was also defeated in January 2016. TheMiddle Common Room(MCR) is the organisation for postgraduate students. Postgraduate accommodation is located at James Barber House.College officers, fellows and tutors are members of theSenior Common Room(SCR). Image Having shed its theological image by the Second World War, Hatfield developed a strong sporting reputation over the following decades.Johnathan Young, a 1963 matriculant, later recalled that his contemporaries 'were expected to excel in most sports and particularly rugby'. A stereotype of Hatfield undergraduates as indifferent students who were largelyfrom privileged backgroundsalso emerged. This was a perception that college leadership were acutely aware of and keen to downplay.Master Thomas Whitworth, in his 1971 college history,Yellow Sandstone and Mellow Brick; instead defined Hatfielders by ambition, and stressed their tendency to seek leadership positions on campus.It was a viewpoint echoed years later by his successor, James Barber: \"Go to a University concert, a play or a debate, watch a University sporting event, and Hatfield students will be prominent.\" Alumni have also praised a \"work hard, play hard ethos\" conducive to future success and highlighted a strong sense of identity and community.Nevertheless, student articles have criticised Hatfield for being'rah', and suggested it is responsible for perpetuating negative views about the wider university.Writing in 1996, college archivist Arthur Moyes admitted thatmodesty\"is not a Hatfield characteristic\". Past data has shown it to be popular with applicants fromprivate schools. For the 2015/2016 cycle, 65.8% of applicants were privately educated – against a university total of only 36.1%.These figures also represent a significant reversal over time; during the 1960s the state school intake averaged 63%. For 2016 entry, under 2% offresherswere from low participation neighbourhoods.To attract a wider range of candidates it has launched anoutreach programmeworking with pupils in local state schools inGateshead,Hartlepool, andWashington. Admissions For the 2015/2016 entry cycle 1,375 applicants selected the college as their preference.This made it the 5th most popular overall, behind University College,Josephine Butler College,Collingwood College, andSt Mary's College.336 accepted applicants ultimately enrolled.Compared to most other colleges, Hatfield received a somewhat higher percentage ofgap yearapplicants, with 7.8% of applicants in the 2015/2016 cycle choosing to defer, against a university average of 3.8%. In the application cycles from 2017 through 2020, Hatfield was ranked in the top 5 of colleges by number of first choice preferences, but dropped to 8th place for 2021 entry.That year it was the 'most polarizing college', having seen the largest increase in last-place rankings. College officers and fellows Master The currentMasteris Ann MacLarnon, Professor of Evolutionary Anthropology at Durham University, who assumed the role in September 2017. List of past masters Fellows Hatfield College Council awards honorary fellowships to alumni and people who have a close association with Hatfield. On receipt of the fellowship, the fellow automatically becomes an honorary member of the SCR and receives the same benefits. By 2012, honorary fellows numbered 24 in total, notably including former university chancellorBill Bryson. As of 2018, other staff affiliated to the college include eight junior research fellowsand 10 Senior Research Fellows.Current senior fellows include, amongst others, the theologianDouglas Davies.The college also occasionally hosts visiting academics, normally for one term, as part of the fellowship scheme offered by the university'sInstitute of Advanced Study. Sports and societies Hatfield College Boat Club Hatfield College Boat Club (HCBC) is the boat club of Hatfield College at Durham University. The club was started in 1846, shortly after the founding of the college, making it one of the oldest student clubs in Durham.There is a Novice Development programme for absolute beginners.It also trainscoxesand has a dedicated Coxes Captain. The current collegeboathousewas completed in Epiphany term of 1881, with the previous structure having to be rebuilt and re-sited at the cost of £250 – club members believing it to be 'inconveniently small' and very exposed to flood damage.Up until 2001 Hatfield shared its boat club with rowers fromTrevelyan College. Tension over space, resulting from Hatfield's desire to purchase additional boats, saw the termination of this arrangement, with Trevelyan later electing to store its boats with the local owner of a private boathouse. In 2016, the boathouse was one of several to fall victim to racist graffiti and had aswastikaandSSsymbol splashed on the doors.Major maintenance was carried out in 2019: the roof was reinforced and the doors sanded and repainted. Notable former members of the club includeAlice Freeman,Louisa Reeve,Angus Groom, andSimon Barr. Rugby Hatfield College has become known for prowess in rugby in particular – so much so that Thomas Whitworth (Master, 1957–79), a known rugby enthusiast, was often accused of bias in the selection and treatment of rugby-playing students.In intercollegiate rugby, Hatfield became the dominant club in the decades following the war, conceding the colleges cup just once in a 14-year period up to 1971.TheDurham University teamthat triumphed in the 1969University Athletic Unionfinal againstNewcastle Universitywas made up mostly of Hatfield players. Intercollegiate dominance continued into the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, with Hatfield eventually establishing a record of 30 cup wins in 32 years.The 1995 cup final was noteworthy for being an all-Hatfield event, contested by the college's A and B teams.Today, double protein portions for university rugby players are still offered in the college dining hall each meal-time. Will Carling,Will Greenwood, andMarcus Roseare the most notable former undergraduates, all of whom made multiple appearances forEnglandand participated in various editions of theRugby World Cup.Richard BreakeyandJeremy Campbell-Lamertonwere capped byScotland, whileMark Griffinwon several caps for theUnited States.Josh Basham,Stuart LeggandBen Woodshave all played club rugby forNewcastle Falcons.Another recent graduate,Fitz Harding, is signed toBristol Bears. Other sports and societies Hatfield has its own theatre group, the Lion Theatre Company.It has SHAPED, which is a personal development program. Alumni Hatfield Trust Established in 1987 to get around the financial limitations ofbeing a maintained college, the Hatfield Trust is essentially the collegeendowment fund. It relies on contributions from alumni and supporters to fund student activities, bursaries, and one-off projects.The value of the trust stood at £500,000 by 1998.As a way to encourage more frequent donations from former students, the 1846 Club enables donors to make pledges of £18.46 annually, quarterly, or monthly. Societies Hatfield alumni are active through organisations and events, such as the Hatfield Association, which now has a membership of more than 4,000 graduates. Notable people There are examples of notable alumni of Hatfield College in various fields, including government, academia, arts, and sport to name just a few. The sporting alumni of Hatfield College may be the most famous, among them formerEngland rugby unioncaptainWill Carling,2003 Rugby World CupwinnerWill Greenwood, and formerEngland cricket teamcaptainAndrew Strauss.More recently, rowerAngus Groomwas a silver medallistat the 2020 Summer Olympics. Government figures to have attended Hatfield includeRobert Buckland, a formerSecretary of State for JusticeandLord Chancellor;Edward Timpson, formerMPforEddisburyandMinister of State for Children and Families; andLabour Partylife peerBaron Carter of Coles.At least 5 alumni have held ambassadorial level posts in the Foreign Office, most notablyKim Darroch, previouslyBritish Ambassador to the United States Hatfielders in the military includeLord Dannatt, a formerChief of the General Staff, and one of his successors in the same role –GeneralMark Carleton-Smith.The lateAir MarshallPeter Walker,Rear AdmiralAndrew Burns, the currentFleet Commander, and retired Rear AdmiralMatt Parrwere also Hatfield undergraduates, in addition toMajor-GeneralPeter Grant Peterkin, later appointedSerjeant at Armsin theHouse of Commons. In the media, presentersJeremy Vine,Mark Durden-Smith,Jonathan Gould, andMark Pougatch; andDavid Shukman, Science Editor ofBBC News(2012–2021), were all students at the college. In the arts world, travel writerAlexander Fraterwas a Hatfield student, as was the poet and memoiristThomas Blackburn, fashion journalistColin McDowell, singer-songwriterJake Thackray, comedianEd Gamble, and conductorJonathan Darlington. Ecclesiastical alumni are numerous: with formerBishop of DerbyPeter Dawes, formerBishop of Cyprus and the GulfClive Handford, andMorris Gelsthorpe, the first Bishop inthe Sudan, making up just a small sample. In academia, names includecomputer scientistKeith Clark, Professor of Computational Logic atImperial College London(1987–2009);particle physicistNigel Glover, a current professor at Durham;Rebecca Goss, Professor of Organic Chemistry at theUniversity of St Andrews; andGordon Cameron, Professor of Land Economy at theUniversity of Cambridge(1980–1990) and Master ofFitzwilliam College, Cambridge(1988–1990). Eden ProjectfounderTim Smit,BPexecutiveRichard Paniguian,Oliver BonasfounderOliver Tress, andDavid Arkless, Chairman ofEnd Human Trafficking Now, are all examples of alumni with a background in business. Gallery See also Notes References Bibliography Citations External links", "Frank Jevons Frank Byron Jevons(1858–29 February 1936) was a polymath, academic and administrator ofDurham University. Early life He was educated atNottingham High SchoolandWadham College, Oxfordand appointed a lecturer inClassicsat Durham in 1882. Career He was the firstCensorofSt Cuthbert's Societyfrom 1892 until 1897, a role he performed with \"skill and humanity\".In 1897 he was appointed asPrincipalofBishop Hatfield's Hall(retitled master in 1919 when it became Hatfield College), where he remained until 1922. He was the first principal not to be seen ordained clergyman. He also served as treasurer of the university from 1898 to 1902, as sub-warden from 1902 to 1909, as vice-chancellor of the university between 1910 and 1912 andpro vice-chancellorbetween 1912 and 1914 and 1916 to 1921. He received an honoraryDLittfrom Durham University in 1895. He was Professor of Philosophy between 1910 and 1930 and presided at the inaugural meeting of theWorld Congress of Philosophyin 1923.One of the last Victorian polymaths, in the twenty years before and after 1900, he gave himself successively to the study of classics, philosophy, sociology, history, anthropology, and comparative religion. A portrait hangs in the refectory of Hatfield College. Social and national issues He was concerned with social and national issues, especially the education of the working classes and of women. Major writings He was author of eighteen scholarly texts some of which, for exampleA History of Greek Literature: From the Earliest Period to the Death of Demosthenes(1886),An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion (1908), andComparative Religion (Cambridge Manual of Science and Literature) (1913)remain in print. He also wrote on other fields in which subsequent technical advances have been radical and rapid, such as evolution.Such works understandably are no longer commonly in print, but they remain of interest for their clarity, logic, and sound representation of the perspective of his day. Other writings available online include: List of works Jevons wrote, co-authored, or translated the following books (some titles may be duplicates): References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Robertson_(bishop" ]
[ "Hatfield College, Durham Hatfield Collegeis one of theconstituent collegesofDurham Universityin England. It occupies a city centre site above theRiver Wearon theWorld Heritage Sitepeninsula, lying adjacent toNorth Baileyand only a short distance fromDurham Cathedral. Taking its name froma medieval Prince-Bishop of Durham, the college was founded in 1846 asBishop Hatfield's HallbyDavid Melville, a formerOxford don. Melville disliked the 'rich living' of patrician undergraduates atUniversity College, and hoped to nurture a collegiate experience that would be affordable to those of limited means; and in which the students and staff were to be regarded as part of a single community. In line with his ambitions, the college pioneered the concept of cateredresidences for students, where all meals were taken in the hall, and occupants charged fixed prices for board and lodgings — this system became the norm for Durham colleges, and later on atOxford and Cambridge, before spreading worldwide. As the 20th century", "As the 20th century progressed, Hatfield was increasingly characterised by its irreverent atmosphere among undergraduates, reputation for academic indifference, sporting achievement — especially in rugby — and possessing a high intake of students fromEnglish public schools. College administration, on the other hand, preferred to highlight the willingness of students to get involved in a wide variety of university activities; and argued that 'Hatfield man', contrary to hisreactionaryimage, had often been at the forefront of significant reform on campus. College architecture is an eclectic blend of buildings from a variety of styles and periods. The sloping main courtyard contains an eighteenth-century dining hall, the restrainedJacobethanMelville Building (designed byAnthony Salvin), aVictorian Gothicchapel, and the 'inoffensiveneo-Georgian' C Stairs. The trend for revivalist and traditional buildings was disposed of with the modern Jevons Building, located in the college's second courtyard, which interprets", "which interprets older forms in a more 'contemporary' manner. After many decades as a single-sex institution, the first female undergraduates were formally admitted inMichaelmas term1988. History Early years The establishment of the college in 1846 as a furnished and catered residence with set fees was a revolutionary idea, but later became the general standard foruniversity accommodationin the modern sense: an \"arrangement where students would be provided with furnished rooms and meals for a flat fee\".Previously, university students were expected to furnish their rooms themselves.This concept came from the young founding master, David Melville, who believed his model would make a university education more affordable.Essentially, the three principles were that rooms would be furnished and let out to students with shared servants, meals would be provided and eaten in the college hall, and college battels (bills) were set in advance.This system made Hatfield a more economical choice when compared toUniversity", "toUniversity College, whose students were generally wealthier, and ensured that student numbers at Hatfield built up steadily.Melville's model was introduced to the wider university after an endorsement from theRoyal Commissionof 1862. Although not intended as atheological college, for the first 50 years the majority of students tended towards theology, while senior staff members and the principal werein holy orders. UnderWilliam Sanday(1876–1883) student numbers rose considerably, prompting a desperate search for extra rooms. It was forced to rent 3 South Bailey (now part ofSt John's College) in 1879 to accommodate them.Though Hatfield was run on the most economical lines, student poverty was a frequent problem. Dr Joseph Fowler, who, apart from his roles as Chaplain and Senior Tutor in the college, acted as Bursar, allowed undergraduates to take on some debt and even loaned them money, often employingrather creative accounting practisesin the process.In 1880, a tennis court was installed for the first", "for the first time, occupying roughly the same space as the current one.In the 1890s, the college purchased Bailey House and the Rectory (despite its name, most previous occupants were laymen) to accommodate more students.As the end of the century drew closer, the balance of undergraduate students rapidly shifted away from theology. In 1900, there were 49 arts students who had matriculated within the previous 3 years, and 20 in theology.By 1904, just 9 theology undergraduates are recorded, compared to 57 in arts. Inter-war Theinter-war periodsaw a decline in college fortunes. In the first two decades of the 20th century, Hatfield had experienced a sharp fall in numbers. This was caused initially by the decision to isolate science courses at thecampus in Newcastle, an increased tendency to train priests at specialised colleges, poor finances, and finally the outbreak of theFirst World War.For 15 years after 1897, total students in residence numbered above 100.This had fallen to 69 in 1916, 2 in 1917, and to 3", "2 in 1917, and to 3 in 1918.After the war finished there was a temporary leap to more than 60 undergraduates, but by 1923 there were just 14 men on the college books.In 1924, a new science department was established in Durham, and this, along with the active recruiting efforts of new Master Arthur Robinson (1923–1940), achieved gains in student numbers.Within five years of Robinson's appointment they had quintupled from the low of 1923. However, theeconomic crisis of the 1920screated uncertainty. Hatfield had more students thanUniversity Collegeyet lacked the facilities, especially kitchens, to accommodate them.University College, on the other hand, was comparatively undersubscribed. To address this, the two colleges effectively amalgamated under the guidance ofAngus Macfarlane-Grieve, and all meals were taken together in theGreat Hall of University College, while each college retained its own set of officers and clubs.Unhappy with this arrangement, some Hatfielders expressed their separate identity in", "identity in trivial ways: for example, using a different door to enter the Castle dining hall than theUniversity Collegestudents, and, in contrast to theUniversity Collegecontingent – turning to face the High Table during grace. The political situation in Europe impacted college activities: during one memorablerag weekin 1936, Hatfield students staged a mock Nazi procession to the nearby Market Square, with participants dressing in jackboots,brown shirts, and fascist armbands.One of them, Joe Crouch, a fluent German speaker, comically impersonatedAdolf Hitlerand delivered an impromptu speech to the assembled crowd.In 1938, fears of animpending warresulted in the construction of anair raid shelter, with dons and servants digging trenches in the Master's garden (now Dunham Court).Gas maskswere issued to college residents.Meanwhile, a recent decline in the number offreshers, and the death that year of John Hall How, the Master of University College, gave rise to rumours that Hatfield would be annexed to its", "be annexed to its older neighbour. World War II In October 1939, Hatfielders were barred from their own college when the university decided to use Hatfield as a temporary site for the newNeville's Cross College, an institution for training women teachers. Having spent over a decade taking meals in Castle, they would now be prevented from using Hatfield buildings altogether.Without its own buildings and Master, and the issue of the ongoing war, Hatfield was in a poor position to recruit new students, an era later described as the \"wilderness years\" by college archivist Arthur Moyes. However, the college received an unexpected new lease of life when theRoyal Air Forceestablished short courses at the university for some of its cadets, and soon these cadets made up half of the Hatfield student body. This led the university to postpone plans to merge Hatfield with University College.Plans were revived again in 1943, but met the strong opposition of Hatfield dons, especiallyHedley Sparks.In 1946, the centenary", "1946, the centenary year of the college, members formed theHatfield Associationto both represent alumni and demonstrate to the university council that Hatfield was supported. Post-war The university finally decided that from October 1949, Hatfield would be reestablished as an independent college – withVindolandaarchaeologistEric Birley(1949–1956) appointed to serve as the new Master.The post-war period saw Hatfield once again faced with the familiar problem of squeezing in a larger student population, as the war had created a growing backlog. More buildings were constructed and refurbished.Moreover, accommodation was acquired away from the main site and theSenior Common Roomwas established. In 1962, it was decided that a brass plaque should be fixed to the college gates identifying the establishment asHatfield College.Just 24 hours after installation, a group of students from a rival Bailey college were caught trying to remove the plaque as a sporting trophy.In 1963, the college received its first taste", "its first taste ofstudent protest, when a \"militant minority group of young gentlemen united under the banner ofInternational Socialism\".Around the same time students voted to boycott formal dinners after a row with Master Thomas Whitworth (1957–1979) over whether or not jeans counted as formal wear. Reforms were subsequently introduced. Joint standing committees, composed equally of staff and students, were set up to \"deliberate almost every conceivable topic\" and the undergraduate Senior Man was allowed to take part in meetings of the college's governing body.By 1971, a \"liberal and balanced\" Governing Body had been achieved: consisting of 4 college tutors, 4 elected tutors, 4 delegates from the Junior Common Room, and a representative from the Hatfield Association alumni group.Writing in the same year, a satisfied Whitworth was able to boast of warding off the \"mischievous opportunism\" of student \"exhibitionists\". Modern The leadership of James Barber (1980–1996) was a period of significant change.", "significant change. Student numbers rose, increasing to over 650 by the time Barber finished his tenure in office.Living out became compulsory for students for at least part of their career, and many existing buildings were either rebuilt or refurbished to make room for students: The Rectory was remodeled, C & D Stairs were refurbished, the Main Hall was repaired, and Jevons' was redecorated.AMiddle Common Roomfor the postgraduate community was added in Kitchen Stairs. In 1981, theFormal Ballwas renamed 'The Lion in Winter', which it has been called ever since.More comically, 'C Scales', a goldfish, was elected as a member of the JCR in 1982 and put forward as a potentialDurham Student UnionPresident.In 1984, the JCR was sued by representatives of the bandMudafter a student ruined four speakers by pouring beer into anamplifierduring a performance at a college ball. Hatfield also became co-educational, which at the time was only 'grudgingly accepted' by the college.In 1985, talk of going mixed was stimulated", "was stimulated by the low numbers of applicants selecting Hatfield as their preference, and a recent decline in academic standards – with the college finishing bottom of the results table the previous year.Ignoring threats of hooliganism, the Senior Common Room decided in May of that year to push forward with plans to go mixed.In March 1987, a student referendum was held, with 79.2% voting for the college to remain men only.The Senate decided that, despite the referendum result, the college would in fact go mixed – and the first female undergraduates arrived the following year.The first femaleSenior Manheld the post in 1992.Her election win, by a single vote, prompted some students to declare a mock 'week of mourning' and walk around the college wearing black arm bands. Buildings Main Court The oldest part of the college site is likely what is now the dining room, believed to date back to the 17th century.It originally formed part of a town house owned by a wealthy member of local society, and was converted", "and was converted in 1760 into acoaching inn, The Red Lion – a stopping point for coaches travelling between London and Edinburgh.During this time it also hosted concerts, probably featuring the work of composers likeCharles AvisonandJohn Garth.In 1799 the old coaching inn reverted to being a private residence.In 1845, it was sold to the university, and emerged as the first component of the newly founded Hatfield College the following year.Much more extensive when first occupied by Hatfield, since then \"substantial parts of the building\" have been replaced by newer structures.Apart from the dining room, what remains are spaces adjoining it that were once used by travellers, but are now filled by theSenior Common Room(SCR) – formerly acard room– the SCR dining room; and finally, on the higher floors, the 'D Stairs' student accommodation block, which comprises 13 twin rooms.D Staircase has had a reputation for being haunted by afemale spirit, recognisable by the aroma of a distinctive perfume. At the west end", "At the west end of the dining room is Kitchen Block, which features the main kitchens as well as a small number of student rooms and offices on the higher floors.'C Stairs', holding the C accommodation block, was officially opened in 1932 byLord Halifax.It replaced an earlier section of the coaching inn used since the founding of the college.Designed byAnthony Salvin, A & B Stairs – also used for undergraduate housing – was completed in 1849 at a cost of £4,000, and was the first purpose-built part of the college.Containing A and B accommodation blocks, it was renamed and rededicated as the Melville Building in 2005 after a £1million refurbishment.AuthorJosceline Dimbleby, the great-great-granddaughter of David Melville, was invited to perform the ceremony. The Rectory was acquired in 1897, and is the administrative hub of the college, encompassing as it does the offices of the Master, the Vice-Master & Senior Tutor, the Assistant Senior Tutor, the Chaplain, the Senior Administrative Secretary, the Senior", "the Senior Tutor's Secretary, the Finance Officer and the Hatfield Trust/Association.The Birley Room, used for social functions, can be found at the ground floor of the Rectory.Added to the college at the same time as the Rectory, Hatfield Cottage is in between theredundant churchof St Mary-le-Bow (now theDurham Museum and Heritage Centre) and Gatehouse Block. It is where the Middle Common Room (MCR) is now located, having moved from its former space in Kitchen Block. Gatehouse Block is to the right of the entrance and houses theporters' lodge. It also has single and twin use student rooms.In 1961 the college had begun a project to replace the remnants of a much older gatehouse that was in poor condition. The new pseudo-Georgianreplacement was completed by Easter 1962 for a total cost of £55,000.To provide an unbroken front to the North Bailey, decorative gates and railings were installed in the aftermath. Dunham Court Named after alumnusKingsley Dunham, Dunham Court is the second quadrangle of the", "quadrangle of the college.Accessed through an underpass by the chapel, it comprises two buildings, Jevons (Frank Jevons) and Pace (Edward Pace). An influx of extra students after the war stimulated demand for more accommodation and the garden of the old Jevon's House provided the available space. The new building, described byPevsneras \"friendly\", with a \"nice rhythm of windows towards the river\", was finished in 1950 and named after former Vice-Master Edward Pace. The college commenced the largest building project in its history when it demolished old Jevon's House, a \"property of advanced decrepitude\" once occupied by the bare-knuckle boxer and politicianJohn Gullybefore its purchase by the university.As parts of the building had become dangerous by this point, the entire structure had to be removed.Construction of the newmoderniststyle Jevons Building, which would complete the new Dunham Court, began in June 1966. It was officially unveiled in a ceremony in June 1968, attended by both Kingsley Dunham", "Kingsley Dunham andLord Lieutenant of DurhamJames Duff.It won aCivic Trust Awardthe following year.In 1972 a fishpond, since removed, was constructed in the centre of the court at the encouragement of senior college officers. Both buildings contain rooms and social spaces: the college bar and café is located in Jevons, while Pace has a TV lounge, a music room, a kitchen, two gyms, and the JCR Common Room. Chapel The college chapel was conceived in 1851 and built by 1854, funded by donations by alumni and topped up with a loan of £150 from the university.Designed byBishop Cosin's Hallchaplain,James Turner(also a trained architect), it containshead sculpturesofWilliam Van Mildert, the founder of the university, andWarden Thorp, the first Vice-Chancellor. Commemorative oak panels mark the fallen of theFirst World War, with abook of remembrancenaming those lost in theSecond World War.The chapel houses aHarrison & Harrisonorgan, which is used to accompany services and for recitals. In 2001, it was refurbished at", "was refurbished at the cost of £65,000. When Hatfield was founded, attendance at cathedral services was compulsory; and once the chapel was constructed attendance at these services was obligatory for the next 80 years.Since then, the chapel has been described as making up an \"important but minority interest\" within the college. Hatfield offers eightchoral scholarshipsannually, after an audition and interview process with the chaplain during first term.The choir is led by a student choral director, supported by anorgan scholarand deputy organ scholar.It is mainly made up of students who support regular worship in the chapel, but also sing at other churches and cathedrals, with annual tours undertaken both at home and abroad.A further scholarship, the Matthew Fantom Organ Scholarship, is available to those students in the early stages of learning to play the organ and who would not be ready to apply for the regular organ scholarships. Other buildings Opposite the gatehouse on North Bailey is Bailey House, an", "is Bailey House, an accommodation block which provides 50 single rooms, plus a communal and kitchen area on the ground floor.Palmers Garth is located across theKingsgate Bridgeover the River Wear. It offers 8 twin and 41 single rooms for 57 students.The building was formerly used for administration by the university, and once hosted the careers service until it was handed over to Hatfield College in 1991. The postgraduate accommodation site is James Barber House, or JBH for short, a self-catered residence on nearby Church Street. Named after former Master James Barber, it was completed byDurham County Councilas Palatine House in 1968, and originally a care home for the elderly before its purchase by the college in 2006. College traditions Arms From its foundation, the college used as its arms the personal shield ofThomas Hatfield(Azure, a chevron or, between three lions rampant argent).Thecrestwas made circular in design and was accompanied with theLatinmotto \"Vel Primus Vel Cum Primis\", which literally", "which literally means \"Either First or With the First\", though is now loosely interpreted by the college as \"Be the Best you can Be\". In 1954, the college learned that its crest was unregistered with theCollege of Arms, and its display, including the use of Bishop Hatfield's shield, was both inappropriate and illegal.Consequently, it sought a grant of its own from the College of Arms, which was approved.The new arms were based on Hatfield's shield, but todifferencethe college's arms from the bishop's, a crown and plumes above the shield was added, with anermineborder and the college motto scrolled underneath. This new crest was more \"official\" looking but tricky to reproduce.Rodney Lucas, a student in the 1950s, was asked to produce freehand drawings of the college arms (one with the crest and one without) for use in the annualHatfield Record.The design without the crest was ultimately chosen and appeared for years on college stationary.In June 1994, Lucas contacted the college with a new rendering of the", "rendering of the college arms made on a computer, which was subsequently adopted.The commercial design for the arms was changed once again in 2005. Academic dress Similar to mostBailey Colleges, the wearing of the undergraduate academicgownis required for formal events, including to thematriculationceremony and all formal dinners held in college. Formals InMichaelmas term(first term), formal dinners are held twice each week, on Tuesday and Friday.Epiphany term(second term) sees this reduced to mainly Fridays, while few formals are held duringEaster term(third term) as students' attention is increasingly focused on exams and assignments.AHigh table, consisting of senior staff, is also present during formal meals. Unique to Hatfield is the tradition of 'spooning', in which students bang spoons on the edge of the table or on silverware for several minutes before the formal starts.The act immediately ceases when the High Table walks in. Grace Benedicte Deus, qui pascis nos a iuventute nostra et praebes cibum", "et praebes cibum omni carni, reple gaudio et laetitia corda nostra, ut nos, quod satis est habentes, abundemus in omne opus bonum. Per Jesum Christum, Dominum Nostrum, cui tecum et Spiritu Sancto, sit omnis honor, laus et imperium in saecula saeculorum. Amen. This can be translated as: Blessed God, who feedest us from our youth, and providest food for all flesh, fill our hearts with joy and gladness, that we, having enough to satisfy us, may abound in every good work, through Jesus Christ our Lord, to whom with thee and the Holy Spirit, be all honour and praise and power for all ages. Amen. Since 1846 thegracehas been read at all formal meals in college.It is popular at alumni dinners, where an attempt to read the grace in English was badly received by guests. Widely used in the fourth century and based on earlier Hebrew prayers, it was translated from the Greek and adopted byOriel College, Oxford. Hatfield copied it practically verbatim; the college believes this was likely influenced by the Rev. Henry", "by the Rev. Henry Jenkyns, a Fellow of Oriel before becoming Professor of Greek and Classical Literature at Durham. Hatfield Day Hatfield Day is a day of festivities held every June to celebrate the end of exams. Traditions include 'Storming the Castle', in which Hatfield students wake up early to rush the courtyard of University College and sing college songs. By the 1980s Hatfield Day was 'not an occasion to which children or maiden aunts could be invited'.Problems included offensive student pranks, vandalism, and an inability to contain events within the confines of the college.Arrests were not unknown.The Hatfield Day of 1984 requiredCounty Durham Fire Brigadeto extinguish a fire set by a student. With the admission of female undergraduates, Hatfield Day became notably 'less coarse' as women members of JCR now 'exerted an influence' on behaviour. Songs The college song was formerlyGreen Grow the Rushes, O. It was replaced in 1952 with a surprising selection: 'If I Should Plant a Tiny Seed of Love'", "Tiny Seed of Love' byBallard Macdonald. This 'mournful Edwardian ballad' came to be the 'rallying song of an increasingly macho Hatfield'. As of 2012, other long-established college songs includedTwo Little Boys,Jerusalem, andSwing Low, Sweet Chariot. Student body As of the 2017/18 academic year, Hatfield College has a population of 1,339 students.There are 1,007 full-time undergraduates and 3 part-time undergraduates.Postgraduate figures include 55 students on full-time postgraduate research programs and 111 studying for full-time postgraduate taught programs, plus a further 94 part-time postgraduate students (research and taught) as well as 69distance learningstudents. Common rooms TheJunior Common Room(JCR) is for undergraduates in the college. It annually elects an executive committee consisting of 10 members, including an impartial chair, who run the JCR in conjunction with college officers.Unlike other colleges, Hatfield exclusively retainsSenior Manas its title for the head of the JCR, having rejected", "having rejected a motion to move to \"JCR President\" in May 2014.A motion to allow the incumbent to choose between \"Senior Man\", \"Senior Woman\" or \"Senior Student\" was also defeated in January 2016. TheMiddle Common Room(MCR) is the organisation for postgraduate students. Postgraduate accommodation is located at James Barber House.College officers, fellows and tutors are members of theSenior Common Room(SCR). Image Having shed its theological image by the Second World War, Hatfield developed a strong sporting reputation over the following decades.Johnathan Young, a 1963 matriculant, later recalled that his contemporaries 'were expected to excel in most sports and particularly rugby'. A stereotype of Hatfield undergraduates as indifferent students who were largelyfrom privileged backgroundsalso emerged. This was a perception that college leadership were acutely aware of and keen to downplay.Master Thomas Whitworth, in his 1971 college history,Yellow Sandstone and Mellow Brick; instead defined Hatfielders by", "Hatfielders by ambition, and stressed their tendency to seek leadership positions on campus.It was a viewpoint echoed years later by his successor, James Barber: \"Go to a University concert, a play or a debate, watch a University sporting event, and Hatfield students will be prominent.\" Alumni have also praised a \"work hard, play hard ethos\" conducive to future success and highlighted a strong sense of identity and community.Nevertheless, student articles have criticised Hatfield for being'rah', and suggested it is responsible for perpetuating negative views about the wider university.Writing in 1996, college archivist Arthur Moyes admitted thatmodesty\"is not a Hatfield characteristic\". Past data has shown it to be popular with applicants fromprivate schools. For the 2015/2016 cycle, 65.8% of applicants were privately educated – against a university total of only 36.1%.These figures also represent a significant reversal over time; during the 1960s the state school intake averaged 63%. For 2016 entry, under", "2016 entry, under 2% offresherswere from low participation neighbourhoods.To attract a wider range of candidates it has launched anoutreach programmeworking with pupils in local state schools inGateshead,Hartlepool, andWashington. Admissions For the 2015/2016 entry cycle 1,375 applicants selected the college as their preference.This made it the 5th most popular overall, behind University College,Josephine Butler College,Collingwood College, andSt Mary's College.336 accepted applicants ultimately enrolled.Compared to most other colleges, Hatfield received a somewhat higher percentage ofgap yearapplicants, with 7.8% of applicants in the 2015/2016 cycle choosing to defer, against a university average of 3.8%. In the application cycles from 2017 through 2020, Hatfield was ranked in the top 5 of colleges by number of first choice preferences, but dropped to 8th place for 2021 entry.That year it was the 'most polarizing college', having seen the largest increase in last-place rankings. College officers and fellows", "and fellows Master The currentMasteris Ann MacLarnon, Professor of Evolutionary Anthropology at Durham University, who assumed the role in September 2017. List of past masters Fellows Hatfield College Council awards honorary fellowships to alumni and people who have a close association with Hatfield. On receipt of the fellowship, the fellow automatically becomes an honorary member of the SCR and receives the same benefits. By 2012, honorary fellows numbered 24 in total, notably including former university chancellorBill Bryson. As of 2018, other staff affiliated to the college include eight junior research fellowsand 10 Senior Research Fellows.Current senior fellows include, amongst others, the theologianDouglas Davies.The college also occasionally hosts visiting academics, normally for one term, as part of the fellowship scheme offered by the university'sInstitute of Advanced Study. Sports and societies Hatfield College Boat Club Hatfield College Boat Club (HCBC) is the boat club of Hatfield College at", "Hatfield College at Durham University. The club was started in 1846, shortly after the founding of the college, making it one of the oldest student clubs in Durham.There is a Novice Development programme for absolute beginners.It also trainscoxesand has a dedicated Coxes Captain. The current collegeboathousewas completed in Epiphany term of 1881, with the previous structure having to be rebuilt and re-sited at the cost of £250 – club members believing it to be 'inconveniently small' and very exposed to flood damage.Up until 2001 Hatfield shared its boat club with rowers fromTrevelyan College. Tension over space, resulting from Hatfield's desire to purchase additional boats, saw the termination of this arrangement, with Trevelyan later electing to store its boats with the local owner of a private boathouse. In 2016, the boathouse was one of several to fall victim to racist graffiti and had aswastikaandSSsymbol splashed on the doors.Major maintenance was carried out in 2019: the roof was reinforced and the", "reinforced and the doors sanded and repainted. Notable former members of the club includeAlice Freeman,Louisa Reeve,Angus Groom, andSimon Barr. Rugby Hatfield College has become known for prowess in rugby in particular – so much so that Thomas Whitworth (Master, 1957–79), a known rugby enthusiast, was often accused of bias in the selection and treatment of rugby-playing students.In intercollegiate rugby, Hatfield became the dominant club in the decades following the war, conceding the colleges cup just once in a 14-year period up to 1971.TheDurham University teamthat triumphed in the 1969University Athletic Unionfinal againstNewcastle Universitywas made up mostly of Hatfield players. Intercollegiate dominance continued into the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, with Hatfield eventually establishing a record of 30 cup wins in 32 years.The 1995 cup final was noteworthy for being an all-Hatfield event, contested by the college's A and B teams.Today, double protein portions for university rugby players are still offered", "are still offered in the college dining hall each meal-time. Will Carling,Will Greenwood, andMarcus Roseare the most notable former undergraduates, all of whom made multiple appearances forEnglandand participated in various editions of theRugby World Cup.Richard BreakeyandJeremy Campbell-Lamertonwere capped byScotland, whileMark Griffinwon several caps for theUnited States.Josh Basham,Stuart LeggandBen Woodshave all played club rugby forNewcastle Falcons.Another recent graduate,Fitz Harding, is signed toBristol Bears. Other sports and societies Hatfield has its own theatre group, the Lion Theatre Company.It has SHAPED, which is a personal development program. Alumni Hatfield Trust Established in 1987 to get around the financial limitations ofbeing a maintained college, the Hatfield Trust is essentially the collegeendowment fund. It relies on contributions from alumni and supporters to fund student activities, bursaries, and one-off projects.The value of the trust stood at £500,000 by 1998.As a way to", "by 1998.As a way to encourage more frequent donations from former students, the 1846 Club enables donors to make pledges of £18.46 annually, quarterly, or monthly. Societies Hatfield alumni are active through organisations and events, such as the Hatfield Association, which now has a membership of more than 4,000 graduates. Notable people There are examples of notable alumni of Hatfield College in various fields, including government, academia, arts, and sport to name just a few. The sporting alumni of Hatfield College may be the most famous, among them formerEngland rugby unioncaptainWill Carling,2003 Rugby World CupwinnerWill Greenwood, and formerEngland cricket teamcaptainAndrew Strauss.More recently, rowerAngus Groomwas a silver medallistat the 2020 Summer Olympics. Government figures to have attended Hatfield includeRobert Buckland, a formerSecretary of State for JusticeandLord Chancellor;Edward Timpson, formerMPforEddisburyandMinister of State for Children and Families; andLabour Partylife peerBaron", "Partylife peerBaron Carter of Coles.At least 5 alumni have held ambassadorial level posts in the Foreign Office, most notablyKim Darroch, previouslyBritish Ambassador to the United States Hatfielders in the military includeLord Dannatt, a formerChief of the General Staff, and one of his successors in the same role –GeneralMark Carleton-Smith.The lateAir MarshallPeter Walker,Rear AdmiralAndrew Burns, the currentFleet Commander, and retired Rear AdmiralMatt Parrwere also Hatfield undergraduates, in addition toMajor-GeneralPeter Grant Peterkin, later appointedSerjeant at Armsin theHouse of Commons. In the media, presentersJeremy Vine,Mark Durden-Smith,Jonathan Gould, andMark Pougatch; andDavid Shukman, Science Editor ofBBC News(2012–2021), were all students at the college. In the arts world, travel writerAlexander Fraterwas a Hatfield student, as was the poet and memoiristThomas Blackburn, fashion journalistColin McDowell, singer-songwriterJake Thackray, comedianEd Gamble, and conductorJonathan Darlington.", "Darlington. Ecclesiastical alumni are numerous: with formerBishop of DerbyPeter Dawes, formerBishop of Cyprus and the GulfClive Handford, andMorris Gelsthorpe, the first Bishop inthe Sudan, making up just a small sample. In academia, names includecomputer scientistKeith Clark, Professor of Computational Logic atImperial College London(1987–2009);particle physicistNigel Glover, a current professor at Durham;Rebecca Goss, Professor of Organic Chemistry at theUniversity of St Andrews; andGordon Cameron, Professor of Land Economy at theUniversity of Cambridge(1980–1990) and Master ofFitzwilliam College, Cambridge(1988–1990). Eden ProjectfounderTim Smit,BPexecutiveRichard Paniguian,Oliver BonasfounderOliver Tress, andDavid Arkless, Chairman ofEnd Human Trafficking Now, are all examples of alumni with a background in business. Gallery See also Notes References Bibliography Citations External links", "Frank Jevons Frank Byron Jevons(1858–29 February 1936) was a polymath, academic and administrator ofDurham University. Early life He was educated atNottingham High SchoolandWadham College, Oxfordand appointed a lecturer inClassicsat Durham in 1882. Career He was the firstCensorofSt Cuthbert's Societyfrom 1892 until 1897, a role he performed with \"skill and humanity\".In 1897 he was appointed asPrincipalofBishop Hatfield's Hall(retitled master in 1919 when it became Hatfield College), where he remained until 1922. He was the first principal not to be seen ordained clergyman. He also served as treasurer of the university from 1898 to 1902, as sub-warden from 1902 to 1909, as vice-chancellor of the university between 1910 and 1912 andpro vice-chancellorbetween 1912 and 1914 and 1916 to 1921. He received an honoraryDLittfrom Durham University in 1895. He was Professor of Philosophy between 1910 and 1930 and presided at the inaugural meeting of theWorld Congress of Philosophyin 1923.One of the last Victorian", "the last Victorian polymaths, in the twenty years before and after 1900, he gave himself successively to the study of classics, philosophy, sociology, history, anthropology, and comparative religion. A portrait hangs in the refectory of Hatfield College. Social and national issues He was concerned with social and national issues, especially the education of the working classes and of women. Major writings He was author of eighteen scholarly texts some of which, for exampleA History of Greek Literature: From the Earliest Period to the Death of Demosthenes(1886),An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Religion (1908), andComparative Religion (Cambridge Manual of Science and Literature) (1913)remain in print. He also wrote on other fields in which subsequent technical advances have been radical and rapid, such as evolution.Such works understandably are no longer commonly in print, but they remain of interest for their clarity, logic, and sound representation of the perspective of his day. Other writings", "day. Other writings available online include: List of works Jevons wrote, co-authored, or translated the following books (some titles may be duplicates): References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Robertson_(bishop" ]
How many days did it take for World War 2 to end after the death of Alois Burgstaller?
136 days
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Burgstaller
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II
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Numerical reasoning | Post processing | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Burgstaller', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Burgstaller", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" ]
[ "Alois Burgstaller Alois Burgstaller(21 September 1872 – 19 April 1945) was aGermanoperatictenor. Burgstaller was born inHolzkirchen. A trained watchmaker, he always loved to sing and his vocal talent was discovered during an amateur theatre performance in church. Alois was encouraged to sing professionally byCosima Wagner, the widow ofRichard Wagner, and he made a serious study ofoperamusic. He took lessons in Frankfurt and at theBayreuth Schoolunder Julius Kniese, making his stage debut in 1894 at theBayreuth Festivalin a small part. Alois would go on to sing the major Wagnerian roles of Siegfried, Siegmund, Erik, and Parsifal at Bayreuth from 1896 to 1903. He also performed these roles at other leading European opera houses, including those in such important cities as Paris, Zurich, Budapest, London, Amsterdam, and Moscow. Alois made his American debut at theMetropolitan Opera, New York City, as Siegmund in \"Die Walküre\" on February 12, 1903. He appeared throughout the United States, singing in San Francisco, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Los Angeles during the next six or so years. His final performance, as Siegmund, occurred on January 14, 1909. On Christmas Eve, 1903, he had sung the title role in the first staged American performance ofRichard Wagner's \"Parsifal\" in New York City. This performance was in violation of German copyright law and angeredCosima Wagner, who was trying to keep productions of the work exclusive to Bayreuth. As a result, Alois, as well as thebaritonesingerAnton van Rooyand conductorAlfred Hertz, were banned from any further performances at Bayreuth. When his American career began winding down, Burgstaller appealed to the Wagner family and was eventually welcomed back to Bayreuth, performing in the festivals of 1908 and 1909. Alois spent his old age in St. Quirin, municipality Gmund, at the Tegernsee, until his death in 1945. He lies buried at the Holzkirchner cemetery and was accorded the honor of having the local market municipality and a roadway named after him. References", "World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \"spheres of influence\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\"cash and carry\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\"living space\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidalstate\".Soviet POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links" ]
[ "Alois Burgstaller Alois Burgstaller(21 September 1872 – 19 April 1945) was aGermanoperatictenor. Burgstaller was born inHolzkirchen. A trained watchmaker, he always loved to sing and his vocal talent was discovered during an amateur theatre performance in church. Alois was encouraged to sing professionally byCosima Wagner, the widow ofRichard Wagner, and he made a serious study ofoperamusic. He took lessons in Frankfurt and at theBayreuth Schoolunder Julius Kniese, making his stage debut in 1894 at theBayreuth Festivalin a small part. Alois would go on to sing the major Wagnerian roles of Siegfried, Siegmund, Erik, and Parsifal at Bayreuth from 1896 to 1903. He also performed these roles at other leading European opera houses, including those in such important cities as Paris, Zurich, Budapest, London, Amsterdam, and Moscow. Alois made his American debut at theMetropolitan Opera, New York City, as Siegmund in \"Die Walküre\" on February 12, 1903. He appeared throughout the United States, singing in San", "singing in San Francisco, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Los Angeles during the next six or so years. His final performance, as Siegmund, occurred on January 14, 1909. On Christmas Eve, 1903, he had sung the title role in the first staged American performance ofRichard Wagner's \"Parsifal\" in New York City. This performance was in violation of German copyright law and angeredCosima Wagner, who was trying to keep productions of the work exclusive to Bayreuth. As a result, Alois, as well as thebaritonesingerAnton van Rooyand conductorAlfred Hertz, were banned from any further performances at Bayreuth. When his American career began winding down, Burgstaller appealed to the Wagner family and was eventually welcomed back to Bayreuth, performing in the festivals of 1908 and 1909. Alois spent his old age in St. Quirin, municipality Gmund, at the Tegernsee, until his death in 1945. He lies buried at the Holzkirchner cemetery and was accorded the honor of having the local market municipality and a", "municipality and a roadway named after him. References", "World War II Asia-Pacific Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Coups World War IIor theSecond World War(1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was aglobal conflictbetween two coalitions: theAlliesand theAxis powers.Nearly all the world's countries—including all thegreat powers—participated, with many investing all available economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities in pursuit oftotal war, blurring the distinction between military and civilian resources.Tanksandaircraft played major roles, with the latter enabling thestrategic bombingof population centres and delivery of theonly two nuclear weaponsever used in war. World War II was thedeadliest conflictin history, resulting in70 to 85 million fatalities, more than half of which were civilians. Millions died ingenocides, includingthe Holocaustof European Jews, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. Following the Allied powers' victory,Germany,Austria,Japan, andKoreawere occupied, andwar crimestribunals were conductedagainst GermanandJapanese", "GermanandJapanese leaders. Thecauses of World War IIincluded unresolved tensions in theaftermath of World War Iand the rises offascism in Europeandmilitarism in Japan, and it was preceded by events including theJapanese invasion of Manchuria,Spanish Civil War, outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, and Germanannexations of Austriaandthe Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, whenNazi Germany, underAdolf Hitler,invaded Poland, after which theUnited KingdomandFrancedeclared waron Germany. Poland was partitioned between Germany and theSoviet Unionunder theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, by which they had agreed on respective \"spheres of influence\" in Eastern Europe; in 1940, the Sovietsannexed the Baltic statesandparts of FinlandandRomania. After thefall of Francein June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany and theBritish Empire, with fighting in theBalkans,Mediterranean, and Middle East, the aerialBattle of Britainandthe Blitz, and navalBattle of the Atlantic.", "of the Atlantic. Through a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany took control of much ofcontinental Europeandformed the Axis alliancewithItaly,Japan, and other countries. In June 1941, Germany led the European Axis inan invasion of the Soviet Union, opening theEastern Frontand initially making large territorial gains. Japan aimed todominate East Asia and the Asia-Pacific, and by 1937 was at war with theRepublic of China. In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territoriesin Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific, includingat Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which resulted in the US and the UK declaring war against Japan; theEuropean Axis declared war on the US.Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in mid-1942 after its defeat in the navalBattle of Midway; Germany and Italy weredefeated in North Africaand atStalingradin the Soviet Union. Key setbacks in 1943—including German defeats on the Eastern Front, theAllied invasions of Sicilyand", "of Sicilyand theItalian mainland, and Allied offensives in the Pacific—cost the Axis powers their initiative and forced them into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Alliesinvaded German-occupied France at Normandy, while the Soviet Unionregained its territorial lossesand pushed Germany and its allies westward. At the same time, Japan suffered reversals in mainland Asia, while the Allies crippled theJapanese Navyandcaptured key islands. The war in Europe concluded with the liberation ofGerman-occupied territories; theinvasion of Germany by the Western Alliesand the Soviet Union, culminating in thefall of Berlinto Soviet troops;Hitler's suicide; and theGerman unconditional surrenderon8 May 1945. Following the refusal of Japan to surrender on the terms of thePotsdam Declaration, the USdropped the first atomic bombsonHiroshimaandNagasakion 6 and 9 August. Faced with an imminentinvasion of the Japanese archipelago, the possibility of further atomic bombings, and the Sovietdeclaration of", "of waragainst Japan and itsinvasion of Manchuria, Japan announcedits unconditional surrenderon 15 August and signeda surrender documenton2 September 1945, marking the end of the war. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world, and it set the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. TheUnited Nationswas established to foster international cooperation and prevent conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becomingthe permanent membersofits security council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rivalsuperpowers, setting the stage for theCold War. In the wake of European devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering thedecolonisation of AfricaandAsia. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towardseconomic recovery and expansion. Start and end dates World War II began in Europe on 1 September 1939with theGerman invasion of", "invasion of Polandand theUnited KingdomandFrance's declaration of war on Germany two days later on 3 September 1939. Dates for the beginning of thePacific Warinclude the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese Waron 7 July 1937,or the earlierJapanese invasion of Manchuria, on 19 September 1931.Others follow the British historianA. J. P. Taylor, who stated that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars became World War II in 1941.Other proposed starting dates for World War II include theItalian invasion of Abyssiniaon 3 October 1935.The British historianAntony Beevorviews the beginning of World WarII as theBattles of Khalkhin Golfought betweenJapanand the forces ofMongoliaand theSoviet Unionfrom May to September 1939.Others view theSpanish Civil Waras the start or prelude to World War II. The exact date of the war's end also is not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day),", "1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formalsurrender of Japanon 2 September 1945, which officiallyended the war in Asia. Apeace treaty between Japan and the Allieswas signed in 1951.A 1990treaty regarding Germany's futureallowed thereunification of East and West Germanyto take place and resolved most post–World WarII issues.No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed,although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by theSoviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them. History Background Aftermath of World War I World War Ihad radically altered the political European map with the defeat of theCentral Powers—includingAustria-Hungary,Germany,Bulgaria, and theOttoman Empire—and the 1917Bolshevik seizure of powerinRussia, which led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victoriousAllies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania, and Greece, gained territory, and newnation-stateswere", "created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, theLeague of Nationswas established in 1920 by theParis Peace Conference. The organisation's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, andnaval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentimentafter World WarI,irredentistandrevanchistnationalismhad emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by theTreaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and allits overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited,reparationswere imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country'sarmed forces. Germany and Italy The German Empire was dissolved in theGerman", "in theGerman Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as theWeimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that thepromises madeby the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, theFascistmovement led byBenito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist,totalitarian, andclass collaborationistagenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a \"New Roman Empire\". Adolf Hitler, after anunsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, eventuallybecame the Chancellor of Germanyin 1933 whenPaul von", "1933 whenPaul von Hindenburgand the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himselfFührerof Germany and abolished democracy, espousing aradical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massiverearmament campaign.France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy,allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when theTerritory of the Saar Basinwas legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. European treaties The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Frontin April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towardsmilitary globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreementwith Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany'sgoals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty", "drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, theFranco-Soviet pactwas required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless.The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed theNeutrality Actin August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles andLocarno Treatiesbyremilitarising the Rhinelandin March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy ofappeasement.In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed theRome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed theAnti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year. Asia TheKuomintang(KMT) party in China launched aunification campaignagainstregional warlordsand nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled ina civil waragainst its formerChinese Communist Party(CCP) alliesandnew regional warlords. In 1931, anincreasingly militaristicEmpire of Japan, which had long sought influence in Chinaas the first step of what its", "step of what its government saw as the country'sright to rule Asia, staged theMukden incidentas a pretext toinvade Manchuriaand establish thepuppet stateofManchukuo. China appealed to theLeague of Nationsto stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after beingcondemnedfor its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, inShanghai,ReheandHebei, until theTanggu Trucewas signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression inManchuria, andChahar and Suiyuan.After the 1936Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to presenta united frontto oppose Japan. Pre-war events Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) TheSecond Italo-Ethiopian Warwas a briefcolonial warthat began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of theEthiopian Empire(also known asAbyssinia) by the armed forces of theKingdom of Italy(Regno d'Italia), which was launched fromItalian", "fromItalian SomalilandandEritrea.The war resulted in themilitary occupationof Ethiopia and itsannexationinto the newly created colony ofItalian East Africa(Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of theLeague of Nationsas a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations,but the League did littlewhen the former clearly violated Article X of the League'sCovenant.The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion.Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbingAustria. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to theNationalist rebels, led by GeneralFrancisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain.The Soviet Union", "Soviet Union supported the existing government of theSpanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as theInternational Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used thisproxy waras an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World WarII butgenerally favoured the Axis.His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending ofvolunteersto fight on theEastern Front. Japanese invasion of China (1937) In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofPekingafter instigating theMarco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.The Soviets quickly signed anon-aggression pact with Chinato lendmaterielsupport, effectively ending China's priorcooperation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attackedTaiyuan, engaged theKuomintang Armyaround Xinkou,and", "Xinkou,and foughtCommunist forcesin Pingxingguan.GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shekdeployed hisbest armytodefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back,capturing the capital Nankingin December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens or hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants weremurdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won theirfirst major victory at Taierzhuang, but then the city ofXuzhouwas taken by the Japanesein May.In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance byflooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences atWuhan, but thecity was takenby October.Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland toChongqingand continued the war. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces", "Japanese forces inManchukuohad sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union andMongolia. The Japanese doctrine ofHokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat atKhalkin Golin 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese Warand ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed aNeutrality Pactin April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine ofNanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies. European occupations and agreements In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germanyannexed Austria, again provokinglittle responsefrom other European powers.Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on theSudetenland, an area ofCzechoslovakiawith a predominantlyethnic Germanpopulation. Soon the United Kingdom", "the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainand conceded this territory to Germany in theMunich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia tocede additional territoryto Hungary, and Poland annexed theTrans-Olzaregion of Czechoslovakia. Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish \"war-mongers\" and in January 1939secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navyto challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakiaand subsequently split it into the GermanProtectorate of Bohemia and Moraviaand a pro-Germanclient state, theSlovak", "state, theSlovak Republic.Hitler also delivered anultimatum to Lithuaniaon 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of theKlaipėda Region, formerly the GermanMemelland. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on theFree City of Danzig, the United Kingdom and Franceguaranteed their support for Polish independence; whenItaly conquered Albaniain April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to theKingdoms of RomaniaandGreece.Shortly after theFranco-Britishpledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with thePact of Steel.Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to \"encircle\" Germany and renounced theAnglo-German Naval Agreementand theGerman–Polish declaration of non-aggression. The situation became a crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. On 23 August the Soviet Union signeda non-aggression pactwith Germany,after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had", "Soviet Union had stalled.This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet \"spheres of influence\" (westernPolandand Lithuania for Germany;eastern Poland, Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor the Soviet Union), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence.The pact neutralised the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two-front war, as it had in World WarI. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which served as a pretext to worsen relations.On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polishplenipotentiaryimmediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover ofDanzig, and to allow aplebiscitein thePolish", "thePolish Corridorin which the German minority would vote on secession.The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30–31 August in a confrontational meeting with the British ambassadorNevile Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. Course of the war War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) On 1 September 1939, Germanyinvaded Polandafterhaving stagedseveralfalse flag border incidentsas a pretext to initiate the invasion.The first German attack of the war came against thePolish defenses at Westerplatte.The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany.During thePhoney Warperiod, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of acautious French probe into the Saarland.The Western Allies also began anaval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort.Germany", "war effort.Germany responded by orderingU-boat warfareagainst Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into theBattle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs ofWarsaw. The Polishcounter-offensiveto the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by theWehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through tobesieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing acease-fire with Japan, theSoviet Union invaded Polandunder the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist.On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, andthe last large operational unit of the Polish Armysurrendered on 6October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed thePolish government-in-exileand aclandestine state apparatus remainedin occupied Poland.A significant part of Polish military personnelevacuated to Romaniaand Latvia; many of them laterfought against the Axisin other theatres of", "other theatres of the war. Germanyannexed westernPoland andoccupied central Poland; the Soviet Unionannexed eastern Poland; small shares of Polish territory were transferred toLithuaniaandSlovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejectedand Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France,which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatenedEstonia,Latvia, andLithuaniawith military invasion, forcing the threeBaltic countriesto signpactsallowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there.Finlandrefused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union.The Soviet Union invaded Finlandin November 1939,and was subsequently expelled from theLeague of", "from theLeague of Nationsfor this crime of aggression.Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during theWinter Warwas modest,and the Finno-Soviet war ended in March 1940 withsome Finnish concessions of territory. In June 1940, the Soviet Unionoccupiedthe entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania,as well as the Romanian regions ofBessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed theSecond Vienna Awardon Romania which led to the transfer ofNorthern Transylvaniato Hungary.In September 1940, Bulgaria demandedSouthern Dobrujafrom Romania with German and Italian support, leading to theTreaty of Craiova.The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under MarshalIon Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee.Meanwhile, German-Soviet political relations and economic co-operationgradually stalled,and both states began", "both states began preparations for war. Western Europe (1940–1941) In April 1940,Germany invaded Denmark and Norwayto protect shipments ofiron ore from Sweden, which the Allies wereattempting to cut off.Denmark capitulated after six hours, anddespite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months.British discontent over the Norwegian campaignled to the resignation of Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlain, who was replaced byWinston Churchillon 10May 1940. On the same day, Germanylaunched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strongMaginot Linefortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations ofBelgium,the Netherlands, andLuxembourg.The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through theArdennesregion,which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles.By successfully implementing newBlitzkriegtactics, theWehrmachtrapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping", "Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was ableto evacuate a significant number of Allied troopsfrom the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment. On 10 June,Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom.The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, andParisfell to them on 14June. Eight days laterFrance signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided intoGermanandItalian occupation zones,and an unoccupiedrump stateunder theVichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, whichthe United Kingdom attackedon 3July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The airBattle of Britainbegan in early July withLuftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours.TheGerman campaign for air superioritystarted in August but its failure to defeatRAF Fighter Commandforced the indefinite postponement of", "postponement of theproposed German invasion of Britain. The Germanstrategic bombingoffensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities inthe Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navyenjoyed successagainst an over-extendedRoyal Navy, usingU-boatsagainst British shippingin the Atlantic.The BritishHome Fleetscored a significant victory on 27May 1941 bysinking the German battleshipBismarck. In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended theNeutrality Actto allow\"cash and carry\"purchases by the Allies.In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of theUnited States Navywassignificantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to atrade of American destroyers for British bases.Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.In December", "1941.In December 1940, Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an \"arsenal of democracy\" and promotingLend-Leaseprogrammes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it wasinvadedby Germany.The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, theTripartite Pactformally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as theAxis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three.The Axis expanded in November 1940 whenHungary,Slovakia, andRomaniajoined.RomaniaandHungarylater made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recaptureterritory ceded to the Soviet Union. Mediterranean", "Mediterranean (1940–1941) In early June 1940, the ItalianRegia Aeronauticaattacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italyconquered British Somalilandand made anincursion into British-held Egypt. In October,Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes.To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940, British Empire forces begancounter-offensivesagainst Italian forces in Egypt andItalian East Africa.The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. TheItalian Navyalso suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after acarrier attack at", "acarrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at theBattle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany todeploy an expeditionary forceto North Africa; at the end of March 1941,Rommel'sAfrika Korpslaunched an offensivewhich drove back Commonwealth forces.In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt andbesieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941,BulgariaandYugoslaviasigned theTripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government wasoverthrown two days laterby pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of bothYugoslaviaandGreece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month.The airborneinvasion of the Greek island of Creteat the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans.Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against theAxis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forcesquashed an uprising in Iraqwhich had been", "Iraqwhich had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlledSyria.Between June and July, British-led forcesinvaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by theFree French. Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed theSoviet–Japanese Neutrality Pactin April 1941.By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later.On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be", "Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest ofUkraine, theBaltic statesandByelorussia.However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact.In November 1940,negotiations took placeto determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets ofplotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary.The primary targets of this surprise offensivewere theBaltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with theultimate goalof ending the 1941 campaign near theArkhangelsk-Astrakhan line—from theCaspianto theWhite", "theWhite Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminateCommunism, generateLebensraum(\"living space\")bydispossessing the native population,and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals. Although theRed Armywas preparing for strategiccounter-offensivesbefore the war,OperationBarbarossaforced theSoviet supreme commandto adoptstrategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By mid-August, however, the GermanArmy High Commanddecided tosuspend the offensiveof a considerably depletedArmy Group Centre, and to divert the2nd Panzer Groupto reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad.TheKiev offensivewas overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible furtheradvance into Crimeaand industrially-developed Eastern Ukraine (theFirst Battle of", "(theFirst Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Frontprompted the United Kingdom to reconsider itsgrand strategy.In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance against Germanyand in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued theAtlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world.In late August the British and Sovietsinvaded neutral Iranto secure thePersian Corridor, Iran'soil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India. By October, Axis powers had achievedoperational objectivesin Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges ofLeningradandSevastopolcontinuing.A majoroffensive against Moscowwas renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troopswere forced to", "forced to suspend the offensive.Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Sovietcapability to resistwas not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. Theblitzkriegphaseof the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilisedreservesallowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.This, as well asintelligence datawhich established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the JapaneseKwantung Army,allowed the Soviets to begin amassive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west. War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) Following the Japanesefalse flagMukden incidentin 1931, the Japanese shelling of the AmericangunboatUSS Panayin 1937, and the 1937–1938Nanjing Massacre,Japanese-American relations", "relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—theExport Control Acts—which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.During 1939 Japan launched itsfirst attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September.Despiteseveral offensivesby both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded andoccupied northern Indochinain September 1940. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scalecounter-offensivein early 1940. In August,Chinese communistslaunched anoffensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan institutedharsh measuresin occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for", "resources for the communists.Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forcesculminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed duringBattle of Shanggao.In September, Japan attempted totake the city of Changshaagain and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments inSoutheast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from theDutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.At the same time, Japan wasplanning an invasion of the Soviet", "of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.Roosevelt reinforcedthe Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946)and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any \"neighboring countries\". Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. EmperorHirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory,began to", "of victory,began to favour Japan's entry into the war.As a result, Prime MinisterFumimaro Konoeresigned.Hirohito refused the recommendation to appointPrince Naruhiko Higashikuniin his place, choosing War MinisterHideki Tojoinstead.On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of theattack on Pearl Harborto the Emperor.On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war.On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the", "or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise theUnited States Pacific Fleetand the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.These included anattack on the American fleets at Pearl Harborandthe Philippines, as well as invasions ofGuam,Wake Island,Malaya,Thailand, andHong Kong. These", "andHong Kong. These attacks led theUnited States,United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United Statesin solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) On 1 January 1942, theAllied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued theDeclaration by United Nations, thereby affirming theAtlantic Charterand agreeing not to sign aseparate peacewith the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriategrand strategyto pursue. All agreed thatdefeating Germanywas the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward,large-scale attackon", "attackon Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies.Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At theCasablanca Conferencein early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded theunconditional surrenderof their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the", "in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944. Pacific (1942–1943) By the end of April 1942, Japan and its allyThailandhad almost conqueredBurma,Malaya,the Dutch East Indies,Singapore, andRabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.Despite stubbornresistance by Filipino and U.S. forces, thePhilippine Commonwealthwas eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during theBattle of Yenangyaungand rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea,Java Sea, andIndian Ocean,andbombed the Allied naval baseatDarwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinesevictory at Changsha.These easy victories over the unprepared U.S. and European", "U.S. and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations tocapture Port Moresbybyamphibious assaultand thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in theBattle of the Coral Sea.Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlierDoolittle Raid, was to seizeMidway Atolland lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces tooccupy the Aleutian Islandsin Alaska.In mid-May, Japan started theZhejiang-Jiangxi campaignin China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had brokenJapanese naval codesin late", "naval codesin late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisivevictory at Midwayover theImperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capturePort Moresbyby anoverland campaignin theTerritory of Papua.The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southernSolomon Islands, primarilyGuadalcanal, as a first step towards capturingRabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September,the Battle for Guadalcanaltook priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to thenorthern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in theBattle of Buna–Gona.Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were", "the Japanese were defeated on the island andwithdrew their troops.In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrousoffensive into the Arakan regionin late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943.The second was theinsertion of irregular forcesbehind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Eastern Front (1942–1943) Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive incentralandsouthern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in theKerch Peninsulaand atKharkov,and then in June 1942 launched their mainsummer offensiveagainst southern Russia, to seize theoil fields of the Caucasusand occupy theKubansteppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans splitArmy Group Southinto two groups:Army Group Aadvanced to the lowerDon Riverand struck", "Riverand struck south-east to the Caucasus, whileArmy Group Bheaded towards theVolga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans hadnearly taken Stalingradin bitterstreet fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with anencirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,and an assault on theRzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched anotherattack on Kharkov, creating asalientin their front line around the Soviet city ofKursk. Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) Exploiting poor American naval command decisions,the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.By November 1941,", "November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa,Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at theGazala lineby early February,followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.Concerns that the Japanese might use bases inVichy-held Madagascarcaused the British toinvade the islandin early May 1942.An Axisoffensive in Libyaforced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces werestopped at El Alamein.On the Continent, raids of Alliedcommandoson strategic targets, culminating in the failedDieppe Raid,demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling asecond attack against El Alameinand, at a high cost, managed todeliver", "managed todeliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.A few months later, the Alliescommenced an attack of their ownin Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.This attack was followed up shortly after byAnglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering theoccupation of Vichy France;although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed toscuttle their fleetto prevent its capture by German forces.Axis forces in Africa withdrew intoTunisia, which wasconquered by the Alliesin May 1943. In June 1943, the British and Americans begana strategic bombing campaignagainst Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and \"de-house\" the civilian population.Thefirebombing of Hamburgwas among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important", "of this important industrial centre. Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent toeliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations toisolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, andbreach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had alsoneutralised the major Japanese base at Trukin theCaroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation toretake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives incentral Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germanyattacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had", "German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences,and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies'invasion of Sicilylaunched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in theousting and arrest of Mussolinilater that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their owncounter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortifiedPanther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it atSmolenskand theLower Dnieper Offensive. On 3 September 1943, the Western Alliesinvaded the Italian mainland, followingItaly's armistice with the Alliesand the ensuing German occupation of Italy.Germany,", "of Italy.Germany, with the help of fascists, responded to the armistice bydisarming Italian forcesthat were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,and creating a series of defensive lines.German special forces thenrescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named theItalian Social Republic,causing anItalian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching themain German defensive linein mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. ByMay 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.In November 1943,Franklin D. Rooseveltand Winston Churchill met withChiang Kai-shekin Cairoand then with Joseph Stalinin Tehran.The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territoryand the military planning for theBurma campaign,while the latter included", "the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven-weekBattle of Changde, the Chinese awaited allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition.In January 1944, the Allies launched aseries of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassinoand tried to outflank it withlandings at Anzio. On 27 January 1944,Soviettroops launcheda major offensivethat expelled German forces from theLeningrad region, thereby ending themost lethal siege in history.Thefollowing Soviet offensivewashalted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the GermanArmy Group Northaided byEstonianshoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in theBaltic Searegion.By late May 1944, the Soviets hadliberated Crimea,largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and madeincursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis", "by the Axis troops.The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions,an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India,and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphalandKohima.In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,and Chinese forces that hadinvaded northern Burmain late 1943besieged Japanese troopsinMyitkyina.Thesecond Japanese invasionof China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.By June, the Japanese had conquered the province ofHenanand begun anew attack on Changsha. Allies close in (1944) On 6 June 1944 (commonly known asD-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,the Western Alliesinvaded northern France. After reassigning several", "reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they alsoattacked southern France.These landings were successful and led to the defeat of theGerman Army units in France.Pariswasliberatedon 25 August by thelocal resistanceassisted by theFree French Forces, both led by GeneralCharles de Gaulle,and the Western Allies continued topush back German forcesin western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded bya major airborne operationin the Netherlands failed.After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, butfailed to cross the Rur river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to thelast major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus (\"Operation Bagration\") that nearly destroyed the GermanArmy Group Centre.Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensiveforced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed thePolish Committee of National Liberationto control territory", "control territory in Poland and combat the PolishArmia Krajowa; the Soviet Red Army remained in thePragadistrict on the other side of theVistulaand watched passively as the Germans quelled theWarsaw Uprisinginitiated by the Armia Krajowa.Thenational uprisinginSlovakiawas also quelled by the Germans.The SovietRed Army'sstrategic offensive in eastern Romaniacut off and destroyed theconsiderable German troops thereand triggereda successful coup d'état in Romaniaandin Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced intoYugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army GroupsEandFinGreece,Albaniaand Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.By this point, the communist-ledPartisansunder MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led anincreasingly successful guerrilla campaignagainst the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northernSerbia, the SovietRed", "the SovietRed Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a jointliberation of the capital city of Belgradeon 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched amassive assaultagainstGerman-occupiedHungary that lasted untilthe fall of Budapestin February 1945.Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans,bitter Finnish resistanceto theSoviet offensivein theKarelian Isthmusdenied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to aSoviet-Finnish armisticeon relatively mild conditions,although Finland was forced tofight their former German allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges inAssam, pushing the Japanese back to theChindwin Riverwhile the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forcescaptured Mount Songand reopened theBurma Road.In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finallycaptured Changshain mid-June and the city ofHengyangby early August.Soon after, they invaded the province", "the province ofGuangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhouby the end of Novemberand successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, U.S. forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islandsand decisively defeated Japanese forces in theBattle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister,Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forcesinvaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launcha massive", "to launcha massive counter-offensive in the Ardennesandalong the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port atAntwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland,pushing from the Vistula to the Oderriver in Germany, andoverran East Prussia.On 4 February Soviet, British, and U.S. leaders met for theYalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Sovietsentered SilesiaandPomerania, while theWestern Allies entered western Germanyand closed to theRhineriver. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhinenorthandsouthof theRuhr,encircling the German Army Group B.In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves", "last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launchedits last major offensiveagainst Soviet troops nearLake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced toVienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troopscaptured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finallypushed forward in Italyand swept across western Germany capturingHamburgandNuremberg.American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe riveron 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin. Soviet troopsstormed and captured Berlinin late April.In Italy,German forces surrenderedon 29 April, while theItalian Social Republiccapitulated two days later. On 30 April, theReichstagwas captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president,Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussoliniwas killedbyItalian partisanson 28 April.On 30 April,Hitler", "30 April,Hitler committed suicidein hisheadquarters, and was succeeded byGrand AdmiralKarl Dönitz(asPresident of the Reich) andJoseph Goebbels(asChancellor of the Reich); Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced byLutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as theFlensburg Government.Total and unconditional surrenderin Europe was signedon 7and 8May, to be effective by the end of8 May.German Army Group Centreresisted in Pragueuntil 11 May.On 23 May all remaining members of the German government were arrested by the Allied Forces inFlensburg, while on 5 June all German political and military institutions were transferred under the control of the Allies through theBerlin Declaration. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of thePhilippine Commonwealthadvancedin the Philippines,clearing Leyteby the end of April 1945. Theylanded on Luzonin January 1945 andrecaptured Manilain March. Fighting continued on Luzon,Mindanao, and other islands of", "other islands of the Philippines until theend of the war.Meanwhile, theUnited States Army Air Forceslauncheda massive firebombing campaignof strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastatingbombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 Marchwas the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history. In May 1945, Australian troopslanded in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northernBurmain March, and the British pushed on to reachRangoonby 3 May.Chinese forces started a counterattack in theBattle of West Hunanthat occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, takingIwo Jimaby March, andOkinawaby the end of June.At the same time, a naval blockade bysubmarineswas strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leadersmet in Potsdam, Germany. Theyconfirmed earlier agreementsabout", "agreementsabout Germany,and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that \"the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction\".During this conference, the United Kingdomheld its general election, andClement Attleereplaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.In early August, the United Statesdropped atomic bombson the Japanese cities ofHiroshimaandNagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement,declared war on Japan,invaded Japanese-held Manchuriaand quickly defeated theKwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.The Red Army also captured thesouthern part of Sakhalin Islandand theKuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August", "of 9–10 August 1945, EmperorHirohitoannounced his decision to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in thePotsdam Declaration.On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally \"broadcast in the Emperor's voice\").On 15 August 1945,Japan surrendered, with thesurrender documentsfinally signed atTokyo Bayon the deck of the American battleshipUSSMissourion 2 September 1945, ending the war. Aftermath The Allies established occupation administrations inAustriaandGermany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, thewesternandeastern occupation zonescontrolled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries,West GermanyandEast Germany.In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement", "a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). Adenazificationprogram in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in theNuremberg trialsand the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories,Silesia,Neumarkand most ofPomeraniawere taken over by Poland,andEast Prussiawas divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by theexpulsion to Germanyof the nine million Germans from these provinces,as well as three million Germans from theSudetenlandin Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of theCurzon Line,from which2 million", "which2 million Poles were expelled;north-east Romania,parts of eastern Finland,and theBaltic stateswereannexed into the Soviet Union.Italylost its monarchy,colonial empireand someEuropean territories. In an effort to maintainworld peace,the Allies formed theUnited Nations,which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,and adopted theUniversal Declaration of Human Rightsin 1948 as a common standard for allmember nations.Thegreat powersthat were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became thepermanent membersof the UN'sSecurity Council.The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes,betweentheRepublic of Chinaand thePeople's Republic of Chinain 1971, and between the Soviet Union and itssuccessor state, theRussian Federation, following thedissolution of the USSRin 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Besides", "was over. Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Sovietspheres of influence.Most eastern and central European countries fell intothe Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result,East Germany,Poland,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,Czechoslovakia, andAlbaniabecame Sovietsatellite states. CommunistYugoslaviaconducted a fullyindependent policy, causingtension with the Soviet Union.ACommunist uprising in Greecewas put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-ledNATOand the Soviet-ledWarsaw Pact.The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—theCold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedentedarms raceand number ofproxy warsthroughout the world. In Asia, the United States led theoccupation of Japanandadministered", "Japan's former islandsin the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexedSouth Sakhalinand theKuril Islands.Korea, formerlyunder Japanese colonial rule, wasdivided and occupiedby the Soviet Union in theNorthand the United States in theSouthbetween 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to theKorean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumedthe civil warin June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated toTaiwanin 1949.In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineand thecreation of Israelmarked the escalation of theArab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of theircolonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading todecolonisation. The global", "The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to ababy boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy ofindustrial disarmament in Western Germanyfrom 1945 to 1948.Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years. At theBretton Woods Conferencein July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which later became part of theWorld Bank Group. TheBretton Woods systemlasted until 1973.Recovery began with the mid-1948currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by", "and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the U.S.Marshall Planeconomic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.The post-1948 West German recovery has been called theGerman economic miracle.Italy also experienced aneconomic boomand theFrench economy rebounded.By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,it continued in relative economic decline for decades.The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era,having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exactedwar reparationsfrom its satellite states.Japan recovered much later.China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Impact Casualties and war crimes Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.Most suggest that", "suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about20 million military personneland 40 million civilians. The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. An estimated 11to 17 millioncivilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler'sracist policies, includingmass killingofaround 6million Jews, along withRoma,homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnicPolesandmillions of other Slavs(including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), andother ethnic and minority groups.Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnicSerbs, along with Roma and Jews, werepersecuted and murderedby the Axis-aligned CroatianUstašeinYugoslavia.Concurrently,MuslimsandCroatswerepersecuted and killedby Serb nationalistChetniks,with an estimated", "an estimated 50,000–68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by theUkrainian Insurgent Armyin theVolhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the PolishHome Armyand other Polish units, in reprisal attacks. In Asia and the Pacific, the number of people killed by Japanese troops remains contested. According to R.J. Rummel, the Japanese killed between 3million and more than 10 million people, with the most probable case of almost 6,000,000 people.According to the British historianM. R. D. Foot, civilian deaths are between 10 million and 20 million, whereas Chinese military casualties (killed and wounded) are estimated to be over five million.Other estimates say that up to 30 million people, most of them civilians, were killed.The most infamous Japanese atrocity was theNanjing Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that", "reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during theThree Alls policy. GeneralYasuji Okamuraimplemented the policy inHebeiandShandong. Axis forces employedbiologicalandchemical weapons. TheImperial Japanese Armyused a variety of such weapons during itsinvasion and occupation of China(seeUnit 731)and inearly conflicts against the Soviets.Both the Germans and theJapanese testedsuch weapons against civilians,and sometimes onprisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for theKatyn massacreof 22,000 Polish officers,and the imprisonment or execution ofhundreds of thousands of political prisonersby theNKVDsecret police, along withmass civilian deportations to Siberia, in theBaltic statesandeastern Polandannexed by the Red Army.Soviet soldiers committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especiallyin Germany.The exact number of German women and girls raped by Soviet troops during the war and occupation is uncertain, but historians estimate their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, and", "of thousands, and possibly as many as two million,while figures for women raped by German soldiers in the Soviet Union go as far as ten million. The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although nopositiveor specificcustomaryinternational humanitarian lawwith respect toaerial warfareexisted before or during World War II.The USAAFbombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians, including theatomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and destroying 65% of built-up areas. Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour Nazi Germany, under thedictatorshipof Adolf Hitler, was responsible for murdering about 6million Jews in what is now known asthe Holocaust. They also murdered an additional 4million others who were deemed \"unworthy of life\" (including thedisabledandmentally ill,Soviet prisoners of war,Romani,homosexuals,Freemasons, andJehovah's Witnesses) as part of a program of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a \"genocidalstate\".Soviet POWswere", "POWswere kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.In addition toconcentration camps,death campswere created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively usedforced labourers; about 12 millionEuropeansfrom German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy. The SovietGulagbecame ade factosystem of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,including foreign citizens of Poland andother countriesoccupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as AxisPOWs.By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected toNKVDevaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japaneseprisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as", "which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. TheInternational Military Tribunal for the Far Eastfound the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 percent (for American POWs, 37 percent),seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after thesurrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by theEast Asia Development Board, orKōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.InJava, between 4and 10 millionrōmusha(Japanese: \"manual labourers\"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in Southeast Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. Occupation In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central", "and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and theannexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion U.S. dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include theplunderof industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains ofLebensraumwere never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earthpolicies denied resources to the German invaders.Unlike in the West, theNazi racial policyencouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the \"inferior people\" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed bymass atrocities and war crimes.The Naziskilled an estimated 2.77 million ethnic Polesduring the war in", "the war in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.Althoughresistance groupsformed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the Eastor the Westuntil late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of theGreater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanesehegemonywhich it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination,Japanese war crimesfrequently turned local public opinion against them.During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate. Home fronts and production In the 1930s Britain and the United States of America together controlled almost 75% of world", "almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial", "during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one ofattrition.While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in thelabour force,Alliedstrategic bombing,and Germany's late shift to awar economycontributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions ofslave labourers;Germany enslavedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,whileJapan usedmore than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Advances in technology and its application Aircraft were used forreconnaissance, asfighters,bombers, andground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations includedairlift(the capability to", "capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);andstrategic bombing(the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).Anti-aircraft weaponryalso advanced, including defences such asradarand surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of theproximity fuze. The use of thejet aircraftwas pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect ofnaval warfare, most notably withaircraft carriersandsubmarines. Althoughaeronauticalwarfare had relatively little success at the start of the war,actions at Taranto,Pearl Harbor, and theCoral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship).In the Atlantic,escort carriersbecame a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close theMid-Atlantic gap.Carriers were also more economical thanbattleshipsdue to the relatively low cost of", "low cost of aircraftand because they are not required to be as heavily armoured.Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War,were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarineweaponryand tactics, such assonarand convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as theType VII submarineandwolfpacktactics.Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as theLeigh Light,Hedgehog,Squid, andhoming torpedoesproved effective against German submarines. Land warfarechanged from the static frontlines oftrench warfareof World War I, which had relied on improvedartillerythat outmatched the speed of bothinfantryandcavalry, to increased mobility andcombined arms. Thetank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World", "been during World WarI,andadvances continued throughout the warwith increases in speed, armour and firepower.At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.Many means ofdestroying tanks, includingindirect artillery,anti-tank guns(both towed andself-propelled),mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the GermanMG 34, and varioussubmachine gunswhich were suited toclose combatin urban and jungle", "urban and jungle settings.Theassault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using largecodebooksforcryptographyby designingcipheringmachines, the most well-known being the GermanEnigma machine.Development ofSIGINT(signalsintelligence) andcryptanalysisenabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption ofJapanese naval codesand BritishUltra, apioneering methodfor decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by thePolish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.Another component ofmilitary intelligencewasdeception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such asMincemeatandBodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the", "the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3,Colossus, andENIAC),guided missilesandmodern rockets, theManhattan Project's development ofnuclear weapons,operations research, the development ofartificial harbours, andoil pipelines under the English Channel.Penicillinwas firstdeveloped, mass-produced, and usedduring the war. See also Notes Citations References External links" ]
How many votes did the opposition party get in the Brant riding the election before Justin Trudeau was elected Prime Minister?
16,351
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Trudeau
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_federal_general_elections
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_of_the_2011_Canadian_federal_election
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Post processing | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Trudeau', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_federal_general_elections', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_of_the_2011_Canadian_federal_election']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Trudeau", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_federal_general_elections", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_of_the_2011_Canadian_federal_election" ]
[ "Justin Trudeau Justin Pierre James Trudeau(born December 25, 1971) is a Canadian politician who has been serving as the 23rdprime minister of Canadasince 2015 and the leader of theLiberal Partysince 2013. Trudeau was born inOttawa,Ontario, and attendedCollège Jean-de-Brébeuf. He graduated fromMcGill Universityin 1994 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in literature, then in 1998 acquired a Bachelor of Education degree from theUniversity of British Columbia. After graduating, he taught at thesecondary schoollevel inVancouver, before relocating back to Montreal in 2002 to further his studies. He was chair for the youth charityKatimavikand director of the not-for-profitCanadian Avalanche Association. In 2006, he was appointed as chair of the Liberal Party's Task Force on Youth Renewal. In the2008 federal election, he was elected to represent the riding ofPapineauin theHouse of Commons. He was the Liberal Party'sOfficial Opposition criticfor youth and multiculturalism in 2009; the following year, he became critic for citizenship and immigration. In 2011, he was appointed as a critic for secondary education and sport. Trudeau prevailed in theLiberal Party leadership electionin April 2013 and led his party to a majority victory in the2015 federal election. Trudeau was the second-youngestprime minister in Canadian historywhen he took office and the first to be the child of a previous holder of the post, as the eldest son ofPierre Trudeau. Major government initiatives he undertook after his election included establishing theCanada Child Benefit, legalizingmedical assistance in dying, legalizing recreational marijuana through theCannabis Act; attempting Senate appointment reform by establishing theIndependent Advisory Board for Senate Appointmentsand establishing thefederal carbon tax. In foreign policy, Trudeau's government negotiated trade deals such as theCanada-United States-Mexico Agreement(CUSMA) and theComprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, and signed theParis Agreementon climate change. He was sanctioned by Canada'sethics commissionerfor violatingconflict of interestrules regarding theAga Khan affair, and later again with theSNC-Lavalin affair. Trudeau guided the Liberals to aminority governmentvictory in the2019 federal election. In 2020, his government responded to theCOVID-19 pandemic, announced an\"assault-style\" weapons banin response to the2020 Nova Scotia attacks, and launched a national $10-a-daychild careprogram. He was investigated for a third time by the ethics commissioner for his part in theWE Charity scandal, but was cleared of wrongdoing. In the2021 federal election, he led the Liberals to another minority government. In 2022, following his third election, Trudeau invoked theEmergencies Actin response to theFreedom Convoy protests(the first time the act was brought into force since it was enacted in 1988) and responded to theRussian invasion of Ukraineby imposing sanctions onRussiaand authorizing military aid toUkraine. Trudeau entered into aconfidence and supplyagreement with theNew Democratic Party(NDP), which resulted in theCanadian Dental Care Planfor residents that meet a certain income threshold and a framework for nationalpharmacare. However, after two and a half years, the NDP opted to terminate the agreement. Early life Ancestry and birth On June 23, 1971, thePrime Minister's Office(PMO) announced that Prime MinisterPierre Trudeau's wife of four months,Margaret Trudeau(née Sinclair),was pregnant and due in December.Justin Trudeau was born on December 25, 1971, at 9:27 pmESTat theOttawa Civic Hospital.He is the second child in Canadian history to be born to a prime minister in office; the first wasJohn A. Macdonald's daughter Margaret Mary Theodora Macdonald (February 8, 1869 – January 28, 1933). Trudeau's younger brothersAlexandre(Sacha) (born December 25, 1973) andMichel(October 2, 1975 – November 13, 1998) were the third and fourth. Trudeau is predominantly ofScottishandFrench Canadiandescent.His grandfathers were businessmanCharles-Émile Trudeauand Scottish-bornJames Sinclair,who wasminister of fisheriesin the cabinet of Prime MinisterLouis St. Laurent.Trudeau's maternal great-grandfather Thomas Bernard was born inMakassar, Indonesiaand immigrated toPenticton, British Columbia, in 1906 at age 15 with his family.Through the Bernard family, kinsmen of theEarls of Bandon,Trudeau is the fifth great-grandson of Major-GeneralWilliam Farquhar,a leader in thefounding of modern Singapore; Trudeau also has remoteethnic MalaccanandNiasancestry. Trudeau wasbaptizedwith his father's niece Anne Rouleau-Danis as godmother and his mother's brother-in-law Thomas Walker as godfather,atOttawa's Notre Dame Basilicaon the afternoon of January 16, 1972, which marked his first public appearance.and given the names \"Justin Pierre James\".On April 14, 1972, Trudeau's father and mother hosted a gala at theNational Arts Centre, at which visiting U.S. presidentRichard Nixonsaid, \"I'd like to toast the future prime minister of Canada, to Justin Pierre Trudeau\" to which Pierre Trudeau responded that should his son ever assume the role, he hoped he would have \"the grace and skill of the president\".Earlier that day, first ladyPat Nixonhad visited him in his nursery and gifted him astuffed toySnoopy. Childhood Trudeau's parents announced their separation in 1977, when he was five years old; his father was given primary custody.There were repeated rumours of a reconciliation for many years afterwards.However his mother eventually filed for ano-fault divorcewhich theSupreme Court of Ontariogranted in 1984;his father had announced his intention to retire as prime minister a month earlier.Eventually his parents came to an amicable joint-custody arrangement and learned to get along quite well. Interviewed in October 1979, hisnannyDianne Lavergne was quoted, \"Justin is a mommy's boy, so it's not easy, but children's hurts mend very quickly. And they're lucky kids, anyway.\"Of his mother and father's marriage, Trudeau said in 2009, \"They loved each other incredibly, passionately, completely. But there was 30 years between them, and my mom never was an equal partner in what encompassed my father's life, his duty, his country.\"Trudeau has three half-siblings, Kyle and Alicia, from his mother's remarriage to Fried Kemper,and Sarah, from his father's relationship withDeborah Coyne. Trudeau lived at24 Sussex Drive,Ottawa, the official residence of Canada's prime minister, from his birth until his father's government was defeated in the1979 federal election. The Trudeaus were expected to move intoStornoway, the residence of theleader of the Official Opposition, but because of flooding in the basement, Prime MinisterJoe Clarkoffered themHarrington Lake, the prime minister's official country retreat inGatineau Park, with the expectation they would move into Stornoway at the start of July.However, the repairs were not complete, so Pierre Trudeau took a prolonged vacation with his sons to theNova Scotiasummer home of his friend, Member of ParliamentDon Johnston, and later sent his sons to stay with their maternal grandparents inNorth Vancouverfor the rest of the summer while he slept at his friend's Ottawa apartment. Trudeau and his brothers returned to Ottawa for the start of the school year but lived only on the top floor of Stornoway while repairs continued on the bottom floor.His mother purchased and moved into a new home nearby at 95 Victoria Street in Ottawa'sNew Edinburghneighbourhood in September 1979.Pierre Trudeau and his sons returned to the prime minister's official residence afterthe February 1980 electionthat returned him to the Prime Minister's Office. His father had intended Trudeau to begin his formal education at a French-language lycée, but Trudeau's mother convinced his father of the importance of sending their sons to a public school.In the end, Trudeau was enrolled in 1976 in theFrench immersion programatRockcliffe Park Public School. It was the same school his mother had attended for two years while her father was a member of Parliament.He could have been dropped off by limousine, but his parents elected he take theschool busalbeit with aRoyal Canadian Mounted Police(RCMP) car following.This was followed by one year at the privateLycée Claudel d'Ottawa. After his father's retirement in June 1984, his mother remained at her New Edinburgh home while the rest of the family moved into his father's home at 1418 Pine Avenue, Montreal known asCormier House;the following autumn, he began attending the privateCollège Jean-de-Brébeuf, his father's alma mater. The school had begun as a Jesuit school but was non-denominational by the time Justin matriculated.In 2008, Trudeau said that of all his early family outings he enjoyed camping with his father the most, because \"that was where our father got to be just our father – a dad in the woods\".During the summers his father would send him and his brothers to Camp Ahmek, onCanoe LakeinAlgonquin Provincial Park, where he would later work in his first paid job as acamp counsellor. Trudeau and his brothers were given shares in twonumbered companiesby their father: the first containing a portfolio of securities, from which they receive regular dividends, up to $20,000 per year; and the second which receives royalties from their father's autobiography and other sources, about $10,000 a year.As of August 2011, the first numbered company had assets of $1.2 million.The Trudeau brothers were also given a country estate of about 50 hectares in the Laurentians with a home designed by the esteemed Canadian architectArthur Erickson, and the Cormier House in Montreal.The country estate land was estimated to be worth $2.7 million in 2016. University and early career Trudeau has a bachelor of arts degree in literature fromMcGill Universityand a bachelor of education degree from theUniversity of British Columbia. In his first year at McGill, Trudeau became acquainted with his futureprincipal secretary,Gerald Butts, through their mutual friend, Jonathan Ablett.Butts invited Trudeau to join the McGill Debating Union.They bonded while driving back to Montreal after a debate tournament atPrinceton University.After graduation, Trudeau stayed in Vancouver where he became a substitute teacher at local schools such asKillarney Secondaryand worked permanently as a French and math teacher at the privateWest Point Grey Academy. He became a roommate at theDouglas Lodgewith fellow West Point Grey Academy faculty member and friend Christopher Ingvaldson.From 2002 to 2004, he studied engineering at theÉcole Polytechnique de Montréal, affiliated withUniversité de Montréal, but did not graduate.He started a master's degree in environmental geography at McGill but withdrew from the program to seek public office. In August 2000, Trudeau attended the Kokanee Summit inCreston, British Columbia, to raise funds in honour of his brother Michel Trudeau and other avalanche victims. After the event, an unsigned editorial in theCreston Valley Advance(a local newspaper) accused Trudeau of having groped an unnamed female reporter while at the music festival. The editorial stated Trudeau provided a \"day-late\" apology to the reporter, saying, \"If I had known you were reporting for a national paper, I never would have been so forward\".In 2018, Trudeau was questioned about the groping incident but said he did not remember any negative incidents from that time. His apology and later statement about the event have been described as hypocritical, while responses to the story have been described as awitch huntor non-story. In October 2000, Trudeau, then 28, emerged as a prominent figure after delivering a eulogy athis father's state funeral.TheCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) received numerous calls to rebroadcast the speech after its initial transmission, and leading Quebec politicianClaude Ryandescribed it as \"perhaps ... the first manifestation of a dynasty\".A book issued by the CBC in 2003 included the speech in its list of significant Canadian events from the past fifty years. In 2007, Trudeau starred in the two-partCBC TelevisionminiseriesThe Great War, which gave an account of Canada's participation in the First World War. He portrayed his fifth cousin, twice removed,MajorTalbot Mercer Papineau, who was killed on October 30, 1917, during theBattle of Passchendaele.Trudeau is one of several children of former prime ministers who have become Canadian media personalities. The others areBen Mulroney(son ofBrian Mulroney),Catherine Clark(daughter of Joe Clark), and Trudeau's younger brother, Alexandre.Ben Mulroney was a guest at Trudeau's wedding. Advocacy Trudeau and his family started the Kokanee Glacier Alpine Campaign for winter sports safety in 2000, two years after his brother Michel died in an avalanche during a ski trip.In 2002, Trudeau criticized the Government of British Columbia's decision to stop its funding for a public avalanche warning system. From 2002 to 2006, Trudeau chaired theKatimavikyouth program, a project started by longtime family friendJacques Hébert. In 2002–03, Trudeau was a panelist onCBC Radio'sCanada Readsseries, where he championedThe Colony of Unrequited DreamsbyWayne Johnston.Trudeau and his brother Alexandre inaugurated theTrudeau Centre for Peace and Conflict Studiesat theUniversity of Torontoin April 2004; the centre later became a part of theMunk School of Global Affairs.In 2006, he hosted the presentation ceremony for theGiller Prizefor literature. In 2005, Trudeau fought against a proposed $100-millionzincmine that he argued would poison theNahanni River, aUnited Nations World Heritage Sitelocated in theNorthwest Territories. He was quoted as saying, \"The river is an absolutely magnificent, magical place. I'm not saying mining is wrong ... but that is not the place for it. It's just the wrong thing to be doing.\" On September 17, 2006, Trudeau was the master of ceremonies at a Toronto rally organized byRoméo Dallairethat called for Canadian participation in resolving theDarfur crisis. Political beginnings Trudeau supported the Liberal Party from a young age, offering his support to party leaderJohn Turnerin the1988 federal election.Two years later, he defendedCanadian federalismat a student event at theCollège Jean-de-Brébeuf, which he attended. Following his father's death, Trudeau became more involved with the Liberal Party throughout the 2000s. Along with OlympianCharmaine Crooks, he co-hosted a tribute to outgoing prime ministerJean Chrétienat the party's2003 leadership convention, and was appointed to chair a task force on youth renewal after the party's defeat in the2006 federal election. In October 2006, Trudeau criticizedQuebec nationalismby describing political nationalism generally as an \"old idea from the 19th century\", \"based on a smallness of thought\" and not relevant to modern Quebec. This comment was seen as a criticism ofMichael Ignatieff, then a candidate in the2006 Liberal Party leadership election, who was promoting recognition ofQuebecas a nation.Trudeau later wrote a public letter on the subject, describing the idea of Quebec nationhood as \"against everything my father ever believed\". Trudeau announced his support for leadership candidateGerard Kennedyshortly before the 2006 convention and introduced Kennedy during the candidates' final speeches.When Kennedy dropped off after the second ballot, Trudeau joined him in supporting the ultimate winner,Stéphane Dion. Rumours circulated in early 2007 that Trudeau would run in anupcoming by-electionin the Montreal riding ofOutremont. The Montreal newspaperLa Pressereported despite Trudeau's keenness, Liberal leader Stéphane Dion wanted Outremont for a star candidate who could help rebuild the Liberal Party. Instead, Trudeau announced that he would seek the Liberal nomination in the nearby riding of Papineau for the next general election.The riding, which had been held for 26 years byAndré Ouellet, a senior minister under his father, had been in Liberal hands for 53 years before falling to theBloc Québécoisin 2006. On April 29, 2007, Trudeau won the Liberal party's nomination, picking up 690 votes to 350 for Deros and 220 for Giordano againstMary Deros, a Montreal city councillor andBasilio Giordano, the publisher of a local Italian-language newspaper. Opposition, 2008–2015 Prime MinisterStephen Harpercalled an election forOctober 14, 2008, by which time Trudeau had been campaigning for a year in Papineau. On election day, Trudeau narrowly defeated Bloc Québécois incumbentVivian Barbot.Following his election win,Edward Greenspon, editor-in-chief ofThe Globe and Mail, noted that Trudeau would \"be viewed as few other rookie MPs are—as a potential future Prime Minister—and scrutinized through that lens\". TheConservative Partywon aminority governmentin the 2008 election, and Trudeau entered parliament as a member of theOfficial Opposition. Trudeau's first legislative act was a motion that called for the creation of a \"national voluntary service policy for young people\".He later co-chaired the Liberal Party's April 2009 national convention inVancouver, and in October of the same year he was appointed as the party's critic for multiculturalism and youth. In September 2010, he was reassigned as critic for youth, citizenship, and immigration.During that time, he criticized the government's legislation targeting human smuggling, which he argued would penalize the victims of smuggling. Trudeau sparked controversy when it was revealed that he earned $1.3 million in public speaking fees from charities and school boards across Canada, $277,000 of which Trudeau received after becoming an MP. He encouraged an increase of Canada's relief efforts after the2010 Haiti earthquake, and sought more accessible immigration procedures for Haitians moving to Canada in the time of crisis. His own riding includes a significant Haitian community. Trudeau was re-elected in Papineau in the2011 federal election, as the Liberal Party fell to third-party standing in the House of Commons with only thirty-four seats. Ignatieff resigned as party leader immediately after the election, and rumours again circulated that Trudeau could run to become his successor. On this occasion, Trudeau said, \"I don't feel I should be closing off any options ... because of the history packaged into my name, a lot of people are turning to me in a way that ... to be blunt, concerns me.\"Weeks after the election, Toronto MPBob Raewas selected as the interim leader until the party's leadership convention, which was later decided to be held in April 2013. Rae appointed Trudeau as the party's critic for post-secondary education, youth and amateur sport.After his re-election, he travelled the country hosting fundraisers for charities and the Liberal Party. Trudeau wanted to take part in a charity boxing match on behalf of the cancer research fundraising event Fight for the Cure, but was having difficulty finding a Conservative opponent until Conservative senatorPatrick Brazeauagreed when asked on Trudeau's behalf by their mutual hairdresser Stefania Capovilla.The fight on March 31, 2012, in Ottawa at the Hampton Inn was broadcast live onSun Newswith commentary byEzra LevantandBrian Lilleyand Trudeau won in the third round, the result considered an upset. Leader of the Liberal Party Earlier speculation After Dion's resignation as Liberal leader in 2008, Trudeau's name was mentioned as a potential candidate with polls showing him as a favourite among Canadians for the position. However, Trudeau did not enter the race andMichael Ignatieffwas named leader in December 2008.After the party's poor showing in the 2011 election, Ignatieff resigned from the leadership and Trudeau was again seen as a potential candidate to lead the party. Following the election, Trudeau said he was undecided about seeking the leadership;months later on October 12 atWilfrid Laurier University, he announced he would not seek the post because he had a young family.When interim leaderBob Rae, who was also seen as a frontrunner, announced he would not be entering the race in June 2012, Trudeau was hit with a \"tsunami\" of calls from supporters to reconsider his earlier decision to not seek the leadership. Opinion polling conducted by several pollsters showed that if Trudeau were to become leader the Liberal Party would surge in support, from a distant third place to either being competitive with the Conservative Party or leading them.In July 2012, Trudeau stated that he would reconsider his earlier decision to not seek the leadership and would announce his final decision at the end of the summer. 2013 leadership election On September 26, 2012, multiple media outlets started reporting that Trudeau would launch his leadership bid the following week.While Trudeau was seen as a frontrunner for the leadership of the Liberal Party, he was criticized for his perceived lack of substance.During his time as a member of Parliament, he spoke little on policy matters and it was not known where he stood on many issues such as the economy and foreign affairs.Some strategists and pundits believed the leadership would be the time for Trudeau to be tested on these issues; however, there was also fear within the party that his celebrity status and large lead might deter other strong candidates from entering the leadership race. On October 2, 2012, Trudeau held a rally in Montreal to launch his bid for the leadership of the Liberal Party.The core people on his campaign team were considered longtime friends, and all in their 30s and 40s. His senior advisor was Gerald Butts, the former president ofWWF-Canadawho had previously been principal secretary to former Ontario premierDalton McGuinty. Other senior aides included campaign managerKatie Telford, and policy advisors Mike McNeir andRobert Asselin, who had all worked for recent Liberal Party leaders.His brother Alexandre also took a break from his documentary work to be a senior advisor on Trudeau's campaign. During the leadership campaign, three by-elections were held onNovember 26, 2012. The ridingCalgary Centrewas expected to be a three-way race between the Conservatives, Liberals and Green Party. A week before by-election daySun Mediareported on comments Trudeau had made in a 2010 interview withTélé-Québec, in which he said, \"Canada isn't doing well right now because it's Albertans who control our community and socio-democratic agenda.\" Trudeau's campaign advisor said that the comments were being brought up now because of the close race in Calgary Centre.The following day, Trudeau apologized, saying he was wrong to use \"Alberta\" as \"shorthand\" in referring to Stephen Harper's government.The Conservatives held onto Calgary Centre in the by-election by less than 1,200 votes. Liberal candidateHarvey Lockesaid he lost the by-election on his own and that comments made by Trudeau did not influence the outcome. Fellow leadership candidateMarc Garneau, seen as Trudeau's main challenger in the race, criticized Trudeau for not releasing enough substantial policy positions. Garneau called on him to release more detailed policies before members and supporters begin to vote.Garneau later challenged Trudeau to a one-on-one debate, and said that if Trudeau could not defend his ideas in a debate against him, he wouldn't be able to do so against Prime Minister Harper.Trudeau clashed in debates with challengerJoyce Murray, who was the only Liberal leadership candidate to speak out strongly in favour of electing the House of Commons with a system ofproportional representation. She challenged Trudeau over his support for apreferential ballotvoting system. On March 13, 2013, Garneau dropped out of the leadership race, saying that polling conducted by his campaign showed he would be unable to defeat Trudeau. With Joyce Murray, the last challenger, receiving significant press time, more Liberal politicians and public figures declared themselves for Trudeau. Trudeau was declared the winner of the leadership election on April 14, 2013, garnering 80.1% of 30,800 votes.Joyce Murray finished in second place with 10.2% , ahead of Martha Hall Findlay's 5.7%.Trudeau had lost only five ridings, all to Murray and all in BC. Leadership, 2013–2015 In the days following his victory in the leadership race, snapshot polls recorded a surge in support for the Liberal party. In 2013, Trudeau chose to give up his seat at thefuneral of Nelson Mandela, in deference toIrwin Cotleras representative of theLiberal Party of Canada, because of Cotler's work for and withNelson Mandelain fightingapartheid. During the leadership campaign, Trudeau pledged to park all his assets, exclusive of real estate holdings, into ablind trustwhich is atypical for opposition MPs, including leaders. According to documents obtained by theOttawa Citizen, he fulfilled the pledge in July 2013 when the blind trust was set up byBMO Private Banking. On January 27, 2014, Trudeau and MPCarolyn BennettescortedChrystia Freelandinto the House of Commons, as is traditional for by-election victors.Trudeau launched an internet video the week before the 2014 Liberal party convention titled \"An economy that benefits us all\" in which he narrates his economic platform. He said that Canada's debt to GDP ratios have come down in recent years and now it's time for Ottawa to \"step up\". 2015 federal election On October 19, 2015, after the longest official campaign in over a century, Trudeau led the Liberals to a decisive victory in thefederal election. The Liberals won 184 of the 338 seats, with 39.5% of the popular vote, for a strong majority government;a gain of 150 seats compared to the 2011 federal election. This was the second-best performance in the party's history. The Liberals won mostly on the strength of a solid performance in the eastern half of the country. In addition to taking all of Atlantic Canada and Toronto,they won 40 seats in Quebec—the most that the Liberals had won in that province since Trudeau's father led them to a near-sweep of the province in 1980, and also the first time since then that the Liberals won a majority of Quebec's seats in an election. The 150-seat gain was the biggest numerical increase for a single party since Confederation and marked the first time that a party had rebounded from third place in the Commons to a majority government. In addition to the appeal of his party's platform, Trudeau's success has been credited to his performance both on the campaign trail and televisedleaders' debatesexceeding the lowered expectations created by Conservative advertisements and conservative media outlets. Trudeau declared victory shortly afterCBC Newsprojected that he had won a majority government. He began his speech with a reference to former Liberal prime ministerWilfrid Laurier's \"sunny ways\" (French:voies ensoleillées) approach to bringing Canadians together despite their differences. According to Trudeau, Laurier \"knew that politics can be a positive force, and that's the message Canadians have sent today\".Harper announced his resignation as the leader of the Conservative Party that night. Prime Minister of Canada (2015–present) Trudeau and the rest of theCabinetwere sworn in byGovernor GeneralDavid Johnstonon November 4, 2015. He said that his first legislative priority was to lower taxes for middle-income Canadians and raise taxes for the top 1% of income earners after parliament was reconvened on December 3, 2015.Trudeau also issued a statement promising to rebuild relations withIndigenous peoples in Canadaand run an open, ethical and transparent government.On November 5, 2015, during the first Liberal caucus meeting since forming a majority government, the party announced that it would reinstate the mandatory long-form census that had been scrapped in 2010, effective with the 2016 census. As prime minister, Trudeau launched three major independent investigations: theNational Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women(MMIWG), the Joint Federal/Provincial Commission into the2020 Nova Scotia attacks(in partnership with theGovernment of Nova Scotia), and the Public Inquiry into Foreign Interference in Federal Electoral Processes and Democratic Institutions. The latter was called in response to allegations ofChinese government interference in the 2019 and 2021 Canadian federal elections, but also deals with interference from other states deemed hostile to Canada.The MMIWG investigation found that Canada's response to this issue amounts togenocide, a finding Trudeau said he accepted. Ethics Trudeau was criticized by opposition members in November 2016 for his fundraising tactics, which they saw as \"cash for access\" schemes.Trudeau attended fundraisers where attendees paid upwards of $1500 for access to him and other cabinet members.In some instances, the events were attended by foreign businessmen who needed government approval for their businesses.Trudeau defended his fundraising tactics, saying that they were not in breach of any ethics rules. He also stated that he was lobbied at the fundraisers but not influenced.In 2017, Trudeau introduced legislation that would eliminate such exclusive events by requiring increased transparency for political fundraisers. In January 2017, theethics commissioner,Mary Dawson, began an investigation into Trudeau for a vacation he and his family took toAga Khan IV's private island in theBahamas.The ethics commissioner's report, released in December 2017, found that Trudeau had violated four provisions of theConflict of Interest Act.He became the first sitting prime minister to break federal conflict of interest rules.In 2022, it was reported that theRoyal Canadian Mounted Policehad considered bringing criminal charges against Trudeau over the affair. In February 2018, Trudeau was criticized when his government invitedKhalistani nationalistJaspal Atwalto the Canadian High Commission's dinner party in Delhi. Atwal had previously been convicted for the shooting and attempted murder of Indian Cabinet ministerMalkiat Singh Sidhuin 1986, as well as the assault on former BC premierUjjal Dosanjhin 1985. Following the dinner, the PMO rescinded the invitation, and apologized for the incident. SNC-Lavalin affair On February 8, 2019,The Globe and Mailreported that sources close to the government said that the Prime Minister's Office had allegedly attempted to influenceAttorney GeneralJody Wilson-Raybouldconcerning an ongoing prosecution ofSNC-Lavalin. When asked about the allegations, Trudeau said that the story in theGlobewas false and that he had never \"directed\" Wilson-Raybould concerning the case.Wilson-Raybould did not comment on the matter, citingsolicitor-client privilege.Soon after, Trudeau voluntarily waived privilege and cabinet confidences, permitting her to speak.On February 11, the ethics commissioner announced the opening of an investigation into the allegations. Trudeau said he \"welcomed the investigation\".TheJustice Committeeof the House of Commons has conducted a series of hearings on the alleged interference.The investigation heard from several witnesses, including Jody Wilson-Raybould, who submitted as evidence a telephone call she secretly recorded between herself andPrivy Council ClerkMichael Wernick, which was subsequently released to the public.On the recording, Wernick is heard asking to understand why the \"DPA route\" is not being used, stating that people were \"talking past each other\", and suggesting Trudeau obtain independent legal advice from former Supreme Court chief justiceBeverly McLachlin. Wilson-Raybould is heard suggesting that Trudeau would be \"breaching a constitutional principle of prosecutorial independence\". On March 19, 2019, the Liberal committee members voted as a bloc to shut down the Justice Committee's investigation. Trudeau was the subject of an investigation by theethics commissioner, pursuant to theConflict of Interest Act, in regards tocriminal chargesagainstSNC-Lavalinin theSNC-Lavalin affair. The commission's final report, issued August 14, 2019, concluded \"Mr. Trudeau contravened section 9 of the Act\". 2019 federal election On September 11, 2019, Trudeau visited Governor GeneralJulie Payette, to request the dissolution of Parliament, and formally triggering an election.Prior to the formal start of the campaign, Trudeau announced his intention to only participate in the threeleaders' debates, two organized by theLeaders' Debates Commission, and one organized byTVA.Other leader's debates were either cancelled or took place with an empty podium left on stage for Trudeau. In September 2019, controversial pictures and video were published showing Trudeau inbrownfaceandblackface.On September 18, 2019,Timemagazine published a photograph of Trudeau wearing brownface makeup in the spring of 2001, at anArabian Nights-themed gala, while Trudeau was a teacher atWest Point Grey Academy.Trudeau publicly apologized, agreeing the photo was racist and saying: \"I shouldn't have done that. I should have known better and I didn't. I'm really sorry.\"He further went on to say \"It was something that I didn't think was racist at the time, but now I recognize it was something racist to do\".Trudeau also admitted to wearing blackface makeup in high school while singing \"Day-O\" at a talent show that was subsequently published byGlobal News.A third instance, a video, of Trudeau in racist dress was also published.After this video was published, Trudeau admitted he could not remember how often he had worn blackface makeup.In the days following the scandal,pollsterspointed out that many Canadians either were not bothered by the scandal or had accepted Trudeau's apology.Additionally, some minority community groups, racialized commentators and some of Trudeau's opponents came to his defence.Others were more critical, including members of his own party. 2019 election results While Trudeau's Liberal Party lost 20 seats in the House of Commons (lowering its total from 177 to 157) from the time of dissolution, they still won the most seats of any party—enough seats to allow Trudeau to form a minority government.For the first time since 1979, the party that garnered the largest share of the national popular vote did not win the most seats; the Liberals under Trudeau had 33.1% of the popular vote, while the Conservatives underAndrew Scheerhad 34.4%.It was also the first time a government took power with less than 35% of the national popular vote since the Conservatives ofJohn A. Macdonald, in 1867, who had 34.8% of the votes.In Alberta and Saskatchewan, the Liberal party won 14% and 10% of the popular vote, respectively.In Ontario, Liberals won all 25 Toronto seats and 24 of 29 seats in the surrounding suburbs of theGreater Toronto Area—reportedly due in part to the unpopularity of theProgressive Conservative partygovernment of PremierDoug Ford. COVID-19 pandemic Trudeau was prime minister during the worldwideCOVID-19 pandemic. His government's response to the pandemic included funds for provinces and territories to adapt to the new situation, funds for coronavirus research, travel restrictions, screening of international flights, self-isolation orders under theQuarantine Act, an industrial strategy, and a public health awareness campaign. Initially, Canada faced a shortage ofpersonal protective equipment, as the Trudeau government had cut PPE stockpile funding in the previous years. To deal with theeconomic impact of the pandemicin 2020, Trudeau waived student loan payments, increased theCanada Child Benefit, doubled the annualGoods and Services Taxpayment, and introduced theCanada Emergency Response Benefit(CERB) as part of a first package in March. In April 2020, Trudeau introduced theCanada Emergency Wage Subsidy, theCanada Emergency Business Account, and theCanada Emergency Student Benefit.Trudeau also deployed theCanadian Forcesin long-term care homes in Quebec and Ontario as part ofOperation LASER. Throughout the pandemic, the federal government was also responsible for the procurement ofCOVID-19 vaccines.On May 12, 2020, the Trudeau government announced it had reached an exclusive deal withCanSino Biologics.However, due to deterioratingCanadian-Chinese relations, theCansinodeal fell through.On August 5, 2020, the Trudeau government created a plan to secure doses of thePfizerandModerna vaccines.Starting in December 2020, Trudeau oversaw the implementation ofCanada's mass-vaccination program. The spread of COVID-19 in Canada continued beyond the initial outbreak, with a strong second wave in the fall of 2020 and an even more serious third wave in the spring of 2021.Throughout the crisis, Trudeau periodically extended the scope and duration of thefederal aid programs. The2021 Canadian federal budgetplanned to phase them out by the end of September 2021, and projected a $354.2-billion deficit in the 2020–21 fiscal year.While CERB was indeed phased out on September 26, theCanada Recovery Benefit(CBR) continued to provide support until October 23.TheCanada Worker Lockdown Benefitwas introduced that month to replace the CBR, and expanded during the spread of theOmicron variantin December 2021. WE Charity ethics investigation Following complaints by opposition parties that the Trudeau family had ties toWE Charity, the ethics commissioner on July 3, 2020, announced an investigation into Trudeau's and the government's decision to have the charity administer a summer, student-grant program which could assist students financially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Trudeau responded by saying WE was the charity that had the capability to administer such a program. WE and the federal government decided to \"part ways\" leaving administration of the grant program to the federal government. WE Charity was criticized for its close ties to the Trudeau family; the investigation came after revelations that Trudeau's mother, brother, and wife were paid nearly $300,000 in total to speak at WE Charity events.On July 16, 2020, the ethics commissioner also announced the investigation was being expanded to include Finance MinisterBill Morneau.Trudeau was ultimately cleared of any wrongdoing by the ethics commissioner though Morneau was found to have broken the conflict of interest law. 2021 federal election On August 15, 2021, Trudeau advised Governor GeneralMary Simonto dissolve parliament, scheduling an election for September 20.The election was called on the same day as theFall of Kabul. In the first two weeks of the campaign, Trudeau received criticism for not acting fast enough in the face of the2021 Taliban offensiveto evacuate Canadian citizens and Afghans who supported Canada's military and diplomatic efforts during theWar in Afghanistan. In the 2021 federal election, Trudeau secured a third mandate and his second minority government after winning 160 seats. However, the Liberals came in second in the national popular vote, behind the Conservatives.They received 32.6 percent of the popular vote, the lowest percentage of the national popular vote for a governing party in Canadian history. 2022 convoy protest The Canada convoy protest, called the Freedom Convoy, was aprotestin Canada againstCOVID-19 vaccine requirements for truckers to re-enter the country by landintroduced by theGovernment of Canadaon January 15, 2022. Originally composed of several routes traversing all of the Canadianprovinces, the truck convoys converged onOttawa. On January 29, the first day of protest atParliament Hill, Trudeau moved to an undisclosed location.According toThe Guardian, the demonstration developed to express a number of \"antigovernment grievances\", particularly against Trudeau.On January 31, Trudeau called the protests an \"insult to truth\".On February 3, he said that a military response was \"not in the cards right now\".On February 11,Reutersreported that Trudeau promised the US \"quick action\" regarding protesters who have forcefully blocked theAmbassador Bridgeon the US-Canada border, the continent's busiest land border crossing.\"Trudeau subsequently indicated that there would be \"robust police intervention\" and called for all protesters to \"go home.\" Trudeau invoked theEmergencies Acton February 14, 2022, for the first time since it was enacted in 1988, as a result of the public order emergency caused by the demonstrations in Ottawa.On February 23, 2022, Trudeau announced that the federal government would revoke the emergency declaration. Later that day, the governor general signed a proclamation revoking it.A year later, on February 17, 2023, a judicial inquiry into the use of theEmergencies Actconcluded that the Trudeau government met the legal threshold required to invoke the act.In early 2024,Federal CourtjudgeRichard Mosleyruled that the federal government's invocation of the Emergencies Act to end the 2022 convoy protest was \"not justified\" and infringed onCharterrights. The federal government plans to appeal the ruling. Confidence and supply agreement On March 22, 2022, the Liberals and the NDP entered aconfidence and supply agreement. The agreement, in which the NDP committed to supporting the Liberals in allvotes of confidencefor the duration of the 44th Parliament, included action towards key NDP priorities. The effect of the agreement was to avert any prospective early election, to allow the minority Trudeau government to stay in power for the full four-year term of the Parliament, ahead of the 2025 election. Among the policies included in the deal were the establishment of a nationaldental care programfor low-income Canadians, progress towards a nationalpharmacareprogram, labour reforms for federally regulated workers, and new taxes on financial institutions. In early 2024, the two parties reached an impasse over pharmacare, putting the deal in jeopardy. The agreement called for the development of theCanada Pharmacare Actby the end of 2023, setting out a framework for the system; however, the NDP had agreed to extend the deadline to March 1 of the following year as negotiations became fraught. Major points of contention included the NDP's demand that the system be single-payer, as well as preliminary coverage for certain drugs prior to the implementation of the full system.On February 23, the parties reached an agreement, salvaging the deal. The agreement provided coverage for diabetes and contraceptive drugs ahead of the full program's launch. In September 2024, the NDP pulled their support and ended the confidence and supply agreement.NDP leaderJagmeet Singhsaid the Liberals had \"let people down\" and were \"too weak, too selfish and too beholden to corporate interests\" to fight for people,while Trudeau stated he would continue to work for Canadians and not focus on politics.On September 25, 2024, Trudeau survived ano-confidence votebrought by the Conservative Party. Policies Domestic policy The Trudeau government'seconomic policyinitially relied on increased tax revenues to pay for increased government spending. While the government has not balanced the budget, it reduced Canada'sdebt-to-GDP ratioevery year until 2020, when theCOVID-19 pandemichit.Trudeau's self-described progressive and feministsocial policyhas included strong advocacy for abortion rights.His government introduced the bill that madeconversion therapiesillegal in Canada. After the 2015 election, Canada set targets to welcome an increased number of immigrants and refugees.Despite warnings about the impact of increased immigration on housing and services, Trudeau's government allowed almost 1 million newcomers (permanent and temporary residents) in both 2022 and 2023.Trudeau initiated measures to combat housing inflation: Foreign buyers were banned and the Housing Accelerator Fund was created. In Sept 2023, Trudeau stated housing prices were \"far too high\", but, in May 2024, during an interview withThe Globe and Mail, Trudeau said, \"housing needs to retain its value.\"In 2021, Trudeau touted his Child Benefit Program, claiming it had lifted 400,000 children out of poverty.In 2024, food bank usage was at an all time high and more working people than ever were using food banks. Canada introduced the right tomedically-assisted dyingin 2016.andlegalized cannabis for recreational usein 2018.In 2021, Trudeau announced the creation of a nationalchild careplan with the intention of reducingday carefees for parents down to $10 a day per child within five years.In November 2022, the Trudeau government announced that Canada would admit500,000 immigrants per yearby 2025. His environmental policy included introducing new commitments to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 30% before 2030, and to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050.His main tool for reaching this target is a federalcarbon pricingpolicy.Trudeau's parliament also adopted legislation for marine conservation,banning six commonsingle-use plasticproducts,and strengthening environmental impact assessments.Trudeau pledged to ban single use plastic in 2019. In the year 2022 his government announced a ban on producing and importing single use plastic from December 2022. The sale of those items will be banned from December 2023 and the export from 2025.However, Trudeau is in favour of oil and gas pipelines to bring Canadian fossil fuel resources to foreign markets. Foreign policy In 2015, Trudeau told theNew York Times Magazinethat Canada could be the \"firstpostnationalstate\". In 2016, Trudeau lifted visa requirements for Mexican citizens. Asylum claims by Mexicans grew from 110 in 2015 to 24,000 in 2023. Visas and some restrictions were reinstated in 2024. In January 2017, Trudeau wrote, \"To those fleeing persecution, terror & war, Canadians will welcome you, regardless of your faith. Diversity is our strength #WelcomeToCanada,\" onTwitter. As a result, irregular border crossing increased, mainly atRoxham Road.Increased strain on services in Quebec and Ontario, and criticism over the unsustainable influx of claimants, appeared to influence the decision to close Roxham Road in March 2023; however, the new terms of theCanada–United States Safe Third Country Agreement(STCA) had been arranged the previous year.After irregular border crossings were shut down, asylum claims surged at airports. Trudeau enjoyed good relations with the \"like-minded\"United States presidentBarack Obama,despite Trudeau's support for theKeystone Pipeline, which was rejected by theDemocraticpresident.Trudeau's first foreign policy challenges included follow-through on his campaign promise to withdraw Canadian air support from theSyrian civil warand to welcome 25,000Syrian war refugees.When Donald Trump became president,Canada-US relationsdeteriorated. The Trump administration forced the renegotiation ofNAFTAto create theCUSMA, in which Canada made significant concessions in allowing increased imports of Americanmilk, weakening Canada's dairysupply managementsystem.Donald Trump also implementedtariffson Canadiansteelandaluminum, to which Trudeau retaliated by imposing tariffs on American steel, aluminum and a variety of other American products. Canada's relationship withChinaalso deteriorated during Trudeau's time as prime minister. The turmoil led to thearrest of Meng Wanzhouat theVancouver International Airportin December 2018 at the behest of theUnited States,and thearrest of Michael Spavor and Michael Kovrigin China 12 days later.Trudeau appointed Liberal advisor,Dominic Barton(McKinsey & Company,Century Initiative) ambassador to China in 2019. While Barton negotiated the release of Spavor and Kovrig, Canada-China trade reached historic highs. Barton resigned in December 2021, \"amidst growing pressure from...President Joe Biden for Ottawa to take a tougher stance with Beijing.\"As Wanzhou, Spavor and Kovrig were released at the exact same time in September 2021, many observers speculated they were exchanged as part of a deal between the United States and China.Trudeau greeted Spavor and Kovrig at the airport upon their repatriation. In 2024, Spavor was awarded $7 million in compensation for his arrest and detainment. Although Trudeau repeatedly claimed the two were arbitrarily targeted, it was later reported Spavor had unwittingly participated in espionage by sharing information on North Korea with Kovrig who then passed it onto the Canadian government. In a similar fashion, Canada's relationship with Saudi Arabia was also put under strain, as human rights groups called on Trudeau to stop selling military equipment to that country under a deal struck by the Harper government. In 2018, Saudi Arabia recalled its Canadian ambassador and froze trade with the country in response to Canada's call for the Saudis to release opposition bloggerRaif Badawi. However, in 2019, Canada doubled its weapons sales to Saudi Arabia, despite a \"moratorium on export permits following thekilling of the Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggiand mounting civilian deaths from theSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen.\" In September 2023, Trudeau said that the government of Canada had \"credible intelligence\" that thegovernment of Indiawas involved in the killing of a Canadian citizen,Hardeep Singh Nijjar, outside aSikh templeinSurrey. This episode caused a rapid deterioration ofCanada–India relations. In 2020, Canada lost its bid to join theUnited Nations Security Council. This was the second time Canada had failed an attempt to join the Security Council, the first time being in 2009 under Prime Minister Stephen Harper. In October 7, 2023, Trudeau condemnedHamas' actions during theIsrael–Hamas warand expressed his support toIsraeland its right to self-defence.On October 24, he rejected calls for a ceasefire but said he supported \"humanitarian pauses\" to deliver aid to the people of theGaza Strip.On December 12, in a joint statement with thePrime Minister of Australiaand thePrime Minister of New Zealand, Trudeau called for a \"sustainable ceasefire\" in the war. Personal life Family Trudeau first metSophie Grégoirewhen they were both children growing up in Montreal; Grégoire was a classmate and childhood friend of Trudeau's youngest brother, Michel.They reconnected as adults in June 2003, when Grégoire, by then a Quebec television personality, was assigned as Trudeau's co-host for a charity ball; they began dating several months later. Trudeau and Grégoire became engaged in October 2004 and married on May 28, 2005, in a ceremony at Montreal's Sainte-Madeleine d'Outremont Church.They have three children: a boy, Xavier, born in 2007, a girl, Ella-Grace, born in 2009, and a boy, Hadrien, born in 2014. In June 2013, two months after Trudeau became the leader of the Liberal Party, the couple sold their home in theCôte-des-Neigesneighbourhood of Montreal.They began living in a rented home in Ottawa'sRockcliffe Park, the neighbourhood near where Trudeau resided as a child during his father's time as prime minister. On August 18, 2014, an intruder broke into the house while Grégoire and the couple's three children were sleeping and left a threatening note; however, nothing was stolen and there was no damage to the property. Following the incident, Trudeau, who was inWinnipegat the time of the break-in, stated his intention to inquire with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police about his home security.After his 2015 electoral victory, Trudeau opted to live atRideau Cottage, on the grounds ofRideau Hall. On August 2, 2023, Trudeau announced he and Grégoire had separated.On August 21, Trudeau said he was focusing on his children and the future. Religion Trudeau's father was a devoutCatholicand his mother converted fromAnglicanismto Catholicism just before their wedding.Trudeau himself became alapsed Catholicat age 18, as he felt that much of his day-to-day life was not addressed by the formality and structure of the church.Trudeau described his faith during this period as \"like so many Catholics across this country, I said, 'OK, I'm Catholic, I'm of faith, but I'm just not really going to go to church. Maybe on Easter, maybemidnight Massat Christmas.'\"After the death of his brother Michel in 1998, Trudeau was persuaded by a friend to participate in anAlpha course, during which he regained his faith.In 2011, Trudeau stated, \"My own personal faith is an extremely important part of who I am and the values that I try to lead with.\" Honours Electoral record Published works Footnotes References Further reading External links Boldindicates parties with members elected to theHouse of Commons. Boldindicates parties with members elected to theHouse of Commons.", "List of Canadian federal general elections This article provides a summary of results forCanadian general elections(where all seats are contested) to theHouse of Commons, the elected lower half of Canada'sfederalbicamerallegislative body, theParliament of Canada. The number of seats has increased steadily over time, from 180 for the first election to the current total of 338. The current federal government structure was established in 1867 by theConstitution Act. For federalby-elections(for one or a few seats as a result of retirement, etc.) seeList of federal by-elections in Canada. For the eight general elections of theProvince of Canadaheld in 1843 to 1864 beforeconfederationin 1867, seeList of elections in the Province of Canada. There were also earlier elections in Canada, such as for theLegislative Assembly of Upper Canada(held in 1792–1836, now part ofOntario) and theLegislative Assembly of Lower Canada(held in 1792–1834, now part ofQuebec). Two political parties have dominatedpolitics in Canada: theLiberal Partyand thehistoric Conservative party(known as theProgressive Conservative Partyfrom 1942 to 2003). If one regards themodern Conservative Partyas the successor to the historic one, then these are the only two parties to have formed a government, although often as the lead party in aminorityorcoalition governmentwith one or more smaller parties (the 1917 win was by a pro-conscriptionUnionistcoalition of former Liberals and Conservatives). Although government has primarily been atwo-party system, Canadian federal politics has been amulti-partyaffair since the 1920s, during which there was significant parliamentary presence of theProgressive Partyand theUnited Farmers movement. They were supplanted by theSocial Credit Partyand theCo-operative Commonwealth Federation(CCF) in the 1930s. The CCF evolved into theNew Democratic Party(NDP) in 1961. The Social Credit Party and the CCF/NDP won the third and fourth most seats between them from the 1930s, until the Social Credit Party failed to win any seats in the 1980 election. Since 1980, the NDP has remained a presence in the Canadian parliament, but the situation amongst other non-government parties has been more complex. The Progressive Conservative Party never recovered from its spectacular defeat in the 1993 election (when it went from being the majority government with 169 seats, to just two seats and the loss ofofficial party status). Right-wing politics has since seen the rise and fall of theReform Partyand theCanadian Alliance, followed by the rise to government of the new Conservative Party. Further, in 1993 the separatistBloc Québécoiswon seats for the first time. It has been a constant presence in parliament since then. Summary of results The third, fourth, and fifth parties' results are included in \"Other\" if the party did not win at least four seats in an election at some point in its history. Results for parties placing sixth or lower (as in the1926 election) are also included in \"Other\", as areIndependentseats. Notes Further reading Graphs of results Bar graph of seats from 1867 to 2021 Historical parties (represented in the House up to the 2000 elections) Line graph of votes See also References", "Results of the 2011 Canadian federal election The41st Canadian federal electionwas held on May 2, 2011. It resulted in aConservativemajority governmentunder the leadership ofPrime MinisterStephen Harper.It was the third consecutive election win for Harper, and with 166 of 308 seats, giving them a majority government for the first time in their eight-year history. It was also the first right-of-centre majority government since theProgressive Conservativeswon their last majority in 1988.The Conservative Party won 39.62% of the popular vote, an increase of 1.96%,and posted a net gain of 24 seats in theHouse of Commons. The election resulted in significant upheaval within the opposition parties, as theNew Democratic Party(NDP) rode an \"orange surge\" in the polls during the campaign to 103 seats, becomingHer Majesty's Loyal Oppositionfor the first time in party history.The total eclipsed the party's previous best of 43 seats in 1988.The Liberals however were reduced to third party status nationwide. They returned only 34 MPs, less than half of what they had at dissolution.It was the first time in Canadian history that the Liberals were not one of the top two parties in the house.Green PartyleaderElizabeth Maywon in her riding, becoming the first Green Party candidate elected to a governmental body in Canada, and to a national body in North America. Following their staggering defeats, including losing their own seats, Bloc Québécois leaderGilles Duceppeand Liberal leaderMichael Ignatieffboth announced their resignations as party leaders. Vote total Synopsis of results Party summaries Conservatives The Conservatives, who had been leading in the polls since thewrits were dropped, won 166 seats - enough for the first Conservativemajority governmentsince the Progressive Conservative-Canadian Alliancemerger that formed the party in 2003. Notably, the Tories made significant inroads inToronto, taking eight seats there. While the Tories had won a few seats in the Toronto suburbs since the PC-Canadian Alliance merger, this was the first time a right-of-centre party had won seats in the formerMetro Torontoitself since the PC meltdown of 1993. Combined with their traditionally heavy support in thewest, this was enough to win a 14-seat majority with 39.62 percent of the nationalpopular vote- a result also notable for being the first time the modern Conservative party successfully polled a larger share of the vote than the combined tally of the PC and CA parties inthe election preceding their merger. Despite winning a majority government, the Conservatives lost over half their seats in Quebec to the NDP, retaining only five seats in that province. New Democrats The NDP had a majorwindfall, emerging as a truly national party for the first time in its50-year history. They won 103 seats—more than double their previous high (when they won 43 seats in1988). Much of this was due to a breakthrough inQuebec, a province where they had been more or less nonexistent for the better part of their history. From only one seat atdissolution, the NDP took 59 of 75 seats there, dominatingMontrealand sweepingQuebec Cityand theOutaouais. By comparison, the NDP had only won one other seat in Quebec in its entire history prior to 2011 (and had held only one other seat, via a floor-crossing). It had not even been fully organized in the province since 1990, when its Quebec wing seceded to preachsovereigntism. The 59 seats won by the NDP in Quebec is the most won by any party in that province since theProgressive Conservativeswon 63 seats there in 1988. In several cases, NDP candidates in Quebec won handily even though they didn't even actively campaign. Among the new NDP MPs were several university students. Five members of theMcGill UniversityNDP club—Charmaine Borg,Matthew Dubé,Mylène Freeman,Laurin Liu, andJamie Nicholls—were elected from Montreal-area ridings. Liu is the youngest woman ever elected to Parliament. Also elected wasPierre-Luc Dusseault, a freshman at theUniversité de Sherbrooke; his victory inSherbrooke, Quebecmakes him theyoungest MP in Canadian history(he only turned 20 two days before he was sworn in). However, they were unable to make much of an impact in their former western heartland. They actually lostElmwood—Transcona, the former seat of longtime MP and formerdeputy leaderBill Blaikie, by only 300 votes. Liberals Winning only 34 seats, the Liberals suffered the worst result in theirhistory. They sat as the third party in the41st Parliament, the first sinceConfederationwhere the Liberals did not form either theGovernmentor theOfficial Oppositionin the House of Commons. This was the worst showing for an incumbent Official Opposition party in terms of seats, and the lowest percentage for a national Official Opposition party (the Bloc Québécois in1997won more seats with a smaller vote share on account of its being a regional party). The Liberals' poor showing was largely due to a collapse of their support inMontrealandToronto, which had been the backbones of Liberal support for almost two decades. With few exceptions, their support in Toronto flowed to the Tories, while most of their base in Montreal switched to the NDP. In 2008, they won 20 out of the 23 ridings fully or partially within Toronto. However, in 2011, they only won six, losing 6 to the NDP and 9 to the Conservatives. Additionally, after going into the election holding 30 of the 44 seats in theGreater Toronto Area, they only won seven in 2011. In Montreal, the Liberals lost five of their 12 seats, and came close to losing several more. Most notably, they came within 2,500 votes of losingMount Royal, long reckoned as the safest Liberal riding in the nation. Liberal leaderMichael Ignatiefflost his seat ofEtobicoke—Lakeshoreto first time challengerBernard Trottierby a margin of 5.27% of the total votes. Other famous MP's who also lost their seats areKen Dryden(York Centre),Dan McTeague(Pickering—Scarborough East),Gerard Kennedy(Parkdale—High Park),Ujjal Dosanjh(Vancouver South) andJoe Volpe(Eglinton—Lawrence). All told, the Liberals only won 11 seats in Ontario (all but four in Toronto) and seven in Quebec (all in Montreal)—the fewest the party has ever won in either province. They went into the next Parliament holding only four seats west of Ontario (Winnipeg North,Wascana,Vancouver CentreandVancouver Quadra). Bloc Québécois The Bloc was practically eliminated from the scene, losing 43 seats. This reduced them to arumpof four seats, only a third of the number required forofficial party status. In many cases, they lost seats they held since theirdebut performancein 1993. With few exceptions, their support bled over to the NDP. Notably, the Bloc lost all but one seat in the Montreal area. This included all of their seats in the eastern part of the city, the birthplace of the sovereigntist movement. The Bloc went into the election holding all but one seat in eastern Montreal, but lost all of them to the NDP. They also lost all or most of their seats in their longstanding strongholds in the rest of the province, such as Quebec City and central Quebec. Several Bloc MPs who had never had serious difficulty being reelected ended up losing their seats in landslides. Bloc leaderGilles Duceppe, at the time the longest-tenured party leader in Canada, lost his seat inLaurier—Sainte-Marieto NDP challengerHélène Laverdière. Greens Despite losing a significant share of the national vote compared to the 2008 election, Green Party leaderElizabeth Maybecame the first Green Party member elected to the Canadian Parliament. Vote and seat summaries Gains, holds and losses Incumbents defeated Liberal PartyleaderMichael Ignatiefflost his riding ofEtobicoke—LakeshoretoBernard Trottier, aConservative,and the following day he announced he would resign as Liberal leader. Gilles Duceppe, leader of theBloc Québécoisand incumbent inLaurier—Sainte-Mariewas defeated by Hélène Laverdière of theNDPand announced his intention to resign as leader of the Bloc. Four Cabinet ministers,Lawrence Cannon(Foreign Affairs),Gary Lunn(Sport),Jean-Pierre Blackburn(Veterans Affairsand Agriculture), andJosée Verner(Intergovernmental AffairsandFrancophonie) lost their seats. Lunn lost toGreen PartyleaderElizabeth May, and the NDP won the other three seats. Open seats The Bloc gainedHaute-Gaspésie—La Mitis—Matane—Matapédiaby the largest margin of victory of their four seats won and vacated by a long-standing member of the Bloc Québécois. The Conservatives gainedCalgary Centre-NorthandPrince George—Peace River, both vacated by long-standing Conservatives. Results by province British Columbia Prairie provinces Alberta Saskatchewan Manitoba Ontario Quebec Atlantic provinces New Brunswick Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Newfoundland and Labrador Results by territory See also References Boldindicates parties with members elected to theHouse of Commons." ]
[ "Justin Trudeau Justin Pierre James Trudeau(born December 25, 1971) is a Canadian politician who has been serving as the 23rdprime minister of Canadasince 2015 and the leader of theLiberal Partysince 2013. Trudeau was born inOttawa,Ontario, and attendedCollège Jean-de-Brébeuf. He graduated fromMcGill Universityin 1994 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in literature, then in 1998 acquired a Bachelor of Education degree from theUniversity of British Columbia. After graduating, he taught at thesecondary schoollevel inVancouver, before relocating back to Montreal in 2002 to further his studies. He was chair for the youth charityKatimavikand director of the not-for-profitCanadian Avalanche Association. In 2006, he was appointed as chair of the Liberal Party's Task Force on Youth Renewal. In the2008 federal election, he was elected to represent the riding ofPapineauin theHouse of Commons. He was the Liberal Party'sOfficial Opposition criticfor youth and multiculturalism in 2009; the following year, he became critic for", "became critic for citizenship and immigration. In 2011, he was appointed as a critic for secondary education and sport. Trudeau prevailed in theLiberal Party leadership electionin April 2013 and led his party to a majority victory in the2015 federal election. Trudeau was the second-youngestprime minister in Canadian historywhen he took office and the first to be the child of a previous holder of the post, as the eldest son ofPierre Trudeau. Major government initiatives he undertook after his election included establishing theCanada Child Benefit, legalizingmedical assistance in dying, legalizing recreational marijuana through theCannabis Act; attempting Senate appointment reform by establishing theIndependent Advisory Board for Senate Appointmentsand establishing thefederal carbon tax. In foreign policy, Trudeau's government negotiated trade deals such as theCanada-United States-Mexico Agreement(CUSMA) and theComprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, and signed theParis", "and signed theParis Agreementon climate change. He was sanctioned by Canada'sethics commissionerfor violatingconflict of interestrules regarding theAga Khan affair, and later again with theSNC-Lavalin affair. Trudeau guided the Liberals to aminority governmentvictory in the2019 federal election. In 2020, his government responded to theCOVID-19 pandemic, announced an\"assault-style\" weapons banin response to the2020 Nova Scotia attacks, and launched a national $10-a-daychild careprogram. He was investigated for a third time by the ethics commissioner for his part in theWE Charity scandal, but was cleared of wrongdoing. In the2021 federal election, he led the Liberals to another minority government. In 2022, following his third election, Trudeau invoked theEmergencies Actin response to theFreedom Convoy protests(the first time the act was brought into force since it was enacted in 1988) and responded to theRussian invasion of Ukraineby imposing sanctions onRussiaand authorizing military aid toUkraine. Trudeau", "toUkraine. Trudeau entered into aconfidence and supplyagreement with theNew Democratic Party(NDP), which resulted in theCanadian Dental Care Planfor residents that meet a certain income threshold and a framework for nationalpharmacare. However, after two and a half years, the NDP opted to terminate the agreement. Early life Ancestry and birth On June 23, 1971, thePrime Minister's Office(PMO) announced that Prime MinisterPierre Trudeau's wife of four months,Margaret Trudeau(née Sinclair),was pregnant and due in December.Justin Trudeau was born on December 25, 1971, at 9:27 pmESTat theOttawa Civic Hospital.He is the second child in Canadian history to be born to a prime minister in office; the first wasJohn A. Macdonald's daughter Margaret Mary Theodora Macdonald (February 8, 1869 – January 28, 1933). Trudeau's younger brothersAlexandre(Sacha) (born December 25, 1973) andMichel(October 2, 1975 – November 13, 1998) were the third and fourth. Trudeau is predominantly ofScottishandFrench Canadiandescent.His", "Canadiandescent.His grandfathers were businessmanCharles-Émile Trudeauand Scottish-bornJames Sinclair,who wasminister of fisheriesin the cabinet of Prime MinisterLouis St. Laurent.Trudeau's maternal great-grandfather Thomas Bernard was born inMakassar, Indonesiaand immigrated toPenticton, British Columbia, in 1906 at age 15 with his family.Through the Bernard family, kinsmen of theEarls of Bandon,Trudeau is the fifth great-grandson of Major-GeneralWilliam Farquhar,a leader in thefounding of modern Singapore; Trudeau also has remoteethnic MalaccanandNiasancestry. Trudeau wasbaptizedwith his father's niece Anne Rouleau-Danis as godmother and his mother's brother-in-law Thomas Walker as godfather,atOttawa's Notre Dame Basilicaon the afternoon of January 16, 1972, which marked his first public appearance.and given the names \"Justin Pierre James\".On April 14, 1972, Trudeau's father and mother hosted a gala at theNational Arts Centre, at which visiting U.S. presidentRichard Nixonsaid, \"I'd like to toast the future", "to toast the future prime minister of Canada, to Justin Pierre Trudeau\" to which Pierre Trudeau responded that should his son ever assume the role, he hoped he would have \"the grace and skill of the president\".Earlier that day, first ladyPat Nixonhad visited him in his nursery and gifted him astuffed toySnoopy. Childhood Trudeau's parents announced their separation in 1977, when he was five years old; his father was given primary custody.There were repeated rumours of a reconciliation for many years afterwards.However his mother eventually filed for ano-fault divorcewhich theSupreme Court of Ontariogranted in 1984;his father had announced his intention to retire as prime minister a month earlier.Eventually his parents came to an amicable joint-custody arrangement and learned to get along quite well. Interviewed in October 1979, hisnannyDianne Lavergne was quoted, \"Justin is a mommy's boy, so it's not easy, but children's hurts mend very quickly. And they're lucky kids, anyway.\"Of his mother and father's", "mother and father's marriage, Trudeau said in 2009, \"They loved each other incredibly, passionately, completely. But there was 30 years between them, and my mom never was an equal partner in what encompassed my father's life, his duty, his country.\"Trudeau has three half-siblings, Kyle and Alicia, from his mother's remarriage to Fried Kemper,and Sarah, from his father's relationship withDeborah Coyne. Trudeau lived at24 Sussex Drive,Ottawa, the official residence of Canada's prime minister, from his birth until his father's government was defeated in the1979 federal election. The Trudeaus were expected to move intoStornoway, the residence of theleader of the Official Opposition, but because of flooding in the basement, Prime MinisterJoe Clarkoffered themHarrington Lake, the prime minister's official country retreat inGatineau Park, with the expectation they would move into Stornoway at the start of July.However, the repairs were not complete, so Pierre Trudeau took a prolonged vacation with his sons to", "with his sons to theNova Scotiasummer home of his friend, Member of ParliamentDon Johnston, and later sent his sons to stay with their maternal grandparents inNorth Vancouverfor the rest of the summer while he slept at his friend's Ottawa apartment. Trudeau and his brothers returned to Ottawa for the start of the school year but lived only on the top floor of Stornoway while repairs continued on the bottom floor.His mother purchased and moved into a new home nearby at 95 Victoria Street in Ottawa'sNew Edinburghneighbourhood in September 1979.Pierre Trudeau and his sons returned to the prime minister's official residence afterthe February 1980 electionthat returned him to the Prime Minister's Office. His father had intended Trudeau to begin his formal education at a French-language lycée, but Trudeau's mother convinced his father of the importance of sending their sons to a public school.In the end, Trudeau was enrolled in 1976 in theFrench immersion programatRockcliffe Park Public School. It was the same", "It was the same school his mother had attended for two years while her father was a member of Parliament.He could have been dropped off by limousine, but his parents elected he take theschool busalbeit with aRoyal Canadian Mounted Police(RCMP) car following.This was followed by one year at the privateLycée Claudel d'Ottawa. After his father's retirement in June 1984, his mother remained at her New Edinburgh home while the rest of the family moved into his father's home at 1418 Pine Avenue, Montreal known asCormier House;the following autumn, he began attending the privateCollège Jean-de-Brébeuf, his father's alma mater. The school had begun as a Jesuit school but was non-denominational by the time Justin matriculated.In 2008, Trudeau said that of all his early family outings he enjoyed camping with his father the most, because \"that was where our father got to be just our father – a dad in the woods\".During the summers his father would send him and his brothers to Camp Ahmek, onCanoe LakeinAlgonquin", "LakeinAlgonquin Provincial Park, where he would later work in his first paid job as acamp counsellor. Trudeau and his brothers were given shares in twonumbered companiesby their father: the first containing a portfolio of securities, from which they receive regular dividends, up to $20,000 per year; and the second which receives royalties from their father's autobiography and other sources, about $10,000 a year.As of August 2011, the first numbered company had assets of $1.2 million.The Trudeau brothers were also given a country estate of about 50 hectares in the Laurentians with a home designed by the esteemed Canadian architectArthur Erickson, and the Cormier House in Montreal.The country estate land was estimated to be worth $2.7 million in 2016. University and early career Trudeau has a bachelor of arts degree in literature fromMcGill Universityand a bachelor of education degree from theUniversity of British Columbia. In his first year at McGill, Trudeau became acquainted with his futureprincipal", "his futureprincipal secretary,Gerald Butts, through their mutual friend, Jonathan Ablett.Butts invited Trudeau to join the McGill Debating Union.They bonded while driving back to Montreal after a debate tournament atPrinceton University.After graduation, Trudeau stayed in Vancouver where he became a substitute teacher at local schools such asKillarney Secondaryand worked permanently as a French and math teacher at the privateWest Point Grey Academy. He became a roommate at theDouglas Lodgewith fellow West Point Grey Academy faculty member and friend Christopher Ingvaldson.From 2002 to 2004, he studied engineering at theÉcole Polytechnique de Montréal, affiliated withUniversité de Montréal, but did not graduate.He started a master's degree in environmental geography at McGill but withdrew from the program to seek public office. In August 2000, Trudeau attended the Kokanee Summit inCreston, British Columbia, to raise funds in honour of his brother Michel Trudeau and other avalanche victims. After the event, an", "After the event, an unsigned editorial in theCreston Valley Advance(a local newspaper) accused Trudeau of having groped an unnamed female reporter while at the music festival. The editorial stated Trudeau provided a \"day-late\" apology to the reporter, saying, \"If I had known you were reporting for a national paper, I never would have been so forward\".In 2018, Trudeau was questioned about the groping incident but said he did not remember any negative incidents from that time. His apology and later statement about the event have been described as hypocritical, while responses to the story have been described as awitch huntor non-story. In October 2000, Trudeau, then 28, emerged as a prominent figure after delivering a eulogy athis father's state funeral.TheCanadian Broadcasting Corporation(CBC) received numerous calls to rebroadcast the speech after its initial transmission, and leading Quebec politicianClaude Ryandescribed it as \"perhaps ... the first manifestation of a dynasty\".A book issued by the CBC in", "by the CBC in 2003 included the speech in its list of significant Canadian events from the past fifty years. In 2007, Trudeau starred in the two-partCBC TelevisionminiseriesThe Great War, which gave an account of Canada's participation in the First World War. He portrayed his fifth cousin, twice removed,MajorTalbot Mercer Papineau, who was killed on October 30, 1917, during theBattle of Passchendaele.Trudeau is one of several children of former prime ministers who have become Canadian media personalities. The others areBen Mulroney(son ofBrian Mulroney),Catherine Clark(daughter of Joe Clark), and Trudeau's younger brother, Alexandre.Ben Mulroney was a guest at Trudeau's wedding. Advocacy Trudeau and his family started the Kokanee Glacier Alpine Campaign for winter sports safety in 2000, two years after his brother Michel died in an avalanche during a ski trip.In 2002, Trudeau criticized the Government of British Columbia's decision to stop its funding for a public avalanche warning system. From 2002 to 2006,", "From 2002 to 2006, Trudeau chaired theKatimavikyouth program, a project started by longtime family friendJacques Hébert. In 2002–03, Trudeau was a panelist onCBC Radio'sCanada Readsseries, where he championedThe Colony of Unrequited DreamsbyWayne Johnston.Trudeau and his brother Alexandre inaugurated theTrudeau Centre for Peace and Conflict Studiesat theUniversity of Torontoin April 2004; the centre later became a part of theMunk School of Global Affairs.In 2006, he hosted the presentation ceremony for theGiller Prizefor literature. In 2005, Trudeau fought against a proposed $100-millionzincmine that he argued would poison theNahanni River, aUnited Nations World Heritage Sitelocated in theNorthwest Territories. He was quoted as saying, \"The river is an absolutely magnificent, magical place. I'm not saying mining is wrong ... but that is not the place for it. It's just the wrong thing to be doing.\" On September 17, 2006, Trudeau was the master of ceremonies at a Toronto rally organized byRoméo Dallairethat", "Dallairethat called for Canadian participation in resolving theDarfur crisis. Political beginnings Trudeau supported the Liberal Party from a young age, offering his support to party leaderJohn Turnerin the1988 federal election.Two years later, he defendedCanadian federalismat a student event at theCollège Jean-de-Brébeuf, which he attended. Following his father's death, Trudeau became more involved with the Liberal Party throughout the 2000s. Along with OlympianCharmaine Crooks, he co-hosted a tribute to outgoing prime ministerJean Chrétienat the party's2003 leadership convention, and was appointed to chair a task force on youth renewal after the party's defeat in the2006 federal election. In October 2006, Trudeau criticizedQuebec nationalismby describing political nationalism generally as an \"old idea from the 19th century\", \"based on a smallness of thought\" and not relevant to modern Quebec. This comment was seen as a criticism ofMichael Ignatieff, then a candidate in the2006 Liberal Party leadership", "Party leadership election, who was promoting recognition ofQuebecas a nation.Trudeau later wrote a public letter on the subject, describing the idea of Quebec nationhood as \"against everything my father ever believed\". Trudeau announced his support for leadership candidateGerard Kennedyshortly before the 2006 convention and introduced Kennedy during the candidates' final speeches.When Kennedy dropped off after the second ballot, Trudeau joined him in supporting the ultimate winner,Stéphane Dion. Rumours circulated in early 2007 that Trudeau would run in anupcoming by-electionin the Montreal riding ofOutremont. The Montreal newspaperLa Pressereported despite Trudeau's keenness, Liberal leader Stéphane Dion wanted Outremont for a star candidate who could help rebuild the Liberal Party. Instead, Trudeau announced that he would seek the Liberal nomination in the nearby riding of Papineau for the next general election.The riding, which had been held for 26 years byAndré Ouellet, a senior minister under his", "minister under his father, had been in Liberal hands for 53 years before falling to theBloc Québécoisin 2006. On April 29, 2007, Trudeau won the Liberal party's nomination, picking up 690 votes to 350 for Deros and 220 for Giordano againstMary Deros, a Montreal city councillor andBasilio Giordano, the publisher of a local Italian-language newspaper. Opposition, 2008–2015 Prime MinisterStephen Harpercalled an election forOctober 14, 2008, by which time Trudeau had been campaigning for a year in Papineau. On election day, Trudeau narrowly defeated Bloc Québécois incumbentVivian Barbot.Following his election win,Edward Greenspon, editor-in-chief ofThe Globe and Mail, noted that Trudeau would \"be viewed as few other rookie MPs are—as a potential future Prime Minister—and scrutinized through that lens\". TheConservative Partywon aminority governmentin the 2008 election, and Trudeau entered parliament as a member of theOfficial Opposition. Trudeau's first legislative act was a motion that called for the creation of", "for the creation of a \"national voluntary service policy for young people\".He later co-chaired the Liberal Party's April 2009 national convention inVancouver, and in October of the same year he was appointed as the party's critic for multiculturalism and youth. In September 2010, he was reassigned as critic for youth, citizenship, and immigration.During that time, he criticized the government's legislation targeting human smuggling, which he argued would penalize the victims of smuggling. Trudeau sparked controversy when it was revealed that he earned $1.3 million in public speaking fees from charities and school boards across Canada, $277,000 of which Trudeau received after becoming an MP. He encouraged an increase of Canada's relief efforts after the2010 Haiti earthquake, and sought more accessible immigration procedures for Haitians moving to Canada in the time of crisis. His own riding includes a significant Haitian community. Trudeau was re-elected in Papineau in the2011 federal election, as the Liberal", "as the Liberal Party fell to third-party standing in the House of Commons with only thirty-four seats. Ignatieff resigned as party leader immediately after the election, and rumours again circulated that Trudeau could run to become his successor. On this occasion, Trudeau said, \"I don't feel I should be closing off any options ... because of the history packaged into my name, a lot of people are turning to me in a way that ... to be blunt, concerns me.\"Weeks after the election, Toronto MPBob Raewas selected as the interim leader until the party's leadership convention, which was later decided to be held in April 2013. Rae appointed Trudeau as the party's critic for post-secondary education, youth and amateur sport.After his re-election, he travelled the country hosting fundraisers for charities and the Liberal Party. Trudeau wanted to take part in a charity boxing match on behalf of the cancer research fundraising event Fight for the Cure, but was having difficulty finding a Conservative opponent until", "opponent until Conservative senatorPatrick Brazeauagreed when asked on Trudeau's behalf by their mutual hairdresser Stefania Capovilla.The fight on March 31, 2012, in Ottawa at the Hampton Inn was broadcast live onSun Newswith commentary byEzra LevantandBrian Lilleyand Trudeau won in the third round, the result considered an upset. Leader of the Liberal Party Earlier speculation After Dion's resignation as Liberal leader in 2008, Trudeau's name was mentioned as a potential candidate with polls showing him as a favourite among Canadians for the position. However, Trudeau did not enter the race andMichael Ignatieffwas named leader in December 2008.After the party's poor showing in the 2011 election, Ignatieff resigned from the leadership and Trudeau was again seen as a potential candidate to lead the party. Following the election, Trudeau said he was undecided about seeking the leadership;months later on October 12 atWilfrid Laurier University, he announced he would not seek the post because he had a young", "he had a young family.When interim leaderBob Rae, who was also seen as a frontrunner, announced he would not be entering the race in June 2012, Trudeau was hit with a \"tsunami\" of calls from supporters to reconsider his earlier decision to not seek the leadership. Opinion polling conducted by several pollsters showed that if Trudeau were to become leader the Liberal Party would surge in support, from a distant third place to either being competitive with the Conservative Party or leading them.In July 2012, Trudeau stated that he would reconsider his earlier decision to not seek the leadership and would announce his final decision at the end of the summer. 2013 leadership election On September 26, 2012, multiple media outlets started reporting that Trudeau would launch his leadership bid the following week.While Trudeau was seen as a frontrunner for the leadership of the Liberal Party, he was criticized for his perceived lack of substance.During his time as a member of Parliament, he spoke little on policy", "little on policy matters and it was not known where he stood on many issues such as the economy and foreign affairs.Some strategists and pundits believed the leadership would be the time for Trudeau to be tested on these issues; however, there was also fear within the party that his celebrity status and large lead might deter other strong candidates from entering the leadership race. On October 2, 2012, Trudeau held a rally in Montreal to launch his bid for the leadership of the Liberal Party.The core people on his campaign team were considered longtime friends, and all in their 30s and 40s. His senior advisor was Gerald Butts, the former president ofWWF-Canadawho had previously been principal secretary to former Ontario premierDalton McGuinty. Other senior aides included campaign managerKatie Telford, and policy advisors Mike McNeir andRobert Asselin, who had all worked for recent Liberal Party leaders.His brother Alexandre also took a break from his documentary work to be a senior advisor on Trudeau's", "on Trudeau's campaign. During the leadership campaign, three by-elections were held onNovember 26, 2012. The ridingCalgary Centrewas expected to be a three-way race between the Conservatives, Liberals and Green Party. A week before by-election daySun Mediareported on comments Trudeau had made in a 2010 interview withTélé-Québec, in which he said, \"Canada isn't doing well right now because it's Albertans who control our community and socio-democratic agenda.\" Trudeau's campaign advisor said that the comments were being brought up now because of the close race in Calgary Centre.The following day, Trudeau apologized, saying he was wrong to use \"Alberta\" as \"shorthand\" in referring to Stephen Harper's government.The Conservatives held onto Calgary Centre in the by-election by less than 1,200 votes. Liberal candidateHarvey Lockesaid he lost the by-election on his own and that comments made by Trudeau did not influence the outcome. Fellow leadership candidateMarc Garneau, seen as Trudeau's main challenger in the", "challenger in the race, criticized Trudeau for not releasing enough substantial policy positions. Garneau called on him to release more detailed policies before members and supporters begin to vote.Garneau later challenged Trudeau to a one-on-one debate, and said that if Trudeau could not defend his ideas in a debate against him, he wouldn't be able to do so against Prime Minister Harper.Trudeau clashed in debates with challengerJoyce Murray, who was the only Liberal leadership candidate to speak out strongly in favour of electing the House of Commons with a system ofproportional representation. She challenged Trudeau over his support for apreferential ballotvoting system. On March 13, 2013, Garneau dropped out of the leadership race, saying that polling conducted by his campaign showed he would be unable to defeat Trudeau. With Joyce Murray, the last challenger, receiving significant press time, more Liberal politicians and public figures declared themselves for Trudeau. Trudeau was declared the winner of", "the winner of the leadership election on April 14, 2013, garnering 80.1% of 30,800 votes.Joyce Murray finished in second place with 10.2% , ahead of Martha Hall Findlay's 5.7%.Trudeau had lost only five ridings, all to Murray and all in BC. Leadership, 2013–2015 In the days following his victory in the leadership race, snapshot polls recorded a surge in support for the Liberal party. In 2013, Trudeau chose to give up his seat at thefuneral of Nelson Mandela, in deference toIrwin Cotleras representative of theLiberal Party of Canada, because of Cotler's work for and withNelson Mandelain fightingapartheid. During the leadership campaign, Trudeau pledged to park all his assets, exclusive of real estate holdings, into ablind trustwhich is atypical for opposition MPs, including leaders. According to documents obtained by theOttawa Citizen, he fulfilled the pledge in July 2013 when the blind trust was set up byBMO Private Banking. On January 27, 2014, Trudeau and MPCarolyn BennettescortedChrystia Freelandinto the", "Freelandinto the House of Commons, as is traditional for by-election victors.Trudeau launched an internet video the week before the 2014 Liberal party convention titled \"An economy that benefits us all\" in which he narrates his economic platform. He said that Canada's debt to GDP ratios have come down in recent years and now it's time for Ottawa to \"step up\". 2015 federal election On October 19, 2015, after the longest official campaign in over a century, Trudeau led the Liberals to a decisive victory in thefederal election. The Liberals won 184 of the 338 seats, with 39.5% of the popular vote, for a strong majority government;a gain of 150 seats compared to the 2011 federal election. This was the second-best performance in the party's history. The Liberals won mostly on the strength of a solid performance in the eastern half of the country. In addition to taking all of Atlantic Canada and Toronto,they won 40 seats in Quebec—the most that the Liberals had won in that province since Trudeau's father led them", "father led them to a near-sweep of the province in 1980, and also the first time since then that the Liberals won a majority of Quebec's seats in an election. The 150-seat gain was the biggest numerical increase for a single party since Confederation and marked the first time that a party had rebounded from third place in the Commons to a majority government. In addition to the appeal of his party's platform, Trudeau's success has been credited to his performance both on the campaign trail and televisedleaders' debatesexceeding the lowered expectations created by Conservative advertisements and conservative media outlets. Trudeau declared victory shortly afterCBC Newsprojected that he had won a majority government. He began his speech with a reference to former Liberal prime ministerWilfrid Laurier's \"sunny ways\" (French:voies ensoleillées) approach to bringing Canadians together despite their differences. According to Trudeau, Laurier \"knew that politics can be a positive force, and that's the message", "that's the message Canadians have sent today\".Harper announced his resignation as the leader of the Conservative Party that night. Prime Minister of Canada (2015–present) Trudeau and the rest of theCabinetwere sworn in byGovernor GeneralDavid Johnstonon November 4, 2015. He said that his first legislative priority was to lower taxes for middle-income Canadians and raise taxes for the top 1% of income earners after parliament was reconvened on December 3, 2015.Trudeau also issued a statement promising to rebuild relations withIndigenous peoples in Canadaand run an open, ethical and transparent government.On November 5, 2015, during the first Liberal caucus meeting since forming a majority government, the party announced that it would reinstate the mandatory long-form census that had been scrapped in 2010, effective with the 2016 census. As prime minister, Trudeau launched three major independent investigations: theNational Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women(MMIWG), the Joint Federal/Provincial", "Federal/Provincial Commission into the2020 Nova Scotia attacks(in partnership with theGovernment of Nova Scotia), and the Public Inquiry into Foreign Interference in Federal Electoral Processes and Democratic Institutions. The latter was called in response to allegations ofChinese government interference in the 2019 and 2021 Canadian federal elections, but also deals with interference from other states deemed hostile to Canada.The MMIWG investigation found that Canada's response to this issue amounts togenocide, a finding Trudeau said he accepted. Ethics Trudeau was criticized by opposition members in November 2016 for his fundraising tactics, which they saw as \"cash for access\" schemes.Trudeau attended fundraisers where attendees paid upwards of $1500 for access to him and other cabinet members.In some instances, the events were attended by foreign businessmen who needed government approval for their businesses.Trudeau defended his fundraising tactics, saying that they were not in breach of any ethics", "of any ethics rules. He also stated that he was lobbied at the fundraisers but not influenced.In 2017, Trudeau introduced legislation that would eliminate such exclusive events by requiring increased transparency for political fundraisers. In January 2017, theethics commissioner,Mary Dawson, began an investigation into Trudeau for a vacation he and his family took toAga Khan IV's private island in theBahamas.The ethics commissioner's report, released in December 2017, found that Trudeau had violated four provisions of theConflict of Interest Act.He became the first sitting prime minister to break federal conflict of interest rules.In 2022, it was reported that theRoyal Canadian Mounted Policehad considered bringing criminal charges against Trudeau over the affair. In February 2018, Trudeau was criticized when his government invitedKhalistani nationalistJaspal Atwalto the Canadian High Commission's dinner party in Delhi. Atwal had previously been convicted for the shooting and attempted murder of Indian", "murder of Indian Cabinet ministerMalkiat Singh Sidhuin 1986, as well as the assault on former BC premierUjjal Dosanjhin 1985. Following the dinner, the PMO rescinded the invitation, and apologized for the incident. SNC-Lavalin affair On February 8, 2019,The Globe and Mailreported that sources close to the government said that the Prime Minister's Office had allegedly attempted to influenceAttorney GeneralJody Wilson-Raybouldconcerning an ongoing prosecution ofSNC-Lavalin. When asked about the allegations, Trudeau said that the story in theGlobewas false and that he had never \"directed\" Wilson-Raybould concerning the case.Wilson-Raybould did not comment on the matter, citingsolicitor-client privilege.Soon after, Trudeau voluntarily waived privilege and cabinet confidences, permitting her to speak.On February 11, the ethics commissioner announced the opening of an investigation into the allegations. Trudeau said he \"welcomed the investigation\".TheJustice Committeeof the House of Commons has conducted a series", "conducted a series of hearings on the alleged interference.The investigation heard from several witnesses, including Jody Wilson-Raybould, who submitted as evidence a telephone call she secretly recorded between herself andPrivy Council ClerkMichael Wernick, which was subsequently released to the public.On the recording, Wernick is heard asking to understand why the \"DPA route\" is not being used, stating that people were \"talking past each other\", and suggesting Trudeau obtain independent legal advice from former Supreme Court chief justiceBeverly McLachlin. Wilson-Raybould is heard suggesting that Trudeau would be \"breaching a constitutional principle of prosecutorial independence\". On March 19, 2019, the Liberal committee members voted as a bloc to shut down the Justice Committee's investigation. Trudeau was the subject of an investigation by theethics commissioner, pursuant to theConflict of Interest Act, in regards tocriminal chargesagainstSNC-Lavalinin theSNC-Lavalin affair. The commission's final", "commission's final report, issued August 14, 2019, concluded \"Mr. Trudeau contravened section 9 of the Act\". 2019 federal election On September 11, 2019, Trudeau visited Governor GeneralJulie Payette, to request the dissolution of Parliament, and formally triggering an election.Prior to the formal start of the campaign, Trudeau announced his intention to only participate in the threeleaders' debates, two organized by theLeaders' Debates Commission, and one organized byTVA.Other leader's debates were either cancelled or took place with an empty podium left on stage for Trudeau. In September 2019, controversial pictures and video were published showing Trudeau inbrownfaceandblackface.On September 18, 2019,Timemagazine published a photograph of Trudeau wearing brownface makeup in the spring of 2001, at anArabian Nights-themed gala, while Trudeau was a teacher atWest Point Grey Academy.Trudeau publicly apologized, agreeing the photo was racist and saying: \"I shouldn't have done that. I should have known better", "have known better and I didn't. I'm really sorry.\"He further went on to say \"It was something that I didn't think was racist at the time, but now I recognize it was something racist to do\".Trudeau also admitted to wearing blackface makeup in high school while singing \"Day-O\" at a talent show that was subsequently published byGlobal News.A third instance, a video, of Trudeau in racist dress was also published.After this video was published, Trudeau admitted he could not remember how often he had worn blackface makeup.In the days following the scandal,pollsterspointed out that many Canadians either were not bothered by the scandal or had accepted Trudeau's apology.Additionally, some minority community groups, racialized commentators and some of Trudeau's opponents came to his defence.Others were more critical, including members of his own party. 2019 election results While Trudeau's Liberal Party lost 20 seats in the House of Commons (lowering its total from 177 to 157) from the time of dissolution, they still", "they still won the most seats of any party—enough seats to allow Trudeau to form a minority government.For the first time since 1979, the party that garnered the largest share of the national popular vote did not win the most seats; the Liberals under Trudeau had 33.1% of the popular vote, while the Conservatives underAndrew Scheerhad 34.4%.It was also the first time a government took power with less than 35% of the national popular vote since the Conservatives ofJohn A. Macdonald, in 1867, who had 34.8% of the votes.In Alberta and Saskatchewan, the Liberal party won 14% and 10% of the popular vote, respectively.In Ontario, Liberals won all 25 Toronto seats and 24 of 29 seats in the surrounding suburbs of theGreater Toronto Area—reportedly due in part to the unpopularity of theProgressive Conservative partygovernment of PremierDoug Ford. COVID-19 pandemic Trudeau was prime minister during the worldwideCOVID-19 pandemic. His government's response to the pandemic included funds for provinces and territories to", "and territories to adapt to the new situation, funds for coronavirus research, travel restrictions, screening of international flights, self-isolation orders under theQuarantine Act, an industrial strategy, and a public health awareness campaign. Initially, Canada faced a shortage ofpersonal protective equipment, as the Trudeau government had cut PPE stockpile funding in the previous years. To deal with theeconomic impact of the pandemicin 2020, Trudeau waived student loan payments, increased theCanada Child Benefit, doubled the annualGoods and Services Taxpayment, and introduced theCanada Emergency Response Benefit(CERB) as part of a first package in March. In April 2020, Trudeau introduced theCanada Emergency Wage Subsidy, theCanada Emergency Business Account, and theCanada Emergency Student Benefit.Trudeau also deployed theCanadian Forcesin long-term care homes in Quebec and Ontario as part ofOperation LASER. Throughout the pandemic, the federal government was also responsible for the procurement", "for the procurement ofCOVID-19 vaccines.On May 12, 2020, the Trudeau government announced it had reached an exclusive deal withCanSino Biologics.However, due to deterioratingCanadian-Chinese relations, theCansinodeal fell through.On August 5, 2020, the Trudeau government created a plan to secure doses of thePfizerandModerna vaccines.Starting in December 2020, Trudeau oversaw the implementation ofCanada's mass-vaccination program. The spread of COVID-19 in Canada continued beyond the initial outbreak, with a strong second wave in the fall of 2020 and an even more serious third wave in the spring of 2021.Throughout the crisis, Trudeau periodically extended the scope and duration of thefederal aid programs. The2021 Canadian federal budgetplanned to phase them out by the end of September 2021, and projected a $354.2-billion deficit in the 2020–21 fiscal year.While CERB was indeed phased out on September 26, theCanada Recovery Benefit(CBR) continued to provide support until October 23.TheCanada Worker Lockdown", "Worker Lockdown Benefitwas introduced that month to replace the CBR, and expanded during the spread of theOmicron variantin December 2021. WE Charity ethics investigation Following complaints by opposition parties that the Trudeau family had ties toWE Charity, the ethics commissioner on July 3, 2020, announced an investigation into Trudeau's and the government's decision to have the charity administer a summer, student-grant program which could assist students financially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Trudeau responded by saying WE was the charity that had the capability to administer such a program. WE and the federal government decided to \"part ways\" leaving administration of the grant program to the federal government. WE Charity was criticized for its close ties to the Trudeau family; the investigation came after revelations that Trudeau's mother, brother, and wife were paid nearly $300,000 in total to speak at WE Charity events.On July 16, 2020, the ethics commissioner also announced the investigation", "the investigation was being expanded to include Finance MinisterBill Morneau.Trudeau was ultimately cleared of any wrongdoing by the ethics commissioner though Morneau was found to have broken the conflict of interest law. 2021 federal election On August 15, 2021, Trudeau advised Governor GeneralMary Simonto dissolve parliament, scheduling an election for September 20.The election was called on the same day as theFall of Kabul. In the first two weeks of the campaign, Trudeau received criticism for not acting fast enough in the face of the2021 Taliban offensiveto evacuate Canadian citizens and Afghans who supported Canada's military and diplomatic efforts during theWar in Afghanistan. In the 2021 federal election, Trudeau secured a third mandate and his second minority government after winning 160 seats. However, the Liberals came in second in the national popular vote, behind the Conservatives.They received 32.6 percent of the popular vote, the lowest percentage of the national popular vote for a governing", "for a governing party in Canadian history. 2022 convoy protest The Canada convoy protest, called the Freedom Convoy, was aprotestin Canada againstCOVID-19 vaccine requirements for truckers to re-enter the country by landintroduced by theGovernment of Canadaon January 15, 2022. Originally composed of several routes traversing all of the Canadianprovinces, the truck convoys converged onOttawa. On January 29, the first day of protest atParliament Hill, Trudeau moved to an undisclosed location.According toThe Guardian, the demonstration developed to express a number of \"antigovernment grievances\", particularly against Trudeau.On January 31, Trudeau called the protests an \"insult to truth\".On February 3, he said that a military response was \"not in the cards right now\".On February 11,Reutersreported that Trudeau promised the US \"quick action\" regarding protesters who have forcefully blocked theAmbassador Bridgeon the US-Canada border, the continent's busiest land border crossing.\"Trudeau subsequently indicated", "indicated that there would be \"robust police intervention\" and called for all protesters to \"go home.\" Trudeau invoked theEmergencies Acton February 14, 2022, for the first time since it was enacted in 1988, as a result of the public order emergency caused by the demonstrations in Ottawa.On February 23, 2022, Trudeau announced that the federal government would revoke the emergency declaration. Later that day, the governor general signed a proclamation revoking it.A year later, on February 17, 2023, a judicial inquiry into the use of theEmergencies Actconcluded that the Trudeau government met the legal threshold required to invoke the act.In early 2024,Federal CourtjudgeRichard Mosleyruled that the federal government's invocation of the Emergencies Act to end the 2022 convoy protest was \"not justified\" and infringed onCharterrights. The federal government plans to appeal the ruling. Confidence and supply agreement On March 22, 2022, the Liberals and the NDP entered aconfidence and supply agreement. The", "agreement. The agreement, in which the NDP committed to supporting the Liberals in allvotes of confidencefor the duration of the 44th Parliament, included action towards key NDP priorities. The effect of the agreement was to avert any prospective early election, to allow the minority Trudeau government to stay in power for the full four-year term of the Parliament, ahead of the 2025 election. Among the policies included in the deal were the establishment of a nationaldental care programfor low-income Canadians, progress towards a nationalpharmacareprogram, labour reforms for federally regulated workers, and new taxes on financial institutions. In early 2024, the two parties reached an impasse over pharmacare, putting the deal in jeopardy. The agreement called for the development of theCanada Pharmacare Actby the end of 2023, setting out a framework for the system; however, the NDP had agreed to extend the deadline to March 1 of the following year as negotiations became fraught. Major points of contention", "of contention included the NDP's demand that the system be single-payer, as well as preliminary coverage for certain drugs prior to the implementation of the full system.On February 23, the parties reached an agreement, salvaging the deal. The agreement provided coverage for diabetes and contraceptive drugs ahead of the full program's launch. In September 2024, the NDP pulled their support and ended the confidence and supply agreement.NDP leaderJagmeet Singhsaid the Liberals had \"let people down\" and were \"too weak, too selfish and too beholden to corporate interests\" to fight for people,while Trudeau stated he would continue to work for Canadians and not focus on politics.On September 25, 2024, Trudeau survived ano-confidence votebrought by the Conservative Party. Policies Domestic policy The Trudeau government'seconomic policyinitially relied on increased tax revenues to pay for increased government spending. While the government has not balanced the budget, it reduced Canada'sdebt-to-GDP ratioevery year", "ratioevery year until 2020, when theCOVID-19 pandemichit.Trudeau's self-described progressive and feministsocial policyhas included strong advocacy for abortion rights.His government introduced the bill that madeconversion therapiesillegal in Canada. After the 2015 election, Canada set targets to welcome an increased number of immigrants and refugees.Despite warnings about the impact of increased immigration on housing and services, Trudeau's government allowed almost 1 million newcomers (permanent and temporary residents) in both 2022 and 2023.Trudeau initiated measures to combat housing inflation: Foreign buyers were banned and the Housing Accelerator Fund was created. In Sept 2023, Trudeau stated housing prices were \"far too high\", but, in May 2024, during an interview withThe Globe and Mail, Trudeau said, \"housing needs to retain its value.\"In 2021, Trudeau touted his Child Benefit Program, claiming it had lifted 400,000 children out of poverty.In 2024, food bank usage was at an all time high and more", "time high and more working people than ever were using food banks. Canada introduced the right tomedically-assisted dyingin 2016.andlegalized cannabis for recreational usein 2018.In 2021, Trudeau announced the creation of a nationalchild careplan with the intention of reducingday carefees for parents down to $10 a day per child within five years.In November 2022, the Trudeau government announced that Canada would admit500,000 immigrants per yearby 2025. His environmental policy included introducing new commitments to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 30% before 2030, and to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050.His main tool for reaching this target is a federalcarbon pricingpolicy.Trudeau's parliament also adopted legislation for marine conservation,banning six commonsingle-use plasticproducts,and strengthening environmental impact assessments.Trudeau pledged to ban single use plastic in 2019. In the year 2022 his government announced a ban on producing and importing single use plastic from December 2022.", "from December 2022. The sale of those items will be banned from December 2023 and the export from 2025.However, Trudeau is in favour of oil and gas pipelines to bring Canadian fossil fuel resources to foreign markets. Foreign policy In 2015, Trudeau told theNew York Times Magazinethat Canada could be the \"firstpostnationalstate\". In 2016, Trudeau lifted visa requirements for Mexican citizens. Asylum claims by Mexicans grew from 110 in 2015 to 24,000 in 2023. Visas and some restrictions were reinstated in 2024. In January 2017, Trudeau wrote, \"To those fleeing persecution, terror & war, Canadians will welcome you, regardless of your faith. Diversity is our strength #WelcomeToCanada,\" onTwitter. As a result, irregular border crossing increased, mainly atRoxham Road.Increased strain on services in Quebec and Ontario, and criticism over the unsustainable influx of claimants, appeared to influence the decision to close Roxham Road in March 2023; however, the new terms of theCanada–United States Safe Third Country", "Safe Third Country Agreement(STCA) had been arranged the previous year.After irregular border crossings were shut down, asylum claims surged at airports. Trudeau enjoyed good relations with the \"like-minded\"United States presidentBarack Obama,despite Trudeau's support for theKeystone Pipeline, which was rejected by theDemocraticpresident.Trudeau's first foreign policy challenges included follow-through on his campaign promise to withdraw Canadian air support from theSyrian civil warand to welcome 25,000Syrian war refugees.When Donald Trump became president,Canada-US relationsdeteriorated. The Trump administration forced the renegotiation ofNAFTAto create theCUSMA, in which Canada made significant concessions in allowing increased imports of Americanmilk, weakening Canada's dairysupply managementsystem.Donald Trump also implementedtariffson Canadiansteelandaluminum, to which Trudeau retaliated by imposing tariffs on American steel, aluminum and a variety of other American products. Canada's relationship", "relationship withChinaalso deteriorated during Trudeau's time as prime minister. The turmoil led to thearrest of Meng Wanzhouat theVancouver International Airportin December 2018 at the behest of theUnited States,and thearrest of Michael Spavor and Michael Kovrigin China 12 days later.Trudeau appointed Liberal advisor,Dominic Barton(McKinsey & Company,Century Initiative) ambassador to China in 2019. While Barton negotiated the release of Spavor and Kovrig, Canada-China trade reached historic highs. Barton resigned in December 2021, \"amidst growing pressure from...President Joe Biden for Ottawa to take a tougher stance with Beijing.\"As Wanzhou, Spavor and Kovrig were released at the exact same time in September 2021, many observers speculated they were exchanged as part of a deal between the United States and China.Trudeau greeted Spavor and Kovrig at the airport upon their repatriation. In 2024, Spavor was awarded $7 million in compensation for his arrest and detainment. Although Trudeau repeatedly claimed", "repeatedly claimed the two were arbitrarily targeted, it was later reported Spavor had unwittingly participated in espionage by sharing information on North Korea with Kovrig who then passed it onto the Canadian government. In a similar fashion, Canada's relationship with Saudi Arabia was also put under strain, as human rights groups called on Trudeau to stop selling military equipment to that country under a deal struck by the Harper government. In 2018, Saudi Arabia recalled its Canadian ambassador and froze trade with the country in response to Canada's call for the Saudis to release opposition bloggerRaif Badawi. However, in 2019, Canada doubled its weapons sales to Saudi Arabia, despite a \"moratorium on export permits following thekilling of the Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggiand mounting civilian deaths from theSaudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen.\" In September 2023, Trudeau said that the government of Canada had \"credible intelligence\" that thegovernment of Indiawas involved in the killing of a", "in the killing of a Canadian citizen,Hardeep Singh Nijjar, outside aSikh templeinSurrey. This episode caused a rapid deterioration ofCanada–India relations. In 2020, Canada lost its bid to join theUnited Nations Security Council. This was the second time Canada had failed an attempt to join the Security Council, the first time being in 2009 under Prime Minister Stephen Harper. In October 7, 2023, Trudeau condemnedHamas' actions during theIsrael–Hamas warand expressed his support toIsraeland its right to self-defence.On October 24, he rejected calls for a ceasefire but said he supported \"humanitarian pauses\" to deliver aid to the people of theGaza Strip.On December 12, in a joint statement with thePrime Minister of Australiaand thePrime Minister of New Zealand, Trudeau called for a \"sustainable ceasefire\" in the war. Personal life Family Trudeau first metSophie Grégoirewhen they were both children growing up in Montreal; Grégoire was a classmate and childhood friend of Trudeau's youngest brother, Michel.They", "Michel.They reconnected as adults in June 2003, when Grégoire, by then a Quebec television personality, was assigned as Trudeau's co-host for a charity ball; they began dating several months later. Trudeau and Grégoire became engaged in October 2004 and married on May 28, 2005, in a ceremony at Montreal's Sainte-Madeleine d'Outremont Church.They have three children: a boy, Xavier, born in 2007, a girl, Ella-Grace, born in 2009, and a boy, Hadrien, born in 2014. In June 2013, two months after Trudeau became the leader of the Liberal Party, the couple sold their home in theCôte-des-Neigesneighbourhood of Montreal.They began living in a rented home in Ottawa'sRockcliffe Park, the neighbourhood near where Trudeau resided as a child during his father's time as prime minister. On August 18, 2014, an intruder broke into the house while Grégoire and the couple's three children were sleeping and left a threatening note; however, nothing was stolen and there was no damage to the property. Following the incident,", "the incident, Trudeau, who was inWinnipegat the time of the break-in, stated his intention to inquire with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police about his home security.After his 2015 electoral victory, Trudeau opted to live atRideau Cottage, on the grounds ofRideau Hall. On August 2, 2023, Trudeau announced he and Grégoire had separated.On August 21, Trudeau said he was focusing on his children and the future. Religion Trudeau's father was a devoutCatholicand his mother converted fromAnglicanismto Catholicism just before their wedding.Trudeau himself became alapsed Catholicat age 18, as he felt that much of his day-to-day life was not addressed by the formality and structure of the church.Trudeau described his faith during this period as \"like so many Catholics across this country, I said, 'OK, I'm Catholic, I'm of faith, but I'm just not really going to go to church. Maybe on Easter, maybemidnight Massat Christmas.'\"After the death of his brother Michel in 1998, Trudeau was persuaded by a friend to participate", "to participate in anAlpha course, during which he regained his faith.In 2011, Trudeau stated, \"My own personal faith is an extremely important part of who I am and the values that I try to lead with.\" Honours Electoral record Published works Footnotes References Further reading External links Boldindicates parties with members elected to theHouse of Commons. Boldindicates parties with members elected to theHouse of Commons.", "List of Canadian federal general elections This article provides a summary of results forCanadian general elections(where all seats are contested) to theHouse of Commons, the elected lower half of Canada'sfederalbicamerallegislative body, theParliament of Canada. The number of seats has increased steadily over time, from 180 for the first election to the current total of 338. The current federal government structure was established in 1867 by theConstitution Act. For federalby-elections(for one or a few seats as a result of retirement, etc.) seeList of federal by-elections in Canada. For the eight general elections of theProvince of Canadaheld in 1843 to 1864 beforeconfederationin 1867, seeList of elections in the Province of Canada. There were also earlier elections in Canada, such as for theLegislative Assembly of Upper Canada(held in 1792–1836, now part ofOntario) and theLegislative Assembly of Lower Canada(held in 1792–1834, now part ofQuebec). Two political parties have dominatedpolitics in Canada:", "in Canada: theLiberal Partyand thehistoric Conservative party(known as theProgressive Conservative Partyfrom 1942 to 2003). If one regards themodern Conservative Partyas the successor to the historic one, then these are the only two parties to have formed a government, although often as the lead party in aminorityorcoalition governmentwith one or more smaller parties (the 1917 win was by a pro-conscriptionUnionistcoalition of former Liberals and Conservatives). Although government has primarily been atwo-party system, Canadian federal politics has been amulti-partyaffair since the 1920s, during which there was significant parliamentary presence of theProgressive Partyand theUnited Farmers movement. They were supplanted by theSocial Credit Partyand theCo-operative Commonwealth Federation(CCF) in the 1930s. The CCF evolved into theNew Democratic Party(NDP) in 1961. The Social Credit Party and the CCF/NDP won the third and fourth most seats between them from the 1930s, until the Social Credit Party failed to", "Party failed to win any seats in the 1980 election. Since 1980, the NDP has remained a presence in the Canadian parliament, but the situation amongst other non-government parties has been more complex. The Progressive Conservative Party never recovered from its spectacular defeat in the 1993 election (when it went from being the majority government with 169 seats, to just two seats and the loss ofofficial party status). Right-wing politics has since seen the rise and fall of theReform Partyand theCanadian Alliance, followed by the rise to government of the new Conservative Party. Further, in 1993 the separatistBloc Québécoiswon seats for the first time. It has been a constant presence in parliament since then. Summary of results The third, fourth, and fifth parties' results are included in \"Other\" if the party did not win at least four seats in an election at some point in its history. Results for parties placing sixth or lower (as in the1926 election) are also included in \"Other\", as areIndependentseats.", "Notes Further reading Graphs of results Bar graph of seats from 1867 to 2021 Historical parties (represented in the House up to the 2000 elections) Line graph of votes See also References", "Results of the 2011 Canadian federal election The41st Canadian federal electionwas held on May 2, 2011. It resulted in aConservativemajority governmentunder the leadership ofPrime MinisterStephen Harper.It was the third consecutive election win for Harper, and with 166 of 308 seats, giving them a majority government for the first time in their eight-year history. It was also the first right-of-centre majority government since theProgressive Conservativeswon their last majority in 1988.The Conservative Party won 39.62% of the popular vote, an increase of 1.96%,and posted a net gain of 24 seats in theHouse of Commons. The election resulted in significant upheaval within the opposition parties, as theNew Democratic Party(NDP) rode an \"orange surge\" in the polls during the campaign to 103 seats, becomingHer Majesty's Loyal Oppositionfor the first time in party history.The total eclipsed the party's previous best of 43 seats in 1988.The Liberals however were reduced to third party status nationwide. They returned", "They returned only 34 MPs, less than half of what they had at dissolution.It was the first time in Canadian history that the Liberals were not one of the top two parties in the house.Green PartyleaderElizabeth Maywon in her riding, becoming the first Green Party candidate elected to a governmental body in Canada, and to a national body in North America. Following their staggering defeats, including losing their own seats, Bloc Québécois leaderGilles Duceppeand Liberal leaderMichael Ignatieffboth announced their resignations as party leaders. Vote total Synopsis of results Party summaries Conservatives The Conservatives, who had been leading in the polls since thewrits were dropped, won 166 seats - enough for the first Conservativemajority governmentsince the Progressive Conservative-Canadian Alliancemerger that formed the party in 2003. Notably, the Tories made significant inroads inToronto, taking eight seats there. While the Tories had won a few seats in the Toronto suburbs since the PC-Canadian Alliance", "Alliance merger, this was the first time a right-of-centre party had won seats in the formerMetro Torontoitself since the PC meltdown of 1993. Combined with their traditionally heavy support in thewest, this was enough to win a 14-seat majority with 39.62 percent of the nationalpopular vote- a result also notable for being the first time the modern Conservative party successfully polled a larger share of the vote than the combined tally of the PC and CA parties inthe election preceding their merger. Despite winning a majority government, the Conservatives lost over half their seats in Quebec to the NDP, retaining only five seats in that province. New Democrats The NDP had a majorwindfall, emerging as a truly national party for the first time in its50-year history. They won 103 seats—more than double their previous high (when they won 43 seats in1988). Much of this was due to a breakthrough inQuebec, a province where they had been more or less nonexistent for the better part of their history. From only one", "From only one seat atdissolution, the NDP took 59 of 75 seats there, dominatingMontrealand sweepingQuebec Cityand theOutaouais. By comparison, the NDP had only won one other seat in Quebec in its entire history prior to 2011 (and had held only one other seat, via a floor-crossing). It had not even been fully organized in the province since 1990, when its Quebec wing seceded to preachsovereigntism. The 59 seats won by the NDP in Quebec is the most won by any party in that province since theProgressive Conservativeswon 63 seats there in 1988. In several cases, NDP candidates in Quebec won handily even though they didn't even actively campaign. Among the new NDP MPs were several university students. Five members of theMcGill UniversityNDP club—Charmaine Borg,Matthew Dubé,Mylène Freeman,Laurin Liu, andJamie Nicholls—were elected from Montreal-area ridings. Liu is the youngest woman ever elected to Parliament. Also elected wasPierre-Luc Dusseault, a freshman at theUniversité de Sherbrooke; his victory", "his victory inSherbrooke, Quebecmakes him theyoungest MP in Canadian history(he only turned 20 two days before he was sworn in). However, they were unable to make much of an impact in their former western heartland. They actually lostElmwood—Transcona, the former seat of longtime MP and formerdeputy leaderBill Blaikie, by only 300 votes. Liberals Winning only 34 seats, the Liberals suffered the worst result in theirhistory. They sat as the third party in the41st Parliament, the first sinceConfederationwhere the Liberals did not form either theGovernmentor theOfficial Oppositionin the House of Commons. This was the worst showing for an incumbent Official Opposition party in terms of seats, and the lowest percentage for a national Official Opposition party (the Bloc Québécois in1997won more seats with a smaller vote share on account of its being a regional party). The Liberals' poor showing was largely due to a collapse of their support inMontrealandToronto, which had been the backbones of Liberal support for", "Liberal support for almost two decades. With few exceptions, their support in Toronto flowed to the Tories, while most of their base in Montreal switched to the NDP. In 2008, they won 20 out of the 23 ridings fully or partially within Toronto. However, in 2011, they only won six, losing 6 to the NDP and 9 to the Conservatives. Additionally, after going into the election holding 30 of the 44 seats in theGreater Toronto Area, they only won seven in 2011. In Montreal, the Liberals lost five of their 12 seats, and came close to losing several more. Most notably, they came within 2,500 votes of losingMount Royal, long reckoned as the safest Liberal riding in the nation. Liberal leaderMichael Ignatiefflost his seat ofEtobicoke—Lakeshoreto first time challengerBernard Trottierby a margin of 5.27% of the total votes. Other famous MP's who also lost their seats areKen Dryden(York Centre),Dan McTeague(Pickering—Scarborough East),Gerard Kennedy(Parkdale—High Park),Ujjal Dosanjh(Vancouver South) andJoe", "South) andJoe Volpe(Eglinton—Lawrence). All told, the Liberals only won 11 seats in Ontario (all but four in Toronto) and seven in Quebec (all in Montreal)—the fewest the party has ever won in either province. They went into the next Parliament holding only four seats west of Ontario (Winnipeg North,Wascana,Vancouver CentreandVancouver Quadra). Bloc Québécois The Bloc was practically eliminated from the scene, losing 43 seats. This reduced them to arumpof four seats, only a third of the number required forofficial party status. In many cases, they lost seats they held since theirdebut performancein 1993. With few exceptions, their support bled over to the NDP. Notably, the Bloc lost all but one seat in the Montreal area. This included all of their seats in the eastern part of the city, the birthplace of the sovereigntist movement. The Bloc went into the election holding all but one seat in eastern Montreal, but lost all of them to the NDP. They also lost all or most of their seats in their longstanding", "their longstanding strongholds in the rest of the province, such as Quebec City and central Quebec. Several Bloc MPs who had never had serious difficulty being reelected ended up losing their seats in landslides. Bloc leaderGilles Duceppe, at the time the longest-tenured party leader in Canada, lost his seat inLaurier—Sainte-Marieto NDP challengerHélène Laverdière. Greens Despite losing a significant share of the national vote compared to the 2008 election, Green Party leaderElizabeth Maybecame the first Green Party member elected to the Canadian Parliament. Vote and seat summaries Gains, holds and losses Incumbents defeated Liberal PartyleaderMichael Ignatiefflost his riding ofEtobicoke—LakeshoretoBernard Trottier, aConservative,and the following day he announced he would resign as Liberal leader. Gilles Duceppe, leader of theBloc Québécoisand incumbent inLaurier—Sainte-Mariewas defeated by Hélène Laverdière of theNDPand announced his intention to resign as leader of the Bloc. Four Cabinet", "Bloc. Four Cabinet ministers,Lawrence Cannon(Foreign Affairs),Gary Lunn(Sport),Jean-Pierre Blackburn(Veterans Affairsand Agriculture), andJosée Verner(Intergovernmental AffairsandFrancophonie) lost their seats. Lunn lost toGreen PartyleaderElizabeth May, and the NDP won the other three seats. Open seats The Bloc gainedHaute-Gaspésie—La Mitis—Matane—Matapédiaby the largest margin of victory of their four seats won and vacated by a long-standing member of the Bloc Québécois. The Conservatives gainedCalgary Centre-NorthandPrince George—Peace River, both vacated by long-standing Conservatives. Results by province British Columbia Prairie provinces Alberta Saskatchewan Manitoba Ontario Quebec Atlantic provinces New Brunswick Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Newfoundland and Labrador Results by territory See also References Boldindicates parties with members elected to theHouse of Commons." ]
In 2023, Beavers are known to be the second-largest living rodents. The largest extant rodent species are natively most prevalent in a single continent. What is the largest country in this continent?
Brazil.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochoerus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capybara
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America
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Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochoerus', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capybara', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochoerus", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capybara", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America" ]
[ "Beaver Beavers(genusCastor) are large,semiaquaticrodentsof theNorthern Hemisphere. There are two existingspecies: theNorth American beaver(Castor canadensis) and theEurasian beaver(C. fiber). Beavers are the second-largest living rodents, aftercapybaras, weighing up to 50 kg (110 lb). They have stout bodies with large heads, long chisel-likeincisors, brown or grayfur, hand-like front feet,webbedback feet, and tails that are flat and scaly. The two species differ in skull and tail shape and fur color. Beavers can be found in a number offreshwater habitats, such as rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. They areherbivorous, consumingtree bark,aquatic plants, grasses andsedges. Beavers builddamsand lodges using tree branches, vegetation, rocks and mud; they chew down trees for building material. Dams restrict water flow, and lodges serve as shelters. Their infrastructure createswetlandsused by many other species, and because of their effect on other organisms in theecosystem, beavers are considered akeystone species. Adult males and females live inmonogamous pairswith their offspring. After their first year, the young help their parents repair dams and lodges; older siblings may also help raise newly born offspring. Beavers holdterritoriesand mark them using scent mounds made of mud, debris, andcastoreum—a liquid substance excreted through the beaver'surethra-based castor sacs. Beavers can also recognize their kin by theiranal glandsecretions and are more likely to tolerate them as neighbors. Historically, beavers have been hunted for their fur, meat, and castoreum. Castoreum has been used in medicine, perfume, and food flavoring; beaver pelts have been a major driver of thefur trade. Before protections began in the 19th and early 20th centuries,overhuntinghad nearly exterminated both species. Their populations have since rebounded, and they are listed as species ofleast concernby theIUCN Red Listof mammals. In human culture, the beaver symbolizes industriousness, especially in connection with construction; it is thenational animalof Canada. Etymology The English wordbeavercomes from theOld Englishwordbeofororbeforand is connected to theGermanwordbiberand theDutchwordbever. The ultimate origin of the word is anIndo-Europeanroot for'brown'.Cognatesofbeaveris the source for several Europeanplacenames, including those ofBeverley,Bièvres,Biberbach,Biebrich,Bibra,Bibern,Bibrka,Bobr,Bober,Bóbrka,Bjurholm,Bjurälven, andBjurum.ThegenusnameCastorhas its origin in the Greek wordκάστωρkastōrand translates as'beaver'. Taxonomy Carl Linnaeuscoined the genus nameCastorin 1758as well as thespecific (species) epithetfiberfor the Eurasian species.German zoologistHeinrich KuhlcoinedC. canadensisin 1820,many scientists considered both names synonymous for one same speciesuntil the 1970s, whenchromosomalevidence became available confirming both as separate where the Eurasian has 48 chromosomes, while the North American has 40.) The difference in chromosome numbers prevents them from interbreeding.Twenty-five subspecies have been classified forC. canadensis, and nine have been classified forC. fiber. There are twoextantspecies: theNorth American beaver(Castor canadensis) and theEurasian beaver(C. fiber). The Eurasian beaver is slightly longer and has a more lengthened skull, triangularnasal cavities(as opposed to the square ones of the North American species), a lighter fur color, and a narrower tail. Evolution Agnotocastor coloradensis Agnotocastor praetereadens Anchitheriomyssp. Castorinae(modern beavers) Castoroidinae Agnotocastorsp. Migmacastor procumbodens Palaeocastorinae Heteromyidae(kangaroo rats and allies) Geomyidae(gophers) Beavers belong to the rodent suborderCastorimorpha, along withHeteromyidae(kangaroo ratsandkangaroo mice), and thegophers. Modern beavers are the only extant members of the familyCastoridae. They originated in North America in the lateEoceneand colonized Eurasia via theBering Land Bridgein the earlyOligocene, coinciding with theGrande Coupure, a time of significant changes in animal species around 33million years ago (myr). The morebasalcastorids had several unique features: more complexocclusionbetween cheek teeth, parallel rows of upper teeth, premolars that were only slightly smaller than molars, the presence of a third set of premolars (P3), aholein thestapesof the inner ear, a smoothpalatine bone(with the palatine opening closer to the rear end of the bone), and a longersnout. Morederivedcastorids have less complex occlusion, upper tooth rows that create a V-shape towards the back, larger second premolars compared to molars, absence of a third premolar set and stapes hole, a more grooved palatine (with the opening shifted towards the front), and reducedincisive foramen. Members of the subfamilyPalaeocastorinaeappeared in late-Oligocene North America. This group consisted primarily of smaller animals with relatively large front legs, a flattened skull, and a reduced tail—all features of afossorial(burrowing) lifestyle. In the earlyMiocene(about 24 mya), castoridsevolvedasemiaquaticlifestyle. Members of the subfamilyCastoroidinaeare considered to be asister groupto modern beavers, and included giants likeCastoroidesof North America andTrogontheriumof Eurasia.Castoroidesis estimated to have had a length of 1.9–2.2 m (6.2–7.2 ft) and a weight of 90–125 kg (198–276 lb).Fossils of one genus in Castoroidinae,Dipoides, have been found near piles of chewed wood,thoughDipoidesappears to have been an inferior woodcutter compared toCastor. Researchers suggest that modern beavers and Castoroidinae shared a bark-eatingcommon ancestor. Dam and lodge-building likely developed from bark-eating, and allowed beavers to survive in the harsh winters of thesubarctic. There is no conclusive evidence for this behavior occurring in non-Castorspecies. The genusCastorlikely originated inEurasia.The earliest fossil remains appear to beC. neglectus, found in Germany and dated 12–10 mya.Mitochondrial DNAstudies place the common ancestor of the two living species at around 8 mya. The ancestors of the North American beaver would have crossed the Bering Land Bridge around 7.5 mya.Castormay have competed with members of Castoroidinae, which led toniche differentiation.The fossil speciesC. praefiberwas likely an ancestor of the Eurasian beaver.C. californicusfrom theEarly Pleistoceneof North America was similar to but larger than the extant North American beaver.' Characteristics Beavers are the second-largest living rodents, aftercapybaras. They have a head–body length of 80–120 cm (31–47 in), with a 25–50 cm (9.8–19.7 in) tail, a shoulder height of 30–60 cm (12–24 in), and generally weigh 11–30 kg (24–66 lb),but can be as heavy as 50 kg (110 lb). Males and females are almost identical externally.Their bodies are streamlined likemarine mammalsand their robust build allows them to pull heavy loads.A beavercoathas 12,000–23,000 hairs/cm2(77,000–148,000 hairs/in2) and functions to keep the animal warm, to help it float in water, and to protect it against predators.Guard hairsare 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) long and typically reddish brown, but can range from yellowish brown to nearly black. Theunderfuris 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) long and dark gray. Beaversmoltevery summer. Beavers have large skulls with powerfulchewing muscles. They have four chisel-shaped incisors that continue to grow throughout their lives. The incisors are covered in a thickenamelthat is colored orange or reddish-brown by iron compounds.The lower incisors have roots that are almost as long as the entire lower jaw. Beavers have one premolar and three molars on all four sides of the jaws, adding up to 20 teeth. The molars have meandering ridges for grinding woody material.The eyes, ears and nostrils are arranged so that they can remain above water while the rest of the body is submerged. The nostrils and ears have valves that close underwater, whilenictitating membranescover the eyes. To protect thelarynxandtracheafrom water flow, theepiglottisis contained within the nasal cavity instead of the throat. In addition, the back of the tongue can rise and create a waterproof seal. A beaver's lips can close behind the incisors, preventing water from entering their mouths as they cut and bite onto things while submerged. The beaver's front feet are dexterous, allowing them to grasp and manipulate objects and food, as well as dig. The hind feet are larger and havewebbing between the toes, and the second innermost toe has a \"double nail\" used for grooming.Beavers can swim at 8 km/h (5.0 mph);only their webbed hind feet are used to swim, while the front feet fold under the chest.On the surface, the hind limbs thrust one after the other; while underwater, they move at the same time.Beavers are awkward on land but can move quickly when they feel threatened. They can carry objects while walking on their hind legs. The beaver's distinctive tail has a conical, muscular, hairy base; the remaining two-thirds of the appendage is flat and scaly. The tail has multiple functions: it provides support for the animal when it is upright (such as when chewing down a tree), acts as a rudder when it is swimming, and stores fat for winter. It also has acountercurrentblood vessel system which allows the animal to lose heat in warm temperatures and retain heat in cold temperatures. The beaver's sex organs are inside the body, and the male's penis has a cartilaginousbaculum. They have only one opening, acloaca, which is used for reproduction, scent-marking, defecation, and urination. The cloaca evolved secondarily, as most mammals have lost this feature, and may reduce the area vulnerable to infection in dirty water. The beaver's intestine is six times longer than its body, and thecaecumis double the volume of its stomach.Microorganisms in the caecum allow them to process around 30 percent of thecellulosethey eat.A beaver defecates in the water, leaving behind balls of sawdust. Female beavers have fourmammary glands; these produce milk with 19 percent fat, a higher fat content than other rodents. Beavers have two pairs of glands: castor sacs, which are part of the urethra, andanal glands. The castor sacs secretecastoreum, a liquid substance used mainly for marking territory. Anal glands produce an oily substance which the beaver uses as a waterproof ointment for its coat. The substance plays a role in individual and family recognition. Anal secretions are darker in females than males among Eurasian beavers, while the reverse is true for the North American species. Compared to many other rodents, a beaver's brain has ahypothalamusthat is much smaller than thecerebrum; this indicates a relatively advanced brain with higher intelligence. Thecerebellumis large, allowing the animal to move within a three-dimensional space (such as underwater) similar to tree-climbing squirrels. Theneocortexis devoted mainly totouchand hearing. Touch is more advanced in the lips and hands than thewhiskersand tail. Vision in the beaver is relatively poor; the beaver eye cannot see as well underwater as anotter. Beavers have a good sense of smell, which they use for detecting land predators and for inspecting scent marks, food, and other individuals. Beavers can hold their breath for as long as 15 minutes but typically remain underwater for no more than five or six minutes.Dives typically last less than 30 seconds and are usually no more than 1 m (3 ft 3 in) deep.When diving, their heart rate decreases to 60 beats per minute, half its normal pace, and blood flow is directed more towards the brain. A beaver's body also has a high tolerance for carbon dioxide. When surfacing, the animal can replace 75 percent of the air in its lungs in one breath, compared to 15 percent for a human. Distribution and status TheIUCN Red Listof mammals lists both beaver species asleast concern.The North American beaver is widespread throughout most of the United States and Canada and can be found in northern Mexico. The species was introduced to Finland in 1937 (and then spread to northwestern Russia) and toTierra del Fuego, Patagonia, in 1946.As of 2019, the introduced population of North American beavers in Finland has been moving closer to the habitat of the Eurasian beaver.Historically, the North American beaver was trapped and nearly extirpated because its fur was highly sought after. Protections have allowed the beaver population on the continent to rebound to an estimated 6–12million by the late 20th century; still far lower than the originally estimated 60–400million North American beavers before the fur trade.The introduced population in Tierra del Fuego is estimated at 35,000–50,000 individuals as of 2016. The Eurasian beaver's range historically included much of Eurasia, but was decimated by hunting by the early 20th century. In Europe, beavers were reduced to fragmented populations, with combined population numbers being estimated at 1,200 individuals for theRhôneof France, theElbein Germany, southern Norway, theNeman riverandDnieper Basinin Belarus, and theVoronezh riverin Russia. The beaver has since recolonized parts of its former range, aided by conservation policies andreintroductions. Beaver populations now range across western, central, and eastern Europe, andwestern Russiaand theScandinavian Peninsula.Beginning in 2009, beavers have been successfully reintroduced to parts of Great Britain.In 2020, the total Eurasian beaver population in Europe was estimated at over one million.Small native populations are also present in Mongolia and northwestern China; their numbers were estimated at 150 and 700, respectively, as of 2016.Under New Zealand'sHazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, beavers are classed as a \"prohibited new organism\" preventing them from being introduced into the country. Ecology Beavers live infreshwater ecosystemssuch as rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. Water is the most important component of beaver habitat; they swim and dive in it, and it provides them refuge from land predators. It also restricts access to their homes and allows them to move building objects more easily. Beavers prefer slower moving streams, typically with agradient(steepness) of one percent, though they have been recorded using streams with gradients as high as 15 percent. Beavers are found in wider streams more often than in narrower ones. They also prefer areas with no regular flooding and may abandon a location for years after a significant flood. Beavers typically select flat landscapes with diverse vegetation close to the water. North American beavers prefer trees being 60 m (200 ft) or less from the water, but will roam several hundred meters to find more. Beavers have also been recorded in mountainous areas.Dispersingbeavers will use certain habitats temporarily before finding their ideal home. These include small streams, temporary swamps, ditches, and backyards. These sites lack important resources, so the animals do not stay there permanently. Beavers have increasingly settled at or near human-made environments, including agricultural areas,suburbs,golf courses, and shopping malls. Beavers have anherbivorousand ageneralistdiet. During the spring and summer, they mainly feed on herbaceous plant material such as leaves, roots, herbs, ferns, grasses,sedges,water lilies,water shields,rushes, andcattails. During the fall and winter, they eat morebarkandcambiumof woody plants; tree and shrub species consumed includeaspen,birch,oak,dogwood,willowandalder.There is some disagreement about why beavers select specific woody plants; some research has shown that beavers more frequently select species which are more easily digested,while others suggest beavers principally forage based on stem size.Beavers maycachetheir food for the winter, piling wood in the deepest part of their pond where it cannot be reached by otherbrowsers. This cache is known as a \"raft\"; when the top becomes frozen, it creates a \"cap\".The beaver accesses the raft by swimming under the ice. Many populations of Eurasian beaver do not make rafts, but forage on land during winter. Beavers usually live up to 10 years.Felids,canids, andbearsmay prey upon them. Beavers are protected from predators when in their lodges, and prefer to stay near water. Parasites of the beaver include the bacteriaFrancisella tularensis, which causestularemia; the protozoanGiardia duodenalis, which causesgiardiasis(beaver fever); and thebeaver beetleandmitesof the genusSchizocarpus.They have also been recorded to be infected with therabies virus. Infrastructure Beavers need trees and shrubs to use as building material fordams, which restrict flowing water to create a pond for them to live in, and for lodges, which act as shelters and refuges from predators and the elements. Without such material, beavers digburrowsinto abankto live. Dam construction begins in late summer or early fall, and they repair them whenever needed. Beavers cancut downtrees up to 15 cm (5.9 in) wide in less than 50 minutes. Thicker trees, at 25 cm (9.8 in) wide or more, may not fall for hours.When chewing down a tree, beavers switch between biting with the left and right side of the mouth. Tree branches are then cut and carried to their destination with the powerful jaw and neck muscles. Other building materials, like mud and rocks, are held by the forelimbs and tucked between the chin and chest. Beavers start building dams when they hear running water, and the sound of a leak in a dam triggers them to repair it.To build a dam, beavers stack up relatively long and thick logs between banks and in opposite directions. Heavy rocks keep them stable, and grass is packed between them. Beavers continue to pile on more material until the dam slopes in a direction facing upstream. Dams can range in height from 20 cm (7.9 in) to 3 m (9.8 ft) and can stretch from 0.3 m (1 ft 0 in) to several hundred meters long. Beaver dams are more effective in trapping and slowly leaking water than man-made concrete dams. Lake-dwelling beavers do not need to build dams. Beavers make two types of lodges: bank lodges and open-water lodges. Bank lodges are burrows dug along the shore and covered in sticks. The more complex freestanding, open-water lodges are built over a platform of piled-up sticks. The lodge is mostly sealed with mud, except for a hole at the top which acts as an air vent. Both types are accessed by underwater entrances.The above-water space inside the lodge is known as the \"living chamber\", and a \"dining area\" may exist close to the water entrance.Families routinely clean out old plant material and bring in new material. North American beavers build more open-water lodges than Eurasian beavers. Beaver lodges built by new settlers are typically small and sloppy. More experienced families can build structures with a height of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) and an above-water diameter of 6 m (20 ft). A lodge sturdy enough to withstand the coming winter can be finished in just two nights. Both lodge types can be present at a beaver site. During the summer, beavers tend to use bank lodges to keep cool. They use open-water lodges during the winter. The air vent provides ventilation, and newly added carbon dioxide can be cleared in an hour. The lodge remains consistent in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels from season to season. Beavers in some areas will dig canals connected to their ponds. The canals fill with groundwater and give beavers access and easier transport of resources, as well as allow them to escape predators. These canals can stretch up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) wide, 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) deep, and over 0.5 km (0.31 mi) long. It has been hypothesized that beavers' canals are not only transportation routes but an extension of their \"central place\" around the lodge and/or food cache.As they drag wood across the land, beavers leave behind trails or \"slides\", which they reuse when moving new material. Environmental effects The beaver works as anecosystem engineerandkeystone species, as its activities can have a great impact on the landscape andbiodiversityof an area. Aside from humans, few other extant animals appear to do more to shape their environment.When building dams, beavers alter the paths of streams and rivers, allowing for the creation of extensivewetlandhabitats.In one study, beavers were associated with large increases in open-water areas. When beavers returned to an area, 160% more open water was available during droughts than in previous years, when they were absent.Beaver dams also lead to higherwater tablesin mineral soil environments and in wetlands such aspeatlands. In peatlands particularly, their dams stabilize the constantly changing water levels, leading to greatercarbon storage. Beaver ponds, and the wetlands that succeed them, remove sediments and pollutants from waterways, and can stop the loss of important soils.These ponds can increase theproductivityof freshwater ecosystems by accumulatingnitrogenin sediments.Beaver activity can affect the temperature of the water; in northern latitudes, ice thaws earlier in the warmer beaver-dammed waters.Beavers may contribute toclimate change. In Arctic areas, the floods they create can causepermafrostto thaw,releasing methane into the atmosphere. As wetlands are formed andriparianhabitats are enlarged, aquatic plants colonize the newly available watery habitat.One study in theAdirondacksfound that beaver engineering lead to an increase of more than 33 percent inherbaceous plantdiversity along the water's edge.Another study in semiarideastern Oregonfound that the width of riparian vegetation on stream banks increased several-fold as beaver dams watered previously dry terraces adjacent to the stream.Riparian ecosystems in arid areas appear to sustain more plant life when beaver dams are present.Beaver ponds act as a refuge for riverbank plants duringwildfires, and provide them with enough moisture to resist such fires.Introduced beavers at Tierra del Fuegohave been responsible for destroying the indigenous forest. Unlike trees in North America, many trees in South America cannot grow back after being cut down. Beaver activity impactscommunitiesofaquatic invertebrates. Damming typically leads to an increase ofslow or motionless waterspecies, likedragonflies,oligochaetes,snails, andmussels. This is to the detriment ofrapid waterspecies likeblack flies,stoneflies, andnet-spinning caddisflies.Beaver floodings create more dead trees, providing more habitat for terrestrial invertebrates likeDrosophilaflies andbark beetles, which live and breed in dead wood.The presence of beavers can increase wildsalmonandtroutpopulations, and the average size of these fishes. These species use beaver habitats for spawning, overwintering, feeding, and as havens from changes in water flow. The positive effects of beaver dams on fish appear to outweigh the negative effects, such as blocking of migration.Beaver ponds have been shown to be beneficial tofrogpopulations by protecting areas for larvae to mature in warm water.The stable waters of beaver ponds also provide ideal habitat for freshwaterturtles. Beavers helpwaterfowlby creating increased areas of water. The widening of theriparian zoneassociated with beaver dams has been shown to increase the abundance and diversity of birds favoring the water's edge, an impact that may be especially important insemi-arid climates.Fish-eating birds use beaver ponds for foraging, and in some areas, certain species appear more frequently at sites where beavers were active than at sites with no beaver activity.In a study ofWyomingstreams and rivers, watercourses with beavers had 75 times as manyducksas those without.As trees are drowned by rising beaver impoundments, they become an ideal habitat forwoodpeckers, which carve cavities that may be later used by other bird species.Beaver-caused ice thawing in northern latitudes allowsCanada geeseto nest earlier. Other semi-aquatic mammals, such aswater voles,muskrats,minks, andotters, will shelter in beaver lodges.Beaver modifications to streams in Poland create habitats favorable tobatspecies that forage at the water surface and \"prefer moderate vegetation clutter\".Large herbivores, such as somedeerspecies, benefit from beaver activity as they can access vegetation from fallen trees and ponds. Behavior Beavers are mainlynocturnalandcrepuscular, and spend the daytime in their shelters. In northern latitudes, beaver activity is decoupled from the24-hour cycleduring the winter, and may last as long as 29 hours. They do nothibernateduring winter, and spend much of their time in their lodges. Family life The core of beaver social organization is the family, which is composed of an adult male and an adult female in amonogamous pairand their offspring.Beaver families can have as many as ten members; groups about this size require multiple lodges.Mutual groomingand play fighting maintain bonds between family members, and aggression between them is uncommon. Adult beavers mate with their partners, though partner replacement appears to be common. A beaver that loses its partner will wait for another one to come by.Estruscycles begin in late December and peak in mid-January. Females may have two to four estrus cycles per season, each lasting 12–24 hours. The pair typically mate in the water and to a lesser extent in the lodge, for half a minute to three minutes. Up to four young, or kits, are born in spring and summer, after a three or four-monthgestation.Newborn beavers areprecocialwith a full fur coat, and can open their eyes within days of birth.Their mother is the primary caretaker, while their father maintains the territory.Older siblings from a previous litter also play a role. After they are born, the kits spend their first one to two months in the lodge. Kits suckle for as long as three months, but can eat solid food within their second week and rely on their parents and older siblings to bring it to them. Eventually, beaver kits explore outside the lodge and forage on their own, but may follow an older relative and hold onto their backs.After their first year, young beavers help their families with construction.Beavers sexually mature around 1.5–3 years.They become independent at two years old, but remain with their parents for an extra year or more during times of food shortage, high population density, or drought. Territories and spacing Beavers typically disperse from their parental colonies during the spring or when the winter snow melts. They often travel less than 5 km (3.1 mi), but long-distance dispersals are not uncommon when previous colonizers have already exploited local resources. Beavers are able to travel greater distances when free-flowing water is available. Individuals may meet their mates during the dispersal stage, and the pair travel together. It may take them weeks or months to reach their final destination; longer distances may require several years.Beavers establish and defendterritoriesalong the banks of their ponds, which may be 1–7 km (0.62–4.35 mi) in length. Beavers mark their territories by constructing scent mounds made of mud and vegetation, scented with castoreum.Those with many territorial neighbors create more scent mounds. Scent marking increases in spring, during the dispersal of yearlings, to deter interlopers.Beavers are generally intolerant of intruders and fights may result in deep bites to the sides, rump, and tail.They exhibit a behavior known as the \"dear enemy effect\"; a territory-holder will investigate and become familiar with the scents of its neighbors and react more aggressively to the scents of strangers passing by.Beavers are also more tolerant of individuals that are their kin. They recognize them by using their keen sense of smell to detect differences in the composition of anal gland secretions. Anal gland secretion profiles are more similar among relatives than unrelated individuals. Communication Beavers within a family greet each other with whines. Kits will attract the attention of adults with mews, squeaks, and cries. Defensive beavers produce a hissing growl and gnash their teeth.Tail slaps, which involve an animal hitting the water surface with its tail, serve as alarm signals warning other beavers of a potential threat. An adult's tail slap is more successful in alerting others, who will escape into the lodge or deeper water. Juveniles have not yet learned the proper use of a tail slap, and hence are normally ignored.Eurasian beavers have been recorded using a territorial \"stick display\", which involves individuals holding up a stick and bouncing in shallow water. Interactions with humans Beavers sometimes come into conflict with humans over land use; individual beavers may be labeled as \"nuisance beavers\". Beavers can damage crops, timber stocks, roads, ditches, gardens, and pastures via gnawing, eating, digging, and flooding.They occasionallyattackhumans and domestic pets, particularly when infected withrabies, in defense of their territory, or when they feel threatened.Some of these attacks have been fatal, including at least one human death.Beavers can spreadgiardiasis('beaver fever') by infecting surface waters,though outbreaks are more commonly caused by human activity. Flow devices, likebeaver pipes, are used to manage beaver flooding, while fencing and hardware cloth protect trees and shrubs from beaver damage. If necessary, hand tools, heavy equipment, or explosives are used to remove dams.Hunting,trapping, and relocation may be permitted as forms of population control and for removal of individuals.The governments of Argentina and Chile have authorized the trapping of invasive beavers in hopes of eliminating them.The ecological importance of beavers has led to cities likeSeattledesigning their parks andgreen spacesto accommodate the animals.TheMartinez beaversbecame famous in the mid-2000s for their role in improving the ecosystem ofAlhambra CreekinMartinez, California. Zoos have displayed beavers since at least the 19th century, though not commonly. In captivity, beavers have been used for entertainment, fur harvesting, and for reintroduction into the wild. Captive beavers require access to water, substrate for digging, and artificial shelters.Archibald Stansfeld \"Grey Owl\" Belaneypioneered beaver conservation in the early 20th century. Belaney wrote several books, and was first to professionally film beavers in their environment. In 1931, he moved to a log cabin inPrince Albert National Park, where he was the \"caretaker of park animals\" and raised a beaver pair and their four offspring. Commercial use Beavers have been hunted, trapped, and exploited for their fur, meat, and castoreum. Since the animals typically stayed in one place, trappers could easily find them and could kill entire families in a lodge.Many pre-modern people mistakenly thought that castoreum was produced by the testicles or that the castor sacs of the beaver were its testicles, and females werehermaphrodites.Aesop's Fablesdescribes beavers chewing off their testicles to preserve themselves from hunters, which is impossible because a beaver's testicles are internal. This myth persisted for centuries, and was corrected by French physicianGuillaume Rondeletin the 1500s.Beavers have historically been hunted and captured usingdeadfalls,snares, nets, bows and arrows, spears, clubs, firearms, and leg-hold traps. Castoreum was used to lure the animals. Castoreum was used for a variety of medical purposes;Pliny the Elderpromoted it as a treatment for stomach problems, flatulence, seizures,sciatica,vertigo, andepilepsy. He stated it could stop hiccups when mixed with vinegar, toothaches if mixed with oil (by administering into the ear opening on the same side as the tooth), and could be used as anantivenom. The substance has traditionally been prescribed to treathysteriain women, which was believed to have been caused by a \"toxic\" womb.Castoreum's properties have been credited to the accumulation ofsalicylic acidfrom willow and aspen trees in the beaver's diet, and has a physiological effect comparable toaspirin.Today, the medical use of castoreum has declined and is limited mainly tohomeopathy.The substance is also used as an ingredient in perfumes andtinctures, and as a flavouring in food and drinks. VariousNative Americangroups have historically hunted beavers for food,they preferred its meat more than otherred meatsbecause of its higher calorie and fat content, and the animals remained plump in winter when they were most hunted. The bones were used to make tools.In medieval Europe, the Catholic Church considered the beaver to be part mammal and part fish, and allowed followers to eat the scaly, fishlike tail on meatless Fridays duringLent. Beaver tails were thus highly prized in Europe; they were described by French naturalistPierre Belonas tasting like a \"nicely dressed eel\". Beaver pelts were used to makehats;felterswould remove the guard hairs. The number of pelts needed depended on the type of hat, withCavalierandPuritanhats requiring more fur thantop hats.In the late 16th century, Europeans began todeal in North American fursdue to the lack of taxes or tariffs on the continent and the decline of fur-bearers at home. Beaver pelts caused or contributed to theBeaver Wars,King William's War, and theFrench and Indian War; the trade madeJohn Jacob Astorand the owners of theNorth West Companyvery wealthy. For Europeans in North America, the fur trade was a driver of the exploration and westward exploration on the continent and contact with native peoples, who traded with them.The fur trade peaked between 1860 and 1870, when over 150,000 beaver pelts were purchased annually by theHudson's Bay Companyand fur companies in the United States.The contemporary global fur trade is not as profitable due to conservation,anti-furandanimal rightscampaigns. In culture The beaver has been used to represent productivity, trade, tradition, masculinity, and respectability. References to the beaver's skills are reflected in everyday language. The English verb \"to beaver\" means working with great effort and being \"as busy as a beaver\"; a \"beaver intellect\" refers to a way of thinking that is slow and honest. Though it typically has a wholesome image, the beaver's name has been used as asexual termfor the humanvulva. Native American mythsemphasize the beaver's skill and industriousness. In the mythology of theHaida, beavers are descended from the Beaver-Woman, who built a dam on a stream next to their cabin while her husband was out hunting and gave birth to the first beavers. In aCreestory, the Great Beaver and its dam caused aworld flood. Other tales involve beavers using their tree chewing skills against an enemy.Beavers have been featured as companions in some stories, including aLakotatale where a young woman flees from her evil husband with the aid of her pet beaver. Europeans have traditionally thought of beavers as fantastical animals due to their amphibious nature. They depicted them with exaggerated tusk-like teeth, dog- or pig-like bodies, fish tails, and visible testicles. French cartographerNicolas de Ferillustrated beavers building a dam atNiagara Falls, fantastically depicting them like human builders. Beavers have also appeared in literature such asDante Alighieri'sDivine Comedyand the writings ofAthanasius Kircher, who wrote that onNoah's Arkthe beavers were housed near a water-filled tub that was also used bymermaidsand otters. The beaver has long been associated with Canada, appearing on the first pictorial postage stamp issued in theCanadian coloniesin 1851 as the so-called \"Three-Penny Beaver\". It was declared thenational animalin 1975. Thefive-cent coin, the coat of arms of the Hudson's Bay Company, and the logos forParks CanadaandRoots Canadause its image.Frank and Gordonare two fictional beavers that appeared inBell Canada'sadvertisements between 2005 and 2008. However, the beaver's status as a rodent has made it controversial, and it was not chosen to be on theArms of Canadain 1921.The beaver has commonly been used to represent Canada inpolitical cartoons, typically to signify it as a friendly but relatively weak nation.In the United States, the beaver is thestate animalofNew YorkandOregon.It is also featured on the coat of arms of theLondon School of Economics. See also References Sources Further reading External links", "Hydrochoerus †H. ballesterensis†H. gaylordi†H. hesperotiganitesH. hydrochaerisH. isthmius The genusHydrochoeruscontains two living and three extinct species of rodents fromSouth America, the Caribbean island ofGrenada,CaliforniaandPanama.Capybaras are the largest living rodents in the world. The genus name is derived from theGreekὕδωρ(hýdor)'water'plusχοίρος(choíros)'pig'. Characteristics Capybaras aresemiaquatic, found in and near lakes, rivers, swamps, and flooded savanna. Their diets are dominated by grasses. Adults weigh up to 65 kg (143 lb). Thegestation periodis 130–150 days, with two to eight (most commonly four) young born to females. Behavior Capybaras are highly social, living in groups of up to 100 and communicating through a variety ofvocalizations.Breeding ispolygynous, with males formingharems. Phylogeny and taxonomy Molecularresults have consistently suggestedHydrochoerusis most closely related toKerodon(the rock cavies), and the two evolved from within theCaviidae.This led Woods and Kilpatrick to unite the two into the subfamilyHydrochoerinaewithin the Caviidae.Based on use of amolecular clockapproach,Hydrochoerusappears to have diverged fromKerodonin the late MiddleMiocene(about 12 million years ago). The extinct North American species formerly recognized asHydrochoerus holmesiis now assigned toNeochoerus. Species Extant Species Fossils Distribution Presently, capybaras live in northern South America and adjacent southern Central America (lesser capybara) and in the tropical to subtropical regions of South America (capybara). The fossil species inhabitedBuenos Aires Provincein Argentina (H. ballesterensis) and the Caribbean island ofGrenada(H. gaylordi). One species,H. hesperotiganiteseven ranged as far north as California.Fossils of unspecifiedHydrochoerushave been found inLate Pleistoceneto Holocene sediments ofCurití,Santander, at an altitude of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in theEastern Rangesof the ColombianAndes. Fauna found at the same site included theSouth American tapir(Tapirus terrestris),Cryptotissp.,collared peccary(Tayassu tajacu),white-lipped peccary(Tayassu pecari), andMazamasp. References Bibliography Further reading", "Capybara Sus hydrochaerisLinnaeus, 1766 Thecapybaraorgreater capybara(Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) is the largest living rodent,native toSouth America. It is a member of the genusHydrochoerus. The only otherextantmember is thelesser capybara(Hydrochoerus isthmius). Its close relatives includeguinea pigsandrock cavies, and it is more distantly related to theagouti, thechinchilla, and thenutria. The capybara inhabits savannas and dense forests, and lives near bodies of water. It is a highly social species and can be found in groups as large as 100 individuals, but usually live in groups of 10–20 individuals. The capybara is hunted for its meat and hide and also for grease from its thick fatty skin. Etymology Its common name is derived fromTupika'apiûara, a complex agglutination ofkaá(leaf) +píi(slender) +ú(eat) +ara(a suffix for agent nouns), meaning \"one who eats slender leaves\", or \"grass-eater\".The genus name,hydrochoerus, comes fromGreekὕδωρ(hydor\"water\") andχοῖρος(choiros\"pig, hog\") and the species name,hydrochaeris, comes from Greekὕδωρ(hydor\"water\") andχαίρω(chairo\"feel happy, enjoy\"). Classification and phylogeny The capybara and thelesser capybaraboth belong to the subfamilyHydrochoerinaealong with therock cavies. The living capybaras and their extinct relatives were previously classified in their own family Hydrochoeridae.Since 2002, molecular phylogenetic studies have recognized a close relationship betweenHydrochoerusandKerodon, the rock cavies,supporting placement of both genera in a subfamily ofCaviidae. Paleontological classifications previously used Hydrochoeridae for all capybaras, while using Hydrochoerinae for the living genus and its closest fossil relatives, such asNeochoerus,but more recently have adopted the classification of Hydrochoerinae within Caviidae.The taxonomy of fossil hydrochoerines is also in a state of flux. In recent years, the diversity of fossil hydrochoerines has been substantially reduced.This is largely due to the recognition that capybara molar teeth show strong variation in shape over the life of an individual. In one instance, material once referred to four genera and seven species on the basis of differences in molar shape is now thought to represent differently aged individuals of a single species,Cardiatherium paranense.Among fossil species, the name \"capybara\" can refer to the many species of Hydrochoerinae that are more closely related to the modernHydrochoerusthan to the \"cardiomyine\" rodents likeCardiomys. The fossil generaCardiatherium,Phugatherium,Hydrochoeropsis, andNeochoerusare all capybaras under that concept. Description The capybara has a heavy, barrel-shaped body and short head, with reddish-brown fur on the upper part of its body that turns yellowish-brown underneath. Its sweat glands can be found in the surface of the hairy portions of its skin, an unusual trait among rodents.The animal lacksdown hair, and itsguard hairdiffers little from over hair. Adult capybaras grow to 106 to 134 cm (3.48 to 4.40 ft) in length, stand 50 to 62 cm (20 to 24 in) tall at thewithers, and typically weigh 35 to 66 kg (77 to 146 lb), with an average in the Venezuelanllanosof 48.9 kg (108 lb).Females are slightly heavier than males. The top recorded weights are 91 kg (201 lb) for a wild female from Brazil and 73.5 kg (162 lb) for a wild male from Uruguay.Also, an 81 kg individual was reported in São Paulo in 2001 or 2002.Thedental formulais1.0.1.31.0.1.3. Capybaras have slightlywebbedfeet andvestigialtails.Their hind legs are slightly longer than their forelegs; they have three toes on their rear feet and four toes on their front feet.Their muzzles are blunt, with nostrils, and the eyes and ears are near the top of their heads. Itskaryotypehas2n= 66 andFN= 102, meaning it has 66 chromosomes with a total of 102 arms. Ecology Capybaras aresemiaquaticmammalsfound throughout all countries of South America exceptChile.They live in densely forested areas near bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds, and marshes,as well as flooded savannah and along rivers in the tropical rainforest. They are superb swimmers and can hold their breath underwater for up to five minutes at a time. Capybara have flourished in cattle ranches. They roam in home ranges averaging 10 hectares (25 acres) in high-density populations. Many escapees from captivity can also be found in similar watery habitats around the world. Sightings are fairly common inFlorida, although a breeding population has not yet been confirmed.In 2011, one specimen was spotted on theCentral Coast of California.These escaped populations occur in areas where prehistoric capybaras inhabited;late Pleistocenecapybaras inhabited FloridaandHydrochoerus hesperotiganitesinCaliforniaandHydrochoerus gaylordiinGrenada, and feral capybaras in North America may actually fill the ecological niche of the Pleistocene species. Diet and predation Capybaras areherbivores, grazing mainly on grasses andaquatic plants,as well as fruit and tree bark.They are very selective feedersand feed on the leaves of one species and disregard other species surrounding it. They eat a greater variety of plants during the dry season, as fewer plants are available. While they eat grass during the wet season, they have to switch to more abundant reeds during the dry season.Plants that capybaras eat during the summer lose their nutritional value in the winter, so they are not consumed at that time.The capybara's jaw hinge is not perpendicular, so they chew food by grinding back-and-forth rather than side-to-side.Capybaras areautocoprophagous,meaning they eat their own feces as a source of bacterialgut flora, to help digest thecellulosein the grass that forms their normal diet, and to extract the maximum protein and vitamins from their food. They also regurgitate food to masticate again, similar to cud-chewing by cattle.Like other rodents, a capybara's front teeth grow continually to compensate for the constant wear from eating grasses;their cheek teeth also grow continuously. Like its relative the guinea pig, the capybara does not have the capacity to synthesizevitamin C, and capybaras not supplemented with vitamin C in captivity have been reported to developgum diseaseas a sign ofscurvy. The maximum lifespan of the capybara is 8 to 10 years,but in the wild capybaras usually do not live longer than four years because of predation from South Americanbig catssuch asjaguarsandcougarsand from non-mammalian predators such asharpy eagles,caimans,green anacondasandpiranhas. Social organization Capybaras are known to begregarious. While they sometimes live solitarily, they are more commonly found in groups of around 10–20 individuals, with two to four adult males, four to seven adult females, and the remainder juveniles.Capybara groups can consist of as many as 50 or 100 individuals during the dry seasonwhen the animals gather around available water sources. Males establish social bonds, dominance, or general group consensus.They can make dog-like barkswhen threatened or when females are herding young. Capybaras have two types ofscent glands: a morrillo, located on the snout, andanal glands. Both sexes have these glands, but males have much larger morrillos and use their anal glands more frequently. The anal glands of males are also lined with detachable hairs. A crystalline form of scent secretion is coated on these hairs and is released when in contact with objects such as plants. These hairs have a longer-lasting scent mark and are tasted by other capybaras. Capybaras scent-mark by rubbing their morrillos on objects, or by walking over scrub and marking it with their anal glands. Capybaras can spread their scent farther by urinating; however, females usually mark without urinating and scent-mark less frequently than males overall. Females mark more often during the wet season when they are inestrus. In addition to objects, males also scent-mark females. Reproduction When inestrus, the female's scent changes subtly and nearby males begin pursuit.In addition, a female alerts males she is in estrus by whistling through her nose.During mating, the female has the advantage and mating choice. Capybaras mate only in water, and if a female does not want to mate with a certain male, she either submerges or leaves the water.Dominant males are highly protective of the females, but they usually cannot prevent some of the subordinates from copulating. The larger the group, the harder it is for the male to watch all the females. Dominant males secure significantly more matings than each subordinate, but subordinate males, as a class, are responsible for more matings than each dominant male.The lifespan of the capybara's sperm is longer than that of other rodents. Capybaragestationis 130–150 days, and produces a litter of four young on average, but may produce between one and eight in a single litter.Birth is on land and the female rejoins the group within a few hours of delivering the newborn capybaras, which join the group as soon as they are mobile. Within a week, the young can eat grass, but continue to suckle—from any female in the group—until weaned around 16 weeks. The young form a group within the main group.Alloparentinghas been observed in this species.Breeding peaks between April and May in Venezuela and between October and November inMato Grosso, Brazil. Activities Though quite agile on land, capybaras are equally at home in the water. They are excellent swimmers, and can remain completely submerged for up to five minutes,an ability they use to evade predators. Capybaras can sleep in water, keeping only their noses out. As temperatures increase during the day, they wallow in water and then graze during the late afternoon and early evening.They also spend time wallowing in mud.They rest around midnight and then continue to graze before dawn. Communication Capybaras communicate using barks, chirps, whistles, huffs, and purrs. Conservation and human interaction Capybaras are not considered a threatened species;their population is stable throughout most of their South American range, though in some areas hunting has reduced their numbers.Capybaras are hunted for their meat and pelts in some areas,and otherwise killed by humans who see their grazing as competition for livestock. In some areas, they are farmed, which has the effect of ensuring the wetland habitats are protected. Their survival is aided by their ability to breed rapidly. Capybaras have adapted well to urbanization in South America. They can be found in many areas in zoos and parks,and may live for 12 years in captivity, more than double their wild lifespan.Capybaras are docile and usually allow humans to pet and hand-feed them, but physical contact is normally discouraged, as theirtickscan bevectorstoRocky Mountain spotted fever.TheEuropean Association of Zoos and AquariaaskedDrusillas ParkinAlfriston,Sussex, England, to keep thestudbookfor capybaras, to monitor captive populations in Europe. The studbook includes information about all births, deaths and movements of capybaras, as well as how they are related. Capybaras are farmed for meat and skins in South America.The meat is considered unsuitable to eat in some areas, while in other areas it is considered an important source of protein.In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular duringLentandHoly Weekas the Catholic Church previously issued special dispensation to allow it to be eaten while other meats aregenerally forbidden.After several attempts a 1784Papal bullwas obtained that allowed the consumption of capybara during Lent.There is widespread perception in Venezuela that consumption of capybaras is exclusive to rural people. In August 2021, Argentine and international media reported that capybaras had been disturbing residents ofNordelta, an affluent gated community north ofBuenos Airesbuilt atop the local capybara's preexisting wetland habitat. This inspired social media users to jokingly adopt the capybara as a symbol ofclass struggleandcommunism.Brazilian Lyme-likeborreliosislikely involves capybaras as reservoirs andAmblyommaandRhipicephalusticks as vectors. Popularity and meme culture Izu Shaboten Zooand other zoos inJapanhave preparedhot spring bathsfor capybaras.Video clips of the bathing capybaras have gained millions of views.The capybaras have influenced an anime character namedKapibara-san, and a series of merchandise such asplush toys.ACapybara caféhas been opened inTokyo. In the early 2020s, capybaras became a growing figure ofmeme culturedue to many factors, including the disturbances in Nordeltawhich led to them being comically postulated as figures of class struggle.Also, a common meme format includes capybaras in various situations with the song \"After Party\" byDon Toliver.At the same time there was a growth in popularity of internet hits for 'capybara'.Capybaras are also associated with the phrase \"Ok I pull up\", the opening lyric in Toliver's song. See also Notes References External links", "South America South Americais a continententirely in theWestern Hemisphereand mostly in theSouthern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in theNorthern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southernsubregionof theAmericas. South America is bordered on the west by thePacific Oceanand on the north and east by theAtlantic Ocean;North Americaand theCaribbean Sealie to the northwest. The continent includes twelve sovereign states:Argentina,Bolivia,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Ecuador,Guyana,Paraguay,Peru,Suriname,Uruguay, andVenezuela; twodependent territories: theFalkland IslandsandSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands;and oneinternal territory:French Guiana. The territories of theABC islandsof theKingdom of the Netherlands(north of Venezuela in the Western Caribbean), theBritish Overseas TerritoryofSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha(in the Southern Atlantic),Bouvet Island(adependencyofNorway),Panama, and the island Republic ofTrinidad and Tobagomay also be considered parts of South America. South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population as of 2021has been estimated at more than 434 million.South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) andfifthin population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with almost half of the continent's population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela and Peru. In recent decades, Brazil has also generated half of the continent's GDP and has become the continent's first regional power. Most of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and thefar southare sparsely populated. The geography of western South America is dominated by theAndesmountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers such as theAmazon,OrinocoandParanáflow. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of theSouthern Conelocated in themiddle latitudes. The continent's cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction ofIndigenous peopleswith Europeanconquerorsand immigrants and, more locally, withAfrican slaves. Given a longhistory of colonialism, the overwhelming majority of South Americans speakSpanishorPortuguese, and societies and states are rich inWestern traditions. Relative to Europe, Asia and Africa, post-1900 South America has been a peaceful continent with few wars,althoughhigh rates of violent crimeremain a concern in some countries. Geography South America occupies the southern portion of the Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by theDarién watershedalong theColombia–Panama border, although some may consider the border instead to be thePanama Canal.Geopoliticallyand geographically, all ofPanama– including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America aloneand among the countries ofCentral America.Almost all of mainland South America sits on theSouth American Plate. South America is home to several superlatives, including theworld's highest uninterrupted waterfall,Angel Fallsin Venezuela; the highest single-drop waterfallKaieteur Fallsin Guyana; the largest river by volume, theAmazon River; the longest mountain range, theAndes(whose highest mountain isAconcaguaat 6,962 m or 22,841 ft); the driest non-polar place on earth, theAtacama Desert;the wettest place on earth,López de Micayin Colombia; the largest rainforest, theAmazon rainforest; the highest capital city,La Paz,Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world,Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations inAntarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community,Puerto Toro, Chile. South America's majormineral resourcesare gold, silver, copper, iron ore,tin, and petroleum. These resources have brought high income to its countries, especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one, or few, major exportcommoditieshas often hindered the development and diversification of its economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in international markets has led historically to major highs and lows, booms and busts, in the economies of South American states, often causing political instability.This has led for calls to diversify production and increase trade within South America itself. Brazil is the largest country in South America, covering a little less than half of the continent's land area and encompassing around half of the continent's population.The remaining countries and territories are divided among foursubregions: the Andean states,Caribbean South America,The Guianas, and theSouthern Cone. Outlying islands Physiographically, South America also includes some of the nearby islands. The DutchABC islands(Aruba,Bonaire, andCuraçao), the islands ofTrinidad and Tobago(Trinidad IslandandTobago Islandetc.), theState of Nueva Esparta, and theFederal Dependencies of Venezuelasit on the northern portion of the South Americancontinental shelfand are sometimes considered parts of the continent. Geopolitically, all the island countries and territories in theCaribbeanhave generally been grouped as asubregionof North America instead. By contrast,Aves Island(administered byVenezuela) and theArchipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina(San Andrés Island,Providencia Island, andSanta Catalina Islandetc., which are administered byColombia) are politically parts of South American countries but physiographically parts of North America. Other islands often associated with geopolitical South America are theChiloé ArchipelagoandRobinson Crusoe Island(both administered by Chile),Easter Island(culturally a part of Oceania, also administered by Chile),theGalápagos Islands(administered byEcuador, sometimes considered part of Oceania),andTierra del Fuego(split between Argentina and Chile). In the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil administersFernando de Noronha,Trindade and Martim Vaz, and theSaint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, while theFalkland Islands(Spanish:Islas Malvinas) andSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands(biogeographicallyandhydrologicallyassociated with Antarctica)have been administered as twoBritish Overseas Territoriesunderthe Crown, whose sovereignty over the islands isdisputedbyArgentina. Special cases An isolatedvolcanic islandon theSouth American Plate,Ascension Islandis geologically a part of South America.Administered as a dependency ofSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, the island is geopoliticallya partof Africa. Climate All of the world's major climate zones are present in South America. The distribution of the average temperatures in the region presents a constant regularity from the30° of latitude south, when the isotherms tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude. In temperate latitudes, winters and summers are milder than in North America. This is because the most extensive part of the continent is in the equatorial zone (the region has more areas of equatorial plains than any other region),therefore giving theSouthern Conemore oceanic influence, which moderates year round temperatures. The average annual temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around 27 °C (81 °F), with low thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between theMaracaibo Lakeand the mouth of the Orinoco, predominates anequatorial climateof the type Congolese, that also includes parts of the Brazilian territory. The east-central Brazilian plateau has a humid and warm tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampas have ahumid subtropical climatewith dry winters and humid summers of the Chinese type, while the western and eastern ranges have a subtropical climate of the dinaric type. At the highest points of the Andean region, climates are colder than the ones occurring at the highest point of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean plateaus, the warm climate prevails, although it is tempered by the altitude, while in the coastal strip, there is an equatorial climate of the Guinean type. From this point until the north of the Chilean coast appear, successively,Mediterranean oceanic climate, temperate of the Breton type and, already inTierra del Fuego, cold climate of the Siberian type. The distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of winds and air masses. In most of thetropical regioneast of the Andes, winds blowing from the northeast, east and southeast carry moisture from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. However, due to a consistently strongwind shearand a weakIntertropical Convergence Zone,South Atlantic tropical cyclonesare rare.In theOrinoco Llanosand in theGuianas Plateau, the precipitation levels go from moderate to high. The Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador are rainy regions, withChocóin Colombia being the rainiest place in the world along with the northern slopes of Indian Himalayas.The Atacama Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the world. The central and southern parts of Chile are subject toextratropical cyclones, and most of the ArgentinePatagoniaisdesert. In thePampasof Argentina, Uruguay and South of Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with rains well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of Paraguay. In thesemiaridcoast of the Brazilian Northeast the rains are linked to a monsoon regime. Important factors in the determination of climates are sea currents, such as the current Humboldt andFalklands. The equatorial current of the South Atlantic strikes the coast of the Northeast and there is divided into two others: the current of Brazil and a coastal current that flows to the northwest towards theAntilles, where there it moves towards northeast course thus forming the most Important and famous ocean current in the world, theGulf Stream. Fauna South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on Earth. It is home to many unique species of animals including thellama,anaconda,piranha,jaguar,vicuña, andtapir, and to one of the largest known insects in the world, theTitan beetle. The Amazon rainforests possess highbiodiversity, with Brazil estimated to contain 10% of Earth'sspecies.83% of South America's large mammals (megafauna) became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene around 11,000 years ago as part of theQuaternary extinction event, among the highest of any continent, with the casualties includingsaber-toothed cats,ground sloths,glyptodonts,gomphotheres, the equinesHippidionandEquus neogeus, and all remainingSouth American native ungulates. History Prehistory South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing theBering Land Bridge(now theBering Strait) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through theIsthmus of Panama. Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is theMonte Verde IIsite in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago.From around 13,000 years ago, theFishtail projectile pointstyle became widespread across South America, with its disappearence around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's megafauna.Maize was present in northern South America by around 6,000 years ago. By 2000 BC, manyagrariancommunities had been settled throughout theAndesand the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of anagrarian society. South American cultures began domesticatingllamas,vicuñas,guanacos, andalpacasin the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods. Pre-Columbian civilizations The rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America. One of the earliest known South American civilizations wasCaral–Supe, on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Caral–Supe created one of the first cities of the world, generally dated to around 3500 BC, atHuaricangain theFortalezaarea, contemporaneous with the pyramids ofAncient Egypt, one of theoldest-known civilizationsin the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world.Caral–Supe governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed byChavínby 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site calledChavín de Huantarin modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters (10,423 ft). Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC. In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD,Moche(100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru),ParacasandNazca(400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture throughirrigationand new styles of ceramic art. At theAltiplano, Tiahuanaco orTiwanaku(100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion. Around the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari orHuariEmpire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography. TheMuiscawere the main indigenous civilization in what is now Colombia. They established theMuisca Confederationof many clans, orcacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. Many were goldsmiths and farmers. Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: theCañaris(in south central Ecuador),Chimú Empire(1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast),Chachapoyas, and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru). Holding their capital at the great city ofCusco, theInca civilizationdominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known asTawantin suyu, and \"the land of the four regions\", inQuechua, theInca Empirewas highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometerroad system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.Terrace farmingwas a useful form of agriculture. TheMapuchein Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging theArauco Warfor more than 300 years. European colonization In 1494,Portugaland Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed theTreaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusiveduopolybetween the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–southmeridian370leagueswest of theCape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements oflongitudewere impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in aPortuguese expansion of Brazilacross the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreignconquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases (smallpox,influenza,measles, andtyphus) – to which thenative populationshad no immune resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as thehaciendasand mining industry'smit'aalso contributed to the depopulation. After this,enslaved Africans, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blendedCatholicismwith their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the RomanCatholic Church's evangelization inQuechua,Aymara, andGuaraníactually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form. Eventually, thenativesand the Spaniards interbred, forming amestizoclass. At the beginning, many mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American. Guyanawas initiallycolonized by the Dutchbefore coming underBritish control, though there was a brief period during theNapoleonic Warswhen it was occupied by theFrench. The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain. Suriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and thensettled by the Englishin the mid-17th century. It became aDutch colonyin 1667. Slavery in South America The indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via theslave trade. European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. TheAtlantic slave tradebrought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502.The main destinations of this phase were theCaribbeancolonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in theNew World. Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866. In contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750, thePortuguese Crownabolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples incolonial Brazil, under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas onslave ships, under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold inslave markets.After independence, all South American countries maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Guyana in 1833, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery. Independence from Spain and Portugal The EuropeanPeninsular War(1807–14), a theater of theNapoleonic Wars, changed the political situation of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but theHouse of Braganzaavoided capture byescaping to Brazil. Napoleon captured KingFerdinand VIIof Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked popular resistance, which createdJuntasto rule in the name of the captured king. Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began theSpanish American wars of independencebetween the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and theroyalists, who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of theEnlightenment. Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began theAbsolutist Restoration, as the royalists got the upper hand in the conflict. The independence of South America was secured bySimón Bolívar(Venezuela) andJosé de San Martín(Argentina), the two most importantLibertadores. Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army south towardsLima, the capital of theViceroyalty of Peru. Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized a fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1822 the two men met at theGuayaquil Conferencein Ecuador, where they failed to agree on governance strategies for the liberated nations.Two years later Bolívar's forces beat the Spanish at theBattle of Ayacucho, securing the independence of Peru and the rest of South America. In thePortuguese Kingdom of Brazil,Dom Pedro I(also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese KingDom João VI, proclaimed the independentKingdom of Brazilin 1822, which later became theEmpire of Brazil. Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons inBahia,CisplatinaandPará, independence was diplomatically accepted by Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediated by the United Kingdom. Nation-building and fragmentation The newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as theRepublic of Entre Ríosand theRiograndense Republic). The first separatist attempt was in 1820 by the Argentine province ofEntre Ríos, led by acaudillo.In spite of the \"Republic\" in its title,General Ramírez, its caudillo, never really intended to declare an independent Entre Rios. Rather, he was making a political statement in opposition to the monarchist and centralist ideas that back then permeatedBuenos Airespolitics. The \"country\" was reincorporated at the United Provinces in 1821. In 1825, theCisplatine Provincedeclared its independence from theEmpire of Brazil, which led to theCisplatine Warbetween the imperials and the Argentine from theUnited Provinces of the Río de la Platato control the region. Three years later, the United Kingdom intervened in the question by proclaiming a tie and creating in the former Cisplatina a new independent country: TheOriental Republic of Uruguay. Later in 1836, while Brazil was experiencing the chaos of the regency,Rio Grande do Sulproclaimed its independencemotivated by a tax crisis. With the anticipation of the coronation ofPedro IIto the throne of Brazil, the country could stabilize and fight the separatists, which the province ofSanta Catarinahad joined in 1839. The Conflict came to an end by a process of compromise by which bothRiograndense RepublicandJuliana Republicwere reincorporated as provinces in 1845. ThePeru–Bolivian Confederation, a short-lived union of Peru and Bolivia, was blocked by Chile in theWar of the Confederation(1836–1839) and again during theWar of the Pacific(1879–1883). Paraguay was virtually destroyed by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay in theParaguayan War. Wars and conflicts Despite theSpanish American wars of independenceand theBrazilian War of Independence, the new nations quickly began to suffer with internal conflicts and wars among themselves. Most of the 1810 borders countries had initially accepted on theuti possidetis iurisprinciple had by 1848 either been altered by war or were contested. In 1825, the proclamation of independence of Cisplatina led to theCisplatine Warbetween historical rivals theEmpire of Braziland theUnited Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentina's predecessor. The result was a stalemate, ending with theBritish governmentarranging for the independence of Uruguay. Soon after, another Brazilian province proclaimed its independence leading to theRagamuffin Warwhich Brazil won. Between 1836 and 1839, theWar of the Confederationbroke out between the short-livedPeru-Bolivian Confederationand Chile, with the support of theArgentine Confederation. The war was fought mostly in the actual territory ofPeruand ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the Confederacy and annexation of many territories by Argentina. Meanwhile, theArgentine Civil Warsplagued Argentina since its independence. The conflict was mainly between those who defended the centralization of power in Buenos Aires and those who defended a confederation. During this period it can be said that \"there were two Argentines\": theArgentine Confederationand theArgentine Republic. At the same time, the political instability in Uruguay led to theUruguayan Civil Waramong the main political factions of the country. All this instability in theplatine regioninterfered with the goals of other countries such as Brazil, which was soon forced to take sides. In 1851, theBrazilian Empire, supporting the centralizing unitarians, and theUruguayan governmentinvaded Argentina and deposed the caudillo,Juan Manuel Rosas, who ruled the confederation with an iron hand. Although thePlatine Wardid not put an end to the political chaos and civil war in Argentina, it brought temporary peace to Uruguay where theColorados factionwon, supported byBrazil,Britain,Franceand theUnitarian Partyof Argentina. Peace lasted only a short time: in 1864, the Uruguayan factions faced each other again in theUruguayan War. TheBlancossupported by Paraguay started to attack Brazilian and Argentine farmers near the borders. The Empire made an initial attempt to settle the dispute between Blancos and Colorados without success. In 1864, after a Brazilian ultimatum was refused, the imperial government declared that Brazil's military would begin reprisals. Brazil declined to acknowledge a formal state of war, and, for most of its duration, the Uruguayan–Brazilian armed conflict was an undeclared war which led to the deposition of theBlancosand the rise of the pro-BrazilianColoradosto power again. This angered the Paraguayan government, which even before the end of the war invaded Brazil, beginning the longest and bloodiest inter-state war in Latin American history: the Paraguayan War. The Paraguayan War began when the Paraguayan dictatorFrancisco Solano Lópezordered the invasion of the Brazilian provinces ofMato GrossoandRio Grande do Sul. His attempt to cross Argentinian territory without Argentinian approval led the pro-Brazilian Argentine government into the war. The pro-Brazilian Uruguayan government showed its support by sending troops. In 1865 the three countries signed theTreaty of the Triple Allianceagainst Paraguay. At the beginning of the war, the Paraguayans took the lead with several victories, until the Triple Alliance organized to repel the invaders and fight effectively. This was the secondtotal warexperience in the world after theAmerican Civil War. It was deemed the greatest war effort in the history of all participating countries, taking almost 6 years and ending with the complete devastation of Paraguay. The country lost 40% of its territory to Brazil and Argentina and lost 60% of its population, including 90% of the men. The dictator Lopez was killed in battle and a new government was instituted in alliance with Brazil, which maintained occupation forces in the country until 1876. The last South American war in the 19th century was theWar of the Pacificwith Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. In 1879 the war began with Chilean troops occupying Bolivian ports, followed by Bolivia declaring war on Chile which activated an alliance treaty with Peru. The Bolivians were completely defeated in 1880 and Lima was occupied in 1881. Peace was signed with Peru in 1883 while a truce was signed with Bolivia in 1884. Chile annexed territories of both countries leaving Bolivialandlocked. In the new century, as wars became less violent and less frequent, Brazil entered into a small conflict with Bolivia for the possession of the Acre, which was acquired by Brazil in 1902. In 1917 Brazil declared war on theCentral Powers, joined the allied side in theFirst World Warand sent a small fleet to theMediterranean Seaand some troops to be integrated with the British and French forces in the region. Brazil was the only South American country that participated in the First World War.Later in 1932 Colombia and Peru entered ashort armed conflictfor territory in the Amazon. In the same year Paraguay declaredwar on Boliviafor possession of the Chaco, in a conflict that ended three years later with Paraguay's victory. Between 1941 and 1942 Peru and Ecuadorfought for territoriesclaimed by both that were annexed by Peru, usurping Ecuador's frontier with Brazil. Also in this period, the first major naval battle ofWorld War IItook place in the South Atlantic close to the continental mainland: theBattle of the River Plate, between a Britishcruisersquadron and a Germanpocket battleship.The Germans still made numerous attacks on Brazilian ships on the coast, causing Brazil to declare war on theAxis powersin 1942, being the only South American country to fight in this war (and in both World Wars). Brazil sent naval and air forces tocombat German and Italian submarinesoff the continent and throughout the South Atlantic, in addition to sending anexpeditionary forceto fight in theItalian Campaign. A brief war was fought between Argentina and the UK in 1982, following an Argentine invasion of theFalkland Islands, which ended with an Argentine defeat. The last international war to be fought on South American soil was the 1995Cenepa Warbetween Ecuador and the Peru along their mutual border. Rise and fall of military dictatorships Wars became less frequent in the 20th century, with Bolivia-Paraguay and Peru-Ecuador fighting the last inter-state wars. Early in the 20th century, thethree wealthiest South American countriesengaged ina vastly expensive naval arms racewhich began after the introduction of a new warship type, the \"dreadnought\". At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of its entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase. The continent became a battlefield of theCold Warin the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands ofpolitical prisoners, many of whom were tortured or killed oninter-state collaboration. Economically, they began a transition toneoliberaleconomic policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of \"National Security\" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered froman internal conflict. In 1982, Argentina invaded theFalkland Islands, a Britishdependent territory. TheFalklands Warbegan and 74 days laterArgentine forces surrendered. Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation ofMarxistguerrillas(FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced, FARC. Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s, a wave of democratization passed through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, on most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued. International indebtednessbecame a significant problem in the late 1980s, and some countries, despite having strong democracies, have not developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without resorting to unorthodox economic policies. This was illustrated by Argentina'sdefaultin the early 21st century.There has been an increased push towardsregional integration, with the creation of uniquely South American institutions such as theAndean Community,MercosurandUnasur. Starting with the election ofHugo Chávezin Venezuela in 1998, the region experienced apink tide– the election of several leftist and center-left administrations in most countries, except the Guianas and Colombia. Contemporary issues South America's political geography since the 1990s has been characterized by a desire to reduce foreign influence.The nationalization of industries, by which the state controls entire economic sectors (as opposed of private companies doing it), has become a prominent political issue in the region.Some South American nations have nationalized their electricity industries. Countries and territories Government and politics Historically, the Hispanic countries were founded as Republican dictatorships led bycaudillos. Brazil was the only exception, being aconstitutional monarchyfor its first 67 years of independence, until a coup d'état proclaimed a republic. In the late 19th century, the most democratic countries wereBrazil,Chile, Argentina and Uruguay. All South American countries arepresidential republicswith the exception ofSuriname, aparliamentary republic.French Guianais aFrench overseas department, while theFalkland IslandsandSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islandsare British overseas territories. It is currently the only inhabited continent in the world without monarchies; theEmpire of Brazilexisted during the 19th century and there was an unsuccessful attempt to establish aKingdom of Araucanía and Patagoniain southern Argentina and Chile. Also in the twentieth century,Surinamewas established as a constituent kingdom of theKingdom of the NetherlandsandGuyanaretained theBritish monarchashead of statefor 4 years after its independence. Recently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions:Mercosurand theAndean Community, thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world.This new political organization, known asUnion of South American Nations, seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination oftariffs. Demographics South America has a population of over 428 million people. They are distributed as to form a \"hollow continent\" with most of the population concentrated around the margins of the continent.On one hand, there are several sparsely populated areas such astropical forests, theAtacama Desertand the icy portions ofPatagonia. On the other hand, the continent presents regions of high population density, such as the great urban centers. The population is formed by descendants of Europeans (mainlySpaniards,Portugueseand Italians),AfricansandAmerindians. There is a high percentage ofMestizosthat vary greatly in composition by place. There is a population of about 5 million Asians, mostlyEast Asians, especially in Brazil,Peru, andArgentina. The two main languages are by far Spanish and Portuguese, followed by English, French and Dutch in smaller numbers. Language Spanish andPortugueseare the most spoken languages in South America, with approximately 200 million speakers each. Spanish is the official language of most countries, along with other native languages in some countries. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil.Dutchis the official language ofSuriname; English is the official language ofGuyana, although there are at least twelve other languages spoken in the country, includingPortuguese, Chinese,Hindustaniand several native languages.English is also spoken in theFalkland Islands. French is the official language ofFrench Guianaand the second language inAmapá, Brazil. Indigenous languagesof South America includeQuechuain Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina and Colombia;Wayuunaikiin northern Colombia (La Guajira) and northwestern Venezuela (Zulia);Guaraníin Paraguay and, to a much lesser extent, in Bolivia;Aymarain Bolivia, Peru, and less often in Chile; andMapudungunis spoken in certain pockets of southern Chile. At least three South American indigenous languages (Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages. Other languages found in South America includeSranan Tongo,HindustaniandJavanesein Suriname; Italian in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Venezuela; and German in certain pockets of Argentina, Chile and Brazil. German is also spoken in many regions of the southern states of Brazil,Riograndenser Hunsrückischbeing the most widely spoken German dialect in the country; among other Germanic dialects, a Brazilian form ofEast Pomeranianis also well represented and is experiencing a revival.Welshremains spoken and written in the historic towns ofTrelewandRawsonin the ArgentinePatagonia,Croatianis spoken in southern Chile, Arabic speakers, often ofLebanese,Syrian, orPalestiniandescent, can be found in Arab communities in Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela and in Paraguay. Religion An estimated 90% of South Americans are Christians(82%Roman Catholic, 8% other Christian denominations mainly traditionalProtestantsandEvangelicalsbut alsoOrthodox), accounting for 19% of Christians worldwide. African descendent and Indigenous religions are common throughout South America; some examples areSanto Daime,Candomblé, andUmbanda.Crypto-JewsorMarranos,conversos, andAnusimwere an important part of colonial life in Latin America. Buenos Aires and São Paulo figure among the largestJewish populations by urban area. East Asian religionssuch asJapanese Buddhism,Shintoism, andShinto-derivedJapanese New Religionsare common in Brazil and Peru.Korean Confucianismis especially found in Brazil, whileChinese BuddhismandChinese Confucianismhave spread throughout the continent.Kardecist Spiritismcan be found in several countries. Hindusform 25% of the Guyanese population and 22% of Suriname's. Muslims account for 7% of the Guyanese population and 14% of the Surinamese population.Almost all Muslims in Suriname are either Indonesian or Indians and in Guyana, most are Indian. Part of Religions in South America (2013): Ethnic demographics Genetic admixtureoccurs at high levels in South America. In Argentina, European influence accounts for 65–80% of the genetic background,Amerindian(indigenous people) 17–31% and sub-Saharan African 2–4%. In Colombia, the sub-Saharan African genetic background varied 1% to 89%, while the European genetic background varied from 20 to 79%, depending on the region. In Peru, European ancestries ranged from 1% to 31%, while the African contribution was only 1–3%.The Genographic Project determined the average Peruvian from Lima had about 25% European ancestry, 68% Native American, 3% Southwest Asian ancestry and 2% sub-Saharan African. Descendants ofindigenous peoples, such as theQuechuaandAymara, or theUrarinaofAmazonia, make up the majority of the population in Bolivia (56%) and Peru (44%).In Ecuador, Amerindians comprise two-fifths of the population. The indigenous population is also a significant element in most other countries in South America. People who identify as of primarily or totallyEuropean descent, or identify theirphenotypeas corresponding to such group, are a majority in Uruguay,ArgentinaandChile(64.7%),and are 43.5% of the population in Brazil.In Venezuela, according to the census, 42% of the population is of primarily Spanish, Italian or Portuguese descendence.In Colombia, people who identify as from European descendants are about 37%.In Peru, European descendants are the third group in number (15%). Mestizos(mixed European and Amerindian) are the largest ethnic group in Bolivia, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombiaand Ecuador and the second group in Peru, Chile and Argentina. South America is home to one of the largest populations ofAfricans. This group is significantly present in Brazil, Colombia,Guyana,Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela and Ecuador. Brazil, followed by Peru, has the largest Japanese, Korean and Chinese communities in South America. Lima has the largest ethnic Chinese community in Latin America.Guyana and Suriname have the largest ethnicEast Indiancommunity. Indigenous people In some places indigenous people still practice a traditional lifestyle, based on subsistence agriculture or as hunter-gatherers. There are stilluncontacted tribesresiding in the Amazon Rainforest. Populace While Brazil, Argentina, and Colombia maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. The top ten largest South American metropolitan areas by population as of 2015, based on national censuses: Five of thetop ten metropolitan areasare in Brazil. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 4 million and include theSão Paulo metropolitan area,Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, andBelo Horizonte metropolitan area. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within Brazil, Argentina is host to the second largest metropolitan area by population in South America: theBuenos Aires metropolitan region, above 13 million. South America has been witness to the growth ofmegapolitan areas. In Brazil four megaregions exist including theExpanded Metropolitan Complex of São Paulowith more than 32 million inhabitants. The others are the Greater Rio, Greater Belo Horizonte andGreater Porto Alegre. Colombia also has four megaregions which comprise 72% of its population, followed by Venezuela, Argentina and Peru which are also homes of megaregions. Economy Since 1930, the continent has experienced growth and diversification in most economic sectors. Most agricultural and livestock products are destined for the domestic market and local consumption. However, the export ofagricultural productsis essential for thebalance of tradein most countries. The main agrarian crops are export crops, such assoyand wheat. The production of staple foods such as vegetables, corn or beans is large, but focused on domestic consumption. Livestock raising for meat exports is significant in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Colombia. In tropical regions the most important crops are coffee,cocoaandbananas, mainly in Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador. Traditionally, the countries producing sugar for export are Peru, Guyana and Suriname, and in Brazil,sugar caneis also used to makeethanol. On the coast of Peru, northeast and south of Brazil, cotton is grown. 51% of South America's land surface is covered by forest.Transnational companies have settled in theAmazon rainforestto exploit timber destined for export. The Pacific coastal waters are the most important for commercial fishing. The anchovy catch reaches thousands of tonnes, and tuna is abundant, Peru is a major exporter. The capture ofcrustaceansis large, particularly in northeastern Brazil and Chile. Brazil and Argentina are part of theG20industrial countries, while only Brazil is part of theG8+5(the most powerful and influential nations in the world). In the tourism sector, negotiations began in 2005 to promote tourism and increase air connections within the region.Punta del Este,FlorianópolisandMar del Plataare among the largest resorts in South America. The most industrialized countries in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Colombia and Chile respectively. These countries alone account for more than 80% of the region's economy. Industries in South America significantly developed from the 1930s, when theGreat Depressionin the United States and elsewhere, boosted industrial production on the continent. The region partially moved away from agriculture and began to achieve high rates of economic growth that remained until the early 1990s, when they slowed due to political instabilities and economic crises. Since the end of the economic crisis in Brazil and Argentina between 1998 and 2002, which led toeconomic recession, rising unemployment and falling income, the industrial and service sectors have recovered. South America has shown good signs of economic stability, with controlled inflation and exchange rates, continuous growth, a decrease insocial inequalityand unemployment – factors that favor industry. The main industries are: electronics, textiles, food, automotive, metallurgy, aviation, naval, clothing, beverage, steel, tobacco, timber, chemical, among others. Theeconomic gapbetween rich and poor in most South American nations is larger than most other continents. The richest 10% receive over 40% of the nation's income in Bolivia, Brazil and Colombia,while the poorest 20% receive 4% or less.This wide gap can be seen in large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie in the vicinity of skyscrapers and luxury apartments; many South Americans live on less than $2 per day. Agriculture The four countries with the strongest agriculture are Brazil,Argentina, Chile andColombia. Currently: Brazil is the world's largest exporter ofchicken meat: 3.8 million tonnes in 2019.The country is the holder of the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15% of global production.It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018, 35 billion liters.In 2019, Brazil was the 4th largest pork producer in the world, with almost 4 million tonnes.In 2018,Argentinawas the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tonnes (behind only the United States, Brazil and China). Inchicken meatproduction, Argentina ranks among the 15 largest producers in the world, and Peru and Colombia among the 20 biggest producers. In beef production, Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers in the world. Inhoneyproduction, Argentina ranks among the five largest. Incow's milk, Argentina ranks among the 20 largest producers. Manufacturing TheWorld Bankannually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list, Brazil has the thirteenth most valuable industry in the world (US$174 billion),Venezuelathe thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to obtain this value),Argentinathe 31st largest (US$57.7 billion),Colombiathe 46th largest (US$35.4 billion),Peruthe 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) and Chile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion). Brazil has the third-largest manufacturing sector in the Americas. Accounting for 29 percent of GDP, Brazil's industries range from automobiles, steel, and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft (Embraer), food, pharmaceutical, footwear, metallurgy and consumer durables. In thefood industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world.In 2016, the country was the 2nd largest producer ofpulpand the 8th producer of paper.In thefootwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers.In 2019, the country was the 8th producer ofvehiclesand the 9th producer of steel in the world.In 2018, thechemical industryof Brazil was the 8th in the world.Intextile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated in world trade. Mining Mining is one of the most important economic sectors in South America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent is a large producer of gold (mainly in Peru, Brazil and Argentina);silver (mainly in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina);copper (mainly in Chile, Peru and Brazil);iron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile);zinc(Peru, Bolivia and Brazil);molybdenum(Chile and Peru);lithium(Chile, Argentina and Brazil);lead (Peru and Bolivia);bauxite(Brazil);tin(Peru, Bolivia and Brazil);manganese(Brazil);antimony(Bolivia and Ecuador);nickel(Brazil);niobium(Brazil);rhenium(Chile);iodine(Chile),among others. Brazil stands out in the extraction of iron ore (where it is the second largest producer and exporter in the world – iron ore is usually one of the three export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance), copper, gold,bauxite(one of the five largest producers in the world),manganese(one of the five largest producers in the world),tin(one of the largest producers in the world),niobium(concentrates 98% of reserves known to the world) andnickel. In terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer ofamethyst,topaz,agateand one of the main producers oftourmaline,emerald,aquamarine,garnetandopal. Chile contributes about a third of the world copper production.In addition to copper, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer ofiodineandrhenium,the second largest producer oflithiumandmolybdenum,the sixth largest producer of silver,the seventh largest producer of salt,the eighth largest producer ofpotash,the thirteenth producer ofsulfurand the thirteenth producer of iron orein the world. In 2019,Peruwas the 2nd largest world producer of copperand silver,8th largest world producer of gold,3rd largest world producer of lead,2nd largest world producer ofzinc,4th largest world producer oftin,5th largest world producer ofboronand 4th largest world producer ofmolybdenum. In 2019,Boliviawas the 8th largest world producer of silver;4th largest world producer ofboron;5th largest world producer ofantimony;5th largest world producer oftin;6th largest world producer oftungsten;7th largest producer ofzinc,and the 8th largest producer of lead. In 2019,Argentinawas the 4th largest world producer oflithium,the 9th largest world producer of silver,the 17th largest world producer of goldand the 7th largest world producer ofboron. Colombiais the world's largest producer ofemeralds.In the production of gold, among 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tonnes (15 long tons; 17 short tons) per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tonnes (65.1 long tons; 72.9 short tons) extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tonnes (51.4 long tons; 57.5 short tons). The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15.5 tonnes (15.3 long tons; 17.1 short tons). In the production of oil, Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Venezuela was the 21st largest, with 877 thousand barrels / day and Colombia in 22nd with 886 thousand. As Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part ofOPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (where it produced 2.5 million barrels / day), falling in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment. For natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1524 bcf (billion cubic feet), Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379. In the beginning of 2020, in the production ofoiland natural gas, Brazil exceeded 4 millionbarrels of oil equivalentper day, for the first time. In January 2021, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 139 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.The continent had 2 of the 30 largest world producers of coal in 2018: Colombia (12th) and Brazil (27th). Tourism Tourism has increasingly become a significant source of income for South American countries. Historic relics, architectural and natural wonders, a diverse range of foods and culture, colorful cities, and pretty landscapes attract millions of tourists every year to South America. Some of the most visited places in the region areRio de Janeiro,Florianópolis,Iguazu Falls, São Paulo,Armação dos Búzios,Salvador,Bombinhas,Angra dos Reis,Balneário Camboriú,Paraty,Ipojuca,Natal,Cairu,FortalezaandItapemain Brazil;Buenos Aires,Bariloche,Salta,Jujuy,Perito Moreno Glacier,Valdes Peninsula,Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes,Ischigualasto Provincial Park,UshuaiaandPatagoniain Argentina;Isla Margarita,Angel Falls,Los Roques archipelago,Gran Sabanain Venezuela;Machu Picchu, Lima,Nazca Lines,Cuzcoin Peru;Lake Titicaca,Salar de Uyuni, La Paz,Jesuit Missions of Chiquitosin Bolivia;Tayrona National Natural Park,Santa Marta,Bogotá,Cali,Medellín,Cartagenain Colombia, and theGalápagos Islandsin Ecuador.In 2016 Brazil hosted the2016 Summer Olympics. Culture South Americans are culturally influenced by their indigenous peoples, the historic connection with the Iberian Peninsula and Africa, and waves of immigrants from around the globe. South American nations have a rich variety ofmusic. Some of the most famous genres includevallenatoandcumbiafrom Colombia,pasillofrom Colombia and Ecuador,samba,bossa novaandmúsica sertanejafrom Brazil,joropofrom Venezuela andtangofrom Argentina and Uruguay. Also well known is the non-commercial folk genreNueva Canciónmovement which was founded in Argentina and Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America. People on the Peruvian coast created the fine guitar andcajonduos or trios in the mostmestizo(mixed) of South American rhythms such as the Marinera (from Lima), theTondero(from Piura), the 19th-century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse, the soulful Arequipan Yaravi, and the early-20th-century ParaguayanGuarania. In the late 20th century,Spanish rockemerged by young hipsters influenced by British pop and American rock.Brazilhas a Portuguese-language pop rock industry as well a great variety of other music genres. In the central and western regions of Bolivia, Andean and folklore music likeDiablada,CaporalesandMorenadaare the most representative of the country, which were originated by European, Aymara and Quechua influences. Theliteratureof South America has attracted considerable critical and popular acclaim, especially with theLatin American Boomof the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of authors such asMario Vargas Llosa,Gabriel García Márquezin novels andJorge Luis BorgesandPablo Nerudain other genres. The BraziliansMachado de AssisandJoão Guimarães Rosaare widely regarded as the greatest Brazilian writers. Food and drink Because of South America's broad ethnic mix,South American cuisinehas African, Mestizo, South Asian, East Asian, and European influences.Bahia, Brazil, is especially well known for its West African–influenced cuisine. Argentines, Chileans, Uruguayans, Brazilians, Bolivians, and Venezuelans regularly consume wine. People in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Chile, Bolivia and Southern Brazil drinkmate, an herb which is brewed. The Paraguayan version,terere, differs from other forms of mate in that it is served cold.Piscois a liquor distilled from grapes in Peru and Chile. Peruvian cuisine mixes elements from Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, Italian, African, Arab, Andean, and Amazonic food. Plastic arts The artistOswaldo Guayasamín(1919–1999) fromEcuador, represented with his painting style the feeling of the peoples of Latin Americahighlighting social injustices in various parts of the world. The ColombianFernando Botero(1932–2023) was one of the greatest exponents of painting and sculpture was able to develop a recognizable style of his own.For his part, the VenezuelanCarlos Cruz-Diezhas contributed significantly to contemporary art,with the presence of works around the world. Currently several emerging South American artists are recognized by international art critics:Guillermo Lorca– Chilean painter,Teddy Cobeña– Ecuadorian sculptor and recipient of international sculpture award in France)and Argentine artistAdrián Villar Rojas– winner of the Zurich Museum Art Award among many others. Sport A wide range of sports are played in the continent of South America, withfootballbeing the most popular overall, while baseball is the most popular in Venezuela. Other sports include basketball,cycling,polo, volleyball,futsal,motorsports,rugby(mostly in Argentina and Uruguay),handball, tennis, golf,field hockey,boxing, andcricket. South America hosted its firstOlympic Gamesin Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2016, and has hosted theYouth Olympic Gamesin Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 2018. A multi-sport event, theSouth American Games, are held every four years. The first edition was held inLa Pazin 1978 and the most recent took place inSantiagoin 2014. South America shares, with Europe, supremacy over football: all winners in theFIFA World CupandFIFA Club World Cuphave come from these two continents. Brazil has won the FIFA World Cup a record five times; Argentina three times, Uruguay twice. Five South American nations have hosted the tournament including the first edition in Uruguay (1930). Two were in Brazil (1950, 2014), Chile (1962), and Argentina (1978). South America is home to the longest-running international football tournament, theCopa América, which has been contested since 1916. Argentina haswon the Copa América16 times, the most among all countries. South American Cricket Championshipis an internationalone-day crickettournament played since 1995 featuring national teams fromSouth Americaand certain other invited sides including teams from North America, currently played annually but until 2013 was usually played every two seasons. Infrastructure Energy Due to the diversity oftopographyand pluviometric precipitation conditions, the region's water resources vary enormously in different areas. In theAndes, navigation possibilities are limited, except for the Magdalena River,Lake Titicacaand the lakes of the southern regions of Chile and Argentina. Irrigation is an important factor for agriculture from northwestern Peru to Patagonia. Less than 10% of the known electrical potential of the Andes had been used until the mid-1960s. TheBrazilian Highlandshave a much higher hydroelectric potential than theAndean regionand its possibilities of exploitation are greater due to the existence of several large rivers with high margins and the occurrence of great differences forming huge cataracts, such as those of Paulo Afonso, Iguaçu and others. TheAmazon Riversystem has about 13,000 km of waterways, but its possibilities for hydroelectric use are still unknown. Most of the continent's energy is generated throughhydroelectric power plants, but there is also an important share ofthermoelectricandwind energy. Brazil and Argentina are the only South American countries that generatenuclear power, each with twonuclear power plants. In 1991 these countries signed a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement. The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand.In the beginning of 2020, in the production ofoiland natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted. Brazil is one of the main world producers ofhydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation.In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric). In 2013, theSoutheast Regionused about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. Hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% coming mostly from thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais for about 25%; Rio de Janeiro for 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. TheSouth Regionowns theItaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration ofThree Gorges Damin China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant withParaguay: the dam is located on theParaná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each.North Regionhas large hydroelectric plants, such asBelo Monte DamandTucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory. As of July 2022,according to ONS, total installed capacity ofwind powerwas 22 GW, with averagecapacity factorof 58%.While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%;the average capacity factor in theNortheast Regionis 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior.In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country.In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand.In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW),and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, United States and Germany. Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity.The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned byEletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary ofEletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced bytwo reactorsatAngra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna inAngra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of twopressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished. As of October 2022,according to ONS, total installed capacity ofphotovoltaic solarwas 21 GW, with averagecapacity factorof 23%. Some of the mostirradiatedBrazilian States are MG (\"Minas Gerais\"), BA (\"Bahia\") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed worldirradiationlevel records.In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW),and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh). In 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy throughbiomass(energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed. After Brazil,Colombiais the country in South America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW).Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW).Argentinawas, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region.Paraguaystands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant.Boliviastand out in the production of natural gas, where it was the 31st largest in the world in 2015.Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014. Transport Transport infrastructure in South America includes roads, railways,seaportsand airports. The railway andfluvialsector, although having more robust contemporary potential, are still somewhat treated in a secondary way. Roads Due to theAndes Mountains,Amazon RiverandAmazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing larger scale transcontinental or bi-oceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, (in Argentina) and later to Santiago, (in Chile). However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor). Some of the most modern roads extend through northern and south-east Argentina; and south of Brazil, a vast road complex aims to linkBrasília, the federal capital, to the South, Southeast, Northeast and Northern regions of Brazil. Brazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km aredivided highways. The two most important highways in the country areBR-101andBR-116.Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country areRoute 9,Route 7andRoute 14.Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways.Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is theRoute 5(Pan-American Highway)These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways. In addition, there is a reputedPan-American Highway, which crosses Argentina and the Andean countries from north to south, although various stretches are unfinished. Aviation In South America,commercial aviationhas a magnificent expansion field, which has one of the largest traffic density lines in the world, Rio de Janeiro–São Paulo, and large airports, such asCongonhas,São Paulo–Guarulhos InternationalandViracopos(São Paulo),Rio de Janeiro InternationalandSantos Dumont(Rio de Janeiro),El Dorado(Bogotá),Ezeiza(Buenos Aires),Tancredo Neves International Airport(Belo Horizonte),Curitiba International Airport(Curitiba), Brasilia, Caracas, Montevideo, Lima,Viru Viru International Airport(Santa Cruz de la Sierra), Recife, Salvador, Salgado Filho International Airport (Porto Alegre), Fortaleza, Manaus and Belém. There are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States.São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those inRio de Janeiro,Brasília,Belo Horizonte,Porto Alegre,Florianópolis,Cuiabá,Salvador,Recife,Fortaleza,BelémandManaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such asBuenos Aires,Cordoba,Bariloche,Mendoza,Salta,Puerto Iguazú,NeuquénandUsuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such asSantiago,Antofagasta,Puerto Montt,Punta ArenasandIquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such asBogotá,Medellín,Cartagena,CaliandBarranquilla, among others. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Peru (Lima), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil). Seaports and harbors The two main merchant fleets also belong to Brazil and Argentina. The following are those of Chile, Venezuela, Peru and Colombia. The largest ports in commercial movement are those ofBuenos Aires,Santos, Rio de Janeiro,Bahía Blanca,Rosario,Valparaíso,Recife,Salvador, Montevideo,Paranaguá,Rio Grande,Fortaleza,BelémandMaracaibo. About ports, Brazil has some of the busiest seaports in South America, such asPort of Santos,Port of Rio de Janeiro,Port of Paranaguá,Port of Itajaí,Port of Rio Grande,Port of São Francisco do SulandSuape Port. Argentina has ports such asPort of Buenos AiresandPort of Rosario. Chile has important ports inValparaíso,Caldera,Mejillones,Antofagasta,Iquique,AricaandPuerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such asBuenaventura,Cartagena Container TerminalandPuerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports inCallao,IloandMatarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile). Rail Two primary railroads are continental: the Transandina, which connectsBuenos Aires, in Argentina toValparaíso, in Chile, and the Brazil–Bolivia Railroad, which makes it the connection between the port ofSantosin Brazil and the city ofSanta Cruz de la Sierra, in Bolivia. Two areas of greater density occur in the railway sector: the platinum network, which develops around thePlatine region, largely belonging to Argentina, with more than 45,000 km in length; And theSoutheast Brazilnetwork, which mainly serves thestate of São Paulo,state of Rio de JaneiroandMinas Gerais. The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, and at one stage was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. The Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It is basically used for transporting ores.Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has about 3,500 km of railways. Waterways South America has one of the largest bays of navigable inland waterways in the world, represented mainly by theAmazon basin, thePlatine basin, the São Francisco and the Orinoco basins, Brazil having about 54,000 km navigable, while Argentina has 6,500 km and Venezuela, 1,200 km. Among the main Brazilianwaterways, two stand out:Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná(which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas Gerais) andHidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas(it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underused: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. InArgentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports areZárateandCampana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country. Public transport The main public transport in major cities is the bus. Many cities have a diverse system of metro and subway trains, the first of which was theBuenos Aires subte, opened 1913.TheSantiago subwayis the largest network in South America, with 103 km, while theSão Paulo subwayis the most heavily used, with more than 4.6 million passengers per day.Rio de Janeiroinstalled the continent's first railroad in 1854. Today the city has a diversified system of metropolitan trains, integrated with buses and subway. It has a Light Rail System calledVLT, with small electrical trams at low speed, whileSão Paulohas inaugurated amonorail. In Brazil, an express bus system called Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), which operates in several cities, has been developed.Mi Teleférico, also known as TeleféricoLa Paz–El Alto(La Paz–El Alto Cable Car), is an aerial cable car urban transit system serving the La Paz–El Alto metropolitan area in Bolivia. See also Notes References Citations General and cited references External links Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro-Eurasia Americas Eurasia Oceania" ]
[ "Beaver Beavers(genusCastor) are large,semiaquaticrodentsof theNorthern Hemisphere. There are two existingspecies: theNorth American beaver(Castor canadensis) and theEurasian beaver(C. fiber). Beavers are the second-largest living rodents, aftercapybaras, weighing up to 50 kg (110 lb). They have stout bodies with large heads, long chisel-likeincisors, brown or grayfur, hand-like front feet,webbedback feet, and tails that are flat and scaly. The two species differ in skull and tail shape and fur color. Beavers can be found in a number offreshwater habitats, such as rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. They areherbivorous, consumingtree bark,aquatic plants, grasses andsedges. Beavers builddamsand lodges using tree branches, vegetation, rocks and mud; they chew down trees for building material. Dams restrict water flow, and lodges serve as shelters. Their infrastructure createswetlandsused by many other species, and because of their effect on other organisms in theecosystem, beavers are considered akeystone species.", "akeystone species. Adult males and females live inmonogamous pairswith their offspring. After their first year, the young help their parents repair dams and lodges; older siblings may also help raise newly born offspring. Beavers holdterritoriesand mark them using scent mounds made of mud, debris, andcastoreum—a liquid substance excreted through the beaver'surethra-based castor sacs. Beavers can also recognize their kin by theiranal glandsecretions and are more likely to tolerate them as neighbors. Historically, beavers have been hunted for their fur, meat, and castoreum. Castoreum has been used in medicine, perfume, and food flavoring; beaver pelts have been a major driver of thefur trade. Before protections began in the 19th and early 20th centuries,overhuntinghad nearly exterminated both species. Their populations have since rebounded, and they are listed as species ofleast concernby theIUCN Red Listof mammals. In human culture, the beaver symbolizes industriousness, especially in connection with", "in connection with construction; it is thenational animalof Canada. Etymology The English wordbeavercomes from theOld Englishwordbeofororbeforand is connected to theGermanwordbiberand theDutchwordbever. The ultimate origin of the word is anIndo-Europeanroot for'brown'.Cognatesofbeaveris the source for several Europeanplacenames, including those ofBeverley,Bièvres,Biberbach,Biebrich,Bibra,Bibern,Bibrka,Bobr,Bober,Bóbrka,Bjurholm,Bjurälven, andBjurum.ThegenusnameCastorhas its origin in the Greek wordκάστωρkastōrand translates as'beaver'. Taxonomy Carl Linnaeuscoined the genus nameCastorin 1758as well as thespecific (species) epithetfiberfor the Eurasian species.German zoologistHeinrich KuhlcoinedC. canadensisin 1820,many scientists considered both names synonymous for one same speciesuntil the 1970s, whenchromosomalevidence became available confirming both as separate where the Eurasian has 48 chromosomes, while the North American has 40.) The difference in chromosome numbers prevents them from", "prevents them from interbreeding.Twenty-five subspecies have been classified forC. canadensis, and nine have been classified forC. fiber. There are twoextantspecies: theNorth American beaver(Castor canadensis) and theEurasian beaver(C. fiber). The Eurasian beaver is slightly longer and has a more lengthened skull, triangularnasal cavities(as opposed to the square ones of the North American species), a lighter fur color, and a narrower tail. Evolution Agnotocastor coloradensis Agnotocastor praetereadens Anchitheriomyssp. Castorinae(modern beavers) Castoroidinae Agnotocastorsp. Migmacastor procumbodens Palaeocastorinae Heteromyidae(kangaroo rats and allies) Geomyidae(gophers) Beavers belong to the rodent suborderCastorimorpha, along withHeteromyidae(kangaroo ratsandkangaroo mice), and thegophers. Modern beavers are the only extant members of the familyCastoridae. They originated in North America in the lateEoceneand colonized Eurasia via theBering Land Bridgein the earlyOligocene, coinciding with theGrande", "with theGrande Coupure, a time of significant changes in animal species around 33million years ago (myr). The morebasalcastorids had several unique features: more complexocclusionbetween cheek teeth, parallel rows of upper teeth, premolars that were only slightly smaller than molars, the presence of a third set of premolars (P3), aholein thestapesof the inner ear, a smoothpalatine bone(with the palatine opening closer to the rear end of the bone), and a longersnout. Morederivedcastorids have less complex occlusion, upper tooth rows that create a V-shape towards the back, larger second premolars compared to molars, absence of a third premolar set and stapes hole, a more grooved palatine (with the opening shifted towards the front), and reducedincisive foramen. Members of the subfamilyPalaeocastorinaeappeared in late-Oligocene North America. This group consisted primarily of smaller animals with relatively large front legs, a flattened skull, and a reduced tail—all features of afossorial(burrowing) lifestyle.", "lifestyle. In the earlyMiocene(about 24 mya), castoridsevolvedasemiaquaticlifestyle. Members of the subfamilyCastoroidinaeare considered to be asister groupto modern beavers, and included giants likeCastoroidesof North America andTrogontheriumof Eurasia.Castoroidesis estimated to have had a length of 1.9–2.2 m (6.2–7.2 ft) and a weight of 90–125 kg (198–276 lb).Fossils of one genus in Castoroidinae,Dipoides, have been found near piles of chewed wood,thoughDipoidesappears to have been an inferior woodcutter compared toCastor. Researchers suggest that modern beavers and Castoroidinae shared a bark-eatingcommon ancestor. Dam and lodge-building likely developed from bark-eating, and allowed beavers to survive in the harsh winters of thesubarctic. There is no conclusive evidence for this behavior occurring in non-Castorspecies. The genusCastorlikely originated inEurasia.The earliest fossil remains appear to beC. neglectus, found in Germany and dated 12–10 mya.Mitochondrial DNAstudies place the common ancestor of", "common ancestor of the two living species at around 8 mya. The ancestors of the North American beaver would have crossed the Bering Land Bridge around 7.5 mya.Castormay have competed with members of Castoroidinae, which led toniche differentiation.The fossil speciesC. praefiberwas likely an ancestor of the Eurasian beaver.C. californicusfrom theEarly Pleistoceneof North America was similar to but larger than the extant North American beaver.' Characteristics Beavers are the second-largest living rodents, aftercapybaras. They have a head–body length of 80–120 cm (31–47 in), with a 25–50 cm (9.8–19.7 in) tail, a shoulder height of 30–60 cm (12–24 in), and generally weigh 11–30 kg (24–66 lb),but can be as heavy as 50 kg (110 lb). Males and females are almost identical externally.Their bodies are streamlined likemarine mammalsand their robust build allows them to pull heavy loads.A beavercoathas 12,000–23,000 hairs/cm2(77,000–148,000 hairs/in2) and functions to keep the animal warm, to help it float in water,", "it float in water, and to protect it against predators.Guard hairsare 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) long and typically reddish brown, but can range from yellowish brown to nearly black. Theunderfuris 2–3 cm (0.79–1.18 in) long and dark gray. Beaversmoltevery summer. Beavers have large skulls with powerfulchewing muscles. They have four chisel-shaped incisors that continue to grow throughout their lives. The incisors are covered in a thickenamelthat is colored orange or reddish-brown by iron compounds.The lower incisors have roots that are almost as long as the entire lower jaw. Beavers have one premolar and three molars on all four sides of the jaws, adding up to 20 teeth. The molars have meandering ridges for grinding woody material.The eyes, ears and nostrils are arranged so that they can remain above water while the rest of the body is submerged. The nostrils and ears have valves that close underwater, whilenictitating membranescover the eyes. To protect thelarynxandtracheafrom water flow, theepiglottisis contained", "contained within the nasal cavity instead of the throat. In addition, the back of the tongue can rise and create a waterproof seal. A beaver's lips can close behind the incisors, preventing water from entering their mouths as they cut and bite onto things while submerged. The beaver's front feet are dexterous, allowing them to grasp and manipulate objects and food, as well as dig. The hind feet are larger and havewebbing between the toes, and the second innermost toe has a \"double nail\" used for grooming.Beavers can swim at 8 km/h (5.0 mph);only their webbed hind feet are used to swim, while the front feet fold under the chest.On the surface, the hind limbs thrust one after the other; while underwater, they move at the same time.Beavers are awkward on land but can move quickly when they feel threatened. They can carry objects while walking on their hind legs. The beaver's distinctive tail has a conical, muscular, hairy base; the remaining two-thirds of the appendage is flat and scaly. The tail has multiple", "tail has multiple functions: it provides support for the animal when it is upright (such as when chewing down a tree), acts as a rudder when it is swimming, and stores fat for winter. It also has acountercurrentblood vessel system which allows the animal to lose heat in warm temperatures and retain heat in cold temperatures. The beaver's sex organs are inside the body, and the male's penis has a cartilaginousbaculum. They have only one opening, acloaca, which is used for reproduction, scent-marking, defecation, and urination. The cloaca evolved secondarily, as most mammals have lost this feature, and may reduce the area vulnerable to infection in dirty water. The beaver's intestine is six times longer than its body, and thecaecumis double the volume of its stomach.Microorganisms in the caecum allow them to process around 30 percent of thecellulosethey eat.A beaver defecates in the water, leaving behind balls of sawdust. Female beavers have fourmammary glands; these produce milk with 19 percent fat, a higher", "fat, a higher fat content than other rodents. Beavers have two pairs of glands: castor sacs, which are part of the urethra, andanal glands. The castor sacs secretecastoreum, a liquid substance used mainly for marking territory. Anal glands produce an oily substance which the beaver uses as a waterproof ointment for its coat. The substance plays a role in individual and family recognition. Anal secretions are darker in females than males among Eurasian beavers, while the reverse is true for the North American species. Compared to many other rodents, a beaver's brain has ahypothalamusthat is much smaller than thecerebrum; this indicates a relatively advanced brain with higher intelligence. Thecerebellumis large, allowing the animal to move within a three-dimensional space (such as underwater) similar to tree-climbing squirrels. Theneocortexis devoted mainly totouchand hearing. Touch is more advanced in the lips and hands than thewhiskersand tail. Vision in the beaver is relatively poor; the beaver eye cannot", "beaver eye cannot see as well underwater as anotter. Beavers have a good sense of smell, which they use for detecting land predators and for inspecting scent marks, food, and other individuals. Beavers can hold their breath for as long as 15 minutes but typically remain underwater for no more than five or six minutes.Dives typically last less than 30 seconds and are usually no more than 1 m (3 ft 3 in) deep.When diving, their heart rate decreases to 60 beats per minute, half its normal pace, and blood flow is directed more towards the brain. A beaver's body also has a high tolerance for carbon dioxide. When surfacing, the animal can replace 75 percent of the air in its lungs in one breath, compared to 15 percent for a human. Distribution and status TheIUCN Red Listof mammals lists both beaver species asleast concern.The North American beaver is widespread throughout most of the United States and Canada and can be found in northern Mexico. The species was introduced to Finland in 1937 (and then spread to", "(and then spread to northwestern Russia) and toTierra del Fuego, Patagonia, in 1946.As of 2019, the introduced population of North American beavers in Finland has been moving closer to the habitat of the Eurasian beaver.Historically, the North American beaver was trapped and nearly extirpated because its fur was highly sought after. Protections have allowed the beaver population on the continent to rebound to an estimated 6–12million by the late 20th century; still far lower than the originally estimated 60–400million North American beavers before the fur trade.The introduced population in Tierra del Fuego is estimated at 35,000–50,000 individuals as of 2016. The Eurasian beaver's range historically included much of Eurasia, but was decimated by hunting by the early 20th century. In Europe, beavers were reduced to fragmented populations, with combined population numbers being estimated at 1,200 individuals for theRhôneof France, theElbein Germany, southern Norway, theNeman riverandDnieper Basinin Belarus,", "Basinin Belarus, and theVoronezh riverin Russia. The beaver has since recolonized parts of its former range, aided by conservation policies andreintroductions. Beaver populations now range across western, central, and eastern Europe, andwestern Russiaand theScandinavian Peninsula.Beginning in 2009, beavers have been successfully reintroduced to parts of Great Britain.In 2020, the total Eurasian beaver population in Europe was estimated at over one million.Small native populations are also present in Mongolia and northwestern China; their numbers were estimated at 150 and 700, respectively, as of 2016.Under New Zealand'sHazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996, beavers are classed as a \"prohibited new organism\" preventing them from being introduced into the country. Ecology Beavers live infreshwater ecosystemssuch as rivers, streams, lakes and ponds. Water is the most important component of beaver habitat; they swim and dive in it, and it provides them refuge from land predators. It also restricts", "It also restricts access to their homes and allows them to move building objects more easily. Beavers prefer slower moving streams, typically with agradient(steepness) of one percent, though they have been recorded using streams with gradients as high as 15 percent. Beavers are found in wider streams more often than in narrower ones. They also prefer areas with no regular flooding and may abandon a location for years after a significant flood. Beavers typically select flat landscapes with diverse vegetation close to the water. North American beavers prefer trees being 60 m (200 ft) or less from the water, but will roam several hundred meters to find more. Beavers have also been recorded in mountainous areas.Dispersingbeavers will use certain habitats temporarily before finding their ideal home. These include small streams, temporary swamps, ditches, and backyards. These sites lack important resources, so the animals do not stay there permanently. Beavers have increasingly settled at or near human-made", "or near human-made environments, including agricultural areas,suburbs,golf courses, and shopping malls. Beavers have anherbivorousand ageneralistdiet. During the spring and summer, they mainly feed on herbaceous plant material such as leaves, roots, herbs, ferns, grasses,sedges,water lilies,water shields,rushes, andcattails. During the fall and winter, they eat morebarkandcambiumof woody plants; tree and shrub species consumed includeaspen,birch,oak,dogwood,willowandalder.There is some disagreement about why beavers select specific woody plants; some research has shown that beavers more frequently select species which are more easily digested,while others suggest beavers principally forage based on stem size.Beavers maycachetheir food for the winter, piling wood in the deepest part of their pond where it cannot be reached by otherbrowsers. This cache is known as a \"raft\"; when the top becomes frozen, it creates a \"cap\".The beaver accesses the raft by swimming under the ice. Many populations of Eurasian", "of Eurasian beaver do not make rafts, but forage on land during winter. Beavers usually live up to 10 years.Felids,canids, andbearsmay prey upon them. Beavers are protected from predators when in their lodges, and prefer to stay near water. Parasites of the beaver include the bacteriaFrancisella tularensis, which causestularemia; the protozoanGiardia duodenalis, which causesgiardiasis(beaver fever); and thebeaver beetleandmitesof the genusSchizocarpus.They have also been recorded to be infected with therabies virus. Infrastructure Beavers need trees and shrubs to use as building material fordams, which restrict flowing water to create a pond for them to live in, and for lodges, which act as shelters and refuges from predators and the elements. Without such material, beavers digburrowsinto abankto live. Dam construction begins in late summer or early fall, and they repair them whenever needed. Beavers cancut downtrees up to 15 cm (5.9 in) wide in less than 50 minutes. Thicker trees, at 25 cm (9.8 in) wide or", "cm (9.8 in) wide or more, may not fall for hours.When chewing down a tree, beavers switch between biting with the left and right side of the mouth. Tree branches are then cut and carried to their destination with the powerful jaw and neck muscles. Other building materials, like mud and rocks, are held by the forelimbs and tucked between the chin and chest. Beavers start building dams when they hear running water, and the sound of a leak in a dam triggers them to repair it.To build a dam, beavers stack up relatively long and thick logs between banks and in opposite directions. Heavy rocks keep them stable, and grass is packed between them. Beavers continue to pile on more material until the dam slopes in a direction facing upstream. Dams can range in height from 20 cm (7.9 in) to 3 m (9.8 ft) and can stretch from 0.3 m (1 ft 0 in) to several hundred meters long. Beaver dams are more effective in trapping and slowly leaking water than man-made concrete dams. Lake-dwelling beavers do not need to build dams.", "need to build dams. Beavers make two types of lodges: bank lodges and open-water lodges. Bank lodges are burrows dug along the shore and covered in sticks. The more complex freestanding, open-water lodges are built over a platform of piled-up sticks. The lodge is mostly sealed with mud, except for a hole at the top which acts as an air vent. Both types are accessed by underwater entrances.The above-water space inside the lodge is known as the \"living chamber\", and a \"dining area\" may exist close to the water entrance.Families routinely clean out old plant material and bring in new material. North American beavers build more open-water lodges than Eurasian beavers. Beaver lodges built by new settlers are typically small and sloppy. More experienced families can build structures with a height of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) and an above-water diameter of 6 m (20 ft). A lodge sturdy enough to withstand the coming winter can be finished in just two nights. Both lodge types can be present at a beaver site. During the summer,", "During the summer, beavers tend to use bank lodges to keep cool. They use open-water lodges during the winter. The air vent provides ventilation, and newly added carbon dioxide can be cleared in an hour. The lodge remains consistent in oxygen and carbon dioxide levels from season to season. Beavers in some areas will dig canals connected to their ponds. The canals fill with groundwater and give beavers access and easier transport of resources, as well as allow them to escape predators. These canals can stretch up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) wide, 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) deep, and over 0.5 km (0.31 mi) long. It has been hypothesized that beavers' canals are not only transportation routes but an extension of their \"central place\" around the lodge and/or food cache.As they drag wood across the land, beavers leave behind trails or \"slides\", which they reuse when moving new material. Environmental effects The beaver works as anecosystem engineerandkeystone species, as its activities can have a great impact on the landscape", "on the landscape andbiodiversityof an area. Aside from humans, few other extant animals appear to do more to shape their environment.When building dams, beavers alter the paths of streams and rivers, allowing for the creation of extensivewetlandhabitats.In one study, beavers were associated with large increases in open-water areas. When beavers returned to an area, 160% more open water was available during droughts than in previous years, when they were absent.Beaver dams also lead to higherwater tablesin mineral soil environments and in wetlands such aspeatlands. In peatlands particularly, their dams stabilize the constantly changing water levels, leading to greatercarbon storage. Beaver ponds, and the wetlands that succeed them, remove sediments and pollutants from waterways, and can stop the loss of important soils.These ponds can increase theproductivityof freshwater ecosystems by accumulatingnitrogenin sediments.Beaver activity can affect the temperature of the water; in northern latitudes, ice thaws", "ice thaws earlier in the warmer beaver-dammed waters.Beavers may contribute toclimate change. In Arctic areas, the floods they create can causepermafrostto thaw,releasing methane into the atmosphere. As wetlands are formed andriparianhabitats are enlarged, aquatic plants colonize the newly available watery habitat.One study in theAdirondacksfound that beaver engineering lead to an increase of more than 33 percent inherbaceous plantdiversity along the water's edge.Another study in semiarideastern Oregonfound that the width of riparian vegetation on stream banks increased several-fold as beaver dams watered previously dry terraces adjacent to the stream.Riparian ecosystems in arid areas appear to sustain more plant life when beaver dams are present.Beaver ponds act as a refuge for riverbank plants duringwildfires, and provide them with enough moisture to resist such fires.Introduced beavers at Tierra del Fuegohave been responsible for destroying the indigenous forest. Unlike trees in North America, many trees", "America, many trees in South America cannot grow back after being cut down. Beaver activity impactscommunitiesofaquatic invertebrates. Damming typically leads to an increase ofslow or motionless waterspecies, likedragonflies,oligochaetes,snails, andmussels. This is to the detriment ofrapid waterspecies likeblack flies,stoneflies, andnet-spinning caddisflies.Beaver floodings create more dead trees, providing more habitat for terrestrial invertebrates likeDrosophilaflies andbark beetles, which live and breed in dead wood.The presence of beavers can increase wildsalmonandtroutpopulations, and the average size of these fishes. These species use beaver habitats for spawning, overwintering, feeding, and as havens from changes in water flow. The positive effects of beaver dams on fish appear to outweigh the negative effects, such as blocking of migration.Beaver ponds have been shown to be beneficial tofrogpopulations by protecting areas for larvae to mature in warm water.The stable waters of beaver ponds also", "beaver ponds also provide ideal habitat for freshwaterturtles. Beavers helpwaterfowlby creating increased areas of water. The widening of theriparian zoneassociated with beaver dams has been shown to increase the abundance and diversity of birds favoring the water's edge, an impact that may be especially important insemi-arid climates.Fish-eating birds use beaver ponds for foraging, and in some areas, certain species appear more frequently at sites where beavers were active than at sites with no beaver activity.In a study ofWyomingstreams and rivers, watercourses with beavers had 75 times as manyducksas those without.As trees are drowned by rising beaver impoundments, they become an ideal habitat forwoodpeckers, which carve cavities that may be later used by other bird species.Beaver-caused ice thawing in northern latitudes allowsCanada geeseto nest earlier. Other semi-aquatic mammals, such aswater voles,muskrats,minks, andotters, will shelter in beaver lodges.Beaver modifications to streams in Poland create", "in Poland create habitats favorable tobatspecies that forage at the water surface and \"prefer moderate vegetation clutter\".Large herbivores, such as somedeerspecies, benefit from beaver activity as they can access vegetation from fallen trees and ponds. Behavior Beavers are mainlynocturnalandcrepuscular, and spend the daytime in their shelters. In northern latitudes, beaver activity is decoupled from the24-hour cycleduring the winter, and may last as long as 29 hours. They do nothibernateduring winter, and spend much of their time in their lodges. Family life The core of beaver social organization is the family, which is composed of an adult male and an adult female in amonogamous pairand their offspring.Beaver families can have as many as ten members; groups about this size require multiple lodges.Mutual groomingand play fighting maintain bonds between family members, and aggression between them is uncommon. Adult beavers mate with their partners, though partner replacement appears to be common. A beaver", "be common. A beaver that loses its partner will wait for another one to come by.Estruscycles begin in late December and peak in mid-January. Females may have two to four estrus cycles per season, each lasting 12–24 hours. The pair typically mate in the water and to a lesser extent in the lodge, for half a minute to three minutes. Up to four young, or kits, are born in spring and summer, after a three or four-monthgestation.Newborn beavers areprecocialwith a full fur coat, and can open their eyes within days of birth.Their mother is the primary caretaker, while their father maintains the territory.Older siblings from a previous litter also play a role. After they are born, the kits spend their first one to two months in the lodge. Kits suckle for as long as three months, but can eat solid food within their second week and rely on their parents and older siblings to bring it to them. Eventually, beaver kits explore outside the lodge and forage on their own, but may follow an older relative and hold onto their", "and hold onto their backs.After their first year, young beavers help their families with construction.Beavers sexually mature around 1.5–3 years.They become independent at two years old, but remain with their parents for an extra year or more during times of food shortage, high population density, or drought. Territories and spacing Beavers typically disperse from their parental colonies during the spring or when the winter snow melts. They often travel less than 5 km (3.1 mi), but long-distance dispersals are not uncommon when previous colonizers have already exploited local resources. Beavers are able to travel greater distances when free-flowing water is available. Individuals may meet their mates during the dispersal stage, and the pair travel together. It may take them weeks or months to reach their final destination; longer distances may require several years.Beavers establish and defendterritoriesalong the banks of their ponds, which may be 1–7 km (0.62–4.35 mi) in length. Beavers mark their", "Beavers mark their territories by constructing scent mounds made of mud and vegetation, scented with castoreum.Those with many territorial neighbors create more scent mounds. Scent marking increases in spring, during the dispersal of yearlings, to deter interlopers.Beavers are generally intolerant of intruders and fights may result in deep bites to the sides, rump, and tail.They exhibit a behavior known as the \"dear enemy effect\"; a territory-holder will investigate and become familiar with the scents of its neighbors and react more aggressively to the scents of strangers passing by.Beavers are also more tolerant of individuals that are their kin. They recognize them by using their keen sense of smell to detect differences in the composition of anal gland secretions. Anal gland secretion profiles are more similar among relatives than unrelated individuals. Communication Beavers within a family greet each other with whines. Kits will attract the attention of adults with mews, squeaks, and cries. Defensive", "cries. Defensive beavers produce a hissing growl and gnash their teeth.Tail slaps, which involve an animal hitting the water surface with its tail, serve as alarm signals warning other beavers of a potential threat. An adult's tail slap is more successful in alerting others, who will escape into the lodge or deeper water. Juveniles have not yet learned the proper use of a tail slap, and hence are normally ignored.Eurasian beavers have been recorded using a territorial \"stick display\", which involves individuals holding up a stick and bouncing in shallow water. Interactions with humans Beavers sometimes come into conflict with humans over land use; individual beavers may be labeled as \"nuisance beavers\". Beavers can damage crops, timber stocks, roads, ditches, gardens, and pastures via gnawing, eating, digging, and flooding.They occasionallyattackhumans and domestic pets, particularly when infected withrabies, in defense of their territory, or when they feel threatened.Some of these attacks have been fatal,", "have been fatal, including at least one human death.Beavers can spreadgiardiasis('beaver fever') by infecting surface waters,though outbreaks are more commonly caused by human activity. Flow devices, likebeaver pipes, are used to manage beaver flooding, while fencing and hardware cloth protect trees and shrubs from beaver damage. If necessary, hand tools, heavy equipment, or explosives are used to remove dams.Hunting,trapping, and relocation may be permitted as forms of population control and for removal of individuals.The governments of Argentina and Chile have authorized the trapping of invasive beavers in hopes of eliminating them.The ecological importance of beavers has led to cities likeSeattledesigning their parks andgreen spacesto accommodate the animals.TheMartinez beaversbecame famous in the mid-2000s for their role in improving the ecosystem ofAlhambra CreekinMartinez, California. Zoos have displayed beavers since at least the 19th century, though not commonly. In captivity, beavers have been used", "have been used for entertainment, fur harvesting, and for reintroduction into the wild. Captive beavers require access to water, substrate for digging, and artificial shelters.Archibald Stansfeld \"Grey Owl\" Belaneypioneered beaver conservation in the early 20th century. Belaney wrote several books, and was first to professionally film beavers in their environment. In 1931, he moved to a log cabin inPrince Albert National Park, where he was the \"caretaker of park animals\" and raised a beaver pair and their four offspring. Commercial use Beavers have been hunted, trapped, and exploited for their fur, meat, and castoreum. Since the animals typically stayed in one place, trappers could easily find them and could kill entire families in a lodge.Many pre-modern people mistakenly thought that castoreum was produced by the testicles or that the castor sacs of the beaver were its testicles, and females werehermaphrodites.Aesop's Fablesdescribes beavers chewing off their testicles to preserve themselves from hunters,", "from hunters, which is impossible because a beaver's testicles are internal. This myth persisted for centuries, and was corrected by French physicianGuillaume Rondeletin the 1500s.Beavers have historically been hunted and captured usingdeadfalls,snares, nets, bows and arrows, spears, clubs, firearms, and leg-hold traps. Castoreum was used to lure the animals. Castoreum was used for a variety of medical purposes;Pliny the Elderpromoted it as a treatment for stomach problems, flatulence, seizures,sciatica,vertigo, andepilepsy. He stated it could stop hiccups when mixed with vinegar, toothaches if mixed with oil (by administering into the ear opening on the same side as the tooth), and could be used as anantivenom. The substance has traditionally been prescribed to treathysteriain women, which was believed to have been caused by a \"toxic\" womb.Castoreum's properties have been credited to the accumulation ofsalicylic acidfrom willow and aspen trees in the beaver's diet, and has a physiological effect comparable", "effect comparable toaspirin.Today, the medical use of castoreum has declined and is limited mainly tohomeopathy.The substance is also used as an ingredient in perfumes andtinctures, and as a flavouring in food and drinks. VariousNative Americangroups have historically hunted beavers for food,they preferred its meat more than otherred meatsbecause of its higher calorie and fat content, and the animals remained plump in winter when they were most hunted. The bones were used to make tools.In medieval Europe, the Catholic Church considered the beaver to be part mammal and part fish, and allowed followers to eat the scaly, fishlike tail on meatless Fridays duringLent. Beaver tails were thus highly prized in Europe; they were described by French naturalistPierre Belonas tasting like a \"nicely dressed eel\". Beaver pelts were used to makehats;felterswould remove the guard hairs. The number of pelts needed depended on the type of hat, withCavalierandPuritanhats requiring more fur thantop hats.In the late 16th", "the late 16th century, Europeans began todeal in North American fursdue to the lack of taxes or tariffs on the continent and the decline of fur-bearers at home. Beaver pelts caused or contributed to theBeaver Wars,King William's War, and theFrench and Indian War; the trade madeJohn Jacob Astorand the owners of theNorth West Companyvery wealthy. For Europeans in North America, the fur trade was a driver of the exploration and westward exploration on the continent and contact with native peoples, who traded with them.The fur trade peaked between 1860 and 1870, when over 150,000 beaver pelts were purchased annually by theHudson's Bay Companyand fur companies in the United States.The contemporary global fur trade is not as profitable due to conservation,anti-furandanimal rightscampaigns. In culture The beaver has been used to represent productivity, trade, tradition, masculinity, and respectability. References to the beaver's skills are reflected in everyday language. The English verb \"to beaver\" means working", "means working with great effort and being \"as busy as a beaver\"; a \"beaver intellect\" refers to a way of thinking that is slow and honest. Though it typically has a wholesome image, the beaver's name has been used as asexual termfor the humanvulva. Native American mythsemphasize the beaver's skill and industriousness. In the mythology of theHaida, beavers are descended from the Beaver-Woman, who built a dam on a stream next to their cabin while her husband was out hunting and gave birth to the first beavers. In aCreestory, the Great Beaver and its dam caused aworld flood. Other tales involve beavers using their tree chewing skills against an enemy.Beavers have been featured as companions in some stories, including aLakotatale where a young woman flees from her evil husband with the aid of her pet beaver. Europeans have traditionally thought of beavers as fantastical animals due to their amphibious nature. They depicted them with exaggerated tusk-like teeth, dog- or pig-like bodies, fish tails, and visible", "tails, and visible testicles. French cartographerNicolas de Ferillustrated beavers building a dam atNiagara Falls, fantastically depicting them like human builders. Beavers have also appeared in literature such asDante Alighieri'sDivine Comedyand the writings ofAthanasius Kircher, who wrote that onNoah's Arkthe beavers were housed near a water-filled tub that was also used bymermaidsand otters. The beaver has long been associated with Canada, appearing on the first pictorial postage stamp issued in theCanadian coloniesin 1851 as the so-called \"Three-Penny Beaver\". It was declared thenational animalin 1975. Thefive-cent coin, the coat of arms of the Hudson's Bay Company, and the logos forParks CanadaandRoots Canadause its image.Frank and Gordonare two fictional beavers that appeared inBell Canada'sadvertisements between 2005 and 2008. However, the beaver's status as a rodent has made it controversial, and it was not chosen to be on theArms of Canadain 1921.The beaver has commonly been used to represent Canada", "to represent Canada inpolitical cartoons, typically to signify it as a friendly but relatively weak nation.In the United States, the beaver is thestate animalofNew YorkandOregon.It is also featured on the coat of arms of theLondon School of Economics. See also References Sources Further reading External links", "Hydrochoerus †H. ballesterensis†H. gaylordi†H. hesperotiganitesH. hydrochaerisH. isthmius The genusHydrochoeruscontains two living and three extinct species of rodents fromSouth America, the Caribbean island ofGrenada,CaliforniaandPanama.Capybaras are the largest living rodents in the world. The genus name is derived from theGreekὕδωρ(hýdor)'water'plusχοίρος(choíros)'pig'. Characteristics Capybaras aresemiaquatic, found in and near lakes, rivers, swamps, and flooded savanna. Their diets are dominated by grasses. Adults weigh up to 65 kg (143 lb). Thegestation periodis 130–150 days, with two to eight (most commonly four) young born to females. Behavior Capybaras are highly social, living in groups of up to 100 and communicating through a variety ofvocalizations.Breeding ispolygynous, with males formingharems. Phylogeny and taxonomy Molecularresults have consistently suggestedHydrochoerusis most closely related toKerodon(the rock cavies), and the two evolved from within theCaviidae.This led Woods and Kilpatrick", "and Kilpatrick to unite the two into the subfamilyHydrochoerinaewithin the Caviidae.Based on use of amolecular clockapproach,Hydrochoerusappears to have diverged fromKerodonin the late MiddleMiocene(about 12 million years ago). The extinct North American species formerly recognized asHydrochoerus holmesiis now assigned toNeochoerus. Species Extant Species Fossils Distribution Presently, capybaras live in northern South America and adjacent southern Central America (lesser capybara) and in the tropical to subtropical regions of South America (capybara). The fossil species inhabitedBuenos Aires Provincein Argentina (H. ballesterensis) and the Caribbean island ofGrenada(H. gaylordi). One species,H. hesperotiganiteseven ranged as far north as California.Fossils of unspecifiedHydrochoerushave been found inLate Pleistoceneto Holocene sediments ofCurití,Santander, at an altitude of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in theEastern Rangesof the ColombianAndes. Fauna found at the same site included theSouth American tapir(Tapirus", "tapir(Tapirus terrestris),Cryptotissp.,collared peccary(Tayassu tajacu),white-lipped peccary(Tayassu pecari), andMazamasp. References Bibliography Further reading", "Capybara Sus hydrochaerisLinnaeus, 1766 Thecapybaraorgreater capybara(Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) is the largest living rodent,native toSouth America. It is a member of the genusHydrochoerus. The only otherextantmember is thelesser capybara(Hydrochoerus isthmius). Its close relatives includeguinea pigsandrock cavies, and it is more distantly related to theagouti, thechinchilla, and thenutria. The capybara inhabits savannas and dense forests, and lives near bodies of water. It is a highly social species and can be found in groups as large as 100 individuals, but usually live in groups of 10–20 individuals. The capybara is hunted for its meat and hide and also for grease from its thick fatty skin. Etymology Its common name is derived fromTupika'apiûara, a complex agglutination ofkaá(leaf) +píi(slender) +ú(eat) +ara(a suffix for agent nouns), meaning \"one who eats slender leaves\", or \"grass-eater\".The genus name,hydrochoerus, comes fromGreekὕδωρ(hydor\"water\") andχοῖρος(choiros\"pig, hog\") and the species", "and the species name,hydrochaeris, comes from Greekὕδωρ(hydor\"water\") andχαίρω(chairo\"feel happy, enjoy\"). Classification and phylogeny The capybara and thelesser capybaraboth belong to the subfamilyHydrochoerinaealong with therock cavies. The living capybaras and their extinct relatives were previously classified in their own family Hydrochoeridae.Since 2002, molecular phylogenetic studies have recognized a close relationship betweenHydrochoerusandKerodon, the rock cavies,supporting placement of both genera in a subfamily ofCaviidae. Paleontological classifications previously used Hydrochoeridae for all capybaras, while using Hydrochoerinae for the living genus and its closest fossil relatives, such asNeochoerus,but more recently have adopted the classification of Hydrochoerinae within Caviidae.The taxonomy of fossil hydrochoerines is also in a state of flux. In recent years, the diversity of fossil hydrochoerines has been substantially reduced.This is largely due to the recognition that capybara molar", "that capybara molar teeth show strong variation in shape over the life of an individual. In one instance, material once referred to four genera and seven species on the basis of differences in molar shape is now thought to represent differently aged individuals of a single species,Cardiatherium paranense.Among fossil species, the name \"capybara\" can refer to the many species of Hydrochoerinae that are more closely related to the modernHydrochoerusthan to the \"cardiomyine\" rodents likeCardiomys. The fossil generaCardiatherium,Phugatherium,Hydrochoeropsis, andNeochoerusare all capybaras under that concept. Description The capybara has a heavy, barrel-shaped body and short head, with reddish-brown fur on the upper part of its body that turns yellowish-brown underneath. Its sweat glands can be found in the surface of the hairy portions of its skin, an unusual trait among rodents.The animal lacksdown hair, and itsguard hairdiffers little from over hair. Adult capybaras grow to 106 to 134 cm (3.48 to 4.40 ft) in", "to 4.40 ft) in length, stand 50 to 62 cm (20 to 24 in) tall at thewithers, and typically weigh 35 to 66 kg (77 to 146 lb), with an average in the Venezuelanllanosof 48.9 kg (108 lb).Females are slightly heavier than males. The top recorded weights are 91 kg (201 lb) for a wild female from Brazil and 73.5 kg (162 lb) for a wild male from Uruguay.Also, an 81 kg individual was reported in São Paulo in 2001 or 2002.Thedental formulais1.0.1.31.0.1.3. Capybaras have slightlywebbedfeet andvestigialtails.Their hind legs are slightly longer than their forelegs; they have three toes on their rear feet and four toes on their front feet.Their muzzles are blunt, with nostrils, and the eyes and ears are near the top of their heads. Itskaryotypehas2n= 66 andFN= 102, meaning it has 66 chromosomes with a total of 102 arms. Ecology Capybaras aresemiaquaticmammalsfound throughout all countries of South America exceptChile.They live in densely forested areas near bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds, and", "swamps, ponds, and marshes,as well as flooded savannah and along rivers in the tropical rainforest. They are superb swimmers and can hold their breath underwater for up to five minutes at a time. Capybara have flourished in cattle ranches. They roam in home ranges averaging 10 hectares (25 acres) in high-density populations. Many escapees from captivity can also be found in similar watery habitats around the world. Sightings are fairly common inFlorida, although a breeding population has not yet been confirmed.In 2011, one specimen was spotted on theCentral Coast of California.These escaped populations occur in areas where prehistoric capybaras inhabited;late Pleistocenecapybaras inhabited FloridaandHydrochoerus hesperotiganitesinCaliforniaandHydrochoerus gaylordiinGrenada, and feral capybaras in North America may actually fill the ecological niche of the Pleistocene species. Diet and predation Capybaras areherbivores, grazing mainly on grasses andaquatic plants,as well as fruit and tree bark.They are very", "bark.They are very selective feedersand feed on the leaves of one species and disregard other species surrounding it. They eat a greater variety of plants during the dry season, as fewer plants are available. While they eat grass during the wet season, they have to switch to more abundant reeds during the dry season.Plants that capybaras eat during the summer lose their nutritional value in the winter, so they are not consumed at that time.The capybara's jaw hinge is not perpendicular, so they chew food by grinding back-and-forth rather than side-to-side.Capybaras areautocoprophagous,meaning they eat their own feces as a source of bacterialgut flora, to help digest thecellulosein the grass that forms their normal diet, and to extract the maximum protein and vitamins from their food. They also regurgitate food to masticate again, similar to cud-chewing by cattle.Like other rodents, a capybara's front teeth grow continually to compensate for the constant wear from eating grasses;their cheek teeth also grow", "teeth also grow continuously. Like its relative the guinea pig, the capybara does not have the capacity to synthesizevitamin C, and capybaras not supplemented with vitamin C in captivity have been reported to developgum diseaseas a sign ofscurvy. The maximum lifespan of the capybara is 8 to 10 years,but in the wild capybaras usually do not live longer than four years because of predation from South Americanbig catssuch asjaguarsandcougarsand from non-mammalian predators such asharpy eagles,caimans,green anacondasandpiranhas. Social organization Capybaras are known to begregarious. While they sometimes live solitarily, they are more commonly found in groups of around 10–20 individuals, with two to four adult males, four to seven adult females, and the remainder juveniles.Capybara groups can consist of as many as 50 or 100 individuals during the dry seasonwhen the animals gather around available water sources. Males establish social bonds, dominance, or general group consensus.They can make dog-like barkswhen", "dog-like barkswhen threatened or when females are herding young. Capybaras have two types ofscent glands: a morrillo, located on the snout, andanal glands. Both sexes have these glands, but males have much larger morrillos and use their anal glands more frequently. The anal glands of males are also lined with detachable hairs. A crystalline form of scent secretion is coated on these hairs and is released when in contact with objects such as plants. These hairs have a longer-lasting scent mark and are tasted by other capybaras. Capybaras scent-mark by rubbing their morrillos on objects, or by walking over scrub and marking it with their anal glands. Capybaras can spread their scent farther by urinating; however, females usually mark without urinating and scent-mark less frequently than males overall. Females mark more often during the wet season when they are inestrus. In addition to objects, males also scent-mark females. Reproduction When inestrus, the female's scent changes subtly and nearby males begin", "nearby males begin pursuit.In addition, a female alerts males she is in estrus by whistling through her nose.During mating, the female has the advantage and mating choice. Capybaras mate only in water, and if a female does not want to mate with a certain male, she either submerges or leaves the water.Dominant males are highly protective of the females, but they usually cannot prevent some of the subordinates from copulating. The larger the group, the harder it is for the male to watch all the females. Dominant males secure significantly more matings than each subordinate, but subordinate males, as a class, are responsible for more matings than each dominant male.The lifespan of the capybara's sperm is longer than that of other rodents. Capybaragestationis 130–150 days, and produces a litter of four young on average, but may produce between one and eight in a single litter.Birth is on land and the female rejoins the group within a few hours of delivering the newborn capybaras, which join the group as soon as", "group as soon as they are mobile. Within a week, the young can eat grass, but continue to suckle—from any female in the group—until weaned around 16 weeks. The young form a group within the main group.Alloparentinghas been observed in this species.Breeding peaks between April and May in Venezuela and between October and November inMato Grosso, Brazil. Activities Though quite agile on land, capybaras are equally at home in the water. They are excellent swimmers, and can remain completely submerged for up to five minutes,an ability they use to evade predators. Capybaras can sleep in water, keeping only their noses out. As temperatures increase during the day, they wallow in water and then graze during the late afternoon and early evening.They also spend time wallowing in mud.They rest around midnight and then continue to graze before dawn. Communication Capybaras communicate using barks, chirps, whistles, huffs, and purrs. Conservation and human interaction Capybaras are not considered a threatened", "a threatened species;their population is stable throughout most of their South American range, though in some areas hunting has reduced their numbers.Capybaras are hunted for their meat and pelts in some areas,and otherwise killed by humans who see their grazing as competition for livestock. In some areas, they are farmed, which has the effect of ensuring the wetland habitats are protected. Their survival is aided by their ability to breed rapidly. Capybaras have adapted well to urbanization in South America. They can be found in many areas in zoos and parks,and may live for 12 years in captivity, more than double their wild lifespan.Capybaras are docile and usually allow humans to pet and hand-feed them, but physical contact is normally discouraged, as theirtickscan bevectorstoRocky Mountain spotted fever.TheEuropean Association of Zoos and AquariaaskedDrusillas ParkinAlfriston,Sussex, England, to keep thestudbookfor capybaras, to monitor captive populations in Europe. The studbook includes information", "information about all births, deaths and movements of capybaras, as well as how they are related. Capybaras are farmed for meat and skins in South America.The meat is considered unsuitable to eat in some areas, while in other areas it is considered an important source of protein.In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular duringLentandHoly Weekas the Catholic Church previously issued special dispensation to allow it to be eaten while other meats aregenerally forbidden.After several attempts a 1784Papal bullwas obtained that allowed the consumption of capybara during Lent.There is widespread perception in Venezuela that consumption of capybaras is exclusive to rural people. In August 2021, Argentine and international media reported that capybaras had been disturbing residents ofNordelta, an affluent gated community north ofBuenos Airesbuilt atop the local capybara's preexisting wetland habitat. This inspired social media users to jokingly adopt the capybara as a symbol ofclass", "as a symbol ofclass struggleandcommunism.Brazilian Lyme-likeborreliosislikely involves capybaras as reservoirs andAmblyommaandRhipicephalusticks as vectors. Popularity and meme culture Izu Shaboten Zooand other zoos inJapanhave preparedhot spring bathsfor capybaras.Video clips of the bathing capybaras have gained millions of views.The capybaras have influenced an anime character namedKapibara-san, and a series of merchandise such asplush toys.ACapybara caféhas been opened inTokyo. In the early 2020s, capybaras became a growing figure ofmeme culturedue to many factors, including the disturbances in Nordeltawhich led to them being comically postulated as figures of class struggle.Also, a common meme format includes capybaras in various situations with the song \"After Party\" byDon Toliver.At the same time there was a growth in popularity of internet hits for 'capybara'.Capybaras are also associated with the phrase \"Ok I pull up\", the opening lyric in Toliver's song. See also Notes References External links", "South America South Americais a continententirely in theWestern Hemisphereand mostly in theSouthern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in theNorthern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southernsubregionof theAmericas. South America is bordered on the west by thePacific Oceanand on the north and east by theAtlantic Ocean;North Americaand theCaribbean Sealie to the northwest. The continent includes twelve sovereign states:Argentina,Bolivia,Brazil,Chile,Colombia,Ecuador,Guyana,Paraguay,Peru,Suriname,Uruguay, andVenezuela; twodependent territories: theFalkland IslandsandSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands;and oneinternal territory:French Guiana. The territories of theABC islandsof theKingdom of the Netherlands(north of Venezuela in the Western Caribbean), theBritish Overseas TerritoryofSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha(in the Southern Atlantic),Bouvet Island(adependencyofNorway),Panama, and the island Republic ofTrinidad and Tobagomay also be considered parts of South", "parts of South America. South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population as of 2021has been estimated at more than 434 million.South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) andfifthin population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with almost half of the continent's population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela and Peru. In recent decades, Brazil has also generated half of the continent's GDP and has become the continent's first regional power. Most of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and thefar southare sparsely populated. The geography of western South America is dominated by theAndesmountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers such as theAmazon,OrinocoandParanáflow. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of", "for a large part of theSouthern Conelocated in themiddle latitudes. The continent's cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction ofIndigenous peopleswith Europeanconquerorsand immigrants and, more locally, withAfrican slaves. Given a longhistory of colonialism, the overwhelming majority of South Americans speakSpanishorPortuguese, and societies and states are rich inWestern traditions. Relative to Europe, Asia and Africa, post-1900 South America has been a peaceful continent with few wars,althoughhigh rates of violent crimeremain a concern in some countries. Geography South America occupies the southern portion of the Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by theDarién watershedalong theColombia–Panama border, although some may consider the border instead to be thePanama Canal.Geopoliticallyand geographically, all ofPanama– including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America aloneand among the countries ofCentral", "countries ofCentral America.Almost all of mainland South America sits on theSouth American Plate. South America is home to several superlatives, including theworld's highest uninterrupted waterfall,Angel Fallsin Venezuela; the highest single-drop waterfallKaieteur Fallsin Guyana; the largest river by volume, theAmazon River; the longest mountain range, theAndes(whose highest mountain isAconcaguaat 6,962 m or 22,841 ft); the driest non-polar place on earth, theAtacama Desert;the wettest place on earth,López de Micayin Colombia; the largest rainforest, theAmazon rainforest; the highest capital city,La Paz,Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world,Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations inAntarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community,Puerto Toro, Chile. South America's majormineral resourcesare gold, silver, copper, iron ore,tin, and petroleum. These resources have brought high income to its countries, especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by", "economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one, or few, major exportcommoditieshas often hindered the development and diversification of its economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in international markets has led historically to major highs and lows, booms and busts, in the economies of South American states, often causing political instability.This has led for calls to diversify production and increase trade within South America itself. Brazil is the largest country in South America, covering a little less than half of the continent's land area and encompassing around half of the continent's population.The remaining countries and territories are divided among foursubregions: the Andean states,Caribbean South America,The Guianas, and theSouthern Cone. Outlying islands Physiographically, South America also includes some of the nearby islands. The DutchABC islands(Aruba,Bonaire, andCuraçao), the islands ofTrinidad and Tobago(Trinidad", "and Tobago(Trinidad IslandandTobago Islandetc.), theState of Nueva Esparta, and theFederal Dependencies of Venezuelasit on the northern portion of the South Americancontinental shelfand are sometimes considered parts of the continent. Geopolitically, all the island countries and territories in theCaribbeanhave generally been grouped as asubregionof North America instead. By contrast,Aves Island(administered byVenezuela) and theArchipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina(San Andrés Island,Providencia Island, andSanta Catalina Islandetc., which are administered byColombia) are politically parts of South American countries but physiographically parts of North America. Other islands often associated with geopolitical South America are theChiloé ArchipelagoandRobinson Crusoe Island(both administered by Chile),Easter Island(culturally a part of Oceania, also administered by Chile),theGalápagos Islands(administered byEcuador, sometimes considered part of Oceania),andTierra del Fuego(split between", "Fuego(split between Argentina and Chile). In the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil administersFernando de Noronha,Trindade and Martim Vaz, and theSaint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, while theFalkland Islands(Spanish:Islas Malvinas) andSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands(biogeographicallyandhydrologicallyassociated with Antarctica)have been administered as twoBritish Overseas Territoriesunderthe Crown, whose sovereignty over the islands isdisputedbyArgentina. Special cases An isolatedvolcanic islandon theSouth American Plate,Ascension Islandis geologically a part of South America.Administered as a dependency ofSaint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, the island is geopoliticallya partof Africa. Climate All of the world's major climate zones are present in South America. The distribution of the average temperatures in the region presents a constant regularity from the30° of latitude south, when the isotherms tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude. In temperate latitudes,", "latitudes, winters and summers are milder than in North America. This is because the most extensive part of the continent is in the equatorial zone (the region has more areas of equatorial plains than any other region),therefore giving theSouthern Conemore oceanic influence, which moderates year round temperatures. The average annual temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around 27 °C (81 °F), with low thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between theMaracaibo Lakeand the mouth of the Orinoco, predominates anequatorial climateof the type Congolese, that also includes parts of the Brazilian territory. The east-central Brazilian plateau has a humid and warm tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampas have ahumid subtropical climatewith dry winters and humid summers of the Chinese type, while the western and eastern ranges have a subtropical climate of the dinaric type. At the highest points of the Andean region, climates are colder than the ones occurring at the highest", "at the highest point of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean plateaus, the warm climate prevails, although it is tempered by the altitude, while in the coastal strip, there is an equatorial climate of the Guinean type. From this point until the north of the Chilean coast appear, successively,Mediterranean oceanic climate, temperate of the Breton type and, already inTierra del Fuego, cold climate of the Siberian type. The distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of winds and air masses. In most of thetropical regioneast of the Andes, winds blowing from the northeast, east and southeast carry moisture from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. However, due to a consistently strongwind shearand a weakIntertropical Convergence Zone,South Atlantic tropical cyclonesare rare.In theOrinoco Llanosand in theGuianas Plateau, the precipitation levels go from moderate to high. The Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador are rainy regions, withChocóin Colombia being the rainiest place in the world along", "in the world along with the northern slopes of Indian Himalayas.The Atacama Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the world. The central and southern parts of Chile are subject toextratropical cyclones, and most of the ArgentinePatagoniaisdesert. In thePampasof Argentina, Uruguay and South of Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with rains well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of Paraguay. In thesemiaridcoast of the Brazilian Northeast the rains are linked to a monsoon regime. Important factors in the determination of climates are sea currents, such as the current Humboldt andFalklands. The equatorial current of the South Atlantic strikes the coast of the Northeast and there is divided into two others: the current of Brazil and a coastal current that flows to the northwest towards theAntilles, where there it moves towards northeast course thus forming the most Important and famous ocean current", "ocean current in the world, theGulf Stream. Fauna South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on Earth. It is home to many unique species of animals including thellama,anaconda,piranha,jaguar,vicuña, andtapir, and to one of the largest known insects in the world, theTitan beetle. The Amazon rainforests possess highbiodiversity, with Brazil estimated to contain 10% of Earth'sspecies.83% of South America's large mammals (megafauna) became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene around 11,000 years ago as part of theQuaternary extinction event, among the highest of any continent, with the casualties includingsaber-toothed cats,ground sloths,glyptodonts,gomphotheres, the equinesHippidionandEquus neogeus, and all remainingSouth American native ungulates. History Prehistory South America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing theBering Land Bridge(now theBering Strait) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through", "south through North America, and eventually reached South America through theIsthmus of Panama. Amongst the oldest evidence for human presence in South America is theMonte Verde IIsite in Chile, suggested to date to around 14,500 years ago.From around 13,000 years ago, theFishtail projectile pointstyle became widespread across South America, with its disappearence around 11,000 years ago coincident with the disappearance of South America's megafauna.Maize was present in northern South America by around 6,000 years ago. By 2000 BC, manyagrariancommunities had been settled throughout theAndesand the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of anagrarian society. South American cultures began domesticatingllamas,vicuñas,guanacos, andalpacasin the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were", "these animals were used for transportation of goods. Pre-Columbian civilizations The rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America. One of the earliest known South American civilizations wasCaral–Supe, on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Caral–Supe created one of the first cities of the world, generally dated to around 3500 BC, atHuaricangain theFortalezaarea, contemporaneous with the pyramids ofAncient Egypt, one of theoldest-known civilizationsin the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world.Caral–Supe governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed byChavínby 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site calledChavín de Huantarin modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters (10,423 ft). Chavín", "(10,423 ft). Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC. In the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD,Moche(100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru),ParacasandNazca(400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture throughirrigationand new styles of ceramic art. At theAltiplano, Tiahuanaco orTiwanaku(100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion. Around the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari orHuariEmpire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography. TheMuiscawere the main indigenous civilization in what is now Colombia. They established theMuisca Confederationof many clans, orcacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. Many were goldsmiths and farmers. Other important Pre-Columbian cultures include: theCañaris(in south central Ecuador),Chimú", "Ecuador),Chimú Empire(1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast),Chachapoyas, and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru). Holding their capital at the great city ofCusco, theInca civilizationdominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known asTawantin suyu, and \"the land of the four regions\", inQuechua, theInca Empirewas highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometerroad system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain.Terrace farmingwas a useful form of agriculture. TheMapuchein Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging theArauco Warfor more than 300 years. European colonization In 1494,Portugaland Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed theTreaty of Tordesillas, by which they", "by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusiveduopolybetween the two countries. The treaty established an imaginary line along a north–southmeridian370leagueswest of theCape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements oflongitudewere impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in aPortuguese expansion of Brazilacross the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreignconquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European infectious diseases (smallpox,influenza,measles, andtyphus) – to which thenative populationshad no immune resistance – caused", "resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as thehaciendasand mining industry'smit'aalso contributed to the depopulation. After this,enslaved Africans, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blendedCatholicismwith their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the RomanCatholic Church's evangelization inQuechua,Aymara, andGuaraníactually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form. Eventually, thenativesand the Spaniards interbred, forming amestizoclass. At the beginning, many mestizos of the", "mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American. Guyanawas initiallycolonized by the Dutchbefore coming", "Dutchbefore coming underBritish control, though there was a brief period during theNapoleonic Warswhen it was occupied by theFrench. The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain. Suriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and thensettled by the Englishin the mid-17th century. It became aDutch colonyin 1667. Slavery in South America The indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via theslave trade. European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. TheAtlantic", "TheAtlantic slave tradebrought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502.The main destinations of this phase were theCaribbeancolonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in theNew World. Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866. In contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750, thePortuguese Crownabolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples incolonial Brazil, under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas onslave ships, under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold inslave markets.After independence, all South American countries maintained", "maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Guyana in 1833, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery. Independence from Spain and Portugal The EuropeanPeninsular War(1807–14), a theater of theNapoleonic Wars, changed the political situation of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but theHouse of Braganzaavoided capture byescaping to Brazil. Napoleon captured KingFerdinand VIIof Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked popular resistance, which createdJuntasto rule in the name of the captured king. Many cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began theSpanish American wars of", "American wars of independencebetween the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and theroyalists, who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of theEnlightenment. Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began theAbsolutist Restoration, as the royalists got the upper hand in the conflict. The independence of South America was secured bySimón Bolívar(Venezuela) andJosé de San Martín(Argentina), the two most importantLibertadores. Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army south towardsLima, the capital of theViceroyalty of Peru. Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized a fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1822 the two men met at theGuayaquil Conferencein Ecuador, where they failed to agree on governance strategies for the", "strategies for the liberated nations.Two years later Bolívar's forces beat the Spanish at theBattle of Ayacucho, securing the independence of Peru and the rest of South America. In thePortuguese Kingdom of Brazil,Dom Pedro I(also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese KingDom João VI, proclaimed the independentKingdom of Brazilin 1822, which later became theEmpire of Brazil. Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons inBahia,CisplatinaandPará, independence was diplomatically accepted by Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediated by the United Kingdom. Nation-building and fragmentation The newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as theRepublic of", "as theRepublic of Entre Ríosand theRiograndense Republic). The first separatist attempt was in 1820 by the Argentine province ofEntre Ríos, led by acaudillo.In spite of the \"Republic\" in its title,General Ramírez, its caudillo, never really intended to declare an independent Entre Rios. Rather, he was making a political statement in opposition to the monarchist and centralist ideas that back then permeatedBuenos Airespolitics. The \"country\" was reincorporated at the United Provinces in 1821. In 1825, theCisplatine Provincedeclared its independence from theEmpire of Brazil, which led to theCisplatine Warbetween the imperials and the Argentine from theUnited Provinces of the Río de la Platato control the region. Three years later, the United Kingdom intervened in the question by proclaiming a tie and creating in the former Cisplatina a new independent country: TheOriental Republic of Uruguay. Later in 1836, while Brazil was experiencing the chaos of the regency,Rio Grande do Sulproclaimed its", "Sulproclaimed its independencemotivated by a tax crisis. With the anticipation of the coronation ofPedro IIto the throne of Brazil, the country could stabilize and fight the separatists, which the province ofSanta Catarinahad joined in 1839. The Conflict came to an end by a process of compromise by which bothRiograndense RepublicandJuliana Republicwere reincorporated as provinces in 1845. ThePeru–Bolivian Confederation, a short-lived union of Peru and Bolivia, was blocked by Chile in theWar of the Confederation(1836–1839) and again during theWar of the Pacific(1879–1883). Paraguay was virtually destroyed by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay in theParaguayan War. Wars and conflicts Despite theSpanish American wars of independenceand theBrazilian War of Independence, the new nations quickly began to suffer with internal conflicts and wars among themselves. Most of the 1810 borders countries had initially accepted on theuti possidetis iurisprinciple had by 1848 either been altered by war or were contested. In 1825,", "contested. In 1825, the proclamation of independence of Cisplatina led to theCisplatine Warbetween historical rivals theEmpire of Braziland theUnited Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentina's predecessor. The result was a stalemate, ending with theBritish governmentarranging for the independence of Uruguay. Soon after, another Brazilian province proclaimed its independence leading to theRagamuffin Warwhich Brazil won. Between 1836 and 1839, theWar of the Confederationbroke out between the short-livedPeru-Bolivian Confederationand Chile, with the support of theArgentine Confederation. The war was fought mostly in the actual territory ofPeruand ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the Confederacy and annexation of many territories by Argentina. Meanwhile, theArgentine Civil Warsplagued Argentina since its independence. The conflict was mainly between those who defended the centralization of power in Buenos Aires and those who defended a confederation. During this period it can be said", "it can be said that \"there were two Argentines\": theArgentine Confederationand theArgentine Republic. At the same time, the political instability in Uruguay led to theUruguayan Civil Waramong the main political factions of the country. All this instability in theplatine regioninterfered with the goals of other countries such as Brazil, which was soon forced to take sides. In 1851, theBrazilian Empire, supporting the centralizing unitarians, and theUruguayan governmentinvaded Argentina and deposed the caudillo,Juan Manuel Rosas, who ruled the confederation with an iron hand. Although thePlatine Wardid not put an end to the political chaos and civil war in Argentina, it brought temporary peace to Uruguay where theColorados factionwon, supported byBrazil,Britain,Franceand theUnitarian Partyof Argentina. Peace lasted only a short time: in 1864, the Uruguayan factions faced each other again in theUruguayan War. TheBlancossupported by Paraguay started to attack Brazilian and Argentine farmers near the borders. The", "the borders. The Empire made an initial attempt to settle the dispute between Blancos and Colorados without success. In 1864, after a Brazilian ultimatum was refused, the imperial government declared that Brazil's military would begin reprisals. Brazil declined to acknowledge a formal state of war, and, for most of its duration, the Uruguayan–Brazilian armed conflict was an undeclared war which led to the deposition of theBlancosand the rise of the pro-BrazilianColoradosto power again. This angered the Paraguayan government, which even before the end of the war invaded Brazil, beginning the longest and bloodiest inter-state war in Latin American history: the Paraguayan War. The Paraguayan War began when the Paraguayan dictatorFrancisco Solano Lópezordered the invasion of the Brazilian provinces ofMato GrossoandRio Grande do Sul. His attempt to cross Argentinian territory without Argentinian approval led the pro-Brazilian Argentine government into the war. The pro-Brazilian Uruguayan government showed its", "showed its support by sending troops. In 1865 the three countries signed theTreaty of the Triple Allianceagainst Paraguay. At the beginning of the war, the Paraguayans took the lead with several victories, until the Triple Alliance organized to repel the invaders and fight effectively. This was the secondtotal warexperience in the world after theAmerican Civil War. It was deemed the greatest war effort in the history of all participating countries, taking almost 6 years and ending with the complete devastation of Paraguay. The country lost 40% of its territory to Brazil and Argentina and lost 60% of its population, including 90% of the men. The dictator Lopez was killed in battle and a new government was instituted in alliance with Brazil, which maintained occupation forces in the country until 1876. The last South American war in the 19th century was theWar of the Pacificwith Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. In 1879 the war began with Chilean troops occupying Bolivian ports, followed by", "ports, followed by Bolivia declaring war on Chile which activated an alliance treaty with Peru. The Bolivians were completely defeated in 1880 and Lima was occupied in 1881. Peace was signed with Peru in 1883 while a truce was signed with Bolivia in 1884. Chile annexed territories of both countries leaving Bolivialandlocked. In the new century, as wars became less violent and less frequent, Brazil entered into a small conflict with Bolivia for the possession of the Acre, which was acquired by Brazil in 1902. In 1917 Brazil declared war on theCentral Powers, joined the allied side in theFirst World Warand sent a small fleet to theMediterranean Seaand some troops to be integrated with the British and French forces in the region. Brazil was the only South American country that participated in the First World War.Later in 1932 Colombia and Peru entered ashort armed conflictfor territory in the Amazon. In the same year Paraguay declaredwar on Boliviafor possession of the Chaco, in a conflict that ended three", "that ended three years later with Paraguay's victory. Between 1941 and 1942 Peru and Ecuadorfought for territoriesclaimed by both that were annexed by Peru, usurping Ecuador's frontier with Brazil. Also in this period, the first major naval battle ofWorld War IItook place in the South Atlantic close to the continental mainland: theBattle of the River Plate, between a Britishcruisersquadron and a Germanpocket battleship.The Germans still made numerous attacks on Brazilian ships on the coast, causing Brazil to declare war on theAxis powersin 1942, being the only South American country to fight in this war (and in both World Wars). Brazil sent naval and air forces tocombat German and Italian submarinesoff the continent and throughout the South Atlantic, in addition to sending anexpeditionary forceto fight in theItalian Campaign. A brief war was fought between Argentina and the UK in 1982, following an Argentine invasion of theFalkland Islands, which ended with an Argentine defeat. The last international war to", "war to be fought on South American soil was the 1995Cenepa Warbetween Ecuador and the Peru along their mutual border. Rise and fall of military dictatorships Wars became less frequent in the 20th century, with Bolivia-Paraguay and Peru-Ecuador fighting the last inter-state wars. Early in the 20th century, thethree wealthiest South American countriesengaged ina vastly expensive naval arms racewhich began after the introduction of a new warship type, the \"dreadnought\". At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of its entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase. The continent became a battlefield of theCold Warin the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of", "detained tens of thousands ofpolitical prisoners, many of whom were tortured or killed oninter-state collaboration. Economically, they began a transition toneoliberaleconomic policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of \"National Security\" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered froman internal conflict. In 1982, Argentina invaded theFalkland Islands, a Britishdependent territory. TheFalklands Warbegan and 74 days laterArgentine forces surrendered. Colombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation ofMarxistguerrillas(FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced, FARC. Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since", "War II, but since the 1980s, a wave of democratization passed through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now.Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, on most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued. International indebtednessbecame a significant problem in the late 1980s, and some countries, despite having strong democracies, have not developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without resorting to unorthodox economic policies. This was illustrated by Argentina'sdefaultin the early 21st century.There has been an increased push towardsregional integration, with the creation of uniquely South American institutions such as theAndean Community,MercosurandUnasur. Starting with the election ofHugo Chávezin Venezuela in 1998, the region experienced apink tide– the election of several leftist and center-left administrations in most", "in most countries, except the Guianas and Colombia. Contemporary issues South America's political geography since the 1990s has been characterized by a desire to reduce foreign influence.The nationalization of industries, by which the state controls entire economic sectors (as opposed of private companies doing it), has become a prominent political issue in the region.Some South American nations have nationalized their electricity industries. Countries and territories Government and politics Historically, the Hispanic countries were founded as Republican dictatorships led bycaudillos. Brazil was the only exception, being aconstitutional monarchyfor its first 67 years of independence, until a coup d'état proclaimed a republic. In the late 19th century, the most democratic countries wereBrazil,Chile, Argentina and Uruguay. All South American countries arepresidential republicswith the exception ofSuriname, aparliamentary republic.French Guianais aFrench overseas department, while theFalkland IslandsandSouth", "IslandsandSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islandsare British overseas territories. It is currently the only inhabited continent in the world without monarchies; theEmpire of Brazilexisted during the 19th century and there was an unsuccessful attempt to establish aKingdom of Araucanía and Patagoniain southern Argentina and Chile. Also in the twentieth century,Surinamewas established as a constituent kingdom of theKingdom of the NetherlandsandGuyanaretained theBritish monarchashead of statefor 4 years after its independence. Recently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions:Mercosurand theAndean Community, thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world.This new political organization, known asUnion of South American Nations, seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination oftariffs. Demographics South America has a population of over 428 million people. They are distributed as to", "distributed as to form a \"hollow continent\" with most of the population concentrated around the margins of the continent.On one hand, there are several sparsely populated areas such astropical forests, theAtacama Desertand the icy portions ofPatagonia. On the other hand, the continent presents regions of high population density, such as the great urban centers. The population is formed by descendants of Europeans (mainlySpaniards,Portugueseand Italians),AfricansandAmerindians. There is a high percentage ofMestizosthat vary greatly in composition by place. There is a population of about 5 million Asians, mostlyEast Asians, especially in Brazil,Peru, andArgentina. The two main languages are by far Spanish and Portuguese, followed by English, French and Dutch in smaller numbers. Language Spanish andPortugueseare the most spoken languages in South America, with approximately 200 million speakers each. Spanish is the official language of most countries, along with other native languages in some countries.", "in some countries. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil.Dutchis the official language ofSuriname; English is the official language ofGuyana, although there are at least twelve other languages spoken in the country, includingPortuguese, Chinese,Hindustaniand several native languages.English is also spoken in theFalkland Islands. French is the official language ofFrench Guianaand the second language inAmapá, Brazil. Indigenous languagesof South America includeQuechuain Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina and Colombia;Wayuunaikiin northern Colombia (La Guajira) and northwestern Venezuela (Zulia);Guaraníin Paraguay and, to a much lesser extent, in Bolivia;Aymarain Bolivia, Peru, and less often in Chile; andMapudungunis spoken in certain pockets of southern Chile. At least three South American indigenous languages (Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages. Other languages found in South America includeSranan Tongo,HindustaniandJavanesein Suriname; Italian", "Suriname; Italian in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Venezuela; and German in certain pockets of Argentina, Chile and Brazil. German is also spoken in many regions of the southern states of Brazil,Riograndenser Hunsrückischbeing the most widely spoken German dialect in the country; among other Germanic dialects, a Brazilian form ofEast Pomeranianis also well represented and is experiencing a revival.Welshremains spoken and written in the historic towns ofTrelewandRawsonin the ArgentinePatagonia,Croatianis spoken in southern Chile, Arabic speakers, often ofLebanese,Syrian, orPalestiniandescent, can be found in Arab communities in Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela and in Paraguay. Religion An estimated 90% of South Americans are Christians(82%Roman Catholic, 8% other Christian denominations mainly traditionalProtestantsandEvangelicalsbut alsoOrthodox), accounting for 19% of Christians worldwide. African descendent and Indigenous religions are common throughout South America; some examples areSanto", "examples areSanto Daime,Candomblé, andUmbanda.Crypto-JewsorMarranos,conversos, andAnusimwere an important part of colonial life in Latin America. Buenos Aires and São Paulo figure among the largestJewish populations by urban area. East Asian religionssuch asJapanese Buddhism,Shintoism, andShinto-derivedJapanese New Religionsare common in Brazil and Peru.Korean Confucianismis especially found in Brazil, whileChinese BuddhismandChinese Confucianismhave spread throughout the continent.Kardecist Spiritismcan be found in several countries. Hindusform 25% of the Guyanese population and 22% of Suriname's. Muslims account for 7% of the Guyanese population and 14% of the Surinamese population.Almost all Muslims in Suriname are either Indonesian or Indians and in Guyana, most are Indian. Part of Religions in South America (2013): Ethnic demographics Genetic admixtureoccurs at high levels in South America. In Argentina, European influence accounts for 65–80% of the genetic background,Amerindian(indigenous people)", "people) 17–31% and sub-Saharan African 2–4%. In Colombia, the sub-Saharan African genetic background varied 1% to 89%, while the European genetic background varied from 20 to 79%, depending on the region. In Peru, European ancestries ranged from 1% to 31%, while the African contribution was only 1–3%.The Genographic Project determined the average Peruvian from Lima had about 25% European ancestry, 68% Native American, 3% Southwest Asian ancestry and 2% sub-Saharan African. Descendants ofindigenous peoples, such as theQuechuaandAymara, or theUrarinaofAmazonia, make up the majority of the population in Bolivia (56%) and Peru (44%).In Ecuador, Amerindians comprise two-fifths of the population. The indigenous population is also a significant element in most other countries in South America. People who identify as of primarily or totallyEuropean descent, or identify theirphenotypeas corresponding to such group, are a majority in Uruguay,ArgentinaandChile(64.7%),and are 43.5% of the population in Brazil.In", "in Brazil.In Venezuela, according to the census, 42% of the population is of primarily Spanish, Italian or Portuguese descendence.In Colombia, people who identify as from European descendants are about 37%.In Peru, European descendants are the third group in number (15%). Mestizos(mixed European and Amerindian) are the largest ethnic group in Bolivia, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombiaand Ecuador and the second group in Peru, Chile and Argentina. South America is home to one of the largest populations ofAfricans. This group is significantly present in Brazil, Colombia,Guyana,Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela and Ecuador. Brazil, followed by Peru, has the largest Japanese, Korean and Chinese communities in South America. Lima has the largest ethnic Chinese community in Latin America.Guyana and Suriname have the largest ethnicEast Indiancommunity. Indigenous people In some places indigenous people still practice a traditional lifestyle, based on subsistence agriculture or as hunter-gatherers. There are", "There are stilluncontacted tribesresiding in the Amazon Rainforest. Populace While Brazil, Argentina, and Colombia maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. The top ten largest South American metropolitan areas by population as of 2015, based on national censuses: Five of thetop ten metropolitan areasare in Brazil. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 4 million and include theSão Paulo metropolitan area,Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, andBelo Horizonte metropolitan area. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within Brazil, Argentina is host to the second largest metropolitan area by population in South America: theBuenos Aires metropolitan region, above 13 million. South America has been witness to the growth ofmegapolitan areas. In Brazil four megaregions exist including theExpanded Metropolitan Complex of São Paulowith more than 32 million inhabitants. The others are the Greater Rio, Greater Belo Horizonte", "Belo Horizonte andGreater Porto Alegre. Colombia also has four megaregions which comprise 72% of its population, followed by Venezuela, Argentina and Peru which are also homes of megaregions. Economy Since 1930, the continent has experienced growth and diversification in most economic sectors. Most agricultural and livestock products are destined for the domestic market and local consumption. However, the export ofagricultural productsis essential for thebalance of tradein most countries. The main agrarian crops are export crops, such assoyand wheat. The production of staple foods such as vegetables, corn or beans is large, but focused on domestic consumption. Livestock raising for meat exports is significant in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Colombia. In tropical regions the most important crops are coffee,cocoaandbananas, mainly in Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador. Traditionally, the countries producing sugar for export are Peru, Guyana and Suriname, and in Brazil,sugar caneis also used to makeethanol. On", "to makeethanol. On the coast of Peru, northeast and south of Brazil, cotton is grown. 51% of South America's land surface is covered by forest.Transnational companies have settled in theAmazon rainforestto exploit timber destined for export. The Pacific coastal waters are the most important for commercial fishing. The anchovy catch reaches thousands of tonnes, and tuna is abundant, Peru is a major exporter. The capture ofcrustaceansis large, particularly in northeastern Brazil and Chile. Brazil and Argentina are part of theG20industrial countries, while only Brazil is part of theG8+5(the most powerful and influential nations in the world). In the tourism sector, negotiations began in 2005 to promote tourism and increase air connections within the region.Punta del Este,FlorianópolisandMar del Plataare among the largest resorts in South America. The most industrialized countries in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Colombia and Chile respectively. These countries alone account for more than 80% of the", "than 80% of the region's economy. Industries in South America significantly developed from the 1930s, when theGreat Depressionin the United States and elsewhere, boosted industrial production on the continent. The region partially moved away from agriculture and began to achieve high rates of economic growth that remained until the early 1990s, when they slowed due to political instabilities and economic crises. Since the end of the economic crisis in Brazil and Argentina between 1998 and 2002, which led toeconomic recession, rising unemployment and falling income, the industrial and service sectors have recovered. South America has shown good signs of economic stability, with controlled inflation and exchange rates, continuous growth, a decrease insocial inequalityand unemployment – factors that favor industry. The main industries are: electronics, textiles, food, automotive, metallurgy, aviation, naval, clothing, beverage, steel, tobacco, timber, chemical, among others. Theeconomic gapbetween rich and poor", "rich and poor in most South American nations is larger than most other continents. The richest 10% receive over 40% of the nation's income in Bolivia, Brazil and Colombia,while the poorest 20% receive 4% or less.This wide gap can be seen in large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie in the vicinity of skyscrapers and luxury apartments; many South Americans live on less than $2 per day. Agriculture The four countries with the strongest agriculture are Brazil,Argentina, Chile andColombia. Currently: Brazil is the world's largest exporter ofchicken meat: 3.8 million tonnes in 2019.The country is the holder of the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15% of global production.It was also the third largest world producer of milk in 2018, 35 billion liters.In 2019, Brazil was the 4th largest pork producer in the world, with almost 4 million tonnes.In 2018,Argentinawas the fourth largest", "the fourth largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tonnes (behind only the United States, Brazil and China). Inchicken meatproduction, Argentina ranks among the 15 largest producers in the world, and Peru and Colombia among the 20 biggest producers. In beef production, Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers in the world. Inhoneyproduction, Argentina ranks among the five largest. Incow's milk, Argentina ranks among the 20 largest producers. Manufacturing TheWorld Bankannually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list, Brazil has the thirteenth most valuable industry in the world (US$174 billion),Venezuelathe thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to obtain this value),Argentinathe 31st largest (US$57.7 billion),Colombiathe 46th largest (US$35.4 billion),Peruthe 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) and Chile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion). Brazil has the third-largest manufacturing sector in the", "sector in the Americas. Accounting for 29 percent of GDP, Brazil's industries range from automobiles, steel, and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft (Embraer), food, pharmaceutical, footwear, metallurgy and consumer durables. In thefood industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world.In 2016, the country was the 2nd largest producer ofpulpand the 8th producer of paper.In thefootwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers.In 2019, the country was the 8th producer ofvehiclesand the 9th producer of steel in the world.In 2018, thechemical industryof Brazil was the 8th in the world.Intextile industry, Brazil, although it was among the five largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated in world trade. Mining Mining is one of the most important economic sectors in South America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent is a large producer of gold (mainly in Peru, Brazil and", "in Peru, Brazil and Argentina);silver (mainly in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina);copper (mainly in Chile, Peru and Brazil);iron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile);zinc(Peru, Bolivia and Brazil);molybdenum(Chile and Peru);lithium(Chile, Argentina and Brazil);lead (Peru and Bolivia);bauxite(Brazil);tin(Peru, Bolivia and Brazil);manganese(Brazil);antimony(Bolivia and Ecuador);nickel(Brazil);niobium(Brazil);rhenium(Chile);iodine(Chile),among others. Brazil stands out in the extraction of iron ore (where it is the second largest producer and exporter in the world – iron ore is usually one of the three export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance), copper, gold,bauxite(one of the five largest producers in the world),manganese(one of the five largest producers in the world),tin(one of the largest producers in the world),niobium(concentrates 98% of reserves known to the world) andnickel. In terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer ofamethyst,topaz,agateand one of", "one of the main producers oftourmaline,emerald,aquamarine,garnetandopal. Chile contributes about a third of the world copper production.In addition to copper, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer ofiodineandrhenium,the second largest producer oflithiumandmolybdenum,the sixth largest producer of silver,the seventh largest producer of salt,the eighth largest producer ofpotash,the thirteenth producer ofsulfurand the thirteenth producer of iron orein the world. In 2019,Peruwas the 2nd largest world producer of copperand silver,8th largest world producer of gold,3rd largest world producer of lead,2nd largest world producer ofzinc,4th largest world producer oftin,5th largest world producer ofboronand 4th largest world producer ofmolybdenum. In 2019,Boliviawas the 8th largest world producer of silver;4th largest world producer ofboron;5th largest world producer ofantimony;5th largest world producer oftin;6th largest world producer oftungsten;7th largest producer ofzinc,and the 8th largest producer of", "largest producer of lead. In 2019,Argentinawas the 4th largest world producer oflithium,the 9th largest world producer of silver,the 17th largest world producer of goldand the 7th largest world producer ofboron. Colombiais the world's largest producer ofemeralds.In the production of gold, among 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tonnes (15 long tons; 17 short tons) per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tonnes (65.1 long tons; 72.9 short tons) extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tonnes (51.4 long tons; 57.5 short tons). The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15.5 tonnes (15.3 long tons; 17.1 short tons). In the production of oil, Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Venezuela was the 21st largest, with 877 thousand barrels / day and Colombia in 22nd with 886 thousand. As Venezuela and Ecuador consume", "and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part ofOPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (where it produced 2.5 million barrels / day), falling in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investment. For natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1524 bcf (billion cubic feet), Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379. In the beginning of 2020, in the production ofoiland natural gas, Brazil exceeded 4 millionbarrels of oil equivalentper day, for the first time. In January 2021, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 139 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.The continent had 2 of the 30 largest world producers of coal in 2018: Colombia (12th) and Brazil (27th). Tourism Tourism has increasingly become a significant source of income for South American countries. Historic relics, architectural and natural wonders, a diverse range of foods and culture, colorful cities, and pretty landscapes attract", "landscapes attract millions of tourists every year to South America. Some of the most visited places in the region areRio de Janeiro,Florianópolis,Iguazu Falls, São Paulo,Armação dos Búzios,Salvador,Bombinhas,Angra dos Reis,Balneário Camboriú,Paraty,Ipojuca,Natal,Cairu,FortalezaandItapemain Brazil;Buenos Aires,Bariloche,Salta,Jujuy,Perito Moreno Glacier,Valdes Peninsula,Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes,Ischigualasto Provincial Park,UshuaiaandPatagoniain Argentina;Isla Margarita,Angel Falls,Los Roques archipelago,Gran Sabanain Venezuela;Machu Picchu, Lima,Nazca Lines,Cuzcoin Peru;Lake Titicaca,Salar de Uyuni, La Paz,Jesuit Missions of Chiquitosin Bolivia;Tayrona National Natural Park,Santa Marta,Bogotá,Cali,Medellín,Cartagenain Colombia, and theGalápagos Islandsin Ecuador.In 2016 Brazil hosted the2016 Summer Olympics. Culture South Americans are culturally influenced by their indigenous peoples, the historic connection with the Iberian Peninsula and Africa, and waves of", "and waves of immigrants from around the globe. South American nations have a rich variety ofmusic. Some of the most famous genres includevallenatoandcumbiafrom Colombia,pasillofrom Colombia and Ecuador,samba,bossa novaandmúsica sertanejafrom Brazil,joropofrom Venezuela andtangofrom Argentina and Uruguay. Also well known is the non-commercial folk genreNueva Canciónmovement which was founded in Argentina and Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America. People on the Peruvian coast created the fine guitar andcajonduos or trios in the mostmestizo(mixed) of South American rhythms such as the Marinera (from Lima), theTondero(from Piura), the 19th-century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse, the soulful Arequipan Yaravi, and the early-20th-century ParaguayanGuarania. In the late 20th century,Spanish rockemerged by young hipsters influenced by British pop and American rock.Brazilhas a Portuguese-language pop rock industry as well a great variety of other music genres. In the central and western", "central and western regions of Bolivia, Andean and folklore music likeDiablada,CaporalesandMorenadaare the most representative of the country, which were originated by European, Aymara and Quechua influences. Theliteratureof South America has attracted considerable critical and popular acclaim, especially with theLatin American Boomof the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of authors such asMario Vargas Llosa,Gabriel García Márquezin novels andJorge Luis BorgesandPablo Nerudain other genres. The BraziliansMachado de AssisandJoão Guimarães Rosaare widely regarded as the greatest Brazilian writers. Food and drink Because of South America's broad ethnic mix,South American cuisinehas African, Mestizo, South Asian, East Asian, and European influences.Bahia, Brazil, is especially well known for its West African–influenced cuisine. Argentines, Chileans, Uruguayans, Brazilians, Bolivians, and Venezuelans regularly consume wine. People in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Chile, Bolivia and Southern Brazil drinkmate,", "Brazil drinkmate, an herb which is brewed. The Paraguayan version,terere, differs from other forms of mate in that it is served cold.Piscois a liquor distilled from grapes in Peru and Chile. Peruvian cuisine mixes elements from Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, Italian, African, Arab, Andean, and Amazonic food. Plastic arts The artistOswaldo Guayasamín(1919–1999) fromEcuador, represented with his painting style the feeling of the peoples of Latin Americahighlighting social injustices in various parts of the world. The ColombianFernando Botero(1932–2023) was one of the greatest exponents of painting and sculpture was able to develop a recognizable style of his own.For his part, the VenezuelanCarlos Cruz-Diezhas contributed significantly to contemporary art,with the presence of works around the world. Currently several emerging South American artists are recognized by international art critics:Guillermo Lorca– Chilean painter,Teddy Cobeña– Ecuadorian sculptor and recipient of international sculpture award in", "sculpture award in France)and Argentine artistAdrián Villar Rojas– winner of the Zurich Museum Art Award among many others. Sport A wide range of sports are played in the continent of South America, withfootballbeing the most popular overall, while baseball is the most popular in Venezuela. Other sports include basketball,cycling,polo, volleyball,futsal,motorsports,rugby(mostly in Argentina and Uruguay),handball, tennis, golf,field hockey,boxing, andcricket. South America hosted its firstOlympic Gamesin Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2016, and has hosted theYouth Olympic Gamesin Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 2018. A multi-sport event, theSouth American Games, are held every four years. The first edition was held inLa Pazin 1978 and the most recent took place inSantiagoin 2014. South America shares, with Europe, supremacy over football: all winners in theFIFA World CupandFIFA Club World Cuphave come from these two continents. Brazil has won the FIFA World Cup a record five times; Argentina three times, Uruguay", "times, Uruguay twice. Five South American nations have hosted the tournament including the first edition in Uruguay (1930). Two were in Brazil (1950, 2014), Chile (1962), and Argentina (1978). South America is home to the longest-running international football tournament, theCopa América, which has been contested since 1916. Argentina haswon the Copa América16 times, the most among all countries. South American Cricket Championshipis an internationalone-day crickettournament played since 1995 featuring national teams fromSouth Americaand certain other invited sides including teams from North America, currently played annually but until 2013 was usually played every two seasons. Infrastructure Energy Due to the diversity oftopographyand pluviometric precipitation conditions, the region's water resources vary enormously in different areas. In theAndes, navigation possibilities are limited, except for the Magdalena River,Lake Titicacaand the lakes of the southern regions of Chile and Argentina. Irrigation is an", "Irrigation is an important factor for agriculture from northwestern Peru to Patagonia. Less than 10% of the known electrical potential of the Andes had been used until the mid-1960s. TheBrazilian Highlandshave a much higher hydroelectric potential than theAndean regionand its possibilities of exploitation are greater due to the existence of several large rivers with high margins and the occurrence of great differences forming huge cataracts, such as those of Paulo Afonso, Iguaçu and others. TheAmazon Riversystem has about 13,000 km of waterways, but its possibilities for hydroelectric use are still unknown. Most of the continent's energy is generated throughhydroelectric power plants, but there is also an important share ofthermoelectricandwind energy. Brazil and Argentina are the only South American countries that generatenuclear power, each with twonuclear power plants. In 1991 these countries signed a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement. The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to", "program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand.In the beginning of 2020, in the production ofoiland natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted. Brazil is one of the main world producers ofhydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation.In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric). In 2013, theSoutheast Regionused about 50%", "about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. Hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% coming mostly from thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais for about 25%; Rio de Janeiro for 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. TheSouth Regionowns theItaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration ofThree Gorges Damin China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant withParaguay: the dam is located on theParaná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each.North Regionhas", "Regionhas large hydroelectric plants, such asBelo Monte DamandTucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory. As of July 2022,according to ONS, total installed capacity ofwind powerwas 22 GW, with averagecapacity factorof 58%.While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%;the average capacity factor in theNortheast Regionis 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior.In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country.In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand.In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of", "world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW),and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, United States and Germany. Nuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity.The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned byEletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary ofEletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced bytwo reactorsatAngra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna inAngra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of twopressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished. As of October 2022,according to ONS, total installed capacity ofphotovoltaic solarwas 21 GW, with averagecapacity factorof 23%. Some of the mostirradiatedBrazilian States are MG (\"Minas Gerais\"), BA (\"Bahia\") and GO", "BA (\"Bahia\") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed worldirradiationlevel records.In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country.In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW),and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh). In 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy throughbiomass(energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed. After Brazil,Colombiais the country in South America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of", "world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW).Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW).Argentinawas, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is", "shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region.Paraguaystands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant.Boliviastand out in the production of natural gas, where it was the 31st largest in the world in", "in the world in 2015.Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014. Transport Transport infrastructure in South America includes roads, railways,seaportsand airports. The railway andfluvialsector, although having more robust contemporary potential, are still somewhat treated in a secondary way. Roads Due to theAndes Mountains,Amazon RiverandAmazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing larger scale transcontinental or bi-oceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, (in Argentina) and later to Santiago, (in Chile). However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor). Some of the most modern roads extend through northern", "through northern and south-east Argentina; and south of Brazil, a vast road complex aims to linkBrasília, the federal capital, to the South, Southeast, Northeast and Northern regions of Brazil. Brazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km aredivided highways. The two most important highways in the country areBR-101andBR-116.Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country areRoute 9,Route 7andRoute 14.Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways.Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is theRoute 5(Pan-American Highway)These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways. In addition, there is a reputedPan-American Highway, which", "Highway, which crosses Argentina and the Andean countries from north to south, although various stretches are unfinished. Aviation In South America,commercial aviationhas a magnificent expansion field, which has one of the largest traffic density lines in the world, Rio de Janeiro–São Paulo, and large airports, such asCongonhas,São Paulo–Guarulhos InternationalandViracopos(São Paulo),Rio de Janeiro InternationalandSantos Dumont(Rio de Janeiro),El Dorado(Bogotá),Ezeiza(Buenos Aires),Tancredo Neves International Airport(Belo Horizonte),Curitiba International Airport(Curitiba), Brasilia, Caracas, Montevideo, Lima,Viru Viru International Airport(Santa Cruz de la Sierra), Recife, Salvador, Salgado Filho International Airport (Porto Alegre), Fortaleza, Manaus and Belém. There are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States.São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and", "is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those inRio de Janeiro,Brasília,Belo Horizonte,Porto Alegre,Florianópolis,Cuiabá,Salvador,Recife,Fortaleza,BelémandManaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such asBuenos Aires,Cordoba,Bariloche,Mendoza,Salta,Puerto Iguazú,NeuquénandUsuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such asSantiago,Antofagasta,Puerto Montt,Punta ArenasandIquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such asBogotá,Medellín,Cartagena,CaliandBarranquilla, among others. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Peru (Lima), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil),", "Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil). Seaports and harbors The two main merchant fleets also belong to Brazil and Argentina. The following are those of Chile, Venezuela, Peru and Colombia. The largest ports in commercial movement are those ofBuenos Aires,Santos, Rio de Janeiro,Bahía Blanca,Rosario,Valparaíso,Recife,Salvador, Montevideo,Paranaguá,Rio Grande,Fortaleza,BelémandMaracaibo. About ports, Brazil has some of the busiest seaports in South America, such asPort of Santos,Port of Rio de Janeiro,Port of Paranaguá,Port of Itajaí,Port of Rio Grande,Port of São Francisco do SulandSuape Port. Argentina has ports such asPort of Buenos AiresandPort of Rosario. Chile has important ports inValparaíso,Caldera,Mejillones,Antofagasta,Iquique,AricaandPuerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such asBuenaventura,Cartagena Container TerminalandPuerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports inCallao,IloandMatarani. The 15", "The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile). Rail Two primary railroads are continental: the Transandina, which connectsBuenos Aires, in Argentina toValparaíso, in Chile, and the Brazil–Bolivia Railroad, which makes it the connection between the port ofSantosin Brazil and the city ofSanta Cruz de la Sierra, in Bolivia. Two areas of greater density occur in the railway sector: the platinum network, which develops around thePlatine region, largely belonging to Argentina, with more than 45,000 km in length; And theSoutheast Brazilnetwork, which mainly serves thestate of São Paulo,state of Rio de JaneiroandMinas Gerais. The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, and at", "of tracks, and at one stage was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. The Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It is basically used for transporting ores.Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has about 3,500 km of railways. Waterways South America has one of the largest bays of navigable inland waterways in the world, represented mainly by theAmazon basin, thePlatine basin, the São Francisco and the Orinoco basins, Brazil having about 54,000 km navigable, while Argentina has 6,500 km and Venezuela, 1,200 km. Among the main Brazilianwaterways, two stand out:Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná(which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the", "km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas Gerais) andHidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas(it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underused: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. InArgentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river", "The main river ports areZárateandCampana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country. Public transport The main public transport in major cities is the bus. Many cities have a diverse system of metro and subway trains, the first of which was theBuenos Aires subte, opened 1913.TheSantiago subwayis the largest network in South America, with 103 km, while theSão Paulo subwayis the most heavily used, with more than 4.6 million passengers per day.Rio de Janeiroinstalled the continent's first railroad in 1854. Today the city has a diversified system of metropolitan trains, integrated with buses and subway. It has a Light Rail System calledVLT, with small electrical trams at low speed, whileSão Paulohas inaugurated amonorail. In Brazil, an express bus system called Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), which", "(BRT), which operates in several cities, has been developed.Mi Teleférico, also known as TeleféricoLa Paz–El Alto(La Paz–El Alto Cable Car), is an aerial cable car urban transit system serving the La Paz–El Alto metropolitan area in Bolivia. See also Notes References Citations General and cited references External links Africa Antarctica Asia Australia Europe North America South America Afro-Eurasia Americas Eurasia Oceania" ]
I am moving to the G40 postcode area - what train stations are nearby, as of 2024?
Bridgeton Railway Station and Dalmarnock Railway Station.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_postcode_areas_in_the_United_Kingdom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_postcode_area
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeton,_Glasgow
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeton_railway_station
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calton,_Glasgow
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmarnock
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null
null
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_postcode_areas_in_the_United_Kingdom', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_postcode_area', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeton,_Glasgow', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeton_railway_station', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calton,_Glasgow ', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmarnock']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_postcode_areas_in_the_United_Kingdom", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_postcode_area", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeton,_Glasgow", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeton_railway_station", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calton,_Glasgow ", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmarnock" ]
[ "List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom This is a list of postcode areas, used byRoyal Mailfor the purposes of directing mail within theUnited Kingdom. The postcode area is the largest geographical unit used and forms the initial characters of the alphanumericUK postcode.There are currently 121 geographic postcode areas in use in the UK and a further three often combined with these covering the Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and Isle of Man. Subdivision Each postcode area is further divided intopost townsandpostcode districts.There are on average 20 postcode districts to a postcode area,with ZE having the lowest (3) and BT the highest (81). TheLondonpost town is instead divided into several postcode areas. Scope The single or pair of letters chosen for postcode areas are generally intended as amnemonicfor the places served.Postcode areas,post townsand postcode districts do not follow political or local authority administrative boundaries and usually serve much larger areas than the place names with which they are associated. Many post towns are former \"county towns\" but postcode areas rarely align with the county (or successor authority) area. For example, within the PA postcode area the PA1 and PA78 postcode districts are 140 miles (225 km) apart, and cover 5 local authority areas; and the eight postcode areas of theLondon post towncover only 40% ofGreater London.The remainder of its area is covered by sections of twelve adjoining postcode areas:EN,IG,RM,DA,BR,TN,CR,SM,KT,TW,HAandUB. United Kingdom postcode areas Crown dependencies TheCrown dependencies(which are not part of the United Kingdom) did not introduce postcodes until later, but use a similar coding scheme. They are separate postal authorities. Defunct postcode areas London NE and S Glasgow Glasgow, like London, was divided into compass districts: C, W, NW, N, E, SE, S, SW. When postcodes were introduced, these were mapped into the newGpostcode: C1 became G1, W1 became G11, N1 became G21, E1 became G31, S1 became G41, SW1 became G51, and so on. As NW and SE had never been subdivided they became G20 and G40 respectively. Norwich and Croydon Norwich and Croydon were used for a postcode experiment in the late 1960s, which was replaced by the current system. The format was of the form NOR or CRO followed by two numbers and a letter, e.g. NOR 07A. They were later changed toCR0(digit '0') and NR1. Dublin, Ireland When Ireland was a part of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelanda postal district system was introduced in 1917 by the UK government. The letterDwas assigned to Dublin. Upon the establishment of theIrish Free Stateand later, theRepublic of Ireland, the Irish government retained the designation and today it forms part of theEircodesystem, a postcode format slightly different from the UK format and identifying individual addresses. Since Irish independence,Dhas never been reassigned as a postcode area in the UK. Non-geographic postcodes Types Some postcode areas do not correspond to geographical areas. They can be - postcode areas with no geographic link (for use by Large Volume Receivers, with delivery options determined between the LVR and Royal Mail) and these can for general mail or specific functions (e.g. parcel returns); non-geographic postcode districts or sectors contained within geographic postcode areas (for LVRs or PO Boxes); and specific purpose postcodes. Numbering of non-geographic postcode districts For those within geographic postcode areas, the first two numbers can be any number though they are generally larger than the numbers allocated to geographic districts. Some fall within the range 91 to 95 for businesses (e.g. S98 for payments to MNBA Ltd) and the range 96 to 99 for Government departments (e.g. NE98 forDepartment for Work and Pensions, Central Office, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, EH99 1SP for the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh). However, there are many exceptions to this - e.g. American Express has the postcode area BN88; in Glasgow G58 1SB is allocated to National Savings, formerly National Savings Bank, as a mnemonic (SB, and with 58 looking like SB), though it is located in the G43 postcode district; and in Glasgow G70 is allocated to HMRC which is located in G67. BF The BF postcode area was introduced in 2012 to provide optional postcodes forBritishForces Post Officeaddresses, for consistency with the layout of other UK addresses. It uses the national non-geographicpost town\"BFPO\" and, as of 2012, the postcode district \"BF1\". Each BFPO number is assigned an inward code, which are gouped as: 0 - Germany, 1 - UK, 2 - Rest of Europe, 3 - Rest of World, 4 - Ships and Naval Parties, 5 - Rest of World, Operations and Exercises, 6 - Rest of World, Operations and Exercises. BX The non-geographic postcode area BX has been introduced for addresses which do not include a locality; this allows large organisations long-term flexibility as to where they receive their mail. This postcode area is used byLloyds Banking Group(BX1 1LT),HSBC(BX8 0HB) and parts ofHM Revenue and Customslike VAT (BX5 5AT) and Pay As You Earn (BX9 1AS). Lloyds Bank also use BX4. After splitting from Lloyds,TSB Bankuses BX4 7SB, the latter part of which, when written, looks similar to \"TSB\". GIR GIR 0AA is a postcode created forGirobankinBootle. It remained in use by its successors when Girobank was taken over byAlliance & Leicesterand subsequently bySantander UK. XM XM4 5HQ is a postcode created forFather Christmas. XX The non-geographic postcode area XX is used by online retailers for returns by Royal Mail, and forCOVID-19test samples. Overseas territories CertainBritish Overseas Territoriesintroduced single postal codes for their territory or major sub-sections of it. These are not UK postcodes, even though many are formatted in a similar fashion: Other overseas territories have introduced their own more extensive postcode systems: Civilian residential and business addresses inAkrotiri and Dhekeliaare served byCyprus Postal Servicesand useCypriot postal codes. Mail to Overseas Territories is treated as international if posted in the UK. See also Notes References External links", "G postcode area TheG postcode area, also known as theGlasgow postcode area,is a group of postcode districts in central Scotland, within six post towns. These districts are primarily centered onGlasgowitself, andWest Dunbartonshire(includingDumbarton,ClydebankandAlexandria), plus parts of the council areas ofArgyll and Bute(includingArrocharandHelensburgh),East Dunbartonshire,North Lanarkshire,South Lanarkshire,East RenfrewshireandStirling. Former postal districts and their legacy From 1923 until the introduction of the national postcode system in the late 1960s, Glasgow was divided into (mostly) numbered postal districts for its central and surrounding parts identified by compass-point letters: C1–C5 (corresponding to current postcode districts G1–G5), W1–W5 (G11–G15), NW (G20), N1–N3 (G21–G23), E1–E4 (G31–G34), SE (G40), S1–S6 (G41–G46) and SW1–SW3 (G51–G53). Coverage The approximate coverage of the postcode districts: Map See also References External links", "Bridgeton, Glasgow Bridgeton(Scots:Brigtoun,Scottish Gaelic:Baile na Drochaid) is a district to the east ofGlasgowcity centre.Historicallypart ofLanarkshire, it is bounded byGlasgow Greento the west,Dalmarnockto the east and south,Caltonto the north-west at Abercromby Street/London Road and Broad street to the north-east. History It started as a small weaving village in 1705, when the third John Walkinshaw marked out a portion of his Goosefauld estate for rent.However, not much interest was shown until 1776 whenRutherglen Bridgewas built over theRiver Clydeand the area became known asBridge Town(orBrig Tounin Scots).The area was incorporated into the city of Glasgow officially in 1846.A major employer was carpet manufacturerJames Templeton & Co. Bridgeton used to be bounded by a village named Mile-End to the north, however this district seems to have vanished over the years, resulting in Bridgeton's boundary moving north to Crownpoint Road. Bridgeton Cross Bridgeton Cross, also known as 'The Toll' is a major junction, the meeting point of London Road (A74towardsCeltic Park), Dalmarnock Road (A749), Main Street, James Street (leading to Glasgow Green), Olympia Street and Orr Street. The intersection is notable for the\"Brigton Umbrella\", aVictorian(1875) cast ironbandstandcovering the centre of the Cross.TheCategory A listedlandmark structure and surrounds was renovated in the early 21st century, resulting in improved public realm areas and the complete refurbishment of the Umbrella. Bridgeton Cross is the location forBridgeton railway station(opened in 1895, closed in 1964, reopened in 1979) which is on theArgyle Lineconnecting the area to central Glasgow. The Category B listed buildingwhich previously housedBridgeton Central railway station(1892-1979) is a short distance away. A number of local buses also pass along London Road and Dalmarnock Road. The Cross is also the location for theOlympia Theatre(built 1911), which after lying abandoned for many years has undergone rebuilding and reopened in 2012 as a library and community facility for the people of Bridgeton.There are several public houses in the vicinity, with most themed aroundRangers F.C. In 1893 William Millard startedMillers Linoleum Stores, renting sheds in Charles Street (now Olympia Street) from theNorth British Railway Company. On 26 June 1913 planning permission was granted to build a two-storey warehouse on this land, which had now been purchased by Millard. Under the directorship of William's great-grandson David Millard, the building was sympathetically renovated in 2013. Believed to be the only surviving family business from the 1800s in the area,Millers 1893continues to operate. Points of interest Bridgeton has one of Glasgow's originalCarnegie libraries, designed by the Invernesian architect,James Robert Rhind.Since 2014, the library has been in use by the Glasgow Women's Library, holding a lending library, archive and museum collection, who have made significant renovations both inside and out. After the2014 Commonwealth Gameswas held in Glasgow, Bridgeton now has international-class sporting facilities within walking distance: theCommonwealth Arena and Sir Chris Hoy Velodromeare located in nearby Dalmarnock, with theCrownpoint Sports Complex, a modern outdoor athletics track, also located in the area adjacent toSt Mungo's Academy. Bridgeton has been the centre of theOrange Order in Scotland. Their marches are a fairly common sight in Glasgow during the summer months but reach a peak aroundthe Twelfthof July when the parades commemorating theBattle of the Boyneare in full flow. In 2019, theSunday Timesreported that concerns over an incident during the 2018 Apprentice Boys of Derry (Bridgeton) march had led to suggestions that Glasgow council reroute the march to avoid passing near two Catholic churches. The Glasgow Vintage Vehicle Trust, one of the largest voluntary commercial and passenger vehicle preservation groups in Scotland are based at Bridgeton Bus Garage which opened on 5 June 1965on a site bordered by London Road to the south, Fordneuk Street to the West, Broad Street to the north and Rimsdale Street to the east. It replaced the former tram depot at Dalmarnock which had suffered fire damage. In 1870 a grocer name of John Wilson of 13 Main Street and a few friends from the local bowling club founded Bridgeton Burns Club, a charity which continues to this day, assisting local children. Bridgeton's use as a Glasgow Bus Garage was brief, the tendency was to use a smaller fleet of larger buses and that led to the garage being closed in 1976, however it was then taken on byStrathclyde Regional Councilfor its Internal Transport fleet, servicing everything from light vans to Gritting Lorries. In this capacity it later passed toGlasgow City Councilwho when they ceased using it for that purpose were prevailed upon to rent it out for vehicle preservation. Football For four decades in the mid-20th century, Bridgeton was represented in theScottish Junior Football AssociationbyBridgeton Waverley F.C.Initially a local Juvenile team, upon joining the Junior setup they played atShawfield Stadium(home ofClyde F.C.), then moved toBarrowfield Parkwhich was bought and demolished byGlasgow Corporationfor the construction of thehousing scheme of the same namein the 1930s. Waverley then moved toNew Barrowfieldon the edge of theParkheaddistrict. After they folded in the 1960s, that site became the training ground ofCeltic F.C. Another Junior club which became defunct around the same time,Strathclyde F.C., was also based in the area.Strathclyde's predecessor senior league clubThistle F.C.had their roots in Bridgeton/Dalmarnock, as did the aforementioned Clyde and the 19th century sideEastern F.C.who both once played at anotherBarrowfield Park. Although Celtic's stadium is nearby the district is now known for a large and passionateRangersfollowing. Notable people See also References External links", "Bridgeton railway station Bridgeton railway stationserves theBridgetondistrict ofGlasgow,Scotlandand is a station on theArgyle Line,1+3⁄4miles (2.8 km) south east ofGlasgow Central. The station is operated byScotRailwho also provide all train services. History CalledBridgeton Cross Station,it opened on 1 November 1895 when the line between Glasgow Green and Rutherglen was opened by theGlasgow Central Railway. The station became a junction with the opening of the line to Carmyle andKirkhillon 1 February 1897. Westbound services ran to Stobcross, from where they could proceed toPossilviaMaryhill Central,Partickhilland points north via the connection to theStobcross Railwayor on to theLanarkshire and Dunbartonshire Railwayto Dumbarton and Balloch Central via Partick Central & Dalmuir Riverside. In 1956 the line was re-signalled with colour light signals controlled from the re-equippedsignal boxesat Bridgeton Cross Junction and Stobcross Junction. However, the station was closed along with both lines on 5 October 1964 as a result of theBeeching Axe. The tracks were subsequently lifted, but the station and tunnels were left intact. As part of theArgyle Lineproject, the Rutherglen line platforms reopened asBridgeton Stationon 5 November 1979, as offering regular commuter services into Central Station (low level) and on towards the western suburbs. In preparation for the 2014 Commonwealth Games, the station underwent substantial renovations in 2010. Accidents and incidents Services 1979 When the Argyle Line was opened in 1979, there were six trains an hour to the Hamilton Circle, fromDalmuir, with two services an hour going as far west asDumbarton Central. The hourly service betweenLanarkandMilngavieran non-stop through Bridgeton station. 2008 Four trains per hour daily head westbound towards Glasgow Central and beyond (Milngavie and Dalmuir) and eastbound towardsMotherwell(with services onward to Lanark). 2015 The basic four trains per hour frequency remains unchanged, but since the December 2014 timetable recast southbound trains now run to either Motherwell via Hamilton Central or viaWhifflet(though alternate services on that route terminate at Whifflet). On Sundays, southbound trains also serve Larkhall every hour andBallochevery 30 minutes. Routes References", "Calton, Glasgow Calton(Scottish Gaelic:A' Challtainn,lit.'the hazel wood',Scots:Caltoun), known locally asThe Calton, is a district inGlasgow. It is situated north of theRiver Clyde, and just to the east of the city centre. Calton's most famous landmark is theBarrasstreet market and theBarrowland Ballroom, one of Glasgow's principal musical venues. No official definition of Calton's boundaries exist, notionally it can be thought of as the roughly trapezoidal area bounded by theRiver Clydeto the south, Abercrombie Street to the east (where it borders bothCamlachieandBridgeton), and theCity Union Linerailway to the north andHigh Street/Saltmarketto the west. History The area was aBurgh of Baronyfrom 1817 to 1846, when it was annexed to Glasgow. The lands of Blackfaulds, on which Calton now stands, originally formed part of the lands of theArchbishopricof Glasgow, but were annexed toThe Crownin 1587. In 1705 the owner, John Walkinshaw, began tofeuthe lands of Blackfaulds (part of theBarrowfieldestate) on which the old village of Calton was built, and in 1817 acharterwas granted, erecting Calton into aBurgh. During the area's time as an independent burgh, there were fourProvostsof Calton: The Calton martyrs The area became known for itsweavingindustry. On 30 June 1787, a meeting ofCalton weaverswas held onGlasgow Green. Theirwageshad dropped because of the increased importation of cheaper foreigntextiles. Most of the workers decided to takestrike action, although some accepted lower wages and carried on working. The dispute came to a head on 3 September 1787: when violence erupted after some striking weavers tried to seize materials from weavers who had carried on working. Themilitarywere called in and a detachment of the39th Regiment of Footopened fire on the demonstrators. Six of the men killed at the scene were locally called 'martyrs' and some of them were buried in the CaltonCemeteryoff the main London Road. The families of the men could not afford aheadstonealthough, a century later, a memorial was raised to commemorate their actions. Social problems ComedianJaney Godley, in her 2005autobiographyHandstands in the Dark,wrote about the 14 years she spent running a Caltonpub, the Weavers Inn (formerly the Nationalist Bar, now the Calton Bar). Her book details life there in the 1980s and 1990s, a time when the area became notorious forheroinabuse and whenurban renewalbegan. Calton is an area of considerable poverty andmultiple deprivationregarding; \"current income, employment, health, education, skills and training, housing, geographic access and crime.\"In January 2006, a report into poverty inThe Scotsmannewspaperstated that \"a child born in Calton... is three times as likely to sufferheart disease, four times as likely to be hospitalised and ten times as likely to grow up in a workless household than a child in the city's prosperous westernsuburbs\". Calton has the lowest malelife expectancyin Scotland. ABBC Scotlandnews report on 13 February 2006 pointed out that, partially due to poor diet, crime,alcoholanddrug abuse, life expectancy in Calton is lower than in some areas ofIraqor theGaza Strip. A news report in the 21 January 2006 edition ofThe Guardiannewspapergave the average lifespan of a person living in the Calton area as 53.9 years against a city average of 69 years and the Scottish average of 78. A 2008World Health Organizationreport contrasted Calton's male life expectancy, reported as standing at 54, with that of nearbyLenzie,East Dunbartonshire, at 82.Most of the affordable housing is owned byHousing Associationswith a high percentage oftenantsonhousing benefit(For example, Thenue Housing Association has approximately 75% of tenants on housing benefit).The Guardianwrites that higher risk of dying before they are 65 (up to 30% in comparison withLiverpoolandManchester) occurred because of rehousing skilled workers (cream skimming) due to 1970s policy documents. The area has experiencedsectariantensions for generations; it is a predominantly Catholic area (due to Irish immigration), and there are alsoIrish republicansupporter groups present. This is reflected, albeit much declined in modern times, in gang and sectarian relatedgraffiti, with the main gang being the Calton Tongs. In the 1960s, the Calton was known locally asTongland(and still is by some), prominently marked out as such by graffiti. Tongland appears inGillies MacKinnon's 1995 movieSmall Faces.The gangs' power over the area and their decline in the 1970s is described inHandstands in the Dark. See also References External links Media related toCalton, Glasgowat Wikimedia Commons", "Dalmarnock Dalmarnock(/dælˈmɑːrnək/,Scottish Gaelic:Dail Mheàrnaig) is adistrictin theScottishcity ofGlasgow. It is situated east of the city centre, directly north of theRiver Clydeopposite the town ofRutherglen. It is also bounded by the Glasgow neighbourhoods ofParkheadto the north-east andBridgetonto the north-west. History The area was once heavily industrialised.Sir William Arrol & Co.had its extensive engineering works at Dunn Street and Baltic Street from 1873. From its beginnings inboilermaking, the firm later became renowned for its achievements in the field ofstructural engineering. Amongst the many bridges constructed throughout Britain were theForth Railway Bridge, theForth Road Bridge, theHumber Bridgeand London'sTower Bridge. The company was eventually taken over byClarke Chapmanin 1969 and the Dalmarnock Works closed in 1986. There was also a largecoal-fired power stationlocated near Dalmarnock Bridge. It was built byGlasgow Corporationin two stages, with phase one opening in 1920 and phase two in 1926. It was closed in 1977 by theSouth of Scotland Electricity Board. The east side of Allan Street was bombed during the Second World War. Most of the Victorian red sandstone tenements on Dalmarnock Road and Springfield Roadwere demolished in the 1960s and early-1970s, although some were renovated as part of theGlasgow Eastern Area Renewal(GEAR) scheme in the late 1970s. In the 1960s, a new housing scheme was built, consisting of four twenty-two storeytower blocksand \"H-block\" maisonettes. Two of the towers, 40 & 50 Millerfield Road, were demolished on 3 February 2002.One other tower was demolished on 1 July 2007, and the final one on 9 September 2007. This physical transformation featured in Chris Leslie's 'Disappearing Glasgow' book. Dalmarnock was the location chosen for theathletes' villagewhen Glasgow hosted the2014 Commonwealth Games,and by August 2011, there was no remaining housing on Ardenlea Street/Sunnybank Street side of the area,due to the preparations and land need for the construction in the area pertaining to the Games andCity Legacy. From 19 May to 2 June 2014,BBC One Scotlandaired a documentary entitled \"Commonwealth City\", narrated by actorMartin Compston, which showed how the people and community in Dalmarnock had been affected since the games were announced in November 2007.The documentary featured local resident Margaret Jaconelli (evicted to make way for the Games),David Stewart (youth and community campaigner)Darren Faulds (local entrepreneur) and local councillors George Redmond & Yvonne Kucuk. TheSir Chris Hoy Velodrome, constructed for the Games, is located at the intersection of Springfield Road, London Road and theGlasgow East End Regeneration Route, oppositeCeltic Parkfootball stadium which denotes the district's boundary with Parkhead. A triangular piece of land to the east of the arena was the proposed location of a modern skyscraper,East One; however as of 2020 this site was still undeveloped. To the south of this is the 'Legacy Hub' building, a multi-function community facility belatedly installed to replace the previous hall at Lily Street. It opened in 2015but by January 2019 had closed suddenly amid financial problems at the People's Development Trust charity which ran its operations;the council purchased the building to secure its future,while an investigation found funds had been embezzled by charity leaders including former councillor Yvonne Kucuk. Clyde Gatewayis a large-scale regeneration programme which includes Dalmarnock. It is a partnership betweenGlasgow City Council,South Lanarkshire CouncilandScottish Enterprise, backed by funding and direct support from theScottish Government.Residential developments in the area following the Commonwealth Games includeRiverside,a project on the site of the former large power station overlooking the river (approximately 550 homes for purchase and social rent),and a site near the railway station (200 homes, in planning as of 2018). After the departure of all local retailers from the area, all that remained was a small shop which was set up by the workers in the Community Centre; This was a welcome boon for the area residents as the nearest shops were not within walking distance.There is a petrol station on Dalmarnock Road and a car wash, with a pub a short distance further north past the railway station (this has been the location of a licensed premises under various names since the 1830s).There are also a lot of small business units in the Nuneaton Street area and theCalder Millerfieldfactory which supplies meat-based products to the fast-food market. Education The area once had four schools:Springfield Road Primary, Springfield Primary, Riverside Secondary and Our Lady of Fatima RC Primary School on Springfield Road have now closed. There is still a 'Dalmarnock Primary School', but it is situated in nearby Bridgeton and should not be counted among the schools within the area. A new primary schoolwas developed by Glasgow City Council; Riverbank Primary School, opened in August 2019. Transport Dalmarnock railway station, on theArgyle Line, serves the local area. The station was upgraded for the 2014 Commonwealth Games.Glasgow Corporation Tramwayshad routes serving the area in the first half of the 20th century, using tracks on Dalmarnock Road, London Road and Springfield Road. Dalmarnock Railway Bridges There have been two railway bridges in Dalmarnock crossing theRiver Clyde. The first bridge was built in 1861,and was augmented in 1897by a wider bridge to accommodate the Dalmarnock branch line. The stone pillars of the old bridge are still in situ adjacent to the newer bridge, with the track deck having been removed when it was no longer necessary to have so many lines.<Both bridges were designed by George Graham. Dalmarnock Bridge There is also a road bridge over the River Clyde on Dalmarnock Road (A749) called Dalmarnock Bridge. The first bridge at the location was wooden, erected in 1821 to connect Dalmarnock and theFarme Crossarea of Rutherglen.It was replaced by a new timber bridge in 1848,and in 1891 by the current Dalmarnock Bridge, designed by Glasgow consulting engineers, Crouch & Hogg; it isCategory B listed. The Glasgow side of the bridge is a convenient point for walkers and cyclists to join theClyde WalkwayorNational Cycle Route 75which share a tarmac path along the river at this point. This structure should not be confused with the nearbyRutherglen Bridgewhich also connects Rutherglen and Dalmarnock (as well asGlasgow Green,Oatlands,Shawfieldand Bridgeton), nor with two modern pedestrian bridges: one also connecting to Shawfield, and the other between the 2014 Athletes' Village homes and theCuningar Loop, an area of open ground on a meander of the river, known locally as 'The Vallies' and converted to a park as part of the area's redevelopment). Notable people See also References External links" ]
[ "List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom This is a list of postcode areas, used byRoyal Mailfor the purposes of directing mail within theUnited Kingdom. The postcode area is the largest geographical unit used and forms the initial characters of the alphanumericUK postcode.There are currently 121 geographic postcode areas in use in the UK and a further three often combined with these covering the Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and Isle of Man. Subdivision Each postcode area is further divided intopost townsandpostcode districts.There are on average 20 postcode districts to a postcode area,with ZE having the lowest (3) and BT the highest (81). TheLondonpost town is instead divided into several postcode areas. Scope The single or pair of letters chosen for postcode areas are generally intended as amnemonicfor the places served.Postcode areas,post townsand postcode districts do not follow political or local authority administrative boundaries and usually serve much larger areas than the place names", "the place names with which they are associated. Many post towns are former \"county towns\" but postcode areas rarely align with the county (or successor authority) area. For example, within the PA postcode area the PA1 and PA78 postcode districts are 140 miles (225 km) apart, and cover 5 local authority areas; and the eight postcode areas of theLondon post towncover only 40% ofGreater London.The remainder of its area is covered by sections of twelve adjoining postcode areas:EN,IG,RM,DA,BR,TN,CR,SM,KT,TW,HAandUB. United Kingdom postcode areas Crown dependencies TheCrown dependencies(which are not part of the United Kingdom) did not introduce postcodes until later, but use a similar coding scheme. They are separate postal authorities. Defunct postcode areas London NE and S Glasgow Glasgow, like London, was divided into compass districts: C, W, NW, N, E, SE, S, SW. When postcodes were introduced, these were mapped into the newGpostcode: C1 became G1, W1 became G11, N1 became G21, E1 became G31, S1 became G41,", "G31, S1 became G41, SW1 became G51, and so on. As NW and SE had never been subdivided they became G20 and G40 respectively. Norwich and Croydon Norwich and Croydon were used for a postcode experiment in the late 1960s, which was replaced by the current system. The format was of the form NOR or CRO followed by two numbers and a letter, e.g. NOR 07A. They were later changed toCR0(digit '0') and NR1. Dublin, Ireland When Ireland was a part of theUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelanda postal district system was introduced in 1917 by the UK government. The letterDwas assigned to Dublin. Upon the establishment of theIrish Free Stateand later, theRepublic of Ireland, the Irish government retained the designation and today it forms part of theEircodesystem, a postcode format slightly different from the UK format and identifying individual addresses. Since Irish independence,Dhas never been reassigned as a postcode area in the UK. Non-geographic postcodes Types Some postcode areas do not correspond to", "not correspond to geographical areas. They can be - postcode areas with no geographic link (for use by Large Volume Receivers, with delivery options determined between the LVR and Royal Mail) and these can for general mail or specific functions (e.g. parcel returns); non-geographic postcode districts or sectors contained within geographic postcode areas (for LVRs or PO Boxes); and specific purpose postcodes. Numbering of non-geographic postcode districts For those within geographic postcode areas, the first two numbers can be any number though they are generally larger than the numbers allocated to geographic districts. Some fall within the range 91 to 95 for businesses (e.g. S98 for payments to MNBA Ltd) and the range 96 to 99 for Government departments (e.g. NE98 forDepartment for Work and Pensions, Central Office, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, EH99 1SP for the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh). However, there are many exceptions to this - e.g. American Express has the postcode area BN88; in Glasgow G58 1SB is", "Glasgow G58 1SB is allocated to National Savings, formerly National Savings Bank, as a mnemonic (SB, and with 58 looking like SB), though it is located in the G43 postcode district; and in Glasgow G70 is allocated to HMRC which is located in G67. BF The BF postcode area was introduced in 2012 to provide optional postcodes forBritishForces Post Officeaddresses, for consistency with the layout of other UK addresses. It uses the national non-geographicpost town\"BFPO\" and, as of 2012, the postcode district \"BF1\". Each BFPO number is assigned an inward code, which are gouped as: 0 - Germany, 1 - UK, 2 - Rest of Europe, 3 - Rest of World, 4 - Ships and Naval Parties, 5 - Rest of World, Operations and Exercises, 6 - Rest of World, Operations and Exercises. BX The non-geographic postcode area BX has been introduced for addresses which do not include a locality; this allows large organisations long-term flexibility as to where they receive their mail. This postcode area is used byLloyds Banking Group(BX1", "Banking Group(BX1 1LT),HSBC(BX8 0HB) and parts ofHM Revenue and Customslike VAT (BX5 5AT) and Pay As You Earn (BX9 1AS). Lloyds Bank also use BX4. After splitting from Lloyds,TSB Bankuses BX4 7SB, the latter part of which, when written, looks similar to \"TSB\". GIR GIR 0AA is a postcode created forGirobankinBootle. It remained in use by its successors when Girobank was taken over byAlliance & Leicesterand subsequently bySantander UK. XM XM4 5HQ is a postcode created forFather Christmas. XX The non-geographic postcode area XX is used by online retailers for returns by Royal Mail, and forCOVID-19test samples. Overseas territories CertainBritish Overseas Territoriesintroduced single postal codes for their territory or major sub-sections of it. These are not UK postcodes, even though many are formatted in a similar fashion: Other overseas territories have introduced their own more extensive postcode systems: Civilian residential and business addresses inAkrotiri and Dhekeliaare served byCyprus Postal Servicesand", "Postal Servicesand useCypriot postal codes. Mail to Overseas Territories is treated as international if posted in the UK. See also Notes References External links", "G postcode area TheG postcode area, also known as theGlasgow postcode area,is a group of postcode districts in central Scotland, within six post towns. These districts are primarily centered onGlasgowitself, andWest Dunbartonshire(includingDumbarton,ClydebankandAlexandria), plus parts of the council areas ofArgyll and Bute(includingArrocharandHelensburgh),East Dunbartonshire,North Lanarkshire,South Lanarkshire,East RenfrewshireandStirling. Former postal districts and their legacy From 1923 until the introduction of the national postcode system in the late 1960s, Glasgow was divided into (mostly) numbered postal districts for its central and surrounding parts identified by compass-point letters: C1–C5 (corresponding to current postcode districts G1–G5), W1–W5 (G11–G15), NW (G20), N1–N3 (G21–G23), E1–E4 (G31–G34), SE (G40), S1–S6 (G41–G46) and SW1–SW3 (G51–G53). Coverage The approximate coverage of the postcode districts: Map See also References External links", "Bridgeton, Glasgow Bridgeton(Scots:Brigtoun,Scottish Gaelic:Baile na Drochaid) is a district to the east ofGlasgowcity centre.Historicallypart ofLanarkshire, it is bounded byGlasgow Greento the west,Dalmarnockto the east and south,Caltonto the north-west at Abercromby Street/London Road and Broad street to the north-east. History It started as a small weaving village in 1705, when the third John Walkinshaw marked out a portion of his Goosefauld estate for rent.However, not much interest was shown until 1776 whenRutherglen Bridgewas built over theRiver Clydeand the area became known asBridge Town(orBrig Tounin Scots).The area was incorporated into the city of Glasgow officially in 1846.A major employer was carpet manufacturerJames Templeton & Co. Bridgeton used to be bounded by a village named Mile-End to the north, however this district seems to have vanished over the years, resulting in Bridgeton's boundary moving north to Crownpoint Road. Bridgeton Cross Bridgeton Cross, also known as 'The Toll' is a major", "Toll' is a major junction, the meeting point of London Road (A74towardsCeltic Park), Dalmarnock Road (A749), Main Street, James Street (leading to Glasgow Green), Olympia Street and Orr Street. The intersection is notable for the\"Brigton Umbrella\", aVictorian(1875) cast ironbandstandcovering the centre of the Cross.TheCategory A listedlandmark structure and surrounds was renovated in the early 21st century, resulting in improved public realm areas and the complete refurbishment of the Umbrella. Bridgeton Cross is the location forBridgeton railway station(opened in 1895, closed in 1964, reopened in 1979) which is on theArgyle Lineconnecting the area to central Glasgow. The Category B listed buildingwhich previously housedBridgeton Central railway station(1892-1979) is a short distance away. A number of local buses also pass along London Road and Dalmarnock Road. The Cross is also the location for theOlympia Theatre(built 1911), which after lying abandoned for many years has undergone rebuilding and reopened", "and reopened in 2012 as a library and community facility for the people of Bridgeton.There are several public houses in the vicinity, with most themed aroundRangers F.C. In 1893 William Millard startedMillers Linoleum Stores, renting sheds in Charles Street (now Olympia Street) from theNorth British Railway Company. On 26 June 1913 planning permission was granted to build a two-storey warehouse on this land, which had now been purchased by Millard. Under the directorship of William's great-grandson David Millard, the building was sympathetically renovated in 2013. Believed to be the only surviving family business from the 1800s in the area,Millers 1893continues to operate. Points of interest Bridgeton has one of Glasgow's originalCarnegie libraries, designed by the Invernesian architect,James Robert Rhind.Since 2014, the library has been in use by the Glasgow Women's Library, holding a lending library, archive and museum collection, who have made significant renovations both inside and out. After the2014", "out. After the2014 Commonwealth Gameswas held in Glasgow, Bridgeton now has international-class sporting facilities within walking distance: theCommonwealth Arena and Sir Chris Hoy Velodromeare located in nearby Dalmarnock, with theCrownpoint Sports Complex, a modern outdoor athletics track, also located in the area adjacent toSt Mungo's Academy. Bridgeton has been the centre of theOrange Order in Scotland. Their marches are a fairly common sight in Glasgow during the summer months but reach a peak aroundthe Twelfthof July when the parades commemorating theBattle of the Boyneare in full flow. In 2019, theSunday Timesreported that concerns over an incident during the 2018 Apprentice Boys of Derry (Bridgeton) march had led to suggestions that Glasgow council reroute the march to avoid passing near two Catholic churches. The Glasgow Vintage Vehicle Trust, one of the largest voluntary commercial and passenger vehicle preservation groups in Scotland are based at Bridgeton Bus Garage which opened on 5 June 1965on", "on 5 June 1965on a site bordered by London Road to the south, Fordneuk Street to the West, Broad Street to the north and Rimsdale Street to the east. It replaced the former tram depot at Dalmarnock which had suffered fire damage. In 1870 a grocer name of John Wilson of 13 Main Street and a few friends from the local bowling club founded Bridgeton Burns Club, a charity which continues to this day, assisting local children. Bridgeton's use as a Glasgow Bus Garage was brief, the tendency was to use a smaller fleet of larger buses and that led to the garage being closed in 1976, however it was then taken on byStrathclyde Regional Councilfor its Internal Transport fleet, servicing everything from light vans to Gritting Lorries. In this capacity it later passed toGlasgow City Councilwho when they ceased using it for that purpose were prevailed upon to rent it out for vehicle preservation. Football For four decades in the mid-20th century, Bridgeton was represented in theScottish Junior Football", "Junior Football AssociationbyBridgeton Waverley F.C.Initially a local Juvenile team, upon joining the Junior setup they played atShawfield Stadium(home ofClyde F.C.), then moved toBarrowfield Parkwhich was bought and demolished byGlasgow Corporationfor the construction of thehousing scheme of the same namein the 1930s. Waverley then moved toNew Barrowfieldon the edge of theParkheaddistrict. After they folded in the 1960s, that site became the training ground ofCeltic F.C. Another Junior club which became defunct around the same time,Strathclyde F.C., was also based in the area.Strathclyde's predecessor senior league clubThistle F.C.had their roots in Bridgeton/Dalmarnock, as did the aforementioned Clyde and the 19th century sideEastern F.C.who both once played at anotherBarrowfield Park. Although Celtic's stadium is nearby the district is now known for a large and passionateRangersfollowing. Notable people See also References External links", "Bridgeton railway station Bridgeton railway stationserves theBridgetondistrict ofGlasgow,Scotlandand is a station on theArgyle Line,1+3⁄4miles (2.8 km) south east ofGlasgow Central. The station is operated byScotRailwho also provide all train services. History CalledBridgeton Cross Station,it opened on 1 November 1895 when the line between Glasgow Green and Rutherglen was opened by theGlasgow Central Railway. The station became a junction with the opening of the line to Carmyle andKirkhillon 1 February 1897. Westbound services ran to Stobcross, from where they could proceed toPossilviaMaryhill Central,Partickhilland points north via the connection to theStobcross Railwayor on to theLanarkshire and Dunbartonshire Railwayto Dumbarton and Balloch Central via Partick Central & Dalmuir Riverside. In 1956 the line was re-signalled with colour light signals controlled from the re-equippedsignal boxesat Bridgeton Cross Junction and Stobcross Junction. However, the station was closed along with both lines on 5 October", "lines on 5 October 1964 as a result of theBeeching Axe. The tracks were subsequently lifted, but the station and tunnels were left intact. As part of theArgyle Lineproject, the Rutherglen line platforms reopened asBridgeton Stationon 5 November 1979, as offering regular commuter services into Central Station (low level) and on towards the western suburbs. In preparation for the 2014 Commonwealth Games, the station underwent substantial renovations in 2010. Accidents and incidents Services 1979 When the Argyle Line was opened in 1979, there were six trains an hour to the Hamilton Circle, fromDalmuir, with two services an hour going as far west asDumbarton Central. The hourly service betweenLanarkandMilngavieran non-stop through Bridgeton station. 2008 Four trains per hour daily head westbound towards Glasgow Central and beyond (Milngavie and Dalmuir) and eastbound towardsMotherwell(with services onward to Lanark). 2015 The basic four trains per hour frequency remains unchanged, but since the December 2014", "the December 2014 timetable recast southbound trains now run to either Motherwell via Hamilton Central or viaWhifflet(though alternate services on that route terminate at Whifflet). On Sundays, southbound trains also serve Larkhall every hour andBallochevery 30 minutes. Routes References", "Calton, Glasgow Calton(Scottish Gaelic:A' Challtainn,lit.'the hazel wood',Scots:Caltoun), known locally asThe Calton, is a district inGlasgow. It is situated north of theRiver Clyde, and just to the east of the city centre. Calton's most famous landmark is theBarrasstreet market and theBarrowland Ballroom, one of Glasgow's principal musical venues. No official definition of Calton's boundaries exist, notionally it can be thought of as the roughly trapezoidal area bounded by theRiver Clydeto the south, Abercrombie Street to the east (where it borders bothCamlachieandBridgeton), and theCity Union Linerailway to the north andHigh Street/Saltmarketto the west. History The area was aBurgh of Baronyfrom 1817 to 1846, when it was annexed to Glasgow. The lands of Blackfaulds, on which Calton now stands, originally formed part of the lands of theArchbishopricof Glasgow, but were annexed toThe Crownin 1587. In 1705 the owner, John Walkinshaw, began tofeuthe lands of Blackfaulds (part of theBarrowfieldestate) on which", "on which the old village of Calton was built, and in 1817 acharterwas granted, erecting Calton into aBurgh. During the area's time as an independent burgh, there were fourProvostsof Calton: The Calton martyrs The area became known for itsweavingindustry. On 30 June 1787, a meeting ofCalton weaverswas held onGlasgow Green. Theirwageshad dropped because of the increased importation of cheaper foreigntextiles. Most of the workers decided to takestrike action, although some accepted lower wages and carried on working. The dispute came to a head on 3 September 1787: when violence erupted after some striking weavers tried to seize materials from weavers who had carried on working. Themilitarywere called in and a detachment of the39th Regiment of Footopened fire on the demonstrators. Six of the men killed at the scene were locally called 'martyrs' and some of them were buried in the CaltonCemeteryoff the main London Road. The families of the men could not afford aheadstonealthough, a century later, a memorial was", "a memorial was raised to commemorate their actions. Social problems ComedianJaney Godley, in her 2005autobiographyHandstands in the Dark,wrote about the 14 years she spent running a Caltonpub, the Weavers Inn (formerly the Nationalist Bar, now the Calton Bar). Her book details life there in the 1980s and 1990s, a time when the area became notorious forheroinabuse and whenurban renewalbegan. Calton is an area of considerable poverty andmultiple deprivationregarding; \"current income, employment, health, education, skills and training, housing, geographic access and crime.\"In January 2006, a report into poverty inThe Scotsmannewspaperstated that \"a child born in Calton... is three times as likely to sufferheart disease, four times as likely to be hospitalised and ten times as likely to grow up in a workless household than a child in the city's prosperous westernsuburbs\". Calton has the lowest malelife expectancyin Scotland. ABBC Scotlandnews report on 13 February 2006 pointed out that, partially due to poor", "due to poor diet, crime,alcoholanddrug abuse, life expectancy in Calton is lower than in some areas ofIraqor theGaza Strip. A news report in the 21 January 2006 edition ofThe Guardiannewspapergave the average lifespan of a person living in the Calton area as 53.9 years against a city average of 69 years and the Scottish average of 78. A 2008World Health Organizationreport contrasted Calton's male life expectancy, reported as standing at 54, with that of nearbyLenzie,East Dunbartonshire, at 82.Most of the affordable housing is owned byHousing Associationswith a high percentage oftenantsonhousing benefit(For example, Thenue Housing Association has approximately 75% of tenants on housing benefit).The Guardianwrites that higher risk of dying before they are 65 (up to 30% in comparison withLiverpoolandManchester) occurred because of rehousing skilled workers (cream skimming) due to 1970s policy documents. The area has experiencedsectariantensions for generations; it is a predominantly Catholic area (due to Irish", "area (due to Irish immigration), and there are alsoIrish republicansupporter groups present. This is reflected, albeit much declined in modern times, in gang and sectarian relatedgraffiti, with the main gang being the Calton Tongs. In the 1960s, the Calton was known locally asTongland(and still is by some), prominently marked out as such by graffiti. Tongland appears inGillies MacKinnon's 1995 movieSmall Faces.The gangs' power over the area and their decline in the 1970s is described inHandstands in the Dark. See also References External links Media related toCalton, Glasgowat Wikimedia Commons", "Dalmarnock Dalmarnock(/dælˈmɑːrnək/,Scottish Gaelic:Dail Mheàrnaig) is adistrictin theScottishcity ofGlasgow. It is situated east of the city centre, directly north of theRiver Clydeopposite the town ofRutherglen. It is also bounded by the Glasgow neighbourhoods ofParkheadto the north-east andBridgetonto the north-west. History The area was once heavily industrialised.Sir William Arrol & Co.had its extensive engineering works at Dunn Street and Baltic Street from 1873. From its beginnings inboilermaking, the firm later became renowned for its achievements in the field ofstructural engineering. Amongst the many bridges constructed throughout Britain were theForth Railway Bridge, theForth Road Bridge, theHumber Bridgeand London'sTower Bridge. The company was eventually taken over byClarke Chapmanin 1969 and the Dalmarnock Works closed in 1986. There was also a largecoal-fired power stationlocated near Dalmarnock Bridge. It was built byGlasgow Corporationin two stages, with phase one opening in 1920 and phase", "in 1920 and phase two in 1926. It was closed in 1977 by theSouth of Scotland Electricity Board. The east side of Allan Street was bombed during the Second World War. Most of the Victorian red sandstone tenements on Dalmarnock Road and Springfield Roadwere demolished in the 1960s and early-1970s, although some were renovated as part of theGlasgow Eastern Area Renewal(GEAR) scheme in the late 1970s. In the 1960s, a new housing scheme was built, consisting of four twenty-two storeytower blocksand \"H-block\" maisonettes. Two of the towers, 40 & 50 Millerfield Road, were demolished on 3 February 2002.One other tower was demolished on 1 July 2007, and the final one on 9 September 2007. This physical transformation featured in Chris Leslie's 'Disappearing Glasgow' book. Dalmarnock was the location chosen for theathletes' villagewhen Glasgow hosted the2014 Commonwealth Games,and by August 2011, there was no remaining housing on Ardenlea Street/Sunnybank Street side of the area,due to the preparations and land need", "and land need for the construction in the area pertaining to the Games andCity Legacy. From 19 May to 2 June 2014,BBC One Scotlandaired a documentary entitled \"Commonwealth City\", narrated by actorMartin Compston, which showed how the people and community in Dalmarnock had been affected since the games were announced in November 2007.The documentary featured local resident Margaret Jaconelli (evicted to make way for the Games),David Stewart (youth and community campaigner)Darren Faulds (local entrepreneur) and local councillors George Redmond & Yvonne Kucuk. TheSir Chris Hoy Velodrome, constructed for the Games, is located at the intersection of Springfield Road, London Road and theGlasgow East End Regeneration Route, oppositeCeltic Parkfootball stadium which denotes the district's boundary with Parkhead. A triangular piece of land to the east of the arena was the proposed location of a modern skyscraper,East One; however as of 2020 this site was still undeveloped. To the south of this is the 'Legacy Hub'", "is the 'Legacy Hub' building, a multi-function community facility belatedly installed to replace the previous hall at Lily Street. It opened in 2015but by January 2019 had closed suddenly amid financial problems at the People's Development Trust charity which ran its operations;the council purchased the building to secure its future,while an investigation found funds had been embezzled by charity leaders including former councillor Yvonne Kucuk. Clyde Gatewayis a large-scale regeneration programme which includes Dalmarnock. It is a partnership betweenGlasgow City Council,South Lanarkshire CouncilandScottish Enterprise, backed by funding and direct support from theScottish Government.Residential developments in the area following the Commonwealth Games includeRiverside,a project on the site of the former large power station overlooking the river (approximately 550 homes for purchase and social rent),and a site near the railway station (200 homes, in planning as of 2018). After the departure of all local", "of all local retailers from the area, all that remained was a small shop which was set up by the workers in the Community Centre; This was a welcome boon for the area residents as the nearest shops were not within walking distance.There is a petrol station on Dalmarnock Road and a car wash, with a pub a short distance further north past the railway station (this has been the location of a licensed premises under various names since the 1830s).There are also a lot of small business units in the Nuneaton Street area and theCalder Millerfieldfactory which supplies meat-based products to the fast-food market. Education The area once had four schools:Springfield Road Primary, Springfield Primary, Riverside Secondary and Our Lady of Fatima RC Primary School on Springfield Road have now closed. There is still a 'Dalmarnock Primary School', but it is situated in nearby Bridgeton and should not be counted among the schools within the area. A new primary schoolwas developed by Glasgow City Council; Riverbank Primary", "Riverbank Primary School, opened in August 2019. Transport Dalmarnock railway station, on theArgyle Line, serves the local area. The station was upgraded for the 2014 Commonwealth Games.Glasgow Corporation Tramwayshad routes serving the area in the first half of the 20th century, using tracks on Dalmarnock Road, London Road and Springfield Road. Dalmarnock Railway Bridges There have been two railway bridges in Dalmarnock crossing theRiver Clyde. The first bridge was built in 1861,and was augmented in 1897by a wider bridge to accommodate the Dalmarnock branch line. The stone pillars of the old bridge are still in situ adjacent to the newer bridge, with the track deck having been removed when it was no longer necessary to have so many lines.<Both bridges were designed by George Graham. Dalmarnock Bridge There is also a road bridge over the River Clyde on Dalmarnock Road (A749) called Dalmarnock Bridge. The first bridge at the location was wooden, erected in 1821 to connect Dalmarnock and theFarme Crossarea of", "Crossarea of Rutherglen.It was replaced by a new timber bridge in 1848,and in 1891 by the current Dalmarnock Bridge, designed by Glasgow consulting engineers, Crouch & Hogg; it isCategory B listed. The Glasgow side of the bridge is a convenient point for walkers and cyclists to join theClyde WalkwayorNational Cycle Route 75which share a tarmac path along the river at this point. This structure should not be confused with the nearbyRutherglen Bridgewhich also connects Rutherglen and Dalmarnock (as well asGlasgow Green,Oatlands,Shawfieldand Bridgeton), nor with two modern pedestrian bridges: one also connecting to Shawfield, and the other between the 2014 Athletes' Village homes and theCuningar Loop, an area of open ground on a meander of the river, known locally as 'The Vallies' and converted to a park as part of the area's redevelopment). Notable people See also References External links" ]
What is the burial place of the most successful racehorse in the Grand National's history, as of 2024?
The winning post at Aintree Racecourse
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_National
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Rum
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['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_National ', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Rum']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_National ", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Rum" ]
[ "Grand National TheGrand Nationalis aNational Hunthorse raceheld annually atAintree RacecourseinAintree, Merseyside, England. First run in1839, it is ahandicapsteeplechaseover an official distance of about 4 miles and 2½ furlongs (4 miles 514 yards (6.907 km)), with horses jumping 30 fences over two laps.It is the most valuable jump race in Europe, with a prize fund of £1 million in 2017.An event that is prominent inBritish culture, the race is popular amongst many people who do not normally watch or bet on horse racing at other times of the year. The course over which the race is run features much larger fences than those found on conventional National Hunt tracks. Many of these fences, particularlyBecher's Brook,The Chairand theCanal Turn, have become famous in their own right and, combined with the distance of the event, create what has been called \"the ultimate test of horse and rider\". The Grand National has been broadcast live onfree-to-airterrestrial television in the United Kingdom since1960. From then until2012it was broadcast by theBBC.Channel 4broadcast the event between2013and2016: UK broadcasting rights were transferred toITVfrom2017.An estimated 500 to 600 million people watch the Grand National in over 140 countries.The race has also been broadcast on radio since1927;BBC Radioheld exclusive rights until 2013.Talksportacquired radio commentary rights in 2014:Both the BBC and Talksport currently broadcast the race in full. The most recent running of the race, in2024, was won by I Am Maximus. Since 2017, the race and accompanying festival have been sponsored byRandox. The next meeting will take place from 3–5 April 2025. History Founding and early Nationals (1829–1850) The Grand National was founded by William Lynn, a syndicate head and proprietor of theWaterloo Hotel, on land he leased inAintreefromWilliam Molyneux, 2nd Earl of Sefton.Lynn set out a course, built a grandstand, and Lord Sefton laid the foundation stone on 7 February 1829.There is much debate regarding the first official Grand National; most leading published historians, including John Pinfold, now prefer the idea that the first running was in1836and was won byThe Duke.This same horse won again in1837,whileSir Williamwas the winner in1838.These races have long been disregarded because of the belief that they took place atMaghulland not Aintree. However, some historians have unearthed evidence in recent years that suggests those three races were run over the same course at Aintree and were regarded as having been Grand Nationals up until the mid-1860s.Contemporary newspaper reports place all the 1836–38 races at Aintree although the 1839 race is the first described as \"national\".However, calls for the Nationals of 1836–1838 to be restored to the record books have been unsuccessful. In 1838 and 1839 three significant events occurred to transform the race from a small local affair to a national event. Firstly, the Great St. Albans Chase, which had clashed with the steeplechase at Aintree, was not renewed after 1838,leaving a major hole in the chasing calendar. Secondly, the railway, opened from Manchester to Liverpool in 1830, was linked to a line from London and Birmingham in 1839 enabling rail transport to the Liverpool area from large parts of the country for the first time. Finally, a committee was formed to better organise the event.These factors led to a more highly publicised race in 1839 which attracted a larger field of top quality horses and riders, greater press coverage, and increased attendance on race day. Over time the first three runnings of the event were quickly forgotten to secure the1839 raceits place in history as the first official Grand National. The 1839 race was won by riderJem Masonon the aptly named,Lottery.The Duke was ridden byMartin Becher. The fenceBecher's Brookis named after him and is where he fell in the race. By the 1840s, Lynn's ill-health blunted his enthusiasm for Aintree. Edward Topham, a respected handicapper and prominent member of Lynn's syndicate, began to exert greater influence over the National. He turned the chase into a handicap in1843after it had been a weight-for-age race for the first four years, and took over the land lease in 1848. One century later, the Topham family bought the course outright. Later in the century, the race was the setting of a thriller by the popular novelistHenry Hawley Smart. War National Steeplechase (1916–1918) For three years during theFirst World War, while Aintree Racecourse was taken over by theWar Office, an alternative race was run atGatwick Racecourse, a now disused course on land now occupied byGatwick Airport. The first of these races, in 1916, was called the Racecourse Association Steeplechase, and in 1917 and 1918 the race was called the War National Steeplechase. The races at Gatwick are not always recognised as \"Grand Nationals\" and their results are often omitted from winners' lists. Tipperary Tim (1928) On the day of the1928 Grand National, before the race had begun,Tipperary Tim's jockeyWilliam Duttonheard a friend call out to him: \"Billy boy, you'll only win if all the others fall down!\"These words turned out to be true, as 41 of the 42 starters fell during the race.That year's National was run during misty weather conditions with the going very heavy.As the field approached theCanal Turnon the first circuit,Easter Herofell, causing a pile-up from which only seven horses emerged with seated jockeys. By the penultimate fence, this number had reduced to three, with Great Span looking most likely to win ahead ofBilly Bartonand Tipperary Tim. Great Span's saddle then slipped, leaving Billy Barton in the lead until he too then fell. Although Billy Barton's jockeyTommy Cullinanmanaged to remount and complete the race, it was Tipperary Tim who came in first at outside odds of 100/1. With only two riders completing the course, this remains a record for the lowest number of finishers. Second World War and the 1950s Although the Grand National was run as normal in 1940 and most other major horse races around the world were able to be held throughoutthe war, thecommandeeringof Aintree Racecourse for defence use in 1941 meant no Grand National could be held from 1941 to 1945.It recommenced in 1946, when it was run on a Friday, and from 1947 was moved to a Saturday, at the urging of theHome SecretaryJames Chuter Ede,who thought this would make it more accessible to working people. It has normally been run on a Saturday ever since. During the 1950s the Grand National was dominated byVincent O'Brien, who trained different winners of the race for three consecutive years between 1953 and 1955. Early Mist secured O'Brien's first victory in1953; Royal Tan won in1954, and Quare Times completed the Irish trainer's hat-trick in1955. Oh, that's racing! The Queen MotheronDevon Loch's collapse moments from certain victory The running of the1956 Grand Nationalwitnessed one of the chase's most bizarre incidents.Devon Loch, owned byQueen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, had cleared the final fence in the leading position, five lengths clear ofE.S.B.Forty yards from what seemed like certain victory, Devon Loch suddenly, and inexplicably, half-jumped into the air and collapsed in a belly-flop on the turf. Despite efforts by jockeyDick Francis, Devon Loch was unable to complete the race, leaving E.S.B. to cross the finishing line first. Responding to the commiserations of E.S.B.’s owner, the Queen Mother famously commented: \"Oh, that's racing!\" Had Devon Loch completed the race he might have set a new record for the fastest finishing time, which E.S.B. missed by only four-fifths of a second. Many explanations have been offered for Devon Loch's behaviour on the run-in, but the incident remains inexplicable.The incident became part of the folklore of the event, and by extension British sporting culture. In modern language, the phrase \"to do a Devon Loch\" is often used to describe a last-minute failure to achieve an expected victory. Foinavon (1967) Rutherfords has been hampered, and so has Castle Falls; Rondetto has fallen, Princeful has fallen, Norther has fallen, Kirtle Lad has fallen, The Fossa has fallen, there's a right pile-up... And now, with all this mayhem, Foinavon has gone off on his own! He's about 50, 100 yards in front of everything else! CommentatorMichael O'Hehirdescribes the chaotic scene at the 23rd fence in1967 In the1967 Grand National, most of the field were hampered or dismounted in a mêlée at the 23rd fence, allowing a rank-outsider,Foinavon, to become a surprise winner at odds of 100/1. A loose horse named Popham Down, who had unseated his rider at the first jump, suddenly veered across the leading group at the 23rd, causing them to either stop, refuse or unseat their riders. Racing journalistLord Oakseydescribed the resulting pile-up by saying that Popham Down had \"cut down the leaders like a row of thistles\".Some horses even started running in the wrong direction, back the way they had come. Foinavon, whose owner had such little faith in him that he had travelled to Worcester that day instead,had been lagging some 100 yards behind the leading pack, giving his jockey,John Buckingham, time to steer his mount wide of the havoc and make a clean jump of the fence on the outside. Although 17 jockeys remounted and some made up considerable ground, particularlyJosh Giffordon 15/2 favourite Honey End, none had time to catch Foinavon before he crossed the finishing line. The 7th/23rd fence was officially named the 'Foinavon fence' in 1984. 1970s and Red Rum The 1970s were mixed years for the Grand National. In 1973, eight years after Mrs.Mirabel Tophamannounced she was seeking a buyer, the racecourse was finally sold to property developer Bill Davies. Davies tripled the admission prices, and consequently, the attendance at the1975 race, won byL'Escargot, was the smallest in living memory. It was after this that bookmakerLadbrokesmade an offer, signing an agreement with Davies allowing them to manage the Grand National. They're willing him home now! The 12-year-old Red Rum, being preceded only by loose horses, being chased by Churchtown Boy... They're coming to the elbow, just a furlong now between Red Rum and his third Grand National triumph! It's hats off and a tremendous reception, you've never heard one like it at Liverpool... and Red Rum wins the National! CommentatorPeter O'Sullevandescribes Red Rum's record third Grand National win in1977 During this period,Red Rumwas breaking all records to become the most successful racehorse in Grand National history. Originally bought as a yearling in 1966 for 400guineas(£420),he passed through various training yards before being bought for 6,000 guineas (£6,300) byGinger McCainon behalf of Noel le Mare.Two days after the purchase while trotting the horse on Southport beach, McCain noticed that Red Rum appeared lame.The horse was suffering frompedal osteitis, an inflammatory bone disorder.McCain had witnessed many lame carthorses reconditioned by being galloped in sea-water.He successfully used this treatment on his newly acquired racehorse. Red Rum became, and remains as of 2018, the only horse to have won the Grand National three times, in1973,1974, and1977. He also finished second in the two intervening years,1975and1976. In 1973, he was in second place at the last fence, 15 lengths behind champion horseCrisp, who was carrying 23lbsmore. Red Rum made up the ground on the run-in and, two strides from the finishing post, he pipped the tiring Crisp to win by three-quarters of a length in what is arguably the most memorable Grand National of all time. Red Rum finished in 9 minutes 1.9 seconds, taking 18.3 seconds off the previous record for the National which had been set in1935by Reynoldstown.His record was to stand for the next seventeen years. Bob Champion's National (1981) Two years before the1981 Grand National, jockeyBob Championhad been diagnosed with testicular cancer and given only months to live by doctors. But by 1981 he had recovered and was passed fit to ride in the Grand National. He rodeAldaniti, a horse deprived in its youth and which had only recently recovered from chronic leg problems.Despite a poor start, the pair went on to win4+1⁄2lengths ahead of the much-fancied Spartan Missile, ridden by amateur jockey and 54-year-old grandfather John Thorne.Champion and Aldaniti were instantly propelled to celebrity status, and within two years, their story had been re-created in the filmChampions, starringJohn Hurt. Seagram's sponsorship (1984–1991) From 1984 to 1991,Seagramsponsored the Grand National. The Canadian distiller provided a solid foundation on which the race's revival could be built, firstly enabling the course to be bought from Davies and to be run and managed by theJockey Club. It is said that Ivan Straker, Seagram's UK chairman, became interested in the potential opportunity after reading a passionate newspaper article written by journalist Lord Oaksey, who, in his riding days, had come within three-quarters of a length of winning the1963 National.The last Seagram-sponsored Grand National was in 1991. Coincidentally,the racewas won by a horse named Seagram.Martell, then a Seagram subsidiary, took over sponsorship of the Aintree meeting for an initial seven years from 1992, in a £4 million deal. The race that never was (1993) The result of the1993 Grand Nationalwas declared void after a series of incidents commentatorPeter O'Sullevanlater called \"the greatest disaster in the history of the Grand National.\" While under starter's orders, one jockey was tangled in the starting tape which had failed to rise correctly. A false start was declared, but due to a lack of communication between course officials, 30 of the 39 jockeys did not realise this and began the race. Course officials tried to stop the runners by waving red flags, but many jockeys continued to race, believing that they were protesters (a group of whom had invaded the course earlier), whilePeter Scudamoreonly stopped because he saw his trainer,Martin Pipe, waving frantically at him. Seven horses completed the course, meaning the result was void. The first past the post was Esha Ness (in the second-fastest time ever), ridden by John White, trained byJenny Pitmanand owned by Patrick Bancroft. The Monday National (1997) The1997 Grand Nationalwas postponed after two coded bomb threats were received from theProvisional Irish Republican Army. The course was secured by police who then evacuated jockeys, race personnel, and local residents along with 60,000 spectators. Cars and coaches were locked in the course grounds, leaving some 20,000 people without their vehicles over the weekend. With limited accommodation available in the city, local residents opened their doors and took in many of those stranded. This prompted tabloid headlines such as \"We'll fight them on the Becher's\", in reference toWinston Churchill's war-time speech.The race was run 48 hours later on the Monday, with the meeting organisers offering 20,000 tickets with free admission. Recent history (2004–present) Red Rum's trainerGinger McCainreturned to the Grand National in2004, 31 years after Red Rum's epic run-in defeat of Crisp to secure his first of three wins. McCain'sAmberleigh Housecame home first, ridden byGraham Lee, overtaking Clan Royal on the final straight.Hedgehunter, who would go on to win in2005, fell at the last while leading. McCain had equalled George Dockeray andFred Rimell's record feat of training four Grand National winners. In 2005John Smith'stook over from Martell as main sponsors of the Grand National and many of the other races at the three-day Aintree meeting for the first time.In 2006 John Smith's launched theJohn Smith's People's Racewhich gave ten members of the public the chance to ride in a flat race at Aintree on Grand National day.In total, thirty members of the public took part in the event before it was discontinued in 2010. In2009,Mon Momebecame the longest-priced winner of the National for 42 years when he defied outside odds of 100/1 to win by 12 lengths. The victory was also the first for trainerVenetia Williams, the first female trainer to triumph sinceJenny Pitmanin1995. The race was also the first National ride forLiam Treadwell. In2010the National became the first horse race to be televised inhigh-definitionin the UK. In August 2013Crabbie'swas announced as the new sponsor of the Grand National. The three-year deal between the alcoholic ginger beer producer and Aintree saw the race run for a record purse of £1 million in2014. In March 2016 it was announced thatRandox Healthwould take over from Crabbie's as official partners of the Grand National festival from2017, for at least five years.The sponsorship award was controversial as Aintree's chairwoman,Rose Paterson, was married toOwen Paterson, aMember of Parliament(MP) who also earns a £50,000 annual fee as a consultant for Randox. The 2020 race was not run owing to thecoronavirus pandemic; in its place, a virtual race was produced usingCGItechnology and based on algorithms of the 40 horses most likely to have competed. The virtual race was won by Potters Corner, winner of the 2019Welsh Grand National.(Another computer-generated virtual race was made also, whose runners were many horses who had won the Grand National in past years, each shown with its performance as at its racing prime. Its winner wasRed Rumby less than a length, having just passedManifesto.) In December 2020 Randox Health announced they had extended their sponsorship for a further 5 years which will make them sponsors to 2026. In 2021,Rachael Blackmorebecame the first female jockey to win the race, on the horseMinella Times. In 2023, the race was disrupted by theAnimal Risingprotests, the first such disruptions since the cancellation of the1993 Grand Nationaldue to a series of false starts and the1997 Grand Nationaldue to the IRA bomb threat. The course The Grand National is run over the National Course at Aintree and consists of two laps of 16 fences, the first 14 of which are jumped twice. Horses completing the race cover a distance of 4 miles 514 yards (6.907 km), the longest of any National Hunt race in Britain. As part of a review of safety following the 2012 running of the event, from 2013 to 2015 the start was moved 90 yards (82 m) forward away from the crowds and grandstands, reducing the race distance by 110 yards (100 m) from the historical 4 miles 856 yards (7.220 km).The course has one of the longest run-ins from the final fence of any steeplechase, at 494 yards (452 m). The Grand National was designed as a cross-country steeplechase when it was first officially run in 1839. The runners started at a lane on the edge of the racecourse and raced away from the course out over open countryside towards theLeeds and Liverpool Canal. The gates, hedges, and ditches that they met along the way were flagged to provide them with the obstacles to be jumped along the way with posts and rails erected at the two points where the runners jumped a brook. The runners returned towards the racecourse by running along the edge of the canal before re-entering the course at the opposite end. The runners then ran the length of the racecourse before embarking on a second circuit before finishing in front of the stands. The majority of the race, therefore, took place not on the actual Aintree Racecourse but instead in the adjoining countryside. That countryside was incorporated into the modern course but commentators still often refer to it as \"the country\". Fences There are 16 fences on the National Course topped with spruce from theLake District. The cores of 12 fences were rebuilt in 2012 and they are now made of a flexible plastic material which is more forgiving than the traditional wooden core fences. They are still topped with at least 14 inches (36 cm) of spruce for the horses to knock off. Some of the jumps carry names from the history of the race. All 16 are jumped on the first lap, but on the final lap, the runners bear to the right onto the run-in for home, avoiding The Chair and the Water Jump. The following is a summary of all 16 fences on the course: Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m)Often met at great speed, which can lead to several falls, the highest being 12 runners in 1951. The drop on the landing side was reduced after the2011 Grand National. It was bypassed in both 2019 and 2023 on the final lap, after equine casualties.The fence was moved 60 yards nearer to the start from the 2024 race, to try to reduce the speed of the field early in the race. Height: 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m)Before 1888 the first two fences were located approximately halfway between the first to second and second to third jumps. The second became known as The Fan, after amarewho refused the obstacle three years in succession. The name fell out of favour with the relocation of the fences. Height: 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 m); fronted by a 6 feet (1.83 m) ditchThe first big test in the race as horses are still adapting to the obstacles. In2022, the race was shortened to 29 fences by bypassing this fence following a fatality. Height: 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 m)A testing obstacle that often leads to falls and unseated riders. In2011the 20th became the first fence in Grand National history to be bypassed on the final lap, following an equine fatality. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m)A plain obstacle which precedes the most famous fence on the course. It was bypassed on the final lap for the first time in 2012 so that medics could treat a jockey who fell from his mount on the first lap and had broken a leg. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m), with the landing side 6 inches (15 cm) to 10 inches (25 cm) lower than the takeoff sideThe drop at this fence often catches runners by surprise. Becher's has always been a popular vantage point as it can present one of the most spectacular displays of jumping when the horse and rider meet the fence right. Jockeys must sit back in their saddles and use their body weight as ballast to counter the steep drop. It takes its name fromCaptain Martin Becherwho fell there in the first Grand National and took shelter in the small brook running along the landing side of the fence while the remainder of the field thundered over. It is said that Becher later reflected: \"Water tastes disgusting without the benefits of whisky.\" It was bypassed in 2011 along with fence 20, after an equine casualty, and again in 2018 after a jockey was attended by doctors, both occurring on the final lap. Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m)One of the smallest on the course, it was named in 1984 after the1967winner who avoided a mêlée at the fence to go on and win the race at outside odds of 100/1. Height: 5 ft (1.52 m)Noted for its sharp 90-degree left turn immediately after landing. Before theFirst World Warit was not uncommon for loose horses to continue straight ahead after the jump and end up in theLeeds and Liverpool Canalitself. There was once a ditch before the fence but this was filled in after a mêlée in the1928 race. It was bypassed for the first time in 2015 on the final lap as vets arrived to treat a horse who fell on the first lap. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m) with a 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) brookThe fence was originally known as the Second Brook but was renamed after a horse named Valentine was reputed to have jumped the fence hind legs first in1840. A grandstand was erected alongside the fence in the early part of the 20th century but fell into decline after theSecond World Warand was torn down in the 1970s. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m)A plain obstacle that leads the runners alongside the canal towards two ditches. Height: 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 m), with a 6 feet (1.83 m) ditch on the takeoff side. This fence was 5 feet hight but was lowered by 2 inches from 2024. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m), with a 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) ditch on the landing side The runners then cross the Melling Road near to the Anchor Bridge, a popular vantage point since the earliest days of the race. This also marks the point where the runners are said to be re-entering the \"racecourse proper\". In the early days of the race, it is thought there was an obstacle near this point known as the Table Jump, which may have resembled a bank similar to those still seen atPunchestownin Ireland. In the 1840s the Melling Road was also flanked by hedges and the runners had to jump into the road and then back out of it. Height: 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m)A plain obstacle that comes at a point when the runners are usually in a good rhythm and thus rarely causes problems. Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m)The last fence on the final lap and which has often seen very tired horses fall. Despite some tired runners falling on the 30th and appearing injured, no horse deaths have occurred at the 30th fence to date. On the first lap of the race, runners continue around the course to negotiate two fences which are only jumped once: Height: 5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m), preceded by a 6 ft (1.83 m) wide ditchThis fence is the site of the accident that claimed the only human life in the National's history: in 1862, Joe Wynne fell here and died from his injuries, although a coroner's inquest revealed that the rider was in a gravely weakened condition throughconsumption.This brought about the ditch on the take-off side of the fence in an effort to slow the horses on approach. The fence was the location where a distance judge sat in the earliest days of the race. On the second circuit, he would record the finishing order from his position and declare any horse that had not passed him before the previous runner passed the finishing post as \"distanced\", meaning a non-finisher. The practice was done away with in the 1850s, but the monument where the chair stood is still there. The ground on the landing side is six inches higher than on the takeoff side, creating the opposite effect to the drop at Becher's. The fence was originally known as the Monument Jump, but \"The Chair\" came into more frequent use in the 1930s. Today it is one of the most popular jumps on the course for spectators. Height: 2 feet 6 inches (0.76 m)Originally a stone wall in the very early Nationals. The Water Jump was one of the most popular jumps on the course, presenting a great jumping spectacle for those in the stands and was always a major feature in thenewsreels' coverage of the race. As the newsreels made way for television in the 1960s, so, in turn, did the Water Jump fall under the shadow of its neighbour, The Chair, in popularity as an obstacle. On the final lap, after the 30th fence, the remaining runners bear right, avoiding The Chair and Water Jump, to head onto a \"run-in\" to the finishing post. The run-in is not perfectly straight: an \"elbow\" requires jockeys to make a slight right before finding themselves truly on the home straight. It is on this run-in—one of the longest in the United Kingdom at 494 yards (452 m)—that many potential winners have had victory snatched away, such asDevon Lochin1956,Crispin1973,What's Up Boysin2002and Sunnyhillboy in2012. Records Leading horse: Leadingjockey: Leadingtrainers: Leading owners: Winners The following table lists the winners of the last ten Grand Nationals: Jockeys When the concept of the Grand National was first envisaged it was designed as a race for gentlemen riders,meaning men who were not paid to compete, and while this was written into the conditions of the early races many of the riders who weighed out for the1839 racewere professionals for hire. Throughout theVictorian erathe line between the amateur and professional sportsman existed only in terms of the rider's status, and the engagement of an amateur to ride in the race was rarely considered a handicap to a contender's chances of winning. Many gentleman riders won the race before the First World War. Although the number of amateurs remained high between the wars their ability to match their professional counterparts gradually receded. After the Second World War, it became rare for any more than four or five amateurs to take part in any given year. The last amateur rider to win the Grand National was MrSam Waley-Cohenin 2022 onNoble Yeats. The penultimate amateur to win the race isMarcus Armytage, who set the still-standing course record of 8:47.80, when winning onMr Friskin1990. By the 21st century, however, openings for amateur riders had become very rare with some years passing with no amateur riders at all taking part. Those that do in the modern era are most usually talented young riders who are often close to turning professional. In the past, such amateur riders would have been joined by army officers, such asDavid Campbellwho won in 1896, and sporting aristocrats, farmers or local huntsmen and point to point riders, who usually opted to ride their own mounts. But all these genres of rider have faded out in the last quarter of a century with no riders of military rank or aristocratic title having taken a mount since 1982. TheSex Discrimination Act 1975made it possible for female jockeys to enter the race. The first female jockey to enter the race wasCharlotte Brewon the 200/1 outsider Barony Fort in the1977race.The first female jockey to complete the race was Geraldine Rees on Cheers in1982. The 21st century has not seen a significant increase in female riders but it has seen them gain rides on mounts considered to have a genuine chance of winning. In2005, Carrie Ford finished fifth on the 8/1 second-favourite Forest Gunner. In 2012,Katie Walshachieved what was at the time the best result yet for a female jockey, finishing third on the 8/1 joint-favourite Seabass. In2015,Nina Carberrybecame the first female jockey to take a fifth ride in the Grand National, her best placing being seventh in2010.Rachael Blackmorebecame the first female jockey to win the Grand National aboardMinella Timesin2021. Professionals now hold dominance in the Grand National and better training, dietary habits and protective clothing have ensured that riders' careers last much longer and offer more opportunities to ride in the race. Of the 37 riders who have enjoyed 13 or more rides in the race, 19 had their first ride in the 20th century and 11 had careers that continued into or started in the 21st century.Despite that, a long-standing record of 19 rides in the race was set byTom Olliverback in 1859 and was not equalled until 2014 byA. P. McCoy.This has since been topped by Richard Johnson. Longevity is no guarantee of success, however, as 13 of the 34 never tasted the glory of winning the race. McCoy is the only rider to successfully remove himself from the list after winning at the 15th attempt in 2010.Richard Johnsonset a new record of 21 failed attempts to win the race from 1997 to 2019, having finished second twice. The other 16 riders who never won or have not as yet won, having had more than 12 rides in the race are: Peter Scudamoretechnically lined up for thirteen Grand Nationals without winning but the last of those was the void race of 1993, which meant that he officially competed in twelve Nationals. Many other well-known jockeys have failed to win the Grand National. These include champion jockeys such asTerry Biddlecombe,John Francome,Josh Gifford, Stan Mellor,Jonjo O'Neill(who never finished the race) andFred Rimell.Three jockeys who led over the last fence in the National but lost the race on the run-in ended up as television commentators:Lord Oaksey(on Carrickbeg in 1963),Norman Williamson(on Mely Moss in 2000), andRichard Pitman(onCrispin1973). Dick Francis also never won the Grand National in 8 attempts although he did lead over the last fence on Devon Loch in the 1956 race, only for the horse to collapse under him when well in front only 40 yards from the winning post. Pitman's son Mark also led over the last fence, only to be pipped at the post when ridingGarrison Savannahin1991.David Dickwon the 1956 Grand National on E.S.B. when Devon Loch collapsed and he also holds the record for the number of clear rounds – nine times. Since 1986, any jockey making five or more clear rounds has been awarded the Aintree Clear Rounds Award. Horse welfare Statistics The Grand National has been described by theBBCas higher risk than lots of other horse races.According to the British Horseracing Authority, as of 2022, the five-year average fatality rate for jump racing was 0.43%.However, the rate for the Grand National over the last ten runnings was more than twice as high, at 1.12%. History of fatalities During the 1970s and 1980s, the Grand National saw a total of 12 horses die (half of which were at Becher's Brook); in the next 20-year period from 1990 to 2010, when modifications to the course were most significant, there were 17 equine fatalities. The2011and2012 raceseach yielded two deaths, including one each at Becher's Brook. In 2013, when further changes were made to introduce a more flexible fence structure, there were no fatalities in the race itself although two horses died in run-up races over the same course.The animal welfare charityLeague Against Cruel Sportscounts the number of horse deaths over the three-day meeting from the year 2000 to 2013 at 40. There were no equine fatalities in the main Grand National race for seven years until 2019,when one horse died at the first fence.In 2021, one horse was euthanised after the race after suffering an injury on a flat section between fences.Two more were euthanised after suffering injuries in the 2022 event. One of the incidents came at fence 3, the other on the gallop between fences 12 and 13.There was one fatality in 2023, following a fall at the first fence, and two other horses taken away by ambulance.The involvement of animal rights protesters was questioned after the race. Sandy Thompson, trainer of the fatally injured Hill Sixteen, claimed along with several other racing personalities that the protesters had (directly or indirectly) caused the death of the gelding and were equally responsible for the number of fallers, because the delay they caused to the start, after storming the course close to post time, got the horses worked up and \"hyper\".The protesters have denied these comments, saying they had every right to break and enter and trespass onto racecourse ground and stage a protest despite officials' orders not to. Organiser changes Over the years, Aintree officials have worked in conjunction with animal welfare organisations to reduce the severity of some fences and to improve veterinary facilities. In 2008, a new veterinary surgery was constructed in the stable yard which has two large treatment boxes, an X-ray unit, video endoscopy, equine solarium, and sandpit facilities. Further changes in set-up and procedure allow vets to treat horses more rapidly and in better surroundings. Those requiring more specialist care can be transported by specialist horse ambulances, under police escort, to the nearby Philip Leverhulme Equine Hospital at theUniversity of Liverpool at Leahurst. A mobile on-course X-ray machine assists in the prompt diagnosis of leg injuries when horses are pulled up, and oxygen and water are available by the final fence and finishing post.Five vets remain mobile on the course during the running of the race and can initiate treatment of injured fallers at the fence. Additional vets are stationed at the pull-up area, finishing post, and in the surgery. Some of the National's most challenging fences have also been modified, while still preserving them as formidable obstacles. After the1989 Grand National, in which two horses died in incidents atBecher's Brook, Aintree began the most significant of its modifications to the course. The brook on the landing side of Becher's was filled in and, after the 2011 race which also saw an equine fatality at the obstacle, the incline on the landing side was levelled out and the drop on was reduced by between 4 and 5 inches (10–13 cm) to slow the runners. Other fences have also been reduced in height over the years, and the entry requirements for the race have been made stricter. Screening at theCanal Turnnow prevents horses from being able to see the sharp left turn and encourages jockeys to spread out along the fence, rather than take the tight left-side route. Additionally, work has been carried out to smooth the core post infrastructure of the fences with protective padding to reduce impact upon contact,and the height of the toe-boards on all fences has been increased to 14 inches (36 cm). These orange-coloured boards are positioned at the base of each fence and provide a clear ground line to assist horses in determining the base of the fence. Parts of the course were widened in 2009 to allow runners to bypass fences if required. This was utilised for the first time during the 2011 race as casualties at fences 4 and 6 (Becher's Brook) resulted in marshals diverting the remaining contenders around those fences on the final lap. Some within the horseracing community, including those with notable achievements in the Grand National such asGinger McCainandBob Champion,have argued that the lowering of fences and the narrowing of ditches, primarily designed to increase horse safety, has made matters worse by encouraging the runners to race faster. After the 2023 race, the Jockey Club announced several major changes to the event for 2024, recognising \"the need for more substantial updates on several key areas in order to better protect the welfare of racehorses and jockeys\".This included a reduction in the size of the field for the first time, from 40 to 34 (long called for by welfare campaigners such as theRSPCA),as well as infrastructure changes such as moving fences to slow the speed of the race at the start, and further development of pre-race veterinary protocols. Grand National Legends In 2009, the race sponsors John Smith's launched a poll to determine five personalities to be inducted into the inauguralGrand National Legendsinitiative.The winners were announced on the day of the2010 Grand Nationaland inscribed on commemorative plaques at Aintree. They were: A panel of experts also selected three additional legends: In 2011, nine additional legends were added: John Smith's also added five \"people's legends\" who were introduced on Liverpool Day, the first day of the Grand National meeting. The five were: A public vote announced at the2012 Grand Nationalsaw five more additions to the Legends hall: The selection panel also inducted three more competitors: Sponsorship Since 1984 it has been sponsored by 5 different companies. Notes Favourites In the 71 races of the post-war era (excluding the void race in 1993), the favourite or joint-favourite have only won the race twelve times (in1950,1960,1973,1982,1996,1998,2005,2008,2010,2019,2023, and2024) and have failed to complete the course in 37 Nationals. Mares Since its inception, 13mareshave won the race, most recently in 1951: Greys Threegreyshave won: Female jockeys Since 1977, women have ridden in 24 Grand Nationals. Geraldine Rees became the first to complete the course, on Cheers in1982. In2012Katie Walsh became the first female jockey to earn a placed finish in the race, finishing third on Seabass. Rachael Blackmore became the first female jockey to win withMinella Timesin 2021. International winners Other British winners Irish winners Famous owners The 1900 winner Ambush II was owned by HRH Prince of Wales, later to becomeKing Edward VII.In 1950Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Motherhad her first runner in the race in Monaveen, who finished fifth.Six years later she would witness herDevon Lochcollapse on the run-in, just yards from a certain victory. The favourite for the 1968 race, Different Class, was owned by actorGregory Peck. The1963winner Ayala and the1976winnerRag Tradewere both part-owned by celebrity hairdresserRaymond Bessone. 1994winnerMiinnehomawas owned by comedianFreddie Starr. What A Friend ran in2011and2013when part-owned byAlex Ferguson, the former manager of Manchester United. See also References Notes Sources External links 53°28′37″N2°56′30″W / 53.47694°N 2.94167°W /53.47694; -2.94167", "Red Rum Red Rum(3 May 1965 – 18 October 1995) was an Irish championThoroughbredsteeplechaser. He achieved an unmatched historic treble when he won theGrand Nationalin1973,1974and1977, and also came second in the two intervening years, 1975 and 1976. The Grand National is a notoriously difficult race that has been described as \"the ultimate test of a horse’s courage\".He was also renowned for his jumping ability, having not fallen in 100 races. The 1973 race in which Red Rum secured his comeback victory from 30lengthsbehind is often considered one of the greatest Grand Nationals in history.In a 2002 UK poll, Red Rum's historic third triumph in the Grand National was voted the 24th greatest sporting moment of all time. Early life Red Rum was bred at RossenarrastudinKells,County Kilkenny,Ireland, by Martyn McEnery. HissirewasQuorum(1954–1971), and his damMared(1958–1976). Mared was a granddaughter of the broodmare Batika, whose other descendants have included theIrish 2000 GuineaswinnerTurtle Island.McEnery gave Red Rum his name by taking the last three letters of the names of his dam and sire, respectively.Bred to win one-mile races, Red Rum won his National titles over the longest distance, four miles and four furlongs. He started his career running in low-value races as a sprinter and dead-heated in his first race, a five-furlong flat race atAintree Racecourse.He ran another seven times as a two-year-old, winning over 7f atWarwick, and over the same distance atDoncasterin the first of his two races as a three-year-old. In his early career, he was twice ridden byLester Piggott.The comedianLee Mack, then a stable boy, had his first riding lesson on Red Rum. After being passed from training yard to training yard, he found his footing when Southport car dealerGinger McCainbought him for his client Noel le Mare and famously trained the horse on the sands atSouthport, England.Galloping through sea water may have proved highly beneficial to Red Rum's hooves.McCain reportedly took Red Rum for a therapeutic swim in the sea off Southport before his first National appearances to help treat the horse'spedal osteitis, a debilitating, incurable bone disease in hishoof. McCain also won the Grand National in 2004 withAmberleigh House, 31 years after his first victory with Red Rum. Grand National record The crowd are willing him home now. The 12-year-old Red Rum, being preceded only by loose horses, being chased by Churchtown Boy... They're coming to the elbow, just a furlong now between Red Rum and his third Grand National triumph! It's hats off and a tremendous reception, you've never heard one like it at Liverpool – Red Rum wins the National! CommentatorPeter O'Sullevandescribes the moment Red Rum sealed his third Grand National title At the1973 Grand National, Red Rum beat the Australian chaserCrisp, which was carrying 23 pounds more, in a new record time of nine minutes, 1.9 seconds.Crisp led the field virtually all the way in that year's National in which he was 30lengthsclear, and at the last fence was 15 lengths clear of Red Rum, his nearest pursuer. Red Rum and jockeyBrian Fletcher, however, made up the ground on the final stretch and, two strides from the finishing post, pipped the tiring Crisp to win by three-quarters of a length in what is often considered one of the greatest Grand Nationals in history.Crisp's jockeyRichard Pitmanlater stated: \"I still dream about that race, of Crisp running so strongly and jumping so fearlessly, and then the sound of Red Rum's hooves as he got closer and closer at the end.\"He added: \"I felt as though I was tied to a railway line with an express train thundering up and being unable to jump out of the way.\"A year later, Red Rum retained his title at the 1974 National, carrying 12 stone.(He followed that with victory in the Scottish Grand National, and remains the only horse to win both in the same season.) Red Rum came second in 1975 and 1976;Tommy Stackreplaced Fletcher as jockey in the 1976 race after Fletcher angered trainerGinger McCainby telling the press the horse no longer felt right after a defeat in a race away from Aintree. Again, Red Rum saved his best for Aintree but was held off by Rag Trade. The following year, Stack rode the 12-year-old Red Rum to his record third Grand National triumph, in what is regarded as one of the greatest moments in horse racing history. Retirement Red Rum was prepared for a sixth attempt at the Grand National the season following his 1977 win, but suffered a hairline fracture in the lead up to the 1978 race. Following a canter at Aintree Racecourse the day before the 1978 Grand National he was retired. The news of Red Rum's retirement was the lead story on that night's 9 O'Clock News on BBC1and was also front-page news of the following morning's newspapers. Red Rum had become a national celebrity, opening supermarkets and annually leading the Grand National parade for many further years. His likeness graced playing cards, mugs, posters, models, paintings, plates and jigsaw puzzles. Several books have been written about Red Rum by his trainer, sculptor, jockeys and author Ivor Herbert; a children's story about his life was also written by Christine Pemberton. The horse helped open theSteeplechaserollercoaster atBlackpool Pleasure Beachin 1977. He also switched on theBlackpool Illuminationsthat year.In 1975, a song entitled \"Red Rum\" was issued as a tribute to him by a group named Chaser, on Polydor 2058 564. It was written by Steve Jolley, Richard Palmer and Tony Swain. In 2010 the name of the racecourse bar, formerly called \"The Sefton\", was changed to \"The Red Rum\". In 1977 Red Rum appeared as a studio guest at theBBC Sports Personality of the Yearawards ceremony. Viewers were delighted when the horse seemed to recognise the voice of his jockey Tommy Stack, who was appearing by video link from another location. Death and legacy Red Rum's feats, of three Nationals and two seconds, are legendary. They will never be equalled, let alone surpassed. They say records are there to be broken, but Red Rum’s at Aintree is one which will stand the test of time. —20-time champion jockeyTony McCoy Red Rum died on 18 October 1995, aged 30. His death was one of the lead items in television news bulletins and also made the front pages of national newspapers the next day. He was buried at the winning post of theAintree Racecourse, which is still a destination for his fans. Theepitaphreads Eleven years after his death, a survey found he remained the best-known racehorse in the UK.When asked to name an equine animal, Red Rum was named by 45% of Britons, withBlack Beauty(fromAnna Sewell's novel) in second with 33%.In 2002 the UK public voted Red Rum's third Grand National win #24 in the list of the100 Greatest Sporting Moments. In the early 1970s, the future running of the Grand National was uncertain.The emergence of Red Rum and his historic triumphs captivated the nation, and ensured huge public support for the fund to buy Aintree and put it in the hands of theJockey Club. On 19 September 2011, Red Rum's trainerGinger McCaindied aged 80. Grand National record Commemorations Pedigree See also Notes and references External links" ]
[ "Grand National TheGrand Nationalis aNational Hunthorse raceheld annually atAintree RacecourseinAintree, Merseyside, England. First run in1839, it is ahandicapsteeplechaseover an official distance of about 4 miles and 2½ furlongs (4 miles 514 yards (6.907 km)), with horses jumping 30 fences over two laps.It is the most valuable jump race in Europe, with a prize fund of £1 million in 2017.An event that is prominent inBritish culture, the race is popular amongst many people who do not normally watch or bet on horse racing at other times of the year. The course over which the race is run features much larger fences than those found on conventional National Hunt tracks. Many of these fences, particularlyBecher's Brook,The Chairand theCanal Turn, have become famous in their own right and, combined with the distance of the event, create what has been called \"the ultimate test of horse and rider\". The Grand National has been broadcast live onfree-to-airterrestrial television in the United Kingdom since1960. From then", "From then until2012it was broadcast by theBBC.Channel 4broadcast the event between2013and2016: UK broadcasting rights were transferred toITVfrom2017.An estimated 500 to 600 million people watch the Grand National in over 140 countries.The race has also been broadcast on radio since1927;BBC Radioheld exclusive rights until 2013.Talksportacquired radio commentary rights in 2014:Both the BBC and Talksport currently broadcast the race in full. The most recent running of the race, in2024, was won by I Am Maximus. Since 2017, the race and accompanying festival have been sponsored byRandox. The next meeting will take place from 3–5 April 2025. History Founding and early Nationals (1829–1850) The Grand National was founded by William Lynn, a syndicate head and proprietor of theWaterloo Hotel, on land he leased inAintreefromWilliam Molyneux, 2nd Earl of Sefton.Lynn set out a course, built a grandstand, and Lord Sefton laid the foundation stone on 7 February 1829.There is much debate regarding the first official Grand", "official Grand National; most leading published historians, including John Pinfold, now prefer the idea that the first running was in1836and was won byThe Duke.This same horse won again in1837,whileSir Williamwas the winner in1838.These races have long been disregarded because of the belief that they took place atMaghulland not Aintree. However, some historians have unearthed evidence in recent years that suggests those three races were run over the same course at Aintree and were regarded as having been Grand Nationals up until the mid-1860s.Contemporary newspaper reports place all the 1836–38 races at Aintree although the 1839 race is the first described as \"national\".However, calls for the Nationals of 1836–1838 to be restored to the record books have been unsuccessful. In 1838 and 1839 three significant events occurred to transform the race from a small local affair to a national event. Firstly, the Great St. Albans Chase, which had clashed with the steeplechase at Aintree, was not renewed after", "not renewed after 1838,leaving a major hole in the chasing calendar. Secondly, the railway, opened from Manchester to Liverpool in 1830, was linked to a line from London and Birmingham in 1839 enabling rail transport to the Liverpool area from large parts of the country for the first time. Finally, a committee was formed to better organise the event.These factors led to a more highly publicised race in 1839 which attracted a larger field of top quality horses and riders, greater press coverage, and increased attendance on race day. Over time the first three runnings of the event were quickly forgotten to secure the1839 raceits place in history as the first official Grand National. The 1839 race was won by riderJem Masonon the aptly named,Lottery.The Duke was ridden byMartin Becher. The fenceBecher's Brookis named after him and is where he fell in the race. By the 1840s, Lynn's ill-health blunted his enthusiasm for Aintree. Edward Topham, a respected handicapper and prominent member of Lynn's syndicate, began", "syndicate, began to exert greater influence over the National. He turned the chase into a handicap in1843after it had been a weight-for-age race for the first four years, and took over the land lease in 1848. One century later, the Topham family bought the course outright. Later in the century, the race was the setting of a thriller by the popular novelistHenry Hawley Smart. War National Steeplechase (1916–1918) For three years during theFirst World War, while Aintree Racecourse was taken over by theWar Office, an alternative race was run atGatwick Racecourse, a now disused course on land now occupied byGatwick Airport. The first of these races, in 1916, was called the Racecourse Association Steeplechase, and in 1917 and 1918 the race was called the War National Steeplechase. The races at Gatwick are not always recognised as \"Grand Nationals\" and their results are often omitted from winners' lists. Tipperary Tim (1928) On the day of the1928 Grand National, before the race had begun,Tipperary Tim's", "Tim's jockeyWilliam Duttonheard a friend call out to him: \"Billy boy, you'll only win if all the others fall down!\"These words turned out to be true, as 41 of the 42 starters fell during the race.That year's National was run during misty weather conditions with the going very heavy.As the field approached theCanal Turnon the first circuit,Easter Herofell, causing a pile-up from which only seven horses emerged with seated jockeys. By the penultimate fence, this number had reduced to three, with Great Span looking most likely to win ahead ofBilly Bartonand Tipperary Tim. Great Span's saddle then slipped, leaving Billy Barton in the lead until he too then fell. Although Billy Barton's jockeyTommy Cullinanmanaged to remount and complete the race, it was Tipperary Tim who came in first at outside odds of 100/1. With only two riders completing the course, this remains a record for the lowest number of finishers. Second World War and the 1950s Although the Grand National was run as normal in 1940 and most other", "1940 and most other major horse races around the world were able to be held throughoutthe war, thecommandeeringof Aintree Racecourse for defence use in 1941 meant no Grand National could be held from 1941 to 1945.It recommenced in 1946, when it was run on a Friday, and from 1947 was moved to a Saturday, at the urging of theHome SecretaryJames Chuter Ede,who thought this would make it more accessible to working people. It has normally been run on a Saturday ever since. During the 1950s the Grand National was dominated byVincent O'Brien, who trained different winners of the race for three consecutive years between 1953 and 1955. Early Mist secured O'Brien's first victory in1953; Royal Tan won in1954, and Quare Times completed the Irish trainer's hat-trick in1955. Oh, that's racing! The Queen MotheronDevon Loch's collapse moments from certain victory The running of the1956 Grand Nationalwitnessed one of the chase's most bizarre incidents.Devon Loch, owned byQueen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, had cleared the", "had cleared the final fence in the leading position, five lengths clear ofE.S.B.Forty yards from what seemed like certain victory, Devon Loch suddenly, and inexplicably, half-jumped into the air and collapsed in a belly-flop on the turf. Despite efforts by jockeyDick Francis, Devon Loch was unable to complete the race, leaving E.S.B. to cross the finishing line first. Responding to the commiserations of E.S.B.’s owner, the Queen Mother famously commented: \"Oh, that's racing!\" Had Devon Loch completed the race he might have set a new record for the fastest finishing time, which E.S.B. missed by only four-fifths of a second. Many explanations have been offered for Devon Loch's behaviour on the run-in, but the incident remains inexplicable.The incident became part of the folklore of the event, and by extension British sporting culture. In modern language, the phrase \"to do a Devon Loch\" is often used to describe a last-minute failure to achieve an expected victory. Foinavon (1967) Rutherfords has been hampered,", "has been hampered, and so has Castle Falls; Rondetto has fallen, Princeful has fallen, Norther has fallen, Kirtle Lad has fallen, The Fossa has fallen, there's a right pile-up... And now, with all this mayhem, Foinavon has gone off on his own! He's about 50, 100 yards in front of everything else! CommentatorMichael O'Hehirdescribes the chaotic scene at the 23rd fence in1967 In the1967 Grand National, most of the field were hampered or dismounted in a mêlée at the 23rd fence, allowing a rank-outsider,Foinavon, to become a surprise winner at odds of 100/1. A loose horse named Popham Down, who had unseated his rider at the first jump, suddenly veered across the leading group at the 23rd, causing them to either stop, refuse or unseat their riders. Racing journalistLord Oakseydescribed the resulting pile-up by saying that Popham Down had \"cut down the leaders like a row of thistles\".Some horses even started running in the wrong direction, back the way they had come. Foinavon, whose owner had such little faith in", "little faith in him that he had travelled to Worcester that day instead,had been lagging some 100 yards behind the leading pack, giving his jockey,John Buckingham, time to steer his mount wide of the havoc and make a clean jump of the fence on the outside. Although 17 jockeys remounted and some made up considerable ground, particularlyJosh Giffordon 15/2 favourite Honey End, none had time to catch Foinavon before he crossed the finishing line. The 7th/23rd fence was officially named the 'Foinavon fence' in 1984. 1970s and Red Rum The 1970s were mixed years for the Grand National. In 1973, eight years after Mrs.Mirabel Tophamannounced she was seeking a buyer, the racecourse was finally sold to property developer Bill Davies. Davies tripled the admission prices, and consequently, the attendance at the1975 race, won byL'Escargot, was the smallest in living memory. It was after this that bookmakerLadbrokesmade an offer, signing an agreement with Davies allowing them to manage the Grand National. They're willing", "They're willing him home now! The 12-year-old Red Rum, being preceded only by loose horses, being chased by Churchtown Boy... They're coming to the elbow, just a furlong now between Red Rum and his third Grand National triumph! It's hats off and a tremendous reception, you've never heard one like it at Liverpool... and Red Rum wins the National! CommentatorPeter O'Sullevandescribes Red Rum's record third Grand National win in1977 During this period,Red Rumwas breaking all records to become the most successful racehorse in Grand National history. Originally bought as a yearling in 1966 for 400guineas(£420),he passed through various training yards before being bought for 6,000 guineas (£6,300) byGinger McCainon behalf of Noel le Mare.Two days after the purchase while trotting the horse on Southport beach, McCain noticed that Red Rum appeared lame.The horse was suffering frompedal osteitis, an inflammatory bone disorder.McCain had witnessed many lame carthorses reconditioned by being galloped in sea-water.He", "in sea-water.He successfully used this treatment on his newly acquired racehorse. Red Rum became, and remains as of 2018, the only horse to have won the Grand National three times, in1973,1974, and1977. He also finished second in the two intervening years,1975and1976. In 1973, he was in second place at the last fence, 15 lengths behind champion horseCrisp, who was carrying 23lbsmore. Red Rum made up the ground on the run-in and, two strides from the finishing post, he pipped the tiring Crisp to win by three-quarters of a length in what is arguably the most memorable Grand National of all time. Red Rum finished in 9 minutes 1.9 seconds, taking 18.3 seconds off the previous record for the National which had been set in1935by Reynoldstown.His record was to stand for the next seventeen years. Bob Champion's National (1981) Two years before the1981 Grand National, jockeyBob Championhad been diagnosed with testicular cancer and given only months to live by doctors. But by 1981 he had recovered and was passed fit", "and was passed fit to ride in the Grand National. He rodeAldaniti, a horse deprived in its youth and which had only recently recovered from chronic leg problems.Despite a poor start, the pair went on to win4+1⁄2lengths ahead of the much-fancied Spartan Missile, ridden by amateur jockey and 54-year-old grandfather John Thorne.Champion and Aldaniti were instantly propelled to celebrity status, and within two years, their story had been re-created in the filmChampions, starringJohn Hurt. Seagram's sponsorship (1984–1991) From 1984 to 1991,Seagramsponsored the Grand National. The Canadian distiller provided a solid foundation on which the race's revival could be built, firstly enabling the course to be bought from Davies and to be run and managed by theJockey Club. It is said that Ivan Straker, Seagram's UK chairman, became interested in the potential opportunity after reading a passionate newspaper article written by journalist Lord Oaksey, who, in his riding days, had come within three-quarters of a length of", "of a length of winning the1963 National.The last Seagram-sponsored Grand National was in 1991. Coincidentally,the racewas won by a horse named Seagram.Martell, then a Seagram subsidiary, took over sponsorship of the Aintree meeting for an initial seven years from 1992, in a £4 million deal. The race that never was (1993) The result of the1993 Grand Nationalwas declared void after a series of incidents commentatorPeter O'Sullevanlater called \"the greatest disaster in the history of the Grand National.\" While under starter's orders, one jockey was tangled in the starting tape which had failed to rise correctly. A false start was declared, but due to a lack of communication between course officials, 30 of the 39 jockeys did not realise this and began the race. Course officials tried to stop the runners by waving red flags, but many jockeys continued to race, believing that they were protesters (a group of whom had invaded the course earlier), whilePeter Scudamoreonly stopped because he saw his trainer,Martin", "his trainer,Martin Pipe, waving frantically at him. Seven horses completed the course, meaning the result was void. The first past the post was Esha Ness (in the second-fastest time ever), ridden by John White, trained byJenny Pitmanand owned by Patrick Bancroft. The Monday National (1997) The1997 Grand Nationalwas postponed after two coded bomb threats were received from theProvisional Irish Republican Army. The course was secured by police who then evacuated jockeys, race personnel, and local residents along with 60,000 spectators. Cars and coaches were locked in the course grounds, leaving some 20,000 people without their vehicles over the weekend. With limited accommodation available in the city, local residents opened their doors and took in many of those stranded. This prompted tabloid headlines such as \"We'll fight them on the Becher's\", in reference toWinston Churchill's war-time speech.The race was run 48 hours later on the Monday, with the meeting organisers offering 20,000 tickets with free", "tickets with free admission. Recent history (2004–present) Red Rum's trainerGinger McCainreturned to the Grand National in2004, 31 years after Red Rum's epic run-in defeat of Crisp to secure his first of three wins. McCain'sAmberleigh Housecame home first, ridden byGraham Lee, overtaking Clan Royal on the final straight.Hedgehunter, who would go on to win in2005, fell at the last while leading. McCain had equalled George Dockeray andFred Rimell's record feat of training four Grand National winners. In 2005John Smith'stook over from Martell as main sponsors of the Grand National and many of the other races at the three-day Aintree meeting for the first time.In 2006 John Smith's launched theJohn Smith's People's Racewhich gave ten members of the public the chance to ride in a flat race at Aintree on Grand National day.In total, thirty members of the public took part in the event before it was discontinued in 2010. In2009,Mon Momebecame the longest-priced winner of the National for 42 years when he defied", "when he defied outside odds of 100/1 to win by 12 lengths. The victory was also the first for trainerVenetia Williams, the first female trainer to triumph sinceJenny Pitmanin1995. The race was also the first National ride forLiam Treadwell. In2010the National became the first horse race to be televised inhigh-definitionin the UK. In August 2013Crabbie'swas announced as the new sponsor of the Grand National. The three-year deal between the alcoholic ginger beer producer and Aintree saw the race run for a record purse of £1 million in2014. In March 2016 it was announced thatRandox Healthwould take over from Crabbie's as official partners of the Grand National festival from2017, for at least five years.The sponsorship award was controversial as Aintree's chairwoman,Rose Paterson, was married toOwen Paterson, aMember of Parliament(MP) who also earns a £50,000 annual fee as a consultant for Randox. The 2020 race was not run owing to thecoronavirus pandemic; in its place, a virtual race was produced", "race was produced usingCGItechnology and based on algorithms of the 40 horses most likely to have competed. The virtual race was won by Potters Corner, winner of the 2019Welsh Grand National.(Another computer-generated virtual race was made also, whose runners were many horses who had won the Grand National in past years, each shown with its performance as at its racing prime. Its winner wasRed Rumby less than a length, having just passedManifesto.) In December 2020 Randox Health announced they had extended their sponsorship for a further 5 years which will make them sponsors to 2026. In 2021,Rachael Blackmorebecame the first female jockey to win the race, on the horseMinella Times. In 2023, the race was disrupted by theAnimal Risingprotests, the first such disruptions since the cancellation of the1993 Grand Nationaldue to a series of false starts and the1997 Grand Nationaldue to the IRA bomb threat. The course The Grand National is run over the National Course at Aintree and consists of two laps of 16", "of two laps of 16 fences, the first 14 of which are jumped twice. Horses completing the race cover a distance of 4 miles 514 yards (6.907 km), the longest of any National Hunt race in Britain. As part of a review of safety following the 2012 running of the event, from 2013 to 2015 the start was moved 90 yards (82 m) forward away from the crowds and grandstands, reducing the race distance by 110 yards (100 m) from the historical 4 miles 856 yards (7.220 km).The course has one of the longest run-ins from the final fence of any steeplechase, at 494 yards (452 m). The Grand National was designed as a cross-country steeplechase when it was first officially run in 1839. The runners started at a lane on the edge of the racecourse and raced away from the course out over open countryside towards theLeeds and Liverpool Canal. The gates, hedges, and ditches that they met along the way were flagged to provide them with the obstacles to be jumped along the way with posts and rails erected at the two points where the", "points where the runners jumped a brook. The runners returned towards the racecourse by running along the edge of the canal before re-entering the course at the opposite end. The runners then ran the length of the racecourse before embarking on a second circuit before finishing in front of the stands. The majority of the race, therefore, took place not on the actual Aintree Racecourse but instead in the adjoining countryside. That countryside was incorporated into the modern course but commentators still often refer to it as \"the country\". Fences There are 16 fences on the National Course topped with spruce from theLake District. The cores of 12 fences were rebuilt in 2012 and they are now made of a flexible plastic material which is more forgiving than the traditional wooden core fences. They are still topped with at least 14 inches (36 cm) of spruce for the horses to knock off. Some of the jumps carry names from the history of the race. All 16 are jumped on the first lap, but on the final lap, the runners", "lap, the runners bear to the right onto the run-in for home, avoiding The Chair and the Water Jump. The following is a summary of all 16 fences on the course: Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m)Often met at great speed, which can lead to several falls, the highest being 12 runners in 1951. The drop on the landing side was reduced after the2011 Grand National. It was bypassed in both 2019 and 2023 on the final lap, after equine casualties.The fence was moved 60 yards nearer to the start from the 2024 race, to try to reduce the speed of the field early in the race. Height: 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m)Before 1888 the first two fences were located approximately halfway between the first to second and second to third jumps. The second became known as The Fan, after amarewho refused the obstacle three years in succession. The name fell out of favour with the relocation of the fences. Height: 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 m); fronted by a 6 feet (1.83 m) ditchThe first big test in the race as horses are still adapting to the", "adapting to the obstacles. In2022, the race was shortened to 29 fences by bypassing this fence following a fatality. Height: 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 m)A testing obstacle that often leads to falls and unseated riders. In2011the 20th became the first fence in Grand National history to be bypassed on the final lap, following an equine fatality. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m)A plain obstacle which precedes the most famous fence on the course. It was bypassed on the final lap for the first time in 2012 so that medics could treat a jockey who fell from his mount on the first lap and had broken a leg. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m), with the landing side 6 inches (15 cm) to 10 inches (25 cm) lower than the takeoff sideThe drop at this fence often catches runners by surprise. Becher's has always been a popular vantage point as it can present one of the most spectacular displays of jumping when the horse and rider meet the fence right. Jockeys must sit back in their saddles and use their body weight as ballast to counter the steep", "counter the steep drop. It takes its name fromCaptain Martin Becherwho fell there in the first Grand National and took shelter in the small brook running along the landing side of the fence while the remainder of the field thundered over. It is said that Becher later reflected: \"Water tastes disgusting without the benefits of whisky.\" It was bypassed in 2011 along with fence 20, after an equine casualty, and again in 2018 after a jockey was attended by doctors, both occurring on the final lap. Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m)One of the smallest on the course, it was named in 1984 after the1967winner who avoided a mêlée at the fence to go on and win the race at outside odds of 100/1. Height: 5 ft (1.52 m)Noted for its sharp 90-degree left turn immediately after landing. Before theFirst World Warit was not uncommon for loose horses to continue straight ahead after the jump and end up in theLeeds and Liverpool Canalitself. There was once a ditch before the fence but this was filled in after a mêlée in the1928", "a mêlée in the1928 race. It was bypassed for the first time in 2015 on the final lap as vets arrived to treat a horse who fell on the first lap. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m) with a 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) brookThe fence was originally known as the Second Brook but was renamed after a horse named Valentine was reputed to have jumped the fence hind legs first in1840. A grandstand was erected alongside the fence in the early part of the 20th century but fell into decline after theSecond World Warand was torn down in the 1970s. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m)A plain obstacle that leads the runners alongside the canal towards two ditches. Height: 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 m), with a 6 feet (1.83 m) ditch on the takeoff side. This fence was 5 feet hight but was lowered by 2 inches from 2024. Height: 5 feet (1.52 m), with a 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m) ditch on the landing side The runners then cross the Melling Road near to the Anchor Bridge, a popular vantage point since the earliest days of the race. This also marks the point", "marks the point where the runners are said to be re-entering the \"racecourse proper\". In the early days of the race, it is thought there was an obstacle near this point known as the Table Jump, which may have resembled a bank similar to those still seen atPunchestownin Ireland. In the 1840s the Melling Road was also flanked by hedges and the runners had to jump into the road and then back out of it. Height: 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 m)A plain obstacle that comes at a point when the runners are usually in a good rhythm and thus rarely causes problems. Height: 4 feet 6 inches (1.37 m)The last fence on the final lap and which has often seen very tired horses fall. Despite some tired runners falling on the 30th and appearing injured, no horse deaths have occurred at the 30th fence to date. On the first lap of the race, runners continue around the course to negotiate two fences which are only jumped once: Height: 5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m), preceded by a 6 ft (1.83 m) wide ditchThis fence is the site of the accident", "of the accident that claimed the only human life in the National's history: in 1862, Joe Wynne fell here and died from his injuries, although a coroner's inquest revealed that the rider was in a gravely weakened condition throughconsumption.This brought about the ditch on the take-off side of the fence in an effort to slow the horses on approach. The fence was the location where a distance judge sat in the earliest days of the race. On the second circuit, he would record the finishing order from his position and declare any horse that had not passed him before the previous runner passed the finishing post as \"distanced\", meaning a non-finisher. The practice was done away with in the 1850s, but the monument where the chair stood is still there. The ground on the landing side is six inches higher than on the takeoff side, creating the opposite effect to the drop at Becher's. The fence was originally known as the Monument Jump, but \"The Chair\" came into more frequent use in the 1930s. Today it is one of the", "it is one of the most popular jumps on the course for spectators. Height: 2 feet 6 inches (0.76 m)Originally a stone wall in the very early Nationals. The Water Jump was one of the most popular jumps on the course, presenting a great jumping spectacle for those in the stands and was always a major feature in thenewsreels' coverage of the race. As the newsreels made way for television in the 1960s, so, in turn, did the Water Jump fall under the shadow of its neighbour, The Chair, in popularity as an obstacle. On the final lap, after the 30th fence, the remaining runners bear right, avoiding The Chair and Water Jump, to head onto a \"run-in\" to the finishing post. The run-in is not perfectly straight: an \"elbow\" requires jockeys to make a slight right before finding themselves truly on the home straight. It is on this run-in—one of the longest in the United Kingdom at 494 yards (452 m)—that many potential winners have had victory snatched away, such asDevon Lochin1956,Crispin1973,What's Up Boysin2002and", "Up Boysin2002and Sunnyhillboy in2012. Records Leading horse: Leadingjockey: Leadingtrainers: Leading owners: Winners The following table lists the winners of the last ten Grand Nationals: Jockeys When the concept of the Grand National was first envisaged it was designed as a race for gentlemen riders,meaning men who were not paid to compete, and while this was written into the conditions of the early races many of the riders who weighed out for the1839 racewere professionals for hire. Throughout theVictorian erathe line between the amateur and professional sportsman existed only in terms of the rider's status, and the engagement of an amateur to ride in the race was rarely considered a handicap to a contender's chances of winning. Many gentleman riders won the race before the First World War. Although the number of amateurs remained high between the wars their ability to match their professional counterparts gradually receded. After the Second World War, it became rare for any more than four or five amateurs", "or five amateurs to take part in any given year. The last amateur rider to win the Grand National was MrSam Waley-Cohenin 2022 onNoble Yeats. The penultimate amateur to win the race isMarcus Armytage, who set the still-standing course record of 8:47.80, when winning onMr Friskin1990. By the 21st century, however, openings for amateur riders had become very rare with some years passing with no amateur riders at all taking part. Those that do in the modern era are most usually talented young riders who are often close to turning professional. In the past, such amateur riders would have been joined by army officers, such asDavid Campbellwho won in 1896, and sporting aristocrats, farmers or local huntsmen and point to point riders, who usually opted to ride their own mounts. But all these genres of rider have faded out in the last quarter of a century with no riders of military rank or aristocratic title having taken a mount since 1982. TheSex Discrimination Act 1975made it possible for female jockeys to enter", "jockeys to enter the race. The first female jockey to enter the race wasCharlotte Brewon the 200/1 outsider Barony Fort in the1977race.The first female jockey to complete the race was Geraldine Rees on Cheers in1982. The 21st century has not seen a significant increase in female riders but it has seen them gain rides on mounts considered to have a genuine chance of winning. In2005, Carrie Ford finished fifth on the 8/1 second-favourite Forest Gunner. In 2012,Katie Walshachieved what was at the time the best result yet for a female jockey, finishing third on the 8/1 joint-favourite Seabass. In2015,Nina Carberrybecame the first female jockey to take a fifth ride in the Grand National, her best placing being seventh in2010.Rachael Blackmorebecame the first female jockey to win the Grand National aboardMinella Timesin2021. Professionals now hold dominance in the Grand National and better training, dietary habits and protective clothing have ensured that riders' careers last much longer and offer more", "and offer more opportunities to ride in the race. Of the 37 riders who have enjoyed 13 or more rides in the race, 19 had their first ride in the 20th century and 11 had careers that continued into or started in the 21st century.Despite that, a long-standing record of 19 rides in the race was set byTom Olliverback in 1859 and was not equalled until 2014 byA. P. McCoy.This has since been topped by Richard Johnson. Longevity is no guarantee of success, however, as 13 of the 34 never tasted the glory of winning the race. McCoy is the only rider to successfully remove himself from the list after winning at the 15th attempt in 2010.Richard Johnsonset a new record of 21 failed attempts to win the race from 1997 to 2019, having finished second twice. The other 16 riders who never won or have not as yet won, having had more than 12 rides in the race are: Peter Scudamoretechnically lined up for thirteen Grand Nationals without winning but the last of those was the void race of 1993, which meant that he officially", "that he officially competed in twelve Nationals. Many other well-known jockeys have failed to win the Grand National. These include champion jockeys such asTerry Biddlecombe,John Francome,Josh Gifford, Stan Mellor,Jonjo O'Neill(who never finished the race) andFred Rimell.Three jockeys who led over the last fence in the National but lost the race on the run-in ended up as television commentators:Lord Oaksey(on Carrickbeg in 1963),Norman Williamson(on Mely Moss in 2000), andRichard Pitman(onCrispin1973). Dick Francis also never won the Grand National in 8 attempts although he did lead over the last fence on Devon Loch in the 1956 race, only for the horse to collapse under him when well in front only 40 yards from the winning post. Pitman's son Mark also led over the last fence, only to be pipped at the post when ridingGarrison Savannahin1991.David Dickwon the 1956 Grand National on E.S.B. when Devon Loch collapsed and he also holds the record for the number of clear rounds – nine times. Since 1986, any jockey", "1986, any jockey making five or more clear rounds has been awarded the Aintree Clear Rounds Award. Horse welfare Statistics The Grand National has been described by theBBCas higher risk than lots of other horse races.According to the British Horseracing Authority, as of 2022, the five-year average fatality rate for jump racing was 0.43%.However, the rate for the Grand National over the last ten runnings was more than twice as high, at 1.12%. History of fatalities During the 1970s and 1980s, the Grand National saw a total of 12 horses die (half of which were at Becher's Brook); in the next 20-year period from 1990 to 2010, when modifications to the course were most significant, there were 17 equine fatalities. The2011and2012 raceseach yielded two deaths, including one each at Becher's Brook. In 2013, when further changes were made to introduce a more flexible fence structure, there were no fatalities in the race itself although two horses died in run-up races over the same course.The animal welfare", "animal welfare charityLeague Against Cruel Sportscounts the number of horse deaths over the three-day meeting from the year 2000 to 2013 at 40. There were no equine fatalities in the main Grand National race for seven years until 2019,when one horse died at the first fence.In 2021, one horse was euthanised after the race after suffering an injury on a flat section between fences.Two more were euthanised after suffering injuries in the 2022 event. One of the incidents came at fence 3, the other on the gallop between fences 12 and 13.There was one fatality in 2023, following a fall at the first fence, and two other horses taken away by ambulance.The involvement of animal rights protesters was questioned after the race. Sandy Thompson, trainer of the fatally injured Hill Sixteen, claimed along with several other racing personalities that the protesters had (directly or indirectly) caused the death of the gelding and were equally responsible for the number of fallers, because the delay they caused to the start,", "to the start, after storming the course close to post time, got the horses worked up and \"hyper\".The protesters have denied these comments, saying they had every right to break and enter and trespass onto racecourse ground and stage a protest despite officials' orders not to. Organiser changes Over the years, Aintree officials have worked in conjunction with animal welfare organisations to reduce the severity of some fences and to improve veterinary facilities. In 2008, a new veterinary surgery was constructed in the stable yard which has two large treatment boxes, an X-ray unit, video endoscopy, equine solarium, and sandpit facilities. Further changes in set-up and procedure allow vets to treat horses more rapidly and in better surroundings. Those requiring more specialist care can be transported by specialist horse ambulances, under police escort, to the nearby Philip Leverhulme Equine Hospital at theUniversity of Liverpool at Leahurst. A mobile on-course X-ray machine assists in the prompt diagnosis of", "prompt diagnosis of leg injuries when horses are pulled up, and oxygen and water are available by the final fence and finishing post.Five vets remain mobile on the course during the running of the race and can initiate treatment of injured fallers at the fence. Additional vets are stationed at the pull-up area, finishing post, and in the surgery. Some of the National's most challenging fences have also been modified, while still preserving them as formidable obstacles. After the1989 Grand National, in which two horses died in incidents atBecher's Brook, Aintree began the most significant of its modifications to the course. The brook on the landing side of Becher's was filled in and, after the 2011 race which also saw an equine fatality at the obstacle, the incline on the landing side was levelled out and the drop on was reduced by between 4 and 5 inches (10–13 cm) to slow the runners. Other fences have also been reduced in height over the years, and the entry requirements for the race have been made", "race have been made stricter. Screening at theCanal Turnnow prevents horses from being able to see the sharp left turn and encourages jockeys to spread out along the fence, rather than take the tight left-side route. Additionally, work has been carried out to smooth the core post infrastructure of the fences with protective padding to reduce impact upon contact,and the height of the toe-boards on all fences has been increased to 14 inches (36 cm). These orange-coloured boards are positioned at the base of each fence and provide a clear ground line to assist horses in determining the base of the fence. Parts of the course were widened in 2009 to allow runners to bypass fences if required. This was utilised for the first time during the 2011 race as casualties at fences 4 and 6 (Becher's Brook) resulted in marshals diverting the remaining contenders around those fences on the final lap. Some within the horseracing community, including those with notable achievements in the Grand National such asGinger", "such asGinger McCainandBob Champion,have argued that the lowering of fences and the narrowing of ditches, primarily designed to increase horse safety, has made matters worse by encouraging the runners to race faster. After the 2023 race, the Jockey Club announced several major changes to the event for 2024, recognising \"the need for more substantial updates on several key areas in order to better protect the welfare of racehorses and jockeys\".This included a reduction in the size of the field for the first time, from 40 to 34 (long called for by welfare campaigners such as theRSPCA),as well as infrastructure changes such as moving fences to slow the speed of the race at the start, and further development of pre-race veterinary protocols. Grand National Legends In 2009, the race sponsors John Smith's launched a poll to determine five personalities to be inducted into the inauguralGrand National Legendsinitiative.The winners were announced on the day of the2010 Grand Nationaland inscribed on commemorative", "on commemorative plaques at Aintree. They were: A panel of experts also selected three additional legends: In 2011, nine additional legends were added: John Smith's also added five \"people's legends\" who were introduced on Liverpool Day, the first day of the Grand National meeting. The five were: A public vote announced at the2012 Grand Nationalsaw five more additions to the Legends hall: The selection panel also inducted three more competitors: Sponsorship Since 1984 it has been sponsored by 5 different companies. Notes Favourites In the 71 races of the post-war era (excluding the void race in 1993), the favourite or joint-favourite have only won the race twelve times (in1950,1960,1973,1982,1996,1998,2005,2008,2010,2019,2023, and2024) and have failed to complete the course in 37 Nationals. Mares Since its inception, 13mareshave won the race, most recently in 1951: Greys Threegreyshave won: Female jockeys Since 1977, women have ridden in 24 Grand Nationals. Geraldine Rees became the first to complete the", "to complete the course, on Cheers in1982. In2012Katie Walsh became the first female jockey to earn a placed finish in the race, finishing third on Seabass. Rachael Blackmore became the first female jockey to win withMinella Timesin 2021. International winners Other British winners Irish winners Famous owners The 1900 winner Ambush II was owned by HRH Prince of Wales, later to becomeKing Edward VII.In 1950Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Motherhad her first runner in the race in Monaveen, who finished fifth.Six years later she would witness herDevon Lochcollapse on the run-in, just yards from a certain victory. The favourite for the 1968 race, Different Class, was owned by actorGregory Peck. The1963winner Ayala and the1976winnerRag Tradewere both part-owned by celebrity hairdresserRaymond Bessone. 1994winnerMiinnehomawas owned by comedianFreddie Starr. What A Friend ran in2011and2013when part-owned byAlex Ferguson, the former manager of Manchester United. See also References Notes Sources External links", "External links 53°28′37″N2°56′30″W / 53.47694°N 2.94167°W /53.47694; -2.94167", "Red Rum Red Rum(3 May 1965 – 18 October 1995) was an Irish championThoroughbredsteeplechaser. He achieved an unmatched historic treble when he won theGrand Nationalin1973,1974and1977, and also came second in the two intervening years, 1975 and 1976. The Grand National is a notoriously difficult race that has been described as \"the ultimate test of a horse’s courage\".He was also renowned for his jumping ability, having not fallen in 100 races. The 1973 race in which Red Rum secured his comeback victory from 30lengthsbehind is often considered one of the greatest Grand Nationals in history.In a 2002 UK poll, Red Rum's historic third triumph in the Grand National was voted the 24th greatest sporting moment of all time. Early life Red Rum was bred at RossenarrastudinKells,County Kilkenny,Ireland, by Martyn McEnery. HissirewasQuorum(1954–1971), and his damMared(1958–1976). Mared was a granddaughter of the broodmare Batika, whose other descendants have included theIrish 2000 GuineaswinnerTurtle Island.McEnery gave", "Island.McEnery gave Red Rum his name by taking the last three letters of the names of his dam and sire, respectively.Bred to win one-mile races, Red Rum won his National titles over the longest distance, four miles and four furlongs. He started his career running in low-value races as a sprinter and dead-heated in his first race, a five-furlong flat race atAintree Racecourse.He ran another seven times as a two-year-old, winning over 7f atWarwick, and over the same distance atDoncasterin the first of his two races as a three-year-old. In his early career, he was twice ridden byLester Piggott.The comedianLee Mack, then a stable boy, had his first riding lesson on Red Rum. After being passed from training yard to training yard, he found his footing when Southport car dealerGinger McCainbought him for his client Noel le Mare and famously trained the horse on the sands atSouthport, England.Galloping through sea water may have proved highly beneficial to Red Rum's hooves.McCain reportedly took Red Rum for a", "took Red Rum for a therapeutic swim in the sea off Southport before his first National appearances to help treat the horse'spedal osteitis, a debilitating, incurable bone disease in hishoof. McCain also won the Grand National in 2004 withAmberleigh House, 31 years after his first victory with Red Rum. Grand National record The crowd are willing him home now. The 12-year-old Red Rum, being preceded only by loose horses, being chased by Churchtown Boy... They're coming to the elbow, just a furlong now between Red Rum and his third Grand National triumph! It's hats off and a tremendous reception, you've never heard one like it at Liverpool – Red Rum wins the National! CommentatorPeter O'Sullevandescribes the moment Red Rum sealed his third Grand National title At the1973 Grand National, Red Rum beat the Australian chaserCrisp, which was carrying 23 pounds more, in a new record time of nine minutes, 1.9 seconds.Crisp led the field virtually all the way in that year's National in which he was 30lengthsclear, and", "30lengthsclear, and at the last fence was 15 lengths clear of Red Rum, his nearest pursuer. Red Rum and jockeyBrian Fletcher, however, made up the ground on the final stretch and, two strides from the finishing post, pipped the tiring Crisp to win by three-quarters of a length in what is often considered one of the greatest Grand Nationals in history.Crisp's jockeyRichard Pitmanlater stated: \"I still dream about that race, of Crisp running so strongly and jumping so fearlessly, and then the sound of Red Rum's hooves as he got closer and closer at the end.\"He added: \"I felt as though I was tied to a railway line with an express train thundering up and being unable to jump out of the way.\"A year later, Red Rum retained his title at the 1974 National, carrying 12 stone.(He followed that with victory in the Scottish Grand National, and remains the only horse to win both in the same season.) Red Rum came second in 1975 and 1976;Tommy Stackreplaced Fletcher as jockey in the 1976 race after Fletcher angered", "Fletcher angered trainerGinger McCainby telling the press the horse no longer felt right after a defeat in a race away from Aintree. Again, Red Rum saved his best for Aintree but was held off by Rag Trade. The following year, Stack rode the 12-year-old Red Rum to his record third Grand National triumph, in what is regarded as one of the greatest moments in horse racing history. Retirement Red Rum was prepared for a sixth attempt at the Grand National the season following his 1977 win, but suffered a hairline fracture in the lead up to the 1978 race. Following a canter at Aintree Racecourse the day before the 1978 Grand National he was retired. The news of Red Rum's retirement was the lead story on that night's 9 O'Clock News on BBC1and was also front-page news of the following morning's newspapers. Red Rum had become a national celebrity, opening supermarkets and annually leading the Grand National parade for many further years. His likeness graced playing cards, mugs, posters, models, paintings, plates and", "plates and jigsaw puzzles. Several books have been written about Red Rum by his trainer, sculptor, jockeys and author Ivor Herbert; a children's story about his life was also written by Christine Pemberton. The horse helped open theSteeplechaserollercoaster atBlackpool Pleasure Beachin 1977. He also switched on theBlackpool Illuminationsthat year.In 1975, a song entitled \"Red Rum\" was issued as a tribute to him by a group named Chaser, on Polydor 2058 564. It was written by Steve Jolley, Richard Palmer and Tony Swain. In 2010 the name of the racecourse bar, formerly called \"The Sefton\", was changed to \"The Red Rum\". In 1977 Red Rum appeared as a studio guest at theBBC Sports Personality of the Yearawards ceremony. Viewers were delighted when the horse seemed to recognise the voice of his jockey Tommy Stack, who was appearing by video link from another location. Death and legacy Red Rum's feats, of three Nationals and two seconds, are legendary. They will never be equalled, let alone surpassed. They say", "surpassed. They say records are there to be broken, but Red Rum’s at Aintree is one which will stand the test of time. —20-time champion jockeyTony McCoy Red Rum died on 18 October 1995, aged 30. His death was one of the lead items in television news bulletins and also made the front pages of national newspapers the next day. He was buried at the winning post of theAintree Racecourse, which is still a destination for his fans. Theepitaphreads Eleven years after his death, a survey found he remained the best-known racehorse in the UK.When asked to name an equine animal, Red Rum was named by 45% of Britons, withBlack Beauty(fromAnna Sewell's novel) in second with 33%.In 2002 the UK public voted Red Rum's third Grand National win #24 in the list of the100 Greatest Sporting Moments. In the early 1970s, the future running of the Grand National was uncertain.The emergence of Red Rum and his historic triumphs captivated the nation, and ensured huge public support for the fund to buy Aintree and put it in the hands", "put it in the hands of theJockey Club. On 19 September 2011, Red Rum's trainerGinger McCaindied aged 80. Grand National record Commemorations Pedigree See also Notes and references External links" ]
Which country did tennis' first Golden Slam winner represent when they achieved it?
West Germany
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)#
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_at_the_1988_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)#', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_at_the_1988_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)#", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_at_the_1988_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles" ]
[ "Grand Slam (tennis) TheGrand Slamintennisis the achievement of winning all four major championships in one discipline in acalendar year. In doubles, a Grand Slam may be achieved as a team or as an individual with different partners. Winning all four major championships consecutively but not within the same calendar year is referred to as a \"non-calendar-year Grand Slam\", while winning the four majors at any point during the course of a career is known as a \"Career Grand Slam\". The term Grand Slam is also attributed to theGrand Slam tournaments, usually referred to asMajors, and they are the world's four most important annual professional tennis tournaments. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of the field and, in recent years, the longest matches for men (best of five sets, best of three for the women). The tournaments are overseen by theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF),rather than the separate men's and women's tour organizing bodies, theAssociation of Tennis Professionals(ATP) andWomen's Tennis Association(WTA), but both the ATP and WTA award ranking points based on players' performances in them. The four Grand Slam tournaments are theAustralian Openin January, theFrench Openfrom late May to early June,Wimbledonin late June to early July, and theUS Openin late August to early September, with each played over two weeks. The Australian and the United States tournaments are played onhard courts, the French onclay, and Wimbledon ongrass. Wimbledon is the oldest tournament, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891 (major in 1925), and the Australian in 1905, but it was not until 1925 that all four were held as officially sanctioned majors. History With the growing popularity of tennis, and with the hopes of unifying the sport's rules internationally,theBritishand French tennis associations started discussions at theirDavis Cuptie, and in October 1912 organized a meeting in Paris, joined by theAustralasian, Austrian,Belgian,Spanish, and Swiss associations.They subsequently formed theInternational Lawn Tennis Federation(ILTF), holding their first meeting in 1913, joined by the Danish,German,Dutch,Russian, South African, and Swedish organizations.Voting rights were divided based on the perceived importance of the individual countries, with Great Britain'sLawn Tennis Association(LTA) receiving the maximum six votes.Three tournaments were established, being designated as \"World Championships\": The LTA was given the perpetual right to organize the World Grass Court Championships, to be held at Wimbledon, and France received permission to stage the World Hard Court Championships until 1916.Anthony Wildingof New Zealand won all three of these World Championships in 1913. TheUnited States National Lawn Tennis Association(USNLTA) expressed disagreement over the power distribution within the ILTF and the designation of \"World Championship\" status to the British and French tournaments, and thus initially refused to join the Federation, choosing instead to be bystanders to their meetings.By the 1920s, with the World Covered Court Championships failing to attract top players and the growing success of American and Australian tennis, the ILTF worked to convince the USNLTA to join them, meeting their demand to drop the designation of \"World Championships\" from all three tournaments in March 1923, which led to the demise of both the World Covered Court Championships and the World Hard Court Championships.A new category of \"Official Championships\" was created for the national championships of Britain, France, Australia, and the US.By the 1930s, these four tournaments had become well defined as the most prestigious in the sport. In 1933,Jack Crawfordwon theAustralian,French, andWimbledonChampionships, leaving him just needing to win the last major event of the year, theU.S. Championships, to become the reigning champion of all four major tournaments,a feat described as \"a grand slam\" by sports columnistAlan J. GouldofThe Reading Eagle,and later that year byJohn KieranofThe New York Times, who stated that if Crawford won at Forest Hills it \"would be something like scoring a grand slam on the courts, doubled and vulnerable.\"The term 'Grand Slam' originates from the card gamecontract bridge, where it is used for winning all possibletricks. Ingolfit was used for the first time to describe a total of four wins, specificallyBobby Jones' achievement of winning the four major golf tournaments of the era, which he accomplished in 1930.\"Grand Slam\" or \"Slam\" has since also become used to refer to the tournaments individually.The first player to win all four majors in a calendar year and thus complete a Grand Slam wasDon Budgein 1938. At the time, onlyamateurplayers were allowed to participate in the Grand Slam and other ILTF-sanctioned tournaments.Amateur standing, regulated by the ILTF alongside its associated national federations, forbade players from receiving prize money, earning pay by teaching tennis, being contracted by promoters and playing paid exhibition matches, though expense payments were allowed along with certain monies from sporting goods companies or other benefactors.Amateurs who \"defected\" to becomeprofessionalwere banned from competing in amateur tournaments and dropped from their national associations. The first majorprofessional tourwas established in 1926 by promoterC. C. Pylewith a troupe of American and French players, most notablySuzanne Lenglen, playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.Over the next decades many other head-to-head tours were run and professional tournaments established,with three, theU.S. Pro Tennis Championships,French Pro ChampionshipandWembley Championships, standing out, and considered to have been theprofessional majors.By the 1950s, largely due to efforts of player/promoterJack Kramer, this lucrative parallel circuit was luring in most of the star amateurs on the men's side, much to the ire of the ILTF and organizers of the Grand Slam tournaments.It was an open secret that the top players who remained as amateurs were receiving undeclared under-the-table payments from tournament promoters, an arrangement tolerated by their national tennis associations to dissuade them from joining the pro ranks and secure their availability for the majors and Davis Cup. This system was derisively referred to as 'shamateurism'that was seen as undermining the integrity of the sport.Ramanathan KrishnanandRoy Emerson, for example declined large contract offers from the professional promoters, with the latter stating that he was better paid in the amateur circuit. Tensions over this status quo, which had been building for decades, finally came to a head in 1967. The first tournament open to professional tennis players played onCentre Courtat Wimbledon, theWimbledon Pro, was staged by theAll England Lawn Tennis Clubin August,offering a prize fund of US$45,000.The tournament was deemed very successful, with packed crowds and the play seen as being of higher quality than the amateur-only Wimbledon final held two weeks earlier.This success in combination with large signings of top players to two new professional tours—World Championship Tennisand theNational Tennis League—convinced the LTA on the need for open tennis.After a British proposal for this at the annual ILTF meeting was voted down, the LTA revolted, and in its own annual meeting in December it voted overwhelmingly to admit players of all statuses to the1968 Wimbledon Championshipsand other future tournaments in Britain, \"come hell or high water\".The eventual backing of the USNLTA that came after a February 1968 vote forced the ILTF to yield and allow each nation to determine its own legislation regarding amateur and professional players, which it voted for in a special meeting in March 1968.This marked the start of theOpen Eraof tennis,with its first tournament, the1968 British Hard Court Championships, beginning three weeks later on 22 April inBournemouth, England,while the first open Grand Slam tournament, the1968 French Open, was held in May. Even after the advent of the Open Era, players includingJohn McEnroeandChris Everthave pointed out that skipping the Australian Open was the norm because of the travelling distance involved and the inconvenient dates close to Christmas and New Year.There were also the contracted professional players who had to skip some major events like the French Open in the 1970s because they were committed to the more profitable pro circuits.In one case, Australian players includingRod Laver,Ken RosewallandRoy Emersonwho had contracts withGeorge MacCall'sNational Tennis Leaguewere prevented from participating in the1970 Australian Openbecause the financial guarantees were deemed insufficient. Although it has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925, it was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French Championships due to World War II,the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed doubles,1986 when there was no Australian Open,and 2020 when Wimbledon was cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Tournaments The Grand Slam of tennis comprises these four major tournaments: Junior events Best of five sets: Best of three sets: Australian Open The Australian Open is the first Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late January and early February.The inaugural edition took place in November1905on the grass courts of theWarehouseman's Cricket GroundinMelbourne, Australia. It was held as the Australasian Championships until 1927 and thereafter as the Australian Championships until the onset of theOpen Erain 1969,passing through various venues in Australia and New Zealand before settling at theKooyong Lawn Tennis Clubin Melbourne between 1972 and 1987.Since 1988, it has been played on the hard courts of theMelbourne Parksports complex, which currently usesGreenSetas its court manufacturer. Managed byTennis Australia, formerly the Lawn Tennis Association of Australia (LTAA), the tournament struggled until the mid-1980s to attract the top international players due to its distance from Europe and America and proximity to theChristmas and holiday season,but it has since grown to become one of the biggest sporting events in theSouthern Hemisphereand the highest attended Grand Slam tournament, with more than 1,020,000 people attending the2024 edition.Nicknamed the \"Happy Slam\"and billed as \"the Grand Slam of Asia/Pacific\",it has become known for its modernity and innovation, being the first Grand Slam tournament to feature indoor play and install retractable roofs on its main courts,the first to schedule night-time men's singles finals,and the first to substituteelectronic line callingforline judges, using an expanded version of theHawk-Eyetechnology known as \"Hawk-Eye Live\". The tournament was designated a major championship by theInternational Lawn Tennis Federationin 1923.Nowadays, its draws host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2024 tournament beingA$86,500,000. French Open The French Open, also known as Roland Garros,is the second Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late May and early June.A French championships closed event (restricted to members of French clubs)was first held in 1891 on the sand courts of the Societé de Sport de Île de Puteaux, inPuteaux, Île-de-France,and changed venues over the years. In 1925 the French championships became open to all amateurs and since 1928 has been held on clay courts at theStade Roland-Garrosin Paris, France.Both the venue and the tournament are named \"Roland Garros\" after thepioneering French aviator. Organized by theFédération française de tennis(FFT), formerly known as theFédération Française de Lawn Tennisuntil 1976,the French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament played on a red clay surface.It is generally considered to be the most physically demanding tennis tournament in the world. TheWorld Hard Court Championshipswas considered the premier clay championship in France from 1912–1923 (apart from one year held in Belgium) as it admitted international competitors, and it is therefore often seen as the true precursor to the French Open before 1925.The French championships was first held as an International Lawn Tennis Federation–sanctioned major championship in 1925. Today, it has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2024 tournament being€53,478,000.The 2018 edition saw a record attendance of 480,575 spectators. Wimbledon The Wimbledon Championships, commonly known as Wimbledon,is the third Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late June and early July.It was first held in 1877 at theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, at the time located off Nursery Road inWimbledon, London, England.The tournament has always been contested at this club, which moved to its present site off Church Road in 1922 in order to increase its attendance capacity. Wimbledon is organized by a committee of management consisting of nineteen members, with twelve being club members and the remaining seven nominated by theLawn Tennis Association(LTA).As the world's oldest tennis event,it is widely regarded as the most prestigious tennis tournament,and it is known for its commitment to longstanding traditions and guidelines.It is one of few tournaments and the only Grand Slam event that is still played on grass courts,tennis's original surface, and where \"lawn tennis\"originated in the 1800s.Players are required to wear all-white attire during matches,and they are referred to as \"Gentlemen\" and \"Ladies\".There is also a tradition where the players are asked to bow or curtsy towards theRoyalBox upon entering or leaving Centre Court when either thePrince of Walesorthe monarchare present. The tournament was given the title \"World Grass Court Championships\" by the International Lawn Tennis Federation between 1912 and 1923,and was designated a major championship following the abolition of the three ILTF World Championships.Since 1937, theBBChas broadcast the tournament on television in the United Kingdom,with the finals shown live and in full on television in the country each year.The BBC's broadcast of the1967 editionwas among the firstcolour televisionbroadcasts in the UK. Today, the event has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2021 tournament being£35,016,000,and 500,397 people attending the 2019 edition.The tournament has some of the longest running sponsorships in sports history, having been associated withSlazengersince 1902,and with theRobinsonsfruit drink brand since 1935. US Open The US Open is the fourth and final Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late August and early September. It was first held in August 1881 ongrass courtsat theNewport CasinoinNewport, Rhode Island, United States.The tournament changed venues in its early years,with each discipline continuing to be held separately at various venues until 1923, when the tournament settled at theWest Side Tennis ClubinForest Hills, Queens, New York City.In 1978, it moved to thehardcourtsof theUSTA Billie Jean King National Tennis CenterinFlushing Meadows, Queens, where it has been contested ever since. Organized by theUnited States Tennis Association(USTA),previously known as the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) until 1920,and as United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) until 1975,it is the only Grand Slam tournament to have been played every year since its inception.In 1997,Arthur Ashe Stadium, thelargest tennis stadiumin the world with a capacity of 23,771 spectators,was opened.It is named afterArthur Ashe, the winner of the 1968 tournament—the first in whichprofessionalswere allowed to compete. Over the years, the tournament has pioneered changes that other tournaments later adopted, including the introduction of atiebreaksystem to decide the outcome of sets tied at 6–6 in 1970,being the first Grand Slam tournament to award equal prize money to the men's and women's events in 1975,the installation of floodlights in 1975 in order to allow matches to be played at night,and the introduction ofinstant replayreviews of line calls using theHawk-Eyecomputer system in 2006. TheILTFofficially designated it as a major tournament in 1923.Today, the event has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2020 tournament being US$53,400,000,and a US television viewership of 700,000.From 2004-2023, the tournament was preceded by theUS Open Series, composed of North American hardcourt professional tournaments that lead up to and culminate with the US Open itself.The season was organized by the USTA as a way to focus more attention on American tennis tournaments by getting more of them on domestic television. Grand Slam A Grand Slam (sometimes called a Calendar-year Grand Slam, Calendar Grand Slam, or Calendar Slam) is the achievement of winning the Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, and US Open in the same year.Margaret Courtis the only player to complete a Grand Slam in two disciplines, singles and mixed doubles (twice), while wheelchair playersDiede de GrootandDylan Alcotthave completed one in both the singles and doubles disciplines of their respectiveclasses. The following is a list of players that achieved it. Current champions Each entry has an asterisk (*) linking to the tournament of that year. Former champions Per discipline Professional Junior Wheelchair Singles finals Related concepts Non-calendar-year Grand Slam In 1982, theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF) began offering a $1 million bonus to any singles player to win the four majors consecutively regardless the tournaments order of winning them while theMen's International Professional Tennis Council, which was the governing body of men's professional tennis at the time, stated that 'Grand Slam' need not necessarily be won in the same year. This revision by the Council and reportedly the ITFwas approved by the representatives of the four Grand Slam tournaments at Wimbledon.Neil Amdur and Allison Danzig of the New York Times both criticised the changed definition of the term Grand Slam,whereas in 1985 Hal Bock of Associated Press backed the change.Despite newspaper reports claiming that ITF PresidentPhilippe Chatrierhad said \"the four big events no longer have to be won in the same calendar year for a player to be recognized as Grand Slam champion\",ITF General SecretaryDavid Grayin a 1983 letter claimed that it was never the intention of ITF to alter anything regarding the definition of the classic Grand Slam: There seems to be some confusion. The ITF's only initiative in this matter has been the organisation of the offer of a bonus of $1 million to any player who holds all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously ... Despite all that we have read on this matter, it has never been my Committee of Management's intention to alter the basis of the classic Grand Slam i.e., the capture of all four titles in a year. WhenMartina Navratilovawon the 1984 French Open and became the reigning champion of all four women's singles discipline, she was the first player to receive the bonus prize in recognition of her achievement. Some media outlets said that she had won a Grand Slam.Curry Kirkpatrick ofSports Illustratedwrote \"Whether the Slam was Grand or Bland or a commercial sham tainted with an asterisk the size of a tennis ball, Martina Navratilova finally did it.\" WhenRafael Nadalwas on the verge of completing a non-calendar-year Grand Slam at the2011 Australian Open, one writer observed, \"Most traditionalists insist that the 'Grand Slam' should refer only to winning all four titles in a calendar year, although the constitution of the International Tennis Federation, the sports governing body, spells out that 'players who hold all four of these titles at the same time achieve the Grand Slam'.\"In 2012 the ambiguity was resolved, with the ITF's current constitution stating \"The Grand Slam titles are the championships of Australia, France, the United States of America and Wimbledon. Players who hold all four of these titles in one calendar year achieve the 'Grand Slam'.\" Combining the Grand Slam and the non-calendar-year Grand Slam, only eight singles players on 11 occasions achieved the feat of being the reigning champion of all four majors, three men (Don Budge,Rod Laver,Novak Djokovic)and five women (Maureen Connolly,Margaret Court,Martina Navratilova,Steffi Graf,Serena Williams). The following list is for those players who achieved a non-calendar-year Grand Slam by holding the four major titles at the same time but not in the calendar year.Players who completed a Grand Slam within the same streak as a non-calendar-year Grand Slam are not included here. Career Grand Slam The career achievement of winning all four major championships in one discipline is termed a \"Career Grand Slam\", or \"Career Slam\".In singles, eight men (Fred Perry,Don Budge,Roy Emerson,Rod Laver,Andre Agassi,Roger Federer,Rafael Nadal, andNovak Djokovic) and ten women (Maureen Connolly,Doris Hart,Shirley Fry Irvin,Margaret Court,Billie Jean King,Chris Evert,Martina Navratilova,Steffi Graf,Serena Williams, andMaria Sharapova) have completed a Career Grand Slam.Four men (Emerson, Laver, Djokovic, and Nadal) and five women (Court, Evert, Navratilova, Graf, Williams) have achieved the feat more than once over the course of their careers. Only six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles: one male (Roy Emerson) and five females (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova, and Serena Williams). Boxed Set A \"Boxed Set\" refers to winning one of every possible major title in the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles disciplines throughout a player's career.Only three players have completed a Boxed Set, all females:Doris Hart,Margaret Court, andMartina Navratilova.Court's second Boxed Set, completed in 1969, spans the Amateur and Open Eras, but she later completed a set entirely within the Open Era in 1973. SSinglesDDoublesXMixed doubles Golden Slam The term \"Golden Slam\" (also known as \"Golden Grand Slam\",\"Calendar-year Golden Slam\"or \"Calendar Golden Slam\")refers to the achievement of winning all four majors and theOlympicorParalympicgold medal in a calendar year. The achievement was first established in 1988,whenSteffi Grafwon all the aforementioned titles in singles. She is currently the only singles able-bodied player to achieve it,whileDiede de GrootandDylan Alcottalso accomplished the feat, in wheelchair singles and wheelchair quad singles respectively. Other concepts Pro Slam Before the start of theOpen Erain 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four Grand Slam tournaments. Many male top players \"went pro\" in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completelyseparate events.From 1927 to 1967, the three tournaments considered by many to have been the \"majors\" of the professional tour were: A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered retrospectively to have achieved a \"Professional Grand Slam\", or \"Pro Slam\".In the pre-open era the terms did not exist. The feat was accomplished byKen Rosewallin 1963andRod Laverin 1967,whileEllsworth Vines,Hans NüssleinandDon Budgehave won the three major trophies during their careers.The professional majors did not have a women's draw except for the Cleveland tournament in 1953, 1955, 1956, 1959. See also Notes References Bibliography External links", "Tennis at the 1988 Summer Olympics – Women's singles West Germany'sSteffi GrafdefeatedArgentina'sGabriela Sabatiniin the final, 6–3, 6–3 to win the gold medal in Women's Singlestennisat the1988 Summer Olympics. With the win, Graf completed theGolden Slam, having also won all fourmajorsearlier in 1988. The final was a rematch of theU.S. Open finalearlier that year, where Graf also prevailed to complete theGrand Slam. TheUnited States'Zina GarrisonandBulgaria'sManuela Maleeva-Fragnièrewon the bronze medals. It was the first medal in the event for West Germany, Argentina, and Bulgaria (each making their debut in the event), while the United States had previously earned medals in both of its prior appearances in 1900 and 1924. The tournament was held from 23 September to 1 October at theSeoul Olympic Park Tennis Center.There were 48 competitors from 26 nations.Each nation had only one pair. There was no bronze-medal match. Background This was the sixth appearance of the women's singles tennis. A women's event was held only once during the first three Games (only men's tennis was played in 1896 and 1904), but has been held at every Olympics for which there was a tennis tournament since 1908. Tennis was not a medal sport from 1928 to 1984, though there were demonstration events in 1968 and 1984. West Germany'sSteffi Grafhad just become the fifth person to win theGrand Slamand was also the unofficial defending Olympic champion, having won the1984 demonstration event(the official reigning gold medalist from1924,Helen Wills, had retired from tennis 50 years earlier). Of the 26 competing nations, 18 made their debut in the event. France and Great Britain each made their fifth appearance, tied for most among nations to that point. Competition format The competition was a single-elimination tournament. Unlike previous Olympic tournaments, no bronze-medal match was held. All matches were best-of-three sets. The 12-point tie-breaker, common by 1988, was used in the Olympics for the first time. Schedule All times areKorea Standard Time adjusted for daylight savings(UTC+10) Seeds Allseedsreceived abyeto the second round. Draw Key Finals Top half Section 1 Section 2 Bottom half Section 3 Section 4 References" ]
[ "Grand Slam (tennis) TheGrand Slamintennisis the achievement of winning all four major championships in one discipline in acalendar year. In doubles, a Grand Slam may be achieved as a team or as an individual with different partners. Winning all four major championships consecutively but not within the same calendar year is referred to as a \"non-calendar-year Grand Slam\", while winning the four majors at any point during the course of a career is known as a \"Career Grand Slam\". The term Grand Slam is also attributed to theGrand Slam tournaments, usually referred to asMajors, and they are the world's four most important annual professional tennis tournaments. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of the field and, in recent years, the longest matches for men (best of five sets, best of three for the women). The tournaments are overseen by theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF),rather than the separate men's and women's tour organizing", "tour organizing bodies, theAssociation of Tennis Professionals(ATP) andWomen's Tennis Association(WTA), but both the ATP and WTA award ranking points based on players' performances in them. The four Grand Slam tournaments are theAustralian Openin January, theFrench Openfrom late May to early June,Wimbledonin late June to early July, and theUS Openin late August to early September, with each played over two weeks. The Australian and the United States tournaments are played onhard courts, the French onclay, and Wimbledon ongrass. Wimbledon is the oldest tournament, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891 (major in 1925), and the Australian in 1905, but it was not until 1925 that all four were held as officially sanctioned majors. History With the growing popularity of tennis, and with the hopes of unifying the sport's rules internationally,theBritishand French tennis associations started discussions at theirDavis Cuptie, and in October 1912 organized a meeting in Paris, joined by", "in Paris, joined by theAustralasian, Austrian,Belgian,Spanish, and Swiss associations.They subsequently formed theInternational Lawn Tennis Federation(ILTF), holding their first meeting in 1913, joined by the Danish,German,Dutch,Russian, South African, and Swedish organizations.Voting rights were divided based on the perceived importance of the individual countries, with Great Britain'sLawn Tennis Association(LTA) receiving the maximum six votes.Three tournaments were established, being designated as \"World Championships\": The LTA was given the perpetual right to organize the World Grass Court Championships, to be held at Wimbledon, and France received permission to stage the World Hard Court Championships until 1916.Anthony Wildingof New Zealand won all three of these World Championships in 1913. TheUnited States National Lawn Tennis Association(USNLTA) expressed disagreement over the power distribution within the ILTF and the designation of \"World Championship\" status to the British and French tournaments,", "French tournaments, and thus initially refused to join the Federation, choosing instead to be bystanders to their meetings.By the 1920s, with the World Covered Court Championships failing to attract top players and the growing success of American and Australian tennis, the ILTF worked to convince the USNLTA to join them, meeting their demand to drop the designation of \"World Championships\" from all three tournaments in March 1923, which led to the demise of both the World Covered Court Championships and the World Hard Court Championships.A new category of \"Official Championships\" was created for the national championships of Britain, France, Australia, and the US.By the 1930s, these four tournaments had become well defined as the most prestigious in the sport. In 1933,Jack Crawfordwon theAustralian,French, andWimbledonChampionships, leaving him just needing to win the last major event of the year, theU.S. Championships, to become the reigning champion of all four major tournaments,a feat described as \"a", "described as \"a grand slam\" by sports columnistAlan J. GouldofThe Reading Eagle,and later that year byJohn KieranofThe New York Times, who stated that if Crawford won at Forest Hills it \"would be something like scoring a grand slam on the courts, doubled and vulnerable.\"The term 'Grand Slam' originates from the card gamecontract bridge, where it is used for winning all possibletricks. Ingolfit was used for the first time to describe a total of four wins, specificallyBobby Jones' achievement of winning the four major golf tournaments of the era, which he accomplished in 1930.\"Grand Slam\" or \"Slam\" has since also become used to refer to the tournaments individually.The first player to win all four majors in a calendar year and thus complete a Grand Slam wasDon Budgein 1938. At the time, onlyamateurplayers were allowed to participate in the Grand Slam and other ILTF-sanctioned tournaments.Amateur standing, regulated by the ILTF alongside its associated national federations, forbade players from receiving prize", "receiving prize money, earning pay by teaching tennis, being contracted by promoters and playing paid exhibition matches, though expense payments were allowed along with certain monies from sporting goods companies or other benefactors.Amateurs who \"defected\" to becomeprofessionalwere banned from competing in amateur tournaments and dropped from their national associations. The first majorprofessional tourwas established in 1926 by promoterC. C. Pylewith a troupe of American and French players, most notablySuzanne Lenglen, playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.Over the next decades many other head-to-head tours were run and professional tournaments established,with three, theU.S. Pro Tennis Championships,French Pro ChampionshipandWembley Championships, standing out, and considered to have been theprofessional majors.By the 1950s, largely due to efforts of player/promoterJack Kramer, this lucrative parallel circuit was luring in most of the star amateurs on the men's side, much to the ire of the ILTF", "the ire of the ILTF and organizers of the Grand Slam tournaments.It was an open secret that the top players who remained as amateurs were receiving undeclared under-the-table payments from tournament promoters, an arrangement tolerated by their national tennis associations to dissuade them from joining the pro ranks and secure their availability for the majors and Davis Cup. This system was derisively referred to as 'shamateurism'that was seen as undermining the integrity of the sport.Ramanathan KrishnanandRoy Emerson, for example declined large contract offers from the professional promoters, with the latter stating that he was better paid in the amateur circuit. Tensions over this status quo, which had been building for decades, finally came to a head in 1967. The first tournament open to professional tennis players played onCentre Courtat Wimbledon, theWimbledon Pro, was staged by theAll England Lawn Tennis Clubin August,offering a prize fund of US$45,000.The tournament was deemed very successful, with", "successful, with packed crowds and the play seen as being of higher quality than the amateur-only Wimbledon final held two weeks earlier.This success in combination with large signings of top players to two new professional tours—World Championship Tennisand theNational Tennis League—convinced the LTA on the need for open tennis.After a British proposal for this at the annual ILTF meeting was voted down, the LTA revolted, and in its own annual meeting in December it voted overwhelmingly to admit players of all statuses to the1968 Wimbledon Championshipsand other future tournaments in Britain, \"come hell or high water\".The eventual backing of the USNLTA that came after a February 1968 vote forced the ILTF to yield and allow each nation to determine its own legislation regarding amateur and professional players, which it voted for in a special meeting in March 1968.This marked the start of theOpen Eraof tennis,with its first tournament, the1968 British Hard Court Championships, beginning three weeks later on", "weeks later on 22 April inBournemouth, England,while the first open Grand Slam tournament, the1968 French Open, was held in May. Even after the advent of the Open Era, players includingJohn McEnroeandChris Everthave pointed out that skipping the Australian Open was the norm because of the travelling distance involved and the inconvenient dates close to Christmas and New Year.There were also the contracted professional players who had to skip some major events like the French Open in the 1970s because they were committed to the more profitable pro circuits.In one case, Australian players includingRod Laver,Ken RosewallandRoy Emersonwho had contracts withGeorge MacCall'sNational Tennis Leaguewere prevented from participating in the1970 Australian Openbecause the financial guarantees were deemed insufficient. Although it has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925, it was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French", "and French Championships due to World War II,the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed doubles,1986 when there was no Australian Open,and 2020 when Wimbledon was cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. Tournaments The Grand Slam of tennis comprises these four major tournaments: Junior events Best of five sets: Best of three sets: Australian Open The Australian Open is the first Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late January and early February.The inaugural edition took place in November1905on the grass courts of theWarehouseman's Cricket GroundinMelbourne, Australia. It was held as the Australasian Championships until 1927 and thereafter as the Australian Championships until the onset of theOpen Erain 1969,passing through various venues in Australia and New Zealand before settling at theKooyong Lawn Tennis Clubin Melbourne between 1972 and 1987.Since 1988, it has been played on the hard courts of theMelbourne Parksports complex, which currently", "which currently usesGreenSetas its court manufacturer. Managed byTennis Australia, formerly the Lawn Tennis Association of Australia (LTAA), the tournament struggled until the mid-1980s to attract the top international players due to its distance from Europe and America and proximity to theChristmas and holiday season,but it has since grown to become one of the biggest sporting events in theSouthern Hemisphereand the highest attended Grand Slam tournament, with more than 1,020,000 people attending the2024 edition.Nicknamed the \"Happy Slam\"and billed as \"the Grand Slam of Asia/Pacific\",it has become known for its modernity and innovation, being the first Grand Slam tournament to feature indoor play and install retractable roofs on its main courts,the first to schedule night-time men's singles finals,and the first to substituteelectronic line callingforline judges, using an expanded version of theHawk-Eyetechnology known as \"Hawk-Eye Live\". The tournament was designated a major championship by theInternational", "by theInternational Lawn Tennis Federationin 1923.Nowadays, its draws host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2024 tournament beingA$86,500,000. French Open The French Open, also known as Roland Garros,is the second Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late May and early June.A French championships closed event (restricted to members of French clubs)was first held in 1891 on the sand courts of the Societé de Sport de Île de Puteaux, inPuteaux, Île-de-France,and changed venues over the years. In 1925 the French championships became open to all amateurs and since 1928 has been held on clay courts at theStade Roland-Garrosin Paris, France.Both the venue and the tournament are named \"Roland Garros\" after thepioneering French aviator. Organized by theFédération française de tennis(FFT), formerly known as theFédération Française de Lawn Tennisuntil 1976,the French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament played on a red clay", "on a red clay surface.It is generally considered to be the most physically demanding tennis tournament in the world. TheWorld Hard Court Championshipswas considered the premier clay championship in France from 1912–1923 (apart from one year held in Belgium) as it admitted international competitors, and it is therefore often seen as the true precursor to the French Open before 1925.The French championships was first held as an International Lawn Tennis Federation–sanctioned major championship in 1925. Today, it has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2024 tournament being€53,478,000.The 2018 edition saw a record attendance of 480,575 spectators. Wimbledon The Wimbledon Championships, commonly known as Wimbledon,is the third Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late June and early July.It was first held in 1877 at theAll England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, at the time located off Nursery Road inWimbledon,", "Road inWimbledon, London, England.The tournament has always been contested at this club, which moved to its present site off Church Road in 1922 in order to increase its attendance capacity. Wimbledon is organized by a committee of management consisting of nineteen members, with twelve being club members and the remaining seven nominated by theLawn Tennis Association(LTA).As the world's oldest tennis event,it is widely regarded as the most prestigious tennis tournament,and it is known for its commitment to longstanding traditions and guidelines.It is one of few tournaments and the only Grand Slam event that is still played on grass courts,tennis's original surface, and where \"lawn tennis\"originated in the 1800s.Players are required to wear all-white attire during matches,and they are referred to as \"Gentlemen\" and \"Ladies\".There is also a tradition where the players are asked to bow or curtsy towards theRoyalBox upon entering or leaving Centre Court when either thePrince of Walesorthe monarchare present. The", "present. The tournament was given the title \"World Grass Court Championships\" by the International Lawn Tennis Federation between 1912 and 1923,and was designated a major championship following the abolition of the three ILTF World Championships.Since 1937, theBBChas broadcast the tournament on television in the United Kingdom,with the finals shown live and in full on television in the country each year.The BBC's broadcast of the1967 editionwas among the firstcolour televisionbroadcasts in the UK. Today, the event has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2021 tournament being£35,016,000,and 500,397 people attending the 2019 edition.The tournament has some of the longest running sponsorships in sports history, having been associated withSlazengersince 1902,and with theRobinsonsfruit drink brand since 1935. US Open The US Open is the fourth and final Grand Slam tournament of the year, played annually in late August and early", "August and early September. It was first held in August 1881 ongrass courtsat theNewport CasinoinNewport, Rhode Island, United States.The tournament changed venues in its early years,with each discipline continuing to be held separately at various venues until 1923, when the tournament settled at theWest Side Tennis ClubinForest Hills, Queens, New York City.In 1978, it moved to thehardcourtsof theUSTA Billie Jean King National Tennis CenterinFlushing Meadows, Queens, where it has been contested ever since. Organized by theUnited States Tennis Association(USTA),previously known as the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USNLTA) until 1920,and as United States National Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) until 1975,it is the only Grand Slam tournament to have been played every year since its inception.In 1997,Arthur Ashe Stadium, thelargest tennis stadiumin the world with a capacity of 23,771 spectators,was opened.It is named afterArthur Ashe, the winner of the 1968 tournament—the first in", "first in whichprofessionalswere allowed to compete. Over the years, the tournament has pioneered changes that other tournaments later adopted, including the introduction of atiebreaksystem to decide the outcome of sets tied at 6–6 in 1970,being the first Grand Slam tournament to award equal prize money to the men's and women's events in 1975,the installation of floodlights in 1975 in order to allow matches to be played at night,and the introduction ofinstant replayreviews of line calls using theHawk-Eyecomputer system in 2006. TheILTFofficially designated it as a major tournament in 1923.Today, the event has draws that host 256 singles players, 128 doubles teams and 32 mixed doubles teams, with the total prize money for the 2020 tournament being US$53,400,000,and a US television viewership of 700,000.From 2004-2023, the tournament was preceded by theUS Open Series, composed of North American hardcourt professional tournaments that lead up to and culminate with the US Open itself.The season was organized by", "was organized by the USTA as a way to focus more attention on American tennis tournaments by getting more of them on domestic television. Grand Slam A Grand Slam (sometimes called a Calendar-year Grand Slam, Calendar Grand Slam, or Calendar Slam) is the achievement of winning the Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, and US Open in the same year.Margaret Courtis the only player to complete a Grand Slam in two disciplines, singles and mixed doubles (twice), while wheelchair playersDiede de GrootandDylan Alcotthave completed one in both the singles and doubles disciplines of their respectiveclasses. The following is a list of players that achieved it. Current champions Each entry has an asterisk (*) linking to the tournament of that year. Former champions Per discipline Professional Junior Wheelchair Singles finals Related concepts Non-calendar-year Grand Slam In 1982, theInternational Tennis Federation(ITF) began offering a $1 million bonus to any singles player to win the four majors consecutively", "consecutively regardless the tournaments order of winning them while theMen's International Professional Tennis Council, which was the governing body of men's professional tennis at the time, stated that 'Grand Slam' need not necessarily be won in the same year. This revision by the Council and reportedly the ITFwas approved by the representatives of the four Grand Slam tournaments at Wimbledon.Neil Amdur and Allison Danzig of the New York Times both criticised the changed definition of the term Grand Slam,whereas in 1985 Hal Bock of Associated Press backed the change.Despite newspaper reports claiming that ITF PresidentPhilippe Chatrierhad said \"the four big events no longer have to be won in the same calendar year for a player to be recognized as Grand Slam champion\",ITF General SecretaryDavid Grayin a 1983 letter claimed that it was never the intention of ITF to alter anything regarding the definition of the classic Grand Slam: There seems to be some confusion. The ITF's only initiative in this matter has", "in this matter has been the organisation of the offer of a bonus of $1 million to any player who holds all four Grand Slam titles simultaneously ... Despite all that we have read on this matter, it has never been my Committee of Management's intention to alter the basis of the classic Grand Slam i.e., the capture of all four titles in a year. WhenMartina Navratilovawon the 1984 French Open and became the reigning champion of all four women's singles discipline, she was the first player to receive the bonus prize in recognition of her achievement. Some media outlets said that she had won a Grand Slam.Curry Kirkpatrick ofSports Illustratedwrote \"Whether the Slam was Grand or Bland or a commercial sham tainted with an asterisk the size of a tennis ball, Martina Navratilova finally did it.\" WhenRafael Nadalwas on the verge of completing a non-calendar-year Grand Slam at the2011 Australian Open, one writer observed, \"Most traditionalists insist that the 'Grand Slam' should refer only to winning all four titles in", "all four titles in a calendar year, although the constitution of the International Tennis Federation, the sports governing body, spells out that 'players who hold all four of these titles at the same time achieve the Grand Slam'.\"In 2012 the ambiguity was resolved, with the ITF's current constitution stating \"The Grand Slam titles are the championships of Australia, France, the United States of America and Wimbledon. Players who hold all four of these titles in one calendar year achieve the 'Grand Slam'.\" Combining the Grand Slam and the non-calendar-year Grand Slam, only eight singles players on 11 occasions achieved the feat of being the reigning champion of all four majors, three men (Don Budge,Rod Laver,Novak Djokovic)and five women (Maureen Connolly,Margaret Court,Martina Navratilova,Steffi Graf,Serena Williams). The following list is for those players who achieved a non-calendar-year Grand Slam by holding the four major titles at the same time but not in the calendar year.Players who completed a Grand", "completed a Grand Slam within the same streak as a non-calendar-year Grand Slam are not included here. Career Grand Slam The career achievement of winning all four major championships in one discipline is termed a \"Career Grand Slam\", or \"Career Slam\".In singles, eight men (Fred Perry,Don Budge,Roy Emerson,Rod Laver,Andre Agassi,Roger Federer,Rafael Nadal, andNovak Djokovic) and ten women (Maureen Connolly,Doris Hart,Shirley Fry Irvin,Margaret Court,Billie Jean King,Chris Evert,Martina Navratilova,Steffi Graf,Serena Williams, andMaria Sharapova) have completed a Career Grand Slam.Four men (Emerson, Laver, Djokovic, and Nadal) and five women (Court, Evert, Navratilova, Graf, Williams) have achieved the feat more than once over the course of their careers. Only six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles: one male (Roy Emerson) and five females (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova, and Serena Williams). Boxed Set A \"Boxed Set\" refers to winning one", "to winning one of every possible major title in the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles disciplines throughout a player's career.Only three players have completed a Boxed Set, all females:Doris Hart,Margaret Court, andMartina Navratilova.Court's second Boxed Set, completed in 1969, spans the Amateur and Open Eras, but she later completed a set entirely within the Open Era in 1973. SSinglesDDoublesXMixed doubles Golden Slam The term \"Golden Slam\" (also known as \"Golden Grand Slam\",\"Calendar-year Golden Slam\"or \"Calendar Golden Slam\")refers to the achievement of winning all four majors and theOlympicorParalympicgold medal in a calendar year. The achievement was first established in 1988,whenSteffi Grafwon all the aforementioned titles in singles. She is currently the only singles able-bodied player to achieve it,whileDiede de GrootandDylan Alcottalso accomplished the feat, in wheelchair singles and wheelchair quad singles respectively. Other concepts Pro Slam Before the start of theOpen Erain 1968, only", "Erain 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four Grand Slam tournaments. Many male top players \"went pro\" in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completelyseparate events.From 1927 to 1967, the three tournaments considered by many to have been the \"majors\" of the professional tour were: A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered retrospectively to have achieved a \"Professional Grand Slam\", or \"Pro Slam\".In the pre-open era the terms did not exist. The feat was accomplished byKen Rosewallin 1963andRod Laverin 1967,whileEllsworth Vines,Hans NüssleinandDon Budgehave won the three major trophies during their careers.The professional majors did not have a women's draw except for the Cleveland tournament in 1953, 1955, 1956, 1959. See also Notes References Bibliography External links", "Tennis at the 1988 Summer Olympics – Women's singles West Germany'sSteffi GrafdefeatedArgentina'sGabriela Sabatiniin the final, 6–3, 6–3 to win the gold medal in Women's Singlestennisat the1988 Summer Olympics. With the win, Graf completed theGolden Slam, having also won all fourmajorsearlier in 1988. The final was a rematch of theU.S. Open finalearlier that year, where Graf also prevailed to complete theGrand Slam. TheUnited States'Zina GarrisonandBulgaria'sManuela Maleeva-Fragnièrewon the bronze medals. It was the first medal in the event for West Germany, Argentina, and Bulgaria (each making their debut in the event), while the United States had previously earned medals in both of its prior appearances in 1900 and 1924. The tournament was held from 23 September to 1 October at theSeoul Olympic Park Tennis Center.There were 48 competitors from 26 nations.Each nation had only one pair. There was no bronze-medal match. Background This was the sixth appearance of the women's singles tennis. A women's event was", "A women's event was held only once during the first three Games (only men's tennis was played in 1896 and 1904), but has been held at every Olympics for which there was a tennis tournament since 1908. Tennis was not a medal sport from 1928 to 1984, though there were demonstration events in 1968 and 1984. West Germany'sSteffi Grafhad just become the fifth person to win theGrand Slamand was also the unofficial defending Olympic champion, having won the1984 demonstration event(the official reigning gold medalist from1924,Helen Wills, had retired from tennis 50 years earlier). Of the 26 competing nations, 18 made their debut in the event. France and Great Britain each made their fifth appearance, tied for most among nations to that point. Competition format The competition was a single-elimination tournament. Unlike previous Olympic tournaments, no bronze-medal match was held. All matches were best-of-three sets. The 12-point tie-breaker, common by 1988, was used in the Olympics for the first time. Schedule All", "time. Schedule All times areKorea Standard Time adjusted for daylight savings(UTC+10) Seeds Allseedsreceived abyeto the second round. Draw Key Finals Top half Section 1 Section 2 Bottom half Section 3 Section 4 References" ]
Out of the following man-portable launchers, which entered service with their respective military last? A) FGM-148 Javelin B) 9K38 Igla C) FIM-92 Stinger.
A) FGM-148 Javelin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FGM-148_Javelin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9K38_Igla
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIM-92_Stinger
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Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FGM-148_Javelin', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9K38_Igla', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIM-92_Stinger']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FGM-148_Javelin", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9K38_Igla", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIM-92_Stinger" ]
[ "FGM-148 Javelin TheFGM-148 Javelin, orAdvanced Anti-Tank Weapon System-Medium(AAWS-M), is an American-mademan-portable anti-tank systemin service since 1996 and continuously upgraded. It replaced theM47 Dragonanti-tank missile in US service.Itsfire-and-forgetdesign features automaticinfrared guidance, allowing the user to seek cover immediately after launch, in contrast towire-guidedsystems like the system used by the Dragon, which require a user to guide the weapon throughout the engagement. The Javelin'shigh-explosive anti-tank(HEAT) warhead can defeat modern tanks bytop-down attack, hitting them from above, where their armor is thinnest, and is useful against fortifications in a direct attack flight. The Javelin uses a tandem charge warhead to circumvent an enemy tank'sexplosive reactive armor(ERA), which would normally render HEAT warheads ineffective. As of 2019, according to claims by the manufacturer, the Javelin had been used in around five thousand successful engagements.By August 2021, fifty thousand missiles had been delivered to customers. The weapon made its combat debut inIraq in 2003and rose to prominence in theRusso-Ukrainian War, where it saw extensive usage by Ukrainian forces during the early stages of the2022 Russian invasion. Overview Javelin is a fire-and-forget missile with lock-on before launch and automatic self-guidance. The system employs atop attackflight profile against armored vehicles, attacking the usually thinner top armor, but can also make a direct attack, for use against buildings, targets too close for top attack, targets under obstructions, andhelicopters. It can reach a peak altitude of 150 m (490 ft) in top attack mode and 60 m (200 ft) in direct attack mode. Initial versions had a range of 2,000 m (6,600 ft), later increased to 2,500 m (8,200 ft). It is equipped with animaging infraredseeker. Thetandem warheadis fitted with twoshaped charges: a precursor warhead to detonate any explosivereactive armorand a primary warhead to penetrate base armor. In what is known as a \"soft launcharrangement,\" the missile is ejected from the launcher to a safe distance from the operator before the mainrocket motorsignite.This makes it harder to identify the launcher, though backblast from the launch tube still poses a hazard to nearby personnel. The firing team may move as soon as the \"fire-and-forget\" missile has been launched or immediately prepare to fire on their next target.The missile system is sometimes carried by two soldiers consisting of a gunner and an ammunition bearer, although one soldier can fire it. While the gunner aims and fires the missile, the ammunition bearer scans for prospective targets, watches for threats like enemy vehicles or troops and ensures that personnel and obstacles are clear of the missile's launch backblast. Development In 1983, theUnited States Armyintroduced its AAWS-M (Advanced Anti-Tank Weapon System—Medium) requirement. In 1985, the AAWS-M was approved for development.In August 1986, the proof-of-principle (POP) phase of development began, with aUS$30 million contract awarded for technical proof demonstrators:Ford Aerospace(laser-beam riding),Hughes Aircraft Missile System Group(imaging infrared combined with a fiber-optic cable link) andTexas Instruments(imaging infrared).In late 1988, the POP phase ended. In June 1989, the full-scale development contract was awarded to a joint venture of Texas Instruments andMartin Marietta, nowRaytheonandLockheed Martin.The AAWS-M received the designation of FGM-148. In April 1991, the first test-flight of the Javelin succeeded, and in March 1993, the first test-firing from the launcher succeeded. In 1994, low levels of production were authorized,and the first Javelins were deployed with US Army units in 1996. Test and evaluation The General Accounting Office (GAO), since renamedGovernment Accountability Office, published a report questioning the adequacy of Javelin testing. The report, titled \"Army Acquisition—Javelin Is Not Ready for Multiyear Procurement\", opposed entering into full-rate production in 1997 and expressed the need for further operational testing due to the many redesigns undergone. In 1995,Secretary of DefenseWilliam Perryhad set forth five new operational test initiatives The late-phase development of the Javelin retroactively benefited from the then-new operational test initiatives set forth by the Secretary of Defense, as well as a further test conducted as a consequence of the Army's response to the GAO report. Before the Milestone III decision,and before it was fielded to the 3rd Battalion of the75th Ranger RegimentatFort Benning(and laterSpecial Forces,airborne,air assault, andlight infantryunits), the Javelin was subjected to limited parts of the five operational test and evaluation initiatives, as well as a portability operational test program, an additional test phase of the so-called Product Verification Test,which included live firings with the full-rate configuration weapon. TheInstitute for Defense Analysesand the Defense Department's Director of Operational Test and Evaluation became involved in three development test activities, including The results of these efforts detected problems, training included, and corrected significant problems, leading to modified test plans, savings in test costs, and GAO satisfaction. Qualification testing The Javelin Environmental Test System (JETS) is a mobile test set for Javelin All-Up-Round (AUR) and the Command Launch Unit (CLU). It can be configured to functionally test the AUR or the CLU individually or both units in a mated tactical mode. This mobile unit may be repositioned at the various environmental testing facilities. The mobile system is used for all phases of Javelin qualification testing. There is a non-mobile JETS used for stand-alone CLU testing. This system is equipped with an environmental chamber and is primarily used for Product Verification Testing (PRVT). Capabilities include: Javelin CLU testing; Javelin AUR testing; Javelin Mated Mode testing; Javelin testing in various environmental conditions; and CLU PRVT. The all-up-round test sets include: extreme temperature testing; missile tracker testing (track rate error, tracking sensitivity); seeker/focal plane arraytesting (cool-down time, dead/defective pixels, seeker identification); pneumatic leakage; continuity measurements; ready time; and guidance sections (guidance commands, fin movement). Components The system consists of three main components: the Command Launch Unit, the Launch Tube Assembly and the missile itself. Each missile contains 250microprocessors. Command launch unit The gunner carries a reusablecommand launch unit(CLU, pronounced \"clue\"), which is the targeting component of the two-part system. The CLU has three views, which are used to find, target, and fire the missile and may be used separately from the missile as a portablethermal sight. Infantry personnel are no longer required to stay in constant contact witharmored personnel carriersandtankswith thermal sights. This makes them more flexible and able to perceive threats they would not otherwise be able to detect. In 2006, a contract was awarded to Toyon Research Corporation to begin development of an upgrade to the CLU, enabling the transmission of target image andGPSlocation data to other units. Day field of view The first view is a 4× magnification day view. It is mainly used to scan areas in visible light during daylight operation. It is also used to scan immediately before sunrise and after sunset, when it is difficult to focus the thermal image due to the natural rapid heating or cooling of the environment. Wide field of view The second view is the 4× magnification night view, awide field of view(WFOV) which shows the gunner a thermal representation of the area viewed. This is the primary view used, due to its ability to detectinfrared radiationand find both troops and vehicles otherwise too well hidden to detect. The screen shows a \"green scale\" view which can be adjusted in both contrast and brightness. The inside of the CLU is cooled by a smallrefrigerationunit attached to the sight. This greatly increases the sensitivity of the thermal imaging capability, since the temperature inside the sight is much lower than that of the objects it detects. Due to the sensitivity this causes, the gunner is able to \"focus\" the CLU to show a detailed image of the area being viewed, by showing temperature differences of only a few degrees. The gunner operates this view with the use of two hand stations similar to thecontrol stickfound in moderncockpits. It is from this view that the gunner focuses the image and determines the area that gives the best heat signature on which to lock the missile. Narrow field of view The third field of view is a 12× thermal sight, used to better identify the target vehicle. Once the CLU has been focused in WFOV, the gunner may switch to anarrow field of view(NFOV) for target recognition before activating theseeker FOV. Once the best target area is chosen, the gunner presses one of the two triggers and is automatically switched to the fourth view, theseeker FOV, which is a 9x magnification thermal view. This process is similar to the automatic zoom feature on most modern cameras. This view is available along with the previously mentioned views, all of which may be accessed with the press of a button. However, it is not as commonly-used as a high magnification view, because it takes longer to scan a wide area. This view allows the gunner to further aim the missile and set the guidance system housed inside it. It is when in this view that information is passed from the CLU, through the connection electronics of the Launch Tube Assembly, and into the missile's guidance system. If the gunner decides not to fire the missile immediately, they can cycle back to the other views without firing. When the gunner is satisfied with the target picture, a second trigger is pulled to establish a \"lock\". The missile launches after a short delay. Lightweight CLU The US Army developed a new CLU as an improvement over the Block I version. The new CLU is 70% smaller, 40% lighter and has a 50% battery life increase. Features of the lightweight CLU are: a long-waveinfrared(IR)thermographic camera; a high-definition display with improved resolution; integrated handgrips; a five megapixel color camera; a laser point that can be seen visibly or through IR; a far target locator using GPS, a laser rangefinder, a heading sensor, and modernized electronics.The LWCLU has demonstrated the ability to fire aFIM-92 Stingeranti-aircraft missile, using its superior optics to identify and destroy smallunmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs). The Javelin Joint Venture received its first low-rate production contract for the LWCLU in June 2022. 200 units will be delivered before full-rate production is expected to initiate in 2023, which will increase the production rate to 600 per year. First delivery is slated for 2025. Launch Tube Assembly Both the gunner and the ammunition bearer carry the Launch Tube Assembly, a disposable tube that houses the missile and protects the missile from harsh environments. The tube has built-in electronics and a locking hinge system that makes attachment and detachment of the missile to and from the Command Launch Unit a quick and simple process. Missile Warhead The Javelin missile's tandem warhead is ahigh-explosive anti-tank(HEAT) type.This round utilizes an explosiveshaped chargeto create a stream ofsuperplasticallydeformed metal, formed from trumpet-shaped metallic liners. The result is a narrow high velocity particle stream that can penetrate armor. The Javelin counters the advent ofexplosive reactive armor(ERA). ERA boxes or tiles lying over a vehicle's main armor explode when struck by a warhead. This explosion does not harm the vehicle's main armor, but causes steel panels to fly across the path of a HEAT round's narrow particle stream, disrupting its focus and leaving it unable to cut through the main armor. The Javelin uses two shaped-charge warheads in tandem. The weak, smaller diameter HEAT precursor charge detonates the ERA, clearing the way for the much larger diameter HEAT warhead, which then penetrates the target's primary armor. A two-layeredmolybdenumliner is used for the precursor, and a copper liner for the main warhead. To protect the main charge from the explosive blast, shock, and debris caused by the impact of the missile's nose and the detonation of the precursor charge, a blast shield is used between the two charges. This was the firstcomposite materialblast shield and the first that had a hole through the middle to provide a jet that is less diffuse. A newer main charge liner produces a higher velocity jet. While making the warhead smaller, this change makes it more effective, leaving more room for propellant for the main rocket motor, increasing the missile's range. Electronic arming and fusing, called Electronic Safe Arming and Fire (ESAF), is present on the Javelin. The ESAF system enables the firing and arming process to proceed, while imposing a series of safety checks on the missile. ESAF cues the launch motor after the trigger is pulled. When the missile reaches a key acceleration point, indicating that it has cleared the launch tube, the ESAF initiates a second arming signal to fire the flight motor. After another check on missile conditions (target lock check), ESAF initiates final arming to enable the warheads for detonation upon target impact. When the missile strikes the target, ESAF enables the tandem warhead function, to provide appropriate time between the detonation of the precursor charge and thedetonationof the main charge. Though the Javelin's tandem HEAT warhead has proven efficient at destroying tanks, most threats it was employed against in Iraq and Afghanistan were weapon crews and teams, buildings, and lightly armored and unarmored vehicles. To make the Javelin more useful in these scenarios, theAviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Centerdeveloped a multi-purpose warhead (MPWH) for the FGM-148F. While it is still lethal against tanks, the new warhead has a naturally fragmenting steel warhead case, that doubles the effectiveness against personnel due to enhanced fragmentation. The MPWH does not add weight or cost and has a lighter composite missile mid-body to enable drop-in replacement to existing Javelin tubes.The Javelin F-model was planned to begin deliveries in early 2020.The improved missile design, along with new lighter CLU with an improved target tracker,entered production in May 2020. Propulsion Most rocket launchers require a large clear area behind the gunner to prevent injury from backblast. To address this shortcoming without increasing recoil to an unacceptable level, the Javelin system uses asoft launchmechanism. A small launch motor using conventional rocketpropellantejects the missile from the launcher, but stops burning before the missile clears the tube. The flight motor is ignited after a delay to allow sufficient clearance from the operator. To save weight, the two motors are integrated with aburst discbetween them. It is designed to tolerate the pressure of the launch motor from one side, but to easily rupture from the other when the flight motor ignites. The motors use a common nozzle. The flight motor's exhaust flows through the expended launch motor. Because the launch motor casing remains in place, an unusual ring-shaped igniter is used to start it. A normal igniter would be blown out of the back of the missile when the flight motor ignited and could injure the operator. Since the launch motor uses a standard NATO propellant,the presence of lead beta-resorcylate as a burn rate modifier causes an amount ofleadandlead oxideto be present in the exhaust. Gunners are asked to hold their breath after firing for their safety. In the event that the launch motor malfunctions and the launch tube is overpressurized—for example, if the rocket gets stuck—the Javelin missile includes a pressure release system to prevent the launcher from exploding. The launch motor is held in place by a set ofshear pins, which fracture if the pressure rises too high. They allow the motor to be pushed out of the back of the tube. Seeker As afire-and-forgetmissile, after launch the missile has to be able to track and destroy its target without assistance from the gunner. This is done by coupling an onboard imaging IR system, separate from CLU imaging system, with an onboard tracking system. The gunner uses the CLU's IR system to find and identify the target, then switches to the missile's independent IR system to set a track box around the target and establish a lock. The gunner places brackets around the image for locking. The seeker stays focused on the target's image, continuing to track it as the target moves or the missile's flight path alters, or attack angles change. The seeker consists of three main components:focal plane arrayimage sensor, cooling and calibration, and stabilization. Focal plane array (FPA) The seeker assembly is encased in a dome that is transparent to long-waveinfraredradiation. The IR radiation passes through the dome and then through lenses that focus the energy. The IR energy is reflected by mirrors on to the FPA. The seeker is a two-dimensional staring FPA of 64×64MerCad(HgCdTe) detector elements.The FPA processes the signals from the detectors and relays a signal to the missile's tracker. The staring array is a photo-voltaic device where the incident photons stimulate electrons and are stored, pixel by pixel, inreadout integrated circuitsattached at the rear of the detector. These electrons are converted to voltages that are multiplexed out of the ROIC on a frame-by-frame basis. Cooling/calibration To function effectively, the FPA must be cooled and calibrated. In other applications, a CLU's IR detectors are cooled using aDewar flaskand a closed-cycleStirling engine, but there is insufficient space in the missile for a similar solution. Prior to launch, a cooler mounted on the outside of the launch tube activates the electrical systems in the missile, and supplies cold gas from aJoule-Thomson expanderto the missile detector assembly, while the missile is still in the launch tube. When the missile is fired, this external connection is broken and coolant gas is supplied internally by an onboardargongas bottle. The gas is held in a small bottle at high pressure and contains enough coolant for the duration of the flight of approximately 19 seconds. The seeker is calibrated using achopper wheel. This device is a fan of six blades: five black blades with low IR emissivity and one semi-reflective blade. These blades spin in front of the seeker optics in a synchronized fashion such that the FPA is continually provided with points of reference in addition to viewing the scene. These reference points allow the FPA to reduce noise introduced by response variations in the detector elements. Stabilization The platform on which the seeker is mounted must be stabilized with respect to the motion of the missile body, and the seeker must be moved to stay aligned with the target. The stabilization system must cope with rapid acceleration, up/down and lateral movements. This is done by agimbalsystem,accelerometers,spinning-mass gyros(orMEMS), and motors to drive changes in position of the platform. The system is basically anautopilot. Information from the gyros is fed to the guidance electronics, which drive a torque motor attached to the seeker platform to keep the seeker aligned with the target. The wires that connect the seeker with the rest of the missile are carefully designed to avoid inducing motion or drag on the seeker platform. Tracker The tracker is key to guidance/control for an eventual hit. The signals from each of the 4,096 detector elements (64×64 pixel array) in the seeker are passed to the FPAreadout integrated circuitswhich reads then creates avideo framethat is sent to the tracker system for processing. By comparing the individual frames, the tracker determines the need to correct so as to keep the missile on target. The tracker must be able to determine which portion of the image represents the target. The target is initially defined by the gunner, who places a configurable frame around it. The tracker then usesalgorithmsto compare that region of the frame based on image, geometric, and movement data to the new image frames being sent from the seeker, similar topattern recognitionalgorithms. At the end of each frame, the reference is updated. The tracker is able to keep track of the target even though the seeker's point of view can change radically in the course of flight. The missile is equipped with four movable tail fins and eight fixed wings at mid-body. To guide the missile, the tracker locates the target in the current frame and compares this position with the aim point. If this position is off center, the tracker computes a correction and passes it to theguidance system, which makes the appropriate adjustments to the four movable tail fins. This is anautopilot. To guide the missile, the system has sensors that check that the fins are positioned as requested. If not, the deviation is sent back to the controller for further adjustment. This is aclosed-loop controller. There are three stages in the flight managed by the tracker: 1) an initial phase just after launch; 2) a mid-flight phase that lasts for most of the flight; and 3) a terminal phase in which the tracker selects the most effective point of impact. With guidance algorithms, the autopilot uses data from the seeker and tracker, to determine when to transition the missile from one phase of flight to another. Depending on whether the missile is in top attack or direct attack mode, the profile of the flight can change significantly. The top attack mode requires the missile to climb sharply after launch and cruise at high altitude, then dive on the top of the target (curveball). In direct attack mode (fastball), the missile cruises at a lower altitude directly at the target. The flight path takes into account the range to the target, calculated by the guidance unit. Training A great familiarity of each control and swift operation needs to be achieved before the unit can be deployed efficiently. American troops are trained on the system at theInfantry SchoolinFort Benning,Georgia, for two weeks. The soldiers are taught basic care and maintenance, operation and abilities, assembly and disassembly, and the positions it can be fired from. Soldiers are taught to distinguish between a variety of vehicle types, even when only a rough outline is visible. The soldiers must accomplish several timed drills with set standards, before being qualified to operate the system in both training and wartime situations. There are smaller training programs set up on most army bases that instruct soldiers on the proper use of the system. At these courses, the training program might be changed in small ways. This is most commonly only minor requirements left out due to budget, the number of soldiers vs. simulation equipment, and available time and resources. Both types of training courses have required proficiency levels that must be met before the soldier can operate the system in training exercises or wartime missions. Combat history The Javelin was used by the US Army, the US Marine Corps and the Australian Special Forces in the2003 invasion of Iraq,on IraqiType 69andLion of Babylon tanks. During theBattle of Debecka Pass, aplatoonofUS Army Special Forcesoperators equipped with Javelins destroyed twoT-55tanks, eight armored personnel carriers, and four troop transport trucks. During theWar in Afghanistan, the Javelin was used effectively incounter-insurgency(COIN) operations. Initially, soldiers perceived the weapon as unsuitable for COIN due to its destructive power, but trained gunners were able to make precision shots against enemy positions with little collateral damage.The Javelin filled a niche in US weapons systems againstDShK heavy machine gunsandB-10 recoilless rifles—weapons like theAT4and theM203grenade launcher were powerful enough, but the ~300 m range was insufficient. Conversely, while medium and heavy machine guns and automatic grenade launchers had the range, they lacked the power, and heavy mortars, which had both a good range and more than enough power, were not accurate enough. The Javelin had enough range, power, and accuracy for dismounted infantry to counter standoff engagement tactics employed by enemy weapons. With good locks, the missile is most effective against vehicles, caves, fortified positions, and individual personnel. If enemy forces were inside a cave, a Javelin fired into the mouth of the cave would destroy it from the inside, which was not possible from the outside using heavy mortars. The psychological effect of the sound of a Javelin firing, sometimes caused insurgents to disengage and flee their position. Even when not firing, the Javelin's CLU was commonly used as a man-portable surveillance system. In February 2016, during theal-Shaddadi offensiveof theSyrian Civil War, a Javelin was used to blow up an attacking suicidecar bomb. In 2016, claims were posted on social media that the Syrian KurdishPeople's Protection Units(YPG) may have received Javelin missiles.By June 2018, it was still unconfirmed if the YPG were fielding Javelin missiles, althoughUS Special Forcesunits were seen operating them in support ofSyrian Democratic Forces(SDF) advances during theDeir ez-Zor campaignin the MiddleEuphratesRiver Valley. In June 2019, forces of the LibyanGovernment of National Accordcaptured four Javelins from the forces of theLibyan National Army. These missiles had been provided by the UAE. During the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, NATO provided thousands of Javelins to Ukraine, where they proved highly effective. Javelins have been responsible for a part of the hundreds of Russian armored vehicles that Ukraine has destroyed, captured or damaged.An image dubbed \"Saint Javelin\", which shows theVirgin Maryholding a Javelin launcher in the style of anEastern Orthodox church painting, gained social media attention, and soon became a symbol of the Ukrainian resistance against the Russian invasion.The Pentagon claimed that of the first 112 Javelins fired by the Ukrainians since the start of the war, 100 missiles had hit their target. An unknown number of Javelin launch tube assemblies were captured by the Russian armed forces during the conflict. It is unclear if any of the captured launchers contained live rounds, or were simply tubes discarded after being used.Iranreportedly received an example of the Javelin missile fromRussia, along with other Western munitions captured inUkraine, as part of a larger deal forShahedandMohajerdrones. In April 2022 commentary from theCenter for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), concerns were raised over the US stock of Javelin missiles. According to CSIS, the US had used close to one-third of its Javelin missiles. 7,000 had been supplied, with the United States buying Javelins at the rate of about 1,000 a year. The maximum production rate is 6,480 a year, but it would likely take a year or more to reach that level. Orders take 32 months to deliver. The report concluded that it would take about three or four years to replace the missiles that had been sent to Ukraine. The missile production rate could be increased greatly with a national procurement effort. In May 2022, Lockheed Martin CEO James Taiclet stated that Lockheed would nearly double the production of Javelins to 4,000 a year. Ukrainian officials estimated that up to 500 missiles per day were being used in the early days of the war.In August 2022, the US committed to sending an additional 1,000 Javelin missiles to Ukraine. Variants The Javelin Weapon System has been incrementally upgraded, resulting in a number of variants and production blocks. The LWCLU does not yet have a variant designation. Operators Current operators Future Failed bids See also Comparable fire-and-forget systems Comparablebeam ridingsystems Comparable shorter range fire-and-forget systems Related development References External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/9K38_Igla (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b933d7fd0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/FIM-92_Stinger (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b935a3d30>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "FGM-148 Javelin TheFGM-148 Javelin, orAdvanced Anti-Tank Weapon System-Medium(AAWS-M), is an American-mademan-portable anti-tank systemin service since 1996 and continuously upgraded. It replaced theM47 Dragonanti-tank missile in US service.Itsfire-and-forgetdesign features automaticinfrared guidance, allowing the user to seek cover immediately after launch, in contrast towire-guidedsystems like the system used by the Dragon, which require a user to guide the weapon throughout the engagement. The Javelin'shigh-explosive anti-tank(HEAT) warhead can defeat modern tanks bytop-down attack, hitting them from above, where their armor is thinnest, and is useful against fortifications in a direct attack flight. The Javelin uses a tandem charge warhead to circumvent an enemy tank'sexplosive reactive armor(ERA), which would normally render HEAT warheads ineffective. As of 2019, according to claims by the manufacturer, the Javelin had been used in around five thousand successful engagements.By August 2021, fifty", "August 2021, fifty thousand missiles had been delivered to customers. The weapon made its combat debut inIraq in 2003and rose to prominence in theRusso-Ukrainian War, where it saw extensive usage by Ukrainian forces during the early stages of the2022 Russian invasion. Overview Javelin is a fire-and-forget missile with lock-on before launch and automatic self-guidance. The system employs atop attackflight profile against armored vehicles, attacking the usually thinner top armor, but can also make a direct attack, for use against buildings, targets too close for top attack, targets under obstructions, andhelicopters. It can reach a peak altitude of 150 m (490 ft) in top attack mode and 60 m (200 ft) in direct attack mode. Initial versions had a range of 2,000 m (6,600 ft), later increased to 2,500 m (8,200 ft). It is equipped with animaging infraredseeker. Thetandem warheadis fitted with twoshaped charges: a precursor warhead to detonate any explosivereactive armorand a primary warhead to penetrate base armor.", "base armor. In what is known as a \"soft launcharrangement,\" the missile is ejected from the launcher to a safe distance from the operator before the mainrocket motorsignite.This makes it harder to identify the launcher, though backblast from the launch tube still poses a hazard to nearby personnel. The firing team may move as soon as the \"fire-and-forget\" missile has been launched or immediately prepare to fire on their next target.The missile system is sometimes carried by two soldiers consisting of a gunner and an ammunition bearer, although one soldier can fire it. While the gunner aims and fires the missile, the ammunition bearer scans for prospective targets, watches for threats like enemy vehicles or troops and ensures that personnel and obstacles are clear of the missile's launch backblast. Development In 1983, theUnited States Armyintroduced its AAWS-M (Advanced Anti-Tank Weapon System—Medium) requirement. In 1985, the AAWS-M was approved for development.In August 1986, the proof-of-principle (POP)", "(POP) phase of development began, with aUS$30 million contract awarded for technical proof demonstrators:Ford Aerospace(laser-beam riding),Hughes Aircraft Missile System Group(imaging infrared combined with a fiber-optic cable link) andTexas Instruments(imaging infrared).In late 1988, the POP phase ended. In June 1989, the full-scale development contract was awarded to a joint venture of Texas Instruments andMartin Marietta, nowRaytheonandLockheed Martin.The AAWS-M received the designation of FGM-148. In April 1991, the first test-flight of the Javelin succeeded, and in March 1993, the first test-firing from the launcher succeeded. In 1994, low levels of production were authorized,and the first Javelins were deployed with US Army units in 1996. Test and evaluation The General Accounting Office (GAO), since renamedGovernment Accountability Office, published a report questioning the adequacy of Javelin testing. The report, titled \"Army Acquisition—Javelin Is Not Ready for Multiyear Procurement\", opposed", "opposed entering into full-rate production in 1997 and expressed the need for further operational testing due to the many redesigns undergone. In 1995,Secretary of DefenseWilliam Perryhad set forth five new operational test initiatives The late-phase development of the Javelin retroactively benefited from the then-new operational test initiatives set forth by the Secretary of Defense, as well as a further test conducted as a consequence of the Army's response to the GAO report. Before the Milestone III decision,and before it was fielded to the 3rd Battalion of the75th Ranger RegimentatFort Benning(and laterSpecial Forces,airborne,air assault, andlight infantryunits), the Javelin was subjected to limited parts of the five operational test and evaluation initiatives, as well as a portability operational test program, an additional test phase of the so-called Product Verification Test,which included live firings with the full-rate configuration weapon. TheInstitute for Defense Analysesand the Defense", "the Defense Department's Director of Operational Test and Evaluation became involved in three development test activities, including The results of these efforts detected problems, training included, and corrected significant problems, leading to modified test plans, savings in test costs, and GAO satisfaction. Qualification testing The Javelin Environmental Test System (JETS) is a mobile test set for Javelin All-Up-Round (AUR) and the Command Launch Unit (CLU). It can be configured to functionally test the AUR or the CLU individually or both units in a mated tactical mode. This mobile unit may be repositioned at the various environmental testing facilities. The mobile system is used for all phases of Javelin qualification testing. There is a non-mobile JETS used for stand-alone CLU testing. This system is equipped with an environmental chamber and is primarily used for Product Verification Testing (PRVT). Capabilities include: Javelin CLU testing; Javelin AUR testing; Javelin Mated Mode testing; Javelin", "testing; Javelin testing in various environmental conditions; and CLU PRVT. The all-up-round test sets include: extreme temperature testing; missile tracker testing (track rate error, tracking sensitivity); seeker/focal plane arraytesting (cool-down time, dead/defective pixels, seeker identification); pneumatic leakage; continuity measurements; ready time; and guidance sections (guidance commands, fin movement). Components The system consists of three main components: the Command Launch Unit, the Launch Tube Assembly and the missile itself. Each missile contains 250microprocessors. Command launch unit The gunner carries a reusablecommand launch unit(CLU, pronounced \"clue\"), which is the targeting component of the two-part system. The CLU has three views, which are used to find, target, and fire the missile and may be used separately from the missile as a portablethermal sight. Infantry personnel are no longer required to stay in constant contact witharmored personnel carriersandtankswith thermal sights. This", "sights. This makes them more flexible and able to perceive threats they would not otherwise be able to detect. In 2006, a contract was awarded to Toyon Research Corporation to begin development of an upgrade to the CLU, enabling the transmission of target image andGPSlocation data to other units. Day field of view The first view is a 4× magnification day view. It is mainly used to scan areas in visible light during daylight operation. It is also used to scan immediately before sunrise and after sunset, when it is difficult to focus the thermal image due to the natural rapid heating or cooling of the environment. Wide field of view The second view is the 4× magnification night view, awide field of view(WFOV) which shows the gunner a thermal representation of the area viewed. This is the primary view used, due to its ability to detectinfrared radiationand find both troops and vehicles otherwise too well hidden to detect. The screen shows a \"green scale\" view which can be adjusted in both contrast and", "both contrast and brightness. The inside of the CLU is cooled by a smallrefrigerationunit attached to the sight. This greatly increases the sensitivity of the thermal imaging capability, since the temperature inside the sight is much lower than that of the objects it detects. Due to the sensitivity this causes, the gunner is able to \"focus\" the CLU to show a detailed image of the area being viewed, by showing temperature differences of only a few degrees. The gunner operates this view with the use of two hand stations similar to thecontrol stickfound in moderncockpits. It is from this view that the gunner focuses the image and determines the area that gives the best heat signature on which to lock the missile. Narrow field of view The third field of view is a 12× thermal sight, used to better identify the target vehicle. Once the CLU has been focused in WFOV, the gunner may switch to anarrow field of view(NFOV) for target recognition before activating theseeker FOV. Once the best target area is chosen, the", "area is chosen, the gunner presses one of the two triggers and is automatically switched to the fourth view, theseeker FOV, which is a 9x magnification thermal view. This process is similar to the automatic zoom feature on most modern cameras. This view is available along with the previously mentioned views, all of which may be accessed with the press of a button. However, it is not as commonly-used as a high magnification view, because it takes longer to scan a wide area. This view allows the gunner to further aim the missile and set the guidance system housed inside it. It is when in this view that information is passed from the CLU, through the connection electronics of the Launch Tube Assembly, and into the missile's guidance system. If the gunner decides not to fire the missile immediately, they can cycle back to the other views without firing. When the gunner is satisfied with the target picture, a second trigger is pulled to establish a \"lock\". The missile launches after a short delay. Lightweight CLU", "Lightweight CLU The US Army developed a new CLU as an improvement over the Block I version. The new CLU is 70% smaller, 40% lighter and has a 50% battery life increase. Features of the lightweight CLU are: a long-waveinfrared(IR)thermographic camera; a high-definition display with improved resolution; integrated handgrips; a five megapixel color camera; a laser point that can be seen visibly or through IR; a far target locator using GPS, a laser rangefinder, a heading sensor, and modernized electronics.The LWCLU has demonstrated the ability to fire aFIM-92 Stingeranti-aircraft missile, using its superior optics to identify and destroy smallunmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs). The Javelin Joint Venture received its first low-rate production contract for the LWCLU in June 2022. 200 units will be delivered before full-rate production is expected to initiate in 2023, which will increase the production rate to 600 per year. First delivery is slated for 2025. Launch Tube Assembly Both the gunner and the ammunition", "and the ammunition bearer carry the Launch Tube Assembly, a disposable tube that houses the missile and protects the missile from harsh environments. The tube has built-in electronics and a locking hinge system that makes attachment and detachment of the missile to and from the Command Launch Unit a quick and simple process. Missile Warhead The Javelin missile's tandem warhead is ahigh-explosive anti-tank(HEAT) type.This round utilizes an explosiveshaped chargeto create a stream ofsuperplasticallydeformed metal, formed from trumpet-shaped metallic liners. The result is a narrow high velocity particle stream that can penetrate armor. The Javelin counters the advent ofexplosive reactive armor(ERA). ERA boxes or tiles lying over a vehicle's main armor explode when struck by a warhead. This explosion does not harm the vehicle's main armor, but causes steel panels to fly across the path of a HEAT round's narrow particle stream, disrupting its focus and leaving it unable to cut through the main armor. The Javelin", "armor. The Javelin uses two shaped-charge warheads in tandem. The weak, smaller diameter HEAT precursor charge detonates the ERA, clearing the way for the much larger diameter HEAT warhead, which then penetrates the target's primary armor. A two-layeredmolybdenumliner is used for the precursor, and a copper liner for the main warhead. To protect the main charge from the explosive blast, shock, and debris caused by the impact of the missile's nose and the detonation of the precursor charge, a blast shield is used between the two charges. This was the firstcomposite materialblast shield and the first that had a hole through the middle to provide a jet that is less diffuse. A newer main charge liner produces a higher velocity jet. While making the warhead smaller, this change makes it more effective, leaving more room for propellant for the main rocket motor, increasing the missile's range. Electronic arming and fusing, called Electronic Safe Arming and Fire (ESAF), is present on the Javelin. The ESAF system", "The ESAF system enables the firing and arming process to proceed, while imposing a series of safety checks on the missile. ESAF cues the launch motor after the trigger is pulled. When the missile reaches a key acceleration point, indicating that it has cleared the launch tube, the ESAF initiates a second arming signal to fire the flight motor. After another check on missile conditions (target lock check), ESAF initiates final arming to enable the warheads for detonation upon target impact. When the missile strikes the target, ESAF enables the tandem warhead function, to provide appropriate time between the detonation of the precursor charge and thedetonationof the main charge. Though the Javelin's tandem HEAT warhead has proven efficient at destroying tanks, most threats it was employed against in Iraq and Afghanistan were weapon crews and teams, buildings, and lightly armored and unarmored vehicles. To make the Javelin more useful in these scenarios, theAviation and Missile Research, Development, and", "Development, and Engineering Centerdeveloped a multi-purpose warhead (MPWH) for the FGM-148F. While it is still lethal against tanks, the new warhead has a naturally fragmenting steel warhead case, that doubles the effectiveness against personnel due to enhanced fragmentation. The MPWH does not add weight or cost and has a lighter composite missile mid-body to enable drop-in replacement to existing Javelin tubes.The Javelin F-model was planned to begin deliveries in early 2020.The improved missile design, along with new lighter CLU with an improved target tracker,entered production in May 2020. Propulsion Most rocket launchers require a large clear area behind the gunner to prevent injury from backblast. To address this shortcoming without increasing recoil to an unacceptable level, the Javelin system uses asoft launchmechanism. A small launch motor using conventional rocketpropellantejects the missile from the launcher, but stops burning before the missile clears the tube. The flight motor is ignited after", "is ignited after a delay to allow sufficient clearance from the operator. To save weight, the two motors are integrated with aburst discbetween them. It is designed to tolerate the pressure of the launch motor from one side, but to easily rupture from the other when the flight motor ignites. The motors use a common nozzle. The flight motor's exhaust flows through the expended launch motor. Because the launch motor casing remains in place, an unusual ring-shaped igniter is used to start it. A normal igniter would be blown out of the back of the missile when the flight motor ignited and could injure the operator. Since the launch motor uses a standard NATO propellant,the presence of lead beta-resorcylate as a burn rate modifier causes an amount ofleadandlead oxideto be present in the exhaust. Gunners are asked to hold their breath after firing for their safety. In the event that the launch motor malfunctions and the launch tube is overpressurized—for example, if the rocket gets stuck—the Javelin missile", "Javelin missile includes a pressure release system to prevent the launcher from exploding. The launch motor is held in place by a set ofshear pins, which fracture if the pressure rises too high. They allow the motor to be pushed out of the back of the tube. Seeker As afire-and-forgetmissile, after launch the missile has to be able to track and destroy its target without assistance from the gunner. This is done by coupling an onboard imaging IR system, separate from CLU imaging system, with an onboard tracking system. The gunner uses the CLU's IR system to find and identify the target, then switches to the missile's independent IR system to set a track box around the target and establish a lock. The gunner places brackets around the image for locking. The seeker stays focused on the target's image, continuing to track it as the target moves or the missile's flight path alters, or attack angles change. The seeker consists of three main components:focal plane arrayimage sensor, cooling and calibration, and", "calibration, and stabilization. Focal plane array (FPA) The seeker assembly is encased in a dome that is transparent to long-waveinfraredradiation. The IR radiation passes through the dome and then through lenses that focus the energy. The IR energy is reflected by mirrors on to the FPA. The seeker is a two-dimensional staring FPA of 64×64MerCad(HgCdTe) detector elements.The FPA processes the signals from the detectors and relays a signal to the missile's tracker. The staring array is a photo-voltaic device where the incident photons stimulate electrons and are stored, pixel by pixel, inreadout integrated circuitsattached at the rear of the detector. These electrons are converted to voltages that are multiplexed out of the ROIC on a frame-by-frame basis. Cooling/calibration To function effectively, the FPA must be cooled and calibrated. In other applications, a CLU's IR detectors are cooled using aDewar flaskand a closed-cycleStirling engine, but there is insufficient space in the missile for a similar", "for a similar solution. Prior to launch, a cooler mounted on the outside of the launch tube activates the electrical systems in the missile, and supplies cold gas from aJoule-Thomson expanderto the missile detector assembly, while the missile is still in the launch tube. When the missile is fired, this external connection is broken and coolant gas is supplied internally by an onboardargongas bottle. The gas is held in a small bottle at high pressure and contains enough coolant for the duration of the flight of approximately 19 seconds. The seeker is calibrated using achopper wheel. This device is a fan of six blades: five black blades with low IR emissivity and one semi-reflective blade. These blades spin in front of the seeker optics in a synchronized fashion such that the FPA is continually provided with points of reference in addition to viewing the scene. These reference points allow the FPA to reduce noise introduced by response variations in the detector elements. Stabilization The platform on which", "platform on which the seeker is mounted must be stabilized with respect to the motion of the missile body, and the seeker must be moved to stay aligned with the target. The stabilization system must cope with rapid acceleration, up/down and lateral movements. This is done by agimbalsystem,accelerometers,spinning-mass gyros(orMEMS), and motors to drive changes in position of the platform. The system is basically anautopilot. Information from the gyros is fed to the guidance electronics, which drive a torque motor attached to the seeker platform to keep the seeker aligned with the target. The wires that connect the seeker with the rest of the missile are carefully designed to avoid inducing motion or drag on the seeker platform. Tracker The tracker is key to guidance/control for an eventual hit. The signals from each of the 4,096 detector elements (64×64 pixel array) in the seeker are passed to the FPAreadout integrated circuitswhich reads then creates avideo framethat is sent to the tracker system for", "tracker system for processing. By comparing the individual frames, the tracker determines the need to correct so as to keep the missile on target. The tracker must be able to determine which portion of the image represents the target. The target is initially defined by the gunner, who places a configurable frame around it. The tracker then usesalgorithmsto compare that region of the frame based on image, geometric, and movement data to the new image frames being sent from the seeker, similar topattern recognitionalgorithms. At the end of each frame, the reference is updated. The tracker is able to keep track of the target even though the seeker's point of view can change radically in the course of flight. The missile is equipped with four movable tail fins and eight fixed wings at mid-body. To guide the missile, the tracker locates the target in the current frame and compares this position with the aim point. If this position is off center, the tracker computes a correction and passes it to theguidance", "it to theguidance system, which makes the appropriate adjustments to the four movable tail fins. This is anautopilot. To guide the missile, the system has sensors that check that the fins are positioned as requested. If not, the deviation is sent back to the controller for further adjustment. This is aclosed-loop controller. There are three stages in the flight managed by the tracker: 1) an initial phase just after launch; 2) a mid-flight phase that lasts for most of the flight; and 3) a terminal phase in which the tracker selects the most effective point of impact. With guidance algorithms, the autopilot uses data from the seeker and tracker, to determine when to transition the missile from one phase of flight to another. Depending on whether the missile is in top attack or direct attack mode, the profile of the flight can change significantly. The top attack mode requires the missile to climb sharply after launch and cruise at high altitude, then dive on the top of the target (curveball). In direct attack", "In direct attack mode (fastball), the missile cruises at a lower altitude directly at the target. The flight path takes into account the range to the target, calculated by the guidance unit. Training A great familiarity of each control and swift operation needs to be achieved before the unit can be deployed efficiently. American troops are trained on the system at theInfantry SchoolinFort Benning,Georgia, for two weeks. The soldiers are taught basic care and maintenance, operation and abilities, assembly and disassembly, and the positions it can be fired from. Soldiers are taught to distinguish between a variety of vehicle types, even when only a rough outline is visible. The soldiers must accomplish several timed drills with set standards, before being qualified to operate the system in both training and wartime situations. There are smaller training programs set up on most army bases that instruct soldiers on the proper use of the system. At these courses, the training program might be changed in small", "be changed in small ways. This is most commonly only minor requirements left out due to budget, the number of soldiers vs. simulation equipment, and available time and resources. Both types of training courses have required proficiency levels that must be met before the soldier can operate the system in training exercises or wartime missions. Combat history The Javelin was used by the US Army, the US Marine Corps and the Australian Special Forces in the2003 invasion of Iraq,on IraqiType 69andLion of Babylon tanks. During theBattle of Debecka Pass, aplatoonofUS Army Special Forcesoperators equipped with Javelins destroyed twoT-55tanks, eight armored personnel carriers, and four troop transport trucks. During theWar in Afghanistan, the Javelin was used effectively incounter-insurgency(COIN) operations. Initially, soldiers perceived the weapon as unsuitable for COIN due to its destructive power, but trained gunners were able to make precision shots against enemy positions with little collateral damage.The", "damage.The Javelin filled a niche in US weapons systems againstDShK heavy machine gunsandB-10 recoilless rifles—weapons like theAT4and theM203grenade launcher were powerful enough, but the ~300 m range was insufficient. Conversely, while medium and heavy machine guns and automatic grenade launchers had the range, they lacked the power, and heavy mortars, which had both a good range and more than enough power, were not accurate enough. The Javelin had enough range, power, and accuracy for dismounted infantry to counter standoff engagement tactics employed by enemy weapons. With good locks, the missile is most effective against vehicles, caves, fortified positions, and individual personnel. If enemy forces were inside a cave, a Javelin fired into the mouth of the cave would destroy it from the inside, which was not possible from the outside using heavy mortars. The psychological effect of the sound of a Javelin firing, sometimes caused insurgents to disengage and flee their position. Even when not firing, the", "not firing, the Javelin's CLU was commonly used as a man-portable surveillance system. In February 2016, during theal-Shaddadi offensiveof theSyrian Civil War, a Javelin was used to blow up an attacking suicidecar bomb. In 2016, claims were posted on social media that the Syrian KurdishPeople's Protection Units(YPG) may have received Javelin missiles.By June 2018, it was still unconfirmed if the YPG were fielding Javelin missiles, althoughUS Special Forcesunits were seen operating them in support ofSyrian Democratic Forces(SDF) advances during theDeir ez-Zor campaignin the MiddleEuphratesRiver Valley. In June 2019, forces of the LibyanGovernment of National Accordcaptured four Javelins from the forces of theLibyan National Army. These missiles had been provided by the UAE. During the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, NATO provided thousands of Javelins to Ukraine, where they proved highly effective. Javelins have been responsible for a part of the hundreds of Russian armored vehicles that Ukraine has", "that Ukraine has destroyed, captured or damaged.An image dubbed \"Saint Javelin\", which shows theVirgin Maryholding a Javelin launcher in the style of anEastern Orthodox church painting, gained social media attention, and soon became a symbol of the Ukrainian resistance against the Russian invasion.The Pentagon claimed that of the first 112 Javelins fired by the Ukrainians since the start of the war, 100 missiles had hit their target. An unknown number of Javelin launch tube assemblies were captured by the Russian armed forces during the conflict. It is unclear if any of the captured launchers contained live rounds, or were simply tubes discarded after being used.Iranreportedly received an example of the Javelin missile fromRussia, along with other Western munitions captured inUkraine, as part of a larger deal forShahedandMohajerdrones. In April 2022 commentary from theCenter for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), concerns were raised over the US stock of Javelin missiles. According to CSIS, the US", "to CSIS, the US had used close to one-third of its Javelin missiles. 7,000 had been supplied, with the United States buying Javelins at the rate of about 1,000 a year. The maximum production rate is 6,480 a year, but it would likely take a year or more to reach that level. Orders take 32 months to deliver. The report concluded that it would take about three or four years to replace the missiles that had been sent to Ukraine. The missile production rate could be increased greatly with a national procurement effort. In May 2022, Lockheed Martin CEO James Taiclet stated that Lockheed would nearly double the production of Javelins to 4,000 a year. Ukrainian officials estimated that up to 500 missiles per day were being used in the early days of the war.In August 2022, the US committed to sending an additional 1,000 Javelin missiles to Ukraine. Variants The Javelin Weapon System has been incrementally upgraded, resulting in a number of variants and production blocks. The LWCLU does not yet have a variant", "yet have a variant designation. Operators Current operators Future Failed bids See also Comparable fire-and-forget systems Comparablebeam ridingsystems Comparable shorter range fire-and-forget systems Related development References External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/9K38_Igla (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b933d7fd0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/FIM-92_Stinger (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b935a3d30>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
I'm thinking of a man whose first name is Hart. He acted in a miniseries (based on a historical novel about WW2 with three words in its title) by an author who also wrote a book about a kid with the last name of Bookbinder.
Hart Bochner
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Boy:_The_Adventures_of_Herbie_Bookbinder
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Wouk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Remembrance_(miniseries)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_Bochner
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Boy:_The_Adventures_of_Herbie_Bookbinder', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Wouk', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Remembrance_(miniseries)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_Bochner']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Boy:_The_Adventures_of_Herbie_Bookbinder", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Wouk", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Remembrance_(miniseries", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_Bochner" ]
[ "City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinderis a 1948 novel byHerman Woukfirst published bySimon & Schuster.The second novel written by Wouk,City Boywas largely ignored by the reading public until the success ofThe Caine Mutinyresurrected interest in Wouk's writing. LikeThe Caine Mutiny, the novel is semi-autobiographical in setting and situations, if not protagonist. In 1969, the novel was re-issued, with paperback editions in 1980 and 1992, and according to Wouk was translated into 11 languages.John P. Marquand, in a preface to the 1969 20th-anniversary release, likened Herbie Bookbinder to a city-dwellingHuckleberry FinnorTom Sawyer. In many of his novels Wouk evinces through his characters a love ofDickens, particularly in use of language to setmood. InCity Boyhe devises humorous twists of language to set a less-than-serious tone throughout this coming-of-age story. Also like Dickens, Wouk manages a large cast of characters, including more than a dozen adults (and a one-of-a-kind horse named Clever Sam) woven in-and-out of a narrative about children, with depictions that ring true both in description and actions. Plot Set in the spring and summer of 1928,City Boyspins the tale of an 11-year-old Jewish boy from the Bronx, New York. The novel first follows Herbert Bookbinder through the final days of school at New YorkPublic School50, and then through a summer spent at Camp Manitou, a summer camp in the Berkshire Mountains operated by his school's principal. Herbie's city world is one of endless daydreams and small urban pleasures: playing in empty lots, going to the movies on Saturday, arguing with friends around a forbidden campfire, feasting on \"fraps\" (in this context, a fancy sundae) in Mr. Borowsky's candy store, and going out to dinner at Golden's Restaurant with his dad and his dad's business partners. Herbie is an exceptionally bright but fat little boy, a seventh grader and a star pupil. Although a poor athlete, Herbie yearns to be a \"regular guy\" among his schoolboy peers and constantly struggles against the consequences of his own quick wit and natural clumsiness with his rival, Lennie Krieger, the son of the business partner of Herbie's father, Jacob Bookbinder. Both blessed and cursed with a highly-active imagination, Herbie is also on the verge of adolescence, and the story revolves around his continuing quest to win the heart of the fickle, red-haired Lucille Glass. Herbie, his parents, and his thirteen-year-old sister, Felicia, dwell in an aging Homer Avenue apartment house. Jacob Bookbinder is founder and part owner of an industrial ice-making plant, known to Herbie and his cousin Cliff Block as The Place, a location that plays both a significant role in Herbie's fate and an adult sub-plot that frames the climax of the story. Herbie contrives to have himself (and his sister, his cousin Cliff Block, and his rival Lennie) sent to Camp Manitou (run by Mr. Gauss, the principal of P.S. 50, as a source of summer income) when he learns that Lucille Glass will be there. The second half of the novel skewers the summer camp scene of the 1920s even as it sets up a succession of abject failures and spectacular successes for Herbie. Herbie and Cliff contrive to burglarize The Place to finance a well-intended camp project, and this crime is the device by which all the subplots come together in Dickensian fashion. Characters Students and teachers at P.S. 50 Adults Campers at Camp Manitou Quotes \"The small stout boy reviewed several incidents of the day in his mind: concrete against his nose, jeers at his black felt beard, 'General Garbage,' and the recent threat to render his face concave.\" \"It has gone down among the teachers of P.S.50 as one of the great unsolved crimes of pupil cunning. Strange! Teachers set themselves up to be wondrous wise—yet to this day it has not occurred to one of them that 'outfielder' is adactyl.\" \"Like a sailor embarked in a hell ship, like a policeman assigned to a tunnel, like a priest sent to a squalid settlement in the fever belt of India, Herbie Bookbinder was committed beyond hope of release to a summer in Bunk Thirteen.\" \"After a short silence, conversation was resumed on other topics. Herbie was noticeably shouldered out of the talk. He had committed that breach of manners, unforgivable among adults as well as among boys: he had known more than the leader.\" \"Nobody, least of all Herbie, overlooked the significance of his given name repeated twice by the captain. It fell sweetly on the fat boy's ears. The speaking of a name can be the conferring of an award above gold medals. Herbie missed the fireworks, but he never regretted them. From that day he was 'Herbie' to all the boys in his bunk except Lennie. Outside the bunk, however, Herbie's designation was fixed. First impressions are hard to change. He had been publicly pilloried on the train as General Garbage, and General Garbage he remained all summer. And if at the age of seventy he should run into a seventy-one year old gaffer formerly of Bunk Thirteen, he should be remembered, if at all, as General Garbage.\" \"A lonesome, quiet situation, you might say, yet he had plenty of company. Misery sat at the fat boy's right hand, and Shame at the left; and they made the morning mighty lively for Herbie between them.\" Adaptations The film rights toCity Boywere purchased byColumbia Pictures\"for a small payment\"under the working titleThe Romantic Age. It became the 1951 filmHer First Romance, with the character of Herbie Bookbinder changed into a non-Jewish teenaged girl played byMargaret O'Brien(with a brother named Herbie), but the plot elements largely remained the same. Title variations There has been some confusion regarding the title of the book. The first edition of the book had the title listed asThe City Boyon the title page, with the subtitle:The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder and His Cousin, Cliff. When the 20th anniversary edition was issued (which was issued 21 years after the original publication date), the title was shortened toCity Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder. The first edition ofThe Caine MutinyusedCity Boyon the back flap of the dust jacket, butThe City Boyon the back panel of the dust jacket. The back panel was shortened toCity Boyin subsequent printings. References", "Herman Wouk Herman Wouk(/woʊk/WOHK; May 27, 1915 – May 17, 2019) was an American author. He published fifteen novels, many of themhistorical fictionsuch asThe Caine Mutiny(1951), for which he won thePulitzer Prizein fiction. Other well-known works includedThe Winds of WarandWar and Remembrance(historical novels aboutWorld War II), thebildungsromanMarjorie Morningstar; and non-fiction such asThis Is My God, an explanation ofJudaismfrom aModern Orthodoxperspective, written forJewishand non-Jewish readers. His books have been translated into 27 languages. The Washington Postdescribed Wouk, who cherished his privacy, as \"the reclusive dean of American historical novelists\".Historians, novelists, publishers, and critics who gathered at theLibrary of Congressin 1995 to mark his 80th birthday described him as an AmericanTolstoy. Wouk lived to 103. Early life Wouk was born inthe Bronx, New York, the second of three children born to Esther (née Levine) and Abraham Isaac Wouk, RussianJewishimmigrants from what is todayBelarus. His father toiled for many years to raise the family out of poverty before opening a successful laundry service. When Wouk was 13, his maternal grandfather, Mendel Leib Levine, came fromMinskto live with them and took charge of his grandson's Jewish education. Wouk was frustrated by the amount of time he was expected to spend studying theTalmud, but his father told him, \"if I were on my deathbed, and I had breath to say one more thing to you, I would say 'Study the Talmud.'\" Eventually Wouk took this advice to heart. After a brief period as a young adult during which he lived a secular life, he returned to religious practiceand Judaism became integral to both his personal life and his career.He said later that his grandfather and theUnited States Navywere the two most important influences on his life. After his childhood and adolescence in the Bronx, Wouk graduated from the original Townsend Harris High School inManhattan,Townsend Harris Hall Prep School, the elite publicprep schoolforCity College.In 1934 he earned aBachelor of Artsdegree at the age of 19 fromColumbia University, where he was a member of thePi Lambda Phifraternity.He also served as editor of the university's humor magazine,Jester, and wrote two of its annualVarsity Shows.He became a radio dramatist, working inDavid Freedman's \"Joke Factory\" and later withFred Allenfor five yearsand then, in 1941, for the United States government, writing radio spots to sellwar bonds. Career Military career Following theattack on Pearl Harbor, Wouk joined theU.S. Naval Reservein 1942 and served in thePacific TheaterduringWorld War II, an experience he later characterized as educational: \"I learned about machinery, I learned how men behaved under pressure, and I learned about Americans.\" Wouk served as an officer aboard two destroyerminesweepers(DMS), theUSSZaneandUSSSouthard, becomingexecutive officerof theSouthardwhile holding the rank oflieutenant. He participated in around six invasions and won a number ofbattle stars.Wouk was in theNew Georgia Campaign, theGilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, theMariana and Palau Islands campaign, and theBattle of Okinawa.In off-duty hours aboard ship he started writing a novel,Aurora Dawn, which he originally titledAurora Dawn; or, The True history of Andrew Reale, containing a faithful account of the Great Riot, together with the complete texts of Michael Wilde's oration and Father Stanfield's sermon.Wouk sent a copy of the opening chapters to philosophy professorIrwin Edman, under whom he studied at Columbia,who quoted a few pages verbatim to a New York editor. The result was a publisher's contract sent to Wouk's ship, then off the coast ofOkinawa.Aurora Dawnwas published in 1947 and became aBook of the Month Clubmain selection. Wouk finished his tour of duty in 1946. Writing career His second novel,City Boy, proved to be a commercial disappointment when it was published in 1948. Wouk claimedit was largely ignored amid the excitement overNorman Mailer's bestselling World War II novelThe Naked and the Dead. While writing his next novel, Wouk read each chapter to his wife as it was completed and she remarked that if they did not like this one, he had better take up another line of work (a line he would give to the character of the editor Jeannie Fry in his novelYoungblood Hawke, 1962). The novel,The Caine Mutiny(1951), won thePulitzer Prize for Fiction. A best-seller, drawn from his wartime experiences aboard minesweepers during World War II,The Caine Mutinywas adapted by the author into aBroadwayplay calledThe Caine Mutiny Court-Martial.In 1954Columbia Picturesreleased a film version of the book, withHumphrey Bogartportraying Lt. Commander Philip Francis Queeg, captain of the fictional USSCaine. Wouk's next novel afterThe Caine MutinywasMarjorie Morningstar(1955), which earned him aTimemagazine cover story. Three years laterWarner Bros.made it into amovie of the same namestarringNatalie Wood,Gene KellyandClaire Trevor. His next novel, apaperback, wasSlattery's Hurricane(1956), which he had written in 1948 as the basis for the screenplay for the film of the same name. Wouk's first work of non-fiction was 1959'sThis is My God: The Jewish Way of Life. In the 1960s, he wroteYoungblood Hawke(1962), a drama about the rise and fall of a young writer, modeled on the life ofThomas Wolfe; andDon't Stop the Carnival(1965), a comedy about escaping mid-life crisis by moving to theCaribbean, which was loosely based on Wouk's own experiences.Youngblood Hawkewas serialized inMcCall'smagazine from March to July 1962. Amovie versionstarredJames FranciscusandSuzanne Pleshetteand was released by Warner Brothers in 1964. In 1997Don't Stop the Carnivalwas turned into a short-lived musical byJimmy Buffett. In the 1970s, Wouk published two monumental novels,The Winds of War(1971) and a sequel,War and Remembrance(1978). He describedRemembrance, which included a devastating depiction ofthe Holocaust, as \"the main tale I have to tell.\" Both were made into successful television mini-series, the first in 1983 and the second in 1988. Although they were made several years apart, both were directed byDan Curtisand both starredRobert Mitchumas Captain Victor \"Pug\" Henry, the main character. The novels were historical fiction. Each had three layers: the story told from the viewpoints of Captain Henry and his circle of family and friends; a more or less straightforward historical account of the events of the war; and an analysis by a member ofAdolf Hitler's military staff, the insightful fictional General Armin von Roon. Wouk devoted \"thirteen years of extraordinary research and long, arduous composition\" to these two novels, notedArnold Beichman. \"The seriousness with which Wouk has dealt with the war can be seen in the prodigious amount of research, reading, travel and conferring with experts, the evidence of which may be found in the uncatalogued boxes at Columbia University\" that contain the author's papers. Inside, Outside(1985) was the story of four generations of aRussian Jewishfamily and its travails in Russia, the U.S. and Israel.The Hope(1993) and its sequel,The Glory(1994), were historical novels about the first 33 years ofIsrael's history. They were followed byThe Will to Live On: This is Our Heritage(2000), a whirlwind tour of Jewish history and sacred texts and companion volume toThis is My God. In 1995, Wouk was honored on his 80th birthday by theLibrary of Congresswith asymposiumon his career. In attendance wereDavid McCullough,Robert Caro, andDaniel Boorstin, among others. A Hole in Texas(2004) was a novel about the discovery of theHiggs boson, whose existence was proven nine years later.The Language God Talks: On Science and Religion(2010) was an exploration of the tension between religion and science which originated in a discussion Wouk had withtheoretical physicistRichard Feynman. The Lawgiver(2012) was anepistolary novelabout a contemporaryHollywoodwriter of a movie script aboutMoses, with the consulting help of a nonfictional character, Herman Wouk, a \"mulish ancient\" who became involved despite the strong misgivings of his wife. Wouk's memoir, titledSailor and Fiddler: Reflections of a 100-Year-Old Author, was published in January 2016 to mark his100th birthday.NPRcalled it \"a lovely coda to the career of a man who made American literature a kinder, smarter, better place.\" It was his last book. Daily journal Wouk kept a personal diary from 1937.On September 10, 2008, he presented his journals, numbering more than 100 volumes as of 2012, to theLibrary of Congressat a ceremony in which he was honored with the first Library of Congress Lifetime Achievement Award for the Writing of Fiction (now theLibrary of Congress Prize for American Fiction). Wouk often referred to his journals to check dates and facts in his writing, and he hesitated to let the originals out of his possession. A solution was negotiated and the entire set of volumes was scanned into digital format. Personal life and death In 1944 Wouk met Betty Sarah Brown, aPhi Beta Kappagraduate of theUniversity of Southern California, who was working as a personnel specialist in the navy while theZanewas undergoing repairs inSan Pedro, California. The two fell in love and after Wouk's ship went back to sea, Betty, who was born aProtestantand was raised inGrangeville, Idaho, began her study of Judaism and converted on her twenty-fifth birthday. They were married on December 10, 1945. After the birth of the first of their three children the following year, Wouk became a full-time writer to support his growing family. His first-born son, Abraham Isaac Wouk, was named after Wouk's late father, who had drowned in a swimming pool accident inCuernavaca, Mexico, shortly before his son's fifth birthday. Wouk later dedicatedWar and Remembranceto him with the Biblical words \"בלע המות לנצח – He will destroy death forever\" (Isaiah 25:8). Their second and third children were Iolanthe Woulff (born 1950 as Nathaniel Wouk, aPrinceton Universitygraduate and an author) and Joseph (born 1954, a Columbia graduate, an attorney, a film producer, and a writer who served in theIsraeli Navy).He had three grandchildren. The Wouks lived in New York,Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, where he wroteDon't Stop the Carnival,and at 3255 N Street N.W.in theGeorgetownsection ofWashington, D.C., where he researched and wroteThe Winds of WarandWar and Remembrance,before settling inPalm Springs, California. His wife, who served for decades as hisliterary agent, died in Palm Springs on March 17, 2011. \"I wrote nothing that was of the slightest consequence before I met Sarah,\" Wouk recalled after her death. \"I was a gag man for Fred Allen for five years. In his time, he was the greatest of the radio comedians. And jokes work for what they are but they're ephemeral. They just disappear. And that was the kind of thing I did up until the time that I met Sarah and we married. And I would say my literary career and my mature life both began with her.\" Wouk's brotherVictordied in 2005.His nephew,Alan I. Green, was a psychiatrist atDartmouth College. Wouk died in his sleep in his home in Palm Springs, California, on May 17, 2019, at the age of 103, ten days before his 104th birthday. Degrees Awards and honors Published works See also References Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/War_and_Remembrance_(miniseries (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92de5780>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Hart_Bochner (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9516bdf0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinderis a 1948 novel byHerman Woukfirst published bySimon & Schuster.The second novel written by Wouk,City Boywas largely ignored by the reading public until the success ofThe Caine Mutinyresurrected interest in Wouk's writing. LikeThe Caine Mutiny, the novel is semi-autobiographical in setting and situations, if not protagonist. In 1969, the novel was re-issued, with paperback editions in 1980 and 1992, and according to Wouk was translated into 11 languages.John P. Marquand, in a preface to the 1969 20th-anniversary release, likened Herbie Bookbinder to a city-dwellingHuckleberry FinnorTom Sawyer. In many of his novels Wouk evinces through his characters a love ofDickens, particularly in use of language to setmood. InCity Boyhe devises humorous twists of language to set a less-than-serious tone throughout this coming-of-age story. Also like Dickens, Wouk manages a large cast of characters, including more than a dozen adults", "than a dozen adults (and a one-of-a-kind horse named Clever Sam) woven in-and-out of a narrative about children, with depictions that ring true both in description and actions. Plot Set in the spring and summer of 1928,City Boyspins the tale of an 11-year-old Jewish boy from the Bronx, New York. The novel first follows Herbert Bookbinder through the final days of school at New YorkPublic School50, and then through a summer spent at Camp Manitou, a summer camp in the Berkshire Mountains operated by his school's principal. Herbie's city world is one of endless daydreams and small urban pleasures: playing in empty lots, going to the movies on Saturday, arguing with friends around a forbidden campfire, feasting on \"fraps\" (in this context, a fancy sundae) in Mr. Borowsky's candy store, and going out to dinner at Golden's Restaurant with his dad and his dad's business partners. Herbie is an exceptionally bright but fat little boy, a seventh grader and a star pupil. Although a poor athlete, Herbie yearns to be a", "yearns to be a \"regular guy\" among his schoolboy peers and constantly struggles against the consequences of his own quick wit and natural clumsiness with his rival, Lennie Krieger, the son of the business partner of Herbie's father, Jacob Bookbinder. Both blessed and cursed with a highly-active imagination, Herbie is also on the verge of adolescence, and the story revolves around his continuing quest to win the heart of the fickle, red-haired Lucille Glass. Herbie, his parents, and his thirteen-year-old sister, Felicia, dwell in an aging Homer Avenue apartment house. Jacob Bookbinder is founder and part owner of an industrial ice-making plant, known to Herbie and his cousin Cliff Block as The Place, a location that plays both a significant role in Herbie's fate and an adult sub-plot that frames the climax of the story. Herbie contrives to have himself (and his sister, his cousin Cliff Block, and his rival Lennie) sent to Camp Manitou (run by Mr. Gauss, the principal of P.S. 50, as a source of summer income)", "of summer income) when he learns that Lucille Glass will be there. The second half of the novel skewers the summer camp scene of the 1920s even as it sets up a succession of abject failures and spectacular successes for Herbie. Herbie and Cliff contrive to burglarize The Place to finance a well-intended camp project, and this crime is the device by which all the subplots come together in Dickensian fashion. Characters Students and teachers at P.S. 50 Adults Campers at Camp Manitou Quotes \"The small stout boy reviewed several incidents of the day in his mind: concrete against his nose, jeers at his black felt beard, 'General Garbage,' and the recent threat to render his face concave.\" \"It has gone down among the teachers of P.S.50 as one of the great unsolved crimes of pupil cunning. Strange! Teachers set themselves up to be wondrous wise—yet to this day it has not occurred to one of them that 'outfielder' is adactyl.\" \"Like a sailor embarked in a hell ship, like a policeman assigned to a tunnel, like a", "to a tunnel, like a priest sent to a squalid settlement in the fever belt of India, Herbie Bookbinder was committed beyond hope of release to a summer in Bunk Thirteen.\" \"After a short silence, conversation was resumed on other topics. Herbie was noticeably shouldered out of the talk. He had committed that breach of manners, unforgivable among adults as well as among boys: he had known more than the leader.\" \"Nobody, least of all Herbie, overlooked the significance of his given name repeated twice by the captain. It fell sweetly on the fat boy's ears. The speaking of a name can be the conferring of an award above gold medals. Herbie missed the fireworks, but he never regretted them. From that day he was 'Herbie' to all the boys in his bunk except Lennie. Outside the bunk, however, Herbie's designation was fixed. First impressions are hard to change. He had been publicly pilloried on the train as General Garbage, and General Garbage he remained all summer. And if at the age of seventy he should run into a", "should run into a seventy-one year old gaffer formerly of Bunk Thirteen, he should be remembered, if at all, as General Garbage.\" \"A lonesome, quiet situation, you might say, yet he had plenty of company. Misery sat at the fat boy's right hand, and Shame at the left; and they made the morning mighty lively for Herbie between them.\" Adaptations The film rights toCity Boywere purchased byColumbia Pictures\"for a small payment\"under the working titleThe Romantic Age. It became the 1951 filmHer First Romance, with the character of Herbie Bookbinder changed into a non-Jewish teenaged girl played byMargaret O'Brien(with a brother named Herbie), but the plot elements largely remained the same. Title variations There has been some confusion regarding the title of the book. The first edition of the book had the title listed asThe City Boyon the title page, with the subtitle:The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder and His Cousin, Cliff. When the 20th anniversary edition was issued (which was issued 21 years after the", "21 years after the original publication date), the title was shortened toCity Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder. The first edition ofThe Caine MutinyusedCity Boyon the back flap of the dust jacket, butThe City Boyon the back panel of the dust jacket. The back panel was shortened toCity Boyin subsequent printings. References", "Herman Wouk Herman Wouk(/woʊk/WOHK; May 27, 1915 – May 17, 2019) was an American author. He published fifteen novels, many of themhistorical fictionsuch asThe Caine Mutiny(1951), for which he won thePulitzer Prizein fiction. Other well-known works includedThe Winds of WarandWar and Remembrance(historical novels aboutWorld War II), thebildungsromanMarjorie Morningstar; and non-fiction such asThis Is My God, an explanation ofJudaismfrom aModern Orthodoxperspective, written forJewishand non-Jewish readers. His books have been translated into 27 languages. The Washington Postdescribed Wouk, who cherished his privacy, as \"the reclusive dean of American historical novelists\".Historians, novelists, publishers, and critics who gathered at theLibrary of Congressin 1995 to mark his 80th birthday described him as an AmericanTolstoy. Wouk lived to 103. Early life Wouk was born inthe Bronx, New York, the second of three children born to Esther (née Levine) and Abraham Isaac Wouk, RussianJewishimmigrants from what is", "from what is todayBelarus. His father toiled for many years to raise the family out of poverty before opening a successful laundry service. When Wouk was 13, his maternal grandfather, Mendel Leib Levine, came fromMinskto live with them and took charge of his grandson's Jewish education. Wouk was frustrated by the amount of time he was expected to spend studying theTalmud, but his father told him, \"if I were on my deathbed, and I had breath to say one more thing to you, I would say 'Study the Talmud.'\" Eventually Wouk took this advice to heart. After a brief period as a young adult during which he lived a secular life, he returned to religious practiceand Judaism became integral to both his personal life and his career.He said later that his grandfather and theUnited States Navywere the two most important influences on his life. After his childhood and adolescence in the Bronx, Wouk graduated from the original Townsend Harris High School inManhattan,Townsend Harris Hall Prep School, the elite publicprep", "elite publicprep schoolforCity College.In 1934 he earned aBachelor of Artsdegree at the age of 19 fromColumbia University, where he was a member of thePi Lambda Phifraternity.He also served as editor of the university's humor magazine,Jester, and wrote two of its annualVarsity Shows.He became a radio dramatist, working inDavid Freedman's \"Joke Factory\" and later withFred Allenfor five yearsand then, in 1941, for the United States government, writing radio spots to sellwar bonds. Career Military career Following theattack on Pearl Harbor, Wouk joined theU.S. Naval Reservein 1942 and served in thePacific TheaterduringWorld War II, an experience he later characterized as educational: \"I learned about machinery, I learned how men behaved under pressure, and I learned about Americans.\" Wouk served as an officer aboard two destroyerminesweepers(DMS), theUSSZaneandUSSSouthard, becomingexecutive officerof theSouthardwhile holding the rank oflieutenant. He participated in around six invasions and won a number", "and won a number ofbattle stars.Wouk was in theNew Georgia Campaign, theGilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, theMariana and Palau Islands campaign, and theBattle of Okinawa.In off-duty hours aboard ship he started writing a novel,Aurora Dawn, which he originally titledAurora Dawn; or, The True history of Andrew Reale, containing a faithful account of the Great Riot, together with the complete texts of Michael Wilde's oration and Father Stanfield's sermon.Wouk sent a copy of the opening chapters to philosophy professorIrwin Edman, under whom he studied at Columbia,who quoted a few pages verbatim to a New York editor. The result was a publisher's contract sent to Wouk's ship, then off the coast ofOkinawa.Aurora Dawnwas published in 1947 and became aBook of the Month Clubmain selection. Wouk finished his tour of duty in 1946. Writing career His second novel,City Boy, proved to be a commercial disappointment when it was published in 1948. Wouk claimedit was largely ignored amid the excitement overNorman", "overNorman Mailer's bestselling World War II novelThe Naked and the Dead. While writing his next novel, Wouk read each chapter to his wife as it was completed and she remarked that if they did not like this one, he had better take up another line of work (a line he would give to the character of the editor Jeannie Fry in his novelYoungblood Hawke, 1962). The novel,The Caine Mutiny(1951), won thePulitzer Prize for Fiction. A best-seller, drawn from his wartime experiences aboard minesweepers during World War II,The Caine Mutinywas adapted by the author into aBroadwayplay calledThe Caine Mutiny Court-Martial.In 1954Columbia Picturesreleased a film version of the book, withHumphrey Bogartportraying Lt. Commander Philip Francis Queeg, captain of the fictional USSCaine. Wouk's next novel afterThe Caine MutinywasMarjorie Morningstar(1955), which earned him aTimemagazine cover story. Three years laterWarner Bros.made it into amovie of the same namestarringNatalie Wood,Gene KellyandClaire Trevor. His next novel,", "His next novel, apaperback, wasSlattery's Hurricane(1956), which he had written in 1948 as the basis for the screenplay for the film of the same name. Wouk's first work of non-fiction was 1959'sThis is My God: The Jewish Way of Life. In the 1960s, he wroteYoungblood Hawke(1962), a drama about the rise and fall of a young writer, modeled on the life ofThomas Wolfe; andDon't Stop the Carnival(1965), a comedy about escaping mid-life crisis by moving to theCaribbean, which was loosely based on Wouk's own experiences.Youngblood Hawkewas serialized inMcCall'smagazine from March to July 1962. Amovie versionstarredJames FranciscusandSuzanne Pleshetteand was released by Warner Brothers in 1964. In 1997Don't Stop the Carnivalwas turned into a short-lived musical byJimmy Buffett. In the 1970s, Wouk published two monumental novels,The Winds of War(1971) and a sequel,War and Remembrance(1978). He describedRemembrance, which included a devastating depiction ofthe Holocaust, as \"the main tale I have to tell.\" Both were", "to tell.\" Both were made into successful television mini-series, the first in 1983 and the second in 1988. Although they were made several years apart, both were directed byDan Curtisand both starredRobert Mitchumas Captain Victor \"Pug\" Henry, the main character. The novels were historical fiction. Each had three layers: the story told from the viewpoints of Captain Henry and his circle of family and friends; a more or less straightforward historical account of the events of the war; and an analysis by a member ofAdolf Hitler's military staff, the insightful fictional General Armin von Roon. Wouk devoted \"thirteen years of extraordinary research and long, arduous composition\" to these two novels, notedArnold Beichman. \"The seriousness with which Wouk has dealt with the war can be seen in the prodigious amount of research, reading, travel and conferring with experts, the evidence of which may be found in the uncatalogued boxes at Columbia University\" that contain the author's papers. Inside, Outside(1985) was", "Outside(1985) was the story of four generations of aRussian Jewishfamily and its travails in Russia, the U.S. and Israel.The Hope(1993) and its sequel,The Glory(1994), were historical novels about the first 33 years ofIsrael's history. They were followed byThe Will to Live On: This is Our Heritage(2000), a whirlwind tour of Jewish history and sacred texts and companion volume toThis is My God. In 1995, Wouk was honored on his 80th birthday by theLibrary of Congresswith asymposiumon his career. In attendance wereDavid McCullough,Robert Caro, andDaniel Boorstin, among others. A Hole in Texas(2004) was a novel about the discovery of theHiggs boson, whose existence was proven nine years later.The Language God Talks: On Science and Religion(2010) was an exploration of the tension between religion and science which originated in a discussion Wouk had withtheoretical physicistRichard Feynman. The Lawgiver(2012) was anepistolary novelabout a contemporaryHollywoodwriter of a movie script aboutMoses, with the", "with the consulting help of a nonfictional character, Herman Wouk, a \"mulish ancient\" who became involved despite the strong misgivings of his wife. Wouk's memoir, titledSailor and Fiddler: Reflections of a 100-Year-Old Author, was published in January 2016 to mark his100th birthday.NPRcalled it \"a lovely coda to the career of a man who made American literature a kinder, smarter, better place.\" It was his last book. Daily journal Wouk kept a personal diary from 1937.On September 10, 2008, he presented his journals, numbering more than 100 volumes as of 2012, to theLibrary of Congressat a ceremony in which he was honored with the first Library of Congress Lifetime Achievement Award for the Writing of Fiction (now theLibrary of Congress Prize for American Fiction). Wouk often referred to his journals to check dates and facts in his writing, and he hesitated to let the originals out of his possession. A solution was negotiated and the entire set of volumes was scanned into digital format. Personal life and", "Personal life and death In 1944 Wouk met Betty Sarah Brown, aPhi Beta Kappagraduate of theUniversity of Southern California, who was working as a personnel specialist in the navy while theZanewas undergoing repairs inSan Pedro, California. The two fell in love and after Wouk's ship went back to sea, Betty, who was born aProtestantand was raised inGrangeville, Idaho, began her study of Judaism and converted on her twenty-fifth birthday. They were married on December 10, 1945. After the birth of the first of their three children the following year, Wouk became a full-time writer to support his growing family. His first-born son, Abraham Isaac Wouk, was named after Wouk's late father, who had drowned in a swimming pool accident inCuernavaca, Mexico, shortly before his son's fifth birthday. Wouk later dedicatedWar and Remembranceto him with the Biblical words \"בלע המות לנצח – He will destroy death forever\" (Isaiah 25:8). Their second and third children were Iolanthe Woulff (born 1950 as Nathaniel Wouk,", "as Nathaniel Wouk, aPrinceton Universitygraduate and an author) and Joseph (born 1954, a Columbia graduate, an attorney, a film producer, and a writer who served in theIsraeli Navy).He had three grandchildren. The Wouks lived in New York,Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, where he wroteDon't Stop the Carnival,and at 3255 N Street N.W.in theGeorgetownsection ofWashington, D.C., where he researched and wroteThe Winds of WarandWar and Remembrance,before settling inPalm Springs, California. His wife, who served for decades as hisliterary agent, died in Palm Springs on March 17, 2011. \"I wrote nothing that was of the slightest consequence before I met Sarah,\" Wouk recalled after her death. \"I was a gag man for Fred Allen for five years. In his time, he was the greatest of the radio comedians. And jokes work for what they are but they're ephemeral. They just disappear. And that was the kind of thing I did up until the time that I met Sarah and we married. And I would say my literary career and my mature life both", "my mature life both began with her.\" Wouk's brotherVictordied in 2005.His nephew,Alan I. Green, was a psychiatrist atDartmouth College. Wouk died in his sleep in his home in Palm Springs, California, on May 17, 2019, at the age of 103, ten days before his 104th birthday. Degrees Awards and honors Published works See also References Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/War_and_Remembrance_(miniseries (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92de5780>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Hart_Bochner (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9516bdf0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
What two cities hosted the Summer Olympic Games between when the television shows featuring characters Olivia Benson and Meredith Grey started airing?
Sydney, Australia, and Athens, Greece
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivia_Benson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meredith_Grey
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_host_cities
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivia_Benson', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meredith_Grey', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_host_cities']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivia_Benson", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meredith_Grey", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_host_cities" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Olivia_Benson (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93de3cd0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Meredith_Grey (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93de4790>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_host_cities (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93de4fd0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Olivia_Benson (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93de3cd0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Meredith_Grey (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93de4790>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_Olympic_Games_host_cities (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93de4fd0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
As of January 1, 2024, what was the warmest decade, since the 17th century, around the ocean that surrounds Litke Deep?
The warmest decade for the Arctic Ocean since the 17th century was during the period of 1995–2005.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litke_Deep
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean#Climate
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litke_Deep', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean#Climate', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litke_Deep", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean#Climate", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" ]
[ "Litke Deep Litke Deep(Russian:Жёлоб Ли́тке) isanoceanic trenchin theArctic Ocean. The deepest point, also referred to as Litke Deep, is 5,449 m (17,877 ft) belowsea level. It is the closest point of the upper surface of Earth'slithospheretoEarth's center, withChallenger Deepbeing 14.7268 km (9.2 mi) further from Earth's centre at abathymetricdepth of 6,366.4311 km (3,955.9 mi). The deepest point in Litke Deep is the closest point on the Earth's surface to theEarth's centergiven that it is located along the planet'spolar flattening. Based on average global sea level (mean sea level), the deepest point in Litke Deep is shallower thanChallenger Deep.Litke Deep is the second deepest point in the Arctic Ocean afterMolloy Deep. Topography Location The Litke Deep is located in the southwestern part of theEurasian Basin,which stretches from northeastern part ofGreenlandpast theSvalbardarchipelago,Franz Josef LandandSevernaya Zemlyato theTaymyr Peninsula. It is situated south of theunderwater ridgeGakkel Ridgeroughly 350 kilometersnortheast of Svalbard and roughly 220 km north of the island ofNordaustlandet. The deepest part is at 5,449metres(17,881feet)undersea level. Closest point to Earth's center The Challenger Deep is lower below sea level, but the Litke Deep is reported to be the closest point on the surface to Earth's center,withMolloy Deepa very close second. The seabed at Litke Deep is the fixed point on Earth that has the least distance from the center – because of the oblate spheroid shape of the planet Earth, which is flatter atpolesand thicker at theequator. Application of the formula atEarth radiusshows that the Earth's radius is 14.7268 km (9 mi) lesser at Litke Deep than at Challenger Deep. Litke Deep is closer toNorth Poleat 82°24’ N and the difference betweenEarth'sdiameter at poles and equatoris greater than the depth at Challenger Deep (10,925 m (35,843 ft) below sea level), around 11°22' north, nearer to equator with sea level also having the difference. Despite being 5,475 m (17,963 ft) shallower in depth below sea level, it is 6,351.7043 km (3,946.8 mi) from the Earth's center, 14.7268 km (9 mi) nearer than the Challenger Deep (6,366.4311 km (3,955.9 mi) to the Earth's center). In this ranking, several other Arctic as well as Antarctic depths such asMolloy Deep, seabed at North Pole, Factorian Deep andMeteor DeepinSouthern Oceanexceed Challenger Deep. However, by depth below sea level, Litke Deep is not the deepest point in the Arctic Ocean. Surveys The Litke Deep was located in 1955by the Russian icebreakerFyodor Litkeexpedition. It is named after Russian explorerFyodor Petrovich Litke. Descents No crewed or unmanned descents have been undertaken to Litke Deep as of 2024. See also References External links 82°24′00″N19°31′00″E / 82.40000°N 19.51667°E /82.40000; 19.51667", "Arctic Ocean Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: TheArctic Oceanis the smallest and shallowest of the world's fiveoceanic divisions.It spans an area of approximately 14,060,000 km2(5,430,000 sq mi) and is the coldest of the world's oceans. TheInternational Hydrographic Organization(IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although someoceanographerscall it theArctic Mediterranean Sea.It has also been described as anestuaryof theAtlantic Ocean.It is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassingworld ocean. The Arctic Ocean includes theNorth Poleregion in the middle of theNorthern Hemisphereand extends south to about60°N. The Arctic Ocean is surrounded byEurasiaand North America, and the borders follow topographic features: theBering Straiton thePacificside and the Greenland Scotland Ridge on the Atlantic side. It is mostly covered bysea icethroughout the year and almost completely inwinter. The Arctic Ocean'ssurface temperatureandsalinityvary seasonally as theice covermelts and freezes;its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to lowevaporation, heavyfresh waterinflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.The USNational Snow and Ice Data Center(NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years, showing a continuousdecline in sea iceextent.In September 2012, the Arctic ice extent reached a new record minimum. Compared to the average extent (1979–2000), the sea ice had diminished by 49%. History North America Human habitation in the North American polar region goes back at least 17,000–50,000 years, during theWisconsin glaciation. At this time, fallingsea levelsallowed people to move across theBering land bridgethat joinedSiberiato northwestern North America (Alaska), leading to theSettlement of the Americas. Early Paleo-Eskimogroups included thePre-Dorset(c.3200–850 BC); theSaqqaq cultureof Greenland (2500–800 BC); theIndependence IandIndependence II culturesof northeastern Canada andGreenland(c.2400–1800 BCandc.800–1 BC); and theGroswaterofLabradorandNunavik. TheDorset culturespread across Arctic North America between 500 BC and AD 1500. The Dorset were the last majorPaleo-Eskimoculture in the Arctic before the migration east from present-dayAlaskaof theThule people, ancestors of the modernInuit. The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600, arising around the Bering Strait and later encompassing almost the entire Arctic region of North America. The Thule people were the ancestors of the Inuit, who now live in Alaska,Northwest Territories,Nunavut, Nunavik (northern Quebec), Labrador and Greenland. Europe For much ofEuropean history, the northpolar regionsremained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural.PytheasofMassiliarecorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called \"Eschate Thule\", where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance \"on which one can neither walk nor sail\". He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as \"growlers\" or \"bergy bits\"; his \"Thule\" was probablyNorway, though theFaroe IslandsorShetlandhave also been suggested. Earlycartographerswere unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as inJohannes Ruysch's map of 1507, orGerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as withMartin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, theNorthern Sea Routeor theNorthwest Passage, to \"Cathay\" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such asJohann Homannfeatured an extensive \"Oceanus Septentrionalis\" at the northern edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond theArctic Circlein that era added only small islands, such asNovaya Zemlya(11th century) andSpitzbergen(1596), though, since these were often surrounded bypack-ice, their northern limits were not so clear. The makers ofnavigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in. 19th century This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, themythof an \"Open Polar Sea\" was persistent.John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of theBritish Admiralty,promoted explorationof the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this. In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorersElisha KaneandIsaac Israel Hayesboth claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authorityMatthew Fontaine Mauryincluded a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbookThe Physical Geography of the Sea(1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, thepolar ice capis quite thick and persists year-round. Fridtjof Nansenwas the first to make anauticalcrossing of the Arctic Ocean, in theFram Expeditionfrom 1893 to 1896. 20th century The first surface crossing of the ocean was led byWally Herbertin 1969, in adog sledexpedition from Alaska toSvalbard, with air support.The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the submarineUSSNautilus, and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by theicebreakerNSArktika. Since 1937,Sovietand Russian manneddrifting ice stationshave extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres byice floes. InWorld War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean washeavily contested: theAllied commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern portswas opposed by German naval and air forces. Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (seePolar route). Geography Size The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2(5,427,000 sq mi), almost the size ofAntarctica.The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi) long.It is the onlyoceansmaller thanRussia, which has a land area of 16,377,742 km2(6,323,482 sq mi). Surrounding land and exclusive economic zones The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia (Russia and Norway), North America (Canadaand the U.S. state of Alaska), Greenland, andIceland. Note: Some parts of the areas listed in the table are located in theAtlantic Ocean. Other consists ofGulfs,Straits,Channelsand other parts without specific names and excludesExclusive Economic Zones. Subareas and connections The Arctic Ocean is connected to thePacific Oceanby theBering Straitand to the Atlantic Ocean through theGreenland SeaandLabrador Sea.(TheIceland Seais sometimes considered part of the Greenland Sea, and sometimes separate.) The largest seas in the Arctic Ocean: Different authorities put various marginal seas in either the Arctic Ocean or the Atlantic Ocean, including:Hudson Bay,Baffin Bay, theNorwegian Sea, andHudson Strait. Islands The main islands and archipelagos in the Arctic Ocean are, from theprime meridianwest: Ports There are several ports andharbourson the Arctic Ocean. Arctic shelves The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises a number ofcontinental shelves, including the Canadian Arctic shelf, underlying theCanadian Arctic Archipelago, and theRussian continental shelf, which is sometimes called the \"Arctic Shelf\" because it is larger. The Russian continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves: the Barents Shelf,Chukchi Sea ShelfandSiberian Shelf. Of these three, the Siberian Shelf is the largest such shelf in the world; it holds large oil and gas reserves. The Chukchi shelf forms the border between Russian and the United States as stated in theUSSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement. The whole area is subject to internationalterritorial claims. TheChukchi Plateauextends from the Chukchi Sea Shelf. Underwater features Anunderwater ridge, theLomonosov Ridge, divides the deep seaNorth Polar Basininto twooceanic basins: theEurasian Basin, which is 4,000–4,500 m (13,100–14,800 ft) deep, and theAmerasian Basin(sometimes called the North American or Hyperborean Basin), which is about 4,000 m (13,000 ft) deep. Thebathymetryof the ocean bottom is marked byfault blockridges,abyssal plains,ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,406 ft).The deepest point isMolloy Holein theFram Strait, at about 5,550 m (18,210 ft). The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into theCanada Basin(between Beaufort Shelf of North America and theAlpha Ridge),Makarov Basin(between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges),Amundsen Basin(between Lomonosov andGakkelridges), andNansen Basin(between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes theFranz Josef Land). Geology The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional phase of the largerCaledonian orogenyin thePaleozoicEra. Regional subsidence in theJurassicandTriassicperiods led to significant sediment deposition, creating many of the reservoirs for current day oil and gas deposits. During theCretaceousperiod, the Canadian Basin opened, and tectonic activity due to the assembly of Alaska caused hydrocarbons to migrate toward what is now Prudhoe Bay. At the same time, sediments shed off the rising Canadian Rockies built out the large Mackenzie Delta. The rifting apart of thesupercontinentPangea, beginning in the Triassic period, opened the early Atlantic Ocean. Rifting then extended northward, opening the Arctic Ocean asmaficoceanic crust material erupted out of a branch of Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Amerasia Basin may have opened first, with theChukchi Borderlandmoved along to the northeast by transform faults. Additional spreading helped to create the \"triple-junction\" of the Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge in theLate Cretaceousepoch. Throughout theCenozoicEra, the subduction of the Pacific plate, the collision of India with Eurasia, and the continued opening of the North Atlantic created new hydrocarbon traps. The seafloor began spreading from the Gakkel Ridge in thePaleoceneEpoch and theEoceneEpoch, causing the Lomonosov Ridge to move farther from land and subside. Because of sea ice and remote conditions, the geology of the Arctic Ocean is still poorly explored. The Arctic Coring Expedition drilling shed some light on the Lomonosov Ridge, which appears to be continental crust separated from the Barents-Kara Shelf in the Paleocene and then starved of sediment. It may contain up to 10 billion barrels of oil. The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea. Oceanography Water flow In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about 50 m ) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than the rest. It remains relatively stable because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian rivers (Ob,Yenisei,Lena,Mackenzie), the water of which quasi floats on the saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean lies the so-calledhalocline, in which both salinity and temperature rise with increasing depth. Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It resembles some hydrological features of theMediterranean Sea, referring to its deep waters having only limited communication through the Fram Strait with theAtlantic Basin, \"where the circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing\".The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07 × 106km3, equal to about 1.3% of the World Ocean. Mean surface circulation is predominantly cyclonic on theEurasianside and anticyclonic in theCanadian Basin. Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around 900 m (3,000 ft) depth.It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8Sverdrupsand reaches theChukchi Sea.During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s.This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline. This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms, and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below.Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate. In the depth range of 150–900 m (490–2,950 ft) is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from theNorth Atlantic Currententers through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles theArctic Basincounter-clockwise. This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current.It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s.Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 °C ). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density.When water reaches the basin, it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called theBeaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers. The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found in the depth range of 150–200 m (490–660 ft). The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf.As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer on account of weak mixing between layers. However, over the past couple of decades a combination of the warmingand the shoaling of Atlantic waterare leading to the increasing influence of Atlantic water heat in melting sea ice in the eastern Arctic. The most recent estimates, for 2016–2018, indicate the oceanic heat flux to the surface has now overtaken the atmospheric flux in the eastern Eurasian Basin.Over the same period the weakening halocline stratification has coincided with increasing upper ocean currents thought to be associated with declining sea ice, indicate increasing mixing in this region.In contrast direct measurements of mixing in the western Arctic indicate the Atlantic water heat remains isolated at intermediate depths even under the 'perfect storm' conditions of theGreat Arctic Cyclone of 2012. Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about 2,700 m (8,900 ft) deep and 350 km (220 mi) wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv.The width of the Fram Strait is what allows for both inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by theCoriolis force, which concentrates outflow to the East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to theNorwegian Currenton the eastern side.Pacific water also exits along the west coast of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1–2 Sv), providing nutrients to the Canadian Archipelago. As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension of theSiberian Highsystem—is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre.During the summer, this area of high pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is asea level pressure(SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In the summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of theIcelandic Low, which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to centre over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during the summer months. There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the phase of the Arctic Oscillation andAtlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. Sea ice Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the Arctic sea ice has been continuously decreasing in the last decades, declining at a rate of currently 12.85% per decade since 1980 from the average winter value of 15,600,000 km2(6,023,200 sq mi).The seasonal variations are about 7,000,000 km2(2,702,700 sq mi), with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice. Icebergsoccasionally break away from northernEllesmere Island, and icebergs are formed fromglaciersin western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Icebergs are not sea ice but may become embedded in the pack ice. Icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which theTitanicis one of the most famous. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and thesuperstructureof ships are subject toicingfrom October to May.Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although theBaychimodrifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards). Climate The Arctic Ocean is contained in apolar climatecharacterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by thepolar night, extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions.Cyclonesare only common on the Atlantic side.Summers are characterized by continuousdaylight(midnight sun), and air temperatures can rise slightly above 0 °C (32 °F). Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow.It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer. The temperature of the surface water of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant at approximately −1.8 °C (28.8 °F), near thefreezing pointofseawater. Thedensityof sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100–150 m (330–490 ft) of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form.In the winter, the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on theAntarctic continent. There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April—about 20–50 cm (7.9–19.7 in) over the frozen ocean. The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly during the Earth's history. During thePaleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum55 million years ago, when the global climate underwent a warming of approximately 5–8 °C (9–14 °F), the region reached an average annual temperature of 10–20 °C (50–68 °F).The surface waters of the northernmostArctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms (thedinoflagellatesApectodinium augustum) requiring surface temperatures of over 22 °C (72 °F). Currently, the Arctic region is warming twice as fast as the rest of the planet. Biology Due to the pronounced seasonality of 2–6 months ofmidnight sunandpolar nightin the Arctic Ocean, theprimary productionof photosynthesizing organisms such asice algaeandphytoplanktonis limited to the spring and summer months (March/April to September).Important consumers ofprimary producersin the central Arctic Ocean and the adjacentshelf seasincludezooplankton, especiallycopepods(Calanus finmarchicus,Calanus glacialis, andCalanus hyperboreus)andeuphausiids,as well as ice-associatedfauna(e.g.,amphipods).Theseprimary consumersform an important link between the primary producers and highertrophic levels. The composition of higher trophic levels in the Arctic Ocean varies with region (Atlantic side vs. Pacific side) and with thesea-icecover.Secondary consumersin theBarents Sea, an Atlantic-influenced Arctic shelf sea, are mainly sub-Arctic species includingherring, youngcod, andcapelin.In ice-covered regions of the central Arctic Ocean,polar codis a central predator of primary consumers. Theapex predatorsin the Arctic Ocean—marine mammalssuch asseals,whales, andpolar bears—prey upon fish. Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean includewalrusesandwhales. The area has a fragileecosystem, and it is especially exposed toclimate change, because it warms faster than the rest of the world.Lion's mane jellyfishare abundant in the waters of the Arctic, and thebanded gunnelis the only species ofgunnelthat lives in the ocean. Natural resources Petroleumandnatural gasfields,placer deposits,polymetallic nodules, sand and gravelaggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region. The political dead zone near the centre of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark.It is significant for the globalenergy marketbecause it may hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources. Environmental concerns Arctic ice melting TheArctic ice packis thinning, and a seasonal hole in theozone layerfrequently occurs.Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's averagealbedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive feedback mechanism.Research shows that the Arctic may become ice-free in the summer for the first time in human history by 2040.Estimates vary for when the last time the Arctic was ice-free: 65 million years ago when fossils indicate that plants existed there to as recently as 5,500 years ago; ice and ocean cores going back 8,000 years to thelast warm periodor 125,000 during thelast intraglacial period. Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of freshmelt-waterto enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting globalocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth'sclimatemight then ensue. As the extent of sea ice diminishes andsea level rises, the effect of storms such as theGreat Arctic Cyclone of 2012on open water increases, as does possible salt-water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the MackenzieDeltaas strongerstorm surgesbecome more likely. Global warming has increased encounters between polar bears and humans. Reduced sea ice due to melting is causing polar bears to search for new sources of food.Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019,a mass invasion of polar bearsinto the archipelago ofNovaya Zemlyacaused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes, public buildings and inhabited areas. Clathrate breakdown Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilizemethanedeposits on and near the shoreline,preventing theclathratebreaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerfulgreenhouse gas, into theatmosphere, causing further warming in a strongpositive feedbackcycle and marine genera and species to become extinct. Other concerns Otherenvironmental concernsrelate to theradioactive contaminationof the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russianradioactive wastedump sites in the Kara Sea,Cold Warnuclear test sitessuch as Novaya Zemlya,Camp Century's contaminants in Greenland,and radioactive contamination from theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On 16 July 2015, five nations (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources. See also References Further reading External links Download coordinates as: 90°N0°E / 90°N 0°E /90; 0", "Climate change in the Arctic Due toclimate change in the Arctic, this polar region is expected to become \"profoundly different\" by 2050.: 2321The speed of change is \"among the highest in the world\",: 2321with the rate of warming being 3-4 times faster than the global average.This warming has already resulted in the profoundArctic sea ice decline, the accelerating melting of theGreenland ice sheetand the thawing of thepermafrostlandscape.: 2321These ongoing transformations are expected to be irreversible for centuries or even millennia.: 2321 Natural life in the Arctic is affected greatly. As thetundrawarms, its soil becomes more hospitable toearthwormsand larger plants,and theboreal forestsspread to the north - yet this also makes the landscape more prone towildfires, which take longer to recover from than in the other regions.Beaversalso take advantage of this warming to colonize the Arctic rivers, and theirdamscontributing tomethaneemissions due to the increase in stagnant waters.TheArctic Oceanhas experienced a large increase in themarine primary productionas warmer waters and less shade from sea ice benefitphytoplankton.: 2326At the same time, it is already less alkaline than the rest of the global ocean, soocean acidificationcaused by the increasing CO2concentrations is more severe, threatening some forms ofzooplanktonsuch aspteropods.: 2328 The Arctic Ocean is expected to see its first ice-free events in the near future - most likely before 2050, and potentially in the late 2020s or early 2030s.This would have no precedent in the last 700,000 years.Some sea ice regrows every Arctic winter, but such events are expected to occur more and more frequently as the warming increases. This has great implications for thefaunaspecies which are dependent on sea ice, such aspolar bears. For humans, trade routes across the ocean will become more convenient. Yet, multiple countries haveinfrastructurein the Arctic which is worth billions of dollars, and it is threatened with collapse as the underlying permafrost thaws. The Arctic's indigenous people have a long relationship with its icy conditions, and face the loss of their cultural heritage. Further, there are numerous implications which go beyond the Arctic region. Sea ice loss not only enhances warming in the Arctic but also adds to global temperature increase through theice-albedo feedback. Permafrost thaw results in emissions of CO2and methane that are comparable to those of major countries. Greenland melting is a significant contributor to globalsea level rise. If the warming exceeds - or thereabouts, there is a significant risk of the entire ice sheet being lost over an estimated 10,000 years, adding up to global sea levels. Warming in the Arctic may affect the stability of thejet stream, and thus the extreme weather events inmidlatituderegions, but there is only \"low confidence\" in that hypothesis. Impacts on the physical environment Warming The period of 1995–2005 was the warmest decade in the Arctic since at least the 17th century, with temperatures 2 °C (3.6 °F) above the 1951–1990 average.Alaska and western Canada's temperature rose by 3 to 4 °C (5.40 to 7.20 °F) during that period.2013 research has shown that temperatures in the region haven't been as high as they currently are since at least 44,000 years ago and perhaps as long as 120,000 years ago.Since 2013, Arctic annual mean surface air temperature (SAT) has been at least 1 °C (1.8 °F) warmer than the 1981-2010 mean. In 2016, there were extreme anomalies from January to February with the temperature in the Arctic being estimated to be between 4–5.8 °C (7.2–10.4 °F) more than it was between 1981 and 2010.In 2020, mean SAT was 1.9 °C (3.4 °F) warmer than the 1981–2010 average.On 20 June 2020, for the first time, a temperature measurement was made inside the Arctic Circle of 38 °C, more than 100 °F. This kind of weather was expected in the region only by 2100. In March, April and May the average temperature in the Arctic was 10 °C (18.0 °F) higher than normal.This heat wave, without human – induced warming, could happen only one time in 80,000 years, according to an attribution study published in July 2020. It is the strongest link of a weather event to anthropogenic climate change that had been ever found, for now. Arctic amplification Snow– and ice–albedo feedback have a substantial effect on regional temperatures. In particular, the presence of ice cover andsea icemakes theNorth Poleand theSouth Polecolder than they would have been without it.Consequently, recentArctic sea ice declineis one of the primary factors behind the Arctic warming nearly four times faster than the global average since 1979 (the year when continuous satellite readings of the Arctic sea ice began), in a phenomenon known asArctic amplification. Modelling studies show that strong Arctic amplification only occurs during the months when significant sea ice loss occurs, and that it largely disappears when the simulated ice cover is held fixed.Conversely, the high stability of ice cover in Antarctica, where the thickness of theEast Antarctic ice sheetallows it to rise nearly 4 km above the sea level, means that this continent has experienced very little net warming over the past seven decades, most of which was concentrated in West Antarctica.Ice loss in the Antarctic and its contribution tosea level riseis instead driven overwhelmingly by the warming of theSouthern Ocean, which had absorbed 35–43% of the total heat taken up by all oceans between 1970 and 2017. The Arctic was historically described as warming twice as fast as the global average,but this estimate was based on older observations which missed the more recent acceleration. By 2021, enough data was available to show that the Arctic had warmed three times as fast as the globe - 3.1°C between 1971 and 2019, as opposed to the global warming of 1°C over the same period.Moreover, this estimate defines the Arctic as everything above60th parallel north, or a full third of the Northern Hemisphere: in 2021–2022, it was found that since 1979, the warming within theArctic Circleitself (above the 66th parallel) has been nearly four times faster than the global average.Within the Arctic Circle itself, even greater Arctic amplification occurs in theBarents Seaarea, with hotspots aroundWest Spitsbergen Current: weather stations located on its path record decadal warming up to seven times faster than the global average.This has fuelled concerns that unlike the rest of the Arctic sea ice, ice cover in the Barents Sea may permanently disappear even around 1.5 degrees of global warming. Precipitation An observed impact of climate change is a strong increase in the number of lightnings in the Arctic. Lightnings increase the risk for wildfires.Some research suggests that globally, a warming greater than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the preindustrial level could change the type of precipitation in the Arctic from snow to rain in summer and autumn. Cryosphere loss Sea ice Sea icein theArcticregion has declined in recent decades in area and volume due toclimate change. It has been melting more in summer than it refreezes in winter.Global warming, caused bygreenhouse gas forcingis responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice. The decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty-first century, with a decline rate of 4.7% per decade (it has declined over 50% since the first satellite records).Summertime sea ice will likely cease to exist sometime during the 21st century. Greenland ice sheet Greenland has had majorglaciersandice capsfor at least 18 million years,but a single ice sheet first covered most of the island some 2.6 million years ago.Since then, it has both grownand contracted significantly.The oldest known ice on Greenland is about 1 million years old.Due to anthropogenicgreenhouse gas emissions, the ice sheet is now the warmest it has been in the past 1000 years,and is losing ice at the fastest rate in at least the past 12,000 years. Every summer, parts of the surface melt andice cliffs calveinto the sea. Normally the ice sheet would be replenished by winter snowfall,but due toglobal warmingthe ice sheet is melting two to five times faster than before 1850,and snowfall has not kept up since 1996.If theParis Agreementgoal of staying below 2 °C (3.6 °F) is achieved, melting of Greenland ice alone would still add around6 cm (2+1⁄2in) to globalsea level riseby the end of the century. If there are no reductions in emissions, melting would add around 13 cm (5 in) by 2100,: 1302with a worst-case of about 33 cm (13 in).For comparison, melting has so far contributed1.4 cm (1⁄2in) since 1972,while sea level rise from all sources was 15–25 cm (6–10 in) between 1901 and 2018.: 5 Biological environment Impacts on Arctic flora Climate change is expected to have a strong effect on the Arctic's flora, some of which is already being seen.NASA and NOAA have continuously monitored Arctic vegetation with satellite instruments such asModerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS) andAdvanced very-high-resolution radiometer(AVHRR).Their data allows scientists to calculate so-called \"Arctic greening\" and \"Arctic browning\".From 1985 to 2016, greening has occurred in 37.3% of all sites sampled in the tundra, whereas browning was observed only in 4.7% of the sites - typically the ones that were still experiencing cooling and drying, as opposed to warming and wettening for the rest. This expansion of vegetation in the Arctic is not equivalent across types of vegetation. A major trend has been fromshrub-type plants taking over areas previously dominated by moss and lichens. This change contributes to the consideration that the tundra biome is currently experiencing the most rapid change of any terrestrial biomes on the planet.The direct impact on mosses and lichens is unclear as there exist very few studies at species level, but climate change is more likely to cause increased fluctuation and more frequent extreme events.While shrubs may increase in range and biomass, warming may also cause a decline incushion plantssuch as moss campion, and sincecushion plantsact as facilitator species acrosstrophic levelsand fill important ecological niches in several environments, this could cause cascading effects in these ecosystems that could severely affect the way in which they function and are structured. The expansion of these shrubs can also have strong effects on other important ecological dynamics, such as thealbedo effect.These shrubs change the winter surface of the tundra from undisturbed, uniform snow to mixed surface with protruding branches disrupting the snow cover,this type of snow cover has a lower albedo effect, with reductions of up to 55%, which contributes to a positive feedback loop on regional and global climate warming.This reduction of the albedo effect means that more radiation is absorbed by plants, and thus, surface temperatures increase, which could disrupt current surface-atmosphere energy exchanges and affect thermal regimes of permafrost.Carbon cycling is also being affected by these changes in vegetation, as parts of the tundra increase their shrub cover, they behave more like boreal forests in terms of carbon cycling.This is speeding up the carbon cycle, as warmer temperatures lead to increased permafrost thawing and carbon release, but also carbon capturing from plants that have increased growth.It is not certain whether this balance will go in one direction or the other, but studies have found that it is more likely that this will eventually lead to increased CO2in the atmosphere. However, boreal forests, particularly those in North America, showed a different response to warming. Many boreal forests greened, but the trend was not as strong as it was for tundra of the circumpolar Arctic, mostly characterized by shrub expansion and increased growth.In North America, some boreal forests actually experienced browning over the study period. Droughts, increased forest fire activity, animal behavior, industrial pollution, and a number of other factors may have contributed to browning. Impacts on terrestrial fauna Arctic warming negatively affects the foraging and breeding ecology of native Arctic mammals, such asArctic foxesorArctic reindeer.In July 2019, 200Svalbard reindeerwere found starved to death apparently due to low precipitation related to climate change.This was only one episode in the long-term decline of the species.: 2327United States Geological Surveyresearch suggests that the shrinkage of Arctic sea ice would eventually extirpate polar bears fromAlaska, but leave some of theirhabitatin theCanadian Arctic Archipelagoand areas off the northern Greenland coast. As the pureArctic climateis gradually replaced by thesubarctic climate, animals adapted to those conditions spread to the north.: 2325For instance,beavershave been actively colonizing Arctic regions, and as they createdams, they flood areas which used to be permafrost, contributing to its thaw and methane emissions from it.These colonizing species can outright replace native species, and they may also interbreed with their southern relations, like in the case of theGrizzly–polar bear hybrid. This usually has the effect of reducing thegenetic diversityof thegenus.Infectious diseases, such asbrucellosisorphocine distemper virus, may spread to populations previously separated by the cold, or, in case of themarine mammals, the sea ice. Marine ecosystems The reduction of sea ice has brought more sunlight to thephytoplanktonand increased the annualmarine primary productionin the Arctic by over 30% between 1998 and 2020.: 2327As the result, the Arctic Ocean became a strongercarbon sinkover this period;yet, it still accounts for only 5% to 14% of the total ocean carbon sink, although it is expected to play a larger role in the future.By 2100, phytoplanktonbiomassin the Arctic Ocean is generally expected to increase by ~20% relative to 2000 under the low-emission scenario, and by 30-40% under the high-emission scenario.: 2329 Atlantic codhave been able to move deeper into the Arctic due to the warming waters, while thePolar codand localmarine mammalshave been losing habitat.: 2327Manycopepodspecies appear to be declining, which is also likely to reduce the numbers of fish which prey on them, such aswalleye pollockor thearrowtooth flounder.: 2327This also affects Arcticshorebirds. For instance, around 9000puffinsand other shorebirds in Alaska died of starvation in 2016, because too many fish have moved to the north.While the shorebirds also appear to nest more successfully due to the observed warming,this benefit may be more than offset byphenological mismatchbetween shorebirds' and other species' life cycles.Marine mammals such asringed sealsandwalrusesare also being negatively affected by the warming. Greenhouse gas emissions from the Arctic Permafrost thaw Permafrostis an important component of hydrological systems and ecosystems within the Arctic landscape.In the Northern Hemisphere the terrestrial permafrost domain comprises around 18 million km2.Within this permafrost region, the total soil organic carbon (SOC) stock is estimated to be 1,460-1,600 Pg (where 1 Pg = 1 billion tons), which constitutes double the amount of carbon currently contained in the atmosphere. As recent warming deepens the active layer subject to permafrost thaw, this exposes formerly storedcarbonto biogenic processes which facilitate its entrance into the atmosphere ascarbon dioxideandmethane.Because carbon emissions from permafrost thaw contribute to the same warming which facilitates the thaw, it is a well-known example of apositive climate change feedback.Permafrost thaw is sometimes included as one of the majortipping points in the climate systemdue to the exhibition of local thresholds and its effective irreversibility.However, while there are self-perpetuating processes that apply on the local or regional scale, it is debated as to whether it meets the strict definition of a global tipping point as in aggregate permafrost thaw is gradual with warming. Altogether, it is expected that cumulative greenhouse gas emissions from permafrost thaw will be smaller than the cumulative anthropogenic emissions, yet still substantial on a global scale, with some experts comparing them to emissions caused bydeforestation.TheIPCC Sixth Assessment Reportestimates that carbon dioxide and methane released from permafrost could amount to the equivalent of 14–175 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per 1 °C (1.8 °F) of warming.: 1237For comparison, by 2019, annual anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide alone stood around 40 billion tonnes.: 1237A major review published in the year 2022 concluded that if the goal of preventing 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming was realized, then the average annual permafrost emissions throughout the 21st century would be equivalent to the year 2019 annual emissions of Russia. Under RCP4.5, a scenario considered close to the current trajectory and where the warming stays slightly below 3 °C (5.4 °F), annual permafrost emissions would be comparable to year 2019 emissions of Western Europe or the United States, while under the scenario of high global warming and worst-case permafrost feedback response, they would approach year 2019 emissions of China. Black carbon Black carbondeposits (from the combustion of heavy fuel oil (HFO) of Arctic shipping) absorb solar radiation in the atmosphere and strongly reduce the albedo when deposited on snow and ice, thus accelerating the effect of the melting of snow and sea ice.A 2013 study quantified thatgas flaringat petroleum extraction sites contributed over 40% of the black carbon deposited in the Arctic.2019 research attributed the majority (56%) of Arctic surface black carbon to emissions from Russia, followed by European emissions, and Asia also being a large source.In 2015, research suggested that reducing black carbon emissions and short-lived greenhouse gases by roughly 60 percent by 2050 could cool the Arctic up to 0.2 °C.However, a 2019 study indicates that \"Black carbon emissions will continuously rise due to increased shipping activities\", specifically fishing vessels. The number of wildfires in the Arctic Circle has increased. In 2020, Arctic wildfire CO2emissions broke a new record, peaking at 244 megatonnes of carbon dioxide emitted.This is due to the burning of peatlands, carbon-rich soils that originate from the accumulation of waterlogged plants which are mostly found at Arctic latitudes.These peatlands are becoming more likely to burn as temperatures increase, but their own burning and releasing of CO2contributes to their own likelihood of burning in a positive feedback loop.The smoke from wildfires defined as \"brown carbon\" also increases arctic warming, with its warming effect is around 30% that of black carbon. As wildfires increases with warming this creates apositive feedback loop. Methane clathrate deposits Effects on other parts of the world On ocean circulation In 2021, theIPCC Sixth Assessment Reportagain said the AMOC is \"very likely\" to decline within the 21st century and that there was a \"high confidence\" changes to it would be reversible within centuries if warming was reversed.: 19Unlike the Fifth Assessment Report, it had only \"medium confidence\" rather than \"high confidence\" in the AMOC avoiding a collapse before the end of the 21st century. This reduction in confidence was likely influenced by several review studies that draw attention to the circulation stability bias withingeneral circulation models,and simplified ocean-modelling studies suggesting the AMOC may be more vulnerable to abrupt change than larger-scale models suggest. On mid-latitude weather Since the early 2000s, climate models have consistently identified that global warming will gradually push jet streams poleward. In 2008, this was confirmed by observational evidence, which proved that from 1979 to 2001, the northern jet stream moved northward at an average rate of 2.01 kilometres (1.25 mi) per year, with a similar trend in theSouthern Hemispherejet stream.Climate scientists have hypothesized that the jet stream will also gradually weaken as a result ofglobal warming. Trends such asArctic sea ice decline, reduced snow cover,evapotranspirationpatterns, and other weather anomalies have caused the Arctic to heat up faster than other parts of the globe, in what is known as theArctic amplification. In 2021–2022, it was found that since 1979, the warming within theArctic Circlehas been nearly four times faster than the global average,and some hotspots in theBarents Seaarea warmed up to seven times faster than the global average.While the Arctic remains one of the coldest places on Earth today, the temperature gradient between it and the warmer parts of the globe will continue to diminish with every decade of global warming as the result of this amplification. If this gradient has a strong influence on the jet stream, then it will eventually become weaker and more variable in its course, which would allow more cold air from thepolar vortexto leakmid-latitudesand slow the progression ofRossby waves, leading to more persistent and moreextreme weather. The hypothesis above is closely associated withJennifer Francis, who had first proposed it in a 2012 paper co-authored by Stephen J. Vavrus.While some paleoclimate reconstructions have suggested that the polar vortex becomes more variable and causes more unstable weather during periods of warming back in 1997,this was contradicted by climate modelling, with PMIP2 simulations finding in 2010 that theArctic oscillationwas much weaker and more negative during theLast Glacial Maximum, and suggesting that warmer periods have stronger positive phase AO, and thus less frequent leaks of the polar vortex air.However, a 2012 review in theJournal of the Atmospheric Sciencesnoted that \"there a significant change in the vortex mean state over the twenty-first century, resulting in a weaker, more disturbed vortex.\",which contradicted the modelling results but fit the Francis-Vavrus hypothesis. Additionally, a 2013 study noted that the then-currentCMIP5tended to strongly underestimate winter blocking trends,and other 2012 research had suggested a connection between declining Arctic sea ice and heavy snowfall during midlatitude winters. However, because the specific observations are considered short-term observations, there is considerable uncertainty in the conclusions.Climatologyobservations require several decades to definitively distinguish various forms of natural variability from climate trends.This point was stressed by reviews in 2013and in 2017.A study in 2014 concluded that Arctic amplification significantly decreased cold-season temperature variability over the Northern Hemisphere in recent decades. Cold Arctic air intrudes into the warmer lower latitudes more rapidly today during autumn and winter, a trend projected to continue in the future except during summer, thus calling into question whether winters will bring more cold extremes.A 2019 analysis of a data set collected from 35 182 weather stations worldwide, including 9116 whose records go beyond 50 years, found a sharp decrease in northern midlatitude cold waves since the 1980s. Impacts on people Territorial claims Growing evidence that global warming is shrinking polar ice has added to the urgency of several nations'Arctic territorial claimsin hopes of establishing resource development andnew shipping lanes, in addition to protecting sovereign rights. As ice sea coverage decreases more and more, year on year, Arctic countries (Russia, Canada, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the United States and Denmark representing Greenland) are making moves on the geopolitical stage to ensure access to potentialnew shipping lanes, oil and gas reserves, leading to overlapping claims across the region.However, there is only one single land border dispute in the Arctic, with all others relating to the sea, that isHans Island.This small uninhabited island lies in theNares strait, between Canada'sEllesmere Islandand the northern coast of Greenland. Its status comes from its geographical position, right between the equidistant boundaries determined in a 1973 treaty between Canada and Denmark.Even though both countries have acknowledged the possibility of splitting the island, no agreement on the island has been reached, with both nations still claiming it for themselves. There is more activity in terms of maritime boundaries between countries, where overlapping claims forinternal waters,territorial seasand particularlyExclusive Economic Zones(EEZs) can cause frictions between nations. Currently, official maritime borders have an unclaimed triangle of international waters lying between them, that is at the centerpoint of international disputes. This unclaimed land can be obtainable by submitting a claim to theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, these claims can be based on geological evidence that continental shelves extend beyond their current maritime borders and into international waters. Some overlapping claims are still pending resolution by international bodies, such as a large portion containing thenorth polethat is both claimed by Denmark and Russia, with some parts of it also contested by Canada.Another example is that of theNorthwest Passage, globally recognized as international waters, but technically in Canadian waters.This has led to Canada wanting to limit the number of ships that can go through for environmental reasons but the United States disputes that they have the authority to do so, favouring unlimited passage of vessels. Navigation TheTranspolar Sea Routeis a future Arctic shipping lane running from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean across the center of the Arctic Ocean. The route is also sometimes called Trans-Arctic Route. In contrast to theNortheast Passage(including theNorthern Sea Route) and theNorth-West Passageit largely avoids the territorial waters of Arctic states and lies in international high seas. Governments and private industry have shown a growing interest in the Arctic.Major new shipping lanes are opening up:the northern sea routehad 34 passages in 2011 while theNorthwest Passagehad 22 traverses, more than any time in history.Shipping companies may benefit from the shortened distance of these northern routes. Access to natural resources will increase, including valuable minerals and offshore oil and gas.Finding and controlling these resources will be difficult with the continually moving ice.Tourism may also increase as less sea ice will improve safety and accessibility to the Arctic. The melting of Arctic ice caps is likely to increase traffic in and the commercial viability of the Northern Sea Route. One study, for instance, projects, \"remarkable shifts in trade flows between Asia and Europe, diversion of trade within Europe, heavy shipping traffic in the Arctic and a substantial drop in Suez traffic. Projected shifts in trade also imply substantial pressure on an already threatened Arctic ecosystem.\" Infrastructure As of 2021, there are 1162 settlements located directly atop the Arctic permafrost, which host an estimated 5 million people. By 2050, permafrost layer below 42% of these settlements is expected to thaw, affecting all their inhabitants (currently 3.3 million people).Consequently, a wide range of infrastructure in permafrost areas is threatened by the thaw.: 236By 2050, it's estimated that nearly 70% of global infrastructure located in the permafrost areas would be at high risk of permafrost thaw, including 30–50% of \"critical\" infrastructure. The associated costs could reach tens of billions of dollars by the second half of the century.Reducinggreenhouse gas emissionsin line with theParis Agreementis projected to stabilize the risk after mid-century; otherwise, it'll continue to worsen. InAlaskaalone, damages to infrastructure by the end of the century would amount to $4.6 billion (at 2015 dollar value) ifRCP8.5, the high-emissionclimate change scenario, were realized. Over half stems from the damage to buildings ($2.8 billion), but there's also damage to roads ($700 million), railroads ($620 million), airports ($360 million) andpipelines($170 million).Similar estimates were done for RCP4.5, a less intense scenario which leads to around 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) by 2100, a level of warming similar to the current projections.In that case, total damages from permafrost thaw are reduced to $3 billion, while damages to roads and railroads are lessened by approximately two-thirds (from $700 and $620 million to $190 and $220 million) and damages to pipelines are reduced more than ten-fold, from $170 million to $16 million. Unlike the other costs stemming from climate change in Alaska, such as damages from increasedprecipitationand flooding,climate change adaptationis not a viable way to reduce damages from permafrost thaw, as it would cost more than the damage incurred under either scenario. In Canada,Northwest Territorieshave a population of only 45,000 people in 33 communities, yet permafrost thaw is expected to cost them $1.3 billion over 75 years, or around $51 million a year. In 2006, the cost of adaptingInuvialuithomes to permafrost thaw was estimated at $208/m2if they were built at pile foundations, and $1,000/m2if they didn't. At the time, the average area of a residential building in the territory was around 100 m2. Thaw-induced damage is also unlikely to be covered byhome insurance, and to address this reality, territorial government currently funds Contributing Assistance for Repairs and Enhancements (CARE) and Securing Assistance for Emergencies (SAFE) programs, which provide long- and short-term forgivable loans to help homeowners adapt. It is possible that in the future, mandatory relocation would instead take place as the cheaper option. However, it would effectively tear the localInuitaway from their ancestral homelands. Right now, their average personal income is only half that of the median NWT resident, meaning that adaptation costs are already disproportionate for them. Toxic pollution For much of the 20th century, it was believed that permafrost would \"indefinitely\" preserve anything buried there, and this made deep permafrost areas popular locations for hazardous waste disposal. In places like Canada'sPrudhoe Bayoil field, procedures were developed documenting the \"appropriate\" way to inject waste beneath the permafrost. This means that as of 2023, there are ~4500 industrial facilities in the Arctic permafrost areas which either actively process or store hazardous chemicals. Additionally, there are between 13,000 and 20,000 sites which have been heavily contaminated, 70% of them in Russia, and their pollution is currently trapped in the permafrost. About a fifth of both the industrial and the polluted sites (1000 and 2200–4800) are expected to start thawing in the future even if the warming does not increase from its 2020 levels. Only about 3% more sites would start thawing between now and 2050 under the climate change scenario consistent with theParis Agreementgoals,RCP2.6, but by 2100, about 1100 more industrial facilities and 3500 to 5200 contaminated sites are expected to start thawing even then. Under the very high emission scenario RCP8.5, 46% of industrial and contaminated sites would start thawing by 2050, and virtually all of them would be affected by the thaw by 2100. Organochlorinesand otherpersistent organic pollutantsare of a particular concern, due to their potential to repeatedly reach local communities after their re-release throughbiomagnificationin fish. At worst, future generations born in the Arctic would enter life with weakenedimmune systemsdue to pollutants accumulating across generations. A notable example of pollution risks associated with permafrost was the2020 Norilsk oil spill, caused by the collapse ofdiesel fuelstorage tank at Norilsk-Taimyr Energy'sthermal power plantNo. 3. It spilled 6,000 tonnes of fuel into the land and 15,000 into the water, pollutingAmbarnaya,Daldykanand many smaller rivers onTaimyr Peninsula, even reaching lakePyasino, which is a crucial water source in the area.State of emergencyat the federal level was declared.The event has been described as the second-largest oil spill in modern Russian history. Impacts on indigenous peoples As climate change speeds up, it is having more and more of a direct impact on societies around the world. This is particularly true of people that live in the Arctic, where increases in temperature are occurring at faster rates than at other latitudes in the world, and where traditional ways of living, deeply connected with the natural arctic environment are at particular risk of environmental disruption caused by these changes. The warming of the atmosphere and ecological changes that come alongside it presents challenges to local communities such as theInuit. Hunting, which is a major way of survival for some small communities, will be changed with increasing temperatures.The reduction of sea ice will cause certain species populations to decline or even become extinct.Inuit communities are deeply reliant on seal hunting, which is dependent on sea ice flats, where seals are hunted. Unsuspected changes in river and snow conditions will cause herds of animals, including reindeer, to change migration patterns,calvinggrounds, andforageavailability.In good years, some communities are fully employed by the commercial harvest of certain animals.The harvest of different animals fluctuates each year and with the rise of temperatures it is likely to continue changing and creating issues for Inuit hunters, as unpredictability and disruption of ecological cycles further complicate life in these communities, which already face significant problems, such as Inuit communities being the poorest and most unemployed of North America. Other forms of transportation in the Arctic have seen negative impacts from the current warming, with some transportation routes and pipelines on land being disrupted by the melting of ice.Many Arctic communities rely on frozen roadways to transport supplies and travel from area to area.The changing landscape and unpredictability of weather is creating new challenges in the Arctic.Researchers have documented historical and current trails created by the Inuit in thePan Inuit Trails Atlas, finding that the change in sea ice formation and breakup has resulted in changes to the routes of trails created by the Inuit. Adaptation Research Individual countries within the Arctic zone,Canada, Denmark (Greenland),Finland,Iceland,Norway,Russia,Sweden, and theUnited States(Alaska) conduct independent research through a variety of organizations and agencies, public and private, such as Russia'sArctic and Antarctic Research Institute. Countries who do not have Arctic claims, but are close neighbors, conduct Arctic research as well, such as theChinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration(CAA). The United States'sNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) produces anArctic Report Cardannually, containingpeer-reviewedinformation on recent observations of environmental conditions in the Arctic relative to historical records.International cooperative research between nations has also become increasingly important: The 2021Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme(AMAP) report by an international team of more than 60 experts, scientists, and indigenous knowledge keepers from Arctic communities, was prepared from 2019 to 2021.: viiIt is a follow-up report of the 2017 assessment, \"Snow, Water, Ice and Permafrost in the Arctic\" (SWIPA).: viiThe 2021 IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Report confirmed that \"bserved and projected warming\" were \"\"strongest in the Arctic\".: 29According to an 11 August 2022 article published inNature, there have been numerous reports that the Arctic is warming from twice to three times as fast as the global average since 1979, but the co-authors cautioned that the recent report of the \"four-fold Arctic warming ratio\" was potentially an \"extremely unlikely event\".The annual mean Arctic Amplification (AA) index had \"reached values exceeding four\" from c. 2002 through 2022, according to a July 2022 article inGeophysical Research Letters.: 1 The 14 December 2021 16th Arctic Report Card produced by the United States'sNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) and released annually, examined the \"interconnected physical, ecological and human components\" of the circumpolar Arctic.The report said that the 12 months between October 2020 and September 2021 were the \"seventh warmest over Arctic land since the record began in 1900\".The 2017 report said that the melting ice in the warming Arctic was unprecedented in the past 1500 years.NOAA's State of the Arctic Reports, starting in 2006, updates some of the records of the original 2004 and 2005Arctic Climate Impact Assessment(ACIA) reports by the intergovernmentalArctic Counciland the non-governmentalInternational Arctic Science Committee. A 2022United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) report \"Spreading Like Wildfire: The Rising Threat Of Extraordinary Landscape Fires\" said that smoke from wildfires around the world created apositive feedback loopthat is a contributing factor to Arctic melting.The2020 Siberian heatwavewas \"associated with extensive burning in the Arctic Circle\".: 36Report authors said that this extreme heat event was the first to demonstrate that it would have been \"almost impossible\" without anthropogenic emissions and climate change.: 36 See also References Works cited Further reading External links" ]
[ "Litke Deep Litke Deep(Russian:Жёлоб Ли́тке) isanoceanic trenchin theArctic Ocean. The deepest point, also referred to as Litke Deep, is 5,449 m (17,877 ft) belowsea level. It is the closest point of the upper surface of Earth'slithospheretoEarth's center, withChallenger Deepbeing 14.7268 km (9.2 mi) further from Earth's centre at abathymetricdepth of 6,366.4311 km (3,955.9 mi). The deepest point in Litke Deep is the closest point on the Earth's surface to theEarth's centergiven that it is located along the planet'spolar flattening. Based on average global sea level (mean sea level), the deepest point in Litke Deep is shallower thanChallenger Deep.Litke Deep is the second deepest point in the Arctic Ocean afterMolloy Deep. Topography Location The Litke Deep is located in the southwestern part of theEurasian Basin,which stretches from northeastern part ofGreenlandpast theSvalbardarchipelago,Franz Josef LandandSevernaya Zemlyato theTaymyr Peninsula. It is situated south of theunderwater ridgeGakkel Ridgeroughly", "Ridgeroughly 350 kilometersnortheast of Svalbard and roughly 220 km north of the island ofNordaustlandet. The deepest part is at 5,449metres(17,881feet)undersea level. Closest point to Earth's center The Challenger Deep is lower below sea level, but the Litke Deep is reported to be the closest point on the surface to Earth's center,withMolloy Deepa very close second. The seabed at Litke Deep is the fixed point on Earth that has the least distance from the center – because of the oblate spheroid shape of the planet Earth, which is flatter atpolesand thicker at theequator. Application of the formula atEarth radiusshows that the Earth's radius is 14.7268 km (9 mi) lesser at Litke Deep than at Challenger Deep. Litke Deep is closer toNorth Poleat 82°24’ N and the difference betweenEarth'sdiameter at poles and equatoris greater than the depth at Challenger Deep (10,925 m (35,843 ft) below sea level), around 11°22' north, nearer to equator with sea level also having the difference. Despite being 5,475 m (17,963 ft)", "5,475 m (17,963 ft) shallower in depth below sea level, it is 6,351.7043 km (3,946.8 mi) from the Earth's center, 14.7268 km (9 mi) nearer than the Challenger Deep (6,366.4311 km (3,955.9 mi) to the Earth's center). In this ranking, several other Arctic as well as Antarctic depths such asMolloy Deep, seabed at North Pole, Factorian Deep andMeteor DeepinSouthern Oceanexceed Challenger Deep. However, by depth below sea level, Litke Deep is not the deepest point in the Arctic Ocean. Surveys The Litke Deep was located in 1955by the Russian icebreakerFyodor Litkeexpedition. It is named after Russian explorerFyodor Petrovich Litke. Descents No crewed or unmanned descents have been undertaken to Litke Deep as of 2024. See also References External links 82°24′00″N19°31′00″E / 82.40000°N 19.51667°E /82.40000; 19.51667", "Arctic Ocean Main five oceans division: Further subdivision: TheArctic Oceanis the smallest and shallowest of the world's fiveoceanic divisions.It spans an area of approximately 14,060,000 km2(5,430,000 sq mi) and is the coldest of the world's oceans. TheInternational Hydrographic Organization(IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although someoceanographerscall it theArctic Mediterranean Sea.It has also been described as anestuaryof theAtlantic Ocean.It is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassingworld ocean. The Arctic Ocean includes theNorth Poleregion in the middle of theNorthern Hemisphereand extends south to about60°N. The Arctic Ocean is surrounded byEurasiaand North America, and the borders follow topographic features: theBering Straiton thePacificside and the Greenland Scotland Ridge on the Atlantic side. It is mostly covered bysea icethroughout the year and almost completely inwinter. The Arctic Ocean'ssurface temperatureandsalinityvary seasonally as theice covermelts and freezes;its", "and freezes;its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to lowevaporation, heavyfresh waterinflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%.The USNational Snow and Ice Data Center(NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years, showing a continuousdecline in sea iceextent.In September 2012, the Arctic ice extent reached a new record minimum. Compared to the average extent (1979–2000), the sea ice had diminished by 49%. History North America Human habitation in the North American polar region goes back at least 17,000–50,000 years, during theWisconsin glaciation. At this time, fallingsea levelsallowed people to move across theBering land bridgethat joinedSiberiato northwestern North America (Alaska), leading to theSettlement of the Americas. Early", "the Americas. Early Paleo-Eskimogroups included thePre-Dorset(c.3200–850 BC); theSaqqaq cultureof Greenland (2500–800 BC); theIndependence IandIndependence II culturesof northeastern Canada andGreenland(c.2400–1800 BCandc.800–1 BC); and theGroswaterofLabradorandNunavik. TheDorset culturespread across Arctic North America between 500 BC and AD 1500. The Dorset were the last majorPaleo-Eskimoculture in the Arctic before the migration east from present-dayAlaskaof theThule people, ancestors of the modernInuit. The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600, arising around the Bering Strait and later encompassing almost the entire Arctic region of North America. The Thule people were the ancestors of the Inuit, who now live in Alaska,Northwest Territories,Nunavut, Nunavik (northern Quebec), Labrador and Greenland. Europe For much ofEuropean history, the northpolar regionsremained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural.PytheasofMassiliarecorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to", "in 325 BC, to a land he called \"Eschate Thule\", where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance \"on which one can neither walk nor sail\". He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as \"growlers\" or \"bergy bits\"; his \"Thule\" was probablyNorway, though theFaroe IslandsorShetlandhave also been suggested. Earlycartographerswere unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as inJohannes Ruysch's map of 1507, orGerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as withMartin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, theNorthern Sea Routeor theNorthwest Passage, to \"Cathay\" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such asJohann Homannfeatured an extensive \"Oceanus Septentrionalis\" at the northern edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond theArctic Circlein that era added only small islands, such asNovaya Zemlya(11th century) andSpitzbergen(1596),", "though, since these were often surrounded bypack-ice, their northern limits were not so clear. The makers ofnavigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in. 19th century This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, themythof an \"Open Polar Sea\" was persistent.John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of theBritish Admiralty,promoted explorationof the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this. In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorersElisha KaneandIsaac Israel Hayesboth claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authorityMatthew Fontaine Mauryincluded a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbookThe Physical Geography of the Sea(1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the", "and closer to the pole reported, thepolar ice capis quite thick and persists year-round. Fridtjof Nansenwas the first to make anauticalcrossing of the Arctic Ocean, in theFram Expeditionfrom 1893 to 1896. 20th century The first surface crossing of the ocean was led byWally Herbertin 1969, in adog sledexpedition from Alaska toSvalbard, with air support.The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the submarineUSSNautilus, and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by theicebreakerNSArktika. Since 1937,Sovietand Russian manneddrifting ice stationshave extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres byice floes. InWorld War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean washeavily contested: theAllied commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern portswas opposed by German naval and air forces. Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (seePolar route). Geography", "route). Geography Size The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2(5,427,000 sq mi), almost the size ofAntarctica.The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi) long.It is the onlyoceansmaller thanRussia, which has a land area of 16,377,742 km2(6,323,482 sq mi). Surrounding land and exclusive economic zones The Arctic Ocean is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia (Russia and Norway), North America (Canadaand the U.S. state of Alaska), Greenland, andIceland. Note: Some parts of the areas listed in the table are located in theAtlantic Ocean. Other consists ofGulfs,Straits,Channelsand other parts without specific names and excludesExclusive Economic Zones. Subareas and connections The Arctic Ocean is connected to thePacific Oceanby theBering Straitand to the Atlantic Ocean through theGreenland SeaandLabrador Sea.(TheIceland Seais sometimes considered part of the Greenland Sea, and sometimes separate.) The largest seas in the Arctic Ocean: Different authorities put", "authorities put various marginal seas in either the Arctic Ocean or the Atlantic Ocean, including:Hudson Bay,Baffin Bay, theNorwegian Sea, andHudson Strait. Islands The main islands and archipelagos in the Arctic Ocean are, from theprime meridianwest: Ports There are several ports andharbourson the Arctic Ocean. Arctic shelves The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises a number ofcontinental shelves, including the Canadian Arctic shelf, underlying theCanadian Arctic Archipelago, and theRussian continental shelf, which is sometimes called the \"Arctic Shelf\" because it is larger. The Russian continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves: the Barents Shelf,Chukchi Sea ShelfandSiberian Shelf. Of these three, the Siberian Shelf is the largest such shelf in the world; it holds large oil and gas reserves. The Chukchi shelf forms the border between Russian and the United States as stated in theUSSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement. The whole area is subject to internationalterritorial claims. TheChukchi", "claims. TheChukchi Plateauextends from the Chukchi Sea Shelf. Underwater features Anunderwater ridge, theLomonosov Ridge, divides the deep seaNorth Polar Basininto twooceanic basins: theEurasian Basin, which is 4,000–4,500 m (13,100–14,800 ft) deep, and theAmerasian Basin(sometimes called the North American or Hyperborean Basin), which is about 4,000 m (13,000 ft) deep. Thebathymetryof the ocean bottom is marked byfault blockridges,abyssal plains,ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,406 ft).The deepest point isMolloy Holein theFram Strait, at about 5,550 m (18,210 ft). The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into theCanada Basin(between Beaufort Shelf of North America and theAlpha Ridge),Makarov Basin(between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges),Amundsen Basin(between Lomonosov andGakkelridges), andNansen Basin(between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes theFranz Josef Land). Geology The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the", "around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional phase of the largerCaledonian orogenyin thePaleozoicEra. Regional subsidence in theJurassicandTriassicperiods led to significant sediment deposition, creating many of the reservoirs for current day oil and gas deposits. During theCretaceousperiod, the Canadian Basin opened, and tectonic activity due to the assembly of Alaska caused hydrocarbons to migrate toward what is now Prudhoe Bay. At the same time, sediments shed off the rising Canadian Rockies built out the large Mackenzie Delta. The rifting apart of thesupercontinentPangea, beginning in the Triassic period, opened the early Atlantic Ocean. Rifting then extended northward, opening the Arctic Ocean asmaficoceanic crust material erupted out of a branch of Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Amerasia Basin may have opened first, with theChukchi Borderlandmoved along to the northeast by transform faults. Additional spreading helped to create the \"triple-junction\" of the", "of the Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge in theLate Cretaceousepoch. Throughout theCenozoicEra, the subduction of the Pacific plate, the collision of India with Eurasia, and the continued opening of the North Atlantic created new hydrocarbon traps. The seafloor began spreading from the Gakkel Ridge in thePaleoceneEpoch and theEoceneEpoch, causing the Lomonosov Ridge to move farther from land and subside. Because of sea ice and remote conditions, the geology of the Arctic Ocean is still poorly explored. The Arctic Coring Expedition drilling shed some light on the Lomonosov Ridge, which appears to be continental crust separated from the Barents-Kara Shelf in the Paleocene and then starved of sediment. It may contain up to 10 billion barrels of oil. The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea. Oceanography Water flow In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about 50 m ) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than the rest. It remains relatively stable because the", "stable because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian rivers (Ob,Yenisei,Lena,Mackenzie), the water of which quasi floats on the saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean lies the so-calledhalocline, in which both salinity and temperature rise with increasing depth. Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It resembles some hydrological features of theMediterranean Sea, referring to its deep waters having only limited communication through the Fram Strait with theAtlantic Basin, \"where the circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing\".The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07 × 106km3, equal to about 1.3% of the World Ocean. Mean surface circulation is predominantly cyclonic on theEurasianside and anticyclonic in theCanadian Basin. Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic", "and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around 900 m (3,000 ft) depth.It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8Sverdrupsand reaches theChukchi Sea.During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s.This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline. This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms, and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough", "become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below.Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate. In the depth range of 150–900 m (490–2,950 ft) is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from theNorth Atlantic Currententers through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles theArctic Basincounter-clockwise. This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current.It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s.Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 °C ). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density.When water reaches the basin, it", "the basin, it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called theBeaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers. The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found in the depth range of 150–200 m (490–660 ft). The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf.As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer on account of weak mixing between layers. However, over the past couple of decades a combination of the warmingand the shoaling of Atlantic waterare leading to the increasing influence of Atlantic water heat in melting sea ice in the eastern Arctic. The most recent estimates, for 2016–2018, indicate the oceanic heat flux to the surface has now overtaken the", "now overtaken the atmospheric flux in the eastern Eurasian Basin.Over the same period the weakening halocline stratification has coincided with increasing upper ocean currents thought to be associated with declining sea ice, indicate increasing mixing in this region.In contrast direct measurements of mixing in the western Arctic indicate the Atlantic water heat remains isolated at intermediate depths even under the 'perfect storm' conditions of theGreat Arctic Cyclone of 2012. Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about 2,700 m (8,900 ft) deep and 350 km (220 mi) wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv.The width of the Fram Strait is what allows for both inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by theCoriolis force, which concentrates outflow to the East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to theNorwegian Currenton the eastern side.Pacific water also exits", "water also exits along the west coast of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1–2 Sv), providing nutrients to the Canadian Archipelago. As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension of theSiberian Highsystem—is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre.During the summer, this area of high pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is asea level pressure(SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In the summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final example of seasonal", "example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of theIcelandic Low, which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to centre over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during the summer months. There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the phase of the Arctic Oscillation andAtlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. Sea ice Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the Arctic sea ice has been continuously decreasing in the last decades, declining at a rate of currently 12.85% per decade since 1980 from the average winter value of 15,600,000 km2(6,023,200 sq mi).The seasonal variations are about 7,000,000 km2(2,702,700 sq mi), with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move", "which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice. Icebergsoccasionally break away from northernEllesmere Island, and icebergs are formed fromglaciersin western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Icebergs are not sea ice but may become embedded in the pack ice. Icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which theTitanicis one of the most famous. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and thesuperstructureof ships are subject toicingfrom October to May.Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although theBaychimodrifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards). Climate The Arctic Ocean is contained in apolar climatecharacterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by thepolar night, extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature inversions, and stable weather", "and stable weather conditions.Cyclonesare only common on the Atlantic side.Summers are characterized by continuousdaylight(midnight sun), and air temperatures can rise slightly above 0 °C (32 °F). Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow.It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer. The temperature of the surface water of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant at approximately −1.8 °C (28.8 °F), near thefreezing pointofseawater. Thedensityof sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper 100–150 m (330–490 ft) of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form.In the winter, the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on theAntarctic continent. There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack", "in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April—about 20–50 cm (7.9–19.7 in) over the frozen ocean. The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly during the Earth's history. During thePaleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum55 million years ago, when the global climate underwent a warming of approximately 5–8 °C (9–14 °F), the region reached an average annual temperature of 10–20 °C (50–68 °F).The surface waters of the northernmostArctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms (thedinoflagellatesApectodinium augustum) requiring surface temperatures of over 22 °C (72 °F). Currently, the Arctic region is warming twice as fast as the rest of the planet. Biology Due to the pronounced seasonality of 2–6 months ofmidnight sunandpolar nightin the Arctic Ocean, theprimary productionof photosynthesizing organisms such asice", "such asice algaeandphytoplanktonis limited to the spring and summer months (March/April to September).Important consumers ofprimary producersin the central Arctic Ocean and the adjacentshelf seasincludezooplankton, especiallycopepods(Calanus finmarchicus,Calanus glacialis, andCalanus hyperboreus)andeuphausiids,as well as ice-associatedfauna(e.g.,amphipods).Theseprimary consumersform an important link between the primary producers and highertrophic levels. The composition of higher trophic levels in the Arctic Ocean varies with region (Atlantic side vs. Pacific side) and with thesea-icecover.Secondary consumersin theBarents Sea, an Atlantic-influenced Arctic shelf sea, are mainly sub-Arctic species includingherring, youngcod, andcapelin.In ice-covered regions of the central Arctic Ocean,polar codis a central predator of primary consumers. Theapex predatorsin the Arctic Ocean—marine mammalssuch asseals,whales, andpolar bears—prey upon fish. Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean", "in the Arctic Ocean includewalrusesandwhales. The area has a fragileecosystem, and it is especially exposed toclimate change, because it warms faster than the rest of the world.Lion's mane jellyfishare abundant in the waters of the Arctic, and thebanded gunnelis the only species ofgunnelthat lives in the ocean. Natural resources Petroleumandnatural gasfields,placer deposits,polymetallic nodules, sand and gravelaggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region. The political dead zone near the centre of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark.It is significant for the globalenergy marketbecause it may hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources. Environmental concerns Arctic ice melting TheArctic ice packis thinning, and a seasonal hole in theozone layerfrequently occurs.Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's averagealbedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a", "global warming in a positive feedback mechanism.Research shows that the Arctic may become ice-free in the summer for the first time in human history by 2040.Estimates vary for when the last time the Arctic was ice-free: 65 million years ago when fossils indicate that plants existed there to as recently as 5,500 years ago; ice and ocean cores going back 8,000 years to thelast warm periodor 125,000 during thelast intraglacial period. Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of freshmelt-waterto enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting globalocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth'sclimatemight then ensue. As the extent of sea ice diminishes andsea level rises, the effect of storms such as theGreat Arctic Cyclone of 2012on open water increases, as does possible salt-water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the MackenzieDeltaas strongerstorm surgesbecome more likely. Global warming has increased encounters between polar bears and humans. Reduced sea", "humans. Reduced sea ice due to melting is causing polar bears to search for new sources of food.Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019,a mass invasion of polar bearsinto the archipelago ofNovaya Zemlyacaused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes, public buildings and inhabited areas. Clathrate breakdown Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilizemethanedeposits on and near the shoreline,preventing theclathratebreaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerfulgreenhouse gas, into theatmosphere, causing further warming in a strongpositive feedbackcycle and marine genera and species to become extinct. Other concerns Otherenvironmental concernsrelate to theradioactive contaminationof the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russianradioactive wastedump sites in the Kara Sea,Cold Warnuclear test sitessuch as", "test sitessuch as Novaya Zemlya,Camp Century's contaminants in Greenland,and radioactive contamination from theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On 16 July 2015, five nations (United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources. See also References Further reading External links Download coordinates as: 90°N0°E / 90°N 0°E /90; 0", "Climate change in the Arctic Due toclimate change in the Arctic, this polar region is expected to become \"profoundly different\" by 2050.: 2321The speed of change is \"among the highest in the world\",: 2321with the rate of warming being 3-4 times faster than the global average.This warming has already resulted in the profoundArctic sea ice decline, the accelerating melting of theGreenland ice sheetand the thawing of thepermafrostlandscape.: 2321These ongoing transformations are expected to be irreversible for centuries or even millennia.: 2321 Natural life in the Arctic is affected greatly. As thetundrawarms, its soil becomes more hospitable toearthwormsand larger plants,and theboreal forestsspread to the north - yet this also makes the landscape more prone towildfires, which take longer to recover from than in the other regions.Beaversalso take advantage of this warming to colonize the Arctic rivers, and theirdamscontributing tomethaneemissions due to the increase in stagnant waters.TheArctic Oceanhas", "Oceanhas experienced a large increase in themarine primary productionas warmer waters and less shade from sea ice benefitphytoplankton.: 2326At the same time, it is already less alkaline than the rest of the global ocean, soocean acidificationcaused by the increasing CO2concentrations is more severe, threatening some forms ofzooplanktonsuch aspteropods.: 2328 The Arctic Ocean is expected to see its first ice-free events in the near future - most likely before 2050, and potentially in the late 2020s or early 2030s.This would have no precedent in the last 700,000 years.Some sea ice regrows every Arctic winter, but such events are expected to occur more and more frequently as the warming increases. This has great implications for thefaunaspecies which are dependent on sea ice, such aspolar bears. For humans, trade routes across the ocean will become more convenient. Yet, multiple countries haveinfrastructurein the Arctic which is worth billions of dollars, and it is threatened with collapse as the underlying", "as the underlying permafrost thaws. The Arctic's indigenous people have a long relationship with its icy conditions, and face the loss of their cultural heritage. Further, there are numerous implications which go beyond the Arctic region. Sea ice loss not only enhances warming in the Arctic but also adds to global temperature increase through theice-albedo feedback. Permafrost thaw results in emissions of CO2and methane that are comparable to those of major countries. Greenland melting is a significant contributor to globalsea level rise. If the warming exceeds - or thereabouts, there is a significant risk of the entire ice sheet being lost over an estimated 10,000 years, adding up to global sea levels. Warming in the Arctic may affect the stability of thejet stream, and thus the extreme weather events inmidlatituderegions, but there is only \"low confidence\" in that hypothesis. Impacts on the physical environment Warming The period of 1995–2005 was the warmest decade in the Arctic since at least the 17th", "at least the 17th century, with temperatures 2 °C (3.6 °F) above the 1951–1990 average.Alaska and western Canada's temperature rose by 3 to 4 °C (5.40 to 7.20 °F) during that period.2013 research has shown that temperatures in the region haven't been as high as they currently are since at least 44,000 years ago and perhaps as long as 120,000 years ago.Since 2013, Arctic annual mean surface air temperature (SAT) has been at least 1 °C (1.8 °F) warmer than the 1981-2010 mean. In 2016, there were extreme anomalies from January to February with the temperature in the Arctic being estimated to be between 4–5.8 °C (7.2–10.4 °F) more than it was between 1981 and 2010.In 2020, mean SAT was 1.9 °C (3.4 °F) warmer than the 1981–2010 average.On 20 June 2020, for the first time, a temperature measurement was made inside the Arctic Circle of 38 °C, more than 100 °F. This kind of weather was expected in the region only by 2100. In March, April and May the average temperature in the Arctic was 10 °C (18.0 °F) higher than", "°F) higher than normal.This heat wave, without human – induced warming, could happen only one time in 80,000 years, according to an attribution study published in July 2020. It is the strongest link of a weather event to anthropogenic climate change that had been ever found, for now. Arctic amplification Snow– and ice–albedo feedback have a substantial effect on regional temperatures. In particular, the presence of ice cover andsea icemakes theNorth Poleand theSouth Polecolder than they would have been without it.Consequently, recentArctic sea ice declineis one of the primary factors behind the Arctic warming nearly four times faster than the global average since 1979 (the year when continuous satellite readings of the Arctic sea ice began), in a phenomenon known asArctic amplification. Modelling studies show that strong Arctic amplification only occurs during the months when significant sea ice loss occurs, and that it largely disappears when the simulated ice cover is held fixed.Conversely, the high", "the high stability of ice cover in Antarctica, where the thickness of theEast Antarctic ice sheetallows it to rise nearly 4 km above the sea level, means that this continent has experienced very little net warming over the past seven decades, most of which was concentrated in West Antarctica.Ice loss in the Antarctic and its contribution tosea level riseis instead driven overwhelmingly by the warming of theSouthern Ocean, which had absorbed 35–43% of the total heat taken up by all oceans between 1970 and 2017. The Arctic was historically described as warming twice as fast as the global average,but this estimate was based on older observations which missed the more recent acceleration. By 2021, enough data was available to show that the Arctic had warmed three times as fast as the globe - 3.1°C between 1971 and 2019, as opposed to the global warming of 1°C over the same period.Moreover, this estimate defines the Arctic as everything above60th parallel north, or a full third of the Northern Hemisphere: in", "Hemisphere: in 2021–2022, it was found that since 1979, the warming within theArctic Circleitself (above the 66th parallel) has been nearly four times faster than the global average.Within the Arctic Circle itself, even greater Arctic amplification occurs in theBarents Seaarea, with hotspots aroundWest Spitsbergen Current: weather stations located on its path record decadal warming up to seven times faster than the global average.This has fuelled concerns that unlike the rest of the Arctic sea ice, ice cover in the Barents Sea may permanently disappear even around 1.5 degrees of global warming. Precipitation An observed impact of climate change is a strong increase in the number of lightnings in the Arctic. Lightnings increase the risk for wildfires.Some research suggests that globally, a warming greater than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the preindustrial level could change the type of precipitation in the Arctic from snow to rain in summer and autumn. Cryosphere loss Sea ice Sea icein theArcticregion has declined", "has declined in recent decades in area and volume due toclimate change. It has been melting more in summer than it refreezes in winter.Global warming, caused bygreenhouse gas forcingis responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice. The decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty-first century, with a decline rate of 4.7% per decade (it has declined over 50% since the first satellite records).Summertime sea ice will likely cease to exist sometime during the 21st century. Greenland ice sheet Greenland has had majorglaciersandice capsfor at least 18 million years,but a single ice sheet first covered most of the island some 2.6 million years ago.Since then, it has both grownand contracted significantly.The oldest known ice on Greenland is about 1 million years old.Due to anthropogenicgreenhouse gas emissions, the ice sheet is now the warmest it has been in the past 1000 years,and is losing ice at the fastest rate in at least the past 12,000 years. Every summer, parts of the", "parts of the surface melt andice cliffs calveinto the sea. Normally the ice sheet would be replenished by winter snowfall,but due toglobal warmingthe ice sheet is melting two to five times faster than before 1850,and snowfall has not kept up since 1996.If theParis Agreementgoal of staying below 2 °C (3.6 °F) is achieved, melting of Greenland ice alone would still add around6 cm (2+1⁄2in) to globalsea level riseby the end of the century. If there are no reductions in emissions, melting would add around 13 cm (5 in) by 2100,: 1302with a worst-case of about 33 cm (13 in).For comparison, melting has so far contributed1.4 cm (1⁄2in) since 1972,while sea level rise from all sources was 15–25 cm (6–10 in) between 1901 and 2018.: 5 Biological environment Impacts on Arctic flora Climate change is expected to have a strong effect on the Arctic's flora, some of which is already being seen.NASA and NOAA have continuously monitored Arctic vegetation with satellite instruments such asModerate Resolution Imaging", "Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS) andAdvanced very-high-resolution radiometer(AVHRR).Their data allows scientists to calculate so-called \"Arctic greening\" and \"Arctic browning\".From 1985 to 2016, greening has occurred in 37.3% of all sites sampled in the tundra, whereas browning was observed only in 4.7% of the sites - typically the ones that were still experiencing cooling and drying, as opposed to warming and wettening for the rest. This expansion of vegetation in the Arctic is not equivalent across types of vegetation. A major trend has been fromshrub-type plants taking over areas previously dominated by moss and lichens. This change contributes to the consideration that the tundra biome is currently experiencing the most rapid change of any terrestrial biomes on the planet.The direct impact on mosses and lichens is unclear as there exist very few studies at species level, but climate change is more likely to cause increased fluctuation and more frequent extreme events.While shrubs may increase", "shrubs may increase in range and biomass, warming may also cause a decline incushion plantssuch as moss campion, and sincecushion plantsact as facilitator species acrosstrophic levelsand fill important ecological niches in several environments, this could cause cascading effects in these ecosystems that could severely affect the way in which they function and are structured. The expansion of these shrubs can also have strong effects on other important ecological dynamics, such as thealbedo effect.These shrubs change the winter surface of the tundra from undisturbed, uniform snow to mixed surface with protruding branches disrupting the snow cover,this type of snow cover has a lower albedo effect, with reductions of up to 55%, which contributes to a positive feedback loop on regional and global climate warming.This reduction of the albedo effect means that more radiation is absorbed by plants, and thus, surface temperatures increase, which could disrupt current surface-atmosphere energy exchanges and affect", "and affect thermal regimes of permafrost.Carbon cycling is also being affected by these changes in vegetation, as parts of the tundra increase their shrub cover, they behave more like boreal forests in terms of carbon cycling.This is speeding up the carbon cycle, as warmer temperatures lead to increased permafrost thawing and carbon release, but also carbon capturing from plants that have increased growth.It is not certain whether this balance will go in one direction or the other, but studies have found that it is more likely that this will eventually lead to increased CO2in the atmosphere. However, boreal forests, particularly those in North America, showed a different response to warming. Many boreal forests greened, but the trend was not as strong as it was for tundra of the circumpolar Arctic, mostly characterized by shrub expansion and increased growth.In North America, some boreal forests actually experienced browning over the study period. Droughts, increased forest fire activity, animal behavior,", "animal behavior, industrial pollution, and a number of other factors may have contributed to browning. Impacts on terrestrial fauna Arctic warming negatively affects the foraging and breeding ecology of native Arctic mammals, such asArctic foxesorArctic reindeer.In July 2019, 200Svalbard reindeerwere found starved to death apparently due to low precipitation related to climate change.This was only one episode in the long-term decline of the species.: 2327United States Geological Surveyresearch suggests that the shrinkage of Arctic sea ice would eventually extirpate polar bears fromAlaska, but leave some of theirhabitatin theCanadian Arctic Archipelagoand areas off the northern Greenland coast. As the pureArctic climateis gradually replaced by thesubarctic climate, animals adapted to those conditions spread to the north.: 2325For instance,beavershave been actively colonizing Arctic regions, and as they createdams, they flood areas which used to be permafrost, contributing to its thaw and methane emissions", "methane emissions from it.These colonizing species can outright replace native species, and they may also interbreed with their southern relations, like in the case of theGrizzly–polar bear hybrid. This usually has the effect of reducing thegenetic diversityof thegenus.Infectious diseases, such asbrucellosisorphocine distemper virus, may spread to populations previously separated by the cold, or, in case of themarine mammals, the sea ice. Marine ecosystems The reduction of sea ice has brought more sunlight to thephytoplanktonand increased the annualmarine primary productionin the Arctic by over 30% between 1998 and 2020.: 2327As the result, the Arctic Ocean became a strongercarbon sinkover this period;yet, it still accounts for only 5% to 14% of the total ocean carbon sink, although it is expected to play a larger role in the future.By 2100, phytoplanktonbiomassin the Arctic Ocean is generally expected to increase by ~20% relative to 2000 under the low-emission scenario, and by 30-40% under the high-emission", "the high-emission scenario.: 2329 Atlantic codhave been able to move deeper into the Arctic due to the warming waters, while thePolar codand localmarine mammalshave been losing habitat.: 2327Manycopepodspecies appear to be declining, which is also likely to reduce the numbers of fish which prey on them, such aswalleye pollockor thearrowtooth flounder.: 2327This also affects Arcticshorebirds. For instance, around 9000puffinsand other shorebirds in Alaska died of starvation in 2016, because too many fish have moved to the north.While the shorebirds also appear to nest more successfully due to the observed warming,this benefit may be more than offset byphenological mismatchbetween shorebirds' and other species' life cycles.Marine mammals such asringed sealsandwalrusesare also being negatively affected by the warming. Greenhouse gas emissions from the Arctic Permafrost thaw Permafrostis an important component of hydrological systems and ecosystems within the Arctic landscape.In the Northern Hemisphere the", "Hemisphere the terrestrial permafrost domain comprises around 18 million km2.Within this permafrost region, the total soil organic carbon (SOC) stock is estimated to be 1,460-1,600 Pg (where 1 Pg = 1 billion tons), which constitutes double the amount of carbon currently contained in the atmosphere. As recent warming deepens the active layer subject to permafrost thaw, this exposes formerly storedcarbonto biogenic processes which facilitate its entrance into the atmosphere ascarbon dioxideandmethane.Because carbon emissions from permafrost thaw contribute to the same warming which facilitates the thaw, it is a well-known example of apositive climate change feedback.Permafrost thaw is sometimes included as one of the majortipping points in the climate systemdue to the exhibition of local thresholds and its effective irreversibility.However, while there are self-perpetuating processes that apply on the local or regional scale, it is debated as to whether it meets the strict definition of a global tipping point", "tipping point as in aggregate permafrost thaw is gradual with warming. Altogether, it is expected that cumulative greenhouse gas emissions from permafrost thaw will be smaller than the cumulative anthropogenic emissions, yet still substantial on a global scale, with some experts comparing them to emissions caused bydeforestation.TheIPCC Sixth Assessment Reportestimates that carbon dioxide and methane released from permafrost could amount to the equivalent of 14–175 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per 1 °C (1.8 °F) of warming.: 1237For comparison, by 2019, annual anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide alone stood around 40 billion tonnes.: 1237A major review published in the year 2022 concluded that if the goal of preventing 2 °C (3.6 °F) of warming was realized, then the average annual permafrost emissions throughout the 21st century would be equivalent to the year 2019 annual emissions of Russia. Under RCP4.5, a scenario considered close to the current trajectory and where the warming stays slightly", "stays slightly below 3 °C (5.4 °F), annual permafrost emissions would be comparable to year 2019 emissions of Western Europe or the United States, while under the scenario of high global warming and worst-case permafrost feedback response, they would approach year 2019 emissions of China. Black carbon Black carbondeposits (from the combustion of heavy fuel oil (HFO) of Arctic shipping) absorb solar radiation in the atmosphere and strongly reduce the albedo when deposited on snow and ice, thus accelerating the effect of the melting of snow and sea ice.A 2013 study quantified thatgas flaringat petroleum extraction sites contributed over 40% of the black carbon deposited in the Arctic.2019 research attributed the majority (56%) of Arctic surface black carbon to emissions from Russia, followed by European emissions, and Asia also being a large source.In 2015, research suggested that reducing black carbon emissions and short-lived greenhouse gases by roughly 60 percent by 2050 could cool the Arctic up to 0.2", "Arctic up to 0.2 °C.However, a 2019 study indicates that \"Black carbon emissions will continuously rise due to increased shipping activities\", specifically fishing vessels. The number of wildfires in the Arctic Circle has increased. In 2020, Arctic wildfire CO2emissions broke a new record, peaking at 244 megatonnes of carbon dioxide emitted.This is due to the burning of peatlands, carbon-rich soils that originate from the accumulation of waterlogged plants which are mostly found at Arctic latitudes.These peatlands are becoming more likely to burn as temperatures increase, but their own burning and releasing of CO2contributes to their own likelihood of burning in a positive feedback loop.The smoke from wildfires defined as \"brown carbon\" also increases arctic warming, with its warming effect is around 30% that of black carbon. As wildfires increases with warming this creates apositive feedback loop. Methane clathrate deposits Effects on other parts of the world On ocean circulation In 2021, theIPCC Sixth", "2021, theIPCC Sixth Assessment Reportagain said the AMOC is \"very likely\" to decline within the 21st century and that there was a \"high confidence\" changes to it would be reversible within centuries if warming was reversed.: 19Unlike the Fifth Assessment Report, it had only \"medium confidence\" rather than \"high confidence\" in the AMOC avoiding a collapse before the end of the 21st century. This reduction in confidence was likely influenced by several review studies that draw attention to the circulation stability bias withingeneral circulation models,and simplified ocean-modelling studies suggesting the AMOC may be more vulnerable to abrupt change than larger-scale models suggest. On mid-latitude weather Since the early 2000s, climate models have consistently identified that global warming will gradually push jet streams poleward. In 2008, this was confirmed by observational evidence, which proved that from 1979 to 2001, the northern jet stream moved northward at an average rate of 2.01 kilometres (1.25 mi)", "(1.25 mi) per year, with a similar trend in theSouthern Hemispherejet stream.Climate scientists have hypothesized that the jet stream will also gradually weaken as a result ofglobal warming. Trends such asArctic sea ice decline, reduced snow cover,evapotranspirationpatterns, and other weather anomalies have caused the Arctic to heat up faster than other parts of the globe, in what is known as theArctic amplification. In 2021–2022, it was found that since 1979, the warming within theArctic Circlehas been nearly four times faster than the global average,and some hotspots in theBarents Seaarea warmed up to seven times faster than the global average.While the Arctic remains one of the coldest places on Earth today, the temperature gradient between it and the warmer parts of the globe will continue to diminish with every decade of global warming as the result of this amplification. If this gradient has a strong influence on the jet stream, then it will eventually become weaker and more variable in its course,", "in its course, which would allow more cold air from thepolar vortexto leakmid-latitudesand slow the progression ofRossby waves, leading to more persistent and moreextreme weather. The hypothesis above is closely associated withJennifer Francis, who had first proposed it in a 2012 paper co-authored by Stephen J. Vavrus.While some paleoclimate reconstructions have suggested that the polar vortex becomes more variable and causes more unstable weather during periods of warming back in 1997,this was contradicted by climate modelling, with PMIP2 simulations finding in 2010 that theArctic oscillationwas much weaker and more negative during theLast Glacial Maximum, and suggesting that warmer periods have stronger positive phase AO, and thus less frequent leaks of the polar vortex air.However, a 2012 review in theJournal of the Atmospheric Sciencesnoted that \"there a significant change in the vortex mean state over the twenty-first century, resulting in a weaker, more disturbed vortex.\",which contradicted the", "contradicted the modelling results but fit the Francis-Vavrus hypothesis. Additionally, a 2013 study noted that the then-currentCMIP5tended to strongly underestimate winter blocking trends,and other 2012 research had suggested a connection between declining Arctic sea ice and heavy snowfall during midlatitude winters. However, because the specific observations are considered short-term observations, there is considerable uncertainty in the conclusions.Climatologyobservations require several decades to definitively distinguish various forms of natural variability from climate trends.This point was stressed by reviews in 2013and in 2017.A study in 2014 concluded that Arctic amplification significantly decreased cold-season temperature variability over the Northern Hemisphere in recent decades. Cold Arctic air intrudes into the warmer lower latitudes more rapidly today during autumn and winter, a trend projected to continue in the future except during summer, thus calling into question whether winters will", "winters will bring more cold extremes.A 2019 analysis of a data set collected from 35 182 weather stations worldwide, including 9116 whose records go beyond 50 years, found a sharp decrease in northern midlatitude cold waves since the 1980s. Impacts on people Territorial claims Growing evidence that global warming is shrinking polar ice has added to the urgency of several nations'Arctic territorial claimsin hopes of establishing resource development andnew shipping lanes, in addition to protecting sovereign rights. As ice sea coverage decreases more and more, year on year, Arctic countries (Russia, Canada, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the United States and Denmark representing Greenland) are making moves on the geopolitical stage to ensure access to potentialnew shipping lanes, oil and gas reserves, leading to overlapping claims across the region.However, there is only one single land border dispute in the Arctic, with all others relating to the sea, that isHans Island.This small uninhabited island lies", "island lies in theNares strait, between Canada'sEllesmere Islandand the northern coast of Greenland. Its status comes from its geographical position, right between the equidistant boundaries determined in a 1973 treaty between Canada and Denmark.Even though both countries have acknowledged the possibility of splitting the island, no agreement on the island has been reached, with both nations still claiming it for themselves. There is more activity in terms of maritime boundaries between countries, where overlapping claims forinternal waters,territorial seasand particularlyExclusive Economic Zones(EEZs) can cause frictions between nations. Currently, official maritime borders have an unclaimed triangle of international waters lying between them, that is at the centerpoint of international disputes. This unclaimed land can be obtainable by submitting a claim to theUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, these claims can be based on geological evidence that continental shelves extend beyond their", "extend beyond their current maritime borders and into international waters. Some overlapping claims are still pending resolution by international bodies, such as a large portion containing thenorth polethat is both claimed by Denmark and Russia, with some parts of it also contested by Canada.Another example is that of theNorthwest Passage, globally recognized as international waters, but technically in Canadian waters.This has led to Canada wanting to limit the number of ships that can go through for environmental reasons but the United States disputes that they have the authority to do so, favouring unlimited passage of vessels. Navigation TheTranspolar Sea Routeis a future Arctic shipping lane running from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean across the center of the Arctic Ocean. The route is also sometimes called Trans-Arctic Route. In contrast to theNortheast Passage(including theNorthern Sea Route) and theNorth-West Passageit largely avoids the territorial waters of Arctic states and lies in", "states and lies in international high seas. Governments and private industry have shown a growing interest in the Arctic.Major new shipping lanes are opening up:the northern sea routehad 34 passages in 2011 while theNorthwest Passagehad 22 traverses, more than any time in history.Shipping companies may benefit from the shortened distance of these northern routes. Access to natural resources will increase, including valuable minerals and offshore oil and gas.Finding and controlling these resources will be difficult with the continually moving ice.Tourism may also increase as less sea ice will improve safety and accessibility to the Arctic. The melting of Arctic ice caps is likely to increase traffic in and the commercial viability of the Northern Sea Route. One study, for instance, projects, \"remarkable shifts in trade flows between Asia and Europe, diversion of trade within Europe, heavy shipping traffic in the Arctic and a substantial drop in Suez traffic. Projected shifts in trade also imply substantial", "imply substantial pressure on an already threatened Arctic ecosystem.\" Infrastructure As of 2021, there are 1162 settlements located directly atop the Arctic permafrost, which host an estimated 5 million people. By 2050, permafrost layer below 42% of these settlements is expected to thaw, affecting all their inhabitants (currently 3.3 million people).Consequently, a wide range of infrastructure in permafrost areas is threatened by the thaw.: 236By 2050, it's estimated that nearly 70% of global infrastructure located in the permafrost areas would be at high risk of permafrost thaw, including 30–50% of \"critical\" infrastructure. The associated costs could reach tens of billions of dollars by the second half of the century.Reducinggreenhouse gas emissionsin line with theParis Agreementis projected to stabilize the risk after mid-century; otherwise, it'll continue to worsen. InAlaskaalone, damages to infrastructure by the end of the century would amount to $4.6 billion (at 2015 dollar value) ifRCP8.5, the", "ifRCP8.5, the high-emissionclimate change scenario, were realized. Over half stems from the damage to buildings ($2.8 billion), but there's also damage to roads ($700 million), railroads ($620 million), airports ($360 million) andpipelines($170 million).Similar estimates were done for RCP4.5, a less intense scenario which leads to around 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) by 2100, a level of warming similar to the current projections.In that case, total damages from permafrost thaw are reduced to $3 billion, while damages to roads and railroads are lessened by approximately two-thirds (from $700 and $620 million to $190 and $220 million) and damages to pipelines are reduced more than ten-fold, from $170 million to $16 million. Unlike the other costs stemming from climate change in Alaska, such as damages from increasedprecipitationand flooding,climate change adaptationis not a viable way to reduce damages from permafrost thaw, as it would cost more than the damage incurred under either scenario. In Canada,Northwest", "In Canada,Northwest Territorieshave a population of only 45,000 people in 33 communities, yet permafrost thaw is expected to cost them $1.3 billion over 75 years, or around $51 million a year. In 2006, the cost of adaptingInuvialuithomes to permafrost thaw was estimated at $208/m2if they were built at pile foundations, and $1,000/m2if they didn't. At the time, the average area of a residential building in the territory was around 100 m2. Thaw-induced damage is also unlikely to be covered byhome insurance, and to address this reality, territorial government currently funds Contributing Assistance for Repairs and Enhancements (CARE) and Securing Assistance for Emergencies (SAFE) programs, which provide long- and short-term forgivable loans to help homeowners adapt. It is possible that in the future, mandatory relocation would instead take place as the cheaper option. However, it would effectively tear the localInuitaway from their ancestral homelands. Right now, their average personal income is only half that", "is only half that of the median NWT resident, meaning that adaptation costs are already disproportionate for them. Toxic pollution For much of the 20th century, it was believed that permafrost would \"indefinitely\" preserve anything buried there, and this made deep permafrost areas popular locations for hazardous waste disposal. In places like Canada'sPrudhoe Bayoil field, procedures were developed documenting the \"appropriate\" way to inject waste beneath the permafrost. This means that as of 2023, there are ~4500 industrial facilities in the Arctic permafrost areas which either actively process or store hazardous chemicals. Additionally, there are between 13,000 and 20,000 sites which have been heavily contaminated, 70% of them in Russia, and their pollution is currently trapped in the permafrost. About a fifth of both the industrial and the polluted sites (1000 and 2200–4800) are expected to start thawing in the future even if the warming does not increase from its 2020 levels. Only about 3% more sites", "about 3% more sites would start thawing between now and 2050 under the climate change scenario consistent with theParis Agreementgoals,RCP2.6, but by 2100, about 1100 more industrial facilities and 3500 to 5200 contaminated sites are expected to start thawing even then. Under the very high emission scenario RCP8.5, 46% of industrial and contaminated sites would start thawing by 2050, and virtually all of them would be affected by the thaw by 2100. Organochlorinesand otherpersistent organic pollutantsare of a particular concern, due to their potential to repeatedly reach local communities after their re-release throughbiomagnificationin fish. At worst, future generations born in the Arctic would enter life with weakenedimmune systemsdue to pollutants accumulating across generations. A notable example of pollution risks associated with permafrost was the2020 Norilsk oil spill, caused by the collapse ofdiesel fuelstorage tank at Norilsk-Taimyr Energy'sthermal power plantNo. 3. It spilled 6,000 tonnes of fuel", "tonnes of fuel into the land and 15,000 into the water, pollutingAmbarnaya,Daldykanand many smaller rivers onTaimyr Peninsula, even reaching lakePyasino, which is a crucial water source in the area.State of emergencyat the federal level was declared.The event has been described as the second-largest oil spill in modern Russian history. Impacts on indigenous peoples As climate change speeds up, it is having more and more of a direct impact on societies around the world. This is particularly true of people that live in the Arctic, where increases in temperature are occurring at faster rates than at other latitudes in the world, and where traditional ways of living, deeply connected with the natural arctic environment are at particular risk of environmental disruption caused by these changes. The warming of the atmosphere and ecological changes that come alongside it presents challenges to local communities such as theInuit. Hunting, which is a major way of survival for some small communities, will be changed", "will be changed with increasing temperatures.The reduction of sea ice will cause certain species populations to decline or even become extinct.Inuit communities are deeply reliant on seal hunting, which is dependent on sea ice flats, where seals are hunted. Unsuspected changes in river and snow conditions will cause herds of animals, including reindeer, to change migration patterns,calvinggrounds, andforageavailability.In good years, some communities are fully employed by the commercial harvest of certain animals.The harvest of different animals fluctuates each year and with the rise of temperatures it is likely to continue changing and creating issues for Inuit hunters, as unpredictability and disruption of ecological cycles further complicate life in these communities, which already face significant problems, such as Inuit communities being the poorest and most unemployed of North America. Other forms of transportation in the Arctic have seen negative impacts from the current warming, with some", "warming, with some transportation routes and pipelines on land being disrupted by the melting of ice.Many Arctic communities rely on frozen roadways to transport supplies and travel from area to area.The changing landscape and unpredictability of weather is creating new challenges in the Arctic.Researchers have documented historical and current trails created by the Inuit in thePan Inuit Trails Atlas, finding that the change in sea ice formation and breakup has resulted in changes to the routes of trails created by the Inuit. Adaptation Research Individual countries within the Arctic zone,Canada, Denmark (Greenland),Finland,Iceland,Norway,Russia,Sweden, and theUnited States(Alaska) conduct independent research through a variety of organizations and agencies, public and private, such as Russia'sArctic and Antarctic Research Institute. Countries who do not have Arctic claims, but are close neighbors, conduct Arctic research as well, such as theChinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration(CAA). The United", "The United States'sNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) produces anArctic Report Cardannually, containingpeer-reviewedinformation on recent observations of environmental conditions in the Arctic relative to historical records.International cooperative research between nations has also become increasingly important: The 2021Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme(AMAP) report by an international team of more than 60 experts, scientists, and indigenous knowledge keepers from Arctic communities, was prepared from 2019 to 2021.: viiIt is a follow-up report of the 2017 assessment, \"Snow, Water, Ice and Permafrost in the Arctic\" (SWIPA).: viiThe 2021 IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Report confirmed that \"bserved and projected warming\" were \"\"strongest in the Arctic\".: 29According to an 11 August 2022 article published inNature, there have been numerous reports that the Arctic is warming from twice to three times as fast as the global average since 1979, but the co-authors cautioned that the recent", "that the recent report of the \"four-fold Arctic warming ratio\" was potentially an \"extremely unlikely event\".The annual mean Arctic Amplification (AA) index had \"reached values exceeding four\" from c. 2002 through 2022, according to a July 2022 article inGeophysical Research Letters.: 1 The 14 December 2021 16th Arctic Report Card produced by the United States'sNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) and released annually, examined the \"interconnected physical, ecological and human components\" of the circumpolar Arctic.The report said that the 12 months between October 2020 and September 2021 were the \"seventh warmest over Arctic land since the record began in 1900\".The 2017 report said that the melting ice in the warming Arctic was unprecedented in the past 1500 years.NOAA's State of the Arctic Reports, starting in 2006, updates some of the records of the original 2004 and 2005Arctic Climate Impact Assessment(ACIA) reports by the intergovernmentalArctic Counciland the", "Counciland the non-governmentalInternational Arctic Science Committee. A 2022United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) report \"Spreading Like Wildfire: The Rising Threat Of Extraordinary Landscape Fires\" said that smoke from wildfires around the world created apositive feedback loopthat is a contributing factor to Arctic melting.The2020 Siberian heatwavewas \"associated with extensive burning in the Arctic Circle\".: 36Report authors said that this extreme heat event was the first to demonstrate that it would have been \"almost impossible\" without anthropogenic emissions and climate change.: 36 See also References Works cited Further reading External links" ]
Who was the Super Bowl MVP's wife the year the building Rodney Gordon designed was sold to Capital and City Group?
Abby McGrew
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Gordon
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_House,_London
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLVI
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Manning
null
null
null
null
null
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Gordon', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_House,_London', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLVI', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Manning']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Gordon", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_House,_London", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XLVI", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Manning" ]
[ "Rodney Gordon Rodney H Gordon(2 February 1933 – 30 May 2008) was an Englisharchitect. He was the primary architect of theTricorn Centre,Portsmouth, andTrinity Square, Gateshead. Architecturally, his works were primarily inconcrete; he was said to be aBrutalistand his buildings have been described as \"dramatic, sculptural and enormous\" as well as \"futuristic\". Biography Gordon was born on 2 February 1933 inWanstead, East Londonto Chilean-born Carmen F (Poirier) and East London-bornHyman Jacob Hyman.His mother was from the naval port ofPunta Arenas,Tierra Del Fuego, the southernmost city on Earth, overlooking the Straits of Magellan. Situated astride one of the world's historic trade routes, its prosperity has risen and fallen with that trade. Gordon's mother left there sometime in the 1920s and returned to London, England, where her parents had been living sometime before they left for Chile around 1903. They had initially come to London in the 1880s or 1890s to escape the Pogroms of Russia and Eastern Europe. He went toUniversity College Hospital Medical Schoolat the age of 16 but then, two years later inspired by theFestival of Britain, he switched to the Hammersmith School of Building, going on to theArchitectural Association School of Architecture, where he studied under the distinguished German Jewish modernist architect and urban plannerArthur Korn, before graduating in 1957. He then went to work at theLondon County Council(LCC) architects department for which he designed his first great work, theMichael Faraday Memorial at Elephant and Castle.In 1959 he was introduced toOwen Luderby a colleague from the LCC and by the end of the year he was working for him in theOwen Luder Partnershipfor which he designed theEros House. In the 1970s he foundedBatir International Architects, which later becameTripos Architects, with Ray Baum and Larry Abbot. It was during this time, at the age of 42, that he suffered a heart attack from overwork.In 1979 he designed his last work for Batir, a bronze- and aluminium-clad commercial complex on St James's Street, London. Personal life He was married and had one child but was later divorced. He was a passionate skier and founded theUphill Ski Clubwhich helps teach the physically handicapped to ski. He died on 30 May 2008 at the age of 75. References External links", "Target House, London Target Houseis a modern commercial building designed by British modernist architectRodney Gordon(1933–2008) ofTripos Architects. It is located at 66St James's Street, London, at the junction withSt James's Place. Design and construction The building was designed in 1979 and completed in 1984. It replaced Map House, designed by R.J. Worley.Theanodisedbronze and aluminum cladding of the building made it a departure from the \"brutalist\" concrete designs more usually produced by Gordon. Reception Charles McKean, the architecture correspondent forThe Times, praised Target House, then known just as 66 St James's Street, for its boldness andpanachebut doubted themedievalcredentials of the building claimed by the designers. He pointed out that the area had been developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and was not known for itsmedieval architectureapart from thefauxmedievalismof the nineteenth century. McKean argued that the reference to the medieval was ared-herringand the building was in fact more notable for its modernity and affinity with the \"space programme\". He speculated that the chopped-off towers at roof-line, that made the spectator say \"ouch\" and were the least successful part of the design in his opinion, were really the result of planning regulations that restricted the height of new buildings in the area. Occupancy The design included retail premises, offices and flats and the building was used in that form for many years. The ground floor is still occupied by theStern Pissarro Gallery,founded in 1964.In February 2013, a successful planning application was made toWestminster Councilto allow a change of use of the first to fourth floors from B1 (offices) to C3 (residential) use. Ownership In 2012, the building was sold byStandard Life InvestmentstoAlbert Hay'sCapital and City Groupfor £10.5 million. References External links", "Super Bowl TheSuper Bowlis the annualleague championshipgame of theNational Football League(NFL) of the United States. It has served as the final game of every NFL season since1966, replacing theNFL Championship Game. Since 2022, the game has been played on the second Sunday in February. Prior Super Bowls were played on Sundays in early to mid-January from 1967 to 1978, late January from 1979 to 2003,and the first Sunday of February from 2004 to 2021. Winning teams are awarded theVince Lombardi Trophy, named after theeponymous coachwho won the first two Super Bowls. Because the NFL restricts the use of its \"Super Bowl\" trademark, it is frequently referred to as the \"big game\" or other generic terms by non-sponsoring corporations. The day the game is held is commonly referred to as \"Super Bowl Sunday\" or simply \"Super Sunday\". The game was created as part of a 1966merger agreementbetween the NFL and the competingAmerican Football League(AFL) to have their 'best' teams compete for a championship. It was originally called theAFL–NFL World Championship Gameuntil the \"Super Bowl\" moniker was adopted in 1969'sSuper Bowl III. The first four Super Bowls from 1967 to 1970 were played prior to the merger, with the NFL and AFL each winning two. After the merger in 1970, the 10 AFL teams and three of the NFL teams formed theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) and the remaining 13 NFL teams formed theNational Football Conference(NFC). All games since 1971'sSuper Bowl Vhave been played between the best team from each of the two conferences, with the AFC and NFC tied at 27 wins each. Among the NFL's current 32 teams, 20 (11 NFC, nine AFC) have won a Super Bowl and 15 (eight AFC, seven NFC) hold multiple titles. The AFC'sPittsburgh SteelersandNew England Patriotshave the most Super Bowl titles at six each. The Patriots also have the most Super Bowl appearances at 11.The Patriots and theDenver Broncosof the AFC hold the record for the most defeats in the Super Bowl at five each. TheBaltimore Ravensof the AFC and theTampa Bay Buccaneersof the NFC are the only franchises to be undefeated in multiple Super Bowls, having each won two. Among the 12 teams who have not won a Super Bowl, the AFC'sCleveland Browns,Houston Texans, andJacksonville Jaguars, and the NFC'sDetroit Lionsare the only four to have not appeared in the game. The Super Bowl is among the world's most-watched single sporting events and frequently commands the largest audience among all American broadcasts during the year. It is second only to theUEFA Champions Leaguefinal as the most watched annual club sporting event worldwide,and the seven most-watched broadcasts in American television history are Super Bowls.Commercial airtime during the Super Bowl broadcastis the most expensive of the year because of the high viewership, leading to companies regularly developing their most expensive advertisements for the broadcast and commercial viewership becoming an integral part of the event. The Super Bowl is also the second-largest event for American food consumption, behindThanksgiving dinner. Origin Since the turn of the 20th century,college footballteams from across the United States have scheduled \"bowl games\" against each other. The original \"bowl game\" was theRose Bowl GameinPasadena, California, which was first played in 1902 as the \"Tournament East–West football game\" as part of thePasadena Tournament of Roses. In 1923, the Tournament East-West football game moved to the newRose Bowl Stadium; the stadium got its name from the fact that the game played there was part of the Tournament of Roses and that it was shaped like a bowl, much like theYale BowlinNew Haven, Connecticut. The Tournament of Roses football game thus eventually came to be known as the Rose Bowl Game. Exploiting the Rose Bowl Game's popularity, post-season college football contests were created for Miami (theOrange Bowl), New Orleans (theSugar Bowl), andEl Paso(theSun Bowl) in 1935, and forDallas(theCotton Bowl) in 1937. By the time the first Super Bowl was played, the term \"bowl\" for any major American football game was well established. For four decades after its 1920 inception, the NFL successfully fended off several rival leagues. In 1960, it encountered its most serious competitor when theAmerican Football League(AFL) was formed. The AFL vied with the NFL for players and fans. After theAFL's inaugural season, AFL commissionerJoe Fosssent an invitation to the NFL on January 14, 1961, to schedule a \"World Playoff\" game between the two leagues' champions, beginning with the upcoming 1961 season.The first World Playoff game, if actually played, would have matched up the AFL championHouston Oilersagainst the NFL championGreen Bay Packers. In the mid-1960s,Lamar Hunt, owner of the AFL'sKansas City Chiefs, first used the term \"Super Bowl\"to refer to the AFL–NFL championship game in the merger meetings. Hunt later said the name was likely in his head because his children had been playing with aSuper Balltoy;a vintage example of the ball is on display at thePro Football Hall of FameinCanton, Ohio. In a July 25, 1966, letter to NFL commissionerPete Rozelle, Hunt wrote, \"I have kiddingly called it the 'Super Bowl,' which obviously can be improved upon.\" The leagues' owners chose the name \"AFL–NFL Championship Game\",but in July 1966 theKansas City Starquoted Hunt in discussing \"the Super Bowl—that's my term for the championship game between the two leagues\",and the media immediately began using the term.Although the league stated in 1967 that \"not many people like it\", asking for suggestions and considering alternatives such as \"Merger Bowl\" and\"The Game\", the Associated Press reported that \"Super Bowl\" \"grew and grew and grew—until it reached the point that there was Super Week, Super Sunday, Super Teams, Super Players, ad infinitum\".\"Super Bowl\" became official beginning with the third annual game. Roman numeralsare used to identify each Super Bowl, rather than the year in which it is held, since the fifth edition, in January 1971.The sole exception to this naming convention tradition occurred withSuper Bowl 50, which was played on February 7, 2016, following the2015 regular season. The following year, thenomenclaturereturned to Roman numerals forSuper Bowl LI, following the2016 regular season. After the NFL'sGreen Bay Packerswon the first two Super Bowls, some team owners feared for the future of the merger. At the time, many doubted the competitiveness of AFL teams compared with their NFL counterparts, though that perception changed when the AFL'sNew York Jetsdefeated the heavily favored NFL contenderBaltimore ColtsinSuper Bowl IIIin Miami. One year later, the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL'sMinnesota Vikings23–7 inSuper Bowl IVin New Orleans, which was the final AFL–NFL World Championship Game played before the merger. Beginning with the 1970 season, the NFL realigned into two conferences; the former AFL teams plus three NFL teams (theBaltimore Colts,Pittsburgh Steelers, andCleveland Browns) would constitute theAmerican Football Conference(AFC), while the remaining NFL clubs would form theNational Football Conference(NFC). The champions of the two conferences would play each other in the Super Bowl. The winning team receives theVince Lombardi Trophy, named after the formercoachof the Green Bay Packers, who won the first two Super Bowl games as well as fiveNFL championshipspreceding the merger in 1961, 1962, 1965, 1966 and 1967. Following Lombardi's death in September 1970, the trophy was named after him. The first trophy awarded under the new name was presented to the Baltimore Colts following their win inSuper Bowl Vin Miami. Game history The Super Bowl was held in January from its inception in1967until2001. In2002, a week of regular season games was postponed and rescheduled following theSeptember 11 attacks; as a result,Super Bowl XXXVIbecame the first edition of the game played in February.Super Bowl XXXVIIwas held in January, but all subsequent games were held on the first Sunday in February until the schedule expansion of the2021 seasonmoved the game to the second Sunday. The currentNFL schedulebegins on the weekend immediately afterLabor Day(the first Monday in September). That weekend is the first of an 18-weekregular season, followed by three weeks ofplayoff gamesand one week for thePro Bowl. The Super Bowl is contested the week after the Pro Bowl. This schedule has been in effect since an 18th week (and 17th regular season game) were added to the NFL schedule for the 2021 season, withSuper Bowl LVIon February 13, 2022, the first to be played under this format. ThePittsburgh SteelersandNew England Patriotsare tied with a record six Super Bowl wins. TheDallas CowboysandSan Francisco 49ershave five victories each, while the Packers, Chiefs andNew York Giantshave four. Fourteen other NFL franchises have won at least one Super Bowl. The Patriots own the record for most Super Bowl appearances with eleven. The Cowboys, Steelers, Broncos and the 49ers are tied for second with eight appearances apiece, reaching that milestone in this respective order.Bill Belichickowns the recordfor the most Super Bowl wins (eight) and appearances (twelve: nine times as head coach, once as assistant head coach, and twice as defensive coordinator) by an individual.Tom Bradyhas the most Super Bowl starts (ten) and wins as a player (seven), whileCharles Haleyhas the second-most wins among players with five. Eight teams have appeared in Super Bowl games without a win. TheMinnesota Vikingswere the first team to appear four times without a win, while theBuffalo Billsplayed in a record four consecutive Super Bowls, losing in each. The Patriots and Broncos are tied for the most Super Bowl losses at five. TheCleveland Browns,Detroit Lions,Houston Texans, andJacksonville Jaguarsare the four teams to have never appeared in a Super Bowl, although the Browns and Lions both won NFL championships before the Super Bowl era. The Jaguars, who began play in 1995, and the Texans, who began play in 2002, are among the youngest franchises in the league. 1960s: Early history and Packers dominance The Packers won the first two AFL–NFL World Championship Games, later renamed Super Bowls, defeating theKansas City ChiefsandOakland Raidersfollowing the1966and1967seasons, respectively.The Packers were led by quarterbackBart Starr, who was named theMost Valuable Player (MVP)for both games.These two championships, coupled with the Packers' NFL championships in1961,1962, and1965, amount to the most successful stretch in NFL History; five championships in seven years, and the secondthreepeatin NFL history (1965, 1966, and 1967). The Packers are the only team to threepeat, as they also accomplished the feat in the pre-playoff era (1929, 1930 and 1931). The first playoff game in the NFL was in1932. In Super Bowl III, the AFL'sNew York Jetsdefeated the 19.5-point favorite Baltimore Colts of the NFL, 16–7.The Jets were led by quarterbackJoe Namath, who had famously guaranteed a Jets win before the game, and former Colts head coachWeeb Ewbank, and their victory proved that the AFL was the NFL's competitive equal.This was reinforced the following year when the Chiefs defeated the NFL's Vikings 23–7 inSuper Bowl IV. 1970s: Dominant franchises After theAFL–NFL mergerwas completed in 1970, three franchises—the Cowboys,Miami Dolphins, and Steelers—would go on to dominate the 1970s, winning a combined eight Super Bowls between them in the decade, with the Steelers winning four of the eight. The Baltimore Colts, now a member of the AFC, would start the decade by defeating the Cowboys in Super Bowl V, a game which is notable as being the only Super Bowl to date in which a player from the losing team won the Super Bowl MVP (Cowboys' linebackerChuck Howley).Beginning with this Super Bowl, all Super Bowls have served as the NFL's championship game. The Cowboys, coming back from a loss the previous season, wonSuper Bowl VIover the Dolphins.However, this would be the Dolphins' final loss for over a year, asthe next year, the Dolphins would go 14–0 in the regular season and eventually win all their playoff games, capped off with a 14–7 victory inSuper Bowl VII, becoming the first and only team in the Super Bowl era to finish an entire perfect regular and postseason undefeated.The Dolphins would repeat as league champions by winningSuper Bowl VIIIa year later with a 24–7 win over the Minnesota Vikings. In the mid to late 1970s, the Steelers became the first NFL dynasty of the post-merger era by winning four Super Bowls (IX,X,XIII, andXIV) in six years.They were led by head coachChuck Noll,the play of offensive starsTerry Bradshaw,Franco Harris,Lynn Swann,John Stallworth, andMike Webster, and their dominant \"Steel Curtain\" defense, led by\"Mean\" Joe Greene,L. C. Greenwood,Ernie Holmes,Mel Blount,Jack Ham, andJack Lambert. Many of the team's key players were selected in the1974 draft, in which Pittsburgh selected four future Hall of Famers, the most for any team in any sport in a single draft.A fifth player,Donnie Shell, was signed by Pittsburgh after going unselected in the 1974 NFL Draft; he too was later enshrined in the Hall of Fame.The Steelers were the first team to win three and then four Super Bowls and appeared in sixAFC Championship Gamesduring the decade, making the playoffs in eight straight seasons.Pittsburgh still remains the only team to win back-to-back Super Bowls twice and four Super Bowls in a six-year period. The Steelers' 1970s dynasty was interrupted only by the Raiders' first Super Bowl win inSuper Bowl XIand the Cowboys' second Super Bowl win inSuper Bowl XII.Conversely, the Vikings, with theirPurple People Eatersdefense, were the only other team to appear in multiple Super Bowls (IV, VIII, IX and XI) during the decade but failed to win each one. 1981–1996: The NFC's winning streak In the 1980s and 1990s, the tables turned for the AFC, as the NFC dominated the Super Bowls of the new decade and most of those in the 1990s. The NFC won 16 of the 20 Super Bowls during these two decades, including 13 straight fromSuper Bowl XIXtoSuper Bowl XXXI. The most successful team of the 1980s was the 49ers, which featured theWest Coast offenseof Hall of Fame head coachBill Walsh.This offense was led by three-time Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterbackJoe Montana, Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame wide receiverJerry Rice, running backRoger Craig, and Hall of Fame defensive safety/cornerbackRonnie Lott. Under their leadership, the 49ers won four Super Bowls in the decade (XVI,XIX,XXIII, andXXIV) and made nine playoff appearances between 1981 and 1990, including eight division championships, becoming the second dynasty of the post-merger NFL.The1984 San Francisco 49erswere the first team to achieve an 18–1 record, doing so under Walsh. The1989 San Francisco 49ers, under first-year head coachGeorge Seifert, posted the most lop-sided victory in Super Bowl history, defeating the Denver Broncos by a score of 55–10 inSuper Bowl XXIV. The 1980s also produced the1985 Chicago Bears, who posted an 18–1 record under head coachMike Ditka; quarterbackJim McMahon; and Hall of Fame running backWalter Payton.Their team wonSuper Bowl XXin dominant fashion.TheWashington Redskinsand New York Giants were also top teams of this period; Washington won Super BowlsXVII,XXII, andXXVI.The Giants claimed Super BowlsXXIandXXV.Both teams won multiple Super Bowls with different starting quarterbacks; Washington won withJoe Theismann(XVII),Doug Williams(XXII) andMark Rypien(XXVI), and the Giants withPhil Simms(XXI) andJeff Hostetler(XXV). As in the 1970s, the Raiders were the only AFC team to interrupt the Super Bowl dominance of NFC teams; they won Super BowlsXVandXVIII(the latter as the Los Angeles Raiders). Conversely, theCincinnati Bengals(XVI and XXIII), Dolphins, (XVII and XIX), and Broncos (XXI, XXII and XXIV) made multiple Super Bowls in the 1980s without winning one. Following several seasons with poor records in the 1980s, the Cowboys rose back to prominence in the 1990s. During this decade, the Cowboys made post-season appearances every year except for the seasons of 1990 and 1997.From 1992 to 1996, the Cowboys won their division championship each year.In this same period, the Buffalo Bills had made their mark reaching the Super Bowl for a record four consecutive years, only to lose all four (XXV-XXVIII).After Super Bowl championships by division rivals New York (1990) and Washington (1991), the Cowboys won three of the next four Super Bowls (XXVII,XXVIII, andXXX) led by quarterbackTroy Aikman, running backEmmitt Smith, and wide receiverMichael Irvin.All three of these players went to the Hall of Fame. The Cowboys' streak was interrupted by the49ers, who were the first team to win their league-leading fifth title overall withSuper Bowl XXIXwith a dominant performance featuring the Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterbackSteve Young(who threw a Super Bowl record 6 touchdown passes), Hall of Fame wide receiverJerry Rice, and Hall of Fame cornerbackDeion Sanders; however, the Cowboys' victory in Super Bowl XXX the next year also gave them five titles overall and they did so with Sanders after he won the Super Bowl the previous year with the 49ers.The NFC's winning streak was continued by the Packers led by Hall of Fame quarterbackBrett Favre, wonSuper Bowl XXXI, their first championship since Super Bowl II in 1967. The Patriots made their maiden Super Bowl appearances in XX (1985) and XXXI (1996) but lost both times.However, the turn of the century would soon bring hope and glory to the franchise. 1997–2009: AFC resurgence and the rise of the Patriots Super Bowl XXXIIsaw quarterbackJohn Elwayand running backTerrell Davislead the Denver Broncos to an upset victory over the defending champion Packers, snapping the NFC's thirteen-year winning streak.The following year, the Broncos defeated theAtlanta FalconsinSuper Bowl XXXIII, Elway's fifth Super Bowl appearance, his second NFL championship, and his final NFL game.The back-to-back victories heralded a change in momentum in which AFC teams would win nine out of 12 Super Bowls. In the years between 1995 and 2018, five teams—the Steelers, Patriots, Broncos,Baltimore Ravens, andIndianapolis Colts—accounted for 22 of the 24 AFC Super Bowl appearances (including the last 16), with those same teams often meeting each other earlier in the playoffs. In contrast, the NFC saw a different representative in the Super Bowl every season from 2001 through 2010. The New England Patriots became the dominant team throughout the early 2000s, winning the championship three out of four years early in the decade.They would become only the second team in the history of the NFL to do so (after the 1990s Dallas Cowboys). InSuper Bowl XXXVI, first-year starting quarterbackTom Bradyled his team to a 20–17 upset victory over theSt. Louis Rams, who two seasons earlier wonSuper Bowl XXXIV.Brady would go on to win the MVP award for this game. The Patriots also won Super BowlsXXXVIIIandXXXIXdefeating theCarolina Panthersand thePhiladelphia Eaglesrespectively.This four-year stretch of Patriot dominance was interrupted by theTampa Bay Buccaneers' 48–21Super Bowl XXXVIIvictory over the Oakland Raiders. The Steelers and Colts continued the era of AFC dominance by winning Super BowlsXLandXLIin the 2005 and 2006 seasons, respectively defeating theSeattle SeahawksandChicago Bears. In the2007 season, the Patriots became the fourth team in NFL history to have a perfect unbeaten and untied regular-season record, the second in the Super Bowl era after the 1972 Miami Dolphins, and the first to finish 16–0.They easily marched through the AFC playoffs and were heavy favorites inSuper Bowl XLII. However, they lost that game toEli Manningand the New York Giants 17–14, leaving the Patriots' 2007 record at 18–1. The following season, the Steelers logged their record sixth Super Bowl title (XLIII) in a 27–23, final-minute victory against theArizona Cardinals. The 2009 season saw theNew Orleans Saintsdefeat the Indianapolis Colts inSuper Bowl XLIVby a score of 31–17 to take home their first Championship.With this victory, the Saints joined the New York Jets as the only teams to have won in their sole Super Bowl appearance, a distinction the Ravens also enjoyed in winningSuper Bowl XXXVafter the 2000 season and the Buccaneers in 2002. 2010s: Patriots reign; parity in the NFC In the AFC, this era was dominated by the Patriots, with the only four other teams to represent the conference being the Steelers, Ravens, Broncos, and Chiefs. The Patriots had tied a record with the 1970s Dallas Cowboys for most Super Bowl appearances in a decade with five appearances (2011, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018). The Patriots also had four Super Bowl appearances in five years. They also had eight consecutive AFC championship appearances spanning 2011–2018. The Super Bowls of the 2000s and 2010s are notable for the performances (and the pedigrees) of several of the participating quarterbacks, especially on the AFC side in repeated appearances by the same teams and players. In particular, Tom Brady,Ben Roethlisberger, orPeyton Manningappeared as the AFC team's quarterback in all but two of the Super Bowls from 2001 through 2018.Conversely, the only NFC teams to make the Super Bowl multiple times with the same quarterback in this era were the Seahawks, led by quarterbackRussell Wilson, and the Giants, led by quarterback Eli Manning. One of these teams was featured in the culmination of the2010 season,Super Bowl XLV, which brought the Packers their fourth Super Bowl victory and record thirteenth NFL championship overall with the defeat of the Steelers in February 2011.This becameAaron Rodgers' only Super Bowl victory so far. The following year, inSuper Bowl XLVI, the Patriots made their first appearance of the decade, a position where they would become a mainstay. The Patriots, however, lost to the Eli Manning-led Giants, 21–17, who had beaten the Patriots four years before.This was the Giants' fourth Super Bowl victory. InSuper Bowl XLVII, the NFC's 49ers were defeated by the Ravens 34–31.The game had been dubbed as the 'Harbaugh Bowl' in the weeks leading up to the game, due to the fact that the coaches of the two teams,John HarbaughandJim Harbaugh, are brothers.During the third quarter, the Ravens had a commanding 28–6 lead. However, there was ablackoutin New Orleans, where the game was being played.The game was delayed for 34 minutes, and after play resumed, San Francisco stormed back with 17 straight points, but still lost. Super Bowl XLVIII, played atNew Jersey'sMetLife Stadiumin February 2014, was the first Super Bowl held outdoors in a cold-weather environment.The Seahawks won their first NFL title with a 43–8 defeat of the Broncos, in a highly touted matchup that pitted Seattle's top-ranked defense against a Peyton Manning-led Denver offense that had broken the NFL's single-season scoring record. InSuper Bowl XLIX, the Patriots beat the defending Super Bowl champions, the Seahawks, by a score of 28–24.Down by 10, the Patriots mounted a late fourth quarter comeback to win the game with Tom Brady scoring two touchdowns in the fourth quarter.In a key play in the final seconds of the game, then-rookie free agentMalcolm Butlerwould intercept a pass by Russell Wilson at the one-yard line, allowing the Patriots to run out the clock and end the game.Tom Brady was awarded his third Super Bowl MVP, tying Joe Montana for the most Super Bowl MVP awards. InSuper Bowl 50, the first Super Bowl to be branded withArabic numerals,the Broncos, led by the league's top-ranked defense, defeated the Panthers, who had the league's top-ranked offense, in what became the final game of quarterback Peyton Manning's career.Von Millerdominated, totaling 2.5 sacks and forcing twoCam Newtonfumbles; both fumbles leading to Broncos touchdowns. InSuper Bowl LI, the first Super Bowl to end in overtime,the Atlanta Falcons led 28–3 late in the third quarter, but the Patriots came back to tie the game 28–28 with back-to-back touchdowns and two-point conversions, and the Patriots went on to win 34–28 in overtime.This 25-point deficit was the largest comeback win for any team in a Super Bowl, breaking the previous of a 10-point deficit to come back and win.The Patriots never held the lead until the game-winning touchdown in overtime. It was Tom Brady's 5th Super Bowl win and he was awarded his record fourth Super Bowl MVP, throwing a then-record 466 yards for 43 completions. InSuper Bowl LII, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the defending champion Patriots 41–33, ending a 57-year championship drought for the franchise.Nick Foleswon the Super Bowl MVP.The Patriots totaled 613 yards in defeat, with Tom Brady breaking his previous Super Bowl record of 466 passing yards with an all-time playoff record of 505 passing yards in the high-scoring game; while the Eagles would gain 538 yards in the victory.The combined total for both teams of 1,151 yards of offense broke an NFL record (for any game) that had stood for nearly seven decades.The Patriots' 33 points were the highest losing score in Super Bowl history, a record held until 2023, when the Eagles lostSuper Bowl LVIIto theKansas City Chiefsby a score of 38–35.It was the Eagles' third Super Bowl appearance and their first win in franchise history. With the Eagles' victory, theNFC Eastbecame the first division to have each team win at least one Super Bowl. While Super Bowl LII produced the second highest-scoring Super Bowl, the following year'sSuper Bowl LIIIbecame the lowest-scoring Super Bowl. The Patriots defeated theLos Angeles Rams, 13–3. In so doing, they became the team with the lowest point total by a winning team in Super Bowl history.Tom Brady would receive a record sixth Super Bowl championship, the most of any player in NFL history, surpassing his tie with Charles Haley for five wins. Brady would also become the oldest player to ever win a Super Bowl at age 41, whileBill Belichickwould be the oldest coach to ever win a Super Bowl at age 66.Wide receiverJulian Edelmanwas named Super Bowl MVP. 2020s: Beginning of Chiefs' dominance InSuper Bowl LIV, the Chiefs defeated the 49ers in a comeback, 31–20, for their first Super Bowl title in 50 years.This victory marked the first time since 1991 that the NFC did not have more Super Bowl victories than the AFC. Notable was the absence of the Patriots, who after making it to the Super Bowl the last three years and winning two of them, had lost in the Wild Card round of theplayoffs, being bested by theTennessee Titans20–13.That game represented Tom Brady's final game as a New England Patriot. InSuper Bowl LV, which took place inTampa, Florida, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers defeated the defending champion Chiefs, 31–9.No player on the Buccaneers who scored points (Rob Gronkowski,Antonio Brown,Leonard FournetteandRyan Succop) was on the Buccaneers' roster the previous season.This marked a record seventh Super Bowl victory forTom Brady, also more than any individual NFL franchise, and who would also break his own record for the oldest quarterback to win a championship at 43 years old.Tampa Bay head coachBruce Arianswould also breakBill Belichick's record for the oldest head coach to win a championship at 68.Super Bowl LV also marked the first time in the history of the modern league that a host city's professional football franchise got to play in a Super Bowl that was hosted in theirhome stadium. A year laterinInglewood, California, theLos Angeles Ramsdefeated theCincinnati Bengals23–20 to win Super Bowl LVI, becoming the second team to win the Super Bowl in its home stadium. OnFebruary 12, 2023, atState Farm StadiuminGlendale, Arizona, the Chiefs overcame a 10-point deficit at halftime to defeat the Philadelphia Eagles 38–35, winning Super Bowl LVII on a last-minute field goal. OnFebruary 11, 2024, the Chiefs won Super Bowl LVIII atAllegiant Stadiumon an overtime touchdown. The first Super Bowl inLas Vegas, this was a rematch of Super Bowl LIV between the 49ers and the Chiefs, and was the Chiefs' fourth Super Bowl appearance in five years. The second Super Bowl to go into overtime, the Chiefs came back from another 10-point deficit to win their third Super Bowl in five years and secure back-to-back championships for the first time since the2004 New England Patriots. Television coverage and ratings The Super Bowl is one of the most-watched annual sporting events in the world, with viewership overwhelmingly domestic.The only other annual event that gathers more viewers is theUEFA Champions Leaguefinal.For many years, the Super Bowl has possessed a large US and global television viewership, and it is often the most-watched United States originating television program of the year.The game tends to have a highNielsen television rating, which is usually around a 40 rating and 60 shares. This means that, on average, more than 100 million people from the United States alone are tuned into the Super Bowl at any given moment. In press releases preceding the game, the NFL has claimed that the Super Bowl has a potential worldwide audience of around one billion people in over 200 countries.However, this figure refers to the number of peopleableto watch the game, not the number of people who will actually be watching. Regardless, the statements have been frequently misinterpreted in the media as referring to the latter figure, leading to a misperception about the game's actual global audience.The New York-based media research firm Initiative measured the global audience for theSuper Bowl XXXIXat 93 million people, with 98 percent of that figure being viewers in North America, which meant roughly two million people outside North America watched the Super Bowl that year. Super Bowl LVIIIholds the record for average number of US viewers, with 123.7 million, making the game the most-viewed television broadcast of any kind in American history. The halftime show set a record with 129.2 million viewers tuning in. The highest-rated game according to Nielsen wasSuper Bowl XVIin 1982, which was watched in 49.1% of households (73 shares), or 40,020,000 households at the time. Super Bowl XVI still ranks fourth on Nielsen'slist of top-rated programs of all time, with three other Super Bowls (XVII,XX, andXLIX) in the top ten. FamousSuper Bowl commercialsinclude the1984 introductionof Apple's Macintosh computer, the Budweiser \"Bud Bowl\" campaign, and thedot-com adsaired duringSuper Bowl XXXIV. As the television ratings of the Super Bowl have steadily increased over the years, commercial prices have also increased, with advertisers paying as much as $7 million for a thirty-second spot duringSuper Bowl LVIin 2022.A segment of the audience tunes into the Super Bowl solely to view commercials.In 2010, Nielsen reported that 51 percent of Super Bowl viewers tune in for the commercials. Since 1991, the Super Bowl has begun between 6:19 and 6:40 PMESTso that most of the game is played during theprimetimehours on theEast Coast. US television rights Throughout most of its history, the Super Bowl has been rotated annually between the same Americantelevision networksthat broadcast the NFL's regular season and postseason games. Super Bowl I, played in 1967, is the only Super Bowl to have been broadcast in the United States by two different broadcasters simultaneously. At the time,NBCheld the rights to nationally televise AFL games whileCBShad the rights to broadcast NFL games. Both networks were allowed to cover the game, and each network used its own announcers, but NBC was only allowed to use the CBS feed instead of producing its own. Beginning withSuper Bowl II, NBC televised the game in even years and CBS in odd years. This annual rotation between the two networks continued through the 1970AFL–NFL mergerwhen NBC was given the rights to televise AFC games and CBS winning the rights to broadcast NFC games. AlthoughABCbegan broadcastingMonday Night Footballin 1970, it was not added to the Super Bowl rotation untilSuper Bowl XIX, played in 1985. ABC, CBS and NBC then continued to rotate the Super Bowl until 1994, whenFoxreplaced CBS as the NFC broadcaster. CBS then took NBC's place in the rotation after the former replaced the latter as the AFC broadcaster in 1998. As a result of new contracts signed in 2006, with NBC taking overSunday Night FootballfromESPN, andMonday Night Footballmoving from ABC to ESPN, NBC took ABC's place in the Super Bowl rotation. The rotation between CBS, Fox, and NBC will continue until the new contracts that will take effect for the first time withSuper Bowl LVIII, allowing ABC to return and starting a four-network rotation. The four-year rotation beginning with Super Bowl LVIII also allows each broadcaster to offer simulcasts or alternative broadcasts on its sister networks and platforms.CBS's sister networkNickelodeonis planning to air an alternate children-oriented telecast of Super Bowl LVIII.And ABC's rights include ESPN simulcasts and alternative broadcasts on other ESPN networks. The NFL has broken the traditional broadcasting rotation if it can be used to bolster other major sporting events a network airs afterwards.For example, CBS was givenSuper Bowl XXVI(1992) after it won the rights to air the1992 Winter Olympics, with NBC subsequently airingSuper Bowl XXVII(1993) andSuper Bowl XXVIII(1994) in consecutive years. Likewise, NBC airedSuper Bowl LVI(2022) instead of CBS during the2022 Winter Olympics, which were also aired by NBC.CBS receivedSuper Bowl LV(2021) in return.Under the four-network rotation that will take effect beginning in 2024, the league will award NBC the Super Bowl during Winter Olympic years. The first six Super Bowls wereblacked outin the television markets of the host cities, due to league restrictions then in place.Super Bowl VII(1973) was telecast inLos Angeleson an experimental basis after all tickets were sold ten days before the game. Game analystJohn Maddenis the only person to broadcast a Super Bowl for each of the four networks that have televised the game (five with CBS, three with Fox, two with ABC, and one with NBC). Note: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.^*:The current TV contract with the networks expires after the 2033 season (or in early 2034). Under the deal, the Super Bowl is currently rotated annually between CBS, Fox, NBC, and ABC in that order. ABC will return to the rotation in the upcoming contract, which is scheduled to take effect at the start of the 2023 season.^**:The first Super Bowl wassimultaneously broadcastby CBS and NBC, with each network using the same video feed (from CBS), but providing its own commentary. Lead-out programming The Super Bowl provides an extremely strong lead-in to programming following it on the same channel, the effects of which can last for several hours. For instance, in discussing the ratings of a local TV station, Buffalo television critic Alan Pergament noted that followingSuper Bowl XLVII, which aired on CBS: \"Apaid programthat ran on CBS4 (WIVB-TV) at 2:30 in the morning had a 1.3 rating. That's higher than someCWprime time shows get onWNLO-TV, Channel 4's sister station.\" Because of this strongcoattail effect, the network that airs the Super Bowl typically takes advantage of the large audience to air an episode of a hit series or to premiere the pilot of a promising new one in the lead-out slot, which immediately follows the Super Bowl and post-game coverage. Ceremonies and entertainment Initially, it was sort of a novelty and so it didn't quite feel right. But it was just like, this is the year... Bands of our generation, you can sort of be seen on a stage like this or, like, not seen. There's not a lot of middle places. It is a tremendous venue. Early Super Bowls featured a halftime show consisting ofmarching bandsfrom localcollegesorhigh schools; but as the popularity of the game increased, a trend emerged where popular singers and musicians performed during its pre-game ceremonies and thehalftime show, or simply sang thenational anthem of the United States, \"America the Beautiful\", or \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\". The U.S. national anthem has been performed at all but one Super Bowl:Super Bowl XIin 1977 whenVikki Carrsang \"America the Beautiful\" in place of the anthem. Beginning withSuper Bowl XLIIIin 2009, \"America the Beautiful\" is sung before the national anthem every year and is followed by the presentation of the colors and a military flyover preceded the anthem. Beginning withSuper Bowl LVin 2021, \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" is sung prior to \"America the Beautiful\" in honor ofBlack History Month. For many years,Whitney Houston'sperformanceof the national anthem atSuper Bowl XXVin 1991, during theGulf War, had long been regarded as one of the best renditions of the anthem in history.BeforeSuper Bowl XLVIII, sopranoRenée Flemingbecame the first opera singer to perform the anthem. Recently,the winner of theWalter Payton NFL Man of the Year Awardhas been acknowledged before \"America the Beautiful\" and \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". SinceSuper Bowl XIIin 1978, a former football player, a celebrity, or another special guest participates in the coin toss ceremony to recognize their community involvement or significance. The pre-game ceremonies usually go in the following order: Unlike regular season or playoff games, thirty minutes are allocated for the Super Bowl halftime. After a special live episode of theFoxsketch comedy seriesIn Living Colorcaused a drop in viewership for the Super Bowl XXVI halftime show, the NFL sought to increase the Super Bowl's audience by hiring A-list talent to perform. They approachedMichael Jackson, whose performance the following year drew higher figures than the game itself.Another notable performance came duringSuper Bowl XXXVIin 2002, whenU2performed; during their third song, \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", the band played under a large projection screen which scrolled through names of the victims of theSeptember 11 attacks. The halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII attractedcontroversy, following an incident in whichJustin Timberlakeremoved a piece ofJanet Jackson's top, briefly exposing one of her breasts before the broadcast quickly cut away from the shot. The incident led to fines being issued by theFCC(and a larger crackdown over \"indecent\" content broadcast on television), andMTV(then a sister to the game's broadcaster that year,CBS, underViacom) being banned by the NFL from producing the Super Bowl halftime show in the future. In an effort to prevent a repeat of the incident, the NFL held a moratorium on Super Bowl halftime shows featuring pop performers, and instead invited a single, headlining veteran act, such asPaul McCartney,the Rolling Stones,the Who,Prince, andBruce Springsteen. This practice ended at Super Bowl XLV, which returned to using current pop acts such asthe Black Eyed Peas,Katy Perry, andLady Gaga. Minnesota Vikings announcerAlan Roachis the official public address announcer of the Super Bowl sinceSuper Bowl XLin 2006, with the exceptions of Super BowlXLVIII,XLIXand50when the Denver Broncos played in those games. Roach was also Denver's regular P.A. announcer during those years, and thus the league felt it was a potential competitive advantage. In those years,NFL on Westwood Onehost andNFL FilmsvoiceScott Grahamheld the duties. Excluding Super Bowl XXXIX, the famous \"I'm going to Disney World!\" advertising campaign took place in every Super Bowl sinceSuper Bowl XXIin 1987, when quarterbackPhil Simmsfrom the Giants became the first player to say the tagline. Venues As ofSuper Bowl LVIII, 29 of 58 Super Bowls have been played in three metropolitan areas: theGreater Miami area(eleven times),New Orleans(ten times), and theGreater Los Angeles area(eight times). No market or region without an active NFL franchise has ever hosted a Super Bowl, and the presence of an NFL team in a market or region is now ade jurerequirement for bidding on the game.For instance, while Los Angeles has been an eight-time host city, with its most recent being Super Bowl LVI in 2022, it did not host one from thedeparture of both its NFL teams in 1995untilthe Rams and the Chargers subsequently came back to Los Angelesin 2016 and 2017 respectively. TheCaesars Superdomein New Orleans has hosted seven Super Bowls, the most of any venue, with an eighth Super Bowl scheduled to take place in2025. TheOrange Bowlwas the onlyAFLstadium to host a Super Bowl and the only stadium to host consecutive Super Bowls, hosting Super Bowls II and III. Seven Super Bowls have been held in a stadium other than the one the NFL team in that city was using at the time, a situation that has not arisen after Super Bowl XXVII's host stadium was selected on March 19, 1991. This was as the winning market was previously not required to host the Super Bowl in the same stadium that its NFL team used, if the stadium in which the Super Bowl was held was perceived to be a better stadium for a large high-profile event than the existing NFL home stadium in the same city; for example, five of Los Angeles's Bowls were played at theRose Bowl, which has never been used by any NFL franchise outside of the Super Bowl. Besides the Rose Bowl, the only other Super Bowl venues that were not the home stadium to NFL teams at the time wereRice Stadium(theHouston Oilershad played in Rice Stadium previously but moved to theAstrodomeseveral years before Super Bowl VIII) andStanford Stadium. Starting with the selection of the Super Bowl XXVIII venue on May 23, 1990, the league has given preference in awarding the Super Bowl to brand new or recently renovated NFL stadiums, alongside a trend of teamsdemanding public money or relocatingto play in new stadiums. To date only two teams havequalified for a Super Bowl at their home stadiums: the2020 Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who won Super Bowl LV hosted atRaymond James Stadium(selected on May 23, 2017), and the2021 Los Angeles Ramsthe following season, who won Super Bowl LVI atSoFi Stadium. Before that, the closest any team had come to accomplishing this feat were the2017 Minnesota Vikings, who reached the NFC Championship Game but lost to the Eagles. In that instance, U.S. Bank Stadium became the first Super Bowl host stadium (selected on May 20, 2014) to also host a Divisional Playoff Game in the same season (which theVikings won); all previous times that the Super Bowl host stadium hosted another playoff game in the same postseason were all Wild Card games. Two teams have played the Super Bowl in their home market but at a different venue than their home stadium: theLos Angeles Rams, who lost Super Bowl XIV in the Rose Bowl instead ofLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum; and the 49ers, who won Super Bowl XIX inStanford Stadiuminstead ofCandlestick Park, during a time when the league often picked a stadium that was not home to an NFL team to host the Super Bowl (see above). Traditionally, the NFL does not award Super Bowls to stadiums that are located in climates with an expected average daily temperature less than 50 °F (10 °C) on game day unless the field can be completely covered by a fixed or retractable roof.Six Super Bowls have been played in northern cities: two in theDetroit area—Super Bowl XVI atPontiac SilverdomeinPontiac, Michigan, and Super Bowl XL atFord Fieldin Detroit; two inMinneapolis—Super Bowl XXVI at theHubert H. Humphrey Metrodomeand Super Bowl LII at theU.S. Bank Stadium; one inIndianapolisatLucas Oil Stadiumfor Super Bowl XLVI; and one inNew Jersey—Super Bowl XLVIII atMetLife Stadium. Only MetLife Stadium did not have a roof (be it fixed or retractable) but it was still picked as the host stadium for Super Bowl XLVIII in an apparent waiver of the warm-climate rule, with a contingency plan to reschedule the game in the event of heavy snowfall.MetLife Stadium's selection overSun Life Stadiumgenerated controversy as the league requested a roof to be added to Sun Life Stadium (a venue afflicted with a heavy rainstorm duringSuper Bowl XLI) in order to be considered for future Super Bowls, which was done during a remodeling from 2015 into 2016. It then hostedSuper Bowl LIV, and is scheduled to host Super Bowl LXIV. There have been a few instances where the league has rescinded the Super Bowl from cities. Super Bowl XXVII in 1993 was originally awarded toSun Devil StadiuminTempe, Arizona, but after Arizona voters elected not to recognizeMartin Luther King, Jr. Dayas a paid state employees' holiday in 1990, the NFL moved the game to the Rose Bowl inPasadena, California.When voters in Arizona opted to create such a legal holiday in 1992, Super Bowl XXX in 1996 was awarded to Tempe. Super Bowl XXXIII was awarded first to Candlestick Park in San Francisco, but when plans to renovate the stadium fell through, the game was moved toPro Player Stadiumin greater Miami. Super Bowl XXXVII was awarded to a new stadium not yet built in San Francisco, but when that stadium failed to be built, the game was moved toQualcomm StadiuminSan Diego. Super Bowl XLIV, slated for February 7, 2010, was withdrawn fromNew York City's proposedWest Side Stadium, because the city,state, and proposed tenants (New York Jets) could not agree on funding. Super Bowl XLIV was then eventually awarded toSun Life StadiuminMiami Gardens, Florida. Super Bowl XLIX in 2015 was originally given toArrowhead StadiuminKansas City, Missouri, but after two sales taxes failed to pass at the ballot box (a renovation proposal had passed successfully, but a second ballot question to add a rolling roof structure to be shared withKaufmann Stadiumcritical for the game to be hosted was rejected), and opposition by local business leaders and politicians increased, Kansas City eventually withdrew its request to host the game.Super Bowl XLIX was then eventually awarded toUniversity of Phoenix StadiuminGlendale, Arizona. Selection process The location of the Super Bowl is chosen at a meeting of all NFL team owners, usually three to five years before the event. The game has never been played in a metropolitan area that lacked an NFL franchise at the time the game was played, although in 2007 NFL commissionerRoger Goodellsuggested that a Super Bowl might be played inLondon, perhaps atWembley Stadium. Through Super Bowl LVI, teams were allowed to bid for the rights to host Super Bowls, where cities submitted proposals to host a Super Bowl and were evaluated in terms of stadium renovation and their ability to host, but this competition was rescinded in 2018.The league has made all decisions regarding hosting sites from Super Bowl LVII onward; the league chose a potential venue unilaterally, the chosen team put together a hosting proposal, and the league voted upon it to determine if it is acceptable. In 2014, a document listing the specific requirements of Super Bowl hosts was leaked, giving a clear list of what was required for a Super Bowl host.Some of the host requirements include: Much of the cost of a Super Bowl is to be assumed by the host community, although some costs are enumerated within the requirements to be assumed by the NFL. New Orleans, the site of Super Bowl XLVII in 2013, invested more than $1 billion in infrastructure improvements in the years leading up to the game. The NFL allocates backup stadiums for the Super Bowl every year, in the event of a last-minute relocation of the game. Home team designation The designated \"home team\" alternates between the NFC team in odd-numbered games and the AFC team in even-numbered games.This alternation was initiated with the first Super Bowl, when the Packers were the designated home team. Regardless of being the home or away team of record, each team has their teamlogoandwordmarkpainted in one of theend zones. Designated away teams have won 32 of 58 Super Bowls to date (approximately 55%). Since Super Bowl XIII in 1979, the home team is given the choice of wearing their colored or whitejerseys. Originally, the designated home team had to wear their colored jerseys, which resulted in the Cowboys donning their less exposeddark blue jerseys for Super Bowl V. While most of the home teams in the Super Bowl have chosen to wear their colored jerseys, there have been seven exceptions: the Cowboys during Super Bowls XIII and XXVII, the Washington Redskins during Super Bowl XVII, the Steelers during Super Bowl XL, the Broncos during Super Bowl 50, the Patriots in Super Bowl LII, and the Buccaneers in Super Bowl LV. The Cowboys, since1964, have worn white jerseys at home. The Washington Redskins wore white at home under coachJoe Gibbsstarting in1981through1992, continued byRichie PetitbonandNorv Turnerthrough2000, then again when Gibbs returned from2004through2007. Meanwhile, the Steelers, who have always worn their black jerseys at home since the AFL–NFL merger in1970, opted for the white jerseys after winning three consecutive playoff games on the road, wearing white. The Steelers' decision was compared with the Patriots in Super Bowl XX; the Patriots had worn white jerseys at home during the1985season, but after winning road playoff games against the Jets and Dolphins wearing red jerseys, New England opted to switch to scarlet for the Super Bowl as the designated home team. For the Broncos in Super Bowl 50, Denver general manager John Elway simply stated, \"We've had Super Bowl success in our white uniforms\"; they previously had been0–4in Super Bowls when wearing their orange jerseys.The Broncos' decision is also perceived to be made out of superstition, losing all Super Bowl games with the orange jerseys in terrible fashion. It is unclear why the Patriots chose to wear their white jerseys for Super Bowl LII. During the pairing of Bill Belichick and Tom Brady, New England has mostly worn their blue jerseys for home games, but have worn white for a home game in the2008,2010, and2011seasons.The Patriots were 3–0 in their white uniforms in Super Bowls before Super Bowl LII with Belichick and Brady,and they may have been going on recent trends of teams who wear white for the Super Bowl game.For Super Bowl LV, when the Buccaneers became the first team to reach the Super Bowl that their own stadium hosted, the Bucscoincidentallywere designated the home team as per AFC-NFC rotation and elected to wear their white jerseys, having previously won both their divisional and championship post-season games on the road in white jerseys.White-shirted teams have won 37 of 58 Super Bowls to date (approximately 64%). The only teams to win in their dark-colored uniform in more recent years are the Packers against the Steelers in Super Bowl XLV, the Eagles against the Patriots in Super Bowl LII, and the Chiefs against the 49ers in Super Bowls LIV and LVIII.SinceSuper Bowl XXXIX, teams in white jerseys have won 16 of the last 20 Super Bowls. The 49ers, as part of the league's 75th Anniversary celebration, used their 1955throwback uniformin Super Bowl XXIX, which for that year was their regular home jersey. The Los Angeles Rams in Super Bowl LIII wore their royal blue and yellow uniforms, which was a throwback uniform but then turned into their primary colors over the navy blue and metallic gold uniform, which they have previously worn for six home games including a home playoff game.No team has yet worn athird jerseyorColor Rushuniform for the Super Bowl. The 49ers reportedly requested to wear an all-white third jersey ensemble for Super Bowl LIV, which theSan Francisco Chroniclenoted they could do with special permission from the league; the league never granted such permission, and the 49ers instead opted for their standard uniform of white jerseys with gold pants. Host cities/regions Fifteen different regions have hosted Super Bowls. Note: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (orwill be played; future games are denoted throughitalics) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been. Host stadiums A total of 27 different stadiums have either hosted, or are scheduled to host, a Super Bowl, with 14 of the stadiums having hosted, or are scheduled to host, more than one Super Bowl. Seven of the Super Bowl hosting stadiums have been demolished. The years listed in the table below are the years the game was actually played (will be played) rather than the NFL season it concluded. ^^:Stadium has since been demolished.^‡:Prior to the incorporation of Miami Gardens in 2003, the stadium was in unincorporated Miami-Dade County.^††:The original Stanford Stadium, which hosted Super Bowl XIX, was demolished and a new stadium constructed on the site in 2006.^ˇ:Future Super Bowls, also denoted byitalics. Future venues The Super Bowl has not yet been played in any region that lacked an NFL or AFL franchise at the time the game was played. San Diego is the only metropolitan area as of 2021 that has hosted past Super Bowls, but does not currently have an NFL franchise:San Diego Stadiumhosted three Super Bowls beforetheir NFL franchise relocated to Los Angeles. Also,London, England, has occasionally been mentioned as a host city for a Super Bowl in the near future.Wembley Stadiumhas hosted several NFL games as part of theNFL International Seriesand is specifically designed for large, individual events, and NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell has openly discussed the possibility on different occasions. Time zonecomplications are a significant obstacle to a Super Bowl in London; a typical 6:30 p.m.ESTstart would result in the game beginning at 11:30 p.m.local time in London: this is an unusually late hour to be holding spectator sports, while the NFL has never in its history started a game later than 9:15 p.m. local time. Although bids have been submitted for all Super Bowls through Super Bowl LIX, the soonest that any stadium outside the NFL's footprint could serve as host would be Super Bowl LXII in 2028. Eight stadiums that hosted at least one Super Bowl no longer exist: Super Bowl trademark The NFL very actively seeks to prevent what it calls unauthorized commercial use of its trademarked terms \"NFL\", \"Super Bowl\", and \"Super Bowl Sunday\".As a result, many events and promotions tied to the game, but not sanctioned by the NFL, are asked to refer to it as \"The Big Game\", or other generic descriptions.A radio spot forPlantersnuts parodied this, by saying \"it would besuper... to have abowl... of Planters nuts while watching the big game!\" and comedianStephen Colbertbegan referring to the game in 2014 as the \"Superb Owl\". In 2015, the NFL filed opposition with the USPTO Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to a trademark application submitted by an Arizona-based nonprofit for \"Superb Owl\".The NFL claims that the use of the phrase \"Super Bowl\" implies an NFL affiliation, and on this basis the league asserts broad rights to restrict how the game may be shown publicly; for example, the league says Super Bowl showings are prohibited in churches or at other events that \"promote a message\", while non-sporting event venues are also prohibited to show the Super Bowl on any television screen larger than 55 inches.Some critics say the NFL is exaggerating its ownership rights by stating that \"any use is prohibited\", as this contradicts the broad doctrine offair use in the United States.Legislation was proposed byUtahSenatorOrrin Hatchin 2008 \"to provide an exemption from exclusive rights in copyright for certain nonprofit organizations to display live football games\", and \"for other purposes\". In 2004, the NFL started issuing cease-and-desist letters to casinos in Las Vegas that were hosting Super Bowl parties. \"Super Bowl\" is a registered trademark, owned by the NFL, and any other business using that name for profit-making ventures is in violation of federal law, according to the letters. In reaction to the letters, many Las Vegas resorts, rather than discontinue the popular and lucrative parties, started referring to them as \"Big Game Parties\". In 2006, the NFL made an attempt to trademark \"The Big Game\" as well; however, it withdrew the application in 2007 due to growing commercial and public relations opposition to the move, mostly fromStanford Universityand theUniversity of California, Berkeleyand their fans, as theStanford Cardinal footballandCalifornia Golden Bears footballteams compete in theBig Game, which has been played since 1892 (28 years before the formation of the NFL and 75 years beforeSuper Bowl I).Additionally, theMega Millionslottery game was known asThe Big Game(thenThe Big Game Mega Millions) from 1996 to 2002. See also Notes and references Notes References Further reading External links", "Super Bowl XLVI Super Bowl XLVIwas anAmerican footballgame between theNational Football Conference(NFC) championNew York Giantsand theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championNew England Patriotsto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the2011 season. The Giants defeated the Patriots by the score of 21–17.The game was played on February 5, 2012, atLucas Oil StadiuminIndianapolis, the first time that theSuper Bowlwas played inIndiana. In addition to winning their fourth Super Bowl in team history, the Giants set a new record for the lowest regular season record (9–7, win percentage of 56.3%) by a Super Bowl champion.The Patriots entered the game with a 13–3 regular season record, and were also seeking their fourth Super Bowl win.This was a rematch ofSuper Bowl XLII, which New York also won, spoiling New England's run at aperfect 2007 season. The Giants and the Patriots also played in Week 9 a few months earlier, with the Giants winning on the road 24–20. The Giants jumped to a 9–0 lead in the first quarter of Super Bowl XLVI before the Patriots scored 17 unanswered points to take a 17–9 lead in the third quarter. But the Giants prevented the Patriots from scoring again, and two consecutive New York field goals chipped away New England's lead, 17–15, late in the third quarter. The Giants capped off an 88-yard drive with running backAhmad Bradshaw's 6-yard game-winning touchdown with 57 seconds left in the game.Eli Manning, who completed 30 of 40 passes for 296 yards, one touchdown, and no interceptions, was namedSuper Bowl MVPfor the second time in his career.He became the third consecutive quarterback to win the award afterAaron RodgersinSuper Bowl XLVandDrew BreesinSuper Bowl XLIV. He was also the first Giants quarterback to start and win two championship games sinceEd Danowskiin1938. The broadcast of the game onNBCbroke the then record for themost-watched programin American television history, previously set duringthe previous year's Super Bowl. Super Bowl XLVI was watched by an estimated average audience of 111.3 million US viewers and an estimated total audience of 166.8 million, according toNielsen, meaning that over half of the American population watched at least some of the initial broadcast.The game also set the record for mosttweetsper second during a sporting event, with 13.7 million tweets from 3 p.m. to 8 p.m. (PST). Background Per convention as an even-numbered Super Bowl, the Patriots as the AFC representatives had thehome team designation. Super Bowl XLVI was the sixth Super Bowl in which the two teams had competed in a previous Super Bowl matchup, as the Giants and Patriots had previously met inSuper Bowl XLII.Both head coaches (Tom CoughlinandBill Belichick) and both starting quarterbacks (Eli ManningandTom Brady) returned from Super Bowl XLII. Host selection process Three cities presented bids for the game: NFL franchise ownersselected the Indianapolis bid at their meeting on May 20, 2008, in Atlanta. A labor disputehad threatened the postponement or cancellation of the game during the spring and summer of 2011; league officials had set contingency plans to postpone the game one week if it had been necessary to postpone regular season games into the second week of January.Since the dispute was resolved well before the start of the regular season, no postponements were implemented, and the game remained as originally scheduled. This was the first Super Bowl to be played in Indianapolis,and only the fourth time that the Super Bowl has been played in a cold-weather city, after Detroit (XVIandXL) andMinneapolis(XXVI).Downtown Indianapolis, the home of Lucas Oil Stadium, featured an outdoor Super Bowl Village and other programs at theIndiana Convention Center. Teams New York Giants Working around a series of injuries, the Giants ended with a 9–7 record during the regular season and returned to the playoffs for the first time since 2008, winning theNFC Eastand finishing the season as the NFC's No. 4 seed.Finally back to full strength, the Giants entered their week 17 matchup with theDallas Cowboyswith both teams tied for the division lead with 8–7 records. The Giants took a 21–0 first half lead and while the Cowboys closed the gap to make the score 21–14 early in the 4th quarter, the Giants held on to defeat the Cowboys 31–14, clinching the divisional title and a playoff berth. New York's offense was led bySuper Bowl XLIIwinning quarterbackEli Manning, in his seventh season as the team's starter. Manning set new career highs in nearly every statistical category in 2011, throwing for a franchise record 4,933 yards and 29 touchdowns, with 16 interceptions, giving him a 92.9 passer rating. His top target was receiverVictor Cruz, who caught 82 passes for a franchise record 1,536 yards (3rd in the NFL) and 9 touchdowns.He had plenty of other targets, includingHakeem Nicks(76 receptions, 1,192 yards, 7 touchdowns),Mario Manningham(39 receptions and 523 yards in 12 games) and tight endJake Ballard(38 receptions, 604 yards). Although not on the field for four games due to injury, running backAhmad Bradshawwas the team's leading rusher with 659 yards and 9 touchdowns. He was also a reliable weapon in the passing game, hauling in 34 receptions for 267 yards and two touchdowns.Brandon Jacobsalso made contributions on the ground, rushing for 571 yards and 7 touchdowns. New York's defensive line was led by defensive endsJustin Tuck,Jason Pierre-PaulandOsi Umenyiora. Pierre-Paul racked up 86 combined tackles and ranked fourth in the NFL with 16.5 sacks, earning him the only Pro Bowl selection on the Giants defense, while Umenyiora, limited to 9 games because of injury, recorded 9 sacks and 2 forced fumbles. The Giants secondary was led byCorey Webster, who intercepted a career-high 6 passes. Defensive backsKenny PhillipsandAaron Rossadded four interceptions each, while safetyAntrel Rollepicked off two passes and led the team in combined tackles with 96. The Giants joined the2008 Arizona Cardinalsand1979 Los Angeles Ramsas the only other team to advance to the Super Bowl with fewer than ten victories since the NFL expanded to a 16-game season in 1978, and the only one of those three to win the Super Bowl they had advanced to. They have won six consecutive playoff games away from their home stadium, dating back to their victory over theTampa Bay Buccaneersin the 2007 Wild Card round. That includes theirSuper Bowl XLIIvictory over these same Patriots, although that game was played at a neutral site (and the Giants were the designated \"away\" team for the game). The 2011 Giants are the first team in NFL history to reach the Super Bowl after having been outscored by their opponents in the regular season (394 points scored, 400 points allowed). New England Patriots The Patriots finished with a 13–3 record, winning theAFC Eastand clinching the AFC's No. 1 seed in the playoffs. New England lost 2 consecutive games to theSteelersand Giants in week 8 and 9 respectively, before rallying to win their remaining eight games. Back at the helm of the offense was 12-year quarterbackTom Brady, who earned his 7th Pro Bowl selection. Starting every game of the season, Brady completed 65.6% of his passes for a career-high 5,235 yards (the second highest total in NFL history at the time) and 39 touchdown passes, with just 12 interceptions and a rating of 105.6. Brady also added 109 yards and three scores on the ground.His main weapon in the passing game was Pro Bowl receiverWes Welker, who led the NFL with 122 receptions (22 receptions ahead of second place) for 1,569 yards and 9 touchdowns. New England also had two of the best tight ends in the NFL: Pro BowlerRob Gronkowski, who set new tight end records for receiving (1,327 yards) and touchdown catches (17); andAaron Hernandez, who caught 79 passes for 910 yards and 7 touchdowns, while also rushing for 45 yards. Another big element of the passing game was veteran receiverDeion Branch, who caught 51 passes for 702 yards and 5 scores. ReceiversChad Ochocinco,Tiquan Underwood,Julian Edelman, andMatthew Slatermade minor contributions to the passing attack; the latter two also served as emergency defensive backs. Edelman was also a superb punt returner, returning 28 punts for 296 yards and a touchdown. New England had several key contributors in the ground game. Their main rusher wasBenJarvus Green-Ellis, who rushed for 667 yards and 11 touchdowns. Running backStevan Ridleyadded 447 yards and a 5.1 yards per carry average.Danny Woodheadcontributed 351 yards with a 4.6 YPC average, and gained another 437 yards returning kickoffs. New England also had a solid offensive line, which was anchored by Pro Bowl guardsLogan MankinsandBrian Waters. With all these weapons, New England ranked third in the NFL with 513 points. The Patriots' defensive line featured two Pro Bowl selections:Vince Wilfork, who generated 3.5 sacks, two interceptions, and one forced fumble; andAndre Carter, who contributed 10 sacks and forced two fumbles. Defensive EndMark Andersonwas also a major force on the line, earning 10 sacks and two forced fumbles of his own. Behind them,Rob Ninkovichexcelled at linebacker, gaining 74 tackles, 6.5 sacks, and two interceptions. In the secondary, cornerbackKyle Arringtonhad a breakout season. After recording just one interception in his first three years, Arrington picked off 7 passes in 2011 to lead the NFL in that category, while also making 88 tackles. LinebackerJerod Mayoled the team in tackles with 95. With the victory in the 2011 AFC Championship Game Brady and head coachBill Belichickbecame the first quarterback-head coach combination to reach the Super Bowl five times, surpassing the record held byTerry BradshawandChuck Nollof thePittsburgh Steelers' 1970s Super Bowl teams. Belichick tiedTom Landryfor second most appearances as a head coach in the Super Bowl, behind onlyDon Shula's six. Season and playoffs The Patriots and Giants faced each other in New England during the regular season; the Giants won that game, 24–20.Incidentally, the Giants and Patriots hadalso faced each otherin New York during the regular season prior to Super Bowl XLII with the Patriots winning that regular season matchup and the Giants going on to win that Super Bowl. Super Bowl XLVI marked the 13th Super Bowl that was a rematch of a regular season game. The loser in the regular season had been 7–5 in these games prior to Super Bowl XLVI. The Giants finished the season as the NFC East champion and the No. 4 seed in the conference. The Giants defeated the No. 5 seedAtlanta Falconsin the Wild Card round 24–2, the first playoff game atMetLife Stadium. Eli Manning threw for 277 yards and 3 touchdowns with no interceptions, while the Giants defense shut down the Falcons, with the only Falcons points coming from a safety given up by Manning's intentional grounding penalty in his end zone. The Giants then moved on to face the No. 1 seed and the defendingSuper Bowl XLVchampionGreen Bay Packersin the divisional round. The Giants never trailed in the game, winning 37–20. One of the key plays in the game was aHail Mary passby Manning toHakeem Nicks, giving the Giants a 20–10 lead at the end of the first half. As they did to 2007 MVPTom Bradyand thePatriots' record-breaking offense, the Giants generated significant pressure on Packers quarterback and season MVPAaron Rodgers, sacking him four times and disrupting his talented receiving corps.This was the first time in NFL history a 15–1 team failed to make it past the divisional round in the playoffs. The Giants then faced the No. 2 seededSan Francisco 49ersin theNFC Championship Game. After a series of defensive standoffs in the fourth quarter, the game went into overtime. Both teams continued to struggle on offense, until Giants linebackerJacquian Williamsstripped the ball from 49ers wide receiverKyle Williamsafter a punt return. The Giants recovered the ball at the 49ers 24-yard line, setting up a 31-yard field goal attempt by Giants kickerLawrence Tynes. Unlike Cundiff earlier that day, Tynes' kick was successful, giving the Giants a 20–17 victory. As the No. 1 seed in the AFC, the Patriots earned a first-round bye and home field advantage throughout the AFC playoffs. In the divisional round, the Patriots defeated theDenver Broncos45–10. The Patriots dominated the game throughout, setting new franchise postseason records for total yards (509), points (45), and margin of victory (35). Tom Brady completed 18 of 25 passes for 246 yards and a postseason record five touchdowns in the first half. The Patriots defense had a breakout performance: Broncos quarterbackTim Tebowwas held to just 9 of 26 completions and was sacked five times. In theAFC Championship Game, the Patriots faced off against the No. 2 seededBaltimore Ravens. Brady was out-dueled by Ravens quarterbackJoe Flacco, who threw for more yards and touchdowns on the same number of completions and attempts. Nevertheless, the Patriots managed to take a 23–20 lead in the fourth quarter on a 1-yard run by Brady. With 1:44 left in the quarter, The Ravens got the ball back with one last chance to tie or win the game, driving all the way to the Patriots 14-yard line. But the Patriots managed to hold them there, with cornerbackSterling Moorebreaking up two consecutive Ravens pass attempts in the red zone, including one in the end zone. Facing fourth down, the Ravens attempted a 32-yard field goal by kickerBilly Cundiffthat would tie the game and possibly bring it to overtime. Cundiff missed the kick wide left, allowing the Patriots to advance to the Super Bowl. Super Bowl pre-game notes The Patriots, as the designated home team, had a choice of wearing their home navy blue jerseys or their white away jerseys. Briefly, there was speculation that the Patriots might wear the white away jerseys in order to switch the jerseys fromSuper Bowl XLII, where the Patriots wore dark blue and the Giants wore white. Also, the Giants were 4–0 in playoff games in their white away jerseys since the2007 season. However, the Patriots announced on the Monday following the Conference Championship Games that they would be wearing their customary navy blue home jerseys as the home team in Super Bowl XLVI. Hospitality experts speculated that \"Indianapolis will have seen the most severe hotelprice gougingin Super Bowl history.\" The city has 6,000 hotel rooms, fewer than typical for a Super Bowl host city. Some rooms in downtown Indianapolis reportedly cost more than $4,000 a night. By contrast, rooms close to the stadium in previous Super Bowls were usually available for about $200. The room shortage and high prices caused some attendees to plan to stay in Chicago, 180 miles away, and ride buses to events. Because the Giants and Patriots drew their fan bases fromNew York CityandBostonrespectively, the Super Bowl echoed the fiercerivalrybetween theNew York Yankeesand theBoston Red SoxinMajor League Baseball.Tom Bradysaid of the rivalry: \"There is a great rivalry...between Boston and New York...When I got to the team, it was always Red Sox-Yankees. We've had some pretty meaningful games against the Giants over the past few years, so I don't think anyone is disappointed that it's the Giants.\" Broadcasting Television United States In the United States, the game was televised nationally byNBC. Al Michaelscalledplay-by-playfor NBC, marking the eighth time that he was behind the microphone for a Super Bowl and the second time he called a Super Bowl for NBC (Michaels had previously done play-by-play for Super BowlsXXII,XXV,XXIX,XXXIV,XXXVII, andXLforABCandSuper Bowl XLIIIfor NBC).Cris Collinsworthwas thecolor analystfor the game, his second Super Bowl as a game analyst and first since he was in the booth forSuper Bowl XXXIXforFox.Michele Tafoyawas thesideline reporter.Bob CostasandDan Patrick(who also presided over the trophy presentation ceremony) hosted the pregame, halftime, and postgame coverage for NBC withFootball Night in AmericaanalystsTony DungyandRodney Harrisonand special guest analysts (who were seated next to Costas during the pre-game festivities),Aaron RodgersandHines Ward. Also helping out on NBC's broadcast were reportersAlex Flanagan,Liam McHugh, andRandy Mossand NFL insidersMike FlorioandPeter King. Advertising All commercials for the game sold out by Thanksgiving 2011, at an average price of $3.5 million per thirty-second ad, by far the highest rate forSuper Bowl advertisingin the event's history.At least one thirty-second advertisement commanded a price of $4 million. Anti-abortionactivistRandall Terryhas said he was planning to run an advertisement featuring graphic photos of aborted fetuses during Super Bowl XLVI.Terry was not allowed to air the ad nationwide, given that the networks have a policy underequal timerules to reject all political and issue related advertising during the Super Bowl.He was able, however, under the then-current Federal Election Commission \"reasonable access\" rules, to force up to 35 local stations (those located in states in which theDemocratic Party primariesare within 45 days of Super Bowl Sunday; Terry entered the primary as adummy candidateprimarily for the purpose of this advertisement) to run the advertisement uncensored, regardless of whether it meetsStandards and Practicesor Federal Communications Commission guidelines. The FCC ruled against Terry on February 3, two days before the game, when NBC owned-and-operatedWMAQ-TVinChicagorefused to air the ad, citing the same equal-time statutes and the fact that Terry did not appear to be abona fidecandidate.The largest station to allow Terry to air his advertisement wasWHDHinBoston,Massachusetts. An advertisement fromPepsifeaturedMelanie Amaro, the winner ofseason oneof theFoxseriesThe X Factor.Other confirmed advertisers includedDoritos(continuing itsuser-generated\"Crash the Super Bowl\" contest),Bridgestone,Volkswagen(a 60-second spot advertising the third-generationBeetlefeaturing dogs barking to the tune of \"The Imperial March\"),General Motors(four forChevrolet; including a commercial featuring \"We Are Young\" byfun.that led to a massive sales spike; and one forCadillac),Toyota,Hyundai,Acura(featuringJerry Seinfeldin an ad for theNSX),Kia Motors(advertising theOptimawith a spot starringAdriana Lima),Audi(parodying theTwilightseries with an ad for theS7),Honda(starringMatthew Broderickin a reprisal of the lead role inFerris Bueller's Day Off), newcomersDannon YogurtandCentury 21 Real Estate,Teleflora,Mars, Incorporated(introducing theM&M'sbrown spokescandy),The Coca-Cola Company,CareerBuilder.com(reprising their chimp advertisement campaign),Cars.com,Skechers,Relativity Media(running four advertisements forAct of Valor),Paramount Pictures,Walt Disney Pictures, andUniversal Pictures.Anheuser-Buschhas purchased nine slots during the game.An ad forOld Milwaukeebeer featuringWill Ferrellaired a single time on only one station in Nebraska. Disney's ad for its upcomingJohn Carterwas seen as exacerbating concerns about the expensivetentpole film's marketing that had been raised by itsteaserthe preceding August.While admitting he was \"pleasantly surprised\" by it,Collider's Adam Chitwood said he was \"still not convinced that the general audience has a handle on what the film's about.\"An executive at a competing studio said the trailer strongly reinforced concerns that the film had experienced serious production problems that adversely affected its quality and box-office prospects. \"It's like, 'Guys, this is yourHail Mary?'\"The ad's ineffectiveness was cited as one of many reasons the movie failed upon its release the following month, leading Disney to take a $200 millionwritedownon the film. Chrysleraired a two-minute half time advertisement titled \"Half Time in America\", produced by theWieden+Kennedyagency and narrated byClint Eastwood.The ad drew the criticism of several leading U.S.conservatives, who suggested that its messaging implied that President Obama deserved a second term and, as such, was political payback for Obama's support for the federal bailout of the company.Both Chrysler chief marketing officer Olivier François and Chrysler Chairman and CEOSergio Marchionnedenied that the ad was intended as a politically oriented message.Overall, the ad was considered one of the better ones that aired during the game. There has also been some conjecture regarding the possible plagiarism of Australian bandJohn Butler Trio's song \"Zebra\" by Yogurt giantDannon. Spokesman for the band, Tom McNamara, commented that the band was currently exploring their proprietary rights with regards to the similarity of the tune to the band's hit single. Matthew Broderickreprised hisFerris Bueller's Day Offrole in aHondacommercial aired during thisSuper Bowlwhich featured theOh Yeah song.A teaser for the ad had appeared two weeks prior to the Super Bowl, which had created rumors of a possible film sequel.It was produced by Santa Monica-basedRPAand directed byTodd Phillips.AdWeek's Tim Nudd called the ad \"a great homage to the original 1986 film, with Broderick this time calling in sick to a film shoot and enjoying another day of slacking.\"On the other hand,Jalopnik's Matt Hardigree called the spot \"sacrilegious\". International NFL International televised the game to viewers outside of North America, withKenny AlbertandJoe Theismanncalling the English language feed. Streaming This was the first legal onlinestreamingof a Super Bowl telecast in the United States, available on computers via NFL.com and NBCSports.com, and mobile devices viaVerizon Wireless's NFL Mobileapp. As part of \"Operation Fake Sweep\",Immigration and Customs Enforcement, along with theUnited States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, seized and shut down 16 websites that had provided access to piratedInternet televisionfeeds of NFL games on February 2, in an action similar to the crackdown they had implemented the previous year. For the first time, domains in the.tvtop-level domainwere also seized, despite that TLD's allocation toTuvalu. Radio Super Bowl XLVI was carried nationwide on radio over theDial Globalradio network, withKevin Harlanas play-by-play announcer,Boomer Esiasonas color analyst, andJames LoftonandMark Maloneas sideline reporters. Locally, the game was broadcast by theNew York Giants Radio Networkflagship (WFAN) and theNew England Patriots Radio Networkflagship (WBZ-FM).Bob Papacalled the game for the Giants withCarl Banksas his analyst andHoward Crossas sideline reporter, whileGil Santoswas at the microphone for the Patriots withGino Cappellettias analyst andScott Zolakas sideline reporter. Santos and Cappelletti returned for their sixth Super Bowl as broadcast team for the Patriots while Papa and Banks called their third and second Super Bowls, respectively, for the Giants. This was the first Super Bowl broadcast for the Giants not to feature longtime analystDick Lynch, who had retired from the team's radio booth following the 2007 season and died in 2008. As per the NFL's rules, all the other stations in the Giants and Patriots radio networks (as well asWCBS-AMin New York, which serves as a preseason overflow station for the Giants) carried Dial Global's feed. BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extraproduced its own radio broadcast, with Darren Fletcher, Rocky Boiman, andGreg Bradyannouncing. Entertainment Pregame TheIndiana University Marching Hundredperformed during the pre-game show. On January 12, 2012, it was reported that formerAmerican IdolwinnerKelly Clarksonwould sing the National Anthem at Super Bowl XLVI.It marks the fourth time in the previous five years that anAmerican Idolcontestant has performed the national anthem (joiningCarrie Underwood,Jennifer HudsonandJordin Sparks). Clarkson was accompanied by the Indianapolis Children's Choir. Husband-and-wife country musiciansBlake SheltonandMiranda Lambertperformed \"America the Beautiful\" as part of the ceremonies.American Sign Languagetranslation for both songs was performed by Rachel Mazique, the currently reigning Miss Deaf America. The coin toss ceremony featured the recent inductees to thePro Football Hall of Fame.Curtis Martin, one of the inductees, was originally selected to toss the coin,but in whatNESNdescribed as \"a rather awkward scene\", referee John Parry ended up flipping the coin himself while Martin stood beside and watched.The Patriots won the toss, the first AFC team to do so in the Super Bowl in 15 years.Because the coin toss landed on heads, the pizza chainPapa John'soffered free pizza to millions of Americans who participated in a promotional contest. Halftime Word had leaked as early as October 2011 thatMadonnawould be the performer for theSuper Bowl halftime show,withM.I.A.andNicki Minajperforming as well; all three are featured on Madonna's new single \"Give Me All Your Luvin'\" which was performed as part of the show.The league confirmed Madonna as the performer on December 4.Other collaborators on the project includedLMFAO,Cee Lo Green, long time Madonna collaboratorJamie King,Cirque du Soleil, and Moment Factory. The setlist included an Egyptian-themed \"Vogue\" with costumes byGivenchy,a medley of Madonna's \"Music\" and LMFAO's two largest hits (\"Party Rock Anthem\" and \"Sexy and I Know It\", with the LMFAO singers remaining fully clothed, unlike in the latter song's music video), followed by her then-current single \"Give Me All Your Luvin'\", excerpts from \"Open Your Heart\" and \"Express Yourself\" (in a duet with Green), and the finale, \"Like a Prayer\", also featuring Green. Green and Shelton (who sang \"America the Beautiful\" as part of the pregame show) are both judges on the NBC TV seriesThe Voice, which the networkbroadcast after the game. M.I.A. came under controversy for giving themiddle fingerduring the performance of \"Give Me All Your Luvin'\", which was caught by the broadcast feed. The gesture was given when she appeared to sing \"I don't give a shit\", although it was hard to hear clearly if the expletive was said, stopped short, or cut off, as the censor unsuccessfully tried to blur the screen to cover the gesture. The show broke the record for the most viewed Super Bowl halftime show ever, defeating Michael Jackson's previous record, with 114 million viewers throughout the world. Game summary First quarter The Patriots won the coin toss and deferred. This ended a stretch of 14 consecutive Super Bowls in which the NFC team won the coin toss. New York opened the game with a drive to the Patriots' 33-yard line, threatening to score first. After quarterbackEli Manningcompleted a 19-yard pass to wide receiverHakeem Nicks, New England's defense stepped up to prevent a score. First, defensive endBrandon Deadericksacked Manning for a 2-yard loss, then running backAhmad Bradshawwas tackled behind the line of scrimmage on a blitz by cornerbackKyle Arrington. On third down, defensive endMark Andersonsacked Manning for a 6-yard loss, pushing the Giants out of field goal range and forcing them to punt. The Giants got a boost from punterSteve Weatherford, whose 36-yard kick pinned the Patriots back at their own 6-yard line. On the Patriots' first offensive play of the game, quarterbackTom Bradyattempted aplay action pass, but a heavy rush from defensive endJustin Tuckforced Brady to throw deep into the middle of the field, with no receiver anywhere near it. Brady was flagged forintentional grounding, and since he was in the end zone when he threw the pass, the play resulted in asafety,giving New York an early 2–0 lead.It was the first safety in a Super Bowl since theArizona Cardinalsscored one inSuper Bowl XLIII. After receiving the free kick, New York drove 78 yards in 9 plays. Aided by a key 24-yard run by Bradshaw, the Giants increased their lead to 9–0 on Manning's 2-yard touchdown pass to wide receiverVictor Cruz. On the Patriots' following drive, Brady completed passes to running backBenJarvus Green-Ellisfor 7 yards and wide receiverDeion Branchfor 15, while wide receiverWes Welkerpicked up 29 yards on a reception and a run on a reverse, moving the ball to the New York 17-yard line. Second quarter New York managed to stop the drive at their own 11-yard line, butStephen Gostkowskikicked a 29-yard field goal to cut New England's deficit to 9–3 early in the second quarter. After the next three possessions resulted in punts, Weatherford's 51-yard punt gave the Patriots possession on their 2-yard line with 4:03 left in the half. However, this punt did not affect the Patriots, as they stormed 96 yards down the field in 14 plays, tying the record for the longest drive in Super Bowl history.Brady completed a 20-yard pass to tight endRob Gronkowski, then followed it up with four consecutive completions to tight endAaron Hernandezfor a total gain of 38 yards. The drive ended with Brady's 4-yard touchdown pass to running backDanny Woodhead, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game, 10–9, at halftime. Third quarter New England took the second half kickoff and started out strong; Brady completed a 21-yard pass to wide receiverChad Johnson(his only reception of the postseason and Brady's longest pass of the game), and a reception and two runs by Green-Ellis gained 29 yards to the New York 24-yard line. Brady eventually finished the eight-play, 79-yard drive with a 12-yard touchdown pass to Hernandez, increasing New England's lead to 17–9. Starting their first drive of the half from their own 35-yard line after wide receiverJerrel Jernigan's 34-yard kickoff return, aided by Manning's two completions to Nicks for 19 yards, the Giants reached the New England 20-yard line, where kickerLawrence Tynesmade a 38-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 17–12. On New England's next drive, New York forced a three-and-out, and safetyWill BlackmonreturnedZoltán Meskó's 43-yard punt 10 yards to the Patriots' 47-yard line. The Giants subsequently drove back into scoring range on a drive that utilized several different players, including a 12-yard reception by seldom used tight endBear Pascoeto reach the New England 9-yard line. On third down, however, a sack by Anderson and linebackerRob Ninkovichforced New York to settle for a 33-yard field goal by Tynes, cutting the score to 17–15 with 35 seconds left in the third quarter. Fourth quarter On the second play of the fourth quarter, the game's only turnover occurred when Giants linebackerChase Blackburnstepped in front of Gronkowski and picked off a deep Brady pass at the New York 8-yard line.The Giants then drove to the New England 43-yard line, but were stopped there and had to punt. The Patriots took the ball back at their own 8-yard line with less than 10 minutes left in the game. After Brady completed four consecutive passes for 34 yards to reach the New York 44-yard line, he threw to a wide-open Welker, but his pass was high and Welker was unable to reel it in while falling to the ground, crucially preventing a huge gain.Brady's next pass was incomplete, and the Patriots were forced to punt, after which Brady's wife supermodelGisele Bündchenfamously blamed Welker, saying her husband could not both \"hrow and catch the ball.\" The television footage of the game showedBill Belichickexhorting his defense to focus on stopping Cruz and Nicks, and to force the Giants to go to secondary optionsMario Manninghamand Pascoe. The Giants took possession from their own 12-yard line with 3:46 left in the game and one timeout. On the first play, in what would end up being one of the key plays of the game,Manning completed a deep pass along the left sideline to Manningham for a 38-yard gain to midfield (the longest play from scrimmage in the game), which would later draw comparisons tohis pass to David Tyree in Super Bowl XLII.Belichick challenged the catch, but the call on the field stood and it cost him his team's first timeout. Two more completions from Manning to Manningham gained another 18 yards. Manning then completed a 14-yard pass to Nicks on the New England 18-yard line at the two-minute warning. Three plays later, New England called their second timeout with 1:03 left after Bradshaw's 1-yard run set up 2nd-and-goal on the 6-yard line. On the second down play, whichSports Illustratedlater called \"perhaps the strangest play in Super Bowl history\", Bradshaw's path to the end zone was clear as the Patriots chose to let him score. Once he realized what was happening, Bradshaw tried to stop running at the 1-yard line, but his forward momentum carried him over the goal line and the Giants took the lead on the uncontested touchdown run.The intentionally surrendered touchdown gave the Patriots 57 seconds to mount a game-winning drive, and they trailed 21–17 after Giants running backDJ Warewas stopped on thetwo-point conversionattempt. The game's final drive began on the New England 20-yard line. Brady's first two passes fell incomplete and then he was sacked by Tuck for a 6-yard loss on third down, bringing up 4th-and-16 and forcing the Patriots to use their final timeout. Facing heavy pressure in the pocket, Brady eluded defensive endJason Pierre-Pauland linebackerMathias Kiwanuka, then threw a 19-yard bullet to wide receiverDeion Branch, who ran out of bounds at the 33-yard line for a first down. An 11-yard completion from Brady to Hernandez advanced the ball to the Patriots' 44, followed by a twelve-men-on-the-field penalty against the Giants, which moved the ball to the Patriots' 49 with nine seconds left. After an incomplete pass, Brady, on the game's final play, threw aHail Mary passintended for Hernandez in the end zone, but the ball was deflected by five Giants defenders. Gronkowski dove with outstretched arms toward the ball but was still a yard away when it hit the ground, giving the Giants their fourth Super Bowl title in franchise history. Box score atLucas Oil Stadium,Indianapolis, Indiana Statistical overview For the Giants, Manning completed 30 of 40 passes for 296 yards, one touchdown, and no interceptions. Bradshaw was the top rusher of the game with 72 yards and a touchdown, also catching two passes for 19 yards. Nicks was the top receiver with 10 receptions for 109 yards. Blackburn, who had been cut by the Giants earlier in the season before being re-signed, had 6 total tackles and an interception. Tuck made 3 tackles and two sacks. For New England, Brady completed 27 of 41 passes for 276 yards and two touchdowns, with one interception, becoming the first quarterback to throw a touchdown pass in five separate Super Bowls. His top target was Tight End/H-BackAaron Hernandez, performing in a role similar to the one he played atFlorida, catching 8 passes for 67 yards and one score. A20104th-Round selection, Hernandez's stellar performance in the game would only add to the tragedy when his career was cut short by a self-destructive spiral into crime, resulting in his conviction in 2013 for the murder ofOdin Lloyd. Fellow second-year tight endRob Gronkowski, who came into Super Bowl XLVI battling a severe ankle injury, tallied 2 catches for 26 yards and Welker, despite the infamous drop, finished with 7 receptions for 60 yards and two carries for 21. Defensively, linebackersJerod MayoandBrandon Spikeseach had 8 solo tackles, 3 assists, and a forced fumble. With the win the Giants became the fifth team to win at least four Super Bowls, while the Patriots became the fourth to lose four. At the time, Brady had yet to win in Lucas Oil Stadium and had not won a game in Indianapolis since 2007, when the Patriots defeated theIndianapolis Coltson their way to a perfect regular season. Belichick dropped to 3–2 as a head coach in the Super Bowl, whileTom Coughlinwon his second Super Bowl in as many tries. Some news organizations, among themThe St. Louis Post-Dispatch, said that their victory made them NFL's version of the2011 World SerieschampionSt. Louis Cardinals, saying that these two championship teams that had been given the last rites by many near the end of the season, emerged as champions at the end.Eli Manning was the only quarterback to throw for more than 4,900 yards and win a Super Bowl in the same season untilPatrick Mahomesthrew for 5,250 yards and wonSuper Bowl LVIIduring the2022 NFL season. The Giants and Patriots became the 3rd and 4th teams (after theOakland RaidersandPittsburgh Steelers) to appear in Super Bowls in four different decades (both in the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s) and the second and third to appear in Super Bowls in four consecutive decades (joining the Pittsburgh Steelers). The Giants became the first and only team in Super Bowl history to win Super Bowls in four different decades (1986, 1990, 2007, 2011). The Patriots became the first and only team in Super Bowl history to lose Super Bowls in four different decades (1985, 1996, 2007, 2011). Dan Shaughnessysaid in a piece inThe Boston Globeabout Boston on the loss to the Giants under the headline, \"History Repeats\": \"Instead of celebrating a grand slam–championships in every major sport over a period of four years and four months–New Englanders are spitting out pieces of their broken luck, bracing for the avalanche of grief from the New Yorkers they envy so badly.\" The Giants went into the half trailing 10–9. The Giants have trailed at halftime in all of their Super Bowl appearances, trailing 10–9 to the Broncos, 12–10 to the Bills, 10–0 to the Ravens, and 7–3 to the Patriots. This would be the fourth time in the Giants' five Super Bowl appearances that they faced their AFC opponent earlier during the regular season. In every season in which the Giants have won the Super Bowl they have faced their AFC Super Bowl counterpart previously during the regular season. The Giants are now 4–0 in Super Bowls in whichBill Belichickhas been on the sidelines. Belichick was the Giants' defensive coordinator for their first two Super Bowl victories, and the opposing head coach in their last two. Three of the Giants' victories have come againstAFC Eastteams, with the Giants having defeated theBuffalo Billsand Patriots twice. The Giants continued their winning streak in road playoff games with their win in Super Bowl XLVI. The team won every playoff game they played away from their home stadium (Giants StadiumandMetLife Stadium) from 2007 to 2011. Prior to this run, last time the Giants were defeated in a game away from the Meadowlands was in 2006, when they were defeated by thePhiladelphia Eaglesin the Wild Card round.This streak came to an end in the2016–17 NFL playoffs, where the Giants were defeated 38–13 by the Green Bay Packers atLambeau Fieldin the Wild Card round.Two of the Giants' road playoff victories during this streak occurred at Lambeau. This was the second Super Bowl, afterSuper Bowl X, resulting in a final score of 21–17 with the winning score including a safety and a missed extra point as part of its 21-point total (although in this case it was a failed 2-point attempt while in the earlier case it was a blocked kick). This was the 5th set of teams to have a rematch in Super Bowl history and overall the 6th rematch. The others were the Miami Dolphins and Washington Redskins, who met inSuper Bowl VIIandSuper Bowl XVII; the Dallas Cowboys and Pittsburgh Steelers, who met inSuper Bowl X,Super Bowl XIII, andSuper Bowl XXXand are the only teams to meet in the Super Bowl more than twice; the San Francisco 49ers and Cincinnati Bengals, who met inSuper Bowl XVIandSuper Bowl XXIII; and the Cowboys and Buffalo Bills, who met inSuper Bowl XXVIIandSuper Bowl XXVIIIand are the only teams to face each other in two consecutive Super Bowls; and later the Patriots and the Philadelphia Eagles becoming the 6th set of teams to have a rematch in Super Bowl history and 7th overall, meeting inSuper Bowl LIIafter previously meeting inSuper Bowl XXXIX. Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XLVI,Super Bowl XLVI Play Finder NYG,Super Bowl XLVI Play Finder NE,The Football Database Super Bowl XLVI Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Long gain4Receptions5Times targeted Starting lineups Source: Officials This was the last game officials wore the traditional whiteknickers. Beginningthe next season, officials wore the full-length black pants introduced in 2006 for cold-weather games full-time. References External links", "Eli Manning Elisha Nelson Manning(born January 3, 1981) is an American former professionalfootballquarterbackwho played in theNational Football League(NFL) for 16 seasons with theNew York Giants. A member of theManning family, he is the youngest son ofArchieand younger brother ofPeyton. Manning playedcollege footballfor theOle Miss Rebels, where he won theMaxwellandJohnny Unitas Golden Armawards as a senior. He was selectedfirst overallin the2004 NFL draftby theSan Diego Chargersand traded to the Giants during the draft. Manning's greatest professional success was twice leading the Giants to underdogSuper Bowlvictories against theNew England Patriots dynastyinSuper Bowl XLIIandSuper Bowl XLVI.The former, which saw thewild cardGiants defeat a Patriots team that was the first to win all 16 regular season games, is regarded as one of the greatest sports upsets of all time.Manning was namedSuper Bowl MVPin both championships, making him one of six players to receive the award multiple times. As the Giants starting quarterback from 2004 to 2019, Manning holds the franchise records for passing yards, passingtouchdowns, and completions.Never missing a game due to injury, he started 210 consecutive games from 2004 to 2017, the third-longestconsecutive starts streak by an NFL quarterback. Manning ranks 11th all-time in passing yards and 10th in touchdowns. Early life Manning was born inNew Orleans, the youngest of three boys to Olivia (née Williams) and NFL quarterbackElisha Archibald \"Archie\" Manning III, both natives ofMississippi.His older brothers,CooperandPeyton, both played football growing up. Manning attended high school at theIsidore Newman Schoolin New Orleans, where he playedfootballand basketball for the Greenies.In his high school career, Manning passed for a school-record 7,389 yards and 89 touchdowns.Eli's passing mark was later broken by his nephewArch.He committed to play college football at theUniversity of Mississippi. College career Manning entered college in the shadow of his brother Peyton, quarterback of the Indianapolis Colts, and his father, who was considered a \"folk hero\" at Ole Miss.During his years with theRebels, Manning set or tied numerous single-game,seasonandcareer records. His career numbers include 10,119 passing yards (fifth on theSECcareer list), 81 touchdown passes (third on the SEC career list), and a passer rating of 137.7 (tied for sixth on the SEC career list). 2000 season As a redshirt freshman, Manning competed with veteranRomaro Millerfor the starting quarterback position and saw little playing time.He appeared in six games and passed for 170 total yards and one interception in the Rebels 7–5 season. 2001 season With the departure of Miller, Manning became the Rebels' starting quarterback as a sophomore. In the first game, againstMurray State, he converted 20-of-23 pass attempts for 271 yards and five passing touchdowns in the 49–14 victory.In the following game, a 27–21 loss toAuburn, he had 265 passing yards, one passing touchdown and one interception.Over the next few games, Manning helped lead the Rebels to victories overKentucky,AlabamaandLSU.On November 3, in a58–56 7OTloss toArkansas, Manning passed for 312 passing yards and six passing touchdowns.The game marked the longest game in major college football history at the time.Overall, Manning had a solid first year as the Rebels' starting quarterback with 2,948 passing yards, 31 touchdowns, and nine interceptions, as the Rebels finished with a 7–4 record. 2002 season Manning's junior season started out promising with a 31–3 victory overLouisiana-Monroeand a 38–16 victory overMemphis. Manning had four passing touchdowns and one interception combined in those two games.In the next game, a 42–28 loss toTexas Tech, Manning passed for 374 yards, three touchdowns and one interception.The Rebels won their next three games, which were overVanderbilt, #6FloridaandArkansas Stateto earn Ole Miss a #21 ranking in theAP Poll.Manning had five touchdowns and one interception in that stretch. The Rebels' fortunes turned in the latter half of the season with a five-game losing streak.In the stretch was a 48–28 loss toArkansas, in which Manning completed 42-of-56 passes for 414 yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions. In addition, he had a rushing touchdown. Manning's 414 passing yards marked the most he threw for in college.After a 24–12 win overrivalMississippi State, the Rebels qualified for theIndependence Bowlwith a 6–6 record to face off againstNebraska.Manning passed for 313 yards and one touchdown in the 27–23 victory.Overall, Manning finished with 3,401 passing yards, 21 touchdowns, and 15 interceptions in his junior season. 2003 season Manning started off his senior season with a 2–2 record. He played well in that stretch with 1,329 passing yards, 11 touchdowns and four interceptions, with victories overVanderbiltandLouisiana-Monroe, but had losses toMemphisandTexas Tech.The Rebels went on a six-game winning streak that included victories over major SEC opponents #24Florida,Alabama,#21Arkansas,South Carolina,andAuburn.Manning passed for 1,552 yards, 12 touchdowns, and four interceptions in the winning streak. Overall, he led the Rebels to a 10–3 record, and a 31–28SBCCotton Bowl Classicvictory over #21Oklahoma State, with 259 passing yards and two touchdowns in 2003.Manning helped lead Ole Miss to their first ten-win season since 1971. As his senior year came to a close, Manning won many awards, including theMaxwell Awardas the nation's best all-around player, theJohnny Unitas Golden Arm Award, theNational Football FoundationandCollege Football Hall of FameScholar-Athlete Award, theSporting News RadioSocrates Award, and theSEC Most Valuable Player Award. He was also a candidate for the 2003Heisman Trophy, finishing third in the voting after winning quarterbackJason White(University of Oklahoma) and wide receiverLarry Fitzgerald(University of Pittsburgh).Manning was a member of theSigma Nufraternity (as was his father), and he was named Sigma Nu Athlete of the Year in 2001 and 2003. Manning graduated from the University of Mississippi with a degree inmarketingand aGPAof 3.44 and was on the Dean's Honor Roll. Awards College statistics Professional career TheSan Diego Chargershad the first overall pick in the2004 NFL draftdue to their 4–12 record in 2003.With Manning being the most coveted player in the draft, it appeared that the Chargers' intentions were to draft him first overall. Meanwhile, Manning and his father Archie Manning stated that he would refuse to play for the Chargers if drafted by them.Archie asked the father of former Chargers quarterbackRyan Leafbefore the draft about his son's experience with the team. In hearing that the Chargers did not help Leaf with his personal problems, it then became part of why Eli refused to play for the team. The Chargers selected Manning with the first pick overall nonetheless, as the team had a deal with theNew York Giants, whereby the Giants would draft and then tradePhilip Riversand a 2004 third-round pick, used to select placekickerNate Kaeding; a 2005 first-round pick, used to select linebackerShawne Merriman; and a 2005 fifth-round pick (which was later traded away) to the Chargers for Manning.He signed a six-year, $45 million contract with the Giants. Manning was one of 17 quarterbacks taken in the 2004 NFL Draft, along with Rivers and thePittsburgh Steelers'Ben Roethlisberger.All three would enjoy lengthy and successful careers with the teams that signed them and have been compared favorably to the1983 NFL draft, which includedHall of FamequarterbacksJohn Elway,Jim Kelly, andDan Marino.Manning posted the lowest passing yards, touchdowns, pass completions, completion percentage, TD–INT ratio, passer rating, wins, winning percentage, andPro Bowlhonors of the three, but cemented his legacy with his two upsetSuper Bowlvictories against theNew England Patriots'dynasty. While both Manning and Roethlisberger were part of two Super Bowl-winning teams, Manning is the only quarterback of the three to earnSuper Bowl MVPhonors, which he received in both victories. 2004 season Manning made his NFL regular season debut in Week 1 against thePhiladelphia Eagles. He came into the game toward the end the fourth quarter in relief ofKurt Warner. He finished the 31–17 loss 3-of-9 for 66 yards.Manning made his first career regular season start against theAtlanta FalconsatGiants Stadiumon November 21, 2004. In the game, Manning threw his first career touchdown on a six-yard pass toJeremy Shockeyin the third quarter.In his fourth start, against theBaltimore RavensatM&T Bank Stadiumon December 12, 2004, he ended the day with a 0.0 passer rating and was benched in the second half in favor of Warner, but remained the Giants starter through the end of the season.In Week 15, against thePittsburgh Steelers, he recorded his first multi-touchdown performance with 182 passing yards, two touchdowns, and one interception in the 33–30 loss in a duel with fellow rookie quarterback Ben Roethlisberger.In the regular season finale, Manning passed for 144 yards, three touchdowns, and one interception in the 28–24 victory over theDallas Cowboys, getting his first win as a starter.The Giants finished with a 6–10 record and were 1–6 in games that Manning started in. He finished with 1,043 passing yards, six touchdowns, and nine interceptions. 2005 season: NFC East champions Following 2004, Warner left the Giants,and Manning was named the starter for 2005. Manning led the Giants to a 2–0 record with victories against theArizona CardinalsandNew Orleans Saints,before traveling to theWest Coastfor a test in a road game against theSan Diego Chargers. Chargers fans did not forget the snub, and on September 25, 2005, when Manning and the Giants made their first trip to San Diego for a game since that draft day, the crowd booed Manning loudly every time he touched the ball.San Diego defeated the Giants 45–23,but Manning displayed what may have been his most impressive performance of his young career, going 24-of-41 for 352 yards and two touchdowns. Manning returned home to throw for almost 300 yards and a career-high four touchdowns against theSt. Louis Ramsat Giants Stadium in a 44–24 romp.Two games later, he led a last-minute drive against theDenver Broncosto secure a 24–23 victory for the Giants.The drive culminated in a two-yard touchdown toAmani Toomerwith five seconds remaining.Two weeks later, Manning overcame a weak first half against theSan Francisco 49ersto help his team secure their first official road victory of the season, 24–6.Despite a poor performance at home against theMinnesota Vikings, throwing fourinterceptions, he again led his team back to tie the game in the final minutes before the Vikings won on a late field goal. Manning finished among the top five quarterbacks in both passing yards and touchdown passes, while leading an offense that finished third in the NFL in scoring with a total of 422 points.It was the most points the Giants scored in a single season since1963.The Giants won theNFC Eastwith an 11–5 recordand advanced to thepostseasonas the #4-seed.In theWild Card Roundagainst theCarolina Panthers, Manning was 10-of-18 for 113 yards and three interceptions in the 23–0 loss. 2006 season Manning's second full season was reminiscent of his 2005 season. He started off playing well and completed over 65 percent of his passes through the first four games. However, he struggled in the second half of the season and his production diminished towards the end of the regular season. After losing a tough game to his brother Peyton and theIndianapolis Coltson opening day,Manning and the Giants rebounded from a 24–7 fourth quarter deficit en route to a 30–24 overtime victory over the division rivalPhiladelphia Eaglesin Week 2.Manning threw for a career-high 371 yards in the win with three touchdowns including a game-winning pass toPlaxico Burressin overtime to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week.Following a poor performance against theSeattle Seahawksthe next week,Manning and the Giants responded by winning five straight games including wins over theWashington Redskins,Dallas CowboysandAtlanta Falcons, to push their record to 6–2. Following this winning streak, key injuries including one to wide receiver Amani Toomer pushed Manning and the Giants into a downward slide.Playing against theChicago Bears, Manning started well, but the Giants' offense was derailed by the loss of left tackleLuke Petitgoutto a broken leg.Manning was held to only 141 yards passing with two interceptions. Petitgout's loss left a gaping hole at the crucial left tackle position, and Manning was unable to repeat his first-half success.Manning struggled the next week against theJacksonville Jaguarsand the week after that, a costly interception helped to culminate a huge collapse on the road against theTennessee Titans, with the Giants seeing a 21-point fourth quarter lead simply evaporate.Manning improved the following week, throwing for 270 yards and two touchdowns against the Dallas Cowboys, but the Giants lost 23–20.Finally regaining momentum, Manning threw three touchdowns in a win on the road against theCarolina Panthers,but then he stumbled badly in the final three games. He threw two interceptions against the Philadelphia Eagles and tallied only 73 passing yards in a game against theNew Orleans Saints.Although the Giants battled back to 8–8 the following week on the road against the Washington Redskins, Manning completed only 12 of 26 passes for 101 yards and one touchdown.The Giants qualified for the postseason as the #6-seed and met the Philadelphia Eagles.Although he did significantly better in this game than the 2005 playoff game against the Carolina Panthers, completing 16 of 27 passes for 161 yards and two touchdowns, the Giants lost in theWild Card Roundon a last-second field goal by the Eagles. For the year, Manning threw for 3,244 yards, 24 touchdowns, and 18 interceptions.He completed 57.7 percent of his passes, a five-point improvement from 2005, but he again struggled badly in the second half of the season. Manning finished the season with a quarterback efficiency rating of 77.0 (18th in the league) with 6.2 yards per attempt. 2007 season: Super Bowl champions Manning trained in the Meadowlands with offensive coordinatorKevin Gilbrideand new quarterbacks coach Chris Palmer prior to the 2007 regular season.For the first time ever, Plaxico Burressand Jeremy Shockeypracticed in the off-season with Manning to perfect their timing and chemistry rather than training alone inMiamias they did in previous years. 2007 regular season Manning opened the 2007 season with an outstanding personal performance against theDallas Cowboys, completing 28 of 41 passing attempts for 312 yards, four touchdowns, and an interception in New York's 45–35 loss.However, he suffered a shoulder sprainand was removed from the game late in the second half. Although he did play against theGreen Bay Packersin Week 2 while throwing for 211 yards with one touchdown,the Giants defense performed poorly again and the team dropped to 0–2 with Green Bay winning, 35–13.In week three, Manning got a come-from-behind victory as the Giants defense improved, pitching a shutout in the second half and stopping theWashington Redskinson a fourth and goal situation, winning the game 24–17.The Giants defense then shut down thePhiladelphia Eagleswith an NFL record-tying 12sacks,holding the Eagles offense to one field goal. The Giants won with a score of 16–3.The following week, Manning overcame a dismal first half to throw for two second-half scoresin a 35–24 win over their in-city rivals, theNew York Jets. Following two straight home victories, Manning and the Giants obtained their fourth consecutive victory with a 31–10 defeat of theAtlanta Falconsin theGeorgia DomeonMonday Night Football.Manning performed well, completing 27 of 39 passes for 303 yards along with a pair of touchdowns while giving away two interceptions.Behind a dominant defensive effort, the Giants improved to 5–2 the next week with a 33–15 win over theSan Francisco 49ers.Manning played well again, throwing for two touchdowns in the effort. In week 8, the Giants played a road game against theMiami Dolphinson October 28, 2007, in London'sWembley Stadium.Manning only threw for 59 yards in the rain and mud, but he scored the Giants' only touchdown on a 10-yard run.This touchdown was the first in an NFL regular season game that was played outside of North America. The Giants defeated the Dolphins, 13–10, bringing the Giants to a 6–2 record at the mid-way point of the 2007 season.After losing to their division rivals the Dallas Cowboys in Week 9,New York Giants co-ownerJohn Marapublicly questioned Manning's ability to lead the Giants in 2007, but more importantly, in the future: The only thing we evaluate is 'Can we win with this guy?' That's the one thing. When we talk about any player at the end of the season, the No.1 question is 'Will he help us win?' And to take it one step further, 'Can we win a championship with this guy?' After a week of criticism in the New York media and being outplayed by Cowboys quarterbackTony Romo, Manning had a bounce-back victory against their conference Wild Card competitors theDetroit Lions.Manning threw for 283 yards and one touchdown but most importantly, no interceptions in a critical road game. The following week in a 41–17 loss to theMinnesota Vikings, Manning threw four interceptions and had three of them returned for touchdowns.He continued to struggle until the last game of the season,against the 15–0New England Patriots. With a playoff spot secured, the Giants could have rested their starters for the playoffs, but they instead chose to keep in the regulars and attempt to stop New England's quest for an undefeated regular season.The Giants lost 38–35, with Manning completing 22 of 32 passes for 252 yards, with four touchdowns and one interception. 2007 playoffs The Giants entered the playoffs as the #5-seed.On January 6, 2008, in theWild Card Round, Manning went 20-of-27 for 185 yards playing on the road against theTampa Bay Buccaneers. The underdog Giants won 24–14, and Manning had two touchdown passes. On January 13, 2008, in theDivisional RoundManning led the Giants to an upset victory over the heavily favored Dallas Cowboys, the number one seed in theNFC.For the third straight game, Manning played well, completing 12 of 18 passes for 163 yards and two touchdowns with no interceptions.The Giants were the first team to beat an NFC number one seed in the Divisional Round since the start of the 12-team format in 1990.This victory secured anNFC Championshipberth against the Green Bay Packers on January 20, 2008. In the NFC Championship, the Giants beat the Packers in overtime, with a score of 23–20 in one of the coldest postseason games in NFL history.The dramatic victory secured Manning and the Giants a trip toSuper Bowl XLII.This was the first Super Bowl appearance for the New York Giants sinceSuper Bowl XXXVin 2001. Super Bowl XLII In front of a record-setting American television audienceand on the strength of a late fourth quarter drive led by Manning, the Giants beat the 12.5 point-favored, undefeated New England Patriots 17–14. Manning takes the snap, back to throw, under pressure, avoids the rush and he's gonna...fight out of it, still fights out of it, now throws it deep down field, wide open Tyree who... MAKES THE CATCH! AT THE 24-YARD LINE! What a play by Manning! Trailing 14–10 with 2:42 remaining, Manning led the Giants 83 yards on a game-winning touchdown drive. On a crucial third-and-5 at the Giants' 44-yard line, Manning connected withDavid Tyreeon a play in which he avoided severalsacksand Tyreecaught the ball off his helmetfor a large gain. Four plays later, Plaxico Burress caught a 13-yard touchdown pass with just 35 seconds remaining for the winning margin.Manning became only the second quarterback in NFL history to throw two go-ahead fourth quarter touchdowns in a Super Bowl (Joe Montanabeing the first inSuper Bowl XXIIIin 1989).Manning also became the first quarterback to throw a last-minute, championship-winning touchdown in the NFL title game (including the pre-Super Bowl era) when a field goal would not at least tie the game. Manning was named the Most Valuable Player of Super Bowl XLII.He and his brother Peyton are the only brother combination to play at quarterback in the Super Bowl and the only set of brothers to win Super Bowl MVP, doing so in successive years. For winning Super Bowl MVP, he was given his choice of any 2008 modelCadillac, and Manning chose anEscaladeHybrid.The Wednesday following the Super Bowl he appeared on theLate Show with David Letterman. 2008 season: NFC East champions Manning and the Giants opened the 2008 season with a win over their division rivals, theWashington Redskins, 16–7.Manning completed 19 passes of 35 for 216 yards, and had one rushing touchdown and one interception. Post-match, he said: \"It was a great opening to the season. There was a lot of emotion, a lot of excitement. You could feel it in the crowd.\"In the Giants' next game, against theSt. Louis Rams, they won again, 41–13, behind a stellar Manning performance.Manning finished the game with 20 completions, 260 yards passing and threw three touchdowns to three different receivers.The victory also marked the team's fourth straight victory over the Rams. The following week, Manning rallied the Giants to more fourth-quarter magic, overcoming a late deficit to throw the go-ahead touchdown pass to tight endKevin Boss, and then in overtime, throwing a clutch 31-yard pass to Amani Toomer in the Giants' 26–23 win overCincinnati Bengals.The fourth week of the season saw the Giants score on each of their first six possessions and dominate theSeattle Seahawks, 44–6. Manning threw for two touchdowns, completing 19 of 25 passes for 267 yards as the Giants totaled 523 yards on offense, their most since 2002. Following a poor team performance in a 35–14 loss on the road against theCleveland Browns,Manning and the Giants responded with a 29–17 win over the 49ers and battled to a hard earned 21–14 win over thePittsburgh Steelersat Pittsburgh'sHeinz Field.Manning completed 19 of 32 passes for 199 yards and one touchdown in the crucial win, which pushed the Giants to a 6–1 record.The following week, the Giants beat theDallas Cowboysat home 35–14 to get to 7–1 at the midway point of the regular season. Manning threw three touchdowns in the game.New York improved to 8–1 with a 36–31 win on the road against thePhiladelphia Eagles. Manning threw two touchdowns in the victory, but the crucial play occurred in the third quarter. With the Giants trailing by four, Manning appeared to make an illegal forward pass to tight end Boss. After review, it was determined that the pass was legal. The Giants scored a touchdown two plays later.Week nine pitted the Giants in a battle with the visitingBaltimore Ravens. The Ravens had come into the game with the league's third-ranked defense; nevertheless, Manning led the Giants to a decisive 30–10 victory, improving to 9–1, which included a 200-yard rushing effort by running backsBrandon Jacobs,Derrick WardandAhmad Bradshaw.Two weeks later, the Giants faced the Redskins at Washington in their second encounter in the season. Manning threw his first 300-yard game of the season going 21-of-34 with an interception and a 40-yard touchdown pass to Toomer. The Giants beat the Redskins 23–7.In November, Manning was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Month. For the month, Manning threw for 1,036 yards and ten touchdowns, and compiled a 94.9 passer rating while leading the Giants to a perfect 5–0 record. Manning was named to his firstPro Bowlon December 16, making him the first Giants quarterback to earn the honor sincePhil Simmsin 1993.In week 15, Manning and the Giants visitedTexas Stadium, where Tony Romo battled through a lower back contusion and connected with nine different receivers, finishing 20-of-30 for 244 yards and two touchdowns leading the Dallas Cowboys to a 20–8 victory. In week 16 against theCarolina Pantherswith NFC homefield advantage on the line, Manning had a passing day of 17 of 27 for 181 yards and no interceptions. Manning led the Giants back from deficits of 21–10 and 28–20 to tie the game with just over three minutes left, including a bullet pass toDomenik Hixonfor a key two-point conversion to tie the game at 28. The game was played in freezing conditions. After becoming the No. 1 seed in the NFC with a 12–4 record, the Giants had a first playoff round bye week and homefield advantage through the rest of the playoffs.In theDivisional Round, they faced their archrival Philadelphia Eagles at Giants Stadium with its signature windy conditions. Philadelphia went on to win the game 23–11. Manning completed 15 out of 29 passes for 169 yards with no touchdowns and two interceptions. 2009 season On August 5, 2009, he signed a six-yearUS$97.5million contract extension. Manning and the Giants started the 2009 season with a 3–0 record.In Week 4, the Giants played theKansas City Chiefs. Manning was playing well up until the start of the fourth quarter when on a play-action fake, he injured his heel while passing downfield toSteve Smith. He stayed in for the next play completing a 54-yard touchdown toHakeem Nicks. It was discovered that Manning hadplantar fasciitis(inflammation of connective tissue within the soles of the feet) and there was speculation he would not play against theOakland Raidersin Week 5.However, in Week 5, Manning played well, completing eight of ten passes for 173 yards and two touchdowns with the Giants winning 44–7. This was the first time in his career that Manning had a posted a perfectpasser rating. After this five-game winning streak, the Giants fell to a four-game losing streak, losing to theNew Orleans Saints, theArizona Cardinals, thePhiladelphia Eaglesand theSan Diego Chargers, before winning again after a bye week on Week 11 when they played theAtlanta Falcons, winning 34–31 in overtime. Against the Falcons, Manning posted a career-high 384 passing yards with three touchdowns and one interception. OnThanksgiving, the Giants traveled toDenverto play theDenver Broncoswhere they lost 26–6. Manning completed 24 of 40 passes for 230 yards, with no touchdowns and an interception.In Week 14, they played their divisional rivals, the Philadelphia Eagles, and lost 45–38, where it was a close game from the start. Manning passed for a career-high 391 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions but was not able to win the game.Next week, onMonday Night Football, Manning and the Giants dominated theWashington Redskins, winning the game 45–12. The next week, in the final game in Giants Stadium, Manning and the Giants lost 41–9 against theCarolina Panthers. The Giants did not fare better the next week on the road against theMinnesota Vikingsin the final regular season game, losing 44–7 while down 38 points in the fourth quarter.After the games, Manning apologized to the fans for the team's performance.The Giants finished the 2009 season with an 8–8 record and missed the playoffs. Manning ended the 2009 season with career highs including 4,021 passing yards, 27 touchdowns, a 62.3 completion percentage rating, and a passer rating of 93.1. 2010 season On August 16 during a preseason game against theNew York Jets, Manning was hit by Brandon Jacobs, then byCalvin Pace, which knocked off his helmet, then went face first into Jim Leonhard's face mask.As a result, Manning had a large gash that needed 12 stitches, and he left the game. Manning and the Giants started the 2010 season with a 1–2 start followed by a five-game winning streak. In Week 15, he had 289 passing yards, four touchdowns, and one interception in the38–31 lossto thePhiladelphia Eagles.In Week 16, Manning connected on with Mario Manningham on a then-career-high 85-yard receiving touchdown in a 45–17 loss to theGreen Bay Packers.The mark was broken the next week when Manning completed a 92-yard passing touchdown to Manningham in the 17–14 victory over theWashington Redskins.The Giants ended the2010 NFL seasonwith a 10–6 record.Manning led the Giants to a 17–14 win in the last game of the season against the Redskins, however, because of the Packers' 10–3 win over theChicago Bears, the Giants did not make the playoffs.He ended the season with 4,002 yards, a career-high 31 touchdowns, but also a career-high 25 interceptions, which marked the most by a quarterback in the 2010 season, and a 62.5 completion percentage. 2011 season: Second Super Bowl championship In August 2011, Manning generated mild controversy in the sports media during a radio interview onThe Michael Kay Show. When asked by hostMichael Kaywhether he was an elite \"Top 10, Top 5\" quarterback in the same class as Tom Brady, he responded: I consider myself in that class. Tom Brady is a great quarterback... I think now he's grown up and gotten better every year and that's what I'm trying to do. I kind of hope these next seven years of my quarterback days are my best. Manning received criticism for the quote for trying to inflate his own status and skills, with critics pointing out his past inconsistent stats, including his 25 interceptions in the previous season, as evidence contradicting his claims.However, Manning also received support for his comments from Giants coach Tom Coughlin, and teammates such as wide receiver Hakeem Nicks.Later in the season, Dallas Cowboys defensive coordinatorRob Ryancommented on the quote, agreeing with Manning that he was an elite quarterback \"for sure.\" 2011 regular season The Giants opened the 2011 season with a slow start, losing to the rivalWashington Redskins28–14– in an emotional game for both fanbases on the 10th anniversary of theSeptember 11 attacks.Manning completed 18 of 32 passes for 268 yards but threw a costly interception in the third quarter to linebackerRyan Kerrigan, who returned it for a touchdown and swung the momentum of the game.However, the Giants recovered and won their next three games, including over the arch-rivalPhiladelphia Eagles, where he had 254 passing yards and four touchdowns in the 29–16 victory to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week.During this streak, Manning improved, throwing for 266 yards per game with eight total touchdowns and one interception. After a 6–2 start, including a 24–20 last-minute comeback by Manning over theNew England Patriotsthat evoked comparisons to Super Bowl XLII,the Giants entered a tough stretch of their schedule, facing off against theSan Francisco 49ers, theNew Orleans Saintsand theGreen Bay Packers, the respective eventual NFC West, South and North champions. The Giants lost all three games as well as falling to the Philadelphia Eagles at home, leading them into a four-game skid and once again putting their postseason hopes in jeopardy. However, unlike the previous three seasons, the Giants finished strong, winning three of their last four games. This included a key win over their crosstown rivalNew York Jets, where Manning tied an NFL record by completing a 99-yard touchdown pass toVictor Cruz,as well as a sweep of their fellow division rivalDallas Cowboys. In the final regular-season game against the Dallas Cowboys, Manning threw for 346 yards and three touchdowns, giving the Giants the win, the NFC East title, and a playoff berth for the first time in three years.He earned a Pro Bowl nomination for his performance in the 2011 season.He threw for at least 400 yards in three separate games, setting a new franchise record. 2011 playoffs The Giants entered the 2011 postseason as underdogs, with the worst record of any NFC playoff team.However, Manning and his team would once again demonstrate their endurance and durability late in the year. The Giants first easily routed theAtlanta Falcons24–2 in theWild Card Roundand then stunned the defending Super Bowl champions and top-seeded Green Bay Packers in theDivisional Roundto advance to the NFC Championship Game.In the win, Manning completed 21 out of 33 attempts and threw three touchdowns and one interception.The following week, the Giants avenged their regular season loss to the San Francisco 49ers with a dramatic 20–17 overtime win in theNFC Championship Game.In the game, Manning set franchise playoff records with 32 completions on 52 attempts, good enough for 316 yards and two touchdowns despite being sacked a franchise-record-tying six times.This victory secured Manning and the Giants a second trip in five years to the Super Bowl, setting up a highly anticipated Super Bowl XLII rematch againstTom Bradyand the New England Patriots. The Giants also made history as the first Super Bowl team ever outscored in the regular season (394 points scored, 400 points allowed). Super Bowl XLVI In the most-watched program in the history ofUnited States television,Manning once again led the Giants to an upset victory over the2+1⁄2-point-favored Patriots 21–17, his second Super Bowl win and the fourth overall for the franchise. I was yelling to , \"Don't score, don't score\", Manning said. \"He tried to stop, but he fell into the end zone.\" While trailing the Patriots 15–17 in the final minutes, Manning led the Giants 88 yards down the field to a touchdown that many observers described as \"accidental\".With just over a minute of time left in the game, the Giants called a running play and Manning handed off the ball to Ahmad Bradshaw with the hopes of stopping short of the goal line and forcing the Patriots to use their final time out, thus allowing the Giants to run out the clock. The Patriots, in turn, did not attempt to tackle Bradshaw in his run, and he then fell over the goal line despite making an attempt to stop. However, the remaining time was not enough for Patriots quarterback Tom Brady to lead a comeback and the Giants held onto the lead to win. Manning was again named the Most Valuable Player ofSuper Bowl XLVI, becoming the third quarterback in a row to win the award.The Giants also became the first team ever with fewer than ten wins in a 16-game regular season to win the Super Bowl.Manning also became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for 4,900+ yards and win a Super Bowl in the same season. The Giants were the first team with a running game ranked last (32nd) and a defense ranked as low as 27th to win a Super Bowl. For winning the Super Bowl, Manning and the Giants received a victory parade inManhattanand were honored with symbolic keys to the city byMayorMichael Bloomberg.He was ranked 31st by his fellow players on theNFL Top 100 Players of 2012. 2012 season The Giants endured a disappointing season following their Super Bowl run in 2011.Manning led the Giants to a 6–2 record to begintheir season, including a career-best 510 passing yards to go along with three passing touchdowns and three interceptions in a Week 2 41–34 win over theTampa Bay Buccaneers. He finished second only to Phil Simms's game with 513 passing yards in 1985 for the franchise record.However, Manning averaged an anemic 204 yards per game and 74.3 passer rating from Week 8 to Week 16, including his lowest rating in five years (38.9) in a 34–0 loss to theAtlanta Falconsin Week 15.He ended the2012 seasonon a high note, throwing a career-high fivetouchdown passeswhile completing 13 of 21 pass attempts and passing for 208 yards with nointerceptions, in a 42–7 Giants win over thePhiladelphia Eagles.He finished the season with 26 touchdown passes, 15 interceptions and 3,948passing yards.As was typical for this phase of his career (2012–2016), Manning was exceptionally well-protected by his offensive line; he was sacked just 19 times for a league-lowest 3.4% of passing plays.Although the Giants did not qualify for the playoffs with a 9–7 season, Manning was selected to his thirdPro Bowlas a second alternate.He was ranked 43rd by his fellow players on theNFL Top 100 Players of 2013. 2013 season Manning started the 2013 season off with 450 passing yards, four touchdowns and three interceptions in a 36–31 loss to theDallas Cowboys.Manning set a franchise record for most passing yards in a season opener, breaking Phil Simms's mark of 409 passing yards in the 1984 regular season opener.The loss was a sign of things to come as the Giants started the season with a 0–6 record, their worst regular season start since 1976.He threw 12 interceptions in his first five games. Manning fell to 0–3 against his older brother, Peyton in Week 2's 41–23 loss to theDenver Broncos. He was 28 of 39 for 362 yards, but was intercepted four times.Manning's four interceptions tied his career high and was the fourth time he threw four interceptions in a game. The game between Peyton and Eli was the final professional meeting of the two brothers. In Week 15, Manning threw for 156 yards and a career-high five interceptions in a 23–0 loss to theSeattle Seahawks.Manning ended the season with a career-high 27 interceptions, which were the most in one season by a quarterback sinceBrett Favrehad 29 in 2005.The Giants finished the season 7–9, their first losing record since Manning's rookie year in 2004. Manning passed Phil Simms to become the franchise's all-time leader in yards passing. Simms, who played 14 seasons with the Giants, finished his career with 33,462 yards in the air. 2014 season After an 0–2 start, the Giants won three straight games but subsequently lost their next seven games including a 16–10 loss to theSan Francisco 49ersin a game where Manning threw five interceptions, which tied his career high.The Giants won three of their last four games to end the season with a 6–10 record.Among Manning's highlights from the losing season was a Week 17 game where he had 429 passing yards, one touchdown and one interception in a 34–26 loss to thePhiladelphia Eagles.Manning finished the season with 30 touchdown passes, 14 interceptions and 4,410 passing yards. 2015 season A few days before the Giants' regular season opener against theDallas Cowboys, Manning signed a four-year, US$84million extension with the Giants.In Week 5, he had a franchise-record 41 completions for 441 passing yards, three touchdowns and one interception, in a 30–27 victory over theSan Francisco 49ersto earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week.Through six games, he led the Giants to a 3–3 record and a tie for first place in the NFC East. In Week 8, Manning threw a career-high six touchdowns and 350 yards, but the Giants lost to theNew Orleans Saints, 52–49.He became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for six touchdowns and no interceptions in a game and lose.In Week 10, in a narrow 27–26 loss to the undefeatedNew England Patriots, Manning passed for 361 yards and two touchdowns, one of which was an 87-yard strike toOdell Beckham Jr.in the first quarter.In Week 14, in a 31–24 victory over theMiami Dolphins, he was 27-of-31 for 337 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week.After starting the season 5–5, Giants fell to 1–5 the rest of the way to finish 6–10 for the second straight season.Manning's longtime coach inTom Coughlinstepped down at the end of the season. Manning finished the 2015 season with career highs in touchdown passes (35), completions (387), attempts (618) and passer rating (93.6).His 35 touchdowns were one shy of tyingY. A. Tittlefor most in a single season in franchise history and ranked tied for second among quarterbacks that year.Manning also threw 4,432 yards in 2015, second most in his career. On January 22, 2016, Manning was selected to his fourth career Pro Bowl, replacing Ben Roethlisberger.Manning's fourth Pro Bowl berth tiesFran Tarkentonfor most Pro Bowl selections by a New York Giants quarterback in franchise history.He was ranked 47th by his fellow players on theNFL Top 100 Players of 2016. 2016 season: Return to the playoffs Manning had a new head coach inBen McAdoofor the 2016 season.Manning and the Giants started the 2016 season with a 2–3 record over the first five games. In the next game, a 27–23 victory over theBaltimore Ravens, Manning threw for three touchdowns, reaching a career total of 302 touchdown passes and passing John Elway for seventh all time. Coming off a bye week and on a two-game winning streak, beating the Ravens and theLos Angeles Rams, Manning threw a season-high four touchdowns as the Giants would halt a last-second game-winning drive by thePhiladelphia Eaglesto win 28–23.In a Week 16 loss against the Eagles on December 22, Manning set a franchise record with 63 pass attempts in a single game, while throwing one touchdown and three interceptions, surpassing Peyton Manning's record of 21 games with at least three interceptions with 22.Despite the loss, though, theTampa Bay Buccaneerslost to theNew Orleans Saintslater that week 31–24, giving the Giants their first playoff berth since the 2011 season, when the team last won the Super Bowl. By defeating the rivalWashington Redskinsin the final week of the NFL season on New Year's Day and, therefore, knocking the Redskins out of playoff contention and bringing their season record to 11–5 (their first winning season since 2012), Manning and the Giants faced theGreen Bay PackersinLambeau Fieldin theWild Card Roundof the NFL playoffs, as Manning completed 23 of 44 of his passes for 299 yards, while throwing for a touchdown.Manning was back to his playoff self in the game, but was let down by numerous drops by Odell Beckham Jr., and other star playmakers.The Packers would eventually rout the Giants 38–13, ending the Giants' season.Manning finished the season recording 4,027 passing, 26 touchdowns and 16 interceptions, with an 86.0 passer rating. On February 4, 2017, Manning and Cardinals wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald both won theWalter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award, making it the first time since the 2006 season that two players were co-winners of this award (Drew BreesandLaDainian Tomlinson). 2017 season Manning and the Giants started the 2017 season with five consecutive losses.The Giants broke their losing streak with a 23–10 victory over theDenver Broncosin Week 6.The success was short-lived as the Giants lost the next game to theSeattle Seahawksby a score of 24–7 to set off a three-game losing streak.During Week 9 against theLos Angeles Rams, he became the seventh quarterback to reach 50,000 passing yards.On November 28, after a 2–9 start to the season, it was announced that Manning would be benched and replaced byGeno Smithin Week 13 against theOakland Raiders, ending Manning's streak of 210 consecutive regular-season games started. The streak was second all-time for quarterbacks behind Brett Favre's 297.Head coach Ben McAdoo gave Manning the option of starting to keep the streak going but Manning declined, stating that \"My feeling is that if you are going to play the other guys, play them. Starting just to keep the streak going and knowing you won't finish the game and have a chance to win it is pointless to me, and it tarnishes the streak.\"The move was met with backlash from former Giants players and coaches.On December 5, two days after the Week 13 game, Manning was renamed the starter by interim head coachSteve Spagnuolo, after McAdoo was fired as head coach.During Week 15 against thePhiladelphia Eagles, Manning finished with 434 passing yards, three touchdowns and an interception. The Giants lost 34–29, allowing the Eagles to clinch a first-round bye.On December 24, against theArizona Cardinals, Manning passed John Elway to take sole possession of sixth place on the NFL's all-time passing yard list.Manning started the regular-season finale against theWashington Redskins. In the 18–10 victory, he had 132 passing yards, one touchdown and one interception, as the Giants ended their disappointing season with a 3–13 record. 2018 season Following speculation that Manning would be released, new Giants head coachPat Shurmurput these rumors aside by saying \"I think what's important is we have a guy here who has helped this organization win Super Bowls. He's an outstanding player and I'm really looking forward to working with him.\" After losses to theJacksonville JaguarsandDallas Cowboysto the start the season, Manning and the Giants defeated theHouston Texansby a score of 27–22. Manning was efficient, going 25-of-29 for 297 passing yards and two touchdowns.The Giants lost the next five games, with Manning leading the leagues in sacks for most of that stretch despite an improved running game from rookieSaquon Barkley.Manning had 399 passing yards against theAtlanta Falcons, the fourth of these losses, but was sacked seven times and threw two interceptions in the following game against theWashington Redskins.Manning rebounded with three touchdowns and no interceptions in the following week's 27–23 victory over theSan Francisco 49ers, and 17 completions on 18 attempts for two touchdowns in a 38–35 win the following week over theTampa Bay Buccaneers.The Giants went 4–4 over the last eight games of the season to finish 5–11 and last in the NFC East.Manning passed for 4,299 yards, 21 touchdowns and 11 interceptions in the 2018 season. 2019 season: Final year The 2019 season was Manning's last remaining year on his contract. While the Giants had the option to release Manning in the offseason and save $17 million in both cash and cap space, the team opted to keep him on their roster.However, neither side held any discussions for a contract extension, causing doubt for Manning's future as the Giants' franchise quarterback beyond the upcoming season.The team selected quarterbackDaniel Jonesin the first round ofthat year's draft, which many saw as the Giants selecting Manning's successor while further cementing his own lame-duck status in the position. Manning was informed of the Giants' decision during their draft selection. Despite the pick, general managerDave Gettlemansaid \"the goal is for Eli to be our quarterback\", while head coach Shurmur told Manning \"it's your job to win games and keep off the field\". Being on the Giants' roster meant that it would be Manning's 16th season with the team, marking a franchise record for the longest tenure for any player in its 94-year history.Manning started the Giants' first two games of the season, losses to theDallas Cowboysand theBuffalo Bills.On September 17, 2019, the Giants announced that Manning would not start the team's Week 3 game against theTampa Bay Buccaneers, instead opting for Jones. This was thought to be the end of Manning's time as the Giants' starting quarterback. Due to an ankle injury suffered by Jones during Week 13 against theGreen Bay Packers, Manning returned to the starting lineup the next week on December 9 against thePhiladelphia Eagles.During the game, Manning threw for 203 yards and two touchdowns to rookie wide receiverDarius Slayton, but the game ended in a 23–17 overtime loss for the Giants.As the game was televised onMonday Night Football, it marked Manning's final primetime appearance.In the following week's game against theMiami Dolphinsat home, Manning started again and threw for 283 yards, two touchdowns and three interceptions, leading the team to a 36–20 win.As the game ended, Manning was taken off the field and received a standing ovation from fans who believed this was his final home game as the starting quarterback.Jones returned to action in Week 16 and finished out the season. Manning finished the year with 1,042 passing yards, six touchdowns and five interceptions in four games, as the Giants finished the season 4–12. With his contract expiring at the end of the season, Manning was set to become a free agent for the first time in his career. When discussing his future plans, Manning stated that he did not wish to be a backup quarterback or pursue coaching opportunities with the team, as he felt he served both roles throughout the year and did not enjoy either one of them. Regardless, he said he would weigh his options for the upcoming season, stating \"I think I can still play\".During a radio interview weeks later, team co-ownerJohn Marasaid that the Giants would welcome back Manning the next year as a backup quarterback or in a front-office role, but that newly hired head coachJoe Judgewould need to give his approval to include Manning on the roster. Retirement and honors On January 22, 2020, Manning announced his retirement, with an official press conference scheduled for January 24.John Mara stated during the press conference that Manning would be inducted into the Giants Ring of Honor in 2020 and that Manning's number 10 jersey would beretired. Manning rejoined the Giants in 2021 in a business operations and fan engagement role, according to the team. His jersey retirement and induction into theGiants' Ring of Honortook place on September 26, 2021, at halftime of the Giants-Atlanta Falconsgame atMetlife Stadium.In 2021, he was named to the Louisiana High School Sports Hall of Fame.He will be eligible forHall of Fameinduction in 2025. \"The Manning Bowl\" Peyton and Eli Manning played against each other three times in the regular season during their professional careers. These encounters were colloquially dubbed \"The Manning Bowl\",and Peyton's teams, twice with theColtsand once with theBroncos, held a 3–0 record over Eli and theNew York Giants. The first Manning Bowl was held on September 10, 2006, and Peyton'sColtsdefeated Eli'sGiantsby a score of 26–21.The second Manning Bowl was held on September 19, 2010, with Peyton and theColtsbeating Eli'sGiantsagain by a score of 38–14.The third and final Manning Bowl was held on September 15, 2013, and Peyton and theBroncosbeat Eli'sGiants41–23.They faced each other in twoPro Bowls, in 2009 and 2013, both won by the NFC.However, they never faced each other in the playoffs as both always played in separate conferences and never made the Super Bowl at the same time. Post-playing career Eli and Peyton Manning joinedESPNas an NFL analyst for the 2021 season, calling nine games during the season on an alternate broadcast called theManningcast.The show features segments with special guest stars from entertainment, politics, and sports while the Manning brothers watch the game.In addition, he currently hosts \"Eli's Places\" forESPN+, where he \"travel to some of the most well-known and historic college football establishments and meet with giants in the sport to better understand what makes college football such a national sensation.\"He also received a nickname \"Human Carbon Monoxide\" or HCM fromThe Rockdue to him not having a nickname unlike his brother Peyton \"The Sheriff\" Manning and Dwayne \"The Rock\" Johnson. NFL career statistics Regular season Postseason Awards and accolades Records NFL New York Giants franchise records Other ventures Eli co-starred with his brother Peyton in ads forNFLShop.comandOreo. Eli is a spokesman forCitizen Watch Co.,Toyotaof New Jersey, andReebok.He reportedly received several more endorsement offers after reachingSuper Bowl XLII. On May 5, 2012, Eli hostedNBC'sSaturday Night Live(season 37, episode 20), with musical guestRihanna. His brother Peyton hosted the show five years earlier. Eli began hosting The Eli Manning show in 2021 on the New York Giant's YouTube channel. The show has featured interviews with celebrity guests such asDerek Jeter,Tracy Morgan, andBill Murray. In 2022, he went undercover as \"Chad Powers\" and participated inPenn State University footballtryouts as a walk-on, which was filmed as part of an ESPN project. Personal life In 2007, he proposed to Abby McGrew ofNashville, Tennessee.McGrew worked in fashion in New York City,and has been with Manning since their days at the University of Mississippi.The couple wed in a private ceremony held inSan José del Cabo, Mexico, on April 19, 2008.Manning and Abby have three daughters and a son.They reside inSummit, New Jersey. Eli and Peyton Manning volunteered in the wake ofHurricane Katrina. The Mannings assisted in the delivery of 30,000 pounds (14,000 kg) of water, Gatorade, baby formula, pumice, and pillows to the people of New Orleans.After touring theUniversity of Mississippi Medical Center's Blair E. Batson Hospital for Children, he undertook a five-year campaign in 2007 to raise US$2.5million for the construction of \"The Eli Manning Children's Clinics\" at the children's hospital. Manning said in 2007, \"I am humbled by the work they do and am honored to make this five-year commitment to help raise funds to build this state-of-the-art clinic that will serve Mississippi families for years to come.\" His father, Archie Manning, has also raised funds for Katrina relief efforts. In 2009, Eli, Peyton, and Archie Manning co-authored a children's book entitledFamily Huddle, which describes in simple text and pictures how the three Manning brothers played football as young boys (Scholastic Press; illustrations by Jim Madsen).In 2010, Manning helped raise funds for awareness of theDeepwater Horizon oil spill, in wake of the catastrophe. Since 2008, Manning has been the host ofGuiding Eyes for the Blind's Golf Classic, the oldest and largest charity golf event inWestchester County, New York. Guiding Eyes is a nonprofit guide dog school serving the blind and visually impaired from around the world, as well as children on the autism spectrum. He is a former member of thePresident's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. In 2014, Manning was sued inNew Jersey Superior Courtbysports memorabiliacollectors who alleged that Manning and others conspired to sell them fraudulent memorabilia. Pretrial discovery included emails from Manning to Giants equipment manager Joe Skiba requesting \"helmets that can pass as game-used.\" The suit alleged those helmets were eventually sold to the plaintiffs as game-used helmets. In May 2018, the suit was settled under confidential terms. According to lawyer and journalistMichael McCann, Manning settled before trial in order to avoid damage to his marketability as an endorser and discipline from the NFL. In 2016, Manning was part of the 14th Annual BTIG Commissions for Charity Day, which was a fundraiser for hundreds of charities. In August 2022, Manning joined the ownership group of theNWSL'sNJ/NY Gotham FC. See also References External links" ]
[ "Rodney Gordon Rodney H Gordon(2 February 1933 – 30 May 2008) was an Englisharchitect. He was the primary architect of theTricorn Centre,Portsmouth, andTrinity Square, Gateshead. Architecturally, his works were primarily inconcrete; he was said to be aBrutalistand his buildings have been described as \"dramatic, sculptural and enormous\" as well as \"futuristic\". Biography Gordon was born on 2 February 1933 inWanstead, East Londonto Chilean-born Carmen F (Poirier) and East London-bornHyman Jacob Hyman.His mother was from the naval port ofPunta Arenas,Tierra Del Fuego, the southernmost city on Earth, overlooking the Straits of Magellan. Situated astride one of the world's historic trade routes, its prosperity has risen and fallen with that trade. Gordon's mother left there sometime in the 1920s and returned to London, England, where her parents had been living sometime before they left for Chile around 1903. They had initially come to London in the 1880s or 1890s to escape the Pogroms of Russia and Eastern Europe.", "and Eastern Europe. He went toUniversity College Hospital Medical Schoolat the age of 16 but then, two years later inspired by theFestival of Britain, he switched to the Hammersmith School of Building, going on to theArchitectural Association School of Architecture, where he studied under the distinguished German Jewish modernist architect and urban plannerArthur Korn, before graduating in 1957. He then went to work at theLondon County Council(LCC) architects department for which he designed his first great work, theMichael Faraday Memorial at Elephant and Castle.In 1959 he was introduced toOwen Luderby a colleague from the LCC and by the end of the year he was working for him in theOwen Luder Partnershipfor which he designed theEros House. In the 1970s he foundedBatir International Architects, which later becameTripos Architects, with Ray Baum and Larry Abbot. It was during this time, at the age of 42, that he suffered a heart attack from overwork.In 1979 he designed his last work for Batir, a bronze- and", "a bronze- and aluminium-clad commercial complex on St James's Street, London. Personal life He was married and had one child but was later divorced. He was a passionate skier and founded theUphill Ski Clubwhich helps teach the physically handicapped to ski. He died on 30 May 2008 at the age of 75. References External links", "Target House, London Target Houseis a modern commercial building designed by British modernist architectRodney Gordon(1933–2008) ofTripos Architects. It is located at 66St James's Street, London, at the junction withSt James's Place. Design and construction The building was designed in 1979 and completed in 1984. It replaced Map House, designed by R.J. Worley.Theanodisedbronze and aluminum cladding of the building made it a departure from the \"brutalist\" concrete designs more usually produced by Gordon. Reception Charles McKean, the architecture correspondent forThe Times, praised Target House, then known just as 66 St James's Street, for its boldness andpanachebut doubted themedievalcredentials of the building claimed by the designers. He pointed out that the area had been developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and was not known for itsmedieval architectureapart from thefauxmedievalismof the nineteenth century. McKean argued that the reference to the medieval was ared-herringand the building", "the building was in fact more notable for its modernity and affinity with the \"space programme\". He speculated that the chopped-off towers at roof-line, that made the spectator say \"ouch\" and were the least successful part of the design in his opinion, were really the result of planning regulations that restricted the height of new buildings in the area. Occupancy The design included retail premises, offices and flats and the building was used in that form for many years. The ground floor is still occupied by theStern Pissarro Gallery,founded in 1964.In February 2013, a successful planning application was made toWestminster Councilto allow a change of use of the first to fourth floors from B1 (offices) to C3 (residential) use. Ownership In 2012, the building was sold byStandard Life InvestmentstoAlbert Hay'sCapital and City Groupfor £10.5 million. References External links", "Super Bowl TheSuper Bowlis the annualleague championshipgame of theNational Football League(NFL) of the United States. It has served as the final game of every NFL season since1966, replacing theNFL Championship Game. Since 2022, the game has been played on the second Sunday in February. Prior Super Bowls were played on Sundays in early to mid-January from 1967 to 1978, late January from 1979 to 2003,and the first Sunday of February from 2004 to 2021. Winning teams are awarded theVince Lombardi Trophy, named after theeponymous coachwho won the first two Super Bowls. Because the NFL restricts the use of its \"Super Bowl\" trademark, it is frequently referred to as the \"big game\" or other generic terms by non-sponsoring corporations. The day the game is held is commonly referred to as \"Super Bowl Sunday\" or simply \"Super Sunday\". The game was created as part of a 1966merger agreementbetween the NFL and the competingAmerican Football League(AFL) to have their 'best' teams compete for a championship. It was", "It was originally called theAFL–NFL World Championship Gameuntil the \"Super Bowl\" moniker was adopted in 1969'sSuper Bowl III. The first four Super Bowls from 1967 to 1970 were played prior to the merger, with the NFL and AFL each winning two. After the merger in 1970, the 10 AFL teams and three of the NFL teams formed theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) and the remaining 13 NFL teams formed theNational Football Conference(NFC). All games since 1971'sSuper Bowl Vhave been played between the best team from each of the two conferences, with the AFC and NFC tied at 27 wins each. Among the NFL's current 32 teams, 20 (11 NFC, nine AFC) have won a Super Bowl and 15 (eight AFC, seven NFC) hold multiple titles. The AFC'sPittsburgh SteelersandNew England Patriotshave the most Super Bowl titles at six each. The Patriots also have the most Super Bowl appearances at 11.The Patriots and theDenver Broncosof the AFC hold the record for the most defeats in the Super Bowl at five each. TheBaltimore Ravensof the AFC and", "the AFC and theTampa Bay Buccaneersof the NFC are the only franchises to be undefeated in multiple Super Bowls, having each won two. Among the 12 teams who have not won a Super Bowl, the AFC'sCleveland Browns,Houston Texans, andJacksonville Jaguars, and the NFC'sDetroit Lionsare the only four to have not appeared in the game. The Super Bowl is among the world's most-watched single sporting events and frequently commands the largest audience among all American broadcasts during the year. It is second only to theUEFA Champions Leaguefinal as the most watched annual club sporting event worldwide,and the seven most-watched broadcasts in American television history are Super Bowls.Commercial airtime during the Super Bowl broadcastis the most expensive of the year because of the high viewership, leading to companies regularly developing their most expensive advertisements for the broadcast and commercial viewership becoming an integral part of the event. The Super Bowl is also the second-largest event for American", "event for American food consumption, behindThanksgiving dinner. Origin Since the turn of the 20th century,college footballteams from across the United States have scheduled \"bowl games\" against each other. The original \"bowl game\" was theRose Bowl GameinPasadena, California, which was first played in 1902 as the \"Tournament East–West football game\" as part of thePasadena Tournament of Roses. In 1923, the Tournament East-West football game moved to the newRose Bowl Stadium; the stadium got its name from the fact that the game played there was part of the Tournament of Roses and that it was shaped like a bowl, much like theYale BowlinNew Haven, Connecticut. The Tournament of Roses football game thus eventually came to be known as the Rose Bowl Game. Exploiting the Rose Bowl Game's popularity, post-season college football contests were created for Miami (theOrange Bowl), New Orleans (theSugar Bowl), andEl Paso(theSun Bowl) in 1935, and forDallas(theCotton Bowl) in 1937. By the time the first Super Bowl was", "Super Bowl was played, the term \"bowl\" for any major American football game was well established. For four decades after its 1920 inception, the NFL successfully fended off several rival leagues. In 1960, it encountered its most serious competitor when theAmerican Football League(AFL) was formed. The AFL vied with the NFL for players and fans. After theAFL's inaugural season, AFL commissionerJoe Fosssent an invitation to the NFL on January 14, 1961, to schedule a \"World Playoff\" game between the two leagues' champions, beginning with the upcoming 1961 season.The first World Playoff game, if actually played, would have matched up the AFL championHouston Oilersagainst the NFL championGreen Bay Packers. In the mid-1960s,Lamar Hunt, owner of the AFL'sKansas City Chiefs, first used the term \"Super Bowl\"to refer to the AFL–NFL championship game in the merger meetings. Hunt later said the name was likely in his head because his children had been playing with aSuper Balltoy;a vintage example of the ball is on", "of the ball is on display at thePro Football Hall of FameinCanton, Ohio. In a July 25, 1966, letter to NFL commissionerPete Rozelle, Hunt wrote, \"I have kiddingly called it the 'Super Bowl,' which obviously can be improved upon.\" The leagues' owners chose the name \"AFL–NFL Championship Game\",but in July 1966 theKansas City Starquoted Hunt in discussing \"the Super Bowl—that's my term for the championship game between the two leagues\",and the media immediately began using the term.Although the league stated in 1967 that \"not many people like it\", asking for suggestions and considering alternatives such as \"Merger Bowl\" and\"The Game\", the Associated Press reported that \"Super Bowl\" \"grew and grew and grew—until it reached the point that there was Super Week, Super Sunday, Super Teams, Super Players, ad infinitum\".\"Super Bowl\" became official beginning with the third annual game. Roman numeralsare used to identify each Super Bowl, rather than the year in which it is held, since the fifth edition, in January", "edition, in January 1971.The sole exception to this naming convention tradition occurred withSuper Bowl 50, which was played on February 7, 2016, following the2015 regular season. The following year, thenomenclaturereturned to Roman numerals forSuper Bowl LI, following the2016 regular season. After the NFL'sGreen Bay Packerswon the first two Super Bowls, some team owners feared for the future of the merger. At the time, many doubted the competitiveness of AFL teams compared with their NFL counterparts, though that perception changed when the AFL'sNew York Jetsdefeated the heavily favored NFL contenderBaltimore ColtsinSuper Bowl IIIin Miami. One year later, the AFL's Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL'sMinnesota Vikings23–7 inSuper Bowl IVin New Orleans, which was the final AFL–NFL World Championship Game played before the merger. Beginning with the 1970 season, the NFL realigned into two conferences; the former AFL teams plus three NFL teams (theBaltimore Colts,Pittsburgh Steelers, andCleveland Browns)", "Browns) would constitute theAmerican Football Conference(AFC), while the remaining NFL clubs would form theNational Football Conference(NFC). The champions of the two conferences would play each other in the Super Bowl. The winning team receives theVince Lombardi Trophy, named after the formercoachof the Green Bay Packers, who won the first two Super Bowl games as well as fiveNFL championshipspreceding the merger in 1961, 1962, 1965, 1966 and 1967. Following Lombardi's death in September 1970, the trophy was named after him. The first trophy awarded under the new name was presented to the Baltimore Colts following their win inSuper Bowl Vin Miami. Game history The Super Bowl was held in January from its inception in1967until2001. In2002, a week of regular season games was postponed and rescheduled following theSeptember 11 attacks; as a result,Super Bowl XXXVIbecame the first edition of the game played in February.Super Bowl XXXVIIwas held in January, but all subsequent games were held on the first Sunday in", "the first Sunday in February until the schedule expansion of the2021 seasonmoved the game to the second Sunday. The currentNFL schedulebegins on the weekend immediately afterLabor Day(the first Monday in September). That weekend is the first of an 18-weekregular season, followed by three weeks ofplayoff gamesand one week for thePro Bowl. The Super Bowl is contested the week after the Pro Bowl. This schedule has been in effect since an 18th week (and 17th regular season game) were added to the NFL schedule for the 2021 season, withSuper Bowl LVIon February 13, 2022, the first to be played under this format. ThePittsburgh SteelersandNew England Patriotsare tied with a record six Super Bowl wins. TheDallas CowboysandSan Francisco 49ershave five victories each, while the Packers, Chiefs andNew York Giantshave four. Fourteen other NFL franchises have won at least one Super Bowl. The Patriots own the record for most Super Bowl appearances with eleven. The Cowboys, Steelers, Broncos and the 49ers are tied for", "49ers are tied for second with eight appearances apiece, reaching that milestone in this respective order.Bill Belichickowns the recordfor the most Super Bowl wins (eight) and appearances (twelve: nine times as head coach, once as assistant head coach, and twice as defensive coordinator) by an individual.Tom Bradyhas the most Super Bowl starts (ten) and wins as a player (seven), whileCharles Haleyhas the second-most wins among players with five. Eight teams have appeared in Super Bowl games without a win. TheMinnesota Vikingswere the first team to appear four times without a win, while theBuffalo Billsplayed in a record four consecutive Super Bowls, losing in each. The Patriots and Broncos are tied for the most Super Bowl losses at five. TheCleveland Browns,Detroit Lions,Houston Texans, andJacksonville Jaguarsare the four teams to have never appeared in a Super Bowl, although the Browns and Lions both won NFL championships before the Super Bowl era. The Jaguars, who began play in 1995, and the Texans, who", "and the Texans, who began play in 2002, are among the youngest franchises in the league. 1960s: Early history and Packers dominance The Packers won the first two AFL–NFL World Championship Games, later renamed Super Bowls, defeating theKansas City ChiefsandOakland Raidersfollowing the1966and1967seasons, respectively.The Packers were led by quarterbackBart Starr, who was named theMost Valuable Player (MVP)for both games.These two championships, coupled with the Packers' NFL championships in1961,1962, and1965, amount to the most successful stretch in NFL History; five championships in seven years, and the secondthreepeatin NFL history (1965, 1966, and 1967). The Packers are the only team to threepeat, as they also accomplished the feat in the pre-playoff era (1929, 1930 and 1931). The first playoff game in the NFL was in1932. In Super Bowl III, the AFL'sNew York Jetsdefeated the 19.5-point favorite Baltimore Colts of the NFL, 16–7.The Jets were led by quarterbackJoe Namath, who had famously guaranteed a Jets", "guaranteed a Jets win before the game, and former Colts head coachWeeb Ewbank, and their victory proved that the AFL was the NFL's competitive equal.This was reinforced the following year when the Chiefs defeated the NFL's Vikings 23–7 inSuper Bowl IV. 1970s: Dominant franchises After theAFL–NFL mergerwas completed in 1970, three franchises—the Cowboys,Miami Dolphins, and Steelers—would go on to dominate the 1970s, winning a combined eight Super Bowls between them in the decade, with the Steelers winning four of the eight. The Baltimore Colts, now a member of the AFC, would start the decade by defeating the Cowboys in Super Bowl V, a game which is notable as being the only Super Bowl to date in which a player from the losing team won the Super Bowl MVP (Cowboys' linebackerChuck Howley).Beginning with this Super Bowl, all Super Bowls have served as the NFL's championship game. The Cowboys, coming back from a loss the previous season, wonSuper Bowl VIover the Dolphins.However, this would be the Dolphins' final", "the Dolphins' final loss for over a year, asthe next year, the Dolphins would go 14–0 in the regular season and eventually win all their playoff games, capped off with a 14–7 victory inSuper Bowl VII, becoming the first and only team in the Super Bowl era to finish an entire perfect regular and postseason undefeated.The Dolphins would repeat as league champions by winningSuper Bowl VIIIa year later with a 24–7 win over the Minnesota Vikings. In the mid to late 1970s, the Steelers became the first NFL dynasty of the post-merger era by winning four Super Bowls (IX,X,XIII, andXIV) in six years.They were led by head coachChuck Noll,the play of offensive starsTerry Bradshaw,Franco Harris,Lynn Swann,John Stallworth, andMike Webster, and their dominant \"Steel Curtain\" defense, led by\"Mean\" Joe Greene,L. C. Greenwood,Ernie Holmes,Mel Blount,Jack Ham, andJack Lambert. Many of the team's key players were selected in the1974 draft, in which Pittsburgh selected four future Hall of Famers, the most for any team in any", "for any team in any sport in a single draft.A fifth player,Donnie Shell, was signed by Pittsburgh after going unselected in the 1974 NFL Draft; he too was later enshrined in the Hall of Fame.The Steelers were the first team to win three and then four Super Bowls and appeared in sixAFC Championship Gamesduring the decade, making the playoffs in eight straight seasons.Pittsburgh still remains the only team to win back-to-back Super Bowls twice and four Super Bowls in a six-year period. The Steelers' 1970s dynasty was interrupted only by the Raiders' first Super Bowl win inSuper Bowl XIand the Cowboys' second Super Bowl win inSuper Bowl XII.Conversely, the Vikings, with theirPurple People Eatersdefense, were the only other team to appear in multiple Super Bowls (IV, VIII, IX and XI) during the decade but failed to win each one. 1981–1996: The NFC's winning streak In the 1980s and 1990s, the tables turned for the AFC, as the NFC dominated the Super Bowls of the new decade and most of those in the 1990s. The NFC", "the 1990s. The NFC won 16 of the 20 Super Bowls during these two decades, including 13 straight fromSuper Bowl XIXtoSuper Bowl XXXI. The most successful team of the 1980s was the 49ers, which featured theWest Coast offenseof Hall of Fame head coachBill Walsh.This offense was led by three-time Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterbackJoe Montana, Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame wide receiverJerry Rice, running backRoger Craig, and Hall of Fame defensive safety/cornerbackRonnie Lott. Under their leadership, the 49ers won four Super Bowls in the decade (XVI,XIX,XXIII, andXXIV) and made nine playoff appearances between 1981 and 1990, including eight division championships, becoming the second dynasty of the post-merger NFL.The1984 San Francisco 49erswere the first team to achieve an 18–1 record, doing so under Walsh. The1989 San Francisco 49ers, under first-year head coachGeorge Seifert, posted the most lop-sided victory in Super Bowl history, defeating the Denver Broncos by a score of 55–10 inSuper Bowl XXIV.", "inSuper Bowl XXIV. The 1980s also produced the1985 Chicago Bears, who posted an 18–1 record under head coachMike Ditka; quarterbackJim McMahon; and Hall of Fame running backWalter Payton.Their team wonSuper Bowl XXin dominant fashion.TheWashington Redskinsand New York Giants were also top teams of this period; Washington won Super BowlsXVII,XXII, andXXVI.The Giants claimed Super BowlsXXIandXXV.Both teams won multiple Super Bowls with different starting quarterbacks; Washington won withJoe Theismann(XVII),Doug Williams(XXII) andMark Rypien(XXVI), and the Giants withPhil Simms(XXI) andJeff Hostetler(XXV). As in the 1970s, the Raiders were the only AFC team to interrupt the Super Bowl dominance of NFC teams; they won Super BowlsXVandXVIII(the latter as the Los Angeles Raiders). Conversely, theCincinnati Bengals(XVI and XXIII), Dolphins, (XVII and XIX), and Broncos (XXI, XXII and XXIV) made multiple Super Bowls in the 1980s without winning one. Following several seasons with poor records in the 1980s, the", "in the 1980s, the Cowboys rose back to prominence in the 1990s. During this decade, the Cowboys made post-season appearances every year except for the seasons of 1990 and 1997.From 1992 to 1996, the Cowboys won their division championship each year.In this same period, the Buffalo Bills had made their mark reaching the Super Bowl for a record four consecutive years, only to lose all four (XXV-XXVIII).After Super Bowl championships by division rivals New York (1990) and Washington (1991), the Cowboys won three of the next four Super Bowls (XXVII,XXVIII, andXXX) led by quarterbackTroy Aikman, running backEmmitt Smith, and wide receiverMichael Irvin.All three of these players went to the Hall of Fame. The Cowboys' streak was interrupted by the49ers, who were the first team to win their league-leading fifth title overall withSuper Bowl XXIXwith a dominant performance featuring the Super Bowl MVP and Hall of Fame quarterbackSteve Young(who threw a Super Bowl record 6 touchdown passes), Hall of Fame wide", "Hall of Fame wide receiverJerry Rice, and Hall of Fame cornerbackDeion Sanders; however, the Cowboys' victory in Super Bowl XXX the next year also gave them five titles overall and they did so with Sanders after he won the Super Bowl the previous year with the 49ers.The NFC's winning streak was continued by the Packers led by Hall of Fame quarterbackBrett Favre, wonSuper Bowl XXXI, their first championship since Super Bowl II in 1967. The Patriots made their maiden Super Bowl appearances in XX (1985) and XXXI (1996) but lost both times.However, the turn of the century would soon bring hope and glory to the franchise. 1997–2009: AFC resurgence and the rise of the Patriots Super Bowl XXXIIsaw quarterbackJohn Elwayand running backTerrell Davislead the Denver Broncos to an upset victory over the defending champion Packers, snapping the NFC's thirteen-year winning streak.The following year, the Broncos defeated theAtlanta FalconsinSuper Bowl XXXIII, Elway's fifth Super Bowl appearance, his second NFL", "his second NFL championship, and his final NFL game.The back-to-back victories heralded a change in momentum in which AFC teams would win nine out of 12 Super Bowls. In the years between 1995 and 2018, five teams—the Steelers, Patriots, Broncos,Baltimore Ravens, andIndianapolis Colts—accounted for 22 of the 24 AFC Super Bowl appearances (including the last 16), with those same teams often meeting each other earlier in the playoffs. In contrast, the NFC saw a different representative in the Super Bowl every season from 2001 through 2010. The New England Patriots became the dominant team throughout the early 2000s, winning the championship three out of four years early in the decade.They would become only the second team in the history of the NFL to do so (after the 1990s Dallas Cowboys). InSuper Bowl XXXVI, first-year starting quarterbackTom Bradyled his team to a 20–17 upset victory over theSt. Louis Rams, who two seasons earlier wonSuper Bowl XXXIV.Brady would go on to win the MVP award for this game. The", "for this game. The Patriots also won Super BowlsXXXVIIIandXXXIXdefeating theCarolina Panthersand thePhiladelphia Eaglesrespectively.This four-year stretch of Patriot dominance was interrupted by theTampa Bay Buccaneers' 48–21Super Bowl XXXVIIvictory over the Oakland Raiders. The Steelers and Colts continued the era of AFC dominance by winning Super BowlsXLandXLIin the 2005 and 2006 seasons, respectively defeating theSeattle SeahawksandChicago Bears. In the2007 season, the Patriots became the fourth team in NFL history to have a perfect unbeaten and untied regular-season record, the second in the Super Bowl era after the 1972 Miami Dolphins, and the first to finish 16–0.They easily marched through the AFC playoffs and were heavy favorites inSuper Bowl XLII. However, they lost that game toEli Manningand the New York Giants 17–14, leaving the Patriots' 2007 record at 18–1. The following season, the Steelers logged their record sixth Super Bowl title (XLIII) in a 27–23, final-minute victory against theArizona", "against theArizona Cardinals. The 2009 season saw theNew Orleans Saintsdefeat the Indianapolis Colts inSuper Bowl XLIVby a score of 31–17 to take home their first Championship.With this victory, the Saints joined the New York Jets as the only teams to have won in their sole Super Bowl appearance, a distinction the Ravens also enjoyed in winningSuper Bowl XXXVafter the 2000 season and the Buccaneers in 2002. 2010s: Patriots reign; parity in the NFC In the AFC, this era was dominated by the Patriots, with the only four other teams to represent the conference being the Steelers, Ravens, Broncos, and Chiefs. The Patriots had tied a record with the 1970s Dallas Cowboys for most Super Bowl appearances in a decade with five appearances (2011, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018). The Patriots also had four Super Bowl appearances in five years. They also had eight consecutive AFC championship appearances spanning 2011–2018. The Super Bowls of the 2000s and 2010s are notable for the performances (and the pedigrees) of several of", "of several of the participating quarterbacks, especially on the AFC side in repeated appearances by the same teams and players. In particular, Tom Brady,Ben Roethlisberger, orPeyton Manningappeared as the AFC team's quarterback in all but two of the Super Bowls from 2001 through 2018.Conversely, the only NFC teams to make the Super Bowl multiple times with the same quarterback in this era were the Seahawks, led by quarterbackRussell Wilson, and the Giants, led by quarterback Eli Manning. One of these teams was featured in the culmination of the2010 season,Super Bowl XLV, which brought the Packers their fourth Super Bowl victory and record thirteenth NFL championship overall with the defeat of the Steelers in February 2011.This becameAaron Rodgers' only Super Bowl victory so far. The following year, inSuper Bowl XLVI, the Patriots made their first appearance of the decade, a position where they would become a mainstay. The Patriots, however, lost to the Eli Manning-led Giants, 21–17, who had beaten the", "who had beaten the Patriots four years before.This was the Giants' fourth Super Bowl victory. InSuper Bowl XLVII, the NFC's 49ers were defeated by the Ravens 34–31.The game had been dubbed as the 'Harbaugh Bowl' in the weeks leading up to the game, due to the fact that the coaches of the two teams,John HarbaughandJim Harbaugh, are brothers.During the third quarter, the Ravens had a commanding 28–6 lead. However, there was ablackoutin New Orleans, where the game was being played.The game was delayed for 34 minutes, and after play resumed, San Francisco stormed back with 17 straight points, but still lost. Super Bowl XLVIII, played atNew Jersey'sMetLife Stadiumin February 2014, was the first Super Bowl held outdoors in a cold-weather environment.The Seahawks won their first NFL title with a 43–8 defeat of the Broncos, in a highly touted matchup that pitted Seattle's top-ranked defense against a Peyton Manning-led Denver offense that had broken the NFL's single-season scoring record. InSuper Bowl XLIX, the", "Bowl XLIX, the Patriots beat the defending Super Bowl champions, the Seahawks, by a score of 28–24.Down by 10, the Patriots mounted a late fourth quarter comeback to win the game with Tom Brady scoring two touchdowns in the fourth quarter.In a key play in the final seconds of the game, then-rookie free agentMalcolm Butlerwould intercept a pass by Russell Wilson at the one-yard line, allowing the Patriots to run out the clock and end the game.Tom Brady was awarded his third Super Bowl MVP, tying Joe Montana for the most Super Bowl MVP awards. InSuper Bowl 50, the first Super Bowl to be branded withArabic numerals,the Broncos, led by the league's top-ranked defense, defeated the Panthers, who had the league's top-ranked offense, in what became the final game of quarterback Peyton Manning's career.Von Millerdominated, totaling 2.5 sacks and forcing twoCam Newtonfumbles; both fumbles leading to Broncos touchdowns. InSuper Bowl LI, the first Super Bowl to end in overtime,the Atlanta Falcons led 28–3 late in the", "28–3 late in the third quarter, but the Patriots came back to tie the game 28–28 with back-to-back touchdowns and two-point conversions, and the Patriots went on to win 34–28 in overtime.This 25-point deficit was the largest comeback win for any team in a Super Bowl, breaking the previous of a 10-point deficit to come back and win.The Patriots never held the lead until the game-winning touchdown in overtime. It was Tom Brady's 5th Super Bowl win and he was awarded his record fourth Super Bowl MVP, throwing a then-record 466 yards for 43 completions. InSuper Bowl LII, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the defending champion Patriots 41–33, ending a 57-year championship drought for the franchise.Nick Foleswon the Super Bowl MVP.The Patriots totaled 613 yards in defeat, with Tom Brady breaking his previous Super Bowl record of 466 passing yards with an all-time playoff record of 505 passing yards in the high-scoring game; while the Eagles would gain 538 yards in the victory.The combined total for both teams of", "for both teams of 1,151 yards of offense broke an NFL record (for any game) that had stood for nearly seven decades.The Patriots' 33 points were the highest losing score in Super Bowl history, a record held until 2023, when the Eagles lostSuper Bowl LVIIto theKansas City Chiefsby a score of 38–35.It was the Eagles' third Super Bowl appearance and their first win in franchise history. With the Eagles' victory, theNFC Eastbecame the first division to have each team win at least one Super Bowl. While Super Bowl LII produced the second highest-scoring Super Bowl, the following year'sSuper Bowl LIIIbecame the lowest-scoring Super Bowl. The Patriots defeated theLos Angeles Rams, 13–3. In so doing, they became the team with the lowest point total by a winning team in Super Bowl history.Tom Brady would receive a record sixth Super Bowl championship, the most of any player in NFL history, surpassing his tie with Charles Haley for five wins. Brady would also become the oldest player to ever win a Super Bowl at age 41,", "Bowl at age 41, whileBill Belichickwould be the oldest coach to ever win a Super Bowl at age 66.Wide receiverJulian Edelmanwas named Super Bowl MVP. 2020s: Beginning of Chiefs' dominance InSuper Bowl LIV, the Chiefs defeated the 49ers in a comeback, 31–20, for their first Super Bowl title in 50 years.This victory marked the first time since 1991 that the NFC did not have more Super Bowl victories than the AFC. Notable was the absence of the Patriots, who after making it to the Super Bowl the last three years and winning two of them, had lost in the Wild Card round of theplayoffs, being bested by theTennessee Titans20–13.That game represented Tom Brady's final game as a New England Patriot. InSuper Bowl LV, which took place inTampa, Florida, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers defeated the defending champion Chiefs, 31–9.No player on the Buccaneers who scored points (Rob Gronkowski,Antonio Brown,Leonard FournetteandRyan Succop) was on the Buccaneers' roster the previous season.This marked a record seventh Super Bowl", "seventh Super Bowl victory forTom Brady, also more than any individual NFL franchise, and who would also break his own record for the oldest quarterback to win a championship at 43 years old.Tampa Bay head coachBruce Arianswould also breakBill Belichick's record for the oldest head coach to win a championship at 68.Super Bowl LV also marked the first time in the history of the modern league that a host city's professional football franchise got to play in a Super Bowl that was hosted in theirhome stadium. A year laterinInglewood, California, theLos Angeles Ramsdefeated theCincinnati Bengals23–20 to win Super Bowl LVI, becoming the second team to win the Super Bowl in its home stadium. OnFebruary 12, 2023, atState Farm StadiuminGlendale, Arizona, the Chiefs overcame a 10-point deficit at halftime to defeat the Philadelphia Eagles 38–35, winning Super Bowl LVII on a last-minute field goal. OnFebruary 11, 2024, the Chiefs won Super Bowl LVIII atAllegiant Stadiumon an overtime touchdown. The first Super Bowl", "first Super Bowl inLas Vegas, this was a rematch of Super Bowl LIV between the 49ers and the Chiefs, and was the Chiefs' fourth Super Bowl appearance in five years. The second Super Bowl to go into overtime, the Chiefs came back from another 10-point deficit to win their third Super Bowl in five years and secure back-to-back championships for the first time since the2004 New England Patriots. Television coverage and ratings The Super Bowl is one of the most-watched annual sporting events in the world, with viewership overwhelmingly domestic.The only other annual event that gathers more viewers is theUEFA Champions Leaguefinal.For many years, the Super Bowl has possessed a large US and global television viewership, and it is often the most-watched United States originating television program of the year.The game tends to have a highNielsen television rating, which is usually around a 40 rating and 60 shares. This means that, on average, more than 100 million people from the United States alone are tuned into", "are tuned into the Super Bowl at any given moment. In press releases preceding the game, the NFL has claimed that the Super Bowl has a potential worldwide audience of around one billion people in over 200 countries.However, this figure refers to the number of peopleableto watch the game, not the number of people who will actually be watching. Regardless, the statements have been frequently misinterpreted in the media as referring to the latter figure, leading to a misperception about the game's actual global audience.The New York-based media research firm Initiative measured the global audience for theSuper Bowl XXXIXat 93 million people, with 98 percent of that figure being viewers in North America, which meant roughly two million people outside North America watched the Super Bowl that year. Super Bowl LVIIIholds the record for average number of US viewers, with 123.7 million, making the game the most-viewed television broadcast of any kind in American history. The halftime show set a record with 129.2", "a record with 129.2 million viewers tuning in. The highest-rated game according to Nielsen wasSuper Bowl XVIin 1982, which was watched in 49.1% of households (73 shares), or 40,020,000 households at the time. Super Bowl XVI still ranks fourth on Nielsen'slist of top-rated programs of all time, with three other Super Bowls (XVII,XX, andXLIX) in the top ten. FamousSuper Bowl commercialsinclude the1984 introductionof Apple's Macintosh computer, the Budweiser \"Bud Bowl\" campaign, and thedot-com adsaired duringSuper Bowl XXXIV. As the television ratings of the Super Bowl have steadily increased over the years, commercial prices have also increased, with advertisers paying as much as $7 million for a thirty-second spot duringSuper Bowl LVIin 2022.A segment of the audience tunes into the Super Bowl solely to view commercials.In 2010, Nielsen reported that 51 percent of Super Bowl viewers tune in for the commercials. Since 1991, the Super Bowl has begun between 6:19 and 6:40 PMESTso that most of the game is played", "the game is played during theprimetimehours on theEast Coast. US television rights Throughout most of its history, the Super Bowl has been rotated annually between the same Americantelevision networksthat broadcast the NFL's regular season and postseason games. Super Bowl I, played in 1967, is the only Super Bowl to have been broadcast in the United States by two different broadcasters simultaneously. At the time,NBCheld the rights to nationally televise AFL games whileCBShad the rights to broadcast NFL games. Both networks were allowed to cover the game, and each network used its own announcers, but NBC was only allowed to use the CBS feed instead of producing its own. Beginning withSuper Bowl II, NBC televised the game in even years and CBS in odd years. This annual rotation between the two networks continued through the 1970AFL–NFL mergerwhen NBC was given the rights to televise AFC games and CBS winning the rights to broadcast NFC games. AlthoughABCbegan broadcastingMonday Night Footballin 1970, it was", "1970, it was not added to the Super Bowl rotation untilSuper Bowl XIX, played in 1985. ABC, CBS and NBC then continued to rotate the Super Bowl until 1994, whenFoxreplaced CBS as the NFC broadcaster. CBS then took NBC's place in the rotation after the former replaced the latter as the AFC broadcaster in 1998. As a result of new contracts signed in 2006, with NBC taking overSunday Night FootballfromESPN, andMonday Night Footballmoving from ABC to ESPN, NBC took ABC's place in the Super Bowl rotation. The rotation between CBS, Fox, and NBC will continue until the new contracts that will take effect for the first time withSuper Bowl LVIII, allowing ABC to return and starting a four-network rotation. The four-year rotation beginning with Super Bowl LVIII also allows each broadcaster to offer simulcasts or alternative broadcasts on its sister networks and platforms.CBS's sister networkNickelodeonis planning to air an alternate children-oriented telecast of Super Bowl LVIII.And ABC's rights include ESPN simulcasts", "ESPN simulcasts and alternative broadcasts on other ESPN networks. The NFL has broken the traditional broadcasting rotation if it can be used to bolster other major sporting events a network airs afterwards.For example, CBS was givenSuper Bowl XXVI(1992) after it won the rights to air the1992 Winter Olympics, with NBC subsequently airingSuper Bowl XXVII(1993) andSuper Bowl XXVIII(1994) in consecutive years. Likewise, NBC airedSuper Bowl LVI(2022) instead of CBS during the2022 Winter Olympics, which were also aired by NBC.CBS receivedSuper Bowl LV(2021) in return.Under the four-network rotation that will take effect beginning in 2024, the league will award NBC the Super Bowl during Winter Olympic years. The first six Super Bowls wereblacked outin the television markets of the host cities, due to league restrictions then in place.Super Bowl VII(1973) was telecast inLos Angeleson an experimental basis after all tickets were sold ten days before the game. Game analystJohn Maddenis the only person to broadcast a", "to broadcast a Super Bowl for each of the four networks that have televised the game (five with CBS, three with Fox, two with ABC, and one with NBC). Note: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (will be played) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been.^*:The current TV contract with the networks expires after the 2033 season (or in early 2034). Under the deal, the Super Bowl is currently rotated annually between CBS, Fox, NBC, and ABC in that order. ABC will return to the rotation in the upcoming contract, which is scheduled to take effect at the start of the 2023 season.^**:The first Super Bowl wassimultaneously broadcastby CBS and NBC, with each network using the same video feed (from CBS), but providing its own commentary. Lead-out programming The Super Bowl provides an extremely strong lead-in to programming following it on the same channel, the effects of which can last for several hours. For instance, in discussing the ratings of a local TV station, Buffalo television", "Buffalo television critic Alan Pergament noted that followingSuper Bowl XLVII, which aired on CBS: \"Apaid programthat ran on CBS4 (WIVB-TV) at 2:30 in the morning had a 1.3 rating. That's higher than someCWprime time shows get onWNLO-TV, Channel 4's sister station.\" Because of this strongcoattail effect, the network that airs the Super Bowl typically takes advantage of the large audience to air an episode of a hit series or to premiere the pilot of a promising new one in the lead-out slot, which immediately follows the Super Bowl and post-game coverage. Ceremonies and entertainment Initially, it was sort of a novelty and so it didn't quite feel right. But it was just like, this is the year... Bands of our generation, you can sort of be seen on a stage like this or, like, not seen. There's not a lot of middle places. It is a tremendous venue. Early Super Bowls featured a halftime show consisting ofmarching bandsfrom localcollegesorhigh schools; but as the popularity of the game increased, a trend emerged", "a trend emerged where popular singers and musicians performed during its pre-game ceremonies and thehalftime show, or simply sang thenational anthem of the United States, \"America the Beautiful\", or \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\". The U.S. national anthem has been performed at all but one Super Bowl:Super Bowl XIin 1977 whenVikki Carrsang \"America the Beautiful\" in place of the anthem. Beginning withSuper Bowl XLIIIin 2009, \"America the Beautiful\" is sung before the national anthem every year and is followed by the presentation of the colors and a military flyover preceded the anthem. Beginning withSuper Bowl LVin 2021, \"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" is sung prior to \"America the Beautiful\" in honor ofBlack History Month. For many years,Whitney Houston'sperformanceof the national anthem atSuper Bowl XXVin 1991, during theGulf War, had long been regarded as one of the best renditions of the anthem in history.BeforeSuper Bowl XLVIII, sopranoRenée Flemingbecame the first opera singer to perform the anthem.", "perform the anthem. Recently,the winner of theWalter Payton NFL Man of the Year Awardhas been acknowledged before \"America the Beautiful\" and \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". SinceSuper Bowl XIIin 1978, a former football player, a celebrity, or another special guest participates in the coin toss ceremony to recognize their community involvement or significance. The pre-game ceremonies usually go in the following order: Unlike regular season or playoff games, thirty minutes are allocated for the Super Bowl halftime. After a special live episode of theFoxsketch comedy seriesIn Living Colorcaused a drop in viewership for the Super Bowl XXVI halftime show, the NFL sought to increase the Super Bowl's audience by hiring A-list talent to perform. They approachedMichael Jackson, whose performance the following year drew higher figures than the game itself.Another notable performance came duringSuper Bowl XXXVIin 2002, whenU2performed; during their third song, \"Where the Streets Have No Name\", the band played under a", "band played under a large projection screen which scrolled through names of the victims of theSeptember 11 attacks. The halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII attractedcontroversy, following an incident in whichJustin Timberlakeremoved a piece ofJanet Jackson's top, briefly exposing one of her breasts before the broadcast quickly cut away from the shot. The incident led to fines being issued by theFCC(and a larger crackdown over \"indecent\" content broadcast on television), andMTV(then a sister to the game's broadcaster that year,CBS, underViacom) being banned by the NFL from producing the Super Bowl halftime show in the future. In an effort to prevent a repeat of the incident, the NFL held a moratorium on Super Bowl halftime shows featuring pop performers, and instead invited a single, headlining veteran act, such asPaul McCartney,the Rolling Stones,the Who,Prince, andBruce Springsteen. This practice ended at Super Bowl XLV, which returned to using current pop acts such asthe Black Eyed Peas,Katy Perry, andLady", "Perry, andLady Gaga. Minnesota Vikings announcerAlan Roachis the official public address announcer of the Super Bowl sinceSuper Bowl XLin 2006, with the exceptions of Super BowlXLVIII,XLIXand50when the Denver Broncos played in those games. Roach was also Denver's regular P.A. announcer during those years, and thus the league felt it was a potential competitive advantage. In those years,NFL on Westwood Onehost andNFL FilmsvoiceScott Grahamheld the duties. Excluding Super Bowl XXXIX, the famous \"I'm going to Disney World!\" advertising campaign took place in every Super Bowl sinceSuper Bowl XXIin 1987, when quarterbackPhil Simmsfrom the Giants became the first player to say the tagline. Venues As ofSuper Bowl LVIII, 29 of 58 Super Bowls have been played in three metropolitan areas: theGreater Miami area(eleven times),New Orleans(ten times), and theGreater Los Angeles area(eight times). No market or region without an active NFL franchise has ever hosted a Super Bowl, and the presence of an NFL team in a market", "team in a market or region is now ade jurerequirement for bidding on the game.For instance, while Los Angeles has been an eight-time host city, with its most recent being Super Bowl LVI in 2022, it did not host one from thedeparture of both its NFL teams in 1995untilthe Rams and the Chargers subsequently came back to Los Angelesin 2016 and 2017 respectively. TheCaesars Superdomein New Orleans has hosted seven Super Bowls, the most of any venue, with an eighth Super Bowl scheduled to take place in2025. TheOrange Bowlwas the onlyAFLstadium to host a Super Bowl and the only stadium to host consecutive Super Bowls, hosting Super Bowls II and III. Seven Super Bowls have been held in a stadium other than the one the NFL team in that city was using at the time, a situation that has not arisen after Super Bowl XXVII's host stadium was selected on March 19, 1991. This was as the winning market was previously not required to host the Super Bowl in the same stadium that its NFL team used, if the stadium in which the", "in which the Super Bowl was held was perceived to be a better stadium for a large high-profile event than the existing NFL home stadium in the same city; for example, five of Los Angeles's Bowls were played at theRose Bowl, which has never been used by any NFL franchise outside of the Super Bowl. Besides the Rose Bowl, the only other Super Bowl venues that were not the home stadium to NFL teams at the time wereRice Stadium(theHouston Oilershad played in Rice Stadium previously but moved to theAstrodomeseveral years before Super Bowl VIII) andStanford Stadium. Starting with the selection of the Super Bowl XXVIII venue on May 23, 1990, the league has given preference in awarding the Super Bowl to brand new or recently renovated NFL stadiums, alongside a trend of teamsdemanding public money or relocatingto play in new stadiums. To date only two teams havequalified for a Super Bowl at their home stadiums: the2020 Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who won Super Bowl LV hosted atRaymond James Stadium(selected on May 23,", "on May 23, 2017), and the2021 Los Angeles Ramsthe following season, who won Super Bowl LVI atSoFi Stadium. Before that, the closest any team had come to accomplishing this feat were the2017 Minnesota Vikings, who reached the NFC Championship Game but lost to the Eagles. In that instance, U.S. Bank Stadium became the first Super Bowl host stadium (selected on May 20, 2014) to also host a Divisional Playoff Game in the same season (which theVikings won); all previous times that the Super Bowl host stadium hosted another playoff game in the same postseason were all Wild Card games. Two teams have played the Super Bowl in their home market but at a different venue than their home stadium: theLos Angeles Rams, who lost Super Bowl XIV in the Rose Bowl instead ofLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum; and the 49ers, who won Super Bowl XIX inStanford Stadiuminstead ofCandlestick Park, during a time when the league often picked a stadium that was not home to an NFL team to host the Super Bowl (see above). Traditionally, the", "Traditionally, the NFL does not award Super Bowls to stadiums that are located in climates with an expected average daily temperature less than 50 °F (10 °C) on game day unless the field can be completely covered by a fixed or retractable roof.Six Super Bowls have been played in northern cities: two in theDetroit area—Super Bowl XVI atPontiac SilverdomeinPontiac, Michigan, and Super Bowl XL atFord Fieldin Detroit; two inMinneapolis—Super Bowl XXVI at theHubert H. Humphrey Metrodomeand Super Bowl LII at theU.S. Bank Stadium; one inIndianapolisatLucas Oil Stadiumfor Super Bowl XLVI; and one inNew Jersey—Super Bowl XLVIII atMetLife Stadium. Only MetLife Stadium did not have a roof (be it fixed or retractable) but it was still picked as the host stadium for Super Bowl XLVIII in an apparent waiver of the warm-climate rule, with a contingency plan to reschedule the game in the event of heavy snowfall.MetLife Stadium's selection overSun Life Stadiumgenerated controversy as the league requested a roof to be added to", "roof to be added to Sun Life Stadium (a venue afflicted with a heavy rainstorm duringSuper Bowl XLI) in order to be considered for future Super Bowls, which was done during a remodeling from 2015 into 2016. It then hostedSuper Bowl LIV, and is scheduled to host Super Bowl LXIV. There have been a few instances where the league has rescinded the Super Bowl from cities. Super Bowl XXVII in 1993 was originally awarded toSun Devil StadiuminTempe, Arizona, but after Arizona voters elected not to recognizeMartin Luther King, Jr. Dayas a paid state employees' holiday in 1990, the NFL moved the game to the Rose Bowl inPasadena, California.When voters in Arizona opted to create such a legal holiday in 1992, Super Bowl XXX in 1996 was awarded to Tempe. Super Bowl XXXIII was awarded first to Candlestick Park in San Francisco, but when plans to renovate the stadium fell through, the game was moved toPro Player Stadiumin greater Miami. Super Bowl XXXVII was awarded to a new stadium not yet built in San Francisco, but when", "Francisco, but when that stadium failed to be built, the game was moved toQualcomm StadiuminSan Diego. Super Bowl XLIV, slated for February 7, 2010, was withdrawn fromNew York City's proposedWest Side Stadium, because the city,state, and proposed tenants (New York Jets) could not agree on funding. Super Bowl XLIV was then eventually awarded toSun Life StadiuminMiami Gardens, Florida. Super Bowl XLIX in 2015 was originally given toArrowhead StadiuminKansas City, Missouri, but after two sales taxes failed to pass at the ballot box (a renovation proposal had passed successfully, but a second ballot question to add a rolling roof structure to be shared withKaufmann Stadiumcritical for the game to be hosted was rejected), and opposition by local business leaders and politicians increased, Kansas City eventually withdrew its request to host the game.Super Bowl XLIX was then eventually awarded toUniversity of Phoenix StadiuminGlendale, Arizona. Selection process The location of the Super Bowl is chosen at a meeting", "chosen at a meeting of all NFL team owners, usually three to five years before the event. The game has never been played in a metropolitan area that lacked an NFL franchise at the time the game was played, although in 2007 NFL commissionerRoger Goodellsuggested that a Super Bowl might be played inLondon, perhaps atWembley Stadium. Through Super Bowl LVI, teams were allowed to bid for the rights to host Super Bowls, where cities submitted proposals to host a Super Bowl and were evaluated in terms of stadium renovation and their ability to host, but this competition was rescinded in 2018.The league has made all decisions regarding hosting sites from Super Bowl LVII onward; the league chose a potential venue unilaterally, the chosen team put together a hosting proposal, and the league voted upon it to determine if it is acceptable. In 2014, a document listing the specific requirements of Super Bowl hosts was leaked, giving a clear list of what was required for a Super Bowl host.Some of the host requirements", "host requirements include: Much of the cost of a Super Bowl is to be assumed by the host community, although some costs are enumerated within the requirements to be assumed by the NFL. New Orleans, the site of Super Bowl XLVII in 2013, invested more than $1 billion in infrastructure improvements in the years leading up to the game. The NFL allocates backup stadiums for the Super Bowl every year, in the event of a last-minute relocation of the game. Home team designation The designated \"home team\" alternates between the NFC team in odd-numbered games and the AFC team in even-numbered games.This alternation was initiated with the first Super Bowl, when the Packers were the designated home team. Regardless of being the home or away team of record, each team has their teamlogoandwordmarkpainted in one of theend zones. Designated away teams have won 32 of 58 Super Bowls to date (approximately 55%). Since Super Bowl XIII in 1979, the home team is given the choice of wearing their colored or whitejerseys.", "or whitejerseys. Originally, the designated home team had to wear their colored jerseys, which resulted in the Cowboys donning their less exposeddark blue jerseys for Super Bowl V. While most of the home teams in the Super Bowl have chosen to wear their colored jerseys, there have been seven exceptions: the Cowboys during Super Bowls XIII and XXVII, the Washington Redskins during Super Bowl XVII, the Steelers during Super Bowl XL, the Broncos during Super Bowl 50, the Patriots in Super Bowl LII, and the Buccaneers in Super Bowl LV. The Cowboys, since1964, have worn white jerseys at home. The Washington Redskins wore white at home under coachJoe Gibbsstarting in1981through1992, continued byRichie PetitbonandNorv Turnerthrough2000, then again when Gibbs returned from2004through2007. Meanwhile, the Steelers, who have always worn their black jerseys at home since the AFL–NFL merger in1970, opted for the white jerseys after winning three consecutive playoff games on the road, wearing white. The Steelers' decision", "Steelers' decision was compared with the Patriots in Super Bowl XX; the Patriots had worn white jerseys at home during the1985season, but after winning road playoff games against the Jets and Dolphins wearing red jerseys, New England opted to switch to scarlet for the Super Bowl as the designated home team. For the Broncos in Super Bowl 50, Denver general manager John Elway simply stated, \"We've had Super Bowl success in our white uniforms\"; they previously had been0–4in Super Bowls when wearing their orange jerseys.The Broncos' decision is also perceived to be made out of superstition, losing all Super Bowl games with the orange jerseys in terrible fashion. It is unclear why the Patriots chose to wear their white jerseys for Super Bowl LII. During the pairing of Bill Belichick and Tom Brady, New England has mostly worn their blue jerseys for home games, but have worn white for a home game in the2008,2010, and2011seasons.The Patriots were 3–0 in their white uniforms in Super Bowls before Super Bowl LII with", "Super Bowl LII with Belichick and Brady,and they may have been going on recent trends of teams who wear white for the Super Bowl game.For Super Bowl LV, when the Buccaneers became the first team to reach the Super Bowl that their own stadium hosted, the Bucscoincidentallywere designated the home team as per AFC-NFC rotation and elected to wear their white jerseys, having previously won both their divisional and championship post-season games on the road in white jerseys.White-shirted teams have won 37 of 58 Super Bowls to date (approximately 64%). The only teams to win in their dark-colored uniform in more recent years are the Packers against the Steelers in Super Bowl XLV, the Eagles against the Patriots in Super Bowl LII, and the Chiefs against the 49ers in Super Bowls LIV and LVIII.SinceSuper Bowl XXXIX, teams in white jerseys have won 16 of the last 20 Super Bowls. The 49ers, as part of the league's 75th Anniversary celebration, used their 1955throwback uniformin Super Bowl XXIX, which for that year was", "for that year was their regular home jersey. The Los Angeles Rams in Super Bowl LIII wore their royal blue and yellow uniforms, which was a throwback uniform but then turned into their primary colors over the navy blue and metallic gold uniform, which they have previously worn for six home games including a home playoff game.No team has yet worn athird jerseyorColor Rushuniform for the Super Bowl. The 49ers reportedly requested to wear an all-white third jersey ensemble for Super Bowl LIV, which theSan Francisco Chroniclenoted they could do with special permission from the league; the league never granted such permission, and the 49ers instead opted for their standard uniform of white jerseys with gold pants. Host cities/regions Fifteen different regions have hosted Super Bowls. Note: Years listed are the year the game was actually played (orwill be played; future games are denoted throughitalics) rather than what NFL season it is considered to have been. Host stadiums A total of 27 different stadiums have", "stadiums have either hosted, or are scheduled to host, a Super Bowl, with 14 of the stadiums having hosted, or are scheduled to host, more than one Super Bowl. Seven of the Super Bowl hosting stadiums have been demolished. The years listed in the table below are the years the game was actually played (will be played) rather than the NFL season it concluded. ^^:Stadium has since been demolished.^‡:Prior to the incorporation of Miami Gardens in 2003, the stadium was in unincorporated Miami-Dade County.^††:The original Stanford Stadium, which hosted Super Bowl XIX, was demolished and a new stadium constructed on the site in 2006.^ˇ:Future Super Bowls, also denoted byitalics. Future venues The Super Bowl has not yet been played in any region that lacked an NFL or AFL franchise at the time the game was played. San Diego is the only metropolitan area as of 2021 that has hosted past Super Bowls, but does not currently have an NFL franchise:San Diego Stadiumhosted three Super Bowls beforetheir NFL franchise", "NFL franchise relocated to Los Angeles. Also,London, England, has occasionally been mentioned as a host city for a Super Bowl in the near future.Wembley Stadiumhas hosted several NFL games as part of theNFL International Seriesand is specifically designed for large, individual events, and NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell has openly discussed the possibility on different occasions. Time zonecomplications are a significant obstacle to a Super Bowl in London; a typical 6:30 p.m.ESTstart would result in the game beginning at 11:30 p.m.local time in London: this is an unusually late hour to be holding spectator sports, while the NFL has never in its history started a game later than 9:15 p.m. local time. Although bids have been submitted for all Super Bowls through Super Bowl LIX, the soonest that any stadium outside the NFL's footprint could serve as host would be Super Bowl LXII in 2028. Eight stadiums that hosted at least one Super Bowl no longer exist: Super Bowl trademark The NFL very actively seeks to prevent", "seeks to prevent what it calls unauthorized commercial use of its trademarked terms \"NFL\", \"Super Bowl\", and \"Super Bowl Sunday\".As a result, many events and promotions tied to the game, but not sanctioned by the NFL, are asked to refer to it as \"The Big Game\", or other generic descriptions.A radio spot forPlantersnuts parodied this, by saying \"it would besuper... to have abowl... of Planters nuts while watching the big game!\" and comedianStephen Colbertbegan referring to the game in 2014 as the \"Superb Owl\". In 2015, the NFL filed opposition with the USPTO Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to a trademark application submitted by an Arizona-based nonprofit for \"Superb Owl\".The NFL claims that the use of the phrase \"Super Bowl\" implies an NFL affiliation, and on this basis the league asserts broad rights to restrict how the game may be shown publicly; for example, the league says Super Bowl showings are prohibited in churches or at other events that \"promote a message\", while non-sporting event venues are also", "venues are also prohibited to show the Super Bowl on any television screen larger than 55 inches.Some critics say the NFL is exaggerating its ownership rights by stating that \"any use is prohibited\", as this contradicts the broad doctrine offair use in the United States.Legislation was proposed byUtahSenatorOrrin Hatchin 2008 \"to provide an exemption from exclusive rights in copyright for certain nonprofit organizations to display live football games\", and \"for other purposes\". In 2004, the NFL started issuing cease-and-desist letters to casinos in Las Vegas that were hosting Super Bowl parties. \"Super Bowl\" is a registered trademark, owned by the NFL, and any other business using that name for profit-making ventures is in violation of federal law, according to the letters. In reaction to the letters, many Las Vegas resorts, rather than discontinue the popular and lucrative parties, started referring to them as \"Big Game Parties\". In 2006, the NFL made an attempt to trademark \"The Big Game\" as well; however,", "as well; however, it withdrew the application in 2007 due to growing commercial and public relations opposition to the move, mostly fromStanford Universityand theUniversity of California, Berkeleyand their fans, as theStanford Cardinal footballandCalifornia Golden Bears footballteams compete in theBig Game, which has been played since 1892 (28 years before the formation of the NFL and 75 years beforeSuper Bowl I).Additionally, theMega Millionslottery game was known asThe Big Game(thenThe Big Game Mega Millions) from 1996 to 2002. See also Notes and references Notes References Further reading External links", "Super Bowl XLVI Super Bowl XLVIwas anAmerican footballgame between theNational Football Conference(NFC) championNew York Giantsand theAmerican Football Conference(AFC) championNew England Patriotsto decide theNational Football League(NFL) champion for the2011 season. The Giants defeated the Patriots by the score of 21–17.The game was played on February 5, 2012, atLucas Oil StadiuminIndianapolis, the first time that theSuper Bowlwas played inIndiana. In addition to winning their fourth Super Bowl in team history, the Giants set a new record for the lowest regular season record (9–7, win percentage of 56.3%) by a Super Bowl champion.The Patriots entered the game with a 13–3 regular season record, and were also seeking their fourth Super Bowl win.This was a rematch ofSuper Bowl XLII, which New York also won, spoiling New England's run at aperfect 2007 season. The Giants and the Patriots also played in Week 9 a few months earlier, with the Giants winning on the road 24–20. The Giants jumped to a 9–0 lead in the", "a 9–0 lead in the first quarter of Super Bowl XLVI before the Patriots scored 17 unanswered points to take a 17–9 lead in the third quarter. But the Giants prevented the Patriots from scoring again, and two consecutive New York field goals chipped away New England's lead, 17–15, late in the third quarter. The Giants capped off an 88-yard drive with running backAhmad Bradshaw's 6-yard game-winning touchdown with 57 seconds left in the game.Eli Manning, who completed 30 of 40 passes for 296 yards, one touchdown, and no interceptions, was namedSuper Bowl MVPfor the second time in his career.He became the third consecutive quarterback to win the award afterAaron RodgersinSuper Bowl XLVandDrew BreesinSuper Bowl XLIV. He was also the first Giants quarterback to start and win two championship games sinceEd Danowskiin1938. The broadcast of the game onNBCbroke the then record for themost-watched programin American television history, previously set duringthe previous year's Super Bowl. Super Bowl XLVI was watched by", "XLVI was watched by an estimated average audience of 111.3 million US viewers and an estimated total audience of 166.8 million, according toNielsen, meaning that over half of the American population watched at least some of the initial broadcast.The game also set the record for mosttweetsper second during a sporting event, with 13.7 million tweets from 3 p.m. to 8 p.m. (PST). Background Per convention as an even-numbered Super Bowl, the Patriots as the AFC representatives had thehome team designation. Super Bowl XLVI was the sixth Super Bowl in which the two teams had competed in a previous Super Bowl matchup, as the Giants and Patriots had previously met inSuper Bowl XLII.Both head coaches (Tom CoughlinandBill Belichick) and both starting quarterbacks (Eli ManningandTom Brady) returned from Super Bowl XLII. Host selection process Three cities presented bids for the game: NFL franchise ownersselected the Indianapolis bid at their meeting on May 20, 2008, in Atlanta. A labor disputehad threatened the", "threatened the postponement or cancellation of the game during the spring and summer of 2011; league officials had set contingency plans to postpone the game one week if it had been necessary to postpone regular season games into the second week of January.Since the dispute was resolved well before the start of the regular season, no postponements were implemented, and the game remained as originally scheduled. This was the first Super Bowl to be played in Indianapolis,and only the fourth time that the Super Bowl has been played in a cold-weather city, after Detroit (XVIandXL) andMinneapolis(XXVI).Downtown Indianapolis, the home of Lucas Oil Stadium, featured an outdoor Super Bowl Village and other programs at theIndiana Convention Center. Teams New York Giants Working around a series of injuries, the Giants ended with a 9–7 record during the regular season and returned to the playoffs for the first time since 2008, winning theNFC Eastand finishing the season as the NFC's No. 4 seed.Finally back to full", "back to full strength, the Giants entered their week 17 matchup with theDallas Cowboyswith both teams tied for the division lead with 8–7 records. The Giants took a 21–0 first half lead and while the Cowboys closed the gap to make the score 21–14 early in the 4th quarter, the Giants held on to defeat the Cowboys 31–14, clinching the divisional title and a playoff berth. New York's offense was led bySuper Bowl XLIIwinning quarterbackEli Manning, in his seventh season as the team's starter. Manning set new career highs in nearly every statistical category in 2011, throwing for a franchise record 4,933 yards and 29 touchdowns, with 16 interceptions, giving him a 92.9 passer rating. His top target was receiverVictor Cruz, who caught 82 passes for a franchise record 1,536 yards (3rd in the NFL) and 9 touchdowns.He had plenty of other targets, includingHakeem Nicks(76 receptions, 1,192 yards, 7 touchdowns),Mario Manningham(39 receptions and 523 yards in 12 games) and tight endJake Ballard(38 receptions, 604", "receptions, 604 yards). Although not on the field for four games due to injury, running backAhmad Bradshawwas the team's leading rusher with 659 yards and 9 touchdowns. He was also a reliable weapon in the passing game, hauling in 34 receptions for 267 yards and two touchdowns.Brandon Jacobsalso made contributions on the ground, rushing for 571 yards and 7 touchdowns. New York's defensive line was led by defensive endsJustin Tuck,Jason Pierre-PaulandOsi Umenyiora. Pierre-Paul racked up 86 combined tackles and ranked fourth in the NFL with 16.5 sacks, earning him the only Pro Bowl selection on the Giants defense, while Umenyiora, limited to 9 games because of injury, recorded 9 sacks and 2 forced fumbles. The Giants secondary was led byCorey Webster, who intercepted a career-high 6 passes. Defensive backsKenny PhillipsandAaron Rossadded four interceptions each, while safetyAntrel Rollepicked off two passes and led the team in combined tackles with 96. The Giants joined the2008 Arizona Cardinalsand1979 Los", "Los Angeles Ramsas the only other team to advance to the Super Bowl with fewer than ten victories since the NFL expanded to a 16-game season in 1978, and the only one of those three to win the Super Bowl they had advanced to. They have won six consecutive playoff games away from their home stadium, dating back to their victory over theTampa Bay Buccaneersin the 2007 Wild Card round. That includes theirSuper Bowl XLIIvictory over these same Patriots, although that game was played at a neutral site (and the Giants were the designated \"away\" team for the game). The 2011 Giants are the first team in NFL history to reach the Super Bowl after having been outscored by their opponents in the regular season (394 points scored, 400 points allowed). New England Patriots The Patriots finished with a 13–3 record, winning theAFC Eastand clinching the AFC's No. 1 seed in the playoffs. New England lost 2 consecutive games to theSteelersand Giants in week 8 and 9 respectively, before rallying to win their remaining eight", "remaining eight games. Back at the helm of the offense was 12-year quarterbackTom Brady, who earned his 7th Pro Bowl selection. Starting every game of the season, Brady completed 65.6% of his passes for a career-high 5,235 yards (the second highest total in NFL history at the time) and 39 touchdown passes, with just 12 interceptions and a rating of 105.6. Brady also added 109 yards and three scores on the ground.His main weapon in the passing game was Pro Bowl receiverWes Welker, who led the NFL with 122 receptions (22 receptions ahead of second place) for 1,569 yards and 9 touchdowns. New England also had two of the best tight ends in the NFL: Pro BowlerRob Gronkowski, who set new tight end records for receiving (1,327 yards) and touchdown catches (17); andAaron Hernandez, who caught 79 passes for 910 yards and 7 touchdowns, while also rushing for 45 yards. Another big element of the passing game was veteran receiverDeion Branch, who caught 51 passes for 702 yards and 5 scores. ReceiversChad", "ReceiversChad Ochocinco,Tiquan Underwood,Julian Edelman, andMatthew Slatermade minor contributions to the passing attack; the latter two also served as emergency defensive backs. Edelman was also a superb punt returner, returning 28 punts for 296 yards and a touchdown. New England had several key contributors in the ground game. Their main rusher wasBenJarvus Green-Ellis, who rushed for 667 yards and 11 touchdowns. Running backStevan Ridleyadded 447 yards and a 5.1 yards per carry average.Danny Woodheadcontributed 351 yards with a 4.6 YPC average, and gained another 437 yards returning kickoffs. New England also had a solid offensive line, which was anchored by Pro Bowl guardsLogan MankinsandBrian Waters. With all these weapons, New England ranked third in the NFL with 513 points. The Patriots' defensive line featured two Pro Bowl selections:Vince Wilfork, who generated 3.5 sacks, two interceptions, and one forced fumble; andAndre Carter, who contributed 10 sacks and forced two fumbles. Defensive EndMark", "Defensive EndMark Andersonwas also a major force on the line, earning 10 sacks and two forced fumbles of his own. Behind them,Rob Ninkovichexcelled at linebacker, gaining 74 tackles, 6.5 sacks, and two interceptions. In the secondary, cornerbackKyle Arringtonhad a breakout season. After recording just one interception in his first three years, Arrington picked off 7 passes in 2011 to lead the NFL in that category, while also making 88 tackles. LinebackerJerod Mayoled the team in tackles with 95. With the victory in the 2011 AFC Championship Game Brady and head coachBill Belichickbecame the first quarterback-head coach combination to reach the Super Bowl five times, surpassing the record held byTerry BradshawandChuck Nollof thePittsburgh Steelers' 1970s Super Bowl teams. Belichick tiedTom Landryfor second most appearances as a head coach in the Super Bowl, behind onlyDon Shula's six. Season and playoffs The Patriots and Giants faced each other in New England during the regular season; the Giants won that", "the Giants won that game, 24–20.Incidentally, the Giants and Patriots hadalso faced each otherin New York during the regular season prior to Super Bowl XLII with the Patriots winning that regular season matchup and the Giants going on to win that Super Bowl. Super Bowl XLVI marked the 13th Super Bowl that was a rematch of a regular season game. The loser in the regular season had been 7–5 in these games prior to Super Bowl XLVI. The Giants finished the season as the NFC East champion and the No. 4 seed in the conference. The Giants defeated the No. 5 seedAtlanta Falconsin the Wild Card round 24–2, the first playoff game atMetLife Stadium. Eli Manning threw for 277 yards and 3 touchdowns with no interceptions, while the Giants defense shut down the Falcons, with the only Falcons points coming from a safety given up by Manning's intentional grounding penalty in his end zone. The Giants then moved on to face the No. 1 seed and the defendingSuper Bowl XLVchampionGreen Bay Packersin the divisional round. The", "round. The Giants never trailed in the game, winning 37–20. One of the key plays in the game was aHail Mary passby Manning toHakeem Nicks, giving the Giants a 20–10 lead at the end of the first half. As they did to 2007 MVPTom Bradyand thePatriots' record-breaking offense, the Giants generated significant pressure on Packers quarterback and season MVPAaron Rodgers, sacking him four times and disrupting his talented receiving corps.This was the first time in NFL history a 15–1 team failed to make it past the divisional round in the playoffs. The Giants then faced the No. 2 seededSan Francisco 49ersin theNFC Championship Game. After a series of defensive standoffs in the fourth quarter, the game went into overtime. Both teams continued to struggle on offense, until Giants linebackerJacquian Williamsstripped the ball from 49ers wide receiverKyle Williamsafter a punt return. The Giants recovered the ball at the 49ers 24-yard line, setting up a 31-yard field goal attempt by Giants kickerLawrence Tynes. Unlike", "Tynes. Unlike Cundiff earlier that day, Tynes' kick was successful, giving the Giants a 20–17 victory. As the No. 1 seed in the AFC, the Patriots earned a first-round bye and home field advantage throughout the AFC playoffs. In the divisional round, the Patriots defeated theDenver Broncos45–10. The Patriots dominated the game throughout, setting new franchise postseason records for total yards (509), points (45), and margin of victory (35). Tom Brady completed 18 of 25 passes for 246 yards and a postseason record five touchdowns in the first half. The Patriots defense had a breakout performance: Broncos quarterbackTim Tebowwas held to just 9 of 26 completions and was sacked five times. In theAFC Championship Game, the Patriots faced off against the No. 2 seededBaltimore Ravens. Brady was out-dueled by Ravens quarterbackJoe Flacco, who threw for more yards and touchdowns on the same number of completions and attempts. Nevertheless, the Patriots managed to take a 23–20 lead in the fourth quarter on a 1-yard", "quarter on a 1-yard run by Brady. With 1:44 left in the quarter, The Ravens got the ball back with one last chance to tie or win the game, driving all the way to the Patriots 14-yard line. But the Patriots managed to hold them there, with cornerbackSterling Moorebreaking up two consecutive Ravens pass attempts in the red zone, including one in the end zone. Facing fourth down, the Ravens attempted a 32-yard field goal by kickerBilly Cundiffthat would tie the game and possibly bring it to overtime. Cundiff missed the kick wide left, allowing the Patriots to advance to the Super Bowl. Super Bowl pre-game notes The Patriots, as the designated home team, had a choice of wearing their home navy blue jerseys or their white away jerseys. Briefly, there was speculation that the Patriots might wear the white away jerseys in order to switch the jerseys fromSuper Bowl XLII, where the Patriots wore dark blue and the Giants wore white. Also, the Giants were 4–0 in playoff games in their white away jerseys since the2007", "since the2007 season. However, the Patriots announced on the Monday following the Conference Championship Games that they would be wearing their customary navy blue home jerseys as the home team in Super Bowl XLVI. Hospitality experts speculated that \"Indianapolis will have seen the most severe hotelprice gougingin Super Bowl history.\" The city has 6,000 hotel rooms, fewer than typical for a Super Bowl host city. Some rooms in downtown Indianapolis reportedly cost more than $4,000 a night. By contrast, rooms close to the stadium in previous Super Bowls were usually available for about $200. The room shortage and high prices caused some attendees to plan to stay in Chicago, 180 miles away, and ride buses to events. Because the Giants and Patriots drew their fan bases fromNew York CityandBostonrespectively, the Super Bowl echoed the fiercerivalrybetween theNew York Yankeesand theBoston Red SoxinMajor League Baseball.Tom Bradysaid of the rivalry: \"There is a great rivalry...between Boston and New York...When I", "New York...When I got to the team, it was always Red Sox-Yankees. We've had some pretty meaningful games against the Giants over the past few years, so I don't think anyone is disappointed that it's the Giants.\" Broadcasting Television United States In the United States, the game was televised nationally byNBC. Al Michaelscalledplay-by-playfor NBC, marking the eighth time that he was behind the microphone for a Super Bowl and the second time he called a Super Bowl for NBC (Michaels had previously done play-by-play for Super BowlsXXII,XXV,XXIX,XXXIV,XXXVII, andXLforABCandSuper Bowl XLIIIfor NBC).Cris Collinsworthwas thecolor analystfor the game, his second Super Bowl as a game analyst and first since he was in the booth forSuper Bowl XXXIXforFox.Michele Tafoyawas thesideline reporter.Bob CostasandDan Patrick(who also presided over the trophy presentation ceremony) hosted the pregame, halftime, and postgame coverage for NBC withFootball Night in AmericaanalystsTony DungyandRodney Harrisonand special guest", "special guest analysts (who were seated next to Costas during the pre-game festivities),Aaron RodgersandHines Ward. Also helping out on NBC's broadcast were reportersAlex Flanagan,Liam McHugh, andRandy Mossand NFL insidersMike FlorioandPeter King. Advertising All commercials for the game sold out by Thanksgiving 2011, at an average price of $3.5 million per thirty-second ad, by far the highest rate forSuper Bowl advertisingin the event's history.At least one thirty-second advertisement commanded a price of $4 million. Anti-abortionactivistRandall Terryhas said he was planning to run an advertisement featuring graphic photos of aborted fetuses during Super Bowl XLVI.Terry was not allowed to air the ad nationwide, given that the networks have a policy underequal timerules to reject all political and issue related advertising during the Super Bowl.He was able, however, under the then-current Federal Election Commission \"reasonable access\" rules, to force up to 35 local stations (those located in states in which", "in states in which theDemocratic Party primariesare within 45 days of Super Bowl Sunday; Terry entered the primary as adummy candidateprimarily for the purpose of this advertisement) to run the advertisement uncensored, regardless of whether it meetsStandards and Practicesor Federal Communications Commission guidelines. The FCC ruled against Terry on February 3, two days before the game, when NBC owned-and-operatedWMAQ-TVinChicagorefused to air the ad, citing the same equal-time statutes and the fact that Terry did not appear to be abona fidecandidate.The largest station to allow Terry to air his advertisement wasWHDHinBoston,Massachusetts. An advertisement fromPepsifeaturedMelanie Amaro, the winner ofseason oneof theFoxseriesThe X Factor.Other confirmed advertisers includedDoritos(continuing itsuser-generated\"Crash the Super Bowl\" contest),Bridgestone,Volkswagen(a 60-second spot advertising the third-generationBeetlefeaturing dogs barking to the tune of \"The Imperial March\"),General Motors(four", "Motors(four forChevrolet; including a commercial featuring \"We Are Young\" byfun.that led to a massive sales spike; and one forCadillac),Toyota,Hyundai,Acura(featuringJerry Seinfeldin an ad for theNSX),Kia Motors(advertising theOptimawith a spot starringAdriana Lima),Audi(parodying theTwilightseries with an ad for theS7),Honda(starringMatthew Broderickin a reprisal of the lead role inFerris Bueller's Day Off), newcomersDannon YogurtandCentury 21 Real Estate,Teleflora,Mars, Incorporated(introducing theM&M'sbrown spokescandy),The Coca-Cola Company,CareerBuilder.com(reprising their chimp advertisement campaign),Cars.com,Skechers,Relativity Media(running four advertisements forAct of Valor),Paramount Pictures,Walt Disney Pictures, andUniversal Pictures.Anheuser-Buschhas purchased nine slots during the game.An ad forOld Milwaukeebeer featuringWill Ferrellaired a single time on only one station in Nebraska. Disney's ad for its upcomingJohn Carterwas seen as exacerbating concerns about the expensivetentpole film's", "film's marketing that had been raised by itsteaserthe preceding August.While admitting he was \"pleasantly surprised\" by it,Collider's Adam Chitwood said he was \"still not convinced that the general audience has a handle on what the film's about.\"An executive at a competing studio said the trailer strongly reinforced concerns that the film had experienced serious production problems that adversely affected its quality and box-office prospects. \"It's like, 'Guys, this is yourHail Mary?'\"The ad's ineffectiveness was cited as one of many reasons the movie failed upon its release the following month, leading Disney to take a $200 millionwritedownon the film. Chrysleraired a two-minute half time advertisement titled \"Half Time in America\", produced by theWieden+Kennedyagency and narrated byClint Eastwood.The ad drew the criticism of several leading U.S.conservatives, who suggested that its messaging implied that President Obama deserved a second term and, as such, was political payback for Obama's support for the", "support for the federal bailout of the company.Both Chrysler chief marketing officer Olivier François and Chrysler Chairman and CEOSergio Marchionnedenied that the ad was intended as a politically oriented message.Overall, the ad was considered one of the better ones that aired during the game. There has also been some conjecture regarding the possible plagiarism of Australian bandJohn Butler Trio's song \"Zebra\" by Yogurt giantDannon. Spokesman for the band, Tom McNamara, commented that the band was currently exploring their proprietary rights with regards to the similarity of the tune to the band's hit single. Matthew Broderickreprised hisFerris Bueller's Day Offrole in aHondacommercial aired during thisSuper Bowlwhich featured theOh Yeah song.A teaser for the ad had appeared two weeks prior to the Super Bowl, which had created rumors of a possible film sequel.It was produced by Santa Monica-basedRPAand directed byTodd Phillips.AdWeek's Tim Nudd called the ad \"a great homage to the original 1986 film, with", "1986 film, with Broderick this time calling in sick to a film shoot and enjoying another day of slacking.\"On the other hand,Jalopnik's Matt Hardigree called the spot \"sacrilegious\". International NFL International televised the game to viewers outside of North America, withKenny AlbertandJoe Theismanncalling the English language feed. Streaming This was the first legal onlinestreamingof a Super Bowl telecast in the United States, available on computers via NFL.com and NBCSports.com, and mobile devices viaVerizon Wireless's NFL Mobileapp. As part of \"Operation Fake Sweep\",Immigration and Customs Enforcement, along with theUnited States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, seized and shut down 16 websites that had provided access to piratedInternet televisionfeeds of NFL games on February 2, in an action similar to the crackdown they had implemented the previous year. For the first time, domains in the.tvtop-level domainwere also seized, despite that TLD's allocation toTuvalu. Radio Super Bowl XLVI", "Super Bowl XLVI was carried nationwide on radio over theDial Globalradio network, withKevin Harlanas play-by-play announcer,Boomer Esiasonas color analyst, andJames LoftonandMark Maloneas sideline reporters. Locally, the game was broadcast by theNew York Giants Radio Networkflagship (WFAN) and theNew England Patriots Radio Networkflagship (WBZ-FM).Bob Papacalled the game for the Giants withCarl Banksas his analyst andHoward Crossas sideline reporter, whileGil Santoswas at the microphone for the Patriots withGino Cappellettias analyst andScott Zolakas sideline reporter. Santos and Cappelletti returned for their sixth Super Bowl as broadcast team for the Patriots while Papa and Banks called their third and second Super Bowls, respectively, for the Giants. This was the first Super Bowl broadcast for the Giants not to feature longtime analystDick Lynch, who had retired from the team's radio booth following the 2007 season and died in 2008. As per the NFL's rules, all the other stations in the Giants and Patriots", "Giants and Patriots radio networks (as well asWCBS-AMin New York, which serves as a preseason overflow station for the Giants) carried Dial Global's feed. BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extraproduced its own radio broadcast, with Darren Fletcher, Rocky Boiman, andGreg Bradyannouncing. Entertainment Pregame TheIndiana University Marching Hundredperformed during the pre-game show. On January 12, 2012, it was reported that formerAmerican IdolwinnerKelly Clarksonwould sing the National Anthem at Super Bowl XLVI.It marks the fourth time in the previous five years that anAmerican Idolcontestant has performed the national anthem (joiningCarrie Underwood,Jennifer HudsonandJordin Sparks). Clarkson was accompanied by the Indianapolis Children's Choir. Husband-and-wife country musiciansBlake SheltonandMiranda Lambertperformed \"America the Beautiful\" as part of the ceremonies.American Sign Languagetranslation for both songs was performed by Rachel Mazique, the currently reigning Miss Deaf America. The coin toss ceremony", "coin toss ceremony featured the recent inductees to thePro Football Hall of Fame.Curtis Martin, one of the inductees, was originally selected to toss the coin,but in whatNESNdescribed as \"a rather awkward scene\", referee John Parry ended up flipping the coin himself while Martin stood beside and watched.The Patriots won the toss, the first AFC team to do so in the Super Bowl in 15 years.Because the coin toss landed on heads, the pizza chainPapa John'soffered free pizza to millions of Americans who participated in a promotional contest. Halftime Word had leaked as early as October 2011 thatMadonnawould be the performer for theSuper Bowl halftime show,withM.I.A.andNicki Minajperforming as well; all three are featured on Madonna's new single \"Give Me All Your Luvin'\" which was performed as part of the show.The league confirmed Madonna as the performer on December 4.Other collaborators on the project includedLMFAO,Cee Lo Green, long time Madonna collaboratorJamie King,Cirque du Soleil, and Moment Factory. The", "Moment Factory. The setlist included an Egyptian-themed \"Vogue\" with costumes byGivenchy,a medley of Madonna's \"Music\" and LMFAO's two largest hits (\"Party Rock Anthem\" and \"Sexy and I Know It\", with the LMFAO singers remaining fully clothed, unlike in the latter song's music video), followed by her then-current single \"Give Me All Your Luvin'\", excerpts from \"Open Your Heart\" and \"Express Yourself\" (in a duet with Green), and the finale, \"Like a Prayer\", also featuring Green. Green and Shelton (who sang \"America the Beautiful\" as part of the pregame show) are both judges on the NBC TV seriesThe Voice, which the networkbroadcast after the game. M.I.A. came under controversy for giving themiddle fingerduring the performance of \"Give Me All Your Luvin'\", which was caught by the broadcast feed. The gesture was given when she appeared to sing \"I don't give a shit\", although it was hard to hear clearly if the expletive was said, stopped short, or cut off, as the censor unsuccessfully tried to blur the screen to", "blur the screen to cover the gesture. The show broke the record for the most viewed Super Bowl halftime show ever, defeating Michael Jackson's previous record, with 114 million viewers throughout the world. Game summary First quarter The Patriots won the coin toss and deferred. This ended a stretch of 14 consecutive Super Bowls in which the NFC team won the coin toss. New York opened the game with a drive to the Patriots' 33-yard line, threatening to score first. After quarterbackEli Manningcompleted a 19-yard pass to wide receiverHakeem Nicks, New England's defense stepped up to prevent a score. First, defensive endBrandon Deadericksacked Manning for a 2-yard loss, then running backAhmad Bradshawwas tackled behind the line of scrimmage on a blitz by cornerbackKyle Arrington. On third down, defensive endMark Andersonsacked Manning for a 6-yard loss, pushing the Giants out of field goal range and forcing them to punt. The Giants got a boost from punterSteve Weatherford, whose 36-yard kick pinned the Patriots", "pinned the Patriots back at their own 6-yard line. On the Patriots' first offensive play of the game, quarterbackTom Bradyattempted aplay action pass, but a heavy rush from defensive endJustin Tuckforced Brady to throw deep into the middle of the field, with no receiver anywhere near it. Brady was flagged forintentional grounding, and since he was in the end zone when he threw the pass, the play resulted in asafety,giving New York an early 2–0 lead.It was the first safety in a Super Bowl since theArizona Cardinalsscored one inSuper Bowl XLIII. After receiving the free kick, New York drove 78 yards in 9 plays. Aided by a key 24-yard run by Bradshaw, the Giants increased their lead to 9–0 on Manning's 2-yard touchdown pass to wide receiverVictor Cruz. On the Patriots' following drive, Brady completed passes to running backBenJarvus Green-Ellisfor 7 yards and wide receiverDeion Branchfor 15, while wide receiverWes Welkerpicked up 29 yards on a reception and a run on a reverse, moving the ball to the New York", "to the New York 17-yard line. Second quarter New York managed to stop the drive at their own 11-yard line, butStephen Gostkowskikicked a 29-yard field goal to cut New England's deficit to 9–3 early in the second quarter. After the next three possessions resulted in punts, Weatherford's 51-yard punt gave the Patriots possession on their 2-yard line with 4:03 left in the half. However, this punt did not affect the Patriots, as they stormed 96 yards down the field in 14 plays, tying the record for the longest drive in Super Bowl history.Brady completed a 20-yard pass to tight endRob Gronkowski, then followed it up with four consecutive completions to tight endAaron Hernandezfor a total gain of 38 yards. The drive ended with Brady's 4-yard touchdown pass to running backDanny Woodhead, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game, 10–9, at halftime. Third quarter New England took the second half kickoff and started out strong; Brady completed a 21-yard pass to wide receiverChad Johnson(his only reception of", "only reception of the postseason and Brady's longest pass of the game), and a reception and two runs by Green-Ellis gained 29 yards to the New York 24-yard line. Brady eventually finished the eight-play, 79-yard drive with a 12-yard touchdown pass to Hernandez, increasing New England's lead to 17–9. Starting their first drive of the half from their own 35-yard line after wide receiverJerrel Jernigan's 34-yard kickoff return, aided by Manning's two completions to Nicks for 19 yards, the Giants reached the New England 20-yard line, where kickerLawrence Tynesmade a 38-yard field goal, cutting their deficit to 17–12. On New England's next drive, New York forced a three-and-out, and safetyWill BlackmonreturnedZoltán Meskó's 43-yard punt 10 yards to the Patriots' 47-yard line. The Giants subsequently drove back into scoring range on a drive that utilized several different players, including a 12-yard reception by seldom used tight endBear Pascoeto reach the New England 9-yard line. On third down, however, a sack", "however, a sack by Anderson and linebackerRob Ninkovichforced New York to settle for a 33-yard field goal by Tynes, cutting the score to 17–15 with 35 seconds left in the third quarter. Fourth quarter On the second play of the fourth quarter, the game's only turnover occurred when Giants linebackerChase Blackburnstepped in front of Gronkowski and picked off a deep Brady pass at the New York 8-yard line.The Giants then drove to the New England 43-yard line, but were stopped there and had to punt. The Patriots took the ball back at their own 8-yard line with less than 10 minutes left in the game. After Brady completed four consecutive passes for 34 yards to reach the New York 44-yard line, he threw to a wide-open Welker, but his pass was high and Welker was unable to reel it in while falling to the ground, crucially preventing a huge gain.Brady's next pass was incomplete, and the Patriots were forced to punt, after which Brady's wife supermodelGisele Bündchenfamously blamed Welker, saying her husband could not", "husband could not both \"hrow and catch the ball.\" The television footage of the game showedBill Belichickexhorting his defense to focus on stopping Cruz and Nicks, and to force the Giants to go to secondary optionsMario Manninghamand Pascoe. The Giants took possession from their own 12-yard line with 3:46 left in the game and one timeout. On the first play, in what would end up being one of the key plays of the game,Manning completed a deep pass along the left sideline to Manningham for a 38-yard gain to midfield (the longest play from scrimmage in the game), which would later draw comparisons tohis pass to David Tyree in Super Bowl XLII.Belichick challenged the catch, but the call on the field stood and it cost him his team's first timeout. Two more completions from Manning to Manningham gained another 18 yards. Manning then completed a 14-yard pass to Nicks on the New England 18-yard line at the two-minute warning. Three plays later, New England called their second timeout with 1:03 left after Bradshaw's", "after Bradshaw's 1-yard run set up 2nd-and-goal on the 6-yard line. On the second down play, whichSports Illustratedlater called \"perhaps the strangest play in Super Bowl history\", Bradshaw's path to the end zone was clear as the Patriots chose to let him score. Once he realized what was happening, Bradshaw tried to stop running at the 1-yard line, but his forward momentum carried him over the goal line and the Giants took the lead on the uncontested touchdown run.The intentionally surrendered touchdown gave the Patriots 57 seconds to mount a game-winning drive, and they trailed 21–17 after Giants running backDJ Warewas stopped on thetwo-point conversionattempt. The game's final drive began on the New England 20-yard line. Brady's first two passes fell incomplete and then he was sacked by Tuck for a 6-yard loss on third down, bringing up 4th-and-16 and forcing the Patriots to use their final timeout. Facing heavy pressure in the pocket, Brady eluded defensive endJason Pierre-Pauland linebackerMathias", "linebackerMathias Kiwanuka, then threw a 19-yard bullet to wide receiverDeion Branch, who ran out of bounds at the 33-yard line for a first down. An 11-yard completion from Brady to Hernandez advanced the ball to the Patriots' 44, followed by a twelve-men-on-the-field penalty against the Giants, which moved the ball to the Patriots' 49 with nine seconds left. After an incomplete pass, Brady, on the game's final play, threw aHail Mary passintended for Hernandez in the end zone, but the ball was deflected by five Giants defenders. Gronkowski dove with outstretched arms toward the ball but was still a yard away when it hit the ground, giving the Giants their fourth Super Bowl title in franchise history. Box score atLucas Oil Stadium,Indianapolis, Indiana Statistical overview For the Giants, Manning completed 30 of 40 passes for 296 yards, one touchdown, and no interceptions. Bradshaw was the top rusher of the game with 72 yards and a touchdown, also catching two passes for 19 yards. Nicks was the top receiver", "the top receiver with 10 receptions for 109 yards. Blackburn, who had been cut by the Giants earlier in the season before being re-signed, had 6 total tackles and an interception. Tuck made 3 tackles and two sacks. For New England, Brady completed 27 of 41 passes for 276 yards and two touchdowns, with one interception, becoming the first quarterback to throw a touchdown pass in five separate Super Bowls. His top target was Tight End/H-BackAaron Hernandez, performing in a role similar to the one he played atFlorida, catching 8 passes for 67 yards and one score. A20104th-Round selection, Hernandez's stellar performance in the game would only add to the tragedy when his career was cut short by a self-destructive spiral into crime, resulting in his conviction in 2013 for the murder ofOdin Lloyd. Fellow second-year tight endRob Gronkowski, who came into Super Bowl XLVI battling a severe ankle injury, tallied 2 catches for 26 yards and Welker, despite the infamous drop, finished with 7 receptions for 60 yards and", "for 60 yards and two carries for 21. Defensively, linebackersJerod MayoandBrandon Spikeseach had 8 solo tackles, 3 assists, and a forced fumble. With the win the Giants became the fifth team to win at least four Super Bowls, while the Patriots became the fourth to lose four. At the time, Brady had yet to win in Lucas Oil Stadium and had not won a game in Indianapolis since 2007, when the Patriots defeated theIndianapolis Coltson their way to a perfect regular season. Belichick dropped to 3–2 as a head coach in the Super Bowl, whileTom Coughlinwon his second Super Bowl in as many tries. Some news organizations, among themThe St. Louis Post-Dispatch, said that their victory made them NFL's version of the2011 World SerieschampionSt. Louis Cardinals, saying that these two championship teams that had been given the last rites by many near the end of the season, emerged as champions at the end.Eli Manning was the only quarterback to throw for more than 4,900 yards and win a Super Bowl in the same season", "in the same season untilPatrick Mahomesthrew for 5,250 yards and wonSuper Bowl LVIIduring the2022 NFL season. The Giants and Patriots became the 3rd and 4th teams (after theOakland RaidersandPittsburgh Steelers) to appear in Super Bowls in four different decades (both in the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s) and the second and third to appear in Super Bowls in four consecutive decades (joining the Pittsburgh Steelers). The Giants became the first and only team in Super Bowl history to win Super Bowls in four different decades (1986, 1990, 2007, 2011). The Patriots became the first and only team in Super Bowl history to lose Super Bowls in four different decades (1985, 1996, 2007, 2011). Dan Shaughnessysaid in a piece inThe Boston Globeabout Boston on the loss to the Giants under the headline, \"History Repeats\": \"Instead of celebrating a grand slam–championships in every major sport over a period of four years and four months–New Englanders are spitting out pieces of their broken luck, bracing for the avalanche", "for the avalanche of grief from the New Yorkers they envy so badly.\" The Giants went into the half trailing 10–9. The Giants have trailed at halftime in all of their Super Bowl appearances, trailing 10–9 to the Broncos, 12–10 to the Bills, 10–0 to the Ravens, and 7–3 to the Patriots. This would be the fourth time in the Giants' five Super Bowl appearances that they faced their AFC opponent earlier during the regular season. In every season in which the Giants have won the Super Bowl they have faced their AFC Super Bowl counterpart previously during the regular season. The Giants are now 4–0 in Super Bowls in whichBill Belichickhas been on the sidelines. Belichick was the Giants' defensive coordinator for their first two Super Bowl victories, and the opposing head coach in their last two. Three of the Giants' victories have come againstAFC Eastteams, with the Giants having defeated theBuffalo Billsand Patriots twice. The Giants continued their winning streak in road playoff games with their win in Super Bowl", "win in Super Bowl XLVI. The team won every playoff game they played away from their home stadium (Giants StadiumandMetLife Stadium) from 2007 to 2011. Prior to this run, last time the Giants were defeated in a game away from the Meadowlands was in 2006, when they were defeated by thePhiladelphia Eaglesin the Wild Card round.This streak came to an end in the2016–17 NFL playoffs, where the Giants were defeated 38–13 by the Green Bay Packers atLambeau Fieldin the Wild Card round.Two of the Giants' road playoff victories during this streak occurred at Lambeau. This was the second Super Bowl, afterSuper Bowl X, resulting in a final score of 21–17 with the winning score including a safety and a missed extra point as part of its 21-point total (although in this case it was a failed 2-point attempt while in the earlier case it was a blocked kick). This was the 5th set of teams to have a rematch in Super Bowl history and overall the 6th rematch. The others were the Miami Dolphins and Washington Redskins, who met", "Redskins, who met inSuper Bowl VIIandSuper Bowl XVII; the Dallas Cowboys and Pittsburgh Steelers, who met inSuper Bowl X,Super Bowl XIII, andSuper Bowl XXXand are the only teams to meet in the Super Bowl more than twice; the San Francisco 49ers and Cincinnati Bengals, who met inSuper Bowl XVIandSuper Bowl XXIII; and the Cowboys and Buffalo Bills, who met inSuper Bowl XXVIIandSuper Bowl XXVIIIand are the only teams to face each other in two consecutive Super Bowls; and later the Patriots and the Philadelphia Eagles becoming the 6th set of teams to have a rematch in Super Bowl history and 7th overall, meeting inSuper Bowl LIIafter previously meeting inSuper Bowl XXXIX. Final statistics Sources:NFL.com Super Bowl XLVI,Super Bowl XLVI Play Finder NYG,Super Bowl XLVI Play Finder NE,The Football Database Super Bowl XLVI Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts2Carries3Long gain4Receptions5Times targeted Starting lineups Source: Officials This was the last game officials wore the", "officials wore the traditional whiteknickers. Beginningthe next season, officials wore the full-length black pants introduced in 2006 for cold-weather games full-time. References External links", "Eli Manning Elisha Nelson Manning(born January 3, 1981) is an American former professionalfootballquarterbackwho played in theNational Football League(NFL) for 16 seasons with theNew York Giants. A member of theManning family, he is the youngest son ofArchieand younger brother ofPeyton. Manning playedcollege footballfor theOle Miss Rebels, where he won theMaxwellandJohnny Unitas Golden Armawards as a senior. He was selectedfirst overallin the2004 NFL draftby theSan Diego Chargersand traded to the Giants during the draft. Manning's greatest professional success was twice leading the Giants to underdogSuper Bowlvictories against theNew England Patriots dynastyinSuper Bowl XLIIandSuper Bowl XLVI.The former, which saw thewild cardGiants defeat a Patriots team that was the first to win all 16 regular season games, is regarded as one of the greatest sports upsets of all time.Manning was namedSuper Bowl MVPin both championships, making him one of six players to receive the award multiple times. As the Giants", "As the Giants starting quarterback from 2004 to 2019, Manning holds the franchise records for passing yards, passingtouchdowns, and completions.Never missing a game due to injury, he started 210 consecutive games from 2004 to 2017, the third-longestconsecutive starts streak by an NFL quarterback. Manning ranks 11th all-time in passing yards and 10th in touchdowns. Early life Manning was born inNew Orleans, the youngest of three boys to Olivia (née Williams) and NFL quarterbackElisha Archibald \"Archie\" Manning III, both natives ofMississippi.His older brothers,CooperandPeyton, both played football growing up. Manning attended high school at theIsidore Newman Schoolin New Orleans, where he playedfootballand basketball for the Greenies.In his high school career, Manning passed for a school-record 7,389 yards and 89 touchdowns.Eli's passing mark was later broken by his nephewArch.He committed to play college football at theUniversity of Mississippi. College career Manning entered college in the shadow of his", "the shadow of his brother Peyton, quarterback of the Indianapolis Colts, and his father, who was considered a \"folk hero\" at Ole Miss.During his years with theRebels, Manning set or tied numerous single-game,seasonandcareer records. His career numbers include 10,119 passing yards (fifth on theSECcareer list), 81 touchdown passes (third on the SEC career list), and a passer rating of 137.7 (tied for sixth on the SEC career list). 2000 season As a redshirt freshman, Manning competed with veteranRomaro Millerfor the starting quarterback position and saw little playing time.He appeared in six games and passed for 170 total yards and one interception in the Rebels 7–5 season. 2001 season With the departure of Miller, Manning became the Rebels' starting quarterback as a sophomore. In the first game, againstMurray State, he converted 20-of-23 pass attempts for 271 yards and five passing touchdowns in the 49–14 victory.In the following game, a 27–21 loss toAuburn, he had 265 passing yards, one passing touchdown and", "touchdown and one interception.Over the next few games, Manning helped lead the Rebels to victories overKentucky,AlabamaandLSU.On November 3, in a58–56 7OTloss toArkansas, Manning passed for 312 passing yards and six passing touchdowns.The game marked the longest game in major college football history at the time.Overall, Manning had a solid first year as the Rebels' starting quarterback with 2,948 passing yards, 31 touchdowns, and nine interceptions, as the Rebels finished with a 7–4 record. 2002 season Manning's junior season started out promising with a 31–3 victory overLouisiana-Monroeand a 38–16 victory overMemphis. Manning had four passing touchdowns and one interception combined in those two games.In the next game, a 42–28 loss toTexas Tech, Manning passed for 374 yards, three touchdowns and one interception.The Rebels won their next three games, which were overVanderbilt, #6FloridaandArkansas Stateto earn Ole Miss a #21 ranking in theAP Poll.Manning had five touchdowns and one interception in that", "in that stretch. The Rebels' fortunes turned in the latter half of the season with a five-game losing streak.In the stretch was a 48–28 loss toArkansas, in which Manning completed 42-of-56 passes for 414 yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions. In addition, he had a rushing touchdown. Manning's 414 passing yards marked the most he threw for in college.After a 24–12 win overrivalMississippi State, the Rebels qualified for theIndependence Bowlwith a 6–6 record to face off againstNebraska.Manning passed for 313 yards and one touchdown in the 27–23 victory.Overall, Manning finished with 3,401 passing yards, 21 touchdowns, and 15 interceptions in his junior season. 2003 season Manning started off his senior season with a 2–2 record. He played well in that stretch with 1,329 passing yards, 11 touchdowns and four interceptions, with victories overVanderbiltandLouisiana-Monroe, but had losses toMemphisandTexas Tech.The Rebels went on a six-game winning streak that included victories over major SEC opponents", "major SEC opponents #24Florida,Alabama,#21Arkansas,South Carolina,andAuburn.Manning passed for 1,552 yards, 12 touchdowns, and four interceptions in the winning streak. Overall, he led the Rebels to a 10–3 record, and a 31–28SBCCotton Bowl Classicvictory over #21Oklahoma State, with 259 passing yards and two touchdowns in 2003.Manning helped lead Ole Miss to their first ten-win season since 1971. As his senior year came to a close, Manning won many awards, including theMaxwell Awardas the nation's best all-around player, theJohnny Unitas Golden Arm Award, theNational Football FoundationandCollege Football Hall of FameScholar-Athlete Award, theSporting News RadioSocrates Award, and theSEC Most Valuable Player Award. He was also a candidate for the 2003Heisman Trophy, finishing third in the voting after winning quarterbackJason White(University of Oklahoma) and wide receiverLarry Fitzgerald(University of Pittsburgh).Manning was a member of theSigma Nufraternity (as was his father), and he was named Sigma Nu", "was named Sigma Nu Athlete of the Year in 2001 and 2003. Manning graduated from the University of Mississippi with a degree inmarketingand aGPAof 3.44 and was on the Dean's Honor Roll. Awards College statistics Professional career TheSan Diego Chargershad the first overall pick in the2004 NFL draftdue to their 4–12 record in 2003.With Manning being the most coveted player in the draft, it appeared that the Chargers' intentions were to draft him first overall. Meanwhile, Manning and his father Archie Manning stated that he would refuse to play for the Chargers if drafted by them.Archie asked the father of former Chargers quarterbackRyan Leafbefore the draft about his son's experience with the team. In hearing that the Chargers did not help Leaf with his personal problems, it then became part of why Eli refused to play for the team. The Chargers selected Manning with the first pick overall nonetheless, as the team had a deal with theNew York Giants, whereby the Giants would draft and then tradePhilip Riversand", "Riversand a 2004 third-round pick, used to select placekickerNate Kaeding; a 2005 first-round pick, used to select linebackerShawne Merriman; and a 2005 fifth-round pick (which was later traded away) to the Chargers for Manning.He signed a six-year, $45 million contract with the Giants. Manning was one of 17 quarterbacks taken in the 2004 NFL Draft, along with Rivers and thePittsburgh Steelers'Ben Roethlisberger.All three would enjoy lengthy and successful careers with the teams that signed them and have been compared favorably to the1983 NFL draft, which includedHall of FamequarterbacksJohn Elway,Jim Kelly, andDan Marino.Manning posted the lowest passing yards, touchdowns, pass completions, completion percentage, TD–INT ratio, passer rating, wins, winning percentage, andPro Bowlhonors of the three, but cemented his legacy with his two upsetSuper Bowlvictories against theNew England Patriots'dynasty. While both Manning and Roethlisberger were part of two Super Bowl-winning teams, Manning is the only", "Manning is the only quarterback of the three to earnSuper Bowl MVPhonors, which he received in both victories. 2004 season Manning made his NFL regular season debut in Week 1 against thePhiladelphia Eagles. He came into the game toward the end the fourth quarter in relief ofKurt Warner. He finished the 31–17 loss 3-of-9 for 66 yards.Manning made his first career regular season start against theAtlanta FalconsatGiants Stadiumon November 21, 2004. In the game, Manning threw his first career touchdown on a six-yard pass toJeremy Shockeyin the third quarter.In his fourth start, against theBaltimore RavensatM&T Bank Stadiumon December 12, 2004, he ended the day with a 0.0 passer rating and was benched in the second half in favor of Warner, but remained the Giants starter through the end of the season.In Week 15, against thePittsburgh Steelers, he recorded his first multi-touchdown performance with 182 passing yards, two touchdowns, and one interception in the 33–30 loss in a duel with fellow rookie quarterback", "rookie quarterback Ben Roethlisberger.In the regular season finale, Manning passed for 144 yards, three touchdowns, and one interception in the 28–24 victory over theDallas Cowboys, getting his first win as a starter.The Giants finished with a 6–10 record and were 1–6 in games that Manning started in. He finished with 1,043 passing yards, six touchdowns, and nine interceptions. 2005 season: NFC East champions Following 2004, Warner left the Giants,and Manning was named the starter for 2005. Manning led the Giants to a 2–0 record with victories against theArizona CardinalsandNew Orleans Saints,before traveling to theWest Coastfor a test in a road game against theSan Diego Chargers. Chargers fans did not forget the snub, and on September 25, 2005, when Manning and the Giants made their first trip to San Diego for a game since that draft day, the crowd booed Manning loudly every time he touched the ball.San Diego defeated the Giants 45–23,but Manning displayed what may have been his most impressive performance", "performance of his young career, going 24-of-41 for 352 yards and two touchdowns. Manning returned home to throw for almost 300 yards and a career-high four touchdowns against theSt. Louis Ramsat Giants Stadium in a 44–24 romp.Two games later, he led a last-minute drive against theDenver Broncosto secure a 24–23 victory for the Giants.The drive culminated in a two-yard touchdown toAmani Toomerwith five seconds remaining.Two weeks later, Manning overcame a weak first half against theSan Francisco 49ersto help his team secure their first official road victory of the season, 24–6.Despite a poor performance at home against theMinnesota Vikings, throwing fourinterceptions, he again led his team back to tie the game in the final minutes before the Vikings won on a late field goal. Manning finished among the top five quarterbacks in both passing yards and touchdown passes, while leading an offense that finished third in the NFL in scoring with a total of 422 points.It was the most points the Giants scored in a", "Giants scored in a single season since1963.The Giants won theNFC Eastwith an 11–5 recordand advanced to thepostseasonas the #4-seed.In theWild Card Roundagainst theCarolina Panthers, Manning was 10-of-18 for 113 yards and three interceptions in the 23–0 loss. 2006 season Manning's second full season was reminiscent of his 2005 season. He started off playing well and completed over 65 percent of his passes through the first four games. However, he struggled in the second half of the season and his production diminished towards the end of the regular season. After losing a tough game to his brother Peyton and theIndianapolis Coltson opening day,Manning and the Giants rebounded from a 24–7 fourth quarter deficit en route to a 30–24 overtime victory over the division rivalPhiladelphia Eaglesin Week 2.Manning threw for a career-high 371 yards in the win with three touchdowns including a game-winning pass toPlaxico Burressin overtime to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week.Following a poor performance against", "performance against theSeattle Seahawksthe next week,Manning and the Giants responded by winning five straight games including wins over theWashington Redskins,Dallas CowboysandAtlanta Falcons, to push their record to 6–2. Following this winning streak, key injuries including one to wide receiver Amani Toomer pushed Manning and the Giants into a downward slide.Playing against theChicago Bears, Manning started well, but the Giants' offense was derailed by the loss of left tackleLuke Petitgoutto a broken leg.Manning was held to only 141 yards passing with two interceptions. Petitgout's loss left a gaping hole at the crucial left tackle position, and Manning was unable to repeat his first-half success.Manning struggled the next week against theJacksonville Jaguarsand the week after that, a costly interception helped to culminate a huge collapse on the road against theTennessee Titans, with the Giants seeing a 21-point fourth quarter lead simply evaporate.Manning improved the following week, throwing for 270", "throwing for 270 yards and two touchdowns against the Dallas Cowboys, but the Giants lost 23–20.Finally regaining momentum, Manning threw three touchdowns in a win on the road against theCarolina Panthers,but then he stumbled badly in the final three games. He threw two interceptions against the Philadelphia Eagles and tallied only 73 passing yards in a game against theNew Orleans Saints.Although the Giants battled back to 8–8 the following week on the road against the Washington Redskins, Manning completed only 12 of 26 passes for 101 yards and one touchdown.The Giants qualified for the postseason as the #6-seed and met the Philadelphia Eagles.Although he did significantly better in this game than the 2005 playoff game against the Carolina Panthers, completing 16 of 27 passes for 161 yards and two touchdowns, the Giants lost in theWild Card Roundon a last-second field goal by the Eagles. For the year, Manning threw for 3,244 yards, 24 touchdowns, and 18 interceptions.He completed 57.7 percent of his passes,", "of his passes, a five-point improvement from 2005, but he again struggled badly in the second half of the season. Manning finished the season with a quarterback efficiency rating of 77.0 (18th in the league) with 6.2 yards per attempt. 2007 season: Super Bowl champions Manning trained in the Meadowlands with offensive coordinatorKevin Gilbrideand new quarterbacks coach Chris Palmer prior to the 2007 regular season.For the first time ever, Plaxico Burressand Jeremy Shockeypracticed in the off-season with Manning to perfect their timing and chemistry rather than training alone inMiamias they did in previous years. 2007 regular season Manning opened the 2007 season with an outstanding personal performance against theDallas Cowboys, completing 28 of 41 passing attempts for 312 yards, four touchdowns, and an interception in New York's 45–35 loss.However, he suffered a shoulder sprainand was removed from the game late in the second half. Although he did play against theGreen Bay Packersin Week 2 while throwing for", "while throwing for 211 yards with one touchdown,the Giants defense performed poorly again and the team dropped to 0–2 with Green Bay winning, 35–13.In week three, Manning got a come-from-behind victory as the Giants defense improved, pitching a shutout in the second half and stopping theWashington Redskinson a fourth and goal situation, winning the game 24–17.The Giants defense then shut down thePhiladelphia Eagleswith an NFL record-tying 12sacks,holding the Eagles offense to one field goal. The Giants won with a score of 16–3.The following week, Manning overcame a dismal first half to throw for two second-half scoresin a 35–24 win over their in-city rivals, theNew York Jets. Following two straight home victories, Manning and the Giants obtained their fourth consecutive victory with a 31–10 defeat of theAtlanta Falconsin theGeorgia DomeonMonday Night Football.Manning performed well, completing 27 of 39 passes for 303 yards along with a pair of touchdowns while giving away two interceptions.Behind a dominant", "a dominant defensive effort, the Giants improved to 5–2 the next week with a 33–15 win over theSan Francisco 49ers.Manning played well again, throwing for two touchdowns in the effort. In week 8, the Giants played a road game against theMiami Dolphinson October 28, 2007, in London'sWembley Stadium.Manning only threw for 59 yards in the rain and mud, but he scored the Giants' only touchdown on a 10-yard run.This touchdown was the first in an NFL regular season game that was played outside of North America. The Giants defeated the Dolphins, 13–10, bringing the Giants to a 6–2 record at the mid-way point of the 2007 season.After losing to their division rivals the Dallas Cowboys in Week 9,New York Giants co-ownerJohn Marapublicly questioned Manning's ability to lead the Giants in 2007, but more importantly, in the future: The only thing we evaluate is 'Can we win with this guy?' That's the one thing. When we talk about any player at the end of the season, the No.1 question is 'Will he help us win?' And to take", "win?' And to take it one step further, 'Can we win a championship with this guy?' After a week of criticism in the New York media and being outplayed by Cowboys quarterbackTony Romo, Manning had a bounce-back victory against their conference Wild Card competitors theDetroit Lions.Manning threw for 283 yards and one touchdown but most importantly, no interceptions in a critical road game. The following week in a 41–17 loss to theMinnesota Vikings, Manning threw four interceptions and had three of them returned for touchdowns.He continued to struggle until the last game of the season,against the 15–0New England Patriots. With a playoff spot secured, the Giants could have rested their starters for the playoffs, but they instead chose to keep in the regulars and attempt to stop New England's quest for an undefeated regular season.The Giants lost 38–35, with Manning completing 22 of 32 passes for 252 yards, with four touchdowns and one interception. 2007 playoffs The Giants entered the playoffs as the #5-seed.On", "as the #5-seed.On January 6, 2008, in theWild Card Round, Manning went 20-of-27 for 185 yards playing on the road against theTampa Bay Buccaneers. The underdog Giants won 24–14, and Manning had two touchdown passes. On January 13, 2008, in theDivisional RoundManning led the Giants to an upset victory over the heavily favored Dallas Cowboys, the number one seed in theNFC.For the third straight game, Manning played well, completing 12 of 18 passes for 163 yards and two touchdowns with no interceptions.The Giants were the first team to beat an NFC number one seed in the Divisional Round since the start of the 12-team format in 1990.This victory secured anNFC Championshipberth against the Green Bay Packers on January 20, 2008. In the NFC Championship, the Giants beat the Packers in overtime, with a score of 23–20 in one of the coldest postseason games in NFL history.The dramatic victory secured Manning and the Giants a trip toSuper Bowl XLII.This was the first Super Bowl appearance for the New York Giants", "the New York Giants sinceSuper Bowl XXXVin 2001. Super Bowl XLII In front of a record-setting American television audienceand on the strength of a late fourth quarter drive led by Manning, the Giants beat the 12.5 point-favored, undefeated New England Patriots 17–14. Manning takes the snap, back to throw, under pressure, avoids the rush and he's gonna...fight out of it, still fights out of it, now throws it deep down field, wide open Tyree who... MAKES THE CATCH! AT THE 24-YARD LINE! What a play by Manning! Trailing 14–10 with 2:42 remaining, Manning led the Giants 83 yards on a game-winning touchdown drive. On a crucial third-and-5 at the Giants' 44-yard line, Manning connected withDavid Tyreeon a play in which he avoided severalsacksand Tyreecaught the ball off his helmetfor a large gain. Four plays later, Plaxico Burress caught a 13-yard touchdown pass with just 35 seconds remaining for the winning margin.Manning became only the second quarterback in NFL history to throw two go-ahead fourth quarter", "fourth quarter touchdowns in a Super Bowl (Joe Montanabeing the first inSuper Bowl XXIIIin 1989).Manning also became the first quarterback to throw a last-minute, championship-winning touchdown in the NFL title game (including the pre-Super Bowl era) when a field goal would not at least tie the game. Manning was named the Most Valuable Player of Super Bowl XLII.He and his brother Peyton are the only brother combination to play at quarterback in the Super Bowl and the only set of brothers to win Super Bowl MVP, doing so in successive years. For winning Super Bowl MVP, he was given his choice of any 2008 modelCadillac, and Manning chose anEscaladeHybrid.The Wednesday following the Super Bowl he appeared on theLate Show with David Letterman. 2008 season: NFC East champions Manning and the Giants opened the 2008 season with a win over their division rivals, theWashington Redskins, 16–7.Manning completed 19 passes of 35 for 216 yards, and had one rushing touchdown and one interception. Post-match, he said: \"It", "he said: \"It was a great opening to the season. There was a lot of emotion, a lot of excitement. You could feel it in the crowd.\"In the Giants' next game, against theSt. Louis Rams, they won again, 41–13, behind a stellar Manning performance.Manning finished the game with 20 completions, 260 yards passing and threw three touchdowns to three different receivers.The victory also marked the team's fourth straight victory over the Rams. The following week, Manning rallied the Giants to more fourth-quarter magic, overcoming a late deficit to throw the go-ahead touchdown pass to tight endKevin Boss, and then in overtime, throwing a clutch 31-yard pass to Amani Toomer in the Giants' 26–23 win overCincinnati Bengals.The fourth week of the season saw the Giants score on each of their first six possessions and dominate theSeattle Seahawks, 44–6. Manning threw for two touchdowns, completing 19 of 25 passes for 267 yards as the Giants totaled 523 yards on offense, their most since 2002. Following a poor team performance", "team performance in a 35–14 loss on the road against theCleveland Browns,Manning and the Giants responded with a 29–17 win over the 49ers and battled to a hard earned 21–14 win over thePittsburgh Steelersat Pittsburgh'sHeinz Field.Manning completed 19 of 32 passes for 199 yards and one touchdown in the crucial win, which pushed the Giants to a 6–1 record.The following week, the Giants beat theDallas Cowboysat home 35–14 to get to 7–1 at the midway point of the regular season. Manning threw three touchdowns in the game.New York improved to 8–1 with a 36–31 win on the road against thePhiladelphia Eagles. Manning threw two touchdowns in the victory, but the crucial play occurred in the third quarter. With the Giants trailing by four, Manning appeared to make an illegal forward pass to tight end Boss. After review, it was determined that the pass was legal. The Giants scored a touchdown two plays later.Week nine pitted the Giants in a battle with the visitingBaltimore Ravens. The Ravens had come into the game", "come into the game with the league's third-ranked defense; nevertheless, Manning led the Giants to a decisive 30–10 victory, improving to 9–1, which included a 200-yard rushing effort by running backsBrandon Jacobs,Derrick WardandAhmad Bradshaw.Two weeks later, the Giants faced the Redskins at Washington in their second encounter in the season. Manning threw his first 300-yard game of the season going 21-of-34 with an interception and a 40-yard touchdown pass to Toomer. The Giants beat the Redskins 23–7.In November, Manning was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Month. For the month, Manning threw for 1,036 yards and ten touchdowns, and compiled a 94.9 passer rating while leading the Giants to a perfect 5–0 record. Manning was named to his firstPro Bowlon December 16, making him the first Giants quarterback to earn the honor sincePhil Simmsin 1993.In week 15, Manning and the Giants visitedTexas Stadium, where Tony Romo battled through a lower back contusion and connected with nine different receivers,", "receivers, finishing 20-of-30 for 244 yards and two touchdowns leading the Dallas Cowboys to a 20–8 victory. In week 16 against theCarolina Pantherswith NFC homefield advantage on the line, Manning had a passing day of 17 of 27 for 181 yards and no interceptions. Manning led the Giants back from deficits of 21–10 and 28–20 to tie the game with just over three minutes left, including a bullet pass toDomenik Hixonfor a key two-point conversion to tie the game at 28. The game was played in freezing conditions. After becoming the No. 1 seed in the NFC with a 12–4 record, the Giants had a first playoff round bye week and homefield advantage through the rest of the playoffs.In theDivisional Round, they faced their archrival Philadelphia Eagles at Giants Stadium with its signature windy conditions. Philadelphia went on to win the game 23–11. Manning completed 15 out of 29 passes for 169 yards with no touchdowns and two interceptions. 2009 season On August 5, 2009, he signed a six-yearUS$97.5million contract", "contract extension. Manning and the Giants started the 2009 season with a 3–0 record.In Week 4, the Giants played theKansas City Chiefs. Manning was playing well up until the start of the fourth quarter when on a play-action fake, he injured his heel while passing downfield toSteve Smith. He stayed in for the next play completing a 54-yard touchdown toHakeem Nicks. It was discovered that Manning hadplantar fasciitis(inflammation of connective tissue within the soles of the feet) and there was speculation he would not play against theOakland Raidersin Week 5.However, in Week 5, Manning played well, completing eight of ten passes for 173 yards and two touchdowns with the Giants winning 44–7. This was the first time in his career that Manning had a posted a perfectpasser rating. After this five-game winning streak, the Giants fell to a four-game losing streak, losing to theNew Orleans Saints, theArizona Cardinals, thePhiladelphia Eaglesand theSan Diego Chargers, before winning again after a bye week on Week 11", "bye week on Week 11 when they played theAtlanta Falcons, winning 34–31 in overtime. Against the Falcons, Manning posted a career-high 384 passing yards with three touchdowns and one interception. OnThanksgiving, the Giants traveled toDenverto play theDenver Broncoswhere they lost 26–6. Manning completed 24 of 40 passes for 230 yards, with no touchdowns and an interception.In Week 14, they played their divisional rivals, the Philadelphia Eagles, and lost 45–38, where it was a close game from the start. Manning passed for a career-high 391 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions but was not able to win the game.Next week, onMonday Night Football, Manning and the Giants dominated theWashington Redskins, winning the game 45–12. The next week, in the final game in Giants Stadium, Manning and the Giants lost 41–9 against theCarolina Panthers. The Giants did not fare better the next week on the road against theMinnesota Vikingsin the final regular season game, losing 44–7 while down 38 points in the fourth", "in the fourth quarter.After the games, Manning apologized to the fans for the team's performance.The Giants finished the 2009 season with an 8–8 record and missed the playoffs. Manning ended the 2009 season with career highs including 4,021 passing yards, 27 touchdowns, a 62.3 completion percentage rating, and a passer rating of 93.1. 2010 season On August 16 during a preseason game against theNew York Jets, Manning was hit by Brandon Jacobs, then byCalvin Pace, which knocked off his helmet, then went face first into Jim Leonhard's face mask.As a result, Manning had a large gash that needed 12 stitches, and he left the game. Manning and the Giants started the 2010 season with a 1–2 start followed by a five-game winning streak. In Week 15, he had 289 passing yards, four touchdowns, and one interception in the38–31 lossto thePhiladelphia Eagles.In Week 16, Manning connected on with Mario Manningham on a then-career-high 85-yard receiving touchdown in a 45–17 loss to theGreen Bay Packers.The mark was broken the", "mark was broken the next week when Manning completed a 92-yard passing touchdown to Manningham in the 17–14 victory over theWashington Redskins.The Giants ended the2010 NFL seasonwith a 10–6 record.Manning led the Giants to a 17–14 win in the last game of the season against the Redskins, however, because of the Packers' 10–3 win over theChicago Bears, the Giants did not make the playoffs.He ended the season with 4,002 yards, a career-high 31 touchdowns, but also a career-high 25 interceptions, which marked the most by a quarterback in the 2010 season, and a 62.5 completion percentage. 2011 season: Second Super Bowl championship In August 2011, Manning generated mild controversy in the sports media during a radio interview onThe Michael Kay Show. When asked by hostMichael Kaywhether he was an elite \"Top 10, Top 5\" quarterback in the same class as Tom Brady, he responded: I consider myself in that class. Tom Brady is a great quarterback... I think now he's grown up and gotten better every year and that's what", "and that's what I'm trying to do. I kind of hope these next seven years of my quarterback days are my best. Manning received criticism for the quote for trying to inflate his own status and skills, with critics pointing out his past inconsistent stats, including his 25 interceptions in the previous season, as evidence contradicting his claims.However, Manning also received support for his comments from Giants coach Tom Coughlin, and teammates such as wide receiver Hakeem Nicks.Later in the season, Dallas Cowboys defensive coordinatorRob Ryancommented on the quote, agreeing with Manning that he was an elite quarterback \"for sure.\" 2011 regular season The Giants opened the 2011 season with a slow start, losing to the rivalWashington Redskins28–14– in an emotional game for both fanbases on the 10th anniversary of theSeptember 11 attacks.Manning completed 18 of 32 passes for 268 yards but threw a costly interception in the third quarter to linebackerRyan Kerrigan, who returned it for a touchdown and swung the", "and swung the momentum of the game.However, the Giants recovered and won their next three games, including over the arch-rivalPhiladelphia Eagles, where he had 254 passing yards and four touchdowns in the 29–16 victory to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week.During this streak, Manning improved, throwing for 266 yards per game with eight total touchdowns and one interception. After a 6–2 start, including a 24–20 last-minute comeback by Manning over theNew England Patriotsthat evoked comparisons to Super Bowl XLII,the Giants entered a tough stretch of their schedule, facing off against theSan Francisco 49ers, theNew Orleans Saintsand theGreen Bay Packers, the respective eventual NFC West, South and North champions. The Giants lost all three games as well as falling to the Philadelphia Eagles at home, leading them into a four-game skid and once again putting their postseason hopes in jeopardy. However, unlike the previous three seasons, the Giants finished strong, winning three of their last four games. This", "four games. This included a key win over their crosstown rivalNew York Jets, where Manning tied an NFL record by completing a 99-yard touchdown pass toVictor Cruz,as well as a sweep of their fellow division rivalDallas Cowboys. In the final regular-season game against the Dallas Cowboys, Manning threw for 346 yards and three touchdowns, giving the Giants the win, the NFC East title, and a playoff berth for the first time in three years.He earned a Pro Bowl nomination for his performance in the 2011 season.He threw for at least 400 yards in three separate games, setting a new franchise record. 2011 playoffs The Giants entered the 2011 postseason as underdogs, with the worst record of any NFC playoff team.However, Manning and his team would once again demonstrate their endurance and durability late in the year. The Giants first easily routed theAtlanta Falcons24–2 in theWild Card Roundand then stunned the defending Super Bowl champions and top-seeded Green Bay Packers in theDivisional Roundto advance to the", "advance to the NFC Championship Game.In the win, Manning completed 21 out of 33 attempts and threw three touchdowns and one interception.The following week, the Giants avenged their regular season loss to the San Francisco 49ers with a dramatic 20–17 overtime win in theNFC Championship Game.In the game, Manning set franchise playoff records with 32 completions on 52 attempts, good enough for 316 yards and two touchdowns despite being sacked a franchise-record-tying six times.This victory secured Manning and the Giants a second trip in five years to the Super Bowl, setting up a highly anticipated Super Bowl XLII rematch againstTom Bradyand the New England Patriots. The Giants also made history as the first Super Bowl team ever outscored in the regular season (394 points scored, 400 points allowed). Super Bowl XLVI In the most-watched program in the history ofUnited States television,Manning once again led the Giants to an upset victory over the2+1⁄2-point-favored Patriots 21–17, his second Super Bowl win and", "Super Bowl win and the fourth overall for the franchise. I was yelling to , \"Don't score, don't score\", Manning said. \"He tried to stop, but he fell into the end zone.\" While trailing the Patriots 15–17 in the final minutes, Manning led the Giants 88 yards down the field to a touchdown that many observers described as \"accidental\".With just over a minute of time left in the game, the Giants called a running play and Manning handed off the ball to Ahmad Bradshaw with the hopes of stopping short of the goal line and forcing the Patriots to use their final time out, thus allowing the Giants to run out the clock. The Patriots, in turn, did not attempt to tackle Bradshaw in his run, and he then fell over the goal line despite making an attempt to stop. However, the remaining time was not enough for Patriots quarterback Tom Brady to lead a comeback and the Giants held onto the lead to win. Manning was again named the Most Valuable Player ofSuper Bowl XLVI, becoming the third quarterback in a row to win the", "in a row to win the award.The Giants also became the first team ever with fewer than ten wins in a 16-game regular season to win the Super Bowl.Manning also became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for 4,900+ yards and win a Super Bowl in the same season. The Giants were the first team with a running game ranked last (32nd) and a defense ranked as low as 27th to win a Super Bowl. For winning the Super Bowl, Manning and the Giants received a victory parade inManhattanand were honored with symbolic keys to the city byMayorMichael Bloomberg.He was ranked 31st by his fellow players on theNFL Top 100 Players of 2012. 2012 season The Giants endured a disappointing season following their Super Bowl run in 2011.Manning led the Giants to a 6–2 record to begintheir season, including a career-best 510 passing yards to go along with three passing touchdowns and three interceptions in a Week 2 41–34 win over theTampa Bay Buccaneers. He finished second only to Phil Simms's game with 513 passing yards in 1985", "yards in 1985 for the franchise record.However, Manning averaged an anemic 204 yards per game and 74.3 passer rating from Week 8 to Week 16, including his lowest rating in five years (38.9) in a 34–0 loss to theAtlanta Falconsin Week 15.He ended the2012 seasonon a high note, throwing a career-high fivetouchdown passeswhile completing 13 of 21 pass attempts and passing for 208 yards with nointerceptions, in a 42–7 Giants win over thePhiladelphia Eagles.He finished the season with 26 touchdown passes, 15 interceptions and 3,948passing yards.As was typical for this phase of his career (2012–2016), Manning was exceptionally well-protected by his offensive line; he was sacked just 19 times for a league-lowest 3.4% of passing plays.Although the Giants did not qualify for the playoffs with a 9–7 season, Manning was selected to his thirdPro Bowlas a second alternate.He was ranked 43rd by his fellow players on theNFL Top 100 Players of 2013. 2013 season Manning started the 2013 season off with 450 passing yards, four", "passing yards, four touchdowns and three interceptions in a 36–31 loss to theDallas Cowboys.Manning set a franchise record for most passing yards in a season opener, breaking Phil Simms's mark of 409 passing yards in the 1984 regular season opener.The loss was a sign of things to come as the Giants started the season with a 0–6 record, their worst regular season start since 1976.He threw 12 interceptions in his first five games. Manning fell to 0–3 against his older brother, Peyton in Week 2's 41–23 loss to theDenver Broncos. He was 28 of 39 for 362 yards, but was intercepted four times.Manning's four interceptions tied his career high and was the fourth time he threw four interceptions in a game. The game between Peyton and Eli was the final professional meeting of the two brothers. In Week 15, Manning threw for 156 yards and a career-high five interceptions in a 23–0 loss to theSeattle Seahawks.Manning ended the season with a career-high 27 interceptions, which were the most in one season by a quarterback", "by a quarterback sinceBrett Favrehad 29 in 2005.The Giants finished the season 7–9, their first losing record since Manning's rookie year in 2004. Manning passed Phil Simms to become the franchise's all-time leader in yards passing. Simms, who played 14 seasons with the Giants, finished his career with 33,462 yards in the air. 2014 season After an 0–2 start, the Giants won three straight games but subsequently lost their next seven games including a 16–10 loss to theSan Francisco 49ersin a game where Manning threw five interceptions, which tied his career high.The Giants won three of their last four games to end the season with a 6–10 record.Among Manning's highlights from the losing season was a Week 17 game where he had 429 passing yards, one touchdown and one interception in a 34–26 loss to thePhiladelphia Eagles.Manning finished the season with 30 touchdown passes, 14 interceptions and 4,410 passing yards. 2015 season A few days before the Giants' regular season opener against theDallas Cowboys, Manning", "Cowboys, Manning signed a four-year, US$84million extension with the Giants.In Week 5, he had a franchise-record 41 completions for 441 passing yards, three touchdowns and one interception, in a 30–27 victory over theSan Francisco 49ersto earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week.Through six games, he led the Giants to a 3–3 record and a tie for first place in the NFC East. In Week 8, Manning threw a career-high six touchdowns and 350 yards, but the Giants lost to theNew Orleans Saints, 52–49.He became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for six touchdowns and no interceptions in a game and lose.In Week 10, in a narrow 27–26 loss to the undefeatedNew England Patriots, Manning passed for 361 yards and two touchdowns, one of which was an 87-yard strike toOdell Beckham Jr.in the first quarter.In Week 14, in a 31–24 victory over theMiami Dolphins, he was 27-of-31 for 337 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn NFC Offensive Player of the Week.After starting the season 5–5, Giants fell to 1–5 the rest of", "to 1–5 the rest of the way to finish 6–10 for the second straight season.Manning's longtime coach inTom Coughlinstepped down at the end of the season. Manning finished the 2015 season with career highs in touchdown passes (35), completions (387), attempts (618) and passer rating (93.6).His 35 touchdowns were one shy of tyingY. A. Tittlefor most in a single season in franchise history and ranked tied for second among quarterbacks that year.Manning also threw 4,432 yards in 2015, second most in his career. On January 22, 2016, Manning was selected to his fourth career Pro Bowl, replacing Ben Roethlisberger.Manning's fourth Pro Bowl berth tiesFran Tarkentonfor most Pro Bowl selections by a New York Giants quarterback in franchise history.He was ranked 47th by his fellow players on theNFL Top 100 Players of 2016. 2016 season: Return to the playoffs Manning had a new head coach inBen McAdoofor the 2016 season.Manning and the Giants started the 2016 season with a 2–3 record over the first five games. In the next", "games. In the next game, a 27–23 victory over theBaltimore Ravens, Manning threw for three touchdowns, reaching a career total of 302 touchdown passes and passing John Elway for seventh all time. Coming off a bye week and on a two-game winning streak, beating the Ravens and theLos Angeles Rams, Manning threw a season-high four touchdowns as the Giants would halt a last-second game-winning drive by thePhiladelphia Eaglesto win 28–23.In a Week 16 loss against the Eagles on December 22, Manning set a franchise record with 63 pass attempts in a single game, while throwing one touchdown and three interceptions, surpassing Peyton Manning's record of 21 games with at least three interceptions with 22.Despite the loss, though, theTampa Bay Buccaneerslost to theNew Orleans Saintslater that week 31–24, giving the Giants their first playoff berth since the 2011 season, when the team last won the Super Bowl. By defeating the rivalWashington Redskinsin the final week of the NFL season on New Year's Day and, therefore,", "Day and, therefore, knocking the Redskins out of playoff contention and bringing their season record to 11–5 (their first winning season since 2012), Manning and the Giants faced theGreen Bay PackersinLambeau Fieldin theWild Card Roundof the NFL playoffs, as Manning completed 23 of 44 of his passes for 299 yards, while throwing for a touchdown.Manning was back to his playoff self in the game, but was let down by numerous drops by Odell Beckham Jr., and other star playmakers.The Packers would eventually rout the Giants 38–13, ending the Giants' season.Manning finished the season recording 4,027 passing, 26 touchdowns and 16 interceptions, with an 86.0 passer rating. On February 4, 2017, Manning and Cardinals wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald both won theWalter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award, making it the first time since the 2006 season that two players were co-winners of this award (Drew BreesandLaDainian Tomlinson). 2017 season Manning and the Giants started the 2017 season with five consecutive losses.The", "losses.The Giants broke their losing streak with a 23–10 victory over theDenver Broncosin Week 6.The success was short-lived as the Giants lost the next game to theSeattle Seahawksby a score of 24–7 to set off a three-game losing streak.During Week 9 against theLos Angeles Rams, he became the seventh quarterback to reach 50,000 passing yards.On November 28, after a 2–9 start to the season, it was announced that Manning would be benched and replaced byGeno Smithin Week 13 against theOakland Raiders, ending Manning's streak of 210 consecutive regular-season games started. The streak was second all-time for quarterbacks behind Brett Favre's 297.Head coach Ben McAdoo gave Manning the option of starting to keep the streak going but Manning declined, stating that \"My feeling is that if you are going to play the other guys, play them. Starting just to keep the streak going and knowing you won't finish the game and have a chance to win it is pointless to me, and it tarnishes the streak.\"The move was met with", "move was met with backlash from former Giants players and coaches.On December 5, two days after the Week 13 game, Manning was renamed the starter by interim head coachSteve Spagnuolo, after McAdoo was fired as head coach.During Week 15 against thePhiladelphia Eagles, Manning finished with 434 passing yards, three touchdowns and an interception. The Giants lost 34–29, allowing the Eagles to clinch a first-round bye.On December 24, against theArizona Cardinals, Manning passed John Elway to take sole possession of sixth place on the NFL's all-time passing yard list.Manning started the regular-season finale against theWashington Redskins. In the 18–10 victory, he had 132 passing yards, one touchdown and one interception, as the Giants ended their disappointing season with a 3–13 record. 2018 season Following speculation that Manning would be released, new Giants head coachPat Shurmurput these rumors aside by saying \"I think what's important is we have a guy here who has helped this organization win Super Bowls.", "win Super Bowls. He's an outstanding player and I'm really looking forward to working with him.\" After losses to theJacksonville JaguarsandDallas Cowboysto the start the season, Manning and the Giants defeated theHouston Texansby a score of 27–22. Manning was efficient, going 25-of-29 for 297 passing yards and two touchdowns.The Giants lost the next five games, with Manning leading the leagues in sacks for most of that stretch despite an improved running game from rookieSaquon Barkley.Manning had 399 passing yards against theAtlanta Falcons, the fourth of these losses, but was sacked seven times and threw two interceptions in the following game against theWashington Redskins.Manning rebounded with three touchdowns and no interceptions in the following week's 27–23 victory over theSan Francisco 49ers, and 17 completions on 18 attempts for two touchdowns in a 38–35 win the following week over theTampa Bay Buccaneers.The Giants went 4–4 over the last eight games of the season to finish 5–11 and last in the NFC", "and last in the NFC East.Manning passed for 4,299 yards, 21 touchdowns and 11 interceptions in the 2018 season. 2019 season: Final year The 2019 season was Manning's last remaining year on his contract. While the Giants had the option to release Manning in the offseason and save $17 million in both cash and cap space, the team opted to keep him on their roster.However, neither side held any discussions for a contract extension, causing doubt for Manning's future as the Giants' franchise quarterback beyond the upcoming season.The team selected quarterbackDaniel Jonesin the first round ofthat year's draft, which many saw as the Giants selecting Manning's successor while further cementing his own lame-duck status in the position. Manning was informed of the Giants' decision during their draft selection. Despite the pick, general managerDave Gettlemansaid \"the goal is for Eli to be our quarterback\", while head coach Shurmur told Manning \"it's your job to win games and keep off the field\". Being on the Giants'", "on the Giants' roster meant that it would be Manning's 16th season with the team, marking a franchise record for the longest tenure for any player in its 94-year history.Manning started the Giants' first two games of the season, losses to theDallas Cowboysand theBuffalo Bills.On September 17, 2019, the Giants announced that Manning would not start the team's Week 3 game against theTampa Bay Buccaneers, instead opting for Jones. This was thought to be the end of Manning's time as the Giants' starting quarterback. Due to an ankle injury suffered by Jones during Week 13 against theGreen Bay Packers, Manning returned to the starting lineup the next week on December 9 against thePhiladelphia Eagles.During the game, Manning threw for 203 yards and two touchdowns to rookie wide receiverDarius Slayton, but the game ended in a 23–17 overtime loss for the Giants.As the game was televised onMonday Night Football, it marked Manning's final primetime appearance.In the following week's game against theMiami Dolphinsat", "theMiami Dolphinsat home, Manning started again and threw for 283 yards, two touchdowns and three interceptions, leading the team to a 36–20 win.As the game ended, Manning was taken off the field and received a standing ovation from fans who believed this was his final home game as the starting quarterback.Jones returned to action in Week 16 and finished out the season. Manning finished the year with 1,042 passing yards, six touchdowns and five interceptions in four games, as the Giants finished the season 4–12. With his contract expiring at the end of the season, Manning was set to become a free agent for the first time in his career. When discussing his future plans, Manning stated that he did not wish to be a backup quarterback or pursue coaching opportunities with the team, as he felt he served both roles throughout the year and did not enjoy either one of them. Regardless, he said he would weigh his options for the upcoming season, stating \"I think I can still play\".During a radio interview weeks later,", "weeks later, team co-ownerJohn Marasaid that the Giants would welcome back Manning the next year as a backup quarterback or in a front-office role, but that newly hired head coachJoe Judgewould need to give his approval to include Manning on the roster. Retirement and honors On January 22, 2020, Manning announced his retirement, with an official press conference scheduled for January 24.John Mara stated during the press conference that Manning would be inducted into the Giants Ring of Honor in 2020 and that Manning's number 10 jersey would beretired. Manning rejoined the Giants in 2021 in a business operations and fan engagement role, according to the team. His jersey retirement and induction into theGiants' Ring of Honortook place on September 26, 2021, at halftime of the Giants-Atlanta Falconsgame atMetlife Stadium.In 2021, he was named to the Louisiana High School Sports Hall of Fame.He will be eligible forHall of Fameinduction in 2025. \"The Manning Bowl\" Peyton and Eli Manning played against each other", "against each other three times in the regular season during their professional careers. These encounters were colloquially dubbed \"The Manning Bowl\",and Peyton's teams, twice with theColtsand once with theBroncos, held a 3–0 record over Eli and theNew York Giants. The first Manning Bowl was held on September 10, 2006, and Peyton'sColtsdefeated Eli'sGiantsby a score of 26–21.The second Manning Bowl was held on September 19, 2010, with Peyton and theColtsbeating Eli'sGiantsagain by a score of 38–14.The third and final Manning Bowl was held on September 15, 2013, and Peyton and theBroncosbeat Eli'sGiants41–23.They faced each other in twoPro Bowls, in 2009 and 2013, both won by the NFC.However, they never faced each other in the playoffs as both always played in separate conferences and never made the Super Bowl at the same time. Post-playing career Eli and Peyton Manning joinedESPNas an NFL analyst for the 2021 season, calling nine games during the season on an alternate broadcast called theManningcast.The show", "show features segments with special guest stars from entertainment, politics, and sports while the Manning brothers watch the game.In addition, he currently hosts \"Eli's Places\" forESPN+, where he \"travel to some of the most well-known and historic college football establishments and meet with giants in the sport to better understand what makes college football such a national sensation.\"He also received a nickname \"Human Carbon Monoxide\" or HCM fromThe Rockdue to him not having a nickname unlike his brother Peyton \"The Sheriff\" Manning and Dwayne \"The Rock\" Johnson. NFL career statistics Regular season Postseason Awards and accolades Records NFL New York Giants franchise records Other ventures Eli co-starred with his brother Peyton in ads forNFLShop.comandOreo. Eli is a spokesman forCitizen Watch Co.,Toyotaof New Jersey, andReebok.He reportedly received several more endorsement offers after reachingSuper Bowl XLII. On May 5, 2012, Eli hostedNBC'sSaturday Night Live(season 37, episode 20), with musical", "20), with musical guestRihanna. His brother Peyton hosted the show five years earlier. Eli began hosting The Eli Manning show in 2021 on the New York Giant's YouTube channel. The show has featured interviews with celebrity guests such asDerek Jeter,Tracy Morgan, andBill Murray. In 2022, he went undercover as \"Chad Powers\" and participated inPenn State University footballtryouts as a walk-on, which was filmed as part of an ESPN project. Personal life In 2007, he proposed to Abby McGrew ofNashville, Tennessee.McGrew worked in fashion in New York City,and has been with Manning since their days at the University of Mississippi.The couple wed in a private ceremony held inSan José del Cabo, Mexico, on April 19, 2008.Manning and Abby have three daughters and a son.They reside inSummit, New Jersey. Eli and Peyton Manning volunteered in the wake ofHurricane Katrina. The Mannings assisted in the delivery of 30,000 pounds (14,000 kg) of water, Gatorade, baby formula, pumice, and pillows to the people of New", "the people of New Orleans.After touring theUniversity of Mississippi Medical Center's Blair E. Batson Hospital for Children, he undertook a five-year campaign in 2007 to raise US$2.5million for the construction of \"The Eli Manning Children's Clinics\" at the children's hospital. Manning said in 2007, \"I am humbled by the work they do and am honored to make this five-year commitment to help raise funds to build this state-of-the-art clinic that will serve Mississippi families for years to come.\" His father, Archie Manning, has also raised funds for Katrina relief efforts. In 2009, Eli, Peyton, and Archie Manning co-authored a children's book entitledFamily Huddle, which describes in simple text and pictures how the three Manning brothers played football as young boys (Scholastic Press; illustrations by Jim Madsen).In 2010, Manning helped raise funds for awareness of theDeepwater Horizon oil spill, in wake of the catastrophe. Since 2008, Manning has been the host ofGuiding Eyes for the Blind's Golf Classic, the", "Golf Classic, the oldest and largest charity golf event inWestchester County, New York. Guiding Eyes is a nonprofit guide dog school serving the blind and visually impaired from around the world, as well as children on the autism spectrum. He is a former member of thePresident's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. In 2014, Manning was sued inNew Jersey Superior Courtbysports memorabiliacollectors who alleged that Manning and others conspired to sell them fraudulent memorabilia. Pretrial discovery included emails from Manning to Giants equipment manager Joe Skiba requesting \"helmets that can pass as game-used.\" The suit alleged those helmets were eventually sold to the plaintiffs as game-used helmets. In May 2018, the suit was settled under confidential terms. According to lawyer and journalistMichael McCann, Manning settled before trial in order to avoid damage to his marketability as an endorser and discipline from the NFL. In 2016, Manning was part of the 14th Annual BTIG Commissions for Charity Day,", "for Charity Day, which was a fundraiser for hundreds of charities. In August 2022, Manning joined the ownership group of theNWSL'sNJ/NY Gotham FC. See also References External links" ]
Who lit the Olympic cauldron in the Summer Games immediately following the release of Van Halen's sixth studio album?
Rafer Johnson lit the Olympic cauldron for the 1984 Summer Olympics, which began July 28, 1984, six months after the release of 1984 (stylized in Roman numerals as MCMLXXXIV), Van Halen's sixth studio album.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_(Van_Halen_album)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Halen_discography
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['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_(Van_Halen_album)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Halen_discography']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_(Van_Halen_album", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_Summer_Olympics", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Halen_discography" ]
[ "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_(Van_Halen_album", "1984 Summer Olympics The1984 Summer Olympics(officially theGames of the XXIII Olympiadand commonly known asLos Angeles 1984) were an internationalmulti-sport eventheld from July 28 to August 12, 1984, inLos Angeles,California, United States. It marked the second time that Los Angeles had hosted the Games, the first being in1932. This was the first of two consecutive Olympic Games to be held in North America withCalgary,Alberta, Canada hosting the1988 Winter Olympics.California was the home state of the incumbentU.S. PresidentRonald Reagan, who officially opened the Games. These were the first Summer Olympic Games under theIOC presidencyofJuan Antonio Samaranch. The1984 Games were boycottedby fourteenEastern Bloccountries, including the Soviet Union and East Germany, in response to theAmerican-led boycottof the1980 Summer OlympicsinMoscow,Russia, in protest of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan;Romaniawas the only Soviet-aligned state that opted to attend the Games. Albania, Iran andLibyaalso chose to boycott the Games, but for unrelated reasons. Despite the field being depleted in certain sports due to the boycott, 140National Olympic Committeestook part in the 1984 Games, a record number at the time.TheUnited Stateswon the most gold and overall medals, followed byRomaniaandWest Germany. The 1984 Summer Olympics are widely considered to be the most financially successful modern Olympics,serving as an example on how to run an Olympic Games. As a result of low construction costs, due to the use of existing sport infrastructure, coupled with a reliance on private corporatefunding,the 1984 Games generated a profit of overUS$250 million. On July 18, 2009, a 25th anniversary celebration of the 1984 Games was held at theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The celebration included a speech by former Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee presidentPeter Ueberroth, as well as a re-enactment of the lighting of the Olympic cauldron. Los Angeles will host the Summer Olympics for the third time in2028. Host selection After theterrorist attackat the1972 Summer Olympics, the significant financial debts ofMontreal (1976), and various boycotts by National Olympic Committees, few cities by the late 1970s were willing to bid for the Summer Olympics. Only two cities (Tehranand Los Angeles) made serious bids for the 1984 Summer Games, but before the final selection of a winning city in 1978, the bid from Tehran was withdrawn in June 1975. Hence, the selection process for the 1984 Summer Olympics consisted of a single finalized bid from Los Angeles, which theInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) accepted. The selection was officially made at the 80th IOC Session inAthenson May 18, 1978. Los Angeles had unsuccessfully bid for the two previous Summer Olympic Games (1976 and 1980, which went toMontrealandMoscow, respectively). TheUnited States Olympic Committee(USOC) had submitted at least one bid for every Olympics since1944but had not succeeded since theLos Angeles Olympics in 1932, the previous time only a single bid had been issued for the Summer Olympics. Torch relay The 1984 Olympic Torch Relay began in New York City and ended in Los Angeles, traversing 33 states and the District of Columbia. Unlike later torch relays, the torch was continuously carried by runners on foot. The route covered more than 9,320 mi (15,000 km) and involved 3,636 runners. Noted athleteO. J. Simpsonwas among the runners, carrying the torch up theCalifornia InclineinSanta Monica. Gina Hemphill, a granddaughter ofJesse Owens, carried the torch into the Coliseum, completed a lap around the track, then handed it off to the final runner,Rafer Johnson, winner of thedecathlonat the1960 Summer Olympics. With the torch, he touched off the flame which passed through a specially designed flammable Olympic logo, igniting all five rings. Johnson became the first person of African descent to light the cauldron in Olympic history.The flame then passed up to the cauldron atop the peristyle and remained aflame for the duration of the Games. Music John Williamscomposed the theme for the Olympiad, \"Los Angeles Olympic Theme\" later also known as \"Olympic Fanfare and Theme\". This piece won aGrammyfor Williams and became one of the most well-known musical themes of the Olympic Games, along withLeo Arnaud's \"Bugler's Dream\"; the latter is sometimes attached to the beginning of Olympic Fanfare and Theme. ComposerBill Contialso wrote a song to inspire the weightlifters called \"Power\". An album,The Official Music of the XXIII Olympiad—Los Angeles 1984, featured those three tracks along with sports themes written for the occasion by popular musical artists includingForeigner,Toto,Loverboy,Herbie Hancock,Quincy Jones,Christopher Cross,Philip Glass,Paul EngemannandGiorgio Moroder.\"Reach Out\" was the main soundtrack and is the official theme song of the 1984 Summer Olympics. The Brazilian composerSérgio Mendesalso produced a special song for the 1984 Olympic Games, \"Olympia,\" from his 1984 albumConfetti. Achoirof approximately one thousand voices was assembled ofsingersin the region. All were volunteers from nearbychurches, schools and universities. Etta Jamesperformed \"When the Saints Go Marching In\" at the Opening Ceremony. Vicki McClure, along with the International Children's Choir of Long Beach, sang \"Reach Out and Touch\". Alongside Williams and the house orchestra, 84 pianists performed an abridged version ofGeorge Gershwin's compositionRhapsody in Blue. Lionel Richieperformed a special extended 9-minute version of his hit single \"All Night Long\" at the closing ceremonies. Mascot The mascot was abald eaglenamedSam the Olympic Eagle. Highlights Arts Festival The 1984 Summer Olympics was preceded by the 10-week-long adjunct Los Angeles Olympic Arts Festival, which opened on June 2 and ended on August 12. It provided more than 400 performances by 146 theater, dance and music companies, representing every continent and 18 countries. It was organized by then-CalArtsPresidentRobert Fitzpatrick. General The Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee named Ernie Barnes \"Sports Artist of the 1984 Olympic Games\". LAOOC President Peter V. Ueberroth said Barnes and his art \"captured the essence of the Olympics\" and \"portray the city's ethnic diversity, the power and emotion of sports competition, the singleness of purpose and hopes that go into the making of athletes the world over.\" Barnes was commissioned to create five Olympic-themed paintings and serve as an official Olympic spokesman to encourage inner-city youth. Track and field Other sports Venues Venues in the city of Los Angeles Venues in Southern California Other venues Sports The 1984 Summer Olympic program featured 221 events in the following 21 sports: Demonstration sports Calendar Medal count These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1984 Games. Participating National Olympic Committees Athletes from 140 states competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics. Eighteen states made their Olympic debut:Bahrain,Bangladesh,Bhutan,British Virgin Islands,Djibouti,Equatorial Guinea,The Gambia,Grenada,Mauritania,Mauritius,North Yemen,Oman,Qatar,Rwanda,Western Samoa,Solomon Islands,Tonga, and theUnited Arab Emirates.Zairehad previously competed at the1968 Summer OlympicsasCongo-Kinshasa. ThePeople's Republic of Chinamade its first appearance in a Summer Olympics since1952, while for the first time theRepublic of Chinateam participated under the politically contrived name ofChinese Taipei. TheSoviet Unionled theWarsaw Pactmembers and other Communist countries in a boycott of the Los Angeles Olympics, in retaliation for the U.S.-led boycott of theMoscow Olympicsfour years earlier (over theSoviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979). The pretexts for the 1984 Soviet-led boycott were concerns over security, \"chauvinistic sentiments\" and \"an anti-Soviet hysteria ... being whipped up\" in the United States.However, a handful of communist countries disregarded the boycott and attended the Games anyway, among themYugoslavia(host of the1984 Winter Olympics), thePeople's Republic of China, andRomania(the only Warsaw Pact country that had opted to ignore the Soviet demands). The Romanian team received a particularly warm reception from the United States; when the Romanian athletes entered during the opening ceremonies, they were greeted by a standing ovation from the spectators, who were mostly U.S. citizens. This would turn out to be Romania's most successful Olympic Games – they won 53 medals, including 20 golds. In the table below, the number of athletes representing each state is shown in parentheses. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees Boycotting countries Fifteen countries took part in the Soviet-led boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics: Albania,Iran,LibyaandUpper Volta(changed toBurkina Fasofollowing August 4)also missed the Los Angeles Olympics, citing political reasons, but these countries were not a part of the Soviet-led boycott. Albania and Iran were the only two countries to boycott both the 1980 and 1984 Summer Games. Soviet doping plan Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of theRussian doping programprior to the 2016 Summer Olympics.Filmmaker and director of 2017 movieIcarusBryan Fogelhas said that stricter doping controls might have been the main reason for the Soviet boycott. Financial success of Los Angeles as host city Following the news of the massive financial losses of the1976 Summer OlympicsinMontreal, the only two cities to express a genuine interest in hosting the 1984 Games were Los Angeles andNew York. Given that only one city per country is allowed to bid for any one Games, theUSOCvote for the American bid city was effectively the deciding vote for the 1984 Olympics host city. In this case, the Los Angeles bid received 55 votes compared with New York's 39 votes – this is the closest that the city of New York has ever come to being selected to host the Olympic Games, coming closer in 1984 than they did in their2012 bid(when they lost to London). Ambitious construction projects for the two previous Summer Olympics, Montreal 1976 and Moscow 1980, had burdened organizers with substantial debts as expenses greatly exceeded revenues. Furthermore, the 1976 and 1980 Olympics were entirely government-funded. Unlike Montreal and Moscow, Los Angeles 1984 was privately funded, with strict controls imposed on expenditure; rather than constructing new venues with overly ambitious designs, the organizers chose instead to utilize existing venues and facilities wherever possible. The main example of this was theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, which was also the Olympic Stadium for the1932 Summer Olympics.The only two new venues constructed specifically for the 1984 Summer Olympics were secured with the backing of corporate sponsors: the Olympic Velodrome was largely funded by the7-Elevencorporation and the Olympic Swim Stadium byMcDonald's. In addition to corporate support, the Olympic committee also used the income from the exclusive television rights, and for the first time these contracts would prove to be a significant source of revenue. Adjusted for inflation, the Los Angeles Games secured twice the amount of income received by the1980 Moscow Summer Olympicsand four times that of the1976 Montreal Summer Olympics. The low level of interest among potential host cities for the 1984 Games had been viewed as a major threat to the future of the Olympic Games. However, after the financial success of the Los Angeles Games, cities began to show a renewed interest in bidding to become host again. The Los Angeles and Montreal Games are seen as examples of best and worst practice when organizing the Olympics and serve as valuable lessons to prospective host cities. Following the success of the 1984 Games, the Los Angeles OCOG, led byPeter Ueberroth, used the profits to create theLA84 Foundationfor promoting youth sports in Southern California, educating coaches and maintaining a sports library. In popular culture The games were the subject of the 1983–84 United Statescommemorative coin series. American fast food chainMcDonald'sran apromotiontitled, \"When the U.S. Wins, You Win\" where customers scratched off a ticket with the name of an Olympic event on it. If the U.S. won a medal in that event, then they would be given a free menu item: aBig Macfor a gold medal, an order offrench friesfor a silver medal, and aCoca-Colafor a bronze medal. The promotion became more popular than expected due to the Soviet boycott which led to the U.S. winning far more Olympic medals than expected.This promotion was parodied inThe Simpsonsepisode \"Lisa's First Word\", whereKrusty Burgerruns a similar offer. The promotion was intended to be rigged so that prizes would only be offered in events dominated by theEastern Bloc, but the Soviet-led boycott causes Krusty to personally lose $44 million. He vehemently promises \"to spit in every fiftieth burger,\" to whichHomerretorts \"I like those odds!\"Chief Wiggumalso exclaims that he could kissCarl Lewis, who won four gold medals at the Games. OnNCIS, Tim McGee has an obsession with jet packs, stemming from having attended the 1984 Olympic ceremony as a child and having Bill Suitor fly over his head in his jet pack.This storyline is based on the real experience of executive producer and writer Jesse Stern. Pop-punk bandBowling for Soupreferences the games in the song \"I Can't Stand LA\". During a section showing appreciation for the city, the song states, \"thank you for hair metal and the '84 Olympics.\" Jilly Cooper's novel Riders has a storyline set at the show jumping event at the 1984 Summer Olympics. In theSeinfeldepisode \"The Gymnast\", Jerry dates a woman who competed in the 1984 Olympics and won a silver medal for Romania. InAmerican Horror Story: 1984, the characters watch it together on the TV in the girls cabin. In the same week that the Games began, British pop starHoward Jonesreleased a single calledLike to Get to Know You Wellwhich eventually made number 4 on theUK Singles Chartand number 49 on theBillboard Hot 100in the United States. On the sleeve, the record was \"dedicated to the original spirit of the Olympic Games\". See also References External links Further reading", "Van Halen discography Van Halenwas an Americanhard rockband formed inPasadena, Californiain 1972 by the Dutch-born American brothersEddie Van Halen(guitar) andAlex Van Halen(drums), plus singerDavid Lee Rothand bassistMichael Anthony. The band's discography consists of 12 studio albums, twolive albums, fourcompilation albums, and 56singles. The band signed a contract withWarner Bros. Recordsin 1977,and in the following year released the albumVan Halen. Over the next few years, the band alternated album releases, one per year between 1979 and 1982, andtouringto increasing commercial and critical acclaim, becoming one of the world's most successful and influential rock bands. In 1984, Van Halen released1984, which peaked at No. 2 on theBillboard200and had the band's sole No. 1 hit on theBillboardHot 100, \"Jump\". After thetour promoting that album, Roth left the band due to artistic and personal tensions with Eddie. To replace Roth, Eddie pickedSammy Hagar, formerly ofMontroseand at that time a very successful solo artist. Van Halen's first album with Hagar, 1986's5150, was the band's first No. 1 on theBillboard200. The three studio albums that followed,OU812,For Unlawful Carnal KnowledgeandBalance, also topped the charts. In 1996, Hagar left Van Halen amidst similar tension with the Van Halen brothers. Roth rejoined briefly and recorded two songs with the band for the 1996 compilationBest Of – Volume I, but Van Halen eventually settled onGary Cherone, frontman of the then defunctBoston-based bandExtreme. Cherone's sole release with the band wasVan Halen III, released in 1998 to mixed reviews and diminishing sales, being the only Van Halen studio album not to get a platinumRIAA certification. Van Halen's last release for Warner was the 2004 compilationBest of Both Worlds, which featured three new songs with Hagar. In 2011, the band left the label and signed withInterscope Records. In February 2012, Van Halen released its twelfth and final studio album,A Different Kind of Truth, featuring Roth on vocals and Eddie's sonWolfgangon bass guitar. The album debuted at number two on theBillboard200,and became the band's highest-charting album on theUK Albums Chartwith a sixth spot. As of 2007, Van Halen has sold 75 million albums worldwideand have thirteen No. 1 hits on theBillboardMainstream Rockchart. During the 1980s, they, along with the band Heart, had moreBillboardHot 100hits, fifteen, than any other hard rock or heavy metal band. According to theRIAA, Van Halen is the 19th best-selling music group/artist of all time with sales of over 56 million albums in the US,and is one of five rock bands that have had two albums (Van Halenand1984) sell more than ten million copies in the US. Albums Studio albums Live albums Compilation albums Singles Notes Videos References External links" ]
[ "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_(Van_Halen_album", "1984 Summer Olympics The1984 Summer Olympics(officially theGames of the XXIII Olympiadand commonly known asLos Angeles 1984) were an internationalmulti-sport eventheld from July 28 to August 12, 1984, inLos Angeles,California, United States. It marked the second time that Los Angeles had hosted the Games, the first being in1932. This was the first of two consecutive Olympic Games to be held in North America withCalgary,Alberta, Canada hosting the1988 Winter Olympics.California was the home state of the incumbentU.S. PresidentRonald Reagan, who officially opened the Games. These were the first Summer Olympic Games under theIOC presidencyofJuan Antonio Samaranch. The1984 Games were boycottedby fourteenEastern Bloccountries, including the Soviet Union and East Germany, in response to theAmerican-led boycottof the1980 Summer OlympicsinMoscow,Russia, in protest of theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan;Romaniawas the only Soviet-aligned state that opted to attend the Games. Albania, Iran andLibyaalso chose to boycott", "chose to boycott the Games, but for unrelated reasons. Despite the field being depleted in certain sports due to the boycott, 140National Olympic Committeestook part in the 1984 Games, a record number at the time.TheUnited Stateswon the most gold and overall medals, followed byRomaniaandWest Germany. The 1984 Summer Olympics are widely considered to be the most financially successful modern Olympics,serving as an example on how to run an Olympic Games. As a result of low construction costs, due to the use of existing sport infrastructure, coupled with a reliance on private corporatefunding,the 1984 Games generated a profit of overUS$250 million. On July 18, 2009, a 25th anniversary celebration of the 1984 Games was held at theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The celebration included a speech by former Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee presidentPeter Ueberroth, as well as a re-enactment of the lighting of the Olympic cauldron. Los Angeles will host the Summer Olympics for the third time in2028. Host", "time in2028. Host selection After theterrorist attackat the1972 Summer Olympics, the significant financial debts ofMontreal (1976), and various boycotts by National Olympic Committees, few cities by the late 1970s were willing to bid for the Summer Olympics. Only two cities (Tehranand Los Angeles) made serious bids for the 1984 Summer Games, but before the final selection of a winning city in 1978, the bid from Tehran was withdrawn in June 1975. Hence, the selection process for the 1984 Summer Olympics consisted of a single finalized bid from Los Angeles, which theInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) accepted. The selection was officially made at the 80th IOC Session inAthenson May 18, 1978. Los Angeles had unsuccessfully bid for the two previous Summer Olympic Games (1976 and 1980, which went toMontrealandMoscow, respectively). TheUnited States Olympic Committee(USOC) had submitted at least one bid for every Olympics since1944but had not succeeded since theLos Angeles Olympics in 1932, the previous time", "the previous time only a single bid had been issued for the Summer Olympics. Torch relay The 1984 Olympic Torch Relay began in New York City and ended in Los Angeles, traversing 33 states and the District of Columbia. Unlike later torch relays, the torch was continuously carried by runners on foot. The route covered more than 9,320 mi (15,000 km) and involved 3,636 runners. Noted athleteO. J. Simpsonwas among the runners, carrying the torch up theCalifornia InclineinSanta Monica. Gina Hemphill, a granddaughter ofJesse Owens, carried the torch into the Coliseum, completed a lap around the track, then handed it off to the final runner,Rafer Johnson, winner of thedecathlonat the1960 Summer Olympics. With the torch, he touched off the flame which passed through a specially designed flammable Olympic logo, igniting all five rings. Johnson became the first person of African descent to light the cauldron in Olympic history.The flame then passed up to the cauldron atop the peristyle and remained aflame for the", "aflame for the duration of the Games. Music John Williamscomposed the theme for the Olympiad, \"Los Angeles Olympic Theme\" later also known as \"Olympic Fanfare and Theme\". This piece won aGrammyfor Williams and became one of the most well-known musical themes of the Olympic Games, along withLeo Arnaud's \"Bugler's Dream\"; the latter is sometimes attached to the beginning of Olympic Fanfare and Theme. ComposerBill Contialso wrote a song to inspire the weightlifters called \"Power\". An album,The Official Music of the XXIII Olympiad—Los Angeles 1984, featured those three tracks along with sports themes written for the occasion by popular musical artists includingForeigner,Toto,Loverboy,Herbie Hancock,Quincy Jones,Christopher Cross,Philip Glass,Paul EngemannandGiorgio Moroder.\"Reach Out\" was the main soundtrack and is the official theme song of the 1984 Summer Olympics. The Brazilian composerSérgio Mendesalso produced a special song for the 1984 Olympic Games, \"Olympia,\" from his 1984 albumConfetti. Achoirof", "Achoirof approximately one thousand voices was assembled ofsingersin the region. All were volunteers from nearbychurches, schools and universities. Etta Jamesperformed \"When the Saints Go Marching In\" at the Opening Ceremony. Vicki McClure, along with the International Children's Choir of Long Beach, sang \"Reach Out and Touch\". Alongside Williams and the house orchestra, 84 pianists performed an abridged version ofGeorge Gershwin's compositionRhapsody in Blue. Lionel Richieperformed a special extended 9-minute version of his hit single \"All Night Long\" at the closing ceremonies. Mascot The mascot was abald eaglenamedSam the Olympic Eagle. Highlights Arts Festival The 1984 Summer Olympics was preceded by the 10-week-long adjunct Los Angeles Olympic Arts Festival, which opened on June 2 and ended on August 12. It provided more than 400 performances by 146 theater, dance and music companies, representing every continent and 18 countries. It was organized by then-CalArtsPresidentRobert Fitzpatrick. General The", "General The Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee named Ernie Barnes \"Sports Artist of the 1984 Olympic Games\". LAOOC President Peter V. Ueberroth said Barnes and his art \"captured the essence of the Olympics\" and \"portray the city's ethnic diversity, the power and emotion of sports competition, the singleness of purpose and hopes that go into the making of athletes the world over.\" Barnes was commissioned to create five Olympic-themed paintings and serve as an official Olympic spokesman to encourage inner-city youth. Track and field Other sports Venues Venues in the city of Los Angeles Venues in Southern California Other venues Sports The 1984 Summer Olympic program featured 221 events in the following 21 sports: Demonstration sports Calendar Medal count These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1984 Games. Participating National Olympic Committees Athletes from 140 states competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics. Eighteen states made their Olympic debut:Bahrain,Bangladesh,Bhutan,British Virgin", "Virgin Islands,Djibouti,Equatorial Guinea,The Gambia,Grenada,Mauritania,Mauritius,North Yemen,Oman,Qatar,Rwanda,Western Samoa,Solomon Islands,Tonga, and theUnited Arab Emirates.Zairehad previously competed at the1968 Summer OlympicsasCongo-Kinshasa. ThePeople's Republic of Chinamade its first appearance in a Summer Olympics since1952, while for the first time theRepublic of Chinateam participated under the politically contrived name ofChinese Taipei. TheSoviet Unionled theWarsaw Pactmembers and other Communist countries in a boycott of the Los Angeles Olympics, in retaliation for the U.S.-led boycott of theMoscow Olympicsfour years earlier (over theSoviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979). The pretexts for the 1984 Soviet-led boycott were concerns over security, \"chauvinistic sentiments\" and \"an anti-Soviet hysteria ... being whipped up\" in the United States.However, a handful of communist countries disregarded the boycott and attended the Games anyway, among themYugoslavia(host of the1984 Winter", "of the1984 Winter Olympics), thePeople's Republic of China, andRomania(the only Warsaw Pact country that had opted to ignore the Soviet demands). The Romanian team received a particularly warm reception from the United States; when the Romanian athletes entered during the opening ceremonies, they were greeted by a standing ovation from the spectators, who were mostly U.S. citizens. This would turn out to be Romania's most successful Olympic Games – they won 53 medals, including 20 golds. In the table below, the number of athletes representing each state is shown in parentheses. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees Boycotting countries Fifteen countries took part in the Soviet-led boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics: Albania,Iran,LibyaandUpper Volta(changed toBurkina Fasofollowing August 4)also missed the Los Angeles Olympics, citing political reasons, but these countries were not a part of the Soviet-led boycott. Albania and Iran were the only two countries to boycott both the 1980 and 1984", "the 1980 and 1984 Summer Games. Soviet doping plan Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergei Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of theRussian doping programprior to the 2016 Summer Olympics.Filmmaker and director of 2017 movieIcarusBryan Fogelhas said that stricter doping controls might have been the main reason for the Soviet boycott. Financial success of Los Angeles as host city Following the news of the massive financial losses of the1976 Summer OlympicsinMontreal, the only two cities to express a genuine interest", "a genuine interest in hosting the 1984 Games were Los Angeles andNew York. Given that only one city per country is allowed to bid for any one Games, theUSOCvote for the American bid city was effectively the deciding vote for the 1984 Olympics host city. In this case, the Los Angeles bid received 55 votes compared with New York's 39 votes – this is the closest that the city of New York has ever come to being selected to host the Olympic Games, coming closer in 1984 than they did in their2012 bid(when they lost to London). Ambitious construction projects for the two previous Summer Olympics, Montreal 1976 and Moscow 1980, had burdened organizers with substantial debts as expenses greatly exceeded revenues. Furthermore, the 1976 and 1980 Olympics were entirely government-funded. Unlike Montreal and Moscow, Los Angeles 1984 was privately funded, with strict controls imposed on expenditure; rather than constructing new venues with overly ambitious designs, the organizers chose instead to utilize existing venues", "existing venues and facilities wherever possible. The main example of this was theLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, which was also the Olympic Stadium for the1932 Summer Olympics.The only two new venues constructed specifically for the 1984 Summer Olympics were secured with the backing of corporate sponsors: the Olympic Velodrome was largely funded by the7-Elevencorporation and the Olympic Swim Stadium byMcDonald's. In addition to corporate support, the Olympic committee also used the income from the exclusive television rights, and for the first time these contracts would prove to be a significant source of revenue. Adjusted for inflation, the Los Angeles Games secured twice the amount of income received by the1980 Moscow Summer Olympicsand four times that of the1976 Montreal Summer Olympics. The low level of interest among potential host cities for the 1984 Games had been viewed as a major threat to the future of the Olympic Games. However, after the financial success of the Los Angeles Games, cities began to", "cities began to show a renewed interest in bidding to become host again. The Los Angeles and Montreal Games are seen as examples of best and worst practice when organizing the Olympics and serve as valuable lessons to prospective host cities. Following the success of the 1984 Games, the Los Angeles OCOG, led byPeter Ueberroth, used the profits to create theLA84 Foundationfor promoting youth sports in Southern California, educating coaches and maintaining a sports library. In popular culture The games were the subject of the 1983–84 United Statescommemorative coin series. American fast food chainMcDonald'sran apromotiontitled, \"When the U.S. Wins, You Win\" where customers scratched off a ticket with the name of an Olympic event on it. If the U.S. won a medal in that event, then they would be given a free menu item: aBig Macfor a gold medal, an order offrench friesfor a silver medal, and aCoca-Colafor a bronze medal. The promotion became more popular than expected due to the Soviet boycott which led to the", "which led to the U.S. winning far more Olympic medals than expected.This promotion was parodied inThe Simpsonsepisode \"Lisa's First Word\", whereKrusty Burgerruns a similar offer. The promotion was intended to be rigged so that prizes would only be offered in events dominated by theEastern Bloc, but the Soviet-led boycott causes Krusty to personally lose $44 million. He vehemently promises \"to spit in every fiftieth burger,\" to whichHomerretorts \"I like those odds!\"Chief Wiggumalso exclaims that he could kissCarl Lewis, who won four gold medals at the Games. OnNCIS, Tim McGee has an obsession with jet packs, stemming from having attended the 1984 Olympic ceremony as a child and having Bill Suitor fly over his head in his jet pack.This storyline is based on the real experience of executive producer and writer Jesse Stern. Pop-punk bandBowling for Soupreferences the games in the song \"I Can't Stand LA\". During a section showing appreciation for the city, the song states, \"thank you for hair metal and the '84", "metal and the '84 Olympics.\" Jilly Cooper's novel Riders has a storyline set at the show jumping event at the 1984 Summer Olympics. In theSeinfeldepisode \"The Gymnast\", Jerry dates a woman who competed in the 1984 Olympics and won a silver medal for Romania. InAmerican Horror Story: 1984, the characters watch it together on the TV in the girls cabin. In the same week that the Games began, British pop starHoward Jonesreleased a single calledLike to Get to Know You Wellwhich eventually made number 4 on theUK Singles Chartand number 49 on theBillboard Hot 100in the United States. On the sleeve, the record was \"dedicated to the original spirit of the Olympic Games\". See also References External links Further reading", "Van Halen discography Van Halenwas an Americanhard rockband formed inPasadena, Californiain 1972 by the Dutch-born American brothersEddie Van Halen(guitar) andAlex Van Halen(drums), plus singerDavid Lee Rothand bassistMichael Anthony. The band's discography consists of 12 studio albums, twolive albums, fourcompilation albums, and 56singles. The band signed a contract withWarner Bros. Recordsin 1977,and in the following year released the albumVan Halen. Over the next few years, the band alternated album releases, one per year between 1979 and 1982, andtouringto increasing commercial and critical acclaim, becoming one of the world's most successful and influential rock bands. In 1984, Van Halen released1984, which peaked at No. 2 on theBillboard200and had the band's sole No. 1 hit on theBillboardHot 100, \"Jump\". After thetour promoting that album, Roth left the band due to artistic and personal tensions with Eddie. To replace Roth, Eddie pickedSammy Hagar, formerly ofMontroseand at that time a very successful", "a very successful solo artist. Van Halen's first album with Hagar, 1986's5150, was the band's first No. 1 on theBillboard200. The three studio albums that followed,OU812,For Unlawful Carnal KnowledgeandBalance, also topped the charts. In 1996, Hagar left Van Halen amidst similar tension with the Van Halen brothers. Roth rejoined briefly and recorded two songs with the band for the 1996 compilationBest Of – Volume I, but Van Halen eventually settled onGary Cherone, frontman of the then defunctBoston-based bandExtreme. Cherone's sole release with the band wasVan Halen III, released in 1998 to mixed reviews and diminishing sales, being the only Van Halen studio album not to get a platinumRIAA certification. Van Halen's last release for Warner was the 2004 compilationBest of Both Worlds, which featured three new songs with Hagar. In 2011, the band left the label and signed withInterscope Records. In February 2012, Van Halen released its twelfth and final studio album,A Different Kind of Truth, featuring Roth on", "featuring Roth on vocals and Eddie's sonWolfgangon bass guitar. The album debuted at number two on theBillboard200,and became the band's highest-charting album on theUK Albums Chartwith a sixth spot. As of 2007, Van Halen has sold 75 million albums worldwideand have thirteen No. 1 hits on theBillboardMainstream Rockchart. During the 1980s, they, along with the band Heart, had moreBillboardHot 100hits, fifteen, than any other hard rock or heavy metal band. According to theRIAA, Van Halen is the 19th best-selling music group/artist of all time with sales of over 56 million albums in the US,and is one of five rock bands that have had two albums (Van Halenand1984) sell more than ten million copies in the US. Albums Studio albums Live albums Compilation albums Singles Notes Videos References External links" ]
The University that Cillian Murphy attended was founded how many years before he began studying?
151 years.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cillian_Murphy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Cork
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Numerical reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cillian_Murphy', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Cork']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cillian_Murphy", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Cork" ]
[ "Cillian Murphy Cillian Murphy(/ˈkɪliən/KILL-ee-ən;born 25 May 1976) is an Irish actor.His worksencompass both stage and screen, andhis accoladesinclude anAcademy Award, aBritish Academy Film Awardand aGolden Globe Award. He made his professional debut inEnda Walsh's 1996 playDisco Pigs, a role he later reprised inthe 2001 screen adaptation. His early film credits include the horror film28 Days Later(2002), the dark comedyIntermission(2003), the thrillerRed Eye(2005), the Irish war dramaThe Wind That Shakes the Barley(2006), and the science fiction thrillerSunshine(2007). He played a transgender Irish woman in the comedy-dramaBreakfast on Pluto(2005), which earned him his firstGolden Globe Awardnomination. Murphy began his collaboration with filmmakerChristopher Nolanin 2005, playing theScarecrowinThe Dark Knight trilogy(2005–2012) as well as appearing inInception(2010) andDunkirk(2017). He gained greater prominence for his role asTommy Shelbyin theBBCperiod drama seriesPeaky Blinders(2013–2022) and for starring in the horror sequelA Quiet Place Part II(2020). Murphy portrayedJ. Robert Oppenheimerin Nolan'sOppenheimer(2023), for which he won theAcademy Award for Best Actor. In 2011, Murphy won theDrama Desk Award for Outstanding Solo Performancefor theone-man playMisterman. In 2020,The Irish Timesnamed him one of the greatest Irish film actors of all time. Early life and education Murphy was born on 25 May 1976inDouglas, Cork. His mother taught French while his father, Brendan, worked for theDepartment of Education.His grandfather, aunts, and uncles were also teachers. He was raised inBallintemple, Cork, alongside his younger brother Páidi and younger sisters Sile and Orla.He started writing and performing songs at the age of 10. Murphy was raisedCatholicand attended the fee-paying Catholic secondary schoolPresentation Brothers College, where he did well academically but often got into trouble, sometimes being suspended; he decided in his fourth year that misbehaving was not worth the hassle.Not keen on sports, which was a major part of the school's curriculum, he found that artistic pursuits were neglected at the school. Murphy got his first taste of performing in secondary school, when he participated in a drama module presented byCorcadorca Theatre Companydirector Pat Kiernan. He later described the experience as a \"huge high\" and a \"fully alive\" feeling that he then set out to chase.NovelistWilliam Wall, who was his English teacher, encouraged him to pursue acting but he was set on becoming a rock star.In his late teens and early 20s, he sang and played the guitar in several bands alongside his brother, Páidi, and theBeatles-obsessed duo named their most successful band The Sons of Mr. Green Genes, which they adopted from theFrank Zappasongof the same name. He later said the band \"specialised in wacky lyrics and endless guitar solos\". They were offered a five-album deal byAcid Jazz Records, which they rejected because Páidi was still in school and the duo did not agree with the small amount of money they would get for giving the record label the rights to Murphy's compositions.Murphy later confessed, \"I'm very glad in retrospect that we didn't sign because you kind of sign away your life to a label and the whole of your music.\" Murphy began studying law atUniversity College Cork(UCC) in 1996, but failed his first-year exams because he \"had no ambitions to do it\".Not only was he busy with his band, but he knew within days after starting at UCC that he did not want to practise law.After seeing Corcadorca's stage production ofA Clockwork Orange, directed by Kiernan, he began directing his attention to acting.His first major role was in the UCC Drama Society's amateur production ofObserve the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme, which starred Irish-American comedianDes Bishop. Murphy also played the lead in their production ofLittle Shop of Horrors, which was performed in theCork Opera House. He later admitted that his primary motivation at the time was not to pursue an acting career, but to go to parties and meet women. Career 1996–2002: Theatre work and early roles Murphy pressured Pat Kiernan until he got an audition atCorcadorca Theatre Company, and in September 1996, he made his professional acting debut on the stage, playing the part of a volatile Cork teenager inEnda Walsh'sDisco Pigs.Walsh recalled meeting and discovering Murphy: \"There was something about him – he was incredibly enigmatic and he would walk into a room with real presence and you'd go, \"My God\". It had nothing to do with those bloody eyes that everyone's going on about all the time.\"Murphy observed, \"I was unbelievably cocky and had nothing to lose, and it suited the part, I suppose\".Originally intended to run for three weeks in Cork,Disco Pigsended up touring throughout Europe, Canada and Australia for two years, and Murphy left both universityand his band.Though he had intended to go back to playing music, he secured representation after his first agent caught a performance ofDisco Pigs, and his acting career began to take off. He starred in many other theatre productions, includingShakespeare'sMuch Ado About Nothing(1998),The Country Boy,andJuno and the Paycock(both 1999).He began appearing in independent films such asOn the Edge(2001), and in short films, includingFilleann an Feall(2000) andWatchmen(2001).He also reprised his role for the film adaption ofDisco Pigs(2001) and appeared in theBBCtelevision mini-series adaptation ofThe Way We Live Now.During this period, he moved from Cork, relocating first toDublinfor a few years, then to London in 2001.In 2002, Murphy starred as Adam in a theatre production ofNeil LaBute'sThe Shape of Thingsat theGate Theatrein Dublin. Writing forThe Irish Times, Fintan O'Toole praised Murphy's performance, \"Murphy measures out his metamorphosis with an impressive subtlety and intelligence\". 2002–2004:28 Days Laterand breakthrough Murphy was cast in the lead role inDanny Boyle's horror film28 Days Later(2002). He portrayedpandemicsurvivor Jim, who is \"perplexed to find himself alone in the desolate, post-apocalyptic world\" after waking from a coma in a London hospital.Casting director Gail Stevens suggested that Boyle audition Murphy for the role, having been impressed with his performance inDisco Pigs. Stevens stated that it was only after seeing his slender physique during filming that they decided to feature him fully nude at the beginning of the film.She recalled that Murphy was shy on set with the tendency to look slightly away from the camera, but enthused that he had a \"dreamy, slightly de-energised, floating quality that is fantastic for the film\". Released in the UK in late 2002, by the following July,28 Days Laterhad become asleeper hitin North America, and success worldwide, putting Murphy in front of a mass audience for the first time.His performance earned him a nomination for Best Newcomer at the8th Empire Awards, and Breakthrough Male Performance at the2004 MTV Movie Awards.Murphy professed that he considered the film to be much deeper than a zombie or horror film, expressing surprise at the film's success, and that American audiences responded well to its content and violence.Murphy said, \"The film did so well. And you watch zombie stuff , we were the first people to make zombies run, and changed everything. It has a very special place in my heart, that movie.\" In 2003, Murphy played the role of Konstantine in a stage production ofChekhov'sThe Seagullat theEdinburgh International Festival. He said that he wanted to play Konstantine because the character \"goes on this amazing journey through the play he comes to realise there's no point being an iconoclastic writer just for the sake of it, and that the search for new forms has to have something behind it\". Murphy starred as a lovelorn, hapless supermarket stocker who plots a bank heist withColin FarrellinIntermission(2003), which became the highest-grossing Irish independent film in Irish box office history (untilThe Wind That Shakes the Barleybroke the record in 2006).Reflecting on his roles in28 Days Laterand the \"sad-sack Dublin shelf-stacker\" inIntermission, Sarah Lyall of theInternational Herald Tribunestated that Murphy brought \"fluent ease to the roles he takes on, a graceful and wholly believable intensity. His delicate good looks have, as much as his acting prowess, caused people to mark him as Ireland's nextColin Farrell, albeit one who seems less likely to be caught tomcatting around or brawling drunkenly at premieres.\"He had a minor supporting role in the successful Hollywood period dramaCold Mountain(2003). He portrayed a deserting soldier who shares a grim scene withJude Law's character, and was on location in Romania for only a week. Murphy stated that it was a \"massive production\", remarking that directorAnthony Minghellawas the calmest director he'd ever met.Murphy also had a role as a butcher inGirl with a Pearl Earring(2003) withScarlett JohanssonandColin Firth. In 2004, Murphy toured Ireland with theDruid Theatre Company, inThe Playboy of the Western World(playing the character of Christy Mahon) under the direction ofGarry Hynes—who had previously directed Murphy back in 1999 in the theatre productions ofJuno and the Paycock—and also inThe Country Boy. 2005–2006: Villainous roles and critical success Murphy appeared asDr. Jonathan CraneinChristopher Nolan'sBatman Begins(2005). Originally asked to audition for the role ofBruce Wayne/Batman, Murphy never saw himself as having the right physique for the superhero, but leapt at the chance to connect with director Nolan.Though the lead went toChristian Bale, Nolan was so impressed with Murphy that he gave him the supporting role of Dr. Crane, whose alter ego issupervillainScarecrow.Nolan toldSpinmagazine, \"He has the most extraordinary eyes, and I kept trying to invent excuses for him to take his glasses off in close-ups\".He starred as Jackson Rippner, who terrorisesRachel McAdamson an overnight flight inWes Craven's thriller,Red Eye(2005).The New York Timesfilm criticManohla Dargisasserted that Murphy made \"a picture-perfect villain\" and that his \"baby blues look cold enough to freeze water and his wolfish leer suggests its own terrors\".The film was favourably reviewed and earned almost $100 million worldwide. Murphy received several awards nominations for his 2005 villainous roles, among them a nomination as Best Villain at the2006 MTV Movie AwardsforBatman Begins.Entertainment Weeklyranked him among its 2005 \"SummerMVPs\", a cover story list of 10 entertainers with outstanding breakthrough performances.The New Yorker'sDavid Denbywrote: \"Cillian Murphy, who has angelic looks that can turn sinister, is one of the most elegantly seductive monsters in recent movies.\" Murphy starred as Patrick/\"Kitten\" Braden, atransgenderIrish woman in search of her mother, inNeil Jordan's comedy-dramaBreakfast on Pluto(2005), based on the novel of the same title byPatrick McCabe. Seen against the film's kaleidoscopic backdrop of 1970sglitter rockfashion, magic shows,red-light districtsandIRAviolence, Murphy transforms fromandrogynousteen to a blondedragqueen. He had auditioned for the role in 2001 and, though Jordan liked him for the part, the director ofThe Crying Gamewas hesitant to revisit transgender and IRA issues. The actor lobbied Jordan for several years in a bid to get the film made before Murphy became too old to play the part; in 2004, he prepared for the role by meeting atransvestitewho dressed him and took him clubbing with other transvestites.The role required \"serious primping\" with eyebrow plucking and chest and leg hair removal,andRoger Ebertnoted the way that Murphy played the character with a \"bemused and hopeful voice\".While lukewarm reviews ofBreakfast on Plutotended to praise Murphy's performance highly,a few critics dissented:The Village Voice, which panned the film, found him \"unconvincing\" and overly cute.Murphy was nominated for aGolden Globe Awardfor Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy forBreakfast on Plutoand won the fourthIrish Film and Television AcademyBest Actor Award.Premieremagazine cited his performance as Kitten in their \"The 24 Finest Performances of 2005\" feature. In 2006, Murphy starred inThe Wind That Shakes the Barley, a film about theIrish War of Independenceand theIrish Civil War, which won thePalme d'Orat the2006 Cannes Film Festivaland became the most successful Irish independent film at the Irish box office.Murphy was especially keen on appearing in the film due to his intimate connections toCork, Ireland, where the film was shot. Murphy auditioned six times for the role of Damien O'Donovan, a young doctor turned revolutionary, before winning the part. Murphy considered it a very special privilege to have been given the role and stated that he was \"tremendously proud\" of the film, remarking that the \"memories run very, very deep – the politics, the divisions and everybody has stories of family members who were caught up in the struggle.\"David Denby noted Murphy's moments of deep stillness and idiosyncrasies in portraying the character.Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timeswrote that \"Murphy is especially good at playing the zealotry as well as the soul-searching and the regret, at showing us a man who is eaten up alive because he's forced to act in ways that are contrary to his background and his training\".GQmagazine presented Murphy with its 2006 Actor of the Year award for his work inThe Wind That Shakes the Barley. 2006–2010: Further theatre and film roles Murphy returned to the stage starring oppositeNeve Campbellat theNew Ambassadors Theatrein London's West End from November 2006 to February 2007, playing the lead role of John Kolvenbach's playLove Song.Theatre Recorddescribed his character of Beane as a \"winsomely cranky\" mentally unstable \"sentimentalised lonely hero\", noting how he magnetically, with \"all blue eyes and twitching hands\", moves \"comically from painfully shy \"wallpaper\" to garrulous, amorous male.Varietymagazine considered his performance to be \"as magnetic onstage as onscreen\", remarking that his \"unhurried puzzlement pulls the slight preciousness in the character's idiot-savant naivete back from the brink\". He starred in the science fiction filmSunshine(2007) as a physicist-astronaut charged with re-igniting the sun, also directed byDanny Boyle.He starred oppositeLucy LiuinPaul Soter's romantic comedyWatching the Detectives(2007); theindie filmpremiered at the 2007Tribeca Film Festivaland was released direct-to-DVD.Murphy starred asRichard Neville, editor of the psychedelic radical underground magazineOzin the filmHippie Hippie Shake, which was filmed in 2007, but the project, much delayed, was eventually shelved in 2011. Murphy made a brief re-appearance as the Scarecrow in Nolan'sThe Dark Knight(2008), the sequel toBatman Begins,before starring inThe Edge of Love—about a love quadrangle involving the poetDylan Thomas—withKeira Knightley,Sienna MillerandMatthew Rhys.In July 2008, Murphy made a debut appearance in another medium—on a postage stamp; the Irish Post Office,An Post, released a series of four stamps paying homage to the creativity of films recently produced in Ireland, including one featuring Murphy in a still fromThe Wind That Shakes the Barley.In 2009, Murphy starred opposite rock singerFeistand actorDavid FoxinThe Water, directed byKevin DrewofBroken Social Scene. The 15-minute Canadian short film, released online in April 2009, is nearly silent until the Feist song of the same title plays close to the end. Murphy was attracted to the role as a fan of Broken Social Scene and the prospect of making a silent movie, which he considered to be the \"hardest test for any actor\".Murphy also starred inPerrier's Bounty, a crime dramedy from the makers ofIntermission, in which he portrayed a petty criminal on the run from a gangster played byBrendan Gleeson. In 2010, he made a return to theatre inFrom Galway to Broadway and back again, which was a stage show that celebrated theDruid Theatre Company's 35th birthday.The direct-to-video psychological thrillerPeacock(2010), co-starringElliot Page,Susan SarandonandBill Pullman, starred Murphy as a man with a split personality who fools people into believing he is also his own wife. Christian Toto ofThe Washington Timesreferred to the film as \"a handsomely mounted psychological drama with an arresting lead turn by Cillian Murphy\", and noted that although Murphy wasn't a stranger to playing in drag, his work in the film set a \"new standard for gender-bending performances\".Murphy next starred inChristopher Nolan'sInception(2010), playing entrepreneur Robert Fischer, whose mind is infiltrated by DiCaprio's character Cobb to convince him to dissolve his business.That year, Murphy also made an uncreditedcameoas programmer Edward Dillinger Jr., son of originalTronantagonist Ed Dillinger (David Warner) inTron: Legacy. 2011–present:Peaky BlindersandOppenheimer In 2011, Murphy performed in the stagemonodramaMisterman, written and directed byEnda Walsh, with whom he had previously worked onDisco Pigs. The production was initially staged inGalwayand was taken toSt. Ann's WarehouseinBrooklyn, New York. Murphy said of the role, \"The live nature of it makes it so dangerous. You're only there because of the good will of the audience, and that's compounded by its being a one-man show.\"His performance earned critical acclaim, garneringIrish Times Theatre Awardand aDrama Desk Award.Sarah Lyall of theInternational Herald Tribunedescribed Murphy's character Thomas Magill to be a \"complicated mixture of sympathetic and not nice at all – deeply wounded, but with a dangerous, skewed moral code\", praising his ability to mimic wickedly. Lyall noted Murphy's \"unusual ability to create and inhabit creepy yet fascinating characters from the big screen to the small stage in the intense one-man showMisterman\", and documented that on one evening the \"theater was flooded, not with applause but with silence\", eventually culminating in a standing ovation at his powerful performance.He played the lead in the British horror filmRetreat(2011), which had alimited release. He also appeared in the science fiction filmIn Time(2011), starringJustin TimberlakeandAmanda Seyfried, which was poorly reviewed. Murphy starred inRed Lights(2012) withRobert De NiroandSigourney Weaver. He played Tom Buckley, the assistant to Weaver's character who is a paranormal investigator. Murphy considered working with De Niro to have been one of the most intimidating moments in his career. He remarked: \"My first scene when I come to visit him my character is supposed to be terrified and intimidated. There was no acting involved. The man has presence. You can't act presence. I'll never have that. Watching him use it... when you put a camera on it, it just becomes something else.\"The film was panned by critics and under-performed at the box office.Murphy went on to reprise his role as the Scarecrow for the third time inThe Dark Knight Rises(2012),and had a supporting role as Mike in the British independent filmBroken(2012). His performance earned him aBritish Independent Film Award for Best Supporting Actornomination. Since 2013, Murphy has starred asThomas Shelbyin the BBC television seriesPeaky Blinders, a series about a criminal gang inBirminghamduring the post-World War Iperiod.Jason Stathamwas initially picked for the role by directorSteven Knight, who met both actors to talk about the role.Knight later said, \"Cillian, when you meet him, isn't Tommy, obviously, but I was stupid enough not to understand that\".He picked Murphy after receiving a text message from Murphy that read, \"Remember, I'm an actor\".Murphy toldThe Independent, \" were so compelling and confident, and the character was so rich and complex, layered and contradictory. I was like, 'I have to do this.'\"Peaky Blinderswas praised and received high ratings. A second series began broadcasting on the BBC in October 2014. On 25 August 2019, the first episode of season 5 was broadcast onBBC One. In an interview withDigital Spy,director Anthony Byrne said, \"if we did start shooting in January (2021), we wouldn't finish until May or June and then it's another 6 months of editing\". Series six premiered on 27 February 2022.In 2013, Murphy made his directorial debut with a music video for the band Money's singleHold Me Forever. The video features dancers from theEnglish National Balletand was filmed atThe Old Vic Theatrein London. In 2014, Murphy starred in the dramaAloft,andWally Pfister'sTranscendence.Both of these garnered mostly unfavourable critic reviews according to the aggregatorRotten Tomatoes.That same year, Murphy reunited with Enda Walsh in the playBallyturk.He starred inRon Howard's 2015 filmIn the Heart of the Sea.In 2015, he contributed spoken vocals to the tracks \"8:58\" and \"The Clock\" fromPaul Hartnoll's album8:58. The two previously met while Hartnoll was scoring the second season ofPeaky Blinders.In 2016, Murphy starred in Ben Wheatley'sFree Fire,and portrayed CzechoslovakWorld War IIarmy soldierJozef Gabčík, who was involved inOperation Anthropoid, the assassination ofReinhard HeydrichinAnthropoid.Rupert Hawksley ofThe Telegraphbelieved Cillian's performance inAnthropoid, but opined that he is \"not asked to do an awful lot, other than smoke and look perplexed\". In 2017, Murphy played ashell-shockedarmy officer who is recovered from a wrecked ship inChristopher Nolan's war filmDunkirk, which emerged as a critical and box-office success.He felt that his character, who is nameless and was credited simply as Shivering Soldier, was \"representative of something experienced by thousands of soldiers, which is the profound emotional and psychological toll that war can have\".Murphy has also played a role in the feature filmAnnaas Miller, released in June 2019. His next release,A Quiet Place Part II(2021), stars Murphy as Emmett, a hardened survivor and old family friend of the Abbotts. Murphy's character reluctantly takes in the Abbotts following the events ofthe first film.Peter BradshawofThe Guardianpraised his performance. Murphy portrayedJ. Robert Oppenheimerin the biographical thrillerOppenheimer.The film marks the sixth collaboration between Nolan and Murphy, and the first starring Murphy as the lead. To prepare for the role, Murphy lost a significant amount of weight to match Oppenheimer's near-emaciated appearance, extensively researched Oppenheimer's life and took inspiration fromDavid Bowie's appearance in the 1970s.Released in 2023, the film grossed over $975 million worldwide and garnered positive reviews from critics.Murphy's performance was lauded, withEmpire's Dan Jolin writing: \"At the film's pulsing nucleus is Murphy as Oppenheimer, and he is compelling throughout.\"For his performance, he won theGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama,BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role,Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role, andAcademy Award for Best Actor. Murphy launched the independent production company Big Things Films withAlan Moloneyin February 2024.He produced and starred in the historical dramaSmall Things like These, which opened the74th Berlin International Film Festival,and the upcomingSteve, through a collaboration withNetflix.Murphy will also executive produce the sequel to28 Days Later, titled28 Years Later, and is in talks to reprise his role.Additionally, Murphy will reprise his role in aPeaky Blindersfilmwhich will shoot in September 2024. He will also produce and star inBlood Runs Coalfor Universal Pictures. Murphy has presented shows onBBC Radio 6 Musicsince 2013; since 2020 he has hostedCillian Murphy's Limited Edition, a limited-run series broadcasting late on Sunday evenings in which he draws from his personal music collection and answers \"reasonable questions\" from listeners. As of 2024, three seasons ofLimited Editionhave been produced, totaling 28 episodes. Public image Reserved and private, Murphy professes a lack of interest in the celebrity scene, finding the red carpet experience \"a challenge\" that he does not \"want to overcome\".He intentionally practises a lifestyle that will not interest thetabloids, stating, \"I haven't created any controversy, I don't sleep around, I don't go and fall down drunk\".He prefers not to speak about his life outside of acting and did not appear on any television talk shows until 2010, when he was a guest on Ireland'sLate Late Showto promotePerrier's Bounty, though he still remained reserved.Murphy's introverted nature and lack of interest in social media has prompted several fans to creatememeson his detached demeanour in press interviews and junkets.In 2017, upon being asked his opinion on the \"Disappointed Cillian Murphy\" meme, he answered, \"What's a meme?\". In 2015, Murphy was named one ofGQ's 50 best-dressed men,and in 2024, he was announced as the new face of Italian luxury fashion companyVersace. Activism Murphy participated in the 2007Rock the VoteIreland campaign, targeting young voters for the general election,and campaigning for the rights of thehomelesswith the organisationFocus Ireland.In 2011, he became a patron of theUNESCOChild and Family Research Centre at theNational University of Ireland Galway. He is closely associated with the work of Professor Pat Dolan Director UCFRC and UNESCO Chair in Children, Youth and Civic Engagement. In February 2012, he wrote a message of support to the formerVita Cortex workersinvolved in a sit-in at their plant, congratulating them for \"highlighting is hugely important to us all as a nation\".Murphy was a supporter of the 2018 Irish referendum to repealthe eighth amendment of the constitutionthat restricted access to abortions, appearing onThe Blindboy Podcastto urge men to support women and vote in favour of the referendum. Personal life In 2004, Murphy married his longtime girlfriendYvonne McGuinness, whom he met at one of his rock band's shows in 1996.They lived inDublinuntil 2001, when they moved to London so his wife could attend theRoyal College of Art. After 14 years, they moved back to Dublin in 2015. They have two sons, born in 2005 and 2007. Murphy was raisedCatholic. He stated that he had been verging on agnosticism until his role as a physicist and astronaut in the 2007 filmSunshine, at which point his views shifted towardsatheism.In 2019, he said the Catholic faith still shaped his morality. He was a vegetarian for around 15 years, which he said happened because he was \"worried about gettingmad cow disease\" rather than a moral decision.He also had qualms about unhealthyagribusinesspractices.He began eating meat again to bulk up for his role inPeaky Blinders.In a 2022 interview, he said he had returned to vegetarianism. Acting credits and awards Murphy's most commercially successful films have been his many collaborations with Nolan, includingOppenheimer,Inception,Batman Begins, andDunkirk.Following the success ofOppenheimerand theBarbenheimerphenomenon, Murphy was named inVariety'slist of the most influential figures of 2023 in the entertainment and media industry.Murphy's works also include other critically acclaimed films, such asA Quiet Place IIandThe Wind that Shakes the Barley.He has received several accolades over the course of his career, including fourIrish Film & Television Awards,aBAFTA Award, aGolden Globe Award, and anAcademy Award. References Bibliography External links", "University College Cork University College Cork – National University of Ireland, Cork(UCC)(Irish:Coláiste na hOllscoile Corcaigh) is a constituent university of theNational University of Ireland, and located inCork. The university was founded in 1845 as one of threeQueen's Collegeslocated inBelfast, Cork, andGalway.It became University College, Cork, under theIrish Universities Act 1908. The Universities Act 1997 renamed the university as National University of Ireland, Cork, and a Ministerial Order of 1998 renamed the university as University College Cork – National University of Ireland, Cork,though it continues to be almost universally known as University College Cork. Amongst other rankings and awards, the university was named Irish University of the Year byThe Sunday Timeson five occasions; most recently in 2017.In 2015, UCC was also named as top performing university by the European Commission fundedU-Multiranksystem, based on obtaining the highest number of \"A\" scores (21 out of 28 metrics) among a field of 1200 partaking universities.UCC also became the first university to achieve theISO 50001standard in energy management in 2011. History Queen's College, Cork, was founded by the provisions of an act which enabledQueen Victoriato endow new colleges for the \"Advancement of Learning in Ireland\". Under the powers of this act, the three colleges ofBelfast, Cork andGalwaywere incorporated on 30 December 1845. The college opened in 1849 with 23 professors and 181 students; Medicine, Arts, and Law were the three founding faculties. A year later the college became part of theQueen's University of Ireland. The original site chosen for the college was considered appropriate as it was believed to have had a connection with thepatron saintof Cork,Saint Finbarr. His monastery and school of learning were close by at Gill Abbey Rock and the mill attached to the monastery is thought to have stood on the bank of the south channel of theRiver Lee, which runs through the college lower grounds. This association is also reflected in the college motto \"Where Finbarr Taught, LetMunsterLearn\" which is also the university motto. Adjacent to Gillabbey and overlooking the valley of the river Lee, the site was selected in 1846.The Tudor Gothic quadrangle and early campus buildings were designed and built bySir Thomas DeaneandBenjamin Woodward. Queen's College Cork officially opened its doors in November 1849, with further buildings added later, including the Medical/Windle Building in the 1860s. National University of Ireland In the following century, theIrish Universities Act 1908formed theNational University of Ireland, consisting of the three constituent colleges of Dublin, Cork and Galway, and the college was given the status of auniversity collegeasUniversity College, Cork. The Universities Act, 1997, made the university college a constituent university of the National University and made the constituent university a full university for all purposes except the awarding of degrees and diplomas which remains the sole remit of the National University. Today As of 2022, University College Cork (UCC) had 24,195 students.These included 16,849 in undergraduate programmes,7,346 in postgraduate study and research,and 2,800 in adult continuing education across undergraduate, postgraduate and short courses. The student base is supported by 3429 academic, research and administrative staff.As of 2022, UCC reportedly has c. 200,000 alumni worldwide. Campus Student numbers, at over 24,000 in 2022,increased from the late 1980s, precipitating the expansion of the campus by the acquisition of adjacent buildings and lands. This expansion continued with the opening of theAlfred O'Rahillybuilding in the late 1990s, the Cavanagh Pharmacy building, the Brookfield Health Sciences centre, the extendedÁras na MacLéinn(Devere Hall), theLewis Glucksman Galleryin 2004,Experience UCC(Visitors' Centre) and an extension to theBoole Library– named for the first professor of mathematics at UCC,George Boole, who developed thealgebrathat would later make computer programming possible. The university also completed the Western Gateway Building in 2009 on the site of the former Cork Greyhound track on the Western Road as well as refurbishment to theTyndallinstitute buildings at the Lee Maltings Complex. In 2016, UCC acquired the Cork Savings Bank building on Lapps Quay in the centre of Cork City. As of 2017, the university is rolling out a programme to increase the space across its campuses, with part of this development involving the creation of a 'student hub' to support academic strategy, add 600 new student accommodation spaces, and develop an outdoor sports facility. The School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences is based on the North Mall Campus, the site of the formerNorth Mall Distillery. Since 1986, 2.5 tonnes ofuranium rodshave been stored in the basement of the UCC physics department. The uranium was originally given to Ireland by the US as part of theAtoms for Peaceprogramme, however, due to public opposition, the reactor was dismantled during the 1980s. As there is nonuclear waste sitein Ireland, the uranium remains on campus. In 2006, the university re-opened theCrawford Observatory, a structure built in 1880 on the grounds of the university by SirHoward Grubb. Grubb, son of the Grubb telescope building family in Dublin, designed the observatory and built the astronomical instruments for the structure. The university paid for an extensive restoration and conservation of the building and the three main telescopes, the Equatorial, the Transit Circle and Sidereostatic telescopes. In November 2009, several UCC buildings were damaged by flooding.The floods also affected other parts of Cork City, with many students being evacuated from accommodation. The college authorities postponed academic activities for a week,and indicated that it would take until 2010 before all flood-damaged property would be repaired. Particularly impacted was the newly opened Western Gateway Building, with the main lecture theatre requiring a total refit just months after opening for classes. In 2018, UCC's campus became home to the first \"plastic free\" café in Ireland, with the opening of the Bio Green Café in the Biosciences building. Research The university is one of Ireland's leading research institutes, with among the highest research income in the state.In 2016, UCC secured research funding of over €96 million, a 21% increase over five years and a high for the university. The university had seven faculties: Arts and Celtic Studies, Commerce, Engineering, Food Science and Technology, Law, Medicine, and Science. Between 2005 and 2006 the university was restructured from these seven faculties into four colleges: Arts, Celtic Studies and Social Science; Business and Law; Medicine and Health; and Science, Engineering and Food Science. According to the 2009-2012 UCC Strategic Plan,UCC aimed to enhance research and innovation. In 2009, the university was ranked in the top 3% of universities worldwide for research. UCC's published research strategy proposed to create \"Centres of Excellence\" for \"world-class research\" in which the researchers and research teams would be given \"freedom and flexibility to pursue their areas of research\".Research centres in UCC cover a range of areas including: Nanoelectronics with theTyndall Institute; Food and Health with the Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre,NutraMara,Food for Health Ireland Research Centre,and Cereal Science Cork;the Environment with the Environmental Research Institute(with research in biodiversity, aquaculture, energy efficiency and ocean energy); and Business Information Systems. TheSunday Times\"Good University Guide 2015\", put UCC at the top of their rankings for \"research income per academic\". In October 2008, the governing body of the university announced that UCC would be the first institution in Ireland to use embryonic stem cells in researchunder strict guidelines of the University Research Ethics using imported hESCs from approved jurisdictions.In 2009, Professor of Mathematics at UCC, Des McHale, challenged the university's decision to allow embryonic stem cell research.According to the results of a poll conducted by irishhealth.com, almost two in three people supported the decision made by University College Cork to allow embryonic stem cell research. In 2016, Professor Noel Caplice, director of the centre for research in Vascular Biology at UCC and a cardiologist at Cork University Hospital, announced a \"major breakthrough in the field of blood vessel replacement\". Campus companies The university has a number of related companies including: Cytrea, which is involved inpharmaceuticalformulations;Firecomms, anICTcompany concentrating onopticalcommunications;Alimentary Health abiotechhealthcarecompany;Biosensia who develop integrated micro-system analytical chips;Sensl, part ofON Semiconductor; Luxcel which is involved in the development of probes and sensors;and Optical Metrology Innovations which developslasermetrologysystems. Knowledge transfer Innovation and Knowledge transfer is driven by UCC's Office of Technology Transfer,an office of the university dedicated to commercialising aspects of UCC's research and connecting researchers with industry. Recent spinouts from the college include pharmaceutical company Glantreo,Luxcel Biosciences,Alimentary Health, Biosensia, Firecoms, Gourmet Marine, Keelvar, Lee Oncology, and Sensl. Commemorative events In 2015, the university marked the bicentenary of mathematician, philosopher and logicianGeorge Boole- UCC's first professor of mathematics.In September 2017, UCC unveiled a €350 million investment plan, with university president, Professor Patrick O’Shea, outlining the development goals for UCC in the areas of philanthropy and student recruitment.The plan proposes to provide for curriculum development, an increase in national and international student numbers, the extension of the campus and an increase in the income earned from philanthropy. The Minister for Culture, Heritage & the Gaeltacht and Chair of the National Famine Commemoration Committee, Heather Humphreys TD, also announced that 2018's National Famine Commemoration is planned to take place in UCC.Cork University Press published The Atlas of the Great Irish Famine in 2012.Subsequently, in September 2017, The Atlas of the Irish Revolution was published by Cork University Press.In November 2017, UCC's MSc Information Systems for Business Performance (ISBP) was named \"Postgraduate Course of the Year - IT\" at the gradireland Higher Education Awards in Dublin. Reputation University College Cork has been ranked by a number of bodies, and was named as the \"Irish University of the Year\" by theSunday Timesin 2003, 2005, 2011 and 2016,and was a runner up in the 2015 edition.In 2015, UCC was also named as top performing university by the European Commission fundedU-Multiranksystem, based on a high number of \"A\" scores (21 out of 28 metrics) among a field of 1200 partaking universities.Also in 2015, theCWTS Leiden Rankingplaced UCC 1st in Ireland, 16th in Europe and 52nd globally from a field of 750 universities.The 2011QS World University Rankingsassigned a 5-star rating to UCC,and ranked the university amongst the top 2% of universities worldwide. UCC was ranked 230th in the 2014 edition of the QS World University Rankings.13 of its subject areas featured in the QS World University Rankings by Subject 2015 (up from 10 subject areas in 2014), including the Pharmacy & Pharmacology disciplines, which were listed with the top 50 worldwide.TheUniversitas Indonesia (UI) Greenmetric World University Rankingawarded UCC a second in the world ranking for the second year in a row in 2015 for its efforts in the area of sustainability, with 360 universities from 62 countries ranked overall. UCC has been recognised for its digital and social media presence, winning the 'Best Social Media Engagement' category at the 2014 Social Media Awards,and as a finalist in two categories at the 2015 Social Media Awards.A previous finalist at the 2013 and 2014 Web Awards, UCC also made the 2015 finals in two categories,'Most Influential Irish Website Ever' and 'Best Education and Third Level Website'. University College Cork had the first website in Ireland in 1991(only the ninth website in the world at the time), serving transcriptions of Irish historical and literary documents for the CELT project converted from SGML to HTML. It was reported in December 2020 that UCC had spent €76,265.38 investigating sexual harassment claims over the previous five years. This represented the largest amount spent by a third-level institution in Ireland during that period. UCC spent €24,460.50 on legal fees in the years 2017 and 2018, and paid out €510 in 2018. Academic units College of Medicine and Health Medicine, Arts, and Law were the three founding faculties when Queen's College Cork opened its doors to students in 1849. The medical buildings were built in stages between 1860 and 1880, and the faculty quickly gained a reputation for the quality of its graduates. The first two women to graduate in medicine in Ireland did so in 1898 (this was notable as it was more than 20 years before women were permitted to sit for medicine at theUniversity of Oxford).UCC School of Medicine is part of the College of Medicine and Health, and is based at the Brookfield Health Sciences Centre on the main UCC campus and is affiliated with the 1000-bedUniversity College Cork Teaching Hospital, which is the largest medical centre in Ireland. The UCC School Of Pharmacy is based in the Cavanagh Pharmacy Building. Centre for Architectural Education The Cork Centre for Architectural Education (CCAE) is the Department of Architecture at UCC, and is a school jointly run withMunster Technological University. It is accredited by the Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland. Humanities The College of Arts, Celtic Studies and Social Sciences (CACSSS) incorporates a number of schools. UCC is home to the Irish Institute of Chinese Studies, which allows students to study Chinese culture as well as the language through Arts and Commerce. The department won the European Award for Languages in 2008. As of 2017, Digital Humanities had grown as a discipline, with 26 PhD research students working on various Digital Humanities projects.UCC's programme for students in Digital Humanities includes BA (Hons) Digital Humanities & Information Technology, MA Digital Arts & Humanities and PhD Digital Arts & Humanities. Student life Clubs, societies and representation University College Cork has over 100 active societiesand 50 different sports clubs.There are academic, charitable, creative, gaming/role-playing, political, religious, and social societies and clubs incorporating field sports, martial arts, watersports as well outdoor and indoor team and individual sports. UCC clubs are sponsored byBank of Ireland, with the UCC Skull and Crossbones as the mascot for all UCC sports teams. 100 students received scholarships in 26 different sports in 2010. The activities of UCC's societies include charity work; with over €100,000 raised annually by the Surgeon Noonan society, €10,000 raised by the War Gaming and Role Playing Society (WARPS) through its international gaming conventionWarpcon, €10,000 raised by the UCC Law Society for the Cambodia orphanage and the UCC Pharmacy Society supports the Cork Hospitals Children's Club every year with a number of events.UCC societies also sometimes attract high-profile speakers such asRobert Fiskwho addressed the Law Society, Nick Leeson,and Senator David Norris, who was the 2009/2010 honorary president of theUCC Philosophical Society. An Chuallacht(Irish pronunciation:, meaning \"the fellowship\") is UCC'sIrish languageand culture society. Founded in 1912, this society promotes the Irish language, and was awarded theGlór na nGael\"Irish Society of the Year Award\" in 2009. TheUCC Students' Union(UCCSU) acts as the representative body of the 17,000 students attending UCC. Each student is automatically a member by virtue of a student levy.A student-run radio station, formerly known as \"Cork Campus Radio\", also broadcasts on the campus. Student accommodation Accommodation for students is offered by UCC through a subsidiary company known as Campus Accommodation UCC DAC.UCC operate 5 accommodation complexes, including the Castlewhite Apartments (63 apartments/298 beds),Mardyke Hall (14 apartments/48 beds), In February 2020, UCC announced their decision to raise rent in the 2020/21 academic term by three-percent over the 2019/20 academic term rate.The announcement came after similar rent increases in university-owned accommodation throughout the country,and after increases in previous years to the rent of UCC-owned accommodation.This decision was met with backlash from student representatives, UCC staff, and local politicians. On 25 February 2020, theUCC Students' Unionlaunched a campaign which demanded that UCC reverse the increase.A group of over 300 UCC staff members signed a petition in solidarity with the Students' Union.Several members ofCork County Councilalso expressed opposition to the decision.In early March 2020, a spokesperson for the university said the increase was necessary due to refurbishment works, and a rise in security and maintenance costs. International students The largest number of the 2,400 international students at UCC in 2010 came from the United States, followed by China, France andMalaysia.UCC participates in theErasmusprogram with 439 students visiting UCC in 2009–2010.201 UCC students studied in institutions in the United States, China and Europe in the same period. UCC was rated highly in the 2008 International Student Barometer report.This survey polled 67,000 international students studying at 84 institutions, and was carried out by the International Insight Group.The report held that 98% of UCC's international students (who participated in the survey) reported having \"Expert Lecturers\". And over 90% of these students said that they had \"Good Teachers\".In 3 categories of the survey, \"sports facilities\", \"social facilities\" and \"university clubs and societies\", UCC was in the top three of the 84 Institutions that took part in the survey. UCC's International Education Office was given a 93% satisfaction rating and UCC's IT Support was given a 92% satisfaction rating. Notable alumni Notable alumni of the university include graduates from different disciplines. In arts and literature,alumni include novelistSeán Ó Faoláin, short-story writerDaniel Corkery, composersAloys Fleischmann,Seán Ó Riada, musicologistIta Beausang, musicianJulie Feeney, author, academic and criticRobert Anthony Welch, actorsFiona ShawandSiobhán McSweeney, novelist and poetWilliam Wall, poetsPaul Durcan,John Mee,Liam Ó Muirthile,Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill,Trevor Joyce,Thomas McCarthy,Theo Dorgan,andGreg Delanty, singerSEARLS, comedianDes Bishop,and journalistsBrendan O'Connor,Ian Bailey,Samantha Barry,Stefanie PreissnerandEoghan Harris.ActorCillian Murphyand BBC presenterGraham Nortonboth attended UCC but did not graduate. From the business community, alumni includeKerry Group's Denis Brosnan,Kingfisher plc's former CEO Gerry Murphy,former heads ofCRHAnthony Barry andMyles Lee. In medicine, alumni include SirEdwin John Butler,Charles Donovan, SirBertram Windle,Dr. Paul Whelton, and Dr.Pixie McKenna, doctor and TV presenter. Inphysics, alumni include ProfessorMargaret Murnaneof theUniversity of Colorado, ProfessorPatrick G. O'Sheaof theUniversity of Maryland, and ProfessorSéamus DavisofCornell University. In mathematics alumni include Irish mathematiciansSeán Dineen, an expert in complex analysis, andDes MacHale, a leading researcher on George Boole,. Politicians and public servants that attended UCC include currentTánaisteMicheál Martin, formerTaoiseachJack Lynch,Supreme Court justiceLiam McKechnie, senatorAnnie Hoey,and High Court judgeBryan MacMahon.André Ventura, founder of the Portuguese political partyChega, attended UCC as a graduate student. In religious communities alumni have included theChurch of IrelandBishop of Cork, Cloyne and Ross, DrPaul Colton, the first UCC graduate to be a Church of Ireland bishop.Some members of theSaint Patrick's Society for the Foreign Missions(Kiltegan Fathers) took their civil degrees in UCC, includingDerek John Christopher Byrne, Catholic Bishop in Brazil,Maurice Anthony CrowleySPS in Kenya,John Alphonsus RyanBishop in Malawi, andJohn Mageewho served as Bishop of Cloyne.Bishop of Kerry,Raymond Browne, holds a science degree from UCC. In sport, rugby coachDeclan Kidney,Gaelic footballersSéamus Moynihan,Maurice FitzgeraldandBilly Morgan,hurlersPat Heffernan,Joe Deane,James \"Cha\" FitzpatrickandRay Cummins, rugby playersEdwin Edogbo,Moss Keane,Ronan O'GaraandDonnacha Ryan, and OlympianLizzie Leehave all attended UCC. Notable academics List of presidents Arms See also References Further reading External links" ]
[ "Cillian Murphy Cillian Murphy(/ˈkɪliən/KILL-ee-ən;born 25 May 1976) is an Irish actor.His worksencompass both stage and screen, andhis accoladesinclude anAcademy Award, aBritish Academy Film Awardand aGolden Globe Award. He made his professional debut inEnda Walsh's 1996 playDisco Pigs, a role he later reprised inthe 2001 screen adaptation. His early film credits include the horror film28 Days Later(2002), the dark comedyIntermission(2003), the thrillerRed Eye(2005), the Irish war dramaThe Wind That Shakes the Barley(2006), and the science fiction thrillerSunshine(2007). He played a transgender Irish woman in the comedy-dramaBreakfast on Pluto(2005), which earned him his firstGolden Globe Awardnomination. Murphy began his collaboration with filmmakerChristopher Nolanin 2005, playing theScarecrowinThe Dark Knight trilogy(2005–2012) as well as appearing inInception(2010) andDunkirk(2017). He gained greater prominence for his role asTommy Shelbyin theBBCperiod drama seriesPeaky Blinders(2013–2022) and for", "and for starring in the horror sequelA Quiet Place Part II(2020). Murphy portrayedJ. Robert Oppenheimerin Nolan'sOppenheimer(2023), for which he won theAcademy Award for Best Actor. In 2011, Murphy won theDrama Desk Award for Outstanding Solo Performancefor theone-man playMisterman. In 2020,The Irish Timesnamed him one of the greatest Irish film actors of all time. Early life and education Murphy was born on 25 May 1976inDouglas, Cork. His mother taught French while his father, Brendan, worked for theDepartment of Education.His grandfather, aunts, and uncles were also teachers. He was raised inBallintemple, Cork, alongside his younger brother Páidi and younger sisters Sile and Orla.He started writing and performing songs at the age of 10. Murphy was raisedCatholicand attended the fee-paying Catholic secondary schoolPresentation Brothers College, where he did well academically but often got into trouble, sometimes being suspended; he decided in his fourth year that misbehaving was not worth the hassle.Not", "the hassle.Not keen on sports, which was a major part of the school's curriculum, he found that artistic pursuits were neglected at the school. Murphy got his first taste of performing in secondary school, when he participated in a drama module presented byCorcadorca Theatre Companydirector Pat Kiernan. He later described the experience as a \"huge high\" and a \"fully alive\" feeling that he then set out to chase.NovelistWilliam Wall, who was his English teacher, encouraged him to pursue acting but he was set on becoming a rock star.In his late teens and early 20s, he sang and played the guitar in several bands alongside his brother, Páidi, and theBeatles-obsessed duo named their most successful band The Sons of Mr. Green Genes, which they adopted from theFrank Zappasongof the same name. He later said the band \"specialised in wacky lyrics and endless guitar solos\". They were offered a five-album deal byAcid Jazz Records, which they rejected because Páidi was still in school and the duo did not agree with the", "not agree with the small amount of money they would get for giving the record label the rights to Murphy's compositions.Murphy later confessed, \"I'm very glad in retrospect that we didn't sign because you kind of sign away your life to a label and the whole of your music.\" Murphy began studying law atUniversity College Cork(UCC) in 1996, but failed his first-year exams because he \"had no ambitions to do it\".Not only was he busy with his band, but he knew within days after starting at UCC that he did not want to practise law.After seeing Corcadorca's stage production ofA Clockwork Orange, directed by Kiernan, he began directing his attention to acting.His first major role was in the UCC Drama Society's amateur production ofObserve the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme, which starred Irish-American comedianDes Bishop. Murphy also played the lead in their production ofLittle Shop of Horrors, which was performed in theCork Opera House. He later admitted that his primary motivation at the time was not to", "the time was not to pursue an acting career, but to go to parties and meet women. Career 1996–2002: Theatre work and early roles Murphy pressured Pat Kiernan until he got an audition atCorcadorca Theatre Company, and in September 1996, he made his professional acting debut on the stage, playing the part of a volatile Cork teenager inEnda Walsh'sDisco Pigs.Walsh recalled meeting and discovering Murphy: \"There was something about him – he was incredibly enigmatic and he would walk into a room with real presence and you'd go, \"My God\". It had nothing to do with those bloody eyes that everyone's going on about all the time.\"Murphy observed, \"I was unbelievably cocky and had nothing to lose, and it suited the part, I suppose\".Originally intended to run for three weeks in Cork,Disco Pigsended up touring throughout Europe, Canada and Australia for two years, and Murphy left both universityand his band.Though he had intended to go back to playing music, he secured representation after his first agent caught a", "agent caught a performance ofDisco Pigs, and his acting career began to take off. He starred in many other theatre productions, includingShakespeare'sMuch Ado About Nothing(1998),The Country Boy,andJuno and the Paycock(both 1999).He began appearing in independent films such asOn the Edge(2001), and in short films, includingFilleann an Feall(2000) andWatchmen(2001).He also reprised his role for the film adaption ofDisco Pigs(2001) and appeared in theBBCtelevision mini-series adaptation ofThe Way We Live Now.During this period, he moved from Cork, relocating first toDublinfor a few years, then to London in 2001.In 2002, Murphy starred as Adam in a theatre production ofNeil LaBute'sThe Shape of Thingsat theGate Theatrein Dublin. Writing forThe Irish Times, Fintan O'Toole praised Murphy's performance, \"Murphy measures out his metamorphosis with an impressive subtlety and intelligence\". 2002–2004:28 Days Laterand breakthrough Murphy was cast in the lead role inDanny Boyle's horror film28 Days Later(2002). He", "Later(2002). He portrayedpandemicsurvivor Jim, who is \"perplexed to find himself alone in the desolate, post-apocalyptic world\" after waking from a coma in a London hospital.Casting director Gail Stevens suggested that Boyle audition Murphy for the role, having been impressed with his performance inDisco Pigs. Stevens stated that it was only after seeing his slender physique during filming that they decided to feature him fully nude at the beginning of the film.She recalled that Murphy was shy on set with the tendency to look slightly away from the camera, but enthused that he had a \"dreamy, slightly de-energised, floating quality that is fantastic for the film\". Released in the UK in late 2002, by the following July,28 Days Laterhad become asleeper hitin North America, and success worldwide, putting Murphy in front of a mass audience for the first time.His performance earned him a nomination for Best Newcomer at the8th Empire Awards, and Breakthrough Male Performance at the2004 MTV Movie Awards.Murphy", "Movie Awards.Murphy professed that he considered the film to be much deeper than a zombie or horror film, expressing surprise at the film's success, and that American audiences responded well to its content and violence.Murphy said, \"The film did so well. And you watch zombie stuff , we were the first people to make zombies run, and changed everything. It has a very special place in my heart, that movie.\" In 2003, Murphy played the role of Konstantine in a stage production ofChekhov'sThe Seagullat theEdinburgh International Festival. He said that he wanted to play Konstantine because the character \"goes on this amazing journey through the play he comes to realise there's no point being an iconoclastic writer just for the sake of it, and that the search for new forms has to have something behind it\". Murphy starred as a lovelorn, hapless supermarket stocker who plots a bank heist withColin FarrellinIntermission(2003), which became the highest-grossing Irish independent film in Irish box office history", "box office history (untilThe Wind That Shakes the Barleybroke the record in 2006).Reflecting on his roles in28 Days Laterand the \"sad-sack Dublin shelf-stacker\" inIntermission, Sarah Lyall of theInternational Herald Tribunestated that Murphy brought \"fluent ease to the roles he takes on, a graceful and wholly believable intensity. His delicate good looks have, as much as his acting prowess, caused people to mark him as Ireland's nextColin Farrell, albeit one who seems less likely to be caught tomcatting around or brawling drunkenly at premieres.\"He had a minor supporting role in the successful Hollywood period dramaCold Mountain(2003). He portrayed a deserting soldier who shares a grim scene withJude Law's character, and was on location in Romania for only a week. Murphy stated that it was a \"massive production\", remarking that directorAnthony Minghellawas the calmest director he'd ever met.Murphy also had a role as a butcher inGirl with a Pearl Earring(2003) withScarlett JohanssonandColin Firth. In 2004,", "Firth. In 2004, Murphy toured Ireland with theDruid Theatre Company, inThe Playboy of the Western World(playing the character of Christy Mahon) under the direction ofGarry Hynes—who had previously directed Murphy back in 1999 in the theatre productions ofJuno and the Paycock—and also inThe Country Boy. 2005–2006: Villainous roles and critical success Murphy appeared asDr. Jonathan CraneinChristopher Nolan'sBatman Begins(2005). Originally asked to audition for the role ofBruce Wayne/Batman, Murphy never saw himself as having the right physique for the superhero, but leapt at the chance to connect with director Nolan.Though the lead went toChristian Bale, Nolan was so impressed with Murphy that he gave him the supporting role of Dr. Crane, whose alter ego issupervillainScarecrow.Nolan toldSpinmagazine, \"He has the most extraordinary eyes, and I kept trying to invent excuses for him to take his glasses off in close-ups\".He starred as Jackson Rippner, who terrorisesRachel McAdamson an overnight flight inWes", "flight inWes Craven's thriller,Red Eye(2005).The New York Timesfilm criticManohla Dargisasserted that Murphy made \"a picture-perfect villain\" and that his \"baby blues look cold enough to freeze water and his wolfish leer suggests its own terrors\".The film was favourably reviewed and earned almost $100 million worldwide. Murphy received several awards nominations for his 2005 villainous roles, among them a nomination as Best Villain at the2006 MTV Movie AwardsforBatman Begins.Entertainment Weeklyranked him among its 2005 \"SummerMVPs\", a cover story list of 10 entertainers with outstanding breakthrough performances.The New Yorker'sDavid Denbywrote: \"Cillian Murphy, who has angelic looks that can turn sinister, is one of the most elegantly seductive monsters in recent movies.\" Murphy starred as Patrick/\"Kitten\" Braden, atransgenderIrish woman in search of her mother, inNeil Jordan's comedy-dramaBreakfast on Pluto(2005), based on the novel of the same title byPatrick McCabe. Seen against the film's kaleidoscopic", "kaleidoscopic backdrop of 1970sglitter rockfashion, magic shows,red-light districtsandIRAviolence, Murphy transforms fromandrogynousteen to a blondedragqueen. He had auditioned for the role in 2001 and, though Jordan liked him for the part, the director ofThe Crying Gamewas hesitant to revisit transgender and IRA issues. The actor lobbied Jordan for several years in a bid to get the film made before Murphy became too old to play the part; in 2004, he prepared for the role by meeting atransvestitewho dressed him and took him clubbing with other transvestites.The role required \"serious primping\" with eyebrow plucking and chest and leg hair removal,andRoger Ebertnoted the way that Murphy played the character with a \"bemused and hopeful voice\".While lukewarm reviews ofBreakfast on Plutotended to praise Murphy's performance highly,a few critics dissented:The Village Voice, which panned the film, found him \"unconvincing\" and overly cute.Murphy was nominated for aGolden Globe Awardfor Best Actor in a Musical or", "in a Musical or Comedy forBreakfast on Plutoand won the fourthIrish Film and Television AcademyBest Actor Award.Premieremagazine cited his performance as Kitten in their \"The 24 Finest Performances of 2005\" feature. In 2006, Murphy starred inThe Wind That Shakes the Barley, a film about theIrish War of Independenceand theIrish Civil War, which won thePalme d'Orat the2006 Cannes Film Festivaland became the most successful Irish independent film at the Irish box office.Murphy was especially keen on appearing in the film due to his intimate connections toCork, Ireland, where the film was shot. Murphy auditioned six times for the role of Damien O'Donovan, a young doctor turned revolutionary, before winning the part. Murphy considered it a very special privilege to have been given the role and stated that he was \"tremendously proud\" of the film, remarking that the \"memories run very, very deep – the politics, the divisions and everybody has stories of family members who were caught up in the struggle.\"David Denby", "Denby noted Murphy's moments of deep stillness and idiosyncrasies in portraying the character.Kenneth Turanof theLos Angeles Timeswrote that \"Murphy is especially good at playing the zealotry as well as the soul-searching and the regret, at showing us a man who is eaten up alive because he's forced to act in ways that are contrary to his background and his training\".GQmagazine presented Murphy with its 2006 Actor of the Year award for his work inThe Wind That Shakes the Barley. 2006–2010: Further theatre and film roles Murphy returned to the stage starring oppositeNeve Campbellat theNew Ambassadors Theatrein London's West End from November 2006 to February 2007, playing the lead role of John Kolvenbach's playLove Song.Theatre Recorddescribed his character of Beane as a \"winsomely cranky\" mentally unstable \"sentimentalised lonely hero\", noting how he magnetically, with \"all blue eyes and twitching hands\", moves \"comically from painfully shy \"wallpaper\" to garrulous, amorous male.Varietymagazine considered his", "considered his performance to be \"as magnetic onstage as onscreen\", remarking that his \"unhurried puzzlement pulls the slight preciousness in the character's idiot-savant naivete back from the brink\". He starred in the science fiction filmSunshine(2007) as a physicist-astronaut charged with re-igniting the sun, also directed byDanny Boyle.He starred oppositeLucy LiuinPaul Soter's romantic comedyWatching the Detectives(2007); theindie filmpremiered at the 2007Tribeca Film Festivaland was released direct-to-DVD.Murphy starred asRichard Neville, editor of the psychedelic radical underground magazineOzin the filmHippie Hippie Shake, which was filmed in 2007, but the project, much delayed, was eventually shelved in 2011. Murphy made a brief re-appearance as the Scarecrow in Nolan'sThe Dark Knight(2008), the sequel toBatman Begins,before starring inThe Edge of Love—about a love quadrangle involving the poetDylan Thomas—withKeira Knightley,Sienna MillerandMatthew Rhys.In July 2008, Murphy made a debut appearance in", "debut appearance in another medium—on a postage stamp; the Irish Post Office,An Post, released a series of four stamps paying homage to the creativity of films recently produced in Ireland, including one featuring Murphy in a still fromThe Wind That Shakes the Barley.In 2009, Murphy starred opposite rock singerFeistand actorDavid FoxinThe Water, directed byKevin DrewofBroken Social Scene. The 15-minute Canadian short film, released online in April 2009, is nearly silent until the Feist song of the same title plays close to the end. Murphy was attracted to the role as a fan of Broken Social Scene and the prospect of making a silent movie, which he considered to be the \"hardest test for any actor\".Murphy also starred inPerrier's Bounty, a crime dramedy from the makers ofIntermission, in which he portrayed a petty criminal on the run from a gangster played byBrendan Gleeson. In 2010, he made a return to theatre inFrom Galway to Broadway and back again, which was a stage show that celebrated theDruid Theatre", "theDruid Theatre Company's 35th birthday.The direct-to-video psychological thrillerPeacock(2010), co-starringElliot Page,Susan SarandonandBill Pullman, starred Murphy as a man with a split personality who fools people into believing he is also his own wife. Christian Toto ofThe Washington Timesreferred to the film as \"a handsomely mounted psychological drama with an arresting lead turn by Cillian Murphy\", and noted that although Murphy wasn't a stranger to playing in drag, his work in the film set a \"new standard for gender-bending performances\".Murphy next starred inChristopher Nolan'sInception(2010), playing entrepreneur Robert Fischer, whose mind is infiltrated by DiCaprio's character Cobb to convince him to dissolve his business.That year, Murphy also made an uncreditedcameoas programmer Edward Dillinger Jr., son of originalTronantagonist Ed Dillinger (David Warner) inTron: Legacy. 2011–present:Peaky BlindersandOppenheimer In 2011, Murphy performed in the stagemonodramaMisterman, written and directed", "and directed byEnda Walsh, with whom he had previously worked onDisco Pigs. The production was initially staged inGalwayand was taken toSt. Ann's WarehouseinBrooklyn, New York. Murphy said of the role, \"The live nature of it makes it so dangerous. You're only there because of the good will of the audience, and that's compounded by its being a one-man show.\"His performance earned critical acclaim, garneringIrish Times Theatre Awardand aDrama Desk Award.Sarah Lyall of theInternational Herald Tribunedescribed Murphy's character Thomas Magill to be a \"complicated mixture of sympathetic and not nice at all – deeply wounded, but with a dangerous, skewed moral code\", praising his ability to mimic wickedly. Lyall noted Murphy's \"unusual ability to create and inhabit creepy yet fascinating characters from the big screen to the small stage in the intense one-man showMisterman\", and documented that on one evening the \"theater was flooded, not with applause but with silence\", eventually culminating in a standing ovation", "a standing ovation at his powerful performance.He played the lead in the British horror filmRetreat(2011), which had alimited release. He also appeared in the science fiction filmIn Time(2011), starringJustin TimberlakeandAmanda Seyfried, which was poorly reviewed. Murphy starred inRed Lights(2012) withRobert De NiroandSigourney Weaver. He played Tom Buckley, the assistant to Weaver's character who is a paranormal investigator. Murphy considered working with De Niro to have been one of the most intimidating moments in his career. He remarked: \"My first scene when I come to visit him my character is supposed to be terrified and intimidated. There was no acting involved. The man has presence. You can't act presence. I'll never have that. Watching him use it... when you put a camera on it, it just becomes something else.\"The film was panned by critics and under-performed at the box office.Murphy went on to reprise his role as the Scarecrow for the third time inThe Dark Knight Rises(2012),and had a supporting", "had a supporting role as Mike in the British independent filmBroken(2012). His performance earned him aBritish Independent Film Award for Best Supporting Actornomination. Since 2013, Murphy has starred asThomas Shelbyin the BBC television seriesPeaky Blinders, a series about a criminal gang inBirminghamduring the post-World War Iperiod.Jason Stathamwas initially picked for the role by directorSteven Knight, who met both actors to talk about the role.Knight later said, \"Cillian, when you meet him, isn't Tommy, obviously, but I was stupid enough not to understand that\".He picked Murphy after receiving a text message from Murphy that read, \"Remember, I'm an actor\".Murphy toldThe Independent, \" were so compelling and confident, and the character was so rich and complex, layered and contradictory. I was like, 'I have to do this.'\"Peaky Blinderswas praised and received high ratings. A second series began broadcasting on the BBC in October 2014. On 25 August 2019, the first episode of season 5 was broadcast onBBC", "was broadcast onBBC One. In an interview withDigital Spy,director Anthony Byrne said, \"if we did start shooting in January (2021), we wouldn't finish until May or June and then it's another 6 months of editing\". Series six premiered on 27 February 2022.In 2013, Murphy made his directorial debut with a music video for the band Money's singleHold Me Forever. The video features dancers from theEnglish National Balletand was filmed atThe Old Vic Theatrein London. In 2014, Murphy starred in the dramaAloft,andWally Pfister'sTranscendence.Both of these garnered mostly unfavourable critic reviews according to the aggregatorRotten Tomatoes.That same year, Murphy reunited with Enda Walsh in the playBallyturk.He starred inRon Howard's 2015 filmIn the Heart of the Sea.In 2015, he contributed spoken vocals to the tracks \"8:58\" and \"The Clock\" fromPaul Hartnoll's album8:58. The two previously met while Hartnoll was scoring the second season ofPeaky Blinders.In 2016, Murphy starred in Ben Wheatley'sFree Fire,and portrayed", "Fire,and portrayed CzechoslovakWorld War IIarmy soldierJozef Gabčík, who was involved inOperation Anthropoid, the assassination ofReinhard HeydrichinAnthropoid.Rupert Hawksley ofThe Telegraphbelieved Cillian's performance inAnthropoid, but opined that he is \"not asked to do an awful lot, other than smoke and look perplexed\". In 2017, Murphy played ashell-shockedarmy officer who is recovered from a wrecked ship inChristopher Nolan's war filmDunkirk, which emerged as a critical and box-office success.He felt that his character, who is nameless and was credited simply as Shivering Soldier, was \"representative of something experienced by thousands of soldiers, which is the profound emotional and psychological toll that war can have\".Murphy has also played a role in the feature filmAnnaas Miller, released in June 2019. His next release,A Quiet Place Part II(2021), stars Murphy as Emmett, a hardened survivor and old family friend of the Abbotts. Murphy's character reluctantly takes in the Abbotts following the", "following the events ofthe first film.Peter BradshawofThe Guardianpraised his performance. Murphy portrayedJ. Robert Oppenheimerin the biographical thrillerOppenheimer.The film marks the sixth collaboration between Nolan and Murphy, and the first starring Murphy as the lead. To prepare for the role, Murphy lost a significant amount of weight to match Oppenheimer's near-emaciated appearance, extensively researched Oppenheimer's life and took inspiration fromDavid Bowie's appearance in the 1970s.Released in 2023, the film grossed over $975 million worldwide and garnered positive reviews from critics.Murphy's performance was lauded, withEmpire's Dan Jolin writing: \"At the film's pulsing nucleus is Murphy as Oppenheimer, and he is compelling throughout.\"For his performance, he won theGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama,BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role,Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role, andAcademy Award for Best Actor. Murphy", "Best Actor. Murphy launched the independent production company Big Things Films withAlan Moloneyin February 2024.He produced and starred in the historical dramaSmall Things like These, which opened the74th Berlin International Film Festival,and the upcomingSteve, through a collaboration withNetflix.Murphy will also executive produce the sequel to28 Days Later, titled28 Years Later, and is in talks to reprise his role.Additionally, Murphy will reprise his role in aPeaky Blindersfilmwhich will shoot in September 2024. He will also produce and star inBlood Runs Coalfor Universal Pictures. Murphy has presented shows onBBC Radio 6 Musicsince 2013; since 2020 he has hostedCillian Murphy's Limited Edition, a limited-run series broadcasting late on Sunday evenings in which he draws from his personal music collection and answers \"reasonable questions\" from listeners. As of 2024, three seasons ofLimited Editionhave been produced, totaling 28 episodes. Public image Reserved and private, Murphy professes a lack of", "professes a lack of interest in the celebrity scene, finding the red carpet experience \"a challenge\" that he does not \"want to overcome\".He intentionally practises a lifestyle that will not interest thetabloids, stating, \"I haven't created any controversy, I don't sleep around, I don't go and fall down drunk\".He prefers not to speak about his life outside of acting and did not appear on any television talk shows until 2010, when he was a guest on Ireland'sLate Late Showto promotePerrier's Bounty, though he still remained reserved.Murphy's introverted nature and lack of interest in social media has prompted several fans to creatememeson his detached demeanour in press interviews and junkets.In 2017, upon being asked his opinion on the \"Disappointed Cillian Murphy\" meme, he answered, \"What's a meme?\". In 2015, Murphy was named one ofGQ's 50 best-dressed men,and in 2024, he was announced as the new face of Italian luxury fashion companyVersace. Activism Murphy participated in the 2007Rock the VoteIreland", "the VoteIreland campaign, targeting young voters for the general election,and campaigning for the rights of thehomelesswith the organisationFocus Ireland.In 2011, he became a patron of theUNESCOChild and Family Research Centre at theNational University of Ireland Galway. He is closely associated with the work of Professor Pat Dolan Director UCFRC and UNESCO Chair in Children, Youth and Civic Engagement. In February 2012, he wrote a message of support to the formerVita Cortex workersinvolved in a sit-in at their plant, congratulating them for \"highlighting is hugely important to us all as a nation\".Murphy was a supporter of the 2018 Irish referendum to repealthe eighth amendment of the constitutionthat restricted access to abortions, appearing onThe Blindboy Podcastto urge men to support women and vote in favour of the referendum. Personal life In 2004, Murphy married his longtime girlfriendYvonne McGuinness, whom he met at one of his rock band's shows in 1996.They lived inDublinuntil 2001, when they moved", "when they moved to London so his wife could attend theRoyal College of Art. After 14 years, they moved back to Dublin in 2015. They have two sons, born in 2005 and 2007. Murphy was raisedCatholic. He stated that he had been verging on agnosticism until his role as a physicist and astronaut in the 2007 filmSunshine, at which point his views shifted towardsatheism.In 2019, he said the Catholic faith still shaped his morality. He was a vegetarian for around 15 years, which he said happened because he was \"worried about gettingmad cow disease\" rather than a moral decision.He also had qualms about unhealthyagribusinesspractices.He began eating meat again to bulk up for his role inPeaky Blinders.In a 2022 interview, he said he had returned to vegetarianism. Acting credits and awards Murphy's most commercially successful films have been his many collaborations with Nolan, includingOppenheimer,Inception,Batman Begins, andDunkirk.Following the success ofOppenheimerand theBarbenheimerphenomenon, Murphy was named", "Murphy was named inVariety'slist of the most influential figures of 2023 in the entertainment and media industry.Murphy's works also include other critically acclaimed films, such asA Quiet Place IIandThe Wind that Shakes the Barley.He has received several accolades over the course of his career, including fourIrish Film & Television Awards,aBAFTA Award, aGolden Globe Award, and anAcademy Award. References Bibliography External links", "University College Cork University College Cork – National University of Ireland, Cork(UCC)(Irish:Coláiste na hOllscoile Corcaigh) is a constituent university of theNational University of Ireland, and located inCork. The university was founded in 1845 as one of threeQueen's Collegeslocated inBelfast, Cork, andGalway.It became University College, Cork, under theIrish Universities Act 1908. The Universities Act 1997 renamed the university as National University of Ireland, Cork, and a Ministerial Order of 1998 renamed the university as University College Cork – National University of Ireland, Cork,though it continues to be almost universally known as University College Cork. Amongst other rankings and awards, the university was named Irish University of the Year byThe Sunday Timeson five occasions; most recently in 2017.In 2015, UCC was also named as top performing university by the European Commission fundedU-Multiranksystem, based on obtaining the highest number of \"A\" scores (21 out of 28 metrics) among a", "28 metrics) among a field of 1200 partaking universities.UCC also became the first university to achieve theISO 50001standard in energy management in 2011. History Queen's College, Cork, was founded by the provisions of an act which enabledQueen Victoriato endow new colleges for the \"Advancement of Learning in Ireland\". Under the powers of this act, the three colleges ofBelfast, Cork andGalwaywere incorporated on 30 December 1845. The college opened in 1849 with 23 professors and 181 students; Medicine, Arts, and Law were the three founding faculties. A year later the college became part of theQueen's University of Ireland. The original site chosen for the college was considered appropriate as it was believed to have had a connection with thepatron saintof Cork,Saint Finbarr. His monastery and school of learning were close by at Gill Abbey Rock and the mill attached to the monastery is thought to have stood on the bank of the south channel of theRiver Lee, which runs through the college lower grounds. This", "lower grounds. This association is also reflected in the college motto \"Where Finbarr Taught, LetMunsterLearn\" which is also the university motto. Adjacent to Gillabbey and overlooking the valley of the river Lee, the site was selected in 1846.The Tudor Gothic quadrangle and early campus buildings were designed and built bySir Thomas DeaneandBenjamin Woodward. Queen's College Cork officially opened its doors in November 1849, with further buildings added later, including the Medical/Windle Building in the 1860s. National University of Ireland In the following century, theIrish Universities Act 1908formed theNational University of Ireland, consisting of the three constituent colleges of Dublin, Cork and Galway, and the college was given the status of auniversity collegeasUniversity College, Cork. The Universities Act, 1997, made the university college a constituent university of the National University and made the constituent university a full university for all purposes except the awarding of degrees and", "of degrees and diplomas which remains the sole remit of the National University. Today As of 2022, University College Cork (UCC) had 24,195 students.These included 16,849 in undergraduate programmes,7,346 in postgraduate study and research,and 2,800 in adult continuing education across undergraduate, postgraduate and short courses. The student base is supported by 3429 academic, research and administrative staff.As of 2022, UCC reportedly has c. 200,000 alumni worldwide. Campus Student numbers, at over 24,000 in 2022,increased from the late 1980s, precipitating the expansion of the campus by the acquisition of adjacent buildings and lands. This expansion continued with the opening of theAlfred O'Rahillybuilding in the late 1990s, the Cavanagh Pharmacy building, the Brookfield Health Sciences centre, the extendedÁras na MacLéinn(Devere Hall), theLewis Glucksman Galleryin 2004,Experience UCC(Visitors' Centre) and an extension to theBoole Library– named for the first professor of mathematics at UCC,George", "at UCC,George Boole, who developed thealgebrathat would later make computer programming possible. The university also completed the Western Gateway Building in 2009 on the site of the former Cork Greyhound track on the Western Road as well as refurbishment to theTyndallinstitute buildings at the Lee Maltings Complex. In 2016, UCC acquired the Cork Savings Bank building on Lapps Quay in the centre of Cork City. As of 2017, the university is rolling out a programme to increase the space across its campuses, with part of this development involving the creation of a 'student hub' to support academic strategy, add 600 new student accommodation spaces, and develop an outdoor sports facility. The School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences is based on the North Mall Campus, the site of the formerNorth Mall Distillery. Since 1986, 2.5 tonnes ofuranium rodshave been stored in the basement of the UCC physics department. The uranium was originally given to Ireland by the US as part of theAtoms for", "of theAtoms for Peaceprogramme, however, due to public opposition, the reactor was dismantled during the 1980s. As there is nonuclear waste sitein Ireland, the uranium remains on campus. In 2006, the university re-opened theCrawford Observatory, a structure built in 1880 on the grounds of the university by SirHoward Grubb. Grubb, son of the Grubb telescope building family in Dublin, designed the observatory and built the astronomical instruments for the structure. The university paid for an extensive restoration and conservation of the building and the three main telescopes, the Equatorial, the Transit Circle and Sidereostatic telescopes. In November 2009, several UCC buildings were damaged by flooding.The floods also affected other parts of Cork City, with many students being evacuated from accommodation. The college authorities postponed academic activities for a week,and indicated that it would take until 2010 before all flood-damaged property would be repaired. Particularly impacted was the newly opened", "the newly opened Western Gateway Building, with the main lecture theatre requiring a total refit just months after opening for classes. In 2018, UCC's campus became home to the first \"plastic free\" café in Ireland, with the opening of the Bio Green Café in the Biosciences building. Research The university is one of Ireland's leading research institutes, with among the highest research income in the state.In 2016, UCC secured research funding of over €96 million, a 21% increase over five years and a high for the university. The university had seven faculties: Arts and Celtic Studies, Commerce, Engineering, Food Science and Technology, Law, Medicine, and Science. Between 2005 and 2006 the university was restructured from these seven faculties into four colleges: Arts, Celtic Studies and Social Science; Business and Law; Medicine and Health; and Science, Engineering and Food Science. According to the 2009-2012 UCC Strategic Plan,UCC aimed to enhance research and innovation. In 2009, the university was ranked in", "was ranked in the top 3% of universities worldwide for research. UCC's published research strategy proposed to create \"Centres of Excellence\" for \"world-class research\" in which the researchers and research teams would be given \"freedom and flexibility to pursue their areas of research\".Research centres in UCC cover a range of areas including: Nanoelectronics with theTyndall Institute; Food and Health with the Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre,NutraMara,Food for Health Ireland Research Centre,and Cereal Science Cork;the Environment with the Environmental Research Institute(with research in biodiversity, aquaculture, energy efficiency and ocean energy); and Business Information Systems. TheSunday Times\"Good University Guide 2015\", put UCC at the top of their rankings for \"research income per academic\". In October 2008, the governing body of the university announced that UCC would be the first institution in Ireland to use embryonic stem cells in researchunder strict guidelines of the University Research Ethics", "Research Ethics using imported hESCs from approved jurisdictions.In 2009, Professor of Mathematics at UCC, Des McHale, challenged the university's decision to allow embryonic stem cell research.According to the results of a poll conducted by irishhealth.com, almost two in three people supported the decision made by University College Cork to allow embryonic stem cell research. In 2016, Professor Noel Caplice, director of the centre for research in Vascular Biology at UCC and a cardiologist at Cork University Hospital, announced a \"major breakthrough in the field of blood vessel replacement\". Campus companies The university has a number of related companies including: Cytrea, which is involved inpharmaceuticalformulations;Firecomms, anICTcompany concentrating onopticalcommunications;Alimentary Health abiotechhealthcarecompany;Biosensia who develop integrated micro-system analytical chips;Sensl, part ofON Semiconductor; Luxcel which is involved in the development of probes and sensors;and Optical Metrology", "Optical Metrology Innovations which developslasermetrologysystems. Knowledge transfer Innovation and Knowledge transfer is driven by UCC's Office of Technology Transfer,an office of the university dedicated to commercialising aspects of UCC's research and connecting researchers with industry. Recent spinouts from the college include pharmaceutical company Glantreo,Luxcel Biosciences,Alimentary Health, Biosensia, Firecoms, Gourmet Marine, Keelvar, Lee Oncology, and Sensl. Commemorative events In 2015, the university marked the bicentenary of mathematician, philosopher and logicianGeorge Boole- UCC's first professor of mathematics.In September 2017, UCC unveiled a €350 million investment plan, with university president, Professor Patrick O’Shea, outlining the development goals for UCC in the areas of philanthropy and student recruitment.The plan proposes to provide for curriculum development, an increase in national and international student numbers, the extension of the campus and an increase in the income", "in the income earned from philanthropy. The Minister for Culture, Heritage & the Gaeltacht and Chair of the National Famine Commemoration Committee, Heather Humphreys TD, also announced that 2018's National Famine Commemoration is planned to take place in UCC.Cork University Press published The Atlas of the Great Irish Famine in 2012.Subsequently, in September 2017, The Atlas of the Irish Revolution was published by Cork University Press.In November 2017, UCC's MSc Information Systems for Business Performance (ISBP) was named \"Postgraduate Course of the Year - IT\" at the gradireland Higher Education Awards in Dublin. Reputation University College Cork has been ranked by a number of bodies, and was named as the \"Irish University of the Year\" by theSunday Timesin 2003, 2005, 2011 and 2016,and was a runner up in the 2015 edition.In 2015, UCC was also named as top performing university by the European Commission fundedU-Multiranksystem, based on a high number of \"A\" scores (21 out of 28 metrics) among a field of", "among a field of 1200 partaking universities.Also in 2015, theCWTS Leiden Rankingplaced UCC 1st in Ireland, 16th in Europe and 52nd globally from a field of 750 universities.The 2011QS World University Rankingsassigned a 5-star rating to UCC,and ranked the university amongst the top 2% of universities worldwide. UCC was ranked 230th in the 2014 edition of the QS World University Rankings.13 of its subject areas featured in the QS World University Rankings by Subject 2015 (up from 10 subject areas in 2014), including the Pharmacy & Pharmacology disciplines, which were listed with the top 50 worldwide.TheUniversitas Indonesia (UI) Greenmetric World University Rankingawarded UCC a second in the world ranking for the second year in a row in 2015 for its efforts in the area of sustainability, with 360 universities from 62 countries ranked overall. UCC has been recognised for its digital and social media presence, winning the 'Best Social Media Engagement' category at the 2014 Social Media Awards,and as a finalist", "as a finalist in two categories at the 2015 Social Media Awards.A previous finalist at the 2013 and 2014 Web Awards, UCC also made the 2015 finals in two categories,'Most Influential Irish Website Ever' and 'Best Education and Third Level Website'. University College Cork had the first website in Ireland in 1991(only the ninth website in the world at the time), serving transcriptions of Irish historical and literary documents for the CELT project converted from SGML to HTML. It was reported in December 2020 that UCC had spent €76,265.38 investigating sexual harassment claims over the previous five years. This represented the largest amount spent by a third-level institution in Ireland during that period. UCC spent €24,460.50 on legal fees in the years 2017 and 2018, and paid out €510 in 2018. Academic units College of Medicine and Health Medicine, Arts, and Law were the three founding faculties when Queen's College Cork opened its doors to students in 1849. The medical buildings were built in stages between", "in stages between 1860 and 1880, and the faculty quickly gained a reputation for the quality of its graduates. The first two women to graduate in medicine in Ireland did so in 1898 (this was notable as it was more than 20 years before women were permitted to sit for medicine at theUniversity of Oxford).UCC School of Medicine is part of the College of Medicine and Health, and is based at the Brookfield Health Sciences Centre on the main UCC campus and is affiliated with the 1000-bedUniversity College Cork Teaching Hospital, which is the largest medical centre in Ireland. The UCC School Of Pharmacy is based in the Cavanagh Pharmacy Building. Centre for Architectural Education The Cork Centre for Architectural Education (CCAE) is the Department of Architecture at UCC, and is a school jointly run withMunster Technological University. It is accredited by the Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland. Humanities The College of Arts, Celtic Studies and Social Sciences (CACSSS) incorporates a number of schools.", "number of schools. UCC is home to the Irish Institute of Chinese Studies, which allows students to study Chinese culture as well as the language through Arts and Commerce. The department won the European Award for Languages in 2008. As of 2017, Digital Humanities had grown as a discipline, with 26 PhD research students working on various Digital Humanities projects.UCC's programme for students in Digital Humanities includes BA (Hons) Digital Humanities & Information Technology, MA Digital Arts & Humanities and PhD Digital Arts & Humanities. Student life Clubs, societies and representation University College Cork has over 100 active societiesand 50 different sports clubs.There are academic, charitable, creative, gaming/role-playing, political, religious, and social societies and clubs incorporating field sports, martial arts, watersports as well outdoor and indoor team and individual sports. UCC clubs are sponsored byBank of Ireland, with the UCC Skull and Crossbones as the mascot for all UCC sports teams.", "UCC sports teams. 100 students received scholarships in 26 different sports in 2010. The activities of UCC's societies include charity work; with over €100,000 raised annually by the Surgeon Noonan society, €10,000 raised by the War Gaming and Role Playing Society (WARPS) through its international gaming conventionWarpcon, €10,000 raised by the UCC Law Society for the Cambodia orphanage and the UCC Pharmacy Society supports the Cork Hospitals Children's Club every year with a number of events.UCC societies also sometimes attract high-profile speakers such asRobert Fiskwho addressed the Law Society, Nick Leeson,and Senator David Norris, who was the 2009/2010 honorary president of theUCC Philosophical Society. An Chuallacht(Irish pronunciation:, meaning \"the fellowship\") is UCC'sIrish languageand culture society. Founded in 1912, this society promotes the Irish language, and was awarded theGlór na nGael\"Irish Society of the Year Award\" in 2009. TheUCC Students' Union(UCCSU) acts as the representative body of", "body of the 17,000 students attending UCC. Each student is automatically a member by virtue of a student levy.A student-run radio station, formerly known as \"Cork Campus Radio\", also broadcasts on the campus. Student accommodation Accommodation for students is offered by UCC through a subsidiary company known as Campus Accommodation UCC DAC.UCC operate 5 accommodation complexes, including the Castlewhite Apartments (63 apartments/298 beds),Mardyke Hall (14 apartments/48 beds), In February 2020, UCC announced their decision to raise rent in the 2020/21 academic term by three-percent over the 2019/20 academic term rate.The announcement came after similar rent increases in university-owned accommodation throughout the country,and after increases in previous years to the rent of UCC-owned accommodation.This decision was met with backlash from student representatives, UCC staff, and local politicians. On 25 February 2020, theUCC Students' Unionlaunched a campaign which demanded that UCC reverse the increase.A", "the increase.A group of over 300 UCC staff members signed a petition in solidarity with the Students' Union.Several members ofCork County Councilalso expressed opposition to the decision.In early March 2020, a spokesperson for the university said the increase was necessary due to refurbishment works, and a rise in security and maintenance costs. International students The largest number of the 2,400 international students at UCC in 2010 came from the United States, followed by China, France andMalaysia.UCC participates in theErasmusprogram with 439 students visiting UCC in 2009–2010.201 UCC students studied in institutions in the United States, China and Europe in the same period. UCC was rated highly in the 2008 International Student Barometer report.This survey polled 67,000 international students studying at 84 institutions, and was carried out by the International Insight Group.The report held that 98% of UCC's international students (who participated in the survey) reported having \"Expert Lecturers\".", "\"Expert Lecturers\". And over 90% of these students said that they had \"Good Teachers\".In 3 categories of the survey, \"sports facilities\", \"social facilities\" and \"university clubs and societies\", UCC was in the top three of the 84 Institutions that took part in the survey. UCC's International Education Office was given a 93% satisfaction rating and UCC's IT Support was given a 92% satisfaction rating. Notable alumni Notable alumni of the university include graduates from different disciplines. In arts and literature,alumni include novelistSeán Ó Faoláin, short-story writerDaniel Corkery, composersAloys Fleischmann,Seán Ó Riada, musicologistIta Beausang, musicianJulie Feeney, author, academic and criticRobert Anthony Welch, actorsFiona ShawandSiobhán McSweeney, novelist and poetWilliam Wall, poetsPaul Durcan,John Mee,Liam Ó Muirthile,Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill,Trevor Joyce,Thomas McCarthy,Theo Dorgan,andGreg Delanty, singerSEARLS, comedianDes Bishop,and journalistsBrendan O'Connor,Ian Bailey,Samantha Barry,Stefanie", "Barry,Stefanie PreissnerandEoghan Harris.ActorCillian Murphyand BBC presenterGraham Nortonboth attended UCC but did not graduate. From the business community, alumni includeKerry Group's Denis Brosnan,Kingfisher plc's former CEO Gerry Murphy,former heads ofCRHAnthony Barry andMyles Lee. In medicine, alumni include SirEdwin John Butler,Charles Donovan, SirBertram Windle,Dr. Paul Whelton, and Dr.Pixie McKenna, doctor and TV presenter. Inphysics, alumni include ProfessorMargaret Murnaneof theUniversity of Colorado, ProfessorPatrick G. O'Sheaof theUniversity of Maryland, and ProfessorSéamus DavisofCornell University. In mathematics alumni include Irish mathematiciansSeán Dineen, an expert in complex analysis, andDes MacHale, a leading researcher on George Boole,. Politicians and public servants that attended UCC include currentTánaisteMicheál Martin, formerTaoiseachJack Lynch,Supreme Court justiceLiam McKechnie, senatorAnnie Hoey,and High Court judgeBryan MacMahon.André Ventura, founder of the Portuguese", "of the Portuguese political partyChega, attended UCC as a graduate student. In religious communities alumni have included theChurch of IrelandBishop of Cork, Cloyne and Ross, DrPaul Colton, the first UCC graduate to be a Church of Ireland bishop.Some members of theSaint Patrick's Society for the Foreign Missions(Kiltegan Fathers) took their civil degrees in UCC, includingDerek John Christopher Byrne, Catholic Bishop in Brazil,Maurice Anthony CrowleySPS in Kenya,John Alphonsus RyanBishop in Malawi, andJohn Mageewho served as Bishop of Cloyne.Bishop of Kerry,Raymond Browne, holds a science degree from UCC. In sport, rugby coachDeclan Kidney,Gaelic footballersSéamus Moynihan,Maurice FitzgeraldandBilly Morgan,hurlersPat Heffernan,Joe Deane,James \"Cha\" FitzpatrickandRay Cummins, rugby playersEdwin Edogbo,Moss Keane,Ronan O'GaraandDonnacha Ryan, and OlympianLizzie Leehave all attended UCC. Notable academics List of presidents Arms See also References Further reading External links" ]
There is a famous Texas city where a Stadium built in 1930 hosted six games for the 1994 World Cup, but only after widening the field and permanently installing natural grass on the playing surface. What was the average (mean) number of attendance for these six games?
58,692
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_FIFA_World_Cup
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_(stadium)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_FIFA_World_Cup', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_(stadium)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_FIFA_World_Cup", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_(stadium", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas" ]
[ "1994 FIFA World Cup The1994 FIFA World Cupwas the 15thFIFA World Cup, the world championship for men's nationalsoccerteams. It was hosted by the United States and took place from June 17 to July 17, 1994, at nine venues across the country. The United States was chosen as thehostbyFIFAon July 4, 1988.Despite soccer's relative lack of popularity in the host nation, the tournament was the most financially successfulin World Cup history. It broke tournament records with overall attendance of 3,587,538 and an average of 68,991 per game,figures that stand unsurpassed as of 2022,despite the expansion of the competition from 24 to 32 teams starting with the1998 World Cup. Brazilwas crowned the winner afterdefeatingItaly3–2 in apenalty shootoutat theRose BowlinPasadena, California, nearLos Angeles, after the game had ended 0–0 afterextra time. It was the first World Cup final to be decided on penalties. The victory made Brazil the first nation to win four World Cup titles. There were three new entrants in the tournament:Greece,Nigeria, andSaudi Arabia;Russiaalso appeared as a separate nation for the first time, following the breakup of theSoviet Union, and for the first time since 1938, a unifiedGermanytook part in the tournament. It was also the defending champion, but was eliminated in the quarterfinals byBulgaria. It was the first World Cup where three points were awarded for a victory instead of two and also the first with theback-pass rule. This was done to encourage a more attacking style of soccer as a response to the criticism of the defensive tactics and low-scoring matches of the1990 World Cup. This resulted in an average of 2.71 goals per match, compared to 2.21 in 1990. Background and preparations Bidding process Three nations bid to host the event: United States, Brazil, and Morocco.The vote was held in Zurich on July 4, 1988 (Independence Dayin the United States), and only took one round with the United States bid receiving a little over half of the votes by theFIFA Executive Committeemembers.FIFA hoped that by staging the world's most prestigious tournament there, it wouldlead to a growth of interest in the sport. An inspection committee also found that the proposed Brazilian stadiums were deficient, while the Moroccan bid relied on the construction of nine new stadiums. Conversely, all the proposed stadiums in the United States were already built and fully functioning; U.S. Soccer spent $500 million preparing and organizing the tournament, far less than the billions other countries previously had spent and subsequently would spend on preparing for this tournament.The U.S. bid was seen as the favorite and was prepared in response to losing the right to be the replacement host for the1986 tournamentfollowing Colombia's withdrawal. One condition FIFA imposed was the creation of a professional soccer league –Major League Soccerwas founded in 1993 and began operating in 1996.There was some initial controversyabout awarding the World Cup to a country where soccer was not a nationally popular sport, and at the time, in 1988,the U.S. no longer had a professional league; theNorth American Soccer League, established in 1967, had folded in 1984 after attendance faded.The success of the1984 Summer Olympicsin Los Angeles, particularly thesoccer tournamentthat drew 1.4 million spectators throughout the event, also contributed to FIFA's decision. The United States had previously bid to host the1986 FIFA World Cup, after Colombia withdrew as the host nation in November 1982 because of economic concerns. Despite a presentation led by formerNorth American Soccer LeagueplayersPeléandFranz Beckenbauer, as well as formerUnited States Secretary of StateHenry Kissinger, the executive committee selected Mexico.There were proposals byFIFAto introduce larger goals and breaks after every quarter instead of just at halftime in order to appease U.S. television advertisers.These proposals were met with resistance,and ultimately rejected. Venues The games were played in nine cities across thecontiguous United States.All stadiums had a capacity of at least 53,000 and were occupied byprofessionalorcollegeAmerican footballteams. Other host city candidates includedAtlanta,Denver,Kansas City,Las Vegas,Miami,Minneapolis,New Orleans,Philadelphia,Seattle, andTampa, as well as smaller communities such asAnnapolis, Maryland;Columbus, Ohio;Corvallis, Oregon; andNew Haven, Connecticut.Some sites, includingJoe Robbie StadiuminMiamiandCandlestick ParkinSan Francisco, were rejected because of conflicts withMajor League Baseball.Stanford Stadium, 30 miles (48 km) southeast of San Francisco,and theCitrus BowlinOrlando, Florida, were picked (theMiami Orange Bowl, another Miami venue, required major renovations to meet tournament standards). TheRose Bowlhosted the most matches with eight, four of them in the knockout stage, including the final.Giants Stadiumhosted seven games including a semifinal;Foxborough Stadium, Stanford Stadium, and theCotton Bowlhosted six games each, andSoldier Field,Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, and the Citrus Bowl hosted five games each.Pontiac Silverdome, the first indoor stadium used in a World Cup, hosted the least number of matches, four group-stage games. The Silverdome was also the only venue of the nine used that did not host knockout round games. Because of the large area of the continental United States, the game locations were often far apart. Some teams in Groups A and B had to travel from Los Angeles or San Francisco to Detroit and back again, covering 2,300 miles (3,700 km) and four time zones.Teams in Groups C and D only played in Boston, Chicago, and Dallas—a trip from Boston to Dallas is 2,000 miles (3,200 km), but only covers two time zones; Chicago is in the same time zone as Dallas but is still 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away from both Dallas and Boston.Teams in Groups E and F had it a bit easier—they played exclusively in East Coast cities and stayed in the same time zone.A few teams, such as Cameroon and Colombia, did not have to cross the country to play games. The variety of climates in different cities across the United States also sometimes made playing conditions challenging.Aside from the oceanic coolness of Boston (Foxborough), the Mediterranean climate of San Francisco (Stanford), and occasionally the coolness of Chicago, as they had been in Mexico in 1970 and 1986 most matches were played in hot and/or humid conditions, thanks to nearly all of the games being scheduled to be played during the day instead of at night to suit a time difference compromise for television in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East;this had always been done every time a World Cup was held in the Americas.Although playing in the mostly dry heat and smoggy conditions of Los Angeles (Pasadena) and the mixture of heat and humidity of Washington and New Jersey sometimes proved to be difficult, the cities with the most consistently oppressive conditions were Orlando and Dallas in theSouth, because of the combination of heat and extreme humidity.The Floridian tropical climate of Orlando meant all games there were played in temperatures of 95 °F (35 °C) or above with dew points above 70 or more (the temperature there during the group stage game between Mexico and Ireland was 105 °F (41 °C)) due to the mid-day start times.Dallas was not much different: in the humid heat of a Texas summer, temperatures exceeded 100 °F (38 °C) during mid-day, when games there were staged in the open-type Cotton Bowl meant that conditions were just as oppressive there as they were in Orlando.Detroit also proved to be difficult: the Pontiac Silverdome did not have a working cooling system and because it was anair-supportedstadium, the air could not escape through circulation, so temperatures inside the stadium would climb past 90 °F (32 °C) with 40% humidity. United States midfielderThomas Dooleydescribed the Silverdome as \"the worst place I have ever played at\". Since the tournament, Pontiac Silverdome, Giants Stadium, and Foxboro Stadium have been demolished, and RFK Stadium is slated for demolition by 2023.Stanford Stadium, the Cotton Bowl, the Citrus Bowl (now Camping World Stadium), and Soldier Field have all been moderately or heavily modified.The Rose Bowl isthe only largely unmodified stadium used for this tournament. Participating teams and officials Qualification Three teams—one African, one Asian, and one European—made their debuts at the 1994 tournament.Nigeriaqualified from the African zone alongsideCameroonandMoroccoasCAFwas granted three spots as a result of the strong performances by African teams in1986and1990. In the Asian zone,Saudi Arabiaqualified for the first time by topping the final round group ahead ofSouth Koreaas both edged outJapan, which was close to making its own World Cup debut, but was denied byIraqin what became known as the \"Agony of Doha\". In the European zone,Greecemade its first World Cup appearance after topping a group from whichRussiaalso qualified, competing independently for the first time after thedissolution of the Soviet Union. The defending champion,West Germany, wasunitedwith itsEast Germancounterpart, representing the unified Germany for the first time since the1938 World Cup.Norwayqualified for the first time since 1938,Boliviafor the first time since1950(and the last time as of 2022), andSwitzerlandfor the first time since1966. Norway's 56-year gap between appearances in the final tournament equaledEgypt's record in the previous tournament as the longest. This record was later broken when Wales qualified for the 2022 tournament after a 64-year absence.Mexicohad its first successful qualification campaign since1978, failing to qualify in1982, qualifying as host in1986, and being banned for theCachirulesscandal in1990. The qualification campaigns of bothCzechoslovakiaandYugoslaviawere affected by political events. The nation ofCzechoslovakiadissolvedin 1993, completing its qualifying group under the name \"Representation of Czechs and Slovaks\" (RCS), but failed to qualify for the finals, having been edged out byRomaniaandBelgiuminGroup 4. Yugoslavia (which was supposed to play inGroup 5) was suspended from international competition in 1992 as part ofUnited Nations sanctionsagainst thecountryas a result of theYugoslav Wars. The sanctions were not lifted until 1994, by which time it was no longer possible for the team to qualify.Chile's suspension from the 1990 FIFA World Cup, followingthe forced interruptionof its qualification game againstBrazil, extended to the 1994 qualifiers as well. This was the first World Cup sinceWorld War IIin which none of theUK Home NationsofEngland,Scotland,Northern Ireland, andWalesqualified (they withdrew their FIFA memberships between 1928 and 1946, during the first three tournaments), with England (finishing third behind Norway andNetherlandsinGroup 2) missing out after having finished fourth in the 1990 tournament, and Scotland (who finished fourth inGroup 1) failing to qualify for the first time since1970.France, which had been already designated as host of the1998 tournament, also missed out following surprise home losses toIsraelandBulgaria.This was the second World Cup in a row for which France had failed to qualify, and the last one to date not to feature England, France, and Japan. Other notable absentees were 1986 and 1990 Round of 16 participantsUruguay, UEFA Euro 1992 championsDenmark,Poland,Portugal, andHungary. List of qualified teams The following 24 teams, shown with their pre-tournamentFIFA World Ranking(in parentheses) from June 1994,qualified for the final tournamentː Squads Teams were selected following usual FIFA rules with 22 players. Greece, Italy, Saudi Arabia, and Spain were the only countries that had all their players coming from domestic teams, while the Republic of Ireland and Nigeria had no players from domestic teams. Saudi Arabia was the only team with no players from European teams. Referees Draw Seeding and drawing TheFIFA Organizing Committeeupheld the tradition to seed the host (United States) and defending champion (Germany), along with the other four teams ranked in the top five based on their results obtained in the last three FIFA World Cups. The newly introducedFIFA World Rankingwas not used as part of the calculated ranking for the seeding in this World Cup, as FIFA considered it to be too new.Despite that it was not used in any way, for comparison purposes the teams' pre-tournament FIFA World ranking position from June 1994 are shown in parentheses,followed by the official and used ranking (OR) position determined by the results obtained in the last three world cups. The six top-seeded teams, were allocated in pot 1 and would be drawn into the first position of the six groups playing in the group stage. The remaining 18 teams were allocated into three pots based on geographical sections, with the: six qualified teams from Africa and Americas in pot 2, the top-6 ranked European teams in pot 3, while pot 4 comprised the 7th-10th best qualified European teams along with the two qualified Asian teams. The principle of the draw was that each of the six drawn groups would have one team drawn respectively from pot 1, 2, 3 and 4; while respecting the following geographical limitations: Ahead of the draw, the FIFA Organizing Committee had decided to allocate the top-seeded first group position A1 for the United States as the host, C1 for defending champion Germany, and E1 for the Italian team, which had requested to play most of its group matches atGiants StadiuminNew York. The three other top-seeded teams would be located at the first position of either group B/D/F, with the decision largely depending on the identity of the other drawn group members for the seeded teams. Therefore, this last decision would only be made by a secret vote made by the FIFA Organizing Committee a few minutes after all teams had been drawn for all groups, and the decision would only be announced as the last step of the televised draw event. To make this procedure possible, the six drawn groups would during the draw be given the colors green, orange, white, black, pink and blue; and the closing remarks at the event would then reveal the group letters represented by the colors. The six groups from A to F would play their group matches in the following nine cities: Procedure for the draw: The draw was officiated by FIFA general-secretarySepp Blatter. Teams were drawn by German legendFranz Beckenbauer, heavyweight boxing championEvander Holyfieldand comedian and actorRobin Williams. Numbers for placement in the group were drawn by actorBeau Bridges, Women's World Cup championMichelle Akers, modelCarol Alt, artistPeter Max, racecar driverMario Andrettiand Olympic gold medalist in gymnasticsMary Lou Retton. Results of the draw In each group, the teams played three games, one against each of the other teams. After completion of the group stage, the best two teams in each group, as well as thefour best-ranked third-place teams, advanced to the round of 16 in theknockout stage. This format was identical to the tournament structure used in1986and1990except that a win now earned three points instead of two, to encourage more attacking play. Summary The format of the competition stayed the same as in the1990 World Cup: 24 teams qualified, divided into six groups of four. Sixteen teams would qualify for the knockout phase: the six group winners, the six group runners-up, and the four third-placed teams with the best records. This was the last time this format was used, due to theexpansion of the finals tournament in 1998to 32 teams. FIFA introduced three rule changes for this tournament to encourage attacking play:three points awarded for a winin a group stage match instead of two, a relaxedoffside ruleand aban on picking up back-passes to goalkeepers. The number of goals increased to 2.73 per game from the record-low of 2.21 in 1990. The tournament saw the end ofDiego Maradona's World Cup career, having played in the1982,1986, and1990 World Cups, and leadingArgentinato the 1986 World Cup title and the final of the 1990 World Cup. Maradona was expelled from the tournament by FIFA after he failed a drug test that uncoveredephedrine, a weight-loss drug, in his blood.Colombia, despite high expectations due to their style and impressive qualifying campaign,failed to advance from the round robin. The team was dogged by influence from betting syndicates and drug cartels, with coachFrancisco Maturanareceiving death threats over squad selection.After scoring an own goal for theUnited Statesand effectively eliminating Colombia from the competition, defenderAndrés Escobarwas shot to death on his return to Colombia outside a bar in aMedellínsuburb 10 days later, possibly in retaliation for his mistake. Bulgariawas one of the biggest surprises of the tournament. The Bulgarians had never won a game in five previous World Cup appearances, but, led byHristo Stoichkov, who would eventually share the tournament lead inscoring, they presented a formidable challenge for the title. The team won two of their three group games to qualify for the second round, where they advanced after a 3–1 penalty shootout win overMexico. They then faced reigning world championsGermanyin the quarterfinals, where goals from Stoichkov andLetchkovgave them a 2–1 victory.Bulgaria went on to finish in fourth place after losing to Italy in the semifinals and Sweden in the third-place game. The host nation United States, after a 23rd-place finish in the 1990 tournament, advanced to the second round as one of the best third-place teams. They were eliminated in the Round of 16 in a 1–0 defeat toBrazilonIndependence Day. Brazil's win over the hosts helped take them to the final againstItaly. Brazil's path was relatively smooth as they never trailed over 270 minutes of the knockout stage, defeating theNetherlandsin the quarterfinals andSwedenin the semis after the aforementioned win over the hosts. The Italians meanwhile had made hard work of reaching the final. During the group stage, Italy struggled and narrowly advanced to the next round, despite losing 1–0 to theRepublic of Ireland. Italian playmakerRoberto Baggio, who as the reigning FIFA World Player of the Year and Ballon D'Or holder, was expectedto be one of the stars of the tournament,had not yet scored a goal. During the Round of 16 games againstNigeria, Italy was trailing 1–0 in the dying minutes when Baggio scored the tying goal, forcing the game intoextra time. He scored again with a penalty kick to send Italy through. Baggio carried the Italians from there, scoring the game-winning goal in the quarterfinal againstSpain, and both goals in Italy's semifinal victory over Bulgaria. The third-place playoff was set between Bulgaria and Sweden, the team which scored more goals than any other in this World Cup with 15 over seven matches. These teams had also previously met in thequalifying group. Sweden won, 4–0. Swedish forwardTomas Brolinwas named to the All-star team. Thefinal gameat theRose Bowlwas tense but devoid of scoring chances. It was the second time in24 yearsthat the two nations had met in afinal. After 120 goalless minutes, the World Cup was decided for the first time by a penalty shootout. After four rounds, Brazil led 3–2, and Baggio, playing injured, had to score to keep Italy's hopes alive.He missed by shooting it over the crossbar, and the Brazilians were crowned champions for the fourth time.After the game ended,Vice PresidentAl Gorehosted the awarding ceremony by handing Brazilian captainDungathe prestigious trophy; the Brazil national team dedicated the title to the deceasedFormula Onemotor racing champion and countrymanAyrton Senna, who haddied two and a half months prior. The tournament'sGolden Bootwent jointly to Bulgaria's Stoichkov andOleg SalenkoofRussia, the latter becoming the first player to score five goals in a game, coming in a 6–1 victory againstCameroon. Both players scored six goals in the tournament. Brazilian strikerRomário, with five goals, won theGolden Ballas the tournament's best player. Despite the controversy, the U.S. staged a hugely successful tournament, with an average attendance of nearly 70,000, surpassing the1966 FIFA World Cupaverage attendance of 51,000, thanks to the large seating capacities of the stadiums in the United States in comparison to the generally smaller venues of Europe and Latin America. To this day, the total attendance for the final tournament of nearly 3.6 million remains the highest in World Cup history, despite the expansion of the competition from 24 to 32 teams at the 1998 World Cup in France. Opening ceremony The opening ceremony of the World Cup was held on June 17 at Chicago's Soldier Field. The ceremony wasemceedbyOprah Winfrey, who introducedDiana Ross: she gave a musical performance. Ross was also intended to score apenaltyat the beginning of her performance, with the goal then splitting in two as part of a pre-orchestrated stunt.Instead, she kicked the ball wide to the left, missing the goal, but the goalposts collapsed anyway in accordance with the stunt plans. In addition,Daryl HallandJon Secadaalso gave musical performances.It was officially opened by then-PresidentBill Clinton. Group stage Times areEastern Daylight Time(UTC−4) (East Rutherford, Foxborough, Orlando, Pontiac and Washington),Central Daylight Time(UTC−5) (Chicago and Dallas), andPacific Daylight Time(UTC−7) (Pasadena and Stanford). In the following tables: Group A The Group A game between the United States and Switzerland was the first to take place indoors, played under the roof at the Pontiac Silverdome. Following the tournament, Colombian defenderAndrés Escobarwas shot dead on his return to Colombia, possibly in retaliation, after his own goal had contributed to his country's elimination. Victories against Colombia and the United States (in front of a crowd of 93,869) were enough to see Romania through as group winners, despite a 4–1 hammering by Switzerland in between. The magnitude of that victory allowed Switzerland to move ahead of the United States on goal difference, although the hosts qualified for the second round as one of the best third-placed teams. Switzerland's 4–1 victory over Romania came nearly 40 years to the date of Switzerland's last World Cup victory, also a 4–1 victory, on that occasion over Italy. The United States' 2–1 victory over Colombia was its first World Cup victory since June 29, 1950, when it upsetEngland 1–0in the 1950 World Cup. Group B Group B produced two of the four semifinalists of this World Cup — Brazil and Sweden — and was also one of the two groups in which only two, rather than three, sides progressed to the second round. The match between the two eliminated teams, Cameroon and Russia, broke two World Cup records. Oleg Salenko of Russia became the first – and remains the only– man to score five goals in a single World Cup game as Russia won 6–1. The goals also ensured that Salenko finished the tournament joint-top scorer with six goals, having previously bagged one against Sweden. Cameroon left a mark too as Roger Milla, at the age of 42, became the oldest World Cup goalscorer of all time, as he grabbed his side's consolation goal in the game. The result was not enough to take Russia through following losses to Brazil and Sweden. Brazil beat Cameroon, and then confirmed the top spot with a draw to Sweden. The Swedes also progressed, finishing in second place with five points. Sweden's 3–1 victory over Russia was the nation's first World Cup victory since July 3, 1974. Russia failed to progress to the second round for the second time (accounting for the Soviet Union's results four years before), while Cameroon failed to repeat their surprise performance from the previous tournament. Group C As was the case with Group B, Group C would only send two teams into the Round of 16 as Spain and defending champions Germany progressed to round two. Coming from two goals down with four minutes left to snatch a 2–2 draw against Spain, the South Koreans very nearly eclipsed that feat against Germany when they came from 3–0 down to lose narrowly 3–2. In spite of these comebacks, South Korea was held to a 0–0 draw against Bolivia in their other group game when a win would have seen them through. Spain's late implosion against the South Koreans effectively decided that it would be Germany who won the group and not them. Germany, who defeated Bolivia 1–0 in the tournament's opening game, finished with seven points. Spain had to settle for second place despite leading in all three games. Despite Bolivia finishing last in the group, Erwin Sanchez made team history after scoring the nation's first World Cup goal in a 3–1 loss to Spain. Prior to 1994, Bolivia had never scored in either of their previous appearances at the 1930 and 1950 World Cups. Group D Tournament favorites Argentina led by Diego Maradona collected a maximum of six points from their opening two games after dominating Greece 4–0 in Foxboro with a Gabriel Batistuta hattrick before winning a close match against a formidable Nigeria with a 2–1 victory on the same field four days later; despite this Argentina finished third in the group. Nigeria had been very impressive on their World Cup debut, and despite the narrow loss to Argentina, had emerged as group winners following victories against Bulgaria and Greece, the latter in which Nigeria doubled its lead late on a goal from Daniel Amokachi – a goal that would allow Nigeria to top its group. Maradona only played with Argentina during their first two games, both in Foxborough (playing Greece and Nigeria and scoring his last ever World Cup goal against the former); he was thrown out of the tournament after testing positive for ephedrine. Having qualified for the tournament through a last-gasp goal against France, Bulgaria surprised many people, as the nation had never even won a game at the World Cup finals prior to this tournament. Despite losing its opening game 3–0 to Nigeria, Bulgaria came back in style with a 4–0 win over neighbor Greece (who had suffered exactly the same fate five days earlier against Argentina), and a 2–0 win against Argentina saw them advance. Argentina had actually been winning the group going into injury time, while Bulgaria played the last 25 minutes with 10 men; however, a 91st-minute header fromNasko Sirakovmeant that Argentina dropped two places and finished third. Nigeria won the group on goal difference. Bulgaria's victory over Argentina earned them second place. Group E Group E remains the only group in World Cup history in which all four teams finished with the same points. All four teams even had the same goal difference. It began at Giants Stadium whereRay Houghton's chip ensured a shock Irish victory over the then-three-time champions Italy by 1–0, as well as gaining a measure of revenge forthe previous World Cup, in which Italy both hosted and eliminated Ireland at the quarterfinal stage. The next day in Washington, Norway played its first World Cup game since 1938 andKjetil Rekdal's goal five minutes from time proved decisive in an equally tense encounter as Norway beat Mexico. In the second round of group play,Luis García's double had Mexico 2–0 up and in control of the game before a disagreement on the touchline resulted in fines for both Republic of Ireland's manager,Jack Charlton, and their strikerJohn Aldridge. Aldridge was able to regain concentration in time to score six minutes from the end of the game to make it 2–1. Despite their loss, Aldridge's goal proved crucial to Ireland in the final group standings. During the previous day at Giants Stadium in New Jersey, Italy's World Cup hopes seemed to be diminishing fast as goalkeeper Gianluca Pagliuca was sent off with the game still at 0–0. Yet despite this, Italy was still able to salvage an important 1–0 victory. Norway would ultimately pay a price for their inability to take advantage of Pagliuca's dismissal. With the four teams level on points, the final two group games would each have to finish as draws for things to stay that way. Republic of Ireland made it through after a dreary 0–0 draw with Norway; while Massaro and Bernal traded strikes as Italy and Mexico played to a 1–1 draw. Those results meant that Mexico won the group on goals scored, with three in the group. With Ireland and Italy also progressing having finished with identical records, the Irish team qualified as second place as a result of their victory against the Italians. Norway's shortcomings in attack ultimately let them down, and they exited the tournament with only one goal. Group F Just as happened to Argentina in Group D, Belgium endured the same fate in Group F. Despite winning both of its first two matches 1–0 against Morocco and neighbors Netherlands, Belgium finished third as, in an upset, it lost to tournament newcomers Saudi Arabia 1–0 in the third game. During that game, Saudi player Saaed Al-Owairan ran from his own half through a maze of Belgian players to score the game's only goal. Saudi Arabia advanced through to the Round of 16 as well, having also defeated Morocco 2–1. The Netherlands endured a somewhat nervier experience. The opening 2–1 victory against Saudi Arabia was followed by the 1–0 loss against Belgium before another 2–1 victory against Morocco, with Bryan Roy scoring the winner a mere 12 minutes from time, saw the Dutch win the group having scored more goals than Belgium and beaten Saudi Arabia. Morocco, despite losing all three of their group games, did not leave without a fight, as each of their losses were by just a single goal, 1–0 to Belgium, 2–1 to Saudi Arabia, and 2–1 to the Netherlands. Ranking of third-placed teams Knockout stage Bracket Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Third place playoff Final Statistics Goalscorers Hristo StoichkovandOleg Salenkoreceived theGolden Bootfor scoring six goals.In total, 141 goals were scored by 81 players, with only one of them credited as an own goal. 6 goals 5 goals 4 goals 3 goals 2 goals 1 goal Own goals Awards All-star team The All-star team is a squad consisting of the eleven most impressive players at the 1994 World Cup, as selected by FIFA's Technical Study Group. Michel Preud'homme JorginhoMárcio SantosPaolo Maldini DungaKrasimir BalakovGheorghe HagiTomas Brolin RomárioHristo StoichkovRoberto Baggio Final standings After the tournament, FIFA published a ranking of all teams that competed in the 1994 World Cup finals based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. Disciplinary statistics Symbols Mascot Theofficial mascotof this World Cup was \"Striker, the World Cup Pup\", a dog wearing ared, white and bluesoccer uniform with a ball.Striker was designed by theWarner Bros.animation team.A dog was picked as the mascot because dogs are a popular domestic pet in the United States. Match ball Theofficial match ballwas \"Questra\", manufactured byAdidas.Following the convention of the addition of decorations to the establishedAdidas Tangostyle since theAztecaand theEtrusco Unico, this one featured space-themed decorations, not only due to its name, but that 1994 marked the 25th anniversary of theApollo 11 missionin which the first Moon landing took place, which is considered to be one of the most important moments in the history of the host country and the world. Music Theofficial songwas \"Gloryland\". Aftermath and legacy See also References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_(stadium", "Dallas Dallas(/ˈdæləs/) is a city in theU.S. stateofTexasand the most populous city in theDallas–Fort Worth metroplex, themost populous metropolitan area in Texasand thefourth-most populous metropolitan area in the United Statesat 7.5 million people.It is the most populous city in andseatofDallas Countywith portions extending intoCollin,Denton,Kaufman, andRockwallcounties. With a2020 censuspopulation of 1,304,379, it is theninth-most populous city in the U.S.and thethird-most populous city in TexasafterHoustonandSan Antonio.Located in theNorth Texasregion, the city of Dallas is the main core of the largest metropolitan area in theSouthern United Statesand the largest inland metropolitan area in the U.S. that lacks any navigable link to the sea. Dallas and nearbyFort Worthwere initially developed as a product of the construction of major railroad lines through the area allowing access tocotton,cattle, and lateroilin North andEast Texas. The construction of theInterstate Highway Systemreinforced Dallas's prominence as atransportation hub, with four major interstate highways converging in the city and a fifth interstate loop around it. Dallas then developed as a strong industrial andfinancial centerand a majorinland port, due to the convergence of major railroad lines, interstate highways, and the construction ofDallas Fort Worth International Airport, one of the largest andbusiest airportsin the world.In addition,Dallas Area Rapid Transit(DART) operates rail and bus transit services throughout the city and its surrounding suburbs. Dominant sectors of its diverse economy includedefense,financial services,information technology,telecommunications, andtransportation.The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex hosts 23Fortune500companies, the second-most in Texas and fourth-most in the United States,and 11 of those companies are located within Dallas city limits.Over 41 colleges and universitiesare located within its metropolitan area, which is the most of any metropolitan area in Texas. The city has a population from a myriad of ethnic and religious backgrounds and is one of the largestLGBT communities in the U.S.WalletHubnamed Dallas the fifth-most diverse city in the United States in 2018. History Indigenous tribes inNorth Texasincluded theCaddo,Tawakoni,Wichita,KickapooandComanche.Spanish colonists claimed the territory of Texas in the 18th century as a part of the Viceroyalty ofNew Spain. Later, France alsoclaimed the areabut never established much settlement. In all, six flags have flown over the area preceding and during the city's history: those of France, Spain, and Mexico, the flag of the Republic of Texas, the Confederate flag, and the flag of the United States of America. In 1819, theAdams–Onís Treatybetween the United States and Spain defined theRed Riveras the northern boundary of New Spain, officially placing the future location of Dallas well within Spanish territory.The area remained under Spanish rule until 1821, whenMexico declared independence from Spain, and the area was considered part of the Mexican state ofCoahuila y Tejas. In 1836,Texians, with a majority ofAnglo-Americansettlers,gained independence from Mexicoand formed theRepublic of Texas. Three years after Texas achieved independence,John Neely Bryansurveyed the area around present-day Dallas.In 1839, accompanied by his dog and a Cherokee he called Ned, he planted a stake in the ground on a bluff located near three forks of the Trinity River and left.Two years later, in 1841, he returned to establish a permanent settlement named Dallas.Theorigin of the nameis uncertain. The official historical marker states it was named after Vice PresidentGeorge M. DallasofPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. However, this is disputed. Other potential theories for the origin include his brother,Commodore Alexander James Dallas, as well as brothers Walter R. Dallas and James R. Dallas.A further theory gives the ultimate origin as the village ofDallas, Moray, Scotland,similar to the wayHouston, Texas, was named afterSam Houston, whose ancestors came from the Scottish village ofHouston, Renfrewshire. The Republic of Texas wasannexed by the United States in 1845and Dallas County was established the following year. Dallas was formally incorporated as a city on February 2, 1856.In the mid-1800s, a group of French Socialists establishedLa Réunion, a short-lived community, along the Trinity River in what is now West Dallas. With the construction of railroads, Dallas became a business and trading center and was booming by the end of the 19th century. It became an industrial city, attracting workers fromTexas, the South, and theMidwest. ThePraetorian Buildingin Dallas of 15 stories, built in 1909, was among the firstskyscraperswest ofthe Mississippiand the tallest building in Texas for some time.It marked the prominence of Dallas as a city. A racetrack forthoroughbredswas built and their owners established the Dallas Jockey Club. Trotters raced at a track in Fort Worth, where a similar drivers club was based. The rapid expansion of population increased competition for jobs and housing. In 1910, a white mob of hundreds of peoplelyncheda black man,Allen Brooks, accused of raping a little girl. The mob tortured Brooks, then killed him at the downtownintersection of Main and Akardbyhanginghim from a decorative archway inscribed with the words \"Welcome Visitors\". Thousands of Dallasites came to gawk at the torture scene, collecting keepsakes and posing for photographs. In 1921, the Mexican presidentÁlvaro Obregónalong with the former revolutionary general visited Downtown Dallas's Mexican Park inLittle Mexico; the small park was on the corner of Akard and Caruth Street, site of the current Fairmont Hotel.The small neighborhood of Little Mexico was home to a Latin American population that had been drawn to Dallas by factors including theAmerican Dream, better living conditions,and the Mexican Revolution. DuringWorld War II, Dallas was a major manufacturing center for military automobiles and aircraft for the United States and Allied forces. Over 94,000 jeeps and over 6,000 military trucks were produced at the Ford plant in East Dallas.North American Aviation manufactured over 18,000 aircraft at their plant in Dallas, including theT-6 Texantrainer,P-51 Mustangfighter, andB-24 Liberatorbomber. On November 22, 1963,United States PresidentJohn F. Kennedy was assassinatedon Elm Street while hismotorcadepassed throughDealey Plazain Downtown Dallas.The upper two floors of the building from which the Warren Commission reportedassassinLee Harvey Oswaldshot Kennedy have been converted into a historical museum covering the former president's life and accomplishments.Kennedy was pronounced dead at DallasParkland Memorial Hospitaljust over 30 minutes after the shooting. On July 7, 2016,multiple shots were fired at a Black Lives Matter protest in Downtown Dallas, held against the police killings of two black men from other states. The gunman, later identified as Micah Xavier Johnson, began firing at police officers at 8:58 p.m., killing five officers and injuring nine. Two bystanders were also injured. This marked the deadliest day for U.S. law enforcement since theSeptember 11 attacks. Johnson told police during a standoff that he was upset about recent police shootings of black men and wanted to kill whites, especially white officers.After hours of negotiation failed, police resorted to a robot-delivered bomb, killing Johnson insideDallas College El Centro Campus. The shooting occurred in an area of hotels, restaurants, businesses, and residential apartments only a few blocks away from Dealey Plaza. Geography Dallas is situated in theSouthern United States, inNorth Texas. It is thecounty seatofDallas Countyand portions of the city extend into neighboringCollin,Denton,Kaufman, andRockwallcounties. Many suburbs surround Dallas; threeenclavesare within the city boundaries—Cockrell Hill,Highland Park, andUniversity Park. According to theUnited States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 385.8 square miles (999.3 km2); 340.5 square miles (881.9 km2) of Dallas is land and 45.3 square miles (117.4 km2) of it (11.75%) is water.Dallas makes up one-fifth of the much larger urbanized area known as theDallas–Fort Worth metroplex, in which one quarter of all Texans live. Architecture Dallas's skyline has twenty buildings classified asskyscrapers, over 490 feet (150 m) in height.Despite its tallest building not reaching 980 feet (300 m), Dallas does have a signature building inBank of America Plazawhich is lit up in neon but falls outside the top two hundred tallest buildings in the world. Although some of Dallas's architecture dates from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most of the notable architecture in the city is from themodernistandpostmodernisteras. Iconic examples of modernist architecture includeReunion Tower, theJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial,I. M. Pei'sDallas City Halland theMorton H. Meyerson Symphony Center.Good examples of postmodernist skyscrapers areFountain Place,Bank of America Plaza,Renaissance Tower,JPMorgan Chase Tower, andComerica Bank Tower.Downtown Dallasalso has residential offerings in downtown, some of which are signature skyline buildings. Several smaller structures are fashioned in theGothic Revivalstyle, such as theKirby Building, and theneoclassicalstyle, as seen in theDavisandWilsonBuildings. One architectural \"hotbed\" in the city is a stretch of historic houses alongSwiss Avenue, which has all shades and variants of architecture fromVictorianto neoclassical.TheDallas Downtown Historic Districtprotects a cross-section of Dallas commercial architecture from the 1880s to the 1940s. Neighborhoods The city of Dallas is home to many areas, neighborhoods, and communities. Dallas can be divided into several geographical areas which include larger geographical sections of territory including many subdivisions or neighborhoods, forming macroneighborhoods. Central Dallas Central Dallas is anchored by Downtown Dallas, the center of the city, along withOak LawnandUptown, areas characterized by dense retail, restaurants, and nightlife.Downtown Dallas has a variety of named districts, including theWest End Historic District, theArts District, theMain Street District,Farmers Market District, theCity Center Business District, theConvention Center District, and theReunion District. This area includes Uptown,Victory Park, Harwood, Oak Lawn,Dallas Design District,Trinity Groves,Turtle Creek,Cityplace,Knox/Henderson,Greenville, andWest Village. East Dallas East Dallasis the location ofDeep Ellum, an arts area close to Downtown, theLakewoodneighborhood (and adjacent areas, includingLakewood Heights,Wilshire Heights,Lower Greenville,Junius Heights, andHollywood Heights/Santa Monica),Vickery PlaceandBryan Place, and the architecturally significant neighborhoods of Swiss Avenue andMunger Place. Its historic district has one of the largest collections ofFrank Lloyd Wright-inspiredprairie-stylehomes in the United States. In the northeast quadrant of the city isLake Highlands, one of Dallas's most unified middle-class neighborhoods. Oak Cliff Southwest of Downtown liesOak Cliff. Once a separate city founded in the mid-1800s, Oak Cliff was annexed in 1903 by Dallas.As one of the oldest areas in Dallas, the hilly North Oak Cliff is home to 5 of the 13 conservation districts in Dallas including the architecturally significantKessler Parkneighborhood and trendyBishop Arts District. South Dallas South Dallasis the location ofCedars, andFair Park, where the annualState Fair of Texasis held from late September through mid-October. Also located here isExposition Park, Dallas, noted for having artists, art galleries, and bars along tree-lined Exposition Avenue. South Side Dallas is a popular location for nightly entertainment. The neighborhood has undergone extensive development and community integration. What was once an area characterized by high rates of poverty and crime is now one of the city's most attractive social and living destinations. Further east, in the southeast quadrant of the city, is the large neighborhood ofPleasant Grove. Once an independent city, it is a collection of mostly lower-income residential areas stretching toSeagovillein the southeast. Though a city neighborhood, Pleasant Grove is surrounded by undeveloped land on all sides. Swampland and wetlands separating it from South Dallas are part of theGreat Trinity Forest,a subsection of the city'sTrinity River Project, newly appreciated for habitat andflood control. Districts Topography Dallas and its surrounding area are mostly flat. The city lies at elevations ranging from 450 to 550 feet (137 to 168 m) above sea level. The western edge of the Austin Chalk Formation, alimestoneescarpment(also known as the \"White Rock Escarpment\"), rises 230 feet (70 m) and runs roughly north–south through Dallas County. South of theTrinity River, the uplift is particularly noticeable in the neighborhoods of Oak Cliff and the adjacent cities of Cockrell Hill,Cedar Hill,Grand Prairie, andIrving. Marked variations in terrain are also found in cities immediately to the west inTarrant Countysurrounding Fort Worth, as well as along Turtle Creek north of Downtown. Dallas, like many other cities, was founded along a river. The city was founded at the location of a \"white rock crossing\" of the Trinity River, where it was easier for wagons to cross the river in the days before ferries or bridges. The Trinity River, though not usefully navigable, is the major waterway through the city.Interstate 35Eparallels its path through Dallas along theStemmons Corridor, then south alongside the western portion of Downtown and past South Dallas and Pleasant Grove, where the river is paralleled byInterstate 45until it exits the city and heads southeast towardsHouston. The river is flanked on both sides by 50 feet (15 m) tall earthenleveesto protect the city from frequent floods. Since it was rerouted in the late 1920s, the river has been little more than adrainage ditchwithin a floodplain for several miles above and below Downtown, with a more normal course further upstream and downstream, but as Dallas began shifting towards postindustrial society, public outcry about the lack of aesthetic and recreational use of the river ultimately gave way to theTrinity River Project,which was begun in the early 2000s. The project area reaches for over 20 miles (32 km) in length within the city, while the overall geographical land area addressed by the Land Use Plan is approximately 44,000 acres (180 km2) in size—about 20% of the land area in Dallas. Green space along the river encompasses approximately 10,000 acres (40 km2), making it one of the largest and diverse urban parks in the world. White Rock LakeandJoe Pool Lakeare reservoirs that comprise Dallas's other significant water features. Built at the beginning of the 20th century, White Rock Lake Park is a popular destination for boaters, rowers, joggers, and bikers, as well as visitors seeking peaceful respite from the city at the 66-acre (267,000 m2)Dallas Arboretum and Botanical Garden, on the lake's eastern shore.White Rock Creekfeeds into White Rock Lake and then exits into the Trinity River southeast of Downtown Dallas. Trails along White Rock Creek are part of the extensive Dallas County Trails System. Bachman Lake, just northwest ofLove Field Airport, is a smaller lake also popularly used for recreation. Northeast of the city isLake Ray Hubbard, a vast 22,745-acre (92 km2) reservoir in an extension of Dallas surrounded by the suburbs ofGarland,Rowlett,Rockwall, andSunnyvale.To the west of the city isMountain Creek Lake, once home to theNaval Air Station Dallas(Hensley Field) and a number of defense aircraft manufacturers.North Lake, a small body of water in an extension of the city limits surrounded by Irving andCoppell, initially served as a water source for a nearby power plant but is now being targeted for redevelopment as a recreational lake due to its proximity toDallas/Fort Worth International Airport, a plan the lake's neighboring cities oppose. Climate Dallas has ahumid subtropical climate(Köppen climate classification:Cfa,Trewartha:Cfhk) characteristic of theSouthern Plainsof the United States. It also has both continental and tropical characteristics, characterized by a relatively wide annual temperature range for the latitude. Located at the lower end ofTornado Alley, it is prone to extreme weather, tornadoes, and hailstorms. Summers in Dallas are very hot with high humidity, although extended periods of dry weather often occur. July and August are typically the hottest months, with an average high of 96.0°F(36°C) and an average low of 76.7 °F (25 °C). Heat indices regularly surpass 105 °F (41 °C) due to elevated humidity during the summer months, making the summer heat almost unbearable. The all-time record high is 113 °F (45 °C), set on June 26 and 27, 1980 during theHeat Wave of 1980at nearbyDallas/Fort Worth International Airport. Winters in Dallas are usually mild, with occasional cold spells. The average date of first frost is November 12, and the average date of last frost is March 12.January is typically the coldest month, with an average daytime high of 56.8 °F (14 °C) and an average nighttime low of 37.3 °F (3 °C). The normal daily average temperature in January is 47.0 °F (8 °C) but sharp swings in temperature can occur, as strong cold fronts known as \"Blue Northers\" pass through the Dallas region, forcing temperatures below the 40 °F (4 °C) mark for several days at a time and often between days with high temperatures above 80 °F (27 °C). Snow accumulation is seen in the city in about 70% of winter seasons, and snowfall generally occurs 1–2 days out of the year for a seasonal average of 1.5 inches (4 cm). Some areas in the region, however, receive more than that, while other areas receive negligible snowfall or none at all.The all-time record low temperature within the city is −3 °F (−19 °C), set on January 18, 1930. The temperature at nearbyDallas/Fort Worth International Airportreached −2 °F (−19 °C) on February 16, 2021, duringthe February 2021 North American winter storm. Spring and autumn are transitional seasons with moderate and pleasant weather. Vibrantwildflowers(such as thebluebonnet,Indian paintbrushand otherflora) bloom in spring and are planted around the highways throughout Texas.Springtime weather can bequite volatile, but temperatures themselves are mild. Late spring to early summer also tends to be the most humid, with humidity levels frequently exceeding 75%. The weather in Dallas is also generally pleasant from late September to early December and on many winter days. Autumn often brings more storms and tornado threats, but they are usually fewer and less severe than in spring. Each spring, cold fronts moving south from the North collide with warm, humid air streaming in from theGulf Coast, leading to severethunderstormswithlightning, torrents of rain,hail, and occasionally,tornadoes. Over time, tornadoes have probably been the most significant natural threat to the city, as it is near the heart ofTornado Alley. A few times each winter in Dallas, warm and humid air from the south will override cold, dry air, resulting infreezing rainor ice and causing disruptions in the city if the roads and highways become slick. Temperatures reaching 70 °F (21 °C) on average occur on at least four days each winter month. Dallas averages 26 annual nights at or below freezing,with the winter of 1999–2000 holding the record for the fewest freezing nights with 14. During this same span of 15 years,the temperature in the region has only twice dropped below 15 °F (−9 °C), though it will generally fall below 20 °F (−7 °C) in most (67%) years. TheU.S. Department of Agricultureplaces Dallas inPlant Hardiness Zone 8b.However, mild winter temperatures in the past 15 to 20 years had encouraged the horticulture of more cold-sensitive plants such asWashingtonia filiferaandWashingtonia robustapalms, nearly all of which died off duringthe February 2021 North American winter storm. According to theAmerican Lung Association, Dallas has the 12th highest air pollution among U.S. cities, ranking it behind Los Angeles andHouston.Much of the air pollution in Dallas and the surrounding area comes from a hazardous materials incineration plant in the small town ofMidlothianand from cement plants in neighboringEllis County. The average daily low in Dallas is 57.4 °F (14 °C), and the average daily high is 76.9 °F (25 °C). Dallas receives approximately 39.1 inches (993 mm) of rain per year. The record snowfall for Dallas was 11.2 inches (28 cm) on February 11, 2010. Demographics Dallas is theninth-most-populous city in the United Statesandthird in Texasafter the cities ofHoustonandSan Antonio.Its metropolitan area encompasses one-quarter of the population of Texas, and is the largest in the Southern U.S. andTexasfollowed by theGreater Houston metropolitan area. At the2020 United States censusthe city of Dallas had 1,304,379 residents, an increase of 106,563 since the2010 United States census.However, as of July 1, 2022, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that Dallas in first years since the 2020 census lost 4,835 people, leaving the city with a population of 1,299,544. There were 524,498 households at the 2020 estimates,up from 2010's 458,057 households, out of which 137,523 had children under the age of 18 living with them.Approximately 36.2% of households were headed by married couples living together, 57.2% had a single householder male or female with no spouse present, and 35.6% were classified as non-family households with the householder living alone.In 2010, 33.7% of all households had one or more people under 18 years of age, and 17.6% had one or more people who were 65 years of age or older. The average household size in 2020 was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.41.In 2018, the owner-occupied housing rate was 40.2% and the renter-occupied housing rate was 59.8%.At the 2010 census, the city's age distribution of the population showed 26.5% under the age of 18 and 8.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31.8 years. In 2010, 50.0% of the population was male and 50.0% was female.In 2020, the median age 32.9 years; for every 100 females, there were 98.4 males. According to the 2020American Community Survey, the median income for a household in the city was $54,747; families had a median household income of $60,895; married-couple families $81,761; and non-families $45,658.In 2003–2007's survey, male full-time workers had a median income of $32,265 versus $32,402 for female full-time workers. The per capita income for the city was $25,904. About 18.7% of families and 21.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.6% of those under age 18 and 13.4% of those aged 65 or over. Per 2007's survey, the median price for a house was $129,600;by 2020, the median price for a house was valued at $252,300, with 54.4% of owner-occupied units from $50,000 to $299,999. The 2022Point-In-TimeHomeless Count found there were 4,410homelesspeople in Dallas.According to the Metro Dallas Homeless Alliance Continuum of Care 2022 Homeless Count & Survey Independent Analysis, \"approximately 1 of 3 (31%) those experiencing homelessness were found on the streets or in other places not meant for human habitation.\" The region surrounding Dallas is a habitat for mosquitoes, creating a pest problem for humans. Dallas and the surrounding area is sprayed regularly to control mosquito-borne diseases such asWest Nile virus. Race and ethnicity Dallas's population was historically predominantly White (non-Hispanic Whites made up 82.8% of the population in 1930),but its population has diversified due to immigration andwhite flightover the 20th century. Since then, the non-Hispanic White population has declined to less than one-third of the city's population.According to the 2010 U.S. census, 50.7% of the population was White (28.8% non-Hispanic White), 24.8% was Black or African American, 0.7%American IndianandAlaska Native, 2.9% Asian, and 2.6% fromtwo or more races; 42.4% of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino American origin (they may be of any race). At theU.S. Census Bureau's 2019 estimates, 29.1% werenon-Hispanic White24.3% Black and African American, 0.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 3.7% Asian, and 1.4% from two or more races.Native Hawaiianandother Pacific Islandersmade up a total of 312 residents according to 2019's census estimates, down from 606 in 2017.Hispanic or Latino Americans of any race made up 41.2% of the estimated population in 2019. Among the Hispanic or Latino American population in 2019, 34.6% of Dallas wasMexican, 0.4%Puerto Rican, 0.2%Cubanand 6.0% other Hispanic or Latino American. In 2017's American Community Survey estimates among the demographic 35.5% were Mexican, 0.6% Puerto Rican, 0.4% Cuban, and 5.4% other Hispanic or Latino.By 2020, Hispanic or Latino Americans of any race continued to constitute the largest ethnic group in the city proper,reflecting nationwide demographic trends. The Dallas area is a major living destination forMexican Americansand other Hispanic and Latino American immigrants. The southwestern portion of the city, particularlyOak Cliffis chiefly inhabited by Hispanic and Latino American residents.The southeastern portion of the cityPleasant Groveis chiefly inhabited by African American and Hispanic or Latino American residents, while thesouthern portionof the city is predominantly black.The west and east sides of the city are predominantly Hispanic or Latino American;Garlandalso has a large Spanish-speaking population.North Dallashas many enclaves of predominantly white, black and especially Hispanic or Latino American residents. The Dallas area is also a major living destination for Black and African Americans primarily due to its strong and diverse economy.Between 2010 and 2020, the Dallas area had the second-most new Black and African American residents only behind theAtlanta areaand slightly above the Houston area.The notable influx of African Americans is partly due to theNew Great Migration.There is a significant number of people from theHorn of Africa, immigrants fromEthiopia,EritreaandSomalia. The Dallas–Fort-Worth metroplex had an estimated 70,000 Russian-speakers (as of November 6, 2012) mostly immigrants from the formerSoviet Bloc.Included in this population areRussians,Russian Jews,Ukrainians,Belarusians,Moldavians,Uzbek,Kirghiz, and others. The Russian-speaking population of Dallas has continued to grow in the sector of \"American husbands-Russian wives\". Russian DFW has its own newspaper,The Dallas Telegraph. In addition, Dallas and its suburbs are home to a large number of Asian Americans including those ofIndian,Vietnamese,Chinese,Korean,Filipino,Japanese, and other heritage.Among large-sized cities in the United States,Plano, the northern suburb of Dallas, has the6th largest Chinese American populationas of 2016. The Plano-Richardson area in particular had an estimated 30,000Iranian Americansin 2012.With so many immigrant groups, there are often multilingual signs in thelinguistic landscape. According to U.S. Census Bureau data released in December 2013, 23 percent of Dallas County residents were foreign-born, while 16 percent of Tarrant County residents were foreign-born.The 2018 census estimates determined that the city of Dallas's foreign-born population consisted of 25.4% naturalized citizens and 74.6% non-citizens. Sexual orientation and gender identity Recognized for having one of the largestlesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)populations in the nation, Dallas and the Metroplex are widely noted for being home to a vibrant and diverseLGBT community.Throughout the year there are many well-established but quite small compared to other cities LGBT events held in the area, most notably the annual Alan Ross Texas Freedom (Pride) Parade and Festival in June which draws approximately 50,000.For decades, theOak LawnandBishop Artsdistricts have been known as the epicenters ofLGBT culturein Dallas. Religion Christianityis the most prevalently practiced religion in Dallas and the wider metropolitan area according to a 2014 study by thePew Research Center(78%),and thePublic Religion Research Institute's 2020 study (77%).There is a largeProtestantChristian influence in the Dallas community, though the city of Dallas and Dallas County have more Catholic than Protestant residents, while the reverse is usually true for the suburban areas of Dallas and the city of Fort Worth. Dallas has been called the \"Prison Ministry Capital of the World\" by the prison ministry community.It is a home for theInternational Network of Prison Ministries, the Coalition of Prison Evangelists, Bill Glass Champions for Life, Chaplain Ray's International Prison Ministry, and 60 other prison ministries. Methodist,Baptist, andPresbyterianchurches are prominent in many neighborhoods and anchor two of the city's major private universities (Southern Methodist UniversityandDallas Baptist University). Dallas is also home to twoevangelicalseminaries: theDallas Theological SeminaryandCriswell College. ManyBible schoolsincludingChrist For The Nations Instituteare also headquartered in the city. TheChristian creationistapologetics groupInstitute for Creation Researchis headquartered in Dallas. According to the Pew Research Center,evangelical Protestantismconstituted the largest form of Protestantism in the area as of 2014.The largest single evangelical Protestant group were Baptists. The largest Baptist denomination was theSouthern Baptist Convention, followed by thehistorically blackNational Baptist Convention USA.African-initiated Protestant churchesincludingEthiopian Evangelicalchurches can be found throughout the metropolitan area. TheCatholic Churchis also a significant religious organization in the Dallas area and operates theUniversity of Dallas, a liberal-arts university in the Dallas suburb of Irving. TheCathedral Santuario de la Virgen de Guadalupein theArts Districtis home to the second-largest Catholic church membership in the United States and overseas,consisting over 70 parishes in theDallas Diocese. TheSociety of Jesusoperates theJesuit College Preparatory School of Dallas. Dallas is also home to numerousEastern OrthodoxandOriental Orthodoxchurches includingSaint Seraphim Cathedral, see of theOrthodox Church in America'sSouthern Diocese.TheGreek Orthodox Archdiocese of America(Ecumenical Patriarchate) has one parish in the city of Dallas. The city is home to a sizableLatter Day Saintcommunity.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintshas twenty-threestakesthroughout Dallas and surrounding suburbs.The organization built theDallas Texas Temple, the first temple in Texas, in the city in 1984.Jehovah's Witnessesalso have a large number of members throughout the Dallas metropolitan division. In addition, there are severalUnitarian Universalistcongregations, including First Unitarian Church of Dallas, founded in 1899.A large community of theUnited Church of Christexists in the city. The most prominent UCC-affiliated church is theCathedral of Hope, a predominantlyLGBT-affirmingchurch. Dallas'sJewishpopulation of 50,000-75,000 is the largest of any city in Texas.Since the establishment of the city's first Jewish cemetery in 1854 and its first congregation (which would eventually be known asTemple Emanu-El) in 1873, Dallasite Jews have been well represented among leaders in commerce, politics, and various professional fields in Dallas and elsewhere.Furthermore, a largeMuslim communityexists in the north and northeastern portions of Dallas, as well as in thenorthern Dallas suburbs.The oldest mosque in Dallas is Masjid Al-Islam just south of Downtown. Dallas has a large Buddhist community. Immigrants fromEast Asia,Southeast Asia,Nepal, andSri Lankahave all contributed to the Buddhist population, which is concentrated in the northern suburbs ofGarland,PlanoandRichardson. Numerous Buddhist temples dot the Metroplex including The Buddhist Center of Dallas, Lien Hoa Vietnamese Temple of Irving, and Kadampa Meditation Center Texas and Wat Buddhamahamunee ofArlington. A large and growing Hindu Community lives in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Most live in Collin County and the northern portions of Dallas County. Over 28 Hindu Temples exist in the area. Some notable ones include the DFW Hindu Temple, theNorth Texas Hindu Mandir,Radha Krishna Temple, DallasandKarya Siddhi Hanuman Temple.There are also at least threeSikhGurudwarasin this metropolitan area.For irreligious people, the Winter Solstice Celebration is held in the Metroplex although some of its participants are alsoneo-pagansandNew Agers. Crime According to the FBI, a city to city comparison of crime rates can be misleading, because recording practices vary from city to city, citizens report different percentages of crimes from one city to the next, and the actual number of people physically present in a city is unknown.With that in mind, Dallas has one of the top 10 crime rates in Texas and its crime rate is higher than the national average. Since 2020, Dallas' murder rate has seen a notable increase. In 2020, Dallas recorded 251 murders which was a 20-year high. By 2022 it decreased to 214 but then increased to 246 in 2023.As of 2020, the gang presence in Dallas has grown significantly and is heavily responsible for the spike in crime.Dallas leaders have made crime reduction a major priority. Economy In its beginnings, Dallas relied on farming, neighboringFort Worth'sStockyards, and its prime location on Native American trade routes to sustain itself. Dallas' key to growth came in 1873 with the construction of multipleraillines through the city. As Dallas grew and technology developed, cotton became its boon and by 1900, Dallas was the largest inland cotton market in the world, becoming a leader incotton ginmachinery manufacturing. By the early 1900s, Dallas was a hub for economic activity all over the Southern United States and was selected in 1914 as the seat of theEleventh Federal Reserve District. By 1925, Texas churned out more than1⁄3of the nation's cotton crop, with 31% of Texas cotton produced within a 100-mile (160 km)radiusof Dallas. In the 1930s, petroleum was discovered east of Dallas, nearKilgore. Dallas' proximity to the discovery put it immediately at the center of the nation's petroleum market. Petroleum discoveries in thePermian Basin, thePanhandle, theGulf Coast, andOklahomain the following years further solidified Dallas' position as the hub of the market. The end ofWorld War IIleft Dallas seeded with a nexus of communications, engineering, and production talent by companies such as Collins Radio Corporation. Decades later, the telecommunications and information revolutions still drive a large portion of the local economy. The city is sometimes referred to as the heart of \"Silicon Prairie\" because of a high concentration of telecommunications companies in the region, the epicenter of which lies along theTelecom CorridorinRichardson, a northern suburb of Dallas. The Telecom Corridor is home to more than 5,700 companies includingTexas Instruments(headquartered in Dallas),Nortel Networks,Alcatel Lucent,AT&T,Ericsson,Fujitsu,Nokia,Rockwell Collins,Cisco Systems,T-Mobile,Verizon Communications, andCompUSA(which is now headquartered inMiami,Florida).Texas Instruments, a major manufacturer, employs 10,400 people at its corporate headquarters and chip plants in Dallas. In the 1980s Dallas was a real estate hotbed, with the increasing metropolitan population bringing with it a demand for new housing and office space. Several ofDowntown Dallas' largest buildings are the fruit of this boom, but over-speculation, thesavings and loan crisisand an oil bust brought the 1980s building boom to an end for Dallas as well as its sister city Houston. Between the late 1980s and the early 2000s, central Dallas went through a slow period of growth. However, since the early 2000s the central core of Dallas has been enjoying steady and significant growth encompassing both repurposing of older commercial buildings in Downtown Dallas into residential and hotel uses, as well as the construction of new office and residential towers. The opening ofKlyde Warren Park, built acrossWoodall Rodgers Freewayseamlessly connecting the central Dallas CBD to Uptown/Victory Park, has acted synergistically with the highly successful Dallas Arts District, so both have become catalysts for significant new development in central Dallas. The residential real estate market in theDallas–Fort Worth metroplexhas not only been resilient but has once again returned to a boom status. Dallas and the greater metro area have been leading the nation in apartment construction and net leasing, with rents reaching all-time highs. Single family home sales, whether pre-owned or new construction, along with home price appreciation, were leading the nation since 2015. A sudden drop in the price of oil, starting in mid-2014 and accelerating throughout 2015, has not significantly affected Dallas and its greater metro area due to the highly diversified nature of its economy. Dallas and the metropolitan region continue to see strong demand for housing, apartment and office leasing, shopping center space, warehouse and industrial space with overall job growth remaining very robust. Oil-dependent cities and regions have felt significant effects from the downturn, but Dallas's growth has continued unabated, strengthening in 2015. Significant national headquarters relocations to the area (as exemplified by Toyota's decision to leaveCaliforniaand establish its new North American headquarters in the Dallas area) coupled with significant expansions of regional offices for a variety of corporations and along with company relocations to Downtown Dallas helped drive the boom in the Dallas economy. The Dallas–Fort Worth area has one of the largest concentrations of corporate headquarters for publicly traded companies in the United States.Fortune Magazine's2022 annual list of the Fortune 500 in America indicates the city of Dallas had 11 Fortune 500 companies,.and the DFW region as a whole had 23.As of 2022, Dallas–Fort Worth represents the second-largest concentration of Fortune 500 headquarters in Texas and fourth-largest in the United States, behind the metropolitan areas ofHouston(24),Chicago(35) andNew York(62). In 2008,AT&Trelocated their headquarters to Downtown Dallas;AT&T is the largest telecommunications company in the world and was the ninth largest company in the nation by revenue for 2017.AdditionalFortune 500companies headquartered in Dallas in order of ranking includeEnergy Transfer Equity,CBRE(which moved its headquarters from Los Angeles to Dallas in 2020),Tenet Healthcare,Southwest Airlines, Texas Instruments,Jacobs Engineering,HollyFrontier,Dean Foods, and Builders FirstSource. In October 2016, Jacobs Engineering, one of the world's largest engineering companies, relocated fromPasadena, Californiato Downtown Dallas. Nearby Irving is home to six Fortune 500 companies of its own, includingMcKesson, the country's largest pharmaceutical distributor and listed at number seven overall on the 2021 Fortune 500 list,Fluor(engineering),Kimberly-Clark,Celanese,Michaels Companies, andVistra Energy.Planois home to an additional four Fortune 500 companies, includingJ.C. Penney,Alliance Data Systems,Yum China, andDr. Pepper Snapple.Fort Worth is home to twoFortune 500companies, includingAmerican Airlines, the largest airline in the world by revenue, fleet size, profit, passengers carried and revenue passenger mile andD.R. Horton, the largest homebuilder in America.Westlake, TX, north of Fort Worth, now has two Fortune 500 companies: Financial services giant,Charles Schwab, and convenience store distributor,Core-Mark.One Fortune 500 company,GameStop, is based inGrapevine. Additional major companies headquartered in Dallas and its metro area includeComerica, which relocated its national headquarters to Downtown Dallas fromDetroitin 2007,NTT DATA Services, Regency Energy Partners,Atmos Energy,Neiman Marcus,AECOM,Think Finance,7-Eleven,Brinker International, Primoris Services,AMS Pictures,id Software,Mary Kay Cosmetics,Chuck E. Cheese's,Zale Corporation, andFossil, Inc. Many of these companies—and others throughout the DFW metroplex—comprise theDallas Regional Chamber.Susan G. Komen for the Cure, the world's largest breast cancer organization, was founded and is headquartered in Dallas. In addition to its large number of businesses, Dallas has more shopping centers per capita than any other city in the United States and is also home to the second shopping center ever built in the United States,Highland Park Village, which opened in 1931.Dallas is home of the two other major malls in North Texas, theDallas GalleriaandNorthPark Center, which is the second largest mall in Texas. Both malls feature high-end stores and are major tourist draws for the region. According toForbesmagazine's annual list of \"The Richest People in America\" published September 21, 2011, the city is home to 17 billionaires, up from 14 in 2009. In 2009 (with 14 billionaires) the city placed sixth worldwide among cities with the most billionaires. Dallas is the third most popular destination for business travel in the United States, and theKay Bailey Hutchison Convention Centeris one of the largest and busiest convention centers in the country, at over 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m2), and the world's single-largest column-free exhibit hall.VisitDallasis the501(c)(6)organization contracted to promote tourism and attract conventions but an audit released in January 2019 cast doubts on its effectiveness in achieving those goals. Arts and culture Arts and museums TheArts Districtin the northern section ofDowntownis home to several arts venues and is the largest contiguous arts district in the United States.Notable venues in the district include theDallas Museum of Art; theMorton H. Meyerson Symphony Center, home to theDallas Symphony OrchestraandDallas Wind Symphony; theNasher Sculpture Center; and theTrammell & Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art. ThePerot Museum of Nature and Science, also in Downtown Dallas, is anatural historyandscience museum. Designed by 2005 Pritzker Architecture Prize LaureateThom Mayneand his firm Morphosis Architects, the 180,000-square-foot (17,000 m2) facility has six floors and stands about 14 stories high. Venues that are part of the AT&TDallas Center for the Performing ArtsincludeMoody Performance Hall, home to theDallas Chamber Symphony; theDee and Charles Wyly Theatre, home to theDallas Theater Centerand the Dallas Black Dance Theater; and theWinspear Opera House, home to theDallas OperaandTexas Ballet Theater. Not far north of the area is theMeadows Museumat Southern Methodist University. In 2009, it joined up with Madrid'sPrado Museumfor a three-year partnership. The Prado focuses on Spanish visual art and has a collection of Spanish art in North America, with works by de Juanes, El Greco, Fortuny, Goya, Murillo, Picasso, Pkensa, Ribera, Rico, Velasquez, Zurbaran, and other Spaniards. These works, as well as non-Spanish highlights like sculptures by Rodin and Moore, have been so successful of a collaboration that the Prado and Meadows have agreed upon an extension of the partnership. The Institute for Creation Research operates theICR Discovery Center for Science & Earth History, a creationism museum, in Dallas.The formerTexas School Book Depository, from which, according to theWarren CommissionReport,Lee Harvey Oswaldshot and killedPresidentJohn F. Kennedyin 1963, has served since the 1980s as acounty governmentoffice building, except for its sixth and seventh floors, which housethe Sixth Floor Museum. The American Museum of the Miniature Artsis at the Hall of State inFair Park. The Arts District is also home toDISD'sBooker T. Washington High School for the Performing and Visual Arts, a magnet school that was recently expanded.City Center District, next to the Arts District, is home tothe Dallas Contemporary. Deep Ellum, immediately east of Downtown, originally became popular during the 1920s and 1930s as the primejazzandblueshot spot in theSouth.Artists such asBlind Lemon Jefferson,Robert Johnson, Huddie \"Lead Belly\" Ledbetter, andBessie Smithplayed in original Deep Ellum clubs such as the Harlem and the Palace. Today, Deep Ellum is home to hundreds of artists who live in lofts and operate in studios throughout the district alongside bars, pubs, and concert venues. A major art infusion in the area results from the city's lax stance ongraffiti, and a number of public spaces, including tunnels, sides of buildings, sidewalks, and streets, are covered in murals. One major example, the Good-Latimer tunnel, was torn down in late 2006 to accommodate the construction of alight rail linethrough the site. Like Deep Ellum before it, theCedarsneighborhood to the south of Downtown has also seen a growing population of studio artists and an expanding roster of entertainment venues. The area's art scene began to grow in the early 2000s with the opening of Southside on Lamar, an old Sears Roebuck and Company warehouse converted into lofts, studios, and retail. Current attractions include Gilley's Dallas and Poor David's Pub.Dallas Mavericksowner and local entrepreneurMark Cubanpurchased land along Lamar Street nearCedars Stationin September 2005, and locals speculate he is planning an entertainment complex for the site. South of the Trinity River, the Bishop Arts District inOak Cliffis home to a number of studio artists living in converted warehouses. Walls of buildings along alleyways and streets are painted with murals, and the surrounding streets contain many eclectic restaurants and shops. Dallas has an Office of Cultural Affairs as a department of the city government. The office is responsible for six cultural centers throughout the city, funding for local artists and theaters, initiating public art projects, and running the city-ownedclassicalradio stationWRR.TheLos Angeles-class submarineUSSDallaswas planned to become a museum ship near the Trinity River after her decommissioning in September 2014, but this has since been delayed.It will be taken apart into massive sections in Houston and be transported by trucks to the museum site and will be put back together. Libraries The city is served by theDallas Public Librarysystem. The system was created by the Dallas Federation of Women's Clubs with efforts spearheaded by then presidentMay Dickson Exall. Her fundraising efforts led to a grant from philanthropist and steel baronAndrew Carnegie, which allowed the library system to build its first branch in 1901. Today, the library operates 30 branch locations throughout the city, including the 8-storyJ. Erik Jonsson Central Libraryin theGovernment DistrictofDowntown. Places of interest Cuisine Dallas is known for itsbarbecue, authenticMexican, andTex-Mex cuisine. Famous products of the Dallas culinary scene include theFrozen margarita machineby restaurateurMariano Martinezin 1971. Events TheState Fair of Texashas been held annually atFair Parksince 1886, and generates an estimated $50 million to the city's economy annually.TheRed River Shootout,a football game that pits theUniversity of Texas at Austinagainst theUniversity of Oklahomaat theCotton Bowl, also brings significant crowds to the city. The city also hosts theState Fair ClassicandHeart of Dallas Bowlat theCotton Bowl. Other festivals include severalCinco de Mayocelebrations hosted by the city's largeMexican Americanpopulation and aSaint Patrick's Dayparade alongLower Greenville Avenue,Juneteenthfestivities, Taste of Dallas, the Deep Ellum Arts Festival, theGreek Food Festival of Dallas, the annual Halloween event \"The Wake\", and two annual events on Halloween, including a Halloween parade onCedar Springs Roadand a \"Zombie Walk\" held inDowntown Dallasin theArts District. With the opening ofVictory Park,WFAAbegan hosting an annual New Year's Eve celebration in AT&T Plaza that the television station hoped would be reminiscent of celebrations in New York'sTimes Square; New Year's Eve 2011 set a new record of 32,000 people in attendance. After the discontinuance of the \"Big D NYE\" festivities a few years later, a new end-of-year event was started downtown, with a big fireworks show put on atReunion Tower, which has since aired onKXASand other TV stations around the state and region. Also, several Omni hotels in the Dallas area host large events to welcome in the new year, including murder mystery parties, rave-inspired events, and other events. Sports Downtown Dallasis home to two major league sports teams that play at theAmerican Airlines Center: theDallas Mavericks(NBA), who won theNBA Championshipin2011, and theDallas Stars(NHL), who won theStanley Cupin1999. NearbyArlingtonis home to theDallas Cowboys(NFL), who play at theAT&T Stadiumand have won fiveSuper Bowls, theTexas Rangers(MLB), who play atGlobe Life Fieldand won theWorld Seriesin2023, and theDallas Wings(WNBA), who play atCollege Park Center.MLSteamFC Dallasplays atToyota StadiuminFriscoand won theLamar Hunt U.S. Open Cupin 1997 and 2016. Additionally, there are several minor league and college sports programs in the area. Since joining the league as an expansion team in 1960, the Cowboys have enjoyed substantial success, advancing to eightSuper Bowlsand winning five. The Cowboys are financially the most valuable sports franchise in the world, worth approximately $4 billion.In 2009, they relocated to their new 80,000-seat stadium in Arlington, which was the site ofSuper Bowl XLVand is set to host the most matches during the2026 FIFA World Cup.The Cowboys are currently part of theEast Divisionof theNational Football Conference(NFC). The Texas Rangers won the American League pennant in 2010, 2011 and 2023, and won theWorld Seriesin 2023. The franchise relocated fromWashington D.C.in 1972. They play in theWest Divisionof theAmerican League. The Dallas Mavericks joined the league as an expansion team in 1980. They won their firstNational Basketball Associationchampionship in 2011 led byDirk Nowitzki.They play in theSouthwest Divisionof theWestern Conference. The Dallas Stars moved to North Texas in 1993 as a relocation from the former team, theMinnesota North Stars. The Stars have won eight division titles in Dallas, twoPresidents' Trophiesas the top regular season team in the NHL, theWestern Conferencechampionship three times, and in1998–99, theStanley Cup. The team plays in theCentral Divisionof theWestern Conference. FC Dallasplay atToyota Stadium(formerly FC Dallas Stadium and Pizza Hut Park), a stadium that opened in 2005.They currently play in MLS'sWestern Conference. The team was originally called the Dallas Burn and used to play in theCotton Bowl. Although FC Dallas has not yet won a MLS Cup, they won theLamar Hunt U.S. Open Cupin 1997 and 2016 and theSupporters' Shieldin 2016. Previously, theDallas Tornadoplayed in theNorth American Soccer Leaguefrom 1968 to 1981. The Dallas Wings came toThe Metroplexin 2016 after relocating fromTulsa. There are many notable minor league teams in the Dallas-Fort Worth. TheAllen Americansare a professional ice hockey team headquartered at theCredit Union of Texas Event CenterinAllen, Texas, which currently plays in theECHL. They are the minor league affiliate of theNHL'sSeattle Kraken. The team was founded in 2009 in theCentral Hockey League(CHL). They have won 4 straight championships, 2 in the CHL (2012–13,2013–14) and 2 in the ECHL(2014–15,2015–16). TheDallas Renegadesare a professional football team in the relaunchedXFLthat plays their home games atGlobe Life Park, the former home of the Texas Rangers. TheDallas Sidekicks (2012)are an American professionalindoor soccerteam based inAllen, Texas, a suburb of Dallas. They play their home games in theCredit Union of Texas Event Center. The team is named after the originalDallas Sidekicksthat operated from 1984 to 2004. The MLS-affiliatedNorth Texas SCteam is a member ofMLS Next Proand plays in Frisco at Toyota Stadium; it is the reserve team of FC Dallas. The Dallas Mavericks own anNBA G Leagueteam, theTexas Legends. Rugbyis a developing sport in Dallas and Texas in general. The multiple clubs, ranging from men's and women's clubs tocollegiateand high school, are part of theTexas Rugby Football Union.Dallas was one of only 16 cities in the United States included in theRugby Super League,represented byDallas Harlequins.In 2020,Major League Rugbyannounced theDallas Jackalsas a new franchise.Australian rules footballis also growing in Dallas. TheDallas Magpies, founded in 1998, compete in theUnited States Australian Football League. The onlyDivision Isports program within the Dallas political boundary is theDallas Baptist UniversityPatriots baseball team.Although outside the city limits, theMustangsofSouthern Methodist Universityare in the enclave ofUniversity Park. Neighboring citiesFort Worth, Arlington, andDentonare home to theTexas Christian UniversityHorned Frogs,UT ArlingtonMavericks, andUniversity of North TexasMean Greenrespectively. The Dallas area hosted the Final Four of the2014 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournamentat AT&T Stadium. The collegeCotton Bowl Classicfootball game was played at theCotton Bowlthrough its2009 game, but has moved to AT&T Stadium. TheRed River Showdownis an Americancollege footballrivalrygame played annually at theCotton Bowl Stadiumduring the second weekend of theState Fair of Texasin October. The game is played by theOklahoma Sooners footballteam of theUniversity of Oklahomaand theTexas Longhorns footballteam of theUniversity of Texas at Austin. The 10,000-capacity Forester Stadium, which is used mainly for football and soccer, is also located in Dallas. Parks and recreation Dallas maintains and operates 406 parks on 21,000 acres (85 km2) of parkland.The city's parks contain 17 separate lakes, includingWhite RockandBachmanlakes, spanning a total of 4,400 acres (17.81 km2). In addition, Dallas is traversed by 61.6 miles (99.1 km) of biking and jogging trails, including theKaty Trail, and is home to 47 community and neighborhood recreation centers, 276 sports fields, 60 swimming pools, 232 playgrounds, 173 basketball courts, 112 volleyball courts, 126 play slabs, 258 neighborhood tennis courts, 258 picnic areas, six 18-hole golf courses, two driving ranges, and 477 athletic fields as of 2013. Fair Park Dallas's flagship park isFair Park. Built in 1936 for theTexas Centennial Expositionworld's fair, Fair Park is the world's largest collection ofArt Decoexhibit buildings, art, and sculptures; Fair Park is also home to theState Fair of Texas, the largest state fair in the United States. In November 2019, consultants presented to the public a master plan to revitalize the area. Klyde Warren Park Named after Klyde Warren, the young son of billionaireKelcy Warren,Klyde Warren Parkwas built aboveWoodall Rodgers Freewayand connectsUptownand Downtown, specifically the Arts District. Klyde Warren Park is home to anamphitheater, jogging trails, a children's park, a dog park, a putting green,croquet, ping pong, chess, an outdoor library, and two restaurants. Food trucks give another option of dining and are lined along the park's Downtown side. There are also weekly planned events, includingyoga,Zumba, skyline tours,tai chi, andmeditation.Klyde Warren Park is home to a free trolley stop on Olive St., which riders can connect to Downtown, McKinney Avenue, andWest Village. Turtle Creek Parkway park Built in 1913, Turtle Creek Parkway park is a 23.7-acre (9.6 ha) linear park in between Turtle Creek and Turtle Creek Boulevard in the aptly namedTurtle Creekneighborhood.Archaeological surveys discovered dart points and flint chips dating 3,000 years to 1,000 BCE. This site was later discovered to be home to Native Americans who cherished the trees and natural spring water. The park is across Turtle Creek fromKalita Humphreys Theater, designed byFrank Lloyd Wright. Lake Cliff Park Opened on July 4, 1906, Lake Cliff Park was called \"the Southwest's Greatest Playground\". The park was home to an amusement park, a large pool, waterslides, the world's largest skating rink, and three theaters, the largest being the 2,500-seat Casino Theater. After the streetcar bridge that brought most of the park visitors collapsed, Lake Cliff Park was sold. The Casino Theater moved and the pool was demolished after a polio scare in 1959. The pool was Dallas's first municipal pool. Reverchon Park In 1935, Dallas purchased 36 acres (15 ha) from John Cole's estate to developReverchon Park.Reverchon Park was named after botanist Julien Reverchon, who left France to live in the La Reunion colony, which was founded in the mid-1800sand was situated in present-day West Dallas. Reverchon Park was planned to be the crown jewel of the Dallas park system and was even referred to as the \"Central Park\" of Dallas. Improvements were made throughout the years, including the Iris Bowl, picnic settings, a baseball diamond, and tennis courts. The Iris Bowl celebrated many Greek pageants, dances, and other performances. The Gill Well was installed for nearby residents and drew people all across Texas who wanted to experience the water's healing powers.The baseball diamond was host to a 1953 exhibition game for theNew York Giantsand theCleveland Indians. Trinity River Project As part of the ongoingTrinity River Project, the Great Trinity Forest, at 6,000 acres (24 km2), is the largest urban hardwood forest in the United States and is part of the largest urban park in the United States.The Trinity River Audubon Center is a new addition to the park. Opened in 2008, it serves as a gateway to many trails and other nature-viewing activities in the area. The Trinity River Audubon Center is the first LEED-certified building built by the City of Dallas Parks and Recreation Department. Katy Trail Named after its former railroad name, the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad (or \"MKT\" Railroad), the 3.5-mile (5.6 km) stretch of railroad was purchased by the city of Dallas and transformed into the city's premier trail. Stretching fromVictory Park, the 30-acre (12 ha)Katy Trailpasses through theTurtle Creekand Knox Park neighborhoods and runs along the east side ofHighland Park. The trail ends atCentral Expressway, but extensions are underway to extend the trail to the White Rock Lake Trail inLakewood. Preserves Dallas hosts three of the twenty-one preserves of the extensive 3,200 acres (13 km2) Dallas County Preserve System. The Joppa Preserve, the McCommas Bluff Preserve, and the Cedar Ridge Preserve are within the Dallas city limits. The Cedar Ridge Preserve was known as the Dallas Nature Center, but the Audubon Dallas group now manages the 633-acre (2.56 km2) natural habitat park on behalf of the city of Dallas and Dallas County. The preserve sits at an elevation of 755 feet (230 m) above sea level and offers a variety of outdoor activities, including 10 miles (16 km) of hiking trails and picnic areas. Dallas Zoo The city is also home to Texas's first and largest zoo, the 106-acre (0.43 km2)Dallas Zoo, which opened at its current location in 1888. Government Local representation The city uses acouncil-manager government, withEric Johnsonserving as mayor,T.C. Broadnax serving as city manager,and 14 council members serving as representatives to the 14 council districts in the city.This organizational structure was contested by some in favor of a strong-mayor city charter,only to be rejected by Dallas voters.In 1969, Anita N. Martínez become the first Latin American to sit as a councilwoman in Dallas's city council. In the 2017–2018 fiscal year, the city's totalbudget(the sum ofoperatingand capital budgets) was $3.3 billion.The city has seen a steady increase in its budget due to sustained growth: the budget was $1.7 billion in 2002–2003,$1.9 billion in 2003–2004,$2.0 billion in 2004–2005,and $2.2 billion in 2005–2006. Federal and state representation National and state legislators representing Dallas: TheUnited States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, which exercises original jurisdiction over 100 counties in North and West Texas, convenes in theEarle Cabell Federal Building and Courthousein theGovernment DistrictofDowntown. The same building additionally housesUnited States Bankruptcyand Magistrate Courts and aUnited States Attorneyoffice. Dallas also is the seat of the Fifth Court of Appeals of Texas. Politics Since 2023, Dallas has been the largest city in the United States with aRepublicanmayor after Eric Johnson switched parties afterwinning re-election. He ran and was elected as a Democrat.However, the city is normally aDemocraticstronghold, with over 69% of voters supportingJoe Bidenin the2020 presidential electionand 67% of voters supportingHillary Clintonin the2016 presidential election(excluding write-ins).Democraticvoters dominate the majority of the city, especially thecentralurban coreandsouthernsectors, withRepublicansspreading a sliver of suburban neighborhoods inNorth Dallas. In the2004 U.S. presidential election, 57% of Dallas voters voted forJohn KerryoverGeorge W. Bush.Dallas County was closely divided, with 50% of voters voting for Bush and 49% voting for Kerry.Results in the 2008 and 2012 elections favoredBarack Obama, with the 44th President receiving 57% of Dallas County voters in both years, with greater margins in the city of Dallas. In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, approximately 66% of Dallas voters voted forHillary Clinton, with 28% of city voters voting forDonald Trump.Dallas County as a whole saw 61% of voters voting for Clinton, with 35% support for Trump.In 2004,Lupe Valdezwas elected Dallas CountySheriff. An open lesbian, Valdez was the only female sheriff in the state of Texas until her resignation. Despite controversies in her handling of county jails, she won re-election in 2008 with a 10-point victory over Republican challenger Lowell Cannaday. Education There are 337 public schools, 89 private schools, 38 colleges, and 32 libraries in Dallas.Dallas–Fort Worth is also home to six Nobel Laureates. Colleges and universities The Dallas area has a high number of colleges and universities. In addition to those in the city, the surrounding cities also have a number of universities, colleges, trade schools, and other educational institutions. The following describes the universities and their proximity to the city: TheTexas Legislaturedefines all areas in Dallas County and in theCarrollton-Farmers Branch Independent School Districtas being in the service area ofDallas College(formerly Dallas County Community College District or DCCCD). Areas in Collin County are assigned toCollin College. Colleges and universities within Dallas city limits Colleges and universities within Dallas County University Research Center Other area colleges and universities Primary and secondary schools Most areas in the city of Dallas are within theDallas Independent School District,the 12th-largest school district in the United States and second largest in Texas.The school district operates independently of the city and enrolls over 161,000 students.As of 2003 DISD has the majority of K–12 students in the city of Dallas, and a proportionately larger number of students who are notnon-Hispanic white.One of the district'smagnet schools, theSchool for the Talented and Giftedin Oak Cliff. A few areas of Dallas also extend into other school districts in Dallas County, includingCarrollton-Farmers Branch,Coppell,Duncanville,Garland,Highland Park,Irving,Mesquite, andRichardson.Portions of Dallas in Collin County are inPlano ISD,and portions of Dallas in Denton County are in the Carrollton-Farmers Branch ISD.TheWilmer-Hutchins Independent School Districtonce served portions of southern Dallas,but it was shut down for the 2005–2006 year. WHISD students started attending other Dallas ISD schools during that time. Following the close, theTexas Education Agencyconsolidated WHISD into Dallas ISD.In 2003 Royce Hanson, author ofCivic Culture and Urban Change: Governing Dallas, stated that the Plano, Richardson, and Wilmer-Hutchins school districts were the \"most significant\" of the public school students with students in Dallas who were not in Dallas ISD. Many school districts inDallas County, including Dallas ISD, were formerly served by a governmental agency calledDallas County Schools. The system provided busing and other transportation services, access to a massive media library, technology services, strong ties to local organizations for education/community integration, and staff development programs. Private schools Students from Dallas attend many private schools in Dallas, and in nearby areas. These schools include: Media Dallas has several local newspapers, magazines, television stations and radio stations that serve the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, which is the fifth-largestmedia marketin the United States.Dallas has one major daily newspaper,The Dallas Morning News, which was founded in 1885 byA. H. Beloand is A. H. Belo's flagship newspaper. TheDallas Times Herald, started in 1888, was theMorning News'major competitor until Belo purchased it on December 8, 1991, and closed the paper down the next day. Other daily newspapers areAl Día, a Spanish-language paper published by Belo, and a number of ethnic newspapers printed in languages such asChinese,Korean, andVietnamese. Other publications include theDallas Weeklyand theElite News, all weekly news publications. TheDallas Observerand theNorth Texas Journalare also alternative weekly newspapers.The Dallas Morning Newsformerly had a weekly publication,Neighborsgo, which came out every Friday and focused on community news. Readers could post stories and contribute content to the website. D Magazineis a notable monthly magazine about business, life, and entertainment in Dallas–Fort Worth. Local visitor magazines include \"WHERE Magazine\" and \"Travelhost\"–available at hotel desks or in guest rooms. In addition, the park cities and suburbs such as Plano also have their own community newspapers. Also,THE Magazinecovers the contemporary arts scene. In terms of the larger metro area, theFort Worth Star-Telegramis another major daily newspaper, coveringFort Worth's metropolitan division. It also publishes a major Spanish-language newspaper for the entire metro area known asLa Estrella.To the north of Dallas and Fort Worth, theDenton Record-Chronicleprimarily covers news for thecity of DentonandDenton County. Area television stations affiliated with the major broadcasting networks (networkO&O'shighlighted inbold) includeKDFW 4(Fox),KXAS 5(NBC),WFAA 8(ABC) (which for many years was owned byBeloalongside theMorning News),KTVT 11(CBS),KERA 13(PBS),KUVN 23(UNI),KDFI 27(MNTV),KDAF 33(The CW), andKXTX 39(TMD).KTXA 21andKFAA 29are anindependent stations; the former was previously affiliated with the now-defunctUPNnetwork. Over 101 radio stations operate within range of Dallas.The city of Dallas operatesWRR101.1 FM, the area's main classical music station, from city offices inFair Park.Its original sister station, licensed asWRR-AMin 1921, is the oldest commercially operated radio station in Texas and the second-oldest in the United States, afterKDKA (AM)in Pittsburgh.KKDA, anurban contemporarystation, andKRNB, anurban adult contemporarystation, are owned independently by Service Broadcasting Corporation. Because of the city's central geographical position and lack of nearby mountainous terrain, high-powerclass Amedium-wavestationsKRLDandWBAPcan broadcast as far as southern Canada at night and can be used for emergency messages when broadcasting is down in other major metropolitan areas in the United States. Slavic Voice of Americamedia group serves Russian-speaking Americans out of Dallas. Hispanic Broadcasting Corporation (HBC), the largest company in the Spanish-language radio station business, is based in Dallas.In 2003, HBC was acquired by Univision and became Univision Radio Inc., but the radio company remains headquartered in the city. Infrastructure Public safety TheDallas Police Departmentprovides most policing in Dallas. The Dallas chief of police is Eddie Garcia.The police headquarters are in the Cedars neighborhood of southern Dallas. Emergency medical servicesand fire protection in the city are provided by theDallas Fire-Rescue Department. The Dallas Fire & Rescue chief is Dominique Artis.The department operates the Dallas Firefighter's Museum built in 1907 along Parry Avenue near Fair Park. Dallas's oldest remaining fire station building still stands at the corner of McKinney Ave. and Leonard and was built in 1892. It was the home of Engine Co. Number 1, and is now a picture framing shop. Health care Dallas has many hospitals and several medical research facilities within its city limits. One major research center is the Dallas Medical District with theUT Southwestern Medical Centerin theStemmons Corridor, along with the affiliatedUT Southwestern Medical School. The health care complex includes within its boundsParkland Memorial Hospital,Children's Medical Center,William P. Clements Jr. University Hospital(formerly St. Paul University Hospital), and theWilliam P. Clements Jr. University Hospital. Dallas also has aVAhospital in the southern portion of the city, the Dallas Veterans Affairs Medical Center. The center is home to aConsolidated Mail Outpatient Pharmacy(CMOP), part of an initiative by the Department of Veterans Affairs to provide mail-order prescriptions to veterans using computerization at strategic locations throughout the United States. Other hospitals in the city includeBaylor University Medical CenterinEast Dallas, Methodist Dallas Medical Center in Oak Cliff, Methodist Charlton Medical Center nearDuncanville,Medical City Dallas HospitalandPresbyterian HospitalinNorth Dallas, and the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children in Oak Lawn. Utilities Dallas is served byDallas Water Utilities, which operates several waste treatment plants and pulls water from several area reservoirs.Several companies maintain the city's electric system, includingStream Energy, Cirro Energy andOncor Electric Delivery,whose parent company,Energy Future Holdings Corporation, has headquarters in the city. The city offers garbage pickup and recycling service weekly through its Sanitation Services department.Telephone networks, broadband internet, and cable television service are available from several companies, includingAT&T,Spectrum, andVerizon FiOS. Transportation Like many other major cities in the United States, the automobile is the primary mode of local transportation, though efforts have been made to increase the availability of alternative modes of transportation, including the construction of light rail lines, biking and walking paths, wide sidewalks, a trolley system, and buses.Walk Scoreranked Dallas the twenty-third most walkable of fifty largest cities in the United States in 2011. In 2009, 78.5% of Dallas (city) commuters drive to work alone. The 2009mode sharefor Dallas (city) commuters are 10.7% for carpooling, 3.9% for transit, 1.9% for walking, and .1% for cycling.In 2015, the American Community Survey estimated modal shares for Dallas (city) commuters of 75.4% for driving alone, 12.8% for carpooling, 3.5% for riding transit, 1.9% for walking, and .2% for cycling. The city of Dallas has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 10.2 percent of Dallas households lacked a car, and decreased to 9.1 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Dallas averaged 1.59 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. Highways Dallas is at the confluence of four majorinterstate highways—Interstates20,30,35E, and45. The Dallas area freeway system is set up in the popularhub-and-spokesystem, shaped much like a wagon wheel. Starting from the center of the city, a small freeway loop surrounds Downtown, followed by theI-635loop about 10 miles (16 km) outside Downtown, and ultimately the tolledPresident George Bush Turnpike. Inside these freeway loops are otherboulevard- andparkway-style loops, includingLoop 12andBelt Line Road. Another beltway around the city upwards of 45 miles (72 km) from Downtown is under plan in Collin County. Radiating out of Downtown Dallas' freeway loop are the spokes of the area's highway system—Interstates 30, 35E, and 45,US 75,US 77,US 175,SH Spur 366, theDallas North Tollway,SH 114,US 80, andUS 67. Other major highways around the city includeSH 183andSpur 408. The recently completed interchange at the intersection of Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway (I-635) and theCentral Expressway(US 75) has five stacks and is aptly called theHigh Five Interchange. It is one of the few five-level interchanges in Dallas and is one of the largest freeway interchanges in the United States. The following is a list of the freeways and tollways in the Dallas-Fort Worth area: Airports Two commercial airports serve Dallas:Dallas Fort Worth International AirportandDallas Love Field. In addition,Dallas Executive Airport(formerly Redbird Airport), serves as ageneral aviationairport for the city, andAddison Airportfunctions similarly just outside the city limits in the suburb of Addison. Two more general aviation airports are about 35 miles (56 km) north of Dallas inMcKinney, and another two are inFort Worth, on the west side of the metroplex.Alliance Airport, in far North Fort Worth, is a cargo reliever airport to DFW Airport and general aviation facility. DFW Airport is in the suburbs slightly north of and equidistant to Downtown Fort Worth and Downtown Dallas. In terms of size, DFW International is the largest airport in the state, the second largest in the United States, and ninth largest in the world; DFW International Airport is larger than the island ofManhattan. In terms of traffic, DFW Airport is thebusiest airport in the state,fourth-busiest in the United States, andeleventh-busiest in the world. The headquarters ofAmerican Airlines, the largest air carrier in the world ahead ofUnited AirlinesandDelta Air Lines, is less than one mile (1.6 km) from DFW Airport within Fort Worth's city limits. Similarly, Love Field is within Dallas's city limits, about 6 miles (10 km) northwest of Downtown, and is headquarters toSouthwest Airlines, the largest domestic airline in the United States. Transit systems Dallas Area Rapid Transit(DART) is the Dallas-area public transportation authority that provides rail, buses andHOVlanes to commuters. DART began operating the firstlight railsystem in Texas in 1996, and it is now the largest operator of light rail in the US.Today, the system is theseventh-busiestlight rail system in the country with approximately 55 stations on 72 miles (116 km) of light rail, and 10 stations on 35 miles (56 km) of commuter rail.It includes four light rail lines and a commuter line: theRed Line, theBlue Line, theGreen Line, theOrange Line, and theTrinity Railway Express. TheRed Linetravels throughOak Cliff,South Dallas,Downtown,Uptown,North Dallas,RichardsonandPlano, while theBlue Linegoes through Oak Cliff, Downtown, Uptown,East Dallas,Lake Highlands, andGarland. TheRedandBluelines are conjoined between8th & Corinth Stationin Oak Cliff throughMockingbird StationinNorth Dallas. The two lines serviceCityplace Station. The Green Line servesCarrollton,Farmers Branch,Love Field Airport,Stemmons Corridor,Victory Park, Downtown,Deep Ellum,Fair Park, South Dallas, andPleasant Grove. The Orange Line initially operated as a peak-service line providing extra capacity on portions of the Green and Red Lines (Bachman Stationon the Green Line, through the Downtown transit mall, toParker Road Stationon the Red Line making a \"U\"-shape). However, the first stage of the Orange Line opened on December 6, 2010, extending its west end from Bachman toBelt Line Stationin Irving. The second and final phase opened in August 2014 and providedDFW Airportwith rail service.DFW Airport Terminal A stationis the terminus for the Orange Line and connectsSkylink. This provides passengers the convenience of disembarking the DART rail, proceeding to security check-in and immediately boardingSkylinkto be quickly transported to their desired terminal. The Blue Line has also been extended by 4.5 miles (7.2 km) to serveRowlettat theRowlett Park & Ridefacility. In August 2009, the Regional Transportation Council agreed to seek $96 million in federal stimulus dollars for a trolley project in Dallas and Fort Worth. The Oak Cliff Transit Authority took the lead with leaders envisioning a streetcar line that would linkUnion Stationand theDallas Convention Centerin Downtown to Oak Cliff, Methodist Medical Center, and theBishop Arts Districtvia the Houston Street Viaduct. Dallas was awarded a $23 million TIGER grant towards the $58 million Dallas Streetcar Project in February 2010. In addition to light rail,Amtrak'sTexas Eaglealso serves Union Station, providing daily service east toChicagoand west toSan Antonio, and thrice-weekly service west toLos Angeles. The Trinity Rail Express terminates at Union Station andT&P Station. Notable people International relations The city of Dallas has worked to build Sister & Friendship City relationships around the globe. These relationships help create and strengthen partnerships between Dallas and theinternational community. The program aims to build global cooperation at the municipal level by promoting cultural understanding and stimulatingeconomic developmentbetween Dallas and its foreign counterparts. Sister cities Dallas'ssister citiesare: Friendship cities Dallas has friendly relations with: See also Notes References Further reading External links" ]
[ "1994 FIFA World Cup The1994 FIFA World Cupwas the 15thFIFA World Cup, the world championship for men's nationalsoccerteams. It was hosted by the United States and took place from June 17 to July 17, 1994, at nine venues across the country. The United States was chosen as thehostbyFIFAon July 4, 1988.Despite soccer's relative lack of popularity in the host nation, the tournament was the most financially successfulin World Cup history. It broke tournament records with overall attendance of 3,587,538 and an average of 68,991 per game,figures that stand unsurpassed as of 2022,despite the expansion of the competition from 24 to 32 teams starting with the1998 World Cup. Brazilwas crowned the winner afterdefeatingItaly3–2 in apenalty shootoutat theRose BowlinPasadena, California, nearLos Angeles, after the game had ended 0–0 afterextra time. It was the first World Cup final to be decided on penalties. The victory made Brazil the first nation to win four World Cup titles. There were three new entrants in the", "new entrants in the tournament:Greece,Nigeria, andSaudi Arabia;Russiaalso appeared as a separate nation for the first time, following the breakup of theSoviet Union, and for the first time since 1938, a unifiedGermanytook part in the tournament. It was also the defending champion, but was eliminated in the quarterfinals byBulgaria. It was the first World Cup where three points were awarded for a victory instead of two and also the first with theback-pass rule. This was done to encourage a more attacking style of soccer as a response to the criticism of the defensive tactics and low-scoring matches of the1990 World Cup. This resulted in an average of 2.71 goals per match, compared to 2.21 in 1990. Background and preparations Bidding process Three nations bid to host the event: United States, Brazil, and Morocco.The vote was held in Zurich on July 4, 1988 (Independence Dayin the United States), and only took one round with the United States bid receiving a little over half of the votes by theFIFA Executive", "theFIFA Executive Committeemembers.FIFA hoped that by staging the world's most prestigious tournament there, it wouldlead to a growth of interest in the sport. An inspection committee also found that the proposed Brazilian stadiums were deficient, while the Moroccan bid relied on the construction of nine new stadiums. Conversely, all the proposed stadiums in the United States were already built and fully functioning; U.S. Soccer spent $500 million preparing and organizing the tournament, far less than the billions other countries previously had spent and subsequently would spend on preparing for this tournament.The U.S. bid was seen as the favorite and was prepared in response to losing the right to be the replacement host for the1986 tournamentfollowing Colombia's withdrawal. One condition FIFA imposed was the creation of a professional soccer league –Major League Soccerwas founded in 1993 and began operating in 1996.There was some initial controversyabout awarding the World Cup to a country where soccer", "where soccer was not a nationally popular sport, and at the time, in 1988,the U.S. no longer had a professional league; theNorth American Soccer League, established in 1967, had folded in 1984 after attendance faded.The success of the1984 Summer Olympicsin Los Angeles, particularly thesoccer tournamentthat drew 1.4 million spectators throughout the event, also contributed to FIFA's decision. The United States had previously bid to host the1986 FIFA World Cup, after Colombia withdrew as the host nation in November 1982 because of economic concerns. Despite a presentation led by formerNorth American Soccer LeagueplayersPeléandFranz Beckenbauer, as well as formerUnited States Secretary of StateHenry Kissinger, the executive committee selected Mexico.There were proposals byFIFAto introduce larger goals and breaks after every quarter instead of just at halftime in order to appease U.S. television advertisers.These proposals were met with resistance,and ultimately rejected. Venues The games were played in nine", "were played in nine cities across thecontiguous United States.All stadiums had a capacity of at least 53,000 and were occupied byprofessionalorcollegeAmerican footballteams. Other host city candidates includedAtlanta,Denver,Kansas City,Las Vegas,Miami,Minneapolis,New Orleans,Philadelphia,Seattle, andTampa, as well as smaller communities such asAnnapolis, Maryland;Columbus, Ohio;Corvallis, Oregon; andNew Haven, Connecticut.Some sites, includingJoe Robbie StadiuminMiamiandCandlestick ParkinSan Francisco, were rejected because of conflicts withMajor League Baseball.Stanford Stadium, 30 miles (48 km) southeast of San Francisco,and theCitrus BowlinOrlando, Florida, were picked (theMiami Orange Bowl, another Miami venue, required major renovations to meet tournament standards). TheRose Bowlhosted the most matches with eight, four of them in the knockout stage, including the final.Giants Stadiumhosted seven games including a semifinal;Foxborough Stadium, Stanford Stadium, and theCotton Bowlhosted six games each,", "six games each, andSoldier Field,Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, and the Citrus Bowl hosted five games each.Pontiac Silverdome, the first indoor stadium used in a World Cup, hosted the least number of matches, four group-stage games. The Silverdome was also the only venue of the nine used that did not host knockout round games. Because of the large area of the continental United States, the game locations were often far apart. Some teams in Groups A and B had to travel from Los Angeles or San Francisco to Detroit and back again, covering 2,300 miles (3,700 km) and four time zones.Teams in Groups C and D only played in Boston, Chicago, and Dallas—a trip from Boston to Dallas is 2,000 miles (3,200 km), but only covers two time zones; Chicago is in the same time zone as Dallas but is still 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away from both Dallas and Boston.Teams in Groups E and F had it a bit easier—they played exclusively in East Coast cities and stayed in the same time zone.A few teams, such as Cameroon and Colombia,", "and Colombia, did not have to cross the country to play games. The variety of climates in different cities across the United States also sometimes made playing conditions challenging.Aside from the oceanic coolness of Boston (Foxborough), the Mediterranean climate of San Francisco (Stanford), and occasionally the coolness of Chicago, as they had been in Mexico in 1970 and 1986 most matches were played in hot and/or humid conditions, thanks to nearly all of the games being scheduled to be played during the day instead of at night to suit a time difference compromise for television in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East;this had always been done every time a World Cup was held in the Americas.Although playing in the mostly dry heat and smoggy conditions of Los Angeles (Pasadena) and the mixture of heat and humidity of Washington and New Jersey sometimes proved to be difficult, the cities with the most consistently oppressive conditions were Orlando and Dallas in theSouth, because of the combination of heat and", "of heat and extreme humidity.The Floridian tropical climate of Orlando meant all games there were played in temperatures of 95 °F (35 °C) or above with dew points above 70 or more (the temperature there during the group stage game between Mexico and Ireland was 105 °F (41 °C)) due to the mid-day start times.Dallas was not much different: in the humid heat of a Texas summer, temperatures exceeded 100 °F (38 °C) during mid-day, when games there were staged in the open-type Cotton Bowl meant that conditions were just as oppressive there as they were in Orlando.Detroit also proved to be difficult: the Pontiac Silverdome did not have a working cooling system and because it was anair-supportedstadium, the air could not escape through circulation, so temperatures inside the stadium would climb past 90 °F (32 °C) with 40% humidity. United States midfielderThomas Dooleydescribed the Silverdome as \"the worst place I have ever played at\". Since the tournament, Pontiac Silverdome, Giants Stadium, and Foxboro Stadium", "and Foxboro Stadium have been demolished, and RFK Stadium is slated for demolition by 2023.Stanford Stadium, the Cotton Bowl, the Citrus Bowl (now Camping World Stadium), and Soldier Field have all been moderately or heavily modified.The Rose Bowl isthe only largely unmodified stadium used for this tournament. Participating teams and officials Qualification Three teams—one African, one Asian, and one European—made their debuts at the 1994 tournament.Nigeriaqualified from the African zone alongsideCameroonandMoroccoasCAFwas granted three spots as a result of the strong performances by African teams in1986and1990. In the Asian zone,Saudi Arabiaqualified for the first time by topping the final round group ahead ofSouth Koreaas both edged outJapan, which was close to making its own World Cup debut, but was denied byIraqin what became known as the \"Agony of Doha\". In the European zone,Greecemade its first World Cup appearance after topping a group from whichRussiaalso qualified, competing independently for the", "for the first time after thedissolution of the Soviet Union. The defending champion,West Germany, wasunitedwith itsEast Germancounterpart, representing the unified Germany for the first time since the1938 World Cup.Norwayqualified for the first time since 1938,Boliviafor the first time since1950(and the last time as of 2022), andSwitzerlandfor the first time since1966. Norway's 56-year gap between appearances in the final tournament equaledEgypt's record in the previous tournament as the longest. This record was later broken when Wales qualified for the 2022 tournament after a 64-year absence.Mexicohad its first successful qualification campaign since1978, failing to qualify in1982, qualifying as host in1986, and being banned for theCachirulesscandal in1990. The qualification campaigns of bothCzechoslovakiaandYugoslaviawere affected by political events. The nation ofCzechoslovakiadissolvedin 1993, completing its qualifying group under the name \"Representation of Czechs and Slovaks\" (RCS), but failed to", "but failed to qualify for the finals, having been edged out byRomaniaandBelgiuminGroup 4. Yugoslavia (which was supposed to play inGroup 5) was suspended from international competition in 1992 as part ofUnited Nations sanctionsagainst thecountryas a result of theYugoslav Wars. The sanctions were not lifted until 1994, by which time it was no longer possible for the team to qualify.Chile's suspension from the 1990 FIFA World Cup, followingthe forced interruptionof its qualification game againstBrazil, extended to the 1994 qualifiers as well. This was the first World Cup sinceWorld War IIin which none of theUK Home NationsofEngland,Scotland,Northern Ireland, andWalesqualified (they withdrew their FIFA memberships between 1928 and 1946, during the first three tournaments), with England (finishing third behind Norway andNetherlandsinGroup 2) missing out after having finished fourth in the 1990 tournament, and Scotland (who finished fourth inGroup 1) failing to qualify for the first time since1970.France, which", "which had been already designated as host of the1998 tournament, also missed out following surprise home losses toIsraelandBulgaria.This was the second World Cup in a row for which France had failed to qualify, and the last one to date not to feature England, France, and Japan. Other notable absentees were 1986 and 1990 Round of 16 participantsUruguay, UEFA Euro 1992 championsDenmark,Poland,Portugal, andHungary. List of qualified teams The following 24 teams, shown with their pre-tournamentFIFA World Ranking(in parentheses) from June 1994,qualified for the final tournamentː Squads Teams were selected following usual FIFA rules with 22 players. Greece, Italy, Saudi Arabia, and Spain were the only countries that had all their players coming from domestic teams, while the Republic of Ireland and Nigeria had no players from domestic teams. Saudi Arabia was the only team with no players from European teams. Referees Draw Seeding and drawing TheFIFA Organizing Committeeupheld the tradition to seed the host (United", "the host (United States) and defending champion (Germany), along with the other four teams ranked in the top five based on their results obtained in the last three FIFA World Cups. The newly introducedFIFA World Rankingwas not used as part of the calculated ranking for the seeding in this World Cup, as FIFA considered it to be too new.Despite that it was not used in any way, for comparison purposes the teams' pre-tournament FIFA World ranking position from June 1994 are shown in parentheses,followed by the official and used ranking (OR) position determined by the results obtained in the last three world cups. The six top-seeded teams, were allocated in pot 1 and would be drawn into the first position of the six groups playing in the group stage. The remaining 18 teams were allocated into three pots based on geographical sections, with the: six qualified teams from Africa and Americas in pot 2, the top-6 ranked European teams in pot 3, while pot 4 comprised the 7th-10th best qualified European teams along", "teams along with the two qualified Asian teams. The principle of the draw was that each of the six drawn groups would have one team drawn respectively from pot 1, 2, 3 and 4; while respecting the following geographical limitations: Ahead of the draw, the FIFA Organizing Committee had decided to allocate the top-seeded first group position A1 for the United States as the host, C1 for defending champion Germany, and E1 for the Italian team, which had requested to play most of its group matches atGiants StadiuminNew York. The three other top-seeded teams would be located at the first position of either group B/D/F, with the decision largely depending on the identity of the other drawn group members for the seeded teams. Therefore, this last decision would only be made by a secret vote made by the FIFA Organizing Committee a few minutes after all teams had been drawn for all groups, and the decision would only be announced as the last step of the televised draw event. To make this procedure possible, the six", "possible, the six drawn groups would during the draw be given the colors green, orange, white, black, pink and blue; and the closing remarks at the event would then reveal the group letters represented by the colors. The six groups from A to F would play their group matches in the following nine cities: Procedure for the draw: The draw was officiated by FIFA general-secretarySepp Blatter. Teams were drawn by German legendFranz Beckenbauer, heavyweight boxing championEvander Holyfieldand comedian and actorRobin Williams. Numbers for placement in the group were drawn by actorBeau Bridges, Women's World Cup championMichelle Akers, modelCarol Alt, artistPeter Max, racecar driverMario Andrettiand Olympic gold medalist in gymnasticsMary Lou Retton. Results of the draw In each group, the teams played three games, one against each of the other teams. After completion of the group stage, the best two teams in each group, as well as thefour best-ranked third-place teams, advanced to the round of 16 in theknockout", "16 in theknockout stage. This format was identical to the tournament structure used in1986and1990except that a win now earned three points instead of two, to encourage more attacking play. Summary The format of the competition stayed the same as in the1990 World Cup: 24 teams qualified, divided into six groups of four. Sixteen teams would qualify for the knockout phase: the six group winners, the six group runners-up, and the four third-placed teams with the best records. This was the last time this format was used, due to theexpansion of the finals tournament in 1998to 32 teams. FIFA introduced three rule changes for this tournament to encourage attacking play:three points awarded for a winin a group stage match instead of two, a relaxedoffside ruleand aban on picking up back-passes to goalkeepers. The number of goals increased to 2.73 per game from the record-low of 2.21 in 1990. The tournament saw the end ofDiego Maradona's World Cup career, having played in the1982,1986, and1990 World Cups, and", "World Cups, and leadingArgentinato the 1986 World Cup title and the final of the 1990 World Cup. Maradona was expelled from the tournament by FIFA after he failed a drug test that uncoveredephedrine, a weight-loss drug, in his blood.Colombia, despite high expectations due to their style and impressive qualifying campaign,failed to advance from the round robin. The team was dogged by influence from betting syndicates and drug cartels, with coachFrancisco Maturanareceiving death threats over squad selection.After scoring an own goal for theUnited Statesand effectively eliminating Colombia from the competition, defenderAndrés Escobarwas shot to death on his return to Colombia outside a bar in aMedellínsuburb 10 days later, possibly in retaliation for his mistake. Bulgariawas one of the biggest surprises of the tournament. The Bulgarians had never won a game in five previous World Cup appearances, but, led byHristo Stoichkov, who would eventually share the tournament lead inscoring, they presented a formidable", "a formidable challenge for the title. The team won two of their three group games to qualify for the second round, where they advanced after a 3–1 penalty shootout win overMexico. They then faced reigning world championsGermanyin the quarterfinals, where goals from Stoichkov andLetchkovgave them a 2–1 victory.Bulgaria went on to finish in fourth place after losing to Italy in the semifinals and Sweden in the third-place game. The host nation United States, after a 23rd-place finish in the 1990 tournament, advanced to the second round as one of the best third-place teams. They were eliminated in the Round of 16 in a 1–0 defeat toBrazilonIndependence Day. Brazil's win over the hosts helped take them to the final againstItaly. Brazil's path was relatively smooth as they never trailed over 270 minutes of the knockout stage, defeating theNetherlandsin the quarterfinals andSwedenin the semis after the aforementioned win over the hosts. The Italians meanwhile had made hard work of reaching the final. During the", "final. During the group stage, Italy struggled and narrowly advanced to the next round, despite losing 1–0 to theRepublic of Ireland. Italian playmakerRoberto Baggio, who as the reigning FIFA World Player of the Year and Ballon D'Or holder, was expectedto be one of the stars of the tournament,had not yet scored a goal. During the Round of 16 games againstNigeria, Italy was trailing 1–0 in the dying minutes when Baggio scored the tying goal, forcing the game intoextra time. He scored again with a penalty kick to send Italy through. Baggio carried the Italians from there, scoring the game-winning goal in the quarterfinal againstSpain, and both goals in Italy's semifinal victory over Bulgaria. The third-place playoff was set between Bulgaria and Sweden, the team which scored more goals than any other in this World Cup with 15 over seven matches. These teams had also previously met in thequalifying group. Sweden won, 4–0. Swedish forwardTomas Brolinwas named to the All-star team. Thefinal gameat theRose Bowlwas", "theRose Bowlwas tense but devoid of scoring chances. It was the second time in24 yearsthat the two nations had met in afinal. After 120 goalless minutes, the World Cup was decided for the first time by a penalty shootout. After four rounds, Brazil led 3–2, and Baggio, playing injured, had to score to keep Italy's hopes alive.He missed by shooting it over the crossbar, and the Brazilians were crowned champions for the fourth time.After the game ended,Vice PresidentAl Gorehosted the awarding ceremony by handing Brazilian captainDungathe prestigious trophy; the Brazil national team dedicated the title to the deceasedFormula Onemotor racing champion and countrymanAyrton Senna, who haddied two and a half months prior. The tournament'sGolden Bootwent jointly to Bulgaria's Stoichkov andOleg SalenkoofRussia, the latter becoming the first player to score five goals in a game, coming in a 6–1 victory againstCameroon. Both players scored six goals in the tournament. Brazilian strikerRomário, with five goals, won", "five goals, won theGolden Ballas the tournament's best player. Despite the controversy, the U.S. staged a hugely successful tournament, with an average attendance of nearly 70,000, surpassing the1966 FIFA World Cupaverage attendance of 51,000, thanks to the large seating capacities of the stadiums in the United States in comparison to the generally smaller venues of Europe and Latin America. To this day, the total attendance for the final tournament of nearly 3.6 million remains the highest in World Cup history, despite the expansion of the competition from 24 to 32 teams at the 1998 World Cup in France. Opening ceremony The opening ceremony of the World Cup was held on June 17 at Chicago's Soldier Field. The ceremony wasemceedbyOprah Winfrey, who introducedDiana Ross: she gave a musical performance. Ross was also intended to score apenaltyat the beginning of her performance, with the goal then splitting in two as part of a pre-orchestrated stunt.Instead, she kicked the ball wide to the left, missing the", "left, missing the goal, but the goalposts collapsed anyway in accordance with the stunt plans. In addition,Daryl HallandJon Secadaalso gave musical performances.It was officially opened by then-PresidentBill Clinton. Group stage Times areEastern Daylight Time(UTC−4) (East Rutherford, Foxborough, Orlando, Pontiac and Washington),Central Daylight Time(UTC−5) (Chicago and Dallas), andPacific Daylight Time(UTC−7) (Pasadena and Stanford). In the following tables: Group A The Group A game between the United States and Switzerland was the first to take place indoors, played under the roof at the Pontiac Silverdome. Following the tournament, Colombian defenderAndrés Escobarwas shot dead on his return to Colombia, possibly in retaliation, after his own goal had contributed to his country's elimination. Victories against Colombia and the United States (in front of a crowd of 93,869) were enough to see Romania through as group winners, despite a 4–1 hammering by Switzerland in between. The magnitude of that victory", "of that victory allowed Switzerland to move ahead of the United States on goal difference, although the hosts qualified for the second round as one of the best third-placed teams. Switzerland's 4–1 victory over Romania came nearly 40 years to the date of Switzerland's last World Cup victory, also a 4–1 victory, on that occasion over Italy. The United States' 2–1 victory over Colombia was its first World Cup victory since June 29, 1950, when it upsetEngland 1–0in the 1950 World Cup. Group B Group B produced two of the four semifinalists of this World Cup — Brazil and Sweden — and was also one of the two groups in which only two, rather than three, sides progressed to the second round. The match between the two eliminated teams, Cameroon and Russia, broke two World Cup records. Oleg Salenko of Russia became the first – and remains the only– man to score five goals in a single World Cup game as Russia won 6–1. The goals also ensured that Salenko finished the tournament joint-top scorer with six goals, having", "six goals, having previously bagged one against Sweden. Cameroon left a mark too as Roger Milla, at the age of 42, became the oldest World Cup goalscorer of all time, as he grabbed his side's consolation goal in the game. The result was not enough to take Russia through following losses to Brazil and Sweden. Brazil beat Cameroon, and then confirmed the top spot with a draw to Sweden. The Swedes also progressed, finishing in second place with five points. Sweden's 3–1 victory over Russia was the nation's first World Cup victory since July 3, 1974. Russia failed to progress to the second round for the second time (accounting for the Soviet Union's results four years before), while Cameroon failed to repeat their surprise performance from the previous tournament. Group C As was the case with Group B, Group C would only send two teams into the Round of 16 as Spain and defending champions Germany progressed to round two. Coming from two goals down with four minutes left to snatch a 2–2 draw against Spain, the", "against Spain, the South Koreans very nearly eclipsed that feat against Germany when they came from 3–0 down to lose narrowly 3–2. In spite of these comebacks, South Korea was held to a 0–0 draw against Bolivia in their other group game when a win would have seen them through. Spain's late implosion against the South Koreans effectively decided that it would be Germany who won the group and not them. Germany, who defeated Bolivia 1–0 in the tournament's opening game, finished with seven points. Spain had to settle for second place despite leading in all three games. Despite Bolivia finishing last in the group, Erwin Sanchez made team history after scoring the nation's first World Cup goal in a 3–1 loss to Spain. Prior to 1994, Bolivia had never scored in either of their previous appearances at the 1930 and 1950 World Cups. Group D Tournament favorites Argentina led by Diego Maradona collected a maximum of six points from their opening two games after dominating Greece 4–0 in Foxboro with a Gabriel Batistuta", "a Gabriel Batistuta hattrick before winning a close match against a formidable Nigeria with a 2–1 victory on the same field four days later; despite this Argentina finished third in the group. Nigeria had been very impressive on their World Cup debut, and despite the narrow loss to Argentina, had emerged as group winners following victories against Bulgaria and Greece, the latter in which Nigeria doubled its lead late on a goal from Daniel Amokachi – a goal that would allow Nigeria to top its group. Maradona only played with Argentina during their first two games, both in Foxborough (playing Greece and Nigeria and scoring his last ever World Cup goal against the former); he was thrown out of the tournament after testing positive for ephedrine. Having qualified for the tournament through a last-gasp goal against France, Bulgaria surprised many people, as the nation had never even won a game at the World Cup finals prior to this tournament. Despite losing its opening game 3–0 to Nigeria, Bulgaria came back in", "came back in style with a 4–0 win over neighbor Greece (who had suffered exactly the same fate five days earlier against Argentina), and a 2–0 win against Argentina saw them advance. Argentina had actually been winning the group going into injury time, while Bulgaria played the last 25 minutes with 10 men; however, a 91st-minute header fromNasko Sirakovmeant that Argentina dropped two places and finished third. Nigeria won the group on goal difference. Bulgaria's victory over Argentina earned them second place. Group E Group E remains the only group in World Cup history in which all four teams finished with the same points. All four teams even had the same goal difference. It began at Giants Stadium whereRay Houghton's chip ensured a shock Irish victory over the then-three-time champions Italy by 1–0, as well as gaining a measure of revenge forthe previous World Cup, in which Italy both hosted and eliminated Ireland at the quarterfinal stage. The next day in Washington, Norway played its first World Cup game", "World Cup game since 1938 andKjetil Rekdal's goal five minutes from time proved decisive in an equally tense encounter as Norway beat Mexico. In the second round of group play,Luis García's double had Mexico 2–0 up and in control of the game before a disagreement on the touchline resulted in fines for both Republic of Ireland's manager,Jack Charlton, and their strikerJohn Aldridge. Aldridge was able to regain concentration in time to score six minutes from the end of the game to make it 2–1. Despite their loss, Aldridge's goal proved crucial to Ireland in the final group standings. During the previous day at Giants Stadium in New Jersey, Italy's World Cup hopes seemed to be diminishing fast as goalkeeper Gianluca Pagliuca was sent off with the game still at 0–0. Yet despite this, Italy was still able to salvage an important 1–0 victory. Norway would ultimately pay a price for their inability to take advantage of Pagliuca's dismissal. With the four teams level on points, the final two group games would each", "games would each have to finish as draws for things to stay that way. Republic of Ireland made it through after a dreary 0–0 draw with Norway; while Massaro and Bernal traded strikes as Italy and Mexico played to a 1–1 draw. Those results meant that Mexico won the group on goals scored, with three in the group. With Ireland and Italy also progressing having finished with identical records, the Irish team qualified as second place as a result of their victory against the Italians. Norway's shortcomings in attack ultimately let them down, and they exited the tournament with only one goal. Group F Just as happened to Argentina in Group D, Belgium endured the same fate in Group F. Despite winning both of its first two matches 1–0 against Morocco and neighbors Netherlands, Belgium finished third as, in an upset, it lost to tournament newcomers Saudi Arabia 1–0 in the third game. During that game, Saudi player Saaed Al-Owairan ran from his own half through a maze of Belgian players to score the game's only goal.", "game's only goal. Saudi Arabia advanced through to the Round of 16 as well, having also defeated Morocco 2–1. The Netherlands endured a somewhat nervier experience. The opening 2–1 victory against Saudi Arabia was followed by the 1–0 loss against Belgium before another 2–1 victory against Morocco, with Bryan Roy scoring the winner a mere 12 minutes from time, saw the Dutch win the group having scored more goals than Belgium and beaten Saudi Arabia. Morocco, despite losing all three of their group games, did not leave without a fight, as each of their losses were by just a single goal, 1–0 to Belgium, 2–1 to Saudi Arabia, and 2–1 to the Netherlands. Ranking of third-placed teams Knockout stage Bracket Round of 16 Quarterfinals Semifinals Third place playoff Final Statistics Goalscorers Hristo StoichkovandOleg Salenkoreceived theGolden Bootfor scoring six goals.In total, 141 goals were scored by 81 players, with only one of them credited as an own goal. 6 goals 5 goals 4 goals 3 goals 2 goals 1 goal Own goals", "1 goal Own goals Awards All-star team The All-star team is a squad consisting of the eleven most impressive players at the 1994 World Cup, as selected by FIFA's Technical Study Group. Michel Preud'homme JorginhoMárcio SantosPaolo Maldini DungaKrasimir BalakovGheorghe HagiTomas Brolin RomárioHristo StoichkovRoberto Baggio Final standings After the tournament, FIFA published a ranking of all teams that competed in the 1994 World Cup finals based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. Disciplinary statistics Symbols Mascot Theofficial mascotof this World Cup was \"Striker, the World Cup Pup\", a dog wearing ared, white and bluesoccer uniform with a ball.Striker was designed by theWarner Bros.animation team.A dog was picked as the mascot because dogs are a popular domestic pet in the United States. Match ball Theofficial match ballwas \"Questra\", manufactured byAdidas.Following the convention of the addition of decorations to the establishedAdidas Tangostyle since", "Tangostyle since theAztecaand theEtrusco Unico, this one featured space-themed decorations, not only due to its name, but that 1994 marked the 25th anniversary of theApollo 11 missionin which the first Moon landing took place, which is considered to be one of the most important moments in the history of the host country and the world. Music Theofficial songwas \"Gloryland\". Aftermath and legacy See also References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Bowl_(stadium", "Dallas Dallas(/ˈdæləs/) is a city in theU.S. stateofTexasand the most populous city in theDallas–Fort Worth metroplex, themost populous metropolitan area in Texasand thefourth-most populous metropolitan area in the United Statesat 7.5 million people.It is the most populous city in andseatofDallas Countywith portions extending intoCollin,Denton,Kaufman, andRockwallcounties. With a2020 censuspopulation of 1,304,379, it is theninth-most populous city in the U.S.and thethird-most populous city in TexasafterHoustonandSan Antonio.Located in theNorth Texasregion, the city of Dallas is the main core of the largest metropolitan area in theSouthern United Statesand the largest inland metropolitan area in the U.S. that lacks any navigable link to the sea. Dallas and nearbyFort Worthwere initially developed as a product of the construction of major railroad lines through the area allowing access tocotton,cattle, and lateroilin North andEast Texas. The construction of theInterstate Highway Systemreinforced Dallas's", "Dallas's prominence as atransportation hub, with four major interstate highways converging in the city and a fifth interstate loop around it. Dallas then developed as a strong industrial andfinancial centerand a majorinland port, due to the convergence of major railroad lines, interstate highways, and the construction ofDallas Fort Worth International Airport, one of the largest andbusiest airportsin the world.In addition,Dallas Area Rapid Transit(DART) operates rail and bus transit services throughout the city and its surrounding suburbs. Dominant sectors of its diverse economy includedefense,financial services,information technology,telecommunications, andtransportation.The Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex hosts 23Fortune500companies, the second-most in Texas and fourth-most in the United States,and 11 of those companies are located within Dallas city limits.Over 41 colleges and universitiesare located within its metropolitan area, which is the most of any metropolitan area in Texas. The city has a population", "has a population from a myriad of ethnic and religious backgrounds and is one of the largestLGBT communities in the U.S.WalletHubnamed Dallas the fifth-most diverse city in the United States in 2018. History Indigenous tribes inNorth Texasincluded theCaddo,Tawakoni,Wichita,KickapooandComanche.Spanish colonists claimed the territory of Texas in the 18th century as a part of the Viceroyalty ofNew Spain. Later, France alsoclaimed the areabut never established much settlement. In all, six flags have flown over the area preceding and during the city's history: those of France, Spain, and Mexico, the flag of the Republic of Texas, the Confederate flag, and the flag of the United States of America. In 1819, theAdams–Onís Treatybetween the United States and Spain defined theRed Riveras the northern boundary of New Spain, officially placing the future location of Dallas well within Spanish territory.The area remained under Spanish rule until 1821, whenMexico declared independence from Spain, and the area was", "and the area was considered part of the Mexican state ofCoahuila y Tejas. In 1836,Texians, with a majority ofAnglo-Americansettlers,gained independence from Mexicoand formed theRepublic of Texas. Three years after Texas achieved independence,John Neely Bryansurveyed the area around present-day Dallas.In 1839, accompanied by his dog and a Cherokee he called Ned, he planted a stake in the ground on a bluff located near three forks of the Trinity River and left.Two years later, in 1841, he returned to establish a permanent settlement named Dallas.Theorigin of the nameis uncertain. The official historical marker states it was named after Vice PresidentGeorge M. DallasofPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania. However, this is disputed. Other potential theories for the origin include his brother,Commodore Alexander James Dallas, as well as brothers Walter R. Dallas and James R. Dallas.A further theory gives the ultimate origin as the village ofDallas, Moray, Scotland,similar to the wayHouston, Texas, was named afterSam", "was named afterSam Houston, whose ancestors came from the Scottish village ofHouston, Renfrewshire. The Republic of Texas wasannexed by the United States in 1845and Dallas County was established the following year. Dallas was formally incorporated as a city on February 2, 1856.In the mid-1800s, a group of French Socialists establishedLa Réunion, a short-lived community, along the Trinity River in what is now West Dallas. With the construction of railroads, Dallas became a business and trading center and was booming by the end of the 19th century. It became an industrial city, attracting workers fromTexas, the South, and theMidwest. ThePraetorian Buildingin Dallas of 15 stories, built in 1909, was among the firstskyscraperswest ofthe Mississippiand the tallest building in Texas for some time.It marked the prominence of Dallas as a city. A racetrack forthoroughbredswas built and their owners established the Dallas Jockey Club. Trotters raced at a track in Fort Worth, where a similar drivers club was based. The", "club was based. The rapid expansion of population increased competition for jobs and housing. In 1910, a white mob of hundreds of peoplelyncheda black man,Allen Brooks, accused of raping a little girl. The mob tortured Brooks, then killed him at the downtownintersection of Main and Akardbyhanginghim from a decorative archway inscribed with the words \"Welcome Visitors\". Thousands of Dallasites came to gawk at the torture scene, collecting keepsakes and posing for photographs. In 1921, the Mexican presidentÁlvaro Obregónalong with the former revolutionary general visited Downtown Dallas's Mexican Park inLittle Mexico; the small park was on the corner of Akard and Caruth Street, site of the current Fairmont Hotel.The small neighborhood of Little Mexico was home to a Latin American population that had been drawn to Dallas by factors including theAmerican Dream, better living conditions,and the Mexican Revolution. DuringWorld War II, Dallas was a major manufacturing center for military automobiles and aircraft", "and aircraft for the United States and Allied forces. Over 94,000 jeeps and over 6,000 military trucks were produced at the Ford plant in East Dallas.North American Aviation manufactured over 18,000 aircraft at their plant in Dallas, including theT-6 Texantrainer,P-51 Mustangfighter, andB-24 Liberatorbomber. On November 22, 1963,United States PresidentJohn F. Kennedy was assassinatedon Elm Street while hismotorcadepassed throughDealey Plazain Downtown Dallas.The upper two floors of the building from which the Warren Commission reportedassassinLee Harvey Oswaldshot Kennedy have been converted into a historical museum covering the former president's life and accomplishments.Kennedy was pronounced dead at DallasParkland Memorial Hospitaljust over 30 minutes after the shooting. On July 7, 2016,multiple shots were fired at a Black Lives Matter protest in Downtown Dallas, held against the police killings of two black men from other states. The gunman, later identified as Micah Xavier Johnson, began firing at", "began firing at police officers at 8:58 p.m., killing five officers and injuring nine. Two bystanders were also injured. This marked the deadliest day for U.S. law enforcement since theSeptember 11 attacks. Johnson told police during a standoff that he was upset about recent police shootings of black men and wanted to kill whites, especially white officers.After hours of negotiation failed, police resorted to a robot-delivered bomb, killing Johnson insideDallas College El Centro Campus. The shooting occurred in an area of hotels, restaurants, businesses, and residential apartments only a few blocks away from Dealey Plaza. Geography Dallas is situated in theSouthern United States, inNorth Texas. It is thecounty seatofDallas Countyand portions of the city extend into neighboringCollin,Denton,Kaufman, andRockwallcounties. Many suburbs surround Dallas; threeenclavesare within the city boundaries—Cockrell Hill,Highland Park, andUniversity Park. According to theUnited States Census Bureau, the city has a total", "city has a total area of 385.8 square miles (999.3 km2); 340.5 square miles (881.9 km2) of Dallas is land and 45.3 square miles (117.4 km2) of it (11.75%) is water.Dallas makes up one-fifth of the much larger urbanized area known as theDallas–Fort Worth metroplex, in which one quarter of all Texans live. Architecture Dallas's skyline has twenty buildings classified asskyscrapers, over 490 feet (150 m) in height.Despite its tallest building not reaching 980 feet (300 m), Dallas does have a signature building inBank of America Plazawhich is lit up in neon but falls outside the top two hundred tallest buildings in the world. Although some of Dallas's architecture dates from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most of the notable architecture in the city is from themodernistandpostmodernisteras. Iconic examples of modernist architecture includeReunion Tower, theJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial,I. M. Pei'sDallas City Halland theMorton H. Meyerson Symphony Center.Good examples of postmodernist skyscrapers", "skyscrapers areFountain Place,Bank of America Plaza,Renaissance Tower,JPMorgan Chase Tower, andComerica Bank Tower.Downtown Dallasalso has residential offerings in downtown, some of which are signature skyline buildings. Several smaller structures are fashioned in theGothic Revivalstyle, such as theKirby Building, and theneoclassicalstyle, as seen in theDavisandWilsonBuildings. One architectural \"hotbed\" in the city is a stretch of historic houses alongSwiss Avenue, which has all shades and variants of architecture fromVictorianto neoclassical.TheDallas Downtown Historic Districtprotects a cross-section of Dallas commercial architecture from the 1880s to the 1940s. Neighborhoods The city of Dallas is home to many areas, neighborhoods, and communities. Dallas can be divided into several geographical areas which include larger geographical sections of territory including many subdivisions or neighborhoods, forming macroneighborhoods. Central Dallas Central Dallas is anchored by Downtown Dallas, the center of", "the center of the city, along withOak LawnandUptown, areas characterized by dense retail, restaurants, and nightlife.Downtown Dallas has a variety of named districts, including theWest End Historic District, theArts District, theMain Street District,Farmers Market District, theCity Center Business District, theConvention Center District, and theReunion District. This area includes Uptown,Victory Park, Harwood, Oak Lawn,Dallas Design District,Trinity Groves,Turtle Creek,Cityplace,Knox/Henderson,Greenville, andWest Village. East Dallas East Dallasis the location ofDeep Ellum, an arts area close to Downtown, theLakewoodneighborhood (and adjacent areas, includingLakewood Heights,Wilshire Heights,Lower Greenville,Junius Heights, andHollywood Heights/Santa Monica),Vickery PlaceandBryan Place, and the architecturally significant neighborhoods of Swiss Avenue andMunger Place. Its historic district has one of the largest collections ofFrank Lloyd Wright-inspiredprairie-stylehomes in the United States. In the", "States. In the northeast quadrant of the city isLake Highlands, one of Dallas's most unified middle-class neighborhoods. Oak Cliff Southwest of Downtown liesOak Cliff. Once a separate city founded in the mid-1800s, Oak Cliff was annexed in 1903 by Dallas.As one of the oldest areas in Dallas, the hilly North Oak Cliff is home to 5 of the 13 conservation districts in Dallas including the architecturally significantKessler Parkneighborhood and trendyBishop Arts District. South Dallas South Dallasis the location ofCedars, andFair Park, where the annualState Fair of Texasis held from late September through mid-October. Also located here isExposition Park, Dallas, noted for having artists, art galleries, and bars along tree-lined Exposition Avenue. South Side Dallas is a popular location for nightly entertainment. The neighborhood has undergone extensive development and community integration. What was once an area characterized by high rates of poverty and crime is now one of the city's most attractive social and", "social and living destinations. Further east, in the southeast quadrant of the city, is the large neighborhood ofPleasant Grove. Once an independent city, it is a collection of mostly lower-income residential areas stretching toSeagovillein the southeast. Though a city neighborhood, Pleasant Grove is surrounded by undeveloped land on all sides. Swampland and wetlands separating it from South Dallas are part of theGreat Trinity Forest,a subsection of the city'sTrinity River Project, newly appreciated for habitat andflood control. Districts Topography Dallas and its surrounding area are mostly flat. The city lies at elevations ranging from 450 to 550 feet (137 to 168 m) above sea level. The western edge of the Austin Chalk Formation, alimestoneescarpment(also known as the \"White Rock Escarpment\"), rises 230 feet (70 m) and runs roughly north–south through Dallas County. South of theTrinity River, the uplift is particularly noticeable in the neighborhoods of Oak Cliff and the adjacent cities of Cockrell", "cities of Cockrell Hill,Cedar Hill,Grand Prairie, andIrving. Marked variations in terrain are also found in cities immediately to the west inTarrant Countysurrounding Fort Worth, as well as along Turtle Creek north of Downtown. Dallas, like many other cities, was founded along a river. The city was founded at the location of a \"white rock crossing\" of the Trinity River, where it was easier for wagons to cross the river in the days before ferries or bridges. The Trinity River, though not usefully navigable, is the major waterway through the city.Interstate 35Eparallels its path through Dallas along theStemmons Corridor, then south alongside the western portion of Downtown and past South Dallas and Pleasant Grove, where the river is paralleled byInterstate 45until it exits the city and heads southeast towardsHouston. The river is flanked on both sides by 50 feet (15 m) tall earthenleveesto protect the city from frequent floods. Since it was rerouted in the late 1920s, the river has been little more than", "little more than adrainage ditchwithin a floodplain for several miles above and below Downtown, with a more normal course further upstream and downstream, but as Dallas began shifting towards postindustrial society, public outcry about the lack of aesthetic and recreational use of the river ultimately gave way to theTrinity River Project,which was begun in the early 2000s. The project area reaches for over 20 miles (32 km) in length within the city, while the overall geographical land area addressed by the Land Use Plan is approximately 44,000 acres (180 km2) in size—about 20% of the land area in Dallas. Green space along the river encompasses approximately 10,000 acres (40 km2), making it one of the largest and diverse urban parks in the world. White Rock LakeandJoe Pool Lakeare reservoirs that comprise Dallas's other significant water features. Built at the beginning of the 20th century, White Rock Lake Park is a popular destination for boaters, rowers, joggers, and bikers, as well as visitors seeking", "as visitors seeking peaceful respite from the city at the 66-acre (267,000 m2)Dallas Arboretum and Botanical Garden, on the lake's eastern shore.White Rock Creekfeeds into White Rock Lake and then exits into the Trinity River southeast of Downtown Dallas. Trails along White Rock Creek are part of the extensive Dallas County Trails System. Bachman Lake, just northwest ofLove Field Airport, is a smaller lake also popularly used for recreation. Northeast of the city isLake Ray Hubbard, a vast 22,745-acre (92 km2) reservoir in an extension of Dallas surrounded by the suburbs ofGarland,Rowlett,Rockwall, andSunnyvale.To the west of the city isMountain Creek Lake, once home to theNaval Air Station Dallas(Hensley Field) and a number of defense aircraft manufacturers.North Lake, a small body of water in an extension of the city limits surrounded by Irving andCoppell, initially served as a water source for a nearby power plant but is now being targeted for redevelopment as a recreational lake due to its proximity", "to its proximity toDallas/Fort Worth International Airport, a plan the lake's neighboring cities oppose. Climate Dallas has ahumid subtropical climate(Köppen climate classification:Cfa,Trewartha:Cfhk) characteristic of theSouthern Plainsof the United States. It also has both continental and tropical characteristics, characterized by a relatively wide annual temperature range for the latitude. Located at the lower end ofTornado Alley, it is prone to extreme weather, tornadoes, and hailstorms. Summers in Dallas are very hot with high humidity, although extended periods of dry weather often occur. July and August are typically the hottest months, with an average high of 96.0°F(36°C) and an average low of 76.7 °F (25 °C). Heat indices regularly surpass 105 °F (41 °C) due to elevated humidity during the summer months, making the summer heat almost unbearable. The all-time record high is 113 °F (45 °C), set on June 26 and 27, 1980 during theHeat Wave of 1980at nearbyDallas/Fort Worth International Airport. Winters", "Airport. Winters in Dallas are usually mild, with occasional cold spells. The average date of first frost is November 12, and the average date of last frost is March 12.January is typically the coldest month, with an average daytime high of 56.8 °F (14 °C) and an average nighttime low of 37.3 °F (3 °C). The normal daily average temperature in January is 47.0 °F (8 °C) but sharp swings in temperature can occur, as strong cold fronts known as \"Blue Northers\" pass through the Dallas region, forcing temperatures below the 40 °F (4 °C) mark for several days at a time and often between days with high temperatures above 80 °F (27 °C). Snow accumulation is seen in the city in about 70% of winter seasons, and snowfall generally occurs 1–2 days out of the year for a seasonal average of 1.5 inches (4 cm). Some areas in the region, however, receive more than that, while other areas receive negligible snowfall or none at all.The all-time record low temperature within the city is −3 °F (−19 °C), set on January 18, 1930.", "January 18, 1930. The temperature at nearbyDallas/Fort Worth International Airportreached −2 °F (−19 °C) on February 16, 2021, duringthe February 2021 North American winter storm. Spring and autumn are transitional seasons with moderate and pleasant weather. Vibrantwildflowers(such as thebluebonnet,Indian paintbrushand otherflora) bloom in spring and are planted around the highways throughout Texas.Springtime weather can bequite volatile, but temperatures themselves are mild. Late spring to early summer also tends to be the most humid, with humidity levels frequently exceeding 75%. The weather in Dallas is also generally pleasant from late September to early December and on many winter days. Autumn often brings more storms and tornado threats, but they are usually fewer and less severe than in spring. Each spring, cold fronts moving south from the North collide with warm, humid air streaming in from theGulf Coast, leading to severethunderstormswithlightning, torrents of rain,hail, and occasionally,tornadoes.", "Over time, tornadoes have probably been the most significant natural threat to the city, as it is near the heart ofTornado Alley. A few times each winter in Dallas, warm and humid air from the south will override cold, dry air, resulting infreezing rainor ice and causing disruptions in the city if the roads and highways become slick. Temperatures reaching 70 °F (21 °C) on average occur on at least four days each winter month. Dallas averages 26 annual nights at or below freezing,with the winter of 1999–2000 holding the record for the fewest freezing nights with 14. During this same span of 15 years,the temperature in the region has only twice dropped below 15 °F (−9 °C), though it will generally fall below 20 °F (−7 °C) in most (67%) years. TheU.S. Department of Agricultureplaces Dallas inPlant Hardiness Zone 8b.However, mild winter temperatures in the past 15 to 20 years had encouraged the horticulture of more cold-sensitive plants such asWashingtonia filiferaandWashingtonia robustapalms, nearly all of", "nearly all of which died off duringthe February 2021 North American winter storm. According to theAmerican Lung Association, Dallas has the 12th highest air pollution among U.S. cities, ranking it behind Los Angeles andHouston.Much of the air pollution in Dallas and the surrounding area comes from a hazardous materials incineration plant in the small town ofMidlothianand from cement plants in neighboringEllis County. The average daily low in Dallas is 57.4 °F (14 °C), and the average daily high is 76.9 °F (25 °C). Dallas receives approximately 39.1 inches (993 mm) of rain per year. The record snowfall for Dallas was 11.2 inches (28 cm) on February 11, 2010. Demographics Dallas is theninth-most-populous city in the United Statesandthird in Texasafter the cities ofHoustonandSan Antonio.Its metropolitan area encompasses one-quarter of the population of Texas, and is the largest in the Southern U.S. andTexasfollowed by theGreater Houston metropolitan area. At the2020 United States censusthe city of Dallas had", "city of Dallas had 1,304,379 residents, an increase of 106,563 since the2010 United States census.However, as of July 1, 2022, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that Dallas in first years since the 2020 census lost 4,835 people, leaving the city with a population of 1,299,544. There were 524,498 households at the 2020 estimates,up from 2010's 458,057 households, out of which 137,523 had children under the age of 18 living with them.Approximately 36.2% of households were headed by married couples living together, 57.2% had a single householder male or female with no spouse present, and 35.6% were classified as non-family households with the householder living alone.In 2010, 33.7% of all households had one or more people under 18 years of age, and 17.6% had one or more people who were 65 years of age or older. The average household size in 2020 was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.41.In 2018, the owner-occupied housing rate was 40.2% and the renter-occupied housing rate was 59.8%.At the 2010 census, the", "2010 census, the city's age distribution of the population showed 26.5% under the age of 18 and 8.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31.8 years. In 2010, 50.0% of the population was male and 50.0% was female.In 2020, the median age 32.9 years; for every 100 females, there were 98.4 males. According to the 2020American Community Survey, the median income for a household in the city was $54,747; families had a median household income of $60,895; married-couple families $81,761; and non-families $45,658.In 2003–2007's survey, male full-time workers had a median income of $32,265 versus $32,402 for female full-time workers. The per capita income for the city was $25,904. About 18.7% of families and 21.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.6% of those under age 18 and 13.4% of those aged 65 or over. Per 2007's survey, the median price for a house was $129,600;by 2020, the median price for a house was valued at $252,300, with 54.4% of owner-occupied units from $50,000", "units from $50,000 to $299,999. The 2022Point-In-TimeHomeless Count found there were 4,410homelesspeople in Dallas.According to the Metro Dallas Homeless Alliance Continuum of Care 2022 Homeless Count & Survey Independent Analysis, \"approximately 1 of 3 (31%) those experiencing homelessness were found on the streets or in other places not meant for human habitation.\" The region surrounding Dallas is a habitat for mosquitoes, creating a pest problem for humans. Dallas and the surrounding area is sprayed regularly to control mosquito-borne diseases such asWest Nile virus. Race and ethnicity Dallas's population was historically predominantly White (non-Hispanic Whites made up 82.8% of the population in 1930),but its population has diversified due to immigration andwhite flightover the 20th century. Since then, the non-Hispanic White population has declined to less than one-third of the city's population.According to the 2010 U.S. census, 50.7% of the population was White (28.8% non-Hispanic White), 24.8% was", "White), 24.8% was Black or African American, 0.7%American IndianandAlaska Native, 2.9% Asian, and 2.6% fromtwo or more races; 42.4% of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino American origin (they may be of any race). At theU.S. Census Bureau's 2019 estimates, 29.1% werenon-Hispanic White24.3% Black and African American, 0.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 3.7% Asian, and 1.4% from two or more races.Native Hawaiianandother Pacific Islandersmade up a total of 312 residents according to 2019's census estimates, down from 606 in 2017.Hispanic or Latino Americans of any race made up 41.2% of the estimated population in 2019. Among the Hispanic or Latino American population in 2019, 34.6% of Dallas wasMexican, 0.4%Puerto Rican, 0.2%Cubanand 6.0% other Hispanic or Latino American. In 2017's American Community Survey estimates among the demographic 35.5% were Mexican, 0.6% Puerto Rican, 0.4% Cuban, and 5.4% other Hispanic or Latino.By 2020, Hispanic or Latino Americans of any race continued to constitute", "to constitute the largest ethnic group in the city proper,reflecting nationwide demographic trends. The Dallas area is a major living destination forMexican Americansand other Hispanic and Latino American immigrants. The southwestern portion of the city, particularlyOak Cliffis chiefly inhabited by Hispanic and Latino American residents.The southeastern portion of the cityPleasant Groveis chiefly inhabited by African American and Hispanic or Latino American residents, while thesouthern portionof the city is predominantly black.The west and east sides of the city are predominantly Hispanic or Latino American;Garlandalso has a large Spanish-speaking population.North Dallashas many enclaves of predominantly white, black and especially Hispanic or Latino American residents. The Dallas area is also a major living destination for Black and African Americans primarily due to its strong and diverse economy.Between 2010 and 2020, the Dallas area had the second-most new Black and African American residents only behind", "only behind theAtlanta areaand slightly above the Houston area.The notable influx of African Americans is partly due to theNew Great Migration.There is a significant number of people from theHorn of Africa, immigrants fromEthiopia,EritreaandSomalia. The Dallas–Fort-Worth metroplex had an estimated 70,000 Russian-speakers (as of November 6, 2012) mostly immigrants from the formerSoviet Bloc.Included in this population areRussians,Russian Jews,Ukrainians,Belarusians,Moldavians,Uzbek,Kirghiz, and others. The Russian-speaking population of Dallas has continued to grow in the sector of \"American husbands-Russian wives\". Russian DFW has its own newspaper,The Dallas Telegraph. In addition, Dallas and its suburbs are home to a large number of Asian Americans including those ofIndian,Vietnamese,Chinese,Korean,Filipino,Japanese, and other heritage.Among large-sized cities in the United States,Plano, the northern suburb of Dallas, has the6th largest Chinese American populationas of 2016. The Plano-Richardson area in", "area in particular had an estimated 30,000Iranian Americansin 2012.With so many immigrant groups, there are often multilingual signs in thelinguistic landscape. According to U.S. Census Bureau data released in December 2013, 23 percent of Dallas County residents were foreign-born, while 16 percent of Tarrant County residents were foreign-born.The 2018 census estimates determined that the city of Dallas's foreign-born population consisted of 25.4% naturalized citizens and 74.6% non-citizens. Sexual orientation and gender identity Recognized for having one of the largestlesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT)populations in the nation, Dallas and the Metroplex are widely noted for being home to a vibrant and diverseLGBT community.Throughout the year there are many well-established but quite small compared to other cities LGBT events held in the area, most notably the annual Alan Ross Texas Freedom (Pride) Parade and Festival in June which draws approximately 50,000.For decades, theOak LawnandBishop", "LawnandBishop Artsdistricts have been known as the epicenters ofLGBT culturein Dallas. Religion Christianityis the most prevalently practiced religion in Dallas and the wider metropolitan area according to a 2014 study by thePew Research Center(78%),and thePublic Religion Research Institute's 2020 study (77%).There is a largeProtestantChristian influence in the Dallas community, though the city of Dallas and Dallas County have more Catholic than Protestant residents, while the reverse is usually true for the suburban areas of Dallas and the city of Fort Worth. Dallas has been called the \"Prison Ministry Capital of the World\" by the prison ministry community.It is a home for theInternational Network of Prison Ministries, the Coalition of Prison Evangelists, Bill Glass Champions for Life, Chaplain Ray's International Prison Ministry, and 60 other prison ministries. Methodist,Baptist, andPresbyterianchurches are prominent in many neighborhoods and anchor two of the city's major private universities (Southern", "(Southern Methodist UniversityandDallas Baptist University). Dallas is also home to twoevangelicalseminaries: theDallas Theological SeminaryandCriswell College. ManyBible schoolsincludingChrist For The Nations Instituteare also headquartered in the city. TheChristian creationistapologetics groupInstitute for Creation Researchis headquartered in Dallas. According to the Pew Research Center,evangelical Protestantismconstituted the largest form of Protestantism in the area as of 2014.The largest single evangelical Protestant group were Baptists. The largest Baptist denomination was theSouthern Baptist Convention, followed by thehistorically blackNational Baptist Convention USA.African-initiated Protestant churchesincludingEthiopian Evangelicalchurches can be found throughout the metropolitan area. TheCatholic Churchis also a significant religious organization in the Dallas area and operates theUniversity of Dallas, a liberal-arts university in the Dallas suburb of Irving. TheCathedral Santuario de la Virgen de", "de la Virgen de Guadalupein theArts Districtis home to the second-largest Catholic church membership in the United States and overseas,consisting over 70 parishes in theDallas Diocese. TheSociety of Jesusoperates theJesuit College Preparatory School of Dallas. Dallas is also home to numerousEastern OrthodoxandOriental Orthodoxchurches includingSaint Seraphim Cathedral, see of theOrthodox Church in America'sSouthern Diocese.TheGreek Orthodox Archdiocese of America(Ecumenical Patriarchate) has one parish in the city of Dallas. The city is home to a sizableLatter Day Saintcommunity.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintshas twenty-threestakesthroughout Dallas and surrounding suburbs.The organization built theDallas Texas Temple, the first temple in Texas, in the city in 1984.Jehovah's Witnessesalso have a large number of members throughout the Dallas metropolitan division. In addition, there are severalUnitarian Universalistcongregations, including First Unitarian Church of Dallas, founded in 1899.A", "founded in 1899.A large community of theUnited Church of Christexists in the city. The most prominent UCC-affiliated church is theCathedral of Hope, a predominantlyLGBT-affirmingchurch. Dallas'sJewishpopulation of 50,000-75,000 is the largest of any city in Texas.Since the establishment of the city's first Jewish cemetery in 1854 and its first congregation (which would eventually be known asTemple Emanu-El) in 1873, Dallasite Jews have been well represented among leaders in commerce, politics, and various professional fields in Dallas and elsewhere.Furthermore, a largeMuslim communityexists in the north and northeastern portions of Dallas, as well as in thenorthern Dallas suburbs.The oldest mosque in Dallas is Masjid Al-Islam just south of Downtown. Dallas has a large Buddhist community. Immigrants fromEast Asia,Southeast Asia,Nepal, andSri Lankahave all contributed to the Buddhist population, which is concentrated in the northern suburbs ofGarland,PlanoandRichardson. Numerous Buddhist temples dot the", "temples dot the Metroplex including The Buddhist Center of Dallas, Lien Hoa Vietnamese Temple of Irving, and Kadampa Meditation Center Texas and Wat Buddhamahamunee ofArlington. A large and growing Hindu Community lives in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Most live in Collin County and the northern portions of Dallas County. Over 28 Hindu Temples exist in the area. Some notable ones include the DFW Hindu Temple, theNorth Texas Hindu Mandir,Radha Krishna Temple, DallasandKarya Siddhi Hanuman Temple.There are also at least threeSikhGurudwarasin this metropolitan area.For irreligious people, the Winter Solstice Celebration is held in the Metroplex although some of its participants are alsoneo-pagansandNew Agers. Crime According to the FBI, a city to city comparison of crime rates can be misleading, because recording practices vary from city to city, citizens report different percentages of crimes from one city to the next, and the actual number of people physically present in a city is unknown.With that in", "that in mind, Dallas has one of the top 10 crime rates in Texas and its crime rate is higher than the national average. Since 2020, Dallas' murder rate has seen a notable increase. In 2020, Dallas recorded 251 murders which was a 20-year high. By 2022 it decreased to 214 but then increased to 246 in 2023.As of 2020, the gang presence in Dallas has grown significantly and is heavily responsible for the spike in crime.Dallas leaders have made crime reduction a major priority. Economy In its beginnings, Dallas relied on farming, neighboringFort Worth'sStockyards, and its prime location on Native American trade routes to sustain itself. Dallas' key to growth came in 1873 with the construction of multipleraillines through the city. As Dallas grew and technology developed, cotton became its boon and by 1900, Dallas was the largest inland cotton market in the world, becoming a leader incotton ginmachinery manufacturing. By the early 1900s, Dallas was a hub for economic activity all over the Southern United States", "United States and was selected in 1914 as the seat of theEleventh Federal Reserve District. By 1925, Texas churned out more than1⁄3of the nation's cotton crop, with 31% of Texas cotton produced within a 100-mile (160 km)radiusof Dallas. In the 1930s, petroleum was discovered east of Dallas, nearKilgore. Dallas' proximity to the discovery put it immediately at the center of the nation's petroleum market. Petroleum discoveries in thePermian Basin, thePanhandle, theGulf Coast, andOklahomain the following years further solidified Dallas' position as the hub of the market. The end ofWorld War IIleft Dallas seeded with a nexus of communications, engineering, and production talent by companies such as Collins Radio Corporation. Decades later, the telecommunications and information revolutions still drive a large portion of the local economy. The city is sometimes referred to as the heart of \"Silicon Prairie\" because of a high concentration of telecommunications companies in the region, the epicenter of which lies", "of which lies along theTelecom CorridorinRichardson, a northern suburb of Dallas. The Telecom Corridor is home to more than 5,700 companies includingTexas Instruments(headquartered in Dallas),Nortel Networks,Alcatel Lucent,AT&T,Ericsson,Fujitsu,Nokia,Rockwell Collins,Cisco Systems,T-Mobile,Verizon Communications, andCompUSA(which is now headquartered inMiami,Florida).Texas Instruments, a major manufacturer, employs 10,400 people at its corporate headquarters and chip plants in Dallas. In the 1980s Dallas was a real estate hotbed, with the increasing metropolitan population bringing with it a demand for new housing and office space. Several ofDowntown Dallas' largest buildings are the fruit of this boom, but over-speculation, thesavings and loan crisisand an oil bust brought the 1980s building boom to an end for Dallas as well as its sister city Houston. Between the late 1980s and the early 2000s, central Dallas went through a slow period of growth. However, since the early 2000s the central core of Dallas", "core of Dallas has been enjoying steady and significant growth encompassing both repurposing of older commercial buildings in Downtown Dallas into residential and hotel uses, as well as the construction of new office and residential towers. The opening ofKlyde Warren Park, built acrossWoodall Rodgers Freewayseamlessly connecting the central Dallas CBD to Uptown/Victory Park, has acted synergistically with the highly successful Dallas Arts District, so both have become catalysts for significant new development in central Dallas. The residential real estate market in theDallas–Fort Worth metroplexhas not only been resilient but has once again returned to a boom status. Dallas and the greater metro area have been leading the nation in apartment construction and net leasing, with rents reaching all-time highs. Single family home sales, whether pre-owned or new construction, along with home price appreciation, were leading the nation since 2015. A sudden drop in the price of oil, starting in mid-2014 and", "in mid-2014 and accelerating throughout 2015, has not significantly affected Dallas and its greater metro area due to the highly diversified nature of its economy. Dallas and the metropolitan region continue to see strong demand for housing, apartment and office leasing, shopping center space, warehouse and industrial space with overall job growth remaining very robust. Oil-dependent cities and regions have felt significant effects from the downturn, but Dallas's growth has continued unabated, strengthening in 2015. Significant national headquarters relocations to the area (as exemplified by Toyota's decision to leaveCaliforniaand establish its new North American headquarters in the Dallas area) coupled with significant expansions of regional offices for a variety of corporations and along with company relocations to Downtown Dallas helped drive the boom in the Dallas economy. The Dallas–Fort Worth area has one of the largest concentrations of corporate headquarters for publicly traded companies in the", "companies in the United States.Fortune Magazine's2022 annual list of the Fortune 500 in America indicates the city of Dallas had 11 Fortune 500 companies,.and the DFW region as a whole had 23.As of 2022, Dallas–Fort Worth represents the second-largest concentration of Fortune 500 headquarters in Texas and fourth-largest in the United States, behind the metropolitan areas ofHouston(24),Chicago(35) andNew York(62). In 2008,AT&Trelocated their headquarters to Downtown Dallas;AT&T is the largest telecommunications company in the world and was the ninth largest company in the nation by revenue for 2017.AdditionalFortune 500companies headquartered in Dallas in order of ranking includeEnergy Transfer Equity,CBRE(which moved its headquarters from Los Angeles to Dallas in 2020),Tenet Healthcare,Southwest Airlines, Texas Instruments,Jacobs Engineering,HollyFrontier,Dean Foods, and Builders FirstSource. In October 2016, Jacobs Engineering, one of the world's largest engineering companies, relocated fromPasadena,", "fromPasadena, Californiato Downtown Dallas. Nearby Irving is home to six Fortune 500 companies of its own, includingMcKesson, the country's largest pharmaceutical distributor and listed at number seven overall on the 2021 Fortune 500 list,Fluor(engineering),Kimberly-Clark,Celanese,Michaels Companies, andVistra Energy.Planois home to an additional four Fortune 500 companies, includingJ.C. Penney,Alliance Data Systems,Yum China, andDr. Pepper Snapple.Fort Worth is home to twoFortune 500companies, includingAmerican Airlines, the largest airline in the world by revenue, fleet size, profit, passengers carried and revenue passenger mile andD.R. Horton, the largest homebuilder in America.Westlake, TX, north of Fort Worth, now has two Fortune 500 companies: Financial services giant,Charles Schwab, and convenience store distributor,Core-Mark.One Fortune 500 company,GameStop, is based inGrapevine. Additional major companies headquartered in Dallas and its metro area includeComerica, which relocated its national", "its national headquarters to Downtown Dallas fromDetroitin 2007,NTT DATA Services, Regency Energy Partners,Atmos Energy,Neiman Marcus,AECOM,Think Finance,7-Eleven,Brinker International, Primoris Services,AMS Pictures,id Software,Mary Kay Cosmetics,Chuck E. Cheese's,Zale Corporation, andFossil, Inc. Many of these companies—and others throughout the DFW metroplex—comprise theDallas Regional Chamber.Susan G. Komen for the Cure, the world's largest breast cancer organization, was founded and is headquartered in Dallas. In addition to its large number of businesses, Dallas has more shopping centers per capita than any other city in the United States and is also home to the second shopping center ever built in the United States,Highland Park Village, which opened in 1931.Dallas is home of the two other major malls in North Texas, theDallas GalleriaandNorthPark Center, which is the second largest mall in Texas. Both malls feature high-end stores and are major tourist draws for the region. According", "region. According toForbesmagazine's annual list of \"The Richest People in America\" published September 21, 2011, the city is home to 17 billionaires, up from 14 in 2009. In 2009 (with 14 billionaires) the city placed sixth worldwide among cities with the most billionaires. Dallas is the third most popular destination for business travel in the United States, and theKay Bailey Hutchison Convention Centeris one of the largest and busiest convention centers in the country, at over 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m2), and the world's single-largest column-free exhibit hall.VisitDallasis the501(c)(6)organization contracted to promote tourism and attract conventions but an audit released in January 2019 cast doubts on its effectiveness in achieving those goals. Arts and culture Arts and museums TheArts Districtin the northern section ofDowntownis home to several arts venues and is the largest contiguous arts district in the United States.Notable venues in the district include theDallas Museum of Art; theMorton H.", "Art; theMorton H. Meyerson Symphony Center, home to theDallas Symphony OrchestraandDallas Wind Symphony; theNasher Sculpture Center; and theTrammell & Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art. ThePerot Museum of Nature and Science, also in Downtown Dallas, is anatural historyandscience museum. Designed by 2005 Pritzker Architecture Prize LaureateThom Mayneand his firm Morphosis Architects, the 180,000-square-foot (17,000 m2) facility has six floors and stands about 14 stories high. Venues that are part of the AT&TDallas Center for the Performing ArtsincludeMoody Performance Hall, home to theDallas Chamber Symphony; theDee and Charles Wyly Theatre, home to theDallas Theater Centerand the Dallas Black Dance Theater; and theWinspear Opera House, home to theDallas OperaandTexas Ballet Theater. Not far north of the area is theMeadows Museumat Southern Methodist University. In 2009, it joined up with Madrid'sPrado Museumfor a three-year partnership. The Prado focuses on Spanish visual art and has a collection of", "has a collection of Spanish art in North America, with works by de Juanes, El Greco, Fortuny, Goya, Murillo, Picasso, Pkensa, Ribera, Rico, Velasquez, Zurbaran, and other Spaniards. These works, as well as non-Spanish highlights like sculptures by Rodin and Moore, have been so successful of a collaboration that the Prado and Meadows have agreed upon an extension of the partnership. The Institute for Creation Research operates theICR Discovery Center for Science & Earth History, a creationism museum, in Dallas.The formerTexas School Book Depository, from which, according to theWarren CommissionReport,Lee Harvey Oswaldshot and killedPresidentJohn F. Kennedyin 1963, has served since the 1980s as acounty governmentoffice building, except for its sixth and seventh floors, which housethe Sixth Floor Museum. The American Museum of the Miniature Artsis at the Hall of State inFair Park. The Arts District is also home toDISD'sBooker T. Washington High School for the Performing and Visual Arts, a magnet school that was", "school that was recently expanded.City Center District, next to the Arts District, is home tothe Dallas Contemporary. Deep Ellum, immediately east of Downtown, originally became popular during the 1920s and 1930s as the primejazzandblueshot spot in theSouth.Artists such asBlind Lemon Jefferson,Robert Johnson, Huddie \"Lead Belly\" Ledbetter, andBessie Smithplayed in original Deep Ellum clubs such as the Harlem and the Palace. Today, Deep Ellum is home to hundreds of artists who live in lofts and operate in studios throughout the district alongside bars, pubs, and concert venues. A major art infusion in the area results from the city's lax stance ongraffiti, and a number of public spaces, including tunnels, sides of buildings, sidewalks, and streets, are covered in murals. One major example, the Good-Latimer tunnel, was torn down in late 2006 to accommodate the construction of alight rail linethrough the site. Like Deep Ellum before it, theCedarsneighborhood to the south of Downtown has also seen a growing", "also seen a growing population of studio artists and an expanding roster of entertainment venues. The area's art scene began to grow in the early 2000s with the opening of Southside on Lamar, an old Sears Roebuck and Company warehouse converted into lofts, studios, and retail. Current attractions include Gilley's Dallas and Poor David's Pub.Dallas Mavericksowner and local entrepreneurMark Cubanpurchased land along Lamar Street nearCedars Stationin September 2005, and locals speculate he is planning an entertainment complex for the site. South of the Trinity River, the Bishop Arts District inOak Cliffis home to a number of studio artists living in converted warehouses. Walls of buildings along alleyways and streets are painted with murals, and the surrounding streets contain many eclectic restaurants and shops. Dallas has an Office of Cultural Affairs as a department of the city government. The office is responsible for six cultural centers throughout the city, funding for local artists and theaters,", "and theaters, initiating public art projects, and running the city-ownedclassicalradio stationWRR.TheLos Angeles-class submarineUSSDallaswas planned to become a museum ship near the Trinity River after her decommissioning in September 2014, but this has since been delayed.It will be taken apart into massive sections in Houston and be transported by trucks to the museum site and will be put back together. Libraries The city is served by theDallas Public Librarysystem. The system was created by the Dallas Federation of Women's Clubs with efforts spearheaded by then presidentMay Dickson Exall. Her fundraising efforts led to a grant from philanthropist and steel baronAndrew Carnegie, which allowed the library system to build its first branch in 1901. Today, the library operates 30 branch locations throughout the city, including the 8-storyJ. Erik Jonsson Central Libraryin theGovernment DistrictofDowntown. Places of interest Cuisine Dallas is known for itsbarbecue, authenticMexican, andTex-Mex cuisine. Famous", "cuisine. Famous products of the Dallas culinary scene include theFrozen margarita machineby restaurateurMariano Martinezin 1971. Events TheState Fair of Texashas been held annually atFair Parksince 1886, and generates an estimated $50 million to the city's economy annually.TheRed River Shootout,a football game that pits theUniversity of Texas at Austinagainst theUniversity of Oklahomaat theCotton Bowl, also brings significant crowds to the city. The city also hosts theState Fair ClassicandHeart of Dallas Bowlat theCotton Bowl. Other festivals include severalCinco de Mayocelebrations hosted by the city's largeMexican Americanpopulation and aSaint Patrick's Dayparade alongLower Greenville Avenue,Juneteenthfestivities, Taste of Dallas, the Deep Ellum Arts Festival, theGreek Food Festival of Dallas, the annual Halloween event \"The Wake\", and two annual events on Halloween, including a Halloween parade onCedar Springs Roadand a \"Zombie Walk\" held inDowntown Dallasin theArts District. With the opening ofVictory", "opening ofVictory Park,WFAAbegan hosting an annual New Year's Eve celebration in AT&T Plaza that the television station hoped would be reminiscent of celebrations in New York'sTimes Square; New Year's Eve 2011 set a new record of 32,000 people in attendance. After the discontinuance of the \"Big D NYE\" festivities a few years later, a new end-of-year event was started downtown, with a big fireworks show put on atReunion Tower, which has since aired onKXASand other TV stations around the state and region. Also, several Omni hotels in the Dallas area host large events to welcome in the new year, including murder mystery parties, rave-inspired events, and other events. Sports Downtown Dallasis home to two major league sports teams that play at theAmerican Airlines Center: theDallas Mavericks(NBA), who won theNBA Championshipin2011, and theDallas Stars(NHL), who won theStanley Cupin1999. NearbyArlingtonis home to theDallas Cowboys(NFL), who play at theAT&T Stadiumand have won fiveSuper Bowls, theTexas", "Bowls, theTexas Rangers(MLB), who play atGlobe Life Fieldand won theWorld Seriesin2023, and theDallas Wings(WNBA), who play atCollege Park Center.MLSteamFC Dallasplays atToyota StadiuminFriscoand won theLamar Hunt U.S. Open Cupin 1997 and 2016. Additionally, there are several minor league and college sports programs in the area. Since joining the league as an expansion team in 1960, the Cowboys have enjoyed substantial success, advancing to eightSuper Bowlsand winning five. The Cowboys are financially the most valuable sports franchise in the world, worth approximately $4 billion.In 2009, they relocated to their new 80,000-seat stadium in Arlington, which was the site ofSuper Bowl XLVand is set to host the most matches during the2026 FIFA World Cup.The Cowboys are currently part of theEast Divisionof theNational Football Conference(NFC). The Texas Rangers won the American League pennant in 2010, 2011 and 2023, and won theWorld Seriesin 2023. The franchise relocated fromWashington D.C.in 1972. They play in", "1972. They play in theWest Divisionof theAmerican League. The Dallas Mavericks joined the league as an expansion team in 1980. They won their firstNational Basketball Associationchampionship in 2011 led byDirk Nowitzki.They play in theSouthwest Divisionof theWestern Conference. The Dallas Stars moved to North Texas in 1993 as a relocation from the former team, theMinnesota North Stars. The Stars have won eight division titles in Dallas, twoPresidents' Trophiesas the top regular season team in the NHL, theWestern Conferencechampionship three times, and in1998–99, theStanley Cup. The team plays in theCentral Divisionof theWestern Conference. FC Dallasplay atToyota Stadium(formerly FC Dallas Stadium and Pizza Hut Park), a stadium that opened in 2005.They currently play in MLS'sWestern Conference. The team was originally called the Dallas Burn and used to play in theCotton Bowl. Although FC Dallas has not yet won a MLS Cup, they won theLamar Hunt U.S. Open Cupin 1997 and 2016 and theSupporters' Shieldin 2016.", "Shieldin 2016. Previously, theDallas Tornadoplayed in theNorth American Soccer Leaguefrom 1968 to 1981. The Dallas Wings came toThe Metroplexin 2016 after relocating fromTulsa. There are many notable minor league teams in the Dallas-Fort Worth. TheAllen Americansare a professional ice hockey team headquartered at theCredit Union of Texas Event CenterinAllen, Texas, which currently plays in theECHL. They are the minor league affiliate of theNHL'sSeattle Kraken. The team was founded in 2009 in theCentral Hockey League(CHL). They have won 4 straight championships, 2 in the CHL (2012–13,2013–14) and 2 in the ECHL(2014–15,2015–16). TheDallas Renegadesare a professional football team in the relaunchedXFLthat plays their home games atGlobe Life Park, the former home of the Texas Rangers. TheDallas Sidekicks (2012)are an American professionalindoor soccerteam based inAllen, Texas, a suburb of Dallas. They play their home games in theCredit Union of Texas Event Center. The team is named after the originalDallas", "the originalDallas Sidekicksthat operated from 1984 to 2004. The MLS-affiliatedNorth Texas SCteam is a member ofMLS Next Proand plays in Frisco at Toyota Stadium; it is the reserve team of FC Dallas. The Dallas Mavericks own anNBA G Leagueteam, theTexas Legends. Rugbyis a developing sport in Dallas and Texas in general. The multiple clubs, ranging from men's and women's clubs tocollegiateand high school, are part of theTexas Rugby Football Union.Dallas was one of only 16 cities in the United States included in theRugby Super League,represented byDallas Harlequins.In 2020,Major League Rugbyannounced theDallas Jackalsas a new franchise.Australian rules footballis also growing in Dallas. TheDallas Magpies, founded in 1998, compete in theUnited States Australian Football League. The onlyDivision Isports program within the Dallas political boundary is theDallas Baptist UniversityPatriots baseball team.Although outside the city limits, theMustangsofSouthern Methodist Universityare in the enclave ofUniversity Park.", "ofUniversity Park. Neighboring citiesFort Worth, Arlington, andDentonare home to theTexas Christian UniversityHorned Frogs,UT ArlingtonMavericks, andUniversity of North TexasMean Greenrespectively. The Dallas area hosted the Final Four of the2014 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournamentat AT&T Stadium. The collegeCotton Bowl Classicfootball game was played at theCotton Bowlthrough its2009 game, but has moved to AT&T Stadium. TheRed River Showdownis an Americancollege footballrivalrygame played annually at theCotton Bowl Stadiumduring the second weekend of theState Fair of Texasin October. The game is played by theOklahoma Sooners footballteam of theUniversity of Oklahomaand theTexas Longhorns footballteam of theUniversity of Texas at Austin. The 10,000-capacity Forester Stadium, which is used mainly for football and soccer, is also located in Dallas. Parks and recreation Dallas maintains and operates 406 parks on 21,000 acres (85 km2) of parkland.The city's parks contain 17 separate lakes, includingWhite", "includingWhite RockandBachmanlakes, spanning a total of 4,400 acres (17.81 km2). In addition, Dallas is traversed by 61.6 miles (99.1 km) of biking and jogging trails, including theKaty Trail, and is home to 47 community and neighborhood recreation centers, 276 sports fields, 60 swimming pools, 232 playgrounds, 173 basketball courts, 112 volleyball courts, 126 play slabs, 258 neighborhood tennis courts, 258 picnic areas, six 18-hole golf courses, two driving ranges, and 477 athletic fields as of 2013. Fair Park Dallas's flagship park isFair Park. Built in 1936 for theTexas Centennial Expositionworld's fair, Fair Park is the world's largest collection ofArt Decoexhibit buildings, art, and sculptures; Fair Park is also home to theState Fair of Texas, the largest state fair in the United States. In November 2019, consultants presented to the public a master plan to revitalize the area. Klyde Warren Park Named after Klyde Warren, the young son of billionaireKelcy Warren,Klyde Warren Parkwas built aboveWoodall", "built aboveWoodall Rodgers Freewayand connectsUptownand Downtown, specifically the Arts District. Klyde Warren Park is home to anamphitheater, jogging trails, a children's park, a dog park, a putting green,croquet, ping pong, chess, an outdoor library, and two restaurants. Food trucks give another option of dining and are lined along the park's Downtown side. There are also weekly planned events, includingyoga,Zumba, skyline tours,tai chi, andmeditation.Klyde Warren Park is home to a free trolley stop on Olive St., which riders can connect to Downtown, McKinney Avenue, andWest Village. Turtle Creek Parkway park Built in 1913, Turtle Creek Parkway park is a 23.7-acre (9.6 ha) linear park in between Turtle Creek and Turtle Creek Boulevard in the aptly namedTurtle Creekneighborhood.Archaeological surveys discovered dart points and flint chips dating 3,000 years to 1,000 BCE. This site was later discovered to be home to Native Americans who cherished the trees and natural spring water. The park is across Turtle", "is across Turtle Creek fromKalita Humphreys Theater, designed byFrank Lloyd Wright. Lake Cliff Park Opened on July 4, 1906, Lake Cliff Park was called \"the Southwest's Greatest Playground\". The park was home to an amusement park, a large pool, waterslides, the world's largest skating rink, and three theaters, the largest being the 2,500-seat Casino Theater. After the streetcar bridge that brought most of the park visitors collapsed, Lake Cliff Park was sold. The Casino Theater moved and the pool was demolished after a polio scare in 1959. The pool was Dallas's first municipal pool. Reverchon Park In 1935, Dallas purchased 36 acres (15 ha) from John Cole's estate to developReverchon Park.Reverchon Park was named after botanist Julien Reverchon, who left France to live in the La Reunion colony, which was founded in the mid-1800sand was situated in present-day West Dallas. Reverchon Park was planned to be the crown jewel of the Dallas park system and was even referred to as the \"Central Park\" of Dallas.", "Park\" of Dallas. Improvements were made throughout the years, including the Iris Bowl, picnic settings, a baseball diamond, and tennis courts. The Iris Bowl celebrated many Greek pageants, dances, and other performances. The Gill Well was installed for nearby residents and drew people all across Texas who wanted to experience the water's healing powers.The baseball diamond was host to a 1953 exhibition game for theNew York Giantsand theCleveland Indians. Trinity River Project As part of the ongoingTrinity River Project, the Great Trinity Forest, at 6,000 acres (24 km2), is the largest urban hardwood forest in the United States and is part of the largest urban park in the United States.The Trinity River Audubon Center is a new addition to the park. Opened in 2008, it serves as a gateway to many trails and other nature-viewing activities in the area. The Trinity River Audubon Center is the first LEED-certified building built by the City of Dallas Parks and Recreation Department. Katy Trail Named after its", "Named after its former railroad name, the Missouri-Kansas-Texas Railroad (or \"MKT\" Railroad), the 3.5-mile (5.6 km) stretch of railroad was purchased by the city of Dallas and transformed into the city's premier trail. Stretching fromVictory Park, the 30-acre (12 ha)Katy Trailpasses through theTurtle Creekand Knox Park neighborhoods and runs along the east side ofHighland Park. The trail ends atCentral Expressway, but extensions are underway to extend the trail to the White Rock Lake Trail inLakewood. Preserves Dallas hosts three of the twenty-one preserves of the extensive 3,200 acres (13 km2) Dallas County Preserve System. The Joppa Preserve, the McCommas Bluff Preserve, and the Cedar Ridge Preserve are within the Dallas city limits. The Cedar Ridge Preserve was known as the Dallas Nature Center, but the Audubon Dallas group now manages the 633-acre (2.56 km2) natural habitat park on behalf of the city of Dallas and Dallas County. The preserve sits at an elevation of 755 feet (230 m) above sea level and", "above sea level and offers a variety of outdoor activities, including 10 miles (16 km) of hiking trails and picnic areas. Dallas Zoo The city is also home to Texas's first and largest zoo, the 106-acre (0.43 km2)Dallas Zoo, which opened at its current location in 1888. Government Local representation The city uses acouncil-manager government, withEric Johnsonserving as mayor,T.C. Broadnax serving as city manager,and 14 council members serving as representatives to the 14 council districts in the city.This organizational structure was contested by some in favor of a strong-mayor city charter,only to be rejected by Dallas voters.In 1969, Anita N. Martínez become the first Latin American to sit as a councilwoman in Dallas's city council. In the 2017–2018 fiscal year, the city's totalbudget(the sum ofoperatingand capital budgets) was $3.3 billion.The city has seen a steady increase in its budget due to sustained growth: the budget was $1.7 billion in 2002–2003,$1.9 billion in 2003–2004,$2.0 billion in", "billion in 2004–2005,and $2.2 billion in 2005–2006. Federal and state representation National and state legislators representing Dallas: TheUnited States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, which exercises original jurisdiction over 100 counties in North and West Texas, convenes in theEarle Cabell Federal Building and Courthousein theGovernment DistrictofDowntown. The same building additionally housesUnited States Bankruptcyand Magistrate Courts and aUnited States Attorneyoffice. Dallas also is the seat of the Fifth Court of Appeals of Texas. Politics Since 2023, Dallas has been the largest city in the United States with aRepublicanmayor after Eric Johnson switched parties afterwinning re-election. He ran and was elected as a Democrat.However, the city is normally aDemocraticstronghold, with over 69% of voters supportingJoe Bidenin the2020 presidential electionand 67% of voters supportingHillary Clintonin the2016 presidential election(excluding write-ins).Democraticvoters dominate the majority", "the majority of the city, especially thecentralurban coreandsouthernsectors, withRepublicansspreading a sliver of suburban neighborhoods inNorth Dallas. In the2004 U.S. presidential election, 57% of Dallas voters voted forJohn KerryoverGeorge W. Bush.Dallas County was closely divided, with 50% of voters voting for Bush and 49% voting for Kerry.Results in the 2008 and 2012 elections favoredBarack Obama, with the 44th President receiving 57% of Dallas County voters in both years, with greater margins in the city of Dallas. In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, approximately 66% of Dallas voters voted forHillary Clinton, with 28% of city voters voting forDonald Trump.Dallas County as a whole saw 61% of voters voting for Clinton, with 35% support for Trump.In 2004,Lupe Valdezwas elected Dallas CountySheriff. An open lesbian, Valdez was the only female sheriff in the state of Texas until her resignation. Despite controversies in her handling of county jails, she won re-election in 2008 with a 10-point victory", "a 10-point victory over Republican challenger Lowell Cannaday. Education There are 337 public schools, 89 private schools, 38 colleges, and 32 libraries in Dallas.Dallas–Fort Worth is also home to six Nobel Laureates. Colleges and universities The Dallas area has a high number of colleges and universities. In addition to those in the city, the surrounding cities also have a number of universities, colleges, trade schools, and other educational institutions. The following describes the universities and their proximity to the city: TheTexas Legislaturedefines all areas in Dallas County and in theCarrollton-Farmers Branch Independent School Districtas being in the service area ofDallas College(formerly Dallas County Community College District or DCCCD). Areas in Collin County are assigned toCollin College. Colleges and universities within Dallas city limits Colleges and universities within Dallas County University Research Center Other area colleges and universities Primary and secondary schools Most areas in", "Most areas in the city of Dallas are within theDallas Independent School District,the 12th-largest school district in the United States and second largest in Texas.The school district operates independently of the city and enrolls over 161,000 students.As of 2003 DISD has the majority of K–12 students in the city of Dallas, and a proportionately larger number of students who are notnon-Hispanic white.One of the district'smagnet schools, theSchool for the Talented and Giftedin Oak Cliff. A few areas of Dallas also extend into other school districts in Dallas County, includingCarrollton-Farmers Branch,Coppell,Duncanville,Garland,Highland Park,Irving,Mesquite, andRichardson.Portions of Dallas in Collin County are inPlano ISD,and portions of Dallas in Denton County are in the Carrollton-Farmers Branch ISD.TheWilmer-Hutchins Independent School Districtonce served portions of southern Dallas,but it was shut down for the 2005–2006 year. WHISD students started attending other Dallas ISD schools during that time.", "during that time. Following the close, theTexas Education Agencyconsolidated WHISD into Dallas ISD.In 2003 Royce Hanson, author ofCivic Culture and Urban Change: Governing Dallas, stated that the Plano, Richardson, and Wilmer-Hutchins school districts were the \"most significant\" of the public school students with students in Dallas who were not in Dallas ISD. Many school districts inDallas County, including Dallas ISD, were formerly served by a governmental agency calledDallas County Schools. The system provided busing and other transportation services, access to a massive media library, technology services, strong ties to local organizations for education/community integration, and staff development programs. Private schools Students from Dallas attend many private schools in Dallas, and in nearby areas. These schools include: Media Dallas has several local newspapers, magazines, television stations and radio stations that serve the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, which is the fifth-largestmedia marketin the", "marketin the United States.Dallas has one major daily newspaper,The Dallas Morning News, which was founded in 1885 byA. H. Beloand is A. H. Belo's flagship newspaper. TheDallas Times Herald, started in 1888, was theMorning News'major competitor until Belo purchased it on December 8, 1991, and closed the paper down the next day. Other daily newspapers areAl Día, a Spanish-language paper published by Belo, and a number of ethnic newspapers printed in languages such asChinese,Korean, andVietnamese. Other publications include theDallas Weeklyand theElite News, all weekly news publications. TheDallas Observerand theNorth Texas Journalare also alternative weekly newspapers.The Dallas Morning Newsformerly had a weekly publication,Neighborsgo, which came out every Friday and focused on community news. Readers could post stories and contribute content to the website. D Magazineis a notable monthly magazine about business, life, and entertainment in Dallas–Fort Worth. Local visitor magazines include \"WHERE Magazine\"", "\"WHERE Magazine\" and \"Travelhost\"–available at hotel desks or in guest rooms. In addition, the park cities and suburbs such as Plano also have their own community newspapers. Also,THE Magazinecovers the contemporary arts scene. In terms of the larger metro area, theFort Worth Star-Telegramis another major daily newspaper, coveringFort Worth's metropolitan division. It also publishes a major Spanish-language newspaper for the entire metro area known asLa Estrella.To the north of Dallas and Fort Worth, theDenton Record-Chronicleprimarily covers news for thecity of DentonandDenton County. Area television stations affiliated with the major broadcasting networks (networkO&O'shighlighted inbold) includeKDFW 4(Fox),KXAS 5(NBC),WFAA 8(ABC) (which for many years was owned byBeloalongside theMorning News),KTVT 11(CBS),KERA 13(PBS),KUVN 23(UNI),KDFI 27(MNTV),KDAF 33(The CW), andKXTX 39(TMD).KTXA 21andKFAA 29are anindependent stations; the former was previously affiliated with the now-defunctUPNnetwork. Over 101 radio", "Over 101 radio stations operate within range of Dallas.The city of Dallas operatesWRR101.1 FM, the area's main classical music station, from city offices inFair Park.Its original sister station, licensed asWRR-AMin 1921, is the oldest commercially operated radio station in Texas and the second-oldest in the United States, afterKDKA (AM)in Pittsburgh.KKDA, anurban contemporarystation, andKRNB, anurban adult contemporarystation, are owned independently by Service Broadcasting Corporation. Because of the city's central geographical position and lack of nearby mountainous terrain, high-powerclass Amedium-wavestationsKRLDandWBAPcan broadcast as far as southern Canada at night and can be used for emergency messages when broadcasting is down in other major metropolitan areas in the United States. Slavic Voice of Americamedia group serves Russian-speaking Americans out of Dallas. Hispanic Broadcasting Corporation (HBC), the largest company in the Spanish-language radio station business, is based in Dallas.In 2003,", "in Dallas.In 2003, HBC was acquired by Univision and became Univision Radio Inc., but the radio company remains headquartered in the city. Infrastructure Public safety TheDallas Police Departmentprovides most policing in Dallas. The Dallas chief of police is Eddie Garcia.The police headquarters are in the Cedars neighborhood of southern Dallas. Emergency medical servicesand fire protection in the city are provided by theDallas Fire-Rescue Department. The Dallas Fire & Rescue chief is Dominique Artis.The department operates the Dallas Firefighter's Museum built in 1907 along Parry Avenue near Fair Park. Dallas's oldest remaining fire station building still stands at the corner of McKinney Ave. and Leonard and was built in 1892. It was the home of Engine Co. Number 1, and is now a picture framing shop. Health care Dallas has many hospitals and several medical research facilities within its city limits. One major research center is the Dallas Medical District with theUT Southwestern Medical Centerin theStemmons", "theStemmons Corridor, along with the affiliatedUT Southwestern Medical School. The health care complex includes within its boundsParkland Memorial Hospital,Children's Medical Center,William P. Clements Jr. University Hospital(formerly St. Paul University Hospital), and theWilliam P. Clements Jr. University Hospital. Dallas also has aVAhospital in the southern portion of the city, the Dallas Veterans Affairs Medical Center. The center is home to aConsolidated Mail Outpatient Pharmacy(CMOP), part of an initiative by the Department of Veterans Affairs to provide mail-order prescriptions to veterans using computerization at strategic locations throughout the United States. Other hospitals in the city includeBaylor University Medical CenterinEast Dallas, Methodist Dallas Medical Center in Oak Cliff, Methodist Charlton Medical Center nearDuncanville,Medical City Dallas HospitalandPresbyterian HospitalinNorth Dallas, and the Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children in Oak Lawn. Utilities Dallas is served byDallas", "is served byDallas Water Utilities, which operates several waste treatment plants and pulls water from several area reservoirs.Several companies maintain the city's electric system, includingStream Energy, Cirro Energy andOncor Electric Delivery,whose parent company,Energy Future Holdings Corporation, has headquarters in the city. The city offers garbage pickup and recycling service weekly through its Sanitation Services department.Telephone networks, broadband internet, and cable television service are available from several companies, includingAT&T,Spectrum, andVerizon FiOS. Transportation Like many other major cities in the United States, the automobile is the primary mode of local transportation, though efforts have been made to increase the availability of alternative modes of transportation, including the construction of light rail lines, biking and walking paths, wide sidewalks, a trolley system, and buses.Walk Scoreranked Dallas the twenty-third most walkable of fifty largest cities in the United", "in the United States in 2011. In 2009, 78.5% of Dallas (city) commuters drive to work alone. The 2009mode sharefor Dallas (city) commuters are 10.7% for carpooling, 3.9% for transit, 1.9% for walking, and .1% for cycling.In 2015, the American Community Survey estimated modal shares for Dallas (city) commuters of 75.4% for driving alone, 12.8% for carpooling, 3.5% for riding transit, 1.9% for walking, and .2% for cycling. The city of Dallas has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 10.2 percent of Dallas households lacked a car, and decreased to 9.1 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Dallas averaged 1.59 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. Highways Dallas is at the confluence of four majorinterstate highways—Interstates20,30,35E, and45. The Dallas area freeway system is set up in the popularhub-and-spokesystem, shaped much like a wagon wheel. Starting from the center of the city, a small freeway loop surrounds", "loop surrounds Downtown, followed by theI-635loop about 10 miles (16 km) outside Downtown, and ultimately the tolledPresident George Bush Turnpike. Inside these freeway loops are otherboulevard- andparkway-style loops, includingLoop 12andBelt Line Road. Another beltway around the city upwards of 45 miles (72 km) from Downtown is under plan in Collin County. Radiating out of Downtown Dallas' freeway loop are the spokes of the area's highway system—Interstates 30, 35E, and 45,US 75,US 77,US 175,SH Spur 366, theDallas North Tollway,SH 114,US 80, andUS 67. Other major highways around the city includeSH 183andSpur 408. The recently completed interchange at the intersection of Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway (I-635) and theCentral Expressway(US 75) has five stacks and is aptly called theHigh Five Interchange. It is one of the few five-level interchanges in Dallas and is one of the largest freeway interchanges in the United States. The following is a list of the freeways and tollways in the Dallas-Fort Worth area:", "Worth area: Airports Two commercial airports serve Dallas:Dallas Fort Worth International AirportandDallas Love Field. In addition,Dallas Executive Airport(formerly Redbird Airport), serves as ageneral aviationairport for the city, andAddison Airportfunctions similarly just outside the city limits in the suburb of Addison. Two more general aviation airports are about 35 miles (56 km) north of Dallas inMcKinney, and another two are inFort Worth, on the west side of the metroplex.Alliance Airport, in far North Fort Worth, is a cargo reliever airport to DFW Airport and general aviation facility. DFW Airport is in the suburbs slightly north of and equidistant to Downtown Fort Worth and Downtown Dallas. In terms of size, DFW International is the largest airport in the state, the second largest in the United States, and ninth largest in the world; DFW International Airport is larger than the island ofManhattan. In terms of traffic, DFW Airport is thebusiest airport in the state,fourth-busiest in the United States,", "the United States, andeleventh-busiest in the world. The headquarters ofAmerican Airlines, the largest air carrier in the world ahead ofUnited AirlinesandDelta Air Lines, is less than one mile (1.6 km) from DFW Airport within Fort Worth's city limits. Similarly, Love Field is within Dallas's city limits, about 6 miles (10 km) northwest of Downtown, and is headquarters toSouthwest Airlines, the largest domestic airline in the United States. Transit systems Dallas Area Rapid Transit(DART) is the Dallas-area public transportation authority that provides rail, buses andHOVlanes to commuters. DART began operating the firstlight railsystem in Texas in 1996, and it is now the largest operator of light rail in the US.Today, the system is theseventh-busiestlight rail system in the country with approximately 55 stations on 72 miles (116 km) of light rail, and 10 stations on 35 miles (56 km) of commuter rail.It includes four light rail lines and a commuter line: theRed Line, theBlue Line, theGreen Line, theOrange Line,", "theOrange Line, and theTrinity Railway Express. TheRed Linetravels throughOak Cliff,South Dallas,Downtown,Uptown,North Dallas,RichardsonandPlano, while theBlue Linegoes through Oak Cliff, Downtown, Uptown,East Dallas,Lake Highlands, andGarland. TheRedandBluelines are conjoined between8th & Corinth Stationin Oak Cliff throughMockingbird StationinNorth Dallas. The two lines serviceCityplace Station. The Green Line servesCarrollton,Farmers Branch,Love Field Airport,Stemmons Corridor,Victory Park, Downtown,Deep Ellum,Fair Park, South Dallas, andPleasant Grove. The Orange Line initially operated as a peak-service line providing extra capacity on portions of the Green and Red Lines (Bachman Stationon the Green Line, through the Downtown transit mall, toParker Road Stationon the Red Line making a \"U\"-shape). However, the first stage of the Orange Line opened on December 6, 2010, extending its west end from Bachman toBelt Line Stationin Irving. The second and final phase opened in August 2014 and providedDFW", "and providedDFW Airportwith rail service.DFW Airport Terminal A stationis the terminus for the Orange Line and connectsSkylink. This provides passengers the convenience of disembarking the DART rail, proceeding to security check-in and immediately boardingSkylinkto be quickly transported to their desired terminal. The Blue Line has also been extended by 4.5 miles (7.2 km) to serveRowlettat theRowlett Park & Ridefacility. In August 2009, the Regional Transportation Council agreed to seek $96 million in federal stimulus dollars for a trolley project in Dallas and Fort Worth. The Oak Cliff Transit Authority took the lead with leaders envisioning a streetcar line that would linkUnion Stationand theDallas Convention Centerin Downtown to Oak Cliff, Methodist Medical Center, and theBishop Arts Districtvia the Houston Street Viaduct. Dallas was awarded a $23 million TIGER grant towards the $58 million Dallas Streetcar Project in February 2010. In addition to light rail,Amtrak'sTexas Eaglealso serves Union Station,", "Union Station, providing daily service east toChicagoand west toSan Antonio, and thrice-weekly service west toLos Angeles. The Trinity Rail Express terminates at Union Station andT&P Station. Notable people International relations The city of Dallas has worked to build Sister & Friendship City relationships around the globe. These relationships help create and strengthen partnerships between Dallas and theinternational community. The program aims to build global cooperation at the municipal level by promoting cultural understanding and stimulatingeconomic developmentbetween Dallas and its foreign counterparts. Sister cities Dallas'ssister citiesare: Friendship cities Dallas has friendly relations with: See also Notes References Further reading External links" ]
When the maker of the third-party console title "ActRaiser", merged with the makers of the console title "Chrono Trigger", what percentage of the company did the makers of "ActRaiser" make up?
20% of the company.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_Enix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrono_Trigger
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_Enix', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enix', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrono_Trigger']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_Enix", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enix", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrono_Trigger" ]
[ "Square Enix Square Enix Holdings Co., Ltd.is a Japanesemultinationalholding company,video game publisherand entertainment conglomerate. It releasesrole-playing gamefranchises, such asFinal FantasyandDragon Quest, among numerous others. Outside of video game publishing and development, it is also in the business ofmerchandise,arcade facilities, andmangapublication under itsGangan Comicsbrand. The originalSquare Enix Co., Ltd.was formed in April 2003 from amergerbetweenSquareandEnix, with the latter as the surviving company. Each share of Square'scommon stockwasexchangedfor 0.85 shares of Enix's common stock. At the time, 80% of Square Enix staff were made up of former Square employees. As part of the merger, former SquarepresidentYoichi Wadawas appointed the president of the new corporation, while former Enix president Keiji Honda was named vice president. Yasuhiro Fukushima, the largest shareholder of the combined corporation and founder of Enix, becamechairman. In October 2008, Square Enix conducted a company split between its corporate business and video game operations, reorganizing itself as the holding company Square Enix Holdings Co., Ltd., while its internally domestic video game operations were formed under the subsidiary Square Enix Co., Ltd. The group operates American, Chinese and European branches, based inLos Angeles,Beijing,Paris,HamburgandLondonrespectively. Several of Square Enix's franchises have sold over 10 million copies worldwide after 2020, withFinal Fantasyselling 173 million,Dragon Questselling 85 million, andKingdom Heartsshipping 36 million.In 2005, Square Enix acquired arcade corporationTaito. In 2009, Square Enix acquiredEidos plc, the parent company of British game publisherEidos Interactive, which was then absorbed into its European branch. Square Enix is headquartered at the Shinjuku Eastside Square Building inShinjuku,Tokyo, along with a second office atOsaka. It has over 5,000 employees worldwide through its base operations and subsidiaries. Corporate history Origins and pre-merger (1975–2003) Enix (1975–2003) Enix was founded on September 22, 1975, as Eidansha Boshu Service Center by Japanese architect-turned-entrepreneur Yasuhiro Fukushima.Enix focused on publishing games, often by companies who exclusively partnered with the company. In the 1980s, in a partnership with developersChunsoft, the company began publishing theDragon Questseries of console games. Key members of the developer's staff consisted of directorKoichi Nakamura, writerYuji Horii, artistAkira Toriyama, and composerKoichi Sugiyama, among others.The first game,Dragon Warrior, in the Famicom-based RPG series, was released in 1986 and would eventually sell 1.5 million copies in Japan, establishingDragon Questas the company's most profitable franchise.Despite the announcement that Enix's long-time competitor Square would develop exclusively forPlayStation, Enix announced in January 1997 that it would release games for bothNintendoandSonyconsoles.This caused a significant rise in stock for both Enix and Sony.By November 1999, Enix was listed in theTokyo Stock Exchange's first section, indicating it as a \"large company\". Square (1983–2003) Square was started in October 1983 byMasafumi Miyamotoas a computer game software division of Den-Yu-Sha, apower lineconstruction company owned by his father. While at the time, game development was usually conducted —by only one programmer, Miyamoto believed that it would be more efficient to have graphic designers, programmers and professional story writers working together. In September 1986, the division was spun off into an independent company led by Miyamoto, officially named Square Co., Ltd.After releasing several unsuccessful games for theFamicom, Square relocated toUeno, Tokyoin 1987 and developed arole-playing video gametitledFinal Fantasy, which was inspired byEnix's success in the genre with the 1986Dragon Quest.Final Fantasywas a success with over 400,000 copies sold, and it became Square's leading franchise, spawning dozens of games in a series that continues to the present. Buoyed by the success of theirFinal Fantasyfranchise, Square developed notable games and franchises such asChrono,Mana,Kingdom Hearts(in collaboration withThe Walt Disney Company), andSuper Mario RPG(under the guidance ofSuper MariocreatorShigeru Miyamoto).By late 1994 they had developed a reputation as a producer of high-quality role-playing video games.Square was one of the many companies that had planned to develop and publish their games for theNintendo 64, but with the cheaper costs associated with developing games on CD-based consoles such as theSega Saturnand theSony PlayStation, Square decided to develop titles for the latter system.Final Fantasy VIIwas one of these games, and it sold 9.8 million copies, making it the second-best-selling game for the PlayStation. Merger (2003) A merger between Square and Enix was considered since at least 2000; the financial failure in 2001 of Square's first movie,Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, made Enix reluctant to proceed while Square was losing money.With the company facing its second year of financial losses, Square approached Sony for a capital injection, and on October 8, 2001, Sony purchased an 18.6% stake in Square.Following the success of bothFinal Fantasy XandKingdom Hearts, the company's finances stabilized, and it recorded the highest operating margin in its history in the fiscal year 2002.It was announced on November 25, 2002, that Square and Enix's previous plans to merge were to officially proceed, intending to decrease development costs and to compete with foreign developers.As described by Square's president and CEO Yoichi Wada: \"Square has also fully recovered, meaning this merger is occurring at a time when both companies are at their height.\" Some shareholders expressed concerns about the merger, notably Miyamoto (the founder and largest shareholder of Square), who would find himself holding a significantly smaller percentage of the combined companies.Other criticism came from Takashi Oya of Deutsche Securities, who expressed doubts about the benefits of such a merger: \"Enix outsources game development and has few in-house creators, while Square does everything by itself. The combination of the two provides no negative factors but would bring little in the way of operational synergies.\"Miyamoto's concerns were eventually resolved by altering the exchange ratio of the merger so that each Square share would be exchanged for 0.85 Enix shares rather than 0.81 shares, and the merger was greenlit.The merger was set for April 1, 2003, on which date the newly merged entity Square Enix came into being.At the time of the merger, 80% of Square Enix staff were made up of former Square employees.As part of the merger, former Square president Yoichi Wada was appointed the president of the new corporation, while former Enix president Keiji Honda became its vice president.The founder of Enix and the largestshareholderof the newly combined corporation, Yasuhiro Fukushima, was made its honorary chairman. As a result of the merger, Enix was the surviving company and Square Co., Ltd. was dissolved.In July of that year, the Square Enix headquarters were moved to Yoyogi, Shibuya, Tokyo, to help combine the two companies. Post-merger and acquisitions (2003–2013) To strengthen its wireless market, Square Enix acquired mobile application developer UIEvolution in March 2004, which was sold in December 2007, and the company instead founded its own Square Enix MobileStudio in January 2008 to focus on mobile products.In January 2005, Square Enix founded Square Enix China, expanding their interests in the People's Republic of China. In September 2005, Square Enix bought the gaming developer and publisherTaito, renowned for their arcade hits such asSpace Invadersand theBubble Bobbleseries; Taito's home and portable console games divisions were merged into Square Enix itself by March 2010.In August 2008, Square Enix made plans for a similar expansion by way of a friendly takeover of video game developerTecmoby purchasing shares at a 30 percent premium, but Tecmo rejected the proposed takeover.Tecmo would later merge withKoeiin April 2009 to formKoei Tecmo. In April 2007, Square Enix Ltd. CEO John Yamamoto also became CEO of Square Enix, Inc.In 2008–2009, Square Enix was reportedly working withGrinon aFinal Fantasyspin-off codenamedFortress.The project was allegedly canceled by Square Enix after introducing seemingly impossible milestones and without payments made, resulting in Grin declaring bankruptcy and its co-founders blaming Square Enix for being \"betrayed\". In February 2009, Square Enix announced a takeover deal forEidos(formerly SCi Entertainment), theholding companyforEidos Interactive. The UK-based publisher's assets includeTomb Raider,Hitman,Deus Ex,Thief, andLegacy of Kainfranchises, along with subsidiary development studios Crystal Dynamics, Eidos-Montréal andIO Interactivethat developed the games.The acquisition of Eidos was completed in April 2009, and in November it was merged with Square Enix's European publishing organization, business unitSquare Enix Europe.Eidos' US operations were merged with Square Enix Incorporated.In April 2010, a new Japanese label for Western games bearingCEROrestrictions calledSquare Enix Extreme Edgeswas announced.In July 2010, Mike Fischer was appointed CEO of Square Enix, Inc.Square Enix founded the mobile development studio Hippos Lab in March 2011andSquare Enix Montréalin 2012.In June 2011,Stainless Gameshad purchased the rights toCarmageddonfrom Square Enix.In July 2011, it was reported that Square Enix closed their Los Angeles Studio.In January 2012, Square Enix North American office could pursue smaller niche, mobile and social media games due to its existing revenue streams.In October 2012, Square Enix was perceived as a \"force in mobile\" games byKotaku. The price of Final Fantasy Dimensions and Demons' Score, $30 and $44 respectively, was criticized. Restructuring (2013) On March 26, 2013, citing sluggish sales of major Western games, Square Enix announced major restructuring, expected loss of ¥10 billion and resignation of President Yoichi Wada, whom Yosuke Matsuda replaced.Phil Rogers was elected as a new Director, among others.With the restructuring, Square Enix of America CEO Mike Fischer left the company in May, with former Square Enix Europe CEO Phil Rogers becoming CEO of Americas and Europe.Further executive changes at Square Enix Western studios were mentioned in a statement.Square Enix Europe was hit with layoffsand Life PresidentIan Livingstonedeparted from the company in September 2013. It said with the fiscal year report in March 2013, sales ofTomb Raider(2013) andHitman: Absolutionwere weak, despite critical acclaim. The North American sales force was said to be ineffective and price pressure was intense.Matsuda noted the long development time of their important games and said they need to shift to a business model with frequent customer interactions, notingKickstarteras an example. Post-restructuring and RPG development (2013–2021) In March 2013, Square Enix India opened in Mumbai; however the office was closed in April 2014 and reopened five years later.As well as Square Enix Latin America in Mexico,which was closed in 2015.A mobile studio called Smileworks was founded in Indonesia in June 2013; however it was closed in January 2015.In 2014,Square Enix Collectivelaunched, an indie developer service provider headed by Phil Elliot.Also in 2014, Square Enix signed astrategic allianceand cooperation with Japanese and French video game companies,Bandai Namco EntertainmentandUbisoft; it has served as the Japanese publisher of video games and crossover productions since 2009. In March 2014, following the success ofBravely Default, Square Enix said it will \"go back to their roots\" and focus on creating content that will appeal to their core audience.Karl Stewart, vice president of strategic marketing at Square Enix for North America and Europe, left the company that month.In 2015, Square created a new studio known asTokyo RPG Factoryto develop what was then dubbedProject Setsuna.Around 2015, Square Enix's Western divisions began \"officially working across LA and London\". In January 2017, Norwegian studio Artplant purchased former Eidos franchiseProject I.G.I.On February 21, 2017, the formation of a new studio Studio Istolia was announced. The studio, headed byHideo Baba, would be working on the new RPGProject Prelude Rune.In November 2017, IO Interactive conducted a management buyout from Square Enix and the Hitman IP was transferred to the studio.In September 2018,COOMike Sherlock died, with Square Enix's executive team assuming his immediate responsibilities.In 2018, Square Enix branded their third party publishing divisionSquare Enix External Studios, which is headed by Jon Brooke and Lee Singleton.John Heinecke was appointed asCMOfor Americas and Europe in October 2018. Baba departed the studio in early 2019, and shortly after this, Studio Istolia was closed, andProject Prelude Runecancelled following an assessment of the project, with its staff being reassigned to different projects within the company.In 2019, Square Enix opened an Indian office again, now inBangalore,which expanded into publishing mobile games for the Indian market in 2021.In June 2020, Square Enix donated $2.4 million to charities around their Western studios and offices, which were partially raised from sales of its discounted Square Enix Eidos Anthology bundle.In March 2021, Forever Entertainment, a Polish studio, was reported to be working to bring several of Square Enix's properties to modern systems.A new mobile studio called Square Enix London Mobile, working onTomb Raider Reloadedand an unannounced title based onAvatar: The Last Airbenderwith Navigator Games, was announced on 20 October 2021. Divestment of Western studios and business changes (2022–present) On May 1, 2022, Square Enix announced that it would sell several assets of subsidiarySquare Enix Limitedto Swedish games holding companyEmbracer Groupfor $300 million. This included studiosCrystal Dynamics,Eidos-Montréal, andSquare Enix Montreal, IPsDeus Ex,Legacy of Kain,Thief, andTomb Raiderand rights to \"over 50 games\". Square Enix stated that the sale will further help it in investment intoblockchainand other technologies, and to \"assist the company in adapting to the changes underway in the global business environment by establishing a more efficient allocation of resources\". Square Enix also stated that it would retain theLife Is Strange,Outriders, andJust Causefranchises.However, during the Japanese publisher's full-year financial results briefing on May 13, president Yosuke Matsuda clarified the past statement and said the money from the sale will be used to strengthen the company's core games business.On July 25, 2022, Square Enix launched the English version ofManga Up!.The acquisition was closed by August 26, 2022, with the assets being held under CDE Entertainment which is headed from London by Phil Rogers, former CEO of Square Enix Americas and Europe. In the company's financial statement for the following quarter, released in September 2022, Matsuda said they were moving away from outright owning studios due to rising costs of development, but were looking at means to invest in studios such as joint ventures or investment opportunities.In 2022, Square Enix invested in seven business strategic cooperations in theblockchainandcloud servicessuch as Zebedee (United States), Blocklords (Estonia), Cross The Ages (France), Blacknut (France),Animoca Brands-ownedThe Sandbox(Australia and Hong Kong), and Ubitus (Japan). On February 28, 2023, Square Enix Holdings announced that on May 1,Luminous Productionswould reorganize and merge with Square Enix internally, citing the merging of the two would “enhanced the group’s abilities to develop HD games” for the 20th anniversary.On March 3, Square Enix issued a statement announcing a proposed change to the position of its president and representative director that, if implemented, would result in Yosuke Matsuda stepping down and being succeeded by Takashi Kiryu, who is presently the company's director. The change will become effective upon approval at the company's 43rd annual shareholders' meeting, which is planned for June 2023, and the board meeting which will follow ahead on the 20th anniversary of the merger.Kiryu succeeded on May 18 and was seen as part of theFinal Fantasy XVIlaunch event as one of his first appearances in public. In March 2024, Square Enix announced it would be more selective with the games it develops, resulting in numerous unannounced titles being cancelled. The company lost ¥22.1 billion (approximately $140 million) due to \"content abandonment.\" Corporate structure On October 1, 2008, Square Enix transformed into aholding companyand was renamed Square Enix Holdings. At the same time, the development and publishing businesses were transferred to a spin-off company named Square Enix, sharing the same corporate leadership and offices with the holding company.The primary offices for Square Enix and Square Enix Holdings are in the Shinjuku Eastside Square Building inShinjuku, Tokyo. Currently, focusing in different industries, the company is divided as the following: Five Creative Business Units for game development and production in Square Enix Co., Ltd; a dedicated publishing business unit for manga and books publishing; a digital storefront business division for their e-Store and merchandise production; their media and arts business unit for music production, concert and live performance coordination, and visual contents production (live action, animation, and CG for TV, movies, and games); and a blockchain business division. Development organization After the merger in 2003, Square Enix's development department was organized into eight Square and two Enix Product Development Divisions(開発事業部,kaihatsu jigyōbu), each focused on different groupings of games.The divisions were spread around different offices; for example, Product Development Division 5 had offices both in Osaka and Tokyo. According to Yoichi Wada, the development department was reorganized away from the Product Development Division System by March 2007 into a project-based system.Until 2013, the teams in charge of theFinal FantasyandKingdom Heartsseries were still collectively referred to as the 1st Production Department(第1制作部,dai-ichi seisakubu).The 1st Production Department was formed from the fall 2010 combination of Square Enix's Tokyo and Osaka development studios, withShinji Hashimotoas its corporate executive. In December 2013, Square Enix's development was restructured into 12 Business Divisions. In 2017, Business Division 9 was merged into Business Division 8, while Business Divisions 11 and 12 merged to become the new Business Division 9, while a new Business Division 11 was created with some staff from Business Division 6. In 2019, Square Enix announced that their eleven Business Divisions would be consolidated into four units by 2020 with a new title, Creative Business Unit.Naoki Yoshida, who was previously the head of Business Division 5, became the head of Creative Business Unit III.Creative Business Unit III was renamed Creative Studio III in May 2024.The current structure for the development and production division called Creative Business Unit is as follows: In those five divisions, most of the development is done outside of Square Enix under contracted development companies, while Creative Business Unit produces and oversee the title done by those developers. All of the internal development done by Creative Business Units are for titles such as mainline Dragon Quest, Final Fantasy and Kingdom Hearts, while their mid-size and smaller titles have the development outsourced to other companies for most of the cases such as \"Team Asano\" led byTomoya Asano, a team of producers from Creative Business II who hadArtdinkand Netchubiyori developingTriangle Strategyor Historia developing the remake ofLive A Live, while the team was mainly present to oversee, produce, concept, while the studios do the bulk of the project under their direction. As of February 2024Square Enix has stated that they will cease using outsourced studios for assistance with their titles. Their mid tier games like 2D HD games, mana series and SaGa series will now be made entirely in house. Business model Thebusiness modelof post-merger Square Enix is centered on the idea of \"polymorphic content\", which consists of developing franchises on multiple potential media rather than being restricted by a single gaming platform.An early example of this strategy is Enix'sFullmetal Alchemistmanga series, which has been adapted into two anime television series, five movies (two animated, three live-action), and several novels and video games.Other polymorphic projects include theCompilation of Final Fantasy VII,Code Age,World of Mana,Ivalice Alliance, andFabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasysubseries.According toYoichi Wada, \"It's very difficult to hit the jackpot, as it were. Once we've hit it, we have to get all the juice possible out of it\".Similar to Sony'sGreatest Hitsprogram, Square Enix also re-releases their best-selling games at a reduced price under a label designated \"Ultimate Hits\". The standard game design model Square Enix employs is to establish the plot, characters, and art of the game first.Battle systems, field maps, andcutscenesare created next.According toTaku Murata, this process became the company's model for development after the success of Square'sFinal Fantasy VIIin 1997.The team size forFinal Fantasy XIIIpeaked at 180 artists, 30 programmers, and 36 game designers, but analysis and restructuring were done to outsource large-scale development in the future. Business Video games and franchises Square Enix's primary concentration is on video gaming, and it is primarily known for its role-playing video game franchises.Of its properties, theFinal Fantasyfranchise, begun in 1987, is the best-selling, with a total worldwide sales of over 173 million units as of March 2022. TheDragon Questfranchise, begun in 1986, is also the best-selling; it is considered one of the most popular game series in Japan and new installments regularly outsell other games at the times of their release, with a total worldwide sale of over 85 million units. More recently, theKingdom Heartsseries (developed in collaboration withDisneybeginning in 2002) has become popular, with 36 million units shipped as of March 2022. Other popular series developed by Square Enix include theSaGaseries with nearly 10 million copies sold since 1989, theManaseries with over 6 million sales since 1991, and theChronoseries with over 5 million sold since 1995.In addition to their sales numbers, many Square Enix games have been highly reviewed; 27 Square Enix games were included inFamitsumagazine's 2006 \"Top 100 Games Ever\", with 7 in the top 10 andFinal Fantasy Xclaiming the number 1 position.The company also wonIGN's award for Best Developer of 2006 for the PlayStation 2. Square and Enix initially targeted Nintendo home consoles with their games, but Square Enix currently develops games for a wide variety of systems.In theseventh generation of video game consoles, Square Enix released new installments from its major series across all three major systems, includingFinal Fantasy XIIIon both thePlayStation 3andXbox 360andDragon Quest Xon theWii.Square Enix has also developed titles forhandheld game consoles, including theGame Boy Advance,Nintendo DS,PlayStation Portable,Nintendo 3DS, andPlayStation Vita.Also, they have published games forMicrosoft Windows-based personal computers and various models of mobile phones and modern smartphones.Square Enix mobile phone games became available in 2004 on theVodafonenetwork in some European countries, including Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Italy. Before its launch, Michihiro Sasaki, senior vice president of Square Enix, spoke about thePlayStation 3, saying, \"We don't want the PlayStation 3 to be the overwhelming loser, so we want to support them, but we don't want them to be the overwhelming winner either, so we can't support them too much.\"Square Enix continued to reiterate their devotion to multi-platform publishing in 2007, promising more support for the North American and European gaming markets where console pluralism is generally more prevalent than in Japan.Their interest in multi-platform development was made evident in 2008 when the previouslyPlayStation 3-exclusive gameFinal Fantasy XIIIwas announced for release on theXbox 360. In 2008, Square Enix released their first game for theiPod,Song Summoner: The Unsung Heroes.Square Enix made a new brand for younger children gaming that same year, known as Pure Dreams.Pure Dreams' first two games,Snoopy DS: Let's Go Meet Snoopy and His Friends!andPingu's Wonderful Carnival, were released that year.After acquiring Eidos in 2009, Square Enix combined it with its European publishing wing to createSquare Enix Europe, which continues to publish Eidos franchises such asTomb Raider(88 million sales),Deus Ex(4 million),ThiefandLegacy of Kain(3.5 million).Square Enix has also served as the Japanese publisher forActivision BlizzardandUbisoftgames since 2009.In May 2022, Square Enix sold several assets of Square Enix Europe$300 millionto Embracer Group, including former Eidos Interactive franchises such asTomb Raider,Deus Ex,Thief,Legacy of Kainand more than 50 others. Square Enix owned franchises and games include: Game engines In 2004, Square Enix began to work on a \"common 3D format\" that would allow the entire company to develop titles without being restricted to a specific platform: this led to the creation of agame enginenamedCrystal Tools, which is compatible with thePlayStation 3, theXbox 360,Windows-basedPCs, and to some extent theWii.It was first shown off at a tech demo shown off at E3 2005 and was later used forFinal Fantasy XIIIbased on the demo's reception.Crystal Tools was also used forFinal Fantasy Versus XIIIbefore its re-branding asFinal Fantasy XVand its shift onto next-gen platforms.Refinement of the engine continued through the development ofFinal Fantasy XIII-2, and it underwent a major overhaul forLightning Returns: Final Fantasy XIII.Since that release, no new titles have been announced using Crystal Tools, and it is believed that the development of the engine has halted permanently. Luminous Enginewas originally intended foreighth-generation consolesand unveiled at E3 2012 through a tech demo titledAgni's Philosophy.The first major console title to be developed with Luminous Engine wasFinal Fantasy XV;the engine's development was done in tandem with the game, and the game's development helped the programming team optimize the engine. In addition to Luminous Engine and custom engines made for individual games and platforms before and since Square Enix often uses other companies' engines and programming languages for their video game properties.Epic Games'Unreal Engine 3was used for games such asThe Last Remnant, and more recently,Unreal Engine 4has been used for projects includingDragon Quest XI,Kingdom Hearts III, and the most recentFinal Fantasy VII Remake.Unityhas also been used internally for titles includingI Am Setsuna,Lost Sphear, andSaGa: Scarlet Grace. TheSquirrellanguage had also been used for theWiiWaretitleFinal Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: My Life as a King. Online gaming Before the merger, Enix published its first online gameCross Gatein Japan, mainland China, and Taiwan in 2001, and Square releasedFinal Fantasy XIin Japan in 2002 for the PlayStation 2 and later the personal computer.With the huge success ofFinal Fantasy XI, the game was ported to theXbox 360two years later and was the firstMMORPGon the console.All versions of the game usedPlayOnline, a cross-platform internet gaming platform and internet service developed by Square Enix.The platform was used as the online service for many games Square Enix developed and published throughout the decade.Due to the success of theirMMORPG, Square Enix began a new project calledFantasy Earth: The Ring of Dominion.GamePot, a Japanese game portal, received the license to publishFantasy Earthin Japan, and it was released in Japan as \"Fantasy Earth ZERO.\"In 2006, however, Square Enix dropped theFantasy Earth Zeroproject and sold it to GamePot.Square Enix releasedConcerto Gate, the sequel toCross Gate, in 2007. A next-gen MMORPG code namedRapturewas developed by theFinal Fantasy XIteam using the company'sCrystal Toolsengine.It was unveiled atE3 2009asFinal Fantasy XIVfor PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows and would be released on September 30, 2010.Dragon Quest Xwas announced in September 2011 as an MMORPG being developed forNintendo'sWiiandWii Uconsoles, which released on August 2, 2012, and March 30, 2013, respectively.LikeXIV, it used Crystal Tools. Square Enix also made browser games and Facebook games, likeLegend World,Chocobo's Crystal TowerandKnights of the Crystals, and online games forYahoo! Japan, such asMonster x Dragon,Sengoku Ixa,Bravely Default: Praying Brage,Star Galaxy, andCrystal Conquest. Cloud gaming In 2013, Dragon Quest X was brought to iOS and Android in Japan usingNTT DoCoMoas the release platform and Ubitus for the streaming technology.In 2014, it was also brought to 3DS in Japan using Ubitus. On May 8, 2012, Square Enix announced a collaboration withBigpoint Gamesto create a free-to-playCloud gamingplatform that \"throws players into 'limitless game worlds' directly through their web browser\".The service was launched under the nameCoreOnlinein August 2012.Stating \"limited commercial take-up\", the service was cancelled on November 29, 2013. In September 2014, a cloud gaming company called Shinra Technologies (previously Project Flare) was created; however, it was closed in January 2016.On October 9, 2014, Square Enix launched another online game service in Japan calledDive In, which allowed players to stream console games to theiriOSorAndroiddevices.The service was monetized by the amount of time the players spent playing, with each game offered for free for thirty minutes.The service was cancelled on September 13, 2015.Some Square Enix games are available in Japan on the G-cluster streaming service. Arcade facilities With the merger ofTaitobusinesses into Square Enix, the company gained possession of Taito's arcade infrastructure and facilities and entered the arcade market in 2005.In 2010 Taito revealedNESiCAxLive, a cloud-based system of storing games and changing them through the internet instead of acquiring physical copies.This system was added to its many arcade gaming locations.The company continues to cater to the arcade audience in Japan with arcade-only titles, with game producers in 2015 stating that Square Enix has a loyal fan base that values the arcade gaming experience.In November 2019, Square Enix announced a \"Ninja Tower Tokyo\" theme park by its newly establishedLive Interactive Worksdivision. Film The company has made three forays into the film industry. The first,Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within(2001), was produced by Square subsidiarySquare Picturesbefore the Enix merger; Square Pictures is now a consolidated subsidiary of Square Enix.Its box-office failure caused Enix to delay the merger, which was already under consideration before the creation of the film until Square became profitable once again.In 2005, Square Enix releasedFinal Fantasy VII Advent Children, aCGI-animation film based on thePlayStationgameFinal Fantasy VII, set two years after the events of the game.ADeus Exfilm was in pre-production in 2012 and, as of 2014, was undergoing rewrites.In 2016 Square Enix revealed a film calledKingsglaive: Final Fantasy XVbased in the world ofFinal Fantasy XVand a new web series released on YouTube andCrunchyrollentitledBrotherhood: Final Fantasy XV. Publishing The company has amangapublishing division in Japan (originally from Enix) calledGangan Comics, which publishes content for the Japanese market only.In 2010, however, Square Enix launched a digital manga store for North American audiences via its Members services, which contains several notable series published in Gangan anthologies.Titles published by Gangan Comics includeFullmetal Alchemist,Soul Eater, and many others.Other titles include manga adaptations of various Square Enix games, likeDragon Quest,Kingdom HeartsandStar Ocean.Some of these titles have also been adapted intoanimeseries.Fullmetal Alchemistis the most successful title of Square Enix's manga branch, with more than 64 million volumes sold worldwide.It is licensed in North America byViz Media, while its two anime adaptations were licensed byFunimation(now known asCrunchyroll) in North America.Starting in Q4 2019, Square Enix began publishing some of its manga series in English. Merchandise Square Enix has created merchandise for virtually all of their video game franchises, many items are available only in Japan. Starting in 2000, Square Enix's former online gaming portalPlayOnlinesold merchandise from game franchises includingParasite Eve,Vagrant Story,Chocobo Racing,Front Mission,Chrono Cross, andFinal Fantasy.Mascotsfrom game franchises are a popular focus for merchandise, such as theChocobofromFinal Fantasy, which has been seen as arubber duck,a plush baby Chocobo,and on coffeemugs.Square Enix also designed a Chocobocharacter costumefor the release ofChocobo Tales.TheSlimecharacter fromDragon Questhas also been frequently used in Square Enix merchandise, especially in Japan.On the Japanese Square Enix shopping website, there is also a Slime-focused section called \"Smile Slime\".Slime merchandise includesplushtoys,game controllers, figurines, and several board games, including one titledDragon Quest Slime Racing.In Japan, pork-filled steam buns shaped like slimes have been sold in 2010.ForDragon Quest's25th anniversary, special items were sold, includingbusiness cards, tote bags, and crystal figurines.Rabites from theManaserieshave appeared in several pieces of Square Enix merchandise, including plush dolls, cushions, lighters, mousepads, straps, telephone cards, and T-shirts.Square Enix has also made merchandise for third party series, including figuresMass EffectandHaloin 2012.Beginning in 2012, it operates shops called \"Square Enix Cafe\" in Tokyo, Osaka and Shanghai, which display and sell merchandise, as well as serve café food. Subsidiaries Former subsidiaries Notes References External links", "Enix Enix Corporationwas a Japanese multimedia publisher who handled and oversawvideo games,manga, guidebooks, and merchandise. It was founded in 1975 by Yasuhiro Fukushima as Eidansha Boshu Service Center, initially as a tabloid publisher and later attempting to branch into real estate management. Beginning in 1982, Enix began publishing video games. Three notable early collaborators were designersYuji HoriiandKoichi Nakamura, and composerKoichi Sugiyama. Horii, Nakamura and Sugiyama would all work on the 1986role playing video game(RPG)Dragon Questfor theFamily Computer; one of the earliest successful RPGs for consoles, it spawned afranchise of the same namewhich remains Enix's best-known product. They would gain notoriety as a publisher for several studios and their properties includingtri-Ace,Tose,ChunsoftandQuintet. It also founded theGangan Comicsimprint family, and created international subsidiaries or partnerships related to technology development, publishing and education. In the early 2000s, due to rising game development costs, Enix entered discussions about merging withSquare, a rival company known for theFinal Fantasyfranchise. The merger eventually went ahead in 2003 formingSquare Enix, with Enix as the surviving corporate entity. History 1975-1989: Origins,Dragon Quest Enix was founded under the name Eidansha Boshu Service Center on September 22, 1975 by Yasuhiro Fukushima.An architect-turned-business entrepreneur, Fukushima initially founded Eidansha as a publishing company focused on advertisingtabloidsfor real estate.: 77–81On February 5, 1980, Eidansha Boshu created a wholly owned subsidiary Eidansya Fudousan for the purpose of specializing in real estate trading and brokerage, being renamed Eidansha Systems the following year.It was based inShinjuku,Tokyo.During 1982 Eidansha Boshu made an unsuccessful attempt to become a nationwide chain. Fukushima decided to invest his capital into the emerging video game market; during this period on August 30, Eidansya Fudousan was renamed Enix Corporation.: 77–81The name Enix was a play on both the mythologicalPhoenix, and the early computerENIAC.: 77–81 Seeking game proposals, Fukushima organized a competition dubbed the \"Enix Game Hobby Program Contest\" in both computer and manga magazines, offering a prize of¥1 million (US$10,000) for a game prototype which could be published by Enix.: 77–81Among the winners wereYuji Horii, then a writer forWeekly Shōnen Jump, with the sports gameLove Match Tennis;designerKoichi Nakamurawith the puzzle gameDoor Door;and self-trained programmerKazuro Moritawith thesimulation video gameMorita's Battlefield.During the next few years, Enix would publish titles for both the PC market and the fledgling Japanese console market.: 77–81Using his royalties, Morita established the developer Random House and developed several PC and console titles including theMorita's Shogiseries.In collaboration with Nakamura's new companyChunsoft, Horii notably created theadventure gameThe Portopia Serial Murder Case(1983), then during discussions around a port of the game to the Famicom (Nintendo Entertainment System) Horii and Nakamura decided to develop arole-playing video game(RPG) for the platform.: 84–89 The RPG, titledDragon Quest, began development in 1985.: 84–89Horii and Nakamura acted as designers, composerKoichi Sugiyamacreated the score for the game, andDragon BallartistAkira Toriyamawas brought on board for art design.: 84–89While meeting with initially slow sales,Dragon Questbecame a critical and commercial success, selling over one million copies in Japan.: 84–89The success ofDragon Questspawned afranchise of the same name, which would become Enix's highest-grossing property.Horii, Sugiyama and Toriyama remained mainstays with the series.Chunsoft developed the next fiveDragon Questtitles.While theDragon Questseries proved successful, Enix continued publishing PC titles to maintain financial stability.: 77–81The company also began selling merchandise themed afterDragon Questin 1988 with character statues and toys, expanding to board and card games the following year. In October 1983, Enix co-founded Konishiroku Enix withKonishiroku Photo Company, later purchasing all shares in January 1989. A second subsidiary, Enix Products, was established in March 1988 for the sale of publications and character merchandise. Both subsidiaries along with the original Enix were merged into their parent company Eidansha Boshu in April 1989, which renamed itself Enix Corporation. 1990-1999: Publishing and collaborations In 1990, Enix published their first third-party console titleActRaiserfor the Super Famicom. The game was developed byQuintet, a Japanese independent developer made up of formerNihon Falcomstaff.Enix acted as publisher for all of Quintet's subsequent Super Famicom games in Japan.Enix had begun publishing guidebooks for theDragon Questseries,between 1988 and 1991 the company decided to make print publication their second major business section alongside video game publishing. This was to ensure their income did not entirely depend onDragon Quest.This eventually led to Enix launching theGangan Comicsimprint family, beginning withMonthly Shonen GanganMarch 1991.Following its first publication withMonthly Shonen Ganganin March 1991, several other manga imprints with magazine andtankōboneditions were created for different genres includingMonthly G-FantasyandMonthly Shonen Gag-OU.The company also expanded their merchandise range to include other notable series includingMarioandPokémon.In February 1991, Enix registered with the Japan Securities Dealers Association to offer shares for public purchase. FollowingDragon Quest V(1992), Chunsoft left as main series developer, wanting to create their own titles.In the years following, Chunsoft continued collaborating with Enix on spin-offDragon Questtitles including early entries in theirMystery Dungeonfranchise.The next two entries were developed byHeartbeat, a company founded by former Chunsoft staff dedicated to developingDragon Questtitles.Heartbeat would handle main series production until going on sabbatical in 2002.From 1994, Enix acted as publisher for Horii'sItadaki Streetseries, taking over the series from ASCII.They also frequently acted as publisher for titles from Tamtam,and created theDragon Quest Monstersspin-off series with developerTose. Enix were initially pitched unsuccessfully byWolf TeamwithTales of Phantasia, which was ultimately published byNamcoin 1995.Enix later acted as publisher forStar Ocean(1996), developed by formerTales of Phantasiastaff members who split from Wolf Team to formtri-Ace.In partnership with Enix, tri-Ace developed three furtherStar Oceantitles,and theNorse mythology-inspired RPGValkyrie Profile(1999).Enix also notably helped publish two Western console titles;Riven(1998) andTomb Raider III(1999).In August 1996, Enix moved from Shinjuku to offices inShibuya.In contrast to other companies at the time, which were leaving behind cartridge-basedNintendo 64for the disc-basedPlayStation, Enix announced in 1997 that they would publish titles for both platforms.They later stated their intention to develop for theGameCube.In August 1999, Enix was listed onTokyo Stock Exchange's first section, which includes the largest companies on the exchange. 2000-2003: Internal troubles, merger Beginning in the early 2000s, Enix's manga publishing division went through a period of turbulence as several editors expressed dissatisfaction with Enix's focus onDragon Questmedia and theshōnendemographic, a growing lack of creative freedom, and rising tensions between authors and editors.Editor Yoshihiro Hosaka and a number of otherGanganassociates foundedMag Gardenin 2001, which became a market rival through theMonthly Comic Blademagazine.Mag Garden's foundation triggered a mass departure of creatives and legal battles with Enix over manga copyright ownership. The issues were resolved in 2003 when Enix agreed to partially invest in Mag Garden.The manga division's troubles were lessened with the beginning ofFullmetal Alchemist, which proved highly popular.Enix also suffered from financial losses due to the delayed releases ofDragon Quest VII(2000) andDragon Quest Monsters 2(2001).Some notable titles begun or announced during the 2000s werePlayStation 2titles in theGrandiaseries,theMMORPGFantasy Earth: The Ring of DominionfromPuraguru,and theaction role-playing gameDrakengardfromCavia. In 2001, citing the rising cost of game development, Enix expressed interest in merging with eitherSquareorNamco.They ultimately began talks with Square, a market rival and developer of theFinal Fantasyfranchise. Talks were temporarily halted when Square suffered financially due to the failure of the 2001 feature filmFinal Fantasy: The Spirits Within.Following the commercial success ofFinal Fantasy X(2001) andKingdom Hearts(2002), talks went ahead on the merger with Enix as Square's finances stabilized; Square's then-CEOYoichi Wadadescribed it as a merger of two companies \"at their height\".Despite this, some shareholders had doubts about the merger, notably Square's founderMasafumi Miyamoto, who would find himself holding significantly less shares and having a smaller controlling stake if the deal went ahead as initially planned.Miyamoto's issue was resolved by altering the exchange ratio to one Square share for 0.85 Enix shares, and the merger was greenlit.The merger resulted inSquare Enixbeing formed on April 1, 2003, with Enix as the surviving corporate entity and Square dissolving its departments and subsidiaries into the new company.Enix's last two published titles wereStar Ocean: Till the End of TimeandDragon Quest Monsters: Caravan Heart, both in 2003.Fantasy EarthandDrakengardwere published after the merger. Company structure and affiliates During reports on the merger with Square, Takashi Oya of Deutsche Securities described Enix as \" game development and few in-house creators\" compared to Square's focus on internal development.At the time of the merger, Enix had two development divisions; one managing theDragon Questseries led by Yuu Miyake, and a supervisory division made up of producers.Speaking in 1997, Quintet staff described their company as a \"subcontractor\" for Enix, being involved in its projects even when not acting as a publisher.Horii notably created Armor Project as a company to overseeDragon Questfor Enix, with him comparing the relationship to that between an editor and an artist. Armor Project survived as an associate of Square Enix, growing into a larger entity over the years. Enix Webstar Network Technology (Beijing) Co., Ltd. was a company formed between Enix and Mauritius Webstar Inc. in 2001 to develop online and mobile phone games in China and, later, other parts of Asia. The subsidiary was carried over after the merger between Square and Enix, but was dissolved in 2005 after the establishment of Square Enix China.Digital Entertainment Academy Co., Ltd. was established as a partially owned subsidiary in 1991.Originally called Toshima Ku Hokkaido University, the school was founded to teachgame development. Enix America Corporation was the corporation's firstAmericanlocalization subsidiary based inRedmond, Washington.It was organized after the release ofDragon WarriorbyNintendo of Americain 1989. The subsidiary came into existence in 1990, but closed in November 1995 when the parent company decided to no longer release products in North Americadue to poor sales.One of the games they published,King Arthur & the Knights of Justice, was Enix's first and only North America exclusive game.Enix America, Inc., Enix's last American localization subsidiary, was organized in 1999,and was based inSeattle,Washington.Paul Handelman, who was part of Enix America Corporation's staff, returned to lead Enix America, Inc. as president. The corporation was in existence until 2003, ceasing to exist after the merger with Square Co., Ltd.Several of Enix's localized games were published by other companies includingNintendoandSony Computer Entertainment;the last wasDragon Warrior Monsters, which was through a publishing deal withEidos. Legacy TheDragon Questseries became one of the most popular video game series in Japan, spinning off into a multimedia franchise, and entering mainstream popular culture in the country.Several publications have cited the original game as a pioneer for the genre on home consoles, influencing the development of other popular series.Enix'sGangan Comicsimprint, in addition to publishing a number of successful series, was credited by critic Tsuyoshi Ito with helping manga appeal to a wider cross-demographic audience that blending theshōnenandshōjomanga styles.Hosaka also credited Enix with introducing fantasy into the wider mainstream market, and as a pioneer of publishers directly investing in and having creative input into anime adaptations of their work. References Notes External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Chrono_Trigger (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93967220>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Square Enix Square Enix Holdings Co., Ltd.is a Japanesemultinationalholding company,video game publisherand entertainment conglomerate. It releasesrole-playing gamefranchises, such asFinal FantasyandDragon Quest, among numerous others. Outside of video game publishing and development, it is also in the business ofmerchandise,arcade facilities, andmangapublication under itsGangan Comicsbrand. The originalSquare Enix Co., Ltd.was formed in April 2003 from amergerbetweenSquareandEnix, with the latter as the surviving company. Each share of Square'scommon stockwasexchangedfor 0.85 shares of Enix's common stock. At the time, 80% of Square Enix staff were made up of former Square employees. As part of the merger, former SquarepresidentYoichi Wadawas appointed the president of the new corporation, while former Enix president Keiji Honda was named vice president. Yasuhiro Fukushima, the largest shareholder of the combined corporation and founder of Enix, becamechairman. In October 2008, Square Enix conducted a", "Enix conducted a company split between its corporate business and video game operations, reorganizing itself as the holding company Square Enix Holdings Co., Ltd., while its internally domestic video game operations were formed under the subsidiary Square Enix Co., Ltd. The group operates American, Chinese and European branches, based inLos Angeles,Beijing,Paris,HamburgandLondonrespectively. Several of Square Enix's franchises have sold over 10 million copies worldwide after 2020, withFinal Fantasyselling 173 million,Dragon Questselling 85 million, andKingdom Heartsshipping 36 million.In 2005, Square Enix acquired arcade corporationTaito. In 2009, Square Enix acquiredEidos plc, the parent company of British game publisherEidos Interactive, which was then absorbed into its European branch. Square Enix is headquartered at the Shinjuku Eastside Square Building inShinjuku,Tokyo, along with a second office atOsaka. It has over 5,000 employees worldwide through its base operations and subsidiaries. Corporate", "Corporate history Origins and pre-merger (1975–2003) Enix (1975–2003) Enix was founded on September 22, 1975, as Eidansha Boshu Service Center by Japanese architect-turned-entrepreneur Yasuhiro Fukushima.Enix focused on publishing games, often by companies who exclusively partnered with the company. In the 1980s, in a partnership with developersChunsoft, the company began publishing theDragon Questseries of console games. Key members of the developer's staff consisted of directorKoichi Nakamura, writerYuji Horii, artistAkira Toriyama, and composerKoichi Sugiyama, among others.The first game,Dragon Warrior, in the Famicom-based RPG series, was released in 1986 and would eventually sell 1.5 million copies in Japan, establishingDragon Questas the company's most profitable franchise.Despite the announcement that Enix's long-time competitor Square would develop exclusively forPlayStation, Enix announced in January 1997 that it would release games for bothNintendoandSonyconsoles.This caused a significant rise in", "significant rise in stock for both Enix and Sony.By November 1999, Enix was listed in theTokyo Stock Exchange's first section, indicating it as a \"large company\". Square (1983–2003) Square was started in October 1983 byMasafumi Miyamotoas a computer game software division of Den-Yu-Sha, apower lineconstruction company owned by his father. While at the time, game development was usually conducted —by only one programmer, Miyamoto believed that it would be more efficient to have graphic designers, programmers and professional story writers working together. In September 1986, the division was spun off into an independent company led by Miyamoto, officially named Square Co., Ltd.After releasing several unsuccessful games for theFamicom, Square relocated toUeno, Tokyoin 1987 and developed arole-playing video gametitledFinal Fantasy, which was inspired byEnix's success in the genre with the 1986Dragon Quest.Final Fantasywas a success with over 400,000 copies sold, and it became Square's leading franchise,", "leading franchise, spawning dozens of games in a series that continues to the present. Buoyed by the success of theirFinal Fantasyfranchise, Square developed notable games and franchises such asChrono,Mana,Kingdom Hearts(in collaboration withThe Walt Disney Company), andSuper Mario RPG(under the guidance ofSuper MariocreatorShigeru Miyamoto).By late 1994 they had developed a reputation as a producer of high-quality role-playing video games.Square was one of the many companies that had planned to develop and publish their games for theNintendo 64, but with the cheaper costs associated with developing games on CD-based consoles such as theSega Saturnand theSony PlayStation, Square decided to develop titles for the latter system.Final Fantasy VIIwas one of these games, and it sold 9.8 million copies, making it the second-best-selling game for the PlayStation. Merger (2003) A merger between Square and Enix was considered since at least 2000; the financial failure in 2001 of Square's first movie,Final Fantasy:", "Fantasy: The Spirits Within, made Enix reluctant to proceed while Square was losing money.With the company facing its second year of financial losses, Square approached Sony for a capital injection, and on October 8, 2001, Sony purchased an 18.6% stake in Square.Following the success of bothFinal Fantasy XandKingdom Hearts, the company's finances stabilized, and it recorded the highest operating margin in its history in the fiscal year 2002.It was announced on November 25, 2002, that Square and Enix's previous plans to merge were to officially proceed, intending to decrease development costs and to compete with foreign developers.As described by Square's president and CEO Yoichi Wada: \"Square has also fully recovered, meaning this merger is occurring at a time when both companies are at their height.\" Some shareholders expressed concerns about the merger, notably Miyamoto (the founder and largest shareholder of Square), who would find himself holding a significantly smaller percentage of the combined", "of the combined companies.Other criticism came from Takashi Oya of Deutsche Securities, who expressed doubts about the benefits of such a merger: \"Enix outsources game development and has few in-house creators, while Square does everything by itself. The combination of the two provides no negative factors but would bring little in the way of operational synergies.\"Miyamoto's concerns were eventually resolved by altering the exchange ratio of the merger so that each Square share would be exchanged for 0.85 Enix shares rather than 0.81 shares, and the merger was greenlit.The merger was set for April 1, 2003, on which date the newly merged entity Square Enix came into being.At the time of the merger, 80% of Square Enix staff were made up of former Square employees.As part of the merger, former Square president Yoichi Wada was appointed the president of the new corporation, while former Enix president Keiji Honda became its vice president.The founder of Enix and the largestshareholderof the newly combined", "the newly combined corporation, Yasuhiro Fukushima, was made its honorary chairman. As a result of the merger, Enix was the surviving company and Square Co., Ltd. was dissolved.In July of that year, the Square Enix headquarters were moved to Yoyogi, Shibuya, Tokyo, to help combine the two companies. Post-merger and acquisitions (2003–2013) To strengthen its wireless market, Square Enix acquired mobile application developer UIEvolution in March 2004, which was sold in December 2007, and the company instead founded its own Square Enix MobileStudio in January 2008 to focus on mobile products.In January 2005, Square Enix founded Square Enix China, expanding their interests in the People's Republic of China. In September 2005, Square Enix bought the gaming developer and publisherTaito, renowned for their arcade hits such asSpace Invadersand theBubble Bobbleseries; Taito's home and portable console games divisions were merged into Square Enix itself by March 2010.In August 2008, Square Enix made plans for a", "made plans for a similar expansion by way of a friendly takeover of video game developerTecmoby purchasing shares at a 30 percent premium, but Tecmo rejected the proposed takeover.Tecmo would later merge withKoeiin April 2009 to formKoei Tecmo. In April 2007, Square Enix Ltd. CEO John Yamamoto also became CEO of Square Enix, Inc.In 2008–2009, Square Enix was reportedly working withGrinon aFinal Fantasyspin-off codenamedFortress.The project was allegedly canceled by Square Enix after introducing seemingly impossible milestones and without payments made, resulting in Grin declaring bankruptcy and its co-founders blaming Square Enix for being \"betrayed\". In February 2009, Square Enix announced a takeover deal forEidos(formerly SCi Entertainment), theholding companyforEidos Interactive. The UK-based publisher's assets includeTomb Raider,Hitman,Deus Ex,Thief, andLegacy of Kainfranchises, along with subsidiary development studios Crystal Dynamics, Eidos-Montréal andIO Interactivethat developed the games.The", "the games.The acquisition of Eidos was completed in April 2009, and in November it was merged with Square Enix's European publishing organization, business unitSquare Enix Europe.Eidos' US operations were merged with Square Enix Incorporated.In April 2010, a new Japanese label for Western games bearingCEROrestrictions calledSquare Enix Extreme Edgeswas announced.In July 2010, Mike Fischer was appointed CEO of Square Enix, Inc.Square Enix founded the mobile development studio Hippos Lab in March 2011andSquare Enix Montréalin 2012.In June 2011,Stainless Gameshad purchased the rights toCarmageddonfrom Square Enix.In July 2011, it was reported that Square Enix closed their Los Angeles Studio.In January 2012, Square Enix North American office could pursue smaller niche, mobile and social media games due to its existing revenue streams.In October 2012, Square Enix was perceived as a \"force in mobile\" games byKotaku. The price of Final Fantasy Dimensions and Demons' Score, $30 and $44 respectively, was criticized.", "was criticized. Restructuring (2013) On March 26, 2013, citing sluggish sales of major Western games, Square Enix announced major restructuring, expected loss of ¥10 billion and resignation of President Yoichi Wada, whom Yosuke Matsuda replaced.Phil Rogers was elected as a new Director, among others.With the restructuring, Square Enix of America CEO Mike Fischer left the company in May, with former Square Enix Europe CEO Phil Rogers becoming CEO of Americas and Europe.Further executive changes at Square Enix Western studios were mentioned in a statement.Square Enix Europe was hit with layoffsand Life PresidentIan Livingstonedeparted from the company in September 2013. It said with the fiscal year report in March 2013, sales ofTomb Raider(2013) andHitman: Absolutionwere weak, despite critical acclaim. The North American sales force was said to be ineffective and price pressure was intense.Matsuda noted the long development time of their important games and said they need to shift to a business model with", "business model with frequent customer interactions, notingKickstarteras an example. Post-restructuring and RPG development (2013–2021) In March 2013, Square Enix India opened in Mumbai; however the office was closed in April 2014 and reopened five years later.As well as Square Enix Latin America in Mexico,which was closed in 2015.A mobile studio called Smileworks was founded in Indonesia in June 2013; however it was closed in January 2015.In 2014,Square Enix Collectivelaunched, an indie developer service provider headed by Phil Elliot.Also in 2014, Square Enix signed astrategic allianceand cooperation with Japanese and French video game companies,Bandai Namco EntertainmentandUbisoft; it has served as the Japanese publisher of video games and crossover productions since 2009. In March 2014, following the success ofBravely Default, Square Enix said it will \"go back to their roots\" and focus on creating content that will appeal to their core audience.Karl Stewart, vice president of strategic marketing at Square", "marketing at Square Enix for North America and Europe, left the company that month.In 2015, Square created a new studio known asTokyo RPG Factoryto develop what was then dubbedProject Setsuna.Around 2015, Square Enix's Western divisions began \"officially working across LA and London\". In January 2017, Norwegian studio Artplant purchased former Eidos franchiseProject I.G.I.On February 21, 2017, the formation of a new studio Studio Istolia was announced. The studio, headed byHideo Baba, would be working on the new RPGProject Prelude Rune.In November 2017, IO Interactive conducted a management buyout from Square Enix and the Hitman IP was transferred to the studio.In September 2018,COOMike Sherlock died, with Square Enix's executive team assuming his immediate responsibilities.In 2018, Square Enix branded their third party publishing divisionSquare Enix External Studios, which is headed by Jon Brooke and Lee Singleton.John Heinecke was appointed asCMOfor Americas and Europe in October 2018. Baba departed the", "Baba departed the studio in early 2019, and shortly after this, Studio Istolia was closed, andProject Prelude Runecancelled following an assessment of the project, with its staff being reassigned to different projects within the company.In 2019, Square Enix opened an Indian office again, now inBangalore,which expanded into publishing mobile games for the Indian market in 2021.In June 2020, Square Enix donated $2.4 million to charities around their Western studios and offices, which were partially raised from sales of its discounted Square Enix Eidos Anthology bundle.In March 2021, Forever Entertainment, a Polish studio, was reported to be working to bring several of Square Enix's properties to modern systems.A new mobile studio called Square Enix London Mobile, working onTomb Raider Reloadedand an unannounced title based onAvatar: The Last Airbenderwith Navigator Games, was announced on 20 October 2021. Divestment of Western studios and business changes (2022–present) On May 1, 2022, Square Enix announced", "Enix announced that it would sell several assets of subsidiarySquare Enix Limitedto Swedish games holding companyEmbracer Groupfor $300 million. This included studiosCrystal Dynamics,Eidos-Montréal, andSquare Enix Montreal, IPsDeus Ex,Legacy of Kain,Thief, andTomb Raiderand rights to \"over 50 games\". Square Enix stated that the sale will further help it in investment intoblockchainand other technologies, and to \"assist the company in adapting to the changes underway in the global business environment by establishing a more efficient allocation of resources\". Square Enix also stated that it would retain theLife Is Strange,Outriders, andJust Causefranchises.However, during the Japanese publisher's full-year financial results briefing on May 13, president Yosuke Matsuda clarified the past statement and said the money from the sale will be used to strengthen the company's core games business.On July 25, 2022, Square Enix launched the English version ofManga Up!.The acquisition was closed by August 26, 2022, with", "26, 2022, with the assets being held under CDE Entertainment which is headed from London by Phil Rogers, former CEO of Square Enix Americas and Europe. In the company's financial statement for the following quarter, released in September 2022, Matsuda said they were moving away from outright owning studios due to rising costs of development, but were looking at means to invest in studios such as joint ventures or investment opportunities.In 2022, Square Enix invested in seven business strategic cooperations in theblockchainandcloud servicessuch as Zebedee (United States), Blocklords (Estonia), Cross The Ages (France), Blacknut (France),Animoca Brands-ownedThe Sandbox(Australia and Hong Kong), and Ubitus (Japan). On February 28, 2023, Square Enix Holdings announced that on May 1,Luminous Productionswould reorganize and merge with Square Enix internally, citing the merging of the two would “enhanced the group’s abilities to develop HD games” for the 20th anniversary.On March 3, Square Enix issued a statement", "issued a statement announcing a proposed change to the position of its president and representative director that, if implemented, would result in Yosuke Matsuda stepping down and being succeeded by Takashi Kiryu, who is presently the company's director. The change will become effective upon approval at the company's 43rd annual shareholders' meeting, which is planned for June 2023, and the board meeting which will follow ahead on the 20th anniversary of the merger.Kiryu succeeded on May 18 and was seen as part of theFinal Fantasy XVIlaunch event as one of his first appearances in public. In March 2024, Square Enix announced it would be more selective with the games it develops, resulting in numerous unannounced titles being cancelled. The company lost ¥22.1 billion (approximately $140 million) due to \"content abandonment.\" Corporate structure On October 1, 2008, Square Enix transformed into aholding companyand was renamed Square Enix Holdings. At the same time, the development and publishing businesses were", "businesses were transferred to a spin-off company named Square Enix, sharing the same corporate leadership and offices with the holding company.The primary offices for Square Enix and Square Enix Holdings are in the Shinjuku Eastside Square Building inShinjuku, Tokyo. Currently, focusing in different industries, the company is divided as the following: Five Creative Business Units for game development and production in Square Enix Co., Ltd; a dedicated publishing business unit for manga and books publishing; a digital storefront business division for their e-Store and merchandise production; their media and arts business unit for music production, concert and live performance coordination, and visual contents production (live action, animation, and CG for TV, movies, and games); and a blockchain business division. Development organization After the merger in 2003, Square Enix's development department was organized into eight Square and two Enix Product Development Divisions(開発事業部,kaihatsu jigyōbu), each", "jigyōbu), each focused on different groupings of games.The divisions were spread around different offices; for example, Product Development Division 5 had offices both in Osaka and Tokyo. According to Yoichi Wada, the development department was reorganized away from the Product Development Division System by March 2007 into a project-based system.Until 2013, the teams in charge of theFinal FantasyandKingdom Heartsseries were still collectively referred to as the 1st Production Department(第1制作部,dai-ichi seisakubu).The 1st Production Department was formed from the fall 2010 combination of Square Enix's Tokyo and Osaka development studios, withShinji Hashimotoas its corporate executive. In December 2013, Square Enix's development was restructured into 12 Business Divisions. In 2017, Business Division 9 was merged into Business Division 8, while Business Divisions 11 and 12 merged to become the new Business Division 9, while a new Business Division 11 was created with some staff from Business Division 6. In", "Division 6. In 2019, Square Enix announced that their eleven Business Divisions would be consolidated into four units by 2020 with a new title, Creative Business Unit.Naoki Yoshida, who was previously the head of Business Division 5, became the head of Creative Business Unit III.Creative Business Unit III was renamed Creative Studio III in May 2024.The current structure for the development and production division called Creative Business Unit is as follows: In those five divisions, most of the development is done outside of Square Enix under contracted development companies, while Creative Business Unit produces and oversee the title done by those developers. All of the internal development done by Creative Business Units are for titles such as mainline Dragon Quest, Final Fantasy and Kingdom Hearts, while their mid-size and smaller titles have the development outsourced to other companies for most of the cases such as \"Team Asano\" led byTomoya Asano, a team of producers from Creative Business II who", "Business II who hadArtdinkand Netchubiyori developingTriangle Strategyor Historia developing the remake ofLive A Live, while the team was mainly present to oversee, produce, concept, while the studios do the bulk of the project under their direction. As of February 2024Square Enix has stated that they will cease using outsourced studios for assistance with their titles. Their mid tier games like 2D HD games, mana series and SaGa series will now be made entirely in house. Business model Thebusiness modelof post-merger Square Enix is centered on the idea of \"polymorphic content\", which consists of developing franchises on multiple potential media rather than being restricted by a single gaming platform.An early example of this strategy is Enix'sFullmetal Alchemistmanga series, which has been adapted into two anime television series, five movies (two animated, three live-action), and several novels and video games.Other polymorphic projects include theCompilation of Final Fantasy VII,Code Age,World of", "Age,World of Mana,Ivalice Alliance, andFabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasysubseries.According toYoichi Wada, \"It's very difficult to hit the jackpot, as it were. Once we've hit it, we have to get all the juice possible out of it\".Similar to Sony'sGreatest Hitsprogram, Square Enix also re-releases their best-selling games at a reduced price under a label designated \"Ultimate Hits\". The standard game design model Square Enix employs is to establish the plot, characters, and art of the game first.Battle systems, field maps, andcutscenesare created next.According toTaku Murata, this process became the company's model for development after the success of Square'sFinal Fantasy VIIin 1997.The team size forFinal Fantasy XIIIpeaked at 180 artists, 30 programmers, and 36 game designers, but analysis and restructuring were done to outsource large-scale development in the future. Business Video games and franchises Square Enix's primary concentration is on video gaming, and it is primarily known for its role-playing", "its role-playing video game franchises.Of its properties, theFinal Fantasyfranchise, begun in 1987, is the best-selling, with a total worldwide sales of over 173 million units as of March 2022. TheDragon Questfranchise, begun in 1986, is also the best-selling; it is considered one of the most popular game series in Japan and new installments regularly outsell other games at the times of their release, with a total worldwide sale of over 85 million units. More recently, theKingdom Heartsseries (developed in collaboration withDisneybeginning in 2002) has become popular, with 36 million units shipped as of March 2022. Other popular series developed by Square Enix include theSaGaseries with nearly 10 million copies sold since 1989, theManaseries with over 6 million sales since 1991, and theChronoseries with over 5 million sold since 1995.In addition to their sales numbers, many Square Enix games have been highly reviewed; 27 Square Enix games were included inFamitsumagazine's 2006 \"Top 100 Games Ever\", with 7 in", "Ever\", with 7 in the top 10 andFinal Fantasy Xclaiming the number 1 position.The company also wonIGN's award for Best Developer of 2006 for the PlayStation 2. Square and Enix initially targeted Nintendo home consoles with their games, but Square Enix currently develops games for a wide variety of systems.In theseventh generation of video game consoles, Square Enix released new installments from its major series across all three major systems, includingFinal Fantasy XIIIon both thePlayStation 3andXbox 360andDragon Quest Xon theWii.Square Enix has also developed titles forhandheld game consoles, including theGame Boy Advance,Nintendo DS,PlayStation Portable,Nintendo 3DS, andPlayStation Vita.Also, they have published games forMicrosoft Windows-based personal computers and various models of mobile phones and modern smartphones.Square Enix mobile phone games became available in 2004 on theVodafonenetwork in some European countries, including Germany, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Italy. Before its launch,", "Before its launch, Michihiro Sasaki, senior vice president of Square Enix, spoke about thePlayStation 3, saying, \"We don't want the PlayStation 3 to be the overwhelming loser, so we want to support them, but we don't want them to be the overwhelming winner either, so we can't support them too much.\"Square Enix continued to reiterate their devotion to multi-platform publishing in 2007, promising more support for the North American and European gaming markets where console pluralism is generally more prevalent than in Japan.Their interest in multi-platform development was made evident in 2008 when the previouslyPlayStation 3-exclusive gameFinal Fantasy XIIIwas announced for release on theXbox 360. In 2008, Square Enix released their first game for theiPod,Song Summoner: The Unsung Heroes.Square Enix made a new brand for younger children gaming that same year, known as Pure Dreams.Pure Dreams' first two games,Snoopy DS: Let's Go Meet Snoopy and His Friends!andPingu's Wonderful Carnival, were released that", "were released that year.After acquiring Eidos in 2009, Square Enix combined it with its European publishing wing to createSquare Enix Europe, which continues to publish Eidos franchises such asTomb Raider(88 million sales),Deus Ex(4 million),ThiefandLegacy of Kain(3.5 million).Square Enix has also served as the Japanese publisher forActivision BlizzardandUbisoftgames since 2009.In May 2022, Square Enix sold several assets of Square Enix Europe$300 millionto Embracer Group, including former Eidos Interactive franchises such asTomb Raider,Deus Ex,Thief,Legacy of Kainand more than 50 others. Square Enix owned franchises and games include: Game engines In 2004, Square Enix began to work on a \"common 3D format\" that would allow the entire company to develop titles without being restricted to a specific platform: this led to the creation of agame enginenamedCrystal Tools, which is compatible with thePlayStation 3, theXbox 360,Windows-basedPCs, and to some extent theWii.It was first shown off at a tech demo shown", "a tech demo shown off at E3 2005 and was later used forFinal Fantasy XIIIbased on the demo's reception.Crystal Tools was also used forFinal Fantasy Versus XIIIbefore its re-branding asFinal Fantasy XVand its shift onto next-gen platforms.Refinement of the engine continued through the development ofFinal Fantasy XIII-2, and it underwent a major overhaul forLightning Returns: Final Fantasy XIII.Since that release, no new titles have been announced using Crystal Tools, and it is believed that the development of the engine has halted permanently. Luminous Enginewas originally intended foreighth-generation consolesand unveiled at E3 2012 through a tech demo titledAgni's Philosophy.The first major console title to be developed with Luminous Engine wasFinal Fantasy XV;the engine's development was done in tandem with the game, and the game's development helped the programming team optimize the engine. In addition to Luminous Engine and custom engines made for individual games and platforms before and since Square", "and since Square Enix often uses other companies' engines and programming languages for their video game properties.Epic Games'Unreal Engine 3was used for games such asThe Last Remnant, and more recently,Unreal Engine 4has been used for projects includingDragon Quest XI,Kingdom Hearts III, and the most recentFinal Fantasy VII Remake.Unityhas also been used internally for titles includingI Am Setsuna,Lost Sphear, andSaGa: Scarlet Grace. TheSquirrellanguage had also been used for theWiiWaretitleFinal Fantasy Crystal Chronicles: My Life as a King. Online gaming Before the merger, Enix published its first online gameCross Gatein Japan, mainland China, and Taiwan in 2001, and Square releasedFinal Fantasy XIin Japan in 2002 for the PlayStation 2 and later the personal computer.With the huge success ofFinal Fantasy XI, the game was ported to theXbox 360two years later and was the firstMMORPGon the console.All versions of the game usedPlayOnline, a cross-platform internet gaming platform and internet service", "internet service developed by Square Enix.The platform was used as the online service for many games Square Enix developed and published throughout the decade.Due to the success of theirMMORPG, Square Enix began a new project calledFantasy Earth: The Ring of Dominion.GamePot, a Japanese game portal, received the license to publishFantasy Earthin Japan, and it was released in Japan as \"Fantasy Earth ZERO.\"In 2006, however, Square Enix dropped theFantasy Earth Zeroproject and sold it to GamePot.Square Enix releasedConcerto Gate, the sequel toCross Gate, in 2007. A next-gen MMORPG code namedRapturewas developed by theFinal Fantasy XIteam using the company'sCrystal Toolsengine.It was unveiled atE3 2009asFinal Fantasy XIVfor PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows and would be released on September 30, 2010.Dragon Quest Xwas announced in September 2011 as an MMORPG being developed forNintendo'sWiiandWii Uconsoles, which released on August 2, 2012, and March 30, 2013, respectively.LikeXIV, it used Crystal Tools.", "used Crystal Tools. Square Enix also made browser games and Facebook games, likeLegend World,Chocobo's Crystal TowerandKnights of the Crystals, and online games forYahoo! Japan, such asMonster x Dragon,Sengoku Ixa,Bravely Default: Praying Brage,Star Galaxy, andCrystal Conquest. Cloud gaming In 2013, Dragon Quest X was brought to iOS and Android in Japan usingNTT DoCoMoas the release platform and Ubitus for the streaming technology.In 2014, it was also brought to 3DS in Japan using Ubitus. On May 8, 2012, Square Enix announced a collaboration withBigpoint Gamesto create a free-to-playCloud gamingplatform that \"throws players into 'limitless game worlds' directly through their web browser\".The service was launched under the nameCoreOnlinein August 2012.Stating \"limited commercial take-up\", the service was cancelled on November 29, 2013. In September 2014, a cloud gaming company called Shinra Technologies (previously Project Flare) was created; however, it was closed in January 2016.On October 9, 2014, Square", "9, 2014, Square Enix launched another online game service in Japan calledDive In, which allowed players to stream console games to theiriOSorAndroiddevices.The service was monetized by the amount of time the players spent playing, with each game offered for free for thirty minutes.The service was cancelled on September 13, 2015.Some Square Enix games are available in Japan on the G-cluster streaming service. Arcade facilities With the merger ofTaitobusinesses into Square Enix, the company gained possession of Taito's arcade infrastructure and facilities and entered the arcade market in 2005.In 2010 Taito revealedNESiCAxLive, a cloud-based system of storing games and changing them through the internet instead of acquiring physical copies.This system was added to its many arcade gaming locations.The company continues to cater to the arcade audience in Japan with arcade-only titles, with game producers in 2015 stating that Square Enix has a loyal fan base that values the arcade gaming experience.In November", "November 2019, Square Enix announced a \"Ninja Tower Tokyo\" theme park by its newly establishedLive Interactive Worksdivision. Film The company has made three forays into the film industry. The first,Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within(2001), was produced by Square subsidiarySquare Picturesbefore the Enix merger; Square Pictures is now a consolidated subsidiary of Square Enix.Its box-office failure caused Enix to delay the merger, which was already under consideration before the creation of the film until Square became profitable once again.In 2005, Square Enix releasedFinal Fantasy VII Advent Children, aCGI-animation film based on thePlayStationgameFinal Fantasy VII, set two years after the events of the game.ADeus Exfilm was in pre-production in 2012 and, as of 2014, was undergoing rewrites.In 2016 Square Enix revealed a film calledKingsglaive: Final Fantasy XVbased in the world ofFinal Fantasy XVand a new web series released on YouTube andCrunchyrollentitledBrotherhood: Final Fantasy XV. Publishing The", "XV. Publishing The company has amangapublishing division in Japan (originally from Enix) calledGangan Comics, which publishes content for the Japanese market only.In 2010, however, Square Enix launched a digital manga store for North American audiences via its Members services, which contains several notable series published in Gangan anthologies.Titles published by Gangan Comics includeFullmetal Alchemist,Soul Eater, and many others.Other titles include manga adaptations of various Square Enix games, likeDragon Quest,Kingdom HeartsandStar Ocean.Some of these titles have also been adapted intoanimeseries.Fullmetal Alchemistis the most successful title of Square Enix's manga branch, with more than 64 million volumes sold worldwide.It is licensed in North America byViz Media, while its two anime adaptations were licensed byFunimation(now known asCrunchyroll) in North America.Starting in Q4 2019, Square Enix began publishing some of its manga series in English. Merchandise Square Enix has created merchandise", "created merchandise for virtually all of their video game franchises, many items are available only in Japan. Starting in 2000, Square Enix's former online gaming portalPlayOnlinesold merchandise from game franchises includingParasite Eve,Vagrant Story,Chocobo Racing,Front Mission,Chrono Cross, andFinal Fantasy.Mascotsfrom game franchises are a popular focus for merchandise, such as theChocobofromFinal Fantasy, which has been seen as arubber duck,a plush baby Chocobo,and on coffeemugs.Square Enix also designed a Chocobocharacter costumefor the release ofChocobo Tales.TheSlimecharacter fromDragon Questhas also been frequently used in Square Enix merchandise, especially in Japan.On the Japanese Square Enix shopping website, there is also a Slime-focused section called \"Smile Slime\".Slime merchandise includesplushtoys,game controllers, figurines, and several board games, including one titledDragon Quest Slime Racing.In Japan, pork-filled steam buns shaped like slimes have been sold in 2010.ForDragon Quest's25th", "Quest's25th anniversary, special items were sold, includingbusiness cards, tote bags, and crystal figurines.Rabites from theManaserieshave appeared in several pieces of Square Enix merchandise, including plush dolls, cushions, lighters, mousepads, straps, telephone cards, and T-shirts.Square Enix has also made merchandise for third party series, including figuresMass EffectandHaloin 2012.Beginning in 2012, it operates shops called \"Square Enix Cafe\" in Tokyo, Osaka and Shanghai, which display and sell merchandise, as well as serve café food. Subsidiaries Former subsidiaries Notes References External links", "Enix Enix Corporationwas a Japanese multimedia publisher who handled and oversawvideo games,manga, guidebooks, and merchandise. It was founded in 1975 by Yasuhiro Fukushima as Eidansha Boshu Service Center, initially as a tabloid publisher and later attempting to branch into real estate management. Beginning in 1982, Enix began publishing video games. Three notable early collaborators were designersYuji HoriiandKoichi Nakamura, and composerKoichi Sugiyama. Horii, Nakamura and Sugiyama would all work on the 1986role playing video game(RPG)Dragon Questfor theFamily Computer; one of the earliest successful RPGs for consoles, it spawned afranchise of the same namewhich remains Enix's best-known product. They would gain notoriety as a publisher for several studios and their properties includingtri-Ace,Tose,ChunsoftandQuintet. It also founded theGangan Comicsimprint family, and created international subsidiaries or partnerships related to technology development, publishing and education. In the early 2000s, due to", "early 2000s, due to rising game development costs, Enix entered discussions about merging withSquare, a rival company known for theFinal Fantasyfranchise. The merger eventually went ahead in 2003 formingSquare Enix, with Enix as the surviving corporate entity. History 1975-1989: Origins,Dragon Quest Enix was founded under the name Eidansha Boshu Service Center on September 22, 1975 by Yasuhiro Fukushima.An architect-turned-business entrepreneur, Fukushima initially founded Eidansha as a publishing company focused on advertisingtabloidsfor real estate.: 77–81On February 5, 1980, Eidansha Boshu created a wholly owned subsidiary Eidansya Fudousan for the purpose of specializing in real estate trading and brokerage, being renamed Eidansha Systems the following year.It was based inShinjuku,Tokyo.During 1982 Eidansha Boshu made an unsuccessful attempt to become a nationwide chain. Fukushima decided to invest his capital into the emerging video game market; during this period on August 30, Eidansya Fudousan was", "Fudousan was renamed Enix Corporation.: 77–81The name Enix was a play on both the mythologicalPhoenix, and the early computerENIAC.: 77–81 Seeking game proposals, Fukushima organized a competition dubbed the \"Enix Game Hobby Program Contest\" in both computer and manga magazines, offering a prize of¥1 million (US$10,000) for a game prototype which could be published by Enix.: 77–81Among the winners wereYuji Horii, then a writer forWeekly Shōnen Jump, with the sports gameLove Match Tennis;designerKoichi Nakamurawith the puzzle gameDoor Door;and self-trained programmerKazuro Moritawith thesimulation video gameMorita's Battlefield.During the next few years, Enix would publish titles for both the PC market and the fledgling Japanese console market.: 77–81Using his royalties, Morita established the developer Random House and developed several PC and console titles including theMorita's Shogiseries.In collaboration with Nakamura's new companyChunsoft, Horii notably created theadventure gameThe Portopia Serial", "Portopia Serial Murder Case(1983), then during discussions around a port of the game to the Famicom (Nintendo Entertainment System) Horii and Nakamura decided to develop arole-playing video game(RPG) for the platform.: 84–89 The RPG, titledDragon Quest, began development in 1985.: 84–89Horii and Nakamura acted as designers, composerKoichi Sugiyamacreated the score for the game, andDragon BallartistAkira Toriyamawas brought on board for art design.: 84–89While meeting with initially slow sales,Dragon Questbecame a critical and commercial success, selling over one million copies in Japan.: 84–89The success ofDragon Questspawned afranchise of the same name, which would become Enix's highest-grossing property.Horii, Sugiyama and Toriyama remained mainstays with the series.Chunsoft developed the next fiveDragon Questtitles.While theDragon Questseries proved successful, Enix continued publishing PC titles to maintain financial stability.: 77–81The company also began selling merchandise themed afterDragon Questin", "afterDragon Questin 1988 with character statues and toys, expanding to board and card games the following year. In October 1983, Enix co-founded Konishiroku Enix withKonishiroku Photo Company, later purchasing all shares in January 1989. A second subsidiary, Enix Products, was established in March 1988 for the sale of publications and character merchandise. Both subsidiaries along with the original Enix were merged into their parent company Eidansha Boshu in April 1989, which renamed itself Enix Corporation. 1990-1999: Publishing and collaborations In 1990, Enix published their first third-party console titleActRaiserfor the Super Famicom. The game was developed byQuintet, a Japanese independent developer made up of formerNihon Falcomstaff.Enix acted as publisher for all of Quintet's subsequent Super Famicom games in Japan.Enix had begun publishing guidebooks for theDragon Questseries,between 1988 and 1991 the company decided to make print publication their second major business section alongside video game", "video game publishing. This was to ensure their income did not entirely depend onDragon Quest.This eventually led to Enix launching theGangan Comicsimprint family, beginning withMonthly Shonen GanganMarch 1991.Following its first publication withMonthly Shonen Ganganin March 1991, several other manga imprints with magazine andtankōboneditions were created for different genres includingMonthly G-FantasyandMonthly Shonen Gag-OU.The company also expanded their merchandise range to include other notable series includingMarioandPokémon.In February 1991, Enix registered with the Japan Securities Dealers Association to offer shares for public purchase. FollowingDragon Quest V(1992), Chunsoft left as main series developer, wanting to create their own titles.In the years following, Chunsoft continued collaborating with Enix on spin-offDragon Questtitles including early entries in theirMystery Dungeonfranchise.The next two entries were developed byHeartbeat, a company founded by former Chunsoft staff dedicated to", "staff dedicated to developingDragon Questtitles.Heartbeat would handle main series production until going on sabbatical in 2002.From 1994, Enix acted as publisher for Horii'sItadaki Streetseries, taking over the series from ASCII.They also frequently acted as publisher for titles from Tamtam,and created theDragon Quest Monstersspin-off series with developerTose. Enix were initially pitched unsuccessfully byWolf TeamwithTales of Phantasia, which was ultimately published byNamcoin 1995.Enix later acted as publisher forStar Ocean(1996), developed by formerTales of Phantasiastaff members who split from Wolf Team to formtri-Ace.In partnership with Enix, tri-Ace developed three furtherStar Oceantitles,and theNorse mythology-inspired RPGValkyrie Profile(1999).Enix also notably helped publish two Western console titles;Riven(1998) andTomb Raider III(1999).In August 1996, Enix moved from Shinjuku to offices inShibuya.In contrast to other companies at the time, which were leaving behind cartridge-basedNintendo 64for", "64for the disc-basedPlayStation, Enix announced in 1997 that they would publish titles for both platforms.They later stated their intention to develop for theGameCube.In August 1999, Enix was listed onTokyo Stock Exchange's first section, which includes the largest companies on the exchange. 2000-2003: Internal troubles, merger Beginning in the early 2000s, Enix's manga publishing division went through a period of turbulence as several editors expressed dissatisfaction with Enix's focus onDragon Questmedia and theshōnendemographic, a growing lack of creative freedom, and rising tensions between authors and editors.Editor Yoshihiro Hosaka and a number of otherGanganassociates foundedMag Gardenin 2001, which became a market rival through theMonthly Comic Blademagazine.Mag Garden's foundation triggered a mass departure of creatives and legal battles with Enix over manga copyright ownership. The issues were resolved in 2003 when Enix agreed to partially invest in Mag Garden.The manga division's troubles were", "troubles were lessened with the beginning ofFullmetal Alchemist, which proved highly popular.Enix also suffered from financial losses due to the delayed releases ofDragon Quest VII(2000) andDragon Quest Monsters 2(2001).Some notable titles begun or announced during the 2000s werePlayStation 2titles in theGrandiaseries,theMMORPGFantasy Earth: The Ring of DominionfromPuraguru,and theaction role-playing gameDrakengardfromCavia. In 2001, citing the rising cost of game development, Enix expressed interest in merging with eitherSquareorNamco.They ultimately began talks with Square, a market rival and developer of theFinal Fantasyfranchise. Talks were temporarily halted when Square suffered financially due to the failure of the 2001 feature filmFinal Fantasy: The Spirits Within.Following the commercial success ofFinal Fantasy X(2001) andKingdom Hearts(2002), talks went ahead on the merger with Enix as Square's finances stabilized; Square's then-CEOYoichi Wadadescribed it as a merger of two companies \"at their", "companies \"at their height\".Despite this, some shareholders had doubts about the merger, notably Square's founderMasafumi Miyamoto, who would find himself holding significantly less shares and having a smaller controlling stake if the deal went ahead as initially planned.Miyamoto's issue was resolved by altering the exchange ratio to one Square share for 0.85 Enix shares, and the merger was greenlit.The merger resulted inSquare Enixbeing formed on April 1, 2003, with Enix as the surviving corporate entity and Square dissolving its departments and subsidiaries into the new company.Enix's last two published titles wereStar Ocean: Till the End of TimeandDragon Quest Monsters: Caravan Heart, both in 2003.Fantasy EarthandDrakengardwere published after the merger. Company structure and affiliates During reports on the merger with Square, Takashi Oya of Deutsche Securities described Enix as \" game development and few in-house creators\" compared to Square's focus on internal development.At the time of the merger,", "time of the merger, Enix had two development divisions; one managing theDragon Questseries led by Yuu Miyake, and a supervisory division made up of producers.Speaking in 1997, Quintet staff described their company as a \"subcontractor\" for Enix, being involved in its projects even when not acting as a publisher.Horii notably created Armor Project as a company to overseeDragon Questfor Enix, with him comparing the relationship to that between an editor and an artist. Armor Project survived as an associate of Square Enix, growing into a larger entity over the years. Enix Webstar Network Technology (Beijing) Co., Ltd. was a company formed between Enix and Mauritius Webstar Inc. in 2001 to develop online and mobile phone games in China and, later, other parts of Asia. The subsidiary was carried over after the merger between Square and Enix, but was dissolved in 2005 after the establishment of Square Enix China.Digital Entertainment Academy Co., Ltd. was established as a partially owned subsidiary in", "owned subsidiary in 1991.Originally called Toshima Ku Hokkaido University, the school was founded to teachgame development. Enix America Corporation was the corporation's firstAmericanlocalization subsidiary based inRedmond, Washington.It was organized after the release ofDragon WarriorbyNintendo of Americain 1989. The subsidiary came into existence in 1990, but closed in November 1995 when the parent company decided to no longer release products in North Americadue to poor sales.One of the games they published,King Arthur & the Knights of Justice, was Enix's first and only North America exclusive game.Enix America, Inc., Enix's last American localization subsidiary, was organized in 1999,and was based inSeattle,Washington.Paul Handelman, who was part of Enix America Corporation's staff, returned to lead Enix America, Inc. as president. The corporation was in existence until 2003, ceasing to exist after the merger with Square Co., Ltd.Several of Enix's localized games were published by other companies", "by other companies includingNintendoandSony Computer Entertainment;the last wasDragon Warrior Monsters, which was through a publishing deal withEidos. Legacy TheDragon Questseries became one of the most popular video game series in Japan, spinning off into a multimedia franchise, and entering mainstream popular culture in the country.Several publications have cited the original game as a pioneer for the genre on home consoles, influencing the development of other popular series.Enix'sGangan Comicsimprint, in addition to publishing a number of successful series, was credited by critic Tsuyoshi Ito with helping manga appeal to a wider cross-demographic audience that blending theshōnenandshōjomanga styles.Hosaka also credited Enix with introducing fantasy into the wider mainstream market, and as a pioneer of publishers directly investing in and having creative input into anime adaptations of their work. References Notes External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Chrono_Trigger (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93967220>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
What is the name of the home town of the top scorer for the 2018-19 Brisbane Roar Football Club?
Perth.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Brisbane_Roar_FC_season
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Taggart
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Tabular reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Brisbane_Roar_FC_season', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Taggart']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Brisbane_Roar_FC_season", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Taggart" ]
[ "2018–19 Brisbane Roar FC season The2018–19Brisbane Roar FCseasonwas the club's 14th season participating in theA-Leagueand in the FFA Cup for the fifth time. Players Squad information Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Transfers Transfers in Transfers out From youth squad Contract extensions Technical staff Squad statistics Appearances and goals † = Scholarship orNPL/NYL-listed player Pre-season and friendlies WinDrawLoss Friendlies Competitions Overall A-League League table Results summary Source:ultimatealeague.com Results by round Matches WinDrawLoss FFA Cup References External links", "Adam Taggart Adam Jake Taggart(born 2 June 1993) is an Australiansoccerplayer who plays as astrikerforPerth Gloryin theA-League Mencompetition. Taggart has also represented theAustralia national U20 team,Australia national U23 teamandAustralia national team. Taggart has won two golden boot awards in his playing career which is the A-League Golden Boot award, scoring 16 goals in 25 appearances forNewcastle Jetsduring the2013–14 A-Leagueseason and K League Golden Boot award, scoring 20 goals in 33 appearances forSuwon Samsung Bluewingsduring the2019 K League 1season. Club career Perth Glory Taggart made his senior debut in a 1–1 draw withMelbourne Heartin January 2011.He scored his first goal in a loss toGold Coast United, 75 minutes into the game. Newcastle Jets On 2 March 2012, Taggart signed a two-year contract withA-LeagueclubNewcastle Jets.In November 2013, Taggart scored his first professional career hat-trick againstMelbourne Heartwith all three goals scored from outside the 18 yard box. Newcastle would go on and win the match 3–1.After a strong start to the season, Adam had a dry patch with a lack of goals around Christmas, before scoring a brace against the Wanderers to salvage a 2–2 draw.He became a focal point of the Newcastle Jets attack, heading the lineup alongsideEmile Heskey,Joel GriffithsandMichael Bridges.In 2014, Taggart became the second Newcastle player to receive the golden boot of the A-League with 16 goals, after Joel Griffiths in 2008. He was also awarded theA-LeagueYoung Player of the Season Award at the same ceremony. Fulham On 24 June 2014,Fulhamsigned Taggart from Newcastle Jets for an undisclosed fee on a three-year contractbut injury delayed his involvement with the first team by a number of months. Loan to Dundee United On 1 September 2015, Taggart signed forScottish PremiershipclubDundee Unitedon a loan deal until January 2016. Return to Perth Glory On 26 January 2016, Taggart returned toPerth Gloryagain on a permanent deal.However, he was ineligible to play for Perth in the2015–16 A-LeagueunderFIFAregulations preventing players from registering for more than two clubs in a single season.In the first game of the2016–17 season, Taggart started in the number 11 role, scoring twice in the first half. After leading at half time 3–0, the Glory squandered the lead and the final result was a 3–3 draw. Brisbane Roar On 1 May 2018,Brisbane Roarannounced the signing of Taggart as his contract at Perth Glory ended. He signed a contract with Brisbane contracting his services to them for the next two years.On 14 February 2019, Brisbane Roar announced Taggart had come to terms with an Asian club for his transfer. Suwon Samsung Bluewings On 18 February 2019, Taggart was sold to Korean giants,Suwon Samsung Bluewingsfor $150,000.Taggart made his debut on 1 March 2019 in a 2–1 defeat againstUlsan Hyundaiwhere he came on as a substitute at half time scoring in the 63' minute. On 14 August 2019, he was named K League Player of the Month for July. Taggart was almost unplayable in July, scoring seven goals in just six league appearances to shoot to the top of the K-League scoring charts. On 17 August 2019, he scored his first K-League hat-trick againstGangwon FC. Taggart would finish the2019 K-League 1season as the league top goal scorer in his debut season and also winning the2019 Korean FA Cupwith the club. On 26 August 2020, Taggart scored his second hat-trick for the club againstFC Seoulin 3–1 win. Cerezo Osaka On 20 December 2020, Taggart was transferred toJ1 LeagueclubCerezo Osaka. Third spell at Perth Glory On 15 December 2022, Perth Glory announced that Taggart would be returning to the club on a three-and-a-half-year deal. On 11 October 2023, Taggart was named as co-captain along withMark Beeversahead of the2023–24 A-Leagueseason.His fine form throughout the season earned him a returned to the national team after a two years hiatus. At the conclusion of the2023–24 A-Leagueseason, Taggart became the first player in the A-League to win thegolden bootwhilst playing for a team who finished last. International career Taggart represented Australia atU-20level at the2012 AFC U-19 ChampionshipinUnited Arab Emiratesand at the2013 FIFA U-20 World CupinTurkey. Senior Taggart made his debut forAustraliain late 2012, in the second preliminary round of the2013 EAFF East Asian CupagainstHong Kong, coming off the bench in a narrow win.He scored his first two international goals days later in a win overChinese Taipei. In 2013, Taggart played in the2013 EAFF East Asian Cup, scoring a goal in a loss toChina. Taggart was a part of the Socceroos squad for the2014 FIFA World Cup, and played in matches againstNetherlandsandSpain. In March 2024, Taggart returned to the national team after two years earning the called up with his stunning form for Perth Glory scoring 15 goals in 19 appearances in the2023–24 A-Leagueseason. Career statistics Club International Honours Suwon Samsung Bluewings Individual References External links" ]
[ "2018–19 Brisbane Roar FC season The2018–19Brisbane Roar FCseasonwas the club's 14th season participating in theA-Leagueand in the FFA Cup for the fifth time. Players Squad information Note: Flags indicate national team as defined underFIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. Transfers Transfers in Transfers out From youth squad Contract extensions Technical staff Squad statistics Appearances and goals † = Scholarship orNPL/NYL-listed player Pre-season and friendlies WinDrawLoss Friendlies Competitions Overall A-League League table Results summary Source:ultimatealeague.com Results by round Matches WinDrawLoss FFA Cup References External links", "Adam Taggart Adam Jake Taggart(born 2 June 1993) is an Australiansoccerplayer who plays as astrikerforPerth Gloryin theA-League Mencompetition. Taggart has also represented theAustralia national U20 team,Australia national U23 teamandAustralia national team. Taggart has won two golden boot awards in his playing career which is the A-League Golden Boot award, scoring 16 goals in 25 appearances forNewcastle Jetsduring the2013–14 A-Leagueseason and K League Golden Boot award, scoring 20 goals in 33 appearances forSuwon Samsung Bluewingsduring the2019 K League 1season. Club career Perth Glory Taggart made his senior debut in a 1–1 draw withMelbourne Heartin January 2011.He scored his first goal in a loss toGold Coast United, 75 minutes into the game. Newcastle Jets On 2 March 2012, Taggart signed a two-year contract withA-LeagueclubNewcastle Jets.In November 2013, Taggart scored his first professional career hat-trick againstMelbourne Heartwith all three goals scored from outside the 18 yard box. Newcastle would", "Newcastle would go on and win the match 3–1.After a strong start to the season, Adam had a dry patch with a lack of goals around Christmas, before scoring a brace against the Wanderers to salvage a 2–2 draw.He became a focal point of the Newcastle Jets attack, heading the lineup alongsideEmile Heskey,Joel GriffithsandMichael Bridges.In 2014, Taggart became the second Newcastle player to receive the golden boot of the A-League with 16 goals, after Joel Griffiths in 2008. He was also awarded theA-LeagueYoung Player of the Season Award at the same ceremony. Fulham On 24 June 2014,Fulhamsigned Taggart from Newcastle Jets for an undisclosed fee on a three-year contractbut injury delayed his involvement with the first team by a number of months. Loan to Dundee United On 1 September 2015, Taggart signed forScottish PremiershipclubDundee Unitedon a loan deal until January 2016. Return to Perth Glory On 26 January 2016, Taggart returned toPerth Gloryagain on a permanent deal.However, he was ineligible to play for", "to play for Perth in the2015–16 A-LeagueunderFIFAregulations preventing players from registering for more than two clubs in a single season.In the first game of the2016–17 season, Taggart started in the number 11 role, scoring twice in the first half. After leading at half time 3–0, the Glory squandered the lead and the final result was a 3–3 draw. Brisbane Roar On 1 May 2018,Brisbane Roarannounced the signing of Taggart as his contract at Perth Glory ended. He signed a contract with Brisbane contracting his services to them for the next two years.On 14 February 2019, Brisbane Roar announced Taggart had come to terms with an Asian club for his transfer. Suwon Samsung Bluewings On 18 February 2019, Taggart was sold to Korean giants,Suwon Samsung Bluewingsfor $150,000.Taggart made his debut on 1 March 2019 in a 2–1 defeat againstUlsan Hyundaiwhere he came on as a substitute at half time scoring in the 63' minute. On 14 August 2019, he was named K League Player of the Month for July. Taggart was almost", "Taggart was almost unplayable in July, scoring seven goals in just six league appearances to shoot to the top of the K-League scoring charts. On 17 August 2019, he scored his first K-League hat-trick againstGangwon FC. Taggart would finish the2019 K-League 1season as the league top goal scorer in his debut season and also winning the2019 Korean FA Cupwith the club. On 26 August 2020, Taggart scored his second hat-trick for the club againstFC Seoulin 3–1 win. Cerezo Osaka On 20 December 2020, Taggart was transferred toJ1 LeagueclubCerezo Osaka. Third spell at Perth Glory On 15 December 2022, Perth Glory announced that Taggart would be returning to the club on a three-and-a-half-year deal. On 11 October 2023, Taggart was named as co-captain along withMark Beeversahead of the2023–24 A-Leagueseason.His fine form throughout the season earned him a returned to the national team after a two years hiatus. At the conclusion of the2023–24 A-Leagueseason, Taggart became the first player in the A-League to win thegolden", "to win thegolden bootwhilst playing for a team who finished last. International career Taggart represented Australia atU-20level at the2012 AFC U-19 ChampionshipinUnited Arab Emiratesand at the2013 FIFA U-20 World CupinTurkey. Senior Taggart made his debut forAustraliain late 2012, in the second preliminary round of the2013 EAFF East Asian CupagainstHong Kong, coming off the bench in a narrow win.He scored his first two international goals days later in a win overChinese Taipei. In 2013, Taggart played in the2013 EAFF East Asian Cup, scoring a goal in a loss toChina. Taggart was a part of the Socceroos squad for the2014 FIFA World Cup, and played in matches againstNetherlandsandSpain. In March 2024, Taggart returned to the national team after two years earning the called up with his stunning form for Perth Glory scoring 15 goals in 19 appearances in the2023–24 A-Leagueseason. Career statistics Club International Honours Suwon Samsung Bluewings Individual References External links" ]
Ben Darwin, former Australian rugby union footballer, graduated from the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS). How many years after Darwin's birth was the headquarters for the AIS opened? Ignore the month either event occurred.
5
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Darwin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Sport
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Numerical reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Darwin', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Sport']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Darwin", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Sport" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Ben_Darwin (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930b0850>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Sport (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930b1090>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Ben_Darwin (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930b0850>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Australian_Institute_of_Sport (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930b1090>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
In 1973, Edward Fox starred in The Day of the Jackal. He beat out a James Bond actor to the part, but what was the name of another James Bond actor he appeared with in an 'unofficial' 80s Bond film?
Sean Connery
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Jackal_(film)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fox_(actor)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Moore
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_Say_Never_Again
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Jackal_(film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fox_(actor)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Moore', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_Say_Never_Again']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Jackal_(film", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fox_(actor", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Moore", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_Say_Never_Again" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/The_Day_of_the_Jackal_(film (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b953ff640>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Edward_Fox_(actor (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b953fee30>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Roger Moore Sir Roger George MooreKBE(14 October 1927 – 23 May 2017) was an English actor. He was the third actor to portray fictional secret agentJames Bondin theEon Productions/MGM Studiosfilm series, playing the character inseven feature films:Live and Let Die(1973),The Man with the Golden Gun(1974),The Spy Who Loved Me(1977),Moonraker(1979),For Your Eyes Only(1981),Octopussy(1983), andA View to a Kill(1985). Moore's seven appearances as Bond are the most of any actor in the Eon-produced entries. On television, Moore played the lead role ofSimon Templar, the title character in the British mystery thriller seriesThe Saint(1962–1969). He also had roles in American series, including Beau Maverick on the WesternMaverick(1960–1961), in which he replacedJames Garneras the lead, and a co-lead, withTony Curtis, in the action-comedyThe Persuaders!(1971–1972). Continuing to act on screen in the decades after his retirement from the Bond franchise, Moore's final appearance was in a pilot for a newSaintseries that became a2017 television film. Moore was appointed aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassadorin 1991 and was knighted byQueen Elizabeth IIin 2003 for services to charity. In 2007, he received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famefor his contributions to the film industry. He was made a Commander of theOrder of Arts and Lettersby the French government in 2008. Early life Roger George Moore was born on 14 October 1927 inStockwell, London.He was the only child of George Alfred Moore (1904–1997), a policeman based inBow Street, London, and Lillian \"Lily\" Pope (1904–1986).His mother was born inCalcutta, India, to an English family.He attendedBattersea Grammar School, but wasevacuatedtoHolsworthyinDevonduring theSecond World War, and attendedLaunceston CollegeinCornwall. He was further educated atDr Challoner's Grammar SchoolinAmersham,Buckinghamshire. Moore was apprenticed to an animation studio, but he was fired after he made a mistake with someanimation cels.When his father investigated a robbery at the home of film directorBrian Desmond Hurst, Moore was introduced to the director and hired as an extra for the 1945 filmCaesar and Cleopatra.While there, Moore attracted an off-camera female fan following, and Hurst decided to pay Moore's fees at theRoyal Academy of Dramatic Art. Moore spent three terms at RADA, where he was a classmate of his future Bond co-starLois Maxwell, the originalMiss Moneypenny. During his time there, he developed theMid-Atlantic accentand relaxed demeanour that became his screen persona. At 18, shortly after theend of the Second World War, Moore wasconscriptedfornational service. On 21 September 1946, he wascommissionedinto theRoyal Army Service Corpsas asecond lieutenant.He was an officer in theCombined Services Entertainmentsection, eventually becoming acaptaincommanding a small depot inWest Germany, where he looked after entertainers for the armed forces passing through Hamburg. Career Early work (1945–1953) Moore made his professional debut inAlexander Korda'sPerfect Strangers(1945) alongside actorsRobert Donat,Deborah Kerr, andGlynis Johns.Other early uncredited appearances includeCaesar and Cleopatra(1945),Gaiety George,Piccadilly Incident(both 1946), andTrottie True(1949), in which he appeared alongside an uncreditedChristopher Lee(both actors being cast by Brian Desmond Hurst asstage-door Johnnies). In his bookLast Man Standing: Tales from Tinseltown, Moore states that his first television appearance was on 27 March 1949 inThe GovernessbyPatrick Hamilton, a live broadcast (as usual in that era), in which he played the minor part of Bob Drew.Other actors in the show includedClive MortonandBetty Ann Davies. He had uncredited parts in films includingPaper OrchidandThe Interrupted Journey(both 1949). He was inDrawing-Room Detectiveon TV and appeared in the filmsOne Wild OatandHoneymoon Deferred(both 1951). In the early 1950s Moore worked as a model,appearing in print advertisements in the UK forknitwear(earning him the nickname \"The Big Knit\")and a wide range of other products such as toothpaste. Moore travelled to the United States and began to work in television. He appeared in adaptations ofJulius CaesarandBlack Chiffon, and in two episodes ofRobert Montgomery Presents, as well as the TV movieThe Clay of Kings(all 1953). MGM (1954–1956) In March 1954,MGMsigned Moore to a seven-year contract.He started his MGM contract with a small role inThe Last Time I Saw Paris(1954), flirting withElizabeth Taylor. He appeared inInterrupted Melody, a biographical movie about opera singerMarjorie Lawrence's recovery from polio, in which he was billed third underGlenn FordandEleanor Parkeras Lawrence's brother Cyril.That same year, he played a supporting role in the swashbucklerThe King's ThiefstarringAnn Blyth,Edmund Purdom,David NivenandGeorge Sanders. In the 1956 filmDiane, Moore was billed third again, this time underLana TurnerandPedro Armendariz, in a 16th-century period piece set in France with Moore playingPrince Henri, the future king. Moore was released from his MGM contract after two years following the film's critical and commercial failure. In his own words, \"At MGM, RGM was NBG .\" Moore then freelanced for a time, appearing in episodes ofFord Star Jubilee(1956),Lux Video Theatre(1957) andMatinee Theatre(1957). Ivanhoe(1958–1959) Moore's first success was playing the eponymous hero, Sir Wilfred of Ivanhoe, in the 1958–59 seriesIvanhoe, a loose adaptation of the1819 romantic novelbySir Walter Scottset in the 12th century during the era ofRichard the Lionheart, delving into Ivanhoe's conflict withPrince John. Shot mainly in England atElstree StudiosandBuckinghamshire, some of the show was also filmed in California owing to a partnership withColumbia Studios'Screen Gems. Aimed at younger audiences, thepilotwas filmed in colour, a reflection of its comparatively high budget for a British children's adventure series of the period, but subsequent episodes were shot in black and white.Christopher Lee andJohn Schlesingerwere among the show's guest stars, and series regulars includedRobert Brown(who in the 1980s playedMin several James Bond films) as the squire Gurth,Peter Gilmoreas Waldo Ivanhoe,Andrew Keiras villainous Prince John, andBruce Setonas noble King Richard. Moore suffered broken ribs and a battle-axe blow to his helmet while performing some of his own stunts filming a season of 39 half-hour episodes, and later reminisced, \"I felt a complete Charlie riding around in all that armour and damned stupid plumed helmet. I felt like a medieval fireman.\" Warner Bros. (1959–1961) After that, Moore spent a few years mainly doing one-shot parts in television series, including an episode ofAlfred Hitchcock Presentsin 1959 titled \"The Avon Emeralds\". He signed another long-term contract to a studio, this time toWarner Bros. In 1959, he took the lead role inThe Miracle,a version of the playDas Mirakelfor Warner Bros. showcasingCarroll Bakeras a nun. The part had been turned down byDirk Bogarde. That same year, Moore was directed byArthur Hillerin \"The Angry Young Man\", an episode of the television seriesThe Third ManstarringMichael Rennieas criminal mastermind Harry Lime, the role portrayed byOrson Wellesin thefilm version. The Alaskans(1959–1960) Moore's next television series involved playing the lead as \"Silky\" Harris for theABC/Warner Bros. 1959–60WesternThe Alaskans, with co-starsDorothy Provineas Rocky,Jeff Yorkas Reno, andRay Dantonas Nifty. The show ran for a single season of 37 hour-long episodes on Sunday nights. Though set inSkagway, Alaska, with a focus on theKlondike Gold Rusharound 1896, the series was filmed in the hot studio lot at Warner Bros. in Hollywood with the cast costumed in fur coats and hats. Moore found the work highly taxing, and his off-camera affair with Provine complicated matters even more. Moore later referred to the experience as his \"most appalling television series.\" He subsequently appeared as the questionable character \"14 Karat John\" in the two-part episode \"Right Off the Boat\" of the ABC/WBcrime dramaThe Roaring 20s—alongsideRex Reason,John Dehner,Gary Vinson, and Dorothy Provine—appearing in a similar role but with a different character name. Maverick(1960–1961) In the wake ofThe Alaskans, Moore was cast asBeau Maverick, anEnglish-accentedcousin of frontier gamblersBret Maverick(James Garner),Bart Maverick(Jack Kelly), andBrent Maverick(Robert Colbert) in the much more successful ABC/WB Western seriesMaverick. Moore appeared as the character in 14 episodes after Garner had left the series at the end of the previous season, wearing some of Garner's costumes; while filmingThe Alaskans, he had already recited much of Garner's dialogue, for the Alaskan series frequently recycledMaverickscripts, changing only the names and locales.He had also filmed aMaverickepisodewith Garner two seasons earlier, in which Moore played a different character, in a retooling ofRichard Brinsley Sheridan's 1775comedy of mannersplayThe Rivals.In the course of the story, Moore and Garner's characters switched names on a bet, with Moore consequently identifying himself as \"Bret Maverick\" through most of the episode. Moore's debut as Beau Maverick occurred in the first episode of the 1960–61 fourth season, \"The Bundle from Britain\", one of four episodes in which he shared screen time with cousin Bart (Jack Kelly).Robert Altmanwrote and directed \"Bolt from the Blue\", an episode featuringWill Hutchinsas a frontier lawyer similar to his character in the seriesSugarfoot, and \"Red Dog\" found Beau mixed up with vicious bank robbersLee Van CleefandJohn Carradine.Kathleen Crowleywas Moore'sleading ladyin two episodes (\"Bullet for the Teacher\" and \"Kiz\"), and others includedMala Powers,Roxane Berard,Fay Spain,Merry Anders,Andra Martin, andJeanne Cooper. Upon leaving the series, Moore cited a decline in script quality since the Garner era as the key factor in his decision to depart; ratings for the show were also down.Moore was originally slated to appear with both Jack Kelly and Robert Colbert in the series but by the time Colbert starred in his first episode, Moore had already left the series. Numerous early publicity stills of Kelly, Moore and Colbert posing together exist, however. Moore was still under contract with Warners, who cast him inThe Sins of Rachel Cade(1961), making love to a nun played byAngie Dickinson, andGold of the Seven Saints(1961), supportingClint Walker. He also went to Italy to make the adventure comedyRomulus and the Sabines(1961). The Saint(1962–1969) Lew Gradecast Moore asSimon Templarin a new adaptation ofThe Saint, based on the novels byLeslie Charteris. Moore said in an interview in 1963 that he wanted to buy the rights to Leslie Charteris's character and the trademarks. The television series was broadcast byITVin the UK between 1962 and 1969, and its overseas success made Moore a household name. After the strong performance in the US of the first two series in first-run syndication,NBCpicked up the show in 1966. By early 1967, Moore had achieved international stardom.The series established his suave, quipping style which he carried forward to James Bond, and it also saw him exhibit his trademark raised eyebrow. Francis Blagburn inThe Telegraphwrites, The raised eyebrow is perhaps the hardest facial gesture to perfect in the gentleman's arsenal. Get it right and you give the impression of someone who is in total control; get it wrong and you look like, well, Dwayne 'The Rock' Johnson (and no one wants that). Sir Roger wrote the book in how to raise an eyebrow... as Simon Templar, he coolly infers that he knows, and he knows that you know that he knows. The Saintran from 1962 for six seasons and 118 episodes.Moore went on to direct nine episodes of the later series, which moved into colour in 1967.Several episodes were edited together to form two films,The Saint and the Fiction Makers(1968) andVendetta for the Saint(1969). Post-Saintfilms andThe Persuaders!(1969–1972) He made two films immediately after the series ended:Crossplot(1969), a lightweight 'spy caper' movie, and the more challengingThe Man Who Haunted Himself(1970). Directed byBasil Dearden, it gave Moore the opportunity to demonstrate greater versatility than the role of Simon Templar had allowed.In 2004, Moore said ofThe Man Who Haunted Himself: \"It was one of the few times I was allowed to act... Many say my best role was inThe Man Who Haunted Himself. Being a modest actor, I won't disagree.\" Lew Gradelured Moore to star alongsideTony CurtisinThe Persuaders!. The show featured the adventures of two millionaire playboys across Europe. Moore was paid the then-unheard-of sum of £1 million for a single series, making him the highest-paid television actor in the world.Lew Grade claimed in his autobiography,Still Dancing, that Moore and Curtis \"didn't hit it off all that well\".Curtis refused to spend more time on set than was strictly necessary, while Moore was always willing to work overtime.According to the DVD commentary, neither Roger Moore, an uncredited co-producer, norRobert S. Baker, the credited producer, ever had a contract other than a handshake with Lew Grade. Despite its focus on the UK and US markets,The Persuaders!became more successful in other international markets.On its premiere on theITVnetwork, it was beaten in the ratings by repeats ofMonty Python's Flying CircusonBBC One. It did however place in the Top 20 most-viewed television series in the UK throughout 1971.The lack of success in the US, where it had been sold to ABC, Curtis put down to its showing at the Saturday 10pm slot, but it was successful in continental Europe and Australia.In Germany, where the series was aired under the nameDie Zwei(\"The Two\"), it became a hit through especially amusingdubbingwhich only barely used translations of the original dialogue. James Bond era (1973–1985) Moore as Bond Moore's Bond was very different from the version created by Ian Fleming and the one portrayed by Connery. Screenwriters such asGeorge MacDonald Fraserprovided scenarios in which Moore was cast as a seasoned, debonair playboy who would always have a trick or gadget in stock when he needed it. This was designed to serve the contemporary taste of the 1970s. Moore's version of Bond was also known for his sense of humour and witty one liners as Moore himself said, \"My personality is different from previous Bonds. I'm not that cold-blooded-killer type. Which is why I play it mostly for laughs.\" Live and Let Die(1973) Due to his commitment to several television shows, in particularThe Saint, Roger Moore was unavailable for the James Bond films for a considerable time. His participation inThe Saintwas as actor, producer, and director, and he also became involved in developing the seriesThe Persuaders!. In 1964, he made a guest appearance as James Bond in the comedy seriesMainly Millicent.Moore stated in his autobiographyMy Word Is My Bond(2008) that he had neither been approached to play the character inDr. No, nor did he feel that he had ever been considered. Only afterSean Conneryhad declared in 1966 that he would not play Bond any longer did Moore become aware that he might be a contender for the role.AfterGeorge Lazenbywas cast in 1969'sOn Her Majesty's Secret Serviceand Connery was enticed back to the role of Bond again forDiamonds Are Forever(1971), Moore did not consider the possibility until it seemed clear that Connery had stepped down as Bond for good. At that point, Moore was approached, and he accepted producerAlbert Broccoli's offer in August 1972. In his autobiography, Moore writes that he had to cut his hair and lose weight for the role. Although he resented having to make those changes, he was finally cast as James Bond inLive and Let Die(1973). Moore then madeGold(1974), based on a novel byWilbur Smithfor producerMichael Klingerand directorPeter R. Hunt. He was paid US$200,000 plus a percentage of the profits. The Man with the Golden Gun(1974) Moore made his second Bond film,The Man with the Golden Gun(1974), which was a hit, though less successful thanLive and Let Die. It featuredChristopher Leeas the main antagonist. Also appearing areBritt Ekland,Herve Villechaize, andMaud Adams. He then made a comedyThat Lucky Touch(1975) which was a box office disaster. Moore made an Italian-shot action filmStreet People(1976), then went back to South Africa for another Klinger-Hunt movie from a Wilbur Smith novel,Shout at the Devil(1976), which was successful in Britain, though less so in the US. Lee Marvin was a main cast member. Ian Holm was also featured, as well asBarbara Parkins. The Spy Who Loved Me(1977) Moore returned for a third outing as Bond inThe Spy Who Loved Me(1977), which was a massive box-office success. It also starredBarbara BachandRichard Kielin his first appearance as the villainJaws.He returned to South Africa for a third action movie shot there,The Wild Geese(1978), produced byEuan Lloydand directed byAndrew V. McLaglen. It was a sizeable hit in Britain and Europe but, likeShout at the Devil, less so in the US.The cast featuredRichard Burton, who had top billing, and Richard Harris. Moore played the lead inEscape to Athena(1979) partly financed by Lew Grade. It was a heist adventure set in war-time Greece, and starsTelly Savalasand David Niven, and features mostly American character actors, includingElliott Gould,Stefanie Powers,Richard Roundtree,Sonny Bono, and Italian actressClaudia Cardinale. Roger Moore (with top billing) plays a charming former Austrian antiquities dealer turned crooked camp commandant, asked to guard Greek antiquities desired by the Third Reich, and also guard the collection of archaeologists who are being forced to work to find and recover these objects, but he has other plans for the treasure he guards and for the people under his watch. Moonraker(1979) Moore followed the success of his fourth outing as Bond,Moonraker(1979), with an action film,North Sea Hijack(1980), also known asffolkes. Moore played a very un-Bond-like hero, oppositeAnthony Perkins. The film was a box-office disappointment. Better received wasThe Sea Wolves(1980), another World War Two adventure which reunited many of the crew fromThe Wild Geeseincluding Euan Lloyd and McLaglen. It was based on the true story of a March 1943 event in British India and Portuguese Goa, in which a group of retired members of theCalcutta Light Horse, colonelled by David Niven's character, assist regular British Army operatives, played by Moore andGregory Peck, in destroying German ships in neutralMormugaoharbour, all the time surrounded by German spies and Indian nationalist intrigue.Trevor Howard,Patrick Macnee, andBarbara Kellermanalso co-star, with a who's-who lineup of British character actors. Moore was in two all-star comedies:Sunday Lovers(1980), which flopped at the box office, andThe Cannonball Run(1981), which was a hit. The latter featured an ensemble cast, includingJackie Chan,Burt Reynolds,Dean Martin,Dom DeLuise,Sammy Davis Jr, andFarrah Fawcett. For Your Eyes Only(1981) Moore returned for his fifth outing as Bond inFor Your Eyes Only(1981). Octopussy(1983) Following the filmFor Your Eyes Only, Moore expressed a desire to leave the role, and other actors were screen tested includingJames Brolin, but Moore was eventually enticed back forOctopussy(1983). The circumstances aroundOctopussy's release were highly unusual in that another James Bond film was being released in the same year. Spearheaded byThunderballproducerKevin McClory(who retained film rights to the property because the antecedent 1961Ian Flemingnovel was based on an unfilmed 1959 screenplay produced under the aegis of McClory,Jack Whittinghamand Fleming), the non-Eon productionNever Say Never Againfeatured his predecessorSean Conneryreturning to the role of Bond. Although tantamount to a loose remake ofThunderball, it was not set in the continuity of the previous Eon Bond films. This led to the media dubbing the one-time situation the \"Battle of the Bonds\". He made a cameo as ChiefInspector Clouseau, posing as a famous movie star, inCurse of the Pink Panther(1983) (for which he was credited as \"Turk Thrust II\"). Then he tried a thrillerThe Naked Face(1984), written and directed byBryan Forbes. A View to a Kill(1985) Moore starred in his final Bond film,A View to a Kill(1985). He was the oldest actor to have played Bond – he was 45 inLive and Let Die, and 58 when he announced his retirement on 3 December 1985, having played the part for over 12 years. With 7 films Moore holds the record for playing Bond the most times in the Eon series but is tied with Sean Connery in number of times playing Bond when counting Connery's non-Eon appearance inNever Say Never Again(1983). In 1987, he hostedHappy Anniversary 007: 25 Years of James Bond. Post-James Bond career (1986–2017) Moore did not act on screen for five years after he stopped playing Bond; in 1990, he appeared in several films and in the writer-directorMichael Feeney Callan's television seriesMy Rivieraand starred in the filmBed & Breakfastwhich was shot in 1989;and also had a large role in the 1996 filmThe Quest; in 1997, he starred as the Chief inSpice World.At the age of 73, he played a flamboyant homosexual man inBoat Trip(2002) withCuba Gooding Jr. The British satirical puppet showSpitting Imagehad a sketch in which theirlatexlikeness of Moore, when asked to display emotions by an offscreen director, did nothing but raise an eyebrow; Moore himself stated that he thought the sketch was funny and took it in good humour. Indeed, he had always embraced the \"eyebrows\" gag wholeheartedly, and quipped that he \"only had three expressions as Bond: right eyebrow raised, left eyebrow raised, and eyebrows crossed when grabbed byJaws\".Spitting Imagecontinued the joke, featuring a Bond film spoof,The Man with the Wooden Delivery, with Moore's puppet receiving orders fromMargaret Thatcherto killMikhail Gorbachev. Other comedy shows at that time ridiculed Moore's acting, withRory Bremneronce claiming to have had a death threat from one of his irate fans following one such routine. In a nod to his 1960s TV show, Moore had a vocal cameo inThe Saint(1997) as a radio newsreader as Simon Templar drives away at the end of the film. In the year 2000, he played the role of a secret agent in the Christmas specialVictoria Wood with All the Trimmings, shown on BBC One on Christmas Day. Filming all his scenes in theLondon Eye, his mission was to eliminate another agent whose file photo looks like Pierce Brosnan. In 2002 he had a small cameo role in the Germanpolice proceduralseriesTatort(episode 506: \"Schatten\" – \"Shadow\", 28 July 2002) as himself signing an autograph on a Unicef card. In the 1981 filmThe Cannonball Run, Moore played Seymour Goldfarb, a parody of both himself and James Bond, driving anAston Martin DB5. In support of his charitable work for UNICEF, Moore lent his voice to the character of the magic snowman, Lumi Ukko, for a 1990 feature film produced by Pavlina Ltd/FIT. The film is UNICEF-endorsed and is dedicated to the \"world’s children\".A recently published audio book entitled,The Magic Snowman and The Rusty Ice Skatesfeatures his voice. His daughter, actressDeborah More, narrated the book in honor of her father’s legacy and his work for UNICEF. 20 percent of the book’s proceeds are pledged to the organization. In 2009, Moore appeared in an advertisement for thePost Office. In 2010, he provided the voice of a talking cat calledLazenbyin the filmCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galorewhich contained several references to, and parodies of, Bond films. In 2011, he co-starred in the filmA Princess for ChristmaswithKatie McGrathandSam Heughan, and in 2012, he took to the stage for a series of seven 'Evenings with' in UK theatres and, in November, guest-hostedHave I Got News for You.A slightly thinner-faced Moore contributed to a charity song in 2017. His last on-screen performance was in 2017, a brief appearance near the end of the remake ofThe Saint. In 2015, Moore was named one ofGQ's 50 best-dressed British men.In 2015, he readHans Christian Andersen's \"The Princess and the Pea\" for the children's fairy tales app GivingTales in aid ofUNICEFwith other British celebrities, includingMichael Caine,Ewan McGregor,Joan Collins,Stephen Fry,Joanna Lumley,David Walliams,Charlotte Rampling,Paul McKenna, andMichael Ball. Humanitarian work Moore's friendAudrey Hepburnhad impressed him with her work for UNICEF, and consequently he became aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassadorin August 1991.His character,Simon Templar, made a pitch for UNICEF near the end of \"The Revolution Racket\",airing 5 November 1964. He was the voice of Father Christmas or 'Santa' in the 2004 UNICEF cartoonThe Fly Who Loved Me. Personal life Doorn Van Steyn In 1946, aged 18, Moore married a fellow RADA student, the actress and ice skater Doorn Van Steyn (born Lucy Woodard), who was six years his senior;Moore and Van Steyn lived in Streatham with her family, but tension over money matters and her lack of confidence in his acting ability took their toll on the relationship,during which he allegedly suffereddomestic abuse. Dorothy Squires In 1952, Moore met the Welsh singerDorothy Squires, who was 12 years his senior, and Van Steyn and Moore divorced the following year.Squires and Moore were married in New York.They lived inBexley,Kent, after their wedding. They moved to the United States in 1954 to develop their careers, but tension developed in their marriage due to their age difference and Moore's infatuation with starletDorothy Provine, and they moved back to the United Kingdom in 1961, where they resided inSutton Coldfield, nearBirmingham.Squires suffered a series of miscarriages during their marriage, and Moore later said the outcome of their marriage might have been different if they had been able to have children. During their tempestuous relationship Squires smashed a guitar over his head, and after learning of his affair with the Italian actressLuisa Mattioli, who became Moore's third wife, Moore said, \"She threw a brick through my window. She reached through the glass and grabbed my shirt and she cut her arms doing it...The police came and they said, 'Madam, you're bleeding' and she said, 'It's my heart that's bleeding'.\"Squires intercepted letters from Mattioli to Moore and planned to include them in her autobiography, but the couple won injunctions against the publication in 1977, which led Squires to unsuccessfully sue them for loss of earnings.The numerous legal cases launched by Squires led her to be declared avexatious litigantin 1987.Moore paid Squires's hospital bills after her cancer treatment in 1996; she died in 1998. Luisa Mattioli In 1961, while filmingThe Rape of the Sabine Womenin Italy, Moore left Squires for the Italian actress Luisa Mattioli.Squires refused to accept their separation, and sued Moore for loss ofconjugal rights, but Moore refused the court's order to return to Squires in 28 days.Squires also smashed windows at a house in France where Moore and Mattioli were living, and unsuccessfully sued actorKenneth Morefor libel, as Kenneth More had introduced Moore and Mattioli at a charity event as \"Mr Roger Moore and his wife\".Moore and Mattioli lived together until 1969, when Squires finally granted him a divorce, after they had been separated for seven years.At Moore's and Mattioli's marriage in April 1969 at theCaxton Hallin Westminster, London, a crowd of 600 people was outside, with women screaming his name. Moore had three children with Mattioli: actress-daughterDeborah(b. 27 October 1963) and two sons, Geoffrey (b. 28 July 1966) and Christian (b. 23 August 1973).Geoffrey is also an actor, and appeared alongside his father in the filmsSherlock Holmes in New York(1976) andFire, Ice and Dynamite(1990). In later life, he co-founded Hush Restaurant inMayfair, London, withJamie Barber,and would release a single in 2023 under the name Jaffa Moore called \"You and I\" which featured vocals from the late Glee actorNaya Riveraand included host of stars in the music video miming along to the song.Geoffrey and his wife Loulou have two daughters. Moore's younger son, Christian, is a film producer and has four children: a daughter from his first marriage to Heidi Moore, and two sons and a daughter from his second marriage to Lara Sidawi. Kristina \"Kiki\" Tholstrup Moore and Mattioli separated in 1993 after Moore developed feelings for a Swedish-born Danish socialite, Kristina \"Kiki\" Tholstrup.Moore later described hisprostate cancerdiagnosis in 1993 as \"life-changing\", which led him to reassess his life and marriage.Mattioli and Tholstrup had long been friends, but Mattioli was scathing of her in the book she subsequently wrote about her relationship with Moore,Nothing Lasts Forever, describing how she felt betrayed by Tholstrup and discarded by Moore. Moore remained silent on his divorce from Mattioli, later saying that he did not wish to hurt his children by \"engaging in a war of words\".Moore's children refused to speak to him for a period after the divorce, but they were later reconciled with their father.Mattioli refused to grant Moore a divorce until 2000, when a £10 million settlement was agreed.Moore subsequently married Tholstrup in 2002.Moore said that he loved Tholstrup as she was \"organised\", \"serene\", \"loving\", and \"calm\", saying, \"I have a difficult life. I rely on Kristina totally. When we are travelling for my job, she is the one who packs. Kristina takes care of all that\".Moore also said that his marriage to Tholstrup was \"a tranquil relationship, there are no arguments\".Tholstrup had two children, Hans-Christian Knudsen Jr. and Christina Knudsen, from a previous marriage; Christina described her stepfather as a positive influence, saying, \"I was in difficult relationships but that all changed\" when her mother met Moore. Christina Knudsen died from cancer on 25 July 2016, at the age of 47; Moore posted onTwitter, \"We are heartbroken\" and \"We were all with her, surrounding her with love, at the end\". Political views On politics, Moore stated he was aconservativeand thought thatconservatismis the way to run a country.He was described as a \"lifelong\" supporter of theConservative Partyand endorsed the party during the2001 UK general election.However, Moore also expressed a reluctance to be seen as an overtly political figure and felt his work withUNICEFmeant that he could not involve himself directly in politics. In 2011, Moore expressed his support to Conservative Prime MinisterDavid Cameronregarding his policy on theEuropean Union, stating: \"I think he's doing absolutely wonderfully well, despite the opposition from many members of his own party. Traitors, I call them. I mean any hardliner within the Conservative Party who speaks out against their leader. You should support your leader.\" Moore also expressed support for Britain keeping thepound sterlingas its national currency and was glad the British government had not joined thesingle EU currency, stating: \"I would have been very upset if we'd had to takethe Queenoff our currency. They'd probably have to take her off the stamps and everything. I am British and I'm fiercely independent. And I think we should be independent, asSean Conneryis about Scotland.\" In 2015, Moore criticised what he regarded as excessivepolitical correctnesswithin the film industry and felt that rewritingJames Bond's sexuality, gender or ethnicity would be a mistake, arguing \"it is not about being homophobic or, for that matter, racist – it is simply about being true to the character.\"Despite his conservative politics, Moore retained membership of the entertainment and media trade unionBECTU(now part of Prospect) until his death, having joined as an apprentice animation technician before his acting career took off. At his death, he was the union's longest-tenured member.In 2007, Moore also voiced his support to workers from theCadburychocolate factory atKeynshamwho were protesting against the plant's closure. Tax exile Moore became atax exilefrom the United Kingdom in 1978, originally to Switzerland, and divided his year between his four homes: an apartment inMonte Carlo, a holiday house in the coastalTuscantown ofCastiglione della Pescaia, a chalet inCrans-Montana, Switzerland, and a home inSaint-Paul-de-Vence, France.Moore became a resident of Monaco, having been appointed a Goodwill Ambassador of Monaco byPrince Albert IIfor his efforts in internationally promoting and publicising the principality.Moore was scathing of the Russian population in Monaco, saying, \"I'm afraid we're overstuffed with Russians. All the restaurant menus are in Russian now.\" Moore was vocal in his defence of his tax exile status, saying that in the 1970s, with taxes levied on top earners under theLabourgovernment ofJames Callaghan, he had been urged by his \"accountants, agents, and lawyers\" to move abroad because, \"At that point we were taxed up to 98% onunearned income, so you would never be able to save enough to ensure that you had any sort of livelihood if you didn't work.\"Moore said in 2011 that his decision to live abroad was \"not about tax. That's a serious part of it. I come back to England often enough not to miss it, to see the changes, to find some of the changes good...I paid my taxes at the time that I was earning a decent income, so I've paid my due\". Illness and death Moore had a series of diseases during his childhood, includingchickenpox,measles,mumps,double pneumoniaandjaundice,and had hisappendix,tonsils, andadenoidsremoved. Moore was a long-term sufferer ofkidney stonesand as a result was briefly hospitalised during the making ofLive and Let Diein 1973and again whilst filming the 1979 filmMoonraker. In 1993, Moore was diagnosed withprostate cancerand underwent successful treatment for the disease. In 2003, Moore collapsed on stage while appearing on Broadway,and was fitted with apacemakerto treat a potentially deadly slow heartbeat.He was diagnosed withtype 2 diabetesin 2013.Some years before his final cancer illness, a tumour spot was found in his liver. Then, in 2017, during the period that he was treated for cancer, he fell, badly injuring hiscollarbone. Moore died in the presence of his family at his home inCrans-Montana,Switzerland, on 23 May 2017, fromcancersof the lung and liver.Former 007 actorsSean Connery,George Lazenby,Timothy Dalton,Pierce BrosnanandDaniel Craigpaid tribute to Moore. Moore is buried inMonaco Cemetery. Royal circles Moore had friendships with some of Denmark's royal family;Prince Joachimand his then-wifeAlexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg, invited Moore and his wife Kiki to attend the christening of their youngest son,Prince Felix. In 2004 he attended theWedding of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark, and Mary Donaldson. On 24 May 2008, Moore and his wife attended the wedding of Prince Joachim to his French fiancéeMarie Cavallier. Moore also had a long-standing friendship withPrincess Lilianof Sweden, whom he first met on a visit to Stockholm for UNICEF. Moore's wife Kristina, who was born in Sweden, was already a friend of Princess Lilian's through mutual friends. In his autobiography, Moore recalled meeting the princess for tea and dinners whenever his wife and he visited Stockholm. He spoke of his recollections at the princess's memorial service atSt Peter and St Sigfrid's Churchin Stockholm, on 8 September 2013. On 1 and 2 July 2011, Moore and his wife attendedthe weddingofAlbert II, Prince of MonacoandCharlene Wittstock. Awards and legacy \"Most people settle on Sir Roger Moore or Sir Sean Connery as their favourite Bond. Why Moore? Because he was Bond incarnate, and then some. He was the quintessential Englishman, somewhere between gentleman and jester – a slick, schmaltzy, suave provocateur. He handled the tone of the role perfectly, pitching his delivery somewhere between the camp kitsch of Piers Brosnan and the smouldering cool of Connery. Moore's 007 was, in a word, fun: never above a wry laugh, preferably with a dry Martini in hand.\" — Francis Blagburn writing inThe Telegraph, May 2017. Moore was appointed Commander of theOrder of the British Empire(CBE) in the1999 New Year Honoursand was promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the2003 Birthday Honoursfor charitable services, especially UNICEF and latterlyKiwanis International, which had dominated his public life for more than a decade.On being knighted, Moore said that the citation \"meant far more to me than if I had got it for acting... I was proud because I received it on behalf of UNICEF as a whole and for all it has achieved over the years\". On 11 October 2007, three days before he turned 80, Moore was awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famefor his work on television and in film. Attending the ceremony were family, friends, andRichard Kiel, with whom he had acted inThe Spy Who Loved MeandMoonraker. Moore's star was the 2,350th star installed, and is appropriately located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard. On 28 October 2008, the French government appointed Moore aCommanderof theOrdre des Arts et des Lettres.On 21 November 2012, Moore was awarded an honorary doctorate from theUniversity of Hertfordshirefor his outstanding contributions to the UK film and television industry for over 50 years, in particular film and television productions in Hertfordshire. After his death, the Roger Moore Stage was opened atPinewood Studiosat a ceremony held in October 2017 to celebrate his life and work.His wife and family were in attendance along with Bond producersMichael G WilsonandBarbara Broccoli, and guests at the event includedJoan Collins,Michael Caine,Stephen Fry,Tim RiceandStefanie Powers. In the 2018 filmMy Dinner with Hervé, Moore was portrayed by actorMark Umbers. For his charity work Lifetime achievements awards For his acting In popular culture Filmography Film roles Television roles Publications Moore's book about the filming ofLive and Let Die, based on his diaries, titledRoger Moore as James Bond: Roger Moore's Own Account of Filming Live and Let Die, was published in London in 1973, by Pan Books.The book includes an acknowledgment to Sean Connery, with whom Moore was friends for many years: \"I would also like to thank Sean Connery –withwhom it would not have been possible.\" Moore'sautobiographyMy Word is My Bond(ISBN0061673889) was published byCollinsin the US, in November 2008 and by Michael O'Mara Books Ltd in the UK, on 2 October 2008 (ISBN9781843173182). On 16 October 2012,Bond on Bondwas published to tie in with the 50th anniversary of the James Bond films. The book, with many pictures, is based on Moore's own memories, thoughts, and anecdotes about all things 007, with some of the profits of the book going to UNICEF. Books References External links", "Never Say Never Again Never Say Never Againis a 1983spy filmdirected byIrvin Kershner. The film is based on the 1961James BondnovelThunderballbyIan Fleming, which in turn was based on an original story byKevin McClory,Jack Whittingham, and Fleming. The novel had been previously adapted as the 1965 filmThunderball.Never Say Never Againis the second and most recentJames Bondfilm not to be produced byEon Productions(the usual producer of the Bond series) but instead byJack Schwartzman's Taliafilm, and was distributed byWarner Bros.The film was executive produced by Kevin McClory, one of the original writers of theThunderballstoryline. McClory had retained the filming rights of the novel following along legal battledating from the 1960s. Sean Conneryplayed the role of Bond for the seventh and final time, marking his return to the character twelve years afterDiamonds Are Forever(1971). The film's title is a reference to Connery's reported declaration in 1971 that he would \"never again\" play that role. As Connery was 52 at the time of filming, the script makes frequent reference to Bond as aging and past his prime – although ironically, Connery was three years younger than his replacement,Roger Moore. The storyline features Bond being reluctantly brought back into action to investigate the theft of two nuclear weapons bySPECTRE. Filming locations included France, Spain, the Bahamas andElstree Studiosin the United Kingdom. Never Say Never Againwas released byWarner Bros.on 7 October 1983, and opened to positive reviews, with the performances of Connery andKlaus Maria Brandauersingled out for praise as more emotionally resonant than the typical Bond films of the day. The film grossed $160 million at the box office, making it a commercial success, although it earned less overall than the Eon-producedOctopussy, released earlier the same year. Plot AfterMI6agent James Bond fails a routine training exercise, his superiorMorders him to a health clinic outside London to get back into shape. While there, Bond witnesses nurse Fatima Blush giving asadomasochisticbeating to a patient in a nearby room. The man's face is bandaged and after Blush finishes her beating, he uses a machine whichscans his eye. Bond is spotted by Blush, who sends assassin Lippe to kill him in the clinic gym. Bond kills Lippe in a fight which destroys a lot of the clinic's furniture and equipment; M is forced to pay for the resulting damages and consequently suspends Bond from active duty. Blush works forSPECTRE, a criminal organisation run byErnst Stavro Blofeld; her charge isheroin-addictedUnited States Air Forcepilot Jack Petachi. Petachi has undergone an operation on his right eye to make it match theretinalpattern of theUS President, which he uses to circumvent security at RAF Station Swadley, anAmerican military base inEngland. While doing so, he replaces the dummywarheadsof twoAGM-86Bcruise missileswith liveW80 nuclear warheads; SPECTRE then steals the warheads, intending to extort billions of dollars fromNATOgovernments. Blush murders Petachi by causing his car to crash and explode, covering SPECTRE's tracks. Foreign SecretaryLord Ambrose orders a reluctant M to reactivate thedouble-0 section, and Bond is tasked with tracking down the missing weapons. Bond follows a lead to theBahamasand findsDomino Petachi, Jack's sister, and her wealthy lover Maximillian Largo, who is SPECTRE's top agent. When Largo's yacht heads forNice, France, Bond goes there and joins forces with his French contact Nicole, and hisCIAcounterpart,Felix Leiter. Bond goes to a health and beauty centre, posing as an employee. He gives a massage to Domino, who reveals that Largo is hosting an event at a casino that evening. At the charity event, Largo and Bond play a video game calledDomination; the losing player of each turn receiveselectric shocksof increasing intensity in proportion to the amount wagered. After losing a few games, Bond wins, and while dancing with Domino, he informs her that Jack had been killed on Largo's orders. Returning to his villa, Bond finds Nicole killed by Blush. After achaseon his Q-branch motorbike, Bond finds himself in an ambush and is captured by Blush. She admits to being impressed with him, and forces Bond to declare in writing that she is his \"Number One\" sexual partner. Bond distracts her with promises, then uses his Q-branch fountainpen gunto kill Blush with an explosive dart. Bond and Leiter attempt to board Largo's yacht, theFlying Saucer, in search of the missing nuclear warheads. Bond finds Domino and attempts to make Largo jealous by kissing her in front of aone-way mirror. Enraged, Largo traps Bond and takes him and Domino to Palmyra, Largo's base of operations inNorth Africa. Largo punishes Domino for her betrayal by selling her to passing Arabs. Bond escapes from his prison and rescues her. Domino and Bond reunite with Leiter on aU.S. Navysubmarine. After the first warhead is found and defused in Washington, D.C., they track Largo to the Tears of Allah, a location below a desertoasison theEthiopiancoast. Bond and Leiter infiltrate the underground facility and a gun battle erupts between Leiter's team and Largo's men in the temple. In the confusion, Largo makes a getaway with the second warhead. Bond catches and fights him underwater. Just as Largo tries to use a spear gun to shoot Bond, he is shot with a spear gun by Domino, taking revenge for Jack's death. Bond then defuses the nuclear bomb underwater, saving the world. Bond retires from duty and returns to the Bahamas with Domino, vowing never again to be a secret agent although Domino doubts his sincerity. Cast Production Never Say Never Againhad its origins in the early 1960s, following thecontroversy over the 1961Thunderballnovel.Fleming had worked with independent producer Kevin McClory and scriptwriter Jack Whittingham on a script for a potential Bond film, to be calledLongitude 78 West,which was subsequently abandoned because of the costs involved.Fleming, \"always reluctant to let a good idea lie idle\",turned this into the novelThunderball, for which he did not credit either McClory or Whittingham;McClory then took Fleming to theHigh Courtin London for breach of copyright,and the matter was settled in 1963.AfterEon Productionsstarted producing the Bond films, it subsequently made a deal with McClory, who would produceThunderball, and then not make any further version of the novel for a period of ten years, following the release of the Eon-produced version in 1965. In the mid-1970s, McClory again started working on a second adaptation ofThunderballand, with the working titleWarhead, he brought writerLen Deightontogether with Sean Connery to work on a script.A lawsuit with Eon Productions ended in a ruling that McClory owned the sole rights to SPECTRE and Blofeld, forcing Eon to remove them fromThe Spy Who Loved Me(1977).The script initially focused on SPECTRE shooting down aircraft over theBermuda Triangle, before taking overLiberty IslandandEllis Islandas staging areas for an invasion ofNew York Citythrough the sewers underWall Street. The script was purchased byParamount Picturesin 1978.The script ran into difficulties, after accusations fromDanjaqandUnited Artiststhat the project had gone beyond copyright restrictions, which confined McClory to a film based only on the novelThunderball; once again, the project was delayed. Towards the end of the 1970s, developments were reported on the project under the nameJames Bond of the Secret Service,but when producerJack Schwartzmanbecame involved in 1980, and cleared a number of the legal issues that still surrounded the project,he decided against using Deighton's script. The project returned to the original nuclear terrorism plot of the originalThunderball, in order to avoid another lawsuit from Danjaq, and after McClory sawJimmy Cartermention the issue in a1980 presidential debatewithRonald Reagan.Schwartzman brought on board scriptwriterLorenzo Semple, Jr.to work on the screenplay. Schwartzman wanted him to make the screenplay \"somewhere in the middle\" between his campier projects such asBatman, and his more serious projects such asThree Days of the Condor.Connery was unhappy with some aspects of the script, and askedTom Mankiewicz, who had rewrittenDiamonds Are Forever, to work on it; however, Mankiewicz declined, as he felt he was under a moral obligation toAlbert R. Broccoli.Semple Jr. ultimately left the project, after Irvin Kershner was hired as director, and Schwartzman began cutting out the \"big numbers\" from his script to save on the budget.Connery then hired British television writersDick ClementandIan La Frenaisto undertake re-writes, although they went uncredited for their efforts, despite much of the final shooting script being theirs. This was because of a restriction by theWriters Guild of America.Clement and La Frenais continued rewriting during the production, often altering it from day to day. The film underwent one final change in title: after Connery had finished filmingDiamonds Are Forever, he had pledged that he would \"never again\" play Bond.Connery's wife, Micheline, suggested the titleNever Say Never Again, referring to her husband's vow,and the producers acknowledged her contribution by listing on the end credits \"TitleNever Say Never Againby Micheline Connery\". A final attempt by Fleming's trustees to block the film was made in the High Court in London in the spring of 1983, but this was thrown out by the court andNever Say Never Againwas permitted to proceed. Cast and crew When producer Kevin McClory had first planned the film in 1964, he held initial talks withRichard Burtonfor the part of Bond,although the project came to nothing because of the legal issues involved. When theWarheadproject was launched in the late 1970s, a number of actors were mentioned in the trade press, includingOrson Wellesfor the part of Blofeld,Trevor Howardto play M andRichard Attenboroughas director. In 1978, the working titleJames Bond of the Secret Servicewas being used and Connery was in the frame once again, potentially going head-to-head with the next Eon Bond film,Moonraker.By 1980, with legal issues again causing the project to founder,Connery thought himself unlikely to play the role, as he stated in an interview in theSunday Express: \"When I first worked on the script with Len I had no thought of actually being in the film.\"When producer Jack Schwartzman became involved, he asked Connery to play Bond; Connery agreed, negotiating a fee of $3 million ($9 million in 2023 dollars), casting and script approval, and a percentage of the profits.Subsequent to Connery reprising the role, Semple altered the script to include several references to Bond's advancing years – playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming– and academic Jeremy Black has pointed out that there are other aspects of age and disillusionment in the film, such as the Shrubland's porter referring to Bond's car (\"They don't make them like that anymore\"), the new M having no use for the 00 section and Q with his reduced budgets.Originally, Semple wanted to emphasize Bond's age even further, writing the script to include him in semi-retirement working aboard aScottishfishing trawlerhuntingSoviet Navysubmarinesin theNorth Sea.Connery's casting was formally announced in March 1983.. He trained withSteven Seagalto help get in shape for the production. For the main villain in the film, Maximillian Largo, Connery suggested Klaus Maria Brandauer, the lead of the 1981Academy Award-winning Hungarian filmMephisto.Through the same route cameMax von Sydowas Ernst Stavro Blofeld,although he still retained his Eon-originated white cat in the film.For thefemme fatale, director Irvin Kershner selected former model andPlayboycover girlBarbara Carrerato play Fatima Blush – the name coming from one of the early scripts ofThunderball.Carrera said she modeled her performance on theHindugoddessKali, and to \"mix that in with a little bit ofblack widowand a little bit ofpraying mantis.\"Carrera's performance as Fatima Blush earned her aGolden Globe Awardnomination forBest Supporting Actress,which she lost toCherfor her role inSilkwood.Micheline Connery, Sean's wife, had met up-and-coming actress Kim Basinger at theGrosvenor House Hotelin London and suggested her to Connery; he agreed after Dalila Di Lazzaro refused the Domino role. For the role of Felix Leiter, Connery spoke with Bernie Casey, saying that, as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences, using a black Leiter might make him more memorable.Others cast included comedianRowan Atkinson, who would later parody Bond in his role ofJohnny Englishin 2003.Atkinson's character was added by Clement and La Frenais after the production had already started, in order to provide the film with a comic relief.Edward Fox was cast as M in order to portray the character as a young technocrat in contrast to the older portrayal byBernard Lee, and to parody theThatcherministry's budget cuts to government services. Connery wanted to persuadeRichard Donnerto direct the film, but after their meeting, Donner decided he disliked the script.Former Eon Productions' editor and director ofOn Her Majesty's Secret Service,Peter R. Hunt, was approached to direct the film, but declined due to his previous work with Eon.Irvin Kershner, who had previously worked with Connery onA Fine Madness(1966), and had achieved success in 1980 withThe Empire Strikes Back, was then hired. A number of the crew from the 1981 filmRaiders of the Lost Arkwere also appointed, including first assistant directorDavid Tomblin,director of photographyDouglas Slocombe, second unit directorMickey Mooreandproduction designersPhilip Harrison andStephen Grimes. Filming Filming forNever Say Never Againbegan on 27 September 1982 on theFrench Rivierafor two months,before moving toNassau, the Bahamas in mid-November,where filming took place at Clifton Pier, which was also one of the locations used inThunderball.Largo's Palmyran fortress was actually historicFort CarréinAntibes.Largo's ship, theFlying Saucer, was portrayed by the yachtKingdom 5KR, then owned by Saudi billionaireAdnan Khashoggiand calledNabila.The underwater scenes were filmed byRicou Browning, who had coordinated the underwater scenes in the originalThunderball.Principal photography finished atElstree Studios, where interior shots were filmed.Elstree also housed the Tears of Allah underwater cavern, which took three months to construct, while the Shrublands health spa was filmed atLuton Hoo.Most of the filming was completed in the spring of 1983, although there was some additional shooting during the summer of 1983. Production on the film was troubled,with Connery taking on many of the production duties with assistant director David Tomblin.Director Irvin Kershner was critical of producer Jack Schwartzman, saying that, while he was a good businessman, \"he didn't have the experience of a film producer\".After the production ran out of money, Schwartzman had to fund further production out of his own pocket, and later admitted he had underestimated the amount the film would cost to make.There was tension on set between Schwartzman and Connery, who at times barely spoke to each other. Connery was unimpressed with the perceived lack of professionalism behind the scenes, and was on record as saying that the whole production was a \"bloodyMickey Mouseoperation!\" Steven Seagal, who was a martial arts instructor for this film, broke Connery's wrist while training. On an episode ofThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Connery revealed he did not know his wrist was broken until over a decade later. Music James Hornerwas both Kershner's and Schwartzman's first choice to compose the score, after they were impressed with his work onStar Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. Horner, who worked in London for most of the time, was unavailable, according to Kershner, though Schwartzman later claimed Sean Connery vetoed him. Frequent Bond composerJohn Barrywas invited, but declined out of loyalty to Eon.The music forNever Say Never Againwas ultimately written byMichel Legrand, who composed a score similar to his work as ajazz pianist.The score has been criticised as \"anachronistic and misjudged\",\"bizarrely intermittent\"and \"the most disappointing feature of the film\".Legrand also wrote the main theme \"Never Say Never Again\", which featured lyrics byAlan and Marilyn Bergman— who had also worked with Legrand on the Academy Award-winning song \"The Windmills of Your Mind\"— and was performed byLani HallafterBonnie Tyler, who disliked the song, had reluctantly declined. Phyllis Hymanalso recorded a potential theme song, with music written by Stephen Forsyth and lyrics by Jim Ryan, but the song — an unsolicited submission — was passed over, given Legrand's contractual obligations with the music. Legal substitutions Many of the elements of the Eon-produced Bond films were not present inNever Say Never Againfor legal reasons. These included thegun barrel sequence, where a screen full of 007 symbols appeared instead, and similarly there was no \"James Bond Theme\" to use, although no effort was made to supply another tune.A pre-credits sequence was filmed but not used;instead, the film opens with the credits running over the top of the sequence of Bond on a training mission. Release and reception Never Say Never Againopened on 7 October 1983 in 1,550 theatres, grossing an October record $10,958,157 over the four-dayColumbus Dayweekend,which was reported to be \"the best opening record of any James Bond film\" up to that point,surpassingOctopussy's $8.9 million from June that year. The film had its UK premiere at the Warner West End cinema inLeicester Squareon 14 December 1983.Worldwide,Never Say Never Againgrossed $160 million,which was a solid return on the budget of $36 million.The film ultimately earned less thanOctopussy, which grossed $187.5 million.It was the first James Bond film to be officially released in theSoviet Union, premiering in the summer of 1990 with a gala inMoscow. Warner Bros. releasedNever Say Never AgainonVHSandBetamaxin 1984,and onlaserdiscin 1995.After Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer purchased the distribution rights in 1997 (seeLegacy, below), the company has released the film on both VHS andDVDin 2001,and onBlu-rayin 2009. Contemporary reviews Never Say Never Againwas broadly welcomed and praised by the critics:Ian Christie, writing in theDaily Express, said thatNever Say Never Againwas \"one of the better Bonds\",finding the film \"superbly witty and entertaining, ... the dialogue is crisp and the fight scenes imaginative\".Christie also thought that \"Connery has lost none of his charm and, if anything, is more appealing than ever as the stylish resolute hero\".David Robinson, writing inThe Timesalso concentrated on Connery, saying that: \"Connery ... is back, looking hardly a day older or thicker, and still outclassing every other exponent of the role, in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way\".For Robinson, the presence of Connery and Klaus Maria Brandauer as Maximillian Largo \"very nearly make it all worthwhile.\"The reviewer forTime Outsummed upNever Say Never Againby saying: \"The action's good, the photography excellent, the sets decent; but the real clincher is the fact that Bond is once more played by a man with the right stuff.\" Derek MalcolminThe Guardianshowed himself to be a fan of Connery's Bond, saying the film contains \"the best Bond in the business\",but nevertheless did not findNever Say Never Againany more enjoyable than the recently releasedOctopussy(starring Roger Moore), or \"that either of them came very near to matchingDr. NoorFrom Russia with Love\".Malcolm's main issue with the film was that he had a \"feeling that a constant struggle was going on between a desire to make a huge box-office success and the effort to make character as important as stunts\".Malcolm summed up that \"the mix remains obstinately the same – up to scratch but not surpassing it\".Writing inThe Observer,Philip Frenchnoted that \"this curiously muted film ends up making no contribution of its own and inviting damaging comparisons with the original, hyper-confidentThunderball\".French concluded that \"like an hour-glass full of damp sand, the picture moves with increasing slowness as it approaches a confused climax in the Persian Gulf\". Writing forNewsweek, criticJack Krollthought the early part of the film was handled \"with wit and style\",although he went on to say that the director was \"hamstrung by Lorenzo Semple's script\".Richard Schickel, writing inTime, praised the film and its cast. He wrote that Klaus Maria Brandauer's character was \"played with silky, neurotic charm\",while Barbara Carrera, playing Fatima Blush, \"deftly parodies all the fatal femmes who have slithered through Bond's career\".Schickel's highest praise was saved for the return of Connery, observing \"it is good to see Connery's grave stylishness in this role again. It makes Bond's cynicism and opportunism seem the product of genuine worldliness (and world weariness) as opposed to Roger Moore's mere twirpishness.\" Janet Maslin, writing inThe New York Times, was broadly praising of the film, saying she thought thatNever Say Never Again\"has noticeably more humor and character than the Bond films usually provide. It has a marvelous villain in Largo.\"Maslin also thought highly of Connery in the role, observing that \"inNever Say Never Again, the formula is broadened to accommodate an older, seasoned man of much greater stature, and Mr. Connery expertly fills the bill.\"Writing inThe Washington Post, Gary Arnold was fulsome in his praise, saying thatNever Say Never Againis \"one of the best James Bond adventure thrillers ever made\",going on to say that \"this picture is likely to remain a cherished, savory example of commercial filmmaking at its most astute and accomplished.\"Arnold went further, saying that \"Never Say Never Againis the best acted Bond picture ever made, because it clearly surpasses any predecessors in the area of inventive and clever character delineation\". The critic forThe Globe and Mail,Jay Scott, also praised the film, saying thatNever Say Never Again\"may be the only installment of the long-running series that has been helmed by a first-rate director.\"According to Scott, the director, with high-quality support cast, resulted in the \"classiest of all the Bonds\".Roger Ebertgave the film3+1⁄2out of four stars, and wrote thatNever Say Never Again, while consisting of a basic \"Bond plot\", was different from other Bond films: \"For one thing, there's more of a human element in the movie, and it comes from Klaus Maria Brandauer, as Largo.\"Ebert went on to add, \"there was never aBeatlesreunion ... but here, by God, is Sean Connery as Sir James Bond. Good work, 007.\"Gene SiskelofThe Chicago Tribunealso gave the film 3½ out of four stars, writing that the film was \"one of the best 007 adventures ever made\". Colin GreenlandreviewedNever Say Never AgainforImagine, and stated that \"Never Say Never Againis a complacent male sexist fantasy, where women can be onlyfemmes fatalesor passive victims.\" Retrospective reviews BecauseNever Say Never Againis not an Eon-produced film, it has not been included in a number of subsequent reviews. Norman Wilner ofMSNsaid that 1967'sCasino RoyaleandNever Say Never Again\"exist outside the 'official' continuity, are excluded from this list, just as they're absent fromMGM'smegabox. But take my word for it; they're both pretty awful\".Nevertheless, retrospective reviews of the film remain positive.Rotten Tomatoessampled 55 critics and judged 71% of the reviews as positive, with a top critics' rating of 70%. The site's critical consensus reads: \"While the rehashed story feels rather uninspired and unnecessary, the return of both Sean Connery and a more understated Bond makeNever Say Never Againa watchable retread.\"The score is still more positive than some of the Eon films, with Rotten Tomatoes rankingNever Say Never Again16th among all Bond films in 2008.OnMetacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 68 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating generally favourable reviews.Empiregave the film three of a possible five stars, observing that \"Connery was perhaps wise to call it quits the first time round\".IGNgaveNever Say Never Againa score of five out of ten, claiming that the film \"is more miss than hit\".The reviewer also thought that the film was \"marred with too many clunky exposition scenes and not enough moments of Bond being Bond\". In 1995, Michael Sauter ofEntertainment WeeklyratedNever Say Never Againas the ninth best Bond film to that point, after 17 films had been released. Sauter thought the film \"is successful only as a portrait of an over-the-hill superhero.\" He admitted that \"even past his prime, Connery proves that nobody does it better\".James Berardinelli, in his review ofNever Say Never Again, thinks the re-writing of theThunderballstory has led to a film which has \"a hokey, jokey feel, is possibly the worst-written Bond script of all\".Berardinelli concludes that \"it's a major disappointment that, having lured back the original 007, the film makers couldn't offer him something better than this drawn-out, hackneyed story.\"CriticDanny Pearywrote that \"it was great to see Sean Connery return as James Bond after a dozen years\".He also thought the supporting cast was good, saying that Klaus Maria Brandauer's Largo was \"neurotic, vulnerable ... one of the most complex of Bond's foes\"and that Barbara Carrera and Kim Basinger \"make lasting impressions.\"Peary also wrote that the \"film is exotic, well acted, and stylishly directed ... It would be one of the best Bond films if the finale weren't disappointing. When will filmmakers realize that underwater fight scenes don't work because viewers usually can't tell the hero and villain apart and they know doubles are being used?\" Jim Smith and Stephen Lavington, in their 2002 retrospectiveBond Films, lament: \"The production chaos is visible on screen, with frequently mediocre editing, direction, stunt work and photography all emerging from the restricted budget. At the time,Never Say Never Againgot away with it, thanks to public and critical pleasure at seeing Connery again. Now it is dated, slow and (worst of all) looks cheap, faring badly when compared to even the poorest of the Eon films.\" Legacy Originally,Never Say Never Againwas intended to start a series of Bond films produced by Schwartzman and starring Connery as James Bond, with McClory announcing the next planned film,S.P.E.C.T.R.E, in a February 1984 issue ofScreen International.When Connery announced that he would not reprise his role as Bond in another film produced by Schwartzman three weeks before the deadline to purchase the rights to another film for $5 million, Schwartzman said that he was unlikely to make another film without a deal from MGM/UA and Danjaq. In the 1990s, McClory announced plans to make another adaptation of theThunderballstory starringTimothy DaltonentitledWarhead 2000 AD, but the film was eventually scrapped.In 1997,Sony Picturesacquired McClory's rights for an undisclosed amount,and subsequently announced that it intended to make a series of Bond films, as the company also held the rights toCasino Royale.This move prompted a round of litigation from MGM, which was settled out of court, forcing Sony to give up all claims on Bond; McClory still claimed he would proceed with another Bond film,and continued his case against MGM andDanjaq;on 27 August 2001, the court rejected McClory's suit.McClory died in 2006;MGM's acquisition of the rights toCasino Royalefinally allowed Eon Productions to make a serious, non-satirical film adaptation of that novel the same year, withDaniel Craigas James Bond. Ultimately, in 2013, McClory's heirs sold theThunderballrights to Eon, allowing the company to reintroduce Blofeld to the Eon series in the filmSpectre. On 4 December 1997, MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights toNever Say Never Againfrom Schwartzman's company Taliafilm.The company has since handled the release of both the DVD and Blu-ray editions of the film. See also References Bibliography External links" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/The_Day_of_the_Jackal_(film (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b953ff640>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Edward_Fox_(actor (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b953fee30>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Roger Moore Sir Roger George MooreKBE(14 October 1927 – 23 May 2017) was an English actor. He was the third actor to portray fictional secret agentJames Bondin theEon Productions/MGM Studiosfilm series, playing the character inseven feature films:Live and Let Die(1973),The Man with the Golden Gun(1974),The Spy Who Loved Me(1977),Moonraker(1979),For Your Eyes Only(1981),Octopussy(1983), andA View to a Kill(1985). Moore's seven appearances as Bond are the most of any actor in the Eon-produced entries. On television, Moore played the lead role ofSimon Templar, the title character in the British mystery thriller seriesThe Saint(1962–1969). He also had roles in American series, including Beau Maverick on the WesternMaverick(1960–1961), in which he replacedJames Garneras the lead, and a co-lead, withTony Curtis, in the action-comedyThe Persuaders!(1971–1972). Continuing to act on screen in the decades after his retirement from the Bond franchise, Moore's final appearance was in a pilot for a newSaintseries that", "newSaintseries that became a2017 television film. Moore was appointed aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassadorin 1991 and was knighted byQueen Elizabeth IIin 2003 for services to charity. In 2007, he received a star on theHollywood Walk of Famefor his contributions to the film industry. He was made a Commander of theOrder of Arts and Lettersby the French government in 2008. Early life Roger George Moore was born on 14 October 1927 inStockwell, London.He was the only child of George Alfred Moore (1904–1997), a policeman based inBow Street, London, and Lillian \"Lily\" Pope (1904–1986).His mother was born inCalcutta, India, to an English family.He attendedBattersea Grammar School, but wasevacuatedtoHolsworthyinDevonduring theSecond World War, and attendedLaunceston CollegeinCornwall. He was further educated atDr Challoner's Grammar SchoolinAmersham,Buckinghamshire. Moore was apprenticed to an animation studio, but he was fired after he made a mistake with someanimation cels.When his father investigated a robbery at the home", "robbery at the home of film directorBrian Desmond Hurst, Moore was introduced to the director and hired as an extra for the 1945 filmCaesar and Cleopatra.While there, Moore attracted an off-camera female fan following, and Hurst decided to pay Moore's fees at theRoyal Academy of Dramatic Art. Moore spent three terms at RADA, where he was a classmate of his future Bond co-starLois Maxwell, the originalMiss Moneypenny. During his time there, he developed theMid-Atlantic accentand relaxed demeanour that became his screen persona. At 18, shortly after theend of the Second World War, Moore wasconscriptedfornational service. On 21 September 1946, he wascommissionedinto theRoyal Army Service Corpsas asecond lieutenant.He was an officer in theCombined Services Entertainmentsection, eventually becoming acaptaincommanding a small depot inWest Germany, where he looked after entertainers for the armed forces passing through Hamburg. Career Early work (1945–1953) Moore made his professional debut inAlexander", "debut inAlexander Korda'sPerfect Strangers(1945) alongside actorsRobert Donat,Deborah Kerr, andGlynis Johns.Other early uncredited appearances includeCaesar and Cleopatra(1945),Gaiety George,Piccadilly Incident(both 1946), andTrottie True(1949), in which he appeared alongside an uncreditedChristopher Lee(both actors being cast by Brian Desmond Hurst asstage-door Johnnies). In his bookLast Man Standing: Tales from Tinseltown, Moore states that his first television appearance was on 27 March 1949 inThe GovernessbyPatrick Hamilton, a live broadcast (as usual in that era), in which he played the minor part of Bob Drew.Other actors in the show includedClive MortonandBetty Ann Davies. He had uncredited parts in films includingPaper OrchidandThe Interrupted Journey(both 1949). He was inDrawing-Room Detectiveon TV and appeared in the filmsOne Wild OatandHoneymoon Deferred(both 1951). In the early 1950s Moore worked as a model,appearing in print advertisements in the UK forknitwear(earning him the nickname \"The Big", "nickname \"The Big Knit\")and a wide range of other products such as toothpaste. Moore travelled to the United States and began to work in television. He appeared in adaptations ofJulius CaesarandBlack Chiffon, and in two episodes ofRobert Montgomery Presents, as well as the TV movieThe Clay of Kings(all 1953). MGM (1954–1956) In March 1954,MGMsigned Moore to a seven-year contract.He started his MGM contract with a small role inThe Last Time I Saw Paris(1954), flirting withElizabeth Taylor. He appeared inInterrupted Melody, a biographical movie about opera singerMarjorie Lawrence's recovery from polio, in which he was billed third underGlenn FordandEleanor Parkeras Lawrence's brother Cyril.That same year, he played a supporting role in the swashbucklerThe King's ThiefstarringAnn Blyth,Edmund Purdom,David NivenandGeorge Sanders. In the 1956 filmDiane, Moore was billed third again, this time underLana TurnerandPedro Armendariz, in a 16th-century period piece set in France with Moore playingPrince Henri, the", "Henri, the future king. Moore was released from his MGM contract after two years following the film's critical and commercial failure. In his own words, \"At MGM, RGM was NBG .\" Moore then freelanced for a time, appearing in episodes ofFord Star Jubilee(1956),Lux Video Theatre(1957) andMatinee Theatre(1957). Ivanhoe(1958–1959) Moore's first success was playing the eponymous hero, Sir Wilfred of Ivanhoe, in the 1958–59 seriesIvanhoe, a loose adaptation of the1819 romantic novelbySir Walter Scottset in the 12th century during the era ofRichard the Lionheart, delving into Ivanhoe's conflict withPrince John. Shot mainly in England atElstree StudiosandBuckinghamshire, some of the show was also filmed in California owing to a partnership withColumbia Studios'Screen Gems. Aimed at younger audiences, thepilotwas filmed in colour, a reflection of its comparatively high budget for a British children's adventure series of the period, but subsequent episodes were shot in black and white.Christopher Lee andJohn", "Lee andJohn Schlesingerwere among the show's guest stars, and series regulars includedRobert Brown(who in the 1980s playedMin several James Bond films) as the squire Gurth,Peter Gilmoreas Waldo Ivanhoe,Andrew Keiras villainous Prince John, andBruce Setonas noble King Richard. Moore suffered broken ribs and a battle-axe blow to his helmet while performing some of his own stunts filming a season of 39 half-hour episodes, and later reminisced, \"I felt a complete Charlie riding around in all that armour and damned stupid plumed helmet. I felt like a medieval fireman.\" Warner Bros. (1959–1961) After that, Moore spent a few years mainly doing one-shot parts in television series, including an episode ofAlfred Hitchcock Presentsin 1959 titled \"The Avon Emeralds\". He signed another long-term contract to a studio, this time toWarner Bros. In 1959, he took the lead role inThe Miracle,a version of the playDas Mirakelfor Warner Bros. showcasingCarroll Bakeras a nun. The part had been turned down byDirk Bogarde. That same", "Bogarde. That same year, Moore was directed byArthur Hillerin \"The Angry Young Man\", an episode of the television seriesThe Third ManstarringMichael Rennieas criminal mastermind Harry Lime, the role portrayed byOrson Wellesin thefilm version. The Alaskans(1959–1960) Moore's next television series involved playing the lead as \"Silky\" Harris for theABC/Warner Bros. 1959–60WesternThe Alaskans, with co-starsDorothy Provineas Rocky,Jeff Yorkas Reno, andRay Dantonas Nifty. The show ran for a single season of 37 hour-long episodes on Sunday nights. Though set inSkagway, Alaska, with a focus on theKlondike Gold Rusharound 1896, the series was filmed in the hot studio lot at Warner Bros. in Hollywood with the cast costumed in fur coats and hats. Moore found the work highly taxing, and his off-camera affair with Provine complicated matters even more. Moore later referred to the experience as his \"most appalling television series.\" He subsequently appeared as the questionable character \"14 Karat John\" in the two-part", "in the two-part episode \"Right Off the Boat\" of the ABC/WBcrime dramaThe Roaring 20s—alongsideRex Reason,John Dehner,Gary Vinson, and Dorothy Provine—appearing in a similar role but with a different character name. Maverick(1960–1961) In the wake ofThe Alaskans, Moore was cast asBeau Maverick, anEnglish-accentedcousin of frontier gamblersBret Maverick(James Garner),Bart Maverick(Jack Kelly), andBrent Maverick(Robert Colbert) in the much more successful ABC/WB Western seriesMaverick. Moore appeared as the character in 14 episodes after Garner had left the series at the end of the previous season, wearing some of Garner's costumes; while filmingThe Alaskans, he had already recited much of Garner's dialogue, for the Alaskan series frequently recycledMaverickscripts, changing only the names and locales.He had also filmed aMaverickepisodewith Garner two seasons earlier, in which Moore played a different character, in a retooling ofRichard Brinsley Sheridan's 1775comedy of mannersplayThe Rivals.In the course of", "the course of the story, Moore and Garner's characters switched names on a bet, with Moore consequently identifying himself as \"Bret Maverick\" through most of the episode. Moore's debut as Beau Maverick occurred in the first episode of the 1960–61 fourth season, \"The Bundle from Britain\", one of four episodes in which he shared screen time with cousin Bart (Jack Kelly).Robert Altmanwrote and directed \"Bolt from the Blue\", an episode featuringWill Hutchinsas a frontier lawyer similar to his character in the seriesSugarfoot, and \"Red Dog\" found Beau mixed up with vicious bank robbersLee Van CleefandJohn Carradine.Kathleen Crowleywas Moore'sleading ladyin two episodes (\"Bullet for the Teacher\" and \"Kiz\"), and others includedMala Powers,Roxane Berard,Fay Spain,Merry Anders,Andra Martin, andJeanne Cooper. Upon leaving the series, Moore cited a decline in script quality since the Garner era as the key factor in his decision to depart; ratings for the show were also down.Moore was originally slated to appear with", "to appear with both Jack Kelly and Robert Colbert in the series but by the time Colbert starred in his first episode, Moore had already left the series. Numerous early publicity stills of Kelly, Moore and Colbert posing together exist, however. Moore was still under contract with Warners, who cast him inThe Sins of Rachel Cade(1961), making love to a nun played byAngie Dickinson, andGold of the Seven Saints(1961), supportingClint Walker. He also went to Italy to make the adventure comedyRomulus and the Sabines(1961). The Saint(1962–1969) Lew Gradecast Moore asSimon Templarin a new adaptation ofThe Saint, based on the novels byLeslie Charteris. Moore said in an interview in 1963 that he wanted to buy the rights to Leslie Charteris's character and the trademarks. The television series was broadcast byITVin the UK between 1962 and 1969, and its overseas success made Moore a household name. After the strong performance in the US of the first two series in first-run syndication,NBCpicked up the show in 1966. By", "show in 1966. By early 1967, Moore had achieved international stardom.The series established his suave, quipping style which he carried forward to James Bond, and it also saw him exhibit his trademark raised eyebrow. Francis Blagburn inThe Telegraphwrites, The raised eyebrow is perhaps the hardest facial gesture to perfect in the gentleman's arsenal. Get it right and you give the impression of someone who is in total control; get it wrong and you look like, well, Dwayne 'The Rock' Johnson (and no one wants that). Sir Roger wrote the book in how to raise an eyebrow... as Simon Templar, he coolly infers that he knows, and he knows that you know that he knows. The Saintran from 1962 for six seasons and 118 episodes.Moore went on to direct nine episodes of the later series, which moved into colour in 1967.Several episodes were edited together to form two films,The Saint and the Fiction Makers(1968) andVendetta for the Saint(1969). Post-Saintfilms andThe Persuaders!(1969–1972) He made two films immediately after", "immediately after the series ended:Crossplot(1969), a lightweight 'spy caper' movie, and the more challengingThe Man Who Haunted Himself(1970). Directed byBasil Dearden, it gave Moore the opportunity to demonstrate greater versatility than the role of Simon Templar had allowed.In 2004, Moore said ofThe Man Who Haunted Himself: \"It was one of the few times I was allowed to act... Many say my best role was inThe Man Who Haunted Himself. Being a modest actor, I won't disagree.\" Lew Gradelured Moore to star alongsideTony CurtisinThe Persuaders!. The show featured the adventures of two millionaire playboys across Europe. Moore was paid the then-unheard-of sum of £1 million for a single series, making him the highest-paid television actor in the world.Lew Grade claimed in his autobiography,Still Dancing, that Moore and Curtis \"didn't hit it off all that well\".Curtis refused to spend more time on set than was strictly necessary, while Moore was always willing to work overtime.According to the DVD commentary,", "the DVD commentary, neither Roger Moore, an uncredited co-producer, norRobert S. Baker, the credited producer, ever had a contract other than a handshake with Lew Grade. Despite its focus on the UK and US markets,The Persuaders!became more successful in other international markets.On its premiere on theITVnetwork, it was beaten in the ratings by repeats ofMonty Python's Flying CircusonBBC One. It did however place in the Top 20 most-viewed television series in the UK throughout 1971.The lack of success in the US, where it had been sold to ABC, Curtis put down to its showing at the Saturday 10pm slot, but it was successful in continental Europe and Australia.In Germany, where the series was aired under the nameDie Zwei(\"The Two\"), it became a hit through especially amusingdubbingwhich only barely used translations of the original dialogue. James Bond era (1973–1985) Moore as Bond Moore's Bond was very different from the version created by Ian Fleming and the one portrayed by Connery. Screenwriters such", "Screenwriters such asGeorge MacDonald Fraserprovided scenarios in which Moore was cast as a seasoned, debonair playboy who would always have a trick or gadget in stock when he needed it. This was designed to serve the contemporary taste of the 1970s. Moore's version of Bond was also known for his sense of humour and witty one liners as Moore himself said, \"My personality is different from previous Bonds. I'm not that cold-blooded-killer type. Which is why I play it mostly for laughs.\" Live and Let Die(1973) Due to his commitment to several television shows, in particularThe Saint, Roger Moore was unavailable for the James Bond films for a considerable time. His participation inThe Saintwas as actor, producer, and director, and he also became involved in developing the seriesThe Persuaders!. In 1964, he made a guest appearance as James Bond in the comedy seriesMainly Millicent.Moore stated in his autobiographyMy Word Is My Bond(2008) that he had neither been approached to play the character inDr. No, nor did", "inDr. No, nor did he feel that he had ever been considered. Only afterSean Conneryhad declared in 1966 that he would not play Bond any longer did Moore become aware that he might be a contender for the role.AfterGeorge Lazenbywas cast in 1969'sOn Her Majesty's Secret Serviceand Connery was enticed back to the role of Bond again forDiamonds Are Forever(1971), Moore did not consider the possibility until it seemed clear that Connery had stepped down as Bond for good. At that point, Moore was approached, and he accepted producerAlbert Broccoli's offer in August 1972. In his autobiography, Moore writes that he had to cut his hair and lose weight for the role. Although he resented having to make those changes, he was finally cast as James Bond inLive and Let Die(1973). Moore then madeGold(1974), based on a novel byWilbur Smithfor producerMichael Klingerand directorPeter R. Hunt. He was paid US$200,000 plus a percentage of the profits. The Man with the Golden Gun(1974) Moore made his second Bond film,The Man with", "film,The Man with the Golden Gun(1974), which was a hit, though less successful thanLive and Let Die. It featuredChristopher Leeas the main antagonist. Also appearing areBritt Ekland,Herve Villechaize, andMaud Adams. He then made a comedyThat Lucky Touch(1975) which was a box office disaster. Moore made an Italian-shot action filmStreet People(1976), then went back to South Africa for another Klinger-Hunt movie from a Wilbur Smith novel,Shout at the Devil(1976), which was successful in Britain, though less so in the US. Lee Marvin was a main cast member. Ian Holm was also featured, as well asBarbara Parkins. The Spy Who Loved Me(1977) Moore returned for a third outing as Bond inThe Spy Who Loved Me(1977), which was a massive box-office success. It also starredBarbara BachandRichard Kielin his first appearance as the villainJaws.He returned to South Africa for a third action movie shot there,The Wild Geese(1978), produced byEuan Lloydand directed byAndrew V. McLaglen. It was a sizeable hit in Britain and", "hit in Britain and Europe but, likeShout at the Devil, less so in the US.The cast featuredRichard Burton, who had top billing, and Richard Harris. Moore played the lead inEscape to Athena(1979) partly financed by Lew Grade. It was a heist adventure set in war-time Greece, and starsTelly Savalasand David Niven, and features mostly American character actors, includingElliott Gould,Stefanie Powers,Richard Roundtree,Sonny Bono, and Italian actressClaudia Cardinale. Roger Moore (with top billing) plays a charming former Austrian antiquities dealer turned crooked camp commandant, asked to guard Greek antiquities desired by the Third Reich, and also guard the collection of archaeologists who are being forced to work to find and recover these objects, but he has other plans for the treasure he guards and for the people under his watch. Moonraker(1979) Moore followed the success of his fourth outing as Bond,Moonraker(1979), with an action film,North Sea Hijack(1980), also known asffolkes. Moore played a very", "Moore played a very un-Bond-like hero, oppositeAnthony Perkins. The film was a box-office disappointment. Better received wasThe Sea Wolves(1980), another World War Two adventure which reunited many of the crew fromThe Wild Geeseincluding Euan Lloyd and McLaglen. It was based on the true story of a March 1943 event in British India and Portuguese Goa, in which a group of retired members of theCalcutta Light Horse, colonelled by David Niven's character, assist regular British Army operatives, played by Moore andGregory Peck, in destroying German ships in neutralMormugaoharbour, all the time surrounded by German spies and Indian nationalist intrigue.Trevor Howard,Patrick Macnee, andBarbara Kellermanalso co-star, with a who's-who lineup of British character actors. Moore was in two all-star comedies:Sunday Lovers(1980), which flopped at the box office, andThe Cannonball Run(1981), which was a hit. The latter featured an ensemble cast, includingJackie Chan,Burt Reynolds,Dean Martin,Dom DeLuise,Sammy Davis Jr,", "Davis Jr, andFarrah Fawcett. For Your Eyes Only(1981) Moore returned for his fifth outing as Bond inFor Your Eyes Only(1981). Octopussy(1983) Following the filmFor Your Eyes Only, Moore expressed a desire to leave the role, and other actors were screen tested includingJames Brolin, but Moore was eventually enticed back forOctopussy(1983). The circumstances aroundOctopussy's release were highly unusual in that another James Bond film was being released in the same year. Spearheaded byThunderballproducerKevin McClory(who retained film rights to the property because the antecedent 1961Ian Flemingnovel was based on an unfilmed 1959 screenplay produced under the aegis of McClory,Jack Whittinghamand Fleming), the non-Eon productionNever Say Never Againfeatured his predecessorSean Conneryreturning to the role of Bond. Although tantamount to a loose remake ofThunderball, it was not set in the continuity of the previous Eon Bond films. This led to the media dubbing the one-time situation the \"Battle of the Bonds\". He", "of the Bonds\". He made a cameo as ChiefInspector Clouseau, posing as a famous movie star, inCurse of the Pink Panther(1983) (for which he was credited as \"Turk Thrust II\"). Then he tried a thrillerThe Naked Face(1984), written and directed byBryan Forbes. A View to a Kill(1985) Moore starred in his final Bond film,A View to a Kill(1985). He was the oldest actor to have played Bond – he was 45 inLive and Let Die, and 58 when he announced his retirement on 3 December 1985, having played the part for over 12 years. With 7 films Moore holds the record for playing Bond the most times in the Eon series but is tied with Sean Connery in number of times playing Bond when counting Connery's non-Eon appearance inNever Say Never Again(1983). In 1987, he hostedHappy Anniversary 007: 25 Years of James Bond. Post-James Bond career (1986–2017) Moore did not act on screen for five years after he stopped playing Bond; in 1990, he appeared in several films and in the writer-directorMichael Feeney Callan's television seriesMy", "television seriesMy Rivieraand starred in the filmBed & Breakfastwhich was shot in 1989;and also had a large role in the 1996 filmThe Quest; in 1997, he starred as the Chief inSpice World.At the age of 73, he played a flamboyant homosexual man inBoat Trip(2002) withCuba Gooding Jr. The British satirical puppet showSpitting Imagehad a sketch in which theirlatexlikeness of Moore, when asked to display emotions by an offscreen director, did nothing but raise an eyebrow; Moore himself stated that he thought the sketch was funny and took it in good humour. Indeed, he had always embraced the \"eyebrows\" gag wholeheartedly, and quipped that he \"only had three expressions as Bond: right eyebrow raised, left eyebrow raised, and eyebrows crossed when grabbed byJaws\".Spitting Imagecontinued the joke, featuring a Bond film spoof,The Man with the Wooden Delivery, with Moore's puppet receiving orders fromMargaret Thatcherto killMikhail Gorbachev. Other comedy shows at that time ridiculed Moore's acting, withRory", "acting, withRory Bremneronce claiming to have had a death threat from one of his irate fans following one such routine. In a nod to his 1960s TV show, Moore had a vocal cameo inThe Saint(1997) as a radio newsreader as Simon Templar drives away at the end of the film. In the year 2000, he played the role of a secret agent in the Christmas specialVictoria Wood with All the Trimmings, shown on BBC One on Christmas Day. Filming all his scenes in theLondon Eye, his mission was to eliminate another agent whose file photo looks like Pierce Brosnan. In 2002 he had a small cameo role in the Germanpolice proceduralseriesTatort(episode 506: \"Schatten\" – \"Shadow\", 28 July 2002) as himself signing an autograph on a Unicef card. In the 1981 filmThe Cannonball Run, Moore played Seymour Goldfarb, a parody of both himself and James Bond, driving anAston Martin DB5. In support of his charitable work for UNICEF, Moore lent his voice to the character of the magic snowman, Lumi Ukko, for a 1990 feature film produced by Pavlina", "produced by Pavlina Ltd/FIT. The film is UNICEF-endorsed and is dedicated to the \"world’s children\".A recently published audio book entitled,The Magic Snowman and The Rusty Ice Skatesfeatures his voice. His daughter, actressDeborah More, narrated the book in honor of her father’s legacy and his work for UNICEF. 20 percent of the book’s proceeds are pledged to the organization. In 2009, Moore appeared in an advertisement for thePost Office. In 2010, he provided the voice of a talking cat calledLazenbyin the filmCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galorewhich contained several references to, and parodies of, Bond films. In 2011, he co-starred in the filmA Princess for ChristmaswithKatie McGrathandSam Heughan, and in 2012, he took to the stage for a series of seven 'Evenings with' in UK theatres and, in November, guest-hostedHave I Got News for You.A slightly thinner-faced Moore contributed to a charity song in 2017. His last on-screen performance was in 2017, a brief appearance near the end of the remake ofThe", "of the remake ofThe Saint. In 2015, Moore was named one ofGQ's 50 best-dressed British men.In 2015, he readHans Christian Andersen's \"The Princess and the Pea\" for the children's fairy tales app GivingTales in aid ofUNICEFwith other British celebrities, includingMichael Caine,Ewan McGregor,Joan Collins,Stephen Fry,Joanna Lumley,David Walliams,Charlotte Rampling,Paul McKenna, andMichael Ball. Humanitarian work Moore's friendAudrey Hepburnhad impressed him with her work for UNICEF, and consequently he became aUNICEF Goodwill Ambassadorin August 1991.His character,Simon Templar, made a pitch for UNICEF near the end of \"The Revolution Racket\",airing 5 November 1964. He was the voice of Father Christmas or 'Santa' in the 2004 UNICEF cartoonThe Fly Who Loved Me. Personal life Doorn Van Steyn In 1946, aged 18, Moore married a fellow RADA student, the actress and ice skater Doorn Van Steyn (born Lucy Woodard), who was six years his senior;Moore and Van Steyn lived in Streatham with her family, but tension over money", "tension over money matters and her lack of confidence in his acting ability took their toll on the relationship,during which he allegedly suffereddomestic abuse. Dorothy Squires In 1952, Moore met the Welsh singerDorothy Squires, who was 12 years his senior, and Van Steyn and Moore divorced the following year.Squires and Moore were married in New York.They lived inBexley,Kent, after their wedding. They moved to the United States in 1954 to develop their careers, but tension developed in their marriage due to their age difference and Moore's infatuation with starletDorothy Provine, and they moved back to the United Kingdom in 1961, where they resided inSutton Coldfield, nearBirmingham.Squires suffered a series of miscarriages during their marriage, and Moore later said the outcome of their marriage might have been different if they had been able to have children. During their tempestuous relationship Squires smashed a guitar over his head, and after learning of his affair with the Italian actressLuisa", "actressLuisa Mattioli, who became Moore's third wife, Moore said, \"She threw a brick through my window. She reached through the glass and grabbed my shirt and she cut her arms doing it...The police came and they said, 'Madam, you're bleeding' and she said, 'It's my heart that's bleeding'.\"Squires intercepted letters from Mattioli to Moore and planned to include them in her autobiography, but the couple won injunctions against the publication in 1977, which led Squires to unsuccessfully sue them for loss of earnings.The numerous legal cases launched by Squires led her to be declared avexatious litigantin 1987.Moore paid Squires's hospital bills after her cancer treatment in 1996; she died in 1998. Luisa Mattioli In 1961, while filmingThe Rape of the Sabine Womenin Italy, Moore left Squires for the Italian actress Luisa Mattioli.Squires refused to accept their separation, and sued Moore for loss ofconjugal rights, but Moore refused the court's order to return to Squires in 28 days.Squires also smashed windows", "smashed windows at a house in France where Moore and Mattioli were living, and unsuccessfully sued actorKenneth Morefor libel, as Kenneth More had introduced Moore and Mattioli at a charity event as \"Mr Roger Moore and his wife\".Moore and Mattioli lived together until 1969, when Squires finally granted him a divorce, after they had been separated for seven years.At Moore's and Mattioli's marriage in April 1969 at theCaxton Hallin Westminster, London, a crowd of 600 people was outside, with women screaming his name. Moore had three children with Mattioli: actress-daughterDeborah(b. 27 October 1963) and two sons, Geoffrey (b. 28 July 1966) and Christian (b. 23 August 1973).Geoffrey is also an actor, and appeared alongside his father in the filmsSherlock Holmes in New York(1976) andFire, Ice and Dynamite(1990). In later life, he co-founded Hush Restaurant inMayfair, London, withJamie Barber,and would release a single in 2023 under the name Jaffa Moore called \"You and I\" which featured vocals from the late Glee", "from the late Glee actorNaya Riveraand included host of stars in the music video miming along to the song.Geoffrey and his wife Loulou have two daughters. Moore's younger son, Christian, is a film producer and has four children: a daughter from his first marriage to Heidi Moore, and two sons and a daughter from his second marriage to Lara Sidawi. Kristina \"Kiki\" Tholstrup Moore and Mattioli separated in 1993 after Moore developed feelings for a Swedish-born Danish socialite, Kristina \"Kiki\" Tholstrup.Moore later described hisprostate cancerdiagnosis in 1993 as \"life-changing\", which led him to reassess his life and marriage.Mattioli and Tholstrup had long been friends, but Mattioli was scathing of her in the book she subsequently wrote about her relationship with Moore,Nothing Lasts Forever, describing how she felt betrayed by Tholstrup and discarded by Moore. Moore remained silent on his divorce from Mattioli, later saying that he did not wish to hurt his children by \"engaging in a war of words\".Moore's", "of words\".Moore's children refused to speak to him for a period after the divorce, but they were later reconciled with their father.Mattioli refused to grant Moore a divorce until 2000, when a £10 million settlement was agreed.Moore subsequently married Tholstrup in 2002.Moore said that he loved Tholstrup as she was \"organised\", \"serene\", \"loving\", and \"calm\", saying, \"I have a difficult life. I rely on Kristina totally. When we are travelling for my job, she is the one who packs. Kristina takes care of all that\".Moore also said that his marriage to Tholstrup was \"a tranquil relationship, there are no arguments\".Tholstrup had two children, Hans-Christian Knudsen Jr. and Christina Knudsen, from a previous marriage; Christina described her stepfather as a positive influence, saying, \"I was in difficult relationships but that all changed\" when her mother met Moore. Christina Knudsen died from cancer on 25 July 2016, at the age of 47; Moore posted onTwitter, \"We are heartbroken\" and \"We were all with her,", "were all with her, surrounding her with love, at the end\". Political views On politics, Moore stated he was aconservativeand thought thatconservatismis the way to run a country.He was described as a \"lifelong\" supporter of theConservative Partyand endorsed the party during the2001 UK general election.However, Moore also expressed a reluctance to be seen as an overtly political figure and felt his work withUNICEFmeant that he could not involve himself directly in politics. In 2011, Moore expressed his support to Conservative Prime MinisterDavid Cameronregarding his policy on theEuropean Union, stating: \"I think he's doing absolutely wonderfully well, despite the opposition from many members of his own party. Traitors, I call them. I mean any hardliner within the Conservative Party who speaks out against their leader. You should support your leader.\" Moore also expressed support for Britain keeping thepound sterlingas its national currency and was glad the British government had not joined thesingle EU", "joined thesingle EU currency, stating: \"I would have been very upset if we'd had to takethe Queenoff our currency. They'd probably have to take her off the stamps and everything. I am British and I'm fiercely independent. And I think we should be independent, asSean Conneryis about Scotland.\" In 2015, Moore criticised what he regarded as excessivepolitical correctnesswithin the film industry and felt that rewritingJames Bond's sexuality, gender or ethnicity would be a mistake, arguing \"it is not about being homophobic or, for that matter, racist – it is simply about being true to the character.\"Despite his conservative politics, Moore retained membership of the entertainment and media trade unionBECTU(now part of Prospect) until his death, having joined as an apprentice animation technician before his acting career took off. At his death, he was the union's longest-tenured member.In 2007, Moore also voiced his support to workers from theCadburychocolate factory atKeynshamwho were protesting against the", "against the plant's closure. Tax exile Moore became atax exilefrom the United Kingdom in 1978, originally to Switzerland, and divided his year between his four homes: an apartment inMonte Carlo, a holiday house in the coastalTuscantown ofCastiglione della Pescaia, a chalet inCrans-Montana, Switzerland, and a home inSaint-Paul-de-Vence, France.Moore became a resident of Monaco, having been appointed a Goodwill Ambassador of Monaco byPrince Albert IIfor his efforts in internationally promoting and publicising the principality.Moore was scathing of the Russian population in Monaco, saying, \"I'm afraid we're overstuffed with Russians. All the restaurant menus are in Russian now.\" Moore was vocal in his defence of his tax exile status, saying that in the 1970s, with taxes levied on top earners under theLabourgovernment ofJames Callaghan, he had been urged by his \"accountants, agents, and lawyers\" to move abroad because, \"At that point we were taxed up to 98% onunearned income, so you would never be able to save", "be able to save enough to ensure that you had any sort of livelihood if you didn't work.\"Moore said in 2011 that his decision to live abroad was \"not about tax. That's a serious part of it. I come back to England often enough not to miss it, to see the changes, to find some of the changes good...I paid my taxes at the time that I was earning a decent income, so I've paid my due\". Illness and death Moore had a series of diseases during his childhood, includingchickenpox,measles,mumps,double pneumoniaandjaundice,and had hisappendix,tonsils, andadenoidsremoved. Moore was a long-term sufferer ofkidney stonesand as a result was briefly hospitalised during the making ofLive and Let Diein 1973and again whilst filming the 1979 filmMoonraker. In 1993, Moore was diagnosed withprostate cancerand underwent successful treatment for the disease. In 2003, Moore collapsed on stage while appearing on Broadway,and was fitted with apacemakerto treat a potentially deadly slow heartbeat.He was diagnosed withtype 2 diabetesin", "2 diabetesin 2013.Some years before his final cancer illness, a tumour spot was found in his liver. Then, in 2017, during the period that he was treated for cancer, he fell, badly injuring hiscollarbone. Moore died in the presence of his family at his home inCrans-Montana,Switzerland, on 23 May 2017, fromcancersof the lung and liver.Former 007 actorsSean Connery,George Lazenby,Timothy Dalton,Pierce BrosnanandDaniel Craigpaid tribute to Moore. Moore is buried inMonaco Cemetery. Royal circles Moore had friendships with some of Denmark's royal family;Prince Joachimand his then-wifeAlexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg, invited Moore and his wife Kiki to attend the christening of their youngest son,Prince Felix. In 2004 he attended theWedding of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark, and Mary Donaldson. On 24 May 2008, Moore and his wife attended the wedding of Prince Joachim to his French fiancéeMarie Cavallier. Moore also had a long-standing friendship withPrincess Lilianof Sweden, whom he first met on a visit to", "met on a visit to Stockholm for UNICEF. Moore's wife Kristina, who was born in Sweden, was already a friend of Princess Lilian's through mutual friends. In his autobiography, Moore recalled meeting the princess for tea and dinners whenever his wife and he visited Stockholm. He spoke of his recollections at the princess's memorial service atSt Peter and St Sigfrid's Churchin Stockholm, on 8 September 2013. On 1 and 2 July 2011, Moore and his wife attendedthe weddingofAlbert II, Prince of MonacoandCharlene Wittstock. Awards and legacy \"Most people settle on Sir Roger Moore or Sir Sean Connery as their favourite Bond. Why Moore? Because he was Bond incarnate, and then some. He was the quintessential Englishman, somewhere between gentleman and jester – a slick, schmaltzy, suave provocateur. He handled the tone of the role perfectly, pitching his delivery somewhere between the camp kitsch of Piers Brosnan and the smouldering cool of Connery. Moore's 007 was, in a word, fun: never above a wry laugh, preferably", "laugh, preferably with a dry Martini in hand.\" — Francis Blagburn writing inThe Telegraph, May 2017. Moore was appointed Commander of theOrder of the British Empire(CBE) in the1999 New Year Honoursand was promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the2003 Birthday Honoursfor charitable services, especially UNICEF and latterlyKiwanis International, which had dominated his public life for more than a decade.On being knighted, Moore said that the citation \"meant far more to me than if I had got it for acting... I was proud because I received it on behalf of UNICEF as a whole and for all it has achieved over the years\". On 11 October 2007, three days before he turned 80, Moore was awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famefor his work on television and in film. Attending the ceremony were family, friends, andRichard Kiel, with whom he had acted inThe Spy Who Loved MeandMoonraker. Moore's star was the 2,350th star installed, and is appropriately located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard.", "Boulevard. On 28 October 2008, the French government appointed Moore aCommanderof theOrdre des Arts et des Lettres.On 21 November 2012, Moore was awarded an honorary doctorate from theUniversity of Hertfordshirefor his outstanding contributions to the UK film and television industry for over 50 years, in particular film and television productions in Hertfordshire. After his death, the Roger Moore Stage was opened atPinewood Studiosat a ceremony held in October 2017 to celebrate his life and work.His wife and family were in attendance along with Bond producersMichael G WilsonandBarbara Broccoli, and guests at the event includedJoan Collins,Michael Caine,Stephen Fry,Tim RiceandStefanie Powers. In the 2018 filmMy Dinner with Hervé, Moore was portrayed by actorMark Umbers. For his charity work Lifetime achievements awards For his acting In popular culture Filmography Film roles Television roles Publications Moore's book about the filming ofLive and Let Die, based on his diaries, titledRoger Moore as James Bond:", "as James Bond: Roger Moore's Own Account of Filming Live and Let Die, was published in London in 1973, by Pan Books.The book includes an acknowledgment to Sean Connery, with whom Moore was friends for many years: \"I would also like to thank Sean Connery –withwhom it would not have been possible.\" Moore'sautobiographyMy Word is My Bond(ISBN0061673889) was published byCollinsin the US, in November 2008 and by Michael O'Mara Books Ltd in the UK, on 2 October 2008 (ISBN9781843173182). On 16 October 2012,Bond on Bondwas published to tie in with the 50th anniversary of the James Bond films. The book, with many pictures, is based on Moore's own memories, thoughts, and anecdotes about all things 007, with some of the profits of the book going to UNICEF. Books References External links", "Never Say Never Again Never Say Never Againis a 1983spy filmdirected byIrvin Kershner. The film is based on the 1961James BondnovelThunderballbyIan Fleming, which in turn was based on an original story byKevin McClory,Jack Whittingham, and Fleming. The novel had been previously adapted as the 1965 filmThunderball.Never Say Never Againis the second and most recentJames Bondfilm not to be produced byEon Productions(the usual producer of the Bond series) but instead byJack Schwartzman's Taliafilm, and was distributed byWarner Bros.The film was executive produced by Kevin McClory, one of the original writers of theThunderballstoryline. McClory had retained the filming rights of the novel following along legal battledating from the 1960s. Sean Conneryplayed the role of Bond for the seventh and final time, marking his return to the character twelve years afterDiamonds Are Forever(1971). The film's title is a reference to Connery's reported declaration in 1971 that he would \"never again\" play that role. As Connery", "role. As Connery was 52 at the time of filming, the script makes frequent reference to Bond as aging and past his prime – although ironically, Connery was three years younger than his replacement,Roger Moore. The storyline features Bond being reluctantly brought back into action to investigate the theft of two nuclear weapons bySPECTRE. Filming locations included France, Spain, the Bahamas andElstree Studiosin the United Kingdom. Never Say Never Againwas released byWarner Bros.on 7 October 1983, and opened to positive reviews, with the performances of Connery andKlaus Maria Brandauersingled out for praise as more emotionally resonant than the typical Bond films of the day. The film grossed $160 million at the box office, making it a commercial success, although it earned less overall than the Eon-producedOctopussy, released earlier the same year. Plot AfterMI6agent James Bond fails a routine training exercise, his superiorMorders him to a health clinic outside London to get back into shape. While there, Bond", "While there, Bond witnesses nurse Fatima Blush giving asadomasochisticbeating to a patient in a nearby room. The man's face is bandaged and after Blush finishes her beating, he uses a machine whichscans his eye. Bond is spotted by Blush, who sends assassin Lippe to kill him in the clinic gym. Bond kills Lippe in a fight which destroys a lot of the clinic's furniture and equipment; M is forced to pay for the resulting damages and consequently suspends Bond from active duty. Blush works forSPECTRE, a criminal organisation run byErnst Stavro Blofeld; her charge isheroin-addictedUnited States Air Forcepilot Jack Petachi. Petachi has undergone an operation on his right eye to make it match theretinalpattern of theUS President, which he uses to circumvent security at RAF Station Swadley, anAmerican military base inEngland. While doing so, he replaces the dummywarheadsof twoAGM-86Bcruise missileswith liveW80 nuclear warheads; SPECTRE then steals the warheads, intending to extort billions of dollars", "billions of dollars fromNATOgovernments. Blush murders Petachi by causing his car to crash and explode, covering SPECTRE's tracks. Foreign SecretaryLord Ambrose orders a reluctant M to reactivate thedouble-0 section, and Bond is tasked with tracking down the missing weapons. Bond follows a lead to theBahamasand findsDomino Petachi, Jack's sister, and her wealthy lover Maximillian Largo, who is SPECTRE's top agent. When Largo's yacht heads forNice, France, Bond goes there and joins forces with his French contact Nicole, and hisCIAcounterpart,Felix Leiter. Bond goes to a health and beauty centre, posing as an employee. He gives a massage to Domino, who reveals that Largo is hosting an event at a casino that evening. At the charity event, Largo and Bond play a video game calledDomination; the losing player of each turn receiveselectric shocksof increasing intensity in proportion to the amount wagered. After losing a few games, Bond wins, and while dancing with Domino, he informs her that Jack had been killed on", "had been killed on Largo's orders. Returning to his villa, Bond finds Nicole killed by Blush. After achaseon his Q-branch motorbike, Bond finds himself in an ambush and is captured by Blush. She admits to being impressed with him, and forces Bond to declare in writing that she is his \"Number One\" sexual partner. Bond distracts her with promises, then uses his Q-branch fountainpen gunto kill Blush with an explosive dart. Bond and Leiter attempt to board Largo's yacht, theFlying Saucer, in search of the missing nuclear warheads. Bond finds Domino and attempts to make Largo jealous by kissing her in front of aone-way mirror. Enraged, Largo traps Bond and takes him and Domino to Palmyra, Largo's base of operations inNorth Africa. Largo punishes Domino for her betrayal by selling her to passing Arabs. Bond escapes from his prison and rescues her. Domino and Bond reunite with Leiter on aU.S. Navysubmarine. After the first warhead is found and defused in Washington, D.C., they track Largo to the Tears of Allah, a", "Tears of Allah, a location below a desertoasison theEthiopiancoast. Bond and Leiter infiltrate the underground facility and a gun battle erupts between Leiter's team and Largo's men in the temple. In the confusion, Largo makes a getaway with the second warhead. Bond catches and fights him underwater. Just as Largo tries to use a spear gun to shoot Bond, he is shot with a spear gun by Domino, taking revenge for Jack's death. Bond then defuses the nuclear bomb underwater, saving the world. Bond retires from duty and returns to the Bahamas with Domino, vowing never again to be a secret agent although Domino doubts his sincerity. Cast Production Never Say Never Againhad its origins in the early 1960s, following thecontroversy over the 1961Thunderballnovel.Fleming had worked with independent producer Kevin McClory and scriptwriter Jack Whittingham on a script for a potential Bond film, to be calledLongitude 78 West,which was subsequently abandoned because of the costs involved.Fleming, \"always reluctant to let a", "reluctant to let a good idea lie idle\",turned this into the novelThunderball, for which he did not credit either McClory or Whittingham;McClory then took Fleming to theHigh Courtin London for breach of copyright,and the matter was settled in 1963.AfterEon Productionsstarted producing the Bond films, it subsequently made a deal with McClory, who would produceThunderball, and then not make any further version of the novel for a period of ten years, following the release of the Eon-produced version in 1965. In the mid-1970s, McClory again started working on a second adaptation ofThunderballand, with the working titleWarhead, he brought writerLen Deightontogether with Sean Connery to work on a script.A lawsuit with Eon Productions ended in a ruling that McClory owned the sole rights to SPECTRE and Blofeld, forcing Eon to remove them fromThe Spy Who Loved Me(1977).The script initially focused on SPECTRE shooting down aircraft over theBermuda Triangle, before taking overLiberty IslandandEllis Islandas staging", "Islandas staging areas for an invasion ofNew York Citythrough the sewers underWall Street. The script was purchased byParamount Picturesin 1978.The script ran into difficulties, after accusations fromDanjaqandUnited Artiststhat the project had gone beyond copyright restrictions, which confined McClory to a film based only on the novelThunderball; once again, the project was delayed. Towards the end of the 1970s, developments were reported on the project under the nameJames Bond of the Secret Service,but when producerJack Schwartzmanbecame involved in 1980, and cleared a number of the legal issues that still surrounded the project,he decided against using Deighton's script. The project returned to the original nuclear terrorism plot of the originalThunderball, in order to avoid another lawsuit from Danjaq, and after McClory sawJimmy Cartermention the issue in a1980 presidential debatewithRonald Reagan.Schwartzman brought on board scriptwriterLorenzo Semple, Jr.to work on the screenplay. Schwartzman wanted him", "wanted him to make the screenplay \"somewhere in the middle\" between his campier projects such asBatman, and his more serious projects such asThree Days of the Condor.Connery was unhappy with some aspects of the script, and askedTom Mankiewicz, who had rewrittenDiamonds Are Forever, to work on it; however, Mankiewicz declined, as he felt he was under a moral obligation toAlbert R. Broccoli.Semple Jr. ultimately left the project, after Irvin Kershner was hired as director, and Schwartzman began cutting out the \"big numbers\" from his script to save on the budget.Connery then hired British television writersDick ClementandIan La Frenaisto undertake re-writes, although they went uncredited for their efforts, despite much of the final shooting script being theirs. This was because of a restriction by theWriters Guild of America.Clement and La Frenais continued rewriting during the production, often altering it from day to day. The film underwent one final change in title: after Connery had finished filmingDiamonds", "filmingDiamonds Are Forever, he had pledged that he would \"never again\" play Bond.Connery's wife, Micheline, suggested the titleNever Say Never Again, referring to her husband's vow,and the producers acknowledged her contribution by listing on the end credits \"TitleNever Say Never Againby Micheline Connery\". A final attempt by Fleming's trustees to block the film was made in the High Court in London in the spring of 1983, but this was thrown out by the court andNever Say Never Againwas permitted to proceed. Cast and crew When producer Kevin McClory had first planned the film in 1964, he held initial talks withRichard Burtonfor the part of Bond,although the project came to nothing because of the legal issues involved. When theWarheadproject was launched in the late 1970s, a number of actors were mentioned in the trade press, includingOrson Wellesfor the part of Blofeld,Trevor Howardto play M andRichard Attenboroughas director. In 1978, the working titleJames Bond of the Secret Servicewas being used and", "being used and Connery was in the frame once again, potentially going head-to-head with the next Eon Bond film,Moonraker.By 1980, with legal issues again causing the project to founder,Connery thought himself unlikely to play the role, as he stated in an interview in theSunday Express: \"When I first worked on the script with Len I had no thought of actually being in the film.\"When producer Jack Schwartzman became involved, he asked Connery to play Bond; Connery agreed, negotiating a fee of $3 million ($9 million in 2023 dollars), casting and script approval, and a percentage of the profits.Subsequent to Connery reprising the role, Semple altered the script to include several references to Bond's advancing years – playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming– and academic Jeremy Black has pointed out that there are other aspects of age and disillusionment in the film, such as the Shrubland's porter referring to Bond's car (\"They don't make them like that anymore\"), the new M having no use for the 00", "no use for the 00 section and Q with his reduced budgets.Originally, Semple wanted to emphasize Bond's age even further, writing the script to include him in semi-retirement working aboard aScottishfishing trawlerhuntingSoviet Navysubmarinesin theNorth Sea.Connery's casting was formally announced in March 1983.. He trained withSteven Seagalto help get in shape for the production. For the main villain in the film, Maximillian Largo, Connery suggested Klaus Maria Brandauer, the lead of the 1981Academy Award-winning Hungarian filmMephisto.Through the same route cameMax von Sydowas Ernst Stavro Blofeld,although he still retained his Eon-originated white cat in the film.For thefemme fatale, director Irvin Kershner selected former model andPlayboycover girlBarbara Carrerato play Fatima Blush – the name coming from one of the early scripts ofThunderball.Carrera said she modeled her performance on theHindugoddessKali, and to \"mix that in with a little bit ofblack widowand a little bit ofpraying mantis.\"Carrera's", "mantis.\"Carrera's performance as Fatima Blush earned her aGolden Globe Awardnomination forBest Supporting Actress,which she lost toCherfor her role inSilkwood.Micheline Connery, Sean's wife, had met up-and-coming actress Kim Basinger at theGrosvenor House Hotelin London and suggested her to Connery; he agreed after Dalila Di Lazzaro refused the Domino role. For the role of Felix Leiter, Connery spoke with Bernie Casey, saying that, as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences, using a black Leiter might make him more memorable.Others cast included comedianRowan Atkinson, who would later parody Bond in his role ofJohnny Englishin 2003.Atkinson's character was added by Clement and La Frenais after the production had already started, in order to provide the film with a comic relief.Edward Fox was cast as M in order to portray the character as a young technocrat in contrast to the older portrayal byBernard Lee, and to parody theThatcherministry's budget cuts to government services. Connery wanted to", "Connery wanted to persuadeRichard Donnerto direct the film, but after their meeting, Donner decided he disliked the script.Former Eon Productions' editor and director ofOn Her Majesty's Secret Service,Peter R. Hunt, was approached to direct the film, but declined due to his previous work with Eon.Irvin Kershner, who had previously worked with Connery onA Fine Madness(1966), and had achieved success in 1980 withThe Empire Strikes Back, was then hired. A number of the crew from the 1981 filmRaiders of the Lost Arkwere also appointed, including first assistant directorDavid Tomblin,director of photographyDouglas Slocombe, second unit directorMickey Mooreandproduction designersPhilip Harrison andStephen Grimes. Filming Filming forNever Say Never Againbegan on 27 September 1982 on theFrench Rivierafor two months,before moving toNassau, the Bahamas in mid-November,where filming took place at Clifton Pier, which was also one of the locations used inThunderball.Largo's Palmyran fortress was actually historicFort", "historicFort CarréinAntibes.Largo's ship, theFlying Saucer, was portrayed by the yachtKingdom 5KR, then owned by Saudi billionaireAdnan Khashoggiand calledNabila.The underwater scenes were filmed byRicou Browning, who had coordinated the underwater scenes in the originalThunderball.Principal photography finished atElstree Studios, where interior shots were filmed.Elstree also housed the Tears of Allah underwater cavern, which took three months to construct, while the Shrublands health spa was filmed atLuton Hoo.Most of the filming was completed in the spring of 1983, although there was some additional shooting during the summer of 1983. Production on the film was troubled,with Connery taking on many of the production duties with assistant director David Tomblin.Director Irvin Kershner was critical of producer Jack Schwartzman, saying that, while he was a good businessman, \"he didn't have the experience of a film producer\".After the production ran out of money, Schwartzman had to fund further production out", "production out of his own pocket, and later admitted he had underestimated the amount the film would cost to make.There was tension on set between Schwartzman and Connery, who at times barely spoke to each other. Connery was unimpressed with the perceived lack of professionalism behind the scenes, and was on record as saying that the whole production was a \"bloodyMickey Mouseoperation!\" Steven Seagal, who was a martial arts instructor for this film, broke Connery's wrist while training. On an episode ofThe Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Connery revealed he did not know his wrist was broken until over a decade later. Music James Hornerwas both Kershner's and Schwartzman's first choice to compose the score, after they were impressed with his work onStar Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. Horner, who worked in London for most of the time, was unavailable, according to Kershner, though Schwartzman later claimed Sean Connery vetoed him. Frequent Bond composerJohn Barrywas invited, but declined out of loyalty to Eon.The", "loyalty to Eon.The music forNever Say Never Againwas ultimately written byMichel Legrand, who composed a score similar to his work as ajazz pianist.The score has been criticised as \"anachronistic and misjudged\",\"bizarrely intermittent\"and \"the most disappointing feature of the film\".Legrand also wrote the main theme \"Never Say Never Again\", which featured lyrics byAlan and Marilyn Bergman— who had also worked with Legrand on the Academy Award-winning song \"The Windmills of Your Mind\"— and was performed byLani HallafterBonnie Tyler, who disliked the song, had reluctantly declined. Phyllis Hymanalso recorded a potential theme song, with music written by Stephen Forsyth and lyrics by Jim Ryan, but the song — an unsolicited submission — was passed over, given Legrand's contractual obligations with the music. Legal substitutions Many of the elements of the Eon-produced Bond films were not present inNever Say Never Againfor legal reasons. These included thegun barrel sequence, where a screen full of 007 symbols", "full of 007 symbols appeared instead, and similarly there was no \"James Bond Theme\" to use, although no effort was made to supply another tune.A pre-credits sequence was filmed but not used;instead, the film opens with the credits running over the top of the sequence of Bond on a training mission. Release and reception Never Say Never Againopened on 7 October 1983 in 1,550 theatres, grossing an October record $10,958,157 over the four-dayColumbus Dayweekend,which was reported to be \"the best opening record of any James Bond film\" up to that point,surpassingOctopussy's $8.9 million from June that year. The film had its UK premiere at the Warner West End cinema inLeicester Squareon 14 December 1983.Worldwide,Never Say Never Againgrossed $160 million,which was a solid return on the budget of $36 million.The film ultimately earned less thanOctopussy, which grossed $187.5 million.It was the first James Bond film to be officially released in theSoviet Union, premiering in the summer of 1990 with a gala inMoscow.", "a gala inMoscow. Warner Bros. releasedNever Say Never AgainonVHSandBetamaxin 1984,and onlaserdiscin 1995.After Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer purchased the distribution rights in 1997 (seeLegacy, below), the company has released the film on both VHS andDVDin 2001,and onBlu-rayin 2009. Contemporary reviews Never Say Never Againwas broadly welcomed and praised by the critics:Ian Christie, writing in theDaily Express, said thatNever Say Never Againwas \"one of the better Bonds\",finding the film \"superbly witty and entertaining, ... the dialogue is crisp and the fight scenes imaginative\".Christie also thought that \"Connery has lost none of his charm and, if anything, is more appealing than ever as the stylish resolute hero\".David Robinson, writing inThe Timesalso concentrated on Connery, saying that: \"Connery ... is back, looking hardly a day older or thicker, and still outclassing every other exponent of the role, in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way\".For Robinson, the", "Robinson, the presence of Connery and Klaus Maria Brandauer as Maximillian Largo \"very nearly make it all worthwhile.\"The reviewer forTime Outsummed upNever Say Never Againby saying: \"The action's good, the photography excellent, the sets decent; but the real clincher is the fact that Bond is once more played by a man with the right stuff.\" Derek MalcolminThe Guardianshowed himself to be a fan of Connery's Bond, saying the film contains \"the best Bond in the business\",but nevertheless did not findNever Say Never Againany more enjoyable than the recently releasedOctopussy(starring Roger Moore), or \"that either of them came very near to matchingDr. NoorFrom Russia with Love\".Malcolm's main issue with the film was that he had a \"feeling that a constant struggle was going on between a desire to make a huge box-office success and the effort to make character as important as stunts\".Malcolm summed up that \"the mix remains obstinately the same – up to scratch but not surpassing it\".Writing inThe Observer,Philip", "Observer,Philip Frenchnoted that \"this curiously muted film ends up making no contribution of its own and inviting damaging comparisons with the original, hyper-confidentThunderball\".French concluded that \"like an hour-glass full of damp sand, the picture moves with increasing slowness as it approaches a confused climax in the Persian Gulf\". Writing forNewsweek, criticJack Krollthought the early part of the film was handled \"with wit and style\",although he went on to say that the director was \"hamstrung by Lorenzo Semple's script\".Richard Schickel, writing inTime, praised the film and its cast. He wrote that Klaus Maria Brandauer's character was \"played with silky, neurotic charm\",while Barbara Carrera, playing Fatima Blush, \"deftly parodies all the fatal femmes who have slithered through Bond's career\".Schickel's highest praise was saved for the return of Connery, observing \"it is good to see Connery's grave stylishness in this role again. It makes Bond's cynicism and opportunism seem the product of genuine", "product of genuine worldliness (and world weariness) as opposed to Roger Moore's mere twirpishness.\" Janet Maslin, writing inThe New York Times, was broadly praising of the film, saying she thought thatNever Say Never Again\"has noticeably more humor and character than the Bond films usually provide. It has a marvelous villain in Largo.\"Maslin also thought highly of Connery in the role, observing that \"inNever Say Never Again, the formula is broadened to accommodate an older, seasoned man of much greater stature, and Mr. Connery expertly fills the bill.\"Writing inThe Washington Post, Gary Arnold was fulsome in his praise, saying thatNever Say Never Againis \"one of the best James Bond adventure thrillers ever made\",going on to say that \"this picture is likely to remain a cherished, savory example of commercial filmmaking at its most astute and accomplished.\"Arnold went further, saying that \"Never Say Never Againis the best acted Bond picture ever made, because it clearly surpasses any predecessors in the area", "in the area of inventive and clever character delineation\". The critic forThe Globe and Mail,Jay Scott, also praised the film, saying thatNever Say Never Again\"may be the only installment of the long-running series that has been helmed by a first-rate director.\"According to Scott, the director, with high-quality support cast, resulted in the \"classiest of all the Bonds\".Roger Ebertgave the film3+1⁄2out of four stars, and wrote thatNever Say Never Again, while consisting of a basic \"Bond plot\", was different from other Bond films: \"For one thing, there's more of a human element in the movie, and it comes from Klaus Maria Brandauer, as Largo.\"Ebert went on to add, \"there was never aBeatlesreunion ... but here, by God, is Sean Connery as Sir James Bond. Good work, 007.\"Gene SiskelofThe Chicago Tribunealso gave the film 3½ out of four stars, writing that the film was \"one of the best 007 adventures ever made\". Colin GreenlandreviewedNever Say Never AgainforImagine, and stated that \"Never Say Never Againis a", "Say Never Againis a complacent male sexist fantasy, where women can be onlyfemmes fatalesor passive victims.\" Retrospective reviews BecauseNever Say Never Againis not an Eon-produced film, it has not been included in a number of subsequent reviews. Norman Wilner ofMSNsaid that 1967'sCasino RoyaleandNever Say Never Again\"exist outside the 'official' continuity, are excluded from this list, just as they're absent fromMGM'smegabox. But take my word for it; they're both pretty awful\".Nevertheless, retrospective reviews of the film remain positive.Rotten Tomatoessampled 55 critics and judged 71% of the reviews as positive, with a top critics' rating of 70%. The site's critical consensus reads: \"While the rehashed story feels rather uninspired and unnecessary, the return of both Sean Connery and a more understated Bond makeNever Say Never Againa watchable retread.\"The score is still more positive than some of the Eon films, with Rotten Tomatoes rankingNever Say Never Again16th among all Bond films in", "all Bond films in 2008.OnMetacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 68 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating generally favourable reviews.Empiregave the film three of a possible five stars, observing that \"Connery was perhaps wise to call it quits the first time round\".IGNgaveNever Say Never Againa score of five out of ten, claiming that the film \"is more miss than hit\".The reviewer also thought that the film was \"marred with too many clunky exposition scenes and not enough moments of Bond being Bond\". In 1995, Michael Sauter ofEntertainment WeeklyratedNever Say Never Againas the ninth best Bond film to that point, after 17 films had been released. Sauter thought the film \"is successful only as a portrait of an over-the-hill superhero.\" He admitted that \"even past his prime, Connery proves that nobody does it better\".James Berardinelli, in his review ofNever Say Never Again, thinks the re-writing of theThunderballstory has led to a film which has \"a hokey, jokey feel, is possibly the", "is possibly the worst-written Bond script of all\".Berardinelli concludes that \"it's a major disappointment that, having lured back the original 007, the film makers couldn't offer him something better than this drawn-out, hackneyed story.\"CriticDanny Pearywrote that \"it was great to see Sean Connery return as James Bond after a dozen years\".He also thought the supporting cast was good, saying that Klaus Maria Brandauer's Largo was \"neurotic, vulnerable ... one of the most complex of Bond's foes\"and that Barbara Carrera and Kim Basinger \"make lasting impressions.\"Peary also wrote that the \"film is exotic, well acted, and stylishly directed ... It would be one of the best Bond films if the finale weren't disappointing. When will filmmakers realize that underwater fight scenes don't work because viewers usually can't tell the hero and villain apart and they know doubles are being used?\" Jim Smith and Stephen Lavington, in their 2002 retrospectiveBond Films, lament: \"The production chaos is visible on screen,", "visible on screen, with frequently mediocre editing, direction, stunt work and photography all emerging from the restricted budget. At the time,Never Say Never Againgot away with it, thanks to public and critical pleasure at seeing Connery again. Now it is dated, slow and (worst of all) looks cheap, faring badly when compared to even the poorest of the Eon films.\" Legacy Originally,Never Say Never Againwas intended to start a series of Bond films produced by Schwartzman and starring Connery as James Bond, with McClory announcing the next planned film,S.P.E.C.T.R.E, in a February 1984 issue ofScreen International.When Connery announced that he would not reprise his role as Bond in another film produced by Schwartzman three weeks before the deadline to purchase the rights to another film for $5 million, Schwartzman said that he was unlikely to make another film without a deal from MGM/UA and Danjaq. In the 1990s, McClory announced plans to make another adaptation of theThunderballstory starringTimothy", "starringTimothy DaltonentitledWarhead 2000 AD, but the film was eventually scrapped.In 1997,Sony Picturesacquired McClory's rights for an undisclosed amount,and subsequently announced that it intended to make a series of Bond films, as the company also held the rights toCasino Royale.This move prompted a round of litigation from MGM, which was settled out of court, forcing Sony to give up all claims on Bond; McClory still claimed he would proceed with another Bond film,and continued his case against MGM andDanjaq;on 27 August 2001, the court rejected McClory's suit.McClory died in 2006;MGM's acquisition of the rights toCasino Royalefinally allowed Eon Productions to make a serious, non-satirical film adaptation of that novel the same year, withDaniel Craigas James Bond. Ultimately, in 2013, McClory's heirs sold theThunderballrights to Eon, allowing the company to reintroduce Blofeld to the Eon series in the filmSpectre. On 4 December 1997, MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights toNever Say", "rights toNever Say Never Againfrom Schwartzman's company Taliafilm.The company has since handled the release of both the DVD and Blu-ray editions of the film. See also References Bibliography External links" ]
What was the Enhanced Fujita Scale rating of the 2011 tornado that hit the hometown of the band who had a controversial interview with Bryan Odell on June 3, 2012?
EF5- Joplin, Missouri
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BryanStars
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_Shout_Never
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Joplin_tornado
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BryanStars', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_Shout_Never', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Joplin_tornado']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BryanStars", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_Shout_Never", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Joplin_tornado" ]
[ "BryanStars Bryan Odell(born May 22, 1990), better known by hisonline aliasBryanStars, is an American formermusic interviewer, YouTube personality, musician, and artist manager. He is best known for hisBryanStars Interviewsseries, where he interviews with popular artists in thealternative scene, includingBlack Veil Brides,Asking Alexandria, andFalling in Reverse. Early life Odell was born on May 22, 1990, in Japan, where he resided until he was eight years old. His family later relocated toDallas, Texas, and then again toNebraskawhen he was a teenager.He attendedLincoln East High School, where he graduated in 2008.In his senior year, his short filmEnergy Crisis in America, highlightingrising gas prices, won third place in the high school section of theStudentCamcompetition, hosted byC-SPAN. He attended theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincolnfor two years, majoring in Broadcast Journalism.While in university, he did an internship where he would interview professional bands for a local television station. Odell chose to drop out of university to focus his attention on his YouTube channel \"BryanStars\" after winning YouTube NextUp in 2011.Through the NextUp contest, YouTube aimed to foster creators on its platform. Odell and 25 other YouTubers received a $35,000 grant for their channel and a multi-day workshop in New York City with professional online bloggers.At the time, he had about 55,000 subscribers. YouTube career Odell is best known for hisBryanStars Interviews,series on his YouTube channel, BryanStars. He primarily publishes interviews and music videos from bands of the rock andheavy metalscene. During his career, Odell interviewed artists includingAsking Alexandria,Blood On The Dance Floor,Millionaires,Never Shout Never,Motionless In White,Pierce the Veil,Black Veil Brides,All Time Low,Sleeping with Sirens,The Ready Set,One Ok Rock,Panic! at the Disco,Twenty One Pilots,Avenged Sevenfold,Escape the Fate,Suicide Silence,Disturbed,Creed,Hollywood Undead,Korn,Three Days Grace,Bullet For My Valentine,Cannibal Corpse,Chevelle, andSlipknot, as well as artists likeRob Zombie,Papa Roach,Cody Simpson,G-Eazy,Mitchel Mussoand winners ofAmerican Idol. Odell has also interviewed record producerMatt Goodand YouTube starsShane Dawson,Michael BuckleyandDave Days. He has published more than 1000 band interviews and music videos to his YouTube Channel. In 2013,BryanStars Interviewswas voted by music fans as the \"Best Music Blog\" in theAlternative PressReader's Choice Poll 2013.BryanStars Interviewswas nominated for aShorty Awardfor \"Best Web Show\" in 2014 along withJerry Seinfeld'sComedians in Cars Getting Coffee.In 2014, retailerJourneysproduced \"This Is My Journey\" segment about Odell that played in stores nationwide. Never Shout Never incident On June 3, 2012,Never Shout Neverwas interviewed by Odell in an interview that was being covered byThe New York Times. Never Shout Never lead vocalistChristofer Drew Inglewas aware ofThe New York Timescoverage of the interview. About halfway through the interview, Ingle cut Odell off, denouncing his show as \"a joke\" and his questions as \"bullshit\" with bassist Taylor MacFee also taking Odell's interview question papers from him, throwing them on the floor, and finding his questions to be annoying and irrelevant. As a result, the band abruptly ended the interview, leaving Odell in tears. An outpour of support for Odell resulted from the incident. Numerous musicians such asKellin QuinnofSleeping with Sirens,Chris FronzakofAttila, andAndy BiersackofBlack Veil Bridescame to Odell's defense.In aStickambroadcast, Ingle expressed remorse for making Odell cry, later admitting that he had takenacidearlier the day of the interview. Warped YouTube Program In 2014, Odell was picked to be one of the \"Warped YouTubers\" with Damon Fizzy (also calling himself DeeFizzy), Johnnie Guilbert, CYR and Piddleass. The following year,Kevin Lyman(creator ofWarped Tour) made Odell the official host of the tour. Odell worked with Warped Tour through 2015 as their official host on all social media, announcing over 100 bands for the tour. Odell taught a class on the 2015 Vans Warped Tour called \"YouTube 101\" where he taught aspiring YouTubers how to pursue a career in social media. My Digital Escape Odell then founded \"My Digital Escape,\" a collaborative project and YouTube channel featuring numerous smaller creators who shared a similar passion for music. While an active creator in My Digital Escape (MDE), Odell served as manager of the project as well.The channel stopped uploading in May 2016. The channel reached 800,000 subscribers and 100 million views.The channel prominently featured Odell, Johnnie Guilbert, Shannon Taylor (HeyThereImShannon), Luke Wale, Kyle David Hall, Alex Dorame, and Jordan Sweeto.In 2016, My Digital Escape went on tour across the United States and visited 21 cities. Musical endeavors In 2016, Odell went into the studio with ZK Studios to record his debut EP.On March 21, 2016, BryanStars announced the release of a 5-track EP entitled \"Follow Your Dreams\".It was released on April 1, 2016, and charted on Billboard at #22 on theAlternative New Artist Album Chart, #59 on theNew Artist Album Chartand #128 on theIndie Albums Chart. BryanStars also collaborated withSocial Reposeon a cover ofBring Me The Horizon's \"Follow You\". In November 2016, Odell announced that he would be releasing a second EP titled the \"Picture Perfect EP\". It was released on December 4, 2016. BryanStars Tour In 2012, Odell started the \"BryanStars Tour\", which toured throughout the United States. Odell created three BryanStars Tours from 2012 to 2013. Personal life Odell revealed his homosexuality on his YouTube channel in 2017. After considerable controversy later that same year due to being accused of covering up for convicted sex offenderAustin Jones, Odell stepped back from his social media ventures, specifically his YouTube channels.He has not been active on any of his YouTube channels or social media since. Awards and recognition Discography Extended plays Singles References External links", "Never Shout Never Never Shout Never(originally typeset asnevershoutnever!andNeverShoutNever!) was an Americanrockband formed inJoplin, Missouri, in 2007. Vocalist and multi-instrumentalistChristofer Drewbegan the band as a solo project before expanding it to a band, whose best-known lineup included himself, bassist Taylor MacFee, and drummer Hayden Kaiser.The band that accompanied Drew when it was a solo project were originally known as \"The Shout\". Never Shout Never released eight full-length albums and nine EPs. History 2007–2009: Formation and early career Christofer Drew Ingle began making music under the alias nevershoutnever! in 2007, when he was 16 years old in his parents basement.His first exposure came through the internet, where he achieved success on Myspace before issuing the extended play,The Yippee EPon July 29, 2008, and selling 46,000 copies in the US.On July 30, 2008, he was featured onTRL, where he performed his debut single \"Big City Dreams\".The single peaked at number one on theBillboardHot Singles Saleschart.To support the EP, he went on tour in the US withJamestown Story,Owl City, and Handshakes and Highfives during the summer of 2008.He toured withHellogoodbyeandAce Endersin the fall of 2008. NeverShoutNever! released the lead single \"Trouble\" from his third EP,Me & My Ukeon December 29, 2008.The song peaked at number five on the Hot Singles Sales chart.The song was later certified gold by theRecording Industry Association of Americain May 2012.In January 2009,Me & My Ukewas officially released. NeverShoutNever! started touring withThe Scene Aesthetic,The Honorary Title, andThe Bigger Lightsin late February 2009and then toured with bands such asForever the Sickest Kids,The Cab, and Mercy Mercedes, among others in spring 2009 as part ofThe Bamboozle Roadshow 2009.He played at bothThe Bamboozle Left 2009andThe Bamboozle 2009.In 2009, Never Shout Never won themtvU Woodie Awardsfor Breaking Woodie. 2009–2010:What Is LoveandHarmony It was announced on May 29, 2009, that Ingle had signed toWarner Bros. Records, ending a major-label bidding war.As part of the deal, Ingle runs and make releases on his own imprint label, Loveway Records.Ingle's alias became officially stylized as Never Shout Never.The Summer EPwas Ingle's first release under Warner Bros. and was released on June 23, 2009.It sold 46,000 copies and the first single from the EP, titled \"Happy\", was released on iTunes on March 3, 2009.Production for Never Shout Never's debut album began in June 2009, whereButch Walkerproduced the album.The album was recorded inLos Angelesand atAbbey Road Studiosin London.The band embarked on a headlining tour in October 2009 with Carter Hulsey andNow Now Every Children, before joiningDashboard Confessionalon their headling tour in November. A self-titled EP,Never Shout Neverwas released on December 8, 2009 and featured two songs from his upcoming debut album (\"What Is Love?\" and \"Jane Doe\"), a re-recorded version of a song fromThe Yippee EP(\"She's Got Style\"), and a live version of a song fromThe Yippee EP(\"Big City Dreams\").The debut studio album from Never Shout Never,What Is Love?, was released on January 26, 2010.The album peaked at number 24 on theBillboard200chart and sold 21,000 copies.The album's first single, \"What Is Love?\" was released on December 15, 2009.\"I Love You 5\" was released on February 4, 2010 as the second single from the album.\"Can't Stand It\" was released on March 4, 2010 as the third and final single from the album along with its music video directed by Isaac Ravishankara.The song peaked at number 29 on theBillboardUS Rock Digital Song Sales chart.The group headlined theAlternative PressAP Tour in the spring of 2010 with support from Joplin,The Cab,Hey Monday,Every AvenueandThe Summer Set. Never Shout Never performed at theVans Warped Tourin summer of 2010.The band released a digital EP on July 27, 2010, titledMelody, which contained three tracks: \"CheaterCheaterBestFriendEater\", \"Coffee & Cigarettes\" and \"Lousy Truth\".Their second studio album,Harmony, was released in August 2010.The album peaked at number 14 on theBillboard200 chart and sold 23,000 copies in its first week.In October and November 2010, Never Shout Never co-headlined the Harmony Tour withThe Maine, where the bands had fans gather can foods to help those in need. As a gift to the fans, they released a live split EP and was made available for free download on Never Shout Never's website. 2011–2012:Time TravelandIndigo The band's hometown, Joplin, Missouri, was heavily damaged by atornado on May 22, 2011. Following the destruction, Ingle began a relief fund with United Way to raise $1.2 million for his hometown.To raise awareness about the devastation of Joplin, Ingle took video footage of the destruction and posted it onYouTubeon June 1, 2011. The video, which features the song \"Time Travel\", encouraged viewers to donate to the relief of the town via his United Way fund.The song later went on to become the lead single from their third studio album on July 22, 2011.The album was recorded inSpringfield, Missouriat the 2100 Studios. It is also the first album where Never Shout Never recorded as a full band.The album's second single \"Simplistic Trance - Like Getaway\" was released on August 26, 2011.Never Shout Never's third studio album,Time Travelwas released on September 20, 2011.The album peaked at number 35 on theBillboard200.In support of the album's release, they embarked on a fall headliner tour called The Time Travel Tour.The official music video for \"Time Travel\" was directed by Joey Boukadakis and was released in September 2011. Ingle first revealed the title of the group's fourth studio album in an interview with Alter The Press! on May 8, 2012,and on September 20, via his Twitter account, he announced the release date of his new albumIndigo.According to Drew, he wanted to record every song with a different producer, all in different cities, to give each song a unique feel and its own style.In support of the album's release, the band released five free tracks from their album throughAlternative PressandBillboard.Never Shout Never's fourth full-length studio album,Indigowas released November 13, 2012. It debuted at 194 on theBillboard200, a steep decline from the group's previous high of 14.The band toured the U.S. on the Indigo tour in late 2012. 2013:SunflowerandThe Xmas EP In May 2013, Never Shout Never revealed their fifth studio album,Sunflower, which was released on July 2, 2013.The band released the first promotional single, \"Good Times\" for streaming on May 23, 2013.On May 28, the group released the album's second promotional single, \"Subliminal Messages\" which premiered exclusively on PropertyOfZack.com.\"Malibu\" was released for streaming viaPureVolumeon June 4, as the third promotional single from the album.The album's fourth and final promotional single, \"Knock, Knock\" was released on June 18.The band performed at Warped Tour in the summer of 2013.During the Warped Tour, Ingle had also teamed with BandHappy, an organization in which experienced musicians taught amateurs how to reach success. He had led a workshop in which a limited number of fans could ask questions and learn from him, with the addition of a one-on-one meet and greet. A festive EP titledThe Xmas EPwas released on November 22, 2013.Drew produced and recorded the covers himself and collaborated withDia Framptonon the original track \"Under The Mistletoe\". The song was released for streaming on November 15.The EP was recorded in Drew's home.The group headlined the Xmas Tour with support fromThe Downtown FictionandNick Santinoin December 2013. 2014–2016:Recycled Youth,Black Cat, and Departure of MacFee In late 2013, Never Shout Never announced that the group was working on a new album calledRecycled Youth, Vol. 1.The album featured re-worked songs from previous Never Shout Never releases. In January 2014 the band announced that the group had begun recording the album, and was expected to be released later that year.The album was the first installment of what Drew envisioned to be a three part collection of re-recorded fan and band favorites. It was produced by Eric Palmquist inLos Angeles,California.In June 2014, Never Shout Never announced thatIan Crawfordjoined the band as the lead guitarist.Recycled Youth, Vol. 1was released on March 3, 2015. On June 9, 2015, it was announced that Never Shout Never would be releasing their seventh studio album,Black Caton August 7, 2015.The first single off of the album, titled \"Hey! We OK\", was released the same day.The album was recorded in the DTLA Recording Studio inLos Angeles,Californiaand was produced byDennis Herring.On June 17, the group released \"Boom!\" as the first promotional single from the album.On July 16, the band premiered a new track titled, \"Red Balloon\" and was released as the album's second promotional single.The album peaked at number 52 on theBillboard200.On November 24, 2015, Ian Crawford confirmed on his Facebook page that he had been let go from the band. The band embarked on the Black Cat Tour in January 2016.\"Red Balloon\" was officially released as the album's second single on February 5, 2016.\"Hey! We Ok\" was nominated at the 2016Alternative Press Music Awardsfor Song of the Year.The group headlined a US tour in June 2016 with support from Hundred Handed and Me Like Bees.On June 26, 2016, bassist Taylor MacFee announced his departure from the band.In November 2016, the group released their ninth EP,Advent Of Violett Soul. 2017–2018: Cancelled studio albums and break-up In June 2017, Never Shout Never performed at the 2017Warped Tour.They later embarked on the Throwback Tour, as well as performing at the So What?! Music Festival.The tour lasted throughout 2017 where they played songs from earlier albums that likely wouldn't be played again for a long time.In April 2017, Drew revealed he had plans on releasing Never Shout Never's eighth studio album,Emerald Sun. He described the record as \"conceptual,\" dealing with the theme of love. He stated, \"It's something I wrote that I feel has a higher message behind it. It's the album I've been wanting to make — portrays my heart and how I see the world.\" 13 tracks were written for the album.The album was expected to be released in the summer of 2018, but never made its way onto streaming services. On March 23, 2018, the band released a cover ofElvis Presley's \"Love Me Tender\" on their upcoming cover album,All for Love, composed entirely of covers of love songs.On April 2, they released their cover ofthe Beatles' \"Something\".It is unlikelyAll for Lovewas finished and will ever be released. Drew continued to upload a handful of covers on YouTube, but these were likely not final recordings for the album, nor were they likely intended to be on the album at all. Ingle revealed in December 2018 that after a small tour in Mexico and Brazil the following month that Never Shout Never would disband.However, he reached out to fans via an Instagram post two days later asking if he should keep making music under the name.Despite the initial announcement, the band performed shows in Brazil and Mexico in early 2019.Following the final show in Brazil (with long-time drummer Hayden Kaiser absent) he stated he was uncertain of the band's future, but no official breakup announcement was confirmed. 2020–2023:Unborn Spark, return and retirement On April 29, 2020, Drew announced a solo acoustic album titledUnborn Spark, due for release on May 13, his son's 1st birthday.However, on May 5, he announced that he needed a little more time for mixing and artwork to be completed.On May 17, he announced that the album would be released on June 12.On June 8, the first single, \"Time to Change\", was released. With it came the announcement that it would be released as a Never Shout Never album. Never Shout Never returned in late 2021, releasing a new single titled \"Easy Swagger\" in October.On March 8, 2022, Drew announced his retirement from music, putting an end to the band.In addition, Drew confirmed on Twitter that Never Shout Never was finished.However, on December 24, 2022, he announced that Never Shout Never would be returning the following year and also announced a release of a new album.On November 25, 2023, Drew announced viaTwitterhis second retirement from music, revealing that he would pursue a new career in professional painting.He also released the final mixes of his intended album,Advent of Violet Soulon the same day. Band members Former members Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Alternative Press Music Awards mtvU Woodie Awards PETA's Libby Awards References External links", "2011 Joplin tornado The2011 Joplin tornadowas a large and devastatingmultiple-vortextornadothat struckJoplin,Missouri, United States, on the evening of Sunday, May 22, 2011. Part of alarger late-Maytornado outbreak, theEF5tornado began just west of Joplin and intensified very quickly, reaching a maximum width of nearly one mile (1.6 km) during its path through the southern part of the city. The tornado tracked eastward through Joplin, and then continued acrossInterstate 44into rural portions ofJasperandNewtoncounties, weakening before it dissipated. The tornado devastated a large portion of the city of Joplin, damaging nearly 8,000 buildings, and of those, destroying over 4,000. The damage—which included major facilities like one of Joplin's two hospitals as well as much of its basic infrastructure—amounted to a total of $2.8 billion, making the Joplin tornado the costliest single tornado in U.S. history. The insurance payout was the highest in Missouri history, breaking the previous record of $2 billion from thehailstorm of April 10, 2001. Overall, the tornado killed 158 people (with an additional eight indirect deaths) and injured some 1,150 others. It ranks as one of the United States' deadliest tornadoes: it was the deadliest U.S. tornado since theApril 9, 1947, F5 tornado inWoodward,Oklahoma, and the seventh-deadliest in U.S. history.It was the deadliest tornado in Missouri history, as well as the first single tornado since the1953 Flint–Beecher tornadoinMichiganto cause more than 100 fatalities.It was the first F5/EF5 tornado to occur in Missouri sinceMay 20, 1957, when an F5 tornado destroyed several suburbs ofKansas City,and only the second F5/EF5 tornado in Missouri since 1950.It was the third tornado to strike Joplin since May 1971. Meteorological synopsis On the evening of May 21, 2011, an area of low pressure was centered over westernSouth Dakota. This feature, in addition to steeplapse ratesanddewpointsabove 60 °F (16 °C), was conducive to the development ofsupercellslater in the day. Very largehailwas forecast, but the tornado threat was forecast to remain isolated.: 15–16At 8:00 a.m.CDT(1300UTC), theNational Weather Service(NWS)Storm Prediction Center(SPC) issued a slight risk of severe storms for much of the upperPlainsand theMidwest. By 8:00 a.m. CDT (1300 UTC) on May 22, forecasters at the SPC realized that a more intense weather outbreak was likely to occur, and upgraded a large swath of the Midwest to a moderate risk. The system was forecast to evolve into a wave early Monday morning as a trough strengthened from the western United States. At the surface, acold frontwas forecast to pass through the region later in the day, while adrylinewas forecast to intersect the cold front inKansas. These features, accompanied by the low-pressure system, encouraged very strong storm development along the cold front.By the 11:30 a.m. CDT (1630 UTC) updated outlook, certainty had grown stronger that a major severe weather event would occur that afternoon. A public severe weather outlook was issued at this time, and the outlook stated that severe weather was expected that afternoon, with tornadoes, large hail and strong winds all named as threats. At 1:30 p.m. CDT (1830 UTC), four hours prior to the tornado, the SPC issued atornado watchfor southwesternMissouri, to remain in effect until 9:00 p.m. CDT.: 2The watch predicted \"explosive thunderstorm development,\" with a \"strong tornado or two possible.\": 20Thunderstorms began developing between 2:00 and 3:00 p.m. over southeast Kansas. They quickly became severe, and as thunderstorm development continued moving to the east, forecasters became more concerned about imminent tornado development. A tornado warning for the severe thunderstorm west ofJoplinthat eventually produced the EF5 tornado was first issued at 5:17 p.m. CDT (22:17 UTC), 17 minutes before it touched down and 19 minutes before it entered the city of Joplin.: 17 Storm track and damage Beginning The tornado first touched down inNewton County, Missouri, just east of the Missouri–Kansas state line, approximately one-half mile (0.80 km) southwest of the intersection of South Central City Road and 32nd Street, at 5:34 p.m. CDT (22:34 UTC). Eyewitnesses andstorm chasersreported multiple vortices rotating around the parent circulation. Here, the tornado downed several large trees at EF0 intensity.Civil defense sirenssounded in Joplin twenty minutes before the tornado struck, in response to the tornado warning issued at 5:17 p.m. CDT (22:17 UTC) for northwestern Newton and southwestern Jasper counties in Missouri, and southeastern portions ofCherokee County, Kansas, but many Joplin residents did not heed the warning or the sirens. The tornado moved east-northeast and strengthened to EF1 intensity as it continued through rural areas towards Joplin, snapping trees and power poles and damaging outbuildings. Widening, the tornado then tracked into the more densely populated southwest corner of the city near the Twin Hills Country Club. It heavily damaged several homes at asubdivisionin this area at up to EF3 strength. The tornado continued to cause EF3 damage as it moved through another subdivision just east of Iron Gates Road.Numerous homes were destroyed and multiple vehicles tossed around, some of which were thrown onto or rolled into homes. The tornado reached EF4 intensity just before crossing S. Schifferdecker Ave. EF5 intensity in Joplin The now massive and wedge-shaped tornado then crossed S. Schifferdecker Ave. at 5:38 p.m. CDT (22:38 UTC),: 17producing its first area of EF4 damage only four minutes after touching down, as several small but well-built commercial buildings were flattened. One person was killed after they were ejected from their car as the tornado crossed the road. Further strengthening resulted in the tornado reaching EF5 intensity shortly afterwards. Consistent EF4 to EF5 damage was noted east of S. Schifferdecker Ave. and continued through most of southern Joplin. Numerous homes, businesses, and medical buildings were flattened in this area, with concrete walls collapsed and crushed into the foundations. A large steel-reinforced step and floor structure leading to a completely destroyed medical building was \"deflected upward several inches and cracked\". Steel trusses from some of the buildings were \"rolled up like paper\", and deformation or twisting of the main support beams was noted. Multiple vehicles were thrown and mangled or wrapped around trees nearby. Several 300-pound concrete parking stops anchored with rebar were torn from a parking lot in this area and thrown up to 60 yards (55 m) away.Iowa State Universitywind engineer Partha Sarkar calculated the force needed to remove the parking stops from the lot and found that winds exceeding 200 mph (320 km/h) would have been required. Damage became remarkably widespread and catastrophic at and around the nearbySt. John's Regional Medical Center, which lost nearly every window on three sides, interior walls, ceilings, and part of its roof; its life flight helicopter was also blown away and destroyed.Loss of backup power caused five fatalities,and the nine-story building was so damaged that it was deemed structurally compromised, and later torn down. According to the NWS office inSpringfield, Missouri, such extreme structural damage to such a large and well-built structure likely indicated winds at or exceeding 200 mph (320 km/h).Vehicles in the hospital parking lot were thrown into the air and mangled beyond recognition, including a semi-truck that was tossed 125 yards (114 m) and wrapped completely around adebarkedtree.Small pieces of debris from the hospital, including X-rays, medical reports, and dental records, were found in Greene and Polk counties many miles to the east.Wind-rowing of debris was noted in this area, and more concrete parking stops were removed from the St. John's parking lot. Virtually every house near McClelland Boulevard and 26th Street was flattened; some were swept completely away, and trees sustained severe debarking. Peak intensity As the tornado tracked eastward, it maintained EF5 strength as it crossedMain Street (Route 43)between 20th and 26th Streets. It heavily damaged every business along that stretch and virtually destroyed several institutional buildings. It tracked just south of downtown, narrowly missing it. Entire neighborhoods were leveled in this area with some more homes swept away, and trees were stripped completely of their bark. At some residences, reinforced concrete porches were deformed or, in some cases, completely torn away. Damage to driveways was noted at some residences as well. Numerous vehicles were tossed up to several blocks, and a few homeowners never located their vehicles.A large church, a nursing home, Franklin Technology Center, St. Mary's Catholic Church and School, andJoplin High Schoolwere all destroyed along this corridor. The Greenbriar Nursing Home was completely leveled, with 21 fatalities occurring there alone,with dozens of fatalities occurring elsewhere in this area as well.No one was in the high school at the time, as the graduation ceremonies held about three miles (4.8 km) to the north atMissouri Southern State Universityhad concluded shortly before the storm. Pieces of cardboard were found embedded in stucco walls that remained standing at Joplin High School. Steel beams and pieces of fencing were deeply embedded into the ground in fields near the high school, steel fence posts were bent to the ground in opposite directions, and a school bus was thrown into a nearby bus garage. As the tornado crossed Connecticut Avenue further to the east, it destroyed several large apartment buildings which resulted in 14 fatalities, along with aDillonsgrocery store, and a bank. Only the concrete safety deposit box vault remained at the bank,and a wooden 2x4 was found speared completely through a concrete curb at one location. The tornado then approached Rangeline Road, the main commercial strip in the eastern part of Joplin, affecting additional neighborhoods along 20th Street. The now heavily rain-wrapped tornado continued at EF5 intensity as it crossed Range Line Road. In that corridor between about 13th and 32nd Streets, the tornado continued producing catastrophic damage as it reached its widest point nearly one mile (1.6 km) across. As the tornado struck aPizza Huton South Range Line Road, store manager Christopher Lucas herded four employees and 15 customers into a walk-in freezer. With difficulty closing the door, he wrapped abungee cordholding the door shut around his arm until he was sucked out and killed by the tornado.The tornado completely destroyed aWalmartsupercenter, aHome Depot, and numerous other businesses and restaurants in this area, many of which were flattened. Numerous metal roof trusses were torn from the Home Depot building and were found broken and mangled in nearby fields. Cars that originated at the Home Depot parking lot were found hundreds of yards away. Asphalt was scoured from parking lots at Walmart and a nearby pizza restaurant, and large tractor-trailers were thrown up to 200 yards (180 m) away. AnAcademy Sports + Outdoorsstore along Range Line sustained major structural damage, and a chair was found impaled legs-first through an exterior stucco wall there. A nearby three-story apartment complex was also devastated, and two cell phone towers collapsed. In this area, numerous cars were thrown and piled on top of each other, 100-pound (45 kg) manhole covers were removed from roads and thrown, the ground scoured, and aPepsidistribution plant was completely leveled. Additional calculations with regards to the manhole covers by Partha Sarkar revealed that winds had to have exceeded 200 miles per hour (320 km/h) for the manhole covers to be removed.Twenty fatalities occurred in this area, and the damage was rated as EF5. Extreme damage continued in the area of Duquesne Road in southeast Joplin. Many houses and industrial and commercial buildings were flattened in this area as well. The industrial park near the corner of 20th and Duquesne was especially hard hit with nearly every building flattened. Several large metal warehouse structures were swept cleanly from their foundations, and several heavy industrial vehicles were thrown up to 400 yards (370 m) away in this area. One of the many warehouses affected was aCumminswarehouse, a concrete block and steel building that was destroyed. The last area of EF5 damage occurred in the industrial park, and a nearby Fastrip gas station and convenience store was completely destroyed. Many homes were destroyed further to the east at EF3 to EF4 strength in a nearby subdivision, and East Middle School sustained major damage. Weakening and dissipation The tornado then continued on an east to east-southeast trajectory towardsI-44where it weakened; nonetheless, vehicles were blown off the highway and mangled nearUS 71(exit 11) on what is now theI-49interchange. The damage at and around the interchange was rated EF2 to EF3. The weakening tornado continued to track into the rural areas of southeasternJasper Countyand northeasternNewton Countywhere damage was generally minor to moderate, with trees, mobile homes, outbuildings, and frame homes damaged mainly at EF0 to EF1 strength. The tornado lifted east ofDiamondat 6:20 p.m. CDT (23:20 UTC), according to aerial surveys. The total track length was 21.62 miles (34.79 km) long, and the tornado was up to one mile (1.6 km) across at its widest point. A total of 158 people were killed, and over 1,150 others were injured along the path.A separate EF2 tornado touched down nearWentworthfrom the same supercell about 25 miles (40 km) east-southeast of Joplin, beginning roughly 10 minutes before the dissipation of this tornado. Aftermath and impact A preliminary survey of the tornado damage by the NWS office in Springfield began on May 23. The initial survey confirmed a violent tornado rated as a high-end EF4. Subsequent damage surveys, however, found evidence of more intense damage, and so the tornado was upgraded to an EF5with estimated winds over 200 mph (320 km/h), peaking at 225 to 250 mph (360 to 400 km/h). The scope of the damage was immense: according to the local branch of theAmerican Red Cross, about 25% of Joplin was destroyed,though emergency officials reported some level of damage to about 75% of the city.A week after the tornado, Joplin's mayor estimated that 25% of the businesses licensed in the city were damaged or destroyed. Official accountings of the precise number of buildings damaged or destroyed vary somewhat. According to theNational Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST) technical report, in total 7,964 buildings were damaged in Joplin, including 7,411 residential buildings and 553 non-residential. At least 3,734 of those buildings (including 3,181 of the residential and all 553 of the non-residential buildings) sustained so much damage as to be considered destroyed.: 77According to aFederal Emergency Management Agency(FEMA) study, 8,264 homes were impacted, and of those, 3,884 were \"significantly damaged\" and 4,380 were destroyed.: 8 Infrastructure The tornado also severely damaged critical infrastructure in the city, hampering emergency response and recovery efforts.Approximately 4,000 electricity distribution poles were damaged, more than 110 miles (180 km) ofdistribution linebrought down, 135transmission towers\"affected,\" and anelectrical substationin the path of the tornado was completely destroyed (two more were damaged, but reparably so). In the immediate aftermath of the storm, approximately 20,000 people were left without power, and those with homes left intact could not get it restored until 10–12 days later, when their dwellings were approved for safe occupancy. The ultimate cost of rebuilding Joplin's damaged electricity system was calculated at $25.7 million.: 222–224 The tornado also caused about 4,000 leaks in water service lines, dropping Joplin's water system pressure below operating level and necessitating a block-by-block effort to find and repair the service line leaks, with a water boil order issued for the entire city in the meantime. Water pressure was returned to normal outside of the damage area within 48 hours, and the water boil order was lifted after five and a half days.: 224–226Approximately 3,500 gas meters and 55,000 feet (17,000 m) ofgas mainwere damaged, and it took two weeks to stem every gas leak; some damaged mains could not be shut off because they served critical facilities likeFreeman Health System, the lone remaining hospital in Joplin.: 226In east Joplin, 3,000–5,000 pounds (1,400–2,300 kg) ofanhydrous ammoniawas released from a valve at a trucking facility and quickly contained; no significant toxic releases occurred. With 21 cell towers down and fiber cables damaged, cellular communications—voice calls in particular, text messages less so—were heavily impeded. Temporary mobile cell towers were deployed by wireless carriers to fill the gap within 24 hours.: 226By May 24, three towers owned byAT&TandSprinthad been restored. Insurance An early estimate from catastrophe risk modeling firm Eqecat, Inc. placed the insured losses from the tornado at $1–3 billion USD.By mid-June, more than 19,000 insurance claims had been filed,a number that eventually rose to 61,000, with a total payout of more than $2 billion—31% going to homeowners and 5% to those who lost vehicles.The impact on the insurance industry was not so much due to the number of claims, but the cumulative effect of such a large number of total losses. More than 2,500 local people employed in insurance were involved in some capacity. It was presumed thatState Farmwould assume the largest share of these losses, having market share of 27% forhomeowners insuranceand 21% forautomobile insurance. The $2.8 billion in damage is the largest amount for a tornado since 1950. Casualties As of May 2013, the official death toll from NWS was listed at 158 while the City of Joplin listed the death toll at 161 (158 direct). The list was up to 162, until one man's injuries were found to be unrelated to the event.In one indirect fatality,a policeman was struck by lightning and killed while assisting with recovery and cleanup efforts the day after the storm.Another five indirect fatalities occurred after a disease outbreak ofmucormycosisinfected 13 people, possibly 18 people.Shortly after the tornado, authorities had listed 1,300 people as missing, but the number quickly dwindled as they were accounted for.Many people were reported to have been trapped in destroyed houses. Seventeen people were rescued from the rubble the day after the tornado struck.Of 146 sets of remains recovered from the rubble, 134 victims had been positively identified by June 1.This total included four sets of partial remains, some of which may have been from a single person.On June 2, it was announced that four more victims had died. Six people were killed when St. John's Regional Medical Center was struck by the tornado. Five of those deaths were patients on ventilators who died after the building lost power and a backup generator did not work.The sixth fatality was a hospital visitor. TheJoplin Globereported that 54% of the people killed died in their residences, 32% died in non-residential areas and 14% died in vehicles or outdoors. Joplin officials after the tornado announced plans to requirehurricane tiesor other fasteners between the houses and their foundations (devices add about US$600 to the construction costs). Officials rejected a proposal to require concrete basements in new houses. Officials noted that as of 2009, only 28% of Joplin's new homes had basements, compared with 38% two decades before. At least 1,150 people were injured severely enough to seek treatment at regional hospitals.Injuries ranged from cuts and bruises to impalement by large debris. Officials said they rescued 944 pets and reunited 292 with owners. Rating dispute In 2013, theAmerican Society of Civil Engineerspublished a study disputing the tornado's initial EF5 rating, based on surveying damage on over 150 structures within a six-mile segment of the storm's path. According to the report, over 83% of the damage was caused by wind speeds of 135 mph (217 km/h) or less, the maximum wind speed of an EF2 tornado. An additional 13% was caused by EF3 wind speeds, and 3% was consistent with EF4 winds. The study found no damage consistent with wind speeds over 200 mph (320 km/h), the minimum threshold of an EF5 tornado.Researchers concluded that the inability to find EF5 damage was due to the absence of construction standards that were able to determine the necessary wind speeds. Bill Colbourne, a member of the engineering team that surveyed the damage, declared that \"a relatively large number of buildings could have survived in Joplin if they had been built to sustain hurricane winds.\" However, the EF5 rating stood. The NWS office in Springfield stated that their survey teams found only a small area of EF5 structural damage, and that it could have easily been missed in the survey (at and around St. John's Medical Center).Bill Davis, head of Springfield's NWS office, said that the results of the study \"do not surprise me at all,\" adding that \"there was only a very small area of EF5 damage in Joplin...we knew right off the bat there was EF4 damage. It took us longer to identify the EF5 damage and that it would take winds of over 200 mph (320 km/h) to do that damage.\"Additionally, the basis for the EF5 rating in Joplin was mainly contextual rather than structural, with non-conventional damage indicators such as the removal of concrete parking stops, manhole covers, reinforced concrete porches, driveways, and asphalt used to arrive at a final rating. The presence of wind rowed structural debris, instances of very large vehicles such as buses, vans, and semi-trucks being thrown hundreds of yards to several blocks from their points of origin, the fact that some homeowners never located their vehicles, and the overwhelming extent and totality of the destruction in Joplin were also taken into consideration. According to a detailed damage survey by Timothy Marshall, a majority of houses were destroyed at winds of EF2-3 strength. However he identified 22 well anchored houses which were assigned EF5 ratings. Response Immediately following the disaster, emergency responders were deployed within and to the city to undertake search and rescue efforts. ThenGovernorJay Nixondeclared astate of emergencyfor the Joplin area shortly after the tornado hit, and orderedMissouri National Guardtroops to the city.By May 23,Missouri Task Force One(consisting of 85 personnel, four dogs, and heavy equipment) arrived and began searching for missing persons. Five heavy rescue teams were also sent to the city a day later. Within two days, numerous agencies arrived to assist residents in the recovery process. The National Guard deployed 191 personnel and placed 2,000 more on standby to be deployed if needed. In addition, theMissouri State Highway Patrolprovided 180 troopers to assist theJoplin Police Departmentand other local agencies with law enforcement, rescue, and recovery efforts that also included the deployment of five ambulance strike teams, and a total of 25 ambulances in the affected area on May 24 as well over 75 Marines from theFt. Leonard WoodArmy base.Due to the severe damage caused by the tornado, the traveling Piccadilly Circus was unable to perform as scheduled. As a result, the circus employees brought their two adult elephants to help drag damaged automobiles and other heavy debris out of the streets. Despite the destruction, twoWaffle Houselocations in Joplin remained open following the tornado. This ledFederal Emergency Management AgencyAdministratorCraig Fugateto develop the concept of theWaffle House Indexfor measuring disaster impact. In May 2012, the Missouri National Guard released documents showing that four soldiers looted consumer electronics from a ruined Walmart during efforts to locate survivors the day after the tornado. According to the investigative memo, they believed the merchandise was going to be destroyed. All four soldiers were demoted and had letters of reprimand placed in their personnel files, but were never prosecuted, though many civilian looters were. Cleanup The Joplin tornado generated an estimated 3 million cubic yards of debris,an amount sufficient to cover a football field 120 stories high.: 19Removal efforts lasted for months, and at their height more than 410 trucks a day transported debris to landfills in Joplin itself, as well as nearbyGalenaandLamar. The tornado also led to renewed lead contamination on many Joplin properties. Joplin had been the site of lead mining and processing for decades before cleanup efforts began in the mid-1990s, and the tornado's upheaval of the surface as it swept houses from foundations and uprooted trees re-contaminated about 40% of yards in southern Joplin, leaving behind chunks of raw lead ore the size of tennis or golf balls. The city spent more than $5 million to clean the properties up using grants from the Environmental Protection Agency, scraping off the topsoil and replacing it with clean soil, and further required that builders in the damage area test for lead and clean it up before construction. Social media response The tornado also highlighted a new form of disaster response, using social media. This type of disaster response is now known as Social Media Emergency Management. News outlets began aggregating images and video from eyewitnesses shared through social media.Public citizen-led Facebook groups and web sites coordinated information, needs, and offers. The results were so effective the project became a finalist in the 2011 Mashable Awards for Best Social Good Cause Campaign. National attention PresidentBarack Obamatoured the community on May 29, flying intoJoplin Regional Airportand speaking at a memorial at the Taylor Performing Arts Center atMissouri Southern State Universityabout two miles (3.2 km) north of the worst of the devastation.Obama had been on a state visit to Europe at the time of the storm. Members of the controversialWestboro Baptist Churchwere also scheduled to protest the same day in Joplin, but they did not show up. There was a massive counterprotest that was organized in response to the Westboro protest, in which thousands of protesters showed up holding signs saying, \"God Loves Joplin\" and \"We Support You Joplin.\" President Obama also delivered thecommencement addressatJoplin High Schoolon May 21, 2012, a year after the tornado. Rebuilding and recovery FEMA maintained a large presence in Joplin following the tornado, with as many as 820 employees working in the city. One FEMA undertaking was the construction of 15 temporary housing sites in and around Joplin, which housed 586 families/households at their peak. The city, warned by federal officials that it should expect to lose 25% of its population following the tornado, responded quickly and built an average of five houses a week between 2011 and 2022. Most businesses reopened, and more than 300 new businesses opened between 2011 and early 2016. In April 2012, Joplin voters approved a $62 million bond to continue constructing new schools and repair damaged existing ones. Engineers criticized thetilt-upconstruction of the Home Depot building, in which all but two of the walls collapsed in adomino effectafter the tornado lifted the roof, killing seven people in the front of the store (although 28 people in the back of the store survived when those walls collapsed outwards). Home Depot officials disagreed with the study published byThe Kansas City Starand said they would use the tilt-up practice when they rebuilt the Joplin store.On June 1, the Home Depot said it would have a new temporary 30,000 sq ft (2,800 m2) building erected and operational within two weeks. In the meantime, it opened for business in the parking lot of its demolished building.On June 20, the Home Depot opened a temporary 60,000 sq ft (5,600 m2) building constructed by the company's disaster recovery team. Within two years, the city's workers and community groups compiled and published \"Joplin Pays it Forward\" to give recovery advice to other places struck by disasters.Many homes and businesses have been rebuilt since the tornado. Joplin High School was reopened on September 2, 2014. St. John's Regional Medical Center (nowMercy Hospital) had to be rebuilt and reopened in 2015. Mental health impacts Eighteen people committed suicide in the wake of the tornado, according to the executive director of the Community Clinic of Southwest Missouri, a co-chair of the city's long-term recovery team. Calls about domestic violence grew in the year following the disaster.In 2024, Jennifer M. First, J. Brian Houston, and Sangwon Lee with theUniversity of Tennesseealong with Megan Carnahan and Mansoo Yu with theUniversity of Missouri, published aqualitative case studyof survivors from the tornado, in which they described how survivors recovered from \"tornado brain\".In the paper, they stated approximately 41% of the residents of Joplin were directly impacted by the tornado and that the tornado lead to \"various mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder\". In popular culture A number of documentaries have been produced about the Joplin tornado and its effects on the city. These includeHeartland: A Portrait of Survival, directed byErica Tremblayand featured at the Omaha Film Festival and the St. Louis International Film Festival,as well asDeadline in Disaster(directed by Beth Pike), which followed the staff of The Joplin Globe in the tornado's aftermath and received a regional Emmy in the Documentary-Cultural category during the 37thMid-America Emmy Awards. In October 2011,The Joplin Globereleased a hard-cover pictorial book entitled32 Minutes in May: The Joplin Tornado. See also Notes References Further reading External links 37°03′38″N94°31′51″W / 37.06056°N 94.53083°W /37.06056; -94.53083" ]
[ "BryanStars Bryan Odell(born May 22, 1990), better known by hisonline aliasBryanStars, is an American formermusic interviewer, YouTube personality, musician, and artist manager. He is best known for hisBryanStars Interviewsseries, where he interviews with popular artists in thealternative scene, includingBlack Veil Brides,Asking Alexandria, andFalling in Reverse. Early life Odell was born on May 22, 1990, in Japan, where he resided until he was eight years old. His family later relocated toDallas, Texas, and then again toNebraskawhen he was a teenager.He attendedLincoln East High School, where he graduated in 2008.In his senior year, his short filmEnergy Crisis in America, highlightingrising gas prices, won third place in the high school section of theStudentCamcompetition, hosted byC-SPAN. He attended theUniversity of Nebraska–Lincolnfor two years, majoring in Broadcast Journalism.While in university, he did an internship where he would interview professional bands for a local television station. Odell chose", "Odell chose to drop out of university to focus his attention on his YouTube channel \"BryanStars\" after winning YouTube NextUp in 2011.Through the NextUp contest, YouTube aimed to foster creators on its platform. Odell and 25 other YouTubers received a $35,000 grant for their channel and a multi-day workshop in New York City with professional online bloggers.At the time, he had about 55,000 subscribers. YouTube career Odell is best known for hisBryanStars Interviews,series on his YouTube channel, BryanStars. He primarily publishes interviews and music videos from bands of the rock andheavy metalscene. During his career, Odell interviewed artists includingAsking Alexandria,Blood On The Dance Floor,Millionaires,Never Shout Never,Motionless In White,Pierce the Veil,Black Veil Brides,All Time Low,Sleeping with Sirens,The Ready Set,One Ok Rock,Panic! at the Disco,Twenty One Pilots,Avenged Sevenfold,Escape the Fate,Suicide Silence,Disturbed,Creed,Hollywood Undead,Korn,Three Days Grace,Bullet For My", "Grace,Bullet For My Valentine,Cannibal Corpse,Chevelle, andSlipknot, as well as artists likeRob Zombie,Papa Roach,Cody Simpson,G-Eazy,Mitchel Mussoand winners ofAmerican Idol. Odell has also interviewed record producerMatt Goodand YouTube starsShane Dawson,Michael BuckleyandDave Days. He has published more than 1000 band interviews and music videos to his YouTube Channel. In 2013,BryanStars Interviewswas voted by music fans as the \"Best Music Blog\" in theAlternative PressReader's Choice Poll 2013.BryanStars Interviewswas nominated for aShorty Awardfor \"Best Web Show\" in 2014 along withJerry Seinfeld'sComedians in Cars Getting Coffee.In 2014, retailerJourneysproduced \"This Is My Journey\" segment about Odell that played in stores nationwide. Never Shout Never incident On June 3, 2012,Never Shout Neverwas interviewed by Odell in an interview that was being covered byThe New York Times. Never Shout Never lead vocalistChristofer Drew Inglewas aware ofThe New York Timescoverage of the interview. About halfway", "About halfway through the interview, Ingle cut Odell off, denouncing his show as \"a joke\" and his questions as \"bullshit\" with bassist Taylor MacFee also taking Odell's interview question papers from him, throwing them on the floor, and finding his questions to be annoying and irrelevant. As a result, the band abruptly ended the interview, leaving Odell in tears. An outpour of support for Odell resulted from the incident. Numerous musicians such asKellin QuinnofSleeping with Sirens,Chris FronzakofAttila, andAndy BiersackofBlack Veil Bridescame to Odell's defense.In aStickambroadcast, Ingle expressed remorse for making Odell cry, later admitting that he had takenacidearlier the day of the interview. Warped YouTube Program In 2014, Odell was picked to be one of the \"Warped YouTubers\" with Damon Fizzy (also calling himself DeeFizzy), Johnnie Guilbert, CYR and Piddleass. The following year,Kevin Lyman(creator ofWarped Tour) made Odell the official host of the tour. Odell worked with Warped Tour through 2015 as", "through 2015 as their official host on all social media, announcing over 100 bands for the tour. Odell taught a class on the 2015 Vans Warped Tour called \"YouTube 101\" where he taught aspiring YouTubers how to pursue a career in social media. My Digital Escape Odell then founded \"My Digital Escape,\" a collaborative project and YouTube channel featuring numerous smaller creators who shared a similar passion for music. While an active creator in My Digital Escape (MDE), Odell served as manager of the project as well.The channel stopped uploading in May 2016. The channel reached 800,000 subscribers and 100 million views.The channel prominently featured Odell, Johnnie Guilbert, Shannon Taylor (HeyThereImShannon), Luke Wale, Kyle David Hall, Alex Dorame, and Jordan Sweeto.In 2016, My Digital Escape went on tour across the United States and visited 21 cities. Musical endeavors In 2016, Odell went into the studio with ZK Studios to record his debut EP.On March 21, 2016, BryanStars announced the release of a 5-track", "of a 5-track EP entitled \"Follow Your Dreams\".It was released on April 1, 2016, and charted on Billboard at #22 on theAlternative New Artist Album Chart, #59 on theNew Artist Album Chartand #128 on theIndie Albums Chart. BryanStars also collaborated withSocial Reposeon a cover ofBring Me The Horizon's \"Follow You\". In November 2016, Odell announced that he would be releasing a second EP titled the \"Picture Perfect EP\". It was released on December 4, 2016. BryanStars Tour In 2012, Odell started the \"BryanStars Tour\", which toured throughout the United States. Odell created three BryanStars Tours from 2012 to 2013. Personal life Odell revealed his homosexuality on his YouTube channel in 2017. After considerable controversy later that same year due to being accused of covering up for convicted sex offenderAustin Jones, Odell stepped back from his social media ventures, specifically his YouTube channels.He has not been active on any of his YouTube channels or social media since. Awards and recognition", "and recognition Discography Extended plays Singles References External links", "Never Shout Never Never Shout Never(originally typeset asnevershoutnever!andNeverShoutNever!) was an Americanrockband formed inJoplin, Missouri, in 2007. Vocalist and multi-instrumentalistChristofer Drewbegan the band as a solo project before expanding it to a band, whose best-known lineup included himself, bassist Taylor MacFee, and drummer Hayden Kaiser.The band that accompanied Drew when it was a solo project were originally known as \"The Shout\". Never Shout Never released eight full-length albums and nine EPs. History 2007–2009: Formation and early career Christofer Drew Ingle began making music under the alias nevershoutnever! in 2007, when he was 16 years old in his parents basement.His first exposure came through the internet, where he achieved success on Myspace before issuing the extended play,The Yippee EPon July 29, 2008, and selling 46,000 copies in the US.On July 30, 2008, he was featured onTRL, where he performed his debut single \"Big City Dreams\".The single peaked at number one on", "at number one on theBillboardHot Singles Saleschart.To support the EP, he went on tour in the US withJamestown Story,Owl City, and Handshakes and Highfives during the summer of 2008.He toured withHellogoodbyeandAce Endersin the fall of 2008. NeverShoutNever! released the lead single \"Trouble\" from his third EP,Me & My Ukeon December 29, 2008.The song peaked at number five on the Hot Singles Sales chart.The song was later certified gold by theRecording Industry Association of Americain May 2012.In January 2009,Me & My Ukewas officially released. NeverShoutNever! started touring withThe Scene Aesthetic,The Honorary Title, andThe Bigger Lightsin late February 2009and then toured with bands such asForever the Sickest Kids,The Cab, and Mercy Mercedes, among others in spring 2009 as part ofThe Bamboozle Roadshow 2009.He played at bothThe Bamboozle Left 2009andThe Bamboozle 2009.In 2009, Never Shout Never won themtvU Woodie Awardsfor Breaking Woodie. 2009–2010:What Is LoveandHarmony It was announced on May 29,", "on May 29, 2009, that Ingle had signed toWarner Bros. Records, ending a major-label bidding war.As part of the deal, Ingle runs and make releases on his own imprint label, Loveway Records.Ingle's alias became officially stylized as Never Shout Never.The Summer EPwas Ingle's first release under Warner Bros. and was released on June 23, 2009.It sold 46,000 copies and the first single from the EP, titled \"Happy\", was released on iTunes on March 3, 2009.Production for Never Shout Never's debut album began in June 2009, whereButch Walkerproduced the album.The album was recorded inLos Angelesand atAbbey Road Studiosin London.The band embarked on a headlining tour in October 2009 with Carter Hulsey andNow Now Every Children, before joiningDashboard Confessionalon their headling tour in November. A self-titled EP,Never Shout Neverwas released on December 8, 2009 and featured two songs from his upcoming debut album (\"What Is Love?\" and \"Jane Doe\"), a re-recorded version of a song fromThe Yippee EP(\"She's Got Style\"),", "Got Style\"), and a live version of a song fromThe Yippee EP(\"Big City Dreams\").The debut studio album from Never Shout Never,What Is Love?, was released on January 26, 2010.The album peaked at number 24 on theBillboard200chart and sold 21,000 copies.The album's first single, \"What Is Love?\" was released on December 15, 2009.\"I Love You 5\" was released on February 4, 2010 as the second single from the album.\"Can't Stand It\" was released on March 4, 2010 as the third and final single from the album along with its music video directed by Isaac Ravishankara.The song peaked at number 29 on theBillboardUS Rock Digital Song Sales chart.The group headlined theAlternative PressAP Tour in the spring of 2010 with support from Joplin,The Cab,Hey Monday,Every AvenueandThe Summer Set. Never Shout Never performed at theVans Warped Tourin summer of 2010.The band released a digital EP on July 27, 2010, titledMelody, which contained three tracks: \"CheaterCheaterBestFriendEater\", \"Coffee & Cigarettes\" and \"Lousy Truth\".Their", "\"Lousy Truth\".Their second studio album,Harmony, was released in August 2010.The album peaked at number 14 on theBillboard200 chart and sold 23,000 copies in its first week.In October and November 2010, Never Shout Never co-headlined the Harmony Tour withThe Maine, where the bands had fans gather can foods to help those in need. As a gift to the fans, they released a live split EP and was made available for free download on Never Shout Never's website. 2011–2012:Time TravelandIndigo The band's hometown, Joplin, Missouri, was heavily damaged by atornado on May 22, 2011. Following the destruction, Ingle began a relief fund with United Way to raise $1.2 million for his hometown.To raise awareness about the devastation of Joplin, Ingle took video footage of the destruction and posted it onYouTubeon June 1, 2011. The video, which features the song \"Time Travel\", encouraged viewers to donate to the relief of the town via his United Way fund.The song later went on to become the lead single from their third studio", "their third studio album on July 22, 2011.The album was recorded inSpringfield, Missouriat the 2100 Studios. It is also the first album where Never Shout Never recorded as a full band.The album's second single \"Simplistic Trance - Like Getaway\" was released on August 26, 2011.Never Shout Never's third studio album,Time Travelwas released on September 20, 2011.The album peaked at number 35 on theBillboard200.In support of the album's release, they embarked on a fall headliner tour called The Time Travel Tour.The official music video for \"Time Travel\" was directed by Joey Boukadakis and was released in September 2011. Ingle first revealed the title of the group's fourth studio album in an interview with Alter The Press! on May 8, 2012,and on September 20, via his Twitter account, he announced the release date of his new albumIndigo.According to Drew, he wanted to record every song with a different producer, all in different cities, to give each song a unique feel and its own style.In support of the album's", "of the album's release, the band released five free tracks from their album throughAlternative PressandBillboard.Never Shout Never's fourth full-length studio album,Indigowas released November 13, 2012. It debuted at 194 on theBillboard200, a steep decline from the group's previous high of 14.The band toured the U.S. on the Indigo tour in late 2012. 2013:SunflowerandThe Xmas EP In May 2013, Never Shout Never revealed their fifth studio album,Sunflower, which was released on July 2, 2013.The band released the first promotional single, \"Good Times\" for streaming on May 23, 2013.On May 28, the group released the album's second promotional single, \"Subliminal Messages\" which premiered exclusively on PropertyOfZack.com.\"Malibu\" was released for streaming viaPureVolumeon June 4, as the third promotional single from the album.The album's fourth and final promotional single, \"Knock, Knock\" was released on June 18.The band performed at Warped Tour in the summer of 2013.During the Warped Tour, Ingle had also teamed", "had also teamed with BandHappy, an organization in which experienced musicians taught amateurs how to reach success. He had led a workshop in which a limited number of fans could ask questions and learn from him, with the addition of a one-on-one meet and greet. A festive EP titledThe Xmas EPwas released on November 22, 2013.Drew produced and recorded the covers himself and collaborated withDia Framptonon the original track \"Under The Mistletoe\". The song was released for streaming on November 15.The EP was recorded in Drew's home.The group headlined the Xmas Tour with support fromThe Downtown FictionandNick Santinoin December 2013. 2014–2016:Recycled Youth,Black Cat, and Departure of MacFee In late 2013, Never Shout Never announced that the group was working on a new album calledRecycled Youth, Vol. 1.The album featured re-worked songs from previous Never Shout Never releases. In January 2014 the band announced that the group had begun recording the album, and was expected to be released later that year.The", "later that year.The album was the first installment of what Drew envisioned to be a three part collection of re-recorded fan and band favorites. It was produced by Eric Palmquist inLos Angeles,California.In June 2014, Never Shout Never announced thatIan Crawfordjoined the band as the lead guitarist.Recycled Youth, Vol. 1was released on March 3, 2015. On June 9, 2015, it was announced that Never Shout Never would be releasing their seventh studio album,Black Caton August 7, 2015.The first single off of the album, titled \"Hey! We OK\", was released the same day.The album was recorded in the DTLA Recording Studio inLos Angeles,Californiaand was produced byDennis Herring.On June 17, the group released \"Boom!\" as the first promotional single from the album.On July 16, the band premiered a new track titled, \"Red Balloon\" and was released as the album's second promotional single.The album peaked at number 52 on theBillboard200.On November 24, 2015, Ian Crawford confirmed on his Facebook page that he had been let go", "he had been let go from the band. The band embarked on the Black Cat Tour in January 2016.\"Red Balloon\" was officially released as the album's second single on February 5, 2016.\"Hey! We Ok\" was nominated at the 2016Alternative Press Music Awardsfor Song of the Year.The group headlined a US tour in June 2016 with support from Hundred Handed and Me Like Bees.On June 26, 2016, bassist Taylor MacFee announced his departure from the band.In November 2016, the group released their ninth EP,Advent Of Violett Soul. 2017–2018: Cancelled studio albums and break-up In June 2017, Never Shout Never performed at the 2017Warped Tour.They later embarked on the Throwback Tour, as well as performing at the So What?! Music Festival.The tour lasted throughout 2017 where they played songs from earlier albums that likely wouldn't be played again for a long time.In April 2017, Drew revealed he had plans on releasing Never Shout Never's eighth studio album,Emerald Sun. He described the record as \"conceptual,\" dealing with the theme", "with the theme of love. He stated, \"It's something I wrote that I feel has a higher message behind it. It's the album I've been wanting to make — portrays my heart and how I see the world.\" 13 tracks were written for the album.The album was expected to be released in the summer of 2018, but never made its way onto streaming services. On March 23, 2018, the band released a cover ofElvis Presley's \"Love Me Tender\" on their upcoming cover album,All for Love, composed entirely of covers of love songs.On April 2, they released their cover ofthe Beatles' \"Something\".It is unlikelyAll for Lovewas finished and will ever be released. Drew continued to upload a handful of covers on YouTube, but these were likely not final recordings for the album, nor were they likely intended to be on the album at all. Ingle revealed in December 2018 that after a small tour in Mexico and Brazil the following month that Never Shout Never would disband.However, he reached out to fans via an Instagram post two days later asking if he", "later asking if he should keep making music under the name.Despite the initial announcement, the band performed shows in Brazil and Mexico in early 2019.Following the final show in Brazil (with long-time drummer Hayden Kaiser absent) he stated he was uncertain of the band's future, but no official breakup announcement was confirmed. 2020–2023:Unborn Spark, return and retirement On April 29, 2020, Drew announced a solo acoustic album titledUnborn Spark, due for release on May 13, his son's 1st birthday.However, on May 5, he announced that he needed a little more time for mixing and artwork to be completed.On May 17, he announced that the album would be released on June 12.On June 8, the first single, \"Time to Change\", was released. With it came the announcement that it would be released as a Never Shout Never album. Never Shout Never returned in late 2021, releasing a new single titled \"Easy Swagger\" in October.On March 8, 2022, Drew announced his retirement from music, putting an end to the band.In addition,", "band.In addition, Drew confirmed on Twitter that Never Shout Never was finished.However, on December 24, 2022, he announced that Never Shout Never would be returning the following year and also announced a release of a new album.On November 25, 2023, Drew announced viaTwitterhis second retirement from music, revealing that he would pursue a new career in professional painting.He also released the final mixes of his intended album,Advent of Violet Soulon the same day. Band members Former members Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Alternative Press Music Awards mtvU Woodie Awards PETA's Libby Awards References External links", "2011 Joplin tornado The2011 Joplin tornadowas a large and devastatingmultiple-vortextornadothat struckJoplin,Missouri, United States, on the evening of Sunday, May 22, 2011. Part of alarger late-Maytornado outbreak, theEF5tornado began just west of Joplin and intensified very quickly, reaching a maximum width of nearly one mile (1.6 km) during its path through the southern part of the city. The tornado tracked eastward through Joplin, and then continued acrossInterstate 44into rural portions ofJasperandNewtoncounties, weakening before it dissipated. The tornado devastated a large portion of the city of Joplin, damaging nearly 8,000 buildings, and of those, destroying over 4,000. The damage—which included major facilities like one of Joplin's two hospitals as well as much of its basic infrastructure—amounted to a total of $2.8 billion, making the Joplin tornado the costliest single tornado in U.S. history. The insurance payout was the highest in Missouri history, breaking the previous record of $2 billion from", "of $2 billion from thehailstorm of April 10, 2001. Overall, the tornado killed 158 people (with an additional eight indirect deaths) and injured some 1,150 others. It ranks as one of the United States' deadliest tornadoes: it was the deadliest U.S. tornado since theApril 9, 1947, F5 tornado inWoodward,Oklahoma, and the seventh-deadliest in U.S. history.It was the deadliest tornado in Missouri history, as well as the first single tornado since the1953 Flint–Beecher tornadoinMichiganto cause more than 100 fatalities.It was the first F5/EF5 tornado to occur in Missouri sinceMay 20, 1957, when an F5 tornado destroyed several suburbs ofKansas City,and only the second F5/EF5 tornado in Missouri since 1950.It was the third tornado to strike Joplin since May 1971. Meteorological synopsis On the evening of May 21, 2011, an area of low pressure was centered over westernSouth Dakota. This feature, in addition to steeplapse ratesanddewpointsabove 60 °F (16 °C), was conducive to the development ofsupercellslater in the", "in the day. Very largehailwas forecast, but the tornado threat was forecast to remain isolated.: 15–16At 8:00 a.m.CDT(1300UTC), theNational Weather Service(NWS)Storm Prediction Center(SPC) issued a slight risk of severe storms for much of the upperPlainsand theMidwest. By 8:00 a.m. CDT (1300 UTC) on May 22, forecasters at the SPC realized that a more intense weather outbreak was likely to occur, and upgraded a large swath of the Midwest to a moderate risk. The system was forecast to evolve into a wave early Monday morning as a trough strengthened from the western United States. At the surface, acold frontwas forecast to pass through the region later in the day, while adrylinewas forecast to intersect the cold front inKansas. These features, accompanied by the low-pressure system, encouraged very strong storm development along the cold front.By the 11:30 a.m. CDT (1630 UTC) updated outlook, certainty had grown stronger that a major severe weather event would occur that afternoon. A public severe weather", "severe weather outlook was issued at this time, and the outlook stated that severe weather was expected that afternoon, with tornadoes, large hail and strong winds all named as threats. At 1:30 p.m. CDT (1830 UTC), four hours prior to the tornado, the SPC issued atornado watchfor southwesternMissouri, to remain in effect until 9:00 p.m. CDT.: 2The watch predicted \"explosive thunderstorm development,\" with a \"strong tornado or two possible.\": 20Thunderstorms began developing between 2:00 and 3:00 p.m. over southeast Kansas. They quickly became severe, and as thunderstorm development continued moving to the east, forecasters became more concerned about imminent tornado development. A tornado warning for the severe thunderstorm west ofJoplinthat eventually produced the EF5 tornado was first issued at 5:17 p.m. CDT (22:17 UTC), 17 minutes before it touched down and 19 minutes before it entered the city of Joplin.: 17 Storm track and damage Beginning The tornado first touched down inNewton County, Missouri, just", "Missouri, just east of the Missouri–Kansas state line, approximately one-half mile (0.80 km) southwest of the intersection of South Central City Road and 32nd Street, at 5:34 p.m. CDT (22:34 UTC). Eyewitnesses andstorm chasersreported multiple vortices rotating around the parent circulation. Here, the tornado downed several large trees at EF0 intensity.Civil defense sirenssounded in Joplin twenty minutes before the tornado struck, in response to the tornado warning issued at 5:17 p.m. CDT (22:17 UTC) for northwestern Newton and southwestern Jasper counties in Missouri, and southeastern portions ofCherokee County, Kansas, but many Joplin residents did not heed the warning or the sirens. The tornado moved east-northeast and strengthened to EF1 intensity as it continued through rural areas towards Joplin, snapping trees and power poles and damaging outbuildings. Widening, the tornado then tracked into the more densely populated southwest corner of the city near the Twin Hills Country Club. It heavily damaged", "It heavily damaged several homes at asubdivisionin this area at up to EF3 strength. The tornado continued to cause EF3 damage as it moved through another subdivision just east of Iron Gates Road.Numerous homes were destroyed and multiple vehicles tossed around, some of which were thrown onto or rolled into homes. The tornado reached EF4 intensity just before crossing S. Schifferdecker Ave. EF5 intensity in Joplin The now massive and wedge-shaped tornado then crossed S. Schifferdecker Ave. at 5:38 p.m. CDT (22:38 UTC),: 17producing its first area of EF4 damage only four minutes after touching down, as several small but well-built commercial buildings were flattened. One person was killed after they were ejected from their car as the tornado crossed the road. Further strengthening resulted in the tornado reaching EF5 intensity shortly afterwards. Consistent EF4 to EF5 damage was noted east of S. Schifferdecker Ave. and continued through most of southern Joplin. Numerous homes, businesses, and medical buildings", "medical buildings were flattened in this area, with concrete walls collapsed and crushed into the foundations. A large steel-reinforced step and floor structure leading to a completely destroyed medical building was \"deflected upward several inches and cracked\". Steel trusses from some of the buildings were \"rolled up like paper\", and deformation or twisting of the main support beams was noted. Multiple vehicles were thrown and mangled or wrapped around trees nearby. Several 300-pound concrete parking stops anchored with rebar were torn from a parking lot in this area and thrown up to 60 yards (55 m) away.Iowa State Universitywind engineer Partha Sarkar calculated the force needed to remove the parking stops from the lot and found that winds exceeding 200 mph (320 km/h) would have been required. Damage became remarkably widespread and catastrophic at and around the nearbySt. John's Regional Medical Center, which lost nearly every window on three sides, interior walls, ceilings, and part of its roof; its life", "its roof; its life flight helicopter was also blown away and destroyed.Loss of backup power caused five fatalities,and the nine-story building was so damaged that it was deemed structurally compromised, and later torn down. According to the NWS office inSpringfield, Missouri, such extreme structural damage to such a large and well-built structure likely indicated winds at or exceeding 200 mph (320 km/h).Vehicles in the hospital parking lot were thrown into the air and mangled beyond recognition, including a semi-truck that was tossed 125 yards (114 m) and wrapped completely around adebarkedtree.Small pieces of debris from the hospital, including X-rays, medical reports, and dental records, were found in Greene and Polk counties many miles to the east.Wind-rowing of debris was noted in this area, and more concrete parking stops were removed from the St. John's parking lot. Virtually every house near McClelland Boulevard and 26th Street was flattened; some were swept completely away, and trees sustained severe", "sustained severe debarking. Peak intensity As the tornado tracked eastward, it maintained EF5 strength as it crossedMain Street (Route 43)between 20th and 26th Streets. It heavily damaged every business along that stretch and virtually destroyed several institutional buildings. It tracked just south of downtown, narrowly missing it. Entire neighborhoods were leveled in this area with some more homes swept away, and trees were stripped completely of their bark. At some residences, reinforced concrete porches were deformed or, in some cases, completely torn away. Damage to driveways was noted at some residences as well. Numerous vehicles were tossed up to several blocks, and a few homeowners never located their vehicles.A large church, a nursing home, Franklin Technology Center, St. Mary's Catholic Church and School, andJoplin High Schoolwere all destroyed along this corridor. The Greenbriar Nursing Home was completely leveled, with 21 fatalities occurring there alone,with dozens of fatalities occurring", "occurring elsewhere in this area as well.No one was in the high school at the time, as the graduation ceremonies held about three miles (4.8 km) to the north atMissouri Southern State Universityhad concluded shortly before the storm. Pieces of cardboard were found embedded in stucco walls that remained standing at Joplin High School. Steel beams and pieces of fencing were deeply embedded into the ground in fields near the high school, steel fence posts were bent to the ground in opposite directions, and a school bus was thrown into a nearby bus garage. As the tornado crossed Connecticut Avenue further to the east, it destroyed several large apartment buildings which resulted in 14 fatalities, along with aDillonsgrocery store, and a bank. Only the concrete safety deposit box vault remained at the bank,and a wooden 2x4 was found speared completely through a concrete curb at one location. The tornado then approached Rangeline Road, the main commercial strip in the eastern part of Joplin, affecting additional", "additional neighborhoods along 20th Street. The now heavily rain-wrapped tornado continued at EF5 intensity as it crossed Range Line Road. In that corridor between about 13th and 32nd Streets, the tornado continued producing catastrophic damage as it reached its widest point nearly one mile (1.6 km) across. As the tornado struck aPizza Huton South Range Line Road, store manager Christopher Lucas herded four employees and 15 customers into a walk-in freezer. With difficulty closing the door, he wrapped abungee cordholding the door shut around his arm until he was sucked out and killed by the tornado.The tornado completely destroyed aWalmartsupercenter, aHome Depot, and numerous other businesses and restaurants in this area, many of which were flattened. Numerous metal roof trusses were torn from the Home Depot building and were found broken and mangled in nearby fields. Cars that originated at the Home Depot parking lot were found hundreds of yards away. Asphalt was scoured from parking lots at Walmart and a", "at Walmart and a nearby pizza restaurant, and large tractor-trailers were thrown up to 200 yards (180 m) away. AnAcademy Sports + Outdoorsstore along Range Line sustained major structural damage, and a chair was found impaled legs-first through an exterior stucco wall there. A nearby three-story apartment complex was also devastated, and two cell phone towers collapsed. In this area, numerous cars were thrown and piled on top of each other, 100-pound (45 kg) manhole covers were removed from roads and thrown, the ground scoured, and aPepsidistribution plant was completely leveled. Additional calculations with regards to the manhole covers by Partha Sarkar revealed that winds had to have exceeded 200 miles per hour (320 km/h) for the manhole covers to be removed.Twenty fatalities occurred in this area, and the damage was rated as EF5. Extreme damage continued in the area of Duquesne Road in southeast Joplin. Many houses and industrial and commercial buildings were flattened in this area as well. The industrial", "The industrial park near the corner of 20th and Duquesne was especially hard hit with nearly every building flattened. Several large metal warehouse structures were swept cleanly from their foundations, and several heavy industrial vehicles were thrown up to 400 yards (370 m) away in this area. One of the many warehouses affected was aCumminswarehouse, a concrete block and steel building that was destroyed. The last area of EF5 damage occurred in the industrial park, and a nearby Fastrip gas station and convenience store was completely destroyed. Many homes were destroyed further to the east at EF3 to EF4 strength in a nearby subdivision, and East Middle School sustained major damage. Weakening and dissipation The tornado then continued on an east to east-southeast trajectory towardsI-44where it weakened; nonetheless, vehicles were blown off the highway and mangled nearUS 71(exit 11) on what is now theI-49interchange. The damage at and around the interchange was rated EF2 to EF3. The weakening tornado", "weakening tornado continued to track into the rural areas of southeasternJasper Countyand northeasternNewton Countywhere damage was generally minor to moderate, with trees, mobile homes, outbuildings, and frame homes damaged mainly at EF0 to EF1 strength. The tornado lifted east ofDiamondat 6:20 p.m. CDT (23:20 UTC), according to aerial surveys. The total track length was 21.62 miles (34.79 km) long, and the tornado was up to one mile (1.6 km) across at its widest point. A total of 158 people were killed, and over 1,150 others were injured along the path.A separate EF2 tornado touched down nearWentworthfrom the same supercell about 25 miles (40 km) east-southeast of Joplin, beginning roughly 10 minutes before the dissipation of this tornado. Aftermath and impact A preliminary survey of the tornado damage by the NWS office in Springfield began on May 23. The initial survey confirmed a violent tornado rated as a high-end EF4. Subsequent damage surveys, however, found evidence of more intense damage, and so the", "damage, and so the tornado was upgraded to an EF5with estimated winds over 200 mph (320 km/h), peaking at 225 to 250 mph (360 to 400 km/h). The scope of the damage was immense: according to the local branch of theAmerican Red Cross, about 25% of Joplin was destroyed,though emergency officials reported some level of damage to about 75% of the city.A week after the tornado, Joplin's mayor estimated that 25% of the businesses licensed in the city were damaged or destroyed. Official accountings of the precise number of buildings damaged or destroyed vary somewhat. According to theNational Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST) technical report, in total 7,964 buildings were damaged in Joplin, including 7,411 residential buildings and 553 non-residential. At least 3,734 of those buildings (including 3,181 of the residential and all 553 of the non-residential buildings) sustained so much damage as to be considered destroyed.: 77According to aFederal Emergency Management Agency(FEMA) study, 8,264 homes were", "8,264 homes were impacted, and of those, 3,884 were \"significantly damaged\" and 4,380 were destroyed.: 8 Infrastructure The tornado also severely damaged critical infrastructure in the city, hampering emergency response and recovery efforts.Approximately 4,000 electricity distribution poles were damaged, more than 110 miles (180 km) ofdistribution linebrought down, 135transmission towers\"affected,\" and anelectrical substationin the path of the tornado was completely destroyed (two more were damaged, but reparably so). In the immediate aftermath of the storm, approximately 20,000 people were left without power, and those with homes left intact could not get it restored until 10–12 days later, when their dwellings were approved for safe occupancy. The ultimate cost of rebuilding Joplin's damaged electricity system was calculated at $25.7 million.: 222–224 The tornado also caused about 4,000 leaks in water service lines, dropping Joplin's water system pressure below operating level and necessitating a", "and necessitating a block-by-block effort to find and repair the service line leaks, with a water boil order issued for the entire city in the meantime. Water pressure was returned to normal outside of the damage area within 48 hours, and the water boil order was lifted after five and a half days.: 224–226Approximately 3,500 gas meters and 55,000 feet (17,000 m) ofgas mainwere damaged, and it took two weeks to stem every gas leak; some damaged mains could not be shut off because they served critical facilities likeFreeman Health System, the lone remaining hospital in Joplin.: 226In east Joplin, 3,000–5,000 pounds (1,400–2,300 kg) ofanhydrous ammoniawas released from a valve at a trucking facility and quickly contained; no significant toxic releases occurred. With 21 cell towers down and fiber cables damaged, cellular communications—voice calls in particular, text messages less so—were heavily impeded. Temporary mobile cell towers were deployed by wireless carriers to fill the gap within 24 hours.: 226By May", "hours.: 226By May 24, three towers owned byAT&TandSprinthad been restored. Insurance An early estimate from catastrophe risk modeling firm Eqecat, Inc. placed the insured losses from the tornado at $1–3 billion USD.By mid-June, more than 19,000 insurance claims had been filed,a number that eventually rose to 61,000, with a total payout of more than $2 billion—31% going to homeowners and 5% to those who lost vehicles.The impact on the insurance industry was not so much due to the number of claims, but the cumulative effect of such a large number of total losses. More than 2,500 local people employed in insurance were involved in some capacity. It was presumed thatState Farmwould assume the largest share of these losses, having market share of 27% forhomeowners insuranceand 21% forautomobile insurance. The $2.8 billion in damage is the largest amount for a tornado since 1950. Casualties As of May 2013, the official death toll from NWS was listed at 158 while the City of Joplin listed the death toll at 161 (158", "toll at 161 (158 direct). The list was up to 162, until one man's injuries were found to be unrelated to the event.In one indirect fatality,a policeman was struck by lightning and killed while assisting with recovery and cleanup efforts the day after the storm.Another five indirect fatalities occurred after a disease outbreak ofmucormycosisinfected 13 people, possibly 18 people.Shortly after the tornado, authorities had listed 1,300 people as missing, but the number quickly dwindled as they were accounted for.Many people were reported to have been trapped in destroyed houses. Seventeen people were rescued from the rubble the day after the tornado struck.Of 146 sets of remains recovered from the rubble, 134 victims had been positively identified by June 1.This total included four sets of partial remains, some of which may have been from a single person.On June 2, it was announced that four more victims had died. Six people were killed when St. John's Regional Medical Center was struck by the tornado. Five of", "tornado. Five of those deaths were patients on ventilators who died after the building lost power and a backup generator did not work.The sixth fatality was a hospital visitor. TheJoplin Globereported that 54% of the people killed died in their residences, 32% died in non-residential areas and 14% died in vehicles or outdoors. Joplin officials after the tornado announced plans to requirehurricane tiesor other fasteners between the houses and their foundations (devices add about US$600 to the construction costs). Officials rejected a proposal to require concrete basements in new houses. Officials noted that as of 2009, only 28% of Joplin's new homes had basements, compared with 38% two decades before. At least 1,150 people were injured severely enough to seek treatment at regional hospitals.Injuries ranged from cuts and bruises to impalement by large debris. Officials said they rescued 944 pets and reunited 292 with owners. Rating dispute In 2013, theAmerican Society of Civil Engineerspublished a study", "a study disputing the tornado's initial EF5 rating, based on surveying damage on over 150 structures within a six-mile segment of the storm's path. According to the report, over 83% of the damage was caused by wind speeds of 135 mph (217 km/h) or less, the maximum wind speed of an EF2 tornado. An additional 13% was caused by EF3 wind speeds, and 3% was consistent with EF4 winds. The study found no damage consistent with wind speeds over 200 mph (320 km/h), the minimum threshold of an EF5 tornado.Researchers concluded that the inability to find EF5 damage was due to the absence of construction standards that were able to determine the necessary wind speeds. Bill Colbourne, a member of the engineering team that surveyed the damage, declared that \"a relatively large number of buildings could have survived in Joplin if they had been built to sustain hurricane winds.\" However, the EF5 rating stood. The NWS office in Springfield stated that their survey teams found only a small area of EF5 structural damage, and", "damage, and that it could have easily been missed in the survey (at and around St. John's Medical Center).Bill Davis, head of Springfield's NWS office, said that the results of the study \"do not surprise me at all,\" adding that \"there was only a very small area of EF5 damage in Joplin...we knew right off the bat there was EF4 damage. It took us longer to identify the EF5 damage and that it would take winds of over 200 mph (320 km/h) to do that damage.\"Additionally, the basis for the EF5 rating in Joplin was mainly contextual rather than structural, with non-conventional damage indicators such as the removal of concrete parking stops, manhole covers, reinforced concrete porches, driveways, and asphalt used to arrive at a final rating. The presence of wind rowed structural debris, instances of very large vehicles such as buses, vans, and semi-trucks being thrown hundreds of yards to several blocks from their points of origin, the fact that some homeowners never located their vehicles, and the overwhelming", "the overwhelming extent and totality of the destruction in Joplin were also taken into consideration. According to a detailed damage survey by Timothy Marshall, a majority of houses were destroyed at winds of EF2-3 strength. However he identified 22 well anchored houses which were assigned EF5 ratings. Response Immediately following the disaster, emergency responders were deployed within and to the city to undertake search and rescue efforts. ThenGovernorJay Nixondeclared astate of emergencyfor the Joplin area shortly after the tornado hit, and orderedMissouri National Guardtroops to the city.By May 23,Missouri Task Force One(consisting of 85 personnel, four dogs, and heavy equipment) arrived and began searching for missing persons. Five heavy rescue teams were also sent to the city a day later. Within two days, numerous agencies arrived to assist residents in the recovery process. The National Guard deployed 191 personnel and placed 2,000 more on standby to be deployed if needed. In addition, theMissouri", "theMissouri State Highway Patrolprovided 180 troopers to assist theJoplin Police Departmentand other local agencies with law enforcement, rescue, and recovery efforts that also included the deployment of five ambulance strike teams, and a total of 25 ambulances in the affected area on May 24 as well over 75 Marines from theFt. Leonard WoodArmy base.Due to the severe damage caused by the tornado, the traveling Piccadilly Circus was unable to perform as scheduled. As a result, the circus employees brought their two adult elephants to help drag damaged automobiles and other heavy debris out of the streets. Despite the destruction, twoWaffle Houselocations in Joplin remained open following the tornado. This ledFederal Emergency Management AgencyAdministratorCraig Fugateto develop the concept of theWaffle House Indexfor measuring disaster impact. In May 2012, the Missouri National Guard released documents showing that four soldiers looted consumer electronics from a ruined Walmart during efforts to locate", "efforts to locate survivors the day after the tornado. According to the investigative memo, they believed the merchandise was going to be destroyed. All four soldiers were demoted and had letters of reprimand placed in their personnel files, but were never prosecuted, though many civilian looters were. Cleanup The Joplin tornado generated an estimated 3 million cubic yards of debris,an amount sufficient to cover a football field 120 stories high.: 19Removal efforts lasted for months, and at their height more than 410 trucks a day transported debris to landfills in Joplin itself, as well as nearbyGalenaandLamar. The tornado also led to renewed lead contamination on many Joplin properties. Joplin had been the site of lead mining and processing for decades before cleanup efforts began in the mid-1990s, and the tornado's upheaval of the surface as it swept houses from foundations and uprooted trees re-contaminated about 40% of yards in southern Joplin, leaving behind chunks of raw lead ore the size of tennis or", "size of tennis or golf balls. The city spent more than $5 million to clean the properties up using grants from the Environmental Protection Agency, scraping off the topsoil and replacing it with clean soil, and further required that builders in the damage area test for lead and clean it up before construction. Social media response The tornado also highlighted a new form of disaster response, using social media. This type of disaster response is now known as Social Media Emergency Management. News outlets began aggregating images and video from eyewitnesses shared through social media.Public citizen-led Facebook groups and web sites coordinated information, needs, and offers. The results were so effective the project became a finalist in the 2011 Mashable Awards for Best Social Good Cause Campaign. National attention PresidentBarack Obamatoured the community on May 29, flying intoJoplin Regional Airportand speaking at a memorial at the Taylor Performing Arts Center atMissouri Southern State Universityabout", "Universityabout two miles (3.2 km) north of the worst of the devastation.Obama had been on a state visit to Europe at the time of the storm. Members of the controversialWestboro Baptist Churchwere also scheduled to protest the same day in Joplin, but they did not show up. There was a massive counterprotest that was organized in response to the Westboro protest, in which thousands of protesters showed up holding signs saying, \"God Loves Joplin\" and \"We Support You Joplin.\" President Obama also delivered thecommencement addressatJoplin High Schoolon May 21, 2012, a year after the tornado. Rebuilding and recovery FEMA maintained a large presence in Joplin following the tornado, with as many as 820 employees working in the city. One FEMA undertaking was the construction of 15 temporary housing sites in and around Joplin, which housed 586 families/households at their peak. The city, warned by federal officials that it should expect to lose 25% of its population following the tornado, responded quickly and built", "quickly and built an average of five houses a week between 2011 and 2022. Most businesses reopened, and more than 300 new businesses opened between 2011 and early 2016. In April 2012, Joplin voters approved a $62 million bond to continue constructing new schools and repair damaged existing ones. Engineers criticized thetilt-upconstruction of the Home Depot building, in which all but two of the walls collapsed in adomino effectafter the tornado lifted the roof, killing seven people in the front of the store (although 28 people in the back of the store survived when those walls collapsed outwards). Home Depot officials disagreed with the study published byThe Kansas City Starand said they would use the tilt-up practice when they rebuilt the Joplin store.On June 1, the Home Depot said it would have a new temporary 30,000 sq ft (2,800 m2) building erected and operational within two weeks. In the meantime, it opened for business in the parking lot of its demolished building.On June 20, the Home Depot opened a", "Home Depot opened a temporary 60,000 sq ft (5,600 m2) building constructed by the company's disaster recovery team. Within two years, the city's workers and community groups compiled and published \"Joplin Pays it Forward\" to give recovery advice to other places struck by disasters.Many homes and businesses have been rebuilt since the tornado. Joplin High School was reopened on September 2, 2014. St. John's Regional Medical Center (nowMercy Hospital) had to be rebuilt and reopened in 2015. Mental health impacts Eighteen people committed suicide in the wake of the tornado, according to the executive director of the Community Clinic of Southwest Missouri, a co-chair of the city's long-term recovery team. Calls about domestic violence grew in the year following the disaster.In 2024, Jennifer M. First, J. Brian Houston, and Sangwon Lee with theUniversity of Tennesseealong with Megan Carnahan and Mansoo Yu with theUniversity of Missouri, published aqualitative case studyof survivors from the tornado, in which they", "in which they described how survivors recovered from \"tornado brain\".In the paper, they stated approximately 41% of the residents of Joplin were directly impacted by the tornado and that the tornado lead to \"various mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder\". In popular culture A number of documentaries have been produced about the Joplin tornado and its effects on the city. These includeHeartland: A Portrait of Survival, directed byErica Tremblayand featured at the Omaha Film Festival and the St. Louis International Film Festival,as well asDeadline in Disaster(directed by Beth Pike), which followed the staff of The Joplin Globe in the tornado's aftermath and received a regional Emmy in the Documentary-Cultural category during the 37thMid-America Emmy Awards. In October 2011,The Joplin Globereleased a hard-cover pictorial book entitled32 Minutes in May: The Joplin Tornado. See also Notes References Further reading External links 37°03′38″N94°31′51″W /", "/ 37.06056°N 94.53083°W /37.06056; -94.53083" ]
As of August 1, 2024, what is the largest city of the 9th largest country by land area in Europe?
The largest city of the 9th largest country in Europe is Warsaw.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_area
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland
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Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_area', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_area", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" ]
[ "List of European countries by area Below is alist of European countries and dependencies by areainEurope.As acontinent, Europe's total geographical area is about 10 million square kilometres.Transcontinental countriesare ranked according to the size of their European part only, excludingGreecedue to the not clearly defined boundaries of its islands between Europe andAsia. Inland water is included in area numbers. List of European countries and dependencies by area Definition Europe and Asia are contiguous with each other; thus, the exactboundary between themis not clearly defined, and often follows historical, political, and cultural definitions, rather than geographical. Map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly usedcontinental boundaries Legend: Blue=Contiguous transcontinental countriesGreen= Sometimes considered European but geographically outside Europe's boundaries See also Notes References", "Poland – inEurope(green & dark grey)– in theEuropean Union(green) – Poland,officially theRepublic of Poland,is a country inCentral Europe. It extends from theBaltic Seain the north to theSudetesandCarpathian Mountainsin the south, bordered byLithuaniaandRussiato the northeast,BelarusandUkraineto the east,Slovakiaand theCzech Republicto the south, andGermanyto the west. The territory is characterised by a varied landscape, diverse ecosystems, andtemperate transitionalclimate. Poland is composed ofsixteen voivodeshipsand is the fifth most populousmember state of the European Union(EU), with over 38 million people, and thefifth largest EU countryby land area, covering a combined area of 312,696 km2(120,733 sq mi). The capital andlargest cityisWarsaw; other major cities includeKraków,Wrocław,Łódź,Poznań, andGdańsk. Prehistoric human activity on Polish soildates to theLower Paleolithic, with continuous settlement since the end of theLast Glacial Period. Culturally diverse throughoutlate antiquity, in theearly medieval periodthe region became inhabited by theWest SlavictribalPolans, who gavePoland its name. The process of establishing statehood coincided with the conversion of apagan ruler of the Polansto Christianity, under the auspices of theRoman Catholic Churchin 966. TheKingdom of Polandemerged in 1025, and in 1569 cemented its long-standingassociation with Lithuania, thus forming thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the time, the Commonwealth was one of thegreat powersof Europe, with anelective monarchyand auniquely liberalpolitical system, which adoptedEurope's first modern constitutionin 1791. With the passing of the prosperousPolish Golden Age, the country waspartitioned by neighbouring statesat the end of the 18th century. Poland regained itsindependenceat the end ofWorld War Iin 1918 with the creation of theSecond Polish Republic, which emergedvictoriousinvarious conflictsof theinterbellumperiod. In September 1939, theinvasion of PolandbyGermanyand theSoviet Unionmarked the beginning ofWorld War II, which resulted inthe Holocaustand millions ofPolish casualties. Forced into theEastern Blocin the globalCold War, thePolish People's Republicwas a founding signatory of theWarsaw Pact. Through the emergence and contributions of theSolidarity movement, thecommunist governmentwasdissolvedand Poland re-established itself as ademocratic statein 1989, as thefirstof its neighbors. Poland is a De jureparliamentary republicwith itsbicameral legislaturecomprising theSejmand theSenate. Considered amiddle power, it is adeveloped marketandhigh-income economythat is thesixth largestin theEUby nominalGDPand thefifth largest by GDP (PPP). Poland enjoys avery high standard of living, safety, andeconomic freedom, as well as freeuniversity educationanduniversal health care. The country has 17UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites, 15 of which are cultural. Poland is a founding member state of the United Nations and a member of theWorld Trade Organization,OECD,NATO, and theEuropean Union(including theSchengen Area). Etymology The nativePolishname for Poland isPolska.The name is derived from thePolans, aWest Slavictribe who inhabited theWarta Riverbasin of present-dayGreater Polandregion (6th–8th century CE).The tribe's name stems from theProto-Slavicnounpolemeaning field, which in-itself originates from theProto-Indo-Europeanword*pleh₂-indicating flatland.The etymology alludes to thetopographyof the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland.During theMiddle Ages, theLatinformPoloniawas widely used throughout Europe. The country's alternative archaic name isLechiaand its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notablyHungarian,Lithuanian, andPersian.Theexonympossibly derives from eitherLech, a legendary ruler of theLechites, or from theLendians, a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge ofLesser Poland.The origin of the tribe's name lies in theOld Polishwordlęda(plain).Initially, both namesLechiaandPoloniawere used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during theMiddle Ages. History Prehistory and protohistory The firstStone Agearchaic humans andHomo erectusspecies settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments.The arrival ofHomo sapiensandanatomically modern humanscoincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of theLast Glacial Period(Northern Polish glaciation10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable.Neolithicexcavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in PolishKuyavia,and theBronocice potis incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC). The period spanning theBronze Ageand theEarly Iron Age(1300 BC–500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, establishment ofpalisadedsettlements (gords) and the expansion ofLusatian culture.A significant archaeological find fromthe protohistory of Polandis a fortified settlement atBiskupin, attributed to the Lusatian culture of theLate Bronze Age(mid-8th century BC). Throughoutantiquity(400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notablyCeltic,Scythian,Germanic,Sarmatian,BalticandSlavictribes.Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence ofRoman Legionssent to protect theamber trade.ThePolish tribesemerged following thesecond wave of the Migration Periodaround the 6th century AD;they wereSlavicand may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area.Beginning in the early 10th century, thePolanswould come to dominate otherLechitictribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchical state. Kingdom of Poland Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under thePiast dynasty.In 966, ruler of the PolansMieszko Iaccepted Christianity under the auspices of theRoman Churchwith theBaptism of Poland.In 968, a missionarybishopricwas established inPoznań. AnincipittitledDagome iudexfirst defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital inGnieznoand affirmed that its monarchy was under the protection of theApostolic See.The country's early origins were described byGallus AnonymusinGesta principum Polonorum, the oldest Polish chronicle.An important national event of the period was themartyrdomofSaint Adalbert, who was killed byPrussianpagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor,Bolesław I the Brave. In 1000, at theCongress of Gniezno, Bolesław obtained the right ofinvestiturefromOtto III, Holy Roman Emperor, who assented to the creation of additional bishoprics and an archdioceses in Gniezno.Three new dioceses were subsequently established inKraków,Kołobrzeg, andWrocław.Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royalregaliaand a replica of theHoly Lance, which were later used at his coronation as the firstKing of Polandinc.1025, when Bolesław received permission for his coronation fromPope John XIX.Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of GermanLusatia, CzechMoravia,Upper Hungary, and southwestern regions of theKievan Rus'. The transition frompaganismin Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in thepagan reaction of the 1030s.In 1031,Mieszko II Lambertlost the title of king and fled amidst the violence.The unrest led to the transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 byCasimir I the Restorer.In 1076,Bolesław IIre-instituted the office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent,Bishop Stanislaus.In 1138, the countryfragmentedinto five principalities whenBolesław III Wrymouthdivided his lands among his sons.These wereLesser Poland, Greater Poland,Silesia,MasoviaandSandomierz, with intermittent hold overPomerania.In 1226,Konrad I of Masoviainvited theTeutonic Knightsto aid in combating theBalticPrussians; a decision that later led to centuries of warfare with the Knights. In the first half of the 13th century,Henry I the BeardedandHenry II the Piousaimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but theMongol invasionand the death of Henry II inbattlehindered the unification.As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration ofGerman and Flemish settlersinto Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes.In 1264, theStatute of Kaliszintroduced unprecedented autonomy for thePolish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe. In 1320,Władysław I the Shortbecame the first king ofa reunified PolandsincePrzemysł IIin 1296,and the first to be crowned atWawel Cathedralin Kraków.Beginning in 1333, the reign ofCasimir III the Greatwas marked by developments incastle infrastructure, army, judiciary anddiplomacy.Under his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted Polish rule overRutheniain 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread ofBlack Death.In 1364, Casimir inaugurated theUniversity of Kraków, one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe.Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end.He was succeeded by his closest male relative,Louis of Anjou, who ruled Poland,Hungary, andCroatiain apersonal union.Louis' younger daughterJadwigabecame Poland's first female monarch in 1384. In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience withWładysław II Jagiełło, theGrand Duke of Lithuania, thus forming theJagiellonian dynastyand thePolish–Lithuanian unionwhich spanned the lateMiddle Agesand earlyModern Era.The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnicLithuanianterritories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest Europeanpolitical entitiesof the time. In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with theTeutonic Knightscontinued and culminated at theBattle of Grunwaldin 1410, where a combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them.In 1466, after theThirteen Years' War, kingCasimir IV Jagiellongave royal consent to thePeace of Thorn, which created the futureDuchy of Prussiaunder Polish suzerainty and forced the Prussian rulers to paytributes.The Jagiellonian dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms ofBohemia(1471 onwards) and Hungary.In the south, Poland confronted theOttoman Empire(at theVarna Crusade) and theCrimean Tatars, and in the east helped Lithuania to combatRussia. Poland was developing as afeudalstate, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerfullanded nobilitythat confined the population to private manorial farmstead known asfolwarks.In 1493,John I Albertsanctioned the creation of abicameral parliamentcomposed of a lower house, theSejm, and an upper house, theSenate.TheNihil noviact adopted by the PolishGeneral Sejmin 1505, transferred most of thelegislative powerfrom the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known asGolden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equalPolish nobles. The 16th century sawProtestant Reformationmovements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time.This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil andwars of religionthat beset Europe.In Poland,Nontrinitarian Christianitybecame the doctrine of the so-calledPolish Brethren, who separated from theirCalvinistdenomination and became the co-founders of globalUnitarianism. The EuropeanRenaissanceevoked underSigismund I the OldandSigismund II Augustusa sense of urgency in the need to promote acultural awakening.During thePolish Golden Age, the nation's economy and culture flourished.The Italian-bornBona Sforza, daughter of theDuke of Milanand queen consort to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions toarchitecture,cuisine, language and court customs atWawel Castle. Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth TheUnion of Lublinof 1569 established thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a unified federal state with anelective monarchy, but largely governed by the nobility.The latter coincided with a period of prosperity; the Polish-dominated union thereafter becoming a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central,Eastern,Southeasternand Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately 1 million km2(390,000 sq mi)at its peakand was the largest state in Europe.Simultaneously, Poland imposedPolonisationpolicies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities. In 1573,Henry de Valois of France, the first elected king, approbated theHenrician Articleswhich obliged future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles.When he left Poland to becomeKing of France, his successor,Stephen Báthory, led a successfulcampaignin theLivonian War, granting Poland morelands across the eastern shoresof the Baltic Sea.State affairs were then headed byJan Zamoyski, theCrown Chancellor.Stephen's successor,Sigismund III, defeated a rivalHabsburgelectoral candidate,Archduke Maximilian III, in theWar of the Polish Succession (1587–1588). In 1592, Sigismund succeeded his father andJohn Vasa, inSweden.ThePolish-Swedish unionendured until 1599, when he wasdeposedby the Swedes. In 1609, SigismundinvadedRussiawhich was engulfed in acivil war,and a year later the Polishwinged hussarunits underStanisław ŻółkiewskioccupiedMoscow for two years after defeating the Russians atKlushino.Sigismund also countered theOttoman Empirein the southeast; atKhotynin 1621Jan Karol Chodkiewiczachieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of SultanOsman II. Sigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with theSilver Age.The liberalWładysław IVeffectively defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death the vast Commonwealth began declining from internal disorder and constant warfare.In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked theKhmelnytsky Uprising,followed by the decimatingSwedish Delugeduring theSecond Northern War,and Prussia'sindependencein 1657.In 1683,John III Sobieskire-established military prowess when he halted the advance of anOttoman Armyinto Europe at theBattle of Vienna.TheSaxonera, underAugustus IIandAugustus III, saw neighboring powers grow in strength at the expense of Poland. Both Saxon kings faced opposition fromStanisław Leszczyńskiduring theGreat Northern War(1700) and theWar of the Polish Succession (1733). Partitions Theroyal electionof 1764 resulted in the elevation ofStanisław II Augustus Poniatowskito the monarchy.His candidacy was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, EmpressCatherine II of Russia.The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states.His ideals led to the formation of the 1768Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility.The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to invade. In 1772, theFirst Partition of the Commonwealthby Prussia, Russia and Austria took place; an act which thePartition Sejm, under considerable duress, eventually ratified as afait accompli.Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms was established, in which theCommission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated.Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of theEnlightenment, encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republicanneoclassicism.For his contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded aFellowship of the Royal Society. In 1791,Great Sejm parliamentadopted the3 May Constitution, the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced aconstitutional monarchy.TheTargowica Confederation, an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the1792 Polish–Russian War.Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed, theSecond Partition, which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth waspartitioned for the third timeand ceased to exist as a territorial entity.Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795. Era of insurrections The Polish peoplerose several times against the partitionersand occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at defending Poland's sovereignty took place in the 1794Kościuszko Uprising, where a popular and distinguished generalTadeusz Kościuszko, who had several years earlier served underGeorge Washingtonin theAmerican Revolutionary War, led Polish insurgents.Despite the victory at theBattle of Racławice, his ultimate defeat ended Poland's independent existencefor 123 years. In 1806, aninsurrectionorganised byJan Henryk Dąbrowskiliberated western Poland ahead ofNapoleon'sadvance into Prussia during theWar of the Fourth Coalition. In accordance with the 1807Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon proclaimed theDuchy of Warsaw, aclient stateruled by his allyFrederick Augustus I of Saxony. The Poles actively aided French troops in theNapoleonic Wars, particularly those underJózef Poniatowskiwho becameMarshal of Franceshortly before his death atLeipzigin 1813.In the aftermath of Napoleon's exile, the Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at theCongress of Viennain 1815 and its territory was divided into RussianCongress Kingdom of Poland, the PrussianGrand Duchy of Posen, andAustrian Galiciawith theFree City of Kraków. In 1830,non-commissioned officersat Warsaw'sOfficer Cadet Schoolrebelled in what was theNovember Uprising.After its collapse, Congress Poland lost itsconstitutional autonomy,armyand legislative assembly.During theEuropean Spring of Nations, Poles took up arms in theGreater Poland Uprising of 1848to resistGermanisation, but its failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mereprovince; and subsequent integration into theGerman Empirein 1871.In Russia, the fall of theJanuary Uprising(1863–1864) prompted severepolitical, social and cultural reprisals, followed by deportations andpogromsof the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal,zinc, iron and textiles. Second Polish Republic In the aftermath ofWorld War I, theAlliesagreed on the reconstitution of Poland, confirmed through theTreaty of Versaillesof June 1919.A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, and over 450,000 died.Following thearmistice with Germanyin November 1918, Poland regained its independence as theSecond Polish Republic. The Second Polish Republic reaffirmed its sovereignty aftera series of military conflicts, most notably thePolish–Soviet War, when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on theRed Armyat theBattle of Warsaw. The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up untilWorld War I, a new political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such asIgnacy Jan Paderewski, who would later become prime minister, returned home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 whenGabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at theZachętaGallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalistEligiusz Niewiadomski. In 1926, theMay Coup, led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign MarshalJózef Piłsudski, turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisanSanacja(Healing) movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilizing the country.By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country. World War II World War II began with theNazi Germaninvasion of Polandon 1 September 1939, followed by theSoviet invasion of Polandon 17 September. On 28 September 1939,Warsaw fell. As agreed in theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Poland was split into two zones,one occupied by Nazi Germany, the other bythe Soviet Union. In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The SovietNKVDexecuted thousands of Polish prisoners of war (among other incidents in theKatyn massacre) ahead ofOperation Barbarossa.German planners had in November 1939 called for \"the complete destruction of all Poles\" and their fate as outlined in the genocidalGeneralplan Ost. Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe,and its troops served both thePolish Government in Exilein thewestand Soviet leadership in theeast. Polish troops played an important role in theNormandy,Italian,North African CampaignsandNetherlandsand are particularly remembered for theBattle of BritainandBattle of Monte Cassino.Polish intelligence operatives proved extremely valuable to the Allies, providing much of the intelligence from Europe and beyond,Polish code breakerswere responsible forcracking the Enigma cipherand Polish scientists participating in theManhattan Projectwere co-creators of the Americanatomic bomb. In the east, the Soviet-backedPolish 1st Armydistinguished itself in the battles forWarsawandBerlin. Thewartime resistance movement, and theArmia Krajowa(Home Army), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as anunderground statecomplete withdegree-awarding universitiesanda court system.The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiatedOperation Tempest, of which theWarsaw Uprisingthat began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation. Nazi German forces under orders fromAdolf Hitlerset up six Germanextermination campsin occupied Poland, includingTreblinka,MajdanekandAuschwitz. The Germanstransported millions of Jewsfrom across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps.Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews– approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poleswere killed during the Germanoccupation of Poland, including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polishintelligentsia– academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during theWolaandOchotamassacres.Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland (Kresy), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by theUkrainian Insurgent Army(UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as theWołyń Massacres.Of all the countriesin the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population –half of themPolish Jews.About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature. In 1945, Poland's borderswere shifted westwards. Over two million Polish inhabitants ofKresywere expelledalong theCurzon LinebyStalin.The western border became theOder-Neisse line. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration ofmillions of other people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews. Post-war communism At the insistence ofJoseph Stalin, theYalta Conferencesanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored thePolish government-in-exilebased in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it abetrayalby the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees toChurchillandRooseveltthat he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a newcommunistgovernment in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of theEastern Bloc.As elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met witharmed resistancefrom the outset which continued into the 1950s. Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland(in particular the cities ofWilnoandLwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning ofRed Armyunits on Poland's territory. Military alignment within theWarsaw Pactthroughout theCold Warcame about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations. The new communist government took control with the adoption of theSmall Constitutionon 19 February 1947. ThePolish People's Republic(Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa)was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, after the death ofBolesław Bierut, the régime ofWładysław Gomułkabecame temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms.Collectivisation in the Polish People's Republicfailed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s underEdward Gierek, but most of the time persecution ofanti-communist oppositiongroups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc. Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union \"Solidarity\" (\"Solidarność\"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition ofmartial law in 1981by GeneralWojciech Jaruzelski, it eroded the dominance of thePolish United Workers' Partyand by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's firstpartially free and democratic parliamentary electionssince the end of the Second World War.Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventuallywon the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded thecollapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe. Third Polish Republic Ashock therapyprogram, initiated byLeszek Balcerowiczin the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform itsSoviet-styleplanned economyinto amarket economy.As with otherpost-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic, and living standards,but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989GDP levelsas early as 1995, although the unemployment rate increased.Poland became a member of theVisegrád Groupin 1991,and joinedNATOin 1999.Poles then voted to join theEuropean Unionina referendumin June 2003,withPoland becoming a full memberon 1 May 2004, following theconsequent enlargement of the organisation. Poland joined theSchengen Areain 2007, as a result of which,the country's borderswith other member states of the European Union were dismantled, allowing forfull freedom of movementwithin most of the European Union.On 10 April 2010, thePresident of PolandLech Kaczyński, along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officialsdied in a plane crashnearSmolensk, Russia. In 2011, the rulingCivic Platformwonparliamentary elections.In 2014, thePrime Minister of Poland,Donald Tusk, was chosen to bePresident of the European Council, and resigned as prime minister.The2015and2019 electionswere won by the national-conservativeLaw and JusticeParty (PiS) led byJarosław Kaczyński,resulting in increasedEuroscepticismandincreased frictionwith the European Union.In December 2017,Mateusz Morawieckiwas sworn in as the Prime Minister, succeedingBeata Szydlo, in office since 2015. PresidentAndrzej Duda, supported by Law and Justice party, was re-elected in the 2020 presidentialelection.As of November 2023, theRussian invasion of Ukrainehad led to 17 millionUkrainian refugeescrossing the border to Poland.As of November 2023, 0.9 million of those had stayed in Poland.In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the largest share of the vote in theelection, but lost its majority in parliament. In December 2023, Donald Tusk became the new Prime Minister leading a coalition made up ofCivic Coalition,Third Way, andThe Left. Law and Justice became the leading opposition party. Geography Poland covers an administrative area of 312,722 km2(120,743 sq mi), and is theninth-largest country in Europe. Approximately 311,895 km2(120,423 sq mi) of the country's territory consists of land, 2,041 km2(788 sq mi) is internal waters and 8,783 km2(3,391 sq mi) is territorial sea.Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverselandforms,water bodiesandecosystems.The central and northern region bordering theBaltic Sealie within the flatCentral European Plain, but its south is hilly and mountainous.The averageelevation above the sea levelis estimated at 173 metres. The country has a coastline spanning 770 km (480 mi); extending from the shores of the Baltic Sea, along theBay of Pomeraniain the west to theGulf of Gdańskin the east.The beach coastline is abundant insand dune fieldsorcoastal ridgesand is indented byspitsand lagoons, notably theHel Peninsulaand theVistula Lagoon, which is shared with Russia.The largest Polish island on the Baltic Sea isWolin, located withinWolin National Park.Poland also shares theSzczecin Lagoonand theUsedomisland with Germany. The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two majormountain ranges; theSudetesin the west and theCarpathiansin the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are theTatra Mountains, extending along Poland's southern border.Poland's highest point isMount Rysyat 2,501 metres (8,205 ft) in elevation, located in the Tatras.The highest summit of the Sudetes massif isMount Śnieżkaat 1,603.3 metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic.The lowest point in Poland is situated atRaczki Elbląskiein theVistula Delta, which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level. Poland'slongest riversare theVistula, theOder, theWarta, and theBug.The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region ofMasuria, within theMasurian Lake District.The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), areŚniardwyandMamry, and the deepest isLake Hańczaat 108.5 metres (356 ft) in depth. Climate The climate of Poland istemperate transitional, and varies fromoceanicin the north-west tocontinentalin the south-east.The mountainous southern fringes are situated within analpine climate.Poland is characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around 20 °C (68.0 °F) in July, and moderately cold winters averaging −1 °C (30.2 °F) in December.The warmest and sunniest part of Poland isLower Silesiain the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, aroundSuwałkiinPodlaskie province, where the climate is affected bycold frontsfromScandinaviaandSiberia.Precipitationis more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September. There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year.Climate changeand other factors have further contributed to interannualthermal anomaliesand increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was 9.33 °C (48.8 °F), around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001–2010 period.Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with lesssleetand snowfall. Biodiversity Phytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of theCircumboreal Regionwithin theBoreal Kingdom. The country has fourPalearctic ecoregions– Central, Northern, Western Europeantemperate broadleaf and mixed forest, and theCarpathian montane conifer. Forests occupy 31% of Poland's land area, the largest of which is theLower Silesian Wilderness.The most commondeciduous treesfound across the country areoak,maple, andbeech; the most common conifers arepine,spruce, andfir.An estimated 69% of all forests areconiferous. Thefloraandfaunain Poland is that ofContinental Europe, with thewisent,white storkandwhite-tailed eagledesignated as national animals, and thered common poppybeing the unofficial floral emblem.Among the most protected species is theEuropean bison, Europe's heaviest land animal, as well as theEurasian beaver, thelynx, thegray wolfand theTatra chamois.The region was also home to the extinctaurochs, the last individual dying in Poland in 1627.Game animals such asred deer,roe deer, andwild boarare found in most woodlands.Poland is also a significant breeding ground formigratory birdsand hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks. Around 315,100 hectares (1,217 sq mi), equivalent to 1% of Poland's territory, is protected within 23Polish national parks, two of which –BiałowieżaandBieszczady– areUNESCO World Heritage Sites.There are 123 areas designated aslandscape parks, along with numerousnature reservesand otherprotected areasunder theNatura 2000network. Government and politics Poland is aunitarysemi-presidential republicand arepresentative democracy, with apresidentas thehead of state.The executive power is exercised further by theCouncil of Ministersand theprime ministerwho acts as thehead of government.The council's individual members are selected by the prime minister, approved by parliament and sworn in by the president.The head of state is elected bypopular votefor a five-year term.The current president isAndrzej Dudaand the prime minister isDonald Tusk. Poland'slegislativeassembly is abicameralparliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member upper house (Senate).The Sejm is elected underproportional representationaccording to thed'Hondt methodfor vote-seat conversion.The Senate is elected under thefirst-past-the-postelectoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies.The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote. With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates ofpolitical partiesreceiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm.Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteedparliamentary immunity.Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election. Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form theNational Assembly of the Republic of Poland.The National Assembly, headed by theSejm Marshal, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes theoath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to theState Tribunal; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared. Administrative divisions Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known asvoivodeships.As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (powiats), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (gminas).Major cities normally have the status of bothgminaandpowiat.The provinces are largely founded on the borders ofhistoric regions, or named for individual cities.Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor (voivode), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and avoivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly. Law TheConstitution of Polandis the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code ofcivil law.The current democratic constitution was adopted by theNational Assembly of Polandon 2 April 1997; it guarantees amulti-party statewith freedoms of religion, speech and gatherings, prohibits the practices of forcedmedical experimentation, torture orcorporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right tostrike. Thejudiciaryin Poland is composed of theSupreme Courtas the country's highest judicial organ, theSupreme Administrative Courtfor the judicial control of public administration, Common Courts (District,Regional,Appellate) and theMilitary Court.TheConstitutionaland State Tribunals are separate judicial bodies, which rule the constitutional liability of people holding the highest offices of state and supervise the compliance ofstatutory law, thus protecting the Constitution.Judges are nominated by theNational Council of the Judiciaryand are appointed for life by thepresident.With the approval of the Senate, the Sejm appoints anombudsmanfor a five-year term to guard the observance of social justice. Poland has a lowhomiciderate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018.Rape, assault and violent crime remain at a very low level.The country has imposed strict regulations onabortion, which is permitted only in cases of rape, incest or when the woman's life is in danger;congenital disorderandstillbirthare not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad. Historically, the most significant Polish legal act is theConstitution of 3 May 1791. Instituted to redress long-standing political defects of thefederativePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthand itsGolden Liberty, it was the first modern constitution in Europe and influenced many laterdemocratic movementsacross the globe.In 1918, theSecond Polish Republicbecame one of the first countries to introduce universalwomen's suffrage. Foreign relations Poland is amiddle powerand is transitioning into aregional powerin Europe.It has a total of 53 representatives in theEuropean Parliamentas of 2024.Warsawserves as the headquarters forFrontex, the European Union's agency for external border security as well asODIHR, one of the principal institutions of theOSCE.Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member ofNATO, the United Nations, and theWTO. In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened itsrelationswith the United States, thus becoming one of its closestalliesand strategic partners in Europe.Historically, Poland maintained strongcultural and politicalties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as \"The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship\". Military The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – theLand Forces, theNavy, theAir Force, theSpecial Forcesand theTerritorial Defence Force.The military is subordinate to theMinistry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland.However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff.Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by theArmed Forces Day, celebrated annually on 15 August.As of 2022, the Polish Armed Forces have a combined strength of 114,050 active soldiers, with a further 75,400 active in thegendarmerieanddefence force. Poland ranks14th in the worldin terms of military expenditures; the country allocates 3.8% of its total GDP on military spending, equivalent to approximately US$31.6 billion in 2023.From 2022, Poland initiated a programme of mass modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and local Polishdefence manufacturers.Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel.According toSIPRI, the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020. Compulsorymilitary servicefor men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008.Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country actively hosts NATO'smilitary exercises.Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions,and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, theBaltic statesand southeastern Europe. Security, law enforcement and emergency services Thanks to its location, Poland is a country essentially free from the threat of natural disasters such asearthquakes,volcanic eruptions,tornadoesandtropical cyclones. However,floodshave occurred in low-lying areas from time to time during periods of extreme rainfall (e.g. during the2010 Central European floods). Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to theMinistry of Interior and Administration– theState Police(Policja), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; theMunicipal City Guard, which maintains public order; and several specialised agencies, such as thePolish Border Guard.Private security firms are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or detain a suspect.Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils; individual guards are not permitted to carryfirearmsunless instructed by the superior commanding officer.Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities. TheInternal Security Agency(ABW, or ISA in English) is the chiefcounterintelligence instrumentsafeguarding Poland's internal security, along withAgencja Wywiadu(AW) which identifies threats and collects secret information abroad.TheCentral Investigation Bureau of Police(CBŚP) and theCentral Anticorruption Bureau(CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions. Emergency services in Poland consist of theemergency medical services,search and rescueunits of thePolish Armed ForcesandState Fire Service. Emergency medical services in Poland are operated by local and regional governments,but are a part of the centralised national agency – theNational Medical Emergency Service(Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne). Economy As of 2023, Poland's economy and gross domestic product (GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union bynominal standardsand the fifth largest bypurchasing power parity. It is also one of the fastest growing within the Union and reached adeveloped marketstatus in 2018.The unemployment rate published byEurostatin 2023 amounted to 2.8%, which was the second-lowest in the EU.As of 2023, around 62% of the employed population works in theservice sector, 29% in manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector.Although Poland is a member of theEuropean single market, the country has not adopted theEuroas legal tender and maintains its own currency – thePolish złoty(zł, PLN). Poland is the regional economic leader in Central Europe, with nearly 40 per cent of the 500 biggest companies in the region (by revenues) as well as ahigh globalisation rate.The country's largest firms compose theWIG20andWIG30indexes, which is traded on theWarsaw Stock Exchange. According to reports made by theNational Bank of Poland, the value of Polish foreign direct investments reached almost 300 billionPLNat the end of 2014. TheCentral Statistical Officeestimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities. Poland has the largest banking sector in Central Europe,with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults.It was the only European economy to have avoided therecession of 2008.The country is the20th largest exporterof goods and services in the world.Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 56% of GDP, as of 2020.In 2019, Poland passed a law that would exempt workers under the age of 26 fromincome tax. Tourism In 2020, the total value of thetourism industryin Poland was 104.3 billionPLN, then equivalent to 4.5% of the Polish GDP.Tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.Nearly 200,000 people were employed in theaccommodation and catering(hospitality) sector in 2020.In 2021, Poland ranked12th most visited countryin the world by international arrivals. Tourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the beaches in the north, with a trail of rich architectural and cultural heritage. Among the most recognisable landmarks are Old Towns inKraków,Warsaw,Wrocław(dwarf statues),Gdańsk,Poznań,Lublin,ToruńandZamośćas well as museums, zoological gardens, theme parks and theWieliczka Salt Mine, with its labyrinthine tunnels,underground lakeand chapels carved by miners out ofrock saltbeneath the ground. There areover 100 castlesin the country, largely within theLower Silesian Voivodeship, and also on theTrail of the Eagles' Nests; the largest castle in the world by land area is situated inMalbork.The GermanAuschwitz concentration campinOświęcim, and theSkull ChapelinKudowa-Zdrójconstitutedark tourism.Regarding nature based travel, notable sites include theMasurian Lake DistrictandBiałowieża Forestin the east; on the southKarkonosze, theTable Mountainsand theTatra Mountains, whereRysyand theEagle's Pathtrail are located. ThePieninyandBieszczady Mountainslie in the extreme south-east. Transport Transport in Poland is provided by means ofrail,road,marine shippingandair travel. The country is part of EU'sSchengen Areaand is an important transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe.Some of the longest European routes, including theE30andE40, run through Poland. The country has a good network ofhighwaysconsisting ofexpress roadsandmotorways. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's21st-largest road network, maintaining over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of highways in use. In 2022, the nation had 19,393 kilometres (12,050 mi) of railway track, the third longest in the European Union after Germany and France.ThePolish State Railways(PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas possessing their owncommuterandregional rail.Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which isWarsaw Chopin Airport.It is the primary global hub forLOT Polish Airlines, the country'sflag carrier. Seaports exist all along Poland's Baltic coast, with most freight operations usingŚwinoujście,Police,Szczecin,Kołobrzeg,Gdynia,GdańskandElblągas their base. ThePort of Gdańskis the only port in theBaltic Seaadapted to receive oceanic vessels.PolferriesandUnity Lineare the largest Polish ferry operators, with the latter providingroll-on/roll-offandtrain ferryservices toScandinavia. Energy The electricity generation sector in Poland is largelyfossil-fuel–based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of employment and the largest source of the nation'sgreenhouse gas emissions.Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms (Węglokoks,Kompania WęglowaandJSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually.After coal, Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU. The newEnergy Policy of Poland until 2040(EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal andlignitein electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security. Science and technology Over the course of history, the Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics.Perhaps the most renowned Pole to support this theory wasNicolaus Copernicus(Mikołaj Kopernik), who triggered theCopernican Revolutionby placing theSun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe.He also derived aquantity theory of money, which made him a pioneer of economics. Copernicus' achievements and discoveries are considered the basis of Polish culture and cultural identity.Poland was ranked 40th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024. Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditionaluniversities, as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members. There are hundreds of research and development institutes.However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles wasMarie Curie, a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life in France. In 1925, she established Poland'sRadium Institute. In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing centre of mathematics. Outstanding Polish mathematicians formed theLwów School of Mathematics(withStefan Banach,Stanisław Mazur,Hugo Steinhaus,Stanisław Ulam) andWarsaw School of Mathematics(withAlfred Tarski,Kazimierz Kuratowski,Wacław SierpińskiandAntoni Zygmund). Numerous mathematicians, scientists, chemists or economists emigrated due to historic vicissitudes, among themBenoit Mandelbrot,Leonid Hurwicz,Alfred Tarski,Joseph Rotblatand Nobel Prize laureatesRoald Hoffmann,Georges CharpakandTadeusz Reichstein. Demographics Poland has a population of approximately 38.2 million as of 2021, and is theninth-most populous countryin Europe, as well as the fifth-most populous member state of theEuropean Union.It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometre (320 inhabitants/sq mi).Thetotal fertility ratewas estimated at 1.33 children born to a woman in 2021, which isamong the world's lowest.Furthermore, Poland's population isaging significantly, and the country has amedian ageof 42.2. Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones.In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided indetached dwellingsand 44.3% in apartments.The most populous administrative province or state is theMasovian Voivodeshipand the most populous city is the capital,Warsaw, at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2–3 million people living in itsmetropolitan area.Themetropolitan areaofKatowiceis the largest urbanconurbationwith a population between 2.7 millionand 5.3 million residents.Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated between the cities ofWrocławandKraków. In the2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reportedPolishidentity, 846,719Silesian, 232,547Kashubianand 147,814German. Otheridentitieswere reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality.Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit orKarta Polaka.More than 1.7 millionUkrainiancitizens worked legally in Poland in 2017.The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone.According to theCouncil of Europe, 12,731Romani peoplelive in Poland. Languages Polishis theofficialand predominant spoken language in Poland, and is one of the officiallanguages of the European Union.It is also asecond languagein parts of neighbouringLithuania, where it is taught in Polish-minority schools.Contemporary Poland is a linguisticallyhomogeneousnation, with 97% of respondents declaring Polish as their mother tongue.There are currently 15 minority languages in Poland,including one recognised regional language,Kashubian, which is spoken by approximately 100,000 people on a daily basis in the northern regions ofKashubiaandPomerania.Poland also recognisessecondary administrative languages or auxiliary languages in bilingual municipalities, where bilingual signs and placenames are commonplace.According to theCentre for Public Opinion Research, around 32% of Polish citizens declared knowledge of the English language in 2015. Religion According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to theRoman Catholic Church, with 6.9% identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer. Poland is one of themost religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a part of national identity and Polish-bornPope John Paul IIis widely revered.In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is of high or very high importance.However, church attendance has greatly decreased in recent years; only 28% of Catholics attendedmassweekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000.According toThe Wall Street Journal, \"Of more than 100 countries studied by thePew Research Centerin 2018, Poland wassecularizingthe fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young people and their elders.\" Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland'sconcordatwith theHoly Seeenables the teaching of religion in public schools.Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree ofreligious toleranceand provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecution in other parts of Europe.Poland hosted Europe's largestJewish diaspora, and the country was a centre ofAshkenazi Jewishculture and traditional learning until theHolocaust. Contemporary religious minorities includeOrthodox Christians,Protestants, includingLutheransof theEvangelical-Augsburg Church,Pentecostalsin thePentecostal Church in Poland,Adventistsin theSeventh-day Adventist Church, and other smallerEvangelicaldenominations, includingJehovah's Witnesses,Eastern Catholics,Mariavites,Jews,Muslims(Tatars), andneopagans, some of whom are members of theNative Polish Church. Pilgrimagesto theJasna Góra Monastery, a shrinededicatedto theBlack Madonna, take place annually. Health Medical service providers andhospitals(szpitale) in Poland are subordinate to theMinistry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard ofhygieneand patient care. Poland has auniversal healthcare systembased on an all-inclusiveinsurance system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance program of theNational Health Fund(NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors. According to theHuman Development Reportfrom 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years (around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female);the country has a lowinfant mortality rate(4 per 1,000 births).In 2019, the principal cause of death wasischemic heart disease; diseases of thecirculatory systemaccounted for 45% of all deaths.In the same year, Poland was also the 15th-largest importer ofmedicationsand pharmaceutical products. Education TheJagiellonian Universityfounded in 1364 byCasimir IIIinKrakówwas the first institution of higher learning established in Poland, and is one of theoldest universitiesstill in continuous operation.Poland'sCommission of National Education(Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education.In 2018, theProgramme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, placed Poland's educational output as one of the highest in the OECD, ranking 5th by student attainment and 6th by student performance in 2022.The study showed that students in Poland perform better academically than in most OECD countries. The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by theMinistry of Education and Science. One year of kindergarten iscompulsoryfor six-year-olds.Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians.Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (liceum), a five-year technical school (technikum) or variousvocational studies(szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by individual pupils.A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (matura), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning. In Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions,with numerous faculties.TheUniversity of WarsawandWarsaw Polytechnic, theUniversity of Wrocław,Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznańand theUniversity of Technology in Gdańskare among the most prominent.There are three conventionalacademic degreesin Poland –licencjatorinżynier(first cycle),magister(second cycle) anddoktor(third cycle qualification). Ethnicity Ethnic structure of Poland by voivodeship according to the censuses of 2002, 2011 and 2021: Culture The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-yearhistory, and forms an important constituent in theWestern civilisation.The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expressionbiało-czerwoni(\"whitereds\").National symbols, chiefly the crownedwhite-tailed eagle, are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems.The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by theNational Heritage Board of Poland.Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto theHistoric Monuments Register,with further 17 being recognised byUNESCOas World Heritage Sites. Holidays and traditions There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1 January,Three Kings' Dayon 6 January,Easter SundayandEaster Monday,Labour Dayon 1 May,Constitution Dayon 3 May,Pentecost,Corpus Christi,Feast of the Assumptionon 15 August,All Saints' Dayon 1 November,Independence Dayon 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December. Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (Wigilia) is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year.Treesare decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus'manger,Christmas wafers(opłatek) are shared between gathered guests and atwelve-dish meatless supperis served that same evening when thefirst starappears.An empty plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest.On occasion,carolersjourney around smaller towns with a folkTurońcreature until theLentperiod. A widely-populardoughnutand sweet pastry feast occurs onFat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter.EggsforHoly Sundayare painted and placed in decoratedbasketsthat are previously blessed by clergymen in churches onEaster Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagandyngusfestivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights.Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale. Music Artists from Poland, including famous musicians such asFrédéric Chopin,Artur Rubinstein,Ignacy Jan Paderewski,Krzysztof Penderecki,Henryk Wieniawski,Karol Szymanowski,Witold Lutosławski,Stanisław Moniuszkoand traditional, regionalisedfolk composerscreate a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognises its own music genres, such assung poetryanddisco polo. The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found inStary Sączcontainingpolyphoniccompositions related to the ParisianNotre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody ofBogurodzicaandGod Is Born(a coronationpolonaise tunefor Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer,Nicholas of Radom, lived in the 15th century.Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wroteliturgical musicand secular compositions such as concertos andsonatasfor voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like thepolonaise.Wojciech Bogusławskiis accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titledKrakowiacy i Górale, which premiered in 1794. Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such asKrzysztof Komedacreated a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are thePol'and'Rock Festival,Open'er Festival,Opole FestivalandSopot Festival. Art Art in Poland has invariably reflectedEuropeantrends, with Polish painting pivoted onfolklore,Catholic themes,historicismandrealism, but also onImpressionismandromanticism. An important art movement wasYoung Poland, developed in the late 19th century for promotingdecadence,symbolismandArt Nouveau. Since the 20th century Polish documentary art and photography has enjoyed worldwide fame, especially thePolish School of Posters.One of the most distinguished paintings in Poland isLady with an Ermine(1490) byLeonardo da Vinci. Internationally renowned Polish artists includeJan Matejko(historicism),Jacek Malczewski(symbolism),Stanisław Wyspiański(art nouveau),Henryk Siemiradzki(Romanacademic art),Tamara de Lempicka(art deco), andZdzisław Beksiński(dystopiansurrealism).Several Polish artists and sculptors were also acclaimed representatives ofavant-garde,constructivist,minimalistand contemporary art movements, includingKatarzyna Kobro,Władysław Strzemiński,Magdalena Abakanowicz,Alina Szapocznikow,Igor MitorajandWilhelm Sasnal. Notable art academies in Poland include theKraków Academy of Fine Arts,Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw,Art Academy of Szczecin,University of Fine Arts in Poznańand theGeppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław. Contemporary works are exhibited atZachęta,Ujazdów, andMOCAKart galleries. Architecture Thearchitecture of PolandreflectsEuropean architecturalstyles, with strong historical influences derived fromItaly,Germany, and theLow Countries.Settlements founded onMagdeburg Lawevolved aroundcentral marketplaces(plac,rynek), encircled by a grid orconcentricnetwork of streets forming anold town(stare miasto).Poland's traditional landscape is characterised by ornate churches,city tenementsandtown halls.Cloth hall markets(sukiennice) were once an abundant feature of Polish urban architecture.The mountainous south is known for itsZakopane chalet style, which originated in Poland. The earliest architectonic trend wasRomanesque(c.11th century), but its traces in the form ofcircular rotundasare scarce.The arrival ofbrick Gothic(c.13th century) defined Poland's most distinguishable medieval style, exuded by the castles ofMalbork,Lidzbark,GniewandKwidzynas well as the cathedrals ofGniezno,Gdańsk,Wrocław,FromborkandKraków.TheRenaissance(16th century) gave rise to Italianate courtyards, defensivepalazzosandmausoleums.Decorativeatticswithpinnaclesandarcadeloggiasare elements ofPolish Mannerism, found inPoznań,LublinandZamość.Foreign artisans often came at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in theBaroque,NeoclassicalandRevivaliststyles (17th–19th century). Primary building materialstimberandred brickwere used extensively in Polish folk architecture,and the concept of afortified churchwas commonplace.Secular structures such asdworekmanor houses,farmsteads,granaries,millsand countryinnsare still present in some regions or in open air museums (skansen).However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to urbanisation and the construction offunctionalisthousing estatesandresidential areas. Literature Theliterary works of Polandhave traditionally concentrated around the themes of patriotism,spirituality, socialallegoriesand moral narratives.The earliest examples of Polish literature, written inLatin, date to the 12th century.The firstPolishphraseDay ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai(officially translated as \"Let me, I shall grind, and you take a rest\") was documented in theBook of Henrykówand reflected the use of aquern-stone.It has been since included inUNESCO's Memory of World Register.The oldest extant manuscripts of fineproseinOld Polishare theHoly Cross Sermonsand theBible of Queen Sophia,andCalendarium cracoviense(1474) is Poland's oldest survivingprint. The poetsJan KochanowskiandNicholas Reybecame the firstRenaissanceauthors to write in Polish.Prime literarians of the period includedDantiscus,Modrevius,Goslicius,Sarbieviusand theologianJohn Laski. In theBaroqueera,Jesuit philosophyand local culture greatly influenced the literary techniques ofJan Andrzej Morsztyn(Marinism) andJan Chryzostom Pasek(sarmatianmemoirs).During theEnlightenment, playwrightIgnacy Krasickicomposed the first Polish-languagenovel.Poland's leading 19th-centuryromantic poetswere theThree Bards–Juliusz Słowacki,Zygmunt KrasińskiandAdam Mickiewicz, whose epic poemPan Tadeusz(1834) is a national classic.In the 20th century, the Englishimpressionistand earlymodernistwritings ofJoseph Conradmade him one of the most eminent novelists of all time. Contemporary Polish literature is versatile, with its fantasy genre having been particularly praised.The philosophicalsci-finovelSolarisbyStanisław LemandThe Witcherseries byAndrzej Sapkowskiare celebrated works of world fiction.Poland has sixNobel-Prize winningauthors –Henryk Sienkiewicz(Quo Vadis; 1905),Władysław Reymont(The Peasants; 1924),Isaac Bashevis Singer(1978),Czesław Miłosz(1980),Wisława Szymborska(1996), andOlga Tokarczuk(2018). Cuisine The cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes arepierogi(filled dumplings),kielbasa(sausage),bigos(hunter's stew),kotlet schabowy(breaded cutlet),gołąbki(cabbage rolls),barszcz(borscht),żurek(soured rye soup),oscypek(smoked cheese), andtomato soup.Bagels, a type ofbread roll, also originated in Poland. Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce.Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds ofkluski(soft dumplings),soups, cereals and a variety of breads andopen sandwiches. Salads, includingmizeria(cucumber salad),coleslaw,sauerkraut, carrot andseared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such assernik(cheesecake),makowiec(poppy seed roll), ornapoleonka(mille-feuille) cream pie. Traditional alcoholic beverages include honeymead, widespread since the 13th century,beer, wine andvodka.The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland.The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998.Grodziskie, sometimes referred to as \"Polish Champagne\", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland.Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century. Fashion and design Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; includingHelena RubinsteinandMaksymilian Faktorowicz, who created a line of cosmetics company in California known asMax Factorand formulated the term \"make-up\" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics.Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing moderneyelash extensions.As of 2020, Poland possesses the sixth-largest cosmetic market in Europe.Inglot Cosmeticsis the country's largest beauty products manufacturer,and the retail storeReservedis the country's most successful clothing store chain. Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness orcultural manifestation, and the country developed its own style known asSarmatismat the turn of the 17th century.The national dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court atVersailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish garments includedrobe à la polonaiseand thewitzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococoPolish bedswithcanopiesbecame fashionable in French châteaus.Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century. Cinema Thecinema of Polandtraces its origins to 1894, when inventorKazimierz Prószyńskipatented thePleographand subsequently theAeroscope, the first successful hand-held operated film camera.In 1897,Jan Szczepanikconstructed theTelectroscope, a prototype of television transmitting images and sounds.They are both recognised as pioneers ofcinematography.Poland has also produced influential directors, film producers and actors, many of whom were active inHollywood, chieflyRoman Polański,Andrzej Wajda,Pola Negri,Samuel Goldwyn, theWarner brothers,Max Fleischer,Agnieszka Holland,Krzysztof ZanussiandKrzysztof Kieślowski. Thethemescommonly explored in Polish cinema includehistory,drama, war, culture and black realism (film noir).In the 21st-century, two Polish productions won theAcademy Awards–The Pianist(2002) by Roman Polański andIda(2013) byPaweł Pawlikowski.Polish cinematography also created many well-received comedies. The most known of them were made byStanisław BarejaandJuliusz Machulski. Media According to theEurobarometer Report(2015), 78 percent of Poles watch thetelevisiondaily.In 2020, 79 percent of the population read the news more than once a day, placing it second behind Sweden.Poland has a number of major domestic media outlets, chiefly thepublic broadcastingcorporationTVP,free-to-airchannelsTVNandPolsatas well as 24-hour news channelsTVP Info,TVN 24andPolsat News.Public television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such asTVP Sport,TVP Historia,TVP Kultura,TVP Rozrywka, TVP Seriale andTVP Polonia, the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish-language telecasts for thePolish diaspora. In 2020, the most popular types of newspapers weretabloidsand socio-political news dailies. Poland is a major European hub for video game developers and among the most successful companies areCD Projekt,Techland,The Farm 51,CI GamesandPeople Can Fly.Some of the popular video games developed in Poland includeThe Witchertrilogy andCyberpunk 2077.The Polish city ofKatowicealso hostsIntel Extreme Masters, one of the biggestesportsevents in the world. Sports Motorcycle Speedway, volleyball and association football are among the country's most popular sports, with a rich history of international competitions.Track and field, basketball,handball, boxing,MMA,ski jumping,cross-country skiing,ice hockey, tennis, fencing, swimming, andweightliftingare other popular sports. The golden era offootball in Polandoccurred throughout the 1970s and went on until the early 1980s when thePolish national football teamachieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions finishing third place inthe 1974andthe 1982tournaments. The team won a gold medalin footballat the1972 Summer Olympicsand two silver medals,in 1976andin 1992. In 2012, Poland co-hosted theUEFA European Football Championship. As of September 2024, thePolish men's national volleyball teamis rankedas firstin the world.The team won a gold medal at the1976 Summer Olympicsand the gold medal at theFIVB World Championship1974,2014and2018.Mariusz Pudzianowskiis a highly successful strongman competitor and has won moreWorld's Strongest Mantitles than any other competitor in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time. Poland has made a distinctive markin motorcycle speedway racing. The topEkstraligadivision has one ofthe highest average attendancesfor any sport in Poland. Thenational speedway team of Polandis one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has threeSpeedway Grand PrixWorld Champions, with the most successful being four-time World ChampionBartosz Zmarzlikwho won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020 as well as 2022 and 2023. In 2021, Poland finished runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held inManchester, England in 2021. In the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful tennis players including World No. 1Iga Świątek, winner of fiveGrand Slamsingles titles; former World No. 2Agnieszka Radwanska, winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including2015 WTA Finals; Top 10 ATP playerHubert Hurkacz; former World No. 1 doubles playerŁukasz Kubot, winner of two Grand Slam doubles titles andJan Zieliński, winner of two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Poland also won the2015 Hopman Cupwith Agnieszka Radwańska andJerzy Janowiczrepresenting the country. Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in theHimalayasand the winter ascending of theeight-thousanders(e.g.Jerzy Kukuczka,Krzysztof Wielicki,Wanda Rutkiewicz). Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world.Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country. See also Notes References Works cited External links 52°N20°E / 52°N 20°E /52; 20" ]
[ "List of European countries by area Below is alist of European countries and dependencies by areainEurope.As acontinent, Europe's total geographical area is about 10 million square kilometres.Transcontinental countriesare ranked according to the size of their European part only, excludingGreecedue to the not clearly defined boundaries of its islands between Europe andAsia. Inland water is included in area numbers. List of European countries and dependencies by area Definition Europe and Asia are contiguous with each other; thus, the exactboundary between themis not clearly defined, and often follows historical, political, and cultural definitions, rather than geographical. Map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly usedcontinental boundaries Legend: Blue=Contiguous transcontinental countriesGreen= Sometimes considered European but geographically outside Europe's boundaries See also Notes References", "Poland – inEurope(green & dark grey)– in theEuropean Union(green) – Poland,officially theRepublic of Poland,is a country inCentral Europe. It extends from theBaltic Seain the north to theSudetesandCarpathian Mountainsin the south, bordered byLithuaniaandRussiato the northeast,BelarusandUkraineto the east,Slovakiaand theCzech Republicto the south, andGermanyto the west. The territory is characterised by a varied landscape, diverse ecosystems, andtemperate transitionalclimate. Poland is composed ofsixteen voivodeshipsand is the fifth most populousmember state of the European Union(EU), with over 38 million people, and thefifth largest EU countryby land area, covering a combined area of 312,696 km2(120,733 sq mi). The capital andlargest cityisWarsaw; other major cities includeKraków,Wrocław,Łódź,Poznań, andGdańsk. Prehistoric human activity on Polish soildates to theLower Paleolithic, with continuous settlement since the end of theLast Glacial Period. Culturally diverse throughoutlate antiquity, in theearly", "in theearly medieval periodthe region became inhabited by theWest SlavictribalPolans, who gavePoland its name. The process of establishing statehood coincided with the conversion of apagan ruler of the Polansto Christianity, under the auspices of theRoman Catholic Churchin 966. TheKingdom of Polandemerged in 1025, and in 1569 cemented its long-standingassociation with Lithuania, thus forming thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the time, the Commonwealth was one of thegreat powersof Europe, with anelective monarchyand auniquely liberalpolitical system, which adoptedEurope's first modern constitutionin 1791. With the passing of the prosperousPolish Golden Age, the country waspartitioned by neighbouring statesat the end of the 18th century. Poland regained itsindependenceat the end ofWorld War Iin 1918 with the creation of theSecond Polish Republic, which emergedvictoriousinvarious conflictsof theinterbellumperiod. In September 1939, theinvasion of PolandbyGermanyand theSoviet Unionmarked the beginning", "the beginning ofWorld War II, which resulted inthe Holocaustand millions ofPolish casualties. Forced into theEastern Blocin the globalCold War, thePolish People's Republicwas a founding signatory of theWarsaw Pact. Through the emergence and contributions of theSolidarity movement, thecommunist governmentwasdissolvedand Poland re-established itself as ademocratic statein 1989, as thefirstof its neighbors. Poland is a De jureparliamentary republicwith itsbicameral legislaturecomprising theSejmand theSenate. Considered amiddle power, it is adeveloped marketandhigh-income economythat is thesixth largestin theEUby nominalGDPand thefifth largest by GDP (PPP). Poland enjoys avery high standard of living, safety, andeconomic freedom, as well as freeuniversity educationanduniversal health care. The country has 17UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites, 15 of which are cultural. Poland is a founding member state of the United Nations and a member of theWorld Trade Organization,OECD,NATO, and theEuropean Union(including theSchengen", "theSchengen Area). Etymology The nativePolishname for Poland isPolska.The name is derived from thePolans, aWest Slavictribe who inhabited theWarta Riverbasin of present-dayGreater Polandregion (6th–8th century CE).The tribe's name stems from theProto-Slavicnounpolemeaning field, which in-itself originates from theProto-Indo-Europeanword*pleh₂-indicating flatland.The etymology alludes to thetopographyof the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland.During theMiddle Ages, theLatinformPoloniawas widely used throughout Europe. The country's alternative archaic name isLechiaand its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notablyHungarian,Lithuanian, andPersian.Theexonympossibly derives from eitherLech, a legendary ruler of theLechites, or from theLendians, a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge ofLesser Poland.The origin of the tribe's name lies in theOld Polishwordlęda(plain).Initially, both namesLechiaandPoloniawere used interchangeably when referring to Poland by", "to Poland by chroniclers during theMiddle Ages. History Prehistory and protohistory The firstStone Agearchaic humans andHomo erectusspecies settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments.The arrival ofHomo sapiensandanatomically modern humanscoincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of theLast Glacial Period(Northern Polish glaciation10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable.Neolithicexcavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in PolishKuyavia,and theBronocice potis incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC). The period spanning theBronze Ageand theEarly Iron Age(1300 BC–500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, establishment ofpalisadedsettlements (gords) and the expansion ofLusatian culture.A significant archaeological find fromthe", "find fromthe protohistory of Polandis a fortified settlement atBiskupin, attributed to the Lusatian culture of theLate Bronze Age(mid-8th century BC). Throughoutantiquity(400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notablyCeltic,Scythian,Germanic,Sarmatian,BalticandSlavictribes.Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence ofRoman Legionssent to protect theamber trade.ThePolish tribesemerged following thesecond wave of the Migration Periodaround the 6th century AD;they wereSlavicand may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area.Beginning in the early 10th century, thePolanswould come to dominate otherLechitictribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchical state. Kingdom of Poland Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under thePiast dynasty.In 966, ruler of the PolansMieszko Iaccepted", "Iaccepted Christianity under the auspices of theRoman Churchwith theBaptism of Poland.In 968, a missionarybishopricwas established inPoznań. AnincipittitledDagome iudexfirst defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital inGnieznoand affirmed that its monarchy was under the protection of theApostolic See.The country's early origins were described byGallus AnonymusinGesta principum Polonorum, the oldest Polish chronicle.An important national event of the period was themartyrdomofSaint Adalbert, who was killed byPrussianpagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor,Bolesław I the Brave. In 1000, at theCongress of Gniezno, Bolesław obtained the right ofinvestiturefromOtto III, Holy Roman Emperor, who assented to the creation of additional bishoprics and an archdioceses in Gniezno.Three new dioceses were subsequently established inKraków,Kołobrzeg, andWrocław.Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royalregaliaand a replica of theHoly Lance, which", "Lance, which were later used at his coronation as the firstKing of Polandinc.1025, when Bolesław received permission for his coronation fromPope John XIX.Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of GermanLusatia, CzechMoravia,Upper Hungary, and southwestern regions of theKievan Rus'. The transition frompaganismin Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in thepagan reaction of the 1030s.In 1031,Mieszko II Lambertlost the title of king and fled amidst the violence.The unrest led to the transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 byCasimir I the Restorer.In 1076,Bolesław IIre-instituted the office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent,Bishop Stanislaus.In 1138, the countryfragmentedinto five principalities whenBolesław III Wrymouthdivided his lands among his sons.These wereLesser Poland, Greater Poland,Silesia,MasoviaandSandomierz, with intermittent hold overPomerania.In 1226,Konrad I of Masoviainvited theTeutonic Knightsto aid in combating theBalticPrussians; a", "a decision that later led to centuries of warfare with the Knights. In the first half of the 13th century,Henry I the BeardedandHenry II the Piousaimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but theMongol invasionand the death of Henry II inbattlehindered the unification.As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration ofGerman and Flemish settlersinto Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes.In 1264, theStatute of Kaliszintroduced unprecedented autonomy for thePolish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe. In 1320,Władysław I the Shortbecame the first king ofa reunified PolandsincePrzemysł IIin 1296,and the first to be crowned atWawel Cathedralin Kraków.Beginning in 1333, the reign ofCasimir III the Greatwas marked by developments incastle infrastructure, army, judiciary anddiplomacy.Under his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted Polish rule overRutheniain 1340 and imposed", "1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread ofBlack Death.In 1364, Casimir inaugurated theUniversity of Kraków, one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe.Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end.He was succeeded by his closest male relative,Louis of Anjou, who ruled Poland,Hungary, andCroatiain apersonal union.Louis' younger daughterJadwigabecame Poland's first female monarch in 1384. In 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience withWładysław II Jagiełło, theGrand Duke of Lithuania, thus forming theJagiellonian dynastyand thePolish–Lithuanian unionwhich spanned the lateMiddle Agesand earlyModern Era.The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnicLithuanianterritories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest Europeanpolitical entitiesof the time. In the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with theTeutonic Knightscontinued and", "and culminated at theBattle of Grunwaldin 1410, where a combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them.In 1466, after theThirteen Years' War, kingCasimir IV Jagiellongave royal consent to thePeace of Thorn, which created the futureDuchy of Prussiaunder Polish suzerainty and forced the Prussian rulers to paytributes.The Jagiellonian dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms ofBohemia(1471 onwards) and Hungary.In the south, Poland confronted theOttoman Empire(at theVarna Crusade) and theCrimean Tatars, and in the east helped Lithuania to combatRussia. Poland was developing as afeudalstate, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerfullanded nobilitythat confined the population to private manorial farmstead known asfolwarks.In 1493,John I Albertsanctioned the creation of abicameral parliamentcomposed of a lower house, theSejm, and an upper house, theSenate.TheNihil noviact adopted by the PolishGeneral Sejmin 1505, transferred most of", "transferred most of thelegislative powerfrom the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known asGolden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equalPolish nobles. The 16th century sawProtestant Reformationmovements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time.This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil andwars of religionthat beset Europe.In Poland,Nontrinitarian Christianitybecame the doctrine of the so-calledPolish Brethren, who separated from theirCalvinistdenomination and became the co-founders of globalUnitarianism. The EuropeanRenaissanceevoked underSigismund I the OldandSigismund II Augustusa sense of urgency in the need to promote acultural awakening.During thePolish Golden Age, the nation's economy and culture flourished.The Italian-bornBona Sforza, daughter of theDuke of Milanand queen consort to Sigismund I,", "to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions toarchitecture,cuisine, language and court customs atWawel Castle. Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth TheUnion of Lublinof 1569 established thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a unified federal state with anelective monarchy, but largely governed by the nobility.The latter coincided with a period of prosperity; the Polish-dominated union thereafter becoming a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central,Eastern,Southeasternand Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately 1 million km2(390,000 sq mi)at its peakand was the largest state in Europe.Simultaneously, Poland imposedPolonisationpolicies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities. In 1573,Henry de Valois of France, the first elected king, approbated theHenrician Articleswhich obliged future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles.When he left Poland to becomeKing of France,", "of France, his successor,Stephen Báthory, led a successfulcampaignin theLivonian War, granting Poland morelands across the eastern shoresof the Baltic Sea.State affairs were then headed byJan Zamoyski, theCrown Chancellor.Stephen's successor,Sigismund III, defeated a rivalHabsburgelectoral candidate,Archduke Maximilian III, in theWar of the Polish Succession (1587–1588). In 1592, Sigismund succeeded his father andJohn Vasa, inSweden.ThePolish-Swedish unionendured until 1599, when he wasdeposedby the Swedes. In 1609, SigismundinvadedRussiawhich was engulfed in acivil war,and a year later the Polishwinged hussarunits underStanisław ŻółkiewskioccupiedMoscow for two years after defeating the Russians atKlushino.Sigismund also countered theOttoman Empirein the southeast; atKhotynin 1621Jan Karol Chodkiewiczachieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of SultanOsman II. Sigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with theSilver Age.The liberalWładysław IVeffectively defended Poland's", "defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death the vast Commonwealth began declining from internal disorder and constant warfare.In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked theKhmelnytsky Uprising,followed by the decimatingSwedish Delugeduring theSecond Northern War,and Prussia'sindependencein 1657.In 1683,John III Sobieskire-established military prowess when he halted the advance of anOttoman Armyinto Europe at theBattle of Vienna.TheSaxonera, underAugustus IIandAugustus III, saw neighboring powers grow in strength at the expense of Poland. Both Saxon kings faced opposition fromStanisław Leszczyńskiduring theGreat Northern War(1700) and theWar of the Polish Succession (1733). Partitions Theroyal electionof 1764 resulted in the elevation ofStanisław II Augustus Poniatowskito the monarchy.His candidacy was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, EmpressCatherine II of Russia.The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the", "reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states.His ideals led to the formation of the 1768Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility.The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to invade. In 1772, theFirst Partition of the Commonwealthby Prussia, Russia and Austria took place; an act which thePartition Sejm, under considerable duress, eventually ratified as afait accompli.Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms was established, in which theCommission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated.Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of theEnlightenment, encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republicanneoclassicism.For his", "his contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded aFellowship of the Royal Society. In 1791,Great Sejm parliamentadopted the3 May Constitution, the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced aconstitutional monarchy.TheTargowica Confederation, an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the1792 Polish–Russian War.Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed, theSecond Partition, which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth waspartitioned for the third timeand ceased to exist as a territorial entity.Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795. Era of insurrections The Polish peoplerose several times against the partitionersand occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at defending Poland's sovereignty took place in the 1794Kościuszko Uprising, where a popular and distinguished", "and distinguished generalTadeusz Kościuszko, who had several years earlier served underGeorge Washingtonin theAmerican Revolutionary War, led Polish insurgents.Despite the victory at theBattle of Racławice, his ultimate defeat ended Poland's independent existencefor 123 years. In 1806, aninsurrectionorganised byJan Henryk Dąbrowskiliberated western Poland ahead ofNapoleon'sadvance into Prussia during theWar of the Fourth Coalition. In accordance with the 1807Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon proclaimed theDuchy of Warsaw, aclient stateruled by his allyFrederick Augustus I of Saxony. The Poles actively aided French troops in theNapoleonic Wars, particularly those underJózef Poniatowskiwho becameMarshal of Franceshortly before his death atLeipzigin 1813.In the aftermath of Napoleon's exile, the Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at theCongress of Viennain 1815 and its territory was divided into RussianCongress Kingdom of Poland, the PrussianGrand Duchy of Posen, andAustrian Galiciawith theFree City of Kraków. In", "City of Kraków. In 1830,non-commissioned officersat Warsaw'sOfficer Cadet Schoolrebelled in what was theNovember Uprising.After its collapse, Congress Poland lost itsconstitutional autonomy,armyand legislative assembly.During theEuropean Spring of Nations, Poles took up arms in theGreater Poland Uprising of 1848to resistGermanisation, but its failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mereprovince; and subsequent integration into theGerman Empirein 1871.In Russia, the fall of theJanuary Uprising(1863–1864) prompted severepolitical, social and cultural reprisals, followed by deportations andpogromsof the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal,zinc, iron and textiles. Second Polish Republic In the aftermath ofWorld War I, theAlliesagreed on the reconstitution of Poland, confirmed through theTreaty of Versaillesof June 1919.A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers,", "occupying powers, and over 450,000 died.Following thearmistice with Germanyin November 1918, Poland regained its independence as theSecond Polish Republic. The Second Polish Republic reaffirmed its sovereignty aftera series of military conflicts, most notably thePolish–Soviet War, when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on theRed Armyat theBattle of Warsaw. The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up untilWorld War I, a new political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such asIgnacy Jan Paderewski, who would later become prime minister, returned home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 whenGabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at theZachętaGallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalistEligiusz Niewiadomski. In 1926, theMay", "In 1926, theMay Coup, led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign MarshalJózef Piłsudski, turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisanSanacja(Healing) movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilizing the country.By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country. World War II World War II began with theNazi Germaninvasion of Polandon 1 September 1939, followed by theSoviet invasion of Polandon 17 September. On 28 September 1939,Warsaw fell. As agreed in theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Poland was split into two zones,one occupied by Nazi Germany, the other bythe Soviet Union. In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The SovietNKVDexecuted thousands of Polish", "thousands of Polish prisoners of war (among other incidents in theKatyn massacre) ahead ofOperation Barbarossa.German planners had in November 1939 called for \"the complete destruction of all Poles\" and their fate as outlined in the genocidalGeneralplan Ost. Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe,and its troops served both thePolish Government in Exilein thewestand Soviet leadership in theeast. Polish troops played an important role in theNormandy,Italian,North African CampaignsandNetherlandsand are particularly remembered for theBattle of BritainandBattle of Monte Cassino.Polish intelligence operatives proved extremely valuable to the Allies, providing much of the intelligence from Europe and beyond,Polish code breakerswere responsible forcracking the Enigma cipherand Polish scientists participating in theManhattan Projectwere co-creators of the Americanatomic bomb. In the east, the Soviet-backedPolish 1st Armydistinguished itself in the battles forWarsawandBerlin. Thewartime resistance", "resistance movement, and theArmia Krajowa(Home Army), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as anunderground statecomplete withdegree-awarding universitiesanda court system.The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiatedOperation Tempest, of which theWarsaw Uprisingthat began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation. Nazi German forces under orders fromAdolf Hitlerset up six Germanextermination campsin occupied Poland, includingTreblinka,MajdanekandAuschwitz. The Germanstransported millions of Jewsfrom across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps.Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews– approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poleswere killed during the Germanoccupation of Poland, including between 50,000 and 100,000", "50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polishintelligentsia– academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during theWolaandOchotamassacres.Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland (Kresy), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by theUkrainian Insurgent Army(UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as theWołyń Massacres.Of all the countriesin the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population –half of themPolish Jews.About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature. In 1945, Poland's borderswere shifted westwards. Over two million Polish inhabitants ofKresywere expelledalong theCurzon LinebyStalin.The western border became theOder-Neisse line. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or", "reduced by 20%, or 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration ofmillions of other people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews. Post-war communism At the insistence ofJoseph Stalin, theYalta Conferencesanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored thePolish government-in-exilebased in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it abetrayalby the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees toChurchillandRooseveltthat he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a newcommunistgovernment in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of theEastern Bloc.As elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met", "over Poland was met witharmed resistancefrom the outset which continued into the 1950s. Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland(in particular the cities ofWilnoandLwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning ofRed Armyunits on Poland's territory. Military alignment within theWarsaw Pactthroughout theCold Warcame about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations. The new communist government took control with the adoption of theSmall Constitutionon 19 February 1947. ThePolish People's Republic(Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa)was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, after the death ofBolesław Bierut, the régime ofWładysław Gomułkabecame temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms.Collectivisation in the Polish People's", "the Polish People's Republicfailed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s underEdward Gierek, but most of the time persecution ofanti-communist oppositiongroups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc. Labour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union \"Solidarity\" (\"Solidarność\"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition ofmartial law in 1981by GeneralWojciech Jaruzelski, it eroded the dominance of thePolish United Workers' Partyand by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's firstpartially free and democratic parliamentary electionssince the end of the Second World War.Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventuallywon the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded thecollapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe. Third Polish Republic Ashock therapyprogram, initiated byLeszek Balcerowiczin the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform", "to transform itsSoviet-styleplanned economyinto amarket economy.As with otherpost-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic, and living standards,but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989GDP levelsas early as 1995, although the unemployment rate increased.Poland became a member of theVisegrád Groupin 1991,and joinedNATOin 1999.Poles then voted to join theEuropean Unionina referendumin June 2003,withPoland becoming a full memberon 1 May 2004, following theconsequent enlargement of the organisation. Poland joined theSchengen Areain 2007, as a result of which,the country's borderswith other member states of the European Union were dismantled, allowing forfull freedom of movementwithin most of the European Union.On 10 April 2010, thePresident of PolandLech Kaczyński, along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officialsdied in a plane crashnearSmolensk, Russia. In 2011, the rulingCivic Platformwonparliamentary elections.In 2014, thePrime Minister of", "Minister of Poland,Donald Tusk, was chosen to bePresident of the European Council, and resigned as prime minister.The2015and2019 electionswere won by the national-conservativeLaw and JusticeParty (PiS) led byJarosław Kaczyński,resulting in increasedEuroscepticismandincreased frictionwith the European Union.In December 2017,Mateusz Morawieckiwas sworn in as the Prime Minister, succeedingBeata Szydlo, in office since 2015. PresidentAndrzej Duda, supported by Law and Justice party, was re-elected in the 2020 presidentialelection.As of November 2023, theRussian invasion of Ukrainehad led to 17 millionUkrainian refugeescrossing the border to Poland.As of November 2023, 0.9 million of those had stayed in Poland.In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the largest share of the vote in theelection, but lost its majority in parliament. In December 2023, Donald Tusk became the new Prime Minister leading a coalition made up ofCivic Coalition,Third Way, andThe Left. Law and Justice became the leading", "became the leading opposition party. Geography Poland covers an administrative area of 312,722 km2(120,743 sq mi), and is theninth-largest country in Europe. Approximately 311,895 km2(120,423 sq mi) of the country's territory consists of land, 2,041 km2(788 sq mi) is internal waters and 8,783 km2(3,391 sq mi) is territorial sea.Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverselandforms,water bodiesandecosystems.The central and northern region bordering theBaltic Sealie within the flatCentral European Plain, but its south is hilly and mountainous.The averageelevation above the sea levelis estimated at 173 metres. The country has a coastline spanning 770 km (480 mi); extending from the shores of the Baltic Sea, along theBay of Pomeraniain the west to theGulf of Gdańskin the east.The beach coastline is abundant insand dune fieldsorcoastal ridgesand is indented byspitsand lagoons, notably theHel Peninsulaand theVistula Lagoon, which is shared with Russia.The largest Polish island on the Baltic", "on the Baltic Sea isWolin, located withinWolin National Park.Poland also shares theSzczecin Lagoonand theUsedomisland with Germany. The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two majormountain ranges; theSudetesin the west and theCarpathiansin the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are theTatra Mountains, extending along Poland's southern border.Poland's highest point isMount Rysyat 2,501 metres (8,205 ft) in elevation, located in the Tatras.The highest summit of the Sudetes massif isMount Śnieżkaat 1,603.3 metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic.The lowest point in Poland is situated atRaczki Elbląskiein theVistula Delta, which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level. Poland'slongest riversare theVistula, theOder, theWarta, and theBug.The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region ofMasuria, within theMasurian Lake District.The largest lakes,", "largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), areŚniardwyandMamry, and the deepest isLake Hańczaat 108.5 metres (356 ft) in depth. Climate The climate of Poland istemperate transitional, and varies fromoceanicin the north-west tocontinentalin the south-east.The mountainous southern fringes are situated within analpine climate.Poland is characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around 20 °C (68.0 °F) in July, and moderately cold winters averaging −1 °C (30.2 °F) in December.The warmest and sunniest part of Poland isLower Silesiain the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, aroundSuwałkiinPodlaskie province, where the climate is affected bycold frontsfromScandinaviaandSiberia.Precipitationis more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September. There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year.Climate changeand other factors have further", "have further contributed to interannualthermal anomaliesand increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was 9.33 °C (48.8 °F), around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001–2010 period.Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with lesssleetand snowfall. Biodiversity Phytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of theCircumboreal Regionwithin theBoreal Kingdom. The country has fourPalearctic ecoregions– Central, Northern, Western Europeantemperate broadleaf and mixed forest, and theCarpathian montane conifer. Forests occupy 31% of Poland's land area, the largest of which is theLower Silesian Wilderness.The most commondeciduous treesfound across the country areoak,maple, andbeech; the most common conifers arepine,spruce, andfir.An estimated 69% of all forests areconiferous. Thefloraandfaunain Poland is that ofContinental Europe, with thewisent,white storkandwhite-tailed eagledesignated as national animals, and thered common poppybeing the unofficial", "the unofficial floral emblem.Among the most protected species is theEuropean bison, Europe's heaviest land animal, as well as theEurasian beaver, thelynx, thegray wolfand theTatra chamois.The region was also home to the extinctaurochs, the last individual dying in Poland in 1627.Game animals such asred deer,roe deer, andwild boarare found in most woodlands.Poland is also a significant breeding ground formigratory birdsand hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks. Around 315,100 hectares (1,217 sq mi), equivalent to 1% of Poland's territory, is protected within 23Polish national parks, two of which –BiałowieżaandBieszczady– areUNESCO World Heritage Sites.There are 123 areas designated aslandscape parks, along with numerousnature reservesand otherprotected areasunder theNatura 2000network. Government and politics Poland is aunitarysemi-presidential republicand arepresentative democracy, with apresidentas thehead of state.The executive power is exercised further by theCouncil of", "by theCouncil of Ministersand theprime ministerwho acts as thehead of government.The council's individual members are selected by the prime minister, approved by parliament and sworn in by the president.The head of state is elected bypopular votefor a five-year term.The current president isAndrzej Dudaand the prime minister isDonald Tusk. Poland'slegislativeassembly is abicameralparliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member upper house (Senate).The Sejm is elected underproportional representationaccording to thed'Hondt methodfor vote-seat conversion.The Senate is elected under thefirst-past-the-postelectoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies.The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote. With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates ofpolitical partiesreceiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the", "vote can enter the Sejm.Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteedparliamentary immunity.Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election. Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form theNational Assembly of the Republic of Poland.The National Assembly, headed by theSejm Marshal, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes theoath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to theState Tribunal; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared. Administrative divisions Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known asvoivodeships.As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (powiats), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (gminas).Major cities normally", "cities normally have the status of bothgminaandpowiat.The provinces are largely founded on the borders ofhistoric regions, or named for individual cities.Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor (voivode), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and avoivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly. Law TheConstitution of Polandis the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code ofcivil law.The current democratic constitution was adopted by theNational Assembly of Polandon 2 April 1997; it guarantees amulti-party statewith freedoms of religion, speech and gatherings, prohibits the practices of forcedmedical experimentation, torture orcorporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right tostrike. Thejudiciaryin Poland is composed of theSupreme Courtas the country's highest judicial organ, theSupreme Administrative Courtfor", "Courtfor the judicial control of public administration, Common Courts (District,Regional,Appellate) and theMilitary Court.TheConstitutionaland State Tribunals are separate judicial bodies, which rule the constitutional liability of people holding the highest offices of state and supervise the compliance ofstatutory law, thus protecting the Constitution.Judges are nominated by theNational Council of the Judiciaryand are appointed for life by thepresident.With the approval of the Senate, the Sejm appoints anombudsmanfor a five-year term to guard the observance of social justice. Poland has a lowhomiciderate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018.Rape, assault and violent crime remain at a very low level.The country has imposed strict regulations onabortion, which is permitted only in cases of rape, incest or when the woman's life is in danger;congenital disorderandstillbirthare not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad. Historically, the most significant Polish legal act is", "Polish legal act is theConstitution of 3 May 1791. Instituted to redress long-standing political defects of thefederativePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthand itsGolden Liberty, it was the first modern constitution in Europe and influenced many laterdemocratic movementsacross the globe.In 1918, theSecond Polish Republicbecame one of the first countries to introduce universalwomen's suffrage. Foreign relations Poland is amiddle powerand is transitioning into aregional powerin Europe.It has a total of 53 representatives in theEuropean Parliamentas of 2024.Warsawserves as the headquarters forFrontex, the European Union's agency for external border security as well asODIHR, one of the principal institutions of theOSCE.Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member ofNATO, the United Nations, and theWTO. In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened itsrelationswith the United States, thus becoming one of its closestalliesand strategic partners in Europe.Historically, Poland maintained strongcultural", "strongcultural and politicalties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as \"The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship\". Military The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – theLand Forces, theNavy, theAir Force, theSpecial Forcesand theTerritorial Defence Force.The military is subordinate to theMinistry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland.However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff.Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by theArmed Forces Day, celebrated annually on 15 August.As of 2022, the Polish Armed Forces have a combined strength of 114,050 active soldiers, with a further 75,400 active in thegendarmerieanddefence force. Poland ranks14th in the worldin terms of military expenditures; the country allocates 3.8% of its total GDP on military spending, equivalent to approximately", "to approximately US$31.6 billion in 2023.From 2022, Poland initiated a programme of mass modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and local Polishdefence manufacturers.Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel.According toSIPRI, the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020. Compulsorymilitary servicefor men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008.Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country actively hosts NATO'smilitary exercises.Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions,and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, theBaltic statesand southeastern Europe. Security, law enforcement and emergency services Thanks to its location, Poland is a country essentially free from", "free from the threat of natural disasters such asearthquakes,volcanic eruptions,tornadoesandtropical cyclones. However,floodshave occurred in low-lying areas from time to time during periods of extreme rainfall (e.g. during the2010 Central European floods). Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to theMinistry of Interior and Administration– theState Police(Policja), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; theMunicipal City Guard, which maintains public order; and several specialised agencies, such as thePolish Border Guard.Private security firms are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or detain a suspect.Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils; individual guards are not permitted to carryfirearmsunless instructed by the superior commanding officer.Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities. TheInternal Security Agency(ABW, or", "Agency(ABW, or ISA in English) is the chiefcounterintelligence instrumentsafeguarding Poland's internal security, along withAgencja Wywiadu(AW) which identifies threats and collects secret information abroad.TheCentral Investigation Bureau of Police(CBŚP) and theCentral Anticorruption Bureau(CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions. Emergency services in Poland consist of theemergency medical services,search and rescueunits of thePolish Armed ForcesandState Fire Service. Emergency medical services in Poland are operated by local and regional governments,but are a part of the centralised national agency – theNational Medical Emergency Service(Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne). Economy As of 2023, Poland's economy and gross domestic product (GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union bynominal standardsand the fifth largest bypurchasing power parity. It is also one of the fastest growing within the Union and reached adeveloped marketstatus in", "marketstatus in 2018.The unemployment rate published byEurostatin 2023 amounted to 2.8%, which was the second-lowest in the EU.As of 2023, around 62% of the employed population works in theservice sector, 29% in manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector.Although Poland is a member of theEuropean single market, the country has not adopted theEuroas legal tender and maintains its own currency – thePolish złoty(zł, PLN). Poland is the regional economic leader in Central Europe, with nearly 40 per cent of the 500 biggest companies in the region (by revenues) as well as ahigh globalisation rate.The country's largest firms compose theWIG20andWIG30indexes, which is traded on theWarsaw Stock Exchange. According to reports made by theNational Bank of Poland, the value of Polish foreign direct investments reached almost 300 billionPLNat the end of 2014. TheCentral Statistical Officeestimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities. Poland has the largest", "has the largest banking sector in Central Europe,with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults.It was the only European economy to have avoided therecession of 2008.The country is the20th largest exporterof goods and services in the world.Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 56% of GDP, as of 2020.In 2019, Poland passed a law that would exempt workers under the age of 26 fromincome tax. Tourism In 2020, the total value of thetourism industryin Poland was 104.3 billionPLN, then equivalent to 4.5% of the Polish GDP.Tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.Nearly 200,000 people were employed in theaccommodation and catering(hospitality) sector in 2020.In 2021, Poland ranked12th most visited countryin the world by international arrivals. Tourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the beaches in the north, with a trail of rich architectural and cultural heritage. Among the most", "Among the most recognisable landmarks are Old Towns inKraków,Warsaw,Wrocław(dwarf statues),Gdańsk,Poznań,Lublin,ToruńandZamośćas well as museums, zoological gardens, theme parks and theWieliczka Salt Mine, with its labyrinthine tunnels,underground lakeand chapels carved by miners out ofrock saltbeneath the ground. There areover 100 castlesin the country, largely within theLower Silesian Voivodeship, and also on theTrail of the Eagles' Nests; the largest castle in the world by land area is situated inMalbork.The GermanAuschwitz concentration campinOświęcim, and theSkull ChapelinKudowa-Zdrójconstitutedark tourism.Regarding nature based travel, notable sites include theMasurian Lake DistrictandBiałowieża Forestin the east; on the southKarkonosze, theTable Mountainsand theTatra Mountains, whereRysyand theEagle's Pathtrail are located. ThePieninyandBieszczady Mountainslie in the extreme south-east. Transport Transport in Poland is provided by means ofrail,road,marine shippingandair travel. The country is part of", "country is part of EU'sSchengen Areaand is an important transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe.Some of the longest European routes, including theE30andE40, run through Poland. The country has a good network ofhighwaysconsisting ofexpress roadsandmotorways. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's21st-largest road network, maintaining over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of highways in use. In 2022, the nation had 19,393 kilometres (12,050 mi) of railway track, the third longest in the European Union after Germany and France.ThePolish State Railways(PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas possessing their owncommuterandregional rail.Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which isWarsaw Chopin Airport.It is the primary global hub forLOT Polish Airlines, the country'sflag carrier. Seaports exist all along Poland's Baltic coast, with most freight operations", "freight operations usingŚwinoujście,Police,Szczecin,Kołobrzeg,Gdynia,GdańskandElblągas their base. ThePort of Gdańskis the only port in theBaltic Seaadapted to receive oceanic vessels.PolferriesandUnity Lineare the largest Polish ferry operators, with the latter providingroll-on/roll-offandtrain ferryservices toScandinavia. Energy The electricity generation sector in Poland is largelyfossil-fuel–based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of employment and the largest source of the nation'sgreenhouse gas emissions.Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms (Węglokoks,Kompania WęglowaandJSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually.After coal, Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU. The newEnergy Policy of Poland until", "of Poland until 2040(EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal andlignitein electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security. Science and technology Over the course of history, the Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics.Perhaps the most renowned Pole to support this theory wasNicolaus Copernicus(Mikołaj Kopernik), who triggered theCopernican Revolutionby placing theSun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe.He also derived aquantity theory of money, which made him a pioneer of economics. Copernicus' achievements and discoveries are considered the basis of Polish culture and cultural identity.Poland was ranked 40th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2024. Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditionaluniversities, as well as", "as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members. There are hundreds of research and development institutes.However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles wasMarie Curie, a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life in France. In 1925, she established Poland'sRadium Institute. In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing centre of mathematics. Outstanding Polish mathematicians formed theLwów School of Mathematics(withStefan Banach,Stanisław Mazur,Hugo Steinhaus,Stanisław Ulam) andWarsaw School of Mathematics(withAlfred Tarski,Kazimierz Kuratowski,Wacław SierpińskiandAntoni Zygmund). Numerous mathematicians, scientists, chemists or economists emigrated due to historic vicissitudes, among themBenoit Mandelbrot,Leonid Hurwicz,Alfred Tarski,Joseph Rotblatand Nobel Prize laureatesRoald Hoffmann,Georges CharpakandTadeusz Reichstein. Demographics", "Demographics Poland has a population of approximately 38.2 million as of 2021, and is theninth-most populous countryin Europe, as well as the fifth-most populous member state of theEuropean Union.It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometre (320 inhabitants/sq mi).Thetotal fertility ratewas estimated at 1.33 children born to a woman in 2021, which isamong the world's lowest.Furthermore, Poland's population isaging significantly, and the country has amedian ageof 42.2. Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones.In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided indetached dwellingsand 44.3% in apartments.The most populous administrative province or state is theMasovian Voivodeshipand the most populous city is the capital,Warsaw, at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2–3 million people living in itsmetropolitan area.Themetropolitan areaofKatowiceis the largest urbanconurbationwith a population between 2.7 millionand 5.3 million", "5.3 million residents.Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated between the cities ofWrocławandKraków. In the2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reportedPolishidentity, 846,719Silesian, 232,547Kashubianand 147,814German. Otheridentitieswere reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality.Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit orKarta Polaka.More than 1.7 millionUkrainiancitizens worked legally in Poland in 2017.The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone.According to theCouncil of Europe, 12,731Romani peoplelive in Poland. Languages Polishis theofficialand predominant spoken language in Poland, and is one of the officiallanguages of the European Union.It is also asecond languagein parts of neighbouringLithuania, where it is taught in Polish-minority schools.Contemporary Poland is a", "Poland is a linguisticallyhomogeneousnation, with 97% of respondents declaring Polish as their mother tongue.There are currently 15 minority languages in Poland,including one recognised regional language,Kashubian, which is spoken by approximately 100,000 people on a daily basis in the northern regions ofKashubiaandPomerania.Poland also recognisessecondary administrative languages or auxiliary languages in bilingual municipalities, where bilingual signs and placenames are commonplace.According to theCentre for Public Opinion Research, around 32% of Polish citizens declared knowledge of the English language in 2015. Religion According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to theRoman Catholic Church, with 6.9% identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer. Poland is one of themost religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a part of national identity and Polish-bornPope John Paul IIis widely revered.In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is", "that religion is of high or very high importance.However, church attendance has greatly decreased in recent years; only 28% of Catholics attendedmassweekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000.According toThe Wall Street Journal, \"Of more than 100 countries studied by thePew Research Centerin 2018, Poland wassecularizingthe fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young people and their elders.\" Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland'sconcordatwith theHoly Seeenables the teaching of religion in public schools.Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree ofreligious toleranceand provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecution in other parts of Europe.Poland hosted Europe's largestJewish diaspora, and the country was a centre ofAshkenazi Jewishculture and traditional learning until theHolocaust. Contemporary religious minorities includeOrthodox Christians,Protestants, includingLutheransof theEvangelical-Augsburg", "Church,Pentecostalsin thePentecostal Church in Poland,Adventistsin theSeventh-day Adventist Church, and other smallerEvangelicaldenominations, includingJehovah's Witnesses,Eastern Catholics,Mariavites,Jews,Muslims(Tatars), andneopagans, some of whom are members of theNative Polish Church. Pilgrimagesto theJasna Góra Monastery, a shrinededicatedto theBlack Madonna, take place annually. Health Medical service providers andhospitals(szpitale) in Poland are subordinate to theMinistry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard ofhygieneand patient care. Poland has auniversal healthcare systembased on an all-inclusiveinsurance system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance program of theNational Health Fund(NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors. According to theHuman Development Reportfrom", "Reportfrom 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years (around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female);the country has a lowinfant mortality rate(4 per 1,000 births).In 2019, the principal cause of death wasischemic heart disease; diseases of thecirculatory systemaccounted for 45% of all deaths.In the same year, Poland was also the 15th-largest importer ofmedicationsand pharmaceutical products. Education TheJagiellonian Universityfounded in 1364 byCasimir IIIinKrakówwas the first institution of higher learning established in Poland, and is one of theoldest universitiesstill in continuous operation.Poland'sCommission of National Education(Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education.In 2018, theProgramme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, placed Poland's educational output as one of the highest in the OECD, ranking 5th by student attainment and", "attainment and 6th by student performance in 2022.The study showed that students in Poland perform better academically than in most OECD countries. The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by theMinistry of Education and Science. One year of kindergarten iscompulsoryfor six-year-olds.Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians.Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (liceum), a five-year technical school (technikum) or variousvocational studies(szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by individual pupils.A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (matura), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning. In Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions,with numerous faculties.TheUniversity of WarsawandWarsaw Polytechnic,", "Polytechnic, theUniversity of Wrocław,Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznańand theUniversity of Technology in Gdańskare among the most prominent.There are three conventionalacademic degreesin Poland –licencjatorinżynier(first cycle),magister(second cycle) anddoktor(third cycle qualification). Ethnicity Ethnic structure of Poland by voivodeship according to the censuses of 2002, 2011 and 2021: Culture The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-yearhistory, and forms an important constituent in theWestern civilisation.The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expressionbiało-czerwoni(\"whitereds\").National symbols, chiefly the crownedwhite-tailed eagle, are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems.The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by theNational Heritage Board of Poland.Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto theHistoric", "onto theHistoric Monuments Register,with further 17 being recognised byUNESCOas World Heritage Sites. Holidays and traditions There are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1 January,Three Kings' Dayon 6 January,Easter SundayandEaster Monday,Labour Dayon 1 May,Constitution Dayon 3 May,Pentecost,Corpus Christi,Feast of the Assumptionon 15 August,All Saints' Dayon 1 November,Independence Dayon 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December. Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (Wigilia) is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year.Treesare decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus'manger,Christmas wafers(opłatek) are shared between gathered guests and atwelve-dish meatless supperis served that same evening when thefirst starappears.An empty plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest.On", "unexpected guest.On occasion,carolersjourney around smaller towns with a folkTurońcreature until theLentperiod. A widely-populardoughnutand sweet pastry feast occurs onFat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter.EggsforHoly Sundayare painted and placed in decoratedbasketsthat are previously blessed by clergymen in churches onEaster Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagandyngusfestivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights.Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale. Music Artists from Poland, including famous musicians such asFrédéric Chopin,Artur Rubinstein,Ignacy Jan Paderewski,Krzysztof Penderecki,Henryk Wieniawski,Karol Szymanowski,Witold Lutosławski,Stanisław Moniuszkoand traditional, regionalisedfolk composerscreate a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognises its own music genres, such assung poetryanddisco", "poetryanddisco polo. The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found inStary Sączcontainingpolyphoniccompositions related to the ParisianNotre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody ofBogurodzicaandGod Is Born(a coronationpolonaise tunefor Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer,Nicholas of Radom, lived in the 15th century.Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wroteliturgical musicand secular compositions such as concertos andsonatasfor voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like thepolonaise.Wojciech Bogusławskiis accredited with composing the first Polish national", "Polish national opera, titledKrakowiacy i Górale, which premiered in 1794. Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such asKrzysztof Komedacreated a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are thePol'and'Rock Festival,Open'er Festival,Opole FestivalandSopot Festival. Art Art in Poland has invariably reflectedEuropeantrends, with Polish painting pivoted onfolklore,Catholic themes,historicismandrealism, but also onImpressionismandromanticism. An important art movement wasYoung Poland, developed in the late 19th century for promotingdecadence,symbolismandArt Nouveau. Since the 20th century Polish documentary art and photography has enjoyed worldwide fame, especially thePolish School of Posters.One of the most distinguished paintings in Poland isLady with", "Poland isLady with an Ermine(1490) byLeonardo da Vinci. Internationally renowned Polish artists includeJan Matejko(historicism),Jacek Malczewski(symbolism),Stanisław Wyspiański(art nouveau),Henryk Siemiradzki(Romanacademic art),Tamara de Lempicka(art deco), andZdzisław Beksiński(dystopiansurrealism).Several Polish artists and sculptors were also acclaimed representatives ofavant-garde,constructivist,minimalistand contemporary art movements, includingKatarzyna Kobro,Władysław Strzemiński,Magdalena Abakanowicz,Alina Szapocznikow,Igor MitorajandWilhelm Sasnal. Notable art academies in Poland include theKraków Academy of Fine Arts,Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw,Art Academy of Szczecin,University of Fine Arts in Poznańand theGeppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław. Contemporary works are exhibited atZachęta,Ujazdów, andMOCAKart galleries. Architecture Thearchitecture of PolandreflectsEuropean architecturalstyles, with strong historical influences derived fromItaly,Germany, and theLow Countries.Settlements founded", "founded onMagdeburg Lawevolved aroundcentral marketplaces(plac,rynek), encircled by a grid orconcentricnetwork of streets forming anold town(stare miasto).Poland's traditional landscape is characterised by ornate churches,city tenementsandtown halls.Cloth hall markets(sukiennice) were once an abundant feature of Polish urban architecture.The mountainous south is known for itsZakopane chalet style, which originated in Poland. The earliest architectonic trend wasRomanesque(c.11th century), but its traces in the form ofcircular rotundasare scarce.The arrival ofbrick Gothic(c.13th century) defined Poland's most distinguishable medieval style, exuded by the castles ofMalbork,Lidzbark,GniewandKwidzynas well as the cathedrals ofGniezno,Gdańsk,Wrocław,FromborkandKraków.TheRenaissance(16th century) gave rise to Italianate courtyards, defensivepalazzosandmausoleums.Decorativeatticswithpinnaclesandarcadeloggiasare elements ofPolish Mannerism, found inPoznań,LublinandZamość.Foreign artisans often came at the expense of", "at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in theBaroque,NeoclassicalandRevivaliststyles (17th–19th century). Primary building materialstimberandred brickwere used extensively in Polish folk architecture,and the concept of afortified churchwas commonplace.Secular structures such asdworekmanor houses,farmsteads,granaries,millsand countryinnsare still present in some regions or in open air museums (skansen).However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to urbanisation and the construction offunctionalisthousing estatesandresidential areas. Literature Theliterary works of Polandhave traditionally concentrated around the themes of patriotism,spirituality, socialallegoriesand moral narratives.The earliest examples of Polish literature, written inLatin, date to the 12th century.The firstPolishphraseDay ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai(officially translated as \"Let me, I shall grind, and you take a rest\") was documented in theBook of Henrykówand reflected", "reflected the use of aquern-stone.It has been since included inUNESCO's Memory of World Register.The oldest extant manuscripts of fineproseinOld Polishare theHoly Cross Sermonsand theBible of Queen Sophia,andCalendarium cracoviense(1474) is Poland's oldest survivingprint. The poetsJan KochanowskiandNicholas Reybecame the firstRenaissanceauthors to write in Polish.Prime literarians of the period includedDantiscus,Modrevius,Goslicius,Sarbieviusand theologianJohn Laski. In theBaroqueera,Jesuit philosophyand local culture greatly influenced the literary techniques ofJan Andrzej Morsztyn(Marinism) andJan Chryzostom Pasek(sarmatianmemoirs).During theEnlightenment, playwrightIgnacy Krasickicomposed the first Polish-languagenovel.Poland's leading 19th-centuryromantic poetswere theThree Bards–Juliusz Słowacki,Zygmunt KrasińskiandAdam Mickiewicz, whose epic poemPan Tadeusz(1834) is a national classic.In the 20th century, the Englishimpressionistand earlymodernistwritings ofJoseph Conradmade him one of the most eminent", "of the most eminent novelists of all time. Contemporary Polish literature is versatile, with its fantasy genre having been particularly praised.The philosophicalsci-finovelSolarisbyStanisław LemandThe Witcherseries byAndrzej Sapkowskiare celebrated works of world fiction.Poland has sixNobel-Prize winningauthors –Henryk Sienkiewicz(Quo Vadis; 1905),Władysław Reymont(The Peasants; 1924),Isaac Bashevis Singer(1978),Czesław Miłosz(1980),Wisława Szymborska(1996), andOlga Tokarczuk(2018). Cuisine The cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes arepierogi(filled dumplings),kielbasa(sausage),bigos(hunter's stew),kotlet schabowy(breaded cutlet),gołąbki(cabbage rolls),barszcz(borscht),żurek(soured rye soup),oscypek(smoked cheese), andtomato soup.Bagels, a type ofbread roll, also originated in Poland. Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce.Polish food is characteristic for", "characteristic for its various kinds ofkluski(soft dumplings),soups, cereals and a variety of breads andopen sandwiches. Salads, includingmizeria(cucumber salad),coleslaw,sauerkraut, carrot andseared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such assernik(cheesecake),makowiec(poppy seed roll), ornapoleonka(mille-feuille) cream pie. Traditional alcoholic beverages include honeymead, widespread since the 13th century,beer, wine andvodka.The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland.The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998.Grodziskie, sometimes referred to as \"Polish Champagne\", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland.Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century. Fashion and design Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; includingHelena RubinsteinandMaksymilian Faktorowicz,", "Faktorowicz, who created a line of cosmetics company in California known asMax Factorand formulated the term \"make-up\" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics.Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing moderneyelash extensions.As of 2020, Poland possesses the sixth-largest cosmetic market in Europe.Inglot Cosmeticsis the country's largest beauty products manufacturer,and the retail storeReservedis the country's most successful clothing store chain. Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness orcultural manifestation, and the country developed its own style known asSarmatismat the turn of the 17th century.The national dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court atVersailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish garments includedrobe à la polonaiseand thewitzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococoPolish bedswithcanopiesbecame fashionable in French châteaus.Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th", "wake of the 18th century. Cinema Thecinema of Polandtraces its origins to 1894, when inventorKazimierz Prószyńskipatented thePleographand subsequently theAeroscope, the first successful hand-held operated film camera.In 1897,Jan Szczepanikconstructed theTelectroscope, a prototype of television transmitting images and sounds.They are both recognised as pioneers ofcinematography.Poland has also produced influential directors, film producers and actors, many of whom were active inHollywood, chieflyRoman Polański,Andrzej Wajda,Pola Negri,Samuel Goldwyn, theWarner brothers,Max Fleischer,Agnieszka Holland,Krzysztof ZanussiandKrzysztof Kieślowski. Thethemescommonly explored in Polish cinema includehistory,drama, war, culture and black realism (film noir).In the 21st-century, two Polish productions won theAcademy Awards–The Pianist(2002) by Roman Polański andIda(2013) byPaweł Pawlikowski.Polish cinematography also created many well-received comedies. The most known of them were made byStanisław BarejaandJuliusz", "BarejaandJuliusz Machulski. Media According to theEurobarometer Report(2015), 78 percent of Poles watch thetelevisiondaily.In 2020, 79 percent of the population read the news more than once a day, placing it second behind Sweden.Poland has a number of major domestic media outlets, chiefly thepublic broadcastingcorporationTVP,free-to-airchannelsTVNandPolsatas well as 24-hour news channelsTVP Info,TVN 24andPolsat News.Public television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such asTVP Sport,TVP Historia,TVP Kultura,TVP Rozrywka, TVP Seriale andTVP Polonia, the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish-language telecasts for thePolish diaspora. In 2020, the most popular types of newspapers weretabloidsand socio-political news dailies. Poland is a major European hub for video game developers and among the most successful companies areCD Projekt,Techland,The Farm 51,CI GamesandPeople Can Fly.Some of the popular video games developed in Poland includeThe Witchertrilogy", "Witchertrilogy andCyberpunk 2077.The Polish city ofKatowicealso hostsIntel Extreme Masters, one of the biggestesportsevents in the world. Sports Motorcycle Speedway, volleyball and association football are among the country's most popular sports, with a rich history of international competitions.Track and field, basketball,handball, boxing,MMA,ski jumping,cross-country skiing,ice hockey, tennis, fencing, swimming, andweightliftingare other popular sports. The golden era offootball in Polandoccurred throughout the 1970s and went on until the early 1980s when thePolish national football teamachieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions finishing third place inthe 1974andthe 1982tournaments. The team won a gold medalin footballat the1972 Summer Olympicsand two silver medals,in 1976andin 1992. In 2012, Poland co-hosted theUEFA European Football Championship. As of September 2024, thePolish men's national volleyball teamis rankedas firstin the world.The team won a gold medal at the1976 Summer", "at the1976 Summer Olympicsand the gold medal at theFIVB World Championship1974,2014and2018.Mariusz Pudzianowskiis a highly successful strongman competitor and has won moreWorld's Strongest Mantitles than any other competitor in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time. Poland has made a distinctive markin motorcycle speedway racing. The topEkstraligadivision has one ofthe highest average attendancesfor any sport in Poland. Thenational speedway team of Polandis one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has threeSpeedway Grand PrixWorld Champions, with the most successful being four-time World ChampionBartosz Zmarzlikwho won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020 as well as 2022 and 2023. In 2021, Poland finished runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held inManchester, England in 2021. In the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful tennis players including World No. 1Iga", "World No. 1Iga Świątek, winner of fiveGrand Slamsingles titles; former World No. 2Agnieszka Radwanska, winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including2015 WTA Finals; Top 10 ATP playerHubert Hurkacz; former World No. 1 doubles playerŁukasz Kubot, winner of two Grand Slam doubles titles andJan Zieliński, winner of two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Poland also won the2015 Hopman Cupwith Agnieszka Radwańska andJerzy Janowiczrepresenting the country. Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in theHimalayasand the winter ascending of theeight-thousanders(e.g.Jerzy Kukuczka,Krzysztof Wielicki,Wanda Rutkiewicz). Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world.Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country. See", "of the country. See also Notes References Works cited External links 52°N20°E / 52°N 20°E /52; 20" ]
Archibald Sinclair had an American mom who was a half-sister. The half-sister had a life partner who had a painting of her by Walter Sickert. How many words is the title of that painting?
5 ( Miss Hudson at Rowlandson House)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Sinclair,_1st_Viscount_Thurso
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Sands
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Hope_Hudson
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['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Sinclair,_1st_Viscount_Thurso', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Sands', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Hope_Hudson']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Sinclair,_1st_Viscount_Thurso", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Sands", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Hope_Hudson" ]
[ "Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso Archibald Henry Macdonald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso,KT,CMG,PC(22 October 1890 – 15 June 1970), known asSir Archibald Sinclairbetween 1912 and 1952, and often asArchie Sinclair, was a Scottish politician and leader of theLiberal Party. Background and education Sinclair was born in 1890 inCaithness, Scotland.Sinclair was the son of a Scottish father, Clarence Granville Sinclair, and his American wife Mabel Sands, daughter ofMahlon Day Sands, and half-sister ofEthel Sands. His mother died shortly after his birth, and his father in 1895. He was brought up in families including those of his paternal grandfatherSir Tollemache Sinclair, 3rd Baronet, his uncleWilliam Macdonald Sinclair, andOwen Williams, married to his aunt Nina. Educated atEton Collegeand theRoyal Military College, Sandhurst, Sinclair was commissioned into theLife Guardsin 1910. In 1912, he succeeded his grandfather as the fourth Baronet ofUlbster.He became one of the largest landowners in the United Kingdom, owning an estate of about 100,000 acres (40,000 ha) inCaithness.His recreations includedpoloand flying: he was a keen aviator. At this period he made a friend ofWinston Churchill. Colin Cootein his memoirs wrote of Sinclair's \"irresistible charm, allied to the face and figure of an Adonis\".The handsome Sinclair was at this period thought of as a possible husband for Nellie Hozier, younger sister ofClementine Churchill. Military career Sinclair served on theWestern Frontduring theFirst World War, in 1915 as aide de camp toJ. E. B. Seelywho commanded theCanadian Cavalry Brigade. He rose to the rank ofMajorin theGuards Machine Gun Regiment. AfterWinston Churchillresigned asFirst Lord of the Admiralty, Sinclair served as hissecond-in-commandwhen Churchill took up command at the beginning of 1916 of the 6th Battalion of theRoyal Scots Fusiliers. Churchill arranged the transfer withDouglas Haig, who turned down the request that Seely should be moved too, and also refused himEdward Spears.They were stationed in thePloegsteert Woodsector of the Western Front. Working with Churchill From 1919 to 1921 Sinclair served as Personal Military Secretary to Churchill, when he returned to the Cabinet asSecretary of State for War, and then accompanied him to theColonial Officeas Private Secretary. Sinclair's duties included acting as liaison for Churchill with theSecret Intelligence Service. He had dealings withGeorge Alexander HillandMalcolm Wollcombe, agent in theSoviet UnionforMansfield Smith-Cumming.Stewart Menzieswho had the official liaison role at theWar Officewas a personal friend. Sinclair collatedhumintandtechnical intelligencefor Churchill, for example onLeonid Krasin. He also assisted in the delicate handling ofBoris Savinkov, who was brought to London.It was Sinclair who introduced the prominent British agentSidney Reillyto Nikolai Alekseyev, intelligence chief of theWhite RussianleaderAlexander Guchkov. Political career 1922–1939 In 1922, Sinclair entered theHouse of Commonsas a LiberalMember of Parliament(MP) forCaithness and Sutherland,supportingDavid Lloyd Georgeand defeating the incumbent Liberal supporter ofH. H. Asquith. He rose through the Liberal ranks as the party shrank in Parliament, becomingChief Whipby 1930.At this period he worked on land policy with Lloyd George, including the \"Tartan Book\" that addressedScottish devolution. In July 1931, a meeting took place at Sinclair's house, whereOswald MosleyandHarold Nicolsonmet Churchill, Lloyd George andBrendan Bracken, to discuss a political alliance.About a month later, the Liberal Party joined theNational GovernmentofRamsay MacDonald, with Sinclair appointedSecretary of State for Scotland.He was sworn of thePrivy Councilat the same time.In 1932, he, together with other Liberal ministers led byHerbert Samuel, resigned from the government in protest at theOttawa ConferenceintroducingImperial Preference. In the1935 general election, Herbert Samuel lost his seat, and Sinclair became the Liberal Party's leader at the head of 20 MPs. During theAbdication Crisisof 1936, his name was put forward as a possible leader of a government that might be formed ifEdward VIIIheld onto the throne against the wishes of theBaldwin administration. Churchill came to support the King's position, andLord Beaverbrookentertained the idea of Sinclair as Prime Minister. BothClement Attleefor Labour and Sinclair for the Liberals, however, in late November ruled out forming a government under those circumstances. Sinclair consistently opposed thecontinental dictatorshipsand kept theNational Liberalsat arms length.He supported theLeague of Nationsandcollective security. He backed, as did Attlee, Churchill's bookArms and the Covenant.He joined theAnti-Nazi Councilof Eugen Spier, with Churchill andViolet Bonham Carter,Margaret BondfieldandHugh Dalton.Public opinion at this point of the later 1930s by no means agreed, andJohn Alfred Spenderattacked Sinclair inThe Timeson foreign policy, claiming that he, like theLeague of Nations Union, wished for war with theAxis Powers. At the time of theMunich Crisisin September 1938, Sinclair was one of the anti-appeasement group who gathered around Churchill, withLeo Amery,Robert Boothby,Robert Cecil,Harold Macmillanand Harold Nicolson.During parliamentary debate over theMunich Agreementhe attacked Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainfor \"wilting\" toNazi Germanyand tossing \"justice and respect for treaties... to the winds.\"On a personal level, Violet Bonham Carter was a frequent guest of the Sinclairs at Dalnawillan Lodge in theFlow Country, as wereHarcourt Johnstoneand Lady Gwendoline Churchill, wife ofJack Churchilland Winston's sister-in-law.Bonham Carter was a Liberal activist, close follower of Churchill, anti-appeaser andLeague of Nations Unionmember. Second World War When Churchill formed anall-party coalition governmentin 1940, Sinclair entered the cabinet asSecretary of State for Air. During theMay 1940 British war cabinet crisisafter thefall of Francehe sided with Churchill againstLord Halifax's plan to seek a negotiated settlement withNazi Germanymediated byFascist Italy. Sinclair's first task was to work with theRoyal Air Forcein planning theBattle of Britain. Towards the end of the war, he found himself at odds with Churchill, arguing againstBomber Harris's strategy for theBombing of Dresdenand other German cities.He was not a strong political personality:Max Hastingsreports that he was often regarded as the \"Head of School'sfag\" to Churchill, and as the political mouthpiece rather than the master of Air Chief MarshalsPortalandHarris.However, in 1942 he did convince Churchill and his cabinet not to carry out reprisals on German villages forwar atrocitiessuch as theLidice massacre. Sinclair remained a minister until May 1945, when the coalition ended. In the1945 general election, he lost his seat. His margin of defeat was narrow: he came in third place, with the victorEric Gandar Dowerhaving 61 votes more. Last years At the1950 general election, Sinclair again stood for his old seat, coming second. In 1952, the year of his first stroke, he accepted elevation to theHouse of LordsasViscount Thursoof Ulbster in theCounty of Caithness.A more serious stroke in 1959 left him largely bedridden and in a state of precarious health, until he died at his home inTwickenhamin 1970. Family In 1918 Sinclair married Marigold Forbes (1897–1975), daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel James Stewart Forbes andLady Angela Forbes. They had four children: Legacy TheSouthern Railwaynamed aBattle of Britain Class Light Pacific steam locomotive\"Sir Archibald Sinclair\". The ceremonial naming of the locomotive was performed by Sir Archibald himself atWaterloo stationon 24 February 1948. The SR number of the locomotive was 21C159 and itsBritish Railwaysnumber was 34059. References Bibliography External links", "Ethel Sands Ethel Sands(6 July 1873 – 19 March 1962) was an American-bornartistand hostess who lived in England from childhood. She studied art in Paris, where she met her life partnerAnna Hope Hudson. Her works were generally still lifes and interiors, often of Château d'Auppegard that she shared with Hudson. Sands was aFitzroy Street GroupandLondon Groupmember. Her works are in London'sNational Portrait Galleryand other public collections. In 1916, she became a naturalised British citizen. Although a major art patron and an artist, she is most remembered as a hostess for the cultural elite, includingHenry James,Virginia Woolf,Roger FryandAugustus John. Early life Ethel Sands was born on 6 July 1873 inNewport, Rhode Island, the first child of Mary Morton (Hartpence) andMahlon Day Sands,who married in 1872.Mahlon Sands was secretary of the American Free Trade League, who in 1870 advocated for civil service reform and free trade.He was partner of his deceased father's pharmaceutical importing firm, A.B. Sands and Company.Ethel had two younger brothers, Mahlon Alan and Morton Harcourt Sands, who were, respectively, 5 and 11 years younger. In 1874, the family left the United States for England,intending to only visit the country.However, Mahlon Sands and his family stayed in England and travelled among European countries. They also visited the United States annuallyand were there for an extended visit from 1877 to 1879.They kept their house inNewport, Rhode Islandthroughout this time. The wealthy Sands circulated among London society, including writer and statesmanJohn Morley, politicianWilliam Ewart Gladstone, writerHenry James, artistJohn Singer Sargent, theRothschild family, andHenry Graham White. Mahlon's sister, Katherine, was married to journalist and newspaper editorEdwin Lawrence Godkin. They were part ofEdward VII, thenPrince of Wales', social circle. John Singer Sargentpainted the portrait of her mother, who was considered \"a famous society beauty of her day.\"Mary Sands was \"much admired\" by writerHenry James, who called her \"that gracious lady\" and based his heroic character \"Madame de Mauves\" on her. Ethel Sands was raised in a respectable upper-class household in which her parents were \"happily married\".While her father was considered handsomeand her mother beautiful, Anthony Powell states that some people wrote in their diaries and letters that she was plain. In her later years, Powell met her and said that \"so great was her elegance, charm, capacity to be amusing in a no-nonsense manner, that I could well believed her to be good-looking in her youth.Her father had ridden horseback throughHyde Park, was thrown from the horse and died an accidental death in 1888.His widow, Mary Sands, raised Ethel and her brothers until her death on 28 July 1896. Art Education Encouraged by artistJohn Singer Sargent,Sands studied painting in Paris at the Académie Carrière underEugène Carrièrefor several years, beginning in 1894.There she met fellow studentNan Hudson, born Anna Hope Hudson in the United States, who became her life partner.During this time, Sands became the guardian of her two younger brothers following her mother's death in 1896. Painting Sands painted still lifes and interior settings.Tatesuggests that was inspired byÉdouard Vuillard's dry brush technique, colour palette and depiction of \"intimate\" scenes. Her first exhibition was atSalon d'Automnein Parisin 1904. In 1907, atWalter Sickert's invitation, she became a member and exhibited paintings she made at theFitzroy Street Group. She also purchased the works of other artists. She was one of the artists that founded theLondon Group.According to author Kate Deepwell, her works, and those ofVanessa Belland other women, were evaluated differently at that time from those made by men: The best critique of woman's work at the time would be that they had individuality, but they would not have been considered innovative, modern works like those made by men. In Paris in 1911 she had her first show dedicated to her works. Hudson and Sands had a show at Carfax Gallery in 1912. The next year she was part of the \"English Post-Impressionists, Cubists and Others\" show in Brighton. Her works were exhibited atGoupil Gallery, and in 1922 she had her initial solo show. She also exhibited often at theWomen's International Art Cluband theNew English Art Club. Hudson purchased Château d'Auppegard near Dieppe, France in 1920,which was the subject of several of Sand's paintings. Some of the interior paintings areA Spare Room, Château d'AuppegardandDouble Doors, Château d'Auppegard.Other examples are the landscapeAuppegard Church from Château, Franceand one of her partner,Nan Hudson Playing Patience at Auppegard.Her works are in the collections ofTatemuseumGovernment Art Collection,andFitzwilliam Museum. Socialite and patron LikeLady Sibyl ColefaxandLady Ottoline Morrell, Sands entertained artists and writers with the intention to nurture and discuss ideas relevant to their careers.Lady Ottoline Morrell\"took over\" Sand's Chelsea house for entertainment after she had to give up her London house at Bedford Square.Affiliated with theBloomsbury Group,she was best-known as \"one of the leading artist hostesses of her time\", her lavish affairs were financially possible due to the significant wealth she inherited from her parents. She was mainly at the Oxford, Newington house until 1920,but when in England she also entertained at her London Lowndes Street house, and between 1913 and 1937 at 15 Vale, Chelsea, London house,where she lived near her mother's friend,Henry James.Notable artistsAugustus JohnandWalter Sickert.Henry James,Virginia Woolf,Roger FryandArnold Bennettwere among the writers of the \"cultural elite\" who visited her.Her friends included artistJacques-Émile Blanche, writerEdith Wharton, poetWilliam Butler Yeats, essayist and criticLogan Pearsall Smithand novelistHoward Overing Sturgis. Lytton Strachey(a founder of theBloomsbury Group) met at Sands' houseand her uncle,Edwin Lawrence Godkinwrote of his upcoming visit to Sands' house in Oxfordshire, \"There one fortnight, and then back to \"holy wars\", patriotism, andbuncombe...\" She was a patron and collector of works by other contemporary artists. For instance, she commissionedBoris Anrep, a Russian immigrant, to create mosaics and murals in her Vale, Chelsea house.Sands continued to entertain into the 1950s with her friends, includingDuncan GrantandDesmond MacCarthy, until he died in 1952. She was described as a \"plain woman of immense charm, cultivation and perception, and a painter of considerable talent\" in theDictionary of Real People and Places in Fiction.It was suggested there that Henry James modelled the character Nanda inThe Awkward Ageafter Sands. World wars Sands tended to soldiers who had been injured in France duringWorld War I, having established a hospital for soldiers nearDieppewith Hudson. It was forced to close down, and they continued their nursing efforts in both France and England.Sands was then in Britain working as a forewoman in a factory that made overalls. In 1916 she became a British citizenship. During World War II, Sands served as a nurse.The house inChelsea, Londonwas destroyed duringThe Blitzby aparachute mine, and the house in France was broken into and its contents were stolen or destroyed. The two war-time events resulted in the loss of most of Sands' and Hudson's works. Personal life Her mind was like her room, in which lights advanced and retreated, came pirouetting and stepping delicately, spread their tails, pecked their way; and then her whole being was suffused, like the room again, with a cloud of some profound knowledge, some unspoken regret, and then she was full of locked drawers, stuffed with letters, like her cabinets. Virginia Woolf,The Lady in the Looking Glass: A Reflection Sands and Hudson divided their time between England and France to accommodate their lifestyle preferences. Hudson enjoyed living a relatively quiet life in France and Sands liked the London and Oxford social life. Sands entertained people within and outside of the cultural elite throughout her life.When Hudson's health began to fail, Sands nursed her until she died in 1957. Sand continued to entertain after Hudson's death. Her date of death was 19 March 1962. FriendVirginia Woolfwrote a sketch based upon her called \"The Lady in the Looking Glass\", subtitled \"A Reflection\", about a time that she saw her come \"in from the garden and not reading her letters.\" The mirror symbolised the way in which art is used to take a snapshot in time, but can also cut. Wendy Baron, an author and art historian, wrote a biography about Sands, partly based upon the letters that Sands exchanged with Hudson and others.Tate Archives now holds the correspondence. Works Among the works that survived World War II plunders and bombings are: Notes References Further reading External links", "Anna Hope Hudson Anna Hope Hudson(1869–1957) was an American-born artist who lived and worked in France and England. She was a founding member ofthe London Group, and the life partner of likewise artistEthel Sands. Early life Hudson was born 10 September 1869 in New York City. She was the daughter of Colonel Edward McKenny Hudson, who died in 1892; her mother died when she was 9 years old. She lived in the United States until she was 24 when she moved to Europe, preferring France of the places she lived and visited.The inheritance that she received was the result of her grandfather's success as a partner of a banknote engraving organization, which later merged to become theAmerican Bank Note Company. Education Hudson began her studies in Paris in 1892 and met fellow art studentEthel Sands, who became her life partner. Like Sands, Hudson was provided a legacy upon her parents' death.They studied underEugène Carrièrein 1896.Henri Evenepoel, a Flemish painter, was Hudson's art instructor beginning in January 1897. Artist Hudson lived and painted withEthel Sands, dividing their time between France and England. Sands was a socialite who frequently entertained artists and writers when they were in England. Hudson preferred a quieter lifestyle in France, and it was there that Hudson first established herself as an artist. She made a painting ofGiudecca Canalafter travelling to Venice to paint. It was shown at theSalon d'Automnein Paris in 1906.Walter Sickert, who know Hudson through her association with Sands, had not known of her works. Impressed, he shared his opinions about her talent and invited her to theFitzroy Street Group. Sands also joined the group, where both women sometimes attended and often sent paintings for the Saturday \"At Homes\" sessions. Walter Sickert, who captured her confident, independent manner inMiss Hudson at Rowlandson Housethat he made about 1910, described Hudson as \"the radiant and dashing horsewoman of a young man's dreams.\"Virginia Woolfsaid that she dressed stylishly and was \"dour and upstanding.\" In England, Hudson began exhibiting her works atLeicester Galleries, theNew English Art Cluband theAllied Artists Association. In 1912, she had a joint show with Sands at the Carfax Gallery. The Fitzroy Street Group and the male member onlyCamden Town Group} merged in 1913 to become theLondon Group, of which both Sands and Hudson were founding members. Hudson occasionally exhibited her work there until 1938. She also continued to have works shown at the English Art Club. At Sickert's invitation, Hudson occasionally work in his studios and used his models for subjects of her paintings. Her works, inspired byÉdouard Vuillardand Walter Sickert, were in large part destroyed or lost during World War II. There are some remaining works in public collections and one at theTate. World wars Sands and Hudson established a hospital for soldiers nearDieppeduringWorld War I. It was forced to close down, and they continued their nursing efforts in both France and England. During World War II, Hudson's home was pillaged and Sand's Chelsea home was destroyed duringThe Blitzby aparachute mine. Personal life Hudson purchased the 17th-century house, the Château d'Auppegard, in 1920. It was located in the countryside about 10 miles from Dieppe. She had it restored and decorated her beloved house over a period of time. Sands and Hudson lived together until her death on 17 September 1957. Works Among the works that survived World War II plunders and bombings are: Notes References External links" ]
[ "Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso Archibald Henry Macdonald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso,KT,CMG,PC(22 October 1890 – 15 June 1970), known asSir Archibald Sinclairbetween 1912 and 1952, and often asArchie Sinclair, was a Scottish politician and leader of theLiberal Party. Background and education Sinclair was born in 1890 inCaithness, Scotland.Sinclair was the son of a Scottish father, Clarence Granville Sinclair, and his American wife Mabel Sands, daughter ofMahlon Day Sands, and half-sister ofEthel Sands. His mother died shortly after his birth, and his father in 1895. He was brought up in families including those of his paternal grandfatherSir Tollemache Sinclair, 3rd Baronet, his uncleWilliam Macdonald Sinclair, andOwen Williams, married to his aunt Nina. Educated atEton Collegeand theRoyal Military College, Sandhurst, Sinclair was commissioned into theLife Guardsin 1910. In 1912, he succeeded his grandfather as the fourth Baronet ofUlbster.He became one of the largest landowners in the United", "in the United Kingdom, owning an estate of about 100,000 acres (40,000 ha) inCaithness.His recreations includedpoloand flying: he was a keen aviator. At this period he made a friend ofWinston Churchill. Colin Cootein his memoirs wrote of Sinclair's \"irresistible charm, allied to the face and figure of an Adonis\".The handsome Sinclair was at this period thought of as a possible husband for Nellie Hozier, younger sister ofClementine Churchill. Military career Sinclair served on theWestern Frontduring theFirst World War, in 1915 as aide de camp toJ. E. B. Seelywho commanded theCanadian Cavalry Brigade. He rose to the rank ofMajorin theGuards Machine Gun Regiment. AfterWinston Churchillresigned asFirst Lord of the Admiralty, Sinclair served as hissecond-in-commandwhen Churchill took up command at the beginning of 1916 of the 6th Battalion of theRoyal Scots Fusiliers. Churchill arranged the transfer withDouglas Haig, who turned down the request that Seely should be moved too, and also refused himEdward", "refused himEdward Spears.They were stationed in thePloegsteert Woodsector of the Western Front. Working with Churchill From 1919 to 1921 Sinclair served as Personal Military Secretary to Churchill, when he returned to the Cabinet asSecretary of State for War, and then accompanied him to theColonial Officeas Private Secretary. Sinclair's duties included acting as liaison for Churchill with theSecret Intelligence Service. He had dealings withGeorge Alexander HillandMalcolm Wollcombe, agent in theSoviet UnionforMansfield Smith-Cumming.Stewart Menzieswho had the official liaison role at theWar Officewas a personal friend. Sinclair collatedhumintandtechnical intelligencefor Churchill, for example onLeonid Krasin. He also assisted in the delicate handling ofBoris Savinkov, who was brought to London.It was Sinclair who introduced the prominent British agentSidney Reillyto Nikolai Alekseyev, intelligence chief of theWhite RussianleaderAlexander Guchkov. Political career 1922–1939 In 1922, Sinclair entered theHouse", "entered theHouse of Commonsas a LiberalMember of Parliament(MP) forCaithness and Sutherland,supportingDavid Lloyd Georgeand defeating the incumbent Liberal supporter ofH. H. Asquith. He rose through the Liberal ranks as the party shrank in Parliament, becomingChief Whipby 1930.At this period he worked on land policy with Lloyd George, including the \"Tartan Book\" that addressedScottish devolution. In July 1931, a meeting took place at Sinclair's house, whereOswald MosleyandHarold Nicolsonmet Churchill, Lloyd George andBrendan Bracken, to discuss a political alliance.About a month later, the Liberal Party joined theNational GovernmentofRamsay MacDonald, with Sinclair appointedSecretary of State for Scotland.He was sworn of thePrivy Councilat the same time.In 1932, he, together with other Liberal ministers led byHerbert Samuel, resigned from the government in protest at theOttawa ConferenceintroducingImperial Preference. In the1935 general election, Herbert Samuel lost his seat, and Sinclair became the Liberal", "became the Liberal Party's leader at the head of 20 MPs. During theAbdication Crisisof 1936, his name was put forward as a possible leader of a government that might be formed ifEdward VIIIheld onto the throne against the wishes of theBaldwin administration. Churchill came to support the King's position, andLord Beaverbrookentertained the idea of Sinclair as Prime Minister. BothClement Attleefor Labour and Sinclair for the Liberals, however, in late November ruled out forming a government under those circumstances. Sinclair consistently opposed thecontinental dictatorshipsand kept theNational Liberalsat arms length.He supported theLeague of Nationsandcollective security. He backed, as did Attlee, Churchill's bookArms and the Covenant.He joined theAnti-Nazi Councilof Eugen Spier, with Churchill andViolet Bonham Carter,Margaret BondfieldandHugh Dalton.Public opinion at this point of the later 1930s by no means agreed, andJohn Alfred Spenderattacked Sinclair inThe Timeson foreign policy, claiming that he, like", "that he, like theLeague of Nations Union, wished for war with theAxis Powers. At the time of theMunich Crisisin September 1938, Sinclair was one of the anti-appeasement group who gathered around Churchill, withLeo Amery,Robert Boothby,Robert Cecil,Harold Macmillanand Harold Nicolson.During parliamentary debate over theMunich Agreementhe attacked Prime MinisterNeville Chamberlainfor \"wilting\" toNazi Germanyand tossing \"justice and respect for treaties... to the winds.\"On a personal level, Violet Bonham Carter was a frequent guest of the Sinclairs at Dalnawillan Lodge in theFlow Country, as wereHarcourt Johnstoneand Lady Gwendoline Churchill, wife ofJack Churchilland Winston's sister-in-law.Bonham Carter was a Liberal activist, close follower of Churchill, anti-appeaser andLeague of Nations Unionmember. Second World War When Churchill formed anall-party coalition governmentin 1940, Sinclair entered the cabinet asSecretary of State for Air. During theMay 1940 British war cabinet crisisafter thefall of Francehe", "thefall of Francehe sided with Churchill againstLord Halifax's plan to seek a negotiated settlement withNazi Germanymediated byFascist Italy. Sinclair's first task was to work with theRoyal Air Forcein planning theBattle of Britain. Towards the end of the war, he found himself at odds with Churchill, arguing againstBomber Harris's strategy for theBombing of Dresdenand other German cities.He was not a strong political personality:Max Hastingsreports that he was often regarded as the \"Head of School'sfag\" to Churchill, and as the political mouthpiece rather than the master of Air Chief MarshalsPortalandHarris.However, in 1942 he did convince Churchill and his cabinet not to carry out reprisals on German villages forwar atrocitiessuch as theLidice massacre. Sinclair remained a minister until May 1945, when the coalition ended. In the1945 general election, he lost his seat. His margin of defeat was narrow: he came in third place, with the victorEric Gandar Dowerhaving 61 votes more. Last years At the1950 general", "At the1950 general election, Sinclair again stood for his old seat, coming second. In 1952, the year of his first stroke, he accepted elevation to theHouse of LordsasViscount Thursoof Ulbster in theCounty of Caithness.A more serious stroke in 1959 left him largely bedridden and in a state of precarious health, until he died at his home inTwickenhamin 1970. Family In 1918 Sinclair married Marigold Forbes (1897–1975), daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel James Stewart Forbes andLady Angela Forbes. They had four children: Legacy TheSouthern Railwaynamed aBattle of Britain Class Light Pacific steam locomotive\"Sir Archibald Sinclair\". The ceremonial naming of the locomotive was performed by Sir Archibald himself atWaterloo stationon 24 February 1948. The SR number of the locomotive was 21C159 and itsBritish Railwaysnumber was 34059. References Bibliography External links", "Ethel Sands Ethel Sands(6 July 1873 – 19 March 1962) was an American-bornartistand hostess who lived in England from childhood. She studied art in Paris, where she met her life partnerAnna Hope Hudson. Her works were generally still lifes and interiors, often of Château d'Auppegard that she shared with Hudson. Sands was aFitzroy Street GroupandLondon Groupmember. Her works are in London'sNational Portrait Galleryand other public collections. In 1916, she became a naturalised British citizen. Although a major art patron and an artist, she is most remembered as a hostess for the cultural elite, includingHenry James,Virginia Woolf,Roger FryandAugustus John. Early life Ethel Sands was born on 6 July 1873 inNewport, Rhode Island, the first child of Mary Morton (Hartpence) andMahlon Day Sands,who married in 1872.Mahlon Sands was secretary of the American Free Trade League, who in 1870 advocated for civil service reform and free trade.He was partner of his deceased father's pharmaceutical importing firm, A.B. Sands", "firm, A.B. Sands and Company.Ethel had two younger brothers, Mahlon Alan and Morton Harcourt Sands, who were, respectively, 5 and 11 years younger. In 1874, the family left the United States for England,intending to only visit the country.However, Mahlon Sands and his family stayed in England and travelled among European countries. They also visited the United States annuallyand were there for an extended visit from 1877 to 1879.They kept their house inNewport, Rhode Islandthroughout this time. The wealthy Sands circulated among London society, including writer and statesmanJohn Morley, politicianWilliam Ewart Gladstone, writerHenry James, artistJohn Singer Sargent, theRothschild family, andHenry Graham White. Mahlon's sister, Katherine, was married to journalist and newspaper editorEdwin Lawrence Godkin. They were part ofEdward VII, thenPrince of Wales', social circle. John Singer Sargentpainted the portrait of her mother, who was considered \"a famous society beauty of her day.\"Mary Sands was \"much admired\"", "was \"much admired\" by writerHenry James, who called her \"that gracious lady\" and based his heroic character \"Madame de Mauves\" on her. Ethel Sands was raised in a respectable upper-class household in which her parents were \"happily married\".While her father was considered handsomeand her mother beautiful, Anthony Powell states that some people wrote in their diaries and letters that she was plain. In her later years, Powell met her and said that \"so great was her elegance, charm, capacity to be amusing in a no-nonsense manner, that I could well believed her to be good-looking in her youth.Her father had ridden horseback throughHyde Park, was thrown from the horse and died an accidental death in 1888.His widow, Mary Sands, raised Ethel and her brothers until her death on 28 July 1896. Art Education Encouraged by artistJohn Singer Sargent,Sands studied painting in Paris at the Académie Carrière underEugène Carrièrefor several years, beginning in 1894.There she met fellow studentNan Hudson, born Anna Hope", "born Anna Hope Hudson in the United States, who became her life partner.During this time, Sands became the guardian of her two younger brothers following her mother's death in 1896. Painting Sands painted still lifes and interior settings.Tatesuggests that was inspired byÉdouard Vuillard's dry brush technique, colour palette and depiction of \"intimate\" scenes. Her first exhibition was atSalon d'Automnein Parisin 1904. In 1907, atWalter Sickert's invitation, she became a member and exhibited paintings she made at theFitzroy Street Group. She also purchased the works of other artists. She was one of the artists that founded theLondon Group.According to author Kate Deepwell, her works, and those ofVanessa Belland other women, were evaluated differently at that time from those made by men: The best critique of woman's work at the time would be that they had individuality, but they would not have been considered innovative, modern works like those made by men. In Paris in 1911 she had her first show dedicated to", "show dedicated to her works. Hudson and Sands had a show at Carfax Gallery in 1912. The next year she was part of the \"English Post-Impressionists, Cubists and Others\" show in Brighton. Her works were exhibited atGoupil Gallery, and in 1922 she had her initial solo show. She also exhibited often at theWomen's International Art Cluband theNew English Art Club. Hudson purchased Château d'Auppegard near Dieppe, France in 1920,which was the subject of several of Sand's paintings. Some of the interior paintings areA Spare Room, Château d'AuppegardandDouble Doors, Château d'Auppegard.Other examples are the landscapeAuppegard Church from Château, Franceand one of her partner,Nan Hudson Playing Patience at Auppegard.Her works are in the collections ofTatemuseumGovernment Art Collection,andFitzwilliam Museum. Socialite and patron LikeLady Sibyl ColefaxandLady Ottoline Morrell, Sands entertained artists and writers with the intention to nurture and discuss ideas relevant to their careers.Lady Ottoline Morrell\"took", "Morrell\"took over\" Sand's Chelsea house for entertainment after she had to give up her London house at Bedford Square.Affiliated with theBloomsbury Group,she was best-known as \"one of the leading artist hostesses of her time\", her lavish affairs were financially possible due to the significant wealth she inherited from her parents. She was mainly at the Oxford, Newington house until 1920,but when in England she also entertained at her London Lowndes Street house, and between 1913 and 1937 at 15 Vale, Chelsea, London house,where she lived near her mother's friend,Henry James.Notable artistsAugustus JohnandWalter Sickert.Henry James,Virginia Woolf,Roger FryandArnold Bennettwere among the writers of the \"cultural elite\" who visited her.Her friends included artistJacques-Émile Blanche, writerEdith Wharton, poetWilliam Butler Yeats, essayist and criticLogan Pearsall Smithand novelistHoward Overing Sturgis. Lytton Strachey(a founder of theBloomsbury Group) met at Sands' houseand her uncle,Edwin Lawrence", "Lawrence Godkinwrote of his upcoming visit to Sands' house in Oxfordshire, \"There one fortnight, and then back to \"holy wars\", patriotism, andbuncombe...\" She was a patron and collector of works by other contemporary artists. For instance, she commissionedBoris Anrep, a Russian immigrant, to create mosaics and murals in her Vale, Chelsea house.Sands continued to entertain into the 1950s with her friends, includingDuncan GrantandDesmond MacCarthy, until he died in 1952. She was described as a \"plain woman of immense charm, cultivation and perception, and a painter of considerable talent\" in theDictionary of Real People and Places in Fiction.It was suggested there that Henry James modelled the character Nanda inThe Awkward Ageafter Sands. World wars Sands tended to soldiers who had been injured in France duringWorld War I, having established a hospital for soldiers nearDieppewith Hudson. It was forced to close down, and they continued their nursing efforts in both France and England.Sands was then in Britain", "was then in Britain working as a forewoman in a factory that made overalls. In 1916 she became a British citizenship. During World War II, Sands served as a nurse.The house inChelsea, Londonwas destroyed duringThe Blitzby aparachute mine, and the house in France was broken into and its contents were stolen or destroyed. The two war-time events resulted in the loss of most of Sands' and Hudson's works. Personal life Her mind was like her room, in which lights advanced and retreated, came pirouetting and stepping delicately, spread their tails, pecked their way; and then her whole being was suffused, like the room again, with a cloud of some profound knowledge, some unspoken regret, and then she was full of locked drawers, stuffed with letters, like her cabinets. Virginia Woolf,The Lady in the Looking Glass: A Reflection Sands and Hudson divided their time between England and France to accommodate their lifestyle preferences. Hudson enjoyed living a relatively quiet life in France and Sands liked the London", "liked the London and Oxford social life. Sands entertained people within and outside of the cultural elite throughout her life.When Hudson's health began to fail, Sands nursed her until she died in 1957. Sand continued to entertain after Hudson's death. Her date of death was 19 March 1962. FriendVirginia Woolfwrote a sketch based upon her called \"The Lady in the Looking Glass\", subtitled \"A Reflection\", about a time that she saw her come \"in from the garden and not reading her letters.\" The mirror symbolised the way in which art is used to take a snapshot in time, but can also cut. Wendy Baron, an author and art historian, wrote a biography about Sands, partly based upon the letters that Sands exchanged with Hudson and others.Tate Archives now holds the correspondence. Works Among the works that survived World War II plunders and bombings are: Notes References Further reading External links", "Anna Hope Hudson Anna Hope Hudson(1869–1957) was an American-born artist who lived and worked in France and England. She was a founding member ofthe London Group, and the life partner of likewise artistEthel Sands. Early life Hudson was born 10 September 1869 in New York City. She was the daughter of Colonel Edward McKenny Hudson, who died in 1892; her mother died when she was 9 years old. She lived in the United States until she was 24 when she moved to Europe, preferring France of the places she lived and visited.The inheritance that she received was the result of her grandfather's success as a partner of a banknote engraving organization, which later merged to become theAmerican Bank Note Company. Education Hudson began her studies in Paris in 1892 and met fellow art studentEthel Sands, who became her life partner. Like Sands, Hudson was provided a legacy upon her parents' death.They studied underEugène Carrièrein 1896.Henri Evenepoel, a Flemish painter, was Hudson's art instructor beginning in January", "in January 1897. Artist Hudson lived and painted withEthel Sands, dividing their time between France and England. Sands was a socialite who frequently entertained artists and writers when they were in England. Hudson preferred a quieter lifestyle in France, and it was there that Hudson first established herself as an artist. She made a painting ofGiudecca Canalafter travelling to Venice to paint. It was shown at theSalon d'Automnein Paris in 1906.Walter Sickert, who know Hudson through her association with Sands, had not known of her works. Impressed, he shared his opinions about her talent and invited her to theFitzroy Street Group. Sands also joined the group, where both women sometimes attended and often sent paintings for the Saturday \"At Homes\" sessions. Walter Sickert, who captured her confident, independent manner inMiss Hudson at Rowlandson Housethat he made about 1910, described Hudson as \"the radiant and dashing horsewoman of a young man's dreams.\"Virginia Woolfsaid that she dressed stylishly and", "stylishly and was \"dour and upstanding.\" In England, Hudson began exhibiting her works atLeicester Galleries, theNew English Art Cluband theAllied Artists Association. In 1912, she had a joint show with Sands at the Carfax Gallery. The Fitzroy Street Group and the male member onlyCamden Town Group} merged in 1913 to become theLondon Group, of which both Sands and Hudson were founding members. Hudson occasionally exhibited her work there until 1938. She also continued to have works shown at the English Art Club. At Sickert's invitation, Hudson occasionally work in his studios and used his models for subjects of her paintings. Her works, inspired byÉdouard Vuillardand Walter Sickert, were in large part destroyed or lost during World War II. There are some remaining works in public collections and one at theTate. World wars Sands and Hudson established a hospital for soldiers nearDieppeduringWorld War I. It was forced to close down, and they continued their nursing efforts in both France and England. During", "and England. During World War II, Hudson's home was pillaged and Sand's Chelsea home was destroyed duringThe Blitzby aparachute mine. Personal life Hudson purchased the 17th-century house, the Château d'Auppegard, in 1920. It was located in the countryside about 10 miles from Dieppe. She had it restored and decorated her beloved house over a period of time. Sands and Hudson lived together until her death on 17 September 1957. Works Among the works that survived World War II plunders and bombings are: Notes References External links" ]
This founder of the Academy of Science, St. Louis became established as a botonist for a monograph he did in 1842. What is the scientic name for plant featured in that monograph?
Cuscuta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Science,_St._Louis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Engelmann
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuscuta
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null
null
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Science,_St._Louis', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Engelmann', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuscuta']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Science,_St._Louis", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Engelmann", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuscuta" ]
[ "Academy of Science, St. Louis TheAcademy of Science, St. Louis(sometimes rendered asAcademy of Science - St. Louis) is a non-profit organization inSt. Louis, Missouri, dedicated to science literacy and education. Founded in 1856 by a group of scientists and businessmen, includingGeorge EngelmannandJames B. Eads, the Academy has been involved in many science-related activities in the city. The Academy was long known for its study collections, library, and museums—most notably the Museum of Science and Natural History inClayton, Missouri, which operated from 1959 until about 1990. The organization gave its books to local college libraries, while some of its study collections were absorbed by theSt. Louis Science Center, which the Academy helped to raise funds for. Today, the Academy works to expand scientific outreach, education, resource sharing, and the recognition of scientific accomplishment. History Early years In the 1830s, a Western Academy of Natural Sciences in St. Louis was founded as a counterpart to the EasternAcademy of Natural Sciences. It aimed to explore the West and discover natural resources. In 1856, the Academy was reorganized into the Academy of Science of St. Louis by 15 founding members, including a dozen physicians, a lawyer, an engineer and a businessman. The new Academy held its first meeting on March 10, 1856,and pledged to advance science in what was then the rapidly growing city of St. Louis. More specifically, the Academy's mission was to promote \"Zoology,Botany,Geology,Mineralogy,Paleontology,Ethnology,Chemistry,Physics,Mathematics,Meteorology,Comparative Anatomy, andPhysiology.\" Founders First century (1856-1956) Academy members started a museum collection, maintained a library, published a journal, and corresponded with leading scientists of the day, providing information concerning the lands that lay adjacent and to the west of St. Louis. Early members of the Academy collected natural history specimens for their society. These items were stored and made available to the public in various museums throughout the Academy's history. Choteau andWislizenusaccumulated botanical, zoological and geological specimens from the vast and little-known regions of the American West. In later years, collectors such as Henry M. Whelpey (Native American artifacts) and Stratford Lee Morton (minerals, sea shells and fossils) donated their collections to the Academy. For many years, the Academy published one of the world's most respected scientificjournals,Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis. Scientific societies of the eastern United States and in Europe were eager to receive copies ofTransactions, which contained papers on the natural history and geology of the American West. Outstanding scientist and Academy member African-AmericanCharles Henry Turner, a devoted entomologist, published over 50 papers on subjects in neurology, invertebrate ecology and animal behavior in the Academy's world-renownedTransactions. Second century (1956-) In 1958, the Academy sold its building at 4642 Lindell Boulevard, leaving the organization temporarily homeless.That same year, Murl Deusing, curator of education at theMilwaukee Public Museum, was hired to become the Academy's director at an annual salary of $12,000 a year ($126,727 today). His offices were to be in the academy's planned museum inOak Knoll ParkinClayton, Missouri. This was to be the fourth Academy museum: the St. Louis Museum of Science and Natural History. It was partially funded through a $50,000 gift from J. Lionberger Davis, a St. Louis lawyer and banker who had previously given objects worth \"hundreds of thousands of dollars\" to theSaint Louis Art Museum. The donation to the Academy helped the organization qualify for a $45,000 grant from the trust fund of one A. P. Greensfelder, whose grant specified that it be disbursed only after the Academy raised another $135,000. Academy president Stratford Lee Morton said at the time that he hoped to raise a total of $500,000 for the academy's proposed museum of science and industry and museum ofOzark-area natural history. In 1959, the academy installed part of its collections in two stone mansions in the park and opened the museum.The academy paid just $1 per year in rent, but was responsible for upkeep on the buildings. The museum, which was free to enter,was immediately popular with the public. Its informal science classes drew thousands of children, while exhibits such as an Egyptian mummy and an adult gorilla skeletonattracted adults as well. Its study collections included local rocks and minerals; fossil mollusks; archeological items; herpetology; and antique lamps, lighting equipment, and radios.Archival holdings at the museum included two linear feet of meeting minutes and other Academy documents from 1856 to 1941. But within a few years, the academy was struggling to fund its maintenance. Similar funding problems with theSaint Louis Zooand theSaint Louis Art Museumled city leaders in 1969 to propose a tax levy to support all three institutions. When voters approved the levy in 1971, control of the museum and its collection passed to a Board of Commissioners. The museum was eventually closed and part of the collection was transferred to the newSaint Louis Science Center. In the late 1980s, the Academy helped lead the campaign to build the new science center, which opened in 1992. Throughout its history, the Academy has promoted important scientific work and continues to be a staunch supporter of mathematics and science education. Academy-sponsored lectures, exhibits and television productions have been an important part of the St. Louis area's educational scene. The Academy promotes science and increasing science literacy among students and the general public. More than 600 professional scientists have volunteered through the Academy to speak at elementary and secondary schools, universities, civic and youth organizations and other community groups. Many also serve as mentors for the over 450 students who are members of the Junior Academy of Science of St. Louis, for students in the sixth through twelfth grades in the St. Louis Area. References External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/George_Engelmann (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b933147f0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Cuscuta (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b951b5180>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Academy of Science, St. Louis TheAcademy of Science, St. Louis(sometimes rendered asAcademy of Science - St. Louis) is a non-profit organization inSt. Louis, Missouri, dedicated to science literacy and education. Founded in 1856 by a group of scientists and businessmen, includingGeorge EngelmannandJames B. Eads, the Academy has been involved in many science-related activities in the city. The Academy was long known for its study collections, library, and museums—most notably the Museum of Science and Natural History inClayton, Missouri, which operated from 1959 until about 1990. The organization gave its books to local college libraries, while some of its study collections were absorbed by theSt. Louis Science Center, which the Academy helped to raise funds for. Today, the Academy works to expand scientific outreach, education, resource sharing, and the recognition of scientific accomplishment. History Early years In the 1830s, a Western Academy of Natural Sciences in St. Louis was founded as a counterpart to", "as a counterpart to the EasternAcademy of Natural Sciences. It aimed to explore the West and discover natural resources. In 1856, the Academy was reorganized into the Academy of Science of St. Louis by 15 founding members, including a dozen physicians, a lawyer, an engineer and a businessman. The new Academy held its first meeting on March 10, 1856,and pledged to advance science in what was then the rapidly growing city of St. Louis. More specifically, the Academy's mission was to promote \"Zoology,Botany,Geology,Mineralogy,Paleontology,Ethnology,Chemistry,Physics,Mathematics,Meteorology,Comparative Anatomy, andPhysiology.\" Founders First century (1856-1956) Academy members started a museum collection, maintained a library, published a journal, and corresponded with leading scientists of the day, providing information concerning the lands that lay adjacent and to the west of St. Louis. Early members of the Academy collected natural history specimens for their society. These items were stored and made", "stored and made available to the public in various museums throughout the Academy's history. Choteau andWislizenusaccumulated botanical, zoological and geological specimens from the vast and little-known regions of the American West. In later years, collectors such as Henry M. Whelpey (Native American artifacts) and Stratford Lee Morton (minerals, sea shells and fossils) donated their collections to the Academy. For many years, the Academy published one of the world's most respected scientificjournals,Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis. Scientific societies of the eastern United States and in Europe were eager to receive copies ofTransactions, which contained papers on the natural history and geology of the American West. Outstanding scientist and Academy member African-AmericanCharles Henry Turner, a devoted entomologist, published over 50 papers on subjects in neurology, invertebrate ecology and animal behavior in the Academy's world-renownedTransactions. Second century (1956-) In 1958,", "(1956-) In 1958, the Academy sold its building at 4642 Lindell Boulevard, leaving the organization temporarily homeless.That same year, Murl Deusing, curator of education at theMilwaukee Public Museum, was hired to become the Academy's director at an annual salary of $12,000 a year ($126,727 today). His offices were to be in the academy's planned museum inOak Knoll ParkinClayton, Missouri. This was to be the fourth Academy museum: the St. Louis Museum of Science and Natural History. It was partially funded through a $50,000 gift from J. Lionberger Davis, a St. Louis lawyer and banker who had previously given objects worth \"hundreds of thousands of dollars\" to theSaint Louis Art Museum. The donation to the Academy helped the organization qualify for a $45,000 grant from the trust fund of one A. P. Greensfelder, whose grant specified that it be disbursed only after the Academy raised another $135,000. Academy president Stratford Lee Morton said at the time that he hoped to raise a total of $500,000 for the", "of $500,000 for the academy's proposed museum of science and industry and museum ofOzark-area natural history. In 1959, the academy installed part of its collections in two stone mansions in the park and opened the museum.The academy paid just $1 per year in rent, but was responsible for upkeep on the buildings. The museum, which was free to enter,was immediately popular with the public. Its informal science classes drew thousands of children, while exhibits such as an Egyptian mummy and an adult gorilla skeletonattracted adults as well. Its study collections included local rocks and minerals; fossil mollusks; archeological items; herpetology; and antique lamps, lighting equipment, and radios.Archival holdings at the museum included two linear feet of meeting minutes and other Academy documents from 1856 to 1941. But within a few years, the academy was struggling to fund its maintenance. Similar funding problems with theSaint Louis Zooand theSaint Louis Art Museumled city leaders in 1969 to propose a tax", "to propose a tax levy to support all three institutions. When voters approved the levy in 1971, control of the museum and its collection passed to a Board of Commissioners. The museum was eventually closed and part of the collection was transferred to the newSaint Louis Science Center. In the late 1980s, the Academy helped lead the campaign to build the new science center, which opened in 1992. Throughout its history, the Academy has promoted important scientific work and continues to be a staunch supporter of mathematics and science education. Academy-sponsored lectures, exhibits and television productions have been an important part of the St. Louis area's educational scene. The Academy promotes science and increasing science literacy among students and the general public. More than 600 professional scientists have volunteered through the Academy to speak at elementary and secondary schools, universities, civic and youth organizations and other community groups. Many also serve as mentors for the over 450", "for the over 450 students who are members of the Junior Academy of Science of St. Louis, for students in the sixth through twelfth grades in the St. Louis Area. References External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/George_Engelmann (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b933147f0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Cuscuta (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b951b5180>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
Which album by the band Paramore came out after the death of Michael Jackson and before the death of Amy Winehouse?
Brand New Eyes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Winehouse
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramore
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_New_Eyes
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null
null
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Winehouse', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramore', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_New_Eyes']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Winehouse", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramore", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_New_Eyes" ]
[ "Michael Jackson Michael Joseph Jackson(August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, dancer, and philanthropist. Dubbed the \"King of Pop\", he is regarded asone of the most significant cultural figuresof the 20th century. Over a four-decade career, his contributions to music, dance, and fashion, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture. Jackson influenced artists across many music genres. Through stage and video performances, he popularized street dance moves such as themoonwalk, which he named, and therobot. He was the eighth child of theJackson family, and made his public debut in 1964 with his older brothersJackie,Tito,Jermaine, andMarlonas a member ofthe Jackson 5(later known as the Jacksons). The Jackson 5 signed withMotownin 1968 and achieved worldwide success with Michael as lead singer. Jackson began his solo career in 1971 while at Motown and recorded multiple successful singles. He became a global solo star with his 1979 albumOff the Wall.His music videos, including those for \"Beat It\", \"Billie Jean\", and \"Thriller\" from his 1982 albumThriller, are credited with breakingracial barriersand transforming the medium into an art form and promotional tool. He helped popularizeMTVand continued to innovate with videos for his albumsBad(1987),Dangerous(1991),HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I(1995), andInvincible(2001).Thrilleris thebest-selling album of all time, whileBadwas the first album to produce five USBillboardHot 100number-one singles. From the late 1980s, Jackson became a figure of controversy and speculation due tohis changing appearance,relationships, behavior, and lifestyle. In 1993, hewas accused of sexually abusingthe child of a family friend. The lawsuit was settled out of civil court; Jackson was not indicted due to lack of evidence. In 2005, hewas tried and acquittedof further child sexual abuse allegations and several other charges. TheFederal Bureau of Investigationfoundno evidence of criminal conductby Jackson. In 2009, while he was preparing for a series of comeback concerts,This Is It, Jacksondiedfrom an overdose ofpropofoladministered by his personal physician,Conrad Murray, who wasconvicted in 2011ofinvoluntary manslaughterfor his involvement in Jackson's death. His death triggered reactions around the world, creating unprecedented surges of internet traffic and a spike in sales of his music.Jackson's televised memorial service, held at theStaples Centerin Los Angeles, was estimated to have been viewed by more than 2.5 billion people. Jackson is one of thebest-selling music artistsof all time, with estimated sales of over 500million records worldwide.He had 13BillboardHot 100 number-one singles(the fourth-highest of any artist in the Hot 100 era) and was the first artist to have a top-ten single on theBillboardHot 100 in five different decades. His honors include 15Grammy Awards, sixBrit Awards, aGolden Globe Award, and 39Guinness World Records, including the \"Most Successful Entertainer of All Time\". Jackson's inductions include theRock and Roll Hall of Fame(twice), theVocal Group Hall of Fame, theSongwriters Hall of Fame, theDance Hall of Fame(making him the only recording artist to be inducted) and theNational Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame. Life and career Early life and the Jackson 5 (1958–1975) Michael Joseph Jacksonwas born inGary, Indiana, on August 29, 1958.He was the eighth of ten children in theJackson family, a working-classAfrican-Americanfamily living in a two-bedroom house on Jackson Street.His mother,Katherine Esther Jackson(néeScruse), played clarinet and piano, had aspired to be acountry-and-westernperformer, and worked part-time atSears.She was aJehovah's Witness.His father,Joseph Walter \"Joe\" Jackson, a former boxer, was a crane operator atUS Steeland played guitar with a localrhythm and bluesband, the Falcons, to supplement the family's income.Joe's great-grandfather, July \"Jack\" Gale, was a US Armyscout; family lore held that he was also a Native Americanmedicine man.Michael grew up with three sisters (Rebbie,La Toya, andJanet) and five brothers (Jackie,Tito,Jermaine,Marlon, andRandy).A sixth brother, Marlon's twin Brandon, died shortly after birth. In 1964, Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers—a band formed by their father which included Jackie, Tito and Jermaine—as backup musicians playingcongasandtambourine.Michael said his father told him he had a \"fat nose\",and physically and emotionally abused him during rehearsals. He recalled that Joe often sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed, ready to punish any mistakes.Joe acknowledged that he regularly whipped Michael.Katherine said that although whipping came to be considered abuse, it was a common way to discipline children when Michael was growing up.Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Marlon denied that their father was abusive and said that the whippings, which had a deeper impact on Michael because he was younger, kept them disciplined and out of trouble.Michael said that during his youth he was lonely and isolated. Later in 1965, Michael began sharing lead vocals with Jermaine, and the group's name was changed tothe Jackson 5.In 1965, the group won a talent show; Michael performed the dance toRobert Parker's 1965 song \"Barefootin'\" and sangthe Temptations' \"My Girl\".From 1966 to 1968, the Jacksons 5 toured theMidwest; they frequently played at a string of black clubs known as theChitlin' Circuitas the opening act for artists such asSam & Dave,the O'Jays,Gladys KnightandEtta James. The Jackson 5 also performed at clubs and cocktail lounges, wherestripteaseshows were featured, and at local auditoriums and high school dances.In August 1967, while touring theEast Coast, they won a weekly amateur night concert at theApollo TheaterinHarlem. The Jackson 5 recorded several songs for a Gary record label,Steeltown Records; their first single, \"Big Boy\", was released in 1968.Bobby Taylor ofBobby Taylor & the Vancouversbrought the Jackson 5 toMotownafter they opened for Taylor at Chicago'sRegal Theaterin 1968. Taylor produced some of their early Motown recordings, including a version of \"Who's Lovin' You\".After signing with Motown, the Jackson family relocated to Los Angeles.In 1969, Motown executives decidedDiana Rossshould introduce the Jackson 5 to the public — partly to bolster her career in television — sending off what was considered Motown's last product of its \"production line\".The Jackson 5 made their first television appearance in 1969 in theMiss Black Americapageant, performing a cover of \"It's Your Thing\".Rolling Stonelater described the young Michael as \"a prodigy\" with \"overwhelming musical gifts\" who \"quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer\". In January 1970, \"I Want You Back\" became the first Jackson 5 song to reach number one on the USBillboardHot 100; it stayed there for four weeks. Three more singles with Motown topped the chart: \"ABC\", \"The Love You Save\", and \"I'll Be There\".In May 1971, the Jackson family moved into a large house atHayvenhurst, a 2-acre (0.81 ha) estate inEncino, California.During this period, Michael developed from a child performer into ateen idol.Between 1972 and 1975, he released four solo studio albums with Motown:Got to Be There(1972),Ben(1972),Music & Me(1973) andForever, Michael(1975).\"Got to Be There\" and \"Ben\", the title tracks from his first two solo albums, sold well as singles, as did a cover ofBobby Day's \"Rockin' Robin\". Michael maintained ties to the Jackson 5.The Jackson 5 were later described as \"a cutting-edge example of blackcrossover artists\".They were frustrated by Motown's refusal to allow them creative input.Jackson's performance of their top five single \"Dancing Machine\" onSoul Trainpopularized therobot dance. Move to Epic andOff the Wall(1975–1981) The Jackson 5 left Motown in 1975, signing withEpic Recordsand renaming themselves the Jacksons.Their younger brother Randy joined the band around this time; Jermaine stayed with Motown and pursued a solo career.The Jacksons continued to tour internationally, and released six more albums between 1976 and 1984. Michael, the group's main songwriter during this time, wrote songs such as \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" (1978), \"This Place Hotel\" (1980), and \"Can You Feel It\" (1980). In 1977, Jackson moved to New York City to star as theScarecrowinThe Wiz, a musical film directed bySidney Lumet, alongsideDiana Ross,Nipsey Russell, and Ted Ross.The film was a box-office failure.Its score was arranged byQuincy Jones,who later produced three of Jackson's solo albums.During his time in New York, Jackson frequented theStudio 54nightclub, where he heard earlyhip hop; this influenced hisbeatboxingon future tracks such as \"Working Day and Night\".In 1978, Jackson unsatisfied with his nose, decided to have arhinoplasty.He was referred toSteven Hoefflin, who performed Jackson's operations. Jackson's fifth solo album,Off the Wall(1979), established him as a solo performer and helped him move from thebubblegumpop of his youth to more complex sounds.It produced four top 10 entries in the US: \"Off the Wall\", \"She's Out of My Life\", and the chart-topping singles \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\" and \"Rock with You\".The album reached number three on the USBillboard200and sold over 20million copies worldwide.In 1980, Jackson won threeAmerican Music Awardsfor his solo work: Favorite Soul/R&B Album, Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist, and Favorite Soul/R&B Single for \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\".He also won a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for 1979 with \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\".In 1981, Jackson was the American Music Awards winner for Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist.Jackson feltOff the Wallshould have made a bigger impact, and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release.In 1980, he secured the highestroyaltyrate in the music industry: 37 percent of wholesale album profit. ThrillerandMotown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever(1982–1983) Jackson recorded withQueen's lead singerFreddie Mercuryfrom 1981 to 1983, recording demos of \"State of Shock\", \"Victory\" and \"There Must Be More to Life Than This\". The recordings were intended for an album of duets but, according to Queen's managerJim Beach, the relationship soured when Jackson brought allamainto the recording studio,and Jackson was upset by Mercury's drug use.\"There Must Be More to Life Than This\" was released in 2014.Jackson went on to record \"State of Shock\" withMick Jaggerfor the Jacksons' albumVictory(1984). In 1982, Jackson contributed \"Someone in the Dark\" to theaudiobook for the filmE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. Jackson's sixth album,Thriller, was released in late 1982. It was the bestselling album worldwide in 1983,and became the bestselling album of all time in the USand thebest-selling album of all time worldwide, selling an estimated70 millioncopies.It topped theBillboard200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive weeks. It was the first album to produce sevenBillboardHot 100 top-10 singles, including \"Billie Jean\", \"Beat It\", and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\". On March 25, 1983, Jackson reunited with his brothers forMotown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever, an NBC television special. The show aired on May 16 to an estimated audience of47 million, and featured the Jacksons and other Motown stars.Jackson's solo performance of \"Billie Jean\" earned him his firstEmmy Awardnomination.Wearing a glove decorated withrhinestones,he debuted hismoonwalk dance, whichJeffrey Danielhad taught him three years earlier, and it became his signature dance in his repertoire.Jackson had originally turned down the invitation to the show, believing he had been doing too much television. But at the request of Motown founderBerry Gordy, he performed in exchange for an opportunity to do a solo performance.Rolling Stonereporter Mikal Gilmore called the performance \"extraordinary\".Jackson's performance drew comparisons toElvis Presley's andthe Beatles' appearances onThe Ed Sullivan Show.Anna KisselgoffofThe New York Timespraised the perfect timing and technique involved in the dance.Gordy described being \"mesmerized\" by the performance. At the26th Annual Grammy Awards,Thrillerwon eight awards, and Jackson won an award for theE.T. the Extra-Terrestrialstorybook. Winning eight Grammys in one ceremony is a record he holds with the bandSantana.Jackson and Quincy Jones won the award for Producer of the Year (Non-Classical).Thrillerwon Album of the Year (with Jackson as the album's artist and Jones as its co-producer), and the single won Best Pop Vocal Performance (Male) award for Jackson. \"Beat It\" won Record of the Year and Best Rock Vocal Performance (Male). \"Billie Jean\" won two Grammy awards: Best R&B Song and Best R&B Vocal Performance (Male), with Jackson as songwriter and singer respectively. Thrillerwon the Grammy for Best Engineered Recording (Non Classical), acknowledgingBruce Swedienfor his work on the album.At the11th Annual American Music Awards, Jackson won another eight awards and became the youngest artist to win the Award of Merit.He also won Favorite Male Artist, Favorite Soul/R&B Artist, and Favorite Pop/Rock Artist. \"Beat It\" won Favorite Soul/R&B Video, Favorite Pop/Rock Video and Favorite Pop/Rock Single. The album won Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Pop/Rock Album.Thriller's sales doubled after the release of an extended music video,Michael Jackson's Thriller, which sees Jackson dancing with a horde of zombies. The success transformed Jackson into a dominant force in global pop culture.Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point, with about $2 for every album sold (equivalent to $6 in 2023), and was making record-breaking profits. Dolls modeled after Jackson appeared in stores in May 1984 for $12 each.In the same year,The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller, a documentary about the music video, won a Grammy for Best Music Video (Longform).Timedescribed Jackson's influence at that point as \"star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too.\"The New York Timeswrote \"in the world of pop music, there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else\". Pepsi incident, \"We Are the World\" and other commercial activities (1984–1985) In November 1983, Jackson and his brothers partnered withPepsiCoin a $5million promotional deal that broke records for a celebrity endorsement (equivalent to $15.3 million in 2023). The first Pepsi campaign, which ran in the US from 1983 to 1984 and launched its \"New Generation\" theme, included tour sponsorship, public relations events, and in-store displays. Jackson helped to create the advertisement, and suggested using his song \"Billie Jean\", with revised lyrics, as itsjingle. On January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi commercial overseen byPhil Dusenberry,aBBDOad agency executive, andAlan Pottasch, Pepsi's Worldwide Creative Director, at theShrine Auditoriumin Los Angeles. During a simulated concert before a full house of fans, pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson's hair on fire, causingsecond-degree burnsto his scalp. Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars and had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter. Pepsi settled out of court, and Jackson donated the $1.5million (equivalent to $4.4 million in 2023) settlement to theBrotman Medical CenterinCulver City, California; its now-closed Michael Jackson Burn Center was named in his honor.Jackson signed a second agreement with Pepsi in the late 1980s for $10million (equivalent to $26.8 million in 2023). The second campaign covered 20 countries and provided financial support for Jackson'sBadalbum and 1987–88 world tour. Jackson had endorsements and advertising deals with other companies, such asLA Gear,Suzuki, andSony, but none were as significant as his deals with Pepsi. TheVictory Tourof 1984 headlined the Jacksons and showcased Jackson's new solo material to more than two million Americans. It was the last tour he did with his brothers.Followingcontroversy over the concert's ticket sales, Jackson donated his share of the proceeds, an estimated$3 to 5 million, to charity.During the last concert of the Victory Tour at theDodger Stadiumin Los Angeles, Jackson announced his split from the Jacksons during \"Shake Your Body\". WithLionel Richie, Jackson co-wrote the charity single \"We Are the World\" (1985), which raised money for the poor in the US and Africa.It earned $63million (equivalent to $178 million in 2023),and became one of thebest-selling singles of all time, with 20million copies sold.It won four Grammy Awards in 1985, including Song of the Year for Jackson and Richie.Jackson, Jones, and the promoter Ken Kragen received special awards for their roles in the song's creation. Jackson collaborated withPaul McCartneyin the early 1980s, and learned that McCartney was making $40million a year from owning the rights to other artists' songs.By 1983, Jackson had begun buying publishing rights to others' songs, but he was careful with his acquisitions, only bidding on a few of the dozens that were offered to him. Jackson's early acquisitions ofmusic catalogsand song copyrights such as theSly Stonecollection included \"Everyday People\" (1968),Len Barry's \"1-2-3\" (1965), andDion DiMucci's \"The Wanderer\" (1961) and \"Runaround Sue\" (1961). In 1984,Robert Holmes à Courtannounced he was selling theATV Music Publishingcatalog comprising the publishing rights to nearly 4,000 songs, including most of the Beatles' material.In 1981, McCartney had been offered the catalog for £20million ($40million) (equivalent to $134 million in 2023).Jackson submitted a bid of $46million (equivalent to $135 million in 2023) on November 20, 1984.When Jackson and McCartney were unable to make a joint purchase, McCartney did not want to be the sole owner of the Beatles' songs, and did not pursue an offer on his own.Jackson's agents were unable to come to a deal, and in May 1985 left talks after having spent more than $1million and four months ofdue diligencework on the negotiations. In June 1985, Jackson and Branca learned thatCharles Koppelman's andMarty Bandier's The Entertainment Company had made a tentative offer to buy ATV Music for $50million; in early August, Holmes à Court contacted Jackson and talks resumed. Jackson's increased bid of $47.5million (equivalent to $135 million in 2023) was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly, having already completed due diligence.Jackson agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia, where he would appear on theChannel Seven Perth Telethon.His purchase of ATV Music was finalized on August 10, 1985. Increased tabloid speculation (1986–1987) Jackson's skin had been medium-brown during his youth, but from the mid-1980s gradually grew paler. The change drew widespread media coverage, including speculation that he had beenbleaching his skin.His dermatologist,Arnold Klein, said he observed in 1983 that Jackson hadvitiligo,a condition characterized by patches of the skin losing their pigment. He also identifieddiscoid lupus erythematosusin Jackson. He diagnosed Jackson with lupus that year,and with vitiligo in 1986.Vitiligo's drastic effects on the body can cause psychological distress. Jackson used fair-colored makeup,and possibly skin-bleaching prescription creams,to cover up the uneven blotches of color caused by the illness. The creams would depigment the blotches, and, with the application of makeup, he could appear very pale.Jackson said he had not purposely bleached his skin and could not control his vitiligo, adding, \"When people make up stories that I don't want to be who I am, it hurts me.\"He became friends with Klein and Klein's assistant,Debbie Rowe. Rowe later became Jackson's second wife and the mother of his first two children. In his 1988 autobiography and a 1993 interview, Jackson said he had had tworhinoplastysurgeries and acleft chinsurgery but no more than that. He said he lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet to achieve a dancer's body.Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy, and speculated he was suffering fromanorexia nervosa. Periods of weight loss became a recurring problem later in his life.After his death, Jackson's mother said that he first turned tocosmetic proceduresto remedy his vitiligo, because he did not want to look like a \"spotted cow\". She said he had received more than the two cosmetic surgeries he claimed and speculated that he had become addicted to them. In 1986, it was reported that Jackson slept in ahyperbaric oxygen chamberto slow aging. He denied the story,although it was alleged that Jackson leaked an image of him sleeping in a glass chamber (according to Jackson, this was a promotional shot from anupcoming space opera featuring himself) toThe National Enquirer.It was also reported that Jackson took female hormone shots to keep his voice high and facial hair wispy, proposed toElizabeth Taylorand possibly had a shrine of her, and had cosmetic surgery on his eyes. Jackson's managerFrank DiLeodenied all of them, except for Jackson having a chamber. DiLeo added \"I don't know if he sleeps in it. I'm not for it. But Michael thinks it's something that's probably healthy for him. He's a bit of a health fanatic.\" When Jackson took his pet chimpanzeeBubblesto tour in Japan, the media portrayed Jackson as an aspiringDisneycartoon character who befriended animals.It was also reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones ofJoseph Merrick(the \"Elephant Man\").In June 1987, theChicago Tribunereported Jackson's publicist bidding $1million for the skeleton to theLondon Hospital Medical Collegeon his behalf. The college maintained the skeleton was not for sale. DiLeo said Jackson had an \"absorbing interest\" in Merrick, \"purely based on his awareness of the ethical, medical and historical significance.\" In September 1986, using the oxygen chamber story, the British tabloidThe Sunbranded Jackson \"Wacko Jacko\", a name Jackson came to despise.The Atlanticnoted that the name \"Jacko\" has racist connotations, as it originates fromJacko Macacco, a monkey used inmonkey-baitingmatches at theWestminster Pitin the early 1820s, and \"Jacko\" was used inCockney slangto refer to monkeys in general. Jackson worked withGeorge LucasandFrancis Ford Coppolaon the 17-minute $30million3D filmCaptain EO, which ran from 1986 atDisneylandandEpcot, and later atTokyo DisneylandandEuro Disneyland.After having been removed in the late 1990s, it returned to the theme park for several years after Jackson's death.In 1987,Ebonyreported that Jackson had disassociated himself from the Jehovah's Witnesses.Katherine Jackson said this might have been because some Witnesses strongly opposed theThrillervideo,which Michael denounced in a Witness publication in 1984.In 2001, Jackson told an interviewer he was still a Jehovah's Witness. Bad, autobiography, and Neverland (1987–1990) Jackson's first album in five years,Bad(1987), was highly anticipated, with the industry expecting another major success.It became the first album to produce five US number-one singles: \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\", \"Bad\", \"The Way You Make Me Feel\", \"Man in the Mirror\", and \"Dirty Diana\". Another song, \"Smooth Criminal\", peaked at number seven.Badwon the 1988 Grammy for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical and the 1990Grammy Award for Best Music Video, Short Form for \"Leave Me Alone\".Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards in 1989 afterBadgenerated five number-one singles, became the first album to top the charts in 25 countries and the bestselling album worldwide in 1987 and 1988.By 2012, it had sold between 30 and 45million copies worldwide. TheBad World Tourran from September 12, 1987, to January 27, 1989.In Japan, the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570,000 people, nearly tripling the previous record for a single tour.The 504,000 people who attended seven sold-out shows atWembley Stadiumset a newGuinness World Record. In 1988, Jackson released his autobiography,Moonwalk, with input from Stephen Davis andJacqueline Kennedy Onassis.It sold 200,000 copies,and reached the top of theNew York Timesbestsellers list.Jackson discussed his childhood, the Jackson 5, and the abuse from his father.He attributed his changing facial appearance to three plastic surgeries, puberty, weight loss, a strict vegetarian diet, a change in hairstyle, and stage lighting.In June, Jackson was honored with the Grand VermeilMedal of the City of Parisby the then Mayor of ParisJacques Chiracduring his stay in the city as part of theBad World Tour.On July 20, Jackson became the firstcommonerin history to enter London'sGuildhallthrough the building's Royal Entrance.In October, Jackson released a film,Moonwalker, which featured live footage and short films starring Jackson andJoe Pesci. In the US it was releaseddirect-to-videoand became the bestselling video cassette in the country.TheRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) certified it as eight times Platinum in the US. In March 1988, Jackson purchased 2,700 acres (11 km2) of land nearSanta Ynez, California, to build a new home,Neverland Ranch, at a cost of $17million (equivalent to $44 million in 2023).He installed aFerris wheel, acarousel, a movie theater and a zoo.A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds.Shortly afterwards, he appeared in the first Western television advertisement in theSoviet Union. Jackson became known as the \"King of Pop\", a nickname that Jackson's publicists embraced.WhenElizabeth Taylorpresented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989, she called him \"the true king of pop, rock and soul.\"PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushdesignated him the White House's \"Artist of the Decade\".At the 38thBMI Awardsin 1990, Jackson was the first person to be honored with an award named after its recipient.From 1985 to 1990, Jackson donated $455,000 to theUnited Negro College Fund,and all profits from his single \"Man in the Mirror\" went to charity.His rendition of \"You Were There\" atSammy Davis Jr.'s 60th birthday celebration won Jackson a second Emmy nomination.Jackson was the bestselling artist of the 1980s. Dangerousand public social work (1991–1993) In March 1991, Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for $65million (equivalent to $145 million in 2023), arecord-breaking deal,beatingNeil Diamond's renewal contract withColumbia Records.In 1991, he released his eighth album,Dangerous, co-produced withTeddy Riley.It was certified eight times platinum in the US, and by 2018 had sold 32million copies worldwide.In the US, the first single, \"Black or White\", was the album's highest-charting song; it was number one on theBillboardHot 100 for seven weeks and achieved similar chart performances worldwide.The second single, \"Remember the Time\" peaked at number three on theBillboardHot 100 singles chart.At the end of 1992,Dangerouswas the bestselling album of the year worldwide and \"Black or White\" the bestselling single of the year worldwide at theBillboardMusic Awards.In 1993, he performed \"Remember the Time\" at theSoul Train Music Awardsin a chair, saying he twisted his ankle during dance rehearsals.In the UK, \"Heal the World\" made No. 2 on the charts in 1992. Jackson founded theHeal the World Foundationin 1992. The charity brought underprivileged children to Jackson's ranch to use the theme park rides, and sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war, poverty, and disease. That July, Jackson published his second book,Dancing the Dream,a collection of poetry. TheDangerous World Tourran between June 1992 and November 1993 and grossed$100 million(equivalent to $210 million in 2023); Jackson performed for over 3.5 million people in 70 concerts, all of which were outside the US.Part of the proceeds went to Heal the World Foundation.Jackson sold the broadcast rights of the tour toHBOfor $20million, a record-breaking deal that still stands. Following the death ofHIV/AIDSspokesperson and friendRyan White, Jackson pleaded with the Clinton administration atBill Clinton's inaugural galato give more money to HIV/AIDS charities and researchand performed \"Gone Too Soon\", a song dedicated to White, and \"Heal the World\" at the gala.Jackson visited Africa in early 1992; on his first stop in Gabon he was greeted by more than 100,000 people, some of them carrying signs that read \"Welcome Home Michael\",and was awarded an Officer of theNational Order of Meritfrom PresidentOmar Bongo.During his trip to Ivory Coast, Jackson drew larger crowds thanPope John Paul IIon his previous visits.He was crowned \"King Sani\" by a tribal chief in the Ivorian village ofKrindjabo, where he thanked the dignitaries in French and English, signed documents formalizing his kingship, and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial dances. In January 1993, Jackson performed at theSuper Bowl XXVII halftime showin Pasadena, California. TheNFLsought a big-name artist to keep ratings high during halftime following dwindling audience figures.With 133.4 million viewers, it was the first Super Bowl whose halftime show drew greater audience figures than the game.Jackson played \"Jam\", \"Billie Jean\", \"Black or White\", and \"Heal the World\".Dangerousrose 90 places in the US albums chart after the performance. Jackson gavea 90-minute interviewwithOprah Winfreyon February 10, 1993. He spoke of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood, and said that he often cried from loneliness. He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man, slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber, or bleached his skin, and stated for the first time that he had vitiligo. After the interview,Dangerousre-entered the US albums chart in the top 10, more than a year after its release.The interview itself becamethe most-watched television interview in United States historyto date, with more than 90 million viewers. In January 1993, Jackson won threeAmerican Music Awards: Favorite Pop/Rock Album (Dangerous), Favorite Soul/R&B Single (\"Remember the Time\"), and was the first to win the International Artist Award of Excellence.In February, he won the \"Living Legend Award\" at the35th Annual Grammy Awardsin Los Angeles.He attended the award ceremony withBrooke Shields.Dangerouswas nominated for Best Vocal Performance (for \"Black or White\"), Best R&B Vocal Performance (\"Jam\") and Best R&B Song (\"Jam\"), and Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley won the Grammy for Best Engineered – Non Classical. First child sexual abuse accusations and first marriage (1993–1995) In August 1993, Jackson was accused ofchild sexual abuseby a 13-year-old boy, Jordan Chandler, and his father, Evan Chandler.Jordan said he and Jackson had engaged in acts of kissing,masturbationandoral sex.While Jordan's mother initially told police that she did not believe Jackson had molested him, her position wavered a few days later.Evan was recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges, which Jackson used to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father trying to extort money.Jackson's older sister La Toya accused him of being a pedophile;she later retracted this, saying she had been forced into it by her abusive husband. Police raided Jackson's home in August and found two legal large-format art books featuring young boys playing, running and swimming in various states of undress.Jackson denied knowing of the books' content and claimed if they were there, someone had to have sent them to him and he did not open them.Jordan Chandler gave police a description of Jackson's genitals. A strip search was made, and the jurors felt the description was not a match.In January 1994, Jackson settled with the Chandlers out of court for a reported total sum of $23million.The police never pressed criminal charges.Citing a lack of evidence without Jordan's testimony, the state closed its investigation on September 22, 1994. Jackson had been takingpainkillersfor his reconstructive scalp surgeries, administered due to the Pepsi commercial accident in 1984, and became dependent on them to cope with the stress of the sexual abuse allegations.On November 12, 1993, Jackson canceled the remainder of the Dangerous World Tour due to health problems, stress from the allegations and painkiller addiction. He thanked his close friendElizabeth Taylorfor support, encouragement and counsel. The end of the tour concluded his sponsorship deal with Pepsi. In late 1993, Jackson proposed toLisa Marie Presley, the daughter of Elvis Presley, over the phone.They were married inLa Vega, Dominican Republic, in May 1994 by civil judge Hugo Francisco Álvarez Pérez.The tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a publicity stunt to deflect away from Jackson's sexual abuse allegations and jump-start Presley's career as a singer.Their marriage ended little more than a year later, and they separated in December 1995.Presley cited \"irreconcilable differences\" when filing for divorce the next month and only sought to reclaim her maiden name as her settlement.After the divorce, Judge Pérez said, \"They lasted longer than I thought they would. I gave them a year. They lasted a year and a half.\"Presley later said she and Jackson had attempted to reconcile intermittently for four years following their divorce, and that she had traveled the world to be with him. Jackson composed music for theSega Genesisvideo gameSonic the Hedgehog 3(1994), but left the project around the time the sexual abuse allegations surfaced and went uncredited.TheSega Technical Institutedirector Roger Hector and theSonicco-creatorNaoto Ohshimasaid that Jackson's involvement was terminated and his music reworked following the allegations.However, Jackson's musical directorBrad Buxerand other members of Jackson's team said Jackson went uncredited because he was unhappy with how the Genesis replicated his music. HIStory, second marriage, fatherhood andBlood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix(1995–1997) In June 1995, Jackson released the double albumHIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I. The first disc,HIStory Begins, is agreatest hits album(reissued in 2001 asGreatest Hits: HIStory, Volume I). The second disc,HIStory Continues, contains 13 original songs and two cover versions. The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for eight million shipments in the US.It is the bestselling multi-disc album of all time, with 20million copies (40million units) sold worldwide.HIStoryreceived a Grammy nomination forAlbum of the Year.TheNew York Timesreviewed it as \"the testimony of a musician whose self-pity now equals his talent\". The first single fromHIStorywas \"Scream/Childhood\". \"Scream\", a duet with Jackson's youngest sister Janet, protests the media's treatment of Jackson during the 1993 child abuse allegations against him. The single reached number five on theBillboardHot 100,and received a Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals\".The second single, \"You Are Not Alone\", holds the Guinness world record for the first song to debut at number one on theBillboardHot 100 chart.It received a Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Vocal Performance\" in 1995. In 1995 theAnti-Defamation Leagueand other groups complained that \"Jew me, sue me, everybody do me/ Kick me,kikeme, don't you black or white me\", the original lyrics of \"They Don't Care About Us\", wereantisemitic. Jackson released a revised version of the song. In late 1995, Jackson was admitted to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance, caused by a stress-relatedpanic attack.In November, Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony's music publishing division, creatingSony/ATV Music Publishing. He retained ownership of half the company, earning $95million up front (equivalent to $190 million in 2023) as well as therights to more songs. \"Earth Song\" was the third single released fromHIStory, and topped theUK Singles Chartfor six weeks over Christmas 1995.It became the 87th-bestselling single in the UK.At the1996 Brit Awards, Jackson's performance of \"Earth Song\" was disrupted byPulpsingerJarvis Cocker, who was protesting what Cocker saw as Jackson's \"Christ-like\" persona. Jackson said the stage invasion was \"disgusting and cowardly\". In 1996, Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form, for \"Scream\" and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist.In July 1996, Jackson performed forSultan Hassanal Bolkiah's fiftieth birthday atJerudong Park Amphitheater, which was specifically built for that birthday concert.Jackson was reportedly paid $17 million (equivalent to $33 million in 2023).Jackson promotedHIStorywith theHIStory World Tour, from September 7, 1996, to October 15, 1997. He performed 82 concerts in five continents, 35 countries and 58 cities to over 4.5million fans, his most attended tour. It grossed$165 million.During the tour, in Sydney, Australia, Jackson marriedDebbie Rowe, a dermatology assistant, who was six months pregnant with his first child. Michael Joseph Jackson Jr. (commonly known as Prince) was born on February 13, 1997. His sisterParis-Michael Katherine Jacksonwas born on April 3, 1998.Jackson and Rowe divorced in 2000, Rowe conceded custody of the children, with an $8million settlement (equivalent to $14.6 million in 2023).In 2004, after thesecond child abuse allegations against Jackson, she returned to court to reclaim custody. The suit was settled in 2006. In 1997, Jackson releasedBlood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, which contained remixes of singles fromHIStoryand five new songs. Worldwide sales stand at6 millioncopies, making it thebest-selling remix album. It reached number one in the UK, as did the single \"Blood on the Dance Floor\".In the US, the album reached number 24 and was certified platinum. Label dispute andInvincible(1997–2002) From October 1997 to September 2001, Jackson worked on his tenth solo album,Invincible, which cost$30 million(equivalent to $51.6 million in 2023) to record, making it themost expensive albumof all time.In June 1999, Jackson joinedLuciano Pavarottifor aWar Childbenefit concert inModena, Italy. The show raised a million dollars for refugees of theKosovo War, and additional funds for the children ofGuatemala.Later that month, Jackson organized a series of \"Michael Jackson & Friends\" benefit concerts in Germany andKorea. Other artists involved includedSlash,The Scorpions,Boyz II Men,Luther Vandross,Mariah Carey,A. R. Rahman,Prabhu DevaSundaram,Shobana,Andrea Bocelliand Luciano Pavarotti. The proceeds went to theNelson Mandela Children's Fund, theRed CrossandUNESCO.In 1999, Jackson was presented with the \"Outstanding Humanitarian Award\" atBollywood Movie Awardsin New York City where he notedMahatma Gandhito have been an inspiration for him.From August 1999 to 2000, he lived in New York City at 4East 74th Street.At the turn of the century, Jackson was awarded with the Artist of the 1980s Decade Award at the27th American Music Awards,and the Best-Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium Award at the 12ndWorld Music Awards.In 2000,Guinness World Recordsrecognized him for supporting 39 charities, more than any other entertainer. In September 2001,two concertswere held at Madison Square Garden to mark Jackson's 30th year as a solo artist. Jackson performed with his brothers for the first time since 1984. The show also featuredMýa,Usher,Whitney Houston,Destiny's Child,Monica,Liza Minnelliand Slash. The first show was marred by technical lapses, and the crowd booed a speech byMarlon Brando.45million people watched the television broadcast of the shows in November according toNielsen Media Research.After theSeptember 11 attacks(in which Jackson narrowly avoided death by oversleeping and missing a scheduled meeting at theWorld Trade Center), Jackson helped organize theUnited We Stand: What More Can I Givebenefit concert atRobert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadiumin Washington, D.C., on October 21, 2001. Jackson performed \"What More Can I Give\" as the finale. The release ofInvinciblewas preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label, Sony Music Entertainment. Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him in the early 2000s, after which he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and keep the profits, but clauses in the contract set the revert date years into the future. Jackson sought an early exit from his contract.Invinciblewas released on October 30, 2001. It was Jackson's first full-length album in six years, and the last album of original material he released in his lifetime.It debuted at number one in 13 countries, and went on to sell eightmillion copies worldwide, receiving double-platinum certification in the US. On January 9, 2002, Jackson won his 22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century.Later that year, an anonymoussurrogate mothergave birth to his third child, Prince Michael Jackson II (nicknamed \"Blanket\"), who had been conceived byartificial insemination.On November 20, Jackson briefly held Blanket over the railing of his Berlin hotel room, four stories above ground level, prompting widespread criticism in the media. Jackson apologized for the incident, calling it \"a terrible mistake\".On January 22, promoter Marcel Avram filed a breach of contract complaint against Jackson for failing to perform two planned 1999 concerts.In March, a Santa Maria jury ordered Jackson to pay Avram $5.3million.On December 18, 2003, Jackson's attorneys dropped all appeals on the verdict and settled the lawsuit for an undisclosed amount. On April 24, 2002, Jackson performed atApollo Theater. The concert was a fundraiser for the Democratic National Committee and former President Bill Clinton.The money collected would be used to encourage citizens to vote. It raised $2.5million.The concert was calledMichael Jackson: Live at the Apolloand was one of Jackson's final on-stage performances. In July 2002, atAl Sharpton'sNational Action Networkin Harlem, Jackson called the Sony Music chairmanTommy Mottola\"a racist, and very, very, very devilish\", and accused him of exploiting black artists for his own gain. The accusation prompted Sharpton to form a coalition investigating whether Mottola exploited black artists.Jackson charged that Mottola had called his colleagueIrv Gottia \"fatnigger\".Sony issued a statement calling the accusations \"ludicrous, spiteful, and hurtful\" and said Mottola had championed Jackson's career for years.Sony refused to renew Jackson's contract and said that a$25 millionpromotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the US forInvincible. Documentary,Number Ones, second child abuse allegations and acquittal (2002–2005) Beginning in May 2002, a documentary film crew led byMartin Bashirfollowed Jackson for several months.The documentary, broadcast in February 2003 asLiving with Michael Jackson, showed Jackson holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a twelve-year-old boy.He said that he saw nothing wrong with having sleepovers with minors and sharing his bed and bedroom with various people, which aroused controversy. He insisted that the sleepovers were not sexual and that his words had been misunderstood. In October 2003, Jackson received theKey to the CityofLas Vegasfrom MayorOscar Goodman.On November 18, 2003, Sony releasedNumber Ones, agreatest hits compilation. It was certified five times platinum by the RIAA, and ten times platinum in the UK, for shipments of at least 3million units. On December 18, 2003, Santa Barbara authorities charged Jackson with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of intoxicating a minor withalcoholic drinks.Jackson denied the allegations and pleaded not guilty.ThePeople v. Jacksontrial began on January 31, 2005, inSanta Maria, California, and lasted until the end of May. Jackson found the experience stressful and it affected his health. If convicted, he would have faced up to twenty years in prison.On June 13, 2005, Jackson was acquitted on all counts.FBI files on Jackson, released in 2009, revealed the FBI's role in the 2005 trial and the 1993 allegations, and showed that the FBI found no evidence of criminal conduct on Jackson's behalf. Final years, financial problems,Thriller 25and This Is It (2005–2009) After the trial, Jackson became reclusive.In June 2005, he moved toBahrainas a guest ofSheikh Abdullah.In early 2006, it was announced that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain startup, Two Seas Records. Nothing came of the deal, and the Two Seas CEO,Guy Holmes, later said it was never finalized.Holmes also found that Jackson was on the verge of bankruptcy and was involved in 47 ongoing lawsuits.By September 2006, Jackson was no longer affiliated with Two Seas. In April 2006, Jackson agreed to use a piece of his ATV catalog stake, then worth about $1billion, ascollateralagainst his $270million worth of loans fromBank of America. Bank of America had sold the loans toFortress Investments, an investment company that buys distressed loans, the year before. As part of the agreement, Fortress Investments provided Jackson a new loan of $300million with reduced interest payments (equivalent to $450 million in 2023). Sony Music would have the option to buy half of his stake, or about 25% of the catalog, at a set price. Jackson's financial managers had urged him to shed part of his stake to avoid bankruptcy.The main house at Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost-cutting measure, while Jackson lived in Bahrain at the hospitality of Abdullah.At least thirty of Jackson's employees had not been paid on time and were owed $306,000 in back wages. Jackson was ordered to pay $100,000 in penalties.Jackson never returned to Neverland after his acquittal. In mid-2006, Jackson moved toGrouse Lodge, a residential recording studio nearRosemount, County Westmeath, Ireland. There, he began work on a new album with the American producerswill.i.amandRodney Jenkins.That November, Jackson invited anAccess Hollywoodcamera crew into the studio in Westmeath.On November 15, Jackson briefly joined in on a performance of \"We Are the World\" at theWorld Music Awardsin London, his last public performance, and accepted the Diamond Award for sales of100 millionrecords.He returned to the US in December, settling in Las Vegas. That month, he attendedJames Brown's funeral inAugusta, Georgia, where he gave a eulogy calling Brown his greatest inspiration. In 2007, Jackson and Sony bought another music publishing company,Famous MusicLLC, formerly owned byViacom. The deal gave Jackson the rights to songs byEminemandBeck, among others.In a brief interview, Jackson said he had no regrets about his career despite his problems and \"deliberate attempts to hurt \".That March, Jackson visited a US Army post in Japan,Camp Zama, to greet more than 3,000 troops and their families.As of September, Jackson was still working on his next album, which he never completed. In 2008, for the 25th anniversary ofThriller, Jackson and Sony releasedThriller 25, with two remixes released as singles: \"The Girl Is Mine 2008\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008\".For Jackson's 50th birthday, Sony BMG released a series of greatest hits albums,King of Pop,with different tracklists for different regions.That July, Fortress Investments threatened toforecloseon Neverland Ranch, which Jackson had used as collateral for his loans. Fortress sold Jackson's debts toColony CapitalLLC.In November, Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC, a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC. The deal earned him$35 million.In 2009, Jackson arranged to sell a collection of his memorabilia of more than 1,000 items throughJulien's Auction House, but canceled the auction in April. In March 2009, amid speculation about his finances and health, Jackson announced a series of comeback concerts,This Is It, at a press conference atthe O2 Arena.The shows were to be his first major concerts since the HIStory World Tour in 1997. Jackson suggested he would retire after the shows. The initial plan was for ten concerts in London, followed by shows in Paris, New York City and Mumbai. Randy Phillips, the president and chief executive ofAEG Live, predicted the first ten dates would earn Jackson £50million. The London residency was increased to fifty dates after record-breaking ticket sales; more than one million were sold in less than two hours.The concerts were to run from July 13, 2009, to March 6, 2010. Jackson moved to Los Angeles, where he rehearsed in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of the choreographerKenny Ortega, whom he had worked with during his previous tours. Rehearsals took place atthe Forumand theStaples Centerowned by AEG.By this point, Jackson's debt had grown to almost $500 million. By the time of his death, he was three or four months behind payments on his home in San Fernando Valley.The Independentreported that Jackson planned a string of further ventures designed to recoup his debts, including a world tour, a new album, films, a museum and a casino. Death On June 25, 2009, less than three weeks before his concert residency was due to begin in London, with all concerts sold out, Jackson died from cardiac arrest, caused by apropofolandbenzodiazepineoverdose.Conrad Murray, his personal physician, had given Jackson various medications to help him sleep at his rented mansion inHolmby Hills, Los Angeles. Paramedics received a911call at 12:21 pmPacific time(19:21 UTC) and arrived at the property four minutes later.Jackson was not breathing andCPRwas performed.Resuscitation efforts continued en route toRonald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for more than an hour after Jackson's arrival there, but were unsuccessful,and Jackson was pronounced dead at 2:26 pm Pacific time (21:26 UTC).Murray had administeredpropofol,lorazepam, andmidazolam;Jackson's death was caused by a propofol overdose. News of his death spread quickly online, causing websites to slow down andcrashfrom user overload,and it put unprecedented strainon many services and websites includingGoogle,AOL Instant Messenger,Twitter and Wikipedia.Overall,web trafficrose by between 11% and 20%.MTV andBETairedmarathonsof Jackson's music videos,and Jackson specials aired on television stations around the world.MTV briefly returned to its original music video format,and they aired hours of Jackson's music videos, with live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities. Memorial service Jackson's memorial was held on July 7, 2009, at theStaples Centerin Los Angeles, preceded by a private family service atForest Lawn Memorial Park's Hall of Liberty. Over 1.6million fans applied for tickets to the memorial; the 8,750 recipients were drawn at random, and each received two tickets.The memorial service was one of the most watched events instreaminghistory,with an estimated US audience of 31.1millionand a worldwide audience of an estimated 2.5 to 3 billion. Mariah Carey,Stevie Wonder,Lionel Richie,Jennifer Hudson, andShaheen Jafargholiperformed at the memorial, andSmokey RobinsonandQueen Latifahgave eulogies.Al Sharptonreceived a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson's children: \"Wasn't nothing strange about your daddy. It was strange what your daddy had to deal with. But he dealt with it anyway.\"Jackson's 11-year-old daughterParis Katherine, speaking publicly for the first time, wept as she addressed the crowd.Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer.On September 3, 2009, the body of Jackson was entombed atForest Lawn Memorial ParkinGlendale, California. Criminal investigation and prosecution of Conrad Murray In August 2009, theLos Angeles County Coronerruled that Jackson's death was ahomicide.Law enforcement officialscharged Murraywithinvoluntary manslaughteron February 8, 2010.In late 2011, he was found guilty of involuntary manslaughterand held without bail to await sentencing.Murray was sentenced to four years in prison, but was released after one year and eleven months. Posthumous sales At the2009 American Music Awards, Jackson won four posthumous awards, including two for his compilation albumNumber Ones, bringing his total American Music Awards to 26.In the year after his death, more than 16.1million copies of Jackson's albums were sold in the US alone, and 35million copies were sold worldwide, more than any other artist in 2009.He became the first artist to sell one millionmusic downloadsin a week, with 2.6million song downloads.Thriller,Number OnesandThe Essential Michael Jacksonbecame the first catalog albums to outsell any new album.Jackson also became the first artist to have four of the top-20 bestselling albums in a single year in the US.Within the year following his death, Jackson sold over 75 million records worldwide.By the end of 2013, Jackson had sold over 50 million albums worldwide since his death. Following the surge in sales, in March 2010, Sony Music signed a $250million deal (equivalent to $350 million in 2023) with theJackson estateto extend their distribution rights to Jackson's back catalog until at least 2017; it had been due to expire in 2015. It was themost expensive music contractfor a single artist in history.They agreed to release ten albums of previously unreleased material and new collections of released work.The deal was extended in 2017.That July, a Los Angeles court awardedQuincy Jones$9.4million of disputed royalty payments forOff the Wall,Thriller, andBad.In July 2018, Sony/ATV bought the estate's stake in EMI for $287.5million. In 2014, Jackson became the first artist to have a top-ten single in theBillboardHot 100 in five different decades.The following year,Thrillerbecame the first album to be certified for 30million shipments by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA).A year later, it was certified 33× platinum afterSoundscanadded streams and audio downloads to album certifications. In February 2024, Sony Music acquired half of Jackson's publishing rights and recording masters for an estimated $600million. The deal includes assets from Jackson's Mijac publishing catalog, but excludes royalties from several Jackson-related productions, including theMJBroadway musical and theMichaelbiopic. The deal is possibly the largest transaction ever for a single musician's work. Posthumous releases and productions Jackson's posthumous releases and productions are administered by theestate of Michael Jackson, which owns Jackson's trademarks and rights to his name, image and likeness.The first posthumous Jackson song, \"This Is It\", co-written in the 1980s withPaul Anka, was released in October 2009. The surviving Jackson brothers reunited to record backing vocals.It was followed by a documentary film about the rehearsals for the canceled This Is It tour,Michael Jackson's This Is It,anda compilation album.Despite a limited two-week engagement, the film became the highest-grossing documentary or concert film ever, with earnings of more than$260 millionworldwide.Jackson's estate received 90% of the profits.In late 2010, Sony released the first posthumous album,Michael, and the lead single \"Hold My Hand\", a duet withAkon. The Jackson collaborator will.i.am expressed disgust, saying that Jackson would not have approved the release. The video game developerUbisoftreleased amusic gamefeaturing Jackson for the 2010 holiday season,Michael Jackson: The Experience. It was among the first games to useKinectandPlayStation Move, the motion-detecting camera systems forXbox 360andPlayStation 3.In April 2011,Mohamed Al-Fayed, the chairman ofFulham Football Club, unveiled astatue of Jacksonoutside the club stadium,Craven Cottage.It was moved to theNational Football Museumin Manchester in May 2014,and removed from display in March 2019 following renewed sexual assault allegations. In October 2011, the theater companyCirque du SoleillaunchedMichael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour,a $57-million production,in Montreal, with a permanent showresidentin Las Vegas.A larger and more theatrical Cirque show,Michael Jackson: One,designed for residency at theMandalay Bayresort in Las Vegas, opened on May 23, 2013, in a renovated theater. In 2012, in an attempt to end a family dispute, Jackson's brother Jermaine retracted his signature on a public letter criticizing executors of Jackson's estate and his mother's advisors over the legitimacy of his brother's will.T.J. Jackson, the son of Tito Jackson, was given co-guardianship of Michael Jackson's children after false reports of Katherine Jackson going missing.Xscape, an album of unreleased material, was released on May 13, 2014.The lead single, a duet between Jackson andJustin Timberlake, \"Love Never Felt So Good\", reached number 9 on the USBillboardHot 100, making Jackson the first artist to have a top-10 single on the chart in five different decades. Later in 2014,Queenreleased a duet recorded with Jackson in the 1980s.A compilation album,Scream, was released on September 29, 2017.Ajukebox musical,MJ the Musical, premiered on Broadway in 2022.Myles Frostwon the 2022Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musicalfor his portrayal of Jackson.On November 18, 2022, Epic released a40th-anniversary edition reissue ofThriller.A biographical film based on Jackson's life,Michael, directed byAntoine Fuqua, is scheduled for April 2025.Jackson is played by his nephewJaafar Jackson.Deadline Hollywoodreported that the film \"will not shy away from the controversies of Jackson's life\".Since Jackson's death his estate has grossed 2 Billion in ticket revenue from theMusical production,Documentaryand two Cirque shows. Posthumous child sexual abuse allegations In 2013, choreographerWade Robsonfiled a lawsuit alleging that Jackson had sexually abused him for seven years, beginning when he was seven years old (1989–1996).In 2014, a case was filed by James Safechuck, alleging similar sexual abuse over a four-year period starting when Safechuck was ten (1988–1992).Both had previously testified in Jackson's defense during the 1993 allegations; Robson did so again in 2005.In 2015, Robson's case against Jackson's estate was dismissed as it had been filed too late. Safechuck's claim was also time-barred. In 2017, it was ruled that Jackson's corporations could not be held accountable for his alleged past actions.The rulings were appealed. On October 20, 2020, Safechuck's lawsuit against Jackson's corporations was again dismissed. The judge ruled that there was no evidence that Safechuck had had a relationship with Jackson's corporation, nor was it proven that there was a special relationship between the two.On April 26, 2021, Robson's case was dismissed because of a lack of supporting evidence that the defendants exercised control over Jackson. Robson and Safechuck's allegations were the subject of the documentary filmLeaving Neverland, released in March 2019.Radio stations in New Zealand, Canada, the UK and the Netherlands removed Jackson's music from their playlists.Jackson's family condemned the film as a \"public lynching\",and the Jackson estate released a statement calling the film a \"tabloid character assassination endured in life, and now in death\".Close associates of Jackson, such asCorey Feldman,Aaron Carter, Brett Barnes, andMacaulay Culkin, defended Jackson in the wake of the documentary's release, saying that Jackson had never molested them. Documentaries such asSquare One: Michael Jackson,Neverland Firsthand: Investigating the Michael Jackson DocumentaryandMichael Jackson: Chase the Truth, presented information countering the claims suggested byLeaving Neverland.Jackson's album sales increased following the documentary screenings.Billboardsenior editor Gail Mitchell said she and a colleague interviewed about thirty music executives who believed Jackson's legacy could withstand the controversy.In late 2019, some New Zealand and Canadian radio stations re-added Jackson's music to their playlists, citing \"positive listener survey results\". On February 21, 2019, the Jackson estate sued HBO for breaching a non-disparagement clause from a 1992 contract. The suit sought to compel HBO to participate in a non-confidential arbitration that could result in $100million or more in damages awarded to the estate.HBO said they did not breach a contract and filed an anti-SLAPPmotion against the estate. In September 2019, JudgeGeorge H. Wudenied HBO's motion to dismiss the case, allowing the Jackson estate to arbitrate.HBO appealed, but in December 2020 the appeals court affirmed Wu's ruling. In 2020, a state law passed in California which granted plaintiffs in child sex abuse cases an additional period to file lawsuits. In October 2020 and again in April 2021, theLos Angeles County Superior Courtruled that MJJ Productions Inc. and MJJ Ventures Inc. employees were not legally obligated to protect the two men from Jackson. In August 2023, California's Second District Court of Appeal overturned the ruling, and the case was approved to move forward totrial court. Legacy Jackson has been referred to as the \"King of Pop\" for having transformed the art of music videos and paving the way for modern pop music. For much of Jackson's career, he had an unparalleled worldwide influence over the younger generation.His influence extended beyond the music industry; he impacted dance, led fashion trends, and raised awareness for global affairs.Jackson's music and videos fostered racial diversity in MTV's roster and steered its focus from rock to pop music and R&B, leading to the discontinuation of thealbum-oriented rockformat previously dominant on the channel. In songs such as \"Black or White\", \"Heal the World\", \"Earth Song\" and \"They Don't Care About Us\", Jackson's music emphasizedracial integrationand environmentalism and protested injustice.He is recognized as the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time byGuinness World Records.Jackson has also appeared onRolling Stone's lists of the Greatest Singers of All Time.He is considered one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century,and his contributions to music, dance, and fashion, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades. Trying to trace Michael Jackson's influence on the pop stars that followed him is like trying to trace the influence of oxygen and gravity. So vast, far-reaching and was his impact—particularly in the wake ofThriller's colossal and heretofore unmatched commercial success—that there weren't a whole lot of artists whoweren'ttrying to mimic some of the Jackson formula. Danyel Smith, chief content officer of Vibe Media Group and the editor-in-chief ofVibe,described Jackson as \"the greatest star\".Steve Huey of AllMusic called him \"an unstoppable juggernaut, possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at will: an instantly identifiable voice, eye-popping dance moves, stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power\".BET said Jackson was \"quite simply the greatest entertainer of all time\" whose \"sound, style, movement and legacy continues to inspire artists of all genres\". In 1984,Timepop criticJay Cockswrote that \"Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles. He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley. He just may be the most popular black singer ever.\" He described Jackson as a \"star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style, and color too.\"In 2003,The Daily TelegraphwriterTom Utleydescribed Jackson as \"extremely important\" and a \"genius\".At Jackson's memorial service on July 7, 2009, Motown founder Berry Gordy called Jackson \"the greatest entertainer that ever lived\".In a June 28, 2009Baltimore Sunarticle, Jill Rosen wrote that Jackson's legacy influenced fields including sound, dance, fashion, music videos and celebrity. Pop criticRobert Christgauwrote that Jackson's work from the 1970s to the early 1990s showed \"immense originality, adaptability, and ambition\" with \"genius beats, hooks, arrangements, and vocals (though not lyrics)\", music that \"will stand forever as a reproach to the puritanical notion that pop music is slick or shallow and that's the end of it\". During the 1990s, as Jackson lost control of his \"troubling life\", his music suffered and began to shape \"an arc not merely of promise fulfilled and outlived, but of something approaching tragedy: a phenomenally ebullient child star tops himself like none before, only to transmute audibly into a lost weirdo\".In the 2000s, Christgau wrote: \"Jackson's obsession with fame, his grotesque life magnified by his grotesque wealth, are such an offense to rock aesthetes that the fact that he's a great musician is now often forgotten\". Philanthropy and humanitarian work Jackson is widely regarded as having been a prolific philanthropist and humanitarian.Jackson's early charitable work has been described byThe Chronicle of Philanthropyas having \"paved the way for the current surge in celebrity philanthropy\",and by theLos Angeles Timesas having \"set the standard for generosity for other entertainers\". By some estimates, he donated over $500 million, not accounting for inflation, to various charities over the course of his life.In 1992, Jackson established hisHeal the World Foundation, to which he donated several million dollars in revenue from hisDangerous World Tour. Jackson's philanthropic activities went beyond just monetary donations. He also performed atbenefit concerts, some of which he arranged. He gifted tickets for his regular concert performances to groups that assist underprivileged children. He visited sick children in hospitals around the world. He opened his own home for visits by underprivileged or sick children and provided special facilities and nurses if the children needed that level of care. Jackson donated valuable, personal and professional paraphernalia for numerous charity auctions. He received various awards and accolades for his philanthropic work, including two bestowed bypresidents of the United States. The vast breadth of Jackson's philanthropic work has earned recognition in theGuinness World Records. On May 14, 1984, PresidentRonald Reagangave Jackson an award recognizing his support of alcohol and drug abuse charities,and in recognition of his support for theAd Council's and theNational Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Drunk Driving Prevention campaign. Jackson allowed the campaign to use \"Beat It\" for its public service announcements. Artistry Influences Jackson was influenced by musicians includingJames Brown,Little Richard,Jackie Wilson,Diana Ross,Fred Astaire,Sammy Davis Jr.,Gene Kelly,andDavid Ruffin.Little Richard had a substantial influence on Jackson,but Brown was his greatest inspiration. When Jackson was a small child, his mother would wake him whenever Brown appeared on television. Jackson described being \"mesmerized\". Jackson's vocal technique was influenced by Diana Ross; his use of theooohinterjection from a young age was something Ross had used on many of her songs withthe Supremes.She was a mother figure to him, and he often watched her rehearse.He said he had learned a lot from watching how she moved and sang, and that she had encouraged him to have confidence in himself. ChoreographerDavid Winters, who met Jackson while choreographing the 1971 Diana Ross TV specialDiana!, said that Jackson watched the musicalWest Side Storyalmost every week, and it was his favorite film; he paid tribute to it in \"Beat It\" and the \"Bad\" video. Vocal style Jackson sang from childhood, and over time his voice and vocal style changed. Between 1971 and 1975, his voice descended from boysopranoto lyrictenor.He was known for his vocal range.With the arrival ofOff the Wallin the late 1970s, Jackson's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded;Rolling Stonecompared his vocals to the \"breathless, dreamy stutter\" of Stevie Wonder, and wrote that \"Jackson's feathery-timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful. It slides smoothly into a startlingfalsettothat's used very daringly.\"By the time of 1982'sThriller,Rolling Stonewrote that Jackson was singing in a \"fully adult voice\" that was \"tinged by sadness\". The turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective albumDangerous.The New York Timesnoted that on some tracks, \"he gulps for breath, his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper, hissing through clenched teeth\" and he had a \"wretched tone\". When singing of brotherhood or self-esteem the musician would return to \"smooth\" vocals.OfInvincible,Rolling Stonewrote that, at 43, Jackson still performed \"exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies\".Joseph Vogelnotes Jackson's ability to use non-verbal sounds to express emotion.Neil McCormickwrote that Jackson's unorthodox singing style \"was original and utterly distinctive\". Musicianship Jackson had no formal music training and could not read or writemusic notation. He is credited for playing guitar, keyboard, and drums, but was not proficient in them.When composing, he recorded ideas bybeatboxingand imitating instruments vocally.Describing the process, he said: \"I'll just sing the bass part into the tape recorder. I'll take that bass lick and put the chords of the melody over the bass lick and that's what inspires the melody.\" The engineer Robert Hoffman recalled that after Jackson came in with a song he had written overnight, Jackson sang every note of every chord to a guitar player. Hoffman also remembered Jackson singing string arrangements part by part into a cassette recorder. Dance Jackson danced from a young age as part of the Jackson 5,and incorporated dance extensively in his performances and music videos.According to Sanjoy Roy ofThe Guardian, Jackson would \"flick and retract his limbs like switchblades, or snap out of a tornado spin into a perfectly poised toe-stand\".Themoonwalk, taught to him byJeffrey Daniel,was Jackson's signature dance move and one of the most famous of the 20th century.Jackson is credited for coining the name \"moonwalk\" for this street dance move, previously known as the \"backslide\".His other moves included therobot,crotch grab, and the \"anti-gravity\" lean of the \"Smooth Criminal\" video. Themes and genres Jackson explored genres including pop,soul,rhythm and blues,funk,rock,disco,post-disco,dance-popandnew jack swing.Steve Huey ofAllMusicwrote thatThrillerrefined the strengths ofOff the Wall; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive, while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful.Its tracks included the ballads \"The Lady in My Life\", \"Human Nature\", and \"The Girl Is Mine\",the funk pieces \"Billie Jean\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\",and the disco set \"Baby Be Mine\" and \"P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)\". WithOff the Wall, Jackson's \"vocabulary of grunts, squeals, hiccups, moans, and asides\" vividly showed his maturation into an adult,Robert Christgauwrote inChristgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies(1981). The album's title track suggested to the critic a parallel between Jackson andStevie Wonder's \"oddball\" music personas: \"Since childhood his main contact with the real world has been on stage and in bed.\"WithThriller, Christopher Connelly ofRolling Stonecommented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme ofparanoiaand darker imagery.AllMusic'sStephen Thomas Erlewinenoted this on the songs \"Billie Jean\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\".In \"Billie Jean\", Jackson depicts an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered her child,and in \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\" he argues against gossip and the media.\"Beat It\" decried gang violence in a homage toWest Side Story, and was Jackson's first successful rock cross-over piece, according to Huey.He observed that \"Thriller\" began Jackson's interest with the theme of thesupernatural, a topic he revisited in subsequent years. In 1985, Jackson co-wrote the charity anthem \"We Are the World\"; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona. InBad, Jackson's concept of the predatory lover is seen on the rock song \"Dirty Diana\".The lead single \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\" is a traditional love ballad, and \"Man in the Mirror\" is a ballad of confession and resolution. \"Smooth Criminal\" is an evocation of bloody assault, rape and likely murder.AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states thatDangerouspresents Jackson as a paradoxical person.The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing, including songs like \"Jam\" and \"Remember the Time\". It was the first Jackson album in which social ills became a primary theme; \"Why You Wanna Trip on Me\", for example, protests world hunger, AIDS, homelessness and drugs.Dangerouscontains sexually charged songs such as \"In the Closet\". The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire. The second half includes introspective, pop-gospel anthems such as \"Will You Be There\", \"Heal the World\" and \"Keep the Faith\".In the ballad \"Gone Too Soon\", Jackson gives tribute to Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS. HIStorycreates an atmosphere of paranoia.In the new jack swing-funk rock tracks \"Scream\" and \"Tabloid Junkie\", and the R&B ballad \"You Are Not Alone\", Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels, and directs his anger at the media.In the introspective ballad \"Stranger in Moscow\", Jackson laments his \"fall from grace\"; \"Earth Song\", \"Childhood\", \"Little Susie\" and \"Smile\" are operatic pop songs.In \"D.S.\", Jackson attacks lawyerThomas W. Sneddon Jr., who had prosecuted him in both child sexual abuse cases; he describes Sneddon as a white supremacist who wanted to \"get my ass, dead or alive\".Invincibleincludes urban soul tracks such as \"Cry\" and \"The Lost Children\", ballads such as \"Speechless\", \"Break of Dawn\", and \"Butterflies\", and mixes hip hop, pop, and R&B in \"2000 Watts\", \"Heartbreaker\" and \"Invincible\". Music videos and choreography Jackson released \"Thriller\", a 14-minute music video directed byJohn Landis, in 1983.Thezombie-themed video \"defined music videos and broke racial barriers\" onMTV, which had launched two years earlier.BeforeThriller, Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV, allegedly because he was African American.Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing \"Billie Jean\" and later \"Beat It\", which led to a lengthy partnership with Jackson, and helped other black music artists gain recognition.The popularity of his videos on MTV helped the relatively new channel's viewing figures, and MTV's focus shifted toward pop and R&B.His performance onMotown 25: Yesterday, Today, Foreverchanged the scope of live stage shows, making it acceptable for artists to lip-sync to music video on stage.The choreography inThrillerhas been copied inIndian filmsandprisons in the Philippines.Thrillermarked an increase in scale for music videos, and was named the most successful music video ever by theGuinness World Records. In \"Bad\"'s 19-minute video—directed byMartin Scorsese—Jackson used sexual imagery and choreography, and touched his chest, torso and crotch. When asked by Winfrey in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch, he said it was spontaneously compelled by the music.Timemagazine described the \"Bad\" video as \"infamous\". It featuredWesley Snipes; Jackson's later videos often featured famous cameo roles.For the \"Smooth Criminal\" video, Jackson experimented with leaning forward at a 45-degree angle, beyond the performer's center of gravity. To accomplish this live, Jackson and designers developed a special shoe to lock the performer's feet to the stage, allowing them to lean forward. They were grantedU.S. patent 5,255,452for the device.The video for \"Leave Me Alone\" was not officially released in the US, but in 1989 was nominated for threeBillboardMusic Video Awardsand won a Golden Lion Award for its special effects. It won a Grammy forBest Music Video, Short Form. He received theMTV Video Vanguard Awardin 1988; in 2001 the award was renamed in his honor.The \"Black or White\" video simultaneously premiered on November 14, 1991, in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500million people, the largest audience ever for a music video at the time.Along with Jackson, it featuredMacaulay Culkin,Peggy Lipton, andGeorge Wendt. It helped introducemorphingto music videos.It was controversial for scenes in which Jackson rubs his crotch, vandalizes cars, and throws a garbage can through a storefront. He apologized and removed the final scene of the video. \"In the Closet\" featuredNaomi Campbellin a courtship dance with Jackson.\"Remember the Time\" was set inancient Egypt, and featuredEddie Murphy,Iman, andMagic Johnson.The video for \"Scream\", directed byMark Romanekand production designer Tom Foden, gained a record 11MTV Video Music AwardNominations, and won \"Best Dance Video\", \"Best Choreography\", and \"Best Art Direction\".The song and its video are Jackson's response to being accused of child molestation in 1993.A year later, it won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form. It has been reported as themost expensive music video ever made, at $7million;Romanek has contradicted this.The \"Earth Song\" video was nominated for the 1997 Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form. Michael Jackson's Ghosts,a short film written by Jackson andStephen Kingand directed byStan Winston, premiered at the 1996Cannes Film Festival. At over 38 minutes long, it held the Guinness world record for the longest music video until 2013, when it was eclipsed by the video for thePharrell Williamssong \"Happy\".The 2001 video for \"You Rock My World\" lasts over 13 minutes, was directed byPaul Hunter, and featuresChris TuckerandMarlon Brando.It won anNAACP Image Awardfor Outstanding Music Video in 2002. In December 2009, theLibrary of Congressselected \"Thriller\" as the only music video to be preserved in theNational Film Registry, as a work of \"enduring importance to American culture\".Huey wrote that Jackson transformed the music video into an artform and a promotional tool through complex story lines, dance routines, special effects and famous cameos, while breaking down racial barriers. Honors and awards Jackson is one of thebest-selling music artistsin history,with sales estimated around 500 million records worldwide.He had 13number-one singles in the USin his solo career—more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era until Drake tied with Jackson withFirst Person Shooter.He was invited and honored by a president of the United States at theWhite Housethree times. In 1984, he was honored with a \"Presidential Public Safety Commendation\" award byRonald Reaganfor his humanitarian endeavors.In 1990, he was honored as the \"Artist of the Decade\" byGeorge H. W. Bush.In 1992, he was honored as a \"Point of Light Ambassador\" by Bush for inviting disadvantaged children to hisNeverland Ranch. Jackson wonhundreds of awards, making him one of the most-awarded artists in popular music.His awards include 39 Guinness World Records, including the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time,13Grammy Awards,as well as theGrammy Legend Awardand theGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award,and 26 American Music Awards, including the Artist of the Century and Artist of the 1980s.He also received theWorld Music Awards' Best-Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium and theBambiPop Artist of the Millennium Award.Jackson was inducted onto theHollywood Walk of Famein 1980 as a member of the Jacksons, and in 1984 as a solo artist. He wasinducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of FameandVocal Group Hall of Fameas a member of the Jackson 5 in 1997 and 1999,respectively, and again as a solo artist in 2001.In 2002, he was added to theSongwriters Hall of Fame.In 2010, he was the first recording artist to be inducted into theDance Hall of Fame,and in 2014, he was posthumously inducted into theRhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame.In 2021, he was among the inaugural inductees into theBlack Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame. In 1988,Fisk Universityhonored him with an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters.In 1992, he was invested as atitular kingofSanwi, a traditional kingdom located in the south-east ofIvory Coast.In July 2009, the Lunar Republic Society named a crater on the Moon after Jackson.In August, for what would have been Jackson's 51st birthday, Google dedicated theirGoogle Doodleto him.In 2012, the extinct hermit crabMesoparapylocheles michaeljacksoniwas named in his honor.In 2014, theBritish Councilof Cultural Relations deemed Jackson's life one of the 80 most important cultural moments of the 20th century.World Vitiligo Dayhas been celebrated on June 25, the anniversary of Jackson's death, to raise awareness of the auto-immune disorder that Jackson suffered from. Earnings In 1989, Jackson's annual earnings from album sales, endorsements, and concerts were estimated at $125million.Forbesplaced Jackson's annual income at $35million in 1996 and $20million in 1997.Jackson has been one of thewealthiest musical artists; estimates of Jackson's net worth during his life range from negative $285million to positive $350million for 2002, 2003 and 2007.Forbesreported in August 2018 that Jackson's total career pretax earnings in life and death were $4.2billion.Sales of his recordings through Sony's music unit earned him an estimated $300million in royalties. He may have earned another $400million from concerts, music publishing (including his share of the Beatles catalog), endorsements, merchandising and music videos. In 2013, the executors of Jackson's estate filed a petition in theUnited States Tax Courtas a result of a dispute with theInternal Revenue Service(IRS) overUS federal estate taxes.The executors claimed that it was worth about $7million, while the IRS that it was worth over $1.1billion. In February 2014, the IRS reported that Jackson's estate owed $702million; $505million in taxes, and $197million in penalties.A trial was held from February 6 to 24, 2017.In 2021, the Tax Court issued a ruling in favor of the estate, ruling that the estate's total combined value of the estate was $111.5 million and that the value of Jackson's name and likeness was $4 million (not the $61 million estimated by the IRS's outside expert witness). In 2016,Forbesestimated annual gross earnings by the Jackson Estate at $825million, the largest ever recorded for a celebrity, mostly due to the sale of the Sony/ATV catalog.In 2018, the figure was $400million.It was the eighth year since his death that Jackson's annual earnings were reported to be over $100million, thus bringing Jackson's postmortem total to $2.4billion.Forbeshas consistently recognized Jackson as one of thetop-earning dead celebritiessince his death, and placed him at the top spot from 2013 to 2023. Discography Filmography Tours See also Notes References Citations Print sources Further reading External links", "Amy Winehouse Amy Jade Winehouse(14 September 1983 – 23 July 2011) was a British singer and songwriter known for her deep, expressivecontraltovocals and her eclectic mix of musical genres, includingsoul,rhythm and blues,reggae, andjazz. Winehouse was a member of theNational Youth Jazz Orchestrain her youth, signing toSimon Fuller's19 Managementin 2002 and soon recording a number of songs before signing a publishing deal withEMI. She also formed a working relationship with producerSalaam Remithrough these record publishers. Winehouse's debut album,Frank, was released in 2003. Many of the album's songs were influenced by jazz and, apart from twocovers, were co-written by Winehouse.Frankwas a critical and commercial success in the UK, and beyond, and was nominated for the UK'sMercury Prize.The song \"Stronger Than Me\" won her theIvor Novello Awardfor Best Contemporary Song from theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Winehouse released her follow-up album,Back to Black, in 2006. The album went on to become a huge international success and one of thebest-selling albums of all time, as well as one of thebest-selling albums in UK history.At the2007 Brit Awards, it was nominated forBritish Album of the Yearand Winehouse received the award forBritish Female Solo Artist. The song \"Rehab\" won her a second Ivor Novello Award. At the50th Grammy Awardsin 2008, she won five awards, tying the thenrecord for the most wins by a female artist in a single nightand becoming the first British woman to win five Grammys. These included three of theGeneral Field \"Big Four\" Grammy Awards:Best New Artist, Record of the Year and Song of the Year(for \"Rehab\"), as well asBest Pop Vocal Album. Winehouse struggled throughout her life withsubstance abuse,mental illnessand addiction. She died, at herCamden Squarehome in London, ofalcohol poisoningon 23 July 2011, at theage of 27.Her brother believed thatbulimiawas also a factor. After her death,Back to Blackbriefly became the UK's best-selling album of the 21st century.VH1ranked Winehouse 26th on their list of the100 Greatest Women in Music. Her life and career was dramatised in a 2024 biopic,Back to Black, directed bySam Taylor-Johnson. Early life Amy Jade Winehouse was born on 14 September 1983 atChase Farm HospitalinGordon Hill,Enfield, toJewishparents.Her father, Mitchell \"Mitch\" Winehouse, was a window panel installer and taxi driver; her mother, Janis Winehouse (née Seaton), was a pharmacist.Her mother was diagnosed withmultiple sclerosisin 2003.Winehouse's great-great-grandfather Harris Winehouse emigrated fromMinsk, Belarus, to London in 1891.She had an older brother, Alex (born 1979).The family lived in London'sSouthgatearea,where she attended Osidge Primary School and then secondary atAshmole School.Winehouse attended a Jewish Sunday school while she was a child.During an interview following her rise to fame, she expressed her disapproval towards the school by saying that she used to beg her father to permit her not to go and that she learned nothing about being Jewish by going anyway.In the same interview, Winehouse said she only went to a synagogue once a year onYom Kippur\"out of respect\". Many of Winehouse's maternal uncles were professional jazz musicians.Amy's paternal grandmother, Cynthia, had been a singer and had dated the English jazz saxophonistRonnie Scott.She and Amy's parents influenced Amy's interest in jazz.Her father, Mitch, often sangFrank Sinatrasongs to her, and whenever she was chastised at school, she would sing \"Fly Me to the Moon\" before going up to the headmistress to be told off.Winehouse's parents separated when she was nine, and she lived with her mother inWhetstone, Londonand stayed with her father and his girlfriend inHatfield Heath, Essex on weekends. In 1992, her grandmother Cynthia suggested that Amy attend theSusi Earnshaw Theatre School, where she went on Saturdays to further her vocal education and to learn to tap dance.She attended the school for four years and founded a short-lived rap group called Sweet 'n' Sour, with Juliette Ashby, her childhood friend,before seeking full-time training atSylvia Young Theatre School.Several years later it was reported that Winehouse had been expelled at 14 for \"not applying herself\" and also for piercing her nose, however these claims were denied bySylvia Young: \"She changed schools at 15 ... I've heard it said she was expelled; she wasn't. I'd never have expelled Amy.\"Mitch Winehouse also denied the claims.An English teacher at the Sylvia Young Theatre School remembered Amy as a gifted writer, predicting that she would become a novelist or journalist.She attended theMount School,Mill Hilland theBRIT SchoolinSelhurst,Croydon, dropping out at age 16. After toying around with her brother Alex's guitar, Winehouse bought her own guitar when she was 14 and began writing music shortly afterwards. Soon after, she began working for a living as an entertainment journalist for theWorld Entertainment News Networkand also singing with local group the Bolsha Band.In July 2000, she became the featured female vocalist with theNational Youth Jazz Orchestra. At home she learned from and practised singing songs by Frank Sinatra,Dinah Washington,Sarah VaughanandMinnie Ripperton—singers who she said \"will get under the song\" and remake it as their own rather than sing it straight as written.Winehouse's best friend, soul singerTyler James, sent her demo tape to anA&Rperson. Career 2002–2005: Career beginnings andFrank Winehouse was signed toSimon Fuller's 19 Management in 2002 and was initially paid £250 a week against future earnings.While being developed by the management company, Winehouse was kept as a recording industry secret,although she was a regular jazz standards singer at theCobden Club.Her future A&R representative atIsland, Darcus Beese, heard of her by chance when the manager of the Lewinson Brothers showed him some productions of his clients, which featured Winehouse as key vocalist. When he asked who the singer was, the manager told him he was not allowed to say. Having decided that he wanted to sign her, it took several months of asking around for Beese to eventually discover who the singer was. However, by that time Winehouse had already recorded a number of songs, signed a publishing deal withEMI, and formed a working relationship with producerSalaam Remi. Beese introduced Winehouse to his boss, Island headNick Gatfield, who shared his enthusiasm in signing the young artist. Winehouse was signed to Island while rival interest in her had started to build with representatives of EMI andVirgin Recordsstarting to make moves. Beese toldHitQuartersthat he felt the excitement over an artist who was an atypical pop star for the time was due to a backlash against reality TV music shows, whose audiences starved for fresh, genuine young talent. Winehouse's debut album,Frank, was released on 20 October 2003. Produced mainly by Salaam Remi, many of the songs were influenced byjazzand, apart from twocovers, Winehouse co-wrote every song. The album received wide critical acclaim with compliments given to the \"cool, critical gaze\" in its lyrics.Winehouse's voice was compared with those of Sarah Vaughan andMacy Gray, among others. The album entered the upper reaches of theUK Albums Chartin 2004 when it was nominated for theBrit Awardsin the categories ofBritish Female Solo ArtistandBritish Urban Act. It went on to achieveplatinumsales.Later in 2004, she and Remi won theIvor Novello Awardfor Best Contemporary Song, for their first single together, \"Stronger Than Me.\"The album was also shortlisted for the2004 Mercury Music Prize. In the same year, she performed at theGlastonbury Festival(on the Jazz World stage), theV Festivaland theMontreal International Jazz Festival. After the release of the album, Winehouse commented that she was \"only 80 percent behind album\" becauseIsland Recordshad overruled her preferences for the songs and mixes to be included.The further singles from the album were \"Take the Box,\" \"In My Bed\"/\"You Sent Me Flying\" and \"Pumps\"/\"Help Yourself.\" 2006–2008:Back to Blackand international success After the release of her first jazz-influenced album, Winehouse's focus shifted to thegirl groupsof the1950sand1960s. Winehouse hiredNew YorksingerSharon Jones's longtime band, theDap-Kings, to back her up in the studio and on tour.Mitch Winehouse relates inAmy, My Daughterhow fascinating watching her process was: her perfectionism in the studio and how she would put what she had sung on aCDand play it in his taxi outside to know how most people would hear her music.In May 2006, Winehouse's demo tracks such as \"You Know I'm No Good\" and \"Rehab\" appeared onMark Ronson'sNew Yorkradio show onEast Village Radio. These were some of the first new songs played on the radio after the release of \"Pumps\" and both were slated to appear on her second album. The 11-track album, completed in five months,was produced entirely by Salaam Remi and Ronson, with the production credits being split between them. Ronson said in a 2010 interview that he liked working with Winehouse because she was blunt when she did not like his work.She in turn thought that when they first met, he was a sound engineer and that she was expecting an older man with a beard. Promotion ofBack to Blacksoon began and, in early October 2006 Winehouse's official website was relaunched with a new layout and clips of previously unreleased songs.Back to Blackwas released in the UK on 30 October 2006. It went to number one on the UK Albums Chart for two weeks in January 2007, dropping then climbing back for several weeks in February. In the US, it entered at number seven on theBillboard200. It was the best-selling album in the UK of 2007, selling 1.85million copies over the course of the year.The first single released from the album was the Ronson-produced \"Rehab\". The song reached the top ten in the UK and the US.Timemagazine named \"Rehab\" the Best Song of 2007. Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her confidence, saying, \"What she is is mouthy, funny, sultry, and quite possibly crazy\" and \"It's impossible not to be seduced by her originality. Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth ofsoul musicwithout once ripping it off, and you've got the best song of 2007.\"The album's second single and lead single in the US, \"You Know I'm No Good,\" was released in January 2007 with aremixfeaturing rap vocals byGhostface Killah. It ultimately reached number 18 on the UK singles chart. The title track, \"Back to Black,\" was released in the UK in April 2007 and peaked at number 25, but was more successful acrossmainland Europe.\"Tears Dry on Their Own,\" \"Love Is a Losing Game\" were also released as singles, but failed to achieve the same level of success. A deluxe edition ofBack to Blackwas also released on 5 November 2007 in the UK. The bonus disc featuresB-sides, rare, and live tracks, as well as \"Valerie\". Winehouse's debut DVDI Told You I Was Trouble: Live in Londonwas released the same day in the UK and 13 November in the US. It includes a live set recorded atLondon'sShepherd's Bush Empireand a 50-minutedocumentarycharting the singer's career over the previous four years.Frankwas released in the United States on 20 November 2007 to positive reviews.The album debuted at number 61 on theBillboard200 chart.In addition to her own album, she collaborated with other artists on singles. Winehouse was a vocalist on the song \"Valerie\" on Ronson's solo albumVersion. The song peaked at number two in the UK, upon its October single release. \"Valerie\" was nominated for a2008 Brit AwardforBritish Single of the Year.Her work with ex-SugababeMutya Buena, \"B Boy Baby,\" was released on 17 December 2007. It served as the fourth single from Buena's debut album,Real Girl.Winehouse was also in talks of working withMissy Elliottfor her albumBlock Party. Winehouse promoted the release ofBack to Blackwith headline performances in late 2006, including aLittle Noise Sessionscharity concert at theUnion ChapelinIslington, London.On 31 December 2006, Winehouse appeared onJools Holland'sAnnual Hootenannyand performed a cover ofMarvin Gaye's \"I Heard It Through the Grapevine\" along withPaul WellerandHolland's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra. She also performedToots and the Maytals' \"Monkey Man\". At his request, actorBruce Willisintroduced Winehouse before her performance of \"Rehab\" at the2007 MTV Movie AwardsinUniversal City, California, on 3 June 2007.During the summer of 2007, she performed at various festivals, includingGlastonbury FestivalandLollapaloozainChicago. The rest of her tour, however, did not go as well. In November 2007, the opening night of a 17-date tour was marred by booing and walkouts at theNational Indoor ArenainBirmingham. A critic for theBirmingham Mailsaid it was \"one of the saddest nights of my life ... I saw a supremely talented artist reduced to tears, stumbling around the stage and, unforgivably, swearing at the audience.\"Other concerts ended similarly, with, for example, fans at herHammersmith Apolloperformance in London saying that she \"looked highly intoxicated throughout,\"until she announced on 27 November 2007, that her performances and public appearances were cancelled for the remainder of the year, citing her doctor's advice to take a complete rest. A statement issued by concert promoterLive Nationblamed \"the rigours involved in touring and the intense emotional strain that Amy has been under in recent weeks\" for the decision.Mitch Winehouse wrote about her nervousness before public performances in his 2012 book,Amy, My Daughter.On 13 January 2008,Back to Blackheld the number-one position on theBillboardPan European chartsfor the third consecutive week. On 10 February 2008, Winehouse received fiveGrammy Awards, winning in the following categories:Record of the Year,Song of the Year,Best Female Pop Vocal Performancefor the single \"Rehab\", andBest Pop Vocal Album.The singer also earned a Grammy asBest New Artist, earning her an entry in the 2009 edition of theGuinness Book of Recordsfor Most Grammy Awards won by a British Female Act.Additionally,Back to Blackwas nominated forAlbum of the Year.Ronson's work with her won theGrammy Award for Producer of the Year, in the non-classicalcategory.She ended her acceptance speech for Record of the Year with, \"This is for London becauseCamden Townain't burning down,\" in reference to the 2008Camden Marketfire.Performing \"You Know I'm No Good\" and \"Rehab\" via satellite from London'sRiverside Studiosat 3 a.m.UK time, she couldn't be at the ceremony inLos Angelesas hervisaapproval had not been processed in time. After the Grammys, the album's sales increased, catapultingBack to Blackto number two on the USBillboard200, after it initially peaked in the seventh position.On 20 February 2008, Winehouse performed at the 2008 Brit Awards atEarls Courtin London, performing \"Valerie\" with Mark Ronson, followed by \"Love Is a Losing Game\". She urged the crowd to \"make some noise for my Blake.\"A special deluxe edition ofBack to Blacktopped the UK album charts on 2 March 2008. Meanwhile, the original edition of the album was ranked at number 30 in its 68th week on the charts, whileFrankcharted at number 35. InParis, she performed what was described as a \"well-executed 40-minute\" set at the opening of aFendiboutique in early March.By 12 March, the album had sold a total of 2,467,575 copies—318,350 copies had been sold in the previous 10 weeks—putting the album on theUK's top-10 best-selling albums of the 21st centuryfor the first time.On 7 April,Back to Blackwas in the top position of the pan-European charts for the sixth consecutive and thirteenth aggregate week.Amy Winehouse – The Girl Done Good: A Documentary Review, a 78-minute DVD, was released on 14 April 2008. The documentary features interviews with those who knew her at a young age, people who helped her achieve success, jazz music experts, and music andpop culturespecialists. At the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards in May, Winehouse became the first-ever artist to receive two nominations for the top award: Best Song Musically & Lyrically. She won the award for \"Love Is a Losing Game\" and was nominated for \"You Know I'm No Good\".\"Rehab\", a Novello winner for best contemporary song in 2006, also received a 2008 nomination for best-selling British song.Winehouse was also nominated for a2008 MTV Europe Music Awardin the Act of the Year category. Although her father, manager and various members of her touring team reportedly tried to dissuade her, Winehouse performed at theRock in Rio Lisboafestival inPortugalin May 2008.Although the set was plagued by a late arrival and problems with her voice, the crowd warmed to her. In addition to her own material she performed twoSpecialscovers.Winehouse performed atNelson Mandela's 90th Birthday Party concert at London'sHyde Parkon 27 June 2008,and the next day at theGlastonbury Festival.On 12 July, at theOxegenFestival inIrelandshe performed a well-received 50-minute setwhich was followed the next day by a 14-song set atT in the Park. On 16 August she played at theStaffordshireleg of theV Festival, and the following day played theChelmsfordleg of the festival. Organisers said that Winehouse attracted the biggest crowds of the festival. Audience reaction was reported as mixed.On 6 September, Winehouse wasBestival's Saturday headliner, where she started 40 minutes late and was on stage for 35 minutes, before her performance was terminated because of a curfew. A clip of Winehouse's music was included in the \"Roots and Influences\" area that looked at connections between different artists at theRock and Roll Hall of FameAnnex NYC, which opened in December 2008. One thread started withBillie Holiday, continued withAretha FranklinandMary J. Blige, and then finished with Winehouse. Back to Blackwas the world's seventh-biggest-selling album of 2008.The album's sales meant that the market performance ofUniversal Music Group's recorded music division did not drop to levels experienced by the overall music market. 2009–2011: Final projects before death In a 2009 poll of U.S. residents conducted forVisitBritainbyHarris Interactive, one-fifth of the participants indicated they had listened to Winehouse's music during the previous year.She performed withRhythms del Mundoon their cover of theSam Cookesong \"Cupid\" for anArtists Project Earthbenefit album released in July that year. Winehouse and Ronson contributed a cover ofLesley Gore's \"It's My Party\" to theQuincy Jonestribute albumQ Soul Bossa Nostra, released in November 2010.She had agreed to form a group withQuestloveofthe Roots, but her problems obtaining a visa delayed their working together. Salaam Remi had already created some material with Winehouse as part of the project.According toThe Times, Universal Music pressed her for new material in 2008, but as of 2 September that year she had not been near a recording studio.In late October, Winehouse's spokesman was quoted as saying that Winehouse had not been given a deadline to complete her third album, for which she was learning to play drums. In May 2009, Winehouse returned to performing at a jazz festival inSaint Luciaamid torrential downpours and technical difficulties. During her set, it was reported she was unsteady on her feet and had trouble remembering lyrics. She apologised to the crowd for being \"bored\" and ended the set in the middle of a song.During her stay in Saint Lucia, however, she worked on new music with Remi. On 23 August that year, Winehouse sang with the Specials at theV Festivalon their songs \"You're Wondering Now\" and \"Ghost Town\". Island claimed that a new album would be due for release in 2010. Island co-president Darcus Beese said, \"I've heard a couple of songdemosthat have absolutely floored me.\"In July 2010, Winehouse was quoted as saying her next album would be released no later than January 2011, saying: \"It's going to be very much the same as my second album, where there's a lot ofjukeboxstuff and songs that are... just jukebox, really.\" Ronson, however, said at that time that he had not started to record the album.She performed \"Valerie\" with Ronson at a movie premiere but forgot some of the song's lyrics.In October, Winehouse performed a four-song set to promote her fashion line. In December 2010, she played a 40-minute concert at aRussian oligarch's party inMoscow, with the tycoon hand-selecting the songs. In January 2011, Winehouse played five dates in Brazil, withopening actsofJanelle MonáeandMayer Hawthorne. While performing inFlorianópolis, Winehouse forgot the lyrics of her songs several times and had to be aided by the public and her band. During the concert, she only drank from a water bottle, but even so, in two occasions, she left the stage in the midst of the show for a period of circa 5 minutes. Upon her return, the crowd showed strong compassion for her and praised Winehouse for continuing the performance.The following month she cut a performance inDubaishort following booing from the audience. Winehouse was reported to be tired, distracted and \"tipsy\" during the performance. On 18 June 2011, Winehouse started her twelve-leg European tour inBelgrade. Local media described her performance as a scandal and disaster; she was booed off the stage due to her apparently being too drunk to perform.Serbian defence ministerDragan Šutanovaccalled Winehouse's performances \"a huge shame and a disappointment\".It was reported that she was unable to remember the city she was in, the lyrics of her songs or the names of the members of her band.The local press also claimed that Winehouse was forced to perform by her bodyguards, who did not allow her to leave the stage when she tried to do so.She then pulled out of performances inIstanbulandAthens, which had been scheduled for the following week.On 21 June, it was announced that she had cancelled all shows of her tour and would be given \"as long as it takes\" to sort herself out. Winehouse's last public appearance took place at Camden'sRoundhouseon 20 July 2011, when she made a surprise appearance on stage to support her goddaughterDionne Bromfield, who was singing \"Mama Said\" withthe Wanted.Winehouse died three days later. Her last recording was a duet with American singerTony Bennettfor his albumDuets II, released on 20 September 2011.Their single from the album, \"Body and Soul\", was released on 14 September 2011 onMTVandVH1to commemorate what would have been her 28th birthday. Other ventures Activism and philanthropy Throughout her life Winehouse donated her money, music and time to numerous charities and causes, particularly those concerned with children.She joined a campaign to stop a block of flats being built beside theGeorge Tavern, a famous LondonEast Endmusic venue. Campaign supporters feared the residential development would end the spot's lucrative sideline as a film and photo location, on which it relies to survive.As part of a breast cancer awareness campaign, Winehouse appeared in a revealing photograph for the April 2008 issue ofEasy Livingmagazine.In 2009, she appeared on a CD calledClassicsalongside musicians such asthe Rolling Stones,the Killersand many Cuban musicians to raise awareness ofclimate change. Winehouse loaned a vintage dress used in her video for \"Tears Dry on Their Own\" as well as a DVD to theBritish Music Experience, a new museum dedicated to the history of British pop music.The museum, located atthe O2Arenain London, opened on 9 March 2009.In March 2011, Winehouse donated over £20,000 worth of clothes to a local charity shop in London. A Caribbean man, Julian Jean DeBaptiste, revealed that Winehouse had paid for his urgent surgery costing £4,000 during her stay in Saint Lucia in 2009. \"I had surgery on 1 July 2009... it cost a fortune and Amy paid for the whole thing. I tried to thank her but she just hugged me and told me not to say anything. Her generosity gave me my life back.\" Business Winehouse had an estimated £10m fortune, tying her for tenth place in the 2008The Sunday Timeslisting of the wealth of musicians under age 30.The following year her fortune had dropped to an estimated £5m.Her finances are run by Mitch and Janis Winehouse.It was reported she earned about £1m singing at two private parties duringParis Fashion Weekas well as another £1m to perform at a Moscow Art Gallery for Russian oligarchRoman Abramovich. In January 2009, Winehouse announced that she was launching her own record label. The first act on herLioness Recordsis Winehouse's 13-year-old goddaughter Dionne Bromfield. Her first album, featuring covers of classic soul records, was released on 12 October 2009.Winehouse is the backing singer on several tracks on the album and she performed backing vocals for Bromfield on the BBC's television programmeStrictly Come Dancingon 10 October. Winehouse and her family are the subject of a 2009 documentary shot by Daphne Barak titledSaving Amy.Winehouse entered into a joint venture in 2009 withEMIto launch a range of wrapping paper and gift cards containing song lyrics from her albumBack to Black.On 8 January 2010, a television documentary,My Daughter Amy, aired onChannel 4.Saving Amywas released as a paperback book in January 2010. Winehouse was a notable fan of the brandFred Perry.She collaborated on a 17-piece fashion collection with the label, which was released for sale in October 2010. According to Fred Perry's marketing director \"We had three major design meetings where she was closely involved in product style selection and the application of fabric, colour and styling details,\" and gave \"crucial input on proportion, colour and fit\". The collection consists of \"vintage-inspired looks includingCapri pants, abowlingdress, atrench coat,pencil skirts, a longlineargylesweater and a pink-and-black checkerboard-printed collared shirt.\"At the behest of her family, three forthcoming collections up to and including autumn/winter 2012 that she had designed prior to her death were released.Following Winehouse's death, Fred Perry has donated 20% of the net revenue from the Amy Winehouse collection to the charity set up in Winehouse's name, the Amy Winehouse Foundation. Media image Winehouse's greatest love was 1960s girl groups.Her hairdresser, Alex Foden, borrowed her distinctivebeehivehairdo (aweave) fromthe Ronettesand she borrowed herCleopatramakeup from the same group.Her imitation was so successful, asThe Village Voicereports: \"Ronnie Spector—who, it could be argued, all but invented Winehouse's style in the first place when she took the stage at the Brooklyn Fox Theater with her fellow Ronettes more than 40 years ago—was so taken aback at a picture of Winehouse in theNew York Postthat she exclaimed, \"I don't know her, I never met her, and when I saw that pic, I thought, 'That's me!' But then I found out, no, it's Amy! I didn't have on my glasses.\" The New York Timesstyle reporter, Guy Trebay, discussed the multiplicity of influences on Winehouse's style after her death. Trebay noted, \"her stylish husband, Blake Fielder-Civil, may have influenced her look.\" Additionally, Trebay observed: She was a 5-foot-3 almanac of visual reference, most famously to Ronnie Spector of the Ronettes, but also to the white British soul singerMari Wilson, less famous for her sound than her beehive; to the punk godJohnny Thunders...; to the fiercecouncil-housechicks... (see:DiorandChanelrunways, 2007 and 2008) ... to a lineage of bad girls, extending from Cleopatra toLouise Brooks's Lulu and includingSalt-n-Pepa, to irresistible man traps that always seemed to come to the same unfortunate end. FormerRolling Stoneeditor Joe Levy, who had put her on the magazine's cover, broke her look down this way: Just as her best music drew on sampling – assembling sonic licks and stylistic fragments borrowed fromMotown,Stax,punkand earlyhip-hop– her personal style was also a knowingcollage. There was a certain moment in the '90s when, if you were headed downtown and turned left, every girl looked likeBettie Page. But they did not do what Winehouse did, mixing Bettie Page withBrigitte Bardotand adding that little bit of Ronnie Spector. Winehouse's use of bold red lipstick, thick eyebrows and heavy eyeliner came from Latinas she saw in Miami, on her trip there to work with Salaam Remi onBack to Black.Her look was repeatedly denigrated by the British press. At the same time that theNME Awardsnominated Winehouse in the categories of \"Best Solo Artist\" and \"Best Music DVD\" in 2008, they awarded her \"Worst Dressed Performer\".Winehouse was also ranked number two onRichard Blackwell's 48th annual \"Ten Worst Dressed Women\" list, behindVictoria Beckham. Controversies Winehouse's dichotomous public image of critical and commercial success versus personal turmoil prompted significant media comment. TheNew Statesmancalled Winehouse \"a filthy-mouthed, down-to-earthdiva\",whileNewsweekcalled her \"a perfect storm of sex kitten, raw talent and poor impulse control\".Karen Heller withThe Philadelphia Inquirersummarised the maelstrom this way: She's only 24 with six Grammy nominations, crashing headfirst into success and despair, with a codependent husband in jail, exhibitionist parents with questionable judgement, and thepaparazzidocumenting her emotional and physical distress. Meanwhile, a haute designerKarl Lagerfeldappropriates her dishevelled style and eating issues to market to the elite while proclaiming her the new Bardot. By 2008, her drug problems threatened her career. As Nick Gatfield, the president of Island Records, toyed with the idea of releasing Winehouse \"to deal with her problems\", he said, \"It's a reflection of her status that when you flick through the TV coverage it's her image they use.\"Post-Grammys, some questioned whether Winehouse should have been honoured with the awards given her recent personal and drug problems, includingNatalie Cole, who introduced Winehouse at the ceremony and who herself battled substance-abuse problems while winning a Grammy for Best New Artist in 1975. Winehouse was prevented from travelling to and performing at the Grammy Awards ceremony in the US due to failing a drug test,and the executive director of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime,Antonio Maria Costa, said that the alleged drug habits of Winehouse and other celebrities sent a bad message \"to others who are vulnerable to addiction\" and undermine the efforts of other celebrities trying to raise awareness of problems in Africa, now that more cocaine used in Europe passes through that continent.Winehouse's spokesperson noted that \"Amy has never given a quote about drugs or flaunted it in any way. She's had some problems and is trying to get better. The U.N. should get its own house in order.\" In January 2008, her record label stated it believed the extensive media coverage she had received increased record sales.In an April 2008 poll conducted bySky News, Winehouse was named the second-greatest \"ultimate heroine\" by the UK population at large, topping the voting for that category of those polled under 25 years old.Psychologist Donna Dawson commented that the results demonstrated that women like Winehouse who had \"a certain sense of vulnerability or have had to fight against some adversity in their lives\" received recognition. In July 2008,BBC Radio Scotland's head, Jeff Zycinski, stated that the BBC, and media in general, were complicit in undermining celebrities, including Winehouse.He said that public interest in the singer's lifestyle did not make her lifestyle newsworthy. Rod McKenzie, editor of the BBC Radio One programmeNewsbeat, replied: \"If you play music to a certain demographic, those same people want to know what's happening in her private life. If you don't cover it, you're insulting young licence fee payers.\"InThe Scotsman, British singer and songwriterLily Allenwas quoted to have said – \"I know Amy Winehouse very well. And she is very different to what people portray her as being. Yes, she does get out of her mind on drugs sometimes, but she is also a very clever, intelligent, witty, funny person who can hold it together. You just don't see that side.\" Personal life Winehouse was raised Jewish and expressed pride in being Jewish, although she was not religious.During one interview, Winehouse said: \"eing Jewish to me is about being together as a real family. It's not about lighting candles and saying abracha.\"Winehouse also frequently performed with a Star of David medallion. In 2013, in memory of Winehouse, theJewish Museum Londonran an exhibition titled \"Amy Winehouse: A Family Portrait\".The museum researched her paternal great-great-grandfather's arrival from Minsk in 1890, and how the family finally settled in London, starting out in working-class jobs before gradually moving to middle-class jobs. Winehouse had 14 known tattoos, including \"Daddy's Girl\" on her left arm for her father and a pin-up girl with the name \"Cynthia\" on her right arm in memory of her Jewish grandmother.In 2011, there were reports that Winehouse was in the process of adopting a 10-year-old girl from St. Lucia named Dannika Augustine. According to Dannika and her family, Amy had formed a strong bond with the poverty-stricken girl during her lengthy stays on the Caribbean island. Dannika referred to Amy as her mother and said they had a close, loving relationship.Her grandmother, Marjorie Lambert, confirmed that Amy had expressed a strong desire to adopt Dannika and was even willing to move to St. Lucia to be her full-time mother.However, Winehouse's representative denied these claims, stating that the adoption story was not true. Relationships Winehouse dated chef-musicianAlex Clarein 2006, while on a break from heron–offboyfriend and future husband, Blake Fielder-Civil. She and Clare lived together briefly,and in a pattern that Fielder-Civil would later repeat, Clare sold his story to theNews of the World, which published it under the headline \"Bondage Crazed Amy Just Can't Beehive in Bed.\" Fielder-Civil, a former video production assistant,had dropped out ofBourne Grammar Schooland, aged 16, moved to London from his nativeLincolnshire.He married Winehouse on 18 May 2007, inMiami Beach, Florida.In a June 2007 interview, Winehouse admitted she could sometimes be violent toward him after she had been drinking, saying: \"If he says one thing I don't like, then I'll chin him.\"In August 2007, they were photographed, bloodied and bruised, in the streets of London after an alleged fight, although she contended her injuries were self-inflicted.Winehouse's parents and in-laws publicly reported their numerous concerns, the latter citing fears that the two might commit suicide. Fielder-Civil's father encouraged fans to boycott Winehouse's music, and Mitch Winehouse said this would not help.Fielder-Civil was quoted in a British tabloid as saying he introduced Winehouse tocrack cocaineand heroin.During a visit with Mitch Winehouse at the prison in July 2008, Fielder-Civil reportedly said that he and Winehouse would cut themselves to ease the pain ofwithdrawal. From 21 July 2008 to 25 February 2009, Fielder-Civil was imprisoned following his guilty plea on charges of trying topervert the course of justiceand of grievous bodily harm with intent.The incident, in July 2007, involved his assault of a pub landlord that broke the victim's cheekbone, and also saw Winehouse briefly arrested in connection with it.According to the prosecution, the landlord accepted £200,000 as part of a deal to \"effectively throw the case and not turn up\", and he testified that the money belonged to Winehouse, but she pulled out of a meeting with the men involved in the plot, to attend an awards ceremony.Mitch Winehouse, as manager of his daughter's money, has denied the payoff came from her. When Winehouse was spotted with aspiring actorJosh Bowmanon holiday in Saint Lucia, in early January 2009, she said she was \"in love again, and I don't need drugs.\"She commented that her \"whole marriage was based on doing drugs\" and that \"for the time being I've just forgotten I'm even married.\"On 12 January, Winehouse's spokesman confirmed that \"papers have been received\" for what Fielder-Civil's solicitor said were divorce proceedings based on a claim of adultery.In March, Winehouse was quoted in a magazine as saying, \"I still love Blake and I want him to move into my new house with me—that was my plan all along ... I won't let him divorce me. He's the male version of me and we're perfect for each other.\"Nonetheless, an uncontested divorce was granted on 16 July 2009 and became final on 28 August 2009.Fielder-Civil received no money in the settlement. Winehouse was in a relationship with a British writer and film directorReg Traviss, from early 2010 until her death.According to media reports and a biography written by Winehouse's father, Traviss and Winehouse had planned to marry and intended to have children. In July 2008, whenRolling Stonereporter Claire Hoffman asked Winehouse if she was in a relationship withPete Doherty, she replied: \"We're just good friends\", and added: \"I asked Pete to do a concept EP, and he made this face, he looked at me like I'd pooed on the floor. He wouldn't do it. We're just really close\". However, after Winehouse's death, Doherty said that he and Winehouse had been lovers at one point. Substance abuse and mental illness Winehouse's troubles withsubstance abusewere the subject of much media attention over the years.In 2005, she went through a period of drinking, heavy drug use, and weight loss.People who saw her during the end of that year and early 2006 reported a rebound that coincided with the writing ofBack to Black.Her family believes that the mid-2006 death of her grandmother, who was a stabilising influence, set her off into addiction.In August 2007, Winehouse cancelled a number of shows in the UK and Europe, citing exhaustion and ill health. She was hospitalised during this period for what was reported as anoverdoseof heroin,ecstasy, cocaine,ketamineand alcohol.In various interviews, she admitted to having problems withself-harm, depression, and eating disorders. Winehouse told theLos Angeles Timesthat the drugs were to blame for her hospitalisation and that \"I really thought that it was over for me then.\"Soon afterwards, Winehouse's father commented that when he had made public statements regarding her problems he was using the media because it seemed the only way to get through to her.In an interview withThe Album Chart Showon British television, Winehouse said she wasmanic depressiveand not alcoholic, adding that that sounded like \"an alcoholic in denial\".A US reporter writes that Winehouse was a \"victim of mental illness in a society that doesn't understand or respond to mental illness with great effectiveness.\"According to Forensic physician Dr Jason Payne-James, Winehouse may have suffered fromborderline personality disorder(BPD). He explained she shows some symptoms for disorder such as extreme reactions to trauma like abandonment (when described as a symptom \"frantic efforts to avoid real or imaginedabandonment\"),impulsive or reckless behaviours like substance use disorders, binge eating,recurrent suicidal ideation,self-cuttingor self-harm, rapidly shifting intense emotional dysregulation, chronic feelings of emptiness or boredom, unstable and chaotic interpersonal relationships, often characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and devaluation, also known as \"splitting\", inappropriate, intense anger that can be difficult to control.Before her death Winehouse had been examined by a psychiatrist and psychologist and doctors recommended that she undergodialectical behaviour therapy(DBT).DBT is based upon thebiosocial theoryof mental illness and is the first therapy that has been experimentally demonstrated to be generally effective in treating borderline personality disorder. In December 2007, Winehouse's spokesman reported that the singer was in a physician-supervised programme and was channelling her difficulties by writing a lot of music.In January 2008, the British tabloidThe Sunposted a video Winehouse, apparently smoking crack cocaine and speaking of having taken ecstasy andValium. The event took place on Friday 18 January, in the early hours of the morning. Later that morning, Winehouse attended a remand hearing for her husband Blake Fielder-Civil, who was then awaiting trial on charges of perverting the course of justice.Shortly after the alleged crack cocaine incident, Winehouse's father moved in with her, to keep her under '24-hour watch'.At this time, Island Records, her record label, announced the abandonment of plans for an American promotion campaign on her behalf.On 23 January 2008, the video was passed on to theMetropolitan Police,who questioned her on 5 February.No charges were brought. In late January, Winehouse reportedly entered a rehabilitation facility for a two-week treatment program.On 26 March, Winehouse's spokesman said she was \"doing well\".Her record company reportedly believed that her recovery remained fragile.By late April 2008, her erratic behaviour—including an allegation of assault—caused fear that her drug rehabilitation efforts had been unsuccessful.Winehouse's father and manager then sought to have her detained under theMental Health Act of 1983.Her dishevelled appearance during and after a scheduled club night in September 2008 prompted new rumours of a relapse. Photographers were quoted as saying she appeared to have cuts on her arms and legs. According to her physician, Winehouse quit using illegal substances in 2008.In an October 2010 interview, speaking of her decision to quit drugs, Winehouse said, \"I literally woke up one day and was like, 'I don't want to do this any more.'\"However, alcohol emerged as a problem, with Winehouse abstaining for a few weeks and then lapsing into alcohol abuse.Her physician said that Winehouse was treated withLibriumforalcohol withdrawaland anxiety and underwent psychological and psychiatric evaluations in 2010, but refused psychological therapy. Violence and legal difficulties In 2006, Winehouse admitted to punching a female fan in the face for criticising her having taken Blake Fielder-Civil as a husband. She then attacked her own spouse as he attempted to calm her down, kneeing him in the crotch.In October 2007, Winehouse and Fielder-Civil were arrested inBergen, Norway, for possession of seven grams ofcannabis. The couple were later released and fined 3850kroner(around £350).Winehouse first appealed the fines,but later dropped the appeal. On 26 April 2008, Winehouse wascautionedafter she admitted to police she slapped a 38-year-old man in the face, a \"common assault\" offence, her first of two. She voluntarily turned herself in and was held overnight. Police said, at her arrival she was \"in no fit state\" to be interviewed.Ten days later, Winehouse was arrested on suspicion of possessing drugs after a video of her apparently smoking crack cocaine was passed to the police in January, but was released on bail a few hours later because they could not confirm, from the video, what she was smoking.The Crown Prosecution Service considered charging her, but cleared her when it could not establish that the substance in the video was a controlled drug.Some members ofParliamentcriticised the decision not to bring charges.Two London residents were subsequently convicted ofconspiracyto supply cocaine and ecstasy to Winehouse,leading to a two-year prison sentence for one, and a two-year community order. On 5 March 2009, Winehouse was arrested and charged with common assault following a claim by dancer Sherene Flash that Winehouse hit her in the eye at the September 2008 Prince's Trust charity ball.Winehouse's spokesperson announced the cancellation of the singer's USCoachella Festivalappearance in light of the new legal issue,and Winehouse pleaded not guilty in court on 17 March.At her trial on 23–24 July she was charged with \"deliberate and unjustifiable violence\" while appearing to be under the influence of alcohol or another substance. She testified that she did not punch Flash, but tried to push her away because she was scared of her; she cited her worry that Flash would sell her story to a tabloid, Flash's height advantage, and Flash's \"rude\" behaviour.On 24 July Winehouse was found not guilty, citing that all but two of the witnesses were intoxicated at the time, and that medical evidence did not show \"the sort of injury that often occurs when there is a forceful punch to the eye.\" On 19 December 2009, Winehouse was arrested for a third time on charges of common assault andpublic order offenceafter assaulting the front-of-house manager of theMilton Keynes Theatrewhen he asked her to move to a different seat after noisy participation in thepantomimeplaying, and advised her not to drink more than she already had. Winehouse pleaded guilty, and was given a conditional discharge. Paparazzi With thepaparazzitaking photographs of her wherever they could, Winehouse obtained aninjunctionagainst a leading paparazzi agency, Big Pictures, under theProtection from Harassment Act 1997; the resultant court order issued by theHigh Courtin 2009 banned them from following her.Photographers were also banned from following her within 100 metres of her London home and photographing Winehouse in her home or the homes of her friends and relatives. According to a newspaper report, sources close to the singer said legal action was taken out of concern for the safety of Winehouse and those close to her. Respiratory and other health problems On 23 June 2008, Winehouse's publicist corrected earlier misstatements by Mitch Winehouse that his daughter had early-stageemphysema, saying that she instead had signs of what could lead to early-stage emphysema.Mitch Winehouse had also stated that his daughter'slungs were operating at 70 percent capacityand that she had anirregular heartbeat. He said that these problems had been caused by herchain smokingcrack cocaine. The singer's father also reported that doctors had warned Winehouse that, if she continued smokingcrack cocaine, she would have to wear anoxygen maskand would eventually die.In a radio interview, Mitch Winehouse said the singer was responding \"fabulously\" to treatment, which included being covered withnicotine patches.British Lung Foundation spokesman Keith Prowse noted that this type of condition could be managed with treatment. Prowse also said the condition was not normal for a person her age but \"heavy smoking and inhaling other substances like drugs can age the lungs prematurely.\"Norman H. Edelman of theAmerican Lung Associationexplained that if she stopped smoking, her lung functions would decline at the rate of a normal person, but continued smoking would lead to a more rapid decline in lung function. Winehouse was released from theLondon Clinic24 hours after returning from a temporary leave to perform at Nelson Mandela's 90th birthday celebration and at a concert in Glastonbury, and continued receiving treatment as anoutpatient.In July 2008, Winehouse stated that she had been diagnosed with \"some areas of emphysema\" and said she was getting herself together by \"eating loads of healthy food, sleeping loads, playing my guitar, making music and writing letters to my husband every day.\"She also kept a verticaltanning bedin her flat.Winehouse began precautionary testing on her lungs and chest on 25 October 2008at the London Clinic for what was reported as a chest infection, leaving and returning at will.She returned to the hospital on 23 November 2008 due to a reported reaction to her medication. Death Winehouse's bodyguard said that he had arrived at her residence three days before her death and felt she had been somewhat intoxicated. Two days after, her mother likewise admitted she had acted \"out of it.\"This was the same day Winehouse had visited her doctor for one of her routine check-ups due to her fragile state, although no abnormalities were noted: \"The doctor was happy with her condition. When he left on Friday night he had no concerns. Less than 24 hours later she was found dead.\"After the check-up, Winehouse had called her doctor to confess her feelings regarding her codependency, stating: \"I don't want to die\", alongside how she had attempted sobriety, but could not achieve it.These were Winehouse's last recorded words, while her bodyguard's final conversation with her included the quote: \"If I could, I would give it back just to walk down the street with no hassle.\" Her bodyguard continued to observe her drinking moderately over the next few days since his arrival, and later said she had been \"laughing, listening to music and watching TV at 2 a.m. the day of her death\". Another source claims she was watching old re-runs of past performances and reminiscing.At 10 a.m.BSTon 23 July 2011, he observed her lying on her bed and tried (unsuccessfully) to rouse her. This did not raise much suspicion because she usually slept late after a night out. According to the bodyguard, shortly after 3p.m., he checked on her again and observed her lying in the same position as before, leading to a further check, in which he concluded that she was not breathing and had no pulse; he said he called emergency services.At 3:54p.m., two ambulances reached Winehouse's home inCamden, London.Winehouse was pronounced dead at the scene. Shortly afterwards, theMetropolitan Policeconfirmed that she had died.Her death at age 27 prompted media comparisons to other musician deaths at the same age, collectively named the27 Club. After her death was announced, media and camera crews appeared near Winehouse's residence.Forensicinvestigators entered the flat as police cordoned off the street outside; they recovered one small and two large bottles of vodka from her room.After her death, the singer broke her second Guinness World Record: for the most songs by a woman to simultaneously appear on the UK singles chart, with eight.Winehouse's record label,Universal Republic, released a statement that read in part: \"We are deeply saddened at the sudden loss of such a gifted musician, artist and performer.\" With initially little verified information regarding the causes of Winehouse's death, there was considerable speculation on the subject. Various reports speculated on a fatalClass A drug, such asecstasyoverdose, or a lethalcocktail.Winehouse's father Mitch denied these claims, stating: \"Three years ago, Amy conquered her drug dependency. She was the happiest she has been for years.\" By the following month, August 2011, speculation about substance abuse being a factor in Winehouse's death had been disproven by an official toxicology report released to the public which showed that no illegal substances had been identified in Winehouse's system.The coroner's report was released in October 2011, and it stated that Winehouse'sblood alcohol contentwas 416mgper 100ml(0.416%) at the time of her death, more than five timesthe legal drink-drive limit.According to the coroner, the \"unintended consequence\" of so much drink was her \"sudden and unexpected death\", as it reached a 'death by misadventure' verdict.Another inquest was ordered when it was ruled that the first coroner was 'not qualified' for the role\". The second inquest, delivered in January 2013, matched the conclusions of the first inquest, with coroner Dr. Shirley Radcliffe finding that \"She (Winehouse) voluntarily consumed alcohol, a deliberate act that took an unexpected turn in that it caused her death.\" The second inquest reached the verdict ofmisadventuredue to alcohol poisoning,stated in an interview with The Guardian. On 17 December 2012, British authorities reopened the probe into Winehouse's death.On 8 January 2013, a second inquest confirmed that Winehouse died of an accidental alcohol overdose.In a June 2013 interview, Alex Winehouse shared his belief that his sister's eating disorder, and the consequent physical weakness, was the primary cause of her death: She suffered frombulimiavery badly. That's not, like, a revelation – you knew just by looking at her... She would have died eventually, the way she was going, but what really killed her was the bulimia... I think that it left her weaker and more susceptible. Had she not had an eating disorder, she would have been physically stronger. Winehouse's funeral was held on 26 July 2011 at Edgwarebury Lane Cemetery inNorth London, it was a private ceremony attended by family and friends.Her mother and father, Janis and Mitch Winehouse, close friendsNick GrimshawandKelly Osbourne, producer Mark Ronson, goddaughterDionne Bromfieldand her boyfriend Reg Traviss were among those in attendance at the private service led by Rabbi Frank Hellner.Her father delivered the eulogy, saying \"Goodnight, my angel, sleep tight. Mummy and Daddy love you ever so much.\"Carole King's \"So Far Away\" closed the service with mourners singing along as it was one of Winehouse's favourite songs.She was latercrematedatGolders Green Crematorium.The family planned to sit a two-dayshiva.On 16 September 2012, Winehouse's ashes were buried alongside those of her grandmother Cynthia Levy at Edgwarebury Lane Cemetery. Legacy Achievements and critical appraisal At the time of her death, Winehouse had sold over 1.75 million singles and over 3.98 million albums in the United Kingdom.Meanwhile, she had sold about 3.4 million tracks and 2.7 million albums in the United States as of the same date.Among the awards and recognition for her debut albumFrank, Winehouse earned an Ivor Novello Award from theBritish Academy of Songwritersfor Best Contemporary Song (\"Stronger Than Me\"),aBrit Awardnomination for Best British Female Solo Artist,and an inclusion in Robert Dimery's 2006 book,1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.Her second studio album,Back to Black, produced numerous nominations, including two Brit Awards (Best British Album, and won her Best British Female Solo Artist), sixGrammy Awards(including five wins),four Ivor Novello Awards, fourMTV Europe Music Awards, threeMTV Video Music Awards, threeWorld Music Awards, and it was nominated for the Mercury Prize (Album of the Year) and aMOBO Awards(Best UK Female). During her career, Winehouse received 23 awards from 60 nominations. Winehouse was known for her deep, expressivecontraltovocals and her eclectic mix of musical genres, including soul,(sometimes labelled asblue-eyed soulandneo soul),rhythm and blues,and jazz.TheBBC's Garry Mulholland called Winehouse \"the pre-eminent vocal talent of her generation\".According toAllMusic's Cyril Cordor, she was one of the UK's premier singers during the 2000s. \"Fans and critics alike embraced her rugged charm, brash sense of humor, and distinctively soulful and jazzy vocals\".InThe Guardian, Caroline Sullivan later wrote that \"her idolisation of Dinah Washington and the Ronettes distinguished her from almost all newly minted pop singers of the early 2000s, and her exceptionally-susceptible-to-heartbreak voice did the rest\". Soon after Winehouse's death, a number of prominent critics assessed the singer's legacy.Maura JohnstonfromThe Village Voicesaid, \"When she was on, Winehouse had few peers—she wasn't an octave-jumper like other big divas of the moment, but her contralto had a snap to it that enriched even the simplest syllables with a full spectrum of emotion\".Sasha Frere-JonesofThe New Yorkerproclaimed, \"Nobody can match Winehouse's unique transitions or her utterly weird phrasings. She sounded like an original sixties soul star, developed when the landscape had no rules. But now untrammelled traditionalism is in the lead and her beautiful footnote has been cut short. American soul—through visionaries likeErykah Baduand Janelle Monáe andJill Scott—had moved on. But Winehouse was a fine shepherd of the past.\" On 13 February 2012, Winehouse was ranked 26th onVH1's100 Greatest Women in Musiclist.In March 2017, singer-songwriterBob Dylansaid he was enjoying listening to Winehouse's last record (Back to Black), and called her \"the last real individualist around\".In 2023,Rolling Stoneranked Winehouse at number 83 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. Influence Adelehas credited Winehouse's success in making her and fellow British singerDuffy'sjourney to the United States \"a bit smoother.\"Lady Gagacredited Winehouse with paving the way for her rise to the top of the charts, explaining that Winehouse made it easier for unconventional women to have mainstream pop success.Raphael Saadiq,Anthony HamiltonandJohn Legendsaid \"Amy Winehouse was produced by people who wanted to create a marketing coup. The positive side is that it reacquainted an audience with this music and played an introductory role for others. This reinvigorated the genre by overcoming the vintage aspect.\"Other artists that have credited Winehouse as an influence or for paving the way for them include Bruno Mars,Tove Lo,Jessie J,Emeli Sandé,Victoria Justice,Paloma Faith,Lana Del Rey,Sam Smith,Florence Welch,Halsey,Alessia Cara,Estelle,Daya,Jorja Smith,Lauren JaureguiandBillie Eilish. After the release ofBack to Black, record companies sought out female artists with a similar sound and fearless and experimental female musicians in general. Adele and Duffy were the second wave of artists with a sound similar to Winehouse's. A third wave of female musicians that has emerged since the album was released are led byV V Brown,Florence and the Machine,La RouxandLittle Boots.In March 2011, theNew YorkDaily Newsran an article attributing the continuing wave of British female artists that have been successful in the United States to Winehouse and her absence.Spinmagazine music editor Charles Aaron was quoted as saying \"Amy Winehouse was theNirvanamoment for all these women,\" \"They can all be traced back to her in terms of attitude, musical styles or fashion.\" According to Keith Caulfield, chart manager forBillboard, \"Because of Amy, or the lack thereof, the marketplace was able to get singers like Adele, Estelle and Duffy,\" \"Now those ladies have brought on the new ones, likeEliza Doolittle,RumerandEllie.\" Amy Winehouse Foundation After the singer's death by alcohol intoxication in July 2011, the Amy Winehouse Foundation was set up by Winehouse's family and launched on 14 September 2011 (which would have been Winehouse's 28th birthday). Its aim is to help vulnerable or disadvantaged young people, and it works with other charitable organisations to provide frontline support. Its central office is in North London, but it also has an office in New York (operating under the name 'The Amy Winehouse Foundation US').Jon Snowis a patron for the charity, withBarbara Windsoralso before she died in 2020, and ambassadors includeJess Glynne,Patsy Palmer,Jessie Wallace,Keira ChaplinandMica Paris. In October 2015Mark Ronsonbecame a patron.Amy's brother Alex works full-time for the foundation, having given up his career as an online music journalist. The charity itself works to prevent the effects of drug and alcohol misuse on young people and it also aims to support, inform and inspire vulnerable and disadvantaged young people to help them reach their full potential.On 12 March 2013, with the help of ex-addictRussell Brand, the Foundation launched the Amy Winehouse Foundation Resilience Programme For Schools across the UK which aims to provide effective education around drugs, alcohol and dealing with emotional issues. Tributes Artworks and exhibits London'sMall Galleriesopened an exhibition in May 2008 that included a sculpture of Winehouse, titledExcess. The piece, created by Guy Portelli, had a miniature of the singer lying on top of a cracked champagne bottle, with a pool of spilled liquid underneath. The body was covered with what appeared to be tiny pills, while one outstretched hand held a glass.Another piece, a print titledCelebrity 1by artist Charlotte Suckling, was shown in the same exhibition. Winehouse was immortalised at the world-famous LondonMadame Tussaudson 23 July 2008. Winehouse herself had expressed surprise at plans to make a waxwork of her, stating that she believed a person 'had to be dead' before a waxwork was made of them. Winehouse did not make herself available for sittings for the Madame Tussauds waxwork, which was instead done from photos.A sculpture by Marco Perego, titledThe Only Good Rock Star Is a Dead Rock Star, that depicts Winehouse lying in a pool of blood with an apple and a bullet hole in her head after being shot by American novelist andBeatpoetWilliam S. Burroughs(in a recreation of the accidental killing of his wifeJoan Vollmer), went on on display in New York's Half Gallery on 14 November 2008 with a sale price of US$100,000.Perego said of the sculpture: \"Rock stars are the sacrificial animals of society.\" Winehouse was not supportive of Peregro's work, with her spokesperson stating: \"It's a funny kind of tribute. The artist seems in thrall to a tabloid persona that is not the real Amy. People often use her image to sell their work.\" Initial reports after her death stated that Winehouse had left a will, which had been altered after her divorce from Blake Fielder-Civil. However it transpired that Winehouse had not left a will; her estate, worth around £4 million, was inherited by her parents.Winehouse's parents set up theAmy Winehouse Foundationto prevent harm from drug misuse among young people, with her brother Alex as an employee. In 2012, Winehouse was among the British cultural icons selected by artist SirPeter Blaketo appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Bandalbum cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires. On 14 September 2014 (which would have been Winehouse's 31st birthday),a statue of herby sculptorScott Eatonwas unveiled atStables Marketin Camden Town, North London.Fans and relatives gathered for the unveiling in Camden's Stable Market.London-based Eaton, who sculpted the piece after being introduced to Winehouse's father Mitch, said the statue was meant to capture her \"attitude and strength, but also give subtle hints of insecurity.\"Her father Mitch said of the statue: \"Now Amy will oversee the comings and goings of her home town forever... Amy was in love with Camden and it is the place her fans from all over the world associate her with.\" An exhibit of Winehouse's personal items, co-curated by her brother and sister-in-law, titledAmy Winehouse: A Family Portrait, was on display at the Jewish Museum London from 3 July 2013 until 15 September 2013, and later exhibited inSan Francisco, 23 July 2015 to 1 November 2015.Display items, such as books and music, were featured together with captions written by Winehouse's brother. In 2018, the artistDan Llywelyn Hall's portrait of the singer,Amy's Glance, was exhibited at the London Art Fair. In March 2020, Winehouse's name on a stone was unveiled on the new Music Walk of Fame in Camden, with her parents Mitch and Janis in attendance at the ceremony. In 2020, an exhibition titledBeyond Black – The Style of Amy Winehouseopened at theGrammy Museumin Los Angeles. The exhibit mainly focused on Winehouse's style and fashion, displaying outfits such as her iconic dresses, shoes, hair accessories, makeup bag as well as Winehouse's personal belongings including her Grammy awards from 2008, handwritten lyrics, records and unseen home videos. The exhibition went on display in the U.S. from 17 January 2020 until 13 April 2020. A follow-up exhibitionAmy: Beyond the Stageopened on 26 November 2021 until 10 April 2022 at theDesign Museumin Kensington, London which also presented some of Winehouse's personal belongings and focus on her fashion sense, as well as paying homage to her musical career.Also in November 2021, various of Winehouse's personal items and famous dresses would later be auctioned atJulien's Auctionsin Los Angeles and made more than £3m, 30% going to the Amy Winehouse Foundation. Many musical artists have since paid tribute to Winehouse includingNicki Minaj,M.I.A.,Lady Gaga,Kelly Osbourne,Rihanna,George Michael,Adele,Dita Von Teese,Courtney Love,and the rock bandGreen Day, who wrote a song in her tribute titled \"Amy\".In her 2012 albumBanga, singerPatti Smithreleased \"This Is the Girl\", written as an homage to Winehouse.Mark Ronson dedicated his UK number-one albumUptown Specialto Winehouse, stating: \"I'm always thinking of you and inspired by you.\" Films and memoirs In late 2011, there were reports that Winehouse's former boyfriend, Reg Traviss, was developing a film about her. Winehouse's father Mitch Winehouse, who owns the copyright to his daughter's music, said he would not authorise the use of her music for the film. Winehouse's parents have each written memoirs about their daughter and donated the proceeds from both books to the Amy Winehouse Foundation. In the introduction to Mitch Winehouse's biography, titledAmy: My Daughter(2012), he explained: \"Apart from being her father, I was also her friend, confidant and adviser—not that she always took my advice, but she always heard me out.\"Her mother Janis publishedLoving Amy: A Mother's Story, in 2014. A documentary film,Amy(2015), directed byAsif Kapadiaand produced by James Gay-Rees, was released on 3 July 2015. The film covers Winehouse's life, her relationships, her struggles with substance abuse both before and after her career blossomed, and which eventually caused her death.The film received its première at the2015 Cannes Film Festivalon 16 May and has been reviewed as \"a tragic masterpiece\", \"brilliant\", \"heartbreaking\" and \"unmissable\".Thesoundtrack of the same namewas released on 30 October 2015, along with the DVD that includes music featured in the documentary by film composerAntônio Pintoand classic and some unreleased tracks by Winehouse. The film was highly acclaimed and received various accolades, including theAcademy Award for Best Documentary Featureat the2016 Oscars,Best Music Filmat the2016 Grammy Awards, theBAFTAforBest Documentary, theMTV Movie Awardfor Best Documentary, in addition to a nomination for theBAFTA Award for Best British Film. On 9 October 2017, it was announced by Winehouse's father Mitch that aWest End/Broadwaymusical on Amy is in the works.Mitch Winehouse revealed the news at the Amy Winehouse Foundation Gala event in London. In 2018, a documentary film based on Winehouse's albumBack to Black,Amy Winehouse – Back to Black, was released.It contains new interviewsas well as archival footage.It was made byEagle Visionand produced by Gil Cang.Released on DVD on 2 November 2018, the film features interviews by producers Ronson & Remi, who worked half and half on the album, along with the Dap Kings, Remi's music team,Ronnie Spectorfrom the Ronettes and close ones to Winehouse, including Nick Shymansky, Juliette Ashby andDionne Bromfield.The film is accompanied byAn Intimate Evening in London,footage of a show Winehouse gave atRiverside Studios, London in 2008.In February 2019,Salaam Remireleased a compilation album including the song \"Find My Love\" which is a posthumous collaboration between Winehouse and rapperNas. As the years passed since her death, talk began to grow of a film biopic of Amy Winehouse's life. In October 2018, it was announced that Winehouse's estate had signed a multi-million pound deal to make a film biopic about her life and career.In August 2021 it was reported that a film based on Daphne Barak's 2010 book,Saving Amy, which chronicles the late singer's final years, had been greenlighted by Halcyon Studios. However, in September 2021, Amy's father and estate executor, Mitch, stated that was “100% not allowed.” In July 2021, a new documentary titledReclaiming Amyaired onBBC Twoto mark the 10th anniversary of Winehouse's death.The film was primarily based on the perspective and narrated by her mother Janis Winehouse-Collins and included intimate stories of those who were close to Winehouse until the end of her life, including close friends Naomi Parry (Winehouse's stylist), Catriona Gourlay and Chantelle Dusette. In July 2022, it was reported that a feature film biopic, entitledBack To Black(2024) was to be produced byStudioCanal UK, distributed byFocus Featuresand directed bySam Taylor-Johnson—who previously made a biopic ofThe BeatlesstarJohn Lennon,Nowhere Boy(2009)—and directedFifty Shades of Grey(2015). The script was written byMatt Greenhalghand it was to be made with the full cooperation of Amy's father Mitch, and her estate.In January 2023, it was revealed that British actressMarisa Abelawould play the leading role of Winehouse and filming commenced later that month in London.In January 2024, a trailer forBack to Blackwas released along with a debut release date of April 12 in the UK. The film was moderately successful at the box office, with a worldwide total of $51.1 million.The film attracted mixed reviews, with criticism for a selective depiction of Winehouse's life, including the complete omission of Reg Traviss, and over-sympathetic depictions of Mitch Winehouse, and Blake Fielder-Civil, but praise for the acting.On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, 34% of 175 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 4.8/10. The website's consensus reads: \"Back to Black's sympathetic approach to its subject's story is an overdue antidote to the tabloid treatment she often received in life, even if the end results are disappointingly pedestrian.\" Discography See also References Sources Further reading External links", "Paramore Paramoreis an Americanrockband formed inFranklin, Tennessee, in 2004. Since 2017, the band's lineup includes lead vocalistHayley Williams, lead guitaristTaylor York, and drummerZac Farro. Williams and Farro are founding members of the group, while York, a high school friend of the original lineup, joined in 2007. Williams is the only member to appear on all six of Paramore's studio albums. The band was signed toFueled by Ramen, a subsidiary ofAtlantic Records(which is owned byWarner Music Group.) Williams was signed to Atlantic separately, as she wasscoutedwhen she was a teenager. They were the only label to let her stay in the band instead of going solo, but Atlantic said the rest of the band had to sign to Fueled by Ramen.The group's debut album,All We Know Is Falling(2005), reached number 30 onBillboard'sHeatseekers Chartin 2006 and number four on theUK Rock Chartin 2009. The band's second album,Riot!(2007) became a mainstream success thanks to the success of the singles \"Misery Business\", \"Crushcrushcrush\", and \"That's What You Get\". The album wascertified Platinumin the US and the band received aBest New Artistnomination at the2008 Grammy Awards.Their 2009 follow-up,Brand New Eyes, reached number two on theBillboard200and became the band's second-highest-charting album to date. It produced the top-forty single \"The Only Exception\" and went platinum in Ireland and the UK. Following the departure of Zac andJosh Farroin 2010, the band released theirself-titled fourth albumin 2013.Paramoregave the band their first number one song on the USBillboard200 and was also the number one album in the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Argentina and Mexico.It included the singles \"Still Into You\" and \"Ain't It Fun\", with the latter winning theGrammy Award for Best Rock Songfor Williams and York as songwriters, making it Paramore's firstGrammywin.The band's lineup changed once again after this album, with bassistJeremy Davisleaving the band near the end of 2015 and former drummer Zac Farro rejoining the band in 2017. Their fifth and sixth studio albums,After LaughterandThis Is Why, were released in May 2017and February 2023, respectively, to critical acclaim. History 2002–2004: Formation and early years In 2002, at age 13, vocalistHayley Williamsmoved from her hometownMeridian, Mississippi, toFranklin, Tennessee,where she met brothers Josh Farro and Zac Farro at a weekly supplemental program for home-schooled students.Shortly after arriving, she began taking vocal lessons with Brett Manning.Prior to forming Paramore, Williams and bassist Jeremy Davis, along with friend Kimee Read, took part in afunkcover band called the Factory, while Josh and Zac Farro had practiced together after school.The other members of what was soon to be Paramore had been \"edgy about the whole female thing\" of having Williams as vocalist, but, because they were good friends, she started writing for them.Williams said of the members when she first met them, \"They were the first people I met who were as passionate about music as I was.\" Williams was originally signed to Atlantic Records as a solo artist in 2003.She had been introduced to Atlantic A&R Tom Storms by Kent Marcus and Jim Zumwalt, lawyers of managers Dave Steunebrink and Richard Williams, and then eventually signed to Atlantic byJason Flom.Steunebrink and Richard Williams had originally discovered and signed her to a production deal that was later bought out by Atlantic.The original plan of the label was to turn her into a pop singer, but Williams resisted, saying that she wanted to play alternative rock music with a band.In an interview withHitQuartersthe band's A&R at Atlantic, Steve Robertson, said, \"She wanted to make sure that we didn't look at her as some straight to Top 40 pop princess. She wanted to make sure that she and her band got the chance to show what they can do as a rock band writing their own songs.\"Label president Julie Greenwald and the label staff decided to go with her wishes. The original management team for the band was Dave Steunebrink,CreedmanagerJeff Hanson, and Hanson's assistant Mark Mercado. The band was officially formed byJosh Farro(lead guitar/backing vocals),Zac Farro(drums), Davis (bass guitar) and Williams (lead vocals) in 2004,with the later addition of Williams' neighbor Jason Bynum (rhythm guitar).When Davis showed up, he was stunned to find out the drummer was only fourteen years old. He admitted \"I had very, very, very, little faith in everyone in the band because of their age. I remember thinking, 'This is not going to work because this kid is way too young,' but that first day of practice was amazing. I knew we were on to something.\"According to Williams, the name \"Paramore\" came from themaiden nameof the mother of one of their first bass players.Once the group learned the meaning of the homophoneparamour('secret lover'), they decided to adopt the name, using theParamorespelling. Paramore was originally supposed to release their music on Atlantic Records, but the label's marketing department decided it would be better for the image of the band to not have them attached to a major label. Instead, they released their music through the niche labelFueled by Ramen.Lyor Cohen, the head ofWarner Music Group, had already identified Fueled by Ramen as a label they should partner with. It was decided the rock label would make an ideal match for Paramore.According to Robertson, when the band was presented to Fueled by Ramen's CEO John Janick, \"he got the vision of the band immediately.\"Janick went to aTaste of Chaosperformance inOrlando, Florida, to see the band perform live. In April 2005, after a smaller private performance at a warehouse, the band was signed to Atlantic Records and Fueled By Ramen. The band's first song written together was \"Conspiracy\", which was later used on their debut album. At this time, they were touring the Southeast, usually being driven by Williams' parents. She commented that \"Back then, I guess we were all thinking, after school, we'll go to the house and practice. It was what we loved to do for fun, and still do! I don't think any of us really knew this would turn out to be what it's become.\" 2005–2006:All We Know Is Falling Paramore traveled back to Orlando, Florida,but shortly after arriving, Jeremy Davis left the band, citing personal reasons. The remaining four members of Paramore continued with the album, writing \"All We Know\" about his departure, and later deciding to baseAll We Know Is Fallingaround the concept. The album artwork also reflected Paramore's grief, as Hayley Williams explains, \"The couch on the cover ofAll We Know is Fallingwith no one there and the shadow walking away; it's all about Jeremy leaving us and us feeling like there's an empty space.\" Before touring, the band added John Hembree (bass) to their lineup to replace Davis.During that summer, Paramore was featured on theShiragirlstage of the 2005Warped Tour.After being asked by the band, Jeremy Davis returned to Paramore after five months apart, replacing Hembree.All We Know Is Fallingwas released on July 26, 2005,and reached No. 30 onBillboard's Heatseekers Chart.Paramore released \"Pressure\" as its first single, with a video directed byShane Drake, but the song failed to chart. The video featured the band performing in a warehouse, eventually getting sprayed with water sprinklers as the storyline of a conflicted couple occurs. In July, \"Emergency\" was released as the second single, the video again reuniting the band with director Shane Drake and featuring Hunter Lamb (rhythm guitar), who replaced Jason Bynum in December 2005.The video for \"Emergency\" showcased Paramore in another performance, this time fixing the members' bloody costumes. The third single, \"All We Know\", was released with limited airtime, with the video consisting of a collection of live performances and backstage footage. After the band's later success,All We Know Is Fallingand \"Pressure\" were certifiedGoldby theRIAA. In January 2006, the band took part in the Winter Go West tour, where they played alongside Seattle bandsAmber Pacificandthe Lashes. In February, Hayley Williams was featured on \"Keep Dreaming Upside Down\" byOctober Fall.In spring of 2006, Paramore was an opening act on tours for bothBaysideandthe Rocket Summer.The band then coveredFoo Fighters' \"My Hero\" for theSound of Supermansoundtrack. During the summer of 2006, Paramore played a portion of Warped Tour, primarily on theVolcomandHurleyStages.During the band's time at Warped Tour, they releasedThe Summer Tic EP, which was sold exclusively during the tour.Paramore's first US headlining tour began on August 2, 2006, to a sold-out audiencewith support fromThis Providence,Cute Is What We Aim For, andHit the Lights.That year they were voted \"Best New Band\", and Hayley Williams was voted as No. 2 \"Sexiest Female\", by readers of the British magazineKerrang!. In 2007, Lamb left the group to get married, and Paramore continued onward as a quartet.Paramore was then named by British magazineNMEas one of ten bands to watch out for in their \"New Noise 2007\" feature.Paramore was featured inKerrang!magazine once more; however, Hayley Williams believed the article was an untrue portrayal of the band, particularly because it focused on her as the main component. Afterwards, Williams addressed the issue in the band'sLiveJournal, with a post saying, \"we could've done without a cover piece. sorry, if it offends anyone at Kerrang! but I don't think there was one bit of truth in that article.\"In April, Hayley Williams' vocals were featured in \"Then Came To Kill\" bythe Chariot.They headlined a tour in April through May 2007 withThis Providence,the Almost, and Love Arcade. The Almost and Love Arcade were replaced byQuietdrivefor the second half of the tour. 2007–2008:Riot! Before work began on the band's next album, Davis was expelled from the band due to \"his lack of work ethic and participation in things that Zac, Hayley and I didn't agree with\", according to Josh Farro. After an agreement involving the remaining three members, Davis was reinstated as bassist, andTaylor Yorkbecame the band's new guitarist.York had been in a band with the Farro brothers before the two met Williams. After being courted by producers Neal Avron andHoward Benson,Paramore opted to record the album with producer David Bendeth inNew Jersey, who had previously worked withYour VegasandBreaking Benjamin.The album, titledRiot!, was released on June 12, 2007,entering theBillboard200 at number 20 and the UK charts at number 24.The album sold 44,000 units its first week in the United States.The nameRiot!had been chosen because it meant \"a sudden outburst of uncontrolled emotion\", and it was a word that \"summed it all up\".\"Misery Business\" was released as the first single from the album.According to when discussing what Misery Business was about, Williams stated, \"When I was 13 or 14 and I had a crush on Josh, he didn't like me back,\" Williams said. \"He would go hang out with his girlfriend, who I wrote 'Misery Business' about because I was a dick.\"In the summer of 2007, Paramore participated in their third Warped Tour, and they posted journals of their experiences on yourhereblog for MTV. On October 11, 2007, the music video for \"Crushcrushcrush\" debuted on the United States television as the next single fromRiot!. The video for \"Crushcrushcrush\" featured the band playing a performance in a barren desert, being spied upon, and later destroying their equipment. The single was released in the United States on November 19 and made available in the United Kingdom on November 12, 2007.Hayley Williams recorded guest vocals for the tracks \"The Church Channel\" and \"Plea\" for theSay Anythingconcept albumIn Defense of the Genre,released on October 23, 2007. The group performed live in an acoustic style inBostonon November 29, 2007, for FNX Radio.On December 31, 2007, Paramore performed on theMTVNew Year's Eveprogram which ran from 11:30 p.m. to 1:00 a.m. Paramore was featured on the cover of February 2008 issue ofAlternative Pressmagazine and voted \"Best Band Of 2007\" by the readers.The band was nominated for \"Best New Artist\" at the50th Annual Grammy Awards, presented on February 10, 2008.Early 2008 saw Paramore touring the United Kingdom, supporting their albumRiot!, along withNew Found Glory.In early February 2008, the band began a tour in Europe;however, on February 21, 2008, the band announced that they had canceled six shows due to personal issues. Williams wrote on the band's web site that \"the break will give that band 'a chance to get away and work out our personal issues'\". MTV.com reported that fans of Paramore were speculating about the future of the band and reported rumors of trouble had begun earlier in the month, when Josh Farro expressed his anger against the media's focus on Hayley Williams.The band, however, returned to their hometown to record the music video for the fourth single \"That's What You Get\", which was then released on March 24, 2008. The band toured withJimmy Eat Worldin the United States in April and May 2008.The band headlined theGive it a Namefestival in the United Kingdom on May 10 and 11, 2008.Paramore played their first Ireland show at theRDSinDublinon June 2, 2008,followed by the 2008Vans Warped Tourfrom July 1–6.Starting on July 28, Paramore embarked on a tour named \"The Final Riot!\".They were joined byJack's Mannequin,Phantom Planet, andPaper Routeon the tour.The band released a live album namedThe Final Riot!on November 25, 2008.The album includes a bonus DVD with a full concert recorded inChicago, as well as a behind the scenes documentary.As of April 9, 2009,The Final Riot!is certified gold in the United States. 2009–2011:Brand New Eyes, departure of the Farros, andSingles Club In September 2008, Williams announced that the band were planning on releasing their third studio album in summer 2009.On November 18, 2008, the band announced they were in the process of writing their next album. Paramore spent six weeks in pre-production at Emac Studios in their hometown ofFranklin, the first time they had undergone pre-production without the guidance of aproducer.The band was visited by record producerRob Cavallowho reassured the band that they were on the right track.The band subsequently felt that the album and that their new material had the potential to surpass the success of their previous work.The band originally planned to record inNashville,but ended up recording inCalabasas, California, with Cavallo in March 2009.The first single from the album was \"Ignorance\" and was released July 7, 2009.Paramore was the special guest withBedouin Soundclash,The SoundsandJanelle Monáeat theNo Doubt Summer Tour 2009, starting in May 2009 in outdoor amphitheaters and arenas across the US and Canada.The official music video for \"Ignorance\" aired on all MTV platforms, networks, and websites on August 13, 2009.Paramore, along withPaper RouteandThe Swellers, toured in support ofBrand New Eyesin the fall of 2009.Some tour dates were postponed due to Hayley Williams becoming infected withlaryngitis.\"Brick By Boring Brick\", \"The Only Exception\", \"Careful\" and \"Playing God\" were the album's following singles.To promote the album, the band recorded a performance forMTV Unplugged. Paramore then played a sold out 15-date European tour withYou Me At Six,Paper Routeand Now Now Every Children.Their stadium tour culminated at London'sWembley Arena, to an audience of 12,500.The band performed in 2010 in theAustralianSoundwave Festivalalong with bands such asFaith No More,AFI,You Me at Six,All Time Low,A Day to Remember, andTaking Back Sunday.Shortly before the tour, lead guitarist Josh Farro announced that he was engaged and stayed behind to plan his wedding.Justin York, brother of Taylor York, filled in for him on the tour.The band, with Farro returned, embarked on a spring tour of the U.S. in late April.The band headlined the 2010Honda Civic Tour, which began on July 23 in Raleigh, NC and closed on September 19 in Anaheim, CA.After a short United Kingdom tour in November 2010,the band announced, on December 2, 2010, the official dates for a South American tour to take place during February and March 2011.The band were set to take a break after their South American Tour in 2011 to write for their fourth studio album. On December 18, 2010, a message was released through Paramore.net stating that Josh and Zac Farro were leaving the band.The band also confirmed the scheduled South American tour would still happen.Josh Farro wrote a statement on the departure on hisBlogger, claiming that the band was \"a manufactured product of amajor-label\". He accused Hayley Williams of being manipulated by her management, treating the rest of the group as hersolo project, and claimed she was the only member of the band who was signed toAtlantic Records, while her bandmates were simply \"riding on the coattails of her dream\".On December 30, 2010,MTV Newsinterviewed Williams, York and Davis inFranklin, Tennessee, regarding their reactions to Farro's response.The band members confirmed many of Farro's statements, notably that Williams was indeed the only member of the band actually signed to Atlantic. They added that they felt the statement was irrelevant, and claimed they had addressed many of the Farro's critiques already throughout the course of their career. On January 10, 2011, in an interview with MTV, Hayley Williams said that despite the band losing two of its founding members, they would release new music in 2011, although they had not confirmed if it would be a full album for release or just a small number of songs.The singer also admitted that Paramore's style was likely to change with the new lineup, but clarified that the band would still retain their core signature sound.Paramore later confirmed they were entering a studio in Los Angeles with producerRob Cavalloto record what would be theSingles Club. On June 3, 2011, Paramore released the single \"Monster\", featured on theTransformers: Dark of the Moonsoundtrack.This is the first song that the band released without the Farro brothers.On June 9, 2011, Hayley Williams announced that the band had started to write their fourth album, which they hoped to start recording at the end of the year, with an early 2012 release.On October 11, 2011, Paramore announced that they would release a new song for each of the remaining months of 2011.The band set up theSingles Clubon their website which gave fans the chance to purchase the singles when they were released, as they were released exclusively through the Singles Club and were therefore not sold elsewhere.A song called \"Renegade\", premiered the day of the announcement,with \"Hello Cold World\" following on November 7,and \"In the Mourning\" on December 5.In 2011, former member, Josh Farro, formed Novel American, with Zac Farro later joining the band. 2012–2015:Paramoreand Davis' third exit On April 18, 2012, Williams announced that the producer for their fourth album wasJustin Meldal-Johnsen.FormerLostprophetsand currentAngels & AirwavesandNine Inch NailsdrummerIlan Rubinwas confirmed to be the session drummer for the recording of the album.Paramorewas officially released on April 5, 2013,and a #1 at US albums chartBillboard200.The first single from the album, titled \"Now\", was released online on January 22, 2013,and the album's second single, \"Still Into You\", was released on March 14, 2013, achieving commercial success.The third single, \"Daydreaming\", was released on December 2, 2013.The album's fourth single, \"Ain't It Fun\", was released on February 4, 2014,eventually becoming the band's highest-charting song in the United Statesand a winner forBest Rock Songat the57th Annual Grammy Awards.On November 24, 2014,Paramore: Self-Titled Deluxewas released, which includes a remake of \"Hate to See Your Heart Break\", a song originally onParamore, featuringJoy Williams; this is the band's first collaboration on a song.The band embarked on an intimate tour withCopeland,they said in a blog post that \"It feels right to bring the Self-Titled era to a close. We've had a very personal and hugely triumphant journey with this one. What wouldn't feel right is saying goodbye to this time in the band's career and not celebrating it with our fans in some special way.\" On December 14, 2015, bassist Jeremy Davis left the band.In March 2016, Davis was involved in a legal battle with Paramore, claiming to be eligible to enjoy the benefits of a business partnership with Hayley Williams as a co-owner of the band. This was quickly dismissed and he was again involved in a legal battle with Hayley Williams and Taylor York over a breach of contract entitling him to ownership and authorship of songs on their self-titled record, including \"Ain't It Fun\", and again, claiming to be eligible to enjoy the benefits of the earnings the two received from these songs and album.Davis reached a settlement with the band in May 2017. During this period, lead singer Williams later revealed that she suffered from depression and mental health issues following the departure of Davis as well as a divorce with her ex-husbandChad Gilbert.In an interview withZane LoweonBeats 1 Radio, shes described it as \"torment\" and mentioned that she \"didn't laugh for a long time\".As a result, Williams privately left the band for a short period in 2015, briefly leaving York as the only remaining member of the group. 2016–2019: Zac Farro's return andAfter Laughter On January 19, 2016, Williams announced that the band was in the process of writing their fifth album.On June 8, 2016, the band posted a short video of themselves in the studio to their social media.This was preceded by a number of images which all included both former drummer Zac Farro and producerJustin Meldal-Johnsen, leading fans and various media outlets to speculate the return of Farro.On June 17, Farro was featured yet again in a picture uploaded to social media, this time behind a drum set, confirming that he would be recording drums for the album,though he later clarified that he was only recording drums for the album and that he had not rejoined the band as a full member.Despite this, on February 2, 2017, the band announced that Farro would return as the official drummer of the band. On April 19, 2017, Paramore released \"Hard Times\" as the lead single from their albumAfter Laughter, which they announced would be released on May 12, 2017.On May 3, a second single was released, titled \"Told You So\".A music video for the song \"Fake Happy\" was released on November 17, 2017.On February 5, 2018, a music video for \"Rose-Colored Boy\" was released,which is also the album's fourth single.The music video for \"Caught in the Middle\", the album's fifth single, was released on June 26, 2018.On September 7, 2018, Hayley Williams announced during a concert that the band will play the song \"Misery Business\" \"for the last time for a really long time\", mainly due to a line from the second verse that was perceived to be sexist,though this decision was reversed in 2022. 2020–present:This Is Why On May 11, 2020, Williams teased a potential return to a more guitar-driven sound on the band's sixth album, commenting, \"We've found ourselves listening to a lot of older music that we grew up being inspired by.\"In January 2022, it was confirmed that the band had entered the studio to work on their upcoming sixth studio album. The band described the album as more \"guitar heavy\".On January 18, the band was announced to headline the newly foundedLas Vegas–basedWhen We Were Youngfestival alongsideMy Chemical Romanceon October 22, 2022, which was one of the first live performances the band had played since September 2018.On May 10, it was announced that the band would headline theAustin City Limits FestivalinAustin,Texas, during October on the 9th and 16th of the same year, alongsideRed Hot Chili Peppers,P!nkandLil Nas X. On July 15, 2022, it was announced that Paramore would be embarking on a tour in October and November 2022.On September 28, 2022, the band released the song \"This Is Why\" as the lead single fromThis Is Why, released on February 10, 2023.In November 2022, the band changed the album cover for their 2013 self-titled album to a picture of Hayley Williams from behind.On December 8, 2022, the band released the second single, \"The News\".On January 12, 2023, the band released the third single, \"C'est Comme Ça\".Paramore was nominated for Favorite Music Group at the2023 Kids' Choice Awards.On February 6, 2023, the band debuted the song \"Running Out of Time\" at their album release show in Nashville.On February 16, 2023, the band released a music video for the album's fourth single, \"Running Out of Time\".The band's song, \"This is Why\", was nominated for \"Best Alternative\" at the2023 MTV Video Music Awards. The band began teasing an upcoming remix album,Re: This Is Whyin late September 2023,posting audio snippets from the album on their officialDiscordserver.The album was officially announced on October 2.The album is set for release on October 6.Described as \"almost a remix album\",Re: This Is Whyfeatures reworked, remixed, and rewritten versions of songs from the band's 2023 albumThis Is Why, as well as an unreleased B-side demo.For the66th Annual Grammy Awards,This Is Whywas nominated forBest Rock Albumand the album's title track was nominated forBest Alternative Music Performance. On December 27, 2023, Paramore wiped their social media accounts and the band's website became inaccessible.A week later, they canceled a co-headlining appearance in Anaheim atiHeartRadio's Alter Ego festival scheduled for January 13, 2024, \"due to unforeseen circumstances\". In their place,Fall Out Boywas announced.Stereogumsaid that Paramore's label contract had expired.On January 10, 2024,A24announced a tribute album for theTalking Headsconcert filmStop Making Sense, which will feature a cover of \"Burning Down The House\" by Paramore as the leading track.In January 2024, the band were nominated for Best International Group at the 2024BRIT Awards.On January 31, their cover of \"Burning Down The House\" was released as a single.On February 4, 2024, the band won two Grammy awards at the66th Annual Grammy Awardswith their album,This Is WhywinningBest Rock Albumand the title track winningBest Alternative Music Performance.On February 10, 2024, Paramore were announced as the ambassador forRecord Store Day2024 and confirmed that they would continue as an independent band after the end of their contract with Atlantic Records.On March 1, 2024, a music video for \"Thick Skull\" was released.In September 2024, during an interview withDork, Williams revealed that Paramore has already started making new music, with demos made before they went on tour withTaylor Swift. Musical style and influences Paramore's music style has generally been regarded aspop-punk,emo,pop rock,alternative rock,power pop,emo pop,new wave,punk rock,pop,grunge,electropop, andsynth-pop.Joshua Martin had written after an interview with Hayley Williams, \"The band isn't just a short pop-punk girl with red hair and a spunky attitude. Their music is like them, it's aged differently. It's sped up, and slowed down. It's emo without being whiny, or bratty. Almost a very literal anti-Avril Lavigne.\"Alternative Pressmagazine had commented that the band was \"young-sounding\", while consistently being \"honest\".Paramore's first albumAll We Know is Fallinghad an arguably more \"formulaic pop-punk\" sound that was \"delivered particularly well\"and the combination of the two had created a \"refined rock infused pop/punk album\".The band's second release,Riot!was said to explore a 'diverse range of styles,\" however, not straying far from \"their signature sound\".The band's later albums, such asParamoreandAfter Laughter, included more of anew waveandsynth-popsound.The band's sixth studio album,This Is Whywent for more of apost-punkanddance-punksound. Alternative Pressand various other reviewers have noted that the band's stage performances have helped boost them to larger fame.Alternative Pressstates that Williams \"has more charisma than singers twice her age, and her band aren't far behind in their chops, either.\"Singer-songwriterJohn Mayerhad praised Williams' voice in a blog in October 2007, calling her \"The great orange hope\"; \"orange\" in reference to her hair color.Due to the female-fronted aspect of the band, Paramore has gained comparisons toKelly Clarksonand the aforementioned Avril Lavigne, to which one reviewer said was \"sorely unfounded\".Reviewer Jonathan Bradley noted that \"Paramore attacks its music with infectious enthusiasm.\" However, he also explained that \"there isn't a whole lot of difference betweenRiot!and the songs from Kelly Clarkson or Avril Lavigne.\"A reviewer atNMEhad likened Paramore's sound to that of \"No Doubt(stripped of all theskabollocks)\" and \"Kelly Clarkson's wildest dreams\".Hayley Williams has gone on to comment about the female aspect of the band saying that Paramore is not \"this girl-fronted band\" and it makes \"music for people to enjoy music, not so people can talk about my sexuality.\" Paramore has expressed appreciation forWeezer,Hum,Failure,Far,No Doubt,Deftones,the Smiths,Blink-182,Death Cab for Cutie,Jimmy Eat World,Sunny Day Real Estate,andNew Found Glory.Hayley Williams has cited her personal influences asMewithoutYou,Elvis Presley,the Shirelles,the Angels,theRamones,Jawbreaker,Freddie Mercury,Karen O,Josh Scogin,Blondie,Bloc Party,NSYNC,Aaliyah,the Smiths,Siouxsie and the Banshees,the Cure,andEtta James.Williams named many singers as heroines: \"I loveDebbie HarryandSiouxsie Sioux. I grew up listening toThe Distillers Girl groups are really important to me, but theShangri-Lasespecially\".Williams also explained that bands such asU2, \"who are massive, and do whatever they want, write whatever they want and they stand for something,\"Jimmy Eat World, \"who I don't think ever disappoint their fans,\" andNo Doubt, who \"have done amazing things\", act as a pattern for the path in which Paramore would like to take their career.In 2012, Williams contributed vocals toMewithoutYou's fifth studio album,Ten Stories. The band members identified themselves asChristiansin the past and in an interview with the BBC, Josh Farro stated \"Our faith is very important to us. It's obviously going to come out in our music because if someone believes something, then their worldview is going to come out in anything they do. But we're not out here to preach to kids, we're out here because we love music.\"Farro later cited differing views on Christianity between him, his brother and Williams as one of the reasons for their departure in 2010.In a 2022 interview, Williams described herself, York, and Zac Farro as being \"at different stages of unravelling their relationship to faith\". Live appearances In 2007, the band played an acoustic set for the grand opening of a Warped Tour exhibit at theRock and Roll Hall of Fame,and the dress Hayley Williams wore in the video for \"Emergency\" was also put on display in the exhibit. In June 2007, they were declared byRolling Stoneas \"Ones to Watch\". In August 2007, Paramore was featured in television spots onMTV, performing acoustic versions of their songs or acting in short accompaniments to MTV program commercials. As \"MTV Artists of the Week\", the band filmed the faux camping-themed spots inQueens, New York, all written and directed by Evan Silver and Gina Fortunato.MTV.com also has a collection ofshort videoswith the band to promoteRiot!as well. For weeks in August 2007, the \"Misery Business\" video was the number one streamed video atMTV.com.On October 8, Paramore played \"Misery Business\" live onLate Night with Conan O'Brien.In August, Paramore participated inNew Found Glory's music video for their cover ofSixpence None the Richer's song \"Kiss Me\". From September 29 to November 1, 2009, the band held a tour in North America to supportBrand New Eyes.The tour for their self-titled fourth album, known asThe Self-Titled Tour, took place in North America from October 15 to November 27, 2013.From June 19 through August 17, 2014, the band also supported the album with theMonumentour. Appearances in films and video games In 2005, Paramore made its first video game appearance with the song \"Pressure\" being featured in the console versions of the video gameThe Sims 2. In March 2008, Paramore made its firstrhythm gameappearance with \"Crushcrushcrush\" as a downloadable track in theRock Bandgames and later being a playable song inGuitar Hero On Tour: Decades.Later that year,Rock Band 2was released with the song \"That's What You Get\" included as a playable track.The video gameGuitar Hero World Tourfeatured the song \"Misery Business\" along withHayley Williamsparticipating in motion capture sessions for the game. She is featured as an unlockable character in the game as well.\"Misery Business\" was also featured as a playable track onRock Band 3, while \"Pressure\", \"The Only Exception\", \"Brick by Boring Brick\", and \"Ignorance\" are available as DLC for the game.In 2015, the song \"Still Into You\" was featured as an on-disc song forRock Band 4. Paramore's song \"Decode\" was the lead single for the novel-basedTwilightfilm.Another song called \"I Caught Myself\" is also featured on the film's soundtrack.\"Decode\" was released on October 1, 2008, on the Paramore Fan Club site as well asStephenie Meyer's website.The music video premiered on November 3.Hot Topichosted listening parties for the soundtrack on October 24, 2008, and the album was released on November 4, 2008.\"Misery Business\" is also featured inSaints Row 2, and the soundtrack forEA SportsNHL 08. The music video for \"Decode\", along with theTwilightfilm trailer, was shown in the North AmericanHome TheaterofPlayStation Homefrom December 11, 2008, to December 18, 2008.The video premiered in full through MTV and its subsidiaries on November 3, 2008, one day ahead of the release of the soundtrack on which the song is featured. Paramore's song \"Now\" is featured as a song for the gameRocksmith 2014.In March 2024, \"Misery Business\" was added as a playable track toFortnite Festival. Band members Current members Current touring musicians Former members Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Tours Headlining tours Co-headlining tours Opening acts See also Notes References External links", "Brand New Eyes Brand New Eyes(stylized inall lowercase) is the third studio album by the AmericanrockbandParamore, released on September 29, 2009, throughFueled by Ramenin the United States and Canada. The album was produced byRob Cavalloand recorded inHidden Hills, Californiafrom January to March 2009.It was written by band membersHayley WilliamsandJosh Farro, with guitaristTaylor Yorkwho co-wrote on four tracks, as a follow-up toRiot!(2007). Praised by critics for its songwriting and the band's increased maturity, the album wonBest Albumat theKerrang! Awards 2010,and \"The Only Exception\" received aGrammynomination forBest Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. Several publications includedBrand New Eyesin their year-end lists. The album produced five singles: \"Ignorance\", \"Brick by Boring Brick\", \"The Only Exception\", \"Careful\", and \"Playing God\", all of which have been commercially successful in the United States and internationally. Brand New Eyesdebuted at number two on theBillboard200selling 175,000 copies in its first week, becoming their biggest album on that chart, until theirself-titled albumdebuted at number one in 2013. The album topped the charts in many countries across the world including Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the United Kingdom, making it the band's second-highest charting album to date. The album was certified platinum in the United States by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA), the United Kingdom by theBritish Phonographic Industry(BPI), and Australia by theAustralian Recording Industry Association(ARIA).It was also certified gold in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand. The band promoted the album with theBrand New Eyes World Tour, playing shows inNorth America,Asia,Europe, etc., as well as with festival appearances. Brand New Eyeswas the final album recorded by Paramore beforeJoshandZac Farrodeparted the band in 2010.Zac Farro would later rejoin in 2017. Background and production After the release ofRiot!(2007), a blog post in early 2008 was posted stating that Paramore were having \"internal issues.\" Coupled with a week of cancelled shows, speculation arose that the band was going to break up.Not long after, it was resolved and claimed to be an issue of the members never having time to talk about things such as how they \"were all growing up, and sometimes, when you're growing up, you're not always growing together\". Further struggles to write new material had singerHayley Williamsexpressing doubts about songwriting and meeting the expectations placed on the band after the success ofRiot!.In September 2008, Williams revealed that the band might release their next album in summer 2009.On November 18, 2008, the band announced they were writing their next album, again mentioning that it might be out in summer 2009. Paramore spent six weeks in pre-production at Emac Studios in their hometown ofFranklin, the first time they had undergone pre-production without the guidance of aproducer.A visit from record producerRob Cavalloreassured the band that they were on the right track. \"The album totally rocks,\" Cavallo said, \"yet it's also very subtle.\"The band subsequently felt that the album and that their new material had the potential to surpass the success of their previous work.Although it was originally planned to record the album close to home inNashville,the band commenced recording inCalabasas, Californiawith Cavallo at the end of March 2009.They then added to the original material written at home with additional tunes written with the help of Cavallo after the move to Calabasas.Similar to most rock records, the band mostly tracked the drums first, followed by the rest of the members recording scratch tracks that they later overdubbed.Paramore finished production by May 2009. Composition I was writing these lyrics, and they didn't feel good — some of it hurt, some of it was like, 'Am I being too honest even with myself?' I had doubts that it was the right record. —Hayley Williams on the \"doubts\" she had with the initial writing of the record. The album's sound has been described asalternative rock,pop-punk,emo pop,andemo.Williams was concerned about lyrics that involved current issues, as opposed to resolved issues that she had written about in the past. \"I was like, 'This isn't a feel-good song, because I'm writing about something I'm going through right now, and it's still painful,'\" she continued. \"And I confused that with actually not liking the songs, when actually I was prouder of them than I've ever been before. They're heavier emotions for me... I'm still going through some of this stuff, and these songs are really healing to me.\" The band as a whole treated the writing as a therapeutic experience, which helped them hash out old differences.Now that \"all those words were out on the table\", they were able to have their first real conversations in a long time, resolving the internal struggles they had been facing, by going back to the reasons why they started the band and had wanted to play music in the first place.Consequently, Paramore decided to name the recordBrand New Eyesbecause of the allusion to seeing things from a whole new perspective, \"Just trying to let go of whatever we might have struggled with the past and just see each other in a new way,\" explained Williams.The band soon felt that they were onto the right track, and, retrospectively looking back onRiot!, Paramore guitarist,Josh Farro, said \"Riot! was a kiddie album, but we had to do that to get to this point.\" Promotion and release On April 29, 2009, it was revealed that the band's next album would be released in September.The first single from the album was \"Ignorance\", which was made available viadigital downloadon July 7, on the same date the album became available for pre-order on Paramore's official website.Brand New Eyeswas released on September 29 throughFueled by Ramen. The album's cover, an image of abutterflydivided from its wings, inspired the line \"The angles were all wrong / Now she's ripping wings off of butterflies\".Two versions of the album were made available: a standardCDedition as well as a deluxe, limited edition package that has sold out worldwide. The deluxe version included the album on CD with the acoustic versions of Where The Lines Overlap and Ignorance, a 40-page hardcover journal written by Hayley Williams, an exclusive poster that comes with only the box set, a booklet with the lyrics from all the songs from Brand New Eyes, a color vinyl7-inch singlewith the acoustic versions of Ignorance and Where The Lines Overlap, one picture of each band member, a certificate of authenticity, and a DVD featuring a 30 minute long exclusive 'making-of' documentary.The CD was also one of the first to useiTunes LP. \"Brick by Boring Brick\" was confirmed to be the second single from the album, released in November 2009.In December, the group went on a headlining UK tour with support fromYou Me at Six.In November 2010, the group went on a headlining UK tour.The fifth single from the album, \"Playing God\", was released on the November 16. To assist with promotion of the single, a music video for \"Playing God\", was also released.The album was released in high resolution (96 kHz/24bit) onHDtracks.comin 2012. The high res version has a greater dynamic range than the CD release.In January 2015 another deluxe edition of the album was released in high resolution (96 kHz/24bit) on the US store of the British company 7digital: this edition includes the acoustic version of Ignorance (also featured on the physical 2009 deluxed edition mentioned above) and two new, previously unreleased, acoustic versions of Brick by Boring Brick and Turn It Off (both later included in the iTunes deluxe edition bundle). Critical reception According toMetacritic,Brand New Eyesholds a score of 73 out of 100, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\", based on 18 reviews through October 1, 2009.AbsolutePunk.netwriter Julia Conny scored the album at 82% and praised frontwomanHayley Williams, \"Simultaneously down-to-earth and on top of the world, there is something about this Williams character that makes an album likeBrand New Eyesmore than another notch on that bitchy pop-rock bedpost. Just imagine what will happen when the band hits their mid-twenties.\"Andrew Leahey ofAllMusicgave the album a positive review, stating,Brand New Eyespresents Paramore as a stronger, leaner, and altogether more consistent band.\" Evan Lucy ofBillboardalso wrote a favorable review, saying, \"Although the new set may lack the wide-eyed naiveté that made the group's past efforts so endearing, the newfound maturity makes for a compelling set of songs.\"Big Cheesemagazine awarded a maximum five star rating and Cathy Reay wrote, \"Brand New Eyesis a huge milestone for an intelligent, honest young band that deserve far more mainstream recognition than they get.\" Alternative Pressawarded the album 4.5 out of 5 and Scott Heisel praised the improvement of the album over its predecessor; \"Riot!was ridiculously top-loaded, with an unmemorable second half.Eyesastonishes from start to finish, with the bouncy and confessional \"Looking Up\" and the immensely powerful track \"All I Wanted\" showing up as diamonds in an already gem-covered rough\".Sarah Bee, journalist for theBBCgave a largely favorable review and summarized, \"If you didn't like Paramore before, their third album is unlikely to sway you. They make the kind of forceful, commercial emo-pop that music lovers love to hate. However, as forceful, commercial emo-pop goes – and it does –Brand New Eyesis very good. It is brash and gauche, but charming.\" Rock Soundhowever, went on to laud the slower efforts. \"The album's big surprise comes in the form of the stripped-down closing tracks 'Misguided Ghosts' and 'All I Wanted', which see the fragility of Hayley's vocals laid against sparse instrumentation with truly immaculate results.\" Reviewer Faye Lewis went on to summarize, \"Paramore are a young band growing up in the public glare, and although that would send many to the funny farm, it's made this quintet even stronger andBrand New Eyesis by far their best record yet\". Jon Dolan ofRolling Stonescored the album at three stars out of five. Much like Leonie Cooper ofNME, he was critical of slower moments: \"But some of the sweeping moments blunt the band's fresh-faced immediacy — as if the cute kids from the sticks have had a hard time turning pro.\"Spinmagazine awarded four stars out of five in their review and complimented the band for standing out in a generic genre. \"Paramore's follow-up,Brand New Eyes, which, at a moment of wet-and-wild Warped Tour cynicism (seeCobra Starshipand3OH!3), offers a principled reminder of a more earnest, honest age.\" Drowned In Soundawarded the album eight out of ten and while writer Paul Stephen Gettings stated the record isn't \"pushing any boundaries\", he praised its longevity: \" if you're already a critic, this isn't going to convince you otherwise. This is a realization, and an affirmation, of Paramore's musical craftmanship and potential longevity. They have allowed themselves to grow and still retain the innocence and optimism that makes them so irresistible.\" Kerrang!reviewer Dan Slessor gave the album 4 Ks (4/5) and claimed, \"...inBrand New Eyesthey have arguably delivered the most accomplished and affecting record of their career.\"NMEwere also favorable in their review. Although being critical of the album's slower moments, Leonie Cooper praised the record as a whole; \"Sure, the two slower tracks might make for a break in the relentless pace, but who needs the rest? If you just so happen to be one of the best in the up-tempo pop-smattered emo-punk game, why bother slowing down? For this lot, more is most certainly more.\" Accolades Commercial performance Commercially,Brand New Eyeswas a major success. In the United States, the album debuted at number two on theBillboard200,selling 175,000 copies.The following week the album slipped to number nine, selling an additional 44,000 copies.The album stayed on the main album chart for 32 weeks.In addition to the Billboard 200, the album managed to peak at number one on the BillboardRockandAlternative Albumscharts.On January 19, 2010, less than six months after the album was released,Brand New Eyeswas certified gold by theRIAAfor shipments of 500,000 albums and platinum on March 22, 2016 for shipments of 1,000,000 albums. Tour Paramore went on tour withNo Doubtbetween mid-May and early August 2009.The band announced their North American tour forBrand New Eyeson their official site, withThe SwellersandPaper Routejoining them as opening acts. The first show of the tour was played at a packedFox TheatreinPomona, California, on September 29, 2009 (the day of the album's release).During \"Decode\", Williams lost her voice. Lead guitarist Josh Farro spoke to the crowd and although their set was cut short, the band played \"Misery Business\" instrumentally while the crowd sang Williams's vocal parts. The tour, which previously went from September 29 to November 1, 2009, was later officially postponed on October 2, 2009, due to a case oflaryngitisfor singer Williams.The full tour resumed on October 10, 2009, in Chicago. The band also announced that they would be doing a European tour starting off in Helsinki, Finland, on November 29, 2009, withYou Me at Six,Paper Route, and Now, Now Every Children supporting all UK tour dates. They performed in February 2010 in theAustralian Soundwave Festival,along with bands such asYou Me at Six,Taking Back Sunday,All Time LowandAlexisonfire. They performed at the Soundwave Festival before they did the Brand New Eyes Tour in Australia. Then in the first week of March they performed two concerts in New Zealand, one to a sell out crowd of 5,000 in Auckland and the other in Christchurch.They also performed in Singapore and the Philippines, respectively, as the last two legs of their Pacific Rim Tour. Paramore have supportedGreen Dayon their tour. They opened the concerts of Green Day in Dublin, Ireland, on June 23, 2010 and in Paris, France, on June 26, 2010. In July, August and September 2010, the band announced a tour in theHonda Civic Tour2010.In May 2010, the band had a short UK tour for November 2010.After just one day of being on sale they added a second date at the O2 arena due to huge demand for tickets. They later added 2 extra dates to take it up to 8 concerts instead of the original 5. In June 2010, the band announced a short Australia Tour for October.In November 2010, the band announced a short in South American Tour for February and March 2011, and the band announced a short in American tour for December. In July 2011, the band had a short Europe tour. Track listing All tracks are written byHayley WilliamsandJosh Farro, except where noted Limited edition bonus DVD Personnel Paramore Management Artwork Production Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References External links" ]
[ "Michael Jackson Michael Joseph Jackson(August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, dancer, and philanthropist. Dubbed the \"King of Pop\", he is regarded asone of the most significant cultural figuresof the 20th century. Over a four-decade career, his contributions to music, dance, and fashion, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture. Jackson influenced artists across many music genres. Through stage and video performances, he popularized street dance moves such as themoonwalk, which he named, and therobot. He was the eighth child of theJackson family, and made his public debut in 1964 with his older brothersJackie,Tito,Jermaine, andMarlonas a member ofthe Jackson 5(later known as the Jacksons). The Jackson 5 signed withMotownin 1968 and achieved worldwide success with Michael as lead singer. Jackson began his solo career in 1971 while at Motown and recorded multiple successful singles. He became a global solo star with his 1979 albumOff the", "1979 albumOff the Wall.His music videos, including those for \"Beat It\", \"Billie Jean\", and \"Thriller\" from his 1982 albumThriller, are credited with breakingracial barriersand transforming the medium into an art form and promotional tool. He helped popularizeMTVand continued to innovate with videos for his albumsBad(1987),Dangerous(1991),HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I(1995), andInvincible(2001).Thrilleris thebest-selling album of all time, whileBadwas the first album to produce five USBillboardHot 100number-one singles. From the late 1980s, Jackson became a figure of controversy and speculation due tohis changing appearance,relationships, behavior, and lifestyle. In 1993, hewas accused of sexually abusingthe child of a family friend. The lawsuit was settled out of civil court; Jackson was not indicted due to lack of evidence. In 2005, hewas tried and acquittedof further child sexual abuse allegations and several other charges. TheFederal Bureau of Investigationfoundno evidence of criminal", "of criminal conductby Jackson. In 2009, while he was preparing for a series of comeback concerts,This Is It, Jacksondiedfrom an overdose ofpropofoladministered by his personal physician,Conrad Murray, who wasconvicted in 2011ofinvoluntary manslaughterfor his involvement in Jackson's death. His death triggered reactions around the world, creating unprecedented surges of internet traffic and a spike in sales of his music.Jackson's televised memorial service, held at theStaples Centerin Los Angeles, was estimated to have been viewed by more than 2.5 billion people. Jackson is one of thebest-selling music artistsof all time, with estimated sales of over 500million records worldwide.He had 13BillboardHot 100 number-one singles(the fourth-highest of any artist in the Hot 100 era) and was the first artist to have a top-ten single on theBillboardHot 100 in five different decades. His honors include 15Grammy Awards, sixBrit Awards, aGolden Globe Award, and 39Guinness World Records, including the \"Most Successful", "\"Most Successful Entertainer of All Time\". Jackson's inductions include theRock and Roll Hall of Fame(twice), theVocal Group Hall of Fame, theSongwriters Hall of Fame, theDance Hall of Fame(making him the only recording artist to be inducted) and theNational Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame. Life and career Early life and the Jackson 5 (1958–1975) Michael Joseph Jacksonwas born inGary, Indiana, on August 29, 1958.He was the eighth of ten children in theJackson family, a working-classAfrican-Americanfamily living in a two-bedroom house on Jackson Street.His mother,Katherine Esther Jackson(néeScruse), played clarinet and piano, had aspired to be acountry-and-westernperformer, and worked part-time atSears.She was aJehovah's Witness.His father,Joseph Walter \"Joe\" Jackson, a former boxer, was a crane operator atUS Steeland played guitar with a localrhythm and bluesband, the Falcons, to supplement the family's income.Joe's great-grandfather, July \"Jack\" Gale, was a US Armyscout; family lore held that he was also a", "that he was also a Native Americanmedicine man.Michael grew up with three sisters (Rebbie,La Toya, andJanet) and five brothers (Jackie,Tito,Jermaine,Marlon, andRandy).A sixth brother, Marlon's twin Brandon, died shortly after birth. In 1964, Michael and Marlon joined the Jackson Brothers—a band formed by their father which included Jackie, Tito and Jermaine—as backup musicians playingcongasandtambourine.Michael said his father told him he had a \"fat nose\",and physically and emotionally abused him during rehearsals. He recalled that Joe often sat in a chair with a belt in his hand as he and his siblings rehearsed, ready to punish any mistakes.Joe acknowledged that he regularly whipped Michael.Katherine said that although whipping came to be considered abuse, it was a common way to discipline children when Michael was growing up.Jackie, Tito, Jermaine and Marlon denied that their father was abusive and said that the whippings, which had a deeper impact on Michael because he was younger, kept them disciplined", "them disciplined and out of trouble.Michael said that during his youth he was lonely and isolated. Later in 1965, Michael began sharing lead vocals with Jermaine, and the group's name was changed tothe Jackson 5.In 1965, the group won a talent show; Michael performed the dance toRobert Parker's 1965 song \"Barefootin'\" and sangthe Temptations' \"My Girl\".From 1966 to 1968, the Jacksons 5 toured theMidwest; they frequently played at a string of black clubs known as theChitlin' Circuitas the opening act for artists such asSam & Dave,the O'Jays,Gladys KnightandEtta James. The Jackson 5 also performed at clubs and cocktail lounges, wherestripteaseshows were featured, and at local auditoriums and high school dances.In August 1967, while touring theEast Coast, they won a weekly amateur night concert at theApollo TheaterinHarlem. The Jackson 5 recorded several songs for a Gary record label,Steeltown Records; their first single, \"Big Boy\", was released in 1968.Bobby Taylor ofBobby Taylor & the Vancouversbrought the", "the Jackson 5 toMotownafter they opened for Taylor at Chicago'sRegal Theaterin 1968. Taylor produced some of their early Motown recordings, including a version of \"Who's Lovin' You\".After signing with Motown, the Jackson family relocated to Los Angeles.In 1969, Motown executives decidedDiana Rossshould introduce the Jackson 5 to the public — partly to bolster her career in television — sending off what was considered Motown's last product of its \"production line\".The Jackson 5 made their first television appearance in 1969 in theMiss Black Americapageant, performing a cover of \"It's Your Thing\".Rolling Stonelater described the young Michael as \"a prodigy\" with \"overwhelming musical gifts\" who \"quickly emerged as the main draw and lead singer\". In January 1970, \"I Want You Back\" became the first Jackson 5 song to reach number one on the USBillboardHot 100; it stayed there for four weeks. Three more singles with Motown topped the chart: \"ABC\", \"The Love You Save\", and \"I'll Be There\".In May 1971, the Jackson", "1971, the Jackson family moved into a large house atHayvenhurst, a 2-acre (0.81 ha) estate inEncino, California.During this period, Michael developed from a child performer into ateen idol.Between 1972 and 1975, he released four solo studio albums with Motown:Got to Be There(1972),Ben(1972),Music & Me(1973) andForever, Michael(1975).\"Got to Be There\" and \"Ben\", the title tracks from his first two solo albums, sold well as singles, as did a cover ofBobby Day's \"Rockin' Robin\". Michael maintained ties to the Jackson 5.The Jackson 5 were later described as \"a cutting-edge example of blackcrossover artists\".They were frustrated by Motown's refusal to allow them creative input.Jackson's performance of their top five single \"Dancing Machine\" onSoul Trainpopularized therobot dance. Move to Epic andOff the Wall(1975–1981) The Jackson 5 left Motown in 1975, signing withEpic Recordsand renaming themselves the Jacksons.Their younger brother Randy joined the band around this time; Jermaine stayed with Motown and pursued", "Motown and pursued a solo career.The Jacksons continued to tour internationally, and released six more albums between 1976 and 1984. Michael, the group's main songwriter during this time, wrote songs such as \"Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)\" (1978), \"This Place Hotel\" (1980), and \"Can You Feel It\" (1980). In 1977, Jackson moved to New York City to star as theScarecrowinThe Wiz, a musical film directed bySidney Lumet, alongsideDiana Ross,Nipsey Russell, and Ted Ross.The film was a box-office failure.Its score was arranged byQuincy Jones,who later produced three of Jackson's solo albums.During his time in New York, Jackson frequented theStudio 54nightclub, where he heard earlyhip hop; this influenced hisbeatboxingon future tracks such as \"Working Day and Night\".In 1978, Jackson unsatisfied with his nose, decided to have arhinoplasty.He was referred toSteven Hoefflin, who performed Jackson's operations. Jackson's fifth solo album,Off the Wall(1979), established him as a solo performer and helped him move", "and helped him move from thebubblegumpop of his youth to more complex sounds.It produced four top 10 entries in the US: \"Off the Wall\", \"She's Out of My Life\", and the chart-topping singles \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\" and \"Rock with You\".The album reached number three on the USBillboard200and sold over 20million copies worldwide.In 1980, Jackson won threeAmerican Music Awardsfor his solo work: Favorite Soul/R&B Album, Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist, and Favorite Soul/R&B Single for \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\".He also won a Grammy Award for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for 1979 with \"Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough\".In 1981, Jackson was the American Music Awards winner for Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist.Jackson feltOff the Wallshould have made a bigger impact, and was determined to exceed expectations with his next release.In 1980, he secured the highestroyaltyrate in the music industry: 37 percent of wholesale album profit. ThrillerandMotown 25: Yesterday, Today,", "Yesterday, Today, Forever(1982–1983) Jackson recorded withQueen's lead singerFreddie Mercuryfrom 1981 to 1983, recording demos of \"State of Shock\", \"Victory\" and \"There Must Be More to Life Than This\". The recordings were intended for an album of duets but, according to Queen's managerJim Beach, the relationship soured when Jackson brought allamainto the recording studio,and Jackson was upset by Mercury's drug use.\"There Must Be More to Life Than This\" was released in 2014.Jackson went on to record \"State of Shock\" withMick Jaggerfor the Jacksons' albumVictory(1984). In 1982, Jackson contributed \"Someone in the Dark\" to theaudiobook for the filmE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial. Jackson's sixth album,Thriller, was released in late 1982. It was the bestselling album worldwide in 1983,and became the bestselling album of all time in the USand thebest-selling album of all time worldwide, selling an estimated70 millioncopies.It topped theBillboard200 chart for 37 weeks and was in the top 10 of the 200 for 80 consecutive", "for 80 consecutive weeks. It was the first album to produce sevenBillboardHot 100 top-10 singles, including \"Billie Jean\", \"Beat It\", and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\". On March 25, 1983, Jackson reunited with his brothers forMotown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever, an NBC television special. The show aired on May 16 to an estimated audience of47 million, and featured the Jacksons and other Motown stars.Jackson's solo performance of \"Billie Jean\" earned him his firstEmmy Awardnomination.Wearing a glove decorated withrhinestones,he debuted hismoonwalk dance, whichJeffrey Danielhad taught him three years earlier, and it became his signature dance in his repertoire.Jackson had originally turned down the invitation to the show, believing he had been doing too much television. But at the request of Motown founderBerry Gordy, he performed in exchange for an opportunity to do a solo performance.Rolling Stonereporter Mikal Gilmore called the performance \"extraordinary\".Jackson's performance drew comparisons toElvis", "comparisons toElvis Presley's andthe Beatles' appearances onThe Ed Sullivan Show.Anna KisselgoffofThe New York Timespraised the perfect timing and technique involved in the dance.Gordy described being \"mesmerized\" by the performance. At the26th Annual Grammy Awards,Thrillerwon eight awards, and Jackson won an award for theE.T. the Extra-Terrestrialstorybook. Winning eight Grammys in one ceremony is a record he holds with the bandSantana.Jackson and Quincy Jones won the award for Producer of the Year (Non-Classical).Thrillerwon Album of the Year (with Jackson as the album's artist and Jones as its co-producer), and the single won Best Pop Vocal Performance (Male) award for Jackson. \"Beat It\" won Record of the Year and Best Rock Vocal Performance (Male). \"Billie Jean\" won two Grammy awards: Best R&B Song and Best R&B Vocal Performance (Male), with Jackson as songwriter and singer respectively. Thrillerwon the Grammy for Best Engineered Recording (Non Classical), acknowledgingBruce Swedienfor his work on the", "his work on the album.At the11th Annual American Music Awards, Jackson won another eight awards and became the youngest artist to win the Award of Merit.He also won Favorite Male Artist, Favorite Soul/R&B Artist, and Favorite Pop/Rock Artist. \"Beat It\" won Favorite Soul/R&B Video, Favorite Pop/Rock Video and Favorite Pop/Rock Single. The album won Favorite Soul/R&B Album and Favorite Pop/Rock Album.Thriller's sales doubled after the release of an extended music video,Michael Jackson's Thriller, which sees Jackson dancing with a horde of zombies. The success transformed Jackson into a dominant force in global pop culture.Jackson had the highest royalty rate in the music industry at that point, with about $2 for every album sold (equivalent to $6 in 2023), and was making record-breaking profits. Dolls modeled after Jackson appeared in stores in May 1984 for $12 each.In the same year,The Making of Michael Jackson's Thriller, a documentary about the music video, won a Grammy for Best Music Video", "Best Music Video (Longform).Timedescribed Jackson's influence at that point as \"star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style and color too.\"The New York Timeswrote \"in the world of pop music, there is Michael Jackson and there is everybody else\". Pepsi incident, \"We Are the World\" and other commercial activities (1984–1985) In November 1983, Jackson and his brothers partnered withPepsiCoin a $5million promotional deal that broke records for a celebrity endorsement (equivalent to $15.3 million in 2023). The first Pepsi campaign, which ran in the US from 1983 to 1984 and launched its \"New Generation\" theme, included tour sponsorship, public relations events, and in-store displays. Jackson helped to create the advertisement, and suggested using his song \"Billie Jean\", with revised lyrics, as itsjingle. On January 27, 1984,", "January 27, 1984, Michael and other members of the Jacksons filmed a Pepsi commercial overseen byPhil Dusenberry,aBBDOad agency executive, andAlan Pottasch, Pepsi's Worldwide Creative Director, at theShrine Auditoriumin Los Angeles. During a simulated concert before a full house of fans, pyrotechnics accidentally set Jackson's hair on fire, causingsecond-degree burnsto his scalp. Jackson underwent treatment to hide the scars and had his third rhinoplasty shortly thereafter. Pepsi settled out of court, and Jackson donated the $1.5million (equivalent to $4.4 million in 2023) settlement to theBrotman Medical CenterinCulver City, California; its now-closed Michael Jackson Burn Center was named in his honor.Jackson signed a second agreement with Pepsi in the late 1980s for $10million (equivalent to $26.8 million in 2023). The second campaign covered 20 countries and provided financial support for Jackson'sBadalbum and 1987–88 world tour. Jackson had endorsements and advertising deals with other companies, such", "companies, such asLA Gear,Suzuki, andSony, but none were as significant as his deals with Pepsi. TheVictory Tourof 1984 headlined the Jacksons and showcased Jackson's new solo material to more than two million Americans. It was the last tour he did with his brothers.Followingcontroversy over the concert's ticket sales, Jackson donated his share of the proceeds, an estimated$3 to 5 million, to charity.During the last concert of the Victory Tour at theDodger Stadiumin Los Angeles, Jackson announced his split from the Jacksons during \"Shake Your Body\". WithLionel Richie, Jackson co-wrote the charity single \"We Are the World\" (1985), which raised money for the poor in the US and Africa.It earned $63million (equivalent to $178 million in 2023),and became one of thebest-selling singles of all time, with 20million copies sold.It won four Grammy Awards in 1985, including Song of the Year for Jackson and Richie.Jackson, Jones, and the promoter Ken Kragen received special awards for their roles in the song's creation.", "song's creation. Jackson collaborated withPaul McCartneyin the early 1980s, and learned that McCartney was making $40million a year from owning the rights to other artists' songs.By 1983, Jackson had begun buying publishing rights to others' songs, but he was careful with his acquisitions, only bidding on a few of the dozens that were offered to him. Jackson's early acquisitions ofmusic catalogsand song copyrights such as theSly Stonecollection included \"Everyday People\" (1968),Len Barry's \"1-2-3\" (1965), andDion DiMucci's \"The Wanderer\" (1961) and \"Runaround Sue\" (1961). In 1984,Robert Holmes à Courtannounced he was selling theATV Music Publishingcatalog comprising the publishing rights to nearly 4,000 songs, including most of the Beatles' material.In 1981, McCartney had been offered the catalog for £20million ($40million) (equivalent to $134 million in 2023).Jackson submitted a bid of $46million (equivalent to $135 million in 2023) on November 20, 1984.When Jackson and McCartney were unable to make a joint", "to make a joint purchase, McCartney did not want to be the sole owner of the Beatles' songs, and did not pursue an offer on his own.Jackson's agents were unable to come to a deal, and in May 1985 left talks after having spent more than $1million and four months ofdue diligencework on the negotiations. In June 1985, Jackson and Branca learned thatCharles Koppelman's andMarty Bandier's The Entertainment Company had made a tentative offer to buy ATV Music for $50million; in early August, Holmes à Court contacted Jackson and talks resumed. Jackson's increased bid of $47.5million (equivalent to $135 million in 2023) was accepted because he could close the deal more quickly, having already completed due diligence.Jackson agreed to visit Holmes à Court in Australia, where he would appear on theChannel Seven Perth Telethon.His purchase of ATV Music was finalized on August 10, 1985. Increased tabloid speculation (1986–1987) Jackson's skin had been medium-brown during his youth, but from the mid-1980s gradually grew", "gradually grew paler. The change drew widespread media coverage, including speculation that he had beenbleaching his skin.His dermatologist,Arnold Klein, said he observed in 1983 that Jackson hadvitiligo,a condition characterized by patches of the skin losing their pigment. He also identifieddiscoid lupus erythematosusin Jackson. He diagnosed Jackson with lupus that year,and with vitiligo in 1986.Vitiligo's drastic effects on the body can cause psychological distress. Jackson used fair-colored makeup,and possibly skin-bleaching prescription creams,to cover up the uneven blotches of color caused by the illness. The creams would depigment the blotches, and, with the application of makeup, he could appear very pale.Jackson said he had not purposely bleached his skin and could not control his vitiligo, adding, \"When people make up stories that I don't want to be who I am, it hurts me.\"He became friends with Klein and Klein's assistant,Debbie Rowe. Rowe later became Jackson's second wife and the mother of his", "the mother of his first two children. In his 1988 autobiography and a 1993 interview, Jackson said he had had tworhinoplastysurgeries and acleft chinsurgery but no more than that. He said he lost weight in the early 1980s because of a change in diet to achieve a dancer's body.Witnesses reported that he was often dizzy, and speculated he was suffering fromanorexia nervosa. Periods of weight loss became a recurring problem later in his life.After his death, Jackson's mother said that he first turned tocosmetic proceduresto remedy his vitiligo, because he did not want to look like a \"spotted cow\". She said he had received more than the two cosmetic surgeries he claimed and speculated that he had become addicted to them. In 1986, it was reported that Jackson slept in ahyperbaric oxygen chamberto slow aging. He denied the story,although it was alleged that Jackson leaked an image of him sleeping in a glass chamber (according to Jackson, this was a promotional shot from anupcoming space opera featuring himself)", "featuring himself) toThe National Enquirer.It was also reported that Jackson took female hormone shots to keep his voice high and facial hair wispy, proposed toElizabeth Taylorand possibly had a shrine of her, and had cosmetic surgery on his eyes. Jackson's managerFrank DiLeodenied all of them, except for Jackson having a chamber. DiLeo added \"I don't know if he sleeps in it. I'm not for it. But Michael thinks it's something that's probably healthy for him. He's a bit of a health fanatic.\" When Jackson took his pet chimpanzeeBubblesto tour in Japan, the media portrayed Jackson as an aspiringDisneycartoon character who befriended animals.It was also reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones ofJoseph Merrick(the \"Elephant Man\").In June 1987, theChicago Tribunereported Jackson's publicist bidding $1million for the skeleton to theLondon Hospital Medical Collegeon his behalf. The college maintained the skeleton was not for sale. DiLeo said Jackson had an \"absorbing interest\" in Merrick, \"purely based on", "\"purely based on his awareness of the ethical, medical and historical significance.\" In September 1986, using the oxygen chamber story, the British tabloidThe Sunbranded Jackson \"Wacko Jacko\", a name Jackson came to despise.The Atlanticnoted that the name \"Jacko\" has racist connotations, as it originates fromJacko Macacco, a monkey used inmonkey-baitingmatches at theWestminster Pitin the early 1820s, and \"Jacko\" was used inCockney slangto refer to monkeys in general. Jackson worked withGeorge LucasandFrancis Ford Coppolaon the 17-minute $30million3D filmCaptain EO, which ran from 1986 atDisneylandandEpcot, and later atTokyo DisneylandandEuro Disneyland.After having been removed in the late 1990s, it returned to the theme park for several years after Jackson's death.In 1987,Ebonyreported that Jackson had disassociated himself from the Jehovah's Witnesses.Katherine Jackson said this might have been because some Witnesses strongly opposed theThrillervideo,which Michael denounced in a Witness publication in", "publication in 1984.In 2001, Jackson told an interviewer he was still a Jehovah's Witness. Bad, autobiography, and Neverland (1987–1990) Jackson's first album in five years,Bad(1987), was highly anticipated, with the industry expecting another major success.It became the first album to produce five US number-one singles: \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\", \"Bad\", \"The Way You Make Me Feel\", \"Man in the Mirror\", and \"Dirty Diana\". Another song, \"Smooth Criminal\", peaked at number seven.Badwon the 1988 Grammy for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical and the 1990Grammy Award for Best Music Video, Short Form for \"Leave Me Alone\".Jackson won an Award of Achievement at the American Music Awards in 1989 afterBadgenerated five number-one singles, became the first album to top the charts in 25 countries and the bestselling album worldwide in 1987 and 1988.By 2012, it had sold between 30 and 45million copies worldwide. TheBad World Tourran from September 12, 1987, to January 27, 1989.In Japan, the tour had 14", "the tour had 14 sellouts and drew 570,000 people, nearly tripling the previous record for a single tour.The 504,000 people who attended seven sold-out shows atWembley Stadiumset a newGuinness World Record. In 1988, Jackson released his autobiography,Moonwalk, with input from Stephen Davis andJacqueline Kennedy Onassis.It sold 200,000 copies,and reached the top of theNew York Timesbestsellers list.Jackson discussed his childhood, the Jackson 5, and the abuse from his father.He attributed his changing facial appearance to three plastic surgeries, puberty, weight loss, a strict vegetarian diet, a change in hairstyle, and stage lighting.In June, Jackson was honored with the Grand VermeilMedal of the City of Parisby the then Mayor of ParisJacques Chiracduring his stay in the city as part of theBad World Tour.On July 20, Jackson became the firstcommonerin history to enter London'sGuildhallthrough the building's Royal Entrance.In October, Jackson released a film,Moonwalker, which featured live footage and short", "footage and short films starring Jackson andJoe Pesci. In the US it was releaseddirect-to-videoand became the bestselling video cassette in the country.TheRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) certified it as eight times Platinum in the US. In March 1988, Jackson purchased 2,700 acres (11 km2) of land nearSanta Ynez, California, to build a new home,Neverland Ranch, at a cost of $17million (equivalent to $44 million in 2023).He installed aFerris wheel, acarousel, a movie theater and a zoo.A security staff of 40 patrolled the grounds.Shortly afterwards, he appeared in the first Western television advertisement in theSoviet Union. Jackson became known as the \"King of Pop\", a nickname that Jackson's publicists embraced.WhenElizabeth Taylorpresented him with the Soul Train Heritage Award in 1989, she called him \"the true king of pop, rock and soul.\"PresidentGeorge H. W. Bushdesignated him the White House's \"Artist of the Decade\".At the 38thBMI Awardsin 1990, Jackson was the first person to be honored", "to be honored with an award named after its recipient.From 1985 to 1990, Jackson donated $455,000 to theUnited Negro College Fund,and all profits from his single \"Man in the Mirror\" went to charity.His rendition of \"You Were There\" atSammy Davis Jr.'s 60th birthday celebration won Jackson a second Emmy nomination.Jackson was the bestselling artist of the 1980s. Dangerousand public social work (1991–1993) In March 1991, Jackson renewed his contract with Sony for $65million (equivalent to $145 million in 2023), arecord-breaking deal,beatingNeil Diamond's renewal contract withColumbia Records.In 1991, he released his eighth album,Dangerous, co-produced withTeddy Riley.It was certified eight times platinum in the US, and by 2018 had sold 32million copies worldwide.In the US, the first single, \"Black or White\", was the album's highest-charting song; it was number one on theBillboardHot 100 for seven weeks and achieved similar chart performances worldwide.The second single, \"Remember the Time\" peaked at number", "peaked at number three on theBillboardHot 100 singles chart.At the end of 1992,Dangerouswas the bestselling album of the year worldwide and \"Black or White\" the bestselling single of the year worldwide at theBillboardMusic Awards.In 1993, he performed \"Remember the Time\" at theSoul Train Music Awardsin a chair, saying he twisted his ankle during dance rehearsals.In the UK, \"Heal the World\" made No. 2 on the charts in 1992. Jackson founded theHeal the World Foundationin 1992. The charity brought underprivileged children to Jackson's ranch to use the theme park rides, and sent millions of dollars around the globe to help children threatened by war, poverty, and disease. That July, Jackson published his second book,Dancing the Dream,a collection of poetry. TheDangerous World Tourran between June 1992 and November 1993 and grossed$100 million(equivalent to $210 million in 2023); Jackson performed for over 3.5 million people in 70 concerts, all of which were outside the US.Part of the proceeds went to Heal the", "went to Heal the World Foundation.Jackson sold the broadcast rights of the tour toHBOfor $20million, a record-breaking deal that still stands. Following the death ofHIV/AIDSspokesperson and friendRyan White, Jackson pleaded with the Clinton administration atBill Clinton's inaugural galato give more money to HIV/AIDS charities and researchand performed \"Gone Too Soon\", a song dedicated to White, and \"Heal the World\" at the gala.Jackson visited Africa in early 1992; on his first stop in Gabon he was greeted by more than 100,000 people, some of them carrying signs that read \"Welcome Home Michael\",and was awarded an Officer of theNational Order of Meritfrom PresidentOmar Bongo.During his trip to Ivory Coast, Jackson drew larger crowds thanPope John Paul IIon his previous visits.He was crowned \"King Sani\" by a tribal chief in the Ivorian village ofKrindjabo, where he thanked the dignitaries in French and English, signed documents formalizing his kingship, and sat on a golden throne while presiding over ceremonial", "over ceremonial dances. In January 1993, Jackson performed at theSuper Bowl XXVII halftime showin Pasadena, California. TheNFLsought a big-name artist to keep ratings high during halftime following dwindling audience figures.With 133.4 million viewers, it was the first Super Bowl whose halftime show drew greater audience figures than the game.Jackson played \"Jam\", \"Billie Jean\", \"Black or White\", and \"Heal the World\".Dangerousrose 90 places in the US albums chart after the performance. Jackson gavea 90-minute interviewwithOprah Winfreyon February 10, 1993. He spoke of his childhood abuse at the hands of his father; he believed he had missed out on much of his childhood, and said that he often cried from loneliness. He denied tabloid rumors that he had bought the bones of the Elephant Man, slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber, or bleached his skin, and stated for the first time that he had vitiligo. After the interview,Dangerousre-entered the US albums chart in the top 10, more than a year after its", "a year after its release.The interview itself becamethe most-watched television interview in United States historyto date, with more than 90 million viewers. In January 1993, Jackson won threeAmerican Music Awards: Favorite Pop/Rock Album (Dangerous), Favorite Soul/R&B Single (\"Remember the Time\"), and was the first to win the International Artist Award of Excellence.In February, he won the \"Living Legend Award\" at the35th Annual Grammy Awardsin Los Angeles.He attended the award ceremony withBrooke Shields.Dangerouswas nominated for Best Vocal Performance (for \"Black or White\"), Best R&B Vocal Performance (\"Jam\") and Best R&B Song (\"Jam\"), and Bruce Swedien and Teddy Riley won the Grammy for Best Engineered – Non Classical. First child sexual abuse accusations and first marriage (1993–1995) In August 1993, Jackson was accused ofchild sexual abuseby a 13-year-old boy, Jordan Chandler, and his father, Evan Chandler.Jordan said he and Jackson had engaged in acts of kissing,masturbationandoral sex.While Jordan's", "sex.While Jordan's mother initially told police that she did not believe Jackson had molested him, her position wavered a few days later.Evan was recorded discussing his intention to pursue charges, which Jackson used to argue that he was the victim of a jealous father trying to extort money.Jackson's older sister La Toya accused him of being a pedophile;she later retracted this, saying she had been forced into it by her abusive husband. Police raided Jackson's home in August and found two legal large-format art books featuring young boys playing, running and swimming in various states of undress.Jackson denied knowing of the books' content and claimed if they were there, someone had to have sent them to him and he did not open them.Jordan Chandler gave police a description of Jackson's genitals. A strip search was made, and the jurors felt the description was not a match.In January 1994, Jackson settled with the Chandlers out of court for a reported total sum of $23million.The police never pressed criminal", "pressed criminal charges.Citing a lack of evidence without Jordan's testimony, the state closed its investigation on September 22, 1994. Jackson had been takingpainkillersfor his reconstructive scalp surgeries, administered due to the Pepsi commercial accident in 1984, and became dependent on them to cope with the stress of the sexual abuse allegations.On November 12, 1993, Jackson canceled the remainder of the Dangerous World Tour due to health problems, stress from the allegations and painkiller addiction. He thanked his close friendElizabeth Taylorfor support, encouragement and counsel. The end of the tour concluded his sponsorship deal with Pepsi. In late 1993, Jackson proposed toLisa Marie Presley, the daughter of Elvis Presley, over the phone.They were married inLa Vega, Dominican Republic, in May 1994 by civil judge Hugo Francisco Álvarez Pérez.The tabloid media speculated that the wedding was a publicity stunt to deflect away from Jackson's sexual abuse allegations and jump-start Presley's career as", "Presley's career as a singer.Their marriage ended little more than a year later, and they separated in December 1995.Presley cited \"irreconcilable differences\" when filing for divorce the next month and only sought to reclaim her maiden name as her settlement.After the divorce, Judge Pérez said, \"They lasted longer than I thought they would. I gave them a year. They lasted a year and a half.\"Presley later said she and Jackson had attempted to reconcile intermittently for four years following their divorce, and that she had traveled the world to be with him. Jackson composed music for theSega Genesisvideo gameSonic the Hedgehog 3(1994), but left the project around the time the sexual abuse allegations surfaced and went uncredited.TheSega Technical Institutedirector Roger Hector and theSonicco-creatorNaoto Ohshimasaid that Jackson's involvement was terminated and his music reworked following the allegations.However, Jackson's musical directorBrad Buxerand other members of Jackson's team said Jackson went", "said Jackson went uncredited because he was unhappy with how the Genesis replicated his music. HIStory, second marriage, fatherhood andBlood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix(1995–1997) In June 1995, Jackson released the double albumHIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I. The first disc,HIStory Begins, is agreatest hits album(reissued in 2001 asGreatest Hits: HIStory, Volume I). The second disc,HIStory Continues, contains 13 original songs and two cover versions. The album debuted at number one on the charts and has been certified for eight million shipments in the US.It is the bestselling multi-disc album of all time, with 20million copies (40million units) sold worldwide.HIStoryreceived a Grammy nomination forAlbum of the Year.TheNew York Timesreviewed it as \"the testimony of a musician whose self-pity now equals his talent\". The first single fromHIStorywas \"Scream/Childhood\". \"Scream\", a duet with Jackson's youngest sister Janet, protests the media's treatment of Jackson during the 1993 child", "the 1993 child abuse allegations against him. The single reached number five on theBillboardHot 100,and received a Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals\".The second single, \"You Are Not Alone\", holds the Guinness world record for the first song to debut at number one on theBillboardHot 100 chart.It received a Grammy nomination for \"Best Pop Vocal Performance\" in 1995. In 1995 theAnti-Defamation Leagueand other groups complained that \"Jew me, sue me, everybody do me/ Kick me,kikeme, don't you black or white me\", the original lyrics of \"They Don't Care About Us\", wereantisemitic. Jackson released a revised version of the song. In late 1995, Jackson was admitted to a hospital after collapsing during rehearsals for a televised performance, caused by a stress-relatedpanic attack.In November, Jackson merged his ATV Music catalog with Sony's music publishing division, creatingSony/ATV Music Publishing. He retained ownership of half the company, earning $95million up front (equivalent to $190", "(equivalent to $190 million in 2023) as well as therights to more songs. \"Earth Song\" was the third single released fromHIStory, and topped theUK Singles Chartfor six weeks over Christmas 1995.It became the 87th-bestselling single in the UK.At the1996 Brit Awards, Jackson's performance of \"Earth Song\" was disrupted byPulpsingerJarvis Cocker, who was protesting what Cocker saw as Jackson's \"Christ-like\" persona. Jackson said the stage invasion was \"disgusting and cowardly\". In 1996, Jackson won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form, for \"Scream\" and an American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist.In July 1996, Jackson performed forSultan Hassanal Bolkiah's fiftieth birthday atJerudong Park Amphitheater, which was specifically built for that birthday concert.Jackson was reportedly paid $17 million (equivalent to $33 million in 2023).Jackson promotedHIStorywith theHIStory World Tour, from September 7, 1996, to October 15, 1997. He performed 82 concerts in five continents, 35 countries and 58", "35 countries and 58 cities to over 4.5million fans, his most attended tour. It grossed$165 million.During the tour, in Sydney, Australia, Jackson marriedDebbie Rowe, a dermatology assistant, who was six months pregnant with his first child. Michael Joseph Jackson Jr. (commonly known as Prince) was born on February 13, 1997. His sisterParis-Michael Katherine Jacksonwas born on April 3, 1998.Jackson and Rowe divorced in 2000, Rowe conceded custody of the children, with an $8million settlement (equivalent to $14.6 million in 2023).In 2004, after thesecond child abuse allegations against Jackson, she returned to court to reclaim custody. The suit was settled in 2006. In 1997, Jackson releasedBlood on the Dance Floor: HIStory in the Mix, which contained remixes of singles fromHIStoryand five new songs. Worldwide sales stand at6 millioncopies, making it thebest-selling remix album. It reached number one in the UK, as did the single \"Blood on the Dance Floor\".In the US, the album reached number 24 and was certified", "and was certified platinum. Label dispute andInvincible(1997–2002) From October 1997 to September 2001, Jackson worked on his tenth solo album,Invincible, which cost$30 million(equivalent to $51.6 million in 2023) to record, making it themost expensive albumof all time.In June 1999, Jackson joinedLuciano Pavarottifor aWar Childbenefit concert inModena, Italy. The show raised a million dollars for refugees of theKosovo War, and additional funds for the children ofGuatemala.Later that month, Jackson organized a series of \"Michael Jackson & Friends\" benefit concerts in Germany andKorea. Other artists involved includedSlash,The Scorpions,Boyz II Men,Luther Vandross,Mariah Carey,A. R. Rahman,Prabhu DevaSundaram,Shobana,Andrea Bocelliand Luciano Pavarotti. The proceeds went to theNelson Mandela Children's Fund, theRed CrossandUNESCO.In 1999, Jackson was presented with the \"Outstanding Humanitarian Award\" atBollywood Movie Awardsin New York City where he notedMahatma Gandhito have been an inspiration for him.From", "for him.From August 1999 to 2000, he lived in New York City at 4East 74th Street.At the turn of the century, Jackson was awarded with the Artist of the 1980s Decade Award at the27th American Music Awards,and the Best-Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium Award at the 12ndWorld Music Awards.In 2000,Guinness World Recordsrecognized him for supporting 39 charities, more than any other entertainer. In September 2001,two concertswere held at Madison Square Garden to mark Jackson's 30th year as a solo artist. Jackson performed with his brothers for the first time since 1984. The show also featuredMýa,Usher,Whitney Houston,Destiny's Child,Monica,Liza Minnelliand Slash. The first show was marred by technical lapses, and the crowd booed a speech byMarlon Brando.45million people watched the television broadcast of the shows in November according toNielsen Media Research.After theSeptember 11 attacks(in which Jackson narrowly avoided death by oversleeping and missing a scheduled meeting at theWorld Trade Center),", "Trade Center), Jackson helped organize theUnited We Stand: What More Can I Givebenefit concert atRobert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadiumin Washington, D.C., on October 21, 2001. Jackson performed \"What More Can I Give\" as the finale. The release ofInvinciblewas preceded by a dispute between Jackson and his record label, Sony Music Entertainment. Jackson had expected the licenses to the masters of his albums to revert to him in the early 2000s, after which he would be able to promote the material however he pleased and keep the profits, but clauses in the contract set the revert date years into the future. Jackson sought an early exit from his contract.Invinciblewas released on October 30, 2001. It was Jackson's first full-length album in six years, and the last album of original material he released in his lifetime.It debuted at number one in 13 countries, and went on to sell eightmillion copies worldwide, receiving double-platinum certification in the US. On January 9, 2002, Jackson won his 22nd American Music", "22nd American Music Award for Artist of the Century.Later that year, an anonymoussurrogate mothergave birth to his third child, Prince Michael Jackson II (nicknamed \"Blanket\"), who had been conceived byartificial insemination.On November 20, Jackson briefly held Blanket over the railing of his Berlin hotel room, four stories above ground level, prompting widespread criticism in the media. Jackson apologized for the incident, calling it \"a terrible mistake\".On January 22, promoter Marcel Avram filed a breach of contract complaint against Jackson for failing to perform two planned 1999 concerts.In March, a Santa Maria jury ordered Jackson to pay Avram $5.3million.On December 18, 2003, Jackson's attorneys dropped all appeals on the verdict and settled the lawsuit for an undisclosed amount. On April 24, 2002, Jackson performed atApollo Theater. The concert was a fundraiser for the Democratic National Committee and former President Bill Clinton.The money collected would be used to encourage citizens to vote. It", "to vote. It raised $2.5million.The concert was calledMichael Jackson: Live at the Apolloand was one of Jackson's final on-stage performances. In July 2002, atAl Sharpton'sNational Action Networkin Harlem, Jackson called the Sony Music chairmanTommy Mottola\"a racist, and very, very, very devilish\", and accused him of exploiting black artists for his own gain. The accusation prompted Sharpton to form a coalition investigating whether Mottola exploited black artists.Jackson charged that Mottola had called his colleagueIrv Gottia \"fatnigger\".Sony issued a statement calling the accusations \"ludicrous, spiteful, and hurtful\" and said Mottola had championed Jackson's career for years.Sony refused to renew Jackson's contract and said that a$25 millionpromotional campaign had failed because Jackson refused to tour in the US forInvincible. Documentary,Number Ones, second child abuse allegations and acquittal (2002–2005) Beginning in May 2002, a documentary film crew led byMartin Bashirfollowed Jackson for several", "Jackson for several months.The documentary, broadcast in February 2003 asLiving with Michael Jackson, showed Jackson holding hands and discussing sleeping arrangements with a twelve-year-old boy.He said that he saw nothing wrong with having sleepovers with minors and sharing his bed and bedroom with various people, which aroused controversy. He insisted that the sleepovers were not sexual and that his words had been misunderstood. In October 2003, Jackson received theKey to the CityofLas Vegasfrom MayorOscar Goodman.On November 18, 2003, Sony releasedNumber Ones, agreatest hits compilation. It was certified five times platinum by the RIAA, and ten times platinum in the UK, for shipments of at least 3million units. On December 18, 2003, Santa Barbara authorities charged Jackson with seven counts of child molestation and two counts of intoxicating a minor withalcoholic drinks.Jackson denied the allegations and pleaded not guilty.ThePeople v. Jacksontrial began on January 31, 2005, inSanta Maria, California,", "Maria, California, and lasted until the end of May. Jackson found the experience stressful and it affected his health. If convicted, he would have faced up to twenty years in prison.On June 13, 2005, Jackson was acquitted on all counts.FBI files on Jackson, released in 2009, revealed the FBI's role in the 2005 trial and the 1993 allegations, and showed that the FBI found no evidence of criminal conduct on Jackson's behalf. Final years, financial problems,Thriller 25and This Is It (2005–2009) After the trial, Jackson became reclusive.In June 2005, he moved toBahrainas a guest ofSheikh Abdullah.In early 2006, it was announced that Jackson had signed a contract with a Bahrain startup, Two Seas Records. Nothing came of the deal, and the Two Seas CEO,Guy Holmes, later said it was never finalized.Holmes also found that Jackson was on the verge of bankruptcy and was involved in 47 ongoing lawsuits.By September 2006, Jackson was no longer affiliated with Two Seas. In April 2006, Jackson agreed to use a piece of his", "use a piece of his ATV catalog stake, then worth about $1billion, ascollateralagainst his $270million worth of loans fromBank of America. Bank of America had sold the loans toFortress Investments, an investment company that buys distressed loans, the year before. As part of the agreement, Fortress Investments provided Jackson a new loan of $300million with reduced interest payments (equivalent to $450 million in 2023). Sony Music would have the option to buy half of his stake, or about 25% of the catalog, at a set price. Jackson's financial managers had urged him to shed part of his stake to avoid bankruptcy.The main house at Neverland Ranch was closed as a cost-cutting measure, while Jackson lived in Bahrain at the hospitality of Abdullah.At least thirty of Jackson's employees had not been paid on time and were owed $306,000 in back wages. Jackson was ordered to pay $100,000 in penalties.Jackson never returned to Neverland after his acquittal. In mid-2006, Jackson moved toGrouse Lodge, a residential", "a residential recording studio nearRosemount, County Westmeath, Ireland. There, he began work on a new album with the American producerswill.i.amandRodney Jenkins.That November, Jackson invited anAccess Hollywoodcamera crew into the studio in Westmeath.On November 15, Jackson briefly joined in on a performance of \"We Are the World\" at theWorld Music Awardsin London, his last public performance, and accepted the Diamond Award for sales of100 millionrecords.He returned to the US in December, settling in Las Vegas. That month, he attendedJames Brown's funeral inAugusta, Georgia, where he gave a eulogy calling Brown his greatest inspiration. In 2007, Jackson and Sony bought another music publishing company,Famous MusicLLC, formerly owned byViacom. The deal gave Jackson the rights to songs byEminemandBeck, among others.In a brief interview, Jackson said he had no regrets about his career despite his problems and \"deliberate attempts to hurt \".That March, Jackson visited a US Army post in Japan,Camp Zama, to greet", "Zama, to greet more than 3,000 troops and their families.As of September, Jackson was still working on his next album, which he never completed. In 2008, for the 25th anniversary ofThriller, Jackson and Sony releasedThriller 25, with two remixes released as singles: \"The Girl Is Mine 2008\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008\".For Jackson's 50th birthday, Sony BMG released a series of greatest hits albums,King of Pop,with different tracklists for different regions.That July, Fortress Investments threatened toforecloseon Neverland Ranch, which Jackson had used as collateral for his loans. Fortress sold Jackson's debts toColony CapitalLLC.In November, Jackson transferred Neverland Ranch's title to Sycamore Valley Ranch Company LLC, a joint venture between Jackson and Colony Capital LLC. The deal earned him$35 million.In 2009, Jackson arranged to sell a collection of his memorabilia of more than 1,000 items throughJulien's Auction House, but canceled the auction in April. In March 2009, amid speculation about", "speculation about his finances and health, Jackson announced a series of comeback concerts,This Is It, at a press conference atthe O2 Arena.The shows were to be his first major concerts since the HIStory World Tour in 1997. Jackson suggested he would retire after the shows. The initial plan was for ten concerts in London, followed by shows in Paris, New York City and Mumbai. Randy Phillips, the president and chief executive ofAEG Live, predicted the first ten dates would earn Jackson £50million. The London residency was increased to fifty dates after record-breaking ticket sales; more than one million were sold in less than two hours.The concerts were to run from July 13, 2009, to March 6, 2010. Jackson moved to Los Angeles, where he rehearsed in the weeks leading up to the tour under the direction of the choreographerKenny Ortega, whom he had worked with during his previous tours. Rehearsals took place atthe Forumand theStaples Centerowned by AEG.By this point, Jackson's debt had grown to almost $500", "to almost $500 million. By the time of his death, he was three or four months behind payments on his home in San Fernando Valley.The Independentreported that Jackson planned a string of further ventures designed to recoup his debts, including a world tour, a new album, films, a museum and a casino. Death On June 25, 2009, less than three weeks before his concert residency was due to begin in London, with all concerts sold out, Jackson died from cardiac arrest, caused by apropofolandbenzodiazepineoverdose.Conrad Murray, his personal physician, had given Jackson various medications to help him sleep at his rented mansion inHolmby Hills, Los Angeles. Paramedics received a911call at 12:21 pmPacific time(19:21 UTC) and arrived at the property four minutes later.Jackson was not breathing andCPRwas performed.Resuscitation efforts continued en route toRonald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for more than an hour after Jackson's arrival there, but were unsuccessful,and Jackson was pronounced dead at 2:26 pm Pacific", "at 2:26 pm Pacific time (21:26 UTC).Murray had administeredpropofol,lorazepam, andmidazolam;Jackson's death was caused by a propofol overdose. News of his death spread quickly online, causing websites to slow down andcrashfrom user overload,and it put unprecedented strainon many services and websites includingGoogle,AOL Instant Messenger,Twitter and Wikipedia.Overall,web trafficrose by between 11% and 20%.MTV andBETairedmarathonsof Jackson's music videos,and Jackson specials aired on television stations around the world.MTV briefly returned to its original music video format,and they aired hours of Jackson's music videos, with live news specials featuring reactions from MTV personalities and other celebrities. Memorial service Jackson's memorial was held on July 7, 2009, at theStaples Centerin Los Angeles, preceded by a private family service atForest Lawn Memorial Park's Hall of Liberty. Over 1.6million fans applied for tickets to the memorial; the 8,750 recipients were drawn at random, and each received", "and each received two tickets.The memorial service was one of the most watched events instreaminghistory,with an estimated US audience of 31.1millionand a worldwide audience of an estimated 2.5 to 3 billion. Mariah Carey,Stevie Wonder,Lionel Richie,Jennifer Hudson, andShaheen Jafargholiperformed at the memorial, andSmokey RobinsonandQueen Latifahgave eulogies.Al Sharptonreceived a standing ovation with cheers when he told Jackson's children: \"Wasn't nothing strange about your daddy. It was strange what your daddy had to deal with. But he dealt with it anyway.\"Jackson's 11-year-old daughterParis Katherine, speaking publicly for the first time, wept as she addressed the crowd.Lucious Smith provided a closing prayer.On September 3, 2009, the body of Jackson was entombed atForest Lawn Memorial ParkinGlendale, California. Criminal investigation and prosecution of Conrad Murray In August 2009, theLos Angeles County Coronerruled that Jackson's death was ahomicide.Law enforcement officialscharged", "officialscharged Murraywithinvoluntary manslaughteron February 8, 2010.In late 2011, he was found guilty of involuntary manslaughterand held without bail to await sentencing.Murray was sentenced to four years in prison, but was released after one year and eleven months. Posthumous sales At the2009 American Music Awards, Jackson won four posthumous awards, including two for his compilation albumNumber Ones, bringing his total American Music Awards to 26.In the year after his death, more than 16.1million copies of Jackson's albums were sold in the US alone, and 35million copies were sold worldwide, more than any other artist in 2009.He became the first artist to sell one millionmusic downloadsin a week, with 2.6million song downloads.Thriller,Number OnesandThe Essential Michael Jacksonbecame the first catalog albums to outsell any new album.Jackson also became the first artist to have four of the top-20 bestselling albums in a single year in the US.Within the year following his death, Jackson sold over 75", "sold over 75 million records worldwide.By the end of 2013, Jackson had sold over 50 million albums worldwide since his death. Following the surge in sales, in March 2010, Sony Music signed a $250million deal (equivalent to $350 million in 2023) with theJackson estateto extend their distribution rights to Jackson's back catalog until at least 2017; it had been due to expire in 2015. It was themost expensive music contractfor a single artist in history.They agreed to release ten albums of previously unreleased material and new collections of released work.The deal was extended in 2017.That July, a Los Angeles court awardedQuincy Jones$9.4million of disputed royalty payments forOff the Wall,Thriller, andBad.In July 2018, Sony/ATV bought the estate's stake in EMI for $287.5million. In 2014, Jackson became the first artist to have a top-ten single in theBillboardHot 100 in five different decades.The following year,Thrillerbecame the first album to be certified for 30million shipments by theRecording Industry", "Industry Association of America(RIAA).A year later, it was certified 33× platinum afterSoundscanadded streams and audio downloads to album certifications. In February 2024, Sony Music acquired half of Jackson's publishing rights and recording masters for an estimated $600million. The deal includes assets from Jackson's Mijac publishing catalog, but excludes royalties from several Jackson-related productions, including theMJBroadway musical and theMichaelbiopic. The deal is possibly the largest transaction ever for a single musician's work. Posthumous releases and productions Jackson's posthumous releases and productions are administered by theestate of Michael Jackson, which owns Jackson's trademarks and rights to his name, image and likeness.The first posthumous Jackson song, \"This Is It\", co-written in the 1980s withPaul Anka, was released in October 2009. The surviving Jackson brothers reunited to record backing vocals.It was followed by a documentary film about the rehearsals for the canceled This Is It", "canceled This Is It tour,Michael Jackson's This Is It,anda compilation album.Despite a limited two-week engagement, the film became the highest-grossing documentary or concert film ever, with earnings of more than$260 millionworldwide.Jackson's estate received 90% of the profits.In late 2010, Sony released the first posthumous album,Michael, and the lead single \"Hold My Hand\", a duet withAkon. The Jackson collaborator will.i.am expressed disgust, saying that Jackson would not have approved the release. The video game developerUbisoftreleased amusic gamefeaturing Jackson for the 2010 holiday season,Michael Jackson: The Experience. It was among the first games to useKinectandPlayStation Move, the motion-detecting camera systems forXbox 360andPlayStation 3.In April 2011,Mohamed Al-Fayed, the chairman ofFulham Football Club, unveiled astatue of Jacksonoutside the club stadium,Craven Cottage.It was moved to theNational Football Museumin Manchester in May 2014,and removed from display in March 2019 following", "2019 following renewed sexual assault allegations. In October 2011, the theater companyCirque du SoleillaunchedMichael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour,a $57-million production,in Montreal, with a permanent showresidentin Las Vegas.A larger and more theatrical Cirque show,Michael Jackson: One,designed for residency at theMandalay Bayresort in Las Vegas, opened on May 23, 2013, in a renovated theater. In 2012, in an attempt to end a family dispute, Jackson's brother Jermaine retracted his signature on a public letter criticizing executors of Jackson's estate and his mother's advisors over the legitimacy of his brother's will.T.J. Jackson, the son of Tito Jackson, was given co-guardianship of Michael Jackson's children after false reports of Katherine Jackson going missing.Xscape, an album of unreleased material, was released on May 13, 2014.The lead single, a duet between Jackson andJustin Timberlake, \"Love Never Felt So Good\", reached number 9 on the USBillboardHot 100, making Jackson the first artist to", "the first artist to have a top-10 single on the chart in five different decades. Later in 2014,Queenreleased a duet recorded with Jackson in the 1980s.A compilation album,Scream, was released on September 29, 2017.Ajukebox musical,MJ the Musical, premiered on Broadway in 2022.Myles Frostwon the 2022Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musicalfor his portrayal of Jackson.On November 18, 2022, Epic released a40th-anniversary edition reissue ofThriller.A biographical film based on Jackson's life,Michael, directed byAntoine Fuqua, is scheduled for April 2025.Jackson is played by his nephewJaafar Jackson.Deadline Hollywoodreported that the film \"will not shy away from the controversies of Jackson's life\".Since Jackson's death his estate has grossed 2 Billion in ticket revenue from theMusical production,Documentaryand two Cirque shows. Posthumous child sexual abuse allegations In 2013, choreographerWade Robsonfiled a lawsuit alleging that Jackson had sexually abused him for seven years, beginning when he was seven years", "he was seven years old (1989–1996).In 2014, a case was filed by James Safechuck, alleging similar sexual abuse over a four-year period starting when Safechuck was ten (1988–1992).Both had previously testified in Jackson's defense during the 1993 allegations; Robson did so again in 2005.In 2015, Robson's case against Jackson's estate was dismissed as it had been filed too late. Safechuck's claim was also time-barred. In 2017, it was ruled that Jackson's corporations could not be held accountable for his alleged past actions.The rulings were appealed. On October 20, 2020, Safechuck's lawsuit against Jackson's corporations was again dismissed. The judge ruled that there was no evidence that Safechuck had had a relationship with Jackson's corporation, nor was it proven that there was a special relationship between the two.On April 26, 2021, Robson's case was dismissed because of a lack of supporting evidence that the defendants exercised control over Jackson. Robson and Safechuck's allegations were the subject", "were the subject of the documentary filmLeaving Neverland, released in March 2019.Radio stations in New Zealand, Canada, the UK and the Netherlands removed Jackson's music from their playlists.Jackson's family condemned the film as a \"public lynching\",and the Jackson estate released a statement calling the film a \"tabloid character assassination endured in life, and now in death\".Close associates of Jackson, such asCorey Feldman,Aaron Carter, Brett Barnes, andMacaulay Culkin, defended Jackson in the wake of the documentary's release, saying that Jackson had never molested them. Documentaries such asSquare One: Michael Jackson,Neverland Firsthand: Investigating the Michael Jackson DocumentaryandMichael Jackson: Chase the Truth, presented information countering the claims suggested byLeaving Neverland.Jackson's album sales increased following the documentary screenings.Billboardsenior editor Gail Mitchell said she and a colleague interviewed about thirty music executives who believed Jackson's legacy could", "legacy could withstand the controversy.In late 2019, some New Zealand and Canadian radio stations re-added Jackson's music to their playlists, citing \"positive listener survey results\". On February 21, 2019, the Jackson estate sued HBO for breaching a non-disparagement clause from a 1992 contract. The suit sought to compel HBO to participate in a non-confidential arbitration that could result in $100million or more in damages awarded to the estate.HBO said they did not breach a contract and filed an anti-SLAPPmotion against the estate. In September 2019, JudgeGeorge H. Wudenied HBO's motion to dismiss the case, allowing the Jackson estate to arbitrate.HBO appealed, but in December 2020 the appeals court affirmed Wu's ruling. In 2020, a state law passed in California which granted plaintiffs in child sex abuse cases an additional period to file lawsuits. In October 2020 and again in April 2021, theLos Angeles County Superior Courtruled that MJJ Productions Inc. and MJJ Ventures Inc. employees were not legally", "were not legally obligated to protect the two men from Jackson. In August 2023, California's Second District Court of Appeal overturned the ruling, and the case was approved to move forward totrial court. Legacy Jackson has been referred to as the \"King of Pop\" for having transformed the art of music videos and paving the way for modern pop music. For much of Jackson's career, he had an unparalleled worldwide influence over the younger generation.His influence extended beyond the music industry; he impacted dance, led fashion trends, and raised awareness for global affairs.Jackson's music and videos fostered racial diversity in MTV's roster and steered its focus from rock to pop music and R&B, leading to the discontinuation of thealbum-oriented rockformat previously dominant on the channel. In songs such as \"Black or White\", \"Heal the World\", \"Earth Song\" and \"They Don't Care About Us\", Jackson's music emphasizedracial integrationand environmentalism and protested injustice.He is recognized as the Most", "as the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time byGuinness World Records.Jackson has also appeared onRolling Stone's lists of the Greatest Singers of All Time.He is considered one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century,and his contributions to music, dance, and fashion, along with his publicized personal life, made him a global figure in popular culture for over four decades. Trying to trace Michael Jackson's influence on the pop stars that followed him is like trying to trace the influence of oxygen and gravity. So vast, far-reaching and was his impact—particularly in the wake ofThriller's colossal and heretofore unmatched commercial success—that there weren't a whole lot of artists whoweren'ttrying to mimic some of the Jackson formula. Danyel Smith, chief content officer of Vibe Media Group and the editor-in-chief ofVibe,described Jackson as \"the greatest star\".Steve Huey of AllMusic called him \"an unstoppable juggernaut, possessed of all the skills to dominate the charts seemingly at", "charts seemingly at will: an instantly identifiable voice, eye-popping dance moves, stunning musical versatility and loads of sheer star power\".BET said Jackson was \"quite simply the greatest entertainer of all time\" whose \"sound, style, movement and legacy continues to inspire artists of all genres\". In 1984,Timepop criticJay Cockswrote that \"Jackson is the biggest thing since the Beatles. He is the hottest single phenomenon since Elvis Presley. He just may be the most popular black singer ever.\" He described Jackson as a \"star of records, radio, rock video. A one-man rescue team for the music business. A songwriter who sets the beat for a decade. A dancer with the fanciest feet on the street. A singer who cuts across all boundaries of taste and style, and color too.\"In 2003,The Daily TelegraphwriterTom Utleydescribed Jackson as \"extremely important\" and a \"genius\".At Jackson's memorial service on July 7, 2009, Motown founder Berry Gordy called Jackson \"the greatest entertainer that ever lived\".In a June", "lived\".In a June 28, 2009Baltimore Sunarticle, Jill Rosen wrote that Jackson's legacy influenced fields including sound, dance, fashion, music videos and celebrity. Pop criticRobert Christgauwrote that Jackson's work from the 1970s to the early 1990s showed \"immense originality, adaptability, and ambition\" with \"genius beats, hooks, arrangements, and vocals (though not lyrics)\", music that \"will stand forever as a reproach to the puritanical notion that pop music is slick or shallow and that's the end of it\". During the 1990s, as Jackson lost control of his \"troubling life\", his music suffered and began to shape \"an arc not merely of promise fulfilled and outlived, but of something approaching tragedy: a phenomenally ebullient child star tops himself like none before, only to transmute audibly into a lost weirdo\".In the 2000s, Christgau wrote: \"Jackson's obsession with fame, his grotesque life magnified by his grotesque wealth, are such an offense to rock aesthetes that the fact that he's a great musician is", "a great musician is now often forgotten\". Philanthropy and humanitarian work Jackson is widely regarded as having been a prolific philanthropist and humanitarian.Jackson's early charitable work has been described byThe Chronicle of Philanthropyas having \"paved the way for the current surge in celebrity philanthropy\",and by theLos Angeles Timesas having \"set the standard for generosity for other entertainers\". By some estimates, he donated over $500 million, not accounting for inflation, to various charities over the course of his life.In 1992, Jackson established hisHeal the World Foundation, to which he donated several million dollars in revenue from hisDangerous World Tour. Jackson's philanthropic activities went beyond just monetary donations. He also performed atbenefit concerts, some of which he arranged. He gifted tickets for his regular concert performances to groups that assist underprivileged children. He visited sick children in hospitals around the world. He opened his own home for visits by", "home for visits by underprivileged or sick children and provided special facilities and nurses if the children needed that level of care. Jackson donated valuable, personal and professional paraphernalia for numerous charity auctions. He received various awards and accolades for his philanthropic work, including two bestowed bypresidents of the United States. The vast breadth of Jackson's philanthropic work has earned recognition in theGuinness World Records. On May 14, 1984, PresidentRonald Reagangave Jackson an award recognizing his support of alcohol and drug abuse charities,and in recognition of his support for theAd Council's and theNational Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Drunk Driving Prevention campaign. Jackson allowed the campaign to use \"Beat It\" for its public service announcements. Artistry Influences Jackson was influenced by musicians includingJames Brown,Little Richard,Jackie Wilson,Diana Ross,Fred Astaire,Sammy Davis Jr.,Gene Kelly,andDavid Ruffin.Little Richard had a substantial", "had a substantial influence on Jackson,but Brown was his greatest inspiration. When Jackson was a small child, his mother would wake him whenever Brown appeared on television. Jackson described being \"mesmerized\". Jackson's vocal technique was influenced by Diana Ross; his use of theooohinterjection from a young age was something Ross had used on many of her songs withthe Supremes.She was a mother figure to him, and he often watched her rehearse.He said he had learned a lot from watching how she moved and sang, and that she had encouraged him to have confidence in himself. ChoreographerDavid Winters, who met Jackson while choreographing the 1971 Diana Ross TV specialDiana!, said that Jackson watched the musicalWest Side Storyalmost every week, and it was his favorite film; he paid tribute to it in \"Beat It\" and the \"Bad\" video. Vocal style Jackson sang from childhood, and over time his voice and vocal style changed. Between 1971 and 1975, his voice descended from boysopranoto lyrictenor.He was known for his", "was known for his vocal range.With the arrival ofOff the Wallin the late 1970s, Jackson's abilities as a vocalist were well regarded;Rolling Stonecompared his vocals to the \"breathless, dreamy stutter\" of Stevie Wonder, and wrote that \"Jackson's feathery-timbred tenor is extraordinarily beautiful. It slides smoothly into a startlingfalsettothat's used very daringly.\"By the time of 1982'sThriller,Rolling Stonewrote that Jackson was singing in a \"fully adult voice\" that was \"tinged by sadness\". The turn of the 1990s saw the release of the introspective albumDangerous.The New York Timesnoted that on some tracks, \"he gulps for breath, his voice quivers with anxiety or drops to a desperate whisper, hissing through clenched teeth\" and he had a \"wretched tone\". When singing of brotherhood or self-esteem the musician would return to \"smooth\" vocals.OfInvincible,Rolling Stonewrote that, at 43, Jackson still performed \"exquisitely voiced rhythm tracks and vibrating vocal harmonies\".Joseph Vogelnotes Jackson's ability", "Jackson's ability to use non-verbal sounds to express emotion.Neil McCormickwrote that Jackson's unorthodox singing style \"was original and utterly distinctive\". Musicianship Jackson had no formal music training and could not read or writemusic notation. He is credited for playing guitar, keyboard, and drums, but was not proficient in them.When composing, he recorded ideas bybeatboxingand imitating instruments vocally.Describing the process, he said: \"I'll just sing the bass part into the tape recorder. I'll take that bass lick and put the chords of the melody over the bass lick and that's what inspires the melody.\" The engineer Robert Hoffman recalled that after Jackson came in with a song he had written overnight, Jackson sang every note of every chord to a guitar player. Hoffman also remembered Jackson singing string arrangements part by part into a cassette recorder. Dance Jackson danced from a young age as part of the Jackson 5,and incorporated dance extensively in his performances and music", "and music videos.According to Sanjoy Roy ofThe Guardian, Jackson would \"flick and retract his limbs like switchblades, or snap out of a tornado spin into a perfectly poised toe-stand\".Themoonwalk, taught to him byJeffrey Daniel,was Jackson's signature dance move and one of the most famous of the 20th century.Jackson is credited for coining the name \"moonwalk\" for this street dance move, previously known as the \"backslide\".His other moves included therobot,crotch grab, and the \"anti-gravity\" lean of the \"Smooth Criminal\" video. Themes and genres Jackson explored genres including pop,soul,rhythm and blues,funk,rock,disco,post-disco,dance-popandnew jack swing.Steve Huey ofAllMusicwrote thatThrillerrefined the strengths ofOff the Wall; the dance and rock tracks were more aggressive, while the pop tunes and ballads were softer and more soulful.Its tracks included the ballads \"The Lady in My Life\", \"Human Nature\", and \"The Girl Is Mine\",the funk pieces \"Billie Jean\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\",and the disco", "the disco set \"Baby Be Mine\" and \"P.Y.T. (Pretty Young Thing)\". WithOff the Wall, Jackson's \"vocabulary of grunts, squeals, hiccups, moans, and asides\" vividly showed his maturation into an adult,Robert Christgauwrote inChristgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies(1981). The album's title track suggested to the critic a parallel between Jackson andStevie Wonder's \"oddball\" music personas: \"Since childhood his main contact with the real world has been on stage and in bed.\"WithThriller, Christopher Connelly ofRolling Stonecommented that Jackson developed his long association with the subliminal theme ofparanoiaand darker imagery.AllMusic'sStephen Thomas Erlewinenoted this on the songs \"Billie Jean\" and \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\".In \"Billie Jean\", Jackson depicts an obsessive fan who alleges he has fathered her child,and in \"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'\" he argues against gossip and the media.\"Beat It\" decried gang violence in a homage toWest Side Story, and was Jackson's first successful rock", "successful rock cross-over piece, according to Huey.He observed that \"Thriller\" began Jackson's interest with the theme of thesupernatural, a topic he revisited in subsequent years. In 1985, Jackson co-wrote the charity anthem \"We Are the World\"; humanitarian themes later became a recurring theme in his lyrics and public persona. InBad, Jackson's concept of the predatory lover is seen on the rock song \"Dirty Diana\".The lead single \"I Just Can't Stop Loving You\" is a traditional love ballad, and \"Man in the Mirror\" is a ballad of confession and resolution. \"Smooth Criminal\" is an evocation of bloody assault, rape and likely murder.AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states thatDangerouspresents Jackson as a paradoxical person.The first half of the record is dedicated to new jack swing, including songs like \"Jam\" and \"Remember the Time\". It was the first Jackson album in which social ills became a primary theme; \"Why You Wanna Trip on Me\", for example, protests world hunger, AIDS, homelessness and", "homelessness and drugs.Dangerouscontains sexually charged songs such as \"In the Closet\". The title track continues the theme of the predatory lover and compulsive desire. The second half includes introspective, pop-gospel anthems such as \"Will You Be There\", \"Heal the World\" and \"Keep the Faith\".In the ballad \"Gone Too Soon\", Jackson gives tribute to Ryan White and the plight of those with AIDS. HIStorycreates an atmosphere of paranoia.In the new jack swing-funk rock tracks \"Scream\" and \"Tabloid Junkie\", and the R&B ballad \"You Are Not Alone\", Jackson retaliates against the injustice and isolation he feels, and directs his anger at the media.In the introspective ballad \"Stranger in Moscow\", Jackson laments his \"fall from grace\"; \"Earth Song\", \"Childhood\", \"Little Susie\" and \"Smile\" are operatic pop songs.In \"D.S.\", Jackson attacks lawyerThomas W. Sneddon Jr., who had prosecuted him in both child sexual abuse cases; he describes Sneddon as a white supremacist who wanted to \"get my ass, dead or", "my ass, dead or alive\".Invincibleincludes urban soul tracks such as \"Cry\" and \"The Lost Children\", ballads such as \"Speechless\", \"Break of Dawn\", and \"Butterflies\", and mixes hip hop, pop, and R&B in \"2000 Watts\", \"Heartbreaker\" and \"Invincible\". Music videos and choreography Jackson released \"Thriller\", a 14-minute music video directed byJohn Landis, in 1983.Thezombie-themed video \"defined music videos and broke racial barriers\" onMTV, which had launched two years earlier.BeforeThriller, Jackson struggled to receive coverage on MTV, allegedly because he was African American.Pressure from CBS Records persuaded MTV to start showing \"Billie Jean\" and later \"Beat It\", which led to a lengthy partnership with Jackson, and helped other black music artists gain recognition.The popularity of his videos on MTV helped the relatively new channel's viewing figures, and MTV's focus shifted toward pop and R&B.His performance onMotown 25: Yesterday, Today, Foreverchanged the scope of live stage shows, making it acceptable", "it acceptable for artists to lip-sync to music video on stage.The choreography inThrillerhas been copied inIndian filmsandprisons in the Philippines.Thrillermarked an increase in scale for music videos, and was named the most successful music video ever by theGuinness World Records. In \"Bad\"'s 19-minute video—directed byMartin Scorsese—Jackson used sexual imagery and choreography, and touched his chest, torso and crotch. When asked by Winfrey in the 1993 interview about why he grabbed his crotch, he said it was spontaneously compelled by the music.Timemagazine described the \"Bad\" video as \"infamous\". It featuredWesley Snipes; Jackson's later videos often featured famous cameo roles.For the \"Smooth Criminal\" video, Jackson experimented with leaning forward at a 45-degree angle, beyond the performer's center of gravity. To accomplish this live, Jackson and designers developed a special shoe to lock the performer's feet to the stage, allowing them to lean forward. They were grantedU.S. patent 5,255,452for the", "5,255,452for the device.The video for \"Leave Me Alone\" was not officially released in the US, but in 1989 was nominated for threeBillboardMusic Video Awardsand won a Golden Lion Award for its special effects. It won a Grammy forBest Music Video, Short Form. He received theMTV Video Vanguard Awardin 1988; in 2001 the award was renamed in his honor.The \"Black or White\" video simultaneously premiered on November 14, 1991, in 27 countries with an estimated audience of 500million people, the largest audience ever for a music video at the time.Along with Jackson, it featuredMacaulay Culkin,Peggy Lipton, andGeorge Wendt. It helped introducemorphingto music videos.It was controversial for scenes in which Jackson rubs his crotch, vandalizes cars, and throws a garbage can through a storefront. He apologized and removed the final scene of the video. \"In the Closet\" featuredNaomi Campbellin a courtship dance with Jackson.\"Remember the Time\" was set inancient Egypt, and featuredEddie Murphy,Iman, andMagic Johnson.The", "Johnson.The video for \"Scream\", directed byMark Romanekand production designer Tom Foden, gained a record 11MTV Video Music AwardNominations, and won \"Best Dance Video\", \"Best Choreography\", and \"Best Art Direction\".The song and its video are Jackson's response to being accused of child molestation in 1993.A year later, it won a Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form. It has been reported as themost expensive music video ever made, at $7million;Romanek has contradicted this.The \"Earth Song\" video was nominated for the 1997 Grammy for Best Music Video, Short Form. Michael Jackson's Ghosts,a short film written by Jackson andStephen Kingand directed byStan Winston, premiered at the 1996Cannes Film Festival. At over 38 minutes long, it held the Guinness world record for the longest music video until 2013, when it was eclipsed by the video for thePharrell Williamssong \"Happy\".The 2001 video for \"You Rock My World\" lasts over 13 minutes, was directed byPaul Hunter, and featuresChris TuckerandMarlon Brando.It won", "Brando.It won anNAACP Image Awardfor Outstanding Music Video in 2002. In December 2009, theLibrary of Congressselected \"Thriller\" as the only music video to be preserved in theNational Film Registry, as a work of \"enduring importance to American culture\".Huey wrote that Jackson transformed the music video into an artform and a promotional tool through complex story lines, dance routines, special effects and famous cameos, while breaking down racial barriers. Honors and awards Jackson is one of thebest-selling music artistsin history,with sales estimated around 500 million records worldwide.He had 13number-one singles in the USin his solo career—more than any other male artist in the Hot 100 era until Drake tied with Jackson withFirst Person Shooter.He was invited and honored by a president of the United States at theWhite Housethree times. In 1984, he was honored with a \"Presidential Public Safety Commendation\" award byRonald Reaganfor his humanitarian endeavors.In 1990, he was honored as the \"Artist of the", "the \"Artist of the Decade\" byGeorge H. W. Bush.In 1992, he was honored as a \"Point of Light Ambassador\" by Bush for inviting disadvantaged children to hisNeverland Ranch. Jackson wonhundreds of awards, making him one of the most-awarded artists in popular music.His awards include 39 Guinness World Records, including the Most Successful Entertainer of All Time,13Grammy Awards,as well as theGrammy Legend Awardand theGrammy Lifetime Achievement Award,and 26 American Music Awards, including the Artist of the Century and Artist of the 1980s.He also received theWorld Music Awards' Best-Selling Pop Male Artist of the Millennium and theBambiPop Artist of the Millennium Award.Jackson was inducted onto theHollywood Walk of Famein 1980 as a member of the Jacksons, and in 1984 as a solo artist. He wasinducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of FameandVocal Group Hall of Fameas a member of the Jackson 5 in 1997 and 1999,respectively, and again as a solo artist in 2001.In 2002, he was added to theSongwriters Hall of Fame.In", "Hall of Fame.In 2010, he was the first recording artist to be inducted into theDance Hall of Fame,and in 2014, he was posthumously inducted into theRhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame.In 2021, he was among the inaugural inductees into theBlack Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame. In 1988,Fisk Universityhonored him with an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters.In 1992, he was invested as atitular kingofSanwi, a traditional kingdom located in the south-east ofIvory Coast.In July 2009, the Lunar Republic Society named a crater on the Moon after Jackson.In August, for what would have been Jackson's 51st birthday, Google dedicated theirGoogle Doodleto him.In 2012, the extinct hermit crabMesoparapylocheles michaeljacksoniwas named in his honor.In 2014, theBritish Councilof Cultural Relations deemed Jackson's life one of the 80 most important cultural moments of the 20th century.World Vitiligo Dayhas been celebrated on June 25, the anniversary of Jackson's death, to raise awareness of the auto-immune disorder that", "disorder that Jackson suffered from. Earnings In 1989, Jackson's annual earnings from album sales, endorsements, and concerts were estimated at $125million.Forbesplaced Jackson's annual income at $35million in 1996 and $20million in 1997.Jackson has been one of thewealthiest musical artists; estimates of Jackson's net worth during his life range from negative $285million to positive $350million for 2002, 2003 and 2007.Forbesreported in August 2018 that Jackson's total career pretax earnings in life and death were $4.2billion.Sales of his recordings through Sony's music unit earned him an estimated $300million in royalties. He may have earned another $400million from concerts, music publishing (including his share of the Beatles catalog), endorsements, merchandising and music videos. In 2013, the executors of Jackson's estate filed a petition in theUnited States Tax Courtas a result of a dispute with theInternal Revenue Service(IRS) overUS federal estate taxes.The executors claimed that it was worth about", "it was worth about $7million, while the IRS that it was worth over $1.1billion. In February 2014, the IRS reported that Jackson's estate owed $702million; $505million in taxes, and $197million in penalties.A trial was held from February 6 to 24, 2017.In 2021, the Tax Court issued a ruling in favor of the estate, ruling that the estate's total combined value of the estate was $111.5 million and that the value of Jackson's name and likeness was $4 million (not the $61 million estimated by the IRS's outside expert witness). In 2016,Forbesestimated annual gross earnings by the Jackson Estate at $825million, the largest ever recorded for a celebrity, mostly due to the sale of the Sony/ATV catalog.In 2018, the figure was $400million.It was the eighth year since his death that Jackson's annual earnings were reported to be over $100million, thus bringing Jackson's postmortem total to $2.4billion.Forbeshas consistently recognized Jackson as one of thetop-earning dead celebritiessince his death, and placed him at the", "placed him at the top spot from 2013 to 2023. Discography Filmography Tours See also Notes References Citations Print sources Further reading External links", "Amy Winehouse Amy Jade Winehouse(14 September 1983 – 23 July 2011) was a British singer and songwriter known for her deep, expressivecontraltovocals and her eclectic mix of musical genres, includingsoul,rhythm and blues,reggae, andjazz. Winehouse was a member of theNational Youth Jazz Orchestrain her youth, signing toSimon Fuller's19 Managementin 2002 and soon recording a number of songs before signing a publishing deal withEMI. She also formed a working relationship with producerSalaam Remithrough these record publishers. Winehouse's debut album,Frank, was released in 2003. Many of the album's songs were influenced by jazz and, apart from twocovers, were co-written by Winehouse.Frankwas a critical and commercial success in the UK, and beyond, and was nominated for the UK'sMercury Prize.The song \"Stronger Than Me\" won her theIvor Novello Awardfor Best Contemporary Song from theBritish Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. Winehouse released her follow-up album,Back to Black, in 2006. The album went", "The album went on to become a huge international success and one of thebest-selling albums of all time, as well as one of thebest-selling albums in UK history.At the2007 Brit Awards, it was nominated forBritish Album of the Yearand Winehouse received the award forBritish Female Solo Artist. The song \"Rehab\" won her a second Ivor Novello Award. At the50th Grammy Awardsin 2008, she won five awards, tying the thenrecord for the most wins by a female artist in a single nightand becoming the first British woman to win five Grammys. These included three of theGeneral Field \"Big Four\" Grammy Awards:Best New Artist, Record of the Year and Song of the Year(for \"Rehab\"), as well asBest Pop Vocal Album. Winehouse struggled throughout her life withsubstance abuse,mental illnessand addiction. She died, at herCamden Squarehome in London, ofalcohol poisoningon 23 July 2011, at theage of 27.Her brother believed thatbulimiawas also a factor. After her death,Back to Blackbriefly became the UK's best-selling album of the 21st", "album of the 21st century.VH1ranked Winehouse 26th on their list of the100 Greatest Women in Music. Her life and career was dramatised in a 2024 biopic,Back to Black, directed bySam Taylor-Johnson. Early life Amy Jade Winehouse was born on 14 September 1983 atChase Farm HospitalinGordon Hill,Enfield, toJewishparents.Her father, Mitchell \"Mitch\" Winehouse, was a window panel installer and taxi driver; her mother, Janis Winehouse (née Seaton), was a pharmacist.Her mother was diagnosed withmultiple sclerosisin 2003.Winehouse's great-great-grandfather Harris Winehouse emigrated fromMinsk, Belarus, to London in 1891.She had an older brother, Alex (born 1979).The family lived in London'sSouthgatearea,where she attended Osidge Primary School and then secondary atAshmole School.Winehouse attended a Jewish Sunday school while she was a child.During an interview following her rise to fame, she expressed her disapproval towards the school by saying that she used to beg her father to permit her not to go and that she", "to go and that she learned nothing about being Jewish by going anyway.In the same interview, Winehouse said she only went to a synagogue once a year onYom Kippur\"out of respect\". Many of Winehouse's maternal uncles were professional jazz musicians.Amy's paternal grandmother, Cynthia, had been a singer and had dated the English jazz saxophonistRonnie Scott.She and Amy's parents influenced Amy's interest in jazz.Her father, Mitch, often sangFrank Sinatrasongs to her, and whenever she was chastised at school, she would sing \"Fly Me to the Moon\" before going up to the headmistress to be told off.Winehouse's parents separated when she was nine, and she lived with her mother inWhetstone, Londonand stayed with her father and his girlfriend inHatfield Heath, Essex on weekends. In 1992, her grandmother Cynthia suggested that Amy attend theSusi Earnshaw Theatre School, where she went on Saturdays to further her vocal education and to learn to tap dance.She attended the school for four years and founded a short-lived", "a short-lived rap group called Sweet 'n' Sour, with Juliette Ashby, her childhood friend,before seeking full-time training atSylvia Young Theatre School.Several years later it was reported that Winehouse had been expelled at 14 for \"not applying herself\" and also for piercing her nose, however these claims were denied bySylvia Young: \"She changed schools at 15 ... I've heard it said she was expelled; she wasn't. I'd never have expelled Amy.\"Mitch Winehouse also denied the claims.An English teacher at the Sylvia Young Theatre School remembered Amy as a gifted writer, predicting that she would become a novelist or journalist.She attended theMount School,Mill Hilland theBRIT SchoolinSelhurst,Croydon, dropping out at age 16. After toying around with her brother Alex's guitar, Winehouse bought her own guitar when she was 14 and began writing music shortly afterwards. Soon after, she began working for a living as an entertainment journalist for theWorld Entertainment News Networkand also singing with local group", "with local group the Bolsha Band.In July 2000, she became the featured female vocalist with theNational Youth Jazz Orchestra. At home she learned from and practised singing songs by Frank Sinatra,Dinah Washington,Sarah VaughanandMinnie Ripperton—singers who she said \"will get under the song\" and remake it as their own rather than sing it straight as written.Winehouse's best friend, soul singerTyler James, sent her demo tape to anA&Rperson. Career 2002–2005: Career beginnings andFrank Winehouse was signed toSimon Fuller's 19 Management in 2002 and was initially paid £250 a week against future earnings.While being developed by the management company, Winehouse was kept as a recording industry secret,although she was a regular jazz standards singer at theCobden Club.Her future A&R representative atIsland, Darcus Beese, heard of her by chance when the manager of the Lewinson Brothers showed him some productions of his clients, which featured Winehouse as key vocalist. When he asked who the singer was, the", "the singer was, the manager told him he was not allowed to say. Having decided that he wanted to sign her, it took several months of asking around for Beese to eventually discover who the singer was. However, by that time Winehouse had already recorded a number of songs, signed a publishing deal withEMI, and formed a working relationship with producerSalaam Remi. Beese introduced Winehouse to his boss, Island headNick Gatfield, who shared his enthusiasm in signing the young artist. Winehouse was signed to Island while rival interest in her had started to build with representatives of EMI andVirgin Recordsstarting to make moves. Beese toldHitQuartersthat he felt the excitement over an artist who was an atypical pop star for the time was due to a backlash against reality TV music shows, whose audiences starved for fresh, genuine young talent. Winehouse's debut album,Frank, was released on 20 October 2003. Produced mainly by Salaam Remi, many of the songs were influenced byjazzand, apart from twocovers,", "from twocovers, Winehouse co-wrote every song. The album received wide critical acclaim with compliments given to the \"cool, critical gaze\" in its lyrics.Winehouse's voice was compared with those of Sarah Vaughan andMacy Gray, among others. The album entered the upper reaches of theUK Albums Chartin 2004 when it was nominated for theBrit Awardsin the categories ofBritish Female Solo ArtistandBritish Urban Act. It went on to achieveplatinumsales.Later in 2004, she and Remi won theIvor Novello Awardfor Best Contemporary Song, for their first single together, \"Stronger Than Me.\"The album was also shortlisted for the2004 Mercury Music Prize. In the same year, she performed at theGlastonbury Festival(on the Jazz World stage), theV Festivaland theMontreal International Jazz Festival. After the release of the album, Winehouse commented that she was \"only 80 percent behind album\" becauseIsland Recordshad overruled her preferences for the songs and mixes to be included.The further singles from the album were \"Take", "album were \"Take the Box,\" \"In My Bed\"/\"You Sent Me Flying\" and \"Pumps\"/\"Help Yourself.\" 2006–2008:Back to Blackand international success After the release of her first jazz-influenced album, Winehouse's focus shifted to thegirl groupsof the1950sand1960s. Winehouse hiredNew YorksingerSharon Jones's longtime band, theDap-Kings, to back her up in the studio and on tour.Mitch Winehouse relates inAmy, My Daughterhow fascinating watching her process was: her perfectionism in the studio and how she would put what she had sung on aCDand play it in his taxi outside to know how most people would hear her music.In May 2006, Winehouse's demo tracks such as \"You Know I'm No Good\" and \"Rehab\" appeared onMark Ronson'sNew Yorkradio show onEast Village Radio. These were some of the first new songs played on the radio after the release of \"Pumps\" and both were slated to appear on her second album. The 11-track album, completed in five months,was produced entirely by Salaam Remi and Ronson, with the production credits being", "credits being split between them. Ronson said in a 2010 interview that he liked working with Winehouse because she was blunt when she did not like his work.She in turn thought that when they first met, he was a sound engineer and that she was expecting an older man with a beard. Promotion ofBack to Blacksoon began and, in early October 2006 Winehouse's official website was relaunched with a new layout and clips of previously unreleased songs.Back to Blackwas released in the UK on 30 October 2006. It went to number one on the UK Albums Chart for two weeks in January 2007, dropping then climbing back for several weeks in February. In the US, it entered at number seven on theBillboard200. It was the best-selling album in the UK of 2007, selling 1.85million copies over the course of the year.The first single released from the album was the Ronson-produced \"Rehab\". The song reached the top ten in the UK and the US.Timemagazine named \"Rehab\" the Best Song of 2007. Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her", "Winehouse for her confidence, saying, \"What she is is mouthy, funny, sultry, and quite possibly crazy\" and \"It's impossible not to be seduced by her originality. Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth ofsoul musicwithout once ripping it off, and you've got the best song of 2007.\"The album's second single and lead single in the US, \"You Know I'm No Good,\" was released in January 2007 with aremixfeaturing rap vocals byGhostface Killah. It ultimately reached number 18 on the UK singles chart. The title track, \"Back to Black,\" was released in the UK in April 2007 and peaked at number 25, but was more successful acrossmainland Europe.\"Tears Dry on Their Own,\" \"Love Is a Losing Game\" were also released as singles, but failed to achieve the same level of success. A deluxe edition ofBack to Blackwas also released on 5 November 2007 in the UK. The bonus disc featuresB-sides, rare, and live tracks, as well as \"Valerie\". Winehouse's debut DVDI Told You I Was Trouble: Live in", "Trouble: Live in Londonwas released the same day in the UK and 13 November in the US. It includes a live set recorded atLondon'sShepherd's Bush Empireand a 50-minutedocumentarycharting the singer's career over the previous four years.Frankwas released in the United States on 20 November 2007 to positive reviews.The album debuted at number 61 on theBillboard200 chart.In addition to her own album, she collaborated with other artists on singles. Winehouse was a vocalist on the song \"Valerie\" on Ronson's solo albumVersion. The song peaked at number two in the UK, upon its October single release. \"Valerie\" was nominated for a2008 Brit AwardforBritish Single of the Year.Her work with ex-SugababeMutya Buena, \"B Boy Baby,\" was released on 17 December 2007. It served as the fourth single from Buena's debut album,Real Girl.Winehouse was also in talks of working withMissy Elliottfor her albumBlock Party. Winehouse promoted the release ofBack to Blackwith headline performances in late 2006, including aLittle Noise", "aLittle Noise Sessionscharity concert at theUnion ChapelinIslington, London.On 31 December 2006, Winehouse appeared onJools Holland'sAnnual Hootenannyand performed a cover ofMarvin Gaye's \"I Heard It Through the Grapevine\" along withPaul WellerandHolland's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra. She also performedToots and the Maytals' \"Monkey Man\". At his request, actorBruce Willisintroduced Winehouse before her performance of \"Rehab\" at the2007 MTV Movie AwardsinUniversal City, California, on 3 June 2007.During the summer of 2007, she performed at various festivals, includingGlastonbury FestivalandLollapaloozainChicago. The rest of her tour, however, did not go as well. In November 2007, the opening night of a 17-date tour was marred by booing and walkouts at theNational Indoor ArenainBirmingham. A critic for theBirmingham Mailsaid it was \"one of the saddest nights of my life ... I saw a supremely talented artist reduced to tears, stumbling around the stage and, unforgivably, swearing at the audience.\"Other concerts", "concerts ended similarly, with, for example, fans at herHammersmith Apolloperformance in London saying that she \"looked highly intoxicated throughout,\"until she announced on 27 November 2007, that her performances and public appearances were cancelled for the remainder of the year, citing her doctor's advice to take a complete rest. A statement issued by concert promoterLive Nationblamed \"the rigours involved in touring and the intense emotional strain that Amy has been under in recent weeks\" for the decision.Mitch Winehouse wrote about her nervousness before public performances in his 2012 book,Amy, My Daughter.On 13 January 2008,Back to Blackheld the number-one position on theBillboardPan European chartsfor the third consecutive week. On 10 February 2008, Winehouse received fiveGrammy Awards, winning in the following categories:Record of the Year,Song of the Year,Best Female Pop Vocal Performancefor the single \"Rehab\", andBest Pop Vocal Album.The singer also earned a Grammy asBest New Artist, earning her", "Artist, earning her an entry in the 2009 edition of theGuinness Book of Recordsfor Most Grammy Awards won by a British Female Act.Additionally,Back to Blackwas nominated forAlbum of the Year.Ronson's work with her won theGrammy Award for Producer of the Year, in the non-classicalcategory.She ended her acceptance speech for Record of the Year with, \"This is for London becauseCamden Townain't burning down,\" in reference to the 2008Camden Marketfire.Performing \"You Know I'm No Good\" and \"Rehab\" via satellite from London'sRiverside Studiosat 3 a.m.UK time, she couldn't be at the ceremony inLos Angelesas hervisaapproval had not been processed in time. After the Grammys, the album's sales increased, catapultingBack to Blackto number two on the USBillboard200, after it initially peaked in the seventh position.On 20 February 2008, Winehouse performed at the 2008 Brit Awards atEarls Courtin London, performing \"Valerie\" with Mark Ronson, followed by \"Love Is a Losing Game\". She urged the crowd to \"make some noise for", "some noise for my Blake.\"A special deluxe edition ofBack to Blacktopped the UK album charts on 2 March 2008. Meanwhile, the original edition of the album was ranked at number 30 in its 68th week on the charts, whileFrankcharted at number 35. InParis, she performed what was described as a \"well-executed 40-minute\" set at the opening of aFendiboutique in early March.By 12 March, the album had sold a total of 2,467,575 copies—318,350 copies had been sold in the previous 10 weeks—putting the album on theUK's top-10 best-selling albums of the 21st centuryfor the first time.On 7 April,Back to Blackwas in the top position of the pan-European charts for the sixth consecutive and thirteenth aggregate week.Amy Winehouse – The Girl Done Good: A Documentary Review, a 78-minute DVD, was released on 14 April 2008. The documentary features interviews with those who knew her at a young age, people who helped her achieve success, jazz music experts, and music andpop culturespecialists. At the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards in May,", "Awards in May, Winehouse became the first-ever artist to receive two nominations for the top award: Best Song Musically & Lyrically. She won the award for \"Love Is a Losing Game\" and was nominated for \"You Know I'm No Good\".\"Rehab\", a Novello winner for best contemporary song in 2006, also received a 2008 nomination for best-selling British song.Winehouse was also nominated for a2008 MTV Europe Music Awardin the Act of the Year category. Although her father, manager and various members of her touring team reportedly tried to dissuade her, Winehouse performed at theRock in Rio Lisboafestival inPortugalin May 2008.Although the set was plagued by a late arrival and problems with her voice, the crowd warmed to her. In addition to her own material she performed twoSpecialscovers.Winehouse performed atNelson Mandela's 90th Birthday Party concert at London'sHyde Parkon 27 June 2008,and the next day at theGlastonbury Festival.On 12 July, at theOxegenFestival inIrelandshe performed a well-received 50-minute setwhich", "50-minute setwhich was followed the next day by a 14-song set atT in the Park. On 16 August she played at theStaffordshireleg of theV Festival, and the following day played theChelmsfordleg of the festival. Organisers said that Winehouse attracted the biggest crowds of the festival. Audience reaction was reported as mixed.On 6 September, Winehouse wasBestival's Saturday headliner, where she started 40 minutes late and was on stage for 35 minutes, before her performance was terminated because of a curfew. A clip of Winehouse's music was included in the \"Roots and Influences\" area that looked at connections between different artists at theRock and Roll Hall of FameAnnex NYC, which opened in December 2008. One thread started withBillie Holiday, continued withAretha FranklinandMary J. Blige, and then finished with Winehouse. Back to Blackwas the world's seventh-biggest-selling album of 2008.The album's sales meant that the market performance ofUniversal Music Group's recorded music division did not drop to", "did not drop to levels experienced by the overall music market. 2009–2011: Final projects before death In a 2009 poll of U.S. residents conducted forVisitBritainbyHarris Interactive, one-fifth of the participants indicated they had listened to Winehouse's music during the previous year.She performed withRhythms del Mundoon their cover of theSam Cookesong \"Cupid\" for anArtists Project Earthbenefit album released in July that year. Winehouse and Ronson contributed a cover ofLesley Gore's \"It's My Party\" to theQuincy Jonestribute albumQ Soul Bossa Nostra, released in November 2010.She had agreed to form a group withQuestloveofthe Roots, but her problems obtaining a visa delayed their working together. Salaam Remi had already created some material with Winehouse as part of the project.According toThe Times, Universal Music pressed her for new material in 2008, but as of 2 September that year she had not been near a recording studio.In late October, Winehouse's spokesman was quoted as saying that Winehouse had", "that Winehouse had not been given a deadline to complete her third album, for which she was learning to play drums. In May 2009, Winehouse returned to performing at a jazz festival inSaint Luciaamid torrential downpours and technical difficulties. During her set, it was reported she was unsteady on her feet and had trouble remembering lyrics. She apologised to the crowd for being \"bored\" and ended the set in the middle of a song.During her stay in Saint Lucia, however, she worked on new music with Remi. On 23 August that year, Winehouse sang with the Specials at theV Festivalon their songs \"You're Wondering Now\" and \"Ghost Town\". Island claimed that a new album would be due for release in 2010. Island co-president Darcus Beese said, \"I've heard a couple of songdemosthat have absolutely floored me.\"In July 2010, Winehouse was quoted as saying her next album would be released no later than January 2011, saying: \"It's going to be very much the same as my second album, where there's a lot ofjukeboxstuff and", "ofjukeboxstuff and songs that are... just jukebox, really.\" Ronson, however, said at that time that he had not started to record the album.She performed \"Valerie\" with Ronson at a movie premiere but forgot some of the song's lyrics.In October, Winehouse performed a four-song set to promote her fashion line. In December 2010, she played a 40-minute concert at aRussian oligarch's party inMoscow, with the tycoon hand-selecting the songs. In January 2011, Winehouse played five dates in Brazil, withopening actsofJanelle MonáeandMayer Hawthorne. While performing inFlorianópolis, Winehouse forgot the lyrics of her songs several times and had to be aided by the public and her band. During the concert, she only drank from a water bottle, but even so, in two occasions, she left the stage in the midst of the show for a period of circa 5 minutes. Upon her return, the crowd showed strong compassion for her and praised Winehouse for continuing the performance.The following month she cut a performance inDubaishort", "inDubaishort following booing from the audience. Winehouse was reported to be tired, distracted and \"tipsy\" during the performance. On 18 June 2011, Winehouse started her twelve-leg European tour inBelgrade. Local media described her performance as a scandal and disaster; she was booed off the stage due to her apparently being too drunk to perform.Serbian defence ministerDragan Šutanovaccalled Winehouse's performances \"a huge shame and a disappointment\".It was reported that she was unable to remember the city she was in, the lyrics of her songs or the names of the members of her band.The local press also claimed that Winehouse was forced to perform by her bodyguards, who did not allow her to leave the stage when she tried to do so.She then pulled out of performances inIstanbulandAthens, which had been scheduled for the following week.On 21 June, it was announced that she had cancelled all shows of her tour and would be given \"as long as it takes\" to sort herself out. Winehouse's last public appearance took", "appearance took place at Camden'sRoundhouseon 20 July 2011, when she made a surprise appearance on stage to support her goddaughterDionne Bromfield, who was singing \"Mama Said\" withthe Wanted.Winehouse died three days later. Her last recording was a duet with American singerTony Bennettfor his albumDuets II, released on 20 September 2011.Their single from the album, \"Body and Soul\", was released on 14 September 2011 onMTVandVH1to commemorate what would have been her 28th birthday. Other ventures Activism and philanthropy Throughout her life Winehouse donated her money, music and time to numerous charities and causes, particularly those concerned with children.She joined a campaign to stop a block of flats being built beside theGeorge Tavern, a famous LondonEast Endmusic venue. Campaign supporters feared the residential development would end the spot's lucrative sideline as a film and photo location, on which it relies to survive.As part of a breast cancer awareness campaign, Winehouse appeared in a revealing", "in a revealing photograph for the April 2008 issue ofEasy Livingmagazine.In 2009, she appeared on a CD calledClassicsalongside musicians such asthe Rolling Stones,the Killersand many Cuban musicians to raise awareness ofclimate change. Winehouse loaned a vintage dress used in her video for \"Tears Dry on Their Own\" as well as a DVD to theBritish Music Experience, a new museum dedicated to the history of British pop music.The museum, located atthe O2Arenain London, opened on 9 March 2009.In March 2011, Winehouse donated over £20,000 worth of clothes to a local charity shop in London. A Caribbean man, Julian Jean DeBaptiste, revealed that Winehouse had paid for his urgent surgery costing £4,000 during her stay in Saint Lucia in 2009. \"I had surgery on 1 July 2009... it cost a fortune and Amy paid for the whole thing. I tried to thank her but she just hugged me and told me not to say anything. Her generosity gave me my life back.\" Business Winehouse had an estimated £10m fortune, tying her for tenth place in the", "tenth place in the 2008The Sunday Timeslisting of the wealth of musicians under age 30.The following year her fortune had dropped to an estimated £5m.Her finances are run by Mitch and Janis Winehouse.It was reported she earned about £1m singing at two private parties duringParis Fashion Weekas well as another £1m to perform at a Moscow Art Gallery for Russian oligarchRoman Abramovich. In January 2009, Winehouse announced that she was launching her own record label. The first act on herLioness Recordsis Winehouse's 13-year-old goddaughter Dionne Bromfield. Her first album, featuring covers of classic soul records, was released on 12 October 2009.Winehouse is the backing singer on several tracks on the album and she performed backing vocals for Bromfield on the BBC's television programmeStrictly Come Dancingon 10 October. Winehouse and her family are the subject of a 2009 documentary shot by Daphne Barak titledSaving Amy.Winehouse entered into a joint venture in 2009 withEMIto launch a range of wrapping paper", "of wrapping paper and gift cards containing song lyrics from her albumBack to Black.On 8 January 2010, a television documentary,My Daughter Amy, aired onChannel 4.Saving Amywas released as a paperback book in January 2010. Winehouse was a notable fan of the brandFred Perry.She collaborated on a 17-piece fashion collection with the label, which was released for sale in October 2010. According to Fred Perry's marketing director \"We had three major design meetings where she was closely involved in product style selection and the application of fabric, colour and styling details,\" and gave \"crucial input on proportion, colour and fit\". The collection consists of \"vintage-inspired looks includingCapri pants, abowlingdress, atrench coat,pencil skirts, a longlineargylesweater and a pink-and-black checkerboard-printed collared shirt.\"At the behest of her family, three forthcoming collections up to and including autumn/winter 2012 that she had designed prior to her death were released.Following Winehouse's death,", "Winehouse's death, Fred Perry has donated 20% of the net revenue from the Amy Winehouse collection to the charity set up in Winehouse's name, the Amy Winehouse Foundation. Media image Winehouse's greatest love was 1960s girl groups.Her hairdresser, Alex Foden, borrowed her distinctivebeehivehairdo (aweave) fromthe Ronettesand she borrowed herCleopatramakeup from the same group.Her imitation was so successful, asThe Village Voicereports: \"Ronnie Spector—who, it could be argued, all but invented Winehouse's style in the first place when she took the stage at the Brooklyn Fox Theater with her fellow Ronettes more than 40 years ago—was so taken aback at a picture of Winehouse in theNew York Postthat she exclaimed, \"I don't know her, I never met her, and when I saw that pic, I thought, 'That's me!' But then I found out, no, it's Amy! I didn't have on my glasses.\" The New York Timesstyle reporter, Guy Trebay, discussed the multiplicity of influences on Winehouse's style after her death. Trebay noted, \"her stylish", "noted, \"her stylish husband, Blake Fielder-Civil, may have influenced her look.\" Additionally, Trebay observed: She was a 5-foot-3 almanac of visual reference, most famously to Ronnie Spector of the Ronettes, but also to the white British soul singerMari Wilson, less famous for her sound than her beehive; to the punk godJohnny Thunders...; to the fiercecouncil-housechicks... (see:DiorandChanelrunways, 2007 and 2008) ... to a lineage of bad girls, extending from Cleopatra toLouise Brooks's Lulu and includingSalt-n-Pepa, to irresistible man traps that always seemed to come to the same unfortunate end. FormerRolling Stoneeditor Joe Levy, who had put her on the magazine's cover, broke her look down this way: Just as her best music drew on sampling – assembling sonic licks and stylistic fragments borrowed fromMotown,Stax,punkand earlyhip-hop– her personal style was also a knowingcollage. There was a certain moment in the '90s when, if you were headed downtown and turned left, every girl looked likeBettie Page.", "likeBettie Page. But they did not do what Winehouse did, mixing Bettie Page withBrigitte Bardotand adding that little bit of Ronnie Spector. Winehouse's use of bold red lipstick, thick eyebrows and heavy eyeliner came from Latinas she saw in Miami, on her trip there to work with Salaam Remi onBack to Black.Her look was repeatedly denigrated by the British press. At the same time that theNME Awardsnominated Winehouse in the categories of \"Best Solo Artist\" and \"Best Music DVD\" in 2008, they awarded her \"Worst Dressed Performer\".Winehouse was also ranked number two onRichard Blackwell's 48th annual \"Ten Worst Dressed Women\" list, behindVictoria Beckham. Controversies Winehouse's dichotomous public image of critical and commercial success versus personal turmoil prompted significant media comment. TheNew Statesmancalled Winehouse \"a filthy-mouthed, down-to-earthdiva\",whileNewsweekcalled her \"a perfect storm of sex kitten, raw talent and poor impulse control\".Karen Heller withThe Philadelphia Inquirersummarised", "Inquirersummarised the maelstrom this way: She's only 24 with six Grammy nominations, crashing headfirst into success and despair, with a codependent husband in jail, exhibitionist parents with questionable judgement, and thepaparazzidocumenting her emotional and physical distress. Meanwhile, a haute designerKarl Lagerfeldappropriates her dishevelled style and eating issues to market to the elite while proclaiming her the new Bardot. By 2008, her drug problems threatened her career. As Nick Gatfield, the president of Island Records, toyed with the idea of releasing Winehouse \"to deal with her problems\", he said, \"It's a reflection of her status that when you flick through the TV coverage it's her image they use.\"Post-Grammys, some questioned whether Winehouse should have been honoured with the awards given her recent personal and drug problems, includingNatalie Cole, who introduced Winehouse at the ceremony and who herself battled substance-abuse problems while winning a Grammy for Best New Artist in 1975.", "New Artist in 1975. Winehouse was prevented from travelling to and performing at the Grammy Awards ceremony in the US due to failing a drug test,and the executive director of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime,Antonio Maria Costa, said that the alleged drug habits of Winehouse and other celebrities sent a bad message \"to others who are vulnerable to addiction\" and undermine the efforts of other celebrities trying to raise awareness of problems in Africa, now that more cocaine used in Europe passes through that continent.Winehouse's spokesperson noted that \"Amy has never given a quote about drugs or flaunted it in any way. She's had some problems and is trying to get better. The U.N. should get its own house in order.\" In January 2008, her record label stated it believed the extensive media coverage she had received increased record sales.In an April 2008 poll conducted bySky News, Winehouse was named the second-greatest \"ultimate heroine\" by the UK population at large, topping the voting for that category of", "that category of those polled under 25 years old.Psychologist Donna Dawson commented that the results demonstrated that women like Winehouse who had \"a certain sense of vulnerability or have had to fight against some adversity in their lives\" received recognition. In July 2008,BBC Radio Scotland's head, Jeff Zycinski, stated that the BBC, and media in general, were complicit in undermining celebrities, including Winehouse.He said that public interest in the singer's lifestyle did not make her lifestyle newsworthy. Rod McKenzie, editor of the BBC Radio One programmeNewsbeat, replied: \"If you play music to a certain demographic, those same people want to know what's happening in her private life. If you don't cover it, you're insulting young licence fee payers.\"InThe Scotsman, British singer and songwriterLily Allenwas quoted to have said – \"I know Amy Winehouse very well. And she is very different to what people portray her as being. Yes, she does get out of her mind on drugs sometimes, but she is also a", "but she is also a very clever, intelligent, witty, funny person who can hold it together. You just don't see that side.\" Personal life Winehouse was raised Jewish and expressed pride in being Jewish, although she was not religious.During one interview, Winehouse said: \"eing Jewish to me is about being together as a real family. It's not about lighting candles and saying abracha.\"Winehouse also frequently performed with a Star of David medallion. In 2013, in memory of Winehouse, theJewish Museum Londonran an exhibition titled \"Amy Winehouse: A Family Portrait\".The museum researched her paternal great-great-grandfather's arrival from Minsk in 1890, and how the family finally settled in London, starting out in working-class jobs before gradually moving to middle-class jobs. Winehouse had 14 known tattoos, including \"Daddy's Girl\" on her left arm for her father and a pin-up girl with the name \"Cynthia\" on her right arm in memory of her Jewish grandmother.In 2011, there were reports that Winehouse was in the", "was in the process of adopting a 10-year-old girl from St. Lucia named Dannika Augustine. According to Dannika and her family, Amy had formed a strong bond with the poverty-stricken girl during her lengthy stays on the Caribbean island. Dannika referred to Amy as her mother and said they had a close, loving relationship.Her grandmother, Marjorie Lambert, confirmed that Amy had expressed a strong desire to adopt Dannika and was even willing to move to St. Lucia to be her full-time mother.However, Winehouse's representative denied these claims, stating that the adoption story was not true. Relationships Winehouse dated chef-musicianAlex Clarein 2006, while on a break from heron–offboyfriend and future husband, Blake Fielder-Civil. She and Clare lived together briefly,and in a pattern that Fielder-Civil would later repeat, Clare sold his story to theNews of the World, which published it under the headline \"Bondage Crazed Amy Just Can't Beehive in Bed.\" Fielder-Civil, a former video production assistant,had", "assistant,had dropped out ofBourne Grammar Schooland, aged 16, moved to London from his nativeLincolnshire.He married Winehouse on 18 May 2007, inMiami Beach, Florida.In a June 2007 interview, Winehouse admitted she could sometimes be violent toward him after she had been drinking, saying: \"If he says one thing I don't like, then I'll chin him.\"In August 2007, they were photographed, bloodied and bruised, in the streets of London after an alleged fight, although she contended her injuries were self-inflicted.Winehouse's parents and in-laws publicly reported their numerous concerns, the latter citing fears that the two might commit suicide. Fielder-Civil's father encouraged fans to boycott Winehouse's music, and Mitch Winehouse said this would not help.Fielder-Civil was quoted in a British tabloid as saying he introduced Winehouse tocrack cocaineand heroin.During a visit with Mitch Winehouse at the prison in July 2008, Fielder-Civil reportedly said that he and Winehouse would cut themselves to ease the pain", "to ease the pain ofwithdrawal. From 21 July 2008 to 25 February 2009, Fielder-Civil was imprisoned following his guilty plea on charges of trying topervert the course of justiceand of grievous bodily harm with intent.The incident, in July 2007, involved his assault of a pub landlord that broke the victim's cheekbone, and also saw Winehouse briefly arrested in connection with it.According to the prosecution, the landlord accepted £200,000 as part of a deal to \"effectively throw the case and not turn up\", and he testified that the money belonged to Winehouse, but she pulled out of a meeting with the men involved in the plot, to attend an awards ceremony.Mitch Winehouse, as manager of his daughter's money, has denied the payoff came from her. When Winehouse was spotted with aspiring actorJosh Bowmanon holiday in Saint Lucia, in early January 2009, she said she was \"in love again, and I don't need drugs.\"She commented that her \"whole marriage was based on doing drugs\" and that \"for the time being I've just", "being I've just forgotten I'm even married.\"On 12 January, Winehouse's spokesman confirmed that \"papers have been received\" for what Fielder-Civil's solicitor said were divorce proceedings based on a claim of adultery.In March, Winehouse was quoted in a magazine as saying, \"I still love Blake and I want him to move into my new house with me—that was my plan all along ... I won't let him divorce me. He's the male version of me and we're perfect for each other.\"Nonetheless, an uncontested divorce was granted on 16 July 2009 and became final on 28 August 2009.Fielder-Civil received no money in the settlement. Winehouse was in a relationship with a British writer and film directorReg Traviss, from early 2010 until her death.According to media reports and a biography written by Winehouse's father, Traviss and Winehouse had planned to marry and intended to have children. In July 2008, whenRolling Stonereporter Claire Hoffman asked Winehouse if she was in a relationship withPete Doherty, she replied: \"We're just", "\"We're just good friends\", and added: \"I asked Pete to do a concept EP, and he made this face, he looked at me like I'd pooed on the floor. He wouldn't do it. We're just really close\". However, after Winehouse's death, Doherty said that he and Winehouse had been lovers at one point. Substance abuse and mental illness Winehouse's troubles withsubstance abusewere the subject of much media attention over the years.In 2005, she went through a period of drinking, heavy drug use, and weight loss.People who saw her during the end of that year and early 2006 reported a rebound that coincided with the writing ofBack to Black.Her family believes that the mid-2006 death of her grandmother, who was a stabilising influence, set her off into addiction.In August 2007, Winehouse cancelled a number of shows in the UK and Europe, citing exhaustion and ill health. She was hospitalised during this period for what was reported as anoverdoseof heroin,ecstasy, cocaine,ketamineand alcohol.In various interviews, she admitted to", "she admitted to having problems withself-harm, depression, and eating disorders. Winehouse told theLos Angeles Timesthat the drugs were to blame for her hospitalisation and that \"I really thought that it was over for me then.\"Soon afterwards, Winehouse's father commented that when he had made public statements regarding her problems he was using the media because it seemed the only way to get through to her.In an interview withThe Album Chart Showon British television, Winehouse said she wasmanic depressiveand not alcoholic, adding that that sounded like \"an alcoholic in denial\".A US reporter writes that Winehouse was a \"victim of mental illness in a society that doesn't understand or respond to mental illness with great effectiveness.\"According to Forensic physician Dr Jason Payne-James, Winehouse may have suffered fromborderline personality disorder(BPD). He explained she shows some symptoms for disorder such as extreme reactions to trauma like abandonment (when described as a symptom \"frantic efforts to", "\"frantic efforts to avoid real or imaginedabandonment\"),impulsive or reckless behaviours like substance use disorders, binge eating,recurrent suicidal ideation,self-cuttingor self-harm, rapidly shifting intense emotional dysregulation, chronic feelings of emptiness or boredom, unstable and chaotic interpersonal relationships, often characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and devaluation, also known as \"splitting\", inappropriate, intense anger that can be difficult to control.Before her death Winehouse had been examined by a psychiatrist and psychologist and doctors recommended that she undergodialectical behaviour therapy(DBT).DBT is based upon thebiosocial theoryof mental illness and is the first therapy that has been experimentally demonstrated to be generally effective in treating borderline personality disorder. In December 2007, Winehouse's spokesman reported that the singer was in a physician-supervised programme and was channelling her difficulties by writing a lot of music.In", "a lot of music.In January 2008, the British tabloidThe Sunposted a video Winehouse, apparently smoking crack cocaine and speaking of having taken ecstasy andValium. The event took place on Friday 18 January, in the early hours of the morning. Later that morning, Winehouse attended a remand hearing for her husband Blake Fielder-Civil, who was then awaiting trial on charges of perverting the course of justice.Shortly after the alleged crack cocaine incident, Winehouse's father moved in with her, to keep her under '24-hour watch'.At this time, Island Records, her record label, announced the abandonment of plans for an American promotion campaign on her behalf.On 23 January 2008, the video was passed on to theMetropolitan Police,who questioned her on 5 February.No charges were brought. In late January, Winehouse reportedly entered a rehabilitation facility for a two-week treatment program.On 26 March, Winehouse's spokesman said she was \"doing well\".Her record company reportedly believed that her recovery", "that her recovery remained fragile.By late April 2008, her erratic behaviour—including an allegation of assault—caused fear that her drug rehabilitation efforts had been unsuccessful.Winehouse's father and manager then sought to have her detained under theMental Health Act of 1983.Her dishevelled appearance during and after a scheduled club night in September 2008 prompted new rumours of a relapse. Photographers were quoted as saying she appeared to have cuts on her arms and legs. According to her physician, Winehouse quit using illegal substances in 2008.In an October 2010 interview, speaking of her decision to quit drugs, Winehouse said, \"I literally woke up one day and was like, 'I don't want to do this any more.'\"However, alcohol emerged as a problem, with Winehouse abstaining for a few weeks and then lapsing into alcohol abuse.Her physician said that Winehouse was treated withLibriumforalcohol withdrawaland anxiety and underwent psychological and psychiatric evaluations in 2010, but refused", "2010, but refused psychological therapy. Violence and legal difficulties In 2006, Winehouse admitted to punching a female fan in the face for criticising her having taken Blake Fielder-Civil as a husband. She then attacked her own spouse as he attempted to calm her down, kneeing him in the crotch.In October 2007, Winehouse and Fielder-Civil were arrested inBergen, Norway, for possession of seven grams ofcannabis. The couple were later released and fined 3850kroner(around £350).Winehouse first appealed the fines,but later dropped the appeal. On 26 April 2008, Winehouse wascautionedafter she admitted to police she slapped a 38-year-old man in the face, a \"common assault\" offence, her first of two. She voluntarily turned herself in and was held overnight. Police said, at her arrival she was \"in no fit state\" to be interviewed.Ten days later, Winehouse was arrested on suspicion of possessing drugs after a video of her apparently smoking crack cocaine was passed to the police in January, but was released on bail", "released on bail a few hours later because they could not confirm, from the video, what she was smoking.The Crown Prosecution Service considered charging her, but cleared her when it could not establish that the substance in the video was a controlled drug.Some members ofParliamentcriticised the decision not to bring charges.Two London residents were subsequently convicted ofconspiracyto supply cocaine and ecstasy to Winehouse,leading to a two-year prison sentence for one, and a two-year community order. On 5 March 2009, Winehouse was arrested and charged with common assault following a claim by dancer Sherene Flash that Winehouse hit her in the eye at the September 2008 Prince's Trust charity ball.Winehouse's spokesperson announced the cancellation of the singer's USCoachella Festivalappearance in light of the new legal issue,and Winehouse pleaded not guilty in court on 17 March.At her trial on 23–24 July she was charged with \"deliberate and unjustifiable violence\" while appearing to be under the influence", "under the influence of alcohol or another substance. She testified that she did not punch Flash, but tried to push her away because she was scared of her; she cited her worry that Flash would sell her story to a tabloid, Flash's height advantage, and Flash's \"rude\" behaviour.On 24 July Winehouse was found not guilty, citing that all but two of the witnesses were intoxicated at the time, and that medical evidence did not show \"the sort of injury that often occurs when there is a forceful punch to the eye.\" On 19 December 2009, Winehouse was arrested for a third time on charges of common assault andpublic order offenceafter assaulting the front-of-house manager of theMilton Keynes Theatrewhen he asked her to move to a different seat after noisy participation in thepantomimeplaying, and advised her not to drink more than she already had. Winehouse pleaded guilty, and was given a conditional discharge. Paparazzi With thepaparazzitaking photographs of her wherever they could, Winehouse obtained", "Winehouse obtained aninjunctionagainst a leading paparazzi agency, Big Pictures, under theProtection from Harassment Act 1997; the resultant court order issued by theHigh Courtin 2009 banned them from following her.Photographers were also banned from following her within 100 metres of her London home and photographing Winehouse in her home or the homes of her friends and relatives. According to a newspaper report, sources close to the singer said legal action was taken out of concern for the safety of Winehouse and those close to her. Respiratory and other health problems On 23 June 2008, Winehouse's publicist corrected earlier misstatements by Mitch Winehouse that his daughter had early-stageemphysema, saying that she instead had signs of what could lead to early-stage emphysema.Mitch Winehouse had also stated that his daughter'slungs were operating at 70 percent capacityand that she had anirregular heartbeat. He said that these problems had been caused by herchain smokingcrack cocaine. The singer's father", "The singer's father also reported that doctors had warned Winehouse that, if she continued smokingcrack cocaine, she would have to wear anoxygen maskand would eventually die.In a radio interview, Mitch Winehouse said the singer was responding \"fabulously\" to treatment, which included being covered withnicotine patches.British Lung Foundation spokesman Keith Prowse noted that this type of condition could be managed with treatment. Prowse also said the condition was not normal for a person her age but \"heavy smoking and inhaling other substances like drugs can age the lungs prematurely.\"Norman H. Edelman of theAmerican Lung Associationexplained that if she stopped smoking, her lung functions would decline at the rate of a normal person, but continued smoking would lead to a more rapid decline in lung function. Winehouse was released from theLondon Clinic24 hours after returning from a temporary leave to perform at Nelson Mandela's 90th birthday celebration and at a concert in Glastonbury, and continued", "and continued receiving treatment as anoutpatient.In July 2008, Winehouse stated that she had been diagnosed with \"some areas of emphysema\" and said she was getting herself together by \"eating loads of healthy food, sleeping loads, playing my guitar, making music and writing letters to my husband every day.\"She also kept a verticaltanning bedin her flat.Winehouse began precautionary testing on her lungs and chest on 25 October 2008at the London Clinic for what was reported as a chest infection, leaving and returning at will.She returned to the hospital on 23 November 2008 due to a reported reaction to her medication. Death Winehouse's bodyguard said that he had arrived at her residence three days before her death and felt she had been somewhat intoxicated. Two days after, her mother likewise admitted she had acted \"out of it.\"This was the same day Winehouse had visited her doctor for one of her routine check-ups due to her fragile state, although no abnormalities were noted: \"The doctor was happy with her", "was happy with her condition. When he left on Friday night he had no concerns. Less than 24 hours later she was found dead.\"After the check-up, Winehouse had called her doctor to confess her feelings regarding her codependency, stating: \"I don't want to die\", alongside how she had attempted sobriety, but could not achieve it.These were Winehouse's last recorded words, while her bodyguard's final conversation with her included the quote: \"If I could, I would give it back just to walk down the street with no hassle.\" Her bodyguard continued to observe her drinking moderately over the next few days since his arrival, and later said she had been \"laughing, listening to music and watching TV at 2 a.m. the day of her death\". Another source claims she was watching old re-runs of past performances and reminiscing.At 10 a.m.BSTon 23 July 2011, he observed her lying on her bed and tried (unsuccessfully) to rouse her. This did not raise much suspicion because she usually slept late after a night out. According to the", "According to the bodyguard, shortly after 3p.m., he checked on her again and observed her lying in the same position as before, leading to a further check, in which he concluded that she was not breathing and had no pulse; he said he called emergency services.At 3:54p.m., two ambulances reached Winehouse's home inCamden, London.Winehouse was pronounced dead at the scene. Shortly afterwards, theMetropolitan Policeconfirmed that she had died.Her death at age 27 prompted media comparisons to other musician deaths at the same age, collectively named the27 Club. After her death was announced, media and camera crews appeared near Winehouse's residence.Forensicinvestigators entered the flat as police cordoned off the street outside; they recovered one small and two large bottles of vodka from her room.After her death, the singer broke her second Guinness World Record: for the most songs by a woman to simultaneously appear on the UK singles chart, with eight.Winehouse's record label,Universal Republic, released a", "released a statement that read in part: \"We are deeply saddened at the sudden loss of such a gifted musician, artist and performer.\" With initially little verified information regarding the causes of Winehouse's death, there was considerable speculation on the subject. Various reports speculated on a fatalClass A drug, such asecstasyoverdose, or a lethalcocktail.Winehouse's father Mitch denied these claims, stating: \"Three years ago, Amy conquered her drug dependency. She was the happiest she has been for years.\" By the following month, August 2011, speculation about substance abuse being a factor in Winehouse's death had been disproven by an official toxicology report released to the public which showed that no illegal substances had been identified in Winehouse's system.The coroner's report was released in October 2011, and it stated that Winehouse'sblood alcohol contentwas 416mgper 100ml(0.416%) at the time of her death, more than five timesthe legal drink-drive limit.According to the coroner, the", "to the coroner, the \"unintended consequence\" of so much drink was her \"sudden and unexpected death\", as it reached a 'death by misadventure' verdict.Another inquest was ordered when it was ruled that the first coroner was 'not qualified' for the role\". The second inquest, delivered in January 2013, matched the conclusions of the first inquest, with coroner Dr. Shirley Radcliffe finding that \"She (Winehouse) voluntarily consumed alcohol, a deliberate act that took an unexpected turn in that it caused her death.\" The second inquest reached the verdict ofmisadventuredue to alcohol poisoning,stated in an interview with The Guardian. On 17 December 2012, British authorities reopened the probe into Winehouse's death.On 8 January 2013, a second inquest confirmed that Winehouse died of an accidental alcohol overdose.In a June 2013 interview, Alex Winehouse shared his belief that his sister's eating disorder, and the consequent physical weakness, was the primary cause of her death: She suffered frombulimiavery badly.", "badly. That's not, like, a revelation – you knew just by looking at her... She would have died eventually, the way she was going, but what really killed her was the bulimia... I think that it left her weaker and more susceptible. Had she not had an eating disorder, she would have been physically stronger. Winehouse's funeral was held on 26 July 2011 at Edgwarebury Lane Cemetery inNorth London, it was a private ceremony attended by family and friends.Her mother and father, Janis and Mitch Winehouse, close friendsNick GrimshawandKelly Osbourne, producer Mark Ronson, goddaughterDionne Bromfieldand her boyfriend Reg Traviss were among those in attendance at the private service led by Rabbi Frank Hellner.Her father delivered the eulogy, saying \"Goodnight, my angel, sleep tight. Mummy and Daddy love you ever so much.\"Carole King's \"So Far Away\" closed the service with mourners singing along as it was one of Winehouse's favourite songs.She was latercrematedatGolders Green Crematorium.The family planned to sit a", "planned to sit a two-dayshiva.On 16 September 2012, Winehouse's ashes were buried alongside those of her grandmother Cynthia Levy at Edgwarebury Lane Cemetery. Legacy Achievements and critical appraisal At the time of her death, Winehouse had sold over 1.75 million singles and over 3.98 million albums in the United Kingdom.Meanwhile, she had sold about 3.4 million tracks and 2.7 million albums in the United States as of the same date.Among the awards and recognition for her debut albumFrank, Winehouse earned an Ivor Novello Award from theBritish Academy of Songwritersfor Best Contemporary Song (\"Stronger Than Me\"),aBrit Awardnomination for Best British Female Solo Artist,and an inclusion in Robert Dimery's 2006 book,1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.Her second studio album,Back to Black, produced numerous nominations, including two Brit Awards (Best British Album, and won her Best British Female Solo Artist), sixGrammy Awards(including five wins),four Ivor Novello Awards, fourMTV Europe Music Awards,", "Music Awards, threeMTV Video Music Awards, threeWorld Music Awards, and it was nominated for the Mercury Prize (Album of the Year) and aMOBO Awards(Best UK Female). During her career, Winehouse received 23 awards from 60 nominations. Winehouse was known for her deep, expressivecontraltovocals and her eclectic mix of musical genres, including soul,(sometimes labelled asblue-eyed soulandneo soul),rhythm and blues,and jazz.TheBBC's Garry Mulholland called Winehouse \"the pre-eminent vocal talent of her generation\".According toAllMusic's Cyril Cordor, she was one of the UK's premier singers during the 2000s. \"Fans and critics alike embraced her rugged charm, brash sense of humor, and distinctively soulful and jazzy vocals\".InThe Guardian, Caroline Sullivan later wrote that \"her idolisation of Dinah Washington and the Ronettes distinguished her from almost all newly minted pop singers of the early 2000s, and her exceptionally-susceptible-to-heartbreak voice did the rest\". Soon after Winehouse's death, a number of", "death, a number of prominent critics assessed the singer's legacy.Maura JohnstonfromThe Village Voicesaid, \"When she was on, Winehouse had few peers—she wasn't an octave-jumper like other big divas of the moment, but her contralto had a snap to it that enriched even the simplest syllables with a full spectrum of emotion\".Sasha Frere-JonesofThe New Yorkerproclaimed, \"Nobody can match Winehouse's unique transitions or her utterly weird phrasings. She sounded like an original sixties soul star, developed when the landscape had no rules. But now untrammelled traditionalism is in the lead and her beautiful footnote has been cut short. American soul—through visionaries likeErykah Baduand Janelle Monáe andJill Scott—had moved on. But Winehouse was a fine shepherd of the past.\" On 13 February 2012, Winehouse was ranked 26th onVH1's100 Greatest Women in Musiclist.In March 2017, singer-songwriterBob Dylansaid he was enjoying listening to Winehouse's last record (Back to Black), and called her \"the last real", "her \"the last real individualist around\".In 2023,Rolling Stoneranked Winehouse at number 83 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. Influence Adelehas credited Winehouse's success in making her and fellow British singerDuffy'sjourney to the United States \"a bit smoother.\"Lady Gagacredited Winehouse with paving the way for her rise to the top of the charts, explaining that Winehouse made it easier for unconventional women to have mainstream pop success.Raphael Saadiq,Anthony HamiltonandJohn Legendsaid \"Amy Winehouse was produced by people who wanted to create a marketing coup. The positive side is that it reacquainted an audience with this music and played an introductory role for others. This reinvigorated the genre by overcoming the vintage aspect.\"Other artists that have credited Winehouse as an influence or for paving the way for them include Bruno Mars,Tove Lo,Jessie J,Emeli Sandé,Victoria Justice,Paloma Faith,Lana Del Rey,Sam Smith,Florence Welch,Halsey,Alessia Cara,Estelle,Daya,Jorja", "Smith,Lauren JaureguiandBillie Eilish. After the release ofBack to Black, record companies sought out female artists with a similar sound and fearless and experimental female musicians in general. Adele and Duffy were the second wave of artists with a sound similar to Winehouse's. A third wave of female musicians that has emerged since the album was released are led byV V Brown,Florence and the Machine,La RouxandLittle Boots.In March 2011, theNew YorkDaily Newsran an article attributing the continuing wave of British female artists that have been successful in the United States to Winehouse and her absence.Spinmagazine music editor Charles Aaron was quoted as saying \"Amy Winehouse was theNirvanamoment for all these women,\" \"They can all be traced back to her in terms of attitude, musical styles or fashion.\" According to Keith Caulfield, chart manager forBillboard, \"Because of Amy, or the lack thereof, the marketplace was able to get singers like Adele, Estelle and Duffy,\" \"Now those ladies have brought on", "have brought on the new ones, likeEliza Doolittle,RumerandEllie.\" Amy Winehouse Foundation After the singer's death by alcohol intoxication in July 2011, the Amy Winehouse Foundation was set up by Winehouse's family and launched on 14 September 2011 (which would have been Winehouse's 28th birthday). Its aim is to help vulnerable or disadvantaged young people, and it works with other charitable organisations to provide frontline support. Its central office is in North London, but it also has an office in New York (operating under the name 'The Amy Winehouse Foundation US').Jon Snowis a patron for the charity, withBarbara Windsoralso before she died in 2020, and ambassadors includeJess Glynne,Patsy Palmer,Jessie Wallace,Keira ChaplinandMica Paris. In October 2015Mark Ronsonbecame a patron.Amy's brother Alex works full-time for the foundation, having given up his career as an online music journalist. The charity itself works to prevent the effects of drug and alcohol misuse on young people and it also aims to", "and it also aims to support, inform and inspire vulnerable and disadvantaged young people to help them reach their full potential.On 12 March 2013, with the help of ex-addictRussell Brand, the Foundation launched the Amy Winehouse Foundation Resilience Programme For Schools across the UK which aims to provide effective education around drugs, alcohol and dealing with emotional issues. Tributes Artworks and exhibits London'sMall Galleriesopened an exhibition in May 2008 that included a sculpture of Winehouse, titledExcess. The piece, created by Guy Portelli, had a miniature of the singer lying on top of a cracked champagne bottle, with a pool of spilled liquid underneath. The body was covered with what appeared to be tiny pills, while one outstretched hand held a glass.Another piece, a print titledCelebrity 1by artist Charlotte Suckling, was shown in the same exhibition. Winehouse was immortalised at the world-famous LondonMadame Tussaudson 23 July 2008. Winehouse herself had expressed surprise at plans to", "at plans to make a waxwork of her, stating that she believed a person 'had to be dead' before a waxwork was made of them. Winehouse did not make herself available for sittings for the Madame Tussauds waxwork, which was instead done from photos.A sculpture by Marco Perego, titledThe Only Good Rock Star Is a Dead Rock Star, that depicts Winehouse lying in a pool of blood with an apple and a bullet hole in her head after being shot by American novelist andBeatpoetWilliam S. Burroughs(in a recreation of the accidental killing of his wifeJoan Vollmer), went on on display in New York's Half Gallery on 14 November 2008 with a sale price of US$100,000.Perego said of the sculpture: \"Rock stars are the sacrificial animals of society.\" Winehouse was not supportive of Peregro's work, with her spokesperson stating: \"It's a funny kind of tribute. The artist seems in thrall to a tabloid persona that is not the real Amy. People often use her image to sell their work.\" Initial reports after her death stated that Winehouse", "that Winehouse had left a will, which had been altered after her divorce from Blake Fielder-Civil. However it transpired that Winehouse had not left a will; her estate, worth around £4 million, was inherited by her parents.Winehouse's parents set up theAmy Winehouse Foundationto prevent harm from drug misuse among young people, with her brother Alex as an employee. In 2012, Winehouse was among the British cultural icons selected by artist SirPeter Blaketo appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles'Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Bandalbum cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires. On 14 September 2014 (which would have been Winehouse's 31st birthday),a statue of herby sculptorScott Eatonwas unveiled atStables Marketin Camden Town, North London.Fans and relatives gathered for the unveiling in Camden's Stable Market.London-based Eaton, who sculpted the piece after being introduced to Winehouse's father Mitch, said the statue was meant to capture", "meant to capture her \"attitude and strength, but also give subtle hints of insecurity.\"Her father Mitch said of the statue: \"Now Amy will oversee the comings and goings of her home town forever... Amy was in love with Camden and it is the place her fans from all over the world associate her with.\" An exhibit of Winehouse's personal items, co-curated by her brother and sister-in-law, titledAmy Winehouse: A Family Portrait, was on display at the Jewish Museum London from 3 July 2013 until 15 September 2013, and later exhibited inSan Francisco, 23 July 2015 to 1 November 2015.Display items, such as books and music, were featured together with captions written by Winehouse's brother. In 2018, the artistDan Llywelyn Hall's portrait of the singer,Amy's Glance, was exhibited at the London Art Fair. In March 2020, Winehouse's name on a stone was unveiled on the new Music Walk of Fame in Camden, with her parents Mitch and Janis in attendance at the ceremony. In 2020, an exhibition titledBeyond Black – The Style of", "– The Style of Amy Winehouseopened at theGrammy Museumin Los Angeles. The exhibit mainly focused on Winehouse's style and fashion, displaying outfits such as her iconic dresses, shoes, hair accessories, makeup bag as well as Winehouse's personal belongings including her Grammy awards from 2008, handwritten lyrics, records and unseen home videos. The exhibition went on display in the U.S. from 17 January 2020 until 13 April 2020. A follow-up exhibitionAmy: Beyond the Stageopened on 26 November 2021 until 10 April 2022 at theDesign Museumin Kensington, London which also presented some of Winehouse's personal belongings and focus on her fashion sense, as well as paying homage to her musical career.Also in November 2021, various of Winehouse's personal items and famous dresses would later be auctioned atJulien's Auctionsin Los Angeles and made more than £3m, 30% going to the Amy Winehouse Foundation. Many musical artists have since paid tribute to Winehouse includingNicki Minaj,M.I.A.,Lady Gaga,Kelly", "Gaga,Kelly Osbourne,Rihanna,George Michael,Adele,Dita Von Teese,Courtney Love,and the rock bandGreen Day, who wrote a song in her tribute titled \"Amy\".In her 2012 albumBanga, singerPatti Smithreleased \"This Is the Girl\", written as an homage to Winehouse.Mark Ronson dedicated his UK number-one albumUptown Specialto Winehouse, stating: \"I'm always thinking of you and inspired by you.\" Films and memoirs In late 2011, there were reports that Winehouse's former boyfriend, Reg Traviss, was developing a film about her. Winehouse's father Mitch Winehouse, who owns the copyright to his daughter's music, said he would not authorise the use of her music for the film. Winehouse's parents have each written memoirs about their daughter and donated the proceeds from both books to the Amy Winehouse Foundation. In the introduction to Mitch Winehouse's biography, titledAmy: My Daughter(2012), he explained: \"Apart from being her father, I was also her friend, confidant and adviser—not that she always took my advice, but she", "my advice, but she always heard me out.\"Her mother Janis publishedLoving Amy: A Mother's Story, in 2014. A documentary film,Amy(2015), directed byAsif Kapadiaand produced by James Gay-Rees, was released on 3 July 2015. The film covers Winehouse's life, her relationships, her struggles with substance abuse both before and after her career blossomed, and which eventually caused her death.The film received its première at the2015 Cannes Film Festivalon 16 May and has been reviewed as \"a tragic masterpiece\", \"brilliant\", \"heartbreaking\" and \"unmissable\".Thesoundtrack of the same namewas released on 30 October 2015, along with the DVD that includes music featured in the documentary by film composerAntônio Pintoand classic and some unreleased tracks by Winehouse. The film was highly acclaimed and received various accolades, including theAcademy Award for Best Documentary Featureat the2016 Oscars,Best Music Filmat the2016 Grammy Awards, theBAFTAforBest Documentary, theMTV Movie Awardfor Best Documentary, in", "Documentary, in addition to a nomination for theBAFTA Award for Best British Film. On 9 October 2017, it was announced by Winehouse's father Mitch that aWest End/Broadwaymusical on Amy is in the works.Mitch Winehouse revealed the news at the Amy Winehouse Foundation Gala event in London. In 2018, a documentary film based on Winehouse's albumBack to Black,Amy Winehouse – Back to Black, was released.It contains new interviewsas well as archival footage.It was made byEagle Visionand produced by Gil Cang.Released on DVD on 2 November 2018, the film features interviews by producers Ronson & Remi, who worked half and half on the album, along with the Dap Kings, Remi's music team,Ronnie Spectorfrom the Ronettes and close ones to Winehouse, including Nick Shymansky, Juliette Ashby andDionne Bromfield.The film is accompanied byAn Intimate Evening in London,footage of a show Winehouse gave atRiverside Studios, London in 2008.In February 2019,Salaam Remireleased a compilation album including the song \"Find My Love\"", "song \"Find My Love\" which is a posthumous collaboration between Winehouse and rapperNas. As the years passed since her death, talk began to grow of a film biopic of Amy Winehouse's life. In October 2018, it was announced that Winehouse's estate had signed a multi-million pound deal to make a film biopic about her life and career.In August 2021 it was reported that a film based on Daphne Barak's 2010 book,Saving Amy, which chronicles the late singer's final years, had been greenlighted by Halcyon Studios. However, in September 2021, Amy's father and estate executor, Mitch, stated that was “100% not allowed.” In July 2021, a new documentary titledReclaiming Amyaired onBBC Twoto mark the 10th anniversary of Winehouse's death.The film was primarily based on the perspective and narrated by her mother Janis Winehouse-Collins and included intimate stories of those who were close to Winehouse until the end of her life, including close friends Naomi Parry (Winehouse's stylist), Catriona Gourlay and Chantelle Dusette.", "Chantelle Dusette. In July 2022, it was reported that a feature film biopic, entitledBack To Black(2024) was to be produced byStudioCanal UK, distributed byFocus Featuresand directed bySam Taylor-Johnson—who previously made a biopic ofThe BeatlesstarJohn Lennon,Nowhere Boy(2009)—and directedFifty Shades of Grey(2015). The script was written byMatt Greenhalghand it was to be made with the full cooperation of Amy's father Mitch, and her estate.In January 2023, it was revealed that British actressMarisa Abelawould play the leading role of Winehouse and filming commenced later that month in London.In January 2024, a trailer forBack to Blackwas released along with a debut release date of April 12 in the UK. The film was moderately successful at the box office, with a worldwide total of $51.1 million.The film attracted mixed reviews, with criticism for a selective depiction of Winehouse's life, including the complete omission of Reg Traviss, and over-sympathetic depictions of Mitch Winehouse, and Blake", "and Blake Fielder-Civil, but praise for the acting.On thereview aggregatorwebsiteRotten Tomatoes, 34% of 175 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 4.8/10. The website's consensus reads: \"Back to Black's sympathetic approach to its subject's story is an overdue antidote to the tabloid treatment she often received in life, even if the end results are disappointingly pedestrian.\" Discography See also References Sources Further reading External links", "Paramore Paramoreis an Americanrockband formed inFranklin, Tennessee, in 2004. Since 2017, the band's lineup includes lead vocalistHayley Williams, lead guitaristTaylor York, and drummerZac Farro. Williams and Farro are founding members of the group, while York, a high school friend of the original lineup, joined in 2007. Williams is the only member to appear on all six of Paramore's studio albums. The band was signed toFueled by Ramen, a subsidiary ofAtlantic Records(which is owned byWarner Music Group.) Williams was signed to Atlantic separately, as she wasscoutedwhen she was a teenager. They were the only label to let her stay in the band instead of going solo, but Atlantic said the rest of the band had to sign to Fueled by Ramen.The group's debut album,All We Know Is Falling(2005), reached number 30 onBillboard'sHeatseekers Chartin 2006 and number four on theUK Rock Chartin 2009. The band's second album,Riot!(2007) became a mainstream success thanks to the success of the singles \"Misery Business\",", "\"Misery Business\", \"Crushcrushcrush\", and \"That's What You Get\". The album wascertified Platinumin the US and the band received aBest New Artistnomination at the2008 Grammy Awards.Their 2009 follow-up,Brand New Eyes, reached number two on theBillboard200and became the band's second-highest-charting album to date. It produced the top-forty single \"The Only Exception\" and went platinum in Ireland and the UK. Following the departure of Zac andJosh Farroin 2010, the band released theirself-titled fourth albumin 2013.Paramoregave the band their first number one song on the USBillboard200 and was also the number one album in the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Argentina and Mexico.It included the singles \"Still Into You\" and \"Ain't It Fun\", with the latter winning theGrammy Award for Best Rock Songfor Williams and York as songwriters, making it Paramore's firstGrammywin.The band's lineup changed once again after this album, with bassistJeremy Davisleaving the band near the end of 2015 and former", "of 2015 and former drummer Zac Farro rejoining the band in 2017. Their fifth and sixth studio albums,After LaughterandThis Is Why, were released in May 2017and February 2023, respectively, to critical acclaim. History 2002–2004: Formation and early years In 2002, at age 13, vocalistHayley Williamsmoved from her hometownMeridian, Mississippi, toFranklin, Tennessee,where she met brothers Josh Farro and Zac Farro at a weekly supplemental program for home-schooled students.Shortly after arriving, she began taking vocal lessons with Brett Manning.Prior to forming Paramore, Williams and bassist Jeremy Davis, along with friend Kimee Read, took part in afunkcover band called the Factory, while Josh and Zac Farro had practiced together after school.The other members of what was soon to be Paramore had been \"edgy about the whole female thing\" of having Williams as vocalist, but, because they were good friends, she started writing for them.Williams said of the members when she first met them, \"They were the first", "were the first people I met who were as passionate about music as I was.\" Williams was originally signed to Atlantic Records as a solo artist in 2003.She had been introduced to Atlantic A&R Tom Storms by Kent Marcus and Jim Zumwalt, lawyers of managers Dave Steunebrink and Richard Williams, and then eventually signed to Atlantic byJason Flom.Steunebrink and Richard Williams had originally discovered and signed her to a production deal that was later bought out by Atlantic.The original plan of the label was to turn her into a pop singer, but Williams resisted, saying that she wanted to play alternative rock music with a band.In an interview withHitQuartersthe band's A&R at Atlantic, Steve Robertson, said, \"She wanted to make sure that we didn't look at her as some straight to Top 40 pop princess. She wanted to make sure that she and her band got the chance to show what they can do as a rock band writing their own songs.\"Label president Julie Greenwald and the label staff decided to go with her wishes. The", "her wishes. The original management team for the band was Dave Steunebrink,CreedmanagerJeff Hanson, and Hanson's assistant Mark Mercado. The band was officially formed byJosh Farro(lead guitar/backing vocals),Zac Farro(drums), Davis (bass guitar) and Williams (lead vocals) in 2004,with the later addition of Williams' neighbor Jason Bynum (rhythm guitar).When Davis showed up, he was stunned to find out the drummer was only fourteen years old. He admitted \"I had very, very, very, little faith in everyone in the band because of their age. I remember thinking, 'This is not going to work because this kid is way too young,' but that first day of practice was amazing. I knew we were on to something.\"According to Williams, the name \"Paramore\" came from themaiden nameof the mother of one of their first bass players.Once the group learned the meaning of the homophoneparamour('secret lover'), they decided to adopt the name, using theParamorespelling. Paramore was originally supposed to release their music on Atlantic", "music on Atlantic Records, but the label's marketing department decided it would be better for the image of the band to not have them attached to a major label. Instead, they released their music through the niche labelFueled by Ramen.Lyor Cohen, the head ofWarner Music Group, had already identified Fueled by Ramen as a label they should partner with. It was decided the rock label would make an ideal match for Paramore.According to Robertson, when the band was presented to Fueled by Ramen's CEO John Janick, \"he got the vision of the band immediately.\"Janick went to aTaste of Chaosperformance inOrlando, Florida, to see the band perform live. In April 2005, after a smaller private performance at a warehouse, the band was signed to Atlantic Records and Fueled By Ramen. The band's first song written together was \"Conspiracy\", which was later used on their debut album. At this time, they were touring the Southeast, usually being driven by Williams' parents. She commented that \"Back then, I guess we were all", "I guess we were all thinking, after school, we'll go to the house and practice. It was what we loved to do for fun, and still do! I don't think any of us really knew this would turn out to be what it's become.\" 2005–2006:All We Know Is Falling Paramore traveled back to Orlando, Florida,but shortly after arriving, Jeremy Davis left the band, citing personal reasons. The remaining four members of Paramore continued with the album, writing \"All We Know\" about his departure, and later deciding to baseAll We Know Is Fallingaround the concept. The album artwork also reflected Paramore's grief, as Hayley Williams explains, \"The couch on the cover ofAll We Know is Fallingwith no one there and the shadow walking away; it's all about Jeremy leaving us and us feeling like there's an empty space.\" Before touring, the band added John Hembree (bass) to their lineup to replace Davis.During that summer, Paramore was featured on theShiragirlstage of the 2005Warped Tour.After being asked by the band, Jeremy Davis returned to", "Davis returned to Paramore after five months apart, replacing Hembree.All We Know Is Fallingwas released on July 26, 2005,and reached No. 30 onBillboard's Heatseekers Chart.Paramore released \"Pressure\" as its first single, with a video directed byShane Drake, but the song failed to chart. The video featured the band performing in a warehouse, eventually getting sprayed with water sprinklers as the storyline of a conflicted couple occurs. In July, \"Emergency\" was released as the second single, the video again reuniting the band with director Shane Drake and featuring Hunter Lamb (rhythm guitar), who replaced Jason Bynum in December 2005.The video for \"Emergency\" showcased Paramore in another performance, this time fixing the members' bloody costumes. The third single, \"All We Know\", was released with limited airtime, with the video consisting of a collection of live performances and backstage footage. After the band's later success,All We Know Is Fallingand \"Pressure\" were certifiedGoldby theRIAA. In January", "theRIAA. In January 2006, the band took part in the Winter Go West tour, where they played alongside Seattle bandsAmber Pacificandthe Lashes. In February, Hayley Williams was featured on \"Keep Dreaming Upside Down\" byOctober Fall.In spring of 2006, Paramore was an opening act on tours for bothBaysideandthe Rocket Summer.The band then coveredFoo Fighters' \"My Hero\" for theSound of Supermansoundtrack. During the summer of 2006, Paramore played a portion of Warped Tour, primarily on theVolcomandHurleyStages.During the band's time at Warped Tour, they releasedThe Summer Tic EP, which was sold exclusively during the tour.Paramore's first US headlining tour began on August 2, 2006, to a sold-out audiencewith support fromThis Providence,Cute Is What We Aim For, andHit the Lights.That year they were voted \"Best New Band\", and Hayley Williams was voted as No. 2 \"Sexiest Female\", by readers of the British magazineKerrang!. In 2007, Lamb left the group to get married, and Paramore continued onward as a quartet.Paramore", "a quartet.Paramore was then named by British magazineNMEas one of ten bands to watch out for in their \"New Noise 2007\" feature.Paramore was featured inKerrang!magazine once more; however, Hayley Williams believed the article was an untrue portrayal of the band, particularly because it focused on her as the main component. Afterwards, Williams addressed the issue in the band'sLiveJournal, with a post saying, \"we could've done without a cover piece. sorry, if it offends anyone at Kerrang! but I don't think there was one bit of truth in that article.\"In April, Hayley Williams' vocals were featured in \"Then Came To Kill\" bythe Chariot.They headlined a tour in April through May 2007 withThis Providence,the Almost, and Love Arcade. The Almost and Love Arcade were replaced byQuietdrivefor the second half of the tour. 2007–2008:Riot! Before work began on the band's next album, Davis was expelled from the band due to \"his lack of work ethic and participation in things that Zac, Hayley and I didn't agree with\",", "didn't agree with\", according to Josh Farro. After an agreement involving the remaining three members, Davis was reinstated as bassist, andTaylor Yorkbecame the band's new guitarist.York had been in a band with the Farro brothers before the two met Williams. After being courted by producers Neal Avron andHoward Benson,Paramore opted to record the album with producer David Bendeth inNew Jersey, who had previously worked withYour VegasandBreaking Benjamin.The album, titledRiot!, was released on June 12, 2007,entering theBillboard200 at number 20 and the UK charts at number 24.The album sold 44,000 units its first week in the United States.The nameRiot!had been chosen because it meant \"a sudden outburst of uncontrolled emotion\", and it was a word that \"summed it all up\".\"Misery Business\" was released as the first single from the album.According to when discussing what Misery Business was about, Williams stated, \"When I was 13 or 14 and I had a crush on Josh, he didn't like me back,\" Williams said. \"He would go", "said. \"He would go hang out with his girlfriend, who I wrote 'Misery Business' about because I was a dick.\"In the summer of 2007, Paramore participated in their third Warped Tour, and they posted journals of their experiences on yourhereblog for MTV. On October 11, 2007, the music video for \"Crushcrushcrush\" debuted on the United States television as the next single fromRiot!. The video for \"Crushcrushcrush\" featured the band playing a performance in a barren desert, being spied upon, and later destroying their equipment. The single was released in the United States on November 19 and made available in the United Kingdom on November 12, 2007.Hayley Williams recorded guest vocals for the tracks \"The Church Channel\" and \"Plea\" for theSay Anythingconcept albumIn Defense of the Genre,released on October 23, 2007. The group performed live in an acoustic style inBostonon November 29, 2007, for FNX Radio.On December 31, 2007, Paramore performed on theMTVNew Year's Eveprogram which ran from 11:30 p.m. to 1:00 a.m.", "p.m. to 1:00 a.m. Paramore was featured on the cover of February 2008 issue ofAlternative Pressmagazine and voted \"Best Band Of 2007\" by the readers.The band was nominated for \"Best New Artist\" at the50th Annual Grammy Awards, presented on February 10, 2008.Early 2008 saw Paramore touring the United Kingdom, supporting their albumRiot!, along withNew Found Glory.In early February 2008, the band began a tour in Europe;however, on February 21, 2008, the band announced that they had canceled six shows due to personal issues. Williams wrote on the band's web site that \"the break will give that band 'a chance to get away and work out our personal issues'\". MTV.com reported that fans of Paramore were speculating about the future of the band and reported rumors of trouble had begun earlier in the month, when Josh Farro expressed his anger against the media's focus on Hayley Williams.The band, however, returned to their hometown to record the music video for the fourth single \"That's What You Get\", which was then", "which was then released on March 24, 2008. The band toured withJimmy Eat Worldin the United States in April and May 2008.The band headlined theGive it a Namefestival in the United Kingdom on May 10 and 11, 2008.Paramore played their first Ireland show at theRDSinDublinon June 2, 2008,followed by the 2008Vans Warped Tourfrom July 1–6.Starting on July 28, Paramore embarked on a tour named \"The Final Riot!\".They were joined byJack's Mannequin,Phantom Planet, andPaper Routeon the tour.The band released a live album namedThe Final Riot!on November 25, 2008.The album includes a bonus DVD with a full concert recorded inChicago, as well as a behind the scenes documentary.As of April 9, 2009,The Final Riot!is certified gold in the United States. 2009–2011:Brand New Eyes, departure of the Farros, andSingles Club In September 2008, Williams announced that the band were planning on releasing their third studio album in summer 2009.On November 18, 2008, the band announced they were in the process of writing their next", "writing their next album. Paramore spent six weeks in pre-production at Emac Studios in their hometown ofFranklin, the first time they had undergone pre-production without the guidance of aproducer.The band was visited by record producerRob Cavallowho reassured the band that they were on the right track.The band subsequently felt that the album and that their new material had the potential to surpass the success of their previous work.The band originally planned to record inNashville,but ended up recording inCalabasas, California, with Cavallo in March 2009.The first single from the album was \"Ignorance\" and was released July 7, 2009.Paramore was the special guest withBedouin Soundclash,The SoundsandJanelle Monáeat theNo Doubt Summer Tour 2009, starting in May 2009 in outdoor amphitheaters and arenas across the US and Canada.The official music video for \"Ignorance\" aired on all MTV platforms, networks, and websites on August 13, 2009.Paramore, along withPaper RouteandThe Swellers, toured in support ofBrand", "in support ofBrand New Eyesin the fall of 2009.Some tour dates were postponed due to Hayley Williams becoming infected withlaryngitis.\"Brick By Boring Brick\", \"The Only Exception\", \"Careful\" and \"Playing God\" were the album's following singles.To promote the album, the band recorded a performance forMTV Unplugged. Paramore then played a sold out 15-date European tour withYou Me At Six,Paper Routeand Now Now Every Children.Their stadium tour culminated at London'sWembley Arena, to an audience of 12,500.The band performed in 2010 in theAustralianSoundwave Festivalalong with bands such asFaith No More,AFI,You Me at Six,All Time Low,A Day to Remember, andTaking Back Sunday.Shortly before the tour, lead guitarist Josh Farro announced that he was engaged and stayed behind to plan his wedding.Justin York, brother of Taylor York, filled in for him on the tour.The band, with Farro returned, embarked on a spring tour of the U.S. in late April.The band headlined the 2010Honda Civic Tour, which began on July 23 in", "began on July 23 in Raleigh, NC and closed on September 19 in Anaheim, CA.After a short United Kingdom tour in November 2010,the band announced, on December 2, 2010, the official dates for a South American tour to take place during February and March 2011.The band were set to take a break after their South American Tour in 2011 to write for their fourth studio album. On December 18, 2010, a message was released through Paramore.net stating that Josh and Zac Farro were leaving the band.The band also confirmed the scheduled South American tour would still happen.Josh Farro wrote a statement on the departure on hisBlogger, claiming that the band was \"a manufactured product of amajor-label\". He accused Hayley Williams of being manipulated by her management, treating the rest of the group as hersolo project, and claimed she was the only member of the band who was signed toAtlantic Records, while her bandmates were simply \"riding on the coattails of her dream\".On December 30, 2010,MTV Newsinterviewed Williams,", "Williams, York and Davis inFranklin, Tennessee, regarding their reactions to Farro's response.The band members confirmed many of Farro's statements, notably that Williams was indeed the only member of the band actually signed to Atlantic. They added that they felt the statement was irrelevant, and claimed they had addressed many of the Farro's critiques already throughout the course of their career. On January 10, 2011, in an interview with MTV, Hayley Williams said that despite the band losing two of its founding members, they would release new music in 2011, although they had not confirmed if it would be a full album for release or just a small number of songs.The singer also admitted that Paramore's style was likely to change with the new lineup, but clarified that the band would still retain their core signature sound.Paramore later confirmed they were entering a studio in Los Angeles with producerRob Cavalloto record what would be theSingles Club. On June 3, 2011, Paramore released the single \"Monster\",", "single \"Monster\", featured on theTransformers: Dark of the Moonsoundtrack.This is the first song that the band released without the Farro brothers.On June 9, 2011, Hayley Williams announced that the band had started to write their fourth album, which they hoped to start recording at the end of the year, with an early 2012 release.On October 11, 2011, Paramore announced that they would release a new song for each of the remaining months of 2011.The band set up theSingles Clubon their website which gave fans the chance to purchase the singles when they were released, as they were released exclusively through the Singles Club and were therefore not sold elsewhere.A song called \"Renegade\", premiered the day of the announcement,with \"Hello Cold World\" following on November 7,and \"In the Mourning\" on December 5.In 2011, former member, Josh Farro, formed Novel American, with Zac Farro later joining the band. 2012–2015:Paramoreand Davis' third exit On April 18, 2012, Williams announced that the producer for their", "producer for their fourth album wasJustin Meldal-Johnsen.FormerLostprophetsand currentAngels & AirwavesandNine Inch NailsdrummerIlan Rubinwas confirmed to be the session drummer for the recording of the album.Paramorewas officially released on April 5, 2013,and a #1 at US albums chartBillboard200.The first single from the album, titled \"Now\", was released online on January 22, 2013,and the album's second single, \"Still Into You\", was released on March 14, 2013, achieving commercial success.The third single, \"Daydreaming\", was released on December 2, 2013.The album's fourth single, \"Ain't It Fun\", was released on February 4, 2014,eventually becoming the band's highest-charting song in the United Statesand a winner forBest Rock Songat the57th Annual Grammy Awards.On November 24, 2014,Paramore: Self-Titled Deluxewas released, which includes a remake of \"Hate to See Your Heart Break\", a song originally onParamore, featuringJoy Williams; this is the band's first collaboration on a song.The band embarked on an", "band embarked on an intimate tour withCopeland,they said in a blog post that \"It feels right to bring the Self-Titled era to a close. We've had a very personal and hugely triumphant journey with this one. What wouldn't feel right is saying goodbye to this time in the band's career and not celebrating it with our fans in some special way.\" On December 14, 2015, bassist Jeremy Davis left the band.In March 2016, Davis was involved in a legal battle with Paramore, claiming to be eligible to enjoy the benefits of a business partnership with Hayley Williams as a co-owner of the band. This was quickly dismissed and he was again involved in a legal battle with Hayley Williams and Taylor York over a breach of contract entitling him to ownership and authorship of songs on their self-titled record, including \"Ain't It Fun\", and again, claiming to be eligible to enjoy the benefits of the earnings the two received from these songs and album.Davis reached a settlement with the band in May 2017. During this period, lead", "this period, lead singer Williams later revealed that she suffered from depression and mental health issues following the departure of Davis as well as a divorce with her ex-husbandChad Gilbert.In an interview withZane LoweonBeats 1 Radio, shes described it as \"torment\" and mentioned that she \"didn't laugh for a long time\".As a result, Williams privately left the band for a short period in 2015, briefly leaving York as the only remaining member of the group. 2016–2019: Zac Farro's return andAfter Laughter On January 19, 2016, Williams announced that the band was in the process of writing their fifth album.On June 8, 2016, the band posted a short video of themselves in the studio to their social media.This was preceded by a number of images which all included both former drummer Zac Farro and producerJustin Meldal-Johnsen, leading fans and various media outlets to speculate the return of Farro.On June 17, Farro was featured yet again in a picture uploaded to social media, this time behind a drum set,", "behind a drum set, confirming that he would be recording drums for the album,though he later clarified that he was only recording drums for the album and that he had not rejoined the band as a full member.Despite this, on February 2, 2017, the band announced that Farro would return as the official drummer of the band. On April 19, 2017, Paramore released \"Hard Times\" as the lead single from their albumAfter Laughter, which they announced would be released on May 12, 2017.On May 3, a second single was released, titled \"Told You So\".A music video for the song \"Fake Happy\" was released on November 17, 2017.On February 5, 2018, a music video for \"Rose-Colored Boy\" was released,which is also the album's fourth single.The music video for \"Caught in the Middle\", the album's fifth single, was released on June 26, 2018.On September 7, 2018, Hayley Williams announced during a concert that the band will play the song \"Misery Business\" \"for the last time for a really long time\", mainly due to a line from the second", "from the second verse that was perceived to be sexist,though this decision was reversed in 2022. 2020–present:This Is Why On May 11, 2020, Williams teased a potential return to a more guitar-driven sound on the band's sixth album, commenting, \"We've found ourselves listening to a lot of older music that we grew up being inspired by.\"In January 2022, it was confirmed that the band had entered the studio to work on their upcoming sixth studio album. The band described the album as more \"guitar heavy\".On January 18, the band was announced to headline the newly foundedLas Vegas–basedWhen We Were Youngfestival alongsideMy Chemical Romanceon October 22, 2022, which was one of the first live performances the band had played since September 2018.On May 10, it was announced that the band would headline theAustin City Limits FestivalinAustin,Texas, during October on the 9th and 16th of the same year, alongsideRed Hot Chili Peppers,P!nkandLil Nas X. On July 15, 2022, it was announced that Paramore would be embarking on", "be embarking on a tour in October and November 2022.On September 28, 2022, the band released the song \"This Is Why\" as the lead single fromThis Is Why, released on February 10, 2023.In November 2022, the band changed the album cover for their 2013 self-titled album to a picture of Hayley Williams from behind.On December 8, 2022, the band released the second single, \"The News\".On January 12, 2023, the band released the third single, \"C'est Comme Ça\".Paramore was nominated for Favorite Music Group at the2023 Kids' Choice Awards.On February 6, 2023, the band debuted the song \"Running Out of Time\" at their album release show in Nashville.On February 16, 2023, the band released a music video for the album's fourth single, \"Running Out of Time\".The band's song, \"This is Why\", was nominated for \"Best Alternative\" at the2023 MTV Video Music Awards. The band began teasing an upcoming remix album,Re: This Is Whyin late September 2023,posting audio snippets from the album on their officialDiscordserver.The album was", "album was officially announced on October 2.The album is set for release on October 6.Described as \"almost a remix album\",Re: This Is Whyfeatures reworked, remixed, and rewritten versions of songs from the band's 2023 albumThis Is Why, as well as an unreleased B-side demo.For the66th Annual Grammy Awards,This Is Whywas nominated forBest Rock Albumand the album's title track was nominated forBest Alternative Music Performance. On December 27, 2023, Paramore wiped their social media accounts and the band's website became inaccessible.A week later, they canceled a co-headlining appearance in Anaheim atiHeartRadio's Alter Ego festival scheduled for January 13, 2024, \"due to unforeseen circumstances\". In their place,Fall Out Boywas announced.Stereogumsaid that Paramore's label contract had expired.On January 10, 2024,A24announced a tribute album for theTalking Headsconcert filmStop Making Sense, which will feature a cover of \"Burning Down The House\" by Paramore as the leading track.In January 2024, the band were", "2024, the band were nominated for Best International Group at the 2024BRIT Awards.On January 31, their cover of \"Burning Down The House\" was released as a single.On February 4, 2024, the band won two Grammy awards at the66th Annual Grammy Awardswith their album,This Is WhywinningBest Rock Albumand the title track winningBest Alternative Music Performance.On February 10, 2024, Paramore were announced as the ambassador forRecord Store Day2024 and confirmed that they would continue as an independent band after the end of their contract with Atlantic Records.On March 1, 2024, a music video for \"Thick Skull\" was released.In September 2024, during an interview withDork, Williams revealed that Paramore has already started making new music, with demos made before they went on tour withTaylor Swift. Musical style and influences Paramore's music style has generally been regarded aspop-punk,emo,pop rock,alternative rock,power pop,emo pop,new wave,punk rock,pop,grunge,electropop, andsynth-pop.Joshua Martin had written", "Martin had written after an interview with Hayley Williams, \"The band isn't just a short pop-punk girl with red hair and a spunky attitude. Their music is like them, it's aged differently. It's sped up, and slowed down. It's emo without being whiny, or bratty. Almost a very literal anti-Avril Lavigne.\"Alternative Pressmagazine had commented that the band was \"young-sounding\", while consistently being \"honest\".Paramore's first albumAll We Know is Fallinghad an arguably more \"formulaic pop-punk\" sound that was \"delivered particularly well\"and the combination of the two had created a \"refined rock infused pop/punk album\".The band's second release,Riot!was said to explore a 'diverse range of styles,\" however, not straying far from \"their signature sound\".The band's later albums, such asParamoreandAfter Laughter, included more of anew waveandsynth-popsound.The band's sixth studio album,This Is Whywent for more of apost-punkanddance-punksound. Alternative Pressand various other reviewers have noted that the band's", "that the band's stage performances have helped boost them to larger fame.Alternative Pressstates that Williams \"has more charisma than singers twice her age, and her band aren't far behind in their chops, either.\"Singer-songwriterJohn Mayerhad praised Williams' voice in a blog in October 2007, calling her \"The great orange hope\"; \"orange\" in reference to her hair color.Due to the female-fronted aspect of the band, Paramore has gained comparisons toKelly Clarksonand the aforementioned Avril Lavigne, to which one reviewer said was \"sorely unfounded\".Reviewer Jonathan Bradley noted that \"Paramore attacks its music with infectious enthusiasm.\" However, he also explained that \"there isn't a whole lot of difference betweenRiot!and the songs from Kelly Clarkson or Avril Lavigne.\"A reviewer atNMEhad likened Paramore's sound to that of \"No Doubt(stripped of all theskabollocks)\" and \"Kelly Clarkson's wildest dreams\".Hayley Williams has gone on to comment about the female aspect of the band saying that Paramore is not", "Paramore is not \"this girl-fronted band\" and it makes \"music for people to enjoy music, not so people can talk about my sexuality.\" Paramore has expressed appreciation forWeezer,Hum,Failure,Far,No Doubt,Deftones,the Smiths,Blink-182,Death Cab for Cutie,Jimmy Eat World,Sunny Day Real Estate,andNew Found Glory.Hayley Williams has cited her personal influences asMewithoutYou,Elvis Presley,the Shirelles,the Angels,theRamones,Jawbreaker,Freddie Mercury,Karen O,Josh Scogin,Blondie,Bloc Party,NSYNC,Aaliyah,the Smiths,Siouxsie and the Banshees,the Cure,andEtta James.Williams named many singers as heroines: \"I loveDebbie HarryandSiouxsie Sioux. I grew up listening toThe Distillers Girl groups are really important to me, but theShangri-Lasespecially\".Williams also explained that bands such asU2, \"who are massive, and do whatever they want, write whatever they want and they stand for something,\"Jimmy Eat World, \"who I don't think ever disappoint their fans,\" andNo Doubt, who \"have done amazing things\", act as a pattern", "act as a pattern for the path in which Paramore would like to take their career.In 2012, Williams contributed vocals toMewithoutYou's fifth studio album,Ten Stories. The band members identified themselves asChristiansin the past and in an interview with the BBC, Josh Farro stated \"Our faith is very important to us. It's obviously going to come out in our music because if someone believes something, then their worldview is going to come out in anything they do. But we're not out here to preach to kids, we're out here because we love music.\"Farro later cited differing views on Christianity between him, his brother and Williams as one of the reasons for their departure in 2010.In a 2022 interview, Williams described herself, York, and Zac Farro as being \"at different stages of unravelling their relationship to faith\". Live appearances In 2007, the band played an acoustic set for the grand opening of a Warped Tour exhibit at theRock and Roll Hall of Fame,and the dress Hayley Williams wore in the video for", "in the video for \"Emergency\" was also put on display in the exhibit. In June 2007, they were declared byRolling Stoneas \"Ones to Watch\". In August 2007, Paramore was featured in television spots onMTV, performing acoustic versions of their songs or acting in short accompaniments to MTV program commercials. As \"MTV Artists of the Week\", the band filmed the faux camping-themed spots inQueens, New York, all written and directed by Evan Silver and Gina Fortunato.MTV.com also has a collection ofshort videoswith the band to promoteRiot!as well. For weeks in August 2007, the \"Misery Business\" video was the number one streamed video atMTV.com.On October 8, Paramore played \"Misery Business\" live onLate Night with Conan O'Brien.In August, Paramore participated inNew Found Glory's music video for their cover ofSixpence None the Richer's song \"Kiss Me\". From September 29 to November 1, 2009, the band held a tour in North America to supportBrand New Eyes.The tour for their self-titled fourth album, known asThe", "album, known asThe Self-Titled Tour, took place in North America from October 15 to November 27, 2013.From June 19 through August 17, 2014, the band also supported the album with theMonumentour. Appearances in films and video games In 2005, Paramore made its first video game appearance with the song \"Pressure\" being featured in the console versions of the video gameThe Sims 2. In March 2008, Paramore made its firstrhythm gameappearance with \"Crushcrushcrush\" as a downloadable track in theRock Bandgames and later being a playable song inGuitar Hero On Tour: Decades.Later that year,Rock Band 2was released with the song \"That's What You Get\" included as a playable track.The video gameGuitar Hero World Tourfeatured the song \"Misery Business\" along withHayley Williamsparticipating in motion capture sessions for the game. She is featured as an unlockable character in the game as well.\"Misery Business\" was also featured as a playable track onRock Band 3, while \"Pressure\", \"The Only Exception\", \"Brick by Boring", "\"Brick by Boring Brick\", and \"Ignorance\" are available as DLC for the game.In 2015, the song \"Still Into You\" was featured as an on-disc song forRock Band 4. Paramore's song \"Decode\" was the lead single for the novel-basedTwilightfilm.Another song called \"I Caught Myself\" is also featured on the film's soundtrack.\"Decode\" was released on October 1, 2008, on the Paramore Fan Club site as well asStephenie Meyer's website.The music video premiered on November 3.Hot Topichosted listening parties for the soundtrack on October 24, 2008, and the album was released on November 4, 2008.\"Misery Business\" is also featured inSaints Row 2, and the soundtrack forEA SportsNHL 08. The music video for \"Decode\", along with theTwilightfilm trailer, was shown in the North AmericanHome TheaterofPlayStation Homefrom December 11, 2008, to December 18, 2008.The video premiered in full through MTV and its subsidiaries on November 3, 2008, one day ahead of the release of the soundtrack on which the song is featured. Paramore's song", "Paramore's song \"Now\" is featured as a song for the gameRocksmith 2014.In March 2024, \"Misery Business\" was added as a playable track toFortnite Festival. Band members Current members Current touring musicians Former members Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Tours Headlining tours Co-headlining tours Opening acts See also Notes References External links", "Brand New Eyes Brand New Eyes(stylized inall lowercase) is the third studio album by the AmericanrockbandParamore, released on September 29, 2009, throughFueled by Ramenin the United States and Canada. The album was produced byRob Cavalloand recorded inHidden Hills, Californiafrom January to March 2009.It was written by band membersHayley WilliamsandJosh Farro, with guitaristTaylor Yorkwho co-wrote on four tracks, as a follow-up toRiot!(2007). Praised by critics for its songwriting and the band's increased maturity, the album wonBest Albumat theKerrang! Awards 2010,and \"The Only Exception\" received aGrammynomination forBest Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. Several publications includedBrand New Eyesin their year-end lists. The album produced five singles: \"Ignorance\", \"Brick by Boring Brick\", \"The Only Exception\", \"Careful\", and \"Playing God\", all of which have been commercially successful in the United States and internationally. Brand New Eyesdebuted at number two on theBillboard200selling", "175,000 copies in its first week, becoming their biggest album on that chart, until theirself-titled albumdebuted at number one in 2013. The album topped the charts in many countries across the world including Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the United Kingdom, making it the band's second-highest charting album to date. The album was certified platinum in the United States by theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA), the United Kingdom by theBritish Phonographic Industry(BPI), and Australia by theAustralian Recording Industry Association(ARIA).It was also certified gold in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand. The band promoted the album with theBrand New Eyes World Tour, playing shows inNorth America,Asia,Europe, etc., as well as with festival appearances. Brand New Eyeswas the final album recorded by Paramore beforeJoshandZac Farrodeparted the band in 2010.Zac Farro would later rejoin in 2017. Background and production After the release ofRiot!(2007), a blog post in early 2008", "post in early 2008 was posted stating that Paramore were having \"internal issues.\" Coupled with a week of cancelled shows, speculation arose that the band was going to break up.Not long after, it was resolved and claimed to be an issue of the members never having time to talk about things such as how they \"were all growing up, and sometimes, when you're growing up, you're not always growing together\". Further struggles to write new material had singerHayley Williamsexpressing doubts about songwriting and meeting the expectations placed on the band after the success ofRiot!.In September 2008, Williams revealed that the band might release their next album in summer 2009.On November 18, 2008, the band announced they were writing their next album, again mentioning that it might be out in summer 2009. Paramore spent six weeks in pre-production at Emac Studios in their hometown ofFranklin, the first time they had undergone pre-production without the guidance of aproducer.A visit from record producerRob", "record producerRob Cavalloreassured the band that they were on the right track. \"The album totally rocks,\" Cavallo said, \"yet it's also very subtle.\"The band subsequently felt that the album and that their new material had the potential to surpass the success of their previous work.Although it was originally planned to record the album close to home inNashville,the band commenced recording inCalabasas, Californiawith Cavallo at the end of March 2009.They then added to the original material written at home with additional tunes written with the help of Cavallo after the move to Calabasas.Similar to most rock records, the band mostly tracked the drums first, followed by the rest of the members recording scratch tracks that they later overdubbed.Paramore finished production by May 2009. Composition I was writing these lyrics, and they didn't feel good — some of it hurt, some of it was like, 'Am I being too honest even with myself?' I had doubts that it was the right record. —Hayley Williams on the \"doubts\" she", "on the \"doubts\" she had with the initial writing of the record. The album's sound has been described asalternative rock,pop-punk,emo pop,andemo.Williams was concerned about lyrics that involved current issues, as opposed to resolved issues that she had written about in the past. \"I was like, 'This isn't a feel-good song, because I'm writing about something I'm going through right now, and it's still painful,'\" she continued. \"And I confused that with actually not liking the songs, when actually I was prouder of them than I've ever been before. They're heavier emotions for me... I'm still going through some of this stuff, and these songs are really healing to me.\" The band as a whole treated the writing as a therapeutic experience, which helped them hash out old differences.Now that \"all those words were out on the table\", they were able to have their first real conversations in a long time, resolving the internal struggles they had been facing, by going back to the reasons why they started the band and had", "the band and had wanted to play music in the first place.Consequently, Paramore decided to name the recordBrand New Eyesbecause of the allusion to seeing things from a whole new perspective, \"Just trying to let go of whatever we might have struggled with the past and just see each other in a new way,\" explained Williams.The band soon felt that they were onto the right track, and, retrospectively looking back onRiot!, Paramore guitarist,Josh Farro, said \"Riot! was a kiddie album, but we had to do that to get to this point.\" Promotion and release On April 29, 2009, it was revealed that the band's next album would be released in September.The first single from the album was \"Ignorance\", which was made available viadigital downloadon July 7, on the same date the album became available for pre-order on Paramore's official website.Brand New Eyeswas released on September 29 throughFueled by Ramen. The album's cover, an image of abutterflydivided from its wings, inspired the line \"The angles were all wrong / Now", "all wrong / Now she's ripping wings off of butterflies\".Two versions of the album were made available: a standardCDedition as well as a deluxe, limited edition package that has sold out worldwide. The deluxe version included the album on CD with the acoustic versions of Where The Lines Overlap and Ignorance, a 40-page hardcover journal written by Hayley Williams, an exclusive poster that comes with only the box set, a booklet with the lyrics from all the songs from Brand New Eyes, a color vinyl7-inch singlewith the acoustic versions of Ignorance and Where The Lines Overlap, one picture of each band member, a certificate of authenticity, and a DVD featuring a 30 minute long exclusive 'making-of' documentary.The CD was also one of the first to useiTunes LP. \"Brick by Boring Brick\" was confirmed to be the second single from the album, released in November 2009.In December, the group went on a headlining UK tour with support fromYou Me at Six.In November 2010, the group went on a headlining UK tour.The fifth", "UK tour.The fifth single from the album, \"Playing God\", was released on the November 16. To assist with promotion of the single, a music video for \"Playing God\", was also released.The album was released in high resolution (96 kHz/24bit) onHDtracks.comin 2012. The high res version has a greater dynamic range than the CD release.In January 2015 another deluxe edition of the album was released in high resolution (96 kHz/24bit) on the US store of the British company 7digital: this edition includes the acoustic version of Ignorance (also featured on the physical 2009 deluxed edition mentioned above) and two new, previously unreleased, acoustic versions of Brick by Boring Brick and Turn It Off (both later included in the iTunes deluxe edition bundle). Critical reception According toMetacritic,Brand New Eyesholds a score of 73 out of 100, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\", based on 18 reviews through October 1, 2009.AbsolutePunk.netwriter Julia Conny scored the album at 82% and praised frontwomanHayley", "frontwomanHayley Williams, \"Simultaneously down-to-earth and on top of the world, there is something about this Williams character that makes an album likeBrand New Eyesmore than another notch on that bitchy pop-rock bedpost. Just imagine what will happen when the band hits their mid-twenties.\"Andrew Leahey ofAllMusicgave the album a positive review, stating,Brand New Eyespresents Paramore as a stronger, leaner, and altogether more consistent band.\" Evan Lucy ofBillboardalso wrote a favorable review, saying, \"Although the new set may lack the wide-eyed naiveté that made the group's past efforts so endearing, the newfound maturity makes for a compelling set of songs.\"Big Cheesemagazine awarded a maximum five star rating and Cathy Reay wrote, \"Brand New Eyesis a huge milestone for an intelligent, honest young band that deserve far more mainstream recognition than they get.\" Alternative Pressawarded the album 4.5 out of 5 and Scott Heisel praised the improvement of the album over its predecessor; \"Riot!was", "\"Riot!was ridiculously top-loaded, with an unmemorable second half.Eyesastonishes from start to finish, with the bouncy and confessional \"Looking Up\" and the immensely powerful track \"All I Wanted\" showing up as diamonds in an already gem-covered rough\".Sarah Bee, journalist for theBBCgave a largely favorable review and summarized, \"If you didn't like Paramore before, their third album is unlikely to sway you. They make the kind of forceful, commercial emo-pop that music lovers love to hate. However, as forceful, commercial emo-pop goes – and it does –Brand New Eyesis very good. It is brash and gauche, but charming.\" Rock Soundhowever, went on to laud the slower efforts. \"The album's big surprise comes in the form of the stripped-down closing tracks 'Misguided Ghosts' and 'All I Wanted', which see the fragility of Hayley's vocals laid against sparse instrumentation with truly immaculate results.\" Reviewer Faye Lewis went on to summarize, \"Paramore are a young band growing up in the public glare, and although", "glare, and although that would send many to the funny farm, it's made this quintet even stronger andBrand New Eyesis by far their best record yet\". Jon Dolan ofRolling Stonescored the album at three stars out of five. Much like Leonie Cooper ofNME, he was critical of slower moments: \"But some of the sweeping moments blunt the band's fresh-faced immediacy — as if the cute kids from the sticks have had a hard time turning pro.\"Spinmagazine awarded four stars out of five in their review and complimented the band for standing out in a generic genre. \"Paramore's follow-up,Brand New Eyes, which, at a moment of wet-and-wild Warped Tour cynicism (seeCobra Starshipand3OH!3), offers a principled reminder of a more earnest, honest age.\" Drowned In Soundawarded the album eight out of ten and while writer Paul Stephen Gettings stated the record isn't \"pushing any boundaries\", he praised its longevity: \" if you're already a critic, this isn't going to convince you otherwise. This is a realization, and an affirmation, of", "an affirmation, of Paramore's musical craftmanship and potential longevity. They have allowed themselves to grow and still retain the innocence and optimism that makes them so irresistible.\" Kerrang!reviewer Dan Slessor gave the album 4 Ks (4/5) and claimed, \"...inBrand New Eyesthey have arguably delivered the most accomplished and affecting record of their career.\"NMEwere also favorable in their review. Although being critical of the album's slower moments, Leonie Cooper praised the record as a whole; \"Sure, the two slower tracks might make for a break in the relentless pace, but who needs the rest? If you just so happen to be one of the best in the up-tempo pop-smattered emo-punk game, why bother slowing down? For this lot, more is most certainly more.\" Accolades Commercial performance Commercially,Brand New Eyeswas a major success. In the United States, the album debuted at number two on theBillboard200,selling 175,000 copies.The following week the album slipped to number nine, selling an additional", "an additional 44,000 copies.The album stayed on the main album chart for 32 weeks.In addition to the Billboard 200, the album managed to peak at number one on the BillboardRockandAlternative Albumscharts.On January 19, 2010, less than six months after the album was released,Brand New Eyeswas certified gold by theRIAAfor shipments of 500,000 albums and platinum on March 22, 2016 for shipments of 1,000,000 albums. Tour Paramore went on tour withNo Doubtbetween mid-May and early August 2009.The band announced their North American tour forBrand New Eyeson their official site, withThe SwellersandPaper Routejoining them as opening acts. The first show of the tour was played at a packedFox TheatreinPomona, California, on September 29, 2009 (the day of the album's release).During \"Decode\", Williams lost her voice. Lead guitarist Josh Farro spoke to the crowd and although their set was cut short, the band played \"Misery Business\" instrumentally while the crowd sang Williams's vocal parts. The tour, which previously", "which previously went from September 29 to November 1, 2009, was later officially postponed on October 2, 2009, due to a case oflaryngitisfor singer Williams.The full tour resumed on October 10, 2009, in Chicago. The band also announced that they would be doing a European tour starting off in Helsinki, Finland, on November 29, 2009, withYou Me at Six,Paper Route, and Now, Now Every Children supporting all UK tour dates. They performed in February 2010 in theAustralian Soundwave Festival,along with bands such asYou Me at Six,Taking Back Sunday,All Time LowandAlexisonfire. They performed at the Soundwave Festival before they did the Brand New Eyes Tour in Australia. Then in the first week of March they performed two concerts in New Zealand, one to a sell out crowd of 5,000 in Auckland and the other in Christchurch.They also performed in Singapore and the Philippines, respectively, as the last two legs of their Pacific Rim Tour. Paramore have supportedGreen Dayon their tour. They opened the concerts of Green", "concerts of Green Day in Dublin, Ireland, on June 23, 2010 and in Paris, France, on June 26, 2010. In July, August and September 2010, the band announced a tour in theHonda Civic Tour2010.In May 2010, the band had a short UK tour for November 2010.After just one day of being on sale they added a second date at the O2 arena due to huge demand for tickets. They later added 2 extra dates to take it up to 8 concerts instead of the original 5. In June 2010, the band announced a short Australia Tour for October.In November 2010, the band announced a short in South American Tour for February and March 2011, and the band announced a short in American tour for December. In July 2011, the band had a short Europe tour. Track listing All tracks are written byHayley WilliamsandJosh Farro, except where noted Limited edition bonus DVD Personnel Paramore Management Artwork Production Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification", "on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. Release history See also References External links" ]
Which of the bridges in Halifax, Nova Scotia is longer, and by how much? The MacKay, or the MacDonald?
The MacDonald Bridge (1300 metres) is 100 metres longer than the MacKay (1200 metres).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_L._Macdonald_Bridge
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Murray_MacKay_Bridge
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Numerical reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_L._Macdonald_Bridge', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Murray_MacKay_Bridge']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angus_L._Macdonald_Bridge", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Murray_MacKay_Bridge" ]
[ "Angus L. Macdonald Bridge TheAngus L. Macdonald Bridgeis asuspension bridgecrossingHalifax HarbourinNova Scotia, Canada; it opened on April 2, 1955. The bridge is one of two suspension bridges linking theHalifax PeninsulatoDartmouthin theHalifax Regional Municipality. It is named after the former premier ofNova Scotia,Angus L. Macdonald, who had died in 1954 and had been instrumental in having the bridge built. The bridge was designed byPhilip Louis Pratley, one of Canada's foremost long-span bridge designers who had also been responsible for theLions Gate Bridgein Vancouver.The bridges have a similar design, which is most notable in the towers. The contractor wasDominion Bridge Company Ltd. The bridge regularly experiences traffic congestion during rush hours as a result of the structure's proximity to the downtown cores of Halifax and Dartmouth, as well as its narrow width. Large commercial vehicles are not permitted to cross and must use the widerMacKay Bridgeto the northwest. Public transit buses are allowed to cross and the bridge links severalHalifax Transitroutes. In 2014/15 the average number of vehicle crossings per month was 1,183,095. As of January 3, 2022 the toll charge to cross for regular passenger vehicles is $1.25 cash or $1.00 with the MACPASS electronic toll system.The original toll, when the Macdonald opened in 1955, was 40 cents plus 5 cents per passenger. There was also a separate toll for trucks, cyclists, pedestrians, motorcycles and horses/rider. History Construction of the bridge took place between 1952 and 1955.Caissonswere used for underwater work. Five workers died falling from catwalks during construction.The bridge opened on April 2, 1955, and originally cost $11.5 million. 1999 modernization A modernization project was undertaken in the late 1990s and completed in 1999 which saw the original two lanes and one sidewalk and utility corridor expanded to three lanes, with the centre lane beingreversibleto assist with traffic flow during peak periods. To reduce the weight of the roadway, asphalt and concrete were removed and special steel plating (anorthotropic deck) was used in its place. This deck is 35% lighter than the old one.New pedestrian and bicycle lanes were attached to the outside of the structure to replace the original sidewalks. External aesthetic lights were added during the modernisation project which saw the bridge's towers lit for the first time on a continuous basis every evening from sunset until midnight. Critics derided the effort as a waste of electricity, given Halifax Harbour's frequent foggy weather conditions. The lighting was estimated by the bridge authority to cost in excess of $50,000 a year in 1999. Safety barriers The Angus L. Macdonald Bridge has attracted media attention as the spot where well known environmental activistTooker Gombergis believed to have committed suicide on March 3, 2004. In June 2004 theDepartment of National Defencefiled a lawsuit against the Bridge Commission alleging that snow, ice, bottles and other debris rained down onHMCDockyardbelow, endangering staff. The DND first sought $527,000 in damages for its efforts to protect employees, an amount that was later increased to $1.04 million.The lawsuit claimed that the issue had been exacerbated when chain link fencing on the bridge had been removed during the 1999 modernization.In July 2007, as part of the settlement, barriers were installed along 22% of the pedestrian lane at the bridge's western end (Halifax abutment) to prevent suicide attempts and protect navy staff below. Initially, the Halifax-Dartmouth Bridge Commission was concerned that the structure was not capable of handling the additional weight of installing safety barriers along the entire span of the bridge. Subsequent computer modeling eliminated the previous concerns, and on May 13, 2009 the general manager and CEO of the Halifax-Dartmouth Bridge Commission, Steve Snider, announced that a tender for the long-called for extension of the barriers along the full length of the bridge would be issued in June 2009. By March 2010, the remaining sections of the safety barrier had been installed. The bridge now has safety barriers installed along 100% of its pedestrian walkways. 2015 \"Big Lift\" project Beginning in 2015 another major renovation of the bridge started which saw the temporary removal of the pedway and bike lanes. At a cost of $150 million,every piece of steel that makes up the suspended spans, except the towers and two main cables, were replaced; the non-suspended approach spans remained. New vertical cables were required due to the relocation of the stiffening trusses from above deck level to below deck level. Construction mostly occurred overnight with the bridge open to traffic during the day, but many full-weekend closures were necessary. The replacement portion of the project was completed in February 2017. After theLion's Gate Bridge, this was only the second time that a suspension bridge had its suspended spans completely replaced while continuing to allow regular traffic flow during the daytime. Principal engineering work for the project was done by the same firm that managed the work on the Lion's Gate Bridge. During the Big Lift projectHalifax Transitcontinued to run its regularly scheduled conventional bus service across the Macdonald bridge, except during times when the bridge was closed. During scheduled closures, Halifax Transit operated a shuttle service using theMacKay Bridge. Halifax Harbour Bridges also operated a free, 24-hour-a-day shuttle service during construction to accommodate the bridge's pedestrian and bicycle users. It operated on a load-and-go basis during the weekday morning and afternoon rush hours, and on a 30-minute schedule at all other times of the day and overnight. See also Notes Further reading External links", "A. Murray MacKay Bridge TheA. Murray MacKay Bridge, known locally as \"the new bridge\", is asuspension bridgelinking theHalifax PeninsulawithDartmouth,Nova Scotia, and opened on July 10, 1970. It is one of two suspension bridges crossing Halifax Harbour. Its counterpart, theAngus L. Macdonald Bridge, was completed in 1955. The bridge carries on average 52,000 vehicle crossings per day,and is part ofNova Scotia Highway 111. As of January 3, 2022, the toll charge to cross for regular passenger vehicles is $1.25 cash, or $1.00 with the Macpass electronic toll system.Larger vehicles have higher tolls proportional to the number of axles. The Halifax-Dartmouth Bridge Commission is exploring the idea of moving entirely to electronic tolls to avoid handling tokens or cash. The A. Murray MacKay Bridge is the only harbour bridge that permits semi-trailers and large trucks.Pedestriansandbicyclesare not permitted on the A. Murray MacKay Bridge; they may instead use dedicated lanes on the Angus L. Macdonald Bridge. History Planning The Macdonald Bridge, the older of the two suspension bridges spanning Halifax Harbour, opened in 1955. By the early 1960s, growing traffic between Halifax and Dartmouth prompted the government to hire Montreal consulting firm Pratley and Dorton to carry out a study on the construction of an additional bridge (or bridges). Their report, the Halifax Area Bridge Study, was submitted in 1963 and explored two possible sites for a new cross-harbour bridge. The provincial government and the Halifax-area municipalities could not reach agreement on which site was best, so the province asked the bridge commission to make a decision. The site at the Narrows was subsequently chosen. Africville Political controversy preceded construction of the MacKay Bridge when the city of Halifax expropriated residents from the black community ofAfricvillenear the Halifax abutment. Construction The first construction contract; for the bridge piers, abutments, and cable anchorages; was signed with Halifax contractor Robert McAlpine Ltd. in April 1967. A sod-turning ceremony, marking the beginning of construction, was carried out on 29 June 1967 by Nova Scotia premierRobert Stanfield. A contract for the bridge superstructure – including the two bridge towers, suspended spans, approach spans, and concrete decking on the approach spans – was awarded in August 1967 to the Canadian Bridge Division ofDOSCO, a subsidiary ofHawker Siddeley Canada. The Adhesive Engineering Company, based in San Carlos, California, was awarded the contract to apply an epoxy asphalt surface to the bridge's orthotropic deck. Opening The bridge was formally inaugurated by premierGeorge Isaac Smith, in the company of lieutenant governorVictor de Bedia Oland, on 10 July 1970 with a ribbon-cutting ceremony that began at 2:30 pm at the Dartmouth toll station. The bridge opened to traffic later that afternoon.Speaking at the event, Premier Smith described the bridge as \"another important milestone in the development of these historic communities\". The bridge is named after Alexander Murray MacKay, chairman of theHalifax-Dartmouth Bridge Commissionfrom 1951 to 1971 and past chief executive officer ofMT&T. MacKay was instrumental in having both the Angus L. Macdonald Bridge and his namesake structure built during his tenure at the commission. Proposed renaming Following the death of former Nova Scotia premierRobert L. Stanfieldin 2003, there was a motion made to rename the MacKay Bridge to honour Stanfield, but the Stanfield family did not want any current structures already named for persons to be changed for Stanfield's sake. In 2007, the Halifax International Airport was renamedHalifax - Robert L. Stanfield International Airport; several new schools and other institutional buildings are also under consideration for Stanfield's name. Financing A decision was made to finance the construction of the bridge with low-interest loans denominated in foreign currencies, saving money in the short term and allowing the tolls to be kept low. In 1969, the bridge commission issued a 10-year bond of 100 millionDeutsche Marksin West Germany.In 1973, the bridge commission obtained a loan of C$12.2 million from a Swiss bank. However, the subsequent decline in the value of the Canadian dollar against theGerman Markand theSwiss franccancelled out the interest cost advantage and caused a massive increase in annual debt servicing costs.At its peak, the commission's debt amounted to nearly $125 million, nearly triple the approximate $42 million combined cost of construction for both harbour bridges. Design The bridge measures 1,200 m (3,900 ft), with the total of all suspended spans being 739.9 m (2,427 ft) in length, carrying four traffic lanes with posted speed limits of 70 km/h (43 mph). It was designed with a maximum road gradient of 4 per cent. It is notable as having been the first bridge built in North America using anorthotropic steel deck, which yielded a completed structure having half the overall mass of the nearby Macdonald Bridge. The bridge's engineering also pioneered the use of wind tunnel testing, which considered the impact of winds on the structure both during construction and when complete. In 2021 an engineer's report into the status of both the MacKay and Macdonald bridges indicated that the Mackay was approaching the end of its service life, and the need for either a major refurbishment or complete replacement was anticipated within a 20 year time frame. It also concluded that certain elements of the original design such as tight tolerance on the load capacity, and the emergence since the bridge was first built of a better understanding about fatigue in orthotropic decks, would make a re-decking project similar to theAngus L. Macdonald Bridge\"Big Lift\" impractical: To meet current code, a new deck would weigh more. This would mean that the replacement deck would necessitate a more extensive overhaul of other components such as the main suspension cables and support structures. Impact on development The building of the MacKay Bridge, along with Highway 111, initiated a development boom in Dartmouth which eclipsed that created by the Macdonald Bridge during the 1950s and 1960s. TheBurnside Business Park, theMic Mac Mallshopping centre, and several residential developments in theAlbro Lakeneighbourhood inDartmouth's north endduring the 1970s are directly attributable to the bridge's construction. See also References External links" ]
[ "Angus L. Macdonald Bridge TheAngus L. Macdonald Bridgeis asuspension bridgecrossingHalifax HarbourinNova Scotia, Canada; it opened on April 2, 1955. The bridge is one of two suspension bridges linking theHalifax PeninsulatoDartmouthin theHalifax Regional Municipality. It is named after the former premier ofNova Scotia,Angus L. Macdonald, who had died in 1954 and had been instrumental in having the bridge built. The bridge was designed byPhilip Louis Pratley, one of Canada's foremost long-span bridge designers who had also been responsible for theLions Gate Bridgein Vancouver.The bridges have a similar design, which is most notable in the towers. The contractor wasDominion Bridge Company Ltd. The bridge regularly experiences traffic congestion during rush hours as a result of the structure's proximity to the downtown cores of Halifax and Dartmouth, as well as its narrow width. Large commercial vehicles are not permitted to cross and must use the widerMacKay Bridgeto the northwest. Public transit buses are", "transit buses are allowed to cross and the bridge links severalHalifax Transitroutes. In 2014/15 the average number of vehicle crossings per month was 1,183,095. As of January 3, 2022 the toll charge to cross for regular passenger vehicles is $1.25 cash or $1.00 with the MACPASS electronic toll system.The original toll, when the Macdonald opened in 1955, was 40 cents plus 5 cents per passenger. There was also a separate toll for trucks, cyclists, pedestrians, motorcycles and horses/rider. History Construction of the bridge took place between 1952 and 1955.Caissonswere used for underwater work. Five workers died falling from catwalks during construction.The bridge opened on April 2, 1955, and originally cost $11.5 million. 1999 modernization A modernization project was undertaken in the late 1990s and completed in 1999 which saw the original two lanes and one sidewalk and utility corridor expanded to three lanes, with the centre lane beingreversibleto assist with traffic flow during peak periods. To reduce", "periods. To reduce the weight of the roadway, asphalt and concrete were removed and special steel plating (anorthotropic deck) was used in its place. This deck is 35% lighter than the old one.New pedestrian and bicycle lanes were attached to the outside of the structure to replace the original sidewalks. External aesthetic lights were added during the modernisation project which saw the bridge's towers lit for the first time on a continuous basis every evening from sunset until midnight. Critics derided the effort as a waste of electricity, given Halifax Harbour's frequent foggy weather conditions. The lighting was estimated by the bridge authority to cost in excess of $50,000 a year in 1999. Safety barriers The Angus L. Macdonald Bridge has attracted media attention as the spot where well known environmental activistTooker Gombergis believed to have committed suicide on March 3, 2004. In June 2004 theDepartment of National Defencefiled a lawsuit against the Bridge Commission alleging that snow, ice, bottles", "snow, ice, bottles and other debris rained down onHMCDockyardbelow, endangering staff. The DND first sought $527,000 in damages for its efforts to protect employees, an amount that was later increased to $1.04 million.The lawsuit claimed that the issue had been exacerbated when chain link fencing on the bridge had been removed during the 1999 modernization.In July 2007, as part of the settlement, barriers were installed along 22% of the pedestrian lane at the bridge's western end (Halifax abutment) to prevent suicide attempts and protect navy staff below. Initially, the Halifax-Dartmouth Bridge Commission was concerned that the structure was not capable of handling the additional weight of installing safety barriers along the entire span of the bridge. Subsequent computer modeling eliminated the previous concerns, and on May 13, 2009 the general manager and CEO of the Halifax-Dartmouth Bridge Commission, Steve Snider, announced that a tender for the long-called for extension of the barriers along the full", "along the full length of the bridge would be issued in June 2009. By March 2010, the remaining sections of the safety barrier had been installed. The bridge now has safety barriers installed along 100% of its pedestrian walkways. 2015 \"Big Lift\" project Beginning in 2015 another major renovation of the bridge started which saw the temporary removal of the pedway and bike lanes. At a cost of $150 million,every piece of steel that makes up the suspended spans, except the towers and two main cables, were replaced; the non-suspended approach spans remained. New vertical cables were required due to the relocation of the stiffening trusses from above deck level to below deck level. Construction mostly occurred overnight with the bridge open to traffic during the day, but many full-weekend closures were necessary. The replacement portion of the project was completed in February 2017. After theLion's Gate Bridge, this was only the second time that a suspension bridge had its suspended spans completely replaced while", "replaced while continuing to allow regular traffic flow during the daytime. Principal engineering work for the project was done by the same firm that managed the work on the Lion's Gate Bridge. During the Big Lift projectHalifax Transitcontinued to run its regularly scheduled conventional bus service across the Macdonald bridge, except during times when the bridge was closed. During scheduled closures, Halifax Transit operated a shuttle service using theMacKay Bridge. Halifax Harbour Bridges also operated a free, 24-hour-a-day shuttle service during construction to accommodate the bridge's pedestrian and bicycle users. It operated on a load-and-go basis during the weekday morning and afternoon rush hours, and on a 30-minute schedule at all other times of the day and overnight. See also Notes Further reading External links", "A. Murray MacKay Bridge TheA. Murray MacKay Bridge, known locally as \"the new bridge\", is asuspension bridgelinking theHalifax PeninsulawithDartmouth,Nova Scotia, and opened on July 10, 1970. It is one of two suspension bridges crossing Halifax Harbour. Its counterpart, theAngus L. Macdonald Bridge, was completed in 1955. The bridge carries on average 52,000 vehicle crossings per day,and is part ofNova Scotia Highway 111. As of January 3, 2022, the toll charge to cross for regular passenger vehicles is $1.25 cash, or $1.00 with the Macpass electronic toll system.Larger vehicles have higher tolls proportional to the number of axles. The Halifax-Dartmouth Bridge Commission is exploring the idea of moving entirely to electronic tolls to avoid handling tokens or cash. The A. Murray MacKay Bridge is the only harbour bridge that permits semi-trailers and large trucks.Pedestriansandbicyclesare not permitted on the A. Murray MacKay Bridge; they may instead use dedicated lanes on the Angus L. Macdonald Bridge. History", "Bridge. History Planning The Macdonald Bridge, the older of the two suspension bridges spanning Halifax Harbour, opened in 1955. By the early 1960s, growing traffic between Halifax and Dartmouth prompted the government to hire Montreal consulting firm Pratley and Dorton to carry out a study on the construction of an additional bridge (or bridges). Their report, the Halifax Area Bridge Study, was submitted in 1963 and explored two possible sites for a new cross-harbour bridge. The provincial government and the Halifax-area municipalities could not reach agreement on which site was best, so the province asked the bridge commission to make a decision. The site at the Narrows was subsequently chosen. Africville Political controversy preceded construction of the MacKay Bridge when the city of Halifax expropriated residents from the black community ofAfricvillenear the Halifax abutment. Construction The first construction contract; for the bridge piers, abutments, and cable anchorages; was signed with Halifax", "signed with Halifax contractor Robert McAlpine Ltd. in April 1967. A sod-turning ceremony, marking the beginning of construction, was carried out on 29 June 1967 by Nova Scotia premierRobert Stanfield. A contract for the bridge superstructure – including the two bridge towers, suspended spans, approach spans, and concrete decking on the approach spans – was awarded in August 1967 to the Canadian Bridge Division ofDOSCO, a subsidiary ofHawker Siddeley Canada. The Adhesive Engineering Company, based in San Carlos, California, was awarded the contract to apply an epoxy asphalt surface to the bridge's orthotropic deck. Opening The bridge was formally inaugurated by premierGeorge Isaac Smith, in the company of lieutenant governorVictor de Bedia Oland, on 10 July 1970 with a ribbon-cutting ceremony that began at 2:30 pm at the Dartmouth toll station. The bridge opened to traffic later that afternoon.Speaking at the event, Premier Smith described the bridge as \"another important milestone in the development of", "the development of these historic communities\". The bridge is named after Alexander Murray MacKay, chairman of theHalifax-Dartmouth Bridge Commissionfrom 1951 to 1971 and past chief executive officer ofMT&T. MacKay was instrumental in having both the Angus L. Macdonald Bridge and his namesake structure built during his tenure at the commission. Proposed renaming Following the death of former Nova Scotia premierRobert L. Stanfieldin 2003, there was a motion made to rename the MacKay Bridge to honour Stanfield, but the Stanfield family did not want any current structures already named for persons to be changed for Stanfield's sake. In 2007, the Halifax International Airport was renamedHalifax - Robert L. Stanfield International Airport; several new schools and other institutional buildings are also under consideration for Stanfield's name. Financing A decision was made to finance the construction of the bridge with low-interest loans denominated in foreign currencies, saving money in the short term and", "the short term and allowing the tolls to be kept low. In 1969, the bridge commission issued a 10-year bond of 100 millionDeutsche Marksin West Germany.In 1973, the bridge commission obtained a loan of C$12.2 million from a Swiss bank. However, the subsequent decline in the value of the Canadian dollar against theGerman Markand theSwiss franccancelled out the interest cost advantage and caused a massive increase in annual debt servicing costs.At its peak, the commission's debt amounted to nearly $125 million, nearly triple the approximate $42 million combined cost of construction for both harbour bridges. Design The bridge measures 1,200 m (3,900 ft), with the total of all suspended spans being 739.9 m (2,427 ft) in length, carrying four traffic lanes with posted speed limits of 70 km/h (43 mph). It was designed with a maximum road gradient of 4 per cent. It is notable as having been the first bridge built in North America using anorthotropic steel deck, which yielded a completed structure having half the", "having half the overall mass of the nearby Macdonald Bridge. The bridge's engineering also pioneered the use of wind tunnel testing, which considered the impact of winds on the structure both during construction and when complete. In 2021 an engineer's report into the status of both the MacKay and Macdonald bridges indicated that the Mackay was approaching the end of its service life, and the need for either a major refurbishment or complete replacement was anticipated within a 20 year time frame. It also concluded that certain elements of the original design such as tight tolerance on the load capacity, and the emergence since the bridge was first built of a better understanding about fatigue in orthotropic decks, would make a re-decking project similar to theAngus L. Macdonald Bridge\"Big Lift\" impractical: To meet current code, a new deck would weigh more. This would mean that the replacement deck would necessitate a more extensive overhaul of other components such as the main suspension cables and support", "cables and support structures. Impact on development The building of the MacKay Bridge, along with Highway 111, initiated a development boom in Dartmouth which eclipsed that created by the Macdonald Bridge during the 1950s and 1960s. TheBurnside Business Park, theMic Mac Mallshopping centre, and several residential developments in theAlbro Lakeneighbourhood inDartmouth's north endduring the 1970s are directly attributable to the bridge's construction. See also References External links" ]
During the month that GEMA Global Engine Alliance LLC was founded as a joint venture of Chrysler, Mitsubishi Motors, and Hyundai Motor Company, which international arms treaty was signed, who signed it, where, and on what date?
On May 24th, 2002, the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty was signed in Moscow by Vladimir Putin and George W. Bush.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Engine_Alliance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Offensive_Reductions_Treaty
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Engine_Alliance', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Offensive_Reductions_Treaty']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Engine_Alliance", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Offensive_Reductions_Treaty" ]
[ "Global Engine Alliance Global Engine Alliance LLC, began as ajoint ventureofChrysler,Mitsubishi Motors, andHyundai Motor Companyfor developing a line of shared engines. In September 2009, Chrysler purchased Mitsubishi and Hyundai's shares, after 5 years of allied research and development, making its Dundee, Michigan plant a wholly owned subsidiary of what was then Chrysler Group LLC. Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance, LLC (GEMA) was the manufacturing arm of the Global Engine Alliance and consisted of five factories worldwide. Production began in 2005, with an annual capacity of approximately two million engines; each plant was capable of producing 420,000. Twenty different automobile models from the three companies were to use the engines. Chrysler had expected to use GEMA engines in ten models and projects, and buy up to 840,000 GEMA engines annually. The Dundee plants were purchased by Chrysler in December, 2012, and renamed theChrysler Dundee Engine Plant(s).After Chrysler's assimilation intoFCA, the plant simply became known as theDundee Engine Plant. Design Hyundai was initially responsible for leading the design of the base engine, while the Chrysler Group and Mitsubishi were involved in making other important engineering contributions pertaining to the design.The design features Siamese bores, an aluminium block with cast-iron cylinder liners, and an aluminium head. Different cylinder liners could be fitted to increase or decrease displacement depending on manufacturers needs. Each manufacturer configured their variants of the initial design differently based on their engineering needs and standards, so consumers may experience very different power, fuel efficiency, and \"feel\" from each manufacturer. See also References External links", "Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty TheTreaty Between the United States of America and the Russian Federation on Strategic Offensive Reductions(SORT), also known as theTreaty of Moscow, was a strategicarms reduction treatybetween theUnited StatesandRussiathat was in force from June 2003 until February 2011 when it was superseded by theNew STARTtreaty. At the time, SORT was positioned as \"represent an important element of the new strategic relationship\" between the two countrieswith both parties agreeing to limit theirnuclear arsenalto between 1,700 and 2,200 operationally deployed warheads each. It was signed inMoscowon 24 May 2002. After ratification by theU.S. Senateand theState Duma, SORT came into force on 1 June 2003. It would have expired on 31 December 2012 if not superseded by New START. Either party could have withdrawn from the treaty upon giving three months written notice to the other. Mutual nuclear disarmament SORT was one in a long line of treaties and negotiations on mutualnuclear disarmamentbetween Russia (and its predecessor, theSoviet Union) and the United States, which includesSALT I(1969–1972), theABM Treaty(1972),SALT II(1972–1979), theINF Treaty(1987),START I(1991),START II(1993) andNew START(2010). The Moscow Treaty was different from START in that it limited operationally deployed warheads, whereas START I limited warheads through declared attribution to their means of delivery (ICBMs, SLBMs, and Heavy Bombers). Russian and U.S. delegations met twice a year to discuss the implementation of the Moscow Treaty at the Bilateral Implementation Commission (BIC). Ratification The treaty was submitted for ratification in December 2002. However, the passage of the agreement took about a year because the bill had to be resubmitted after its rejection in committee due to concerns about funding for nuclear forces and about cutting systems that had not yet reached the end of their service lives. Further, the deputies were concerned about the U.S.'s ability to upload reserve nuclear warheads for a first strike (upload potential). The ratification was also problematic because the chairman of the foreign affairs committee of the Duma,Dmitry Rogozin, disagreed with his Federation Council counterpartMargelov. Deputy Rogozin argued that the Moscow Treaty should be delayed because of the2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq. In the end, however, this delay never happened. The final vote was similar toSTART IIwith nearly a third of the deputies voting against. The ratification resolution mandated presidential reporting on nuclear force developments and noted that key legislators should be included in interagency planning. Implementation Lawrence Livermore National Laboratoryreported that President Bush directed the US military to cut its stockpile of both deployed and reserve nuclear weapons in half by 2012. The goal was achieved in 2007, a reduction of US nuclear warheads to just over 50 percent of the 2001 total. A further proposal by Bush would have brought the total down another 15 percent. Criticism While President Bush said the treaty \"liquidates the Cold War legacy of nuclear hostility\" and his security advisorCondoleezza Ricesaid it should be considered \"the last treaty of the last century,\"others criticized the treaty for various reasons: See also Further reading Footnotes" ]
[ "Global Engine Alliance Global Engine Alliance LLC, began as ajoint ventureofChrysler,Mitsubishi Motors, andHyundai Motor Companyfor developing a line of shared engines. In September 2009, Chrysler purchased Mitsubishi and Hyundai's shares, after 5 years of allied research and development, making its Dundee, Michigan plant a wholly owned subsidiary of what was then Chrysler Group LLC. Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance Global Engine Manufacturing Alliance, LLC (GEMA) was the manufacturing arm of the Global Engine Alliance and consisted of five factories worldwide. Production began in 2005, with an annual capacity of approximately two million engines; each plant was capable of producing 420,000. Twenty different automobile models from the three companies were to use the engines. Chrysler had expected to use GEMA engines in ten models and projects, and buy up to 840,000 GEMA engines annually. The Dundee plants were purchased by Chrysler in December, 2012, and renamed theChrysler Dundee Engine Plant(s).After", "Plant(s).After Chrysler's assimilation intoFCA, the plant simply became known as theDundee Engine Plant. Design Hyundai was initially responsible for leading the design of the base engine, while the Chrysler Group and Mitsubishi were involved in making other important engineering contributions pertaining to the design.The design features Siamese bores, an aluminium block with cast-iron cylinder liners, and an aluminium head. Different cylinder liners could be fitted to increase or decrease displacement depending on manufacturers needs. Each manufacturer configured their variants of the initial design differently based on their engineering needs and standards, so consumers may experience very different power, fuel efficiency, and \"feel\" from each manufacturer. See also References External links", "Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty TheTreaty Between the United States of America and the Russian Federation on Strategic Offensive Reductions(SORT), also known as theTreaty of Moscow, was a strategicarms reduction treatybetween theUnited StatesandRussiathat was in force from June 2003 until February 2011 when it was superseded by theNew STARTtreaty. At the time, SORT was positioned as \"represent an important element of the new strategic relationship\" between the two countrieswith both parties agreeing to limit theirnuclear arsenalto between 1,700 and 2,200 operationally deployed warheads each. It was signed inMoscowon 24 May 2002. After ratification by theU.S. Senateand theState Duma, SORT came into force on 1 June 2003. It would have expired on 31 December 2012 if not superseded by New START. Either party could have withdrawn from the treaty upon giving three months written notice to the other. Mutual nuclear disarmament SORT was one in a long line of treaties and negotiations on mutualnuclear", "on mutualnuclear disarmamentbetween Russia (and its predecessor, theSoviet Union) and the United States, which includesSALT I(1969–1972), theABM Treaty(1972),SALT II(1972–1979), theINF Treaty(1987),START I(1991),START II(1993) andNew START(2010). The Moscow Treaty was different from START in that it limited operationally deployed warheads, whereas START I limited warheads through declared attribution to their means of delivery (ICBMs, SLBMs, and Heavy Bombers). Russian and U.S. delegations met twice a year to discuss the implementation of the Moscow Treaty at the Bilateral Implementation Commission (BIC). Ratification The treaty was submitted for ratification in December 2002. However, the passage of the agreement took about a year because the bill had to be resubmitted after its rejection in committee due to concerns about funding for nuclear forces and about cutting systems that had not yet reached the end of their service lives. Further, the deputies were concerned about the U.S.'s ability to upload", "ability to upload reserve nuclear warheads for a first strike (upload potential). The ratification was also problematic because the chairman of the foreign affairs committee of the Duma,Dmitry Rogozin, disagreed with his Federation Council counterpartMargelov. Deputy Rogozin argued that the Moscow Treaty should be delayed because of the2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq. In the end, however, this delay never happened. The final vote was similar toSTART IIwith nearly a third of the deputies voting against. The ratification resolution mandated presidential reporting on nuclear force developments and noted that key legislators should be included in interagency planning. Implementation Lawrence Livermore National Laboratoryreported that President Bush directed the US military to cut its stockpile of both deployed and reserve nuclear weapons in half by 2012. The goal was achieved in 2007, a reduction of US nuclear warheads to just over 50 percent of the 2001 total. A further proposal by Bush would have brought the total", "brought the total down another 15 percent. Criticism While President Bush said the treaty \"liquidates the Cold War legacy of nuclear hostility\" and his security advisorCondoleezza Ricesaid it should be considered \"the last treaty of the last century,\"others criticized the treaty for various reasons: See also Further reading Footnotes" ]
As of 2024, what percentage of Afroasiatic language speakers speak Central Atlas Tamazight?
0.49%
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight
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Numerical reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight" ]
[ "Afroasiatic languages TheAfroasiatic languages(orAfro-Asiatic, sometimesAfrasian), also known asHamito-SemiticorSemito-Hamitic, are alanguage family(or \"phylum\") of about 400 languages spoken predominantly inWest Asia,North Africa, theHorn of Africa, and parts of theSaharaandSahel.Over 500 million people are native speakers of an Afroasiatic language, constituting the fourth-largest language family afterIndo-European,Sino-Tibetan, andNiger–Congo.Most linguists divide the family into six branches:Berber,Chadic,Cushitic,Egyptian,Semitic, andOmotic.The vast majority of Afroasiatic languages are considered indigenous to theAfrican continent, including all those not belonging to the Semitic branch. Arabic, if counted as a single language, is by far the most widely spoken within the family, with around 300 million native speakers concentrated primarily in theMiddle Eastand North Africa.Other major Afroasiatic languages include the CushiticOromo languagewith 45 million native speakers, ChadicHausa languagewith over 34 million, the SemiticAmharic languagewith 25 million, and the CushiticSomali languagewith 15 million. Other Afroasiatic languages with millions of native speakers include the SemiticTigrinyaandModern Hebrew, the CushiticSidaama, and the OmoticWolaitta language, though most languages within the family are much smaller in size.There are many well-attested Afroasiatic languages from antiquity that have sincedied or gone extinct, including Egyptian and the Semitic languagesAkkadian,Biblical Hebrew,Phoenician,Amorite, andUgaritic. There is no consensus amonghistorical linguistsas to precisely where or when the common ancestor of all Afroasiatic languages, known asProto-Afroasiatic, was originally spoken. However, most agree that the Afroasiatic homeland was located somewhere in northeastern Africa, with specific proposals including the Horn of Africa, Egypt, and the eastern Sahara. A significant minority of scholars argues for an origin in theLevant. The reconstructed timelines of when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary extensively, with dates ranging from 18,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Even the latest plausible dating makes Afroasiatic the oldest language family accepted by contemporary linguists. Comparative study of Afroasiatic is hindered by the massive disparities in textual attestation between its branches: while the Semitic and Egyptian branches are attested in writing as early as thefourth millennium BC, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic languages were often not recorded until the 19th or 20th centuries.While systematicsound lawshave not yet been established to explain the relationships between the various branches of Afroasiatic, the languages share a number of common features. One of the most important for establishing membership in the branch is a common set of pronouns.Other widely shared features include a prefix m- which creates nouns from verbs, evidence for alternations between the vowel \"a\" and a high vowel in the forms of the verb, similar methods of marking gender and plurality, and some details of phonology such as the presence ofpharyngeal fricatives. Other features found in multiple branches include a specialized verb conjugation using suffixes (Egyptian, Semitic, Berber), a specialized verb conjugation using prefixes (Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), verbal prefixes derivingmiddle(t-),causative(s-), andpassive(m-) verb forms (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic), and a suffix used to derive adjectives (Egyptian, Semitic). Name In current scholarship, the most common names for the family areAfroasiatic(orAfro-Asiatic),Hamito-Semitic, andSemito-Hamitic.Other proposed names that have yet to find widespread acceptance includeErythraic/Erythraean,Lisramic,Noahitic, andLamekhite. Friedrich Müllerintroduced the nameHamito-Semiticto describe the family in hisGrundriss der Sprachwissenschaft(1876).The variantSemito-Hamiticis mostly used in older Russian sources.The elements of the name were derived from the names of two sons ofNoahas attested in theBook of Genesis'sTable of Nationspassage: \"Semitic\" from the first-bornShem, and \"Hamitic\" from the second-bornHam(Genesis 5:32).Within the Table of Nations, each of Noah's sons is presented as the common progenitor of various people groups deemed to be closely related: among others Shem was the father of theJews,Assyrians, andArameans, while Ham was the father of theEgyptiansandCushites. This genealogy does not reflect the actual origins of these peoples' languages: for example, the Canaanites are descendants of Ham according to the Table, even though Hebrew is now classified as aCanaanite language, while theElamitesare ascribed to Shem despitetheir languagebeing totally unrelated to Hebrew.The termSemiticfor theSemitic languageshad already been coined in 1781 byAugust Ludwig von Schlözer, following an earlier suggestion byGottfried Wilhelm Leibnizin 1710.Hamiticwas first used byErnest Renanin 1855 to refer to languages that appeared similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family.The belief in a connection between Africans and the Biblical Ham, which had existed at least as far back asIsidore of Sevillein the 6th century AD, led scholars in the early 19th century to speak vaguely of \"Hamian\" or \"Hamitish\" languages. The termHamito-Semitichas largely fallen out of favor among linguists writing in English, but is still frequently used in the scholarship of various other languages, such as German.Several issues with the labelHamito-Semitichave led many scholars to abandon the term and criticize its continued use. One common objection is that theHamiticcomponent inaccurately suggests that amonophyletic\"Hamitic\" branch exists alongside Semitic. In addition,Joseph Greenberghas argued thatHamiticpossessesracial connotations, and that \"Hamito-Semitic\" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family.By contrast, Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label is simply an inherited convention, and doesn't imply a duality of Semitic and \"Hamitic\" any more thanIndo-Europeanimplies a duality of Indic and \"European\".Because of its use by several important scholars and in the titles of significant works of scholarship, the total replacement ofHamito-Semiticis difficult. While Greenberg ultimately popularized the name \"Afroasiatic\" in 1960, it appears to have been coined originally byMaurice Delafosse, as Frenchafroasiatique, in 1914.The name refers to the fact that it is the only major language family with large populations in both Africa and Asia.Due to concerns that \"Afroasiatic\" could imply the inclusion ofalllanguages spoken across Africa and Asia, the name \"Afrasian\" (Russian:afrazijskije) was proposed byIgor Diakonoffin 1980. At present it predominantly sees use among Russian scholars. The namesLisramic—based on the Afroasiastic root*lis-(\"tongue\") and the Egyptian wordrmṯ(\"person\")—andErythraean—referring to the core area around which the languages are spoken, theRed Sea—have also been proposed. Distribution and branches Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have between five and eight branches. The five that are universally agreed upon areBerber(also called \"Libyco-Berber\"),Chadic,Cushitic,Egyptian, andSemitic.Most specialists consider theOmotic languagesto constitute a sixth branch.Due to the presumed distance of relationship between the various branches, many scholars prefer to refer to Afroasiatic as a \"linguistic phylum\" rather than a \"language family\". G.W. Tsereteli goes even further and outright doubts that the Afro-Asiatic languages are a genetic language family altogether, but are rather a sprachbund.However, this is not the academic consensus. M. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro and Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli write that there are about 400 languages in Afroasiatic;Ethnologuelists 375 languages.Many scholars estimate fewer languages; exact numbers vary depending on the definitions of \"language\" and \"dialect\". Berber The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people.They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects.Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages.In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt;since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places. There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber.The first is theNumidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in theLibyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward.The second is theGuanche language, which was formerly spoken on theCanary Islandsand went extinct in the 17th century CE.The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE. Chadic Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic by number of extant languages.The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic.Most Chadic languages are located in theChad Basin, with the exception ofHausa.Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria.It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers.Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be in danger of going extinct.Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists. Cushitic There are about 30 Cushitic languages,more if Omotic is included,spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania.The Cushitic family is traditionally split into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic.Only one Cushitic language,Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers includeSomali,Afar,Hadiyya, andSidaama.Many Cushitic languages have relatively few speakers.Cushitic does not appear to be related to the written ancient languages known from its area,MeroiticorOld Nubian.The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770;written orthographies were only developed for a select number of Cushitic languages in the early 20th century. Egyptian The Egyptian branch consists of a single language,Egyptian(often called \"Ancient Egyptian\"), which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley.Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world.Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000–1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic.Coptic is the only stage writtenalphabeticallyto show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptianhieroglyphs, which only represent consonants.In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian.Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt,but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of theCoptic Orthodox Church. Omotic The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists.They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for theGanza language, spoken in Sudan.Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by theNilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group.The two Omotic languages with the most speakers areWolaittaandGamo-Gofa-Dawro, with about 1.2 million speakers each. A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic.Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch;some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic.Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. Semitic There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family.Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, West Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa.Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, is by far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language today,with around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic language has around 25 million; collectively, Semitic is the largest branch of Afroasiatic by number of current speakers. Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language, and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages (including Hebrew), as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic.The classification within West Semitic remains contested. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic.The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE. Other proposed branches There are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars: Further subdivisions There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches.WhereasMarcel Cohen(1947) claimed he saw no evidence for internal subgroupings, numerous other scholars have made proposals,with Carsten Peust counting 27 as of 2012. Common trends in proposals as of 2019 include using common or lacking grammatical features to argue that Omotic was the first language to branch off, often followed by Chadic.In contrast to scholars who argue for an early split of Chadic from Afroasiatic, scholars of the Russian school tend to argue that Chadic and Egyptian are closely related,and scholars who rely on percentage of shared lexicon often group Chadic with Berber.Three scholars who agree on an early split between Omotic and the other subbranches, but little else, are Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), and Lionel Bender (1997).In contrast, scholars relying on shared lexicon often produce a Cushitic-Omotic group.Additionally, the minority of scholars who favor an Asian origin of Afroasiatic tend to place Semitic as the first branch to split off.Disagreement on which features are innovative and which are inherited from Proto-Afroasiatic produces radically different trees, as can be seen by comparing the trees produced by Ehret andIgor Diakonoff. Responding to the above, Tom Güldemann criticizes attempts at finding subgroupings based on common or lacking morphology by arguing that the presence or absence of morphological features is not a useful way of discerning subgroupings in Afroasiatic, because it can not be excluded that families currently lacking certain features did not have them in the past; this also means that the presence of morphological features cannot be taken as defining a subgroup.Peust notes that other factors that can obscure genetic relationships between languages include the poor state of present documentation and understanding of particular language families (historically with Egyptian, presently with Omotic).Gene Gragg likewise argues that more needs to be known about Omotic still, and that Afroasiatic linguists have still not found convincingisoglosseson which to base genetic distinctions. One way of avoiding the problem of determining which features are original and which are inherited is to use a computational methodology such aslexicostatistics, with one of the earliest attempts being Fleming 1983.This is also the method used byAlexander MilitarevandSergei Starostinto create a family tree.Fleming (2006) was a more recent attempt by Fleming, with a different result from Militarev and Starostin.Hezekiah Bacovcin and David Wilson argue that this methodology is invalid for discerning linguistic sub-relationship.They note the method's inability to detect various strong commonalities even between well-studied branches of AA. Classification history A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physicianJudah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies.The French orientalistGuillaume Postelhad also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, andHiob Ludolfnoted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. This family was formally described and named \"Semitic\" byAugust Ludwig von Schlözerin 1781.In 1844,Theodor Benfeyfirst described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called \"Ethiopic\").In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic.In 1855,Ernst Renannamed these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, \"Hamitic,\" in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876Friedrich Müllerfirst described them as a \"Hamito-Semitic\" language family.Müller assumed that there existed a distinct \"Hamitic\" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic.He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary EgyptologistKarl Richard Lepsiusargued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages.Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, \"Negroid\" Chadic languages were in the same family as the \"Caucasian\" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship – and the history of African linguistics – was the creation of the \"Hamitic theory\" or \"Hamitic hypothesis\" by Lepsius, fellow EgyptologistChristian Bunsen, and linguistChristian Bleek.This theory connected the \"Hamites\", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly culturally superior) \"Caucasians\", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous \"Negroid\" Africans in ancient times.The \"Hamitic theory\" would serve as the basis forCarl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his 1912 bookDie Sprache der Hamiten.On one hand, the \"Hamitic\" classification was justified partially based on linguistic features: for example, Meinhof split the presently-understood Chadic family into \"Hamito-Chadic\", and an unrelated non-Hamitic \"Chadic\" based on which languages possessed grammatical gender.On the other hand, the classification also relied on non-linguistic anthropological and culturally contingent features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle.Ultimately, Meinhof's classification of Hamitic proved to include languages from every presently-recognized language family within Africa. The first scholar to question the existence of \"Hamitic languages\" wasMarcel Cohenin 1924,with skepticism also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann during the 1920s and '30s.However, Meinhof's \"Hamitic\" classification remained prevalent throughout the early 20th century until it was definitively disproven byJoseph Greenbergin the 1940s, based on racial and anthropological data.Instead, Greenberg proposed an Afroasiatic family consisting of five branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic.Reluctance among some scholars to recognize Chadic as a branch of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s.In 1969,Harold Flemingproposed that a group of languages classified by Greenberg as Cushitic were in fact their own independent \"Omotic\" branch—a proposal that has been widely, if not universally, accepted.These six branches now constitute an academic consensus on the genetic structure of the family. Greenberg relied on his own method ofmass comparisonof vocabulary items rather than thecomparative methodof demonstrating regular sound correspondences to establish the family.An alternative classification, based on the pronominal and conjugation systems, was proposed by A.N. Tucker in 1967.As of 2023, widely accepted sound correspondences between the different branches have not yet been firmly established.Nevertheless, morphological traits attributable to the proto-language and the establishment of cognates throughout the family have confirmed itsgenetic validity. Origin Timeline There is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken.The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant isc.4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary.The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000BCE to 8,000BCE.An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family.Contrasting proposals of an early emergence, Tom Güldemann has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due toareal contact, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples. Location Likewise, no consensus exists as to where proto-Afroasiatic originated.Scholars have proposed locations for the Afroasiatic homeland across Africa and West Asia.Roger Blench writes that the debate possesses \"a strong ideological flavor\", with associations between an Asian origin and \"high civilization\".An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (seeFurther subdivisions) – this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult.Nevertheless, there is a long-accepted link between the speakers of Proto-Southern Cushitic languagesand the East AfricanSavanna Pastoral Neolithic(5,000 years ago), and archaeological evidence associates theProto-Cushiticspeakers with economic transformations in the Sahara dating c. 8,500 ago, as well as the speakers of theProto-Zenativariety of the Berber languages with an expansion across theMaghrebin the 5th century CE. An origin somewhere on the African continent has broad scholarly support,and is seen as being well-supported by the linguistic data.Most scholars more narrowly place the homeland near the geographic center of its present distribution,\"in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa.\"The Afroasiatic languages spoken in Africa are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in a West Asian homeland while all other branches had spread from there.Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa.Proponents of an origin of Afroasiatic within Africa assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithichunter-gatherers,arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry.Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, andPaul Newmanalso argue that archaeology does not support a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures.Ehret, in a separate publication, argued that the two principles in linguistic approaches for determining the origin of languages which are the principles of fewest moves and greatest diversity had put “beyond reasonable doubt” that the language family “had originated in the Horn of Africa”. A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies.The main proponent of an Asian origin is the linguistAlexander Militarev,who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in theLevantand subsequently spread to Africa.Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming and pastoralist vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area.ScholarJared Diamondand archaeologistPeter Bellwoodhave taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguisticmacrofamilies(such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. Phonological characteristics Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features. Syllable structure Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes).Igor Diakonoffargues that this constraint goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic.Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel,however in many Chadic languages verbs must begin with a consonant. In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel.Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant.Diakonoff argues that proto-Afroasiatic did not have consonant clusters within a syllable. With the exception of some Chadic languages, all Afroasiatic languages allow both closed and open syllables; many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant.Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. Syllable weightplays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. Consonant systems Several Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic.All Afroasiatic languages containstopsandfricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such asaffricatesandlateral consonants.AA languages tend to havepharyngealfricativeconsonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharingħandʕ.In all AA languages, consonants can bebilabial,alveolar,velar, andglottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages.Additionally, theglottal stop(ʔ) usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between and or and .In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic languageTigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme at all. Most, if not all branches of Afroasiatic distinguish betweenvoiceless,voiced, and \"emphatic\" consonants.The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;they can be realized variously asglottalized,pharyngealized,uvularized,ejective, and/orimplosiveconsonants in the different branches.It is generally agreed that only theobstruentshad a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereascontinuantswere voiceless. A form of long-distance consonantassimilationknown asconsonant harmonyis attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization,palatalization, andlabialization.Several Omotic languages have \"sibilantharmony\", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) in a word must match. Consonant incompatibility Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic.The most widespread constraint is against two differentlabial consonants(other thanw) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic.Another widespread constraint is against two non-identicallateralobstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic.Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, ordenominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root.Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonantdissimilationorassimilation. A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages.Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: \"back consonants\" (glottal,pharyngeal,uvular,laryngeal, andvelar consonants), \"front consonants\" (dentaloralveolar consonants),liquid consonants, andlabial consonants. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group.Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root.These rules also have a number of exceptions: Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation.James P. Allenhas demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals. Vowel systems There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA,and attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably.All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA isschwa.In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form ofepenthesis).Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types ofvowel harmony. Tones The majority of AA languages aretonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones.In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases.In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case.Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had tone, while others believe it arose later from apitch accent. Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology At present, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic grammar, syntax, or morphology, nor one for any of the sub-branches besides Egyptian. This means that it is difficult to know which features in Afroasiatic languages are retentions, and which are innovations.Moreover, all Afroasiatic languages have long been in contact with other language families and with each other, leading to the possibility of widespread borrowing both within Afroasiatic and from unrelated languages.There are nevertheless a number of commonly observed features in Afroasiatic morphology and derivation, including the use ofsuffixes,infixes,vowel lengtheningandshorteningas a morphological change, as well as the use of tone changes to indicate morphology.Further commonalities and differences are explored in more detail below. General features Consonantal root structures A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic \"templates\" are placed.This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,and is particularly noticeable in Semitic.Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic.For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic.In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given stem are dependent on the vocalic template.In Chadic, verb stems can include an inherent vowel as well. Most Semitic verbs aretriliteral(have three consonants), whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and Cushitic verbs are biliteral (having two consonants).The degree to which the Proto-AA verbal root was triliteral is debated.It may have originally been mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (such asverbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized.Although any root could theoretically be used to create a noun or a verb, there is evidence for the existence of distinct noun and verb roots, which behave in different ways. As part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions.It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well. Word order It remains unclear whatword orderProto-Afroasiatic had.Berber, Egyptian, and most Semitic languages areverb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups areverb-final languages.Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order,but most Chadic languages havesubject-verb-object word order. Reduplication and gemination Afroasiatic Languages use the processes ofreduplicationandgemination(which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA.Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed. Nouns Grammatical gender and number The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches – but not all languages – of the Afroasiatic family.This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic.In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns.Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic (\"gender stability\").In Egyptian, Semitic, and Berber, a feminine suffix -t is attested to mark feminine nouns; in some Cushitic and Chadic languages, a feminine -t suffix or prefix (lexicalized from a demonstrative) is used to mark definiteness.In addition to these uses, -t also functions as adiminutive,pejorative, and/orsingulativemarker in some languages. Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),while in others, plural forms are ungendered.In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis).These so-called\"internal-a\" or \"broken\" pluralsare securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development.Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. Noun cases and states Nouns casesare found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic branches. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian.A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to be marked by-uor-i, and the accusative to be marked by-a.However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches.Some languages in AA have amarked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic.Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. rather than the subject and object. A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of \"state\". Linguists use the term \"state\" to refer to different things in different languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the \"free state\" or the \"construct state\". The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic).Edward Lipiński refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate.Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a \"free\" (absolute) state, a \"construct state\", and a \"pronominal state\". The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun.Berber instead contrasts between the \"free state\" and the \"annexed state\", the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. Modifiers and agreement There is no strict distinction between adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in Afroasiatic.All branches of Afroasiatic have a lexical category ofadjectivesexcept for Chadic;some Chadic languages do have adjectives, however. In Berber languages, adjectives are rare and are mostly replaced by nouns of quality andstative verbs.In different languages, adjectives (and other modifiers) must either precede or follow the noun.In most AA languages, numerals precede the noun. In those languages that have adjectives, they can take gender and number markings, which, in some cases, agree with the gender and number of the noun they are modifying.However, in Omotic, adjectives do not agree with nouns: sometimes, they only take gender and number marking when they are used as nouns, in other cases, they take gender and number marking only when they follow the noun (the noun then receives no marking). A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic, found on demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and relative markers, is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic.A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic.The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA. Verb forms Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs) There is no agreement about whichtenses, aspects, or moods(TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had.Most grammars of AA posit a distinction betweenperfectiveandimperfectiveverbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages.The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches.Additionally, it is common in Afroasiatic languages for the present/imperfective form to be a derived (marked) form of the verb, whereas in most other languages and language families the present tense is the default form of the verb.Another common trait across the family is the use of asuppletiveimperative for verbs of motion. \"Prefix conjugation\" Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs.These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies.There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular.Prefixes of ʔ- (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed.As there is no evidence for the \"prefix conjugation\" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic. \"Suffix conjugation\" Some AA branches have what is called a \"suffix conjugation\", formed by adding pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number to a verbal adjective.In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a \"stative conjugation\", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form.In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (seePronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related.While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses. Common derivational affixes M-prefix noun derivation A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns,and is one of the featuresJoseph Greenbergused to diagnose membership in the family. It formsagent nouns, place nouns, and instrument nouns.In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles.Omotic, meanwhile, shows evidence for a non-productive prefix mV- associated with the feminine gender.Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-.Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gábor Takács, the latter of whom argues for a PAA*ma-that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages. Verbal extensions Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb.Threederivationalprefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive';the prefixes appear with various related meanings in the individual daughter languages and branches.Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants.This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. \"Nisba\" derivation The so-called \"Nisba\" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions.It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber.The suffix has the same basic form in Egyptian and Semitic,taking the form -i(y) in Semitic and being written -j in Egyptian. The Semitic and Cushitic genitive case in -i/-ii may be related to \"nisba\" adjective derivation. Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a \"quintessentially Afroasiatic feature\".Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape-*ayin addition to -*iyin some cases. Vocabulary comparison Pronouns The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family.However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like.A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of \"independent\" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function.Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession).For most branches, the first person pronouns contain anasal consonant(n, m), whereas the third person displays asibilant consonant(s, sh).Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic.These pronouns tend to show a masculine \"u\" and a feminine \"i\".The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate. Numerals Unlike in theIndo-EuropeanorAustronesianlanguage families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system.The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9.Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other.Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimesdecimal, having separate names for the numbers 1–10, and sometimesbase-5, deriving the numbers 6–9 from the numbers 1–5 in some way.Some families show more than one word for a numeral: Chadic, Semitic, and Berber each have two words for two,and Semitic has four words for one.Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers \"one\", \"two\", and \"five\" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with \"five\" often based on a word meaning \"hand\". Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility ofborrowing.Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two.In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic.Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed fromNilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed fromEthiopian Semiticlanguages. Cognates Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents.Writing in 2004, John Huehnergard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family.Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords.Work is also hampered because of the poor state of documentation of many languages. There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars.Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as \"controversial\", and Ehret's as \"not acceptable to many scholars\".Tom Güldemann argues that much comparative work in Afroasiatic suffers from not attempting first to reconstruct smaller units within the individual branches, but instead comparing words in the individual languages.Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial.Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simplesound correspondences. (possibly) Hausa bùgaː 'to hit, strike Hausa halshe(háɽ.ʃè) 'tongue'; lashe 'to lick' See also Notes Citations Works cited External links", "Central Atlas Tamazight Central Atlas TamazightorAtlasic(native name:ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜTamazight;Arabic:أمازيغية أطلس الأوسط) is aBerber languageof theAfroasiatic language familyspoken by 3.1 million speakers. Central Atlas Tamazight is one of the most-spoken Berber languages, along withTachelhit,Kabyle,Riffian,ShawiyaandTuareg. In Morocco, it comes second as the most-spoken afterTachelhit. All five languages may be referred to as \"Tamazight\", but Central Atlas speakers are the only ones who use the term exclusively. As is typical of Afroasiatic languages, Tamazight has a series of \"emphatic consonants\" (realized aspharyngealized),uvulars,pharyngealsand lacks the phoneme /p/. Tamazight has a phonemic three-vowel system but also has numerous words without vowels. Central Atlas Tamazight (unlike neighbouringTashelhit) had no known significant writing tradition until the 20th century. It is now officially written in theTifinaghscript for instruction in Moroccan schools,while descriptive linguistic literature commonly uses theLatin alphabet, and theArabic alphabethas also been used. The standard word order isverb–subject–objectbut sometimessubject–verb–object.Wordsinflectfor gender, number and state, using prefixes, suffixes andcircumfixes.Verbsare heavily inflected, being marked fortense,aspect,mode,voice,personof thesubjectandpolarity, sometimes undergoingablaut. Pervasive borrowing fromArabicextends to all major word classes, including verbs; borrowed verbs, however, are conjugated according to native patterns, includingablaut. Classification Central Atlas Tamazight is one of the four most-spoken Berber languages, in addition toKabyle,Tachelhit, andRiffian,and it comes second as the most-spoken Berber language afterTachelhitin Morocco.Differentiating these dialects is complicated by the fact that speakers of other languages may also refer to their language as 'Tamazight'.The differences between all three groups are largelyphonologicalandlexical, rather thansyntactic.Tamazight itself has a relatively large degree of internal diversity, including whetherspirantizationoccurs. Central Atlas Tamazight speakers refer to themselves asAmazigh(pl.Imazighen), anendonymicethnonymwhose etymology is uncertain, but may translate as \"free people\".The termTamazight, the feminine form ofAmazigh, refers to the language. Both words are also used self-referentially by other Berber groups, although Central Atlas Tamazight speakers use them regularly and exclusively. In older studies, Central Atlas Tamazight is sometimes referred to as \"Braber\" / \"Beraber\", a dialectical Arabic term, or its Tamazight equivalent \"Taberbrit\".This is related to the Standard Arabic and English term \"Berber\", used to refer to all Berber dialects/languages, though eschewed by many Berbers because its etymology is pejorative. Tamazight belongs to theBerberbranch of theAfroasiaticlanguage family; Afroasiatic subsumes a number of languages inNorth AfricaandSouthwest Asiaincluding theSemitic languages, theEgyptian language, and theChadicandCushitic languages. Along with most other Berber languages, Tamazight has retained a number of widespread Afroasiatic features, including a two-gendersystem,verb–subject–object(VSO)typology, emphatic consonants (realized in Tamazight as pharyngealized), atemplatic morphology, and acausativemorpheme /s/ (the latter also found in other macrofamilies, such as theNiger–Congo languages). Within Berber, Central Atlas Tamazight belongs, along with neighbouringTashelhiyt, to theAtlasbranch of theNorthern Berbersubgroup. Tamazight is in the middle of adialect continuumbetween Riff to its north-east and Shilha to its south-west.The basic lexicon of Tamazight differs markedly from Shilha, and its verbal system is more similar to Riff or Kabyle.Moreover, Tamazight has a greater amount of internal diversity than Shilha. Tamazight's dialects are divided into three distinct subgroups and geographic regions: those spoken in theMiddle Atlasmountains; those spoken in theHigh Atlasmountains; and those spoken inJbel Saghroand its foothills.Although the characteristic spirantization of/b/>;/t/>or;/d/>;/k/>or; and/ɡ/>,oris apparent in Berber languages in central and northern Morocco and Algeria,as in many Middle Atlas dialects, it is more rare in High Atlas Tamazight speakers, and is absent in Tamazight speakers from the foothills ofJbel Saghro.Southern dialects (e.g.Ayt Atta) may also be differentiated syntactically: while other dialects predicate with the auxiliary /d/ (e.g. /d argaz/ \"it's a man\"), Southern dialects use the typically (High Atlas, Souss-Basin rural country, Jbel Atlas Saghro) auxiliary verb /g/ (e.g. /iga argaz/ \"it's a man\").The differences between each of the three groups are primarily phonological. Groups speaking Tamazight include: Ait Ayache, Ait Morghi, Ait Alaham, Ait Youb, Marmoucha, Ait Youssi, Beni Mguild,Zayane, Zemmour, Ait Rbaa, Ait Seri, Guerouane, Ait Segougou,Ait Yafelman, Ait Sikhmane, Ayt Ndhir (Beni Mtir). There is some ambiguity as to the eastern boundary of Central Atlas Tamazight. The dialect of theAit Seghrouchenand Ait Ouarain tribes are commonly classed as Central Atlas Tamazight, and Ait Seghrouchen is reported to be mutually intelligible with the neighbouring Tamazight dialect of Ait Ayache.Genetically, however, they belong to theZenatisubgroup of Northern Berber, rather than to the Atlas subgroup to which the rest of Central Atlas Tamazight belongs,and are therefore excluded by some sources from Central Atlas Tamazight.TheEthnologuelists another group of Zenati dialects,South Oran Berber(ksours sud-oranais), as a dialect of Central Atlas Tamazight,but these are even less similar, and are treated by Berber specialists as a separate dialect group. History The Berbers have lived in North Africa between western Egypt and the Atlantic Ocean since before recorded history began in the region about 33 centuries ago.By the 5th century BC, the city ofCarthage, founded byPhoenicians, had extended its hegemony across much ofNorth Africa; in the wake of thePunic Wars,Romereplaced it as regional hegemon. The Central Atlas region itself remained independent throughout the classical period, but occasional loanwords into Central Atlas Tamazight, such asayugu, \"plough ox\", fromLatiniugum, \"team of oxen\"andaẓalim\"onion\" <Punicbṣal-im,bear witness to their ancestors' contact with these conquerors. Arabs conquered the area of modern-dayMoroccoandAlgeriaaround the 7th century,prompting waves of Arab migration and Berber adoption ofIslam.Particularly following the arrival of theBanu Hilalin modern-dayTunisiain the 11th century, more and more of North Africa became Arabic-speaking over the centuries. However, along with other high mountainous regions of North Africa, the Middle Atlas continued to speak Berber. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, the Central Atlas, along with the rest of Morocco, successively fell within the domain of the BerberAlmoravid,Almohad, andMariniddynasties. Since the 17th century the region has acknowledged the rule of theAlaouite Dynasty, the current Moroccan royal family. However, effective control of the region was limited; until the 20th century much of the Central Atlas was in a condition ofsiba, recognising the spiritual legitimacy of royal authority but rejecting its political claims.The expansion of theAit Attastarting from the 16th century brought Tamazight back into the already ArabisedTafilaltregionand put other regional tribes on the defensive, leading to the formation of theAit Yafelmanalliance. The 1912Treaty of Fezmade most of Morocco a French-Spanish protectorate (under French and Spanish military occupation), leaving the Alaouite monarchy but establishing a French military presence in the Atlas region and installing a French commissioner-general.However, the Berber tribes of the Middle Atlas, as in other areas, put up stiff military resistance to French rule, lasting until 1933 in the case of theAit Atta. After Morocco's independence in 1956, a strong emphasis was laid on the country'sArabidentity,and a nationalArabic languageeducational system was instituted, in which Berber languages, including Middle Atlas Tamazight, had no place. However, in 1994 the government responded to Berber demands for recognition by decreeing that Berber should be taught and establishing television broadcasts in three Berber languages, including Central Atlas Tamazight.For the promotion of Tamazight and other Berber languages and cultures, the government created theRoyal Institute of Amazigh Culture(IRCAM) in 2001. Geographic distribution Central Atlas Tamazight is mostly spoken in the entire Middle Atlas and its outcroppings, reaching east toTazaand west to the region nearRabat.It is also spoken in the central and eastern High Atlas mountains in Morocco.It is thus spoken across areas with widely varying ecological conditions — from the mountainous and forested regions of the Middle Atlas mountains to the oases of the northwestern Sahara (Tafilalt).Berber in Morocco is spread into three areas: Riff in the north, Central Atlas in the center, and Shilha in the south/southwest.Central Atlas is mutually intelligible with the dialects Riff and Shilha; but Shilha- and Riff-speakers cannot understand each other,although transitional varieties exist between these dialects, creating a smooth transition. Figures for the number of speakers of Berber languages are generally a matter of estimates rather than linguistic censuses.At least a third of Moroccans seem to speak Berber languages,.Tamazight is estimated to be spoken by about 40~49% of Morocco's Berber-speakers, while Shilha commands 32~40% and Riff 20~25%. Status Tamazight, along with other Berber languages of Morocco, has a low sociolinguistic status, used mainly in the home, and rarely in official or formal contexts. Media broadcasts and music are available in it,and there is a policy of teaching it in schools, although it is not always applied. Of the Central Atlas Tamazight speakers, 40–45% are monolingual, while the others use Arabic as a second language.Monolingual speakers consist mostly of older generations and children.Women are more likely to be monolingual than men, since they typically stay in the village while the men go to work in the cities.Since Tamazight is the language of the home, girls grow up speaking Berber languages and pass them on to their children — this gender stratification helps to preserve the language.Bilingual Berber speakers have learnedMoroccan Arabicvia schooling, migration, media, or through the government.Most rural Berber children are monolingual. They struggle to succeed in schools where the teachers do not speak Berber, and require them to learn both Arabic and French. Rural Morocco, including the Central Atlas area, suffers from poverty. Tamazight along with its relative Shilha are undergoing \"contraction\" as rural families, motivated by economic necessity,move to cities and stop speaking Tamazight, leading many intellectuals to fear Berber language shift or regression.However, Tamazight speakers are reported to immigrate less than many other Berber groups.Moreover, Tamazight has a large enough body of native speakers not to be considered under risk of endangerment,although Tamazight speakers reportedly have a lower birth rate than the country of Morocco as a whole. Official status As of theMoroccan constitutional referendum, 2011, the Berber languages are official in Morocco alongside Arabic. In 1994,King Hassan IIdeclared that a national Berber dialect would acquire a formal status; television broadcasts are summarized in Tamazight, as well as Shilha and Rif, three times a day; and educational materials for schools are being developed.On October 17, 2001 King Mohammed VI sealed the decree (Dahir1–01–299) creating and organizing theRoyal Institute of Amazigh Culture(IRCAM).IRCAM's board is composed of Amazigh experts, artists, and activists, all of whom are appointed by the king.The institute, located inRabat, has played an important role in the establishment of theTifinaghscript in Morocco.There are multiple political parties and cultural associations in Morocco that advocate for the advancement of Berber, calling for it to be recognized as an official language, used more extensively in the mass media, and taught more in schools. A legal issue affecting Tamazight speakers is restrictions on naming - Moroccan law stipulates that first names must have a \"Moroccan character\", and uncommon names, including some Berber ones used in the Central Atlas, are often rejected by the civil registry. Orthography Until the 20th century Tamazight, like many other Berber languages but in contrast with neighbouringTashelhiyt, was basically unwritten(although sporadic cases, using Arabic script, are attested.) It was preserved through oral use in rural areas, isolated from urban hubs.Scholars from the Middle Atlas, as elsewhere in North Africa, usually wrote in the more prestigious Arabic language, rather than their vernacular. At present three writing systems exist for Berber languages, including Tamazight:Neo-Tifinagh, theLatin alphabetand theArabic script.To some extent, the choice of writing system is a political one, with various subgroups expressing preference based on ideology and politics.The orthography used for government services including schooling is Neo-Tifinagh, rendered official by aDahirof King Mohammed VI based on the recommendation of IRCAM.However, various Latin transcriptions have been used in a number of linguistic works describing Central Atlas Tamazight, notably the dictionary of Taïfi (1991). Phonology Consonants Central Atlas Tamazight has a contrastive set of \"flat\" consonants, manifested in two ways: Note that pharyngealization may spread to a syllable or even a whole word.HistoricallyProto-Berberonly had two pharyngealized phonemes (/dˤ,zˤ/), but modern Berber languages have borrowed others from Arabic and developed new ones through sound shifts.In addition, Tamazight has uvular and pharyngeal consonants, as well as a lack of/p/in its plosive inventory, unusual globally but characteristic of the region. All segments may begeminatedexcept for the pharyngeals/ʕħ/. In Ayt Ndhir, which is a dialect of Tamazight with spirantization, the consonants that can be spirantized appear in their stop forms when geminated, and additionally the geminate correspondents of/ʁ,dˤ,ʃ,ʒ,w,j/are usually/qː,tˤː,t͡ʃː,d͡ʒː,ɣʷː,ɣː/respectively. However some native Berber words have/ʁː/(not/qː/) where other dialects have singleton/ʁ/, and similarly for/ʃː,ʒː/.In addition, in Arabic loans singleton non-spirantizedoccur (thoughand to an extentoften alternate with their spirantized versions in loans), giving this alternation marginal phonemic status. Phonetic notes: Vowels Tamazight has a typical phonemicthree-vowel system: These phonemes have numerous allophones, conditioned by the following environments: (# denotes word boundary, C̊ denotes C, Ç denotes C, G denotes {Ç,/χ/,/ʁ/}) Phonetic schwa There is a predictable non-phonemic vowel inserted into consonant clusters, realized asbefore front consonants (e.g./btd.../) andbefore back consonants (e.g./kχ.../).It is voiced before voiced consonants and voiceless before voiceless consonants, or alternatively it can be realized as a voiced or unvoiced consonant release.It also may be realized as the syllabicity of a nasal, lateral, or /r/. The occurrence of schwaepenthesisis governed morphophonemically.These are some of the rules governing the occurrence of: (# denotes word boundary, R denotes/lrmn/, H denotes/hħʕwj/, ℞ denotes R or H, and B denotesnotR or H.) Examples: However note that word-initial initial/j,w/are realized as/i,u/before consonants. In word-medial or -final position,, andare realized as,, andrespectively, and may becomeandin rapid speech. Tamazight in fact has numerouswords without phonemic vowels, and those consisting entirely of voiceless consonants will not phonetically contain voiced vowels. is written as⟨ⴻ⟩inneo-Tifinaghand as⟨e⟩in theBerber Latin alphabet. French publications tended to includein their transcriptions of Berber forms despite their predictability, perhaps due to theFrench vowel system. This can cause problems because alternations such as/iʁ(ə)rs/'he slaughtered' –/uriʁris/'he did not slaughter' would then have to be morphologically conditioned. Stress Word stressis non-contrastive and predictable, and falls on the last vowel in a word (including schwa). Examples: Grammar Central Atlas Tamazight grammar has many features typical ofAfro-Asiatic languages, including extensiveapophonyin both the derivational and inflectional morphology,gender,possessive suffixes,VSOtypology, the causative morpheme /s/, and the use of thestatus constructus. Morphology Tamazightnounsare inflected for gender, number, and state. Singular masculine nouns usually have the prefix /a-/, and singular feminines thecircumfix/t...t.Plurals may either involve a regular change (\"sound plurals\"), internal vowel change (\"broken plurals\"), or a combination of the two.Masculine plurals usually take the prefix/i-/, feminines/ti-/, and sound plurals also take the suffix/-n/in the masculine and/-in/} in the feminine, but many other plural patterns are found. Examples: Nouns may be put into theconstruct state(contrasting with free state) to indicate possession or when the subject of a verb follows the verb. This is also used for nouns after numerals and some prepositions, as well as the conjunction/d-/('and').The construct state is formed as follows: in masculines, initial/a/becomes/u,wː,wa/, initial/i/becomes/i,j,ji/, and initial/u/becomes/wu/. In feminines, initial/ta/usually becomes/t/, initial/ti/usually becomes/t/, and initial/tu/remains unchanged. Examples (in Ayt Ayache): Central Atlas Tamazight'spersonal pronounsdistinguish three persons and two genders. Pronouns appear in three forms: an independent form used in the subject position, apossessive suffix(and a derived independentpossessive pronoun), and an object form affixedto the controlling verb. Demonstrative pronouns distinguish between proximate and remote. When they occur independently, they inflect for number. They may also be suffixed to nouns: /tabardaja/ 'this pack-saddle'. Central Atlas Tamazightverbsare heavily inflected and are marked fortense,aspect,mode,voice,person, andpolarity. Tamazight verbs have at their core a stem, modified by prefixes, suffixes, moveable affixes, circumfixes, andablaut. The prefixes indicate voice, tense, aspect, and polarity, while the suffixes indicate mood (normal, horatory, or imperative). Subject markers are circumfixed to the verb, and object marking andsatellite framingare accomplished via either prefixing or suffixing depending on environmentSome verb forms are accompanied byablaut, and sometimesmetathesis. Pronominal complement markers cliticize to the verb, with the indirect object preceding the direct object:/iznz-as-t/ \"he sold it to him\". Attributiveadjectivesoccur after the noun they modify and are inflected for number and gender.Adjectives may also occur alone in which case they become an NP.Practically all adjectives also have a verbal form used for predicative purposes, which behaves just like a normal verb. Prepositionsinclude/xf/('on'),/qbl/('before'),/ɣr/('to'), and the proclitics/n/('of') and/d/('with, and').They may take pronominal suffixes. Some prepositions require the following noun to be in the construct state, but others do not. Syntax Word order is usuallyVSO(with the subject in construct state) but is sometimesSVO(with the subject in free state), e.g. (/ifːɣumaziɣ/vs./amaziɣifːɣ/'the Berber went out').Tamazight also exhibitspro-dropbehavior. Tamazight may use anull copula,but the word/ɡ/'to be, to do' may function as a copula in Ayt Ayache, especially in structures preceded by /aj/ 'who, which, what'. wh- questions are alwaysclefts, and multiple wh-questionsdo not occur.Consequently, Tamazight's clefting, relativisation, and wh-interrogation contribute to anti-agreement effects,similar to Shilha,and causes deletion of the verbal person marker in certain situations. Vocabulary As a result of relatively intenselanguage contact, Central Atlas Tamazight has a large stratum of Arabic loans. Many borrowed words in Berber also have native synonyms (/lbab/ or /tiflut/ 'door'), with the latter being used more in rural areas.The contact was unequal, asMoroccan Arabichas not borrowed as much fromBerber languages,but Berber has contributed to the very reduced vowel systems ofMoroccanandAlgerian Arabic. Arabic loans span a wide range oflexical clasees. Many nouns begin with /l-/, from the Arabic definite prefix, and some Arabic feminines may acquire the native Berber feminine ending /-t/, e.g. /lʕafit/ for /lʕafia/ 'fire'.Many Arabic loans have been integrated into the Tamazight verb lexicon. They adhere fully to inflectional patterns of native stems, and may even undergo ablaut.Evenfunction wordsare borrowed: /blli/ or /billa/ 'that', /waxxa/ 'although', /ɣir/ 'just', etc. The first few (1–3 in Ayt Ayache and Ayt Ndhir) cardinal numerals have native Berber and borrowedArabicforms.All higher cardinals are borrowed from Arabic, consistent with the linguistic universals that the numbers 1–3 are much more likely to be retained, and that a borrowed number generally implies that numbers greater than it are also borrowed. The retention of one is also motivated by the fact that Berber languages nearly universally use unity as a determiner. Central Atlas Tamazight uses a bipartite negative construction (e.g. /uriffiɣ ʃa/ 'he did not go out'), which was apparently modelled after proximate |Arabic varieties, in a common development known asJespersen's Cycle.It is present in multiple Berber varieties and is argued to have originated in neighbouring Arabic varietes and to have been adopted by contact. Examples /lˤːajhnːikː/(to m.s.)/lˤːajhnːikːm/(to f.s.)/lˤːajhnːikːn/(to m.p.)/lˤːajhnːikːnt/(to f.p.) See also Notes (from \"\") References Bibliography External links" ]
[ "Afroasiatic languages TheAfroasiatic languages(orAfro-Asiatic, sometimesAfrasian), also known asHamito-SemiticorSemito-Hamitic, are alanguage family(or \"phylum\") of about 400 languages spoken predominantly inWest Asia,North Africa, theHorn of Africa, and parts of theSaharaandSahel.Over 500 million people are native speakers of an Afroasiatic language, constituting the fourth-largest language family afterIndo-European,Sino-Tibetan, andNiger–Congo.Most linguists divide the family into six branches:Berber,Chadic,Cushitic,Egyptian,Semitic, andOmotic.The vast majority of Afroasiatic languages are considered indigenous to theAfrican continent, including all those not belonging to the Semitic branch. Arabic, if counted as a single language, is by far the most widely spoken within the family, with around 300 million native speakers concentrated primarily in theMiddle Eastand North Africa.Other major Afroasiatic languages include the CushiticOromo languagewith 45 million native speakers, ChadicHausa languagewith over", "languagewith over 34 million, the SemiticAmharic languagewith 25 million, and the CushiticSomali languagewith 15 million. Other Afroasiatic languages with millions of native speakers include the SemiticTigrinyaandModern Hebrew, the CushiticSidaama, and the OmoticWolaitta language, though most languages within the family are much smaller in size.There are many well-attested Afroasiatic languages from antiquity that have sincedied or gone extinct, including Egyptian and the Semitic languagesAkkadian,Biblical Hebrew,Phoenician,Amorite, andUgaritic. There is no consensus amonghistorical linguistsas to precisely where or when the common ancestor of all Afroasiatic languages, known asProto-Afroasiatic, was originally spoken. However, most agree that the Afroasiatic homeland was located somewhere in northeastern Africa, with specific proposals including the Horn of Africa, Egypt, and the eastern Sahara. A significant minority of scholars argues for an origin in theLevant. The reconstructed timelines of when", "timelines of when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary extensively, with dates ranging from 18,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Even the latest plausible dating makes Afroasiatic the oldest language family accepted by contemporary linguists. Comparative study of Afroasiatic is hindered by the massive disparities in textual attestation between its branches: while the Semitic and Egyptian branches are attested in writing as early as thefourth millennium BC, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic languages were often not recorded until the 19th or 20th centuries.While systematicsound lawshave not yet been established to explain the relationships between the various branches of Afroasiatic, the languages share a number of common features. One of the most important for establishing membership in the branch is a common set of pronouns.Other widely shared features include a prefix m- which creates nouns from verbs, evidence for alternations between the vowel \"a\" and a high vowel in the forms of the verb, similar methods of marking gender", "of marking gender and plurality, and some details of phonology such as the presence ofpharyngeal fricatives. Other features found in multiple branches include a specialized verb conjugation using suffixes (Egyptian, Semitic, Berber), a specialized verb conjugation using prefixes (Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), verbal prefixes derivingmiddle(t-),causative(s-), andpassive(m-) verb forms (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic), and a suffix used to derive adjectives (Egyptian, Semitic). Name In current scholarship, the most common names for the family areAfroasiatic(orAfro-Asiatic),Hamito-Semitic, andSemito-Hamitic.Other proposed names that have yet to find widespread acceptance includeErythraic/Erythraean,Lisramic,Noahitic, andLamekhite. Friedrich Müllerintroduced the nameHamito-Semiticto describe the family in hisGrundriss der Sprachwissenschaft(1876).The variantSemito-Hamiticis mostly used in older Russian sources.The elements of the name were derived from the names of two sons ofNoahas attested in theBook of", "in theBook of Genesis'sTable of Nationspassage: \"Semitic\" from the first-bornShem, and \"Hamitic\" from the second-bornHam(Genesis 5:32).Within the Table of Nations, each of Noah's sons is presented as the common progenitor of various people groups deemed to be closely related: among others Shem was the father of theJews,Assyrians, andArameans, while Ham was the father of theEgyptiansandCushites. This genealogy does not reflect the actual origins of these peoples' languages: for example, the Canaanites are descendants of Ham according to the Table, even though Hebrew is now classified as aCanaanite language, while theElamitesare ascribed to Shem despitetheir languagebeing totally unrelated to Hebrew.The termSemiticfor theSemitic languageshad already been coined in 1781 byAugust Ludwig von Schlözer, following an earlier suggestion byGottfried Wilhelm Leibnizin 1710.Hamiticwas first used byErnest Renanin 1855 to refer to languages that appeared similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a", "provably a part of the family.The belief in a connection between Africans and the Biblical Ham, which had existed at least as far back asIsidore of Sevillein the 6th century AD, led scholars in the early 19th century to speak vaguely of \"Hamian\" or \"Hamitish\" languages. The termHamito-Semitichas largely fallen out of favor among linguists writing in English, but is still frequently used in the scholarship of various other languages, such as German.Several issues with the labelHamito-Semitichave led many scholars to abandon the term and criticize its continued use. One common objection is that theHamiticcomponent inaccurately suggests that amonophyletic\"Hamitic\" branch exists alongside Semitic. In addition,Joseph Greenberghas argued thatHamiticpossessesracial connotations, and that \"Hamito-Semitic\" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family.By contrast, Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label is simply an inherited convention, and doesn't imply a duality of Semitic and \"Hamitic\"", "and \"Hamitic\" any more thanIndo-Europeanimplies a duality of Indic and \"European\".Because of its use by several important scholars and in the titles of significant works of scholarship, the total replacement ofHamito-Semiticis difficult. While Greenberg ultimately popularized the name \"Afroasiatic\" in 1960, it appears to have been coined originally byMaurice Delafosse, as Frenchafroasiatique, in 1914.The name refers to the fact that it is the only major language family with large populations in both Africa and Asia.Due to concerns that \"Afroasiatic\" could imply the inclusion ofalllanguages spoken across Africa and Asia, the name \"Afrasian\" (Russian:afrazijskije) was proposed byIgor Diakonoffin 1980. At present it predominantly sees use among Russian scholars. The namesLisramic—based on the Afroasiastic root*lis-(\"tongue\") and the Egyptian wordrmṯ(\"person\")—andErythraean—referring to the core area around which the languages are spoken, theRed Sea—have also been proposed. Distribution and branches Scholars", "branches Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have between five and eight branches. The five that are universally agreed upon areBerber(also called \"Libyco-Berber\"),Chadic,Cushitic,Egyptian, andSemitic.Most specialists consider theOmotic languagesto constitute a sixth branch.Due to the presumed distance of relationship between the various branches, many scholars prefer to refer to Afroasiatic as a \"linguistic phylum\" rather than a \"language family\". G.W. Tsereteli goes even further and outright doubts that the Afro-Asiatic languages are a genetic language family altogether, but are rather a sprachbund.However, this is not the academic consensus. M. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro and Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli write that there are about 400 languages in Afroasiatic;Ethnologuelists 375 languages.Many scholars estimate fewer languages; exact numbers vary depending on the definitions of \"language\" and \"dialect\". Berber The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people.They are", "people.They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects.Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages.In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt;since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places. There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber.The first is theNumidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in theLibyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward.The second is theGuanche language, which was formerly spoken on theCanary Islandsand went extinct in the 17th century CE.The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE. Chadic Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in", "largest family in Afroasiatic by number of extant languages.The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic.Most Chadic languages are located in theChad Basin, with the exception ofHausa.Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria.It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers.Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be in danger of going extinct.Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists. Cushitic There are about 30 Cushitic languages,more if Omotic is included,spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania.The Cushitic family is traditionally split into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic.Only one Cushitic", "one Cushitic language,Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers includeSomali,Afar,Hadiyya, andSidaama.Many Cushitic languages have relatively few speakers.Cushitic does not appear to be related to the written ancient languages known from its area,MeroiticorOld Nubian.The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770;written orthographies were only developed for a select number of Cushitic languages in the early 20th century. Egyptian The Egyptian branch consists of a single language,Egyptian(often called \"Ancient Egyptian\"), which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley.Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world.Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000–1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which", "BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic.Coptic is the only stage writtenalphabeticallyto show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptianhieroglyphs, which only represent consonants.In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian.Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt,but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of theCoptic Orthodox Church. Omotic The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists.They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for theGanza language, spoken in Sudan.Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by theNilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic", "group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group.The two Omotic languages with the most speakers areWolaittaandGamo-Gofa-Dawro, with about 1.2 million speakers each. A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic.Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch;some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic.Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. Semitic There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family.Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, West Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa.Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, is by far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language today,with around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic language has around 25 million; collectively, Semitic is the", "Semitic is the largest branch of Afroasiatic by number of current speakers. Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language, and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages (including Hebrew), as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic.The classification within West Semitic remains contested. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic.The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE. Other proposed branches There are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars: Further subdivisions There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches.WhereasMarcel Cohen(1947) claimed he saw no evidence for internal subgroupings, numerous other scholars have made proposals,with Carsten Peust counting 27 as of 2012. Common", "as of 2012. Common trends in proposals as of 2019 include using common or lacking grammatical features to argue that Omotic was the first language to branch off, often followed by Chadic.In contrast to scholars who argue for an early split of Chadic from Afroasiatic, scholars of the Russian school tend to argue that Chadic and Egyptian are closely related,and scholars who rely on percentage of shared lexicon often group Chadic with Berber.Three scholars who agree on an early split between Omotic and the other subbranches, but little else, are Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), and Lionel Bender (1997).In contrast, scholars relying on shared lexicon often produce a Cushitic-Omotic group.Additionally, the minority of scholars who favor an Asian origin of Afroasiatic tend to place Semitic as the first branch to split off.Disagreement on which features are innovative and which are inherited from Proto-Afroasiatic produces radically different trees, as can be seen by comparing the trees produced by", "trees produced by Ehret andIgor Diakonoff. Responding to the above, Tom Güldemann criticizes attempts at finding subgroupings based on common or lacking morphology by arguing that the presence or absence of morphological features is not a useful way of discerning subgroupings in Afroasiatic, because it can not be excluded that families currently lacking certain features did not have them in the past; this also means that the presence of morphological features cannot be taken as defining a subgroup.Peust notes that other factors that can obscure genetic relationships between languages include the poor state of present documentation and understanding of particular language families (historically with Egyptian, presently with Omotic).Gene Gragg likewise argues that more needs to be known about Omotic still, and that Afroasiatic linguists have still not found convincingisoglosseson which to base genetic distinctions. One way of avoiding the problem of determining which features are original and which are", "and which are inherited is to use a computational methodology such aslexicostatistics, with one of the earliest attempts being Fleming 1983.This is also the method used byAlexander MilitarevandSergei Starostinto create a family tree.Fleming (2006) was a more recent attempt by Fleming, with a different result from Militarev and Starostin.Hezekiah Bacovcin and David Wilson argue that this methodology is invalid for discerning linguistic sub-relationship.They note the method's inability to detect various strong commonalities even between well-studied branches of AA. Classification history A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physicianJudah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies.The French orientalistGuillaume Postelhad also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, andHiob Ludolfnoted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. This family", "1701. This family was formally described and named \"Semitic\" byAugust Ludwig von Schlözerin 1781.In 1844,Theodor Benfeyfirst described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called \"Ethiopic\").In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic.In 1855,Ernst Renannamed these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, \"Hamitic,\" in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876Friedrich Müllerfirst described them as a \"Hamito-Semitic\" language family.Müller assumed that there existed a distinct \"Hamitic\" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic.He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary EgyptologistKarl Richard Lepsiusargued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages.Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to", "Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, \"Negroid\" Chadic languages were in the same family as the \"Caucasian\" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship – and the history of African linguistics – was the creation of the \"Hamitic theory\" or \"Hamitic hypothesis\" by Lepsius, fellow EgyptologistChristian Bunsen, and linguistChristian Bleek.This theory connected the \"Hamites\", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly culturally superior) \"Caucasians\", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous \"Negroid\" Africans in ancient times.The \"Hamitic theory\" would serve as the basis forCarl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his 1912 bookDie Sprache der Hamiten.On one hand, the \"Hamitic\" classification was justified partially based on linguistic features: for", "features: for example, Meinhof split the presently-understood Chadic family into \"Hamito-Chadic\", and an unrelated non-Hamitic \"Chadic\" based on which languages possessed grammatical gender.On the other hand, the classification also relied on non-linguistic anthropological and culturally contingent features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle.Ultimately, Meinhof's classification of Hamitic proved to include languages from every presently-recognized language family within Africa. The first scholar to question the existence of \"Hamitic languages\" wasMarcel Cohenin 1924,with skepticism also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann during the 1920s and '30s.However, Meinhof's \"Hamitic\" classification remained prevalent throughout the early 20th century until it was definitively disproven byJoseph Greenbergin the 1940s, based on racial and anthropological data.Instead, Greenberg proposed an Afroasiatic family consisting of five branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and", "Egyptian, and Semitic.Reluctance among some scholars to recognize Chadic as a branch of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s.In 1969,Harold Flemingproposed that a group of languages classified by Greenberg as Cushitic were in fact their own independent \"Omotic\" branch—a proposal that has been widely, if not universally, accepted.These six branches now constitute an academic consensus on the genetic structure of the family. Greenberg relied on his own method ofmass comparisonof vocabulary items rather than thecomparative methodof demonstrating regular sound correspondences to establish the family.An alternative classification, based on the pronominal and conjugation systems, was proposed by A.N. Tucker in 1967.As of 2023, widely accepted sound correspondences between the different branches have not yet been firmly established.Nevertheless, morphological traits attributable to the proto-language and the establishment of cognates throughout the family have confirmed itsgenetic validity. Origin Timeline", "Origin Timeline There is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken.The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant isc.4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary.The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000BCE to 8,000BCE.An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family.Contrasting proposals of an early emergence, Tom Güldemann has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due toareal contact, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples. Location Likewise, no consensus exists as to where proto-Afroasiatic originated.Scholars have proposed locations for the Afroasiatic homeland across Africa", "across Africa and West Asia.Roger Blench writes that the debate possesses \"a strong ideological flavor\", with associations between an Asian origin and \"high civilization\".An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (seeFurther subdivisions) – this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult.Nevertheless, there is a long-accepted link between the speakers of Proto-Southern Cushitic languagesand the East AfricanSavanna Pastoral Neolithic(5,000 years ago), and archaeological evidence associates theProto-Cushiticspeakers with economic transformations in the Sahara dating c. 8,500 ago, as well as the speakers of theProto-Zenativariety of the Berber languages with an expansion across theMaghrebin the 5th century CE. An origin somewhere on the African continent has broad scholarly support,and is seen as being well-supported by the linguistic data.Most scholars more narrowly place the homeland near the geographic", "near the geographic center of its present distribution,\"in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa.\"The Afroasiatic languages spoken in Africa are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in a West Asian homeland while all other branches had spread from there.Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa.Proponents of an origin of Afroasiatic within Africa assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithichunter-gatherers,arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry.Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, andPaul Newmanalso argue that archaeology does not support a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures.Ehret, in a separate", "in a separate publication, argued that the two principles in linguistic approaches for determining the origin of languages which are the principles of fewest moves and greatest diversity had put “beyond reasonable doubt” that the language family “had originated in the Horn of Africa”. A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies.The main proponent of an Asian origin is the linguistAlexander Militarev,who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in theLevantand subsequently spread to Africa.Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming and pastoralist vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area.ScholarJared Diamondand archaeologistPeter Bellwoodhave taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of", "that the spread of linguisticmacrofamilies(such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. Phonological characteristics Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features. Syllable structure Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes).Igor Diakonoffargues that this constraint goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic.Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel,however in many Chadic languages verbs must begin with a consonant. In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel.Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant.Diakonoff argues that proto-Afroasiatic did not have", "did not have consonant clusters within a syllable. With the exception of some Chadic languages, all Afroasiatic languages allow both closed and open syllables; many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant.Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. Syllable weightplays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. Consonant systems Several Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic.All Afroasiatic languages containstopsandfricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such asaffricatesandlateral consonants.AA languages tend to havepharyngealfricativeconsonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharingħandʕ.In all AA languages, consonants can bebilabial,alveolar,velar, andglottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages.Additionally, theglottal", "theglottal stop(ʔ) usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between and or and .In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic languageTigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme at all. Most, if not all branches of Afroasiatic distinguish betweenvoiceless,voiced, and \"emphatic\" consonants.The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;they can be realized variously asglottalized,pharyngealized,uvularized,ejective, and/orimplosiveconsonants in the different branches.It is generally agreed that only theobstruentshad a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereascontinuantswere voiceless. A form of long-distance consonantassimilationknown asconsonant harmonyis attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization,palatalization, andlabialization.Several Omotic languages have \"sibilantharmony\", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) in a word", "ts, etc.) in a word must match. Consonant incompatibility Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic.The most widespread constraint is against two differentlabial consonants(other thanw) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic.Another widespread constraint is against two non-identicallateralobstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic.Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, ordenominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root.Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonantdissimilationorassimilation. A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for", "to be typical for Afroasiatic languages.Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: \"back consonants\" (glottal,pharyngeal,uvular,laryngeal, andvelar consonants), \"front consonants\" (dentaloralveolar consonants),liquid consonants, andlabial consonants. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group.Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root.These rules also have a number of exceptions: Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation.James P. Allenhas demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals. Vowel systems There is a large variety of vocalic systems", "of vocalic systems in AA,and attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably.All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA isschwa.In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form ofepenthesis).Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types ofvowel harmony. Tones The majority of AA languages aretonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones.In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating", "differentiating lexical roots in a few cases.In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case.Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had tone, while others believe it arose later from apitch accent. Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology At present, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic grammar, syntax, or morphology, nor one for any of the sub-branches besides Egyptian. This means that it is difficult to know which features in Afroasiatic languages are retentions, and which are innovations.Moreover, all Afroasiatic languages have long been in contact with other language families and with each other, leading to the possibility of widespread borrowing both within Afroasiatic and from unrelated languages.There are nevertheless a number of commonly observed features in Afroasiatic morphology and derivation, including the use ofsuffixes,infixes,vowel lengtheningandshorteningas", "a morphological change, as well as the use of tone changes to indicate morphology.Further commonalities and differences are explored in more detail below. General features Consonantal root structures A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic \"templates\" are placed.This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,and is particularly noticeable in Semitic.Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic.For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic.In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given stem are dependent on the vocalic template.In Chadic, verb stems can include an inherent vowel as well. Most Semitic verbs aretriliteral(have three consonants), whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and Cushitic verbs are biliteral (having two consonants).The degree to which the Proto-AA", "which the Proto-AA verbal root was triliteral is debated.It may have originally been mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (such asverbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized.Although any root could theoretically be used to create a noun or a verb, there is evidence for the existence of distinct noun and verb roots, which behave in different ways. As part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions.It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well. Word order It remains unclear whatword orderProto-Afroasiatic had.Berber, Egyptian, and most Semitic languages areverb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups", "Semitic subgroups areverb-final languages.Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order,but most Chadic languages havesubject-verb-object word order. Reduplication and gemination Afroasiatic Languages use the processes ofreduplicationandgemination(which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA.Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed. Nouns Grammatical gender and number The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches – but not all languages – of the Afroasiatic family.This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic.In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns.Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they", "not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic (\"gender stability\").In Egyptian, Semitic, and Berber, a feminine suffix -t is attested to mark feminine nouns; in some Cushitic and Chadic languages, a feminine -t suffix or prefix (lexicalized from a demonstrative) is used to mark definiteness.In addition to these uses, -t also functions as adiminutive,pejorative, and/orsingulativemarker in some languages. Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),while in others, plural forms are ungendered.In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis).These so-called\"internal-a\" or \"broken\" pluralsare securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent", "are an independent development.Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. Noun cases and states Nouns casesare found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic branches. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian.A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to be marked by-uor-i, and the accusative to be marked by-a.However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches.Some languages in AA have amarked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic.Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. rather than the subject and object. A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of \"state\". Linguists use the term \"state\" to refer to different things in different languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in", "nouns exist in the \"free state\" or the \"construct state\". The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic).Edward Lipiński refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate.Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a \"free\" (absolute) state, a \"construct state\", and a \"pronominal state\". The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun.Berber instead contrasts between the \"free state\" and the \"annexed state\", the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. Modifiers and agreement There is no strict distinction between adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in Afroasiatic.All branches of", "branches of Afroasiatic have a lexical category ofadjectivesexcept for Chadic;some Chadic languages do have adjectives, however. In Berber languages, adjectives are rare and are mostly replaced by nouns of quality andstative verbs.In different languages, adjectives (and other modifiers) must either precede or follow the noun.In most AA languages, numerals precede the noun. In those languages that have adjectives, they can take gender and number markings, which, in some cases, agree with the gender and number of the noun they are modifying.However, in Omotic, adjectives do not agree with nouns: sometimes, they only take gender and number marking when they are used as nouns, in other cases, they take gender and number marking only when they follow the noun (the noun then receives no marking). A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic, found on demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and relative markers, is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. This can be found in", "can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic.A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic.The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA. Verb forms Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs) There is no agreement about whichtenses, aspects, or moods(TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had.Most grammars of AA posit a distinction betweenperfectiveandimperfectiveverbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages.The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches.Additionally, it is common in Afroasiatic languages for the present/imperfective form to be a derived (marked) form of the verb, whereas in most other languages and language families the present tense is the default form of the verb.Another common trait across the family is the use of asuppletiveimperative for verbs of", "for verbs of motion. \"Prefix conjugation\" Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs.These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies.There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular.Prefixes of ʔ- (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed.As there is no evidence for the \"prefix conjugation\" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic. \"Suffix conjugation\" Some AA branches have what is called a \"suffix conjugation\", formed by adding", "formed by adding pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number to a verbal adjective.In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a \"stative conjugation\", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form.In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (seePronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related.While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses. Common derivational affixes M-prefix noun derivation A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns,and is", "derive nouns,and is one of the featuresJoseph Greenbergused to diagnose membership in the family. It formsagent nouns, place nouns, and instrument nouns.In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles.Omotic, meanwhile, shows evidence for a non-productive prefix mV- associated with the feminine gender.Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-.Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gábor Takács, the latter of whom argues for a PAA*ma-that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages. Verbal extensions Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb.Threederivationalprefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive';the prefixes appear with various related meanings in the individual daughter languages and", "languages and branches.Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants.This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. \"Nisba\" derivation The so-called \"Nisba\" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions.It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber.The suffix has the same basic form in Egyptian and Semitic,taking the form -i(y) in Semitic and being written -j in Egyptian. The Semitic and Cushitic genitive case in -i/-ii may be related to \"nisba\" adjective derivation. Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a \"quintessentially Afroasiatic", "Afroasiatic feature\".Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape-*ayin addition to -*iyin some cases. Vocabulary comparison Pronouns The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family.However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like.A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of \"independent\" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function.Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession).For most branches, the first person pronouns contain anasal consonant(n, m), whereas the third person displays asibilant consonant(s, sh).Other commonalities are masculine and feminine", "and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic.These pronouns tend to show a masculine \"u\" and a feminine \"i\".The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate. Numerals Unlike in theIndo-EuropeanorAustronesianlanguage families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system.The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9.Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other.Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimesdecimal, having separate names for the numbers 1–10, and sometimesbase-5, deriving the numbers 6–9 from the numbers 1–5 in some way.Some families show more than one word for a numeral: Chadic,", "a numeral: Chadic, Semitic, and Berber each have two words for two,and Semitic has four words for one.Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers \"one\", \"two\", and \"five\" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with \"five\" often based on a word meaning \"hand\". Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility ofborrowing.Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two.In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic.Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed fromNilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed fromEthiopian Semiticlanguages. Cognates Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents.Writing in 2004, John Huehnergard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family.Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in", "the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords.Work is also hampered because of the poor state of documentation of many languages. There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars.Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as \"controversial\", and Ehret's as \"not acceptable to many scholars\".Tom Güldemann argues that much comparative work in Afroasiatic suffers from not attempting first to reconstruct smaller units within the individual branches, but instead comparing words in the individual languages.Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial.Such cognates tend to rely on relatively", "rely on relatively simplesound correspondences. (possibly) Hausa bùgaː 'to hit, strike Hausa halshe(háɽ.ʃè) 'tongue'; lashe 'to lick' See also Notes Citations Works cited External links", "Central Atlas Tamazight Central Atlas TamazightorAtlasic(native name:ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜTamazight;Arabic:أمازيغية أطلس الأوسط) is aBerber languageof theAfroasiatic language familyspoken by 3.1 million speakers. Central Atlas Tamazight is one of the most-spoken Berber languages, along withTachelhit,Kabyle,Riffian,ShawiyaandTuareg. In Morocco, it comes second as the most-spoken afterTachelhit. All five languages may be referred to as \"Tamazight\", but Central Atlas speakers are the only ones who use the term exclusively. As is typical of Afroasiatic languages, Tamazight has a series of \"emphatic consonants\" (realized aspharyngealized),uvulars,pharyngealsand lacks the phoneme /p/. Tamazight has a phonemic three-vowel system but also has numerous words without vowels. Central Atlas Tamazight (unlike neighbouringTashelhit) had no known significant writing tradition until the 20th century. It is now officially written in theTifinaghscript for instruction in Moroccan schools,while descriptive linguistic literature commonly uses", "commonly uses theLatin alphabet, and theArabic alphabethas also been used. The standard word order isverb–subject–objectbut sometimessubject–verb–object.Wordsinflectfor gender, number and state, using prefixes, suffixes andcircumfixes.Verbsare heavily inflected, being marked fortense,aspect,mode,voice,personof thesubjectandpolarity, sometimes undergoingablaut. Pervasive borrowing fromArabicextends to all major word classes, including verbs; borrowed verbs, however, are conjugated according to native patterns, includingablaut. Classification Central Atlas Tamazight is one of the four most-spoken Berber languages, in addition toKabyle,Tachelhit, andRiffian,and it comes second as the most-spoken Berber language afterTachelhitin Morocco.Differentiating these dialects is complicated by the fact that speakers of other languages may also refer to their language as 'Tamazight'.The differences between all three groups are largelyphonologicalandlexical, rather thansyntactic.Tamazight itself has a relatively large", "a relatively large degree of internal diversity, including whetherspirantizationoccurs. Central Atlas Tamazight speakers refer to themselves asAmazigh(pl.Imazighen), anendonymicethnonymwhose etymology is uncertain, but may translate as \"free people\".The termTamazight, the feminine form ofAmazigh, refers to the language. Both words are also used self-referentially by other Berber groups, although Central Atlas Tamazight speakers use them regularly and exclusively. In older studies, Central Atlas Tamazight is sometimes referred to as \"Braber\" / \"Beraber\", a dialectical Arabic term, or its Tamazight equivalent \"Taberbrit\".This is related to the Standard Arabic and English term \"Berber\", used to refer to all Berber dialects/languages, though eschewed by many Berbers because its etymology is pejorative. Tamazight belongs to theBerberbranch of theAfroasiaticlanguage family; Afroasiatic subsumes a number of languages inNorth AfricaandSouthwest Asiaincluding theSemitic languages, theEgyptian language, and", "language, and theChadicandCushitic languages. Along with most other Berber languages, Tamazight has retained a number of widespread Afroasiatic features, including a two-gendersystem,verb–subject–object(VSO)typology, emphatic consonants (realized in Tamazight as pharyngealized), atemplatic morphology, and acausativemorpheme /s/ (the latter also found in other macrofamilies, such as theNiger–Congo languages). Within Berber, Central Atlas Tamazight belongs, along with neighbouringTashelhiyt, to theAtlasbranch of theNorthern Berbersubgroup. Tamazight is in the middle of adialect continuumbetween Riff to its north-east and Shilha to its south-west.The basic lexicon of Tamazight differs markedly from Shilha, and its verbal system is more similar to Riff or Kabyle.Moreover, Tamazight has a greater amount of internal diversity than Shilha. Tamazight's dialects are divided into three distinct subgroups and geographic regions: those spoken in theMiddle Atlasmountains; those spoken in theHigh Atlasmountains; and those", "and those spoken inJbel Saghroand its foothills.Although the characteristic spirantization of/b/>;/t/>or;/d/>;/k/>or; and/ɡ/>,oris apparent in Berber languages in central and northern Morocco and Algeria,as in many Middle Atlas dialects, it is more rare in High Atlas Tamazight speakers, and is absent in Tamazight speakers from the foothills ofJbel Saghro.Southern dialects (e.g.Ayt Atta) may also be differentiated syntactically: while other dialects predicate with the auxiliary /d/ (e.g. /d argaz/ \"it's a man\"), Southern dialects use the typically (High Atlas, Souss-Basin rural country, Jbel Atlas Saghro) auxiliary verb /g/ (e.g. /iga argaz/ \"it's a man\").The differences between each of the three groups are primarily phonological. Groups speaking Tamazight include: Ait Ayache, Ait Morghi, Ait Alaham, Ait Youb, Marmoucha, Ait Youssi, Beni Mguild,Zayane, Zemmour, Ait Rbaa, Ait Seri, Guerouane, Ait Segougou,Ait Yafelman, Ait Sikhmane, Ayt Ndhir (Beni Mtir). There is some ambiguity as to the eastern boundary of", "eastern boundary of Central Atlas Tamazight. The dialect of theAit Seghrouchenand Ait Ouarain tribes are commonly classed as Central Atlas Tamazight, and Ait Seghrouchen is reported to be mutually intelligible with the neighbouring Tamazight dialect of Ait Ayache.Genetically, however, they belong to theZenatisubgroup of Northern Berber, rather than to the Atlas subgroup to which the rest of Central Atlas Tamazight belongs,and are therefore excluded by some sources from Central Atlas Tamazight.TheEthnologuelists another group of Zenati dialects,South Oran Berber(ksours sud-oranais), as a dialect of Central Atlas Tamazight,but these are even less similar, and are treated by Berber specialists as a separate dialect group. History The Berbers have lived in North Africa between western Egypt and the Atlantic Ocean since before recorded history began in the region about 33 centuries ago.By the 5th century BC, the city ofCarthage, founded byPhoenicians, had extended its hegemony across much ofNorth Africa; in the", "Africa; in the wake of thePunic Wars,Romereplaced it as regional hegemon. The Central Atlas region itself remained independent throughout the classical period, but occasional loanwords into Central Atlas Tamazight, such asayugu, \"plough ox\", fromLatiniugum, \"team of oxen\"andaẓalim\"onion\" <Punicbṣal-im,bear witness to their ancestors' contact with these conquerors. Arabs conquered the area of modern-dayMoroccoandAlgeriaaround the 7th century,prompting waves of Arab migration and Berber adoption ofIslam.Particularly following the arrival of theBanu Hilalin modern-dayTunisiain the 11th century, more and more of North Africa became Arabic-speaking over the centuries. However, along with other high mountainous regions of North Africa, the Middle Atlas continued to speak Berber. Between the 12th and 15th centuries, the Central Atlas, along with the rest of Morocco, successively fell within the domain of the BerberAlmoravid,Almohad, andMariniddynasties. Since the 17th century the region has acknowledged the rule of", "the rule of theAlaouite Dynasty, the current Moroccan royal family. However, effective control of the region was limited; until the 20th century much of the Central Atlas was in a condition ofsiba, recognising the spiritual legitimacy of royal authority but rejecting its political claims.The expansion of theAit Attastarting from the 16th century brought Tamazight back into the already ArabisedTafilaltregionand put other regional tribes on the defensive, leading to the formation of theAit Yafelmanalliance. The 1912Treaty of Fezmade most of Morocco a French-Spanish protectorate (under French and Spanish military occupation), leaving the Alaouite monarchy but establishing a French military presence in the Atlas region and installing a French commissioner-general.However, the Berber tribes of the Middle Atlas, as in other areas, put up stiff military resistance to French rule, lasting until 1933 in the case of theAit Atta. After Morocco's independence in 1956, a strong emphasis was laid on the", "was laid on the country'sArabidentity,and a nationalArabic languageeducational system was instituted, in which Berber languages, including Middle Atlas Tamazight, had no place. However, in 1994 the government responded to Berber demands for recognition by decreeing that Berber should be taught and establishing television broadcasts in three Berber languages, including Central Atlas Tamazight.For the promotion of Tamazight and other Berber languages and cultures, the government created theRoyal Institute of Amazigh Culture(IRCAM) in 2001. Geographic distribution Central Atlas Tamazight is mostly spoken in the entire Middle Atlas and its outcroppings, reaching east toTazaand west to the region nearRabat.It is also spoken in the central and eastern High Atlas mountains in Morocco.It is thus spoken across areas with widely varying ecological conditions — from the mountainous and forested regions of the Middle Atlas mountains to the oases of the northwestern Sahara (Tafilalt).Berber in Morocco is spread into", "is spread into three areas: Riff in the north, Central Atlas in the center, and Shilha in the south/southwest.Central Atlas is mutually intelligible with the dialects Riff and Shilha; but Shilha- and Riff-speakers cannot understand each other,although transitional varieties exist between these dialects, creating a smooth transition. Figures for the number of speakers of Berber languages are generally a matter of estimates rather than linguistic censuses.At least a third of Moroccans seem to speak Berber languages,.Tamazight is estimated to be spoken by about 40~49% of Morocco's Berber-speakers, while Shilha commands 32~40% and Riff 20~25%. Status Tamazight, along with other Berber languages of Morocco, has a low sociolinguistic status, used mainly in the home, and rarely in official or formal contexts. Media broadcasts and music are available in it,and there is a policy of teaching it in schools, although it is not always applied. Of the Central Atlas Tamazight speakers, 40–45% are monolingual, while the", "while the others use Arabic as a second language.Monolingual speakers consist mostly of older generations and children.Women are more likely to be monolingual than men, since they typically stay in the village while the men go to work in the cities.Since Tamazight is the language of the home, girls grow up speaking Berber languages and pass them on to their children — this gender stratification helps to preserve the language.Bilingual Berber speakers have learnedMoroccan Arabicvia schooling, migration, media, or through the government.Most rural Berber children are monolingual. They struggle to succeed in schools where the teachers do not speak Berber, and require them to learn both Arabic and French. Rural Morocco, including the Central Atlas area, suffers from poverty. Tamazight along with its relative Shilha are undergoing \"contraction\" as rural families, motivated by economic necessity,move to cities and stop speaking Tamazight, leading many intellectuals to fear Berber language shift or", "language shift or regression.However, Tamazight speakers are reported to immigrate less than many other Berber groups.Moreover, Tamazight has a large enough body of native speakers not to be considered under risk of endangerment,although Tamazight speakers reportedly have a lower birth rate than the country of Morocco as a whole. Official status As of theMoroccan constitutional referendum, 2011, the Berber languages are official in Morocco alongside Arabic. In 1994,King Hassan IIdeclared that a national Berber dialect would acquire a formal status; television broadcasts are summarized in Tamazight, as well as Shilha and Rif, three times a day; and educational materials for schools are being developed.On October 17, 2001 King Mohammed VI sealed the decree (Dahir1–01–299) creating and organizing theRoyal Institute of Amazigh Culture(IRCAM).IRCAM's board is composed of Amazigh experts, artists, and activists, all of whom are appointed by the king.The institute, located inRabat, has played an important role in", "important role in the establishment of theTifinaghscript in Morocco.There are multiple political parties and cultural associations in Morocco that advocate for the advancement of Berber, calling for it to be recognized as an official language, used more extensively in the mass media, and taught more in schools. A legal issue affecting Tamazight speakers is restrictions on naming - Moroccan law stipulates that first names must have a \"Moroccan character\", and uncommon names, including some Berber ones used in the Central Atlas, are often rejected by the civil registry. Orthography Until the 20th century Tamazight, like many other Berber languages but in contrast with neighbouringTashelhiyt, was basically unwritten(although sporadic cases, using Arabic script, are attested.) It was preserved through oral use in rural areas, isolated from urban hubs.Scholars from the Middle Atlas, as elsewhere in North Africa, usually wrote in the more prestigious Arabic language, rather than their vernacular. At present three", "At present three writing systems exist for Berber languages, including Tamazight:Neo-Tifinagh, theLatin alphabetand theArabic script.To some extent, the choice of writing system is a political one, with various subgroups expressing preference based on ideology and politics.The orthography used for government services including schooling is Neo-Tifinagh, rendered official by aDahirof King Mohammed VI based on the recommendation of IRCAM.However, various Latin transcriptions have been used in a number of linguistic works describing Central Atlas Tamazight, notably the dictionary of Taïfi (1991). Phonology Consonants Central Atlas Tamazight has a contrastive set of \"flat\" consonants, manifested in two ways: Note that pharyngealization may spread to a syllable or even a whole word.HistoricallyProto-Berberonly had two pharyngealized phonemes (/dˤ,zˤ/), but modern Berber languages have borrowed others from Arabic and developed new ones through sound shifts.In addition, Tamazight has uvular and pharyngeal", "and pharyngeal consonants, as well as a lack of/p/in its plosive inventory, unusual globally but characteristic of the region. All segments may begeminatedexcept for the pharyngeals/ʕħ/. In Ayt Ndhir, which is a dialect of Tamazight with spirantization, the consonants that can be spirantized appear in their stop forms when geminated, and additionally the geminate correspondents of/ʁ,dˤ,ʃ,ʒ,w,j/are usually/qː,tˤː,t͡ʃː,d͡ʒː,ɣʷː,ɣː/respectively. However some native Berber words have/ʁː/(not/qː/) where other dialects have singleton/ʁ/, and similarly for/ʃː,ʒː/.In addition, in Arabic loans singleton non-spirantizedoccur (thoughand to an extentoften alternate with their spirantized versions in loans), giving this alternation marginal phonemic status. Phonetic notes: Vowels Tamazight has a typical phonemicthree-vowel system: These phonemes have numerous allophones, conditioned by the following environments: (# denotes word boundary, C̊ denotes C, Ç denotes C, G denotes {Ç,/χ/,/ʁ/}) Phonetic schwa There is a", "schwa There is a predictable non-phonemic vowel inserted into consonant clusters, realized asbefore front consonants (e.g./btd.../) andbefore back consonants (e.g./kχ.../).It is voiced before voiced consonants and voiceless before voiceless consonants, or alternatively it can be realized as a voiced or unvoiced consonant release.It also may be realized as the syllabicity of a nasal, lateral, or /r/. The occurrence of schwaepenthesisis governed morphophonemically.These are some of the rules governing the occurrence of: (# denotes word boundary, R denotes/lrmn/, H denotes/hħʕwj/, ℞ denotes R or H, and B denotesnotR or H.) Examples: However note that word-initial initial/j,w/are realized as/i,u/before consonants. In word-medial or -final position,, andare realized as,, andrespectively, and may becomeandin rapid speech. Tamazight in fact has numerouswords without phonemic vowels, and those consisting entirely of voiceless consonants will not phonetically contain voiced vowels. is written as⟨ⴻ⟩inneo-Tifinaghand", "as⟨e⟩in theBerber Latin alphabet. French publications tended to includein their transcriptions of Berber forms despite their predictability, perhaps due to theFrench vowel system. This can cause problems because alternations such as/iʁ(ə)rs/'he slaughtered' –/uriʁris/'he did not slaughter' would then have to be morphologically conditioned. Stress Word stressis non-contrastive and predictable, and falls on the last vowel in a word (including schwa). Examples: Grammar Central Atlas Tamazight grammar has many features typical ofAfro-Asiatic languages, including extensiveapophonyin both the derivational and inflectional morphology,gender,possessive suffixes,VSOtypology, the causative morpheme /s/, and the use of thestatus constructus. Morphology Tamazightnounsare inflected for gender, number, and state. Singular masculine nouns usually have the prefix /a-/, and singular feminines thecircumfix/t...t.Plurals may either involve a regular change (\"sound plurals\"), internal vowel change (\"broken plurals\"), or a", "plurals\"), or a combination of the two.Masculine plurals usually take the prefix/i-/, feminines/ti-/, and sound plurals also take the suffix/-n/in the masculine and/-in/} in the feminine, but many other plural patterns are found. Examples: Nouns may be put into theconstruct state(contrasting with free state) to indicate possession or when the subject of a verb follows the verb. This is also used for nouns after numerals and some prepositions, as well as the conjunction/d-/('and').The construct state is formed as follows: in masculines, initial/a/becomes/u,wː,wa/, initial/i/becomes/i,j,ji/, and initial/u/becomes/wu/. In feminines, initial/ta/usually becomes/t/, initial/ti/usually becomes/t/, and initial/tu/remains unchanged. Examples (in Ayt Ayache): Central Atlas Tamazight'spersonal pronounsdistinguish three persons and two genders. Pronouns appear in three forms: an independent form used in the subject position, apossessive suffix(and a derived independentpossessive pronoun), and an object form affixedto", "form affixedto the controlling verb. Demonstrative pronouns distinguish between proximate and remote. When they occur independently, they inflect for number. They may also be suffixed to nouns: /tabardaja/ 'this pack-saddle'. Central Atlas Tamazightverbsare heavily inflected and are marked fortense,aspect,mode,voice,person, andpolarity. Tamazight verbs have at their core a stem, modified by prefixes, suffixes, moveable affixes, circumfixes, andablaut. The prefixes indicate voice, tense, aspect, and polarity, while the suffixes indicate mood (normal, horatory, or imperative). Subject markers are circumfixed to the verb, and object marking andsatellite framingare accomplished via either prefixing or suffixing depending on environmentSome verb forms are accompanied byablaut, and sometimesmetathesis. Pronominal complement markers cliticize to the verb, with the indirect object preceding the direct object:/iznz-as-t/ \"he sold it to him\". Attributiveadjectivesoccur after the noun they modify and are inflected for", "are inflected for number and gender.Adjectives may also occur alone in which case they become an NP.Practically all adjectives also have a verbal form used for predicative purposes, which behaves just like a normal verb. Prepositionsinclude/xf/('on'),/qbl/('before'),/ɣr/('to'), and the proclitics/n/('of') and/d/('with, and').They may take pronominal suffixes. Some prepositions require the following noun to be in the construct state, but others do not. Syntax Word order is usuallyVSO(with the subject in construct state) but is sometimesSVO(with the subject in free state), e.g. (/ifːɣumaziɣ/vs./amaziɣifːɣ/'the Berber went out').Tamazight also exhibitspro-dropbehavior. Tamazight may use anull copula,but the word/ɡ/'to be, to do' may function as a copula in Ayt Ayache, especially in structures preceded by /aj/ 'who, which, what'. wh- questions are alwaysclefts, and multiple wh-questionsdo not occur.Consequently, Tamazight's clefting, relativisation, and wh-interrogation contribute to anti-agreement", "to anti-agreement effects,similar to Shilha,and causes deletion of the verbal person marker in certain situations. Vocabulary As a result of relatively intenselanguage contact, Central Atlas Tamazight has a large stratum of Arabic loans. Many borrowed words in Berber also have native synonyms (/lbab/ or /tiflut/ 'door'), with the latter being used more in rural areas.The contact was unequal, asMoroccan Arabichas not borrowed as much fromBerber languages,but Berber has contributed to the very reduced vowel systems ofMoroccanandAlgerian Arabic. Arabic loans span a wide range oflexical clasees. Many nouns begin with /l-/, from the Arabic definite prefix, and some Arabic feminines may acquire the native Berber feminine ending /-t/, e.g. /lʕafit/ for /lʕafia/ 'fire'.Many Arabic loans have been integrated into the Tamazight verb lexicon. They adhere fully to inflectional patterns of native stems, and may even undergo ablaut.Evenfunction wordsare borrowed: /blli/ or /billa/ 'that', /waxxa/ 'although', /ɣir/ 'just',", "/ɣir/ 'just', etc. The first few (1–3 in Ayt Ayache and Ayt Ndhir) cardinal numerals have native Berber and borrowedArabicforms.All higher cardinals are borrowed from Arabic, consistent with the linguistic universals that the numbers 1–3 are much more likely to be retained, and that a borrowed number generally implies that numbers greater than it are also borrowed. The retention of one is also motivated by the fact that Berber languages nearly universally use unity as a determiner. Central Atlas Tamazight uses a bipartite negative construction (e.g. /uriffiɣ ʃa/ 'he did not go out'), which was apparently modelled after proximate |Arabic varieties, in a common development known asJespersen's Cycle.It is present in multiple Berber varieties and is argued to have originated in neighbouring Arabic varietes and to have been adopted by contact. Examples /lˤːajhnːikː/(to m.s.)/lˤːajhnːikːm/(to f.s.)/lˤːajhnːikːn/(to m.p.)/lˤːajhnːikːnt/(to f.p.) See also Notes (from \"\") References Bibliography External links" ]
One of Jane Auten's novels was released in 1813, which was later adapted into a film in 2005. When was the director of that film born?
Joe Wright was born on August 25th, 1972.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen#List_of_works
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_and_Prejudice#Film,_television_and_theatre
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_%26_Prejudice_(2005_film)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Wright
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen#List_of_works', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_and_Prejudice#Film,_television_and_theatre', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_%26_Prejudice_(2005_film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Wright']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Austen#List_of_works", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_and_Prejudice#Film,_television_and_theatre", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_%26_Prejudice_(2005_film", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Wright" ]
[ "Jane Austen Jane Austen(/ˈɒstɪn,ˈɔːstɪn/OST-in,AW-stin; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment upon the Britishlanded gentryat the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage for the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works are implicit critiques of thenovels of sensibilityof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-centuryliterary realism.Her use of social commentary, realism, and irony have earned her acclaim amongst critics and scholars. The anonymously publishedSense and Sensibility(1811),Pride and Prejudice(1813),Mansfield Park(1814), andEmma(1816) were modest successes, but they brought her little fame in her lifetime. She wrote two other novels—Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion, both published posthumously in 1817—and began another, eventually titledSanditon, but it was left unfinished upon her death. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the shortepistolary novelLady Susan, and the unfinished novelThe Watsons. Since her death Austen's novels have rarely been out of print. A significant transition in her reputation occurred in 1833, when they were republished inRichard Bentley's Standard Novels series (illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering and sold as a set). They gradually gained wide acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication ofA Memoir of Jane Austenintroduced a compelling version of her writing career and her supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Her work has inspired a large number of critical essays and has been included in many literary anthologies. Her novels have also inspired many films, including 1940'sPride and Prejudice, 1995'sSense and Sensibility, and 2016'sLove & Friendship. Biographical sources The scant biographical information about Austen comes from her few surviving letters and sketches her family members wrote about her.Only about 160 of the approximately 3,000 letters Austen wrote have survived and been published.Cassandra Austendestroyed the bulk of the letters she received from her sister, burning or otherwise destroying them. She wanted to ensure that the \"younger nieces did not read any of Jane's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members\".In the interest of protecting reputations from Jane's penchant for honesty and forthrightness, Cassandra omitted details of illnesses, unhappiness and anything she considered unsavoury.Important details about the Austen family were elided by intention, such as any mention of Austen's brother George, whose undiagnosed developmental challenges led the family to send him away from home; the two brothers sent away to the navy at an early age; or wealthy Aunt Leigh-Perrot, arrested and tried on charges of larceny. The first Austen biography wasHenry Thomas Austen's 1818 \"Biographical Notice\". It appeared in a posthumous edition ofNorthanger Abbeyand included extracts from two letters, against the judgement of other family members. Details of Austen's life continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew'sA Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biographyJane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913, all of which included additional letters.Austen's family and relatives built a legend of \"good quiet Aunt Jane\", portraying her as a woman in a happy domestic situation, whose family was the mainstay of her life. Modern biographers include details excised from the letters and family biographies, but the biographer Jan Fergus writes that the challenge is to keep the view balanced, not to present her languishing in periods of deep unhappiness as \"an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family\". Life Family Jane Austen was born inSteventon, Hampshireon 16 December 1775. Her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother \"certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago\". He added that the newborn infant was \"a present plaything for Cassy and a future companion\".The winter of 1775-1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church and christened Jane. Her father,George Austen(1731–1805), served as therectorof the Anglican parishes of Steventon andDeane.The Reverend Austen came from an old and wealthy family of wool merchants. As each generation ofeldest sonsreceived inheritances, George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. In 1745, at the age of fifteen, George Austen's sisterPhiladelphiawas apprenticed to amillinerinCovent Garden.At the age of sixteen, George enteredSt John's College, Oxford,where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739–1827).She came from the prominentLeigh family. Her father was rector atAll Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that hechange his nameto Leigh-Perrot. George Austen and Cassandra Leigh were engaged, probably around 1763, when they exchangedminiatures.He received thelivingof the Steventon parish from Thomas Knight, the wealthy husband of his second cousin.They married on 26 April 1764 atSt Swithin's ChurchinBath, bylicense, in a simple ceremony, two months after Cassandra's father died.Their income was modest, with George's smallper annumliving; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. After the living at the nearby Deane rectory had been purchased for George by his wealthy uncle Francis Austen,the Austens took up temporary residence there, until Steventon rectory, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to three children while living at Deane:Jamesin 1765, George in 1766, andEdwardin 1767.Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby tonurseand raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon.Henrywas the first child to be born there, in 1771.At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George wasdevelopmentally disabled. He had seizures and may have been deaf and mute. At this time she chose to send him to be fostered.In 1773,Cassandrawas born, followed byFrancisin 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to the biographerPark Honanthe Austen home had an \"open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere\", in which the ideas of those with whom members of the Austen family might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members.Mrs Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughterEliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs. Walter and her daughter Philly.Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, \"the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in ruralHampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works.\" Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them inBathin 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents upon her return, \"... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet thechaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it.\"Le Faye writes that \"Mr Austen's predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other.\" From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home.The Reverend Austen had an annual income of £200 (equivalent to £32,000 in 2023) from his two livings.This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about £100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between £1,000 and £5,000.Mr. Austen also rented the 200-acre Cheesedown farm from his benefactor Thomas Knight which could make a profit of £300 (equivalent to £48,000 in 2023) a year. During this period of her life, Jane Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and neighbours,and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at theassembly roomsin the town hall.Her brother Henry later said that \"Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it\". Education In 1783 Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent toOxfordto be educated by Ann Cawley who took them toSouthamptonlater that year. That autumn both girls were sent home after catchingtyphus, of which Jane nearly died.She was from then home-educated, until she attended boarding school with her sister from early in 1785 at theReading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle.The curriculum probably included French, spelling, needlework, dancing, music and drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family.After 1786 Austen \"never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment\". Her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry.Irene Collinssaid that Austen \"used some of the same school books as the boys\".Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend,Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in therectorybarn, includingRichard Sheridan'sThe Rivals(1775) andDavid Garrick'sBon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant.Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated.At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia(1787–1793) From at least the time she was aged eleven, Austen wrote poems and stories to amuse herself and her family.She exaggerated mundane details of daily life and parodied common plot devices in \"stories full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits\", according toJanet Todd.Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, the juvenilia (or childhood writings) that Austen compiledfair copiesconsisted of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as theJuvenilia.She called the three notebooks \"Volume the First\", \"Volume the Second\" and \"Volume the Third\", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years.TheJuveniliaare often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, \"boisterous\" and \"anarchic\"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century novelistLaurence Sterne. Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titledLove and Freindship, written when aged fourteen in 1790,in which she mocked popularnovels of sensibility.The next year, she wroteThe History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen'sHistoryparodied popular historical writing, particularlyOliver Goldsmith'sHistory of England(1764).Honan speculates that not long after writingLove and Freindship, Austen decided to \"write for profit, to make stories her central effort\", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen startedCatharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especiallyNorthanger Abbey, but was left unfinished until picked up inLady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring thanCatharine.A year later she began, but abandoned, a short play, later titledSir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel,The History of Sir Charles Grandison(1753), bySamuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time aged eighteen, she sent new-born nieceFanny Catherine Austen Knight\"five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'\". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793), her aunt wrote \"two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'\"There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty), Austen wroteLady Susan, a shortepistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographerClaire Tomalindescribes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of theRestoration dramatistswho may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have beenEliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty,Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as abarrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: \"I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together.\" Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a \"very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man\".Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an \"offer\" from her \"friend\" and that \"I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat\", going on to write \"I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence\" and refuse all others.The next day, Austen wrote: \"The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea\". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him.The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on agreat-unclein Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.In November 1798, Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796–1798) After finishingLady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novelElinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family \"before 1796\" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 asSense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel,First Impressions(later published asPride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an \"established favourite\".At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote toThomas Cadell, an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishingFirst Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it \"Declined by Return of Post\". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts.Following the completion ofFirst Impressions, Austen returned toElinor and Marianneand from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated theepistolaryformat in favour ofthird-person narrationand produced something close toSense and Sensibility.In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law),Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen.The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of theFrench Revolutionthat lasted for the rest of her life. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions ofElinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working titleSusan—laterNorthanger Abbey—a satire on the popularGothic novel.Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offeredSusanto Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being \"in the press\", but did nothing more.The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4,Sydney PlaceinBath, Somerset.While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving 50 miles (80 km) away from the only home she had ever known.An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived in Bath. She was able to make some revisions toSusan, and she began and then abandoned a new novel,The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–1799.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels.The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued.Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel.Austen sold the rights to publishSusanto a publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her £10 (equivalent to £1,020 in 2023).The Crosby & Company advertisedSusan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons.In December 1802, Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived nearBasingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.Irvine described Bigg-Wither as somebody who \"...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love\". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that \"having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection\".The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had \"had a very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love\".A possible autobiographical element inSense and Sensibilityoccurs whenElinor Dashwoodcontemplates \"the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life\" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novelThe Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as \"a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives\".Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters.For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon andGodmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort ofWorthing, on theSussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage.It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy ofLady Susanand added its \"Conclusion\". In 1806, the family moved toSouthampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move toChawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript ofSusanif needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time,but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage inChawtonvillagewhich was part of the estate around Edward's nearby propertyChawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved intoChawton cottageon 7 July 1809.Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise withgentryand entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as \"a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write.\" Published author Like many women authors at the time, Austen published her books anonymously.At the time, the ideal roles for a woman were as wife and mother, and writing for women was regarded at best as a secondary form of activity; a woman who wished to be a full-time writer was felt to be degrading her femininity, so books by women were usually published anonymously in order to maintain the conceit that the female writer was only publishing as a sort of part-time job, and was not seeking to become a \"literary lioness\" (i.e. a celebrity).Another reason noted is that the novel was still seen as a lesser form of literature at the time compared with poetry, and many female and male authors published novels anonymously, whereas works of poetry, by both female and male writers were almost always attributed to the author. During her time at Chawton, Austen published four generally well-received novels. Through her brother Henry, the publisherThomas Egertonagreed to publishSense and Sensibility, which, like all of Austen's novels exceptPride and Prejudice, was published \"on commission\", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a 10% commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them.The alternative to selling via commission was by selling the copyright, where an author received a one-time payment from the publisher for the manuscript, which occurred withPride and Prejudice.Austen's experience withSusan(the manuscript that becameNorthanger Abbey) where she sold the copyright to the publisher Crosby & Sons for £10, who did not publish the book, forcing her to buy back the copyright in order to get her work published, left Austen leery of this method of publishing.The final alternative, of selling by subscription, where a group of people would agree to buy a book in advance, was not an option for Austen as only authors who were well known or had an influential aristocratic patron who would recommend an up-coming book to their friends, could sell by subscription.Sense and Sensibilityappeared in October 1811, and was described as being written \"By a Lady\".As it was sold on commission, Egerton used expensive paper and set the price at 15 shillings (equivalent to £69 in 2023). Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion-makers;the edition sold out by mid-1813. Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of handmade paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or fewer to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies ofSense and Sensibilityto about 2,000 copies ofEmma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Austen's books were originally published \"on commission\", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. Austen made £140 (equivalent to £12,800 in 2023) fromSense and Sensibility,which provided her with some financial and psychological independence.After the success ofSense and Sensibility, all of Austen's subsequent books were billed as written \"By the author ofSense and Sensibility\" and Austen's name never appeared on her books during her lifetime.Egerton then publishedPride and Prejudice, a revision ofFirst Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright toPride and Prejudiceto Egerton for £110 (equivalent to £9,100 in 2023).To maximise profits, he used cheap paper and set the price at 18 shillings (equivalent to £74 in 2023).He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. Had Austen soldPride and Prejudiceon commission, she would have made a profit of £475, or twice her father's annual income.By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition.Mansfield Parkwas published by Egerton in May 1814. WhileMansfield Parkwas ignored by reviewers, it was very popular with readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Without Austen's knowledge or approval, her novels were translated into French and published in cheaply produced, pirated editions in France.: 1–2The literary critic Noel King commented in 1953 that, given the prevailing rage in France at the time for lush romantic fantasies, it was remarkable that her novels with the emphasis on everyday English life had any sort of a market in France.: 2King cautioned that Austen's chief translator in France, MadameIsabelle de Montolieu, had only the most rudimentary knowledge of English, and her translations were more of \"imitations\" than translations proper, as Montolieu depended upon assistants to provide a summary, which she then translated into an embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plots and characters.: 5–6The first of the Austen novels to be published that credited her as the author was in France, whenPersuasionwas published in 1821 asLa Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.: 5 Austen learned that thePrince Regentadmired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarianJames Stanier Clarkeinvited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcomingEmmato the Prince. Though Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent, she could scarcely refuse the request.Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent on the account of his womanising, gambling, drinking, spendthrift ways, and generally disreputable behaviour.She later wrotePlan of a Novel, according to Hints from Various Quarters, a satiric outline of the \"perfect novel\" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel.Austen was greatly annoyed by Clarke's often pompous literary advice, and thePlan of a Novelparodying Clarke was intended as her revenge for all the unwanted letters she had received from the royal librarian. In mid-1815 Austen moved her work from Egerton toJohn Murray, a better-known publisher in London,who publishedEmmain December 1815 and a second edition ofMansfield Parkin February 1816.Emmasold well, but the new edition ofMansfield Parkdid poorly, and this failure offset most of the income fromEmma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. While Murray preparedEmmafor publication, Austen beganThe Elliots, later published asPersuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication ofEmma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright forSusanfrom Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Illness and death Austen was feeling unwell by early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable, and she began a slow, irregular deterioration.The majority of biographers rely onZachary Cope's 1964retrospective diagnosisand list her cause of death asAddison's disease, although her final illness has also been described as resulting fromHodgkin's lymphoma.When her uncle died and left his entire fortune to his wife, effectively disinheriting his relatives, she suffered a relapse, writing: \"I am ashamed to say that the shock of my Uncle's Will brought on a relapse ... but a weak Body must excuse weak Nerves.\" Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. Dissatisfied with the ending ofThe Elliots, she rewrote the final two chapters, which she finished on 6 August 1816.In January 1817, Austen beganThe Brothers(titledSanditonwhen published in 1925), completing twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably due to illness.Todd describesSanditon's heroine, Diana Parker, as an \"energetic invalid\". In the novel Austen mockedhypochondriacs, and although she describes the heroine as \"bilious\", five days after abandoning the novel she wrote of herself that she was turning \"every wrong colour\" and living \"chiefly on the sofa\".She put down her pen on 18 March 1817, making a note of it. Austen made light of her condition, describing it as \"bile\" andrheumatism. As her illness progressed, she experienced difficulty walking and lacked energy; by mid-April she was confined to bed. In May, Cassandra and Henry brought her toWinchesterfor treatment, by which time she suffered agonising pain and welcomed death.Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817 at the age of 41. Henry, through his clerical connections, arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of thenaveofWinchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, and mentions the \"extraordinary endowments of her mind\", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication ofPersuasionandNorthanger Abbeyas a set.Henry Austen contributed aBiographical Notedated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as \"a loving and polished eulogy\".Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of fiction using her as a character (what might now be calledreal person fiction) appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor inThe Lady's Magazine.It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832,Richard Bentleypurchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of hisStandard Novelsseries. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Austen's works implicitly critique thesentimental novelsof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism.The earliest English novelists,Richardson,Henry Fielding, andTobias Smollett, were followed by the school of sentimentalists andromanticssuch asWalter Scott,Horace Walpole,Clara Reeve,Ann Radcliffe, andOliver Goldsmith, whose style and genre Austen repudiated, returning the novel on a \"slender thread\" to the tradition of Richardson and Fielding for a \"realistic study of manners\".In the mid-20th century the literary criticsF. R. LeavisandIan Wattplaced her in the tradition of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that she used their tradition of \"irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both\". Walter Scott noted Austen's \"resistance to the trashysensationalismof much of modern fiction—'the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering places andcirculating libraries'\".Yet her relationship with these genres is complex, as evidenced byNorthanger AbbeyandEmma.Similar toWilliam Wordsworth, who excoriated the modern frantic novel in the \"Preface\" to hisLyrical Ballads(1800), Austen distances herself from escapist novels; the discipline and innovation she demonstrates is similar to his, and she shows \"that rhetorically less is artistically more.\"She eschewed popular Gothic fiction, stories of terror in which a heroine typically was stranded in a remote location, a castle or abbey (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 contain the word \"abbey\" in their title). Yet inNorthanger Abbeyshe alludes to the trope, with the heroine, Catherine, anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than full-scale rejection or parody, Austen transforms the genre, juxtaposing reality, with descriptions of elegant rooms and modern comforts, against the heroine's \"novel-fueled\" desires.Nor does she completely denigrate Gothic fiction: instead she transforms settings and situations, such that the heroine is still imprisoned, yet her imprisonment is mundane and real—regulated manners and the strict rules of the ballroom.InSense and SensibilityAusten presents characters who are more complex than in staple sentimental fiction, according to the critic Tom Keymer, who notes that although it is a parody of popular sentimental fiction, \"Mariannein her sentimental histrionics responds to the calculating world ... with a quite justifiable scream of female distress.\" The hair was curled, and the maid sent away, and Emma sat down to think and be miserable. It was a wretched business, indeed! Such an overthrow of everything she had been wishing for! Such a development of every thing most unwelcome! — example offree indirect speech, Jane Austen,Emma Richardson'sPamela, the prototype for the sentimental novel, is adidacticlove story with a happy ending, written at a time women were beginning to have the right to choose husbands and yet were restricted by social conventions.Austen attempted Richardson's epistolary style, but found the flexibility of narrative more conducive to her realism, a realism in which each conversation and gesture carries a weight of significance. The narrative style utilisesfree indirect speech—she was the first English novelist to do so extensively—through which she had the ability to present a character's thoughts directly to the reader and yet still retain narrative control. The style allows an author to vary discourse between the narrator's voice and values and those of the characters. Austen had a natural ear for speech and dialogue, according to the scholarMary Lascelles: \"Few novelists can be more scrupulous than Jane Austen as to the phrasing and thoughts of their characters.\"Techniques such as fragmentary speech suggest a character's traits and their tone; \"syntax and phrasing rather than vocabulary\" is utilised to indicate social variants.Dialogue reveals a character's mood—frustration, anger, happiness—each treated differently and often through varying patterns of sentence structures. WhenElizabeth BennetrejectsDarcy, her stilted speech and the convoluted sentence structure reveals that he has wounded her: From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that the groundwork of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike. And I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. Austen's plots highlight women's traditional dependence on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.As an art form, the 18th-century novel lacked the seriousness of its equivalents from the 19th century, when novels were treated as \"the natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what mattered in life\".Rather than delving too deeply into the psyche of her characters, Austen enjoys them and imbues them with humour, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the well-spring of her wit and irony is her own attitude that comedy \"is the saving grace of life\".Part of Austen's fame rests on the historical and literary significance that she was the first woman to write great comic novels.Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that she follows his advice to write \"a representation of life as may excite mirth\". Her humour comes from her modesty and lack of superiority, allowing her most successful characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, to transcend the trivialities of life, which the more foolish characters are overly absorbed in.Austen used comedy to explore the individualism of women's lives and gender relations, and she appears to have used it to find the goodness in life, often fusing it with \"ethical sensibility\", creating artistic tension. Critic Robert Polhemus writes, \"To appreciate the drama and achievement of Austen, we need to realize how deep was her passion for both reverence and ridicule ... and her comic imagination reveals both the harmonies and the telling contradictions of her mind and vision as she tries to reconcile her satirical bias with her sense of the good.\" Reception Contemporaneous responses As Austen's works were published anonymously, they brought her little personal renown. They were fashionable among opinion-makers, but were rarely reviewed.Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious,most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, anonymously wrote a review ofEmmain 1815, using it to defend the then-disreputable genre of the novel and praising Austen's realism, \"the art of copying from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting to the reader, instead of the splendid scenes from an imaginary world, a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him\".The other important early review was attributed toRichard Whatelyin 1821. However, Whately denied having authored the review, which drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats asHomerandShakespeare, and praised the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all subsequent 19th-century Austen criticism. 19th century Because Austen's novels did not conform toRomanticandVictorianexpectations that \"powerful emotion authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing\",some 19th-century critics preferred the works ofCharles DickensandGeorge Eliot.Notwithstanding Walter Scott's positivity, Austen's work did not win over those who preferred the prevailing aesthetic values of the elite Romantic zeitgeist.Her novels were republished in Britain from the 1830s and sold steadily.Austen's six books were included in the canon-making Standard Novels series by publisher Richard Bentley, which increased their stature. That series referred to her as \"the founder of a school of novelists\" and called her a genius. The first French critic who paid notice to Austen wasPhilarète Chaslesin an 1842 essay, dismissing her in two sentences as a boring, imitative writer with no substance.Austen was not widely appreciated in France until 1878,when the French critic Léon Boucher published the essayLe Roman Classique en Angleterre, in which he called Austen a \"genius\", the first French author to do so.The first accurate translation of Austen into French occurred in 1899 whenFélix FénéontranslatedNorthanger AbbeyasCatherine Morland. In Britain and North America, Austen gradually grew in the estimation of both the public and the literati. In the United States, Austen was being recommended as reading in schools as early as 1838, according to Professor Devoney Looser.The philosopher and literary criticGeorge Henry Lewespublished a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s.Later in the century, the novelistHenry Jamesreferred to Austen several times with approval, and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare,Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as amongst \"the fine painters of life\". The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh'sA Memoir of Jane Austenin 1869 introduced Austen's life story to a wider public as \"dear aunt Jane\", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of theMemoirspurred another reissue of Austen's novels. Editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed.The author and criticLeslie Stephendescribed the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as \"Austenolatry\". Around the start of the 20th century, an intellectual clique ofJaneitesreacted against the popularisation of Austen, distinguishing their deeper appreciation from the vulgar enthusiasm of the masses. In response, Henry James decried \"a beguiled infatuation\" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's \"intrinsic merit and interest\".The American literary criticA. Walton Litznoted that the \"anti-Janites\" in the 19th and 20th centuries comprised a formidable literary squad ofMark Twain, Henry James,Charlotte Brontë,D. H. Lawrence, andKingsley Amis, but in \"every case the adverse judgement merely reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critic, leaving Jane Austen relatively untouched\". Modern Austen's works have attracted legions of scholars. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University.Another early academic analysis came from a 1911 essay by the Oxford Shakespearean scholarA. C. Bradley,who grouped Austen's novels into \"early\" and \"late\" works, a distinction still used by scholars today.The first academic book devoted to Austen in France wasJane Austenby Paul and Kate Rague (1914), who set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously.The same year, Léonie Villard publishedJane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, originally her PhD thesis, the first serious academic study of Austen in France.In 1923, R.W. Chapman published the first scholarly edition of Austen's collected works, which was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles'Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold.Lascelles analysed the books Austen read and their influence on her work, and closely examined Austen's style and \"narrative art\". Concern arose that academics were obscuring the appreciation of Austen with increasingly esoteric theories, a debate that has continued since. The period since the Second World War has seen a diversity of critical approaches to Austen, includingfeminist theory, and perhaps most controversially,postcolonial theory.The divide has widened between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modernJaneites, and academic judgements.In 1994 the literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Austen among thegreatest Western writers of all time. In the People's Republic of China after 1949, writings of Austen were regarded as too frivolous,and thus during the ChineseCultural Revolutionof 1966–69, Austen was banned as a \"British bourgeois imperialist\".In the late 1970s, when Austen's works were re-published in China, her popularity with readers confounded the authorities who had trouble understanding that people generally read books for enjoyment, not political edification. In a typical modern debate, the conservative American professor Gene Koppel, to the indignation of his liberal literature students, mentioned that Austen and her family were \"Tories of the deepest dye\", i.e. Conservatives in opposition to the liberal Whigs. Although several feminist authors such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock claimed Austen for their own cause, Koppel argued that different people react to a work of literature in different subjective ways, as explained by the philosopherHans-Georg Gadamer. Thus competing interpretations of Austen's work can be equally valid, provided they are grounded in textual and historical analysis: it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist critiquingRegency-erasociety and as a conservative upholding its values. Adaptations Austen's novels have resulted in sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every type, fromsoft-core pornographyto fantasy. From the 19th century, her family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations.The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi'sDuologues and Scenes from the Novels of Jane Austen: Arranged and Adapted for Drawing-Room Performance, and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional stage adaptation,The Bennets(1901).The first film adaptation was the1940 MGM production ofPride and PrejudicestarringLaurence OlivierandGreer Garson.BBC television dramatisations released in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations and settings.The British critic Robert Irvine noted that in American film adaptations of Austen's novels, starting with the 1940 version ofPride and Prejudice, class is subtly downplayed, and the society of Regency England depicted by Austen that is grounded in a hierarchy based upon the ownership of land and the antiquity of the family name is one that Americans cannot embrace in its entirety. From 1995, many Austen adaptations appeared, withAng Lee'sfilm ofSense and Sensibility, for which screenwriter and starEmma Thompsonwon anAcademy Award, and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-seriesPride and Prejudice, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth.A 2005 British production ofPride and Prejudice, directed byJoe Wrightand starringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen,was followed in 2007 byITV'sMansfield Park,Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion,and in 2016 byLove & FriendshipstarringKate Beckinsaleas Lady Susan, a film version ofLady Susan, that borrowed the title of Austen'sLove and Freindship. Honours In 2013, Austen's works featured on aseries of UK postage stampsissued by theRoyal Mailto mark the bicentenary of the publication ofPride and Prejudice.Austen is on the£10 noteissued by the Bank of England which was introduced in 2017, replacingCharles Darwin.In July 2017 a statue of Austen was erected in Basingstoke, Hampshire on the 200th anniversary of her death. List of works Juvenilia—Volume the First(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Second(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Third(1787–1793) Family trees See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Museums Fan sites and societies", "Pride and Prejudice Pride and Prejudiceis the second novel by English authorJane Austen, published in 1813. Anovel of manners, it follows the character development ofElizabeth Bennet, theprotagonistof the book, who learns about the repercussions of hasty judgments and comes to appreciate the difference between superficial goodness and actual goodness. Mr Bennet, owner of the Longbourn estate inHertfordshire, has five daughters, but his property isentailedand can only be passed to a male heir. His wife also lacks an inheritance, so his family faces becoming poor upon his death. Thus, it is imperative that at least one of the daughters marry well to support the others, which is a primary motivation driving the plot. Pride and Prejudicehas consistently appeared near the top of lists of \"most-loved books\" among literary scholars and the reading public. It has become one of the most popular novels in English literature, with over 20 million copies sold, and has inspired many derivatives in modern literature.For more than a century, dramatic adaptations, reprints, unofficial sequels, films, and TV versions ofPride and Prejudicehave portrayed the memorable characters and themes of the novel, reaching mass audiences. Plot summary In the early 19th century, theBennet familylive at their Longbourn estate, situated near the village of Meryton inHertfordshire, England. Mrs Bennet's greatest desire is to marry off her five daughters to secure their futures. The arrival of Mr Bingley, a rich bachelor who rents the neighbouring Netherfield estate, gives her hope that one of her daughters might contract a marriage to the advantage, because \"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife\". At a ball, the family is introduced to the Netherfield party, including Mr Bingley, his two sisters andMr Darcy, his dearest friend. Mr Bingley's friendly and cheerful manner earns him popularity among the guests. He appears interested in Jane, the eldest Bennet daughter. Mr Darcy, reputed to be twice as wealthy as Mr Bingley, is haughty and aloof, causing a decided dislike of him. He declines to dance withElizabeth, the second-eldest Bennet daughter, as she is \"not handsome enough\". Although she jokes about it with her friend, Elizabeth is deeply offended. Despite this first impression, Mr Darcy secretly begins to find himself drawn to Elizabeth as they continue to encounter each other at social events, appreciating her wit and frankness. Mr Collins, the heir to the Longbourn estate, visits the Bennet family with the intention of finding a wife among the five girls under the advice of his patronessLady Catherine de Bourgh, also revealed to be Mr Darcy's aunt. He decides to pursue Elizabeth. The Bennet family meet the charming army officerGeorge Wickham, who tells Elizabeth in confidence about Mr Darcy's unpleasant treatment of him in the past. Elizabeth, blinded by her prejudice toward Mr Darcy, believes him. Elizabeth dances with Mr Darcy at a ball, where Mrs Bennet hints loudly that she expects Jane and Bingley to become engaged. Elizabeth rejects Mr Collins' marriage proposal, to her mother's fury and her father's relief. Mr Collins subsequently proposes to Charlotte Lucas, a friend of Elizabeth, and is accepted. Having heard Mrs Bennet's words at the ball and disapproving of the marriage, Mr Darcy joins Mr Bingley in a trip to London and, with the help of his sisters, persuades him not to return to Netherfield. A heartbroken Jane visits her Aunt and Uncle Gardiner in London to raise her spirits, while Elizabeth's hatred for Mr Darcy grows as she suspects he was responsible for Mr Bingley's departure. In the spring, Elizabeth visits Charlotte and Mr Collins inKent. Elizabeth and her hosts are invited to Rosings Park, Lady Catherine's home. Mr Darcy and his cousin, Colonel Fitzwilliam, are also visiting Rosings Park. Fitzwilliam tells Elizabeth how Mr Darcy recently saved a friend, presumably Bingley, from an undesirable match. Elizabeth realises that the prevented engagement was to Jane. Mr Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, declaring his love for her despite her low social connections. She is shocked, as she was unaware of Mr Darcy's interest, and rejects him angrily, saying that he is the last person she would ever marry and that she could never love a man who caused her sister such unhappiness; she further accuses him of treating Wickham unjustly. Mr Darcy brags about his success in separating Bingley and Jane and sarcastically dismisses the accusation regarding Wickham without addressing it. The next day, Mr Darcy gives Elizabeth a letter, explaining that Wickham, the son of his late father's steward, had refused the \"living\" his father had arranged for him and was instead given money for it. Wickham quickly squandered the money and tried to elope with Darcy's 15-year-old sister, Georgiana, for her considerabledowry. Mr Darcy also writes that he separated Jane and Bingley because he believed her to be indifferent to Bingley and because of the lack of propriety displayed by her family. Elizabeth is ashamed by her family's behaviour and her own prejudice against Mr Darcy. Months later, Elizabeth accompanies the Gardiners on a tour ofDerbyshire. They visitPemberley, Darcy's estate. When Mr Darcy returns unexpectedly, he is exceedingly gracious with Elizabeth and the Gardiners. Elizabeth is surprised by Darcy's behaviour and grows fond of him, even coming to regret rejecting his proposal. She receives news that her sister Lydia has run off with Wickham. She tells Mr Darcy, then departs in haste. After an agonising interim, Wickham agrees to marry Lydia. Lydia and Wickham visit the Bennet family at Longbourn, where Lydia tells Elizabeth that Mr Darcy was at her wedding. Though Mr Darcy had sworn everyone involved to secrecy, Mrs Gardiner now feels obliged to inform Elizabeth that he secured the match, at great expense and trouble to himself. Mr Bingley and Mr Darcy return to Netherfield. Jane accepts Mr Bingley's proposal. Lady Catherine, having heard rumours that Elizabeth intends to marry Mr Darcy, visits her and demands she promise never to accept Mr Darcy's proposal, as she and Darcy's late mother had already planned his marriage to her daughter Anne. Elizabeth refuses and asks the outraged Lady Catherine to leave. Darcy, heartened by his aunt's indignant relaying of Elizabeth's response, again proposes to her and is accepted. Characters Major themes Many critics take the title as the start when analysing the themes ofPride and Prejudicebut Robert Fox cautions against reading too much into the title (which was initiallyFirst Impressions), because commercial factors may have played a role in its selection. \"After the success ofSense and Sensibility, nothing would have seemed more natural than to bring out another novel of the same author using again the formula of antithesis and alliteration for the title.\" The qualities of the title are not exclusively assigned to one or the other of the protagonists; both Elizabeth and Darcy display pride and prejudice.\"The phrase \"pride and prejudice\" had been used over the preceding two centuries byJoseph Hall,Jeremy Taylor,Joseph AddisonandSamuel Johnson.Austen is thought to have taken her title from a passage inFanny Burney'sCecilia(1782), a novel she is known to have admired: \"The whole of this unfortunate business,\" said Dr Lyster, \"has been the result of PRIDE and PREJUDICE. ... if to PRIDE and PREJUDICE you owe your miseries, so wonderfully is good and evil balanced, that to PRIDE and PREJUDICE you will also owe their termination.\"(capitalisation as in the original) A theme in much of Austen's work is the importance of environment and upbringing in developing young people's character and morality.Social standing and wealth are not necessarily advantages in her works, and a further theme common to Austen's work is ineffectual parents. InPride and Prejudice, the failure of Mr and Mrs Bennet as parents is blamed for Lydia's lack of moral judgment. Darcy has been taught to be principled and scrupulously honourable but he is also proud and overbearing.Kitty, rescued from Lydia's bad influence and spending more time with her older sisters after they marry, is said to improve greatly in their superior society. The American novelist Anna Quindlen observed in an introduction to an edition of Austen's novel in 1995: Pride and Prejudiceis also about that thing that all great novels consider, the search for self. And it is the first great novel that teaches us this search is as surely undertaken in thedrawing roommakingsmall talkas in the pursuit of agreat white whaleor thepublic punishment of adultery. Marriage The opening line of the novel announces: \"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.\"This sets marriage as amotifand a problem in the novel. Readers are poised to question whether or not these single men need a wife, or if the need is dictated by the \"neighbourhood\" families and their daughters who require a \"good fortune\". Marriage is a complex social activity that takes political and financial economy into account. In the case of Charlotte Lucas, the seeming success of her marriage lies in the comfortable financial circumstances of their household, while the relationship between Mr and Mrs Bennet serves to illustrate bad marriages based on an initial attraction and surface over substance (economic and psychological). The Bennets' marriage is an example that the youngest Bennet, Lydia, re-enacts with Wickham and the results are far from felicitous. Although the central characters, Elizabeth and Darcy, begin the novel as hostile acquaintances and unlikely friends, they eventually work toward a better understanding of themselves and each other, which frees them to truly fall in love. This does not eliminate the challenges of the real differences in their technically equivalent social status as gentry and their female relations. It does however provide them with a better understanding of each other's point of view from the different ends of the rather wide scale of differences within that category. When Elizabeth rejects Darcy's first proposal, the argument of marrying for love is introduced. Elizabeth only accepts Darcy's proposal when she is certain she loves him and her feelings are reciprocated.Austen's complex sketching of different marriages ultimately allows readers to question what forms of alliance are desirable especially when it comes to privileging economic, sexual, or companionate attraction. Wealth Money plays a fundamental role in the marriage market, for the young ladies seeking a well-off husband and for men who wish to marry a woman of means. George Wickham tries to elope with Georgiana Darcy, and Colonel Fitzwilliam states that he will marry someone with wealth. Marrying a woman of a rich family also ensured a linkage to a higher-class family, as is visible in the desires of Bingley's sisters to have their brother married to Georgiana Darcy. Mrs Bennet is frequently seen encouraging her daughters to marry a wealthy man of high social class. In chapter 1, when Mr Bingley arrives, she declares \"I am thinking of his marrying one of them\". Inheritance was by descent but could be further restricted byentailment, which in the case of the Longbourn estate restricted inheritance to male heirs only. In the case of the Bennet family, Mr Collins was to inherit the family estate upon Mr Bennet's death in the absence of any closer male heirs, and his proposal to Elizabeth would have ensured her security; but she refuses his offer. Inheritance laws benefited males because married women did not have independent legal rights until the second half of the 19th century. For the upper-middle and aristocratic classes, marriage to a man with a reliable income was almost the only route to security for the woman and the children she was to have.The irony of the opening line is that generally within this society it would be a woman who would be looking for a wealthy husband to have a prosperous life. Class Austen might be known now for her \"romances\" but the marriages in her novels engage with economics and class distinction.Pride and Prejudiceis hardly the exception. When Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, he cites their economic and social differences as an obstacle his excessive love has had to overcome, though he still anxiously harps on the problems it poses for him within his social circle. His aunt, Lady Catherine, later characterises these differences in particularly harsh terms when she conveys what Elizabeth's marriage to Darcy will become, \"Will the shades of Pemberley be thus polluted?\" Although Elizabeth responds to Lady Catherine's accusations that hers is a potentially contaminating economic and social position (Elizabeth even insists she and Darcy, as gentleman's daughter and gentleman, are \"equals\"), Lady Catherine refuses to accept the possibility of Darcy's marriage to Elizabeth. However, as the novel closes, \"...through curiosity to see how his wife conducted herself\", Lady Catherine condescends to visit them at Pemberley. The Bingleys present a particular problem for navigating class. Though Caroline Bingley and Mrs Hurst behave and speak of others as if they have always belonged in the upper echelons of society, Austen makes it clear that the Bingley fortunes stem from trade. The fact that Bingley rents Netherfield Hall – it is, after all, \"to let\" – distinguishes him significantly from Darcy, whose estate belonged to his father's family and who through his mother is the grandson and nephew of anearl. Bingley, unlike Darcy, does not own his property but has portable and growing wealth that makes him a good catch on the marriage market for poorer daughters of the gentry, like Jane Bennet, or of ambitious merchants. Class plays a central role in the evolution of the characters and Jane Austen's radical approach to class is seen as the plot unfolds. An undercurrent of the oldAnglo-Normanupper class is hinted at in the story, as suggested by the names of Fitzwilliam Darcy and his aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh;Fitzwilliam,D'Arcy,de Bourgh(Burke), and evenBennet, are traditional Norman surnames. Self-knowledge Through their interactions and their critiques of each other, Darcy and Elizabeth come to recognise their faults and work to correct them. Elizabeth meditates on her own mistakes thoroughly in chapter 36: \"How despicably have I acted!\" she cried; \"I, who have prided myself on my discernment! I, who have valued myself on my abilities! who have often disdained the generous candour of my sister, and gratified my vanity in useless or blameable distrust. How humiliating is this discovery! yet, how just a humiliation! Had I been in love, I could not have been more wretchedly blind. But vanity, not love, has been my folly. Pleased with the preference of one, and offended by the neglect of the other, on the very beginning of our acquaintance, I have courted prepossession and ignorance, and driven reason away, where either were concerned. Till this moment I never knew myself.\" Other characters rarely exhibit this depth of understanding or at least are not given the space within the novel for this sort of development. Tanner writes that Mrs Bennet in particular, \"has a very limited view of the requirements of that performance; lacking any introspective tendencies she is incapable of appreciating the feelings of others and is only aware of material objects\".Mrs Bennet's behaviour reflects the society in which she lives, as she knows that her daughters will not succeed if they do not get married. \"The business of her life was to get her daughters married: its solace was visiting and news.\"This shows that Mrs Bennet is only aware of \"material objects\" and not of her feelings and emotions. A notable exception is Charlotte Lucas, Elizabeth Bennet's close friend and confidant. She accepts Mr Collins's proposal of marriage once Lizzie rejects him, not out of sentiment but acute awareness of her circumstances as \"one of a large family\". Charlotte's decision is reflective of her prudent nature and awareness. Style Pride and Prejudice, like most of Austen's works, employs the narrative technique offree indirect speech, which has been defined as \"the free representation of a character's speech, by which one means, not words actually spoken by a character, but the words that typify the character's thoughts, or the way the character would think or speak, if she thought or spoke\". Austen creates her characters with fully developed personalities and unique voices. Though Darcy and Elizabeth are very alike, they are also considerably different.By using narrative that adopts the tone and vocabulary of a particular character (in this case, Elizabeth), Austen invites the reader to follow events from Elizabeth's viewpoint, sharing her prejudices and misapprehensions. \"The learning curve, while undergone by both protagonists, is disclosed to us solely through Elizabeth's point of view and her free indirect speech is essential ... for it is through it that we remain caught, if not stuck, within Elizabeth's misprisions.\" The few times the reader is allowed to gain further knowledge of another character's feelings, is through the letters exchanged in this novel. Darcy's first letter to Elizabeth is an example of this as through his letter, the reader and Elizabeth are both given knowledge of Wickham's true character. Austen is known to use irony throughout the novel especially from viewpoint of the character of Elizabeth Bennet. She conveys the \"oppressive rules of femininity that actually dominate her life and work, and are covered by her beautifully carved trojan horse of ironic distance.\"Beginning with a historical investigation of the development of a particular literary form and then transitioning into empirical verifications, it reveals free indirect discourse as a tool that emerged over time as practical means for addressing the physical distinctness of minds. Seen in this way, free indirect discourse is a distinctly literary response to an environmental concern, providing a scientific justification that does not reduce literature to a mechanical extension of biology, but takes its value to be its own original form. Development of the novel Austen began writing the novel after staying atGoodnestone Parkin Kent with her brother Edward and his wife in 1796.It was originally titledFirst Impressions, and was written between October 1796 and August 1797.On 1 November 1797 Austen's father sent a letter to London bookseller Thomas Cadell to ask if he had any interest in seeing the manuscript, but the offer was declined by return post. The militia were mobilised after the French declaration of war on Britain in February 1793, and there was initially a lack of barracks for all the militia regiments, requiring the militia to set up huge camps in the countryside, which the novel refers to several times.: 57The Brighton camp for which the militia regiment leaves in May after spending the winter in Meryton was opened in August 1793, and the barracks for all the regiments of the militia were completed by 1796, placing the events of the novel between 1793 and 1795.: 56–57 Austen made significant revisions to the manuscript forFirst Impressionsbetween 1811 and 1812.As nothing remains of the original manuscript, study of the first drafts of the novel is reduced to conjecture. From the large number of letters in the final novel, it is assumed thatFirst Impressionswas anepistolary novel. She later renamed the storyPride and Prejudicearound 1811/1812, when she sold the rights to publish the manuscript toThomas Egertonfor £110(equivalent to £9,300 in 2023). In renaming the novel, Austen probably had in mind the \"sufferings and oppositions\" summarised in the final chapter ofFanny Burney'sCecilia, called \"Pride and Prejudice\", where the phrase appears three times in block capitals. It is possible that the novel's original title was altered to avoid confusion with other works. In the years between the completion ofFirst Impressionsand its revision intoPride and Prejudice, two other works had been published under that name: a novel byMargaret Holfordand a comedy byHorace Smith. Publication history Austen sold the copyright for the novel to Thomas Egerton from the Military Library, Whitehall in exchange for £110 (Austen had asked for £150).This proved a costly decision. Austen had publishedSense and Sensibilityon acommissionbasis, whereby sheindemnifiedthe publisher against any losses and received any profits, less costs and the publisher's commission. Unaware thatSense and Sensibilitywould sell out its edition, making her £140,she passed the copyright to Egerton for a one-off payment, meaning that all the risk (and all the profits) would be his. Jan Fergus has calculated that Egerton subsequently made around £450 from just the first two editions of the book. Egerton published the first edition ofPride and Prejudicein three hardcover volumes on 28 January 1813.It was advertised inThe Morning Chronicle, priced at 18s.Favourable reviews saw this edition sold out, with a second edition published in October that year. A third edition was published in 1817. Foreign language translations first appeared in 1813 in French; subsequent translations were published in German, Danish, and Swedish.Pride and Prejudicewas first published in the United States in August 1832 asElizabeth Bennet or, Pride and Prejudice.The novel was also included inRichard Bentley's Standard Novel series in 1833. R. W. Chapman's scholarly edition ofPride and Prejudice, first published in 1923, has become the standard edition on which many modern published versions of the novel are based. The novel was originally published anonymously, as were all of Austen's novels. However, whereas her first published novel,Sense and Sensibilitywas presented as being written \"by a Lady,\"Pride and Prejudicewas attributed to \"the Author ofSense and Sensibility\". This began to consolidate a conception of Austen as an author, albeit anonymously. Her subsequent novels were similarly attributed to the anonymous author of all her then-published works. Reception 19th century The novel was well received, with three favourable reviews in the first months following publication.Anne Isabella Milbanke, later to be the wife ofLord Byron, called it \"the fashionable novel\".Noted critic and reviewerGeorge Henry Lewesdeclared that he \"would rather have writtenPride and Prejudice, orTom Jones, than any of theWaverley Novels\". Throughout the 19th century, not all reviews of the work were positive.Charlotte Brontë, in a letter to Lewes, wrote thatPride and Prejudicewas a disappointment, \"a carefully fenced, highly cultivated garden, with neat borders and delicate flowers; but no open country, no fresh air, no blue hill, no bonny beck\".Along with her,Mark Twainwas overwhelmingly negative of the work. He stated, \"Everytime I readPride and PrejudiceI want to dig up and beat her over the skull with her own shin-bone.\" Austen for her part thought the \"playfulness and epigrammaticism\" ofPride and Prejudicewas excessive, complaining in a letter to her sister Cassandra in 1813 that the novel lacked \"shade\" and should have had a chapter \"of solemn specious nonsense, about something unconnected with the story; an essay on writing, a critique on Walter Scott or the history of Buonaparté\". Walter Scottwrote in his journal, \"Read again and for the third time at least, Miss Austen's very finely written novel ofPride and Prejudice.\" 20th century You could not shock her more than she shocks me,Beside herJoyceseems innocent as grass.It makes me most uncomfortable to seeAn English spinster of the middle classDescribe the amorous effects of 'brass',Reveal so frankly and with such sobrietyThe economic basis of society. W. H. Auden(1937) on Austen The American scholarClaudia L. Johnsondefended the novel from the criticism that it has an unrealistic fairy-tale quality.One critic,Mary Poovey, wrote that the \"romantic conclusion\" ofPride and Prejudiceis an attempt to hedge the conflict between the \"individualistic perspective inherent in the bourgeois value systemandthe authoritarian hierarchy retained from traditional, paternalistic society\".Johnson wrote that Austen's view of a power structure capable of reformation was not an \"escape\" from conflict.Johnson wrote the \"outrageous unconventionality\" of Elizabeth Bennet was in Austen's own time very daring, especially given the strict censorship that was imposed in Britain by the Prime Minister, William Pitt, in the 1790s when Austen wrotePride and Prejudice. In the early twentieth century, the term \"Collins,\" named for Austen'sWilliam Collins, came into use as slang for a thank-you note to a host. 21st century Adaptations Film, television and theatre Numerous screen adaptations have contributed in popularisingPride and Prejudice. The first television adaptation of the novel, written byMichael Barry, was produced in 1938 by theBBC. It is alost television broadcast.Some of the notable film versions includethe 1940 Academy Award-winning film, starringGreer GarsonandLaurence Olivier(based in part onHelen Jerome's 1935 stage adaptation) andthat of 2005, starringKeira Knightley(an Oscar-nominated performance) andMatthew Macfadyen.Television versions include two by theBBC: a1980 versionstarringElizabeth GarvieandDavid Rintouland a1995 version, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth. A stage version created byHelen Jeromepremiered at theMusic Box Theatrein New York in 1935, starringAdrianne AllenandColin Keith-Johnston, and opened at theSt James's Theatrein London in 1936, starringCelia JohnsonandHugh Williams.Elizabeth Refusesa play byMargaret Macnamaraof scenes from the novel was made into a TV programme by theAustralian Broadcasting Corporationin 1957.First Impressionswas a 1959 Broadway musical version starringPolly Bergen,Farley Granger, andHermione Gingold.In 1995, a musical concept album was written byBernard J. Taylor, with Claire Moore in the role of Elizabeth Bennet and Peter Karrie in the role of Mr Darcy.A new stage production,Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, The New Musical, was presented in concert on 21 October 2008 inRochester, New York, with Colin Donnell as Darcy.The Swedish composerDaniel Nelsonbased his 2011 operaStolthet och fördomonPride and Prejudice.Works inspired by the book includeBride and PrejudiceandTrishna(1985 Hindi TV series). The Lizzie Bennet Diaries– which premiered on a dedicatedYouTube channelon 9 April 2012,and concluded on 28 March 2013– is an Emmy award-winning web-serieswhich recounts the story viavlogsrecorded primarily by the Bennet sisters.It was created byHank GreenandBernie Su. In 2017, the bicentenary year of Austen's death,Pride and Prejudice – An adaptation in Words and Musicto music byCarl Davisfrom the 1995 film and text by Gill Hornby was performed in the UK, withHayley Millsas the narratorThis adaptation was presented in 2024 at theSydney Opera Houseand theArts Centre Melbourne, narrated byNadine Garner. In 2018, part of the storyline of theBrazilian soap operaOrgulho e Paixão, aired onTV Globo, was inspired by the book. The soap opera was also inspired by other works of Jane Austen. It features actors,Nathalia Dill,Thiago Lacerda,Agatha Moreira,Rodrigo Simas,Gabriela Duarte,Marcelo Faria,Alessandra Negrini, andNatália do Vale. Fire Islandis a movie written byJoel Kim Boosterthat reimaginesPride and Prejudiceas a gay drama set on the quintessential gay vacation destination ofFire Island. Booster describes the movie \"as an unapologetic and modern twist on Jane Austen'sPride and Prejudice.\"The movie was released in June 2022 and features a main cast of Asian-American actors. Literature The novel has inspired a number of other works that are not direct adaptations. Books inspired byPride and Prejudiceinclude the following: InGwyn Cready's comedic romance novel,Seducing Mr Darcy, the heroine lands inPride and Prejudiceby way of magic massage, has a fling with Darcy and unknowingly changes the rest of the story. Abigail Reynoldsis the author of seven Regency-set variations onPride and Prejudice. Her Pemberley Variations series includesMr Darcy's Obsession,To Conquer Mr Darcy,What Would Mr Darcy DoandMr Fitzwilliam Darcy: The Last Man in the World. Her modern adaptation,The Man Who Loved Pride and Prejudice, is set on Cape Cod. Bella Breen is the author of nine variations onPride and Prejudice.Pride and Prejudice and Poison,Four Months to Wed,Forced to MarryandThe Rescue of Elizabeth Bennet. Helen Fielding's 1996 novelBridget Jones's Diaryis also based onPride and Prejudice; thefeature film of Fielding's work, released in 2001, starsColin Firth, who had played Mr Darcy in the successful 1990s TV adaptation. In March 2009,Seth Grahame-Smith'sPride and Prejudice and Zombiestakes Austen's work andmashesit up withzombiehordes,cannibalism,ninjaand ultraviolent mayhem.In March 2010, Quirk Books published a prequel bySteve Hockensmiththat deals with Elizabeth Bennet's early days as a zombie hunter,Pride and Prejudice and Zombies: Dawn of the Dreadfuls.The2016 filmof Grahame-Smith's adaptation was released starringLily James,Sam RileyandMatt Smith. In 2011, authorMitzi Szeretoexpanded on the novel inPride and Prejudice: Hidden Lusts, a historical sex parody that parallels the original plot and writing style of Jane Austen. Marvel has also published their take on this classic by releasing a short comic series of five issues that stays true to the original storyline. The first issue was published on 1 April 2009 and was written by Nancy Hajeski.It was published as a graphic novel in 2010 with artwork by Hugo Petrus. Pamela Aidanis the author of a trilogy of books telling the story ofPride and Prejudicefrom Mr Darcy's point of view:Fitzwilliam Darcy, Gentleman. The books areAn Assembly Such as This,Duty and DesireandThese Three Remain. Detective novel authorP. D. Jameshas written a book titledDeath Comes to Pemberley, which is a murder mystery set six years after Elizabeth and Darcy's marriage. Sandra Lerner's sequel toPride and Prejudice,Second Impressions, develops the story and imagined what might have happened to the original novel's characters. It is written in the style of Austen after extensive research into the period and language and published in 2011 under the pen name of Ava Farmer. Jo Baker's bestselling 2013 novelLongbournimagines the lives of the servants ofPride and Prejudice.A cinematic adaptation ofLongbournwas due to start filming in late 2018, directed bySharon Maguire, who also directedBridget Jones's DiaryandBridget Jones's Baby, screenplay byJessica Swale, produced by Random House Films and StudioCanal.The novel was also adapted for radio, appearing on BBC Radio 4'sBook at Bedtime, abridged by Sara Davies and read bySophie Thompson. It was first broadcast in May 2014; and again on Radio 4 Extra in September 2018. In the novelEligible,Curtis Sittenfeldsets the characters ofPride and Prejudicein modern-day Cincinnati, where the Bennet parents, erstwhile Cincinnati social climbers, have fallen on hard times. Elizabeth, a successful and independent New York journalist, and her single older sister Jane must intervene to salvage the family's financial situation and get their unemployed adult sisters to move out of the house and onward in life. In the process they encounter Chip Bingley, a young doctor and reluctant reality TV celebrity, and his medical school classmate, Fitzwilliam Darcy, a cynical neurosurgeon. Pride and Prejudicehas also inspired works of scientific writing. In 2010, scientists named a pheromone identified in male mouse urinedarcin,after Mr Darcy, because it strongly attracted females. In 2016, a scientific paper published in theJournal of Inherited Metabolic Diseasespeculated that Mrs Bennet may have been a carrier of a rare genetic disease, explaining why the Bennets didn't have any sons, and why some of the Bennet sisters are so silly. In summer 2014, Udon Entertainment's Manga Classics line published a manga adaptation ofPride and Prejudice. References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_%26_Prejudice_(2005_film", "Joe Wright Joseph Wright(born 25 August 1972) is an English film director. His motion pictures include adaptations ofPride & Prejudice(2005),Atonement(2007),Anna Karenina(2012), andCyrano(2021), the action thrillerHanna(2011), thePeter Panorigin storyPan(2015)andDarkest Hour(2017). Early life and career Wright always had an interest in the arts, especially painting.He also made films on hisSuper 8camera and spent time in the evenings acting in a drama club. Wright isdyslexic. He went toIslington GreenSecondary School, but left without anyGCSEs. He began his career working at his parents' puppet theatre, theLittle Angel Theatrein Islington. He also took classes at the Anna Scher Theatre School and acted professionally on stage and camera. He spent an artfoundationyear atCamberwell College of Arts, before taking a degree in fine art and film atCentral St Martinswhere he was tutored byMalcolm Le GriceandVera Neubauer. In his last year of studies he received a scholarship to make ashort filmfor theBBCthat won several awards. During the 1990s, he worked at Oil Factory, amusic videoproduction companybased in Caledonian Road, Kings Cross. He worked on a variety of productions in numerous roles, including casting director. Here, he was able to get the opportunity to direct some music videos. Alongside this, particularly on the strength of his short film work, he was also developingThe End, his second short film. During this decade, he also worked part-time as a roadie for Vegetable Vision, who created visuals for electronic music bands such asChemical Brothers,Darren Emerson,UnderworldandAndrew Weatherall. Wright attributes some of the aesthetic and emotion of the UKravescene as an influence on his work. Television On the success of his first short film, Wright was offered the script for the serialNature Boy(2000). He followed this up with the serialsBodily Harm(2002) withTimothy Spalland the highly acclaimedCharles II: The Power and the Passion(2003) withRufus Sewell, which won theBAFTA Awardfor Best Drama Serial. In 2022, Wright began directing aneight-part adaptationof the bestselling novelM: Son of the Century, ahistorical novelbyAntonio Scuratirecounting the rise of Italian dictatorBenito Mussolini. In 2023, Wright was developing an adaptation forHBOof the bestselling non-fiction bookEmpty Mansions: The Mysterious Life of Huguette Clark and the Spending of a Great American FortuneaboutheiressHuguette Clark, daughter ofcopperbaron andUnited States SenatorWilliam A. Clark. Feature films In 2005, Wright made the transition to feature films with his critically acclaimed adaptation ofPride & PrejudicestarringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen. It received numerous accolades, nominations and awards, including fourAcademy Awardnominations (includingBest Actress) and sixBAFTAnominations (Wright won for Most Promising Newcomer). Wright's next feature was an adaptation ofIan McEwan'sBooker Prize-shortlisted novelAtonement(2007), which reunited Wright withKeira Knightley, and also starsJames McAvoyandSaoirse Ronan. It was nominated for sevenGolden GlobeAwards, more than any other film that year. Though Wright was not nominated for director, the film received seven Academy Award nominations, winning only for Best Original Score. At the BAFTA Awards, it received 14 nominations and won Best Film and Best Production Design. Wright's next film wasThe Soloist,starringJamie FoxxandRobert Downey, Jr.It is about the \"true story of musical prodigyNathaniel Ayers, who developed schizophrenia in his second year atJuilliardand ended up homeless on the streets of downtown L.A. where he performs the violin and cello.\"It was to be released on 21 November 2008, but was pushed back to 24 April 2009. Wright reunited withAtonementstarSaoirse Ronanfor the 2011 action thrillerHanna. The title character is a 15-year-old girl trained since birth to be an assassin by her father (Eric Bana), a rogue CIA asset. It received mostly positive reviews, withRoger Ebertcalling it a \"first-rate thriller\".It received an aggregate score of 65 from Metacritic (\"generally positive\" reviews). Wright directed the2012 screen adaptationby SirTom StoppardofLeo Tolstoy's classic novelAnna Karenina. The cast includedKeira Knightleyas Anna,Jude Lawas her husband,Aaron Taylor-Johnsonas her young love, Irish actorDomhnall Gleesonas Konstantin Levin, as well asKelly Macdonald,Olivia Williams,Matthew MacfadyenandMichelle Dockery.Saoirse RonanandAndrea Riseboroughwere initially cast, but dropped out and were replaced byAlicia VikanderandRuth Wilson, respectively. Wright then directed the2015 prequeltoPeter Panfor Warner Bros. The film starredHugh Jackman,Garrett Hedlund,Rooney Mara,Amanda SeyfriedandLevi Milleras Peter. The screenplay by actor-turned-screenwriterJason Fuchswas from the 2013Hollywood Black List, a selection of popular unproduced scripts.The film was negatively received by critics and was considered a commercial flop, failing to recoup its budget at the box office.Rooney Mara's casting as Tiger Lily caused acontroversy, due to her being ofEuropeanancestry, while Tiger Lily is traditionally portrayed asNative American. Wright's 2017 filmDarkest Hourcovers a pivotal month in the life of former British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill. It starsGary Oldmanas Churchill, along withBen Mendelsohn,Ronald Pickup,David Schofield,Kristin Scott Thomas,Samuel WestandLily James.Wright said the film was a rebuke toDonald Trump. Directorial trademarks Wright won aBAFTA awardfor best newcomer forPride & Prejudiceand was the youngest director to have a film open theVenice Film FestivalwithAtonement.According to the director's commentary onPride & Prejudice, Wright is influenced by the work of British film directorDavid Lean, and possessing a certain knowledge ofart history, tries sometimes to compose his shots after classical paintings. Charles II: The Power and The Passion,Pride & Prejudice,AtonementandHannaall have longtracking shotsin them.Atonementhas a continuous five-minute and five second shot of theDunkirk evacuation. \"Basically, I just like showing off\", Wright told the audience at theHay Festival. Personal life After meeting on the set ofPride & Prejudice, Wright began a relationship with actressRosamund Pike. They were engaged from 2007 to 2008. Wright was married to British-AmericansitaristAnoushka Shankarfrom 2010 until 2019.They have two sons, Zubin and Mohan, born in 2011 and 2015.They separated in December 2017 and their divorce was finalized in September 2019 as a judge concluded that Wright had committed adultery and that his wife found living with him \"intolerable\". Since 2017, Wright has been in a relationship with American actressHaley Bennett. Their daughter was born in 2018 inBrooklyn Heights.As of 2019, the family resides in the UK inSomerset. Filmography Short film Feature film Director Executive producer Television Commercial work Awards and nominations Directed Academy Award performances References External links" ]
[ "Jane Austen Jane Austen(/ˈɒstɪn,ˈɔːstɪn/OST-in,AW-stin; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment upon the Britishlanded gentryat the end of the 18th century. Austen's plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage for the pursuit of favourable social standing and economic security. Her works are implicit critiques of thenovels of sensibilityof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-centuryliterary realism.Her use of social commentary, realism, and irony have earned her acclaim amongst critics and scholars. The anonymously publishedSense and Sensibility(1811),Pride and Prejudice(1813),Mansfield Park(1814), andEmma(1816) were modest successes, but they brought her little fame in her lifetime. She wrote two other novels—Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion, both published posthumously in 1817—and began another, eventually titledSanditon, but it was left unfinished upon her", "unfinished upon her death. She also left behind three volumes of juvenile writings in manuscript, the shortepistolary novelLady Susan, and the unfinished novelThe Watsons. Since her death Austen's novels have rarely been out of print. A significant transition in her reputation occurred in 1833, when they were republished inRichard Bentley's Standard Novels series (illustrated by Ferdinand Pickering and sold as a set). They gradually gained wide acclaim and popular readership. In 1869, fifty-two years after her death, her nephew's publication ofA Memoir of Jane Austenintroduced a compelling version of her writing career and her supposedly uneventful life to an eager audience. Her work has inspired a large number of critical essays and has been included in many literary anthologies. Her novels have also inspired many films, including 1940'sPride and Prejudice, 1995'sSense and Sensibility, and 2016'sLove & Friendship. Biographical sources The scant biographical information about Austen comes from her few", "comes from her few surviving letters and sketches her family members wrote about her.Only about 160 of the approximately 3,000 letters Austen wrote have survived and been published.Cassandra Austendestroyed the bulk of the letters she received from her sister, burning or otherwise destroying them. She wanted to ensure that the \"younger nieces did not read any of Jane's sometimes acid or forthright comments on neighbours or family members\".In the interest of protecting reputations from Jane's penchant for honesty and forthrightness, Cassandra omitted details of illnesses, unhappiness and anything she considered unsavoury.Important details about the Austen family were elided by intention, such as any mention of Austen's brother George, whose undiagnosed developmental challenges led the family to send him away from home; the two brothers sent away to the navy at an early age; or wealthy Aunt Leigh-Perrot, arrested and tried on charges of larceny. The first Austen biography wasHenry Thomas Austen's 1818", "Austen's 1818 \"Biographical Notice\". It appeared in a posthumous edition ofNorthanger Abbeyand included extracts from two letters, against the judgement of other family members. Details of Austen's life continued to be omitted or embellished in her nephew'sA Memoir of Jane Austen, published in 1869, and in William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh's biographyJane Austen: Her Life and Letters, published in 1913, all of which included additional letters.Austen's family and relatives built a legend of \"good quiet Aunt Jane\", portraying her as a woman in a happy domestic situation, whose family was the mainstay of her life. Modern biographers include details excised from the letters and family biographies, but the biographer Jan Fergus writes that the challenge is to keep the view balanced, not to present her languishing in periods of deep unhappiness as \"an embittered, disappointed woman trapped in a thoroughly unpleasant family\". Life Family Jane Austen was born inSteventon, Hampshireon 16 December 1775. Her", "December 1775. Her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother \"certainly expected to have been brought to bed a month ago\". He added that the newborn infant was \"a present plaything for Cassy and a future companion\".The winter of 1775-1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the local church and christened Jane. Her father,George Austen(1731–1805), served as therectorof the Anglican parishes of Steventon andDeane.The Reverend Austen came from an old and wealthy family of wool merchants. As each generation ofeldest sonsreceived inheritances, George's branch of the family fell into poverty. He and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. In 1745, at the age of fifteen, George Austen's sisterPhiladelphiawas apprenticed to amillinerinCovent Garden.At the age of sixteen, George enteredSt John's College, Oxford,where he most likely met Cassandra Leigh (1739–1827).She came from the prominentLeigh family. Her father was", "Her father was rector atAll Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry. Her eldest brother James inherited a fortune and large estate from his great-aunt Perrot, with the only condition that hechange his nameto Leigh-Perrot. George Austen and Cassandra Leigh were engaged, probably around 1763, when they exchangedminiatures.He received thelivingof the Steventon parish from Thomas Knight, the wealthy husband of his second cousin.They married on 26 April 1764 atSt Swithin's ChurchinBath, bylicense, in a simple ceremony, two months after Cassandra's father died.Their income was modest, with George's smallper annumliving; Cassandra brought to the marriage the expectation of a small inheritance at the time of her mother's death. After the living at the nearby Deane rectory had been purchased for George by his wealthy uncle Francis Austen,the Austens took up temporary residence there, until Steventon rectory, a 16th-century house in disrepair, underwent necessary renovations. Cassandra gave birth to", "gave birth to three children while living at Deane:Jamesin 1765, George in 1766, andEdwardin 1767.Her custom was to keep an infant at home for several months and then place it with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby tonurseand raise for twelve to eighteen months. Steventon In 1768, the family finally took up residence in Steventon.Henrywas the first child to be born there, in 1771.At about this time, Cassandra could no longer ignore the signs that little George wasdevelopmentally disabled. He had seizures and may have been deaf and mute. At this time she chose to send him to be fostered.In 1773,Cassandrawas born, followed byFrancisin 1774, and Jane in 1775. According to the biographerPark Honanthe Austen home had an \"open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere\", in which the ideas of those with whom members of the Austen family might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. The family relied on the patronage of their kin and hosted visits from numerous family members.Mrs Austen", "members.Mrs Austen spent the summer of 1770 in London with George's sister, Philadelphia, and her daughterEliza, accompanied by his other sister, Mrs. Walter and her daughter Philly.Philadelphia and Eliza Hancock were, according to Le Faye, \"the bright comets flashing into an otherwise placid solar system of clerical life in ruralHampshire, and the news of their foreign travels and fashionable London life, together with their sudden descents upon the Steventon household in between times, all helped to widen Jane's youthful horizon and influence her later life and works.\" Cassandra Austen's cousin Thomas Leigh visited a number of times in the 1770s and 1780s, inviting young Cassie to visit them inBathin 1781. The first mention of Jane occurs in family documents upon her return, \"... and almost home they were when they met Jane & Charles, the two little ones of the family, who had to go as far as New Down to meet thechaise, & have the pleasure of riding home in it.\"Le Faye writes that \"Mr Austen's predictions", "predictions for his younger daughter were fully justified. Never were sisters more to each other than Cassandra and Jane; while in a particularly affectionate family, there seems to have been a special link between Cassandra and Edward on the one hand, and between Henry and Jane on the other.\" From 1773 until 1796, George Austen supplemented his income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time, who boarded at his home.The Reverend Austen had an annual income of £200 (equivalent to £32,000 in 2023) from his two livings.This was a very modest income at the time; by comparison, a skilled worker like a blacksmith or a carpenter could make about £100 annually while the typical annual income of a gentry family was between £1,000 and £5,000.Mr. Austen also rented the 200-acre Cheesedown farm from his benefactor Thomas Knight which could make a profit of £300 (equivalent to £48,000 in 2023) a year. During this period of her life, Jane Austen attended church regularly, socialised with friends and", "with friends and neighbours,and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud to her family in the evenings. Socialising with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at theassembly roomsin the town hall.Her brother Henry later said that \"Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it\". Education In 1783 Austen and her sister Cassandra were sent toOxfordto be educated by Ann Cawley who took them toSouthamptonlater that year. That autumn both girls were sent home after catchingtyphus, of which Jane nearly died.She was from then home-educated, until she attended boarding school with her sister from early in 1785 at theReading Abbey Girls' School, ruled by Mrs La Tournelle.The curriculum probably included French, spelling, needlework, dancing, music and drama. The sisters returned home before December 1786 because the school fees for the two girls were too high for the Austen family.After 1786 Austen \"never again lived anywhere beyond the", "anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment\". Her education came from reading, guided by her father and brothers James and Henry.Irene Collinssaid that Austen \"used some of the same school books as the boys\".Austen apparently had unfettered access both to her father's library and that of a family friend,Warren Hastings. Together these collections amounted to a large and varied library. Her father was also tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Private theatricals were an essential part of Austen's education. From her early childhood, the family and friends staged a series of plays in therectorybarn, includingRichard Sheridan'sThe Rivals(1775) andDavid Garrick'sBon Ton. Austen's eldest brother James wrote the prologues and epilogues and she probably joined in these activities, first as a spectator and later as a participant.Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests", "which suggests how Austen's satirical gifts were cultivated.At the age of 12, she tried her own hand at dramatic writing; she wrote three short plays during her teenage years. Juvenilia(1787–1793) From at least the time she was aged eleven, Austen wrote poems and stories to amuse herself and her family.She exaggerated mundane details of daily life and parodied common plot devices in \"stories full of anarchic fantasies of female power, licence, illicit behaviour, and general high spirits\", according toJanet Todd.Containing work written between 1787 and 1793, the juvenilia (or childhood writings) that Austen compiledfair copiesconsisted of twenty-nine early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as theJuvenilia.She called the three notebooks \"Volume the First\", \"Volume the Second\" and \"Volume the Third\", and they preserve 90,000 words she wrote during those years.TheJuveniliaare often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, \"boisterous\" and \"anarchic\"; he compares them to the work of 18th-century", "of 18th-century novelistLaurence Sterne. Among these works is a satirical novel in letters titledLove and Freindship, written when aged fourteen in 1790,in which she mocked popularnovels of sensibility.The next year, she wroteThe History of England, a manuscript of thirty-four pages accompanied by thirteen watercolour miniatures by her sister, Cassandra. Austen'sHistoryparodied popular historical writing, particularlyOliver Goldsmith'sHistory of England(1764).Honan speculates that not long after writingLove and Freindship, Austen decided to \"write for profit, to make stories her central effort\", that is, to become a professional writer. When she was around eighteen years old, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. In August 1792, aged seventeen, Austen startedCatharine or the Bower, which presaged her mature work, especiallyNorthanger Abbey, but was left unfinished until picked up inLady Susan, which Todd describes as less prefiguring thanCatharine.A year later she began, but abandoned, a", "but abandoned, a short play, later titledSir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgements of Austen's favourite contemporary novel,The History of Sir Charles Grandison(1753), bySamuel Richardson. When Austen became an aunt for the first time aged eighteen, she sent new-born nieceFanny Catherine Austen Knight\"five short pieces of ... the Juvenilia now known collectively as 'Scraps' .., purporting to be her 'Opinions and Admonitions on the conduct of Young Women'\". For Jane-Anna-Elizabeth Austen (also born in 1793), her aunt wrote \"two more 'Miscellanious Morsels', dedicating them to on 2 June 1793, 'convinced that if you seriously attend to them, You will derive from them very important Instructions, with regard to your Conduct in Life.'\"There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as 1811 (when she was 36), and that her niece and nephew, Anna and", "nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Between 1793 and 1795 (aged eighteen to twenty), Austen wroteLady Susan, a shortepistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work.It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographerClaire Tomalindescribes the novella's heroine as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray and abuse her lovers, friends and family. Tomalin writes: Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of theRestoration dramatistswho may have provided some of her inspiration ... It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters. According to Janet Todd, the model for the title character may have beenEliza de Feuillide, who inspired Austen with stories of her glamorous life and various adventures. Eliza's French husband was", "French husband was guillotined in 1794; she married Jane's brother Henry Austen in 1797. Tom Lefroy When Austen was twenty,Tom Lefroy, a neighbour, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London for training as abarrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: \"I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together.\" Austen wrote in her first surviving letter to her sister Cassandra that Lefroy was a \"very gentlemanlike, good-looking, pleasant young man\".Five days later in another letter, Austen wrote that she expected an \"offer\" from her \"friend\" and that \"I shall refuse him, however, unless he promises to give away his white coat\", going on to write \"I will confide", "\"I will confide myself in the future to Mr Tom Lefroy, for whom I don't give a sixpence\" and refuse all others.The next day, Austen wrote: \"The day will come on which I flirt my last with Tom Lefroy and when you receive this it will be all over. My tears flow as I write at this melancholy idea\". Halperin cautioned that Austen often satirised popular sentimental romantic fiction in her letters, and some of the statements about Lefroy may have been ironic. However, it is clear that Austen was genuinely attracted to Lefroy and subsequently none of her other suitors ever quite measured up to him.The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on agreat-unclein Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again.In November 1798, Lefroy was still on", "Lefroy was still on Austen's mind as she wrote to her sister she had tea with one of his relatives, wanted desperately to ask about him, but could not bring herself to raise the subject. Early manuscripts (1796–1798) After finishingLady Susan, Austen began her first full-length novelElinor and Marianne. Her sister remembered that it was read to the family \"before 1796\" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published anonymously in 1811 asSense and Sensibility. Austen began a second novel,First Impressions(later published asPride and Prejudice), in 1796. She completed the initial draft in August 1797, aged 21; as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an \"established favourite\".At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote toThomas Cadell, an established", "an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishingFirst Impressions. Cadell returned Mr. Austen's letter, marking it \"Declined by Return of Post\". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts.Following the completion ofFirst Impressions, Austen returned toElinor and Marianneand from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated theepistolaryformat in favour ofthird-person narrationand produced something close toSense and Sensibility.In 1797, Austen met her cousin (and future sister-in-law),Eliza de Feuillide, a French aristocrat whose first husband the Comte de Feuillide had been guillotined, causing her to flee to Britain, where she married Henry Austen.The description of the execution of the Comte de Feuillide related by his widow left Austen with an intense horror of theFrench Revolutionthat lasted for the rest of her life. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions ofElinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working", "with the working titleSusan—laterNorthanger Abbey—a satire on the popularGothic novel.Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offeredSusanto Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being \"in the press\", but did nothing more.The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, George Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to 4,Sydney PlaceinBath, Somerset.While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving 50 miles (80 km) away from the only home she had ever known.An indication of her state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived in Bath. She was able to make some revisions toSusan, and she began and", "and she began and then abandoned a new novel,The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795–1799.Tomalin suggests this reflects a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died.It is often claimed that Austen was unhappy in Bath, which caused her to lose interest in writing, but it is just as possible that Austen's social life in Bath prevented her from spending much time writing novels.The critic Robert Irvine argued that if Austen spent more time writing novels when she was in the countryside, it might just have been because she had more spare time as opposed to being more happy in the countryside as is often argued.Furthermore, Austen frequently both moved and travelled over southern England during this period, which was hardly a conducive environment for writing a long novel.Austen sold the rights to publishSusanto a publisher Crosby &", "publisher Crosby & Company, who paid her £10 (equivalent to £1,020 in 2023).The Crosby & Company advertisedSusan, but never published it. The years from 1801 to 1804 are something of a blank space for Austen scholars as Cassandra destroyed all of her letters from her sister in this period for unknown reasons.In December 1802, Austen received her only known proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived nearBasingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was", "her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance.No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal.Irvine described Bigg-Wither as somebody who \"...seems to have been a man very hard to like, let alone love\". In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that \"having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection\".The English scholar Douglas Bush wrote that Austen had \"had a very high ideal of", "very high ideal of the love that should unite a husband and wife ... All of her heroines ... know in proportion to their maturity, the meaning of ardent love\".A possible autobiographical element inSense and Sensibilityoccurs whenElinor Dashwoodcontemplates \"the worse and most irremediable of all evils, a connection for life\" with an unsuitable man. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started, but did not complete, her novelThe Watsons. The story centres on an invalid and impoverished clergyman and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as \"a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives\".Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Her father's relatively sudden death left Jane, Cassandra, and their mother in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen (known as Frank)", "(known as Frank) pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters.For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They spent part of the time in rented quarters in Bath before leaving the city in June 1805 for a family visit to Steventon andGodmersham. They moved for the autumn months to the newly fashionable seaside resort ofWorthing, on theSussex coast, where they resided at Stanford Cottage.It was here that Austen is thought to have written her fair copy ofLady Susanand added its \"Conclusion\". In 1806, the family moved toSouthampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move toChawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript ofSusanif needed to secure the immediate publication of the novel, and requesting the return of the original so she", "the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied that he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. She did not have the resources to buy the copyright back at that time,but was able to purchase it in 1816. Chawton Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large cottage inChawtonvillagewhich was part of the estate around Edward's nearby propertyChawton House. Jane, Cassandra and their mother moved intoChawton cottageon 7 July 1809.Life was quieter in Chawton than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise withgentryand entertained only when family visited. Her niece Anna described the family's life in Chawton as \"a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the", "in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write.\" Published author Like many women authors at the time, Austen published her books anonymously.At the time, the ideal roles for a woman were as wife and mother, and writing for women was regarded at best as a secondary form of activity; a woman who wished to be a full-time writer was felt to be degrading her femininity, so books by women were usually published anonymously in order to maintain the conceit that the female writer was only publishing as a sort of part-time job, and was not seeking to become a \"literary lioness\" (i.e. a celebrity).Another reason noted is that the novel was still seen as a lesser form of literature at the time compared with poetry, and many female and male authors published novels anonymously, whereas works of poetry, by both female and male writers were almost always attributed to the author. During her time at Chawton, Austen published four generally well-received novels. Through her brother Henry, the", "brother Henry, the publisherThomas Egertonagreed to publishSense and Sensibility, which, like all of Austen's novels exceptPride and Prejudice, was published \"on commission\", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a 10% commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them.The alternative to selling via commission was by selling the copyright, where an author received a one-time payment from the publisher for the manuscript, which occurred withPride and Prejudice.Austen's experience withSusan(the manuscript that becameNorthanger Abbey) where she sold the copyright to the publisher Crosby & Sons for £10, who did not publish the book, forcing her to buy back the copyright in order to get her work published, left Austen leery of this method of publishing.The final alternative, of", "alternative, of selling by subscription, where a group of people would agree to buy a book in advance, was not an option for Austen as only authors who were well known or had an influential aristocratic patron who would recommend an up-coming book to their friends, could sell by subscription.Sense and Sensibilityappeared in October 1811, and was described as being written \"By a Lady\".As it was sold on commission, Egerton used expensive paper and set the price at 15 shillings (equivalent to £69 in 2023). Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among young aristocratic opinion-makers;the edition sold out by mid-1813. Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of handmade paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or fewer to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful", "the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies ofSense and Sensibilityto about 2,000 copies ofEmma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Austen's books were originally published \"on commission\", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. Austen made £140 (equivalent to £12,800 in 2023) fromSense and Sensibility,which provided her with some financial and psychological independence.After the success ofSense and Sensibility, all of Austen's subsequent books were billed as written \"By the author", "\"By the author ofSense and Sensibility\" and Austen's name never appeared on her books during her lifetime.Egerton then publishedPride and Prejudice, a revision ofFirst Impressions, in January 1813. Austen sold the copyright toPride and Prejudiceto Egerton for £110 (equivalent to £9,100 in 2023).To maximise profits, he used cheap paper and set the price at 18 shillings (equivalent to £74 in 2023).He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. Had Austen soldPride and Prejudiceon commission, she would have made a profit of £475, or twice her father's annual income.By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition.Mansfield Parkwas published by Egerton in May 1814. WhileMansfield Parkwas ignored by reviewers, it was very popular with readers. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Without Austen's knowledge or approval, her novels were", "her novels were translated into French and published in cheaply produced, pirated editions in France.: 1–2The literary critic Noel King commented in 1953 that, given the prevailing rage in France at the time for lush romantic fantasies, it was remarkable that her novels with the emphasis on everyday English life had any sort of a market in France.: 2King cautioned that Austen's chief translator in France, MadameIsabelle de Montolieu, had only the most rudimentary knowledge of English, and her translations were more of \"imitations\" than translations proper, as Montolieu depended upon assistants to provide a summary, which she then translated into an embellished French that often radically altered Austen's plots and characters.: 5–6The first of the Austen novels to be published that credited her as the author was in France, whenPersuasionwas published in 1821 asLa Famille Elliot ou L'Ancienne Inclination.: 5 Austen learned that thePrince Regentadmired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.In", "his residences.In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarianJames Stanier Clarkeinvited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcomingEmmato the Prince. Though Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent, she could scarcely refuse the request.Austen disapproved of the Prince Regent on the account of his womanising, gambling, drinking, spendthrift ways, and generally disreputable behaviour.She later wrotePlan of a Novel, according to Hints from Various Quarters, a satiric outline of the \"perfect novel\" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel.Austen was greatly annoyed by Clarke's often pompous literary advice, and thePlan of a Novelparodying Clarke was intended as her revenge for all the unwanted letters she had received from the royal librarian. In mid-1815 Austen moved her work from Egerton toJohn Murray, a better-known publisher in London,who publishedEmmain December 1815 and a second edition ofMansfield Parkin February", "Parkin February 1816.Emmasold well, but the new edition ofMansfield Parkdid poorly, and this failure offset most of the income fromEmma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. While Murray preparedEmmafor publication, Austen beganThe Elliots, later published asPersuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication ofEmma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright forSusanfrom Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and costing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Illness and death Austen was feeling unwell by early 1816, but ignored the warning signs. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable, and she began a slow, irregular", "a slow, irregular deterioration.The majority of biographers rely onZachary Cope's 1964retrospective diagnosisand list her cause of death asAddison's disease, although her final illness has also been described as resulting fromHodgkin's lymphoma.When her uncle died and left his entire fortune to his wife, effectively disinheriting his relatives, she suffered a relapse, writing: \"I am ashamed to say that the shock of my Uncle's Will brought on a relapse ... but a weak Body must excuse weak Nerves.\" Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. Dissatisfied with the ending ofThe Elliots, she rewrote the final two chapters, which she finished on 6 August 1816.In January 1817, Austen beganThe Brothers(titledSanditonwhen published in 1925), completing twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably due to illness.Todd describesSanditon's heroine, Diana Parker, as an \"energetic invalid\". In the novel Austen mockedhypochondriacs, and although she describes the heroine as \"bilious\", five days", "five days after abandoning the novel she wrote of herself that she was turning \"every wrong colour\" and living \"chiefly on the sofa\".She put down her pen on 18 March 1817, making a note of it. Austen made light of her condition, describing it as \"bile\" andrheumatism. As her illness progressed, she experienced difficulty walking and lacked energy; by mid-April she was confined to bed. In May, Cassandra and Henry brought her toWinchesterfor treatment, by which time she suffered agonising pain and welcomed death.Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817 at the age of 41. Henry, through his clerical connections, arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of thenaveofWinchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, and mentions the \"extraordinary endowments of her mind\", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Posthumous publication In the months after Austen's death in July 1817, Cassandra,", "1817, Cassandra, Henry Austen and Murray arranged for the publication ofPersuasionandNorthanger Abbeyas a set.Henry Austen contributed aBiographical Notedated December 1817, which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as \"a loving and polished eulogy\".Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818. Although Austen's six novels were out of print in England in the 1820s, they were still being read through copies housed in private libraries and circulating libraries. Austen had early admirers. The first piece of fiction using her as a character (what might now be calledreal person fiction) appeared in 1823 in a letter to the editor inThe Lady's Magazine.It refers to Austen's genius and suggests that aspiring authors were envious of her powers. In 1832,Richard Bentleypurchased the remaining copyrights to all of her novels, and over the following winter published five illustrated volumes as part of hisStandard Novelsseries. In", "Novelsseries. In October 1833, Bentley released the first collected edition of her works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Genre and style Austen's works implicitly critique thesentimental novelsof the second half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism.The earliest English novelists,Richardson,Henry Fielding, andTobias Smollett, were followed by the school of sentimentalists andromanticssuch asWalter Scott,Horace Walpole,Clara Reeve,Ann Radcliffe, andOliver Goldsmith, whose style and genre Austen repudiated, returning the novel on a \"slender thread\" to the tradition of Richardson and Fielding for a \"realistic study of manners\".In the mid-20th century the literary criticsF. R. LeavisandIan Wattplaced her in the tradition of Richardson and Fielding; both believe that she used their tradition of \"irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both\". Walter Scott noted Austen's \"resistance to the trashysensationalismof much of", "much of modern fiction—'the ephemeral productions which supply the regular demand of watering places andcirculating libraries'\".Yet her relationship with these genres is complex, as evidenced byNorthanger AbbeyandEmma.Similar toWilliam Wordsworth, who excoriated the modern frantic novel in the \"Preface\" to hisLyrical Ballads(1800), Austen distances herself from escapist novels; the discipline and innovation she demonstrates is similar to his, and she shows \"that rhetorically less is artistically more.\"She eschewed popular Gothic fiction, stories of terror in which a heroine typically was stranded in a remote location, a castle or abbey (32 novels between 1784 and 1818 contain the word \"abbey\" in their title). Yet inNorthanger Abbeyshe alludes to the trope, with the heroine, Catherine, anticipating a move to a remote locale. Rather than full-scale rejection or parody, Austen transforms the genre, juxtaposing reality, with descriptions of elegant rooms and modern comforts, against the heroine's \"novel-fueled\"", "\"novel-fueled\" desires.Nor does she completely denigrate Gothic fiction: instead she transforms settings and situations, such that the heroine is still imprisoned, yet her imprisonment is mundane and real—regulated manners and the strict rules of the ballroom.InSense and SensibilityAusten presents characters who are more complex than in staple sentimental fiction, according to the critic Tom Keymer, who notes that although it is a parody of popular sentimental fiction, \"Mariannein her sentimental histrionics responds to the calculating world ... with a quite justifiable scream of female distress.\" The hair was curled, and the maid sent away, and Emma sat down to think and be miserable. It was a wretched business, indeed! Such an overthrow of everything she had been wishing for! Such a development of every thing most unwelcome! — example offree indirect speech, Jane Austen,Emma Richardson'sPamela, the prototype for the sentimental novel, is adidacticlove story with a happy ending, written at a time women were", "a time women were beginning to have the right to choose husbands and yet were restricted by social conventions.Austen attempted Richardson's epistolary style, but found the flexibility of narrative more conducive to her realism, a realism in which each conversation and gesture carries a weight of significance. The narrative style utilisesfree indirect speech—she was the first English novelist to do so extensively—through which she had the ability to present a character's thoughts directly to the reader and yet still retain narrative control. The style allows an author to vary discourse between the narrator's voice and values and those of the characters. Austen had a natural ear for speech and dialogue, according to the scholarMary Lascelles: \"Few novelists can be more scrupulous than Jane Austen as to the phrasing and thoughts of their characters.\"Techniques such as fragmentary speech suggest a character's traits and their tone; \"syntax and phrasing rather than vocabulary\" is utilised to indicate social", "to indicate social variants.Dialogue reveals a character's mood—frustration, anger, happiness—each treated differently and often through varying patterns of sentence structures. WhenElizabeth BennetrejectsDarcy, her stilted speech and the convoluted sentence structure reveals that he has wounded her: From the very beginning, from the first moment I may almost say, of my acquaintance with you, your manners impressing me with the fullest belief of your arrogance, your conceit, and your selfish disdain of the feelings of others, were such as to form that the groundwork of disapprobation, on which succeeding events have built so immovable a dislike. And I had not known you a month before I felt that you were the last man in the world whom I could ever be prevailed on to marry. Austen's plots highlight women's traditional dependence on marriage to secure social standing and economic security.As an art form, the 18th-century novel lacked the seriousness of its equivalents from the 19th century, when novels were", "when novels were treated as \"the natural vehicle for discussion and ventilation of what mattered in life\".Rather than delving too deeply into the psyche of her characters, Austen enjoys them and imbues them with humour, according to critic John Bayley. He believes that the well-spring of her wit and irony is her own attitude that comedy \"is the saving grace of life\".Part of Austen's fame rests on the historical and literary significance that she was the first woman to write great comic novels.Samuel Johnson's influence is evident, in that she follows his advice to write \"a representation of life as may excite mirth\". Her humour comes from her modesty and lack of superiority, allowing her most successful characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, to transcend the trivialities of life, which the more foolish characters are overly absorbed in.Austen used comedy to explore the individualism of women's lives and gender relations, and she appears to have used it to find the goodness in life, often fusing it with", "fusing it with \"ethical sensibility\", creating artistic tension. Critic Robert Polhemus writes, \"To appreciate the drama and achievement of Austen, we need to realize how deep was her passion for both reverence and ridicule ... and her comic imagination reveals both the harmonies and the telling contradictions of her mind and vision as she tries to reconcile her satirical bias with her sense of the good.\" Reception Contemporaneous responses As Austen's works were published anonymously, they brought her little personal renown. They were fashionable among opinion-makers, but were rarely reviewed.Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious,most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, anonymously wrote a review ofEmmain 1815, using it to defend the then-disreputable genre of the novel and praising Austen's realism, \"the art of copying from nature as she really exists in the common walks of life, and presenting", "and presenting to the reader, instead of the splendid scenes from an imaginary world, a correct and striking representation of that which is daily taking place around him\".The other important early review was attributed toRichard Whatelyin 1821. However, Whately denied having authored the review, which drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats asHomerandShakespeare, and praised the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Scott and Whately set the tone for almost all subsequent 19th-century Austen criticism. 19th century Because Austen's novels did not conform toRomanticandVictorianexpectations that \"powerful emotion authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing\",some 19th-century critics preferred the works ofCharles DickensandGeorge Eliot.Notwithstanding Walter Scott's positivity, Austen's work did not win over those who preferred the prevailing aesthetic values of the elite Romantic zeitgeist.Her novels were republished in Britain from the 1830s and", "from the 1830s and sold steadily.Austen's six books were included in the canon-making Standard Novels series by publisher Richard Bentley, which increased their stature. That series referred to her as \"the founder of a school of novelists\" and called her a genius. The first French critic who paid notice to Austen wasPhilarète Chaslesin an 1842 essay, dismissing her in two sentences as a boring, imitative writer with no substance.Austen was not widely appreciated in France until 1878,when the French critic Léon Boucher published the essayLe Roman Classique en Angleterre, in which he called Austen a \"genius\", the first French author to do so.The first accurate translation of Austen into French occurred in 1899 whenFélix FénéontranslatedNorthanger AbbeyasCatherine Morland. In Britain and North America, Austen gradually grew in the estimation of both the public and the literati. In the United States, Austen was being recommended as reading in schools as early as 1838, according to Professor Devoney Looser.The", "Devoney Looser.The philosopher and literary criticGeorge Henry Lewespublished a series of enthusiastic articles in the 1840s and 1850s.Later in the century, the novelistHenry Jamesreferred to Austen several times with approval, and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare,Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as amongst \"the fine painters of life\". The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh'sA Memoir of Jane Austenin 1869 introduced Austen's life story to a wider public as \"dear aunt Jane\", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of theMemoirspurred another reissue of Austen's novels. Editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed.The author and criticLeslie Stephendescribed the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as \"Austenolatry\". Around the start of the 20th century, an intellectual clique ofJaneitesreacted against the popularisation of Austen, distinguishing their deeper appreciation from the vulgar enthusiasm of the masses. In", "of the masses. In response, Henry James decried \"a beguiled infatuation\" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's \"intrinsic merit and interest\".The American literary criticA. Walton Litznoted that the \"anti-Janites\" in the 19th and 20th centuries comprised a formidable literary squad ofMark Twain, Henry James,Charlotte Brontë,D. H. Lawrence, andKingsley Amis, but in \"every case the adverse judgement merely reveals the special limitations or eccentricities of the critic, leaving Jane Austen relatively untouched\". Modern Austen's works have attracted legions of scholars. The first dissertation on Austen was published in 1883, by George Pellew, a student at Harvard University.Another early academic analysis came from a 1911 essay by the Oxford Shakespearean scholarA. C. Bradley,who grouped Austen's novels into \"early\" and \"late\" works, a distinction still used by scholars today.The first academic book devoted to Austen in France wasJane Austenby Paul and Kate Rague (1914), who set", "(1914), who set out to explain why French critics and readers should take Austen seriously.The same year, Léonie Villard publishedJane Austen, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres, originally her PhD thesis, the first serious academic study of Austen in France.In 1923, R.W. Chapman published the first scholarly edition of Austen's collected works, which was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles'Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold.Lascelles analysed the books Austen read and their influence on her work, and closely examined Austen's style and \"narrative art\". Concern arose that academics were obscuring the appreciation of Austen with increasingly esoteric theories, a debate that has continued since. The period since the Second World War has seen a diversity of critical approaches to Austen, includingfeminist theory, and perhaps most", "and perhaps most controversially,postcolonial theory.The divide has widened between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modernJaneites, and academic judgements.In 1994 the literary criticHarold Bloomplaced Austen among thegreatest Western writers of all time. In the People's Republic of China after 1949, writings of Austen were regarded as too frivolous,and thus during the ChineseCultural Revolutionof 1966–69, Austen was banned as a \"British bourgeois imperialist\".In the late 1970s, when Austen's works were re-published in China, her popularity with readers confounded the authorities who had trouble understanding that people generally read books for enjoyment, not political edification. In a typical modern debate, the conservative American professor Gene Koppel, to the indignation of his liberal literature students, mentioned that Austen and her family were \"Tories of the deepest dye\", i.e. Conservatives in opposition to the liberal Whigs. Although several feminist authors such as Claudia", "such as Claudia Johnson and Mollie Sandock claimed Austen for their own cause, Koppel argued that different people react to a work of literature in different subjective ways, as explained by the philosopherHans-Georg Gadamer. Thus competing interpretations of Austen's work can be equally valid, provided they are grounded in textual and historical analysis: it is equally possible to see Austen as a feminist critiquingRegency-erasociety and as a conservative upholding its values. Adaptations Austen's novels have resulted in sequels, prequels and adaptations of almost every type, fromsoft-core pornographyto fantasy. From the 19th century, her family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations.The first dramatic adaptation of Austen was published in 1895, Rosina Filippi'sDuologues and Scenes from the Novels of Jane Austen: Arranged and Adapted for Drawing-Room Performance, and Filippi was also responsible for the first professional stage", "professional stage adaptation,The Bennets(1901).The first film adaptation was the1940 MGM production ofPride and PrejudicestarringLaurence OlivierandGreer Garson.BBC television dramatisations released in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations and settings.The British critic Robert Irvine noted that in American film adaptations of Austen's novels, starting with the 1940 version ofPride and Prejudice, class is subtly downplayed, and the society of Regency England depicted by Austen that is grounded in a hierarchy based upon the ownership of land and the antiquity of the family name is one that Americans cannot embrace in its entirety. From 1995, many Austen adaptations appeared, withAng Lee'sfilm ofSense and Sensibility, for which screenwriter and starEmma Thompsonwon anAcademy Award, and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-seriesPride and Prejudice, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth.A 2005 British production ofPride and Prejudice, directed byJoe Wrightand", "byJoe Wrightand starringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen,was followed in 2007 byITV'sMansfield Park,Northanger AbbeyandPersuasion,and in 2016 byLove & FriendshipstarringKate Beckinsaleas Lady Susan, a film version ofLady Susan, that borrowed the title of Austen'sLove and Freindship. Honours In 2013, Austen's works featured on aseries of UK postage stampsissued by theRoyal Mailto mark the bicentenary of the publication ofPride and Prejudice.Austen is on the£10 noteissued by the Bank of England which was introduced in 2017, replacingCharles Darwin.In July 2017 a statue of Austen was erected in Basingstoke, Hampshire on the 200th anniversary of her death. List of works Juvenilia—Volume the First(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Second(1787–1793) Juvenilia—Volume the Third(1787–1793) Family trees See also Notes References Sources Further reading External links Museums Fan sites and societies", "Pride and Prejudice Pride and Prejudiceis the second novel by English authorJane Austen, published in 1813. Anovel of manners, it follows the character development ofElizabeth Bennet, theprotagonistof the book, who learns about the repercussions of hasty judgments and comes to appreciate the difference between superficial goodness and actual goodness. Mr Bennet, owner of the Longbourn estate inHertfordshire, has five daughters, but his property isentailedand can only be passed to a male heir. His wife also lacks an inheritance, so his family faces becoming poor upon his death. Thus, it is imperative that at least one of the daughters marry well to support the others, which is a primary motivation driving the plot. Pride and Prejudicehas consistently appeared near the top of lists of \"most-loved books\" among literary scholars and the reading public. It has become one of the most popular novels in English literature, with over 20 million copies sold, and has inspired many derivatives in modern literature.For", "literature.For more than a century, dramatic adaptations, reprints, unofficial sequels, films, and TV versions ofPride and Prejudicehave portrayed the memorable characters and themes of the novel, reaching mass audiences. Plot summary In the early 19th century, theBennet familylive at their Longbourn estate, situated near the village of Meryton inHertfordshire, England. Mrs Bennet's greatest desire is to marry off her five daughters to secure their futures. The arrival of Mr Bingley, a rich bachelor who rents the neighbouring Netherfield estate, gives her hope that one of her daughters might contract a marriage to the advantage, because \"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife\". At a ball, the family is introduced to the Netherfield party, including Mr Bingley, his two sisters andMr Darcy, his dearest friend. Mr Bingley's friendly and cheerful manner earns him popularity among the guests. He appears interested in Jane, the eldest", "in Jane, the eldest Bennet daughter. Mr Darcy, reputed to be twice as wealthy as Mr Bingley, is haughty and aloof, causing a decided dislike of him. He declines to dance withElizabeth, the second-eldest Bennet daughter, as she is \"not handsome enough\". Although she jokes about it with her friend, Elizabeth is deeply offended. Despite this first impression, Mr Darcy secretly begins to find himself drawn to Elizabeth as they continue to encounter each other at social events, appreciating her wit and frankness. Mr Collins, the heir to the Longbourn estate, visits the Bennet family with the intention of finding a wife among the five girls under the advice of his patronessLady Catherine de Bourgh, also revealed to be Mr Darcy's aunt. He decides to pursue Elizabeth. The Bennet family meet the charming army officerGeorge Wickham, who tells Elizabeth in confidence about Mr Darcy's unpleasant treatment of him in the past. Elizabeth, blinded by her prejudice toward Mr Darcy, believes him. Elizabeth dances with Mr", "dances with Mr Darcy at a ball, where Mrs Bennet hints loudly that she expects Jane and Bingley to become engaged. Elizabeth rejects Mr Collins' marriage proposal, to her mother's fury and her father's relief. Mr Collins subsequently proposes to Charlotte Lucas, a friend of Elizabeth, and is accepted. Having heard Mrs Bennet's words at the ball and disapproving of the marriage, Mr Darcy joins Mr Bingley in a trip to London and, with the help of his sisters, persuades him not to return to Netherfield. A heartbroken Jane visits her Aunt and Uncle Gardiner in London to raise her spirits, while Elizabeth's hatred for Mr Darcy grows as she suspects he was responsible for Mr Bingley's departure. In the spring, Elizabeth visits Charlotte and Mr Collins inKent. Elizabeth and her hosts are invited to Rosings Park, Lady Catherine's home. Mr Darcy and his cousin, Colonel Fitzwilliam, are also visiting Rosings Park. Fitzwilliam tells Elizabeth how Mr Darcy recently saved a friend, presumably Bingley, from an undesirable", "from an undesirable match. Elizabeth realises that the prevented engagement was to Jane. Mr Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, declaring his love for her despite her low social connections. She is shocked, as she was unaware of Mr Darcy's interest, and rejects him angrily, saying that he is the last person she would ever marry and that she could never love a man who caused her sister such unhappiness; she further accuses him of treating Wickham unjustly. Mr Darcy brags about his success in separating Bingley and Jane and sarcastically dismisses the accusation regarding Wickham without addressing it. The next day, Mr Darcy gives Elizabeth a letter, explaining that Wickham, the son of his late father's steward, had refused the \"living\" his father had arranged for him and was instead given money for it. Wickham quickly squandered the money and tried to elope with Darcy's 15-year-old sister, Georgiana, for her considerabledowry. Mr Darcy also writes that he separated Jane and Bingley because he believed her to be", "believed her to be indifferent to Bingley and because of the lack of propriety displayed by her family. Elizabeth is ashamed by her family's behaviour and her own prejudice against Mr Darcy. Months later, Elizabeth accompanies the Gardiners on a tour ofDerbyshire. They visitPemberley, Darcy's estate. When Mr Darcy returns unexpectedly, he is exceedingly gracious with Elizabeth and the Gardiners. Elizabeth is surprised by Darcy's behaviour and grows fond of him, even coming to regret rejecting his proposal. She receives news that her sister Lydia has run off with Wickham. She tells Mr Darcy, then departs in haste. After an agonising interim, Wickham agrees to marry Lydia. Lydia and Wickham visit the Bennet family at Longbourn, where Lydia tells Elizabeth that Mr Darcy was at her wedding. Though Mr Darcy had sworn everyone involved to secrecy, Mrs Gardiner now feels obliged to inform Elizabeth that he secured the match, at great expense and trouble to himself. Mr Bingley and Mr Darcy return to Netherfield.", "to Netherfield. Jane accepts Mr Bingley's proposal. Lady Catherine, having heard rumours that Elizabeth intends to marry Mr Darcy, visits her and demands she promise never to accept Mr Darcy's proposal, as she and Darcy's late mother had already planned his marriage to her daughter Anne. Elizabeth refuses and asks the outraged Lady Catherine to leave. Darcy, heartened by his aunt's indignant relaying of Elizabeth's response, again proposes to her and is accepted. Characters Major themes Many critics take the title as the start when analysing the themes ofPride and Prejudicebut Robert Fox cautions against reading too much into the title (which was initiallyFirst Impressions), because commercial factors may have played a role in its selection. \"After the success ofSense and Sensibility, nothing would have seemed more natural than to bring out another novel of the same author using again the formula of antithesis and alliteration for the title.\" The qualities of the title are not exclusively assigned to one or", "assigned to one or the other of the protagonists; both Elizabeth and Darcy display pride and prejudice.\"The phrase \"pride and prejudice\" had been used over the preceding two centuries byJoseph Hall,Jeremy Taylor,Joseph AddisonandSamuel Johnson.Austen is thought to have taken her title from a passage inFanny Burney'sCecilia(1782), a novel she is known to have admired: \"The whole of this unfortunate business,\" said Dr Lyster, \"has been the result of PRIDE and PREJUDICE. ... if to PRIDE and PREJUDICE you owe your miseries, so wonderfully is good and evil balanced, that to PRIDE and PREJUDICE you will also owe their termination.\"(capitalisation as in the original) A theme in much of Austen's work is the importance of environment and upbringing in developing young people's character and morality.Social standing and wealth are not necessarily advantages in her works, and a further theme common to Austen's work is ineffectual parents. InPride and Prejudice, the failure of Mr and Mrs Bennet as parents is blamed for", "is blamed for Lydia's lack of moral judgment. Darcy has been taught to be principled and scrupulously honourable but he is also proud and overbearing.Kitty, rescued from Lydia's bad influence and spending more time with her older sisters after they marry, is said to improve greatly in their superior society. The American novelist Anna Quindlen observed in an introduction to an edition of Austen's novel in 1995: Pride and Prejudiceis also about that thing that all great novels consider, the search for self. And it is the first great novel that teaches us this search is as surely undertaken in thedrawing roommakingsmall talkas in the pursuit of agreat white whaleor thepublic punishment of adultery. Marriage The opening line of the novel announces: \"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.\"This sets marriage as amotifand a problem in the novel. Readers are poised to question whether or not these single men need a wife, or if the need is", "or if the need is dictated by the \"neighbourhood\" families and their daughters who require a \"good fortune\". Marriage is a complex social activity that takes political and financial economy into account. In the case of Charlotte Lucas, the seeming success of her marriage lies in the comfortable financial circumstances of their household, while the relationship between Mr and Mrs Bennet serves to illustrate bad marriages based on an initial attraction and surface over substance (economic and psychological). The Bennets' marriage is an example that the youngest Bennet, Lydia, re-enacts with Wickham and the results are far from felicitous. Although the central characters, Elizabeth and Darcy, begin the novel as hostile acquaintances and unlikely friends, they eventually work toward a better understanding of themselves and each other, which frees them to truly fall in love. This does not eliminate the challenges of the real differences in their technically equivalent social status as gentry and their female", "and their female relations. It does however provide them with a better understanding of each other's point of view from the different ends of the rather wide scale of differences within that category. When Elizabeth rejects Darcy's first proposal, the argument of marrying for love is introduced. Elizabeth only accepts Darcy's proposal when she is certain she loves him and her feelings are reciprocated.Austen's complex sketching of different marriages ultimately allows readers to question what forms of alliance are desirable especially when it comes to privileging economic, sexual, or companionate attraction. Wealth Money plays a fundamental role in the marriage market, for the young ladies seeking a well-off husband and for men who wish to marry a woman of means. George Wickham tries to elope with Georgiana Darcy, and Colonel Fitzwilliam states that he will marry someone with wealth. Marrying a woman of a rich family also ensured a linkage to a higher-class family, as is visible in the desires of Bingley's", "of Bingley's sisters to have their brother married to Georgiana Darcy. Mrs Bennet is frequently seen encouraging her daughters to marry a wealthy man of high social class. In chapter 1, when Mr Bingley arrives, she declares \"I am thinking of his marrying one of them\". Inheritance was by descent but could be further restricted byentailment, which in the case of the Longbourn estate restricted inheritance to male heirs only. In the case of the Bennet family, Mr Collins was to inherit the family estate upon Mr Bennet's death in the absence of any closer male heirs, and his proposal to Elizabeth would have ensured her security; but she refuses his offer. Inheritance laws benefited males because married women did not have independent legal rights until the second half of the 19th century. For the upper-middle and aristocratic classes, marriage to a man with a reliable income was almost the only route to security for the woman and the children she was to have.The irony of the opening line is that generally within", "generally within this society it would be a woman who would be looking for a wealthy husband to have a prosperous life. Class Austen might be known now for her \"romances\" but the marriages in her novels engage with economics and class distinction.Pride and Prejudiceis hardly the exception. When Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, he cites their economic and social differences as an obstacle his excessive love has had to overcome, though he still anxiously harps on the problems it poses for him within his social circle. His aunt, Lady Catherine, later characterises these differences in particularly harsh terms when she conveys what Elizabeth's marriage to Darcy will become, \"Will the shades of Pemberley be thus polluted?\" Although Elizabeth responds to Lady Catherine's accusations that hers is a potentially contaminating economic and social position (Elizabeth even insists she and Darcy, as gentleman's daughter and gentleman, are \"equals\"), Lady Catherine refuses to accept the possibility of Darcy's marriage to", "Darcy's marriage to Elizabeth. However, as the novel closes, \"...through curiosity to see how his wife conducted herself\", Lady Catherine condescends to visit them at Pemberley. The Bingleys present a particular problem for navigating class. Though Caroline Bingley and Mrs Hurst behave and speak of others as if they have always belonged in the upper echelons of society, Austen makes it clear that the Bingley fortunes stem from trade. The fact that Bingley rents Netherfield Hall – it is, after all, \"to let\" – distinguishes him significantly from Darcy, whose estate belonged to his father's family and who through his mother is the grandson and nephew of anearl. Bingley, unlike Darcy, does not own his property but has portable and growing wealth that makes him a good catch on the marriage market for poorer daughters of the gentry, like Jane Bennet, or of ambitious merchants. Class plays a central role in the evolution of the characters and Jane Austen's radical approach to class is seen as the plot unfolds. An", "plot unfolds. An undercurrent of the oldAnglo-Normanupper class is hinted at in the story, as suggested by the names of Fitzwilliam Darcy and his aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh;Fitzwilliam,D'Arcy,de Bourgh(Burke), and evenBennet, are traditional Norman surnames. Self-knowledge Through their interactions and their critiques of each other, Darcy and Elizabeth come to recognise their faults and work to correct them. Elizabeth meditates on her own mistakes thoroughly in chapter 36: \"How despicably have I acted!\" she cried; \"I, who have prided myself on my discernment! I, who have valued myself on my abilities! who have often disdained the generous candour of my sister, and gratified my vanity in useless or blameable distrust. How humiliating is this discovery! yet, how just a humiliation! Had I been in love, I could not have been more wretchedly blind. But vanity, not love, has been my folly. Pleased with the preference of one, and offended by the neglect of the other, on the very beginning of our acquaintance,", "our acquaintance, I have courted prepossession and ignorance, and driven reason away, where either were concerned. Till this moment I never knew myself.\" Other characters rarely exhibit this depth of understanding or at least are not given the space within the novel for this sort of development. Tanner writes that Mrs Bennet in particular, \"has a very limited view of the requirements of that performance; lacking any introspective tendencies she is incapable of appreciating the feelings of others and is only aware of material objects\".Mrs Bennet's behaviour reflects the society in which she lives, as she knows that her daughters will not succeed if they do not get married. \"The business of her life was to get her daughters married: its solace was visiting and news.\"This shows that Mrs Bennet is only aware of \"material objects\" and not of her feelings and emotions. A notable exception is Charlotte Lucas, Elizabeth Bennet's close friend and confidant. She accepts Mr Collins's proposal of marriage once Lizzie", "once Lizzie rejects him, not out of sentiment but acute awareness of her circumstances as \"one of a large family\". Charlotte's decision is reflective of her prudent nature and awareness. Style Pride and Prejudice, like most of Austen's works, employs the narrative technique offree indirect speech, which has been defined as \"the free representation of a character's speech, by which one means, not words actually spoken by a character, but the words that typify the character's thoughts, or the way the character would think or speak, if she thought or spoke\". Austen creates her characters with fully developed personalities and unique voices. Though Darcy and Elizabeth are very alike, they are also considerably different.By using narrative that adopts the tone and vocabulary of a particular character (in this case, Elizabeth), Austen invites the reader to follow events from Elizabeth's viewpoint, sharing her prejudices and misapprehensions. \"The learning curve, while undergone by both protagonists, is disclosed", "is disclosed to us solely through Elizabeth's point of view and her free indirect speech is essential ... for it is through it that we remain caught, if not stuck, within Elizabeth's misprisions.\" The few times the reader is allowed to gain further knowledge of another character's feelings, is through the letters exchanged in this novel. Darcy's first letter to Elizabeth is an example of this as through his letter, the reader and Elizabeth are both given knowledge of Wickham's true character. Austen is known to use irony throughout the novel especially from viewpoint of the character of Elizabeth Bennet. She conveys the \"oppressive rules of femininity that actually dominate her life and work, and are covered by her beautifully carved trojan horse of ironic distance.\"Beginning with a historical investigation of the development of a particular literary form and then transitioning into empirical verifications, it reveals free indirect discourse as a tool that emerged over time as practical means for addressing", "for addressing the physical distinctness of minds. Seen in this way, free indirect discourse is a distinctly literary response to an environmental concern, providing a scientific justification that does not reduce literature to a mechanical extension of biology, but takes its value to be its own original form. Development of the novel Austen began writing the novel after staying atGoodnestone Parkin Kent with her brother Edward and his wife in 1796.It was originally titledFirst Impressions, and was written between October 1796 and August 1797.On 1 November 1797 Austen's father sent a letter to London bookseller Thomas Cadell to ask if he had any interest in seeing the manuscript, but the offer was declined by return post. The militia were mobilised after the French declaration of war on Britain in February 1793, and there was initially a lack of barracks for all the militia regiments, requiring the militia to set up huge camps in the countryside, which the novel refers to several times.: 57The Brighton camp", "57The Brighton camp for which the militia regiment leaves in May after spending the winter in Meryton was opened in August 1793, and the barracks for all the regiments of the militia were completed by 1796, placing the events of the novel between 1793 and 1795.: 56–57 Austen made significant revisions to the manuscript forFirst Impressionsbetween 1811 and 1812.As nothing remains of the original manuscript, study of the first drafts of the novel is reduced to conjecture. From the large number of letters in the final novel, it is assumed thatFirst Impressionswas anepistolary novel. She later renamed the storyPride and Prejudicearound 1811/1812, when she sold the rights to publish the manuscript toThomas Egertonfor £110(equivalent to £9,300 in 2023). In renaming the novel, Austen probably had in mind the \"sufferings and oppositions\" summarised in the final chapter ofFanny Burney'sCecilia, called \"Pride and Prejudice\", where the phrase appears three times in block capitals. It is possible that the novel's", "that the novel's original title was altered to avoid confusion with other works. In the years between the completion ofFirst Impressionsand its revision intoPride and Prejudice, two other works had been published under that name: a novel byMargaret Holfordand a comedy byHorace Smith. Publication history Austen sold the copyright for the novel to Thomas Egerton from the Military Library, Whitehall in exchange for £110 (Austen had asked for £150).This proved a costly decision. Austen had publishedSense and Sensibilityon acommissionbasis, whereby sheindemnifiedthe publisher against any losses and received any profits, less costs and the publisher's commission. Unaware thatSense and Sensibilitywould sell out its edition, making her £140,she passed the copyright to Egerton for a one-off payment, meaning that all the risk (and all the profits) would be his. Jan Fergus has calculated that Egerton subsequently made around £450 from just the first two editions of the book. Egerton published the first edition ofPride", "edition ofPride and Prejudicein three hardcover volumes on 28 January 1813.It was advertised inThe Morning Chronicle, priced at 18s.Favourable reviews saw this edition sold out, with a second edition published in October that year. A third edition was published in 1817. Foreign language translations first appeared in 1813 in French; subsequent translations were published in German, Danish, and Swedish.Pride and Prejudicewas first published in the United States in August 1832 asElizabeth Bennet or, Pride and Prejudice.The novel was also included inRichard Bentley's Standard Novel series in 1833. R. W. Chapman's scholarly edition ofPride and Prejudice, first published in 1923, has become the standard edition on which many modern published versions of the novel are based. The novel was originally published anonymously, as were all of Austen's novels. However, whereas her first published novel,Sense and Sensibilitywas presented as being written \"by a Lady,\"Pride and Prejudicewas attributed to \"the Author ofSense", "\"the Author ofSense and Sensibility\". This began to consolidate a conception of Austen as an author, albeit anonymously. Her subsequent novels were similarly attributed to the anonymous author of all her then-published works. Reception 19th century The novel was well received, with three favourable reviews in the first months following publication.Anne Isabella Milbanke, later to be the wife ofLord Byron, called it \"the fashionable novel\".Noted critic and reviewerGeorge Henry Lewesdeclared that he \"would rather have writtenPride and Prejudice, orTom Jones, than any of theWaverley Novels\". Throughout the 19th century, not all reviews of the work were positive.Charlotte Brontë, in a letter to Lewes, wrote thatPride and Prejudicewas a disappointment, \"a carefully fenced, highly cultivated garden, with neat borders and delicate flowers; but no open country, no fresh air, no blue hill, no bonny beck\".Along with her,Mark Twainwas overwhelmingly negative of the work. He stated, \"Everytime I readPride and", "I readPride and PrejudiceI want to dig up and beat her over the skull with her own shin-bone.\" Austen for her part thought the \"playfulness and epigrammaticism\" ofPride and Prejudicewas excessive, complaining in a letter to her sister Cassandra in 1813 that the novel lacked \"shade\" and should have had a chapter \"of solemn specious nonsense, about something unconnected with the story; an essay on writing, a critique on Walter Scott or the history of Buonaparté\". Walter Scottwrote in his journal, \"Read again and for the third time at least, Miss Austen's very finely written novel ofPride and Prejudice.\" 20th century You could not shock her more than she shocks me,Beside herJoyceseems innocent as grass.It makes me most uncomfortable to seeAn English spinster of the middle classDescribe the amorous effects of 'brass',Reveal so frankly and with such sobrietyThe economic basis of society. W. H. Auden(1937) on Austen The American scholarClaudia L. Johnsondefended the novel from the criticism that it has an", "that it has an unrealistic fairy-tale quality.One critic,Mary Poovey, wrote that the \"romantic conclusion\" ofPride and Prejudiceis an attempt to hedge the conflict between the \"individualistic perspective inherent in the bourgeois value systemandthe authoritarian hierarchy retained from traditional, paternalistic society\".Johnson wrote that Austen's view of a power structure capable of reformation was not an \"escape\" from conflict.Johnson wrote the \"outrageous unconventionality\" of Elizabeth Bennet was in Austen's own time very daring, especially given the strict censorship that was imposed in Britain by the Prime Minister, William Pitt, in the 1790s when Austen wrotePride and Prejudice. In the early twentieth century, the term \"Collins,\" named for Austen'sWilliam Collins, came into use as slang for a thank-you note to a host. 21st century Adaptations Film, television and theatre Numerous screen adaptations have contributed in popularisingPride and Prejudice. The first television adaptation of the novel,", "of the novel, written byMichael Barry, was produced in 1938 by theBBC. It is alost television broadcast.Some of the notable film versions includethe 1940 Academy Award-winning film, starringGreer GarsonandLaurence Olivier(based in part onHelen Jerome's 1935 stage adaptation) andthat of 2005, starringKeira Knightley(an Oscar-nominated performance) andMatthew Macfadyen.Television versions include two by theBBC: a1980 versionstarringElizabeth GarvieandDavid Rintouland a1995 version, starringJennifer EhleandColin Firth. A stage version created byHelen Jeromepremiered at theMusic Box Theatrein New York in 1935, starringAdrianne AllenandColin Keith-Johnston, and opened at theSt James's Theatrein London in 1936, starringCelia JohnsonandHugh Williams.Elizabeth Refusesa play byMargaret Macnamaraof scenes from the novel was made into a TV programme by theAustralian Broadcasting Corporationin 1957.First Impressionswas a 1959 Broadway musical version starringPolly Bergen,Farley Granger, andHermione Gingold.In 1995, a", "Gingold.In 1995, a musical concept album was written byBernard J. Taylor, with Claire Moore in the role of Elizabeth Bennet and Peter Karrie in the role of Mr Darcy.A new stage production,Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, The New Musical, was presented in concert on 21 October 2008 inRochester, New York, with Colin Donnell as Darcy.The Swedish composerDaniel Nelsonbased his 2011 operaStolthet och fördomonPride and Prejudice.Works inspired by the book includeBride and PrejudiceandTrishna(1985 Hindi TV series). The Lizzie Bennet Diaries– which premiered on a dedicatedYouTube channelon 9 April 2012,and concluded on 28 March 2013– is an Emmy award-winning web-serieswhich recounts the story viavlogsrecorded primarily by the Bennet sisters.It was created byHank GreenandBernie Su. In 2017, the bicentenary year of Austen's death,Pride and Prejudice – An adaptation in Words and Musicto music byCarl Davisfrom the 1995 film and text by Gill Hornby was performed in the UK, withHayley Millsas the narratorThis adaptation", "adaptation was presented in 2024 at theSydney Opera Houseand theArts Centre Melbourne, narrated byNadine Garner. In 2018, part of the storyline of theBrazilian soap operaOrgulho e Paixão, aired onTV Globo, was inspired by the book. The soap opera was also inspired by other works of Jane Austen. It features actors,Nathalia Dill,Thiago Lacerda,Agatha Moreira,Rodrigo Simas,Gabriela Duarte,Marcelo Faria,Alessandra Negrini, andNatália do Vale. Fire Islandis a movie written byJoel Kim Boosterthat reimaginesPride and Prejudiceas a gay drama set on the quintessential gay vacation destination ofFire Island. Booster describes the movie \"as an unapologetic and modern twist on Jane Austen'sPride and Prejudice.\"The movie was released in June 2022 and features a main cast of Asian-American actors. Literature The novel has inspired a number of other works that are not direct adaptations. Books inspired byPride and Prejudiceinclude the following: InGwyn Cready's comedic romance novel,Seducing Mr Darcy, the heroine lands", "the heroine lands inPride and Prejudiceby way of magic massage, has a fling with Darcy and unknowingly changes the rest of the story. Abigail Reynoldsis the author of seven Regency-set variations onPride and Prejudice. Her Pemberley Variations series includesMr Darcy's Obsession,To Conquer Mr Darcy,What Would Mr Darcy DoandMr Fitzwilliam Darcy: The Last Man in the World. Her modern adaptation,The Man Who Loved Pride and Prejudice, is set on Cape Cod. Bella Breen is the author of nine variations onPride and Prejudice.Pride and Prejudice and Poison,Four Months to Wed,Forced to MarryandThe Rescue of Elizabeth Bennet. Helen Fielding's 1996 novelBridget Jones's Diaryis also based onPride and Prejudice; thefeature film of Fielding's work, released in 2001, starsColin Firth, who had played Mr Darcy in the successful 1990s TV adaptation. In March 2009,Seth Grahame-Smith'sPride and Prejudice and Zombiestakes Austen's work andmashesit up withzombiehordes,cannibalism,ninjaand ultraviolent mayhem.In March 2010, Quirk", "March 2010, Quirk Books published a prequel bySteve Hockensmiththat deals with Elizabeth Bennet's early days as a zombie hunter,Pride and Prejudice and Zombies: Dawn of the Dreadfuls.The2016 filmof Grahame-Smith's adaptation was released starringLily James,Sam RileyandMatt Smith. In 2011, authorMitzi Szeretoexpanded on the novel inPride and Prejudice: Hidden Lusts, a historical sex parody that parallels the original plot and writing style of Jane Austen. Marvel has also published their take on this classic by releasing a short comic series of five issues that stays true to the original storyline. The first issue was published on 1 April 2009 and was written by Nancy Hajeski.It was published as a graphic novel in 2010 with artwork by Hugo Petrus. Pamela Aidanis the author of a trilogy of books telling the story ofPride and Prejudicefrom Mr Darcy's point of view:Fitzwilliam Darcy, Gentleman. The books areAn Assembly Such as This,Duty and DesireandThese Three Remain. Detective novel authorP. D. Jameshas written", "D. Jameshas written a book titledDeath Comes to Pemberley, which is a murder mystery set six years after Elizabeth and Darcy's marriage. Sandra Lerner's sequel toPride and Prejudice,Second Impressions, develops the story and imagined what might have happened to the original novel's characters. It is written in the style of Austen after extensive research into the period and language and published in 2011 under the pen name of Ava Farmer. Jo Baker's bestselling 2013 novelLongbournimagines the lives of the servants ofPride and Prejudice.A cinematic adaptation ofLongbournwas due to start filming in late 2018, directed bySharon Maguire, who also directedBridget Jones's DiaryandBridget Jones's Baby, screenplay byJessica Swale, produced by Random House Films and StudioCanal.The novel was also adapted for radio, appearing on BBC Radio 4'sBook at Bedtime, abridged by Sara Davies and read bySophie Thompson. It was first broadcast in May 2014; and again on Radio 4 Extra in September 2018. In the novelEligible,Curtis", "Sittenfeldsets the characters ofPride and Prejudicein modern-day Cincinnati, where the Bennet parents, erstwhile Cincinnati social climbers, have fallen on hard times. Elizabeth, a successful and independent New York journalist, and her single older sister Jane must intervene to salvage the family's financial situation and get their unemployed adult sisters to move out of the house and onward in life. In the process they encounter Chip Bingley, a young doctor and reluctant reality TV celebrity, and his medical school classmate, Fitzwilliam Darcy, a cynical neurosurgeon. Pride and Prejudicehas also inspired works of scientific writing. In 2010, scientists named a pheromone identified in male mouse urinedarcin,after Mr Darcy, because it strongly attracted females. In 2016, a scientific paper published in theJournal of Inherited Metabolic Diseasespeculated that Mrs Bennet may have been a carrier of a rare genetic disease, explaining why the Bennets didn't have any sons, and why some of the Bennet sisters are so", "sisters are so silly. In summer 2014, Udon Entertainment's Manga Classics line published a manga adaptation ofPride and Prejudice. References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride_%26_Prejudice_(2005_film", "Joe Wright Joseph Wright(born 25 August 1972) is an English film director. His motion pictures include adaptations ofPride & Prejudice(2005),Atonement(2007),Anna Karenina(2012), andCyrano(2021), the action thrillerHanna(2011), thePeter Panorigin storyPan(2015)andDarkest Hour(2017). Early life and career Wright always had an interest in the arts, especially painting.He also made films on hisSuper 8camera and spent time in the evenings acting in a drama club. Wright isdyslexic. He went toIslington GreenSecondary School, but left without anyGCSEs. He began his career working at his parents' puppet theatre, theLittle Angel Theatrein Islington. He also took classes at the Anna Scher Theatre School and acted professionally on stage and camera. He spent an artfoundationyear atCamberwell College of Arts, before taking a degree in fine art and film atCentral St Martinswhere he was tutored byMalcolm Le GriceandVera Neubauer. In his last year of studies he received a scholarship to make ashort filmfor theBBCthat won", "theBBCthat won several awards. During the 1990s, he worked at Oil Factory, amusic videoproduction companybased in Caledonian Road, Kings Cross. He worked on a variety of productions in numerous roles, including casting director. Here, he was able to get the opportunity to direct some music videos. Alongside this, particularly on the strength of his short film work, he was also developingThe End, his second short film. During this decade, he also worked part-time as a roadie for Vegetable Vision, who created visuals for electronic music bands such asChemical Brothers,Darren Emerson,UnderworldandAndrew Weatherall. Wright attributes some of the aesthetic and emotion of the UKravescene as an influence on his work. Television On the success of his first short film, Wright was offered the script for the serialNature Boy(2000). He followed this up with the serialsBodily Harm(2002) withTimothy Spalland the highly acclaimedCharles II: The Power and the Passion(2003) withRufus Sewell, which won theBAFTA Awardfor Best", "Awardfor Best Drama Serial. In 2022, Wright began directing aneight-part adaptationof the bestselling novelM: Son of the Century, ahistorical novelbyAntonio Scuratirecounting the rise of Italian dictatorBenito Mussolini. In 2023, Wright was developing an adaptation forHBOof the bestselling non-fiction bookEmpty Mansions: The Mysterious Life of Huguette Clark and the Spending of a Great American FortuneaboutheiressHuguette Clark, daughter ofcopperbaron andUnited States SenatorWilliam A. Clark. Feature films In 2005, Wright made the transition to feature films with his critically acclaimed adaptation ofPride & PrejudicestarringKeira KnightleyandMatthew Macfadyen. It received numerous accolades, nominations and awards, including fourAcademy Awardnominations (includingBest Actress) and sixBAFTAnominations (Wright won for Most Promising Newcomer). Wright's next feature was an adaptation ofIan McEwan'sBooker Prize-shortlisted novelAtonement(2007), which reunited Wright withKeira Knightley, and also starsJames", "and also starsJames McAvoyandSaoirse Ronan. It was nominated for sevenGolden GlobeAwards, more than any other film that year. Though Wright was not nominated for director, the film received seven Academy Award nominations, winning only for Best Original Score. At the BAFTA Awards, it received 14 nominations and won Best Film and Best Production Design. Wright's next film wasThe Soloist,starringJamie FoxxandRobert Downey, Jr.It is about the \"true story of musical prodigyNathaniel Ayers, who developed schizophrenia in his second year atJuilliardand ended up homeless on the streets of downtown L.A. where he performs the violin and cello.\"It was to be released on 21 November 2008, but was pushed back to 24 April 2009. Wright reunited withAtonementstarSaoirse Ronanfor the 2011 action thrillerHanna. The title character is a 15-year-old girl trained since birth to be an assassin by her father (Eric Bana), a rogue CIA asset. It received mostly positive reviews, withRoger Ebertcalling it a \"first-rate thriller\".It", "thriller\".It received an aggregate score of 65 from Metacritic (\"generally positive\" reviews). Wright directed the2012 screen adaptationby SirTom StoppardofLeo Tolstoy's classic novelAnna Karenina. The cast includedKeira Knightleyas Anna,Jude Lawas her husband,Aaron Taylor-Johnsonas her young love, Irish actorDomhnall Gleesonas Konstantin Levin, as well asKelly Macdonald,Olivia Williams,Matthew MacfadyenandMichelle Dockery.Saoirse RonanandAndrea Riseboroughwere initially cast, but dropped out and were replaced byAlicia VikanderandRuth Wilson, respectively. Wright then directed the2015 prequeltoPeter Panfor Warner Bros. The film starredHugh Jackman,Garrett Hedlund,Rooney Mara,Amanda SeyfriedandLevi Milleras Peter. The screenplay by actor-turned-screenwriterJason Fuchswas from the 2013Hollywood Black List, a selection of popular unproduced scripts.The film was negatively received by critics and was considered a commercial flop, failing to recoup its budget at the box office.Rooney Mara's casting as Tiger Lily", "as Tiger Lily caused acontroversy, due to her being ofEuropeanancestry, while Tiger Lily is traditionally portrayed asNative American. Wright's 2017 filmDarkest Hourcovers a pivotal month in the life of former British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill. It starsGary Oldmanas Churchill, along withBen Mendelsohn,Ronald Pickup,David Schofield,Kristin Scott Thomas,Samuel WestandLily James.Wright said the film was a rebuke toDonald Trump. Directorial trademarks Wright won aBAFTA awardfor best newcomer forPride & Prejudiceand was the youngest director to have a film open theVenice Film FestivalwithAtonement.According to the director's commentary onPride & Prejudice, Wright is influenced by the work of British film directorDavid Lean, and possessing a certain knowledge ofart history, tries sometimes to compose his shots after classical paintings. Charles II: The Power and The Passion,Pride & Prejudice,AtonementandHannaall have longtracking shotsin them.Atonementhas a continuous five-minute and five second shot of", "five second shot of theDunkirk evacuation. \"Basically, I just like showing off\", Wright told the audience at theHay Festival. Personal life After meeting on the set ofPride & Prejudice, Wright began a relationship with actressRosamund Pike. They were engaged from 2007 to 2008. Wright was married to British-AmericansitaristAnoushka Shankarfrom 2010 until 2019.They have two sons, Zubin and Mohan, born in 2011 and 2015.They separated in December 2017 and their divorce was finalized in September 2019 as a judge concluded that Wright had committed adultery and that his wife found living with him \"intolerable\". Since 2017, Wright has been in a relationship with American actressHaley Bennett. Their daughter was born in 2018 inBrooklyn Heights.As of 2019, the family resides in the UK inSomerset. Filmography Short film Feature film Director Executive producer Television Commercial work Awards and nominations Directed Academy Award performances References External links" ]
Using only the Winter and Summer Olympic events that occurred in the same country in the same year, which year had the most total combined women competing in the olympics?
1936
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Olympic_Games
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Olympic_Games
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_Winter_Olympics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Winter_Olympics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Olympic_Games', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Olympic_Games', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_Winter_Olympics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Winter_Olympics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Olympic_Games", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Olympic_Games", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_Winter_Olympics", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Winter_Olympics", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics" ]
[ "Winter Olympic Games TheWinter Olympic Games(French:Jeux olympiques d'hiver), also known as theWinter Olympics, is a major internationalmulti-sport eventheld once every four years for sports practiced on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympic Games, the1924 Winter Olympics, were held inChamonix, France. The modern Olympic Games were inspired by theancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from 776 BCE to 394 CE. TheBaron Pierre de Coubertinof France founded theInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) 1,500 years later in 1894, leading to the first modernSummer Olympic Gamesin Athens, Greece in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of theOlympic Movement, with theOlympic Charterdefining its structure and authority. The original five Winter Olympic Sports (consisting of nine disciplines) werebobsleigh,curling,ice hockey,Nordic skiing(consisting of the disciplinesmilitary patrol,cross-country skiing,Nordic combined, andski jumping), andskating(consisting of the disciplinesfigure skatingandspeed skating).The Games were held every four years from 1924 to 1936, interrupted in 1940 and 1944 byWorld War II, and resumed in1948. Until 1992, theSummer Olympic Gamesand the Winter Olympic Games were held in the same year. A decision to change this was made in 1986, when during the91st International Olympic Committee session, IOC members decided to alternate the Summer Olympic Games and the Winter Olympic Games on separate four-year cycles in even-numbered years. Also, at that same congress it was decided that1992 Winter Olympicswould be the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games and that to change the rotation, the games that would be held in 1996 would be brought forward by two years, being scheduled to1994. After those games, the next were to beheld in 1998when the four-year Olympic Cycle resumed. The Winter Olympic Games have evolved since their inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such asalpine skiing,luge,short track speed skating,freestyle skiing,skeleton, andsnowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic program. Some others, includingcurlingandbobsleigh, have been discontinued and later reintroduced; others have been permanently discontinued, such asmilitary patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport ofbiathlonis descended from it.Still others, such asspeed skiing,bandyandskijoring, weredemonstration sportsbut never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It generated income via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address numerous criticisms over the decades like internal scandals, the use ofperformance-enhancing drugsby Winter Olympians, as well as a politicalboycottof the Winter Olympic Games. Countries have used the Winter Olympic Games as well as the Summer Olympic Games to proclaim the superiority of their political systems. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted on three continents by thirteen countries, all of whom are located in theNorthern Hemisphere. They have been held four times in theUnited States(1932,1960,1980, and2002), three times inFrance(1924,1968, and1992) and twice each inSwitzerland(1928and1948),Austria(1964and1976),Norway(1952and1994),Japan(1972and1998),Italy(1956and2006) andCanada(1988and2010). Also, the Winter Olympic Games have been held just once each inGermany(1936),Yugoslavia(1984),Russia(2014),South Korea(2018), andChina(2022). The IOC has selected the Italian cities ofMilanandCortina d'Ampezzoto host the2026 Winter Olympics.The Winter Olympics are usually held in February, during the winter season of the Northern Hemisphere. As of 2024, no city in theSouthern Hemispherehas applied to host the Winter Olympic Games in the month of August (during the winter months of the Southern Hemisphere). As of 2022, twelve countries have participated in every Winter Olympic Games – Austria, Canada,Finland, France,Great Britain,Hungary, Italy, Norway,Poland,Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. Also, Czechoslovakia participated in all Winter Olympic Games before itsdissolutionand its successors, Czech Republic and Slovakia have participated in all Winter Games thereafter. Six of these countries have won medals at every Winter Olympic Games – Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and the United States. The only country to have won a gold medal at every Winter Olympic Games is the United States. Norway leads theall-time medal recordfor the Winter Olympic Games. When including defunct states, Germany (comprising the former countries of West Germany and East Germany) leads, followed by Norway, Russia (including the former Soviet Union), and the United States. History Early years A predecessor, theNordic Games, were organised by GeneralViktor Gustaf BalckinStockholm, Sweden, in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926.Balck was a charter member of theIOCand a close friend ofOlympic GamesfounderPierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specificallyfigure skating, added to the Olympic programme but was unsuccessful until the1908 Summer Olympicsin London.Four figure skating events were contested, at whichUlrich Salchow(10-time world champion) andMadge Syerswon the individual titles. Three years later, Italian countEugenio Brunetta d'Usseauxproposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the1912 Summer Olympicsin Stockholm, Sweden. The organisers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports. The idea was resurrected for the1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. Awinter sports weekwithspeed skating, figure skating,ice hockeyandNordic skiingwere planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak ofWorld War I. 1920 to 1936 The first Olympics after the war, the1920 Summer Olympics, were held inAntwerp, Belgium,and featured figure skatingand an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the games. At theIOC Congressheld the following year it was decided that the host nation of the1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate \"International Winter Sports Week\" under the patronage of the IOC.Chamonixwas chosen to host this week (actually 11 days) of events. The 1924 gamesin Chamonix proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events.Athletesfrom Finlandand Norwaywon 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined.The first gold medal awarded was won byCharles Jewtrawof the United States in the 500-meter speed skate.Sonja Henieof Norway, at just 11 years old, competed in the ladies' figure skating and, although finishing last, became popular with fans.Gillis Grafströmof Sweden defended his 1920 gold medalin men's figure skating, becoming the first Olympian to win gold medals in both Summer and Winter Olympics.Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games calledDeutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate winter event and the 1924 games in Chamonix were retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics. St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host thesecond Winter Gamesin 1928.Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. Theopening ceremonywas held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the games.Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed-skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled.The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 games:Sonja HenieofNorwayreturned to the Winter Olympics to make history when she won theladies' figure skatingat the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she held for 70 years, and went on to defend her title at the next two Winter Olympics.Gillis Grafströmwon his third consecutive figure skating goldand went on to win silver in 1932,becoming the most decorated men's figure skater to date. Thenext Winter Olympics, held in Lake Placid, New York, United States was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated.This was less than in 1928, as the journey toLake Placidwas too long and expensive for some European nations that encountered financial problems in the midst of theGreat Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports.Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and there was not enough snow to hold all the events until mid-January.Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title,andEddie Eaganof the United States, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920,won the gold medal in themen's bobsleigh eventto joinGillis Grafströmas the only athletes to have won gold medals in both theSummerand Winter Olympics.Eagan has the distinction as the only Olympian as of 2020 to accomplish this feat in different sports. The German towns ofGarmisch and Partenkirchenjoined to organise the1936 Winter Games, held from 6–16 February.This was the last time theSummerand Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year.Alpine skiingmade its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals.Because of this decisionthe Swissand Austrianskiers refused to compete at the games. World War IIinterrupted the Winter Olympics. The1940 gameshad been awarded toSapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japaneseinvasionof China. The games were then to be held at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, but the 1940 games were cancelled following the Germaninvasion of Polandin 1939.Due to the ongoing war, the1944 games, originally scheduled forCortina D'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled. 1948 to 1962 St. Moritz was selected to host thefirst post-war games, in 1948. Switzerland's neutrality had protected the town during World War II, and most venues from the 1928 games remained in place, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice.Twenty-eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited.Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from theUnited Statesarrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. TheOlympic flagpresented at the1920 Summer Olympicsin Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these games, during which 10 countries won gold medals—more than any games to that point. TheOlympic Flametradition wasintroduced at the 1952 gamesinOslo, when the flame was lit in the fireplace by Norwegian skiing pioneerSondre Nordheimand the first Winter torch relay was conducted by 94 torchbearers entirely on their skis.Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, thoughonly Norway,Sweden,and Finlandfielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations.They were led byHjalmar Andersenwho won three gold medals in four events in thespeed skatingcompetition. After not being able to host the games in 1944,Cortina d'Ampezzowas selected to organise the1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torchbearer, Guido Caroli, entered theOlympic Stadiumon ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell and burned his arm, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron.These were the first Winter Games to be televised, and the first Olympics ever broadcast to an international audience, though no television rights were sold until the1960 Summer OlympicsinRome.The Cortina games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. TheSoviet Unionmade its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation.The Soviets' immediate success might be explained by the advent of the state-sponsored \"full-time amateur athlete\". TheUSSRentered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train full-time.Chiharu Igayawon the first Winter Olympics medalfor Japanand the continent of Asia when he placed second in the slalom. The IOC awarded the1960 OlympicstoSquaw Valley, United States.the announcement of its selection came as a shock as the resort was undeveloped and unknown outside the United States.About US$80,000,000 was spent over four years to build the completely non-existent infrastructure.The opening and closing ceremonies were the firsts produced byWalt DisneyCompany.The Squaw Valley Olympics was the first Winter Games to have a dedicated athletes' village,the first to use a computer (courtesy ofIBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. This edition is the only one to date to not have bobsleigh competitions, as the number of countries registered in the event was insufficient and the costs of building the track were too high for the Organizing Committee.To replace the event, an extra edition from theFIBT World Championship was held. 1964 to 1980 The Austrian city ofInnsbruckwas the host in1964. For the first time, the Olympic torch of the Winter Olympic Games was lit at the traditional ritual held in the temple of Olympia.Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, unprojected warm weather caused a lack of snow and organisers were unable to save enough snow to be used during the Games, and the Austrian army was enlisted to transport snow and ice from other places to the sports venues.Sovietspeed-skaterLidia Skoblikovamade history by winning all four-speed skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes.Also, for the first timeLugewas added to the Olympic program, but the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run. Held in the French town ofGrenoble, the1968 Winter Olympicswere the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour. There were 1,158 athletes from 37 nations competing in 35 events.Frenchalpine ski racerJean-Claude Killybecame only the second person to win all the men's alpine skiing events. Due the high interest around the world, the organising committee sold television rights for US$2 million, which was more than twice the cost of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games.For the first time, the organizers chose to decentralize the Games to save costs and the events were spread across three long distances clusters, which led to the need to build three Olympic Villages.Along the high costs, the organisers claimed that this was necessary to accommodate technological advances, however, critics disputed this, alleging that the layout would incorporate the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the athletes' expense. The1972 Winter Games, held inSapporo, Japan,were the first to be hosted on a continent other than North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism was disputed during these Games when a number of alpine skiers were found to have participated in a ski camp atMammoth Mountainin the United States; three days before the opening ceremony, IOC presidentAvery Brundagethreatened to bar the skiers from competing in the Games as he insisted that they were no longer amateurs having benefited financially from their status as athletes.Eventually onlyAustrianKarl Schranz, who earned more than the other skiers, was excluded from the competition.Canada boycotted the1972and the1976 ice hockey tournamentsin protest at not being able to use players from professional leagues.Canadian authorities also accused the Soviet Union of using state-sponsored athletes, who were de facto professionals.Francisco Fernández Ochoabecame the first and, as of 2022, the onlySpaniardto win a Winter Olympic gold medal when he triumphed in theslalom. The1976 Winter Olympicshad initially been awarded in 1970 toDenver,Coloradoin the United States. These Games would have coincided with the year of Colorado'scentennialand theUnited States Bicentennial. However, the increasing costs of the event and the oil crisis led to a local plebiscite held in November 1972, that resulted in the city withdrawing from hosting the Games, as the people of Colorado voted against public funding of the Games by a 3:2 margin.The IOC responded by offering the Games toVancouver-Garibaldi,British ColumbiainCanada, which had previously been a finalist bid for the 1976 Games. However, a change in the provincial government resulted in an administration that did not support the Olympic bid, so the IOC's offer was rejected. Salt Lake City, previously a candidate for the 1972 Winter Olympics, then put itself forward, but a tense political situation led IOC to invite Innsbruck to host the 1976 Games, as all the infrastructure used during the 1964 Games had been maintained. Despite only having half the usual time to prepare for the Games, Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973.During the opening ceremonies, two cauldrons were lit because it was the second time that the Austrian town had hosted the Winter Games.The 1976 Games featured the firstcombination bobsleigh-and-luge track, in neighbouringIgls.TheSoviet Unionwon its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal. In 1980the Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games.Unlike previous editions, Lake Placid had no competitors in this bid process.Cyprusmade their Olympic debut at the games. People's Republic of China and the first tropical nationCosta Ricacompeted for the first at the Winter Games. TheRepublic of Chinaboycoted the Games, in protest of the IOC's recognition of thePeople's Republic of Chinaas the only \"China\", and its request for the Republic of China to compete as \"Chinese Taipei\". The PRC, on the other hand, returned to the Olympics for the first time since 1952 and made its Winter Olympic debut. Americanspeed-skaterEric Heidenset either an Olympic or World record in every one of the fiveeventsin which he competed, winning a total of five individual gold medals and breaking the record for most individual golds in a single Olympics (both Summer and Winter).Hanni Wenzelwon both the slalom and giant slalom and her country,Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist.In the \"Miracle on Ice\", theAmerican hockey teamcomposed of college players beat the favoured seasoned professionals from theSoviet Union, and progressed to eventually win the gold medal. 1984 to 1998 Sapporo, Japan, andGothenburg, Sweden, were front-runners to host the1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise whenSarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host.The Games were well-organised and not affected by the run-up to thewarthat engulfed the country eight years later.A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skierJure Frankowon silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance ofBritishice dancersJayne TorvillandChristopher Dean; theirBoléroroutine received unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression, earning them the gold medal. In 1988, the Canadian city ofCalgaryhosted thefirst Winter Olympicsto span three weekends, lasting for a total of 16 days.New events were added in ski-jumping and speed skating, while future Olympic sports curling,short track speed skatingandfreestyle skiingmade their debut appearance as demonstration sports. The speed skating events were held indoors for the first time, on theOlympic Oval. Dutch skaterYvonne van Gennipwon three gold medals and set two world records, beating skaters from the favouredEast German teamin every race. Her medal total was equalled byFinnishski jumperMatti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport.Alberto Tomba,an Italianskier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom. East GermanChrista Rothenburgerwon the women's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at theSummer GamesinSeoul, to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.The 1988 games are well remembered in popular culture from two films based on its events:Cool Runningsabout the Jamaican bobsled team; andEddie the Eagleabout British ski jumperMichael Edwards, who finished last but set a British record of 73.5 metres. The1992 Winter Gameswere the last to be held in the same year as theSummer Games.They were hosted in the FrenchSavoieregion, with 18 events held in the city ofAlbertvilleand the remaining events spread out over the Savoie.Political changes of the time were reflected in the composition of the Olympic teams competing in France: this was the first Games to be held after thefall of Communismand thefall of the Berlin Wall, and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games. FormerYugoslavianrepublicsCroatiaandSloveniamade their debuts as independent nations; most of the formerSovietrepublics still competed as a single team known as theUnified Team, but theBaltic Statesmade independent appearances for the first time since before World War II.At 16 years old,Finnishski jumperToni Nieminenmade history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion.New ZealandskierAnnelise Cobergerbecame the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women's slalom. The1994 Winter Olympics, held inLillehammer, Norway, were the first Winter Games to be held in a different year from the Summer Games. This change resulted from the decision reached in the91st IOC Session (1986)to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even-numbered years.Lillehammer is the northernmost city to ever host the Winter Games. It was the second time the Games were held in Norway, after the1952 Winter OlympicsinOslo, and the first time theOlympic Trucewas observed. As a result, after thedissolution of Czechoslovakiain 1993, theCzech RepublicandSlovakiamade their Olympic debuts. The women's figure skating competition drew media attention whenAmerican skaterNancy Kerriganwas injured on 6 January 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponentTonya Harding.Both skaters competed in the Games, but the gold medal was narrowly won byOksana Baiulwho becameUkraine's first Olympic champion, while Kerrigan won the silver medal.Johann Olav KossofNorwaywon three gold medals, coming first in all of the distance speed skating events. 13-year-oldKim Yoon-Mibecame the youngest-ever Olympic gold medallist when South Korea won the women's 3,000-metre speed skating relay.Bjørn Dæhliof Norway won a medal in four out of five cross-country events, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympian until then.Russiawon the most events, with eleven gold medals, while Norway achieved 26 podium finishes, collecting the most medals overall on home ground.Juan Antonio Samaranchdescribed Lillehammer as \"the best Olympic Winter Games ever\" in his closing ceremony speech. The1998 Winter Olympicswere held in the Japanese city ofNaganoand were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes.TheNational Hockey Leagueallowed its players to participate in the men'sice hockey tournamentfor the first time, and theCzech Republicwon the tournament. Women's ice hockey made its debut, and theUnited Stateswon the gold medal.Bjørn DæhlieofNorwaywon three gold medals in Nordic skiing, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete, with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall.AustrianHermann Maiersurvived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in thesuper-Gand the giant slalom.Tara Lipinskiof theUnited States, aged just 15, became the youngest ever female gold medallist in an individual event when she won theLadies' Singles, a record that had stood sinceSonja HenieofNorwaywon the same event, also aged 15, inSt. Moritz in 1928. New world records were set inspeed skatinglargely due to the introduction of theclap skate. 2002 to 2022 After a tumultuous host city process, the2002 Winter Olympicswere held inSalt Lake City, United States. 2,399 athletes from 77 National Olympic Committees participated in 78 events in 7 sports.These Games were the first to take place since theSeptember 11 attacksof 2001, which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack. The opening ceremony saw signs of theaftermath of the events of that day, including the flag that flew atGround Zero, and honour guards of NYPD andFDNYmembers. GermanGeorg Hacklwon a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics.Canadaachieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men's and women'sice hockeygold medals.Canada became embroiled withRussiain acontroversythat involved the judging of thepairs figure skatingcompetition. The Russian pair ofYelena BerezhnayaandAnton Sikharulidzecompeted against the Canadian pair ofJamie SaléandDavid Pelletierfor the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. TheFrenchjudge,Marie-Reine Le Gougne, awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return, the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition. The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a secondmedal ceremonyheld later in the Games.AustralianSteven Bradburybecame the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short-track speed skating event. The Italian city ofTurinhosted the2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games.South Koreanathletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short-track speed skating events.Sun-Yu Jinwon three gold medals while her teammateHyun-Soo Ahnwon three gold medals and a bronze.In the women'sCross-Countryteam pursuitCanadianSara Rennerbroke one of her poles and, when he saw her dilemma,NorwegiancoachBjørnar Håkensmoendecided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth. On winning the Super-G,Kjetil-Andre Aamodtof Norway became the most decorated ski racer of all time with 4 gold and 8 overall medals. He is also the only ski racer to have won the same event at three Olympics, winning the Super-G in1992,2002, and2006.Claudia PechsteinofGermanybecame the first speed skater to earn nine career medals. In February 2009, Pechstein tested positive for\"blood manipulation\"and received a two-year suspension, which she appealed. TheCourt of Arbitration for Sportupheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the2010 German Olympic team.This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, which overturned the lower court's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver. In 2003, the IOC awarded the2010 Winter OlympicstoVancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games.Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events.The death ofGeorgianlugerNodar Kumaritashviliin a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in theWhistler Sliding Centrechanging the track layout on safety grounds. Norwegiancross-country skierMarit Bjørgenwon five medals in the six cross-country events on the women's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze.For the first time,Canadawon a gold medal at an Olympic Games it hosted, having failed to do so at both the1976 Summer OlympicsinMontrealand the1988 Winter OlympicsinCalgary. In contrast to the lack of gold medals at these previous Olympics, the Canadian team finished first overall in gold medal wins,and became the first host nation—sinceNorway in 1952—to lead the gold medal count, with 14 medals. In doing so, it also broke the record for the most gold medals won by a NOC at a single Winter Olympics (the previous was 13, set by theSoviet Union in 1976and matched byNorway in 2002). The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of theRussianathletes. From their first Winter Olympics in1956to the 2006 Games, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal-winning nations, but in 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals.PresidentDmitry Medvedevcalled for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games.Russia's disappointing performance at Vancouver is cited as the reason behind theenhancement of an already existing doping schemealleged to have been in operation at major events such as the 2014 Games at Sochi. The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under-performing Russian team, with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries. At the Albertville Games in 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver, the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty-one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as Kazakhstan, South Korea, Japan and China. These results increased the chances of an Asian city hosting the2018 Winter Olympicsthat would be held the following year. Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city for the2014 Winter OlympicsoverSalzburg, Austria, andPyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time that Russia had hosted a Winter Olympics.The Games took place from 7 to 23 February 2014.A record 2,800 athletes from 88 countries competed in 98 events. The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on theBlack Seacoast. All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres (31 mi) away in the alpine region known asKrasnaya Polyana.The Games were the most expensive until the date, with a cost of £30 billion (US$51 billion). On the snow, Norwegian biathleteOle Einar Bjørndalentook two golds to bring his total tally of Olympic medals to 13, overtaking his compatriot Bjørn Dæhlie to become the most decorated Winter Olympian of all time. Another Norwegian, cross-country skierMarit Bjørgentook three golds; her total of ten Olympic medals tied her as the female Winter Olympian with most medals, alongsideRaisa SmetaninaandStefania Belmondo. SnowboarderAyumu Hiranobecame the youngest medallist on snow at the Winter Games when he took a silver in thehalfpipecompetition at the age of fifteen. On the ice, the Netherlands team dominated the speed skating events, taking 23 medals, four clean sweeps of the podium places and at least one medal in each of the twelve medal events.Ireen Wüstwas their most successful competitor, taking two golds and three silvers. In figure skating,Yuzuru Hanyubecame the first skater to break the 100-point barrier in the short programme on the way to winning the gold medal. Among the sledding disciplines, lugerArmin Zöggelertook a bronze, becoming the first Winter Olympian to secure a medal in six consecutive Games. Following their disappointing performance at the 2010 Games, and an investment of £600 million in elite sport,Russiainitially topped themedal table, taking 13 gold and 33 total medals.However,Grigory Rodchenkov, the former head of the Russian national anti-doping laboratory, subsequently claimed that he had been involved in doping dozens of Russian competitors for the Games, and that he had been assisted by the RussianFederal Security Servicein opening and re-sealing bottles containing urine samples so that samples with banned substances could be replaced with \"clean\" urine. A subsequentinvestigationcommissioned by theWorld Anti-Doping Agencyled byRichard McLarenconcluded that a state-sponsored doping programme had operated in Russia from \"at least late 2011 to 2015\" across the \"vast majority\" of Summer and Winter Olympic sports.On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced thatRussiawould compete as theOlympic Athletes from Russiaat the 2018 Winter Olympicsand by the end of 2017 theIOC Disciplinary Commissionhad disqualified 43 Russian athletes, stripping thirteen medals and knocking Russia from the top of the medal table, thus putting Norway in the lead.However, nine medals were later returned, meaning that Russia reclaimed first place in the overall medal table, and joint first place with Norway in terms of gold medals. On 6 July 2011,Pyeongchang, South Korea, was selected to host the2018 Winter OlympicsoverMunich, Germany, andAnnecy, France.This was the first time thatSouth Koreahad been selected to host a Winter Olympics and it was the second time the Olympics were held in the country overall, after the1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. The Games took place from 9 to 25 February 2018.More than 2,900 athletes from 92 countries participated in 102 events. The main venue cluster was theAlpensia ResortinDaegwallyeong-myeon, while the ice events are held atGangneung Olympic Parkin Pyeongchang's neighbouring sea-city ofGangneung. The lead-up to the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected bythe tensions between North and South Koreaand the ongoingRussian doping scandal. Despitetense relations,North Koreaagreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as aunified Korea, and field aunified teaminwomen's ice hockey. Russian athletes, who complied with the IOC's doping regulations, were given the option to compete in Pyeongchang as \"Olympic Athletes from Russia\" (OAR). The Games saw the addition ofbig air snowboarding,mass startspeed skating,mixed doubles curling, and mixed teamalpine skiingto the programme. Like four years early, the Netherlands again dominated speed skating, winning gold medals in seven of the ten individual events. Dutch speed skaterSven Kramerwon gold in the men's 5000m event, becoming the only male speed skater to win the same Olympic event three times. On the snow, Norway led the medal tally in cross-country skiing, withMarit Bjørgenwinning bronze in the women's team sprint and gold in the 30-kilometre classical event, bringing her total Olympic medal haul to fifteen, the most won by any athlete (male or female) in Winter Olympics history. Johannes Høsflot Klæboof Norway became the youngest ever male to win an Olympic gold in cross-country skiing when he won themen's sprintat age 21.Noriaki Kasaiof Japan became the first athlete in history to participate in eight Winter Olympics when he took part in the ski jumping qualification the day before the opening of the Games.Ester Ledeckáof the Czech Republic won gold in the skiing super-G event and another gold in the snowboarding parallel giant slalom, making her the first female athlete to win Olympic gold medals in two sports at a single Winter Games. Norway led the total medal standings with 39, the highest number of medals by a nation in any Winter Olympics, followed by Germany's 31 and Canada's 29. Host nationSouth Koreawon seventeen medals, five of them gold, its highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics. Beijing, the capital of thePeople's Republic of China, was elected as the host city for the2022 Winter Olympicson 31 July 2015 at the128th IOC Session. Beijing became the first city ever to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. Like the Summer Olympics held six months earlier inTokyo, theCOVID-19 pandemicresulted in the implementation of strict health and safety protocols, including restrictions on public attendance at the Games. The Games included a record 109 events over 15 disciplines in seven sports with seven new medal events, including mixed team competitions in freestyle skiing aerials, ski jumping, and snowboard cross. The Games were held between 4 and 20 February 2022 at venues in Beijing andZhangjiakouwhich for the first time were run entirely onrenewable energy. Several of the events were impacted by temperatures as low as minus 20Celsiusand strong wind. The first gold medal of the Games was won byTherese JohaugofNorwayin the women's skiathlon. Johaug had been excluded from the 2018 Winter Olympics in a controversial decision after having used a banned cream for sunburned lips. She went on to also win the women's 10 km and 30 km cross-country distances. In the women's snowboard cross,Lindsey Jacobellisof theUnited Stateswon the gold, having lost the gold 16 years earlier at the2006 Winter Olympicsin Torino due to a brutal fall. On the ice, theNetherlandsdominated with a total of six gold medals andIrene Schoutenwinning the women's mass start, 3,000m and 5,000m distances.Nils van der PoelofSwedenwon the men's 5,000m and 10,000m distances, setting new Olympic records in both distances.Kamila ValievaofRussiawas allowed to compete in thewomen's figure skatingdespite a failed doping test in December 2021. She failed, however, to win an individual medal after falling in her final routine. Russia'steam gold medalremained in limbo for two years, pending investigation into Valieva's positive drug test, before theCourt of Arbitration for Sport(CAS) disqualified Valieva for four years retroactive to 25 December 2021, leading the ISU to re-allocate the medals, upgrading the United States to gold and Japan to silver while downgrading the ROC to bronze.Finlandclaimed its first ice hockey gold, having beaten the Russian Olympic Committee in the men's final on the last day of the Games. Norway was first in the overall medal standings, claiming 37 medals in total and 16 gold medals, the highest number of gold medals of any country in a single Winter Olympics. This was the ninth time Norway claimed the highest number of gold medals at the Winter Games. Future The2026 Winter Olympicswill be held inMilan-Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, and take place between 6 and 22 February 2026.At the142nd IOC Sessionin July 2024, it was confirmed that the2030 Winter Olympicswill be hosted by France in theFrench Alps.The2034 Winter Olympicswas also awarded simultaneously to be hosted by the United States inSalt Lake City, Utah, where the Olympics were held previously in 2002. Problems and politics Controversy The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny afterSalt Lake Cityhad been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games.Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate briberyschemeto curry favour with IOC officials.Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC presidentJuan Antonio Samaranchreceived two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member. The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Olympics (both Summer and Winter) since 1988.For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano's bid for the1998 Winter Olympicswere described by the investigation committee as \"astronomical\".Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities. Host city legacy According to the IOC, the host city for the Winter Olympics is responsible for \"...establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services, etc., as well as operations during the Games\".Due to the cost of hosting the Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment.For example, the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin, Italy, cost $3.6 billion to host. By comparison, the1998 Winter OlympicsinNagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion.The organisers of the Nagano Games claimed that the cost of extending thebullet trainservice from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee had hoped that the exposure gained from hosting the Winter Olympics, and the improved access to Nagano from Tokyo, would benefit the local economy for years afterwards. In fact, Nagano's economy did experience a post-Olympic boom for a year or two, but the long-term effects have not materialised as anticipated.The likelihood of heavy debt is a deterrent to prospective host cities, as well as the prospect of unused sports venues and infrastructure saddling the local community with upkeep costs with no appreciable post-Olympic value. The Winter Olympics has the added problem of the alpine events requiring a mountain location; the men's downhill needs an 800-metre altitude difference along a suitable course. As this is a focal event that is central to the Games, the IOC has previously not agreed to it taking place a long way from the main host city,in contrast to the Summer Games, where sailing and horse sports have taken place more than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) away. The requirement for a mountain location also means that venues such as hockey arenas often have to be built in sparsely populated areas with little future need for a large arena and for the hotels and infrastructure needed for all Olympic visitors. Due to cost issues, fewer and fewer cities are willing to host. Both theTorino 2006andVancouver 2010Games, which were hosted in countries where large cities are located close to suitable mountain regions, had lower costs since more venues, hotels and transport infrastructure already existed. In contrast, theSochi 2014games had large costs as most installations had to be built. The IOC has tried to mitigate these concerns. Firstly, it has agreed to fund part of the host city's budget.Secondly, the qualifying host countries are limited to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting their region or nation; this rules out a large portion of the developing world.Finally, any prospective host city is required to add a \"legacy plan\" to their proposal, with a view to the long-term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have. Beginning with the2022 Winter Games, the IOC is allowing a longer distance between the alpine events and other events. TheOslo bidhad 220 kilometres (140 mi) to theKvitfjelldownhill arena, while eventual host Beijing had venues 220 km away from the city as well. For the 2026 Winter Games,Stockholm's unsuccessful bidproposed to hold the alpine event inÅre, 620 kilometres (390 mi) away by road. Doping In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics.The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance wasAlois Schloder, aWest Germanhockey player,but his team was still allowed to compete.During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs.The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug-testing protocols.The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independentWorld Anti-Doping Agency(WADA) in November 1999. The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend ofblood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such asErythropoietin(EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue.The Italian police conducted a raid on theAustriancross-country ski team's residence during the Games where they seized blood-doping specimens and equipment.This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels ofhaemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping. The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi's Russian Doping Scandal has resulted in the International Olympic Committee to begin disciplinary proceedings against 28 (later increased to 46) Russian athletes who competed at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia, acting on evidence that their urine samples were tampered with. Cold War The Winter Olympics were an ideological front in theCold Warsince theSoviet Unionfirst participated at the1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. The advent of the state-sponsored \"full-time amateur athlete\" of theEastern Bloccountries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. TheSoviet Unionentered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism until the '90s. The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics.In 1950, the IOC recognised theWest German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games.East Germany declined and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955, the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany's campaign to become an independent participant. The IOC agreed provisionally to accept theEast German National Olympic Committeeon condition that East and West Germans compete as one team.The situation became tense when theBerlin Wallwas constructed by East Germany in 1961 to stop migration of its citizens and Western European nations began refusing visas to East German athletes.The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC split the teams and threatened to reject host-city bids from any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes. Boycott The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games, the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the \"People's Republic of China\" (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name \"Republic of China\" (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem.The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the \"Republic of China\". The IOC renamed the island \"Chinese Taipei\" and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations to which Taiwan would not agree. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings, the IOC's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies.Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day. Sports TheOlympic Charterlimitswinter sportsto \"those sports which are practised on snow or ice\".Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme, which include short-track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in these new sports. The results are more parity in the national medal tables, more interest in the Winter Olympics, and higher global television ratings. Current sports Demonstration events Demonstration sportshave historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after1992.Military patrol, a precursor to thebiathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960.Thespecial figuresfigure skating event was only contested at the1908 Summer Olympics.Bandy(Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it is considered anational sport.It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria.Theski balletevent, later known as ski-acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992.Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928.Asled-dog racewas held at Lake Placid in 1932.Speed skiingwas demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics.Winter pentathlon, a variant of themodern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It includedcross-country skiing,shooting,downhill skiing,fencing, andhorse riding. All-time medal table The table below uses official data provided by theIOC. Medal leaders by year Number of occurrences List of Winter Olympic Games See also Notes References Sources External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Summer_Olympic_Games (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ca9de0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "1932 Winter Olympics The1932 Winter Olympics, officially known as theIII Olympic Winter Gamesand commonly known asLake Placid 1932, were a wintermulti-sport eventin the United States, held inLake Placid, New York, United States. The games opened on February 4 and closed on February 13. It was the first time the Winter Games were held outside of Europe and the first of fourWinter Olympicsheld in the United States; Lake Placid hosted again in1980. The games were awarded to Lake Placid in part by the efforts ofGodfrey Dewey, head of theLake Placid Cluband son ofMelvil Dewey, inventor of theDewey Decimal System.California also had a bid for the 1932 Winter Games.William May Garland, president of the California X Olympiad Association, wanted the games to take place inWrightwoodandBig Pines, California. The world's largest ski jump at the time was constructed in Big Pines for the event,but the games were ultimately awarded to Lake Placid. The practice of awarding Olympic medals atpodiumceremonies was established at the 1932 Winter Olympics, based on pedestals used at the1930 British Empire Games, as proposed byMelville Marks Robinson. Highlights Events Medals were awarded in 14 events contested in 4 sports (7 disciplines). Demonstration sports The Games also included events in threedemonstration sports. Venues Participating nations Athletes from 17 nations competed in these Games, down from 25 nations at the previous Games in 1928.Argentina,Estonia,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Mexico,the Netherlands, andYugoslaviadid not send athletes to Lake Placid. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees Medal count Podium sweeps See also References External links 44°17′06″N73°59′06″W / 44.285°N 73.985°W /44.285; -73.985", "1932 Summer Olympics The1932 Summer Olympics(officially theGames of the X Olympiadand also known asLos Angeles 1932) were an international multi-sport event held from July 30 to August 14, 1932, inLos Angeles, California, United States. The Games were held during the worldwideGreat Depression, with some nations not traveling to Los Angeles as a result;37countries competed, compared to the46at the1928 GamesinAmsterdam,and even then-U.S.PresidentHerbert Hooverdid not attend the Games.The organizing committee did not report the financial details of the Games, although contemporary newspapers stated that the Games had made aprofitofUS$1 million (equivalent toUS$18.19 million in 2023). Host city selection The selection of the host city for the 1932 Summer Olympics was made at the 23rd IOC Session inRome, Italy, on April 9, 1923. Remarkably, the selection process consisted of a single bid, from Los Angeles’ Olympic Committee led byBilly May Garland, and as there were no bids from any other city, Los Angeles was selected by default to host the 1932 Games. Highlights Facilities and opening ceremony Charles Curtisbecame the first and onlyU.S. Vice Presidentto inaugurate theOlympic Games. AnOlympic Villagewas built for the first time and became a model for future games, inBaldwin Hills, occupied by male athletes.Female athletes were housed at the Chapman Park Hotel onWilshire Boulevard. Tenth Street, a major thoroughfare in Los Angeles, was renamedOlympic Boulevardin honor of the Games of the Tenth Olympiad. TheLos Angeles Memorial Coliseumwas known in 1932 asOlympic Stadium. The victory podium was used for the first time at the summer games (a podium was also used earlier in the year at the1932 Winter Olympicsin Lake Placid).AnOlympic mascot, Scottish TerrierSmoky, was featured for the first time in history, albeit unofficially. Athletics and field events Babe Didriksonwon two gold medals in thejavelinand the hurdles event. She also competed in a jump-off for a gold in the high jump. Her technique in the jump-off was ruled illegal, leaving Didrikson with second place. Finland'sPaavo Nurmiwas suspended from competition by theIAAFfor alleged violation of amateur rules. Finns charged that the Swedish officials had used devious tricks in their campaign against Nurmi's amateur status,and ceased all athletic relations with Sweden.A year earlier, controversies on the track and in the press had led Finland to withdraw from theFinland-Sweden athletics international.After Nurmi's suspension, Finland did not agree to return to the event until 1939. Eddie Tolanwon both the 100 m and 200 m sprint events. Poland'sStanisława Walasiewiczwon the gold medal in the women's 100 m; she also won the silver medal in the event four years later. After her death in 1980, it was discovered that she wasintersexand would have been ineligible to participate under modern rules. Due to an official's error, the3,000 m steeplechasewent for 3,460 m, or one extra lap. Several women's events debuted at these games, among them the80 meters hurdlesandjavelin throw.Babe Didriksonwon both events and also competed in thehigh jumpwhere she was controversially denied gold, leaving her with silver.As women, unlike men, were only allowed to enter a maximum of three events, Didrikson could not compete in the discus throw, long jump, and relay where she would have likely medaled based on her prior results. Had the 200 meters and pentathlon been contested at these games (they debuted in 1964), Didrikson would have won them easily based on her performances prior to the Olympics. Team sports Infield hockey, only three nations took part. The host nation lost both matches, 1–24 to India and 2–9 to Japan, but still won a bronze medal. Gymnastics Romeo Neriwon three gold medals in gymnastics. Although women's team gymnastics debuted in theprevious Olympics, the event was not held in these games; however, there were women gymnasts who traveled to Los Angeles and participated in exhibition events at the 1932 games. Swimming Helene Madisonwon three gold medals in swimming, while the Japanese upset the men's events and took all but one title.Kusuo Kitamurawon the gold medal in the men's 1500 meter freestyle swimming race. He was and continues to be the youngest ever male swimmer to win a gold medal at the Olympic Games. Equestrian Takeichi Nishi(Baron Nishi) was the gold medalist with his horse Uranus in the equestrianshow jumping individual event. Nishi's gold medal is Japan's only gold medal in the equestrian event to this day. Nishi died in 1945 as an officer stationed in the defense of the island ofIwo Jima, and as such is an important character inClint Eastwood's film,Letters from Iwo Jima. Cycling Dunc Graywon Australia's first cycling gold medal; he set a world record of 1m 13s in the 1000time trial. TheDunc Gray Velodrome, built for the2000 Sydney Olympic Games, was named after him. Medals awarded 117 events in 20 disciplines, comprising 14 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1932. In one of two Equestrian jumping events (team competitions) no medals were awarded. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Demonstration sports Art TheArt competitions at the 1932 Summer Olympicsawarded medals for works inspired by sport-related themes in five categories: architecture, literature, music, painting, and sculpture. Venues Fifteen sports venues were used for the 1932 Summer Olympics. In order to control costs in the wake of theGreat Depression, existing venues were used. They included twogolf courses, twocity parks, three public highways, and a city road. TheSwimming Stadiumwas the only new venue constructed for these games. TheRose Bowl, constructed in 1921, was made into a temporaryvelodromefortrack cyclingevents under the auspices of theUnion Cycliste Internationale(UCI).TheLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, constructed in 1923, was used as the Olympic Stadium.The Olympic Auditorium was constructed in 1924 in preparation for Los Angeles being awarded the Games; it was modified to meet the specifications of the boxing, weightlifting, and wrestling federations.Long Beach Marine Stadium was created in 1925 whenAlamitos Baywas dredged, then further dredged seven years later in time for the 1932 Games.Elysian Park, the oldest city park in Los Angeles, was founded in 1886, and has been part of theLos Angeles Police Department(LAPD) training academy since 1925.The Riviera Country Club opened in 1926 as theLos Angeles Athletic ClubGolf Course and was renamed Riviera by the time of the 1932 Games.The Swimming Stadium, constructed adjacent to the Coliseum in 1932, was intended to be a temporary structure.Riverside Drive, Los Angeles Avenue, Vineyard Avenue, and the Pacific Coast Highway were common driving routes inCaliforniaat the time of the 1932 Games. The Coliseum was the first (& temporary) Los Angeles home for the National League (NL)Dodgersbaseball team when it moved fromBrooklyn, New Yorkbefore the1958 season.The following year, it hosted the 2nd 1959MLB All-Star Gameand games 3, 4 & 5 of the 1959World Series.WhenDodger Stadiumwas completed in1962, the Dodgers moved there where they have been since.The National Football League (NFL)Los Angeles Ramsused the Coliseum as its host stadium from1946to1979when it moved toAnaheim, located southeast of Los Angeles.It also hosted what became known asSuper Bowl Iin 1967.Even theAmerican Football League'sChargersused the Coliseum as a venue in 1960 until their move toSan Diegothe following year.The Coliseum continues to hostUSC Trojans footballgames to this day, and also hostedUCLA Bruins footballfor a number of years. The Rams returned to the Coliseum for a span of four years from 2016 to 2019 whileSoFi Stadiumwas being built. The track constructed in the Rose Bowl was given to the Tournament of Roses Association upon completion of the 1932 Games.The Bowl was expanded between 1932 and the1984 Summer Olympicsthree times, increasing its capacity from 83,000 in 1931 to 104,594 in 1972.It hostedSuper Bowl XIin 1977, where theOakland Raidersdefeated theMinnesota Vikings32–14.It is the current home ofUCLA Bruins footballand theRose Bowl Game, and was the home of the Major League Soccer (MLS)Los Angeles Galaxyfrom 1996 to 2003. Elysian Park'sshooting rangewas left intact for the LAPD to use.Sunset Fields Golf Club was renamed Brentwood Country Club in 1941 and is still in use as of 2010.All of the road courses were returned to public usage after the Olympics.The Olympic Auditorium continued to be of use for boxing androller derbyeventsuntil June 2005 when it was bought to be used as a megachurch. Los Angeles Harbor continues to be a majorsea portin the Western United States, employing 919,000 people and generating US$39.1 billion in annual wages and tax revenues as of 2007.The Riveria Country Club continues to hostgolfevents, hosting the1948 U.S. Openand thePGA Championshipin1983and1995.The Swim Stadium was renovated in 2003 and continues to be in use as of 2010. For the1984 Summer Olympics, the Coliseum and the Rose Bowl were used asvenues. Participating nations A total of 37 nations were represented at the 1932 Games.Colombiamade its first appearance at the Olympic Games, and theRepublic of Chinacompeted for the first time after its failed appearance at the1924 Games. The nations that participated in the previous games in Amsterdam 1928 but was absent in Los Angeles 1932 wasBulgaria,Chile,Egypt,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Monaco,Panama,RhodesiaandRomania. At the time,AustraliaandNew Zealandwere dominions of theBritish Empire.Indiawas also part of the British Empire, but was not a dominion. With theStatute of Westminster 1931Ireland,CanadaandSouth Africaare recognized as sovereign states in their own right. The whole statute was applied to the three countries without the need for any acts of ratification. Philippineswas anunincorporated territoryandcommonwealthof theUnited States. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees Medal count These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1932 Games. Gallery See also Notes References External links", "1936 Winter Olympics The1936 Winter Olympics, officially known as theIV Olympic Winter Games(German:IV. Olympische Winterspiele) and commonly known asGarmisch-Partenkirchen 1936, were a wintermulti-sport eventheld from 6 to 16 February 1936 in themarket townofGarmisch-Partenkirchen,Germany. Germany also hosted the1936 Summer Olympics, which were held inBerlin. It was the last year in which the Summer and Winter Games both took place in the same country (the cancelled 1940 Olympics would have been held in Japan, withTokyohosting theSummer GamesandSapporohosting theWinter Games). The 1936 Winter Games were organized on behalf of theGerman League of the Reich for Physical Exercise(DRL) byKarl Ritter von Halt, who had been named president of the committee for the organization of the Fourth Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen byReichssportführerHans von Tschammer und Osten. Organization and politics While the1936 Summer Olympicsheld inBerlinmonths later have attracted extensive examination for theNazi Party's spectacles and the accompanying racial controversies – including the exclusion of mostJewishathletes andJesse Owens's achievements – the Winter Games took place five months earlier and saw some of the same efforts byAdolf Hitler's propaganda machine. Globally, there had been efforts to initiate boycotts from different countries, and a number of Jewish athletes faced pressure not to participate in an event held in a nation ruled by a blatantlyantisemiticregime. The Nazis took steps to soften the appearance of their harsher policies before visitors from other nations arrived, such as removing antisemitic signage that was common in Germany, and – under pressure from a potential American boycott and Olympic officials – allowing the Jewish athleteRudi Ballto play on Germany's ice hockey team. A few weeks before the Games began,William L. Shirer, the Berlin correspondent for the Universal wire service, wrote a series of articles describing preparations for the competition. \"I had written... that the Nazis at Garmisch had pulled down all the signs saying that Jews are unwanted (they're all over Germany) and that the Olympic visitors would thus be spared any signs of the kind of treatment meted out to Jews in this country.\" None of the member nations boycotted the Winter Games, and 49 in all participated, the greatest number at that time.The Games were completed with a minimum of political controversy, although the Canadian skiing team raised their arms in what appeared to be a Nazi salute as they entered the opening ceremonies.The German crowd erupted in applause at the salute, which was later explained as the \"Olympic Salute\" that was identical to theNazi versionbut with the arm extended laterally instead of forward. However, even Shirer was impressed by the effectiveness of the Nazis' efforts, writing: This has been a more pleasant interlude than I expected. ... On the whole the Nazis have done a wonderful propaganda job. They've greatly impressed most of the visiting foreigners with the lavish but smooth way in which they've run the games and with their kind manners, which to us who came from Berlin of course seemed staged. I was so alarmed at this that I gave a luncheon for some of our businessmen and invited Douglas Miller, our commercial attaché in Berlin, and the best-informed man on Germany we have in our embassy, to enlighten them a little. But they toldhimwhat things were like, and Doug scarcely got a word in. ... Back to Berlin tomorrow to the grind of covering Nazi politics.\" Twelve days after the Games closed, Hitler sent German troops toremilitarize the Rhineland, his first territorial violation of theTreaty of Versaillesand a critical test of European resolve to resist Germany's military expansion. None of the Western powers lifted a finger and Europe's first steps towardsWorld War Twowere taken. Highlights Sports Medals were awarded in 17 events contested in four sports (eight disciplines). Demonstration sports Venues Participating nations A total of 28 nations sent athletes to compete in Germany.Australia,Bulgaria,Greece,Liechtenstein,SpainandTurkeyall made their Winter Olympics debut, andEstonia,Latvia,Luxembourg, theNetherlandsandYugoslaviareturned after having missed the1932 Winter Olympics. Number of athletes byNational Olympic Committee(from highest to lowest) Medal count *Host nation (Germany) Podium sweeps See also References Notes Citations External links Further reading", "1936 Summer Olympics The1936 Summer Olympics(German:Olympische Sommerspiele 1936), officially theGames of the XI Olympiad(German:Spiele der XI. Olympiade) and officially branded asBerlin 1936, was an internationalmulti-sport eventheld from 1 to 16 August 1936 inBerlin,Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games overBarcelonaat the 29thIOC Sessionon 26 April 1931. The 1936 Games marked the second and most recent time theInternational Olympic Committeegathered to vote in a city that was bidding to host those Games. Later rule modifications forbade cities hosting the bid vote from being awarded the games. To outdo the1932 Los Angeles Games,ReichsführerAdolf Hitlerhada new 100,000-seat track and field stadiumbuilt, as well as six gymnasiums and other smaller arenas. The Games were the first to betelevised, with radio broadcasts reaching 41 countries.FilmmakerLeni Riefenstahlwas commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the Games for $7 million.Her film, titledOlympia, pioneered many of the techniques now common in the filming of sports. Hitler saw the 1936 Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy andantisemitism, and the officialNazi Partypaper, theVölkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jews should not be allowed to participate in the Games.German Jewish athletes were barred or prevented from taking part in the Games by a variety of methods,although some female swimmers from the Jewish sports clubHakoah Viennadid participate. Jewish athletes from other countries were said to have been sidelined to avoid offending the Nazi regime.Lithuaniawas expelled from the Olympic Games due to Berlin's position regarding Lithuanian anti-Nazi policy, particularly because of the 1934–35Trial of Neumann and Sassin Klaipėda. Total ticket revenues were 7.5millionReichsmark(equivalent to €17.4 million in 2021), for a profit of over one million R.M. The official budget did not includeoutlaysby the city of Berlin (which issued an itemized report detailing its costs of 16.5million R.M.) or the outlays of the German national government (which did not make its costs public, but is estimated to have spent US$30million). Jesse Owensof theUnited Stateswon four gold medals in the sprint andlong jumpevents, and became the most successful athlete to compete in Berlin, whileGermanywasthe most successful countryoverall with 101 medals (38 of them gold); the United States placed a distant second with 57 medals.These were the final Olympic Games under the presidency ofHenri de Baillet-Latour. For the next 12 years, no Olympic Games were held due to the immense world disruption caused by theSecond World War. The next Olympic Games were held in 1948 (theWinter GamesinSt. Moritz, Switzerland, and then theSummer GamesinLondon, England). Host city selection At the 28thIOC Session, held in May 1930 in Berlin, 14 cities announced their intention to bid to host the 1936 Summer Olympic Games.By the time of the 29th IOC Session in Barcelona in April 1931, only Barcelona and Berlin were left in contention. The other cities that announced an intention to hold the games, but withdrew from the race, wereAlexandria,Budapest,Buenos Aires,Cologne,Dublin,Frankfurt,Helsinki,Lausanne,Montevideo,Nuremberg,Rio de Janeiro, andRome.Helsinki, Rome, Barcelona, and Rio de Janeiro would go on to host the Olympic Games in 1952, 1960, 1992, and 2016, respectively.Rome withdrew on the eve of the 1931 Session.The process by which the other candidate cities were withdrawn from consideration for the 1936 Summer Olympics is unclear.Additionally, the level of seriousness behind each other city's declared intention to bid is also uncertain. The city of Barcelona held a multi-sport festival at the same time as the 1931 IOC Session. This included a football match betweenSpainand theIrish Free State, which was watched by 50,000 spectators. The political uncertainty around the declaration of theSecond Spanish Republic, which had happened days before the IOC Session, was likely a great factor in the decision taken by delegates regarding the host city for 1936. The games were the first for which the host was decided by a vote of each individualIOC member.The deadline for votes was 13 May 1931, two weeks after the Barcelona Session.Of the 67 voting IOC members, 19 submitted ballots during the Session, and 40 by post to the IOC headquarters in Lausanne; the other 8 abstained. The vote was 43 for Berlin, 16 for Barcelona. After theNazis took controlof Germany and began institutinganti-Semitic policies, the IOC held private discussions among its delegates about changing the decision to hold the Games in Berlin. However, Hitler's regime gave assurances that Jewish athletes would be allowed to compete on a German Olympic team.One year before the games, theAmerican Olympic Associationsuggested to change the venue to Rome; they saw Rome as a good replacement because Rome was originally selected to hold the1908 Summer Olympics. Organization Hans von Tschammer und Osten, asReichssportführer(i.e., head of theNational Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise(Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen, DRL), the Reich Sports Office, played a major role in the structure and organisation of the Olympics. He promoted the idea that the use of sports would harden the German spirit and instill unity among German youth. At the same time he also believed that sports was a \"way to weed out the weak, Jewish, and other undesirables\". Von Tschammer entrusted the details of the organisation of the games toTheodor LewaldandCarl Diem, the former president and secretary of theDeutscher Reichsausschuss für Leibesübungen, the forerunner of the Reich Sports Office. Among Diem's ideas for the Berlin Games was the introduction of theOlympic torch relaybetweenGreeceand the host nation. Torch relay The 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay was thefirst of its kind,following on from the reintroduction of theOlympic Flameat the1928 Games. It pioneered the modern convention of moving the flame via a relay system from Greece to the Olympic venue. Leni Riefenstahl filmed the relay for the 1938 filmOlympia. The sportive, knightly battle awakens the best human characteristics. It doesn't separate, but unites the combatants in understanding and respect. It also helps to connect the countries in the spirit of peace. That's why the Olympic Flame should never die. Broadcasting The games were the first to havelive televisioncoverage in black-and-white. The German Post Office, using equipment fromTelefunken, broadcast over 70 hours of coverage to special viewing rooms throughout Berlin andPotsdamand a few private TV sets, transmitting from thePaul Nipkow TV Station. They used three different types of TV cameras, so blackouts would occur when changing from one type to another.The games were also first time photographed and filmed in color using newly inventedAgfacolor. Olympic village The 1936 Olympic village was located at Elstal inWustermark(at52°32′10.78″N13°0′33.20″E / 52.5363278°N 13.0092222°E /52.5363278; 13.0092222), on the western edge of Berlin. The site, which is 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the centre of the city, consisted of one and two-floor dormitories, a large dining hall,Dining Hall of the Nations, a swimming facility, gymnasium, track, and other training facilities. Its layout was designed and construction overseen by appointed village commanderHauptmannWolfgang Fürstnerbeginning in 1934.Less than two months before the start of the Olympic Games, Fürstner was abruptly demoted to vice-commander, and replaced byOberstleutnantWerner von Gilsa, commander of theBerlin Guard-Regiment. The official reason for the replacement was that Fürstner had not acted \"with the necessary energy\" to prevent damage to the site as 370,000 visitors passed through it between 1 May and 15 June. However, this was just a cover story to explain the sudden demotion of the half-Jewish officer.The 1935Nuremberg Laws, passed during the period Fürstner was overseeing the Olympic Village, had classified him as a Jew, and as such, the career officer was to be expelled from theWehrmacht.Two days after the conclusion of the Berlin Olympics, vice-commander Fürstner had been removed from activeWehrmachtduty,and committed suicide a day later because he realised he had no future under the Nazis. After the completion of the Olympic Games, the village was repurposed for theWehrmachtinto the Olympic Döberitz Hospital (German:Olympia-Lazarett Döberitz), and Army Infantry School (German:Heeres-Infanterieschule), and was used as such through theSecond World War. In 1945 it was taken over by theSoviet Unionand became a military camp of the Soviet occupation forces. Late 20th-century efforts were made to restore parts of the former village, but little progress was made.More recently, the vast majority of the land of the Olympic village has been managed by the DKB Foundation, with more success; efforts are being made to restore the site into a living museum. The dormitory building used byJesse Owens,MeissenHouse, has been fully restored, with the gymnasium and swimming hall partially restored. Seasonally, tours are given daily to small groups and students. The site remains relatively unknown even in Germany, but some tournaments are held at the site in an effort to boost knowledge of the venues. Venues Twenty-two venues were used for the 1936 Summer Olympics. Many were located in theReich Sportsfeldcomplex. Sailing was held in theBay of Kiel, which would serve asthe same sporting venue for the 1972 Summer Olympicsheld inMunich.The Olympic Stadium would later be part of twoFIFA World Cupsand then host anIAAF World Championships in Athleticsalong with undergoing a renovation in the early 2000s to give new life to the stadium.Avus Motor Road(AVUS) was started in 1907, but was not completed until 1921 due toWorld War I.The track was rebuilt for the 1936 Games.AVUS continued being used afterWorld War IIthough mainly inFormula 2racing.TheGerman Grand Prixwas last held at the track in 1959.Dismantling of the track first took place in 1968 to make way for a traffic crossing for touring cars that raced there until 1998. BSV 92 Field was first constructed in 1910 for use in football, handball, athletics, and tennis.The Reich Sports Field, which consisted of the Olympic Stadium, the Dietrich Eckert Open-Air Theatre, the Olympic Swimming Stadium, Mayfield, the Hockey Stadiums, the Tennis Courts, and the Haus des Deutschen Sports, was planned for the aborted1916 Summer Olympics, but was not completed until 1934.Mayfield was the last venue completed prior to the 1936 Games in April 1936.Deutschland Hall was opened in 1935.Mommenstadion opened in 1930.Basketball was held outdoors at the request of theInternational Basketball Federation(FIBA).The tennis courts were used, which turned to mud during heavy rain at the final.TheK-1 1000 mcanoeing final was also affected by heavy rain at Grünau that included thunder and lightning.During World War II,Deutschlandhallein Berlin, suffered heavy aerial bombing damage.After the war, the hall was reconstructed and expanded.TheDeutschlandhallewas used as a venue, but was increasingly closed for repairs, last in 2009. It was demolished in December 2011.TheMommsenstadionwas renovated in 1987 and was still in use as of 2010. The Olympic Stadium was used as an undergroundbunkerin World War II as the war went againstNazi Germany's favor.The British reopened the Stadium in 1946 and parts of the stadium were rebuilt by the late 1950s.As a host venue for the1974 FIFA World Cup, the stadium had its roof partially covered on the North and South Stands.British occupation of the stadium ended in 1994.Restoration was approved in 1998 with a contractor being found to do the work in 2000.This restoration ran from 2000 to 2004.The modernized Stadium reopened in 2004,with a capacity of 74,228 people. The seating has been changed greatly, especially the sections that were reserved for German and international political leaders. The stadium now plays host toHertha BSC(1963–present), and is expected to remain the home of the team for years to come. For the2006 FIFA World Cup, the venue was where the final took place between Italy and France.Three years later, the venue hosted theWorld Athletics Championships. Games Opening ceremony The opening ceremony was held at theBerlin Olympic Stadiumon 1 August 1936. A flyover by the German airshipHindenburgflying the Olympic flag behind it was featured early in the opening ceremonies.After the arrival of Hitler and his entourage, the parade of nations proceeded, each nation with its own unique costume. As the birthplace of the Olympics, Greece entered the stadium first. The host nation, Germany, entered last. Some nations' athletes purposefully gave theNazi saluteas they passed Hitler. Others gave theOlympic salute(a similar one, given with the same arm), or a different gesture entirely, such as hats-over-hearts, as the United States, India,and China did. All nations lowered their flagsas they passed the Führer, save the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and theCommonwealth of the Philippines. (The United States doing this was explained later as an army regulation.) WriterThomas Wolfe, who was there, described the opening as an \"almost religious event, the crowd screaming, swaying in unison and begging for Hitler. There was something scary about it; his cult of personality.\" After a speech by the president of the German Olympic Committee, the games were officially declared open by Adolf Hitler who quoted (in German): \"I proclaim open the Olympic Games of Berlin, celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the modern era.\"This sentence was written by IOC President Baillet-Latour as part of a compromise the IOC struck to prevent Hitler from turning the speech into a propaganda event, and he was to follow it strictly, to which Hitler reportedly joked \"Count, I'll take the trouble to learn it by heart\".Hitler opened the games from his own box, on top of others. WriterDavid Wallechinskyhas commented on the event, saying, \"This was his event, he wanted to be glorified.\" Although theOlympic flamewas first introduced in the1928 Summer Olympicsin Amsterdam, this was the first instance of the torch relay. The Nazis invented the concept of the torch run from ancientOlympiato the host city. Thus as swimmerIris Cummingslater related, \"once the athletes were all in place, the torch bearer ran in through the tunnel to go around the stadium\". A young man chosen for this task ran up the steps all the way up to the top of the stadium there to light a cauldron which would start this eternal flame that would burn through the duration of the games. But in spite of all the pomp and ceremony, and the glorification of Hitler, all did not go according to plan, and there was a rather humorous aspect in the opening ceremony. U.S.distance runnerLouis Zamperini, one of the athletes present, related it on camera: They released 25,000 pigeons, the sky was clouded withpigeons, the pigeons circled overhead, and then they shot a cannon, and theyscared thepoopout of the pigeons, and we had straw hats, flat straw hats, and you could heard the pitter-patter on our straw hats, but we felt sorry for the women, for they got it in their hair, but I mean there were a mass of droppings, and I say it was so funny... Events 129 events in 25 disciplines, comprising 19 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1936. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Basketball, canoeing, andhandballmade their debut at the Olympics. Handball did not appear again on the program until the next German summer Olympic games inMunichin1972. There were twodemonstration sports:baseballandgliding.Art competitionsfor medals were also held, and medals were awarded at the closing ceremony for feats ofalpinismandaeronautics.Unofficial exhibition events includedIndian sports,wushuandmotor racing. Notable achievements Germany had a successful year inthe equestrian events, winning individual and team gold in all three disciplines, as well as individual silver in dressage. In the cycling match sprint finals, GermanToni MerkensfouledArie van Vlietof the Netherlands. Instead of being disqualified, he was fined 100 ℛℳ and kept his gold. German gymnastsKonrad FreyandAlfred Schwarzmannboth won three gold medals. AmericanJesse Owenswon four gold medals in the sprint andlong jumpevents. His German competitorLuz Longoffered Owens advice after he almost failed to qualify in the long jump.Mack Robinson, brother ofJackie Robinson, won the 200-meter sprint silver medal behind Owens by 0.4 seconds. Although he did not win a medal, future American war heroLouis Zamperini, lagging behind in the 5,000-meter final, made up ground by clocking a 56-second final lap. In one of the most dramatic800-meterraces in history, AmericanJohn Woodruffwon gold after slowing to jogging speed in the middle of the final in order to free himself from being boxed in.Glenn Edgar Morris, a farm boy from Colorado, won gold in the decathlon. BritishrowerJack Beresfordwon his fifth Olympic medal in the sport, and his third gold medal. The U.S. eight-man rowing team from theUniversity of Washingtonwon the gold medal, coming from behind to defeat the Germans and Italians with Hitler in attendance. 13-year-old American sensationMarjorie Gestringwon thewomen's 3 meter diving event. Jack Lovelockof New Zealand won the 1500 m gold medal, coming through a strong field to win in world record time of 3:47.8. In themarathon, theethnic KoreansSohn Kee-chungandNam Sung-yongwon one gold and one bronze medal; as Korea was annexed by Japan at the time, they were running for Japan. Indiawon the gold medal in thefield hockeyevent once again (they won the gold in all Olympics from 1928 to 1956), defeating Germany 8–1 in the final. Indians were consideredIndo-Aryansby the German authorities and there was no controversy regarding the victory. Rie Mastenbroekof theNetherlandswon three gold medals and a silver in swimming.EstonianheavyweightwrestlerKristjan Palusaluwon two gold medals, he became the first and only wrestler in Olympic history ever to win both the Greco-Roman and freestyle heavyweight events. Berlin 1936 marked the last timeEstoniacompetedas an independent nation in the Olympics until 1992. After winning the middleweight class, theEgyptianweightlifterKhadr El Tounicontinued to compete for another 45 minutes, finally exceeding the total of the German silver medalist by 35 kg. The 20-year-old El Touni lifted a total of 387.5 kg, crushing two German world champions and breaking the then-Olympic and world records, while the German lifted 352.5 kg. Furthermore, El Touni had lifted 15 kg more than the light-heavyweight gold medalist, a feat only El Touni has accomplished. El Touni's new world records stood for 13 years. Fascinated by El Touni's performance, Adolf Hitler rushed down to greet this human miracle. Prior to the competition, Hitler was said to have been sure thatRudolf Ismayrand Adolf Wagner would embarrass all other opponents. Hitler was so impressed by El Touni's domination in the middleweight class that he ordered a street named after him in Berlin's Olympic village.The Egyptian held the No. 1 position on theIWFlist of history's 50 greatest weightlifters for 60 years, until the1996 GamesinAtlantawhereTurkey'sNaim Süleymanoğlusurpassed him to top the list. Italy's football teamcontinued their dominance under head coachVittorio Pozzo, winning the gold medal in these Olympics between their two consecutiveWorld Cupvictories (1934and1938). Much like the successes of German athletes, this triumph was claimed by supporters ofBenito Mussolini's regime as a vindication of the superiority of the fascist system. Austria won the silver; a controversial win after Hitler called for a rematch of the quarterfinals match to discountPeru's 4–2 win overAustria. The Peruvian national Olympic team refused to play the match again and withdrew from the games. In the quarter-finals of thefootballtournament, Peru beat Austria 4–2 in extra-time. Peru rallied from a two-goal deficit in the final 15 minutes of normal time. During extra-time, Peruvian fans allegedly ran onto the field and attacked an Austrian player. In the chaos, Peru scored twice and won, 4–2. However, Austria protested and the International Olympic Committee ordered a replay without any spectators. The Peruvian government refused and their entire Olympic squad left in protest as did Colombia. A remarkable story from the track and field competition was the gold medal won by the US women's 4 × 100 m relay team. The German team were the heavy favourites, but dropped the baton at one hand-off. Of notable interest on the US team wasBetty Robinson.She was the first woman ever awarded an Olympic gold medal for track and field, winning the women's 100 m event at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam.In 1931, Robinson was involved in a plane crash, and was severely injured. Her body was discovered in the wreckage and it was wrongly thought that she was dead. She was placed in the trunk of a car and taken to an undertaker, where it was discovered that she was not dead, but in a coma. She awoke from the coma seven months later, although it was another six months before she could get out of a wheelchair, and two years before she could walk normally again.Due to the length of her recovery, she had to miss participating in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, in her home country. Participating nations A total of 49 nations attended the Berlin Olympics, up from 37 in1932. Five nations made their first official Olympic appearance at these Games:Afghanistan,Bermuda,Bolivia,Costa RicaandLiechtenstein. The nations that returned to the games wasBulgaria,Chile,Egypt,Iceland,Luxembourg,Malta,Monaco,Peru,RomaniaandTurkey. The nations that participated in the previous games in Los Angeles 1932 but was absent in Berlin 1936 wasIrelandandSpain. At the time,AustraliaandNew Zealandwere dominions of theBritish Empire. Both nations had not yet ratified theStatute of Westminster 1931.IndiaandBermudawas also part of the British Empire, but was not dominions. AndPhilippineswas anunincorporated territoryandcommonwealthof theUnited States. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee Medal count The twelve nations that won the most medals at the 1936 Games. *Host nation (Germany) Controversies Hitler saw the Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy. The official Nazi party paper, theVölkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jewish and black people should not be allowed to participate in the Games.However, when threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, he relented and allowed black and Jewish people to participate, and added one token participant to the German team—Helene Mayer, a woman of Jewish descent. In an attempt to \"clean up\" the host city, theGerman Ministry of the Interiorauthorized the chief of police to arrest allRomaniand keep them in a \"special camp\", theBerlin-Marzahn concentration camp. Political aspects United States Olympic CommitteepresidentAvery Brundagebecame a main supporter of the Games being held in Germany, arguing that \"politics has no place in sport\", despite having initial doubts. French Olympians gave aRoman saluteat the opening ceremony: known as thesalut de Joinvilleper the battalion,Bataillon de Joinville, theOlympic salutewas part of the Olympic traditions since the 1924 games.However, due to the different context this action was mistaken by the crowd for a support to fascism, theOlympic salutewas discarded after 1946. AlthoughHaitiattended only the opening ceremony, an interestingvexillologicalfact was noticed:its flagand theflag of Liechtensteinwere coincidentally identical, and this was not discovered until then. The following year, a crown was added to Liechtenstein's to distinguish one flag from the other. Marty GlickmanandSam Stollerwere originally slated to compete in the American 4x100 relay team but were replaced byJesse OwensandRalph Metcalfeprior to the start of the race. There were speculations that their Jewish heritage contributed to the decision \"not to embarrass the German hosts\"; however, given that African-Americans were also heavily disliked by the Nazis, Glickman and Stoller's replacement with black American athletes does not support this theory. Others said that they were in a better physical condition, and that was the main reason behind the replacement. In 1937,20th Century Foxreleased the filmCharlie Chan at the Olympics. The plot concerned members of theBerlin police forcehelping the Chinese detective apprehend a group of spies (of unnamed nationality) trying to steal a new aerial guidance system. Despite pertaining to the Berlin Olympics, actual Games' footage used by the filmmakers was edited to remove any Nazi symbols. After the Olympics, Jewish participation in German sports was further limited, and persecution of Jews started to become ever more lethal. The Olympic Games provided a nine-month period of relative calmness. Antisemitism The German Olympic committee, in accordance with Nazi directives, virtually barred Germans who were Jewish orRomaor had such an ancestry from participating in the Games (Helene Mayer, who had one Jewish parent, was the only German Jew to compete at the Berlin Games). This decision meant exclusion for many of the country's top athletes such asshotputteranddiscus throwerLilli Henoch, who was a four-time world record holder and 10-time German national champion,andGretel Bergmannwho was suspended from the German team just days after she set a record of 1.60 meters in the high jump. Individual Jewish athletes from a number of countries chose to boycott the Berlin Olympics, including South AfricanSid Kiel,and AmericansMilton GreenandNorman Cahners. In the United States, theAmerican Jewish Congressand theJewish Labor Committeesupported a boycott. Boycott debate Prior to and during the Games, there was considerable debate outside Germany over whether the competition should be allowed or discontinued. Berlin had been selected by the IOC as the host city in 1931 during theWeimar Republic, but afterAdolf Hitler's rise to powerin 1933, observers in many countries began to question the morality of going ahead with an Olympic Games hosted by the Nazi regime. A number of brief campaigns to boycott or relocate the Games emerged in theUnited Kingdom,France,Sweden,Czechoslovakia, theNetherlands, and theUnited States.Exiled German political opponents of Hitler's regime also campaigned against the Berlin Olympics through pro-Communist newspapers such as theArbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung. The protests were ultimately unsuccessful; forty-nine teams from around the world participated in the 1936 Games, the largest number of participating nations of any Olympics to that point. France FencerAlbert Wolffqualified for the French Olympic Team but boycotted the 1936 Summer Olympics, withdrawing from France's national team on principle because he was Jewish.He said: \"I cannot participate in anything sponsored by Adolf Hitler, even for France.\" Spain TheSpanish governmentled by the newly elected left-wingPopular Frontboycotted the Games and organized thePeople's Olympiadas a parallel event inBarcelona. Some 6,000 athletesfrom 49 countries registered.However, the People's Olympiad was aborted because of the outbreak of theSpanish Civil Warjust one day before the event was due to start. Soviet Union TheSoviet Unionhad not participated in international sporting events since the1920 Summer Olympics. The Soviet government was not invited to the 1920 Games, with theRussian Civil Warstill raging, and they did not participate in the1924 Summer Olympicsand forward on ideological grounds. Instead, through the auspices of theRed Sport International, it had participated in a left-wing workers' alternative, theSpartakiad, since 1928. The USSR had intended to attend the People's Olympiad in Barcelona until it was cancelled; the Soviets did attend the Spartakiad-sponsored1937 Workers' Summer Olympiadin Antwerp,Belgium.The Soviet Union started competing in the Olympics in1952, whenJoseph Stalinrealized that they could use the event to fulfil their political and ideological agenda. Turkey Halet ÇambelandSuat Fetgeri Așani, the firstTurkishand Muslim womenathletes to participate in the Olympics (fencing), refused an offer by their guide to be formally introduced toAdolf Hitler, saying they would not shake hands with him due to his approach to Jews, as stated by Ms. Çambel in aMilliyetnewspaper interview in 2000. United States Traditionally, the United States sent one of the largest teams to the Olympics, and there was a considerable debate over whether the nation should participate in the 1936 Games. Those involved in the debate on whether to boycott the Olympics includedErnest Lee Jahncke, JudgeJeremiah T. Mahoney, and futureIOC PresidentAvery Brundage. Some within the United States considered requesting a boycott of the Games, as to participate in the festivity might be considered a sign of support for the Nazi regime and its antisemitic policies. However, others such as Brundage (see below) argued that the Olympic Games should not reflect political views, but rather should be strictly a contest of the greatest athletes. Brundage, then of theUnited States Olympic Committee, opposed the boycott, stating that Jewish athletes were being treated fairly and that the Games should continue. Brundage asserted that politics played no role in sports, and that they should never be entwined. Brundage also believed that there was a \"Jewish-Communist conspiracy\" that existed to keep the United States from competing in the Olympic Games.Somewhat ironically, Brundage would be lateraccused of being a Soviet dupefor his controversial stance on the Soviet sports system that allowed them to circumvent the amateur rules.On the subject of Jewish discrimination, he stated, \"The very foundation of the modern Olympic revival will be undermined if individual countries are allowed to restrict participation by reason of class, creed, or race.\" During a fact-finding trip that Brundage went on to Germany in 1934 to ascertain whether German Jews were being treated fairly, Brundage found no discrimination when he interviewed Jews and his Nazi handlers translated for him, and Brundage commiserated with his hosts that he belonged to a sports club in Chicago that did not allow Jews entry, either. Unlike Brundage, Mahoney supported a boycott of the Games. Mahoney, the president of theAmateur Athletic Union, led newspaper editors and anti-Nazi groups to protest against American participation in the Berlin Olympics. He contested that racial discrimination was a violation of Olympic rules and that participation in the Games was tantamount to support for the Third Reich. Most African-American newspapers supported participation in the Olympics. The PhiladelphiaTribuneand theChicago Defenderboth agreed that black victories would undermine Nazi views of Aryan supremacy and spark renewed African-American pride. American Jewish organizations, meanwhile, largely opposed the Olympics. TheAmerican Jewish Congressand theJewish Labor Committeestaged rallies and supported the boycott of German goods to show their disdain for American participation.The JLC organized the World Labor Athletic Carnival, held on 15 and 16 August at New York's Randall's Island, to protest the holding of the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany. Eventually, Brundage won the debate, convincing the Amateur Athletic Union to close a vote in favor of sending an American team to the Berlin Olympics. Mahoney's efforts to incite a boycott of the Olympic games in the United States failed. US PresidentFranklin Delano Rooseveltand his administration did not become involved in the debate, due to a tradition of allowing the US Olympic Committee to operate independently of government influence. However, several American diplomats includingWilliam E. Dodd, the American ambassador to Berlin, andGeorge Messersmith, head of the US legation in Vienna, deplored the US Olympic Committee's decision to participate in the games. Last surviving competitor Upon the death ofJoan Langdonon 15 March 2022,Iris Cummingsbecame the last surviving competitor of the 1936 Summer Olympics. Gallery See also Notes References Further reading External links" ]
[ "Winter Olympic Games TheWinter Olympic Games(French:Jeux olympiques d'hiver), also known as theWinter Olympics, is a major internationalmulti-sport eventheld once every four years for sports practiced on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympic Games, the1924 Winter Olympics, were held inChamonix, France. The modern Olympic Games were inspired by theancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from 776 BCE to 394 CE. TheBaron Pierre de Coubertinof France founded theInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) 1,500 years later in 1894, leading to the first modernSummer Olympic Gamesin Athens, Greece in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of theOlympic Movement, with theOlympic Charterdefining its structure and authority. The original five Winter Olympic Sports (consisting of nine disciplines) werebobsleigh,curling,ice hockey,Nordic skiing(consisting of the disciplinesmilitary patrol,cross-country skiing,Nordic combined, andski jumping), andskating(consisting of the disciplinesfigure skatingandspeed", "skatingandspeed skating).The Games were held every four years from 1924 to 1936, interrupted in 1940 and 1944 byWorld War II, and resumed in1948. Until 1992, theSummer Olympic Gamesand the Winter Olympic Games were held in the same year. A decision to change this was made in 1986, when during the91st International Olympic Committee session, IOC members decided to alternate the Summer Olympic Games and the Winter Olympic Games on separate four-year cycles in even-numbered years. Also, at that same congress it was decided that1992 Winter Olympicswould be the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games and that to change the rotation, the games that would be held in 1996 would be brought forward by two years, being scheduled to1994. After those games, the next were to beheld in 1998when the four-year Olympic Cycle resumed. The Winter Olympic Games have evolved since their inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such asalpine skiing,luge,short track speed skating,freestyle", "skating,freestyle skiing,skeleton, andsnowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic program. Some others, includingcurlingandbobsleigh, have been discontinued and later reintroduced; others have been permanently discontinued, such asmilitary patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport ofbiathlonis descended from it.Still others, such asspeed skiing,bandyandskijoring, weredemonstration sportsbut never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It generated income via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address numerous criticisms over the decades like internal scandals, the use ofperformance-enhancing drugsby Winter Olympians, as well as a politicalboycottof the Winter Olympic Games. Countries have used the Winter Olympic Games as well as", "Games as well as the Summer Olympic Games to proclaim the superiority of their political systems. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted on three continents by thirteen countries, all of whom are located in theNorthern Hemisphere. They have been held four times in theUnited States(1932,1960,1980, and2002), three times inFrance(1924,1968, and1992) and twice each inSwitzerland(1928and1948),Austria(1964and1976),Norway(1952and1994),Japan(1972and1998),Italy(1956and2006) andCanada(1988and2010). Also, the Winter Olympic Games have been held just once each inGermany(1936),Yugoslavia(1984),Russia(2014),South Korea(2018), andChina(2022). The IOC has selected the Italian cities ofMilanandCortina d'Ampezzoto host the2026 Winter Olympics.The Winter Olympics are usually held in February, during the winter season of the Northern Hemisphere. As of 2024, no city in theSouthern Hemispherehas applied to host the Winter Olympic Games in the month of August (during the winter months of the Southern Hemisphere). As of 2022,", "As of 2022, twelve countries have participated in every Winter Olympic Games – Austria, Canada,Finland, France,Great Britain,Hungary, Italy, Norway,Poland,Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. Also, Czechoslovakia participated in all Winter Olympic Games before itsdissolutionand its successors, Czech Republic and Slovakia have participated in all Winter Games thereafter. Six of these countries have won medals at every Winter Olympic Games – Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and the United States. The only country to have won a gold medal at every Winter Olympic Games is the United States. Norway leads theall-time medal recordfor the Winter Olympic Games. When including defunct states, Germany (comprising the former countries of West Germany and East Germany) leads, followed by Norway, Russia (including the former Soviet Union), and the United States. History Early years A predecessor, theNordic Games, were organised by GeneralViktor Gustaf BalckinStockholm, Sweden, in 1901 and were held again", "and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926.Balck was a charter member of theIOCand a close friend ofOlympic GamesfounderPierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specificallyfigure skating, added to the Olympic programme but was unsuccessful until the1908 Summer Olympicsin London.Four figure skating events were contested, at whichUlrich Salchow(10-time world champion) andMadge Syerswon the individual titles. Three years later, Italian countEugenio Brunetta d'Usseauxproposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the1912 Summer Olympicsin Stockholm, Sweden. The organisers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports. The idea was resurrected for the1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. Awinter sports weekwithspeed skating, figure skating,ice hockeyandNordic skiingwere planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled", "was cancelled after the outbreak ofWorld War I. 1920 to 1936 The first Olympics after the war, the1920 Summer Olympics, were held inAntwerp, Belgium,and featured figure skatingand an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the games. At theIOC Congressheld the following year it was decided that the host nation of the1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate \"International Winter Sports Week\" under the patronage of the IOC.Chamonixwas chosen to host this week (actually 11 days) of events. The 1924 gamesin Chamonix proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events.Athletesfrom Finlandand Norwaywon 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined.The first gold medal awarded was won byCharles Jewtrawof the United States in the 500-meter speed skate.Sonja Henieof Norway, at just 11 years old, competed in the ladies' figure skating and, although finishing last, became popular with", "became popular with fans.Gillis Grafströmof Sweden defended his 1920 gold medalin men's figure skating, becoming the first Olympian to win gold medals in both Summer and Winter Olympics.Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games calledDeutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate winter event and the 1924 games in Chamonix were retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics. St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host thesecond Winter Gamesin 1928.Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. Theopening ceremonywas held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the games.Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed-skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled.The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 games:Sonja HenieofNorwayreturned to the Winter Olympics to make", "Olympics to make history when she won theladies' figure skatingat the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she held for 70 years, and went on to defend her title at the next two Winter Olympics.Gillis Grafströmwon his third consecutive figure skating goldand went on to win silver in 1932,becoming the most decorated men's figure skater to date. Thenext Winter Olympics, held in Lake Placid, New York, United States was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated.This was less than in 1928, as the journey toLake Placidwas too long and expensive for some European nations that encountered financial problems in the midst of theGreat Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports.Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and there was not enough snow to hold all the events until mid-January.Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title,andEddie Eaganof the United States, who had been an Olympic champion", "an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920,won the gold medal in themen's bobsleigh eventto joinGillis Grafströmas the only athletes to have won gold medals in both theSummerand Winter Olympics.Eagan has the distinction as the only Olympian as of 2020 to accomplish this feat in different sports. The German towns ofGarmisch and Partenkirchenjoined to organise the1936 Winter Games, held from 6–16 February.This was the last time theSummerand Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year.Alpine skiingmade its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals.Because of this decisionthe Swissand Austrianskiers refused to compete at the games. World War IIinterrupted the Winter Olympics. The1940 gameshad been awarded toSapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japaneseinvasionof China. The games were then to be held at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, but the 1940 games were cancelled following the Germaninvasion of", "Germaninvasion of Polandin 1939.Due to the ongoing war, the1944 games, originally scheduled forCortina D'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled. 1948 to 1962 St. Moritz was selected to host thefirst post-war games, in 1948. Switzerland's neutrality had protected the town during World War II, and most venues from the 1928 games remained in place, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice.Twenty-eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited.Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from theUnited Statesarrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. TheOlympic flagpresented at the1920 Summer Olympicsin Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these games, during which 10 countries won gold medals—more than any games to that point. TheOlympic Flametradition wasintroduced at the 1952 gamesinOslo, when the flame was lit in the fireplace by Norwegian", "by Norwegian skiing pioneerSondre Nordheimand the first Winter torch relay was conducted by 94 torchbearers entirely on their skis.Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, thoughonly Norway,Sweden,and Finlandfielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations.They were led byHjalmar Andersenwho won three gold medals in four events in thespeed skatingcompetition. After not being able to host the games in 1944,Cortina d'Ampezzowas selected to organise the1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torchbearer, Guido Caroli, entered theOlympic Stadiumon ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell and burned his arm, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron.These were the first Winter Games to be televised, and the first Olympics ever broadcast to an international audience, though no television rights were sold until the1960 Summer", "the1960 Summer OlympicsinRome.The Cortina games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. TheSoviet Unionmade its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation.The Soviets' immediate success might be explained by the advent of the state-sponsored \"full-time amateur athlete\". TheUSSRentered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train full-time.Chiharu Igayawon the first Winter Olympics medalfor Japanand the continent of Asia when he placed second in the slalom. The IOC awarded the1960 OlympicstoSquaw Valley, United States.the announcement of its selection came as a shock as the resort was undeveloped and unknown outside the United States.About US$80,000,000 was spent over four years to build the completely non-existent infrastructure.The opening and closing ceremonies were the firsts produced byWalt DisneyCompany.The Squaw Valley Olympics", "Valley Olympics was the first Winter Games to have a dedicated athletes' village,the first to use a computer (courtesy ofIBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. This edition is the only one to date to not have bobsleigh competitions, as the number of countries registered in the event was insufficient and the costs of building the track were too high for the Organizing Committee.To replace the event, an extra edition from theFIBT World Championship was held. 1964 to 1980 The Austrian city ofInnsbruckwas the host in1964. For the first time, the Olympic torch of the Winter Olympic Games was lit at the traditional ritual held in the temple of Olympia.Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, unprojected warm weather caused a lack of snow and organisers were unable to save enough snow to be used during the Games, and the Austrian army was enlisted to transport snow and ice from other places to the sports venues.Sovietspeed-skaterLidia Skoblikovamade history", "history by winning all four-speed skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes.Also, for the first timeLugewas added to the Olympic program, but the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run. Held in the French town ofGrenoble, the1968 Winter Olympicswere the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour. There were 1,158 athletes from 37 nations competing in 35 events.Frenchalpine ski racerJean-Claude Killybecame only the second person to win all the men's alpine skiing events. Due the high interest around the world, the organising committee sold television rights for US$2 million, which was more than twice the cost of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games.For the first time, the organizers chose to decentralize the Games to save costs and the events were spread across three long distances clusters, which led to the need to build three Olympic Villages.Along the high costs, the organisers claimed that this", "claimed that this was necessary to accommodate technological advances, however, critics disputed this, alleging that the layout would incorporate the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the athletes' expense. The1972 Winter Games, held inSapporo, Japan,were the first to be hosted on a continent other than North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism was disputed during these Games when a number of alpine skiers were found to have participated in a ski camp atMammoth Mountainin the United States; three days before the opening ceremony, IOC presidentAvery Brundagethreatened to bar the skiers from competing in the Games as he insisted that they were no longer amateurs having benefited financially from their status as athletes.Eventually onlyAustrianKarl Schranz, who earned more than the other skiers, was excluded from the competition.Canada boycotted the1972and the1976 ice hockey tournamentsin protest at not being able to use players from professional leagues.Canadian authorities also", "authorities also accused the Soviet Union of using state-sponsored athletes, who were de facto professionals.Francisco Fernández Ochoabecame the first and, as of 2022, the onlySpaniardto win a Winter Olympic gold medal when he triumphed in theslalom. The1976 Winter Olympicshad initially been awarded in 1970 toDenver,Coloradoin the United States. These Games would have coincided with the year of Colorado'scentennialand theUnited States Bicentennial. However, the increasing costs of the event and the oil crisis led to a local plebiscite held in November 1972, that resulted in the city withdrawing from hosting the Games, as the people of Colorado voted against public funding of the Games by a 3:2 margin.The IOC responded by offering the Games toVancouver-Garibaldi,British ColumbiainCanada, which had previously been a finalist bid for the 1976 Games. However, a change in the provincial government resulted in an administration that did not support the Olympic bid, so the IOC's offer was rejected. Salt Lake City,", "Salt Lake City, previously a candidate for the 1972 Winter Olympics, then put itself forward, but a tense political situation led IOC to invite Innsbruck to host the 1976 Games, as all the infrastructure used during the 1964 Games had been maintained. Despite only having half the usual time to prepare for the Games, Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973.During the opening ceremonies, two cauldrons were lit because it was the second time that the Austrian town had hosted the Winter Games.The 1976 Games featured the firstcombination bobsleigh-and-luge track, in neighbouringIgls.TheSoviet Unionwon its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal. In 1980the Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games.Unlike previous editions, Lake Placid had no competitors in this bid process.Cyprusmade their Olympic debut at the games. People's Republic of China and the first tropical nationCosta Ricacompeted for the first at the Winter Games. TheRepublic of Chinaboycoted", "of Chinaboycoted the Games, in protest of the IOC's recognition of thePeople's Republic of Chinaas the only \"China\", and its request for the Republic of China to compete as \"Chinese Taipei\". The PRC, on the other hand, returned to the Olympics for the first time since 1952 and made its Winter Olympic debut. Americanspeed-skaterEric Heidenset either an Olympic or World record in every one of the fiveeventsin which he competed, winning a total of five individual gold medals and breaking the record for most individual golds in a single Olympics (both Summer and Winter).Hanni Wenzelwon both the slalom and giant slalom and her country,Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist.In the \"Miracle on Ice\", theAmerican hockey teamcomposed of college players beat the favoured seasoned professionals from theSoviet Union, and progressed to eventually win the gold medal. 1984 to 1998 Sapporo, Japan, andGothenburg, Sweden, were front-runners to host the1984 Winter Olympics. It was", "Olympics. It was therefore a surprise whenSarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host.The Games were well-organised and not affected by the run-up to thewarthat engulfed the country eight years later.A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skierJure Frankowon silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance ofBritishice dancersJayne TorvillandChristopher Dean; theirBoléroroutine received unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression, earning them the gold medal. In 1988, the Canadian city ofCalgaryhosted thefirst Winter Olympicsto span three weekends, lasting for a total of 16 days.New events were added in ski-jumping and speed skating, while future Olympic sports curling,short track speed skatingandfreestyle skiingmade their debut appearance as demonstration sports. The speed skating events were held indoors for the first time, on theOlympic Oval. Dutch skaterYvonne van Gennipwon", "van Gennipwon three gold medals and set two world records, beating skaters from the favouredEast German teamin every race. Her medal total was equalled byFinnishski jumperMatti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport.Alberto Tomba,an Italianskier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom. East GermanChrista Rothenburgerwon the women's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at theSummer GamesinSeoul, to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.The 1988 games are well remembered in popular culture from two films based on its events:Cool Runningsabout the Jamaican bobsled team; andEddie the Eagleabout British ski jumperMichael Edwards, who finished last but set a British record of 73.5 metres. The1992 Winter Gameswere the last to be held in the same year as theSummer Games.They were hosted in the FrenchSavoieregion, with 18 events held in the city ofAlbertvilleand the", "the remaining events spread out over the Savoie.Political changes of the time were reflected in the composition of the Olympic teams competing in France: this was the first Games to be held after thefall of Communismand thefall of the Berlin Wall, and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games. FormerYugoslavianrepublicsCroatiaandSloveniamade their debuts as independent nations; most of the formerSovietrepublics still competed as a single team known as theUnified Team, but theBaltic Statesmade independent appearances for the first time since before World War II.At 16 years old,Finnishski jumperToni Nieminenmade history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion.New ZealandskierAnnelise Cobergerbecame the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women's slalom. The1994 Winter Olympics, held inLillehammer, Norway, were the first Winter Games to be held in a different year from the Summer Games. This change", "Games. This change resulted from the decision reached in the91st IOC Session (1986)to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even-numbered years.Lillehammer is the northernmost city to ever host the Winter Games. It was the second time the Games were held in Norway, after the1952 Winter OlympicsinOslo, and the first time theOlympic Trucewas observed. As a result, after thedissolution of Czechoslovakiain 1993, theCzech RepublicandSlovakiamade their Olympic debuts. The women's figure skating competition drew media attention whenAmerican skaterNancy Kerriganwas injured on 6 January 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponentTonya Harding.Both skaters competed in the Games, but the gold medal was narrowly won byOksana Baiulwho becameUkraine's first Olympic champion, while Kerrigan won the silver medal.Johann Olav KossofNorwaywon three gold medals, coming first in all of the distance speed skating events. 13-year-oldKim Yoon-Mibecame the youngest-ever Olympic gold", "Olympic gold medallist when South Korea won the women's 3,000-metre speed skating relay.Bjørn Dæhliof Norway won a medal in four out of five cross-country events, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympian until then.Russiawon the most events, with eleven gold medals, while Norway achieved 26 podium finishes, collecting the most medals overall on home ground.Juan Antonio Samaranchdescribed Lillehammer as \"the best Olympic Winter Games ever\" in his closing ceremony speech. The1998 Winter Olympicswere held in the Japanese city ofNaganoand were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes.TheNational Hockey Leagueallowed its players to participate in the men'sice hockey tournamentfor the first time, and theCzech Republicwon the tournament. Women's ice hockey made its debut, and theUnited Stateswon the gold medal.Bjørn DæhlieofNorwaywon three gold medals in Nordic skiing, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete, with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall.AustrianHermann Maiersurvived a", "Maiersurvived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in thesuper-Gand the giant slalom.Tara Lipinskiof theUnited States, aged just 15, became the youngest ever female gold medallist in an individual event when she won theLadies' Singles, a record that had stood sinceSonja HenieofNorwaywon the same event, also aged 15, inSt. Moritz in 1928. New world records were set inspeed skatinglargely due to the introduction of theclap skate. 2002 to 2022 After a tumultuous host city process, the2002 Winter Olympicswere held inSalt Lake City, United States. 2,399 athletes from 77 National Olympic Committees participated in 78 events in 7 sports.These Games were the first to take place since theSeptember 11 attacksof 2001, which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack. The opening ceremony saw signs of theaftermath of the events of that day, including the flag that flew atGround Zero, and honour guards of NYPD andFDNYmembers. GermanGeorg Hacklwon a silver in the singles", "in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics.Canadaachieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men's and women'sice hockeygold medals.Canada became embroiled withRussiain acontroversythat involved the judging of thepairs figure skatingcompetition. The Russian pair ofYelena BerezhnayaandAnton Sikharulidzecompeted against the Canadian pair ofJamie SaléandDavid Pelletierfor the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. TheFrenchjudge,Marie-Reine Le Gougne, awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return, the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition. The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a secondmedal ceremonyheld later in the Games.AustralianSteven", "Bradburybecame the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short-track speed skating event. The Italian city ofTurinhosted the2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games.South Koreanathletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short-track speed skating events.Sun-Yu Jinwon three gold medals while her teammateHyun-Soo Ahnwon three gold medals and a bronze.In the women'sCross-Countryteam pursuitCanadianSara Rennerbroke one of her poles and, when he saw her dilemma,NorwegiancoachBjørnar Håkensmoendecided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth. On winning the Super-G,Kjetil-Andre Aamodtof Norway became the most decorated ski racer of all time with 4 gold and 8 overall medals. He is also the only ski racer to have won the same event at three Olympics, winning the Super-G in1992,2002, and2006.Claudia", "and2006.Claudia PechsteinofGermanybecame the first speed skater to earn nine career medals. In February 2009, Pechstein tested positive for\"blood manipulation\"and received a two-year suspension, which she appealed. TheCourt of Arbitration for Sportupheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the2010 German Olympic team.This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, which overturned the lower court's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver. In 2003, the IOC awarded the2010 Winter OlympicstoVancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games.Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events.The death ofGeorgianlugerNodar Kumaritashviliin a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in theWhistler Sliding Centrechanging the track layout on safety grounds. Norwegiancross-country", "skierMarit Bjørgenwon five medals in the six cross-country events on the women's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze.For the first time,Canadawon a gold medal at an Olympic Games it hosted, having failed to do so at both the1976 Summer OlympicsinMontrealand the1988 Winter OlympicsinCalgary. In contrast to the lack of gold medals at these previous Olympics, the Canadian team finished first overall in gold medal wins,and became the first host nation—sinceNorway in 1952—to lead the gold medal count, with 14 medals. In doing so, it also broke the record for the most gold medals won by a NOC at a single Winter Olympics (the previous was 13, set by theSoviet Union in 1976and matched byNorway in 2002). The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of theRussianathletes. From their first Winter Olympics in1956to the 2006 Games, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal-winning nations, but in 2010 they finished sixth in total medals", "in total medals and eleventh in gold medals.PresidentDmitry Medvedevcalled for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games.Russia's disappointing performance at Vancouver is cited as the reason behind theenhancement of an already existing doping schemealleged to have been in operation at major events such as the 2014 Games at Sochi. The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under-performing Russian team, with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries. At the Albertville Games in 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver, the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty-one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as Kazakhstan, South Korea, Japan and China. These results increased the chances of an Asian city hosting", "Asian city hosting the2018 Winter Olympicsthat would be held the following year. Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city for the2014 Winter OlympicsoverSalzburg, Austria, andPyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time that Russia had hosted a Winter Olympics.The Games took place from 7 to 23 February 2014.A record 2,800 athletes from 88 countries competed in 98 events. The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on theBlack Seacoast. All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres (31 mi) away in the alpine region known asKrasnaya Polyana.The Games were the most expensive until the date, with a cost of £30 billion (US$51 billion). On the snow, Norwegian biathleteOle Einar Bjørndalentook two golds to bring his total tally of Olympic medals to 13, overtaking his compatriot Bjørn Dæhlie to become the most decorated Winter Olympian of all time. Another Norwegian, cross-country skierMarit Bjørgentook three golds; her total of ten Olympic medals tied her as the female Winter Olympian with most", "Olympian with most medals, alongsideRaisa SmetaninaandStefania Belmondo. SnowboarderAyumu Hiranobecame the youngest medallist on snow at the Winter Games when he took a silver in thehalfpipecompetition at the age of fifteen. On the ice, the Netherlands team dominated the speed skating events, taking 23 medals, four clean sweeps of the podium places and at least one medal in each of the twelve medal events.Ireen Wüstwas their most successful competitor, taking two golds and three silvers. In figure skating,Yuzuru Hanyubecame the first skater to break the 100-point barrier in the short programme on the way to winning the gold medal. Among the sledding disciplines, lugerArmin Zöggelertook a bronze, becoming the first Winter Olympian to secure a medal in six consecutive Games. Following their disappointing performance at the 2010 Games, and an investment of £600 million in elite sport,Russiainitially topped themedal table, taking 13 gold and 33 total medals.However,Grigory Rodchenkov, the former head of the", "former head of the Russian national anti-doping laboratory, subsequently claimed that he had been involved in doping dozens of Russian competitors for the Games, and that he had been assisted by the RussianFederal Security Servicein opening and re-sealing bottles containing urine samples so that samples with banned substances could be replaced with \"clean\" urine. A subsequentinvestigationcommissioned by theWorld Anti-Doping Agencyled byRichard McLarenconcluded that a state-sponsored doping programme had operated in Russia from \"at least late 2011 to 2015\" across the \"vast majority\" of Summer and Winter Olympic sports.On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced thatRussiawould compete as theOlympic Athletes from Russiaat the 2018 Winter Olympicsand by the end of 2017 theIOC Disciplinary Commissionhad disqualified 43 Russian athletes, stripping thirteen medals and knocking Russia from the top of the medal table, thus putting Norway in the lead.However, nine medals were later returned, meaning that Russia reclaimed", "Russia reclaimed first place in the overall medal table, and joint first place with Norway in terms of gold medals. On 6 July 2011,Pyeongchang, South Korea, was selected to host the2018 Winter OlympicsoverMunich, Germany, andAnnecy, France.This was the first time thatSouth Koreahad been selected to host a Winter Olympics and it was the second time the Olympics were held in the country overall, after the1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. The Games took place from 9 to 25 February 2018.More than 2,900 athletes from 92 countries participated in 102 events. The main venue cluster was theAlpensia ResortinDaegwallyeong-myeon, while the ice events are held atGangneung Olympic Parkin Pyeongchang's neighbouring sea-city ofGangneung. The lead-up to the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected bythe tensions between North and South Koreaand the ongoingRussian doping scandal. Despitetense relations,North Koreaagreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as aunified Korea, and field", "Korea, and field aunified teaminwomen's ice hockey. Russian athletes, who complied with the IOC's doping regulations, were given the option to compete in Pyeongchang as \"Olympic Athletes from Russia\" (OAR). The Games saw the addition ofbig air snowboarding,mass startspeed skating,mixed doubles curling, and mixed teamalpine skiingto the programme. Like four years early, the Netherlands again dominated speed skating, winning gold medals in seven of the ten individual events. Dutch speed skaterSven Kramerwon gold in the men's 5000m event, becoming the only male speed skater to win the same Olympic event three times. On the snow, Norway led the medal tally in cross-country skiing, withMarit Bjørgenwinning bronze in the women's team sprint and gold in the 30-kilometre classical event, bringing her total Olympic medal haul to fifteen, the most won by any athlete (male or female) in Winter Olympics history. Johannes Høsflot Klæboof Norway became the youngest ever male to win an Olympic gold in cross-country skiing", "skiing when he won themen's sprintat age 21.Noriaki Kasaiof Japan became the first athlete in history to participate in eight Winter Olympics when he took part in the ski jumping qualification the day before the opening of the Games.Ester Ledeckáof the Czech Republic won gold in the skiing super-G event and another gold in the snowboarding parallel giant slalom, making her the first female athlete to win Olympic gold medals in two sports at a single Winter Games. Norway led the total medal standings with 39, the highest number of medals by a nation in any Winter Olympics, followed by Germany's 31 and Canada's 29. Host nationSouth Koreawon seventeen medals, five of them gold, its highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics. Beijing, the capital of thePeople's Republic of China, was elected as the host city for the2022 Winter Olympicson 31 July 2015 at the128th IOC Session. Beijing became the first city ever to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. Like the Summer Olympics held six months earlier", "six months earlier inTokyo, theCOVID-19 pandemicresulted in the implementation of strict health and safety protocols, including restrictions on public attendance at the Games. The Games included a record 109 events over 15 disciplines in seven sports with seven new medal events, including mixed team competitions in freestyle skiing aerials, ski jumping, and snowboard cross. The Games were held between 4 and 20 February 2022 at venues in Beijing andZhangjiakouwhich for the first time were run entirely onrenewable energy. Several of the events were impacted by temperatures as low as minus 20Celsiusand strong wind. The first gold medal of the Games was won byTherese JohaugofNorwayin the women's skiathlon. Johaug had been excluded from the 2018 Winter Olympics in a controversial decision after having used a banned cream for sunburned lips. She went on to also win the women's 10 km and 30 km cross-country distances. In the women's snowboard cross,Lindsey Jacobellisof theUnited Stateswon the gold, having lost the", "having lost the gold 16 years earlier at the2006 Winter Olympicsin Torino due to a brutal fall. On the ice, theNetherlandsdominated with a total of six gold medals andIrene Schoutenwinning the women's mass start, 3,000m and 5,000m distances.Nils van der PoelofSwedenwon the men's 5,000m and 10,000m distances, setting new Olympic records in both distances.Kamila ValievaofRussiawas allowed to compete in thewomen's figure skatingdespite a failed doping test in December 2021. She failed, however, to win an individual medal after falling in her final routine. Russia'steam gold medalremained in limbo for two years, pending investigation into Valieva's positive drug test, before theCourt of Arbitration for Sport(CAS) disqualified Valieva for four years retroactive to 25 December 2021, leading the ISU to re-allocate the medals, upgrading the United States to gold and Japan to silver while downgrading the ROC to bronze.Finlandclaimed its first ice hockey gold, having beaten the Russian Olympic Committee in the men's", "in the men's final on the last day of the Games. Norway was first in the overall medal standings, claiming 37 medals in total and 16 gold medals, the highest number of gold medals of any country in a single Winter Olympics. This was the ninth time Norway claimed the highest number of gold medals at the Winter Games. Future The2026 Winter Olympicswill be held inMilan-Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, and take place between 6 and 22 February 2026.At the142nd IOC Sessionin July 2024, it was confirmed that the2030 Winter Olympicswill be hosted by France in theFrench Alps.The2034 Winter Olympicswas also awarded simultaneously to be hosted by the United States inSalt Lake City, Utah, where the Olympics were held previously in 2002. Problems and politics Controversy The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny afterSalt Lake Cityhad been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games.Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate", "in an elaborate briberyschemeto curry favour with IOC officials.Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC presidentJuan Antonio Samaranchreceived two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member. The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Olympics (both Summer and Winter) since 1988.For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano's bid for the1998 Winter Olympicswere described by the investigation committee as \"astronomical\".Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to", "would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities. Host city legacy According to the IOC, the host city for the Winter Olympics is responsible for \"...establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services, etc., as well as operations during the Games\".Due to the cost of hosting the Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment.For example, the2006 Winter OlympicsinTurin, Italy, cost $3.6 billion to host. By comparison, the1998 Winter OlympicsinNagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion.The organisers of the Nagano Games claimed that the cost of extending thebullet", "extending thebullet trainservice from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee had hoped that the exposure gained from hosting the Winter Olympics, and the improved access to Nagano from Tokyo, would benefit the local economy for years afterwards. In fact, Nagano's economy did experience a post-Olympic boom for a year or two, but the long-term effects have not materialised as anticipated.The likelihood of heavy debt is a deterrent to prospective host cities, as well as the prospect of unused sports venues and infrastructure saddling the local community with upkeep costs with no appreciable post-Olympic value. The Winter Olympics has the added problem of the alpine events requiring a mountain location; the men's downhill needs an 800-metre altitude difference along a suitable course. As this is a focal event that is central to the Games, the IOC has previously not agreed to it taking place a long way from the main host city,in contrast to the Summer Games, where", "Summer Games, where sailing and horse sports have taken place more than 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) away. The requirement for a mountain location also means that venues such as hockey arenas often have to be built in sparsely populated areas with little future need for a large arena and for the hotels and infrastructure needed for all Olympic visitors. Due to cost issues, fewer and fewer cities are willing to host. Both theTorino 2006andVancouver 2010Games, which were hosted in countries where large cities are located close to suitable mountain regions, had lower costs since more venues, hotels and transport infrastructure already existed. In contrast, theSochi 2014games had large costs as most installations had to be built. The IOC has tried to mitigate these concerns. Firstly, it has agreed to fund part of the host city's budget.Secondly, the qualifying host countries are limited to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting their", "impacting their region or nation; this rules out a large portion of the developing world.Finally, any prospective host city is required to add a \"legacy plan\" to their proposal, with a view to the long-term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have. Beginning with the2022 Winter Games, the IOC is allowing a longer distance between the alpine events and other events. TheOslo bidhad 220 kilometres (140 mi) to theKvitfjelldownhill arena, while eventual host Beijing had venues 220 km away from the city as well. For the 2026 Winter Games,Stockholm's unsuccessful bidproposed to hold the alpine event inÅre, 620 kilometres (390 mi) away by road. Doping In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics.The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance wasAlois Schloder, aWest Germanhockey player,but his team was still allowed to compete.During the 1970s testing outside of competition was", "of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs.The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug-testing protocols.The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independentWorld Anti-Doping Agency(WADA) in November 1999. The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend ofblood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such asErythropoietin(EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue.The Italian police conducted a raid on theAustriancross-country ski team's residence during the Games where they seized blood-doping specimens and equipment.This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for", "tested positive for unusually high levels ofhaemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping. The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi's Russian Doping Scandal has resulted in the International Olympic Committee to begin disciplinary proceedings against 28 (later increased to 46) Russian athletes who competed at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia, acting on evidence that their urine samples were tampered with. Cold War The Winter Olympics were an ideological front in theCold Warsince theSoviet Unionfirst participated at the1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. The advent of the state-sponsored \"full-time amateur athlete\" of theEastern Bloccountries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. TheSoviet Unionentered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in", "of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism until the '90s. The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics.In 1950, the IOC recognised theWest German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games.East Germany declined and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955, the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany's campaign to become an independent participant. The IOC agreed provisionally to accept theEast German National Olympic Committeeon condition that East and West Germans compete as one team.The situation became", "situation became tense when theBerlin Wallwas constructed by East Germany in 1961 to stop migration of its citizens and Western European nations began refusing visas to East German athletes.The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC split the teams and threatened to reject host-city bids from any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes. Boycott The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games, the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the \"People's Republic of China\" (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name \"Republic of China\" (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem.The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC", "the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the \"Republic of China\". The IOC renamed the island \"Chinese Taipei\" and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations to which Taiwan would not agree. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings, the IOC's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies.Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day. Sports TheOlympic Charterlimitswinter sportsto \"those sports which are practised on snow or ice\".Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic", "to the Olympic programme, which include short-track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in these new sports. The results are more parity in the national medal tables, more interest in the Winter Olympics, and higher global television ratings. Current sports Demonstration events Demonstration sportshave historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after1992.Military patrol, a precursor to thebiathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960.Thespecial figuresfigure skating event was only contested at", "only contested at the1908 Summer Olympics.Bandy(Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it is considered anational sport.It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria.Theski balletevent, later known as ski-acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992.Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928.Asled-dog racewas held at Lake Placid in 1932.Speed skiingwas demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics.Winter pentathlon, a variant of themodern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It includedcross-country skiing,shooting,downhill skiing,fencing, andhorse riding. All-time medal table The table below uses official data provided by theIOC. Medal leaders by year Number of occurrences List of Winter Olympic Games See also Notes References Sources External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Summer_Olympic_Games (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ca9de0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "1932 Winter Olympics The1932 Winter Olympics, officially known as theIII Olympic Winter Gamesand commonly known asLake Placid 1932, were a wintermulti-sport eventin the United States, held inLake Placid, New York, United States. The games opened on February 4 and closed on February 13. It was the first time the Winter Games were held outside of Europe and the first of fourWinter Olympicsheld in the United States; Lake Placid hosted again in1980. The games were awarded to Lake Placid in part by the efforts ofGodfrey Dewey, head of theLake Placid Cluband son ofMelvil Dewey, inventor of theDewey Decimal System.California also had a bid for the 1932 Winter Games.William May Garland, president of the California X Olympiad Association, wanted the games to take place inWrightwoodandBig Pines, California. The world's largest ski jump at the time was constructed in Big Pines for the event,but the games were ultimately awarded to Lake Placid. The practice of awarding Olympic medals atpodiumceremonies was established at", "was established at the 1932 Winter Olympics, based on pedestals used at the1930 British Empire Games, as proposed byMelville Marks Robinson. Highlights Events Medals were awarded in 14 events contested in 4 sports (7 disciplines). Demonstration sports The Games also included events in threedemonstration sports. Venues Participating nations Athletes from 17 nations competed in these Games, down from 25 nations at the previous Games in 1928.Argentina,Estonia,Latvia,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Mexico,the Netherlands, andYugoslaviadid not send athletes to Lake Placid. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees Medal count Podium sweeps See also References External links 44°17′06″N73°59′06″W / 44.285°N 73.985°W /44.285; -73.985", "1932 Summer Olympics The1932 Summer Olympics(officially theGames of the X Olympiadand also known asLos Angeles 1932) were an international multi-sport event held from July 30 to August 14, 1932, inLos Angeles, California, United States. The Games were held during the worldwideGreat Depression, with some nations not traveling to Los Angeles as a result;37countries competed, compared to the46at the1928 GamesinAmsterdam,and even then-U.S.PresidentHerbert Hooverdid not attend the Games.The organizing committee did not report the financial details of the Games, although contemporary newspapers stated that the Games had made aprofitofUS$1 million (equivalent toUS$18.19 million in 2023). Host city selection The selection of the host city for the 1932 Summer Olympics was made at the 23rd IOC Session inRome, Italy, on April 9, 1923. Remarkably, the selection process consisted of a single bid, from Los Angeles’ Olympic Committee led byBilly May Garland, and as there were no bids from any other city, Los Angeles was", "Los Angeles was selected by default to host the 1932 Games. Highlights Facilities and opening ceremony Charles Curtisbecame the first and onlyU.S. Vice Presidentto inaugurate theOlympic Games. AnOlympic Villagewas built for the first time and became a model for future games, inBaldwin Hills, occupied by male athletes.Female athletes were housed at the Chapman Park Hotel onWilshire Boulevard. Tenth Street, a major thoroughfare in Los Angeles, was renamedOlympic Boulevardin honor of the Games of the Tenth Olympiad. TheLos Angeles Memorial Coliseumwas known in 1932 asOlympic Stadium. The victory podium was used for the first time at the summer games (a podium was also used earlier in the year at the1932 Winter Olympicsin Lake Placid).AnOlympic mascot, Scottish TerrierSmoky, was featured for the first time in history, albeit unofficially. Athletics and field events Babe Didriksonwon two gold medals in thejavelinand the hurdles event. She also competed in a jump-off for a gold in the high jump. Her technique in", "Her technique in the jump-off was ruled illegal, leaving Didrikson with second place. Finland'sPaavo Nurmiwas suspended from competition by theIAAFfor alleged violation of amateur rules. Finns charged that the Swedish officials had used devious tricks in their campaign against Nurmi's amateur status,and ceased all athletic relations with Sweden.A year earlier, controversies on the track and in the press had led Finland to withdraw from theFinland-Sweden athletics international.After Nurmi's suspension, Finland did not agree to return to the event until 1939. Eddie Tolanwon both the 100 m and 200 m sprint events. Poland'sStanisława Walasiewiczwon the gold medal in the women's 100 m; she also won the silver medal in the event four years later. After her death in 1980, it was discovered that she wasintersexand would have been ineligible to participate under modern rules. Due to an official's error, the3,000 m steeplechasewent for 3,460 m, or one extra lap. Several women's events debuted at these games, among", "these games, among them the80 meters hurdlesandjavelin throw.Babe Didriksonwon both events and also competed in thehigh jumpwhere she was controversially denied gold, leaving her with silver.As women, unlike men, were only allowed to enter a maximum of three events, Didrikson could not compete in the discus throw, long jump, and relay where she would have likely medaled based on her prior results. Had the 200 meters and pentathlon been contested at these games (they debuted in 1964), Didrikson would have won them easily based on her performances prior to the Olympics. Team sports Infield hockey, only three nations took part. The host nation lost both matches, 1–24 to India and 2–9 to Japan, but still won a bronze medal. Gymnastics Romeo Neriwon three gold medals in gymnastics. Although women's team gymnastics debuted in theprevious Olympics, the event was not held in these games; however, there were women gymnasts who traveled to Los Angeles and participated in exhibition events at the 1932 games. Swimming", "games. Swimming Helene Madisonwon three gold medals in swimming, while the Japanese upset the men's events and took all but one title.Kusuo Kitamurawon the gold medal in the men's 1500 meter freestyle swimming race. He was and continues to be the youngest ever male swimmer to win a gold medal at the Olympic Games. Equestrian Takeichi Nishi(Baron Nishi) was the gold medalist with his horse Uranus in the equestrianshow jumping individual event. Nishi's gold medal is Japan's only gold medal in the equestrian event to this day. Nishi died in 1945 as an officer stationed in the defense of the island ofIwo Jima, and as such is an important character inClint Eastwood's film,Letters from Iwo Jima. Cycling Dunc Graywon Australia's first cycling gold medal; he set a world record of 1m 13s in the 1000time trial. TheDunc Gray Velodrome, built for the2000 Sydney Olympic Games, was named after him. Medals awarded 117 events in 20 disciplines, comprising 14 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1932. In one of two", "1932. In one of two Equestrian jumping events (team competitions) no medals were awarded. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Demonstration sports Art TheArt competitions at the 1932 Summer Olympicsawarded medals for works inspired by sport-related themes in five categories: architecture, literature, music, painting, and sculpture. Venues Fifteen sports venues were used for the 1932 Summer Olympics. In order to control costs in the wake of theGreat Depression, existing venues were used. They included twogolf courses, twocity parks, three public highways, and a city road. TheSwimming Stadiumwas the only new venue constructed for these games. TheRose Bowl, constructed in 1921, was made into a temporaryvelodromefortrack cyclingevents under the auspices of theUnion Cycliste Internationale(UCI).TheLos Angeles Memorial Coliseum, constructed in 1923, was used as the Olympic Stadium.The Olympic Auditorium was constructed in 1924 in preparation for Los Angeles being awarded the Games; it", "the Games; it was modified to meet the specifications of the boxing, weightlifting, and wrestling federations.Long Beach Marine Stadium was created in 1925 whenAlamitos Baywas dredged, then further dredged seven years later in time for the 1932 Games.Elysian Park, the oldest city park in Los Angeles, was founded in 1886, and has been part of theLos Angeles Police Department(LAPD) training academy since 1925.The Riviera Country Club opened in 1926 as theLos Angeles Athletic ClubGolf Course and was renamed Riviera by the time of the 1932 Games.The Swimming Stadium, constructed adjacent to the Coliseum in 1932, was intended to be a temporary structure.Riverside Drive, Los Angeles Avenue, Vineyard Avenue, and the Pacific Coast Highway were common driving routes inCaliforniaat the time of the 1932 Games. The Coliseum was the first (& temporary) Los Angeles home for the National League (NL)Dodgersbaseball team when it moved fromBrooklyn, New Yorkbefore the1958 season.The following year, it hosted the 2nd 1959MLB", "the 2nd 1959MLB All-Star Gameand games 3, 4 & 5 of the 1959World Series.WhenDodger Stadiumwas completed in1962, the Dodgers moved there where they have been since.The National Football League (NFL)Los Angeles Ramsused the Coliseum as its host stadium from1946to1979when it moved toAnaheim, located southeast of Los Angeles.It also hosted what became known asSuper Bowl Iin 1967.Even theAmerican Football League'sChargersused the Coliseum as a venue in 1960 until their move toSan Diegothe following year.The Coliseum continues to hostUSC Trojans footballgames to this day, and also hostedUCLA Bruins footballfor a number of years. The Rams returned to the Coliseum for a span of four years from 2016 to 2019 whileSoFi Stadiumwas being built. The track constructed in the Rose Bowl was given to the Tournament of Roses Association upon completion of the 1932 Games.The Bowl was expanded between 1932 and the1984 Summer Olympicsthree times, increasing its capacity from 83,000 in 1931 to 104,594 in 1972.It hostedSuper Bowl", "hostedSuper Bowl XIin 1977, where theOakland Raidersdefeated theMinnesota Vikings32–14.It is the current home ofUCLA Bruins footballand theRose Bowl Game, and was the home of the Major League Soccer (MLS)Los Angeles Galaxyfrom 1996 to 2003. Elysian Park'sshooting rangewas left intact for the LAPD to use.Sunset Fields Golf Club was renamed Brentwood Country Club in 1941 and is still in use as of 2010.All of the road courses were returned to public usage after the Olympics.The Olympic Auditorium continued to be of use for boxing androller derbyeventsuntil June 2005 when it was bought to be used as a megachurch. Los Angeles Harbor continues to be a majorsea portin the Western United States, employing 919,000 people and generating US$39.1 billion in annual wages and tax revenues as of 2007.The Riveria Country Club continues to hostgolfevents, hosting the1948 U.S. Openand thePGA Championshipin1983and1995.The Swim Stadium was renovated in 2003 and continues to be in use as of 2010. For the1984 Summer Olympics, the", "Olympics, the Coliseum and the Rose Bowl were used asvenues. Participating nations A total of 37 nations were represented at the 1932 Games.Colombiamade its first appearance at the Olympic Games, and theRepublic of Chinacompeted for the first time after its failed appearance at the1924 Games. The nations that participated in the previous games in Amsterdam 1928 but was absent in Los Angeles 1932 wasBulgaria,Chile,Egypt,Lithuania,Luxembourg,Malta,Monaco,Panama,RhodesiaandRomania. At the time,AustraliaandNew Zealandwere dominions of theBritish Empire.Indiawas also part of the British Empire, but was not a dominion. With theStatute of Westminster 1931Ireland,CanadaandSouth Africaare recognized as sovereign states in their own right. The whole statute was applied to the three countries without the need for any acts of ratification. Philippineswas anunincorporated territoryandcommonwealthof theUnited States. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees Medal count These are the top ten nations that won", "nations that won medals at the 1932 Games. Gallery See also Notes References External links", "1936 Winter Olympics The1936 Winter Olympics, officially known as theIV Olympic Winter Games(German:IV. Olympische Winterspiele) and commonly known asGarmisch-Partenkirchen 1936, were a wintermulti-sport eventheld from 6 to 16 February 1936 in themarket townofGarmisch-Partenkirchen,Germany. Germany also hosted the1936 Summer Olympics, which were held inBerlin. It was the last year in which the Summer and Winter Games both took place in the same country (the cancelled 1940 Olympics would have been held in Japan, withTokyohosting theSummer GamesandSapporohosting theWinter Games). The 1936 Winter Games were organized on behalf of theGerman League of the Reich for Physical Exercise(DRL) byKarl Ritter von Halt, who had been named president of the committee for the organization of the Fourth Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen byReichssportführerHans von Tschammer und Osten. Organization and politics While the1936 Summer Olympicsheld inBerlinmonths later have attracted extensive examination for theNazi", "for theNazi Party's spectacles and the accompanying racial controversies – including the exclusion of mostJewishathletes andJesse Owens's achievements – the Winter Games took place five months earlier and saw some of the same efforts byAdolf Hitler's propaganda machine. Globally, there had been efforts to initiate boycotts from different countries, and a number of Jewish athletes faced pressure not to participate in an event held in a nation ruled by a blatantlyantisemiticregime. The Nazis took steps to soften the appearance of their harsher policies before visitors from other nations arrived, such as removing antisemitic signage that was common in Germany, and – under pressure from a potential American boycott and Olympic officials – allowing the Jewish athleteRudi Ballto play on Germany's ice hockey team. A few weeks before the Games began,William L. Shirer, the Berlin correspondent for the Universal wire service, wrote a series of articles describing preparations for the competition. \"I had written...", "\"I had written... that the Nazis at Garmisch had pulled down all the signs saying that Jews are unwanted (they're all over Germany) and that the Olympic visitors would thus be spared any signs of the kind of treatment meted out to Jews in this country.\" None of the member nations boycotted the Winter Games, and 49 in all participated, the greatest number at that time.The Games were completed with a minimum of political controversy, although the Canadian skiing team raised their arms in what appeared to be a Nazi salute as they entered the opening ceremonies.The German crowd erupted in applause at the salute, which was later explained as the \"Olympic Salute\" that was identical to theNazi versionbut with the arm extended laterally instead of forward. However, even Shirer was impressed by the effectiveness of the Nazis' efforts, writing: This has been a more pleasant interlude than I expected. ... On the whole the Nazis have done a wonderful propaganda job. They've greatly impressed most of the visiting", "of the visiting foreigners with the lavish but smooth way in which they've run the games and with their kind manners, which to us who came from Berlin of course seemed staged. I was so alarmed at this that I gave a luncheon for some of our businessmen and invited Douglas Miller, our commercial attaché in Berlin, and the best-informed man on Germany we have in our embassy, to enlighten them a little. But they toldhimwhat things were like, and Doug scarcely got a word in. ... Back to Berlin tomorrow to the grind of covering Nazi politics.\" Twelve days after the Games closed, Hitler sent German troops toremilitarize the Rhineland, his first territorial violation of theTreaty of Versaillesand a critical test of European resolve to resist Germany's military expansion. None of the Western powers lifted a finger and Europe's first steps towardsWorld War Twowere taken. Highlights Sports Medals were awarded in 17 events contested in four sports (eight disciplines). Demonstration sports Venues Participating nations A", "nations A total of 28 nations sent athletes to compete in Germany.Australia,Bulgaria,Greece,Liechtenstein,SpainandTurkeyall made their Winter Olympics debut, andEstonia,Latvia,Luxembourg, theNetherlandsandYugoslaviareturned after having missed the1932 Winter Olympics. Number of athletes byNational Olympic Committee(from highest to lowest) Medal count *Host nation (Germany) Podium sweeps See also References Notes Citations External links Further reading", "1936 Summer Olympics The1936 Summer Olympics(German:Olympische Sommerspiele 1936), officially theGames of the XI Olympiad(German:Spiele der XI. Olympiade) and officially branded asBerlin 1936, was an internationalmulti-sport eventheld from 1 to 16 August 1936 inBerlin,Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games overBarcelonaat the 29thIOC Sessionon 26 April 1931. The 1936 Games marked the second and most recent time theInternational Olympic Committeegathered to vote in a city that was bidding to host those Games. Later rule modifications forbade cities hosting the bid vote from being awarded the games. To outdo the1932 Los Angeles Games,ReichsführerAdolf Hitlerhada new 100,000-seat track and field stadiumbuilt, as well as six gymnasiums and other smaller arenas. The Games were the first to betelevised, with radio broadcasts reaching 41 countries.FilmmakerLeni Riefenstahlwas commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the Games for $7 million.Her film, titledOlympia, pioneered many of the techniques", "of the techniques now common in the filming of sports. Hitler saw the 1936 Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy andantisemitism, and the officialNazi Partypaper, theVölkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jews should not be allowed to participate in the Games.German Jewish athletes were barred or prevented from taking part in the Games by a variety of methods,although some female swimmers from the Jewish sports clubHakoah Viennadid participate. Jewish athletes from other countries were said to have been sidelined to avoid offending the Nazi regime.Lithuaniawas expelled from the Olympic Games due to Berlin's position regarding Lithuanian anti-Nazi policy, particularly because of the 1934–35Trial of Neumann and Sassin Klaipėda. Total ticket revenues were 7.5millionReichsmark(equivalent to €17.4 million in 2021), for a profit of over one million R.M. The official budget did not includeoutlaysby the city of Berlin (which issued an itemized report", "an itemized report detailing its costs of 16.5million R.M.) or the outlays of the German national government (which did not make its costs public, but is estimated to have spent US$30million). Jesse Owensof theUnited Stateswon four gold medals in the sprint andlong jumpevents, and became the most successful athlete to compete in Berlin, whileGermanywasthe most successful countryoverall with 101 medals (38 of them gold); the United States placed a distant second with 57 medals.These were the final Olympic Games under the presidency ofHenri de Baillet-Latour. For the next 12 years, no Olympic Games were held due to the immense world disruption caused by theSecond World War. The next Olympic Games were held in 1948 (theWinter GamesinSt. Moritz, Switzerland, and then theSummer GamesinLondon, England). Host city selection At the 28thIOC Session, held in May 1930 in Berlin, 14 cities announced their intention to bid to host the 1936 Summer Olympic Games.By the time of the 29th IOC Session in Barcelona in April", "Barcelona in April 1931, only Barcelona and Berlin were left in contention. The other cities that announced an intention to hold the games, but withdrew from the race, wereAlexandria,Budapest,Buenos Aires,Cologne,Dublin,Frankfurt,Helsinki,Lausanne,Montevideo,Nuremberg,Rio de Janeiro, andRome.Helsinki, Rome, Barcelona, and Rio de Janeiro would go on to host the Olympic Games in 1952, 1960, 1992, and 2016, respectively.Rome withdrew on the eve of the 1931 Session.The process by which the other candidate cities were withdrawn from consideration for the 1936 Summer Olympics is unclear.Additionally, the level of seriousness behind each other city's declared intention to bid is also uncertain. The city of Barcelona held a multi-sport festival at the same time as the 1931 IOC Session. This included a football match betweenSpainand theIrish Free State, which was watched by 50,000 spectators. The political uncertainty around the declaration of theSecond Spanish Republic, which had happened days before the IOC", "days before the IOC Session, was likely a great factor in the decision taken by delegates regarding the host city for 1936. The games were the first for which the host was decided by a vote of each individualIOC member.The deadline for votes was 13 May 1931, two weeks after the Barcelona Session.Of the 67 voting IOC members, 19 submitted ballots during the Session, and 40 by post to the IOC headquarters in Lausanne; the other 8 abstained. The vote was 43 for Berlin, 16 for Barcelona. After theNazis took controlof Germany and began institutinganti-Semitic policies, the IOC held private discussions among its delegates about changing the decision to hold the Games in Berlin. However, Hitler's regime gave assurances that Jewish athletes would be allowed to compete on a German Olympic team.One year before the games, theAmerican Olympic Associationsuggested to change the venue to Rome; they saw Rome as a good replacement because Rome was originally selected to hold the1908 Summer Olympics. Organization Hans von", "Hans von Tschammer und Osten, asReichssportführer(i.e., head of theNational Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise(Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen, DRL), the Reich Sports Office, played a major role in the structure and organisation of the Olympics. He promoted the idea that the use of sports would harden the German spirit and instill unity among German youth. At the same time he also believed that sports was a \"way to weed out the weak, Jewish, and other undesirables\". Von Tschammer entrusted the details of the organisation of the games toTheodor LewaldandCarl Diem, the former president and secretary of theDeutscher Reichsausschuss für Leibesübungen, the forerunner of the Reich Sports Office. Among Diem's ideas for the Berlin Games was the introduction of theOlympic torch relaybetweenGreeceand the host nation. Torch relay The 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay was thefirst of its kind,following on from the reintroduction of theOlympic Flameat the1928 Games. It pioneered the modern", "the modern convention of moving the flame via a relay system from Greece to the Olympic venue. Leni Riefenstahl filmed the relay for the 1938 filmOlympia. The sportive, knightly battle awakens the best human characteristics. It doesn't separate, but unites the combatants in understanding and respect. It also helps to connect the countries in the spirit of peace. That's why the Olympic Flame should never die. Broadcasting The games were the first to havelive televisioncoverage in black-and-white. The German Post Office, using equipment fromTelefunken, broadcast over 70 hours of coverage to special viewing rooms throughout Berlin andPotsdamand a few private TV sets, transmitting from thePaul Nipkow TV Station. They used three different types of TV cameras, so blackouts would occur when changing from one type to another.The games were also first time photographed and filmed in color using newly inventedAgfacolor. Olympic village The 1936 Olympic village was located at Elstal", "located at Elstal inWustermark(at52°32′10.78″N13°0′33.20″E / 52.5363278°N 13.0092222°E /52.5363278; 13.0092222), on the western edge of Berlin. The site, which is 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the centre of the city, consisted of one and two-floor dormitories, a large dining hall,Dining Hall of the Nations, a swimming facility, gymnasium, track, and other training facilities. Its layout was designed and construction overseen by appointed village commanderHauptmannWolfgang Fürstnerbeginning in 1934.Less than two months before the start of the Olympic Games, Fürstner was abruptly demoted to vice-commander, and replaced byOberstleutnantWerner von Gilsa, commander of theBerlin Guard-Regiment. The official reason for the replacement was that Fürstner had not acted \"with the necessary energy\" to prevent damage to the site as 370,000 visitors passed through it between 1 May and 15 June. However, this was just a cover story to explain the sudden demotion of the half-Jewish officer.The 1935Nuremberg Laws, passed", "Laws, passed during the period Fürstner was overseeing the Olympic Village, had classified him as a Jew, and as such, the career officer was to be expelled from theWehrmacht.Two days after the conclusion of the Berlin Olympics, vice-commander Fürstner had been removed from activeWehrmachtduty,and committed suicide a day later because he realised he had no future under the Nazis. After the completion of the Olympic Games, the village was repurposed for theWehrmachtinto the Olympic Döberitz Hospital (German:Olympia-Lazarett Döberitz), and Army Infantry School (German:Heeres-Infanterieschule), and was used as such through theSecond World War. In 1945 it was taken over by theSoviet Unionand became a military camp of the Soviet occupation forces. Late 20th-century efforts were made to restore parts of the former village, but little progress was made.More recently, the vast majority of the land of the Olympic village has been managed by the DKB Foundation, with more success; efforts are being made to restore the", "made to restore the site into a living museum. The dormitory building used byJesse Owens,MeissenHouse, has been fully restored, with the gymnasium and swimming hall partially restored. Seasonally, tours are given daily to small groups and students. The site remains relatively unknown even in Germany, but some tournaments are held at the site in an effort to boost knowledge of the venues. Venues Twenty-two venues were used for the 1936 Summer Olympics. Many were located in theReich Sportsfeldcomplex. Sailing was held in theBay of Kiel, which would serve asthe same sporting venue for the 1972 Summer Olympicsheld inMunich.The Olympic Stadium would later be part of twoFIFA World Cupsand then host anIAAF World Championships in Athleticsalong with undergoing a renovation in the early 2000s to give new life to the stadium.Avus Motor Road(AVUS) was started in 1907, but was not completed until 1921 due toWorld War I.The track was rebuilt for the 1936 Games.AVUS continued being used afterWorld War IIthough mainly", "War IIthough mainly inFormula 2racing.TheGerman Grand Prixwas last held at the track in 1959.Dismantling of the track first took place in 1968 to make way for a traffic crossing for touring cars that raced there until 1998. BSV 92 Field was first constructed in 1910 for use in football, handball, athletics, and tennis.The Reich Sports Field, which consisted of the Olympic Stadium, the Dietrich Eckert Open-Air Theatre, the Olympic Swimming Stadium, Mayfield, the Hockey Stadiums, the Tennis Courts, and the Haus des Deutschen Sports, was planned for the aborted1916 Summer Olympics, but was not completed until 1934.Mayfield was the last venue completed prior to the 1936 Games in April 1936.Deutschland Hall was opened in 1935.Mommenstadion opened in 1930.Basketball was held outdoors at the request of theInternational Basketball Federation(FIBA).The tennis courts were used, which turned to mud during heavy rain at the final.TheK-1 1000 mcanoeing final was also affected by heavy rain at Grünau that included thunder", "included thunder and lightning.During World War II,Deutschlandhallein Berlin, suffered heavy aerial bombing damage.After the war, the hall was reconstructed and expanded.TheDeutschlandhallewas used as a venue, but was increasingly closed for repairs, last in 2009. It was demolished in December 2011.TheMommsenstadionwas renovated in 1987 and was still in use as of 2010. The Olympic Stadium was used as an undergroundbunkerin World War II as the war went againstNazi Germany's favor.The British reopened the Stadium in 1946 and parts of the stadium were rebuilt by the late 1950s.As a host venue for the1974 FIFA World Cup, the stadium had its roof partially covered on the North and South Stands.British occupation of the stadium ended in 1994.Restoration was approved in 1998 with a contractor being found to do the work in 2000.This restoration ran from 2000 to 2004.The modernized Stadium reopened in 2004,with a capacity of 74,228 people. The seating has been changed greatly, especially the sections that were", "sections that were reserved for German and international political leaders. The stadium now plays host toHertha BSC(1963–present), and is expected to remain the home of the team for years to come. For the2006 FIFA World Cup, the venue was where the final took place between Italy and France.Three years later, the venue hosted theWorld Athletics Championships. Games Opening ceremony The opening ceremony was held at theBerlin Olympic Stadiumon 1 August 1936. A flyover by the German airshipHindenburgflying the Olympic flag behind it was featured early in the opening ceremonies.After the arrival of Hitler and his entourage, the parade of nations proceeded, each nation with its own unique costume. As the birthplace of the Olympics, Greece entered the stadium first. The host nation, Germany, entered last. Some nations' athletes purposefully gave theNazi saluteas they passed Hitler. Others gave theOlympic salute(a similar one, given with the same arm), or a different gesture entirely, such as hats-over-hearts, as", "as the United States, India,and China did. All nations lowered their flagsas they passed the Führer, save the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and theCommonwealth of the Philippines. (The United States doing this was explained later as an army regulation.) WriterThomas Wolfe, who was there, described the opening as an \"almost religious event, the crowd screaming, swaying in unison and begging for Hitler. There was something scary about it; his cult of personality.\" After a speech by the president of the German Olympic Committee, the games were officially declared open by Adolf Hitler who quoted (in German): \"I proclaim open the Olympic Games of Berlin, celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the modern era.\"This sentence was written by IOC President Baillet-Latour as part of a compromise the IOC struck to prevent Hitler from turning the speech into a propaganda event, and he was to follow it strictly, to which Hitler reportedly joked \"Count, I'll take the trouble to learn it by heart\".Hitler", "it by heart\".Hitler opened the games from his own box, on top of others. WriterDavid Wallechinskyhas commented on the event, saying, \"This was his event, he wanted to be glorified.\" Although theOlympic flamewas first introduced in the1928 Summer Olympicsin Amsterdam, this was the first instance of the torch relay. The Nazis invented the concept of the torch run from ancientOlympiato the host city. Thus as swimmerIris Cummingslater related, \"once the athletes were all in place, the torch bearer ran in through the tunnel to go around the stadium\". A young man chosen for this task ran up the steps all the way up to the top of the stadium there to light a cauldron which would start this eternal flame that would burn through the duration of the games. But in spite of all the pomp and ceremony, and the glorification of Hitler, all did not go according to plan, and there was a rather humorous aspect in the opening ceremony. U.S.distance runnerLouis Zamperini, one of the athletes present, related it on camera: They", "it on camera: They released 25,000 pigeons, the sky was clouded withpigeons, the pigeons circled overhead, and then they shot a cannon, and theyscared thepoopout of the pigeons, and we had straw hats, flat straw hats, and you could heard the pitter-patter on our straw hats, but we felt sorry for the women, for they got it in their hair, but I mean there were a mass of droppings, and I say it was so funny... Events 129 events in 25 disciplines, comprising 19 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1936. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Basketball, canoeing, andhandballmade their debut at the Olympics. Handball did not appear again on the program until the next German summer Olympic games inMunichin1972. There were twodemonstration sports:baseballandgliding.Art competitionsfor medals were also held, and medals were awarded at the closing ceremony for feats ofalpinismandaeronautics.Unofficial exhibition events includedIndian sports,wushuandmotor racing. Notable achievements", "achievements Germany had a successful year inthe equestrian events, winning individual and team gold in all three disciplines, as well as individual silver in dressage. In the cycling match sprint finals, GermanToni MerkensfouledArie van Vlietof the Netherlands. Instead of being disqualified, he was fined 100 ℛℳ and kept his gold. German gymnastsKonrad FreyandAlfred Schwarzmannboth won three gold medals. AmericanJesse Owenswon four gold medals in the sprint andlong jumpevents. His German competitorLuz Longoffered Owens advice after he almost failed to qualify in the long jump.Mack Robinson, brother ofJackie Robinson, won the 200-meter sprint silver medal behind Owens by 0.4 seconds. Although he did not win a medal, future American war heroLouis Zamperini, lagging behind in the 5,000-meter final, made up ground by clocking a 56-second final lap. In one of the most dramatic800-meterraces in history, AmericanJohn Woodruffwon gold after slowing to jogging speed in the middle of the final in order to free himself", "to free himself from being boxed in.Glenn Edgar Morris, a farm boy from Colorado, won gold in the decathlon. BritishrowerJack Beresfordwon his fifth Olympic medal in the sport, and his third gold medal. The U.S. eight-man rowing team from theUniversity of Washingtonwon the gold medal, coming from behind to defeat the Germans and Italians with Hitler in attendance. 13-year-old American sensationMarjorie Gestringwon thewomen's 3 meter diving event. Jack Lovelockof New Zealand won the 1500 m gold medal, coming through a strong field to win in world record time of 3:47.8. In themarathon, theethnic KoreansSohn Kee-chungandNam Sung-yongwon one gold and one bronze medal; as Korea was annexed by Japan at the time, they were running for Japan. Indiawon the gold medal in thefield hockeyevent once again (they won the gold in all Olympics from 1928 to 1956), defeating Germany 8–1 in the final. Indians were consideredIndo-Aryansby the German authorities and there was no controversy regarding the victory. Rie", "the victory. Rie Mastenbroekof theNetherlandswon three gold medals and a silver in swimming.EstonianheavyweightwrestlerKristjan Palusaluwon two gold medals, he became the first and only wrestler in Olympic history ever to win both the Greco-Roman and freestyle heavyweight events. Berlin 1936 marked the last timeEstoniacompetedas an independent nation in the Olympics until 1992. After winning the middleweight class, theEgyptianweightlifterKhadr El Tounicontinued to compete for another 45 minutes, finally exceeding the total of the German silver medalist by 35 kg. The 20-year-old El Touni lifted a total of 387.5 kg, crushing two German world champions and breaking the then-Olympic and world records, while the German lifted 352.5 kg. Furthermore, El Touni had lifted 15 kg more than the light-heavyweight gold medalist, a feat only El Touni has accomplished. El Touni's new world records stood for 13 years. Fascinated by El Touni's performance, Adolf Hitler rushed down to greet this human miracle. Prior to the", "Prior to the competition, Hitler was said to have been sure thatRudolf Ismayrand Adolf Wagner would embarrass all other opponents. Hitler was so impressed by El Touni's domination in the middleweight class that he ordered a street named after him in Berlin's Olympic village.The Egyptian held the No. 1 position on theIWFlist of history's 50 greatest weightlifters for 60 years, until the1996 GamesinAtlantawhereTurkey'sNaim Süleymanoğlusurpassed him to top the list. Italy's football teamcontinued their dominance under head coachVittorio Pozzo, winning the gold medal in these Olympics between their two consecutiveWorld Cupvictories (1934and1938). Much like the successes of German athletes, this triumph was claimed by supporters ofBenito Mussolini's regime as a vindication of the superiority of the fascist system. Austria won the silver; a controversial win after Hitler called for a rematch of the quarterfinals match to discountPeru's 4–2 win overAustria. The Peruvian national Olympic team refused to play the", "refused to play the match again and withdrew from the games. In the quarter-finals of thefootballtournament, Peru beat Austria 4–2 in extra-time. Peru rallied from a two-goal deficit in the final 15 minutes of normal time. During extra-time, Peruvian fans allegedly ran onto the field and attacked an Austrian player. In the chaos, Peru scored twice and won, 4–2. However, Austria protested and the International Olympic Committee ordered a replay without any spectators. The Peruvian government refused and their entire Olympic squad left in protest as did Colombia. A remarkable story from the track and field competition was the gold medal won by the US women's 4 × 100 m relay team. The German team were the heavy favourites, but dropped the baton at one hand-off. Of notable interest on the US team wasBetty Robinson.She was the first woman ever awarded an Olympic gold medal for track and field, winning the women's 100 m event at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam.In 1931, Robinson was involved in a plane crash,", "in a plane crash, and was severely injured. Her body was discovered in the wreckage and it was wrongly thought that she was dead. She was placed in the trunk of a car and taken to an undertaker, where it was discovered that she was not dead, but in a coma. She awoke from the coma seven months later, although it was another six months before she could get out of a wheelchair, and two years before she could walk normally again.Due to the length of her recovery, she had to miss participating in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, in her home country. Participating nations A total of 49 nations attended the Berlin Olympics, up from 37 in1932. Five nations made their first official Olympic appearance at these Games:Afghanistan,Bermuda,Bolivia,Costa RicaandLiechtenstein. The nations that returned to the games wasBulgaria,Chile,Egypt,Iceland,Luxembourg,Malta,Monaco,Peru,RomaniaandTurkey. The nations that participated in the previous games in Los Angeles 1932 but was absent in Berlin 1936 wasIrelandandSpain. At", "At the time,AustraliaandNew Zealandwere dominions of theBritish Empire. Both nations had not yet ratified theStatute of Westminster 1931.IndiaandBermudawas also part of the British Empire, but was not dominions. AndPhilippineswas anunincorporated territoryandcommonwealthof theUnited States. Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee Medal count The twelve nations that won the most medals at the 1936 Games. *Host nation (Germany) Controversies Hitler saw the Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy. The official Nazi party paper, theVölkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jewish and black people should not be allowed to participate in the Games.However, when threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, he relented and allowed black and Jewish people to participate, and added one token participant to the German team—Helene Mayer, a woman of Jewish descent. In an attempt to \"clean up\" the host city, theGerman Ministry of the", "Ministry of the Interiorauthorized the chief of police to arrest allRomaniand keep them in a \"special camp\", theBerlin-Marzahn concentration camp. Political aspects United States Olympic CommitteepresidentAvery Brundagebecame a main supporter of the Games being held in Germany, arguing that \"politics has no place in sport\", despite having initial doubts. French Olympians gave aRoman saluteat the opening ceremony: known as thesalut de Joinvilleper the battalion,Bataillon de Joinville, theOlympic salutewas part of the Olympic traditions since the 1924 games.However, due to the different context this action was mistaken by the crowd for a support to fascism, theOlympic salutewas discarded after 1946. AlthoughHaitiattended only the opening ceremony, an interestingvexillologicalfact was noticed:its flagand theflag of Liechtensteinwere coincidentally identical, and this was not discovered until then. The following year, a crown was added to Liechtenstein's to distinguish one flag from the other. Marty", "the other. Marty GlickmanandSam Stollerwere originally slated to compete in the American 4x100 relay team but were replaced byJesse OwensandRalph Metcalfeprior to the start of the race. There were speculations that their Jewish heritage contributed to the decision \"not to embarrass the German hosts\"; however, given that African-Americans were also heavily disliked by the Nazis, Glickman and Stoller's replacement with black American athletes does not support this theory. Others said that they were in a better physical condition, and that was the main reason behind the replacement. In 1937,20th Century Foxreleased the filmCharlie Chan at the Olympics. The plot concerned members of theBerlin police forcehelping the Chinese detective apprehend a group of spies (of unnamed nationality) trying to steal a new aerial guidance system. Despite pertaining to the Berlin Olympics, actual Games' footage used by the filmmakers was edited to remove any Nazi symbols. After the Olympics, Jewish participation in German sports", "in German sports was further limited, and persecution of Jews started to become ever more lethal. The Olympic Games provided a nine-month period of relative calmness. Antisemitism The German Olympic committee, in accordance with Nazi directives, virtually barred Germans who were Jewish orRomaor had such an ancestry from participating in the Games (Helene Mayer, who had one Jewish parent, was the only German Jew to compete at the Berlin Games). This decision meant exclusion for many of the country's top athletes such asshotputteranddiscus throwerLilli Henoch, who was a four-time world record holder and 10-time German national champion,andGretel Bergmannwho was suspended from the German team just days after she set a record of 1.60 meters in the high jump. Individual Jewish athletes from a number of countries chose to boycott the Berlin Olympics, including South AfricanSid Kiel,and AmericansMilton GreenandNorman Cahners. In the United States, theAmerican Jewish Congressand theJewish Labor Committeesupported a", "a boycott. Boycott debate Prior to and during the Games, there was considerable debate outside Germany over whether the competition should be allowed or discontinued. Berlin had been selected by the IOC as the host city in 1931 during theWeimar Republic, but afterAdolf Hitler's rise to powerin 1933, observers in many countries began to question the morality of going ahead with an Olympic Games hosted by the Nazi regime. A number of brief campaigns to boycott or relocate the Games emerged in theUnited Kingdom,France,Sweden,Czechoslovakia, theNetherlands, and theUnited States.Exiled German political opponents of Hitler's regime also campaigned against the Berlin Olympics through pro-Communist newspapers such as theArbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung. The protests were ultimately unsuccessful; forty-nine teams from around the world participated in the 1936 Games, the largest number of participating nations of any Olympics to that point. France FencerAlbert Wolffqualified for the French Olympic Team but boycotted the", "but boycotted the 1936 Summer Olympics, withdrawing from France's national team on principle because he was Jewish.He said: \"I cannot participate in anything sponsored by Adolf Hitler, even for France.\" Spain TheSpanish governmentled by the newly elected left-wingPopular Frontboycotted the Games and organized thePeople's Olympiadas a parallel event inBarcelona. Some 6,000 athletesfrom 49 countries registered.However, the People's Olympiad was aborted because of the outbreak of theSpanish Civil Warjust one day before the event was due to start. Soviet Union TheSoviet Unionhad not participated in international sporting events since the1920 Summer Olympics. The Soviet government was not invited to the 1920 Games, with theRussian Civil Warstill raging, and they did not participate in the1924 Summer Olympicsand forward on ideological grounds. Instead, through the auspices of theRed Sport International, it had participated in a left-wing workers' alternative, theSpartakiad, since 1928. The USSR had intended to", "had intended to attend the People's Olympiad in Barcelona until it was cancelled; the Soviets did attend the Spartakiad-sponsored1937 Workers' Summer Olympiadin Antwerp,Belgium.The Soviet Union started competing in the Olympics in1952, whenJoseph Stalinrealized that they could use the event to fulfil their political and ideological agenda. Turkey Halet ÇambelandSuat Fetgeri Așani, the firstTurkishand Muslim womenathletes to participate in the Olympics (fencing), refused an offer by their guide to be formally introduced toAdolf Hitler, saying they would not shake hands with him due to his approach to Jews, as stated by Ms. Çambel in aMilliyetnewspaper interview in 2000. United States Traditionally, the United States sent one of the largest teams to the Olympics, and there was a considerable debate over whether the nation should participate in the 1936 Games. Those involved in the debate on whether to boycott the Olympics includedErnest Lee Jahncke, JudgeJeremiah T. Mahoney, and futureIOC PresidentAvery", "PresidentAvery Brundage. Some within the United States considered requesting a boycott of the Games, as to participate in the festivity might be considered a sign of support for the Nazi regime and its antisemitic policies. However, others such as Brundage (see below) argued that the Olympic Games should not reflect political views, but rather should be strictly a contest of the greatest athletes. Brundage, then of theUnited States Olympic Committee, opposed the boycott, stating that Jewish athletes were being treated fairly and that the Games should continue. Brundage asserted that politics played no role in sports, and that they should never be entwined. Brundage also believed that there was a \"Jewish-Communist conspiracy\" that existed to keep the United States from competing in the Olympic Games.Somewhat ironically, Brundage would be lateraccused of being a Soviet dupefor his controversial stance on the Soviet sports system that allowed them to circumvent the amateur rules.On the subject of Jewish", "subject of Jewish discrimination, he stated, \"The very foundation of the modern Olympic revival will be undermined if individual countries are allowed to restrict participation by reason of class, creed, or race.\" During a fact-finding trip that Brundage went on to Germany in 1934 to ascertain whether German Jews were being treated fairly, Brundage found no discrimination when he interviewed Jews and his Nazi handlers translated for him, and Brundage commiserated with his hosts that he belonged to a sports club in Chicago that did not allow Jews entry, either. Unlike Brundage, Mahoney supported a boycott of the Games. Mahoney, the president of theAmateur Athletic Union, led newspaper editors and anti-Nazi groups to protest against American participation in the Berlin Olympics. He contested that racial discrimination was a violation of Olympic rules and that participation in the Games was tantamount to support for the Third Reich. Most African-American newspapers supported participation in the Olympics. The", "the Olympics. The PhiladelphiaTribuneand theChicago Defenderboth agreed that black victories would undermine Nazi views of Aryan supremacy and spark renewed African-American pride. American Jewish organizations, meanwhile, largely opposed the Olympics. TheAmerican Jewish Congressand theJewish Labor Committeestaged rallies and supported the boycott of German goods to show their disdain for American participation.The JLC organized the World Labor Athletic Carnival, held on 15 and 16 August at New York's Randall's Island, to protest the holding of the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany. Eventually, Brundage won the debate, convincing the Amateur Athletic Union to close a vote in favor of sending an American team to the Berlin Olympics. Mahoney's efforts to incite a boycott of the Olympic games in the United States failed. US PresidentFranklin Delano Rooseveltand his administration did not become involved in the debate, due to a tradition of allowing the US Olympic Committee to operate independently of government", "of government influence. However, several American diplomats includingWilliam E. Dodd, the American ambassador to Berlin, andGeorge Messersmith, head of the US legation in Vienna, deplored the US Olympic Committee's decision to participate in the games. Last surviving competitor Upon the death ofJoan Langdonon 15 March 2022,Iris Cummingsbecame the last surviving competitor of the 1936 Summer Olympics. Gallery See also Notes References Further reading External links" ]
As of 2020, what was the population of the city where Dippin' Dots were founded?
27,137
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippin%27_Dots
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paducah,_Kentucky
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippin%27_Dots', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paducah,_Kentucky']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippin%27_Dots", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paducah,_Kentucky" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Dippin%27_Dots (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930ebc10>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Paducah,_Kentucky (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930eb370>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Dippin%27_Dots (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930ebc10>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Paducah,_Kentucky (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930eb370>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
Who won Britain's Got Talent in the same year that London hosted the Olympics for the third time?
Ashleigh and Pudsey
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Summer_Olympics_in_London
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain%27s_Got_Talent
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Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Summer_Olympics_in_London', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain%27s_Got_Talent']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Summer_Olympics_in_London", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britain%27s_Got_Talent" ]
[ "Category:Summer Olympics in London Subcategories This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total. 0–9 Pages in category \"Summer Olympics in London\" The following 4 pages are in this category, out of 4 total.This list may not reflect recent changes. 0–9", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ab94b0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Britain%27s_Got_Talent (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b95205810>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Category:Summer Olympics in London Subcategories This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total. 0–9 Pages in category \"Summer Olympics in London\" The following 4 pages are in this category, out of 4 total.This list may not reflect recent changes. 0–9", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93ab94b0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Britain%27s_Got_Talent (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b95205810>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
There is a speech-sound disorder, not caused by a structural abnormality, for which one symptom is rearranging sounds of a word. The term for the disorder was first defined in 1908 by a German neuroscientist with the first name Hugo. Why was the Nobel Peace Prize given to an American the same year Hugo died?
For his crucial role in bringing about the Dawes Plan.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_disorder
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apraxia_of_speech
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Liepmann
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates
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Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_disorder', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apraxia_of_speech', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Liepmann', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_disorder", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apraxia_of_speech", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Liepmann", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates" ]
[ "Speech disorder Speech disorders,impairments, orimpediments, are a type ofcommunication disorderin which normalspeechis disrupted.This can meanfluencydisorders likestuttering,clutteringorlisps. Someone who is unable to speak due to a speech disorder is consideredmute.Speech skills are vital to social relationships and learning, and delays or disorders that relate to developing these skills can impact individuals function.For many children and adolescents, this can present as issues with academics.Speech disorders affect roughly 11.5% of the US population, and 5% of the primary school population.Speech is a complex process that requires precise timing, nerve and muscle control, and as a result is susceptible to impairments. A person who has astroke, anaccidentorbirth defectmay have speech and language problems. Classification There are three different levels of classification when determining the magnitude and type of a speech disorder and the proper treatment or therapy: Types of disorder Causes In some cases the cause is unknown. However, there are various known causes of speech impairments, such ashearing loss,neurological disorders,brain injury, an increase in mental strain, constant bullying,intellectual disability,substance use disorder, physical impairments such ascleft lip and palate, and vocal abuse or misuse.After strokes, there is known to be a higher incidence ofapraxia of speech, which is a disorder affecting neurological pathways involved with speech.Poor motor function is also suggested to be highly associated with speech disorders, especially in children.Hereditary causes have also been suggested, as many times children of individuals with speech disorders will develop them as well.20-40% individuals with a family history of a specific language impairment are likely to be diagnosed, whereas only 4% of the population overall is likely to be diagnosed.There are also language disorders that are known to be genetic, such as hereditary ataxia, which can cause slow and unclear speech. Treatment Many of these types of disorders can be treated byspeech therapy, but others require medical attention by a doctor inphoniatrics. Other treatments include correction of organic conditions andpsychotherapy. In the United States, school-age children with a speech disorder are often placed inspecial educationprograms. Children who struggle to learn to talk often experience persistent communication difficulties in addition to academic struggles.More than 700,000 of the students served in the public schools' special education programs in the 2000–2001 school year were categorized as having a speech or language impairment. This estimate does not include children who havespeech and language impairmentssecondary to other conditions such as deafness\".Manyschool districtsprovide the students with speech therapy during school hours, although extended day and summer services may be appropriate under certain circumstances. Patients will be treated in teams, depending on the type of disorder they have.A team can includespeech–language pathologists, specialists, family doctors, teachers, and family members. Social effects Having a speech disorder can have negative social effects, especially among young children. Those with a speech disorder can be targets ofbullyingbecause of their disorder. This bullying can result in decreasedself-esteem.Religion and culture also play a large role in the social effects of speech disorders. For example, in many African countries like Kenya cleft palates are largely considered to be caused by a curse from God. This can cause people with cleft palates to not receive care in early childhood, and end in rejection from society.For those with speech disorders, listeners reactions are often negative, which may correlate negative effects to self-esteem. It has also been shown that adults tend to view individuals with stutters in more negative ways than those without them. Language disorders Language disordersare usually considered distinct from speech disorders, although they are often used synonymously. Speech disorders refer to problems in producing the sounds of speech or with the quality of voice, where language disorders are usually an impairment of either understanding words or being able to use words and do not have to do with speech production. See also References", "Apraxia of speech Apraxia of speech(AOS), also calledverbal apraxia, is aspeech sound disorderaffecting an individual's ability to translate conscious speech plans into motor plans, which results in limited and difficult speech ability. By the definition ofapraxia, AOS affectsvolitional(willful or purposeful) movement pattern. However, AOS usually also affectsautomatic speech. Individuals with AOS have difficulty connecting speech messages from the brain to the mouth.AOS is a loss of prior speech ability resulting from a brain injury such as astrokeor progressive illness. Developmental verbal dyspraxia(DVD), also known as childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) and developmental apraxia of speech (DAS),is an inability to utilizemotor planningto perform movements necessary for speech during a child's language learning process. Although the causes differ between AOS and DVD, the main characteristics and treatments are similar. Presentation Apraxia of speech (AOS) is a neurogeniccommunication disorderaffecting the motor programming system for speech production.Individuals with AOS demonstrate difficulty in speech production, specifically with sequencing and forming sounds. The Levelt model describes the speech production process in the following three consecutive stages: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation. According to the Levelt model, apraxia of speech would fall into the articulation region. The individual does not have a language deficiency, but has difficulty in the production of language in an audible manner. Notably, this difficulty is limited to vocal speech, and does not affect sign-language production. The individual knows exactly what they want to say, but there is a disruption in the part of the brain that sends the signal to the muscle for the specific movement.Individuals with acquired AOS demonstrate hallmark characteristics ofarticulationandprosody(rhythm, stress or intonation) errors.Coexisting characteristics may include groping and effortful speech production with self-correction, difficulty initiating speech, abnormal stress, intonation and rhythm errors, and inconsistency with articulation. Wertz et al., (1984) describe the following five speech characteristics that an individual with apraxia of speech may exhibit: Causes Apraxia of speech can be caused by impairment to parts of the brain that control muscle movement and speech.However, identifying a particular region of the brain in which AOS always occurs has been controversial. Various patients with damage to left subcortical structures, regions of the insula, and Broca's area have been diagnosed with AOS. Most commonly it is triggered by vascular lesions, but AOS can also arise due to tumors and trauma. Acute apraxia of speech Stroke-associated AOS is the most common form of acquired AOS, making up about 60% of all reported acquired AOS cases. This is one of the several possible disorders that can result from a stroke, but only about 11% of stroke cases involve this disorder. Brain damage to the neural connections, and especially the neural synapses, during the stroke can lead to acquired AOS. Most cases of stroke-associated AOS are minor, but in the most severe cases, all linguistic motor function can be lost and must be relearned. Since most with this form of AOS are at least fifty years old, few fully recover to their previous level of ability to produce speech. Other disorders and injuries of the brain that can lead to AOS include (traumatic)dementia, progressive neurological disorders, andtraumatic brain injury. Progressive apraxia of speech Recent research has established the existence of primary progressive apraxia of speech caused byneuroanatomicmotoratrophy.For a long time, this disorder was not distinguished from othermotor speech disorderssuch as dysarthria and in particularprimary progressive aphasia. Many studies have been done trying to identify areas in the brain in which this particular disorder occurs or at least to show that it occurs in different areas of the brain than other disorders.One study observed 37 patients withneurodegenerativespeech disorders to determine whether or not it is distinguishable from other disorders, and if so where in the brain it can be found. Usingspeech and language,neurological,neuropsychologicalandneuroimagingtesting, the researchers came to the conclusion that PAS does exist and that it correlates to superior lateralpremotorand supplementary motor atrophy.However, because PAS is such a rare and recently discovered disorder, many studies do not have enough subjects to observe to make data entirely conclusive. Diagnosis Apraxia of speech can be diagnosed by aspeech language pathologist(SLP) through specific exams that measure oral mechanisms of speech. The oral mechanisms exam involves tasks such as pursing lips, blowing, licking lips, elevating the tongue, and also involves an examination of the mouth. A complete exam also involves observation of the patient eating and talking. SLPs do not agree on a specific set of characteristics that make up the apraxia of speech diagnosis,so any of the characteristics from the section above could be used to form a diagnosis.Patients may be asked to perform other daily tasks such as reading, writing, and conversing with others. In situations involving brain damage, an MRI brain scan also helps identify damaged areas of the brain. Adifferential diagnosismust be used in order to rule out other similar or alternative disorders. Although disorders such as expressive aphasia, conduction aphasia, and dysarthria involve similar symptoms as apraxia of speech, the disorders must be distinguished in order to correctly treat the patients.While AOS involves the motor planning or processing stage of speech, aphasic disorders can involve other language processes. According to Ziegler et al., this difficulty in diagnosis derives from the unknown causes and function of the disorder, making it hard to set definite parameters for AOS identification. Specifically, he explains that oral-facial apraxia, dysarthria, and aphasic phonological impairment are the three distinctly different disorders that cause individuals to display symptoms that are often similar to those of someone with AOS, and that these close relatives must be correctly ruled out by a Speech Language Pathologist before AOS can be given as a diagnosis. In this way, AOS is a diagnosis of exclusion, and is generally recognized when all other similar speech sound production disorders are eliminated. Possible co-morbid aphasias AOS andexpressive aphasia(also known as Broca's aphasia) are commonly mistaken as the same disorder mainly because they often occur together in patients. Although both disorders present with symptoms such as a difficulty producing sounds due to damage in the language parts of the brain, they are not the same. The main difference between these disorders lies in the ability to comprehend spoken language; patients with apraxia are able to fully comprehend speech, while patients with aphasia are not always fully able to comprehend others' speech. Conduction aphasiais another speech disorder that is similar to, but not the same as, apraxia of speech. Although patients with conduction aphasia have full comprehension of speech, as do those with AOS, there are differences between the two disorders.Patients with conduction aphasia are typically able to speak fluently, but they do not have the ability to repeat what they hear. Similarly,dysarthria, another motor speech disorder, is characterized by difficulty articulating sounds. The difficulty in articulation does not occur due in planning the motor movement, as happens with AOS. Instead,dysarthriais caused by inability in or weakness of the muscles in the mouth, face, and respiratory system. Management In cases of acute AOS (stroke), spontaneous recovery may occur, in which previous speech abilities reappear on their own. All other cases of acquired AOS require a form of therapy; however the therapy varies with the individual needs of the patient. Typically, treatment involves one-on-one therapy with a speech language pathologist (SLP).For severe forms of AOS, therapy may involve multiple sessions per week, which is reduced with speech improvement. Another main theme in AOS treatment is the use of repetition in order to achieve a large number of target utterances, or desired speech usages. There are various treatment techniques for AOS. One technique, called the Linguistic Approach, utilizes the rules for sounds and sequences. This approach focuses on the placement of the mouth in forming speech sounds. Another type of treatment is the Motor-Programming Approach, in which the motor movements necessary for speech are practiced. This technique utilizes a great amount of repetition in order to practice the sequences and transitions that are necessary in between production of sounds. Research about the treatment of apraxia has revealed four main categories: articulatory-kinematic, rate/rhythm control, intersystemic facilitation/reorganization treatments, and alternative/augmentative communication. One specific treatment method is referred to as PROMPT. This acronym stands for Prompts for Restructuring Oral Muscular Phonetic Targets, and takes a hands on multidimensional approach at treating speech production disorders. PROMPT therapists integrate physical-sensory, cognitive-linguistic, and social-emotional aspects of motor performance. The main focus is developing language interaction through this tactile-kinetic approach by using touch cues to facilitate the articulatory movements associated with individual phonemes, and eventually words. One study describes the use of electropalatography (EPG) to treat a patient with severe acquired apraxia of speech. EPG is a computer-based tool for assessment and treatment of speech motor issues. The program allows patients to see the placement of articulators during speech production thus aiding them in attempting to correct errors. Originally after two years of speech therapy, the patient exhibited speech motor and production problems including problems with phonation, articulation, and resonance. This study showed that EPG therapy gave the patient valuable visual feedback to clarify speech movements that had been difficult for the patient to complete when given only auditory feedback. While many studies are still exploring the various treatment methods, a few suggestions from ASHA for treating apraxia patients include the integration of objective treatment evidence, theoretical rationale, clinical knowledge and experience, and the needs and goals of the patient. History and terminology The term apraxia was first defined byHugo Karl Liepmannin 1908 as the \"inability to perform voluntary acts despite preserved muscle strength.\" In 1969, Frederic L. Darley coined the term \"apraxia of speech\", replacing Liepmann's original term \"apraxia of the glosso-labio-pharyngeal structures.\"Paul Brocahad also identified this speech disorder in 1861, which he referred to as \"aphemia\": a disorder involving difficulty of articulation despite having intact language skills and muscular function. The disorder is currently referred to as \"apraxia of speech\", but was also formerly termed \"verbal dyspraxia\". The term apraxia comes from the Greek root \"praxis,\" meaning the performance of action or skilled movement.Adding the prefix \"a\", meaning absence, or \"dys\", meaning abnormal or difficult, to the root \"praxis\", both function to imply speech difficulties related to movement. See also References External links", "Hugo Liepmann Hugo Karl Liepmann(April 9, 1863 – May 6, 1925) was a Germanneurologistandpsychiatristborn inBerlin, into aJewishfamily. Initially, he studied bothchemistryandphilosophyat the Universities ofFreiburgandLeipzig, obtaining his doctorate in 1885. His interests later turned to medicine, and after completion of studies, worked as an assistant toCarl Wernickein the psychiatric clinic atBreslau. In 1906 he became head physician at Dalldorf (Berlin-Wittenau), followed by an assignment as director of theStädtische Irrenanstalt zu Lichtenberg(Herzberge) in 1914. Liepmann is remembered for his pioneer work involvingcerebrallocalization of function. Fromanatomicalstudies, he postulated that planned or commanded actions were controlled in theparietal lobeof the brain's dominant hemisphere, and not in thefrontal lobe. He conducted extensive research of a disorder he calledapraxia, a term that he introduced in 1900.Apraxia is described as the inability to coordinate voluntary muscular movements that is symptomatic of somecentral nervous systemdisorders and injuries and not due to muscle weakness.Liepmann believed that damage in the parietal lobe prevented activation of learned sequences of actions that are necessary to produce desired results on command. As a result of his studies, he divided apraxia into three types: Published works References", "List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates TheNorwegian Nobel Committeeawards theNobel Peace Prizeannually \"to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses.\"As dictated byAlfred Nobel's will, the award is administered by theNorwegian Nobel Committeeand awarded by a committee of five people elected by theParliament of Norway. Each recipient receives a medal, adiploma, and a monetary award prize (that has varied throughout the years).It is one of the five prizes established by the 1895willofAlfred Nobel(who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions inchemistry,physics,literature,physiology or medicine. Overview The Peace Prize is presented annually inOslo, in the presence of theKing of Norway, on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death, and is the only Nobel Prize not presented inStockholm.Unlike the other prizes, the Peace Prize is occasionally awarded to an organisation (such as theInternational Committee of the Red Cross, a three-time recipient) rather than an individual. The Nobel Peace Prize was first awarded in 1901 toFrédéric PassyandHenry Dunant, who shared a prize of 150,782Swedish kronor(equal to 7,731,004 kronor in 2008), and most recently in 2023 toNarges Mohammadi. Laureates As of 2024, the Peace Prize has been awarded to 111 individuals and 28 organizations. Nineteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, more than any other Nobel Prize.Only two recipients have won multiple Peace Prizes: theInternational Committee of the Red Crosshas won three times (1917, 1944 and 1963) and theOffice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugeeshas won twice (1954 and 1981).There have been 19 years in which the Peace Prize was not awarded. Awardees by category See also Notes References Sources External links" ]
[ "Speech disorder Speech disorders,impairments, orimpediments, are a type ofcommunication disorderin which normalspeechis disrupted.This can meanfluencydisorders likestuttering,clutteringorlisps. Someone who is unable to speak due to a speech disorder is consideredmute.Speech skills are vital to social relationships and learning, and delays or disorders that relate to developing these skills can impact individuals function.For many children and adolescents, this can present as issues with academics.Speech disorders affect roughly 11.5% of the US population, and 5% of the primary school population.Speech is a complex process that requires precise timing, nerve and muscle control, and as a result is susceptible to impairments. A person who has astroke, anaccidentorbirth defectmay have speech and language problems. Classification There are three different levels of classification when determining the magnitude and type of a speech disorder and the proper treatment or therapy: Types of disorder Causes In some cases", "In some cases the cause is unknown. However, there are various known causes of speech impairments, such ashearing loss,neurological disorders,brain injury, an increase in mental strain, constant bullying,intellectual disability,substance use disorder, physical impairments such ascleft lip and palate, and vocal abuse or misuse.After strokes, there is known to be a higher incidence ofapraxia of speech, which is a disorder affecting neurological pathways involved with speech.Poor motor function is also suggested to be highly associated with speech disorders, especially in children.Hereditary causes have also been suggested, as many times children of individuals with speech disorders will develop them as well.20-40% individuals with a family history of a specific language impairment are likely to be diagnosed, whereas only 4% of the population overall is likely to be diagnosed.There are also language disorders that are known to be genetic, such as hereditary ataxia, which can cause slow and unclear speech.", "and unclear speech. Treatment Many of these types of disorders can be treated byspeech therapy, but others require medical attention by a doctor inphoniatrics. Other treatments include correction of organic conditions andpsychotherapy. In the United States, school-age children with a speech disorder are often placed inspecial educationprograms. Children who struggle to learn to talk often experience persistent communication difficulties in addition to academic struggles.More than 700,000 of the students served in the public schools' special education programs in the 2000–2001 school year were categorized as having a speech or language impairment. This estimate does not include children who havespeech and language impairmentssecondary to other conditions such as deafness\".Manyschool districtsprovide the students with speech therapy during school hours, although extended day and summer services may be appropriate under certain circumstances. Patients will be treated in teams, depending on the type of disorder", "type of disorder they have.A team can includespeech–language pathologists, specialists, family doctors, teachers, and family members. Social effects Having a speech disorder can have negative social effects, especially among young children. Those with a speech disorder can be targets ofbullyingbecause of their disorder. This bullying can result in decreasedself-esteem.Religion and culture also play a large role in the social effects of speech disorders. For example, in many African countries like Kenya cleft palates are largely considered to be caused by a curse from God. This can cause people with cleft palates to not receive care in early childhood, and end in rejection from society.For those with speech disorders, listeners reactions are often negative, which may correlate negative effects to self-esteem. It has also been shown that adults tend to view individuals with stutters in more negative ways than those without them. Language disorders Language disordersare usually considered distinct from speech", "from speech disorders, although they are often used synonymously. Speech disorders refer to problems in producing the sounds of speech or with the quality of voice, where language disorders are usually an impairment of either understanding words or being able to use words and do not have to do with speech production. See also References", "Apraxia of speech Apraxia of speech(AOS), also calledverbal apraxia, is aspeech sound disorderaffecting an individual's ability to translate conscious speech plans into motor plans, which results in limited and difficult speech ability. By the definition ofapraxia, AOS affectsvolitional(willful or purposeful) movement pattern. However, AOS usually also affectsautomatic speech. Individuals with AOS have difficulty connecting speech messages from the brain to the mouth.AOS is a loss of prior speech ability resulting from a brain injury such as astrokeor progressive illness. Developmental verbal dyspraxia(DVD), also known as childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) and developmental apraxia of speech (DAS),is an inability to utilizemotor planningto perform movements necessary for speech during a child's language learning process. Although the causes differ between AOS and DVD, the main characteristics and treatments are similar. Presentation Apraxia of speech (AOS) is a neurogeniccommunication disorderaffecting the", "the motor programming system for speech production.Individuals with AOS demonstrate difficulty in speech production, specifically with sequencing and forming sounds. The Levelt model describes the speech production process in the following three consecutive stages: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation. According to the Levelt model, apraxia of speech would fall into the articulation region. The individual does not have a language deficiency, but has difficulty in the production of language in an audible manner. Notably, this difficulty is limited to vocal speech, and does not affect sign-language production. The individual knows exactly what they want to say, but there is a disruption in the part of the brain that sends the signal to the muscle for the specific movement.Individuals with acquired AOS demonstrate hallmark characteristics ofarticulationandprosody(rhythm, stress or intonation) errors.Coexisting characteristics may include groping and effortful speech production with self-correction,", "self-correction, difficulty initiating speech, abnormal stress, intonation and rhythm errors, and inconsistency with articulation. Wertz et al., (1984) describe the following five speech characteristics that an individual with apraxia of speech may exhibit: Causes Apraxia of speech can be caused by impairment to parts of the brain that control muscle movement and speech.However, identifying a particular region of the brain in which AOS always occurs has been controversial. Various patients with damage to left subcortical structures, regions of the insula, and Broca's area have been diagnosed with AOS. Most commonly it is triggered by vascular lesions, but AOS can also arise due to tumors and trauma. Acute apraxia of speech Stroke-associated AOS is the most common form of acquired AOS, making up about 60% of all reported acquired AOS cases. This is one of the several possible disorders that can result from a stroke, but only about 11% of stroke cases involve this disorder. Brain damage to the neural", "to the neural connections, and especially the neural synapses, during the stroke can lead to acquired AOS. Most cases of stroke-associated AOS are minor, but in the most severe cases, all linguistic motor function can be lost and must be relearned. Since most with this form of AOS are at least fifty years old, few fully recover to their previous level of ability to produce speech. Other disorders and injuries of the brain that can lead to AOS include (traumatic)dementia, progressive neurological disorders, andtraumatic brain injury. Progressive apraxia of speech Recent research has established the existence of primary progressive apraxia of speech caused byneuroanatomicmotoratrophy.For a long time, this disorder was not distinguished from othermotor speech disorderssuch as dysarthria and in particularprimary progressive aphasia. Many studies have been done trying to identify areas in the brain in which this particular disorder occurs or at least to show that it occurs in different areas of the brain than", "of the brain than other disorders.One study observed 37 patients withneurodegenerativespeech disorders to determine whether or not it is distinguishable from other disorders, and if so where in the brain it can be found. Usingspeech and language,neurological,neuropsychologicalandneuroimagingtesting, the researchers came to the conclusion that PAS does exist and that it correlates to superior lateralpremotorand supplementary motor atrophy.However, because PAS is such a rare and recently discovered disorder, many studies do not have enough subjects to observe to make data entirely conclusive. Diagnosis Apraxia of speech can be diagnosed by aspeech language pathologist(SLP) through specific exams that measure oral mechanisms of speech. The oral mechanisms exam involves tasks such as pursing lips, blowing, licking lips, elevating the tongue, and also involves an examination of the mouth. A complete exam also involves observation of the patient eating and talking. SLPs do not agree on a specific set of", "a specific set of characteristics that make up the apraxia of speech diagnosis,so any of the characteristics from the section above could be used to form a diagnosis.Patients may be asked to perform other daily tasks such as reading, writing, and conversing with others. In situations involving brain damage, an MRI brain scan also helps identify damaged areas of the brain. Adifferential diagnosismust be used in order to rule out other similar or alternative disorders. Although disorders such as expressive aphasia, conduction aphasia, and dysarthria involve similar symptoms as apraxia of speech, the disorders must be distinguished in order to correctly treat the patients.While AOS involves the motor planning or processing stage of speech, aphasic disorders can involve other language processes. According to Ziegler et al., this difficulty in diagnosis derives from the unknown causes and function of the disorder, making it hard to set definite parameters for AOS identification. Specifically, he explains that", "he explains that oral-facial apraxia, dysarthria, and aphasic phonological impairment are the three distinctly different disorders that cause individuals to display symptoms that are often similar to those of someone with AOS, and that these close relatives must be correctly ruled out by a Speech Language Pathologist before AOS can be given as a diagnosis. In this way, AOS is a diagnosis of exclusion, and is generally recognized when all other similar speech sound production disorders are eliminated. Possible co-morbid aphasias AOS andexpressive aphasia(also known as Broca's aphasia) are commonly mistaken as the same disorder mainly because they often occur together in patients. Although both disorders present with symptoms such as a difficulty producing sounds due to damage in the language parts of the brain, they are not the same. The main difference between these disorders lies in the ability to comprehend spoken language; patients with apraxia are able to fully comprehend speech, while patients with", "while patients with aphasia are not always fully able to comprehend others' speech. Conduction aphasiais another speech disorder that is similar to, but not the same as, apraxia of speech. Although patients with conduction aphasia have full comprehension of speech, as do those with AOS, there are differences between the two disorders.Patients with conduction aphasia are typically able to speak fluently, but they do not have the ability to repeat what they hear. Similarly,dysarthria, another motor speech disorder, is characterized by difficulty articulating sounds. The difficulty in articulation does not occur due in planning the motor movement, as happens with AOS. Instead,dysarthriais caused by inability in or weakness of the muscles in the mouth, face, and respiratory system. Management In cases of acute AOS (stroke), spontaneous recovery may occur, in which previous speech abilities reappear on their own. All other cases of acquired AOS require a form of therapy; however the therapy varies with the", "varies with the individual needs of the patient. Typically, treatment involves one-on-one therapy with a speech language pathologist (SLP).For severe forms of AOS, therapy may involve multiple sessions per week, which is reduced with speech improvement. Another main theme in AOS treatment is the use of repetition in order to achieve a large number of target utterances, or desired speech usages. There are various treatment techniques for AOS. One technique, called the Linguistic Approach, utilizes the rules for sounds and sequences. This approach focuses on the placement of the mouth in forming speech sounds. Another type of treatment is the Motor-Programming Approach, in which the motor movements necessary for speech are practiced. This technique utilizes a great amount of repetition in order to practice the sequences and transitions that are necessary in between production of sounds. Research about the treatment of apraxia has revealed four main categories: articulatory-kinematic, rate/rhythm control,", "control, intersystemic facilitation/reorganization treatments, and alternative/augmentative communication. One specific treatment method is referred to as PROMPT. This acronym stands for Prompts for Restructuring Oral Muscular Phonetic Targets, and takes a hands on multidimensional approach at treating speech production disorders. PROMPT therapists integrate physical-sensory, cognitive-linguistic, and social-emotional aspects of motor performance. The main focus is developing language interaction through this tactile-kinetic approach by using touch cues to facilitate the articulatory movements associated with individual phonemes, and eventually words. One study describes the use of electropalatography (EPG) to treat a patient with severe acquired apraxia of speech. EPG is a computer-based tool for assessment and treatment of speech motor issues. The program allows patients to see the placement of articulators during speech production thus aiding them in attempting to correct errors. Originally after two", "after two years of speech therapy, the patient exhibited speech motor and production problems including problems with phonation, articulation, and resonance. This study showed that EPG therapy gave the patient valuable visual feedback to clarify speech movements that had been difficult for the patient to complete when given only auditory feedback. While many studies are still exploring the various treatment methods, a few suggestions from ASHA for treating apraxia patients include the integration of objective treatment evidence, theoretical rationale, clinical knowledge and experience, and the needs and goals of the patient. History and terminology The term apraxia was first defined byHugo Karl Liepmannin 1908 as the \"inability to perform voluntary acts despite preserved muscle strength.\" In 1969, Frederic L. Darley coined the term \"apraxia of speech\", replacing Liepmann's original term \"apraxia of the glosso-labio-pharyngeal structures.\"Paul Brocahad also identified this speech disorder in 1861, which he", "in 1861, which he referred to as \"aphemia\": a disorder involving difficulty of articulation despite having intact language skills and muscular function. The disorder is currently referred to as \"apraxia of speech\", but was also formerly termed \"verbal dyspraxia\". The term apraxia comes from the Greek root \"praxis,\" meaning the performance of action or skilled movement.Adding the prefix \"a\", meaning absence, or \"dys\", meaning abnormal or difficult, to the root \"praxis\", both function to imply speech difficulties related to movement. See also References External links", "Hugo Liepmann Hugo Karl Liepmann(April 9, 1863 – May 6, 1925) was a Germanneurologistandpsychiatristborn inBerlin, into aJewishfamily. Initially, he studied bothchemistryandphilosophyat the Universities ofFreiburgandLeipzig, obtaining his doctorate in 1885. His interests later turned to medicine, and after completion of studies, worked as an assistant toCarl Wernickein the psychiatric clinic atBreslau. In 1906 he became head physician at Dalldorf (Berlin-Wittenau), followed by an assignment as director of theStädtische Irrenanstalt zu Lichtenberg(Herzberge) in 1914. Liepmann is remembered for his pioneer work involvingcerebrallocalization of function. Fromanatomicalstudies, he postulated that planned or commanded actions were controlled in theparietal lobeof the brain's dominant hemisphere, and not in thefrontal lobe. He conducted extensive research of a disorder he calledapraxia, a term that he introduced in 1900.Apraxia is described as the inability to coordinate voluntary muscular movements that is", "movements that is symptomatic of somecentral nervous systemdisorders and injuries and not due to muscle weakness.Liepmann believed that damage in the parietal lobe prevented activation of learned sequences of actions that are necessary to produce desired results on command. As a result of his studies, he divided apraxia into three types: Published works References", "List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates TheNorwegian Nobel Committeeawards theNobel Peace Prizeannually \"to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses.\"As dictated byAlfred Nobel's will, the award is administered by theNorwegian Nobel Committeeand awarded by a committee of five people elected by theParliament of Norway. Each recipient receives a medal, adiploma, and a monetary award prize (that has varied throughout the years).It is one of the five prizes established by the 1895willofAlfred Nobel(who died in 1896), awarded for outstanding contributions inchemistry,physics,literature,physiology or medicine. Overview The Peace Prize is presented annually inOslo, in the presence of theKing of Norway, on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death, and is the only Nobel Prize not presented inStockholm.Unlike the other prizes, the Peace Prize is occasionally awarded to", "awarded to an organisation (such as theInternational Committee of the Red Cross, a three-time recipient) rather than an individual. The Nobel Peace Prize was first awarded in 1901 toFrédéric PassyandHenry Dunant, who shared a prize of 150,782Swedish kronor(equal to 7,731,004 kronor in 2008), and most recently in 2023 toNarges Mohammadi. Laureates As of 2024, the Peace Prize has been awarded to 111 individuals and 28 organizations. Nineteen women have won the Nobel Peace Prize, more than any other Nobel Prize.Only two recipients have won multiple Peace Prizes: theInternational Committee of the Red Crosshas won three times (1917, 1944 and 1963) and theOffice of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugeeshas won twice (1954 and 1981).There have been 19 years in which the Peace Prize was not awarded. Awardees by category See also Notes References Sources External links" ]
As of January 1, 2024, are any members of Vampire Weekend Capricorn? If no, what are their signs?
No. Ezra Koenig is Aries, Chris Baio is Scorpio, and Chris Tomson is Pisces.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire_Weekend
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra_Koenig
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Baio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Tomson
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire_Weekend', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra_Koenig', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Baio', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Tomson', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampire_Weekend", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezra_Koenig", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Baio", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Tomson", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrological_sign" ]
[ "Vampire Weekend Vampire Weekendis an Americanrockband formed inNew York Cityin 2006 and currently signed toColumbia Records.The band was formed by lead vocalist and guitaristEzra Koenig, multi-instrumentalistRostam Batmanglij, drummerChris Tomson, and bassistChris Baio. Batmanglij departed the group in early 2016 but has continued to occasionally contribute to subsequent albums as a songwriter, producer, and musician. The band's debut album,Vampire Weekend(2008), incorporated elements ofindie pop,Afropop, andchamber music. Featuring charting singles\"A-Punk\"and \"Oxford Comma\", it has been hailed as one of the greatest debut albums.Their sophomore album,Contra(2010), was similarly acclaimed and garnered strong commercial success, debuting at number one on the USBillboard200, and featuring well-received singles including \"Holiday\". Their subsequent studio albumsModern Vampires of the City(2013) andFather of the Bride(2019) continued the band's success, with each album receiving widespread critical acclaim, topping US charts and winning theGrammy Award for Best Alternative Music Albumin their respective years. They released their fifth studio album,Only God Was Above Us,on April 5, 2024 to universal acclaim. History Formation andVampire Weekend(2006–2009) The band members met while enrolled atColumbia University, beginning with arapcollaboration between Koenig, Tomson, and Koenig's roommate Andrew Kalaidjian named \"L'Homme Run\".They bonded over a shared love ofpunk rockandAfrican music. Koenig toured withDirty Projectorsduring a period of experimentation with African music, inspiring the band to incorporateworld soundsinto their earliest work.The band chose the name \"Vampire Weekend\" from the title of a short film project Koenig worked on during the summer between freshman and sophomore years in college.While home for the summer, Koenig watched the 1987 vampire filmThe Lost Boysand was inspired to make aNortheasternversion of the film in which a man named Walcott travels toCape Codto warn the mayor that vampires are attacking the United States.Koenig abandoned the project after two days before editing the footage into a two-minute trailer during his senior year.The band began playing shows around Columbia University, starting with a battle of the bands atLerner Hallin 2006.After graduating from college, the band self-produced their debut album while simultaneously working full-time jobs, Tomson as a music archivist and Koenig as a middle school English teacher. In 2007, Vampire Weekend's song \"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\" was ranked 67th onRolling Stone's list of the \"100 Best Songs of the Year\".In November 2007, they toured the UK withThe Shins.The then-nascent influence of blog hype and internet buzz played a role in their success and led to a large prerelease following sufficient to support them performing on three tours before their debut album was released.They were declared \"The Year's Best New Band\" bySpinmagazine in the March 2008 issue, and were the first band to be shot for the cover of the magazine before releasing their debut album.The band made a television appearance onThe Late Show with David Lettermanon February 1, 2008,and on March 8, 2008, performed onSaturday Night Live.Four songs from the band's first album also made theTriple J Hottest 100, 2008. The internet hype had its backlash, however, as critics reacted against a perceived image of Vampire Weekend as privileged, upper-class Ivy League graduates stealing from foreign musicians. One critic went so far as to call Vampire Weekend the \"whitest band in the world\", to which they took exception, given their Ukrainian, Persian, Italian, and Hungarian heritages.Koenig responded in a November 2009 interview by saying, \"Nobody in our band is aWASP.\"Saying the backlash involving their social backgrounds was largely unfounded, Koenig claimed he paid for Columbia with a scholarship and student loans; he himself was still paying off student loans in 2009. Self-titledVampire Weekend, the band's first album was released on January 29, 2008. It received contemporary critical acclaim, being ranked number 430 onRolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and has been hailed as one of the greatest debut albums.It featured a blend ofAfropopinfluences,indie pop, andchamber musicelements.A success in the US and UK, it peaked at number 15 on theUK Albums Chartand number 17 on theBillboard200and had been certified Platinum in both countries. Four singles were released from the album; while \"A-Punk\" peaked at number 25 on theBillboardModern rockchart and number 55 on theUK Singles Chart, \"Oxford Comma\" peaked at number 38 in the UK. \"A-Punk\" was ranked the 4th onRolling Stone'sReaders' Rock List: Best Songs of 2008.\"A-Punk\" was also used to open the Will Ferrell/John C. Reilly featureStep Brothers, and featured in the UK television showThe Inbetweenersand the video gamesGuitar Hero 5,Just Dance 2andLego Rock Band. Contra(2009–2010) The band's second album,Contra, was released on January 11, 2010, in the UK and the following day in the US, after being pushed back from the original release date for the fall of 2009.The album's first single, \"Horchata\", was released on October 5, 2009. The album's second single, \"Cousins\", was released as a single on November 17, 2009. Initial copies of the CD and LP sold at independent record stores in the US included a 3-track bonus CD containing two \"melts\", which featured bits of album tracks and a remix. It is the band's first album to reach number one on theBillboard200, and the12th independently distributed albumin history to reach the number one spot on theBillboard200 sinceNielsen Soundscanbegan recording data in 1991, while also being the first independent artist to have done so without ever having signed with a major label, after already established rock bandsRadioheadandPearl Jamand beforeArcade Fire'sThe Suburbs.The album sold 124,000 copies in its first weekand was awarded Gold by theRIAAon November 21, 2011, which means it has sold over 500,000 units in the US alone and over one million copies Worldwide.In 2010, it was awarded a diamond certification from theIndependent Music Companies Associationwhich indicated sales of at least 250,000 copies throughout Europe. On January 9, 2010, the band did an acoustic show forMTV Unplugged. The following month, the band toured Europe and Canada with Canadian electro duoFan Deathas their support. The video for their next single \"Giving Up the Gun\" was also released on February 18, 2010, which included cameos fromJoe Jonas,Lil Jon,RZA, andJake Gyllenhaal. They also played festivals across the USA such asCoachella,Bonnaroo,Austin City Limits Music Festival, All Points West, and the Groovin' The Moo festival in Australia. Their third single, \"Holiday\", was released on June 7, 2010. On June 25, 2010, the band played the Pyramid Stage atGlastonbury Festival, in Pilton, Somerset, UK. The band were also on the main stage atT in the Park 2010at Balado Kinross, Scotland, on June 8, and played theOxegen Festivalin Ireland on July 9. They also headlined theLatitude Festivalin Suffolk, UK on July 18. On July 16, the band headlined the Main Stage at theFestival Internacional de Benicàssim. In the summer of 2010 the band played at the Utopia stage on Peace and Love, Sweden's biggest Festival. On July 30, 2010, the band played at Jisan Valley Rock Festival in South Korea.In 2010, Vampire Weekend embarked on a North American tour withBeach HouseandDum Dum Girls. The tour started off on August 27, 2010, inVancouver,British Columbiaat theMalkin Bowl. Koenig mentioned to the audience that before this concert, the band had the longest \"vacation period\" that they had had in a while.Contrawas nominated for aGrammyforBest Alternative Music Album, but lost toThe Black Keys'sBrothers. Modern Vampires of the City(2010–2014) On November 11, 2011, the band revealed it was working on a new album.In January 2012, PresidentBarack Obamaadded Vampire Weekend to a short list of musical artists that he sought support from for his re-election campaign. Vampire Weekend made it onto this list withJay-Z,John Legend, andAlicia Keys. The band's third album,Modern Vampires of the Citywas released in May 2013, and written and recorded in various locations including SlowDeath Studios in New York,Echo Park\"Back House\" in Los Angeles,Vox Recording Studiosin Hollywood, Rostam Batmanglij's New York apartment and a guest house on Martha's Vineyard. The album was co-produced byBatmanglijandAriel Rechtshaid. After Batmanglij produced the first two albums himself, this marked the first time the band worked with an outside producer on any of their records. In an interview for the February 2013 edition ofQ(released in mid-January), Koenig described the album as \"darker and more organic\" and \"very much the last of a trilogy.\" Said Koenig, \"Things that we might have found boring in the past, we've started to find more fresh. This album has more piano and acoustic guitar and organ.\"Modern Vampires of the Cityalso continued the use of digital voice modulation as heard in the songs \"Diane Young\" and \"Ya Hey\", a technique first used in the song \"California English\" onContraThe album was recorded and co-produced byAriel Rechtshaidin his Los Angeles Studio (alongside Batmanglij).The band discussed the album withThe FADERand appeared on the cover of the magazine's 84th issue.On March 16, 2013, the band played the closing show at Stubbs on the last day of theSXSWfestival in Austin, Texas. In the show they played two new songs from the upcoming album: \"Diane Young\" and \"Ya Hey\". On March 18, 2013, Vampire Weekend released adouble-sided single, \"Diane Young\"/\"Step\". On May 11, 2013, Vampire Weekend were featured as the musical guest onSaturday Night LivewithKristen Wiighosting, their third time on the show. Released on May 14, 2013, the album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard chart, marking the second time Vampire Weekend achieved the feat: its second albumContraalso debuted at No. 1 in 2010, making them the first independent rock band to enter the charts at No. 1 with two consecutive releases.Modern Vampires of the Cityalso shattered the previous record for first week vinyl sales, moving nearly 10,000 units on vinyl alone and debuting at No. 1 on the Soundscan Vinyl Charts. Additionally, the band charted #1 at Indie, Alternative, Digital and the top 200.In 2014,Modern Vampires of the Citywon aGrammyforBest Alternative Music Album. To promote the album,XL Recordingsreleased \"Diane Young\" and \"Step\" as adouble A-sided singleon March 19, 2013.Modern Vampires of the Citywas released by XL on May 14. and Vampire Weekend played several concerts and music festivals shortly after, eventually embarking on a larger supporting tour throughout late 2013, beginning with a show at theMann Center for the Performing Artsin Philadelphia on September 19. John Gentile ofRolling Stonereported that the band headlined \"some of their largest venues to date\" on the tour. In the album's first week of release, it debuted number one on theBillboard200and sold 134,000 copies in the United States. It was Vampire Weekend's second consecutive number-one record on the chart, as well as the nineteenth independently distributed album to top theBillboard200 in theNielsen SoundScanera (1991–present). The record entered theBritish album chartsat number three with first-week sales of 27,805 copies, becoming the group's third consecutive top-twenty album in the United Kingdom.By December 2014, it had been certifiedgoldby theRecording Industry Association of Americaand sold 505,000 copies in the US.In 2014, it was awarded a diamond certification from theIndependent Music Companies Association,which indicated sales of at least 250,000 copies throughout Europeand has sold over one million copies worldwide. In September 2020,Modern Vampires of the Citywas put by Rolling Stone in their new list of the500 Greatest Albums of All Time, ranking at position 328. Departure of Batmanglij andFather of the Bride(2014–2021) After concluding their Modern Vampires tour in September 2014, Vampire Weekend went silent until January 26, 2016, when it was announced that Rostam Batmanglij had left the band. Despite his departure, he and Ezra Koenig planned to continue collaborating.On the same day, Koenig revealed the band was in the studio working on their fourth album, at the time titled,Mitsubishi Macchiato, with Batmanglij contributing to it.In late January 2016, the band supportedBernie Sandersby performing at an Iowa rally just before theprimaries. Filling in for Batmanglij and Chris Baio, who was touring for his solo project, the band performed with membersDavid LongstrethandNat Baldwinof Dirty Projectors,Jake Longstreth, the comedy duo the Lucas Brothers, and an all-female a cappella group from theUniversity of Iowa.Koenig, a vocal Sanders supporter, also promoted the candidate on social media and hisBeats 1radio show,Time Crisis.In April 2016, the band briefly performed at another Sanders rally in Washington Square Park, marking their debut as a trio, joined again by Longstreth. In late 2016, Koenig was reportedly in talks to sign the band withColumbia Records, as he reportedly \"hit it off\" with executive Rob Stringer.Initially, this news was regarded a rumor, until the band's website revamp in 2018, in which aSony Musiccopyright appeared on the site. In March 2017, Koenig revealed in an elaborate Instagram update that during 2016 he had spent countless hours researching and writing music in libraries with grad students. Additionally, he revealed that the album, given the working title of \"Mitsubishi Macchiato\", would feature a more 'spring-time' vibe and one of the songs would be entitledFlower Moon. Koenig revealed that LP4 would be partially inspired by the songwriting of country singer,Kacey Musgraves, after he attended one of her shows in September 2016. In an interview withStereogum, he stated, \"I'm the type of person who has spent hours poring over the avant-garde poetic lyrics of certain songwriters, and there was something that felt so good from the first verse, you knew who was singing, who they were singing to, what kind of situation they were in. After the show I realized there's not a ton of Vampire Weekend songs where you could listen to the first verse and immediately answer the question of who's singing and who are they singing to.\"Furthermore, in a September 2017 interview withZane Lowe, Ezra briefly spoke aboutLP4and stated that it was \"about 80% done.\" He mentioned that the album would feature lead producerAriel Rechtshaidwith additional \"guest appearances\", one of which being Batmanglij.Lowe pushed Koenig for a release date, citing Q1 2018 as a likely candidate. In a December 2017 interview, Koenig noted that Batmanglij was involved in a few songs, some of which was material that they had started working on long ago, and that their method of collaboration had not changed despite the latter's departure from the band. Vampire Weekend's first gigs since the hiatus took place in Ojai, California on June 16 & 17.On January 31, 2018, it was announced that the band would be headlining the UK music festivalEnd of the Road.The festival ran from August 31 to September 3 and marked Vampire Weekend's first return to a festival stage in 4 years.On July 21, they performed inByron Bayfor the Australian festival,Splendour in the Grass.Additionally, it was announced that they would headline the 2018Fuji Rock Festival, scheduled for July 27 to 29.For their live shows, the core trio of Koenig, Baio, and Tomson has been augmented byGreta Morganon keyboards, guitar, and vocals, Brian Robert Jones on guitar,Garrett Ray on percussion, drums, and vocals, and Will Canzoneri on keyboards and vocals.During their August 4, 2018 performance atLollapalooza, where the band played fan favorite \"A-Punk\" three times in a row,Koenig announced that Vampire Weekend's 4th album was done. On January 17, 2019, Koenig announced the abbreviation of the band's fourth album title asFOTB, and revealed that the album would consist of 18 songs, running at approximately 59 minutes. Additionally, he announced that the album would be promoted by three monthly two-song releases, beginning the following week.On January 24, the songs \"Harmony Hall\" and \"2021\" were released, and Koenig confirmed the title of the album asFather of the Bride. He also said that the record would feature an array of collaborators, including Batmanglij,marking the first time the band has included guest vocalists in an album. In an interview withRolling Stone, Koenig said, \"We've had three albums of the same voice over and over again. I like the idea of opening up our world a little bit.\"He also confirmed that \"2021\" features aHaruomi Hosonosample, and said that he planned to start work on Vampire Weekend's fifth album. The band's current touring approach is influenced byPhish, theGrateful Deadand other jam bands.Contemporary fans mirror these influences in theirDeadheadinspired creation of unofficial merchandise including shirts, shorts, tie-dyes, and bucket hats.Father of the Bridebecame the band's third consecutive album to debut at number one on theBillboard200. At the62nd Annual Grammy Awards, the band received three nominations:Album of the YearandBest Alternative Music AlbumforFather of the BrideandBest Rock Songfor \"Harmony Hall\". They won for Best Alternative Music Album (their second win in the category). In 2020, theLive in FloridaEP featuring songs from the Father of the Bride Tour was released.On February 4, 2021, Vampire Weekend released the40:42EP featuring reinterpretations of their song '2021' fromFather of the Bride. Americansaxophonist,Sam Gendel, and Connecticut-basedjam band,Goose, were commissioned to expand the song into twenty-minute and twenty-one-second versions. Only God Was Above Us(2021–present) In late 2021, during an interview withMark Hoppus, Ezra Koenig gave an update on the follow-up toFather of the Bride, stating that the band had been recording in England and Los Angeles. “Sometimes I oversell how close we are with the record because who really knows?” Koenig said, “But we almost have an album’s worth of songs.\"On June 7, 2023, Vampire Weekend releasedFrog on the Bass Drum Vol. 1, a live album recorded inIndianapolisduring the band's Father of the Bride Tour in 2019. The record was announced to be the first installment in a vinyl-exclusive series of live albums.The release was accompanied by a newsletter written by Chris Tomson which revealed that the band's new studio album is partly inspired by the Indian classical music tradition,raga, after Koenig had taken a singing lesson in the style withTerry Rileyin rural Japan. He then added that the album is \"close to done\" and more news will follow at the end of the year.On December 14,Frog on the Bass Drum Vol. 2was released, a live show recorded inMilanin July 2019 which features the band playing their song, 'Bambina', twice in a row. Another newsletter was released alongside it, this time written by Chris Baio. He teased that the band had big plans for 2024 and concluded the newsletter: \"LP5 IS DONE.\" On February 8, 2024, the band announced their fifth studio album,Only God Was Above Us, released on April 5, 2024.The album was preceded by double A-side single, \"Capricorn\" and \"Gen-X Cops\" on February 16,with the third, follow-up single, \"Classical\" released on March 14, 2024 respectively.On March 28, 2024, \"Mary Boone\" was released as the fourth and last single before the album. To further promote the album, the group officially launched a podcast titledVampire Campfireon March 7, 2024 via Swedish hosting companyAcast.The podcast consisted of Koenig, Baio and Tomson gathered around an ignited fire pit in an empty lot detailing various topics and subjects relevant to the band including the making of the new album and forthcoming world tour.The band performed \"Gen-X Cops\" and \"Capricorn\" on the May 11, 2024 episode ofSaturday Night Live. TheOnly God Will Above Ustour began on April 8, 2024 inAustin, Texas. The band was a last-minute addition to the first weekendCoachellalineup on April 13, where they invitedParis Hiltononstage to playcornhole.Their only European date of the leg was a May 30 headlining set atPrimavera SoundinBarcelona.During the tour, the band performed partial covers of unrehearsed songs per audience request. Vampire Weekend played two hometown shows at New York City'sMadison Square Gardenon October 5 and 6; the latter was an afternoon matinee show. Band members Current members Current touring musicians Former members Former touring musicians Contralawsuit In 2010, the band, along with their record companyXL Recordingsand photographerTod Scott Brody, were sued by Kirsten Kennis, the model on the cover ofContra, over the use of her image.Kennis's accusations were that the band used her image without her permission.Vampire Weekend settled with Kennis in 2011. Other contributions Vampire Weekend contributed a cover of \"Exit Music (For a Film)\" forStereogum Presents... OKX: A Tribute to OK Computer(2007), a free tribute album celebrating 10 years ofRadiohead's albumOK Computer. In 2014, the band contributed a cover of \"Con te Partiro\" byAndrea Bocellion theValentine's Daycompilation, Sweetheart 2014,as well as a cover ofBruce Springsteen's \"I'm Goin' Down\" for theGirlsVol. 2 Soundtrack.They have also covered \"Everywhere\" byFleetwood Mac, \"Ça Plane Pour Moi\" byPlastic Bertrand, \"Have I the Right?\" byThe Honeycombs, \"Blurred Lines\"byRobin Thicke, \"Fight For This Love\"byCheryl Cole, and \"Ruby Soho\" byRancid. The band also contributed the song \"Ottoman\" to the soundtrack to the 2008 filmNick and Norah's Infinite Playlist. That song was then sampled by alternative hip-hop artistKid Cudi. Two tracks from their debut record also appeared in the 2009 comedyI Love You, Man. A new song, \"Jonathan Low\", was released on June 8, 2010, appearing on the soundtrack to the third installment of theTwilight Sagafilms,Eclipse. Their song \"Worship You\" appeared as a soundtrack inEA Sportsfootball video game,FIFA 14. Discography Studio albums Awards and nominations References External links", "Ezra Koenig Ezra Michael Koenig(/ˌkeɪnɪɡ/KAY-nig; born April 8, 1984)is an American musician, record producer, and radio personality. He is the lead vocalist, guitarist, and primary songwriter ofindie rockbandVampire Weekend. Additionally, Koenig is the creator of theNetflixanimated comedy seriesNeo Yokioand also hosts theApple Musicradio talk showTime Crisis with Ezra Koenig. Time Crisisis airing its ninth season, as of 2023. Koenig's accolades include twoGrammy Awardsfrom five nominations; with Vampire Weekend, he wonBest Alternative Music Albumin 2013 and 2019. He was also nominated for Album of the Year in2016for his production work onBeyoncé's albumLemonade(2016). Early life Koenig was born inNew York Cityand is the son of Bobby Bass, apsychotherapist, and Robin Koenig, aset dresseron film and TV productions.He isJewish, and his family emigrated to the U.S. fromRomaniaandHungary.His parents lived on theUpper West SideofManhattanbefore moving toGlen Ridge, New Jerseyshortly after their son's birth. As a young teenager, Ezra attendedBuck's Rock Camp, aMontessori-style performing and creative arts camp in Connecticut.He graduated fromGlen Ridge High School. Koenig has a younger sister, Emma Koenig (born 1988), who is the author of the booksFUCK! I'm in my twentiesandMoan, and has written for television and magazines. Ezra began writing music around the age of ten, and his first song ever was titled \"Bad Birthday Party\". While attendingColumbia University, he ran a blog calledInternet Vibesabout fashion,existentialism, personal identity, and modern culture.After graduating, he taught English throughTeach for Americaat Junior High School 258 inBrooklyn, New York. Students recalled Koenig bringing his guitar with him to class, despite trying to hide it and his music career. He was described as a laid-back teacher who successfully made bonds with his students.In fall 2007, a deal withXL Recordingscut short Koenig's teaching career. During his schooling and college years, he was involved in numerous musical projects withWes Miles,a childhood friend and now current frontman ofRa Ra Riot. Koenig and Miles formed an experimental band, The Sophisticuffs, which was described as \"wildly inventive musical work\".In 2004, Koenig formed the hip hop group L'Homme Run, which was notable for the comedic track \"Pizza Party\",with Andrew Kalaidjian and fellow Vampire Weekend band memberChris Tomson, played saxophone for theindie rockbandDirty Projectorsand worked as an intern forThe Walkmen. Career Vampire Weekend In 2005, Ezra formed the indie rock bandVampire Weekend. The name of the group was in reference to an unreleased indie film of the same name that Ezra and his friends produced during a vacation. In the film, Ezra portrayed the protagonist, Walcott, a man hell-bent on escapingCape Codas he believed vampires were coming. Many songs from the band's eponymous release made reference to the film. Ezra met his bandmates atColumbia University, prior to 2003.After already having met drummer Chris Tomson, Koenig became acquainted withRostam Batmanglij. The two immediately bonded overRadioheadat a party during freshman year and vowed to start a band one day.Rounding out the group wasChris Baio, Koenig's suite-mate in his sophomore year, with whom he shared a love ofDestiny's Child. The group immediately got to work, playing their first show in 2006 at a battle of the bands in a campus basement. They placed third out of four. Later that year, some of their demos appeared online, earning raves from sites likeStereogumandPitchfork.Before they knew it, they were selling out shows and appearing on the cover ofSpinwithout even having released an album. Theireponymous debut albumarrived on January 29, 2008, and by the end of the year they had performed onSaturday Night Live, played for 40,000 fans at England's Glastonbury festival, and sold nearly half a million albums. The album was self-produced while they were working full-time jobs. Since then, the band have released another four albums:Contra(2010),Modern Vampires of the City(2013),Father of the Bride(2019), andOnly God Was Above Us(2024). The band has been nominated for multipleGrammy Awards. In 2011,Contrawas nominated forBest Alternative Music Album, butBrothersbyThe Black Keyswon the award. In 2014,Modern Vampires of the Citywas nominated in the category and, this time, the band won the award. Following the win, Koenig exclaimed, \"I'm the pre-eminent Ezra of my time, and when I die, then we can talk about who comes next.\"In 2020,Father of the Brideearned the band a second win for Best Alternative Music Album and a first nomination forAlbum of the Year. \"Harmony Hall\" was nominated forBest Rock Song. Time Crisis In 2015 Koenig began hosting his own internet radio show onApple Music. The show,Time Crisis, features Koenig with co-hostJake Longstreth, an American painter, musician, and internet radio personality. Each episode lasts two hours, during which Koenig and company discuss corporate snack food history, the tasteful palette of ’70s rock (with a focus on the Grateful Dead),portmanteaus, and respond to emails from listeners. Often, the show ends with The Top Five where Koenig and Longstreth compare the top five songs on Apple Music this week to that of a week from the past relevant to the discourse of the episode. Jonah Hill,Rashida Jones,Mark Ronson,Florence Welch,Jamie Foxx,Tim Heidecker,James Corden,and Koenig's sister Emma Koenig have appeared as guests on the internet radio show. The show debuted on July 12, 2015, and new episodes air fortnightly.The show is in its eighth season. Neo Yokio Following a hiatus from Vampire Weekend, Koenig wrote and produced an animated comedy-adventure series about a depressive, demon-slaying playboy voiced byJaden Smith. The series,Neo Yokio, debuted onNetflixin September 2017.The show was written and produced in 2015, with the final sound mix being completed in January 2016;however, due to issues withFox, the show was postponed until finally being picked up by Netflix. Neo Yokiois presented in the style of ananimeseries. However, in an interview withRolling Stonemagazine, Koenig stated that he believes the show is not a traditional anime: \"First of all, out of respect for true anime, I've always called Neo Yokio \"anime-inspired\" – it's a hybrid. But I've always been a fan of anime, and I always wanted to do something that was kind of an homage to it. Maybe a loving parody. Initially the people I was working with thought I should be the voice of the main character, but I was, like, 'I just spent seven years being the frontman of something, using my voice all the time. What I need right now is to slip into the background of something.'\" Upon release, the show's first season received mixed reviews from critics, earning a 54% score onRotten Tomatoes.Shannon Liao ofThe Vergecriticised the show's story and voice-acting, writing that \"the initial glamor of the backdrops and talent involved wears off fast. It has awful voice acting, and a pointless, predictable story that’s only surprising because it’s so willing to hit the bottom of the barrel.\"The New York Timesgave the show a more optimistic review, stating that \"if a defensive reading of the line, “Yes, my girlfriend broke up with me to take a finance job in San Francisco,” makes you chuckle, “Neo Yokio” may be for you.\" On an episode ofTime Crisisin early 2018, Koenig spoke about the future ofNeo Yokio, hinting that \"Neo's not dead.\"However, Netflix canceled the show the following month after one season and a Christmas special. Other projects and appearances In 2009, Koenig provided vocals on the song \"Carby\" onLP, the debut album fromDiscovery, a group which features Vampire Weekend keyboardistRostam BatmanglijandRa Ra Riotvocalist Wes Miles. In the same year, he appeared on \"Warm Heart of Africa\" bythe Very Best, \"Pyromiltia\" byTheophilus London, \"I Could Be Wrong\" byChromeoand \"Dynamo\" byAbd al Malik. In 2012, Koenig performed \"I Think Ur a Contra\" withAngelique Kidjoin her PBS special. He appeared and provided vocals in the music video forDuck Sauce's \"Barbra Streisand\". His recording of the song \"Papa Hobo\", byPaul Simon, was included as part of the soundtrack for Max Winkler's filmCeremony. In 2013, Koenig was featured in the song \"Jessica\" byMajor Lazer. In 2014, Koenig was featured on \"Ezra's Interlude\" by Chromeo, as well as \"New Dorp, New York\" bySBTRKT. He also appeared in theHBOdrama seriesGirlsandHaim's music video for \"My Song 5\" featuringA$AP Ferg,and performed the voice of Ryland on the animated seriesMajor Lazer. At the86th Academy Awards, Koenig accompaniedKaren Oon backing vocals and acoustic guitar for her performance of the Oscar-nominated song \"The Moon Song\" from the filmHer. In 2016, Koenig was credited as a writer and producer on the song \"Hold Up\" byBeyoncé.Due to these contributions, Koenig was nominated for aGrammyAward for the albumLemonade. In January and April 2016, Koenig vocally supported political candidateBernie Sandersby performing at a number of his rallies. In 2017, Koenig made an appearance inCharli XCX's music video for \"Boys\". In 2018, Koenig was credited as a songwriter and producer on the single \"I Promise You\" byJames Corden, from the filmPeter Rabbit, which also prominently featured Vampire Weekend's songs. His demo of the song was also released. In February 2020, Vampire Weekend performed at a rally for U.S Presidential Candidate Bernie Sanders. In 2022, Koenig was credited as a co-writer and producer ofLiam Gallagher's song \"Moscow Rules\" from his albumC'mon You Know. He also plays multiple instruments across the album. Also in 2022, Koenig was featured as a vocalist inPhoenix's song “Tonight,” which is the third single from the band's seventh album,Alpha Zulu. On August 11, 2024, he appeared in the2024 Summer Olympics closing ceremonywith Phoenix,Angèle,VanndaandKavinsky. Influences Since the age of 9, Koenig has been an admirer of music. In a 2014 interview withVulture, he stated, \"My dad is a massive music fan, so even just growing up in the house, he was buying new cool music, up through when I was born. So I was very familiar with theRamones,Run DMC,Blondie—core New York music. My parents would often play the Ramones song, \"We’re a Happy Family\", so I remember when I was 9 or 10, learning the lyrics and trying to understand.\" By the time he got to high school, Koenig's taste had slightly changed: \"I had some older friends who were really obsessed with hip-hop,De La Soul,Tribe Called Quest. There’s something aboutMidnight Marauders; it feels like a late night in the city album.\" Koenig is also a self-professed fan of bands such as theGrateful DeadandSublime, who he believes largely influenced his musical taste. Personal life In August 2018, Koenig's partner, actressRashida Jones, gave birth to their son.In a 2024 interview published inThe Guardian, Koenig referred to Jones as his wife.In a 2024 interview published inPeople, Koenig said that the couple are “married in the eyes of God.” References External links", "Chris Baio Christopher Joseph Baio(born October 29, 1984) is an American musician, best known for being the bassist for the New York City-basedindie rockbandVampire Weekend. He also releases as a record producer under the mononymBaio, and his debut solo albumThe Nameswas released throughGlassnote Recordson September 18, 2015. Life Baio was turned on to music at an early age, purchasing his first album at the age of seven and going to his first concert, a live performance by the bandCracker, at the age of nine. Baio said that, as a child, he would go to sleep withDoolittlebyPixiesplaying. Baio attendedColumbia Universityin New York, majoring in Russian and Eurasian Regional studies and minoring in Math, graduating in May 2007. He served as College Rock Music Director ofWBARduring his time at school.Before graduating college and while recording Vampire Weekend's first album, Baio had planned to teach math forTeach for Americafor two years, however the success of the band led him to declining the position. He is a first cousin once removed of actorScott Baio, who playedChachi ArcolaonHappy Daysand Charles on the 1980s television programCharles in Charge.He is also a cousin of actorJimmy Baio. In April 2013, Baio discovered that he is related toSteve Buscemi.Baio's first cousin isNew York MetsoutfielderHarrison Bader.His father is originally fromBensonhurst, Brooklyn. Musical career During high school, Baio was lead guitarist, songwriter, and vocalist in a local Bronxville, NY band known as Underrated. Baio was in acountry-influenced band called the Midnight Hours with Vampire Weekend's current drummer,Chris Tomsonat Columbia University, where the rest of the Vampire Weekend band members were also attending.Following the breakup of Midnight Hours, Baio was working as a DJ as a side job until Vampire Weekend was created. The band members got straight to rehearsing for their first gig, which was booked before the band had even started practicing. A year after Baio graduated, Vampire Weekend'sself-titled debut albumwas released. It peaked at number 15 on theUK Album Chartand number 17 on theBillboard200. Additionally, one of the album's singles, \"A-Punk\" was voted the 4th best song of 2008 byRolling Stonemagazine in addition to being featured in the filmStep BrotherswithWill FerrellandJohn C. Reilly, and the popular UK television seriesThe Inbetweeners. On June 14, 2008, they playedCentral Park SummerStageinManhattan, and a benefit for democracy in October. In January 2010, the band's second album,Contra, was released. It reached number one on theBillboard200and on January 9, 2010 the band appeared onMTV Unplugged. Then on March 6, 2010, the band appeared as the musical guests onSaturday Night Live; the second time the band had appeared on the show. Baio released his debut solo EP, \"Sunburn,\" under his DJ name, Baio on May 21, 2012.Rolling Stonesaid, \"A three-track set of undulating dance grooves that capture a vibe the bassist describes as 'hopeful melancholy,' it's the culmination of a hobby Baio took up half a decade ago as a student at Columbia University in New York.\" Baio drew a lot of inspiration from electronic and dance music and spent much of the past year on DJing due to Vampire Weekend's light tour schedule, and he said, \"I'd lock myself in my little office in my apartment with CDJs and amixerand just practice mixing all day. I did that quite a bit while we were touring the last record and realized when we finished touring that I really wanted to pursue it.\" His first completed track was \"Sunburn Modern,\" which was inspired by a \"nasty, modern art\"-looking sunburn he got from a trip toMexicowith his girlfriend. His solo album, titledThe Names, was released in 2015. His sophomore album,Man of the World, was released on June 30, 2017. On January 29, 2021 Baio released his third solo album,Dead Hand Control. Though his earlier albums were pleasantly energetic – this one took a deeper and darker turn, being several octaves below his normal art. A Simlish rendition of his songThe Key Is Under The Matwas featured inThe Sims 4. Musical influences In an interview with the British newspaper column \"Hugs and Kisses 23\" Baio said, in reply to the question 'what his favorite album of all time was', \"Queen's,Classic Queen. I still like it. It could be Greatest Hits. It's the one with 'Bohemian Rhapsody' on it. They were selling it on MTV with an ad trailer featuring the guys fromWayne's Worldsinging along to it in the car. I was maybe seven, and I was like, I really like that song, so I'll get that album.\" Vampire Weekend also usedThe Beatlesas an influence saying to Columbia University's alumni journalist \"they played extremely popular music but at the same time drew upon Eastern and Western sources. Whereas today, rock music has killed itself by being so white bread. We're trying to mix sounds that are old and new and sounds that are Western and that are not Western. I think that's our vibe.\"The band also has taken its style from a form of music calledAfrobeatwhich is a mix betweenjazz,funk, andhighlife, all cemented together by heavy traditional African influences. Equipment Baio's primary bass is an old hollow-bodyKustombrand bass guitar in teal. He also is frequently seen using aRickenbacker 4003bass guitar and anEpiphoneJack Casadybass guitar. In September 2019 on the Stephen Colbert show, Baio played a Kala Wanderer U-Bass, which is a “short-scale” travel bass that looks like a ukulele but sounds like a standard bass guitar. Discography Solo studio albums Solo EPs With Vampire Weekend References See also", "Chris Tomson Christopher William Tomson(born March 6, 1984),commonly known by his initials \"CT\", is an American singer, songwriter and musician, best known as the drummer forNew York–basedindie rockbandVampire Weekend. He is also the lead vocalist and guitarist for a side project called Dams of the West, for which he writes and records the entirety of its music. Background Tomson grew up on a farm in theImlaystownsection ofUpper Freehold Township, New Jersey, and later recorded parts of Vampire Weekend's first album there.His father is an engineer whose family is ofIrishandUkrainianheritage (he studied abroad in Ireland in college). His mother is an administrator whose family is of English and German heritage. He graduated from thePeddie Schoolas a salutatorian and then fromColumbia Universitywhere he studied economics and music. Tomson enjoysphotographyand is an avidsoccerfan; his favorite club isTottenham Hotspur.Tomson is also a huge fan ofPhish,The Band, and theGrateful Dead.After living in theGreenpointneighborhood ofBrooklynfor several years, he moved toLos Angelesin 2019. In 2008, he was involved in ahit-and-runincident in London after theShockwaves NME Awards. He was taken to hospital to be treated for neck injuries but was released with no notable injuries. Musical career Prior to forming Vampire Weekend, Tomson played withEzra Koenigin the \"serious\"rap group called L’Homme Run. Tomson met the members of Vampire Weekend while attending Columbia University—he took music classes withRostam Batmanglijand started the group in their senior year. The name of the group comes from the movie of the same name that Ezra Koenig and his friends made over a summer vacation.They self-produced their first album after graduation while concurrently working full-time jobs (Tomson worked as an archivist for a record label). Their next three albums—Contra(2010),Modern Vampires of the City(2013), andFather of the Bride(2019)—all reached number one on the US album charts. In February 2017, Tomson released his first solo album,Youngish American, under the pseudonym Dams of the West. References External links Chris TomsononTwitter", "Astrological sign InWestern astrology,astrological signsare the twelve 30-degree sectors that make upEarth's 360-degree orbit around the Sun. The signs enumerate from the first day of spring, known as theFirst Point of Aries, which is thevernal equinox. The astrological signs areAries,Taurus,Gemini,Cancer,Leo,Virgo,Libra,Scorpio,Sagittarius,Capricorn,Aquarius, andPisces. The Westernzodiacoriginated inBabylonian astrology, and was later influenced by theHellenisticculture. Each sign was named after a constellationthe sunannually moved through while crossing the sky. This observation is emphasized in the simplified and popularsun sign astrology. Over the centuries, Western astrology's zodiacal divisions have shifted out of alignment with theconstellationsthey were named after byaxial precessionof the Earth whileHindu astrologymeasurements correct for this shifting.Astrology (i.e. a system of omina based on celestial appearances) was developed inChineseandTibetancultures as well but these astrologies are not based upon the zodiac but deal with the whole sky. Astrology is apseudoscience.Scientific investigations of thetheoreticalbasis andexperimentalverification of claimshave shown it to have no scientific validity orexplanatory power. More plausible explanations for the apparent correlation between personality traits and birth months exist, such as theinfluence of seasonal birth in humans. According toastrology, celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of \"as above, so below\", so that the signs are held to represent characteristic modes of expression.Scientific astronomyused the same sectors of the eclipticas Western astrology until the 19th century. Various approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology, although the tradition of the Zodiac's names and symbols remain mostly consistent. Western astrology measures fromEquinoxandSolsticepoints (points relating to equal, longest, and shortest days of thetropical year), whileHindu astrologymeasures along the equatorial plane (sidereal year). Western zodiac signs History Western astrologyis a direct continuation ofHellenistic astrologyas recorded in Ptolemy'sTetrabiblosin the 2nd century. Hellenistic astrology in turn was partly based on concepts fromBabylonian tradition. Specifically, the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction.This division of the ecliptic originated in the Babylonian \"ideal calendar\" found in the old compendiumMUL.APINand its combination with the Babylonianlunar calendar,represented as the \"path of the moon\" in MUL.APIN. In a way, the zodiac is the idealisation of an ideal lunar calendar. By the 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomy and its system of celestial omens influenced the culture ofancient Greece, as did the astronomy of Egypt by late 2nd century BC. This resulted, unlike the Mesopotamian tradition, in a strong focus on the birth chart of the individual and the creation ofHoroscopic astrology, employing the use of theAscendant(the rising degree of the ecliptic, at the time of birth), and of the twelvehouses. Association of the astrological signs withEmpedocles' four classicalelementswas another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs. The body of the Hellenistic astrological tradition as it stood by the 2nd century is described inPtolemy'sTetrabiblos. This is the seminal work for later astronomical tradition not only in the West but also in India and the Islamic sphere and has remained a reference for almost seventeen centuries as later traditions made few substantial changes to its core teachings. Western astrological correspondence chart The following table shows the approximate dates of the twelve astrological signs, along with the classicaland modernrulerships of each sign. By definition,Ariesstarts at theFirst Point of Arieswhich is the location of the Sun at theMarch equinox. The precise date of the Equinox varies from year to year but is always between 19 March and 21 March. The consequence is the start date of Aries and therefore the start date of all the other signs can change slightly from year to year. The following Western astrology table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude with the Latin names. The longitudeintervals, are treated as closed for the first endpoint (a) and open for the second (b) – for instance, 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus, not part of Aries. The signs are occasionally numbered 0 through 11 in place of symbols in astronomical works. The twelve signs are positioned in a circular pattern, creating a pattern of oppositions related to different philosophically polarized attributes. Fire and air elements are generally 180 degrees opposed in Western astrology, as well as earth and water elements.Not all systems of astrology have four elements, notably the Sepher Yetzirah describes only three elements emanating from a central divine source.Spring signs are opposite to autumn ones, winter signs are opposite to summer ones and vice versa. Polarity InWestern astrology, the polarity divides the zodiac in half and refers to the alignment of a sign'senergyas either positive or negative, with various attributes associated to them as a result.Positive polaritysigns, also called active, yang, expressive, or masculine signs, are the six odd-numbered signs of the zodiac:Aries,Gemini,Leo,Libra,Sagittarius, andAquarius. Positive signs make up the fire and air triplicities.Negative polaritysigns, also called passive, yin, receptive, or feminine signs,are the six even-numbered signs of the zodiac:Taurus,Cancer,Virgo,Scorpio,Capricorn, andPisces. Negative signs make up the earth and water triplicities. The three modalities The modality or mode of a given sign refers to its position in theseasonit is found in. Each of the four elements manifests in three modalities:cardinal,fixed, andmutable.Since each modality comprehends four signs, they are also known as Quadruplicities.For example, the signAriesis found in the first month of spring in theNorthern Hemisphere, so practitioners of astrology describe it as having a cardinal modality.The combination of element and modality provides the signs with their unique characterizations. For instance, Capricorn is the cardinal earth sign, impressing its association with action (cardinal modality) in the material world (earth element). Triplicities of the four elements The Greek philosopherEmpedoclesidentified fire, earth, air, and water aselementsin the fifth-century BC. He explained the nature of the universe as an interaction of two opposing principles, love and strife, which manipulate the elements into different mixtures that produce the different natures of things. He stated all the elements are equal, the same age, rule their own provinces, and possess their own individual character. Empedocles said that those born with nearly equal proportions of the elements are more intelligent and have the most exact perceptions. The elemental categories are called triplicities because eachclassical elementis associated with three signsThe four astrological elements are also considered as a direct equivalent toHippocrates' personality types(sanguine = air; choleric = fire; melancholic = earth; phlegmatic = water). A modern approach looks at elements as \"the energy substance of experience\"and the next table tries to summarize their description through keywords.The elements have grown in importance and some astrologers beginnatal chartinterpretations by studying the balance of elements in the location ofplanets(especially the Sun's and Moon's ascendant signs) and the position ofanglesin the chart. Celestial body rulerships Rulership is the connection betweenplanetand correlated sign andhouse.The conventional rulerships are as follows: Dignity and detriment, exaltation and fall A traditional belief of astrology, known asessential dignity, is the idea that the Sun, Moon, and planets are more powerful and effective in some signs than others because the basic nature of both is held to be in harmony. By contrast, they are held to find some signs to be weak or difficult to operate in because their natures are thought to be in conflict. These categories are Dignity, Detriment, Exaltation, and Fall. In traditional astrology, other levels of Dignity are recognised in addition to Rulership. These are known as Exaltation,Triplicity,Terms or bounds, and Face orDecan, which together are known as describing a planet'sEssential dignity, the quality or ability of one's true nature. In addition to essential dignity, the traditional astrologer considersAccidental dignityof planets. This is placement byhousein the chart under examination. Accidental dignity is the planet's \"ability to act\". So we might have, for example, Moon in Cancer, dignified by rulership, is placed in the 12th house it would have little scope to express its good nature.The twelfth is a cadent house as are the third, sixth and ninth and planets in these houses are considered weak or afflicted. On the other hand, Moon in the first, fourth, seventh, or 10th would be more able to act as these are Angular houses. Planets in Succedent houses of the chart (second, fifth, eighth, eleventh) are generally considered to be of medium ability to act. Besides Accidental Dignity, there are a range ofAccidental Debilities, such as retrogradation, Under the Sun's Beams, Combust, and so forth. Additional classifications Each sign can be divided into three 10° sectors known as decans or decanates, though these have fallen into disuse. The first decanate is said to be most emphatically of its own nature and is ruled by the sign ruler.The next decanate is sub-ruled by the planet ruling the next sign in the same triplicity. The last decanate is sub-ruled by the next in order in the same triplicity. While the element and modality of a sign are together sufficient to define it, they can be grouped to indicate their symbolism. The first four signs, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, and Cancer, form the group of personal signs. The next four signs, Leo, Virgo, Libra, and Scorpio form the group of interpersonal signs. The last four signs of the zodiac, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces, form the group of transpersonal signs. Dane Rudhyar presented the tropical zodiac primary factors,used in the curriculum of the RASA School of Astrology. The tropical zodiac is the zodiac of seasonal factors as opposed to the sidereal zodiac (constellation factors). The primary seasonal factors are based on the changing ratio of sunlight and darkness across the year. The first factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when daylight is increasing, or the half of the year when darkness is increasing. The second factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when there is more daylight than darkness, or the half when there is more darkness than daylight. The third factor is which of the four seasons the chosen time falls in, defined by the first two factors. Thus Western sign gallery Indian astrology In Indian astrology, there are five elements: fire, earth(Land), air, water, and ether. The master of fire is Mars, while Mercury is of land, Saturn of air, Venus of water, and Jupiter of ether. Jyotisharecognises twelve zodiac signs (Rāśi),that correspond to those in Western astrology. The relation of the signs to the elements is the same in the two systems. Nakshatras Anakshatra(Devanagari: नक्षत्र,Sanskritnakshatra, a metaphoricalcompoundofnaksha-'map/chart', andtra-'guard'), orlunar mansion, is one of the 27 divisions of the sky identified by prominent star(s), as used inHindu astronomyandastrology(Jyotisha).\"Nakshatra\" in Sanskrit, Kannada, Tulu and Tamil and Prakrit also, thus, it refers to stars themselves. Chinese zodiac signs Chinese astrological signs operate on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (also known asshichen). A particular feature of the Chinese zodiac is its operation in a60-year cyclein combination with theFive PhasesofChinese astrology(Wood,Fire,Metal,WaterandEarth).Nevertheless, some researches say that there is an obvious relationship between the Chinese 12-year cycle and zodiac constellations: each year of the cycle corresponds to a certain disposal of Jupiter. For example, in the year ofSnakeJupiter is in the Sign of Gemini, in the year ofHorseJupiter is in the Sign of Cancer and so on. So the Chinese 12-year calendar is a solar-lunar-jovian calendar. Zodiac symbolism The following table shows the twelve signs and their attributes. The twelve signs InChinese astrology, the zodiac of twelve animal signs represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of theRat, and there are many stories about theOrigins of the Chinese Zodiacwhich explain why this is so. When the twelve zodiac signs are part of the 60-year calendar in combination with the four elements, they are traditionally called the twelveEarthly Branches. The Chinese zodiac follows thelunisolarChinese calendarand thus the \"changeover\" days in a month (when one sign changes to another sign) vary each year. The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order. The five elements The five elements operate together with the twelve animal signs in a60-yearcalendar. The five elements appear in the calendar in both their yin and yang forms and are known as the tenHeavenly Stems. The yin/yang split seen in theGregorian calendarmeans years that end in an even number are Yang (representing masculine, active, and light), those that end with an odd number are Yin (representing feminine, passive and darkness), subject to Chinese New Year having passed. See also Notes References" ]
[ "Vampire Weekend Vampire Weekendis an Americanrockband formed inNew York Cityin 2006 and currently signed toColumbia Records.The band was formed by lead vocalist and guitaristEzra Koenig, multi-instrumentalistRostam Batmanglij, drummerChris Tomson, and bassistChris Baio. Batmanglij departed the group in early 2016 but has continued to occasionally contribute to subsequent albums as a songwriter, producer, and musician. The band's debut album,Vampire Weekend(2008), incorporated elements ofindie pop,Afropop, andchamber music. Featuring charting singles\"A-Punk\"and \"Oxford Comma\", it has been hailed as one of the greatest debut albums.Their sophomore album,Contra(2010), was similarly acclaimed and garnered strong commercial success, debuting at number one on the USBillboard200, and featuring well-received singles including \"Holiday\". Their subsequent studio albumsModern Vampires of the City(2013) andFather of the Bride(2019) continued the band's success, with each album receiving widespread critical acclaim,", "critical acclaim, topping US charts and winning theGrammy Award for Best Alternative Music Albumin their respective years. They released their fifth studio album,Only God Was Above Us,on April 5, 2024 to universal acclaim. History Formation andVampire Weekend(2006–2009) The band members met while enrolled atColumbia University, beginning with arapcollaboration between Koenig, Tomson, and Koenig's roommate Andrew Kalaidjian named \"L'Homme Run\".They bonded over a shared love ofpunk rockandAfrican music. Koenig toured withDirty Projectorsduring a period of experimentation with African music, inspiring the band to incorporateworld soundsinto their earliest work.The band chose the name \"Vampire Weekend\" from the title of a short film project Koenig worked on during the summer between freshman and sophomore years in college.While home for the summer, Koenig watched the 1987 vampire filmThe Lost Boysand was inspired to make aNortheasternversion of the film in which a man named Walcott travels toCape Codto warn the", "Codto warn the mayor that vampires are attacking the United States.Koenig abandoned the project after two days before editing the footage into a two-minute trailer during his senior year.The band began playing shows around Columbia University, starting with a battle of the bands atLerner Hallin 2006.After graduating from college, the band self-produced their debut album while simultaneously working full-time jobs, Tomson as a music archivist and Koenig as a middle school English teacher. In 2007, Vampire Weekend's song \"Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa\" was ranked 67th onRolling Stone's list of the \"100 Best Songs of the Year\".In November 2007, they toured the UK withThe Shins.The then-nascent influence of blog hype and internet buzz played a role in their success and led to a large prerelease following sufficient to support them performing on three tours before their debut album was released.They were declared \"The Year's Best New Band\" bySpinmagazine in the March 2008 issue, and were the first band to be shot for", "band to be shot for the cover of the magazine before releasing their debut album.The band made a television appearance onThe Late Show with David Lettermanon February 1, 2008,and on March 8, 2008, performed onSaturday Night Live.Four songs from the band's first album also made theTriple J Hottest 100, 2008. The internet hype had its backlash, however, as critics reacted against a perceived image of Vampire Weekend as privileged, upper-class Ivy League graduates stealing from foreign musicians. One critic went so far as to call Vampire Weekend the \"whitest band in the world\", to which they took exception, given their Ukrainian, Persian, Italian, and Hungarian heritages.Koenig responded in a November 2009 interview by saying, \"Nobody in our band is aWASP.\"Saying the backlash involving their social backgrounds was largely unfounded, Koenig claimed he paid for Columbia with a scholarship and student loans; he himself was still paying off student loans in 2009. Self-titledVampire Weekend, the band's first album", "band's first album was released on January 29, 2008. It received contemporary critical acclaim, being ranked number 430 onRolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and has been hailed as one of the greatest debut albums.It featured a blend ofAfropopinfluences,indie pop, andchamber musicelements.A success in the US and UK, it peaked at number 15 on theUK Albums Chartand number 17 on theBillboard200and had been certified Platinum in both countries. Four singles were released from the album; while \"A-Punk\" peaked at number 25 on theBillboardModern rockchart and number 55 on theUK Singles Chart, \"Oxford Comma\" peaked at number 38 in the UK. \"A-Punk\" was ranked the 4th onRolling Stone'sReaders' Rock List: Best Songs of 2008.\"A-Punk\" was also used to open the Will Ferrell/John C. Reilly featureStep Brothers, and featured in the UK television showThe Inbetweenersand the video gamesGuitar Hero 5,Just Dance 2andLego Rock Band. Contra(2009–2010) The band's second album,Contra, was released on January 11, 2010,", "January 11, 2010, in the UK and the following day in the US, after being pushed back from the original release date for the fall of 2009.The album's first single, \"Horchata\", was released on October 5, 2009. The album's second single, \"Cousins\", was released as a single on November 17, 2009. Initial copies of the CD and LP sold at independent record stores in the US included a 3-track bonus CD containing two \"melts\", which featured bits of album tracks and a remix. It is the band's first album to reach number one on theBillboard200, and the12th independently distributed albumin history to reach the number one spot on theBillboard200 sinceNielsen Soundscanbegan recording data in 1991, while also being the first independent artist to have done so without ever having signed with a major label, after already established rock bandsRadioheadandPearl Jamand beforeArcade Fire'sThe Suburbs.The album sold 124,000 copies in its first weekand was awarded Gold by theRIAAon November 21, 2011, which means it has sold over", "it has sold over 500,000 units in the US alone and over one million copies Worldwide.In 2010, it was awarded a diamond certification from theIndependent Music Companies Associationwhich indicated sales of at least 250,000 copies throughout Europe. On January 9, 2010, the band did an acoustic show forMTV Unplugged. The following month, the band toured Europe and Canada with Canadian electro duoFan Deathas their support. The video for their next single \"Giving Up the Gun\" was also released on February 18, 2010, which included cameos fromJoe Jonas,Lil Jon,RZA, andJake Gyllenhaal. They also played festivals across the USA such asCoachella,Bonnaroo,Austin City Limits Music Festival, All Points West, and the Groovin' The Moo festival in Australia. Their third single, \"Holiday\", was released on June 7, 2010. On June 25, 2010, the band played the Pyramid Stage atGlastonbury Festival, in Pilton, Somerset, UK. The band were also on the main stage atT in the Park 2010at Balado Kinross, Scotland, on June 8, and played", "June 8, and played theOxegen Festivalin Ireland on July 9. They also headlined theLatitude Festivalin Suffolk, UK on July 18. On July 16, the band headlined the Main Stage at theFestival Internacional de Benicàssim. In the summer of 2010 the band played at the Utopia stage on Peace and Love, Sweden's biggest Festival. On July 30, 2010, the band played at Jisan Valley Rock Festival in South Korea.In 2010, Vampire Weekend embarked on a North American tour withBeach HouseandDum Dum Girls. The tour started off on August 27, 2010, inVancouver,British Columbiaat theMalkin Bowl. Koenig mentioned to the audience that before this concert, the band had the longest \"vacation period\" that they had had in a while.Contrawas nominated for aGrammyforBest Alternative Music Album, but lost toThe Black Keys'sBrothers. Modern Vampires of the City(2010–2014) On November 11, 2011, the band revealed it was working on a new album.In January 2012, PresidentBarack Obamaadded Vampire Weekend to a short list of musical artists that he", "artists that he sought support from for his re-election campaign. Vampire Weekend made it onto this list withJay-Z,John Legend, andAlicia Keys. The band's third album,Modern Vampires of the Citywas released in May 2013, and written and recorded in various locations including SlowDeath Studios in New York,Echo Park\"Back House\" in Los Angeles,Vox Recording Studiosin Hollywood, Rostam Batmanglij's New York apartment and a guest house on Martha's Vineyard. The album was co-produced byBatmanglijandAriel Rechtshaid. After Batmanglij produced the first two albums himself, this marked the first time the band worked with an outside producer on any of their records. In an interview for the February 2013 edition ofQ(released in mid-January), Koenig described the album as \"darker and more organic\" and \"very much the last of a trilogy.\" Said Koenig, \"Things that we might have found boring in the past, we've started to find more fresh. This album has more piano and acoustic guitar and organ.\"Modern Vampires of the", "Vampires of the Cityalso continued the use of digital voice modulation as heard in the songs \"Diane Young\" and \"Ya Hey\", a technique first used in the song \"California English\" onContraThe album was recorded and co-produced byAriel Rechtshaidin his Los Angeles Studio (alongside Batmanglij).The band discussed the album withThe FADERand appeared on the cover of the magazine's 84th issue.On March 16, 2013, the band played the closing show at Stubbs on the last day of theSXSWfestival in Austin, Texas. In the show they played two new songs from the upcoming album: \"Diane Young\" and \"Ya Hey\". On March 18, 2013, Vampire Weekend released adouble-sided single, \"Diane Young\"/\"Step\". On May 11, 2013, Vampire Weekend were featured as the musical guest onSaturday Night LivewithKristen Wiighosting, their third time on the show. Released on May 14, 2013, the album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard chart, marking the second time Vampire Weekend achieved the feat: its second albumContraalso debuted at No. 1 in 2010, making", "1 in 2010, making them the first independent rock band to enter the charts at No. 1 with two consecutive releases.Modern Vampires of the Cityalso shattered the previous record for first week vinyl sales, moving nearly 10,000 units on vinyl alone and debuting at No. 1 on the Soundscan Vinyl Charts. Additionally, the band charted #1 at Indie, Alternative, Digital and the top 200.In 2014,Modern Vampires of the Citywon aGrammyforBest Alternative Music Album. To promote the album,XL Recordingsreleased \"Diane Young\" and \"Step\" as adouble A-sided singleon March 19, 2013.Modern Vampires of the Citywas released by XL on May 14. and Vampire Weekend played several concerts and music festivals shortly after, eventually embarking on a larger supporting tour throughout late 2013, beginning with a show at theMann Center for the Performing Artsin Philadelphia on September 19. John Gentile ofRolling Stonereported that the band headlined \"some of their largest venues to date\" on the tour. In the album's first week of release,", "week of release, it debuted number one on theBillboard200and sold 134,000 copies in the United States. It was Vampire Weekend's second consecutive number-one record on the chart, as well as the nineteenth independently distributed album to top theBillboard200 in theNielsen SoundScanera (1991–present). The record entered theBritish album chartsat number three with first-week sales of 27,805 copies, becoming the group's third consecutive top-twenty album in the United Kingdom.By December 2014, it had been certifiedgoldby theRecording Industry Association of Americaand sold 505,000 copies in the US.In 2014, it was awarded a diamond certification from theIndependent Music Companies Association,which indicated sales of at least 250,000 copies throughout Europeand has sold over one million copies worldwide. In September 2020,Modern Vampires of the Citywas put by Rolling Stone in their new list of the500 Greatest Albums of All Time, ranking at position 328. Departure of Batmanglij andFather of the Bride(2014–2021)", "Bride(2014–2021) After concluding their Modern Vampires tour in September 2014, Vampire Weekend went silent until January 26, 2016, when it was announced that Rostam Batmanglij had left the band. Despite his departure, he and Ezra Koenig planned to continue collaborating.On the same day, Koenig revealed the band was in the studio working on their fourth album, at the time titled,Mitsubishi Macchiato, with Batmanglij contributing to it.In late January 2016, the band supportedBernie Sandersby performing at an Iowa rally just before theprimaries. Filling in for Batmanglij and Chris Baio, who was touring for his solo project, the band performed with membersDavid LongstrethandNat Baldwinof Dirty Projectors,Jake Longstreth, the comedy duo the Lucas Brothers, and an all-female a cappella group from theUniversity of Iowa.Koenig, a vocal Sanders supporter, also promoted the candidate on social media and hisBeats 1radio show,Time Crisis.In April 2016, the band briefly performed at another Sanders rally in Washington", "rally in Washington Square Park, marking their debut as a trio, joined again by Longstreth. In late 2016, Koenig was reportedly in talks to sign the band withColumbia Records, as he reportedly \"hit it off\" with executive Rob Stringer.Initially, this news was regarded a rumor, until the band's website revamp in 2018, in which aSony Musiccopyright appeared on the site. In March 2017, Koenig revealed in an elaborate Instagram update that during 2016 he had spent countless hours researching and writing music in libraries with grad students. Additionally, he revealed that the album, given the working title of \"Mitsubishi Macchiato\", would feature a more 'spring-time' vibe and one of the songs would be entitledFlower Moon. Koenig revealed that LP4 would be partially inspired by the songwriting of country singer,Kacey Musgraves, after he attended one of her shows in September 2016. In an interview withStereogum, he stated, \"I'm the type of person who has spent hours poring over the avant-garde poetic lyrics of", "poetic lyrics of certain songwriters, and there was something that felt so good from the first verse, you knew who was singing, who they were singing to, what kind of situation they were in. After the show I realized there's not a ton of Vampire Weekend songs where you could listen to the first verse and immediately answer the question of who's singing and who are they singing to.\"Furthermore, in a September 2017 interview withZane Lowe, Ezra briefly spoke aboutLP4and stated that it was \"about 80% done.\" He mentioned that the album would feature lead producerAriel Rechtshaidwith additional \"guest appearances\", one of which being Batmanglij.Lowe pushed Koenig for a release date, citing Q1 2018 as a likely candidate. In a December 2017 interview, Koenig noted that Batmanglij was involved in a few songs, some of which was material that they had started working on long ago, and that their method of collaboration had not changed despite the latter's departure from the band. Vampire Weekend's first gigs since the", "gigs since the hiatus took place in Ojai, California on June 16 & 17.On January 31, 2018, it was announced that the band would be headlining the UK music festivalEnd of the Road.The festival ran from August 31 to September 3 and marked Vampire Weekend's first return to a festival stage in 4 years.On July 21, they performed inByron Bayfor the Australian festival,Splendour in the Grass.Additionally, it was announced that they would headline the 2018Fuji Rock Festival, scheduled for July 27 to 29.For their live shows, the core trio of Koenig, Baio, and Tomson has been augmented byGreta Morganon keyboards, guitar, and vocals, Brian Robert Jones on guitar,Garrett Ray on percussion, drums, and vocals, and Will Canzoneri on keyboards and vocals.During their August 4, 2018 performance atLollapalooza, where the band played fan favorite \"A-Punk\" three times in a row,Koenig announced that Vampire Weekend's 4th album was done. On January 17, 2019, Koenig announced the abbreviation of the band's fourth album title", "fourth album title asFOTB, and revealed that the album would consist of 18 songs, running at approximately 59 minutes. Additionally, he announced that the album would be promoted by three monthly two-song releases, beginning the following week.On January 24, the songs \"Harmony Hall\" and \"2021\" were released, and Koenig confirmed the title of the album asFather of the Bride. He also said that the record would feature an array of collaborators, including Batmanglij,marking the first time the band has included guest vocalists in an album. In an interview withRolling Stone, Koenig said, \"We've had three albums of the same voice over and over again. I like the idea of opening up our world a little bit.\"He also confirmed that \"2021\" features aHaruomi Hosonosample, and said that he planned to start work on Vampire Weekend's fifth album. The band's current touring approach is influenced byPhish, theGrateful Deadand other jam bands.Contemporary fans mirror these influences in theirDeadheadinspired creation of", "creation of unofficial merchandise including shirts, shorts, tie-dyes, and bucket hats.Father of the Bridebecame the band's third consecutive album to debut at number one on theBillboard200. At the62nd Annual Grammy Awards, the band received three nominations:Album of the YearandBest Alternative Music AlbumforFather of the BrideandBest Rock Songfor \"Harmony Hall\". They won for Best Alternative Music Album (their second win in the category). In 2020, theLive in FloridaEP featuring songs from the Father of the Bride Tour was released.On February 4, 2021, Vampire Weekend released the40:42EP featuring reinterpretations of their song '2021' fromFather of the Bride. Americansaxophonist,Sam Gendel, and Connecticut-basedjam band,Goose, were commissioned to expand the song into twenty-minute and twenty-one-second versions. Only God Was Above Us(2021–present) In late 2021, during an interview withMark Hoppus, Ezra Koenig gave an update on the follow-up toFather of the Bride, stating that the band had been recording in", "been recording in England and Los Angeles. “Sometimes I oversell how close we are with the record because who really knows?” Koenig said, “But we almost have an album’s worth of songs.\"On June 7, 2023, Vampire Weekend releasedFrog on the Bass Drum Vol. 1, a live album recorded inIndianapolisduring the band's Father of the Bride Tour in 2019. The record was announced to be the first installment in a vinyl-exclusive series of live albums.The release was accompanied by a newsletter written by Chris Tomson which revealed that the band's new studio album is partly inspired by the Indian classical music tradition,raga, after Koenig had taken a singing lesson in the style withTerry Rileyin rural Japan. He then added that the album is \"close to done\" and more news will follow at the end of the year.On December 14,Frog on the Bass Drum Vol. 2was released, a live show recorded inMilanin July 2019 which features the band playing their song, 'Bambina', twice in a row. Another newsletter was released alongside it, this", "alongside it, this time written by Chris Baio. He teased that the band had big plans for 2024 and concluded the newsletter: \"LP5 IS DONE.\" On February 8, 2024, the band announced their fifth studio album,Only God Was Above Us, released on April 5, 2024.The album was preceded by double A-side single, \"Capricorn\" and \"Gen-X Cops\" on February 16,with the third, follow-up single, \"Classical\" released on March 14, 2024 respectively.On March 28, 2024, \"Mary Boone\" was released as the fourth and last single before the album. To further promote the album, the group officially launched a podcast titledVampire Campfireon March 7, 2024 via Swedish hosting companyAcast.The podcast consisted of Koenig, Baio and Tomson gathered around an ignited fire pit in an empty lot detailing various topics and subjects relevant to the band including the making of the new album and forthcoming world tour.The band performed \"Gen-X Cops\" and \"Capricorn\" on the May 11, 2024 episode ofSaturday Night Live. TheOnly God Will Above Ustour", "Will Above Ustour began on April 8, 2024 inAustin, Texas. The band was a last-minute addition to the first weekendCoachellalineup on April 13, where they invitedParis Hiltononstage to playcornhole.Their only European date of the leg was a May 30 headlining set atPrimavera SoundinBarcelona.During the tour, the band performed partial covers of unrehearsed songs per audience request. Vampire Weekend played two hometown shows at New York City'sMadison Square Gardenon October 5 and 6; the latter was an afternoon matinee show. Band members Current members Current touring musicians Former members Former touring musicians Contralawsuit In 2010, the band, along with their record companyXL Recordingsand photographerTod Scott Brody, were sued by Kirsten Kennis, the model on the cover ofContra, over the use of her image.Kennis's accusations were that the band used her image without her permission.Vampire Weekend settled with Kennis in 2011. Other contributions Vampire Weekend contributed a cover of \"Exit Music (For a", "\"Exit Music (For a Film)\" forStereogum Presents... OKX: A Tribute to OK Computer(2007), a free tribute album celebrating 10 years ofRadiohead's albumOK Computer. In 2014, the band contributed a cover of \"Con te Partiro\" byAndrea Bocellion theValentine's Daycompilation, Sweetheart 2014,as well as a cover ofBruce Springsteen's \"I'm Goin' Down\" for theGirlsVol. 2 Soundtrack.They have also covered \"Everywhere\" byFleetwood Mac, \"Ça Plane Pour Moi\" byPlastic Bertrand, \"Have I the Right?\" byThe Honeycombs, \"Blurred Lines\"byRobin Thicke, \"Fight For This Love\"byCheryl Cole, and \"Ruby Soho\" byRancid. The band also contributed the song \"Ottoman\" to the soundtrack to the 2008 filmNick and Norah's Infinite Playlist. That song was then sampled by alternative hip-hop artistKid Cudi. Two tracks from their debut record also appeared in the 2009 comedyI Love You, Man. A new song, \"Jonathan Low\", was released on June 8, 2010, appearing on the soundtrack to the third installment of theTwilight Sagafilms,Eclipse. Their song", "Their song \"Worship You\" appeared as a soundtrack inEA Sportsfootball video game,FIFA 14. Discography Studio albums Awards and nominations References External links", "Ezra Koenig Ezra Michael Koenig(/ˌkeɪnɪɡ/KAY-nig; born April 8, 1984)is an American musician, record producer, and radio personality. He is the lead vocalist, guitarist, and primary songwriter ofindie rockbandVampire Weekend. Additionally, Koenig is the creator of theNetflixanimated comedy seriesNeo Yokioand also hosts theApple Musicradio talk showTime Crisis with Ezra Koenig. Time Crisisis airing its ninth season, as of 2023. Koenig's accolades include twoGrammy Awardsfrom five nominations; with Vampire Weekend, he wonBest Alternative Music Albumin 2013 and 2019. He was also nominated for Album of the Year in2016for his production work onBeyoncé's albumLemonade(2016). Early life Koenig was born inNew York Cityand is the son of Bobby Bass, apsychotherapist, and Robin Koenig, aset dresseron film and TV productions.He isJewish, and his family emigrated to the U.S. fromRomaniaandHungary.His parents lived on theUpper West SideofManhattanbefore moving toGlen Ridge, New Jerseyshortly after their son's birth. As a", "son's birth. As a young teenager, Ezra attendedBuck's Rock Camp, aMontessori-style performing and creative arts camp in Connecticut.He graduated fromGlen Ridge High School. Koenig has a younger sister, Emma Koenig (born 1988), who is the author of the booksFUCK! I'm in my twentiesandMoan, and has written for television and magazines. Ezra began writing music around the age of ten, and his first song ever was titled \"Bad Birthday Party\". While attendingColumbia University, he ran a blog calledInternet Vibesabout fashion,existentialism, personal identity, and modern culture.After graduating, he taught English throughTeach for Americaat Junior High School 258 inBrooklyn, New York. Students recalled Koenig bringing his guitar with him to class, despite trying to hide it and his music career. He was described as a laid-back teacher who successfully made bonds with his students.In fall 2007, a deal withXL Recordingscut short Koenig's teaching career. During his schooling and college years, he was involved in", "he was involved in numerous musical projects withWes Miles,a childhood friend and now current frontman ofRa Ra Riot. Koenig and Miles formed an experimental band, The Sophisticuffs, which was described as \"wildly inventive musical work\".In 2004, Koenig formed the hip hop group L'Homme Run, which was notable for the comedic track \"Pizza Party\",with Andrew Kalaidjian and fellow Vampire Weekend band memberChris Tomson, played saxophone for theindie rockbandDirty Projectorsand worked as an intern forThe Walkmen. Career Vampire Weekend In 2005, Ezra formed the indie rock bandVampire Weekend. The name of the group was in reference to an unreleased indie film of the same name that Ezra and his friends produced during a vacation. In the film, Ezra portrayed the protagonist, Walcott, a man hell-bent on escapingCape Codas he believed vampires were coming. Many songs from the band's eponymous release made reference to the film. Ezra met his bandmates atColumbia University, prior to 2003.After already having met drummer", "having met drummer Chris Tomson, Koenig became acquainted withRostam Batmanglij. The two immediately bonded overRadioheadat a party during freshman year and vowed to start a band one day.Rounding out the group wasChris Baio, Koenig's suite-mate in his sophomore year, with whom he shared a love ofDestiny's Child. The group immediately got to work, playing their first show in 2006 at a battle of the bands in a campus basement. They placed third out of four. Later that year, some of their demos appeared online, earning raves from sites likeStereogumandPitchfork.Before they knew it, they were selling out shows and appearing on the cover ofSpinwithout even having released an album. Theireponymous debut albumarrived on January 29, 2008, and by the end of the year they had performed onSaturday Night Live, played for 40,000 fans at England's Glastonbury festival, and sold nearly half a million albums. The album was self-produced while they were working full-time jobs. Since then, the band have released another four", "another four albums:Contra(2010),Modern Vampires of the City(2013),Father of the Bride(2019), andOnly God Was Above Us(2024). The band has been nominated for multipleGrammy Awards. In 2011,Contrawas nominated forBest Alternative Music Album, butBrothersbyThe Black Keyswon the award. In 2014,Modern Vampires of the Citywas nominated in the category and, this time, the band won the award. Following the win, Koenig exclaimed, \"I'm the pre-eminent Ezra of my time, and when I die, then we can talk about who comes next.\"In 2020,Father of the Brideearned the band a second win for Best Alternative Music Album and a first nomination forAlbum of the Year. \"Harmony Hall\" was nominated forBest Rock Song. Time Crisis In 2015 Koenig began hosting his own internet radio show onApple Music. The show,Time Crisis, features Koenig with co-hostJake Longstreth, an American painter, musician, and internet radio personality. Each episode lasts two hours, during which Koenig and company discuss corporate snack food history, the", "food history, the tasteful palette of ’70s rock (with a focus on the Grateful Dead),portmanteaus, and respond to emails from listeners. Often, the show ends with The Top Five where Koenig and Longstreth compare the top five songs on Apple Music this week to that of a week from the past relevant to the discourse of the episode. Jonah Hill,Rashida Jones,Mark Ronson,Florence Welch,Jamie Foxx,Tim Heidecker,James Corden,and Koenig's sister Emma Koenig have appeared as guests on the internet radio show. The show debuted on July 12, 2015, and new episodes air fortnightly.The show is in its eighth season. Neo Yokio Following a hiatus from Vampire Weekend, Koenig wrote and produced an animated comedy-adventure series about a depressive, demon-slaying playboy voiced byJaden Smith. The series,Neo Yokio, debuted onNetflixin September 2017.The show was written and produced in 2015, with the final sound mix being completed in January 2016;however, due to issues withFox, the show was postponed until finally being picked up", "being picked up by Netflix. Neo Yokiois presented in the style of ananimeseries. However, in an interview withRolling Stonemagazine, Koenig stated that he believes the show is not a traditional anime: \"First of all, out of respect for true anime, I've always called Neo Yokio \"anime-inspired\" – it's a hybrid. But I've always been a fan of anime, and I always wanted to do something that was kind of an homage to it. Maybe a loving parody. Initially the people I was working with thought I should be the voice of the main character, but I was, like, 'I just spent seven years being the frontman of something, using my voice all the time. What I need right now is to slip into the background of something.'\" Upon release, the show's first season received mixed reviews from critics, earning a 54% score onRotten Tomatoes.Shannon Liao ofThe Vergecriticised the show's story and voice-acting, writing that \"the initial glamor of the backdrops and talent involved wears off fast. It has awful voice acting, and a pointless,", "and a pointless, predictable story that’s only surprising because it’s so willing to hit the bottom of the barrel.\"The New York Timesgave the show a more optimistic review, stating that \"if a defensive reading of the line, “Yes, my girlfriend broke up with me to take a finance job in San Francisco,” makes you chuckle, “Neo Yokio” may be for you.\" On an episode ofTime Crisisin early 2018, Koenig spoke about the future ofNeo Yokio, hinting that \"Neo's not dead.\"However, Netflix canceled the show the following month after one season and a Christmas special. Other projects and appearances In 2009, Koenig provided vocals on the song \"Carby\" onLP, the debut album fromDiscovery, a group which features Vampire Weekend keyboardistRostam BatmanglijandRa Ra Riotvocalist Wes Miles. In the same year, he appeared on \"Warm Heart of Africa\" bythe Very Best, \"Pyromiltia\" byTheophilus London, \"I Could Be Wrong\" byChromeoand \"Dynamo\" byAbd al Malik. In 2012, Koenig performed \"I Think Ur a Contra\" withAngelique Kidjoin her PBS", "Kidjoin her PBS special. He appeared and provided vocals in the music video forDuck Sauce's \"Barbra Streisand\". His recording of the song \"Papa Hobo\", byPaul Simon, was included as part of the soundtrack for Max Winkler's filmCeremony. In 2013, Koenig was featured in the song \"Jessica\" byMajor Lazer. In 2014, Koenig was featured on \"Ezra's Interlude\" by Chromeo, as well as \"New Dorp, New York\" bySBTRKT. He also appeared in theHBOdrama seriesGirlsandHaim's music video for \"My Song 5\" featuringA$AP Ferg,and performed the voice of Ryland on the animated seriesMajor Lazer. At the86th Academy Awards, Koenig accompaniedKaren Oon backing vocals and acoustic guitar for her performance of the Oscar-nominated song \"The Moon Song\" from the filmHer. In 2016, Koenig was credited as a writer and producer on the song \"Hold Up\" byBeyoncé.Due to these contributions, Koenig was nominated for aGrammyAward for the albumLemonade. In January and April 2016, Koenig vocally supported political candidateBernie Sandersby performing", "performing at a number of his rallies. In 2017, Koenig made an appearance inCharli XCX's music video for \"Boys\". In 2018, Koenig was credited as a songwriter and producer on the single \"I Promise You\" byJames Corden, from the filmPeter Rabbit, which also prominently featured Vampire Weekend's songs. His demo of the song was also released. In February 2020, Vampire Weekend performed at a rally for U.S Presidential Candidate Bernie Sanders. In 2022, Koenig was credited as a co-writer and producer ofLiam Gallagher's song \"Moscow Rules\" from his albumC'mon You Know. He also plays multiple instruments across the album. Also in 2022, Koenig was featured as a vocalist inPhoenix's song “Tonight,” which is the third single from the band's seventh album,Alpha Zulu. On August 11, 2024, he appeared in the2024 Summer Olympics closing ceremonywith Phoenix,Angèle,VanndaandKavinsky. Influences Since the age of 9, Koenig has been an admirer of music. In a 2014 interview withVulture, he stated, \"My dad is a massive music fan,", "massive music fan, so even just growing up in the house, he was buying new cool music, up through when I was born. So I was very familiar with theRamones,Run DMC,Blondie—core New York music. My parents would often play the Ramones song, \"We’re a Happy Family\", so I remember when I was 9 or 10, learning the lyrics and trying to understand.\" By the time he got to high school, Koenig's taste had slightly changed: \"I had some older friends who were really obsessed with hip-hop,De La Soul,Tribe Called Quest. There’s something aboutMidnight Marauders; it feels like a late night in the city album.\" Koenig is also a self-professed fan of bands such as theGrateful DeadandSublime, who he believes largely influenced his musical taste. Personal life In August 2018, Koenig's partner, actressRashida Jones, gave birth to their son.In a 2024 interview published inThe Guardian, Koenig referred to Jones as his wife.In a 2024 interview published inPeople, Koenig said that the couple are “married in the eyes of God.” References", "of God.” References External links", "Chris Baio Christopher Joseph Baio(born October 29, 1984) is an American musician, best known for being the bassist for the New York City-basedindie rockbandVampire Weekend. He also releases as a record producer under the mononymBaio, and his debut solo albumThe Nameswas released throughGlassnote Recordson September 18, 2015. Life Baio was turned on to music at an early age, purchasing his first album at the age of seven and going to his first concert, a live performance by the bandCracker, at the age of nine. Baio said that, as a child, he would go to sleep withDoolittlebyPixiesplaying. Baio attendedColumbia Universityin New York, majoring in Russian and Eurasian Regional studies and minoring in Math, graduating in May 2007. He served as College Rock Music Director ofWBARduring his time at school.Before graduating college and while recording Vampire Weekend's first album, Baio had planned to teach math forTeach for Americafor two years, however the success of the band led him to declining the position. He is", "the position. He is a first cousin once removed of actorScott Baio, who playedChachi ArcolaonHappy Daysand Charles on the 1980s television programCharles in Charge.He is also a cousin of actorJimmy Baio. In April 2013, Baio discovered that he is related toSteve Buscemi.Baio's first cousin isNew York MetsoutfielderHarrison Bader.His father is originally fromBensonhurst, Brooklyn. Musical career During high school, Baio was lead guitarist, songwriter, and vocalist in a local Bronxville, NY band known as Underrated. Baio was in acountry-influenced band called the Midnight Hours with Vampire Weekend's current drummer,Chris Tomsonat Columbia University, where the rest of the Vampire Weekend band members were also attending.Following the breakup of Midnight Hours, Baio was working as a DJ as a side job until Vampire Weekend was created. The band members got straight to rehearsing for their first gig, which was booked before the band had even started practicing. A year after Baio graduated, Vampire", "graduated, Vampire Weekend'sself-titled debut albumwas released. It peaked at number 15 on theUK Album Chartand number 17 on theBillboard200. Additionally, one of the album's singles, \"A-Punk\" was voted the 4th best song of 2008 byRolling Stonemagazine in addition to being featured in the filmStep BrotherswithWill FerrellandJohn C. Reilly, and the popular UK television seriesThe Inbetweeners. On June 14, 2008, they playedCentral Park SummerStageinManhattan, and a benefit for democracy in October. In January 2010, the band's second album,Contra, was released. It reached number one on theBillboard200and on January 9, 2010 the band appeared onMTV Unplugged. Then on March 6, 2010, the band appeared as the musical guests onSaturday Night Live; the second time the band had appeared on the show. Baio released his debut solo EP, \"Sunburn,\" under his DJ name, Baio on May 21, 2012.Rolling Stonesaid, \"A three-track set of undulating dance grooves that capture a vibe the bassist describes as 'hopeful melancholy,' it's", "melancholy,' it's the culmination of a hobby Baio took up half a decade ago as a student at Columbia University in New York.\" Baio drew a lot of inspiration from electronic and dance music and spent much of the past year on DJing due to Vampire Weekend's light tour schedule, and he said, \"I'd lock myself in my little office in my apartment with CDJs and amixerand just practice mixing all day. I did that quite a bit while we were touring the last record and realized when we finished touring that I really wanted to pursue it.\" His first completed track was \"Sunburn Modern,\" which was inspired by a \"nasty, modern art\"-looking sunburn he got from a trip toMexicowith his girlfriend. His solo album, titledThe Names, was released in 2015. His sophomore album,Man of the World, was released on June 30, 2017. On January 29, 2021 Baio released his third solo album,Dead Hand Control. Though his earlier albums were pleasantly energetic – this one took a deeper and darker turn, being several octaves below his normal art.", "his normal art. A Simlish rendition of his songThe Key Is Under The Matwas featured inThe Sims 4. Musical influences In an interview with the British newspaper column \"Hugs and Kisses 23\" Baio said, in reply to the question 'what his favorite album of all time was', \"Queen's,Classic Queen. I still like it. It could be Greatest Hits. It's the one with 'Bohemian Rhapsody' on it. They were selling it on MTV with an ad trailer featuring the guys fromWayne's Worldsinging along to it in the car. I was maybe seven, and I was like, I really like that song, so I'll get that album.\" Vampire Weekend also usedThe Beatlesas an influence saying to Columbia University's alumni journalist \"they played extremely popular music but at the same time drew upon Eastern and Western sources. Whereas today, rock music has killed itself by being so white bread. We're trying to mix sounds that are old and new and sounds that are Western and that are not Western. I think that's our vibe.\"The band also has taken its style from a form of", "from a form of music calledAfrobeatwhich is a mix betweenjazz,funk, andhighlife, all cemented together by heavy traditional African influences. Equipment Baio's primary bass is an old hollow-bodyKustombrand bass guitar in teal. He also is frequently seen using aRickenbacker 4003bass guitar and anEpiphoneJack Casadybass guitar. In September 2019 on the Stephen Colbert show, Baio played a Kala Wanderer U-Bass, which is a “short-scale” travel bass that looks like a ukulele but sounds like a standard bass guitar. Discography Solo studio albums Solo EPs With Vampire Weekend References See also", "Chris Tomson Christopher William Tomson(born March 6, 1984),commonly known by his initials \"CT\", is an American singer, songwriter and musician, best known as the drummer forNew York–basedindie rockbandVampire Weekend. He is also the lead vocalist and guitarist for a side project called Dams of the West, for which he writes and records the entirety of its music. Background Tomson grew up on a farm in theImlaystownsection ofUpper Freehold Township, New Jersey, and later recorded parts of Vampire Weekend's first album there.His father is an engineer whose family is ofIrishandUkrainianheritage (he studied abroad in Ireland in college). His mother is an administrator whose family is of English and German heritage. He graduated from thePeddie Schoolas a salutatorian and then fromColumbia Universitywhere he studied economics and music. Tomson enjoysphotographyand is an avidsoccerfan; his favorite club isTottenham Hotspur.Tomson is also a huge fan ofPhish,The Band, and theGrateful Dead.After living in", "living in theGreenpointneighborhood ofBrooklynfor several years, he moved toLos Angelesin 2019. In 2008, he was involved in ahit-and-runincident in London after theShockwaves NME Awards. He was taken to hospital to be treated for neck injuries but was released with no notable injuries. Musical career Prior to forming Vampire Weekend, Tomson played withEzra Koenigin the \"serious\"rap group called L’Homme Run. Tomson met the members of Vampire Weekend while attending Columbia University—he took music classes withRostam Batmanglijand started the group in their senior year. The name of the group comes from the movie of the same name that Ezra Koenig and his friends made over a summer vacation.They self-produced their first album after graduation while concurrently working full-time jobs (Tomson worked as an archivist for a record label). Their next three albums—Contra(2010),Modern Vampires of the City(2013), andFather of the Bride(2019)—all reached number one on the US album charts. In February 2017, Tomson", "2017, Tomson released his first solo album,Youngish American, under the pseudonym Dams of the West. References External links Chris TomsononTwitter", "Astrological sign InWestern astrology,astrological signsare the twelve 30-degree sectors that make upEarth's 360-degree orbit around the Sun. The signs enumerate from the first day of spring, known as theFirst Point of Aries, which is thevernal equinox. The astrological signs areAries,Taurus,Gemini,Cancer,Leo,Virgo,Libra,Scorpio,Sagittarius,Capricorn,Aquarius, andPisces. The Westernzodiacoriginated inBabylonian astrology, and was later influenced by theHellenisticculture. Each sign was named after a constellationthe sunannually moved through while crossing the sky. This observation is emphasized in the simplified and popularsun sign astrology. Over the centuries, Western astrology's zodiacal divisions have shifted out of alignment with theconstellationsthey were named after byaxial precessionof the Earth whileHindu astrologymeasurements correct for this shifting.Astrology (i.e. a system of omina based on celestial appearances) was developed inChineseandTibetancultures as well but these astrologies are not", "astrologies are not based upon the zodiac but deal with the whole sky. Astrology is apseudoscience.Scientific investigations of thetheoreticalbasis andexperimentalverification of claimshave shown it to have no scientific validity orexplanatory power. More plausible explanations for the apparent correlation between personality traits and birth months exist, such as theinfluence of seasonal birth in humans. According toastrology, celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of \"as above, so below\", so that the signs are held to represent characteristic modes of expression.Scientific astronomyused the same sectors of the eclipticas Western astrology until the 19th century. Various approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology, although the tradition of the Zodiac's names and symbols remain mostly consistent. Western astrology measures fromEquinoxandSolsticepoints (points relating to equal, longest, and shortest days of thetropical year),", "thetropical year), whileHindu astrologymeasures along the equatorial plane (sidereal year). Western zodiac signs History Western astrologyis a direct continuation ofHellenistic astrologyas recorded in Ptolemy'sTetrabiblosin the 2nd century. Hellenistic astrology in turn was partly based on concepts fromBabylonian tradition. Specifically, the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction.This division of the ecliptic originated in the Babylonian \"ideal calendar\" found in the old compendiumMUL.APINand its combination with the Babylonianlunar calendar,represented as the \"path of the moon\" in MUL.APIN. In a way, the zodiac is the idealisation of an ideal lunar calendar. By the 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomy and its system of celestial omens influenced the culture ofancient Greece, as did the astronomy of Egypt by late 2nd century BC. This resulted, unlike the Mesopotamian tradition, in a strong focus on the birth chart of the individual and the creation", "and the creation ofHoroscopic astrology, employing the use of theAscendant(the rising degree of the ecliptic, at the time of birth), and of the twelvehouses. Association of the astrological signs withEmpedocles' four classicalelementswas another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs. The body of the Hellenistic astrological tradition as it stood by the 2nd century is described inPtolemy'sTetrabiblos. This is the seminal work for later astronomical tradition not only in the West but also in India and the Islamic sphere and has remained a reference for almost seventeen centuries as later traditions made few substantial changes to its core teachings. Western astrological correspondence chart The following table shows the approximate dates of the twelve astrological signs, along with the classicaland modernrulerships of each sign. By definition,Ariesstarts at theFirst Point of Arieswhich is the location of the Sun at theMarch equinox. The precise date of the Equinox varies from year", "varies from year to year but is always between 19 March and 21 March. The consequence is the start date of Aries and therefore the start date of all the other signs can change slightly from year to year. The following Western astrology table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude with the Latin names. The longitudeintervals, are treated as closed for the first endpoint (a) and open for the second (b) – for instance, 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus, not part of Aries. The signs are occasionally numbered 0 through 11 in place of symbols in astronomical works. The twelve signs are positioned in a circular pattern, creating a pattern of oppositions related to different philosophically polarized attributes. Fire and air elements are generally 180 degrees opposed in Western astrology, as well as earth and water elements.Not all systems of astrology have four elements, notably the Sepher Yetzirah describes only three elements emanating from a central divine source.Spring signs are", "signs are opposite to autumn ones, winter signs are opposite to summer ones and vice versa. Polarity InWestern astrology, the polarity divides the zodiac in half and refers to the alignment of a sign'senergyas either positive or negative, with various attributes associated to them as a result.Positive polaritysigns, also called active, yang, expressive, or masculine signs, are the six odd-numbered signs of the zodiac:Aries,Gemini,Leo,Libra,Sagittarius, andAquarius. Positive signs make up the fire and air triplicities.Negative polaritysigns, also called passive, yin, receptive, or feminine signs,are the six even-numbered signs of the zodiac:Taurus,Cancer,Virgo,Scorpio,Capricorn, andPisces. Negative signs make up the earth and water triplicities. The three modalities The modality or mode of a given sign refers to its position in theseasonit is found in. Each of the four elements manifests in three modalities:cardinal,fixed, andmutable.Since each modality comprehends four signs, they are also known as", "are also known as Quadruplicities.For example, the signAriesis found in the first month of spring in theNorthern Hemisphere, so practitioners of astrology describe it as having a cardinal modality.The combination of element and modality provides the signs with their unique characterizations. For instance, Capricorn is the cardinal earth sign, impressing its association with action (cardinal modality) in the material world (earth element). Triplicities of the four elements The Greek philosopherEmpedoclesidentified fire, earth, air, and water aselementsin the fifth-century BC. He explained the nature of the universe as an interaction of two opposing principles, love and strife, which manipulate the elements into different mixtures that produce the different natures of things. He stated all the elements are equal, the same age, rule their own provinces, and possess their own individual character. Empedocles said that those born with nearly equal proportions of the elements are more intelligent and have the most", "and have the most exact perceptions. The elemental categories are called triplicities because eachclassical elementis associated with three signsThe four astrological elements are also considered as a direct equivalent toHippocrates' personality types(sanguine = air; choleric = fire; melancholic = earth; phlegmatic = water). A modern approach looks at elements as \"the energy substance of experience\"and the next table tries to summarize their description through keywords.The elements have grown in importance and some astrologers beginnatal chartinterpretations by studying the balance of elements in the location ofplanets(especially the Sun's and Moon's ascendant signs) and the position ofanglesin the chart. Celestial body rulerships Rulership is the connection betweenplanetand correlated sign andhouse.The conventional rulerships are as follows: Dignity and detriment, exaltation and fall A traditional belief of astrology, known asessential dignity, is the idea that the Sun, Moon, and planets are more powerful", "are more powerful and effective in some signs than others because the basic nature of both is held to be in harmony. By contrast, they are held to find some signs to be weak or difficult to operate in because their natures are thought to be in conflict. These categories are Dignity, Detriment, Exaltation, and Fall. In traditional astrology, other levels of Dignity are recognised in addition to Rulership. These are known as Exaltation,Triplicity,Terms or bounds, and Face orDecan, which together are known as describing a planet'sEssential dignity, the quality or ability of one's true nature. In addition to essential dignity, the traditional astrologer considersAccidental dignityof planets. This is placement byhousein the chart under examination. Accidental dignity is the planet's \"ability to act\". So we might have, for example, Moon in Cancer, dignified by rulership, is placed in the 12th house it would have little scope to express its good nature.The twelfth is a cadent house as are the third, sixth and ninth", "sixth and ninth and planets in these houses are considered weak or afflicted. On the other hand, Moon in the first, fourth, seventh, or 10th would be more able to act as these are Angular houses. Planets in Succedent houses of the chart (second, fifth, eighth, eleventh) are generally considered to be of medium ability to act. Besides Accidental Dignity, there are a range ofAccidental Debilities, such as retrogradation, Under the Sun's Beams, Combust, and so forth. Additional classifications Each sign can be divided into three 10° sectors known as decans or decanates, though these have fallen into disuse. The first decanate is said to be most emphatically of its own nature and is ruled by the sign ruler.The next decanate is sub-ruled by the planet ruling the next sign in the same triplicity. The last decanate is sub-ruled by the next in order in the same triplicity. While the element and modality of a sign are together sufficient to define it, they can be grouped to indicate their symbolism. The first four", "The first four signs, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, and Cancer, form the group of personal signs. The next four signs, Leo, Virgo, Libra, and Scorpio form the group of interpersonal signs. The last four signs of the zodiac, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces, form the group of transpersonal signs. Dane Rudhyar presented the tropical zodiac primary factors,used in the curriculum of the RASA School of Astrology. The tropical zodiac is the zodiac of seasonal factors as opposed to the sidereal zodiac (constellation factors). The primary seasonal factors are based on the changing ratio of sunlight and darkness across the year. The first factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when daylight is increasing, or the half of the year when darkness is increasing. The second factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when there is more daylight than darkness, or the half when there is more darkness than daylight. The third factor is which of the four seasons the chosen time", "the chosen time falls in, defined by the first two factors. Thus Western sign gallery Indian astrology In Indian astrology, there are five elements: fire, earth(Land), air, water, and ether. The master of fire is Mars, while Mercury is of land, Saturn of air, Venus of water, and Jupiter of ether. Jyotisharecognises twelve zodiac signs (Rāśi),that correspond to those in Western astrology. The relation of the signs to the elements is the same in the two systems. Nakshatras Anakshatra(Devanagari: नक्षत्र,Sanskritnakshatra, a metaphoricalcompoundofnaksha-'map/chart', andtra-'guard'), orlunar mansion, is one of the 27 divisions of the sky identified by prominent star(s), as used inHindu astronomyandastrology(Jyotisha).\"Nakshatra\" in Sanskrit, Kannada, Tulu and Tamil and Prakrit also, thus, it refers to stars themselves. Chinese zodiac signs Chinese astrological signs operate on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (also known asshichen). A particular feature of the Chinese zodiac is its", "zodiac is its operation in a60-year cyclein combination with theFive PhasesofChinese astrology(Wood,Fire,Metal,WaterandEarth).Nevertheless, some researches say that there is an obvious relationship between the Chinese 12-year cycle and zodiac constellations: each year of the cycle corresponds to a certain disposal of Jupiter. For example, in the year ofSnakeJupiter is in the Sign of Gemini, in the year ofHorseJupiter is in the Sign of Cancer and so on. So the Chinese 12-year calendar is a solar-lunar-jovian calendar. Zodiac symbolism The following table shows the twelve signs and their attributes. The twelve signs InChinese astrology, the zodiac of twelve animal signs represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of theRat, and there are many stories about theOrigins of the Chinese Zodiacwhich explain why this is so. When the twelve zodiac signs are part of the 60-year calendar in combination with the four elements, they are traditionally called the", "called the twelveEarthly Branches. The Chinese zodiac follows thelunisolarChinese calendarand thus the \"changeover\" days in a month (when one sign changes to another sign) vary each year. The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order. The five elements The five elements operate together with the twelve animal signs in a60-yearcalendar. The five elements appear in the calendar in both their yin and yang forms and are known as the tenHeavenly Stems. The yin/yang split seen in theGregorian calendarmeans years that end in an even number are Yang (representing masculine, active, and light), those that end with an odd number are Yin (representing feminine, passive and darkness), subject to Chinese New Year having passed. See also Notes References" ]
What US president was born in the same year that the Treaty of Resht was signed?
George Washington
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Resht
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States
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Tabular reasoning | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Resht', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Resht", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" ]
[ "Treaty of Resht TheTreaty of Reshtwas signed between theRussian EmpireandSafavid EmpireinRashton 21 January 1732. According to this treaty Russia waived its claim to any territory south of theKura River. This included return of the provinces ofGilan,Mazandaran, andAstarabad,conqueredbyPeter Iin the early 1720s. The Iranian cities ofDerbent,Tarki,Ganja, etc. north of the Kura river would be returned three years later.In return, the Persians, nowde factoruled by the militarily successfulNader Shahgranted trade privileges to the Russian merchants and promised to restore the Georgian kingVakhtang VI, then residing in exile in Russia, on the throne ofKartlias soon as theOttomantroops could be expelled from that country. The provisions were confirmed by the 1735Treaty of Ganja,according which treaty all the regions north of the Kura river were returned as well. See also References", "List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links" ]
[ "Treaty of Resht TheTreaty of Reshtwas signed between theRussian EmpireandSafavid EmpireinRashton 21 January 1732. According to this treaty Russia waived its claim to any territory south of theKura River. This included return of the provinces ofGilan,Mazandaran, andAstarabad,conqueredbyPeter Iin the early 1720s. The Iranian cities ofDerbent,Tarki,Ganja, etc. north of the Kura river would be returned three years later.In return, the Persians, nowde factoruled by the militarily successfulNader Shahgranted trade privileges to the Russian merchants and promised to restore the Georgian kingVakhtang VI, then residing in exile in Russia, on the throne ofKartlias soon as theOttomantroops could be expelled from that country. The provisions were confirmed by the 1735Treaty of Ganja,according which treaty all the regions north of the Kura river were returned as well. See also References", "List of presidents of the United States Thepresident of the United Statesis thehead of stateandhead of governmentof theUnited States,indirectly electedto a four-yeartermvia theElectoral College.The officeholder leads theexecutive branchof thefederal governmentand is thecommander-in-chiefof theUnited States Armed Forces.Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president,George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College.Grover Clevelandserved two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president. The presidency ofWilliam Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history.Franklin D. Rooseveltserved the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more", "to have served more than two terms.Since the ratification of theTwenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitutionin 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once. Four presidentsdied in officeof natural causes (William Henry Harrison,Zachary Taylor,Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four wereassassinated(Abraham Lincoln,James A. Garfield,William McKinley, andJohn F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facingimpeachmentand removal from office).John Tylerwas the firstvice presidentto assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration. Throughout most of its history,American politicshas been dominated bypolitical parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no", "force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the1st Congressconvened,political factionsbegan rallying around dominantWashington administrationofficials, such asAlexander HamiltonandThomas Jefferson.Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remainedunaffiliatedwith any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. The incumbent president isJoe Biden, whoassumed office on January 20, 2021. Presidents See also Notes References Works cited General Expert studies Presidential biographies Online sources External links" ]
How many more career home runs did the MLB player who had the highest slugging percentage in 1954 have than the player who was the the first African American to play in Major League Baseball?
519
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Major_League_Baseball_titles_leaders
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Mays#
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson#
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Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Major_League_Baseball_titles_leaders', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Mays#', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson#']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Major_League_Baseball_titles_leaders", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Mays#", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson#" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_Major_League_Baseball_titles_leaders (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930b3f70>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Willie Mays Major League Baseball Willie Howard Mays Jr.(May 6, 1931 – June 18, 2024), nicknamed \"the Say Hey Kid\", was an American professionalbaseball center fielderwho played 23 seasons inMajor League Baseball(MLB). Widely regarded as one of the greatest players of all time, Mays was afive-tool playerwho began his career in theNegro leagues, playing for theBirmingham Black Barons, and spent the rest of his career in theNational League(NL), playing for theNew York/San Francisco GiantsandNew York Mets. Born inWestfield, Alabama, Mays was an all-around athlete. He joined the Black Barons of theNegro American Leaguein 1948, playing with them until the Giants signed him upon his graduation from high school in 1950. He debuted in MLB with the Giants and won theRookie of the Year Awardin 1951 after hitting 20home runsto help the Giants win their first pennant in 14 years. In 1954, he won the NLMost Valuable Player (MVP) Award, leading the Giants to their last World Series title before their move to the West Coast. Hisover-the-shoulder catchin Game 1 of the1954 World Seriesis one of the most famous baseball plays of all time. After the Giants moved to San Francisco, Mays went on to win another MVP Award in 1965 and also led the Giants to the1962 World Series, this time losing to theNew York Yankees. He ended his career with a return to New York after an early season trade to the New York Mets in 1972, retiring after the team's trip to the1973 World Series. He served as acoachfor the Mets for the rest of the decade before rejoining the Giants as a special assistant to the president and general manager. Mays was anAll-Star24 times, tying for the second-most appearances in history. He led the NL in home runs four times and inslugging percentagefive times whilebattingover .300 and posting 100runs batted in(RBIs) ten times each. Mays was also at the forefront of a resurgence of speed as an offensive weapon in the 1950s, leading the league instolen basesfour times,triplesthree times, andrunstwice; his 179 steals during the decade topped the major leagues. He was the first NL player to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 basesin the same season, the first player in history to reach both 300 home runs and 300 stolen bases, and the second player and the first right-handed hitter to hit 600 home runs. Mays also set standards for defensive brilliance, winning 12 consecutiveGold Glove Awardsafter their creation in 1957, still a record for outfielders; he led NL center fielders indouble playsfive times andassiststhree times. A classic example of afive-tool player, Mays finished his career with a .302 batting average. At the time of his retirement, he held the NL record for career runs scored (2,062), and ranked second in league history behindStan Musialingames played(2,992), third in home runs (660),at bats(10,881), runs batted in (1,903),total bases(6,066),extra-base hits(1,323) andwalks(1,464), fourth inhits(3,293), fifth in slugging percentage (.557), and eighth indoubles(523); his 140 triples ranked fourth among players active after 1945. He holds major league records for games as a center fielder (2,829),putouts as an outfielder(7,095), and ended his career behind onlyTy Cobbin total games as an outfielder (2,842), ranking seventh in assists (188) and third in double plays (59) in center field. Mays was elected to theBaseball Hall of Famein1979in his first year of eligibility, and was named to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Teamin 1999. Mays was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby PresidentBarack Obamain 2015. Early life Willie Howard Mays Jr. was born on May 6, 1931, inWestfield, Alabama, a primarily blackcompany townnearFairfield.His father, Cat Mays, was a talented baseball player with the black team at the local iron plant.Annie Satterwhite, his mother, was a giftedhigh school basketballand track star.To his family and close friends, and later to his teammates, Mays was affectionately referred to as \"Buck.\" His parents never married and separated when Mays was three.His father and two aunts, Sarah and Ernestine raised him.Sarah took young Willie to anAfrican Methodist Episcopal Churchevery Sunday.Cat Mays worked as a railway porter and later at the steel mills in Westfield. Cat exposed Willie to baseball at an early age, playing catch with him at five and allowing him to sit on the bench with his Birmingham Industrial League team at ten.His favorite baseball player growing up wasJoe DiMaggio; other favorites wereTed WilliamsandStan Musial.Mays played several sports atFairfield Industrial High School. On the basketball team, he led players at all-black high schools inJefferson Countyin scoring.Mays playedquarterback,fullbackandpunterfor thefootballteam.Though he turned 18 in 1949, Mays did not graduate from Fairfield until 1950, which journalistAllen Barracalls \"a minor mystery in Willie's life\". Professional career Negro and minor leagues Mays'sprofessional baseballcareer began in 1948 when he played briefly during the summer with theChattanooga Choo-Choos, aNegro minor league team.Later that year, Mays joined theBirmingham Black Baronsof theNegro American League, where he was known as \"Buck\".The Black Barons were managed byPiper Davis, a teammate of Mays's father on the industrial team.When Fairfield Industrial principal E. T. Oliver threatened to suspend Mays for playing professional ball, Davis and Mays's father worked out an agreement. Mays would only play home games for the Black Barons. In return, he could still play high school football.Mays helped Birmingham advance to the1948 Negro World Series, which they lost 4–1 to theHomestead Grays. He hit .262 for the season and stood out because of his excellent fielding and base running.On May 28, 2024,Major League Baseballannounced that it had integrated Negro league statistics into its records. Several major league teams were interested in signing Mays, but they had to wait until he graduated from high school to offer him a contract. TheBoston Bravesand theBrooklyn Dodgersboth scouted him, butNew York GiantsscoutEddie Montaguesigned him to a $4,000 contract.Mays spent the rest of 1950 with theClass BTrenton Giantsof theInterstate League, batting .353.Promoted to theTriple-AMinneapolis Millersof theAmerican Associationin 1951, he batted .477 in 35 games. New York / San Francisco Giants NL Rookie of the Year Playing excellent defense, Mays was called up by the Giants on May 24, 1951.Initially, Mays was reluctant to accept the promotion because he did not believe he was ready to face major league pitchers. Stunned, Giants managerLeo Durochercalled Mays directly and said, \"Quit costing the ball club money with long-distance phone calls and join the team.\"It was also around this time that Mays was given his famous moniker: \"The Say Hey Kid\". The Giants hoped Mays would help them defensively in center field, as well as offensively.ThePolo Groundsfeatured an unusual horseshoe shape, with relatively short left field (280 feet; 85 m) and right field (258 feet; 79 m) lines but the deepest center field in baseball (483 feet; 147 m).Mays appeared in his first major league game on May 25 against thePhiladelphia PhilliesatShibe Park, batting third.He had no hits in his first 12 at bats in the major leagues, but in his 13th on May 28, he hit a home run offWarren Spahnover the left-field roof of the Polo Grounds.Mays went hitless in his next 12 at bats, and Durocher dropped him to eighth in the batting order on June 2, suggesting that Mays stop trying topullthe ball and just make contact.Mays responded with four hits over his next two games on June 2 and 3. By the end of the month, he had pushed his batting average to over .300.He would bat close to .290 for the rest of the season. Although his .274 average, 68 RBIs, and 20 home runs (in 121 games) would rank among the lowest totals of his career, he still won theNational League(NL)Rookie of the Year Award. On August 11, theGiantsfound themselves13+1⁄2games back of theDodgersin the NLpennant race; Brooklyn managerCharlie Dressentriumphantly predicted, \"The Giants is dead.\"However, the Giants went 40–18 in the season's final 58 games, winning their last seven of the year to finish the regular season tied with the Dodgers.During the pennant race, Mays's fielding and strong throwing arm were instrumental in several important Giants' victories. Mays was in theon-deck circleon October 3 whenBobby Thomsonhita three-run homerto win the three-gameNL tie-breaker series2–1. The Giants met theNew York Yankeesin the1951 World Series.In Game 1, Mays,Hank Thompson, andMonte Irvincomposed the first all-black outfield in major league history. For the series, Mays hit poorly as the Giants lost the series in six games. In Game 5, he hit a consequentialfly ball, which DiMaggio and Yankee rookieMickey Mantlepursued. DiMaggio called Mantle off at the last second; as he stopped, Mantle got his cleat stuck in an open drainpipe, suffering a knee injury that would affect him the rest of his career. U.S. Army Soon after the 1951 season ended, Mays learned theUnited States Armyhaddraftedhim to serve in theKorean War.Before he left to join the Army, Mays played the first few weeks of the 1952 season with the Giants. He batted .236 with four home runs in 34 games. He surprised sportswriters likeRed Smithwhen he drew cheers from fans of the Brooklyn Dodgers, the Giants' archrivals, in his last game before reporting. After his induction into the Army on May 29, Mays reported toFort Eustisin Virginia, where he spent much of his time playing for the Fort Eustis Wheels military baseball team with (and against) other major and minor leaguers, as well as serving as an athletic instructor in the Physical Training Department.It was at Fort Eustis that Mays learned thebasket catchfrom fellow Fort Eustis outfielder Al Fortunato. Mays, by his own estimation, played 180 games for the Wheels, and missed about 275 games for the Giants because of his military service. Mays' time playing for the Wheels ended on July 28, 1953, after he chipped a bone in his left foot while sliding into third base, necessitating a 6-week stint in a cast.Discharged on March 1, 1954, he reported to Giants'spring trainingcamp the following day. World Series champion and NL MVP Mays began the 1954 season onOpening Daywith a home run of over 414 feet (126 m) againstCarl Erskine.After he batted .250 in his first 20 games, Durocher moved him from third to fifth in the batting order and again encouraged him to stop attempting to pull the ball and try to get hits to right field. Mays changed his batting stance and stood straighter at the plate, keeping his feet closer together. He credited these adjustments with improving his batting average, as he batted .450 with 25 RBIs in his next 20 games.On June 25, he hit aninside-the-parkhome run in a 6–2 victory over theChicago Cubs.Mays was selected for the NLAll-Star team; he would be part of 24 straight NL All-Star teams over 20 seasons.Mays became the first player in history to hit 30 home runs before the All-Star Game.He had 36 home runs through July 28. Around that time, Durocher asked him to stop trying to hit them, explaining the team wanted him to reach base more often.Mays hit only five home runs after July 28 but upped his batting average from .326 to .345 to win the team's first batting title sinceBill Terry's in 1930.Hitting 41 home runs, Mays won the NLMost Valuable Player Awardand theHickok Belt. The Giants won theNL pennantand the1954 World Series, sweeping theCleveland Indiansin four games.The 1954 series is perhaps best remembered for \"The Catch\", an over-the-shoulder running grab by Mays of a long drive off the bat ofVic Wertzabout 425 feet (130 m) from home plate at the Polo Grounds during the eighth inning of Game 1. The catch prevented two Indians' runners from scoring, preserving a tie game. \"The Catch transcended baseball\" Barra wrote, and Larry Schwartz ofESPNsaid of all the catches that Mays made, \"it is regarded as his greatest\".Mays did not even look at the ball for the last twenty feet as he ran, saying later he realized he had to keep running if he was going to get the ball.The Giants won the game in the 10th inning on a three-run home run byDusty Rhodes, with Mays scoring the winning run. Mays addedbase stealingto his talents, upping his total from eight in 1954 to 24 in 1955. In the middle of May, Durocher asked him to try for more home runs.Mays led the league with 51 but finished fourth in NL MVP voting.Leading the league with a .659slugging percentage, Mays batted .319 as the Giants finished in third.During the last game of the season, Durocher, who had supported Mays since his career had begun, told him he would not be returning as the Giants manager. When Mays responded, \"But Mr. Leo, it's going to be different with you gone. You won't be here to help me,\" Durocher told his star, \"Willie Mays doesn't need help from anyone.\" New manager In 1956, Mays struggled at first to get along with new managerBill Rigney, who publicly criticized him.The center fielder grew particularly annoyed after Rigney fined him $100 for not running to first base on a pop fly that was caught by the catcher. He hit 36 homers and stole a career-high 40 bases, becoming only the second player to join the30–30 club.Though his RBIs (84) and batting average (.296) were his lowest for nearly a decade, Barra observed that \"Willie Mays was still the best all-around player in the National League.\" The relationship between Mays and Rigney improved in 1957. Rigney stopped giving Mays as much direction, trusting his star player's ability and instinct.In his 2010 authorized biography of Mays,James S. Hirschwrote Mays had \"one of his most exhilarating excursions\" on April 21. In the game against the Phillies, Mays reached second base on an error, stole third, and scored the winning run on aHank Sauersingle, all on plays close enough that he had to slide to make each one.He stole home in a 4–3 loss to the Cubs on May 21.The 1957 season was the first in which theGold GloveAwards were presented. Mays won the first of 12 consecutive Gold Gloves for his play in center field. He finished in the NL's top-five in a variety of offensive categories: runs scored (112, third) batting average (.333, second), and home runs (35, fourth). In 1957, Mays became the fourth player in major league history to join the20–20–20 club(doubles, triples, homers). He stole 38 bases that year, making him the second 20–20–20 club member (afterFrank Schultein 1911) to steal at least 20 bases. This gave him his second straight 30–30 club season. Dwindling attendance and the desire for a new ballpark prompted the Giants to move to San Francisco following the 1957 season.In the final Giants' home game at the Polo Grounds on September 29, 1957, fans gave Mays a standing ovation in the middle of his final at bat, after Pirates' pitcherBob Friendhad already thrown a pitch to him. Move to San Francisco In 1958, Rigney wanted Mays to challengeBabe Ruth's record of 60 home runs in a season. Consequently, Rigney did not play Mays much in spring training hoping to use his best hitter every day of the regular season.As he had in 1954, Mays vied for the NL batting title until the final game of the season. Moved to the leadoff slot the last day to increase his at bats, Mays collected three hits in the game to finish with a career-high .347, but Philadelphia'sRichie Ashburnbatted .350.Mays shared the inauguralNL Player of the Month awardwith Stan Musial in May, batting .405 with 12 home runs and 29 runs batted in; he won a second award in September (.434, 4 home runs, 18 RBIs).He played in all but two games, hitting only 29 home runs. Horace Stoneham, the Giants' owner, made Mays the highest-paid player in baseball with a $75,000 contract for 1959.Mays had his first serious injury in 1959, a collision withSammy Whitein spring training that resulted in 35 stitches in his leg, but he was ready by the start of the season.Against the Reds in August, Mays broke a finger but kept it a secret to prevent opposing pitchers from targeting it.In September 1959, the Giants led the NL pennant race by two games with only eight games to play, but a sweep by the Dodgers began a stretch of six losses in those final games, dooming them to a third-place finish. Mays had hits in three out of 10 at bats in the Dodger series but some San Francisco fans still booed him.In 1959, Mays batted .313 with 34 home runs and 113 RBIs, leading the league in stolen bases for the fourth year in a row. After spending their first two years in San Francisco atSeals Stadium, the Giants moved into the newCandlestick Parkin 1960. Initially, the stadium was expected to be conducive to home runs, but unpredictable winds affected Mays's power, and he hit only 12 at home in 1960.He found the stadium tricky to field but figured out how to play it as the season progressed. When a fly ball was hit, he would count to five before giving pursuit, enabling him to judge the wind's effect.He hit two home runs on June 24 and stole home in a 5–3 victory over theCincinnati Reds.On September 15, he tied an NL record with threetriplesin an 11-inning, 8–6 win over the Phillies.\"I don't like to talk about 1960,\" Mays said after the final game of a season in which the Giants, pre-season favorites for the pennant, finished fifth out of eight NL teams.For the second time in three years, he only hit 29 home runs, but he led the NL with 190 hits and drove in 103 runs, batting .319 and stealing 25 bases. Alvin Darkwas hired to manage the Giants before the start of the 1961 season, and the improving Giants finished in third place.Mays had one of his best games on April 30, 1961,hitting four home runsand driving in eight runs against theMilwaukee BravesatCounty Stadium.According to Mays, he had been unsure if he would even play because of food poisoning.Each of his home runs traveled over 400 feet (120 m). While Mantle andRoger Marispursued Babe Ruth's single-season home run record in the AL, Mays andOrlando Cepedabattled for the home run lead in the NL.Mays trailed Cepeda by two home runs at the end of August (34 as opposed to 36), but Cepeda outhit him 10–6 in September to finish with 46, while Mays finished with 40.Mays led the league with 129 runs scored and batted .308 with 123 RBIs. 1962 pennant race Though he had continued to play at a high level since coming to San Francisco, Mays endured booing from the San Francisco fans during his first four seasons in California. Barra speculates this may have been because San Francisco fans were comparing Mays unfavorably with Joe DiMaggio, the most famous center fielder ever to come from San Francisco.Hal Wood mentioned the DiMaggio theory, as well as two other explanations: 1) the fans had heard so many wonderful things about Mays's play in New York that they expected him to be a better player than he actually was, and 2) Mays tended to keep to himself.Mays said in 1959 that he did not mind the booing, but he admitted in a 1961 article that the catcalls were bothering him.Whatever the reason, the boos, which had begun to subside after Mays's four–home-run game in 1961, grew even quieter in 1962, as the Giants enjoyed their best season since moving to San Francisco. Mays led the team in eight offensive categories in 1962: runs (130), doubles (36), home runs (49), RBIs (141), stolen bases (18), walks (78),on-base percentage(.384), and slugging percentage (.613).He finished second in NL MVP voting toMaury Wills, who had brokenTy Cobb's record for stolen bases in a season.On September 30, Mays hit a game-winning home run in the Giants' final regularly scheduled game of the year, forcing the team into a tie for first place with theLos Angeles Dodgers.The Giants faced the Dodgers in athree-game playoff series. With the Giants trailing 4–2 in the top of the ninth inning of Game 3, Mays hit an RBI single, eventually scoring as the Giants took a 6–4 lead. With two outs in the bottom of the inning,Lee Wallshit a fly ball to center field, which Mays caught for the final out as the Giants advanced to theWorld Seriesagainst the Yankees. In Game 1 of the World Series, a 6–2 loss to New York, Mays recorded three hits. He would bat merely .250 in the series overall.The Series went all the way to a Game 7, which the Yankees led 1–0 in the bottom of the ninth.Matty Alouled off the inning with a bunt single but was still at first two outs later when Mays came up with the Giants one out from elimination. Batting againstRalph Terry, he hit a ball into the right-field corner that might have been deep enough to score Alou, but Giants third base coachWhitey Lockmanopted to hold Alou at third. The next batter, McCovey, hit a line drive that was caught byBobby Richardson, and the Yankees won the deciding game 1–0.It was Mays's last World Series appearance as a Giant.Mays reveled in the fact that he had finally won the support of San Francisco fans; \"It only took them five years,\" he later said. Record-setting contract Before the 1963 season, Mays signed a contract worth a record-setting $105,000 per season (equivalent to $1,040,000 in 2023).On July 2, when Spahn andJuan Marichaleach threw 15 scoreless innings, Mays hit a 16th-inning home run off Spahn, giving the Giants a 1–0 victory.He considered the home run one of his most important, along with his first and the four-home-run game.In August, he won his third NL Player of the Month Award after batting .387 with eight home runs and 27 RBIs.He hit his 400th home run on August 27 against theSt. Louis Cardinals, the tenth player to reach that mark. Mays finished the 1963 season batting .314 with 38 home runs and 103 RBIs, stealing only eight bases, his fewest since 1954. Normally the third batter in the lineup, Mays was moved to fourth in 1964 before returning to third in subsequent years.On May 21, Dark named Mays the Giants' captain, making Mays the first African-American captain of an MLB team. \"You deserve it,\" Dark told Mays. \"You should have had it long before this.\"Against the Phillies on September 4, Mays made what Hirsch called \"one of the most acrobatic catches of his career\".Rubén Amaro Sr.hit a ball to the scoreboard at Philadelphia'sConnie Mack Stadium. Mays, who had been playing closer to home plate than normal, ran at top speed after the ball. He caught it in midair and had to kick his legs forward to keep his head from hitting the ballpark's fence, but he held on to the ball. While he batted under .300 (.296) for the first time since 1956, he led the NL with 47 home runs and ranked second with 121 runs scored and 111 RBIs. Second NL MVP A torn shoulder muscle sustained in a 1965 game against the Atlanta Braves impaired Mays's ability to throw. He kept the injury a secret from opposing players, making two or three practice throws before games to discourage them from running on him.On August 22, Mays acted as a peacemaker during a14-minute brawl between the Giants and Dodgersafter Marichal had bloodied Dodgers catcherJohn Roseborowith a bat.Mays grabbed Roseboro by the waist and helped him off the field, then tackledLou Johnsonto keep him from attacking an umpire.Johnson kicked him in the head and nearly knocked him out. After the brawl, Mays hit a game-winning three-run home run againstSandy Koufax, but he did not finish the game, feeling dizzy after the home run. Mays won his fourth and final NL Player of the Month award in August 1965 (.363, 17 home runs, 29 RBIs).On September 13, he hit his500th career home runoffDon Nottebart, becoming the fifth player to reach the mark. Warren Spahn, off whom Mays hit his first career home run, was now his teammate. After the home run, Spahn asked him, \"Was it anything like the same feeling?\" Mays replied, \"It was exactly the same feeling. Same pitch, too.\"The next night, Mays hit one that he considered his most dramatic. With the Giants trailing theHouston Astrosby two runs with two outs in the ninth, Mays swung and missed atClaude Raymond's first two pitches, took three balls to load the count, and fouled off three pitches before homering on the ninth pitch. The Giants won 6–5 in 10 innings.Mays won his second MVP award in 1965 behind a career-high 52 home runs, in what Barra said \"may very well have his best year\".He batted .317, leading the NL in on-base percentage (.400) and slugging percentage (.645). The span of 11 years between his MVP awards was the longest gap of any major leaguer who attained the distinction more than once, as were the 10 years between his50 home run seasons.He scored 118 runs, the 12th year in a row he had scored at least 100 runs in a season. Mays tiedMel Ott's NL record of 511 home runs on April 24, 1966, against the Astros. After that, he went for nine days without a home run. \"I started thinking home run every time I got up,\" Mays explained the slump.He finally set the record May 4.Despite nursing an injured thigh muscle on September 7, Mays reached base in the 11th inning of a game against the Dodgers with two outs, then attempted to score from first base on aFrank Johnsonsingle. On a close play, umpireTony Venzoninitially ruled him out, then changed the call when he saw Roseboro had dropped the ball after Mays collided with him. San Francisco won 3–2.Mays finished third in the NL MVP voting, the ninth and final time he finished in the top five in the voting for the award.He batted .288 with 99 runs scored, 37 home runs, and 103 runs batted in; by season's end, only Babe Ruth had hit more home runs (714 to 542). Player of the Decade Mays had 13 home runs and 44 RBIs through his first 75 games of 1967 but then went into a slump.On June 7,Gary Nolanof the Cincinnati Reds struck him out four times; this was the first time in his career this had happened, though the Giants still won the game 4–3.Afflicted by a fever on July 14, Mays left that day's game after the sixth inning because of fatigue and spent five days in a hospital. \"After I got back into the lineup, I never felt strong again for the rest of the season,\" he recalled.In 141 games, Mays hit .263 with 83 runs scored, 128 hits, and 22 home runs. He had only 70 RBIs for the year, the first time since 1958 he had failed to reach 100. Before a game in Houston on May 6, 1968, Astros ownerRoy Hofheinzpresented Mays with a 569-pound birthday cake for his 37th birthday—the pounds represented every home run Mays had hit in his career. After sharing some of it with his teammates, Mays sent the rest to theTexas Children's Hospital.He played 148 games and upped his batting average to .289, accumulating 84 runs scored, 144 hits, 23 home runs, and 79 runs batted in.In 1969, new Giants' managerClyde Kingmoved Mays to theleadoff positionin the batting lineup because Mays was hitting fewer home runs.Mays privately chafed at the move, later comparing it to \"O. J. Simpsonblocking for the fullback\".He injured his knee in a collision with catcherRandy Hundleyon July 29, forcing him to miss several games.On September 22, he hit his 600th home run, saying later, \"Winning the game was more important to me than any individual achievements.\"In 117 games, he batted .283 with 13 home runs and 58 runs batted in. TheSporting Newsnamed Mays the 1960s \"Player of the Decade\" in January 1970.In an April game, Mays collided withBobby Bondswhile reaching his glove over the wall but made a catch to robBobby Tolanof a home run.Mays picked up his3,000th hitagainst theMontreal Exposon July 18.\"I don't feel excitement about this now,\" he told reporters afterwards. \"The main thing I wanted to do was helpGaylord Perrywin a game.\" In 139 games, Mays batted .291 with 94 runs scored, 28 home runs, and 83 RBIs.He scheduled his off days that season to avoid facingstrikeoutpitchers such asBob GibsonorTom Seaver. Later years with the Giants Though center field remained his primary position in 1971, Mays played 48 games at first base.He got off to a fast start in 1971, the year he turned 40.Against the Mets on May 31, he hit a game-tying eighth-inning home run, saved multiple runs with his defense at first base, and performed a strategic base-running maneuver with one out in the 11th inning, running slowly from second to third base to draw a throw fromTim Foliand allowAl Gallagherto reach first safely. Evading Foli's tag on the return throw to third, Mays scored the winning run on a sacrifice fly.He had 15 home runs and a .290 average at the All-Star break but faded down the stretch, only hitting three home runs and batting .241 for the rest of the year.One reason he hit so few home runs was that Mays walked 112 times, 30 more times than he had at any point in his career. This was partly becauseWillie McCovey, who often batted behind Mays in the lineup, missed several games with injuries, causing pitchers to pitch carefully to Mays so they could concentrate on getting less-skilled hitters out.Subsequently, Mays led the league in on-base percentage (.425) for only the second time, though his 123 strikeouts were a career-high. He batted .271 and stole 23 bases. The Giants won theNL Westin 1971, returning Mays to the playoffs for the first time since 1962.In theNL Championship Series(NLCS) against the Pirates, Mays had a home run and three RBIs in the first two games. In Game 3, Mays attempted an unsuccessfulsacrifice buntin a 1–1 tie in the sixth with no outs andTito Fuenteson second base, a move that surprised reporters covering the game. The Giants lost 2–1. \"I was thinking of the best way to get the run in,\" Mays explained the bunt, pointing out that McCovey and Bonds were due up next. The Giants lost the series in four games.After the season, Mays was honored as the winner of the inauguralRoberto Clemente Award, known at that time as the Commissioner's Award. Mays got off to a tortuous start to the 1972 season, batting .184 through his first 19 games. Before the season began, he had asked Stoneham for a 10-year contract with the Giants organization, intending to serve in an off-the-field capacity with them once his playing career was over.The Giants organization was having financial troubles, and Mays had to settle for a two-year, $330,000 contract.Mays quibbled with managerCharlie Fox, leaving the stadium before the start of a doubleheader on April 30 without telling him. New York Mets On May 11, 1972, Mays was traded to the New York Mets for pitcherCharlie Williamsand an undisclosed amount rumored to be $100,000. The Mets agreed to keep his salary at $165,000 a year for 1972 and 1973, promising to pay Mays $50,000 a year for 10 years after he retired. Mays had remained popular in New York, and ownerJoan Paysonhad long wanted to bring him back to his major league roots.In his Mets debut against the Giants on May 14, Mays put New York ahead to stay with a fifth-inning home run, receiving ecstatic applause from the fans atShea Stadium.Mays appeared in 88 games for the Mets in 1972, batting .250 in 244 at bats with eight home runs. In 1973, Mays showed up a day late to spring training, then left in the middle of it without notifying managerYogi Berrabeforehand. He was fined $1,000 upon returning; a sportswriter joked half the fine was for leaving, half was for returning.Things did not improve as the season began; Mays spent time on the disabled list early in the year and left the park before a game when he found out Berra had not put his name in the starting lineup. His speed and powerful arm in the outfield, assets throughout his career, were diminished in 1973, and he only made the All-Star team because of a special intervention by NL PresidentChub Feeney. However, the Mets won theNL East. On August 17, 1973, Mays hit his final (660th) home run against the Reds'Don Gullett.Having considered retirement all year, Mays finally told the Mets officially on September 9 that 1973 would be his last season.He made the announcement to the public on September 20. \"I thought I'd be crying by now,\" he told reporters and Mets' executives at a press conference that day, \"but I see so many people here who are my friends, I can't...Baseball and me, we had what you might call a love affair.\"Five days later, the Mets honored him on Willie Mays Night, proclaimed by New York City mayorJohn Lindsay, where he thanked the New York fans and said goodbye to baseball.In 66 games, Mays batted a career-low .211 with six home runs. Against the Reds in theNLCS, Mays helped restore order in Game 3 after Mets fans began throwing trash atPete Rosefollowing a brawl Rose had started withBud Harrelson.Game 5 was the only one Mays played; he had a pinch-hit RBI single as the Mets won 7–2, clinching a trip to the1973 World Seriesagainst theOakland Athletics, October 13–21.A shoulder injury toRusty Staubprompted the Mets to shiftDon Hahnto right field and start Mays in center at the start of the Series.He stumbled four times in the first two games, including a fielding error in Game 2 that allowed the Athletics to tie the game and force extra innings.Mays's last hit came later in the same game, an RBI single againstRollie Fingersthat snapped a 7–7 tie in the 12th inning of a 10–7 victory.His final at bat came in Game 3, on October 16, 1973, where he pinch-hit forTug McGrawand grounded into aforce play.The Mets lost the series in seven games. All-Star Games Mays's 24 appearances on an All-Star Game roster are tied with Musial for second all-time, behind onlyHank Aaron's 25.He \"strove for All-Star glory\" according to Hirsch, taking the game seriously in his desire to support his NL teammates.In thefirst All-Star Game of 1959, Mays hit a game-winning triple againstWhitey Ford;Bob Stevensof theSan Francisco Chroniclewrote that \"Harvey Kuenngave it honest pursuit, but the only center fielder in baseball who could have caught it hit it.\" Mays scored the winning run in the bottom of the 10th inning of thefirst All-Star Game of 1961on a Clemente single in a 5–4 win for the NL.AtCleveland Stadiumin the1963 All-Star Game, he made the finest catch, snagging his foot under a wire fence in center field as he grasped a long fly ball hit byJoe Pepitonethat might have given the AL the lead. The NL won 5–3, and Mays was named theAll-Star Game MVP. With a leadoff home run againstMilt Pappasin the1965 All-Star Game, Mays set a record for most hits in his All-Star Games (21).Mays led off the1968 All-Star Gamewith a single, moved to second on an error, advanced to third base on a wild pitch, and scored the only run of the game when McCovey hit into a double play; for his contributions, Mays won the All-Star Game MVP Award for the second time. Mays individually holds the records for most at bats (75), hits (23), runs scored (20), and stolen bases (six) by an All-Star; additionally, he is tied with Musial for the most extra-base hits (eight) and total bases (40), and he is tied withBrooks Robinsonfor the most triples (three) in All-Star Game history.In appreciation of his All-Star records, Ted Williams said, \"They invented the All-Star Game for Willie Mays.\" Barnstorming During the first part of his career, Mays often participated inbarnstormingtours after his regular season with the Giants ended. Teams of star players would travel from city to city playing exhibition games for local fans. Following his rookie year, Mays went on a barnstorming tour with an All-Star team assembled by Campanella, playing in Negro League stadiums around the southern United States.From 1955 through 1958, Mays led Willie Mays' All-Stars, a team composed of such stars as Irvin, Thompson, Aaron,Frank Robinson,Junior Gilliam,Brooks Lawrence,Sam Jones, andJoe Black. The team traveled around the southern United States the first two years, attaining crowds of about 5,000 in 1955 but drawing less than 1,000 in 1956, partly because of the advent of television. In 1957, the team went to Mexico, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic, drawing 117,766 fans in 15 games, 14 of which were won by Mays's team. They played 20 games in Mexico in 1958. Mays did not lead a team in 1959; Stoneham wanted him to rest because he was suffering from a broken finger.In 1960, Mays also did not barnstorm, but he and the Giants did go to Tokyo, playing an exhibition series of 16 games against theYomiuri Giants. Though teams of black All-Stars assembled those two seasons, they drew fewer fans and opted not to assemble in 1961, when Mays again decided not to barnstorm.The tradition soon died out, as the expansion of the major leagues, the increased televising of major league games, and the emergence of professionalfootballhad siphoned interest away from the offseason exhibition games. Player profile The batting stance Mays employed showed the influence of one of his childhood favorites, Joe DiMaggio. Like his hero, Mays would stand with his legs spread apart, placing the same amount of weight on both while holding the bat high. His right thumb would stick out in the air as he waited for pitches, but he wrapped it around the bat as he swung. Mays believed this late motion added power when he swung.Mays channeled his energies into the swing by abstaining from extra motion and opening his hips. \"If there was a machine to measure each swing of a bat,\"Branch Rickeysuggested, \"it would be proven that Mays swings with more power and bat speed, pitch for pitch, than any other player.\"His focus extended to his antics, or lack thereof, at the plate; Mays did not rub dirt on his hands or stroll around the batter's box like some hitters did.Naturally more of a pull hitter, Mays adjusted his style in 1954 to hit more to right and center field in a quest for a higher batting average at his manager's request, but the change was not permanent.When the Giants moved to Candlestick Park, Mays found that pulling the ball worked better at home but hitting to right and center worked better on the road; he tried to adjust his style depending on where he was playing. Defensively, Mays was one of the best outfielders of all time, as evidenced by his record 12 Gold Gloves as an outfielder.His signature play was his \"basket catch,\" the technique that displayed Mays's stylistic flash as opposed to the pure raw skill that was on display when he made \"The Catch\" in the 1954 World Series.Holding his glove around his belly, he would keep his palm turned up, enabling the ball to fall right into his glove. Sportswriters have argued about whether the technique made him a better fielder or just made him more exciting to watch, but the basket catch did not prevent Mays from setting a record with 7,095 outfieldputouts.Koppett observes, \"His range was limitless, and his arm so strong that he could make effective throws from the most unlikely locations and from the most unlikely body positions.\"That range allowed him to play a shallow center and prevent shallow singles, while still being able to get back and not let extra-base hits get over his head. Mays's flashy style of play stemmed partly from his days in the Negro leagues. \"We were all entertainers,\" he said, \"and my job was to give the fans something to talk about each game.\" Sometimes he would deliberately slip to the ground for catches to make them look tougher than they really were.He wore his cap one size larger than necessary so that it would fly off when he was running the bases or making fielding plays.Though he was a powerful hitter, he had a knack for stealing bases. He ran the bases daringly, becoming the only modern player to score from first base on a single to left field, and another time scoring from first base on a McCovey bunt (without an error). Assessment and legacy On January 23, 1979, Mays was elected to theBaseball Hall of Famein his first year of eligibility. He garnered 409 of the 432 ballots cast (94.68%).Referring to the other 23 voters,New York Daily NewscolumnistDick Youngwrote, \"If Jesus Christ were to show up with his old baseball glove, some guys wouldn't vote for him. Hedropped the cross three times, didn't he?\"In his induction speech, Mays said: What can I say? This country is made up of a great many things. You can grow up to be what you want. I chose baseball, and I loved every minute of it. I give you one word—love. It means dedication. You have to sacrifice many things to play baseball. I sacrificed a bad marriage and I sacrificed a good marriage. But I'm here today because baseball is my number one love. In 1999, Mays placed second onThe Sporting News's \"List of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players\", trailing only Babe Ruth.Later that year, fans elected him to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team.In 2020,The Athleticranked Mays at number 1 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, compiled by sportswriterJoe Posnanski.In 2022,MLB.comwriters voted Mays as being the greatest player in Giants franchise history. Fellow players and coaches recognized his talent.Roberto Clementesaid of Mays: \"To me, Willie Mays is the greatest who ever played.\"Willie Stargelllearned the hard way how good Mays's arm was when the center fielder threw him out in a game in 1965. \"I couldn't believe Mays could throw that far. I figured there had to be a relay. Then I found out there wasn't. He's too good for this world.\"\"If somebody came up and hit .450, stole 100 bases and performed a miracle in the field every day, I'd still look you in the eye and say Willie was better,\" Durocher said.\"All I can say is that he is the greatest player I ever saw, bar none,\" was Rigney's assessment.When Mays was the only player elected to the Hall of Fame in 1979,Duke Snider, who finished second in voting that year, said, \"Willie really more or less deserves to be in by himself.\"Don Zimmerremarked, \"In the National League in the 1950s, there were two opposing players who stood out over all the others — Stan Musial and Willie Mays. ... I've always said that Willie Mays was the best player I ever saw. ... e could have been an All-Star at any position.\"TeammateFelipe Alousaid, \" is number one, without a doubt. ... nyone who played with him or against him would agree that he is the best.\"Al Rosenremembered \"...you had the feeling you were playing against someone who was going to be the greatest of all time.\" Throughout his career, Mays maintained he did not specifically try to set records, but he ranks among baseball's leaders in many categories.Third in home runs with 660 when he retired, he stillranks sixthas of February 2024.His 2,062runs scoredrank seventh, and his 1,903 runs batted inrank 12thas of June 2021. Mays batted .301 in his career and his 3,293 hitsare the12th-most of any playeras of June 2021. His 2,992 games played are the ninth-highest total of any major leaguer as of June 2021. He stole 338 bases in his career.By the end of his career, Mays had won a Gold Glove Award 12 times, a record for outfielders today (shared by Roberto Clemente). He is baseball's all-time leader in outfield putouts (7,095), and he played 2,842 games as an outfielder, a total exceeded only by Cobb (2,934) andBarry Bonds(2,874).Mays's 24 appearances on an All-Star Game roster are tied with Musial for second all-time, behind only Aaron's 25.He holds individually the All-Star Game records for most at bats (75), hits (23), runs scored (20), and stolen bases (six); additionally, he is tied with Musial for the most extra-base hits (eight) and total bases (40), and he is tied with Brooks Robinson for the most triples (three) in All-Star Game history. Mays's 156.2Wins Above Replacement(WAR) ranks fifth all-time, and third amongposition players(trailing Barry Bonds' 162.8 and Ruth's 162.1).He led NL position players in WAR for 10 seasons, and led the league inon-base plus slugging(OPS) five times, ranking 26th all time with a .941 mark.SabermetricianBill Jamesthinks Mays was the best centerfielder of all time, naming him the best in the major leagues in the 1950s and the 1960s.David Schoenfield of ESPN, James and Barra all think he should have won the NL MVP Award at least seven times.\"He was one of the best fielders of all time,\" David Schoenfield wrote, noting Mays has the eighth-most fielding runs saved (a sabermetric stat) of all time.Barra claimed in 2004, \"Most modern fans would pick Willie Mays as the best all-around player in the second half of the twentieth century.\"SportscasterCurt Gowdysaid of Mays, \"Willie Mays was the best player I ever saw. He did everything well.\" Sudden collapses plagued Mays sporadically throughout his career, which occasionally led to hospital stays. He attributed them to his style of play. \"My style was always to go all out, whether I played four innings or nine. That's how I played all my life, and I think that's the reason I would suddenly collapse from exhaustion or nervous energy or whatever it was called.\" At thePittsburgh drug trialsin 1985, former Mets teammateJohn Milnertestified Mays kept a bottle of liquid amphetamine in his locker at Shea Stadium. Milner had never seen Mays use amphetamines, and Mays denied having taken drugs during his career.\"I really didn't need anything,\" Mays said. \"My problem was if I could stay on the field. I would go to the doctor and would say to the doctor, 'Hey, I need something to keep me going. Could you give me some sort of vitamin?' I don't know what they put in there, and I never asked him a question about anything.\"Hirsch wrote \"It would be naïve to think Mays never took amphetamines\" but admits that Mays's amphetamine use has never been proven, calling Mays \"the most famous player who supposedly took amphetamines\". Cultural effect Along with Mantle (of the Yankees) and Snider (of the Dodgers), Mays was part of a triumvirate of center fielders from the New York teams of the 1950s who would be elected to the Hall of Fame. The three were often the subject of debates among the New York fans as to who was the best center fielder in the city. Mays was a popular figure inHarlem, New York's predominantly black neighborhood and the home of the Polo Grounds. Magazine photographers were fond of chronicling his participation in localstickballgames with kids, which he played two to three nights a week during homestands until his first marriage in 1956.In the urban game of hitting a rubber ball with an adapted broomstick handle, Mays could hit a shot that measured \"five sewers\" (the distance of six consecutive New York City manhole covers), nearly 450 feet (140 m). Unlike other black athletes such asJackie Robinson, Mays tended to remain silent on racial issues, refraining from public complaints about discriminatory practices that affected him.Robinson once accused him and some of his teammates of not doing enough for thecivil rights movement.Hank Aaron wished Mays had spoken out more on racial issues. Mays believed his job was to play baseball, not talk about social issues. \"I'm a ballplayer. I am not a politician or a writer or a historian. I can do best for my people by doing what I do best.\" Post-playing career After Mays retired as a player, he remained in the New York Mets organization as their hitting instructor until the end of the 1979 season.Mays missed several appointments during these years and was often absent from Mets games. WhenJoe McDonaldbecame the Mets'general managerin 1975, he threatened to fire Mays for this.Baseball CommissionerBowie Kuhnand Mays's lawyer intervened, and the Mets agreed to keep him, as long as he stayed at home games for at least four innings.During his time with the Mets,Lee Mazzillilearned the basket catch from him. In October 1979, Mays took a job at theBally's Park Placecasino inAtlantic City,New Jersey. While there, he served as a special assistant to the casino's president and as a greeter. After being told by Kuhn that he could not be part of both baseball and a casino, Mays terminated his contract with the Mets, and he was banned from baseball. Kuhn was concerned about gambling infiltrating baseball, but Hirsch points out that Mays's role was merely as a greeter, he was not allowed to place bets at the casino as part of his contract, and the casino did not engage in sports betting.In 1985, less than a year after replacing Kuhn as commissioner,Peter Ueberrothdecided to allow Mays to return to baseball. At a press conference with Mays and Mantle (reinstated from a similar suspension), Ueberroth said, \"I am bringing back two players who are more a part of baseball than perhaps anyone else.\" Mays was named special assistant to the president and general manager of the Giants in 1986.He signed a lifetime contract with the team in 1993 and helped to muster public enthusiasm for buildingPac Bell Park, which opened in 2000.Mays founded a charity, the Say Hey Foundation, which promotes youth baseball.The Giants retired Mays's number 24 in May 1972.Oracle Park, their stadium, is at 24 Willie Mays Plaza. In front of the main entrance is a nine-foot-tall (2.74 m)statue of Mays, who had a private box at the stadium. When the Giants dedicated aWall of Fameto their greatest players in 2008, Mays became part of its inaugural class. At a special ceremony during the Mets' 60th anniversary Old-Timer's Game on August 27, 2022, the team announced that, pursuant to a promise Mets' ownerJoan Paysonhad made to Mays when she traded for him in 1972, they were following the Giants in retiring Mays's number 24. Mays became the 14th person (player or manager) to have their number retired by two teams. Special honors, media appearances Mays met with several United States presidents. DuringGerald Ford's administration in 1976, he was invited to the White House state dinner honoringQueen Elizabeth II.He was the Tee Ball Commissioner at the 2006White House Tee Ball Initiativeon July 30, 2006, duringGeorge W. Bush's presidency.On July 14, 2009, he accompaniedBarack ObamatoSt. LouisaboardAir Force Oneforthat year's All-Star Game.Six years later, Obama honored Mays with thePresidential Medal of Freedom. In September 2017, Major League Baseball renamed theWorld Series MVP Awardthe Willie Mays World Series MVP Award.Though Mays never went to college, he was awarded honorary degrees byYale University,Dartmouth College, andSan Francisco State University. Mays made many appearances on film and television.He made multiple appearances as the mystery guest on the long-running game showWhat's My Line?Through a friendship withTony OwenandDonna Reed, he was able to appear in three episodes ofThe Donna Reed Show.During the 1960s, he appeared on shows includingThe Dating GameandBewitched.NBC-TVaired an hour-long documentary titledA Man Named Maysin 1963, telling the story of the ballplayer's life.In 1972, Mays voiced himself in the animated fictional specialWillie Mays and the Say-Hey Kid, produced byRankin/BassProductions.Charles M. Schulz's comic stripPeanutsmentioned Mays numerous times.The plot of theStar Trek: Deep Space Nineepisode \"In the Cards\" (aired 1997, story set in 2373) centers on the son of Captain Sisko (a noted baseball aficionado) attempting to obtain as a gift for his father a vintage 1951 Willie Mays rookie card. Many popular songs reference Mays.The Treniersrecorded a famous song called \"Say Hey (The Willie Mays Song)\" in 1954, in which Mays himself participated in the recording.\"Centerfield\" byJohn Fogerty, which is often played at major and minor league stadiums, mentions Mays, Cobb, and DiMaggio.Another well-known song which mentions Mays is \"Talkin' Baseball (Willie, Mickey & The Duke)\" byTerry Cashman(1981), which refers to the three great New York City center fielders of the 1950s. Personal life Mays became the third husband of Marghuerite Wendell Chapman (1926–2010) in 1956. The couple adopted a five-day-old baby named Michael in 1959.They separated in 1962 and divorced in 1963, with Marghuerite taking Michael for the majority of the time. Eight years later, Mays married Mae Louise Allen, a child-welfare worker in San Francisco.Wilt Chamberlainhad given Mays her phone number in 1961, and they dated off and on the next several years.In 1997, she was diagnosed withAlzheimer's disease; Mays cared for her until her death on April 19, 2013. Mays was the godfather of Barry Bonds, whose father, Bobby Bonds, was a friend of his when they were Giants teammates. Glaucomaforced Mays to stop driving a car and playing golf after 2005.In 2018, blind sportswriterEd Lucaswrote that Mays had told him a \"few years ago\" that he had actually gone blind.However, James S. Hirsch wrote inThe New York Timesin 2021, on the occasion of his 90th birthday, that his vision was merely \"compromised\" by glaucoma and that he was still able to watch games on television, albeit with difficulty. In 1957, when the New York Giants moved to San Francisco, Mays placed an offer on a home in the exclusive Sherwood Forest neighborhood. The seller refused his offer after neighbors complained about a Black family moving to the area. Near the end of his life, Mays resided inAtherton, California, with his personal assistant and a caretaker. Death Mays died of heart failure at a care home inPalo Alto, California, on June 18, 2024, at the age of 93.The day before, he had released his final public statement when he said he chose to stay in California and not attend theMLB at Rickwood Fieldgame between theGiantsandCardinalslater that week on June 20. Several politicians and professional athletes paid tribute to Mays, including PresidentJoe Bidenand former president Barack Obama, as well as San Francisco mayorLondon Breed, and California governorGavin Newsom.Fans also left tributes and paid their respects at Mays' statue outside Oracle Park. On June 20, 2024, during the game atRickwood Field, theSan Francisco Giantswore a patch with \"24\" on it in Mays' honor and his Hall of Fame plaque was brought over to the place where Mays began his career. Michael Mays, his son, spoke before the game and tribute video was played on the video board before the first pitch byBill Greason, Mays' former teammate in theNegro leagues. A public memorial ceremony, led by Giants broadcasterJon Miller, was held on July 8 atOracle Park. A number of Mays' former teammates attended the ceremony, and among the speakers were baseball commissionerRob Manfred, former presidentsBill Clintonand Barack Obama, and former San Francisco mayorWillie Brown.In addition to the tributes, Mays was given final military honors for his service during the Korean War, with two service members playing \"Taps\" before presenting his son, Michael, with an American flag. See also Notes References Book sources Further reading Articles Books External links Italics denotes active player", "Jackie Robinson Jack Roosevelt Robinson(January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professionalbaseballplayer who became the first African-American to play inMajor League Baseball(MLB) in the modern era. Robinson broke thecolor linewhen he started atfirst basefor theBrooklyn Dodgerson April 15, 1947. The Dodgers signing Robinson heralded the end ofracial segregationin professional baseball, which had relegated black players to theNegro leaguessince the 1880s. Born inCairo, Georgia, Robinson was raised inPasadena, California. A four-sport student athlete atPasadena Junior Collegeand theUniversity of California, Los Angeles, he was better known for football than he was for baseball, becoming a star college player with theUCLA Bruins footballteam. Following his college career, Robinson was drafted for service duringWorld War IIbut wascourt-martialedfor refusing to sit at the back of a segregated Army bus, eventually being honorably discharged. Afterwards, he signed with theKansas City Monarchsof the Negro leagues, where he caught the eye ofBranch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, who thought he would be the perfect candidate for breaking the color line in MLB. During his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inauguralRookie of the Year Awardin 1947, was anAll-Starfor six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won theNational League(NL)Most Valuable Player Awardin 1949—the first black player so honored. Robinson played in sixWorld Seriesand contributed to the Dodgers'1955 World Serieschampionship. He was inducted into theBaseball Hall of Famein1962. Robinson's character, his use ofnonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to thecivil rights movement. Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation,Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he helped establish theFreedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based inHarlem, New York. After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded theCongressional Gold MedalandPresidential Medal of Freedomin recognition of his achievements on and off the field. In 1997, MLBretiredhis uniform number, 42, across all Major League teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored.MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, \"Jackie Robinson Day\", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears no. 42. Early life Family and personal life Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family ofsharecroppersinCairo, Georgia. He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (née McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank,Matthew(nicknamed \"Mack\"), and Willa Mae.His middle name honored former PresidentTheodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born.After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved toPasadena, California. The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family.Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities.As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it. John Muir High School In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled atJohn Muir Technical High School.Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers, Frank and Mack (himself an accomplished track and field athlete andsilver medalistbehindJesse Owensin the200 metersat the Berlin1936 Summer Olympics) inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports. At Muir Tech, Robinson played numerous sports at thevarsity levelandletteredin four of them:football,basketball,track and field, andbaseball.He playedshortstopandcatcheron the baseball team,quarterbackon the football team, andguardon the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in thebroad jump. He was also a member of thetennisteam. In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on thePomonaannual baseball tournament all-star team, which included futureHall of FamersTed WilliamsandBob Lemon.In late January 1937, thePasadena Star-Newsnewspaper reported that Robinson \"for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball, and tennis.\" Pasadena Junior College After Muir, Robinson attendedPasadena Junior College(PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track.On the football team, he played quarterback andsafety. He was a shortstop andleadoff hitterfor the baseball team,and he broke an American junior college broad-jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft.6+1⁄2in. on May 7, 1938.As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white.While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military.In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player. That year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing \"outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition.\"Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities. An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived asracist—a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police.Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism.While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian.Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearbyUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family. UCLA and afterward After graduating from PJC in spring 1939,Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to winvarsity lettersin four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track. He was one of four black players on the Bruins'1939 football team; the others wereWoody Strode,Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players.At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's mostintegrated team.They went undefeated with four ties at6–0–4.Robinson finished the season with 12.2 yards per attempt on 42 carries, which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022. Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons. Intrack and field, Robinson won the1940 NCAA championshipin thelong jumpat24 ft10+1⁄4in (7.58 m).Baseballwas Robinson's \"worst sport\" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twicestolehome. While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife,Rachel Isum(b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic careerat PJC.He played football as a senior, but the1940 Bruinswon only one game.In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite the reservations of his mother and Isum.He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government'sNational Youth Administration(NYA)inAtascadero, California. After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled toHonoluluin the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated HonoluluBears.After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for theLos Angeles Bulldogsof thePacific Coast Football League.By that time, however, the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harborhad taken place, which drew the United States intoWorld War IIand ended Robinson's nascent football career. Military career In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit atFort Riley, Kansas.Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to anOfficer Candidate School(OCS) then located at Fort Riley. Although the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race-neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership.The applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months.After protests by heavyweight boxing championJoe Louis(then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help ofTruman Gibson(then an assistant civilian aide to theSecretary of War),the men were accepted into OCS.The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis.Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as asecond lieutenantin January 1943.Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged. After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned toFort Hood, Texas, where he joined the761st \"Black Panthers\" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (nowHuston–Tillotson University) in nearbyAustin, Texas; in California, Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC. An event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career.While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus.Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned themilitary police, who took Robinson into custody.When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson becourt-martialed. After Robinson'scommanderin the 761st,Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the758th Battalion—where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink. By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning.Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers. Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, and he was never in combat. After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge,Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving anhonorable dischargein November 1944.While there, Robinson met a former player for theKansas City Monarchsof theNegro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout.Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird. Post-military After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs.Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director atSamuel Huston Collegein Austin, then of theSouthwestern Athletic Conference.The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season.As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games.Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach,and drew the admiration of, among others,Langston Universitybasketball playerMarques Haynes, a future member of theHarlem Globetrotters. Playing career Negro leagues and major league prospects In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, theKansas City Monarchssent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues.Robinson accepted a contract for $400 per month.Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him.The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter.In all, Robinson played 47 games atshortstopfor the Monarchs, hitting .387 with fivehome runs, and registering 13stolen bases.He also appeared in the 1945East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats. During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues sinceMoses Fleetwood Walkerin 1884, but theBoston Red Soxnevertheless held a tryout atFenway Parkfor Robinson and other black players on April 16.The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City CouncilmanIsadore H. Y. Muchnick.Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets.He left the tryout humiliated,and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster. Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s,Branch Rickey, club president andgeneral managerof theBrooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn'sInternational Leaguefarm club, theMontreal Royals.Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him.In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military.Robinson was aghast: \"Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?\"Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player \"with guts enough not to fight back.\"After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to \"turn the other cheek\" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $10,155 today.Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause.Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects wasWendell Smith, writer for the black weeklyPittsburgh Courier, who, according toCleveland Indiansowner and team presidentBill Veeck, \"influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit.\" Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945.On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season.On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals.In what was later referred to as \"The Noble Experiment\",Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s.He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues,and black talentsSatchel PaigeandJosh Gibsonwere upset when Robinson was selected first.Larry Doby, who broke the color line in theAmerican Leaguethe same year as Robinson, said, \"One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken.\" Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed withChet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-seasonbarnstormingteam in theCalifornia Winter League.Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City.On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs. Minor leagues In 1946, Robinson arrived atDaytona Beach, Florida, forspring trainingwith theMontreal Royalsof theClass AAAInternational League.Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused. Robinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African-American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activistMary McLeod Bethune.Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility, scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson orJohnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. InSanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach.InJacksonville, thestadiumwas padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director.InDeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting. After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach.Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since thede factobaseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s. Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop tosecond base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base.Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946,Roosevelt Stadiumhosted theJersey City Giants' season opener against theMontreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs.Pitching against Robinson wasWarren Sandelwho had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his fiveat bats; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's thirdinning.He also scored fourruns, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory.Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349batting averageand .985fielding percentage, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel aSouthernexhibition tour, for example),the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson.Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards.In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-livedLos Angeles Red Devils. Major leagues Breaking the color barrier (1947) In 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season. WithEddie Stankyentrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as afirst baseman.Robinson made his debut as a Dodger wearinguniform number42 on April 11, 1947, in a preseasonexhibition gameagainst the New York Yankees atEbbets Fieldwith 24,237 in attendance.On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black.Although he failed to get a base hit, he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory.Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams. Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players.However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse.Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. ManagerLeo Durocherinformed the team, \"I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded.\" Robinson was also derided by opposing teams.According to a press report, theSt. Louis Cardinalsthreatened tostrikeif Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League.Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, theNew York Herald Tribune'sRud Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to hisTribunecolleague and editor,Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland.The Woodward article made national headlines. After it was published, National League PresidentFord FrickandBaseball CommissionerHappy Chandlerlet it be known that any striking players would be suspended. \"You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts,\" Frick was quoted as saying. \"I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another.\"Woodward's article received theE. P. DuttonAward in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting.The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told authorRoger Kahnthat Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech \"never happened\".Regardless, the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from thesports media. EvenThe Sporting News, a publication that had backed the color line, came out against the idea of a strike. Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg fromEnos Slaughter.On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and thePhiladelphia Phillies, Phillies players and managerBen Chapmancalled Robinson a \"nigger\" from theirdugoutand yelled that he should \"go back to the cotton fields\".Rickey later recalled that Chapman \"did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men.\" However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson namedLee \"Jeep\" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well.Dodgers teammatePee Wee Reeseonce came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, \"You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them.\"In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati.Astatueby sculptorWilliam Behrends, unveiled atKeySpan Parkon November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson.Jewishbaseball starHank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he \"whispered a few words into Robinson's ear\", which Robinson later characterized as \"words of encouragement\".Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games.Robinson also talked frequently withLarry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in theAmerican Leaguewith theCleveland Indians, as the two spoke to each other via telephone throughout the season. Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for theDodgers, with a batting average of .297, anon-base percentageof .383, and a .427slugging percentage. He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31doubles, 5triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league insacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29.His cumulative performance earned him the inauguralMajor League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award(separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949). That year, theBrooklyn Dodgerswon the National League pennant and went on to face theYankeesin the1947 World Series. Robinson became the first black player to play in the World Series. He appeared in all seven games, with the Dodgers ultimately losing in Game 7. MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950) Following Stanky's trade to theBoston Bravesin March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980fielding percentagethat year (second in theNational Leagueat the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season.In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, hehit for the cycle—ahome run, atriple, adouble, and asinglein the same game.The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the pennant and lose to the Cleveland Indians in theWorld Series. Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues.Larry Doby(who broke the color barrier in theAmerican Leagueon July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) andSatchel Paigeplayed for theCleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $158,518 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from avaudevilletour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate.In 1948, Wendell Smith's book,Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released. In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of FamerGeorge Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that \"Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second\". The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949.In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124runs batted inwith 122 runs scored.For the performance Robinson earned theMost Valuable Player Awardfor the National League.Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the1949 All-Star Game— the first All-Star Game to include black players. That year, a song about Robinson byBuddy Johnson, \"Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?\", reached number 13 on the charts;Count Basierecorded a famous version.Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to theNew York Yankeesin the1949 World Series. Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before theUnited States House of Representatives'Committee on Un-American Activities(HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actorPaul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined. In 1950, Robinson led the National League indouble playsmade by a second baseman with 133.His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($443,237 in 2023 dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases.The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life,The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself, and actressRuby Deeplayed Rachel \"Rae\" (Isum) Robinson.The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.The New York Timeswrote that Robinson, \"doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star.\" Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-ownerWalter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as \"Rickey'sprima donna\".In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise.Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of thePittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, \"Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it.\" Pennant races and outside interests (1951–1953) Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in theMontreal Standardas saying, \"Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post\"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered. During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137.He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning, which proved to be the winning margin. This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rivalNew York Giants. Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant onBobby Thomson's famous home run, known as theShot Heard 'Round the World. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscasterVin Scullylater noted that the incident showed \"how much of a competitor Robinson was.\"He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases. Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952.He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career-highon-base percentageof .436.The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the1952 World Seriesto the New York Yankees in seven games.That year, on the television showYouth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager,George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player.SportswriterDick Young, whom Robinson had described as a \"bigot\", said, \"If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness.\"The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in theoutfield, withJim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in thePuerto Rican Winter League, but according to theNew York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request. In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and anotherWorld Seriesloss to the Yankees, this time in six games).Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats.He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor forOur Sportsmagazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friendJoe Louis.Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-starChase Park Hotelin St. Louis. World Championship and retirement (1954–1956) In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles.The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers defeated the New York Yankees in the1955 World Series.Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as athird baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base.Robinson, then 36 years old,missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series.He missed the game because managerWalter Alstondecided to play Gilliam at second andDon Hoakat third base. That season, the Dodgers'Don Newcombebecame the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year. In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals.By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects ofdiabetesand to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball.Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the1956 World Series.After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rivalNew York GiantsforDick Littlefieldand $35,000 cash (equal to $392,240 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president ofChock full o'Nutsto quit baseball and become an executive with the company.Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story toLookmagazine two years previously,his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization. Legacy Robinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as thebaseball color line. After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks, including their acceleratedmigration to the North, where their political clout grew, andPresident Harry Truman'sdesegregation of the militaryin 1948.Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter.Civil rights movementleaderMartin Luther King Jr.said that he was \"a legend and a symbol in his own time\", and that he \"challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration.\"According to historianDoris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's \"efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities.\" Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers.During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games.In 1999, he was one of 30 players named to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team. Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–\"long ball\" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning.Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially morewalksthanstrikeouts(740 to 291).Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñosowas the other).He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total, including 19 steals of home.None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time).Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as \"the father of modern base-stealing\". Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played.After playing his rookie season at first base,Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951.Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both. Assessing himself, Robinson said, \"I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being.\"Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field,Leo Durochersaid, \"You want a guy that comes to play. But he didn't just come to play. He came to beat you. He came to stuff the damn bat right up your ass.\" Portrayals on stage, film and television Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion pictureThe Jackie Robinson Story.Other portrayals include: Robinson was also the subject of a 2016PBSdocumentary,Jackie Robinson, which was directed byKen Burnsand featuresJamie Foxxdoing voice-over as Robinson. Post-baseball life Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inducteeHank Aaronthat \"the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over.\"Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957.Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed withdiabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers.Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease. In October 1959, Robinson entered theGreenville Municipal Airport's whites-only waiting room. Airport police asked Robinson to leave, but he refused. At aNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) speech inGreenville, South Carolina, Robinson urged \"complete freedom\" and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second-class citizenship. The following January, approximately 1,000 peoplemarched on New Year's Dayto the airport,which was desegregated shortly thereafter. In his first year of eligibility for theBaseball Hall of Famein 1962,Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game.He waselectedon the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into theCooperstownmuseum. In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst forABC'sMajor League Baseball Game of the Weektelecasts, the first black person to do so.In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-livedBrooklyn Dodgersof theContinental Football League.In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator onMontreal Expostelecasts. From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel atChock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation.Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause ofblack peoplein commerce and industry.He also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967.In 1964, he helped found, withHarlembusinessman Dunbar McLaurin,Freedom National Bank—a black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem.He also served as the bank's first chairman of the board.In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families. Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent,although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including theVietnam War(he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr. to defend theJohnson Administration's military policy).After supportingRichard Nixonin his1960 presidential raceagainstJohn F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights.Robinson was angered by the1964 presidential electioncandidacy of conservative Republican SenatorBarry GoldwaterofArizona, who had opposed theCivil Rights Act of 1964.He became one of six national directors forNelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election.After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had \"a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany\".He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to theNew York State Athletic Commissionby Rockefeller.In 1968, he broke with the Republican party and supportedHubert Humphreyagainst Nixon inthat year's presidential election. Robinson protested against the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in anold-timers' gameat Yankee Stadium in 1969.He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, nine days before his death, throwing theceremonial first pitchbefore Game 2 of theWorld Seriesat Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati.He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, \"I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball.\"This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, theCleveland Indiansgave their managerial post toFrank Robinson(no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s. Family life and death After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wifeRachel Robinsonpursued a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at theYale School of Nursingand director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center.She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990.She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946–1971), Sharon Robinson (b. 1950), and David Robinson (b. 1952). Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age.He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in theVietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965.After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program atDaytop VillageinSeymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution.On June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24.The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life. Robinson did not outlive his son by very long. In 1968, he suffered aheart attack. Complications fromheart diseaseanddiabetesweakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home at 95 Cascade Road inNorth Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old.Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, atUpper Manhattan'sRiverside ChurchinMorningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners.Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball starBill Russellserved as pallbearers, and the Rev.Jesse Jacksongave the eulogy.Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site atCypress Hills CemeteryinBrooklyn, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum.Twenty-five years after Robinson's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed theJackie Robinson Parkwayin his memory. This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson's gravesite. After Robinson's death, his widow founded theJackie Robinson Foundation, and she remains an officer as of 2024.On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan.Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father.His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist inTanzania. Awards and recognition On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired Robinson's uniform number, 42, alongside those of former teammatesRoy Campanella(39) andSandy Koufax(32).In 2017, astatue of Robinson, created by sculptorBranly Cadet, was unveiled atDodger Stadium. It was the first statue the Dodgers ever unveiled. In 1999, Robinson was named byTimeon its list of the100 most influential people of the 20th century.That same year, he was one of 30 players elected to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team.That same year, he was ranked No. 44 onThe Sporting Newslist of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\" in 1999.In 2020,The Athleticranked Robinson at number 42 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, complied by sportswriterJoe Posnanski. Baseball writerBill James, inThe New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.Robinson was among the 25 charter members ofUCLA's Athletics Hall of Famein 1984.In 2002,Molefi Kete Asanteincluded Robinson on his list of100 Greatest African Americans. TheCity of Pasadenahas recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field inBrookside Parknext to theRose Bowl,and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach center providing health services).In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $616,853 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance ofPasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family. Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American LeagueRookie of the YearAwards were renamed the \"Jackie Robinson Award\" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues). On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of thefour major American sports leagues. Under the terms of the retirement, agrandfather clauseallowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers.This affected players such as the Mets'Butch Huskeyand Boston'sMo Vaughn. The Yankees'Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season,was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Since 1997, onlyWayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by theNHLin 2000, andBill Russell's number 6, retired by theNBAin 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports. As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15,Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004.For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007.The gesture was originally the idea of outfielderKen Griffey Jr., who soughtRachel Robinson's permission to wear the number.After Griffey received her permission, CommissionerBud Selignot only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same.Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of theLos Angeles Dodgers,New York Mets,Houston Astros,Philadelphia Phillies,St. Louis Cardinals,Milwaukee Brewers, andPittsburgh Pirates.The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals,Washington Nationals, andTampa Bay Rayswore Robinson's number 42.On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at theBaseball Hall of Famecommemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics.In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date. At the November 2006 groundbreaking forCiti Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's oldEbbets Field, would be called theJackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009.It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets ownerFred Wilponannounced that the Mets—in conjunction withCitigroupand the Jackie Robinson Foundation—would create theJackie Robinson Museumand Learning Center, located at the headquarters of theJackie Robinson Foundationat One Hudson Square, alongCanal Streetinlower Manhattan. Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to \"young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals.\"The museum opened in 2022.The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque inMonument Park. Since 2004, theAflacNational High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the \"Jackie Robinson Award\". Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with theSpingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American.PresidentRonald Reaganposthumously awarded Robinson thePresidential Medal of Freedomon March 26, 1984,and on March 2, 2005, PresidentGeorge W. Bushgave Robinson's widow theCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, afterRoberto Clemente.On August 20, 2007, California GovernorArnold Schwarzeneggerand his wife,Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into theCalifornia Hall of Fame, located atThe California Museum for History, Women and the Artsin Sacramento. A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. TheUCLA Bruins baseballteam plays inJackie Robinson Stadium,which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis.The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013. City Island Ballpark inDaytona Beach, Floridawas renamedJackie Robinson Ballparkin 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15. 1990.A number of facilities atPasadena City College(successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack.The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson,andDorsey High Schoolplays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him.His home in Brooklyn, theJackie Robinson House, was declared aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976,and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark.In 1978,Colonial ParkinHarlemwas renamed after Robinson.Robinson also has anasteroidnamed after him,4319 Jackierobinson.In 1997, New York City renamed theInterboro Parkway in his honor.The following year, astatue of Robinsonwas dedicated atJournal Square Transportation CenterinJersey City, New Jersey. In 1997, theUnited States Mintissued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin.Robinson has also been honored by theUnited States Postal Serviceon three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000. In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball.The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé nearJarry Park, was Robinson's residence when he played for theMontreal Royalsduring 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: \"I rememberMontrealand that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man.\" On November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately. While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him.The only sport this did not affect wasmen's basketball, which hadpreviously retired the numberforWalt Hazzard(althoughKevin Lovewas actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing).In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers. The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues. A jersey that Robinson brought home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at an auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017. The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey. See also References Book sources Further reading Books Articles External links" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_Major_League_Baseball_titles_leaders (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b930b3f70>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Willie Mays Major League Baseball Willie Howard Mays Jr.(May 6, 1931 – June 18, 2024), nicknamed \"the Say Hey Kid\", was an American professionalbaseball center fielderwho played 23 seasons inMajor League Baseball(MLB). Widely regarded as one of the greatest players of all time, Mays was afive-tool playerwho began his career in theNegro leagues, playing for theBirmingham Black Barons, and spent the rest of his career in theNational League(NL), playing for theNew York/San Francisco GiantsandNew York Mets. Born inWestfield, Alabama, Mays was an all-around athlete. He joined the Black Barons of theNegro American Leaguein 1948, playing with them until the Giants signed him upon his graduation from high school in 1950. He debuted in MLB with the Giants and won theRookie of the Year Awardin 1951 after hitting 20home runsto help the Giants win their first pennant in 14 years. In 1954, he won the NLMost Valuable Player (MVP) Award, leading the Giants to their last World Series title before their move to the West", "move to the West Coast. Hisover-the-shoulder catchin Game 1 of the1954 World Seriesis one of the most famous baseball plays of all time. After the Giants moved to San Francisco, Mays went on to win another MVP Award in 1965 and also led the Giants to the1962 World Series, this time losing to theNew York Yankees. He ended his career with a return to New York after an early season trade to the New York Mets in 1972, retiring after the team's trip to the1973 World Series. He served as acoachfor the Mets for the rest of the decade before rejoining the Giants as a special assistant to the president and general manager. Mays was anAll-Star24 times, tying for the second-most appearances in history. He led the NL in home runs four times and inslugging percentagefive times whilebattingover .300 and posting 100runs batted in(RBIs) ten times each. Mays was also at the forefront of a resurgence of speed as an offensive weapon in the 1950s, leading the league instolen basesfour times,triplesthree times, andrunstwice; his", "andrunstwice; his 179 steals during the decade topped the major leagues. He was the first NL player to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 basesin the same season, the first player in history to reach both 300 home runs and 300 stolen bases, and the second player and the first right-handed hitter to hit 600 home runs. Mays also set standards for defensive brilliance, winning 12 consecutiveGold Glove Awardsafter their creation in 1957, still a record for outfielders; he led NL center fielders indouble playsfive times andassiststhree times. A classic example of afive-tool player, Mays finished his career with a .302 batting average. At the time of his retirement, he held the NL record for career runs scored (2,062), and ranked second in league history behindStan Musialingames played(2,992), third in home runs (660),at bats(10,881), runs batted in (1,903),total bases(6,066),extra-base hits(1,323) andwalks(1,464), fourth inhits(3,293), fifth in slugging percentage (.557), and eighth indoubles(523); his 140 triples", "his 140 triples ranked fourth among players active after 1945. He holds major league records for games as a center fielder (2,829),putouts as an outfielder(7,095), and ended his career behind onlyTy Cobbin total games as an outfielder (2,842), ranking seventh in assists (188) and third in double plays (59) in center field. Mays was elected to theBaseball Hall of Famein1979in his first year of eligibility, and was named to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Teamin 1999. Mays was awarded thePresidential Medal of Freedomby PresidentBarack Obamain 2015. Early life Willie Howard Mays Jr. was born on May 6, 1931, inWestfield, Alabama, a primarily blackcompany townnearFairfield.His father, Cat Mays, was a talented baseball player with the black team at the local iron plant.Annie Satterwhite, his mother, was a giftedhigh school basketballand track star.To his family and close friends, and later to his teammates, Mays was affectionately referred to as \"Buck.\" His parents never married and separated when Mays was", "when Mays was three.His father and two aunts, Sarah and Ernestine raised him.Sarah took young Willie to anAfrican Methodist Episcopal Churchevery Sunday.Cat Mays worked as a railway porter and later at the steel mills in Westfield. Cat exposed Willie to baseball at an early age, playing catch with him at five and allowing him to sit on the bench with his Birmingham Industrial League team at ten.His favorite baseball player growing up wasJoe DiMaggio; other favorites wereTed WilliamsandStan Musial.Mays played several sports atFairfield Industrial High School. On the basketball team, he led players at all-black high schools inJefferson Countyin scoring.Mays playedquarterback,fullbackandpunterfor thefootballteam.Though he turned 18 in 1949, Mays did not graduate from Fairfield until 1950, which journalistAllen Barracalls \"a minor mystery in Willie's life\". Professional career Negro and minor leagues Mays'sprofessional baseballcareer began in 1948 when he played briefly during the summer with theChattanooga", "with theChattanooga Choo-Choos, aNegro minor league team.Later that year, Mays joined theBirmingham Black Baronsof theNegro American League, where he was known as \"Buck\".The Black Barons were managed byPiper Davis, a teammate of Mays's father on the industrial team.When Fairfield Industrial principal E. T. Oliver threatened to suspend Mays for playing professional ball, Davis and Mays's father worked out an agreement. Mays would only play home games for the Black Barons. In return, he could still play high school football.Mays helped Birmingham advance to the1948 Negro World Series, which they lost 4–1 to theHomestead Grays. He hit .262 for the season and stood out because of his excellent fielding and base running.On May 28, 2024,Major League Baseballannounced that it had integrated Negro league statistics into its records. Several major league teams were interested in signing Mays, but they had to wait until he graduated from high school to offer him a contract. TheBoston Bravesand theBrooklyn Dodgersboth", "Dodgersboth scouted him, butNew York GiantsscoutEddie Montaguesigned him to a $4,000 contract.Mays spent the rest of 1950 with theClass BTrenton Giantsof theInterstate League, batting .353.Promoted to theTriple-AMinneapolis Millersof theAmerican Associationin 1951, he batted .477 in 35 games. New York / San Francisco Giants NL Rookie of the Year Playing excellent defense, Mays was called up by the Giants on May 24, 1951.Initially, Mays was reluctant to accept the promotion because he did not believe he was ready to face major league pitchers. Stunned, Giants managerLeo Durochercalled Mays directly and said, \"Quit costing the ball club money with long-distance phone calls and join the team.\"It was also around this time that Mays was given his famous moniker: \"The Say Hey Kid\". The Giants hoped Mays would help them defensively in center field, as well as offensively.ThePolo Groundsfeatured an unusual horseshoe shape, with relatively short left field (280 feet; 85 m) and right field (258 feet; 79 m) lines but", "79 m) lines but the deepest center field in baseball (483 feet; 147 m).Mays appeared in his first major league game on May 25 against thePhiladelphia PhilliesatShibe Park, batting third.He had no hits in his first 12 at bats in the major leagues, but in his 13th on May 28, he hit a home run offWarren Spahnover the left-field roof of the Polo Grounds.Mays went hitless in his next 12 at bats, and Durocher dropped him to eighth in the batting order on June 2, suggesting that Mays stop trying topullthe ball and just make contact.Mays responded with four hits over his next two games on June 2 and 3. By the end of the month, he had pushed his batting average to over .300.He would bat close to .290 for the rest of the season. Although his .274 average, 68 RBIs, and 20 home runs (in 121 games) would rank among the lowest totals of his career, he still won theNational League(NL)Rookie of the Year Award. On August 11, theGiantsfound themselves13+1⁄2games back of theDodgersin the NLpennant race; Brooklyn managerCharlie", "managerCharlie Dressentriumphantly predicted, \"The Giants is dead.\"However, the Giants went 40–18 in the season's final 58 games, winning their last seven of the year to finish the regular season tied with the Dodgers.During the pennant race, Mays's fielding and strong throwing arm were instrumental in several important Giants' victories. Mays was in theon-deck circleon October 3 whenBobby Thomsonhita three-run homerto win the three-gameNL tie-breaker series2–1. The Giants met theNew York Yankeesin the1951 World Series.In Game 1, Mays,Hank Thompson, andMonte Irvincomposed the first all-black outfield in major league history. For the series, Mays hit poorly as the Giants lost the series in six games. In Game 5, he hit a consequentialfly ball, which DiMaggio and Yankee rookieMickey Mantlepursued. DiMaggio called Mantle off at the last second; as he stopped, Mantle got his cleat stuck in an open drainpipe, suffering a knee injury that would affect him the rest of his career. U.S. Army Soon after the 1951 season", "the 1951 season ended, Mays learned theUnited States Armyhaddraftedhim to serve in theKorean War.Before he left to join the Army, Mays played the first few weeks of the 1952 season with the Giants. He batted .236 with four home runs in 34 games. He surprised sportswriters likeRed Smithwhen he drew cheers from fans of the Brooklyn Dodgers, the Giants' archrivals, in his last game before reporting. After his induction into the Army on May 29, Mays reported toFort Eustisin Virginia, where he spent much of his time playing for the Fort Eustis Wheels military baseball team with (and against) other major and minor leaguers, as well as serving as an athletic instructor in the Physical Training Department.It was at Fort Eustis that Mays learned thebasket catchfrom fellow Fort Eustis outfielder Al Fortunato. Mays, by his own estimation, played 180 games for the Wheels, and missed about 275 games for the Giants because of his military service. Mays' time playing for the Wheels ended on July 28, 1953, after he chipped", "after he chipped a bone in his left foot while sliding into third base, necessitating a 6-week stint in a cast.Discharged on March 1, 1954, he reported to Giants'spring trainingcamp the following day. World Series champion and NL MVP Mays began the 1954 season onOpening Daywith a home run of over 414 feet (126 m) againstCarl Erskine.After he batted .250 in his first 20 games, Durocher moved him from third to fifth in the batting order and again encouraged him to stop attempting to pull the ball and try to get hits to right field. Mays changed his batting stance and stood straighter at the plate, keeping his feet closer together. He credited these adjustments with improving his batting average, as he batted .450 with 25 RBIs in his next 20 games.On June 25, he hit aninside-the-parkhome run in a 6–2 victory over theChicago Cubs.Mays was selected for the NLAll-Star team; he would be part of 24 straight NL All-Star teams over 20 seasons.Mays became the first player in history to hit 30 home runs before the", "runs before the All-Star Game.He had 36 home runs through July 28. Around that time, Durocher asked him to stop trying to hit them, explaining the team wanted him to reach base more often.Mays hit only five home runs after July 28 but upped his batting average from .326 to .345 to win the team's first batting title sinceBill Terry's in 1930.Hitting 41 home runs, Mays won the NLMost Valuable Player Awardand theHickok Belt. The Giants won theNL pennantand the1954 World Series, sweeping theCleveland Indiansin four games.The 1954 series is perhaps best remembered for \"The Catch\", an over-the-shoulder running grab by Mays of a long drive off the bat ofVic Wertzabout 425 feet (130 m) from home plate at the Polo Grounds during the eighth inning of Game 1. The catch prevented two Indians' runners from scoring, preserving a tie game. \"The Catch transcended baseball\" Barra wrote, and Larry Schwartz ofESPNsaid of all the catches that Mays made, \"it is regarded as his greatest\".Mays did not even look at the ball for the", "at the ball for the last twenty feet as he ran, saying later he realized he had to keep running if he was going to get the ball.The Giants won the game in the 10th inning on a three-run home run byDusty Rhodes, with Mays scoring the winning run. Mays addedbase stealingto his talents, upping his total from eight in 1954 to 24 in 1955. In the middle of May, Durocher asked him to try for more home runs.Mays led the league with 51 but finished fourth in NL MVP voting.Leading the league with a .659slugging percentage, Mays batted .319 as the Giants finished in third.During the last game of the season, Durocher, who had supported Mays since his career had begun, told him he would not be returning as the Giants manager. When Mays responded, \"But Mr. Leo, it's going to be different with you gone. You won't be here to help me,\" Durocher told his star, \"Willie Mays doesn't need help from anyone.\" New manager In 1956, Mays struggled at first to get along with new managerBill Rigney, who publicly criticized him.The", "criticized him.The center fielder grew particularly annoyed after Rigney fined him $100 for not running to first base on a pop fly that was caught by the catcher. He hit 36 homers and stole a career-high 40 bases, becoming only the second player to join the30–30 club.Though his RBIs (84) and batting average (.296) were his lowest for nearly a decade, Barra observed that \"Willie Mays was still the best all-around player in the National League.\" The relationship between Mays and Rigney improved in 1957. Rigney stopped giving Mays as much direction, trusting his star player's ability and instinct.In his 2010 authorized biography of Mays,James S. Hirschwrote Mays had \"one of his most exhilarating excursions\" on April 21. In the game against the Phillies, Mays reached second base on an error, stole third, and scored the winning run on aHank Sauersingle, all on plays close enough that he had to slide to make each one.He stole home in a 4–3 loss to the Cubs on May 21.The 1957 season was the first in which theGold", "in which theGold GloveAwards were presented. Mays won the first of 12 consecutive Gold Gloves for his play in center field. He finished in the NL's top-five in a variety of offensive categories: runs scored (112, third) batting average (.333, second), and home runs (35, fourth). In 1957, Mays became the fourth player in major league history to join the20–20–20 club(doubles, triples, homers). He stole 38 bases that year, making him the second 20–20–20 club member (afterFrank Schultein 1911) to steal at least 20 bases. This gave him his second straight 30–30 club season. Dwindling attendance and the desire for a new ballpark prompted the Giants to move to San Francisco following the 1957 season.In the final Giants' home game at the Polo Grounds on September 29, 1957, fans gave Mays a standing ovation in the middle of his final at bat, after Pirates' pitcherBob Friendhad already thrown a pitch to him. Move to San Francisco In 1958, Rigney wanted Mays to challengeBabe Ruth's record of 60 home runs in a season.", "runs in a season. Consequently, Rigney did not play Mays much in spring training hoping to use his best hitter every day of the regular season.As he had in 1954, Mays vied for the NL batting title until the final game of the season. Moved to the leadoff slot the last day to increase his at bats, Mays collected three hits in the game to finish with a career-high .347, but Philadelphia'sRichie Ashburnbatted .350.Mays shared the inauguralNL Player of the Month awardwith Stan Musial in May, batting .405 with 12 home runs and 29 runs batted in; he won a second award in September (.434, 4 home runs, 18 RBIs).He played in all but two games, hitting only 29 home runs. Horace Stoneham, the Giants' owner, made Mays the highest-paid player in baseball with a $75,000 contract for 1959.Mays had his first serious injury in 1959, a collision withSammy Whitein spring training that resulted in 35 stitches in his leg, but he was ready by the start of the season.Against the Reds in August, Mays broke a finger but kept it a", "but kept it a secret to prevent opposing pitchers from targeting it.In September 1959, the Giants led the NL pennant race by two games with only eight games to play, but a sweep by the Dodgers began a stretch of six losses in those final games, dooming them to a third-place finish. Mays had hits in three out of 10 at bats in the Dodger series but some San Francisco fans still booed him.In 1959, Mays batted .313 with 34 home runs and 113 RBIs, leading the league in stolen bases for the fourth year in a row. After spending their first two years in San Francisco atSeals Stadium, the Giants moved into the newCandlestick Parkin 1960. Initially, the stadium was expected to be conducive to home runs, but unpredictable winds affected Mays's power, and he hit only 12 at home in 1960.He found the stadium tricky to field but figured out how to play it as the season progressed. When a fly ball was hit, he would count to five before giving pursuit, enabling him to judge the wind's effect.He hit two home runs on June 24", "runs on June 24 and stole home in a 5–3 victory over theCincinnati Reds.On September 15, he tied an NL record with threetriplesin an 11-inning, 8–6 win over the Phillies.\"I don't like to talk about 1960,\" Mays said after the final game of a season in which the Giants, pre-season favorites for the pennant, finished fifth out of eight NL teams.For the second time in three years, he only hit 29 home runs, but he led the NL with 190 hits and drove in 103 runs, batting .319 and stealing 25 bases. Alvin Darkwas hired to manage the Giants before the start of the 1961 season, and the improving Giants finished in third place.Mays had one of his best games on April 30, 1961,hitting four home runsand driving in eight runs against theMilwaukee BravesatCounty Stadium.According to Mays, he had been unsure if he would even play because of food poisoning.Each of his home runs traveled over 400 feet (120 m). While Mantle andRoger Marispursued Babe Ruth's single-season home run record in the AL, Mays andOrlando Cepedabattled", "Cepedabattled for the home run lead in the NL.Mays trailed Cepeda by two home runs at the end of August (34 as opposed to 36), but Cepeda outhit him 10–6 in September to finish with 46, while Mays finished with 40.Mays led the league with 129 runs scored and batted .308 with 123 RBIs. 1962 pennant race Though he had continued to play at a high level since coming to San Francisco, Mays endured booing from the San Francisco fans during his first four seasons in California. Barra speculates this may have been because San Francisco fans were comparing Mays unfavorably with Joe DiMaggio, the most famous center fielder ever to come from San Francisco.Hal Wood mentioned the DiMaggio theory, as well as two other explanations: 1) the fans had heard so many wonderful things about Mays's play in New York that they expected him to be a better player than he actually was, and 2) Mays tended to keep to himself.Mays said in 1959 that he did not mind the booing, but he admitted in a 1961 article that the catcalls were", "the catcalls were bothering him.Whatever the reason, the boos, which had begun to subside after Mays's four–home-run game in 1961, grew even quieter in 1962, as the Giants enjoyed their best season since moving to San Francisco. Mays led the team in eight offensive categories in 1962: runs (130), doubles (36), home runs (49), RBIs (141), stolen bases (18), walks (78),on-base percentage(.384), and slugging percentage (.613).He finished second in NL MVP voting toMaury Wills, who had brokenTy Cobb's record for stolen bases in a season.On September 30, Mays hit a game-winning home run in the Giants' final regularly scheduled game of the year, forcing the team into a tie for first place with theLos Angeles Dodgers.The Giants faced the Dodgers in athree-game playoff series. With the Giants trailing 4–2 in the top of the ninth inning of Game 3, Mays hit an RBI single, eventually scoring as the Giants took a 6–4 lead. With two outs in the bottom of the inning,Lee Wallshit a fly ball to center field, which Mays", "field, which Mays caught for the final out as the Giants advanced to theWorld Seriesagainst the Yankees. In Game 1 of the World Series, a 6–2 loss to New York, Mays recorded three hits. He would bat merely .250 in the series overall.The Series went all the way to a Game 7, which the Yankees led 1–0 in the bottom of the ninth.Matty Alouled off the inning with a bunt single but was still at first two outs later when Mays came up with the Giants one out from elimination. Batting againstRalph Terry, he hit a ball into the right-field corner that might have been deep enough to score Alou, but Giants third base coachWhitey Lockmanopted to hold Alou at third. The next batter, McCovey, hit a line drive that was caught byBobby Richardson, and the Yankees won the deciding game 1–0.It was Mays's last World Series appearance as a Giant.Mays reveled in the fact that he had finally won the support of San Francisco fans; \"It only took them five years,\" he later said. Record-setting contract Before the 1963 season, Mays", "1963 season, Mays signed a contract worth a record-setting $105,000 per season (equivalent to $1,040,000 in 2023).On July 2, when Spahn andJuan Marichaleach threw 15 scoreless innings, Mays hit a 16th-inning home run off Spahn, giving the Giants a 1–0 victory.He considered the home run one of his most important, along with his first and the four-home-run game.In August, he won his third NL Player of the Month Award after batting .387 with eight home runs and 27 RBIs.He hit his 400th home run on August 27 against theSt. Louis Cardinals, the tenth player to reach that mark. Mays finished the 1963 season batting .314 with 38 home runs and 103 RBIs, stealing only eight bases, his fewest since 1954. Normally the third batter in the lineup, Mays was moved to fourth in 1964 before returning to third in subsequent years.On May 21, Dark named Mays the Giants' captain, making Mays the first African-American captain of an MLB team. \"You deserve it,\" Dark told Mays. \"You should have had it long before this.\"Against the", "this.\"Against the Phillies on September 4, Mays made what Hirsch called \"one of the most acrobatic catches of his career\".Rubén Amaro Sr.hit a ball to the scoreboard at Philadelphia'sConnie Mack Stadium. Mays, who had been playing closer to home plate than normal, ran at top speed after the ball. He caught it in midair and had to kick his legs forward to keep his head from hitting the ballpark's fence, but he held on to the ball. While he batted under .300 (.296) for the first time since 1956, he led the NL with 47 home runs and ranked second with 121 runs scored and 111 RBIs. Second NL MVP A torn shoulder muscle sustained in a 1965 game against the Atlanta Braves impaired Mays's ability to throw. He kept the injury a secret from opposing players, making two or three practice throws before games to discourage them from running on him.On August 22, Mays acted as a peacemaker during a14-minute brawl between the Giants and Dodgersafter Marichal had bloodied Dodgers catcherJohn Roseborowith a bat.Mays grabbed", "a bat.Mays grabbed Roseboro by the waist and helped him off the field, then tackledLou Johnsonto keep him from attacking an umpire.Johnson kicked him in the head and nearly knocked him out. After the brawl, Mays hit a game-winning three-run home run againstSandy Koufax, but he did not finish the game, feeling dizzy after the home run. Mays won his fourth and final NL Player of the Month award in August 1965 (.363, 17 home runs, 29 RBIs).On September 13, he hit his500th career home runoffDon Nottebart, becoming the fifth player to reach the mark. Warren Spahn, off whom Mays hit his first career home run, was now his teammate. After the home run, Spahn asked him, \"Was it anything like the same feeling?\" Mays replied, \"It was exactly the same feeling. Same pitch, too.\"The next night, Mays hit one that he considered his most dramatic. With the Giants trailing theHouston Astrosby two runs with two outs in the ninth, Mays swung and missed atClaude Raymond's first two pitches, took three balls to load the count,", "to load the count, and fouled off three pitches before homering on the ninth pitch. The Giants won 6–5 in 10 innings.Mays won his second MVP award in 1965 behind a career-high 52 home runs, in what Barra said \"may very well have his best year\".He batted .317, leading the NL in on-base percentage (.400) and slugging percentage (.645). The span of 11 years between his MVP awards was the longest gap of any major leaguer who attained the distinction more than once, as were the 10 years between his50 home run seasons.He scored 118 runs, the 12th year in a row he had scored at least 100 runs in a season. Mays tiedMel Ott's NL record of 511 home runs on April 24, 1966, against the Astros. After that, he went for nine days without a home run. \"I started thinking home run every time I got up,\" Mays explained the slump.He finally set the record May 4.Despite nursing an injured thigh muscle on September 7, Mays reached base in the 11th inning of a game against the Dodgers with two outs, then attempted to score from", "to score from first base on aFrank Johnsonsingle. On a close play, umpireTony Venzoninitially ruled him out, then changed the call when he saw Roseboro had dropped the ball after Mays collided with him. San Francisco won 3–2.Mays finished third in the NL MVP voting, the ninth and final time he finished in the top five in the voting for the award.He batted .288 with 99 runs scored, 37 home runs, and 103 runs batted in; by season's end, only Babe Ruth had hit more home runs (714 to 542). Player of the Decade Mays had 13 home runs and 44 RBIs through his first 75 games of 1967 but then went into a slump.On June 7,Gary Nolanof the Cincinnati Reds struck him out four times; this was the first time in his career this had happened, though the Giants still won the game 4–3.Afflicted by a fever on July 14, Mays left that day's game after the sixth inning because of fatigue and spent five days in a hospital. \"After I got back into the lineup, I never felt strong again for the rest of the season,\" he recalled.In 141", "he recalled.In 141 games, Mays hit .263 with 83 runs scored, 128 hits, and 22 home runs. He had only 70 RBIs for the year, the first time since 1958 he had failed to reach 100. Before a game in Houston on May 6, 1968, Astros ownerRoy Hofheinzpresented Mays with a 569-pound birthday cake for his 37th birthday—the pounds represented every home run Mays had hit in his career. After sharing some of it with his teammates, Mays sent the rest to theTexas Children's Hospital.He played 148 games and upped his batting average to .289, accumulating 84 runs scored, 144 hits, 23 home runs, and 79 runs batted in.In 1969, new Giants' managerClyde Kingmoved Mays to theleadoff positionin the batting lineup because Mays was hitting fewer home runs.Mays privately chafed at the move, later comparing it to \"O. J. Simpsonblocking for the fullback\".He injured his knee in a collision with catcherRandy Hundleyon July 29, forcing him to miss several games.On September 22, he hit his 600th home run, saying later, \"Winning the game was", "the game was more important to me than any individual achievements.\"In 117 games, he batted .283 with 13 home runs and 58 runs batted in. TheSporting Newsnamed Mays the 1960s \"Player of the Decade\" in January 1970.In an April game, Mays collided withBobby Bondswhile reaching his glove over the wall but made a catch to robBobby Tolanof a home run.Mays picked up his3,000th hitagainst theMontreal Exposon July 18.\"I don't feel excitement about this now,\" he told reporters afterwards. \"The main thing I wanted to do was helpGaylord Perrywin a game.\" In 139 games, Mays batted .291 with 94 runs scored, 28 home runs, and 83 RBIs.He scheduled his off days that season to avoid facingstrikeoutpitchers such asBob GibsonorTom Seaver. Later years with the Giants Though center field remained his primary position in 1971, Mays played 48 games at first base.He got off to a fast start in 1971, the year he turned 40.Against the Mets on May 31, he hit a game-tying eighth-inning home run, saved multiple runs with his defense at", "with his defense at first base, and performed a strategic base-running maneuver with one out in the 11th inning, running slowly from second to third base to draw a throw fromTim Foliand allowAl Gallagherto reach first safely. Evading Foli's tag on the return throw to third, Mays scored the winning run on a sacrifice fly.He had 15 home runs and a .290 average at the All-Star break but faded down the stretch, only hitting three home runs and batting .241 for the rest of the year.One reason he hit so few home runs was that Mays walked 112 times, 30 more times than he had at any point in his career. This was partly becauseWillie McCovey, who often batted behind Mays in the lineup, missed several games with injuries, causing pitchers to pitch carefully to Mays so they could concentrate on getting less-skilled hitters out.Subsequently, Mays led the league in on-base percentage (.425) for only the second time, though his 123 strikeouts were a career-high. He batted .271 and stole 23 bases. The Giants won theNL", "Giants won theNL Westin 1971, returning Mays to the playoffs for the first time since 1962.In theNL Championship Series(NLCS) against the Pirates, Mays had a home run and three RBIs in the first two games. In Game 3, Mays attempted an unsuccessfulsacrifice buntin a 1–1 tie in the sixth with no outs andTito Fuenteson second base, a move that surprised reporters covering the game. The Giants lost 2–1. \"I was thinking of the best way to get the run in,\" Mays explained the bunt, pointing out that McCovey and Bonds were due up next. The Giants lost the series in four games.After the season, Mays was honored as the winner of the inauguralRoberto Clemente Award, known at that time as the Commissioner's Award. Mays got off to a tortuous start to the 1972 season, batting .184 through his first 19 games. Before the season began, he had asked Stoneham for a 10-year contract with the Giants organization, intending to serve in an off-the-field capacity with them once his playing career was over.The Giants organization", "Giants organization was having financial troubles, and Mays had to settle for a two-year, $330,000 contract.Mays quibbled with managerCharlie Fox, leaving the stadium before the start of a doubleheader on April 30 without telling him. New York Mets On May 11, 1972, Mays was traded to the New York Mets for pitcherCharlie Williamsand an undisclosed amount rumored to be $100,000. The Mets agreed to keep his salary at $165,000 a year for 1972 and 1973, promising to pay Mays $50,000 a year for 10 years after he retired. Mays had remained popular in New York, and ownerJoan Paysonhad long wanted to bring him back to his major league roots.In his Mets debut against the Giants on May 14, Mays put New York ahead to stay with a fifth-inning home run, receiving ecstatic applause from the fans atShea Stadium.Mays appeared in 88 games for the Mets in 1972, batting .250 in 244 at bats with eight home runs. In 1973, Mays showed up a day late to spring training, then left in the middle of it without notifying managerYogi", "managerYogi Berrabeforehand. He was fined $1,000 upon returning; a sportswriter joked half the fine was for leaving, half was for returning.Things did not improve as the season began; Mays spent time on the disabled list early in the year and left the park before a game when he found out Berra had not put his name in the starting lineup. His speed and powerful arm in the outfield, assets throughout his career, were diminished in 1973, and he only made the All-Star team because of a special intervention by NL PresidentChub Feeney. However, the Mets won theNL East. On August 17, 1973, Mays hit his final (660th) home run against the Reds'Don Gullett.Having considered retirement all year, Mays finally told the Mets officially on September 9 that 1973 would be his last season.He made the announcement to the public on September 20. \"I thought I'd be crying by now,\" he told reporters and Mets' executives at a press conference that day, \"but I see so many people here who are my friends, I can't...Baseball and me, we", "and me, we had what you might call a love affair.\"Five days later, the Mets honored him on Willie Mays Night, proclaimed by New York City mayorJohn Lindsay, where he thanked the New York fans and said goodbye to baseball.In 66 games, Mays batted a career-low .211 with six home runs. Against the Reds in theNLCS, Mays helped restore order in Game 3 after Mets fans began throwing trash atPete Rosefollowing a brawl Rose had started withBud Harrelson.Game 5 was the only one Mays played; he had a pinch-hit RBI single as the Mets won 7–2, clinching a trip to the1973 World Seriesagainst theOakland Athletics, October 13–21.A shoulder injury toRusty Staubprompted the Mets to shiftDon Hahnto right field and start Mays in center at the start of the Series.He stumbled four times in the first two games, including a fielding error in Game 2 that allowed the Athletics to tie the game and force extra innings.Mays's last hit came later in the same game, an RBI single againstRollie Fingersthat snapped a 7–7 tie in the 12th", "7–7 tie in the 12th inning of a 10–7 victory.His final at bat came in Game 3, on October 16, 1973, where he pinch-hit forTug McGrawand grounded into aforce play.The Mets lost the series in seven games. All-Star Games Mays's 24 appearances on an All-Star Game roster are tied with Musial for second all-time, behind onlyHank Aaron's 25.He \"strove for All-Star glory\" according to Hirsch, taking the game seriously in his desire to support his NL teammates.In thefirst All-Star Game of 1959, Mays hit a game-winning triple againstWhitey Ford;Bob Stevensof theSan Francisco Chroniclewrote that \"Harvey Kuenngave it honest pursuit, but the only center fielder in baseball who could have caught it hit it.\" Mays scored the winning run in the bottom of the 10th inning of thefirst All-Star Game of 1961on a Clemente single in a 5–4 win for the NL.AtCleveland Stadiumin the1963 All-Star Game, he made the finest catch, snagging his foot under a wire fence in center field as he grasped a long fly ball hit byJoe Pepitonethat might", "Pepitonethat might have given the AL the lead. The NL won 5–3, and Mays was named theAll-Star Game MVP. With a leadoff home run againstMilt Pappasin the1965 All-Star Game, Mays set a record for most hits in his All-Star Games (21).Mays led off the1968 All-Star Gamewith a single, moved to second on an error, advanced to third base on a wild pitch, and scored the only run of the game when McCovey hit into a double play; for his contributions, Mays won the All-Star Game MVP Award for the second time. Mays individually holds the records for most at bats (75), hits (23), runs scored (20), and stolen bases (six) by an All-Star; additionally, he is tied with Musial for the most extra-base hits (eight) and total bases (40), and he is tied withBrooks Robinsonfor the most triples (three) in All-Star Game history.In appreciation of his All-Star records, Ted Williams said, \"They invented the All-Star Game for Willie Mays.\" Barnstorming During the first part of his career, Mays often participated inbarnstormingtours", "inbarnstormingtours after his regular season with the Giants ended. Teams of star players would travel from city to city playing exhibition games for local fans. Following his rookie year, Mays went on a barnstorming tour with an All-Star team assembled by Campanella, playing in Negro League stadiums around the southern United States.From 1955 through 1958, Mays led Willie Mays' All-Stars, a team composed of such stars as Irvin, Thompson, Aaron,Frank Robinson,Junior Gilliam,Brooks Lawrence,Sam Jones, andJoe Black. The team traveled around the southern United States the first two years, attaining crowds of about 5,000 in 1955 but drawing less than 1,000 in 1956, partly because of the advent of television. In 1957, the team went to Mexico, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic, drawing 117,766 fans in 15 games, 14 of which were won by Mays's team. They played 20 games in Mexico in 1958. Mays did not lead a team in 1959; Stoneham wanted him to rest because he was suffering from a broken finger.In 1960, Mays", "1960, Mays also did not barnstorm, but he and the Giants did go to Tokyo, playing an exhibition series of 16 games against theYomiuri Giants. Though teams of black All-Stars assembled those two seasons, they drew fewer fans and opted not to assemble in 1961, when Mays again decided not to barnstorm.The tradition soon died out, as the expansion of the major leagues, the increased televising of major league games, and the emergence of professionalfootballhad siphoned interest away from the offseason exhibition games. Player profile The batting stance Mays employed showed the influence of one of his childhood favorites, Joe DiMaggio. Like his hero, Mays would stand with his legs spread apart, placing the same amount of weight on both while holding the bat high. His right thumb would stick out in the air as he waited for pitches, but he wrapped it around the bat as he swung. Mays believed this late motion added power when he swung.Mays channeled his energies into the swing by abstaining from extra motion and", "extra motion and opening his hips. \"If there was a machine to measure each swing of a bat,\"Branch Rickeysuggested, \"it would be proven that Mays swings with more power and bat speed, pitch for pitch, than any other player.\"His focus extended to his antics, or lack thereof, at the plate; Mays did not rub dirt on his hands or stroll around the batter's box like some hitters did.Naturally more of a pull hitter, Mays adjusted his style in 1954 to hit more to right and center field in a quest for a higher batting average at his manager's request, but the change was not permanent.When the Giants moved to Candlestick Park, Mays found that pulling the ball worked better at home but hitting to right and center worked better on the road; he tried to adjust his style depending on where he was playing. Defensively, Mays was one of the best outfielders of all time, as evidenced by his record 12 Gold Gloves as an outfielder.His signature play was his \"basket catch,\" the technique that displayed Mays's stylistic flash as", "stylistic flash as opposed to the pure raw skill that was on display when he made \"The Catch\" in the 1954 World Series.Holding his glove around his belly, he would keep his palm turned up, enabling the ball to fall right into his glove. Sportswriters have argued about whether the technique made him a better fielder or just made him more exciting to watch, but the basket catch did not prevent Mays from setting a record with 7,095 outfieldputouts.Koppett observes, \"His range was limitless, and his arm so strong that he could make effective throws from the most unlikely locations and from the most unlikely body positions.\"That range allowed him to play a shallow center and prevent shallow singles, while still being able to get back and not let extra-base hits get over his head. Mays's flashy style of play stemmed partly from his days in the Negro leagues. \"We were all entertainers,\" he said, \"and my job was to give the fans something to talk about each game.\" Sometimes he would deliberately slip to the ground", "slip to the ground for catches to make them look tougher than they really were.He wore his cap one size larger than necessary so that it would fly off when he was running the bases or making fielding plays.Though he was a powerful hitter, he had a knack for stealing bases. He ran the bases daringly, becoming the only modern player to score from first base on a single to left field, and another time scoring from first base on a McCovey bunt (without an error). Assessment and legacy On January 23, 1979, Mays was elected to theBaseball Hall of Famein his first year of eligibility. He garnered 409 of the 432 ballots cast (94.68%).Referring to the other 23 voters,New York Daily NewscolumnistDick Youngwrote, \"If Jesus Christ were to show up with his old baseball glove, some guys wouldn't vote for him. Hedropped the cross three times, didn't he?\"In his induction speech, Mays said: What can I say? This country is made up of a great many things. You can grow up to be what you want. I chose baseball, and I loved every", "and I loved every minute of it. I give you one word—love. It means dedication. You have to sacrifice many things to play baseball. I sacrificed a bad marriage and I sacrificed a good marriage. But I'm here today because baseball is my number one love. In 1999, Mays placed second onThe Sporting News's \"List of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players\", trailing only Babe Ruth.Later that year, fans elected him to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team.In 2020,The Athleticranked Mays at number 1 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, compiled by sportswriterJoe Posnanski.In 2022,MLB.comwriters voted Mays as being the greatest player in Giants franchise history. Fellow players and coaches recognized his talent.Roberto Clementesaid of Mays: \"To me, Willie Mays is the greatest who ever played.\"Willie Stargelllearned the hard way how good Mays's arm was when the center fielder threw him out in a game in 1965. \"I couldn't believe Mays could throw that far. I figured there had to be a relay. Then I found out there wasn't. He's too", "wasn't. He's too good for this world.\"\"If somebody came up and hit .450, stole 100 bases and performed a miracle in the field every day, I'd still look you in the eye and say Willie was better,\" Durocher said.\"All I can say is that he is the greatest player I ever saw, bar none,\" was Rigney's assessment.When Mays was the only player elected to the Hall of Fame in 1979,Duke Snider, who finished second in voting that year, said, \"Willie really more or less deserves to be in by himself.\"Don Zimmerremarked, \"In the National League in the 1950s, there were two opposing players who stood out over all the others — Stan Musial and Willie Mays. ... I've always said that Willie Mays was the best player I ever saw. ... e could have been an All-Star at any position.\"TeammateFelipe Alousaid, \" is number one, without a doubt. ... nyone who played with him or against him would agree that he is the best.\"Al Rosenremembered \"...you had the feeling you were playing against someone who was going to be the greatest of all", "the greatest of all time.\" Throughout his career, Mays maintained he did not specifically try to set records, but he ranks among baseball's leaders in many categories.Third in home runs with 660 when he retired, he stillranks sixthas of February 2024.His 2,062runs scoredrank seventh, and his 1,903 runs batted inrank 12thas of June 2021. Mays batted .301 in his career and his 3,293 hitsare the12th-most of any playeras of June 2021. His 2,992 games played are the ninth-highest total of any major leaguer as of June 2021. He stole 338 bases in his career.By the end of his career, Mays had won a Gold Glove Award 12 times, a record for outfielders today (shared by Roberto Clemente). He is baseball's all-time leader in outfield putouts (7,095), and he played 2,842 games as an outfielder, a total exceeded only by Cobb (2,934) andBarry Bonds(2,874).Mays's 24 appearances on an All-Star Game roster are tied with Musial for second all-time, behind only Aaron's 25.He holds individually the All-Star Game records for most", "records for most at bats (75), hits (23), runs scored (20), and stolen bases (six); additionally, he is tied with Musial for the most extra-base hits (eight) and total bases (40), and he is tied with Brooks Robinson for the most triples (three) in All-Star Game history. Mays's 156.2Wins Above Replacement(WAR) ranks fifth all-time, and third amongposition players(trailing Barry Bonds' 162.8 and Ruth's 162.1).He led NL position players in WAR for 10 seasons, and led the league inon-base plus slugging(OPS) five times, ranking 26th all time with a .941 mark.SabermetricianBill Jamesthinks Mays was the best centerfielder of all time, naming him the best in the major leagues in the 1950s and the 1960s.David Schoenfield of ESPN, James and Barra all think he should have won the NL MVP Award at least seven times.\"He was one of the best fielders of all time,\" David Schoenfield wrote, noting Mays has the eighth-most fielding runs saved (a sabermetric stat) of all time.Barra claimed in 2004, \"Most modern fans would pick", "fans would pick Willie Mays as the best all-around player in the second half of the twentieth century.\"SportscasterCurt Gowdysaid of Mays, \"Willie Mays was the best player I ever saw. He did everything well.\" Sudden collapses plagued Mays sporadically throughout his career, which occasionally led to hospital stays. He attributed them to his style of play. \"My style was always to go all out, whether I played four innings or nine. That's how I played all my life, and I think that's the reason I would suddenly collapse from exhaustion or nervous energy or whatever it was called.\" At thePittsburgh drug trialsin 1985, former Mets teammateJohn Milnertestified Mays kept a bottle of liquid amphetamine in his locker at Shea Stadium. Milner had never seen Mays use amphetamines, and Mays denied having taken drugs during his career.\"I really didn't need anything,\" Mays said. \"My problem was if I could stay on the field. I would go to the doctor and would say to the doctor, 'Hey, I need something to keep me going. Could", "me going. Could you give me some sort of vitamin?' I don't know what they put in there, and I never asked him a question about anything.\"Hirsch wrote \"It would be naïve to think Mays never took amphetamines\" but admits that Mays's amphetamine use has never been proven, calling Mays \"the most famous player who supposedly took amphetamines\". Cultural effect Along with Mantle (of the Yankees) and Snider (of the Dodgers), Mays was part of a triumvirate of center fielders from the New York teams of the 1950s who would be elected to the Hall of Fame. The three were often the subject of debates among the New York fans as to who was the best center fielder in the city. Mays was a popular figure inHarlem, New York's predominantly black neighborhood and the home of the Polo Grounds. Magazine photographers were fond of chronicling his participation in localstickballgames with kids, which he played two to three nights a week during homestands until his first marriage in 1956.In the urban game of hitting a rubber ball", "a rubber ball with an adapted broomstick handle, Mays could hit a shot that measured \"five sewers\" (the distance of six consecutive New York City manhole covers), nearly 450 feet (140 m). Unlike other black athletes such asJackie Robinson, Mays tended to remain silent on racial issues, refraining from public complaints about discriminatory practices that affected him.Robinson once accused him and some of his teammates of not doing enough for thecivil rights movement.Hank Aaron wished Mays had spoken out more on racial issues. Mays believed his job was to play baseball, not talk about social issues. \"I'm a ballplayer. I am not a politician or a writer or a historian. I can do best for my people by doing what I do best.\" Post-playing career After Mays retired as a player, he remained in the New York Mets organization as their hitting instructor until the end of the 1979 season.Mays missed several appointments during these years and was often absent from Mets games. WhenJoe McDonaldbecame the Mets'general", "the Mets'general managerin 1975, he threatened to fire Mays for this.Baseball CommissionerBowie Kuhnand Mays's lawyer intervened, and the Mets agreed to keep him, as long as he stayed at home games for at least four innings.During his time with the Mets,Lee Mazzillilearned the basket catch from him. In October 1979, Mays took a job at theBally's Park Placecasino inAtlantic City,New Jersey. While there, he served as a special assistant to the casino's president and as a greeter. After being told by Kuhn that he could not be part of both baseball and a casino, Mays terminated his contract with the Mets, and he was banned from baseball. Kuhn was concerned about gambling infiltrating baseball, but Hirsch points out that Mays's role was merely as a greeter, he was not allowed to place bets at the casino as part of his contract, and the casino did not engage in sports betting.In 1985, less than a year after replacing Kuhn as commissioner,Peter Ueberrothdecided to allow Mays to return to baseball. At a press", "At a press conference with Mays and Mantle (reinstated from a similar suspension), Ueberroth said, \"I am bringing back two players who are more a part of baseball than perhaps anyone else.\" Mays was named special assistant to the president and general manager of the Giants in 1986.He signed a lifetime contract with the team in 1993 and helped to muster public enthusiasm for buildingPac Bell Park, which opened in 2000.Mays founded a charity, the Say Hey Foundation, which promotes youth baseball.The Giants retired Mays's number 24 in May 1972.Oracle Park, their stadium, is at 24 Willie Mays Plaza. In front of the main entrance is a nine-foot-tall (2.74 m)statue of Mays, who had a private box at the stadium. When the Giants dedicated aWall of Fameto their greatest players in 2008, Mays became part of its inaugural class. At a special ceremony during the Mets' 60th anniversary Old-Timer's Game on August 27, 2022, the team announced that, pursuant to a promise Mets' ownerJoan Paysonhad made to Mays when she", "to Mays when she traded for him in 1972, they were following the Giants in retiring Mays's number 24. Mays became the 14th person (player or manager) to have their number retired by two teams. Special honors, media appearances Mays met with several United States presidents. DuringGerald Ford's administration in 1976, he was invited to the White House state dinner honoringQueen Elizabeth II.He was the Tee Ball Commissioner at the 2006White House Tee Ball Initiativeon July 30, 2006, duringGeorge W. Bush's presidency.On July 14, 2009, he accompaniedBarack ObamatoSt. LouisaboardAir Force Oneforthat year's All-Star Game.Six years later, Obama honored Mays with thePresidential Medal of Freedom. In September 2017, Major League Baseball renamed theWorld Series MVP Awardthe Willie Mays World Series MVP Award.Though Mays never went to college, he was awarded honorary degrees byYale University,Dartmouth College, andSan Francisco State University. Mays made many appearances on film and television.He made multiple", "made multiple appearances as the mystery guest on the long-running game showWhat's My Line?Through a friendship withTony OwenandDonna Reed, he was able to appear in three episodes ofThe Donna Reed Show.During the 1960s, he appeared on shows includingThe Dating GameandBewitched.NBC-TVaired an hour-long documentary titledA Man Named Maysin 1963, telling the story of the ballplayer's life.In 1972, Mays voiced himself in the animated fictional specialWillie Mays and the Say-Hey Kid, produced byRankin/BassProductions.Charles M. Schulz's comic stripPeanutsmentioned Mays numerous times.The plot of theStar Trek: Deep Space Nineepisode \"In the Cards\" (aired 1997, story set in 2373) centers on the son of Captain Sisko (a noted baseball aficionado) attempting to obtain as a gift for his father a vintage 1951 Willie Mays rookie card. Many popular songs reference Mays.The Treniersrecorded a famous song called \"Say Hey (The Willie Mays Song)\" in 1954, in which Mays himself participated in the recording.\"Centerfield\"", "byJohn Fogerty, which is often played at major and minor league stadiums, mentions Mays, Cobb, and DiMaggio.Another well-known song which mentions Mays is \"Talkin' Baseball (Willie, Mickey & The Duke)\" byTerry Cashman(1981), which refers to the three great New York City center fielders of the 1950s. Personal life Mays became the third husband of Marghuerite Wendell Chapman (1926–2010) in 1956. The couple adopted a five-day-old baby named Michael in 1959.They separated in 1962 and divorced in 1963, with Marghuerite taking Michael for the majority of the time. Eight years later, Mays married Mae Louise Allen, a child-welfare worker in San Francisco.Wilt Chamberlainhad given Mays her phone number in 1961, and they dated off and on the next several years.In 1997, she was diagnosed withAlzheimer's disease; Mays cared for her until her death on April 19, 2013. Mays was the godfather of Barry Bonds, whose father, Bobby Bonds, was a friend of his when they were Giants teammates. Glaucomaforced Mays to stop driving a", "to stop driving a car and playing golf after 2005.In 2018, blind sportswriterEd Lucaswrote that Mays had told him a \"few years ago\" that he had actually gone blind.However, James S. Hirsch wrote inThe New York Timesin 2021, on the occasion of his 90th birthday, that his vision was merely \"compromised\" by glaucoma and that he was still able to watch games on television, albeit with difficulty. In 1957, when the New York Giants moved to San Francisco, Mays placed an offer on a home in the exclusive Sherwood Forest neighborhood. The seller refused his offer after neighbors complained about a Black family moving to the area. Near the end of his life, Mays resided inAtherton, California, with his personal assistant and a caretaker. Death Mays died of heart failure at a care home inPalo Alto, California, on June 18, 2024, at the age of 93.The day before, he had released his final public statement when he said he chose to stay in California and not attend theMLB at Rickwood Fieldgame between", "Fieldgame between theGiantsandCardinalslater that week on June 20. Several politicians and professional athletes paid tribute to Mays, including PresidentJoe Bidenand former president Barack Obama, as well as San Francisco mayorLondon Breed, and California governorGavin Newsom.Fans also left tributes and paid their respects at Mays' statue outside Oracle Park. On June 20, 2024, during the game atRickwood Field, theSan Francisco Giantswore a patch with \"24\" on it in Mays' honor and his Hall of Fame plaque was brought over to the place where Mays began his career. Michael Mays, his son, spoke before the game and tribute video was played on the video board before the first pitch byBill Greason, Mays' former teammate in theNegro leagues. A public memorial ceremony, led by Giants broadcasterJon Miller, was held on July 8 atOracle Park. A number of Mays' former teammates attended the ceremony, and among the speakers were baseball commissionerRob Manfred, former presidentsBill Clintonand Barack Obama, and former", "Obama, and former San Francisco mayorWillie Brown.In addition to the tributes, Mays was given final military honors for his service during the Korean War, with two service members playing \"Taps\" before presenting his son, Michael, with an American flag. See also Notes References Book sources Further reading Articles Books External links Italics denotes active player", "Jackie Robinson Jack Roosevelt Robinson(January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professionalbaseballplayer who became the first African-American to play inMajor League Baseball(MLB) in the modern era. Robinson broke thecolor linewhen he started atfirst basefor theBrooklyn Dodgerson April 15, 1947. The Dodgers signing Robinson heralded the end ofracial segregationin professional baseball, which had relegated black players to theNegro leaguessince the 1880s. Born inCairo, Georgia, Robinson was raised inPasadena, California. A four-sport student athlete atPasadena Junior Collegeand theUniversity of California, Los Angeles, he was better known for football than he was for baseball, becoming a star college player with theUCLA Bruins footballteam. Following his college career, Robinson was drafted for service duringWorld War IIbut wascourt-martialedfor refusing to sit at the back of a segregated Army bus, eventually being honorably discharged. Afterwards, he signed with theKansas City Monarchsof the", "City Monarchsof the Negro leagues, where he caught the eye ofBranch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, who thought he would be the perfect candidate for breaking the color line in MLB. During his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inauguralRookie of the Year Awardin 1947, was anAll-Starfor six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won theNational League(NL)Most Valuable Player Awardin 1949—the first black player so honored. Robinson played in sixWorld Seriesand contributed to the Dodgers'1955 World Serieschampionship. He was inducted into theBaseball Hall of Famein1962. Robinson's character, his use ofnonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to thecivil rights movement. Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation,Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he", "In the 1960s, he helped establish theFreedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based inHarlem, New York. After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded theCongressional Gold MedalandPresidential Medal of Freedomin recognition of his achievements on and off the field. In 1997, MLBretiredhis uniform number, 42, across all Major League teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored.MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, \"Jackie Robinson Day\", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears no. 42. Early life Family and personal life Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family ofsharecroppersinCairo, Georgia. He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (née McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank,Matthew(nicknamed \"Mack\"), and Willa Mae.His middle name honored former PresidentTheodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born.After Robinson's father", "Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved toPasadena, California. The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family.Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities.As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it. John Muir High School In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled atJohn Muir Technical High School.Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers, Frank and Mack (himself an accomplished track and field athlete andsilver medalistbehindJesse Owensin the200 metersat the Berlin1936 Summer Olympics) inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports. At Muir Tech, Robinson played numerous sports at thevarsity levelandletteredin four of", "four of them:football,basketball,track and field, andbaseball.He playedshortstopandcatcheron the baseball team,quarterbackon the football team, andguardon the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in thebroad jump. He was also a member of thetennisteam. In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on thePomonaannual baseball tournament all-star team, which included futureHall of FamersTed WilliamsandBob Lemon.In late January 1937, thePasadena Star-Newsnewspaper reported that Robinson \"for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball, and tennis.\" Pasadena Junior College After Muir, Robinson attendedPasadena Junior College(PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track.On the football team, he played quarterback andsafety. He was a shortstop andleadoff hitterfor the baseball team,and he", "team,and he broke an American junior college broad-jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft.6+1⁄2in. on May 7, 1938.As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white.While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military.In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player. That year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing \"outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition.\"Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities. An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived asracist—a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in", "repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police.Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism.While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian.Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearbyUniversity of California, Los Angeles(UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family. UCLA and afterward After graduating from PJC in spring 1939,Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to winvarsity lettersin four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track. He was one of", "He was one of four black players on the Bruins'1939 football team; the others wereWoody Strode,Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players.At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's mostintegrated team.They went undefeated with four ties at6–0–4.Robinson finished the season with 12.2 yards per attempt on 42 carries, which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022. Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons. Intrack and field, Robinson won the1940 NCAA championshipin thelong jumpat24 ft10+1⁄4in (7.58 m).Baseballwas Robinson's \"worst sport\" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twicestolehome. While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife,Rachel Isum(b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic careerat PJC.He", "careerat PJC.He played football as a senior, but the1940 Bruinswon only one game.In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite the reservations of his mother and Isum.He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government'sNational Youth Administration(NYA)inAtascadero, California. After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled toHonoluluin the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated HonoluluBears.After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for theLos Angeles Bulldogsof thePacific Coast Football League.By that time, however, the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harborhad taken place, which drew the United States intoWorld War IIand ended Robinson's nascent football career. Military career In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit atFort Riley, Kansas.Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied", "soldiers applied for admission to anOfficer Candidate School(OCS) then located at Fort Riley. Although the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race-neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership.The applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months.After protests by heavyweight boxing championJoe Louis(then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help ofTruman Gibson(then an assistant civilian aide to theSecretary of War),the men were accepted into OCS.The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis.Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as asecond lieutenantin January 1943.Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged. After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned toFort Hood, Texas, where he joined the761st \"Black Panthers\" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam", "President of Sam Huston College (nowHuston–Tillotson University) in nearbyAustin, Texas; in California, Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC. An event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career.While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus.Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned themilitary police, who took Robinson into custody.When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson becourt-martialed. After Robinson'scommanderin the 761st,Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the758th Battalion—where the commander", "the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink. By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning.Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers. Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, and he was never in combat. After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge,Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving anhonorable dischargein November 1944.While there, Robinson met a former player for theKansas City Monarchsof theNegro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout.Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird.", "Thomas Baird. Post-military After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs.Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director atSamuel Huston Collegein Austin, then of theSouthwestern Athletic Conference.The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season.As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games.Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach,and drew the admiration of, among others,Langston Universitybasketball playerMarques Haynes, a future member of theHarlem Globetrotters. Playing career Negro leagues and major league prospects In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, theKansas City Monarchssent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues.Robinson accepted a", "accepted a contract for $400 per month.Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him.The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter.In all, Robinson played 47 games atshortstopfor the Monarchs, hitting .387 with fivehome runs, and registering 13stolen bases.He also appeared in the 1945East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats. During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues sinceMoses Fleetwood Walkerin 1884, but theBoston Red Soxnevertheless held a tryout atFenway Parkfor Robinson and other black players on April 16.The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City CouncilmanIsadore H. Y.", "H. Y. Muchnick.Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets.He left the tryout humiliated,and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster. Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s,Branch Rickey, club president andgeneral managerof theBrooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn'sInternational Leaguefarm club, theMontreal Royals.Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him.In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law", "arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military.Robinson was aghast: \"Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?\"Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player \"with guts enough not to fight back.\"After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to \"turn the other cheek\" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $10,155 today.Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause.Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects wasWendell Smith, writer for the black weeklyPittsburgh Courier, who, according toCleveland Indiansowner and team presidentBill Veeck, \"influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit.\" Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945.On October 23, it was publicly", "23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season.On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals.In what was later referred to as \"The Noble Experiment\",Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s.He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues,and black talentsSatchel PaigeandJosh Gibsonwere upset when Robinson was selected first.Larry Doby, who broke the color line in theAmerican Leaguethe same year as Robinson, said, \"One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken.\" Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed withChet Brewer's Kansas", "Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-seasonbarnstormingteam in theCalifornia Winter League.Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City.On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs. Minor leagues In 1946, Robinson arrived atDaytona Beach, Florida, forspring trainingwith theMontreal Royalsof theClass AAAInternational League.Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused. Robinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African-American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activistMary McLeod Bethune.Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility, scheduling was subject to", "was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson orJohnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. InSanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach.InJacksonville, thestadiumwas padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director.InDeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting. After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach.Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major", "against a major league team since thede factobaseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s. Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop tosecond base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base.Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946,Roosevelt Stadiumhosted theJersey City Giants' season opener against theMontreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs.Pitching against Robinson wasWarren Sandelwho had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his fiveat bats; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's thirdinning.He also scored fourruns,", "scored fourruns, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory.Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349batting averageand .985fielding percentage, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel aSouthernexhibition tour, for example),the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson.Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards.In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-livedLos Angeles Red Devils. Major leagues Breaking the color barrier (1947) In 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season. WithEddie Stankyentrenched at second", "at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as afirst baseman.Robinson made his debut as a Dodger wearinguniform number42 on April 11, 1947, in a preseasonexhibition gameagainst the New York Yankees atEbbets Fieldwith 24,237 in attendance.On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black.Although he failed to get a base hit, he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory.Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams. Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players.However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse.Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing", "The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. ManagerLeo Durocherinformed the team, \"I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded.\" Robinson was also derided by opposing teams.According to a press report, theSt. Louis Cardinalsthreatened tostrikeif Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League.Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, theNew York Herald Tribune'sRud Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to hisTribunecolleague and editor,Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland.The Woodward article made national headlines. After it was published, National League PresidentFord", "PresidentFord FrickandBaseball CommissionerHappy Chandlerlet it be known that any striking players would be suspended. \"You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts,\" Frick was quoted as saying. \"I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another.\"Woodward's article received theE. P. DuttonAward in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting.The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told authorRoger Kahnthat Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech \"never happened\".Regardless, the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from thesports media. EvenThe Sporting News, a publication that had backed the color line, came out against the idea of a strike.", "idea of a strike. Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg fromEnos Slaughter.On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and thePhiladelphia Phillies, Phillies players and managerBen Chapmancalled Robinson a \"nigger\" from theirdugoutand yelled that he should \"go back to the cotton fields\".Rickey later recalled that Chapman \"did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men.\" However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson namedLee \"Jeep\" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well.Dodgers teammatePee Wee Reeseonce came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, \"You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them.\"In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in", "around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati.Astatueby sculptorWilliam Behrends, unveiled atKeySpan Parkon November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson.Jewishbaseball starHank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he \"whispered a few words into Robinson's ear\", which Robinson later characterized as \"words of encouragement\".Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games.Robinson also talked frequently withLarry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in theAmerican Leaguewith theCleveland Indians, as the two spoke to each other via telephone throughout the season. Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for theDodgers, with a batting average of .297, anon-base percentageof .383, and a .427slugging percentage. He had 175", "He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31doubles, 5triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league insacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29.His cumulative performance earned him the inauguralMajor League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award(separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949). That year, theBrooklyn Dodgerswon the National League pennant and went on to face theYankeesin the1947 World Series. Robinson became the first black player to play in the World Series. He appeared in all seven games, with the Dodgers ultimately losing in Game 7. MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950) Following Stanky's trade to theBoston Bravesin March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980fielding percentagethat year (second in theNational Leagueat the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season.In a 12–7 win", "a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, hehit for the cycle—ahome run, atriple, adouble, and asinglein the same game.The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the pennant and lose to the Cleveland Indians in theWorld Series. Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues.Larry Doby(who broke the color barrier in theAmerican Leagueon July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) andSatchel Paigeplayed for theCleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $158,518 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from avaudevilletour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of", "ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate.In 1948, Wendell Smith's book,Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released. In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of FamerGeorge Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that \"Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second\". The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949.In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124runs batted inwith 122 runs", "inwith 122 runs scored.For the performance Robinson earned theMost Valuable Player Awardfor the National League.Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the1949 All-Star Game— the first All-Star Game to include black players. That year, a song about Robinson byBuddy Johnson, \"Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?\", reached number 13 on the charts;Count Basierecorded a famous version.Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to theNew York Yankeesin the1949 World Series. Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before theUnited States House of Representatives'Committee on Un-American Activities(HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actorPaul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined. In 1950, Robinson led the National League indouble playsmade by a second baseman", "by a second baseman with 133.His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($443,237 in 2023 dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases.The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life,The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself, and actressRuby Deeplayed Rachel \"Rae\" (Isum) Robinson.The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man.The New York Timeswrote that Robinson, \"doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star.\" Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-ownerWalter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as \"Rickey'sprima donna\".In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President", "team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise.Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of thePittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, \"Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it.\" Pennant races and outside interests (1951–1953) Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in theMontreal Standardas saying, \"Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post\"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.", "formally offered. During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137.He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning, which proved to be the winning margin. This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rivalNew York Giants. Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant onBobby Thomson's famous home run, known as theShot Heard 'Round the World. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscasterVin Scullylater noted that the incident showed \"how much of a competitor Robinson was.\"He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases. Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952.He finished the", "finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career-highon-base percentageof .436.The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the1952 World Seriesto the New York Yankees in seven games.That year, on the television showYouth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager,George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player.SportswriterDick Young, whom Robinson had described as a \"bigot\", said, \"If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness.\"The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in theoutfield, withJim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson's interests began to", "interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in thePuerto Rican Winter League, but according to theNew York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request. In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and anotherWorld Seriesloss to the Yankees, this time in six games).Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats.He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor forOur Sportsmagazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friendJoe Louis.Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-starChase Park Hotelin St. Louis. World Championship and", "Championship and retirement (1954–1956) In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles.The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers defeated the New York Yankees in the1955 World Series.Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as athird baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base.Robinson, then 36 years old,missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series.He missed the game because managerWalter Alstondecided to play Gilliam at second andDon Hoakat third base. That season, the Dodgers'Don Newcombebecame the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year. In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals.By then, he", "steals.By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects ofdiabetesand to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball.Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the1956 World Series.After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rivalNew York GiantsforDick Littlefieldand $35,000 cash (equal to $392,240 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president ofChock full o'Nutsto quit baseball and become an executive with the company.Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story toLookmagazine two years previously,his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization. Legacy Robinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as thebaseball color line. After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased", "toward increased equality for blacks, including their acceleratedmigration to the North, where their political clout grew, andPresident Harry Truman'sdesegregation of the militaryin 1948.Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter.Civil rights movementleaderMartin Luther King Jr.said that he was \"a legend and a symbol in his own time\", and that he \"challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration.\"According to historianDoris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's \"efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities.\" Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers.During his career, the Dodgers", "career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games.In 1999, he was one of 30 players named to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team. Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–\"long ball\" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning.Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially morewalksthanstrikeouts(740 to 291).Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñosowas the other).He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total, including 19", "total, including 19 steals of home.None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time).Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as \"the father of modern base-stealing\". Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played.After playing his rookie season at first base,Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman.He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951.Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both. Assessing himself, Robinson said, \"I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being.\"Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field,Leo Durochersaid, \"You want a guy that comes to play. But he didn't just come to play. He came to beat", "He came to beat you. He came to stuff the damn bat right up your ass.\" Portrayals on stage, film and television Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion pictureThe Jackie Robinson Story.Other portrayals include: Robinson was also the subject of a 2016PBSdocumentary,Jackie Robinson, which was directed byKen Burnsand featuresJamie Foxxdoing voice-over as Robinson. Post-baseball life Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inducteeHank Aaronthat \"the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over.\"Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957.Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed withdiabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers.Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease. In October 1959, Robinson entered theGreenville Municipal Airport's whites-only", "whites-only waiting room. Airport police asked Robinson to leave, but he refused. At aNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) speech inGreenville, South Carolina, Robinson urged \"complete freedom\" and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second-class citizenship. The following January, approximately 1,000 peoplemarched on New Year's Dayto the airport,which was desegregated shortly thereafter. In his first year of eligibility for theBaseball Hall of Famein 1962,Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game.He waselectedon the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into theCooperstownmuseum. In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst forABC'sMajor League Baseball Game of the Weektelecasts, the first black person to do so.In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-livedBrooklyn Dodgersof theContinental Football League.In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator", "commentator onMontreal Expostelecasts. From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel atChock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation.Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause ofblack peoplein commerce and industry.He also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967.In 1964, he helped found, withHarlembusinessman Dunbar McLaurin,Freedom National Bank—a black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem.He also served as the bank's first chairman of the board.In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families. Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent,although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including theVietnam War(he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr. to defend theJohnson", "defend theJohnson Administration's military policy).After supportingRichard Nixonin his1960 presidential raceagainstJohn F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights.Robinson was angered by the1964 presidential electioncandidacy of conservative Republican SenatorBarry GoldwaterofArizona, who had opposed theCivil Rights Act of 1964.He became one of six national directors forNelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election.After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had \"a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany\".He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to theNew York State Athletic Commissionby Rockefeller.In 1968, he broke with the Republican party and supportedHubert Humphreyagainst Nixon inthat year's presidential", "year's presidential election. Robinson protested against the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in anold-timers' gameat Yankee Stadium in 1969.He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, nine days before his death, throwing theceremonial first pitchbefore Game 2 of theWorld Seriesat Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati.He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, \"I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball.\"This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, theCleveland Indiansgave their managerial post toFrank Robinson(no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American", "of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s. Family life and death After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wifeRachel Robinsonpursued a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at theYale School of Nursingand director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center.She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990.She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946–1971), Sharon Robinson (b. 1950), and David Robinson (b. 1952). Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age.He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in theVietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965.After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program atDaytop VillageinSeymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution.On June 17, 1971,", "June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24.The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life. Robinson did not outlive his son by very long. In 1968, he suffered aheart attack. Complications fromheart diseaseanddiabetesweakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home at 95 Cascade Road inNorth Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old.Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, atUpper Manhattan'sRiverside ChurchinMorningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners.Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball starBill Russellserved as pallbearers, and the Rev.Jesse Jacksongave the eulogy.Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site atCypress Hills CemeteryinBrooklyn, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum.Twenty-five years after", "years after Robinson's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed theJackie Robinson Parkwayin his memory. This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson's gravesite. After Robinson's death, his widow founded theJackie Robinson Foundation, and she remains an officer as of 2024.On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan.Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father.His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist inTanzania. Awards and recognition On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired Robinson's uniform number, 42, alongside those of former teammatesRoy Campanella(39) andSandy Koufax(32).In 2017, astatue of Robinson, created by sculptorBranly Cadet, was unveiled atDodger Stadium. It was the first statue the Dodgers ever unveiled. In 1999, Robinson was named byTimeon its list of the100", "its list of the100 most influential people of the 20th century.That same year, he was one of 30 players elected to theMajor League Baseball All-Century Team.That same year, he was ranked No. 44 onThe Sporting Newslist of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\" in 1999.In 2020,The Athleticranked Robinson at number 42 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, complied by sportswriterJoe Posnanski. Baseball writerBill James, inThe New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career.Robinson was among the 25 charter members ofUCLA's Athletics Hall of Famein 1984.In 2002,Molefi Kete Asanteincluded Robinson on his list of100 Greatest African Americans. TheCity of Pasadenahas recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field inBrookside Parknext to theRose Bowl,and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach", "community outreach center providing health services).In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $616,853 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance ofPasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family. Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American LeagueRookie of the YearAwards were renamed the \"Jackie Robinson Award\" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues). On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of thefour major American sports leagues. Under the terms", "Under the terms of the retirement, agrandfather clauseallowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers.This affected players such as the Mets'Butch Huskeyand Boston'sMo Vaughn. The Yankees'Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season,was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Since 1997, onlyWayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by theNHLin 2000, andBill Russell's number 6, retired by theNBAin 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports. As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15,Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004.For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007.The gesture was originally the idea of outfielderKen", "of outfielderKen Griffey Jr., who soughtRachel Robinson's permission to wear the number.After Griffey received her permission, CommissionerBud Selignot only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same.Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of theLos Angeles Dodgers,New York Mets,Houston Astros,Philadelphia Phillies,St. Louis Cardinals,Milwaukee Brewers, andPittsburgh Pirates.The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals,Washington Nationals, andTampa Bay Rayswore Robinson's number 42.On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at theBaseball Hall of Famecommemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics.In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date. At the November 2006 groundbreaking forCiti Field,", "forCiti Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's oldEbbets Field, would be called theJackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009.It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets ownerFred Wilponannounced that the Mets—in conjunction withCitigroupand the Jackie Robinson Foundation—would create theJackie Robinson Museumand Learning Center, located at the headquarters of theJackie Robinson Foundationat One Hudson Square, alongCanal Streetinlower Manhattan. Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to \"young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals.\"The museum opened in 2022.The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque inMonument Park. Since 2004, theAflacNational High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the", "been presented the \"Jackie Robinson Award\". Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with theSpingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American.PresidentRonald Reaganposthumously awarded Robinson thePresidential Medal of Freedomon March 26, 1984,and on March 2, 2005, PresidentGeorge W. Bushgave Robinson's widow theCongressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, afterRoberto Clemente.On August 20, 2007, California GovernorArnold Schwarzeneggerand his wife,Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into theCalifornia Hall of Fame, located atThe California Museum for History, Women and the Artsin Sacramento. A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. TheUCLA Bruins baseballteam plays inJackie Robinson Stadium,which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of", "memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis.The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013. City Island Ballpark inDaytona Beach, Floridawas renamedJackie Robinson Ballparkin 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15. 1990.A number of facilities atPasadena City College(successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack.The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson,andDorsey High Schoolplays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him.His home in Brooklyn, theJackie Robinson House, was declared aNational Historic Landmarkin 1976,and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark.In 1978,Colonial ParkinHarlemwas renamed after Robinson.Robinson also has anasteroidnamed after him,4319 Jackierobinson.In 1997,", "1997, New York City renamed theInterboro Parkway in his honor.The following year, astatue of Robinsonwas dedicated atJournal Square Transportation CenterinJersey City, New Jersey. In 1997, theUnited States Mintissued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin.Robinson has also been honored by theUnited States Postal Serviceon three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000. In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball.The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé nearJarry Park, was Robinson's residence when he played for theMontreal Royalsduring 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: \"I rememberMontrealand that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for", "perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man.\" On November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately. While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him.The only sport this did not affect wasmen's basketball, which hadpreviously retired the numberforWalt Hazzard(althoughKevin Lovewas actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing).In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers. The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues. A jersey that Robinson brought home with him", "home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at an auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017. The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey. See also References Book sources Further reading Books Articles External links" ]
I'm thinking of an Actor that won an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor two years after being nominated for the same award, but not winning. The same year that the actor won the Oscar, the Actor also won a BAFTA in the same category and for the same film. The Actor also won a Tony award in 1974.
Christopher Plummer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28th_Tony_Awards
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Supporting_Role
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Christopher_Plummer
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Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Post processing | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28th_Tony_Awards', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Supporting_Role', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Christopher_Plummer']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28th_Tony_Awards", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAFTA_Award_for_Best_Actor_in_a_Supporting_Role", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_nominations_received_by_Christopher_Plummer" ]
[ "28th Tony Awards The28th Annual Tony Awardsceremony was held on April 21, 1974, at theShubert Theatrein New York City, and broadcast byABCtelevision. Hosts werePeter Falk,Florence Henderson,Robert PrestonandCicely Tyson. The theme was \"Homecoming\", where stars from TV and film returned to Broadway to help present the awards or perform. The ceremony Presenters:Alan Alda,Ed Asner,Karen Black,David Carradine,Johnny Carson,Bette Davis,Peter Falk,Henry Fonda,Elliott Gould,Ken Howard,Glynis Johns,Cloris Leachman,Michael Learned,Elizabeth Montgomery,Carroll O'Connor,Al Pacino,Suzanne Pleshette,Jane Powell,Lynn Redgrave,Esther Rolle,Marlo Thomas,Lesley Ann Warren. Performers:Beatrice Arthur,Carol Channing,Will Geer,Joel Grey,Florence Henderson,Cleavon Little,Charles Nelson Reilly,Nancy Walker. Musicals represented: Winners and nominees Winners are in bold Special Tony awards Multiple nominations and awards These productions had multiple nominations: The following productions received multiple awards. External links", "Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor TheAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actoris an award presented annually by theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences(AMPAS). It has been awarded since the9th Academy Awardsto an actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in asupporting rolein a film released that year. The award is traditionally presented by the previous year'sBest Supporting Actresswinner. In lieu of the traditionalOscar statuette, supporting acting recipients were given plaques up until the16th Academy Awards,when statuettes were awarded to each category instead. The Best Supporting Actor award has been presented a total of 88 times, to 79 actors. The first winner wasWalter Brennanfor his role inCome and Get It. The most recent winner isRobert Downey Jr.forOppenheimer.The record formost winsis three, held by Brennan–who won every other year within a succession of the first five years. Seven other actors have won twice. Brennan is also tied for receiving themost nominationsin the category (with four altogether) along withJeff Bridges,Robert Duvall,Arthur Kennedy,Jack Nicholson,Al Pacino,Claude Rains, andMark Ruffalo. Nominations process Nominees are currently determined bysingle transferable votewithin the actors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by aplurality votefrom the entireeligible voting membersof the Academy. Winners and nominees In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release inLos Angeles County; the ceremonies are always held the following year.For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months, from August 1 to July 31.For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933.Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31. 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Multiple wins and nominations The following individuals received two or more Best Supporting Actor awards: The following individuals received three or more Best Supporting Actor nominations: Age superlatives Films with multiple Supporting Actor nominations There have been 22 instances in which films have produced more than one nominee within this category. All resulted in two nominations, with the exceptions ofOn the Waterfront(1954);The Godfather(1972); andThe Godfather Part II(1974), which each obtained three. Winners are inbold. Multiple character nominations Thus far, this is the only instance of the same character producing two nominated performances within this particular same category. See also Notes References Bibliography External links", "BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role Best Actor in a Supporting Roleis aBritish Academy Film Awardpresented annually by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Arts(BAFTA) to recognize anactorwho has delivered an outstanding supporting performance in a film. TheBritish Academy of Film and Television Arts(BAFTA), is a British organisation that hosts annual awards shows for film, television, children's film and television, and interactive media. Since 1968, selected actors have been awarded with the BAFTA award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role at an annual ceremony. In the following lists, the titles and names inboldwith a gold background are the winners and recipients respectively; those not in bold are the nominees. The years given are those in which the films under consideration were released, not the year of the ceremony, which always takes place the following year. History The Best Supporting Actor award has been presented a total of 54 times to 48 different actors. No award was given out in this category in 1980, when no actors, male or female, were nominated for supporting roles. In addition, the award was replaced with agender-neutralcategory for Best Supporting Artist, allotted for the year 1981 only, with all four nominees that year being male. The first winner wasIan Holmfor his role inThe Bofors Gun. The most recent winner isRobert Downey Jr.for his role inOppenheimer. The record for most wins is three, held byDenholm Elliott, who won three consecutive times, while five other actors have won twice. Elliott also holds the record for most nominations, with seven. Winners and nominees 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Multiple wins and nominations Multiple nominations Multiple wins See also Notes References External links", "List of awards and nominations received by Christopher Plummer The following is aList of awards and nominations received by Christopher Plummer. Christopher Plummeris a Canadian actor known for his diverse roles on stage and screen. Plummer is one of the few actors to have received theTriple Crown of Acting, having won theAcademy Award,Emmy AwardandTony Award.Other awards Plummer has received include aBritish Academy Film Award, aGolden Globe Award, and aScreen Actors Guild Award. Plummer was just aGrammy Awardaway from achieving theEGOTstatus (Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony), which is considered the \"grand slam\" of American show business. Plummer won theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actorat the age of 82 for playing an elderly gay man inMike Mills' comedy dramaBeginners(2010), becoming the oldest person to win an acting award (a distinction he held until being supplanted by 83-year-oldAnthony Hopkinsin 2021). He was Oscar-nominated for playingLeo Tolstoyin the dramaThe Last Station(2009) andJ. Paul Gettyin the crime thrillerAll the Money in the World(2017), the later making him the oldest person to be nominated in an acting category at the age of 88. For his work on theBroadwaystage he won twoTony Awards, his first forBest Actor in a Musicalfor playingCyrano de Bergeracin the musicalCyrano(1974) andBest Actor in a Playfor playingJohn Barrymorein the playBarrymore(1997). He was Tony-nominated for his performances in the playsJ.B.(1959),Othello(1982),No Man's Land(1994),King Lear(2004), andInherit the Wind(2007). For his work on television he has also received sevenPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations winning twice forOutstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or MovieforArthur Hailey's the Moneychangers(1977) andOutstanding Voice-Over PerformanceforMadelinein 1994. He has also received aGrammy Award for Best Children's Albumnomination forTchaikovsky'sThe Nutcrackerin 1986. Major associations Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Emmy Awards Golden Globe Awards Grammy Awards Screen Actors Guild Awards Tony Awards Critics associations Miscellaneous awards Other theatre awards Honorary awards Canadian Honours Canadian Honours System Notes See also References" ]
[ "28th Tony Awards The28th Annual Tony Awardsceremony was held on April 21, 1974, at theShubert Theatrein New York City, and broadcast byABCtelevision. Hosts werePeter Falk,Florence Henderson,Robert PrestonandCicely Tyson. The theme was \"Homecoming\", where stars from TV and film returned to Broadway to help present the awards or perform. The ceremony Presenters:Alan Alda,Ed Asner,Karen Black,David Carradine,Johnny Carson,Bette Davis,Peter Falk,Henry Fonda,Elliott Gould,Ken Howard,Glynis Johns,Cloris Leachman,Michael Learned,Elizabeth Montgomery,Carroll O'Connor,Al Pacino,Suzanne Pleshette,Jane Powell,Lynn Redgrave,Esther Rolle,Marlo Thomas,Lesley Ann Warren. Performers:Beatrice Arthur,Carol Channing,Will Geer,Joel Grey,Florence Henderson,Cleavon Little,Charles Nelson Reilly,Nancy Walker. Musicals represented: Winners and nominees Winners are in bold Special Tony awards Multiple nominations and awards These productions had multiple nominations: The following productions received multiple awards. External links", "Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor TheAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actoris an award presented annually by theAcademy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences(AMPAS). It has been awarded since the9th Academy Awardsto an actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in asupporting rolein a film released that year. The award is traditionally presented by the previous year'sBest Supporting Actresswinner. In lieu of the traditionalOscar statuette, supporting acting recipients were given plaques up until the16th Academy Awards,when statuettes were awarded to each category instead. The Best Supporting Actor award has been presented a total of 88 times, to 79 actors. The first winner wasWalter Brennanfor his role inCome and Get It. The most recent winner isRobert Downey Jr.forOppenheimer.The record formost winsis three, held by Brennan–who won every other year within a succession of the first five years. Seven other actors have won twice. Brennan is also tied for receiving themost nominationsin the category", "the category (with four altogether) along withJeff Bridges,Robert Duvall,Arthur Kennedy,Jack Nicholson,Al Pacino,Claude Rains, andMark Ruffalo. Nominations process Nominees are currently determined bysingle transferable votewithin the actors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by aplurality votefrom the entireeligible voting membersof the Academy. Winners and nominees In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release inLos Angeles County; the ceremonies are always held the following year.For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months, from August 1 to July 31.For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933.Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31. 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Multiple wins and nominations The following", "The following individuals received two or more Best Supporting Actor awards: The following individuals received three or more Best Supporting Actor nominations: Age superlatives Films with multiple Supporting Actor nominations There have been 22 instances in which films have produced more than one nominee within this category. All resulted in two nominations, with the exceptions ofOn the Waterfront(1954);The Godfather(1972); andThe Godfather Part II(1974), which each obtained three. Winners are inbold. Multiple character nominations Thus far, this is the only instance of the same character producing two nominated performances within this particular same category. See also Notes References Bibliography External links", "BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role Best Actor in a Supporting Roleis aBritish Academy Film Awardpresented annually by theBritish Academy of Film and Television Arts(BAFTA) to recognize anactorwho has delivered an outstanding supporting performance in a film. TheBritish Academy of Film and Television Arts(BAFTA), is a British organisation that hosts annual awards shows for film, television, children's film and television, and interactive media. Since 1968, selected actors have been awarded with the BAFTA award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role at an annual ceremony. In the following lists, the titles and names inboldwith a gold background are the winners and recipients respectively; those not in bold are the nominees. The years given are those in which the films under consideration were released, not the year of the ceremony, which always takes place the following year. History The Best Supporting Actor award has been presented a total of 54 times to 48 different actors. No award was given out", "award was given out in this category in 1980, when no actors, male or female, were nominated for supporting roles. In addition, the award was replaced with agender-neutralcategory for Best Supporting Artist, allotted for the year 1981 only, with all four nominees that year being male. The first winner wasIan Holmfor his role inThe Bofors Gun. The most recent winner isRobert Downey Jr.for his role inOppenheimer. The record for most wins is three, held byDenholm Elliott, who won three consecutive times, while five other actors have won twice. Elliott also holds the record for most nominations, with seven. Winners and nominees 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Multiple wins and nominations Multiple nominations Multiple wins See also Notes References External links", "List of awards and nominations received by Christopher Plummer The following is aList of awards and nominations received by Christopher Plummer. Christopher Plummeris a Canadian actor known for his diverse roles on stage and screen. Plummer is one of the few actors to have received theTriple Crown of Acting, having won theAcademy Award,Emmy AwardandTony Award.Other awards Plummer has received include aBritish Academy Film Award, aGolden Globe Award, and aScreen Actors Guild Award. Plummer was just aGrammy Awardaway from achieving theEGOTstatus (Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony), which is considered the \"grand slam\" of American show business. Plummer won theAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actorat the age of 82 for playing an elderly gay man inMike Mills' comedy dramaBeginners(2010), becoming the oldest person to win an acting award (a distinction he held until being supplanted by 83-year-oldAnthony Hopkinsin 2021). He was Oscar-nominated for playingLeo Tolstoyin the dramaThe Last Station(2009) andJ. Paul", "andJ. Paul Gettyin the crime thrillerAll the Money in the World(2017), the later making him the oldest person to be nominated in an acting category at the age of 88. For his work on theBroadwaystage he won twoTony Awards, his first forBest Actor in a Musicalfor playingCyrano de Bergeracin the musicalCyrano(1974) andBest Actor in a Playfor playingJohn Barrymorein the playBarrymore(1997). He was Tony-nominated for his performances in the playsJ.B.(1959),Othello(1982),No Man's Land(1994),King Lear(2004), andInherit the Wind(2007). For his work on television he has also received sevenPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations winning twice forOutstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or MovieforArthur Hailey's the Moneychangers(1977) andOutstanding Voice-Over PerformanceforMadelinein 1994. He has also received aGrammy Award for Best Children's Albumnomination forTchaikovsky'sThe Nutcrackerin 1986. Major associations Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Emmy Awards Golden Globe Awards Grammy Awards Screen Actors Guild Awards Tony", "Guild Awards Tony Awards Critics associations Miscellaneous awards Other theatre awards Honorary awards Canadian Honours Canadian Honours System Notes See also References" ]
How many years apart did a Kim Jong Un impersonator who was interviewed by USA today, and the man who founded Playboy attend the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign?
60
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign#Notable_alumni_and_faculty
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Hefner#Early_life_and_education
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyong_Kim
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Numerical reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign#Notable_alumni_and_faculty', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Hefner#Early_life_and_education', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyong_Kim']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign#Notable_alumni_and_faculty", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Hefner#Early_life_and_education", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minyong_Kim" ]
[ "University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign TheUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign(UIUC,U of I,Illinois, orUniversity of Illinois)is apublicland-grantresearch universityin theChampaign–Urbana metropolitan area, Illinois, United States. It is theflagshipinstitution of theUniversity of Illinois systemand was established in 1867. With over 59,000 students, the University of Illinois is one of thelargest public universities by enrollmentin the United States. The university contains 16 schools and collegesand offers more than 150 undergraduate and over 100 graduate programs of study. The university holds 651 buildings on 6,370 acres (2,578 ha)and its annual operating budget in 2016 was over $2 billion.The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign also operates aResearch Parkhome to innovation centers for over 90 start-up companies andmultinational corporations. The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign is a member of theAssociation of American Universitiesand isclassifiedamong \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\".In fiscal year 2019, research expenditures at Illinois totaled $652 million.The campus library system possesses thefourth-largest university libraryin the United States by holdings.The university also hosts theNational Center for Supercomputing Applications. Illinois athletic teams compete inDivision Iof theNCAAand are collectively known as theFighting Illini. They are members of theBig Ten Conferenceand have won thesecond-most conference titles.Illinois Fighting Illini footballwon theRose Bowl Gamein 1947, 1952, 1964 and a total of five national championships. Illinois athletes have won 29 medals inOlympic events. The alumni, faculty members, or researchers of the university include 30 Nobel laureates, 27Pulitzer Prizewinners, two Fields medalists, and twoTuring Awardwinners. History Illinois Industrial University (1867–1885) The University of Illinois, originally named \"Illinois Industrial University\", was one of the 37 universities created under the firstMorrill Land-Grant Act, which provided public land for the creation of agricultural and industrial colleges and universities across the United States. Among several cities,Urbanawas selected in 1867 as the site for the new school.From the beginning, PresidentJohn Milton Gregory's desire to establish an institution firmly grounded in theliberal artstradition was at odds with many state residents and lawmakers who wanted the university to offer classes based solely around \"industrial education\".The university opened for classes on March 2, 1868, and had two faculty members and 77 students. The Library, which opened with the school in 1868, started with 1,039 volumes. Subsequently, PresidentEdmund J. James, in a speech to the board of trustees in 1912, proposed to create a research library. It is now one of the world's largest public academic collections.In 1870, the Mumford House was constructed as a model farmhouse for the school's experimental farm. The Mumford House remains the oldest structure on campus.The original University Hall (1871) was the fourth building built; it stood where the Illini Union stands today. University of Illinois (1885–1977) In 1885, the Illinois Industrial University officially changed its name to the \"University of Illinois\", reflecting its agricultural, mechanical, and liberal arts curriculum. During his presidency,Edmund J. James(1904–1920) set the policy of building a massive research library.He also laid the foundation for the large Chinese international student population on campus.James established ties with China through the Chinese Minister to the United StatesWu Ting-Fang. Class rivalries andBob Zuppke'swinning football teams contributed to campus morale. Alma Mater, a prominent statue on campus created by alumnusLorado Taft, was unveiled on June 11, 1929. It was funded from donations by the Alumni Fund and the classes of 1923–1929. TheGreat Depression in the United Statesslowed construction and expansion on the campus. The university replaced the original university hall with Gregory Hall and theIllini Union. After World War II, the university experienced rapid growth. The enrollment doubled and the academic standing improved.This period was also marked by large growth in the Graduate College and increased federal support of scientific and technological research. During the 1950s and 1960s the university experienced the turmoil common on many American campuses. Among these were the water fights of the 1950s and 1960s. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (1977–present) By 1967, theUniversity of Illinois systemconsisted of a main campus in Champaign-Urbana and two Chicago campuses, Chicago Circle (UICC) and Medical Center (UIMC), and people began using \"Urbana-Champaign\" or the reverse to refer to the main campus specifically. The university name officially changed to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign by 1977 (although the word \"at\" was later dropped for marketing purposes by all U of I System campuses by 2021). While this was a reversal of the commonly used designation for the metropolitan area (Champaign-Urbana), a majority of the campus is located in Urbana. The name change established a separate identity for the main campus within theUniversity of Illinois System, which today includes separate institutions at theUniversity of Illinois Chicago(formed by the merger of UICC and UIMC) andUniversity of Illinois Springfield. In 1998, the Hallene Gateway Plaza was dedicated. The Plaza features the original sandstone portal of University Hall, which was originally the fourth building on campus.In recent years, state support has declined from 4.5% of the state's tax appropriations in 1980 to 2.28% in 2011, a nearly 50% decline.As a result, the university's budget has shifted away from relying on state support with nearly 84% of the budget coming from other sources in 2012. On March 12, 2015, the Board of Trustees approved the creation of a medical school, the first college created at Urbana-Champaign in 60 years.TheCarle Illinois College of Medicinebegan classes in 2018. Philanthropy Over the last twenty years state funding for the university has fallen. Private philanthropy increasingly supplements revenue from tuition and state funding, providing about 19% of the annual budget in 2012.Notable among significant donors, alumnus entrepreneurThomas M. Siebelhas committed nearly $150 million to the university, including $36 million to build theThomas M. Siebel Center for Computer Science, $25 million to build theSiebel Center for Design, and $50 million to support the renamed Department of Computer Science to become Siebel School of Computing and Data Science.Furthermore, the Grainger Foundation (founded by alumnusW. W. Grainger) has contributed more than $300 million to the university over the last half-century,including donations for the construction of theGrainger Engineering Library. Larry Gies and his wife Beth donated $150 million in 2017 to the shortly thereafter renamedGies College of Business. Campus The main research and academic facilities are divided almost evenly between the twin cities ofUrbanaandChampaign, which form part of theChampaign–Urbana metropolitan area. Some parts are inUrbana Township. Four main quads compose the center of the university and are arranged from north to south. The Beckman Quadrangle and theJohn BardeenQuadrangle occupy the center of theEngineering Campus.Boneyard Creekflows through the John Bardeen Quadrangle, parallel to Green Street. The Beckman Quadrangle, named afterArnold Orville Beckman, is primarily composed of research units and laboratories, and features a large solar calendar consisting of an obelisk and several copper fountains. The Main Quadrangle and South Quadrangle follow immediately after the John Bardeen Quad. The former makes up a large part of theLiberal Arts and Sciencesportion of the campus, while the latter comprises many of the buildings of theCollege of Agriculture, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences(ACES) spread across the campus map. Additionally, the research fields of the College of ACES stretch south from Urbana and Champaign intoSavoyandChampaign County. The university also maintains formal gardens and a conference center in nearbyMonticelloatAllerton Park. The campus is known for its landscape and architecture, as well as distinctive landmarks.It was identified as one of 50 college or university \"works of art\" by T.A. Gaines in his bookThe Campus as a Work of Art.The campus also has a number of buildings and sites on theU.S. National Register of Historic PlacesincludingHarker Hall, theAstronomical Observatory,Louise Freer Hall, theMain Library, theExperimental Dairy Farm Historic District, and theMorrow Plots.University of Illinois Willard Airportis one of the few airports owned by an educational institution. Sustainability In 2008, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign became a signatory of the American College and University Presidents' Climate Commitment, binding the campus to the goal ofcarbon neutralityas soon as possible. In 2010, the first Illinois Climate Action Plan (iCAP) was written to chart a path to this goal. The iCAP is a strategic framework for meeting the university's Climate Leadership Commitments to be carbon-neutral by 2050 or sooner and build resilience with its local community. Since then, theiCAPhas been rewritten every five years to track the university's progress. In December 2013, the University of Illinois launched theInstitute for Sustainability, Energy, and Environment (iSEE)on the Urbana-Champaign campus. The institute, under the Vice Chancellor for Research and Innovation, leads an interdisciplinary approach to researching solutions for the world's most pressing sustainability, energy, and environmental needs. In addition, iSEE has engaged students, faculty, staff, and campus leadership in the iCAP process — especially in the areas of zero waste and conservation of energy, food, water, land, and natural resources — as well as sustainability outreach and immersive educational programs. In her remarks on being named Director of iSEE in 2022, Professor of Agricultural and Consumer Economics Madhu Khanna explained: \"We aim to position campus to play a transformative role in moving us all to a more sustainable future.\" In 2022, new solar and geothermal energy projects, a reduction in water use, and wide-ranging sustainability research helped the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign earn its fifth consecutive gold certification in theSustainability Tracking, Assessment & Rating System (STARS).Illinois has consistently achieved gold certification since it began reporting data through STARS in 2013, and the 2022 score was one of its highest to date. Currently, the campus features 27 LEED-certified buildings. Academics Undergraduate admissions The overall first-year admit rate for 2023 is 43.7%,which differ greatly among UIUC colleges — whereas the overall first-choice admit rate is 34.7%, theGrainger College of Engineeringhas an admit rate of 22.3%. Certain in-demand majors like Computer Science, including Computer Science + X, of which the program being ranked consistently 5th nationwidecan be extremely competitive, with an acceptance rate of less than 6.8% in 2022,and average freshman ACT composite score of 33.7. Computer Science + X admit rate: 19.6% In 2009, an investigation byThe Chicago Tribunereported that some applicants \"receivedspecial consideration\" for acceptance between 2005 and 2009, despite having sub-par qualifications.This incident became known as theUniversity of Illinois clout scandal. Academic divisions The university offers more than 150 undergraduate and 100 graduate and professional programs in over 15 academic units, among several online specializations such as Digital Marketing and an online MBA program launched in January 2016. In 2015, the university announced its expansion to include an engineering-based medical program, which would be the first new college created in Urbana-Champaign in 60 years.The university also offers undergraduate students the opportunity for graduation honors. University Honors is an academic distinction awarded to the highest achieving students. To earn the distinction, students must have a cumulative grade point average of a 3.5/4.0 within the academic year of their graduation and rank within the top 3% of their graduating class. Their names are inscribed on a Bronze Tablet that hangs in the Main Library. Online learning In addition to the university's Illinois Online platform, in 2015 the university entered into a partnership with the Silicon Valley educational technology companyCourserato offer a series of master's degrees, certifications, and specialization courses, currently including more than 70 joint learning classes. In August 2015, the Master of Business Administration program was launched through the platform.On March 31, 2016, Coursera announced the launch of the Master of Computer Science in Data Science from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.At the time, the university's computer-science graduate program was ranked fifth in the United States byU.S. News & World Report.On March 29, 2017, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign launched their Master's in Accounting (iMSA) program, now called the Master of Science in Accountancy (iMSA) program. The iMSA program is led through live sessions, headed by UIUC faculty. Similar to the university's on-campus admission policies, the online master's degrees offered by The University of Illinois through Coursera also has admission requirements. All applicants must hold a bachelor's degree, and have earned a 3.0 GPA or higher in the last two years of study. Additionally, all applicants must prove their proficiency in English. The University of Illinois also offers online courses in partnership with Coursera, such asMarketing in a DigitalWorld,which focuses on how digital tools like internet, smartphone and 3D printers are changing the marketing landscape. Rankings In the 2021U.S. News & World Report\"America's Best Colleges\" report, UIUC's undergraduate program was ranked tied for 47th among national universities and tied for 15th among public universities, with its undergraduate engineering program ranked tied for 6th in the U.S. among schools whose highest degree is a doctorate. Washington Monthlyranked UIUC 18th among 389 national universities in the U.S. for 2020, based on its contribution to the public good as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.Kiplinger's Personal Financerated Illinois 12th in its 2019 list of 174 Best Values in Public Colleges,which \"measures academic quality, cost and financial aid.\" The Graduate Program in Urban Planning at the College of Fine and Applied Arts was ranked 3rd nationally by Planetizen in 2015.The university was also listed as a \"Public Ivy\" inThe Public Ivies: America's Flagship Public Universities(2001) by Howard and Matthew Greene.The Princeton Reviewranked Illinois 1st in its 2016 list of top party schools. Internationally, UIUC engineering was ranked 13th in the world in 2016 by theAcademic Ranking of World Universities(ARWU) and the university 38th in 2019;the university was also ranked 48th globally by theTimes Higher Education World University Rankingsin 2020 and 75th in the world by theQS World University Rankingsfor 2020. TheCenter for World University Rankings (CWUR)has ranked University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign as the 20th best university in the world for 2019–20. UIUC is also ranked 32nd in the world inTimes Higher EducationWorld Reputation Rankings for 2018. Research The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign is often regarded as a world-leading magnet for engineering and sciences (both applied and basic). According to theNational Science Foundation, the university spent $625 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 37th in the nation.It is also listed as one of the Top 25 American Research Universities byThe Center for Measuring University Performance.Beside annual influx of grants and sponsored projects, the university manages an extensive modern research infrastructure.The university has been a leader in computer based education and hosted thePLATOproject, which was a precursor to the internet and resulted in the development of theplasma display. Illinois was a 2nd-generationARPAnetsite in 1971 and was the first institution to license theUNIXoperating system from Bell Labs. National Center for Supercomputing Applications The university hosts theNational Center for Supercomputing Applications(NCSA), which createdMosaic, the first graphicalweb browser, theApache HTTP server, andNCSA Telnet. The Parallel@Illinois program hosts several programs inparallel computing, including theUniversal Parallel Computing Research Center. The university contracted withCrayto build theNational Science Foundation-funded supercomputerBlue Waters.The system also has the largest public online storage system in the world with more than 25 petabytes of usable space.The university celebrated January 12, 1997, as the \"birthday\" ofHAL 9000, the fictional supercomputer from the novel and film2001: A Space Odyssey; in both works, HAL credits \"Urbana, Illinois\" as his place of operational origin. Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology TheBeckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technologysupports interdisciplinary collaborative research in the broad areas of intelligent systems, neuroscience, molecular science and engineering, and biomedical imaging. Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology TheCarl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biologysupports research in genomics and related areas of biology. Prairie Research Institute ThePrairie Research Instituteis located on campus and is the home of theIllinois Natural History Survey, Illinois State Geological Survey, Illinois State Water Survey, Illinois Sustainable Technology Center, and the Illinois State Archeological Survey. Researchers at the Prairie Research Institute are engaged in research in agriculture and forestry, biodiversity and ecosystem health, atmospheric resources, climate and associated natural hazards, cultural resources and history of human settlements, disease and public health, emerging pests, fisheries and wildlife, energy and industrial technology, mineral resources, pollution prevention and mitigation, and water resources. TheIllinois Natural History Surveycollections include crustaceans, reptiles and amphibians, birds, mammals, algae, fungi, and vascular plants, with the insect collection is among the largest in North America. The Illinois State Geological Survey houses the legislatively mandated Illinois Geological Samples Library, a repository for drill-hole samples in Illinois, as well as paleontological collections. ISAS serves as a repository for a large collection of Illinois archaeological artifacts. One of the major collections is from theCahokiaMounds. Research Park Located in the southwest part of campus,Research Parkopened its first building in 2001 and has grown to encompass 13 buildings. Ninety companies have established roots in research park, employing over 1,400 people. Tenants of the Research Park facilities include prominent Fortune 500 companies Capital One, John Deere, State Farm, Caterpillar, and Yahoo, Inc. Companies also employ about 400 total student interns at any given time throughout the year. The complex is also a center for entrepreneurs, and has over 50 startup companies stationed at its EnterpriseWorks Incubator facility. In 2011, Urbana, Illinois was named number 11 on Popular Mechanics' \"14 Best Startup Cities in America\" list, in a large part due to the contributions of Research Park's programs.The park has gained recognition from other notable publications, such as inc.com and Forbes magazine. For the 2011 fiscal year, Research Park produced an economic output of $169.5M for the state of Illinois. Technology Entrepreneur Center The Technology Entrepreneur Center at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign is a permanent center established to provide students with resources for their entrepreneurial ideas. The center offers classes, venture and product competitions, and workshops to introduce students to technology innovation and market adoption.Events and programs hosted by the TEC include the Cozad New Venture Challenge, Silicon Valley Entrepreneurship Workshop, Illinois I-Corps, and SocialFuse. The campus-wide Cozad New Venture Challenge has been held annually since 2000. Participants are mentored in the phases of venture creation and attend workshops on idea validation, pitching skills, and customer development. In 2019, teams competed for $250,000 in funding.The Silicon Valley Workshop is a week-long workshop, occurring annually in January. Students visit startups and technology companies in the Silicon Valley and network entrepreneurial alumni from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Students are exposed to technology entrepreneurship, innovation, and leadership. The trip features corporate leaders, venture capitalists, and entrepreneurs in various stages of a startup lifecycle.Illinois I-Corps teaches National Science Foundation grantees how to learn to identify valuable product opportunities that can emerge from academic research, and gain skills in entrepreneurship through training in customer discovery and guidance from established entrepreneurs.The program is a collaboration between the Technology Entrepreneur Center and EnterpriseWorks, with participation from the Office of Technology Management and IllinoisVentures. The program consists of three workshops over six weeks, where teams work to validate the market size, value propositions, and customer segments of their innovations.SocialFuse is a recurring pitching and networking event where students can pitch ideas, find teammates, and network. Center for Plasma-Material Interactions The Center for Plasma-Material Interactions was established in 2004 by Professor David N. Ruzic to research the complex behavior betweenions,electrons, andenergetic atomsgenerated inplasmasand the surfaces of materials. CPMI encompassesfusion plasmasin its research. Accolades InBill Gates' February 24, 2004, talk as part of his Five Campus Tour (Harvard, MIT, Cornell, Carnegie-Mellon and Illinois)titled \"Software Breakthroughs: Solving the Toughest Problems in Computer Science,\" he mentionedMicrosofthires more graduates from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign than from any other university in the world.Alumnus William M. Holt, a senior vice-president ofIntel, also mentioned in a campus talk on September 27, 2007, entitled \"R&D to Deliver Practical Results: Extending Moore's Law\"that Intel hires more PhD graduates from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign than from any other university in the country. In 2007, the university-hosted researchInstitute for Condensed Matter Theory(ICMT) was launched, with the directorPaul Goldbartand the chief scientistAnthony Leggett. ICMT is currently located at the Engineering Science Building on campus. The University Professional and Continuing Education Association (UPCEA), which recognizes excellence in both individual and institutional achievements, has awarded two awards to U of I. Discoveries and innovation Natural sciences Computer & applied sciences Companies & entrepreneurship UIUC alumni and faculty have founded numerous companies and organizations, some of which are shown below. Student life Student body As of spring 2018, the university had 45,813 students.As of 2015, over 10,000 students were international students, and of them 5,295 wereMainland Chinese.The university also recruits students from over 100 countriesamong its 32,878undergraduate students and 10,245graduate and professional students.The gender breakdown is 55% men, 45% women.UIUC in 2014 enrolled 4,898 students from China, more than any other American university. They comprise the largest group of international students on the campus, followed by South Korea (1,268 in fall 2014) and India (1,167). Graduate enrollment of Chinese students at UIUC has grown from 649 in 2000 to 1,973 in 2014. Student organizations The university has over 1,000 active registered student organizations,showcased at the start of each academic year during Illinois's \"Quad Day.\" Registration and support is provided by the Student Programs & Activities Office, an administrative arm established in pursuit of the larger social, intellectual, and educative goals of the Illini Student Union. The Office's mission is to \"enhance ... classroom education,\" \"meet the needs and desires of the campus community,\" and \"prepare students to be contributing and humane citizens.\"Beyond student organizations,The Daily Illiniis a student-run newspaper that has been published for the community of since 1871. The paper is published byIllini MediaCompany, a not-for-profit which also prints other publications, and operatesWPGU107.1 FM, a student-run commercial radio station. The Varsity Men's Glee Club is an all-male choir at the University of Illinois that was founded in 1886.The Varsity Men's Glee Clubis one of theoldest glee clubsin the United States as well as the oldest registered student organization at the University of Illinois. As of 2018, the university also has the largest chapter ofAlpha Phi Omegawith over 340 active members. Greek life There are 59 fraternities and 38 sororities on campus.Of the approximately 30,366 undergraduates, 3,463 are members of sororities and 3,674 are members of fraternities.The Greek system at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign has a system of self-government. While staff advisors and directors manage certain aspects of the Greek community, most of the day-to-day operations of the Greek community are governed by the Interfraternity Council and Panhellenic Council.A smaller minority of fraternities and sororities fall under the jurisdiction of the Black Greek Council and United Greek Council; the Black Greek Council serves historically black Greek organizations while the United Greek council comprises other multicultural organizations.Many of the fraternity and sorority houses on campus are on the National Register of Historic Places. Student government U of I has an extensive history of past student governments. Two years after the university opened in 1868, John Milton Gregory and a group of students created a constitution for a student government. Their governance expanded to the entire university in 1873, having a legislative, executive, and judicial branch. For a period of time, this government had the ability to discipline students. In 1883, however, due to a combination of events from Gregory's resignation to student-faculty infighting, the government formally dissolved itself viaplebiscite. It was not until 1934, when the Student Senate, the next university-wide student government, was created. A year before, future U of I Dean of Students, Fred H. Turner and the university's Senate Committee on Student Affairs gave increased power to the Student Council, an organization primarily known for organizing dances. A year after, the Student Council created a constitution and became the Student Senate, under the oversight of the Committee on Student Affairs. This Student Senate would last for 35 years.The Student Senate changed its purpose and name in 1969, when it became the Undergraduate Student Association (UGSA). It ceased being a representational government, becoming acollective bargaining agencyinstead. It often worked with the Graduate Student Association to work on various projects In 1967,Bruce A. Morrisonand other U of I graduate founded the Graduate Student Association (GSA). GSA would last until 1978, when it merged with the UGSA to form the Champaign-Urbana Student Association (CUSA).CUSA lasted for only two years when it was replaced by the Student Government Association (SGA) in 1980. SGA lasted for 15 years until it became the Illinois Student Government (ISG) in 1995. ISG lasted until 2004. The current university student government, created in 2004, is the Illinois Student Senate, a combined undergraduate and graduate student senate with 54 voting members. The student senators are elected by college and represent the students in the Urbana-Champaign Senate (which comprises both faculty and students), as well as on a variety of faculty and administrative committees, and are led by an internally elected executive board of a President, External Vice President, Internal Vice President, and Treasurer. As of 2012, the executive board is supported by an executive staff consisting of a Chief of Staff, Clerk of the Senate, Parliamentarian, Director of Communications, Intern Coordinator, and the Historian of the Senate. Residence halls The university provides housing for undergraduates through 24residence hallsin both Urbana and Champaign. Incoming freshmen are required to live in student housing (campus or certified) their first year on campus. The university also maintains two graduate residence halls, which are restricted to students who are sophomores or above, and three university-owned apartment complexes. Some undergraduates choose to move into apartments or the Greek houses after their first year. There are a number of private dormitories around campus, as well as 15 private, certified residences that partner with the university to offer a variety of different housing options, including ones that are cooperatives, single-gender or religiously affiliated.The university is known for being one of the first universities to provide accommodations for students with disabilities.In 2015, the University of Illinois announced that they would be naming its newest residence hall afterCarlos Montezumaalso known as Wassaja. Wassaja is the firstNative Americangraduate and is believed to be one of the first Native Americans to receive a medical degree. Libraries and museums Among universities in North America, only the collections of Harvard are larger.Currently, the University of Illinois' 20+ departmental libraries and divisions hold more than 24millionitems, including more than 12 million print volumes.As of 2012, it had also the largest \"browsable\" university library in the United States, with 5 million volumes directly accessible in stacks in a single location.University of Illinois also has the largest public engineering library (Grainger Engineering Library) in the country.In addition to the main library building, which houses numerous subject-oriented libraries, the Isaac Funk Family Library on the South Quad serves theCollege of Agriculture, Consumer, and Environmental Sciencesand the Grainger Engineering Library Information Center serves theCollege of Engineeringon theJohn Bardeen Quad. Residence Hall Library System is one of three in the nation.The Residence Hall Libraries were created in 1948 to serve the educational, recreational, and cultural information needs of first- and second-year undergraduate students residing in the residence halls, and the living-learning communities within the residence halls. The collection also serves University Housing staff as well as the larger campus community.The Rare Book & Manuscript Library(RBML) is one of theSpecial collectionsunits within the University Library.The RBML is one of the largest special collections repositories in the United States. The university has several museums, galleries, and archives which includeKrannert Art Museum,Sousa Archives and Center for American MusicandSpurlock Museum. Gallery and exhibit locations includeKrannert Center for the Performing Artsand atthe School of Art and Design. TheIllinois Open Publishing Network (IOPN) is hosted and coordinated by the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Library, offering publishing services to members of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign community, to disseminateopen accessscholarly publications. Recreation The campus has two main recreation facilities, theActivities and Recreation Center(ARC) and the Campus Recreation Center – East (CRCE). Originally known as the Intramural Physical Education Building (IMPE) and opened in 1971, IMPE was renovated in 2006 and reopened in August 2008 as the ARC.The renovations expanded the facility, adding 103,433 square feet to the existing structure and costing $54.9 million. This facility is touted by the university as \"one of the country's largest on-campus recreation centers.\" CRCE was originally known as the Satellite Recreation Center and was opened in 1989. The facility was renovated in 2005 to expand the space and update equipment, officially reopening in March 2005 as CRCE. Transportation The bus system that operates throughout the campus and community is operated by theChampaign-Urbana Mass Transit District. The MTD receives a student-approved transportation fee from the university, which providesunlimited accessfor university students, faculty, and staff. DailyAmtraktrains throughIllinois Terminalconnect Champaign-Urbana with Chicago andCarbondale, Illinois. This includes the corridor serviceIllini and Salukiand the long-distanceCity of New Orleans, which provides a direct route toMemphis, Tennessee;Jackson, Mississippi; andNew Orleans, Louisianasouthbound, in addition to Chicago northbound. Willard Airport, opened in 1954 and is named for former University of Illinois president Arthur Cutts Willard. The airport is located in Savoy. Willard Airport is home to University research projects and the university'sInstitute of Aviation, along with flights fromAmerican Airlines. Security The University of Illinois has a dedicated police department, UIPD, which operates independently from CPD, the department that serves the surrounding Champaign area. On June 9, 2017, Yingying Zhang, a Chinese international student, wasabducted and murderedin a case that made national headlines at the time. The university subsequently announced plans to install additional, high-definition, security cameras across the campus. On April 18, 2022, Sayed A. Quraishi, a 23-year old man who had recently graduated from the university, assaulted a Jewish student outside of the campus'Hillelbuilding during an anti-Israel protest organized byStudents for Justice in Palestine(SJP). Quraishi was subsequently charged with ahate crime. In July 2022, the university announced that it was partnering with local businesses to invest $300,000 to combat violent crime in Champaign County. In September 2022, the City of Champaign transferred responsibility for a large swath of Campustown from CPD (Champaign Police Department) to UIPD, claiming that doing so would reduce response times and improve the quality of service. As part of the jurisdictional reforms, the city agreed to pay a substantial portion of the cost to hire seven new officers to patrol the new coverage area. Violent crime fell sharply in 2022 compared to the year prior, with shootings and homicides declining by 50 and 47 percent, respectively. The city attributed the decrease in crime to improved staffing levels and the installation ofautomatic license plate readers. Athletics U of I's Division of Intercollegiate Athletics fields teams for ten men's and eleven women's varsity sports. The university participates in theNCAA's Division I. The university's athletic teams are known as the Fighting Illini. The university operates a number of athletic facilities, includingMemorial Stadiumforfootball, theState Farm Centerfor men's and women's basketball, and the Atkins Tennis Center for men's and women's tennis. The men's NCAA basketball team had a dream run in the2005 season, withBruce Weber's Fighting Illini tying the record for most victories in a season. Their run ended 37–2 with a loss to theNorth Carolina Tar Heelsin thenational championship game. Illinois is a member of theBig Ten Conference. Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such ascommencementandconvocation, and athletic games are:Illinois Loyalty, the school song;Oskee Wow Wow, thefight song; andHail to the Orange, the alma mater. On October 15, 1910, the Illinois football team defeated theUniversity of ChicagoMaroons with a score of 3–0 in a game that Illinois claims was the firsthomecominggame, though several other schools claim to have held the first homecoming as well.On November 10, 2007, the unranked Illinois football team defeated the No. 1 rankedOhio Statefootball team inOhio Stadium, the first time that the Illini beat a No. 1 ranked team on the road. TheUniversity of Illinois Ice Arenais home to the university's clubcollege ice hockeyteam competing at theACHA Division Ilevel and is also available for recreational use through the Division of Campus Recreation. It was built in 1931 and designed by Chicago architecture firm Holabird and Root, the same firm that designed the University of Illinois Memorial Stadium and Chicago's Soldier Field. It is located on Armory Drive across from the Armory. The structure features four rows of bleacher seating in an elevated balcony that runs the length of the ice rink on either side. These bleachers provide seating for roughly 1,200 fans, with standing room and bench seating available underneath. Because of this set-up the team benches are actually directly underneath the stands. In 2015, the university beganMandarin Chinesebroadcasts of its American football games as a service to its Chinese international students. Mascot Chief Illiniwek, also referred to as \"The Chief\", was from 1926 to 2007 the official symbol of the University of Illinois in university intercollegiate athletic programs. The Chief was typically portrayed by a student dressed inSiouxregalia. Several groups protested that the use of a Native American figure and indigenous customs in such a manner was inappropriate and promoted ethnic stereotypes. In August 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association expressed disapproval of the university's use of a \"hostile or abusive\" image.While initially proposing a consensus approach to the decision about the Chief, the board in 2007 decided that the Chief, its name, image and regalia should be officially retired. Nevertheless, the controversy continues on campus with some students unofficially maintaining the Chief. Complaints continue that indigenous students feel insulted when images of the Chief continue to be present on campus.The effort to resolve the controversy has included the work of a committee, which issued a report of its \"critical conversations\" that included over 600 participants representing all sides. Notable alumni and faculty Twenty-seven alumni and faculty members of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign have won aPulitzer Prize.As of 2019, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign alumni, faculty, and researchers include 30 Nobel laureates (including 11 alumni). In particular,John Bardeenis the only person to have won two Nobel prizes in physics, having done so in 1956 and 1972 while on faculty at the university. In 2003, two faculty members won Nobel prizes in different disciplines:Paul C. Lauterburfor physiology or medicine, andAnthony Leggettfor physics. The alumni of the university have created companies and products such asNetscape Communications(formerlyMosaic) (Marc Andreessen),AMD(Jerry Sanders),PayPal(Max Levchin),Playboy(Hugh Hefner),National Football League(George Halas),Siebel SystemsandC3.ai(Thomas Siebel),Mortal Kombat(Ed Boon),CDW(Michael Krasny),YouTube(Steve ChenandJawed Karim),THX(Tomlinson Holman),Andreessen Horowitz(Marc Andreessen),Oracle(Larry EllisonandBob Miner),Lotus(Ray Ozzie),Yelp!(Jeremy StoppelmanandRussel Simmons),Safari(Dave Hyatt),Firefox(Joe Hewitt),W. W. Grainger(William Wallace Grainger),Delta Air Lines(C. E. Woolman),Beckman Instruments(Arnold Beckman),BET(Robert L. Johnson) andTesla Motors(Martin Eberhard). Alumni and faculty have invented theLEDand thequantum well laser(Nick Holonyak, B.S. 1950, M.S. 1951, Ph.D. 1954),DSL(John Cioffi, B.S. 1978),JavaScript(Brendan Eich, M.S. 1986),theintegrated circuit(Jack Kilby, B.S. 1947), thetransistor(John Bardeen, faculty, 1951–1991), thepH meter(Arnold Beckman, B.S. 1922, M.S. 1923),MRI(Paul C. Lauterbur), theplasma screen(Donald Bitzer, B.S. 1955, M.S. 1956, Ph.D. 1960), color plasma display (Larry F. Weber, B.S. 1968 M.S. 1971 Ph.D. 1975), the training methodology called PdEI and the coin counter (James P. Liautaud, B.S. 1963), the statistical algorithm calledGibbs samplingin computer vision and the machine learning technique calledrandom forests(Donald Geman, B.A. 1965), and are responsible for the structural design of such buildings as theWillis Tower, theJohn Hancock Center, and theBurj Khalifa. MathematicianRichard Hamming, known for theHamming codeandHamming distance, earned a PhD in mathematics from the university's Mathematics Department in 1942.Primetime Emmy Award-winning engineerAlan Bovik(B.S. 1980, M.S. 1982, Ph.D. 1984) invented neuroscience-based video quality measurement tools that pervadetelevision,social mediaandhome cinema.Structural engineerFazlur Rahman Khanearned two master's degrees, and a PhD in structural engineering from the university. Alumni have also led several companies, includingMcDonald's,Goldman Sachs,BP,Kodak,Shell,General Motors,AT&T, andGeneral Electricand others. Alumni have founded many organizations, including theSusan G. Komen for the CureandProject Gutenberg, and have served in a wide variety of government and public interest roles.Rafael Correa, President ofThe Republic of Ecuadorfrom 2007 to 2017, secured his M.S. and PhD degrees from the university's Economics Department in 1999 and 2001 respectively.Nathan C. Rickerattended U of I and in 1873 was the first person to graduate in the United States with a certificate in architecture.Mary L. Page, the first woman to obtain a degree in architecture, also graduated from U of I.Disability rights activist and co-organizer of the504 Sit-in,Kitty Cone, attended during the 1960s, but left six hours short of her degree to continue her activism in New York. In sports, baseball pitcherKen Holtzmanwas a two-time All Star major leaguer, and threw twono-hittersin his career.In sports entertainment,David Otungabecame a two-timeWWE Tag Team Champion. Eta Kappa Nu(ΗΚΝ) was founded at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign as the national honor society for electrical engineering in 1904. Maurice LeRoy Carr (B.S. 1905) and Edmund B. Wheeler (B.S. 1905) were part of the founding group of ten students and they served as the first and second national presidents of ΗΚΝ. The Eta Kappa Nu organization is now the international honor society forIEEEas theIEEE-Eta Kappa Nu(IEEE-ΗΚΝ).The U of I collegiate chapter is known as the Alpha Chapter of ΗΚΝ.Lowell P. Hagerwas the head of the Department of Biochemistry from 1969 until 1989 and was elected to theNational Academy of Sciencesin 1995. Notes References Further reading External links 40°6′38″N88°13′42″W / 40.11056°N 88.22833°W /40.11056; -88.22833", "Hugh Hefner Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Hugh Marston Hefner(April 9, 1926 – September 27, 2017) was an American magazine publisher. He was the founder and editor-in-chief ofPlayboymagazine, a publication with revealing photographs and articles. Hefner extended thePlayboybrand into a world network ofPlayboy Clubs. He also resided in luxury mansions wherePlayboyPlaymatesshared his wild partying life, fueling media interest. Early life and education Hefner was born inChicago, on April 9, 1926,the first child of Glenn Lucius Hefner (1896–1976), an accountant, and his wife Grace Caroline (Swanson) Hefner (1895–1997) who worked as a teacher. His parents were fromNebraska.He had a younger brother, Keith (1929–2016).His mother was of Swedish ancestry, and his father was German and English. Through his father's line, Hefner was a descendant of Plymouth governorWilliam Bradford.He described his family as \"conservative, Midwestern, Methodist\".His mother had wanted him to become a missionary. He attended Sayre Elementary School andSteinmetz High School, then served from 1944 to 1946 as aUnited States Armywriter for a military newspaper. Hefner graduated from theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaignin 1949 with aBachelor of Artsinpsychologyand a doubleminorin creative writing and art, having earned his degree in two and a half years. After graduation, he took a semester of graduate courses in sociology atNorthwestern University, but dropped out soon after. Career In January 1952, Hefner left his job as a copywriter forEsquireafter he was denied a $5 raise. In 1953, he took out a mortgage loan of $600 and raised $8,000 from 45 investors (including $1,000 from his mother—\"not because she believed in the venture,\" he toldE!in 2006, \"but because she believed in her son\") to launchPlayboy, which was initially going to be calledStag Party. The first issue was published in December 1953 and featuredMarilyn Monroefrom a 1949 nude calendar shoot she did under a pseudonym.That first issue sold more than 50,000 copies, but Monroe was not paid by Playboy or Hefner for the photos.(Hefner never met Monroe, but he bought the crypt next to hers at theWestwood Village Memorial Park Cemeteryin 1992 for $75,000.) Esquiremagazine rejectedCharles Beaumont's science fiction story \"The Crooked Man\" in 1955, so Hefner agreed to publish it inPlayboy.The story highlighted straight men being persecuted in a world where homosexuality was the norm. The magazine received angry letters, so Hefner responded, \"If it was wrong to persecute heterosexuals in a homosexual society then the reverse was wrong, too.\"In 1961, Hefner watchedDick Gregoryperform at the Herman Roberts Show Bar in Chicago, and he hired Gregory to work at the Chicago Playboy Club. Gregory attributed the launch of his career to that night. Hefner promoted abon vivantlifestyle in his magazine and in the television shows that he hostedPlayboy's Penthouse(1959–1960) andPlayboy After Dark(1969–1970).He was also the chief creative officer ofPlayboy Enterprises, the publishing group which operates the magazine. On June 4, 1963, Hefner was arrested for promoting obscene literature after he published an issue ofPlayboyfeaturing nude shots ofJayne Mansfieldin bed with a man present.The case went to trial and resulted in ahung jury. In the 1960s, Hefner created \"private key\" clubs that were racially diverse.During the civil rights movement in 1966, Hefner sentAlex Haleyto interviewAmerican Nazi PartyfounderGeorge Lincoln Rockwell, much to Rockwell's shock because Haley was black. Rockwell agreed to meet with Haley only after gaining assurance that he was not Jewish, although Rockwell kept a handgun on the table throughout the interview.InRoots: The Next Generations(1979), the interview was recreated withJames Earl Jonesas Haley andMarlon Brandoas Rockwell.Haley had also interviewedMalcolm Xin 1963 andMartin Luther King Jr.in 1966 for the newly established 1962 \"playboy interview\". In 1970, Hefner stated that \"militant feminists\" are \"unalterably opposed to the romantic boy-girl society thatPlayboypromotes\" and ordered an article in his magazine against them. In his later years, Hefner's star dimmed, but he remained a well-known personality, often appearing in cameo roles. In the 1993The Simpsonsepisode \"Krusty Gets Kancelled\", Hefner voiced himself.In 1999, Hefner financed theClara BowdocumentaryDiscovering the It Girl. \"Nobody has what Clara had,\" he said. \"She defined an era and made her mark on the nation\".Hefner guest-starred as himself in the 2000Sex and the Cityepisode \"Sex and Another City\".In 2005, he guest-starred on the HBO showsCurb Your EnthusiasmandEntourage.He guest-starred as himself in a 2006 episode ofSeth Green'sRobot Chickenon the late-night programming blockAdult Swim.In the 2007Family Guyepisode \"Airport '07\", he voiced himself.He has a star on theHollywood Walk of Famefor television and made several movie appearances as himself. In 2009, he was nominated for aGolden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actorfor his performance as himself inMiss March. On his official Twitter account, he joked about this nomination: \"Maybe I didn't understand the character.\" Brigitte Berman's documentaryHugh Hefner: Playboy, Activist and Rebelwas released on July 30, 2010. He had previously granted full access to documentary filmmaker and television producerKevin Burnsfor the A&EBiographyspecialHugh Hefner: American Playboyin 1996.Hefner and Burns later collaborated on numerous other television projects, most notably onThe Girls Next Door, a reality series that ran for six seasons (2005–2009) and 90 episodes.Hefner also made a voice-only appearance as himself in the 2011 filmHop. In 2012, Hefner announced that his youngest sonCooperwould succeed him as the public face ofPlayboy. Personal life Hefner was known to friends and family simply as \"Hef\".He married Northwestern University student Mildred (\"Millie\") Williams in 1949. They had a daughter namedChristie(b. 1952) and a son, David (b. 1955).Before the wedding, Mildred confessed that she'd had an affair while he was away in the army. He called the admission \"the most devastating moment of my life.\" A 2006E! True Hollywood Storyprofile of Hefner revealed that Mildred allowed him to have sex with other women, out of guilt for her own infidelity and in the hope that it would preserve their marriage. The couple divorced in 1959. Hefner remade himself as abon vivantand man about town, a lifestyle that he promoted in his magazine and TV shows. He admitted to being \"'involved' with maybe eleven out of twelve months' worth of Playmates\" during some years.Donna Michelle,Marilyn Cole,Lillian Müller,Shannon Tweed,Barbi Benton,Karen Christy,Sondra Theodore, and Carrie Leigh were a few of his many lovers; Leigh filed a $35 millionpalimonysuit against him.In 1971, he acknowledged that he experimented in bisexuality.Also in 1971, he established a second residence in Los Angeles with the acquisition of Playboy Mansion West, and moved there permanently from Chicago in 1975. On March 7, 1985, Hefner had a minor stroke at age 58, whereupon he re-evaluated his lifestyle, making several changes. He toned down the wild, all-night parties, and his daughter Christie took over the operation of Playboy's commercial operations in 1988. The following year, he married Playmate of the YearKimberley Conrad; they were 36 years apart in age. The couple had sons Marston Glenn (b. 1990) and Cooper (b. 1991).TheE! True Hollywood Storyprofile noted that thePlayboy Mansionhad been transformed into a family-friendly homestead. He and Conrad separated in 1998, after which she moved into the house next door to the mansion.Hefner filed for divorce from Conrad in 2009 after an 11-year separation, citing irreconcilable differences.He stated that he only remained nominally married to her for the sake of their children,and their youngest child had just turned 18. The divorce was finalized in 2010. Hefner became known for moving an ever-changing coterie of young women into the Playboy Mansion, including twins Mandy andSandy Bentley. He dated as many as seven womenconcurrently. He also datedBrande Roderick,Izabella St. James,Tina Marie Jordan,Holly Madison,Bridget Marquardt, andKendra Wilkinson. Madison, Wilkinson, and Marquardt appeared onThe Girls Next Doordepicting their lives at the Playboy Mansion. In October 2008, all three of them decided to leave the mansion. In January 2009, Hefner began a relationship withCrystal Harris;she joined theShannon Twinsafter his previous \"number one girlfriend\"Holly Madisonhad ended their seven-year relationship.On December 24, 2010, he became engaged to Harris,but she broke off their engagement on June 14, 2011, five days before their planned wedding.The July issue ofPlayboyreached store shelves and customers' homes within days of the wedding date; it featured Harris on the cover, and in a photo spread as well. The headline on the cover read \"Introducing America's Princess, Mrs. Crystal Hefner\".Hefner and Harris subsequently reconciled and married on December 31, 2012. Hefner was very distantly related to the 41st and 43rd presidents of the United States,George H. W. BushandGeorge W. Bush, respectively.Hefner's brother Keith died at age 87 on April 8, 2016, one day before Hefner's 90th birthday. Playboy Mansion In January 2016, the Playboy Mansion was put on the market for $200 million, on condition that Hugh Hefner would continue to work and live in the mansion.Later that year it was sold to Daren Metropoulos, a principal at private equity firm Metropoulos & Company, for $100 million. Metropoulos planned to reconnect the Playboy Mansion property with a neighboring estate that he purchased in 2009, combining the two for a 7.3 acre (3-hectare) compound as his own private residence. In May 2017,Eugena Washingtonwas the last Playmate of the Year to be announced by Hugh Hefner at thePlayboy Mansion. Politics and philanthropy Hefner debatedThe Playboy PhilosophywithWilliam F. Buckley Jr., onFiring Linein Episode 26, recorded on September 12, 1966. TheHugh M. Hefner First Amendment Awardwas created by Christie Hefner \"to honor individuals who have made significant contributions in the vital effort to protect and enhance First Amendment rights for Americans.\" He donated and raised money for theDemocratic Party.In 2011, he referred to himself as anindependentdue to dissatisfaction with both the Democratic andRepublicanparties.Nonetheless, in 2012, he supportedBarack Obama's reelection campaign. In 1978, Hefner helped organize fund-raising efforts that led to the restoration of theHollywood Sign. He hosted a gala fundraiser at the Playboy Mansion and contributed $27,000 (or 1/9 of the total restoration costs) by purchasing the letter Y in a ceremonial auction. Hefner stated in a 2000 interview withPlayboy, \"It's perfectly clear to me that religion is a myth. It's something we have invented to explain the inexplicable.\"Lee Strobel, a Christian author who interviewed Hefner regarding his theological positions, later described Hefner as having a \"very minimalistic,deisticview ofGod.\" Hefner donated $100,000 to theUniversity of Southern California'sSchool of Cinematic Artsto create a course called \"Censorship in Cinema\", and $2 million to endow a chair for the study of American film.In 2007, the university's audiovisual archive at the Norris Theater received a donation from Hefner and was renamed to theHugh M. Hefner Moving Image Archivein his honor. Both through his charitable foundation and individually, Hefner also contributed to charities and other organizations outside the sphere of politics and publishing, throwing fundraiser events for Much Love Animal Rescue as well asGeneration Rescue,ananti-vaccinationistcampaign organization supported byJenny McCarthy. On November 18, 2010, Children of the Night founder and president Dr. Lois Lee presented Hefner with the organization's first-ever Founder's Hero of the Heart Award in appreciation for his unwavering dedication, commitment and generosity. On April 26, 2010, Hefner donated the last $900,000 sought by a conservation group for a land purchase needed to stop the development of the vista of the Hollywood Sign.Sylvilagus palustris hefneri, an endangered subspecies ofmarsh rabbit, is named after him in honor of financial support that he provided. The Barbi Twins, who are among a notable cohort of celebrity Playmates, includingPamela Andersonand Hefner's third wifeCrystal Harris, praised the publishing icon for providing centerfolds and extended members of the Playboy family with a platform for activism and advocacy on behalf of animal populations in need. Hefner supported legalizingsame-sex marriage, calling it \"a fight for all our rights. Without it, we will turn back the sexual revolution and return to an earlier, puritanical time.\" Death Hefner died at the Playboy Mansion on September 27, 2017, at the age of 91.The cause wassepsisbrought on by anE. coliinfection. He is interred atWestwood Memorial Parkin Los Angeles, in the crypt besideMarilyn Monroe, for which he paid $75,000 in 1992. \"Spending eternity next to Marilyn is an opportunity too sweet to pass up,\" Hefner had told theLos Angeles Timesin 2009. Reputation Suzanne Moorewrote inThe Guardianthat Hefner threatened to file a lawsuit against her for calling him a \"pimp\".Defending her position, Moore argued that \"he was a man who bought and sold women to other men\".She further stated that \"part of Hefner's business acumen was to make the selling of female flesh respectable and hip, to make soft porn acceptable.\"Julie Bindelargued inThe Independentthat Hefner \"caused immeasurable damage by turning porn—and therefore the buying and selling of women's bodies—into a legitimate business.\" Robin Abcarian wrote in theLos Angeles Times, quotingWendy Hamilton, that Hefner \"probably did more to mainstream the exploitation of women's bodies than any other figure in American history,\" adding that he \"managed to convince many women that taking off their clothes for men's pleasure was not just empowering, but a worthy goal in itself.\" She further stated that Hefner \"embodied the aesthetic notion that images of women—and women themselves—exist to please men.\" Hefner's former girlfriendHolly Madisonsaid that he \"would encourage competition—and body image issues—between his multiple live-in girlfriends. His legacy is full of evidence of the exploitation of women for professional gain.\"Ed Stetzerwrote inChristianity Todaythat Hefner would have the residence systematically cleaned whenever Christie Hefner visited in order \"to keep the realities from his own daughter\".Stetzer further lamented the consequences of Hefner's role as a \"general\" of the \"sexual revolution\": It's hard to fathom that anyone would have known what this would have turned into. Parents growing up today are fighting to keep their children pure. Spouses are fighting to keep their marriages intact. And many enslaved and trapped in the adult entertainment industry have been figuratively and literally stripped not only of their clothes, but their very value as people made in the image of God. If this does not concern us, what will? A 12-part television documentary series,Secrets of Playboy, debuted onA&EJanuary 24, 2022, in which Hefner's former male and female employees and partners made claims of systematic sexual misconduct and manipulation, recreational and manipulative drug use,peer pressure,sextortion, blackmail, rape, forced and violentanal sex,sexual assaultwithoutconsentand/or while victims were in a state of drug-induced stupor or unconsciousness, spying, videotaping without consent, andillegal sex with minorsby Hefner and his celebrity friends and guests at the Playboy Mansion and other locations.ThePLBY group, now publicly owned, distanced itself from Hefner in a statement released shortly before the first episode was broadcast, saying, \"Today's Playboy is not Hugh Hefner's Playboy. We trust and validate these women and their stories and we strongly support those individuals who have come forward to share their experiences.\" In January 2024, Hefner's widow Crystal, who previously brushed away criticism, wrote a memoir where she alleged she experienced a hostile environment while at thePlayboy Mansion, even claiming that she was \"imprisoned\" while there. Depictions TheAmazon original seriesAmerican Playboy: The Hugh Hefner Storywas released in April 2017. It starsMatt Whelanin the title role, along withEmmett SkiltonandChelsie Preston Crayford. The ten episodes are a combination of interviews, archival footage (including moments found in Hefner's vast personal collection), and cinematic re-enactments that cover the launch of the magazine as well as the next six decades of Hefner's personal life and career. The series was filmed inAuckland. In October 2017, Playboy Enterprises announced that a Hugh Hefner biopic directed byBrett Ratnerwith the screenplay byJeff Nathansonwas greenlit withJared Letorumored to play Hefner.In November 2017, it was indefinitely put on hold following sexual harassment allegations against Ratner, and Leto's representatives stated that reports of him being attached to the film at any point were false. Filmography Books Further reading References External links", "Minyong Kim Minyong Kim(Korean:김민용; sometimes known as Dragon) is animpersonatorofKim Jong Un, thesupreme leaderofNorth Korea. His impersonation gained attention when he was an undergraduate student at theUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Impersonator career Kim was born inSeoulto a working class family and studied business at the University of Illinois. He first enrolled at the university in 2009, then went back to South Korea for 25 months to complete mandatory military service in theKorean Air Force.He remained in South Korea to work as a teacher and save money, and when he returned to university classes in spring 2013 studied abroad in China which was cheaper for him. In 2014, his Kim Jong Un Halloween costume went viral on Korean social media. He decided to capitalize on his resemblance to Kim Jong Un by gaining weight, buying a black Mao suit, and getting a trapezoidal haircut. Kim toldUSA Todaythat he got stopped on the University of Illinois campus more than 100 times per day by people who wanted photos. Several weeks later, he told a reporter the number was \"200 to 300 times per day, usually like 40 to 50 times per hour.\"His reason for impersonating the North Korean leader, he said, is to make people happy. Kim does not agree with Kim Jong Un's politics but he shares the supreme leader's interest in theChicago Bulls.Because of Kim Jong Un's divisiveness, Minyong Kim said his parents feared he would be kidnapped or assassinated. He told theChampaign News-Gazette,\"my girlfriend really abhors this... not only hates it, but abhors.\" After Kim's graduation in late 2015, he began running an agency that prepares South Korean students for school in the United States.His career goal is to expand affordable education options in South Korea. Film, television, and advertising His resemblance to Kim Jong Un has earned him roles in movies, commercials, soap operas, and music videos.In April 2015, he and aBarack Obamaimpersonator namedReggie Brown, who also attended the University of Illinois, appeared in commercial for eNuri, a South Korean online marketplace.In a commercial for an air purifier, he acted like he was creating new weapons to destroy germs in the air.In a 2015 YouTube video made by QPark, Kim walked around New York City in full costume. The video got ten million views in its first two months.In April 2015, Kim appeared on a South Korean talk show to startle North Korean defectors, who were on the show discussing their previous lives under the totalitarian dictatorship. External links References" ]
[ "University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign TheUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign(UIUC,U of I,Illinois, orUniversity of Illinois)is apublicland-grantresearch universityin theChampaign–Urbana metropolitan area, Illinois, United States. It is theflagshipinstitution of theUniversity of Illinois systemand was established in 1867. With over 59,000 students, the University of Illinois is one of thelargest public universities by enrollmentin the United States. The university contains 16 schools and collegesand offers more than 150 undergraduate and over 100 graduate programs of study. The university holds 651 buildings on 6,370 acres (2,578 ha)and its annual operating budget in 2016 was over $2 billion.The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign also operates aResearch Parkhome to innovation centers for over 90 start-up companies andmultinational corporations. The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign is a member of theAssociation of American Universitiesand isclassifiedamong \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very", "Universities – Very high research activity\".In fiscal year 2019, research expenditures at Illinois totaled $652 million.The campus library system possesses thefourth-largest university libraryin the United States by holdings.The university also hosts theNational Center for Supercomputing Applications. Illinois athletic teams compete inDivision Iof theNCAAand are collectively known as theFighting Illini. They are members of theBig Ten Conferenceand have won thesecond-most conference titles.Illinois Fighting Illini footballwon theRose Bowl Gamein 1947, 1952, 1964 and a total of five national championships. Illinois athletes have won 29 medals inOlympic events. The alumni, faculty members, or researchers of the university include 30 Nobel laureates, 27Pulitzer Prizewinners, two Fields medalists, and twoTuring Awardwinners. History Illinois Industrial University (1867–1885) The University of Illinois, originally named \"Illinois Industrial University\", was one of the 37 universities created under the firstMorrill", "the firstMorrill Land-Grant Act, which provided public land for the creation of agricultural and industrial colleges and universities across the United States. Among several cities,Urbanawas selected in 1867 as the site for the new school.From the beginning, PresidentJohn Milton Gregory's desire to establish an institution firmly grounded in theliberal artstradition was at odds with many state residents and lawmakers who wanted the university to offer classes based solely around \"industrial education\".The university opened for classes on March 2, 1868, and had two faculty members and 77 students. The Library, which opened with the school in 1868, started with 1,039 volumes. Subsequently, PresidentEdmund J. James, in a speech to the board of trustees in 1912, proposed to create a research library. It is now one of the world's largest public academic collections.In 1870, the Mumford House was constructed as a model farmhouse for the school's experimental farm. The Mumford House remains the oldest structure on", "oldest structure on campus.The original University Hall (1871) was the fourth building built; it stood where the Illini Union stands today. University of Illinois (1885–1977) In 1885, the Illinois Industrial University officially changed its name to the \"University of Illinois\", reflecting its agricultural, mechanical, and liberal arts curriculum. During his presidency,Edmund J. James(1904–1920) set the policy of building a massive research library.He also laid the foundation for the large Chinese international student population on campus.James established ties with China through the Chinese Minister to the United StatesWu Ting-Fang. Class rivalries andBob Zuppke'swinning football teams contributed to campus morale. Alma Mater, a prominent statue on campus created by alumnusLorado Taft, was unveiled on June 11, 1929. It was funded from donations by the Alumni Fund and the classes of 1923–1929. TheGreat Depression in the United Statesslowed construction and expansion on the campus. The university replaced", "university replaced the original university hall with Gregory Hall and theIllini Union. After World War II, the university experienced rapid growth. The enrollment doubled and the academic standing improved.This period was also marked by large growth in the Graduate College and increased federal support of scientific and technological research. During the 1950s and 1960s the university experienced the turmoil common on many American campuses. Among these were the water fights of the 1950s and 1960s. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (1977–present) By 1967, theUniversity of Illinois systemconsisted of a main campus in Champaign-Urbana and two Chicago campuses, Chicago Circle (UICC) and Medical Center (UIMC), and people began using \"Urbana-Champaign\" or the reverse to refer to the main campus specifically. The university name officially changed to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign by 1977 (although the word \"at\" was later dropped for marketing purposes by all U of I System campuses by 2021).", "campuses by 2021). While this was a reversal of the commonly used designation for the metropolitan area (Champaign-Urbana), a majority of the campus is located in Urbana. The name change established a separate identity for the main campus within theUniversity of Illinois System, which today includes separate institutions at theUniversity of Illinois Chicago(formed by the merger of UICC and UIMC) andUniversity of Illinois Springfield. In 1998, the Hallene Gateway Plaza was dedicated. The Plaza features the original sandstone portal of University Hall, which was originally the fourth building on campus.In recent years, state support has declined from 4.5% of the state's tax appropriations in 1980 to 2.28% in 2011, a nearly 50% decline.As a result, the university's budget has shifted away from relying on state support with nearly 84% of the budget coming from other sources in 2012. On March 12, 2015, the Board of Trustees approved the creation of a medical school, the first college created at Urbana-Champaign", "at Urbana-Champaign in 60 years.TheCarle Illinois College of Medicinebegan classes in 2018. Philanthropy Over the last twenty years state funding for the university has fallen. Private philanthropy increasingly supplements revenue from tuition and state funding, providing about 19% of the annual budget in 2012.Notable among significant donors, alumnus entrepreneurThomas M. Siebelhas committed nearly $150 million to the university, including $36 million to build theThomas M. Siebel Center for Computer Science, $25 million to build theSiebel Center for Design, and $50 million to support the renamed Department of Computer Science to become Siebel School of Computing and Data Science.Furthermore, the Grainger Foundation (founded by alumnusW. W. Grainger) has contributed more than $300 million to the university over the last half-century,including donations for the construction of theGrainger Engineering Library. Larry Gies and his wife Beth donated $150 million in 2017 to the shortly thereafter renamedGies", "renamedGies College of Business. Campus The main research and academic facilities are divided almost evenly between the twin cities ofUrbanaandChampaign, which form part of theChampaign–Urbana metropolitan area. Some parts are inUrbana Township. Four main quads compose the center of the university and are arranged from north to south. The Beckman Quadrangle and theJohn BardeenQuadrangle occupy the center of theEngineering Campus.Boneyard Creekflows through the John Bardeen Quadrangle, parallel to Green Street. The Beckman Quadrangle, named afterArnold Orville Beckman, is primarily composed of research units and laboratories, and features a large solar calendar consisting of an obelisk and several copper fountains. The Main Quadrangle and South Quadrangle follow immediately after the John Bardeen Quad. The former makes up a large part of theLiberal Arts and Sciencesportion of the campus, while the latter comprises many of the buildings of theCollege of Agriculture, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences(ACES)", "Sciences(ACES) spread across the campus map. Additionally, the research fields of the College of ACES stretch south from Urbana and Champaign intoSavoyandChampaign County. The university also maintains formal gardens and a conference center in nearbyMonticelloatAllerton Park. The campus is known for its landscape and architecture, as well as distinctive landmarks.It was identified as one of 50 college or university \"works of art\" by T.A. Gaines in his bookThe Campus as a Work of Art.The campus also has a number of buildings and sites on theU.S. National Register of Historic PlacesincludingHarker Hall, theAstronomical Observatory,Louise Freer Hall, theMain Library, theExperimental Dairy Farm Historic District, and theMorrow Plots.University of Illinois Willard Airportis one of the few airports owned by an educational institution. Sustainability In 2008, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign became a signatory of the American College and University Presidents' Climate Commitment, binding the campus to", "the campus to the goal ofcarbon neutralityas soon as possible. In 2010, the first Illinois Climate Action Plan (iCAP) was written to chart a path to this goal. The iCAP is a strategic framework for meeting the university's Climate Leadership Commitments to be carbon-neutral by 2050 or sooner and build resilience with its local community. Since then, theiCAPhas been rewritten every five years to track the university's progress. In December 2013, the University of Illinois launched theInstitute for Sustainability, Energy, and Environment (iSEE)on the Urbana-Champaign campus. The institute, under the Vice Chancellor for Research and Innovation, leads an interdisciplinary approach to researching solutions for the world's most pressing sustainability, energy, and environmental needs. In addition, iSEE has engaged students, faculty, staff, and campus leadership in the iCAP process — especially in the areas of zero waste and conservation of energy, food, water, land, and natural resources — as well as", "— as well as sustainability outreach and immersive educational programs. In her remarks on being named Director of iSEE in 2022, Professor of Agricultural and Consumer Economics Madhu Khanna explained: \"We aim to position campus to play a transformative role in moving us all to a more sustainable future.\" In 2022, new solar and geothermal energy projects, a reduction in water use, and wide-ranging sustainability research helped the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign earn its fifth consecutive gold certification in theSustainability Tracking, Assessment & Rating System (STARS).Illinois has consistently achieved gold certification since it began reporting data through STARS in 2013, and the 2022 score was one of its highest to date. Currently, the campus features 27 LEED-certified buildings. Academics Undergraduate admissions The overall first-year admit rate for 2023 is 43.7%,which differ greatly among UIUC colleges — whereas the overall first-choice admit rate is 34.7%, theGrainger College of", "College of Engineeringhas an admit rate of 22.3%. Certain in-demand majors like Computer Science, including Computer Science + X, of which the program being ranked consistently 5th nationwidecan be extremely competitive, with an acceptance rate of less than 6.8% in 2022,and average freshman ACT composite score of 33.7. Computer Science + X admit rate: 19.6% In 2009, an investigation byThe Chicago Tribunereported that some applicants \"receivedspecial consideration\" for acceptance between 2005 and 2009, despite having sub-par qualifications.This incident became known as theUniversity of Illinois clout scandal. Academic divisions The university offers more than 150 undergraduate and 100 graduate and professional programs in over 15 academic units, among several online specializations such as Digital Marketing and an online MBA program launched in January 2016. In 2015, the university announced its expansion to include an engineering-based medical program, which would be the first new college created in", "college created in Urbana-Champaign in 60 years.The university also offers undergraduate students the opportunity for graduation honors. University Honors is an academic distinction awarded to the highest achieving students. To earn the distinction, students must have a cumulative grade point average of a 3.5/4.0 within the academic year of their graduation and rank within the top 3% of their graduating class. Their names are inscribed on a Bronze Tablet that hangs in the Main Library. Online learning In addition to the university's Illinois Online platform, in 2015 the university entered into a partnership with the Silicon Valley educational technology companyCourserato offer a series of master's degrees, certifications, and specialization courses, currently including more than 70 joint learning classes. In August 2015, the Master of Business Administration program was launched through the platform.On March 31, 2016, Coursera announced the launch of the Master of Computer Science in Data Science from the", "Science from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.At the time, the university's computer-science graduate program was ranked fifth in the United States byU.S. News & World Report.On March 29, 2017, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign launched their Master's in Accounting (iMSA) program, now called the Master of Science in Accountancy (iMSA) program. The iMSA program is led through live sessions, headed by UIUC faculty. Similar to the university's on-campus admission policies, the online master's degrees offered by The University of Illinois through Coursera also has admission requirements. All applicants must hold a bachelor's degree, and have earned a 3.0 GPA or higher in the last two years of study. Additionally, all applicants must prove their proficiency in English. The University of Illinois also offers online courses in partnership with Coursera, such asMarketing in a DigitalWorld,which focuses on how digital tools like internet, smartphone and 3D printers are changing the marketing", "the marketing landscape. Rankings In the 2021U.S. News & World Report\"America's Best Colleges\" report, UIUC's undergraduate program was ranked tied for 47th among national universities and tied for 15th among public universities, with its undergraduate engineering program ranked tied for 6th in the U.S. among schools whose highest degree is a doctorate. Washington Monthlyranked UIUC 18th among 389 national universities in the U.S. for 2020, based on its contribution to the public good as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.Kiplinger's Personal Financerated Illinois 12th in its 2019 list of 174 Best Values in Public Colleges,which \"measures academic quality, cost and financial aid.\" The Graduate Program in Urban Planning at the College of Fine and Applied Arts was ranked 3rd nationally by Planetizen in 2015.The university was also listed as a \"Public Ivy\" inThe Public Ivies: America's Flagship Public Universities(2001) by Howard and Matthew Greene.The Princeton Reviewranked", "Reviewranked Illinois 1st in its 2016 list of top party schools. Internationally, UIUC engineering was ranked 13th in the world in 2016 by theAcademic Ranking of World Universities(ARWU) and the university 38th in 2019;the university was also ranked 48th globally by theTimes Higher Education World University Rankingsin 2020 and 75th in the world by theQS World University Rankingsfor 2020. TheCenter for World University Rankings (CWUR)has ranked University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign as the 20th best university in the world for 2019–20. UIUC is also ranked 32nd in the world inTimes Higher EducationWorld Reputation Rankings for 2018. Research The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign is often regarded as a world-leading magnet for engineering and sciences (both applied and basic). According to theNational Science Foundation, the university spent $625 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 37th in the nation.It is also listed as one of the Top 25 American Research Universities byThe Center", "byThe Center for Measuring University Performance.Beside annual influx of grants and sponsored projects, the university manages an extensive modern research infrastructure.The university has been a leader in computer based education and hosted thePLATOproject, which was a precursor to the internet and resulted in the development of theplasma display. Illinois was a 2nd-generationARPAnetsite in 1971 and was the first institution to license theUNIXoperating system from Bell Labs. National Center for Supercomputing Applications The university hosts theNational Center for Supercomputing Applications(NCSA), which createdMosaic, the first graphicalweb browser, theApache HTTP server, andNCSA Telnet. The Parallel@Illinois program hosts several programs inparallel computing, including theUniversal Parallel Computing Research Center. The university contracted withCrayto build theNational Science Foundation-funded supercomputerBlue Waters.The system also has the largest public online storage system in the world with", "in the world with more than 25 petabytes of usable space.The university celebrated January 12, 1997, as the \"birthday\" ofHAL 9000, the fictional supercomputer from the novel and film2001: A Space Odyssey; in both works, HAL credits \"Urbana, Illinois\" as his place of operational origin. Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology TheBeckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technologysupports interdisciplinary collaborative research in the broad areas of intelligent systems, neuroscience, molecular science and engineering, and biomedical imaging. Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology TheCarl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biologysupports research in genomics and related areas of biology. Prairie Research Institute ThePrairie Research Instituteis located on campus and is the home of theIllinois Natural History Survey, Illinois State Geological Survey, Illinois State Water Survey, Illinois Sustainable Technology Center, and the Illinois State Archeological Survey. Researchers at the Prairie", "at the Prairie Research Institute are engaged in research in agriculture and forestry, biodiversity and ecosystem health, atmospheric resources, climate and associated natural hazards, cultural resources and history of human settlements, disease and public health, emerging pests, fisheries and wildlife, energy and industrial technology, mineral resources, pollution prevention and mitigation, and water resources. TheIllinois Natural History Surveycollections include crustaceans, reptiles and amphibians, birds, mammals, algae, fungi, and vascular plants, with the insect collection is among the largest in North America. The Illinois State Geological Survey houses the legislatively mandated Illinois Geological Samples Library, a repository for drill-hole samples in Illinois, as well as paleontological collections. ISAS serves as a repository for a large collection of Illinois archaeological artifacts. One of the major collections is from theCahokiaMounds. Research Park Located in the southwest part of", "southwest part of campus,Research Parkopened its first building in 2001 and has grown to encompass 13 buildings. Ninety companies have established roots in research park, employing over 1,400 people. Tenants of the Research Park facilities include prominent Fortune 500 companies Capital One, John Deere, State Farm, Caterpillar, and Yahoo, Inc. Companies also employ about 400 total student interns at any given time throughout the year. The complex is also a center for entrepreneurs, and has over 50 startup companies stationed at its EnterpriseWorks Incubator facility. In 2011, Urbana, Illinois was named number 11 on Popular Mechanics' \"14 Best Startup Cities in America\" list, in a large part due to the contributions of Research Park's programs.The park has gained recognition from other notable publications, such as inc.com and Forbes magazine. For the 2011 fiscal year, Research Park produced an economic output of $169.5M for the state of Illinois. Technology Entrepreneur Center The Technology Entrepreneur", "Entrepreneur Center at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign is a permanent center established to provide students with resources for their entrepreneurial ideas. The center offers classes, venture and product competitions, and workshops to introduce students to technology innovation and market adoption.Events and programs hosted by the TEC include the Cozad New Venture Challenge, Silicon Valley Entrepreneurship Workshop, Illinois I-Corps, and SocialFuse. The campus-wide Cozad New Venture Challenge has been held annually since 2000. Participants are mentored in the phases of venture creation and attend workshops on idea validation, pitching skills, and customer development. In 2019, teams competed for $250,000 in funding.The Silicon Valley Workshop is a week-long workshop, occurring annually in January. Students visit startups and technology companies in the Silicon Valley and network entrepreneurial alumni from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Students are exposed to technology", "to technology entrepreneurship, innovation, and leadership. The trip features corporate leaders, venture capitalists, and entrepreneurs in various stages of a startup lifecycle.Illinois I-Corps teaches National Science Foundation grantees how to learn to identify valuable product opportunities that can emerge from academic research, and gain skills in entrepreneurship through training in customer discovery and guidance from established entrepreneurs.The program is a collaboration between the Technology Entrepreneur Center and EnterpriseWorks, with participation from the Office of Technology Management and IllinoisVentures. The program consists of three workshops over six weeks, where teams work to validate the market size, value propositions, and customer segments of their innovations.SocialFuse is a recurring pitching and networking event where students can pitch ideas, find teammates, and network. Center for Plasma-Material Interactions The Center for Plasma-Material Interactions was established in 2004 by", "in 2004 by Professor David N. Ruzic to research the complex behavior betweenions,electrons, andenergetic atomsgenerated inplasmasand the surfaces of materials. CPMI encompassesfusion plasmasin its research. Accolades InBill Gates' February 24, 2004, talk as part of his Five Campus Tour (Harvard, MIT, Cornell, Carnegie-Mellon and Illinois)titled \"Software Breakthroughs: Solving the Toughest Problems in Computer Science,\" he mentionedMicrosofthires more graduates from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign than from any other university in the world.Alumnus William M. Holt, a senior vice-president ofIntel, also mentioned in a campus talk on September 27, 2007, entitled \"R&D to Deliver Practical Results: Extending Moore's Law\"that Intel hires more PhD graduates from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign than from any other university in the country. In 2007, the university-hosted researchInstitute for Condensed Matter Theory(ICMT) was launched, with the directorPaul Goldbartand the chief", "the chief scientistAnthony Leggett. ICMT is currently located at the Engineering Science Building on campus. The University Professional and Continuing Education Association (UPCEA), which recognizes excellence in both individual and institutional achievements, has awarded two awards to U of I. Discoveries and innovation Natural sciences Computer & applied sciences Companies & entrepreneurship UIUC alumni and faculty have founded numerous companies and organizations, some of which are shown below. Student life Student body As of spring 2018, the university had 45,813 students.As of 2015, over 10,000 students were international students, and of them 5,295 wereMainland Chinese.The university also recruits students from over 100 countriesamong its 32,878undergraduate students and 10,245graduate and professional students.The gender breakdown is 55% men, 45% women.UIUC in 2014 enrolled 4,898 students from China, more than any other American university. They comprise the largest group of international students on", "students on the campus, followed by South Korea (1,268 in fall 2014) and India (1,167). Graduate enrollment of Chinese students at UIUC has grown from 649 in 2000 to 1,973 in 2014. Student organizations The university has over 1,000 active registered student organizations,showcased at the start of each academic year during Illinois's \"Quad Day.\" Registration and support is provided by the Student Programs & Activities Office, an administrative arm established in pursuit of the larger social, intellectual, and educative goals of the Illini Student Union. The Office's mission is to \"enhance ... classroom education,\" \"meet the needs and desires of the campus community,\" and \"prepare students to be contributing and humane citizens.\"Beyond student organizations,The Daily Illiniis a student-run newspaper that has been published for the community of since 1871. The paper is published byIllini MediaCompany, a not-for-profit which also prints other publications, and operatesWPGU107.1 FM, a student-run commercial", "commercial radio station. The Varsity Men's Glee Club is an all-male choir at the University of Illinois that was founded in 1886.The Varsity Men's Glee Clubis one of theoldest glee clubsin the United States as well as the oldest registered student organization at the University of Illinois. As of 2018, the university also has the largest chapter ofAlpha Phi Omegawith over 340 active members. Greek life There are 59 fraternities and 38 sororities on campus.Of the approximately 30,366 undergraduates, 3,463 are members of sororities and 3,674 are members of fraternities.The Greek system at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign has a system of self-government. While staff advisors and directors manage certain aspects of the Greek community, most of the day-to-day operations of the Greek community are governed by the Interfraternity Council and Panhellenic Council.A smaller minority of fraternities and sororities fall under the jurisdiction of the Black Greek Council and United Greek Council; the Black", "Council; the Black Greek Council serves historically black Greek organizations while the United Greek council comprises other multicultural organizations.Many of the fraternity and sorority houses on campus are on the National Register of Historic Places. Student government U of I has an extensive history of past student governments. Two years after the university opened in 1868, John Milton Gregory and a group of students created a constitution for a student government. Their governance expanded to the entire university in 1873, having a legislative, executive, and judicial branch. For a period of time, this government had the ability to discipline students. In 1883, however, due to a combination of events from Gregory's resignation to student-faculty infighting, the government formally dissolved itself viaplebiscite. It was not until 1934, when the Student Senate, the next university-wide student government, was created. A year before, future U of I Dean of Students, Fred H. Turner and the university's", "the university's Senate Committee on Student Affairs gave increased power to the Student Council, an organization primarily known for organizing dances. A year after, the Student Council created a constitution and became the Student Senate, under the oversight of the Committee on Student Affairs. This Student Senate would last for 35 years.The Student Senate changed its purpose and name in 1969, when it became the Undergraduate Student Association (UGSA). It ceased being a representational government, becoming acollective bargaining agencyinstead. It often worked with the Graduate Student Association to work on various projects In 1967,Bruce A. Morrisonand other U of I graduate founded the Graduate Student Association (GSA). GSA would last until 1978, when it merged with the UGSA to form the Champaign-Urbana Student Association (CUSA).CUSA lasted for only two years when it was replaced by the Student Government Association (SGA) in 1980. SGA lasted for 15 years until it became the Illinois Student Government", "Student Government (ISG) in 1995. ISG lasted until 2004. The current university student government, created in 2004, is the Illinois Student Senate, a combined undergraduate and graduate student senate with 54 voting members. The student senators are elected by college and represent the students in the Urbana-Champaign Senate (which comprises both faculty and students), as well as on a variety of faculty and administrative committees, and are led by an internally elected executive board of a President, External Vice President, Internal Vice President, and Treasurer. As of 2012, the executive board is supported by an executive staff consisting of a Chief of Staff, Clerk of the Senate, Parliamentarian, Director of Communications, Intern Coordinator, and the Historian of the Senate. Residence halls The university provides housing for undergraduates through 24residence hallsin both Urbana and Champaign. Incoming freshmen are required to live in student housing (campus or certified) their first year on campus.", "year on campus. The university also maintains two graduate residence halls, which are restricted to students who are sophomores or above, and three university-owned apartment complexes. Some undergraduates choose to move into apartments or the Greek houses after their first year. There are a number of private dormitories around campus, as well as 15 private, certified residences that partner with the university to offer a variety of different housing options, including ones that are cooperatives, single-gender or religiously affiliated.The university is known for being one of the first universities to provide accommodations for students with disabilities.In 2015, the University of Illinois announced that they would be naming its newest residence hall afterCarlos Montezumaalso known as Wassaja. Wassaja is the firstNative Americangraduate and is believed to be one of the first Native Americans to receive a medical degree. Libraries and museums Among universities in North America, only the collections of", "the collections of Harvard are larger.Currently, the University of Illinois' 20+ departmental libraries and divisions hold more than 24millionitems, including more than 12 million print volumes.As of 2012, it had also the largest \"browsable\" university library in the United States, with 5 million volumes directly accessible in stacks in a single location.University of Illinois also has the largest public engineering library (Grainger Engineering Library) in the country.In addition to the main library building, which houses numerous subject-oriented libraries, the Isaac Funk Family Library on the South Quad serves theCollege of Agriculture, Consumer, and Environmental Sciencesand the Grainger Engineering Library Information Center serves theCollege of Engineeringon theJohn Bardeen Quad. Residence Hall Library System is one of three in the nation.The Residence Hall Libraries were created in 1948 to serve the educational, recreational, and cultural information needs of first- and second-year undergraduate", "undergraduate students residing in the residence halls, and the living-learning communities within the residence halls. The collection also serves University Housing staff as well as the larger campus community.The Rare Book & Manuscript Library(RBML) is one of theSpecial collectionsunits within the University Library.The RBML is one of the largest special collections repositories in the United States. The university has several museums, galleries, and archives which includeKrannert Art Museum,Sousa Archives and Center for American MusicandSpurlock Museum. Gallery and exhibit locations includeKrannert Center for the Performing Artsand atthe School of Art and Design. TheIllinois Open Publishing Network (IOPN) is hosted and coordinated by the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Library, offering publishing services to members of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign community, to disseminateopen accessscholarly publications. Recreation The campus has two main recreation facilities, theActivities and", "theActivities and Recreation Center(ARC) and the Campus Recreation Center – East (CRCE). Originally known as the Intramural Physical Education Building (IMPE) and opened in 1971, IMPE was renovated in 2006 and reopened in August 2008 as the ARC.The renovations expanded the facility, adding 103,433 square feet to the existing structure and costing $54.9 million. This facility is touted by the university as \"one of the country's largest on-campus recreation centers.\" CRCE was originally known as the Satellite Recreation Center and was opened in 1989. The facility was renovated in 2005 to expand the space and update equipment, officially reopening in March 2005 as CRCE. Transportation The bus system that operates throughout the campus and community is operated by theChampaign-Urbana Mass Transit District. The MTD receives a student-approved transportation fee from the university, which providesunlimited accessfor university students, faculty, and staff. DailyAmtraktrains throughIllinois Terminalconnect", "Terminalconnect Champaign-Urbana with Chicago andCarbondale, Illinois. This includes the corridor serviceIllini and Salukiand the long-distanceCity of New Orleans, which provides a direct route toMemphis, Tennessee;Jackson, Mississippi; andNew Orleans, Louisianasouthbound, in addition to Chicago northbound. Willard Airport, opened in 1954 and is named for former University of Illinois president Arthur Cutts Willard. The airport is located in Savoy. Willard Airport is home to University research projects and the university'sInstitute of Aviation, along with flights fromAmerican Airlines. Security The University of Illinois has a dedicated police department, UIPD, which operates independently from CPD, the department that serves the surrounding Champaign area. On June 9, 2017, Yingying Zhang, a Chinese international student, wasabducted and murderedin a case that made national headlines at the time. The university subsequently announced plans to install additional, high-definition, security cameras across the", "cameras across the campus. On April 18, 2022, Sayed A. Quraishi, a 23-year old man who had recently graduated from the university, assaulted a Jewish student outside of the campus'Hillelbuilding during an anti-Israel protest organized byStudents for Justice in Palestine(SJP). Quraishi was subsequently charged with ahate crime. In July 2022, the university announced that it was partnering with local businesses to invest $300,000 to combat violent crime in Champaign County. In September 2022, the City of Champaign transferred responsibility for a large swath of Campustown from CPD (Champaign Police Department) to UIPD, claiming that doing so would reduce response times and improve the quality of service. As part of the jurisdictional reforms, the city agreed to pay a substantial portion of the cost to hire seven new officers to patrol the new coverage area. Violent crime fell sharply in 2022 compared to the year prior, with shootings and homicides declining by 50 and 47 percent, respectively. The city", "The city attributed the decrease in crime to improved staffing levels and the installation ofautomatic license plate readers. Athletics U of I's Division of Intercollegiate Athletics fields teams for ten men's and eleven women's varsity sports. The university participates in theNCAA's Division I. The university's athletic teams are known as the Fighting Illini. The university operates a number of athletic facilities, includingMemorial Stadiumforfootball, theState Farm Centerfor men's and women's basketball, and the Atkins Tennis Center for men's and women's tennis. The men's NCAA basketball team had a dream run in the2005 season, withBruce Weber's Fighting Illini tying the record for most victories in a season. Their run ended 37–2 with a loss to theNorth Carolina Tar Heelsin thenational championship game. Illinois is a member of theBig Ten Conference. Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such ascommencementandconvocation, and athletic games are:Illinois Loyalty, the", "Loyalty, the school song;Oskee Wow Wow, thefight song; andHail to the Orange, the alma mater. On October 15, 1910, the Illinois football team defeated theUniversity of ChicagoMaroons with a score of 3–0 in a game that Illinois claims was the firsthomecominggame, though several other schools claim to have held the first homecoming as well.On November 10, 2007, the unranked Illinois football team defeated the No. 1 rankedOhio Statefootball team inOhio Stadium, the first time that the Illini beat a No. 1 ranked team on the road. TheUniversity of Illinois Ice Arenais home to the university's clubcollege ice hockeyteam competing at theACHA Division Ilevel and is also available for recreational use through the Division of Campus Recreation. It was built in 1931 and designed by Chicago architecture firm Holabird and Root, the same firm that designed the University of Illinois Memorial Stadium and Chicago's Soldier Field. It is located on Armory Drive across from the Armory. The structure features four rows of", "four rows of bleacher seating in an elevated balcony that runs the length of the ice rink on either side. These bleachers provide seating for roughly 1,200 fans, with standing room and bench seating available underneath. Because of this set-up the team benches are actually directly underneath the stands. In 2015, the university beganMandarin Chinesebroadcasts of its American football games as a service to its Chinese international students. Mascot Chief Illiniwek, also referred to as \"The Chief\", was from 1926 to 2007 the official symbol of the University of Illinois in university intercollegiate athletic programs. The Chief was typically portrayed by a student dressed inSiouxregalia. Several groups protested that the use of a Native American figure and indigenous customs in such a manner was inappropriate and promoted ethnic stereotypes. In August 2005, the National Collegiate Athletic Association expressed disapproval of the university's use of a \"hostile or abusive\" image.While initially proposing a", "proposing a consensus approach to the decision about the Chief, the board in 2007 decided that the Chief, its name, image and regalia should be officially retired. Nevertheless, the controversy continues on campus with some students unofficially maintaining the Chief. Complaints continue that indigenous students feel insulted when images of the Chief continue to be present on campus.The effort to resolve the controversy has included the work of a committee, which issued a report of its \"critical conversations\" that included over 600 participants representing all sides. Notable alumni and faculty Twenty-seven alumni and faculty members of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign have won aPulitzer Prize.As of 2019, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign alumni, faculty, and researchers include 30 Nobel laureates (including 11 alumni). In particular,John Bardeenis the only person to have won two Nobel prizes in physics, having done so in 1956 and 1972 while on faculty at the university. In 2003, two", "In 2003, two faculty members won Nobel prizes in different disciplines:Paul C. Lauterburfor physiology or medicine, andAnthony Leggettfor physics. The alumni of the university have created companies and products such asNetscape Communications(formerlyMosaic) (Marc Andreessen),AMD(Jerry Sanders),PayPal(Max Levchin),Playboy(Hugh Hefner),National Football League(George Halas),Siebel SystemsandC3.ai(Thomas Siebel),Mortal Kombat(Ed Boon),CDW(Michael Krasny),YouTube(Steve ChenandJawed Karim),THX(Tomlinson Holman),Andreessen Horowitz(Marc Andreessen),Oracle(Larry EllisonandBob Miner),Lotus(Ray Ozzie),Yelp!(Jeremy StoppelmanandRussel Simmons),Safari(Dave Hyatt),Firefox(Joe Hewitt),W. W. Grainger(William Wallace Grainger),Delta Air Lines(C. E. Woolman),Beckman Instruments(Arnold Beckman),BET(Robert L. Johnson) andTesla Motors(Martin Eberhard). Alumni and faculty have invented theLEDand thequantum well laser(Nick Holonyak, B.S. 1950, M.S. 1951, Ph.D. 1954),DSL(John Cioffi, B.S. 1978),JavaScript(Brendan Eich, M.S.", "Eich, M.S. 1986),theintegrated circuit(Jack Kilby, B.S. 1947), thetransistor(John Bardeen, faculty, 1951–1991), thepH meter(Arnold Beckman, B.S. 1922, M.S. 1923),MRI(Paul C. Lauterbur), theplasma screen(Donald Bitzer, B.S. 1955, M.S. 1956, Ph.D. 1960), color plasma display (Larry F. Weber, B.S. 1968 M.S. 1971 Ph.D. 1975), the training methodology called PdEI and the coin counter (James P. Liautaud, B.S. 1963), the statistical algorithm calledGibbs samplingin computer vision and the machine learning technique calledrandom forests(Donald Geman, B.A. 1965), and are responsible for the structural design of such buildings as theWillis Tower, theJohn Hancock Center, and theBurj Khalifa. MathematicianRichard Hamming, known for theHamming codeandHamming distance, earned a PhD in mathematics from the university's Mathematics Department in 1942.Primetime Emmy Award-winning engineerAlan Bovik(B.S. 1980, M.S. 1982, Ph.D. 1984) invented neuroscience-based video quality measurement tools that pervadetelevision,social", "mediaandhome cinema.Structural engineerFazlur Rahman Khanearned two master's degrees, and a PhD in structural engineering from the university. Alumni have also led several companies, includingMcDonald's,Goldman Sachs,BP,Kodak,Shell,General Motors,AT&T, andGeneral Electricand others. Alumni have founded many organizations, including theSusan G. Komen for the CureandProject Gutenberg, and have served in a wide variety of government and public interest roles.Rafael Correa, President ofThe Republic of Ecuadorfrom 2007 to 2017, secured his M.S. and PhD degrees from the university's Economics Department in 1999 and 2001 respectively.Nathan C. Rickerattended U of I and in 1873 was the first person to graduate in the United States with a certificate in architecture.Mary L. Page, the first woman to obtain a degree in architecture, also graduated from U of I.Disability rights activist and co-organizer of the504 Sit-in,Kitty Cone, attended during the 1960s, but left six hours short of her degree to continue her", "to continue her activism in New York. In sports, baseball pitcherKen Holtzmanwas a two-time All Star major leaguer, and threw twono-hittersin his career.In sports entertainment,David Otungabecame a two-timeWWE Tag Team Champion. Eta Kappa Nu(ΗΚΝ) was founded at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign as the national honor society for electrical engineering in 1904. Maurice LeRoy Carr (B.S. 1905) and Edmund B. Wheeler (B.S. 1905) were part of the founding group of ten students and they served as the first and second national presidents of ΗΚΝ. The Eta Kappa Nu organization is now the international honor society forIEEEas theIEEE-Eta Kappa Nu(IEEE-ΗΚΝ).The U of I collegiate chapter is known as the Alpha Chapter of ΗΚΝ.Lowell P. Hagerwas the head of the Department of Biochemistry from 1969 until 1989 and was elected to theNational Academy of Sciencesin 1995. Notes References Further reading External links 40°6′38″N88°13′42″W / 40.11056°N 88.22833°W /40.11056; -88.22833", "Hugh Hefner Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Hugh Marston Hefner(April 9, 1926 – September 27, 2017) was an American magazine publisher. He was the founder and editor-in-chief ofPlayboymagazine, a publication with revealing photographs and articles. Hefner extended thePlayboybrand into a world network ofPlayboy Clubs. He also resided in luxury mansions wherePlayboyPlaymatesshared his wild partying life, fueling media interest. Early life and education Hefner was born inChicago, on April 9, 1926,the first child of Glenn Lucius Hefner (1896–1976), an accountant, and his wife Grace Caroline (Swanson) Hefner (1895–1997) who worked as a teacher. His parents were fromNebraska.He had a younger brother, Keith (1929–2016).His mother was of Swedish ancestry, and his father was German and English. Through his father's line, Hefner was a descendant of Plymouth governorWilliam Bradford.He described his family as \"conservative, Midwestern, Methodist\".His mother had wanted him to become a", "him to become a missionary. He attended Sayre Elementary School andSteinmetz High School, then served from 1944 to 1946 as aUnited States Armywriter for a military newspaper. Hefner graduated from theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaignin 1949 with aBachelor of Artsinpsychologyand a doubleminorin creative writing and art, having earned his degree in two and a half years. After graduation, he took a semester of graduate courses in sociology atNorthwestern University, but dropped out soon after. Career In January 1952, Hefner left his job as a copywriter forEsquireafter he was denied a $5 raise. In 1953, he took out a mortgage loan of $600 and raised $8,000 from 45 investors (including $1,000 from his mother—\"not because she believed in the venture,\" he toldE!in 2006, \"but because she believed in her son\") to launchPlayboy, which was initially going to be calledStag Party. The first issue was published in December 1953 and featuredMarilyn Monroefrom a 1949 nude calendar shoot she did under a pseudonym.That", "a pseudonym.That first issue sold more than 50,000 copies, but Monroe was not paid by Playboy or Hefner for the photos.(Hefner never met Monroe, but he bought the crypt next to hers at theWestwood Village Memorial Park Cemeteryin 1992 for $75,000.) Esquiremagazine rejectedCharles Beaumont's science fiction story \"The Crooked Man\" in 1955, so Hefner agreed to publish it inPlayboy.The story highlighted straight men being persecuted in a world where homosexuality was the norm. The magazine received angry letters, so Hefner responded, \"If it was wrong to persecute heterosexuals in a homosexual society then the reverse was wrong, too.\"In 1961, Hefner watchedDick Gregoryperform at the Herman Roberts Show Bar in Chicago, and he hired Gregory to work at the Chicago Playboy Club. Gregory attributed the launch of his career to that night. Hefner promoted abon vivantlifestyle in his magazine and in the television shows that he hostedPlayboy's Penthouse(1959–1960) andPlayboy After Dark(1969–1970).He was also the chief", "was also the chief creative officer ofPlayboy Enterprises, the publishing group which operates the magazine. On June 4, 1963, Hefner was arrested for promoting obscene literature after he published an issue ofPlayboyfeaturing nude shots ofJayne Mansfieldin bed with a man present.The case went to trial and resulted in ahung jury. In the 1960s, Hefner created \"private key\" clubs that were racially diverse.During the civil rights movement in 1966, Hefner sentAlex Haleyto interviewAmerican Nazi PartyfounderGeorge Lincoln Rockwell, much to Rockwell's shock because Haley was black. Rockwell agreed to meet with Haley only after gaining assurance that he was not Jewish, although Rockwell kept a handgun on the table throughout the interview.InRoots: The Next Generations(1979), the interview was recreated withJames Earl Jonesas Haley andMarlon Brandoas Rockwell.Haley had also interviewedMalcolm Xin 1963 andMartin Luther King Jr.in 1966 for the newly established 1962 \"playboy interview\". In 1970, Hefner stated that", "Hefner stated that \"militant feminists\" are \"unalterably opposed to the romantic boy-girl society thatPlayboypromotes\" and ordered an article in his magazine against them. In his later years, Hefner's star dimmed, but he remained a well-known personality, often appearing in cameo roles. In the 1993The Simpsonsepisode \"Krusty Gets Kancelled\", Hefner voiced himself.In 1999, Hefner financed theClara BowdocumentaryDiscovering the It Girl. \"Nobody has what Clara had,\" he said. \"She defined an era and made her mark on the nation\".Hefner guest-starred as himself in the 2000Sex and the Cityepisode \"Sex and Another City\".In 2005, he guest-starred on the HBO showsCurb Your EnthusiasmandEntourage.He guest-starred as himself in a 2006 episode ofSeth Green'sRobot Chickenon the late-night programming blockAdult Swim.In the 2007Family Guyepisode \"Airport '07\", he voiced himself.He has a star on theHollywood Walk of Famefor television and made several movie appearances as himself. In 2009, he was nominated for aGolden", "for aGolden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actorfor his performance as himself inMiss March. On his official Twitter account, he joked about this nomination: \"Maybe I didn't understand the character.\" Brigitte Berman's documentaryHugh Hefner: Playboy, Activist and Rebelwas released on July 30, 2010. He had previously granted full access to documentary filmmaker and television producerKevin Burnsfor the A&EBiographyspecialHugh Hefner: American Playboyin 1996.Hefner and Burns later collaborated on numerous other television projects, most notably onThe Girls Next Door, a reality series that ran for six seasons (2005–2009) and 90 episodes.Hefner also made a voice-only appearance as himself in the 2011 filmHop. In 2012, Hefner announced that his youngest sonCooperwould succeed him as the public face ofPlayboy. Personal life Hefner was known to friends and family simply as \"Hef\".He married Northwestern University student Mildred (\"Millie\") Williams in 1949. They had a daughter namedChristie(b. 1952) and a", "1952) and a son, David (b. 1955).Before the wedding, Mildred confessed that she'd had an affair while he was away in the army. He called the admission \"the most devastating moment of my life.\" A 2006E! True Hollywood Storyprofile of Hefner revealed that Mildred allowed him to have sex with other women, out of guilt for her own infidelity and in the hope that it would preserve their marriage. The couple divorced in 1959. Hefner remade himself as abon vivantand man about town, a lifestyle that he promoted in his magazine and TV shows. He admitted to being \"'involved' with maybe eleven out of twelve months' worth of Playmates\" during some years.Donna Michelle,Marilyn Cole,Lillian Müller,Shannon Tweed,Barbi Benton,Karen Christy,Sondra Theodore, and Carrie Leigh were a few of his many lovers; Leigh filed a $35 millionpalimonysuit against him.In 1971, he acknowledged that he experimented in bisexuality.Also in 1971, he established a second residence in Los Angeles with the acquisition of Playboy Mansion West, and", "Mansion West, and moved there permanently from Chicago in 1975. On March 7, 1985, Hefner had a minor stroke at age 58, whereupon he re-evaluated his lifestyle, making several changes. He toned down the wild, all-night parties, and his daughter Christie took over the operation of Playboy's commercial operations in 1988. The following year, he married Playmate of the YearKimberley Conrad; they were 36 years apart in age. The couple had sons Marston Glenn (b. 1990) and Cooper (b. 1991).TheE! True Hollywood Storyprofile noted that thePlayboy Mansionhad been transformed into a family-friendly homestead. He and Conrad separated in 1998, after which she moved into the house next door to the mansion.Hefner filed for divorce from Conrad in 2009 after an 11-year separation, citing irreconcilable differences.He stated that he only remained nominally married to her for the sake of their children,and their youngest child had just turned 18. The divorce was finalized in 2010. Hefner became known for moving an", "known for moving an ever-changing coterie of young women into the Playboy Mansion, including twins Mandy andSandy Bentley. He dated as many as seven womenconcurrently. He also datedBrande Roderick,Izabella St. James,Tina Marie Jordan,Holly Madison,Bridget Marquardt, andKendra Wilkinson. Madison, Wilkinson, and Marquardt appeared onThe Girls Next Doordepicting their lives at the Playboy Mansion. In October 2008, all three of them decided to leave the mansion. In January 2009, Hefner began a relationship withCrystal Harris;she joined theShannon Twinsafter his previous \"number one girlfriend\"Holly Madisonhad ended their seven-year relationship.On December 24, 2010, he became engaged to Harris,but she broke off their engagement on June 14, 2011, five days before their planned wedding.The July issue ofPlayboyreached store shelves and customers' homes within days of the wedding date; it featured Harris on the cover, and in a photo spread as well. The headline on the cover read \"Introducing America's Princess, Mrs.", "Princess, Mrs. Crystal Hefner\".Hefner and Harris subsequently reconciled and married on December 31, 2012. Hefner was very distantly related to the 41st and 43rd presidents of the United States,George H. W. BushandGeorge W. Bush, respectively.Hefner's brother Keith died at age 87 on April 8, 2016, one day before Hefner's 90th birthday. Playboy Mansion In January 2016, the Playboy Mansion was put on the market for $200 million, on condition that Hugh Hefner would continue to work and live in the mansion.Later that year it was sold to Daren Metropoulos, a principal at private equity firm Metropoulos & Company, for $100 million. Metropoulos planned to reconnect the Playboy Mansion property with a neighboring estate that he purchased in 2009, combining the two for a 7.3 acre (3-hectare) compound as his own private residence. In May 2017,Eugena Washingtonwas the last Playmate of the Year to be announced by Hugh Hefner at thePlayboy Mansion. Politics and philanthropy Hefner debatedThe Playboy PhilosophywithWilliam", "F. Buckley Jr., onFiring Linein Episode 26, recorded on September 12, 1966. TheHugh M. Hefner First Amendment Awardwas created by Christie Hefner \"to honor individuals who have made significant contributions in the vital effort to protect and enhance First Amendment rights for Americans.\" He donated and raised money for theDemocratic Party.In 2011, he referred to himself as anindependentdue to dissatisfaction with both the Democratic andRepublicanparties.Nonetheless, in 2012, he supportedBarack Obama's reelection campaign. In 1978, Hefner helped organize fund-raising efforts that led to the restoration of theHollywood Sign. He hosted a gala fundraiser at the Playboy Mansion and contributed $27,000 (or 1/9 of the total restoration costs) by purchasing the letter Y in a ceremonial auction. Hefner stated in a 2000 interview withPlayboy, \"It's perfectly clear to me that religion is a myth. It's something we have invented to explain the inexplicable.\"Lee Strobel, a Christian author who interviewed Hefner", "interviewed Hefner regarding his theological positions, later described Hefner as having a \"very minimalistic,deisticview ofGod.\" Hefner donated $100,000 to theUniversity of Southern California'sSchool of Cinematic Artsto create a course called \"Censorship in Cinema\", and $2 million to endow a chair for the study of American film.In 2007, the university's audiovisual archive at the Norris Theater received a donation from Hefner and was renamed to theHugh M. Hefner Moving Image Archivein his honor. Both through his charitable foundation and individually, Hefner also contributed to charities and other organizations outside the sphere of politics and publishing, throwing fundraiser events for Much Love Animal Rescue as well asGeneration Rescue,ananti-vaccinationistcampaign organization supported byJenny McCarthy. On November 18, 2010, Children of the Night founder and president Dr. Lois Lee presented Hefner with the organization's first-ever Founder's Hero of the Heart Award in appreciation for his unwavering", "for his unwavering dedication, commitment and generosity. On April 26, 2010, Hefner donated the last $900,000 sought by a conservation group for a land purchase needed to stop the development of the vista of the Hollywood Sign.Sylvilagus palustris hefneri, an endangered subspecies ofmarsh rabbit, is named after him in honor of financial support that he provided. The Barbi Twins, who are among a notable cohort of celebrity Playmates, includingPamela Andersonand Hefner's third wifeCrystal Harris, praised the publishing icon for providing centerfolds and extended members of the Playboy family with a platform for activism and advocacy on behalf of animal populations in need. Hefner supported legalizingsame-sex marriage, calling it \"a fight for all our rights. Without it, we will turn back the sexual revolution and return to an earlier, puritanical time.\" Death Hefner died at the Playboy Mansion on September 27, 2017, at the age of 91.The cause wassepsisbrought on by anE. coliinfection. He is interred atWestwood", "interred atWestwood Memorial Parkin Los Angeles, in the crypt besideMarilyn Monroe, for which he paid $75,000 in 1992. \"Spending eternity next to Marilyn is an opportunity too sweet to pass up,\" Hefner had told theLos Angeles Timesin 2009. Reputation Suzanne Moorewrote inThe Guardianthat Hefner threatened to file a lawsuit against her for calling him a \"pimp\".Defending her position, Moore argued that \"he was a man who bought and sold women to other men\".She further stated that \"part of Hefner's business acumen was to make the selling of female flesh respectable and hip, to make soft porn acceptable.\"Julie Bindelargued inThe Independentthat Hefner \"caused immeasurable damage by turning porn—and therefore the buying and selling of women's bodies—into a legitimate business.\" Robin Abcarian wrote in theLos Angeles Times, quotingWendy Hamilton, that Hefner \"probably did more to mainstream the exploitation of women's bodies than any other figure in American history,\" adding that he \"managed to convince many women", "convince many women that taking off their clothes for men's pleasure was not just empowering, but a worthy goal in itself.\" She further stated that Hefner \"embodied the aesthetic notion that images of women—and women themselves—exist to please men.\" Hefner's former girlfriendHolly Madisonsaid that he \"would encourage competition—and body image issues—between his multiple live-in girlfriends. His legacy is full of evidence of the exploitation of women for professional gain.\"Ed Stetzerwrote inChristianity Todaythat Hefner would have the residence systematically cleaned whenever Christie Hefner visited in order \"to keep the realities from his own daughter\".Stetzer further lamented the consequences of Hefner's role as a \"general\" of the \"sexual revolution\": It's hard to fathom that anyone would have known what this would have turned into. Parents growing up today are fighting to keep their children pure. Spouses are fighting to keep their marriages intact. And many enslaved and trapped in the adult entertainment", "adult entertainment industry have been figuratively and literally stripped not only of their clothes, but their very value as people made in the image of God. If this does not concern us, what will? A 12-part television documentary series,Secrets of Playboy, debuted onA&EJanuary 24, 2022, in which Hefner's former male and female employees and partners made claims of systematic sexual misconduct and manipulation, recreational and manipulative drug use,peer pressure,sextortion, blackmail, rape, forced and violentanal sex,sexual assaultwithoutconsentand/or while victims were in a state of drug-induced stupor or unconsciousness, spying, videotaping without consent, andillegal sex with minorsby Hefner and his celebrity friends and guests at the Playboy Mansion and other locations.ThePLBY group, now publicly owned, distanced itself from Hefner in a statement released shortly before the first episode was broadcast, saying, \"Today's Playboy is not Hugh Hefner's Playboy. We trust and validate these women and their", "women and their stories and we strongly support those individuals who have come forward to share their experiences.\" In January 2024, Hefner's widow Crystal, who previously brushed away criticism, wrote a memoir where she alleged she experienced a hostile environment while at thePlayboy Mansion, even claiming that she was \"imprisoned\" while there. Depictions TheAmazon original seriesAmerican Playboy: The Hugh Hefner Storywas released in April 2017. It starsMatt Whelanin the title role, along withEmmett SkiltonandChelsie Preston Crayford. The ten episodes are a combination of interviews, archival footage (including moments found in Hefner's vast personal collection), and cinematic re-enactments that cover the launch of the magazine as well as the next six decades of Hefner's personal life and career. The series was filmed inAuckland. In October 2017, Playboy Enterprises announced that a Hugh Hefner biopic directed byBrett Ratnerwith the screenplay byJeff Nathansonwas greenlit withJared Letorumored to play", "Letorumored to play Hefner.In November 2017, it was indefinitely put on hold following sexual harassment allegations against Ratner, and Leto's representatives stated that reports of him being attached to the film at any point were false. Filmography Books Further reading References External links", "Minyong Kim Minyong Kim(Korean:김민용; sometimes known as Dragon) is animpersonatorofKim Jong Un, thesupreme leaderofNorth Korea. His impersonation gained attention when he was an undergraduate student at theUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Impersonator career Kim was born inSeoulto a working class family and studied business at the University of Illinois. He first enrolled at the university in 2009, then went back to South Korea for 25 months to complete mandatory military service in theKorean Air Force.He remained in South Korea to work as a teacher and save money, and when he returned to university classes in spring 2013 studied abroad in China which was cheaper for him. In 2014, his Kim Jong Un Halloween costume went viral on Korean social media. He decided to capitalize on his resemblance to Kim Jong Un by gaining weight, buying a black Mao suit, and getting a trapezoidal haircut. Kim toldUSA Todaythat he got stopped on the University of Illinois campus more than 100 times per day by people who", "day by people who wanted photos. Several weeks later, he told a reporter the number was \"200 to 300 times per day, usually like 40 to 50 times per hour.\"His reason for impersonating the North Korean leader, he said, is to make people happy. Kim does not agree with Kim Jong Un's politics but he shares the supreme leader's interest in theChicago Bulls.Because of Kim Jong Un's divisiveness, Minyong Kim said his parents feared he would be kidnapped or assassinated. He told theChampaign News-Gazette,\"my girlfriend really abhors this... not only hates it, but abhors.\" After Kim's graduation in late 2015, he began running an agency that prepares South Korean students for school in the United States.His career goal is to expand affordable education options in South Korea. Film, television, and advertising His resemblance to Kim Jong Un has earned him roles in movies, commercials, soap operas, and music videos.In April 2015, he and aBarack Obamaimpersonator namedReggie Brown, who also attended the University of", "the University of Illinois, appeared in commercial for eNuri, a South Korean online marketplace.In a commercial for an air purifier, he acted like he was creating new weapons to destroy germs in the air.In a 2015 YouTube video made by QPark, Kim walked around New York City in full costume. The video got ten million views in its first two months.In April 2015, Kim appeared on a South Korean talk show to startle North Korean defectors, who were on the show discussing their previous lives under the totalitarian dictatorship. External links References" ]
What William Wyler movie debuted the same year that the chairman for the 1982–83 Wolverhampton Wanderers season was born?
Jezebel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C._season
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Dougan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wyler
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C._season', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Dougan', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wyler']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C._season", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Dougan", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wyler" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C._season (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9438ecb0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Derek_Dougan (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b95187d60>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/William_Wyler (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b951c73a0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_Wolverhampton_Wanderers_F.C._season (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9438ecb0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Derek_Dougan (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b95187d60>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/William_Wyler (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b951c73a0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
This Canadian mountain, located in Cypress Provincial Park, got its name because one didn't have to cross it to reach The Lions (formerly Ch'ich'iyúy Elxwíkn'). What is the name of this mountain?
Unnecessary Mountain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypress_Provincial_Park
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Sisters_(British_Columbia)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unnecessary_Mountain
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['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypress_Provincial_Park', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Sisters_(British_Columbia)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unnecessary_Mountain']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypress_Provincial_Park", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Sisters_(British_Columbia", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unnecessary_Mountain" ]
[ "Cypress Provincial Park Cypress Provincial Parkis aprovincial parkon theNorth ShoreofMetro Vancouver Regional District,British Columbia. The park has two sections: a 21 km2(8.1 sq mi) southern section which is accessible by road fromWest Vancouver, and a 9 km2(3.5 sq mi) northern section which is only accessible by hiking trails. The two sections are linked by a narrow strip of park along the mountainousHowe Sound Crest Trail. The southern section of Cypress Provincial Park contains a ski area (Cypress Mountain Ski Area) that is operated under a Park Use Permit by a private company called Cypress Bowl Recreations Ltd, owned by Boyne Canada, a subsidiary of US-basedBoyne Resorts. Etymology The name Cypress refers to the treeCupressus nootkatensis,also known asyellow cedaroryellow cypress,which is common in the park at altitudes over 800 metres. Cypress Bowl is the name of thebowlbetween the three mountains that make up the Cypress Mountain Ski Area (Mount Strachan, Black Mountain, and Hollyburn Mountain). History Evidence ofSquamishandTsleil-WaututhFirst Nationsuse has been documented in the park, including 350-400 year old bark-stripping scars on old-growth yellow cedar trees above Yew Lake. Logging first began in 1870toclear cutdense forests on Mount Vaughan, later renamed to Hollyburn Mountain in 1912. In 1918, James Nasmyth started a logging operation and built a mill on Rodgers Creek which operated until 1923.In the 1920s, Hollyburn Mountain became a popular recreation area for hikers and skiers utilizing the old logging roads.In 1926, the Hollyburn Lodge was built on First Lake, becoming the first commercial ski camp on the North Shore when it opened as the Hollyburn Ski Camp on January 16, 1927. In 1933, the West Lake Ski Camp also opened. By the late 1930s, Heaps Timber Company acquired timber leases in the Hollyburn and Cypress Bowl area. Public controversy forced the provincial government to set aside Cypress Bowl as a park reserve in 1944, after 40 hectares had already been logged.On January 17, 1951, the Hollyburn Aerial Tram (HAT) chairlift and HAT Inn opened near Hi-View Lookout. With rising popularity of skiing, nearly 300 cabins were built on Hollyburn Ridge by the 1960s. Clear-cut logging resumed in 1966, affecting portions of Black Mountain and Strachan Mountain.The controversy about logging in the park, under the oversight of theSocial Creditgovernment, was debated in the BC Legislature and reported on in the media.Public outrage caused the province to take over development of winter recreation in 1971, resulting in the creation of Alpine and Nordic skiing facilities in 1972 and the construction of Cypress Bowl Road in 1973. Cypress Provincial Park was granted Class A Provincial Park status in 1975. The park was expanded north in 1982 to its current boundaries. The expansion included a narrow ridge running from Cypress Bowl toBrunswick Mountain, along what is now theHowe Sound Crest Trail, and a valley of subalpine mountain lakes (Brunswick Lake, Hanover Lake, and Deeks Lake). The Howe Sound Crest Trail linking the two park sections was completed by the late 1980s. In 1984, the ski resorts, formerly operated by BC Parks, were privatized and now operate under a Park Use Permit. Beginning in 1986, the ski resort operator began attempts to block public access to winter activities in the provincial park without a day pass, resulting in protests. Hiker access trails were later developed to ensure public access to park areas outside of the resort area. The resort has unsuccessfully petitioned to expanded their Park Use Permit area numerous times but in 2002, 40 hectares of second growth forest on Black Mountain were added to the permit area, while a similar area of mostly old-growth forest and subalpine meadow on Hollyburn and Strachan was removed from the permit area. Cypress Creek Lodge opened in 2008. In 2010, Cypress helped host the2010 Winter OlympicsinVancouverwhere it hosted Freestyle Skiing and Snowboarding competitions. The original Hollyburn Lodge, first constructed in 1926, completed renovations and reopened in 2018. Climate Winter season During the winter, this is aski areafor bothcross-countryandalpineskiers. The ski operation has four quad (2 are high speed) and two doublechairlifts, as well as a tube tow and a magic carpet for their ski school participants. With 53 downhill runs (beginner 23%, intermediate 37%, advanced 40%) and over 19 km (12 mi) of cross-country trails, Cypress Mountain is the largest ski area on Vancouver's North Shore. It also has the highest vertical rise, 613 m (2,011 ft), of the three North Shore ski resorts. Summer use In summer and fall, the park is usually free of snow and is popular with hikers. Its trail system includes sections of theBaden-Powell Trailin the southern section of the park, as well as theHowe Sound Crest Trailin the northern section.Parkbusoffers a seasonal shuttle service to the park. Beginning in the summer of 2005, Cypress Mountain Resort has created a lift-assisted mountain bike park, as set out in the 1997 Cypress Provincial Park Master Plan. Even though the lift accessed biking has now been closed for Olympic preparations and they have not yet bothered to restore the trails Cypress still hold many non-lift accessed bike trails. Most of these trails are situated lower down the mountain and are actually not a part of the park because of this they are under threat to development. These Trails on Cypress (Black Mountain Side) are known around the world for being some of the most technically challenging in the world, more challenging than the other two shore mountains (Seymour and Fromme). Trails on Cypress are known as being steep, eroded, and very dangerous. It has multiple rock faces that are close to vertical also having large jumps and drops. Most famous of these is the Brutus Gap, (appearing in many large bike films) it is a step-down drop in excess of 20 ft (6.1 m) in both length and height. That being said Cypress does house some more easily ridable trails, still not easy by any means but more accessible. Some of these include: Mystery DH, Stupid Grouse, Slippery Canoe, Upper Tall Cans, Firehose, and Pull Tab. Some of the legendary and most difficult trails are: 5th Horseman, Sex Girl, Shoreplay. One of the original trails is pre-reaper and reaper these are steep trails that used to have some very difficult man made features, sadly most of these were sawed down and destroyed by the government. For more information regarding trails on Cypress there are mountain bike specific maps that include many of the trails and is a great place to start for riding on the mountain. Major mountains in the park The lower section of the park contains three main mountains that form Cypress Bowl. The upper, smaller, section includes a series of mountains along a north–south ridge from St. Mark's in the south to Gotha Peak in the far north of the park. Cypress Bowl (South) Howe Sound Crest (North) 2010 Olympics A significant part of Vancouver's2010 Winter Olympicswas hosted by Cypress in February 2010, including thesnowboard(half-pipe,snowboard crossand parallelgiant slalom) andfreestyle skiing(mogulsandaerials) events, as well as the recently added Skiercross, which used thesnowboardcrossrun, with some modifications. The Freestyle Venue was completed in the Fall of 2006. References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Sisters_(British_Columbia", "Unnecessary Mountain Unnecessary Mountain, also calledMount Unnecessary, is a peak in theNorth Shore MountainsnearVancouver,British Columbia,Canadaand a popular hiking destination. Its two summits are withinCypress Provincial Park, accessible via theHowe Sound Crest Trailand the Unnecessary Mountain Trail fromLions Bay. The taller south summit has an elevation of 1,548 m (5,079 ft) and its north summit is slightly lower at 1,543 m (5,062 ft). The mountain is so named because of an \"unnecessary\" ascent over this mountain to reachThe Lions. In December 2014, arockslidekilled 7-year-old Erin Kate Moore as she was hiking with a group on Unnecessary Mountain. A second peak, also named Unnecessary Mountain, is located inAlbertanorthwest of the town ofPincher Creek. References This article related to a mountain inBritish Columbia, Canada is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This article about a location on theCoast of British Columbia, Canada is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]
[ "Cypress Provincial Park Cypress Provincial Parkis aprovincial parkon theNorth ShoreofMetro Vancouver Regional District,British Columbia. The park has two sections: a 21 km2(8.1 sq mi) southern section which is accessible by road fromWest Vancouver, and a 9 km2(3.5 sq mi) northern section which is only accessible by hiking trails. The two sections are linked by a narrow strip of park along the mountainousHowe Sound Crest Trail. The southern section of Cypress Provincial Park contains a ski area (Cypress Mountain Ski Area) that is operated under a Park Use Permit by a private company called Cypress Bowl Recreations Ltd, owned by Boyne Canada, a subsidiary of US-basedBoyne Resorts. Etymology The name Cypress refers to the treeCupressus nootkatensis,also known asyellow cedaroryellow cypress,which is common in the park at altitudes over 800 metres. Cypress Bowl is the name of thebowlbetween the three mountains that make up the Cypress Mountain Ski Area (Mount Strachan, Black Mountain, and Hollyburn Mountain).", "Mountain). History Evidence ofSquamishandTsleil-WaututhFirst Nationsuse has been documented in the park, including 350-400 year old bark-stripping scars on old-growth yellow cedar trees above Yew Lake. Logging first began in 1870toclear cutdense forests on Mount Vaughan, later renamed to Hollyburn Mountain in 1912. In 1918, James Nasmyth started a logging operation and built a mill on Rodgers Creek which operated until 1923.In the 1920s, Hollyburn Mountain became a popular recreation area for hikers and skiers utilizing the old logging roads.In 1926, the Hollyburn Lodge was built on First Lake, becoming the first commercial ski camp on the North Shore when it opened as the Hollyburn Ski Camp on January 16, 1927. In 1933, the West Lake Ski Camp also opened. By the late 1930s, Heaps Timber Company acquired timber leases in the Hollyburn and Cypress Bowl area. Public controversy forced the provincial government to set aside Cypress Bowl as a park reserve in 1944, after 40 hectares had already been logged.On", "been logged.On January 17, 1951, the Hollyburn Aerial Tram (HAT) chairlift and HAT Inn opened near Hi-View Lookout. With rising popularity of skiing, nearly 300 cabins were built on Hollyburn Ridge by the 1960s. Clear-cut logging resumed in 1966, affecting portions of Black Mountain and Strachan Mountain.The controversy about logging in the park, under the oversight of theSocial Creditgovernment, was debated in the BC Legislature and reported on in the media.Public outrage caused the province to take over development of winter recreation in 1971, resulting in the creation of Alpine and Nordic skiing facilities in 1972 and the construction of Cypress Bowl Road in 1973. Cypress Provincial Park was granted Class A Provincial Park status in 1975. The park was expanded north in 1982 to its current boundaries. The expansion included a narrow ridge running from Cypress Bowl toBrunswick Mountain, along what is now theHowe Sound Crest Trail, and a valley of subalpine mountain lakes (Brunswick Lake, Hanover Lake, and", "Hanover Lake, and Deeks Lake). The Howe Sound Crest Trail linking the two park sections was completed by the late 1980s. In 1984, the ski resorts, formerly operated by BC Parks, were privatized and now operate under a Park Use Permit. Beginning in 1986, the ski resort operator began attempts to block public access to winter activities in the provincial park without a day pass, resulting in protests. Hiker access trails were later developed to ensure public access to park areas outside of the resort area. The resort has unsuccessfully petitioned to expanded their Park Use Permit area numerous times but in 2002, 40 hectares of second growth forest on Black Mountain were added to the permit area, while a similar area of mostly old-growth forest and subalpine meadow on Hollyburn and Strachan was removed from the permit area. Cypress Creek Lodge opened in 2008. In 2010, Cypress helped host the2010 Winter OlympicsinVancouverwhere it hosted Freestyle Skiing and Snowboarding competitions. The original Hollyburn", "original Hollyburn Lodge, first constructed in 1926, completed renovations and reopened in 2018. Climate Winter season During the winter, this is aski areafor bothcross-countryandalpineskiers. The ski operation has four quad (2 are high speed) and two doublechairlifts, as well as a tube tow and a magic carpet for their ski school participants. With 53 downhill runs (beginner 23%, intermediate 37%, advanced 40%) and over 19 km (12 mi) of cross-country trails, Cypress Mountain is the largest ski area on Vancouver's North Shore. It also has the highest vertical rise, 613 m (2,011 ft), of the three North Shore ski resorts. Summer use In summer and fall, the park is usually free of snow and is popular with hikers. Its trail system includes sections of theBaden-Powell Trailin the southern section of the park, as well as theHowe Sound Crest Trailin the northern section.Parkbusoffers a seasonal shuttle service to the park. Beginning in the summer of 2005, Cypress Mountain Resort has created a lift-assisted mountain", "mountain bike park, as set out in the 1997 Cypress Provincial Park Master Plan. Even though the lift accessed biking has now been closed for Olympic preparations and they have not yet bothered to restore the trails Cypress still hold many non-lift accessed bike trails. Most of these trails are situated lower down the mountain and are actually not a part of the park because of this they are under threat to development. These Trails on Cypress (Black Mountain Side) are known around the world for being some of the most technically challenging in the world, more challenging than the other two shore mountains (Seymour and Fromme). Trails on Cypress are known as being steep, eroded, and very dangerous. It has multiple rock faces that are close to vertical also having large jumps and drops. Most famous of these is the Brutus Gap, (appearing in many large bike films) it is a step-down drop in excess of 20 ft (6.1 m) in both length and height. That being said Cypress does house some more easily ridable trails, still", "trails, still not easy by any means but more accessible. Some of these include: Mystery DH, Stupid Grouse, Slippery Canoe, Upper Tall Cans, Firehose, and Pull Tab. Some of the legendary and most difficult trails are: 5th Horseman, Sex Girl, Shoreplay. One of the original trails is pre-reaper and reaper these are steep trails that used to have some very difficult man made features, sadly most of these were sawed down and destroyed by the government. For more information regarding trails on Cypress there are mountain bike specific maps that include many of the trails and is a great place to start for riding on the mountain. Major mountains in the park The lower section of the park contains three main mountains that form Cypress Bowl. The upper, smaller, section includes a series of mountains along a north–south ridge from St. Mark's in the south to Gotha Peak in the far north of the park. Cypress Bowl (South) Howe Sound Crest (North) 2010 Olympics A significant part of Vancouver's2010 Winter Olympicswas hosted", "Olympicswas hosted by Cypress in February 2010, including thesnowboard(half-pipe,snowboard crossand parallelgiant slalom) andfreestyle skiing(mogulsandaerials) events, as well as the recently added Skiercross, which used thesnowboardcrossrun, with some modifications. The Freestyle Venue was completed in the Fall of 2006. References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Sisters_(British_Columbia", "Unnecessary Mountain Unnecessary Mountain, also calledMount Unnecessary, is a peak in theNorth Shore MountainsnearVancouver,British Columbia,Canadaand a popular hiking destination. Its two summits are withinCypress Provincial Park, accessible via theHowe Sound Crest Trailand the Unnecessary Mountain Trail fromLions Bay. The taller south summit has an elevation of 1,548 m (5,079 ft) and its north summit is slightly lower at 1,543 m (5,062 ft). The mountain is so named because of an \"unnecessary\" ascent over this mountain to reachThe Lions. In December 2014, arockslidekilled 7-year-old Erin Kate Moore as she was hiking with a group on Unnecessary Mountain. A second peak, also named Unnecessary Mountain, is located inAlbertanorthwest of the town ofPincher Creek. References This article related to a mountain inBritish Columbia, Canada is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it. This article about a location on theCoast of British Columbia, Canada is astub. You can help Wikipedia byexpanding it." ]
As of August 3 2024, which surviving building of the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 sits on the same street as a skyscraper over 1,000 feet tall? Give the surviving building's current name.
Art Institute of Chicago
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hancock_Center
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hancock_Center']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columbian_Exposition", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hancock_Center" ]
[ "World's Columbian Exposition TheWorld's Columbian Exposition, also known as theChicago World's Fair, was aworld's fairheld inChicagofrom May 5 to October 31, 1893, to celebrate the 400th anniversary ofChristopher Columbus's arrival in theNew Worldin 1492.The centerpiece of the Fair, held inJackson Park, was a large water pool representing the voyage that Columbus took to the New World. Chicago won the right to host the fair over several competing cities, includingNew York City,Washington, D.C., andSt. Louis. The exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on Americanarchitecture, the arts, American industrial optimism, and Chicago's image. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was predominantly designed byJohn Wellborn Root,Daniel Burnham,Frederick Law Olmsted, andCharles B. Atwood.It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be. It was designed to followBeaux-Artsprinciples of design, namelyneoclassical architectureprinciples based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the material generally used to cover the buildings' façades, whitestaff, gave the fairgrounds its nickname, the White City. Many prominent architects designed its 14 \"great buildings\". Artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered 690 acres (2.8 km2), featuring nearly 200 new but temporary buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture,canalsandlagoons, and people and cultures from 46 countries.More than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Its scale and grandeur far exceeded the otherworld's fairs, and it became a symbol of emergingAmerican exceptionalism, much in the same way that theGreat Exhibitionbecame a symbol of theVictorian eraUnited Kingdom. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21, 1892, but the fairgrounds were not opened to the public until May 1, 1893. The fair continued until October 30, 1893. In addition to recognizing the 400th anniversary of the discovery of the New World, the fair served to show the world that Chicago had risen from the ashes of theGreat Chicago Fire, which had destroyed much of the city in 1871. On October 9, 1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the fair set a world record for outdoor event attendance, drawing 751,026 people. The debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million (equivalent to $50.9 million in 2023).Chicago has commemorated the fair with one of the stars on itsmunicipal flag. History Planning and organization Many prominent civic, professional, and commercial leaders from around the United States helped finance, coordinate, and manage the Fair, including Chicago shoe company owner Charles H. Schwab,Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnateJohn Whitfield Bunn, and Connecticut banking, insurance, and iron products magnateMilo Barnum Richardson, among many others. The fair was planned in the early 1890s during theGilded Ageof rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. World's fairs, such as London's 1851Crystal Palace Exhibition, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines. The first American attempt at aworld's fair in Philadelphia in 1876drew crowds, but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus' landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC, and Chicago expressed interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, and promote their cities. Congress was called on to decide the location. New York financiersJ. P. Morgan,Cornelius Vanderbilt, andWilliam Waldorf Astor, among others, pledged $15 million to finance the fair if Congress awarded it to New York, while ChicagoansCharles T. Yerkes,Marshall Field,Philip Armour,Gustavus Swift, andCyrus McCormick, Jr., offered to finance a Chicago fair. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago bankerLyman Gage, who raised several million additional dollars in a 24-hour period, over and above New York's final offer. Chicago representatives not only fought for the world's fair for monetary reasons, but also for reasons of practicality. In a Senate hearing held in January 1890, representativeThomas Barbour Bryanargued that the most important qualities for a world's fair were \"abundant supplies of good air and pure water\", \"ample space, accommodations and transportation for all exhibits and visitors\". He argued that New York had too many obstructions, and Chicago would be able to use large amounts of land around the city where there was \"not a house to buy and not a rock to blast\" and that it would be located so that \"the artisan and the farmer and the shopkeeper and the man of humble means\" would be able to easily access the fair. Bryan continued to say that the fair was of \"vital interest\" to the West, and that the West wanted the location to be Chicago. The city spokesmen would continue to stress the essentials of a successful exposition and that only Chicago was fit to fill these exposition requirements. The location of the fair was decided through several rounds of voting by the United States House of Representatives. The first ballot showed Chicago with a large lead over New York, St. Louis and Washington, D.C., but short of a majority. Chicago broke the 154-vote majority threshold on the eighth ballot, receiving 157 votes to New York's 107. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled onJackson Parkand an area around it as the fair site.Daniel H. Burnhamwas selected as director of works, andGeorge R. Davisas director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the period's top talent to design the buildings and grounds includingFrederick Law Olmstedfor the grounds.The temporary buildings were designed in an ornateneoclassicalstyle and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the \"White City\". The Exposition's offices set up shop in the upper floors of theRand McNally Buildingon Adams Street, the world's first all-steel-framed skyscraper. Davis' team organized the exhibits with the help ofG. Brown Goodeof theSmithsonian. The Midway was inspired by the1889 Paris Universal Exposition, which included ethnological \"villages\". Civil rights leaders protested the refusal to include an African American exhibit.Frederick Douglass,Ida B. Wells,Irvine Garland Penn, andFerdinand Lee Barnetco-authored a pamphlet entitled \"The Reason Why the Colored American is not in the World's Columbian Exposition – The Afro-American's Contribution to Columbian Literature\" addressing the issue. Wells and Douglass argued, \"when it is asked why we are excluded from the World's Columbian Exposition, the answer is Slavery.\"Ten thousand copies of the pamphlet were circulated in the White City from the Haitian Embassy (where Douglass had been selected as its national representative), and the activists received responses from the delegations of England, Germany, France, Russia, and India. The exhibition did include a limited number of exhibits put on by African Americans, including exhibits by the sculptorEdmonia Lewis, a painting exhibit by scientistGeorge Washington Carver, and a statistical exhibit byJoan Imogen Howard. Black individuals were also featured in white exhibits, such asNancy Green's portrayal of the characterAunt Jemimafor the R. T. Davis Milling Company. Operation The fair opened in May and ran through October 30, 1893. Forty-six nations participated in the fair, which was the first world's fair to have national pavilions.They constructed exhibits and pavilions and named national \"delegates\"; for example, Haiti selectedFrederick Douglassto be its delegate.The Exposition drew over 27 million visitors.The fair was originally meant to be closed on Sundays, but theChicago Woman's Clubpetitioned that it stay open.The club felt that if the exposition was closed on Sunday, it would restrict those who could not take off work during the work-week from seeing it. The exposition was located inJackson Parkand on theMidway Plaisanceon 630 acres (2.5 km2) in the neighborhoods of South Shore, Jackson Park Highlands,Hyde Park, andWoodlawn.Charles H. Wackerwas the director of the fair. The layout of the fairgrounds was created by Frederick Law Olmsted, and the Beaux-Arts architecture of the buildings was under the direction of Daniel Burnham, Director of Works for the fair. Renowned local architectHenry Ives Cobbdesigned several buildings for the exposition. The director of the American Academy in Rome,Francis Davis Millet, directed the painted mural decorations. Indeed, it was a coming-of-age for the arts and architecture of the \"American Renaissance\", and it showcased the burgeoning neoclassical andBeaux-Artsstyles. Assassination of mayor and end of fair The fair ended with the city in shock, as popular mayorCarter Harrison Sr.was assassinated byPatrick Eugene Prendergasttwo days before the fair's closing.Closing ceremonies were canceled in favor of a public memorial service. Jackson Park was returned to its status as a public park, in much better shape than its original swampy form. The lagoon was reshaped to give it a more natural appearance, except for the straight-line northern end where it still laps up against the steps on the south side of the Palace of Fine Arts/Museum of Science & Industry building. TheMidway Plaisance, a park-like boulevard which extends west from Jackson Park, once formed the southern boundary of theUniversity of Chicago, which was being built as the fair was closing (the university has since developed south of the Midway). The university's football team, the Maroons, were the original \"Monsters of the Midway.\" The exposition is mentioned in the university'salma mater: \"The City White hath fled the earth, / But where the azure waters lie, / A nobler city hath its birth, / The City Gray that ne'er shall die.\" Attractions The World's Columbian Exposition was the first world's fair with anarea for amusementsthat was strictly separated from the exhibition halls. This area, developed by a young music promoter,Sol Bloom, concentrated onMidway Plaisanceand introduced the term \"midway\" to American English to describe the area of a carnival or fair wheresideshowsare located. It included carnival rides, among them the originalFerris Wheel, built byGeorge Washington Gale Ferris Jr.This wheel was 264 feet (80 m) high and had 36 cars, each of which could accommodate 40 people.The importance of the Columbian Exposition is highlighted by the use ofrueda de Chicago(\"Chicago wheel\") in many Latin American countries such as Costa Rica and Chile in reference to theFerris wheel.One attendee,George C. Tilyou, later credited the sights he saw on the Chicago midway for inspiring him to create America's first major amusement park,Steeplechase ParkinConey Island, New York. The fair included life-size reproductions of Christopher Columbus' three ships, theNiña(real nameSanta Clara), thePinta, and theSanta María. These were intended to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus' discovery of the Americas. The ships were constructed in Spain and then sailed to America for the exposition.The celebration of Columbus was an intergovernmental project, coordinated by American special envoyWilliam Eleroy Curtis, theQueen Regent of Spain, andPope Leo XIII.The ships were a very popular exhibit. Eadweard Muybridgegave a series of lectures on the Science of Animal Locomotion in the Zoopraxographical Hall, built specially for that purpose on Midway Plaisance. He used hiszoopraxiscopeto show hismoving picturesto a paying public. The hall was the first commercial movie theater. The \"Street in Cairo\" included the popular dancer known asLittle Egypt.She introduced America to the suggestive version of thebelly danceknown as the \"hootchy-kootchy,\" to a tune said to have been improvised by Sol Bloom (and now more commonly associated with snake charmers) which he had composed when his dancers had no music to dance to.Bloom did not copyright the song, putting it immediately in thepublic domain. Also included was the firstmoving walkwayor travelator, which was designed by architectJoseph Lyman Silsbee. It had two different divisions: one where passengers were seated, and one where riders could stand or walk. It ran in a loop down the length of a lakefront pier to a casino. Although denied a spot at the fair,Buffalo Bill Codydecided to come to Chicago anyway, setting up hisBuffalo Bill's Wild West Showjust outside the edge of the exposition. Nearby, historianFrederick Jackson Turnergave academic lectures reflecting on the end of the frontier which Buffalo Bill represented. TheelectrotachyscopeofOttomar Anschützwas demonstrated, which used aGeissler tubeto project theillusionofmoving images. Louis Comfort Tiffanymade his reputation with a stunning chapel designed and built for the Exposition. After the Exposition theTiffany Chapelwas sold several times, even going back to Tiffany's estate. It was eventually reconstructed and restored and in 1999 it was installed at theCharles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art. ArchitectKirtland Cutter'sIdaho Building, a rustic log construction, was a popular favorite,visited by an estimated 18 million people.The building's design and interior furnishings were a major precursor of theArts and Crafts movement. Among the other attractions at the fair, several products that are well-known today were introduced. These products includedJuicy Fruitgum,Cream of Wheat,Cracker Jacks,Shredded Wheatcereal, andPabst Blue Ribbonbeer, among many others. Anthropology There was an Anthropology Building at the World's Fair. Nearby, \"The Cliff Dwellers\" featured a rock and timber structure that was painted to recreate Battle Rock Mountain in Colorado, a stylized recreation of an American Indian cliff dwelling with pottery, weapons, and other relics on display.There was also anEskimodisplay. There were also birch barkwigwamsof thePenobscottribe. Nearby was a working model Indian school, organized by the Office of Indian Affairs, that housed delegations of Native American students and their teachers from schools around the country for weeks at a time. Rail TheJohn Bulllocomotive was displayed. It was only 62 years old, having been built in 1831. It was the first locomotive acquisition by theSmithsonian Institution. The locomotive ran under its own power fromWashington, DC, to Chicago to participate, and returned to Washington under its own power again when the exposition closed. In 1981 it was the oldest surviving operablesteam locomotivein the world when it ran under its own power again. ABaldwin2-4-2locomotive was showcased at the exposition, and subsequently the2-4-2type was known as theColumbia. An originalfrogswitch and portion of the superstructure of the famous 1826Granite Railwayin Massachusetts could be viewed. This was the first commercial railroad in the United States to evolve into acommon carrierwithout an intervening closure. The railway brought granite stones from a rock quarry inQuincy, Massachusetts, so that theBunker Hill Monumentcould be erected in Boston. The frog switch is now on public view inEast Milton Square, Massachusetts, on the originalright-of-wayof the Granite Railway. Transportation by rail was the major mode of transportation. A 26-track train station was built at the southwest corner of the fair. While trains from around the country would unload there, there was a local train to shuttle tourists from the Chicago Grand Central Station to the fair. The newly builtChicago and South Side Rapid Transit Railroadalso served passengers fromCongress Terminalto the fairgrounds atJackson Park. The line exists today as part of theCTAGreen Line. Country and state exhibition buildings Forty-six countries had pavilions at the exposition.Norwayparticipated by sending theViking, a replica of theGokstad ship. It was built in Norway and sailed across theAtlantic Oceanby 12 men, led by Captain Magnus Andersen. In 1919, this ship was moved toLincoln Park. It was relocated in 1996 to Good Templar Park inGeneva, Illinois, where it awaits renovation. Thirty-four U.S. states also had their own pavilions.The work of noted feminist authorKate McPhelim Clearywas featured during the opening of the Nebraska Day ceremonies at the fair, which included a reading of her poem \"Nebraska\".Among the state buildings present at the fair were California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas; each was meant to be architecturally representative of the corresponding states. FourUnited States territoriesalso had pavilions located in one building:Arizona,New Mexico,Oklahoma, andUtah. Visitors to the Louisiana Pavilion were each given a seedling of a cypress tree. This resulted in the spread of cypress trees to areas where they were not native. Cypress trees from those seedlings can be found in many areas of West Virginia, where they flourish in the climate. TheIllinoiswas a detailed, full-scale mockup of anIndiana-class battleship, constructed as a naval exhibit. Guns and artillery The German firmKrupphad a pavilion of artillery, which apparently had cost one million dollars to stage,including a coastal gun of 42 cm in bore (16.54 inches) and a length of 33 calibres (45.93 feet, 14 meters). A breech-loaded gun, it weighed 120.46long tons(122.4 metric tons). According to the company's marketing: \"It carried a charge projectile weighing from 2,200 to 2,500 pounds which, when driven by 900 pounds ofbrown powder, was claimed to be able to penetrate at 2,200 yards a wrought-iron plate three feet thick if placed at right angles.\" Nicknamed \"The Thunderer\", the gun had an advertised range of 15 miles. On this occasionJohn Schofielddeclared Krupps' guns \"the greatest peacemakers in the world\".This gun was later seen as a precursor of the company's World War IDicke Bertahowitzers. Religions The 1893Parliament of the World's Religions, which ran from September 11 to September 27, marked the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions from around the world. According toEric J. Sharpe,Tomoko Masuzawa, and others, the event was considered radical at the time, since it allowed non-Christian faiths to speak on their own behalf.For example, it is recognized as the first public mention of theBaháʼí Faithin North America;it was not taken seriously by European scholars until the 1960s. Moving walkway Along the banks of the lake, patrons on the way to the casino were taken on amoving walkwaydesigned by architectJoseph Lyman Silsbee, the first of its kind open to the public,calledThe Great Wharf, Moving Sidewalk, it allowed people to walk along or ride in seats. Horticulture Horticultural exhibits at the Horticultural Hall includedcactiandorchidsas well as other plants in agreenhouse. Architecture White City Most of the buildings of the fair were designed in theneoclassical architecturestyle. The area at the Court of Honor was known asThe White City. Façades were made not of stone, but of a mixture of plaster, cement, and jute fiber calledstaff, which was painted white, giving the buildings their \"gleam\". Architecture critics derided the structures as \"decorated sheds.” The buildings were clad in whitestucco, which, in comparison to thetenementsof Chicago, seemed illuminated. It was also called the White City because of the extensive use of street lights, which made the boulevards and buildings usable at night. In 1892, working under extremely tight deadlines to complete construction, director of works Daniel Burnham appointedFrancis Davis Milletto replace the fair's official director of color-design, William Pretyman. Pretyman had resigned following a dispute with Burnham. After experimenting, Millet settled on a mix of oil and white leadwhitewashthat could be applied using compressed airspray paintingto the buildings, taking considerably less time than traditional brush painting.Joseph Binks, maintenance supervisor at Chicago'sMarshall Field's Wholesale Store, who had been using this method to apply whitewash to the subbasement walls of the store, got the job to paint the Exposition buildings.Claims this was the first use of spray painting may be apocryphal since journals from that time note this form of painting had already been in use in the railroad industry from the early 1880s. Many of the buildings included sculptural details and, to meet the Exposition's opening deadline, chief architect Burnham sought the help ofChicago Art InstituteinstructorLorado Taftto help complete them. Taft's efforts included employing a group of talented women sculptors from the Institute known as \"theWhite Rabbits\" to finish some of the buildings, getting their name from Burnham's comment \"Hire anyone, even white rabbits if they'll do the work.\" The words \"Thine alabaster cities gleam\" from the song \"America the Beautiful\" were inspired by the White City. Role in the City Beautiful movement The White City is largely credited for ushering in theCity Beautiful movementand planting the seeds of modern city planning. The highly integrated design of the landscapes, promenades, and structures provided a vision of what is possible when planners, landscape architects, and architects work together on a comprehensive design scheme. The White City inspired cities to focus on the beautification of the components of the city in which municipal government had control; streets, municipal art, public buildings, and public spaces. The designs of the City Beautiful Movement (closely tied with the municipal art movement) are identifiable by their classical architecture, plan symmetry, picturesque views, and axial plans, as well as their magnificent scale. Where the municipal art movement focused on beautifying one feature in a city, the City Beautiful movement began to make improvements on the scale of the district. The White City of the World's Columbian Exposition inspired theMerchants Clubof Chicago to commissionDaniel Burnhamto create the Plan of Chicago in 1909. Great buildings There were fourteen main \"great buildings\": 17centered around a giant reflective pool called the Grand Basin.Buildings included: Transportation Building Louis Sullivan's polychrome proto-Modern Transportation Building was an outstanding exception to the prevailing style, as he tried to develop an organic American form. Years later, in 1922, he wrote that the classical style of the White City had set back modern American architecture by forty years. As detailed inErik Larson's popular historyThe Devil in the White City, extraordinary effort was required to accomplish the exposition, and much of it was unfinished on opening day. The famousFerris Wheel, which proved to be a major attendance draw and helped save the fair from bankruptcy, was not finished until June, because of waffling by the board of directors the previous year on whether to build it. Frequent debates and disagreements among the developers of the fair added many delays. The spurning ofBuffalo Bill's Wild West Show proved a serious financial mistake. Buffalo Bill set up his highly popular show next door to the fair and brought in a great deal of revenue that he did not have to share with the developers. Nonetheless, construction and operation of the fair proved to be a windfall for Chicago workers during the serious economic recession that was sweeping the country. Surviving structures Almost all of the fair's structures were designed to be temporary;of the more than 200 buildings erected for the fair, the only two which still stand in place are thePalace of Fine Artsand theWorld's Congress Auxiliary Building. From the time the fair closed until 1920, the Palace of Fine Arts housed the Field Columbian Museum (now theField Museum of Natural History, since relocated); in 1933 (having been completely rebuilt in permanent materials), the Palace building re-opened as theMuseum of Science and Industry.The second building, the World's Congress Building, was one of the few buildings not built in Jackson Park, instead it was built downtown inGrant Park. The cost of construction of the World's Congress Building was shared with theArt Institute of Chicago, which, as planned, moved into the building (the museum's current home) after the close of the fair. The three other significant buildings that survived the fair represented Norway, the Netherlands, and the State of Maine. TheNorwayBuilding was a recreation of a traditional woodenstave church. After the Fair it was relocated to Lake Geneva, and in 1935 was moved to a museum calledLittle NorwayinBlue Mounds, Wisconsin. In 2015 it was dismantled and shipped back to Norway, where it was restored and reassembled.The second is theMaine State Building, designed by Charles Sumner Frost, which was purchased by the Ricker family ofPoland Spring, Maine. They moved the building to their resort to serve as a library and art gallery. The Poland Spring Preservation Society now owns the building, which was listed on theNational Register of Historic Placesin 1974. The third isThe Dutch House, which was moved toBrookline, Massachusetts. The1893 Viking shipthat was sailed to the Exposition from Norway by Captain Magnus Andersen is located inGeneva, Illinois. The ship is open to visitors on scheduled days April through October. The main altar atSt. John Cantius in Chicago, as well as its matching two side altars, are reputed to be from the Columbian Exposition. Since many of the other buildings at the fair were intended to be temporary, they were removed after the fair. The White City so impressed visitors (at least before air pollution began to darken the façades) that plans were considered to refinish the exteriors in marble or some other material. These plans were abandoned in July 1894, when much of the fair grounds was destroyed in a fire. Gallery Later criticisms Frank Lloyd Wrightlater wrote that \"By this overwhelming rise of grandomania I was confirmed in my fear that a native architecture would be set back at least fifty years.\" According toUniversity of Notre Damehistory professor Gail Bederman, the event symbolized a male-dominated and Eurocentrist society. In her 1995 textManliness and Civilization, she writes, \"The White City, with its vision of future perfection and of the advanced racial power of manly commerce and technology, constructed civilization as an ideal of white male power.\"According to Bederman, people of color were barred entirely from participating in the organization of the White City and were instead given access only to the Midway exhibit, \"which specialized in spectacles of barbarous races – 'authentic' villages of Samoans, Egyptians, Dahomans, Turks, and other exotic peoples, populated by actual imported 'natives.'\" Two small exhibits were included in the White City's \"Woman's Building\" which addressed women of color. One, entitled \"Afro-American\" was installed in a distant corner of the building.The other, called \"Woman's Work in Savagery,\" included baskets, weavings, and African, Polynesian, and Native American arts. Though they were produced by living women of color, the materials were represented as relics from the distant past, embodying \"the work of white women's own distant evolutionary foremothers.\" Visitors Helen Keller, along with her mentorAnne Sullivanand Dr.Alexander Graham Bell, visited the fair in summer 1893. Keller described the fair in her autobiographyThe Story of My Life.Early in July, aWellesley CollegeEnglish teacher namedKatharine Lee Batesvisited the fair. The White City later inspired the reference to \"alabaster cities\" in her poem and lyrics \"America the Beautiful\".The exposition was extensively reported by Chicago publisherWilliam D. Boyce's reporters and artists.There is a very detailed and vivid description of all facets of this fair by thePersiantraveler Mirza Mohammad Ali Mo'in ol-Saltaneh written inPersian. He departed fromPersiaon April 20, 1892, especially for the purpose of visiting the World's Columbian Exposition. Pierre de Coubertinvisited the fair with his friendsPaul BourgetandSamuel Jean de Pozzi. He devotes the first chapter of his bookSouvenirs d'Amérique et de Grèce(1897) to the visit.Swami Vivekanandavisited the fair to attend theParliament of the World's Religionsand delivered his famous speechSisters and Brothers of America!.Kubota Beisenwas an official delegate of Japan. As an artist, he sketched hundreds of scenes, some of which were later used to make woodblock print books about the Exhibition.Serial killerH. H. Holmesattended the fair with two of his eventual victims, Annie and Minnie Williams.BulgarianwriterAleko Konstantinovvisited the fair and wrote hisnonfictionbookTo Chicago and Back. Souvenirs Examples of exposition souvenirs can be found in various American museum collections. One example, copyrighted in 1892 by John W. Green, is a foldinghand fanwith detailed illustrations of landscapes and architecture.Charles W Goldsmith produced a set of ten postcard designs, each in full colour, showing the buildings constructed for the exhibition.Columbian Exposition coinswere also minted for the event. Electricity The effort to power the Fair with electricity, which became a demonstration piece forWestinghouse Electricand thealternating currentsystem they had been developing for many years, took place at the end of what has been called theWar of the currentsbetween DC and AC.Westinghouse initially did not put in a bid to power the Fair but agreed to be the contractor for a local Chicago company that put in a low bid of US$510,000 to supply an alternating current-based system. Edison General Electric, which at the time was merging with theThomson-Houston Electric Companyto formGeneral Electric, put in a US$1.72 million bid to power the Fair and its planned 93,000 incandescent lamps withdirect current. After the Fair committee went over both proposals, Edison General Electric re-bid their costs at $554,000 but Westinghouse underbid them by 70 cents per lamp to get the contract.Westinghouse could not use the Edison incandescent lamp since the patent belonged to General Electric and they had successfully sued to stop use of all patent infringing designs. Since Edison specified a sealed globe of glass in his design Westinghouse found a way to sidestep the Edison patent by quickly developing a lamp with a ground-glass stopper in one end, based on a Sawyer-Man \"stopper\" lamp patent they already had. The lamps worked well but were short-lived, requiring a small army of workmen to constantly replace them.: 140 Westinghouse Electric had severely underbid the contract and struggled to supply all the equipment specified, including twelve 1,000-horsepower single-phase AC generators and all the lighting and other equipment required.They also had to fend off a last-minute lawsuit by General Electric claiming the Westinghouse Sawyer-Man-based stopper lamp infringed on the Edison incandescent lamp patent.: 142 The International Exposition was held in an Electricity Building which was devoted to electrical exhibits. A statue ofBenjamin Franklinwas displayed at the entrance. The exposition featured interior and exterior light and displays as well as displays ofThomas Edison'skinetoscope,search lights, aseismograph, electricincubatorsfor chicken eggs,andMorse codetelegraph.: 22 All the exhibits were from commercial enterprises. Participants included General Electric, Brush,Western Electric, and Westinghouse. The Westinghouse Company displayed severalpolyphase systems. The exhibits included aswitchboard, polyphase generators, step-uptransformers, transmission line, step-down transformers, commercial sizeinduction motorsandsynchronous motors, and rotary direct current converters (including an operational railway motor). The working scaled system allowed the public a view of a system of polyphase power which could be transmitted over long distances, and be utilized, including the supply of direct current. Meters and other auxiliary devices were also present. Part of the space occupied by the Westinghouse Company was devoted to demonstrations of electrical devices developed byNikola Teslaincludinginduction motorsand thegeneratorsused to power the system.Therotating magnetic fieldthat drove these motors was explained through a series of demonstrations including anEgg of Columbusthat used thetwo-phasecoil in the induction motors to spin a copper egg making it stand on end. Tesla himself showed up for a week in August to attend theInternational Electrical Congress, being held at the fair's Agriculture Hall, and put on a series of demonstrations of his wireless lighting system in a specially set up darkened room at the Westinghouse exhibit.These included demonstrations he had previously performed throughout America and Europeincluding using a nearby coil to light a wirelessgas-discharge lampheld in his hand. Also at the Fair, theChicago Athletic Association Football teamplayed one of the firstnight footballgames againstWest Point(the earliest being on September 28, 1892, betweenMansfield State NormalandWyoming Seminary). Chicago won the game, 14–0. The game lasted only 40 minutes, compared to the normal 90 minutes. Music Musicians There were many other black artists at the fair, ranging fromminstreland early ragtime groups to more formalclassicalensembles to street buskers. Other music and musicians Art American artists exhibiting Painters Sculptors Japanese art Japan's artistic contribution was mainly inporcelain,cloisonnéenamel, metalwork and embroidery.While 55 paintings and 24 sculptures came from Japan, 271 of the 290 exhibits in the Palace of Fine Arts were Japanese.Artists represented includedMiyagawa Kozan,Yabu Meizan,Namikawa Sōsuke, and Suzuki Chokichi. Women artists exhibiting The women artists at theWoman's BuildingincludedAnna Lownes,Viennese painterRosa Schweninger, and many others.American composerAmy Cheney Beachwas commissioned by theBoard of Lady Managersof the fair to compose a choral work (Festival Jubilate, op. 17) for the opening of the Woman's Building.TheMrs Potts sad-iron systemwas on display.Ami Mali Hicks' stencil design was selected to adorn thefriezein the assembly room of the Women's Building.Musicologist Anna Morsch and composerCharlotte Sporlederpresented a program of German music. The Woman's Building included a Woman's Building Library Exhibit, which had 7,000 books – all by women. The Woman's Building Library was meant to show the cumulative contribution of the world's women to literature. \"Greatest Refrigerator on Earth\" fire tragedy A large Romanesque structure called \"Greatest Refrigerator on Earth\" stored thousands of pounds of the Exposition's food and held an ice-skating rink for patrons.The large structure demonstrated artificial freezing, a recent development, and was planned by architectFranklin P. Burnham. The structure's floor space was 130 by 255 feet and its height reached almost 200 feet. On the evening of July 10, 1893, the \"Greatest Refrigerator on Earth\" caught fire. Two firemen entered, one sliding down a rope and another on a line of hose, and both were trapped in the burning refrigerator. A total of fifteen people died, twelve firefighters and three civilians, in front of a crowd of more than a thousand fairgoers.The only artifact that survived the fire was a twelve-foot copper statue of Christopher Columbus, which was kept as a monument to the men who lost their lives and is kept by thefire museumof Chicago. Notable firsts Concepts Commemorations Edibles and potables Inventions and manufacturing advances Organizations Performances Later years The exposition was one influence leading to the rise of theCity Beautiful movement.Results included grand buildings and fountains built aroundOlmstedianparks, shallow pools of water on axis to central buildings, larger park systems, broad boulevards and parkways and, after the start of the 20th century, zoning laws and planned suburbs. Examples of the City Beautiful movement's works include the City of Chicago, theColumbia Universitycampus, and theNational Mallin Washington, D.C. After the fair closed, J.C. Rogers, a banker fromWamego, Kansas, purchased several pieces of art that had hung in the rotunda of the U.S. Government Building. He also purchased architectural elements, artifacts and buildings from the fair. He shipped his purchases to Wamego. Many of the items, including the artwork, were used to decorate his theater, now known asthe Columbian Theatre. Memorabilia such as books, tokens, published photographs, and well-printed admission tickets saved by guests are popular collectors. TheGeorge Washington Universitymaintains a small collection of exposition tickets for viewing and research purposes. The collection is currently cared for by GWU's Special Collections Research Center, located in the Estelle and MelvinGelman Library. When the exposition ended the Ferris Wheel was moved to Chicago's north side, next to an exclusive neighborhood. An unsuccessful Circuit Court action was filed against the owners of the wheel to have it moved. The wheel stayed there until it was moved toSt. Louisfor the1904 World's Fair. The Columbian Exposition has celebrated many anniversaries since the fair in 1893. The Chicago Historical Society held an exhibition to commemorate the fair. The Grand Illusions exhibition was centered around the idea that the Columbian Exposition was made up of a series of illusions. The commemorative exhibition contained partial reconstructions, a video detailing the fair, and a catalogue similar to the one sold at the World's Fair of 1893. Academic views Henry Adamswrote in his 1907Education: “The Exposition denied philosophy ... ince Noah’s Ark, no such Babel of loose and ill-jointed, such vague and ill-defined and unrelated thoughts and half-thoughts and experimental out-cries... had ruffled the surface of the Lakes.”: 128 Michel-Rolph Trouillotwrote that the academic aspect of the event was not very important, even though theHarvard Peabody Museum, theSmithsonian Institution, andFranz Boasmade contributions.: 128 In popular culture See also Notes References Further reading External links", "Art Institute of Chicago TheArt Institute of Chicago, founded in 1879, is one of the oldest and largestart museumsin the United States. The museum is based in theArt Institute of Chicago BuildinginChicago'sGrant Park. Its collection, stewarded by 11 curatorial departments, includes works such asGeorges Seurat'sA Sunday on La Grande Jatte,Pablo Picasso'sThe Old Guitarist,Edward Hopper'sNighthawks, andGrant Wood'sAmerican Gothic. Its permanent collection of nearly 300,000 works of art is augmented by more than 30 special exhibitions mounted yearly that illuminate aspects of the collection and present curatorial and scientific research. As a research institution, the Art Institute also has a conservation and conservation science department, five conservation laboratories, andRyerson and Burnham Libraries, one of the nation's largest art history and architecture libraries. The museum's building was constructed for the 1893World's Columbian Expositionand, due to the growth of the collection, several additions have occurred since. The Modern Wing, designed byRenzo Piano, is the most recent expansion, and when it opened in 2009 it increased the museum's footprint to nearly one million square feet. This made it the second largest art museum in the United States, after theMetropolitan Museum of Artin New York City. The Art Institute is associated with theSchool of the Art Institute of Chicago, a leading art school, making it one of the few remaining unified arts institutions in the United States. History 19th century In 1866, a group of 35 artists founded theChicago Academy of Designin a studio on Dearborn Street, with the intent to run a free school with its own art gallery. The organization was modeled after European art academies, such as theRoyal Academy, with Academicians and Associate Academicians. The academy's charter was granted in March 1867. Classes started in 1868, meeting every day at a cost of $10 per month. The academy's success enabled it to build a new home for the school, a five-story stone building on 66 West Adams Street, which opened on November 22, 1870. When theGreat Chicago Firedestroyed the building in 1871, the academy was thrown into debt. Attempts to continue despite the loss by using rented facilities failed. By 1878, the academy was $10,000 in debt. Members tried to rescue the ailing institution by making deals with local businessmen, before some finally abandoned it in 1879 to found a new organization, named theChicago Academy of Fine Arts. When the Chicago Academy of Design went bankrupt the same year, the new Chicago Academy of Fine Arts bought its assets at auction. In 1882, the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts changed its name to the current Art Institute of Chicago and elected as its first president the banker and philanthropistCharles L. Hutchinson, who \"is arguably the single most important individual to have shaped the direction and fortunes of the Art Institute of Chicago\".: 5Hutchinson was a director of many prominent Chicago organizations, including theUniversity of Chicago,and would transform the Art Institute into a world-class museum during his presidency, which he held until his death in 1924.Also in 1882, the organization purchased a lot on the southwest corner ofMichigan Avenueand Van Buren Street for $45,000. The existing commercial building on that property was used for the organization's headquarters, and a new addition was constructed behind it to provide gallery space and to house the school's facilities.: 19By January 1885 the trustees recognized the need to provide additional space for the organization's growing collection, and to this end purchased the vacant lot directly south on Michigan Avenue. The commercial building was demolished,and the noted architectJohn Wellborn Rootwas hired by Hutchinson to design a building that would create an \"impressive presence\" on Michigan Avenue,: 22–23and these facilities opened to great fanfare in 1887.: 24 With the announcement of theWorld's Columbian Expositionto be held in 1892–93, the Art Institute pressed for a building on the lakefront to be constructed for the fair, but to be used by the institute afterwards. The city agreed, and the building was completed in time for the second year of the fair. Construction costs were met by selling the Michigan/Van Buren property. On October 31, 1893, the institute moved into the new building. For the opening reception on December 8, 1893,Theodore Thomasand theChicago Symphony Orchestraperformed. 20th century From the early 1900s to the 1960s the school offered with the Logan Family (members of the board) theLogan Medal of the Arts, an award which became one of the most distinguished awards presented to artists in the U.S. Between 1959 and 1970, the institute was a key site in the battle to gain art and documentary photography a place in galleries, under curatorHugh Edwardsand his assistants. As director of the museum starting in the early 1980s,James N. Woodconducted a major expansion of its collection and oversaw a major renovation and expansion project for its facilities. As \"one of the most respected museum leaders in the country\", as described byThe New York Times, Wood created major exhibitions of works byPaul Gauguin,Claude Monet, andVincent van Goghthat set records for attendance at the museum. He retired from the museum in 2004. 21st century The institute began construction of \"The Modern Wing\", an addition situated on the southwest corner of Columbus and Monroe in the early 21st century.The project, designed byPritzker Prize–winning architectRenzo Piano, was completed and officially opened to the public on May 16, 2009. The 264,000-square-foot (24,500 m2) building addition made the Art Institute the second-largest art museum in the United States. The building houses the museum's world-renowned collections of 20th and 21st century art, specifically modern European painting and sculpture, contemporary art, architecture and design, and photography. In its inaugural survey in 2014, travel review website and forum,Tripadvisor, reviewed millions of travelers' surveys and named the Art Institute the world's best museum. The museum received perhaps the largest gift of art in its history in 2015.CollectorsStefan Edlisand Gael Neeson donated a \"collection is among the world's greatest groups of postwar Pop art ever assembled\".The donation includes works byAndy Warhol,Jasper Johns,Cy Twombly,Jeff Koons,Charles Ray,Richard Prince,Cindy Sherman,Roy LichtensteinandGerhard Richter. The museum agreed to keep the donated work on display for at least 50 years.In June 2018, the museum received a $50 million donation, the largest single announced unrestricted monetary donation in its history.A $75 million donation in 2024 is to go toward a new galley. Collection The collection of the Art Institute of Chicago encompasses more than 5,000 years of human expression from cultures around the world and contains more than 300,000 works of art in 11 curatorial departments, ranging from early Japanese prints to the art of theByzantine Empireto contemporary American art. It is principally known for one of the United States' finest collection of paintings produced in Western culture. African Art and Indian Art of the Americas The Art Institute's African Art and Indian Art of the Americas collections are on display across two galleries in the south end of the Michigan Avenue building. The African collection includes more than 400 works that span the continent, highlighting ceramics, garments, masks, and jewelry. The Amerindian collection includes Native North American art andMesoamericanandAndeanworks. From pottery to textiles, the collection brings together a wide array of objects that seek to illustrate the thematic and aesthetic focuses of art spanning the Americas. American art The Art Institute's American Art collection contains some of the best-known works in the American canon, includingEdward Hopper'sNighthawks,Grant Wood'sAmerican Gothic, andMary Cassatt'sThe Child's Bath. The collection ranges from colonial silver to modern and contemporary paintings. The museum purchasedNighthawksin 1942 for $3,000;its acquisition \"launched\" the painting into \"immense popular recognition\".Considered an \"icon of American culture\",Nighthawksis perhaps Hopper's most famous painting, and one of the most recognizable images inAmerican art.Also well known,American Gothichas been in the museum's collection since 1930 and was only loaned outside of North America for the first time in 2016.Wood's painting depicts what has been called \"the most famous couple in the world\", a dour, rural-American, father and daughter. It was entered into a contest at the Art Institute in 1930, and although not a favorite of some, it won a medal and was acquired by the museum. Ancient and Byzantine The Art Institute's ancient collection spans nearly 4,000 years of art and history, showcasing Greek, Etruscan, Roman, and Egyptian sculpture, mosaics, pottery, jewelry, glass, and bronze and a robust and well-maintained collection of ancient coins. There are around 5,000 works in the collection, offering a comprehensive survey of the ancient and medieval Mediterranean world, beginning with the third millennium B.C. and extending to theByzantine Empire.The collection also holds the mummy and mummy case of Paankhenamun. Architecture and Design The Department of Architecture and Design holds more than 140,000 works, from models to drawings from the 1870s to the present day. The collection coverslandscape architecture,structural engineering, andindustrial design, including the works ofFrank Lloyd Wright,Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, andLe Corbusier. Asian art The Art Institute's Asian collection spans nearly 5,000 years, including significant works and objects from China, Korea, Japan, India, Southeast Asia, and the Near and Middle East. There are 35,000 objects in the collection, showcasing bronzes, ceramics, jades, textiles, screens, woodcuts, and sculptures.One gallery in particular attempts to mimic the quiet and meditative way in whichJapanese screensare traditionally viewed. European Decorative Arts The Art Institute's collection of European decorative arts includes some 25,000 objects of furniture, ceramics, metalwork, glass, enamel, and ivory from 1100 AD to the present day. The department contains the 1,544 objects in theArthur RubloffPaperweight Collection and the 68Thorne Miniature Rooms–a collection of miniaturized interiors of a 1:12 scale showcasing American, European, and Asian architectural and furniture styles from theMiddle Agesto the 1930s (when the rooms were constructed).Both the paperweights and the Thorne Rooms are located on the ground floor of the museum. European painting and sculptures The museum is most famous for its collections ofImpressionistandPost-Impressionistpaintings, widely regarded as one of the finest collections outside of France.Highlights include more than 30 paintings byClaude Monet, including six of hisHaystacksand a number ofWater Lilies. Also in the collection are important works byPierre-Auguste Renoirsuch asTwo Sisters (On the Terrace),andGustave Caillebotte'sParis Street; Rainy Day.Post-Impressionist works includePaul Cézanne'sThe Basket of Apples, andMadame Cézannein a Yellow Chair.At the Moulin RougebyHenri de Toulouse-Lautrecis another highlight. Thepointillistmasterpiece, which also inspireda musicaland was featured inFerris Bueller's Day Off,Georges Seurat'sSunday Afternoon on La Grande Jatte—1884,is prominently displayed. Additionally,Henri Matisse'sBathers by a River, is an important example of his work. Highlights of non-French paintings of the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist collection includeVincent van Gogh'sBedroom in ArlesandSelf-portrait, 1887. In the mid-1930s, the Art Institute received a gift of over one hundred works of art fromAnnie Swan Coburn(\"Mr. and Mrs. Lewis Larned Coburn Memorial Collection\"). The \"Coburn Renoirs\" became the core of the Art Institute'sImpressionistpainting collection. The collection also includes the Medieval and Renaissance Art, Arms, and Armor holdings, including the George F. Harding Collection of arms and armor,and three centuries ofOld Mastersworks. Modern and Contemporary Art The museum's collection of modern and contemporary art was significantly augmented when collectorsStefan Edlis and Gael Neesongifted 40 plus master works to the department in 2015.Pablo Picasso'sOld Guitarist,Henri Matisse'sBathers by a River,Constantin Brâncuși'sGolden Bird, andRené Magritte'sTime Transfixedare highlights of the modern galleries, located on the third floor of the Modern Wing.The contemporary installation, located on the second floor, contains works byAndy Warhol,Cindy Sherman,Cy Twombly,Jackson Pollock,Jasper Johns, and other significant modern and contemporary artists. Photography The Art Institute did not officially establish a photography collection until 1949, whenGeorgia O'Keeffedonated a significant portion of theAlfred Stieglitzcollection to the museum.Since then, the museum's collection has grown to approximately 20,000 works spanning the history of the artform from its inception in 1839 to the present. Prints and Drawings The print and drawings collection began with a donation by Elizabeth S. Stickney of 460 works in 1887, and was organized into its own department of the museum in 1911.Their holdings have subsequently grown to 11,500 drawings and 60,000 prints, ranging from 15th-century works to contemporary. The collection contains a strong group of the works ofAlbrecht Dürer,Rembrandt van Rijn,Francisco Goya, andJames McNeill Whistler. Because works on paper are sensitive to light and degrade quickly, the works are on display infrequently in order to keep them in good condition for as long as possible. Textiles The Department of Textiles has more than 13,000 textiles and 66,000 sample swatches in total, covering an array of cultures from 300 BC to the present. From Englishneedleworkto Japanese garments to American quilts, the collection presents a diverse group of objects, including contemporary works andfiber art. Architecture The current building complex at 111 South Michigan Avenue is the third address for the Art Institute. Situated inGrant Park, it was designed in theBeaux-Artsstyle byShepley, Rutan and CoolidgeofBostonto host national and international meetings held in conjunction with the 1893World's Columbian Exposition, as the World's Congress Auxiliary Building, with the intent that the Art Institute occupy the space after the close of the fair. The Art Institute's entrance onMichigan Avenueis guarded bytwo bronze lion statuescreated byEdward Kemeys. The lions were unveiled on May 10, 1894, each weighing more than two tons. The sculptor gave them unofficial names: the south lion is \"stands in an attitude of defiance\", and the north lion is \"on the prowl\". When a Chicago sports team plays in the championships of their respective league (i.e. the Super Bowl or Stanley Cup Finals, not the entire playoffs), the lions are frequently dressed in that team's uniform. Evergreen wreaths are placed around their necks during the Christmas season. The east entrance of the museum is marked by the stone arch entrance to the oldChicago Stock Exchange. Designed byLouis Sullivanin 1894, the Exchange was demolished in 1972, but salvaged portions of the original trading room were brought to the Art Institute and reconstructed. The Art Institute building has the unusual property of straddling open-air railroad tracks. Two stories of gallery space connect the east and west buildings while theMetra ElectricandSouth Shorelines operate below. The lower level of gallery space was formerly the windowless Gunsaulus hall, but is now home to the Alsdorf Galleries showcasing Indian, Southeast Asian and Himalayan Art. During renovation, windows facing north toward Millennium Park were added. The gallery space was designed byRenzo Pianoin conjunction with his design of the Modern Wing and features the same window screening used there to protect the art from direct sunlight. The upper level formerly held the modern European galleries, but was renovated in 2008 and now features the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist galleries. In September 2024, the museum announced a gift of $75 million for a new gallery building or wing named for benefactors Aaron I. Fleischman and Lin Lougheed. The gallery is intended to increase space for 19th century, modern, and contemporary art. The design and placement of the new gallery or gallery building are yet to be decided. Libraries Located on the ground floor of the museum is theRyerson & Burnham Libraries. The Libraries' collections cover all periods of art, but is most known for its extensive collection of 18th to 20th century architecture. It serves the museum staff, college and university students, and is also open to the general public. The Friends of the Libraries, a support group for the Libraries, offers events and special tours for its members. Modern Wing On May 16, 2009, the Art Institute opened the Modern Wing, the largest expansion in the museum's history.The 264,000-square-foot (24,500 m2) addition, designed byRenzo Piano, makes the Art Institute the second-largest museum in the US.Thearchitect of recordin the City of Chicago for this building was Interactive Design.The Modern Wing is home to the museum's collection of early 20th-century European art, includingPablo Picasso'sThe Old Guitarist,Henri Matisse'sBathers by a River, andRené Magritte'sTime Transfixed.The Lindy and Edwin Bergman Collection of Surrealist art includes the largest public display ofJoseph Cornell's works (37 boxes and collages).The Wing also housescontemporary artfrom after 1960; new photography, video media, architecture and design galleries including original renderings byFrank Lloyd Wright,Ludwig Mies van der RoheandBruce Goff; temporary exhibition space; shops and classrooms; and a cafe. In addition, theNichols Bridgewayconnects a sculpture garden on the roof of the new wing with the adjacentMillennium Parkto the north and a courtyard designed by Gustafson Guthrie Nichol. In 2009, the Modern Wing won at the Chicago Innovation Awards. Selections from the permanent collection Other notable works are in the collection but the following examples are ones in the public domain and for which pictures are available. In 2018, as it redesigned its website, the Art Institute released images of 52,438 of its public domain works, under theCreative Commons Zero(CC0) licence. Paintings Sculptures More highlights from the collection Governance Attendance During 2009, attendance was around 2 million—up 33 percent from 2008—in addition to a total of approximately 100,000 museum memberships. Despite a 25 percent boost in museum admission fees, the Modern Wing was a major catalyst for a rise in visitor traffic.In 2022, the museum welcomed 1.04 million visitors, an increase of 20 percent from 2021, but still well below 2018 attendance (before theCOVID-19pandemic). It was ranked tenth among themost-visited museums in the United States, and was the sixth most-visited U.S. art museum. Finances As of 2011, the Art Institute continues to rebuild its $783 million endowment since therecession.In June 2008, its endowment was $827 million. As of 2012, the museum is rated A1 byMoody's, its fifth-highest grade, in part reflecting the museum's pension and retirement liabilities;Standard & Poor'srates the museum A+, fifth-best. In October 2012, the Art Institute sold about $100 million of taxable and tax-exempt bonds partly to shore-up unfunded pension obligations. The $294 million extension in 2009 was the culmination of a $385 million fundraising campaign—roughly $300 million for design and construction and $85 million for the endowment. Around $370 million were raised primarily from private patrons in Chicago.In 2011, the Art Institute received a $10 million gift from the Jaharis Family Foundation to renovate and expand galleries devoted to Greek, Roman and Byzantine art, and to support acquisitions and special exhibitions of that art. Acquisitions and deaccessioning In 1990, the Art Institute of Chicago sold 11 works at auction, including paintings byClaude Monet,Pablo Picasso,Amedeo Modigliani,Maurice UtrilloandEdgar Degas, to raise the $12 million purchase price of a bronze sculpture,Golden Bird, byConstantin Brâncuși. At the time, the sculpture was owned by theArts Club of Chicago, which was selling it to buy a new gallery for its other works.In 2005, the museum sold two paintings byMarc ChagallandAuguste RenoiratSotheby's.In 2011, it auctioned two Picassos (Sur l'impériale traversant la Seine(1901) andVerre et pipe(1919)),Henri Matisse'sFemme au fauteuil(1919), andGeorges Braque'sNature morte à la guitare (rideaux rouge)(1938) atChristie'sin London. Directors Controversy Management of investments dispute In 2002, the Art Institute of Chicago filed suit alleging fraud by a small Dallas firm called Integral Investment Management, along with related parties. The museum, which put $43 million of its endowment into funds run by the defendants, claimed that it faced losses of up to 90% on the investments after they soured. Construction disputes In 2010, the year after the opening of its massive Modern Wing, the Art Institute of Chicago sued the engineering firmOve Arupfor $10 million over what it said were flaws in theconcretefloors and air-circulation systems. The suit wassettled out of court. Docent program diversity dispute In 2021, the Art Institute ended its unpaid volunteer docents program to move to a paid model. TheChicago Tribuneeditorial page criticized the Institute's letter announcing the change and the move to a new model, arguing that \"nce you cut through the blather, the letter basically said the museum had looked critically at its corps of docents, a group dominated by mostly (but not entirely) white, retired women with some time to spare, and found them wanting as a demographic.\"The Chair of the Institute's Board of Trustees, Robert M. Levy, responded in aTribuneop-ed supporting the change, and described theTribune's editorial as having \"numerous inaccuracies and mischaracterizations\", noted that the docent program had already been largely on pause for the past 15 months due to theCOVID pandemic, and argued that the decision was not about anyone's identity, it was in keeping with changing modern museum practices around the world. Following a volunteerism surge in the late 1940s, the program had been created in 1961 to revitalize and expand \"programming for children.\"Among other matters, since 2014 the program had been trying to attract a more diverse socioeconomic perspective set of art-tour guides, given the unpaid time commitment needed. Looted art In 1996, heirs to Jewish art collectors Louise andFriedrich Gutmann, who died in Nazi concentration camps, sued museum trusteeDaniel Searlefor the return of the Edgar Degas painting,Landscape with Smokestacks.After years of litigation a settlement was concluded which involved the acquisition of the painting by the Art Institute.A collection of approximately 500 objects fromNepal, India and elsewhere in Asia that was donated to the Art Institute by trusteeMarilynn Alsdorfin 1989 was later found to contain several objects that were looted; nine objects have been returned by the museum to Nepal over the years, while some additional items are still being contested.In 2023, theManhattan District Attorney's Office moved to seizeEgon Schielepaintings from several museums on the grounds that they had been looted by the Nazis fromFritz Grünbaum, who was killed in theHolocaust. The paintings included,Russian War Prisoner,a watercolor in the Art Institute.The Art Institute continues to hold the work, as it is contesting the seizure in court. According to its investigation, it acquired the watercolor drawing in 1966 from an American art dealer through a proper provenance from Grünbaum's legal heir, and it also argues that the claim is time-barred because Grünbaum's heirs were aware.In February 2024, the Manhattan District Attorney filed a motion accusing the Art Institute of \"blatantly ignoring evidence of an elaborate fraud undertaken to conceal that the artwork had been looted\". According toThe New York Times, the court filing provided detailed evidence that provenance documents provided by the Swiss art dealerEberhard Kornfeldcontained forged signatures or were altered long after he came into possession of the paintings and sold them to other art dealers in the mid-1950s. Court hearings on the matter are expected in 2024. In popular culture DirectorJohn Hughesincluded a sequence in the Art Institute in his 1986 filmFerris Bueller's Day Off, which is set in Chicago. During it, the characters are shown viewingA Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte. Hughes had first visited the institute as a \"refuge\" while in high school.Hughes' commentary on the sequence was used as a reference point by journalistHadley Freemanin a discussion of the Republican presidential primary candidates in 2011. The paintings used in the 1970Parker Brothersboard gameMasterpieceare works held in the Art Institute's collection. See also References External links", "John Hancock Center TheJohn Hancock Centeris a 100-story, 1,128-footsupertallskyscraperlocated inChicago,Illinois. Located in theMagnificent Miledistrict, the building was officially renamed875 North Michigan Avenuein 2018. The skyscraper was designed by Peruvian-American chief designerBruce Grahamand Bangladeshi-American structural engineerFazlur Rahman KhanofSkidmore, Owings and Merrill(SOM).When the building topped out on May 6, 1968,it was the second-tallest building in the world after theEmpire State Building, inNew York City, and the tallest in Chicago. It is currently thefifth-tallest building in Chicagoand thethirteenth-tallest in the United States, behind theAon Centerin Chicago and ahead of theComcast Technology CenterinPhiladelphia. When measured to the top of itsantenna masts, it stands at 1,500 feet (457 m).The building is home to several offices and restaurants, as well as about 700condominiums, and at the time of its completion contained the highest residence in the world. The building was named forJohn Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company, a developer and original tenant of the building, which itself was named for the U.S.Founding FatherJohn Hancock.In 2018 John Hancock Insurance, years after leaving the building, requested that its name be removed; the owner is seeking another naming rights deal. From the 95th-floor restaurant, which closed in late 2023, diners were able look out at Chicago andLake Michigan. The observatory (360 Chicago),which competes with the Willis Tower'sSkydeck, has a 360° view of the city, up to four states, and a distance of over 80 miles (130 km). 360 Chicago is home to TILT, a moving platform that leans visitors over the edge of the skyscraper to a 30-degree angle,a full bar with local selections,Chicago's only open-air SkyWalk, and also features free interactive high-definition touchscreens in six languages.The 44th-floorsky lobbyfeatures the highest indoor swimming pool in theUnited States. History 20th century The project, which would become the world's second tallest building at opening, was conceived and owned byJerry Wolmanin late 1964. The project was financed by John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company. Construction of the tower was interrupted in 1967 due to a flaw in an innovative engineering method used to pour concrete in stages, that was discovered when the building was 20 stories high.The engineers were getting the same soil settlements for the 20 stories that had been built as what they had expected for theentire99 stories. This forced the owner to stop development until the engineering problem could be resolved, resulting in a credit crunch. The situation is similar to the one faced during the construction of 111 West Wacker, then known as theWaterview Tower. Wolman's bankruptcy resulted in John Hancock taking over the project, which retained the original design, architect, engineer, and main contractor. The building's first resident was Ray Heckla, the original building engineer, responsible for the residential floors from 44 to 92. Heckla moved his family in April 1969, before the building was completed. The 1988 filmPoltergeist IIIwas set at the John Hancock Center and was filmed in early 1987. 21st century On December 10, 2006, the non-residential portion of the building was sold bySan Francisco–basedShorenstein Propertiesfor $385 millionand was purchased by a joint venture of Chicago-based Golub & Company and the Whitehall Street Real Estate Funds.Shorenstein Propertieshad bought the building in 1998 for $220 million. Golub defaulted on its debt and the building was acquired in 2012 byDeutsche Bank, who subsequently carved up the building.The venture of Deutsche Bank and New York–based NorthStar Realty Finance paid an estimated $325 millionfor debt on 875 North Michigan Avenue in 2012 afterShorenstein Propertiesdefaulted on $400 millionin loans.The observation deck was sold to Paris-basedMontparnasse 56 Groupfor between $35 million and $45 millionin July 2012.That same month, Prudential Real Estate Investors acquired the retail and restaurant space for almost $142 million.In November 2012, Boston-based American Tower Corp affiliate paid $70 millionfor the antennas.In June 2013, a venture of Chicago-based real estate investment firm Hearn Co., New York–based investment firm Mount Kellett Capital Management L.P. and San Antonio–based developer Lynd Co. closed on the expected acquisition of 875 North Michigan Avenue's 856,000 square feet (79,500 m2) of office space and 710-car parking deck. The Chicago firm did not disclose a price, but sources said it was about $145 million.This was the last step in that piecemeal sale process.In May 2016, Hearn Co. announced that they were seeking buyers for the naming rights with possible signage rights for the building. Hustle up the Hancock is an annual stair climb race up the 94 floors from the Michigan Avenue level to the observation deck. It is held on the last Sunday of February. The climb benefitsRespiratory Health Association. The record time as of 2007 is 9 minutes 30 seconds. The building is home to the transmitter ofUnivision'sWGBO-DT(channel 66), while all other full-power television stations in Chicago broadcast fromWillis Tower. TheCity Colleges of Chicago'sWYCC(channel 20) transmitted from the building until November 2017, when it departed the air as part of the 2016 FCC spectrum auction. On February 12, 2018, John Hancock Insurance requested that its name and logos throughout the building's interior be removed immediately; John Hancock had not had a naming-rights deal with the skyscraper's owners since 2013. The building's name was subsequently changed to its street address as 875 North Michigan Avenue. Incidents On November 11, 1981,Veterans Day, high-rise firefighting and rescue advocateDan Goodwin, for the purpose of calling attention to the inability to rescue people trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers, successfully climbed the building's exterior wall. Wearing a wetsuit and using a climbing device that enabled him to ascend the I-beams on the building's side, Goodwin battled repeated attempts by theChicago Fire Departmentto knock him off. Fire Commissioner William Blair ordered Chicago firemen to stop Goodwin by directing a fully engaged fire hose at him and by blasting fire axes through nearby glass from the inside. Fearing for Goodwin's life, MayorJane Byrneintervened and allowed him to continue to the top. On December 18, 1997, comedianChris Farleywas found dead in his apartment on the 60th floor of the building. On March 9, 2002, part of a scaffold fell 43 stories after being torn loose by wind gusts around 60 mph (100 km/h) crushing several cars, killing three people in two of them. The remaining part of the stage swung back-and-forth in the gusts repeatedly slamming against the building, damaging cladding panels, breaking windows, and sending pieces onto the street below. On November 21, 2015, a fire broke out in an apartment on the 50th floor of the building. TheChicago Fire Departmentwas able to extinguish the fire after an hour and a half; five people suffered minor injuries. On February 11, 2018, a fire in a car on the seventh floor required approximately 150 firefighters to extinguish. On November 16, 2018, an express elevator cable broke. Initial reports stated that an elevator with six passengers plunged 84 stories from the 95th to 11th floor. Since express elevators are not accessible from floors within the express zone, a team of firefighters had to break through a brick wall from the parking garage to extricate the passengers, none of whom suffered injuries. Elevators to the 95th/96th floor were closed thereafter pending investigation.Subsequent investigation documented only a controlled descent from the 20th floor to the 11th floor. A piece ofcladdingfell from the building on January 5, 2022. Architecture One of the most famous buildings of thestructural expressioniststyle, the skyscraper's distinctiveX-bracedexterior shows that the structure's skin is part of its \"tubular system\". This is one of the engineering techniques which the designers used to achieve a record height; thetubular systemis the structure that keeps the building upright during wind and earthquake loads. This X-bracing allows for both higher performance from tall structures and the ability to open up the inside floorplan. Such original features have allowed 875 North Michigan Avenue to become an architectural icon. It was pioneered by Bangladeshi-American structural civil engineerFazlur Khanand chief architectBruce Graham. The interior was remodeled in 1995, adding to the lobbytravertine, black granite, and texturedlimestonesurfaces. The elliptical-shaped plaza outside the building serves as a public oasis with seasonal plantings and a 12-foot (3.7 m) waterfall. A band of white lights at the top of the building is visible all over Chicago at night, and changes colors for different events. For example, at Christmas time the colors are green and red. When a Chicago-area sports team goes far in the playoffs, the colors are changed to match that team's colors. The building is a member of the World Federation of Great Towers. It has won various awards for its distinctive style, including the Distinguished ArchitectsTwenty-five Year Awardfrom theAmerican Institute of Architectsin May 1999.In celebration of the 2018 Illinois Bicentennial, the John Hancock Center was selected as one of the Illinois 200 Great Placesby theAmerican Institute of ArchitectsIllinois component (AIA Illinois) and was recognized by USA Today Travel magazine, as one of AIA Illinois' selections for Illinois 25 Must See Places. The building is only partially protected by a fire sprinkler system,as the residential floors do not have sprinklers.Including its antennas, the building has a height of 1,500 feet (457 m), making it the thirty-third tallest building in the world when measured to pinnacle height. Features 360 Chicago Observation Deck Located on the 94th floor, 360 Chicago Observation Deck is 875 North Michigan Avenue's horizon observatory. The floor of the observatory is 1,030 feet (310 m) above the street-level below. The entrance can be found on the concourse level of 875 North Michigan Avenue, accessible from the Michigan Avenue side of the building. The observatory, previously named John Hancock Observatory, has been independently owned and operated since 2014 by the Montparnasse 56 Group of Paris, France.The elevators are credited as the fastest in the Western Hemisphere, with a top speed of 1,800 ft/min (20.5 mph; 9 m/s).The observatory boasts more floor space than its direct competitor, Skydeck at the Willis Tower. There is a full bar called BAR 94 which stocks local beer and spirits fromRevolution BrewingandKOVAL Distillery.The observation deck also features an open-air \"skydeck\" area. The Observatory elevators of 875 North Michigan Avenue, manufactured byOtis, travel 96 floors at a top speed of 1,800 ft/min (20 mph; 9.1 m/s). It has been said the elevators to the observation deck are the fastest in North America, reaching the 95th floor in 38 seconds if they could run the entire trip at top speed. For several years in the 2010s, during its winter season, the observation deck would feature the \"world's highest skating rink\", with anartificial ice rinkbeing seasonally installed. At one point, observation deck had amascotnamed Seemore Miles. In the summer of 2014, 360 Chicago added its TILT attraction. TILT, which requires an additional fee to experience, features a series of floor-to-ceiling windows that slowly tilt outside the building to 30°. 95th floor restaurant and 96th floor bar Separate from its observatory, 875 Michigan Avenue has a restaurant space on its 95th floor and a bar space on its 96th floor. Prior to 1993, the space was occupied by a restaurant named The 95th.From 1993 until 2023, the 95th floor was home to a restaurant named the Signature Room, with the accompanying bar on the 96th floor being called the Signature Lounge.The name alluded to the famoussignatureof early American figureJohn Hancock.The restaurant was an upscale establishment that offered patrons scenic views. It enforced adress codefor patrons.It received numerous awards. In April 2023, the restaurant and bar were listed for sale.In September 2023, the Signature Room abruptly ceased operations, with ownership citing \"severe economic hardship\" that they attributed to the impact of the earlierCOVID-19 pandemic. Retail plaza The building features a two-level outdoor plaza along its Michigan Avenue face. The plaza contains retail and dinning tenants. The top level of the plaza is at street level, while the lower level is sunken below the street level. Current tenants includeThe Cheesecake FactoryandThe North Face.Past tenants have includedBest Buy. The plaza was originally rectangular in shape.Per theChicago Tribune, the plaza was modeled after the plaza at New York City'sRockefeller Center. The plaza's design featured a fountain pool that would be turned into an ice rink in colder weather. In 1988, plans were unveiled by the John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company (the owners of the building at the time) to replace the plaza with a \"$20 millionglass and marble three-story atrium\". One rationale cited by building's management was they claimed that access to the building's ground level was complicated by the need of pedestrians to circumnavigate around the courtyard in order to reach the street-level entrance to the building's lobby. They also cited a belief that the building's entrance was too understated for a building of its level of prominence. This atrium proposal faced backlash from local residents who felt that such an addition would mar the appearance of the landmark building.In 1989, newly-elected mayorRichard M. Daleycriticized the proposed atrium and the plans were ultimately abandoned. In 1994, the plaza was renovated, with the sunken portion transforming from its previous rectangular shape to an elliptical shape. In 1999,Chicago Tribunearchitecture criticBlair Kaminwrote that this renovation had made the plaza a more \"welcoming\" space.This renovation came after the more dramatic late-1980s renovation plans were abandoned.A further $10 million renovation for the plaza was considered by the building's owners in the mid-2010s which would have added features such as video screens and decorative prisms to the plaza. Parking garage Housed within several of the lower levels of the building is aparking garage, which cars enter and depart via a spiral vehicle ramp. Antennas Since its completion, the tower has been topped by two antenna structures. These antenna superstructures support a large number of broadcast antenna equipment. At the time of the tower's completion, both antenna structures were 350 feet (110 metres) in height, andRCAhad given the architects of the building an estimate that 700 feet of antenna structure would be required to accommodate all of the city's radio and television stations. In 2002, the eastern antenna tower was extended to a height of 378 feet (115 metres) in order to enableWBBM-TVto add new digital antenna equipment at a height greater than the roof height of the Sears Tower (Willis Tower). Subsequently, the western antenna tower was reduced to a height of 285 feet (87 metres). For a long time, the antenna towers utilizedincandescentred lights and a red and white paint scheme to provide a visibility to aviation in compliance with federal regulations. However, in order to forgo the expense and effort of annually reapplying striped paint to the antenna towers, the tower instead installed redstrobe lightsatop the tower and eliminated the striped paint scheme, as striped paint is not required if structures are topped by such lights. A sizable number of television and radio stations utilize the antenna towers. Many stations maintain broadcast equipment on both the John Hancock Center and the Willis Tower's antenna structures in order to have both a primary and backup broadcasting point. In November 2012, Boston-based American Tower Corp affiliate paid $70 millionto acquire ownership of the antennas. 44th floor sky lobby The 44th levelskylobbyis the floor where the building transitions from offices to residential, with offices occupying floors below and residences occupying floors above. Swimming pool On its 44th floor, the John Hancock Center has a residentswimming pool. The pool area has double-height ceilings. The pool is the highest pool in the United States when measured by distance above ground level. Resident/office tenant grocery store On its 44th floor, the building has a 5,200 square feet (480 m2)grocery storeaccessible only to apartment residents and office tenants. In 2007, operation of the grocery store was taken over by the local Potash chain of grocery stores.As of February 2023, Potash continues to operate the grocery store. See also Footnotes References The Cloudbase Chronicles, Life at the Top - An engineers Tale by Harry W. Budge III External links" ]
[ "World's Columbian Exposition TheWorld's Columbian Exposition, also known as theChicago World's Fair, was aworld's fairheld inChicagofrom May 5 to October 31, 1893, to celebrate the 400th anniversary ofChristopher Columbus's arrival in theNew Worldin 1492.The centerpiece of the Fair, held inJackson Park, was a large water pool representing the voyage that Columbus took to the New World. Chicago won the right to host the fair over several competing cities, includingNew York City,Washington, D.C., andSt. Louis. The exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on Americanarchitecture, the arts, American industrial optimism, and Chicago's image. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was predominantly designed byJohn Wellborn Root,Daniel Burnham,Frederick Law Olmsted, andCharles B. Atwood.It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be. It was designed to followBeaux-Artsprinciples of design, namelyneoclassical architectureprinciples", "based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the material generally used to cover the buildings' façades, whitestaff, gave the fairgrounds its nickname, the White City. Many prominent architects designed its 14 \"great buildings\". Artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered 690 acres (2.8 km2), featuring nearly 200 new but temporary buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture,canalsandlagoons, and people and cultures from 46 countries.More than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Its scale and grandeur far exceeded the otherworld's fairs, and it became a symbol of emergingAmerican exceptionalism, much in the same way that theGreat Exhibitionbecame a symbol of theVictorian eraUnited Kingdom. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21, 1892, but the fairgrounds were not opened to the public until May 1, 1893. The fair continued until October 30,", "until October 30, 1893. In addition to recognizing the 400th anniversary of the discovery of the New World, the fair served to show the world that Chicago had risen from the ashes of theGreat Chicago Fire, which had destroyed much of the city in 1871. On October 9, 1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the fair set a world record for outdoor event attendance, drawing 751,026 people. The debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million (equivalent to $50.9 million in 2023).Chicago has commemorated the fair with one of the stars on itsmunicipal flag. History Planning and organization Many prominent civic, professional, and commercial leaders from around the United States helped finance, coordinate, and manage the Fair, including Chicago shoe company owner Charles H. Schwab,Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnateJohn Whitfield Bunn, and Connecticut banking, insurance, and iron products magnateMilo Barnum Richardson, among many others. The fair was planned in the early 1890s during", "early 1890s during theGilded Ageof rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. World's fairs, such as London's 1851Crystal Palace Exhibition, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines. The first American attempt at aworld's fair in Philadelphia in 1876drew crowds, but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus' landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC, and Chicago expressed interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, and promote their cities. Congress was called on to decide the location. New York financiersJ. P. Morgan,Cornelius Vanderbilt, andWilliam Waldorf Astor, among others, pledged $15 million to finance the fair if Congress awarded it to New York, while ChicagoansCharles T. Yerkes,Marshall Field,Philip Armour,Gustavus Swift, andCyrus McCormick, Jr., offered to finance a Chicago fair. What finally", "fair. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago bankerLyman Gage, who raised several million additional dollars in a 24-hour period, over and above New York's final offer. Chicago representatives not only fought for the world's fair for monetary reasons, but also for reasons of practicality. In a Senate hearing held in January 1890, representativeThomas Barbour Bryanargued that the most important qualities for a world's fair were \"abundant supplies of good air and pure water\", \"ample space, accommodations and transportation for all exhibits and visitors\". He argued that New York had too many obstructions, and Chicago would be able to use large amounts of land around the city where there was \"not a house to buy and not a rock to blast\" and that it would be located so that \"the artisan and the farmer and the shopkeeper and the man of humble means\" would be able to easily access the fair. Bryan continued to say that the fair was of \"vital interest\" to the West, and that the West wanted the location to be", "the location to be Chicago. The city spokesmen would continue to stress the essentials of a successful exposition and that only Chicago was fit to fill these exposition requirements. The location of the fair was decided through several rounds of voting by the United States House of Representatives. The first ballot showed Chicago with a large lead over New York, St. Louis and Washington, D.C., but short of a majority. Chicago broke the 154-vote majority threshold on the eighth ballot, receiving 157 votes to New York's 107. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled onJackson Parkand an area around it as the fair site.Daniel H. Burnhamwas selected as director of works, andGeorge R. Davisas director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the period's top talent to design the buildings and grounds includingFrederick Law Olmstedfor the grounds.The temporary buildings were designed in an ornateneoclassicalstyle and painted white,", "and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the \"White City\". The Exposition's offices set up shop in the upper floors of theRand McNally Buildingon Adams Street, the world's first all-steel-framed skyscraper. Davis' team organized the exhibits with the help ofG. Brown Goodeof theSmithsonian. The Midway was inspired by the1889 Paris Universal Exposition, which included ethnological \"villages\". Civil rights leaders protested the refusal to include an African American exhibit.Frederick Douglass,Ida B. Wells,Irvine Garland Penn, andFerdinand Lee Barnetco-authored a pamphlet entitled \"The Reason Why the Colored American is not in the World's Columbian Exposition – The Afro-American's Contribution to Columbian Literature\" addressing the issue. Wells and Douglass argued, \"when it is asked why we are excluded from the World's Columbian Exposition, the answer is Slavery.\"Ten thousand copies of the pamphlet were circulated in the White City from the Haitian Embassy (where Douglass had been", "Douglass had been selected as its national representative), and the activists received responses from the delegations of England, Germany, France, Russia, and India. The exhibition did include a limited number of exhibits put on by African Americans, including exhibits by the sculptorEdmonia Lewis, a painting exhibit by scientistGeorge Washington Carver, and a statistical exhibit byJoan Imogen Howard. Black individuals were also featured in white exhibits, such asNancy Green's portrayal of the characterAunt Jemimafor the R. T. Davis Milling Company. Operation The fair opened in May and ran through October 30, 1893. Forty-six nations participated in the fair, which was the first world's fair to have national pavilions.They constructed exhibits and pavilions and named national \"delegates\"; for example, Haiti selectedFrederick Douglassto be its delegate.The Exposition drew over 27 million visitors.The fair was originally meant to be closed on Sundays, but theChicago Woman's Clubpetitioned that it stay open.The", "it stay open.The club felt that if the exposition was closed on Sunday, it would restrict those who could not take off work during the work-week from seeing it. The exposition was located inJackson Parkand on theMidway Plaisanceon 630 acres (2.5 km2) in the neighborhoods of South Shore, Jackson Park Highlands,Hyde Park, andWoodlawn.Charles H. Wackerwas the director of the fair. The layout of the fairgrounds was created by Frederick Law Olmsted, and the Beaux-Arts architecture of the buildings was under the direction of Daniel Burnham, Director of Works for the fair. Renowned local architectHenry Ives Cobbdesigned several buildings for the exposition. The director of the American Academy in Rome,Francis Davis Millet, directed the painted mural decorations. Indeed, it was a coming-of-age for the arts and architecture of the \"American Renaissance\", and it showcased the burgeoning neoclassical andBeaux-Artsstyles. Assassination of mayor and end of fair The fair ended with the city in shock, as popular", "shock, as popular mayorCarter Harrison Sr.was assassinated byPatrick Eugene Prendergasttwo days before the fair's closing.Closing ceremonies were canceled in favor of a public memorial service. Jackson Park was returned to its status as a public park, in much better shape than its original swampy form. The lagoon was reshaped to give it a more natural appearance, except for the straight-line northern end where it still laps up against the steps on the south side of the Palace of Fine Arts/Museum of Science & Industry building. TheMidway Plaisance, a park-like boulevard which extends west from Jackson Park, once formed the southern boundary of theUniversity of Chicago, which was being built as the fair was closing (the university has since developed south of the Midway). The university's football team, the Maroons, were the original \"Monsters of the Midway.\" The exposition is mentioned in the university'salma mater: \"The City White hath fled the earth, / But where the azure waters lie, / A nobler city hath", "A nobler city hath its birth, / The City Gray that ne'er shall die.\" Attractions The World's Columbian Exposition was the first world's fair with anarea for amusementsthat was strictly separated from the exhibition halls. This area, developed by a young music promoter,Sol Bloom, concentrated onMidway Plaisanceand introduced the term \"midway\" to American English to describe the area of a carnival or fair wheresideshowsare located. It included carnival rides, among them the originalFerris Wheel, built byGeorge Washington Gale Ferris Jr.This wheel was 264 feet (80 m) high and had 36 cars, each of which could accommodate 40 people.The importance of the Columbian Exposition is highlighted by the use ofrueda de Chicago(\"Chicago wheel\") in many Latin American countries such as Costa Rica and Chile in reference to theFerris wheel.One attendee,George C. Tilyou, later credited the sights he saw on the Chicago midway for inspiring him to create America's first major amusement park,Steeplechase ParkinConey Island, New", "Island, New York. The fair included life-size reproductions of Christopher Columbus' three ships, theNiña(real nameSanta Clara), thePinta, and theSanta María. These were intended to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus' discovery of the Americas. The ships were constructed in Spain and then sailed to America for the exposition.The celebration of Columbus was an intergovernmental project, coordinated by American special envoyWilliam Eleroy Curtis, theQueen Regent of Spain, andPope Leo XIII.The ships were a very popular exhibit. Eadweard Muybridgegave a series of lectures on the Science of Animal Locomotion in the Zoopraxographical Hall, built specially for that purpose on Midway Plaisance. He used hiszoopraxiscopeto show hismoving picturesto a paying public. The hall was the first commercial movie theater. The \"Street in Cairo\" included the popular dancer known asLittle Egypt.She introduced America to the suggestive version of thebelly danceknown as the \"hootchy-kootchy,\" to a tune said to have been", "said to have been improvised by Sol Bloom (and now more commonly associated with snake charmers) which he had composed when his dancers had no music to dance to.Bloom did not copyright the song, putting it immediately in thepublic domain. Also included was the firstmoving walkwayor travelator, which was designed by architectJoseph Lyman Silsbee. It had two different divisions: one where passengers were seated, and one where riders could stand or walk. It ran in a loop down the length of a lakefront pier to a casino. Although denied a spot at the fair,Buffalo Bill Codydecided to come to Chicago anyway, setting up hisBuffalo Bill's Wild West Showjust outside the edge of the exposition. Nearby, historianFrederick Jackson Turnergave academic lectures reflecting on the end of the frontier which Buffalo Bill represented. TheelectrotachyscopeofOttomar Anschützwas demonstrated, which used aGeissler tubeto project theillusionofmoving images. Louis Comfort Tiffanymade his reputation with a stunning chapel designed and", "chapel designed and built for the Exposition. After the Exposition theTiffany Chapelwas sold several times, even going back to Tiffany's estate. It was eventually reconstructed and restored and in 1999 it was installed at theCharles Hosmer Morse Museum of American Art. ArchitectKirtland Cutter'sIdaho Building, a rustic log construction, was a popular favorite,visited by an estimated 18 million people.The building's design and interior furnishings were a major precursor of theArts and Crafts movement. Among the other attractions at the fair, several products that are well-known today were introduced. These products includedJuicy Fruitgum,Cream of Wheat,Cracker Jacks,Shredded Wheatcereal, andPabst Blue Ribbonbeer, among many others. Anthropology There was an Anthropology Building at the World's Fair. Nearby, \"The Cliff Dwellers\" featured a rock and timber structure that was painted to recreate Battle Rock Mountain in Colorado, a stylized recreation of an American Indian cliff dwelling with pottery, weapons,", "pottery, weapons, and other relics on display.There was also anEskimodisplay. There were also birch barkwigwamsof thePenobscottribe. Nearby was a working model Indian school, organized by the Office of Indian Affairs, that housed delegations of Native American students and their teachers from schools around the country for weeks at a time. Rail TheJohn Bulllocomotive was displayed. It was only 62 years old, having been built in 1831. It was the first locomotive acquisition by theSmithsonian Institution. The locomotive ran under its own power fromWashington, DC, to Chicago to participate, and returned to Washington under its own power again when the exposition closed. In 1981 it was the oldest surviving operablesteam locomotivein the world when it ran under its own power again. ABaldwin2-4-2locomotive was showcased at the exposition, and subsequently the2-4-2type was known as theColumbia. An originalfrogswitch and portion of the superstructure of the famous 1826Granite Railwayin Massachusetts could be viewed.", "could be viewed. This was the first commercial railroad in the United States to evolve into acommon carrierwithout an intervening closure. The railway brought granite stones from a rock quarry inQuincy, Massachusetts, so that theBunker Hill Monumentcould be erected in Boston. The frog switch is now on public view inEast Milton Square, Massachusetts, on the originalright-of-wayof the Granite Railway. Transportation by rail was the major mode of transportation. A 26-track train station was built at the southwest corner of the fair. While trains from around the country would unload there, there was a local train to shuttle tourists from the Chicago Grand Central Station to the fair. The newly builtChicago and South Side Rapid Transit Railroadalso served passengers fromCongress Terminalto the fairgrounds atJackson Park. The line exists today as part of theCTAGreen Line. Country and state exhibition buildings Forty-six countries had pavilions at the exposition.Norwayparticipated by sending theViking, a replica of", "a replica of theGokstad ship. It was built in Norway and sailed across theAtlantic Oceanby 12 men, led by Captain Magnus Andersen. In 1919, this ship was moved toLincoln Park. It was relocated in 1996 to Good Templar Park inGeneva, Illinois, where it awaits renovation. Thirty-four U.S. states also had their own pavilions.The work of noted feminist authorKate McPhelim Clearywas featured during the opening of the Nebraska Day ceremonies at the fair, which included a reading of her poem \"Nebraska\".Among the state buildings present at the fair were California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Texas; each was meant to be architecturally representative of the corresponding states. FourUnited States territoriesalso had pavilions located in one building:Arizona,New Mexico,Oklahoma, andUtah. Visitors to the Louisiana Pavilion were each given a seedling of a cypress tree. This resulted in the spread of cypress trees to areas where they were not native. Cypress", "not native. Cypress trees from those seedlings can be found in many areas of West Virginia, where they flourish in the climate. TheIllinoiswas a detailed, full-scale mockup of anIndiana-class battleship, constructed as a naval exhibit. Guns and artillery The German firmKrupphad a pavilion of artillery, which apparently had cost one million dollars to stage,including a coastal gun of 42 cm in bore (16.54 inches) and a length of 33 calibres (45.93 feet, 14 meters). A breech-loaded gun, it weighed 120.46long tons(122.4 metric tons). According to the company's marketing: \"It carried a charge projectile weighing from 2,200 to 2,500 pounds which, when driven by 900 pounds ofbrown powder, was claimed to be able to penetrate at 2,200 yards a wrought-iron plate three feet thick if placed at right angles.\" Nicknamed \"The Thunderer\", the gun had an advertised range of 15 miles. On this occasionJohn Schofielddeclared Krupps' guns \"the greatest peacemakers in the world\".This gun was later seen as a precursor of the", "a precursor of the company's World War IDicke Bertahowitzers. Religions The 1893Parliament of the World's Religions, which ran from September 11 to September 27, marked the first formal gathering of representatives of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions from around the world. According toEric J. Sharpe,Tomoko Masuzawa, and others, the event was considered radical at the time, since it allowed non-Christian faiths to speak on their own behalf.For example, it is recognized as the first public mention of theBaháʼí Faithin North America;it was not taken seriously by European scholars until the 1960s. Moving walkway Along the banks of the lake, patrons on the way to the casino were taken on amoving walkwaydesigned by architectJoseph Lyman Silsbee, the first of its kind open to the public,calledThe Great Wharf, Moving Sidewalk, it allowed people to walk along or ride in seats. Horticulture Horticultural exhibits at the Horticultural Hall includedcactiandorchidsas well as other plants in agreenhouse.", "in agreenhouse. Architecture White City Most of the buildings of the fair were designed in theneoclassical architecturestyle. The area at the Court of Honor was known asThe White City. Façades were made not of stone, but of a mixture of plaster, cement, and jute fiber calledstaff, which was painted white, giving the buildings their \"gleam\". Architecture critics derided the structures as \"decorated sheds.” The buildings were clad in whitestucco, which, in comparison to thetenementsof Chicago, seemed illuminated. It was also called the White City because of the extensive use of street lights, which made the boulevards and buildings usable at night. In 1892, working under extremely tight deadlines to complete construction, director of works Daniel Burnham appointedFrancis Davis Milletto replace the fair's official director of color-design, William Pretyman. Pretyman had resigned following a dispute with Burnham. After experimenting, Millet settled on a mix of oil and white leadwhitewashthat could be applied", "could be applied using compressed airspray paintingto the buildings, taking considerably less time than traditional brush painting.Joseph Binks, maintenance supervisor at Chicago'sMarshall Field's Wholesale Store, who had been using this method to apply whitewash to the subbasement walls of the store, got the job to paint the Exposition buildings.Claims this was the first use of spray painting may be apocryphal since journals from that time note this form of painting had already been in use in the railroad industry from the early 1880s. Many of the buildings included sculptural details and, to meet the Exposition's opening deadline, chief architect Burnham sought the help ofChicago Art InstituteinstructorLorado Taftto help complete them. Taft's efforts included employing a group of talented women sculptors from the Institute known as \"theWhite Rabbits\" to finish some of the buildings, getting their name from Burnham's comment \"Hire anyone, even white rabbits if they'll do the work.\" The words \"Thine", "The words \"Thine alabaster cities gleam\" from the song \"America the Beautiful\" were inspired by the White City. Role in the City Beautiful movement The White City is largely credited for ushering in theCity Beautiful movementand planting the seeds of modern city planning. The highly integrated design of the landscapes, promenades, and structures provided a vision of what is possible when planners, landscape architects, and architects work together on a comprehensive design scheme. The White City inspired cities to focus on the beautification of the components of the city in which municipal government had control; streets, municipal art, public buildings, and public spaces. The designs of the City Beautiful Movement (closely tied with the municipal art movement) are identifiable by their classical architecture, plan symmetry, picturesque views, and axial plans, as well as their magnificent scale. Where the municipal art movement focused on beautifying one feature in a city, the City Beautiful movement began", "movement began to make improvements on the scale of the district. The White City of the World's Columbian Exposition inspired theMerchants Clubof Chicago to commissionDaniel Burnhamto create the Plan of Chicago in 1909. Great buildings There were fourteen main \"great buildings\": 17centered around a giant reflective pool called the Grand Basin.Buildings included: Transportation Building Louis Sullivan's polychrome proto-Modern Transportation Building was an outstanding exception to the prevailing style, as he tried to develop an organic American form. Years later, in 1922, he wrote that the classical style of the White City had set back modern American architecture by forty years. As detailed inErik Larson's popular historyThe Devil in the White City, extraordinary effort was required to accomplish the exposition, and much of it was unfinished on opening day. The famousFerris Wheel, which proved to be a major attendance draw and helped save the fair from bankruptcy, was not finished until June, because of", "June, because of waffling by the board of directors the previous year on whether to build it. Frequent debates and disagreements among the developers of the fair added many delays. The spurning ofBuffalo Bill's Wild West Show proved a serious financial mistake. Buffalo Bill set up his highly popular show next door to the fair and brought in a great deal of revenue that he did not have to share with the developers. Nonetheless, construction and operation of the fair proved to be a windfall for Chicago workers during the serious economic recession that was sweeping the country. Surviving structures Almost all of the fair's structures were designed to be temporary;of the more than 200 buildings erected for the fair, the only two which still stand in place are thePalace of Fine Artsand theWorld's Congress Auxiliary Building. From the time the fair closed until 1920, the Palace of Fine Arts housed the Field Columbian Museum (now theField Museum of Natural History, since relocated); in 1933 (having been completely", "been completely rebuilt in permanent materials), the Palace building re-opened as theMuseum of Science and Industry.The second building, the World's Congress Building, was one of the few buildings not built in Jackson Park, instead it was built downtown inGrant Park. The cost of construction of the World's Congress Building was shared with theArt Institute of Chicago, which, as planned, moved into the building (the museum's current home) after the close of the fair. The three other significant buildings that survived the fair represented Norway, the Netherlands, and the State of Maine. TheNorwayBuilding was a recreation of a traditional woodenstave church. After the Fair it was relocated to Lake Geneva, and in 1935 was moved to a museum calledLittle NorwayinBlue Mounds, Wisconsin. In 2015 it was dismantled and shipped back to Norway, where it was restored and reassembled.The second is theMaine State Building, designed by Charles Sumner Frost, which was purchased by the Ricker family ofPoland Spring, Maine.", "Spring, Maine. They moved the building to their resort to serve as a library and art gallery. The Poland Spring Preservation Society now owns the building, which was listed on theNational Register of Historic Placesin 1974. The third isThe Dutch House, which was moved toBrookline, Massachusetts. The1893 Viking shipthat was sailed to the Exposition from Norway by Captain Magnus Andersen is located inGeneva, Illinois. The ship is open to visitors on scheduled days April through October. The main altar atSt. John Cantius in Chicago, as well as its matching two side altars, are reputed to be from the Columbian Exposition. Since many of the other buildings at the fair were intended to be temporary, they were removed after the fair. The White City so impressed visitors (at least before air pollution began to darken the façades) that plans were considered to refinish the exteriors in marble or some other material. These plans were abandoned in July 1894, when much of the fair grounds was destroyed in a fire.", "in a fire. Gallery Later criticisms Frank Lloyd Wrightlater wrote that \"By this overwhelming rise of grandomania I was confirmed in my fear that a native architecture would be set back at least fifty years.\" According toUniversity of Notre Damehistory professor Gail Bederman, the event symbolized a male-dominated and Eurocentrist society. In her 1995 textManliness and Civilization, she writes, \"The White City, with its vision of future perfection and of the advanced racial power of manly commerce and technology, constructed civilization as an ideal of white male power.\"According to Bederman, people of color were barred entirely from participating in the organization of the White City and were instead given access only to the Midway exhibit, \"which specialized in spectacles of barbarous races – 'authentic' villages of Samoans, Egyptians, Dahomans, Turks, and other exotic peoples, populated by actual imported 'natives.'\" Two small exhibits were included in the White City's \"Woman's Building\" which addressed", "which addressed women of color. One, entitled \"Afro-American\" was installed in a distant corner of the building.The other, called \"Woman's Work in Savagery,\" included baskets, weavings, and African, Polynesian, and Native American arts. Though they were produced by living women of color, the materials were represented as relics from the distant past, embodying \"the work of white women's own distant evolutionary foremothers.\" Visitors Helen Keller, along with her mentorAnne Sullivanand Dr.Alexander Graham Bell, visited the fair in summer 1893. Keller described the fair in her autobiographyThe Story of My Life.Early in July, aWellesley CollegeEnglish teacher namedKatharine Lee Batesvisited the fair. The White City later inspired the reference to \"alabaster cities\" in her poem and lyrics \"America the Beautiful\".The exposition was extensively reported by Chicago publisherWilliam D. Boyce's reporters and artists.There is a very detailed and vivid description of all facets of this fair by thePersiantraveler Mirza", "Mirza Mohammad Ali Mo'in ol-Saltaneh written inPersian. He departed fromPersiaon April 20, 1892, especially for the purpose of visiting the World's Columbian Exposition. Pierre de Coubertinvisited the fair with his friendsPaul BourgetandSamuel Jean de Pozzi. He devotes the first chapter of his bookSouvenirs d'Amérique et de Grèce(1897) to the visit.Swami Vivekanandavisited the fair to attend theParliament of the World's Religionsand delivered his famous speechSisters and Brothers of America!.Kubota Beisenwas an official delegate of Japan. As an artist, he sketched hundreds of scenes, some of which were later used to make woodblock print books about the Exhibition.Serial killerH. H. Holmesattended the fair with two of his eventual victims, Annie and Minnie Williams.BulgarianwriterAleko Konstantinovvisited the fair and wrote hisnonfictionbookTo Chicago and Back. Souvenirs Examples of exposition souvenirs can be found in various American museum collections. One example, copyrighted in 1892 by John W. Green, is", "John W. Green, is a foldinghand fanwith detailed illustrations of landscapes and architecture.Charles W Goldsmith produced a set of ten postcard designs, each in full colour, showing the buildings constructed for the exhibition.Columbian Exposition coinswere also minted for the event. Electricity The effort to power the Fair with electricity, which became a demonstration piece forWestinghouse Electricand thealternating currentsystem they had been developing for many years, took place at the end of what has been called theWar of the currentsbetween DC and AC.Westinghouse initially did not put in a bid to power the Fair but agreed to be the contractor for a local Chicago company that put in a low bid of US$510,000 to supply an alternating current-based system. Edison General Electric, which at the time was merging with theThomson-Houston Electric Companyto formGeneral Electric, put in a US$1.72 million bid to power the Fair and its planned 93,000 incandescent lamps withdirect current. After the Fair committee", "the Fair committee went over both proposals, Edison General Electric re-bid their costs at $554,000 but Westinghouse underbid them by 70 cents per lamp to get the contract.Westinghouse could not use the Edison incandescent lamp since the patent belonged to General Electric and they had successfully sued to stop use of all patent infringing designs. Since Edison specified a sealed globe of glass in his design Westinghouse found a way to sidestep the Edison patent by quickly developing a lamp with a ground-glass stopper in one end, based on a Sawyer-Man \"stopper\" lamp patent they already had. The lamps worked well but were short-lived, requiring a small army of workmen to constantly replace them.: 140 Westinghouse Electric had severely underbid the contract and struggled to supply all the equipment specified, including twelve 1,000-horsepower single-phase AC generators and all the lighting and other equipment required.They also had to fend off a last-minute lawsuit by General Electric claiming the Westinghouse", "the Westinghouse Sawyer-Man-based stopper lamp infringed on the Edison incandescent lamp patent.: 142 The International Exposition was held in an Electricity Building which was devoted to electrical exhibits. A statue ofBenjamin Franklinwas displayed at the entrance. The exposition featured interior and exterior light and displays as well as displays ofThomas Edison'skinetoscope,search lights, aseismograph, electricincubatorsfor chicken eggs,andMorse codetelegraph.: 22 All the exhibits were from commercial enterprises. Participants included General Electric, Brush,Western Electric, and Westinghouse. The Westinghouse Company displayed severalpolyphase systems. The exhibits included aswitchboard, polyphase generators, step-uptransformers, transmission line, step-down transformers, commercial sizeinduction motorsandsynchronous motors, and rotary direct current converters (including an operational railway motor). The working scaled system allowed the public a view of a system of polyphase power which could be", "which could be transmitted over long distances, and be utilized, including the supply of direct current. Meters and other auxiliary devices were also present. Part of the space occupied by the Westinghouse Company was devoted to demonstrations of electrical devices developed byNikola Teslaincludinginduction motorsand thegeneratorsused to power the system.Therotating magnetic fieldthat drove these motors was explained through a series of demonstrations including anEgg of Columbusthat used thetwo-phasecoil in the induction motors to spin a copper egg making it stand on end. Tesla himself showed up for a week in August to attend theInternational Electrical Congress, being held at the fair's Agriculture Hall, and put on a series of demonstrations of his wireless lighting system in a specially set up darkened room at the Westinghouse exhibit.These included demonstrations he had previously performed throughout America and Europeincluding using a nearby coil to light a wirelessgas-discharge lampheld in his hand.", "in his hand. Also at the Fair, theChicago Athletic Association Football teamplayed one of the firstnight footballgames againstWest Point(the earliest being on September 28, 1892, betweenMansfield State NormalandWyoming Seminary). Chicago won the game, 14–0. The game lasted only 40 minutes, compared to the normal 90 minutes. Music Musicians There were many other black artists at the fair, ranging fromminstreland early ragtime groups to more formalclassicalensembles to street buskers. Other music and musicians Art American artists exhibiting Painters Sculptors Japanese art Japan's artistic contribution was mainly inporcelain,cloisonnéenamel, metalwork and embroidery.While 55 paintings and 24 sculptures came from Japan, 271 of the 290 exhibits in the Palace of Fine Arts were Japanese.Artists represented includedMiyagawa Kozan,Yabu Meizan,Namikawa Sōsuke, and Suzuki Chokichi. Women artists exhibiting The women artists at theWoman's BuildingincludedAnna Lownes,Viennese painterRosa Schweninger, and many", "and many others.American composerAmy Cheney Beachwas commissioned by theBoard of Lady Managersof the fair to compose a choral work (Festival Jubilate, op. 17) for the opening of the Woman's Building.TheMrs Potts sad-iron systemwas on display.Ami Mali Hicks' stencil design was selected to adorn thefriezein the assembly room of the Women's Building.Musicologist Anna Morsch and composerCharlotte Sporlederpresented a program of German music. The Woman's Building included a Woman's Building Library Exhibit, which had 7,000 books – all by women. The Woman's Building Library was meant to show the cumulative contribution of the world's women to literature. \"Greatest Refrigerator on Earth\" fire tragedy A large Romanesque structure called \"Greatest Refrigerator on Earth\" stored thousands of pounds of the Exposition's food and held an ice-skating rink for patrons.The large structure demonstrated artificial freezing, a recent development, and was planned by architectFranklin P. Burnham. The structure's floor space was", "floor space was 130 by 255 feet and its height reached almost 200 feet. On the evening of July 10, 1893, the \"Greatest Refrigerator on Earth\" caught fire. Two firemen entered, one sliding down a rope and another on a line of hose, and both were trapped in the burning refrigerator. A total of fifteen people died, twelve firefighters and three civilians, in front of a crowd of more than a thousand fairgoers.The only artifact that survived the fire was a twelve-foot copper statue of Christopher Columbus, which was kept as a monument to the men who lost their lives and is kept by thefire museumof Chicago. Notable firsts Concepts Commemorations Edibles and potables Inventions and manufacturing advances Organizations Performances Later years The exposition was one influence leading to the rise of theCity Beautiful movement.Results included grand buildings and fountains built aroundOlmstedianparks, shallow pools of water on axis to central buildings, larger park systems, broad boulevards and parkways and, after the", "and, after the start of the 20th century, zoning laws and planned suburbs. Examples of the City Beautiful movement's works include the City of Chicago, theColumbia Universitycampus, and theNational Mallin Washington, D.C. After the fair closed, J.C. Rogers, a banker fromWamego, Kansas, purchased several pieces of art that had hung in the rotunda of the U.S. Government Building. He also purchased architectural elements, artifacts and buildings from the fair. He shipped his purchases to Wamego. Many of the items, including the artwork, were used to decorate his theater, now known asthe Columbian Theatre. Memorabilia such as books, tokens, published photographs, and well-printed admission tickets saved by guests are popular collectors. TheGeorge Washington Universitymaintains a small collection of exposition tickets for viewing and research purposes. The collection is currently cared for by GWU's Special Collections Research Center, located in the Estelle and MelvinGelman Library. When the exposition ended the", "ended the Ferris Wheel was moved to Chicago's north side, next to an exclusive neighborhood. An unsuccessful Circuit Court action was filed against the owners of the wheel to have it moved. The wheel stayed there until it was moved toSt. Louisfor the1904 World's Fair. The Columbian Exposition has celebrated many anniversaries since the fair in 1893. The Chicago Historical Society held an exhibition to commemorate the fair. The Grand Illusions exhibition was centered around the idea that the Columbian Exposition was made up of a series of illusions. The commemorative exhibition contained partial reconstructions, a video detailing the fair, and a catalogue similar to the one sold at the World's Fair of 1893. Academic views Henry Adamswrote in his 1907Education: “The Exposition denied philosophy ... ince Noah’s Ark, no such Babel of loose and ill-jointed, such vague and ill-defined and unrelated thoughts and half-thoughts and experimental out-cries... had ruffled the surface of the Lakes.”: 128 Michel-Rolph", "128 Michel-Rolph Trouillotwrote that the academic aspect of the event was not very important, even though theHarvard Peabody Museum, theSmithsonian Institution, andFranz Boasmade contributions.: 128 In popular culture See also Notes References Further reading External links", "Art Institute of Chicago TheArt Institute of Chicago, founded in 1879, is one of the oldest and largestart museumsin the United States. The museum is based in theArt Institute of Chicago BuildinginChicago'sGrant Park. Its collection, stewarded by 11 curatorial departments, includes works such asGeorges Seurat'sA Sunday on La Grande Jatte,Pablo Picasso'sThe Old Guitarist,Edward Hopper'sNighthawks, andGrant Wood'sAmerican Gothic. Its permanent collection of nearly 300,000 works of art is augmented by more than 30 special exhibitions mounted yearly that illuminate aspects of the collection and present curatorial and scientific research. As a research institution, the Art Institute also has a conservation and conservation science department, five conservation laboratories, andRyerson and Burnham Libraries, one of the nation's largest art history and architecture libraries. The museum's building was constructed for the 1893World's Columbian Expositionand, due to the growth of the collection, several additions have", "additions have occurred since. The Modern Wing, designed byRenzo Piano, is the most recent expansion, and when it opened in 2009 it increased the museum's footprint to nearly one million square feet. This made it the second largest art museum in the United States, after theMetropolitan Museum of Artin New York City. The Art Institute is associated with theSchool of the Art Institute of Chicago, a leading art school, making it one of the few remaining unified arts institutions in the United States. History 19th century In 1866, a group of 35 artists founded theChicago Academy of Designin a studio on Dearborn Street, with the intent to run a free school with its own art gallery. The organization was modeled after European art academies, such as theRoyal Academy, with Academicians and Associate Academicians. The academy's charter was granted in March 1867. Classes started in 1868, meeting every day at a cost of $10 per month. The academy's success enabled it to build a new home for the school, a five-story", "a five-story stone building on 66 West Adams Street, which opened on November 22, 1870. When theGreat Chicago Firedestroyed the building in 1871, the academy was thrown into debt. Attempts to continue despite the loss by using rented facilities failed. By 1878, the academy was $10,000 in debt. Members tried to rescue the ailing institution by making deals with local businessmen, before some finally abandoned it in 1879 to found a new organization, named theChicago Academy of Fine Arts. When the Chicago Academy of Design went bankrupt the same year, the new Chicago Academy of Fine Arts bought its assets at auction. In 1882, the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts changed its name to the current Art Institute of Chicago and elected as its first president the banker and philanthropistCharles L. Hutchinson, who \"is arguably the single most important individual to have shaped the direction and fortunes of the Art Institute of Chicago\".: 5Hutchinson was a director of many prominent Chicago organizations, including", "including theUniversity of Chicago,and would transform the Art Institute into a world-class museum during his presidency, which he held until his death in 1924.Also in 1882, the organization purchased a lot on the southwest corner ofMichigan Avenueand Van Buren Street for $45,000. The existing commercial building on that property was used for the organization's headquarters, and a new addition was constructed behind it to provide gallery space and to house the school's facilities.: 19By January 1885 the trustees recognized the need to provide additional space for the organization's growing collection, and to this end purchased the vacant lot directly south on Michigan Avenue. The commercial building was demolished,and the noted architectJohn Wellborn Rootwas hired by Hutchinson to design a building that would create an \"impressive presence\" on Michigan Avenue,: 22–23and these facilities opened to great fanfare in 1887.: 24 With the announcement of theWorld's Columbian Expositionto be held in 1892–93, the Art", "in 1892–93, the Art Institute pressed for a building on the lakefront to be constructed for the fair, but to be used by the institute afterwards. The city agreed, and the building was completed in time for the second year of the fair. Construction costs were met by selling the Michigan/Van Buren property. On October 31, 1893, the institute moved into the new building. For the opening reception on December 8, 1893,Theodore Thomasand theChicago Symphony Orchestraperformed. 20th century From the early 1900s to the 1960s the school offered with the Logan Family (members of the board) theLogan Medal of the Arts, an award which became one of the most distinguished awards presented to artists in the U.S. Between 1959 and 1970, the institute was a key site in the battle to gain art and documentary photography a place in galleries, under curatorHugh Edwardsand his assistants. As director of the museum starting in the early 1980s,James N. Woodconducted a major expansion of its collection and oversaw a major renovation", "a major renovation and expansion project for its facilities. As \"one of the most respected museum leaders in the country\", as described byThe New York Times, Wood created major exhibitions of works byPaul Gauguin,Claude Monet, andVincent van Goghthat set records for attendance at the museum. He retired from the museum in 2004. 21st century The institute began construction of \"The Modern Wing\", an addition situated on the southwest corner of Columbus and Monroe in the early 21st century.The project, designed byPritzker Prize–winning architectRenzo Piano, was completed and officially opened to the public on May 16, 2009. The 264,000-square-foot (24,500 m2) building addition made the Art Institute the second-largest art museum in the United States. The building houses the museum's world-renowned collections of 20th and 21st century art, specifically modern European painting and sculpture, contemporary art, architecture and design, and photography. In its inaugural survey in 2014, travel review website and", "review website and forum,Tripadvisor, reviewed millions of travelers' surveys and named the Art Institute the world's best museum. The museum received perhaps the largest gift of art in its history in 2015.CollectorsStefan Edlisand Gael Neeson donated a \"collection is among the world's greatest groups of postwar Pop art ever assembled\".The donation includes works byAndy Warhol,Jasper Johns,Cy Twombly,Jeff Koons,Charles Ray,Richard Prince,Cindy Sherman,Roy LichtensteinandGerhard Richter. The museum agreed to keep the donated work on display for at least 50 years.In June 2018, the museum received a $50 million donation, the largest single announced unrestricted monetary donation in its history.A $75 million donation in 2024 is to go toward a new galley. Collection The collection of the Art Institute of Chicago encompasses more than 5,000 years of human expression from cultures around the world and contains more than 300,000 works of art in 11 curatorial departments, ranging from early Japanese prints to the", "prints to the art of theByzantine Empireto contemporary American art. It is principally known for one of the United States' finest collection of paintings produced in Western culture. African Art and Indian Art of the Americas The Art Institute's African Art and Indian Art of the Americas collections are on display across two galleries in the south end of the Michigan Avenue building. The African collection includes more than 400 works that span the continent, highlighting ceramics, garments, masks, and jewelry. The Amerindian collection includes Native North American art andMesoamericanandAndeanworks. From pottery to textiles, the collection brings together a wide array of objects that seek to illustrate the thematic and aesthetic focuses of art spanning the Americas. American art The Art Institute's American Art collection contains some of the best-known works in the American canon, includingEdward Hopper'sNighthawks,Grant Wood'sAmerican Gothic, andMary Cassatt'sThe Child's Bath. The collection ranges from", "ranges from colonial silver to modern and contemporary paintings. The museum purchasedNighthawksin 1942 for $3,000;its acquisition \"launched\" the painting into \"immense popular recognition\".Considered an \"icon of American culture\",Nighthawksis perhaps Hopper's most famous painting, and one of the most recognizable images inAmerican art.Also well known,American Gothichas been in the museum's collection since 1930 and was only loaned outside of North America for the first time in 2016.Wood's painting depicts what has been called \"the most famous couple in the world\", a dour, rural-American, father and daughter. It was entered into a contest at the Art Institute in 1930, and although not a favorite of some, it won a medal and was acquired by the museum. Ancient and Byzantine The Art Institute's ancient collection spans nearly 4,000 years of art and history, showcasing Greek, Etruscan, Roman, and Egyptian sculpture, mosaics, pottery, jewelry, glass, and bronze and a robust and well-maintained collection of", "collection of ancient coins. There are around 5,000 works in the collection, offering a comprehensive survey of the ancient and medieval Mediterranean world, beginning with the third millennium B.C. and extending to theByzantine Empire.The collection also holds the mummy and mummy case of Paankhenamun. Architecture and Design The Department of Architecture and Design holds more than 140,000 works, from models to drawings from the 1870s to the present day. The collection coverslandscape architecture,structural engineering, andindustrial design, including the works ofFrank Lloyd Wright,Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, andLe Corbusier. Asian art The Art Institute's Asian collection spans nearly 5,000 years, including significant works and objects from China, Korea, Japan, India, Southeast Asia, and the Near and Middle East. There are 35,000 objects in the collection, showcasing bronzes, ceramics, jades, textiles, screens, woodcuts, and sculptures.One gallery in particular attempts to mimic the quiet and meditative way", "and meditative way in whichJapanese screensare traditionally viewed. European Decorative Arts The Art Institute's collection of European decorative arts includes some 25,000 objects of furniture, ceramics, metalwork, glass, enamel, and ivory from 1100 AD to the present day. The department contains the 1,544 objects in theArthur RubloffPaperweight Collection and the 68Thorne Miniature Rooms–a collection of miniaturized interiors of a 1:12 scale showcasing American, European, and Asian architectural and furniture styles from theMiddle Agesto the 1930s (when the rooms were constructed).Both the paperweights and the Thorne Rooms are located on the ground floor of the museum. European painting and sculptures The museum is most famous for its collections ofImpressionistandPost-Impressionistpaintings, widely regarded as one of the finest collections outside of France.Highlights include more than 30 paintings byClaude Monet, including six of hisHaystacksand a number ofWater Lilies. Also in the collection are", "the collection are important works byPierre-Auguste Renoirsuch asTwo Sisters (On the Terrace),andGustave Caillebotte'sParis Street; Rainy Day.Post-Impressionist works includePaul Cézanne'sThe Basket of Apples, andMadame Cézannein a Yellow Chair.At the Moulin RougebyHenri de Toulouse-Lautrecis another highlight. Thepointillistmasterpiece, which also inspireda musicaland was featured inFerris Bueller's Day Off,Georges Seurat'sSunday Afternoon on La Grande Jatte—1884,is prominently displayed. Additionally,Henri Matisse'sBathers by a River, is an important example of his work. Highlights of non-French paintings of the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist collection includeVincent van Gogh'sBedroom in ArlesandSelf-portrait, 1887. In the mid-1930s, the Art Institute received a gift of over one hundred works of art fromAnnie Swan Coburn(\"Mr. and Mrs. Lewis Larned Coburn Memorial Collection\"). The \"Coburn Renoirs\" became the core of the Art Institute'sImpressionistpainting collection. The collection also includes", "also includes the Medieval and Renaissance Art, Arms, and Armor holdings, including the George F. Harding Collection of arms and armor,and three centuries ofOld Mastersworks. Modern and Contemporary Art The museum's collection of modern and contemporary art was significantly augmented when collectorsStefan Edlis and Gael Neesongifted 40 plus master works to the department in 2015.Pablo Picasso'sOld Guitarist,Henri Matisse'sBathers by a River,Constantin Brâncuși'sGolden Bird, andRené Magritte'sTime Transfixedare highlights of the modern galleries, located on the third floor of the Modern Wing.The contemporary installation, located on the second floor, contains works byAndy Warhol,Cindy Sherman,Cy Twombly,Jackson Pollock,Jasper Johns, and other significant modern and contemporary artists. Photography The Art Institute did not officially establish a photography collection until 1949, whenGeorgia O'Keeffedonated a significant portion of theAlfred Stieglitzcollection to the museum.Since then, the museum's", "then, the museum's collection has grown to approximately 20,000 works spanning the history of the artform from its inception in 1839 to the present. Prints and Drawings The print and drawings collection began with a donation by Elizabeth S. Stickney of 460 works in 1887, and was organized into its own department of the museum in 1911.Their holdings have subsequently grown to 11,500 drawings and 60,000 prints, ranging from 15th-century works to contemporary. The collection contains a strong group of the works ofAlbrecht Dürer,Rembrandt van Rijn,Francisco Goya, andJames McNeill Whistler. Because works on paper are sensitive to light and degrade quickly, the works are on display infrequently in order to keep them in good condition for as long as possible. Textiles The Department of Textiles has more than 13,000 textiles and 66,000 sample swatches in total, covering an array of cultures from 300 BC to the present. From Englishneedleworkto Japanese garments to American quilts, the collection presents a diverse", "presents a diverse group of objects, including contemporary works andfiber art. Architecture The current building complex at 111 South Michigan Avenue is the third address for the Art Institute. Situated inGrant Park, it was designed in theBeaux-Artsstyle byShepley, Rutan and CoolidgeofBostonto host national and international meetings held in conjunction with the 1893World's Columbian Exposition, as the World's Congress Auxiliary Building, with the intent that the Art Institute occupy the space after the close of the fair. The Art Institute's entrance onMichigan Avenueis guarded bytwo bronze lion statuescreated byEdward Kemeys. The lions were unveiled on May 10, 1894, each weighing more than two tons. The sculptor gave them unofficial names: the south lion is \"stands in an attitude of defiance\", and the north lion is \"on the prowl\". When a Chicago sports team plays in the championships of their respective league (i.e. the Super Bowl or Stanley Cup Finals, not the entire playoffs), the lions are frequently", "are frequently dressed in that team's uniform. Evergreen wreaths are placed around their necks during the Christmas season. The east entrance of the museum is marked by the stone arch entrance to the oldChicago Stock Exchange. Designed byLouis Sullivanin 1894, the Exchange was demolished in 1972, but salvaged portions of the original trading room were brought to the Art Institute and reconstructed. The Art Institute building has the unusual property of straddling open-air railroad tracks. Two stories of gallery space connect the east and west buildings while theMetra ElectricandSouth Shorelines operate below. The lower level of gallery space was formerly the windowless Gunsaulus hall, but is now home to the Alsdorf Galleries showcasing Indian, Southeast Asian and Himalayan Art. During renovation, windows facing north toward Millennium Park were added. The gallery space was designed byRenzo Pianoin conjunction with his design of the Modern Wing and features the same window screening used there to protect the", "to protect the art from direct sunlight. The upper level formerly held the modern European galleries, but was renovated in 2008 and now features the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist galleries. In September 2024, the museum announced a gift of $75 million for a new gallery building or wing named for benefactors Aaron I. Fleischman and Lin Lougheed. The gallery is intended to increase space for 19th century, modern, and contemporary art. The design and placement of the new gallery or gallery building are yet to be decided. Libraries Located on the ground floor of the museum is theRyerson & Burnham Libraries. The Libraries' collections cover all periods of art, but is most known for its extensive collection of 18th to 20th century architecture. It serves the museum staff, college and university students, and is also open to the general public. The Friends of the Libraries, a support group for the Libraries, offers events and special tours for its members. Modern Wing On May 16, 2009, the Art Institute", "the Art Institute opened the Modern Wing, the largest expansion in the museum's history.The 264,000-square-foot (24,500 m2) addition, designed byRenzo Piano, makes the Art Institute the second-largest museum in the US.Thearchitect of recordin the City of Chicago for this building was Interactive Design.The Modern Wing is home to the museum's collection of early 20th-century European art, includingPablo Picasso'sThe Old Guitarist,Henri Matisse'sBathers by a River, andRené Magritte'sTime Transfixed.The Lindy and Edwin Bergman Collection of Surrealist art includes the largest public display ofJoseph Cornell's works (37 boxes and collages).The Wing also housescontemporary artfrom after 1960; new photography, video media, architecture and design galleries including original renderings byFrank Lloyd Wright,Ludwig Mies van der RoheandBruce Goff; temporary exhibition space; shops and classrooms; and a cafe. In addition, theNichols Bridgewayconnects a sculpture garden on the roof of the new wing with the", "new wing with the adjacentMillennium Parkto the north and a courtyard designed by Gustafson Guthrie Nichol. In 2009, the Modern Wing won at the Chicago Innovation Awards. Selections from the permanent collection Other notable works are in the collection but the following examples are ones in the public domain and for which pictures are available. In 2018, as it redesigned its website, the Art Institute released images of 52,438 of its public domain works, under theCreative Commons Zero(CC0) licence. Paintings Sculptures More highlights from the collection Governance Attendance During 2009, attendance was around 2 million—up 33 percent from 2008—in addition to a total of approximately 100,000 museum memberships. Despite a 25 percent boost in museum admission fees, the Modern Wing was a major catalyst for a rise in visitor traffic.In 2022, the museum welcomed 1.04 million visitors, an increase of 20 percent from 2021, but still well below 2018 attendance (before theCOVID-19pandemic). It was ranked tenth among", "ranked tenth among themost-visited museums in the United States, and was the sixth most-visited U.S. art museum. Finances As of 2011, the Art Institute continues to rebuild its $783 million endowment since therecession.In June 2008, its endowment was $827 million. As of 2012, the museum is rated A1 byMoody's, its fifth-highest grade, in part reflecting the museum's pension and retirement liabilities;Standard & Poor'srates the museum A+, fifth-best. In October 2012, the Art Institute sold about $100 million of taxable and tax-exempt bonds partly to shore-up unfunded pension obligations. The $294 million extension in 2009 was the culmination of a $385 million fundraising campaign—roughly $300 million for design and construction and $85 million for the endowment. Around $370 million were raised primarily from private patrons in Chicago.In 2011, the Art Institute received a $10 million gift from the Jaharis Family Foundation to renovate and expand galleries devoted to Greek, Roman and Byzantine art, and to", "art, and to support acquisitions and special exhibitions of that art. Acquisitions and deaccessioning In 1990, the Art Institute of Chicago sold 11 works at auction, including paintings byClaude Monet,Pablo Picasso,Amedeo Modigliani,Maurice UtrilloandEdgar Degas, to raise the $12 million purchase price of a bronze sculpture,Golden Bird, byConstantin Brâncuși. At the time, the sculpture was owned by theArts Club of Chicago, which was selling it to buy a new gallery for its other works.In 2005, the museum sold two paintings byMarc ChagallandAuguste RenoiratSotheby's.In 2011, it auctioned two Picassos (Sur l'impériale traversant la Seine(1901) andVerre et pipe(1919)),Henri Matisse'sFemme au fauteuil(1919), andGeorges Braque'sNature morte à la guitare (rideaux rouge)(1938) atChristie'sin London. Directors Controversy Management of investments dispute In 2002, the Art Institute of Chicago filed suit alleging fraud by a small Dallas firm called Integral Investment Management, along with related parties. The", "parties. The museum, which put $43 million of its endowment into funds run by the defendants, claimed that it faced losses of up to 90% on the investments after they soured. Construction disputes In 2010, the year after the opening of its massive Modern Wing, the Art Institute of Chicago sued the engineering firmOve Arupfor $10 million over what it said were flaws in theconcretefloors and air-circulation systems. The suit wassettled out of court. Docent program diversity dispute In 2021, the Art Institute ended its unpaid volunteer docents program to move to a paid model. TheChicago Tribuneeditorial page criticized the Institute's letter announcing the change and the move to a new model, arguing that \"nce you cut through the blather, the letter basically said the museum had looked critically at its corps of docents, a group dominated by mostly (but not entirely) white, retired women with some time to spare, and found them wanting as a demographic.\"The Chair of the Institute's Board of Trustees, Robert M.", "Trustees, Robert M. Levy, responded in aTribuneop-ed supporting the change, and described theTribune's editorial as having \"numerous inaccuracies and mischaracterizations\", noted that the docent program had already been largely on pause for the past 15 months due to theCOVID pandemic, and argued that the decision was not about anyone's identity, it was in keeping with changing modern museum practices around the world. Following a volunteerism surge in the late 1940s, the program had been created in 1961 to revitalize and expand \"programming for children.\"Among other matters, since 2014 the program had been trying to attract a more diverse socioeconomic perspective set of art-tour guides, given the unpaid time commitment needed. Looted art In 1996, heirs to Jewish art collectors Louise andFriedrich Gutmann, who died in Nazi concentration camps, sued museum trusteeDaniel Searlefor the return of the Edgar Degas painting,Landscape with Smokestacks.After years of litigation a settlement was concluded which", "was concluded which involved the acquisition of the painting by the Art Institute.A collection of approximately 500 objects fromNepal, India and elsewhere in Asia that was donated to the Art Institute by trusteeMarilynn Alsdorfin 1989 was later found to contain several objects that were looted; nine objects have been returned by the museum to Nepal over the years, while some additional items are still being contested.In 2023, theManhattan District Attorney's Office moved to seizeEgon Schielepaintings from several museums on the grounds that they had been looted by the Nazis fromFritz Grünbaum, who was killed in theHolocaust. The paintings included,Russian War Prisoner,a watercolor in the Art Institute.The Art Institute continues to hold the work, as it is contesting the seizure in court. According to its investigation, it acquired the watercolor drawing in 1966 from an American art dealer through a proper provenance from Grünbaum's legal heir, and it also argues that the claim is time-barred because", "time-barred because Grünbaum's heirs were aware.In February 2024, the Manhattan District Attorney filed a motion accusing the Art Institute of \"blatantly ignoring evidence of an elaborate fraud undertaken to conceal that the artwork had been looted\". According toThe New York Times, the court filing provided detailed evidence that provenance documents provided by the Swiss art dealerEberhard Kornfeldcontained forged signatures or were altered long after he came into possession of the paintings and sold them to other art dealers in the mid-1950s. Court hearings on the matter are expected in 2024. In popular culture DirectorJohn Hughesincluded a sequence in the Art Institute in his 1986 filmFerris Bueller's Day Off, which is set in Chicago. During it, the characters are shown viewingA Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte. Hughes had first visited the institute as a \"refuge\" while in high school.Hughes' commentary on the sequence was used as a reference point by journalistHadley Freemanin a", "Freemanin a discussion of the Republican presidential primary candidates in 2011. The paintings used in the 1970Parker Brothersboard gameMasterpieceare works held in the Art Institute's collection. See also References External links", "John Hancock Center TheJohn Hancock Centeris a 100-story, 1,128-footsupertallskyscraperlocated inChicago,Illinois. Located in theMagnificent Miledistrict, the building was officially renamed875 North Michigan Avenuein 2018. The skyscraper was designed by Peruvian-American chief designerBruce Grahamand Bangladeshi-American structural engineerFazlur Rahman KhanofSkidmore, Owings and Merrill(SOM).When the building topped out on May 6, 1968,it was the second-tallest building in the world after theEmpire State Building, inNew York City, and the tallest in Chicago. It is currently thefifth-tallest building in Chicagoand thethirteenth-tallest in the United States, behind theAon Centerin Chicago and ahead of theComcast Technology CenterinPhiladelphia. When measured to the top of itsantenna masts, it stands at 1,500 feet (457 m).The building is home to several offices and restaurants, as well as about 700condominiums, and at the time of its completion contained the highest residence in the world. The building was", "The building was named forJohn Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company, a developer and original tenant of the building, which itself was named for the U.S.Founding FatherJohn Hancock.In 2018 John Hancock Insurance, years after leaving the building, requested that its name be removed; the owner is seeking another naming rights deal. From the 95th-floor restaurant, which closed in late 2023, diners were able look out at Chicago andLake Michigan. The observatory (360 Chicago),which competes with the Willis Tower'sSkydeck, has a 360° view of the city, up to four states, and a distance of over 80 miles (130 km). 360 Chicago is home to TILT, a moving platform that leans visitors over the edge of the skyscraper to a 30-degree angle,a full bar with local selections,Chicago's only open-air SkyWalk, and also features free interactive high-definition touchscreens in six languages.The 44th-floorsky lobbyfeatures the highest indoor swimming pool in theUnited States. History 20th century The project, which would become the", "would become the world's second tallest building at opening, was conceived and owned byJerry Wolmanin late 1964. The project was financed by John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company. Construction of the tower was interrupted in 1967 due to a flaw in an innovative engineering method used to pour concrete in stages, that was discovered when the building was 20 stories high.The engineers were getting the same soil settlements for the 20 stories that had been built as what they had expected for theentire99 stories. This forced the owner to stop development until the engineering problem could be resolved, resulting in a credit crunch. The situation is similar to the one faced during the construction of 111 West Wacker, then known as theWaterview Tower. Wolman's bankruptcy resulted in John Hancock taking over the project, which retained the original design, architect, engineer, and main contractor. The building's first resident was Ray Heckla, the original building engineer, responsible for the residential", "for the residential floors from 44 to 92. Heckla moved his family in April 1969, before the building was completed. The 1988 filmPoltergeist IIIwas set at the John Hancock Center and was filmed in early 1987. 21st century On December 10, 2006, the non-residential portion of the building was sold bySan Francisco–basedShorenstein Propertiesfor $385 millionand was purchased by a joint venture of Chicago-based Golub & Company and the Whitehall Street Real Estate Funds.Shorenstein Propertieshad bought the building in 1998 for $220 million. Golub defaulted on its debt and the building was acquired in 2012 byDeutsche Bank, who subsequently carved up the building.The venture of Deutsche Bank and New York–based NorthStar Realty Finance paid an estimated $325 millionfor debt on 875 North Michigan Avenue in 2012 afterShorenstein Propertiesdefaulted on $400 millionin loans.The observation deck was sold to Paris-basedMontparnasse 56 Groupfor between $35 million and $45 millionin July 2012.That same month, Prudential Real", "Prudential Real Estate Investors acquired the retail and restaurant space for almost $142 million.In November 2012, Boston-based American Tower Corp affiliate paid $70 millionfor the antennas.In June 2013, a venture of Chicago-based real estate investment firm Hearn Co., New York–based investment firm Mount Kellett Capital Management L.P. and San Antonio–based developer Lynd Co. closed on the expected acquisition of 875 North Michigan Avenue's 856,000 square feet (79,500 m2) of office space and 710-car parking deck. The Chicago firm did not disclose a price, but sources said it was about $145 million.This was the last step in that piecemeal sale process.In May 2016, Hearn Co. announced that they were seeking buyers for the naming rights with possible signage rights for the building. Hustle up the Hancock is an annual stair climb race up the 94 floors from the Michigan Avenue level to the observation deck. It is held on the last Sunday of February. The climb benefitsRespiratory Health Association. The record", "The record time as of 2007 is 9 minutes 30 seconds. The building is home to the transmitter ofUnivision'sWGBO-DT(channel 66), while all other full-power television stations in Chicago broadcast fromWillis Tower. TheCity Colleges of Chicago'sWYCC(channel 20) transmitted from the building until November 2017, when it departed the air as part of the 2016 FCC spectrum auction. On February 12, 2018, John Hancock Insurance requested that its name and logos throughout the building's interior be removed immediately; John Hancock had not had a naming-rights deal with the skyscraper's owners since 2013. The building's name was subsequently changed to its street address as 875 North Michigan Avenue. Incidents On November 11, 1981,Veterans Day, high-rise firefighting and rescue advocateDan Goodwin, for the purpose of calling attention to the inability to rescue people trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers, successfully climbed the building's exterior wall. Wearing a wetsuit and using a climbing device that enabled", "device that enabled him to ascend the I-beams on the building's side, Goodwin battled repeated attempts by theChicago Fire Departmentto knock him off. Fire Commissioner William Blair ordered Chicago firemen to stop Goodwin by directing a fully engaged fire hose at him and by blasting fire axes through nearby glass from the inside. Fearing for Goodwin's life, MayorJane Byrneintervened and allowed him to continue to the top. On December 18, 1997, comedianChris Farleywas found dead in his apartment on the 60th floor of the building. On March 9, 2002, part of a scaffold fell 43 stories after being torn loose by wind gusts around 60 mph (100 km/h) crushing several cars, killing three people in two of them. The remaining part of the stage swung back-and-forth in the gusts repeatedly slamming against the building, damaging cladding panels, breaking windows, and sending pieces onto the street below. On November 21, 2015, a fire broke out in an apartment on the 50th floor of the building. TheChicago Fire", "TheChicago Fire Departmentwas able to extinguish the fire after an hour and a half; five people suffered minor injuries. On February 11, 2018, a fire in a car on the seventh floor required approximately 150 firefighters to extinguish. On November 16, 2018, an express elevator cable broke. Initial reports stated that an elevator with six passengers plunged 84 stories from the 95th to 11th floor. Since express elevators are not accessible from floors within the express zone, a team of firefighters had to break through a brick wall from the parking garage to extricate the passengers, none of whom suffered injuries. Elevators to the 95th/96th floor were closed thereafter pending investigation.Subsequent investigation documented only a controlled descent from the 20th floor to the 11th floor. A piece ofcladdingfell from the building on January 5, 2022. Architecture One of the most famous buildings of thestructural expressioniststyle, the skyscraper's distinctiveX-bracedexterior shows that the structure's skin is", "structure's skin is part of its \"tubular system\". This is one of the engineering techniques which the designers used to achieve a record height; thetubular systemis the structure that keeps the building upright during wind and earthquake loads. This X-bracing allows for both higher performance from tall structures and the ability to open up the inside floorplan. Such original features have allowed 875 North Michigan Avenue to become an architectural icon. It was pioneered by Bangladeshi-American structural civil engineerFazlur Khanand chief architectBruce Graham. The interior was remodeled in 1995, adding to the lobbytravertine, black granite, and texturedlimestonesurfaces. The elliptical-shaped plaza outside the building serves as a public oasis with seasonal plantings and a 12-foot (3.7 m) waterfall. A band of white lights at the top of the building is visible all over Chicago at night, and changes colors for different events. For example, at Christmas time the colors are green and red. When a Chicago-area", "When a Chicago-area sports team goes far in the playoffs, the colors are changed to match that team's colors. The building is a member of the World Federation of Great Towers. It has won various awards for its distinctive style, including the Distinguished ArchitectsTwenty-five Year Awardfrom theAmerican Institute of Architectsin May 1999.In celebration of the 2018 Illinois Bicentennial, the John Hancock Center was selected as one of the Illinois 200 Great Placesby theAmerican Institute of ArchitectsIllinois component (AIA Illinois) and was recognized by USA Today Travel magazine, as one of AIA Illinois' selections for Illinois 25 Must See Places. The building is only partially protected by a fire sprinkler system,as the residential floors do not have sprinklers.Including its antennas, the building has a height of 1,500 feet (457 m), making it the thirty-third tallest building in the world when measured to pinnacle height. Features 360 Chicago Observation Deck Located on the 94th floor, 360 Chicago", "floor, 360 Chicago Observation Deck is 875 North Michigan Avenue's horizon observatory. The floor of the observatory is 1,030 feet (310 m) above the street-level below. The entrance can be found on the concourse level of 875 North Michigan Avenue, accessible from the Michigan Avenue side of the building. The observatory, previously named John Hancock Observatory, has been independently owned and operated since 2014 by the Montparnasse 56 Group of Paris, France.The elevators are credited as the fastest in the Western Hemisphere, with a top speed of 1,800 ft/min (20.5 mph; 9 m/s).The observatory boasts more floor space than its direct competitor, Skydeck at the Willis Tower. There is a full bar called BAR 94 which stocks local beer and spirits fromRevolution BrewingandKOVAL Distillery.The observation deck also features an open-air \"skydeck\" area. The Observatory elevators of 875 North Michigan Avenue, manufactured byOtis, travel 96 floors at a top speed of 1,800 ft/min (20 mph; 9.1 m/s). It has been said the", "has been said the elevators to the observation deck are the fastest in North America, reaching the 95th floor in 38 seconds if they could run the entire trip at top speed. For several years in the 2010s, during its winter season, the observation deck would feature the \"world's highest skating rink\", with anartificial ice rinkbeing seasonally installed. At one point, observation deck had amascotnamed Seemore Miles. In the summer of 2014, 360 Chicago added its TILT attraction. TILT, which requires an additional fee to experience, features a series of floor-to-ceiling windows that slowly tilt outside the building to 30°. 95th floor restaurant and 96th floor bar Separate from its observatory, 875 Michigan Avenue has a restaurant space on its 95th floor and a bar space on its 96th floor. Prior to 1993, the space was occupied by a restaurant named The 95th.From 1993 until 2023, the 95th floor was home to a restaurant named the Signature Room, with the accompanying bar on the 96th floor being called the Signature", "the Signature Lounge.The name alluded to the famoussignatureof early American figureJohn Hancock.The restaurant was an upscale establishment that offered patrons scenic views. It enforced adress codefor patrons.It received numerous awards. In April 2023, the restaurant and bar were listed for sale.In September 2023, the Signature Room abruptly ceased operations, with ownership citing \"severe economic hardship\" that they attributed to the impact of the earlierCOVID-19 pandemic. Retail plaza The building features a two-level outdoor plaza along its Michigan Avenue face. The plaza contains retail and dinning tenants. The top level of the plaza is at street level, while the lower level is sunken below the street level. Current tenants includeThe Cheesecake FactoryandThe North Face.Past tenants have includedBest Buy. The plaza was originally rectangular in shape.Per theChicago Tribune, the plaza was modeled after the plaza at New York City'sRockefeller Center. The plaza's design featured a fountain pool that", "fountain pool that would be turned into an ice rink in colder weather. In 1988, plans were unveiled by the John Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Company (the owners of the building at the time) to replace the plaza with a \"$20 millionglass and marble three-story atrium\". One rationale cited by building's management was they claimed that access to the building's ground level was complicated by the need of pedestrians to circumnavigate around the courtyard in order to reach the street-level entrance to the building's lobby. They also cited a belief that the building's entrance was too understated for a building of its level of prominence. This atrium proposal faced backlash from local residents who felt that such an addition would mar the appearance of the landmark building.In 1989, newly-elected mayorRichard M. Daleycriticized the proposed atrium and the plans were ultimately abandoned. In 1994, the plaza was renovated, with the sunken portion transforming from its previous rectangular shape to an elliptical", "to an elliptical shape. In 1999,Chicago Tribunearchitecture criticBlair Kaminwrote that this renovation had made the plaza a more \"welcoming\" space.This renovation came after the more dramatic late-1980s renovation plans were abandoned.A further $10 million renovation for the plaza was considered by the building's owners in the mid-2010s which would have added features such as video screens and decorative prisms to the plaza. Parking garage Housed within several of the lower levels of the building is aparking garage, which cars enter and depart via a spiral vehicle ramp. Antennas Since its completion, the tower has been topped by two antenna structures. These antenna superstructures support a large number of broadcast antenna equipment. At the time of the tower's completion, both antenna structures were 350 feet (110 metres) in height, andRCAhad given the architects of the building an estimate that 700 feet of antenna structure would be required to accommodate all of the city's radio and television stations.", "stations. In 2002, the eastern antenna tower was extended to a height of 378 feet (115 metres) in order to enableWBBM-TVto add new digital antenna equipment at a height greater than the roof height of the Sears Tower (Willis Tower). Subsequently, the western antenna tower was reduced to a height of 285 feet (87 metres). For a long time, the antenna towers utilizedincandescentred lights and a red and white paint scheme to provide a visibility to aviation in compliance with federal regulations. However, in order to forgo the expense and effort of annually reapplying striped paint to the antenna towers, the tower instead installed redstrobe lightsatop the tower and eliminated the striped paint scheme, as striped paint is not required if structures are topped by such lights. A sizable number of television and radio stations utilize the antenna towers. Many stations maintain broadcast equipment on both the John Hancock Center and the Willis Tower's antenna structures in order to have both a primary and backup", "primary and backup broadcasting point. In November 2012, Boston-based American Tower Corp affiliate paid $70 millionto acquire ownership of the antennas. 44th floor sky lobby The 44th levelskylobbyis the floor where the building transitions from offices to residential, with offices occupying floors below and residences occupying floors above. Swimming pool On its 44th floor, the John Hancock Center has a residentswimming pool. The pool area has double-height ceilings. The pool is the highest pool in the United States when measured by distance above ground level. Resident/office tenant grocery store On its 44th floor, the building has a 5,200 square feet (480 m2)grocery storeaccessible only to apartment residents and office tenants. In 2007, operation of the grocery store was taken over by the local Potash chain of grocery stores.As of February 2023, Potash continues to operate the grocery store. See also Footnotes References The Cloudbase Chronicles, Life at the Top - An engineers Tale by Harry W. Budge III", "Harry W. Budge III External links" ]
What was the daily average passenger count in 2011 of the first station on the train line that serves Hiraka Train Station in Japan?
2,851 Passengers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraka_Station
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dnan_Railway_K%C5%8Dnan_Line
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirosaki_Station
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraka_Station', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dnan_Railway_K%C5%8Dnan_Line', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirosaki_Station']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiraka_Station", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dnan_Railway_K%C5%8Dnan_Line", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirosaki_Station" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Hiraka_Station (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93e7e020>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Kōnan Railway Kōnan Line TheKōnan Line(弘南線,Kōnan-sen)is a railway route operated by the Japaneseprivate railwayoperatorKōnan RailwayinAomori Prefecture, fromHirosaki StationinHirosakitoKuroishi StationinKuroishi. Station list Rolling stock Rolling stock on the line consists of formerTokyu6000 and 7000 seriesEMUs.Ex-Nankai Railway1521 series 4-door EMUs were also previously used, but these were withdrawn in 2008 following the discontinuation of limited-stop \"Rapid\" services.An electric locomotive is also available for use on winter snow-clearing duties. History The Kōnan Railway was founded on March 27, 1926, and began operations between Hirosaki andTsugaru-Onoe Stationon September 7, 1927.On July 1, 1948, the line waselectrifiedat 600 volts DC.The line was extended to Kōnan-Kuroishi Station (present-day Kuroishi Station) on July 1, 1950.Voltage on the line was raised to 750 volts on April 1, 1954, and to 1,500 volts on September 1, 1961. Freight services ceased in 1984. Former connecting lines Accidents A train derailed atHiraka Stationon June 12, 2007, but no injuries were reported. References This article incorporates material from the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia External links", "Hirosaki Station Hirosaki Station(弘前駅,Hirosaki-eki)is a railway station in the city ofHirosaki,Aomori Prefecture, Japan, jointly operated byEast Japan Railway Company(JR East) and the private railway operatorKōnan Railway. It is also a freight terminal for theJapan Freight Railway Company. Lines Hirosaki Station is served by theŌu Main Line, and is located 447.1 km from the southern starting point of the Ōu Main Line atFukushima. Although the terminus of theGonō Lineis atKawabe, most trains continue on to terminate at Hirosaki for ease of connections. It also forms the terminus of the 16.8 km privateKōnan Railway Kōnan LinetoKuroishi. Limited express trains Hirosaki Station is served by the followinglimited expresstrain services. Station layout Hirosaki Station is an elevated station. The JR portion has a singleside platformand anisland platform, serving three tracks, and the Kōnan Railway has abay platformserving another two tracks. The station has a JR EastMidori no Madoguchistaffed ticket office and View Plaza travel agency. JR East platforms Konan Railway platforms History Hirosaki Station opened on December 1, 1894.On September 7, 1927, the Konan Railway also began operations at Hirosaki Station.The station building was again reconstructed in 1981 to incorporate a shopping center.With theprivatizationofJNRon April 1, 1987, the station came under the operational control of JR East. A new station building was completed in December 2004. Passenger statistics In fiscal 2018, the JR East station was used by an average of 4,497 passengers daily (boarding passengers only).The Konan Railway station was used by an average of 2,851 passengers daily in fiscal 2011.The JR East passenger figures for previous years are as shown below. Surrounding area Bus services Local services Long-distance bus services See also References External links" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Hiraka_Station (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b93e7e020>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Kōnan Railway Kōnan Line TheKōnan Line(弘南線,Kōnan-sen)is a railway route operated by the Japaneseprivate railwayoperatorKōnan RailwayinAomori Prefecture, fromHirosaki StationinHirosakitoKuroishi StationinKuroishi. Station list Rolling stock Rolling stock on the line consists of formerTokyu6000 and 7000 seriesEMUs.Ex-Nankai Railway1521 series 4-door EMUs were also previously used, but these were withdrawn in 2008 following the discontinuation of limited-stop \"Rapid\" services.An electric locomotive is also available for use on winter snow-clearing duties. History The Kōnan Railway was founded on March 27, 1926, and began operations between Hirosaki andTsugaru-Onoe Stationon September 7, 1927.On July 1, 1948, the line waselectrifiedat 600 volts DC.The line was extended to Kōnan-Kuroishi Station (present-day Kuroishi Station) on July 1, 1950.Voltage on the line was raised to 750 volts on April 1, 1954, and to 1,500 volts on September 1, 1961. Freight services ceased in 1984. Former connecting lines Accidents A", "lines Accidents A train derailed atHiraka Stationon June 12, 2007, but no injuries were reported. References This article incorporates material from the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia External links", "Hirosaki Station Hirosaki Station(弘前駅,Hirosaki-eki)is a railway station in the city ofHirosaki,Aomori Prefecture, Japan, jointly operated byEast Japan Railway Company(JR East) and the private railway operatorKōnan Railway. It is also a freight terminal for theJapan Freight Railway Company. Lines Hirosaki Station is served by theŌu Main Line, and is located 447.1 km from the southern starting point of the Ōu Main Line atFukushima. Although the terminus of theGonō Lineis atKawabe, most trains continue on to terminate at Hirosaki for ease of connections. It also forms the terminus of the 16.8 km privateKōnan Railway Kōnan LinetoKuroishi. Limited express trains Hirosaki Station is served by the followinglimited expresstrain services. Station layout Hirosaki Station is an elevated station. The JR portion has a singleside platformand anisland platform, serving three tracks, and the Kōnan Railway has abay platformserving another two tracks. The station has a JR EastMidori no Madoguchistaffed ticket office and View", "office and View Plaza travel agency. JR East platforms Konan Railway platforms History Hirosaki Station opened on December 1, 1894.On September 7, 1927, the Konan Railway also began operations at Hirosaki Station.The station building was again reconstructed in 1981 to incorporate a shopping center.With theprivatizationofJNRon April 1, 1987, the station came under the operational control of JR East. A new station building was completed in December 2004. Passenger statistics In fiscal 2018, the JR East station was used by an average of 4,497 passengers daily (boarding passengers only).The Konan Railway station was used by an average of 2,851 passengers daily in fiscal 2011.The JR East passenger figures for previous years are as shown below. Surrounding area Bus services Local services Long-distance bus services See also References External links" ]
Who was the author of the novel whose film adaptation lead singer Mark Arm took the name of his band from?
Raymond Friday Locke
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Arm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney_(film)
null
null
null
null
null
null
null
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Arm', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney_(film)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Arm", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney_(film" ]
[ "Mark Arm Mark Arm(bornMark Thomas McLaughlin; February 21, 1962) is an American singer and songwriter, best known as the vocalist for thegrungebandMudhoney. His former group,Green River, was one of the first grunge bands, along withMalfunkshun,Soundgarden,Skin Yard, theU-Men, and others. He is also the manager of theSub Popwarehouseand previously worked atFantagraphics Books. Early life Arm was born February 21, 1962, atVandenberg Air Force BaseinCalifornia, and was raised inKirkland, Washington.As a child, he was a member ofBoy Scouts of America.He graduated fromBellevue Christian High SchoolinBellevue, Washington. In 1985, Arm earned an English degree with an emphasis in creative writing from theUniversity of Washington. Early career Arm first entered theSeattlerock scene in 1980, when he formed a band while still in high school, called \"Mr. Epp and the Calculations\" with singer Jo Smitty, and Peter Wick, who wrote and recorded their first song,\"The Pigeon in the Fountain bed,\" which caused local radio DJ Stephen Rabow to declare them, \"The worst band in the world.\" The band played its first show in 1981, opening for the band Student Nurse. In 1982 they released a 7-inch EP entitled \"Mohawk Man\", produced by Johnny Rubato (of Rubato Records, a local used record shop for more than 30 years). The next year they added a second guitarist,Steve Turner, and released acassettedescribed on the lyric sheet as a \"combination of art andhardcore.\"The cassette featured one side of live recordings and aflip-sideof studio recordings and experimental sounds; a sonic amalgamy described in a 1984 issue ofRevenge Against Boredom'zine(produced by notableskateboardinghistorian Jocko Weyland), as \"45 or so minutes of Pillow Fights, Jokes, some songs, preachers' garbled talking. And you get to find out what you get if you give up your personality.\" Mr. Epp and the Calculations also played withTen Minute Warningandthe Dead Kennedysat the Eagles Auditorium in April. The band came to an end the following year. After Mr. Epp and the Calculations ended, Mark Arm and Steve Turner (who had become close friends) joined the bandLimp Richerdsfor a few weeks. Afterward, Arm and Turner took on futurePearl JammembersJeff AmentandStone Gossard, as well asAlex Vincent, to form the bandGreen River. Green River released two EPs and a full length album before disbanding. Steve Turner left the band to finish college, and Arm was forced to find a new band again. After Turner returned from schooling, they resumed their Green River side project, The Thrown Ups. Mudhoney Arm and Turner took on drummerDan Peters, and bassistMatt Lukin, formerly ofMelvins. The new band renamed themselves Mudhoney. In 1988,Sub Popreleased Mudhoney's first single, \"Touch Me I'm Sick\". After extensive touring and an EP album, Mudhoney releasedtheir self-titled full length debutin 1989. Their next album,Every Good Boy Deserves Fudgecame out soon after, just before the explosion of grunge spearheaded byNirvana's seminalNevermind. At the time, Sub Pop, their record label, was \"on the verge of bankruptcy, having trouble paying its flagship band, severely delaying the release of the album to July 1991.\"In 1992, they signed to a major record label,Repriseand releasedPiece of Cake. The album did not sell well, due to a combination of the band's uncompromising sound and an oversaturation of the genre; according to Stephen Turner, the album references \"how easily things had come to them...the songs were kinda half-baked... and Mark wasn't at his best.\" Although they never achieved the fame of some of their contemporaries, Arm and Mudhoney have made significant contributions to grunge music. Mudhoney is one of the few grunge bands that continue to release albums; in 2002 they releasedSince We've Become Translucent,Under a Billion Sunsin 2005,The Lucky Onesfollowed in May 2008,Vanishing Pointcame in April 2013,Digital Garbagecame out in September 2018 and, most recently,Plastic Eternityin 2023. All of these releases have been on theSub Poprecord label. Solo and side projects Arm released \"The Freewheelin' Mark Arm\", a solo single in 1990. He was a singer and guitarist for the groupBloodlossand singer for the SeattlesupergroupThe Monkeywrench.Monkeywrench members include Arm, Turner, Tim Kerr (Lord Hi Fixers,Big Boys, Poison 13), Tom Price (Gas Huffer) and Martin Bland (Bloodloss). He has also made guest appearances on several albums, most notably onAlice in Chains' 1992 EPSap. In 1998, he made an appearance on the motion picture soundtrack for the filmVelvet GoldminewithRon Asheton,Mike Watt,Thurston Moore, andSteve Shelleyunder the nameWylde Ratttz. In 1999, he recorded the vocals for the song \"I Need Somebody\", a cover of the song byThe Stooges, featured onNebula's first album,To the Center. In 2000, Arm, Turner, Peters,Scott McCaughey, Tom Price and Bill Henderson recorded the album \"The New Original Sonic Sound\" under the band name The New Strychnines. they recorded a compilation of 16 songs by the legendary mid-1960's Seattle garage bandThe Sonics. The album was released by Book Records. In 2004, he toured withMC5, standing in for the lateRob Tyneron vocals. In 2013, he contributed vocals on a cover version ofThe Scientists' \"Set It on Fire\" for theMelvins' albumEverybody Loves Sausages. Personal life Mark Arm lives in Seattle with his wife Emily Rieman and their little dogs. References Further reading External links", "Mudhoney Mudhoneyis an Americanrockband formed inSeattle, Washington, on January 1, 1988, following the demise ofGreen River. Its members are singer and rhythm guitaristMark Arm, lead guitaristSteve Turner, bassistGuy Maddisonand drummerDan Peters. Original bassistMatt Lukinleft the band in 1999, but rejoined the band in December 2000 for a tour that lasted through January 2001. Mudhoney's early releases on theSub Poplabel, particularly their debut single \"Touch Me I'm Sick\" and theSuperfuzz BigmuffEP, were instrumental in the creation of thegrungegenre.Although the band found little commercial success and remained somewhat 'underground' and non-mainstream, Mudhoney has released eleven studio albums and inspired countless grunge andalternative rockmusicians during their long career. History Mr. Epp and the Calculations: 1978–1984 Mark ArmandSteve Turnermet through their association with Mr. Epp and the Calculations. This band formed in 1978 inBellevue, Washington, a suburb of Seattle. While at Bellevue Christian High School, Mark McLaughlin (later known as Mark Arm) and some friends started Mr. Epp and the Calculations, a band named after amathteacher of his. Initially the band was essentially a joke band rather than a serious one; their first \"show\" was in class singingMarvin Gaye's \"Got to Give It Up\", using rolled-up maps as guitars because they could not actually play any instruments. Mr. Epp and the Calculations played their first real show in 1981, three years after they formed. To make the band seem more serious, Mr. Epp added a second guitarist, Steve Turner, who was in a small garage band called The Ducky Boys. Arm and Turner became instant friends. In 1983, three songs of Mr. Epp were included inFirst Strike: a compilation, the first cassette in the BCT catalog. Mr. Epp and the Calculations appeared onKZAMradio and were introduced as \"the worst band in the world.\" They played their last show on February 3, 1984, withMalfunkshunat Seattle's Metropolis. Arm and Turner formed a joke-punk band called The Limp Richerds in 1984 near the end of Mr. Epp but this band ended shortly after Mr. Epp's ending as well. Green River: 1984–1987 Green Riverwas formed in 1984 when Arm and Turner recruitedAlex Vincentas drummer, who had previously played with Turner in the short-livedSpluii Numa. BassistJeff Amentjoined the band after arriving in Seattle with his band Deranged Diction.Stone Gossard, another of Turner's former bandmates, was recruited as second guitarist. Green River recorded their debut EP,Come on Down, in 1985, and it is considered the firstgrungerecord because it was released several months before theDeep Sixalbum (which featured music by Green River and five other Seattle grunge bands).Turner left the band after its release due to his distaste of the band'shard rockleanings. He was replaced by another Deranged Diction member,Bruce Fairweather. After recording another EP (Dry As a Bone) and a full-length album (Rehab Doll), the band disbanded in late 1987. Gossard, Ament, and Fairweather went on to joinMother Love Bone. Following lead singerAndrew Wood's death, Gossard and Ament went on to formPearl Jam, and Fairweather joinedLove Battery. Sub Pop: 1988–1991 Turner wanted to start a band that practiced before playing to a live audience. He and Arm began songwriting withBundle of HissdrummerDan Peters. The trio decided thatMatt Lukin, who had recently leftMelvins, should join the band as bassist.The band named themselves after theRuss MeyerfilmMudhoney. Early on, Mudhoney's sound would reflect such influences asDinosaur Jr.,Spacemen 3,Neil Young,Black Flag, andthe Scientists. In 1988, the band recorded and released their debut EP,Superfuzz Bigmuff, and their first single, \"Touch Me I'm Sick\", on theSub Poplabel.The single attracted attention and the band enjoyed moderate success in the United States. Mudhoney quickly became Sub Pop's flagship band.Sonic Youth, who were fans of the band, had invited Mudhoney to join them for a tour in the UK in 1989.After this tourSuperfuzz Bigmuffentered the Britishindiecharts and they received a respectable amount of press coverage. The band released their first album,Mudhoney, in 1989. Kurt Cobain listedSuperfuzz Bigmuffas one of his favourite albums in his journal in 1993. They released their second album,Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge, in 1991.After the album's release they were offered a deal withReprise Records, and they joined the label in 1992. Reprise: 1992–1999 Mudhoney's first album with Reprise wasPiece of Cake.In a 2008Mojomagazine article, Turner explained the album references \"how easily things had come to them ... the songs were kinda half-baked ...\" They also contributed a track \"Overblown\" at this time to the soundtrack to the filmSingles. With their 1995 albumMy Brother the Cowthey mixed their earlier and more recent sound, but Turner explained in an article inMojo, \"There was a backlash after Kurt killed himself. The English press were so angry that we were still around. Those were some of the worst reviews we'd ever gotten. We were mocked for still existing.\"The press was not all negative, as the album received praise in certain U.S. publications, includingPeoplemagazine: \"Leave the brooding anthems to Pearl Jam. Mudhoney delivers pure grunge—messy music that casts a powerful spell.\" In 1996, Mudhoney appeared in the comedy movieBlack Sheep, starringChris FarleyandDavid Spade. The band was shown performing at an MTV concert and then speaking with Farley backstage.Tomorrow Hit Todaywas released in September 1998.The album demonstrated ablues-rockinfluence, and the band used record producer Jim Dickinson, who worked withThe Rolling Stones. They recorded the set in three different cities. After a few years of touring, Reprise decided to cut ties with Mudhoney. Subsequently, Lukin left the band. They releasedMarch to Fuzz, a retrospectivecompilation album. After Matt Lukin: 2000–present Mudhoney continued to play some concerts in the Pacific Northwest and recruited permanent bassistGuy Maddison(of Monroe's Fur andLubricated Goat) who had played with Arm in one of his many side projects, Bloodloss. In 2002, following their return to Sub Pop, the band recorded and released a new studio album,Since We've Become Translucent. This was followed by a major South American tour. In early 2003 the band entered the studio to record \"Hard-On For War\", that would appear exclusively onBuddyhead Presents: Gimme Skeltercompilation album. Later that year the band recordedUnder a Billion Sunson which a new version of the song appeared. The album was released in 2006 and received favorable reviews. In 2006 the band also helped to curate an edition of the BritishAll Tomorrow's Partiesfestival. During 2007, Mudhoney played in Brazil again and went on a brief European tour.In November that year, the band released a live album entitledLive Mud, containing songs recorded at a concert in Mexico. In 2008, Mudhoney began recording their next album with producerTucker Martine,The Lucky Ones, which was released in May 2008. Shortly thereafter, Sub Pop released a deluxe, remastered edition ofSuperfuzz Bigmuff. The reissue contained the original EP in its correct running order, along with singles, demos, and two live recordings from 1988. In the liner notes of the reissuedSuperfuzz Bigmuff, Jay Hinman wrote: My feeling—and I know I'm not alone in this one—is that for all the play and worldwide attention several Seattle-area bands got during the 1988–92 period, at the end of the day (and even at the time), there was Mudhoney—and then there was everybody else. To me, you, and everyone else paying close attention to underground rock music during those years, Mudhoney still sound like the undisputed kingpins of roaring, surging, fuzzed-out, punk music. In 2009, Mudhoney announced a series of live dates. This included an extensive tour of Europe which started inEdinburgh, Scotland with Sub Pop labelmatesThe Vaselines. The tour ended on October 26. The group performed at theNelsonville Music FestivalinNelsonville, Ohio, in May 2009.The group played at theATP New York 2010music festival in Monticello, New York in September 2010, where they performedSuperfuzz Bigmuffin its entirety. In 2011, Pearl Jam had Mudhoney open for them on their 20th Anniversary tour. They were chosen by Mogwai to perform in May 2012 at theAll Tomorrow's Parties'I'll Be Your Mirror' festival at Alexandra Palace, London.In April 2013 the band put out their ninth studio albumVanishing Point,followed by 2018'sDigital Garbage. In 2021, Mudhoney and Sub Pop celebrated the 30-year anniversary ofEvery Good Boy Deserves Fudgewith a remastered deluxe version. This included remastered and re-released music videos and songs, as well as previously unreleased songs and demos. Plastic Eternitywas released by Sub Pop on April 6, 2023. Members Current members Former members Discography References Other sources External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney_(film" ]
[ "Mark Arm Mark Arm(bornMark Thomas McLaughlin; February 21, 1962) is an American singer and songwriter, best known as the vocalist for thegrungebandMudhoney. His former group,Green River, was one of the first grunge bands, along withMalfunkshun,Soundgarden,Skin Yard, theU-Men, and others. He is also the manager of theSub Popwarehouseand previously worked atFantagraphics Books. Early life Arm was born February 21, 1962, atVandenberg Air Force BaseinCalifornia, and was raised inKirkland, Washington.As a child, he was a member ofBoy Scouts of America.He graduated fromBellevue Christian High SchoolinBellevue, Washington. In 1985, Arm earned an English degree with an emphasis in creative writing from theUniversity of Washington. Early career Arm first entered theSeattlerock scene in 1980, when he formed a band while still in high school, called \"Mr. Epp and the Calculations\" with singer Jo Smitty, and Peter Wick, who wrote and recorded their first song,\"The Pigeon in the Fountain bed,\" which caused local radio DJ", "local radio DJ Stephen Rabow to declare them, \"The worst band in the world.\" The band played its first show in 1981, opening for the band Student Nurse. In 1982 they released a 7-inch EP entitled \"Mohawk Man\", produced by Johnny Rubato (of Rubato Records, a local used record shop for more than 30 years). The next year they added a second guitarist,Steve Turner, and released acassettedescribed on the lyric sheet as a \"combination of art andhardcore.\"The cassette featured one side of live recordings and aflip-sideof studio recordings and experimental sounds; a sonic amalgamy described in a 1984 issue ofRevenge Against Boredom'zine(produced by notableskateboardinghistorian Jocko Weyland), as \"45 or so minutes of Pillow Fights, Jokes, some songs, preachers' garbled talking. And you get to find out what you get if you give up your personality.\" Mr. Epp and the Calculations also played withTen Minute Warningandthe Dead Kennedysat the Eagles Auditorium in April. The band came to an end the following year. After Mr.", "year. After Mr. Epp and the Calculations ended, Mark Arm and Steve Turner (who had become close friends) joined the bandLimp Richerdsfor a few weeks. Afterward, Arm and Turner took on futurePearl JammembersJeff AmentandStone Gossard, as well asAlex Vincent, to form the bandGreen River. Green River released two EPs and a full length album before disbanding. Steve Turner left the band to finish college, and Arm was forced to find a new band again. After Turner returned from schooling, they resumed their Green River side project, The Thrown Ups. Mudhoney Arm and Turner took on drummerDan Peters, and bassistMatt Lukin, formerly ofMelvins. The new band renamed themselves Mudhoney. In 1988,Sub Popreleased Mudhoney's first single, \"Touch Me I'm Sick\". After extensive touring and an EP album, Mudhoney releasedtheir self-titled full length debutin 1989. Their next album,Every Good Boy Deserves Fudgecame out soon after, just before the explosion of grunge spearheaded byNirvana's seminalNevermind. At the time, Sub Pop,", "the time, Sub Pop, their record label, was \"on the verge of bankruptcy, having trouble paying its flagship band, severely delaying the release of the album to July 1991.\"In 1992, they signed to a major record label,Repriseand releasedPiece of Cake. The album did not sell well, due to a combination of the band's uncompromising sound and an oversaturation of the genre; according to Stephen Turner, the album references \"how easily things had come to them...the songs were kinda half-baked... and Mark wasn't at his best.\" Although they never achieved the fame of some of their contemporaries, Arm and Mudhoney have made significant contributions to grunge music. Mudhoney is one of the few grunge bands that continue to release albums; in 2002 they releasedSince We've Become Translucent,Under a Billion Sunsin 2005,The Lucky Onesfollowed in May 2008,Vanishing Pointcame in April 2013,Digital Garbagecame out in September 2018 and, most recently,Plastic Eternityin 2023. All of these releases have been on theSub Poprecord", "on theSub Poprecord label. Solo and side projects Arm released \"The Freewheelin' Mark Arm\", a solo single in 1990. He was a singer and guitarist for the groupBloodlossand singer for the SeattlesupergroupThe Monkeywrench.Monkeywrench members include Arm, Turner, Tim Kerr (Lord Hi Fixers,Big Boys, Poison 13), Tom Price (Gas Huffer) and Martin Bland (Bloodloss). He has also made guest appearances on several albums, most notably onAlice in Chains' 1992 EPSap. In 1998, he made an appearance on the motion picture soundtrack for the filmVelvet GoldminewithRon Asheton,Mike Watt,Thurston Moore, andSteve Shelleyunder the nameWylde Ratttz. In 1999, he recorded the vocals for the song \"I Need Somebody\", a cover of the song byThe Stooges, featured onNebula's first album,To the Center. In 2000, Arm, Turner, Peters,Scott McCaughey, Tom Price and Bill Henderson recorded the album \"The New Original Sonic Sound\" under the band name The New Strychnines. they recorded a compilation of 16 songs by the legendary mid-1960's", "mid-1960's Seattle garage bandThe Sonics. The album was released by Book Records. In 2004, he toured withMC5, standing in for the lateRob Tyneron vocals. In 2013, he contributed vocals on a cover version ofThe Scientists' \"Set It on Fire\" for theMelvins' albumEverybody Loves Sausages. Personal life Mark Arm lives in Seattle with his wife Emily Rieman and their little dogs. References Further reading External links", "Mudhoney Mudhoneyis an Americanrockband formed inSeattle, Washington, on January 1, 1988, following the demise ofGreen River. Its members are singer and rhythm guitaristMark Arm, lead guitaristSteve Turner, bassistGuy Maddisonand drummerDan Peters. Original bassistMatt Lukinleft the band in 1999, but rejoined the band in December 2000 for a tour that lasted through January 2001. Mudhoney's early releases on theSub Poplabel, particularly their debut single \"Touch Me I'm Sick\" and theSuperfuzz BigmuffEP, were instrumental in the creation of thegrungegenre.Although the band found little commercial success and remained somewhat 'underground' and non-mainstream, Mudhoney has released eleven studio albums and inspired countless grunge andalternative rockmusicians during their long career. History Mr. Epp and the Calculations: 1978–1984 Mark ArmandSteve Turnermet through their association with Mr. Epp and the Calculations. This band formed in 1978 inBellevue, Washington, a suburb of Seattle. While at Bellevue", "While at Bellevue Christian High School, Mark McLaughlin (later known as Mark Arm) and some friends started Mr. Epp and the Calculations, a band named after amathteacher of his. Initially the band was essentially a joke band rather than a serious one; their first \"show\" was in class singingMarvin Gaye's \"Got to Give It Up\", using rolled-up maps as guitars because they could not actually play any instruments. Mr. Epp and the Calculations played their first real show in 1981, three years after they formed. To make the band seem more serious, Mr. Epp added a second guitarist, Steve Turner, who was in a small garage band called The Ducky Boys. Arm and Turner became instant friends. In 1983, three songs of Mr. Epp were included inFirst Strike: a compilation, the first cassette in the BCT catalog. Mr. Epp and the Calculations appeared onKZAMradio and were introduced as \"the worst band in the world.\" They played their last show on February 3, 1984, withMalfunkshunat Seattle's Metropolis. Arm and Turner formed a", "and Turner formed a joke-punk band called The Limp Richerds in 1984 near the end of Mr. Epp but this band ended shortly after Mr. Epp's ending as well. Green River: 1984–1987 Green Riverwas formed in 1984 when Arm and Turner recruitedAlex Vincentas drummer, who had previously played with Turner in the short-livedSpluii Numa. BassistJeff Amentjoined the band after arriving in Seattle with his band Deranged Diction.Stone Gossard, another of Turner's former bandmates, was recruited as second guitarist. Green River recorded their debut EP,Come on Down, in 1985, and it is considered the firstgrungerecord because it was released several months before theDeep Sixalbum (which featured music by Green River and five other Seattle grunge bands).Turner left the band after its release due to his distaste of the band'shard rockleanings. He was replaced by another Deranged Diction member,Bruce Fairweather. After recording another EP (Dry As a Bone) and a full-length album (Rehab Doll), the band disbanded in late 1987.", "in late 1987. Gossard, Ament, and Fairweather went on to joinMother Love Bone. Following lead singerAndrew Wood's death, Gossard and Ament went on to formPearl Jam, and Fairweather joinedLove Battery. Sub Pop: 1988–1991 Turner wanted to start a band that practiced before playing to a live audience. He and Arm began songwriting withBundle of HissdrummerDan Peters. The trio decided thatMatt Lukin, who had recently leftMelvins, should join the band as bassist.The band named themselves after theRuss MeyerfilmMudhoney. Early on, Mudhoney's sound would reflect such influences asDinosaur Jr.,Spacemen 3,Neil Young,Black Flag, andthe Scientists. In 1988, the band recorded and released their debut EP,Superfuzz Bigmuff, and their first single, \"Touch Me I'm Sick\", on theSub Poplabel.The single attracted attention and the band enjoyed moderate success in the United States. Mudhoney quickly became Sub Pop's flagship band.Sonic Youth, who were fans of the band, had invited Mudhoney to join them for a tour in the UK in", "a tour in the UK in 1989.After this tourSuperfuzz Bigmuffentered the Britishindiecharts and they received a respectable amount of press coverage. The band released their first album,Mudhoney, in 1989. Kurt Cobain listedSuperfuzz Bigmuffas one of his favourite albums in his journal in 1993. They released their second album,Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge, in 1991.After the album's release they were offered a deal withReprise Records, and they joined the label in 1992. Reprise: 1992–1999 Mudhoney's first album with Reprise wasPiece of Cake.In a 2008Mojomagazine article, Turner explained the album references \"how easily things had come to them ... the songs were kinda half-baked ...\" They also contributed a track \"Overblown\" at this time to the soundtrack to the filmSingles. With their 1995 albumMy Brother the Cowthey mixed their earlier and more recent sound, but Turner explained in an article inMojo, \"There was a backlash after Kurt killed himself. The English press were so angry that we were still around.", "were still around. Those were some of the worst reviews we'd ever gotten. We were mocked for still existing.\"The press was not all negative, as the album received praise in certain U.S. publications, includingPeoplemagazine: \"Leave the brooding anthems to Pearl Jam. Mudhoney delivers pure grunge—messy music that casts a powerful spell.\" In 1996, Mudhoney appeared in the comedy movieBlack Sheep, starringChris FarleyandDavid Spade. The band was shown performing at an MTV concert and then speaking with Farley backstage.Tomorrow Hit Todaywas released in September 1998.The album demonstrated ablues-rockinfluence, and the band used record producer Jim Dickinson, who worked withThe Rolling Stones. They recorded the set in three different cities. After a few years of touring, Reprise decided to cut ties with Mudhoney. Subsequently, Lukin left the band. They releasedMarch to Fuzz, a retrospectivecompilation album. After Matt Lukin: 2000–present Mudhoney continued to play some concerts in the Pacific Northwest and", "Northwest and recruited permanent bassistGuy Maddison(of Monroe's Fur andLubricated Goat) who had played with Arm in one of his many side projects, Bloodloss. In 2002, following their return to Sub Pop, the band recorded and released a new studio album,Since We've Become Translucent. This was followed by a major South American tour. In early 2003 the band entered the studio to record \"Hard-On For War\", that would appear exclusively onBuddyhead Presents: Gimme Skeltercompilation album. Later that year the band recordedUnder a Billion Sunson which a new version of the song appeared. The album was released in 2006 and received favorable reviews. In 2006 the band also helped to curate an edition of the BritishAll Tomorrow's Partiesfestival. During 2007, Mudhoney played in Brazil again and went on a brief European tour.In November that year, the band released a live album entitledLive Mud, containing songs recorded at a concert in Mexico. In 2008, Mudhoney began recording their next album with producerTucker", "with producerTucker Martine,The Lucky Ones, which was released in May 2008. Shortly thereafter, Sub Pop released a deluxe, remastered edition ofSuperfuzz Bigmuff. The reissue contained the original EP in its correct running order, along with singles, demos, and two live recordings from 1988. In the liner notes of the reissuedSuperfuzz Bigmuff, Jay Hinman wrote: My feeling—and I know I'm not alone in this one—is that for all the play and worldwide attention several Seattle-area bands got during the 1988–92 period, at the end of the day (and even at the time), there was Mudhoney—and then there was everybody else. To me, you, and everyone else paying close attention to underground rock music during those years, Mudhoney still sound like the undisputed kingpins of roaring, surging, fuzzed-out, punk music. In 2009, Mudhoney announced a series of live dates. This included an extensive tour of Europe which started inEdinburgh, Scotland with Sub Pop labelmatesThe Vaselines. The tour ended on October 26. The group", "26. The group performed at theNelsonville Music FestivalinNelsonville, Ohio, in May 2009.The group played at theATP New York 2010music festival in Monticello, New York in September 2010, where they performedSuperfuzz Bigmuffin its entirety. In 2011, Pearl Jam had Mudhoney open for them on their 20th Anniversary tour. They were chosen by Mogwai to perform in May 2012 at theAll Tomorrow's Parties'I'll Be Your Mirror' festival at Alexandra Palace, London.In April 2013 the band put out their ninth studio albumVanishing Point,followed by 2018'sDigital Garbage. In 2021, Mudhoney and Sub Pop celebrated the 30-year anniversary ofEvery Good Boy Deserves Fudgewith a remastered deluxe version. This included remastered and re-released music videos and songs, as well as previously unreleased songs and demos. Plastic Eternitywas released by Sub Pop on April 6, 2023. Members Current members Former members Discography References Other sources External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudhoney_(film" ]
What career was shared by one of the world's oldest fathers, who had a child at the age of 96, and a man who killed his wife, named Nancy, and their son, named Daniel?
professional wrestler
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_fathers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramjit_Raghav
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Benoit#Death
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_wrestling#Occupational_hazards
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_fathers', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramjit_Raghav', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Benoit#Death', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_wrestling#Occupational_hazards']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_fathers", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramjit_Raghav", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Benoit#Death", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_wrestling#Occupational_hazards" ]
[ "List of oldest fathers This is a list of persons reported to have become father of a child at or after 75 years of age. These claims have not necessarily been verified. Medical considerations According to a 1969 study, there is a decrease in sperm concentration as men age. The study reported that 90% ofseminiferous tubulesin men in their 20s and 30s containedspermatids, whereas men in their 40s and 50s had spermatids in 50% of their seminiferous tubules. In the study, only 10% of seminiferous tubules from men aged > 80 years contained spermatids.In a random international sample of 11,548 men confirmed to be biological fathers by DNA paternity testing, the oldest father was found to be 66 years old at the birth of his child; the ratio of DNA-confirmed versus DNA-rejected paternity tests around that age is in agreement with the notion of general male infertility greater than age 65–66. List of claims See also References External links", "Ramjit Raghav Ramjit Raghav(1916 – 11 February 2020) was an Indian man who was claimed by various media outlets as theworld's oldest father. He resided inHaryanawith his wife. He claimed to have had his first child with his wife at age 94. He fathered a second child at age 96. Avegetarianwho claimed to engage in sexual intercourse around three times a day, Raghav was chosen to be an ambassador forPeople for the Ethical Treatment of Animals(PETA) in November 2012. Biography Ramjit Raghav was born in India in 1916. In his younger days, he worked as aprofessional wrestler. Later, he switched to farming. Raghav was a strict vegetarian, living predominantly on milk, almonds and butter, and credits vegetarianism for his longevity and clean bill of health. He was quoted byThe Telegraphas saying: I have been a vegetarian all my life, and I credit my stamina and virility to my diet of vegetables and grains. Being a vegetarian is the secret to my strength and good health. In 2010, at the supposed age of 94, Raghav claimed to have become the world's oldest father when his wife, then aged 49, gave birth to a son, whom the couple named Bikramjeet. In November 2012,PETAselected Raghav to be one of its international ambassadors. He was featured in a PETA awareness-raising advertisement with the slogan \"Vegetarians Still Got It at the Age of 96\". In 2012, when Raghav claimed to have been 96, his 52-year-old spouse allegedly gave birth to another son, named Ranjeet.Raghav stated that the couple would not have a third child, as they were experiencing financial troubles. He also announced that his wife would be undergoingtubal ligationto avoid the possibility of an accidental pregnancy. Raghav died in a fire at his home in February 2020 at the age of 104. Oldest fathers: medical considerations The website of the world record authorityGuinness World Recordslists the oldest father ever as Australian Les Colley (1898-1998), who allegedly fathered his ninth child at age 92 with a Fijian woman he met through a dating agency.In contrast, in a random international sample of 11,548 men confirmed to be biological fathers by DNA paternity testing, the oldest father was found to be just 66 years old at the birth of his child.Regarding Raghav's case, an Indian hospital worker stated, \"Having babies at such an age is a remote possibility, but it just needs one sperm to fertilise an egg.\" References", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Chris_Benoit (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9384caf0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Professional_wrestling (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9422d210>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
[ "List of oldest fathers This is a list of persons reported to have become father of a child at or after 75 years of age. These claims have not necessarily been verified. Medical considerations According to a 1969 study, there is a decrease in sperm concentration as men age. The study reported that 90% ofseminiferous tubulesin men in their 20s and 30s containedspermatids, whereas men in their 40s and 50s had spermatids in 50% of their seminiferous tubules. In the study, only 10% of seminiferous tubules from men aged > 80 years contained spermatids.In a random international sample of 11,548 men confirmed to be biological fathers by DNA paternity testing, the oldest father was found to be 66 years old at the birth of his child; the ratio of DNA-confirmed versus DNA-rejected paternity tests around that age is in agreement with the notion of general male infertility greater than age 65–66. List of claims See also References External links", "Ramjit Raghav Ramjit Raghav(1916 – 11 February 2020) was an Indian man who was claimed by various media outlets as theworld's oldest father. He resided inHaryanawith his wife. He claimed to have had his first child with his wife at age 94. He fathered a second child at age 96. Avegetarianwho claimed to engage in sexual intercourse around three times a day, Raghav was chosen to be an ambassador forPeople for the Ethical Treatment of Animals(PETA) in November 2012. Biography Ramjit Raghav was born in India in 1916. In his younger days, he worked as aprofessional wrestler. Later, he switched to farming. Raghav was a strict vegetarian, living predominantly on milk, almonds and butter, and credits vegetarianism for his longevity and clean bill of health. He was quoted byThe Telegraphas saying: I have been a vegetarian all my life, and I credit my stamina and virility to my diet of vegetables and grains. Being a vegetarian is the secret to my strength and good health. In 2010, at the supposed age of 94, Raghav", "age of 94, Raghav claimed to have become the world's oldest father when his wife, then aged 49, gave birth to a son, whom the couple named Bikramjeet. In November 2012,PETAselected Raghav to be one of its international ambassadors. He was featured in a PETA awareness-raising advertisement with the slogan \"Vegetarians Still Got It at the Age of 96\". In 2012, when Raghav claimed to have been 96, his 52-year-old spouse allegedly gave birth to another son, named Ranjeet.Raghav stated that the couple would not have a third child, as they were experiencing financial troubles. He also announced that his wife would be undergoingtubal ligationto avoid the possibility of an accidental pregnancy. Raghav died in a fire at his home in February 2020 at the age of 104. Oldest fathers: medical considerations The website of the world record authorityGuinness World Recordslists the oldest father ever as Australian Les Colley (1898-1998), who allegedly fathered his ninth child at age 92 with a Fijian woman he met through a", "he met through a dating agency.In contrast, in a random international sample of 11,548 men confirmed to be biological fathers by DNA paternity testing, the oldest father was found to be just 66 years old at the birth of his child.Regarding Raghav's case, an Indian hospital worker stated, \"Having babies at such an age is a remote possibility, but it just needs one sperm to fertilise an egg.\" References", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Chris_Benoit (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9384caf0>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Professional_wrestling (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9422d210>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))" ]
What is the famous novel by the wife of the 19th-century poet who wrote about an Egyptian pharaoh who reigned sometime between 1290 and 1200 B.C.?
Frankenstein
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pharaohs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seti_I
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptah
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenmesse
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley
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Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pharaohs', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seti_I', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptah', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenmesse', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pharaohs", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seti_I", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptah", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenmesse", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley" ]
[ "List of pharaohs The title \"pharaoh\" is used for those rulers ofAncient Egyptwho ruled after the unification ofUpperandLower EgyptbyNarmerduring theEarly Dynastic Period, approximately 3100 BC. However, the specific title was not used to address the kings of Egypt by their contemporaries until theNew Kingdom's18th Dynasty, c. 1400 BC. Along with the title pharaoh for later rulers, there was anAncient Egyptian royal titularyused by Egyptian kings which remained relatively constant during the course of Ancient Egyptian history, initially featuring aHorus name, aSedge and Bee(nswt-bjtj) name and a Two Ladies (nbtj) name, with the additional Golden Horus, nomen and prenomen titles being added successively during later dynasties. Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by theKingdom of Kushin the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the traditional pharaonic titulature for themselves. Following the Kushite conquest, Egypt experienced another period of independent native rule before being conquered by theAchaemenid Empire, whose rulers also adopted the title of pharaoh. The last native pharaoh of Egypt wasNectanebo II, who was pharaoh before the Achaemenids conquered Egypt for a second time. Achaemenid rule over Egypt came to an end through theconquestsofAlexander the Greatin 332 BC, after which it was ruled byHellenicPharaohs of thePtolemaic Dynasty. Their rule, and the independence of Egypt, came to an end when Egypt became a province ofRomein 30 BC.Augustusand subsequentRoman emperorswerestyled as Pharaohwhen in Egypt until the reign ofMaximinus Dazain 314 AD. The dates given in thislist of pharaohsare approximate. They are based primarily on theconventional chronology of Ancient Egypt, mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universitiesdatabase developed by thePetrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, but alternative dates taken from other authorities may be indicated separately. Ancient Egyptian king lists Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records and, including Ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, such asManetho'sAegyptiaca, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution in regard to the credibility, exactitude and completeness of these sources, many of which were written long after the reigns they report.An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another and/or selective. The following ancient king lists are known (along with the dynasty under which they were created): Predynastic Period ThePredynastic Periodends around 3100 BC when Egypt was first unified as a single kingdom. Lower Egypt Lower Egyptgeographically consists of the northernNileand theNile delta. The following list may be incomplete: Upper Egypt Upper Egyptrefers to the region up-river to the south ofLower Egypt. Regrouped here are predynastic rulers ofUpper Egyptbelonging to the lateNaqada IIIperiod, sometimes informally described as Dynasty 0: Predynastic rulers: Dynasty 0 Since these kings precede the First Dynasty, they have been informally grouped as \"Dynasty 0\". The following list of predynastic rulers may be incomplete: Early Dynastic Period TheEarly Dynastic Periodof Egypt stretches from around 3100 to 2686 BC. First Dynasty TheFirst Dynastyruled from around 3100 to 2890 BC. Known for his ominousnebwy-title. First Egyptian ruler with a fully developedNebty name. His complete reign is preserved on the Cairo Stone. Many stone vessels of his predecessor were found reinscribed for Semerkhet so he may have been a usurper. Ruled very long, his tomb is the last one with subsidiary tombs. Second Dynasty TheSecond Dynastyruled from 2890 to 2686 BC. First ruler who uses the sun-symbol in his royal name, could be identical to kingWeneg. May have dividedEgyptbetween his successors, allegedly allowed women to rule like pharaohs. Could be an independent ruler succeeding Nynetjer or the same as Peribsen,Sekhemib-Perenmaat, or Raneb. May have been a misinterpretation of the hieroglyphic sign of a flower called Weneg. May have been a crown prince or be the same person asWeneg-Nebty. Possibly the same person asPeribsen. This, however, is highly disputed. Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. Old Kingdom legends claim that this ruler savedEgyptfrom a long-lasting drought. It is probable that whenKhasekhemacceded kingship he was a ruler ofupper Egypt, he led campaigns againstlower Egyptthat ended in his victory, to commemorate his achievement of reunifying Egypt he changed his name to Khasekhemwy.His serekh name is unique for presenting bothHorusandSet. He was one of Egypt's first master builders, his funerary enclosure known asShunet-ez-Zebibis a colossal mudbrick structure. Old Kingdom TheOld Kingdom of Egyptis the long period of stability and growth following theEarly Dynastic Periodand preceding the troubledFirst Intermediate Period. The kingdom spanned from 2686 to 2181 BC. Third Dynasty TheThird Dynastyruled from 2686 to 2613 BC. Commissioned thefirst PyramidinEgypt, created by chief architect and scribeImhotep. In the necropolis of his unfinishedstep pyramid, the remains of a 2-year old infant were found. Could be the same asQahedjetorKhaba. Possibly built an unfinishedstep pyramidand several cultic pyramids throughoutEgypt. Huni was for a long time credited with the building of the pyramid of Meidum. This, however, is disproved byNew Kingdomgraffiti that praise kingSneferu, not Huni. Fourth Dynasty TheFourth Dynastyruled from 2613 to 2496 BC. Reigned 48 years, giving him enough time to build theMeidum Pyramid, theBent Pyramidand theRed Pyramid. Some scholars believe that he was buried in the Red Pyramid. For a long time it was thought that theMeidum Pyramidwas not Sneferu's work, but that of kingHuni. Ancient Egyptian documents describe Sneferu as a pious, generous and even accostable ruler. Built theGreat Pyramid of Giza. Khufu is depicted as a cruel tyrant by ancient Greek authors; Ancient Egyptian sources however describe him as a generous and pious ruler. He is the main protagonist in theWestcar Papyrus. The first imprinted papyri originate from Khufu's reign, which may have made ancient Greek authors believe that Khufu wrote books in attempt to praise the gods. Some scholars believe he created theGreat Sphinx of Gizaas a monument for his deceased father. He also created a pyramid atAbu Rawash. However, this pyramid is no longer extant; it is believed the Romans re-purposed the materials from which it was made. His pyramidis the second largest inGiza. Some scholars prefer him as the creator of theGreat Sphinxbefore Djedefra. His funerary complex was the largest at the Giza plateau. Could be the owner of theUnfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet el'Aryan. Possibly fictional. His pyramid is the third and smallest inGiza. A legend claims that his only daughter died due to an illness and Menkaura buried her in a golden coffin in the shape of a cow. Owner of theMastabat el-Fara'un. Fifth Dynasty TheFifth Dynastyruled from 2496 to 2345 BC. Sixth Dynasty TheSixth Dynastyruled from 2345 to 2181 BC. First Intermediate Period TheFirst Intermediate Period(2183–2060 BC) is a period of disarray and chaos between the end of theOld Kingdomand the advent of theMiddle Kingdom. TheOld Kingdomrapidly collapsed after the death ofPepi II. He had reigned for more than 64 and likely up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. The union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the resultingfamine. The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After 20 to 45 years, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based inHerakleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based atThebesrevolted against their nominal Northern overlords and unitedUpper Egypt. Around 2055 BC,Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of pharaohIntef IIIdefeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom. Seventh and Eighth Dynasties TheSeventh and Eighth Dynastiesruled for approximately 20–45 years. They comprise numerous ephemeral kings reigning fromMemphisover a possibly divided Egypt and, in any case, holding only limited power owing to the effectively feudal system into which the administration had evolved. The list below is based on theAbydos King Listdating to the reign ofSeti Iand taken fromJürgen von Beckerath'sHandbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamenas well as fromKim Ryholt's latest reconstruction of theTurin canon, another king list dating to theRamesside Era. Ninth Dynasty TheNinth Dynastyruled from 2160 to 2130 BC. TheTurin King Listhas 18 kings reigning in the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties. Of these, twelve names are missing and four are partial. Tenth Dynasty TheTenth Dynastywas a local group that held sway overLower Egyptand ruled from 2130 to 2040 BC. Eleventh Dynasty TheEleventh Dynastyoriginated from a group of Theban nomarchs serving kings of the 8th, 9th or 10th dynasty with roots inUpper Egyptthat ruled from 2134 to 1991 BC. The successors ofIntef the Elder, starting withMentuhotep I, became independent from their northern overlords and eventually conquered Egypt underMentuhotep II. Middle Kingdom TheMiddle Kingdom of Egypt(2040–1802 BC) is the period from the end of theFirst Intermediate Periodto the beginning of theSecond Intermediate Period. In addition to theTwelfth Dynasty, some scholars include theEleventh,ThirteenthandFourteenth Dynastiesin the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom can be noted for the expansion of trade outside of the kingdom that occurred during this time. Eleventh Dynasty cont. The second part of theEleventh Dynastyis usually considered to be the beginning of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Enigmatic kings, only attested in Lower Nubia: Twelfth Dynasty TheTwelfth Dynastyruled from 1991 to 1802 BC. The position of a possible additional ruler,Seankhibtawy Seankhibra, is uncertain. He may be an ephemeral king, or a name variant of a king of the 12th or 13th Dynasty. Second Intermediate Period TheSecond Intermediate Period(1802–1550 BC) is a period of disarray between the end of theMiddle Kingdom, and the start of theNew Kingdom. It is best known as when theHyksos, whose reign comprised theFifteenth Dynasty, made their appearance in Egypt. TheThirteenth Dynastywas much weaker than theTwelfth Dynasty, and was unable to hold onto the two lands of Egypt. Either at the start of the dynasty, c. 1805 BC or toward the middle of it in c. 1710 BC, the provincial ruling family inXois, located in the marshes of the eastern Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the CanaaniteFourteenth Dynasty. The Hyksos made their first appearance during the reign ofSobekhotep IV, and around 1720 BC took control of the town ofAvaris(the modernTell el-Dab'a/Khata'na), conquering the kingdom of the 14th dynasty. Sometime around 1650 BC the Hyksos, perhaps led bySalitisthe founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, conqueredMemphis, thereby terminating the 13th dynasty. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt resulting from the collapse of the 13th dynasty allowed the 16th dynasty to declare its independence inThebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos kings shortly thereafter. Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes set itself up as theSeventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia underSeqenenre Tao,Kamoseand finallyAhmose, first pharaoh of the New Kingdom. Thirteenth Dynasty TheThirteenth Dynasty(following theTurin King List) ruled from 1802 to around 1649 BC and lasted 153 or 154 years according to Manetho. This table should be contrasted withKnown kings of the 13th Dynasty: The position of the following kings is uncertain: Fourteenth Dynasty TheFourteenth Dynastywas a local group from the eastern Delta, based atAvaris,that ruled from either 1805 BC or around 1710 BC until around 1650 BC. Some of the contested rulers of the 14th Dynasty (proposed by Kim Ryholt) are commonly identified by Egyptologists as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent, owing to the distinct origins of the names of some of their kings and princes. However, the dynasty rulers are not referred to as Hyksos in the Turin kings list.It is here given according to Ryholt; however, this reconstruction of the dynasty is heavily debated with the position of the five kings preceding Nehesy highly disputed. The position and identity of the following pharaohs is uncertain: TheTurin King Listprovides additional names, none of which are attested beyond the list. Fifteenth Dynasty TheFifteenth Dynastyarose from among theHyksospeople who emerged from theFertile Crescentto establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region, and ruled from 1674 to 1535 BC. Abydos Dynasty The Second Intermediate Period may include an independentdynasty reigning over Abydosfrom around 1650 BC until 1600 BC. Four attested kings may be tentatively attributed to the Abydos Dynasty, and they are given here without regard for their (unknown) chronological order: Sixteenth Dynasty TheSixteenth Dynastywas a nativeThebandynasty emerging from the collapse of the Memphis-based 13th dynasty around 1650 BC. They were finally conquered by the Hyksos 15th dynasty around 1580 BC. The 16th dynasty held sway over Upper Egypt only. The 16th Dynasty may also have comprised the reigns of pharaohsSneferankhre Pepi IIIandNebmaatre. Their chronological position is uncertain. Seventeenth Dynasty TheSeventeenth Dynastywas based inUpper Egyptand ruled from 1650 to 1550 BC: The early 17th Dynasty may also have included the reign of a pharaohNebmaatre, whose chronological position is uncertain. New Kingdom TheNew Kingdom(1550–1077 BC) is the period covering theEighteenth,Nineteenth, andTwentieth dynasty of Egypt, from the 16th to the 11th century BC, between theSecond Intermediate Period, and theThird Intermediate Period. Through military dominance abroad, the New Kingdom saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. It expanded far intoNubiain the south, and held wide territories in theNear East. Egyptian armies fought withHittitearmies for control of modern-daySyria. Three of the best known pharaohs of the New Kingdom areAkhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, whose exclusive worship of theAtenis often interpreted as the first instance ofmonotheism,Tutankhamunknown for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, andRamesses IIwho attempted to recover the territories in modernIsrael/Palestine,LebanonandSyriathat had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to theBattle of Qadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the army of the Hittite kingMuwatalli II. Eighteenth Dynasty TheEighteenth Dynastyruled from c. 1550 to 1292 BC: Nineteenth Dynasty TheNineteenth Dynastyruled from 1292 to 1186 BC and includes one of the greatest pharaohs:Ramesses IIthe Great. Twentieth Dynasty TheTwentieth Dynastyruled from 1190 to 1077 BC: Third Intermediate Period TheThird Intermediate Period(1077–664 BC) marked the end of theNew Kingdomafter the collapse of the Egyptian empire at the end of theBronze Age. Two dynasties ofLibyanorigin ruled, giving this period its alternative name of the Libyan Period. Twenty-First Dynasty TheTwenty-First Dynastywas based atTanisand was a relatively weak group. Theoretically, they were rulers of all Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt. They ruled from 1077 to 943 BC. Theban High Priests of Amun Though not officially pharaohs, theHigh Priests of Amun at Thebeswere thede factorulers ofUpper Egyptduring theTwenty-first dynasty, writing their names incartouchesand being buried in royal tombs. Twenty-Second Dynasty The pharaohs of theTwenty-Second DynastywereLibyans, ruling from around 943 to 728 BC. Twenty-Third Dynasty TheTwenty-Third Dynastywas a local group, again ofLibyanorigin, based atHerakleopolisand Thebes that ruled from 837 to c. 735 BC. Rudamun was succeeded inThebesby a local ruler: Twenty-Fourth Dynasty TheTwenty-fourth Dynastywas a short-lived rival dynasty located in the western Delta (Sais), with only two pharaohs ruling from 732 to 720 BC. Twenty-Fifth Dynasty Nubiansinvaded Lower Egypt and took the throne of Egypt underPiyealthough they already controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt in the early years of Piye's reign. Piye's conquest of Lower Egypt established theTwenty-fifth Dynastywhich ruled until 656 BC. They were ultimately driven back into Nubia, where they established a kingdom atNapata(656–590), and, later, atMeroë(590 BC – AD 500). Late Period TheLate Periodruns from around 664 to 332 BC, and includes periods of rule by nativeEgyptiansandPersians. Twenty-Sixth Dynasty TheTwenty-sixth Dynastyruled from around 664 to 525 BC. The son and successor of Nekau I,Psamtik I, managed to reunify Egypt and is generally regarded as the founder of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Twenty-Seventh Dynasty Egypt was conquered by thePersian Empirein 525 BC by kingCambyses II, the son ofCyrus the Great, and remained Persiansatrapyfor more than one hundred years until regaining independence in 404 BC. TheAchaemenidkingswere acknowledged as Pharaohs in this era, forming the27th Dynasty: Several native rebellions took place during the 27th dynasty: Twenty-Eighth Dynasty TheTwenty-eighth Dynastylasted only 6 years, from 404 to 398 BC, with one pharaoh: Twenty-Ninth Dynasty TheTwenty-ninth Dynastyruled from 398 to 380 BC: Thirtieth Dynasty TheThirtieth Dynastyruled from 379/8 until Egypt once more came under Persian rulec.340 BC: Thirty-First Dynasty Egypt again came under the control of theAchaemenidPersians. After the practice ofManetho, the Persian rulers from 340 to 332 BC are occasionally designated as theThirty-first Dynasty: Native rebellions again took place during the 31st dynasty: Hellenistic period Argead Dynasty TheMacedonian GreeksunderAlexander the Greatushered in theHellenisticperiod with his conquest of Persia and Egypt. TheArgeadsruled from 332 to 309 BC: Ptolemaic Dynasty The secondHellenisticdynasty, thePtolemies, ruled Egypt from 305 BC until Egypt became a province ofRomein 30 BC (whenever two dates overlap, that means there was a co-regency). The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, in modern times known simply asCleopatra, who was successively the consort ofJulius Caesarand, after Caesar's death, ofMark Antony, having children with both of them. Cleopatra strove to create a dynastic and political union between Egypt and Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Mark Antony doomed her plans. Caesarion(Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar) was the last king of thePtolemaic Dynastyof Egypt, and he reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from September 2, 47 BC. He was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII, and possibly the only son ofJulius Caesar, after whom he was named. Between the alleged death of Cleopatra, on August 12, 30 BC, up to his own alleged death on August 23, 30 BC, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. It is tradition that he was hunted down and killed on the orders of Octavian, who would become theRoman emperorAugustus, but the historical evidence does not exist. 163 – c. July 145 BC and 163–127 BC and 124–116 BC and 144–131 BC and 127–116 BC and 127–107 BC and 88-81 BC and 107-88 BC and 55–51 BC Native rebellions also took place under Greek rule: Rome Cleopatra VIIhadaffairswith Roman dictatorJulius Caesarand Roman generalMark Antony, but it was not until after her suicide (after Mark Antony was defeated byOctavian, who would later be EmperorAugustus Caesar) that Egypt became a province of theRoman Republicin 30 BC. Subsequent Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh, although exclusively only while in Egypt. The last Roman emperor to be conferred the title of pharaoh wasMaximinus Daza(reigned 311–313 AD). See also References Further reading External links", "Seti I Menmaatre Seti I(orSethos IinGreek) was the secondpharaohof theNineteenth Dynasty of Egyptduring theNew Kingdomperiod, rulingc.1294or 1290 BC to 1279 BC.He was the son ofRamesses IandSitre, and the father ofRamesses II. The name 'Seti' means \"of Set\", which indicates that he was consecrated to the godSet(also termed \"Sutekh\" or \"Seth\"). As with most pharaohs, Seti had several names. Upon his ascension, he took theprenomen\"mn-m3't-r' \", usually vocalized in Egyptian asMenmaatre(Established is the Justice of Re).His better knownnomen, or birth name, is transliterated as \"sty mry-n-ptḥ\"orSety Merenptah, meaning \"Man of Set, beloved ofPtah\".Manethoincorrectly considered him to be the founder of the 19th Dynasty, and gave him a reign length of 55 years, though no evidence has ever been found for so long a reign. Reign Background After the enormous social upheavals generated byAkhenaten'sreligious reform,Horemheb,Ramesses Iand Seti I's main priority was to re-establish order in the kingdom and to reaffirm Egypt's sovereignty overCanaanandSyria, which had been compromised by the increasing external pressures from theHittitestate. Seti, with energy and determination, confronted the Hittites several times in battle. Without succeeding in destroying the Hittites as a potential danger to Egypt, he reconquered most of the disputed territories for Egypt and generally concluded his military campaigns with victories. The memory of Seti I's military successes was recorded in some large scenes placed on the front of the temple ofAmun, situated inKarnak. Afunerary templefor Seti was constructed in what is now known asQurna(Mortuary Temple of Seti I), on the west bank of theNileatThebeswhile a magnificent temple made of white limestone atAbydosfeaturing exquisite relief scenes was started by Seti, and later completed by his son. His capital was atMemphis. He was considered a great king by his peers, but his fame has been overshadowed since ancient times by that of his son, Ramesses II. Reign Length Seti I's known accession date is known to be on III Shemu day 24.Seti I's reign length was either 9 or 11 rather than 15 full years. EgyptologistKenneth Kitchenhas estimated that it was 15 years, but there are no dates recorded for Seti I after his Year 11 Gebel Barkalstela. As this king is otherwise quite well documented in historical records, other scholars suggest that a continuous break in the record for his last four years is unlikely, although it is technically possible simply that no records have been yet discovered. Peter J. Brandnoted that the king personally opened new rock quarries atAswanto build obelisks and colossal statues in his Year 9.This event is commemorated on two rock stelas in Aswan. However, most of Seti's obelisks and statues such as theFlaminianandLuxorobelisks were only partly finished or decorated by the time of his death, since they were completed early under his son's reign based on epigraphic evidence (they bore the early form of Ramesses II's royal prenomen \"Usermaatre\"). Ramesses II used the prenomen Usermaatre to refer to himself in his first year and did not adopt the final form of his royal title \"Usermaatre Setepenre\" until late into his second year. Brand aptly notes that this evidence calls into question the idea of a 15 Year reign for Seti I and suggests that \"Seti died after a ten to eleven year reign\" because only two years would have passed between the opening of the Rock Quarries and the partial completion and decoration of these monuments.This explanation conforms better with the evidence of the unfinished state of Seti I's monuments and the fact thatRamesses IIhad to complete the decorations on \"many of his father's unfinished monuments, including the southern half of theGreat Hypostyle HallatKarnakand portions of his father's temples at Gurnah and Abydos\" during the very first Year of his own reign.Critically, Brand notes that the larger of the two Aswan rock stelas states that Seti I \"has ordered the commissioning of multitudinous works for the making of very great obelisks and great and wondrous statues (i.e. colossi) in the name of His Majesty,L.P.H.He made great barges for transporting them, and ships crews to match them for ferrying them from the quarry.\" (KRI 74:12-14)However, despite this promise, Brand stresses that there are few obelisks and apparently no colossi inscribed for Seti. Ramesses II, however, was able to complete the two obelisks and four seated colossi from Luxor within the first years of his reign, the two obelisks in particular being partly inscribed before he adopted the final form of his prenomen sometime in year two. This state of affairs strongly implies that Seti died after ten to eleven years. Had he ruled on until his fourteenth or fifteenth year, then surely more of the obelisks and colossi he commissioned in year nine would have been completed, in particular those from Luxor. If he in fact died after little more than a decade on the throne, however, then at most two years would have elapsed since the Aswan quarries were opened in year nine, and only a fraction of the great monoliths would have been complete and inscribed at his death, with others just emerging from the quarries so that Ramesses would be able to decorate them shortly after his accession. ... It now seems clear that a long, fourteen-to fifteen-year reign for Seti I can be rejected for lack of evidence. Rather, a tenure of ten or more likely probably eleven, years appears the most likely scenario. The German EgyptologistJürgen von Beckerathalso accepts that Seti I's reign lasted only 11 Years in a 1997 book.Seti's highest known date is Year 11, IV Shemu day 12 or 13 on a sandstone stela fromGebel Barkalbut he would have briefly survived for 2 to 3 days into his Year 12 before dying based on the date of Ramesses II's rise to power. Seti I's accession date has been determined by Wolfgang Helck to be III Shemu day 24, which is very close to Ramesses II's known accession date of III Shemu day 27. More recently, in 2011, the Dutch EgyptologistJacobus Van Dijkquestioned the \"Year 11\" date stated in the great temple ofAmunon theGebel Barkalstela—Seti I's previously known highest attested date.This monument is quite badly preserved but still depicts Seti I in erect posture, which is the only case occurring since his Year 4 when he started to be depicted in a stooping posture on his stelae. Furthermore, the glyphs \"I ∩\" representing the 11 are damaged in the upper part and may just as well be \"I I I\" instead. Subsequently, Van Dijk proposed that the Gebel Barkal stela should be dated to Year 3 of Seti I, and that Seti's highest date more likely is Year 9 as suggested by the wine jars found in his tomb.In a 2012 paper,David Astonanalyzed the wine jars and came to the same conclusion since no wine labels higher than Seti I's 8th regnal year were found in hisKV17tomb. Military campaigns Seti I fought a series of wars in western Asia, Libya and Nubia in the first decade of his reign. The main source for Seti's military activities are his battle scenes on the north exterior wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall, along with several royal stelas with inscriptions mentioning battles in Canaan and Nubia. In his first regnal year, he led his armies along the \"Horus Military road\", the coastal road that led from the Egyptian city ofTjaru(Zarw/Sile) in the northeast corner of the Egyptian Nile Delta along the northern coast of the Sinai peninsula ending in the town of \"Canaan\" in the modern Gaza strip. The Ways of Horus consisted of a series of military forts, each with a well, that are depicted in detail in the king's war scenes on the north wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall. While crossing the Sinai, the king's army fought local Bedouins called theShasu. In Canaan, he received the tribute of some of the city states he visited. Others, includingBeth-ShanandYenoam, had to be captured but were easily defeated. A stele in Beth-Shan testifies to that reconquest; according to Grdsseloff, Rowe, Albrecht et Albright,Seti defeated Asian nomads in war against the Apirus (Hebrews). Dussaud commented Albright's article: \"The interest of Professor Albright's note is mainly due to the fact that he no longer objects to the identification of \"Apiru\" with \"Ibri\" (i.e. the Hebrews) provided that we grant him that the vocal change has been driven by a popular etymology that brought the term \"eber\" (formerly 'ibr), that is to say the man from beyond the river.\"It seems that Egypt extends beyond the river. The attack on Yenoam is illustrated in his war scenes, while other battles, such as the defeat of Beth-Shan, were not shown because the king himself did not participate, sending a division of his army instead. The year one campaign continued into Lebanon where the king received the submission of its chiefs who were compelled to cut down valuable cedar wood themselves as tribute. At some unknown point in his reign, Seti I defeated Libyan tribesmen who had invaded Egypt's western border. Although defeated, the Libyans would pose an ever-increasing threat to Egypt during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III. The Egyptian army also put down a minor \"rebellion\" in Nubia in the 8th year of Seti I. Seti himself did not participate in it although his crown prince, the future Ramesses II, may have. Capture of Kadesh The greatest achievement of Seti I's foreign policy was the capture of theSyriantown ofKadeshand neighboring territory ofAmurrufrom the Hittite Empire. Egypt had not held Kadesh since the time ofAkhenaten. Seti I was successful in defeating a Hittite army that tried to defend the town. He entered the city in triumph together with his sonRamesses IIand erected a victory stela at the site which has been found by archaeologists.Kadesh, however, soon reverted to Hittite control because the Egyptians did not or could not maintain a permanent military occupation of Kadesh and Amurru so close to the Hittite homelands. It is unlikely that Seti I made a peace treaty with the Hittites or voluntarily returned Kadesh and Amurru, but he may have reached an informal understanding with the Hittite kingMuwatallion the precise boundaries of their empires. Five years after Seti I's death, however, his sonRamesses IIresumed hostilities and made a failed attempt torecapture Kadesh. Kadesh was henceforth effectively held by the Hittites even though Ramesses temporarily occupied the city in his 8th year. The traditional view of Seti I's wars was that he restored the Egyptian empire after it had been lost in the time of Akhenaten. This was based on the chaotic picture of Egyptian-controlled Syria and Palestine seen in theAmarna letters, a cache of diplomatic correspondence from the time of Akhenaten found at Akhenaten's capital at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt. Recent scholarship, however, indicates that the empire was not lost at this time, except for its northern border provinces of Kadesh and Amurru in Syria and Lebanon. While evidence for the military activities of Akhenaten, Tutankhamun and Horemheb is fragmentary or ambiguous, Seti I has left us an impressive war monument that glorifies his achievements, along with a number of texts, all of which tend to magnify his prowess on the battlefield. Burial Mummy From an examination of Seti's extremely well-preserved mummy, Seti I appears to have been less than forty years old when he died unexpectedly. This is in stark contrast to the situation withHoremheb, Ramesses I and Ramesses II who all lived to an advanced age. The reasons for his relatively early death are uncertain, but there is no evidence of violence on his mummy. His mummy was found decapitated, but this was likely caused by tomb robbers after his death. The Amun priest carefully reattached his head to his body with the use of linen cloths. It has been suggested that he died from a disease which had affected him for years, possibly related to his heart. The latter was found placed in the right part of the body, while the usual practice of the day was to place it in the left part during the mummification process. Opinions vary whether this was a mistake or an attempt to have Seti's heart work better in his afterlife. Seti I's mummy is about 1.7 metres (5 feet 7 inches) tall. In April 2021 his mummy was moved from theMuseum of Egyptian Antiquitiesto theNational Museum of Egyptian Civilizationalong with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed thePharaohs' Golden Parade. Tomb Seti's well-preserved tomb (KV17) was found in 1817 byGiovanni Battista Belzoni, in theValley of the Kings;it proved to be the longest at 446 feet (136 meters)and deepest of all the New Kingdom royal tombs. It was also the first tomb to feature decorations (including theBook of the Heavenly Cow)on every passageway and chamber with highly refined bas-reliefs and colorful paintings – fragments of which, including a large column depicting Seti I with the goddessHathor, can be seen in theNational Archaeological Museum, Florence. This decorative style set a precedent which was followed in full or in part in the tombs of later New Kingdom kings. Seti'smummyitself was discovered by Émil Brugsch on June 6, 1881, in the mummy cache (tombDB320) atDeir el-Bahriand has since been kept at theEgyptian Museumin Cairo. His hugesarcophagus, carved in one piece and intricately decorated on every surface (including the goddessNuton the interior base), is inSir John Soane's Museum.Soane bought it for exhibition in his open collection in 1824, when theBritish Museumrefused to pay the £2,000 demanded.On its arrival at the museum, the alabaster was pure white and inlaid with bluecopper sulphate. Years of the London climate and pollution have darkened the alabaster to a buff colour and absorbed moisture has caused thehygroscopicinlay material to fall out and disappear completely. A small watercolour nearby records the appearance, as it was. The tomb also had an entrance to a secret tunnel hidden behind the sarcophagus, which Belzoni's team estimated to be 100 meters (330 feet) long.However, the tunnel was not truly excavated until 1961, when a team led by Sheikh Ali Abdel-Rasoul began digging in hopes of discovering a secret burial chamber containing hidden treasures.The team failed to follow the original passage in their excavations, and had to call a halt due to instabilities in the tunnel;further issues with permits and finances eventually ended Sheikh Ali's dreams of treasure,though they were at least able to establish that the passage was over 30 meters (98 feet) longer than the original estimate. In June 2010, a team from Egypt'sMinistry of Antiquitiesled byDr. Zahi Hawasscompleted excavation of the tunnel, which had begun again after the discovery in 2007 of a downward-sloping passage beginning approximately 136 meters (446 feet) into the previously excavated tunnel. After uncovering two separate staircases, they found that the tunnel ran for 174 meters (571 feet) in total; unfortunately, the last step seemed to have been abandoned prior to completion and no secret burial chamber was found. Alleged co-regency with Ramesses II Around Year 9 of his reign, Seti appointed his sonRamesses IIas the crown prince and his chosen successor, but the evidence for acoregencybetween the two kings is likely illusory.Peter J. Brandstresses in his thesisthat relief decorations at various temple sites atKarnak,Qurnaand Abydos, which associate Ramesses II with Seti I, were actually carved after Seti's death by Ramesses II himself and, hence, cannot be used as source material to support a co-regency between the two monarchs. In addition, the late William Murnane, who first endorsed the theory of a co-regency between Seti I and Ramesses II,later revised his view of the proposed co-regency and rejected the idea that Ramesses II had begun to count his own regnal years while Seti I was still alive.Finally,Kenneth Kitchenrejects the term co-regency to describe the relationship between Seti I and Ramesses II; he describes the earliest phase of Ramesses II's career as a \"prince regency\" where the young Ramesses enjoyed all the trappings of royalty including the use of a royal titulary andharembut did not count his regnal years until after his father's death.This is due to the fact that the evidence for a co-regency between the two kings is vague and highly ambiguous. Two important inscriptions from the first decade of Ramesses' reign, namely the Abydos Dedicatory Inscription and the Kuban Stela of Ramesses II, consistently give the latter titles associated with those of a crown prince only, namely the \"king's eldest son and hereditary prince\" or \"child-heir\" to the throne \"along with some military titles.\" Hence, no clear evidence supports the hypothesis that Ramesses II was a co-regent under his father. Brand stresses that: Ramesses' claim that he was crowned king by Seti, even as a child in his arms , is highly self-serving and open to question although his description of his role as crown prince is more accurate...The most reliable and concrete portion of this statement is the enumeration of Ramesses' titles as eldest king's son and heir apparent, well attested in sources contemporary with Seti's reign. See also References Bibliography External links (Shamshi-Adaddynasty1808–1736 BCE)(Amorites)Shamshi-Adad IIshme-Dagan IMut-AshkurRimushAsinumAshur-dugulAshur-apla-idiNasir-SinSin-namirIpqi-IshtarAdad-saluluAdasi(Non-dynastic usurpers1735–1701 BCE)Puzur-SinAshur-dugulAshur-apla-idiNasir-SinSin-namirIpqi-IshtarAdad-saluluAdasi(Adaside dynasty1700–722 BCE)Bel-baniLibayaSharma-Adad IIptar-SinBazayaLullayaShu-NinuaSharma-Adad IIErishum IIIShamshi-Adad IIIshme-Dagan IIShamshi-Adad IIIAshur-nirari IPuzur-Ashur IIIEnlil-nasir INur-iliAshur-shaduniAshur-rabi IAshur-nadin-ahhe IEnlil-Nasir IIAshur-nirari IIAshur-bel-nisheshuAshur-rim-nisheshuAshur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate PeriodSixteenthDynastyAbydosDynastySeventeenthDynasty (1500–1100 BCE)Kidinuid dynastyIgehalkid dynastyUntash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of EgyptSmendesAmenemnisuPsusennes IAmenemopeOsorkon the ElderSiamunPsusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of EgyptHarsiese ATakelot IIPedubast IShoshenq VIOsorkon IIITakelot IIIRudamunMenkheperre IniTwenty-fourth Dynasty of EgyptTefnakhtBakenranef (Sargonid dynasty)Tiglath-Pileser†Shalmaneser†Marduk-apla-iddina IISargon†Sennacherib†Marduk-zakir-shumi IIMarduk-apla-iddina IIBel-ibniAshur-nadin-shumi†Nergal-ushezibMushezib-MardukEsarhaddon†AshurbanipalAshur-etil-ilaniSinsharishkunSin-shumu-lishirAshur-uballit II", "Ramesses II Ramesses II(/ˈræməsiːz,ˈræmsiːz,ˈræmziːz/;Ancient Egyptian:rꜥ-ms-sw,Rīꜥa-masē-sə,Ancient Egyptian pronunciation:;c.1303 BC – 1213 BC),commonly known asRamesses the Great, was anEgyptian pharaoh. He was the third ruler of theNineteenth Dynasty. Along withThutmose IIIof theEighteenth Dynasty, he is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of theNew Kingdom, which itself was the most powerful period ofancient Egypt.He is also widely considered one of ancient Egypt's most successful warrior pharaohs, conducting no fewer than 15 military campaigns, all resulting in victories, excluding theBattle of Kadesh, generally considered a stalemate. Inancient Greek sources, he is calledOzymandias,derived from the first part of his Egyptian-language regnal name:UsermaatreSetepenre.Ramesses was also referred to as the \"Great Ancestor\" by successor pharaohs and the Egyptian people. For the early part of his reign, he focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. After establishing the city ofPi-Ramessesin theNile Delta, he designated it as Egypt's new capital and used it as the main staging point for his campaigns inSyria. Ramesses led several military expeditions into theLevant, where he reasserted Egyptian control overCanaanandPhoenicia; he also led a number of expeditions intoNubia, all commemorated in inscriptions atBeit el-WaliandGerf Hussein. He celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteenSed festivals—more than any other pharaoh. Estimates of his age at death vary, although 90 or 91 is considered to be the most likely figure.Upon his death, he was buried in a tomb (KV7) in theValley of the Kings;his body was later moved to theRoyal Cache, where it was discovered by archaeologists in 1881. Ramesses'mummyis now on display at theNational Museum of Egyptian Civilization, located in the city ofCairo. Early life Ramesses II was not born a prince. His grandfatherRamesses Iwas a vizier and military officer during the reign of pharaohHoremheb, who appointed Ramesses I as his successor; at that time, Ramesses II was about eleven years old. After Ramesses I died, his son,Seti Ibecame king, and designated his son Ramesses II as prince regent at about the age of fourteen. Reign length Ramesses date of accession to the throne is recorded as IIIShemu, day 27, which mostEgyptologistsbelieve to be 31 May 1279 BC. The Jewish historianJosephus, in his bookContra Apionemwhich included material fromManetho'sAegyptiaca, assigned Ramesses II (\"Armesses Miamun\") a reign of 66 years, 2 months.This is essentially confirmed by the calendar of PapyrusGurobfragment L, where Year 67, IAkhetday 18 of Ramesses II is immediately followed by Year 1, IIAkhetday 19 ofMerneptah(Ramesses II's son), meaning Ramesses II died about 2 months into his 67th Regnal year. In 1994, A. J. Peden proposed that Ramesses II died between II Akhet day 3 and II Akhet day 13 on the basis of Theban graffito 854+855, equated to Merneptah's Year 1 II Akhet day 2.The workman's village ofDeir el-Medinapreserves a fragment of a mid-20th dynasty necropolis journal (P. Turin prov. nr. 8538 recto I, 5; unpublished) which records that the date II Akhet day 6 was a Free feast day for the \"Sailing of UsimaRe-Setepenre.\" (for Ramesses II).As the Egyptologist Robert J. Demarée notes in a 2016 paper: The date of Ramesses II's recorded death on II Akhet day 6 falls perfectly within A. J. Peden's estimated timeline for the king's death in the interval between II Akhet day 3 and II Akhet day 13. This means that Ramesses II died on Year 67, IIAkhetday 6 of his reign after ruling Egypt for 66 years 2 months and 9 days. Military campaigns Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to restore possession of previously held territories lost to theNubiansandHittitesand to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign inLibya. Though theBattle of Kadeshoften dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over Egypt's enemies. During his reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled some 100,000 men: a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence. Battle against Sherden pirates In his second year, Ramesses II decisively defeated theSherdensea pirates who were wreaking havoc along Egypt's Mediterranean coast by attacking cargo-laden vessels travelling the sea routes toEgypt.The Sherden people probably came from the coast ofIonia, from southwestAnatoliaor perhaps, also from the island ofSardinia.Ramesses posted troops and ships at strategic points along the coast and patiently allowed the pirates to attack their perceived prey before skillfully catching them by surprise in a sea battle and capturing them all in a single action.AstelefromTanisspeaks of their having come \"in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them\". There probably was a naval battle somewhere near the mouth of the Nile, as shortly afterward, many Sherden are seen among the pharaoh's body-guard where they are conspicuous by their horned helmets having a ball projecting from the middle, their round shields, and the greatNaue II swordswith which they are depicted in inscriptions of the Battle of Kadesh.In that sea battle, together with the Sherden, the pharaoh also defeated theLukka(L'kkw, possibly the people later known as theLycians), and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples. Syrian campaigns First Syrian campaign The immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II intoCanaan. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of what became the first of theCommemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalbnear what is nowBeirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering. In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of the Amurru during his campaign in Syria. Second Syrian campaign The Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces ofMuwatalli II. The pharaoh wanted a victory atKadeshboth to expand Egypt's frontiers into Syria, and to emulate his father Seti I's triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier. He also constructed his new capital,Pi-Ramesses. There he built factories to manufacture weapons, chariots, and shields, supposedly producing some 1,000 weapons in a week, about 250 chariots in two weeks, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half. After these preparations, Ramesses moved to attack territory in theLevant, which belonged to a more substantial enemy than any he had ever faced in war: theHittite Empire. After advancing throughCanaanfor exactly a month, according to the Egyptian sources, Ramesses arrived at Kadesh on 1 May, 1274 BC.Here, Ramesses' troops were caught in a Hittite ambush and were initially outnumbered by the enemy, whose chariotry smashed through the second division of Ramesses' forces and attacked his camp. Receiving reinforcements from other Egyptian divisions arriving on the battlefield, the Egyptians counterattacked and routed the Hittites, whose survivors abandoned their chariots and swam theOrontes Riverto reach the safe city walls.Although left in possession of the battlefield, Ramesses, logistically unable to sustain a long siege, returned to Egypt.While Ramesses claimed a great victory, and this was technically true in terms of the actual battle, it is generally considered that the Hittites were the ultimate victors as far as the overall campaign was concerned, since the Egyptians retreated after the battle, and Hittite forces invaded and briefly occupied the Egyptian possessions in the region ofDamascus. Third Syrian campaign Egypt's sphere of influence was now restricted to Canaan whileSyriafell into Hittite hands. Canaanite princes, seemingly encouraged by the Egyptian incapacity to impose their will and goaded on by the Hittites, began revolts against Egypt. Ramesses II was not willing to let this stand, and prepared to contest the Hittite advance with new military campaigns. Because they are recorded on his monuments with few indications of precise dates or the regnal year, the precise chronology of the subsequent campaigns is not clear.Late in the seventh year of his reign (April/May 1272 BC), Ramesses II returned to Syria again. This time he proved more successful against his Hittite foes. During this campaign he split his army into two forces. One force was led by his son,Amun-her-khepeshef, and it chased warriors of theŠhasutribes across theNegevas far as theDead Sea, capturingEdom-Seir. It then marched on to captureMoab. The other force, led by Ramesses himself, attackedJerusalemandJericho. He, too, then entered Moab, where he rejoined his son. The reunited army then marched onHesbon, Damascus, on toKumidi, and finally, recaptured Upi (the land around Damascus), reestablishing Egypt's former sphere of influence. Later Syrian campaigns Ramesses extended his military successes in his eighth and ninth years. He crossed the Dog River (Nahr al-Kalb) and pushed north intoAmurru. His armies managed to march as far north as Dapur,where he had a statue of himself erected. The Egyptian pharaoh thus found himself in northern Amurru, well past Kadesh, inTunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen since the time ofThutmose III, almost 120 years earlier. He laid siege to Dapur before capturing it, and returning to Egypt.By November 1272 BC, Ramesses was back in Egypt, atHeliopolis.His victory in the north proved ephemeral. After having reasserted his power over Canaan, Ramesses led his army north. A mostly illegible stele at the Dog River nearBeirut, (Lebanon), which appears to be dated to the king's second year, was probably set up there in his tenth year (1269 BC).The thin strip of territory pinched between Amurru and Kadesh did not make for a stable possession. Within a year, they had returned to the Hittite fold, so that Ramesses had to march against Dapur once more in his tenth year. This time he claimed to have fought the battle without even bothering to put on hiscorslet, until two hours after the fighting began. Six of Ramesses's youthful sons, still wearing theirside locks, took part in this conquest. He took towns inRetjenu,and Tunip inNaharin,later recorded on the walls of theRamesseum.This second success at the location was equally as meaningless as his first, as neither power could decisively defeat the other in battle.In year eighteen, Ramesses erected a stele atBeth Shean, on 19 January 1261 BC. Peace treaty with the Hittites In Year 21 of Ramesses's reign, he concluded a peace treaty with the Hittites known to modern scholars as theTreaty of Kadesh. Though this treaty settled the disputes over Canaan, its immediate impetus seems to have been a diplomatic crisis that occurred followingḪattušili III's accession to the Hittite throne. Ḫattušili had come to power by deposing his nephewMuršili IIIin the brief and bitterHittite Civil War. Though the deposed king was initially sent into exile in Syria, he subsequently attempted to regain power and fled to Egypt once these attempts were discovered. When Ḫattušili demanded his extradition, Ramesses II denied any knowledge of his wherabouts. When Ḫattušili insisted that Muršili was in Egypt, Ramesses's response suggested that Ḫattušili was being deceived by his subjects.This demand precipitated a crisis, and the two empires came close to war. Eventually, in the twenty-first year of his reign (1259 BC), Ramesses concluded an agreement at Kadesh to end the conflict. The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one inEgyptian hieroglyphs, the other in Hittite, usingcuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. This treaty differs from others, in that the two language versions are worded differently. While the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version says the Egyptians came suing for peace and the Egyptian version says the reverse.The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and this \"pocket-book\" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the temple atKarnak. The Egyptian account records Ramesses II's receipt of the Hittite peace treaty tablets on I Peret 21 of Year 21, corresponding to 10 November 1259 BC, according to the standard \"Low Chronology\" used by Egyptologists. The treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Ḫattušili III in year 21 of Ramesses's reign (c. 1259 BC).Its 18 articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceeds to maintain that their respective deities also demand peace. The frontiers are not laid down in this treaty, but may be inferred from other documents. The Anastasy Apapyrusdescribes Canaan during the latter part of the reign of Ramesses II and enumerates and names thePhoeniciancoastal towns under Egyptian control. The harbour town ofSumur, north ofByblos, is mentioned as the northernmost town belonging to Egypt, suggesting it contained an Egyptian garrison. No further Egyptian campaigns in Canaan are mentioned after the conclusion of the peace treaty. The northern border seems to have been safe and quiet, so the rule of the pharaoh was strong until Ramesses II's death, and the subsequent waning of the dynasty.When the King of Mira attempted to involve Ramesses in a hostile act against the Hittites, the Egyptian responded that the times of intrigue in support of Mursili III, had passed. Ḫattušili III wrote toKadashman-Enlil II,Kassiteking ofKarduniaš(Babylon) in the same spirit, reminding him of the time when his father,Kadashman-Turgu, had offered to fight Ramesses II, the king of Egypt. The Hittite king encouraged the Babylonian to oppose another enemy, which must have been the king ofAssyria, whose allies had killed the messenger of the Egyptian king. Ḫattušili encouraged Kadashman-Enlil to come to his aid and prevent the Assyrians from cutting the link between the Canaanite province of Egypt and Mursili III, the ally of Ramesses. Nubian campaigns Ramesses II also campaigned south of thefirst cataract of the NileintoNubia. When Ramesses was about 22 years old, two of his own sons, includingAmun-her-khepeshef, accompanied him in at least one of those campaigns. By the time of Ramesses, Nubia had been a colony for 200 years, but its conquest was recalled in decoration from the temples Ramesses II built atBeit el-Wali(which was the subject of epigraphic work by theOriental Instituteduring the Nubian salvage campaign of the 1960s),Gerf HusseinandKalabshain northern Nubia. On the south wall of the Beit el-Wali temple, Ramesses II is depicted charging into battle against tribes south of Egypt in a war chariot, while his two young sons,Amun-her-khepsefand Khaemwaset, are shown behind him, also in war chariots. A wall in one of Ramesses's temples says he had to fight one battle with those tribes without help from his soldiers. Libyan campaigns During the reign of Ramesses II, the Egyptians were evidently active on a 300-kilometre (190 mi) stretch along theMediterraneancoast, at least as far asZawyet Umm El Rakham, where remains of a fortress described by its texts as built on Libyans land have been found.Although the exact events surrounding the foundation of the coastal forts and fortresses is not clear, some degree of political and military control must have been held over the region to allow their construction. There are no detailed accounts of Ramesses II's undertaking large military actions against theLibyans, only generalised records of his conquering and crushing them, which may or may not refer to specific events that were otherwise unrecorded. It may be that some of the records, such as theAswanStele of his year 2, are harking back to Ramesses's presence on his father's Libyan campaigns. Perhaps it wasSeti Iwho achieved this supposed control over the region, and who planned to establish the defensive system, in a manner similar to how he rebuilt those to the east, the Ways of Horus across NorthernSinai. Sed festivals By tradition, in the 30th year of his reign, Ramesses celebrated a jubilee called theSed festival. These were held to honour and rejuvenate the pharaoh's strength.Only halfway through what would be a 66-year reign, Ramesses had already eclipsed all but a few of his greatest predecessors in his achievements. He had brought peace, maintained Egyptian borders, and built numerous monuments across the empire. His country was more prosperous and powerful than it had been in nearly a century. Sed festivals traditionally were held again every three years after the 30th year; Ramesses II, who sometimes held them after two years, eventually celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteen. Building projects and monuments In the third year of his reign, Ramesses started the most ambitious building project after thepyramids, which were built almost 1,500 years earlier. Ramesses built extensively from theDeltatoNubia, \"covering the land with buildings in a way no monarch before him had.\" Some of the activities undertaken were focused on remodeling or usurping existing works, improving masonry techniques, and using art as propaganda. Ramesses also undertook many new construction projects. Two of his biggest works, besidesPi-Ramesses, were the temple complex ofAbu Simbeland theRamesseum, amortuary templein westernThebes. Pi-Ramesses Ramesses II moved the capital of his kingdom from Thebes in the Nile valley to a new site in the eastern Delta. His motives are uncertain, although he possibly wished to be closer to his territories in Canaan and Syria. The new city of Pi-Ramesses (or to give the full name,Pi-Ramesses Aa-nakhtu, meaning \"Domain of Ramesses, Great in Victory\")was dominated by huge temples and his vast residential palace, complete with its own zoo. In the 10th century AD, the Bible exegete RabbiSaadia Gaonbelieved that the biblical site of Ramesses had to be identified withAin Shams.For a time, during the early 20th century, the site was misidentified as that ofTanis, due to the amount of statuary and other material from Pi-Ramesses found there, but it now is recognized that the Ramesside remains at Tanis were brought there from elsewhere, and the real Pi-Ramesses lies about 30 km (18.6 mi) south, near modernQantir.The colossal feet of the statue of Ramesses are almost all that remains above ground today. The rest is buried in the fields. Ramesseum The temple complex built by Ramesses II betweenQurnaand the desert has been known as theRamesseumsince the 19th century. The GreekhistorianDiodorus Siculusmarveled at the gigantic temple, now no more than a few ruins. Oriented northwest and southeast, the temple was preceded by two courts. An enormous pylon stood before the first court, with the royal palace at the left and the gigantic statue of the king at the back. Only fragments of the base and torso remain of thesyenitestatue of the enthroned pharaoh, 17 metres (56 ft) high and weighing more than 1,000tonnes(980long tons; 1,100short tons). Scenes of the pharaoh and his army triumphing over the Hittite forces fleeing before Kadesh are represented on the pylon. Remains of the second court include part of the internal facade of the pylon and a portion of the Osiride portico on the right. Scenes of war and the alleged rout of the Hittites at Kadesh are repeated on the walls. In the upperregisters, feast and honour of the phallic deityMin, god of fertility. On the opposite side of the court, the few Osiride pillars and columns still remaining may furnish an idea of the original grandeur.Scattered remains of the two statues of the seated king also may be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite, which once flanked the entrance to the temple. Thirty-nine out of the forty-eight columns in the greathypostyle hall(41 × 31 m) still stand in the central rows. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various deities.Part of the ceiling, decorated with gold stars on a blue ground, also has been preserved. Ramesses's children appear in the procession on the few walls left. The sanctuary was composed of three consecutive rooms, with eight columns and thetetrastylecell. Part of the first room, with the ceiling decorated with astral scenes, and few remains of the second room are all that is left. Vast storerooms built of mud bricks stretched out around the temple.Traces of a school for scribes were found among the ruins. A temple ofSeti I, of which nothing remains beside the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall. Abu Simbel In 1255 BC, Ramesses and his queenNefertarihad traveled intoNubiato inaugurate a new temple,Abu Simbel. It is said to be ego cast into stone; the man who built it intended not only to become Egypt's greatest pharaoh, but also one of its deities. The temple at Abu Simbel was discovered in 1813 by the Swiss Orientalist and travelerJohann Ludwig Burckhardt. An enormous pile of sand almost completely covered the facade and its colossal statues, blocking the entrance for four more years. ThePaduanexplorerGiovanni Battista Belzonireached the interior on 4 August 1817. Other Nubian monuments As well as the temples of Abu Simbel, Ramesses left other monuments to himself in Nubia. His early campaigns are illustrated on the walls of theTemple of Beit el-Wali(now relocated toNew Kalabsha). Other temples dedicated to Ramesses areDerrandGerf Hussein(also relocated to New Kalabsha). For the temple of Amun atJebel Barkal, the temple's foundation probably dates during the reign of Thutmose III, while the temple was shaped during his reign and that of Ramesses II. Other archeological discoveries The colossalstatue of Ramesses IIdates back 3,200 years, and was originally discovered in six pieces in a temple nearMemphis, Egypt. Weighing some 83-tonne (82-long-ton; 91-short-ton), it was transported, reconstructed, and erected in Ramesses Square in Cairo in 1955. In August 2006, contractors relocated it to save it from exhaust fumes that were causing it to deteriorate.The new site is near theGrand Egyptian Museum. In 2018, a group of archeologists in Cairo's Matariya neighborhood discovered pieces of a booth with a seat that, based on its structure and age, may have been used by Ramesses.\"The royal compartment consists of four steps leading to a cubic platform, which is believed to be the base of the king's seat during celebrations or public gatherings,\" such as Ramesses' inauguration and Sed festivals. It may have also gone on to be used by others in theRamesside Period, according to the mission's head. The excavation mission also unearthed \"a collection ofscarabs,amulets, clay pots and blocks engraved withhieroglyphictext.\" In December 2019, a red granite royal bust of Ramesses II was unearthed by an Egyptian archaeological mission in the village of Mit Rahina in Giza. The bust depicted Ramesses II wearing a wig with the symbol \"Ka\" on his head. Its measurements were 55 cm (21.65 in) wide, 45 cm (17.71 in) thick and 105 cm (41.33 in) long. Alongside the bust, limestone blocks appeared showing Ramesses II during theHeb-Sedreligious ritual.\"This discovery is considered one of the rarest archaeological discoveries. It is the first-ever Ka statue made of granite to be discovered. The only Ka statue that was previously found is made of wood and it belongs to one of the kings of the 13th dynasty of ancient Egypt which is displayed at the Egyptian Museum inTahrir Square,\" said archaeologistMostafa Waziri. In September 2024, it was published that during an archaeological excavation of a 3,200 year old fort along the Nile, researches found a golden sword with Ramses II signature on it. Death and burial The Egyptian scholarManetho(third century BC) attributed Ramesses a reign of 66 years and 2 months. By the time of his death, aged about 90 years, Ramesses was suffering from severe dental problems and was plagued byarthritisandhardening of the arteries.He had made Egypt rich from all the supplies and bounty he had collected from other empires. He had outlived many of his wives and children and left great memorials all overEgypt. Nine more pharaohs took the name Ramesses in his honour. Mummy Originally Ramesses II was buried in the tombKV7in theValley of the Kings,but because of looting in the valley, priests later transferred the body to a holding area, re-wrapped it, and placed it inside the tomb of queenAhmose Inhapy.Seventy-two hours later it was again moved, to thetombof the high priestPinedjem II. All of this is recorded in hieroglyphics on the linen covering the body of the coffin of Ramesses II.Hismummywas eventually discovered in 1881 inTT320inside an ordinary wooden coffin and is now inCairo'sNational Museum of Egyptian Civilization(until 3 April 2021 it was in theEgyptian Museum). The pharaoh's mummy reveals anaquiline noseand strong jaw. It stands at about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in).Gaston Maspero, who first unwrapped the mummy of Ramesses II, writes, \"on the temples there are a few sparse hairs, but at the poll the hair is quite thick, forming smooth, straight locks about five centimeters in length. White at the time of death, and possibly auburn during life, they have been dyed a light red by the spices (henna) used in embalming ... the moustache and beard are thin. ... The hairs are white, like those of the head and eyebrows ... the skin is of earthy brown, splotched with black ... the face of the mummy gives a fair idea of the face of the living king.\" In 1975,Maurice Bucaille, a French doctor, examined the mummy at theCairo Museumand found it in poor condition. French PresidentValéry Giscard d'Estaingsucceeded in convincing Egyptian authorities to send the mummy to France for treatment. In September 1976, it was greeted atParis–Le Bourget Airportwith full military honours befitting a king, then taken to a laboratory at theMusée de l'Homme.Persistent claims that the mummy was issued with apassportfor the journey are incorrect, but may be based on the French wordpasseportbeing used to describe the extensive documentation required. The mummy was forensically tested in 1976 byPierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chiefforensicscientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Ceccaldi observed that the mummy had slightly wavy, red hair; from this trait combined with cranial features, he concluded that Ramesses II was of a \"Berber type\" and hence – according to Ceccaldi's analysis – fair-skinned.Subsequent microscopic inspection of the roots of Ramesses II's hair proved that the king's hair originally was red, which suggests that he came from a family of redheads.This has more than just cosmetic significance: in ancient Egypt people with red hair were associated with the deitySet, the slayer ofOsiris, and the name of Ramesses II's father, Seti I, means \"follower of Seth\".Cheikh Anta Diopdisputed the results of the study, arguing that the structure of hair morphology cannot determine the ethnicity of a mummy and that a comparative study should have featuredNubiansinUpper Egyptbefore a conclusive judgement was reached. In 2006, French police arrested a man who tried to sell several tufts of Ramesses' hair on the Internet. Jean-Michel Diebolt said he had got the relics from his late father, who had been on the analysis team in the 1970s. They were returned to Egypt the following year. During the examination, scientific analysis revealed battle-wounds, old fractures,arthritisand poor circulation.Ramesses II's arthritis is believed to have made him walk with a hunched back for the last decades of his life.A 2004 study excludedankylosing spondylitisas a possible cause and proposeddiffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosisas a possible alternative,which was confirmed by more recent work.A significant hole in the pharaoh'smandiblewas detected. Researchers observed \"anabscessby his teeth (which) was serious enough to have caused death by infection, although this cannot be determined with certainty\". After being irradiated in an attempt to eliminate fungi and insects, the mummy was returned from Paris to Egypt in May 1977. In April 2021, his mummy was moved from the oldEgyptian Museumto the newNational Museum of Egyptian Civilizationalong with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed thePharaohs' Golden Parade. Burial of wives and relatives Tomb of Nefertari The tomb of the most importantconsortof Ramesses was discovered byErnesto Schiaparelliin 1904.Although it had been looted in ancient times, the tomb ofNefertariis extremely important, because its magnificent wall-painting decoration is regarded as one of the greatest achievements ofancient Egyptian art. A flight of steps cut out of the rock gives access to the antechamber, which is decorated with paintings based on chapter seventeen of theBook of the Dead. The astronomical ceiling represents the heavens and is painted in dark blue, with a myriad of golden five-pointed stars. The east wall of the antechamber is interrupted by a large opening flanked by representation ofOsirisat the left andAnubisat the right; this in turn leads to the side chamber, decorated with offering-scenes, preceded by a vestibule in which the paintings portray Nefertari presented to the deities, who welcome her. On the north wall of the antechamber is the stairway down to the burial-chamber, a vast quadrangular room covering a surface-area of about 90 square metres (970 sq ft), its astronomical ceiling supported by four pillars, entirely decorated. Originally, the queen's red granitesarcophaguslay in the middle of this chamber. According to religious doctrines of the time, it was in this chamber, which the ancient Egyptians called the Golden Hall, that the regeneration of the deceased took place. This decorative pictogram of the walls in the burial-chamber drew inspiration from chapters 144 and 146 of the Book of the Dead: in the left half of the chamber, there are passages from chapter 144 concerning the gates and doors of the kingdom of Osiris, their guardians, and the magic formulas that had to be uttered by the deceased in order to go past the doors. Tomb KV5 In 1995, ProfessorKent Weeks, head of theTheban Mapping Project, rediscovered TombKV5. It has proven to be the largest tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and originally contained the mummified remains of some of this king's estimated 52 sons. Approximately 150 corridors and tomb chambers have been located in this tomb as of 2006 and the tomb may contain as many as 200 corridors and chambers.It is believed that at least four of Ramesses's sons, includingMeryatum, Sety,Amun-her-khepeshef(Ramesses's first-born son) and \"the King's Principal Son of His Body, the Generalissimo Ramesses, justified\" (i.e., deceased) were buried there from inscriptions,ostracaorcanopic jarsdiscovered in the tomb.Joyce Tyldesleywrites that thus far no intact burials have been discovered and there have been little substantial funeral debris: thousands of potsherds, faienceushabtifigures, beads, amulets, fragments of Canopic jars, of wooden coffins ... but no intact sarcophagi, mummies ormummycases, suggesting that much of the tomb may have been unused. Those burials which were made in KV5 were thoroughly looted in antiquity, leaving little or no remains. In literature and the arts Ramesses is the basis forPercy Bysshe Shelley's poem \"Ozymandias\".Diodorus Siculusgives an inscription on the base of one of his sculptures as: \"King of Kingsam I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works.\"This is paraphrased in Shelley's poem. The life of Ramesses II has inspired many fictional representations, including thehistorical novelsof the French writerChristian Jacq, theRamsèsseries; the graphic novelWatchmen, in which the character of Adrian Veidt uses Ramesses II to form part of the inspiration for his alter-ego,Ozymandias;Norman Mailer's novelAncient Evenings, which is largely concerned with the life of Ramesses II, though from the perspective of Egyptians living during the reign ofRamesses IX; and theAnne RicebookThe Mummy, or Ramses the Damned(1989), in which Ramesses was the main character. InThe Kane ChroniclesRamesses is an ancestor of the main characters Sadie and Carter Kane. Ramesses II is one of the characters in the video gameCivilization V, as well as in additionaldownloadable contentfor its sequel,Civilization VI. TheEast Villageunderground rock bandThe Fugsreleased their song \"Ramses II Is Dead, My Love\" on their 1968 albumIt Crawled into My Hand, Honest. Ramesses II is a main character in the fiction bookThe Heretic QueenbyMichelle Moranpublished in 2008. It is a novel about the love story and beginning years of the marriage of Pharaoh Ramesses and QueenNefertari, during the time Pharaoh Rameses II is trying to decide who will be queen between his two wives Nefertari and Iset. Nefertari is the daughter and orphan of QueenMutnodjmetand General Nakhtmin, niece of QueenNefertitiand PharaohAnkhenaten. The book is told from the perspective of Nefertari and is fiction but does deal with many historical events during the beginning of Rameses II reign and many historical people giving readers a view of what life and these historical figures may have been like. As the pharaoh in the Bible's Book of Exodus Though scholars generally do not recognize the biblical portrayal of the Exodus as an actual historical event,various historical pharaohs have been proposed as the corresponding ruler at the time the story takes place, with Ramesses II as the most popular candidate forPharaoh of the Exodus. He is cast in this role in the 1944 novellaThe Tables of the LawbyThomas Mann. Although not a major character, Ramesses appears inJoan Grant'sSo Moses Was Born, a first-person account from Nebunefer, the brother of Ramose, which paints a picture of the life of Ramose from the death of Seti, replete with the power play, intrigue, and assassination plots of the historical record, and depicting the relationships withBintanath,Tuya,Nefertari, andMoses. In film, Ramesses is played byYul BrynnerinCecil B. DeMille's classicThe Ten Commandments(1956). Here Ramesses is portrayed as a vengeful tyrant as well as the main antagonist of the film, ever scornful of his father's preference for Moses over \"the son of body\".The animated filmThe Prince of Egypt(1998) also features a depiction of Ramesses (voiced byRalph Fiennes, for both the speaking and the singing), portrayed as Moses' adoptive brother, and ultimately as the film's villain with essentially the same motivations as in the earlier 1956 film.Joel Edgertonplayed Ramesses in the 2014 filmExodus: Gods and Kings.Sérgio Maroneplays Ramesses in the 2015–2016 Brazilian telenovela seriesOs Dez Mandamentos(English:'The Ten Commandments'). In the 2013 miniseriesThe Bible, he is portrayed by Stewart Scudamore. See also Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Merneptah (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9531db70>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Amenmesse (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b94221780>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Percy Bysshe Shelley Percy Bysshe Shelley(/bɪʃ/ⓘBISH;4 August 1792 – 8 July 1822) was an English writer who is considered as one of the majorEnglishRomantic poets.A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not achieve fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achievements in poetry grew steadily following his death, and he became an important influence on subsequent generations of poets, includingRobert Browning,Algernon Charles Swinburne,Thomas Hardy, andW. B. Yeats.American literary criticHarold Bloomdescribes him as \"a superb craftsman, a lyric poet without rival, and surely one of the most advanced sceptical intellects ever to write a poem.\" Shelley's reputation fluctuated during the 20th century, but since the 1960s he has achieved increasing critical acclaim for the sweeping momentum of his poetic imagery, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist, and materialist ideas in his work.Among his best-known works are \"Ozymandias\" (1818), \"Ode to the West Wind\" (1819), \"To a Skylark\" (1820), \"Adonais\" (1821), the philosophical essay \"The Necessity of Atheism\" (1811), which his friendT. J. Hoggmay have co-authored, and the political ballad \"The Mask of Anarchy\" (1819). His other major works include the verse dramasThe Cenci(1819),Prometheus Unbound(1820) andHellas(1822), and the long narrative poemsAlastor, or The Spirit of Solitude(1815),Julian and Maddalo(1819),Adonais(1821), andThe Triumph of Life(1822). Shelley also wroteprose fictionand a quantity of essays on political, social, and philosophical issues. Much of this poetry and prose was not published in his lifetime, or only published in expurgated form, due to the risk of prosecution for political and religious libel.From the 1820s, his poems and political and ethical writings became popular inOwenist,Chartist, andradicalpolitical circles,and later drew admirers as diverse asKarl Marx,Mahatma Gandhi, andGeorge Bernard Shaw. Shelley's life was marked by family crises, ill health, and a backlash against hisatheism, political views, and defiance of social conventions. He went into permanent self-exile in Italy in 1818 and over the next four years produced whatZachary LeaderandMichael O'Neillcall \"some of the finest poetry of the Romantic period\".His second wife,Mary Shelley, was the author ofFrankenstein. He died in a boating accident in 1822 at age 29. Life Early life and education Shelley was born on 4 August 1792 atField Place,Warnham,Sussex, England.He was the eldest son ofSirTimothy Shelley, 2ndBaronet of Castle Goring(1753–1844), aWhigMember of Parliament forHorshamfrom 1790 to 1792 and forShorehambetween 1806 and 1812, and his wife, Elizabeth Pilfold (1763–1846), the daughter of a successful butcher.He had four younger sisters and one much younger brother. Shelley's early childhood was sheltered and mostly happy. He was particularly close to his sisters and his mother, who encouraged him to hunt, fish and ride.At age six, he was sent to a day school run by the vicar ofWarnhamchurch, where he displayed an impressive memory and gift for languages. In 1802 he entered theSyon HouseAcademy ofBrentford,Middlesex, where his cousinThomas Medwinwas a pupil. Shelley was bullied and unhappy at the school and sometimes responded with violent rage. He also began suffering from the nightmares, hallucinations and sleep walking that were to periodically affect him throughout his life. Shelley developed an interest in science which supplemented his voracious reading of tales of mystery, romance and the supernatural. During his holidays at Field Place, his sisters were often terrified at being subjected to his experiments withgunpowder, acids and electricity. Back at school he blew up apaling fencewith gunpowder. In 1804, Shelley enteredEton College, a period which he later recalled with loathing. He was subjected to particularly severe mob bullying which the perpetrators called \"Shelley-baits\".A number of biographers and contemporaries have attributed the bullying to Shelley's aloofness, nonconformity and refusal to take part infagging. His peculiarities and violent rages earned him the nickname \"Mad Shelley\".His interest in theoccultand science continued, and contemporaries describe him giving an electric shock to a master, blowing up a tree stump with gunpowder and attempting to raise spirits with occult rituals.In his senior years, Shelley came under the influence of a part-time teacher, DrJames Lind, who encouraged his interest in the occult and introduced him to liberal and radical authors. Shelley also developed an interest in Plato and idealist philosophy which he pursued in later years through self-study.According toRichard Holmes, Shelley, by his leaving year, had gained a reputation as a classical scholar and a tolerated eccentric. In his last term at Eton, his first novelZastrozziappeared and he had established a following among his fellow pupils.Prior to enrolling forUniversity College, Oxford, in October 1810, Shelley completedOriginal Poetry by Victor and Cazire(written with his sister Elizabeth), the verse melodramaThe Wandering Jewand the gothic novelSt. Irvine; or, The Rosicrucian: A Romance(published 1811). At Oxford Shelley attended few lectures, instead spending long hours reading and conducting scientific experiments in the laboratory he set up in his room.He met a fellow student,Thomas Jefferson Hogg, who became his closest friend. Shelley became increasingly politicised under Hogg's influence, developing strong radical and anti-Christian views. Such views were dangerous in the reactionary political climate prevailing during Britain's war with Napoleonic France, and Shelley's father warned him against Hogg's influence. In the winter of 1810–1811, Shelley published a series of anonymous political poems and tracts:Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson,The Necessity of Atheism(written in collaboration with Hogg) andA Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things. Shelley mailedThe Necessity of Atheismto all the bishops and heads of colleges at Oxford, and he was called to appear before the college's fellows, including the Dean,George Rowley. His refusal to answer questions put by college authorities regarding whether or not he authored the pamphlet resulted in hisexpulsionfrom Oxford on 25March 1811, along with Hogg. Hearing of his son's expulsion, Shelley's father threatened to cut all contact with Shelley unless he agreed to return home and study under tutors appointed by him. Shelley's refusal to do so led to a falling-out with his father. Marriage to Harriet Westbrook In late December 1810, Shelley had met Harriet Westbrook, a pupil at the same boarding school as Shelley's sisters. They corresponded frequently that winter and also after Shelley had been expelled from Oxford.Shelley expounded his radical ideas on politics, religion and marriage to Harriet, and they gradually convinced each other that she was oppressed by her father and at school.Shelley's infatuation with Harriet developed in the months following his expulsion, when he was under severe emotional strain due to the conflict with his family, his bitterness over the breakdown of his romance with his cousin Harriet Grove, and his unfounded belief that he might have a fatal illness.At the same time, Harriet Westbrook's elder sister Eliza, to whom Harriet was very close, encouraged the young girl's romance with Shelley.Shelley's correspondence with Harriet intensified in July, while he was holidaying in Wales, and in response to her urgent pleas for his protection, he returned to London in early August. Putting aside his philosophical objections to matrimony, he left with the sixteen-year-old Harriet forEdinburghon 25 August 1811, and they were married there on the 28th. Hearing of the elopement, Harriet's father, John Westbrook, and Shelley's father, Timothy, cut off the allowances of the bride and groom. (Shelley's father believed his son had married beneath him, as Harriet's father had earned his fortune in trade and was the owner of a tavern and coffee house.) Surviving on borrowed money, Shelley and Harriet stayed in Edinburgh for a month, with Hogg living under the same roof. The trio left forYorkin October, and Shelley went on to Sussex to settle matters with his father, leaving Harriet behind with Hogg. Shelley returned from his unsuccessful excursion to find that Eliza had moved in with Harriet and Hogg. Harriet confessed that Hogg had tried to seduce her while Shelley had been away. Shelley, Harriet and Eliza soon left forKeswickin theLake District, leaving Hogg in York. At this time Shelley was also involved in an intense platonic relationship with Elizabeth Hitchener, a 28-year-old unmarried schoolteacher of advanced views, with whom he had been corresponding. Hitchener, whom Shelley called the \"sister of my soul\" and \"my second self\", became his confidante and intellectual companion as he developed his views on politics, religion, ethics and personal relationships.Shelley proposed that she join him, Harriet and Eliza in a communal household where all property would be shared. The Shelleys and Eliza spent December and January in Keswick where Shelley visitedRobert Southeywhose poetry he admired. Southey was taken with Shelley, even though there was a wide gulf between them politically, and predicted great things for him as a poet. Southey also informed Shelley thatWilliam Godwin, author ofPolitical Justice, which had greatly influenced him in his youth, and which Shelley also admired, was still alive. Shelley wrote to Godwin, offering himself as his devoted disciple. Godwin, who had modified many of his earlier radical views, advised Shelley to reconcile with his father, become a scholar before he published anything else, and give up his avowed plans for political agitation in Ireland. Meanwhile, Shelley had met his father's patron,Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, who helped secure the reinstatement of Shelley's allowance.With Harriet's allowance also restored, Shelley now had the funds for his Irish venture. Their departure for Ireland was precipitated by increasing hostility towards the Shelley household from their landlord and neighbours who were alarmed by Shelley's scientific experiments, pistol shooting and radical political views. As tension mounted, Shelley claimed he had been attacked in his home by ruffians, an event which might have been real or a delusional episode triggered by stress. This was the first of a series of episodes in subsequent years where Shelley claimed to have been attacked by strangers during periods of personal crisis. Early in 1812, Shelley wrote, published and with Harriet personally distributed in Dublin three political tracts:An Address, to the Irish People; Proposals for an Association of Philanthropists;andDeclaration of Rights. He also delivered a speech at a meeting of O'Connell'sCatholic Committeein which he called forCatholic emancipation, repeal of theActs of Unionand an end to the oppression of the Irish poor.Reports of Shelley's subversive activities were sent to theHome Secretary. Returning from Ireland, the Shelley household travelled to Wales, then Devon, where they again came under government surveillance for distributing subversive literature. Elizabeth Hitchener joined the household in Devon, but several months later had a falling out with the Shelleys and left. The Shelley household had settled inTremadog, Wales, in September 1812, where Shelley worked onQueen Mab, a utopian allegory with extensive notes preaching atheism, free love, republicanism and vegetarianism. The poem was published the following year in a private edition of 250 copies, although few were initially distributed because of the risk of prosecution for seditious and religious libel. In February 1813, Shelley claimed he was attacked in his home at night. The incident might have been real, a hallucination brought on by stress, or a hoax staged by Shelley in order to escape government surveillance, creditors and his entanglements in local politics. The Shelleys and Eliza fled to Ireland, then London. Back in England, Shelley's debts mounted as he tried unsuccessfully to reach a financial settlement with his father. On 23 June Harriet gave birth to a girl, Eliza Ianthe Shelley (known as Ianthe), and in the following months the relationship between Shelley and his wife deteriorated. Shelley resented the influence Harriet's sister had over her while Harriet was alienated from Shelley by his close friendship with an attractive widow, Mrs.Harriet de Boinville.Mrs. Boinville had married a French revolutionary émigré and hosted asalonwhere Shelley was able to discuss politics, philosophy and vegetarianism.Mrs. Boinville became aconfidanteof Shelley during his marital crisis.During a breakdown, Shelley moved into Mrs. Boinville’s home outside London. In February and March 1814, he became infatuated with her married daughter, Cornelia Turner, age eighteen, and wrote erotic poetry about her in his notebook. Following Ianthe's birth, the Shelleys moved frequently across London, Wales, theLake District, Scotland andBerkshireto escape creditors and search for a home.In March 1814, Shelley remarried Harriet in London to settle any doubts about the legality of their Edinburgh wedding and secure the rights of their child. Nevertheless, the Shelleys lived apart for most of the following months, and Shelley reflected bitterly on: \"my rash & heartless union with Harriet\". Elopement with Mary Godwin In May 1814, Shelley began visiting his mentor Godwin almost daily, and soon fell in love withMary, the sixteen-year-old daughter of Godwin and the late feminist authorMary Wollstonecraft. Shelley and Mary declared their love for each other during a visit to her mother's grave in the churchyard ofSt Pancras Old Churchon 26 June. When Shelley told Godwin that he intended to leave Harriet and live with Mary, his mentor banished him from the house and forbade Mary from seeing him. Shelley and Mary eloped to Europe on 28 July, taking Mary's step-sisterClaire Clairmontwith them. Before leaving, Shelley had secured a loan of £3,000 but had left most of the funds at the disposal of Godwin and Harriet, who was again pregnant. The financial arrangement with Godwin led to rumours that he had sold his daughters to Shelley. Shelley, Mary and Claire made their way across war-ravaged France where Shelley wrote to Harriet, asking her to meet them in Switzerland with the money he had left for her. Hearing nothing from Harriet in Switzerland, and unable to secure sufficient funds or suitable accommodation, the three travelled to Germany and Holland before returning to England on 13 September. Shelley spent the next few months trying to raise loans and avoid bailiffs. Mary was pregnant, lonely, depressed and ill. Her mood was not improved when she heard that, on 30 November, Harriet had given birth to Charles Bysshe Shelley, heir to the Shelley fortune and baronetcy.This was followed, in early January 1815, by news that Shelley's grandfather,Sir Bysshe, had died leaving an estate worth £220,000. The settlement of the estate, and a financial settlement between Shelley and his father (now Sir Timothy), however, was not concluded until April the following year. In February 1815, Mary gave premature birth to a baby girl who died ten days later, deepening her depression. In the following weeks, Mary became close to Hogg who temporarily moved into the household. Shelley was almost certainly having a sexual relationship with Claire at this time, and it is possible that Mary, with Shelley's encouragement, was also having a sexual relationship with Hogg. In May Claire left the household, at Mary's insistence, to reside in Lynmouth. In August Shelley and Mary moved to Bishopsgate where Shelley worked onAlastor, a long poem in blank verse based on the myth ofNarcissusandEcho.Alastorwas published in an edition of 250 in early 1816 to poor sales and largely unfavourable reviews from the conservative press. On 24 January 1816, Mary gave birth to William Shelley. Shelley was delighted to have another son, but was suffering from the strain of prolonged financial negotiations with his father, Harriet and William Godwin. Shelley showed signs of delusional behaviour and was contemplating an escape to the continent. Byron Claire initiated a sexual relationship withLord Byronin April 1816, just before his self-exile on the continent, and then arranged for Byron to meet Shelley, Mary, and her in Geneva.Shelley admired Byron's poetry and had sent himQueen Maband other poems. Shelley's party arrived in Geneva in May and rented a house close toVilla Diodati, on the shores of Lake Geneva, where Byron was staying. There Shelley, Byron and the others engaged in discussions about literature, science and \"various philosophical doctrines\". One night, while Byron was reciting Coleridge'sChristabel, Shelley suffered a severe panic attack with hallucinations. The previous night Mary had had a more productive vision or nightmare which inspired her novelFrankenstein. Shelley and Byron then took a boating tour around Lake Geneva, which inspired Shelley to write his \"Hymn to Intellectual Beauty\", his first substantial poem sinceAlastor.A tour ofChamonixin the French Alps inspired \"Mont Blanc\", which has been described as an atheistic response to Coleridge's \"Hymn before Sunrise in the Vale of Chamoni\".During this tour, Shelley often signed guest books with a declaration that he was an atheist. These declarations were seen by other British tourists, including Southey, which hardened attitudes against Shelley back home. Relations between Byron and Shelley's party became strained when Byron was told that Claire was pregnant with his child. Shelley, Mary, and Claire left Switzerland in late August, with arrangements for the expected baby still unclear, although Shelley made provision for Claire and the baby in his will.In January 1817 Claire gave birth to a daughter by Byron who she named Alba, but later renamedAllegrain accordance with Byron's wishes. Marriage to Mary Godwin OzymandiasI met a traveller from an antique land,Who said—\"Two vast and trunkless legs of stoneStand in the desart.... Near them, on the sand,Half sunk a shattered visage lies, whose frown,And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,Tell that its sculptor well those passions readWhich yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed;And on the pedestal, these words appear:My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings;Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!Nothing beside remains. Round the decayOf that colossal Wreck, boundless and bareThe lone and level sands stretch far away.\" Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1818 Shelley and Mary returned to England in September 1816, and in early October they heard that Mary's half-sisterFanny Imlayhad killed herself. Godwin believed that Fanny had been in love with Shelley, and Shelley himself suffered depression and guilt over her death, writing: \"Friend had I known thy secret grief / Should we have parted so.\"Further tragedy followed in December when Shelley's estranged wife Harriet drowned herself in theSerpentine.Harriet, pregnant and living alone at the time, believed that she had been abandoned by her new lover. In her suicide letter she asked Shelley to take custody of their son Charles but to leave their daughter in her sister Eliza's care. Shelley married Mary Godwin on 30 December, despite his philosophical objections to the institution. The marriage was intended to help secure Shelley's custody of his children by Harriet and to placate Godwin who had refused to see Shelley and Mary because of their previous adulterous relationship.After a prolonged legal battle, theCourt of Chanceryeventually awarded custody of Shelley and Harriet's children to foster parents, on the grounds that Shelley had abandoned his first wife for Mary without cause and was an atheist. In March 1817 the Shelleys moved to the village ofMarlow, Buckinghamshire, where Shelley's friendThomas Love Peacocklived. The Shelley household included Claire and her baby Allegra, both of whose presence Mary resented.Shelley's generosity with money and increasing debts also led to financial and marital stress, as did Godwin's frequent requests for financial help. On 2 September Mary gave birth to a daughter, Clara Everina Shelley. Soon after, Shelley left for London with Claire, which increased Mary's resentment towards her stepsister.Shelley was arrested for two days in London over money he owed, and attorneys visited Mary in Marlowe over Shelley's debts. Shelley took part in the literary and political circle that surroundedLeigh Hunt, and during this period he metWilliam HazlittandJohn Keats. Shelley's major work during this time wasLaon and Cythna, a long narrative poem featuring incest and attacks on religion. It was hastily withdrawn after publication due to fears of prosecution for religious libel, and was re-edited and reissued asThe Revolt of Islamin January 1818.Shelley also published two political tracts under a pseudonym:A Proposal for putting Reform to the Vote throughout the Kingdom(March 1817) andAn Address to the People on the Death of Princess Charlotte(November 1817).In December he wrote \"Ozymandias\", which is considered to be one of his finest sonnets, as part of a competition with friend and fellow poetHorace Smith. Italy On 12 March 1818 the Shelleys and Claire left England to escape its \"tyranny civil and religious\". A doctor had also recommended that Shelley go to Italy for his chronic lung complaint, and Shelley had arranged to take Claire's daughter, Allegra, to her father Byron who was now in Venice. After travelling some months through France and Italy, Shelley left Mary and baby Clara atBagni di Lucca(in today's Tuscany) while he travelled with Claire to Venice to see Byron and make arrangements for visiting Allegra. Byron invited the Shelleys to stay at his summer residence atEste, and Shelley urged Mary to meet him there. Clara became seriously ill on the journey and died on 24 September in Venice.Following Clara's death, Mary fell into a long period of depression and emotional estrangement from Shelley. The Shelleys moved to Naples on 1 December, where they stayed for three months. During this period Shelley was ill, depressed and almost suicidal: a state of mind reflected in his poem \"Stanzas written in Dejection – December 1818, Near Naples\". While in Naples, Shelley registered the birth and baptism of a baby girl, Elena Adelaide Shelley (born 27 December), naming himself as the father and falsely naming Mary as the mother. The parentage of Elena has never been conclusively established. Biographers have variously speculated that she was adopted by Shelley to console Mary for the loss of Clara, that she was Shelley's child by Claire, that she was his child by his servant Elise Foggi, or that she was the child of a \"mysterious lady\" who had followed Shelley to the continent.Shelley registered the birth and baptism on 27 February 1819, and the household left Naples for Rome the following day, leaving Elena with carers.Elena was to die in a poor suburb of Naples on 9 June 1820. In Rome, Shelley was in poor health, probably having developed nephritis and tuberculosis which later was in remission.Nevertheless, he made significant progress on three major works:Julian and Maddalo,Prometheus UnboundandThe Cenci.Julian and Maddalois an autobiographical poem which explores the relationship between Shelley and Byron and analyses Shelley's personal crises of 1818 and 1819. The poem was completed in the summer of 1819, but was not published in Shelley's lifetime.Prometheus Unboundis a long dramatic poem inspired by Aeschylus's retelling of the Prometheus myth. It was completed in late 1819 and published in 1820.The Cenciis a verse drama of rape, murder and incest based on the story of the Renaissance Count Cenci of Rome andhis daughter Beatrice. Shelley completed the play in September and the first edition was published that year. It was to become one of his most popular works and the only one to have two authorised editions in his lifetime. Shelley's three-year-old son William died in June 1819, probably of malaria. The new tragedy caused a further decline in Shelley's health and deepened Mary's depression. On 4 August she wrote: \"We have now lived five years together; and if all the events of the five years were blotted out, I might be happy\". Make me thy lyre, even as the forest is:What if my leaves are falling like its own!The tumult of thy mighty harmoniesWill take from both a deep, autumnal tone,Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, Spirit fierce,My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!Drive my dead thoughts over the universeLike withered leaves to quicken a new birth!And, by the incantation of this verse,Scatter, as from unextinguished hearthAshes and sparks, my words among mankind!Be through my lips to unawakened EarthThe trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind,If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? From \"Ode to the West Wind\", 1819 The Shelleys were now living inLivornowhere, in September, Shelley heard of thePeterloo Massacreof peaceful protesters in Manchester. Within two weeks he had completed one of his most famous political poems,The Mask of Anarchy, and despatched it to Leigh Hunt for publication. Hunt, however, decided not to publish it for fear of prosecution for seditious libel. The poem was only officially published in 1832. The Shelleys moved to Florence in October, where Shelley read a scathing review of theRevolt of Islam(and its earlier versionLaon and Cythna) in the conservativeQuarterly Review. Shelley was angered by the personal attack on him in the article which he erroneously believed had been written by Southey. His bitterness over the review lasted for the rest of his life. On 12 November, Mary gave birth to a boy,Percy Florence Shelley.Around the time of Percy's birth, the Shelleys metSophia Stacey, who was a ward of one of Shelley's uncles and was staying at the same pension as the Shelleys. Sophia, a talented harpist and singer, formed a friendship with Shelley while Mary was preoccupied with her newborn son. Shelley wrote at least five love poems and fragments for Sophia including \"Song written for an Indian Air\". The Shelleys moved to Pisa in January 1820, ostensibly to consult a doctor who had been recommended to them. There they became friends with the Irish republican Margaret Mason (Lady Margaret Mountcashell) and her common-law husbandGeorge William Tighe. Mrs Mason became the inspiration for Shelley's poem \"The Sensitive Plant\", and Shelley's discussions with Mason and Tighe influenced his political thought and his critical interest in the population theories ofThomas Malthus. In March, Shelley wrote to friends that Mary was depressed, suicidal and hostile towards him. Shelley was also beset by financial worries, as creditors from England pressed him for payment and he was obliged to make secret payments in connection with his \"Neapolitan charge\" Elena. Meanwhile, Shelley was writingA Philosophical View of Reform, a political essay which he had begun in Rome. The unfinished essay, which remained unpublished in Shelley's lifetime, has been called \"one of the most advanced and sophisticated documents of political philosophy in the nineteenth century\". Another crisis erupted in June when Shelley claimed that he had been assaulted in the Pisan post office by a man accusing him of foul crimes. Shelley's biographerJames Bierisuggests that this incident was possibly a delusional episode brought on by extreme stress, as Shelley was being blackmailed by a former servant, Paolo Foggi, over baby Elena.It is likely that the blackmail was connected with a story spread by another former servant, Elise Foggi, that Shelley had fathered a child to Claire in Naples and had sent it to a foundling home.Shelley, Claire and Mary denied this story, and Elise later recanted. In July, hearing that John Keats was seriously ill in England, Shelley wrote to the poet inviting him to stay with him at Pisa. Keats replied with hopes of seeing him, but instead, arrangements were made for Keats to travel to Rome.Following the death of Keats in 1821, Shelley wroteAdonais, whichHarold Bloomconsiders one of the major pastoral elegies.The poem was published in Pisa in July 1821, but sold few copies. In early July 1820, Shelley heard that baby Elena had died on 9 June. In the months following the post office incident and Elena's death, relations between Mary and Claire deteriorated and Claire spent most of the next two years living separately from the Shelleys, mainly in Florence. That December Shelley met Teresa (Emilia) Viviani, who was the 19-year-old daughter of the Governor of Pisa and was living in a convent awaiting a suitable marriage.Shelley visited her several times over the next few months and they started a passionate correspondence which dwindled after her marriage the following September. Emilia was the inspiration for Shelley's major poemEpipsychidion. In March 1821 Shelley completed \"A Defence of Poetry\", a response to Peacock's article \"The Four Ages of Poetry\". Shelley's essay, with its famous conclusion \"Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world\", remained unpublished in his lifetime. Shelley went alone to Ravenna in early August to see Byron, making a detour to Livorno for a rendezvous with Claire. Shelley stayed with Byron for two weeks and invited the older poet to spend the winter in Pisa. After Shelley had heard Byron recite his newly completed fifth canto ofDon Juanhe wrote to Mary: \"I despair of rivalling Byron.\" In November Byron moved into Villa Lanfranchi in Pisa, just across the river from the Shelleys. Byron became the centre of the \"Pisan circle\" which was to include Shelley, Thomas Medwin,Edward WilliamsandEdward Trelawny. In the early months of 1822 Shelley became increasingly close toJane Williams, who was living with her partner Edward Williams in the same building as the Shelleys. Shelley wrote a number of love poems for Jane, including \"The Serpent is shut out of Paradise\" and \"With a Guitar, to Jane\". Shelley's obvious affection for Jane was to cause increasing tension among Shelley, Edward Williams and Mary. Claire arrived in Pisa in April at Shelley's invitation, and soon after they heard that her daughter Allegra had died of typhus in Ravenna. The Shelleys and Claire then moved to Villa Magni, nearLericion the shores of theGulf of La Spezia.Shelley acted as mediator between Claire and Byron over arrangements for the burial of their daughter, and the added strain led to Shelley having a series of hallucinations. Mary almost died from a miscarriage on 16 June, her life only being saved by Shelley's effective first aid. Two days later Shelley wrote to a friend that there was no sympathy between Mary and him and if the past and future could be obliterated he would be content in his boat with Jane and her guitar. That same day he also wrote to Trelawny asking forprussic acid.The following week, Shelley woke the household with his screaming over a nightmare or hallucination in which he saw Edward and Jane Williams as walking corpses and himself strangling Mary. During this time, Shelley was writing his final major poem, the unfinishedThe Triumph of Life, which Harold Bloom has called \"the most despairing poem he wrote\". Death On 1 July 1822, Shelley and Edward Williams sailed in Shelley's new boat theDon Juanto Livorno where Shelley met Leigh Hunt and Byron in order to make arrangements for a new journal,The Liberal. After the meeting, on 8 July, Shelley, Williams, and their boat boy sailed out of Livorno for Lerici. A few hours later, theDon Juanand its inexperienced crew were lost in a storm.The vessel, an open boat, had been custom-built inGenoafor Shelley. Mary Shelley declared in her \"Note on Poems of 1822\" (1839) that the design had a defect and that the boat was never seaworthy. The sinking, however, was probably due to the severe storm and poor seamanship of the three men on board. Shelley's badly decomposed body washed ashore atViareggioten days later and was identified by Trelawny from the clothing and a copy of Keats'sLamiain a jacket pocket. On 16 August, his body was cremated on a beach near Viareggio and the ashes were buried in theProtestant Cemetery of Rome. The day after the news of his death reached England, theToryLondon newspaperThe Courierprinted: \"Shelley, the writer of some infidel poetry, has been drowned;nowhe knows whether there is God or no.\" Shelley's ashes were reburied in a different plot at the cemetery in 1823. His grave bears the Latin inscriptionCor Cordium(Heart of Hearts), and a few lines of \"Ariel's Song\" from Shakespeare'sThe Tempest: Nothing of him that doth fadeBut doth suffer a sea changeInto something rich and strange. Shelley's remains When Shelley's body was cremated on the beach, his presumed heart resisted burning and was retrieved by Trelawny.The heart was possibly calcified from an earlier tubercular infection, or was perhaps his liver. Trelawny gave the scorched organ to Hunt, who preserved it in spirits of wine and refused to hand it over to Mary.He finally relented and the heart was eventually buried either atSt Peter's Church, Bournemouthor inChristchurch Priory.Hunt also retrieved a piece of Shelley's jawbone which, in 1913, was given to the Shelley-Keats Memorial in Rome. Family history Shelley's paternal grandfather wasBysshe Shelley(21 June 1731 – 6 January 1815), who, in 1806, became Sir Bysshe Shelley, First Baronet of Castle Goring.On Sir Bysshe's death in 1815, Shelley's father inherited the baronetcy, becomingSir Timothy Shelley. Shelley was the eldest of several legitimate children. Bieri argues that Shelley had an older illegitimate brother but, if he existed, little is known of him.His younger siblings were: John (1806–1866), Margaret (1801–1887), Hellen (1799–1885), Mary (1797–1884), Hellen (1796–1796, died in infancy) and Elizabeth (1794–1831). Shelley had two children by his first wife Harriet: Eliza Ianthe Shelley (1813–1876) and Charles Bysshe Shelley (1814–1826).He had four children by his second wife Mary: an unnamed daughter born in 1815 who only survived ten days; William Shelley (1816–1819); Clara Everina Shelley (1817–1818); andSir Percy Shelley, 3rd Baronet(1819–1889).Shelley also declared himself to be the father of Elena Adelaide Shelley (1818–1820), who might have been an illegitimate or adopted daughter.His son Percy Florence became the third baronet of Castle Goring in 1844, following the death of Sir Timothy Shelley. Ancestry Political, religious and ethical views Politics Shelley was a political radical influenced by thinkers such as Rousseau, Paine, Godwin, Wollstonecraft, and Leigh Hunt.He advocated Catholic Emancipation, republicanism, parliamentary reform, the extension of the franchise, freedom of speech and peaceful assembly, an end to aristocratic and clerical privilege, and a more equal distribution of income and wealth.The views he expressed in his published works were often more moderate than those he advocated privately because of the risk of prosecution for seditious libel and his desire not to alienate more moderate friends and political allies.Nevertheless, his political writings and activism brought him to the attention of the Home Office and he came under government surveillance at various periods. Shelley's most influential political work in the years immediately following his death was the poemQueen Mab, which included extensive notes on political themes. The work went through 14 official and pirated editions by 1845, and became popular in Owenist and Chartist circles. His longest political essay,A Philosophical View of Reform, was written in 1820, but not published until 1920. Nonviolence Shelley's advocacy of nonviolent resistance was largely based on his reflections on the French Revolution and rise of Napoleon, and his belief that violent protest would increase the prospect of a military despotism.Although Shelley sympathised with supporters of Irish independence, such asPeter FinnertyandRobert Emmet,he did not support violent rebellion. In his early pamphletAn Address, to the Irish People(1812) he wrote: \"I do not wish to see things changed now, because it cannot be done without violence, and we may assure ourselves that none of us are fit for any change, however good, if we condescend to employ force in a cause we think right.\" In his later essayA Philosophical View of Reform, Shelley did concede that there were political circumstances in which force might be justified: \"The last resort of resistance is undoubtably insurrection. The right of insurrection is derived from the employment of armed force to counteract the will of the nation.\"Shelley supported the1820 armed rebellion against absolute monarchy in Spain, and the1821 armed Greek uprising against Ottoman rule. Shelley's poem \"The Mask of Anarchy\" (written in 1819, but first published in 1832) has been called \"perhaps the first modern statement of the principle ofnonviolent resistance\".Gandhi was familiar with the poem and it is possible that Shelley had an indirect influence on Gandhi throughHenry David Thoreau'sCivil Disobedience. Religion Shelley was an avowed atheist, who was influenced by the materialist arguments inHolbach'sLe Système de la nature.His atheism was an important element of his political radicalism as he saw organised religion as inextricably linked to social oppression.The overt and implied atheism in many of his works raised a serious risk of prosecution for religious libel. His early pamphletThe Necessity of Atheismwas withdrawn from sale soon after publication following a complaint from a priest. His poemQueen Mab, which includes sustained attacks on the priesthood, Christianity and religion in general, was twice prosecuted by theSociety for the Suppression of Vicein 1821. A number of his other works were edited before publication to reduce the risk of prosecution. Free love Shelley's advocacy offree lovedrew heavily on the work of Mary Wollstonecraft and the early work of William Godwin. In his notes toQueen Mab, he wrote: \"A system could not well have been devised more studiously hostile to human happiness than marriage.\" He argued that the children of unhappy marriages \"are nursed in a systematic school of ill-humour, violence and falsehood\". He believed that the ideal of chastity outside marriage was \"a monkish and evangelical superstition\" which led to the hypocrisy of prostitution and promiscuity. Shelley believed that \"sexual connection\" should be free among those who loved each other and last only as long as their mutual love. Love should also be free and not subject to obedience, jealousy and fear. He denied that free love would lead to promiscuity and the disruption of stable human relationships, arguing that relationships based on love would generally be of long duration and marked by generosity and self-devotion. When Shelley's friend T. J. Hogg made an unwanted sexual advance to Shelley's first wife Harriet, Shelley forgave him of his \"horrible error\" and assured him that he was not jealous.It is very likely that Shelley encouraged Hogg and Shelley's second wife Mary to have a sexual relationship. Vegetarianism Shelley converted to a vegetable diet in early March 1812 and sustained it, with occasional lapses, for the remainder of his life. Shelley's vegetarianism was influenced by ancient authors such as Hesiod, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Ovid and Plutarch, but more directly byJohn Frank Newton, author ofThe Return to Nature, or, A Defence of the Vegetable Regimen(1811). Shelley wrote two essays on vegetarianism:A Vindication of Natural Diet(1813) and \"On the Vegetable System of Diet\" (written circa 1813–1815, but first published in 1929).Michael Owen Jonesargues that Shelley's advocacy of vegetarianism was strikingly modern, emphasising its health benefits, the alleviation of animal suffering, the inefficient use of agricultural land involved in animal husbandry, and the economic inequality resulting from the commercialisation of animal food production.Shelley's life and works inspired the founding of theVegetarian Societyin England (1847) and directly influenced the vegetarianism of George Bernard Shaw. Reception and influence Shelley's work was not widely read in his lifetime outside a small circle of friends, poets and critics. Most of his poetry, drama and fiction was published in editions of 250 copies which generally sold poorly. OnlyThe Cenciwent to an authorised second edition while Shelley was alive– in contrast, Byron'sThe Corsair(1814) sold out its first edition of 10,000 copies in one day. The initial reception of Shelley's work in mainstream periodicals (with the exception of the liberalExaminer) was generally unfavourable. Reviewers often launched personal attacks on Shelley's private life and political, social and religious views, even when conceding that his poetry contained beautiful imagery and poetic expression.There was also criticism of Shelley's intelligibility and style, Hazlitt describing it as \"a passionate dream, a straining after impossibilities, a record of fond conjectures, a confused embodying of vague abstraction\". Shelley's poetry soon gained a wider audience in radical and reformist circles.Queen Mabbecame popular with Owenists and Chartists, andRevolt of Islaminfluenced poets sympathetic to the workers' movement such asThomas Hood,Thomas CooperandWilliam Morris. However, Shelley's mainstream following did not develop until a generation after his death. Bieri argues that editions of Shelley's poems published in 1824 and 1839 were edited by Mary Shelley to highlight her late husband's lyrical gifts and downplay his radical ideas.Matthew Arnoldfamously described Shelley as a \"beautiful and ineffectual angel\". Shelley was a major influence on a number of important poets in the following decades, includingRobert Browning,Algernon Swinburne,Thomas HardyandWilliam Butler Yeats.Shelley-like characters frequently appeared in nineteenth-century literature; they include Scythrop inThomas Love Peacock’sNightmare Abbey,Ladislaw inGeorge Eliot’sMiddlemarchand Angel Clare in Hardy'sTess of the d'Urbervilles. Twentieth-century critics such asEliot,Leavis,Allen TateandAudenvariously criticised Shelley's poetry for deficiencies in style, \"repellent\" ideas, and immaturity of intellect and sensibility.However, Shelley's critical reputation began to rise in the 1960s as a new generation of critics highlighted Shelley's debt toSpenserandMilton, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist, and materialist ideas in his work.American literary criticHarold Bloomdescribes him as \"a superb craftsman, a lyric poet without rival, and surely one of the most advanced sceptical intellects ever to write a poem\".According to Donald H. Reiman, \"Shelley belongs to the great tradition of Western writers that includesDante,ShakespeareandMilton\". Legacy Shelley died leaving many of his works unfinished, unpublished or published in expurgated versions with multiple errors. Since the 1980s, a number of projects have aimed at establishing reliable editions of his manuscripts and works. Among the most notable of these are: Shelley's long-lost \"Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things\" (1811) was rediscovered in 2006 and subsequently made available online by theBodleian Libraryin Oxford. Charles E. Robinsonhas argued that Shelley's contribution to Mary Shelley's novelFrankensteinwas very significant and that Shelley should be considered her collaborator in writing the novel. Professor Charlotte Gordon and others have disputed this contention.Fiona Sampsonhas said: \"In recent years Percy's corrections, visible in theFrankensteinnotebooks held at the Bodleian Library in Oxford, have been seized on as evidence that he must have at least co-authored the novel. In fact, when I examined the notebooks myself, I realised that Percy did rather less than any line editor working in publishing today.\" The Keats–Shelley Memorial Association, founded in 1903, supports the Keats–Shelley House in Rome which is a museum and library dedicated to the Romantic writers with a strong connection with Italy. The association is also responsible for maintaining the grave of Percy Bysshe Shelley in the non-Catholic Cemetery at Testaccio. The association publishes the scholarlyKeats–Shelley Review. It also runs the annual Keats–Shelley and Young Romantics Writing Prizes and the Keats–Shelley Fellowship. Selected works Works are listed by estimated year of composition. The year of first publication is given when this is different. Source is Bieri,unless otherwise indicated. Poetry Drama Fiction Short prose works Essays Chapbooks Translations Collaborations with Mary Shelley See also References Notes Bibliography External links Category" ]
[ "List of pharaohs The title \"pharaoh\" is used for those rulers ofAncient Egyptwho ruled after the unification ofUpperandLower EgyptbyNarmerduring theEarly Dynastic Period, approximately 3100 BC. However, the specific title was not used to address the kings of Egypt by their contemporaries until theNew Kingdom's18th Dynasty, c. 1400 BC. Along with the title pharaoh for later rulers, there was anAncient Egyptian royal titularyused by Egyptian kings which remained relatively constant during the course of Ancient Egyptian history, initially featuring aHorus name, aSedge and Bee(nswt-bjtj) name and a Two Ladies (nbtj) name, with the additional Golden Horus, nomen and prenomen titles being added successively during later dynasties. Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by theKingdom of Kushin the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the traditional pharaonic titulature for themselves. Following the Kushite conquest, Egypt", "conquest, Egypt experienced another period of independent native rule before being conquered by theAchaemenid Empire, whose rulers also adopted the title of pharaoh. The last native pharaoh of Egypt wasNectanebo II, who was pharaoh before the Achaemenids conquered Egypt for a second time. Achaemenid rule over Egypt came to an end through theconquestsofAlexander the Greatin 332 BC, after which it was ruled byHellenicPharaohs of thePtolemaic Dynasty. Their rule, and the independence of Egypt, came to an end when Egypt became a province ofRomein 30 BC.Augustusand subsequentRoman emperorswerestyled as Pharaohwhen in Egypt until the reign ofMaximinus Dazain 314 AD. The dates given in thislist of pharaohsare approximate. They are based primarily on theconventional chronology of Ancient Egypt, mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universitiesdatabase developed by thePetrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, but alternative dates taken from other authorities may be indicated separately. Ancient Egyptian king lists", "Egyptian king lists Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records and, including Ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, such asManetho'sAegyptiaca, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution in regard to the credibility, exactitude and completeness of these sources, many of which were written long after the reigns they report.An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another and/or selective. The following ancient king lists are known (along with the dynasty under which they were created): Predynastic Period ThePredynastic Periodends around 3100 BC when Egypt was first unified as a single kingdom. Lower Egypt Lower Egyptgeographically consists of the northernNileand theNile delta. The following list may be incomplete: Upper Egypt Upper Egyptrefers to the region up-river to the south ofLower Egypt. Regrouped here are predynastic rulers ofUpper Egyptbelonging to the", "to the lateNaqada IIIperiod, sometimes informally described as Dynasty 0: Predynastic rulers: Dynasty 0 Since these kings precede the First Dynasty, they have been informally grouped as \"Dynasty 0\". The following list of predynastic rulers may be incomplete: Early Dynastic Period TheEarly Dynastic Periodof Egypt stretches from around 3100 to 2686 BC. First Dynasty TheFirst Dynastyruled from around 3100 to 2890 BC. Known for his ominousnebwy-title. First Egyptian ruler with a fully developedNebty name. His complete reign is preserved on the Cairo Stone. Many stone vessels of his predecessor were found reinscribed for Semerkhet so he may have been a usurper. Ruled very long, his tomb is the last one with subsidiary tombs. Second Dynasty TheSecond Dynastyruled from 2890 to 2686 BC. First ruler who uses the sun-symbol in his royal name, could be identical to kingWeneg. May have dividedEgyptbetween his successors, allegedly allowed women to rule like pharaohs. Could be an independent ruler succeeding Nynetjer or", "Nynetjer or the same as Peribsen,Sekhemib-Perenmaat, or Raneb. May have been a misinterpretation of the hieroglyphic sign of a flower called Weneg. May have been a crown prince or be the same person asWeneg-Nebty. Possibly the same person asPeribsen. This, however, is highly disputed. Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. Known only from Ramesside king lists, not archaeologically attested. Old Kingdom legends claim that this ruler savedEgyptfrom a long-lasting drought. It is probable that whenKhasekhemacceded kingship he was a ruler ofupper Egypt, he led campaigns againstlower Egyptthat ended in his victory, to commemorate his achievement of reunifying Egypt he changed his name to Khasekhemwy.His serekh name is unique for presenting bothHorusandSet. He was one of Egypt's first master builders, his funerary enclosure known asShunet-ez-Zebibis a colossal mudbrick structure. Old Kingdom TheOld Kingdom of Egyptis the long period of stability and growth following theEarly Dynastic", "theEarly Dynastic Periodand preceding the troubledFirst Intermediate Period. The kingdom spanned from 2686 to 2181 BC. Third Dynasty TheThird Dynastyruled from 2686 to 2613 BC. Commissioned thefirst PyramidinEgypt, created by chief architect and scribeImhotep. In the necropolis of his unfinishedstep pyramid, the remains of a 2-year old infant were found. Could be the same asQahedjetorKhaba. Possibly built an unfinishedstep pyramidand several cultic pyramids throughoutEgypt. Huni was for a long time credited with the building of the pyramid of Meidum. This, however, is disproved byNew Kingdomgraffiti that praise kingSneferu, not Huni. Fourth Dynasty TheFourth Dynastyruled from 2613 to 2496 BC. Reigned 48 years, giving him enough time to build theMeidum Pyramid, theBent Pyramidand theRed Pyramid. Some scholars believe that he was buried in the Red Pyramid. For a long time it was thought that theMeidum Pyramidwas not Sneferu's work, but that of kingHuni. Ancient Egyptian documents describe Sneferu as a pious,", "Sneferu as a pious, generous and even accostable ruler. Built theGreat Pyramid of Giza. Khufu is depicted as a cruel tyrant by ancient Greek authors; Ancient Egyptian sources however describe him as a generous and pious ruler. He is the main protagonist in theWestcar Papyrus. The first imprinted papyri originate from Khufu's reign, which may have made ancient Greek authors believe that Khufu wrote books in attempt to praise the gods. Some scholars believe he created theGreat Sphinx of Gizaas a monument for his deceased father. He also created a pyramid atAbu Rawash. However, this pyramid is no longer extant; it is believed the Romans re-purposed the materials from which it was made. His pyramidis the second largest inGiza. Some scholars prefer him as the creator of theGreat Sphinxbefore Djedefra. His funerary complex was the largest at the Giza plateau. Could be the owner of theUnfinished Northern Pyramid of Zawyet el'Aryan. Possibly fictional. His pyramid is the third and smallest inGiza. A legend claims", "A legend claims that his only daughter died due to an illness and Menkaura buried her in a golden coffin in the shape of a cow. Owner of theMastabat el-Fara'un. Fifth Dynasty TheFifth Dynastyruled from 2496 to 2345 BC. Sixth Dynasty TheSixth Dynastyruled from 2345 to 2181 BC. First Intermediate Period TheFirst Intermediate Period(2183–2060 BC) is a period of disarray and chaos between the end of theOld Kingdomand the advent of theMiddle Kingdom. TheOld Kingdomrapidly collapsed after the death ofPepi II. He had reigned for more than 64 and likely up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. The union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the resultingfamine. The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After 20 to 45 years, they were overthrown by a new line", "by a new line of pharaohs based inHerakleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based atThebesrevolted against their nominal Northern overlords and unitedUpper Egypt. Around 2055 BC,Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of pharaohIntef IIIdefeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom. Seventh and Eighth Dynasties TheSeventh and Eighth Dynastiesruled for approximately 20–45 years. They comprise numerous ephemeral kings reigning fromMemphisover a possibly divided Egypt and, in any case, holding only limited power owing to the effectively feudal system into which the administration had evolved. The list below is based on theAbydos King Listdating to the reign ofSeti Iand taken fromJürgen von Beckerath'sHandbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamenas well as fromKim Ryholt's latest reconstruction of theTurin canon, another king list dating to theRamesside Era. Ninth Dynasty TheNinth Dynastyruled from 2160 to 2130 BC. TheTurin King Listhas 18 kings", "Listhas 18 kings reigning in the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties. Of these, twelve names are missing and four are partial. Tenth Dynasty TheTenth Dynastywas a local group that held sway overLower Egyptand ruled from 2130 to 2040 BC. Eleventh Dynasty TheEleventh Dynastyoriginated from a group of Theban nomarchs serving kings of the 8th, 9th or 10th dynasty with roots inUpper Egyptthat ruled from 2134 to 1991 BC. The successors ofIntef the Elder, starting withMentuhotep I, became independent from their northern overlords and eventually conquered Egypt underMentuhotep II. Middle Kingdom TheMiddle Kingdom of Egypt(2040–1802 BC) is the period from the end of theFirst Intermediate Periodto the beginning of theSecond Intermediate Period. In addition to theTwelfth Dynasty, some scholars include theEleventh,ThirteenthandFourteenth Dynastiesin the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom can be noted for the expansion of trade outside of the kingdom that occurred during this time. Eleventh Dynasty cont. The second part of", "The second part of theEleventh Dynastyis usually considered to be the beginning of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. Enigmatic kings, only attested in Lower Nubia: Twelfth Dynasty TheTwelfth Dynastyruled from 1991 to 1802 BC. The position of a possible additional ruler,Seankhibtawy Seankhibra, is uncertain. He may be an ephemeral king, or a name variant of a king of the 12th or 13th Dynasty. Second Intermediate Period TheSecond Intermediate Period(1802–1550 BC) is a period of disarray between the end of theMiddle Kingdom, and the start of theNew Kingdom. It is best known as when theHyksos, whose reign comprised theFifteenth Dynasty, made their appearance in Egypt. TheThirteenth Dynastywas much weaker than theTwelfth Dynasty, and was unable to hold onto the two lands of Egypt. Either at the start of the dynasty, c. 1805 BC or toward the middle of it in c. 1710 BC, the provincial ruling family inXois, located in the marshes of the eastern Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the CanaaniteFourteenth", "CanaaniteFourteenth Dynasty. The Hyksos made their first appearance during the reign ofSobekhotep IV, and around 1720 BC took control of the town ofAvaris(the modernTell el-Dab'a/Khata'na), conquering the kingdom of the 14th dynasty. Sometime around 1650 BC the Hyksos, perhaps led bySalitisthe founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, conqueredMemphis, thereby terminating the 13th dynasty. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt resulting from the collapse of the 13th dynasty allowed the 16th dynasty to declare its independence inThebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos kings shortly thereafter. Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes set itself up as theSeventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia underSeqenenre Tao,Kamoseand finallyAhmose, first pharaoh of the New Kingdom. Thirteenth Dynasty TheThirteenth Dynasty(following theTurin King List) ruled from 1802 to around 1649 BC and lasted 153 or 154 years according to Manetho. This", "to Manetho. This table should be contrasted withKnown kings of the 13th Dynasty: The position of the following kings is uncertain: Fourteenth Dynasty TheFourteenth Dynastywas a local group from the eastern Delta, based atAvaris,that ruled from either 1805 BC or around 1710 BC until around 1650 BC. Some of the contested rulers of the 14th Dynasty (proposed by Kim Ryholt) are commonly identified by Egyptologists as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent, owing to the distinct origins of the names of some of their kings and princes. However, the dynasty rulers are not referred to as Hyksos in the Turin kings list.It is here given according to Ryholt; however, this reconstruction of the dynasty is heavily debated with the position of the five kings preceding Nehesy highly disputed. The position and identity of the following pharaohs is uncertain: TheTurin King Listprovides additional names, none of which are attested beyond the list. Fifteenth Dynasty TheFifteenth Dynastyarose from among theHyksospeople who", "theHyksospeople who emerged from theFertile Crescentto establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region, and ruled from 1674 to 1535 BC. Abydos Dynasty The Second Intermediate Period may include an independentdynasty reigning over Abydosfrom around 1650 BC until 1600 BC. Four attested kings may be tentatively attributed to the Abydos Dynasty, and they are given here without regard for their (unknown) chronological order: Sixteenth Dynasty TheSixteenth Dynastywas a nativeThebandynasty emerging from the collapse of the Memphis-based 13th dynasty around 1650 BC. They were finally conquered by the Hyksos 15th dynasty around 1580 BC. The 16th dynasty held sway over Upper Egypt only. The 16th Dynasty may also have comprised the reigns of pharaohsSneferankhre Pepi IIIandNebmaatre. Their chronological position is uncertain. Seventeenth Dynasty TheSeventeenth Dynastywas based inUpper Egyptand ruled from 1650 to 1550 BC: The early 17th Dynasty may also have included the reign of a pharaohNebmaatre,", "a pharaohNebmaatre, whose chronological position is uncertain. New Kingdom TheNew Kingdom(1550–1077 BC) is the period covering theEighteenth,Nineteenth, andTwentieth dynasty of Egypt, from the 16th to the 11th century BC, between theSecond Intermediate Period, and theThird Intermediate Period. Through military dominance abroad, the New Kingdom saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. It expanded far intoNubiain the south, and held wide territories in theNear East. Egyptian armies fought withHittitearmies for control of modern-daySyria. Three of the best known pharaohs of the New Kingdom areAkhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, whose exclusive worship of theAtenis often interpreted as the first instance ofmonotheism,Tutankhamunknown for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, andRamesses IIwho attempted to recover the territories in modernIsrael/Palestine,LebanonandSyriathat had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to theBattle of Qadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the army", "against the army of the Hittite kingMuwatalli II. Eighteenth Dynasty TheEighteenth Dynastyruled from c. 1550 to 1292 BC: Nineteenth Dynasty TheNineteenth Dynastyruled from 1292 to 1186 BC and includes one of the greatest pharaohs:Ramesses IIthe Great. Twentieth Dynasty TheTwentieth Dynastyruled from 1190 to 1077 BC: Third Intermediate Period TheThird Intermediate Period(1077–664 BC) marked the end of theNew Kingdomafter the collapse of the Egyptian empire at the end of theBronze Age. Two dynasties ofLibyanorigin ruled, giving this period its alternative name of the Libyan Period. Twenty-First Dynasty TheTwenty-First Dynastywas based atTanisand was a relatively weak group. Theoretically, they were rulers of all Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt. They ruled from 1077 to 943 BC. Theban High Priests of Amun Though not officially pharaohs, theHigh Priests of Amun at Thebeswere thede factorulers ofUpper Egyptduring theTwenty-first dynasty, writing their names incartouchesand being", "being buried in royal tombs. Twenty-Second Dynasty The pharaohs of theTwenty-Second DynastywereLibyans, ruling from around 943 to 728 BC. Twenty-Third Dynasty TheTwenty-Third Dynastywas a local group, again ofLibyanorigin, based atHerakleopolisand Thebes that ruled from 837 to c. 735 BC. Rudamun was succeeded inThebesby a local ruler: Twenty-Fourth Dynasty TheTwenty-fourth Dynastywas a short-lived rival dynasty located in the western Delta (Sais), with only two pharaohs ruling from 732 to 720 BC. Twenty-Fifth Dynasty Nubiansinvaded Lower Egypt and took the throne of Egypt underPiyealthough they already controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt in the early years of Piye's reign. Piye's conquest of Lower Egypt established theTwenty-fifth Dynastywhich ruled until 656 BC. They were ultimately driven back into Nubia, where they established a kingdom atNapata(656–590), and, later, atMeroë(590 BC – AD 500). Late Period TheLate Periodruns from around 664 to 332 BC, and includes periods of rule by", "periods of rule by nativeEgyptiansandPersians. Twenty-Sixth Dynasty TheTwenty-sixth Dynastyruled from around 664 to 525 BC. The son and successor of Nekau I,Psamtik I, managed to reunify Egypt and is generally regarded as the founder of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Twenty-Seventh Dynasty Egypt was conquered by thePersian Empirein 525 BC by kingCambyses II, the son ofCyrus the Great, and remained Persiansatrapyfor more than one hundred years until regaining independence in 404 BC. TheAchaemenidkingswere acknowledged as Pharaohs in this era, forming the27th Dynasty: Several native rebellions took place during the 27th dynasty: Twenty-Eighth Dynasty TheTwenty-eighth Dynastylasted only 6 years, from 404 to 398 BC, with one pharaoh: Twenty-Ninth Dynasty TheTwenty-ninth Dynastyruled from 398 to 380 BC: Thirtieth Dynasty TheThirtieth Dynastyruled from 379/8 until Egypt once more came under Persian rulec.340 BC: Thirty-First Dynasty Egypt again came under the control of theAchaemenidPersians. After the practice", "After the practice ofManetho, the Persian rulers from 340 to 332 BC are occasionally designated as theThirty-first Dynasty: Native rebellions again took place during the 31st dynasty: Hellenistic period Argead Dynasty TheMacedonian GreeksunderAlexander the Greatushered in theHellenisticperiod with his conquest of Persia and Egypt. TheArgeadsruled from 332 to 309 BC: Ptolemaic Dynasty The secondHellenisticdynasty, thePtolemies, ruled Egypt from 305 BC until Egypt became a province ofRomein 30 BC (whenever two dates overlap, that means there was a co-regency). The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, in modern times known simply asCleopatra, who was successively the consort ofJulius Caesarand, after Caesar's death, ofMark Antony, having children with both of them. Cleopatra strove to create a dynastic and political union between Egypt and Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Mark Antony doomed her plans. Caesarion(Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar) was the last king of", "the last king of thePtolemaic Dynastyof Egypt, and he reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from September 2, 47 BC. He was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII, and possibly the only son ofJulius Caesar, after whom he was named. Between the alleged death of Cleopatra, on August 12, 30 BC, up to his own alleged death on August 23, 30 BC, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. It is tradition that he was hunted down and killed on the orders of Octavian, who would become theRoman emperorAugustus, but the historical evidence does not exist. 163 – c. July 145 BC and 163–127 BC and 124–116 BC and 144–131 BC and 127–116 BC and 127–107 BC and 88-81 BC and 107-88 BC and 55–51 BC Native rebellions also took place under Greek rule: Rome Cleopatra VIIhadaffairswith Roman dictatorJulius Caesarand Roman generalMark Antony, but it was not until after her suicide (after Mark Antony was defeated byOctavian, who would later be EmperorAugustus Caesar) that Egypt became a province of theRoman Republicin 30 BC.", "Republicin 30 BC. Subsequent Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh, although exclusively only while in Egypt. The last Roman emperor to be conferred the title of pharaoh wasMaximinus Daza(reigned 311–313 AD). See also References Further reading External links", "Seti I Menmaatre Seti I(orSethos IinGreek) was the secondpharaohof theNineteenth Dynasty of Egyptduring theNew Kingdomperiod, rulingc.1294or 1290 BC to 1279 BC.He was the son ofRamesses IandSitre, and the father ofRamesses II. The name 'Seti' means \"of Set\", which indicates that he was consecrated to the godSet(also termed \"Sutekh\" or \"Seth\"). As with most pharaohs, Seti had several names. Upon his ascension, he took theprenomen\"mn-m3't-r' \", usually vocalized in Egyptian asMenmaatre(Established is the Justice of Re).His better knownnomen, or birth name, is transliterated as \"sty mry-n-ptḥ\"orSety Merenptah, meaning \"Man of Set, beloved ofPtah\".Manethoincorrectly considered him to be the founder of the 19th Dynasty, and gave him a reign length of 55 years, though no evidence has ever been found for so long a reign. Reign Background After the enormous social upheavals generated byAkhenaten'sreligious reform,Horemheb,Ramesses Iand Seti I's main priority was to re-establish order in the kingdom and to reaffirm", "and to reaffirm Egypt's sovereignty overCanaanandSyria, which had been compromised by the increasing external pressures from theHittitestate. Seti, with energy and determination, confronted the Hittites several times in battle. Without succeeding in destroying the Hittites as a potential danger to Egypt, he reconquered most of the disputed territories for Egypt and generally concluded his military campaigns with victories. The memory of Seti I's military successes was recorded in some large scenes placed on the front of the temple ofAmun, situated inKarnak. Afunerary templefor Seti was constructed in what is now known asQurna(Mortuary Temple of Seti I), on the west bank of theNileatThebeswhile a magnificent temple made of white limestone atAbydosfeaturing exquisite relief scenes was started by Seti, and later completed by his son. His capital was atMemphis. He was considered a great king by his peers, but his fame has been overshadowed since ancient times by that of his son, Ramesses II. Reign Length Seti", "Reign Length Seti I's known accession date is known to be on III Shemu day 24.Seti I's reign length was either 9 or 11 rather than 15 full years. EgyptologistKenneth Kitchenhas estimated that it was 15 years, but there are no dates recorded for Seti I after his Year 11 Gebel Barkalstela. As this king is otherwise quite well documented in historical records, other scholars suggest that a continuous break in the record for his last four years is unlikely, although it is technically possible simply that no records have been yet discovered. Peter J. Brandnoted that the king personally opened new rock quarries atAswanto build obelisks and colossal statues in his Year 9.This event is commemorated on two rock stelas in Aswan. However, most of Seti's obelisks and statues such as theFlaminianandLuxorobelisks were only partly finished or decorated by the time of his death, since they were completed early under his son's reign based on epigraphic evidence (they bore the early form of Ramesses II's royal prenomen", "II's royal prenomen \"Usermaatre\"). Ramesses II used the prenomen Usermaatre to refer to himself in his first year and did not adopt the final form of his royal title \"Usermaatre Setepenre\" until late into his second year. Brand aptly notes that this evidence calls into question the idea of a 15 Year reign for Seti I and suggests that \"Seti died after a ten to eleven year reign\" because only two years would have passed between the opening of the Rock Quarries and the partial completion and decoration of these monuments.This explanation conforms better with the evidence of the unfinished state of Seti I's monuments and the fact thatRamesses IIhad to complete the decorations on \"many of his father's unfinished monuments, including the southern half of theGreat Hypostyle HallatKarnakand portions of his father's temples at Gurnah and Abydos\" during the very first Year of his own reign.Critically, Brand notes that the larger of the two Aswan rock stelas states that Seti I \"has ordered the commissioning of", "commissioning of multitudinous works for the making of very great obelisks and great and wondrous statues (i.e. colossi) in the name of His Majesty,L.P.H.He made great barges for transporting them, and ships crews to match them for ferrying them from the quarry.\" (KRI 74:12-14)However, despite this promise, Brand stresses that there are few obelisks and apparently no colossi inscribed for Seti. Ramesses II, however, was able to complete the two obelisks and four seated colossi from Luxor within the first years of his reign, the two obelisks in particular being partly inscribed before he adopted the final form of his prenomen sometime in year two. This state of affairs strongly implies that Seti died after ten to eleven years. Had he ruled on until his fourteenth or fifteenth year, then surely more of the obelisks and colossi he commissioned in year nine would have been completed, in particular those from Luxor. If he in fact died after little more than a decade on the throne, however, then at most two", "then at most two years would have elapsed since the Aswan quarries were opened in year nine, and only a fraction of the great monoliths would have been complete and inscribed at his death, with others just emerging from the quarries so that Ramesses would be able to decorate them shortly after his accession. ... It now seems clear that a long, fourteen-to fifteen-year reign for Seti I can be rejected for lack of evidence. Rather, a tenure of ten or more likely probably eleven, years appears the most likely scenario. The German EgyptologistJürgen von Beckerathalso accepts that Seti I's reign lasted only 11 Years in a 1997 book.Seti's highest known date is Year 11, IV Shemu day 12 or 13 on a sandstone stela fromGebel Barkalbut he would have briefly survived for 2 to 3 days into his Year 12 before dying based on the date of Ramesses II's rise to power. Seti I's accession date has been determined by Wolfgang Helck to be III Shemu day 24, which is very close to Ramesses II's known accession date of III Shemu day", "of III Shemu day 27. More recently, in 2011, the Dutch EgyptologistJacobus Van Dijkquestioned the \"Year 11\" date stated in the great temple ofAmunon theGebel Barkalstela—Seti I's previously known highest attested date.This monument is quite badly preserved but still depicts Seti I in erect posture, which is the only case occurring since his Year 4 when he started to be depicted in a stooping posture on his stelae. Furthermore, the glyphs \"I ∩\" representing the 11 are damaged in the upper part and may just as well be \"I I I\" instead. Subsequently, Van Dijk proposed that the Gebel Barkal stela should be dated to Year 3 of Seti I, and that Seti's highest date more likely is Year 9 as suggested by the wine jars found in his tomb.In a 2012 paper,David Astonanalyzed the wine jars and came to the same conclusion since no wine labels higher than Seti I's 8th regnal year were found in hisKV17tomb. Military campaigns Seti I fought a series of wars in western Asia, Libya and Nubia in the first decade of his reign. The", "of his reign. The main source for Seti's military activities are his battle scenes on the north exterior wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall, along with several royal stelas with inscriptions mentioning battles in Canaan and Nubia. In his first regnal year, he led his armies along the \"Horus Military road\", the coastal road that led from the Egyptian city ofTjaru(Zarw/Sile) in the northeast corner of the Egyptian Nile Delta along the northern coast of the Sinai peninsula ending in the town of \"Canaan\" in the modern Gaza strip. The Ways of Horus consisted of a series of military forts, each with a well, that are depicted in detail in the king's war scenes on the north wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall. While crossing the Sinai, the king's army fought local Bedouins called theShasu. In Canaan, he received the tribute of some of the city states he visited. Others, includingBeth-ShanandYenoam, had to be captured but were easily defeated. A stele in Beth-Shan testifies to that reconquest; according to Grdsseloff,", "to Grdsseloff, Rowe, Albrecht et Albright,Seti defeated Asian nomads in war against the Apirus (Hebrews). Dussaud commented Albright's article: \"The interest of Professor Albright's note is mainly due to the fact that he no longer objects to the identification of \"Apiru\" with \"Ibri\" (i.e. the Hebrews) provided that we grant him that the vocal change has been driven by a popular etymology that brought the term \"eber\" (formerly 'ibr), that is to say the man from beyond the river.\"It seems that Egypt extends beyond the river. The attack on Yenoam is illustrated in his war scenes, while other battles, such as the defeat of Beth-Shan, were not shown because the king himself did not participate, sending a division of his army instead. The year one campaign continued into Lebanon where the king received the submission of its chiefs who were compelled to cut down valuable cedar wood themselves as tribute. At some unknown point in his reign, Seti I defeated Libyan tribesmen who had invaded Egypt's western border.", "western border. Although defeated, the Libyans would pose an ever-increasing threat to Egypt during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III. The Egyptian army also put down a minor \"rebellion\" in Nubia in the 8th year of Seti I. Seti himself did not participate in it although his crown prince, the future Ramesses II, may have. Capture of Kadesh The greatest achievement of Seti I's foreign policy was the capture of theSyriantown ofKadeshand neighboring territory ofAmurrufrom the Hittite Empire. Egypt had not held Kadesh since the time ofAkhenaten. Seti I was successful in defeating a Hittite army that tried to defend the town. He entered the city in triumph together with his sonRamesses IIand erected a victory stela at the site which has been found by archaeologists.Kadesh, however, soon reverted to Hittite control because the Egyptians did not or could not maintain a permanent military occupation of Kadesh and Amurru so close to the Hittite homelands. It is unlikely that Seti I made a peace treaty with the", "treaty with the Hittites or voluntarily returned Kadesh and Amurru, but he may have reached an informal understanding with the Hittite kingMuwatallion the precise boundaries of their empires. Five years after Seti I's death, however, his sonRamesses IIresumed hostilities and made a failed attempt torecapture Kadesh. Kadesh was henceforth effectively held by the Hittites even though Ramesses temporarily occupied the city in his 8th year. The traditional view of Seti I's wars was that he restored the Egyptian empire after it had been lost in the time of Akhenaten. This was based on the chaotic picture of Egyptian-controlled Syria and Palestine seen in theAmarna letters, a cache of diplomatic correspondence from the time of Akhenaten found at Akhenaten's capital at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt. Recent scholarship, however, indicates that the empire was not lost at this time, except for its northern border provinces of Kadesh and Amurru in Syria and Lebanon. While evidence for the military activities of Akhenaten,", "of Akhenaten, Tutankhamun and Horemheb is fragmentary or ambiguous, Seti I has left us an impressive war monument that glorifies his achievements, along with a number of texts, all of which tend to magnify his prowess on the battlefield. Burial Mummy From an examination of Seti's extremely well-preserved mummy, Seti I appears to have been less than forty years old when he died unexpectedly. This is in stark contrast to the situation withHoremheb, Ramesses I and Ramesses II who all lived to an advanced age. The reasons for his relatively early death are uncertain, but there is no evidence of violence on his mummy. His mummy was found decapitated, but this was likely caused by tomb robbers after his death. The Amun priest carefully reattached his head to his body with the use of linen cloths. It has been suggested that he died from a disease which had affected him for years, possibly related to his heart. The latter was found placed in the right part of the body, while the usual practice of the day was to", "of the day was to place it in the left part during the mummification process. Opinions vary whether this was a mistake or an attempt to have Seti's heart work better in his afterlife. Seti I's mummy is about 1.7 metres (5 feet 7 inches) tall. In April 2021 his mummy was moved from theMuseum of Egyptian Antiquitiesto theNational Museum of Egyptian Civilizationalong with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed thePharaohs' Golden Parade. Tomb Seti's well-preserved tomb (KV17) was found in 1817 byGiovanni Battista Belzoni, in theValley of the Kings;it proved to be the longest at 446 feet (136 meters)and deepest of all the New Kingdom royal tombs. It was also the first tomb to feature decorations (including theBook of the Heavenly Cow)on every passageway and chamber with highly refined bas-reliefs and colorful paintings – fragments of which, including a large column depicting Seti I with the goddessHathor, can be seen in theNational Archaeological Museum, Florence. This decorative style set a", "style set a precedent which was followed in full or in part in the tombs of later New Kingdom kings. Seti'smummyitself was discovered by Émil Brugsch on June 6, 1881, in the mummy cache (tombDB320) atDeir el-Bahriand has since been kept at theEgyptian Museumin Cairo. His hugesarcophagus, carved in one piece and intricately decorated on every surface (including the goddessNuton the interior base), is inSir John Soane's Museum.Soane bought it for exhibition in his open collection in 1824, when theBritish Museumrefused to pay the £2,000 demanded.On its arrival at the museum, the alabaster was pure white and inlaid with bluecopper sulphate. Years of the London climate and pollution have darkened the alabaster to a buff colour and absorbed moisture has caused thehygroscopicinlay material to fall out and disappear completely. A small watercolour nearby records the appearance, as it was. The tomb also had an entrance to a secret tunnel hidden behind the sarcophagus, which Belzoni's team estimated to be 100 meters", "to be 100 meters (330 feet) long.However, the tunnel was not truly excavated until 1961, when a team led by Sheikh Ali Abdel-Rasoul began digging in hopes of discovering a secret burial chamber containing hidden treasures.The team failed to follow the original passage in their excavations, and had to call a halt due to instabilities in the tunnel;further issues with permits and finances eventually ended Sheikh Ali's dreams of treasure,though they were at least able to establish that the passage was over 30 meters (98 feet) longer than the original estimate. In June 2010, a team from Egypt'sMinistry of Antiquitiesled byDr. Zahi Hawasscompleted excavation of the tunnel, which had begun again after the discovery in 2007 of a downward-sloping passage beginning approximately 136 meters (446 feet) into the previously excavated tunnel. After uncovering two separate staircases, they found that the tunnel ran for 174 meters (571 feet) in total; unfortunately, the last step seemed to have been abandoned prior to", "abandoned prior to completion and no secret burial chamber was found. Alleged co-regency with Ramesses II Around Year 9 of his reign, Seti appointed his sonRamesses IIas the crown prince and his chosen successor, but the evidence for acoregencybetween the two kings is likely illusory.Peter J. Brandstresses in his thesisthat relief decorations at various temple sites atKarnak,Qurnaand Abydos, which associate Ramesses II with Seti I, were actually carved after Seti's death by Ramesses II himself and, hence, cannot be used as source material to support a co-regency between the two monarchs. In addition, the late William Murnane, who first endorsed the theory of a co-regency between Seti I and Ramesses II,later revised his view of the proposed co-regency and rejected the idea that Ramesses II had begun to count his own regnal years while Seti I was still alive.Finally,Kenneth Kitchenrejects the term co-regency to describe the relationship between Seti I and Ramesses II; he describes the earliest phase of", "earliest phase of Ramesses II's career as a \"prince regency\" where the young Ramesses enjoyed all the trappings of royalty including the use of a royal titulary andharembut did not count his regnal years until after his father's death.This is due to the fact that the evidence for a co-regency between the two kings is vague and highly ambiguous. Two important inscriptions from the first decade of Ramesses' reign, namely the Abydos Dedicatory Inscription and the Kuban Stela of Ramesses II, consistently give the latter titles associated with those of a crown prince only, namely the \"king's eldest son and hereditary prince\" or \"child-heir\" to the throne \"along with some military titles.\" Hence, no clear evidence supports the hypothesis that Ramesses II was a co-regent under his father. Brand stresses that: Ramesses' claim that he was crowned king by Seti, even as a child in his arms , is highly self-serving and open to question although his description of his role as crown prince is more accurate...The most", "accurate...The most reliable and concrete portion of this statement is the enumeration of Ramesses' titles as eldest king's son and heir apparent, well attested in sources contemporary with Seti's reign. See also References Bibliography External links (Shamshi-Adaddynasty1808–1736 BCE)(Amorites)Shamshi-Adad IIshme-Dagan IMut-AshkurRimushAsinumAshur-dugulAshur-apla-idiNasir-SinSin-namirIpqi-IshtarAdad-saluluAdasi(Non-dynastic usurpers1735–1701 BCE)Puzur-SinAshur-dugulAshur-apla-idiNasir-SinSin-namirIpqi-IshtarAdad-saluluAdasi(Adaside dynasty1700–722 BCE)Bel-baniLibayaSharma-Adad IIptar-SinBazayaLullayaShu-NinuaSharma-Adad IIErishum IIIShamshi-Adad IIIshme-Dagan IIShamshi-Adad IIIAshur-nirari IPuzur-Ashur IIIEnlil-nasir INur-iliAshur-shaduniAshur-rabi IAshur-nadin-ahhe IEnlil-Nasir IIAshur-nirari IIAshur-bel-nisheshuAshur-rim-nisheshuAshur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate PeriodSixteenthDynastyAbydosDynastySeventeenthDynasty (1500–1100 BCE)Kidinuid dynastyIgehalkid dynastyUntash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty", "Dynasty of EgyptSmendesAmenemnisuPsusennes IAmenemopeOsorkon the ElderSiamunPsusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of EgyptHarsiese ATakelot IIPedubast IShoshenq VIOsorkon IIITakelot IIIRudamunMenkheperre IniTwenty-fourth Dynasty of EgyptTefnakhtBakenranef (Sargonid dynasty)Tiglath-Pileser†Shalmaneser†Marduk-apla-iddina IISargon†Sennacherib†Marduk-zakir-shumi IIMarduk-apla-iddina IIBel-ibniAshur-nadin-shumi†Nergal-ushezibMushezib-MardukEsarhaddon†AshurbanipalAshur-etil-ilaniSinsharishkunSin-shumu-lishirAshur-uballit II", "Ramesses II Ramesses II(/ˈræməsiːz,ˈræmsiːz,ˈræmziːz/;Ancient Egyptian:rꜥ-ms-sw,Rīꜥa-masē-sə,Ancient Egyptian pronunciation:;c.1303 BC – 1213 BC),commonly known asRamesses the Great, was anEgyptian pharaoh. He was the third ruler of theNineteenth Dynasty. Along withThutmose IIIof theEighteenth Dynasty, he is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of theNew Kingdom, which itself was the most powerful period ofancient Egypt.He is also widely considered one of ancient Egypt's most successful warrior pharaohs, conducting no fewer than 15 military campaigns, all resulting in victories, excluding theBattle of Kadesh, generally considered a stalemate. Inancient Greek sources, he is calledOzymandias,derived from the first part of his Egyptian-language regnal name:UsermaatreSetepenre.Ramesses was also referred to as the \"Great Ancestor\" by successor pharaohs and the Egyptian people. For the early part of his reign, he focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. After", "monuments. After establishing the city ofPi-Ramessesin theNile Delta, he designated it as Egypt's new capital and used it as the main staging point for his campaigns inSyria. Ramesses led several military expeditions into theLevant, where he reasserted Egyptian control overCanaanandPhoenicia; he also led a number of expeditions intoNubia, all commemorated in inscriptions atBeit el-WaliandGerf Hussein. He celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteenSed festivals—more than any other pharaoh. Estimates of his age at death vary, although 90 or 91 is considered to be the most likely figure.Upon his death, he was buried in a tomb (KV7) in theValley of the Kings;his body was later moved to theRoyal Cache, where it was discovered by archaeologists in 1881. Ramesses'mummyis now on display at theNational Museum of Egyptian Civilization, located in the city ofCairo. Early life Ramesses II was not born a prince. His grandfatherRamesses Iwas a vizier and military officer during the reign of pharaohHoremheb, who", "who appointed Ramesses I as his successor; at that time, Ramesses II was about eleven years old. After Ramesses I died, his son,Seti Ibecame king, and designated his son Ramesses II as prince regent at about the age of fourteen. Reign length Ramesses date of accession to the throne is recorded as IIIShemu, day 27, which mostEgyptologistsbelieve to be 31 May 1279 BC. The Jewish historianJosephus, in his bookContra Apionemwhich included material fromManetho'sAegyptiaca, assigned Ramesses II (\"Armesses Miamun\") a reign of 66 years, 2 months.This is essentially confirmed by the calendar of PapyrusGurobfragment L, where Year 67, IAkhetday 18 of Ramesses II is immediately followed by Year 1, IIAkhetday 19 ofMerneptah(Ramesses II's son), meaning Ramesses II died about 2 months into his 67th Regnal year. In 1994, A. J. Peden proposed that Ramesses II died between II Akhet day 3 and II Akhet day 13 on the basis of Theban graffito 854+855, equated to Merneptah's Year 1 II Akhet day 2.The workman's village ofDeir", "village ofDeir el-Medinapreserves a fragment of a mid-20th dynasty necropolis journal (P. Turin prov. nr. 8538 recto I, 5; unpublished) which records that the date II Akhet day 6 was a Free feast day for the \"Sailing of UsimaRe-Setepenre.\" (for Ramesses II).As the Egyptologist Robert J. Demarée notes in a 2016 paper: The date of Ramesses II's recorded death on II Akhet day 6 falls perfectly within A. J. Peden's estimated timeline for the king's death in the interval between II Akhet day 3 and II Akhet day 13. This means that Ramesses II died on Year 67, IIAkhetday 6 of his reign after ruling Egypt for 66 years 2 months and 9 days. Military campaigns Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to restore possession of previously held territories lost to theNubiansandHittitesand to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign inLibya. Though theBattle of Kadeshoften dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military", "II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over Egypt's enemies. During his reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled some 100,000 men: a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence. Battle against Sherden pirates In his second year, Ramesses II decisively defeated theSherdensea pirates who were wreaking havoc along Egypt's Mediterranean coast by attacking cargo-laden vessels travelling the sea routes toEgypt.The Sherden people probably came from the coast ofIonia, from southwestAnatoliaor perhaps, also from the island ofSardinia.Ramesses posted troops and ships at strategic points along the coast and patiently allowed the pirates to attack their perceived prey before skillfully catching them by surprise in a sea battle and capturing them all in a single action.AstelefromTanisspeaks of their having come \"in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them\". There probably was a naval battle", "was a naval battle somewhere near the mouth of the Nile, as shortly afterward, many Sherden are seen among the pharaoh's body-guard where they are conspicuous by their horned helmets having a ball projecting from the middle, their round shields, and the greatNaue II swordswith which they are depicted in inscriptions of the Battle of Kadesh.In that sea battle, together with the Sherden, the pharaoh also defeated theLukka(L'kkw, possibly the people later known as theLycians), and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples. Syrian campaigns First Syrian campaign The immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II intoCanaan. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of what became the first of theCommemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalbnear what is nowBeirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering. In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of the Amurru during his", "Amurru during his campaign in Syria. Second Syrian campaign The Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces ofMuwatalli II. The pharaoh wanted a victory atKadeshboth to expand Egypt's frontiers into Syria, and to emulate his father Seti I's triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier. He also constructed his new capital,Pi-Ramesses. There he built factories to manufacture weapons, chariots, and shields, supposedly producing some 1,000 weapons in a week, about 250 chariots in two weeks, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half. After these preparations, Ramesses moved to attack territory in theLevant, which belonged to a more substantial enemy than any he had ever faced in war: theHittite Empire. After advancing throughCanaanfor exactly a month, according to the Egyptian sources, Ramesses arrived at Kadesh on 1 May, 1274 BC.Here, Ramesses' troops were caught in a Hittite ambush and were", "ambush and were initially outnumbered by the enemy, whose chariotry smashed through the second division of Ramesses' forces and attacked his camp. Receiving reinforcements from other Egyptian divisions arriving on the battlefield, the Egyptians counterattacked and routed the Hittites, whose survivors abandoned their chariots and swam theOrontes Riverto reach the safe city walls.Although left in possession of the battlefield, Ramesses, logistically unable to sustain a long siege, returned to Egypt.While Ramesses claimed a great victory, and this was technically true in terms of the actual battle, it is generally considered that the Hittites were the ultimate victors as far as the overall campaign was concerned, since the Egyptians retreated after the battle, and Hittite forces invaded and briefly occupied the Egyptian possessions in the region ofDamascus. Third Syrian campaign Egypt's sphere of influence was now restricted to Canaan whileSyriafell into Hittite hands. Canaanite princes, seemingly encouraged by", "encouraged by the Egyptian incapacity to impose their will and goaded on by the Hittites, began revolts against Egypt. Ramesses II was not willing to let this stand, and prepared to contest the Hittite advance with new military campaigns. Because they are recorded on his monuments with few indications of precise dates or the regnal year, the precise chronology of the subsequent campaigns is not clear.Late in the seventh year of his reign (April/May 1272 BC), Ramesses II returned to Syria again. This time he proved more successful against his Hittite foes. During this campaign he split his army into two forces. One force was led by his son,Amun-her-khepeshef, and it chased warriors of theŠhasutribes across theNegevas far as theDead Sea, capturingEdom-Seir. It then marched on to captureMoab. The other force, led by Ramesses himself, attackedJerusalemandJericho. He, too, then entered Moab, where he rejoined his son. The reunited army then marched onHesbon, Damascus, on toKumidi, and finally, recaptured Upi (the", "recaptured Upi (the land around Damascus), reestablishing Egypt's former sphere of influence. Later Syrian campaigns Ramesses extended his military successes in his eighth and ninth years. He crossed the Dog River (Nahr al-Kalb) and pushed north intoAmurru. His armies managed to march as far north as Dapur,where he had a statue of himself erected. The Egyptian pharaoh thus found himself in northern Amurru, well past Kadesh, inTunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen since the time ofThutmose III, almost 120 years earlier. He laid siege to Dapur before capturing it, and returning to Egypt.By November 1272 BC, Ramesses was back in Egypt, atHeliopolis.His victory in the north proved ephemeral. After having reasserted his power over Canaan, Ramesses led his army north. A mostly illegible stele at the Dog River nearBeirut, (Lebanon), which appears to be dated to the king's second year, was probably set up there in his tenth year (1269 BC).The thin strip of territory pinched between Amurru and Kadesh did not", "and Kadesh did not make for a stable possession. Within a year, they had returned to the Hittite fold, so that Ramesses had to march against Dapur once more in his tenth year. This time he claimed to have fought the battle without even bothering to put on hiscorslet, until two hours after the fighting began. Six of Ramesses's youthful sons, still wearing theirside locks, took part in this conquest. He took towns inRetjenu,and Tunip inNaharin,later recorded on the walls of theRamesseum.This second success at the location was equally as meaningless as his first, as neither power could decisively defeat the other in battle.In year eighteen, Ramesses erected a stele atBeth Shean, on 19 January 1261 BC. Peace treaty with the Hittites In Year 21 of Ramesses's reign, he concluded a peace treaty with the Hittites known to modern scholars as theTreaty of Kadesh. Though this treaty settled the disputes over Canaan, its immediate impetus seems to have been a diplomatic crisis that occurred followingḪattušili III's", "III's accession to the Hittite throne. Ḫattušili had come to power by deposing his nephewMuršili IIIin the brief and bitterHittite Civil War. Though the deposed king was initially sent into exile in Syria, he subsequently attempted to regain power and fled to Egypt once these attempts were discovered. When Ḫattušili demanded his extradition, Ramesses II denied any knowledge of his wherabouts. When Ḫattušili insisted that Muršili was in Egypt, Ramesses's response suggested that Ḫattušili was being deceived by his subjects.This demand precipitated a crisis, and the two empires came close to war. Eventually, in the twenty-first year of his reign (1259 BC), Ramesses concluded an agreement at Kadesh to end the conflict. The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one inEgyptian hieroglyphs, the other in Hittite, usingcuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. This treaty differs from others, in that the two language versions are worded", "versions are worded differently. While the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version says the Egyptians came suing for peace and the Egyptian version says the reverse.The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and this \"pocket-book\" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the temple atKarnak. The Egyptian account records Ramesses II's receipt of the Hittite peace treaty tablets on I Peret 21 of Year 21, corresponding to 10 November 1259 BC, according to the standard \"Low Chronology\" used by Egyptologists. The treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Ḫattušili III in year 21 of Ramesses's reign (c. 1259 BC).Its 18 articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceeds to maintain that their respective deities also demand peace. The frontiers are not laid down in this treaty, but may be inferred from other documents. The Anastasy Apapyrusdescribes Canaan during the latter part of the reign of Ramesses II and enumerates and names", "and names thePhoeniciancoastal towns under Egyptian control. The harbour town ofSumur, north ofByblos, is mentioned as the northernmost town belonging to Egypt, suggesting it contained an Egyptian garrison. No further Egyptian campaigns in Canaan are mentioned after the conclusion of the peace treaty. The northern border seems to have been safe and quiet, so the rule of the pharaoh was strong until Ramesses II's death, and the subsequent waning of the dynasty.When the King of Mira attempted to involve Ramesses in a hostile act against the Hittites, the Egyptian responded that the times of intrigue in support of Mursili III, had passed. Ḫattušili III wrote toKadashman-Enlil II,Kassiteking ofKarduniaš(Babylon) in the same spirit, reminding him of the time when his father,Kadashman-Turgu, had offered to fight Ramesses II, the king of Egypt. The Hittite king encouraged the Babylonian to oppose another enemy, which must have been the king ofAssyria, whose allies had killed the messenger of the Egyptian king.", "the Egyptian king. Ḫattušili encouraged Kadashman-Enlil to come to his aid and prevent the Assyrians from cutting the link between the Canaanite province of Egypt and Mursili III, the ally of Ramesses. Nubian campaigns Ramesses II also campaigned south of thefirst cataract of the NileintoNubia. When Ramesses was about 22 years old, two of his own sons, includingAmun-her-khepeshef, accompanied him in at least one of those campaigns. By the time of Ramesses, Nubia had been a colony for 200 years, but its conquest was recalled in decoration from the temples Ramesses II built atBeit el-Wali(which was the subject of epigraphic work by theOriental Instituteduring the Nubian salvage campaign of the 1960s),Gerf HusseinandKalabshain northern Nubia. On the south wall of the Beit el-Wali temple, Ramesses II is depicted charging into battle against tribes south of Egypt in a war chariot, while his two young sons,Amun-her-khepsefand Khaemwaset, are shown behind him, also in war chariots. A wall in one of Ramesses's", "one of Ramesses's temples says he had to fight one battle with those tribes without help from his soldiers. Libyan campaigns During the reign of Ramesses II, the Egyptians were evidently active on a 300-kilometre (190 mi) stretch along theMediterraneancoast, at least as far asZawyet Umm El Rakham, where remains of a fortress described by its texts as built on Libyans land have been found.Although the exact events surrounding the foundation of the coastal forts and fortresses is not clear, some degree of political and military control must have been held over the region to allow their construction. There are no detailed accounts of Ramesses II's undertaking large military actions against theLibyans, only generalised records of his conquering and crushing them, which may or may not refer to specific events that were otherwise unrecorded. It may be that some of the records, such as theAswanStele of his year 2, are harking back to Ramesses's presence on his father's Libyan campaigns. Perhaps it wasSeti Iwho", "it wasSeti Iwho achieved this supposed control over the region, and who planned to establish the defensive system, in a manner similar to how he rebuilt those to the east, the Ways of Horus across NorthernSinai. Sed festivals By tradition, in the 30th year of his reign, Ramesses celebrated a jubilee called theSed festival. These were held to honour and rejuvenate the pharaoh's strength.Only halfway through what would be a 66-year reign, Ramesses had already eclipsed all but a few of his greatest predecessors in his achievements. He had brought peace, maintained Egyptian borders, and built numerous monuments across the empire. His country was more prosperous and powerful than it had been in nearly a century. Sed festivals traditionally were held again every three years after the 30th year; Ramesses II, who sometimes held them after two years, eventually celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteen. Building projects and monuments In the third year of his reign, Ramesses started the most ambitious building", "ambitious building project after thepyramids, which were built almost 1,500 years earlier. Ramesses built extensively from theDeltatoNubia, \"covering the land with buildings in a way no monarch before him had.\" Some of the activities undertaken were focused on remodeling or usurping existing works, improving masonry techniques, and using art as propaganda. Ramesses also undertook many new construction projects. Two of his biggest works, besidesPi-Ramesses, were the temple complex ofAbu Simbeland theRamesseum, amortuary templein westernThebes. Pi-Ramesses Ramesses II moved the capital of his kingdom from Thebes in the Nile valley to a new site in the eastern Delta. His motives are uncertain, although he possibly wished to be closer to his territories in Canaan and Syria. The new city of Pi-Ramesses (or to give the full name,Pi-Ramesses Aa-nakhtu, meaning \"Domain of Ramesses, Great in Victory\")was dominated by huge temples and his vast residential palace, complete with its own zoo. In the 10th century AD, the", "century AD, the Bible exegete RabbiSaadia Gaonbelieved that the biblical site of Ramesses had to be identified withAin Shams.For a time, during the early 20th century, the site was misidentified as that ofTanis, due to the amount of statuary and other material from Pi-Ramesses found there, but it now is recognized that the Ramesside remains at Tanis were brought there from elsewhere, and the real Pi-Ramesses lies about 30 km (18.6 mi) south, near modernQantir.The colossal feet of the statue of Ramesses are almost all that remains above ground today. The rest is buried in the fields. Ramesseum The temple complex built by Ramesses II betweenQurnaand the desert has been known as theRamesseumsince the 19th century. The GreekhistorianDiodorus Siculusmarveled at the gigantic temple, now no more than a few ruins. Oriented northwest and southeast, the temple was preceded by two courts. An enormous pylon stood before the first court, with the royal palace at the left and the gigantic statue of the king at the back.", "king at the back. Only fragments of the base and torso remain of thesyenitestatue of the enthroned pharaoh, 17 metres (56 ft) high and weighing more than 1,000tonnes(980long tons; 1,100short tons). Scenes of the pharaoh and his army triumphing over the Hittite forces fleeing before Kadesh are represented on the pylon. Remains of the second court include part of the internal facade of the pylon and a portion of the Osiride portico on the right. Scenes of war and the alleged rout of the Hittites at Kadesh are repeated on the walls. In the upperregisters, feast and honour of the phallic deityMin, god of fertility. On the opposite side of the court, the few Osiride pillars and columns still remaining may furnish an idea of the original grandeur.Scattered remains of the two statues of the seated king also may be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite, which once flanked the entrance to the temple. Thirty-nine out of the forty-eight columns in the greathypostyle hall(41 × 31 m) still stand in the", "still stand in the central rows. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various deities.Part of the ceiling, decorated with gold stars on a blue ground, also has been preserved. Ramesses's children appear in the procession on the few walls left. The sanctuary was composed of three consecutive rooms, with eight columns and thetetrastylecell. Part of the first room, with the ceiling decorated with astral scenes, and few remains of the second room are all that is left. Vast storerooms built of mud bricks stretched out around the temple.Traces of a school for scribes were found among the ruins. A temple ofSeti I, of which nothing remains beside the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall. Abu Simbel In 1255 BC, Ramesses and his queenNefertarihad traveled intoNubiato inaugurate a new temple,Abu Simbel. It is said to be ego cast into stone; the man who built it intended not only to become Egypt's greatest pharaoh, but also one of its deities. The temple at Abu Simbel was", "at Abu Simbel was discovered in 1813 by the Swiss Orientalist and travelerJohann Ludwig Burckhardt. An enormous pile of sand almost completely covered the facade and its colossal statues, blocking the entrance for four more years. ThePaduanexplorerGiovanni Battista Belzonireached the interior on 4 August 1817. Other Nubian monuments As well as the temples of Abu Simbel, Ramesses left other monuments to himself in Nubia. His early campaigns are illustrated on the walls of theTemple of Beit el-Wali(now relocated toNew Kalabsha). Other temples dedicated to Ramesses areDerrandGerf Hussein(also relocated to New Kalabsha). For the temple of Amun atJebel Barkal, the temple's foundation probably dates during the reign of Thutmose III, while the temple was shaped during his reign and that of Ramesses II. Other archeological discoveries The colossalstatue of Ramesses IIdates back 3,200 years, and was originally discovered in six pieces in a temple nearMemphis, Egypt. Weighing some 83-tonne (82-long-ton; 91-short-ton),", "91-short-ton), it was transported, reconstructed, and erected in Ramesses Square in Cairo in 1955. In August 2006, contractors relocated it to save it from exhaust fumes that were causing it to deteriorate.The new site is near theGrand Egyptian Museum. In 2018, a group of archeologists in Cairo's Matariya neighborhood discovered pieces of a booth with a seat that, based on its structure and age, may have been used by Ramesses.\"The royal compartment consists of four steps leading to a cubic platform, which is believed to be the base of the king's seat during celebrations or public gatherings,\" such as Ramesses' inauguration and Sed festivals. It may have also gone on to be used by others in theRamesside Period, according to the mission's head. The excavation mission also unearthed \"a collection ofscarabs,amulets, clay pots and blocks engraved withhieroglyphictext.\" In December 2019, a red granite royal bust of Ramesses II was unearthed by an Egyptian archaeological mission in the village of Mit Rahina in", "of Mit Rahina in Giza. The bust depicted Ramesses II wearing a wig with the symbol \"Ka\" on his head. Its measurements were 55 cm (21.65 in) wide, 45 cm (17.71 in) thick and 105 cm (41.33 in) long. Alongside the bust, limestone blocks appeared showing Ramesses II during theHeb-Sedreligious ritual.\"This discovery is considered one of the rarest archaeological discoveries. It is the first-ever Ka statue made of granite to be discovered. The only Ka statue that was previously found is made of wood and it belongs to one of the kings of the 13th dynasty of ancient Egypt which is displayed at the Egyptian Museum inTahrir Square,\" said archaeologistMostafa Waziri. In September 2024, it was published that during an archaeological excavation of a 3,200 year old fort along the Nile, researches found a golden sword with Ramses II signature on it. Death and burial The Egyptian scholarManetho(third century BC) attributed Ramesses a reign of 66 years and 2 months. By the time of his death, aged about 90 years, Ramesses was", "years, Ramesses was suffering from severe dental problems and was plagued byarthritisandhardening of the arteries.He had made Egypt rich from all the supplies and bounty he had collected from other empires. He had outlived many of his wives and children and left great memorials all overEgypt. Nine more pharaohs took the name Ramesses in his honour. Mummy Originally Ramesses II was buried in the tombKV7in theValley of the Kings,but because of looting in the valley, priests later transferred the body to a holding area, re-wrapped it, and placed it inside the tomb of queenAhmose Inhapy.Seventy-two hours later it was again moved, to thetombof the high priestPinedjem II. All of this is recorded in hieroglyphics on the linen covering the body of the coffin of Ramesses II.Hismummywas eventually discovered in 1881 inTT320inside an ordinary wooden coffin and is now inCairo'sNational Museum of Egyptian Civilization(until 3 April 2021 it was in theEgyptian Museum). The pharaoh's mummy reveals anaquiline noseand strong", "noseand strong jaw. It stands at about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in).Gaston Maspero, who first unwrapped the mummy of Ramesses II, writes, \"on the temples there are a few sparse hairs, but at the poll the hair is quite thick, forming smooth, straight locks about five centimeters in length. White at the time of death, and possibly auburn during life, they have been dyed a light red by the spices (henna) used in embalming ... the moustache and beard are thin. ... The hairs are white, like those of the head and eyebrows ... the skin is of earthy brown, splotched with black ... the face of the mummy gives a fair idea of the face of the living king.\" In 1975,Maurice Bucaille, a French doctor, examined the mummy at theCairo Museumand found it in poor condition. French PresidentValéry Giscard d'Estaingsucceeded in convincing Egyptian authorities to send the mummy to France for treatment. In September 1976, it was greeted atParis–Le Bourget Airportwith full military honours befitting a king, then taken to a laboratory at", "to a laboratory at theMusée de l'Homme.Persistent claims that the mummy was issued with apassportfor the journey are incorrect, but may be based on the French wordpasseportbeing used to describe the extensive documentation required. The mummy was forensically tested in 1976 byPierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chiefforensicscientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Ceccaldi observed that the mummy had slightly wavy, red hair; from this trait combined with cranial features, he concluded that Ramesses II was of a \"Berber type\" and hence – according to Ceccaldi's analysis – fair-skinned.Subsequent microscopic inspection of the roots of Ramesses II's hair proved that the king's hair originally was red, which suggests that he came from a family of redheads.This has more than just cosmetic significance: in ancient Egypt people with red hair were associated with the deitySet, the slayer ofOsiris, and the name of Ramesses II's father, Seti I, means \"follower of Seth\".Cheikh Anta Diopdisputed the results", "the results of the study, arguing that the structure of hair morphology cannot determine the ethnicity of a mummy and that a comparative study should have featuredNubiansinUpper Egyptbefore a conclusive judgement was reached. In 2006, French police arrested a man who tried to sell several tufts of Ramesses' hair on the Internet. Jean-Michel Diebolt said he had got the relics from his late father, who had been on the analysis team in the 1970s. They were returned to Egypt the following year. During the examination, scientific analysis revealed battle-wounds, old fractures,arthritisand poor circulation.Ramesses II's arthritis is believed to have made him walk with a hunched back for the last decades of his life.A 2004 study excludedankylosing spondylitisas a possible cause and proposeddiffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosisas a possible alternative,which was confirmed by more recent work.A significant hole in the pharaoh'smandiblewas detected. Researchers observed \"anabscessby his teeth (which) was serious", "(which) was serious enough to have caused death by infection, although this cannot be determined with certainty\". After being irradiated in an attempt to eliminate fungi and insects, the mummy was returned from Paris to Egypt in May 1977. In April 2021, his mummy was moved from the oldEgyptian Museumto the newNational Museum of Egyptian Civilizationalong with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed thePharaohs' Golden Parade. Burial of wives and relatives Tomb of Nefertari The tomb of the most importantconsortof Ramesses was discovered byErnesto Schiaparelliin 1904.Although it had been looted in ancient times, the tomb ofNefertariis extremely important, because its magnificent wall-painting decoration is regarded as one of the greatest achievements ofancient Egyptian art. A flight of steps cut out of the rock gives access to the antechamber, which is decorated with paintings based on chapter seventeen of theBook of the Dead. The astronomical ceiling represents the heavens and is painted in", "and is painted in dark blue, with a myriad of golden five-pointed stars. The east wall of the antechamber is interrupted by a large opening flanked by representation ofOsirisat the left andAnubisat the right; this in turn leads to the side chamber, decorated with offering-scenes, preceded by a vestibule in which the paintings portray Nefertari presented to the deities, who welcome her. On the north wall of the antechamber is the stairway down to the burial-chamber, a vast quadrangular room covering a surface-area of about 90 square metres (970 sq ft), its astronomical ceiling supported by four pillars, entirely decorated. Originally, the queen's red granitesarcophaguslay in the middle of this chamber. According to religious doctrines of the time, it was in this chamber, which the ancient Egyptians called the Golden Hall, that the regeneration of the deceased took place. This decorative pictogram of the walls in the burial-chamber drew inspiration from chapters 144 and 146 of the Book of the Dead: in the left", "Dead: in the left half of the chamber, there are passages from chapter 144 concerning the gates and doors of the kingdom of Osiris, their guardians, and the magic formulas that had to be uttered by the deceased in order to go past the doors. Tomb KV5 In 1995, ProfessorKent Weeks, head of theTheban Mapping Project, rediscovered TombKV5. It has proven to be the largest tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and originally contained the mummified remains of some of this king's estimated 52 sons. Approximately 150 corridors and tomb chambers have been located in this tomb as of 2006 and the tomb may contain as many as 200 corridors and chambers.It is believed that at least four of Ramesses's sons, includingMeryatum, Sety,Amun-her-khepeshef(Ramesses's first-born son) and \"the King's Principal Son of His Body, the Generalissimo Ramesses, justified\" (i.e., deceased) were buried there from inscriptions,ostracaorcanopic jarsdiscovered in the tomb.Joyce Tyldesleywrites that thus far no intact burials have been discovered", "been discovered and there have been little substantial funeral debris: thousands of potsherds, faienceushabtifigures, beads, amulets, fragments of Canopic jars, of wooden coffins ... but no intact sarcophagi, mummies ormummycases, suggesting that much of the tomb may have been unused. Those burials which were made in KV5 were thoroughly looted in antiquity, leaving little or no remains. In literature and the arts Ramesses is the basis forPercy Bysshe Shelley's poem \"Ozymandias\".Diodorus Siculusgives an inscription on the base of one of his sculptures as: \"King of Kingsam I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works.\"This is paraphrased in Shelley's poem. The life of Ramesses II has inspired many fictional representations, including thehistorical novelsof the French writerChristian Jacq, theRamsèsseries; the graphic novelWatchmen, in which the character of Adrian Veidt uses Ramesses II to form part of the inspiration for his alter-ego,Ozymandias;Norman", "Mailer's novelAncient Evenings, which is largely concerned with the life of Ramesses II, though from the perspective of Egyptians living during the reign ofRamesses IX; and theAnne RicebookThe Mummy, or Ramses the Damned(1989), in which Ramesses was the main character. InThe Kane ChroniclesRamesses is an ancestor of the main characters Sadie and Carter Kane. Ramesses II is one of the characters in the video gameCivilization V, as well as in additionaldownloadable contentfor its sequel,Civilization VI. TheEast Villageunderground rock bandThe Fugsreleased their song \"Ramses II Is Dead, My Love\" on their 1968 albumIt Crawled into My Hand, Honest. Ramesses II is a main character in the fiction bookThe Heretic QueenbyMichelle Moranpublished in 2008. It is a novel about the love story and beginning years of the marriage of Pharaoh Ramesses and QueenNefertari, during the time Pharaoh Rameses II is trying to decide who will be queen between his two wives Nefertari and Iset. Nefertari is the daughter and orphan of", "and orphan of QueenMutnodjmetand General Nakhtmin, niece of QueenNefertitiand PharaohAnkhenaten. The book is told from the perspective of Nefertari and is fiction but does deal with many historical events during the beginning of Rameses II reign and many historical people giving readers a view of what life and these historical figures may have been like. As the pharaoh in the Bible's Book of Exodus Though scholars generally do not recognize the biblical portrayal of the Exodus as an actual historical event,various historical pharaohs have been proposed as the corresponding ruler at the time the story takes place, with Ramesses II as the most popular candidate forPharaoh of the Exodus. He is cast in this role in the 1944 novellaThe Tables of the LawbyThomas Mann. Although not a major character, Ramesses appears inJoan Grant'sSo Moses Was Born, a first-person account from Nebunefer, the brother of Ramose, which paints a picture of the life of Ramose from the death of Seti, replete with the power play,", "the power play, intrigue, and assassination plots of the historical record, and depicting the relationships withBintanath,Tuya,Nefertari, andMoses. In film, Ramesses is played byYul BrynnerinCecil B. DeMille's classicThe Ten Commandments(1956). Here Ramesses is portrayed as a vengeful tyrant as well as the main antagonist of the film, ever scornful of his father's preference for Moses over \"the son of body\".The animated filmThe Prince of Egypt(1998) also features a depiction of Ramesses (voiced byRalph Fiennes, for both the speaking and the singing), portrayed as Moses' adoptive brother, and ultimately as the film's villain with essentially the same motivations as in the earlier 1956 film.Joel Edgertonplayed Ramesses in the 2014 filmExodus: Gods and Kings.Sérgio Maroneplays Ramesses in the 2015–2016 Brazilian telenovela seriesOs Dez Mandamentos(English:'The Ten Commandments'). In the 2013 miniseriesThe Bible, he is portrayed by Stewart Scudamore. See also Notes References Bibliography Further reading", "Further reading External links", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Merneptah (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b9531db70>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Amenmesse (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b94221780>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Percy Bysshe Shelley Percy Bysshe Shelley(/bɪʃ/ⓘBISH;4 August 1792 – 8 July 1822) was an English writer who is considered as one of the majorEnglishRomantic poets.A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not achieve fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achievements in poetry grew steadily following his death, and he became an important influence on subsequent generations of poets, includingRobert Browning,Algernon Charles Swinburne,Thomas Hardy, andW. B. Yeats.American literary criticHarold Bloomdescribes him as \"a superb craftsman, a lyric poet without rival, and surely one of the most advanced sceptical intellects ever to write a poem.\" Shelley's reputation fluctuated during the 20th century, but since the 1960s he has achieved increasing critical acclaim for the sweeping momentum of his poetic imagery, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist, and materialist ideas in his work.Among his best-known works are", "works are \"Ozymandias\" (1818), \"Ode to the West Wind\" (1819), \"To a Skylark\" (1820), \"Adonais\" (1821), the philosophical essay \"The Necessity of Atheism\" (1811), which his friendT. J. Hoggmay have co-authored, and the political ballad \"The Mask of Anarchy\" (1819). His other major works include the verse dramasThe Cenci(1819),Prometheus Unbound(1820) andHellas(1822), and the long narrative poemsAlastor, or The Spirit of Solitude(1815),Julian and Maddalo(1819),Adonais(1821), andThe Triumph of Life(1822). Shelley also wroteprose fictionand a quantity of essays on political, social, and philosophical issues. Much of this poetry and prose was not published in his lifetime, or only published in expurgated form, due to the risk of prosecution for political and religious libel.From the 1820s, his poems and political and ethical writings became popular inOwenist,Chartist, andradicalpolitical circles,and later drew admirers as diverse asKarl Marx,Mahatma Gandhi, andGeorge Bernard Shaw. Shelley's life was marked by", "life was marked by family crises, ill health, and a backlash against hisatheism, political views, and defiance of social conventions. He went into permanent self-exile in Italy in 1818 and over the next four years produced whatZachary LeaderandMichael O'Neillcall \"some of the finest poetry of the Romantic period\".His second wife,Mary Shelley, was the author ofFrankenstein. He died in a boating accident in 1822 at age 29. Life Early life and education Shelley was born on 4 August 1792 atField Place,Warnham,Sussex, England.He was the eldest son ofSirTimothy Shelley, 2ndBaronet of Castle Goring(1753–1844), aWhigMember of Parliament forHorshamfrom 1790 to 1792 and forShorehambetween 1806 and 1812, and his wife, Elizabeth Pilfold (1763–1846), the daughter of a successful butcher.He had four younger sisters and one much younger brother. Shelley's early childhood was sheltered and mostly happy. He was particularly close to his sisters and his mother, who encouraged him to hunt, fish and ride.At age six, he was sent", "six, he was sent to a day school run by the vicar ofWarnhamchurch, where he displayed an impressive memory and gift for languages. In 1802 he entered theSyon HouseAcademy ofBrentford,Middlesex, where his cousinThomas Medwinwas a pupil. Shelley was bullied and unhappy at the school and sometimes responded with violent rage. He also began suffering from the nightmares, hallucinations and sleep walking that were to periodically affect him throughout his life. Shelley developed an interest in science which supplemented his voracious reading of tales of mystery, romance and the supernatural. During his holidays at Field Place, his sisters were often terrified at being subjected to his experiments withgunpowder, acids and electricity. Back at school he blew up apaling fencewith gunpowder. In 1804, Shelley enteredEton College, a period which he later recalled with loathing. He was subjected to particularly severe mob bullying which the perpetrators called \"Shelley-baits\".A number of biographers and contemporaries", "and contemporaries have attributed the bullying to Shelley's aloofness, nonconformity and refusal to take part infagging. His peculiarities and violent rages earned him the nickname \"Mad Shelley\".His interest in theoccultand science continued, and contemporaries describe him giving an electric shock to a master, blowing up a tree stump with gunpowder and attempting to raise spirits with occult rituals.In his senior years, Shelley came under the influence of a part-time teacher, DrJames Lind, who encouraged his interest in the occult and introduced him to liberal and radical authors. Shelley also developed an interest in Plato and idealist philosophy which he pursued in later years through self-study.According toRichard Holmes, Shelley, by his leaving year, had gained a reputation as a classical scholar and a tolerated eccentric. In his last term at Eton, his first novelZastrozziappeared and he had established a following among his fellow pupils.Prior to enrolling forUniversity College, Oxford, in October", "Oxford, in October 1810, Shelley completedOriginal Poetry by Victor and Cazire(written with his sister Elizabeth), the verse melodramaThe Wandering Jewand the gothic novelSt. Irvine; or, The Rosicrucian: A Romance(published 1811). At Oxford Shelley attended few lectures, instead spending long hours reading and conducting scientific experiments in the laboratory he set up in his room.He met a fellow student,Thomas Jefferson Hogg, who became his closest friend. Shelley became increasingly politicised under Hogg's influence, developing strong radical and anti-Christian views. Such views were dangerous in the reactionary political climate prevailing during Britain's war with Napoleonic France, and Shelley's father warned him against Hogg's influence. In the winter of 1810–1811, Shelley published a series of anonymous political poems and tracts:Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson,The Necessity of Atheism(written in collaboration with Hogg) andA Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things. Shelley", "of Things. Shelley mailedThe Necessity of Atheismto all the bishops and heads of colleges at Oxford, and he was called to appear before the college's fellows, including the Dean,George Rowley. His refusal to answer questions put by college authorities regarding whether or not he authored the pamphlet resulted in hisexpulsionfrom Oxford on 25March 1811, along with Hogg. Hearing of his son's expulsion, Shelley's father threatened to cut all contact with Shelley unless he agreed to return home and study under tutors appointed by him. Shelley's refusal to do so led to a falling-out with his father. Marriage to Harriet Westbrook In late December 1810, Shelley had met Harriet Westbrook, a pupil at the same boarding school as Shelley's sisters. They corresponded frequently that winter and also after Shelley had been expelled from Oxford.Shelley expounded his radical ideas on politics, religion and marriage to Harriet, and they gradually convinced each other that she was oppressed by her father and at", "her father and at school.Shelley's infatuation with Harriet developed in the months following his expulsion, when he was under severe emotional strain due to the conflict with his family, his bitterness over the breakdown of his romance with his cousin Harriet Grove, and his unfounded belief that he might have a fatal illness.At the same time, Harriet Westbrook's elder sister Eliza, to whom Harriet was very close, encouraged the young girl's romance with Shelley.Shelley's correspondence with Harriet intensified in July, while he was holidaying in Wales, and in response to her urgent pleas for his protection, he returned to London in early August. Putting aside his philosophical objections to matrimony, he left with the sixteen-year-old Harriet forEdinburghon 25 August 1811, and they were married there on the 28th. Hearing of the elopement, Harriet's father, John Westbrook, and Shelley's father, Timothy, cut off the allowances of the bride and groom. (Shelley's father believed his son had married beneath him,", "beneath him, as Harriet's father had earned his fortune in trade and was the owner of a tavern and coffee house.) Surviving on borrowed money, Shelley and Harriet stayed in Edinburgh for a month, with Hogg living under the same roof. The trio left forYorkin October, and Shelley went on to Sussex to settle matters with his father, leaving Harriet behind with Hogg. Shelley returned from his unsuccessful excursion to find that Eliza had moved in with Harriet and Hogg. Harriet confessed that Hogg had tried to seduce her while Shelley had been away. Shelley, Harriet and Eliza soon left forKeswickin theLake District, leaving Hogg in York. At this time Shelley was also involved in an intense platonic relationship with Elizabeth Hitchener, a 28-year-old unmarried schoolteacher of advanced views, with whom he had been corresponding. Hitchener, whom Shelley called the \"sister of my soul\" and \"my second self\", became his confidante and intellectual companion as he developed his views on politics, religion, ethics and", "ethics and personal relationships.Shelley proposed that she join him, Harriet and Eliza in a communal household where all property would be shared. The Shelleys and Eliza spent December and January in Keswick where Shelley visitedRobert Southeywhose poetry he admired. Southey was taken with Shelley, even though there was a wide gulf between them politically, and predicted great things for him as a poet. Southey also informed Shelley thatWilliam Godwin, author ofPolitical Justice, which had greatly influenced him in his youth, and which Shelley also admired, was still alive. Shelley wrote to Godwin, offering himself as his devoted disciple. Godwin, who had modified many of his earlier radical views, advised Shelley to reconcile with his father, become a scholar before he published anything else, and give up his avowed plans for political agitation in Ireland. Meanwhile, Shelley had met his father's patron,Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, who helped secure the reinstatement of Shelley's allowance.With", "allowance.With Harriet's allowance also restored, Shelley now had the funds for his Irish venture. Their departure for Ireland was precipitated by increasing hostility towards the Shelley household from their landlord and neighbours who were alarmed by Shelley's scientific experiments, pistol shooting and radical political views. As tension mounted, Shelley claimed he had been attacked in his home by ruffians, an event which might have been real or a delusional episode triggered by stress. This was the first of a series of episodes in subsequent years where Shelley claimed to have been attacked by strangers during periods of personal crisis. Early in 1812, Shelley wrote, published and with Harriet personally distributed in Dublin three political tracts:An Address, to the Irish People; Proposals for an Association of Philanthropists;andDeclaration of Rights. He also delivered a speech at a meeting of O'Connell'sCatholic Committeein which he called forCatholic emancipation, repeal of theActs of Unionand an end", "of Unionand an end to the oppression of the Irish poor.Reports of Shelley's subversive activities were sent to theHome Secretary. Returning from Ireland, the Shelley household travelled to Wales, then Devon, where they again came under government surveillance for distributing subversive literature. Elizabeth Hitchener joined the household in Devon, but several months later had a falling out with the Shelleys and left. The Shelley household had settled inTremadog, Wales, in September 1812, where Shelley worked onQueen Mab, a utopian allegory with extensive notes preaching atheism, free love, republicanism and vegetarianism. The poem was published the following year in a private edition of 250 copies, although few were initially distributed because of the risk of prosecution for seditious and religious libel. In February 1813, Shelley claimed he was attacked in his home at night. The incident might have been real, a hallucination brought on by stress, or a hoax staged by Shelley in order to escape government", "escape government surveillance, creditors and his entanglements in local politics. The Shelleys and Eliza fled to Ireland, then London. Back in England, Shelley's debts mounted as he tried unsuccessfully to reach a financial settlement with his father. On 23 June Harriet gave birth to a girl, Eliza Ianthe Shelley (known as Ianthe), and in the following months the relationship between Shelley and his wife deteriorated. Shelley resented the influence Harriet's sister had over her while Harriet was alienated from Shelley by his close friendship with an attractive widow, Mrs.Harriet de Boinville.Mrs. Boinville had married a French revolutionary émigré and hosted asalonwhere Shelley was able to discuss politics, philosophy and vegetarianism.Mrs. Boinville became aconfidanteof Shelley during his marital crisis.During a breakdown, Shelley moved into Mrs. Boinville’s home outside London. In February and March 1814, he became infatuated with her married daughter, Cornelia Turner, age eighteen, and wrote erotic poetry", "wrote erotic poetry about her in his notebook. Following Ianthe's birth, the Shelleys moved frequently across London, Wales, theLake District, Scotland andBerkshireto escape creditors and search for a home.In March 1814, Shelley remarried Harriet in London to settle any doubts about the legality of their Edinburgh wedding and secure the rights of their child. Nevertheless, the Shelleys lived apart for most of the following months, and Shelley reflected bitterly on: \"my rash & heartless union with Harriet\". Elopement with Mary Godwin In May 1814, Shelley began visiting his mentor Godwin almost daily, and soon fell in love withMary, the sixteen-year-old daughter of Godwin and the late feminist authorMary Wollstonecraft. Shelley and Mary declared their love for each other during a visit to her mother's grave in the churchyard ofSt Pancras Old Churchon 26 June. When Shelley told Godwin that he intended to leave Harriet and live with Mary, his mentor banished him from the house and forbade Mary from seeing him.", "from seeing him. Shelley and Mary eloped to Europe on 28 July, taking Mary's step-sisterClaire Clairmontwith them. Before leaving, Shelley had secured a loan of £3,000 but had left most of the funds at the disposal of Godwin and Harriet, who was again pregnant. The financial arrangement with Godwin led to rumours that he had sold his daughters to Shelley. Shelley, Mary and Claire made their way across war-ravaged France where Shelley wrote to Harriet, asking her to meet them in Switzerland with the money he had left for her. Hearing nothing from Harriet in Switzerland, and unable to secure sufficient funds or suitable accommodation, the three travelled to Germany and Holland before returning to England on 13 September. Shelley spent the next few months trying to raise loans and avoid bailiffs. Mary was pregnant, lonely, depressed and ill. Her mood was not improved when she heard that, on 30 November, Harriet had given birth to Charles Bysshe Shelley, heir to the Shelley fortune and baronetcy.This was", "baronetcy.This was followed, in early January 1815, by news that Shelley's grandfather,Sir Bysshe, had died leaving an estate worth £220,000. The settlement of the estate, and a financial settlement between Shelley and his father (now Sir Timothy), however, was not concluded until April the following year. In February 1815, Mary gave premature birth to a baby girl who died ten days later, deepening her depression. In the following weeks, Mary became close to Hogg who temporarily moved into the household. Shelley was almost certainly having a sexual relationship with Claire at this time, and it is possible that Mary, with Shelley's encouragement, was also having a sexual relationship with Hogg. In May Claire left the household, at Mary's insistence, to reside in Lynmouth. In August Shelley and Mary moved to Bishopsgate where Shelley worked onAlastor, a long poem in blank verse based on the myth ofNarcissusandEcho.Alastorwas published in an edition of 250 in early 1816 to poor sales and largely unfavourable", "unfavourable reviews from the conservative press. On 24 January 1816, Mary gave birth to William Shelley. Shelley was delighted to have another son, but was suffering from the strain of prolonged financial negotiations with his father, Harriet and William Godwin. Shelley showed signs of delusional behaviour and was contemplating an escape to the continent. Byron Claire initiated a sexual relationship withLord Byronin April 1816, just before his self-exile on the continent, and then arranged for Byron to meet Shelley, Mary, and her in Geneva.Shelley admired Byron's poetry and had sent himQueen Maband other poems. Shelley's party arrived in Geneva in May and rented a house close toVilla Diodati, on the shores of Lake Geneva, where Byron was staying. There Shelley, Byron and the others engaged in discussions about literature, science and \"various philosophical doctrines\". One night, while Byron was reciting Coleridge'sChristabel, Shelley suffered a severe panic attack with hallucinations. The previous night", "The previous night Mary had had a more productive vision or nightmare which inspired her novelFrankenstein. Shelley and Byron then took a boating tour around Lake Geneva, which inspired Shelley to write his \"Hymn to Intellectual Beauty\", his first substantial poem sinceAlastor.A tour ofChamonixin the French Alps inspired \"Mont Blanc\", which has been described as an atheistic response to Coleridge's \"Hymn before Sunrise in the Vale of Chamoni\".During this tour, Shelley often signed guest books with a declaration that he was an atheist. These declarations were seen by other British tourists, including Southey, which hardened attitudes against Shelley back home. Relations between Byron and Shelley's party became strained when Byron was told that Claire was pregnant with his child. Shelley, Mary, and Claire left Switzerland in late August, with arrangements for the expected baby still unclear, although Shelley made provision for Claire and the baby in his will.In January 1817 Claire gave birth to a daughter by", "to a daughter by Byron who she named Alba, but later renamedAllegrain accordance with Byron's wishes. Marriage to Mary Godwin OzymandiasI met a traveller from an antique land,Who said—\"Two vast and trunkless legs of stoneStand in the desart.... Near them, on the sand,Half sunk a shattered visage lies, whose frown,And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,Tell that its sculptor well those passions readWhich yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed;And on the pedestal, these words appear:My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings;Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!Nothing beside remains. Round the decayOf that colossal Wreck, boundless and bareThe lone and level sands stretch far away.\" Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1818 Shelley and Mary returned to England in September 1816, and in early October they heard that Mary's half-sisterFanny Imlayhad killed herself. Godwin believed that Fanny had been in love with Shelley, and Shelley himself suffered depression and", "depression and guilt over her death, writing: \"Friend had I known thy secret grief / Should we have parted so.\"Further tragedy followed in December when Shelley's estranged wife Harriet drowned herself in theSerpentine.Harriet, pregnant and living alone at the time, believed that she had been abandoned by her new lover. In her suicide letter she asked Shelley to take custody of their son Charles but to leave their daughter in her sister Eliza's care. Shelley married Mary Godwin on 30 December, despite his philosophical objections to the institution. The marriage was intended to help secure Shelley's custody of his children by Harriet and to placate Godwin who had refused to see Shelley and Mary because of their previous adulterous relationship.After a prolonged legal battle, theCourt of Chanceryeventually awarded custody of Shelley and Harriet's children to foster parents, on the grounds that Shelley had abandoned his first wife for Mary without cause and was an atheist. In March 1817 the Shelleys moved to", "Shelleys moved to the village ofMarlow, Buckinghamshire, where Shelley's friendThomas Love Peacocklived. The Shelley household included Claire and her baby Allegra, both of whose presence Mary resented.Shelley's generosity with money and increasing debts also led to financial and marital stress, as did Godwin's frequent requests for financial help. On 2 September Mary gave birth to a daughter, Clara Everina Shelley. Soon after, Shelley left for London with Claire, which increased Mary's resentment towards her stepsister.Shelley was arrested for two days in London over money he owed, and attorneys visited Mary in Marlowe over Shelley's debts. Shelley took part in the literary and political circle that surroundedLeigh Hunt, and during this period he metWilliam HazlittandJohn Keats. Shelley's major work during this time wasLaon and Cythna, a long narrative poem featuring incest and attacks on religion. It was hastily withdrawn after publication due to fears of prosecution for religious libel, and was re-edited", "and was re-edited and reissued asThe Revolt of Islamin January 1818.Shelley also published two political tracts under a pseudonym:A Proposal for putting Reform to the Vote throughout the Kingdom(March 1817) andAn Address to the People on the Death of Princess Charlotte(November 1817).In December he wrote \"Ozymandias\", which is considered to be one of his finest sonnets, as part of a competition with friend and fellow poetHorace Smith. Italy On 12 March 1818 the Shelleys and Claire left England to escape its \"tyranny civil and religious\". A doctor had also recommended that Shelley go to Italy for his chronic lung complaint, and Shelley had arranged to take Claire's daughter, Allegra, to her father Byron who was now in Venice. After travelling some months through France and Italy, Shelley left Mary and baby Clara atBagni di Lucca(in today's Tuscany) while he travelled with Claire to Venice to see Byron and make arrangements for visiting Allegra. Byron invited the Shelleys to stay at his summer residence", "summer residence atEste, and Shelley urged Mary to meet him there. Clara became seriously ill on the journey and died on 24 September in Venice.Following Clara's death, Mary fell into a long period of depression and emotional estrangement from Shelley. The Shelleys moved to Naples on 1 December, where they stayed for three months. During this period Shelley was ill, depressed and almost suicidal: a state of mind reflected in his poem \"Stanzas written in Dejection – December 1818, Near Naples\". While in Naples, Shelley registered the birth and baptism of a baby girl, Elena Adelaide Shelley (born 27 December), naming himself as the father and falsely naming Mary as the mother. The parentage of Elena has never been conclusively established. Biographers have variously speculated that she was adopted by Shelley to console Mary for the loss of Clara, that she was Shelley's child by Claire, that she was his child by his servant Elise Foggi, or that she was the child of a \"mysterious lady\" who had followed Shelley", "followed Shelley to the continent.Shelley registered the birth and baptism on 27 February 1819, and the household left Naples for Rome the following day, leaving Elena with carers.Elena was to die in a poor suburb of Naples on 9 June 1820. In Rome, Shelley was in poor health, probably having developed nephritis and tuberculosis which later was in remission.Nevertheless, he made significant progress on three major works:Julian and Maddalo,Prometheus UnboundandThe Cenci.Julian and Maddalois an autobiographical poem which explores the relationship between Shelley and Byron and analyses Shelley's personal crises of 1818 and 1819. The poem was completed in the summer of 1819, but was not published in Shelley's lifetime.Prometheus Unboundis a long dramatic poem inspired by Aeschylus's retelling of the Prometheus myth. It was completed in late 1819 and published in 1820.The Cenciis a verse drama of rape, murder and incest based on the story of the Renaissance Count Cenci of Rome andhis daughter Beatrice. Shelley", "Beatrice. Shelley completed the play in September and the first edition was published that year. It was to become one of his most popular works and the only one to have two authorised editions in his lifetime. Shelley's three-year-old son William died in June 1819, probably of malaria. The new tragedy caused a further decline in Shelley's health and deepened Mary's depression. On 4 August she wrote: \"We have now lived five years together; and if all the events of the five years were blotted out, I might be happy\". Make me thy lyre, even as the forest is:What if my leaves are falling like its own!The tumult of thy mighty harmoniesWill take from both a deep, autumnal tone,Sweet though in sadness. Be thou, Spirit fierce,My spirit! Be thou me, impetuous one!Drive my dead thoughts over the universeLike withered leaves to quicken a new birth!And, by the incantation of this verse,Scatter, as from unextinguished hearthAshes and sparks, my words among mankind!Be through my lips to unawakened EarthThe trumpet of a", "trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind,If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? From \"Ode to the West Wind\", 1819 The Shelleys were now living inLivornowhere, in September, Shelley heard of thePeterloo Massacreof peaceful protesters in Manchester. Within two weeks he had completed one of his most famous political poems,The Mask of Anarchy, and despatched it to Leigh Hunt for publication. Hunt, however, decided not to publish it for fear of prosecution for seditious libel. The poem was only officially published in 1832. The Shelleys moved to Florence in October, where Shelley read a scathing review of theRevolt of Islam(and its earlier versionLaon and Cythna) in the conservativeQuarterly Review. Shelley was angered by the personal attack on him in the article which he erroneously believed had been written by Southey. His bitterness over the review lasted for the rest of his life. On 12 November, Mary gave birth to a boy,Percy Florence Shelley.Around the time of Percy's birth, the Shelleys metSophia Stacey, who was a", "Stacey, who was a ward of one of Shelley's uncles and was staying at the same pension as the Shelleys. Sophia, a talented harpist and singer, formed a friendship with Shelley while Mary was preoccupied with her newborn son. Shelley wrote at least five love poems and fragments for Sophia including \"Song written for an Indian Air\". The Shelleys moved to Pisa in January 1820, ostensibly to consult a doctor who had been recommended to them. There they became friends with the Irish republican Margaret Mason (Lady Margaret Mountcashell) and her common-law husbandGeorge William Tighe. Mrs Mason became the inspiration for Shelley's poem \"The Sensitive Plant\", and Shelley's discussions with Mason and Tighe influenced his political thought and his critical interest in the population theories ofThomas Malthus. In March, Shelley wrote to friends that Mary was depressed, suicidal and hostile towards him. Shelley was also beset by financial worries, as creditors from England pressed him for payment and he was obliged to", "he was obliged to make secret payments in connection with his \"Neapolitan charge\" Elena. Meanwhile, Shelley was writingA Philosophical View of Reform, a political essay which he had begun in Rome. The unfinished essay, which remained unpublished in Shelley's lifetime, has been called \"one of the most advanced and sophisticated documents of political philosophy in the nineteenth century\". Another crisis erupted in June when Shelley claimed that he had been assaulted in the Pisan post office by a man accusing him of foul crimes. Shelley's biographerJames Bierisuggests that this incident was possibly a delusional episode brought on by extreme stress, as Shelley was being blackmailed by a former servant, Paolo Foggi, over baby Elena.It is likely that the blackmail was connected with a story spread by another former servant, Elise Foggi, that Shelley had fathered a child to Claire in Naples and had sent it to a foundling home.Shelley, Claire and Mary denied this story, and Elise later recanted. In July, hearing", "In July, hearing that John Keats was seriously ill in England, Shelley wrote to the poet inviting him to stay with him at Pisa. Keats replied with hopes of seeing him, but instead, arrangements were made for Keats to travel to Rome.Following the death of Keats in 1821, Shelley wroteAdonais, whichHarold Bloomconsiders one of the major pastoral elegies.The poem was published in Pisa in July 1821, but sold few copies. In early July 1820, Shelley heard that baby Elena had died on 9 June. In the months following the post office incident and Elena's death, relations between Mary and Claire deteriorated and Claire spent most of the next two years living separately from the Shelleys, mainly in Florence. That December Shelley met Teresa (Emilia) Viviani, who was the 19-year-old daughter of the Governor of Pisa and was living in a convent awaiting a suitable marriage.Shelley visited her several times over the next few months and they started a passionate correspondence which dwindled after her marriage the following", "the following September. Emilia was the inspiration for Shelley's major poemEpipsychidion. In March 1821 Shelley completed \"A Defence of Poetry\", a response to Peacock's article \"The Four Ages of Poetry\". Shelley's essay, with its famous conclusion \"Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world\", remained unpublished in his lifetime. Shelley went alone to Ravenna in early August to see Byron, making a detour to Livorno for a rendezvous with Claire. Shelley stayed with Byron for two weeks and invited the older poet to spend the winter in Pisa. After Shelley had heard Byron recite his newly completed fifth canto ofDon Juanhe wrote to Mary: \"I despair of rivalling Byron.\" In November Byron moved into Villa Lanfranchi in Pisa, just across the river from the Shelleys. Byron became the centre of the \"Pisan circle\" which was to include Shelley, Thomas Medwin,Edward WilliamsandEdward Trelawny. In the early months of 1822 Shelley became increasingly close toJane Williams, who was living with her partner", "with her partner Edward Williams in the same building as the Shelleys. Shelley wrote a number of love poems for Jane, including \"The Serpent is shut out of Paradise\" and \"With a Guitar, to Jane\". Shelley's obvious affection for Jane was to cause increasing tension among Shelley, Edward Williams and Mary. Claire arrived in Pisa in April at Shelley's invitation, and soon after they heard that her daughter Allegra had died of typhus in Ravenna. The Shelleys and Claire then moved to Villa Magni, nearLericion the shores of theGulf of La Spezia.Shelley acted as mediator between Claire and Byron over arrangements for the burial of their daughter, and the added strain led to Shelley having a series of hallucinations. Mary almost died from a miscarriage on 16 June, her life only being saved by Shelley's effective first aid. Two days later Shelley wrote to a friend that there was no sympathy between Mary and him and if the past and future could be obliterated he would be content in his boat with Jane and her guitar.", "and her guitar. That same day he also wrote to Trelawny asking forprussic acid.The following week, Shelley woke the household with his screaming over a nightmare or hallucination in which he saw Edward and Jane Williams as walking corpses and himself strangling Mary. During this time, Shelley was writing his final major poem, the unfinishedThe Triumph of Life, which Harold Bloom has called \"the most despairing poem he wrote\". Death On 1 July 1822, Shelley and Edward Williams sailed in Shelley's new boat theDon Juanto Livorno where Shelley met Leigh Hunt and Byron in order to make arrangements for a new journal,The Liberal. After the meeting, on 8 July, Shelley, Williams, and their boat boy sailed out of Livorno for Lerici. A few hours later, theDon Juanand its inexperienced crew were lost in a storm.The vessel, an open boat, had been custom-built inGenoafor Shelley. Mary Shelley declared in her \"Note on Poems of 1822\" (1839) that the design had a defect and that the boat was never seaworthy. The sinking,", "The sinking, however, was probably due to the severe storm and poor seamanship of the three men on board. Shelley's badly decomposed body washed ashore atViareggioten days later and was identified by Trelawny from the clothing and a copy of Keats'sLamiain a jacket pocket. On 16 August, his body was cremated on a beach near Viareggio and the ashes were buried in theProtestant Cemetery of Rome. The day after the news of his death reached England, theToryLondon newspaperThe Courierprinted: \"Shelley, the writer of some infidel poetry, has been drowned;nowhe knows whether there is God or no.\" Shelley's ashes were reburied in a different plot at the cemetery in 1823. His grave bears the Latin inscriptionCor Cordium(Heart of Hearts), and a few lines of \"Ariel's Song\" from Shakespeare'sThe Tempest: Nothing of him that doth fadeBut doth suffer a sea changeInto something rich and strange. Shelley's remains When Shelley's body was cremated on the beach, his presumed heart resisted burning and was retrieved by", "was retrieved by Trelawny.The heart was possibly calcified from an earlier tubercular infection, or was perhaps his liver. Trelawny gave the scorched organ to Hunt, who preserved it in spirits of wine and refused to hand it over to Mary.He finally relented and the heart was eventually buried either atSt Peter's Church, Bournemouthor inChristchurch Priory.Hunt also retrieved a piece of Shelley's jawbone which, in 1913, was given to the Shelley-Keats Memorial in Rome. Family history Shelley's paternal grandfather wasBysshe Shelley(21 June 1731 – 6 January 1815), who, in 1806, became Sir Bysshe Shelley, First Baronet of Castle Goring.On Sir Bysshe's death in 1815, Shelley's father inherited the baronetcy, becomingSir Timothy Shelley. Shelley was the eldest of several legitimate children. Bieri argues that Shelley had an older illegitimate brother but, if he existed, little is known of him.His younger siblings were: John (1806–1866), Margaret (1801–1887), Hellen (1799–1885), Mary (1797–1884), Hellen (1796–1796,", "Hellen (1796–1796, died in infancy) and Elizabeth (1794–1831). Shelley had two children by his first wife Harriet: Eliza Ianthe Shelley (1813–1876) and Charles Bysshe Shelley (1814–1826).He had four children by his second wife Mary: an unnamed daughter born in 1815 who only survived ten days; William Shelley (1816–1819); Clara Everina Shelley (1817–1818); andSir Percy Shelley, 3rd Baronet(1819–1889).Shelley also declared himself to be the father of Elena Adelaide Shelley (1818–1820), who might have been an illegitimate or adopted daughter.His son Percy Florence became the third baronet of Castle Goring in 1844, following the death of Sir Timothy Shelley. Ancestry Political, religious and ethical views Politics Shelley was a political radical influenced by thinkers such as Rousseau, Paine, Godwin, Wollstonecraft, and Leigh Hunt.He advocated Catholic Emancipation, republicanism, parliamentary reform, the extension of the franchise, freedom of speech and peaceful assembly, an end to aristocratic and clerical", "and clerical privilege, and a more equal distribution of income and wealth.The views he expressed in his published works were often more moderate than those he advocated privately because of the risk of prosecution for seditious libel and his desire not to alienate more moderate friends and political allies.Nevertheless, his political writings and activism brought him to the attention of the Home Office and he came under government surveillance at various periods. Shelley's most influential political work in the years immediately following his death was the poemQueen Mab, which included extensive notes on political themes. The work went through 14 official and pirated editions by 1845, and became popular in Owenist and Chartist circles. His longest political essay,A Philosophical View of Reform, was written in 1820, but not published until 1920. Nonviolence Shelley's advocacy of nonviolent resistance was largely based on his reflections on the French Revolution and rise of Napoleon, and his belief that", "and his belief that violent protest would increase the prospect of a military despotism.Although Shelley sympathised with supporters of Irish independence, such asPeter FinnertyandRobert Emmet,he did not support violent rebellion. In his early pamphletAn Address, to the Irish People(1812) he wrote: \"I do not wish to see things changed now, because it cannot be done without violence, and we may assure ourselves that none of us are fit for any change, however good, if we condescend to employ force in a cause we think right.\" In his later essayA Philosophical View of Reform, Shelley did concede that there were political circumstances in which force might be justified: \"The last resort of resistance is undoubtably insurrection. The right of insurrection is derived from the employment of armed force to counteract the will of the nation.\"Shelley supported the1820 armed rebellion against absolute monarchy in Spain, and the1821 armed Greek uprising against Ottoman rule. Shelley's poem \"The Mask of Anarchy\" (written", "Anarchy\" (written in 1819, but first published in 1832) has been called \"perhaps the first modern statement of the principle ofnonviolent resistance\".Gandhi was familiar with the poem and it is possible that Shelley had an indirect influence on Gandhi throughHenry David Thoreau'sCivil Disobedience. Religion Shelley was an avowed atheist, who was influenced by the materialist arguments inHolbach'sLe Système de la nature.His atheism was an important element of his political radicalism as he saw organised religion as inextricably linked to social oppression.The overt and implied atheism in many of his works raised a serious risk of prosecution for religious libel. His early pamphletThe Necessity of Atheismwas withdrawn from sale soon after publication following a complaint from a priest. His poemQueen Mab, which includes sustained attacks on the priesthood, Christianity and religion in general, was twice prosecuted by theSociety for the Suppression of Vicein 1821. A number of his other works were edited before", "were edited before publication to reduce the risk of prosecution. Free love Shelley's advocacy offree lovedrew heavily on the work of Mary Wollstonecraft and the early work of William Godwin. In his notes toQueen Mab, he wrote: \"A system could not well have been devised more studiously hostile to human happiness than marriage.\" He argued that the children of unhappy marriages \"are nursed in a systematic school of ill-humour, violence and falsehood\". He believed that the ideal of chastity outside marriage was \"a monkish and evangelical superstition\" which led to the hypocrisy of prostitution and promiscuity. Shelley believed that \"sexual connection\" should be free among those who loved each other and last only as long as their mutual love. Love should also be free and not subject to obedience, jealousy and fear. He denied that free love would lead to promiscuity and the disruption of stable human relationships, arguing that relationships based on love would generally be of long duration and marked by", "and marked by generosity and self-devotion. When Shelley's friend T. J. Hogg made an unwanted sexual advance to Shelley's first wife Harriet, Shelley forgave him of his \"horrible error\" and assured him that he was not jealous.It is very likely that Shelley encouraged Hogg and Shelley's second wife Mary to have a sexual relationship. Vegetarianism Shelley converted to a vegetable diet in early March 1812 and sustained it, with occasional lapses, for the remainder of his life. Shelley's vegetarianism was influenced by ancient authors such as Hesiod, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Ovid and Plutarch, but more directly byJohn Frank Newton, author ofThe Return to Nature, or, A Defence of the Vegetable Regimen(1811). Shelley wrote two essays on vegetarianism:A Vindication of Natural Diet(1813) and \"On the Vegetable System of Diet\" (written circa 1813–1815, but first published in 1929).Michael Owen Jonesargues that Shelley's advocacy of vegetarianism was strikingly modern, emphasising its health benefits, the", "benefits, the alleviation of animal suffering, the inefficient use of agricultural land involved in animal husbandry, and the economic inequality resulting from the commercialisation of animal food production.Shelley's life and works inspired the founding of theVegetarian Societyin England (1847) and directly influenced the vegetarianism of George Bernard Shaw. Reception and influence Shelley's work was not widely read in his lifetime outside a small circle of friends, poets and critics. Most of his poetry, drama and fiction was published in editions of 250 copies which generally sold poorly. OnlyThe Cenciwent to an authorised second edition while Shelley was alive– in contrast, Byron'sThe Corsair(1814) sold out its first edition of 10,000 copies in one day. The initial reception of Shelley's work in mainstream periodicals (with the exception of the liberalExaminer) was generally unfavourable. Reviewers often launched personal attacks on Shelley's private life and political, social and religious views, even", "views, even when conceding that his poetry contained beautiful imagery and poetic expression.There was also criticism of Shelley's intelligibility and style, Hazlitt describing it as \"a passionate dream, a straining after impossibilities, a record of fond conjectures, a confused embodying of vague abstraction\". Shelley's poetry soon gained a wider audience in radical and reformist circles.Queen Mabbecame popular with Owenists and Chartists, andRevolt of Islaminfluenced poets sympathetic to the workers' movement such asThomas Hood,Thomas CooperandWilliam Morris. However, Shelley's mainstream following did not develop until a generation after his death. Bieri argues that editions of Shelley's poems published in 1824 and 1839 were edited by Mary Shelley to highlight her late husband's lyrical gifts and downplay his radical ideas.Matthew Arnoldfamously described Shelley as a \"beautiful and ineffectual angel\". Shelley was a major influence on a number of important poets in the following decades, includingRobert", "includingRobert Browning,Algernon Swinburne,Thomas HardyandWilliam Butler Yeats.Shelley-like characters frequently appeared in nineteenth-century literature; they include Scythrop inThomas Love Peacock’sNightmare Abbey,Ladislaw inGeorge Eliot’sMiddlemarchand Angel Clare in Hardy'sTess of the d'Urbervilles. Twentieth-century critics such asEliot,Leavis,Allen TateandAudenvariously criticised Shelley's poetry for deficiencies in style, \"repellent\" ideas, and immaturity of intellect and sensibility.However, Shelley's critical reputation began to rise in the 1960s as a new generation of critics highlighted Shelley's debt toSpenserandMilton, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist, and materialist ideas in his work.American literary criticHarold Bloomdescribes him as \"a superb craftsman, a lyric poet without rival, and surely one of the most advanced sceptical intellects ever to write a poem\".According to Donald H. Reiman, \"Shelley belongs to the great tradition of", "great tradition of Western writers that includesDante,ShakespeareandMilton\". Legacy Shelley died leaving many of his works unfinished, unpublished or published in expurgated versions with multiple errors. Since the 1980s, a number of projects have aimed at establishing reliable editions of his manuscripts and works. Among the most notable of these are: Shelley's long-lost \"Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things\" (1811) was rediscovered in 2006 and subsequently made available online by theBodleian Libraryin Oxford. Charles E. Robinsonhas argued that Shelley's contribution to Mary Shelley's novelFrankensteinwas very significant and that Shelley should be considered her collaborator in writing the novel. Professor Charlotte Gordon and others have disputed this contention.Fiona Sampsonhas said: \"In recent years Percy's corrections, visible in theFrankensteinnotebooks held at the Bodleian Library in Oxford, have been seized on as evidence that he must have at least co-authored the novel. In fact, when I", "In fact, when I examined the notebooks myself, I realised that Percy did rather less than any line editor working in publishing today.\" The Keats–Shelley Memorial Association, founded in 1903, supports the Keats–Shelley House in Rome which is a museum and library dedicated to the Romantic writers with a strong connection with Italy. The association is also responsible for maintaining the grave of Percy Bysshe Shelley in the non-Catholic Cemetery at Testaccio. The association publishes the scholarlyKeats–Shelley Review. It also runs the annual Keats–Shelley and Young Romantics Writing Prizes and the Keats–Shelley Fellowship. Selected works Works are listed by estimated year of composition. The year of first publication is given when this is different. Source is Bieri,unless otherwise indicated. Poetry Drama Fiction Short prose works Essays Chapbooks Translations Collaborations with Mary Shelley See also References Notes Bibliography External links Category" ]
If Andrew Fluegelman's suggested donation for his freeware program were paid at a rate of 1 per every day, how much money would he have made during his fast?
$1,225
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-Talk
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Fluegelman
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Numerical reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-Talk', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Fluegelman']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-Talk", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Fluegelman" ]
[ "PC-Talk PC-Talkis a communications software program. It was one of the first three widely popularsoftwareproducts sold via themarketingmethod that became known asshareware. It was written byAndrew Fluegelmanin late 1982,and helped created shareware's sales and marketing methodology. Fluegelman distributed PC-Talk by sending a copy to anyone who sent him a formatted floppy disk. The application encouraged users who liked it to send him $25, but doing so was not obligatory. Fluegelman also encouraged users to make copies for friends, and provided abatch fileto do so.Though PC-Talk is regarded as a progenitor of the shareware distribution model, it was labeled at the time bothfreewareand \"user-supported software\", and included elements ofopen-source software(but notfree software). PC-Talk III was sold for $35 instead of being distributed for free; The Headlands Press offered a $25 discount to those who had previously donated.Itssource codewas available and many derivative works were created by its user community. TheCompuServeIBM/PCSIGforum developed \"PC-TALK III Version B, Level 850311\". Both the user-modified version of the program and the CompuServe distribution point were officially sanctioned by Fluegelman and The Headlands Press, holders of the copyright for PC-TALK. Members ofHAL-PCalso produced custom versions that supportedvideotexandIBM 3101emulation. Reception PC Magazinesaid that PC-Talk \"is elegantly written and performs beautifully. It is easy to use and has all the features I would expect from a communications program\". References", "Andrew Fluegelman Andrew Cardozo Fluegelman(November 27, 1943 –c.July 6, 1985) was a publisher, photographer,programmerand attorneybest known as a pioneer of what is now known as thesharewarebusiness model for software marketing. He was also the founding editor of bothPC WorldandMacworldand the leader of the 1970sNew Gamesmovement, which advocated the development ofnoncompetitive games. Early life Fluegelman was raised inWhite Plains, New York.He graduated fromYale Universityin 1969. Career Attorney Following graduation, Fluegelman worked inMidtown Manhattanbefore moving to California and working for a law firm inSan Francisco.He was admitted to theState Bar of Californiain January 1971.He resigned in 1972 without any particular plan about his future. Writing The following year, Fluegelman started working for theWhole Earth Catalog, a job that lasted for about a year.During that time, he separated from his wife and starting living inSausalito, California.At one point, he fasted for 49 days, drinking only water. He started writing and publishing books, such asSan Francisco Free and EasyandThe New Games Book. Publisher In 1981, Fluegelman was the owner and sole employee of The Headlands Press, a small book publisher inTiburon, California. He had attended an earlycomputer expoin San Francisco in the late 1970s, and after agreeing to publish and coauthorWriting in the Computer Agedecided to purchase his first computer. In October, Fluegelman bought one of the firstIBM PCssold in San Francisco, and in two weeks began to write his own accounting program inIBM BASIC. \"Freeware\" In late 1982 Fluegelman developedPC-Talk, a very popular and successful communications program.He marketed it under a system he called \"Freeware\", which he characterized as \"an experiment in economics more thanaltruism\".Freewarewas licensed under terms that encouraged users to make voluntary payments for the software, and it allowed users to copy and redistribute the software freely as long as the license terms and text were not altered. He collaborated with PC-File (database software) developerJim Knopfto adopt similar names (PC-File was originally \"Easy-File\"), and prices, for their initial shareware offerings; they also agreed to mention each other's products in their program's documentation. Magazine editor Fluegelman editedPC Worldmagazine from its introduction in 1982 until 1985, andMacworldmagazine from its introduction in 1984 until 1985. Disappearance Fluegelman suffered fromulcerative colitis.In July 1985, he was prescribedprednisoneto treat the condition.Within a few days of beginning to take the medication, he became depressed and agitated.He started profusely apologizing to his colleague for perceived failures.In order to reduce his stress, his employer rearranged his work schedule; Fluegelman's behavior did not improve. On the afternoon of July 6, 1985, he left his office inTiburon, California. A week later, his abandoned car was found at the north end of theGolden Gate Bridgenear San Francisco. His family held a memorial service for Fluegelman, and he ispresumed dead, though his body has never been found. Kevin Strehlo, then anInfoWorldcolumnist, submitted a memorial column which mentioned that \"friends say asuicide notewas found inside\" his car.InfoWorldrejected this column, but an online news service published it. Works Books edited The Headlands Press produced books and negotiated publishing contracts for them with major publishers.Many of the books were designed by Howard Jacobsen and produced by his company, Community Type and Design. This list is arranged by year of book publication: Edited by Andrew Fluegelman and Shoshana Tembeck. A Headlands Press Book, Dolphin/Doubleday (1976).ISBN0-385-12516-X By Meisch, Lynn. A Headlands Press Book. Publisher: Penguin Books New York (1977).ISBN0-14-046280-5 By Norman Locks. A Headlands Press Book. HARPER & ROW, PUBLISHERS, San Francisco (1978).ISBN0-06-250530-0 By Diane Sward Rapaport. A Headlands Press Book. Putnam, Prentice-Hall (1979).ISBN0-8256-9932-0 By Frank Barrett; Lynn Barrett. Publisher: New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston (1980).ISBN0-03-056958-3 By Jeremy Joan Hewes. The Headlands Press, Inc., San Francisco. Doubleday (1981).ISBN0-385-15995-1 By The New Games Foundation. Main Street Books New York: Dolphin Books/Doubleday & Company (1981).ISBN0-385-17514-0 By Mia Detrick, Illustrated by Kathryn Kleinman A Headlands Press Book. Chronicle Books LLC (1983)ISBN0-87701-238-5 Books co-authored By Andrew Fluegelman and Jeremy Joan Hewes. Anchor Press/Doubleday Publishing Group (1983)ISBN0-385-18125-6 Photography By Kay Hamblin. The Doubleday Publishing Group (1978)ISBN0-385-14246-3 See also References External links" ]
[ "PC-Talk PC-Talkis a communications software program. It was one of the first three widely popularsoftwareproducts sold via themarketingmethod that became known asshareware. It was written byAndrew Fluegelmanin late 1982,and helped created shareware's sales and marketing methodology. Fluegelman distributed PC-Talk by sending a copy to anyone who sent him a formatted floppy disk. The application encouraged users who liked it to send him $25, but doing so was not obligatory. Fluegelman also encouraged users to make copies for friends, and provided abatch fileto do so.Though PC-Talk is regarded as a progenitor of the shareware distribution model, it was labeled at the time bothfreewareand \"user-supported software\", and included elements ofopen-source software(but notfree software). PC-Talk III was sold for $35 instead of being distributed for free; The Headlands Press offered a $25 discount to those who had previously donated.Itssource codewas available and many derivative works were created by its user", "created by its user community. TheCompuServeIBM/PCSIGforum developed \"PC-TALK III Version B, Level 850311\". Both the user-modified version of the program and the CompuServe distribution point were officially sanctioned by Fluegelman and The Headlands Press, holders of the copyright for PC-TALK. Members ofHAL-PCalso produced custom versions that supportedvideotexandIBM 3101emulation. Reception PC Magazinesaid that PC-Talk \"is elegantly written and performs beautifully. It is easy to use and has all the features I would expect from a communications program\". References", "Andrew Fluegelman Andrew Cardozo Fluegelman(November 27, 1943 –c.July 6, 1985) was a publisher, photographer,programmerand attorneybest known as a pioneer of what is now known as thesharewarebusiness model for software marketing. He was also the founding editor of bothPC WorldandMacworldand the leader of the 1970sNew Gamesmovement, which advocated the development ofnoncompetitive games. Early life Fluegelman was raised inWhite Plains, New York.He graduated fromYale Universityin 1969. Career Attorney Following graduation, Fluegelman worked inMidtown Manhattanbefore moving to California and working for a law firm inSan Francisco.He was admitted to theState Bar of Californiain January 1971.He resigned in 1972 without any particular plan about his future. Writing The following year, Fluegelman started working for theWhole Earth Catalog, a job that lasted for about a year.During that time, he separated from his wife and starting living inSausalito, California.At one point, he fasted for 49 days, drinking only", "days, drinking only water. He started writing and publishing books, such asSan Francisco Free and EasyandThe New Games Book. Publisher In 1981, Fluegelman was the owner and sole employee of The Headlands Press, a small book publisher inTiburon, California. He had attended an earlycomputer expoin San Francisco in the late 1970s, and after agreeing to publish and coauthorWriting in the Computer Agedecided to purchase his first computer. In October, Fluegelman bought one of the firstIBM PCssold in San Francisco, and in two weeks began to write his own accounting program inIBM BASIC. \"Freeware\" In late 1982 Fluegelman developedPC-Talk, a very popular and successful communications program.He marketed it under a system he called \"Freeware\", which he characterized as \"an experiment in economics more thanaltruism\".Freewarewas licensed under terms that encouraged users to make voluntary payments for the software, and it allowed users to copy and redistribute the software freely as long as the license terms and text", "terms and text were not altered. He collaborated with PC-File (database software) developerJim Knopfto adopt similar names (PC-File was originally \"Easy-File\"), and prices, for their initial shareware offerings; they also agreed to mention each other's products in their program's documentation. Magazine editor Fluegelman editedPC Worldmagazine from its introduction in 1982 until 1985, andMacworldmagazine from its introduction in 1984 until 1985. Disappearance Fluegelman suffered fromulcerative colitis.In July 1985, he was prescribedprednisoneto treat the condition.Within a few days of beginning to take the medication, he became depressed and agitated.He started profusely apologizing to his colleague for perceived failures.In order to reduce his stress, his employer rearranged his work schedule; Fluegelman's behavior did not improve. On the afternoon of July 6, 1985, he left his office inTiburon, California. A week later, his abandoned car was found at the north end of theGolden Gate Bridgenear San Francisco.", "San Francisco. His family held a memorial service for Fluegelman, and he ispresumed dead, though his body has never been found. Kevin Strehlo, then anInfoWorldcolumnist, submitted a memorial column which mentioned that \"friends say asuicide notewas found inside\" his car.InfoWorldrejected this column, but an online news service published it. Works Books edited The Headlands Press produced books and negotiated publishing contracts for them with major publishers.Many of the books were designed by Howard Jacobsen and produced by his company, Community Type and Design. This list is arranged by year of book publication: Edited by Andrew Fluegelman and Shoshana Tembeck. A Headlands Press Book, Dolphin/Doubleday (1976).ISBN0-385-12516-X By Meisch, Lynn. A Headlands Press Book. Publisher: Penguin Books New York (1977).ISBN0-14-046280-5 By Norman Locks. A Headlands Press Book. HARPER & ROW, PUBLISHERS, San Francisco (1978).ISBN0-06-250530-0 By Diane Sward Rapaport. A Headlands Press Book. Putnam, Prentice-Hall", "Prentice-Hall (1979).ISBN0-8256-9932-0 By Frank Barrett; Lynn Barrett. Publisher: New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston (1980).ISBN0-03-056958-3 By Jeremy Joan Hewes. The Headlands Press, Inc., San Francisco. Doubleday (1981).ISBN0-385-15995-1 By The New Games Foundation. Main Street Books New York: Dolphin Books/Doubleday & Company (1981).ISBN0-385-17514-0 By Mia Detrick, Illustrated by Kathryn Kleinman A Headlands Press Book. Chronicle Books LLC (1983)ISBN0-87701-238-5 Books co-authored By Andrew Fluegelman and Jeremy Joan Hewes. Anchor Press/Doubleday Publishing Group (1983)ISBN0-385-18125-6 Photography By Kay Hamblin. The Doubleday Publishing Group (1978)ISBN0-385-14246-3 See also References External links" ]
What is the name of the high school and hometown of the Olympic Gold Medalist winner who won 4-3 against Hassan Yazdani at the Japan Olympics in 2020?
Graham High School in St. Paris Ohio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics#Medalists
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_freestyle_86_kg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Taylor_(wrestler,_born_1990)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_High_School_(St._Paris,_Ohio)
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null
null
null
null
null
Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics#Medalists', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_freestyle_86_kg', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Taylor_(wrestler,_born_1990)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_High_School_(St._Paris,_Ohio)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics#Medalists", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_freestyle_86_kg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Taylor_(wrestler,_born_1990", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_High_School_(St._Paris,_Ohio" ]
[ "2020 Summer Olympics The2020 Summer Olympics,officially theGames of the XXXII Olympiadand officially branded asTokyo 2020,were an internationalmulti-sport eventheld from 23 July to 8 August 2021 inTokyo, Japan, with some preliminary events that began on 21 July 2021. Tokyo was selected as thehost cityduring the125th IOC SessioninBuenos Aires, Argentina on 7 September 2013. Originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020, the event was postponed to 2021 on 24 March 2020 due to the globalCOVID-19 pandemic, the first such instance in the history of theOlympic Games(several previous games had been cancelled but not rescheduled).However, the event retained theTokyo 2020branding for marketing purposes.It was largely heldbehind closed doorswith no public spectators permitted due to the declaration of a state of emergency in theGreater Tokyo Areain response to the pandemic, the only Olympic Games to be held without official spectators.The Games were the most expensive ever, with total spending of over $20 billion. The Games were the fourth Olympic Games to be held in Japan, following the1964 Summer Olympics(Tokyo),1972 Winter Olympics(Sapporo), and1998 Winter Olympics(Nagano). Tokyo became the first city inAsiato hold theSummer Olympic Gamestwice.The 2020 Games were the second of three consecutive Olympics to be held inEast Asia, following the2018 Winter OlympicsinPyeongchang,South Koreaand preceding the2022 Winter OlympicsinBeijing,China. Due to the one-year postponement, Tokyo 2020 was the only Olympic Games to have been held in an odd-numbered year. New events were introduced in existing sports, including3x3 basketball,freestyle BMXand mixed gender team events in a number of existing sports, as well as the return ofmadison cyclingfor men and an introduction of the same event for women. New IOC policies also allowed the host organizing committee to add new sports to theOlympic programfor just one Games. The disciplines added by theJapanese Olympic Committeewerebaseballandsoftball,karate,sport climbing,surfingandskateboarding, the last four of which made their Olympic debuts, and the last three of which will remain on the Olympic program. TheUnited Statestopped themedal tableboth by gold (39) and total medals (113), withChinafinishing second (38 and 89). Host nationJapanfinished third, setting a record for the most gold and overall medals won by their delegation at an Olympic Games with 27 and 58.Great Britainfinished fourth, with a total of 22 gold and 64 total medals. TheRussian delegationcompeting as theROCfinished fifth with 20 gold medals and third in the overall medal count, with 71 medals.Bermuda, thePhilippinesandQatarwon their first-ever Olympic gold medals.Burkina Faso,San MarinoandTurkmenistanalso won their first-ever Olympic medals. Bidding process The three candidate cities wereTokyo,Istanbul, andMadrid. The applicant cities ofBakuandDohawere not promoted to candidate status. Abid from Romewas withdrawn. Host city selection TheInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) voted to select the host city of the 2020 Summer Olympics on 7 September 2013, at the125th IOC SessioninBuenos Aires, Argentina, using anexhaustive ballotsystem.None of the candidate cities won more than 50% of the votes in the first round; Madrid and Istanbul were tied for second place, so a runoff vote was held to determine which of the two cities would be eliminated. The final vote was a head-to-head contest between Tokyo and Istanbul. Tokyo was selected by 60 votes to 36, gaining at least the 49 votes required for a majority. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic In January 2020, concerns were raised about the potential impact of theCOVID-19 pandemicon athletes and visitors to the Summer Olympic Games.Tokyo organizers and the International Olympic Committee insisted they were monitoring the spread of the disease to minimize its effects on preparations for the Olympics.The IOC stated that in 2020, their Japanese partners and Prime MinisterShinzo Abe\"made it very clear that Japan could not manage a postponement beyond next summer at the latest\".Unlike thecase for Zika virusduring the2016 Summer Olympicsin Rio de Janeiro,SARS-CoV-2can be transmitted directly between humans, posing tougher challenges for the organizers to counteract the infectious disease and host a safe and secure event.Also unlike thecase for H1N1 \"swine flu\"during the2010 Winter Olympicsin Vancouver, COVID-19 has a higher fatality rate, and there was noeffective vaccineuntil December 2020.In a February 2020 interview,ConservativeLondon mayoral candidateShaun Baileyargued that London would be able to host the Olympic Games at the former2012 Olympic venuesshould the Games need to be moved because of the COVID-19 pandemic.Tokyo GovernorYuriko Koikecriticized Bailey's comment as inappropriate.In early 2021, officials in the U.S. state ofFloridaoffered to host the delayed Games in their state, whileJohn Coates, the IOC vice president in charge of the Tokyo Olympics, said the Games would open even if the city and other parts of Japan were under a state of emergency because of COVID-19. Estimates by the National Institute of Infectious Diseases andKyoto Universitypredicted that states of emergency might be required during the Games.The reports published at the Ministry of Health experts' panel also showed new patients increasing to 10,000 if the Games were to allow spectators. Qualifying event cancellation and postponement Concerns about the pandemic began to affect qualifying events in early 2020. Some that were due to take place in February were moved to alternative locations to address concerns about travelling to the affected areas, particularly China. For example, thewomen's basketball qualificationwas played inBelgrade, Serbia, instead ofFoshan, China.TheAsia & Oceania boxing qualification tournament, which was originally planned to be held from 3–14 February inWuhan, China (the location of the original outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic), instead took place inAmman, Jordan, at the beginning of March.The third round of thewomen's football qualification tournamentwas also affected, as the group matches formerly scheduled to be held in China were moved to Australia.TheEuropean boxing qualificationbegan on 14 March 2020 inLondon, United Kingdom, but was suspended after two days of competition before being rescheduled for April 2021.It eventually resumed in June 2021 but was moved toParis, France,because of renewed concerns overtravel to the United Kingdom. Other qualifying events that were due to take place in March to June 2020 began to be postponed until later in the year and mid-2021 as part of a wider suspension of international sporting competitions in response to the pandemic. A multitude of Olympic sports were affected, including archery, baseball, cycling, handball, judo, rowing, sailing, volleyball, and water polo. Effect on doping tests Mandatory doping tests were being severely restricted by the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020. European anti-doping organizations raised concerns that blood and urine tests could not be performed and that mobilizing the staff necessary to do so before the end of the pandemic would be a health risk. Despite the need for extensive testing to take place in advance of the Games, theWorld Anti-Doping Agency(WADA) stated that public health and safety were their topmost priorities.TheChina Anti-Doping Agency(CHINADA) temporarily ceased testing on 3 February 2020, with a planned resumption of phased testing towards the end of the month,and the anti-doping organizations in the United States, France, Great Britain, and Germany had reduced their testing activities by the end of March. It was subsequently revealed that twenty-three Chinese swimmers had tested positive for the drugtrimetazidine, but were permitted to compete, after CHINADA claimed they had ingested tiny amounts unawares from a kitchen. Some, includingZhang Yufei,Wang Shun, andQin Haiyang, went on to win medals. The affair resulted in deep upset amongst the international athletic community. Postponement to 2021 TheTokyo Organizing Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games(TOCOG) released a statement on 2 March 2020, confirming that preparations for the upcoming Tokyo Olympics were \"continuing as planned\".On 23 March, both Canada and Australia indicated that they would withdraw from the Games if they were not postponed by a year.On the same day, Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe stated he would support a proposed postponement, citing that ensuring athlete safety was \"paramount,\" and veteran IOC member and former vice presidentDick Poundsaid that he expected the Games to be postponed. On 24 March 2020, 122 days to go for the planned start, the IOC, TOCOG and prime minister Abe released a joint statement announcing that the 2020 Summer Olympics andParalympicswould be rescheduled to a date \"beyond 2020 but not later than summer 2021\". They stated that the Games could \"stand as a beacon of hope to the world during these troubled times\", and that theOlympic flamecould become \"the light at the end of the tunnel in which the world finds itself at present\".Prime Minister Abe stated that IOC presidentThomas Bachresponded \"with 100% agreement\" to his proposal to delay the Games. For continuity and marketing purposes, it was agreed that the Games would still be branded as Tokyo 2020 despite the change in schedule. On 30 March 2020, the IOC and TOCOG announced that they had reached an agreement on the new dates for the 2020 Summer Olympics, which would now begin with the opening ceremony on 23 July 2021 and end with the closing ceremony on 8 August 2021, still to be held in Tokyo.The subsequentWinter Olympics in Beijingare scheduled to begin on 4 February 2022, less than six months later. Shortly before the postponement was confirmed, the IOC and Tokyo 2020 organizers formed a task force named \"Here We Go\" with the remit to address any issues arising from postponing the Games, such as sponsorship and accommodation. The organizers confirmed that all athletes who had already qualified for Tokyo 2020 would keep their qualification slots. Calls for cancellation Health experts expressed concern in April 2020 that the Games might have to be cancelled if the pandemic should persist.In an interview, the then president of TOCOG and former Japanese prime minister,Yoshirō Mori, asserted that the Games would be \"scrapped\" if they could not go ahead in 2021.On 29 April 2020, Prime Minister Abe stated that the Games \"must be held in a way that shows the world has won its battle against the coronavirus pandemic\".Thomas Bach acknowledged in an interview on 20 May 2020, that the job of reorganizing the Tokyo Games was \"a mammoth task\" and also admitted that the event would have to be cancelled altogether if it could not take place in the summer of 2021.However, both Mori and Bach expressed optimism about the Games going ahead. A member of the Japanese COVID-19 Advisory Committee on the basic action policy co-authored aBritish Medical Journaleditorial, which stated, \"holding Tokyo 2020 for domestic political and economic purposes—ignoring scientific and moral imperatives—is contradictory to Japan's commitment to global health and human security\". On 21 January 2021, multiple sources reported that the Japanese government had \"privately concluded\" that the Games would have to be cancelled.The government dismissed the claims, stating that the reports were \"categorically untrue\".The new Japanese prime ministerYoshihide Sugaconfirmed on 19 February that theG7had given unanimous support for the postponed Games to go ahead as scheduled.It was reported in April 2021, just three months before the start of the Games, that there was still the option to cancel the Tokyo Olympics with the country having vaccinated less than 1% of its population, with tens of thousands of volunteers expected to take part and athletes not being required to quarantine after arriving in Japan. Public support for the Games in Japan decreased significantly amid a 2021 surge inCOVID-19 cases in the country.Multiple organizations of medical professionals voiced oppositions to the Games,while an opinion poll in April 2021 saw 40% of participants support the cancellation of the Games, and 33% support a second postponement.In May 2021, 83% of those polled supported the cancellation or postponement of the Games.The Tokyo Medical Practitioners Association called for the cancellation, stating that hospitals in Tokyo \"have their hands full and have almost no spare capacity\" in an open letter to the prime minister.At least nine out of 47 elected governors supported the cancellation of the Games.Nearly 37% of Japanese companies surveyed supported the cancellation of the Games, and 32% supported postponement. Kenji Utsunomiya, who had previously run for Governor of Tokyo, collected more than 351,000 signatures on a petition calling for the organizers to \"prioritize life\" over the Olympics.Japanese writersJiro AkagawaandFuminori Nakamuraalso called for the Games to be postponed or cancelled. On 26 May 2021, theAsahi Shimbunnewspaper, which was a local sponsor of the Games, published an editorial calling for Prime Minister Suga to \"calmly and objectively assess the situation and decide on the cancellation of the event this summer.\"On 4 June it was reported that Japanese sponsors proposed to the organizers for \"the Games to be postponed for several months,\" citing a comment by a corporate sponsor senior executive: \"It just makes much, much more sense from our perspective to hold the Games when there are more vaccinated people, the weather is cooler and maybe public opposition is lower.\" In July 2021, it was announced that all events in Tokyo were to be heldbehind closed doorswith no spectators due to a new state of emergency. A poll by theAsahi Shimbunfound that 55% of those surveyed supported the cancellation of the Olympics, and 68% felt that organizers would not be able to suitably control COVID-19 at the Games.The decision was also detrimental to local sponsors, which had planned in-person presences to promote their products during the Games; an executive of official sponsorToyotastated that the company had pulled a television advertising campaign it had planned for the Games in Japan, citing that the Olympics were \"becoming an event that has not gained the public's understanding.\" Had the games been cancelled, it would have been the first time sinceWorld War IIthat an Olympic event had been called off and the first games to be scrapped due to circumstances unrelated to war.A complete cancellation would have also cost Japan¥4.52trillion (US$41.5billion), based on operating expenses andloss of tourismactivity due to Japan which had closed its international borders to foreign travellers since March 2020, did not eventually reopen until October 2022, and was initially scheduled to end preventive border measures in May 2023 but had moved early at the end of April of that year, less than two years after the Games ended. Costs and insurance According to an estimate conducted by professor emeritus Katsuhiro Miyamoto ofKansai Universityand reported by theNHKin March 2020, the cost of delaying the 2020 Olympics by one year would be 640.8 billion yen (US$5.8 billion), taking maintenance expenditures for the unused facilities into account. TheNomura Research Instituteestimated that cancelling the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics in 2021 would cost around 1.81 trillion yen ($17 billion), less than the economic damages projected if another state of emergency is declared, noting that a decision to hold the games \"should be made based on the impact on infection risks, not from the standpoint of economic loss\". The Tokyo Games were protected through the commercial insurance marketplaceLloyd's of London, by global reinsurersMunich ReandSwiss Re. The IOC takes out around $800 million of insurance for each Summer Olympics, with the total amount of loss insured for the 2020 Games likely to be more than $2 billion.The disruption caused by postponing the Games was covered by the insurance policy, with those likely to make claims for their financial losses including local organizers, sponsors, hospitality firms, and travel providers. Holders of tickets purchased from overseas prior to postponement were entitled to refunds for both Olympic and Paralympic ticket purchases, except for the costs of cancelled hotel bookings. Although about 600,000 Olympic tickets and 300,000 Paralympic tickets were eligible to be refunded, organizers said that they would not release the total costs of the refunds.Reuters quoted industry sources who estimated that the Tokyo Olympics Committee had taken out US$500–800 million in insurance, and that after accounting for costs such as rebooking sporting venues and the Olympic Village, little of that payout would be available to recoup the proceeds of lost and refunded ticket sales.The local organizers are responsible for ticket sales and use them to defray the costs of holding the games; ticket sales were expected to bring in approximately US$800 million, but actual sales were close to zero. In June 2022, the Tokyo Organizing Committee revealed in the final budget report for the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics that the cost for the Olympic Games was 640.4 billion yen (US$5.8 billion), which was higher than the cost for theRio 2016. Public opinion and COVID-19 effect during and after the Games Prior to the Tokyo Olympics being held, many Japanese people were negative about hosting the event, but their attitudes had become more positive towards the end of the Games. According to a public opinion poll conducted jointly by theNippon News Networkand theYomiuri Shimbunnewspaper, which targeted Japanese citizens at the end of the Olympics, 38% of respondents said that it was possible to hold the Olympics in a safe manner against COVID-19, while 55% said that it was not possible. However, 64% answered that it was good that the Tokyo Games had gone ahead, while 28% answered that they wished the event had not been held. Of the respondents, 61% were glad the event had been held without spectators and only 12% said that spectators should have been allowed. On 29 July, less than a week into the Games, journalist Masaki Kubota reported his analysis of the Japanese people's perspective on the Olympics, which he believed was greatly influenced by the change in the way the Japanese news media reported on the Games. He pointed out that many Japanese news media had insisted on canceling the Olympics, citing fears that COVID-19 would spread, but once Japanese athletes started winning medals, the media changed their reporting policy and began livening up the Olympics, which had the effect of altering public opinion in Japan. Once the Tokyo Olympics were underway, followed by theTokyo Paralympics, there was a sharp increase in COVID-19 cases in Japan, especially those caused by theDelta variant. On 26 July, there were 60,157 cases detected in Japan, breaking the record of 44,961 cases recorded on 10 May. On 9 August, one day after the Olympics had ended, daily cases in Japan reached 100,000 for the first time, and new cases continued to increase until the peak on 23 August, when 156,931 cases were recorded. Development and preparations The Tokyo Organizing Committee was originally headed by former Japanese prime minister Yoshirō Mori,but he resigned in February 2021 due to backlash from sexist comments about women in meetings.Seiko Hashimotowas chosen to succeed him.Tamayo Marukawa, Minister for the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games, was responsible for overseeing the preparations on behalf of the Japanese government. TheTokyo Metropolitan Governmentset aside a fund of ¥400 billion (more than US$3.67 billion) to cover the cost of hosting the Games. TheJapanese governmentwas considering easing airspace restrictions to allow an increasedslotcapacity at bothHanedaandNaritaairports. A new railway line was planned to link both airports through an expansion ofTokyo Station, cutting travel time from Tokyo Station to Haneda from 30 minutes to 18 minutes, and from Tokyo Station to Narita from 55 minutes to 36 minutes; funded primarily by private investors, the line would cost ¥400 billion. TheEast Japan Railway Company(JR East) was also planning a new route nearTamachito Haneda Airport. There were plans to fund the accelerated completion of theCentral Circular Route,Tokyo Gaikan Expressway, andKen-Ō Expressway, and the refurbishment of other major expressways in the area.TheYurikamomeautomated transit line was also to be extended from its existing terminal atToyosu Stationto a new terminal atKachidoki Station, passing the site of the Olympic Village, although the line was not expected to have adequate capacity to serve major events in theOdaibaarea on its own. In April 2018, the Tokyo Organizing Committee signed a partnership with theInternational Labour Organizationto ensuredecent workin the preparation of and during the 2020 Olympic Games. In June 2020, the chief executive of the Organizing Committee,Toshirō Mutō, stated that the committee was exploring options for streamlining the Games to achieve cost savings.On 25 September, the IOC and Tokyo Organizing Committee agreed to a suite of measures to simplify the Games' logistics, including a cut to non-athlete staff, use of online meetings, and streamlined transport, among others. The committee also outlined areas it would be exploring in order to maintain the health and safety of all participants. Venues and infrastructure In February 2012, it was announced that Tokyo's formerNational Stadium, the central venue for the1964 Summer Olympics, would undergo a ¥100 billion renovation for the2019 Rugby World Cupand the 2020 Summer Olympics.In November 2012, the Japan Sport Council announced that it was taking bids for proposed stadium designs. Of the 46 finalists,Zaha Hadid Architectswas awarded the project, which would replace the old stadium witha new 80,000-seat stadium. There was criticism of the Zaha Hadid design—which was compared to abicycle helmetand regarded as clashing with the surroundingMeiji Shrine—and widespread disapproval of the costs, even with attempts to revise and \"optimize\" the design. In June 2015, the government announced plans to reduce the new stadium's permanent capacity to 65,000 in its athletics configuration (although with the option to add up to 15,000 temporary seats for football) as a further cost-saving measure.The original plan to build a retractable roof was also abandoned.At the end of 2015, as a result of public opposition to the increasing costs of the new stadium (which had reached ¥252 billion), the government chose to reject Zaha Hadid's design entirely and selected a new design by Japanese architectKengo Kuma. Inspired by traditional temples and with a lower profile, Kuma's design had a budget of ¥149 billion. The changes meant the new stadium could not be completed in time for the2019 Rugby World Cupas originally intended.The National Stadium, which was inaugurated on 21 December 2019, was named the Olympic Stadium for the duration of the Tokyo Games. In October 2018, theBoard of Auditissued a report stating that the total cost of the Olympic venues could exceed US$25 billion. Of the 33 competition venues in Tokyo, 28 were within 8 kilometers (5 miles) of the Olympic Village, with eleven new venues to be constructed.On 16 October 2019, the IOC announced that there were plans to re-locate the marathon and racewalking events toSapporofor heat concerns.The plans were made official on 1 November 2019 after Tokyo Governor Yuriko Koike accepted the IOC's decision, despite her belief that the events should have remained in Tokyo. In general, as urban studies scholar Faure notes, \"The Tokyo 2020–2021 Games had a relatively moderate impact on the city, compared to previous cases such as Rio and Sochi, or cases in which a major Olympic park was built in Barcelona in 1992, and in Beijing in 2008. The transport infrastructure has been marginally improved by facilitating access for people with mobility constraints and improving signage in other languages. Haneda Airport has been expanded, and a hydrogen-powered bus rapid transit system has been introduced. Several sports and event facilities were built, including the new Olympic Stadium. Finally, the Olympic Village has been built on the Harumi landfill.\" Security In December 2018, the Japanese government chose to ban drones from flying over venues being used for the Olympic and Paralympic Games. A similar ban was also imposed for the 2019 Rugby World Cup, which Japan also hosted.In January 2020, counterterrorism drills began in different parts where the Games would take place, after intelligence data showed that terrorist groups could have carried out an attack seeking worldwide attention.In July 2021, prior to the start of the Games, theJapan Coast Guardconductedcounterterrorismdrills in theTokyo Bay. The drill consisted of twoinflatable boatstrying to stop a suspicious ship from getting to shore. Volunteers Applications for volunteering at the 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games were accepted beginning on 26 September 2018. By 18 January 2019, a total of 204,680 applications had been received by the Tokyo Organizing Committee.Interviews to select the requisite number of volunteers began in February 2019, with training scheduled to take place in October 2019.The volunteers at the venues were to be known as \"Field Cast\", and the volunteers in the city were to be known as \"City Cast\". These names were chosen from ashortlistof four from an original 150 pairs of names; the other three shortlisted names were \"Shining Blue\" and \"Shining Blue Tokyo\", \"Games Anchor\" and \"City Anchor\", and \"Games Force\" and \"City Force\". The names were chosen by the people who had applied to be volunteers at the Games. As of early June 2021, approximately 10,000 out of the 80,000 registered volunteers resigned from the Games. Media attributed the rise in pandemic cases as the reason for massive quitting.More volunteer assignments were expected to be cancelled due to the spectator ban. Medals In February 2017, the Tokyo Organizing Committee announced anelectronics recyclingprogram in partnership with Japan Environmental Sanitation Center andNTT Docomo, soliciting donations of electronics such as mobile phones to be reclaimed as materials for the medals. Aiming to collect eight tonnes of metals to produce the medals for the Olympic and Paralympic Games, collection boxes were deployed at public locations and NTT Docomo retail shops in April 2017.A design competition for the medals was launched in December of that year. In May 2018, the organizing committee reported that they had obtained half the required 2,700 kilograms of bronze but were struggling to obtain the required amount of silver; although bronze and silver medals purely utilize their respective materials, IOC requirements mandate that gold medals utilize silver as a base.The collection of bronze was completed in November 2018, with the remainder estimated to have been completed by March 2019. On 24 July 2019 (one year ahead of the originally scheduled opening ceremony), the designs of the medals were unveiled.The medals for the Olympic and Paralympic Games were designed by Junichi Kawanishi following a nationwide competition.A new feature shared with theParalympic medalsis that the ribbons contain one, two, or threesilicone convex linesto distinguish gold, silver, and bronze medals, respectively. Torch relay The slogan of the 2020 Summer Olympics torch relay was \"Hope Lights Our Way\". As determined by a 2009 IOC ruling that banned international torch relays for any future Olympic Games,the 2020 Summer Olympics torch was scheduled to only visit the two countries of Greece and the host nation Japan. The first phase of the relay began on 12 March 2020, with the traditional flame lighting ceremony at theTemple of HerainOlympia, Greece. The torch then travelled toAthens, where the Greek leg of the relay culminated in a handover ceremony at thePanathenaic Stadiumon 19 March, during which the torch was transferred to the Japanese contingent.The flame was placed inside a special lantern and transported fromAthens International Airporton a chartered flight toHigashimatsushimain Japan. The torch was then expected to begin the second phase of its journey on 20 March, as it traveled for one week around the three most affected areas of the2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami—Miyagi,IwateandFukushima—where it would go on display under the heading \"Flame of Recovery\". After leavingNarahaon 26 March, the torch would commence its main relay around Japan, incorporating all 47prefecturalcapitals. After the decision to postpone the Games was made, the torch was placed again in a special lantern on display in the city of Fukushima for a month. After that, the lantern was transferred to the Tokyo prefecture, where it was kept safe until the restart of the relay in 2021.On 23 July 2020 (one year ahead of the rescheduled opening ceremony), a promotional video was released featuring Japanese swimmerRikako Ikeecarrying the lantern inside Japan National Stadium, drawing comparisons between emergence from the pandemic and her own return to sport after being diagnosed withleukemia.On 20 August 2020, it was announced that the torch relay would begin again in Naraha, Fukushima on 25 March 2021, nearly a year later than originally planned. The final course of the relay was altered due to concerns regarding public health concerns about gatherings along the route (e.g., the Miyakojima leg was canceled), and the relay was held without spectators due to states of emergency in some regions (e.g., Matsuyama, Hiroshima, Hyōgo, and Okayama).The relay ended at Tokyo'sNational Stadium (Olympic Stadium)on 23 July, with tennis playerNaomi Osakalighting the Olympic cauldron at the finale of theopening ceremony.The cauldron lit in the Olympic Stadium was only used during the opening and closing ceremonies: a separate cauldron was lit on the Tokyo waterfront for public view at theYume No Ohashi BridgeinOdaiba, making it only the second time in Olympic history where the cauldron was not displayed in the athletics stadium, the other time being in 2016. Biosecurity protocols In February 2021, the IOC began releasing \"playbooks\" containing details on planned COVID-19biosecurityprotocols for athletes, officials, the press, and other staff, including standard protocols such as practicingsocial distancing, hygiene, the wearing of face masks (outside of training and competition for athletes), and being restricted from visiting bars, restaurants, shops, and other tourist areas aroundGreater Tokyo Area, or using public transport unless otherwise permitted. Participants would be asked to use Japan's COCOAExposure Notificationapp and would be tested at least every four days. Athletes who tested positive would be unable to compete and could be quarantined at a government facility (although leeway would be given in the event of false positives). Close contacts would also need to test negative in order to be cleared for competition. Athletes would be discouraged from \"excessive\" celebrations because the actions could spread infected droplets.The playbooks were criticized in a paper published byThe New England Journal of Medicinein May 2021, for lacking \"scientifically rigorous risk assessment\" and failing to \"distinguish the various levels of risk faced by athletes\". The playbook stated that the athletes were required to arrive up to five days prior to the start of the competition and to leave within 48 hours of being eliminated from their sport or the conclusion of the competitions. The IOC recommended thevaccinationof athletes against COVID-19 ifvaccineswere available to them, but this was not a prerequisite for participation and the IOC advised against athletes \"jumping the queue\" in order to obtain priority over essential populations.On 12 March 2021, Thomas Bach announced that in nations where they were approved for use, theChinese Olympic Committeehad offered to cover the costs of the ChineseCoronaVacand theSinopharm BIBP vaccinefor athletes competing in the 2020 Summer Olympics and2022 Winter Olympics, and would purchase two doses for their nation's general public for each vaccinated athlete.On 6 May 2021,Pfizerannounced that it would donate doses ofits vaccineto NOCs competing in Tokyo. Approximately 93,000 athletes and officials were exempt from the quarantine rules upon arriving in Japan, provided that they remained in areas separated from the local population. With around 300,000 local staff and volunteers entering and exiting these bubbles, and 20,000 vaccine doses allocated for this group, this led to concerns of COVID-19 spreading both during the Games and when teams returned to their countries. Due to international travel restrictions, the organizing committee announced in March 2021 that no international guests (including spectators, and friends and family members of the athletes) would be allowed to attend the Games. As per existing guidance for spectator sports in Japan, spectators would be asked to refrain from cheering or shouting.On 19 June 2021, Governor Koike announced that plans for public viewing events for the Games had been scrapped, in order to use the planned venues (such asYoyogi Park) as mass vaccination sites instead.On 21 June, it was announced that all venues would be capped at a maximum of 10,000 ticketed spectators or 50% capacity, whichever was lower. On 2 July 2021, the new TOCOG president Seiko Hashimoto warned that there was still a possibility of the Games being heldbehind closed doorsbecause of rising COVID-19 cases in the country.Japan's slow vaccination rate had been of particular concern.A simulation run by theUniversity of Tokyoin May 2021 projected that a new wave of infections could peak in mid-October if the Games went on after the existing state of emergency in Tokyo had expired. On 8 July 2021, after Tokyo had recorded 920 new COVID-19 cases (its highest increase since May), Prime Minister Suga declared a new state of emergency in the Tokyo area from 12 July through 22 August (ending only two days before the Paralympics' opening ceremony), and announced that all events at venues in the area would therefore be held behind closed doors with no spectators permitted. Hashimoto stated that \"it is extremely regrettable that the Games will be staged in a very limited manner in the face of the spread of novel coronavirus infections.\" IOC President Thomas Bach stated that \"we will support any measure which is necessary to have a safe and secure Olympic and Paralympic Games for the Japanese people and all the participants.\" The announcement stated that spectators would still be allowed at events being held outside of Tokyo, subject to the approval by local health authorities and the aforementioned 50%/10,000-spectator limit. TheprefecturesofFukushima,HokkaidoandIbarakiannounced that they would prohibit spectators at events held in the areas.The opening ceremony was expected to be limited to fewer than 1,000 VIP guests, including IOC representatives and dignitaries,while some events did allow members of other competing delegations to occupy spectator seats as well.School students were invited to watch football matches in Ibaraki. On 16 July, it was reported that Bach had asked Prime Minister Suga about the possibility that restrictions on spectators could be eased later on if COVID-19 conditions were to improve in Tokyo.However, on 2 August, Suga announced that all existing state of emergency declarations would be extended through 31 August, and be extended to Chiba, Kanagawa, Saitama, and parts of Osaka. Ticketing The opening ceremony tickets were expected to range from ¥12,000 to ¥300,000, with a maximum price of ¥130,000 for the finals of the athleticstrack and fieldevents.The average ticket price was ¥7,700, with half the tickets being sold for up to ¥8,000. A symbolic ticket price of ¥2,020 was expected for families, groups resident in Japan, and in conjunction with a school program.Tickets would be sold through 40,000 shops in Japan and by mail order to Japanese addresses through the internet.International guests, had they been allowed, would have needed to visit Japan during the sales period, or arrange to buy tickets through a third party such as atravel agent. Tickets went on general sale in Japan in the autumn of 2019 and were expected to be sold globally from June 2020; however, this plan was suspended when the Games were postponed on 24 March 2020. The Tokyo Organizing Committee confirmed that tickets already purchased would remain valid for the same sessions according to the new schedule and that refunds were also being offered. On 20 March 2021, it was announced that due to COVID-19-related concerns, no international guests would be allowed to attend the 2020 Olympics or Paralympics. This included both spectators, as well as the friends and family of athletes. All overseas ticketholders would be refunded.Hashimoto cited uncertainties surrounding internationaltravel restrictions, and goals to preserve the safety of all participants and spectators, and not place a burden on thehealth care system.It was ultimately announced in July that all local spectators were not allowed to attend any events held in Tokyo, Fukushima and Hokkaido. Cultural festival A cultural program known as Nippon Festival was scheduled to coincide with the Olympics and Paralympics, running from April to September 2021 as a series of streaming events held by the Tokyo Organizing Committee and other partners. The events reflected the themes of \"Participation and Interaction\", \"Towards the Realization of an Inclusive Society\" and \"Reconstruction of the Tohoku Region\". The program was either downsized or reformatted tovirtual formatdue to the COVID-19 pandemic and the postponement of the Games.One of these events was a concert held on 18 July, which featured J-rock bandWanima, choreography by dancers Aio Yamada and Tuki Takamura, and the presentation of animated \"creatures\" based on illustrations \"embodying the thoughts and emotions of people from across the world\". The original plans for Nippon Festival included events such asKabukixOpera(a concert that would have featured stage actorIchikawa Ebizō XI, opera singers Anna Pirozzi andErwin Schrott, and theTokyo Philharmonic Orchestra), an arts and culture festival focusing on disabilities,and a special two-day exhibitionsumotournament at theRyōgoku Kokugikanshortly after the Olympics—which would have differed significantly from the traditional bi-monthlyHonbashotournaments, and featured special commentary in English and Japanese to help explain to spectators the customs and traditions of professional sumo, which are deeply rooted in theShintoreligion. The Games Opening ceremony The opening ceremony was held on 23 July 2021 in theOlympic Stadiumin Tokyo. It included the traditionalParade of Nations. EmperorNaruhitoformally opened the Games, and at the end of thetorch relaythe Olympic cauldron was lit by Japanese tennis playerNaomi Osaka. For the first time in the 2020 Olympic Games, it was decided that one male and one female in each country would take turns holding flags and serve as two of them.This was done by embodying the \"Agenda 2020\" set during President Bach's term. For the first time in the history of the games, a moment of silence was observed in the opening ceremony for thevictims of COVID-19, the2011 earthquake and tsunamiand theMunich massacre. Sports The event program for the 2020 Summer Olympics was approved by the IOC executive board on 9 June 2017. IOC president Thomas Bach stated that their goal was to give the Games \"youthful\" and \"urban\" appeal, and to increase the number of female participants. The Games featured 339 events in 33 different sports, encompassing a total of 51 disciplines.Karate,sport climbing,surfing, andskateboardingmade their Olympic debut, while baseball and softball also made a one-off return to the Summer Olympics for the first time since 2008. 15 new events within existing sports were also added, including3×3 basketball,freestyle BMX, and the return ofmadison cycling, as well as nine new mixed events in several sports (table tennis, archery, judo, shooting (3), triathlon,4 × 400 mrelay running and4 × 100 mmedley swimming). In the list below, the number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. New and Optional sports On 12 February 2013, with a remit to control the cost of the Games and ensure they are \"relevant to sports fans of all generations\", the IOC Executive Board recommended the removal of one of the 26 sports contested at the2012 Summer Olympics, leaving a vacancy which the IOC would seek to fill at the125th IOC Session. The new entrant would join golf and rugby sevens (which would both debut in2016) as part of the program of 28 \"core\" sports. Five sports were shortlisted for removal, including canoe, field hockey, modern pentathlon, taekwondo, and wrestling. In the final round of voting by the executive board, eight members voted to remove wrestling from the Olympic program. Field hockey and taekwondo tied in second with three votes each. The 2013 decision to drop wrestling after Rio 2016 surprised many media outlets, given that the sport's role in the Olympics dates back to theancient Olympic Games, and was included in the original program for the modern Games.The New York Timesfelt that the decision was based on the shortage of well-known talent and the absence of women's events in the sport.Out of the shortlist from the IOC vote, Wrestling was duly added to the shortlist of applicants for inclusion in the 2020 Games, alongside the seven new sports that were put forward for consideration. On 29 May 2013, it was announced that three of the eight sports under consideration had made the final shortlist:baseball/softball,squashand wrestling.The other five sports were rejected at this point:karate,roller sports,sport climbing,wakeboarding, andwushu.At the125th IOC Sessionon 8 September 2013, wrestling was chosen to be included in the Olympic program for 2020 and2024. Wrestling secured 49 votes, while baseball/softball and squash received 24 votes and 22 votes respectively. With the adoption of theOlympic Agenda 2020in December 2014, the IOC shifted from a \"sport-based\" approach to the Olympic program to an \"event-based\" program—establishing that organizing committees may propose discretionary events to be included in the program to improve local interest.As a result of these changes, a shortlist of eight new proposed sports was unveiled on 22 June 2015, consisting of baseball/softball,bowling, karate, roller sports, sport climbing, squash,surfing, and wushu.On 28 September 2015, the Tokyo Organizing Committee submitted their shortlist of five proposed sports to the IOC: baseball/softball, karate, sport climbing, surfing, andskateboarding.These five new sports were approved on 3 August 2016 by the IOC during the 129th IOC Session inRio de Janeiro, Brazil, and were included in the sports program for 2020 only, bringing the total number of sports at the 2020 Olympics to 33. Test events A total of 56 test events were scheduled to take place in the run-up to the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics. Two of the events were held in late 2018, but the main test event schedule commenced in June 2019 and was originally due to be completed in May 2020 prior to the start of the Olympics. Several of the events were incorporated into pre-existing championships, but some have been newly created specifically to serve as Olympic test events for the 2020 Summer Games. In February 2019, it was announced that the test events would be branded under the banner \"Ready, Steady, Tokyo\". The Tokyo Organizing Committee is responsible for 22 of the test events, with the remaining events being arranged by national and international sports federations. The first test event was World Sailing'sWorld Cup Series, held atEnoshimain September 2018. The last scheduled event is the Tokyo Challenge Track Meet, which was originally due to take place at theOlympic Stadiumon 6 May 2020. All test events originally scheduled to take place from 12 March 2020 onwards were postponed due to COVID-19, with the test event calendar to be reviewed during the preparations for the rescheduled Games. Participating National Olympic Committees The Republic of Macedonia has competed under the provisional name \"Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia\" in every Summer and Winter Games since its debut in1996because of thedisputed status of its official name. The naming disputes with Greece ended in 2018 with the signing of thePrespa agreement, and the country was officially renamedNorth Macedoniain February 2019. The new name was immediately recognized by the IOC, although the Olympic Committee of North Macedonia (NMOC) was not officially adopted until February 2020. The NMOC sent a delegation to the2020 Winter Youth Olympicsin January 2020, but the Tokyo Games were North Macedonia's first appearance at the Summer Olympics under its new name. Since competing as Swaziland ten times at the Summer and Winter Olympics,Eswatinimade its debut under that name after the renaming of the country by thekingin 2018. On 9 December 2019, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) banned Russia from all international sport for a period of four years, after the Russian government was found to have tampered with laboratory data that it had provided to WADA in January 2019 as a condition of theRussian Anti-Doping Agencybeing reinstated. As a result of the ban, WADA planned to allow individually clearedRussian athletesto take part in the 2020 Summer Olympics under a neutral banner, as instigated at the 2018 Winter Olympics, but they would be excluded from team sports. The head of WADA's Compliance Review Committee, Jonathan Taylor, stated that the IOC would not be able to use the \"Olympic Athletes from Russia\" (OAR) designationas it did in 2018, emphasizing that neutral athletes could not be portrayed as representing a specific country.Russia later filed an appeal to theCourt of Arbitration for Sport(CAS) against WADA's decision.After reviewing the case on appeal, CAS ruled on 17 December 2020 that the penalty placed on Russia be reduced. Instead of a total ban from all sporting events, the ruling allowed Russia to participate at the Olympics and other international events, but the team would not be permitted to use the Russian name, flag, or anthem for a period of two years and must present themselves as \"Neutral Athlete\" or \"Neutral Team\". The ruling does allow for \"Russia\" to be displayed on the team uniform—although it should be no more visible than the \"Neutral Athlete/Team\" designation—as well as the use of the Russian flag's colors within the uniform's design. On 19 February 2021, it was announced that Russia would compete under the acronym \"ROC\" after the name of theRussian Olympic Committeealthough the name of the committee itself in full could not be used to refer to the delegation. The ROC team would be represented by the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee. On 6 April 2021,North Koreaannounced that it would not participate in the 2020 Summer Olympics because of COVID-19 concerns.This marked North Korea's first absence from the Summer Olympics since1988.In September, a month after the games concluded, theOlympic Committee of the Democratic People's Republic of Koreawas banned from participation in the 2022 Winter Olympics, after they failed to participate in the Tokyo Olympics. On 21July 2021,Guineaannounced it would not be sending a delegation to the Tokyo Olympics, allegedly due to COVID-19 concerns, though media outlets suggested that financial considerations may have been the real motivating factor.Guinea later reversed the decision and confirmed that it would be participating. The following 206 teams qualified (including the 104universality places guaranteed in athletics, under which all 206 NOCs may send competitors regardless of qualification). Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee 11,420athletesfrom 206NOCs: Calendar The 2020 schedule by session was approved by the IOC Executive Board on 18 July 2018, with the exception of swimming, diving, and artistic swimming. A more detailed schedule by event was released on 16 April 2019, still omitting a detailed schedule for the boxing events.A detailed boxing schedule was released in late 2019. The original schedule was from 22 July to 9 August 2020. To postpone the Olympics until 2021, all events were delayed by 364 days (one day less than a full year to preserve the same days of the week), giving a new schedule of 21 July to 8 August 2021. Medal table *Host nation (Japan) Podium sweeps There were twopodium sweeps, as follows: Medal ceremonies Naoki Satōcomposed the music for the medal ceremonies. Satō chose not to employ any musical elements distinctive to Japan \"because victory ceremonies are for athletes from around the world\" and he wanted all medalists to \"feel at ease\" when taking their places on the podium, regardless of their nationality. The bouquets presented to the athletes came from regions affected by the2011 earthquake and tsunami. The individual flowers were selected to represent the prefectures of Miyagi, Fukushima, Iwate, and Tokyo. Thesunflowerswere grown in Miyagi, planted by families whose children had died during the disaster; the white and purpleeustomasandSolomon's sealswere provided by a non-profit initiative to boost the local economy in Fukushima; the small bright bluegentianswere grown in Iwate; andaspidistras, grown in Tokyo, were chosen to complete the bouquets. Event scheduling Per the historical precedent ofswimming at the 2008 Summer Olympicsin Beijing andfigure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympicsin Pyeongchang, swimming finals were held in the morning to allow liveprimetimebroadcasts in the Americas.NBCpaid substantial fees for rights to the Olympics, so the IOC has allowed NBC to influence event scheduling to maximize U.S. television ratings when possible. On 7 May 2014, NBC agreed to a US$7.75 billion contract extension to air the Olympics through the 2032 games,with the company being one of the IOC's major sources of revenue.Japanese broadcasters were said to have criticized the decision, as swimming is one of the most popular Olympic events in the country. Marketing The official emblems for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled on 25 April 2016; designed by Asao Tokolo, who won a nationwide design contest, it takes the form of a ring in an indigo-colored checkerboard pattern. The design was meant to \"express a refined elegance and sophistication that exemplifies Japan\".The checkered design resembles a pattern calledichimatsu moyothat was popular during theEdo periodin Japan from 1603 to 1867.The designs replaced a previous emblem which had been scrapped after allegations that itplagiarized the logoof theThéâtre de Liègein Belgium. The Games' bid slogan wasDiscover Tomorrow(Japanese:未来をつかもう,romanized:Ashita o tsukamō). Whileashitaliterally means \"tomorrow\", it isintentionally spelledasmirai, \"future\".The official sloganUnited by Emotionwas unveiled on 17 February 2020. The slogan was used solely in English. The official mascot of the 2020 Summer Olympics wasMiraitowa, a figure with blue-checkeredichimatsu moyopatterns inspired by the Games' official emblem. Its fictional characteristics include the ability toteleport.Created by Japanese artist Ryo Taniguchi, the mascots were selected from a competition process which took place in late 2017 and early 2018. A total of 2,042 candidate designs were submitted to the Tokyo Organizing Committee, which selected three pairs of unnamed mascot designs to present to Japanese elementary school students for the final decision.The results of the selection were announced on 28 February 2018, and the mascots were named on 22 July 2018. Miraitowa is named after the Japanese words for \"future\" and \"eternity\",and Someity is named aftersomeiyoshino, a type of cherry blossom.Someity's name also refers to the English phrase \"so mighty\".The mascots were expected to help finance the Tokyo Games through merchandizing and licensing deals.For the legacy of the games on 3 January 2022, Ryo Taniguchi created Miraity (the future child of the mascots). Look of the Games Alongside the mainEmblem blue, the five other colors used in the branding of the 2020 Games were :Kurenaired,Ai blue,Sakurapink,Fujipurple, andMatsuba green. These fivetraditional colors of Japanwere used as sub-colors to create points of difference in the color variations. Concerns and controversies Several controversial issues occurred during the preparations for the Tokyo Games. There were allegations of bribery in the Japanese Olympic Committee's (JOC) bid and of plagiarism in the initial design for the Games' logo. On 10 December 2018, the French financial crimes office began an investigation ofTsunekazu Takeda, the president of theJapanese Olympic Committee, concerning a 2013 scheme to obtain votes from African IOC members in support of Tokyo as host for the 2020 Olympics over Istanbul or Madrid.In March 2020, a Japanese businessman admitted to giving gifts, including cameras and watches, to IOC officials in order to lobby for their support of Tokyo's bid to host the Olympic Games.The official emblems of the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics, designed byKenjirō Sano, were unveiled in July 2015 but were withdrawn and replaced following plagiarism accusations.The lawsuit by Olivier Debie, who claimed that his logo design was copied, was later dropped, with the designer citing escalating legal costs. Mass logging for construction of the Olympic venues received international criticism. Petitions, containing more than 140,000 signatures in total, were delivered to the Japanese embassies in Switzerland and Germany, expressing concerns over claims of using tropical wood sourced fromShin Yang, a Malaysian company with a record of human rights abuses, illegal logging, and rainforest destruction.In February 2018, the Olympics Organizing Committee admitted that 87% ofplywoodpanels used to build the new national stadium was sourced from endangered rainforests. Portions of the Games were scheduled for locations impacted by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, and the subsequentFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. The hosting of events in these locations was promoted as a means of furthering recovery in the regions, with the Games sometimes being promoted as the \"Recovery Olympics\". However, the organization of events in these regions has faced criticism; Fukushima is considered safe by theWorld Health Organizationand theUnited Nations, although scientific studies on the safety of the area are still disputed.Some Tōhoku residents questioned the decision to use the region as a host site, arguing that preparations for the Games slowed down recovery efforts, and that the region lost workers to projects associated with the Games. It was widely reported by international media thatSouth Koreahad asked the IOC to ban the JapaneseRising Sun Flagfrom the 2020 Summer Olympics,claiming it to be a symbol ofJapan's imperialist past, recalling \"historic scars and pain\" for people of Korea just as theswastika\"reminds Europeans of the nightmare of World War II\".Use of the flag in international sporting events such as the Olympic Games is controversial because it was used for wagingaggressive waragainst many countries in Pacific regions, including theattack on Pearl Harbor.According to theAssociated Press, the IOC issued a statement in response to South Korea's request, saying, \"sports stadiums should be free of any political demonstration. When concerns arise at games time we look at them on a case-by-case basis.\"Russian and South Korean officials took issue with a map of the torch relay on the Games' official website, which depicted the disputedLiancourt Rocks(governed by South Korea) andKuril Islands(governed by Russia since 1945) as part of Japan. In February 2021, the TOCOG president Yoshirō Mori resigned, after facing both domestic and international criticisms over hissexistremarks.The previous conduct of the new president, Seiko Hashimoto, has also drawn criticisms,leading her to comment \"I regret it and think I should be careful\" on one of the accusations.The head creative director for the opening and closing ceremonies,Hiroshi Sasaki, resigned in March 2021, after making demeaning comments aboutNaomi Watanabe.Sasaki's replacement,Kentarō Kobayashi, was dismissed by the Organizing Committee the day before the opening ceremony,after it was reported by Japanese media that he had made a joke aboutthe Holocaustin a script for his comedy in 1998, saying \"Let's play Holocaust.\"On the eve of the opening ceremony, Yoshihide Suga, thePrime Minister of Japanand the Supreme Advisor of the Organizing Committee,described Kobayashi's jokes as \"outrageous and unacceptable\", but also said that the opening ceremony, which was directed by Kobayashi, should proceed as planned. The composer for the opening ceremony,Keigo Oyamada, resigned days before the ceremony after growing criticism of his past bullying of people with apparentdisabilities, such asDown syndrome.On 16 July, a week before the opening ceremony, TOCOG announced their support of Oyamada as a composer and vowed not to change his selection for the ceremonies,but growing criticism forced him to announce his resignation on 19 July.The opening ceremony music included arrangements of video game soundtracks originating in Japan; however, this included music from theDragon Questseries, composed byKoichi SugiyamawhomThe Daily Beastdescribed as \"notoriously homophobic and ultranationalist\", leading to further criticism of the Organizing Committee. Officials reported that by early June 2021, about 10,000 of the 80,000 registered volunteers had quit.\"There's no doubt that one of the reasons is concern over coronavirus infections,\" the chief executive of the Organizing Committee said,also stating he did not believe this would impact the operation of the Games.On 23 July, hundreds of anti-Olympic protestors gathered outside the Japan National Stadium before the opening ceremony. Security guards blocked reporters from leaving the stadium to interview protestors.In total, more than 60,000 police were mobilized for security during the Games, and police were regularly deployed to break up public displays of protest, including tackling protestors on their way to join the anti-Olympic protest in Sendagaya during the closing ceremony on September 5, 2021. This overwhelming police presence, including plainclothes police officers who encircled the protest area, \"served as an effective tool to criminalize a peaceful rally and to maintain a frightening image of open protest.\" Writing forThe Conversation, Olympic scholarMacIntosh Rossraised concerns about the relationship between theIOCandWHO, suggesting the organizations showed a lack of concern for the health of Japanese citizens and Olympians. As Ross explained, \"when the IOC and WHO support a global mega-event held during a pandemic, it's difficult to believe that the well-being of the host nation remains a priority.\"Similarly, Japan scholars O'Shea and Maslow remark, \"International media coverage and commentary runs the gamut from sometimes scathing critique for attempting to pull off a 'pandemic games', to praise and plaudits for successfully pulling off a 'pandemic games'. Still, the story that Japan—or at least the LDP—wanted to tell, of a newly reborn and 'normal' Japan (re-)entering the world stage remained untold. Instead, the story of the 2020/2021 Tokyo Olympics was more mundane, that of a state doing a decent job of managing Covid and hosting a mega-event against the wishes of many of its inhabitants.\" A number of controversies arose during the Games, most notably the attempted repatriation on 1 August of Belarusian sprinterKrystsina Tsimanouskaya, allegedly for her criticism of the national sports authorities and team management.Refusing to return toBelarus, over fears for her safety,Tsimanouskaya sought assistance from the IOC and traveled toWarsaw, Poland, on 4 August after being granted ahumanitarian visabyTokyo's Polish Embassy. Near the end of the Olympics, it was reported that Australian athletes had damaged the village rooms before departure, leaving a pool of vomit on the floor, damaged beds and a hole in the wall. Australian rugby Olympians also reportedly became drunk on the flight to Sydney, leaving vomit in the plane bathroom and receiving complaints from other passengers. Team Australia chief Ian Chesterman played down the incidents, and said that the Olympians would not be punished. Algerian judokaFethi Nourineand his coachAmar Benikhlefwere suspended for 10 years by theInternational Judo Federationafter Nourine refused to fight an Israeli athlete at the Olympics.Nourine said his political support for the Palestinians in theIsraeli–Palestinian conflictmade it impossible for him to compete against Israeli athletes.Sudan'sMohamed Abdalarasoolalso withdrew from the competition to avoid the Israeli athlete. After the Olympics concluded, New Zealand diving judge Lisa Wright revealed that during the diving events,Zhou Jihong, Vice President ofFINAfrom China, allegedly launched a verbal tirade at Wright at the conclusion of the men's 10m platform final. Wright alleged that Zhou verbally abused her for underscoring Chinese divers.Diving New Zealand subsequently complained about the incident to FINA's Ethics Panel. As a result, Zhou was ordered by a FINA Ethics Panel decisionto write a letter of apology to Wright. A recommendation was also made by the Ethics Panel to disestablish Zhou's position as Diving Bureau Liaison for FINA. The FINA Ethics Panel stated that the incident during the men's platform final was \"unfortunate\" and led to a \"misunderstanding mixed with misjudgement\" between Wright and Zhou.In May 2022, former international diver, Olympic judge and previous member of FINA's Technical Diving Committee from New ZealandSimon Latimerrevealed he had sent a whistleblower complaintto FINA's Executive Director Brent Nowicki in December 2021 detailing Zhou's alleged \"unethical behavior\" which also contained allegations that Zhou coached Chinese divers during major events during the 2020 Summer Olympics and she had manipulated judging panels in order to benefit Chinese athletes. Latimer claimed that Zhou's behavior was tarnishing the reputation of international diving and that she was acting in the interests of China rather than international diving as a whole. Subsequent to Latimer's complaint, video evidence emerged online showing Zhou coaching Chinese divers during competition sessions at the Olympics,a behavior considered unethical given her supposedly neutral role as a FINA Vice President and Diving Bureau Liaison. Broadcasting The Olympic Games Tokyo 2020 reached a global broadcast audience of 3.05 billion people, according to independent research conducted on behalf of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Official coverage on Olympic broadcast partners' digital platforms alone generated 28 billion video views in total – representing a 139 per cent increase compared with the Olympic Games Rio 2016 and underlining the changing media landscape and Tokyo 2020's designation as the first streaming Games and the most watched Olympic Games ever on digital platforms. SonyandPanasonicpartnered withNHKto develop broadcasting standards for8K resolutiontelevision, with a goal to release 8K television sets in time for the 2020 Summer Olympics.In early 2019, Italian broadcasterRAIannounced its intention to deploy 8K broadcasting for the Games.NHK broadcast the opening and closing ceremonies, and coverage of selected events in 8K.Telecom companyNTT Docomosigned a deal with Finland'sNokiato provide5G-ready baseband networks in Japan in time for the Games. The Tokyo Olympics were broadcast in the United States byNBCUniversal networks, as part of a US$4.38 billion agreement that began at the2014 Winter Olympicsin Sochi.TheUnited States Olympic & Paralympic Committeeasserted that a \"right of abatement\" clause in the contract was triggered by the delay of the Games to 2021, requiring the IOC to \"negotiate in good faith an equitable reduction in the applicable broadcast rights payments\" by NBC, with the American corporation being one of the IOC's biggest revenue streams.According to NBCUniversal CEO Jeff Shell, the Tokyo games could be the most profitable Olympics in NBC's history. The Tokyo games were NBC's first Olympics broadcast under current president Susan Rosner Rovner; it would be also be the last due to Rovner's departure in 2023. In Europe, this was the first Summer Olympics under the IOC's exclusive pan-European rights deal withEurosport, which began at the2018 Winter Olympicsand is contracted to run through 2024. The rights for the 2020 Summer Olympics covered almost all of Europe; a pre-existing deal with a marketer excludes Russia.Eurosport planned to sub-license coverage tofree-to-airnetworks in each territory, and other channels owned byDiscovery, Inc.subsidiaries. In the United Kingdom, these were set to be the last Games with rights owned primarily by theBBC, although as a condition of a sub-licensing agreement due to carry into the 2022 and 2024 Games, Eurosport holds exclusivepay televisionrights.In France, these were the last Games whose rights are primarily owned byFrance Télévisions. Eurosport debuted as pay television rightsholder, afterCanal+elected to sell its pay television rights as a cost-saving measure. In Canada, the 2020 Games were shown onCBC/Radio-Canadaplatforms,Sportsnet,TSNandTLN.In Australia, they were aired bySeven Network.In the Indian subcontinent, they were aired bySony Pictures Networks India (SPN). See also Notes References External links", "Wrestling at the 2020 Summer Olympics Wrestling at the 2020 Summer OlympicsinTokyofeatured two disciplines,freestyleandGreco-Roman, which were further divided into different weight categories. Men competed in both disciplines whereas women only participated in the freestyle events, with 18gold medalsawarded.Wrestlinghad been contested at every modernSummer Olympic Games, exceptParis 1900. Around 288 wrestlers were expected to compete in 18 events at the2020 Summer Olympicswhich was postponed in March 2020 and planned for 2021 as a result of theCOVID-19 pandemic. Competition format 16 wrestlers compete in each division. The competition consists of a single-elimination tournament, with arepechageused to determine the winner of two bronze medals. The two finalists face off for gold and silver medals. Each wrestler who loses to one of the two finalists moves into the repechage, culminating in a pair of bronze medal matches featuring the semifinal losers each facing the remaining repechage opponent from their half of the bracket. Competition schedule Qualification Medalists Men's freestyle Men's Greco-Roman Women's freestyle Medal table *Host nation (Japan) Participating nations There are 61 participating nations: See also References External links", "Wrestling at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Men's freestyle 86 kg The men's freestyle 86 kilograms competition at the2020 Summer OlympicsinTokyo,Japan, took place on 4–5 August 2021 at theMakuhari MesseinMihama-ku.The qualification rounds were held on 4 August, with medal matches the next day. This freestyle wrestling competition consists of a single-elimination tournament, with a repechage used to determine the winner of two bronze medals. The two finalists face off for gold and silver medals. Each wrestler who loses to one of the two finalists moves into the repechage, culminating in a pair of bronze medal matches featuring the semifinal losers each facing the remaining repechage opponent from their half of the bracket. The medals for the competition were presented by the United World Wrestling presidentNenad Lalović,IOC Executive Board MemberfromSerbia, and the medalists' bouquets were presented by Pedro Gama Filho,UWWBoard Member fromBrazil. David Taylorfrom the United States won the gold medal after beating 2016 Olympic ChampionHassan Yazdanifrom Iran 4–3 in the gold medal match. Schedule All times areJapan Standard Time(UTC+09:00) Results Main bracket Repechage Final standing References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Taylor_(wrestler,_born_1990", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_High_School_(St._Paris,_Ohio" ]
[ "2020 Summer Olympics The2020 Summer Olympics,officially theGames of the XXXII Olympiadand officially branded asTokyo 2020,were an internationalmulti-sport eventheld from 23 July to 8 August 2021 inTokyo, Japan, with some preliminary events that began on 21 July 2021. Tokyo was selected as thehost cityduring the125th IOC SessioninBuenos Aires, Argentina on 7 September 2013. Originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020, the event was postponed to 2021 on 24 March 2020 due to the globalCOVID-19 pandemic, the first such instance in the history of theOlympic Games(several previous games had been cancelled but not rescheduled).However, the event retained theTokyo 2020branding for marketing purposes.It was largely heldbehind closed doorswith no public spectators permitted due to the declaration of a state of emergency in theGreater Tokyo Areain response to the pandemic, the only Olympic Games to be held without official spectators.The Games were the most expensive ever, with total spending of", "total spending of over $20 billion. The Games were the fourth Olympic Games to be held in Japan, following the1964 Summer Olympics(Tokyo),1972 Winter Olympics(Sapporo), and1998 Winter Olympics(Nagano). Tokyo became the first city inAsiato hold theSummer Olympic Gamestwice.The 2020 Games were the second of three consecutive Olympics to be held inEast Asia, following the2018 Winter OlympicsinPyeongchang,South Koreaand preceding the2022 Winter OlympicsinBeijing,China. Due to the one-year postponement, Tokyo 2020 was the only Olympic Games to have been held in an odd-numbered year. New events were introduced in existing sports, including3x3 basketball,freestyle BMXand mixed gender team events in a number of existing sports, as well as the return ofmadison cyclingfor men and an introduction of the same event for women. New IOC policies also allowed the host organizing committee to add new sports to theOlympic programfor just one Games. The disciplines added by theJapanese Olympic", "theJapanese Olympic Committeewerebaseballandsoftball,karate,sport climbing,surfingandskateboarding, the last four of which made their Olympic debuts, and the last three of which will remain on the Olympic program. TheUnited Statestopped themedal tableboth by gold (39) and total medals (113), withChinafinishing second (38 and 89). Host nationJapanfinished third, setting a record for the most gold and overall medals won by their delegation at an Olympic Games with 27 and 58.Great Britainfinished fourth, with a total of 22 gold and 64 total medals. TheRussian delegationcompeting as theROCfinished fifth with 20 gold medals and third in the overall medal count, with 71 medals.Bermuda, thePhilippinesandQatarwon their first-ever Olympic gold medals.Burkina Faso,San MarinoandTurkmenistanalso won their first-ever Olympic medals. Bidding process The three candidate cities wereTokyo,Istanbul, andMadrid. The applicant cities ofBakuandDohawere not promoted to candidate status. Abid from Romewas withdrawn. Host city", "Host city selection TheInternational Olympic Committee(IOC) voted to select the host city of the 2020 Summer Olympics on 7 September 2013, at the125th IOC SessioninBuenos Aires, Argentina, using anexhaustive ballotsystem.None of the candidate cities won more than 50% of the votes in the first round; Madrid and Istanbul were tied for second place, so a runoff vote was held to determine which of the two cities would be eliminated. The final vote was a head-to-head contest between Tokyo and Istanbul. Tokyo was selected by 60 votes to 36, gaining at least the 49 votes required for a majority. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic In January 2020, concerns were raised about the potential impact of theCOVID-19 pandemicon athletes and visitors to the Summer Olympic Games.Tokyo organizers and the International Olympic Committee insisted they were monitoring the spread of the disease to minimize its effects on preparations for the Olympics.The IOC stated that in 2020, their Japanese partners and Prime MinisterShinzo", "MinisterShinzo Abe\"made it very clear that Japan could not manage a postponement beyond next summer at the latest\".Unlike thecase for Zika virusduring the2016 Summer Olympicsin Rio de Janeiro,SARS-CoV-2can be transmitted directly between humans, posing tougher challenges for the organizers to counteract the infectious disease and host a safe and secure event.Also unlike thecase for H1N1 \"swine flu\"during the2010 Winter Olympicsin Vancouver, COVID-19 has a higher fatality rate, and there was noeffective vaccineuntil December 2020.In a February 2020 interview,ConservativeLondon mayoral candidateShaun Baileyargued that London would be able to host the Olympic Games at the former2012 Olympic venuesshould the Games need to be moved because of the COVID-19 pandemic.Tokyo GovernorYuriko Koikecriticized Bailey's comment as inappropriate.In early 2021, officials in the U.S. state ofFloridaoffered to host the delayed Games in their state, whileJohn Coates, the IOC vice president in charge of the Tokyo Olympics, said", "Olympics, said the Games would open even if the city and other parts of Japan were under a state of emergency because of COVID-19. Estimates by the National Institute of Infectious Diseases andKyoto Universitypredicted that states of emergency might be required during the Games.The reports published at the Ministry of Health experts' panel also showed new patients increasing to 10,000 if the Games were to allow spectators. Qualifying event cancellation and postponement Concerns about the pandemic began to affect qualifying events in early 2020. Some that were due to take place in February were moved to alternative locations to address concerns about travelling to the affected areas, particularly China. For example, thewomen's basketball qualificationwas played inBelgrade, Serbia, instead ofFoshan, China.TheAsia & Oceania boxing qualification tournament, which was originally planned to be held from 3–14 February inWuhan, China (the location of the original outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic), instead took", "instead took place inAmman, Jordan, at the beginning of March.The third round of thewomen's football qualification tournamentwas also affected, as the group matches formerly scheduled to be held in China were moved to Australia.TheEuropean boxing qualificationbegan on 14 March 2020 inLondon, United Kingdom, but was suspended after two days of competition before being rescheduled for April 2021.It eventually resumed in June 2021 but was moved toParis, France,because of renewed concerns overtravel to the United Kingdom. Other qualifying events that were due to take place in March to June 2020 began to be postponed until later in the year and mid-2021 as part of a wider suspension of international sporting competitions in response to the pandemic. A multitude of Olympic sports were affected, including archery, baseball, cycling, handball, judo, rowing, sailing, volleyball, and water polo. Effect on doping tests Mandatory doping tests were being severely restricted by the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020.", "in early 2020. European anti-doping organizations raised concerns that blood and urine tests could not be performed and that mobilizing the staff necessary to do so before the end of the pandemic would be a health risk. Despite the need for extensive testing to take place in advance of the Games, theWorld Anti-Doping Agency(WADA) stated that public health and safety were their topmost priorities.TheChina Anti-Doping Agency(CHINADA) temporarily ceased testing on 3 February 2020, with a planned resumption of phased testing towards the end of the month,and the anti-doping organizations in the United States, France, Great Britain, and Germany had reduced their testing activities by the end of March. It was subsequently revealed that twenty-three Chinese swimmers had tested positive for the drugtrimetazidine, but were permitted to compete, after CHINADA claimed they had ingested tiny amounts unawares from a kitchen. Some, includingZhang Yufei,Wang Shun, andQin Haiyang, went on to win medals. The affair resulted", "The affair resulted in deep upset amongst the international athletic community. Postponement to 2021 TheTokyo Organizing Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games(TOCOG) released a statement on 2 March 2020, confirming that preparations for the upcoming Tokyo Olympics were \"continuing as planned\".On 23 March, both Canada and Australia indicated that they would withdraw from the Games if they were not postponed by a year.On the same day, Japanese prime minister Shinzo Abe stated he would support a proposed postponement, citing that ensuring athlete safety was \"paramount,\" and veteran IOC member and former vice presidentDick Poundsaid that he expected the Games to be postponed. On 24 March 2020, 122 days to go for the planned start, the IOC, TOCOG and prime minister Abe released a joint statement announcing that the 2020 Summer Olympics andParalympicswould be rescheduled to a date \"beyond 2020 but not later than summer 2021\". They stated that the Games could \"stand as a beacon of hope to the world during", "to the world during these troubled times\", and that theOlympic flamecould become \"the light at the end of the tunnel in which the world finds itself at present\".Prime Minister Abe stated that IOC presidentThomas Bachresponded \"with 100% agreement\" to his proposal to delay the Games. For continuity and marketing purposes, it was agreed that the Games would still be branded as Tokyo 2020 despite the change in schedule. On 30 March 2020, the IOC and TOCOG announced that they had reached an agreement on the new dates for the 2020 Summer Olympics, which would now begin with the opening ceremony on 23 July 2021 and end with the closing ceremony on 8 August 2021, still to be held in Tokyo.The subsequentWinter Olympics in Beijingare scheduled to begin on 4 February 2022, less than six months later. Shortly before the postponement was confirmed, the IOC and Tokyo 2020 organizers formed a task force named \"Here We Go\" with the remit to address any issues arising from postponing the Games, such as sponsorship and", "as sponsorship and accommodation. The organizers confirmed that all athletes who had already qualified for Tokyo 2020 would keep their qualification slots. Calls for cancellation Health experts expressed concern in April 2020 that the Games might have to be cancelled if the pandemic should persist.In an interview, the then president of TOCOG and former Japanese prime minister,Yoshirō Mori, asserted that the Games would be \"scrapped\" if they could not go ahead in 2021.On 29 April 2020, Prime Minister Abe stated that the Games \"must be held in a way that shows the world has won its battle against the coronavirus pandemic\".Thomas Bach acknowledged in an interview on 20 May 2020, that the job of reorganizing the Tokyo Games was \"a mammoth task\" and also admitted that the event would have to be cancelled altogether if it could not take place in the summer of 2021.However, both Mori and Bach expressed optimism about the Games going ahead. A member of the Japanese COVID-19 Advisory Committee on the basic action", "on the basic action policy co-authored aBritish Medical Journaleditorial, which stated, \"holding Tokyo 2020 for domestic political and economic purposes—ignoring scientific and moral imperatives—is contradictory to Japan's commitment to global health and human security\". On 21 January 2021, multiple sources reported that the Japanese government had \"privately concluded\" that the Games would have to be cancelled.The government dismissed the claims, stating that the reports were \"categorically untrue\".The new Japanese prime ministerYoshihide Sugaconfirmed on 19 February that theG7had given unanimous support for the postponed Games to go ahead as scheduled.It was reported in April 2021, just three months before the start of the Games, that there was still the option to cancel the Tokyo Olympics with the country having vaccinated less than 1% of its population, with tens of thousands of volunteers expected to take part and athletes not being required to quarantine after arriving in Japan. Public support for the", "support for the Games in Japan decreased significantly amid a 2021 surge inCOVID-19 cases in the country.Multiple organizations of medical professionals voiced oppositions to the Games,while an opinion poll in April 2021 saw 40% of participants support the cancellation of the Games, and 33% support a second postponement.In May 2021, 83% of those polled supported the cancellation or postponement of the Games.The Tokyo Medical Practitioners Association called for the cancellation, stating that hospitals in Tokyo \"have their hands full and have almost no spare capacity\" in an open letter to the prime minister.At least nine out of 47 elected governors supported the cancellation of the Games.Nearly 37% of Japanese companies surveyed supported the cancellation of the Games, and 32% supported postponement. Kenji Utsunomiya, who had previously run for Governor of Tokyo, collected more than 351,000 signatures on a petition calling for the organizers to \"prioritize life\" over the Olympics.Japanese writersJiro", "writersJiro AkagawaandFuminori Nakamuraalso called for the Games to be postponed or cancelled. On 26 May 2021, theAsahi Shimbunnewspaper, which was a local sponsor of the Games, published an editorial calling for Prime Minister Suga to \"calmly and objectively assess the situation and decide on the cancellation of the event this summer.\"On 4 June it was reported that Japanese sponsors proposed to the organizers for \"the Games to be postponed for several months,\" citing a comment by a corporate sponsor senior executive: \"It just makes much, much more sense from our perspective to hold the Games when there are more vaccinated people, the weather is cooler and maybe public opposition is lower.\" In July 2021, it was announced that all events in Tokyo were to be heldbehind closed doorswith no spectators due to a new state of emergency. A poll by theAsahi Shimbunfound that 55% of those surveyed supported the cancellation of the Olympics, and 68% felt that organizers would not be able to suitably control COVID-19 at", "control COVID-19 at the Games.The decision was also detrimental to local sponsors, which had planned in-person presences to promote their products during the Games; an executive of official sponsorToyotastated that the company had pulled a television advertising campaign it had planned for the Games in Japan, citing that the Olympics were \"becoming an event that has not gained the public's understanding.\" Had the games been cancelled, it would have been the first time sinceWorld War IIthat an Olympic event had been called off and the first games to be scrapped due to circumstances unrelated to war.A complete cancellation would have also cost Japan¥4.52trillion (US$41.5billion), based on operating expenses andloss of tourismactivity due to Japan which had closed its international borders to foreign travellers since March 2020, did not eventually reopen until October 2022, and was initially scheduled to end preventive border measures in May 2023 but had moved early at the end of April of that year, less than", "year, less than two years after the Games ended. Costs and insurance According to an estimate conducted by professor emeritus Katsuhiro Miyamoto ofKansai Universityand reported by theNHKin March 2020, the cost of delaying the 2020 Olympics by one year would be 640.8 billion yen (US$5.8 billion), taking maintenance expenditures for the unused facilities into account. TheNomura Research Instituteestimated that cancelling the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics in 2021 would cost around 1.81 trillion yen ($17 billion), less than the economic damages projected if another state of emergency is declared, noting that a decision to hold the games \"should be made based on the impact on infection risks, not from the standpoint of economic loss\". The Tokyo Games were protected through the commercial insurance marketplaceLloyd's of London, by global reinsurersMunich ReandSwiss Re. The IOC takes out around $800 million of insurance for each Summer Olympics, with the total amount of loss insured for the 2020 Games likely to be", "Games likely to be more than $2 billion.The disruption caused by postponing the Games was covered by the insurance policy, with those likely to make claims for their financial losses including local organizers, sponsors, hospitality firms, and travel providers. Holders of tickets purchased from overseas prior to postponement were entitled to refunds for both Olympic and Paralympic ticket purchases, except for the costs of cancelled hotel bookings. Although about 600,000 Olympic tickets and 300,000 Paralympic tickets were eligible to be refunded, organizers said that they would not release the total costs of the refunds.Reuters quoted industry sources who estimated that the Tokyo Olympics Committee had taken out US$500–800 million in insurance, and that after accounting for costs such as rebooking sporting venues and the Olympic Village, little of that payout would be available to recoup the proceeds of lost and refunded ticket sales.The local organizers are responsible for ticket sales and use them to defray", "use them to defray the costs of holding the games; ticket sales were expected to bring in approximately US$800 million, but actual sales were close to zero. In June 2022, the Tokyo Organizing Committee revealed in the final budget report for the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics that the cost for the Olympic Games was 640.4 billion yen (US$5.8 billion), which was higher than the cost for theRio 2016. Public opinion and COVID-19 effect during and after the Games Prior to the Tokyo Olympics being held, many Japanese people were negative about hosting the event, but their attitudes had become more positive towards the end of the Games. According to a public opinion poll conducted jointly by theNippon News Networkand theYomiuri Shimbunnewspaper, which targeted Japanese citizens at the end of the Olympics, 38% of respondents said that it was possible to hold the Olympics in a safe manner against COVID-19, while 55% said that it was not possible. However, 64% answered that it was good that the Tokyo Games had gone", "Games had gone ahead, while 28% answered that they wished the event had not been held. Of the respondents, 61% were glad the event had been held without spectators and only 12% said that spectators should have been allowed. On 29 July, less than a week into the Games, journalist Masaki Kubota reported his analysis of the Japanese people's perspective on the Olympics, which he believed was greatly influenced by the change in the way the Japanese news media reported on the Games. He pointed out that many Japanese news media had insisted on canceling the Olympics, citing fears that COVID-19 would spread, but once Japanese athletes started winning medals, the media changed their reporting policy and began livening up the Olympics, which had the effect of altering public opinion in Japan. Once the Tokyo Olympics were underway, followed by theTokyo Paralympics, there was a sharp increase in COVID-19 cases in Japan, especially those caused by theDelta variant. On 26 July, there were 60,157 cases detected in Japan,", "detected in Japan, breaking the record of 44,961 cases recorded on 10 May. On 9 August, one day after the Olympics had ended, daily cases in Japan reached 100,000 for the first time, and new cases continued to increase until the peak on 23 August, when 156,931 cases were recorded. Development and preparations The Tokyo Organizing Committee was originally headed by former Japanese prime minister Yoshirō Mori,but he resigned in February 2021 due to backlash from sexist comments about women in meetings.Seiko Hashimotowas chosen to succeed him.Tamayo Marukawa, Minister for the Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games, was responsible for overseeing the preparations on behalf of the Japanese government. TheTokyo Metropolitan Governmentset aside a fund of ¥400 billion (more than US$3.67 billion) to cover the cost of hosting the Games. TheJapanese governmentwas considering easing airspace restrictions to allow an increasedslotcapacity at bothHanedaandNaritaairports. A new railway line was planned to link both airports", "link both airports through an expansion ofTokyo Station, cutting travel time from Tokyo Station to Haneda from 30 minutes to 18 minutes, and from Tokyo Station to Narita from 55 minutes to 36 minutes; funded primarily by private investors, the line would cost ¥400 billion. TheEast Japan Railway Company(JR East) was also planning a new route nearTamachito Haneda Airport. There were plans to fund the accelerated completion of theCentral Circular Route,Tokyo Gaikan Expressway, andKen-Ō Expressway, and the refurbishment of other major expressways in the area.TheYurikamomeautomated transit line was also to be extended from its existing terminal atToyosu Stationto a new terminal atKachidoki Station, passing the site of the Olympic Village, although the line was not expected to have adequate capacity to serve major events in theOdaibaarea on its own. In April 2018, the Tokyo Organizing Committee signed a partnership with theInternational Labour Organizationto ensuredecent workin the preparation of and during the", "of and during the 2020 Olympic Games. In June 2020, the chief executive of the Organizing Committee,Toshirō Mutō, stated that the committee was exploring options for streamlining the Games to achieve cost savings.On 25 September, the IOC and Tokyo Organizing Committee agreed to a suite of measures to simplify the Games' logistics, including a cut to non-athlete staff, use of online meetings, and streamlined transport, among others. The committee also outlined areas it would be exploring in order to maintain the health and safety of all participants. Venues and infrastructure In February 2012, it was announced that Tokyo's formerNational Stadium, the central venue for the1964 Summer Olympics, would undergo a ¥100 billion renovation for the2019 Rugby World Cupand the 2020 Summer Olympics.In November 2012, the Japan Sport Council announced that it was taking bids for proposed stadium designs. Of the 46 finalists,Zaha Hadid Architectswas awarded the project, which would replace the old stadium witha new", "stadium witha new 80,000-seat stadium. There was criticism of the Zaha Hadid design—which was compared to abicycle helmetand regarded as clashing with the surroundingMeiji Shrine—and widespread disapproval of the costs, even with attempts to revise and \"optimize\" the design. In June 2015, the government announced plans to reduce the new stadium's permanent capacity to 65,000 in its athletics configuration (although with the option to add up to 15,000 temporary seats for football) as a further cost-saving measure.The original plan to build a retractable roof was also abandoned.At the end of 2015, as a result of public opposition to the increasing costs of the new stadium (which had reached ¥252 billion), the government chose to reject Zaha Hadid's design entirely and selected a new design by Japanese architectKengo Kuma. Inspired by traditional temples and with a lower profile, Kuma's design had a budget of ¥149 billion. The changes meant the new stadium could not be completed in time for the2019 Rugby World", "the2019 Rugby World Cupas originally intended.The National Stadium, which was inaugurated on 21 December 2019, was named the Olympic Stadium for the duration of the Tokyo Games. In October 2018, theBoard of Auditissued a report stating that the total cost of the Olympic venues could exceed US$25 billion. Of the 33 competition venues in Tokyo, 28 were within 8 kilometers (5 miles) of the Olympic Village, with eleven new venues to be constructed.On 16 October 2019, the IOC announced that there were plans to re-locate the marathon and racewalking events toSapporofor heat concerns.The plans were made official on 1 November 2019 after Tokyo Governor Yuriko Koike accepted the IOC's decision, despite her belief that the events should have remained in Tokyo. In general, as urban studies scholar Faure notes, \"The Tokyo 2020–2021 Games had a relatively moderate impact on the city, compared to previous cases such as Rio and Sochi, or cases in which a major Olympic park was built in Barcelona in 1992, and in Beijing in", "and in Beijing in 2008. The transport infrastructure has been marginally improved by facilitating access for people with mobility constraints and improving signage in other languages. Haneda Airport has been expanded, and a hydrogen-powered bus rapid transit system has been introduced. Several sports and event facilities were built, including the new Olympic Stadium. Finally, the Olympic Village has been built on the Harumi landfill.\" Security In December 2018, the Japanese government chose to ban drones from flying over venues being used for the Olympic and Paralympic Games. A similar ban was also imposed for the 2019 Rugby World Cup, which Japan also hosted.In January 2020, counterterrorism drills began in different parts where the Games would take place, after intelligence data showed that terrorist groups could have carried out an attack seeking worldwide attention.In July 2021, prior to the start of the Games, theJapan Coast Guardconductedcounterterrorismdrills in theTokyo Bay. The drill consisted of", "drill consisted of twoinflatable boatstrying to stop a suspicious ship from getting to shore. Volunteers Applications for volunteering at the 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games were accepted beginning on 26 September 2018. By 18 January 2019, a total of 204,680 applications had been received by the Tokyo Organizing Committee.Interviews to select the requisite number of volunteers began in February 2019, with training scheduled to take place in October 2019.The volunteers at the venues were to be known as \"Field Cast\", and the volunteers in the city were to be known as \"City Cast\". These names were chosen from ashortlistof four from an original 150 pairs of names; the other three shortlisted names were \"Shining Blue\" and \"Shining Blue Tokyo\", \"Games Anchor\" and \"City Anchor\", and \"Games Force\" and \"City Force\". The names were chosen by the people who had applied to be volunteers at the Games. As of early June 2021, approximately 10,000 out of the 80,000 registered volunteers resigned from the Games. Media", "the Games. Media attributed the rise in pandemic cases as the reason for massive quitting.More volunteer assignments were expected to be cancelled due to the spectator ban. Medals In February 2017, the Tokyo Organizing Committee announced anelectronics recyclingprogram in partnership with Japan Environmental Sanitation Center andNTT Docomo, soliciting donations of electronics such as mobile phones to be reclaimed as materials for the medals. Aiming to collect eight tonnes of metals to produce the medals for the Olympic and Paralympic Games, collection boxes were deployed at public locations and NTT Docomo retail shops in April 2017.A design competition for the medals was launched in December of that year. In May 2018, the organizing committee reported that they had obtained half the required 2,700 kilograms of bronze but were struggling to obtain the required amount of silver; although bronze and silver medals purely utilize their respective materials, IOC requirements mandate that gold medals utilize silver", "utilize silver as a base.The collection of bronze was completed in November 2018, with the remainder estimated to have been completed by March 2019. On 24 July 2019 (one year ahead of the originally scheduled opening ceremony), the designs of the medals were unveiled.The medals for the Olympic and Paralympic Games were designed by Junichi Kawanishi following a nationwide competition.A new feature shared with theParalympic medalsis that the ribbons contain one, two, or threesilicone convex linesto distinguish gold, silver, and bronze medals, respectively. Torch relay The slogan of the 2020 Summer Olympics torch relay was \"Hope Lights Our Way\". As determined by a 2009 IOC ruling that banned international torch relays for any future Olympic Games,the 2020 Summer Olympics torch was scheduled to only visit the two countries of Greece and the host nation Japan. The first phase of the relay began on 12 March 2020, with the traditional flame lighting ceremony at theTemple of HerainOlympia, Greece. The torch then", "The torch then travelled toAthens, where the Greek leg of the relay culminated in a handover ceremony at thePanathenaic Stadiumon 19 March, during which the torch was transferred to the Japanese contingent.The flame was placed inside a special lantern and transported fromAthens International Airporton a chartered flight toHigashimatsushimain Japan. The torch was then expected to begin the second phase of its journey on 20 March, as it traveled for one week around the three most affected areas of the2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami—Miyagi,IwateandFukushima—where it would go on display under the heading \"Flame of Recovery\". After leavingNarahaon 26 March, the torch would commence its main relay around Japan, incorporating all 47prefecturalcapitals. After the decision to postpone the Games was made, the torch was placed again in a special lantern on display in the city of Fukushima for a month. After that, the lantern was transferred to the Tokyo prefecture, where it was kept safe until the restart of the", "the restart of the relay in 2021.On 23 July 2020 (one year ahead of the rescheduled opening ceremony), a promotional video was released featuring Japanese swimmerRikako Ikeecarrying the lantern inside Japan National Stadium, drawing comparisons between emergence from the pandemic and her own return to sport after being diagnosed withleukemia.On 20 August 2020, it was announced that the torch relay would begin again in Naraha, Fukushima on 25 March 2021, nearly a year later than originally planned. The final course of the relay was altered due to concerns regarding public health concerns about gatherings along the route (e.g., the Miyakojima leg was canceled), and the relay was held without spectators due to states of emergency in some regions (e.g., Matsuyama, Hiroshima, Hyōgo, and Okayama).The relay ended at Tokyo'sNational Stadium (Olympic Stadium)on 23 July, with tennis playerNaomi Osakalighting the Olympic cauldron at the finale of theopening ceremony.The cauldron lit in the Olympic Stadium was only used", "was only used during the opening and closing ceremonies: a separate cauldron was lit on the Tokyo waterfront for public view at theYume No Ohashi BridgeinOdaiba, making it only the second time in Olympic history where the cauldron was not displayed in the athletics stadium, the other time being in 2016. Biosecurity protocols In February 2021, the IOC began releasing \"playbooks\" containing details on planned COVID-19biosecurityprotocols for athletes, officials, the press, and other staff, including standard protocols such as practicingsocial distancing, hygiene, the wearing of face masks (outside of training and competition for athletes), and being restricted from visiting bars, restaurants, shops, and other tourist areas aroundGreater Tokyo Area, or using public transport unless otherwise permitted. Participants would be asked to use Japan's COCOAExposure Notificationapp and would be tested at least every four days. Athletes who tested positive would be unable to compete and could be quarantined at a", "be quarantined at a government facility (although leeway would be given in the event of false positives). Close contacts would also need to test negative in order to be cleared for competition. Athletes would be discouraged from \"excessive\" celebrations because the actions could spread infected droplets.The playbooks were criticized in a paper published byThe New England Journal of Medicinein May 2021, for lacking \"scientifically rigorous risk assessment\" and failing to \"distinguish the various levels of risk faced by athletes\". The playbook stated that the athletes were required to arrive up to five days prior to the start of the competition and to leave within 48 hours of being eliminated from their sport or the conclusion of the competitions. The IOC recommended thevaccinationof athletes against COVID-19 ifvaccineswere available to them, but this was not a prerequisite for participation and the IOC advised against athletes \"jumping the queue\" in order to obtain priority over essential populations.On 12", "populations.On 12 March 2021, Thomas Bach announced that in nations where they were approved for use, theChinese Olympic Committeehad offered to cover the costs of the ChineseCoronaVacand theSinopharm BIBP vaccinefor athletes competing in the 2020 Summer Olympics and2022 Winter Olympics, and would purchase two doses for their nation's general public for each vaccinated athlete.On 6 May 2021,Pfizerannounced that it would donate doses ofits vaccineto NOCs competing in Tokyo. Approximately 93,000 athletes and officials were exempt from the quarantine rules upon arriving in Japan, provided that they remained in areas separated from the local population. With around 300,000 local staff and volunteers entering and exiting these bubbles, and 20,000 vaccine doses allocated for this group, this led to concerns of COVID-19 spreading both during the Games and when teams returned to their countries. Due to international travel restrictions, the organizing committee announced in March 2021 that no international guests", "guests (including spectators, and friends and family members of the athletes) would be allowed to attend the Games. As per existing guidance for spectator sports in Japan, spectators would be asked to refrain from cheering or shouting.On 19 June 2021, Governor Koike announced that plans for public viewing events for the Games had been scrapped, in order to use the planned venues (such asYoyogi Park) as mass vaccination sites instead.On 21 June, it was announced that all venues would be capped at a maximum of 10,000 ticketed spectators or 50% capacity, whichever was lower. On 2 July 2021, the new TOCOG president Seiko Hashimoto warned that there was still a possibility of the Games being heldbehind closed doorsbecause of rising COVID-19 cases in the country.Japan's slow vaccination rate had been of particular concern.A simulation run by theUniversity of Tokyoin May 2021 projected that a new wave of infections could peak in mid-October if the Games went on after the existing state of emergency in Tokyo had", "in Tokyo had expired. On 8 July 2021, after Tokyo had recorded 920 new COVID-19 cases (its highest increase since May), Prime Minister Suga declared a new state of emergency in the Tokyo area from 12 July through 22 August (ending only two days before the Paralympics' opening ceremony), and announced that all events at venues in the area would therefore be held behind closed doors with no spectators permitted. Hashimoto stated that \"it is extremely regrettable that the Games will be staged in a very limited manner in the face of the spread of novel coronavirus infections.\" IOC President Thomas Bach stated that \"we will support any measure which is necessary to have a safe and secure Olympic and Paralympic Games for the Japanese people and all the participants.\" The announcement stated that spectators would still be allowed at events being held outside of Tokyo, subject to the approval by local health authorities and the aforementioned 50%/10,000-spectator limit.", "limit. TheprefecturesofFukushima,HokkaidoandIbarakiannounced that they would prohibit spectators at events held in the areas.The opening ceremony was expected to be limited to fewer than 1,000 VIP guests, including IOC representatives and dignitaries,while some events did allow members of other competing delegations to occupy spectator seats as well.School students were invited to watch football matches in Ibaraki. On 16 July, it was reported that Bach had asked Prime Minister Suga about the possibility that restrictions on spectators could be eased later on if COVID-19 conditions were to improve in Tokyo.However, on 2 August, Suga announced that all existing state of emergency declarations would be extended through 31 August, and be extended to Chiba, Kanagawa, Saitama, and parts of Osaka. Ticketing The opening ceremony tickets were expected to range from ¥12,000 to ¥300,000, with a maximum price of ¥130,000 for the finals of the athleticstrack and fieldevents.The average ticket price was ¥7,700, with half", "¥7,700, with half the tickets being sold for up to ¥8,000. A symbolic ticket price of ¥2,020 was expected for families, groups resident in Japan, and in conjunction with a school program.Tickets would be sold through 40,000 shops in Japan and by mail order to Japanese addresses through the internet.International guests, had they been allowed, would have needed to visit Japan during the sales period, or arrange to buy tickets through a third party such as atravel agent. Tickets went on general sale in Japan in the autumn of 2019 and were expected to be sold globally from June 2020; however, this plan was suspended when the Games were postponed on 24 March 2020. The Tokyo Organizing Committee confirmed that tickets already purchased would remain valid for the same sessions according to the new schedule and that refunds were also being offered. On 20 March 2021, it was announced that due to COVID-19-related concerns, no international guests would be allowed to attend the 2020 Olympics or Paralympics. This", "Paralympics. This included both spectators, as well as the friends and family of athletes. All overseas ticketholders would be refunded.Hashimoto cited uncertainties surrounding internationaltravel restrictions, and goals to preserve the safety of all participants and spectators, and not place a burden on thehealth care system.It was ultimately announced in July that all local spectators were not allowed to attend any events held in Tokyo, Fukushima and Hokkaido. Cultural festival A cultural program known as Nippon Festival was scheduled to coincide with the Olympics and Paralympics, running from April to September 2021 as a series of streaming events held by the Tokyo Organizing Committee and other partners. The events reflected the themes of \"Participation and Interaction\", \"Towards the Realization of an Inclusive Society\" and \"Reconstruction of the Tohoku Region\". The program was either downsized or reformatted tovirtual formatdue to the COVID-19 pandemic and the postponement of the Games.One of these", "Games.One of these events was a concert held on 18 July, which featured J-rock bandWanima, choreography by dancers Aio Yamada and Tuki Takamura, and the presentation of animated \"creatures\" based on illustrations \"embodying the thoughts and emotions of people from across the world\". The original plans for Nippon Festival included events such asKabukixOpera(a concert that would have featured stage actorIchikawa Ebizō XI, opera singers Anna Pirozzi andErwin Schrott, and theTokyo Philharmonic Orchestra), an arts and culture festival focusing on disabilities,and a special two-day exhibitionsumotournament at theRyōgoku Kokugikanshortly after the Olympics—which would have differed significantly from the traditional bi-monthlyHonbashotournaments, and featured special commentary in English and Japanese to help explain to spectators the customs and traditions of professional sumo, which are deeply rooted in theShintoreligion. The Games Opening ceremony The opening ceremony was held on 23 July 2021 in theOlympic", "2021 in theOlympic Stadiumin Tokyo. It included the traditionalParade of Nations. EmperorNaruhitoformally opened the Games, and at the end of thetorch relaythe Olympic cauldron was lit by Japanese tennis playerNaomi Osaka. For the first time in the 2020 Olympic Games, it was decided that one male and one female in each country would take turns holding flags and serve as two of them.This was done by embodying the \"Agenda 2020\" set during President Bach's term. For the first time in the history of the games, a moment of silence was observed in the opening ceremony for thevictims of COVID-19, the2011 earthquake and tsunamiand theMunich massacre. Sports The event program for the 2020 Summer Olympics was approved by the IOC executive board on 9 June 2017. IOC president Thomas Bach stated that their goal was to give the Games \"youthful\" and \"urban\" appeal, and to increase the number of female participants. The Games featured 339 events in 33 different sports, encompassing a total of 51 disciplines.Karate,sport", "climbing,surfing, andskateboardingmade their Olympic debut, while baseball and softball also made a one-off return to the Summer Olympics for the first time since 2008. 15 new events within existing sports were also added, including3×3 basketball,freestyle BMX, and the return ofmadison cycling, as well as nine new mixed events in several sports (table tennis, archery, judo, shooting (3), triathlon,4 × 400 mrelay running and4 × 100 mmedley swimming). In the list below, the number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. New and Optional sports On 12 February 2013, with a remit to control the cost of the Games and ensure they are \"relevant to sports fans of all generations\", the IOC Executive Board recommended the removal of one of the 26 sports contested at the2012 Summer Olympics, leaving a vacancy which the IOC would seek to fill at the125th IOC Session. The new entrant would join golf and rugby sevens (which would both debut in2016) as part of the program of 28 \"core\" sports. Five sports were", "Five sports were shortlisted for removal, including canoe, field hockey, modern pentathlon, taekwondo, and wrestling. In the final round of voting by the executive board, eight members voted to remove wrestling from the Olympic program. Field hockey and taekwondo tied in second with three votes each. The 2013 decision to drop wrestling after Rio 2016 surprised many media outlets, given that the sport's role in the Olympics dates back to theancient Olympic Games, and was included in the original program for the modern Games.The New York Timesfelt that the decision was based on the shortage of well-known talent and the absence of women's events in the sport.Out of the shortlist from the IOC vote, Wrestling was duly added to the shortlist of applicants for inclusion in the 2020 Games, alongside the seven new sports that were put forward for consideration. On 29 May 2013, it was announced that three of the eight sports under consideration had made the final shortlist:baseball/softball,squashand wrestling.The", "wrestling.The other five sports were rejected at this point:karate,roller sports,sport climbing,wakeboarding, andwushu.At the125th IOC Sessionon 8 September 2013, wrestling was chosen to be included in the Olympic program for 2020 and2024. Wrestling secured 49 votes, while baseball/softball and squash received 24 votes and 22 votes respectively. With the adoption of theOlympic Agenda 2020in December 2014, the IOC shifted from a \"sport-based\" approach to the Olympic program to an \"event-based\" program—establishing that organizing committees may propose discretionary events to be included in the program to improve local interest.As a result of these changes, a shortlist of eight new proposed sports was unveiled on 22 June 2015, consisting of baseball/softball,bowling, karate, roller sports, sport climbing, squash,surfing, and wushu.On 28 September 2015, the Tokyo Organizing Committee submitted their shortlist of five proposed sports to the IOC: baseball/softball, karate, sport climbing, surfing,", "climbing, surfing, andskateboarding.These five new sports were approved on 3 August 2016 by the IOC during the 129th IOC Session inRio de Janeiro, Brazil, and were included in the sports program for 2020 only, bringing the total number of sports at the 2020 Olympics to 33. Test events A total of 56 test events were scheduled to take place in the run-up to the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics. Two of the events were held in late 2018, but the main test event schedule commenced in June 2019 and was originally due to be completed in May 2020 prior to the start of the Olympics. Several of the events were incorporated into pre-existing championships, but some have been newly created specifically to serve as Olympic test events for the 2020 Summer Games. In February 2019, it was announced that the test events would be branded under the banner \"Ready, Steady, Tokyo\". The Tokyo Organizing Committee is responsible for 22 of the test events, with the remaining events being arranged by national and international sports", "sports federations. The first test event was World Sailing'sWorld Cup Series, held atEnoshimain September 2018. The last scheduled event is the Tokyo Challenge Track Meet, which was originally due to take place at theOlympic Stadiumon 6 May 2020. All test events originally scheduled to take place from 12 March 2020 onwards were postponed due to COVID-19, with the test event calendar to be reviewed during the preparations for the rescheduled Games. Participating National Olympic Committees The Republic of Macedonia has competed under the provisional name \"Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia\" in every Summer and Winter Games since its debut in1996because of thedisputed status of its official name. The naming disputes with Greece ended in 2018 with the signing of thePrespa agreement, and the country was officially renamedNorth Macedoniain February 2019. The new name was immediately recognized by the IOC, although the Olympic Committee of North Macedonia (NMOC) was not officially adopted until February 2020.", "February 2020. The NMOC sent a delegation to the2020 Winter Youth Olympicsin January 2020, but the Tokyo Games were North Macedonia's first appearance at the Summer Olympics under its new name. Since competing as Swaziland ten times at the Summer and Winter Olympics,Eswatinimade its debut under that name after the renaming of the country by thekingin 2018. On 9 December 2019, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) banned Russia from all international sport for a period of four years, after the Russian government was found to have tampered with laboratory data that it had provided to WADA in January 2019 as a condition of theRussian Anti-Doping Agencybeing reinstated. As a result of the ban, WADA planned to allow individually clearedRussian athletesto take part in the 2020 Summer Olympics under a neutral banner, as instigated at the 2018 Winter Olympics, but they would be excluded from team sports. The head of WADA's Compliance Review Committee, Jonathan Taylor, stated that the IOC would not be able to use the", "be able to use the \"Olympic Athletes from Russia\" (OAR) designationas it did in 2018, emphasizing that neutral athletes could not be portrayed as representing a specific country.Russia later filed an appeal to theCourt of Arbitration for Sport(CAS) against WADA's decision.After reviewing the case on appeal, CAS ruled on 17 December 2020 that the penalty placed on Russia be reduced. Instead of a total ban from all sporting events, the ruling allowed Russia to participate at the Olympics and other international events, but the team would not be permitted to use the Russian name, flag, or anthem for a period of two years and must present themselves as \"Neutral Athlete\" or \"Neutral Team\". The ruling does allow for \"Russia\" to be displayed on the team uniform—although it should be no more visible than the \"Neutral Athlete/Team\" designation—as well as the use of the Russian flag's colors within the uniform's design. On 19 February 2021, it was announced that Russia would compete under the acronym \"ROC\" after the", "\"ROC\" after the name of theRussian Olympic Committeealthough the name of the committee itself in full could not be used to refer to the delegation. The ROC team would be represented by the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee. On 6 April 2021,North Koreaannounced that it would not participate in the 2020 Summer Olympics because of COVID-19 concerns.This marked North Korea's first absence from the Summer Olympics since1988.In September, a month after the games concluded, theOlympic Committee of the Democratic People's Republic of Koreawas banned from participation in the 2022 Winter Olympics, after they failed to participate in the Tokyo Olympics. On 21July 2021,Guineaannounced it would not be sending a delegation to the Tokyo Olympics, allegedly due to COVID-19 concerns, though media outlets suggested that financial considerations may have been the real motivating factor.Guinea later reversed the decision and confirmed that it would be participating. The following 206 teams qualified (including the", "(including the 104universality places guaranteed in athletics, under which all 206 NOCs may send competitors regardless of qualification). Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee 11,420athletesfrom 206NOCs: Calendar The 2020 schedule by session was approved by the IOC Executive Board on 18 July 2018, with the exception of swimming, diving, and artistic swimming. A more detailed schedule by event was released on 16 April 2019, still omitting a detailed schedule for the boxing events.A detailed boxing schedule was released in late 2019. The original schedule was from 22 July to 9 August 2020. To postpone the Olympics until 2021, all events were delayed by 364 days (one day less than a full year to preserve the same days of the week), giving a new schedule of 21 July to 8 August 2021. Medal table *Host nation (Japan) Podium sweeps There were twopodium sweeps, as follows: Medal ceremonies Naoki Satōcomposed the music for the medal ceremonies. Satō chose not to employ any musical elements distinctive to", "distinctive to Japan \"because victory ceremonies are for athletes from around the world\" and he wanted all medalists to \"feel at ease\" when taking their places on the podium, regardless of their nationality. The bouquets presented to the athletes came from regions affected by the2011 earthquake and tsunami. The individual flowers were selected to represent the prefectures of Miyagi, Fukushima, Iwate, and Tokyo. Thesunflowerswere grown in Miyagi, planted by families whose children had died during the disaster; the white and purpleeustomasandSolomon's sealswere provided by a non-profit initiative to boost the local economy in Fukushima; the small bright bluegentianswere grown in Iwate; andaspidistras, grown in Tokyo, were chosen to complete the bouquets. Event scheduling Per the historical precedent ofswimming at the 2008 Summer Olympicsin Beijing andfigure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympicsin Pyeongchang, swimming finals were held in the morning to allow liveprimetimebroadcasts in the Americas.NBCpaid", "Americas.NBCpaid substantial fees for rights to the Olympics, so the IOC has allowed NBC to influence event scheduling to maximize U.S. television ratings when possible. On 7 May 2014, NBC agreed to a US$7.75 billion contract extension to air the Olympics through the 2032 games,with the company being one of the IOC's major sources of revenue.Japanese broadcasters were said to have criticized the decision, as swimming is one of the most popular Olympic events in the country. Marketing The official emblems for the 2020 Olympics and Paralympics were unveiled on 25 April 2016; designed by Asao Tokolo, who won a nationwide design contest, it takes the form of a ring in an indigo-colored checkerboard pattern. The design was meant to \"express a refined elegance and sophistication that exemplifies Japan\".The checkered design resembles a pattern calledichimatsu moyothat was popular during theEdo periodin Japan from 1603 to 1867.The designs replaced a previous emblem which had been scrapped after allegations that", "allegations that itplagiarized the logoof theThéâtre de Liègein Belgium. The Games' bid slogan wasDiscover Tomorrow(Japanese:未来をつかもう,romanized:Ashita o tsukamō). Whileashitaliterally means \"tomorrow\", it isintentionally spelledasmirai, \"future\".The official sloganUnited by Emotionwas unveiled on 17 February 2020. The slogan was used solely in English. The official mascot of the 2020 Summer Olympics wasMiraitowa, a figure with blue-checkeredichimatsu moyopatterns inspired by the Games' official emblem. Its fictional characteristics include the ability toteleport.Created by Japanese artist Ryo Taniguchi, the mascots were selected from a competition process which took place in late 2017 and early 2018. A total of 2,042 candidate designs were submitted to the Tokyo Organizing Committee, which selected three pairs of unnamed mascot designs to present to Japanese elementary school students for the final decision.The results of the selection were announced on 28 February 2018, and the mascots were named on 22 July", "named on 22 July 2018. Miraitowa is named after the Japanese words for \"future\" and \"eternity\",and Someity is named aftersomeiyoshino, a type of cherry blossom.Someity's name also refers to the English phrase \"so mighty\".The mascots were expected to help finance the Tokyo Games through merchandizing and licensing deals.For the legacy of the games on 3 January 2022, Ryo Taniguchi created Miraity (the future child of the mascots). Look of the Games Alongside the mainEmblem blue, the five other colors used in the branding of the 2020 Games were :Kurenaired,Ai blue,Sakurapink,Fujipurple, andMatsuba green. These fivetraditional colors of Japanwere used as sub-colors to create points of difference in the color variations. Concerns and controversies Several controversial issues occurred during the preparations for the Tokyo Games. There were allegations of bribery in the Japanese Olympic Committee's (JOC) bid and of plagiarism in the initial design for the Games' logo. On 10 December 2018, the French financial", "French financial crimes office began an investigation ofTsunekazu Takeda, the president of theJapanese Olympic Committee, concerning a 2013 scheme to obtain votes from African IOC members in support of Tokyo as host for the 2020 Olympics over Istanbul or Madrid.In March 2020, a Japanese businessman admitted to giving gifts, including cameras and watches, to IOC officials in order to lobby for their support of Tokyo's bid to host the Olympic Games.The official emblems of the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics, designed byKenjirō Sano, were unveiled in July 2015 but were withdrawn and replaced following plagiarism accusations.The lawsuit by Olivier Debie, who claimed that his logo design was copied, was later dropped, with the designer citing escalating legal costs. Mass logging for construction of the Olympic venues received international criticism. Petitions, containing more than 140,000 signatures in total, were delivered to the Japanese embassies in Switzerland and Germany, expressing concerns over claims of", "over claims of using tropical wood sourced fromShin Yang, a Malaysian company with a record of human rights abuses, illegal logging, and rainforest destruction.In February 2018, the Olympics Organizing Committee admitted that 87% ofplywoodpanels used to build the new national stadium was sourced from endangered rainforests. Portions of the Games were scheduled for locations impacted by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, and the subsequentFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. The hosting of events in these locations was promoted as a means of furthering recovery in the regions, with the Games sometimes being promoted as the \"Recovery Olympics\". However, the organization of events in these regions has faced criticism; Fukushima is considered safe by theWorld Health Organizationand theUnited Nations, although scientific studies on the safety of the area are still disputed.Some Tōhoku residents questioned the decision to use the region as a host site, arguing that preparations for the Games slowed down", "Games slowed down recovery efforts, and that the region lost workers to projects associated with the Games. It was widely reported by international media thatSouth Koreahad asked the IOC to ban the JapaneseRising Sun Flagfrom the 2020 Summer Olympics,claiming it to be a symbol ofJapan's imperialist past, recalling \"historic scars and pain\" for people of Korea just as theswastika\"reminds Europeans of the nightmare of World War II\".Use of the flag in international sporting events such as the Olympic Games is controversial because it was used for wagingaggressive waragainst many countries in Pacific regions, including theattack on Pearl Harbor.According to theAssociated Press, the IOC issued a statement in response to South Korea's request, saying, \"sports stadiums should be free of any political demonstration. When concerns arise at games time we look at them on a case-by-case basis.\"Russian and South Korean officials took issue with a map of the torch relay on the Games' official website, which depicted the", "which depicted the disputedLiancourt Rocks(governed by South Korea) andKuril Islands(governed by Russia since 1945) as part of Japan. In February 2021, the TOCOG president Yoshirō Mori resigned, after facing both domestic and international criticisms over hissexistremarks.The previous conduct of the new president, Seiko Hashimoto, has also drawn criticisms,leading her to comment \"I regret it and think I should be careful\" on one of the accusations.The head creative director for the opening and closing ceremonies,Hiroshi Sasaki, resigned in March 2021, after making demeaning comments aboutNaomi Watanabe.Sasaki's replacement,Kentarō Kobayashi, was dismissed by the Organizing Committee the day before the opening ceremony,after it was reported by Japanese media that he had made a joke aboutthe Holocaustin a script for his comedy in 1998, saying \"Let's play Holocaust.\"On the eve of the opening ceremony, Yoshihide Suga, thePrime Minister of Japanand the Supreme Advisor of the Organizing Committee,described", "Committee,described Kobayashi's jokes as \"outrageous and unacceptable\", but also said that the opening ceremony, which was directed by Kobayashi, should proceed as planned. The composer for the opening ceremony,Keigo Oyamada, resigned days before the ceremony after growing criticism of his past bullying of people with apparentdisabilities, such asDown syndrome.On 16 July, a week before the opening ceremony, TOCOG announced their support of Oyamada as a composer and vowed not to change his selection for the ceremonies,but growing criticism forced him to announce his resignation on 19 July.The opening ceremony music included arrangements of video game soundtracks originating in Japan; however, this included music from theDragon Questseries, composed byKoichi SugiyamawhomThe Daily Beastdescribed as \"notoriously homophobic and ultranationalist\", leading to further criticism of the Organizing Committee. Officials reported that by early June 2021, about 10,000 of the 80,000 registered volunteers had quit.\"There's", "had quit.\"There's no doubt that one of the reasons is concern over coronavirus infections,\" the chief executive of the Organizing Committee said,also stating he did not believe this would impact the operation of the Games.On 23 July, hundreds of anti-Olympic protestors gathered outside the Japan National Stadium before the opening ceremony. Security guards blocked reporters from leaving the stadium to interview protestors.In total, more than 60,000 police were mobilized for security during the Games, and police were regularly deployed to break up public displays of protest, including tackling protestors on their way to join the anti-Olympic protest in Sendagaya during the closing ceremony on September 5, 2021. This overwhelming police presence, including plainclothes police officers who encircled the protest area, \"served as an effective tool to criminalize a peaceful rally and to maintain a frightening image of open protest.\" Writing forThe Conversation, Olympic scholarMacIntosh Rossraised concerns about", "concerns about the relationship between theIOCandWHO, suggesting the organizations showed a lack of concern for the health of Japanese citizens and Olympians. As Ross explained, \"when the IOC and WHO support a global mega-event held during a pandemic, it's difficult to believe that the well-being of the host nation remains a priority.\"Similarly, Japan scholars O'Shea and Maslow remark, \"International media coverage and commentary runs the gamut from sometimes scathing critique for attempting to pull off a 'pandemic games', to praise and plaudits for successfully pulling off a 'pandemic games'. Still, the story that Japan—or at least the LDP—wanted to tell, of a newly reborn and 'normal' Japan (re-)entering the world stage remained untold. Instead, the story of the 2020/2021 Tokyo Olympics was more mundane, that of a state doing a decent job of managing Covid and hosting a mega-event against the wishes of many of its inhabitants.\" A number of controversies arose during the Games, most notably the attempted", "the attempted repatriation on 1 August of Belarusian sprinterKrystsina Tsimanouskaya, allegedly for her criticism of the national sports authorities and team management.Refusing to return toBelarus, over fears for her safety,Tsimanouskaya sought assistance from the IOC and traveled toWarsaw, Poland, on 4 August after being granted ahumanitarian visabyTokyo's Polish Embassy. Near the end of the Olympics, it was reported that Australian athletes had damaged the village rooms before departure, leaving a pool of vomit on the floor, damaged beds and a hole in the wall. Australian rugby Olympians also reportedly became drunk on the flight to Sydney, leaving vomit in the plane bathroom and receiving complaints from other passengers. Team Australia chief Ian Chesterman played down the incidents, and said that the Olympians would not be punished. Algerian judokaFethi Nourineand his coachAmar Benikhlefwere suspended for 10 years by theInternational Judo Federationafter Nourine refused to fight an Israeli athlete at", "Israeli athlete at the Olympics.Nourine said his political support for the Palestinians in theIsraeli–Palestinian conflictmade it impossible for him to compete against Israeli athletes.Sudan'sMohamed Abdalarasoolalso withdrew from the competition to avoid the Israeli athlete. After the Olympics concluded, New Zealand diving judge Lisa Wright revealed that during the diving events,Zhou Jihong, Vice President ofFINAfrom China, allegedly launched a verbal tirade at Wright at the conclusion of the men's 10m platform final. Wright alleged that Zhou verbally abused her for underscoring Chinese divers.Diving New Zealand subsequently complained about the incident to FINA's Ethics Panel. As a result, Zhou was ordered by a FINA Ethics Panel decisionto write a letter of apology to Wright. A recommendation was also made by the Ethics Panel to disestablish Zhou's position as Diving Bureau Liaison for FINA. The FINA Ethics Panel stated that the incident during the men's platform final was \"unfortunate\" and led to a", "and led to a \"misunderstanding mixed with misjudgement\" between Wright and Zhou.In May 2022, former international diver, Olympic judge and previous member of FINA's Technical Diving Committee from New ZealandSimon Latimerrevealed he had sent a whistleblower complaintto FINA's Executive Director Brent Nowicki in December 2021 detailing Zhou's alleged \"unethical behavior\" which also contained allegations that Zhou coached Chinese divers during major events during the 2020 Summer Olympics and she had manipulated judging panels in order to benefit Chinese athletes. Latimer claimed that Zhou's behavior was tarnishing the reputation of international diving and that she was acting in the interests of China rather than international diving as a whole. Subsequent to Latimer's complaint, video evidence emerged online showing Zhou coaching Chinese divers during competition sessions at the Olympics,a behavior considered unethical given her supposedly neutral role as a FINA Vice President and Diving Bureau Liaison.", "Bureau Liaison. Broadcasting The Olympic Games Tokyo 2020 reached a global broadcast audience of 3.05 billion people, according to independent research conducted on behalf of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Official coverage on Olympic broadcast partners' digital platforms alone generated 28 billion video views in total – representing a 139 per cent increase compared with the Olympic Games Rio 2016 and underlining the changing media landscape and Tokyo 2020's designation as the first streaming Games and the most watched Olympic Games ever on digital platforms. SonyandPanasonicpartnered withNHKto develop broadcasting standards for8K resolutiontelevision, with a goal to release 8K television sets in time for the 2020 Summer Olympics.In early 2019, Italian broadcasterRAIannounced its intention to deploy 8K broadcasting for the Games.NHK broadcast the opening and closing ceremonies, and coverage of selected events in 8K.Telecom companyNTT Docomosigned a deal with Finland'sNokiato provide5G-ready", "provide5G-ready baseband networks in Japan in time for the Games. The Tokyo Olympics were broadcast in the United States byNBCUniversal networks, as part of a US$4.38 billion agreement that began at the2014 Winter Olympicsin Sochi.TheUnited States Olympic & Paralympic Committeeasserted that a \"right of abatement\" clause in the contract was triggered by the delay of the Games to 2021, requiring the IOC to \"negotiate in good faith an equitable reduction in the applicable broadcast rights payments\" by NBC, with the American corporation being one of the IOC's biggest revenue streams.According to NBCUniversal CEO Jeff Shell, the Tokyo games could be the most profitable Olympics in NBC's history. The Tokyo games were NBC's first Olympics broadcast under current president Susan Rosner Rovner; it would be also be the last due to Rovner's departure in 2023. In Europe, this was the first Summer Olympics under the IOC's exclusive pan-European rights deal withEurosport, which began at the2018 Winter Olympicsand is", "Olympicsand is contracted to run through 2024. The rights for the 2020 Summer Olympics covered almost all of Europe; a pre-existing deal with a marketer excludes Russia.Eurosport planned to sub-license coverage tofree-to-airnetworks in each territory, and other channels owned byDiscovery, Inc.subsidiaries. In the United Kingdom, these were set to be the last Games with rights owned primarily by theBBC, although as a condition of a sub-licensing agreement due to carry into the 2022 and 2024 Games, Eurosport holds exclusivepay televisionrights.In France, these were the last Games whose rights are primarily owned byFrance Télévisions. Eurosport debuted as pay television rightsholder, afterCanal+elected to sell its pay television rights as a cost-saving measure. In Canada, the 2020 Games were shown onCBC/Radio-Canadaplatforms,Sportsnet,TSNandTLN.In Australia, they were aired bySeven Network.In the Indian subcontinent, they were aired bySony Pictures Networks India (SPN). See also Notes References External links", "Wrestling at the 2020 Summer Olympics Wrestling at the 2020 Summer OlympicsinTokyofeatured two disciplines,freestyleandGreco-Roman, which were further divided into different weight categories. Men competed in both disciplines whereas women only participated in the freestyle events, with 18gold medalsawarded.Wrestlinghad been contested at every modernSummer Olympic Games, exceptParis 1900. Around 288 wrestlers were expected to compete in 18 events at the2020 Summer Olympicswhich was postponed in March 2020 and planned for 2021 as a result of theCOVID-19 pandemic. Competition format 16 wrestlers compete in each division. The competition consists of a single-elimination tournament, with arepechageused to determine the winner of two bronze medals. The two finalists face off for gold and silver medals. Each wrestler who loses to one of the two finalists moves into the repechage, culminating in a pair of bronze medal matches featuring the semifinal losers each facing the remaining repechage opponent from their half", "from their half of the bracket. Competition schedule Qualification Medalists Men's freestyle Men's Greco-Roman Women's freestyle Medal table *Host nation (Japan) Participating nations There are 61 participating nations: See also References External links", "Wrestling at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Men's freestyle 86 kg The men's freestyle 86 kilograms competition at the2020 Summer OlympicsinTokyo,Japan, took place on 4–5 August 2021 at theMakuhari MesseinMihama-ku.The qualification rounds were held on 4 August, with medal matches the next day. This freestyle wrestling competition consists of a single-elimination tournament, with a repechage used to determine the winner of two bronze medals. The two finalists face off for gold and silver medals. Each wrestler who loses to one of the two finalists moves into the repechage, culminating in a pair of bronze medal matches featuring the semifinal losers each facing the remaining repechage opponent from their half of the bracket. The medals for the competition were presented by the United World Wrestling presidentNenad Lalović,IOC Executive Board MemberfromSerbia, and the medalists' bouquets were presented by Pedro Gama Filho,UWWBoard Member fromBrazil. David Taylorfrom the United States won the gold medal after beating", "medal after beating 2016 Olympic ChampionHassan Yazdanifrom Iran 4–3 in the gold medal match. Schedule All times areJapan Standard Time(UTC+09:00) Results Main bracket Repechage Final standing References External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Taylor_(wrestler,_born_1990", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_High_School_(St._Paris,_Ohio" ]
Who was the Catholic Pope eleven years after Emperor Charlemagne died?
Eugene II
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popes
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Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popes']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popes" ]
[ "Charlemagne Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Charlemagne(/ˈʃɑːrləmeɪn,ˌʃɑːrləˈmeɪn/SHAR-lə-mayn, -⁠MAYN; 2 April 748– 28 January 814) wasKing of the Franksfrom 768,King of the Lombardsfrom 774, andEmperorof what is now known as theCarolingian Empirefrom 800, holding these titles until his death in 814. He united most ofWesternandCentral Europe, and was the first recognised emperor to rule from the west after thefall of the Western Roman Empireapproximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's reign was marked by political and social changes that had lasting influence on Europe throughout theMiddle Ages. A member of the FrankishCarolingian dynasty, Charlemagne was the eldest son ofPepin the ShortandBertrada of Laon. With his brother,Carloman I, he became king of the Franks in 768 following Pepin's death and became the sole ruler three years later. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of protecting the papacy and became its chief defender, removing theLombardsfrom power innorthern Italyin 774. His reign saw a period of expansion that led to the conquests ofBavaria,Saxonyandnorthern Spain, as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to extend his rule over a large part of Europe. Charlemagne spread Christianity to his new conquests (often by force), as seen at theMassacre of Verdenagainst theSaxons. He also sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with theAbbasid caliphHarun al-Rashidin the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Iberian affairs. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome byPope Leo III. Although historians debate the coronation's significance, the title represented the height of his prestige and authority. Charlemagne's position as the first emperor in the West in over 300 years brought him into conflict with theEastern Roman EmpireinConstantinople. Through his assumption of the imperial title, he is considered the forerunner to the line ofHoly Roman Emperors, which persisted into the nineteenth century. As king and emperor, Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms in administration, law, education, military organization, and religion, which shaped Europe for centuries. The stability of his reign began a period of cultural activity known as theCarolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne died in 814 and was laid to rest atAachen CathedralinAachen, his imperial capital city. He was succeeded by his only surviving legitimate son,Louis the Pious. After Louis, the Frankish kingdom was divided and eventually coalesced intoWestandEast Francia, which later becameFranceandGermany, respectively. Charlemagne's profound influence on the Middle Ages and influence on the territory he ruled has led him to be called the \"Father of Europe\" by many historians. He is seen as a founding figure by multiple European states and a number of historical royal houses of Europe trace their lineage back to him. Charlemagne has been the subject of artworks, monuments and literature during and after the medieval period and isveneratedby theCatholic Church. Name Several languages were spoken in Charlemagne's world, and he was known to contemporaries asKarlusin theOld High Germanhe spoke; asKarlotoEarly Old French(orProto-Romance) speakers; and asCarolus(orKarolus)inMedieval Latin, the formal language of writing and diplomacy.Charlesis the modern English form of these names. The nameCharlemagne, as the emperor is normally known in English, comes from the FrenchCharles-le-magne('Charles the Great').In modern German, he is known asKarl der Große.The Latinepithetmagnus('great') may have been associated with him during his lifetime, but this is not certain. The contemporaryRoyal Frankish Annalsroutinely call himCarolus magnus rex(\"Charles the great king\").That epithet is attested in the works of thePoeta Saxoaround 900, and it had become commonly applied to him by 1000. Charlemagne was named after his grandfather,Charles Martel.That name, and its derivatives, are unattested before their use by Charles Martel and Charlemagne.Karoluswas adapted by Slavic languages as their word for \"king\" (Russian:korol',Polish:królandSlovak:král) through Charlemagne's influence or that of his great-grandson,Charles the Fat. Early life and rise to power Political background and ancestry By the sixth century, the westernGermanictribe of theFrankshad beenChristianised; this was due in considerable measure to the conversion of their king,Clovis I, to Catholicism.The Franks had established a kingdom inGaulin the wake of theFall of the Western Roman Empire.This kingdom,Francia, grew to encompass nearly all of present-day France and Switzerland, along with parts of modern Germany and theLow Countriesunder the rule of theMerovingian dynasty.Francia was often divided under different Merovingian kings, due to thepartible inheritancepractised by the Franks.The late seventh century saw a period of war and instability following the murder of KingChilderic II, which led to factional struggles among the Frankish aristocrats. Pepin of Herstal,mayor of the palaceofAustrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his 687 victory at theBattle of Tertry.Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of Austrasia:Arnulf of MetzandPepin of Landen.The mayors of the palace had gained influence as the Merovingian kings' power waned due to divisions of the kingdom and several succession crises.Pepin was eventually succeeded by his son Charles, later known as Charles Martel.Charles did not support a Merovingian successor upon the death of KingTheuderic IVin 737, leaving the throne vacant.He made plans to divide the kingdom between his sons,CarlomanandPepin the Short, who succeeded him after his death in 741.The brothers placed the MerovingianChilderic IIIon the throne in 743.Pepin marriedBertrada, a member of an influential Austrasian noble family, in 744.In 747, Carloman abdicated and entered a monastery in Rome. He had at least two sons; the elder,Drogo, took his place. Birth Charlemagne's year of birth is uncertain, although it was most likely in 748.An older tradition based on three sources, however, gives a birth year of 742. The ninth-century biographerEinhardreports Charlemagne as being 72 years old at the time of his death; theRoyal Frankish Annalsimprecisely gives his age at death as about 71, and his original epitaph called him a septuagenarian.Einhard said that he did not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing the emperor's true age, he still sought to present an exact date in keeping with the Roman imperial biographies ofSuetoniuswhich he used as a model.All three sources may have been influenced byPsalm 90: \"The days of our years are threescore years and ten\". HistorianKarl Ferdinand Wernerchallenged the acceptance of 742 as the Frankish king's birth year, citing an addition to theAnnales Petavianiwhich records Charlemagne's birth in 747.Lorsch Abbeycommemorated Charlemagne's date of birth as 2 April from the mid-ninth century, and this date is likely to be genuine.Matthias Becher built on Werner's work and showed that 2 April in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since the annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than 1 January.Presently, most scholars accept April 748 for Charlemagne's birth.Charlemagne's place of birth is unknown. The Frankish palaces inVaires-sur-MarneandQuierzyare among the places suggested by scholars.Pepin the Short held an assembly inDürenin 748, but it cannot be proved that it took place in April or if Bertrada was with him. Language and education Einhard refers to Charlemagne'spatrius sermo(\"native tongue\").Most scholars have identified this as a form ofOld High German, probably aRhenish Franconiandialect.Due to the prevalence in Francia of \"rustic Roman\", he was probably functionally bilingual in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age.Charlemagne also spoke Latin and, according to Einhard, could understand and (perhaps) speak some Greek. Charlemagne's father Pepin had been educated at the abbey ofSaint-Denis, although the extent of Charlemagne's formal education is unknown.He almost certainly was trained in military matters as a youth in Pepin's court,which wasitinerant.Charlemagne also asserted his own education in theliberal artsin encouraging their study by his children and others, although it is unknown whether his study was as a child or at court during his later life.The question of Charlemagne's literacy is debated, with little direct evidence from contemporary sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him and dictated responses and decrees, but this was not unusual even for a literate ruler at the time.HistorianJohannes Friedconsiders it likely that Charlemagne would have been able to read,but the medievalist Paul Dutton writes that \"the evidence for his ability to read is circumstantial and inferential at best\"and concludes that it is likely that he never properly mastered the skill.Einhard makes no direct mention of Charlemagne reading, and recorded that he only attempted to learn to write later in life. Accession and reign with Carloman There are only occasional references to Charlemagne in the Frankishannalsduring his father's lifetime.By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him as king.Early Carolingian-influenced sources claim that Pepin's seizure of the throne was sanctioned beforehand byPope Stephen II,but modern historians dispute this.It is possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled to Francia in 754 (apparently to request Pepin's aid against the Lombards), and on this tripanointedPepin as king; this legitimised his rule.Charlemagne was sent to greet and escort the Pope, and he and his younger brotherCarlomanwere anointed with their father.Pepin sidelined Drogo around the same time, sending him and his brother to a monastery. Charlemagne began issuing charters in his own name in 760. The following year, he joined his father's campaign againstAquitaine.Aquitaine, led by DukesHunaldandWaiofar, was constantly in rebellion during Pepin's reign.Pepin fell ill on campaign there and died on 24 September 768, and Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father.They had separate coronations, Charlemagne atNoyonand Carloman atSoissons, on 9 October.The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, although they were considered joint rulers of a single Frankish kingdom.TheRoyal Frankish Annalsreport that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia and Carloman ruledBurgundy,Provence, Aquitaine, andAlamannia, with no mention made of which brother received Neustria.The immediate concern of the brothers was the ongoing uprising in Aquitaine.They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for unknown reasons and Charlemagne completed the campaign on his own.Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald marked the end of ten years of war that had been waged in the attempt to bring Aquitaine into line. Carloman's refusal to participate in the war against Aquitaine led to a rift between the kings.It is uncertain why Carloman abandoned the campaign; the brothers may have disagreed about control of the territory,or Carloman was focused on securing his rule in the north of Francia.Regardless of the strife between the kings, they maintained a joint rule for practical reasons.Charlemagne and Carloman worked to obtain the support of the clergy and local elites to solidify their positions. Pope Stephen IIIwas elected in 768, but was briefly deposed byAntipope Constantine IIbefore being restored to Rome.Stephen's papacy experienced continuing factional struggles, so he sought support from the Frankish kings.Both brothers sent troops to Rome, each hoping to exert his own influence.The Lombard kingDesideriusalso had interests in Roman affairs, and Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally.Desiderius already had alliances withBavariaandBeneventothrough the marriages of his daughters to their dukes,and an alliance with Charlemagne would add to his influence.Charlemagne's mother, Bertrada, went on his behalf to Lombardy in 770 and brokered a marriage alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride.Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known asDesiderata, although she may have been named Gerperga.Anxious about the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent a letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and separately sought closer ties with Carloman. Charlemagne had already had a relationship with the Frankish noblewomanHimiltrude, and they had a son in 769 namedPepin.Paul the Deaconwrote in his 784Gesta Episcoporum Mettensiumthat Pepin was born \"before legal marriage\", but does not say whether Charles and Himiltrude ever married, were joined in a non-canonical marriage (friedelehe), or married after Pepin was born.Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship as a legitimate marriage, but he had a vested interest in preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter. Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne sole king of the Franks.He moved immediately to secure his hold on his brother's territory, forcing Carloman's widowGerbergato flee to Desiderius's court in Lombardy with their children.Charlemagne ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and marriedHildegard, daughter of countGerold, a powerful magnate in Carloman's kingdom.This was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's familyand a move to secure Gerold's support. King of the Franks and the Lombards Annexation of the Lombard Kingdom Charlemagne's first campaigning season as sole king of the Franks was spent on the eastern frontier in his firstwar against the Saxons, who had been engaging in border raids on the Frankish kingdom when Charlemagne responded by destroying the paganIrminsulatEresburgand seizing their gold and silver.The success of the war helped secure Charlemagne's reputation among his brother's former supporters and funded further military action.The campaign was the beginning of over thirty years of nearly-continuous warfare against the Saxons by Charlemagne. Pope Adrian Isucceeded Stephen III in 772, and sought the return of papal control of cities that had been captured by Desiderius.Unsuccessful in dealing with the Lombard king directly, Adrian sent emissaries to Charlemagne to gain his support for recovering papal territory. Charlemagne, in response to this appeal and the dynastic threat of Carloman's sons in the Lombard court, gathered his forces to intervene.He first sought a diplomatic solution, offering gold to Desiderius in exchange for the return of the papal territories and his nephews.This overture was rejected, and Charlemagne's army (commanded by himself and his uncle,Bernard) crossed the Alps tobesiegethe Lombard capital ofPaviain late 773. Charlemagne's second son (also namedCharles) was born in 772, and Charlemagne brought the child and his wife to the camp at Pavia. Hildegard was pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter named Adelhaid. The baby was sent back to Francia, but died on the way.Charlemagne left Bernard to maintain the siege at Pavia while he took a force to capture Verona, where Desiderius's sonAdalgishad taken Carloman's sons.Charlemagne captured the city; no further record exists of his nephews or of Carloman's wife, and their fate is unknown.Recent biographer,Janet Nelsoncompares them to thePrinces in the Towerin theWars of the Roses.Fried suggests that the boys were forced into a monastery (a common solution of dynastic issues), or \"an act of murder smooth Charlemagne's ascent to power.\"Adalgis was not captured by Charlemagne, and fled to Constantinople. Charlemagne left the siege in April 774 to celebrate Easter in Rome.Pope Adrian arranged a formal welcome for the Frankish king, and they swore oaths to each other over the relics of St. Peter.Adrian presented a copy of theagreement between Pepin and Stephen IIIoutlining the papal lands and rights Pepin had agreed to protect and restore.It is unclear which lands and rights the agreement involved, which remained a point of dispute for centuries.Charlemagne placed a copy of the agreement in the chapel above St. Peter's tomb as a symbol of his commitment, and left Rome to continue the siege. Disease struck the Lombards shortly after his return to Pavia, and they surrendered the city by June 774.Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and took the title of King of the Lombards.The takeover of one kingdom by another was \"extraordinary\",and the authors ofThe Carolingian Worldcall it \"without parallel\".Charlemagne secured the support of the Lombard nobles and Italian urban elites to seize power in a mainly-peaceful annexation.HistorianRosamond McKittericksuggests that the elective nature of the Lombard monarchy eased Charlemagne's takeover,andRoger Collinsattributes the easy conquest to the Lombard elite's \"presupposition that rightful authority was in the hands of the one powerful enough to seize it\".Charlemagne soon returned to Francia with the Lombard royal treasury and with Desiderius and his family, who would be confined to a monastery for the rest of their lives. Frontier wars in Saxony and Spain The Saxons took advantage of Charlemagne's absence in Italy to raid the Frankish borderlands, leading to a Frankish counter-raid in the autumn of 774 and a reprisal campaign the following year.Charlemagne was soon drawn back to Italy as DukeHrodgaud of Friulirebelled against him.He quickly crushed the rebellion, distributing Hrodgaud's lands to the Franks to consolidate his rule in Lombardy.Charlemagne wintered in Italy, consolidating his power by issuing charters and legislation and taking Lombard hostages.Amid the 775 Saxon andFriuliancampaigns, his daughterRotrudewas born in Francia. Returning north, Charlemagne waged another brief, destructive campaign against the Saxons in 776.This led to the submission of many Saxons, who turned over captives and lands and submitted tobaptism.In 777, Charlemagne held an assembly atPaderbornwith Frankish and Saxon men; many more Saxons came under his rule, but the Saxon magnateWidukindfled to Denmark to prepare for a new rebellion. Also at the Paderborn assembly were representatives of dissident factions fromal-Andalus(Muslim Spain). They included the son and son-in-law ofYusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, the former governor ofCórdobaousted by CaliphAbd al-Rahmanin 756, who sought Charlemagne's support for al-Fihri's restoration. Also present wasSulayman al-Arabi, governor of Barcelona and Girona, who wanted to become part of the Frankish kingdom and receive Charlemagne's protection rather than remain under the rule of Córdoba.Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity to strengthen the security of the kingdom's southern frontier and extend his influence, agreed to intervene.Crossing the Pyrenees, his army found little resistance until an ambush byBasqueforces in 778 at theBattle of Roncevaux Pass. The Franks, defeated in the battle, withdrew with most of their army intact. Building the dynasty Charlemagne returned to Francia to greet his newborn twin sons,Louisand Lothair, who were born while he was in Spain;Lothair died in infancy.Again, Saxons had seized on the king's absence to raid. Charlemagne sent an army to Saxony in 779while he held assemblies, legislated, and addressed a famine in Francia.Hildegard gave birth to another daughter,Bertha.Charlemagne returned to Saxony in 780, holding assemblies at which he received hostages from Saxon nobles and oversaw their baptism. He and Hildegard traveled with their four younger children to Rome in the spring of 781, leaving Pepin and Charles atWorms, to make a journey first requested by Adrian in 775.Adrian baptised Carloman and renamed him Pepin, a name he shared with his half-brother.Louis and the newly renamed Pepin were then anointed and crowned. Pepin was appointed king of the Lombards, and Louis king of Aquitaine.This act was not nominal, since the young kings were sent to live in their kingdoms under the care of regents and advisers.A delegation from theByzantine Empire, the remnant of the Roman Empire in the East, met Charlemagne during his stay in Rome; Charlemagne agreed to betroth his daughter Rotrude toEmpress Irene's son, EmperorConstantine VI. Hildegard gave birth to her eighth child,Gisela, during this trip to Italy.After the royal family's return to Francia, she had her final pregnancy and died from its complications on 30 April 783. The child, named after her, died shortly thereafter.Charlemagne commissioned epitaphs for his wife and daughter, and arranged for aMassto be said daily at Hildegard's tomb.Charlemagne's mother Bertrada died shortly after Hildegard, on 12 July 783.Charlemagne was remarried toFastrada, daughter of the East Frankish count Radolf, by the end of the year. Saxon resistance and reprisal In summer 782, Widukind returned from Denmark to attack the Frankish positions in Saxony.He defeated a Frankish army, possibly due to rivalry among the Frankish counts leading it.Charlemagne came toVerdenafter learning of the defeat, but Widukind fled before his arrival. Charlemagne summoned the Saxon magnates to an assembly and compelled them to turn prisoners over to him, since he regarded their previous acts as treachery. The annals record that Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded in themassacre of Verden.Fried writes, \"Although this figure may be exaggerated, the basic truth of the event is not in doubt\",andAlessandro Barberocalls it \"perhaps the greatest stain on his reputation.\"Charlemagne issued theCapitulatio de partibus Saxoniae, probably in the immediate aftermath of (or as a precursor of) the massacre.With a harsh set of laws which included the death penalty for pagan practices, theCapitulatio\"constituted a program for the forcedconversion of the Saxons\"and was \"aimed ... at suppressing Saxon identity\". Charlemagne's focus for the next several years would be on his attempt to complete the subjugation of the Saxons. Concentrating first inWestphaliain 783, he pushed intoThuringiain 784 as his sonCharles the Youngercontinued operations in the west. At each stage of the campaigns, the Frankish armies seized wealth and carried Saxon captives into slavery.Unusually, Charlemagne campaigned through the winter instead of resting his army.By 785, he had suppressed the Saxon resistance and completely commanded Westphalia. That summer, he met Widukind and persuaded him to end his resistance. Widukind agreed to be baptised with Charlemagne as his godfather, ending this phase of theSaxon Wars. Benevento, Bavaria, and Pepin's revolt Charlemagne travelled to Italy in 786, arriving by Christmas. Aiming to extend his influence further into southern Italy, he marched into the Duchy of Benevento.Duke Arechisfled to a fortified position atSalernobefore offering Charlemagne his fealty. Charlemagne accepted his submission and hostages, who included Arechis's sonGrimoald.In Italy, Charlemagne also met with envoys from Constantinople. Empress Irene had called the 787Second Council of Nicaea, but did not inform Charlemagne or invite any Frankish bishops. Charlemagne, probably in reaction to the perceived slight of the exclusion, broke the betrothal of his daughter Rotrude and Constantine VI. After Charlemagne left Italy, Arechis sent envoys to Irene to offer an alliance; he suggested that she send a Byzantine army with Adalgis, the exiled son of Desiderus, to remove the Franks from power in Lombardy.Before his plans could be finalised, Aldechis and his elder son Romuald died of illness within weeks of each other.Charlemagne sent Grimoald back to Benevento to serve as duke and return it to Frankish suzerainty.The Byzantine armyinvaded, but were repulsed by the Frankish and Lombard forces. As affairs were being settled in Italy, Charlemagne turned his attention to Bavaria. Bavaria was ruled by DukeTassilo, Charlemagne's first cousin, who had been installed by Pepin the Short in 748.Tassilo's sons were also grandsons of Desiderius, and a potential threat to Charlemagne's rule in Lombardy.The neighbouring rulers had a growing rivalry throughout their reigns, but had sworn oaths of peace to each other in 781.In 784, Rotpert (Charlemagne's viceroy in Italy) accused Tassilo of conspiring with Widukind in Saxony and unsuccessfully attacked the Bavarian city ofBolzano.Charlemagne gathered his forces to prepare for an invasion of Bavaria in 787. Dividing the army, the Franks launched a three-pronged attack. Quickly realizing his poor position, Tassilo agreed to surrender and recognise Charlemagne as his overlord.The following year, Tassilo was accused of plotting with theAvarsto attack Charlemagne. He was deposed and sent to a monastery, and Charlemagne absorbed Bavaria into his kingdom.Charlemagne spent the next few years based inRegensburg, largely focused on consolidating his rule of Bavaria andwarring againstthe Avars.Successful campaigns against them were launched from Bavaria and Italy in 788,and Charlemagne led campaigns in 791 and 792. Charlemagne gave Charles the Younger rule ofMainein Neustria in 789, leaving Pepin the Hunchback his only son without lands.His relationship with Himiltrude was now apparently seen as illegitimate at his court, and Pepin was sidelined from the succession.In 792, as his father and brothers were gathered in Regensburg, Pepin conspired with Bavarian nobles to assassinate them and install himself as king. The plot was discovered and revealed to Charlemagne before it could proceed; Pepin was sent to a monastery, and many of his co-conspirators were executed. The early 790s saw a marked focus on ecclesiastical affairs by Charlemagne. He summoned a council in Regensburg in 792 to address the theological controversy over theadoptionismdoctrine in the Spanish church and formulate a response to the Second Council of Nicea.The council condemned adoptionism asheresyand led to the production of theLibri Carolini, a detailed argument against Nicea's canons.In 794, Charlemagne called anothercouncil in Frankfurt.The council confirmed Regensburg's positions on adoptionism and Nicea, recognised the deposition of Tassilo, set grain prices, reformed Frankish coinage, forbade abbesses from blessing men, and endorsed prayer in vernacular languages.Soon after the council, Fastrada fell ill and died;Charlemagne married the Alamannian noblewomanLuitgardshortly afterwards. Continued wars with the Saxons and Avars Charlemagne gathered an army after the council of Frankfurt as Saxon resistance continued, beginning a series of annual campaigns which lasted through 799.The campaigns of the 790s were even more destructive than those of earlier decades, with the annal writers frequently noting Charlemagne \"burning\", \"ravaging\", \"devastating\", and \"laying waste\" the Saxon lands.Charlemagne forcibly removed a large number of Saxons to Francia, installing Frankish elites and soldiers in their place.His extended wars in Saxony led to his establishing his court inAachen, which had easy access to the frontier. He built a largepalacethere, including a chapel which is now part of theAachen Cathedral.Einhard joined the court at that time.Pepin of Italy(Carloman) engaged in further wars against the Avars in the south, which led to the collapse of their kingdom and the eastward expansion of Frankish rule. Charlemagne also worked to expand his influence through diplomatic means during the 790s wars, focusing on the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain. Charles the Younger proposed a marriage pact with the daughter of KingOffa of Mercia, but Offa insisted that Charlemagne's daughter Bertha also be given as a bride for his son.Charlemagne refused the arrangement, and the marriage did not take place.Charlemagne and Offa entered into a formal peace in 796, protecting trade and securing the rights of English pilgrims to pass through Francia on their way to Rome.Charlemagne was also the host and protector of several deposed English rulers who were later restored:Eadbehrt of Kent,Ecgberht, King of Wessex, andEardwulf of Northumbria.Nelson writes that Charlemagne treated the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms \"like satellite states,\" establishing direct relations with English bishops.Charlemagne also forged an alliance withAlfonso II of Asturias, although Einhard calls Alfonso his \"dependent\".Following hissack of Lisbonin 798, Alfonso sent Charlemagne trophies of his victory, including armour, mules and prisoners. Reign as emperor Coronation AfterLeo IIIbecame pope in 795, he faced political opposition. His enemies accused him of a number of crimes and physically attacked him in April 799, attempting to remove his eyes and tongue.Leo escaped and fled north to seek Charlemagne's help.Charlemagne continued his campaign against the Saxons before breaking off to meet Leo atPaderbornin September.Hearing evidence from the pope and his enemies, he sent Leo back to Rome with royal legates who were instructed to reinstate the pope and conduct a further investigation.In August of the following year, Charlemagne made plans to go to Rome after an extensive tour of his lands in Neustria.Charlemagne met Leo in November nearMentanaat the twelfth milestone outside Rome, the traditional location where Roman emperors began theirformal entryinto the city.Charlemagne presided over an assembly to hear the charges, but believed that no one could sit in judgement of the pope. Leo swore an oath on 23 December, declaring his innocence of all charges.At mass inSt. Peter's Basilicaon Christmas Day 800, Leo proclaimed Charlemagne \"emperor of the Romans\" (Imperator Romanorum) and crowned him.Charlemagne was the first reigning emperor in the west since the deposition ofRomulus Augustulusin 476.His son,Charles the Younger, was anointed king by Leo at the same time. Historians differ about the intentions of the imperial coronation, the extent to which Charlemagne was aware of it or participated in its planning, and the significance of the events for those present and for Charlemagne's reign.Contemporary Frankish and papal sources differ in their emphasis on, and representation of, events.Einhard writes that Charlemagne would not have entered the church if he knew about the pope's plan; modern historians have regarded his report as truthful or rejected it as a literary device demonstrating Charlemagne's humility.Collins says that the actions surrounding the coronation indicate that it was planned by Charlemagne as early as his meeting with Leo in 799,and Fried writes that Charlemagne planned to adopt the title of emperor by 798 \"at the latest.\"During the years before the coronation, Charlemagne's courtierAlcuinreferred to his realm as anImperium Christianum(\"Christian Empire\") in which \"just as the inhabitants of the Roman Empire had been united by a common Roman citizenship\", the new empire would be united by a common Christian faith.This is the view ofHenri Pirenne, who says that \"Charles was the Emperor of theecclesiaas the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church\". The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire remained a significant contemporary power in European politics for Leo and Charlemagne, especially in Italy. The Byzantines continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with their borders not far south of Rome. Empress Irene had seized the throne from her son Constantine VI in 797, deposing and blinding him.Irene, the first Byzantine empress, faced opposition in Constantinople because of her gender and her means of accession.One of the earliest narrative sources for the coronation, theAnnals of Lorsch, presented a female ruler in Constantinople as a vacancy in the imperial title which justified Leo's coronation of Charlemagne.Pirenne disagrees, saying that the coronation \"was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople.\"Leo's main motivations may have been the desire to increase his standing after his political difficulties, placing himself as a power broker and securing Charlemagne as a powerful ally and protector.The Byzantine Empire's lack of ability to influence events in Italy and support the papacy were also important to Leo's position.According to theRoyal Frankish Annals, Leoprostratedhimself before Charlemagne after crowning him (an act of submission standard in Roman coronation rituals from the time ofDiocletian). This account presents Leo not as Charlemagne's superior, but as the agent of the Roman people who acclaimed Charlemagne as emperor. Historian Henry Mayr-Harting claims that the assumption of the imperial title by Charlemagne was an effort to incorporate the Saxons into the Frankish realm, since they did not have a native tradition of kingship.However, Costambeyset al.note inThe Carolingian Worldthat \"since Saxony had not been in the Roman empire it is hard to see on what basis an emperor would have been any more welcomed.\"These authors write that the decision to take the title of emperor was aimed at furthering Charlemagne's influence in Italy, as an appeal to traditional authority recognised by Italian elites within and (especially) outside his control. Collins also writes that becoming emperor gave Charlemagne \"the right to try to impose his rule over the whole of \", considering this a motivation for the coronation.He notes the \"element of political and military risk\"inherent in the affair due to the opposition of the Byzantine Empire and potential opposition from the Frankish elite, as the imperial title could draw him further into Mediterranean politics.Collins sees several of Charlemagne's actions as attempts to ensure that his new title had a distinctly-Frankish context. Charlemagne's coronation led to a centuries-long ideological conflict between his successors and Constantinople known as theproblem of two emperors,which could be seen as a rejection or usurpation of the Byzantine emperors' claim to be the universal, preeminent rulers of Christendom.Historian James Muldoon writes that Charlemagne may have had a more limited view of his role, seeing the title as representing dominion over lands he already ruled.However, the title of emperor gave Charlemagne enhanced prestige and ideological authority.He immediately incorporated his new title into documents he issued, adopting the formula \"Charles, most sereneaugustus, crowned by God, great peaceful emperor governing the Roman empire, and who is by the mercy of God king of the Franks and the Lombards\"instead of the earlier form \"Charles, by the grace of God king of the Franks and Lombards andpatricianof the Romans.\"Leo acclaimed Charlemagne as \"emperor of the Romans\" during the coronation, but Charlemagne never used this title.The avoidance of the specific claim of being a \"Roman emperor\", as opposed to the more-neutral \"emperor governing the Roman empire\", may have been to improve relations with the Byzantines.This formulation (with the continuation of his earlier royal titles) may also represent a view of his role as emperor as being the ruler of the people of the city of Rome, as he was of the Franks and the Lombards. Governing the empire Charlemagne left Italy in the summer of 801 after adjudicating several ecclesiastical disputes in Rome and experiencingan earthquake in Spoleto.He never returned to the city.Continuing trends and a ruling style established in the 790s,Charlemagne's reign from 801 onward is a \"distinct phase\"characterised by more sedentary rule from Aachen.Although conflict continued until the end of his reign, the relative peace of the imperial period allowed for attention on internal governance. The Franks continued to wage war, though these wars were defending and securing the empire's frontiers,and Charlemagne rarely led armies personally.A significant expansion of theSpanish Marchwas achieved with a series of campaigns by Louis against the Emirate of Cordoba, culminating in the801 capture of Barcelona. The 802Capitulare missorum generalewas an expansive piece of legislation, with provisions governing the conduct of royal officials and requiring that all free men take anoath of loyaltyto Charlemagne.Thecapitularyreformed the institution of themissi dominici, officials who would now be assigned in pairs (a cleric and a lay aristocrat) to administer justice and oversee governance in defined territories.The emperor also ordered the revision of the Lombard and Frankish legal codes. In addition to themissi, Charlemagne also ruled parts of the empire with his sons as sub-kings.Although Pepin and Louis had some authority as kings in Italy and Aquitaine, Charlemagne had the ultimate authority and directly intervened.Charles, their elder brother, had been given lands in Neustria in 789 or 790 and made a king in 800. The 806 charterDivisio Regnorum(Division of the Realm) set the terms of Charlemagne's succession.Charles, as his eldest son in good favour, was given the largest share of the inheritance: rule of Francia, Saxony,Nordgau, and parts of Alemannia. The two younger sons were confirmed in their kingdoms and gained additional territories; most of Bavaria and Alemmannia was given to Pepin, and Provence, Septimania, and parts of Burgundy were given to Louis.Charlemagne did not address the inheritance of the imperial title.TheDivisioalso provided that if any of the brothers predeceased Charlemagne, their sons would inherit their share; peace was urged among his descendants. Conflict and diplomacy with the east After his coronation, Charlemagne sought recognition of his imperial title from Constantinople.Several delegations were exchanged between Charlemagne and Irene in 802 and 803. According to the contemporary Byzantine chroniclerThophanes, Charlemagne made an offer of marriage to Irene which she was close to accepting.Irene was deposed and replaced byNikephoros I, who was unwilling to recognise Charlemagne as emperor.The two empires conflicted over control of theAdriatic Sea(especiallyIstriaandVeneto) several times during Nikephoros' reign. Charlemagne sent envoys to Constantinople in 810 to make peace, giving up his claims to Veneto. Nikephoros died in battle before the envoys could leave Constantinople but his son-in-law and successorMichael Iconfirmed the peace, sending his own envoys to Aachen to recognise Charlemagne as emperor.Charlemagne soon issued the first Frankish coins bearing his imperial title, although papal coins minted in Rome had used the title as early as 800. He sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with theAbbasidcaliphHarun al-Rashidduring the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Spanish affairs.As an early sign of friendship, Charlemagne requested an elephant as a gift from Harun. Harun later provided an elephant namedAbul-Abbas, which arrived at Aachen in 802.Harun also sought to undermine Charlemagne's relations with the Byzantines, with whom he was at war. As part of his outreach, Harun gave Charlemagne nominal rule of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchrein Jerusalem and other gifts.According to Einhard, Charlemagne \"zealously strove to make friendships with kings beyond the seas\" in order \"that he might get some help and relief to the Christians living under their rule.\" A surviving administrative document, theBasel roll, shows the work done by his agents in Palestine in furtherance of this goal. Harun's death lead to a succession crisis and, under his successors, churches and synagogues were destroyed in the caliphate.Unable to intervene directly, Charlemagne sent specially-minted coins and arms to the eastern Christians to defend and restore their churches and monasteries. The coins with their inscriptions were also an important tool of imperial propaganda.Johannes Fried writes that deteriorating relations with Baghdad after Harun's death may have been the impetus for renewed negotiations with Constantinople which led to Charlemagne's peace with Michael in 811. As emperor, Charlemagne became involved in a religious dispute between Eastern and Western Christians over the recitation of theNiceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, the fundamental statement of orthodox Christian belief. The original text of the creed, adopted at theCouncil of Constantinople, professed that theHoly Spiritproceeded fromthe Father. A tradition developed in Western Europe that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father \"and theSon\", inserting the Latin termfilioqueinto the creed.The difference did not cause significant conflict until 807, when Frankish monks in Bethlehem were denounced as heretics by a Greek monk for using thefilioqueform.The Frankish monks appealed the dispute to Rome, where Pope Leo affirmed the text of the creed omitting the phrase and passed the report on to Charlemagne.Charlemagne summoned acouncil at Aachen in 809which defended the use offilioque, and sent the decision to Rome. Leo said that the Franks could maintain their tradition, but asserted that the canonical creed did not includefilioque.He commissioned two silver shields with the creed in Latin and Greek (omitting thefilioque), which he hung inSt. Peter's Basilica.Another product of the 809 Aachen council was theHandbook of 809, an illustratedcalendricaland astronomical compendium. Wars with the Danes Scandinaviahad been brought into contact with the Frankish world through Charlemagne's wars with the Saxons.Raids on Charlemagne's lands by theDanesbegan around 800.Charlemagne engaged in his final campaign in Saxony in 804, seizing Saxon territory east of theElbe, removing its Saxon population, and giving the land to hisObotriteallies.The Danish kingGudfred, uneasy at the extension of Frankish power, offered to meet with Charlemagne to arrange peace and (possibly) hand over Saxons who had fled to him;the talks were unsuccessful. The northern frontier was quiet until 808, when Gudfred and some allied Slavic tribes led an incursion into the Obotrite lands and extracted tribute from over half the territory.Charles the Younger led an army across the Elbe in response, but only attacked some of Gudfred's Slavic allies.Gudfred again attempted diplomatic overtures in 809, but no peace was apparently made.Danish pirates raided Frisia in 810, although it is uncertain if they were connected to Gudfred.Charlemagne sent an army to secure Frisia while he led a force against Gudfred, who had reportedly challenged the emperor to face him in battle.The battle never took place, since Gudfred was murdered by two of his own men before Charlemagne's arrival.Gudfred's nephew and successorHemmingimmediately sued for peace, and a commission led by Charlemagne's cousinWalareached a settlement with the Danes in 811.The Danes did not pose a threat for the remainder of Charlemagne's reign, but the effects of this war and their earlier expansion in Saxony helped set the stage for the intenseVikingraids across Europe later in the ninth century. Final years and death The Carolingian dynasty experienced a number of losses in 810 and 811, when Charlemagne's sisterGisela, his daughter Rotrude, and his sons Pepin the Hunchback, Pepin of Italy, and Charles the Younger died.The deaths of Charles and Pepin of Italy left Charlemagne's earlier plans for succession in disarray. He declared Pepin of Italy's sonBernardruler of Italy and made his own only surviving son, Louis, heir to the rest of the empire.Charlemagne also made a newwilldetailing the disposal of his property at his death, with bequests to the church, his children, and his grandchildren.Einhard (possibly relying ontropesfrom Suetonius'sThe Twelve Caesars) says that Charlemagne viewed the deaths of his family members, his fall from a horse, astronomical phenomena, and the collapse of part of the palace in his last years as signs of his impending death.Charlemagne continued to govern with energy during his final year, ordering bishops to assemble in five ecclesiastical councils.These culminated in a large assembly at Aachen, where Charlemagne crowned Louis as his co-emperor and Bernard as king in a ceremony on 11 September 813. Charlemagne became ill in the autumn of 813 and spent his last months praying, fasting, and studying thegospels.He developedpleurisy, and was bedridden for seven days before dying on the morning of 28 January 814.Thegan, a biographer of Louis, records the emperor's last words as \"Into your hands, Lord, I commend my spirit\" (quoting fromLuke 23:46).Charlemagne's body was prepared and buried in thechapel at Aachenby his daughters and palace officials that day.Louis arrived at Aachen thirty days after his father's death, making a formaladventusand taking charge of the palace and the empire.Charlemagne's remains were exhumed by Holy Roman EmperorFrederick Barbarossain 1165, and reinterred in a new casket byFrederick IIin 1215. Legacy Political legacy The stability and peace of Charlemagne's reign did not long outlive him. Louis' reign was marked by strife, including a number of rebellions by his sons. After Louis' death, the empire was divided among his sons intoWest,East, andMiddle Franciaby theTreaty of Verdun.Middle Francia was divided several more times over the course of subsequent generations.Carolingians would rule – with some interruptions – in East Francia (later theKingdom of Germany) until 911,and in West Francia (which would becomeFrance) until 987.After 887, the imperial title was held sporadically by a series of non-dynastic Italian rulersbefore it lapsed in 924.The East Frankish kingOtto the GreatconqueredItaly, and was crowned emperor in 962.By this time, the eastern and western parts of Charlemagne's former empire had already developed distinct languages and cultures.Otto founded (or re-established) theHoly Roman Empire,which would last until itsdissolutionin 1806, during theNapoleonic Wars. According to historian Jennifer Davis, Charlemagne \"invented medieval rulership\" and his influence can be seen at least into the nineteenth century.Charlemagne is often known as \"the father of Europe\" because of the influence of his reign and the legacy he left across the large area of the continent he ruled.The political structures he established remained in place through his Carolingian successors, and continued to exert influence into the eleventh century. Charlemagne was an ancestor of several European ruling houses, including theCapetian dynasty,theOttonian dynasty,theHouse of Luxembourg,and theHouse of Ivrea.The Ottonians and Capetians, direct successors of the Carolingans, drew on the legacy of Charlemagne to bolster their legitimacy and prestige; the Ottonians and their successors held their German coronations in Aachen through the Middle Ages.The marriage ofPhilip II of FrancetoIsabella of Hainault(a direct descendant of Charlemagne) was seen as a sign of increased legitimacy for their son,Louis VIII, and the French kings' association with Charlemagne's legacy was stressed until the monarchy's end.German and French rulers, such as Frederick Barbarossa andNapoleon, cited the influence of Charlemagne and associated themselves with him.In fact, both German and French monarchs considered themselves as successors of Charlemagne, enumerating him as \"Charles I\" in their regnal lists. The city of Aachen has, since 1949, awarded an international prize (theKarlspreisder Stadt Aachen) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to those who promote European unity.Recipients of the prize includeRichard von Coudenhove-Kalergi(founder of the pan-European movement),Alcide De Gasperi, andWinston Churchill. Carolingian Renaissance Contacts with the wider Mediterranean world through Spain and Italy, the influx of foreign scholars at court, and the relative stability and length of Charlemagne's reign led to a cultural revival known as theCarolingian Renaissance.Although the beginnings of this revival can be seen under his predecessors, Charles Martel and Pepin, Charlemagne took an active and direct role in shaping intellectual life which led to the revival's zenith.Charlemagne promoted learning as a matter of policy and direct patronage, with the aim of creating a more effective clergy.TheAdmonitio generalisandEpistola de litteris colendisoutlined his policies and aims for education. Intellectual life at court was dominated by Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Visigothic and Italian scholars, includingDungal of Bobbio, Alcuin of York,Theodulf of Orléans, andPeter of Pisa; Franks such as Einhard andAngelbertalso made substantial contributions.Aside from the intellectual activity at the palace, Charlemagne promoted ecclesiastical schools and publicly funded schools for the children of the elite and future clergy.Students learned basic Latin literacy and grammar, arithmetic, and other subjects of the medieval liberal arts.From their education, it was expected that even rural priests could provide their parishioners with basic instruction in religious matters and (possibly) the literacy required for worship.Latin was standardised and its use brought into territories well beyond the former Roman Empire, forming a second language community of speakers and writers and sustaining Latin creativity in the Middle Ages. Carolingian authors produced extensive works, including legal treatises, histories, poetry, and religious texts.Scriptoriain monasteries and cathedrals focused on copying new and old works, producing an estimated 90,000 manuscripts during the ninth century.TheCarolingian minusculescript was developed and popularised in medieval copying, influencingRenaissanceand modern typefaces.Scholar John J. Contreni considers the educational and learning revival under Charlemagne and his successors \"one of the most durable and resilient elements of the Carolingian legacy\". Memory and historiography Charlemagne was a frequent subject of, and inspiration for, medieval writers after his death. Einhard'sVita Karoli Magni, according to Johannes Fired, \"can be said to have revived the defunct literary genre of the secular biography.\"Einhard drew on classical sources, such as Suetonius'The Twelve Caesars, the orations of Cicero, andTacitus'Agricolato frame his work's structure and style.The Carolingian period also saw a revival of themirrors for princesgenre.The author of the Latin poemVisio Karoli Magni, writtenc.865, uses facts (apparently from Einhard) and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne's family after their civil wars later in the ninth century as the bases of a visionary tale about Charles meeting a prophetic spectre in a dream.Notker'sGesta Karoli Magni, written for Charlemagne's great-grandson Charles the Fat, presents moral anecdotes (exempla) to highlight the emperor's qualities as a ruler. Charlemagne, as a figure of myth and emulation, grew over the centuries; Matthias Becher writes that over 1,000 legends are recorded about him, far outstripping subsequent emperors and kings.Later medieval writers depicted Charlemagne as a crusader and Christian warrior.Charlemagne is the main figure of the medievalliterary cycleknown as theMatter of France. Works in this cycle, which originated during theCrusades, centre on characterizations of the emperor as a leader of Christian knights in wars against Muslims. The cycle includeschansons de geste(epic poems) such as theSong of Rolandand chronicles such as theHistoria Caroli Magni, also known as the(Pseudo-)Turpin Chronicle.Charlemagne was depicted as one of theNine Worthies, a fixture in medieval literature and art as an exemplar of a Christian king.Despite his central role in these legends, authorThomas Bulfinchnoted that \"romancers represent him as often weak and passionate, the victim of treacherous counsellors, and at the mercy of turbulent barons, on whose prowess he depends for the maintenance of his throne.\" Attention to Charlemagne became more scholarly in the early modern period as Eindhard'sVitaand other sources began to be published.Political philosophers debated his legacy;Montesquieuviewed him as the first constitutional monarch and protector of freemen, butVoltairesaw him as a despotic ruler and representative of the medieval period as aDark Age.As early as the sixteenth century, debate between German and French writers began about Charlemagne's \"nationality\".These contrasting portraits—a French Charlemagne versus a GermanKarl der Große—became especially pronounced during the nineteenth century with Napoleon's use of Charlemagne's legacy and the rise of German nationalism.German historiography and popular perception focused on theMassacre of Verden, emphasized with Charlemagne as the \"butcher\" of the Germanic Saxons or downplayed as an unfortunate part of the legacy of a great German ruler.Propaganda in Nazi Germanyinitially portrayed Charlemagne as an enemy of Germany, a French ruler who worked to take away the freedom and native religion of the German people.This quickly shifted asAdolf Hitlerendorsed a portrait of Charlemagne as a great unifier of disparate German tribes into a common nation, allowing Hitler to co-opt Charlemagne's legacy as an ideological model for his expansionist policies. Historiography after World War II focused on Charlemagne as \"the father of Europe\" rather than a nationalistic figure,a view first advanced during the nineteenth century by German romantic philosopherFriedrich Schlegel.This view has led to Charlemagne's adoption as a political symbol ofEuropean integration.Modern historians increasingly place Charlemagne in the context of the wider Mediterranean world, following the work of Henri Pirenne. Religious influence and veneration Charlemagne gave much attention to religious and ecclesiastical affairs, holding 23synodsduring his reign. His synods were called to address specific issues at particular times, but generally dealt with church administration and organization, education of the clergy, and the proper forms of liturgy and worship.Charlemagne used the Christian faith as a unifying factor in the realm and, in turn, worked to impose unity on the church.He implemented an edited version of theDionysio-Hadrianabook ofcanon lawacquired from Pope Adrian, required use of theRule of St. Benedictin monasteries throughout the empire, and promoted a standardised liturgy adapted from therites of the Roman Churchto conform with Frankish practices.Carolingian policies promoting unity did not eliminate the diverse practices throughout the empire, but created a shared ecclesiastical identity—according to Rosamond McKitterick, \"unison, not unity.\" The condition of all his subjects as a \"Christian people\" was an important concern.Charlemagne's policies encouraged preaching to the laity, particularly invernacularlanguages they would understand.He believed it essential to be able to recite theLord's Prayerand theApostles' Creed, and made efforts to ensure that the clergy taught them and other basics of Christian morality. ThomasF.X.Noble writes that the efforts of Charlemagne and his successors to standardise Christian doctrine and practices and harmonise Frankish practices were essential steps in the development of Christianity in Europe, and the Roman Catholic orLatin Church\"as a historical phenomenon, not as a theological or ecclesiological one, is a Carolingian construction.\"He says that the medieval European concept ofChristendomas an overarching community of Western Christians, rather than a collection of local traditions, is the result of Carolingian policies and ideology.Charlemagne's doctrinal policies promoting the use offilioqueand opposing the Second Council of Nicea were key steps in thegrowing divide between Western and Eastern Christianity. EmperorOtto IIattempted to have Charlemagnecanonisedin 1000.In 1165, Frederick Barbarossa persuadedAntipope Paschal IIIto elevate Charlemagne to sainthood.Since Paschal's acts were not considered valid, Charlemagne was not recognised as a saint by theHoly See.Despite this lack of official recognition, hiscultwas observed in Aachen, Reims, Frankfurt, Zurich and Regensburg, and he has been venerated in France since the reign ofCharles V. Charlemagne also drew attention from figures of the ProtestantReformation, withMartin Luthercriticising his apparent subjugation to the papacy by accepting his coronation from Leo.John Calvinand other Protestant thinkers viewed him as a forerunner of the Reformation, however, noting theLibri Carolini'scondemnation of the worship of images and relics and conflicts by Charlemagne and his successors with the temporal power of the popes. Wives, concubines, and children Wives and their children Concubines and their children Charlemagne had at least twenty children with his wives and other partners.After the death of his wife Luitgard in 800, he did not remarry but had children with unmarried partners.He was determined that all his children, including his daughters, should receive an education in the liberal arts. His children were taught in accordance with their aristocratic status, which included training in riding and weaponry for his sons and embroidery, spinning and weaving for his daughters. Rosamond McKitterick writes that Charlemagne exercised \"a remarkable degree of patriarchal control ... over his progeny,\" noting that only a handful of his children and grandchildren were raised outside his court.Pepin of Italy and Louis reigned as kings from childhood and lived at their courts.Careers in the church were arranged for his illegitimate sons.His daughters were resident at court or atChelles Abbey(where Charlemagne's sister was abbess), and those at court may have fulfilled the duties of queen after 800. Louis and Pepin of Italy married and had children during their father's lifetime, and Charlemagne brought Pepin's daughters into his household after Pepin's death.Rotrude had been betrothed to Emperor Constantine VI, but the betrothal was ended.None of Charlemagne's daughters married, although several had children with unmarried partners. Bertha had two sons,Nithardand Hartnid, with Charlemagne's courtierAngilbert; Rotrude had a son namedLouis, possibly with CountRorgon; and Hiltrude had a son named Richbod, possibly with a count named Richwin.TheDivisio Regnorumissued by Charlemagne in 806 provided that his legitimate daughters be allowed to marry or become nuns after his death. Theodrada entered a convent, but the decisions of his other daughters are unknown. Appearance and iconography Einhard gives a first-hand description of Charlemagne's appearance later in life: He was heavily built, sturdy, and of considerable stature, although not exceptionally so, since his height was seven times the length of his own foot. He had a round head, large and lively eyes, a slightly larger nose than usual, white but still attractive hair, a bright and cheerful expression, a short and fat neck, and he enjoyed good health, except for the fevers that affected him in the last few years of his life. Charlemagne's tomb was opened in 1861 by scientists who reconstructed his skeleton and measured it at 1.92 metres (6 ft 4 in) in length, roughly equivalent to Einhard's seven feet.A 2010 estimate of his height from anX-rayandCT scanof histibiawas 1.84 metres (6 ft 0 in); this puts him in the 99thpercentileof height for his period, given that average male height of his time was 1.69 metres (5 ft 7 in). The width of the bone suggested that he was slim. Charlemagne wore his hair short, abandoning the Merovingian tradition of long-haired monarchs.He had a moustache (possibly imitating the Ostrogothic kingTheoderic the Great), in contrast with the bearded Merovingian kings;future Carolingian monarchs would adopt this style.Paul Dutton notes the ubiquitous crown in portraits of Charlemagne and other Carolingian rulers, replacing the earlier Merovingian long hair.A ninth-century statuette depicts Charlemagne or his grandson,Charles the Baldand shows the subject as moustachioed with short hair;this also appears on contemporary coinage. By the twelfth century, Charlemagne was described as bearded rather than moustachioed in literary sources such as theSong of Roland, thePseudo-Turpin Chronicle, and other works in Latin, French, and German.ThePseudo-Turpinuniquely says that his hair was brown.Later art and iconography of Charlemagne followed suit, generally depicting him in a later medieval style as bearded with longer hair. Notes References Citations Works cited Further reading Primary sources in English translation Secondary works External links", "List of popes This chronological list ofpopesof theCatholic Churchcorresponds to that given in theAnnuario Pontificiounder the heading \"I Sommi Pontefici Romani\" (The Roman Supreme Pontiffs), excluding those that are explicitly indicated asantipopes. Published every year by theRoman Curia, theAnnuario Pontificiono longeridentifies popes by regnal number, stating that it is impossible to decide which pope represented the legitimate succession at various times.The 2001 edition of theAnnuario Pontificiointroduced \"almost 200 corrections to its existing biographies of the popes, from St Peter to John Paul II\". The corrections concerned dates, especially in the first two centuries, birthplaces and the family name of one pope. The termpope(Latin:papa,lit.'father') is used in several churches to denote their high spiritual leaders (for exampleCoptic pope). This title in English usage usually refers to the head of the Catholic Church. The Catholic pope uses various titles by tradition, includingSummus Pontifex,Pontifex Maximus, andServus servorum Dei. Each title has been added by unique historical events and unlike other papal prerogatives, is not incapable of modification. Hermannus Contractusmay have been the first historian to number the popes continuously. His list ends in 1049 withLeo IXas number 154. Several changes were made to the list during the 20th century.Christopherwas considered a legitimate pope for a long time but was removed due to how he obtained the papacy.Pope-elect Stephenwas listed as Stephen II until the 1961 edition, when his name was removed. The decisions of theCouncil of Pisa(1409) were reversed in 1963 in a reinterpretation of theWestern Schism, extendingGregory XII's pontificate to 1415 and classifying rival claimantsAlexander VandJohn XXIIIas antipopes. A significant number of these popes have been recognized assaints, including 48 out of the first 50 consecutive popes, and others are in the sainthood process. Of the first 31 popes, 28 died as martyrs. Chronological list of popes 1st millennium 1st century The chronology of the early popes is heavily disputed. The first ancient lists of popes were not written until the late 2nd century, after the monarchical episcopate had already developed in Rome. These first lists combined contradictory traditions, and even the succession of the first popes is disputed. The first certain dates are AD 222 and 235, the elections ofUrban IandLiberius. The years given for the first 30 popes follow the work ofRichard Adelbert Lipsius, which often show a 3-year difference with the traditional dates given byEusebius of Caesarea.These are also the dates used by theCatholic Encyclopedia. 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 2nd millennium 11th century 12th century 13th century 14th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Member of theDominican Order. Reverted Boniface VIII'sUnam Sanctam. 15th century 16th century Julius II was described by Machiavelli in his works as the ideal prince. Pope Julius II allowed people seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church which would be used for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. Born as a subject of theBishopric of Utrecht. The only Dutch pope; last non-Italian to be elected pope untilJohn Paul IIin 1978. Tutor ofEmperor Charles V. Came to the papacy in the midst of one of its greatest crises, threatened not only by Lutheranism to the north but also by the advance of the Ottoman Turks to the east. He refused to compromise with Lutheranism theologically, demanding Luther's condemnation as a heretic. However, he is noted for having attempted to reform the Catholic Church administratively in response to the Protestant Reformation. Adrian's remarkable admission that the turmoil of the Church was the fault of the Roman Curia itself was read at the 1522–1523 Diet of Nuremberg. His efforts at reform, however, proved fruitless, as they were resisted by most of his Renaissance ecclesiastical contemporaries, and he did not live long enough to see his efforts through to their conclusion. Citizen of theRepublic of Florence. Cousin of Leo X. Romesackedby imperial troops (1527). Forbade the divorce ofHenry VIII; crowned Charles V as emperor atBologna(1530). Commissioned Michelangelo's painting ofThe Last Judgmentin the Sistine Chapel (1533). ApprovedCopernicus'heliocentric universe theory(1533). However Copernicus made very few astronomical observations and based his new model squarely on his mathematical calculations. Natural philosophers of that time (professionals who began to be called scientists only in the 19th century) noted that if the earth rotated there would be observable Coriolis effects. Secondly, a revolving earth would imply a stellar parallax. Given that neither of these effects were observed at the time (would be observed decades later) , Copernicus' model still did not prove heliocentrism. Thenieceof the pope was married to the futureHenry II of France(1533). Recognized theOrder of Friars Minor Capuchin(Capuchins). Born as a subject of theKingdom of Naples. Member of theTheatines. Established theRoman GhettoinCum Nimis Absurdum(1555) and established theIndex of Forbidden Books. Ordered Michelangelo to repaint the nudes ofThe Last Judgmentmodestly. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Member of theDominican Order. Excommunicated QueenElizabeth I of England(1570).Battle of Lepanto(1571); instituted the feast ofOur Lady of Victory. Issued the1570 Roman Missal. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States.Reformed the calendar(1582); built the Gregorian Chapel in the Vatican. The first pope to bestow theImmaculate Conceptionas patroness to the Philippine Islands through the bullIlius Fulti Præsido(1579). Strengthened diplomatic ties with Asian nations. 17th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Known for various building projects which included the facade ofSt Peter's Basilica. Established theBank of the Holy Spirit(1605); restored theAqua Traiana. During his pontificateGalileo's scientific contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those ofAristotleandPtolemyand closely associated with the Catholic Church at that time. Not all Catholic priests at the time were against Galileo's discoveries.Christoph Grienberger, one of the Jesuit scholars, was sympathetic to Galileo's theories, but was invited to defend the Aristotelian point of view byClaudio Acquaviva, the Jesuits' Father General. Not all scientists at the time supported Galileo. Opposition fromTycho Braheand others arose from the fact that, if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, although no such evidence existed at the time. (Only in 1838 wasFriedrich Besselable to accurately observe it.) Galileo's arguments – based on sunspots and the action of tides – were flawed and were refuted and rejected by other scholars at the time. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. The great-great-great-grandson ofAlexander VI. Erected theFontana dei Quattro FiumiinPiazza Navona. Promulgated the apostolic constitutionCum occasione(1653) which condemned five doctrines ofJansenismasheresy. Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Mediated in thepeace of Aachen(1668). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Canonized the first saint from the Americas: St.Rose of Lima(1671). Decorated the bridge of Sant' Angelo with the ten statues of angels and added one of the two fountains that adorn the piazza of St. Peter's. Established regulations for the removal of relics of saints from cemeteries. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Condemned thedoctrine of mental reservation(1679) and initiated theHoly League. Extended theHoly Name of Maryas a universal feast (1684). Admired for positive contributions to catechesis. During his pontificateIsaac Newtonpublished thePhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation. 18th century Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Completed the new façade of theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran(1735). Commissioned theTrevi Fountainin Rome (1732). CondemnedFreemasonryinIn eminenti apostolatus(1738). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Reformed the education ofpriestsand thecalendar of feasts. Completed theTrevi Fountainand affirmed the teachings ofThomas Aquinas; founded academies of art, religion and science. Authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of theDialogue. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Condemned theFrench Revolution; expelled from the Papal States by French troops from 1798 until his death. The last pope to be a patron ofRenaissanceart. During his pontificate, the astronomerWilliam Herschel, studying the movement of stars, was the first to realize that theSolar Systemis moving in space, and determined the approximate direction of movement. Also discovered that theMilky Way(which in the late 18th century was believed to be the entire Universe) is flat, disk-shaped and with the Sun at its center (assertion discovered to be wrong decades later, because today it is known that the Sun is not located in theGalactic Center). 19th century During his pontificate, Augustinian friarGregor Mendelpublished theExperiments on Plant HybridizationandCharles DarwinpublishedOn the Origin of Species. At the time, no high-level Church pronouncement attacked head-on the theory of evolution as applied to non-human species. Even before the development of thescientific method, Catholic theology had allowed for biblical texts to be read as allegorical rather than literal where they appeared to contradict that which could be established by science or reason. Thus, Catholicism has been able to refine its understanding of scripture in light of scientific discoveries. First Pope to befilmed by a motion picture cameraand the first pope with voice recorded. 20th century Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Encouraged and expanded reception of the Eucharist. CombattedModernism; issued theoath against it. Advocated theGregorian Chantandreformed the Roman Breviary. Born as a subject of theKingdom of Sardinia, later became an Italian citizen. Credited for intervening for peace during World War I. Issued the1917 Code of Canon Law; supported the missionaries inMaximum illud. Remembered byBenedict XVIas a \"prophet of peace\". Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Signed theLateran Treatywith Italy (1929) establishingVatican Cityas a sovereign state. InauguratedVatican Radio(1931). Re-founded thePontifical Academy of Sciences(1936). Created the feast ofChrist the King. OpposedCommunismandNazism. Italian citizen. Invoked papal infallibility in the encyclicalMunificentissimus Deus; defined the dogma of theAssumption. Eliminated the Italian majority ofcardinals. Credited with intervening for peace duringWorld War II; controversial forhis reactionsto theHolocaust. Published theHumani generis, the first encyclical to specifically refer to evolution and took up a neutral position, concentrating on human evolution: \"The Church does not forbid that ... research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter.\" Italian citizen. Opened theSecond Vatican Council; called \"Good Pope John\". Issued the encyclicalPacem in terris(1963) on peace and nuclear disarmament; intervened for peace during theCuban Missile Crisis(1962). Italian citizen. Last pope to becrowned. First pope since 1809 to travel outside Italy. Closed theSecond Vatican Council. Issued the encyclicalHumanae vitae(1968) condemning artificial contraception.RevisedtheRoman Missal(1969). Italian citizen. Abolished the coronation and opted for thepapal inauguration. First pope to use 'the First' in papal name; first with two names for two immediate predecessors. Last pope to use thesedia gestatoria. Polish citizen, first pope of Slavic origin. First non-Italian pope sinceAdrian VI(1522–1523). Travelled extensively,visiting 129 countriesduring his pontificate. Second-longest reign afterPius IX. FoundedWorld Youth Day(1984) and thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences(1994). Canonized more saints than all his predecessors. Youngest individual to start his papacy since Pius IX (1846). 3rd millennium 21st century German citizen. Oldest to become pope sinceClement XII(1730).ElevatedtheTridentine Massto a more prominent position and promoted the use ofLatin; re-introduced several disused papal garments. Authorized the creation ofAnglican ordinariates(2009). First pope torenounce the papacyon his own initiative sinceCelestine V(1294),becomingpope emeritus.Longest-lived pope on record.Died on 31 December 2022, in Vatican. Argentine citizen. First pope to be born outside Europe sinceGregory III(731–741) and the first from the Americas; first pope from the Southern Hemisphere. First pope from areligious institutesinceGregory XVI(1831–1846); firstJesuitpope. First to use a new and non-composed regnal name sinceLando(913–914). First pope to visit and celebrate a mass on theArabian Peninsula. Religious orders 51 popes and 6antipopes(in italics) have been members ofreligious orders, including 12 members ofthird orders. They are listed by order as follows: Numbering of popes Regnal numbersfollow the usual convention for European monarchs. The first pope who chooses a unique name is not usually identified by an ordinal,John Paul Ibeing the exception. Antipopes are treated aspretenders, and their numbers are reused by those considered to be legitimate popes. However, there are anomalies in the numbering of the popes. Several numbers were mistakenly increased in the Middle Ages because the records were misunderstood. Several antipopes were also kept in the sequence, either by mistake or because they were previously considered to be true popes. See also Lists Notes References Sources External links" ]
[ "Charlemagne Page version status This is an accepted version of this page Charlemagne(/ˈʃɑːrləmeɪn,ˌʃɑːrləˈmeɪn/SHAR-lə-mayn, -⁠MAYN; 2 April 748– 28 January 814) wasKing of the Franksfrom 768,King of the Lombardsfrom 774, andEmperorof what is now known as theCarolingian Empirefrom 800, holding these titles until his death in 814. He united most ofWesternandCentral Europe, and was the first recognised emperor to rule from the west after thefall of the Western Roman Empireapproximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's reign was marked by political and social changes that had lasting influence on Europe throughout theMiddle Ages. A member of the FrankishCarolingian dynasty, Charlemagne was the eldest son ofPepin the ShortandBertrada of Laon. With his brother,Carloman I, he became king of the Franks in 768 following Pepin's death and became the sole ruler three years later. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of protecting the papacy and became its chief defender, removing theLombardsfrom power", "power innorthern Italyin 774. His reign saw a period of expansion that led to the conquests ofBavaria,Saxonyandnorthern Spain, as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to extend his rule over a large part of Europe. Charlemagne spread Christianity to his new conquests (often by force), as seen at theMassacre of Verdenagainst theSaxons. He also sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with theAbbasid caliphHarun al-Rashidin the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Iberian affairs. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome byPope Leo III. Although historians debate the coronation's significance, the title represented the height of his prestige and authority. Charlemagne's position as the first emperor in the West in over 300 years brought him into conflict with theEastern Roman EmpireinConstantinople. Through his assumption of the imperial title, he is considered the forerunner to the line ofHoly Roman Emperors, which persisted into the nineteenth century. As king and emperor, Charlemagne", "Charlemagne engaged in a number of reforms in administration, law, education, military organization, and religion, which shaped Europe for centuries. The stability of his reign began a period of cultural activity known as theCarolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne died in 814 and was laid to rest atAachen CathedralinAachen, his imperial capital city. He was succeeded by his only surviving legitimate son,Louis the Pious. After Louis, the Frankish kingdom was divided and eventually coalesced intoWestandEast Francia, which later becameFranceandGermany, respectively. Charlemagne's profound influence on the Middle Ages and influence on the territory he ruled has led him to be called the \"Father of Europe\" by many historians. He is seen as a founding figure by multiple European states and a number of historical royal houses of Europe trace their lineage back to him. Charlemagne has been the subject of artworks, monuments and literature during and after the medieval period and isveneratedby theCatholic Church. Name", "Church. Name Several languages were spoken in Charlemagne's world, and he was known to contemporaries asKarlusin theOld High Germanhe spoke; asKarlotoEarly Old French(orProto-Romance) speakers; and asCarolus(orKarolus)inMedieval Latin, the formal language of writing and diplomacy.Charlesis the modern English form of these names. The nameCharlemagne, as the emperor is normally known in English, comes from the FrenchCharles-le-magne('Charles the Great').In modern German, he is known asKarl der Große.The Latinepithetmagnus('great') may have been associated with him during his lifetime, but this is not certain. The contemporaryRoyal Frankish Annalsroutinely call himCarolus magnus rex(\"Charles the great king\").That epithet is attested in the works of thePoeta Saxoaround 900, and it had become commonly applied to him by 1000. Charlemagne was named after his grandfather,Charles Martel.That name, and its derivatives, are unattested before their use by Charles Martel and Charlemagne.Karoluswas adapted by Slavic", "adapted by Slavic languages as their word for \"king\" (Russian:korol',Polish:królandSlovak:král) through Charlemagne's influence or that of his great-grandson,Charles the Fat. Early life and rise to power Political background and ancestry By the sixth century, the westernGermanictribe of theFrankshad beenChristianised; this was due in considerable measure to the conversion of their king,Clovis I, to Catholicism.The Franks had established a kingdom inGaulin the wake of theFall of the Western Roman Empire.This kingdom,Francia, grew to encompass nearly all of present-day France and Switzerland, along with parts of modern Germany and theLow Countriesunder the rule of theMerovingian dynasty.Francia was often divided under different Merovingian kings, due to thepartible inheritancepractised by the Franks.The late seventh century saw a period of war and instability following the murder of KingChilderic II, which led to factional struggles among the Frankish aristocrats. Pepin of Herstal,mayor of the", "of the palaceofAustrasia, ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his 687 victory at theBattle of Tertry.Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of Austrasia:Arnulf of MetzandPepin of Landen.The mayors of the palace had gained influence as the Merovingian kings' power waned due to divisions of the kingdom and several succession crises.Pepin was eventually succeeded by his son Charles, later known as Charles Martel.Charles did not support a Merovingian successor upon the death of KingTheuderic IVin 737, leaving the throne vacant.He made plans to divide the kingdom between his sons,CarlomanandPepin the Short, who succeeded him after his death in 741.The brothers placed the MerovingianChilderic IIIon the throne in 743.Pepin marriedBertrada, a member of an influential Austrasian noble family, in 744.In 747, Carloman abdicated and entered a monastery in Rome. He had at least two sons; the elder,Drogo, took his place. Birth Charlemagne's year of birth is uncertain, although it was most", "it was most likely in 748.An older tradition based on three sources, however, gives a birth year of 742. The ninth-century biographerEinhardreports Charlemagne as being 72 years old at the time of his death; theRoyal Frankish Annalsimprecisely gives his age at death as about 71, and his original epitaph called him a septuagenarian.Einhard said that he did not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing the emperor's true age, he still sought to present an exact date in keeping with the Roman imperial biographies ofSuetoniuswhich he used as a model.All three sources may have been influenced byPsalm 90: \"The days of our years are threescore years and ten\". HistorianKarl Ferdinand Wernerchallenged the acceptance of 742 as the Frankish king's birth year, citing an addition to theAnnales Petavianiwhich records Charlemagne's birth in 747.Lorsch Abbeycommemorated Charlemagne's date of birth as 2 April from the mid-ninth century, and this date is likely to be", "is likely to be genuine.Matthias Becher built on Werner's work and showed that 2 April in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since the annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than 1 January.Presently, most scholars accept April 748 for Charlemagne's birth.Charlemagne's place of birth is unknown. The Frankish palaces inVaires-sur-MarneandQuierzyare among the places suggested by scholars.Pepin the Short held an assembly inDürenin 748, but it cannot be proved that it took place in April or if Bertrada was with him. Language and education Einhard refers to Charlemagne'spatrius sermo(\"native tongue\").Most scholars have identified this as a form ofOld High German, probably aRhenish Franconiandialect.Due to the prevalence in Francia of \"rustic Roman\", he was probably functionally bilingual in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age.Charlemagne also spoke Latin and, according to Einhard, could understand and (perhaps) speak some Greek. Charlemagne's father Pepin had been", "Pepin had been educated at the abbey ofSaint-Denis, although the extent of Charlemagne's formal education is unknown.He almost certainly was trained in military matters as a youth in Pepin's court,which wasitinerant.Charlemagne also asserted his own education in theliberal artsin encouraging their study by his children and others, although it is unknown whether his study was as a child or at court during his later life.The question of Charlemagne's literacy is debated, with little direct evidence from contemporary sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him and dictated responses and decrees, but this was not unusual even for a literate ruler at the time.HistorianJohannes Friedconsiders it likely that Charlemagne would have been able to read,but the medievalist Paul Dutton writes that \"the evidence for his ability to read is circumstantial and inferential at best\"and concludes that it is likely that he never properly mastered the skill.Einhard makes no direct mention of Charlemagne reading, and recorded", "and recorded that he only attempted to learn to write later in life. Accession and reign with Carloman There are only occasional references to Charlemagne in the Frankishannalsduring his father's lifetime.By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him as king.Early Carolingian-influenced sources claim that Pepin's seizure of the throne was sanctioned beforehand byPope Stephen II,but modern historians dispute this.It is possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled to Francia in 754 (apparently to request Pepin's aid against the Lombards), and on this tripanointedPepin as king; this legitimised his rule.Charlemagne was sent to greet and escort the Pope, and he and his younger brotherCarlomanwere anointed with their father.Pepin sidelined Drogo around the same time, sending him and his brother to a monastery. Charlemagne began issuing charters in his own name in 760. The following year, he joined his father's campaign againstAquitaine.Aquitaine, led by DukesHunaldandWaiofar, was", "was constantly in rebellion during Pepin's reign.Pepin fell ill on campaign there and died on 24 September 768, and Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father.They had separate coronations, Charlemagne atNoyonand Carloman atSoissons, on 9 October.The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, although they were considered joint rulers of a single Frankish kingdom.TheRoyal Frankish Annalsreport that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia and Carloman ruledBurgundy,Provence, Aquitaine, andAlamannia, with no mention made of which brother received Neustria.The immediate concern of the brothers was the ongoing uprising in Aquitaine.They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for unknown reasons and Charlemagne completed the campaign on his own.Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald marked the end of ten years of war that had been waged in the attempt to bring Aquitaine into line. Carloman's refusal to participate in the war against Aquitaine led to a rift between the", "a rift between the kings.It is uncertain why Carloman abandoned the campaign; the brothers may have disagreed about control of the territory,or Carloman was focused on securing his rule in the north of Francia.Regardless of the strife between the kings, they maintained a joint rule for practical reasons.Charlemagne and Carloman worked to obtain the support of the clergy and local elites to solidify their positions. Pope Stephen IIIwas elected in 768, but was briefly deposed byAntipope Constantine IIbefore being restored to Rome.Stephen's papacy experienced continuing factional struggles, so he sought support from the Frankish kings.Both brothers sent troops to Rome, each hoping to exert his own influence.The Lombard kingDesideriusalso had interests in Roman affairs, and Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally.Desiderius already had alliances withBavariaandBeneventothrough the marriages of his daughters to their dukes,and an alliance with Charlemagne would add to his influence.Charlemagne's mother,", "mother, Bertrada, went on his behalf to Lombardy in 770 and brokered a marriage alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride.Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known asDesiderata, although she may have been named Gerperga.Anxious about the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent a letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and separately sought closer ties with Carloman. Charlemagne had already had a relationship with the Frankish noblewomanHimiltrude, and they had a son in 769 namedPepin.Paul the Deaconwrote in his 784Gesta Episcoporum Mettensiumthat Pepin was born \"before legal marriage\", but does not say whether Charles and Himiltrude ever married, were joined in a non-canonical marriage (friedelehe), or married after Pepin was born.Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship as a legitimate marriage, but he had a vested interest in preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter. Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne sole", "Charlemagne sole king of the Franks.He moved immediately to secure his hold on his brother's territory, forcing Carloman's widowGerbergato flee to Desiderius's court in Lombardy with their children.Charlemagne ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and marriedHildegard, daughter of countGerold, a powerful magnate in Carloman's kingdom.This was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's familyand a move to secure Gerold's support. King of the Franks and the Lombards Annexation of the Lombard Kingdom Charlemagne's first campaigning season as sole king of the Franks was spent on the eastern frontier in his firstwar against the Saxons, who had been engaging in border raids on the Frankish kingdom when Charlemagne responded by destroying the paganIrminsulatEresburgand seizing their gold and silver.The success of the war helped secure Charlemagne's reputation among his brother's former supporters and funded further military action.The campaign was the beginning of over thirty years of", "thirty years of nearly-continuous warfare against the Saxons by Charlemagne. Pope Adrian Isucceeded Stephen III in 772, and sought the return of papal control of cities that had been captured by Desiderius.Unsuccessful in dealing with the Lombard king directly, Adrian sent emissaries to Charlemagne to gain his support for recovering papal territory. Charlemagne, in response to this appeal and the dynastic threat of Carloman's sons in the Lombard court, gathered his forces to intervene.He first sought a diplomatic solution, offering gold to Desiderius in exchange for the return of the papal territories and his nephews.This overture was rejected, and Charlemagne's army (commanded by himself and his uncle,Bernard) crossed the Alps tobesiegethe Lombard capital ofPaviain late 773. Charlemagne's second son (also namedCharles) was born in 772, and Charlemagne brought the child and his wife to the camp at Pavia. Hildegard was pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter named Adelhaid. The baby was sent back to Francia,", "back to Francia, but died on the way.Charlemagne left Bernard to maintain the siege at Pavia while he took a force to capture Verona, where Desiderius's sonAdalgishad taken Carloman's sons.Charlemagne captured the city; no further record exists of his nephews or of Carloman's wife, and their fate is unknown.Recent biographer,Janet Nelsoncompares them to thePrinces in the Towerin theWars of the Roses.Fried suggests that the boys were forced into a monastery (a common solution of dynastic issues), or \"an act of murder smooth Charlemagne's ascent to power.\"Adalgis was not captured by Charlemagne, and fled to Constantinople. Charlemagne left the siege in April 774 to celebrate Easter in Rome.Pope Adrian arranged a formal welcome for the Frankish king, and they swore oaths to each other over the relics of St. Peter.Adrian presented a copy of theagreement between Pepin and Stephen IIIoutlining the papal lands and rights Pepin had agreed to protect and restore.It is unclear which lands and rights the agreement", "the agreement involved, which remained a point of dispute for centuries.Charlemagne placed a copy of the agreement in the chapel above St. Peter's tomb as a symbol of his commitment, and left Rome to continue the siege. Disease struck the Lombards shortly after his return to Pavia, and they surrendered the city by June 774.Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and took the title of King of the Lombards.The takeover of one kingdom by another was \"extraordinary\",and the authors ofThe Carolingian Worldcall it \"without parallel\".Charlemagne secured the support of the Lombard nobles and Italian urban elites to seize power in a mainly-peaceful annexation.HistorianRosamond McKittericksuggests that the elective nature of the Lombard monarchy eased Charlemagne's takeover,andRoger Collinsattributes the easy conquest to the Lombard elite's \"presupposition that rightful authority was in the hands of the one powerful enough to seize it\".Charlemagne soon returned to Francia with the Lombard royal treasury and with Desiderius and", "with Desiderius and his family, who would be confined to a monastery for the rest of their lives. Frontier wars in Saxony and Spain The Saxons took advantage of Charlemagne's absence in Italy to raid the Frankish borderlands, leading to a Frankish counter-raid in the autumn of 774 and a reprisal campaign the following year.Charlemagne was soon drawn back to Italy as DukeHrodgaud of Friulirebelled against him.He quickly crushed the rebellion, distributing Hrodgaud's lands to the Franks to consolidate his rule in Lombardy.Charlemagne wintered in Italy, consolidating his power by issuing charters and legislation and taking Lombard hostages.Amid the 775 Saxon andFriuliancampaigns, his daughterRotrudewas born in Francia. Returning north, Charlemagne waged another brief, destructive campaign against the Saxons in 776.This led to the submission of many Saxons, who turned over captives and lands and submitted tobaptism.In 777, Charlemagne held an assembly atPaderbornwith Frankish and Saxon men; many more Saxons came", "more Saxons came under his rule, but the Saxon magnateWidukindfled to Denmark to prepare for a new rebellion. Also at the Paderborn assembly were representatives of dissident factions fromal-Andalus(Muslim Spain). They included the son and son-in-law ofYusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, the former governor ofCórdobaousted by CaliphAbd al-Rahmanin 756, who sought Charlemagne's support for al-Fihri's restoration. Also present wasSulayman al-Arabi, governor of Barcelona and Girona, who wanted to become part of the Frankish kingdom and receive Charlemagne's protection rather than remain under the rule of Córdoba.Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity to strengthen the security of the kingdom's southern frontier and extend his influence, agreed to intervene.Crossing the Pyrenees, his army found little resistance until an ambush byBasqueforces in 778 at theBattle of Roncevaux Pass. The Franks, defeated in the battle, withdrew with most of their army intact. Building the dynasty Charlemagne returned to Francia to greet", "to Francia to greet his newborn twin sons,Louisand Lothair, who were born while he was in Spain;Lothair died in infancy.Again, Saxons had seized on the king's absence to raid. Charlemagne sent an army to Saxony in 779while he held assemblies, legislated, and addressed a famine in Francia.Hildegard gave birth to another daughter,Bertha.Charlemagne returned to Saxony in 780, holding assemblies at which he received hostages from Saxon nobles and oversaw their baptism. He and Hildegard traveled with their four younger children to Rome in the spring of 781, leaving Pepin and Charles atWorms, to make a journey first requested by Adrian in 775.Adrian baptised Carloman and renamed him Pepin, a name he shared with his half-brother.Louis and the newly renamed Pepin were then anointed and crowned. Pepin was appointed king of the Lombards, and Louis king of Aquitaine.This act was not nominal, since the young kings were sent to live in their kingdoms under the care of regents and advisers.A delegation from theByzantine", "from theByzantine Empire, the remnant of the Roman Empire in the East, met Charlemagne during his stay in Rome; Charlemagne agreed to betroth his daughter Rotrude toEmpress Irene's son, EmperorConstantine VI. Hildegard gave birth to her eighth child,Gisela, during this trip to Italy.After the royal family's return to Francia, she had her final pregnancy and died from its complications on 30 April 783. The child, named after her, died shortly thereafter.Charlemagne commissioned epitaphs for his wife and daughter, and arranged for aMassto be said daily at Hildegard's tomb.Charlemagne's mother Bertrada died shortly after Hildegard, on 12 July 783.Charlemagne was remarried toFastrada, daughter of the East Frankish count Radolf, by the end of the year. Saxon resistance and reprisal In summer 782, Widukind returned from Denmark to attack the Frankish positions in Saxony.He defeated a Frankish army, possibly due to rivalry among the Frankish counts leading it.Charlemagne came toVerdenafter learning of the defeat,", "of the defeat, but Widukind fled before his arrival. Charlemagne summoned the Saxon magnates to an assembly and compelled them to turn prisoners over to him, since he regarded their previous acts as treachery. The annals record that Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded in themassacre of Verden.Fried writes, \"Although this figure may be exaggerated, the basic truth of the event is not in doubt\",andAlessandro Barberocalls it \"perhaps the greatest stain on his reputation.\"Charlemagne issued theCapitulatio de partibus Saxoniae, probably in the immediate aftermath of (or as a precursor of) the massacre.With a harsh set of laws which included the death penalty for pagan practices, theCapitulatio\"constituted a program for the forcedconversion of the Saxons\"and was \"aimed ... at suppressing Saxon identity\". Charlemagne's focus for the next several years would be on his attempt to complete the subjugation of the Saxons. Concentrating first inWestphaliain 783, he pushed intoThuringiain 784 as his sonCharles", "as his sonCharles the Youngercontinued operations in the west. At each stage of the campaigns, the Frankish armies seized wealth and carried Saxon captives into slavery.Unusually, Charlemagne campaigned through the winter instead of resting his army.By 785, he had suppressed the Saxon resistance and completely commanded Westphalia. That summer, he met Widukind and persuaded him to end his resistance. Widukind agreed to be baptised with Charlemagne as his godfather, ending this phase of theSaxon Wars. Benevento, Bavaria, and Pepin's revolt Charlemagne travelled to Italy in 786, arriving by Christmas. Aiming to extend his influence further into southern Italy, he marched into the Duchy of Benevento.Duke Arechisfled to a fortified position atSalernobefore offering Charlemagne his fealty. Charlemagne accepted his submission and hostages, who included Arechis's sonGrimoald.In Italy, Charlemagne also met with envoys from Constantinople. Empress Irene had called the 787Second Council of Nicaea, but did not inform", "but did not inform Charlemagne or invite any Frankish bishops. Charlemagne, probably in reaction to the perceived slight of the exclusion, broke the betrothal of his daughter Rotrude and Constantine VI. After Charlemagne left Italy, Arechis sent envoys to Irene to offer an alliance; he suggested that she send a Byzantine army with Adalgis, the exiled son of Desiderus, to remove the Franks from power in Lombardy.Before his plans could be finalised, Aldechis and his elder son Romuald died of illness within weeks of each other.Charlemagne sent Grimoald back to Benevento to serve as duke and return it to Frankish suzerainty.The Byzantine armyinvaded, but were repulsed by the Frankish and Lombard forces. As affairs were being settled in Italy, Charlemagne turned his attention to Bavaria. Bavaria was ruled by DukeTassilo, Charlemagne's first cousin, who had been installed by Pepin the Short in 748.Tassilo's sons were also grandsons of Desiderius, and a potential threat to Charlemagne's rule in Lombardy.The", "in Lombardy.The neighbouring rulers had a growing rivalry throughout their reigns, but had sworn oaths of peace to each other in 781.In 784, Rotpert (Charlemagne's viceroy in Italy) accused Tassilo of conspiring with Widukind in Saxony and unsuccessfully attacked the Bavarian city ofBolzano.Charlemagne gathered his forces to prepare for an invasion of Bavaria in 787. Dividing the army, the Franks launched a three-pronged attack. Quickly realizing his poor position, Tassilo agreed to surrender and recognise Charlemagne as his overlord.The following year, Tassilo was accused of plotting with theAvarsto attack Charlemagne. He was deposed and sent to a monastery, and Charlemagne absorbed Bavaria into his kingdom.Charlemagne spent the next few years based inRegensburg, largely focused on consolidating his rule of Bavaria andwarring againstthe Avars.Successful campaigns against them were launched from Bavaria and Italy in 788,and Charlemagne led campaigns in 791 and 792. Charlemagne gave Charles the Younger rule", "the Younger rule ofMainein Neustria in 789, leaving Pepin the Hunchback his only son without lands.His relationship with Himiltrude was now apparently seen as illegitimate at his court, and Pepin was sidelined from the succession.In 792, as his father and brothers were gathered in Regensburg, Pepin conspired with Bavarian nobles to assassinate them and install himself as king. The plot was discovered and revealed to Charlemagne before it could proceed; Pepin was sent to a monastery, and many of his co-conspirators were executed. The early 790s saw a marked focus on ecclesiastical affairs by Charlemagne. He summoned a council in Regensburg in 792 to address the theological controversy over theadoptionismdoctrine in the Spanish church and formulate a response to the Second Council of Nicea.The council condemned adoptionism asheresyand led to the production of theLibri Carolini, a detailed argument against Nicea's canons.In 794, Charlemagne called anothercouncil in Frankfurt.The council confirmed Regensburg's", "Regensburg's positions on adoptionism and Nicea, recognised the deposition of Tassilo, set grain prices, reformed Frankish coinage, forbade abbesses from blessing men, and endorsed prayer in vernacular languages.Soon after the council, Fastrada fell ill and died;Charlemagne married the Alamannian noblewomanLuitgardshortly afterwards. Continued wars with the Saxons and Avars Charlemagne gathered an army after the council of Frankfurt as Saxon resistance continued, beginning a series of annual campaigns which lasted through 799.The campaigns of the 790s were even more destructive than those of earlier decades, with the annal writers frequently noting Charlemagne \"burning\", \"ravaging\", \"devastating\", and \"laying waste\" the Saxon lands.Charlemagne forcibly removed a large number of Saxons to Francia, installing Frankish elites and soldiers in their place.His extended wars in Saxony led to his establishing his court inAachen, which had easy access to the frontier. He built a largepalacethere, including a chapel", "including a chapel which is now part of theAachen Cathedral.Einhard joined the court at that time.Pepin of Italy(Carloman) engaged in further wars against the Avars in the south, which led to the collapse of their kingdom and the eastward expansion of Frankish rule. Charlemagne also worked to expand his influence through diplomatic means during the 790s wars, focusing on the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain. Charles the Younger proposed a marriage pact with the daughter of KingOffa of Mercia, but Offa insisted that Charlemagne's daughter Bertha also be given as a bride for his son.Charlemagne refused the arrangement, and the marriage did not take place.Charlemagne and Offa entered into a formal peace in 796, protecting trade and securing the rights of English pilgrims to pass through Francia on their way to Rome.Charlemagne was also the host and protector of several deposed English rulers who were later restored:Eadbehrt of Kent,Ecgberht, King of Wessex, andEardwulf of Northumbria.Nelson writes that", "writes that Charlemagne treated the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms \"like satellite states,\" establishing direct relations with English bishops.Charlemagne also forged an alliance withAlfonso II of Asturias, although Einhard calls Alfonso his \"dependent\".Following hissack of Lisbonin 798, Alfonso sent Charlemagne trophies of his victory, including armour, mules and prisoners. Reign as emperor Coronation AfterLeo IIIbecame pope in 795, he faced political opposition. His enemies accused him of a number of crimes and physically attacked him in April 799, attempting to remove his eyes and tongue.Leo escaped and fled north to seek Charlemagne's help.Charlemagne continued his campaign against the Saxons before breaking off to meet Leo atPaderbornin September.Hearing evidence from the pope and his enemies, he sent Leo back to Rome with royal legates who were instructed to reinstate the pope and conduct a further investigation.In August of the following year, Charlemagne made plans to go to Rome after an extensive tour of his", "tour of his lands in Neustria.Charlemagne met Leo in November nearMentanaat the twelfth milestone outside Rome, the traditional location where Roman emperors began theirformal entryinto the city.Charlemagne presided over an assembly to hear the charges, but believed that no one could sit in judgement of the pope. Leo swore an oath on 23 December, declaring his innocence of all charges.At mass inSt. Peter's Basilicaon Christmas Day 800, Leo proclaimed Charlemagne \"emperor of the Romans\" (Imperator Romanorum) and crowned him.Charlemagne was the first reigning emperor in the west since the deposition ofRomulus Augustulusin 476.His son,Charles the Younger, was anointed king by Leo at the same time. Historians differ about the intentions of the imperial coronation, the extent to which Charlemagne was aware of it or participated in its planning, and the significance of the events for those present and for Charlemagne's reign.Contemporary Frankish and papal sources differ in their emphasis on, and representation", "and representation of, events.Einhard writes that Charlemagne would not have entered the church if he knew about the pope's plan; modern historians have regarded his report as truthful or rejected it as a literary device demonstrating Charlemagne's humility.Collins says that the actions surrounding the coronation indicate that it was planned by Charlemagne as early as his meeting with Leo in 799,and Fried writes that Charlemagne planned to adopt the title of emperor by 798 \"at the latest.\"During the years before the coronation, Charlemagne's courtierAlcuinreferred to his realm as anImperium Christianum(\"Christian Empire\") in which \"just as the inhabitants of the Roman Empire had been united by a common Roman citizenship\", the new empire would be united by a common Christian faith.This is the view ofHenri Pirenne, who says that \"Charles was the Emperor of theecclesiaas the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church\". The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire remained a significant", "a significant contemporary power in European politics for Leo and Charlemagne, especially in Italy. The Byzantines continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with their borders not far south of Rome. Empress Irene had seized the throne from her son Constantine VI in 797, deposing and blinding him.Irene, the first Byzantine empress, faced opposition in Constantinople because of her gender and her means of accession.One of the earliest narrative sources for the coronation, theAnnals of Lorsch, presented a female ruler in Constantinople as a vacancy in the imperial title which justified Leo's coronation of Charlemagne.Pirenne disagrees, saying that the coronation \"was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople.\"Leo's main motivations may have been the desire to increase his standing after his political difficulties, placing himself as a power broker and securing Charlemagne as a powerful ally and protector.The Byzantine Empire's lack of ability to", "lack of ability to influence events in Italy and support the papacy were also important to Leo's position.According to theRoyal Frankish Annals, Leoprostratedhimself before Charlemagne after crowning him (an act of submission standard in Roman coronation rituals from the time ofDiocletian). This account presents Leo not as Charlemagne's superior, but as the agent of the Roman people who acclaimed Charlemagne as emperor. Historian Henry Mayr-Harting claims that the assumption of the imperial title by Charlemagne was an effort to incorporate the Saxons into the Frankish realm, since they did not have a native tradition of kingship.However, Costambeyset al.note inThe Carolingian Worldthat \"since Saxony had not been in the Roman empire it is hard to see on what basis an emperor would have been any more welcomed.\"These authors write that the decision to take the title of emperor was aimed at furthering Charlemagne's influence in Italy, as an appeal to traditional authority recognised by Italian elites within and", "elites within and (especially) outside his control. Collins also writes that becoming emperor gave Charlemagne \"the right to try to impose his rule over the whole of \", considering this a motivation for the coronation.He notes the \"element of political and military risk\"inherent in the affair due to the opposition of the Byzantine Empire and potential opposition from the Frankish elite, as the imperial title could draw him further into Mediterranean politics.Collins sees several of Charlemagne's actions as attempts to ensure that his new title had a distinctly-Frankish context. Charlemagne's coronation led to a centuries-long ideological conflict between his successors and Constantinople known as theproblem of two emperors,which could be seen as a rejection or usurpation of the Byzantine emperors' claim to be the universal, preeminent rulers of Christendom.Historian James Muldoon writes that Charlemagne may have had a more limited view of his role, seeing the title as representing dominion over lands he", "over lands he already ruled.However, the title of emperor gave Charlemagne enhanced prestige and ideological authority.He immediately incorporated his new title into documents he issued, adopting the formula \"Charles, most sereneaugustus, crowned by God, great peaceful emperor governing the Roman empire, and who is by the mercy of God king of the Franks and the Lombards\"instead of the earlier form \"Charles, by the grace of God king of the Franks and Lombards andpatricianof the Romans.\"Leo acclaimed Charlemagne as \"emperor of the Romans\" during the coronation, but Charlemagne never used this title.The avoidance of the specific claim of being a \"Roman emperor\", as opposed to the more-neutral \"emperor governing the Roman empire\", may have been to improve relations with the Byzantines.This formulation (with the continuation of his earlier royal titles) may also represent a view of his role as emperor as being the ruler of the people of the city of Rome, as he was of the Franks and the Lombards. Governing the", "Governing the empire Charlemagne left Italy in the summer of 801 after adjudicating several ecclesiastical disputes in Rome and experiencingan earthquake in Spoleto.He never returned to the city.Continuing trends and a ruling style established in the 790s,Charlemagne's reign from 801 onward is a \"distinct phase\"characterised by more sedentary rule from Aachen.Although conflict continued until the end of his reign, the relative peace of the imperial period allowed for attention on internal governance. The Franks continued to wage war, though these wars were defending and securing the empire's frontiers,and Charlemagne rarely led armies personally.A significant expansion of theSpanish Marchwas achieved with a series of campaigns by Louis against the Emirate of Cordoba, culminating in the801 capture of Barcelona. The 802Capitulare missorum generalewas an expansive piece of legislation, with provisions governing the conduct of royal officials and requiring that all free men take anoath of loyaltyto", "anoath of loyaltyto Charlemagne.Thecapitularyreformed the institution of themissi dominici, officials who would now be assigned in pairs (a cleric and a lay aristocrat) to administer justice and oversee governance in defined territories.The emperor also ordered the revision of the Lombard and Frankish legal codes. In addition to themissi, Charlemagne also ruled parts of the empire with his sons as sub-kings.Although Pepin and Louis had some authority as kings in Italy and Aquitaine, Charlemagne had the ultimate authority and directly intervened.Charles, their elder brother, had been given lands in Neustria in 789 or 790 and made a king in 800. The 806 charterDivisio Regnorum(Division of the Realm) set the terms of Charlemagne's succession.Charles, as his eldest son in good favour, was given the largest share of the inheritance: rule of Francia, Saxony,Nordgau, and parts of Alemannia. The two younger sons were confirmed in their kingdoms and gained additional territories; most of Bavaria and Alemmannia was", "and Alemmannia was given to Pepin, and Provence, Septimania, and parts of Burgundy were given to Louis.Charlemagne did not address the inheritance of the imperial title.TheDivisioalso provided that if any of the brothers predeceased Charlemagne, their sons would inherit their share; peace was urged among his descendants. Conflict and diplomacy with the east After his coronation, Charlemagne sought recognition of his imperial title from Constantinople.Several delegations were exchanged between Charlemagne and Irene in 802 and 803. According to the contemporary Byzantine chroniclerThophanes, Charlemagne made an offer of marriage to Irene which she was close to accepting.Irene was deposed and replaced byNikephoros I, who was unwilling to recognise Charlemagne as emperor.The two empires conflicted over control of theAdriatic Sea(especiallyIstriaandVeneto) several times during Nikephoros' reign. Charlemagne sent envoys to Constantinople in 810 to make peace, giving up his claims to Veneto. Nikephoros died in", "Nikephoros died in battle before the envoys could leave Constantinople but his son-in-law and successorMichael Iconfirmed the peace, sending his own envoys to Aachen to recognise Charlemagne as emperor.Charlemagne soon issued the first Frankish coins bearing his imperial title, although papal coins minted in Rome had used the title as early as 800. He sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with theAbbasidcaliphHarun al-Rashidduring the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Spanish affairs.As an early sign of friendship, Charlemagne requested an elephant as a gift from Harun. Harun later provided an elephant namedAbul-Abbas, which arrived at Aachen in 802.Harun also sought to undermine Charlemagne's relations with the Byzantines, with whom he was at war. As part of his outreach, Harun gave Charlemagne nominal rule of theChurch of the Holy Sepulchrein Jerusalem and other gifts.According to Einhard, Charlemagne \"zealously strove to make friendships with kings beyond the seas\" in order \"that he might get", "\"that he might get some help and relief to the Christians living under their rule.\" A surviving administrative document, theBasel roll, shows the work done by his agents in Palestine in furtherance of this goal. Harun's death lead to a succession crisis and, under his successors, churches and synagogues were destroyed in the caliphate.Unable to intervene directly, Charlemagne sent specially-minted coins and arms to the eastern Christians to defend and restore their churches and monasteries. The coins with their inscriptions were also an important tool of imperial propaganda.Johannes Fried writes that deteriorating relations with Baghdad after Harun's death may have been the impetus for renewed negotiations with Constantinople which led to Charlemagne's peace with Michael in 811. As emperor, Charlemagne became involved in a religious dispute between Eastern and Western Christians over the recitation of theNiceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, the fundamental statement of orthodox Christian belief. The original", "The original text of the creed, adopted at theCouncil of Constantinople, professed that theHoly Spiritproceeded fromthe Father. A tradition developed in Western Europe that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father \"and theSon\", inserting the Latin termfilioqueinto the creed.The difference did not cause significant conflict until 807, when Frankish monks in Bethlehem were denounced as heretics by a Greek monk for using thefilioqueform.The Frankish monks appealed the dispute to Rome, where Pope Leo affirmed the text of the creed omitting the phrase and passed the report on to Charlemagne.Charlemagne summoned acouncil at Aachen in 809which defended the use offilioque, and sent the decision to Rome. Leo said that the Franks could maintain their tradition, but asserted that the canonical creed did not includefilioque.He commissioned two silver shields with the creed in Latin and Greek (omitting thefilioque), which he hung inSt. Peter's Basilica.Another product of the 809 Aachen council was theHandbook of 809, an", "of 809, an illustratedcalendricaland astronomical compendium. Wars with the Danes Scandinaviahad been brought into contact with the Frankish world through Charlemagne's wars with the Saxons.Raids on Charlemagne's lands by theDanesbegan around 800.Charlemagne engaged in his final campaign in Saxony in 804, seizing Saxon territory east of theElbe, removing its Saxon population, and giving the land to hisObotriteallies.The Danish kingGudfred, uneasy at the extension of Frankish power, offered to meet with Charlemagne to arrange peace and (possibly) hand over Saxons who had fled to him;the talks were unsuccessful. The northern frontier was quiet until 808, when Gudfred and some allied Slavic tribes led an incursion into the Obotrite lands and extracted tribute from over half the territory.Charles the Younger led an army across the Elbe in response, but only attacked some of Gudfred's Slavic allies.Gudfred again attempted diplomatic overtures in 809, but no peace was apparently made.Danish pirates raided Frisia", "raided Frisia in 810, although it is uncertain if they were connected to Gudfred.Charlemagne sent an army to secure Frisia while he led a force against Gudfred, who had reportedly challenged the emperor to face him in battle.The battle never took place, since Gudfred was murdered by two of his own men before Charlemagne's arrival.Gudfred's nephew and successorHemmingimmediately sued for peace, and a commission led by Charlemagne's cousinWalareached a settlement with the Danes in 811.The Danes did not pose a threat for the remainder of Charlemagne's reign, but the effects of this war and their earlier expansion in Saxony helped set the stage for the intenseVikingraids across Europe later in the ninth century. Final years and death The Carolingian dynasty experienced a number of losses in 810 and 811, when Charlemagne's sisterGisela, his daughter Rotrude, and his sons Pepin the Hunchback, Pepin of Italy, and Charles the Younger died.The deaths of Charles and Pepin of Italy left Charlemagne's earlier plans for", "earlier plans for succession in disarray. He declared Pepin of Italy's sonBernardruler of Italy and made his own only surviving son, Louis, heir to the rest of the empire.Charlemagne also made a newwilldetailing the disposal of his property at his death, with bequests to the church, his children, and his grandchildren.Einhard (possibly relying ontropesfrom Suetonius'sThe Twelve Caesars) says that Charlemagne viewed the deaths of his family members, his fall from a horse, astronomical phenomena, and the collapse of part of the palace in his last years as signs of his impending death.Charlemagne continued to govern with energy during his final year, ordering bishops to assemble in five ecclesiastical councils.These culminated in a large assembly at Aachen, where Charlemagne crowned Louis as his co-emperor and Bernard as king in a ceremony on 11 September 813. Charlemagne became ill in the autumn of 813 and spent his last months praying, fasting, and studying thegospels.He developedpleurisy, and was bedridden", "and was bedridden for seven days before dying on the morning of 28 January 814.Thegan, a biographer of Louis, records the emperor's last words as \"Into your hands, Lord, I commend my spirit\" (quoting fromLuke 23:46).Charlemagne's body was prepared and buried in thechapel at Aachenby his daughters and palace officials that day.Louis arrived at Aachen thirty days after his father's death, making a formaladventusand taking charge of the palace and the empire.Charlemagne's remains were exhumed by Holy Roman EmperorFrederick Barbarossain 1165, and reinterred in a new casket byFrederick IIin 1215. Legacy Political legacy The stability and peace of Charlemagne's reign did not long outlive him. Louis' reign was marked by strife, including a number of rebellions by his sons. After Louis' death, the empire was divided among his sons intoWest,East, andMiddle Franciaby theTreaty of Verdun.Middle Francia was divided several more times over the course of subsequent generations.Carolingians would rule – with some", "rule – with some interruptions – in East Francia (later theKingdom of Germany) until 911,and in West Francia (which would becomeFrance) until 987.After 887, the imperial title was held sporadically by a series of non-dynastic Italian rulersbefore it lapsed in 924.The East Frankish kingOtto the GreatconqueredItaly, and was crowned emperor in 962.By this time, the eastern and western parts of Charlemagne's former empire had already developed distinct languages and cultures.Otto founded (or re-established) theHoly Roman Empire,which would last until itsdissolutionin 1806, during theNapoleonic Wars. According to historian Jennifer Davis, Charlemagne \"invented medieval rulership\" and his influence can be seen at least into the nineteenth century.Charlemagne is often known as \"the father of Europe\" because of the influence of his reign and the legacy he left across the large area of the continent he ruled.The political structures he established remained in place through his Carolingian successors, and continued to", "and continued to exert influence into the eleventh century. Charlemagne was an ancestor of several European ruling houses, including theCapetian dynasty,theOttonian dynasty,theHouse of Luxembourg,and theHouse of Ivrea.The Ottonians and Capetians, direct successors of the Carolingans, drew on the legacy of Charlemagne to bolster their legitimacy and prestige; the Ottonians and their successors held their German coronations in Aachen through the Middle Ages.The marriage ofPhilip II of FrancetoIsabella of Hainault(a direct descendant of Charlemagne) was seen as a sign of increased legitimacy for their son,Louis VIII, and the French kings' association with Charlemagne's legacy was stressed until the monarchy's end.German and French rulers, such as Frederick Barbarossa andNapoleon, cited the influence of Charlemagne and associated themselves with him.In fact, both German and French monarchs considered themselves as successors of Charlemagne, enumerating him as \"Charles I\" in their regnal lists. The city of Aachen", "The city of Aachen has, since 1949, awarded an international prize (theKarlspreisder Stadt Aachen) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to those who promote European unity.Recipients of the prize includeRichard von Coudenhove-Kalergi(founder of the pan-European movement),Alcide De Gasperi, andWinston Churchill. Carolingian Renaissance Contacts with the wider Mediterranean world through Spain and Italy, the influx of foreign scholars at court, and the relative stability and length of Charlemagne's reign led to a cultural revival known as theCarolingian Renaissance.Although the beginnings of this revival can be seen under his predecessors, Charles Martel and Pepin, Charlemagne took an active and direct role in shaping intellectual life which led to the revival's zenith.Charlemagne promoted learning as a matter of policy and direct patronage, with the aim of creating a more effective clergy.TheAdmonitio generalisandEpistola de litteris colendisoutlined his policies and aims for education.", "aims for education. Intellectual life at court was dominated by Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Visigothic and Italian scholars, includingDungal of Bobbio, Alcuin of York,Theodulf of Orléans, andPeter of Pisa; Franks such as Einhard andAngelbertalso made substantial contributions.Aside from the intellectual activity at the palace, Charlemagne promoted ecclesiastical schools and publicly funded schools for the children of the elite and future clergy.Students learned basic Latin literacy and grammar, arithmetic, and other subjects of the medieval liberal arts.From their education, it was expected that even rural priests could provide their parishioners with basic instruction in religious matters and (possibly) the literacy required for worship.Latin was standardised and its use brought into territories well beyond the former Roman Empire, forming a second language community of speakers and writers and sustaining Latin creativity in the Middle Ages. Carolingian authors produced extensive works, including legal treatises,", "legal treatises, histories, poetry, and religious texts.Scriptoriain monasteries and cathedrals focused on copying new and old works, producing an estimated 90,000 manuscripts during the ninth century.TheCarolingian minusculescript was developed and popularised in medieval copying, influencingRenaissanceand modern typefaces.Scholar John J. Contreni considers the educational and learning revival under Charlemagne and his successors \"one of the most durable and resilient elements of the Carolingian legacy\". Memory and historiography Charlemagne was a frequent subject of, and inspiration for, medieval writers after his death. Einhard'sVita Karoli Magni, according to Johannes Fired, \"can be said to have revived the defunct literary genre of the secular biography.\"Einhard drew on classical sources, such as Suetonius'The Twelve Caesars, the orations of Cicero, andTacitus'Agricolato frame his work's structure and style.The Carolingian period also saw a revival of themirrors for princesgenre.The author of the Latin", "author of the Latin poemVisio Karoli Magni, writtenc.865, uses facts (apparently from Einhard) and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne's family after their civil wars later in the ninth century as the bases of a visionary tale about Charles meeting a prophetic spectre in a dream.Notker'sGesta Karoli Magni, written for Charlemagne's great-grandson Charles the Fat, presents moral anecdotes (exempla) to highlight the emperor's qualities as a ruler. Charlemagne, as a figure of myth and emulation, grew over the centuries; Matthias Becher writes that over 1,000 legends are recorded about him, far outstripping subsequent emperors and kings.Later medieval writers depicted Charlemagne as a crusader and Christian warrior.Charlemagne is the main figure of the medievalliterary cycleknown as theMatter of France. Works in this cycle, which originated during theCrusades, centre on characterizations of the emperor as a leader of Christian knights in wars against Muslims. The cycle includeschansons de", "includeschansons de geste(epic poems) such as theSong of Rolandand chronicles such as theHistoria Caroli Magni, also known as the(Pseudo-)Turpin Chronicle.Charlemagne was depicted as one of theNine Worthies, a fixture in medieval literature and art as an exemplar of a Christian king.Despite his central role in these legends, authorThomas Bulfinchnoted that \"romancers represent him as often weak and passionate, the victim of treacherous counsellors, and at the mercy of turbulent barons, on whose prowess he depends for the maintenance of his throne.\" Attention to Charlemagne became more scholarly in the early modern period as Eindhard'sVitaand other sources began to be published.Political philosophers debated his legacy;Montesquieuviewed him as the first constitutional monarch and protector of freemen, butVoltairesaw him as a despotic ruler and representative of the medieval period as aDark Age.As early as the sixteenth century, debate between German and French writers began about Charlemagne's", "about Charlemagne's \"nationality\".These contrasting portraits—a French Charlemagne versus a GermanKarl der Große—became especially pronounced during the nineteenth century with Napoleon's use of Charlemagne's legacy and the rise of German nationalism.German historiography and popular perception focused on theMassacre of Verden, emphasized with Charlemagne as the \"butcher\" of the Germanic Saxons or downplayed as an unfortunate part of the legacy of a great German ruler.Propaganda in Nazi Germanyinitially portrayed Charlemagne as an enemy of Germany, a French ruler who worked to take away the freedom and native religion of the German people.This quickly shifted asAdolf Hitlerendorsed a portrait of Charlemagne as a great unifier of disparate German tribes into a common nation, allowing Hitler to co-opt Charlemagne's legacy as an ideological model for his expansionist policies. Historiography after World War II focused on Charlemagne as \"the father of Europe\" rather than a nationalistic figure,a view first", "figure,a view first advanced during the nineteenth century by German romantic philosopherFriedrich Schlegel.This view has led to Charlemagne's adoption as a political symbol ofEuropean integration.Modern historians increasingly place Charlemagne in the context of the wider Mediterranean world, following the work of Henri Pirenne. Religious influence and veneration Charlemagne gave much attention to religious and ecclesiastical affairs, holding 23synodsduring his reign. His synods were called to address specific issues at particular times, but generally dealt with church administration and organization, education of the clergy, and the proper forms of liturgy and worship.Charlemagne used the Christian faith as a unifying factor in the realm and, in turn, worked to impose unity on the church.He implemented an edited version of theDionysio-Hadrianabook ofcanon lawacquired from Pope Adrian, required use of theRule of St. Benedictin monasteries throughout the empire, and promoted a standardised liturgy adapted", "liturgy adapted from therites of the Roman Churchto conform with Frankish practices.Carolingian policies promoting unity did not eliminate the diverse practices throughout the empire, but created a shared ecclesiastical identity—according to Rosamond McKitterick, \"unison, not unity.\" The condition of all his subjects as a \"Christian people\" was an important concern.Charlemagne's policies encouraged preaching to the laity, particularly invernacularlanguages they would understand.He believed it essential to be able to recite theLord's Prayerand theApostles' Creed, and made efforts to ensure that the clergy taught them and other basics of Christian morality. ThomasF.X.Noble writes that the efforts of Charlemagne and his successors to standardise Christian doctrine and practices and harmonise Frankish practices were essential steps in the development of Christianity in Europe, and the Roman Catholic orLatin Church\"as a historical phenomenon, not as a theological or ecclesiological one, is a Carolingian", "is a Carolingian construction.\"He says that the medieval European concept ofChristendomas an overarching community of Western Christians, rather than a collection of local traditions, is the result of Carolingian policies and ideology.Charlemagne's doctrinal policies promoting the use offilioqueand opposing the Second Council of Nicea were key steps in thegrowing divide between Western and Eastern Christianity. EmperorOtto IIattempted to have Charlemagnecanonisedin 1000.In 1165, Frederick Barbarossa persuadedAntipope Paschal IIIto elevate Charlemagne to sainthood.Since Paschal's acts were not considered valid, Charlemagne was not recognised as a saint by theHoly See.Despite this lack of official recognition, hiscultwas observed in Aachen, Reims, Frankfurt, Zurich and Regensburg, and he has been venerated in France since the reign ofCharles V. Charlemagne also drew attention from figures of the ProtestantReformation, withMartin Luthercriticising his apparent subjugation to the papacy by accepting his", "by accepting his coronation from Leo.John Calvinand other Protestant thinkers viewed him as a forerunner of the Reformation, however, noting theLibri Carolini'scondemnation of the worship of images and relics and conflicts by Charlemagne and his successors with the temporal power of the popes. Wives, concubines, and children Wives and their children Concubines and their children Charlemagne had at least twenty children with his wives and other partners.After the death of his wife Luitgard in 800, he did not remarry but had children with unmarried partners.He was determined that all his children, including his daughters, should receive an education in the liberal arts. His children were taught in accordance with their aristocratic status, which included training in riding and weaponry for his sons and embroidery, spinning and weaving for his daughters. Rosamond McKitterick writes that Charlemagne exercised \"a remarkable degree of patriarchal control ... over his progeny,\" noting that only a handful of his", "a handful of his children and grandchildren were raised outside his court.Pepin of Italy and Louis reigned as kings from childhood and lived at their courts.Careers in the church were arranged for his illegitimate sons.His daughters were resident at court or atChelles Abbey(where Charlemagne's sister was abbess), and those at court may have fulfilled the duties of queen after 800. Louis and Pepin of Italy married and had children during their father's lifetime, and Charlemagne brought Pepin's daughters into his household after Pepin's death.Rotrude had been betrothed to Emperor Constantine VI, but the betrothal was ended.None of Charlemagne's daughters married, although several had children with unmarried partners. Bertha had two sons,Nithardand Hartnid, with Charlemagne's courtierAngilbert; Rotrude had a son namedLouis, possibly with CountRorgon; and Hiltrude had a son named Richbod, possibly with a count named Richwin.TheDivisio Regnorumissued by Charlemagne in 806 provided that his legitimate daughters be", "daughters be allowed to marry or become nuns after his death. Theodrada entered a convent, but the decisions of his other daughters are unknown. Appearance and iconography Einhard gives a first-hand description of Charlemagne's appearance later in life: He was heavily built, sturdy, and of considerable stature, although not exceptionally so, since his height was seven times the length of his own foot. He had a round head, large and lively eyes, a slightly larger nose than usual, white but still attractive hair, a bright and cheerful expression, a short and fat neck, and he enjoyed good health, except for the fevers that affected him in the last few years of his life. Charlemagne's tomb was opened in 1861 by scientists who reconstructed his skeleton and measured it at 1.92 metres (6 ft 4 in) in length, roughly equivalent to Einhard's seven feet.A 2010 estimate of his height from anX-rayandCT scanof histibiawas 1.84 metres (6 ft 0 in); this puts him in the 99thpercentileof height for his period, given that", "period, given that average male height of his time was 1.69 metres (5 ft 7 in). The width of the bone suggested that he was slim. Charlemagne wore his hair short, abandoning the Merovingian tradition of long-haired monarchs.He had a moustache (possibly imitating the Ostrogothic kingTheoderic the Great), in contrast with the bearded Merovingian kings;future Carolingian monarchs would adopt this style.Paul Dutton notes the ubiquitous crown in portraits of Charlemagne and other Carolingian rulers, replacing the earlier Merovingian long hair.A ninth-century statuette depicts Charlemagne or his grandson,Charles the Baldand shows the subject as moustachioed with short hair;this also appears on contemporary coinage. By the twelfth century, Charlemagne was described as bearded rather than moustachioed in literary sources such as theSong of Roland, thePseudo-Turpin Chronicle, and other works in Latin, French, and German.ThePseudo-Turpinuniquely says that his hair was brown.Later art and iconography of Charlemagne", "of Charlemagne followed suit, generally depicting him in a later medieval style as bearded with longer hair. Notes References Citations Works cited Further reading Primary sources in English translation Secondary works External links", "List of popes This chronological list ofpopesof theCatholic Churchcorresponds to that given in theAnnuario Pontificiounder the heading \"I Sommi Pontefici Romani\" (The Roman Supreme Pontiffs), excluding those that are explicitly indicated asantipopes. Published every year by theRoman Curia, theAnnuario Pontificiono longeridentifies popes by regnal number, stating that it is impossible to decide which pope represented the legitimate succession at various times.The 2001 edition of theAnnuario Pontificiointroduced \"almost 200 corrections to its existing biographies of the popes, from St Peter to John Paul II\". The corrections concerned dates, especially in the first two centuries, birthplaces and the family name of one pope. The termpope(Latin:papa,lit.'father') is used in several churches to denote their high spiritual leaders (for exampleCoptic pope). This title in English usage usually refers to the head of the Catholic Church. The Catholic pope uses various titles by tradition, includingSummus", "includingSummus Pontifex,Pontifex Maximus, andServus servorum Dei. Each title has been added by unique historical events and unlike other papal prerogatives, is not incapable of modification. Hermannus Contractusmay have been the first historian to number the popes continuously. His list ends in 1049 withLeo IXas number 154. Several changes were made to the list during the 20th century.Christopherwas considered a legitimate pope for a long time but was removed due to how he obtained the papacy.Pope-elect Stephenwas listed as Stephen II until the 1961 edition, when his name was removed. The decisions of theCouncil of Pisa(1409) were reversed in 1963 in a reinterpretation of theWestern Schism, extendingGregory XII's pontificate to 1415 and classifying rival claimantsAlexander VandJohn XXIIIas antipopes. A significant number of these popes have been recognized assaints, including 48 out of the first 50 consecutive popes, and others are in the sainthood process. Of the first 31 popes, 28 died as martyrs.", "28 died as martyrs. Chronological list of popes 1st millennium 1st century The chronology of the early popes is heavily disputed. The first ancient lists of popes were not written until the late 2nd century, after the monarchical episcopate had already developed in Rome. These first lists combined contradictory traditions, and even the succession of the first popes is disputed. The first certain dates are AD 222 and 235, the elections ofUrban IandLiberius. The years given for the first 30 popes follow the work ofRichard Adelbert Lipsius, which often show a 3-year difference with the traditional dates given byEusebius of Caesarea.These are also the dates used by theCatholic Encyclopedia. 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 2nd millennium 11th century 12th century 13th century 14th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Member of theDominican Order. Reverted Boniface VIII'sUnam Sanctam. 15th century 16th century", "16th century Julius II was described by Machiavelli in his works as the ideal prince. Pope Julius II allowed people seeking indulgences to donate money to the Church which would be used for the construction of Saint Peter's Basilica. Born as a subject of theBishopric of Utrecht. The only Dutch pope; last non-Italian to be elected pope untilJohn Paul IIin 1978. Tutor ofEmperor Charles V. Came to the papacy in the midst of one of its greatest crises, threatened not only by Lutheranism to the north but also by the advance of the Ottoman Turks to the east. He refused to compromise with Lutheranism theologically, demanding Luther's condemnation as a heretic. However, he is noted for having attempted to reform the Catholic Church administratively in response to the Protestant Reformation. Adrian's remarkable admission that the turmoil of the Church was the fault of the Roman Curia itself was read at the 1522–1523 Diet of Nuremberg. His efforts at reform, however, proved fruitless, as they were resisted by most of", "resisted by most of his Renaissance ecclesiastical contemporaries, and he did not live long enough to see his efforts through to their conclusion. Citizen of theRepublic of Florence. Cousin of Leo X. Romesackedby imperial troops (1527). Forbade the divorce ofHenry VIII; crowned Charles V as emperor atBologna(1530). Commissioned Michelangelo's painting ofThe Last Judgmentin the Sistine Chapel (1533). ApprovedCopernicus'heliocentric universe theory(1533). However Copernicus made very few astronomical observations and based his new model squarely on his mathematical calculations. Natural philosophers of that time (professionals who began to be called scientists only in the 19th century) noted that if the earth rotated there would be observable Coriolis effects. Secondly, a revolving earth would imply a stellar parallax. Given that neither of these effects were observed at the time (would be observed decades later) , Copernicus' model still did not prove heliocentrism. Thenieceof the pope was married to the", "was married to the futureHenry II of France(1533). Recognized theOrder of Friars Minor Capuchin(Capuchins). Born as a subject of theKingdom of Naples. Member of theTheatines. Established theRoman GhettoinCum Nimis Absurdum(1555) and established theIndex of Forbidden Books. Ordered Michelangelo to repaint the nudes ofThe Last Judgmentmodestly. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Member of theDominican Order. Excommunicated QueenElizabeth I of England(1570).Battle of Lepanto(1571); instituted the feast ofOur Lady of Victory. Issued the1570 Roman Missal. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States.Reformed the calendar(1582); built the Gregorian Chapel in the Vatican. The first pope to bestow theImmaculate Conceptionas patroness to the Philippine Islands through the bullIlius Fulti Præsido(1579). Strengthened diplomatic ties with Asian nations. 17th century Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Known for various building projects which included the facade ofSt Peter's Basilica.", "Peter's Basilica. Established theBank of the Holy Spirit(1605); restored theAqua Traiana. During his pontificateGalileo's scientific contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those ofAristotleandPtolemyand closely associated with the Catholic Church at that time. Not all Catholic priests at the time were against Galileo's discoveries.Christoph Grienberger, one of the Jesuit scholars, was sympathetic to Galileo's theories, but was invited to defend the Aristotelian point of view byClaudio Acquaviva, the Jesuits' Father General. Not all scientists at the time supported Galileo. Opposition fromTycho Braheand others arose from the fact that, if heliocentrism were true, an annual stellar parallax should be observed, although no such evidence existed at the time. (Only in 1838 wasFriedrich Besselable to accurately observe it.) Galileo's arguments – based on sunspots and the action of tides – were flawed", "tides – were flawed and were refuted and rejected by other scholars at the time. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. The great-great-great-grandson ofAlexander VI. Erected theFontana dei Quattro FiumiinPiazza Navona. Promulgated the apostolic constitutionCum occasione(1653) which condemned five doctrines ofJansenismasheresy. Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Mediated in thepeace of Aachen(1668). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Canonized the first saint from the Americas: St.Rose of Lima(1671). Decorated the bridge of Sant' Angelo with the ten statues of angels and added one of the two fountains that adorn the piazza of St. Peter's. Established regulations for the removal of relics of saints from cemeteries. Born as a subject of theDuchy of Milan. Condemned thedoctrine of mental reservation(1679) and initiated theHoly League. Extended theHoly Name of Maryas a universal feast (1684). Admired for positive contributions to catechesis. During his pontificateIsaac", "pontificateIsaac Newtonpublished thePhilosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation. 18th century Born as a subject of theGrand Duchy of Tuscany. Completed the new façade of theArchbasilica of Saint John Lateran(1735). Commissioned theTrevi Fountainin Rome (1732). CondemnedFreemasonryinIn eminenti apostolatus(1738). Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Reformed the education ofpriestsand thecalendar of feasts. Completed theTrevi Fountainand affirmed the teachings ofThomas Aquinas; founded academies of art, religion and science. Authorized the publication of an edition of Galileo's complete scientific works which included a mildly censored version of theDialogue. Subject and later the sovereign of thePapal States. Condemned theFrench Revolution; expelled from the Papal States by French troops from 1798 until his death. The last pope to be a patron ofRenaissanceart. During his pontificate, the astronomerWilliam Herschel, studying the", "studying the movement of stars, was the first to realize that theSolar Systemis moving in space, and determined the approximate direction of movement. Also discovered that theMilky Way(which in the late 18th century was believed to be the entire Universe) is flat, disk-shaped and with the Sun at its center (assertion discovered to be wrong decades later, because today it is known that the Sun is not located in theGalactic Center). 19th century During his pontificate, Augustinian friarGregor Mendelpublished theExperiments on Plant HybridizationandCharles DarwinpublishedOn the Origin of Species. At the time, no high-level Church pronouncement attacked head-on the theory of evolution as applied to non-human species. Even before the development of thescientific method, Catholic theology had allowed for biblical texts to be read as allegorical rather than literal where they appeared to contradict that which could be established by science or reason. Thus, Catholicism has been able to refine its understanding of", "understanding of scripture in light of scientific discoveries. First Pope to befilmed by a motion picture cameraand the first pope with voice recorded. 20th century Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Encouraged and expanded reception of the Eucharist. CombattedModernism; issued theoath against it. Advocated theGregorian Chantandreformed the Roman Breviary. Born as a subject of theKingdom of Sardinia, later became an Italian citizen. Credited for intervening for peace during World War I. Issued the1917 Code of Canon Law; supported the missionaries inMaximum illud. Remembered byBenedict XVIas a \"prophet of peace\". Born as a subject of theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, later became an Italian citizen. Signed theLateran Treatywith Italy (1929) establishingVatican Cityas a sovereign state. InauguratedVatican Radio(1931). Re-founded thePontifical Academy of Sciences(1936). Created the feast ofChrist the King. OpposedCommunismandNazism. Italian citizen. Invoked papal", "Invoked papal infallibility in the encyclicalMunificentissimus Deus; defined the dogma of theAssumption. Eliminated the Italian majority ofcardinals. Credited with intervening for peace duringWorld War II; controversial forhis reactionsto theHolocaust. Published theHumani generis, the first encyclical to specifically refer to evolution and took up a neutral position, concentrating on human evolution: \"The Church does not forbid that ... research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter.\" Italian citizen. Opened theSecond Vatican Council; called \"Good Pope John\". Issued the encyclicalPacem in terris(1963) on peace and nuclear disarmament; intervened for peace during theCuban Missile Crisis(1962). Italian citizen. Last pope to becrowned. First pope since 1809 to travel outside Italy. Closed theSecond Vatican Council. Issued the", "Council. Issued the encyclicalHumanae vitae(1968) condemning artificial contraception.RevisedtheRoman Missal(1969). Italian citizen. Abolished the coronation and opted for thepapal inauguration. First pope to use 'the First' in papal name; first with two names for two immediate predecessors. Last pope to use thesedia gestatoria. Polish citizen, first pope of Slavic origin. First non-Italian pope sinceAdrian VI(1522–1523). Travelled extensively,visiting 129 countriesduring his pontificate. Second-longest reign afterPius IX. FoundedWorld Youth Day(1984) and thePontifical Academy of Social Sciences(1994). Canonized more saints than all his predecessors. Youngest individual to start his papacy since Pius IX (1846). 3rd millennium 21st century German citizen. Oldest to become pope sinceClement XII(1730).ElevatedtheTridentine Massto a more prominent position and promoted the use ofLatin; re-introduced several disused papal garments. Authorized the creation ofAnglican ordinariates(2009). First pope torenounce the", "pope torenounce the papacyon his own initiative sinceCelestine V(1294),becomingpope emeritus.Longest-lived pope on record.Died on 31 December 2022, in Vatican. Argentine citizen. First pope to be born outside Europe sinceGregory III(731–741) and the first from the Americas; first pope from the Southern Hemisphere. First pope from areligious institutesinceGregory XVI(1831–1846); firstJesuitpope. First to use a new and non-composed regnal name sinceLando(913–914). First pope to visit and celebrate a mass on theArabian Peninsula. Religious orders 51 popes and 6antipopes(in italics) have been members ofreligious orders, including 12 members ofthird orders. They are listed by order as follows: Numbering of popes Regnal numbersfollow the usual convention for European monarchs. The first pope who chooses a unique name is not usually identified by an ordinal,John Paul Ibeing the exception. Antipopes are treated aspretenders, and their numbers are reused by those considered to be legitimate popes. However, there are", "However, there are anomalies in the numbering of the popes. Several numbers were mistakenly increased in the Middle Ages because the records were misunderstood. Several antipopes were also kept in the sequence, either by mistake or because they were previously considered to be true popes. See also Lists Notes References Sources External links" ]
Who is married to the actor who plays Imdad Khan in the film version of The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar, as of August 1, 2024 ?
Daniela Lavender
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonderful_Story_of_Henry_Sugar_(film)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Kingsley
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Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonderful_Story_of_Henry_Sugar_(film)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Kingsley']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonderful_Story_of_Henry_Sugar_(film", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Kingsley" ]
[ "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonderful_Story_of_Henry_Sugar_(film", "Ben Kingsley Sir Ben Kingsley(bornKrishna Pandit Bhanji; 31 December 1943) is an English actor. He has received accolades throughout his career spanning five decades, including anAcademy Award, aBAFTA Award, aGrammy Award, and twoGolden Globe Awardsas well as nominations for fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsand twoLaurence Olivier Awards. Kingsley was appointedKnight Bachelorin 2002 for services to the British film industry.He was awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2010and received theBritannia Awardin 2013. Born to an English mother and an IndianGujaratifather with roots inJamnagar, Kingsley began his career in theatre, joining theRoyal Shakespeare Companyin 1967 and spending the next 15 years appearing mainly on stage. His starring roles included productions ofAs You Like It(hisWest Enddebut for the company at theAldwych Theatrein 1967),Much Ado About Nothing,Richard III,The Tempest,A Midsummer Night's Dream,HamletandThe Merry Wives of Windsor. Also known for his television roles, he received fourPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for his performances inMurderers Among Us: The Simon Wiesenthal Story(1989),Joseph(1995),Anne Frank: The Whole Story(2001), andMrs. Harris(2006). In film, Kingsley is known for his starring role asMahatma GandhiinRichard Attenborough'sGandhi(1982), for which he subsequently won theAcademy Award for Best ActorandBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. For his portrayal ofItzhak SterninSteven Spielberg'sSchindler's List(1993), he received aBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Rolenomination. He was Oscar-nominated forBugsy(1990),Sexy Beast(2000), andHouse of Sand and Fog(2003). His other notable films includeMaurice(1987),Sneakers(1992),Searching for Bobby Fischer(1993),Death and the Maiden(1994),Twelfth Night(1996),Tuck Everlasting(2002),Elegy(2008),Shutter Island(2010), andHugo(2011). Kingsley played the character ofTrevor Slatteryin theMarvel Cinematic Universe, appearing inIron Man 3(2013),Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings(2021), and the upcomingDisney+seriesWonder Man. He also acted in the blockbustersPrince of Persia: The Sands of Time(2010), andEnder's Game(2013). Kingsley lent his voice to the filmsThe Boxtrolls(2014), andThe Jungle Book(2016). Early life, ancestry and education Kingsley was bornKrishnaPanditBhanji on 31 December 1943, inSnainton, North Riding of Yorkshire.His mother, Anna Lyna Mary (néeGoodman) (1914–2010), was an English actress and model, and she later gave birth to a second son called Sadru Bhanji, who later worked as apsychiatristinDevon. She was born out of wedlock and \"was loath to speak of her background\".His father, Rahimtulla Harji Bhanji (1914–1968), was born inZanzibar(now part ofTanzania) to a family originating from the Indian city ofJamnagar, ofKhojaGujaratidescent.Kingsley's paternal grandfather, Harji Bhanji, was a successfulspice traderwho had moved from India to theSultanate of Zanzibar, where Kingsley's father lived until moving to the United Kingdom at the age of 14.Kingsley's maternal grandfather was believed by the family to have been of Russian- or German-Jewish descent, while his maternal grandmother was English and worked in the garment district ofLondon's East End.Kingsley stated in 1994, \"I'm not Jewish, and though there might be some Russian-Jewish heritage way back on my mother's side, the thread is so fine there's no real evidence.\"In a 2016 interview, he indicated that his maternal grandmother was impregnated by a Russian-Jewish immigrant who later abandoned her, which led her to become a \"vile anti-Semite.\" Kingsley grew up inPendlebury, Lancashire. Although his father was aGujaratiKhoja who practisedIsma'ili Shia Islam, Kingsley was not raised in his father's faith, and identifies as aQuaker.He was educated at theManchester Grammar School, where one of his classmates was actorRobert Powell.Kingsley went on to study atDe La Salle CollegeinSalford, which later became home to The Ben Kingsley Theatre. While at college, he became involved in amateur dramatics inManchester, making his professional stage debut on graduation, aged 23. Career 1967–1981: Stage work and early career After graduating, in 1966, Kingsley was approached by music producer and managerDick James. James, who was the publisher ofThe Beatles, offered to mould Kingsley into a pop star. Kingsley declined James' offer, and instead chose to join theRoyal Shakespeare Company(RSC) in 1967 after an audition beforeTrevor Nunn.Devoting himself almost exclusively to stage work for the next 15 years, he made hisWest Enddebut for the company at theAldwych Theatrein 1967 in a production ofAs You Like It.Further productions for the RSC includedMuch Ado About Nothing,Richard III,The Tempest,A Midsummer Night's Dream(starring inPeter Brook'sacclaimed 1970 RSC productionas Demetrius),HamletandThe Merry Wives of Windsor. In the 1960s, Kingsley changed his name to Ben Kingsley, fearing that a foreign name would hamper his career.He told theRadio Times, \"As soon as I changed my name, I got the jobs. I had one audition as Krishna Bhanji and they said, 'Beautiful audition but we don't quite know how to place you in our forthcoming season.' I changed my name, crossed the road, and they said when can you start?\"In 1971 Kingsley made hisBroadwaydebut playing Demetrius in the revival ofWilliam Shakespeare'sA Midsummer Night's Dreamacting withPatrick Stewart,Frances de la TourandMartin Best.He played Mosca inPeter Hall's 1977 production of Ben Jonson'sVolponefor theRoyal National Theatre. In 1981 he returned to Broadway playing thetitle rolein the Raymond Fitzsimmons playEdmund Kean(1983).He playedWilly Lomanin a 1982Sydneyproduction of theArthur MillerplayDeath of a SalesmanoppositeMel Gibson. Kingsley began his transition to film roles early on, making his feature film debut playing a supporting role in the British action thrillerFear Is the Keyin 1972. Kingsley continued to play small roles in both film and television, including a role as Ron Jenkins on the soap operaCoronation Streetfrom 1966 to 1967 and regular appearances as a defence counsel in the long-running British legal programmeCrown Court. In 1974 he played Thidias in a taped performance of theWilliam ShakespeareplayAntony and Cleopatrawith theRoyal Shakespeare Company. He acted alongsidePatrick StewartandTim Pigott-Smith.In 1975, he starred asDante Gabriel Rossettiin the historical dramaThe Love Schooland appeared in the TV miniseriesDickens of Londonthe following year. 1982–1998: Transition to film and television A turning point in Kingsley's career came with the historical biographical epic drama filmGandhi(1982), directed byRichard Attenborough, in which Kingsley played the titular role of theanti-colonialistactivist and peacemakerMahatma Gandhi. The film was a critical and financial success with film criticRoger EbertofThe Chicago Sun-Timespraising the casting of Kingsley in the lead role writing, \"makes the role so completely his own that there is a genuine feeling that the spirit of Gandhi is on the screen. Kingsley's performance is powerful without being loud or histrionic; he is almost always quiet, observant, and soft-spoken on the screen, and yet his performance comes across with such might that we realize, afterward, that the sheer moral force of Gandhi must have been behind the words.\"Kingsley went on to win numerous accolades for his performance including theAcademy Award for Best Actor, theBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, and theGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Dramafor his performance.The following year he acted in the British drama filmBetrayal(1983), an adaptation of the1978 play of the same titlebyHarold Pinter. Kingsley starred oppositeJeremy IronsandPatricia Hodge.For his performance he won theEvening Standard British Film Awards. Throughout the 1980s, Kingsley appeared in a variety of films, including a leading role in theJohn Irvindirected British dramaTurtle Diary(1985) starring oppositeGlenda Jackson. The film was based on the1975 novel of the same titleand was adapted for the screen byHarold Pinter. Sheila Benson ofThe Los Angeles Timespraised their performances writing, \"No filmic cliches, no swelling musical score; these are no \"littul peeple\" who melt into each other's arms, but blessedly real people, who get exhausted and don't talk all the time.\"He acted in theMerchant-Ivorycostume dramaMaurice(1987). The film was adapted from the1971 novel of the same titlebyE. M. Forster. Kingsley acted alongsideHugh Grant,Rupert Graves,Simon Callow, andDenholm Elliott.He played the Russian composerDmitri ShostakovichinTestimony, and the main character of Basil Pascali inPascali's Island(1988), and went on to portrayDr. John WatsonalongsideMichael Caine'sSherlock HolmesinWithout a Cluethat year. He was nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actorfor his portrayal of the organised crime figureMeyer LanskyinBugsy(1991). Additional roles include the supporting character of Cosmo in the thriller filmSneakers(1992), Vice-President Gary Nance inDave(1993), and the chess teacherBruce PandolfiniinSearching for Bobby Fischer(1993). InSteven Spielberg's historical drama filmSchindler's List(1993), Kingsley portrayed theHolocaustsurvivorItzhak SternalongsideLiam NeesonasOskar Schindler. The film was a critical and commercial success, and Kingsley received a nomination forBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. Todd McCarthy ofVarietywrote of his performance, \"Kingsley must act within much more rigid constraints as his trusted accountant Stern, a man who feels he must never make a misstep. Role is reminiscent ofAlec Guinness' deluded Col. Nicholson inThe Bridge on the River Kwai; in his compulsion to do a perfect job for Schindler, he often seems to forget that he's working for the enemy.\"Further roles include theBBCadaptation ofSilas Marner(1985) as the titular character. Kingsley starred alongsideSigourney WeaverinRoman Polanski'sDeath and the Maiden(1994), having previously acted with her inDave. In 1996 he portrayedFesteinTwelfth Night, a film adaptation of theWilliam Shakespeareplay. Kingsley starred alongsideHelena Bonham Carter,Nigel Hawthorne, andRichard E. Grant. In a mixed review, Todd McCarthy ofVarietynoted his performance as a highlight writing, \"Ben Kingsley brings some nice readings to his rather mysterious role of Feste, the commentator on the convoluted proceedings.\"The following film he provided a voice in the video gameCeremony of Innocence. In 1998, he was the head of the jury at the48th Berlin International Film Festivaland starred in the family filmSpooky House, saying he had chosen a role in a lighter film after acting in roles that left him feeling traumatised. 1999–present: Further success Kingsley took on the role of Don Logan, a violent psychopath and recruiter for London's underworld, inJonathan Glazer'sSexy Beast(2000), apsychologicalblack comedycrime filmacting withRay WinstoneandIan McShane.CriticPeter BradshawofThe Guardianpraised his performance writing, \"The role of Don Logan is perfectly suited to Ben Kingsley's gifts for control and stillness. There is something a little baroque and stylised about his approach - it is arguably a little actorly and unlike the behaviour of any real villain. But it is a very funny, intelligent performance nonetheless, beautifully scripted and acted, and Kingsley tops it off with a bravura show of pure sociopathic cunning\".Kingsley's role as Logan earned him another Academy Award nomination forBest Supporting Actor. A year later, he won aCrystal Globeaward for having an outstanding artistic contribution toworld cinemaat theKarlovy Vary International Film Festival.In 2003 he portrayed Colonel Massoud Amir Behrani in theVadim PerelmandirectedHouse of Sand and Fogacting oppositeJennifer ConnellyandShohreh Aghdashloo. Critic Owen Gleiberman ofEntertainment Weeklywrote of his performance, \"Kingsley, carrying his body like armor, sculpting each line into a bitter dart of pride, plays fierceness with a powerful tug of sorrow.\"For his role he earned nominations for theAcademy Award,Golden Globe Award, andIndependent Spirit Awardfor Best Actor.The following year he played a supporting role as Benjamin O'Ryan in the psychological thrillerSuspect Zero(2004). Although the film received negative reviews from critics, reservations were made for Kingsley's performance. In July 2006, Kingsley received anPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movienomination for his performance in theHBOtelevision filmMrs. Harris(2005), in which he played famedcardiologistHerman Tarnower, who was murdered by his jilted lover,Jean Harrisplayed byAnnette Bening.Later that year, he made a cameo appearance in an episode ofThe Sopranostitled \"Luxury Lounge\". Kingsley plays himself in the episode asChrisandLittle Carminepitch him the role of a mob boss in the filmCleaver, which he turns down. In 2007, Kingsley appeared as aPolish Americanmobster in theMafia comedyYou Kill Me, and a hitman inWar, Inc.The following year he acted in the romantic dramaElegy(2008) directed byIsabel Coixet. He starred alongsidePenélope Cruz,Peter Sarsgaard,Patricia Clarkson, andDennis Hopper.CriticRoger Ebertwrote of the film and his performance, \"Ben Kingsley, who can play just about any role, seems to be especially effective playing slimy intellectuals. \"Elegy\" is a film that could have been made for him, although by the time it's over, Penelope Cruz has slipped away with it, and transformed Kingsley's character in the process. It's nicely done.\"Kingsley received a nomination for theLondon Film Critics Circle Awardfor Best British Actor of the Year. The years 2010 and 2011 contained several big roles for Kingsley. In 2010, he worked voicing a character named Sabine in theLionhead StudiosgameFable IIIand starred alongsideLeonardo DiCaprioinShutter Island(2010), directed byMartin Scorsese. That same year, Kingsley made hisBollywooddebut in the thrillerTeen Patti(2010). The following year he appeared in Scorsese's next film, the children's adventure filmHugo(2011), playing the French illusionistGeorges Méliès. Kingsley's portrayal of Méliès also earned him aSaturn Award for Best Actor. Kingsley also signed on to the sci-fi romance featureBroken Dream. The feature, byNeil JordanandJohn Boorman, was later scrapped.In 2013, Kingsley appeared as the villainTrevor Slatteryin theMarvel Cinematic UniversefilmIron Man 3withRobert Downey Jr.,and as the heroMazer Rackhamin the science-fiction action adventure filmEnder's GamewithHarrison FordandAsa Butterfield. A year later he played the Hebrew slaveNuninRidley Scott'sExodus: Gods and Kingsand Merenkahre, asimulacrumof an Egyptian pharaoh and father of Ahkmenrah, inShawn Levy'sNight at the Museum: Secret of the TombwithBen Stiller,Robin Williams,Owen Wilson,Rami MalekandDan Stevens. That same year, Kingsley would also reprise his role as Slattery in the direct-to-video short filmAll Hail the King. In 2015, Kingsley portrayed aSikhdriving instructor in the filmLearning to Drive.He voicedBagheerain the live-action adaptation ofJon Favreau'sThe Jungle Book(2016), a remake of the original1967 filmshared cast withBill Murray,Idris Elba,Lupita Nyong'o,Scarlett JohanssonandChristopher Walken.Kingsley also recordedYogananda'sAutobiography of a Yogiin book-on-tape format. In 2018, he narrated Amazon Prime's documentaryAll or Nothing: Manchester Citywhich followedManchester City's record breaking2017–18 Premier Leaguecampaign.and served as the voice of General Woundwort in the BBC adaptation ofWatership Down.Kingsley reprised his role as Trevor Slattery in the filmShang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings(2021).Kingsley acted inWes Anderson'sThe Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar(2023), a film adaptation of ashort storybyRoald Dahl, and starred oppositeRalph Fiennes,Dev PatelandBenedict Cumberbatch. The film went on to win theAcademy Award for Best Live Action Short Film. Kingsley has been announced as playing Ibrahim Arif in the upcoming film ofRichard Osman's multi-award winningThursday Murder Clubseries.Filming is due to begin in summer 2024. Personal life Marriage and family Kingsley has been married four times and has four children: Thomas Bhanji and artist Jasmin Bhanji, with first wife, actressAngela Morant, and Edmund Kingsley andFerdinand Kingsley, both of whom became actors, with second wife, theatrical directorAlison Sutcliffe.He divorced his third wife Alexandra Christmann in 2005, having been \"deeply, deeply shocked\" after pictures of her kissing another man surfaced on the internet.On 3 September 2007, Kingsley married Brazilian actressDaniela Lavenderat Eynsham Hall inNorth Leigh, Oxfordshire. Charity Kingsley appeared in a production ofThe Children's Monologuesin 2010 on stage inLondonalongsideBenedict Cumberbatch,Tom Hiddleston,Gemma Arterton, andEddie Redmayne.It was performed on behalf ofDramatic Need, a charity that sends international arts professionals (such as musicians, artists, and actors) to host workshops in underprivileged and rural communities in Africa. Filmography Awards and nominations Kingsley won anAcademy Awardin theBest Actorcategory forGandhi, and has been nominated three more times:Best Supporting ActorforBugsyandSexy Beast, and Best Actor forHouse of Sand and Fog(2003). In 1984, Kingsley won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word or Nonmusical Recording forThe Words of Gandhi, received anhonorary degreefrom theUniversity of Salford,and was awarded the Indian civilian honourPadma Shri.He was made aKnight Bachelorin the2002 New Year Honoursfor services to the British film industry.The award was announced on 31 December 2001, which happened to be Kingsley's 58th birthday.After beingknightedby QueenElizabeth IIatBuckingham Palace, Kingsley stated: I told the Queen that winning an Oscar pales into insignificance—this is insurmountable. I'm fascinated by theancient, bymythology, by these islands and their tradition of story telling. I feel that I am a story teller and to receive aknighthoodis really recognition of that. His demand to be called 'Sir' in film and TV show credits was documented by the BBC, to some criticism.Co-starPenélope Cruzwas reportedly unsure what to call him during the filming ofElegyas someone had told her she needed to refer to him as \"Sir Ben\". One day it slipped out as such, and she called him that for the remainder of the shoot.Kingsley has denied accusations that he prefers to be referred to by his title, saying, \"If I've ever insisted on being called 'Sir' by colleagues on a film set then I am profoundly sorry. I don't remember ever doing that and I tend not to forget.\"In May 2010, Kingsley was awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.In April 2013, Kingsley was honoured with the Fellowship Award atThe Asian Awardsin London. References External links" ]
[ "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonderful_Story_of_Henry_Sugar_(film", "Ben Kingsley Sir Ben Kingsley(bornKrishna Pandit Bhanji; 31 December 1943) is an English actor. He has received accolades throughout his career spanning five decades, including anAcademy Award, aBAFTA Award, aGrammy Award, and twoGolden Globe Awardsas well as nominations for fourPrimetime Emmy Awardsand twoLaurence Olivier Awards. Kingsley was appointedKnight Bachelorin 2002 for services to the British film industry.He was awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Famein 2010and received theBritannia Awardin 2013. Born to an English mother and an IndianGujaratifather with roots inJamnagar, Kingsley began his career in theatre, joining theRoyal Shakespeare Companyin 1967 and spending the next 15 years appearing mainly on stage. His starring roles included productions ofAs You Like It(hisWest Enddebut for the company at theAldwych Theatrein 1967),Much Ado About Nothing,Richard III,The Tempest,A Midsummer Night's Dream,HamletandThe Merry Wives of Windsor. Also known for his television roles, he received", "roles, he received fourPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for his performances inMurderers Among Us: The Simon Wiesenthal Story(1989),Joseph(1995),Anne Frank: The Whole Story(2001), andMrs. Harris(2006). In film, Kingsley is known for his starring role asMahatma GandhiinRichard Attenborough'sGandhi(1982), for which he subsequently won theAcademy Award for Best ActorandBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. For his portrayal ofItzhak SterninSteven Spielberg'sSchindler's List(1993), he received aBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Rolenomination. He was Oscar-nominated forBugsy(1990),Sexy Beast(2000), andHouse of Sand and Fog(2003). His other notable films includeMaurice(1987),Sneakers(1992),Searching for Bobby Fischer(1993),Death and the Maiden(1994),Twelfth Night(1996),Tuck Everlasting(2002),Elegy(2008),Shutter Island(2010), andHugo(2011). Kingsley played the character ofTrevor Slatteryin theMarvel Cinematic Universe, appearing inIron Man 3(2013),Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings(2021),", "Ten Rings(2021), and the upcomingDisney+seriesWonder Man. He also acted in the blockbustersPrince of Persia: The Sands of Time(2010), andEnder's Game(2013). Kingsley lent his voice to the filmsThe Boxtrolls(2014), andThe Jungle Book(2016). Early life, ancestry and education Kingsley was bornKrishnaPanditBhanji on 31 December 1943, inSnainton, North Riding of Yorkshire.His mother, Anna Lyna Mary (néeGoodman) (1914–2010), was an English actress and model, and she later gave birth to a second son called Sadru Bhanji, who later worked as apsychiatristinDevon. She was born out of wedlock and \"was loath to speak of her background\".His father, Rahimtulla Harji Bhanji (1914–1968), was born inZanzibar(now part ofTanzania) to a family originating from the Indian city ofJamnagar, ofKhojaGujaratidescent.Kingsley's paternal grandfather, Harji Bhanji, was a successfulspice traderwho had moved from India to theSultanate of Zanzibar, where Kingsley's father lived until moving to the United Kingdom at the age of", "at the age of 14.Kingsley's maternal grandfather was believed by the family to have been of Russian- or German-Jewish descent, while his maternal grandmother was English and worked in the garment district ofLondon's East End.Kingsley stated in 1994, \"I'm not Jewish, and though there might be some Russian-Jewish heritage way back on my mother's side, the thread is so fine there's no real evidence.\"In a 2016 interview, he indicated that his maternal grandmother was impregnated by a Russian-Jewish immigrant who later abandoned her, which led her to become a \"vile anti-Semite.\" Kingsley grew up inPendlebury, Lancashire. Although his father was aGujaratiKhoja who practisedIsma'ili Shia Islam, Kingsley was not raised in his father's faith, and identifies as aQuaker.He was educated at theManchester Grammar School, where one of his classmates was actorRobert Powell.Kingsley went on to study atDe La Salle CollegeinSalford, which later became home to The Ben Kingsley Theatre. While at college, he became involved in", "became involved in amateur dramatics inManchester, making his professional stage debut on graduation, aged 23. Career 1967–1981: Stage work and early career After graduating, in 1966, Kingsley was approached by music producer and managerDick James. James, who was the publisher ofThe Beatles, offered to mould Kingsley into a pop star. Kingsley declined James' offer, and instead chose to join theRoyal Shakespeare Company(RSC) in 1967 after an audition beforeTrevor Nunn.Devoting himself almost exclusively to stage work for the next 15 years, he made hisWest Enddebut for the company at theAldwych Theatrein 1967 in a production ofAs You Like It.Further productions for the RSC includedMuch Ado About Nothing,Richard III,The Tempest,A Midsummer Night's Dream(starring inPeter Brook'sacclaimed 1970 RSC productionas Demetrius),HamletandThe Merry Wives of Windsor. In the 1960s, Kingsley changed his name to Ben Kingsley, fearing that a foreign name would hamper his career.He told theRadio Times, \"As soon as I changed my", "as I changed my name, I got the jobs. I had one audition as Krishna Bhanji and they said, 'Beautiful audition but we don't quite know how to place you in our forthcoming season.' I changed my name, crossed the road, and they said when can you start?\"In 1971 Kingsley made hisBroadwaydebut playing Demetrius in the revival ofWilliam Shakespeare'sA Midsummer Night's Dreamacting withPatrick Stewart,Frances de la TourandMartin Best.He played Mosca inPeter Hall's 1977 production of Ben Jonson'sVolponefor theRoyal National Theatre. In 1981 he returned to Broadway playing thetitle rolein the Raymond Fitzsimmons playEdmund Kean(1983).He playedWilly Lomanin a 1982Sydneyproduction of theArthur MillerplayDeath of a SalesmanoppositeMel Gibson. Kingsley began his transition to film roles early on, making his feature film debut playing a supporting role in the British action thrillerFear Is the Keyin 1972. Kingsley continued to play small roles in both film and television, including a role as Ron Jenkins on the soap", "Jenkins on the soap operaCoronation Streetfrom 1966 to 1967 and regular appearances as a defence counsel in the long-running British legal programmeCrown Court. In 1974 he played Thidias in a taped performance of theWilliam ShakespeareplayAntony and Cleopatrawith theRoyal Shakespeare Company. He acted alongsidePatrick StewartandTim Pigott-Smith.In 1975, he starred asDante Gabriel Rossettiin the historical dramaThe Love Schooland appeared in the TV miniseriesDickens of Londonthe following year. 1982–1998: Transition to film and television A turning point in Kingsley's career came with the historical biographical epic drama filmGandhi(1982), directed byRichard Attenborough, in which Kingsley played the titular role of theanti-colonialistactivist and peacemakerMahatma Gandhi. The film was a critical and financial success with film criticRoger EbertofThe Chicago Sun-Timespraising the casting of Kingsley in the lead role writing, \"makes the role so completely his own that there is a genuine feeling that the", "feeling that the spirit of Gandhi is on the screen. Kingsley's performance is powerful without being loud or histrionic; he is almost always quiet, observant, and soft-spoken on the screen, and yet his performance comes across with such might that we realize, afterward, that the sheer moral force of Gandhi must have been behind the words.\"Kingsley went on to win numerous accolades for his performance including theAcademy Award for Best Actor, theBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, and theGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Dramafor his performance.The following year he acted in the British drama filmBetrayal(1983), an adaptation of the1978 play of the same titlebyHarold Pinter. Kingsley starred oppositeJeremy IronsandPatricia Hodge.For his performance he won theEvening Standard British Film Awards. Throughout the 1980s, Kingsley appeared in a variety of films, including a leading role in theJohn Irvindirected British dramaTurtle Diary(1985) starring oppositeGlenda Jackson. The film", "Jackson. The film was based on the1975 novel of the same titleand was adapted for the screen byHarold Pinter. Sheila Benson ofThe Los Angeles Timespraised their performances writing, \"No filmic cliches, no swelling musical score; these are no \"littul peeple\" who melt into each other's arms, but blessedly real people, who get exhausted and don't talk all the time.\"He acted in theMerchant-Ivorycostume dramaMaurice(1987). The film was adapted from the1971 novel of the same titlebyE. M. Forster. Kingsley acted alongsideHugh Grant,Rupert Graves,Simon Callow, andDenholm Elliott.He played the Russian composerDmitri ShostakovichinTestimony, and the main character of Basil Pascali inPascali's Island(1988), and went on to portrayDr. John WatsonalongsideMichael Caine'sSherlock HolmesinWithout a Cluethat year. He was nominated for anAcademy Award for Best Supporting Actorfor his portrayal of the organised crime figureMeyer LanskyinBugsy(1991). Additional roles include the supporting character of Cosmo in the thriller", "in the thriller filmSneakers(1992), Vice-President Gary Nance inDave(1993), and the chess teacherBruce PandolfiniinSearching for Bobby Fischer(1993). InSteven Spielberg's historical drama filmSchindler's List(1993), Kingsley portrayed theHolocaustsurvivorItzhak SternalongsideLiam NeesonasOskar Schindler. The film was a critical and commercial success, and Kingsley received a nomination forBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. Todd McCarthy ofVarietywrote of his performance, \"Kingsley must act within much more rigid constraints as his trusted accountant Stern, a man who feels he must never make a misstep. Role is reminiscent ofAlec Guinness' deluded Col. Nicholson inThe Bridge on the River Kwai; in his compulsion to do a perfect job for Schindler, he often seems to forget that he's working for the enemy.\"Further roles include theBBCadaptation ofSilas Marner(1985) as the titular character. Kingsley starred alongsideSigourney WeaverinRoman Polanski'sDeath and the Maiden(1994), having previously acted", "previously acted with her inDave. In 1996 he portrayedFesteinTwelfth Night, a film adaptation of theWilliam Shakespeareplay. Kingsley starred alongsideHelena Bonham Carter,Nigel Hawthorne, andRichard E. Grant. In a mixed review, Todd McCarthy ofVarietynoted his performance as a highlight writing, \"Ben Kingsley brings some nice readings to his rather mysterious role of Feste, the commentator on the convoluted proceedings.\"The following film he provided a voice in the video gameCeremony of Innocence. In 1998, he was the head of the jury at the48th Berlin International Film Festivaland starred in the family filmSpooky House, saying he had chosen a role in a lighter film after acting in roles that left him feeling traumatised. 1999–present: Further success Kingsley took on the role of Don Logan, a violent psychopath and recruiter for London's underworld, inJonathan Glazer'sSexy Beast(2000), apsychologicalblack comedycrime filmacting withRay WinstoneandIan McShane.CriticPeter BradshawofThe Guardianpraised his", "Guardianpraised his performance writing, \"The role of Don Logan is perfectly suited to Ben Kingsley's gifts for control and stillness. There is something a little baroque and stylised about his approach - it is arguably a little actorly and unlike the behaviour of any real villain. But it is a very funny, intelligent performance nonetheless, beautifully scripted and acted, and Kingsley tops it off with a bravura show of pure sociopathic cunning\".Kingsley's role as Logan earned him another Academy Award nomination forBest Supporting Actor. A year later, he won aCrystal Globeaward for having an outstanding artistic contribution toworld cinemaat theKarlovy Vary International Film Festival.In 2003 he portrayed Colonel Massoud Amir Behrani in theVadim PerelmandirectedHouse of Sand and Fogacting oppositeJennifer ConnellyandShohreh Aghdashloo. Critic Owen Gleiberman ofEntertainment Weeklywrote of his performance, \"Kingsley, carrying his body like armor, sculpting each line into a bitter dart of pride, plays", "of pride, plays fierceness with a powerful tug of sorrow.\"For his role he earned nominations for theAcademy Award,Golden Globe Award, andIndependent Spirit Awardfor Best Actor.The following year he played a supporting role as Benjamin O'Ryan in the psychological thrillerSuspect Zero(2004). Although the film received negative reviews from critics, reservations were made for Kingsley's performance. In July 2006, Kingsley received anPrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movienomination for his performance in theHBOtelevision filmMrs. Harris(2005), in which he played famedcardiologistHerman Tarnower, who was murdered by his jilted lover,Jean Harrisplayed byAnnette Bening.Later that year, he made a cameo appearance in an episode ofThe Sopranostitled \"Luxury Lounge\". Kingsley plays himself in the episode asChrisandLittle Carminepitch him the role of a mob boss in the filmCleaver, which he turns down. In 2007, Kingsley appeared as aPolish Americanmobster in theMafia comedyYou Kill", "comedyYou Kill Me, and a hitman inWar, Inc.The following year he acted in the romantic dramaElegy(2008) directed byIsabel Coixet. He starred alongsidePenélope Cruz,Peter Sarsgaard,Patricia Clarkson, andDennis Hopper.CriticRoger Ebertwrote of the film and his performance, \"Ben Kingsley, who can play just about any role, seems to be especially effective playing slimy intellectuals. \"Elegy\" is a film that could have been made for him, although by the time it's over, Penelope Cruz has slipped away with it, and transformed Kingsley's character in the process. It's nicely done.\"Kingsley received a nomination for theLondon Film Critics Circle Awardfor Best British Actor of the Year. The years 2010 and 2011 contained several big roles for Kingsley. In 2010, he worked voicing a character named Sabine in theLionhead StudiosgameFable IIIand starred alongsideLeonardo DiCaprioinShutter Island(2010), directed byMartin Scorsese. That same year, Kingsley made hisBollywooddebut in the thrillerTeen Patti(2010). The following", "The following year he appeared in Scorsese's next film, the children's adventure filmHugo(2011), playing the French illusionistGeorges Méliès. Kingsley's portrayal of Méliès also earned him aSaturn Award for Best Actor. Kingsley also signed on to the sci-fi romance featureBroken Dream. The feature, byNeil JordanandJohn Boorman, was later scrapped.In 2013, Kingsley appeared as the villainTrevor Slatteryin theMarvel Cinematic UniversefilmIron Man 3withRobert Downey Jr.,and as the heroMazer Rackhamin the science-fiction action adventure filmEnder's GamewithHarrison FordandAsa Butterfield. A year later he played the Hebrew slaveNuninRidley Scott'sExodus: Gods and Kingsand Merenkahre, asimulacrumof an Egyptian pharaoh and father of Ahkmenrah, inShawn Levy'sNight at the Museum: Secret of the TombwithBen Stiller,Robin Williams,Owen Wilson,Rami MalekandDan Stevens. That same year, Kingsley would also reprise his role as Slattery in the direct-to-video short filmAll Hail the King. In 2015, Kingsley portrayed", "Kingsley portrayed aSikhdriving instructor in the filmLearning to Drive.He voicedBagheerain the live-action adaptation ofJon Favreau'sThe Jungle Book(2016), a remake of the original1967 filmshared cast withBill Murray,Idris Elba,Lupita Nyong'o,Scarlett JohanssonandChristopher Walken.Kingsley also recordedYogananda'sAutobiography of a Yogiin book-on-tape format. In 2018, he narrated Amazon Prime's documentaryAll or Nothing: Manchester Citywhich followedManchester City's record breaking2017–18 Premier Leaguecampaign.and served as the voice of General Woundwort in the BBC adaptation ofWatership Down.Kingsley reprised his role as Trevor Slattery in the filmShang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings(2021).Kingsley acted inWes Anderson'sThe Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar(2023), a film adaptation of ashort storybyRoald Dahl, and starred oppositeRalph Fiennes,Dev PatelandBenedict Cumberbatch. The film went on to win theAcademy Award for Best Live Action Short Film. Kingsley has been announced as playing Ibrahim Arif", "Ibrahim Arif in the upcoming film ofRichard Osman's multi-award winningThursday Murder Clubseries.Filming is due to begin in summer 2024. Personal life Marriage and family Kingsley has been married four times and has four children: Thomas Bhanji and artist Jasmin Bhanji, with first wife, actressAngela Morant, and Edmund Kingsley andFerdinand Kingsley, both of whom became actors, with second wife, theatrical directorAlison Sutcliffe.He divorced his third wife Alexandra Christmann in 2005, having been \"deeply, deeply shocked\" after pictures of her kissing another man surfaced on the internet.On 3 September 2007, Kingsley married Brazilian actressDaniela Lavenderat Eynsham Hall inNorth Leigh, Oxfordshire. Charity Kingsley appeared in a production ofThe Children's Monologuesin 2010 on stage inLondonalongsideBenedict Cumberbatch,Tom Hiddleston,Gemma Arterton, andEddie Redmayne.It was performed on behalf ofDramatic Need, a charity that sends international arts professionals (such as musicians, artists, and actors)", "and actors) to host workshops in underprivileged and rural communities in Africa. Filmography Awards and nominations Kingsley won anAcademy Awardin theBest Actorcategory forGandhi, and has been nominated three more times:Best Supporting ActorforBugsyandSexy Beast, and Best Actor forHouse of Sand and Fog(2003). In 1984, Kingsley won a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word or Nonmusical Recording forThe Words of Gandhi, received anhonorary degreefrom theUniversity of Salford,and was awarded the Indian civilian honourPadma Shri.He was made aKnight Bachelorin the2002 New Year Honoursfor services to the British film industry.The award was announced on 31 December 2001, which happened to be Kingsley's 58th birthday.After beingknightedby QueenElizabeth IIatBuckingham Palace, Kingsley stated: I told the Queen that winning an Oscar pales into insignificance—this is insurmountable. I'm fascinated by theancient, bymythology, by these islands and their tradition of story telling. I feel that I am a story teller and to", "story teller and to receive aknighthoodis really recognition of that. His demand to be called 'Sir' in film and TV show credits was documented by the BBC, to some criticism.Co-starPenélope Cruzwas reportedly unsure what to call him during the filming ofElegyas someone had told her she needed to refer to him as \"Sir Ben\". One day it slipped out as such, and she called him that for the remainder of the shoot.Kingsley has denied accusations that he prefers to be referred to by his title, saying, \"If I've ever insisted on being called 'Sir' by colleagues on a film set then I am profoundly sorry. I don't remember ever doing that and I tend not to forget.\"In May 2010, Kingsley was awarded a star on theHollywood Walk of Fame.In April 2013, Kingsley was honoured with the Fellowship Award atThe Asian Awardsin London. References External links" ]
In January of 2024, how many colleges were in the district in which the William C. Davis Science building can be found?
Alamo Colleges District has 5 schools.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Conan_Davis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Philip%27s_College_(United_States)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamo_Colleges_District
null
null
null
null
null
null
null
null
Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Conan_Davis', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Philip%27s_College_(United_States)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamo_Colleges_District']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Conan_Davis", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Philip%27s_College_(United_States", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamo_Colleges_District" ]
[ "William Conan Davis William Conan Davis(August 22, 1926 - March 16, 2022) was a professor emeritus and was chair ofnatural sciencesatSt. Philip's CollegeinSan Antonio, Texas. The William C. Davis Science Building is named in his honor. He is best known for his research infood chemistry. He discoveredarabinogalactanand used it to createinstant mashed potatoes. His discoveries also improvedpotato chipsandsoft serve ice cream. He developed an organic glue for use in particle board. More recently, he co-developed the formula forDasaniwater. In addition to his scientific work, he was aLutheranlay minister, served during theKorean War, and received thePurple Heart. Education William Conan Davis was born on August 22, 1926, inWaycross, Georgiato Kince Charles Davis and his wife Laura Jane (née Cooper; July 9, 1898 – June 6, 2004). Kince Davis' family self-identified as being ofEthiopian Jewishdescent, and he readHebrewbut not English.Kince Davis was employed as a railway construction engineer and crew boss, a position that brought him threats from theKu Klux Klan.He later started a herbal medicine business, the only source of medical care accessible to many black people in Georgia.William Davis spent time during the summers with his maternal grandfather Jonnas Franklin, who identified as aSioux Indianand who farmed and hunted near theOkefenokee Swamp. William Davis attended Magnolia Grammar School andDasher High SchoolinValdosta, Georgia. He received a high school diploma from Dasher in 1944.His family was active in civil rights and supportive of their children's education. On one occasion Kince Davis drove his sons William and Kenneth toTuskegee Institute(a distance of 300 miles in aTin Lizzie) to attend a workshop withGeorge Washington CarverandHenry Ford. This experience fueled William's interest in becoming a chemist. Dasher High School did not teach at acollege preparatorylevel, leaving William at a disadvantage inscienceandmathematics. To prepare him for college, William's family sent him toNew York Cityin 1944. He lived with his older brother, actor andcivil rights activistOssie Davis. He attended Dwight High School, taking preparatory classes in science and graduating in 1945. William Davis briefly attended theCity College of New York, but was advised to transfer toTalladega CollegeinAlabamawhere he could get more individual support incalculus. Davis was enrolled in the U.S. ArmyReserve Officers' Training Corps. During his first year at Talladega, he was drafted to serve in theKorean War. He was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers. He served in Germany and was awarded aPurple Heartin 1953. On his return, Davis completed his B.S. degree in chemistry at Talladega College, graduating in 1956. He was one of three students chosen for a George Washington Carver research fellowship to attendTuskegee Institutein 1956.At the time, it was almost impossible for a black scientist to train for a professional career in research in the United States. Even at Tuskegee, the usual career track was to train as a teacher, with a specialization in one's area of interest.Davis was determined to do research. He worked withClarence T. Masonof Tuskegee and studied the hydrolysis rate of compounds injet fuel. This research enabled him to meetWernher Von Braunof theU.S. Space & Rocket Center. Davis received his Master of Science degree in organic chemistry from Tuskegee in 1958. Doctoral research It was extremely difficult for a black student to find support for a Ph.D. program in research.TheUniversity of Idahowas the only university willing to accept Davis as a research-track graduate student.Davis and his wife Ocia moved toMoscow, Idaho. Perhaps not surprisingly, given this location, his thesis research involvedpotatoes. Davis studied the process ofsloughing, by which plant materials break down. This has important applications in food chemistry. Soup manufacturers want potatoes that tend to stay firm, not sloughing. Makers of mashed potatoes want potato flakes to break down rapidly and reform with a uniform, soft consistency. Meanwhile, the Industrial Research department at nearbyWashington State Universityadvertised for summer researchers to study the buildup of particles on saw blades in lumber mills. Davis applied and was able to identify the source of the problem. He isolated and extracted a dry, crystal-like powder,arabinogalactan, that produced a sticky paste when water was added to it.This water-solublepolysaccharideis found in Western Larch trees (Larix occidentalis) and other plants and is believed to have health benefits.At the time, no one had any idea of how to make use of the substance Davis had identified. Back at the University of Idaho, Davis studied potato chips and what caused them to blister when fried. He was able to isolate the substance that caused the blistering, but when it was removed from the potatoes they disintegrated.Frustrated by the apparent stalemate in both lines of research, Davis tried adding arabinogalactans to his potato mixtures.The water was absorbed, and the potatoes fluffed up. Davis' approach improved the sloughing properties of the potatoes and createdinstant mashed potatoeswith a more desirable texture and consistency. While completing his doctorate, Davis worked with scientists at Washington State University in a variety of fields, including clinical research with Mark Adams.Davis did further research into the extraction of arabinogalactan from larch trees. He identified a sugar that makes frozen desserts smoother and is used to makesoft-serve ice cream.He also helped to discover a wood sugar that is used in industrial glue to make compressed wood.These discoveries were not patented, and most were further developed by others. Davis received his Ph.D. inbiochemistryfrom the University of Idaho in 1965.His Ph.D. thesis wasA Study of Sloughing in the Potato Tuber(1965).He was the first African-American to receive a Ph.D. from the University of Idaho. Further career After graduation, Davis accepted a position as a researcher with the Division of Industrial Research at Washington State University, researchingantigensforhay fever. Davis worked as a post-doctoral fellow withRosalyn Yalowat theBronx Veteran's Affairs Hospital, where he learnedradioimmunoassaytechniques for use withdiabeticpatients.Using his knowledge of radioimmunoassay techniques Davis developed standardized tests for the detection ofthyroxinin the blood stream.He also developed standardized blood tests forinsulinandgrowth hormones. Davis was recruited as a health physicist and became head of the radioactivity department at United Medical Laboratories inPortland, Oregon.Following certification as a medial technologist, Davis became director of the laboratory.He spent nearly fifteen years as Director of United Medical Laboratories. we provided analyses for doctors all over the world, and devised methods for reducing the time and cost of conducting clinical assays to develop detect concentrations of hormones and steroids in the blood such as aldosterone, estrogen, and testosterone ... We made exotic procedures routine and brought their price down. Using autoanalyzers when they had just come out, we could perform tests more quickly than they could be done locally. Concerned about the lack of medical facilities available to African Americans in the Portland area, Davis worked with Kent Ford of the PortlandBlack Panther Partyand others to establish the Fred Hampton Memorial Clinic in 1970. The clinic offered free medical services to both blacks and whites in theAlbina neighborhood. Davis was one of the few black professionals to volunteer at the clinic: its doctors were predominantly white. He was strongly involved in itssickle-cell anemiainitiatives. The clinic emphasized screening, education and counseling about the genetic disorder which disproportionately affects African Americans.In 1972, Davis helped put on the Black Community Survival Conference, a protest against the expansion of theEmanuel Hospital. The expansion was planned without community input and largely destroyed the commercial center of a historically black neighborhood. From 1974 to 1975, Davis was a visiting scientist at the George Hyman Research Institute in Washington, D.C.From 1979 to 1982, Davis was a research associate in Molecular Pharmacology at theUniversity of TexasHealth Science Center inSan Antonio, Texas.He worked with Maharaj K. Ticku to study the effects ofpicrotoxin,benzodiazepines,pentobarbital,ethanol, and other psychoactive substances onreceptorbinding sites. In 1983, Davis was hired as an instructor in the chemistry department atSt. Philip's College, giving him more opportunity for teaching as well as research.He became a full professor of chemistry in 1995. He became the chair of the Natural Sciences Department in 1996.He was also the director of Renewable Energy at St. Philip's College. I tell my students to be curious about everything — and ask, 'How can I improve this? How can I be of service?' While at St. Philip's College, one of Davis' focuses of study waswater. Davis worked with United Beverage company to study the behavioral properties ofPenta Water, which he nicknamed \"kinetic water\". The company promoted their product as having uniquely distinct chemical properties due to its purification process. Davis studied characteristics such asboiling point,pH,polarityandsurface tension.With Lanier Byrd, Davis co-created the formula that gives a characteristic taste toDasaniwater,a product ofThe Coca-Cola Company.In addition tohydrology, Davis was interested inrecombinant DNAandfuel celltechnologies forrenewable energy. Davis retired in 2009, becoming a professor emeritus of St. Philip's College. At that time, it was decided to rename the natural sciences building in his honor to acknowledge his contributions. Funds were raised to renovate the building, and it was reopened and dedicated as the William C. Davis Science Building in 2012.A portrait of William Davis, commissioned fromHoward Rhoder, hangs in the science building. 'Observe!' I have instructed my students to do thousands of times. We can take two or more existing things, analyze them for what they are, and then synthesize something entirely new that did not exist before. This is the heartbeat of scientific research and discovery. Davis was also active in preserving the history of science. He helped to establish theErnest StevensonCollection of scientific books and artifacts, to be housed at the Sutton Learning Center at St. Philip's College.: 53Before his death, he was working on his memoirs with the support of historian Jeanette Nyda Mendelssohn Passty. Awards Memberships References", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Philip%27s_College_(United_States", "Alamo Colleges District TheAlamo Colleges District(previously theAlamo Community College District, orACCD, andThe Alamo Colleges) is a network of fivecommunity collegesinSan AntonioandUniversal City,Texas, and serving theGreater San Antonio metropolitan area. The district was founded in 1945 as the San Antonio Union Junior College District before adopting the Alamo name in 1982. Colleges in the district The five colleges in the district operate with a high degree of autonomy, though the colleges' accrediting agency, theSouthern Association of Colleges and Schools, placed three in a year-long warning period from January 2017 over issues of institutional autonomy.The board of trustees for the district voted to rename the district in January 2017 to reflect issues pertaining to accreditation. All of the colleges are within San Antonio city limits except Northeast Lakeview, which is within the town limits ofUniversal CityandLive Oak, just to the northeast of the City of San Antonio. The Alamo Colleges District Main Office is located at 2222 N. Alamo St. and was previously located in multiple offices throughout the city and in a portion of Universal City. Education and programs The district serves more than 100,000 students in academic and continuing-education programs and employs more than 6,000 faculty and staff.It had a budget of $503 million for the 2023 academic year. The district offers over 300 degree and certificate programs.Most courses taken within the district are meant to apply to AA, AS, AAS, AAA, and AAT degrees, which help students apply for jobs or can be transferred to four-year institutions. Service area As defined by theTexas Legislature, the official service area of the Alamo Colleges District is: References External links See also:List of museums in Central Texas" ]
[ "William Conan Davis William Conan Davis(August 22, 1926 - March 16, 2022) was a professor emeritus and was chair ofnatural sciencesatSt. Philip's CollegeinSan Antonio, Texas. The William C. Davis Science Building is named in his honor. He is best known for his research infood chemistry. He discoveredarabinogalactanand used it to createinstant mashed potatoes. His discoveries also improvedpotato chipsandsoft serve ice cream. He developed an organic glue for use in particle board. More recently, he co-developed the formula forDasaniwater. In addition to his scientific work, he was aLutheranlay minister, served during theKorean War, and received thePurple Heart. Education William Conan Davis was born on August 22, 1926, inWaycross, Georgiato Kince Charles Davis and his wife Laura Jane (née Cooper; July 9, 1898 – June 6, 2004). Kince Davis' family self-identified as being ofEthiopian Jewishdescent, and he readHebrewbut not English.Kince Davis was employed as a railway construction engineer and crew boss, a", "and crew boss, a position that brought him threats from theKu Klux Klan.He later started a herbal medicine business, the only source of medical care accessible to many black people in Georgia.William Davis spent time during the summers with his maternal grandfather Jonnas Franklin, who identified as aSioux Indianand who farmed and hunted near theOkefenokee Swamp. William Davis attended Magnolia Grammar School andDasher High SchoolinValdosta, Georgia. He received a high school diploma from Dasher in 1944.His family was active in civil rights and supportive of their children's education. On one occasion Kince Davis drove his sons William and Kenneth toTuskegee Institute(a distance of 300 miles in aTin Lizzie) to attend a workshop withGeorge Washington CarverandHenry Ford. This experience fueled William's interest in becoming a chemist. Dasher High School did not teach at acollege preparatorylevel, leaving William at a disadvantage inscienceandmathematics. To prepare him for college, William's family sent him", "family sent him toNew York Cityin 1944. He lived with his older brother, actor andcivil rights activistOssie Davis. He attended Dwight High School, taking preparatory classes in science and graduating in 1945. William Davis briefly attended theCity College of New York, but was advised to transfer toTalladega CollegeinAlabamawhere he could get more individual support incalculus. Davis was enrolled in the U.S. ArmyReserve Officers' Training Corps. During his first year at Talladega, he was drafted to serve in theKorean War. He was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers. He served in Germany and was awarded aPurple Heartin 1953. On his return, Davis completed his B.S. degree in chemistry at Talladega College, graduating in 1956. He was one of three students chosen for a George Washington Carver research fellowship to attendTuskegee Institutein 1956.At the time, it was almost impossible for a black scientist to train for a professional career in research in the United States. Even", "United States. Even at Tuskegee, the usual career track was to train as a teacher, with a specialization in one's area of interest.Davis was determined to do research. He worked withClarence T. Masonof Tuskegee and studied the hydrolysis rate of compounds injet fuel. This research enabled him to meetWernher Von Braunof theU.S. Space & Rocket Center. Davis received his Master of Science degree in organic chemistry from Tuskegee in 1958. Doctoral research It was extremely difficult for a black student to find support for a Ph.D. program in research.TheUniversity of Idahowas the only university willing to accept Davis as a research-track graduate student.Davis and his wife Ocia moved toMoscow, Idaho. Perhaps not surprisingly, given this location, his thesis research involvedpotatoes. Davis studied the process ofsloughing, by which plant materials break down. This has important applications in food chemistry. Soup manufacturers want potatoes that tend to stay firm, not sloughing. Makers of mashed potatoes want", "potatoes want potato flakes to break down rapidly and reform with a uniform, soft consistency. Meanwhile, the Industrial Research department at nearbyWashington State Universityadvertised for summer researchers to study the buildup of particles on saw blades in lumber mills. Davis applied and was able to identify the source of the problem. He isolated and extracted a dry, crystal-like powder,arabinogalactan, that produced a sticky paste when water was added to it.This water-solublepolysaccharideis found in Western Larch trees (Larix occidentalis) and other plants and is believed to have health benefits.At the time, no one had any idea of how to make use of the substance Davis had identified. Back at the University of Idaho, Davis studied potato chips and what caused them to blister when fried. He was able to isolate the substance that caused the blistering, but when it was removed from the potatoes they disintegrated.Frustrated by the apparent stalemate in both lines of research, Davis tried adding", "Davis tried adding arabinogalactans to his potato mixtures.The water was absorbed, and the potatoes fluffed up. Davis' approach improved the sloughing properties of the potatoes and createdinstant mashed potatoeswith a more desirable texture and consistency. While completing his doctorate, Davis worked with scientists at Washington State University in a variety of fields, including clinical research with Mark Adams.Davis did further research into the extraction of arabinogalactan from larch trees. He identified a sugar that makes frozen desserts smoother and is used to makesoft-serve ice cream.He also helped to discover a wood sugar that is used in industrial glue to make compressed wood.These discoveries were not patented, and most were further developed by others. Davis received his Ph.D. inbiochemistryfrom the University of Idaho in 1965.His Ph.D. thesis wasA Study of Sloughing in the Potato Tuber(1965).He was the first African-American to receive a Ph.D. from the University of Idaho. Further career After", "career After graduation, Davis accepted a position as a researcher with the Division of Industrial Research at Washington State University, researchingantigensforhay fever. Davis worked as a post-doctoral fellow withRosalyn Yalowat theBronx Veteran's Affairs Hospital, where he learnedradioimmunoassaytechniques for use withdiabeticpatients.Using his knowledge of radioimmunoassay techniques Davis developed standardized tests for the detection ofthyroxinin the blood stream.He also developed standardized blood tests forinsulinandgrowth hormones. Davis was recruited as a health physicist and became head of the radioactivity department at United Medical Laboratories inPortland, Oregon.Following certification as a medial technologist, Davis became director of the laboratory.He spent nearly fifteen years as Director of United Medical Laboratories. we provided analyses for doctors all over the world, and devised methods for reducing the time and cost of conducting clinical assays to develop detect concentrations of", "concentrations of hormones and steroids in the blood such as aldosterone, estrogen, and testosterone ... We made exotic procedures routine and brought their price down. Using autoanalyzers when they had just come out, we could perform tests more quickly than they could be done locally. Concerned about the lack of medical facilities available to African Americans in the Portland area, Davis worked with Kent Ford of the PortlandBlack Panther Partyand others to establish the Fred Hampton Memorial Clinic in 1970. The clinic offered free medical services to both blacks and whites in theAlbina neighborhood. Davis was one of the few black professionals to volunteer at the clinic: its doctors were predominantly white. He was strongly involved in itssickle-cell anemiainitiatives. The clinic emphasized screening, education and counseling about the genetic disorder which disproportionately affects African Americans.In 1972, Davis helped put on the Black Community Survival Conference, a protest against the expansion of", "the expansion of theEmanuel Hospital. The expansion was planned without community input and largely destroyed the commercial center of a historically black neighborhood. From 1974 to 1975, Davis was a visiting scientist at the George Hyman Research Institute in Washington, D.C.From 1979 to 1982, Davis was a research associate in Molecular Pharmacology at theUniversity of TexasHealth Science Center inSan Antonio, Texas.He worked with Maharaj K. Ticku to study the effects ofpicrotoxin,benzodiazepines,pentobarbital,ethanol, and other psychoactive substances onreceptorbinding sites. In 1983, Davis was hired as an instructor in the chemistry department atSt. Philip's College, giving him more opportunity for teaching as well as research.He became a full professor of chemistry in 1995. He became the chair of the Natural Sciences Department in 1996.He was also the director of Renewable Energy at St. Philip's College. I tell my students to be curious about everything — and ask, 'How can I improve this? How can I be", "this? How can I be of service?' While at St. Philip's College, one of Davis' focuses of study waswater. Davis worked with United Beverage company to study the behavioral properties ofPenta Water, which he nicknamed \"kinetic water\". The company promoted their product as having uniquely distinct chemical properties due to its purification process. Davis studied characteristics such asboiling point,pH,polarityandsurface tension.With Lanier Byrd, Davis co-created the formula that gives a characteristic taste toDasaniwater,a product ofThe Coca-Cola Company.In addition tohydrology, Davis was interested inrecombinant DNAandfuel celltechnologies forrenewable energy. Davis retired in 2009, becoming a professor emeritus of St. Philip's College. At that time, it was decided to rename the natural sciences building in his honor to acknowledge his contributions. Funds were raised to renovate the building, and it was reopened and dedicated as the William C. Davis Science Building in 2012.A portrait of William Davis,", "of William Davis, commissioned fromHoward Rhoder, hangs in the science building. 'Observe!' I have instructed my students to do thousands of times. We can take two or more existing things, analyze them for what they are, and then synthesize something entirely new that did not exist before. This is the heartbeat of scientific research and discovery. Davis was also active in preserving the history of science. He helped to establish theErnest StevensonCollection of scientific books and artifacts, to be housed at the Sutton Learning Center at St. Philip's College.: 53Before his death, he was working on his memoirs with the support of historian Jeanette Nyda Mendelssohn Passty. Awards Memberships References", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Philip%27s_College_(United_States", "Alamo Colleges District TheAlamo Colleges District(previously theAlamo Community College District, orACCD, andThe Alamo Colleges) is a network of fivecommunity collegesinSan AntonioandUniversal City,Texas, and serving theGreater San Antonio metropolitan area. The district was founded in 1945 as the San Antonio Union Junior College District before adopting the Alamo name in 1982. Colleges in the district The five colleges in the district operate with a high degree of autonomy, though the colleges' accrediting agency, theSouthern Association of Colleges and Schools, placed three in a year-long warning period from January 2017 over issues of institutional autonomy.The board of trustees for the district voted to rename the district in January 2017 to reflect issues pertaining to accreditation. All of the colleges are within San Antonio city limits except Northeast Lakeview, which is within the town limits ofUniversal CityandLive Oak, just to the northeast of the City of San Antonio. The Alamo Colleges District", "Colleges District Main Office is located at 2222 N. Alamo St. and was previously located in multiple offices throughout the city and in a portion of Universal City. Education and programs The district serves more than 100,000 students in academic and continuing-education programs and employs more than 6,000 faculty and staff.It had a budget of $503 million for the 2023 academic year. The district offers over 300 degree and certificate programs.Most courses taken within the district are meant to apply to AA, AS, AAS, AAA, and AAT degrees, which help students apply for jobs or can be transferred to four-year institutions. Service area As defined by theTexas Legislature, the official service area of the Alamo Colleges District is: References External links See also:List of museums in Central Texas" ]
Who had their twenty-first number one hit on the US Billboard Hot Country Songs chart the same week Carly Rae Jepsen hit #39 on the Australia ARIA Top 50 Singles chart?
Kenny Chesney
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Me_Maybe#Year-end_charts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Billboard_number-one_country_songs_of_2012
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_(Kenny_Chesney_song)
null
null
null
null
null
null
null
null
Numerical reasoning | Tabular reasoning | Multiple constraints | Temporal reasoning
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Me_Maybe#Year-end_charts', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Billboard_number-one_country_songs_of_2012', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_(Kenny_Chesney_song)']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_Me_Maybe#Year-end_charts", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Billboard_number-one_country_songs_of_2012", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_(Kenny_Chesney_song" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Call_Me_Maybe (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92d9f760>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_Billboard_number-one_country_songs_of_2012 (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b95184340>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_(Kenny_Chesney_song" ]
[ "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/Call_Me_Maybe (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b92d9f760>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='en.wikipedia.org', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: /wiki/List_of_Billboard_number-one_country_songs_of_2012 (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x7f4b95184340>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 101] Network is unreachable'))", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reality_(Kenny_Chesney_song" ]
Of the 'Big Four' of Thrash Metal, whose debut full-length was released first?
Metallica
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrash_metal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallica
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slayer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megadeth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_(American_band)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kill_%27Em_All
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Show_No_Mercy
null
null
null
null
Multiple constraints
['https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrash_metal', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallica', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slayer', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megadeth', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_(American_band)', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kill_%27Em_All', 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Show_No_Mercy']
[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrash_metal", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallica", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slayer", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megadeth", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_(American_band", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kill_%27Em_All", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Show_No_Mercy" ]
[ "Thrash metal Thrash metal(or simplythrash) is anextremesubgenre ofheavy metal musiccharacterized by its overall aggression and fast tempo.The songs usually use fast percussive beats and low-register guitarriffs, overlaid withshredding-style lead guitar work. The genre emerged in the early 1980s as musicians began fusing the double bass drumming and complex guitar stylings of thenew wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) with the speed and aggression ofhardcore punkand the technicality ofprogressive music.Philosophically, thrash metal developed as a backlash against both theconservatismof theReagan eraand the much more moderate,pop-influenced, and widely accessible heavy metal subgenre ofglam metalwhich also developed concurrently in the 1980s. The early thrash metal movement revolved around independent record labels, includingMegaforce,Metal Blade,Combat,Roadrunner, andNoise, and the undergroundtape tradingindustry in both Europe and North America. The genre was commercially successful from approximately 1985 through 1991, bringing prominence toMetallica,Slayer,Megadeth, andAnthrax, all grouped together as the \"Big Four\" of U.S. thrash metal.Other U.S. bands, such asOverkill,Metal Church, andBay AreaactsExodus,TestamentandDeath Angel, never achieved the popularity of the \"Big Four\" but also had considerable success during the late 1980s and early 1990s, particularly on the strength of airplay onMTV'sHeadbangers Ball.Some of the most successful international thrash metal bands from this era were Brazil'sSepultura, Canada'sVoivod, and the genre's \"Big Teutonic Four\":Kreator,Destruction,Sodom, andTankard. The thrash metal genre had declined in popularity by the mid-1990s, due to the commercial success of numerous genres such asalternative rock,grunge, and laterpop-punkandnu metal. In response, some bands either disbanded or moved away from their thrash metal roots and more towardsgroove metaloralternative metal. The genre has seen a resurgence in popularity since the 2000s, with the arrival of various bands such asBonded by Blood,Evile,Hatchet,Havok,Lamb of God,Municipal Waste, andWarbringer, who have all been credited for leading the so-called \"thrash metal revival\" scene. Characteristics Thrash metal generally features fasttempos, low-register, complex guitarriffs, high-register guitarsolos, anddouble bass drumming.The rhythm guitar parts are played with heavy distortion and oftenpalm mutedto create a tighter and more precise sound.Vocally, thrash metal can employ anything from melodic singing to shouted or screamed vocals. Most guitar solos are played at high speed and technically demanding, as they are usually characterized byshredding, and use advanced techniques such assweep picking,legato phrasing,alternate picking,tremolo picking,string skipping, andtwo-hand tapping. David Ellefson, the original bassist ofMegadeth, described thrash metal as \"a combination of the attitude from punk rock but the riffs and complexities of traditional metal.\" The guitar riffs often usechromatic scalesand emphasize the tritone and diminished intervals, instead of using conventional single-scale-based riffing. For example, the intro riff ofMetallica's \"Master of Puppets\" (the title track of thenamesake album) is a chromatic descent, followed by a chromatic ascent based on thetritone. Speed, pacing, and time changes also define thrash metal. Thrash tends to have an accelerating feel which may be due in large part to its aggressive drumming style. For example, drummers often use two bass drums, or a double-bass pedal to create a relentless, driving beat. Cymbal stops/chokesare often used to transition from one riff to another or to precede an acceleration in tempo. Some common characteristics of the genre are fast guitar riffs with aggressive picking styles and fast guitar solos, and extensive use of two bass drums as opposed to the conventional use of only one, typical of most rock music. To keep up with the other instruments, many bassists use aplectrum(pick). However, some prominent thrash metal bassists haveused their fingers, such asFrank Bello,Greg Christian,Steve Di Giorgio,Robert Trujillo, andCliff Burton. Several bassists use adistorted bass tone, an approach popularized by Burton andMotörhead'sLemmy. Lyrical themes in thrash metal include warfare, corruption, injustice, murder, suicide, isolation, alienation, addiction, and other maladies that afflict the individual and society. In addition, politics, particularly pessimism and dissatisfaction towards politics, are common themes among thrash metal bands. Humor and irony can occasionally be found (Anthraxfor example), but they are limited, and are an exception rather than a rule. History Roots (1970s–early 1980s) Queen's 1974 song \"Stone Cold Crazy\" andBlack Sabbath's 1975 song \"Symptom of the Universe\" are often referred to as compelling early influences on thrash; the latter of which was a direct inspiration forDiamond Head's pioneering song \"Am I Evil?\".Thenew wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) bands emerging from Britain in the late 1970s further influenced the development of early thrash. The early work of artists such as Diamond Head,Iron Maiden,Venom,Motörhead,Tygers of Pan Tang,Raven, andAngel Witch, among others, introduced the fast-paced and intricate musicianship that became core aspects of thrash.Phil Taylor's double-bass drumming featured in Motörhead's 1979 song \"Overkill\" has been acknowledged by many thrash drummers, most notablyLars Ulrich, as a primary influence on their playing. Thrash metal bands have also taken inspiration fromJudas Priest, withSlayerguitaristKerry Kingsaying that, \"There would be no Slayer without Priest.\"Metal Blade RecordsexecutiveBrian Slagelplayed a key role in bringing the NWOBHM to a larger audience, as he was responsible for discovering bothMetallicaand Slayer and producing their earliest studio recordings. In addition to the NWOBHM and the late 1960s and 1970shard rockand heavy metal scenes,progressive rockhas been cited as an important influence on the creation of thrash metal and its subgenre technical thrash metal (or \"progressivethrash metal\"), the latter of which adds elements of progressive,jazzorclassical music.Greg Prato ofUltimate Guitarnoted: \"Although the thrash movement seemed to have much more in common with punk than prog fashion-wise (leather jackets vs. capes), musically, there were certainly moments when thrash leaned more towards the prog side of things.\" The thrash metal genre is also strongly influenced by the 1970s and early 1980spunk rockscene, including that of theNew York Dolls, theRamones, theSex Pistolsand theDead Boys,as well as late 1970s/early 1980shardcore punkbandsDischarge,GBH,Black Flag,theMisfits, theDead Kennedys, andBad Brains.The Ramones' 1976self-titled debut albumin particular has been noted as a key influence on the genre, due to its sound, which introduced the three-chord thrash style of guitar.Voidhas been credited as one of the earliest examples of hardcore/heavy metal crossover, whose chaotic musical approach is often cited as particularly influential.Their 1982split LPwith fellow Washington bandThe Faithshowed both bands exhibiting quick, fiery, high-speed punk rock. It has been argued that those recordings laid the foundation for early thrash metal, at least in terms of selected tempos,and that thrash is essentially hardcore punk with the technical proficiency missing from that genre. The crossover with hardcore punk has also been cited as important influence on thrash, especially the English hardcore punk band Discharge, whose \"influence on heavy metal is incalculable and metal superstars such as Metallica,Anthrax,Machine Head,Sepultura,Soulfly,ProngandArch Enemyhave covered Discharge's songs in tribute.\"The eponymousdebutalbumsbyD.R.I.andSuicidal Tendencies, both released in 1983, have been credited for paving the way forthrashcore. In Latin America, this genre also gained a lot of strength, and its creation is also attributed to it, since it began to gain popularity due to the dictatorships that many countries faced at that time, with bands likeV8(1979) with their debut albumsDemo 1982orLuchando por el metal,andBloke(1980)fromArgentina,Transmetal(1987) fromMéxico, also the bandMassakre(1985) inChile. In Europe, the earliest band of the emerging thrash movement was Venom fromNewcastle upon Tyne, formed in 1979. Their 1982 albumBlack Metalhas been cited as a major influence on many subsequent genres and bands in the extreme metal world, such asBathory,Hellhammer, Slayer, andMayhem. The European scene was almost exclusively influenced by the most aggressive music Germany and England were producing at the time. British bands such asTankandRaven, along with German bandsAccept(whose 1982 song \"Fast as a Shark\" is often credited as one of the first-ever thrash/speed metal songs)andLiving Death,motivated musicians from central Europe to start bands of their own, eventually producing groups such asSodom,Kreator, andDestructionfrom Germany, as well as Switzerland'sCeltic Frost(formed by two-thirds ofHellhammer),Coronerand Carrion (who later becamePoltergeist) and Denmark'sArtillery. Thrash metal in the 1980s Birth and underground expansion (1981–1983) In 1981,Los AngelesbandLeather Charmwrote a song entitled \"Hit the Lights\". Leather Charm soon disbanded and the band's primary songwriter, vocalist/rhythm guitaristJames Hetfield, met drummerLars Ulrichthrough a classified advertisement. Together, Hetfield and Ulrich formedMetallica, one of the \"Big Four\" thrash bands, with lead guitaristDave Mustaine, who would later formMegadeth, another of the \"Big Four\" originators of thrash, and bassistRon McGovney. McGovney would be replaced by Cliff Burton (formerly ofTrauma), and Mustaine was later replaced byKirk Hammettof the then-unsignedBay Area thrash metalactExodus, and at Burton's insistence, the band relocated to theSan Francisco Bay Area. Before Metallica had even settled on a definitive lineup, Metal Blade Records executiveBrian Slagelasked Hetfield and Ulrich (credited as \"Mettallica\") to record \"Hit the Lights\" for the first edition of hisMetal Massacrecompilation in 1982. An updated version of \"Hit the Lights\" would later open their first studio album,Kill 'Em All, released in mid-1983. The term \"thrash metal\" was first used in the music press byKerrang!magazine's journalistMalcolm Domewhile referring to another of the \"Big Four\",Anthrax(who, like Metallica, formed in 1981), and their song \"Metal Thrashing Mad\".Before this, Metallica frontman James Hetfield referred to his band's sound asspeed metalorpower metal. Another \"Big Four\" thrash band formed in Los Angeles in 1981, when guitaristsJeff HannemanandKerry Kingmet while auditioning for the same band and subsequently decided to form a band of their own. Hanneman and King recruited vocalist/bassistTom Arayaand drummerDave Lombardo, andSlayerwas formed. Slayer was discovered by Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel; the band's live performance ofIron Maiden's \"Phantom of the Opera\" so impressed him that he promptly signed them to his label. In December 1983, five months after the release of Metallica's debutKill 'Em All, Slayer released their debut album,Show No Mercy. To the north, Canada produced influential thrash andspeed metalbands such asAnnihilator,Anvil,Exciter,Razor,Sacrifice, andVoivod. Mainstream popularity (1984–1989) First wave (1984–1986) The popularity of thrash metal increased in 1984 with the release of Metallica's sophomore recordRide the Lightning, as well as Anthrax's debutFistful of MetalandMetal Church'seponymous debut album.Slayer andOverkillreleased extended plays on independent labels during this era,Haunting the ChapelandOverkillrespectively. This led to a heavier-sounding form of thrash, which was reflected in Exodus' debut albumBonded by Blood, Slayer'sHell Awaitsand Anthrax'sSpreading the Disease, all three released in 1985. Several other debut albums were released that same year, including Megadeth'sKilling Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, Overkill'sFeel the Fire, Kreator'sEndless Pain, Destruction'sInfernal Overkill,Possessed'sSeven Churches,Celtic Frost'sTo Mega Therion,Watchtower'sEnergetic Disassemblyand theSepulturaEPBestial Devastation.Seven ChurchesandTo Mega Therionare often credited for pioneering and popularizing the mid-1980sextreme metalscene (as well as the then-developing genres ofdeath metalandblack metal, respectively),whileEnergetic Disassemblyhas been cited as the firstprogressive/technical thrash metalalbum. From a creative standpoint, the year 1986 was perhaps the pinnacle of thrash metal,as a number of critically acclaimed and genre-defining albums were released. Metallica's major label debutMaster of Puppetswas released in March, becoming the first thrash album to be certified platinum, being certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it would be the band's last album to feature bassistCliff Burton, who was killed in a bus accident six months after its release. Kreator releasedPleasure to Killin April 1986, which would later be a major influence on the death metal scene.Megadeth releasedPeace Sells... but Who's Buying?in September, an album which proved to be the band's commercial and critical breakthrough and whichAllMusiclater cited as \"a classic of early thrash\".Slayer, regarded as one of the most sinister thrash metal bands of the early 1980s,releasedReign in Bloodin October, an album considered by some to have single-handedly inspired the death metal genre.Also in October,Nuclear Assaultreleased their debut albumGame Over, followed a month later byDark Angel'sDarkness Descends, which marked the debut of renowned drummerGene Hoglan.Flotsam and Jetsam's debut albumDoomsday for the Deceiver(released on theFourth of Julyin 1986) received some attention as well, due to the album being \"the first of only a handful\" to ever receive a 6K rating fromKerrang!magazine, and it is also notable for featuring a then-unknownJason Newsted, who, not long after the album's release, joined Metallica as Burton's replacement. Also during the mid-to-late 1980s, bands such asSuicidal Tendencies,D.R.I.,S.O.D.(who featured three-fifths of Anthrax), andCorrosion of Conformitypaved the way to what became known ascrossover thrash, a fusion genre that lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk, and is arguably faster and more aggressive than thrash metal. Second wave (1987–1989) By the mid-to-late 1980s, thrash metal began to achieve major mainstream success worldwide, with many bands of the genre receiving heavy rotation onMTV'sHeadbangers Ball,and radio stations such asKNACinLong BeachandZ RockinDallas,as well as coverage on numerous publications, includingKerrang!andRIP Magazine. These outlets not only played a major role in the crossover success of thrash metal during this time, but helped push album sales of the genre's \"Big Four\" and similar bands, or moved them from playing clubs to arenas and stadiums. Anthraxmade its mainstream breakthrough in 1987 with the release of their gold-certified albumAmong the Living, which borrowed elements from their two previous releases, with fast guitar riffs and pounding drums. Shortly after the release ofAmong the Living, three Bay Area bands,Testament,Death AngelandHeathen, respectively released their debut albumsThe Legacy,The Ultra-ViolenceandBreaking the Silence. All of the \"Big Four\" ofTeutonic thrash metalalso released albums in 1987: Kreator'sTerrible Certainty, Destruction'sRelease from Agony, Sodom'sPersecution Maniaand Tankard'sChemical Invasion; these albums cemented their reputations as top-tier German thrash metal bands. In response to thrash metal's growing popularity during this period, several hardcore punk bands began changing their style to a more heavier direction, includingSuicidal Tendencies, who are often considered to be one of the \"fathers of crossover thrash\",and became more recognized as a thrash metal band in the late 1980s (thanks in large part to the presence of guitaristsRocky GeorgeandMike Clark); the band would reach new heights of success with their first two major-label albums,How Will I Laugh Tomorrow When I Can't Even Smile Today(1988) andControlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit... Déjà Vu(1989).D.R.I.'s music took a similar direction with their last three albums of the 1980s,Crossover(1987),4 of a Kind(1988), andThrash Zone(1989),and other bands would follow suit, includingThe Exploited,Excel(from Suicidal Tendencies' hometown ofVenice) andNew York hardcoreactsM.O.D.(fronted by former S.O.D. singerBilly Milano), theCro-Magsand theCrumbsuckers. From 1987 to 1989, Overkill releasedTaking Over,Under the Influence,andThe Years of Decay, three albums considered their best. Each of the \"Big Four\" of thrash metal bands released albums in 1988: Slayer releasedSouth of Heaven, Megadeth releasedSo Far, So Good... So What!, Anthrax releasedState of Euphoriawhile Metallica's...And Justice for Allspawned the band's first video and Top 40 hit, theWorld War I–themed song \"One\". That same year, Metallica joinedVan Halen,Scorpions,DokkenandKingdom Comeon the two-month-long arena and stadium tourMonsters of Rockin North America.In the spring of 1989, Anthrax teamed up with Exodus andHelloweenon aUS arena toursponsored byHeadbangers Ball. Sepultura's third album,Beneath the Remains(1989), earned them some mainstream appeal as it was released byRoadrunner Records. Testament's second and third albumsThe New Order(1988) andPractice What You Preach(1989), nearly gained them the same level of popularity as the \"Big Four\",whileExodus' third albumFabulous Disaster(1989) garnered the band their first music video and one of their most recognized songs, themosh-pitanthem \"The Toxic Waltz\".Vio-lence,Forbidden, andSadus, three relative latecomers to the Bay Area thrash metal scene, released their debut albumsEternal Nightmare,Forbidden Evil,andIllusions, respectively, in 1988; the latter album demonstrated a sound that was primarily driven by the fretless bass ofSteve Di Giorgio. Also in 1988,Blind Illusionreleased its only studio album for more than two decades,The Sane Asylum, which received some particular attention as it was produced byKirk Hammett, and is also notable for featuring bassistLes Claypooland former Possessed guitaristLarry LaLonde; after its release, the two would later team up together in Claypool's then-upcoming bandPrimus. Canadian thrashersAnnihilatorreleased their highly technical debutAlice in Hellin 1989, which was praised for its fast riffs and extended guitar solos. In Germany, Sodom releasedAgent Orange, and Kreator would releaseExtreme Aggression. Several highly acclaimed albums associated with the sub-genre of technical thrash metal were also released in 1989, including Coroner'sNo More Color, Dark Angel'sLeave Scars,Toxik'sThink This,andWatchtower'sControl and Resistance, which has been recognized and acknowledged as one of the cornerstones ofjazz-metal fusionand a major influence on thetechnical death metalgenre,whileForced Entry's debut albumUncertain Futurehelped pioneer the late 1980sSeattle musicscene. Thrash metal in the 1990s Continued popularity (1990–1991) A number of more typical but technically sophisticated albums were released in 1990, including Megadeth'sRust in Peace, Anthrax'sPersistence of Time, Slayer'sSeasons in the Abyss, Suicidal Tendencies'Lights...Camera...Revolution!, Testament'sSouls of Black, Kreator'sComa of Souls, Destruction'sCracked Brain, Forbidden'sTwisted into Form, Exodus'Impact Is Imminent,Sacred Reich'sThe American Way,Prong'sBeg to Differ,Pantera'sCowboys from HellandExhorder'sSlaughter in the Vatican; the latter three are often credited for being an integral part of the then-developinggroove metalgenre.All of those albums were commercial high points for the aforementioned artists. During this period, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined one of the most successful tours in thrash metal history called theClash of the Titans; the first leg in Europe included support from Testament and Suicidal Tendencies, while the second leg in North America had Anthrax and then-emerging Seattle bandAlice in Chains, who were the supporting act. Several albums, some of which had come to be known as technical thrash metal, were released in 1991, including Overkill'sHorrorscope,Heathen'sVictims of Deception,Dark Angel'sTime Does Not Heal, Sepultura'sArise, Coroner'sMental Vortex, Prong'sProve You Wrongand Forced Entry'sAs Above, So Below. In 1991, Metallica released theireponymous fifth studio album, known as \"The Black Album\". The album marked a stylistic change in the band, eliminating much of the speed and longer song structures of the band's previous work, and instead focusing on more concise and heavier songs. The album was a change in Metallica's direction from the thrash metal style of the band's previous four studio albums towards a more contemporary heavy metal sound with originalhard rockelements, but still had remnant characteristics of thrash metal.It would go on to become the band's best-selling album and began a wave of thrash metal bands releasing more garage-oriented albums, or else more experimental ones. Decline (1991–1999) The era of 1991–1992 marked the beginning of the end of thrash metal's commercial peak, due to the rising popularity of thealternative metalandgrungemovements (the latter spearheaded byWashington-based bandsNirvana,Soundgarden,Alice in ChainsandPearl Jam).In response to this climate change, many thrash metal bands that had emerged from the previous decade had called it quits or went on hiatus during the 1990s, while half of the \"Big Four\" and other veteran bands began changing to more accessible, radio-friendly styles.Metallica was a notable example of this shift, particularly with their mid–to–late 1990s albumsLoad, andReLoad, which displayed minorbluesandsouthern rockinfluences, and were seen as a major departure from the band's earlier sound.Megadeth took a more accessible heavy metal route starting with their 1992 albumCountdown to Extinction.Testament, Exodus and Flotsam and Jetsam all took a melodic/progressive approach with the albumsThe Ritual,Force of Habit,andCuatro,respectively. One of the pioneers of crossover thrash,Corrosion of Conformity, began changing their sound into a slower andBlack Sabbath-influenced heavy metal direction with their post-1980s output, adapting influences and textures ofsludge,doom metal, blues, and southern rock on several of their albums, includingBlind(1991),Deliverance(1994) andWiseblood(1996). In the wake of the success ofgroove metal, instigated by Pantera (who went on to become one of the most successful heavy metal bands of the 1990s), several thrash metal established bands started to expand their sound by adding elements and influences from the groove metal genre.Anthrax, who had recently replacedJoey BelladonnawithJohn Bushas their singer, began stepping away from their previously established thrash metal formula to a more accessible alternative/groove metal approach for the remainder of their 1990s output, starting with and includingSound of White Noise(1993).Sacred Reich, Overkill, Coroner, Prong, Testament, and Forbidden followed this trend with their respective albumsIndependent,I Hear Black,Grin,Cleansing,Low,andDistortion.Sepultura's 1993 albumChaos A.D.also marked the beginning of their transition away from death/thrash metal to groove metal which had influenced then-up-and-coming bands likeKorn, who reciprocally became the inspiration behind thenu metalstyle of the band's next albumRoots(1996).Rootswould influence a generation of bands fromLinkin ParktoSlipknot, which during the 1990s meant the replacement of death, thrash, and speed, by nu metal and metalcore as popular epicenters of the hardest metal scene. Staying away from this new commercial mainstream of groove metal, metalcore, and especially nu metal, thesecond wave of black metalemerged as an opposed underground music scene, initially inNorway. This crop of new bands differenced themselves from the \"first wave\" by totally distilling black metal from the combined origins with thrash metal, but they preserved from all these sub-genres the emphasis on atmosphere over rhythm. As furtherextreme metalgenres came to prominence in the 1990s (industrial metal, death metal, andblack metaleach finding their own fanbase), the heavy metal \"family tree\" soon found itself blending aesthetics and styles.For example, bands with all the musical traits of thrash metal began usingdeath growls, a vocal style borrowed from death metal, while black metal bands often utilized the airy feel ofsynthesizers, popularized in industrial metal. Today the placing of bands within distinct sub-genres remains a source of contention for heavy metal fans, however, little debate resides over the fact that thrash metal is the sole proprietor of its respective spin-offs. Revivals (2000–present) A few thrash metal bands from the 1980s and early 1990s, particularly the genre's U.S. \"big four\", continued recording and touring with success in the 2000s. In 2003, Anthrax released their first studio album in five yearsWe've Come for You All, followed a month later by Metallica's double platinum-certified albumSt. Anger. After experimenting further with a commercialized sound on their previous few albums, Megadeth returned to its heavier sound with their ninth albumThe World Needs a Hero(2001). It would be the band's final album before disbanding in the following year, due to an arm injury that had leftDave Mustaineunable to play guitar;he would eventually reform Megadeth for a handful albums, includingThe System Has Failed(2004) which was originally going to be released as a solo album by him,before reuniting with co-founding member and bassistDavid Ellefsonin 2010. Slayer released three albums in the 2000s:God Hates Us All(2001), which saw a return to their signature thrash metal sound,followed byChrist Illusion(2006) andWorld Painted Blood(2009), both of which marked their first studio albums with drummerDave Lombardoin nearly two decades. Although their career had declined from its peak in the 1990s, Overkill was perhaps one of the most-active thrash metal groups outside of the \"Big Four\", having never disbanded or taken longer breaks in-between records, and with 2000'sBloodletting, they were the first band in the genre to release more than ten studio albums. Overkill's popularity was reignited in the 2010s, with three of their albums,The Electric Age(2012),White Devil Armory(2014) andThe Grinding Wheel(2017), all entering the Top 100 on theBillboardcharts. The resurgence of interest in the thrash metal genre during the early 2000s was widely attributed to theThrash of the Titansfestival, which was held in August 2001 as a co-benefit concert for Testament singerChuck BillyandDeath'sChuck Schuldiner, who were both battling cancer.The show is also notable for seeing several of Testament'sBay Area thrash metalcontemporaries, including Exodus, Death Angel,Vio-lence,Forbidden Evil,Sadusand Legacy (a precursor to Testament), reunited.Many thrash metal bands from outside of the Bay Area would subsequently reunite, including Anthrax (twice withJoey Belladonnaand briefly withJohn Bush),Dark Angel,Nuclear Assault,Sacred Reich,UK bandsOnslaught,Sabbat,andXentrix,and Canada'sSacrifice,renewing interest in previous decades. The term \"thrash-revivalists\" has been applied to such bands asLamb of God,Municipal Waste,Evile,Havok,Warbringer,Vektor,Bonded by Blood,Hatchet,andPower Trip.Evile's 2007 debut albumEnter the Grave, produced by former Metallica producer and engineerFlemming Rasmussen, received considerable praise for its sound, which combined elements of the sounds of Slayer and the Bay Area scene (particularly Exodus and Testament).Los Angeles-based bands Warbringer and Bonded by Blood took a similar approach on their respective debut albums,War Without EndandFeed the Beast, both released in 2008.Perhaps the most commercially successful band from the 2000s and 2010s thrash metal revival movement is Lamb of God, who are also considered a key part of thenew wave of American heavy metalmovement,have received twogold-certifiedalbums in the U.S.,and continue to play from small clubs to arenas and stadiums. Notable bands returned to their roots with releases such as Kreator'sViolent Revolution(2001), Metallica'sDeath Magnetic(2008), Megadeth'sEndgame(2009), Slayer'sWorld Painted Blood(2009), Exodus'Exhibit B: The Human Condition(2010), Overkill'sIronbound(2010), Anthrax'sWorship Music(2011), Testament'sDark Roots of Earth(2012), and Flotsam and Jetsam'sUgly Noise(2012). More recent bands of the genre, such as Havok andLegion of the Damnedhave turned their focus towards a more aggressive rendition of thrash metal, incorporating elements ofmelodic death metal. Spin-off genres Thrash metal is directly responsible for the development of underground metal genres, such as death metal,black metal,andgroove metal.In addition to this,metalcore,grindcore, anddeathcoreemploy similar riffs in their composition, the former with more focus on melody rather than chromaticism. The blending of punk ethos and metal's brutal nature led to even more extreme, underground styles after thrash metal began gaining mild commercial success in the late 1980s. With gorier subject matter, heavier down tuning of guitars, more consistent use ofblast beat drumming, and darker, atonaldeath growls, death metal was established in the mid-1980s. Black metal, also related to thrash metal, emerged at the same time, with many black metal bands taking influence from thrash metal bands such asVenom.Black metal continued deviating from thrash metal, often providing more orchestral overtones, opentremolo picking, blast beat drumming,shriekedor raspy vocals andpaganoroccult-based aesthetics to distinguish itself from thrash metal. Thrash metal would later combine with its spinoffs, thus giving rise to genres likeblackened thrash metalanddeathrash. Groove metaltakes the intensity and sonic qualities of thrash metal and plays them at mid-tempo, with most bands making only occasional forays into fast tempo,but since the early 1990s, it started to favor a more death metal–derived sound.Thrash metal with stronger punk elements is calledcrossover thrash. Its overall sound is more punk-influenced than traditional thrash metal but has more heavy metal elements thanhardcore punkandthrashcore. Regional scenes Thrash metal emerged predominantly from a handful of regional scenes, each of which was generally distinguished by the unique characteristics of its bands. See also References Bibliography", "Metallica Metallicais an Americanheavy metalband. It was formed in 1981 inLos Angelesby vocalist and guitaristJames Hetfieldand drummerLars Ulrich, and has been based inSan Franciscofor most of its career.The band's fast tempos, instrumentals and aggressive musicianship made them one of the founding \"big four\" bands ofthrash metal, alongsideMegadeth,AnthraxandSlayer. Metallica's current lineup comprises founding members and primary songwriters Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitaristKirk Hammettand bassistRobert Trujillo. GuitaristDave Mustaine, who formed Megadeth after being fired from Metallica, and bassistsRon McGovney,Cliff BurtonandJason Newstedare former members of the band. Metallica first found commercial success with the release of its third album,Master of Puppets(1986), which is cited as one of the heaviest metal albums and the band's best work. The band's next album,...And Justice for All(1988), gave Metallica its firstGrammy Awardnomination. Its fifth album,Metallica(1991), was a turning point for the band that saw them transition from their thrash roots; it appealed to a more mainstream audience, achieving substantial commercial success and selling more than 16 million copies in the United States to date, making it the best-selling album of theSoundScanera. After experimenting with different genres and directions in subsequent releases, Metallica returned to its thrash metal roots with its ninth album,Death Magnetic(2008), which drew similar praise to that of the band's earlier albums. The band's eleventh and most recent album,72 Seasons, was released in 2023. In 2000,Metallica led the caseagainst thepeer-to-peer file sharingserviceNapster, in which the band and several other artists filed lawsuits against the service for sharing their copyright-protected material without consent, eventually reaching a settlement. Metallica was the subject of the acclaimed 2004 documentary filmMetallica: Some Kind of Monster, which documented the troubled production of the band's eighth album,St. Anger(2003), and the internal struggles within the band at the time. In 2009, Metallica was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. The band co-wrote the screenplay for and starred alongsideDane DeHaanin the 2013 concert filmMetallica: Through the Never, in which the band performed live against a fictionalthrillerstoryline. Metallica has released eleven studio albums, four live albums (including two performances with theSan Francisco Symphony), twelve video albums, one cover album, two extended plays, 37 singles and 39 music videos. The band has won ten Grammy Awards from 26 nominations and had six consecutive studio albums – fromMetallicathroughHardwired... to Self-Destruct(2016) – debut at number one on theBillboard200. Metallica ranks as one of themost commercially successful bands of all time, having sold more than 125 million albums worldwide as of 2018.Metallica has been listed as one of the greatest artists of all time by magazines such asRolling Stone, which ranked the band in 61st place onits list of 100 greatest artists of all time.As of 2017, Metallica is the third-best-selling music artist since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991,selling 58 million albums in the United States. History 1981–1984: Formation, early years, andKill 'Em All Metallica was formed inLos Angelesin late 1981 when Danish drummerLars Ulrichplaced an advertisement in a Los Angeles newspaper,The Recycler, which read, \"Drummer looking for other metal musicians to jam withTygers of Pan Tang,Diamond HeadandIron Maiden.\"GuitaristsJames Hetfieldand Hugh Tanner ofLeather Charmanswered the advertisement. Although he had not formed a band, Ulrich askedMetal Blade RecordsfounderBrian Slagelif he could record a song for the label's upcoming compilation album,Metal Massacre. Slagel accepted, and Ulrich recruited Hetfield to sing and play rhythm guitar.The band was officially formed on October 28, 1981, five months after Ulrich and Hetfield first met. The band name came from Ulrich's friend Ron Quintana, who was brainstorming names for a fanzine and was consideringMetalManiaorMetallica. After hearing the two names, Ulrich wanted the latter for his band, so he suggested Quintana useMetalManiainstead.Dave Mustainereplied to an advertisement for a lead guitarist; Ulrich and Hetfield recruited him after seeing his expensive guitar equipment. In early 1982, Metallica recorded its first original song, \"Hit the Lights\", for theMetal Massacre Icompilation. Hetfield sang and played both bass and rhythm guitar, while Lars Ulrich played drums and Lloyd Grant was credited with a guitar solo.Metal Massacre Iwas released on June 14, 1982; early pressings listed the band incorrectly as \"Mettallica\", angering the band.The song generatedword of mouth, and the band played its first live performance on March 14, 1982, at Radio City inAnaheim, California, with newly recruited bassistRon McGovney.Their first live success came early; they were chosen to open for British heavy metal bandSaxonat one gig of their 1982 U.S. tour. This was Metallica's second gig. Metallica recorded its first demo,Power Metal, whose name was inspired by Quintana's early business cards, in early 1982. The term \"thrash metal\" was coined in February 1984 byKerrang!journalistMalcolm Domein reference toAnthrax's song \"Metal Thrashing Mad\".Prior to this, Hetfield referred to Metallica's sound as \"power metal\". In late 1982, Ulrich and Hetfield attended a show at theWest HollywoodnightclubWhisky a Go Go, which featured bassistCliff Burtonin the bandTrauma. The two were \"blown away\" by Burton's use of awah-wah pedaland asked him to join Metallica. Hetfield and Mustaine wanted McGovney to leave because they thought he \"didn't contribute anything, he just followed.\"Although Burton initially declined the offer, by the end of the year, he had accepted on the condition that the band move toEl Cerritoin theSan Francisco Bay Area.Metallica's first live performance with Burton was at the nightclub The Stone in March 1983, and the first recording to feature Burton was theMegaforcedemo (1983). Metallica was ready to record their debut album, but when Metal Blade was unable to cover the cost, they began looking for other options. Concert promoterJonathan \"Jonny Z\" Zazula, who had heard the demoNo Life 'til Leather(1982), offered to broker a record deal between Metallica andNew York City–based record labels. After those record labels showed no interest, Zazula borrowed enough money to cover the recording budget and signed Metallica to his own label,Megaforce Records. In May 1983, Metallica traveled toRochester, New York, to record its debut album,Metal Up Your Ass, which was produced by Paul Curcio.The other members decided to eject Mustaine from the band because of his drug and alcohol abuse and violent behavior just before the recording sessions on April 11, 1983.ExodusguitaristKirk Hammettreplaced Mustaine the same afternoon.Metallica's first live performance with Hammett was on April 16, 1983, at a nightclub inDover, New Jersey, called The Showplace;the support act was Anthrax's original lineup, which includedDan LilkerandNeil Turbin.This was the first time the two bands performed live together. Mustaine, who went on to formMegadeth, has expressed his dislike for Hammett in interviews, saying Hammett \"stole\" his job.Mustaine was \"pissed off\" because he believes Hammett became popular by playing guitar leads that Mustaine had actually written.In a 1985 interview withMetal Forces, Mustaine said, \"It's real funny how Kirk Hammett ripped off every lead break I'd played on thatNo Life 'til Leathertape and got voted No. 1 guitarist in your magazine.\"On Megadeth's debut album,Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!(1985), Mustaine included the song \"Mechanix\", which Metallica had previously reworked and retitled \"The Four Horsemen\" onKill 'Em All. Mustaine said he did this to \"straighten Metallica up\" because Metallica referred to Mustaine as a drunk and said he could not play guitar. Because of conflicts with its record label and the distributors' refusal to release an album titledMetal Up Your Ass, the album was renamedKill 'Em All. It was released on Megaforce Records in the U.S. and onMusic for Nationsin Europe, and peaked at number 155 on theBillboard200 in 1986.Although the album was not initially a financial success, it earned Metallica a growing fan base in the underground metal scene.To support the release, Metallica embarked on theKill 'Em All for Onetour withRaven.In February 1984, Metallica supportedVenomon the Seven Dates of Hell tour, during which the bands performed in front of 7,000 people at the Aardschok Festival inZwolle, Netherlands. 1984–1986:Ride the Lightning,Master of Puppets, and Burton's death Metallica recorded its second studio album,Ride the Lightning, atSweet Silence StudiosinCopenhagen, Denmark, from February to March 1984. It was released in August 1984 and reached number 100 on theBillboard200.A French printing press mistakenly printed green covers for the album, which are now considered collectors' items. Mustaine received writing credit for \"Ride the Lightning\" and \"The Call of Ktulu\". Elektra RecordsA&Rdirector Michael Alago and co-founder of Q-Prime Management Cliff Burnstein attended a Metallica concert in September 1984; they were impressed with the performance, signed Metallica to Elektra and made the band a client of Q-Prime Management.Metallica's growing success was such that the band's British label, Music for Nations, released \"Creeping Death\" as a limited-edition single, which sold 40,000 copies as an import in the U.S. Two of the three songs on the record – cover versions of Diamond Head's \"Am I Evil?\" andBlitzkrieg's \"Blitzkrieg\" – appeared on the 1988 Elektra reissue ofKill 'Em All.Metallica embarked on its first major European tour withTankto an average crowd of 1,300. Returning to the U.S., it embarked on a co-headlining tour withW.A.S.P.and support fromArmored Saint. Metallica played its largest show at theMonsters of Rockfestival atDonington Park, England, on August 17, 1985, withBon JoviandRatt, playing to 70,000 people. At a show inOakland, California, at theDay on the Greenfestival, the band played to a crowd of 60,000. Metallica's third studio album,Master of Puppets, was recorded atSweet Silence Studiosfrom September to December 1985 and released in March 1986. The album reached number 29 on theBillboard200and spent 72 weeks on the chart.It was the band's first album to be certifiedGoldon November 4, 1986, and was certified six times Platinum in 2003.Steve Huey ofAllMusicconsidered the album \"the band's greatest achievement\".Following the release of the album, Metallica supportedOzzy Osbourneon a U.S. tour.Hetfield broke his wrist while skateboarding; he continued with the tour, performing vocals, with guitar technicianJohn Marshallplaying rhythm guitar. On September 27, 1986, during the European leg of Metallica'sDamage, Inc. Tour, members drew cards to determine which bunks on the tour bus they would sleep in. Burton won and chose to sleep in Hammett's bunk. At around sunrise nearDörarp, Sweden, the bus driver lost control and skidded, which caused the bus to overturn several times. Ulrich, Hammett and Hetfield sustained no serious injuries; however, Burton was pinned under the bus and died. Hetfield said: I saw the bus lying right on him. I saw his legs sticking out. I freaked. The bus driver, I recall, was trying to yank the blanket out from under him to use for other people. I just went, \"Don't fucking do that!\" I already wanted to kill the . I don't know if he was drunk or if he hit some ice. All I knew was, he was driving and Cliff wasn't alive anymore. 1986–1994: Newsted joins,...And Justice for AllandMetallica Burton's death left Metallica's future in doubt. The three remaining members decided Burton would want them to carry on, and with the Burton family's blessings, the band sought a replacement.Roughly 40 people – including Hammett's childhood friend,Les ClaypoolofPrimus;Troy GregoryofProng; andJason Newsted, formerly ofFlotsam and Jetsam– auditioned for the band to fill Burton's spot. Newsted learned Metallica's entire setlist; after the audition, Metallica invited him to Tommy's Joynt in San Francisco. Hetfield, Ulrich and Hammett decided on Newsted as Burton's replacement; his first live performance with Metallica was at the Country Club inReseda, California. The members initiated Newsted by tricking him into eating a ball ofwasabi.The band finished its tour in February 1987. After Newsted joined Metallica, the band left their El Cerrito practice space – a suburban house formerly rented by sound engineerMark Whitakerand dubbed \"the Metalli-mansion\" – and relocated to the adjacent cities ofBerkeleyandAlbanybefore eventually settling in the Marin County city ofSan Rafael, north of San Francisco.In March 1987, Hetfield again broke his wrist while skateboarding, forcing the band to cancel an appearance onSaturday Night Live. In August 1987, an all-coversextended play(EP), titledThe $5.98 E.P. - Garage Days Re-Revisited, was released. The EP was recorded in an effort to use the band's newly constructed recording studio, test Newsted's talents, and to relieve grief and stress following the death of Burton. A video titledCliff 'Em Allcommemorating Burton's three years in Metallica was released in 1987; the video included bass solos, home videos and pictures. Metallica's first studio album since Burton's death,...And Justice for All, was recorded from January to May 1988 and released in September. The album was a commercial success, reaching number 6 on theBillboard200, and was the band's first album to enter the top 10.The album was certified Platinum nine weeks after its release.There were complaints about the production, however; Steve Huey of AllMusic said Ulrich's drums were clicking more than thudding, and the guitars \"buzz thinly\".To promote the album, Metallica embarked on a tour calledDamaged Justice. In 1989, Metallica received its firstGrammy Awardnomination for...And Justice for Allin the newBest Hard Rock/Metal Performance Vocal or Instrumentcategory. Metallica was the favorite to win, but the award was given toJethro Tullfor the albumCrest of a Knave.The award was controversial with fans and the press; Metallica was standing off-stage waiting to receive the award after performing the song \"One\". Jethro Tull had been advised by its manager not to attend the ceremony because he was expecting Metallica to win.The award was named inEntertainment Weekly's\"Grammy's 10 Biggest Upsets\" list. Following the release of...And Justice for All, Metallica released its debut music video for the song \"One\", which the band performed in an abandoned warehouse. The footage was remixed with the filmJohnny Got His Gun. Rather than organize an ongoing licensing deal, Metallica purchased the rights to the film. The remixed video was submitted to MTV with an alternative, performance-only version that was held back in case MTV banned the remixed version. MTV accepted the remixed version; the video was viewers' first exposure to Metallica. In 1999, it was voted number 38 in MTV's \"Top 100 Videos of All Time\" countdownand was featured on the network's 25th-anniversary edition ofADD Video, which showcased the most popular videos on MTV in the last 25 years. In October 1990, Metallica enteredOne on One Recording'sstudio in North Hollywood to record its next album.Bob Rock, who had worked withAerosmith,The Cult,Bon JoviandMötley Crüe, was hired as the producer.Metallica– also known asThe Black Album– was remixed three times, cost US$1 million,and ended Hammett and Ulrich's marriages.Although the release was delayed until 1991,Metallicadebuted at number one in 10 countries, selling 650,000 units in the U.S. during its first week.The album brought Metallica mainstream attention; it has been certified 16 times Platinum in the U.S., which makes it the 25th-best-selling album in the country.The making ofMetallicaand the following tour was documented inA Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica. The tour in support of the album, called theWherever We May Roam Tour, lasted 14 months and included dates in the U.S., Japan and the U.K.In September 1991, 1.6 million rock music fans converged inMoscowto enjoy the first open-air rock concert to be held in theSoviet Union; it was part of theMonsters of Rockseries.However, in a June 2020 interview, Lars estimated the attendance at about a half million during their time slot.In April 1992, Metallica appeared atThe Freddie Mercury Tribute Concertand performed a three-song set.Hetfield later performed \"Stone Cold Crazy\" with the remaining members ofQueenandTony Iommi. On August 8, 1992, during the co-headliningGuns N' Roses/Metallica Stadium Tourat theOlympic StadiuminMontreal, Hetfield suffered second- andthird-degree burnsto his arms, face, hands and legs. There had been some confusion with the new pyrotechnics setup, which resulted in Hetfield walking into a 12-foot (3.7 m) flame during \"Fade to Black\".Newsted said Hetfield's skin was \"bubbling like onThe Toxic Avenger\".Metallica returned to the stage 17 days later with guitar technician andMetal ChurchmemberJohn Marshallreplacing Hetfield on guitar for the remainder of the tour, although Hetfield was able to sing. Later in 1993, Metallica went on the Nowhere Else to Roam Tour, playing five shows inMexico City.Live Shit: Binge & Purge, the band's first box set, was released in November 1993. The collection contains three live CDs, three home videos, and a book filled with riders and letters. 1994–2001:Load,Reload, Napster controversy and Newsted's departure After almost three years of touring to promoteMetallica, including a headlining performance atWoodstock '94, Metallica returned to the studio to write and record its sixth studio album. The band went on a brief hiatus in the summer of 1995 and played a short tour, Escape from the Studio '95, which comprised three outdoor shows, including a headline show atDonington Parksupported bySlayer,Skid Row,Slash's Snakepit,Therapy?andCorrosion of Conformity. The band spent about a year writing and recording new songs, resulting in the release ofLoadin 1996.Loaddebuted at number one on theBillboard200 andARIA Charts; it was the band's second number one album.The cover art,Blood and Semen III, was created byAndres Serrano, who pressed a mixture of his own semen and blood between sheets of plexiglass.The release marked another change in the band's musical direction and a new image; the band members' hair was cut. WhileLoadwas a commercial success, the band's change in style had polarized their fanbase.Metallica headlined the alternative rock festivalLollapaloozafestival in mid-1996. During early production of the album, the band had recorded enough material to fill a double album. It was decided that half of the songs were to be released; the band would continue to work on the remaining songs and release them the following year. This resulted in follow-up album, titledReload. The cover art was again created by Serrano, this time using a mixture of blood and urine.Reload, too, debuted at number one on theBillboard200 and reached number two on the Top Canadian Album chart.Hetfield said in the 2004 documentary filmMetallica: Some Kind of Monsterthat the band initially thought some of the songs on these albums were of average quality; these were \"polished and reworked\" until judged releasable.To promoteReload, Metallica performed \"Fuel\" and \"The Memory Remains\" withMarianne FaithfullonNBC'sSaturday Night Livein December 1997. In 1998, Metallica compiled a double album of cover songs, titledGarage Inc.The first disc contained newly recorded covers of songs byDiamond Head,Killing Joke, theMisfits,Thin Lizzy,Mercyful Fate,Black Sabbathand others, and the second disc featured the original version ofThe $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited, which had become a scarce collectors' item. The album entered theBillboard200 at number two. On April 21 and 22, 1999, Metallica recorded two performances with theSan Francisco Symphony, which was conducted byMichael Kamen, who had previously worked with producer Rock on \"Nothing Else Matters\". Kamen approached Metallica in 1991 with the idea of pairing the band's music with a symphony orchestra. Kamen and his staff of over 100 composed additional orchestral material for Metallica songs. Metallica wrote two new Kamen-scored songs for the event: \"No Leaf Clover\" and \"-Human\". The audio recording and concert footage were released in 1999 as the album and concert filmS&M. It entered theBillboard200 at number two and the Australian ARIA charts and Top Internet Albums chart at number one. In 2000, Metallica discovered that a demo of its song \"I Disappear\", which was supposed to be released in combination with theMission: Impossible IIsoundtrack, was receiving radio airplay. Tracing the source of the leak, the band found the file on theNapsterpeer-to-peerfile-sharing network and also found that the band's entire catalogue was freely available.Metallicafiled a lawsuitat theU.S. District Court,Central District of California, alleging that Napster violated three areas of the law:copyright infringement, unlawful use of digital audio interface device and theRacketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act(RICO). Ulrich provided a statement to theSenate Judiciary Committeeregarding copyright infringement on July 11, 2000.Federal JudgeMarilyn Hall Patelordered the site to place afilteron the program within 72 hours or be shut down.A settlement between Metallica and Napster was reached when German media conglomerateBertelsmannBMG showed interest in purchasing the rights to Napster for $94 million. Under the terms of settlement, Napster agreed to block users who shared music by artists who do not want their music shared.On June 3, 2002, Napster filed forChapter 11protection under U.S. bankruptcy laws. On September 3, 2002, an American bankruptcy judge blocked the sale of Napster to Bertelsmann and forced Napster to liquidate its assets, according toChapter 7of the U.S. bankruptcy laws. At the2000 MTV Video Music Awards, Ulrich appeared with hostMarlon Wayansin a skit that criticized the idea of using Napster to share music. Wayans played a college student listening to Metallica's \"I Disappear\". Ulrich walked in and asked for an explanation, and he responded to Wayans' excuse that using Napster was just \"sharing\" by saying that Wayans' idea of sharing was \"borrowing things that were not yours without asking.\" He called in the Metallica road crew, who proceeded to confiscate all of Wayans' belongings, leaving him almost naked in an empty room. Napster creatorShawn Fanningresponded later in the ceremony by presenting an award wearing a Metallica shirt that read: \"I borrowed this shirt from a friend. Maybe, if I like it, I'll buy one of my own.\" Ulrich was later booed on stage at the award show when he introduced the final musical act,Blink-182. Newsted left Metallica on January 17, 2001, just as plans were being made to enter the recording studio. He said he left the band for \"private and personal reasons, and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love.\"During aPlayboyinterview with Metallica, Newsted said he wanted to release an album with hisside project,Echobrain. Hetfield was opposed to the idea and said, \"When someone does a side project, it takes away from the strength of Metallica\" and that a side project is \"like cheating on your wife in a way.\"Newsted said Hetfield had recorded vocals for a song used in the filmSouth Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, and appeared on two Corrosion of Conformity albums. Hetfield replied: \"My name isn't on those records. And I'm not out trying to sell them\" and raised questions such as, \"Where would it end? Does he start touring with it? Does he sell shirts? Is it his band?\" 2001–2006:Some Kind of Monster,St. Anger, and Trujillo joins In April 2001, filmmakersJoe BerlingerandBruce Sinofskybegan following Metallica to document the recording process of the band's next studio album. Over two years they recorded more than 1,000 hours of footage. On July 19, 2001, before preparations to enter the recording studio, Hetfield enteredrehabto treat his \"alcoholism and other addictions\". All recording plans were put on hold and the band's future was in doubt.Hetfield left rehab on December 4, 2001,and the band returned to the recording studio on April 12, 2002. Hetfield was required to limit his work to four hours a day between noon and 4 pm, and to spend the rest of his time with his family.The footage recorded by Berlinger and Sinofsky was compiled into the documentaryMetallica: Some Kind of Monster, which premiered at theSundance Film Festivalin January 2004. In the documentary, Newsted said his former bandmates' decision to hire a therapist to help solve their problems which he felt they could have solved on their own was \"really fucking lame and weak\". In June 2003, Metallica's eighth studio album,St. Anger, debuted at number one on theBillboard200, and drew mixed reactions from critics. Ulrich's \"steely\" sounding snare drum and the absence of guitar solos received particular criticism.Kevin Forest Moreau ofShakingthrough.netsaid, \"the guitars stumble in a monotone of mid-level, processed rattle; the drums don't propel as much as struggle to disguise an all-too-turgid pace; and the rage is both unfocused and leavened with too much narcissistic navel-gazing\".Brent DiCrescenzo ofPitchforkdescribed it as \"an utter mess\".However,Blendermagazine called it the \"grimiest and grimmest of the band's Bob Rock productions\", andNew York Magazinecalled it \"utterly raw and rocking\".The title track, \"St. Anger\", won theGrammy Award for Best Metal Performancein 2004; it was used as the official theme song forWWE'sSummerSlam 2003. For the duration ofSt. Anger's recording period, producer Bob Rock played bass on the album and in several live shows at which Metallica performed during that time.Once the record was completed, the band started to hold auditions for Newsted's permanent replacement. BassistsPepper Keenan,Jeordie White,Scott Reeder,Eric Avery,Danny Lohner, andChris Wyse—among others—auditioned for the role. After three months of auditions,Robert Trujillo, formerly ofSuicidal Tendenciesand Ozzy Osbourne's band, was chosen as the new bassist.Newsted, who had joined Canadian thrash metal bandVoivodby that time, was Trujillo's replacement in Osbourne's band during the 2003Ozzfesttour, which included Voivod. Before the band's set at the 2004Download Festival, Ulrich was rushed to the hospital after having an anxiety seizure and was unable to perform.Hetfield searched for last-minute volunteers to replace Ulrich. Slayer drummerDave LombardoandSlipknotdrummerJoey Jordisonvolunteered. Lombardo performed \"Battery\" and \"The Four Horsemen\", Ulrich's drum technician Flemming Larsen performed \"Fade to Black\", and Jordison performed the remainder of the set.Having toured for two years in support ofSt. Angeron the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003 and theMadly in Anger with the World Tour, with multi-platinum rock bandGodsmackin support, Metallica took a break from performing and spent most of 2005 with friends and family. The band opened forThe Rolling StonesatSBC Parkin San Francisco on November 13 and 15, 2005. 2006–2013:Death Magneticand Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction In February 2006, Metallica announced on its official website that after 15 years, long-time producer Bob Rock would not be producing the band's next studio album. Instead, the band chose to work with producerRick Rubin.Around the same time, a petition signed by 1,500 fans was posted online in an attempt to encourage the band to prohibit Rock from producing Metallica albums, saying he had too much influence on the band's sound and musical direction. Rock said the petition hurt his children's feelings; he said, \"sometimes, even with a great coach, a team keeps losing. You have to get new blood in there.\" In December 2006, Metallica released a DVD titledThe Videos 1989–2004, which sold 28,000 copies in its first week and entered theBillboardTop Videos chart at number three.Metallica recorded a guitar-based interpretation ofEnnio Morricone's \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" for a tribute album titledWe All Love Ennio Morricone, which was released in February 2007. The track received a Grammy nomination at the50th Grammy Awardsfor the category \"Best Rock Instrumental Performance\".A recording of \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" has been played to introduce Metallica's performances since the 1980s. Metallica scheduled the release of the albumDeath Magneticas September 12, 2008, and the band filmed a music video for the album's first single, \"The Day That Never Comes\". On September 2, 2008, a record store in France began selling copies ofDeath Magneticnearly two weeks before its scheduled worldwide release date,which resulted in the album being made available on peer-to-peer clients. This prompted the band's UK distributorVertigo Recordsto officially release the album on September 10, 2008. Rumors of Metallica or Warner Bros. taking legal action against the French retailer were unconfirmed, though drummer Lars Ulrich responded to theleakby saying, \"...We're ten days from release. I mean, from here, we're golden. If this thing leaks all over the world today or tomorrow, happy days. Happy days. Trust me\",and, \"By 2008 standards, that's a victory. If you'd told me six months ago that our record wouldn't leak until 10 days out, I would have signed up for that.\" Death Magneticmarked a return to the band's traditional thrash metal sound. The album debuted at number one in the U.S., selling 490,000 units; Metallica became the first band to have five consecutive studio albums debut at number one in the history of theBillboard200.A week after its release,Death Magneticremained at number one on theBillboard200 and the European album chart; it also became the fastest selling album of 2008 in Australia.Death Magneticremained at number one on theBillboard200 album chart for three consecutive weeks. Metallica was one of two artists whose album—the other beingJack Johnson's albumSleep Through the Static—remained on theBillboard200 for three consecutive weeks at number one in 2008.Death Magneticalso remained at number one onBillboard'sHard Rock, Modern Rock/Alternative and Rock album charts for five consecutive weeks. The album reached number one in 32 countries outside the U.S., including the UK, Canada, and Australia.In November 2008, Metallica's record deal with Warner Bros. ended and the band considered releasing its next album through the internet. On January 14, 2009, it was announced that Metallica would be inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameon April 4, 2009,and that former bassist Jason Newsted—who left the band in 2001—would perform with the band at the ceremony.Initially, it was announced that the matter had been discussed and that bassist Trujillo had agreed not to play because he \"wanted to see the Black Album band\".However, during the band's set of \"Master of Puppets\" and \"Enter Sandman\", both Trujillo and Newsted were on stage.Ray Burton, father of the late Cliff Burton, accepted the honor on his behalf. Although he was not to be inducted with them, Metallica invited Dave Mustaine to take part in the induction ceremony. Mustaine declined because of his touring commitments in Europe. Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, atWarsaw Babice Airport, Poland, as a part of theSonisphere Festivalseries. The show in Sofia, Bulgaria, on June 22, 2010, was broadcast via satellite to cinemas.The bands also played concerts inBuchareston June 26, 2010, andIstanbulon June 27, 2010. On June 28, 2010,Death Magneticwas certified double platinum by theRIAA.Metallica'sWorld Magnetic Tourended inMelbourneon November 21, 2010. The band had been touring for more than two years in support ofDeath Magnetic. To accompany the final tour dates in Australia and New Zealand, a live, limited edition EP of past performances in Australia calledSix Feet Down Underwas released.The EP was followed bySix Feet Down Under (Part II), which was released on November 12, 2010.Part 2 contains a further eight songs recorded during the first two Oceanic Legs of the World Magnetic Tour. On November 26, 2010, Metallica released a live EP titledLive at Grimey's, which was recorded in June 2008 at Grimey's Record Store, just before the band's appearance atBonnaroo Music Festivalthat year. In a June 2009 interview with Italy's Rock TV, Ulrich said Metallica was planning to continue touring until August 2010, and that there were no plans for a tenth album. He said he was sure the band would collaborate with producer Rick Rubin again.According toBlabbermouth.net, the band was considering recording its next album in the second half of 2011.In November 2010, during an interview with The Pulse of Radio, Ulrich said Metallica would return to writing in 2011. Ulrich said, \"There's a bunch of balls in the air for 2011, but I think the main one is we really want to get back to writing again. We haven't really written since, what, '06, '07, and we want to get back to kind of just being creative again. Right now we are going to just chill out and then probably start up again in, I'd say, March or April, and start probably putting the creative cap back on and start writing some songs.\" On November 9, 2010, Metallica announced it would be headlining theRock in Riofestival inRio de Janeiroon September 25, 2011.On December 13, 2010, the band announced it would again play as part of the \"big four\" during the Sonisphere Festival atKnebworth House, Hertfordshire, on July 8, 2011. It was the first time all of the \"big four\" members played on the same stage in the UK.On December 17, 2010, Another \"big four\" Sonisphere performance that would take place in France on July 9 was announced.On January 25, 2011, another \"big four\" performance on April 23, 2011, at the Empire Polo Club inIndio, California, was announced. It was the first time all of the \"big four\" members played on the same stage in the U.S.On February 17, 2011, a show inGelsenkirchen, Germany, on July 2, 2011, was announced.On February 22, a \"big four\" show inMilanon July 6, 2011, was announced.On March 2, 2011, another \"big four\" concert, which took place inGothenburgon July 3, 2011, was announced.The final \"big four\" concert was in New York City, at Yankee Stadium, on September 14, 2011. In an interview at the April 2011 Big Four concert, Robert Trujillo said Metallica will work with Rick Rubin again as producer for the new album and were \"really excited to write some new music. There's no shortage of riffage in Metallica world right now.\" He added, \"The first album with Rick was also the first album for me, so in a lot of ways, you're kind of testing the water. Now that we're comfortable with Rick and his incredible engineer,Greg Fidelman, who worked with Slayer, actually, on this last record—it's my hero—it's a great team. And it's only gonna better; I really believe that. So I'm super-excited.\"In June 2011, Rubin said Metallica had begun writing its new album. On June 15, 2011, Metallica announced that recording sessions with singer-songwriterLou Reedhad concluded. The album, which was titledLulu, was recorded over several months and comprised ten songsbased onFrank Wedekind's \"Lulu\" playsEarth SpiritandPandora's Box.The album was released on October 31, 2011. The recording of the album was problematic at times; Lars Ulrich later said Lou Reed challenged him to a \"street fight\".On October 16, 2011, Robert Trujillo confirmed that the band was back in the studio and writing new material. He said, \"The writing process for the new Metallica album has begun. We've been in the studio with Rick Rubin, working on a couple of things, and we're going to be recording during the most of next year.\" Metallica was due to make its first appearance in India at the \"India Rocks\" concert, supporting the2011 Indian Grand Prix.However, the concert was canceled when the venue was proven to be unsafe.Fans raided the stage during the event and the organizers were later arrested for fraud.Metallica made its Indian debut in Bangalore on October 30, 2011.On November 10, it was announced that Metallica would headline the main stage on Saturday June 9, 2012, at the Download Festival at Donington Park and that the band would playThe Black Albumin its entirety.Metallica celebrated its 30th anniversary by playing four shows at the Fillmore in San Francisco in December 2011. The shows were exclusive to Met Club members and tickets were charged at $6 each or $19.81 for all four nights. The shows consisted of songs from the band's career and featured guest appearances by artists who had either helped or had influenced Metallica. These shows were notable because Lloyd Grant, Dave Mustaine, Jason Newsted,Glenn Danzig, Ozzy Osbourne,Jerry Cantrell,Apocalyptica, members of Diamond Head, andKing Diamondjoined Metallica on stage for all appropriate songs.In December 2011, Metallica began releasing songs that were written forDeath Magneticbut were not included on the album online.On December 13, 2011, the band releasedBeyond Magnetic, a digital EP release exclusively oniTunes.It was released on CD in January 2012. On February 7, 2012, Metallica announced that it would start a new music festival calledOrion Music + More, which took place on June 23 and 24, 2012, in Atlantic City. Metallica also confirmed that it would headline the festival on both days and would perform two of its most critically acclaimed albums in their entirety:The Black Albumon one night, andRide the Lightningon the other.In a July 2012 interview with Canadian radio station99.3 The Fox, Ulrich said Metallica would not release its new album until at least early 2014. In November 2012, Metallica left Warner Bros. Records and launched anindependent record label,Blackened Recordings, which will produce the band's future releases.The band acquired the rights to all of its studio albums, which were all reissued through the new label. Blackened releases were licensed through Warner subsidiaryRhino Entertainmentin North America and internationally throughUniversal Music.On September 20, 2012, Metallica announced via its official website that a new DVD containing footage of shows it performed in Quebec in 2009 would be released that December; fans would get the chance to vote for two setlists that would appear on the DVD.The film, titledQuebec Magnetic, was released in the U.S. on December 10, 2012. 2013–2019:Metallica: Through the NeverandHardwired... to Self-Destruct In an interview withClassic Rockon January 8, 2013, Ulrich said regarding the band's upcoming album, \"What we're doing now certainly sounds like a continuation \". He also said, \"I love Rick . We all love Rick. We're in touch with Rick constantly. We'll see where it goes. It would stun me if the record came out in 2013.\"Also in 2013, the band starred in a 3D concert film titledMetallica: Through the Never, which was directed byAntal Nimródand was released inIMAXtheaters on September 27. In an interview dated July 22, 2013, Ulrich toldUltimate Guitar, \"2014 will be all about making a new Metallica record\"; he said the album will most likely be released during 2015.Kirk Hammett and Robert Trujillo later confirmed the band's intention to enter the studio.At the second Orion Music + More festival held in Detroit, the band played under the name \"Dehaan\"—a reference to actorDane DeHaan, who starred inMetallica: Through the Never.The band performed its debut albumKill 'Em Allin its entirety, celebrating the 30th anniversary of its release. On December 8, 2013, the band played a show called \"Freeze 'Em All\" in Antarctica, becoming the first band to play on all seven continents.The performance was filmed and released as a live album the same month. At the56th Annual Grammy Awardsin January 2014, Metallica performed \"One\" with Chinese pianistLang Lang.In March 2014, Metallica began a tour called \"Metallica By Request\", in which fans request songs for the band to perform.A new song, titled \"Lords of Summer\" was written for the concerts and released as a \"first take\" demo in June 2014.In June 2014, the band headlined theGlastonbury Festivalin an attempt to attract new fans. Ulrich said, \"We have one shot, you never know if you'll be invited back\".In November 2014, Metallica performed at the closing ceremony ofBlizzCon 2014.In January 2015, Metallica announced a \"Metallica Night\" with theSan Jose Sharks, which featured a Q&A session with the band and a charity auction benefiting the San Francisco Bay Chapter of the Sierra Club, but no performances.They were announced to headline Lollapalooza in March 2015, returning to perform there for the first time in 20 years.On May 2, 2015, Metallica performed their third annual Metallica Day atAT&T Park.Metallica were also announced to play atX Gamesfor the first time atX Games Austin 2015in Austin, Texas.On June 14, 2015, Hetfield and Hammett performedThe Star-Spangled Bannerlive via electric guitars prior to game 5 of theNBA Finalsbetween theCleveland CavaliersandGolden State WarriorsatOracle ArenainOakland, California.In late October, the band unveiled a new website with an introduction from Ulrich containing footage from the studio of the band working on new material.On November 2, Metallica were announced to play \"The Night Before\"Super Bowl 50at AT&T Park.Metallica announced they would be opening theU.S. Bank Stadiumon August 20, 2016, withAvenged SevenfoldandVolbeatas support. In April 2016, during the week leading up toRecord Store Day, for which the band was its ambassador for 2016, Ulrich toldBillboardthat the band's expanded role within the music industry had played a part in the amount of time that it had taken to write and record the album. \"The way we do things now is very different than the way we did things back in the days ofKill 'Em AllandRide the Lightning. Nowadays we like to do so many different things.\" Ulrich was also optimistic that production of the album had almost reached its completion. \"Unless something radical happens it would be difficult for me to believe that it won't come out in 2016\".On August 18, 2016, the band announced via their website that their tenth studio album,Hardwired... to Self-Destruct, would be released worldwide on November 18, 2016, via their independent label, Blackened Recordings. They also unveiled the track listing, album artwork, and released a music video for the album's first single, \"Hardwired\".The album was released as scheduledand debuted at number one on theBillboard200. Metallica announced they would be touring the US and Canada in summer of 2017 for theWorldWired Tour. The stadium tour also includes Avenged Sevenfold, Volbeat andGojiraas supporting acts.On August 7, 2017, Metallica was invited by theSan Francisco Giantsagain for the fifth annual \"Metallica Night\" with Hammett and Hetfield performing the national anthem.In January 2018, the band announced that they would be reissuingThe $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisitedon April 13 forRecord Store Day,and the sixth annual \"Metallica Night\" was also announced a few weeks later, this time in April, with all proceeds going to the All Within My Hands Foundation, which the band created in late 2017.In February 2018, the band announced a second set of North American tour dates, most of which for cities that they had not visited in up to thirty years. 2019–2023:S&M2and72 Seasons In an interview with Australian magazineThe Music's official podcast in March 2019, Trujillo said that Metallica had begun jamming on new material for its next studio album. \"I'm excited about the next record because I believe it will also be a culmination of the two records and another journey. There's no shortage of original ideas, that's the beauty of being in this band.\" He estimated that the album would be released \"a lot sooner than the previous two did... this time around I think we'll be able to jump on it a lot quicker and jump in the studio and start working. We've all vowed to get this one going sooner than later.\"In an interview with Australian magazineMixdownthe following month, Hammett said that the band had tentative plans to enter the studio after the conclusion of its WorldWired Tour. He stated, \"We're in our third year sinceHardwired. Maybe we can get a bit more focus and go into the studio a bit sooner.\" After not contributing any writing toHardwired... to Self-Destruct, Hammett said regarding his ideas for the new album, \"I have a ton of material. I've over-compensated, so I'm ready to go anytime.\" In March 2019, Metallica announced that its WorldWired Tour would continue into Australia and New Zealand in October with Slipknot in support.Later that month, the band announced that it would perform at the grand opening of San Francisco's newChase Centerwith the San Francisco Symphony in September to celebrate the twenty-year anniversary ofS&M.The commemorative shows, titledS&M2, were screened in more than 3,000 theaters worldwide on October 9;the event featured arrangements from the originalS&Mconcerts as well as new arrangements for songs recorded since thenand a cover of theAlexander MosolovpieceIron Foundry,and were conducted byEdwin Outwaterand San Francisco Symphony music directorMichael Tilson Thomas.S&M2went on to earn $5.5 million at the box office, making it the biggest global rock event cinema release of all time; a second screening was later announced for October 30 as a result.In August 2020, the band announced that they would release theS&M2performances as an album, DVD and box set. In July 2019, Metallica announced a set of South American tour dates for April 2020 withGreta Van Fleetin support.In September, ahead of that year'sGlobal Citizen Festival, it was announced that Metallica would perform at the following year's festival in September 2020 alongside artists such asBillie Eilish,Miley CyrusandColdplay, in what would be the final event ofGlobal Poverty Project's year-long Global Goal Live: The Possible Dream campaign.The following day, on September 27, Metallica announced that Hetfield had re-entered a rehabilitation program and that its Australia/New Zealand tour would be postponed.In a statement by Ulrich, Hammett and Trujillo, the band spoke of the devastation of the news, saying that Hetfield \" been struggling with addiction on and off for many years\" and that all tickets would be fully refunded.Ulrich later added that Hetfield was \"in the process of healing himself\", and that the band hoped to return to Australia and New Zealand in 2020.The band's other commitments, including a benefit concert in March 2020, were still expected to continue as planned;a further five US festival appearances were announced in October.These shows were later postponed or cancelled due to theCOVID-19 pandemicand to support Hetfield's recovery. In March 2020, the band began a series on YouTube and Facebook called#MetallicaMondays, where they streamed full archived shows every Monday to relieve boredom while staying home and social distancing amid the pandemic.In May 2020, while in quarantine, Metallica performed a virtual acoustic version of \"Blackened\",titled \"Blackened 2020\", which was later made available for download. In an interview withMarc Benioffin April 2020, Ulrich stated that Metallica could work on its next studio album while in quarantine.Trujillo toldThe Vinyl Guidein June that the band was \"excited about cultivating new ideas\" for its new album. \"We communicate every week, which is really great, so we have our connection intact what we've started doing is basically just really concentrating on our home studios and being creative from our homes and navigating through ideas and building on new ideas. And that's where we're at right now\". He also said that the band was working towards eventually entering a studio to record the album. On August 10, 2020, Metallica played a show at Gundlach-Bundschu Winery inSonoma, California, which was only attended by a few crew members, and it was recorded and played for drive-in movies across the U.S. and Canada on August 29. In May 2021, the band announced that they would do one more#MetallicaMondayson May 24 to benefit their All Within My Hands Foundation.The concert dates to September 6, 2018, inLincoln, Nebraska.On Labor Day, September 6, 2021, the band's All Within My Hands Foundation raised $377,450. Metallica teamed up with workwear brand Carhartt on the initiative, with the clothing brand donating all of their sales proceeds on the holiday to the band's Metallica Scholars initiative, which provides opportunities to people interested in pursuing essential workforce jobs. On November 28, 2022, the band released the single \"Lux Æterna\".On January 19, 2023, Metallica released the second single titled \"Screaming Suicide\".On March 1, 2023, Metallica released the third single titled \"If Darkness Had a Son\".On March 30, 2023, Metallica released a music video for the album's title track, \"72 Seasons\".The band released their eleventh studio album72 Seasonson April 14, 2023.Metallica promoted the album with a two-and-a-half-year-long tour, titled theM72 World Tour, which began on April 27, 2023, in Amsterdam and is set to conclude on June 29, 2025, in Denver. 2023–present: Future plans In an interview onLoudwire Nightsradio program in April 2023, Ulrich stated that \"there some ideas could start with\" for the follow-up to72 Seasons, adding, \"I'm looking forward to going live and being in sharing mode for the next couple of years. The beauty of being with these guys, I kind of joke, James writes more riffs when he's tuning his guitar than most people do in a lifetime. That's the beauty of being in band with these guys and I'm eternally grateful. I'm dumbfounded by it.\" When asked about \"leftovers\" that could be used for the next Metallica album, Ulrich said, \"There's always a few riffs in the riff tank.\"In May 2024, Hetfield confirmed that he has been \"writing lots of music, playing guitar pretty much every day.\" Style and lyrical themes Metallica playedthrashandspeed metalon their first four albums before changing their sound to traditionalheavy metalon 1991'sBlack Album.LoadandReload, released in 1996 and 1997 respectively, saw the band move towardshard rock.2008'sDeath Magneticsaw them returning to a more thrash-influenced sound. Metallica was influenced by early heavy metal and hard rock bands and artistsBlack Sabbath,Deep Purple,Kiss,Led Zeppelin,Queen,Ted Nugent,AC/DC,Rush,Aerosmith, andJudas Priestand bynew wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) bandsRaven,Venom,Motörhead,Saxon,Diamond Head,Blitzkrieg, andIron Maidenas well as European bandsScorpions,Accept,andMercyful Fate.Earlypunk rockbandsRamones,Sex Pistols, and theMisfitsalso influenced Metallica's style as didpost-punkbandKilling Jokeandhardcore punkactsDischarge,GBH,andSuicidal Tendencies.Lars Ulrich has cited Iron Maiden as probably the biggest influence on Metallica's career.The band's early releases contained fast tempos, harmonized leads, and nine-minute instrumental tracks. Steve Huey of AllMusic saidRide the Lightningfeatured \"extended, progressive epics; tight, concise groove-rockers\".He also said Metallica expanded its compositional technique and range of expression to take on a more aggressive approach in following releases, and lyrics dealt with personal and socially conscious issues.Religious and military leaders, rage, insanity, monsters, and drugs—among other themes—were explored onMaster of Puppets. In 1991, Huey said Metallica with new producer Bob Rock simplified and streamlined its music for a more commercial approach to appeal to mainstream audiences.Robert PalmerofRolling Stonesaid the band abandoned its aggressive, fast tempos to expand its music and expressiverange.The change in direction proved commercially successful;Metallicawas the band's first album to peak at number one on theBillboard200. Metallica noticed changes to the rock scene created by thegrungemovement of the early-1990s. InLoad—an album that has been described as having \"an almostalternative rock\" approach—the band changed musical direction again and focused on non-metal influences.Metallica's new lyrical approach moved away from drugs and monsters, and focused on anger, loss, and retribution. Some fans and critics were not pleased with this change, which included haircuts, the cover art ofLoad, and headlining theLollapaloozafestival of 1996.David FrickeofRolling Stonedescribed the move as \"goodbye to the moldy stricture and dead-end Puritanism of no-frills thrash\", and calledLoadthe heaviest record of 1996.With the release ofReLoadin 1997, the band displayedbluesand early hard rock influences, incorporating more rhythm and harmony in song structures. St. Angermarked another large change in the band's sound. Guitar solos were excluded from the album, leaving a \"raw and unpolished sound\".The band useddrop C tuning; Ulrich's snare drum received particular criticism.New York Magazine's Ethan Brown said it \"reverberates with a thwong\". The album's lyrics deal with Hetfield's drug rehabilitation and include references to the devil, anti-drug themes, claustrophobia, impending doom, and religious hypocrisy.At the advice of producer Rick Rubin, for its ninth studio albumDeath Magnetic, the band returned tostandard tuningand guitar solos.As a return to Metallica's thrash roots,Death Magneticwas ariff-oriented album featuring intense guitar solos and subtle lyrics about suicide and redemption. All Within My Hands Foundation In February 2017, Metallica launched All Within My Hands Foundation, \"dedicated to creating sustainable communities by supporting workforce education, the fight against hunger, and other critical local services\". For example, the group works with various selected charities to organize volunteer projects at food banks. It also works with workforce training institutions on its Metallica Scholars grant program to help chosen students learn new trade skills.The Foundation has also donated and further raised funds forWorld Central Kitchen'sUkraine warrelief effortsand granted $200,000 for relief efforts after the destructiveAugust 2023 Maui, Hawaii fire.The band has also performed fundraising concerts for the Foundation. Legacy and influence Metallica has become one of the most influential heavy metal bands of all time and is credited as one of the \"big four\" of thrash metal, along with Slayer, Anthrax, and Megadeth.The band has sold more than 125 million records worldwide,including an RIAA-certified 66 million andNielsen SoundScan-reported 58 million in the US, making Metallica one ofthe most commercially successful bands of all time.The writers ofThe Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Rollsaid Metallica gave heavy metal \"a much-needed charge\".Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Greg Prato of Allmusic said Metallica \"expanded the limits of thrash, using speed and volume not for their own sake, but to enhance their intricately structured compositions\", and called the band \"easily the best, most influential heavy metal band of the '80s, responsible for bringing the music back to Earth\". Jonathan DavisofKornsaid he respects Metallica as his favorite band; he said, \"I love that they've done things their own way and they've persevered over the years and they're still relevant to this day. I think they're one of the greatest bands ever.\"GodsmackdrummerShannon Larkinsaid Metallica has been the biggest influence on the band, stating, \"they really changed my life when I was 16 years old—I'd never heard anything that heavy\".Chuck BillyofTestamenthas also cited Metallica as an influence on the band, as well as Hetfield as \"an inspiration with clever lyrics\"; he added, \"When I first started hearing Metallica it was something new to me the way his cadence of vocal styles sang to the music.\"Vocalist and guitaristRobb FlynnofMachine Headsaid that when creating the band's 2007 album,The Blackening, \"What we mean is an album that has the power, influence and epic grandeur of that albumMaster of Puppets—and the staying power—a timeless record like that\".Gojiralead guitaristChristian Andreusaid it was while listening toRide the Lightningthat he started making music; saying \"we find on the album 'Fade to Black', 'For Whom the Bell Tolls', emblematic pieces\".TriviumguitaristsCorey BeaulieuandMatt Heafysaid that when they heard Metallica they wanted to start playing guitar.M. ShadowsofAvenged Sevenfoldsaid touring with Metallica was the band's career highlight, and said, \"Selling tons of records and playing huge shows will never compare to meeting your idolsMetallica\".God Forbidguitarists Doc and Dallas Coyle were inspired by Metallica as they grew up, and the band's bassist John Outcalt admires Burton as a \"rocker\".Ill NiñodrummerDave Chavarrisaid he finds early Metallica releases are \"heavy, raw, rebellious. It said, 'fuck you'\",andAdemadrummer Kris Kohls said the band is influenced by Metallica. On April 4, 2009, Metallica were inducted into theRock And Roll Hall Of Fame. They entered the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame the second year they were eligible and first year they were nominated. Metallica's induction into the Hall included its current lineup,James Hetfield,Kirk Hammett,Robert Trujillo, andLars Ulrich, and former membersJason NewstedandCliff Burton. MTVranked Metallica the third \"Greatest Heavy Metal Band in History\".Metallica was ranked 42nd onVH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\",was listed fifth on VH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock\",and the band was number one on VH1's \"20 Greatest Metal Bands\" list.Rolling Stoneplaced the band 61st on its list of \"The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time\";its albumsMaster of PuppetsandMetallicawere ranked at numbers 167 and 252 respectively on the magazine's list ofThe 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.Master of Puppetswas named inQ Magazine's\"50 Heaviest Albums of All Time\",and was ranked number one on IGN's \"Top 25 Metal Albums\",and number one on Metal-rules.com's \"Top 100 Heavy Metal Albums\" list.\"Enter Sandman\" was ranked number 399 onRolling Stone's\"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". Kerrang!released a tribute album titledMaster of Puppets: Remasteredwith the April 8, 2006, edition of the magazine to celebrate the 20th anniversary ofMaster of Puppets. The album featured cover versions of Metallica songs by Machine Head,Bullet for My Valentine,Chimaira,Mastodon,Mendeed, and Trivium—all of which are influenced by Metallica. At least 15 Metallica tribute albums have been released. On September 10, 2006, Metallica guest starred onThe Simpsons'eighteenth-season premiere, \"The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer\".Hammett's and Hetfield's voices were used in three episodes of the animated television seriesMetalocalypse.Finnishcello metalband Apocalyptica released a tribute album titledPlays Metallica by Four Cellos, which features eight Metallica songs played on cellos. A parody band namedBeatallicaplays music using a combination ofThe Beatlesand Metallica songs. Beatallica faced legal troubles whenSony, which owns The Beatles' catalog, issued acease and desistorder, claiming \"substantial and irreparable injury\" and ordering the group to pay damages. Ulrich, a fan of Beatallica, asked Metallica's lawyer Peter Paterno to help settle the case. On March 7, 1999, Metallica was inducted into the San Francisco Walk of Fame. The mayor of San Francisco,Willie Brown, proclaimed the day \"Official Metallica Day\".The band was awarded theMTV Iconaward in 2003, and a concert paying tribute to the band with artists performing its songs was held. Performances includedSum 41and a medley of \"For Whom the Bell Tolls\", \"Enter Sandman\", and \"Master of Puppets\".Staindcovered \"Nothing Else Matters\",Avril Lavigneplayed \"Fuel\", hip-hop artistSnoop Doggperformed \"Sad but True\",Kornplayed \"One\", andLimp Bizkitperformed \"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\". TheGuitar Herovideo game series included several of Metallica's songs. \"One\" was used inGuitar Hero III. The albumDeath Magneticwas later released as purchasable, downloadable content for the game. \"Trapped Under Ice\" was featured in the sequel,Guitar Hero World Tour. In 2009, Metallica collaborated with the game's developers to makeGuitar Hero: Metallica, which included a number of Metallica's songs.Harmonix' video game seriesRock Bandincluded \"Enter Sandman\" and \"Battery\"; \"Ride the Lightning\", \"Blackened\", and \"...And Justice for All\" were released as downloadable tracks. In 2013, due to expiring content licenses, \"Ride the Lightning\", \"Blackened\", and \"...And Justice for All\" are no longer available for download.Fortnite Festival, a 2023 rhythm game developed by Harmonix as part ofFortnite, held a Metallica-centric season from June to August 2024 which included \"One\", \"Lux Æterna\", and \"Master of Puppets\". Metallica also performed virtually inFortnitein \"Metallica: Fuel. Fire. Fury.\", with cosmetics based on Hetfield, Ulrich, Hammett and Trujillo being added to the game. In October 2020,Miley Cyrusannounced that she was planning on recording a Metallica covers album and on January 7, 2021, she announced that she has recorded a cover version of \"Nothing Else Matters\" that would featureElton Johnon piano, drummerChad SmithfromRed Hot Chili PeppersandcellistYo-Yo Ma. This version was produced byAndrew Watt, and was released as a promotional single for the tribute albumThe Metallica Blacklist. Feuds Dave Mustaine/Megadeth Former lead guitarist andMegadethfrontmanDave Mustainehas been involved in a historic feud with Metallica. During his time as a founding member during the first two years of the band, Mustaine's tenure was marred by his alcoholism and even a physical altercation with James Hetfield.Mustaine continued to make numerous inflammatory statements against his former band in the press due to buried tension primarily stemming from his firing in 1983 among other issues such as existing songwriting credits across Metallica's first three albums.By the late 1980s, it was believed that the feud had largely subsided; later confirmed after Megadeth were hired to open for Metallica on numerous European dates in 1993.Despite this, Mustaine expressed his anger at Metallica during his appearance in the band's documentaryMetallica: Some Kind of Monster,in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized, and that it did not represent the full extent of what happened during the meeting.The two bands would again find themselves on friendlier terms in 2011 when they took part in the lauded 'Big 4 Tour', alongsideSlayerandAnthrax.That same year, Mustaine took part in Metallica's exclusive 30th anniversary show in San Francisco which invited other former members:Ron McGovney, Lloyd Grant, andJason Newsted. Mötley Crüe Often clashing during the early 1980s, both bands were fighting for dominance in theLos Angelesrock scene during Metallica's early years prior to their relocation to the Bay Area. Both James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich expressed their hatred of the hair metal scene in Los Angeles during the time and frequently attacked multiple up-and-coming local bands in multiple interviews, includingMötley Crüe.Ulrich and Mötley Crüe's bassistNikki Sixxhad allegedly been involved in a spat prior to a show at theTroubadourinHollywoodin 1982. Though despite their public disdain for glam metal, Metallica were impressed by the production and commercial success ofDr. Feelgoodin 1989, later hiring the album's producerBob Rockto produce theirself-titled fifth albumin 1991. Several years later; both Sixx and Ulrich would reignite the feud after Ulrich accused Mötley Crüe of performing to a backing track at the1997 American Music Awards. Sixx responded via an online forum in which he insulted numerous band members and also attacked Metallica's then-recent albumLoad.Despite this, Sixx would praise Metallica's then-latest albumSt. Angerduring a 2003 interview, contrary to the negative attention it received upon release.In 2006, both Mötley Crüe drummerTommy Lee, and former bassist Jason Newsted took part in a reality show entitledRock Star: Supernovaas they would both participate in creating a supergroup while the show's premise revolved around finding a frontman via contest. During a 2011 meet-and-greet inMexico City, Hetfield was approached by a fan attacking Mötley Crüe due to their public image and frequent appearances in tabloids. Hetfield refused to directly respond to the fan's comments towards Mötley Crüe but laughed in his insults toward the band.In 2015, drummer Lee reignited the feud when he tweeted a picture of Ulrich with the words \"Straight Outta Tempo\" superimposed over his face. Following the post by Lee, Mötley Crüe singerVince Neilhad stated online that he was unaware of the feud with Metallica; however, during a later interview with anOregonradio show, Neil was again asked about the band's current relationship with Metallica and hung up on the show's host.Things were alleged to have calmed down by 2017, when Hetfield appeared on Sixx's radio show 'Sixx Sense'.During an interview in 2021, Sixx applauded Metallica's longevity and praised several of their releases during an interview. Jason Newsted Following his hiring in 1986, former bassistJason Newstedhad regularly experienced incidents of hazing and a perceived lack of acceptance from his bandmates despite his strong efforts in a majority of the band's live performances.Many fans and outlets cite the band'sfourth album's unusual mixing to drown the bass tracks as a possible effort by Hetfield and Ulrich to minimize Newsted's involvement.This sentiment was further exacerbated by the fact that Newsted was only given songwriting credits on three songs during his 14-year span in the band which also saw him perform on four studio albums.Tensions between Hetfield and Newsted reached a breaking point in 2000 after Hetfield repeatedly blocked Newsted's request to venture into his side projectEchobrain.Discussions broke down and Newsted abruptly left the band in January 2001 prior to the recording ofSt. Anger.Despite Newsted's animosity surrounding his decision, he was later inducted into the hall of fame as a member of the band in 2009 and also appeared at the band's 30th anniversary show in San Francisco in 2011. In August 2021, to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the release of the band's self-titled album, Newsted was given a box set of the reissue to open for anunboxing video, which was uploaded to the band's YouTube channel. Band members Current members Session/touring musicians Former members Timeline Discography Studio albums Tours Awards and nominations Grammy Awards See also Notes References General sources External links", "Slayer Slayerwas an Americanthrash metalband fromHuntington Park, California, formed in 1981 by guitaristsKerry KingandJeff Hanneman, drummerDave Lombardoand bassist/vocalistTom Araya. Slayer's fast and aggressive musical style made them one of the \"big four\" bands ofthrash metal, alongsideMetallica,Megadeth, andAnthrax. Slayer's final lineup consisted of King, Araya, drummerPaul Bostaphand guitaristGary Holt, who initially joined as a touring member in 2011 before joining the band permanently after Hanneman's death in 2013. DrummerJon Dettewas also a member of the band. In the original lineup, King, Hanneman and Araya contributed to the band's lyrics, and all of the band's music was written by King and Hanneman. The band's lyrics and album art, which cover topics such asserial killers,torture,genocide,organized crime,secret societies,occultism,terrorism,religionorantireligion,fascism,racismandwar, have generated album bans, delays, lawsuits and criticism from religious groups. However, its music has been highly influential, being cited by many bands as an influence musically, visually and lyrically; the band's third album,Reign in Blood(1986), has been described as one of the heaviest and most influential thrash metal albums. Slayer released twelve studio albums, three live albums, a box set, six music videos, two extended plays and a cover album. Four of the band's studio albums have receivedgold certificationin the United States. Slayer sold 5 million copies in the United States from 1991 to 2013, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The band has received fiveGrammy Awardnominations, winning one in 2007 for the song \"Eyes of the Insane\" and one in 2008 for the song \"Final Six\", both of which were from the albumChrist Illusion(2006). Slayer announced in 2018 that it would embark on afarewell tour, which took place from May 2018 to November 2019, after which they disbanded. Slayer later reunited to perform two reunion shows in 2024. History Early years (1981–1983) Slayer was formed in 1981 byKerry King,Jeff Hanneman,Dave LombardoandTom Arayain Huntington Park, California. The group started out playing covers of songs by bands such asIron Maiden,Black Sabbath,Judas PriestandVenomat parties and clubs inSouthern California. The band's early image relied heavily onSatanicthemes that featuredpentagrams, make-up, spikes, and inverted crosses.Rumors that the band was originally known as Dragonslayer, after the1981 film of the same name, were denied by King, as he later stated: \"We never were; it's a myth to this day.\"According to Lombardo, the original band name was to be Wings of Fire before they settled in with Slayer. It was he who designed the iconic logo. For inspiration, Lombardo thought in a perspective of a murderer of how they would carve out the logo with a knife and since he's lefthanded, the logo is unintentionally slanted to the right. In 1983, Slayer was invited to open for the bandBitchat the Woodstock Club inAnaheim, California, to perform eight songs, six of which were covers. The band was spotted byBrian Slagel, a former music journalist who had recently foundedMetal Blade Records. Impressed with Slayer, he met with the band backstage and asked them to record an original song for his upcomingMetal Massacre IIIcompilation album. The band agreed and their song \"Aggressive Perfector\" created an underground buzz upon its release in mid 1983, which led to Slagel offering the band arecording contractwith Metal Blade. Show No Mercy,Haunting the ChapelandHell Awaits(1983–1986) Without any recording budget, the band had to self-finance its debut album. Combining the savings of Araya, who was employed as arespiratory therapist,and money borrowed from King's father,the band entered the studio in November 1983. The album was rushed into release, stocking shelves three weeks after tracks were completed.Show No Mercy, released in December 1983 by Metal Blade Records, generated underground popularity for the band. The group began a club tour of California to promote the album. The tour gave the band additional popularity and sales ofShow No Mercyeventually reached more than 20,000 in the US and another 20,000 worldwide. In February 1984, King briefly joinedDave Mustaine's new bandMegadeth.Hanneman was worried about King's decision, stating in an interview, \"I guess we're gonna get a new guitar player.\"While Mustaine wanted King to stay on a permanent basis, King left after five shows, stating Mustaine's band was \"taking too much of my time.\"The split caused a rift between King and Mustaine, which evolved into a long running feud between the two bands. In June 1984, Slayer released a three-trackEPcalledHaunting the Chapel. The EP featured a darker, more thrash-oriented style thanShow No Mercy, and laid the groundwork for the future direction of the band.The opening track, \"Chemical Warfare\", has become a live staple, played at nearly every show since 1984. Later that year, Slayer began their first national club tour, traveling in Araya'sCamarotowing aU-Haultrailer.The band recorded the live albumLive Undeadin November 1984 while inNew York City. In March 1985, Slayer began a national tour withVenomandExodus, resulting in their first livehome videodubbedCombat Tour: The Ultimate Revenge. The video featured live footage filmed at theStudio 54club. The band then made its live European debut at theHeavy Sound Festivalin Belgium opening forUFO.Also in 1985, Slayer toured or played selected shows with bands like Megadeth,Destruction,D.R.I.,Possessed,Agent Steel,S.O.D.,Nasty SavageandMetal Church. Show No Mercyhad sold over 40,000 copies,which led to the band returning to the studio to record their second full-length album. Metal Blade financed a recording budget, which allowed the band to hire producerRon Fair.Released in April 1985, Slayer's second full-length album,Hell Awaits, expanded on the darkness ofHaunting the Chapel, with hell and Satan as common song subjects. The album was the band's mostprogressiveoffering, featuring longer and more complex song structures.The intro of the title track is abackwards recordingof a demonic-sounding voice repeating \"Join us\", ending with \"Welcome back\" before the track begins. The album was a hit, with fans choosing Slayer for best band, best live band,Hell Awaits, as 1985's best album, and Dave Lombardo as best drummer inMetal Forces'1985 Readers Poll. Reign in Blood, Lombardo's brief hiatus andSouth of Heaven(1986–1989) Following the success ofHell Awaits, Slayer was offered a recording contract withRussell SimmonsandRick Rubin's newly foundedDef Jam Records, then-a largelyhip hop-based label.The band accepted, and with an experienced producer andmajor labelrecording budget, the band underwent a sonic makeover for their third albumReign in Blood, resulting in shorter, faster songs with clearer production. The complex arrangements and long songs featured onHell Awaitswere ditched in favor of stripped down,hardcore punkinfluenced song structures. Def Jam's distributor,Columbia Records, refused to release the album due to the song \"Angel of Death\"which detailedHolocaustconcentration campsand thehuman experimentsconducted by Nazi physicianJosef Mengele. The album was distributed byGeffen Recordson October 7, 1986. However, due to the controversy,Reign in Blooddid not appear on Geffen Records' release schedule.Although the album received virtually no radio airplay, it became the band's first to enter theBillboard200, peaking at number 94,and the band's first album certified gold in the United States. Slayer embarked on theReign in Painworld tour, withOverkillin the US from October to December 1986, andMalicein Europe in April and May 1987. They also played with other bands such asAgnostic Front,Testament,Metal Church,D.R.I.,Dark AngelandFlotsam and Jetsam.The band was added as the opening act onW.A.S.P.'s US tour, but just one month into it, drummer Lombardo left the band: \"I wasn't making any money. I figured if we were gonna be doing this professionally, on a major label, I wanted my rent and utilities paid.\"To continue with the tour, Slayer enlistedTony ScaglioneofWhiplash. However, Lombardo was convinced by his wife to return in 1987.At the insistence of Rubin, Slayer recorded acover versionofIron Butterfly's \"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\" for the filmLess than Zero.Although the band was not happy with the final product, Hanneman deeming it \"a poor representation of Slayer\" and King labeling it \"a hunk of shit\", it was one of their first songs to garnerradio airplay. In late 1987, Slayer returned to the studio to record their fourth studio album. To contrast the speed ofReign in Blood, the band consciously decided to slow down thetempos, and incorporate more melodic singing. According to Hanneman, \"We knew we couldn't topReign in Blood, so we had to slow down. We knew whatever we did was gonna be compared to that album, and I remember we actually discussed slowing down. It was weird—we've never done that on an album, before or since.\" Released in July 1988,South of Heavenreceived mixed responses from both fans and critics, although it was Slayer's most commercially successful release at the time, debuting at number 57 on theBillboard200,and their second album to receive gold certification in the United States.Press response to the album was mixed, withAllMusicciting the album as \"disturbing and powerful\",and Kim Neely ofRolling Stonecalling it \"genuinely offensive satanic drivel\".King said \"that album was my most lackluster performance\", although Araya called it a \"late bloomer\" which eventually grew on people.Slayer toured from August 1988 to January 1989 to promoteSouth of Heaven, supportingJudas Priestin the US on theirRam It Downtour, and touring Europe withNuclear Assaultand the US withMotörheadandOverkill. Seasons in the Abyssand Lombardo's second departure (1990–1993) Slayer returned to the studio in early 1990 with co-producerAndy Wallaceto record its fifth studio album. Following the backlash created bySouth of Heaven, Slayer returned to the \"pounding speed ofReign in Blood, while retaining their newfoundmelodicsense.\"Seasons in the Abyss, released on October 9, 1990, was the first Slayer album to be released under Rubin's newDef Americanlabel, as he had parted ways with Def Jam ownerRussell Simmonsover creative differences. The album debuted at number 44 on theBillboard200,and was certified gold in 1992.The album spawned Slayer's first music video for the album's title track, which was filmed in front of theGiza pyramidsin Egypt. Slayer returned as a live act in September 1990 to co-headline the EuropeanClash of the Titanstour with Megadeth,Suicidal Tendencies, andTestament. During the sold out European leg of this tour, tickets had prices skyrocket to 1,000 Deutschmark (US$680) on the black market. With the popularity of American thrash at its peak, the band toured with Testament again in early 1991 and triple-headlined the North American version of the Clash of the Titans tour that summer with Megadeth,Anthrax, and opening actAlice in Chains.The band released a double live album,Decade of Aggressionin 1991, to celebrate ten years since their formation. The compilation debuted at number 55 on theBillboard200. In May 1992, Lombardo left the band due to conflicts with the other members, as well as his desire to be off tour for the birth of his first child.Lombardo formed his own bandGrip Inc., withVoodoocultguitaristWaldemar Sorychta,and Slayer recruited formerForbiddendrummerPaul Bostaphto fill in the drummer position. Slayer made its debut appearance with Bostaph at the 1992Monsters of Rockfestival atCastle Donington. Bostaph's first studio effort was a medley of threeExploitedsongs, \"War\", \"UK '82\", and \"Disorder\", with rapperIce-T, for theJudgment Nightmovie soundtrackin 1993. Divine Intervention,Undisputed AttitudeandDiabolus in Musica(1994–2000) On September 27, 1994, Slayer releasedDivine Intervention, the band's first album with Bostaph on the drums. The album featured songs aboutReinhard Heydrich, an architect of the Holocaust, andJeffrey Dahmer, an American serial killer and sex offender. Other themes included murder, the evils of church, and the lengths to which governments went to wield power, Araya's interest in serial killers inspired much of the content of the lyrics. Slayer geared up for a world tour in 1995, with openersBiohazardandMachine Head. A video of concert footage,Live Intrusionwas released, featuring a jointcoverofVenom's\"Witching Hour\" with Machine Head. Following the tour, Slayer was billed third at the 1995Monsters of Rockfestival, headlined byMetallica. In 1996,Undisputed Attitude, an album ofpunkcovers, was released. The band covered songs byMinor Threat,T.S.O.L.,Dirty Rotten Imbeciles,D.I.,Verbal Abuse,Dr. Know, andThe Stooges. The album featured three original tracks, \"Gemini\", \"Can't Stand You\", \"Ddamm\"; the latter two were written by Hanneman in 1984–1985 for a side project entitled Pap Smear. Bostaph left Slayer shortly after the album's recording to work on his own project, Truth About Seafood. With Bostaph's departure, Slayer recruitedTestamentdrummerJon Dette, and headlined the 1996 Ozzfest alongsideOzzy Osbourne,Danzig,Biohazard,Sepultura, andFear Factory. Dette was fired after a year, due to a fallout with band members. After that, Bostaph returned to continue the tour. Diabolus in Musica(Latin for \"The Devil in Music\") was released in 1998, and debuted at number 31 on theBillboard200, selling over 46,000 copies in its first week.It was complete by September 1997, and scheduled to be released the following month, but got delayed by nine months after their label was taken over byColumbia Records.The album received a mixed critical reception, and was criticized for adopting characteristics ofnu metalmusic such as tuned down guitars, murky chord structures, and churning beats.Blabbermouth.netreviewer Borivoj Krgin described the album as \"a feeble attempt at incorporating updated elements into the group's sound, the presence of which elevated the band's efforts somewhat and offered hope that Slayer could refrain from endlessly rehashing their previous material for their future output\",while Ben Ratliff ofThe New York Timeshad similar sentiments, writing on June 22, 1998, that: \"Eight of the 11 songs onDiabolus in Musica, a few of which were played at the show, are in the same gray key, and the band's rhythmic ideas have a wearying sameness too.\" The album was the band's first to primarily feature dropped tuning, making use of thetritoneinterval referred to in the Middle Ages as the Devil's interval.Slayer teamed up withdigital hardcoregroupAtari Teenage Riotto record a song for theSpawnsoundtrack titled \"No Remorse (I Wanna Die)\". The band paid tribute toBlack Sabbathby recording a cover of \"Hand of Doom\" for the second of two tribute albums, titledNativity in Black II. A world tour followed to support the new album, with Slayer making an appearance at the United KingdomOzzfest 1998. God Hates Us All(2001–2005) During mid-2001, the band joinedMorbid Angel,Pantera,SkrapeandStatic-Xon the Extreme Steel Tour of North America, which was Pantera's last major tour.After delays regarding remixing and artwork, including slip covers created to cover the original artwork as it was deemed \"too graphic\", Slayer's next album,God Hates Us All, was released onSeptember 11, 2001. The band received its firstGrammynomination for the lead track \"Disciple\", although the Grammy was awarded toTool, for \"Schism\".The September 11 attacks on America jeopardized the 2001 European tourTattoo the Planetoriginally set to feature Pantera, Static-X,Cradle of Filth,BiohazardandVision of Disorder. The dates in the United Kingdom were postponed due to flight restrictions, with a majority of bands deciding to withdraw, leaving Slayer and Cradle of Filth remaining for the European leg of the tour. Pantera, Static-X, Vision of Disorder and Biohazard were replaced by other bands depending on location;Amorphis,In Flames,Moonspell,Children of Bodom, andNecrodeath. Biohazard eventually decided to rejoin the tour later on, and booked new gigs in the countries, where they missed a few dates. Drummer Bostaph left Slayer before Christmas in 2001, due to a chronic elbow injury, which would hinder his ability to play.Since the band's European tour was unfinished at that time, the band's manager, Rick Sales, contacted original drummer Dave Lombardo and asked if he would like to finish the remainder of the tour.Lombardo accepted the offer, and stayed as a permanent member. Slayer toured playingReign in Bloodin its entirety throughout the fall of 2003, under the tour banner \"Still Reigning\". Their playing of the final song, \"Raining Blood\", culminated with the band drenched in a rain of stage blood. Live footage of this was recorded at the Augusta Civic Center inAugusta, Maine, on July 11, 2004, and released on the 2004 DVDStill Reigning. The band also releasedWar at the Warfieldand a box set,Soundtrack to the Apocalypsefeaturing rarities, live CD and DVD performances and various Slayer merchandise. From 2002 to 2004, the band performed over 250 tour dates, headlining major music festivals including H82k2, Summer tour,Ozzfest 2004and a European tour withSlipknot. While preparing for the Download Festival in England,MetallicadrummerLars Ulrichwas taken to a hospital with an unknown and mysterious illness, and was unable to perform. Metallica vocalistJames Hetfieldsearched for volunteers at the last minute to replace Ulrich; Lombardo and Slipknot drummerJoey Jordisonvolunteered, with Lombardo performing the songs \"Battery\" and \"The Four Horsemen\". Christ Illusion(2006–2008) The next studio album,Christ Illusion, was originally scheduled for release on June 6, 2006, and would be the first album with original drummer Lombardo since 1990'sSeasons in the Abyss.However, the band decided to delay the release of the record, as they did not want to be among the many, according to King, \"half-ass, stupid fucking loser bands\" releasing records on June 6,althoughUSA Todayreported the idea was thwarted because the band failed to secure sufficient studio recording time.Slayer releasedEternal Pyreon June 6 as a limited-editionEP.Eternal Pyrefeatured the song \"Cult\", a live performance of \"War Ensemble\" in Germany and video footage of the band recording \"Cult\". Five thousand copies were released and sold exclusively throughHot Topicchain stores, and sold out within hours of release.On June 30,Nuclear Blast Recordsreleased a 7\" vinyl picture disc version limited to a thousand copies. Christ Illusionwas eventually released on August 8, 2006, and debuted at number 5 on theBillboard200, selling over 62,000 copies in its first week.The album became Slayer's highest charting, improving on its previous highest charting album,Divine Intervention, which had debuted at number 8. However, despite its high positioning, the album dropped to number 44 in the following week.Three weeks after the album's release, Slayer were inducted into theKerrang!Hall of Fame for their influence to the heavy metal scene. A worldwide tour dubbedThe Unholy Alliance Tour, was undertaken to support the new record. The tour was originally set to launch on June 6 in San Diego, but was postponed to June 10, as Araya had to undergogall bladdersurgery.In Flames,Mastodon,Children of Bodom,Lamb of God, andThine Eyes Bleed(featuring Araya's brother, Johnny) and Ted Maul (London Hammersmith Apollo) were supporting Slayer.The tour made its way through America and Europe and the bands who participated, apart from Thine Eyes Bleed, reunited to perform atJapan'sLoudpark Festivalon October 15, 2006. The video for the album's first single, \"Eyes of the Insane\", was released on October 30, 2006.The track was featured on theSaw IIIsoundtrack, and won a Grammy-award for \"Best Metal Performance\" at the 49th Grammy Awards, although the band was unable to attend due to touring obligations.A week later, the band visited the 52nd Services Squadron located on the Spangdahlem U.S. Air Force Base in Germany to meet and play a show. This was the first visit ever to a military base for the band.The band made its firstnetwork TVappearance on the showJimmy Kimmel Live!on January 19, playing the song \"Eyes of the Insane\", and four additional songs for fans after the show (although footage from \"Jihad\" was cut due to its controversial lyrical themes). In 2007, Slayer toured Australia and New Zealand in April with Mastodon, and appeared at theDownload Festival,Rock Am Ring,and a summer tour withMarilyn MansonandBleeding Through. World Painted Blood(2009–2011) In 2008, Araya stated uncertainty about the future of the band,and that he could not see himself continuing the career at a later age. He said that once the band finished its upcoming album, which was the final record in their contract, the band would sit down and discuss its future.King was optimistic that the band would produce at least another two albums before considering to disband: \"We're talking of going in the studio next February and getting the next record out so if we do things in a timely manner I don't see there's any reason why we can't have more than one album out.\"Slayer, along withTrivium,Mastodon, andAmon Amarth, teamed up for a European tour titled 'The Unholy Alliance: Chapter III', throughout October and November 2008.Slayer headlined the secondMayhem Festivalin the summer of 2009. Slayer, along withMegadeth, also co-headlined Canadian Carnage, the first time they performed together in more than 15 years when they co-headlined four shows in Canada in late June 2009 with openersMachine HeadandSuicide Silence. The band's eleventh studio album,World Painted Blood, was released byAmerican Recordings. It was available on November 3 in North America and November 2 for the rest of the world. The band stated that the album takes elements of all their previous works includingSeasons in the Abyss,South of Heaven, andReign in Blood.Slayer, along with Metallica, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, at Bemowo Airport, inWarsaw, Poland. One of the following Big 4 performances in (Sofia, Bulgaria, June 22, 2010) was sent via satellite in HD to cinemas.They also went on to play several other dates as part of the Sonisphere Festival. Megadeth and Slayer joined forces once again for theAmerican Carnage Tourfrom July to October 2010 with opening actsAnthraxandTestament,andEuropean Carnage Tourin March and April 2011.The \"Big Four\" played more dates at Sonisphere in England and France for the first time ever.Slayer returned to Australia in February and March 2011 as part of theSoundwave Festivaland also played in California with the other members of the \"Big Four\". In early 2011, Hanneman was diagnosed withnecrotizing fasciitis. According to the band, doctors said that it likely originated from a spider bite. Araya said of Hanneman's condition: \"Jeff was seriously ill. Jeff ended up contracting a bacteria that ate away his flesh on his arm, so they cut open his arm, from his wrist to his shoulder, and they did askin grafton him, they cleaned up ... It was a flesh-eating virus, so he was really, really bad. So we'll wait for him to get better, and when he's a hundred percent, he's gonna come out and join us.\"The band decided to play their upcoming tour dates without Hanneman.Gary HoltofExoduswas announced as Hanneman's temporary replacement.Cannibal CorpseguitaristPat O'Brienfilled in for Holt during a tour in Europe.On April 23, 2011, at the American Big 4 show inIndio, California, Hanneman rejoined his bandmates to play the final two songs of their set, \"South of Heaven\" and \"Angel of Death\". This turned out to be Hanneman's final live performance with the band. Hanneman's death, Lombardo's third split, andRepentless(2011–2016) When asked if Slayer would make another album, Lombardo replied \"Yes absolutely; Although there's nothing written, there are definitely plans.\"However, Araya said Slayer would not begin writing a new album until Hanneman's condition improved.To celebrate the 25th anniversary ofReign In Blood, the band performed all of the album's tracks at theAll Tomorrow's Partiesfestival at theAlexandra Palacein London. In November 2011, Lombardo posted atweetthat the band had started to write new music. This presumably meant that Hanneman's condition improved, and it was believed he was ready to enter the studio.King had worked with Lombardo that year and they completed three songs. The band planned on entering the studio in either March or April 2012 and were hoping to have the album recorded before the group's US tour in late May and release it by the summer of that year.However, King said the upcoming album would not be finished until September and October of that year, making a 2013 release likely.In July 2012, King revealed two song titles for the upcoming album, \"Chasing Death\" and \"Implode\". In February 2013, Lombardo was fired right before Slayer was to play at Australia's Soundwave festival due to an argument with band members over a pay dispute.Slayer andAmerican Recordingsreleased a statement, saying \"Mr. Lombardo came to the band less than a week before their scheduled departure for Australia to present an entirely new set of terms for his engagement that were contrary to those that had been previously agreed upon\",although Lombardo claimed there was a gag order in place.Dette returned to fill in for Lombardo for the Soundwave dates.It was confirmed that Lombardo was officially out of Slayer for the third time, and, in May, Bostaph rejoined the band. King said in February 2024 that he had severed ties with Lombardo ever since, adding that \"he's dead to me.\" On May 2, 2013, Hanneman died due to liver failure in a local hospital near his home in Southern California'sInland Empire;the cause of death was later determined to be alcohol-relatedcirrhosis.King confirmed that the band would continue, saying \"Jeff is going to be in everybody's thoughts for a long time. It's unfortunate you can't keep unfortunate things from happening. But we're going to carry on – and he'll be there in spirit.\"However, Araya felt more uncertain about the band's future, expressing his belief that \"After 30 years , it would literally be like starting over\", and doubting that Slayer's fanbase would approve such a change.Despite the uncertainty regarding the band's future, Slayer still worked on a followup toWorld Painted Blood. Additionally, it was reported that the new album would still feature material written by Hanneman. At the 2014Revolver's Golden Gods Awards ceremony, Slayer debuted \"Implode\", its first new song in five years. The group announced that they had signed withNuclear Blast, and planned to release a new album in 2015.It was reported that Holt would take over Hanneman's guitar duties full-time,although Holt did not participate in the songwriting.In February, Slayer announced a seventeen-date American tour to start in June featuringSuicidal TendenciesandExodus.In 2015, Slayer headlined the Rockstar Energy Mayhem Festival for the second time.Repentless, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on September 11, 2015.Slayer toured for2+1⁄2years in support ofRepentless. The band toured Europe withAnthraxandKvelertakin October and November 2015,and embarked on three North American tours: one withTestamentandCarcassin February and March 2016,then with Anthrax andDeath Angelin September and October 2016,and withLamb of GodandBehemothin July and August 2017.A lone date in Southeast Asia in 2017 was held in the Philippines. Cancelled thirteenth studio album, Final World Tour and split (2016–2019) In August 2016, guitaristKerry Kingwas asked if Slayer would release a follow-up toRepentless. He replied, \"We've got lots of leftover material from the last album, 'cause we wrote so much stuff, and we recorded a bunch of it too. If the lyrics don't change the song musically, those songs are done. So we are way ahead of the ballgame without even doing anything for the next record. And I've been working on stuff on my downtime. Like, I'll warm up and a riff will come to mind and I'll record it. I've gotten a handful of those on this run. So wheels are still turning. I haven't worked on anything lyrically yet except for what was done on the last record, so that's something I've gotta get on. But, yeah,Repentlessisn't quite a year old yet.\" King also stated that Slayer was not expected to enter the studio until at least 2018.In an October interview onHatebreedfrontmanJamey Jasta's podcast, King stated that he was \"completely open\" to having guitaristGary Holt(who had no songwriting contributions onRepentless) involved in the songwriting process of the next Slayer album. He explained, \"I'm entirely open to having Gary work on something. I know he's gotta work on anExodusrecord and I've got tons already for this one. But, you know, if he's gonna stick around... I didn't want it on the last one, and I knew that. I'm completely open to having that conversation. I haven't talked toTomabout it, I haven't talked to Gary open about it, but I'm open. That's not saying it is or isn't gonna happen. But my ears are open.\" In a June 2017 interview with theUltimate Guitar Archive, Holt said that he was ready to contribute with the songwriting for the next album.When speaking toRevolver, King was asked if there were any plans in place for the band to begin working on the album, he said, \"Funny thing is,Repentlessisn't even two years old yet, though it seems like it is. But from that session, there are six or eight songs that are recorded—some with vocals, some with leads, but all with keeper guitar, drums and bass. So when those songs get finished lyrically, if the lyrics don't change the songs, they'll be ready to be on the next record. So we already have more than half a record complete, if those songs make it.\" He also gave conceivable consideration that it could be released next year, \"I'm certainly not gonna promise it, because every time I do, I make a liar of myself! \"When asked about any plans or the timeline the band would like to release the album, King said, \"It depends on touring—getting time to rehearse, getting time to make up new stuff. We haven't even done Australia on this run yet at all. We're hitting Japan finally later this year. But if things go well, I'd like to record next year. But timelines changeallthe time.\"In an October 2017 interview, Holt once again expressed his desire to contribute to the songwriting for the next Slayer album, saying, \"When that time comes and we are ready for the next album, if Kerry wants me to contribute, I've got riffs. I've got stuff right now that I've written that I am not using for Exodus, because it was kind of maybe just unintentional subconscious thing, like, 'It sounds a little too Slayer.'\" Plans for a new album were ultimately scrapped when on January 22, 2018, Slayer announcedtheir farewell world tourthrough a video featuring a montage of press clippings, early posters and press photos spanning the band's entire career. Although the members of Slayer have never publicly explained why they were retiring, it was thought that one of the reasons behind this decision wasTom Araya's desire not to tour anymore and to spend more time with his family; Araya hinted at the possibility of retiring in a 2016 interview.This was confirmed by former drummerDave Lombardoin a 2019 interview, who said: \"Apparently, from what I hear. Tom has been wanting to retire when I was in the band—he wanted to stop. He had the neck issues. He's been wanting to retire for a long time now. So now that he's got it, I'm happy for him, and I hope he gets what he wants out of life and his future.\" The farewell tour began with a North American trek in May and June 2018, supported byLamb of God,Anthrax,BehemothandTestament.The second leg of the North American tour took place in July and August, withNapalm Deathreplacing Behemoth,followed in November and December by a European tour with Lamb of God, Anthrax andObituary.The farewell tour continued into 2019, with plans to visit places such as South America, Australia and Japan; in addition to European festivals such asHellfestandGraspop,the band toured the United States in May 2019 with Lamb of God,Amon AmarthandCannibal Corpse.Slayer also played one show in Mexico at Force Fest in October 2018. On December 2, 2018, Holt announced that he would not perform the remainder of the band's European tour to be with his dying father.Vio-lenceand formerMachine HeadguitaristPhil Demmelwould fill in for him as a result. Holt had stated that Slayer would not release a new album before the end of the farewell tour.On how long the tour would last, Holt's Exodus bandmateSteve \"Zetro\" Souzacommented, \"I'm speculating it's gonna take a year and a half or two years to do the one final thing, but I believe it's finished. Everybody knows what I know; just because I'm on the outside, I have no insight on that.\"The final North American leg of the tour, dubbed \"The Last Campaign\", took place in November 2019, and also included support fromPrimus,MinistryandPhilip H. Anselmo & The Illegals.Despite being referred to as a farewell tour for Slayer, their manager Rick Sales has stated that \"the band is not breaking up, they made a decision to stop touring. That doesn't mean the end of the band. It’s just the end of touring\".Kristen Mulderig, who works with Rick Sales Entertainment Group, has also been quoted as saying that there would be Slayer-related activities following the tour's conclusion.However, within two days after the tour's completion, King's wife Ayesha stated on her Instagram page that there is \"not a chance in hell\" that Slayer would ever reunite to perform more shows or release new music. Post-breakup (2020–2024) In March 2020, when talking toGuitar Worldabout his latest endorsement withDean Guitars, King hinted that he would continue to make music outside of Slayer, simply saying, \"Dean didn't sign me for nothing!\"King stated in an August 2020 interview on the Dean Guitars YouTube channel that he had \"more than two records' worth of music\" for his yet-to-be disclosed new project.Bostaph later confirmed that he and King were working on a new project that would \"sound like Slayer without it being Slayer—but not intentionally so.\"This project was later revealed to be King's solo debut album,From Hell I Rise, released on May 17, 2024, and the lineup of the album includes King, Bostaph,Death Angelvocalist Mark Osegueda,HellyeahbassistKyle Sanders, and formerVio-lenceandMachine HeadguitaristPhil Demmel. In addition to King and Bostaph, the other members of Slayer have remained musically active. Holt continues to record and perform withExodus, releasing a new album,Persona Non Grata, in 2021.Lombardo has been involved with various acts since his third split with Slayer in 2013, such asSuicidal Tendencies,Dead Cross, theMisfits,Mr. BungleandTestament, the latter of where he had previously served as the drummer for the band's 1999 albumThe Gatheringand rejoined in March 2022,only to leave again in the following April.Jon Dettehas been a member of at least two bands,Animetal USAand Meshiaak,and performed withAnthraxandVolbeatas a fill-in drummer.Araya, aside from an appearance in theBay Area thrash metaldocumentary filmMurder in the Front Row, had not been publicly active in the music industry nor given any interviews between the conclusion of Slayer's final tour and the band's 2024 reunion. The members of Slayer had expressed mixed opinions about a reunion. When asked by theLet There Be Talkpodcast in June 2020 about the possibility of the band ever reforming, Holt stated, \"If it does, if it ever happens, it has nothing to do with me. Someone else would call and say, 'We wanna .' To my knowledge, it's done. And I think itshouldbe that way. The band went out fucking on a bang, went out on Slayer's terms, and how many people get to say they did that?\".Holt stated in March 2021 that he was open to a potential Slayer reunion, but it was unlikely to happen in the near future: \"Look, if the powers that be ever—like, in a year or something—said, 'Hey, you know what? We feel like playing some shows,' I'm there to do it. But those aren't decisions for me to make, or even me to really speculate on. As far as my knowledge, the band is over, and the final show was November 30, 2019. And I'm full speed ahead with Exodus now.\"In October 2021, King expressed regret that Slayer had retired \"too early.\" While congratulatingMachine Headon their 30th anniversary as a band, he said, \"Apparently, it's 30 years, which is quite an achievement. Not a lot of bands get there. We did, and then we quit too early. Fuck us. Fuck me. I hate fucking not playing.\"When interviewed two months later byMetal Hammer, King did not rule out the possibility of any more \"Big Four\" shows withMetallica,Megadethand Anthrax, but expressed doubt that a Slayer reunion would ever happen: \"The way that I'm moving forward is I don't think Slayer are ever going to play again. There's no business of me playing by myself!\"King's wife Ayesha had also ruled out the possibility of a Slayer reunion, insisting that her husband and Araya would \"never be Slayer again\".In a February 2024 interview withRolling Stone, King clarified that a reunion of the band was unlikely: \"Could Slayer play a show again? I'm sure there's a scenario. Am I looking for it? No, I'm just getting ready to start my career. So if that happens, it happens. But I'm going to be doing this for the next 10 years at least.\" King revealed in the same interview that he has not spoken to Araya since the band's split. King also says that his relationship with Araya is positive, but his relation with that of former drummer Dave Lombardo is estranged. Talking about that situation, King said that Lombardo \"was listening to this woman that was his attorney at the time, and she thought we had Metallica money, which we've never had fucking Metallica money. So she's just blowing shit in his ear, and he thinks he should be getting more than he should be getting.\" Reunion and second hiatus (2024–present) On February 21, 2024, Slayer announced that they would play their first show since disbanding atRiot Feston September 22, and play their second show five days later atLouder Than Life.However, due to weather conditions caused byHurricane Helene, Louder Than Life canceled their September 27 shows, which included Slayer in the lineup.The lineup of this reunion was the 2013–2019 lineup of bassist/vocalistTom Araya, guitaristsKerry KingandGary Holtand drummerPaul Bostaph.They also headlined the first of four nights of theAftershock Festivalin Sacramento on October 10, 2024,and while announcing this show, the band said in a statement, \"There's been a lot of excited fans out there about our playing a couple of festival dates, so it's great to be able to add this last one.\" In an interview withMetal Hammer, King indicated that the planned shows were a one-off and that the reunion was \"not going to translate into recording and it's not going to translate into touring\", clarifying that \"it's three shows marking five years since our final shows, a fun, 'Hey, remember us from before thepandemic?' celebration.\"In a May 2024 interview onTrunk Nation With Eddie Trunk, King said that while he would not rule out more Slayer shows in the future, his solo career was his main priority now.When asked in an October 2024 interview with107.7 The Boneif more reunion shows were in the works, Bostaph said, \"We played our last one… If everybody's asking that question, I am too, but I don't have the answer to that question. So, yeah, Aftershock was the last one. And we all hope that there will be more.\" Musical style Slayer is generally considered athrash metalband.In an article from December 1986 bythe Washington Post, writer Joe Brown described Slayer asspeed metal, a genre he defined as \"an unholy hybrid ofpunk rockthrash and heavy metal that attracts an almost all-male teen-age following\".Describing Slayer's music, Brown wrote: \"Over a jackhammer beat, Slayer's stun guitars created scraping sheets of corrosive metal noise, with occasionalsolosthat sounded like squealing brakes, over which the singer-bassist emitted a larynx-lacerating growl-yowl.\"In an article from September 1988 bythe New York Times, writer Jon Pareles also described Slayer as speed metal, additionally writing that the band \"brings the sensational imagery of tabloids and horror movies\" and has lyrics that \"revel in death, gore and allusions to Satanism and Nazism.\"Pareles also described other \"Big Four\" thrash metal bands Metallica and Megadeth as speed metal bands.Slayer's early works were praised for their \"breakneck speed and instrumental prowess\", combining the structure ofhardcore punktempos and speed metal. The band released fast, aggressive material.The albumReign in Bloodis the band's fastest, performed at an average of 220beats per minute; the albumDiabolus in Musicawas the band's first to feature C♯tuning;God Hates Us Allwas the first to featuredrop B tuningandseven-string guitarstuned to B♭.AllMusiccited the album as \"abandoning the extravagances and accessibility of their late-'80s/early-'90s work and returning to perfect the raw approach\",with some fans labeling it asnu metal. King and Hanneman's dual guitar solos have been referred to as \"wildly chaotic\",and \"twisted genius\".Original drummer Lombardo would use two bass drums (instead of a double pedal, which is used on a single bass drum). Lombardo's speed and aggression earned him the title of the \"godfather of double bass\" byDrummerworld.Lombardo stated his reasons for using two bass drums: \"When you hit the bass drum, the head is still resonating. When you hit it in the same place right after that, you kinda get a 'slapback' from the bass drum head hitting the other pedal. You're not letting them breathe.\" When playing the two bass drums, Lombardo would use the\"heel-up\" technique. In the original lineup, King, Hanneman and Araya contributed to the band's lyrics, and King and Hanneman wrote the music with additional arrangement from Lombardo, and sometimes Araya. Araya formed a lyric writing partnership with Hanneman, which sometimes overshadowed the creative input of King.Hanneman stated that writing lyrics and music was a \"free-for-all\": \"It's all just whoever comes up with what. Sometimes I'll be more on a roll and I'll have more stuff, same with Kerry – it's whoever's hot, really. Anybody can write anything; if it's good, we use it; if not, we don't.\" When writing material, the band would write the music first before incorporating lyrics. King or Hanneman used a24-trackanddrum machineto show band members the riff that they created, and to get their opinion. Either King, Hanneman or Lombardo would mention if any alterations could be made. The band played the riff to get the basic song structure, and figured out where the lyrics and solos would be placed. Legacy Slayer is one of the most influential bands in heavy metal history. Steve Huey ofAllMusicbelieves the musical style of Slayer makes the band stronger than the other members of the \"Big Four\" thrash metal bandsMetallica,MegadethandAnthrax, all of which rose to fame during the 1980s.Slayer's \"downtuned rhythms, infectious guitar licks, graphically violent lyrics and grisly artwork set the standard for dozens of emerging thrash bands\" and their \"music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal\" statesMTV, ranking Slayer as the sixth \"greatest metal band of all time\",ranking number 50 onVH1's100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock.Hanneman and King ranked number 10 inGuitar World's \"100 greatest metal guitarists of all time\" in 2004,and were voted \"Best Guitarist/Guitar Team\" inRevolver's reader's poll. Original drummer Lombardo was also voted \"Best Drummer\" and the band entered the top five in the categories \"Best Band Ever\", \"Best Live Band\", \"Album of the Year\" (forChrist Illusion) and \"Band of the Year\". Music authorJoel McIverconsiders Slayer very influential in the extreme metal scene, especially in the development of thedeath metalandblack metalsubgenres.According to John Consterdine ofTerrorizer, without \"Slayer's influence, extreme metal as we know it wouldn't exist.\"Kam LeeofMassacreand former member ofDeathstated: \"there wouldn't be death metal or black metal or even extreme metal (the likes of what it is today) if not for Slayer.\"Johan ReinholdzofAndromedasaid that Slayer \"were crucial in the development of thrash metal which then became the foundation for a lot of different subgenres. They inspired generations of metal bands.\"Alex SkolnickofTestamentdeclared: \"Before Slayer, metal had never had such razor-sharp articulation, tightness, and balance between sound and stops. This all-out sonic assault was about the shock, the screams, the drums, and most importantly the riffs.\" Groups who cited Slayer among their major influences includeCannibal Corpse,Pantera,Kreator,Sepultura,Children of Bodom,Mayhem,Darkthrone,Avenged Sevenfold,Bullet for My Valentine,Trivium,As I Lay Dying,All That Remains,System of a Down,Killswitch Engage,Slipknot,Machine Head,DevilDriver,Lamb of God,Gojira,Behemoth,EvileandLacuna Coil.Steve Asheim, drummer forDeicide, declared that \"there obviously would not have been a Deicide as we know it without the existence of Slayer.\"SepulturaguitaristAndreas Kisseraffirmed that \"without Slayer, Sepultura would never be possible.\"Weezermentions them in the song \"Heart Songs\" from their 2008self-titled \"Red\" album. The verse goes: \"Iron Maiden,Judas Priest, and Slayer taught me how to shred...\"Dave Grohlrecalled, \"Me and my friends, we just wanted to listen to fucking Slayer and take acid and smash stuff.\" The band's 1986 releaseReign in Bloodhas been an influence to extreme and thrash metal bands since its release and is considered the record which set the bar for death metal.It had a significant influence on the genre leaders such asDeath,Obituary,Cannibal Corpse,Morbid AngelandNapalm Death.The album was hailed the \"heaviest album of all time\" byKerrang!,a \"genre-definer\" byStylus,and a \"stone-cold classic upon its release\" byAllMusic.In 2006,Reign in Bloodwas named the best metal album of the last 20 years byMetal Hammer.According toNielsen SoundScan, Slayer sold 4,900,000 copies in the United States from 1991 to 2013. Controversy A lawsuit was brought against the band in 1996, by the parents ofElyse Pahler, who accused the band of encouraging their daughter's murderers through their lyrics.Pahler was drugged, strangled, stabbed, trampled on, and raped as asacrificeto the devil by three fans of the band.The case was unsealed by the court on May 19, 2000, stating Slayer and related business markets distribute harmful products to teens, encouraging violent acts through their lyrics,and \"none of the vicious crimes committed against Elyse Marie Pahler would have occurred without the intentional marketing strategy of the death-metal band Slayer\".The lawsuit was dismissed in 2001, for multiple reasons including \"principles of free speech, lack of a duty and lack of foreseeability\".A second lawsuit was filed by the parents, an amended complaint for damages against Slayer, their label, and other industry and label entities. The lawsuit was again dismissed. Judge E. Jeffrey Burke stated, \"I do not consider Slayer's music obscene, indecent or harmful to minors.\" Slayer has been accused of holdingNazisympathies, due to the band's eagle logo bearing resemblance to theEagle atop swastikaand the lyrics of \"Angel of Death\".\"Angel of Death\" was inspired by the acts ofJosef Mengele,the doctor who conductedhuman experimentson prisoners duringWorld War IIat theAuschwitz concentration camp, and was dubbed the \"Angel of Death\" by inmates. Slayer's cover ofMinor Threat's \"Guilty of Being White\" raised questions about a possible message ofwhite supremacyin the band's music. The controversy surrounding the cover involved the changing of the refrain \"guilty of being white\" to \"guilty of being right\", at the song's ending. This incensed Minor Threat frontmanIan MacKaye, who stated \"that is so offensive to me\".King said it was changed for \"tongue-in-cheek\" humor as he thought the allegation of racism at the time was \"ridiculous\". In a 2004 interview with Araya, when asked, \"Did critics realize you were wallowing in parody?\". Araya replied, \"No. People thought we were serious!...back then you had thatPMRC, who literally took everything to heart, when in actuality you're trying to create an image. You're trying to scare people on purpose.\"Araya also denied rumors that Slayer members areSatanists, but they find the subject of Satanism interesting and \"we are all on this planet to learn and experience\". The song \"Jihad\" of the albumChrist Illusionsparked controversy among families of the September 11 victims.The song deals with the attack from the perspective of a religious terrorist. The band stated the song is spoken through perspective without being sympathetic to the cause, and supports neither side. Seventeen bus benches promoting the same album inFullerton, California, were deemed offensive by city officials. City officials contacted the band's record label and demanded that the ads be removed.All benches were eliminated. In India,Christ Illusionwas recalled byEMIIndia after protests with Christian religious groups due to the nature of the graphic artwork. The album cover was designed by Slayer's longtime collaboratorLarry Carrolland features Christ in a \"sea of despair\", with amputated arms, missing an eye, while standing in a sea of blood with severed heads.Joseph Dias of the Mumbai Christian groupCatholic Secular Forumin India took \"strong exception\" to the original album artwork, and issued a memorandum to Mumbai's police commissioner in protest.On October 11, 2006, EMI announced that all stocks had been destroyed, noting it had no plans to re-release the record in India in the future. Band members Final lineup Former members Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Footnotes Citations Further reading External links", "Megadeth Megadethis an Americanthrash metalband formed inLos Angelesin 1983 by vocalist/guitaristDave Mustaine. Known for their technically complex guitar work and musicianship, Megadeth is one of the \"big four\" of American thrash metal along withMetallica,Anthrax, andSlayer,responsible for the genre's development and popularization. Their music features complex arrangements and fastrhythm sections, dual lead guitars, and lyrical themes of war, politics, religion, death, and personal relationships. In 1985, Megadeth released their debut album,Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, on the independent record labelCombat Records, to moderate success. It caught the attention of bigger labels, which led to Megadeth signing withCapitol Records. Their first major-label album,Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?, was released in 1986 and was a major hit with the underground metal scene. Band members'substance abuseissues and personal disputes had brought Megadeth negative publicity during the late 1980s. Nonetheless, the band went on to release a number ofplatinum-selling albums, includingSo Far, So Good... So What!(1988),Rust in Peace(1990), andCountdown to Extinction(1992). These albums, along with worldwide tours, brought them public recognition. Megadeth's most recent album,The Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!, was released in 2022. Megadeth has undergone multiple lineup changes throughout its41-year career, with Mustaine being the sole consistent member of the band. The band temporarily disbanded in 2002 when Mustaine suffered an arm injury and re-established in 2004 without longtime bassistDavid Ellefson, who hadtaken legal actionagainst Mustaine. Ellefson settled out of court and rejoined the band in 2010, but was fired in 2021 amid allegations of sexual misconduct. Megadeth's current lineup includes Mustaine, bassistJames LoMenzo, guitaristTeemu Mäntysaariand drummerDirk Verbeuren. Megadeth earned platinum certifications in the United States for five of its sixteen studio albums,andhas received twelve Grammy nominations. Megadeth won its first Grammy Award in2017for the song \"Dystopia\" in theBest Metal Performancecategory.The band's mascot,Vic Rattlehead, regularly appears on album artwork and live shows. Megadeth has hosted its own music festival,Gigantour, several times since July 2005, and held its first MegaCruise in October 2019. As of 2023, the band sold more than fifty million albums worldwide. History 1983–1985: Formation andKilling Is My Business On April 11, 1983,Dave Mustainewas fired fromMetallicajust prior to the band recording their debut albumKill 'Em Alldue to substance abuse and personal conflicts withJames Hetfieldkicking his dog. As Metallica's lead guitarist since 1981, Mustaine had composed some of the group's early songs and helped hone the band into a tight live unit.Afterward, Mustaine vowed revenge by forming a band that was faster and heavier than Metallica.On the bus trip back to Los Angeles, Mustaine found a pamphlet by California senatorAlan Cranstonthat read: \"The arsenal of megadeath can't be rid no matter what the peace treaties come to.\"The term \"Megadeath\" stuck with Mustaine and he wrotea song with that titlewith the spelling slightly changed to Megadeth, which, according to Mustaine, represented the annihilation of power. After arriving back in Los Angeles, Mustaine began the search for new bandmates for his band. He formed the band Fallen Angels, which included Lor Kane on vocals, Robby McKinney on guitar and Matt Kisselstein on bass, in April 1983.The band's name was changed to Megadeth on Kane's recommendation.As the founder, Mustaine added his new neighborsDavid Ellefsonand Greg Handevidt to the band, who had moved from Minnesota to Los Angeles and played bass and guitar, respectively.Ellefson has stated that Handevidt, rather than Kane, came up with the idea to change the band name.A demo was recorded by the lineup (which had expanded to include Richard Girod on drums),though the band realized that they would have to retool some of the songs following the release of Metallica's debut album, in July 1983.The only Metallica-era song that ended up on Megadeth's debut album was \"Mechanix\".Songs from that time period included \"No Time\", \"Self Destruct\", \"Hair Pin Trigger\", \"Speak No Evil\", \"Eye for Eye\" and \"Heaven Knows\".\"Speak No Evil\" was the original title of \"Looking Down the Cross\",while \"No Time\" was an early title for \"Set the World Afire\" and \"Self Destruct\" was the original title for \"Mary Jane.\" While Handevidt would only last a few months, Mustaine and Ellefson formed a tight musical bond. Despite his enthusiasm, Mustaine had trouble finding other members to fill out the lineup. He and Ellefson auditioned about 15 drummers, hoping to find one who understoodmeterchanges in music. After briefly playing with Dijon Carruthers, they selectedLee Rauch. Following six months of trying to find a lead singer, Mustaine decided to perform lead vocals himself.Singers who temporarily joined the band included Billy Bondsand John Cyriis, who would foundAgent Steelafter his firing from Megadeth. In 1984, Megadeth recorded a three-songdemotape featuring Mustaine, Ellefson, and Rauch.The demo tape,Last Rites, was released on March 9, 1984. It featured early versions of \"Last Rites/Loved to Death\", \"The Skull Beneath the Skin\", and \"Mechanix\", all of which appeared on the band's debut album.The band was unable to find a compatible second guitarist.Kerry KingofSlayerfilled in on rhythm guitar for several shows in the San Francisco area in 1984, starting with the debut gig on February 17 atRuthie's InninBerkeley,California,as well as a gig atThe Keystonein Berkeley that Apriland would play five shows in total with the band.Afterwards, King went back to Slayer and Megadeth replaced Rauch withjazz fusiondrummerGar Samuelson; he officially joined Megadeth on October 24, 1984.Samuelson had previously been in the jazz band The New Yorkers with guitaristChris Poland.After seeing Samuelson perform with Megadeth as a trio, Poland went backstage and suggested an impromptu audition as lead guitarist for the band; he joined Megadeth in December 1984. After considering several labels, Mustaine signed the band toCombat Records, a New York-basedIndependent record labelthat offered Megadeth the highest budget to record and tour.In 1985, Combat Records gave the band $8,000 to record and produce its debut album. After spending $4,000 of the budget on drugs, alcohol, and food, the band fired the original producer and finished the recording themselves. Despite its low-fidelitysound,Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!was relatively successful in underground metal circles and attracted major-label interest.The band was calling itself State Of The Art Speed Metal.Music writerJoel McIverpraised its \"blistering technicality\" and stated that the album \"raised the bar for the whole thrash metal scene, with guitarists forced to perform even more accurately and powerfully\".The front cover marked the debut of band mascotVic Rattlehead, who regularly appeared on subsequent album artwork. Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!features \"Mechanix\", a song Mustaine wrote during his time with Metallica. Though Mustaine told the band after his dismissal not to use the music he had written, Metallica recorded a different version of the song, \"The Four Horsemen\", with a slower tempo and a melodic middle section.The album also included a cover ofNancy Sinatra's \"These Boots Are Made for Walkin'\", at a faster tempo and with altered lyrics. Megadeth's version generated controversy during the 1990s, when its writer,Lee Hazlewood, called Mustaine's changes \"vile and offensive\".Under threat of legal action, the song was removed from pressings released from 1995 to 2001. In mid-1985, on a bill with Canadian speed metal bandExciter, Megadeth played its first North American tour: the Killing for a Living Tour. GuitaristMike Albertreplaced Poland, who was battling drug addiction.Although Albert was originally supposed to be a permanent replacement,Poland rejoined Megadeth in October 1985, shortly before the group began recording its second album for Combat. 1986–1987:Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? According to Mustaine, Megadeth was under pressure to deliver another successful album: \"That sophomore offering is the 'be-all or end-all' of any band. You either go to the next level, or it's the beginning of the nadir.\"Mustaine composed the music for the album, with the other members adding arrangement ideas. The album was produced on a $25,000 budget from Combat Records. Dissatisfied with its financial limitations, the band left Combat and signed withCapitol Records. Capitol bought the rights to the album, and hired producer Paul Lani to remix the earlier recordings. Released in late 1986,Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?has clearer production and more sophisticated songwriting.Mustaine wanted to write socially conscious lyrics, unlike mainstream heavy metal bands who sang about \"hedonistic pleasures\".The album was noted for its political commentary and helped Megadeth expand its fanbase.Thetitle trackwas the album's second single, and was accompanied by a music video that received regular airplay onMTV. In February 1987, Megadeth was the opening act onAlice Cooper'sConstrictortour,and the following month began its first headlining world tour in the United Kingdom. The 72-week tour was supported byOverkillandNecros, and continued in the United States.During the tour, Mustaine and Ellefson considered firing Samuelson for his drug abuse.According to Mustaine, Samuelson had become too much to handle when intoxicated. DrummerChuck Behlertraveled with Megadeth for the last dates of the tour as the other band members feared Samuelson would not be able to continue.Poland quarreled with Mustaine, and was accused of selling band equipment to buy heroin.As a result, Samuelson and Poland were asked to leave Megadeth in 1987, with Behler becoming the band's full-time drummer. Poland was initially replaced by Jay Reynolds ofMalice, but as the band began working on its next record, Reynolds was replaced by his guitar teacher,Jeff Young, when Megadeth was six weeks into the recording of its third album. 1988–1989:So Far, So Good... So What! With a major-label budget, the Paul Lani-producedSo Far, So Good... So What!took over five months to record. The production was plagued with problems, partially due to Mustaine's struggle with drug addiction. Mustaine later said: \"The production ofSo Far, So Good... So What!was horrible, mostly due to substances and the priorities we had or didn't have at the time.\" Mustaine clashed with Lani, beginning with Lani's insistence that the drums be recorded separately from the cymbals, an unheard-of process for rock drummers.Mustaine and Lani became estranged during the mixing, and Lani was replaced byMichael Wagener, who remixed the album. So Far, So Good... So What!was released in January 1988 and was well received by fans and critics.The album featured a cover version of theSex Pistols' \"Anarchy in the U.K.\"; Mustaine changed the lyrics, later saying that he had simply heard them incorrectly. To support the album, Megadeth embarked on aworld tourthat lasted for nearly eight months. The band (along withSavatage) opened forDioon theDream Eviltour and supportedIron Maidenon theirSeventh Son of a Seventh Sontour, both in the United States.They also headlined a North American tour withWarlockandSanctuary(whose debut albumRefuge Deniedwas produced by Mustaine), and a European trek withTestament,Nuclear Assault,Flotsam and Jetsamand Sanctuary. In June 1988, Megadeth appeared inPenelope Spheeris' documentaryThe Decline of Western Civilization Part II: The Metal Years.The documentary chronicled the Los Angeles heavy metal scene of the late 1980s, and Spheeris, who had directed Megadeth in the video for \"Wake Up Dead\", decided to include them to feature a more serious band in contrast to theglam metalgroups.Mustaine remembered the film as a disappointment, as it aligned Megadeth with \"a bunch of shit bands\". In August, the band appeared at theMonsters of Rockfestival atCastle Doningtonin the United Kingdom, performing to an audience of more than 100,000. One show featured a guest appearance by Metallica drummer (and Mustaine's former bandmate) Lars Ulrich. The band was added to the Monsters of Rock European tour, but left after the first show due to Ellefson's drug problems, for which he was treated immediately.Megadeth was replaced by Testament. Shortly after the Monsters of Rock appearance, Mustaine fired Behler and Young and canceled Megadeth's Australian tour. \"On the road, things escalated from a small border skirmish into a full-on raging war,\" Mustaine later recalled. \"I think a lot of us were inconsistent because of .\"During the tour, Mustaine noticed problems developing with Behler and brought in drummerNick Menzaas Behler'sdrum technician. As with Samuelson, Menza was expected to take over if Behler could not continue the tour. Menza replaced Behler in 1989.Young's dismissal resulted from Mustaine's suspicions that he was having an affair with Mustaine's then-girlfriend, an allegation Young denied. The band was unable to quickly find a suitable replacement for Young. Although 1989 marked the first time since its inception that Megadeth did not tour nor perform at least one show, they recorded a cover version of Alice Cooper's \"No More Mr. Nice Guy\" which appeared on the soundtrack to theWes Cravenhorror movieShocker.The video was directed byPenelope Spheeris, who recalled the filming as a \"Herculean task\" as Mustaine was unable to play guitar because of his drug addiction.During the March 1989 auditions for a new lead guitarist, Mustaine was arrested fordriving under the influenceand possession of narcotics after crashing into a parked vehicle occupied by an off-duty police officer.Mustaine entered court-ordereddrug rehabilitationshortly afterwards, and became drug-free for the first time in ten years. 1990–1991:Rust in Peace With Mustaine sober, Megadeth continued searching for a new lead guitarist.Guns N' RosesguitaristSlashhad been jamming with Mustaine and Ellefson, and although it seemed that he might join Megadeth, he remained with Guns N' Roses.Dimebag DarrellofPanterawas offered the job, but the deal fell through after Mustaine refused his request to recruit his brother, Pantera drummerVinnie Paul, as he had already hired Menza.The offer was also extended toCriss Olivawho also declined as he did not want to leaveSavatage.Jeff Loomis, who would later go on to form progressive metal titansNevermore, also auditioned though Mustaine deemed him too young to join as Loomis was only 18 at the time. Marty Friedmanfilled the guitarist position at the recommendation of Ron Laffitte, a member of Capitol management. Laffitte had heardDragon's Kiss, a solo recording by Friedman when he was inCacophony.Mustaine and Ellefson were satisfied with Friedman's style and thought that he understood Megadeth's music.With Friedman in the group, the band completed what fans consider the definitive Megadeth lineup.The revitalized band entered the studio atRumbo Recordersin March 1990 with co-producerMike Clinkto begin Megadeth's most critically acclaimed album,Rust in Peace. Clink was the first producer to complete a Megadeth album without being fired.Its recording was documented inRusted Pieces, a home video released in 1991 with six music videos and an interview with the band. Released in September 1990,Rust in Peacedebuted at number 23 in the United States and number eight in the United Kingdom.Mustaine had developed a writing style with a rhythmically complex, progressive edge, and the songs featured longer guitar solos and frequent tempo changes.Described as a genre-defining work byDecibel,the album solidified Megadeth's reputation in the music industry.It features the singles \"Holy Wars... The Punishment Due\" and \"Hangar 18\", both of which were accompanied by music videos and became live staples.Rust in Peacereceived a Grammy nomination in 1991 forBest Metal Performance,and was the group's third platinum album, certified in December 1994. Early in 1990, Megadeth joinedSlayer,Testament, andSuicidal Tendenciesfor the successful EuropeanClash of the Titanstour, featuring several American thrash metal bands.An American leg began the following year featuring Megadeth, Slayer, andAnthrax, withAlice in Chainsas a supporting act. The tour was considered a multi-headliner, as the three main bands alternated time slots.In addition to theClash of the Titanstour, Megadeth (along with Testament) supportedJudas Prieston theirPainkillertourin North America late in 1990 and appeared at the secondRock in Riofestival in January 1991.In July 1991 the song \"Go to Hell\" was featured in the filmBill & Ted's Bogus Journeyand on its soundtrack. 1992–1993:Countdown to Extinction The music for Megadeth's fifth studio album was written in two different sessions. The first session occurred after the conclusion of theClash of the Titanstour, while the second session happened in the fall of 1991 following a one-month break.Recording sessions for the album began in January 1992 atEnterprise StudiosinBurbank, California.Max Normanwas chosen to produce, as the band was pleased with his mixing ofRust in Peace.Megadeth spent nearly four months in the studio with Norman, writing and recording what became the band's most commercially successful album,Countdown to Extinction.The album, whose title was suggested by Menza, features songwriting contributions from each band member.Ellefson explained that the band changed its approach to songwriting for this album, beginning to write more melodic songs. Released in July 1992,Countdown to Extinctionentered theBillboard200chart at number two and was certified double platinum in the United States.It received a nomination for Best Metal Performance at the1993 Grammy Awards,and its title track won aGenesis Awardfrom theHumane Societyin 1993 for raising awareness for animal rights issues.Ellefson later said that he and Friedman were disappointed that Megadeth did not win the Grammy: \"It was such a bizarre moment, because it was as if the amount of work it had taken to ramp up to that hopeful night was literally gone in a second.\" A world tour in support of the album was launched in late 1992, withPanteraandWhite Zombieas supporting acts.The tour included a North American leg in early 1993, withStone Temple Pilotsas the opening act. One month into the leg, the remaining shows, including dates in Japan, were canceled when Mustaine returned to substance abuse, ending up in a hospital emergency room.After seven weeks in rehab, Mustaine emerged sober again and the band returned to the studio to record \"Angry Again\". The song is featured on thesoundtrackof the 1993 filmLast Action Heroand received a Grammy nomination in 1994. During mid-1993, Megadeth performed at a number of shows with Metallica in Europe. The first was atMilton Keynes Bowlin England, and includedDiamond Head.In July, Megadeth was added as the opening act forAerosmith'sGet a Grip Tour, but was removed from the bill after three shows.Aerosmith said that Megadeth was \"dumped\" because of Mustaine's erratic behavior, while Capitol Records said it was due to \"artistic restrictions\".After the canceled US tour, Megadeth returned to the studio to record \"99 Ways to Die\", which appeared onThe Beavis and Butt-Head Experience, a compilation album released in November featuring songs interspersed with commentary by the main characters of the animated seriesBeavis and Butt-Head. The song was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the1995 Grammy Awards.During these sessions, Megadeth recorded a cover version ofBlack Sabbath's \"Paranoid\", which appeared on the Black Sabbath tribute albumNativity in Black; it was nominated for a Grammy the following year. 1994–1995:Youthanasia In early 1994, Megadeth reunited with producer Max Norman for the follow-up toCountdown to Extinction. With three band members living inArizona, initial work began at Phase Four Studios inPhoenix.A few days into pre-production, problems with Phase Four's equipment forced the band to look for another studio. Mustaine insisted on recording in Arizona, but no suitable recording facility could be found. At Norman's request, the band built its own recording studio in Phoenix in a rented warehouse, later called \"Fat Planet in Hangar 18\".During the studio's construction, much of the pre-production songwriting and arrangements were done at Vintage Recorders in Phoenix.At Norman's suggestion, the tracks onYouthanasiahad a slower tempo than previous albums, at about 120beats per minute.The band abandoned the progressive approach from its previous albums and focused on stronger vocal melodies and more accessible, radio-friendly arrangements.For the first time, Megadeth wrote and arranged the entire album in the studio, including basic tracks recorded live by the entire band. The album's recording was video recorded and released asEvolver: The Making of Youthanasiain 1995. After eight months of studio work,Youthanasiawas released in November 1994. It debuted at number four on theBillboard200 and charted in several European countries.The album was certified gold in Canada the day it was released,and was certified platinum in the US two months later.Megadeth hired fashion photographerRichard Avedonto enhance the band's image. Avedon had the band members exchange their jeans and T-shirts for a more conscious appearance.To promoteYouthanasia, the band played a Halloween show inNew York Citycalled \"Night of the Living Megadeth\", which was broadcast live on MTV.In November, the band performed twice on theLate Show with David Letterman, playing \"Train of Consequences\" on the first appearance and \"A Tout le Monde\" on the second. An eleven-month tour began in South America in November 1994. In 1995, Megadeth played in Europe and North America with several opening acts, includingCorrosion of Conformity,KornandFear Factory.The tour culminated with an appearance at the Monsters of Rock festival in Brazil, co-headlining with Alice Cooper andOzzy Osbourne.In January 1995, Megadeth appeared on the soundtrack of the horror movieDemon Knightwith the song \"Diadems\".In July, Megadeth releasedHidden Treasures, anextended playfeaturing songs which originally appeared on movie soundtracks and tribute albums. 1996–1999:Cryptic WritingsandRisk After completing the extensive world tour in support ofYouthanasia, Megadeth took time off in most of 1996 and nearly broke up.During this period, Mustaine began work onMD.45, a side project with vocalistLee VingofFear. The majority of the songs on the album were intended for Megadeth, but due to the band almost disbanding, Mustaine decided to use them for MD.45 instead.The duo hired drummerJimmy DeGrasso, who had played with Alice Cooper on the South American Monsters of Rock tour earlier that year.Marty Friedman built a studio in his new home in Phoenix and completed his fourth solo album, released in April 1996. In September 1996, Megadeth went to London to work on songs for the next album. The songwriting was closely supervised by new manager Bud Prager, who contributed musical ideas and lyrics; many lyrics and song titles were changed at his request.Regarding Prager's influence, Mustaine later wrote: \"I figured maybe this guy could help me get that intangible number one record I so badly wanted.\"The album, recorded inNashville, was Megadeth's first collaboration withcountry popproducerDann Huff, who had met Mustaine in 1990. Cryptic Writingswas released in June 1997. The album peaked at number ten on theBillboard200,and was eventually certified gold in the United States. Its lead single, \"Trust\", became Megadeth's highest charting song on theMainstream Rock Tracksat number five,and was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the1998 Grammy Awards.Although all four singles from the album entered the top 20 onBillboard's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart,press response to the album was mixed. The album featured a diverse set of songs which theLos Angeles Timesdescribed as a \"rousing balance\" between older material and experimental songs.Asked about the album's eclecticism, Mustaine said thatCryptic Writingswas divided into thirds. One part was based around faster, more aggressive material, another was \"radio-orientated music likeYouthanasia\", and the final third was more melodic. After more than a year since the band's last concert, Megadeth returned as a live act in June 1997, beginning a world tour with theMisfitsand touring in the United States withLife of AgonyandCoal Chamber.In July, the band participated inOzzfest'98 but, halfway through the tour, Menza reportedly discovered a tumor on his knee and left to undergo surgery.Jimmy DeGrasso, who had collaborated with Mustaine in MD.45, was hired to replace Menza for the remainder of the tour.Though initially meant to be a temporary replacement, DeGrasso joined the band permanently after the tour. Mustaine later said that he dismissed Menza from the band because he believed the drummer had lied about having cancer. Following the band's mainstream radio success withCryptic Writings, Megadeth again worked with Dann Huff on its eighth studio album. The band began writing in January 1999, supervised by manager Bud Prager, who was credited with co-writing five of the album's twelve songs.With high expectations following the chart success of \"Trust\", Prager convinced Mustaine to grant Huff even more control over the album's recording, a decision Mustaine later regretted. Risk, released in August 1999, was a critical and commercial failure and led to backlash from many longtime fans. Although its two predecessors incorporated rock elements alongside a more traditional heavy metal sound,Riskwas virtually devoid of metal.About the band's musical direction, Dave Mustaine said: \"We hit the nadir of our career withRisk, and I vowed after that we were going to get back to our roots. It took a little bit of time to do that.\"Despite this,Riskwas certified gold in the United States.The album's lead single, \"Crush 'Em\", appeared on the soundtrack forUniversal Soldier: The Returnand was used as an entrance theme forNHLhockey games and professional wrestling events. On July 14, 1999, former drummer Gar Samuelson died ofliver failureat age 41 inOrange City, Florida.Eleven days later, during Megadeth's performance atWoodstock 1999, Mustaine dedicated \"Peace Sells\" to Samuelson's memory. That month, Megadeth also recorded a cover version of the Black Sabbath's \"Never Say Die\" for the second Nativity in Black tribute album.The band began a world tour in support ofRiskin September, playing with Iron Maiden during the European leg. Three months into the tour, Friedman announced his resignation from Megadeth, citing musical differences.Mustaine later said: \"I told afterRiskthat we had to go back to our roots and play metal, and he quit.\" 2000–2002:The World Needs a Hero, breakup, and hiatus In January 2000, guitaristAl Pitrelli, formerly ofSavatageand theTrans-Siberian Orchestra, became Friedman's replacement.Megadeth returned to the studio in April to work on its ninth studio album. A month into production, the band received an offer to join the Maximum Rock tour with Anthrax andMötley Crüe. Megadeth put the recording on hold and toured North America during the second quarter of 2000.Early in the tour, Anthrax was removed from the bill, allowing Megadeth to play an extended co-headlining set.The tour, however, suffered from poor ticket sales. After 15 years with Capitol Records, Megadeth left the label in July 2000. According to Mustaine, the departure was due to ongoing tensions with Capitol management.Capitol returned the band's newest recordings and released a greatest hits album,Capitol Punishment: The Megadeth Years, with two new tracks: \"Kill the King\" and \"Dread and the Fugitive Mind\".In November, Megadeth signed withSanctuary Records. The band returned to the studio in October to finish its next album,The World Needs a Hero, which was near completion when Megadeth joined the Maximum Rock tour six months earlier. Following the negative response toRisk,Mustaine fired Bud Prager and produced the album himself.The songs were written by Mustaine alone, except for \"Promises\", which had contributions from Pitrelli.Two days before the release ofThe World Needs a Hero, Megadeth appeared in an episode ofVH1'sBehind the Musicshowcasing Mustaine, Ellefson, several past members, and Mustaine's old Metallica bandmates James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich. The World Needs a Herowas released in May 2001 and debuted at number sixteen on theBillboard200. It was banned in Malaysia when the national government determined that the album's artwork was \"unsuitable for the nation's youth\". Consequently, the band canceled its concert of August 2 inKuala Lumpur.The album marked Megadeth's return to a more aggressive sound after the stylistic variations of its previous two albums,but critics felt it fell short of expectations.Mustaine compared the album to a huge ship at sea, turning and trying to right itself to get back on course.Its lead single, \"Moto Psycho\", reached number 22 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart. A European tour withAC/DCin support ofThe World Needs a Herobegan in mid-2001, followed by an American tour withIced EarthandEndoin September.Mustaine allowed fans to choose the setlist in each American city.However, the tour was cut short following theSeptember 11 attacks; all dates were canceled, including a DVD shoot in Argentina. The band instead played two shows in Arizona on November 16 and 17, which were filmed and released as Megadeth's first live release,Rude Awakening.That year,Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!was remixed and remastered; the reissue featured modified artwork and several bonus tracks. In January 2002, Mustaine was hospitalized for the removal of akidney stoneand was administered pain medication that triggered a relapse of his drug addiction. Following his stay, Mustaine checked himself into a treatment center in Texas. While there, Mustaine fell asleep with his left arm over the back of a chair, causing compression of theradial nerve. He was subsequently diagnosed withradial neuropathy, which left him unable to grasp or make a fist with his left hand. On April 3, Mustaine announced in a press release that he was disbanding Megadeth, as his arm injury rendered him unable to play guitar.For the next four months, he had physical therapy five days a week, and slowly began to \"re-teach\" his left hand.To fulfill contract obligations to Sanctuary, Megadeth released the compilation albumStill Alive... and Well?. The first half of the album contains live tracks recorded at the Web Theatre in Phoenix, and the second half has studio recordings fromThe World Needs a Hero. Following nearly a year of recovery, including physical andelectroshock therapy, Mustaine began work on what was to have been his first solo album. The new material was recorded with session musiciansVinnie ColaiutaandJimmie Lee Sloasin October 2003. The project was put on hold when Mustaine agreed to remix and remaster Megadeth's eight-album back catalog on Capitol Records,re-recording portions that were missing or altered without his knowledge in the original mixing. 2004–2005: Reformation andThe System Has Failed In May 2004, Mustaine returned to his solo project. Contractual obligations to the band's European label,EMI, resulted in the recording's release as a Megadeth album.Mustaine reformed the band and contacted the fan-favoriteRust in Peacelineup to re-record backing tracks. While drummer Nick Menza agreed to return, both Marty Friedman and David Ellefson were unable to come to an agreement with Mustaine.Menza was sent home shortly after rehearsals began, a few days before the start of a tour supporting Megadeth's upcoming album. Mustaine said Menza was insufficiently prepared for the physical demands of a US tour, and \"it just didn't work out\".This was the first album without Ellefson. Chris Poland, who played lead guitar on Megadeth's first two albums, was hired to contribute guitar solos to the new album, working with Mustaine for the first time since the 1980s. Poland opted to serve only as a session musician, wanting to remain focused on his jazz fusion projectOHM. The System Has Failedwas released in September 2004. Critics heralded it as a return to form;Revolvergave the album a favorable review, calling it \"Megadeth's most vengeful, poignant and musically complex offering since 1992'sCountdown to Extinction\".The album marked a shift toward the band's earlier sound; journalist Amy Sciarretto ofCMJ New Music Reportwrote that the album contained \"neo-thrashriffing with biting, politically charged lyrics\".The System Has Faileddebuted at number eighteen on theBillboard200and was led by \"Die Dead Enough\", which reached number 21 on the USMainstream Rock chart.Mustaine announced that the album would be the band's last and would be followed by a farewell tour, after which he would focus on a solo career. Megadeth began the Blackmail the Universe world tour in October, enlisting touring bassistJames MacDonoughof Iced Earth and guitaristGlen DroverofEidolonandKing Diamond. Five days before the first show, Menza was replaced byShawn Drover, who remained with the band as a regular member.The band toured the US withExodusand Europe with Diamond Head andDungeon.In June 2005, Capitol released a greatest-hits compilation,Greatest Hits: Back to the Start, featuring remixed and remastered versions of songs chosen by fans from Megadeth's Capitol albums. In mid-2005, Mustaine organized an annual thrash metal festival tour,Gigantour. Megadeth headlined the inaugural tour with acts such asDream Theater,Nevermore, Anthrax, and Fear Factory. Performances at theMontrealandVancouvershows were filmed and recorded for a live DVD-and-CD set released in the second quarter of 2006.On October 9, following the successes ofThe System Has Failedand the Blackmail the Universe world tour, Mustaine announced to a sold-out crowd at thePepsi Music Rock Festivalin Argentina that Megadeth would continue to record and tour.The concert, held atObras Sanitariasstadium inBuenos Airesin front of 25,000 fans, was filmed and released on DVD asThat One Night: Live in Buenos Airesin 2007. 2006–2008:United Abominations In February 2006, bassist James MacDonough left the band over \"personal differences\".He was replaced byJames LoMenzo, who had worked withDavid Lee Roth,White Lion, andBlack Label Society.The new Megadeth lineup made its live debut headlining theDubai Desert Rock Festivalin theUnited Arab Emirateswith Testament.In March, Capitol released a two-disc DVD,Arsenal of Megadeth, which included archive footage, interviews, live shows, and many of the band's music videos. Due to licensing issues, soundtrack and non-Capitol videos were not included.The second Gigantour began during the third quarter of 2006; Megadeth again headlined, this time withLamb of God,Opeth,Arch Enemyand Overkill.The 2006 tour included three dates in Australia, supported bySoulfly,Arch Enemy, andCaliban. In May 2006, Megadeth announced that its eleventh studio album,United Abominations, was near completion. Originally scheduled for release in October, Mustaine said that the band was \"putting the finishing touches on it\" and postponed its release to May of the following year.He commented on the release: \"Metal needs a really good old-school record again. I believe I have delivered.\"United Abominationswas the band's first album to feature Glen Drover, Shawn Drover, and James Lomenzo. It also has a newer version of \"A Tout le Monde\" entitled \"À Tout le Monde (Set Me Free)\". The 2007 version is a duet withCristina ScabbiaofLacuna Coil; it was recorded at a slightly faster tempo than the original and contains an extended solo. Released in May 2007,United Abominationsdebuted at number eight on theBillboard200, selling 54,000 copies in the first week.In March, Megadeth began a North American tour opening for the newly reformedHeaven & Hell. The band played withDownfor Canadian shows and withMachine Headfor the US dates.A European summer festival tour followed. Late in the year, Megadeth returned to the United States to headline its Tour of Duty.In November, the band brought Gigantour to Australia with a lineup includingStatic-X,DevilDriverand Lacuna Coil. In January 2008, Glen Drover quit Megadeth, stating that he was tired of the frequent touring and wanted to spend more time with his family. He also cited personal issues with other band members.Drover was replaced byChris Broderick, formerly ofNevermoreandJag Panzer.Broderick was initially asked by Mustaine's management company at the end of 2007 if he would be interested in auditioning for Megadeth. After an informal meeting at Mustaine's house, Broderick was introduced as the band's new guitarist.Mustaine complimented Broderick's playing skills and called him \"the best guitarist Megadeth has ever had\".Broderick's former Nevermore bandmate,Van Williams, congratulated Megadeth on \"getting one hell of a good player, more importantly they're getting a great guy to hang out with and a true friend\". The new lineup made its live debut at theHelsinki Ice Hallon February 4. The 2008 Gigantour, with 29 North American dates, began shortly afterwards.Mustaine wanted a shorter lineup, allowing each band a chance to perform well. The third tour featuredIn Flames,Children of Bodom,Job for a CowboyandHigh on Fire.Megadeth continued the Tour of Duty in South America and Mexico in May and June. A compilation album,Anthology: Set the World Afire, was released in September 2008. 2009–2010:Endgameand Ellefson's return In February 2009, Megadeth and Testament were scheduled on the European \"Priest Feast\" tour, with Judas Priest as headliners.At this time, Metallica, who had been inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame, invited Mustaine to attend the ceremony. Mustaine was informed that he would not be inducted to the Hall of Fame because such honors were granted only to those members who received recording credit on a Metallica album.Mustaine congratulated the group respectfully, and honored his commitment to the European tour with Judas Priest.In April, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined the Canadian Carnage. This was the first time they had performed together in more than 15 years. Machine Head andSuicide Silenceopened for the four shows that occurred later in June. In May, Megadeth finished recording its twelfth album,Endgame.The release date forEndgamewas announced on the Megadeth official website, andMetal Hammerwas the first to review the album track-by-track.Megadeth began its Endgame tour in October, and finished it in December. The tour featured a number of supporting acts, including Machine Head, Suicide Silence, andWarbringer.In January 2010, Megadeth was set to embark on the American Carnage tour with Slayer and Testament, but the tour was postponed due toTom Araya's back surgery.Several weeks later, Megadeth's \"Head Crusher\" was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the2010 Grammy Awards, the band's eighth Grammy nomination in 19 years. In March, Megadeth embarked on the Rust in Peace 20th Anniversary Tour, which took place in North America and had support from Testament and Exodus. During the tour, Megadeth playedRust in Peacein its entirety.Prior to the start of the tour, original bassistDavid Ellefsonrejoined Megadeth after eight years. In an interview forClassic Rock, he stated that Shawn Drover contacted him, informing him that bassist LoMenzo was leaving the band, saying \"if ever there was a time for you and Dave to talk, now is it\". Megadeth, along with Metallica, Slayer, and Anthrax, collectively known as the \"big four\" of thrash metal, agreed to perform on the same bill during mid-2010. These performances were part of theSonisphere Festivaland were held in a number of European countries.One such performance inSofia, Bulgaria, was filmed and released as a full-length video entitledThe Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria.These shows continued the following year in the United States. The first took place inIndio, California, and was the only scheduled show in the United States at the time,although a second American production was held atYankee Stadiumin New York City shortly afterwards. In July 2010, after the European \"big four\" shows, Megadeth and Slayer commenced the first leg of theAmerican Carnage Tour, where Megadeth playedRust in Peacein its entirety, while Slayer performed its albumSeasons in the Abyss, both of which were released in 1990.From these shows onward, Vic Rattlehead started making sustained onstage appearances, to improve the visual facet of Megadeth's live performances.Shortly afterward, the two bands united with Anthrax for theJägermeister Music Tourin late 2010.During the final show of the tour, Kerry King joined Megadeth on stage at theGibson Amphitheatrein Hollywood to perform Megadeth's \"Rattlehead\". It was the first time that King had performed onstage with Megadeth since 1984.Megadeth and Slayer again shared the stage for theEuropean Carnage Tourin March and April 2011.Megadeth also headlined the fourth annualRockstar Mayhem Festivalin July and August the same year. In September, the band released the DVD albumRust in Peace Live, recorded at theHollywood Palladiumin Los Angeles.Later that month, Megadeth released \"Sudden Death\" for the video gameGuitar Hero: Warriors of Rock.The song was commissioned by the publishers of theGuitar Herofranchise, who wanted the track to feature dark lyrics and multiple guitar solos.It was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the2011 Grammy ceremony. 2011–2014:ThirteenandSuper Collider Megadeth returned to its own Vic's Garage studio in 2011 to record its thirteenth album, to be produced byJohnny K, because Andy Sneap, the producer of Megadeth's previous two albums, was unavailable.The album was titledThirteenand featured previously released tracks such as \"Sudden Death\" and \"Never Dead\".The album was released in November 2011, and charted at number eleven on theBillboard200; its lead single \"Public Enemy No. 1\" received a Grammy nomination forBest Hard Rock/Metal Performance, but did not win.Shortly after the album was released, Dave Mustaine stated that, after a four-year hiatus, there would be a new Gigantour tour in early 2012.The lineup consisted ofMotörhead,Volbeat, and Lacuna Coil alongside Megadeth.After the conclusion of Gigantour,Rob Zombieand Megadeth embarked on a nine-date co-headlining US tour in the summer of 2012. In September 2012, it was announced that Megadeth would re-releaseCountdown to Extinctionin honor of the album's 20th anniversary. To mark the occasion, Megadeth launched a tour in which the band performed the album live in its entirety.One performance, filmed at thePomona Fox Theater, was released as a live album,Countdown to Extinction: Live,the following year.Another track fromThirteen, \"Whose Life (Is It Anyways?)\", was nominated for Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance at the2013 Grammy Awards, but lost toHalestorm's \"Love Bites (So Do I)\". In August, Megadeth announced the recording of its fourteenth album with producer Johnny K.At the start of 2013, Megadeth leftRoadrunner Recordsfor Mustaine's newly founded label, Tradecraft, distributed throughUniversal Music Group.The album,Super Collider, was released in June and debuted at number six on theBillboard200, the band's highest chart position since 1994'sYouthanasia.Critical reaction to the album, however, was largely negative, with criticism directed towards the album's deviation from the band's traditional metal sound.Shortly after the release ofSuper Collider, Mustaine stated that he had already started thinking about a fifteenth Megadeth album. He said this had been spurred by the death of Slayer guitaristJeff Hanneman, which gave him a sense of mortality.Mustaine elaborated: \"You know, time is short. Nobody knows how long they're gonna live. You see what happened with Jeff Hanneman, so I wanna write as much as I can while I can.\" The 2013 edition of Gigantour featuredBlack Label Society,Hellyeah,Device, andNewstedas opening bands.At the final show,Jason Newsted, Metallica's former bassist, joined Megadeth onstage to perform \"Phantom Lord\", a song Mustaine had co-written during his stint with Metallica.Early in 2014, Megadeth was slated to play theSoundwavefestival in Australia, but pulled out over a disagreement with tour promoter A. J. Maddah concerning the band's sideshows with Newsted.Icon, an eleven-song compilation of Megadeth's Capitol-era material, was released as part of Universal Music'sIcon seriesin February. Megadeth encountered several setbacks throughout 2014. After Ellefson's brother died of cancer in May, the band cancelled its June tour dates to allow him to mourn.A planned August concert inTel Avivwas canceled due to anarmed conflict between Israel and Gaza.Megadeth was scheduled to appear onMotörhead's Motörboat cruise in late September, but withdrew because of Mustaine's complications following his cervical spine surgery.In late November, Drover quit the band after ten years, wanting to pursue his own musical interests, but has said he is grateful for the career Mustaine gave him.This was quickly followed by the departure of Broderick, due to artistic and musical differences.Ellefson denied rumors that Megadeth would disband, and said he and Mustaine would continue working on new music.Mustaine later said one of the reasons for Broderick and Drover leaving was their frustration over Megadeth's fan base demanding a reunion with Friedman and Menza. 2015–2018:Dystopia Lamb of GoddrummerChris Adlerand guitaristKiko LoureiroofAngrawere brought in to perform on Megadeth's fifteenth studio album after Mustaine unsuccessfully attempted to reunite theRust in Peacelineup.In October 2015, Megadeth streamed \"Fatal Illusion\" off the albumDystopia, which was released in January 2016.In support ofDystopia, Megadeth embarked on a North American tour in February and March withSuicidal Tendencies,Children of BodomandHavok(though Havok was soon removed from the tour by Megadeth's management following a dispute over a contract).Mustaine announced that Adler, who was performing with both Lamb of God and Megadeth, was no longer in the band due to scheduling conflicts between the two bands. He was replaced byDirk VerbeurenfromSoilwork, on Adler's recommendation.A second US tour took place in September and October, with support fromAmon Amarth, Suicidal Tendencies,Metal Church,andButcher Babies.Former drummer Menza died of a heart attack on May 21, 2016, while performing with OHM at ajazz clubin Los Angeles. Asked about any further Big Four gigs, Mustaine called for \"the powers-that-be\" to help put together a new Big Four tour in 2017 as all the respective bands were promoting new albums.Dystopia's title track won theGrammy Award for Best Metal Performanceat the2017 Grammy Awards, the band's first win after 12 nominations.Mustaine, Loureiro, Ellefson, and Verbeuren attended the ceremony; however, album drummer and award recipient Chris Adlerdid not. While accepting the award, the house band played Mustaine's former band Metallica's \"Master of Puppets\" causing some controversy among fans. In a June 2017 interview with No Brown M&Ms, Mustaine said that Megadeth would enter the studio at the end of the year to begin working on their sixteenth studio album.A month later, Mustaine stated on Twitter that he had begun \"collecting ideas\" for the new album, but stated that they would \"probably\" enter the studio in mid-2018 to begin recording it for a 2019 release.The band joined withScorpionsfor a co-headlining tour in the fall of 2017. In 2018, Megadeth marked their 35th anniversary by re-releasing their 1985 debut albumKilling Is My Business... And Business Is Good!, dubbedKilling Is My Business... and Business Is Good! - The Final Killon June 8, 2018, as a deluxe package containing remastered versions of all songs to Mustaine's intended vision, a re-cut version of \"These Boots\" lyrically adjusted toLee Hazlewood's version, rare live performances of songs off the album during Alice Cooper's Live in the Flesh Tour and the 1984 three song demo. 2019–2023: Ellefson's second departure andThe Sick, the Dying... and the Dead! On May 10, 2019, Megadeth entered the studio inFranklin, Tennessee, to begin pre-production of the next album, once again teaming up withDystopiaco-producer Chris Rakestraw.On June 17, the band announced that all shows scheduled in 2019 (with the exception of the MegaCruise) would be cancelled due to Mustaine being diagnosed with throat cancer;of all the cancelled dates, the band was scheduled to supportOzzy Osbourneon the North American leg of theNo More Tours IItour,which had been postponed from the summer of 2019 to the summer of 2020 due to Osbourne sustaining an injury while dealing with pneumonia. They were replaced byMarilyn Mansoninstead.Despite Mustaine's illness, the band vowed to continue working on their new album.On November 6, Mustaine shared a video onInstagramteasing a track from the band's upcoming album,which was originally set for release in 2019.On July 17, Megadeth announced their partnership withGimme RadioandRichard Childress Racingon the No. 2 Gimme RadioChevrolet Camaro, which was driven byXfinity SeriesdriverTyler Reddickat theNew Hampshire 200on July 20.On August 21, the band announced that they would embark on their first tour since Mustaine's illness in January and February 2020, withFive Finger Death PunchandBad Wolvessupporting on the European tour. The band was originally scheduled to perform on the first-ever MegaCruise to coincide with the release of the next album,due to sail on October 13, 2019, fromLos Angelesand hit ports ofSan DiegoandEnsenadabefore returning on October 18, including performances by heavy metal acts such asLamb of God,Anthrax,Testament,Overkill,Corrosion of Conformity,Queensrÿche,Armored Saint,Metal Church,Suicidal Tendencies,DragonForce,Doro,John 5,Death AngelandToothgrinder,however, Mustaine was not present due to his illness. It was instead a live performance featuring members of each respective band playingKisssongs. Megadeth was originally scheduled to embark on a co-headlining tour in North America with Lamb of God dubbed \"The Metal Tour of the Year\" in the summer of 2020, withTriviumandIn Flamesas support acts,but was postponed due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. The tour was rescheduled for the summer of 2021,withHatebreedreplacing In Flames due to the latter being forced to withdraw from the line-up due to international visa issues caused by the pandemic.Megadeth re-entered the studio in Nashville in mid-2020 to resume recording their new album, tentatively planned for release in 2021.While hosting a Masterclass \"Front Row Live\" for fans viaZoomon January 9, 2021, Mustaine announced the title of the band's sixteenth album would be calledThe Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!, however he indicated that the title might be subject to change. In May 2021, sexually explicit videos of Ellefson were leaked to social media. The videos, reportedly recorded by a 19-year-old fan who was in correspondence with Ellefson, led to initial accusations of child grooming. Ellefson and the fan denied these claims in separate statements and maintained their encounters were consensual.On May 24, Megadeth issued a statement announcing Ellefson's dismissal from the band.Ellefson later confirmed that he had actually been dismissed ten days earlier on May 14; the videos originally surfaced on May 10.Following the controversy, Mustaine said there would be no chance for Ellefson to rejoin the band, while Ellefson said he would pursue legal action against the leaked videos. On Mustaine's Gimme Radio programThe Dave Mustaine Showon June 17, he said that the bass tracks recorded by Ellefson in May 2020 would not appear on the upcoming album and would be re-recorded by a different bassist,which was completed a short time later, but did not say who it was. He also revealed a song title from the album called \"The Dogs of Chernobyl\".Mustaine confirmed soon after that a new bassist was chosen with a picture showing the neck of the bass guitar and the unknown member being shown on the floor behind a chair, however, he did not reveal the name, but would announce it soon.Former bassistJames LoMenzofilled in for the band's upcoming tour with Lamb of God,whileSteve Di GiorgioofTestamentperformed as a session bassist onThe Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!, which was released in September 2022.LoMenzo was announced as the band's official bassist in May 2022. After several teasers,\"We'll Be Back\", the first single from the record, was released on June 23,along with the tracklist, followed by next singles \"Night Stalkers\" and \"Soldier On!\", released on July 22and August 12respectively. In November 2022, the band released a cover of aJudas Priestsong titled \"Delivering The Goods\" from their 1978 album,Killing Machine. On February 27, 2023, Megadeth was joined by former guitarist Marty Friedman where they performed three songs at the Budokan in Japan. This marked Friedman's first performance with the band since 2000.On June 23, former drummerLee Rauschdied at the age of 58. 2023–present: Kiko Loureiro's departure and upcoming seventeenth studio album On September 6, 2023, it was announced that lead guitaristKiko Loureirowould temporarily be leaving the North American portion of the tour and that he would be replaced byTeemu Mäntysaari.On November 20, 2023, Mäntysaari joined Megadeth as their lead guitarist, after Loureiro announced he would be extending his absence from the band.Loureiro said in a November 28, 2023 podcast interview that he was no longer in the band.Loureiro explained his departure in a January 2024 interview withGuitar World, saying: “I had two viable options: to be in Megadeth or not. I chose my personal life. No regrets”. In a December 2023 interview onThe SDR Show, Mustaine revealed his intention to release at least three more studio albums as Megadeth, with the first to be released in 2025: \"If it takes two years between an album — let's just say it does, if I'm able to put them out fast — it'll probably be three years, but let's just say it's two years. And I put an album out. We've still got about a year left on this one, at least. So that'll take us into '25.\" Controversies Mustaine has made numerous inflammatory statements in the press,usually regarding issues with former Metallica bandmates. The feud stemmed from his ejection from the band, how it was conducted, and disagreements on songwriting credits.Mustaine expressed his anger in the movieMetallica: Some Kind of Monster,in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized, and that it did not represent the full extent of what happened during the meeting. During a live performance of \"Anarchy in the U.K.\" at a 1988 show inAntrim,Northern Ireland, Mustaine dedicated the song to \"the cause\" of \"giving Ireland back to the Irish!\"Before the final song, Mustaine said, \"This one's for the cause! Give Ireland back to the Irish!\"This elicited a riot and fighting among the audience betweenIrish Nationalists, the majority of whom areCatholic, and the predominantlyProtestant,British Unionistsin attendance. The band had to travel in a bulletproof bus back toDublin.This incident served as inspiration for the song \"Holy Wars... The Punishment Due\". Controversial or misinterpreted lyrics have caused complications for the band. In 1988,MTVdeemed that the song \"In My Darkest Hour\" encouraged suicide and banned the video.The station banned the video for \"A Tout le Monde\" for the same reason, though Mustaine said the song was written from the perspective of a dying man saying his last words to his loved ones.According to him, MTV considered the videos for \"Skin o' My Teeth\" and \"Symphony of Destruction\" a \"little bit too harsh\" and refused to play them. During a world tour in 2001, the Malaysian government canceled the band's show in the nation's capital because the authorities had a negative perception of the group's image and music.The government deemed the band's mascot, Vic Rattlehead, as inappropriate and told the members that they would be arrested if they performed.Dave Mustaine responded: \"I recognize what the Malaysian government is trying to do, and it is admirable of them trying to protect the young people in the country. But it just shows the degree of ignorance and apathy that the government has toward the problem.\" In 2003, after recovering from an arm injury that threatened to end his career, Mustaine became aborn-againChristian.Minor controversy was sparked by Mustaine's announcement that Megadeth would not play certain songs live due to his conversion.In May 2005, Mustaine allegedly threatened to cancel shows in Greece and Israel withextreme metalbandsRotting ChristandDissectiondue to the bands' anti-Christian beliefs. This caused the two bands to cancel appearances. In July 2004, former bassist Ellefson sued Mustaine for $18.5 million in theUnited States District Court for the Southern District of New York. Ellefson alleged that Mustaine short-changed him on profits including tour merchandise and publishing royalties.The suit was dismissed in 2005, and Mustaine filed a countersuit alleging that Ellefson had used the band's name in an advertisement for musical equipment;the suit was settled out of court. On May 10, 2021, sexually explicit videos of Ellefson were posted on Twitter. The videos, reportedly recorded by a fan that Ellefson was in correspondence with, initially led to accusations of child grooming. However, Ellefson and the other party both denied the accusations, and the fan publicly claimed they were a consenting adult and the videos were unknowingly released by a third party. The Scottsdale Police Department (SPD) was contacted by Ellefson, who sought charges for revenge porn. Ellefson took a polygraph test to affirm his claims and presented police with a photo of the fan's driver's license to prove their age. He also shared screen shots of Snapchat and WhatsApp messages related to the allegations. Ellefson's partner admitted that she had shared the video with some friends but wasn't sure how it got leaked out to others. The SPD report states the fan \"was remorseful and agreed to send out a social media statement on...Instagram\" that they were \"a willing consenting adult during their mutual virtual sexual encounter.\" Ellefson then posted her statement and one of his own on May 10, asserting that the allegations of grooming were false. Ellefson stated he has not been extorted in any way, and he believes the videos of their consensual adult encounter were not intentionally leaked.An official statement released the next day from Megadeth stated that the situation was being \"watched closely\".Mustaine announced on May 24, 2021, that Ellefson was fired from the band. Artistry Influences and style Traditionalheavy metalbands such asUFO,Black Sabbath,Budgie,Judas Priest,new wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) bands such asRaven,Motörhead,Iron Maiden,Diamond Head, andVenom, andpunk rockbands such as theSex PistolsandRamoneshad a significant influence on Megadeth's sound.Hard rockbands such asAC/DC,Queen,Led Zeppelin,andRush,as well as German acts likeScorpionsandAccept,were also influential on the group's guitar style. Although the music has roots in punk,university professor Jason Bivins wrote that Megadeth followed the basic blueprint of Motörhead and Iron Maiden. He described the style as a mix of \"the instrumental virtuosity of the NWOBHM with the speed and aggression ofhardcore punk\", while also drawing lyrical inspiration from the horror-themed punk bandMisfits.Mustaine has also listed albums bythe BeatlesandDavid Bowieas recordings that influenced him. Mustaine is the band's primary songwriter. He develops songs starting with a particular riff that, with modifications, becomes the central part of the song.He has said that song fragments are composed separately, and then the band makes a compact structure from them.Drummer Shawn Drover stated that Mustaine had saved many riffs over the years and that some recent material is based on those demo recordings.Ellefson stated that the band constantly creates new material, and that making a recording begins with exchanging ideas after which the band enters the studio and discusses the concept, direction, artwork, and song titles.The lyrics are usually written after the music is arranged.Discussing the band's lyrics, Mustaine said that many of the themes are derived from literature, such as the novels ofGeorge Orwell. The music of Megadeth and its underground metal contemporaries from the 1980s featured harsh vocals,double bass drumpatterns,staccatoriffing,power chords,tremolo picking, and screeching lead guitar work; albums from this period were produced on low budgets.After forming Megadeth, Mustaine followed the thrash metal style of his previous band, Metallica, with more emphasis on speed and intensity.When asked to describe Megadeth's guitar style, Mustaine answered: \"When you go to a show and see a guitar player who just stands there, that's a guitar player. A thrash guitar player is a guy who plays like he wants to beat the guitar's guts out.\"Most of the songs are recorded in standardguitar tuningas Mustaine believes it to provide a superior melody to alternative methods of tuning.In 2017, David Ellefson talked in an interview about how the band recently started to use a lower tuning saying: \"it's just natural with age, for singers it can be a struggle, so rather than quit, than not play, how do you work it around? Well, let's drop the guitars, let's find a way to work around it.\" During the band's early days, Mustaine was the rhythm guitarist, while Chris Poland played lead. Poland performed only on Megadeth's first two albums at the time of the book's release; (he would go on to play on the 2004 albumThe System Has Failed); music journalists Pete Prown and Harvey P. Newquist credit him with making the music more colorful because of hisjazzinfluences.According to formerMetal Maniacseditor Jeff Wagner, the band's songwriting techniques peaked with the fourth album,Rust in Peace, which he described as a \"flurry of precision and fluidity, making good on Megadeth's claim to being the world's state-of-the-artspeed metalband\".Musicologist Glenn Pillsbury stated the guitar work on the album was a mixture of Mustaine's \"controlled chaos\" and the \"technical brilliance\" of Marty Friedman.Studio efforts released in the mid- and late 1990s featured songs with compact structures and less complicated riffing. Megadeth's lyrics often focus on death, war, politics, and religion.The lyricism centers on nihilistic themes, but occasionally deals with topics such as alienation and social problems.The earliest releases featured themes such as occultism, graphic violence, and Satanism.Nuclear warfareand government conspiracy were preoccupations on albums such asRust in PeaceandCountdown to Extinction.During Megadeth's commercial peak, Mustaine elaborated on more personal themes such as addiction and intimate relationships. For the lyrics onCryptic Writings, Mustaine said that he wanted to write songs that had more appeal to a wider audience.The title ofUnited Abominationsis a satiric play on the name of theUnited Nations; Mustaine criticized the organization's ineffectiveness on a number of songs on that album. Legacy Having sold more than 50 million units worldwide, Megadeth is one of the few bands from the 1980s American underground metal scene to have achieved mass commercial success.Along with contemporaries Metallica, Slayer, and Anthrax, Megadeth is regarded as one of the core founding groups of thrash metal.These bands are often referred to as the \"big four\" of thrash metal,responsible for the genre's development and popularization.Loudwireranked Megadeth the third best thrash metal band of all time, praising the group's \"provoking lyrics and mind-warping virtuosity\".CMJ New Music Reportcalled the band's debut album a seminal release and a representative of \"the golden age of speed metal\".Billboardcalled the band's second albumPeace Sells... but Who's Buying?a \"landmark of the thrash movement\" whose lyrics it found still relevant.MTV also recognized the band as an influential metal act, highlighting the technical aspect of the early albums. Megadeth is considered one of the most musically influential groups that originated in the 1980s. As part of the early American thrash metal movement, the band's music was a direct influence ondeath metal.SociologistKeith Kahn-Harriswrote that the mainstream success of Megadeth was one of the reasons for the expansion ofextreme metalto countries where it had previously been unknown.The band's sound and album artwork influenced a number of thrash metal bands in the 21st century,includingToxic HolocaustandWarbringer.According toNielsen SoundScan, Megadeth has sold 9.2 million copies of its albums in the United States between 1991 and 2014. Band members Current members Discography Studio albums Accolades Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards: Clio Awards: Genesis Awards: Grammy Awards: LoudwireMusic Awards: Metal HammerGolden Gods Awards: RevolverGolden Gods Awards: Footnotes References Bibliography External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_(American_band", "Kill 'Em All Kill 'Em Allis the debut studio album by the Americanheavy metalbandMetallica, released on July 25, 1983, through the independent labelMegaforce Records. After forming in 1981, Metallica began by playing shows in local clubs in Los Angeles. They recorded severaldemosto gain attention from club owners and eventually relocated to San Francisco to secure the services of bassistCliff Burton. The group'sNo Life 'til Leatherdemo tape (1982) was noticed by Megaforce label headJon Zazula, who signed them and provided a budget of $15,000 (equivalent to $48,835.49 in 2024) for recording. The album was recorded in May with producer Paul Curcio at the Music America Studios inRochester, New York. It was originally intended to be titledMetal Up Your Ass, with cover art featuring a hand clutching a dagger emerging from a toilet bowl. Zazula convinced the band to change the name because distributors feared that releasing an album with such an offensive title and artwork would diminish its chances of commercial success. Metallica promoted the album on the two-month co-headliningKill 'Em All for Onetour with English heavy metal bandRavenin the US. The album also generated two singles: \"Whiplash\" and \"Jump in the Fire\". Although the initial shipment was 15,000 copies in the US, the album sold 60,000 copies worldwide by the end of Metallica's Seven Dates of Hell European tour in 1984. The album did not enter theBillboard200until 1986, when it peaked at number 155, following Metallica's commercial success with its third studio album,Master of Puppets; the 1988Elektrareissue peaked at number 120.Kill 'Em Allwas critically praised at the time of its release and has since been regarded as a groundbreaking album forthrash metal, because of its \"precise musicianship, which fusednew wave of British heavy metalriffs withhardcore punktempos\". It was also retrospectively placed on a few publications' best album lists. The album's musical approach and lyrics were markedly different from rock's mainstream of the early 1980s and inspired a number of bands who followed in a similar manner. It was certified3× Platinumby theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 1999 for shipping three million copies in the United States. Background and recording Metallica was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles by drummerLars Ulrichand by vocalist/rhythm guitaristJames Hetfield. Before settling on a definitive lineup,Metal Blade RecordsownerBrian Slagelasked Metallica to record a song for the first edition of hisMetal Massacrecompilation. Hetfield and Ulrich chose \"Hit the Lights\" from Hetfield's and his childhood friendRon McGovney's previous bandLeather Charm, and recorded it with Hetfield on vocals, McGovney on bass, and temporary guitarist Lloyd Grant. The band's first lineup featured Hetfield, Ulrich, McGovney, and guitaristDave Mustaine, who was acquired through a newspaper advertisement. The band practiced in McGovney's garage and looked for gigs at local clubs. Metallica's first show was on March 14, 1982, at the Radio City inAnaheim. The nine-song setlist consisted of two originals (\"Hit the Lights\" and an unfinished version of \"Jump in the Fire\" from Mustaine's earlier band Panic) and covers ofnew wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) bands such asDiamond Head,Blitzkrieg,Savage, andSweet Savage. The gig did not go as well as planned, because Mustaine had problems with the guitardistortion pedal, and broke a string during a song. Metallica's second gig was on March 27, 1982, atHollywood'sWhisky a Go Go, opening forSaxon. AlthoughMötley Crüewas originally scheduled to open the show, the group canceled because of its growing popularity. Metallica recorded a three-song demo to persuade the venue's management to allow the band to open for Saxon. Metallica's third concert was in April 1982, the first time \"The Mechanix\",written by Mustaine during his tenure with Panic, was played.Mustaine interacted with the fans at Metallica's earliest shows because Hetfield was shy. To garner attention from club owners, Metallica recorded thePower Metaldemo in April 1982, which featured \"Motorbreath\" in addition to the already-performed originals. The logo, displaying the band's name with the first and last letter drawn larger with sharpserifsand italicized, was designed by Hetfield.TheNo Life 'til Leatherdemo was recorded in July 1982, and it created a buzz in the undergroundtape tradingcircles.No Life 'til Leatherfeatured a re-recorded version of \"Hit the Lights\", which appeared on the second pressing ofMetal Massacre, in addition to new songs such as \"Phantom Lord\", \"Seek & Destroy\", and \"Metal Militia\". The recording andmasteringwere financed by Kenny Kane, owner of the punk label High Velocity, and distributed by Ulrich and his friend Pat Scott.Because of tensions with Mustaine, McGovney left the band in December. Ulrich was impressed byCliff Burton's performance withTraumaatThe Troubadourin West Hollywood, and offered to let him join the band.Burton joined on the condition that Metallica would relocate to the San Francisco area.Moving toEl Cerritoin February 1983, the band stayed and rehearsed atExodusmanagerMark Whitaker's house, which they called the \"Metallica Mansion\".Metallica intended to record its debut in Los Angeles on Slagel's independent label on an $8,000 budget ($24,722 in 2023). Slagel could not afford the record, and Ulrich contactedJon Zazula, a New Jersey record store owner and promoter of heavy metal bands on the East Coast who had already heardNo Life 'til Leather. Metallica rented aU-Haultruck and drove to New Jersey in late March,and upon arrival, allowed Zazula to sell copies ofNo Life 'til Leatherto help him foundMegaforce Recordsbecause no label wanted to finance the album's recording. Hetfield and Ulrich fired Mustaine on the morning of April 11 after a gig in New York, because of his drug and alcohol problems, overly aggressive behavior, and clashes with bandmates.On Whitaker's recommendation, Metallica recruitedKirk Hammett, who played in Exodus and was a one-time student ofJoe Satriani. Hammett learned the songs on his flight to New York and started recording the album with Metallica barely a month later. Metallica met producer Paul Curcio at Music America Studios inRochester, and recorded the album in two weeks.Unable to afford a hotel during the recording sessions, the band members stayed over in people's houses in Rochester and at the Music Factory inJamaica, Queens, whereAnthraxheld rehearsals.Curcio had set the studio equipment as if he were recording an ordinary rock band. He thought the initial tapes sounded very distorted and tried to compensate by turning down the knobs.Metallica resented Curcio's involvement, because he seemed uninterested, and had little impact on the sound.Although Zazula wanted Hammett to replicate Mustaine's solos, Hammett's guitar solos on the album were partially based on Mustaine's original solos, with the first four bars of most solos written by Mustaine before his departure.Despite their differences, Mustaine's contributions to the early years of Metallica were still acknowledged, and he received four co-writing credits onKill 'Em All.Zazula was not pleased with the initialmixbecause he thought that the drums were too loud, and the guitars were too low in the mix. The remix was done by sound engineer Chris Bubacz, according to Zazula's instructions.The final cost for the record rounded to an estimated $15,000 ($46,354 in 2023), which nearly caused Zazula to go bankrupt. \"This was mortgage money I'm spending, not something I've got put by I'm going to invest,\" he said later.Zazula had a hard time finding a distributor for the record, but he eventually convincedRelativity Recordsto distribute the album in the US and Canada, andMusic for Nationsin Europe. The band intended to title the albumMetal Up Your Asswith a cover featuring a hand clutching a dagger emerging from a toilet bowl. However, Zazula convinced them to change the title, because he thought that distributors would not stock it as it was too explicit to display. The final cover featured the shadow of a hand letting go of a bloodied hammer.Burton was credited with coming up with the nameKill 'Em All—referring to timid record distributors, saying, \"Those record company fuckers ... kill 'em all!\"—as a response to the situation.Ulrich thoughtKill 'Em Allwas a good name, and Zazula agreed.Burton suggested to Gary L. Heard, also responsible for the Metallica photograph on the back cover, to feature a bloodied hammer on the album art. According to Hammett, \"Cliff carried a hammer with him everywhere he went. He always had a hammer in his luggage, and he would take it out occasionally and start destroying things.\"Even though the original title was unused, the band did later release a \"Metal Up Your Ass\" T-shirt with the proposed artwork.A livebootleg recordingof a 1982 performance at theOld Waldorf, titledMetal Up Your Ass (Live), featured the original cover artwork.Original pressings of the album came with an innersleevethat included pictures and lyrics as well as a silver label on the vinyl. Subsequent pressings had a blank white sleeve and a standard album label. The 1988 reissue re-introduced the lyrics and photos. The original release can be distinguished by the silver labels with the track listing but without track lengths. Every issue produced has had the phrase \"Bang That Head That Doesn't Bang\". The phrase \"Bang That Head That Doesn't Bang\" was dedicated to San Francisco fan Rich Burch, known for hisheadbangingat the band's early shows. Music and lyrics \"Kill 'Em All's lyrics created as much excitement as the band's music. Taken together, the words of the songs on the album form a single theme. It is aconcept albumthat heralds the breakthrough of a new subgenre of metal, its fans, and its leader, Metallica. It is a celebration of metal. It is a call to arms to a new generation of metalheads, many of whom were already armed and ready.\" —Deena Weinstein,Essays on Debut Albums Kill 'Em Allfeatures intricate riffing reminiscent of theNWOBHMbands played at high velocity. The album is considered crucial inthrash metal's genesis because it introduced fast percussion, low-register chords, andshreddingleads to the genre.Hammett played somepentatonicpatterns in addition to his breakneck solos.Ulrich adopted adouble timesnare pattern that would become a mainstay on Metallica's subsequent albums. Hetfield's vocals evolved from the melodic wail onNo Life 'til Leatherto a rough-edged bark, and the entire band played faster and more accurately onKill 'Em All.AuthorJoel McIverdescribed Burton's and Hetfield's performances as nearly virtuosic, highlighting Burton's smooth-sounding bass and Hetfield's precise picking skills.According to journalistChuck Eddy, the juvenile lyrical approach to topics such as warfare, violence and life on the road gives the album a \"naive charm\".The musical approach onKill 'Em Allwas in contrast to theglam metalbands who dominated the charts in the early 1980s.Because of its rebellious nature and Metallica's street appearance, it appealed to fans who were not into the mainstream of hard rock. \"Hit the Lights\" was based on an unfinished Leather Charm song written by Hetfield and Hugh Tanner.Hetfield had brought the majority of the song to Ulrich, and the two worked out different arrangements. Performed at 160beats per minute, \"Hit the Lights\" opens with fade-in distorted guitars and a short shriek by Hetfield. The song is driven by the16th noterepeated main riff and the continuouseighth notesnare drum hits. The lyrics celebrate heavy metal itself and are sung with short and high-pitched vocals.The song ends with several lengthy guitar solos by Hammett, who performed cleaner and more melodic versions of Mustaine's leads. \"The Four Horsemen\" is a revamp of the Mustaine-penned \"The Mechanix\", which originally had lyrics about having sex at a gas station.A modified version of his composition with the original lyrics appeared onMegadeth's debutKilling Is My Business... and Business Is Good!(1985), named \"Mechanix\". Although Mustaine told Metallica not to use any of his music, Hetfield wrote lyrics about theFour Horsemen of the Apocalypseand added abridgeand cleanly picked guitar solo in the middle.Mustaine said the bridge was inspired by the main riff inLynyrd Skynyrd's \"Sweet Home Alabama\". \"Motorbreath\" was written by Hetfield during his time in Leather Charm and tells about life on the road. The song is based on a four-chord verse and a stop-and-start chorus.The most recognizable parts are Ulrich'sdrum rollsin each chorus and the riff that accompanies Hammett's solos. \"Jump in the Fire\" was the first song everwritten by Mustaine, with lyrics about teenage sexual experience.Hetfield's revised lyrics for the album were written fromSatan's point of view, describing how the devil watches people killing each other, and is sure they will go tohellfor their actions.\"Jump in the Fire\" was released as a single in the UK in February 1984 to promote a UK tour withVenom.The single featured \"Phantom Lord\" and \"Seek & Destroy\" as live tracks, although they are actually studio recordings with fake crowd noise dubbed over them.The single's cover art features an oil painting titledThe Devils of D-Day, created by artistLes Edwardsin 1978. \"(Anesthesia)-Pulling Teeth\" is a bass solo by Burton, accompanied on drums by Ulrich. A staple of Burton's live performances since his high school days in the band Agents of Misfortune,the instrumental track featured Burton's distinctive \"lead-bass\" style of playing, incorporating heavy distortion, use ofwah-wah pedalandtapping.Bubacz introduces the track as \"Bass solo, take one\",informing listeners that the song was recorded in one take.\"(Anesthesia)-Pulling Teeth\" was the bass solo that Burton was playing when Hetfield and Ulrich first saw him at a gig.Hetfield stated: \"We heard this wild solo going on and thought, 'I don't see any guitar player up there.' We were both counting the strings and I finally turned to Lars and said, 'Dude, that's a bass!' Cliff was up there on stage with his band Trauma with a wah-wah pedal and his huge mop of red hair. He didn't care whether people were there. He was looking down at his bass, playing.\"For the album version, Cliff Burton insisted on recording this track alone in an empty room, while the studio technicians were downstairs. He made this recording in one take, after about twenty minutes of preparation. \"Whiplash\" was the album's first single, issued on August 8, 1983.It features a swift rhythm line of straight 16th notes played at about 200 beats per minute. Hetfield and Burton performed withpalm mutedtechnique and precise metronomic control.The lyrics celebrate crowd energy and headbanging.Rock journalistMick Wallwrote that \"Whiplash\" signified the birth of thrash metal, stating: \"If one wishes to identify the very moment thrash metal arrived spitting and snarling into the world, 'Whiplash' is indisputably it.\" \"Phantom Lord\" is a lyrical nod to devilry. The song begins with a synthesized bass drone and contains a middle section with clean, arpeggiated guitar chords. Written by Mustaine, its central riff is in NWOBHM fashion. \"No Remorse\" is a mid-tempo song that suddenly accelerates its tempo in the fifth minute.The song is about not feeling any remorse or sense of repentance during battle. \"Seek & Destroy\" was inspired by Diamond Head's \"Dead Reckoning\"and is the first song Metallica recorded during theKill 'Em Allsessions.Hetfield wrote the main riff in his truck outside a Los Angeles sticker factory where he was working.Because of its simple, one-line chorus, the song became a permanent setlist fixture and a crowd singalong. \"Metal Militia\", one of the fastest songs on the album, is about heavy metal's way of life andnonconformity. Mustaine composed the main riff, which emulates a marching army. The song ends with tramping feet and bullet ricochet in a fade-out. Reception Kill 'Em Allreceived widespread critical acclaim. Bernard Doe ofMetal ForcesdescribedKill 'Em Allas one of the fastest and heaviest albums ever recorded, and remarked that the album is not for the faint-hearted.Greg Kotof theChicago Tribuneacknowledged it as the \"speed metalprototype\", but felt the lyrical replication ofJudas Priestand theMisfitskept the album short from becoming a classic.In a retrospective review,BillboardpraisedKill 'Em Allfor changing the face of popular music with its unique combination of punk and metal.AllMusic's Steve Huey called it \"the true birth of thrash\". He praised Hetfield's highly technical rhythm guitar style and said that the band was \"playing with tightly controlled fury even at the most ridiculously fast tempos\".Rob Kemp, writing inThe Rolling Stone Album Guide, credited the album for consolidating the punk rock and heavy metal scenes, but felt that apart from \"Seek & Destroy\" and \"(Anesthesia)-Pulling Teeth\", most of the album had the band \"trying to look tough\" over enthusiastic but unfinished riff-based songs. JournalistMartin PopoffsaidKill 'Em Alldifferentiated from the debuts by Metallica'sBay Areacontemporaries because the fans could identify with Hetfield's lyrics and the band's appearance.Spin's Chuck Eddy consideredKill 'Em Allthe inception of the \"extreme metalmania\" of the early 1980s. He noted the album did not receive much critical praise at the time of its release but said it aged well and opened the doors for the less commercially successful bands.Although McIver credits Venom'sWelcome to Hell(1981) as the first thrash metal album, he acknowledgedKill 'Em Allas a major influence on the flourishing American heavy metal scene.Despite its \"less-than-perfect\" production,Loudwire's Jon Wiederhorn said thatKill 'Em Allsounds like an \"influential slice of history\" and stands on the same level as classic albums byBlack Sabbath,Iron Maiden, and Judas Priest. Kill 'Em Allwas released on July 25, 1983, by Megaforce with an initial pressing of 15,000 copies.Because of the label's financial restrictions, the album was pressed in batches of 500 copies.Kill 'Em Allhad sold 17,000 copies in the US by the end of the year.Similarly to punk rock acts, Metallica promoted its material through the tape trading network and independent music magazines such asMetal Forcesin the UK andMetal Maniain the US.The album did not enter theBillboard200chart until 1986, when it peaked at number 155 following Metallica's commercial success with its third studio albumMaster of Puppets.The 1988 re-issue onElektra Recordsalso charted on theBillboard200, peaking at number 120.It was certified3× Platinumby theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 1999 for shipping three million copies in the United States.Despite being the lowest selling Metallica studio album, it helped the band establish its image and build a fanbase in its inaugural years. Kill 'Em All, as the first thrash metal album released in the US, had a substantial impact on the emerging scene and inspired numerous bands with its aggression and austere seriousness.GuitaristKerry KingacknowledgedSlayerwas still finding its sound while Metallica had already determined its image and musical identity. Anthrax guitaristScott Ianwas impressed by the album's heaviness and songwriting and said it influenced him as much as the albums by Iron Maiden.Dream Theater's drummerMike Portnoyobserved thatKill 'Em Allsurpassed the NWOBHM bands in terms of sheer velocity and cited Burton's bass solo as the album's peak.Guitarist Ulf Cederlund of Swedishblack metalbandMorbidcited \"Motorbreath\" and \"Metal Militia\" as songs that influenced him as a young musician.Kill 'Em Allwas ranked at number 35 onRolling Stone's list of The 100 Greatest Albums of the '80s.Additionally, the album placed at number 54 on \"The 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time\"and again at number 35 on \"100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time\",two lists compiled by the same magazine.Kerrang!listed the album at number 29 among the \"100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time\".In 2010,Consequence of Soundranked it number 94 among its \"Top 100 Albums Ever\". Touring In late July 1983, Metallica embarked on the two-month Kill 'Em All for One tour with British co-headlinersRaven. The tour name melded the titles of the albums the two bands were promoting: Metallica'sKill 'Em Alland Raven'sAll for One, both released on Megaforce. The two groups met in Zazula's home two days before the tour began and traveled in the same vehicle throughout the tour with fiveroadiesand sound engineer Whitaker. The tour was set to conclude with three shows in San Francisco, thus Hetfield painted \"No Life 'til Frisco\" on the Winnebago tour bus. The tour had a few poorly attended gigs, such as a performance at the Cheers club inBabylon, New York, attended by some 50 people. After the conclusion of Kill 'Em All for One in early September, Metallica returned to El Cerrito to work on new material. Seven weeks after the tour ended, Metallica booked a number of performances at Bay Area clubs, the first a Halloween gig at the Keystone inPalo Alto. At the Country Club inReseda, the group debuted \"Fight Fire with Fire\" and \"Creeping Death\", along with an early version of \"The Call of Ktulu\", then titled \"When Hell Freezes Over\". Three days later, at a gig at The Stone in San Francisco, Metallica premiered \"Ride the Lightning\", the title track from the upcoming album. In December, Metallica went on a short tour in the Midwest and eastern United States with a three-man road crew: Whitaker, guitar technicianJohn Marshall, and drum technician Dave Marrs. The concert of January 14, 1984, in Boston, was canceled because the band's equipment was stolen the night before. In February, Metallica embarked on its first European trek withTwisted Sister, supporting Venom's Seven Dates of Hell tour.The tour was sponsored by Metallica's UK distributor, Music for Nations, who released the \"Jump in the Fire\" EP for that occasion. The first show was at theVolkshausin Zurich on February 3.At the Aardschok Festival inZwolleon February 11, Metallica played in front of 7,000 people, its largest audience at the time. The tour stretched through countries such as Italy, Germany, France, and Belgium, culminating in two sold-out shows at theMarquee Clubin London.After concluding the Seven Dates of Hell tour, Metallica headed toSweet Silence Studiosin Copenhagen to record its second album,Ride the Lightning.By the end of the tour,Kill 'Em Allhad sold 60,000 copies worldwide and Metallica began to gain international recognition.On June 8, 2013, at theOrion Festival, billed as the fictional band Dehaan, Metallica played the album in its entirety for the first time ever to mark the 30 year anniversary of the album. Track listing Original release All lyrics written byJames Hetfield, except where noted. The bonus tracks on the 1988 re-release were originally recorded as B-sides for the \"Creeping Death\" single in 1984, later known asGarage Days Revisited, and would later appear on the compilation albumGarage Inc.(1998). The bonus tracks on the digital reissue was recorded live at theSeattle Coliseum,Seattle, Washington, on August 29, 1989, and also appeared on the live albumLive Shit: Binge & Purge(1993). 2016 deluxe edition In 2016, the album was remastered and reissued in a limited edition deluxe box set with an expanded track listing and bonus content. The deluxe edition set includes the original album on vinyl and CD, apicture discwith the original \"Jump in the Fire\" single tracklist, four CDs of interviews, rough mixes, and live recordings recorded from 1983 to 1984, and a DVD of a live concert in Chicago. Personnel Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. Metallica Production Artwork Charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. References Bibliography External links", "Show No Mercy Show No Mercyis the debutstudio albumby Americanthrash metalbandSlayer, released in December 1983 byMetal Blade Records.Brian Slagelsigned the band to the label after watching them perform anIron Maidencover. The band self-financed their full-length debut, combining the savings of vocalistTom Araya, who was employed as arespiratory therapist, and money borrowed from guitaristKerry King's father. Touring extensively promoting the album, the band brought close friends and family members along the trip, who helped backstage with lighting and sound. Although the album was criticized for its poor production quality, it became Metal Blade's highest-selling release,producing the songs \"The Antichrist\", \"Die by the Sword\" and \"Black Magic\", which were played at Slayer's live shows regularly. Recording Slayer was the opening act forBitchat the Woodstock Club inLos Angeles, performing eight songs—six beingcovers.While performing anIron Maidencover, the band was spotted byBrian Slagel, a former music journalist who had recently foundedMetal Blade Records. Slagel met with the band backstage and asked if they would like to be featured on the label's upcomingMetal Massacre IIIcompilation; the band agreed.The band's appearance on the compilation created underground buzz, which led to Slagel signing the band with Metal Blade Records.Recorded in Los Angeles,Show No Mercywas financed by vocalistTom Araya, who used his earnings as arespiratory therapist,and money borrowed from guitaristKerry King's father.King says the album is \"fuckin' Iron Maiden here and there\".Vocalist Araya assertsVenom,Judas Priest,Iron Maiden, andMercyful Fatewere big influences on the record, as guitarist King was into theSatanicimage. Lombardo said in 2015 that he was not pleased with how the drums were recorded. The engineer at the time had difficulties getting the right mix between the toms and the cymbals because they were too loud. The solution was to dampen the cymbals with towels and record the toms and cymbals separately. As such, Lombardo calledShow No Mercyhis least favorite Slayer album, although he emphasized that the songs were great, just not his performance. Gene Hoglan, later known as the drummer for bands likeDark AngelandDeath, provided backing vocals on the song \"Evil Has No Boundaries\".\"Back at the time it was Jeff and Kerry doing the 'Evil!' You know, it didn't sound too heavy and I mentioned to like Tom or Jeff or somebody like, 'You know you guys should consider...maybe consider doing like big gang vocals on that, make it sound evil like demons and stuff,' and they were like 'Good idea.' But how about now, we got about eight dudes sitting around in the studio, and now everybody jumped up and yelled 'EVIL!!!' So I was like 'Cool' because I'm like, 'I wanna sing on this record somehow, that's how I can do it,' totally unplanned you know?! Sure enough they were like, 'Fuck we have the time, let's do it.' So I was like 'Yeah, I got to sing on it!'\"On recording the drums, Slagel wanted drummerDave Lombardoto play without usingcymbalsdue to the amount of noise they made, as he was unsure if he could siphon the noise out, which he eventually did. The band used Satanic themes in both lyrics and live performances to gain notice among the metal community and \"to fuck with people\".The back cover featured 'side 666' and inverted crosses, with Hanneman playing his guitar.Due to the imagery and lyrical content, Slayer received mail from theParents Music Resource Centertelling the band to stop releasing records. Araya comments, \"Back then you had that PMRC, who literally took everything to heart. When in actuality you're trying to create an image. You're trying to scare people on purpose.\"The album produced the songs \"The Antichrist\", \"Die by the Sword\", and \"Black Magic\", which were played at Slayer's live shows regularly. Touring The band went on their first tour of the United States after the album's release—Slagel gave the band a list of addresses and contact numbers of the venues. Araya was still working at the hospital, and called the members saying, \"Today's the day. Are we gonna do this?\"The band knew if they did not tour now, they never would. So they set out taking Araya'sCamaroandU-Haul. During the first leg of the tour, Slayer had no manager; Doug Goodman, who had met the band when he was first in line for their first show in Northern California (opening forLȧȧz Rockit) took a vacation from his job at a grocery store to help out on the tour, eventually becoming the band's \"tour guide\". Goodman now tour manages acts such asGreen DayandBeck. Kevin Reed, a friend of the band, set up the drums and lighting when touring with the band. Reed's father, Lawrence R. Reed, drew theMinotaurwith a sword on the album's cover.Araya's younger brother, Johnny Araya, who was thirteen or fourteen at the time, was aroadiewho set up the back line and sound.The band hardly made enough money to sustain themselves, only buying the \"essentials\" such as food, gas, and beer. Araya asserts, \"We basically used whatever money we got to get from point A to point B. When we got back, Brian was like, 'So, where's the money?' And we were like, 'What money?' At that time, we didn't realize that you had to ask for money up front. I think he got a lot of money sent directly to him, and we were supposed to pick up the rest.\" The band performed in a hotel inWinnipeg, where the basement was the club. Araya comments, \"We stayed there for like four or five days, I think. We sawVerbal Abuseplay there. Then we played a place in Boston called the Lizard Lounge. In fact, a car had run into the front of the building, and it was all boarded up, but we still played there.\"When one of the guitarists broke a string Araya would hand them the bass, Hanneman stating, \"We'd argue about it, too—like, 'I wanna play bass for a while!'\" Reception Although the band did not have enough time to sell any records while touring,the album becameMetal Blade Records' highest selling release.Five thousand copies was the label's average.Show No Mercywent on to sell between 15,500 and 20,000 copies in the United States; it also went on to sell more than 15,000 overseas, as Metal Blade had worldwide rights.The success of the album led to Slagel wanting the band to release a new record and anextended play. Show No Mercywas met with polarized opinions and reviews mostly leaning on the negative side when it was issued, but in some recent reviews it came to be considered a classic album. In 1984, Dave Dickson ofKerrang!crushed the album defining it \"pure, unadulterated junk\",while Bernard Doe ofMetal Forcescalled the record \"one of the heaviest, fastest, most awesome albums of all time!\"The German magazineRock HardgaveShow No Mercya positive review, which remarked how Slayer were \"actually the hardest and fastest\" in comparison with their contemporariesMetallicaandExciter, and defined their music as \"heavy metal punk.\"AllMusicreviewer Jeremy Ulrey had mixed feelings towards the album, saying that even though the musicianship and production were \"amateurish\" compared to Slayer's later releases, the album remains a \"solid, if inessential, part of the Slayer legacy\". Users voted 4/5 at AllMusic.Sputnikmusic staff member Hernan M. Campbell described the album as \"fast, heavy, and mean, inducing an inescapable atmosphere of utter atrocity.\" He noted that the \"lo-fi\" production quality gives the album a \"classic\" feeling. Canadian journalistMartin PopoffpraisedShow No Mercyfor being as \"seminal\" as Metallica'sKill 'Em All\"in defining state-of-the-art speed metal\" and for inspiring new bands to \"expand the limits of metal.\" However, he \"found the record stiff and one dimensional\", with \"its style laid down in stifling arrangements.\"Fenriz, drummer forDarkthrone, citedShow No Mercyas the inspiration for the band's \"current style of fusingNWOBHMwithblack metal\".Terry ButlerofObituaryand former member ofDeathdefined the album as \"the blueprint for the beginning ofdeath metal\" and said: \"When I heardShow No MercyI wanted to play that way....It was a whole new level of mayhem. I wanted to play that way\". System of a Down'sDaron Malakianhas praisedShow No Mercyas an influential album that helped shape him as a person and artist. He claimed he introduced heavy metal to the people of Iraq with this album when he lived there at age 14. Track listing The 1987 re-issue also features songs from theHaunting the ChapelEP. Personnel Charts References" ]
[ "Thrash metal Thrash metal(or simplythrash) is anextremesubgenre ofheavy metal musiccharacterized by its overall aggression and fast tempo.The songs usually use fast percussive beats and low-register guitarriffs, overlaid withshredding-style lead guitar work. The genre emerged in the early 1980s as musicians began fusing the double bass drumming and complex guitar stylings of thenew wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) with the speed and aggression ofhardcore punkand the technicality ofprogressive music.Philosophically, thrash metal developed as a backlash against both theconservatismof theReagan eraand the much more moderate,pop-influenced, and widely accessible heavy metal subgenre ofglam metalwhich also developed concurrently in the 1980s. The early thrash metal movement revolved around independent record labels, includingMegaforce,Metal Blade,Combat,Roadrunner, andNoise, and the undergroundtape tradingindustry in both Europe and North America. The genre was commercially successful from approximately 1985", "approximately 1985 through 1991, bringing prominence toMetallica,Slayer,Megadeth, andAnthrax, all grouped together as the \"Big Four\" of U.S. thrash metal.Other U.S. bands, such asOverkill,Metal Church, andBay AreaactsExodus,TestamentandDeath Angel, never achieved the popularity of the \"Big Four\" but also had considerable success during the late 1980s and early 1990s, particularly on the strength of airplay onMTV'sHeadbangers Ball.Some of the most successful international thrash metal bands from this era were Brazil'sSepultura, Canada'sVoivod, and the genre's \"Big Teutonic Four\":Kreator,Destruction,Sodom, andTankard. The thrash metal genre had declined in popularity by the mid-1990s, due to the commercial success of numerous genres such asalternative rock,grunge, and laterpop-punkandnu metal. In response, some bands either disbanded or moved away from their thrash metal roots and more towardsgroove metaloralternative metal. The genre has seen a resurgence in popularity since the 2000s, with the arrival of", "with the arrival of various bands such asBonded by Blood,Evile,Hatchet,Havok,Lamb of God,Municipal Waste, andWarbringer, who have all been credited for leading the so-called \"thrash metal revival\" scene. Characteristics Thrash metal generally features fasttempos, low-register, complex guitarriffs, high-register guitarsolos, anddouble bass drumming.The rhythm guitar parts are played with heavy distortion and oftenpalm mutedto create a tighter and more precise sound.Vocally, thrash metal can employ anything from melodic singing to shouted or screamed vocals. Most guitar solos are played at high speed and technically demanding, as they are usually characterized byshredding, and use advanced techniques such assweep picking,legato phrasing,alternate picking,tremolo picking,string skipping, andtwo-hand tapping. David Ellefson, the original bassist ofMegadeth, described thrash metal as \"a combination of the attitude from punk rock but the riffs and complexities of traditional metal.\" The guitar riffs often", "guitar riffs often usechromatic scalesand emphasize the tritone and diminished intervals, instead of using conventional single-scale-based riffing. For example, the intro riff ofMetallica's \"Master of Puppets\" (the title track of thenamesake album) is a chromatic descent, followed by a chromatic ascent based on thetritone. Speed, pacing, and time changes also define thrash metal. Thrash tends to have an accelerating feel which may be due in large part to its aggressive drumming style. For example, drummers often use two bass drums, or a double-bass pedal to create a relentless, driving beat. Cymbal stops/chokesare often used to transition from one riff to another or to precede an acceleration in tempo. Some common characteristics of the genre are fast guitar riffs with aggressive picking styles and fast guitar solos, and extensive use of two bass drums as opposed to the conventional use of only one, typical of most rock music. To keep up with the other instruments, many bassists use aplectrum(pick). However,", "However, some prominent thrash metal bassists haveused their fingers, such asFrank Bello,Greg Christian,Steve Di Giorgio,Robert Trujillo, andCliff Burton. Several bassists use adistorted bass tone, an approach popularized by Burton andMotörhead'sLemmy. Lyrical themes in thrash metal include warfare, corruption, injustice, murder, suicide, isolation, alienation, addiction, and other maladies that afflict the individual and society. In addition, politics, particularly pessimism and dissatisfaction towards politics, are common themes among thrash metal bands. Humor and irony can occasionally be found (Anthraxfor example), but they are limited, and are an exception rather than a rule. History Roots (1970s–early 1980s) Queen's 1974 song \"Stone Cold Crazy\" andBlack Sabbath's 1975 song \"Symptom of the Universe\" are often referred to as compelling early influences on thrash; the latter of which was a direct inspiration forDiamond Head's pioneering song \"Am I Evil?\".Thenew wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) bands", "metal(NWOBHM) bands emerging from Britain in the late 1970s further influenced the development of early thrash. The early work of artists such as Diamond Head,Iron Maiden,Venom,Motörhead,Tygers of Pan Tang,Raven, andAngel Witch, among others, introduced the fast-paced and intricate musicianship that became core aspects of thrash.Phil Taylor's double-bass drumming featured in Motörhead's 1979 song \"Overkill\" has been acknowledged by many thrash drummers, most notablyLars Ulrich, as a primary influence on their playing. Thrash metal bands have also taken inspiration fromJudas Priest, withSlayerguitaristKerry Kingsaying that, \"There would be no Slayer without Priest.\"Metal Blade RecordsexecutiveBrian Slagelplayed a key role in bringing the NWOBHM to a larger audience, as he was responsible for discovering bothMetallicaand Slayer and producing their earliest studio recordings. In addition to the NWOBHM and the late 1960s and 1970shard rockand heavy metal scenes,progressive rockhas been cited as an important", "as an important influence on the creation of thrash metal and its subgenre technical thrash metal (or \"progressivethrash metal\"), the latter of which adds elements of progressive,jazzorclassical music.Greg Prato ofUltimate Guitarnoted: \"Although the thrash movement seemed to have much more in common with punk than prog fashion-wise (leather jackets vs. capes), musically, there were certainly moments when thrash leaned more towards the prog side of things.\" The thrash metal genre is also strongly influenced by the 1970s and early 1980spunk rockscene, including that of theNew York Dolls, theRamones, theSex Pistolsand theDead Boys,as well as late 1970s/early 1980shardcore punkbandsDischarge,GBH,Black Flag,theMisfits, theDead Kennedys, andBad Brains.The Ramones' 1976self-titled debut albumin particular has been noted as a key influence on the genre, due to its sound, which introduced the three-chord thrash style of guitar.Voidhas been credited as one of the earliest examples of hardcore/heavy metal crossover,", "metal crossover, whose chaotic musical approach is often cited as particularly influential.Their 1982split LPwith fellow Washington bandThe Faithshowed both bands exhibiting quick, fiery, high-speed punk rock. It has been argued that those recordings laid the foundation for early thrash metal, at least in terms of selected tempos,and that thrash is essentially hardcore punk with the technical proficiency missing from that genre. The crossover with hardcore punk has also been cited as important influence on thrash, especially the English hardcore punk band Discharge, whose \"influence on heavy metal is incalculable and metal superstars such as Metallica,Anthrax,Machine Head,Sepultura,Soulfly,ProngandArch Enemyhave covered Discharge's songs in tribute.\"The eponymousdebutalbumsbyD.R.I.andSuicidal Tendencies, both released in 1983, have been credited for paving the way forthrashcore. In Latin America, this genre also gained a lot of strength, and its creation is also attributed to it, since it began to gain", "it began to gain popularity due to the dictatorships that many countries faced at that time, with bands likeV8(1979) with their debut albumsDemo 1982orLuchando por el metal,andBloke(1980)fromArgentina,Transmetal(1987) fromMéxico, also the bandMassakre(1985) inChile. In Europe, the earliest band of the emerging thrash movement was Venom fromNewcastle upon Tyne, formed in 1979. Their 1982 albumBlack Metalhas been cited as a major influence on many subsequent genres and bands in the extreme metal world, such asBathory,Hellhammer, Slayer, andMayhem. The European scene was almost exclusively influenced by the most aggressive music Germany and England were producing at the time. British bands such asTankandRaven, along with German bandsAccept(whose 1982 song \"Fast as a Shark\" is often credited as one of the first-ever thrash/speed metal songs)andLiving Death,motivated musicians from central Europe to start bands of their own, eventually producing groups such asSodom,Kreator, andDestructionfrom Germany, as well as", "Germany, as well as Switzerland'sCeltic Frost(formed by two-thirds ofHellhammer),Coronerand Carrion (who later becamePoltergeist) and Denmark'sArtillery. Thrash metal in the 1980s Birth and underground expansion (1981–1983) In 1981,Los AngelesbandLeather Charmwrote a song entitled \"Hit the Lights\". Leather Charm soon disbanded and the band's primary songwriter, vocalist/rhythm guitaristJames Hetfield, met drummerLars Ulrichthrough a classified advertisement. Together, Hetfield and Ulrich formedMetallica, one of the \"Big Four\" thrash bands, with lead guitaristDave Mustaine, who would later formMegadeth, another of the \"Big Four\" originators of thrash, and bassistRon McGovney. McGovney would be replaced by Cliff Burton (formerly ofTrauma), and Mustaine was later replaced byKirk Hammettof the then-unsignedBay Area thrash metalactExodus, and at Burton's insistence, the band relocated to theSan Francisco Bay Area. Before Metallica had even settled on a definitive lineup, Metal Blade Records executiveBrian", "executiveBrian Slagelasked Hetfield and Ulrich (credited as \"Mettallica\") to record \"Hit the Lights\" for the first edition of hisMetal Massacrecompilation in 1982. An updated version of \"Hit the Lights\" would later open their first studio album,Kill 'Em All, released in mid-1983. The term \"thrash metal\" was first used in the music press byKerrang!magazine's journalistMalcolm Domewhile referring to another of the \"Big Four\",Anthrax(who, like Metallica, formed in 1981), and their song \"Metal Thrashing Mad\".Before this, Metallica frontman James Hetfield referred to his band's sound asspeed metalorpower metal. Another \"Big Four\" thrash band formed in Los Angeles in 1981, when guitaristsJeff HannemanandKerry Kingmet while auditioning for the same band and subsequently decided to form a band of their own. Hanneman and King recruited vocalist/bassistTom Arayaand drummerDave Lombardo, andSlayerwas formed. Slayer was discovered by Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel; the band's live performance ofIron Maiden's", "ofIron Maiden's \"Phantom of the Opera\" so impressed him that he promptly signed them to his label. In December 1983, five months after the release of Metallica's debutKill 'Em All, Slayer released their debut album,Show No Mercy. To the north, Canada produced influential thrash andspeed metalbands such asAnnihilator,Anvil,Exciter,Razor,Sacrifice, andVoivod. Mainstream popularity (1984–1989) First wave (1984–1986) The popularity of thrash metal increased in 1984 with the release of Metallica's sophomore recordRide the Lightning, as well as Anthrax's debutFistful of MetalandMetal Church'seponymous debut album.Slayer andOverkillreleased extended plays on independent labels during this era,Haunting the ChapelandOverkillrespectively. This led to a heavier-sounding form of thrash, which was reflected in Exodus' debut albumBonded by Blood, Slayer'sHell Awaitsand Anthrax'sSpreading the Disease, all three released in 1985. Several other debut albums were released that same year, including Megadeth'sKilling Is My", "Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, Overkill'sFeel the Fire, Kreator'sEndless Pain, Destruction'sInfernal Overkill,Possessed'sSeven Churches,Celtic Frost'sTo Mega Therion,Watchtower'sEnergetic Disassemblyand theSepulturaEPBestial Devastation.Seven ChurchesandTo Mega Therionare often credited for pioneering and popularizing the mid-1980sextreme metalscene (as well as the then-developing genres ofdeath metalandblack metal, respectively),whileEnergetic Disassemblyhas been cited as the firstprogressive/technical thrash metalalbum. From a creative standpoint, the year 1986 was perhaps the pinnacle of thrash metal,as a number of critically acclaimed and genre-defining albums were released. Metallica's major label debutMaster of Puppetswas released in March, becoming the first thrash album to be certified platinum, being certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it would be the band's last album to feature bassistCliff Burton, who was killed in a bus accident six months", "accident six months after its release. Kreator releasedPleasure to Killin April 1986, which would later be a major influence on the death metal scene.Megadeth releasedPeace Sells... but Who's Buying?in September, an album which proved to be the band's commercial and critical breakthrough and whichAllMusiclater cited as \"a classic of early thrash\".Slayer, regarded as one of the most sinister thrash metal bands of the early 1980s,releasedReign in Bloodin October, an album considered by some to have single-handedly inspired the death metal genre.Also in October,Nuclear Assaultreleased their debut albumGame Over, followed a month later byDark Angel'sDarkness Descends, which marked the debut of renowned drummerGene Hoglan.Flotsam and Jetsam's debut albumDoomsday for the Deceiver(released on theFourth of Julyin 1986) received some attention as well, due to the album being \"the first of only a handful\" to ever receive a 6K rating fromKerrang!magazine, and it is also notable for featuring a then-unknownJason", "a then-unknownJason Newsted, who, not long after the album's release, joined Metallica as Burton's replacement. Also during the mid-to-late 1980s, bands such asSuicidal Tendencies,D.R.I.,S.O.D.(who featured three-fifths of Anthrax), andCorrosion of Conformitypaved the way to what became known ascrossover thrash, a fusion genre that lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk, and is arguably faster and more aggressive than thrash metal. Second wave (1987–1989) By the mid-to-late 1980s, thrash metal began to achieve major mainstream success worldwide, with many bands of the genre receiving heavy rotation onMTV'sHeadbangers Ball,and radio stations such asKNACinLong BeachandZ RockinDallas,as well as coverage on numerous publications, includingKerrang!andRIP Magazine. These outlets not only played a major role in the crossover success of thrash metal during this time, but helped push album sales of the genre's \"Big Four\" and similar bands, or moved them from playing clubs to arenas and stadiums.", "and stadiums. Anthraxmade its mainstream breakthrough in 1987 with the release of their gold-certified albumAmong the Living, which borrowed elements from their two previous releases, with fast guitar riffs and pounding drums. Shortly after the release ofAmong the Living, three Bay Area bands,Testament,Death AngelandHeathen, respectively released their debut albumsThe Legacy,The Ultra-ViolenceandBreaking the Silence. All of the \"Big Four\" ofTeutonic thrash metalalso released albums in 1987: Kreator'sTerrible Certainty, Destruction'sRelease from Agony, Sodom'sPersecution Maniaand Tankard'sChemical Invasion; these albums cemented their reputations as top-tier German thrash metal bands. In response to thrash metal's growing popularity during this period, several hardcore punk bands began changing their style to a more heavier direction, includingSuicidal Tendencies, who are often considered to be one of the \"fathers of crossover thrash\",and became more recognized as a thrash metal band in the late 1980s (thanks", "late 1980s (thanks in large part to the presence of guitaristsRocky GeorgeandMike Clark); the band would reach new heights of success with their first two major-label albums,How Will I Laugh Tomorrow When I Can't Even Smile Today(1988) andControlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit... Déjà Vu(1989).D.R.I.'s music took a similar direction with their last three albums of the 1980s,Crossover(1987),4 of a Kind(1988), andThrash Zone(1989),and other bands would follow suit, includingThe Exploited,Excel(from Suicidal Tendencies' hometown ofVenice) andNew York hardcoreactsM.O.D.(fronted by former S.O.D. singerBilly Milano), theCro-Magsand theCrumbsuckers. From 1987 to 1989, Overkill releasedTaking Over,Under the Influence,andThe Years of Decay, three albums considered their best. Each of the \"Big Four\" of thrash metal bands released albums in 1988: Slayer releasedSouth of Heaven, Megadeth releasedSo Far, So Good... So What!, Anthrax releasedState of Euphoriawhile Metallica's...And Justice for Allspawned the band's first", "the band's first video and Top 40 hit, theWorld War I–themed song \"One\". That same year, Metallica joinedVan Halen,Scorpions,DokkenandKingdom Comeon the two-month-long arena and stadium tourMonsters of Rockin North America.In the spring of 1989, Anthrax teamed up with Exodus andHelloweenon aUS arena toursponsored byHeadbangers Ball. Sepultura's third album,Beneath the Remains(1989), earned them some mainstream appeal as it was released byRoadrunner Records. Testament's second and third albumsThe New Order(1988) andPractice What You Preach(1989), nearly gained them the same level of popularity as the \"Big Four\",whileExodus' third albumFabulous Disaster(1989) garnered the band their first music video and one of their most recognized songs, themosh-pitanthem \"The Toxic Waltz\".Vio-lence,Forbidden, andSadus, three relative latecomers to the Bay Area thrash metal scene, released their debut albumsEternal Nightmare,Forbidden Evil,andIllusions, respectively, in 1988; the latter album demonstrated a sound that was", "a sound that was primarily driven by the fretless bass ofSteve Di Giorgio. Also in 1988,Blind Illusionreleased its only studio album for more than two decades,The Sane Asylum, which received some particular attention as it was produced byKirk Hammett, and is also notable for featuring bassistLes Claypooland former Possessed guitaristLarry LaLonde; after its release, the two would later team up together in Claypool's then-upcoming bandPrimus. Canadian thrashersAnnihilatorreleased their highly technical debutAlice in Hellin 1989, which was praised for its fast riffs and extended guitar solos. In Germany, Sodom releasedAgent Orange, and Kreator would releaseExtreme Aggression. Several highly acclaimed albums associated with the sub-genre of technical thrash metal were also released in 1989, including Coroner'sNo More Color, Dark Angel'sLeave Scars,Toxik'sThink This,andWatchtower'sControl and Resistance, which has been recognized and acknowledged as one of the cornerstones ofjazz-metal fusionand a major", "fusionand a major influence on thetechnical death metalgenre,whileForced Entry's debut albumUncertain Futurehelped pioneer the late 1980sSeattle musicscene. Thrash metal in the 1990s Continued popularity (1990–1991) A number of more typical but technically sophisticated albums were released in 1990, including Megadeth'sRust in Peace, Anthrax'sPersistence of Time, Slayer'sSeasons in the Abyss, Suicidal Tendencies'Lights...Camera...Revolution!, Testament'sSouls of Black, Kreator'sComa of Souls, Destruction'sCracked Brain, Forbidden'sTwisted into Form, Exodus'Impact Is Imminent,Sacred Reich'sThe American Way,Prong'sBeg to Differ,Pantera'sCowboys from HellandExhorder'sSlaughter in the Vatican; the latter three are often credited for being an integral part of the then-developinggroove metalgenre.All of those albums were commercial high points for the aforementioned artists. During this period, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined one of the most successful tours in thrash metal history called theClash of the Titans;", "of the Titans; the first leg in Europe included support from Testament and Suicidal Tendencies, while the second leg in North America had Anthrax and then-emerging Seattle bandAlice in Chains, who were the supporting act. Several albums, some of which had come to be known as technical thrash metal, were released in 1991, including Overkill'sHorrorscope,Heathen'sVictims of Deception,Dark Angel'sTime Does Not Heal, Sepultura'sArise, Coroner'sMental Vortex, Prong'sProve You Wrongand Forced Entry'sAs Above, So Below. In 1991, Metallica released theireponymous fifth studio album, known as \"The Black Album\". The album marked a stylistic change in the band, eliminating much of the speed and longer song structures of the band's previous work, and instead focusing on more concise and heavier songs. The album was a change in Metallica's direction from the thrash metal style of the band's previous four studio albums towards a more contemporary heavy metal sound with originalhard rockelements, but still had remnant", "still had remnant characteristics of thrash metal.It would go on to become the band's best-selling album and began a wave of thrash metal bands releasing more garage-oriented albums, or else more experimental ones. Decline (1991–1999) The era of 1991–1992 marked the beginning of the end of thrash metal's commercial peak, due to the rising popularity of thealternative metalandgrungemovements (the latter spearheaded byWashington-based bandsNirvana,Soundgarden,Alice in ChainsandPearl Jam).In response to this climate change, many thrash metal bands that had emerged from the previous decade had called it quits or went on hiatus during the 1990s, while half of the \"Big Four\" and other veteran bands began changing to more accessible, radio-friendly styles.Metallica was a notable example of this shift, particularly with their mid–to–late 1990s albumsLoad, andReLoad, which displayed minorbluesandsouthern rockinfluences, and were seen as a major departure from the band's earlier sound.Megadeth took a more accessible", "a more accessible heavy metal route starting with their 1992 albumCountdown to Extinction.Testament, Exodus and Flotsam and Jetsam all took a melodic/progressive approach with the albumsThe Ritual,Force of Habit,andCuatro,respectively. One of the pioneers of crossover thrash,Corrosion of Conformity, began changing their sound into a slower andBlack Sabbath-influenced heavy metal direction with their post-1980s output, adapting influences and textures ofsludge,doom metal, blues, and southern rock on several of their albums, includingBlind(1991),Deliverance(1994) andWiseblood(1996). In the wake of the success ofgroove metal, instigated by Pantera (who went on to become one of the most successful heavy metal bands of the 1990s), several thrash metal established bands started to expand their sound by adding elements and influences from the groove metal genre.Anthrax, who had recently replacedJoey BelladonnawithJohn Bushas their singer, began stepping away from their previously established thrash metal formula to", "metal formula to a more accessible alternative/groove metal approach for the remainder of their 1990s output, starting with and includingSound of White Noise(1993).Sacred Reich, Overkill, Coroner, Prong, Testament, and Forbidden followed this trend with their respective albumsIndependent,I Hear Black,Grin,Cleansing,Low,andDistortion.Sepultura's 1993 albumChaos A.D.also marked the beginning of their transition away from death/thrash metal to groove metal which had influenced then-up-and-coming bands likeKorn, who reciprocally became the inspiration behind thenu metalstyle of the band's next albumRoots(1996).Rootswould influence a generation of bands fromLinkin ParktoSlipknot, which during the 1990s meant the replacement of death, thrash, and speed, by nu metal and metalcore as popular epicenters of the hardest metal scene. Staying away from this new commercial mainstream of groove metal, metalcore, and especially nu metal, thesecond wave of black metalemerged as an opposed underground music scene, initially", "scene, initially inNorway. This crop of new bands differenced themselves from the \"first wave\" by totally distilling black metal from the combined origins with thrash metal, but they preserved from all these sub-genres the emphasis on atmosphere over rhythm. As furtherextreme metalgenres came to prominence in the 1990s (industrial metal, death metal, andblack metaleach finding their own fanbase), the heavy metal \"family tree\" soon found itself blending aesthetics and styles.For example, bands with all the musical traits of thrash metal began usingdeath growls, a vocal style borrowed from death metal, while black metal bands often utilized the airy feel ofsynthesizers, popularized in industrial metal. Today the placing of bands within distinct sub-genres remains a source of contention for heavy metal fans, however, little debate resides over the fact that thrash metal is the sole proprietor of its respective spin-offs. Revivals (2000–present) A few thrash metal bands from the 1980s and early 1990s,", "and early 1990s, particularly the genre's U.S. \"big four\", continued recording and touring with success in the 2000s. In 2003, Anthrax released their first studio album in five yearsWe've Come for You All, followed a month later by Metallica's double platinum-certified albumSt. Anger. After experimenting further with a commercialized sound on their previous few albums, Megadeth returned to its heavier sound with their ninth albumThe World Needs a Hero(2001). It would be the band's final album before disbanding in the following year, due to an arm injury that had leftDave Mustaineunable to play guitar;he would eventually reform Megadeth for a handful albums, includingThe System Has Failed(2004) which was originally going to be released as a solo album by him,before reuniting with co-founding member and bassistDavid Ellefsonin 2010. Slayer released three albums in the 2000s:God Hates Us All(2001), which saw a return to their signature thrash metal sound,followed byChrist Illusion(2006) andWorld Painted", "andWorld Painted Blood(2009), both of which marked their first studio albums with drummerDave Lombardoin nearly two decades. Although their career had declined from its peak in the 1990s, Overkill was perhaps one of the most-active thrash metal groups outside of the \"Big Four\", having never disbanded or taken longer breaks in-between records, and with 2000'sBloodletting, they were the first band in the genre to release more than ten studio albums. Overkill's popularity was reignited in the 2010s, with three of their albums,The Electric Age(2012),White Devil Armory(2014) andThe Grinding Wheel(2017), all entering the Top 100 on theBillboardcharts. The resurgence of interest in the thrash metal genre during the early 2000s was widely attributed to theThrash of the Titansfestival, which was held in August 2001 as a co-benefit concert for Testament singerChuck BillyandDeath'sChuck Schuldiner, who were both battling cancer.The show is also notable for seeing several of Testament'sBay Area thrash", "Area thrash metalcontemporaries, including Exodus, Death Angel,Vio-lence,Forbidden Evil,Sadusand Legacy (a precursor to Testament), reunited.Many thrash metal bands from outside of the Bay Area would subsequently reunite, including Anthrax (twice withJoey Belladonnaand briefly withJohn Bush),Dark Angel,Nuclear Assault,Sacred Reich,UK bandsOnslaught,Sabbat,andXentrix,and Canada'sSacrifice,renewing interest in previous decades. The term \"thrash-revivalists\" has been applied to such bands asLamb of God,Municipal Waste,Evile,Havok,Warbringer,Vektor,Bonded by Blood,Hatchet,andPower Trip.Evile's 2007 debut albumEnter the Grave, produced by former Metallica producer and engineerFlemming Rasmussen, received considerable praise for its sound, which combined elements of the sounds of Slayer and the Bay Area scene (particularly Exodus and Testament).Los Angeles-based bands Warbringer and Bonded by Blood took a similar approach on their respective debut albums,War Without EndandFeed the Beast, both released in", "both released in 2008.Perhaps the most commercially successful band from the 2000s and 2010s thrash metal revival movement is Lamb of God, who are also considered a key part of thenew wave of American heavy metalmovement,have received twogold-certifiedalbums in the U.S.,and continue to play from small clubs to arenas and stadiums. Notable bands returned to their roots with releases such as Kreator'sViolent Revolution(2001), Metallica'sDeath Magnetic(2008), Megadeth'sEndgame(2009), Slayer'sWorld Painted Blood(2009), Exodus'Exhibit B: The Human Condition(2010), Overkill'sIronbound(2010), Anthrax'sWorship Music(2011), Testament'sDark Roots of Earth(2012), and Flotsam and Jetsam'sUgly Noise(2012). More recent bands of the genre, such as Havok andLegion of the Damnedhave turned their focus towards a more aggressive rendition of thrash metal, incorporating elements ofmelodic death metal. Spin-off genres Thrash metal is directly responsible for the development of underground metal genres, such as death metal,black", "death metal,black metal,andgroove metal.In addition to this,metalcore,grindcore, anddeathcoreemploy similar riffs in their composition, the former with more focus on melody rather than chromaticism. The blending of punk ethos and metal's brutal nature led to even more extreme, underground styles after thrash metal began gaining mild commercial success in the late 1980s. With gorier subject matter, heavier down tuning of guitars, more consistent use ofblast beat drumming, and darker, atonaldeath growls, death metal was established in the mid-1980s. Black metal, also related to thrash metal, emerged at the same time, with many black metal bands taking influence from thrash metal bands such asVenom.Black metal continued deviating from thrash metal, often providing more orchestral overtones, opentremolo picking, blast beat drumming,shriekedor raspy vocals andpaganoroccult-based aesthetics to distinguish itself from thrash metal. Thrash metal would later combine with its spinoffs, thus giving rise to genres", "rise to genres likeblackened thrash metalanddeathrash. Groove metaltakes the intensity and sonic qualities of thrash metal and plays them at mid-tempo, with most bands making only occasional forays into fast tempo,but since the early 1990s, it started to favor a more death metal–derived sound.Thrash metal with stronger punk elements is calledcrossover thrash. Its overall sound is more punk-influenced than traditional thrash metal but has more heavy metal elements thanhardcore punkandthrashcore. Regional scenes Thrash metal emerged predominantly from a handful of regional scenes, each of which was generally distinguished by the unique characteristics of its bands. See also References Bibliography", "Metallica Metallicais an Americanheavy metalband. It was formed in 1981 inLos Angelesby vocalist and guitaristJames Hetfieldand drummerLars Ulrich, and has been based inSan Franciscofor most of its career.The band's fast tempos, instrumentals and aggressive musicianship made them one of the founding \"big four\" bands ofthrash metal, alongsideMegadeth,AnthraxandSlayer. Metallica's current lineup comprises founding members and primary songwriters Hetfield and Ulrich, longtime lead guitaristKirk Hammettand bassistRobert Trujillo. GuitaristDave Mustaine, who formed Megadeth after being fired from Metallica, and bassistsRon McGovney,Cliff BurtonandJason Newstedare former members of the band. Metallica first found commercial success with the release of its third album,Master of Puppets(1986), which is cited as one of the heaviest metal albums and the band's best work. The band's next album,...And Justice for All(1988), gave Metallica its firstGrammy Awardnomination. Its fifth album,Metallica(1991), was a turning", "was a turning point for the band that saw them transition from their thrash roots; it appealed to a more mainstream audience, achieving substantial commercial success and selling more than 16 million copies in the United States to date, making it the best-selling album of theSoundScanera. After experimenting with different genres and directions in subsequent releases, Metallica returned to its thrash metal roots with its ninth album,Death Magnetic(2008), which drew similar praise to that of the band's earlier albums. The band's eleventh and most recent album,72 Seasons, was released in 2023. In 2000,Metallica led the caseagainst thepeer-to-peer file sharingserviceNapster, in which the band and several other artists filed lawsuits against the service for sharing their copyright-protected material without consent, eventually reaching a settlement. Metallica was the subject of the acclaimed 2004 documentary filmMetallica: Some Kind of Monster, which documented the troubled production of the band's eighth", "the band's eighth album,St. Anger(2003), and the internal struggles within the band at the time. In 2009, Metallica was inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame. The band co-wrote the screenplay for and starred alongsideDane DeHaanin the 2013 concert filmMetallica: Through the Never, in which the band performed live against a fictionalthrillerstoryline. Metallica has released eleven studio albums, four live albums (including two performances with theSan Francisco Symphony), twelve video albums, one cover album, two extended plays, 37 singles and 39 music videos. The band has won ten Grammy Awards from 26 nominations and had six consecutive studio albums – fromMetallicathroughHardwired... to Self-Destruct(2016) – debut at number one on theBillboard200. Metallica ranks as one of themost commercially successful bands of all time, having sold more than 125 million albums worldwide as of 2018.Metallica has been listed as one of the greatest artists of all time by magazines such asRolling Stone, which ranked", "Stone, which ranked the band in 61st place onits list of 100 greatest artists of all time.As of 2017, Metallica is the third-best-selling music artist since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales in 1991,selling 58 million albums in the United States. History 1981–1984: Formation, early years, andKill 'Em All Metallica was formed inLos Angelesin late 1981 when Danish drummerLars Ulrichplaced an advertisement in a Los Angeles newspaper,The Recycler, which read, \"Drummer looking for other metal musicians to jam withTygers of Pan Tang,Diamond HeadandIron Maiden.\"GuitaristsJames Hetfieldand Hugh Tanner ofLeather Charmanswered the advertisement. Although he had not formed a band, Ulrich askedMetal Blade RecordsfounderBrian Slagelif he could record a song for the label's upcoming compilation album,Metal Massacre. Slagel accepted, and Ulrich recruited Hetfield to sing and play rhythm guitar.The band was officially formed on October 28, 1981, five months after Ulrich and Hetfield first met. The band name came from", "band name came from Ulrich's friend Ron Quintana, who was brainstorming names for a fanzine and was consideringMetalManiaorMetallica. After hearing the two names, Ulrich wanted the latter for his band, so he suggested Quintana useMetalManiainstead.Dave Mustainereplied to an advertisement for a lead guitarist; Ulrich and Hetfield recruited him after seeing his expensive guitar equipment. In early 1982, Metallica recorded its first original song, \"Hit the Lights\", for theMetal Massacre Icompilation. Hetfield sang and played both bass and rhythm guitar, while Lars Ulrich played drums and Lloyd Grant was credited with a guitar solo.Metal Massacre Iwas released on June 14, 1982; early pressings listed the band incorrectly as \"Mettallica\", angering the band.The song generatedword of mouth, and the band played its first live performance on March 14, 1982, at Radio City inAnaheim, California, with newly recruited bassistRon McGovney.Their first live success came early; they were chosen to open for British heavy", "for British heavy metal bandSaxonat one gig of their 1982 U.S. tour. This was Metallica's second gig. Metallica recorded its first demo,Power Metal, whose name was inspired by Quintana's early business cards, in early 1982. The term \"thrash metal\" was coined in February 1984 byKerrang!journalistMalcolm Domein reference toAnthrax's song \"Metal Thrashing Mad\".Prior to this, Hetfield referred to Metallica's sound as \"power metal\". In late 1982, Ulrich and Hetfield attended a show at theWest HollywoodnightclubWhisky a Go Go, which featured bassistCliff Burtonin the bandTrauma. The two were \"blown away\" by Burton's use of awah-wah pedaland asked him to join Metallica. Hetfield and Mustaine wanted McGovney to leave because they thought he \"didn't contribute anything, he just followed.\"Although Burton initially declined the offer, by the end of the year, he had accepted on the condition that the band move toEl Cerritoin theSan Francisco Bay Area.Metallica's first live performance with Burton was at the nightclub", "at the nightclub The Stone in March 1983, and the first recording to feature Burton was theMegaforcedemo (1983). Metallica was ready to record their debut album, but when Metal Blade was unable to cover the cost, they began looking for other options. Concert promoterJonathan \"Jonny Z\" Zazula, who had heard the demoNo Life 'til Leather(1982), offered to broker a record deal between Metallica andNew York City–based record labels. After those record labels showed no interest, Zazula borrowed enough money to cover the recording budget and signed Metallica to his own label,Megaforce Records. In May 1983, Metallica traveled toRochester, New York, to record its debut album,Metal Up Your Ass, which was produced by Paul Curcio.The other members decided to eject Mustaine from the band because of his drug and alcohol abuse and violent behavior just before the recording sessions on April 11, 1983.ExodusguitaristKirk Hammettreplaced Mustaine the same afternoon.Metallica's first live performance with Hammett was on April", "was on April 16, 1983, at a nightclub inDover, New Jersey, called The Showplace;the support act was Anthrax's original lineup, which includedDan LilkerandNeil Turbin.This was the first time the two bands performed live together. Mustaine, who went on to formMegadeth, has expressed his dislike for Hammett in interviews, saying Hammett \"stole\" his job.Mustaine was \"pissed off\" because he believes Hammett became popular by playing guitar leads that Mustaine had actually written.In a 1985 interview withMetal Forces, Mustaine said, \"It's real funny how Kirk Hammett ripped off every lead break I'd played on thatNo Life 'til Leathertape and got voted No. 1 guitarist in your magazine.\"On Megadeth's debut album,Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!(1985), Mustaine included the song \"Mechanix\", which Metallica had previously reworked and retitled \"The Four Horsemen\" onKill 'Em All. Mustaine said he did this to \"straighten Metallica up\" because Metallica referred to Mustaine as a drunk and said he could not", "said he could not play guitar. Because of conflicts with its record label and the distributors' refusal to release an album titledMetal Up Your Ass, the album was renamedKill 'Em All. It was released on Megaforce Records in the U.S. and onMusic for Nationsin Europe, and peaked at number 155 on theBillboard200 in 1986.Although the album was not initially a financial success, it earned Metallica a growing fan base in the underground metal scene.To support the release, Metallica embarked on theKill 'Em All for Onetour withRaven.In February 1984, Metallica supportedVenomon the Seven Dates of Hell tour, during which the bands performed in front of 7,000 people at the Aardschok Festival inZwolle, Netherlands. 1984–1986:Ride the Lightning,Master of Puppets, and Burton's death Metallica recorded its second studio album,Ride the Lightning, atSweet Silence StudiosinCopenhagen, Denmark, from February to March 1984. It was released in August 1984 and reached number 100 on theBillboard200.A French printing press", "printing press mistakenly printed green covers for the album, which are now considered collectors' items. Mustaine received writing credit for \"Ride the Lightning\" and \"The Call of Ktulu\". Elektra RecordsA&Rdirector Michael Alago and co-founder of Q-Prime Management Cliff Burnstein attended a Metallica concert in September 1984; they were impressed with the performance, signed Metallica to Elektra and made the band a client of Q-Prime Management.Metallica's growing success was such that the band's British label, Music for Nations, released \"Creeping Death\" as a limited-edition single, which sold 40,000 copies as an import in the U.S. Two of the three songs on the record – cover versions of Diamond Head's \"Am I Evil?\" andBlitzkrieg's \"Blitzkrieg\" – appeared on the 1988 Elektra reissue ofKill 'Em All.Metallica embarked on its first major European tour withTankto an average crowd of 1,300. Returning to the U.S., it embarked on a co-headlining tour withW.A.S.P.and support fromArmored Saint. Metallica played its", "played its largest show at theMonsters of Rockfestival atDonington Park, England, on August 17, 1985, withBon JoviandRatt, playing to 70,000 people. At a show inOakland, California, at theDay on the Greenfestival, the band played to a crowd of 60,000. Metallica's third studio album,Master of Puppets, was recorded atSweet Silence Studiosfrom September to December 1985 and released in March 1986. The album reached number 29 on theBillboard200and spent 72 weeks on the chart.It was the band's first album to be certifiedGoldon November 4, 1986, and was certified six times Platinum in 2003.Steve Huey ofAllMusicconsidered the album \"the band's greatest achievement\".Following the release of the album, Metallica supportedOzzy Osbourneon a U.S. tour.Hetfield broke his wrist while skateboarding; he continued with the tour, performing vocals, with guitar technicianJohn Marshallplaying rhythm guitar. On September 27, 1986, during the European leg of Metallica'sDamage, Inc. Tour, members drew cards to determine which", "to determine which bunks on the tour bus they would sleep in. Burton won and chose to sleep in Hammett's bunk. At around sunrise nearDörarp, Sweden, the bus driver lost control and skidded, which caused the bus to overturn several times. Ulrich, Hammett and Hetfield sustained no serious injuries; however, Burton was pinned under the bus and died. Hetfield said: I saw the bus lying right on him. I saw his legs sticking out. I freaked. The bus driver, I recall, was trying to yank the blanket out from under him to use for other people. I just went, \"Don't fucking do that!\" I already wanted to kill the . I don't know if he was drunk or if he hit some ice. All I knew was, he was driving and Cliff wasn't alive anymore. 1986–1994: Newsted joins,...And Justice for AllandMetallica Burton's death left Metallica's future in doubt. The three remaining members decided Burton would want them to carry on, and with the Burton family's blessings, the band sought a replacement.Roughly 40 people – including Hammett's childhood", "Hammett's childhood friend,Les ClaypoolofPrimus;Troy GregoryofProng; andJason Newsted, formerly ofFlotsam and Jetsam– auditioned for the band to fill Burton's spot. Newsted learned Metallica's entire setlist; after the audition, Metallica invited him to Tommy's Joynt in San Francisco. Hetfield, Ulrich and Hammett decided on Newsted as Burton's replacement; his first live performance with Metallica was at the Country Club inReseda, California. The members initiated Newsted by tricking him into eating a ball ofwasabi.The band finished its tour in February 1987. After Newsted joined Metallica, the band left their El Cerrito practice space – a suburban house formerly rented by sound engineerMark Whitakerand dubbed \"the Metalli-mansion\" – and relocated to the adjacent cities ofBerkeleyandAlbanybefore eventually settling in the Marin County city ofSan Rafael, north of San Francisco.In March 1987, Hetfield again broke his wrist while skateboarding, forcing the band to cancel an appearance onSaturday Night Live. In", "Night Live. In August 1987, an all-coversextended play(EP), titledThe $5.98 E.P. - Garage Days Re-Revisited, was released. The EP was recorded in an effort to use the band's newly constructed recording studio, test Newsted's talents, and to relieve grief and stress following the death of Burton. A video titledCliff 'Em Allcommemorating Burton's three years in Metallica was released in 1987; the video included bass solos, home videos and pictures. Metallica's first studio album since Burton's death,...And Justice for All, was recorded from January to May 1988 and released in September. The album was a commercial success, reaching number 6 on theBillboard200, and was the band's first album to enter the top 10.The album was certified Platinum nine weeks after its release.There were complaints about the production, however; Steve Huey of AllMusic said Ulrich's drums were clicking more than thudding, and the guitars \"buzz thinly\".To promote the album, Metallica embarked on a tour calledDamaged Justice. In 1989,", "Justice. In 1989, Metallica received its firstGrammy Awardnomination for...And Justice for Allin the newBest Hard Rock/Metal Performance Vocal or Instrumentcategory. Metallica was the favorite to win, but the award was given toJethro Tullfor the albumCrest of a Knave.The award was controversial with fans and the press; Metallica was standing off-stage waiting to receive the award after performing the song \"One\". Jethro Tull had been advised by its manager not to attend the ceremony because he was expecting Metallica to win.The award was named inEntertainment Weekly's\"Grammy's 10 Biggest Upsets\" list. Following the release of...And Justice for All, Metallica released its debut music video for the song \"One\", which the band performed in an abandoned warehouse. The footage was remixed with the filmJohnny Got His Gun. Rather than organize an ongoing licensing deal, Metallica purchased the rights to the film. The remixed video was submitted to MTV with an alternative, performance-only version that was held back", "that was held back in case MTV banned the remixed version. MTV accepted the remixed version; the video was viewers' first exposure to Metallica. In 1999, it was voted number 38 in MTV's \"Top 100 Videos of All Time\" countdownand was featured on the network's 25th-anniversary edition ofADD Video, which showcased the most popular videos on MTV in the last 25 years. In October 1990, Metallica enteredOne on One Recording'sstudio in North Hollywood to record its next album.Bob Rock, who had worked withAerosmith,The Cult,Bon JoviandMötley Crüe, was hired as the producer.Metallica– also known asThe Black Album– was remixed three times, cost US$1 million,and ended Hammett and Ulrich's marriages.Although the release was delayed until 1991,Metallicadebuted at number one in 10 countries, selling 650,000 units in the U.S. during its first week.The album brought Metallica mainstream attention; it has been certified 16 times Platinum in the U.S., which makes it the 25th-best-selling album in the country.The making", "country.The making ofMetallicaand the following tour was documented inA Year and a Half in the Life of Metallica. The tour in support of the album, called theWherever We May Roam Tour, lasted 14 months and included dates in the U.S., Japan and the U.K.In September 1991, 1.6 million rock music fans converged inMoscowto enjoy the first open-air rock concert to be held in theSoviet Union; it was part of theMonsters of Rockseries.However, in a June 2020 interview, Lars estimated the attendance at about a half million during their time slot.In April 1992, Metallica appeared atThe Freddie Mercury Tribute Concertand performed a three-song set.Hetfield later performed \"Stone Cold Crazy\" with the remaining members ofQueenandTony Iommi. On August 8, 1992, during the co-headliningGuns N' Roses/Metallica Stadium Tourat theOlympic StadiuminMontreal, Hetfield suffered second- andthird-degree burnsto his arms, face, hands and legs. There had been some confusion with the new pyrotechnics setup, which resulted in Hetfield", "in Hetfield walking into a 12-foot (3.7 m) flame during \"Fade to Black\".Newsted said Hetfield's skin was \"bubbling like onThe Toxic Avenger\".Metallica returned to the stage 17 days later with guitar technician andMetal ChurchmemberJohn Marshallreplacing Hetfield on guitar for the remainder of the tour, although Hetfield was able to sing. Later in 1993, Metallica went on the Nowhere Else to Roam Tour, playing five shows inMexico City.Live Shit: Binge & Purge, the band's first box set, was released in November 1993. The collection contains three live CDs, three home videos, and a book filled with riders and letters. 1994–2001:Load,Reload, Napster controversy and Newsted's departure After almost three years of touring to promoteMetallica, including a headlining performance atWoodstock '94, Metallica returned to the studio to write and record its sixth studio album. The band went on a brief hiatus in the summer of 1995 and played a short tour, Escape from the Studio '95, which comprised three outdoor shows,", "outdoor shows, including a headline show atDonington Parksupported bySlayer,Skid Row,Slash's Snakepit,Therapy?andCorrosion of Conformity. The band spent about a year writing and recording new songs, resulting in the release ofLoadin 1996.Loaddebuted at number one on theBillboard200 andARIA Charts; it was the band's second number one album.The cover art,Blood and Semen III, was created byAndres Serrano, who pressed a mixture of his own semen and blood between sheets of plexiglass.The release marked another change in the band's musical direction and a new image; the band members' hair was cut. WhileLoadwas a commercial success, the band's change in style had polarized their fanbase.Metallica headlined the alternative rock festivalLollapaloozafestival in mid-1996. During early production of the album, the band had recorded enough material to fill a double album. It was decided that half of the songs were to be released; the band would continue to work on the remaining songs and release them the following year.", "the following year. This resulted in follow-up album, titledReload. The cover art was again created by Serrano, this time using a mixture of blood and urine.Reload, too, debuted at number one on theBillboard200 and reached number two on the Top Canadian Album chart.Hetfield said in the 2004 documentary filmMetallica: Some Kind of Monsterthat the band initially thought some of the songs on these albums were of average quality; these were \"polished and reworked\" until judged releasable.To promoteReload, Metallica performed \"Fuel\" and \"The Memory Remains\" withMarianne FaithfullonNBC'sSaturday Night Livein December 1997. In 1998, Metallica compiled a double album of cover songs, titledGarage Inc.The first disc contained newly recorded covers of songs byDiamond Head,Killing Joke, theMisfits,Thin Lizzy,Mercyful Fate,Black Sabbathand others, and the second disc featured the original version ofThe $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisited, which had become a scarce collectors' item. The album entered theBillboard200 at", "theBillboard200 at number two. On April 21 and 22, 1999, Metallica recorded two performances with theSan Francisco Symphony, which was conducted byMichael Kamen, who had previously worked with producer Rock on \"Nothing Else Matters\". Kamen approached Metallica in 1991 with the idea of pairing the band's music with a symphony orchestra. Kamen and his staff of over 100 composed additional orchestral material for Metallica songs. Metallica wrote two new Kamen-scored songs for the event: \"No Leaf Clover\" and \"-Human\". The audio recording and concert footage were released in 1999 as the album and concert filmS&M. It entered theBillboard200 at number two and the Australian ARIA charts and Top Internet Albums chart at number one. In 2000, Metallica discovered that a demo of its song \"I Disappear\", which was supposed to be released in combination with theMission: Impossible IIsoundtrack, was receiving radio airplay. Tracing the source of the leak, the band found the file on theNapsterpeer-to-peerfile-sharing network", "network and also found that the band's entire catalogue was freely available.Metallicafiled a lawsuitat theU.S. District Court,Central District of California, alleging that Napster violated three areas of the law:copyright infringement, unlawful use of digital audio interface device and theRacketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act(RICO). Ulrich provided a statement to theSenate Judiciary Committeeregarding copyright infringement on July 11, 2000.Federal JudgeMarilyn Hall Patelordered the site to place afilteron the program within 72 hours or be shut down.A settlement between Metallica and Napster was reached when German media conglomerateBertelsmannBMG showed interest in purchasing the rights to Napster for $94 million. Under the terms of settlement, Napster agreed to block users who shared music by artists who do not want their music shared.On June 3, 2002, Napster filed forChapter 11protection under U.S. bankruptcy laws. On September 3, 2002, an American bankruptcy judge blocked the sale of", "blocked the sale of Napster to Bertelsmann and forced Napster to liquidate its assets, according toChapter 7of the U.S. bankruptcy laws. At the2000 MTV Video Music Awards, Ulrich appeared with hostMarlon Wayansin a skit that criticized the idea of using Napster to share music. Wayans played a college student listening to Metallica's \"I Disappear\". Ulrich walked in and asked for an explanation, and he responded to Wayans' excuse that using Napster was just \"sharing\" by saying that Wayans' idea of sharing was \"borrowing things that were not yours without asking.\" He called in the Metallica road crew, who proceeded to confiscate all of Wayans' belongings, leaving him almost naked in an empty room. Napster creatorShawn Fanningresponded later in the ceremony by presenting an award wearing a Metallica shirt that read: \"I borrowed this shirt from a friend. Maybe, if I like it, I'll buy one of my own.\" Ulrich was later booed on stage at the award show when he introduced the final musical act,Blink-182. Newsted left", "Newsted left Metallica on January 17, 2001, just as plans were being made to enter the recording studio. He said he left the band for \"private and personal reasons, and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love.\"During aPlayboyinterview with Metallica, Newsted said he wanted to release an album with hisside project,Echobrain. Hetfield was opposed to the idea and said, \"When someone does a side project, it takes away from the strength of Metallica\" and that a side project is \"like cheating on your wife in a way.\"Newsted said Hetfield had recorded vocals for a song used in the filmSouth Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, and appeared on two Corrosion of Conformity albums. Hetfield replied: \"My name isn't on those records. And I'm not out trying to sell them\" and raised questions such as, \"Where would it end? Does he start touring with it? Does he sell shirts? Is it his band?\" 2001–2006:Some Kind of Monster,St. Anger, and Trujillo joins In April 2001, filmmakersJoe", "2001, filmmakersJoe BerlingerandBruce Sinofskybegan following Metallica to document the recording process of the band's next studio album. Over two years they recorded more than 1,000 hours of footage. On July 19, 2001, before preparations to enter the recording studio, Hetfield enteredrehabto treat his \"alcoholism and other addictions\". All recording plans were put on hold and the band's future was in doubt.Hetfield left rehab on December 4, 2001,and the band returned to the recording studio on April 12, 2002. Hetfield was required to limit his work to four hours a day between noon and 4 pm, and to spend the rest of his time with his family.The footage recorded by Berlinger and Sinofsky was compiled into the documentaryMetallica: Some Kind of Monster, which premiered at theSundance Film Festivalin January 2004. In the documentary, Newsted said his former bandmates' decision to hire a therapist to help solve their problems which he felt they could have solved on their own was \"really fucking lame and weak\".", "lame and weak\". In June 2003, Metallica's eighth studio album,St. Anger, debuted at number one on theBillboard200, and drew mixed reactions from critics. Ulrich's \"steely\" sounding snare drum and the absence of guitar solos received particular criticism.Kevin Forest Moreau ofShakingthrough.netsaid, \"the guitars stumble in a monotone of mid-level, processed rattle; the drums don't propel as much as struggle to disguise an all-too-turgid pace; and the rage is both unfocused and leavened with too much narcissistic navel-gazing\".Brent DiCrescenzo ofPitchforkdescribed it as \"an utter mess\".However,Blendermagazine called it the \"grimiest and grimmest of the band's Bob Rock productions\", andNew York Magazinecalled it \"utterly raw and rocking\".The title track, \"St. Anger\", won theGrammy Award for Best Metal Performancein 2004; it was used as the official theme song forWWE'sSummerSlam 2003. For the duration ofSt. Anger's recording period, producer Bob Rock played bass on the album and in several live shows at which", "live shows at which Metallica performed during that time.Once the record was completed, the band started to hold auditions for Newsted's permanent replacement. BassistsPepper Keenan,Jeordie White,Scott Reeder,Eric Avery,Danny Lohner, andChris Wyse—among others—auditioned for the role. After three months of auditions,Robert Trujillo, formerly ofSuicidal Tendenciesand Ozzy Osbourne's band, was chosen as the new bassist.Newsted, who had joined Canadian thrash metal bandVoivodby that time, was Trujillo's replacement in Osbourne's band during the 2003Ozzfesttour, which included Voivod. Before the band's set at the 2004Download Festival, Ulrich was rushed to the hospital after having an anxiety seizure and was unable to perform.Hetfield searched for last-minute volunteers to replace Ulrich. Slayer drummerDave LombardoandSlipknotdrummerJoey Jordisonvolunteered. Lombardo performed \"Battery\" and \"The Four Horsemen\", Ulrich's drum technician Flemming Larsen performed \"Fade to Black\", and Jordison performed the", "performed the remainder of the set.Having toured for two years in support ofSt. Angeron the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003 and theMadly in Anger with the World Tour, with multi-platinum rock bandGodsmackin support, Metallica took a break from performing and spent most of 2005 with friends and family. The band opened forThe Rolling StonesatSBC Parkin San Francisco on November 13 and 15, 2005. 2006–2013:Death Magneticand Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction In February 2006, Metallica announced on its official website that after 15 years, long-time producer Bob Rock would not be producing the band's next studio album. Instead, the band chose to work with producerRick Rubin.Around the same time, a petition signed by 1,500 fans was posted online in an attempt to encourage the band to prohibit Rock from producing Metallica albums, saying he had too much influence on the band's sound and musical direction. Rock said the petition hurt his children's feelings; he said, \"sometimes, even with a great coach, a team keeps", "coach, a team keeps losing. You have to get new blood in there.\" In December 2006, Metallica released a DVD titledThe Videos 1989–2004, which sold 28,000 copies in its first week and entered theBillboardTop Videos chart at number three.Metallica recorded a guitar-based interpretation ofEnnio Morricone's \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" for a tribute album titledWe All Love Ennio Morricone, which was released in February 2007. The track received a Grammy nomination at the50th Grammy Awardsfor the category \"Best Rock Instrumental Performance\".A recording of \"The Ecstasy of Gold\" has been played to introduce Metallica's performances since the 1980s. Metallica scheduled the release of the albumDeath Magneticas September 12, 2008, and the band filmed a music video for the album's first single, \"The Day That Never Comes\". On September 2, 2008, a record store in France began selling copies ofDeath Magneticnearly two weeks before its scheduled worldwide release date,which resulted in the album being made available on", "made available on peer-to-peer clients. This prompted the band's UK distributorVertigo Recordsto officially release the album on September 10, 2008. Rumors of Metallica or Warner Bros. taking legal action against the French retailer were unconfirmed, though drummer Lars Ulrich responded to theleakby saying, \"...We're ten days from release. I mean, from here, we're golden. If this thing leaks all over the world today or tomorrow, happy days. Happy days. Trust me\",and, \"By 2008 standards, that's a victory. If you'd told me six months ago that our record wouldn't leak until 10 days out, I would have signed up for that.\" Death Magneticmarked a return to the band's traditional thrash metal sound. The album debuted at number one in the U.S., selling 490,000 units; Metallica became the first band to have five consecutive studio albums debut at number one in the history of theBillboard200.A week after its release,Death Magneticremained at number one on theBillboard200 and the European album chart; it also became the", "it also became the fastest selling album of 2008 in Australia.Death Magneticremained at number one on theBillboard200 album chart for three consecutive weeks. Metallica was one of two artists whose album—the other beingJack Johnson's albumSleep Through the Static—remained on theBillboard200 for three consecutive weeks at number one in 2008.Death Magneticalso remained at number one onBillboard'sHard Rock, Modern Rock/Alternative and Rock album charts for five consecutive weeks. The album reached number one in 32 countries outside the U.S., including the UK, Canada, and Australia.In November 2008, Metallica's record deal with Warner Bros. ended and the band considered releasing its next album through the internet. On January 14, 2009, it was announced that Metallica would be inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fameon April 4, 2009,and that former bassist Jason Newsted—who left the band in 2001—would perform with the band at the ceremony.Initially, it was announced that the matter had been discussed and that", "discussed and that bassist Trujillo had agreed not to play because he \"wanted to see the Black Album band\".However, during the band's set of \"Master of Puppets\" and \"Enter Sandman\", both Trujillo and Newsted were on stage.Ray Burton, father of the late Cliff Burton, accepted the honor on his behalf. Although he was not to be inducted with them, Metallica invited Dave Mustaine to take part in the induction ceremony. Mustaine declined because of his touring commitments in Europe. Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, atWarsaw Babice Airport, Poland, as a part of theSonisphere Festivalseries. The show in Sofia, Bulgaria, on June 22, 2010, was broadcast via satellite to cinemas.The bands also played concerts inBuchareston June 26, 2010, andIstanbulon June 27, 2010. On June 28, 2010,Death Magneticwas certified double platinum by theRIAA.Metallica'sWorld Magnetic Tourended inMelbourneon November 21, 2010. The band had been touring for more than two", "for more than two years in support ofDeath Magnetic. To accompany the final tour dates in Australia and New Zealand, a live, limited edition EP of past performances in Australia calledSix Feet Down Underwas released.The EP was followed bySix Feet Down Under (Part II), which was released on November 12, 2010.Part 2 contains a further eight songs recorded during the first two Oceanic Legs of the World Magnetic Tour. On November 26, 2010, Metallica released a live EP titledLive at Grimey's, which was recorded in June 2008 at Grimey's Record Store, just before the band's appearance atBonnaroo Music Festivalthat year. In a June 2009 interview with Italy's Rock TV, Ulrich said Metallica was planning to continue touring until August 2010, and that there were no plans for a tenth album. He said he was sure the band would collaborate with producer Rick Rubin again.According toBlabbermouth.net, the band was considering recording its next album in the second half of 2011.In November 2010, during an interview with The", "interview with The Pulse of Radio, Ulrich said Metallica would return to writing in 2011. Ulrich said, \"There's a bunch of balls in the air for 2011, but I think the main one is we really want to get back to writing again. We haven't really written since, what, '06, '07, and we want to get back to kind of just being creative again. Right now we are going to just chill out and then probably start up again in, I'd say, March or April, and start probably putting the creative cap back on and start writing some songs.\" On November 9, 2010, Metallica announced it would be headlining theRock in Riofestival inRio de Janeiroon September 25, 2011.On December 13, 2010, the band announced it would again play as part of the \"big four\" during the Sonisphere Festival atKnebworth House, Hertfordshire, on July 8, 2011. It was the first time all of the \"big four\" members played on the same stage in the UK.On December 17, 2010, Another \"big four\" Sonisphere performance that would take place in France on July 9 was announced.On", "9 was announced.On January 25, 2011, another \"big four\" performance on April 23, 2011, at the Empire Polo Club inIndio, California, was announced. It was the first time all of the \"big four\" members played on the same stage in the U.S.On February 17, 2011, a show inGelsenkirchen, Germany, on July 2, 2011, was announced.On February 22, a \"big four\" show inMilanon July 6, 2011, was announced.On March 2, 2011, another \"big four\" concert, which took place inGothenburgon July 3, 2011, was announced.The final \"big four\" concert was in New York City, at Yankee Stadium, on September 14, 2011. In an interview at the April 2011 Big Four concert, Robert Trujillo said Metallica will work with Rick Rubin again as producer for the new album and were \"really excited to write some new music. There's no shortage of riffage in Metallica world right now.\" He added, \"The first album with Rick was also the first album for me, so in a lot of ways, you're kind of testing the water. Now that we're comfortable with Rick and his", "with Rick and his incredible engineer,Greg Fidelman, who worked with Slayer, actually, on this last record—it's my hero—it's a great team. And it's only gonna better; I really believe that. So I'm super-excited.\"In June 2011, Rubin said Metallica had begun writing its new album. On June 15, 2011, Metallica announced that recording sessions with singer-songwriterLou Reedhad concluded. The album, which was titledLulu, was recorded over several months and comprised ten songsbased onFrank Wedekind's \"Lulu\" playsEarth SpiritandPandora's Box.The album was released on October 31, 2011. The recording of the album was problematic at times; Lars Ulrich later said Lou Reed challenged him to a \"street fight\".On October 16, 2011, Robert Trujillo confirmed that the band was back in the studio and writing new material. He said, \"The writing process for the new Metallica album has begun. We've been in the studio with Rick Rubin, working on a couple of things, and we're going to be recording during the most of next year.\"", "most of next year.\" Metallica was due to make its first appearance in India at the \"India Rocks\" concert, supporting the2011 Indian Grand Prix.However, the concert was canceled when the venue was proven to be unsafe.Fans raided the stage during the event and the organizers were later arrested for fraud.Metallica made its Indian debut in Bangalore on October 30, 2011.On November 10, it was announced that Metallica would headline the main stage on Saturday June 9, 2012, at the Download Festival at Donington Park and that the band would playThe Black Albumin its entirety.Metallica celebrated its 30th anniversary by playing four shows at the Fillmore in San Francisco in December 2011. The shows were exclusive to Met Club members and tickets were charged at $6 each or $19.81 for all four nights. The shows consisted of songs from the band's career and featured guest appearances by artists who had either helped or had influenced Metallica. These shows were notable because Lloyd Grant, Dave Mustaine, Jason", "Mustaine, Jason Newsted,Glenn Danzig, Ozzy Osbourne,Jerry Cantrell,Apocalyptica, members of Diamond Head, andKing Diamondjoined Metallica on stage for all appropriate songs.In December 2011, Metallica began releasing songs that were written forDeath Magneticbut were not included on the album online.On December 13, 2011, the band releasedBeyond Magnetic, a digital EP release exclusively oniTunes.It was released on CD in January 2012. On February 7, 2012, Metallica announced that it would start a new music festival calledOrion Music + More, which took place on June 23 and 24, 2012, in Atlantic City. Metallica also confirmed that it would headline the festival on both days and would perform two of its most critically acclaimed albums in their entirety:The Black Albumon one night, andRide the Lightningon the other.In a July 2012 interview with Canadian radio station99.3 The Fox, Ulrich said Metallica would not release its new album until at least early 2014. In November 2012, Metallica left Warner Bros. Records", "Bros. Records and launched anindependent record label,Blackened Recordings, which will produce the band's future releases.The band acquired the rights to all of its studio albums, which were all reissued through the new label. Blackened releases were licensed through Warner subsidiaryRhino Entertainmentin North America and internationally throughUniversal Music.On September 20, 2012, Metallica announced via its official website that a new DVD containing footage of shows it performed in Quebec in 2009 would be released that December; fans would get the chance to vote for two setlists that would appear on the DVD.The film, titledQuebec Magnetic, was released in the U.S. on December 10, 2012. 2013–2019:Metallica: Through the NeverandHardwired... to Self-Destruct In an interview withClassic Rockon January 8, 2013, Ulrich said regarding the band's upcoming album, \"What we're doing now certainly sounds like a continuation \". He also said, \"I love Rick . We all love Rick. We're in touch with Rick constantly. We'll", "constantly. We'll see where it goes. It would stun me if the record came out in 2013.\"Also in 2013, the band starred in a 3D concert film titledMetallica: Through the Never, which was directed byAntal Nimródand was released inIMAXtheaters on September 27. In an interview dated July 22, 2013, Ulrich toldUltimate Guitar, \"2014 will be all about making a new Metallica record\"; he said the album will most likely be released during 2015.Kirk Hammett and Robert Trujillo later confirmed the band's intention to enter the studio.At the second Orion Music + More festival held in Detroit, the band played under the name \"Dehaan\"—a reference to actorDane DeHaan, who starred inMetallica: Through the Never.The band performed its debut albumKill 'Em Allin its entirety, celebrating the 30th anniversary of its release. On December 8, 2013, the band played a show called \"Freeze 'Em All\" in Antarctica, becoming the first band to play on all seven continents.The performance was filmed and released as a live album the same month.", "the same month. At the56th Annual Grammy Awardsin January 2014, Metallica performed \"One\" with Chinese pianistLang Lang.In March 2014, Metallica began a tour called \"Metallica By Request\", in which fans request songs for the band to perform.A new song, titled \"Lords of Summer\" was written for the concerts and released as a \"first take\" demo in June 2014.In June 2014, the band headlined theGlastonbury Festivalin an attempt to attract new fans. Ulrich said, \"We have one shot, you never know if you'll be invited back\".In November 2014, Metallica performed at the closing ceremony ofBlizzCon 2014.In January 2015, Metallica announced a \"Metallica Night\" with theSan Jose Sharks, which featured a Q&A session with the band and a charity auction benefiting the San Francisco Bay Chapter of the Sierra Club, but no performances.They were announced to headline Lollapalooza in March 2015, returning to perform there for the first time in 20 years.On May 2, 2015, Metallica performed their third annual Metallica Day atAT&T", "Day atAT&T Park.Metallica were also announced to play atX Gamesfor the first time atX Games Austin 2015in Austin, Texas.On June 14, 2015, Hetfield and Hammett performedThe Star-Spangled Bannerlive via electric guitars prior to game 5 of theNBA Finalsbetween theCleveland CavaliersandGolden State WarriorsatOracle ArenainOakland, California.In late October, the band unveiled a new website with an introduction from Ulrich containing footage from the studio of the band working on new material.On November 2, Metallica were announced to play \"The Night Before\"Super Bowl 50at AT&T Park.Metallica announced they would be opening theU.S. Bank Stadiumon August 20, 2016, withAvenged SevenfoldandVolbeatas support. In April 2016, during the week leading up toRecord Store Day, for which the band was its ambassador for 2016, Ulrich toldBillboardthat the band's expanded role within the music industry had played a part in the amount of time that it had taken to write and record the album. \"The way we do things now is very", "things now is very different than the way we did things back in the days ofKill 'Em AllandRide the Lightning. Nowadays we like to do so many different things.\" Ulrich was also optimistic that production of the album had almost reached its completion. \"Unless something radical happens it would be difficult for me to believe that it won't come out in 2016\".On August 18, 2016, the band announced via their website that their tenth studio album,Hardwired... to Self-Destruct, would be released worldwide on November 18, 2016, via their independent label, Blackened Recordings. They also unveiled the track listing, album artwork, and released a music video for the album's first single, \"Hardwired\".The album was released as scheduledand debuted at number one on theBillboard200. Metallica announced they would be touring the US and Canada in summer of 2017 for theWorldWired Tour. The stadium tour also includes Avenged Sevenfold, Volbeat andGojiraas supporting acts.On August 7, 2017, Metallica was invited by theSan", "invited by theSan Francisco Giantsagain for the fifth annual \"Metallica Night\" with Hammett and Hetfield performing the national anthem.In January 2018, the band announced that they would be reissuingThe $5.98 E.P. – Garage Days Re-Revisitedon April 13 forRecord Store Day,and the sixth annual \"Metallica Night\" was also announced a few weeks later, this time in April, with all proceeds going to the All Within My Hands Foundation, which the band created in late 2017.In February 2018, the band announced a second set of North American tour dates, most of which for cities that they had not visited in up to thirty years. 2019–2023:S&M2and72 Seasons In an interview with Australian magazineThe Music's official podcast in March 2019, Trujillo said that Metallica had begun jamming on new material for its next studio album. \"I'm excited about the next record because I believe it will also be a culmination of the two records and another journey. There's no shortage of original ideas, that's the beauty of being in this", "of being in this band.\" He estimated that the album would be released \"a lot sooner than the previous two did... this time around I think we'll be able to jump on it a lot quicker and jump in the studio and start working. We've all vowed to get this one going sooner than later.\"In an interview with Australian magazineMixdownthe following month, Hammett said that the band had tentative plans to enter the studio after the conclusion of its WorldWired Tour. He stated, \"We're in our third year sinceHardwired. Maybe we can get a bit more focus and go into the studio a bit sooner.\" After not contributing any writing toHardwired... to Self-Destruct, Hammett said regarding his ideas for the new album, \"I have a ton of material. I've over-compensated, so I'm ready to go anytime.\" In March 2019, Metallica announced that its WorldWired Tour would continue into Australia and New Zealand in October with Slipknot in support.Later that month, the band announced that it would perform at the grand opening of San Francisco's", "of San Francisco's newChase Centerwith the San Francisco Symphony in September to celebrate the twenty-year anniversary ofS&M.The commemorative shows, titledS&M2, were screened in more than 3,000 theaters worldwide on October 9;the event featured arrangements from the originalS&Mconcerts as well as new arrangements for songs recorded since thenand a cover of theAlexander MosolovpieceIron Foundry,and were conducted byEdwin Outwaterand San Francisco Symphony music directorMichael Tilson Thomas.S&M2went on to earn $5.5 million at the box office, making it the biggest global rock event cinema release of all time; a second screening was later announced for October 30 as a result.In August 2020, the band announced that they would release theS&M2performances as an album, DVD and box set. In July 2019, Metallica announced a set of South American tour dates for April 2020 withGreta Van Fleetin support.In September, ahead of that year'sGlobal Citizen Festival, it was announced that Metallica would perform at the", "perform at the following year's festival in September 2020 alongside artists such asBillie Eilish,Miley CyrusandColdplay, in what would be the final event ofGlobal Poverty Project's year-long Global Goal Live: The Possible Dream campaign.The following day, on September 27, Metallica announced that Hetfield had re-entered a rehabilitation program and that its Australia/New Zealand tour would be postponed.In a statement by Ulrich, Hammett and Trujillo, the band spoke of the devastation of the news, saying that Hetfield \" been struggling with addiction on and off for many years\" and that all tickets would be fully refunded.Ulrich later added that Hetfield was \"in the process of healing himself\", and that the band hoped to return to Australia and New Zealand in 2020.The band's other commitments, including a benefit concert in March 2020, were still expected to continue as planned;a further five US festival appearances were announced in October.These shows were later postponed or cancelled due to theCOVID-19", "due to theCOVID-19 pandemicand to support Hetfield's recovery. In March 2020, the band began a series on YouTube and Facebook called#MetallicaMondays, where they streamed full archived shows every Monday to relieve boredom while staying home and social distancing amid the pandemic.In May 2020, while in quarantine, Metallica performed a virtual acoustic version of \"Blackened\",titled \"Blackened 2020\", which was later made available for download. In an interview withMarc Benioffin April 2020, Ulrich stated that Metallica could work on its next studio album while in quarantine.Trujillo toldThe Vinyl Guidein June that the band was \"excited about cultivating new ideas\" for its new album. \"We communicate every week, which is really great, so we have our connection intact what we've started doing is basically just really concentrating on our home studios and being creative from our homes and navigating through ideas and building on new ideas. And that's where we're at right now\". He also said that the band was", "that the band was working towards eventually entering a studio to record the album. On August 10, 2020, Metallica played a show at Gundlach-Bundschu Winery inSonoma, California, which was only attended by a few crew members, and it was recorded and played for drive-in movies across the U.S. and Canada on August 29. In May 2021, the band announced that they would do one more#MetallicaMondayson May 24 to benefit their All Within My Hands Foundation.The concert dates to September 6, 2018, inLincoln, Nebraska.On Labor Day, September 6, 2021, the band's All Within My Hands Foundation raised $377,450. Metallica teamed up with workwear brand Carhartt on the initiative, with the clothing brand donating all of their sales proceeds on the holiday to the band's Metallica Scholars initiative, which provides opportunities to people interested in pursuing essential workforce jobs. On November 28, 2022, the band released the single \"Lux Æterna\".On January 19, 2023, Metallica released the second single titled \"Screaming", "titled \"Screaming Suicide\".On March 1, 2023, Metallica released the third single titled \"If Darkness Had a Son\".On March 30, 2023, Metallica released a music video for the album's title track, \"72 Seasons\".The band released their eleventh studio album72 Seasonson April 14, 2023.Metallica promoted the album with a two-and-a-half-year-long tour, titled theM72 World Tour, which began on April 27, 2023, in Amsterdam and is set to conclude on June 29, 2025, in Denver. 2023–present: Future plans In an interview onLoudwire Nightsradio program in April 2023, Ulrich stated that \"there some ideas could start with\" for the follow-up to72 Seasons, adding, \"I'm looking forward to going live and being in sharing mode for the next couple of years. The beauty of being with these guys, I kind of joke, James writes more riffs when he's tuning his guitar than most people do in a lifetime. That's the beauty of being in band with these guys and I'm eternally grateful. I'm dumbfounded by it.\" When asked about \"leftovers\" that", "\"leftovers\" that could be used for the next Metallica album, Ulrich said, \"There's always a few riffs in the riff tank.\"In May 2024, Hetfield confirmed that he has been \"writing lots of music, playing guitar pretty much every day.\" Style and lyrical themes Metallica playedthrashandspeed metalon their first four albums before changing their sound to traditionalheavy metalon 1991'sBlack Album.LoadandReload, released in 1996 and 1997 respectively, saw the band move towardshard rock.2008'sDeath Magneticsaw them returning to a more thrash-influenced sound. Metallica was influenced by early heavy metal and hard rock bands and artistsBlack Sabbath,Deep Purple,Kiss,Led Zeppelin,Queen,Ted Nugent,AC/DC,Rush,Aerosmith, andJudas Priestand bynew wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) bandsRaven,Venom,Motörhead,Saxon,Diamond Head,Blitzkrieg, andIron Maidenas well as European bandsScorpions,Accept,andMercyful Fate.Earlypunk rockbandsRamones,Sex Pistols, and theMisfitsalso influenced Metallica's style as", "style as didpost-punkbandKilling Jokeandhardcore punkactsDischarge,GBH,andSuicidal Tendencies.Lars Ulrich has cited Iron Maiden as probably the biggest influence on Metallica's career.The band's early releases contained fast tempos, harmonized leads, and nine-minute instrumental tracks. Steve Huey of AllMusic saidRide the Lightningfeatured \"extended, progressive epics; tight, concise groove-rockers\".He also said Metallica expanded its compositional technique and range of expression to take on a more aggressive approach in following releases, and lyrics dealt with personal and socially conscious issues.Religious and military leaders, rage, insanity, monsters, and drugs—among other themes—were explored onMaster of Puppets. In 1991, Huey said Metallica with new producer Bob Rock simplified and streamlined its music for a more commercial approach to appeal to mainstream audiences.Robert PalmerofRolling Stonesaid the band abandoned its aggressive, fast tempos to expand its music and expressiverange.The change in", "change in direction proved commercially successful;Metallicawas the band's first album to peak at number one on theBillboard200. Metallica noticed changes to the rock scene created by thegrungemovement of the early-1990s. InLoad—an album that has been described as having \"an almostalternative rock\" approach—the band changed musical direction again and focused on non-metal influences.Metallica's new lyrical approach moved away from drugs and monsters, and focused on anger, loss, and retribution. Some fans and critics were not pleased with this change, which included haircuts, the cover art ofLoad, and headlining theLollapaloozafestival of 1996.David FrickeofRolling Stonedescribed the move as \"goodbye to the moldy stricture and dead-end Puritanism of no-frills thrash\", and calledLoadthe heaviest record of 1996.With the release ofReLoadin 1997, the band displayedbluesand early hard rock influences, incorporating more rhythm and harmony in song structures. St. Angermarked another large change in the band's", "in the band's sound. Guitar solos were excluded from the album, leaving a \"raw and unpolished sound\".The band useddrop C tuning; Ulrich's snare drum received particular criticism.New York Magazine's Ethan Brown said it \"reverberates with a thwong\". The album's lyrics deal with Hetfield's drug rehabilitation and include references to the devil, anti-drug themes, claustrophobia, impending doom, and religious hypocrisy.At the advice of producer Rick Rubin, for its ninth studio albumDeath Magnetic, the band returned tostandard tuningand guitar solos.As a return to Metallica's thrash roots,Death Magneticwas ariff-oriented album featuring intense guitar solos and subtle lyrics about suicide and redemption. All Within My Hands Foundation In February 2017, Metallica launched All Within My Hands Foundation, \"dedicated to creating sustainable communities by supporting workforce education, the fight against hunger, and other critical local services\". For example, the group works with various selected charities to", "charities to organize volunteer projects at food banks. It also works with workforce training institutions on its Metallica Scholars grant program to help chosen students learn new trade skills.The Foundation has also donated and further raised funds forWorld Central Kitchen'sUkraine warrelief effortsand granted $200,000 for relief efforts after the destructiveAugust 2023 Maui, Hawaii fire.The band has also performed fundraising concerts for the Foundation. Legacy and influence Metallica has become one of the most influential heavy metal bands of all time and is credited as one of the \"big four\" of thrash metal, along with Slayer, Anthrax, and Megadeth.The band has sold more than 125 million records worldwide,including an RIAA-certified 66 million andNielsen SoundScan-reported 58 million in the US, making Metallica one ofthe most commercially successful bands of all time.The writers ofThe Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Rollsaid Metallica gave heavy metal \"a much-needed charge\".Stephen Thomas Erlewine", "Thomas Erlewine and Greg Prato of Allmusic said Metallica \"expanded the limits of thrash, using speed and volume not for their own sake, but to enhance their intricately structured compositions\", and called the band \"easily the best, most influential heavy metal band of the '80s, responsible for bringing the music back to Earth\". Jonathan DavisofKornsaid he respects Metallica as his favorite band; he said, \"I love that they've done things their own way and they've persevered over the years and they're still relevant to this day. I think they're one of the greatest bands ever.\"GodsmackdrummerShannon Larkinsaid Metallica has been the biggest influence on the band, stating, \"they really changed my life when I was 16 years old—I'd never heard anything that heavy\".Chuck BillyofTestamenthas also cited Metallica as an influence on the band, as well as Hetfield as \"an inspiration with clever lyrics\"; he added, \"When I first started hearing Metallica it was something new to me the way his cadence of vocal styles sang", "vocal styles sang to the music.\"Vocalist and guitaristRobb FlynnofMachine Headsaid that when creating the band's 2007 album,The Blackening, \"What we mean is an album that has the power, influence and epic grandeur of that albumMaster of Puppets—and the staying power—a timeless record like that\".Gojiralead guitaristChristian Andreusaid it was while listening toRide the Lightningthat he started making music; saying \"we find on the album 'Fade to Black', 'For Whom the Bell Tolls', emblematic pieces\".TriviumguitaristsCorey BeaulieuandMatt Heafysaid that when they heard Metallica they wanted to start playing guitar.M. ShadowsofAvenged Sevenfoldsaid touring with Metallica was the band's career highlight, and said, \"Selling tons of records and playing huge shows will never compare to meeting your idolsMetallica\".God Forbidguitarists Doc and Dallas Coyle were inspired by Metallica as they grew up, and the band's bassist John Outcalt admires Burton as a \"rocker\".Ill NiñodrummerDave Chavarrisaid he finds early", "he finds early Metallica releases are \"heavy, raw, rebellious. It said, 'fuck you'\",andAdemadrummer Kris Kohls said the band is influenced by Metallica. On April 4, 2009, Metallica were inducted into theRock And Roll Hall Of Fame. They entered the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame the second year they were eligible and first year they were nominated. Metallica's induction into the Hall included its current lineup,James Hetfield,Kirk Hammett,Robert Trujillo, andLars Ulrich, and former membersJason NewstedandCliff Burton. MTVranked Metallica the third \"Greatest Heavy Metal Band in History\".Metallica was ranked 42nd onVH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\",was listed fifth on VH1's \"100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock\",and the band was number one on VH1's \"20 Greatest Metal Bands\" list.Rolling Stoneplaced the band 61st on its list of \"The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time\";its albumsMaster of PuppetsandMetallicawere ranked at numbers 167 and 252 respectively on the magazine's list ofThe 500 Greatest Albums of All", "Albums of All Time.Master of Puppetswas named inQ Magazine's\"50 Heaviest Albums of All Time\",and was ranked number one on IGN's \"Top 25 Metal Albums\",and number one on Metal-rules.com's \"Top 100 Heavy Metal Albums\" list.\"Enter Sandman\" was ranked number 399 onRolling Stone's\"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". Kerrang!released a tribute album titledMaster of Puppets: Remasteredwith the April 8, 2006, edition of the magazine to celebrate the 20th anniversary ofMaster of Puppets. The album featured cover versions of Metallica songs by Machine Head,Bullet for My Valentine,Chimaira,Mastodon,Mendeed, and Trivium—all of which are influenced by Metallica. At least 15 Metallica tribute albums have been released. On September 10, 2006, Metallica guest starred onThe Simpsons'eighteenth-season premiere, \"The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer\".Hammett's and Hetfield's voices were used in three episodes of the animated television seriesMetalocalypse.Finnishcello metalband Apocalyptica released a tribute album", "a tribute album titledPlays Metallica by Four Cellos, which features eight Metallica songs played on cellos. A parody band namedBeatallicaplays music using a combination ofThe Beatlesand Metallica songs. Beatallica faced legal troubles whenSony, which owns The Beatles' catalog, issued acease and desistorder, claiming \"substantial and irreparable injury\" and ordering the group to pay damages. Ulrich, a fan of Beatallica, asked Metallica's lawyer Peter Paterno to help settle the case. On March 7, 1999, Metallica was inducted into the San Francisco Walk of Fame. The mayor of San Francisco,Willie Brown, proclaimed the day \"Official Metallica Day\".The band was awarded theMTV Iconaward in 2003, and a concert paying tribute to the band with artists performing its songs was held. Performances includedSum 41and a medley of \"For Whom the Bell Tolls\", \"Enter Sandman\", and \"Master of Puppets\".Staindcovered \"Nothing Else Matters\",Avril Lavigneplayed \"Fuel\", hip-hop artistSnoop Doggperformed \"Sad but True\",Kornplayed", "True\",Kornplayed \"One\", andLimp Bizkitperformed \"Welcome Home (Sanitarium)\". TheGuitar Herovideo game series included several of Metallica's songs. \"One\" was used inGuitar Hero III. The albumDeath Magneticwas later released as purchasable, downloadable content for the game. \"Trapped Under Ice\" was featured in the sequel,Guitar Hero World Tour. In 2009, Metallica collaborated with the game's developers to makeGuitar Hero: Metallica, which included a number of Metallica's songs.Harmonix' video game seriesRock Bandincluded \"Enter Sandman\" and \"Battery\"; \"Ride the Lightning\", \"Blackened\", and \"...And Justice for All\" were released as downloadable tracks. In 2013, due to expiring content licenses, \"Ride the Lightning\", \"Blackened\", and \"...And Justice for All\" are no longer available for download.Fortnite Festival, a 2023 rhythm game developed by Harmonix as part ofFortnite, held a Metallica-centric season from June to August 2024 which included \"One\", \"Lux Æterna\", and \"Master of Puppets\". Metallica also", "Metallica also performed virtually inFortnitein \"Metallica: Fuel. Fire. Fury.\", with cosmetics based on Hetfield, Ulrich, Hammett and Trujillo being added to the game. In October 2020,Miley Cyrusannounced that she was planning on recording a Metallica covers album and on January 7, 2021, she announced that she has recorded a cover version of \"Nothing Else Matters\" that would featureElton Johnon piano, drummerChad SmithfromRed Hot Chili PeppersandcellistYo-Yo Ma. This version was produced byAndrew Watt, and was released as a promotional single for the tribute albumThe Metallica Blacklist. Feuds Dave Mustaine/Megadeth Former lead guitarist andMegadethfrontmanDave Mustainehas been involved in a historic feud with Metallica. During his time as a founding member during the first two years of the band, Mustaine's tenure was marred by his alcoholism and even a physical altercation with James Hetfield.Mustaine continued to make numerous inflammatory statements against his former band in the press due to buried", "press due to buried tension primarily stemming from his firing in 1983 among other issues such as existing songwriting credits across Metallica's first three albums.By the late 1980s, it was believed that the feud had largely subsided; later confirmed after Megadeth were hired to open for Metallica on numerous European dates in 1993.Despite this, Mustaine expressed his anger at Metallica during his appearance in the band's documentaryMetallica: Some Kind of Monster,in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized, and that it did not represent the full extent of what happened during the meeting.The two bands would again find themselves on friendlier terms in 2011 when they took part in the lauded 'Big 4 Tour', alongsideSlayerandAnthrax.That same year, Mustaine took part in Metallica's exclusive 30th anniversary show in San Francisco which invited other former members:Ron McGovney, Lloyd Grant, andJason Newsted. Mötley Crüe Often clashing during the early 1980s, both bands were fighting", "bands were fighting for dominance in theLos Angelesrock scene during Metallica's early years prior to their relocation to the Bay Area. Both James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich expressed their hatred of the hair metal scene in Los Angeles during the time and frequently attacked multiple up-and-coming local bands in multiple interviews, includingMötley Crüe.Ulrich and Mötley Crüe's bassistNikki Sixxhad allegedly been involved in a spat prior to a show at theTroubadourinHollywoodin 1982. Though despite their public disdain for glam metal, Metallica were impressed by the production and commercial success ofDr. Feelgoodin 1989, later hiring the album's producerBob Rockto produce theirself-titled fifth albumin 1991. Several years later; both Sixx and Ulrich would reignite the feud after Ulrich accused Mötley Crüe of performing to a backing track at the1997 American Music Awards. Sixx responded via an online forum in which he insulted numerous band members and also attacked Metallica's then-recent albumLoad.Despite", "albumLoad.Despite this, Sixx would praise Metallica's then-latest albumSt. Angerduring a 2003 interview, contrary to the negative attention it received upon release.In 2006, both Mötley Crüe drummerTommy Lee, and former bassist Jason Newsted took part in a reality show entitledRock Star: Supernovaas they would both participate in creating a supergroup while the show's premise revolved around finding a frontman via contest. During a 2011 meet-and-greet inMexico City, Hetfield was approached by a fan attacking Mötley Crüe due to their public image and frequent appearances in tabloids. Hetfield refused to directly respond to the fan's comments towards Mötley Crüe but laughed in his insults toward the band.In 2015, drummer Lee reignited the feud when he tweeted a picture of Ulrich with the words \"Straight Outta Tempo\" superimposed over his face. Following the post by Lee, Mötley Crüe singerVince Neilhad stated online that he was unaware of the feud with Metallica; however, during a later interview with", "interview with anOregonradio show, Neil was again asked about the band's current relationship with Metallica and hung up on the show's host.Things were alleged to have calmed down by 2017, when Hetfield appeared on Sixx's radio show 'Sixx Sense'.During an interview in 2021, Sixx applauded Metallica's longevity and praised several of their releases during an interview. Jason Newsted Following his hiring in 1986, former bassistJason Newstedhad regularly experienced incidents of hazing and a perceived lack of acceptance from his bandmates despite his strong efforts in a majority of the band's live performances.Many fans and outlets cite the band'sfourth album's unusual mixing to drown the bass tracks as a possible effort by Hetfield and Ulrich to minimize Newsted's involvement.This sentiment was further exacerbated by the fact that Newsted was only given songwriting credits on three songs during his 14-year span in the band which also saw him perform on four studio albums.Tensions between Hetfield and Newsted", "and Newsted reached a breaking point in 2000 after Hetfield repeatedly blocked Newsted's request to venture into his side projectEchobrain.Discussions broke down and Newsted abruptly left the band in January 2001 prior to the recording ofSt. Anger.Despite Newsted's animosity surrounding his decision, he was later inducted into the hall of fame as a member of the band in 2009 and also appeared at the band's 30th anniversary show in San Francisco in 2011. In August 2021, to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the release of the band's self-titled album, Newsted was given a box set of the reissue to open for anunboxing video, which was uploaded to the band's YouTube channel. Band members Current members Session/touring musicians Former members Timeline Discography Studio albums Tours Awards and nominations Grammy Awards See also Notes References General sources External links", "Slayer Slayerwas an Americanthrash metalband fromHuntington Park, California, formed in 1981 by guitaristsKerry KingandJeff Hanneman, drummerDave Lombardoand bassist/vocalistTom Araya. Slayer's fast and aggressive musical style made them one of the \"big four\" bands ofthrash metal, alongsideMetallica,Megadeth, andAnthrax. Slayer's final lineup consisted of King, Araya, drummerPaul Bostaphand guitaristGary Holt, who initially joined as a touring member in 2011 before joining the band permanently after Hanneman's death in 2013. DrummerJon Dettewas also a member of the band. In the original lineup, King, Hanneman and Araya contributed to the band's lyrics, and all of the band's music was written by King and Hanneman. The band's lyrics and album art, which cover topics such asserial killers,torture,genocide,organized crime,secret societies,occultism,terrorism,religionorantireligion,fascism,racismandwar, have generated album bans, delays, lawsuits and criticism from religious groups. However, its music has been", "its music has been highly influential, being cited by many bands as an influence musically, visually and lyrically; the band's third album,Reign in Blood(1986), has been described as one of the heaviest and most influential thrash metal albums. Slayer released twelve studio albums, three live albums, a box set, six music videos, two extended plays and a cover album. Four of the band's studio albums have receivedgold certificationin the United States. Slayer sold 5 million copies in the United States from 1991 to 2013, according to Nielsen SoundScan. The band has received fiveGrammy Awardnominations, winning one in 2007 for the song \"Eyes of the Insane\" and one in 2008 for the song \"Final Six\", both of which were from the albumChrist Illusion(2006). Slayer announced in 2018 that it would embark on afarewell tour, which took place from May 2018 to November 2019, after which they disbanded. Slayer later reunited to perform two reunion shows in 2024. History Early years (1981–1983) Slayer was formed in 1981", "was formed in 1981 byKerry King,Jeff Hanneman,Dave LombardoandTom Arayain Huntington Park, California. The group started out playing covers of songs by bands such asIron Maiden,Black Sabbath,Judas PriestandVenomat parties and clubs inSouthern California. The band's early image relied heavily onSatanicthemes that featuredpentagrams, make-up, spikes, and inverted crosses.Rumors that the band was originally known as Dragonslayer, after the1981 film of the same name, were denied by King, as he later stated: \"We never were; it's a myth to this day.\"According to Lombardo, the original band name was to be Wings of Fire before they settled in with Slayer. It was he who designed the iconic logo. For inspiration, Lombardo thought in a perspective of a murderer of how they would carve out the logo with a knife and since he's lefthanded, the logo is unintentionally slanted to the right. In 1983, Slayer was invited to open for the bandBitchat the Woodstock Club inAnaheim, California, to perform eight songs, six of which", "songs, six of which were covers. The band was spotted byBrian Slagel, a former music journalist who had recently foundedMetal Blade Records. Impressed with Slayer, he met with the band backstage and asked them to record an original song for his upcomingMetal Massacre IIIcompilation album. The band agreed and their song \"Aggressive Perfector\" created an underground buzz upon its release in mid 1983, which led to Slagel offering the band arecording contractwith Metal Blade. Show No Mercy,Haunting the ChapelandHell Awaits(1983–1986) Without any recording budget, the band had to self-finance its debut album. Combining the savings of Araya, who was employed as arespiratory therapist,and money borrowed from King's father,the band entered the studio in November 1983. The album was rushed into release, stocking shelves three weeks after tracks were completed.Show No Mercy, released in December 1983 by Metal Blade Records, generated underground popularity for the band. The group began a club tour of California to", "of California to promote the album. The tour gave the band additional popularity and sales ofShow No Mercyeventually reached more than 20,000 in the US and another 20,000 worldwide. In February 1984, King briefly joinedDave Mustaine's new bandMegadeth.Hanneman was worried about King's decision, stating in an interview, \"I guess we're gonna get a new guitar player.\"While Mustaine wanted King to stay on a permanent basis, King left after five shows, stating Mustaine's band was \"taking too much of my time.\"The split caused a rift between King and Mustaine, which evolved into a long running feud between the two bands. In June 1984, Slayer released a three-trackEPcalledHaunting the Chapel. The EP featured a darker, more thrash-oriented style thanShow No Mercy, and laid the groundwork for the future direction of the band.The opening track, \"Chemical Warfare\", has become a live staple, played at nearly every show since 1984. Later that year, Slayer began their first national club tour, traveling in", "tour, traveling in Araya'sCamarotowing aU-Haultrailer.The band recorded the live albumLive Undeadin November 1984 while inNew York City. In March 1985, Slayer began a national tour withVenomandExodus, resulting in their first livehome videodubbedCombat Tour: The Ultimate Revenge. The video featured live footage filmed at theStudio 54club. The band then made its live European debut at theHeavy Sound Festivalin Belgium opening forUFO.Also in 1985, Slayer toured or played selected shows with bands like Megadeth,Destruction,D.R.I.,Possessed,Agent Steel,S.O.D.,Nasty SavageandMetal Church. Show No Mercyhad sold over 40,000 copies,which led to the band returning to the studio to record their second full-length album. Metal Blade financed a recording budget, which allowed the band to hire producerRon Fair.Released in April 1985, Slayer's second full-length album,Hell Awaits, expanded on the darkness ofHaunting the Chapel, with hell and Satan as common song subjects. The album was the band's mostprogressiveoffering,", "featuring longer and more complex song structures.The intro of the title track is abackwards recordingof a demonic-sounding voice repeating \"Join us\", ending with \"Welcome back\" before the track begins. The album was a hit, with fans choosing Slayer for best band, best live band,Hell Awaits, as 1985's best album, and Dave Lombardo as best drummer inMetal Forces'1985 Readers Poll. Reign in Blood, Lombardo's brief hiatus andSouth of Heaven(1986–1989) Following the success ofHell Awaits, Slayer was offered a recording contract withRussell SimmonsandRick Rubin's newly foundedDef Jam Records, then-a largelyhip hop-based label.The band accepted, and with an experienced producer andmajor labelrecording budget, the band underwent a sonic makeover for their third albumReign in Blood, resulting in shorter, faster songs with clearer production. The complex arrangements and long songs featured onHell Awaitswere ditched in favor of stripped down,hardcore punkinfluenced song structures. Def Jam's distributor,Columbia", "Records, refused to release the album due to the song \"Angel of Death\"which detailedHolocaustconcentration campsand thehuman experimentsconducted by Nazi physicianJosef Mengele. The album was distributed byGeffen Recordson October 7, 1986. However, due to the controversy,Reign in Blooddid not appear on Geffen Records' release schedule.Although the album received virtually no radio airplay, it became the band's first to enter theBillboard200, peaking at number 94,and the band's first album certified gold in the United States. Slayer embarked on theReign in Painworld tour, withOverkillin the US from October to December 1986, andMalicein Europe in April and May 1987. They also played with other bands such asAgnostic Front,Testament,Metal Church,D.R.I.,Dark AngelandFlotsam and Jetsam.The band was added as the opening act onW.A.S.P.'s US tour, but just one month into it, drummer Lombardo left the band: \"I wasn't making any money. I figured if we were gonna be doing this professionally, on a major label, I wanted", "label, I wanted my rent and utilities paid.\"To continue with the tour, Slayer enlistedTony ScaglioneofWhiplash. However, Lombardo was convinced by his wife to return in 1987.At the insistence of Rubin, Slayer recorded acover versionofIron Butterfly's \"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\" for the filmLess than Zero.Although the band was not happy with the final product, Hanneman deeming it \"a poor representation of Slayer\" and King labeling it \"a hunk of shit\", it was one of their first songs to garnerradio airplay. In late 1987, Slayer returned to the studio to record their fourth studio album. To contrast the speed ofReign in Blood, the band consciously decided to slow down thetempos, and incorporate more melodic singing. According to Hanneman, \"We knew we couldn't topReign in Blood, so we had to slow down. We knew whatever we did was gonna be compared to that album, and I remember we actually discussed slowing down. It was weird—we've never done that on an album, before or since.\" Released in July 1988,South of", "July 1988,South of Heavenreceived mixed responses from both fans and critics, although it was Slayer's most commercially successful release at the time, debuting at number 57 on theBillboard200,and their second album to receive gold certification in the United States.Press response to the album was mixed, withAllMusicciting the album as \"disturbing and powerful\",and Kim Neely ofRolling Stonecalling it \"genuinely offensive satanic drivel\".King said \"that album was my most lackluster performance\", although Araya called it a \"late bloomer\" which eventually grew on people.Slayer toured from August 1988 to January 1989 to promoteSouth of Heaven, supportingJudas Priestin the US on theirRam It Downtour, and touring Europe withNuclear Assaultand the US withMotörheadandOverkill. Seasons in the Abyssand Lombardo's second departure (1990–1993) Slayer returned to the studio in early 1990 with co-producerAndy Wallaceto record its fifth studio album. Following the backlash created bySouth of Heaven, Slayer returned to the", "returned to the \"pounding speed ofReign in Blood, while retaining their newfoundmelodicsense.\"Seasons in the Abyss, released on October 9, 1990, was the first Slayer album to be released under Rubin's newDef Americanlabel, as he had parted ways with Def Jam ownerRussell Simmonsover creative differences. The album debuted at number 44 on theBillboard200,and was certified gold in 1992.The album spawned Slayer's first music video for the album's title track, which was filmed in front of theGiza pyramidsin Egypt. Slayer returned as a live act in September 1990 to co-headline the EuropeanClash of the Titanstour with Megadeth,Suicidal Tendencies, andTestament. During the sold out European leg of this tour, tickets had prices skyrocket to 1,000 Deutschmark (US$680) on the black market. With the popularity of American thrash at its peak, the band toured with Testament again in early 1991 and triple-headlined the North American version of the Clash of the Titans tour that summer with Megadeth,Anthrax, and opening", "and opening actAlice in Chains.The band released a double live album,Decade of Aggressionin 1991, to celebrate ten years since their formation. The compilation debuted at number 55 on theBillboard200. In May 1992, Lombardo left the band due to conflicts with the other members, as well as his desire to be off tour for the birth of his first child.Lombardo formed his own bandGrip Inc., withVoodoocultguitaristWaldemar Sorychta,and Slayer recruited formerForbiddendrummerPaul Bostaphto fill in the drummer position. Slayer made its debut appearance with Bostaph at the 1992Monsters of Rockfestival atCastle Donington. Bostaph's first studio effort was a medley of threeExploitedsongs, \"War\", \"UK '82\", and \"Disorder\", with rapperIce-T, for theJudgment Nightmovie soundtrackin 1993. Divine Intervention,Undisputed AttitudeandDiabolus in Musica(1994–2000) On September 27, 1994, Slayer releasedDivine Intervention, the band's first album with Bostaph on the drums. The album featured songs aboutReinhard Heydrich, an", "Heydrich, an architect of the Holocaust, andJeffrey Dahmer, an American serial killer and sex offender. Other themes included murder, the evils of church, and the lengths to which governments went to wield power, Araya's interest in serial killers inspired much of the content of the lyrics. Slayer geared up for a world tour in 1995, with openersBiohazardandMachine Head. A video of concert footage,Live Intrusionwas released, featuring a jointcoverofVenom's\"Witching Hour\" with Machine Head. Following the tour, Slayer was billed third at the 1995Monsters of Rockfestival, headlined byMetallica. In 1996,Undisputed Attitude, an album ofpunkcovers, was released. The band covered songs byMinor Threat,T.S.O.L.,Dirty Rotten Imbeciles,D.I.,Verbal Abuse,Dr. Know, andThe Stooges. The album featured three original tracks, \"Gemini\", \"Can't Stand You\", \"Ddamm\"; the latter two were written by Hanneman in 1984–1985 for a side project entitled Pap Smear. Bostaph left Slayer shortly after the album's recording to work on his", "to work on his own project, Truth About Seafood. With Bostaph's departure, Slayer recruitedTestamentdrummerJon Dette, and headlined the 1996 Ozzfest alongsideOzzy Osbourne,Danzig,Biohazard,Sepultura, andFear Factory. Dette was fired after a year, due to a fallout with band members. After that, Bostaph returned to continue the tour. Diabolus in Musica(Latin for \"The Devil in Music\") was released in 1998, and debuted at number 31 on theBillboard200, selling over 46,000 copies in its first week.It was complete by September 1997, and scheduled to be released the following month, but got delayed by nine months after their label was taken over byColumbia Records.The album received a mixed critical reception, and was criticized for adopting characteristics ofnu metalmusic such as tuned down guitars, murky chord structures, and churning beats.Blabbermouth.netreviewer Borivoj Krgin described the album as \"a feeble attempt at incorporating updated elements into the group's sound, the presence of which elevated the", "which elevated the band's efforts somewhat and offered hope that Slayer could refrain from endlessly rehashing their previous material for their future output\",while Ben Ratliff ofThe New York Timeshad similar sentiments, writing on June 22, 1998, that: \"Eight of the 11 songs onDiabolus in Musica, a few of which were played at the show, are in the same gray key, and the band's rhythmic ideas have a wearying sameness too.\" The album was the band's first to primarily feature dropped tuning, making use of thetritoneinterval referred to in the Middle Ages as the Devil's interval.Slayer teamed up withdigital hardcoregroupAtari Teenage Riotto record a song for theSpawnsoundtrack titled \"No Remorse (I Wanna Die)\". The band paid tribute toBlack Sabbathby recording a cover of \"Hand of Doom\" for the second of two tribute albums, titledNativity in Black II. A world tour followed to support the new album, with Slayer making an appearance at the United KingdomOzzfest 1998. God Hates Us All(2001–2005) During mid-2001, the", "mid-2001, the band joinedMorbid Angel,Pantera,SkrapeandStatic-Xon the Extreme Steel Tour of North America, which was Pantera's last major tour.After delays regarding remixing and artwork, including slip covers created to cover the original artwork as it was deemed \"too graphic\", Slayer's next album,God Hates Us All, was released onSeptember 11, 2001. The band received its firstGrammynomination for the lead track \"Disciple\", although the Grammy was awarded toTool, for \"Schism\".The September 11 attacks on America jeopardized the 2001 European tourTattoo the Planetoriginally set to feature Pantera, Static-X,Cradle of Filth,BiohazardandVision of Disorder. The dates in the United Kingdom were postponed due to flight restrictions, with a majority of bands deciding to withdraw, leaving Slayer and Cradle of Filth remaining for the European leg of the tour. Pantera, Static-X, Vision of Disorder and Biohazard were replaced by other bands depending on location;Amorphis,In Flames,Moonspell,Children of Bodom,", "of Bodom, andNecrodeath. Biohazard eventually decided to rejoin the tour later on, and booked new gigs in the countries, where they missed a few dates. Drummer Bostaph left Slayer before Christmas in 2001, due to a chronic elbow injury, which would hinder his ability to play.Since the band's European tour was unfinished at that time, the band's manager, Rick Sales, contacted original drummer Dave Lombardo and asked if he would like to finish the remainder of the tour.Lombardo accepted the offer, and stayed as a permanent member. Slayer toured playingReign in Bloodin its entirety throughout the fall of 2003, under the tour banner \"Still Reigning\". Their playing of the final song, \"Raining Blood\", culminated with the band drenched in a rain of stage blood. Live footage of this was recorded at the Augusta Civic Center inAugusta, Maine, on July 11, 2004, and released on the 2004 DVDStill Reigning. The band also releasedWar at the Warfieldand a box set,Soundtrack to the Apocalypsefeaturing rarities, live CD and", "live CD and DVD performances and various Slayer merchandise. From 2002 to 2004, the band performed over 250 tour dates, headlining major music festivals including H82k2, Summer tour,Ozzfest 2004and a European tour withSlipknot. While preparing for the Download Festival in England,MetallicadrummerLars Ulrichwas taken to a hospital with an unknown and mysterious illness, and was unable to perform. Metallica vocalistJames Hetfieldsearched for volunteers at the last minute to replace Ulrich; Lombardo and Slipknot drummerJoey Jordisonvolunteered, with Lombardo performing the songs \"Battery\" and \"The Four Horsemen\". Christ Illusion(2006–2008) The next studio album,Christ Illusion, was originally scheduled for release on June 6, 2006, and would be the first album with original drummer Lombardo since 1990'sSeasons in the Abyss.However, the band decided to delay the release of the record, as they did not want to be among the many, according to King, \"half-ass, stupid fucking loser bands\" releasing records on June", "records on June 6,althoughUSA Todayreported the idea was thwarted because the band failed to secure sufficient studio recording time.Slayer releasedEternal Pyreon June 6 as a limited-editionEP.Eternal Pyrefeatured the song \"Cult\", a live performance of \"War Ensemble\" in Germany and video footage of the band recording \"Cult\". Five thousand copies were released and sold exclusively throughHot Topicchain stores, and sold out within hours of release.On June 30,Nuclear Blast Recordsreleased a 7\" vinyl picture disc version limited to a thousand copies. Christ Illusionwas eventually released on August 8, 2006, and debuted at number 5 on theBillboard200, selling over 62,000 copies in its first week.The album became Slayer's highest charting, improving on its previous highest charting album,Divine Intervention, which had debuted at number 8. However, despite its high positioning, the album dropped to number 44 in the following week.Three weeks after the album's release, Slayer were inducted into theKerrang!Hall of", "theKerrang!Hall of Fame for their influence to the heavy metal scene. A worldwide tour dubbedThe Unholy Alliance Tour, was undertaken to support the new record. The tour was originally set to launch on June 6 in San Diego, but was postponed to June 10, as Araya had to undergogall bladdersurgery.In Flames,Mastodon,Children of Bodom,Lamb of God, andThine Eyes Bleed(featuring Araya's brother, Johnny) and Ted Maul (London Hammersmith Apollo) were supporting Slayer.The tour made its way through America and Europe and the bands who participated, apart from Thine Eyes Bleed, reunited to perform atJapan'sLoudpark Festivalon October 15, 2006. The video for the album's first single, \"Eyes of the Insane\", was released on October 30, 2006.The track was featured on theSaw IIIsoundtrack, and won a Grammy-award for \"Best Metal Performance\" at the 49th Grammy Awards, although the band was unable to attend due to touring obligations.A week later, the band visited the 52nd Services Squadron located on the Spangdahlem U.S. Air", "U.S. Air Force Base in Germany to meet and play a show. This was the first visit ever to a military base for the band.The band made its firstnetwork TVappearance on the showJimmy Kimmel Live!on January 19, playing the song \"Eyes of the Insane\", and four additional songs for fans after the show (although footage from \"Jihad\" was cut due to its controversial lyrical themes). In 2007, Slayer toured Australia and New Zealand in April with Mastodon, and appeared at theDownload Festival,Rock Am Ring,and a summer tour withMarilyn MansonandBleeding Through. World Painted Blood(2009–2011) In 2008, Araya stated uncertainty about the future of the band,and that he could not see himself continuing the career at a later age. He said that once the band finished its upcoming album, which was the final record in their contract, the band would sit down and discuss its future.King was optimistic that the band would produce at least another two albums before considering to disband: \"We're talking of going in the studio next", "in the studio next February and getting the next record out so if we do things in a timely manner I don't see there's any reason why we can't have more than one album out.\"Slayer, along withTrivium,Mastodon, andAmon Amarth, teamed up for a European tour titled 'The Unholy Alliance: Chapter III', throughout October and November 2008.Slayer headlined the secondMayhem Festivalin the summer of 2009. Slayer, along withMegadeth, also co-headlined Canadian Carnage, the first time they performed together in more than 15 years when they co-headlined four shows in Canada in late June 2009 with openersMachine HeadandSuicide Silence. The band's eleventh studio album,World Painted Blood, was released byAmerican Recordings. It was available on November 3 in North America and November 2 for the rest of the world. The band stated that the album takes elements of all their previous works includingSeasons in the Abyss,South of Heaven, andReign in Blood.Slayer, along with Metallica, Megadeth, and Anthrax performed on the same", "on the same bill for the first time on June 16, 2010, at Bemowo Airport, inWarsaw, Poland. One of the following Big 4 performances in (Sofia, Bulgaria, June 22, 2010) was sent via satellite in HD to cinemas.They also went on to play several other dates as part of the Sonisphere Festival. Megadeth and Slayer joined forces once again for theAmerican Carnage Tourfrom July to October 2010 with opening actsAnthraxandTestament,andEuropean Carnage Tourin March and April 2011.The \"Big Four\" played more dates at Sonisphere in England and France for the first time ever.Slayer returned to Australia in February and March 2011 as part of theSoundwave Festivaland also played in California with the other members of the \"Big Four\". In early 2011, Hanneman was diagnosed withnecrotizing fasciitis. According to the band, doctors said that it likely originated from a spider bite. Araya said of Hanneman's condition: \"Jeff was seriously ill. Jeff ended up contracting a bacteria that ate away his flesh on his arm, so they cut open", "so they cut open his arm, from his wrist to his shoulder, and they did askin grafton him, they cleaned up ... It was a flesh-eating virus, so he was really, really bad. So we'll wait for him to get better, and when he's a hundred percent, he's gonna come out and join us.\"The band decided to play their upcoming tour dates without Hanneman.Gary HoltofExoduswas announced as Hanneman's temporary replacement.Cannibal CorpseguitaristPat O'Brienfilled in for Holt during a tour in Europe.On April 23, 2011, at the American Big 4 show inIndio, California, Hanneman rejoined his bandmates to play the final two songs of their set, \"South of Heaven\" and \"Angel of Death\". This turned out to be Hanneman's final live performance with the band. Hanneman's death, Lombardo's third split, andRepentless(2011–2016) When asked if Slayer would make another album, Lombardo replied \"Yes absolutely; Although there's nothing written, there are definitely plans.\"However, Araya said Slayer would not begin writing a new album until", "a new album until Hanneman's condition improved.To celebrate the 25th anniversary ofReign In Blood, the band performed all of the album's tracks at theAll Tomorrow's Partiesfestival at theAlexandra Palacein London. In November 2011, Lombardo posted atweetthat the band had started to write new music. This presumably meant that Hanneman's condition improved, and it was believed he was ready to enter the studio.King had worked with Lombardo that year and they completed three songs. The band planned on entering the studio in either March or April 2012 and were hoping to have the album recorded before the group's US tour in late May and release it by the summer of that year.However, King said the upcoming album would not be finished until September and October of that year, making a 2013 release likely.In July 2012, King revealed two song titles for the upcoming album, \"Chasing Death\" and \"Implode\". In February 2013, Lombardo was fired right before Slayer was to play at Australia's Soundwave festival due to an", "festival due to an argument with band members over a pay dispute.Slayer andAmerican Recordingsreleased a statement, saying \"Mr. Lombardo came to the band less than a week before their scheduled departure for Australia to present an entirely new set of terms for his engagement that were contrary to those that had been previously agreed upon\",although Lombardo claimed there was a gag order in place.Dette returned to fill in for Lombardo for the Soundwave dates.It was confirmed that Lombardo was officially out of Slayer for the third time, and, in May, Bostaph rejoined the band. King said in February 2024 that he had severed ties with Lombardo ever since, adding that \"he's dead to me.\" On May 2, 2013, Hanneman died due to liver failure in a local hospital near his home in Southern California'sInland Empire;the cause of death was later determined to be alcohol-relatedcirrhosis.King confirmed that the band would continue, saying \"Jeff is going to be in everybody's thoughts for a long time. It's unfortunate you", "unfortunate you can't keep unfortunate things from happening. But we're going to carry on – and he'll be there in spirit.\"However, Araya felt more uncertain about the band's future, expressing his belief that \"After 30 years , it would literally be like starting over\", and doubting that Slayer's fanbase would approve such a change.Despite the uncertainty regarding the band's future, Slayer still worked on a followup toWorld Painted Blood. Additionally, it was reported that the new album would still feature material written by Hanneman. At the 2014Revolver's Golden Gods Awards ceremony, Slayer debuted \"Implode\", its first new song in five years. The group announced that they had signed withNuclear Blast, and planned to release a new album in 2015.It was reported that Holt would take over Hanneman's guitar duties full-time,although Holt did not participate in the songwriting.In February, Slayer announced a seventeen-date American tour to start in June featuringSuicidal TendenciesandExodus.In 2015, Slayer", "2015, Slayer headlined the Rockstar Energy Mayhem Festival for the second time.Repentless, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on September 11, 2015.Slayer toured for2+1⁄2years in support ofRepentless. The band toured Europe withAnthraxandKvelertakin October and November 2015,and embarked on three North American tours: one withTestamentandCarcassin February and March 2016,then with Anthrax andDeath Angelin September and October 2016,and withLamb of GodandBehemothin July and August 2017.A lone date in Southeast Asia in 2017 was held in the Philippines. Cancelled thirteenth studio album, Final World Tour and split (2016–2019) In August 2016, guitaristKerry Kingwas asked if Slayer would release a follow-up toRepentless. He replied, \"We've got lots of leftover material from the last album, 'cause we wrote so much stuff, and we recorded a bunch of it too. If the lyrics don't change the song musically, those songs are done. So we are way ahead of the ballgame without even doing anything for the next", "for the next record. And I've been working on stuff on my downtime. Like, I'll warm up and a riff will come to mind and I'll record it. I've gotten a handful of those on this run. So wheels are still turning. I haven't worked on anything lyrically yet except for what was done on the last record, so that's something I've gotta get on. But, yeah,Repentlessisn't quite a year old yet.\" King also stated that Slayer was not expected to enter the studio until at least 2018.In an October interview onHatebreedfrontmanJamey Jasta's podcast, King stated that he was \"completely open\" to having guitaristGary Holt(who had no songwriting contributions onRepentless) involved in the songwriting process of the next Slayer album. He explained, \"I'm entirely open to having Gary work on something. I know he's gotta work on anExodusrecord and I've got tons already for this one. But, you know, if he's gonna stick around... I didn't want it on the last one, and I knew that. I'm completely open to having that conversation. I haven't", "I haven't talked toTomabout it, I haven't talked to Gary open about it, but I'm open. That's not saying it is or isn't gonna happen. But my ears are open.\" In a June 2017 interview with theUltimate Guitar Archive, Holt said that he was ready to contribute with the songwriting for the next album.When speaking toRevolver, King was asked if there were any plans in place for the band to begin working on the album, he said, \"Funny thing is,Repentlessisn't even two years old yet, though it seems like it is. But from that session, there are six or eight songs that are recorded—some with vocals, some with leads, but all with keeper guitar, drums and bass. So when those songs get finished lyrically, if the lyrics don't change the songs, they'll be ready to be on the next record. So we already have more than half a record complete, if those songs make it.\" He also gave conceivable consideration that it could be released next year, \"I'm certainly not gonna promise it, because every time I do, I make a liar of myself!", "a liar of myself! \"When asked about any plans or the timeline the band would like to release the album, King said, \"It depends on touring—getting time to rehearse, getting time to make up new stuff. We haven't even done Australia on this run yet at all. We're hitting Japan finally later this year. But if things go well, I'd like to record next year. But timelines changeallthe time.\"In an October 2017 interview, Holt once again expressed his desire to contribute to the songwriting for the next Slayer album, saying, \"When that time comes and we are ready for the next album, if Kerry wants me to contribute, I've got riffs. I've got stuff right now that I've written that I am not using for Exodus, because it was kind of maybe just unintentional subconscious thing, like, 'It sounds a little too Slayer.'\" Plans for a new album were ultimately scrapped when on January 22, 2018, Slayer announcedtheir farewell world tourthrough a video featuring a montage of press clippings, early posters and press photos spanning", "photos spanning the band's entire career. Although the members of Slayer have never publicly explained why they were retiring, it was thought that one of the reasons behind this decision wasTom Araya's desire not to tour anymore and to spend more time with his family; Araya hinted at the possibility of retiring in a 2016 interview.This was confirmed by former drummerDave Lombardoin a 2019 interview, who said: \"Apparently, from what I hear. Tom has been wanting to retire when I was in the band—he wanted to stop. He had the neck issues. He's been wanting to retire for a long time now. So now that he's got it, I'm happy for him, and I hope he gets what he wants out of life and his future.\" The farewell tour began with a North American trek in May and June 2018, supported byLamb of God,Anthrax,BehemothandTestament.The second leg of the North American tour took place in July and August, withNapalm Deathreplacing Behemoth,followed in November and December by a European tour with Lamb of God, Anthrax", "of God, Anthrax andObituary.The farewell tour continued into 2019, with plans to visit places such as South America, Australia and Japan; in addition to European festivals such asHellfestandGraspop,the band toured the United States in May 2019 with Lamb of God,Amon AmarthandCannibal Corpse.Slayer also played one show in Mexico at Force Fest in October 2018. On December 2, 2018, Holt announced that he would not perform the remainder of the band's European tour to be with his dying father.Vio-lenceand formerMachine HeadguitaristPhil Demmelwould fill in for him as a result. Holt had stated that Slayer would not release a new album before the end of the farewell tour.On how long the tour would last, Holt's Exodus bandmateSteve \"Zetro\" Souzacommented, \"I'm speculating it's gonna take a year and a half or two years to do the one final thing, but I believe it's finished. Everybody knows what I know; just because I'm on the outside, I have no insight on that.\"The final North American leg of the tour, dubbed \"The", "tour, dubbed \"The Last Campaign\", took place in November 2019, and also included support fromPrimus,MinistryandPhilip H. Anselmo & The Illegals.Despite being referred to as a farewell tour for Slayer, their manager Rick Sales has stated that \"the band is not breaking up, they made a decision to stop touring. That doesn't mean the end of the band. It’s just the end of touring\".Kristen Mulderig, who works with Rick Sales Entertainment Group, has also been quoted as saying that there would be Slayer-related activities following the tour's conclusion.However, within two days after the tour's completion, King's wife Ayesha stated on her Instagram page that there is \"not a chance in hell\" that Slayer would ever reunite to perform more shows or release new music. Post-breakup (2020–2024) In March 2020, when talking toGuitar Worldabout his latest endorsement withDean Guitars, King hinted that he would continue to make music outside of Slayer, simply saying, \"Dean didn't sign me for nothing!\"King stated in an August", "stated in an August 2020 interview on the Dean Guitars YouTube channel that he had \"more than two records' worth of music\" for his yet-to-be disclosed new project.Bostaph later confirmed that he and King were working on a new project that would \"sound like Slayer without it being Slayer—but not intentionally so.\"This project was later revealed to be King's solo debut album,From Hell I Rise, released on May 17, 2024, and the lineup of the album includes King, Bostaph,Death Angelvocalist Mark Osegueda,HellyeahbassistKyle Sanders, and formerVio-lenceandMachine HeadguitaristPhil Demmel. In addition to King and Bostaph, the other members of Slayer have remained musically active. Holt continues to record and perform withExodus, releasing a new album,Persona Non Grata, in 2021.Lombardo has been involved with various acts since his third split with Slayer in 2013, such asSuicidal Tendencies,Dead Cross, theMisfits,Mr. BungleandTestament, the latter of where he had previously served as the drummer for the band's 1999", "for the band's 1999 albumThe Gatheringand rejoined in March 2022,only to leave again in the following April.Jon Dettehas been a member of at least two bands,Animetal USAand Meshiaak,and performed withAnthraxandVolbeatas a fill-in drummer.Araya, aside from an appearance in theBay Area thrash metaldocumentary filmMurder in the Front Row, had not been publicly active in the music industry nor given any interviews between the conclusion of Slayer's final tour and the band's 2024 reunion. The members of Slayer had expressed mixed opinions about a reunion. When asked by theLet There Be Talkpodcast in June 2020 about the possibility of the band ever reforming, Holt stated, \"If it does, if it ever happens, it has nothing to do with me. Someone else would call and say, 'We wanna .' To my knowledge, it's done. And I think itshouldbe that way. The band went out fucking on a bang, went out on Slayer's terms, and how many people get to say they did that?\".Holt stated in March 2021 that he was open to a potential Slayer", "a potential Slayer reunion, but it was unlikely to happen in the near future: \"Look, if the powers that be ever—like, in a year or something—said, 'Hey, you know what? We feel like playing some shows,' I'm there to do it. But those aren't decisions for me to make, or even me to really speculate on. As far as my knowledge, the band is over, and the final show was November 30, 2019. And I'm full speed ahead with Exodus now.\"In October 2021, King expressed regret that Slayer had retired \"too early.\" While congratulatingMachine Headon their 30th anniversary as a band, he said, \"Apparently, it's 30 years, which is quite an achievement. Not a lot of bands get there. We did, and then we quit too early. Fuck us. Fuck me. I hate fucking not playing.\"When interviewed two months later byMetal Hammer, King did not rule out the possibility of any more \"Big Four\" shows withMetallica,Megadethand Anthrax, but expressed doubt that a Slayer reunion would ever happen: \"The way that I'm moving forward is I don't think Slayer", "don't think Slayer are ever going to play again. There's no business of me playing by myself!\"King's wife Ayesha had also ruled out the possibility of a Slayer reunion, insisting that her husband and Araya would \"never be Slayer again\".In a February 2024 interview withRolling Stone, King clarified that a reunion of the band was unlikely: \"Could Slayer play a show again? I'm sure there's a scenario. Am I looking for it? No, I'm just getting ready to start my career. So if that happens, it happens. But I'm going to be doing this for the next 10 years at least.\" King revealed in the same interview that he has not spoken to Araya since the band's split. King also says that his relationship with Araya is positive, but his relation with that of former drummer Dave Lombardo is estranged. Talking about that situation, King said that Lombardo \"was listening to this woman that was his attorney at the time, and she thought we had Metallica money, which we've never had fucking Metallica money. So she's just blowing", "she's just blowing shit in his ear, and he thinks he should be getting more than he should be getting.\" Reunion and second hiatus (2024–present) On February 21, 2024, Slayer announced that they would play their first show since disbanding atRiot Feston September 22, and play their second show five days later atLouder Than Life.However, due to weather conditions caused byHurricane Helene, Louder Than Life canceled their September 27 shows, which included Slayer in the lineup.The lineup of this reunion was the 2013–2019 lineup of bassist/vocalistTom Araya, guitaristsKerry KingandGary Holtand drummerPaul Bostaph.They also headlined the first of four nights of theAftershock Festivalin Sacramento on October 10, 2024,and while announcing this show, the band said in a statement, \"There's been a lot of excited fans out there about our playing a couple of festival dates, so it's great to be able to add this last one.\" In an interview withMetal Hammer, King indicated that the planned shows were a one-off and that the", "and that the reunion was \"not going to translate into recording and it's not going to translate into touring\", clarifying that \"it's three shows marking five years since our final shows, a fun, 'Hey, remember us from before thepandemic?' celebration.\"In a May 2024 interview onTrunk Nation With Eddie Trunk, King said that while he would not rule out more Slayer shows in the future, his solo career was his main priority now.When asked in an October 2024 interview with107.7 The Boneif more reunion shows were in the works, Bostaph said, \"We played our last one… If everybody's asking that question, I am too, but I don't have the answer to that question. So, yeah, Aftershock was the last one. And we all hope that there will be more.\" Musical style Slayer is generally considered athrash metalband.In an article from December 1986 bythe Washington Post, writer Joe Brown described Slayer asspeed metal, a genre he defined as \"an unholy hybrid ofpunk rockthrash and heavy metal that attracts an almost all-male teen-age", "all-male teen-age following\".Describing Slayer's music, Brown wrote: \"Over a jackhammer beat, Slayer's stun guitars created scraping sheets of corrosive metal noise, with occasionalsolosthat sounded like squealing brakes, over which the singer-bassist emitted a larynx-lacerating growl-yowl.\"In an article from September 1988 bythe New York Times, writer Jon Pareles also described Slayer as speed metal, additionally writing that the band \"brings the sensational imagery of tabloids and horror movies\" and has lyrics that \"revel in death, gore and allusions to Satanism and Nazism.\"Pareles also described other \"Big Four\" thrash metal bands Metallica and Megadeth as speed metal bands.Slayer's early works were praised for their \"breakneck speed and instrumental prowess\", combining the structure ofhardcore punktempos and speed metal. The band released fast, aggressive material.The albumReign in Bloodis the band's fastest, performed at an average of 220beats per minute; the albumDiabolus in Musicawas the band's first", "the band's first to feature C♯tuning;God Hates Us Allwas the first to featuredrop B tuningandseven-string guitarstuned to B♭.AllMusiccited the album as \"abandoning the extravagances and accessibility of their late-'80s/early-'90s work and returning to perfect the raw approach\",with some fans labeling it asnu metal. King and Hanneman's dual guitar solos have been referred to as \"wildly chaotic\",and \"twisted genius\".Original drummer Lombardo would use two bass drums (instead of a double pedal, which is used on a single bass drum). Lombardo's speed and aggression earned him the title of the \"godfather of double bass\" byDrummerworld.Lombardo stated his reasons for using two bass drums: \"When you hit the bass drum, the head is still resonating. When you hit it in the same place right after that, you kinda get a 'slapback' from the bass drum head hitting the other pedal. You're not letting them breathe.\" When playing the two bass drums, Lombardo would use the\"heel-up\" technique. In the original lineup, King,", "lineup, King, Hanneman and Araya contributed to the band's lyrics, and King and Hanneman wrote the music with additional arrangement from Lombardo, and sometimes Araya. Araya formed a lyric writing partnership with Hanneman, which sometimes overshadowed the creative input of King.Hanneman stated that writing lyrics and music was a \"free-for-all\": \"It's all just whoever comes up with what. Sometimes I'll be more on a roll and I'll have more stuff, same with Kerry – it's whoever's hot, really. Anybody can write anything; if it's good, we use it; if not, we don't.\" When writing material, the band would write the music first before incorporating lyrics. King or Hanneman used a24-trackanddrum machineto show band members the riff that they created, and to get their opinion. Either King, Hanneman or Lombardo would mention if any alterations could be made. The band played the riff to get the basic song structure, and figured out where the lyrics and solos would be placed. Legacy Slayer is one of the most influential", "most influential bands in heavy metal history. Steve Huey ofAllMusicbelieves the musical style of Slayer makes the band stronger than the other members of the \"Big Four\" thrash metal bandsMetallica,MegadethandAnthrax, all of which rose to fame during the 1980s.Slayer's \"downtuned rhythms, infectious guitar licks, graphically violent lyrics and grisly artwork set the standard for dozens of emerging thrash bands\" and their \"music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal\" statesMTV, ranking Slayer as the sixth \"greatest metal band of all time\",ranking number 50 onVH1's100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock.Hanneman and King ranked number 10 inGuitar World's \"100 greatest metal guitarists of all time\" in 2004,and were voted \"Best Guitarist/Guitar Team\" inRevolver's reader's poll. Original drummer Lombardo was also voted \"Best Drummer\" and the band entered the top five in the categories \"Best Band Ever\", \"Best Live Band\", \"Album of the Year\" (forChrist Illusion) and \"Band of the Year\". Music authorJoel", "Music authorJoel McIverconsiders Slayer very influential in the extreme metal scene, especially in the development of thedeath metalandblack metalsubgenres.According to John Consterdine ofTerrorizer, without \"Slayer's influence, extreme metal as we know it wouldn't exist.\"Kam LeeofMassacreand former member ofDeathstated: \"there wouldn't be death metal or black metal or even extreme metal (the likes of what it is today) if not for Slayer.\"Johan ReinholdzofAndromedasaid that Slayer \"were crucial in the development of thrash metal which then became the foundation for a lot of different subgenres. They inspired generations of metal bands.\"Alex SkolnickofTestamentdeclared: \"Before Slayer, metal had never had such razor-sharp articulation, tightness, and balance between sound and stops. This all-out sonic assault was about the shock, the screams, the drums, and most importantly the riffs.\" Groups who cited Slayer among their major influences includeCannibal Corpse,Pantera,Kreator,Sepultura,Children of", "of Bodom,Mayhem,Darkthrone,Avenged Sevenfold,Bullet for My Valentine,Trivium,As I Lay Dying,All That Remains,System of a Down,Killswitch Engage,Slipknot,Machine Head,DevilDriver,Lamb of God,Gojira,Behemoth,EvileandLacuna Coil.Steve Asheim, drummer forDeicide, declared that \"there obviously would not have been a Deicide as we know it without the existence of Slayer.\"SepulturaguitaristAndreas Kisseraffirmed that \"without Slayer, Sepultura would never be possible.\"Weezermentions them in the song \"Heart Songs\" from their 2008self-titled \"Red\" album. The verse goes: \"Iron Maiden,Judas Priest, and Slayer taught me how to shred...\"Dave Grohlrecalled, \"Me and my friends, we just wanted to listen to fucking Slayer and take acid and smash stuff.\" The band's 1986 releaseReign in Bloodhas been an influence to extreme and thrash metal bands since its release and is considered the record which set the bar for death metal.It had a significant influence on the genre leaders such asDeath,Obituary,Cannibal Corpse,Morbid", "Corpse,Morbid AngelandNapalm Death.The album was hailed the \"heaviest album of all time\" byKerrang!,a \"genre-definer\" byStylus,and a \"stone-cold classic upon its release\" byAllMusic.In 2006,Reign in Bloodwas named the best metal album of the last 20 years byMetal Hammer.According toNielsen SoundScan, Slayer sold 4,900,000 copies in the United States from 1991 to 2013. Controversy A lawsuit was brought against the band in 1996, by the parents ofElyse Pahler, who accused the band of encouraging their daughter's murderers through their lyrics.Pahler was drugged, strangled, stabbed, trampled on, and raped as asacrificeto the devil by three fans of the band.The case was unsealed by the court on May 19, 2000, stating Slayer and related business markets distribute harmful products to teens, encouraging violent acts through their lyrics,and \"none of the vicious crimes committed against Elyse Marie Pahler would have occurred without the intentional marketing strategy of the death-metal band Slayer\".The lawsuit was", "lawsuit was dismissed in 2001, for multiple reasons including \"principles of free speech, lack of a duty and lack of foreseeability\".A second lawsuit was filed by the parents, an amended complaint for damages against Slayer, their label, and other industry and label entities. The lawsuit was again dismissed. Judge E. Jeffrey Burke stated, \"I do not consider Slayer's music obscene, indecent or harmful to minors.\" Slayer has been accused of holdingNazisympathies, due to the band's eagle logo bearing resemblance to theEagle atop swastikaand the lyrics of \"Angel of Death\".\"Angel of Death\" was inspired by the acts ofJosef Mengele,the doctor who conductedhuman experimentson prisoners duringWorld War IIat theAuschwitz concentration camp, and was dubbed the \"Angel of Death\" by inmates. Slayer's cover ofMinor Threat's \"Guilty of Being White\" raised questions about a possible message ofwhite supremacyin the band's music. The controversy surrounding the cover involved the changing of the refrain \"guilty of being white\"", "of being white\" to \"guilty of being right\", at the song's ending. This incensed Minor Threat frontmanIan MacKaye, who stated \"that is so offensive to me\".King said it was changed for \"tongue-in-cheek\" humor as he thought the allegation of racism at the time was \"ridiculous\". In a 2004 interview with Araya, when asked, \"Did critics realize you were wallowing in parody?\". Araya replied, \"No. People thought we were serious!...back then you had thatPMRC, who literally took everything to heart, when in actuality you're trying to create an image. You're trying to scare people on purpose.\"Araya also denied rumors that Slayer members areSatanists, but they find the subject of Satanism interesting and \"we are all on this planet to learn and experience\". The song \"Jihad\" of the albumChrist Illusionsparked controversy among families of the September 11 victims.The song deals with the attack from the perspective of a religious terrorist. The band stated the song is spoken through perspective without being sympathetic to", "sympathetic to the cause, and supports neither side. Seventeen bus benches promoting the same album inFullerton, California, were deemed offensive by city officials. City officials contacted the band's record label and demanded that the ads be removed.All benches were eliminated. In India,Christ Illusionwas recalled byEMIIndia after protests with Christian religious groups due to the nature of the graphic artwork. The album cover was designed by Slayer's longtime collaboratorLarry Carrolland features Christ in a \"sea of despair\", with amputated arms, missing an eye, while standing in a sea of blood with severed heads.Joseph Dias of the Mumbai Christian groupCatholic Secular Forumin India took \"strong exception\" to the original album artwork, and issued a memorandum to Mumbai's police commissioner in protest.On October 11, 2006, EMI announced that all stocks had been destroyed, noting it had no plans to re-release the record in India in the future. Band members Final lineup Former members Former touring", "Former touring musicians Timeline Discography Awards and nominations Footnotes Citations Further reading External links", "Megadeth Megadethis an Americanthrash metalband formed inLos Angelesin 1983 by vocalist/guitaristDave Mustaine. Known for their technically complex guitar work and musicianship, Megadeth is one of the \"big four\" of American thrash metal along withMetallica,Anthrax, andSlayer,responsible for the genre's development and popularization. Their music features complex arrangements and fastrhythm sections, dual lead guitars, and lyrical themes of war, politics, religion, death, and personal relationships. In 1985, Megadeth released their debut album,Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, on the independent record labelCombat Records, to moderate success. It caught the attention of bigger labels, which led to Megadeth signing withCapitol Records. Their first major-label album,Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?, was released in 1986 and was a major hit with the underground metal scene. Band members'substance abuseissues and personal disputes had brought Megadeth negative publicity during the late 1980s.", "the late 1980s. Nonetheless, the band went on to release a number ofplatinum-selling albums, includingSo Far, So Good... So What!(1988),Rust in Peace(1990), andCountdown to Extinction(1992). These albums, along with worldwide tours, brought them public recognition. Megadeth's most recent album,The Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!, was released in 2022. Megadeth has undergone multiple lineup changes throughout its41-year career, with Mustaine being the sole consistent member of the band. The band temporarily disbanded in 2002 when Mustaine suffered an arm injury and re-established in 2004 without longtime bassistDavid Ellefson, who hadtaken legal actionagainst Mustaine. Ellefson settled out of court and rejoined the band in 2010, but was fired in 2021 amid allegations of sexual misconduct. Megadeth's current lineup includes Mustaine, bassistJames LoMenzo, guitaristTeemu Mäntysaariand drummerDirk Verbeuren. Megadeth earned platinum certifications in the United States for five of its sixteen studio", "its sixteen studio albums,andhas received twelve Grammy nominations. Megadeth won its first Grammy Award in2017for the song \"Dystopia\" in theBest Metal Performancecategory.The band's mascot,Vic Rattlehead, regularly appears on album artwork and live shows. Megadeth has hosted its own music festival,Gigantour, several times since July 2005, and held its first MegaCruise in October 2019. As of 2023, the band sold more than fifty million albums worldwide. History 1983–1985: Formation andKilling Is My Business On April 11, 1983,Dave Mustainewas fired fromMetallicajust prior to the band recording their debut albumKill 'Em Alldue to substance abuse and personal conflicts withJames Hetfieldkicking his dog. As Metallica's lead guitarist since 1981, Mustaine had composed some of the group's early songs and helped hone the band into a tight live unit.Afterward, Mustaine vowed revenge by forming a band that was faster and heavier than Metallica.On the bus trip back to Los Angeles, Mustaine found a pamphlet by", "found a pamphlet by California senatorAlan Cranstonthat read: \"The arsenal of megadeath can't be rid no matter what the peace treaties come to.\"The term \"Megadeath\" stuck with Mustaine and he wrotea song with that titlewith the spelling slightly changed to Megadeth, which, according to Mustaine, represented the annihilation of power. After arriving back in Los Angeles, Mustaine began the search for new bandmates for his band. He formed the band Fallen Angels, which included Lor Kane on vocals, Robby McKinney on guitar and Matt Kisselstein on bass, in April 1983.The band's name was changed to Megadeth on Kane's recommendation.As the founder, Mustaine added his new neighborsDavid Ellefsonand Greg Handevidt to the band, who had moved from Minnesota to Los Angeles and played bass and guitar, respectively.Ellefson has stated that Handevidt, rather than Kane, came up with the idea to change the band name.A demo was recorded by the lineup (which had expanded to include Richard Girod on drums),though the band", "the band realized that they would have to retool some of the songs following the release of Metallica's debut album, in July 1983.The only Metallica-era song that ended up on Megadeth's debut album was \"Mechanix\".Songs from that time period included \"No Time\", \"Self Destruct\", \"Hair Pin Trigger\", \"Speak No Evil\", \"Eye for Eye\" and \"Heaven Knows\".\"Speak No Evil\" was the original title of \"Looking Down the Cross\",while \"No Time\" was an early title for \"Set the World Afire\" and \"Self Destruct\" was the original title for \"Mary Jane.\" While Handevidt would only last a few months, Mustaine and Ellefson formed a tight musical bond. Despite his enthusiasm, Mustaine had trouble finding other members to fill out the lineup. He and Ellefson auditioned about 15 drummers, hoping to find one who understoodmeterchanges in music. After briefly playing with Dijon Carruthers, they selectedLee Rauch. Following six months of trying to find a lead singer, Mustaine decided to perform lead vocals himself.Singers who temporarily", "who temporarily joined the band included Billy Bondsand John Cyriis, who would foundAgent Steelafter his firing from Megadeth. In 1984, Megadeth recorded a three-songdemotape featuring Mustaine, Ellefson, and Rauch.The demo tape,Last Rites, was released on March 9, 1984. It featured early versions of \"Last Rites/Loved to Death\", \"The Skull Beneath the Skin\", and \"Mechanix\", all of which appeared on the band's debut album.The band was unable to find a compatible second guitarist.Kerry KingofSlayerfilled in on rhythm guitar for several shows in the San Francisco area in 1984, starting with the debut gig on February 17 atRuthie's InninBerkeley,California,as well as a gig atThe Keystonein Berkeley that Apriland would play five shows in total with the band.Afterwards, King went back to Slayer and Megadeth replaced Rauch withjazz fusiondrummerGar Samuelson; he officially joined Megadeth on October 24, 1984.Samuelson had previously been in the jazz band The New Yorkers with guitaristChris Poland.After seeing", "Poland.After seeing Samuelson perform with Megadeth as a trio, Poland went backstage and suggested an impromptu audition as lead guitarist for the band; he joined Megadeth in December 1984. After considering several labels, Mustaine signed the band toCombat Records, a New York-basedIndependent record labelthat offered Megadeth the highest budget to record and tour.In 1985, Combat Records gave the band $8,000 to record and produce its debut album. After spending $4,000 of the budget on drugs, alcohol, and food, the band fired the original producer and finished the recording themselves. Despite its low-fidelitysound,Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!was relatively successful in underground metal circles and attracted major-label interest.The band was calling itself State Of The Art Speed Metal.Music writerJoel McIverpraised its \"blistering technicality\" and stated that the album \"raised the bar for the whole thrash metal scene, with guitarists forced to perform even more accurately and", "more accurately and powerfully\".The front cover marked the debut of band mascotVic Rattlehead, who regularly appeared on subsequent album artwork. Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!features \"Mechanix\", a song Mustaine wrote during his time with Metallica. Though Mustaine told the band after his dismissal not to use the music he had written, Metallica recorded a different version of the song, \"The Four Horsemen\", with a slower tempo and a melodic middle section.The album also included a cover ofNancy Sinatra's \"These Boots Are Made for Walkin'\", at a faster tempo and with altered lyrics. Megadeth's version generated controversy during the 1990s, when its writer,Lee Hazlewood, called Mustaine's changes \"vile and offensive\".Under threat of legal action, the song was removed from pressings released from 1995 to 2001. In mid-1985, on a bill with Canadian speed metal bandExciter, Megadeth played its first North American tour: the Killing for a Living Tour. GuitaristMike Albertreplaced Poland, who was", "Poland, who was battling drug addiction.Although Albert was originally supposed to be a permanent replacement,Poland rejoined Megadeth in October 1985, shortly before the group began recording its second album for Combat. 1986–1987:Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? According to Mustaine, Megadeth was under pressure to deliver another successful album: \"That sophomore offering is the 'be-all or end-all' of any band. You either go to the next level, or it's the beginning of the nadir.\"Mustaine composed the music for the album, with the other members adding arrangement ideas. The album was produced on a $25,000 budget from Combat Records. Dissatisfied with its financial limitations, the band left Combat and signed withCapitol Records. Capitol bought the rights to the album, and hired producer Paul Lani to remix the earlier recordings. Released in late 1986,Peace Sells... but Who's Buying?has clearer production and more sophisticated songwriting.Mustaine wanted to write socially conscious lyrics, unlike", "lyrics, unlike mainstream heavy metal bands who sang about \"hedonistic pleasures\".The album was noted for its political commentary and helped Megadeth expand its fanbase.Thetitle trackwas the album's second single, and was accompanied by a music video that received regular airplay onMTV. In February 1987, Megadeth was the opening act onAlice Cooper'sConstrictortour,and the following month began its first headlining world tour in the United Kingdom. The 72-week tour was supported byOverkillandNecros, and continued in the United States.During the tour, Mustaine and Ellefson considered firing Samuelson for his drug abuse.According to Mustaine, Samuelson had become too much to handle when intoxicated. DrummerChuck Behlertraveled with Megadeth for the last dates of the tour as the other band members feared Samuelson would not be able to continue.Poland quarreled with Mustaine, and was accused of selling band equipment to buy heroin.As a result, Samuelson and Poland were asked to leave Megadeth in 1987, with", "in 1987, with Behler becoming the band's full-time drummer. Poland was initially replaced by Jay Reynolds ofMalice, but as the band began working on its next record, Reynolds was replaced by his guitar teacher,Jeff Young, when Megadeth was six weeks into the recording of its third album. 1988–1989:So Far, So Good... So What! With a major-label budget, the Paul Lani-producedSo Far, So Good... So What!took over five months to record. The production was plagued with problems, partially due to Mustaine's struggle with drug addiction. Mustaine later said: \"The production ofSo Far, So Good... So What!was horrible, mostly due to substances and the priorities we had or didn't have at the time.\" Mustaine clashed with Lani, beginning with Lani's insistence that the drums be recorded separately from the cymbals, an unheard-of process for rock drummers.Mustaine and Lani became estranged during the mixing, and Lani was replaced byMichael Wagener, who remixed the album. So Far, So Good... So What!was released in January", "released in January 1988 and was well received by fans and critics.The album featured a cover version of theSex Pistols' \"Anarchy in the U.K.\"; Mustaine changed the lyrics, later saying that he had simply heard them incorrectly. To support the album, Megadeth embarked on aworld tourthat lasted for nearly eight months. The band (along withSavatage) opened forDioon theDream Eviltour and supportedIron Maidenon theirSeventh Son of a Seventh Sontour, both in the United States.They also headlined a North American tour withWarlockandSanctuary(whose debut albumRefuge Deniedwas produced by Mustaine), and a European trek withTestament,Nuclear Assault,Flotsam and Jetsamand Sanctuary. In June 1988, Megadeth appeared inPenelope Spheeris' documentaryThe Decline of Western Civilization Part II: The Metal Years.The documentary chronicled the Los Angeles heavy metal scene of the late 1980s, and Spheeris, who had directed Megadeth in the video for \"Wake Up Dead\", decided to include them to feature a more serious band in", "serious band in contrast to theglam metalgroups.Mustaine remembered the film as a disappointment, as it aligned Megadeth with \"a bunch of shit bands\". In August, the band appeared at theMonsters of Rockfestival atCastle Doningtonin the United Kingdom, performing to an audience of more than 100,000. One show featured a guest appearance by Metallica drummer (and Mustaine's former bandmate) Lars Ulrich. The band was added to the Monsters of Rock European tour, but left after the first show due to Ellefson's drug problems, for which he was treated immediately.Megadeth was replaced by Testament. Shortly after the Monsters of Rock appearance, Mustaine fired Behler and Young and canceled Megadeth's Australian tour. \"On the road, things escalated from a small border skirmish into a full-on raging war,\" Mustaine later recalled. \"I think a lot of us were inconsistent because of .\"During the tour, Mustaine noticed problems developing with Behler and brought in drummerNick Menzaas Behler'sdrum technician. As with", "technician. As with Samuelson, Menza was expected to take over if Behler could not continue the tour. Menza replaced Behler in 1989.Young's dismissal resulted from Mustaine's suspicions that he was having an affair with Mustaine's then-girlfriend, an allegation Young denied. The band was unable to quickly find a suitable replacement for Young. Although 1989 marked the first time since its inception that Megadeth did not tour nor perform at least one show, they recorded a cover version of Alice Cooper's \"No More Mr. Nice Guy\" which appeared on the soundtrack to theWes Cravenhorror movieShocker.The video was directed byPenelope Spheeris, who recalled the filming as a \"Herculean task\" as Mustaine was unable to play guitar because of his drug addiction.During the March 1989 auditions for a new lead guitarist, Mustaine was arrested fordriving under the influenceand possession of narcotics after crashing into a parked vehicle occupied by an off-duty police officer.Mustaine entered court-ordereddrug", "court-ordereddrug rehabilitationshortly afterwards, and became drug-free for the first time in ten years. 1990–1991:Rust in Peace With Mustaine sober, Megadeth continued searching for a new lead guitarist.Guns N' RosesguitaristSlashhad been jamming with Mustaine and Ellefson, and although it seemed that he might join Megadeth, he remained with Guns N' Roses.Dimebag DarrellofPanterawas offered the job, but the deal fell through after Mustaine refused his request to recruit his brother, Pantera drummerVinnie Paul, as he had already hired Menza.The offer was also extended toCriss Olivawho also declined as he did not want to leaveSavatage.Jeff Loomis, who would later go on to form progressive metal titansNevermore, also auditioned though Mustaine deemed him too young to join as Loomis was only 18 at the time. Marty Friedmanfilled the guitarist position at the recommendation of Ron Laffitte, a member of Capitol management. Laffitte had heardDragon's Kiss, a solo recording by Friedman when he was", "when he was inCacophony.Mustaine and Ellefson were satisfied with Friedman's style and thought that he understood Megadeth's music.With Friedman in the group, the band completed what fans consider the definitive Megadeth lineup.The revitalized band entered the studio atRumbo Recordersin March 1990 with co-producerMike Clinkto begin Megadeth's most critically acclaimed album,Rust in Peace. Clink was the first producer to complete a Megadeth album without being fired.Its recording was documented inRusted Pieces, a home video released in 1991 with six music videos and an interview with the band. Released in September 1990,Rust in Peacedebuted at number 23 in the United States and number eight in the United Kingdom.Mustaine had developed a writing style with a rhythmically complex, progressive edge, and the songs featured longer guitar solos and frequent tempo changes.Described as a genre-defining work byDecibel,the album solidified Megadeth's reputation in the music industry.It features the singles \"Holy", "the singles \"Holy Wars... The Punishment Due\" and \"Hangar 18\", both of which were accompanied by music videos and became live staples.Rust in Peacereceived a Grammy nomination in 1991 forBest Metal Performance,and was the group's third platinum album, certified in December 1994. Early in 1990, Megadeth joinedSlayer,Testament, andSuicidal Tendenciesfor the successful EuropeanClash of the Titanstour, featuring several American thrash metal bands.An American leg began the following year featuring Megadeth, Slayer, andAnthrax, withAlice in Chainsas a supporting act. The tour was considered a multi-headliner, as the three main bands alternated time slots.In addition to theClash of the Titanstour, Megadeth (along with Testament) supportedJudas Prieston theirPainkillertourin North America late in 1990 and appeared at the secondRock in Riofestival in January 1991.In July 1991 the song \"Go to Hell\" was featured in the filmBill & Ted's Bogus Journeyand on its soundtrack. 1992–1993:Countdown to Extinction The music for", "The music for Megadeth's fifth studio album was written in two different sessions. The first session occurred after the conclusion of theClash of the Titanstour, while the second session happened in the fall of 1991 following a one-month break.Recording sessions for the album began in January 1992 atEnterprise StudiosinBurbank, California.Max Normanwas chosen to produce, as the band was pleased with his mixing ofRust in Peace.Megadeth spent nearly four months in the studio with Norman, writing and recording what became the band's most commercially successful album,Countdown to Extinction.The album, whose title was suggested by Menza, features songwriting contributions from each band member.Ellefson explained that the band changed its approach to songwriting for this album, beginning to write more melodic songs. Released in July 1992,Countdown to Extinctionentered theBillboard200chart at number two and was certified double platinum in the United States.It received a nomination for Best Metal Performance at", "Performance at the1993 Grammy Awards,and its title track won aGenesis Awardfrom theHumane Societyin 1993 for raising awareness for animal rights issues.Ellefson later said that he and Friedman were disappointed that Megadeth did not win the Grammy: \"It was such a bizarre moment, because it was as if the amount of work it had taken to ramp up to that hopeful night was literally gone in a second.\" A world tour in support of the album was launched in late 1992, withPanteraandWhite Zombieas supporting acts.The tour included a North American leg in early 1993, withStone Temple Pilotsas the opening act. One month into the leg, the remaining shows, including dates in Japan, were canceled when Mustaine returned to substance abuse, ending up in a hospital emergency room.After seven weeks in rehab, Mustaine emerged sober again and the band returned to the studio to record \"Angry Again\". The song is featured on thesoundtrackof the 1993 filmLast Action Heroand received a Grammy nomination in 1994. During mid-1993,", "During mid-1993, Megadeth performed at a number of shows with Metallica in Europe. The first was atMilton Keynes Bowlin England, and includedDiamond Head.In July, Megadeth was added as the opening act forAerosmith'sGet a Grip Tour, but was removed from the bill after three shows.Aerosmith said that Megadeth was \"dumped\" because of Mustaine's erratic behavior, while Capitol Records said it was due to \"artistic restrictions\".After the canceled US tour, Megadeth returned to the studio to record \"99 Ways to Die\", which appeared onThe Beavis and Butt-Head Experience, a compilation album released in November featuring songs interspersed with commentary by the main characters of the animated seriesBeavis and Butt-Head. The song was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the1995 Grammy Awards.During these sessions, Megadeth recorded a cover version ofBlack Sabbath's \"Paranoid\", which appeared on the Black Sabbath tribute albumNativity in Black; it was nominated for a Grammy the following year. 1994–1995:Youthanasia", "In early 1994, Megadeth reunited with producer Max Norman for the follow-up toCountdown to Extinction. With three band members living inArizona, initial work began at Phase Four Studios inPhoenix.A few days into pre-production, problems with Phase Four's equipment forced the band to look for another studio. Mustaine insisted on recording in Arizona, but no suitable recording facility could be found. At Norman's request, the band built its own recording studio in Phoenix in a rented warehouse, later called \"Fat Planet in Hangar 18\".During the studio's construction, much of the pre-production songwriting and arrangements were done at Vintage Recorders in Phoenix.At Norman's suggestion, the tracks onYouthanasiahad a slower tempo than previous albums, at about 120beats per minute.The band abandoned the progressive approach from its previous albums and focused on stronger vocal melodies and more accessible, radio-friendly arrangements.For the first time, Megadeth wrote and arranged the entire album in the studio,", "in the studio, including basic tracks recorded live by the entire band. The album's recording was video recorded and released asEvolver: The Making of Youthanasiain 1995. After eight months of studio work,Youthanasiawas released in November 1994. It debuted at number four on theBillboard200 and charted in several European countries.The album was certified gold in Canada the day it was released,and was certified platinum in the US two months later.Megadeth hired fashion photographerRichard Avedonto enhance the band's image. Avedon had the band members exchange their jeans and T-shirts for a more conscious appearance.To promoteYouthanasia, the band played a Halloween show inNew York Citycalled \"Night of the Living Megadeth\", which was broadcast live on MTV.In November, the band performed twice on theLate Show with David Letterman, playing \"Train of Consequences\" on the first appearance and \"A Tout le Monde\" on the second. An eleven-month tour began in South America in November 1994. In 1995, Megadeth played in", "Megadeth played in Europe and North America with several opening acts, includingCorrosion of Conformity,KornandFear Factory.The tour culminated with an appearance at the Monsters of Rock festival in Brazil, co-headlining with Alice Cooper andOzzy Osbourne.In January 1995, Megadeth appeared on the soundtrack of the horror movieDemon Knightwith the song \"Diadems\".In July, Megadeth releasedHidden Treasures, anextended playfeaturing songs which originally appeared on movie soundtracks and tribute albums. 1996–1999:Cryptic WritingsandRisk After completing the extensive world tour in support ofYouthanasia, Megadeth took time off in most of 1996 and nearly broke up.During this period, Mustaine began work onMD.45, a side project with vocalistLee VingofFear. The majority of the songs on the album were intended for Megadeth, but due to the band almost disbanding, Mustaine decided to use them for MD.45 instead.The duo hired drummerJimmy DeGrasso, who had played with Alice Cooper on the South American Monsters of Rock", "Monsters of Rock tour earlier that year.Marty Friedman built a studio in his new home in Phoenix and completed his fourth solo album, released in April 1996. In September 1996, Megadeth went to London to work on songs for the next album. The songwriting was closely supervised by new manager Bud Prager, who contributed musical ideas and lyrics; many lyrics and song titles were changed at his request.Regarding Prager's influence, Mustaine later wrote: \"I figured maybe this guy could help me get that intangible number one record I so badly wanted.\"The album, recorded inNashville, was Megadeth's first collaboration withcountry popproducerDann Huff, who had met Mustaine in 1990. Cryptic Writingswas released in June 1997. The album peaked at number ten on theBillboard200,and was eventually certified gold in the United States. Its lead single, \"Trust\", became Megadeth's highest charting song on theMainstream Rock Tracksat number five,and was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the1998 Grammy Awards.Although", "Awards.Although all four singles from the album entered the top 20 onBillboard's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart,press response to the album was mixed. The album featured a diverse set of songs which theLos Angeles Timesdescribed as a \"rousing balance\" between older material and experimental songs.Asked about the album's eclecticism, Mustaine said thatCryptic Writingswas divided into thirds. One part was based around faster, more aggressive material, another was \"radio-orientated music likeYouthanasia\", and the final third was more melodic. After more than a year since the band's last concert, Megadeth returned as a live act in June 1997, beginning a world tour with theMisfitsand touring in the United States withLife of AgonyandCoal Chamber.In July, the band participated inOzzfest'98 but, halfway through the tour, Menza reportedly discovered a tumor on his knee and left to undergo surgery.Jimmy DeGrasso, who had collaborated with Mustaine in MD.45, was hired to replace Menza for the remainder of the tour.Though", "of the tour.Though initially meant to be a temporary replacement, DeGrasso joined the band permanently after the tour. Mustaine later said that he dismissed Menza from the band because he believed the drummer had lied about having cancer. Following the band's mainstream radio success withCryptic Writings, Megadeth again worked with Dann Huff on its eighth studio album. The band began writing in January 1999, supervised by manager Bud Prager, who was credited with co-writing five of the album's twelve songs.With high expectations following the chart success of \"Trust\", Prager convinced Mustaine to grant Huff even more control over the album's recording, a decision Mustaine later regretted. Risk, released in August 1999, was a critical and commercial failure and led to backlash from many longtime fans. Although its two predecessors incorporated rock elements alongside a more traditional heavy metal sound,Riskwas virtually devoid of metal.About the band's musical direction, Dave Mustaine said: \"We hit the nadir", "\"We hit the nadir of our career withRisk, and I vowed after that we were going to get back to our roots. It took a little bit of time to do that.\"Despite this,Riskwas certified gold in the United States.The album's lead single, \"Crush 'Em\", appeared on the soundtrack forUniversal Soldier: The Returnand was used as an entrance theme forNHLhockey games and professional wrestling events. On July 14, 1999, former drummer Gar Samuelson died ofliver failureat age 41 inOrange City, Florida.Eleven days later, during Megadeth's performance atWoodstock 1999, Mustaine dedicated \"Peace Sells\" to Samuelson's memory. That month, Megadeth also recorded a cover version of the Black Sabbath's \"Never Say Die\" for the second Nativity in Black tribute album.The band began a world tour in support ofRiskin September, playing with Iron Maiden during the European leg. Three months into the tour, Friedman announced his resignation from Megadeth, citing musical differences.Mustaine later said: \"I told afterRiskthat we had to go back", "we had to go back to our roots and play metal, and he quit.\" 2000–2002:The World Needs a Hero, breakup, and hiatus In January 2000, guitaristAl Pitrelli, formerly ofSavatageand theTrans-Siberian Orchestra, became Friedman's replacement.Megadeth returned to the studio in April to work on its ninth studio album. A month into production, the band received an offer to join the Maximum Rock tour with Anthrax andMötley Crüe. Megadeth put the recording on hold and toured North America during the second quarter of 2000.Early in the tour, Anthrax was removed from the bill, allowing Megadeth to play an extended co-headlining set.The tour, however, suffered from poor ticket sales. After 15 years with Capitol Records, Megadeth left the label in July 2000. According to Mustaine, the departure was due to ongoing tensions with Capitol management.Capitol returned the band's newest recordings and released a greatest hits album,Capitol Punishment: The Megadeth Years, with two new tracks: \"Kill the King\" and \"Dread and the", "and \"Dread and the Fugitive Mind\".In November, Megadeth signed withSanctuary Records. The band returned to the studio in October to finish its next album,The World Needs a Hero, which was near completion when Megadeth joined the Maximum Rock tour six months earlier. Following the negative response toRisk,Mustaine fired Bud Prager and produced the album himself.The songs were written by Mustaine alone, except for \"Promises\", which had contributions from Pitrelli.Two days before the release ofThe World Needs a Hero, Megadeth appeared in an episode ofVH1'sBehind the Musicshowcasing Mustaine, Ellefson, several past members, and Mustaine's old Metallica bandmates James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich. The World Needs a Herowas released in May 2001 and debuted at number sixteen on theBillboard200. It was banned in Malaysia when the national government determined that the album's artwork was \"unsuitable for the nation's youth\". Consequently, the band canceled its concert of August 2 inKuala Lumpur.The album marked", "album marked Megadeth's return to a more aggressive sound after the stylistic variations of its previous two albums,but critics felt it fell short of expectations.Mustaine compared the album to a huge ship at sea, turning and trying to right itself to get back on course.Its lead single, \"Moto Psycho\", reached number 22 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart. A European tour withAC/DCin support ofThe World Needs a Herobegan in mid-2001, followed by an American tour withIced EarthandEndoin September.Mustaine allowed fans to choose the setlist in each American city.However, the tour was cut short following theSeptember 11 attacks; all dates were canceled, including a DVD shoot in Argentina. The band instead played two shows in Arizona on November 16 and 17, which were filmed and released as Megadeth's first live release,Rude Awakening.That year,Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!was remixed and remastered; the reissue featured modified artwork and several bonus tracks. In January 2002, Mustaine was", "2002, Mustaine was hospitalized for the removal of akidney stoneand was administered pain medication that triggered a relapse of his drug addiction. Following his stay, Mustaine checked himself into a treatment center in Texas. While there, Mustaine fell asleep with his left arm over the back of a chair, causing compression of theradial nerve. He was subsequently diagnosed withradial neuropathy, which left him unable to grasp or make a fist with his left hand. On April 3, Mustaine announced in a press release that he was disbanding Megadeth, as his arm injury rendered him unable to play guitar.For the next four months, he had physical therapy five days a week, and slowly began to \"re-teach\" his left hand.To fulfill contract obligations to Sanctuary, Megadeth released the compilation albumStill Alive... and Well?. The first half of the album contains live tracks recorded at the Web Theatre in Phoenix, and the second half has studio recordings fromThe World Needs a Hero. Following nearly a year of recovery,", "a year of recovery, including physical andelectroshock therapy, Mustaine began work on what was to have been his first solo album. The new material was recorded with session musiciansVinnie ColaiutaandJimmie Lee Sloasin October 2003. The project was put on hold when Mustaine agreed to remix and remaster Megadeth's eight-album back catalog on Capitol Records,re-recording portions that were missing or altered without his knowledge in the original mixing. 2004–2005: Reformation andThe System Has Failed In May 2004, Mustaine returned to his solo project. Contractual obligations to the band's European label,EMI, resulted in the recording's release as a Megadeth album.Mustaine reformed the band and contacted the fan-favoriteRust in Peacelineup to re-record backing tracks. While drummer Nick Menza agreed to return, both Marty Friedman and David Ellefson were unable to come to an agreement with Mustaine.Menza was sent home shortly after rehearsals began, a few days before the start of a tour supporting Megadeth's", "Megadeth's upcoming album. Mustaine said Menza was insufficiently prepared for the physical demands of a US tour, and \"it just didn't work out\".This was the first album without Ellefson. Chris Poland, who played lead guitar on Megadeth's first two albums, was hired to contribute guitar solos to the new album, working with Mustaine for the first time since the 1980s. Poland opted to serve only as a session musician, wanting to remain focused on his jazz fusion projectOHM. The System Has Failedwas released in September 2004. Critics heralded it as a return to form;Revolvergave the album a favorable review, calling it \"Megadeth's most vengeful, poignant and musically complex offering since 1992'sCountdown to Extinction\".The album marked a shift toward the band's earlier sound; journalist Amy Sciarretto ofCMJ New Music Reportwrote that the album contained \"neo-thrashriffing with biting, politically charged lyrics\".The System Has Faileddebuted at number eighteen on theBillboard200and was led by \"Die Dead Enough\",", "\"Die Dead Enough\", which reached number 21 on the USMainstream Rock chart.Mustaine announced that the album would be the band's last and would be followed by a farewell tour, after which he would focus on a solo career. Megadeth began the Blackmail the Universe world tour in October, enlisting touring bassistJames MacDonoughof Iced Earth and guitaristGlen DroverofEidolonandKing Diamond. Five days before the first show, Menza was replaced byShawn Drover, who remained with the band as a regular member.The band toured the US withExodusand Europe with Diamond Head andDungeon.In June 2005, Capitol released a greatest-hits compilation,Greatest Hits: Back to the Start, featuring remixed and remastered versions of songs chosen by fans from Megadeth's Capitol albums. In mid-2005, Mustaine organized an annual thrash metal festival tour,Gigantour. Megadeth headlined the inaugural tour with acts such asDream Theater,Nevermore, Anthrax, and Fear Factory. Performances at theMontrealandVancouvershows were filmed and", "were filmed and recorded for a live DVD-and-CD set released in the second quarter of 2006.On October 9, following the successes ofThe System Has Failedand the Blackmail the Universe world tour, Mustaine announced to a sold-out crowd at thePepsi Music Rock Festivalin Argentina that Megadeth would continue to record and tour.The concert, held atObras Sanitariasstadium inBuenos Airesin front of 25,000 fans, was filmed and released on DVD asThat One Night: Live in Buenos Airesin 2007. 2006–2008:United Abominations In February 2006, bassist James MacDonough left the band over \"personal differences\".He was replaced byJames LoMenzo, who had worked withDavid Lee Roth,White Lion, andBlack Label Society.The new Megadeth lineup made its live debut headlining theDubai Desert Rock Festivalin theUnited Arab Emirateswith Testament.In March, Capitol released a two-disc DVD,Arsenal of Megadeth, which included archive footage, interviews, live shows, and many of the band's music videos. Due to licensing issues, soundtrack and", "soundtrack and non-Capitol videos were not included.The second Gigantour began during the third quarter of 2006; Megadeth again headlined, this time withLamb of God,Opeth,Arch Enemyand Overkill.The 2006 tour included three dates in Australia, supported bySoulfly,Arch Enemy, andCaliban. In May 2006, Megadeth announced that its eleventh studio album,United Abominations, was near completion. Originally scheduled for release in October, Mustaine said that the band was \"putting the finishing touches on it\" and postponed its release to May of the following year.He commented on the release: \"Metal needs a really good old-school record again. I believe I have delivered.\"United Abominationswas the band's first album to feature Glen Drover, Shawn Drover, and James Lomenzo. It also has a newer version of \"A Tout le Monde\" entitled \"À Tout le Monde (Set Me Free)\". The 2007 version is a duet withCristina ScabbiaofLacuna Coil; it was recorded at a slightly faster tempo than the original and contains an extended solo.", "an extended solo. Released in May 2007,United Abominationsdebuted at number eight on theBillboard200, selling 54,000 copies in the first week.In March, Megadeth began a North American tour opening for the newly reformedHeaven & Hell. The band played withDownfor Canadian shows and withMachine Headfor the US dates.A European summer festival tour followed. Late in the year, Megadeth returned to the United States to headline its Tour of Duty.In November, the band brought Gigantour to Australia with a lineup includingStatic-X,DevilDriverand Lacuna Coil. In January 2008, Glen Drover quit Megadeth, stating that he was tired of the frequent touring and wanted to spend more time with his family. He also cited personal issues with other band members.Drover was replaced byChris Broderick, formerly ofNevermoreandJag Panzer.Broderick was initially asked by Mustaine's management company at the end of 2007 if he would be interested in auditioning for Megadeth. After an informal meeting at Mustaine's house, Broderick was", "Broderick was introduced as the band's new guitarist.Mustaine complimented Broderick's playing skills and called him \"the best guitarist Megadeth has ever had\".Broderick's former Nevermore bandmate,Van Williams, congratulated Megadeth on \"getting one hell of a good player, more importantly they're getting a great guy to hang out with and a true friend\". The new lineup made its live debut at theHelsinki Ice Hallon February 4. The 2008 Gigantour, with 29 North American dates, began shortly afterwards.Mustaine wanted a shorter lineup, allowing each band a chance to perform well. The third tour featuredIn Flames,Children of Bodom,Job for a CowboyandHigh on Fire.Megadeth continued the Tour of Duty in South America and Mexico in May and June. A compilation album,Anthology: Set the World Afire, was released in September 2008. 2009–2010:Endgameand Ellefson's return In February 2009, Megadeth and Testament were scheduled on the European \"Priest Feast\" tour, with Judas Priest as headliners.At this time, Metallica, who", "Metallica, who had been inducted into theRock and Roll Hall of Fame, invited Mustaine to attend the ceremony. Mustaine was informed that he would not be inducted to the Hall of Fame because such honors were granted only to those members who received recording credit on a Metallica album.Mustaine congratulated the group respectfully, and honored his commitment to the European tour with Judas Priest.In April, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined the Canadian Carnage. This was the first time they had performed together in more than 15 years. Machine Head andSuicide Silenceopened for the four shows that occurred later in June. In May, Megadeth finished recording its twelfth album,Endgame.The release date forEndgamewas announced on the Megadeth official website, andMetal Hammerwas the first to review the album track-by-track.Megadeth began its Endgame tour in October, and finished it in December. The tour featured a number of supporting acts, including Machine Head, Suicide Silence, andWarbringer.In January 2010,", "January 2010, Megadeth was set to embark on the American Carnage tour with Slayer and Testament, but the tour was postponed due toTom Araya's back surgery.Several weeks later, Megadeth's \"Head Crusher\" was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the2010 Grammy Awards, the band's eighth Grammy nomination in 19 years. In March, Megadeth embarked on the Rust in Peace 20th Anniversary Tour, which took place in North America and had support from Testament and Exodus. During the tour, Megadeth playedRust in Peacein its entirety.Prior to the start of the tour, original bassistDavid Ellefsonrejoined Megadeth after eight years. In an interview forClassic Rock, he stated that Shawn Drover contacted him, informing him that bassist LoMenzo was leaving the band, saying \"if ever there was a time for you and Dave to talk, now is it\". Megadeth, along with Metallica, Slayer, and Anthrax, collectively known as the \"big four\" of thrash metal, agreed to perform on the same bill during mid-2010. These performances were part of", "were part of theSonisphere Festivaland were held in a number of European countries.One such performance inSofia, Bulgaria, was filmed and released as a full-length video entitledThe Big Four: Live from Sofia, Bulgaria.These shows continued the following year in the United States. The first took place inIndio, California, and was the only scheduled show in the United States at the time,although a second American production was held atYankee Stadiumin New York City shortly afterwards. In July 2010, after the European \"big four\" shows, Megadeth and Slayer commenced the first leg of theAmerican Carnage Tour, where Megadeth playedRust in Peacein its entirety, while Slayer performed its albumSeasons in the Abyss, both of which were released in 1990.From these shows onward, Vic Rattlehead started making sustained onstage appearances, to improve the visual facet of Megadeth's live performances.Shortly afterward, the two bands united with Anthrax for theJägermeister Music Tourin late 2010.During the final show of the", "final show of the tour, Kerry King joined Megadeth on stage at theGibson Amphitheatrein Hollywood to perform Megadeth's \"Rattlehead\". It was the first time that King had performed onstage with Megadeth since 1984.Megadeth and Slayer again shared the stage for theEuropean Carnage Tourin March and April 2011.Megadeth also headlined the fourth annualRockstar Mayhem Festivalin July and August the same year. In September, the band released the DVD albumRust in Peace Live, recorded at theHollywood Palladiumin Los Angeles.Later that month, Megadeth released \"Sudden Death\" for the video gameGuitar Hero: Warriors of Rock.The song was commissioned by the publishers of theGuitar Herofranchise, who wanted the track to feature dark lyrics and multiple guitar solos.It was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the2011 Grammy ceremony. 2011–2014:ThirteenandSuper Collider Megadeth returned to its own Vic's Garage studio in 2011 to record its thirteenth album, to be produced byJohnny K, because Andy Sneap, the producer of", "the producer of Megadeth's previous two albums, was unavailable.The album was titledThirteenand featured previously released tracks such as \"Sudden Death\" and \"Never Dead\".The album was released in November 2011, and charted at number eleven on theBillboard200; its lead single \"Public Enemy No. 1\" received a Grammy nomination forBest Hard Rock/Metal Performance, but did not win.Shortly after the album was released, Dave Mustaine stated that, after a four-year hiatus, there would be a new Gigantour tour in early 2012.The lineup consisted ofMotörhead,Volbeat, and Lacuna Coil alongside Megadeth.After the conclusion of Gigantour,Rob Zombieand Megadeth embarked on a nine-date co-headlining US tour in the summer of 2012. In September 2012, it was announced that Megadeth would re-releaseCountdown to Extinctionin honor of the album's 20th anniversary. To mark the occasion, Megadeth launched a tour in which the band performed the album live in its entirety.One performance, filmed at thePomona Fox Theater, was", "Fox Theater, was released as a live album,Countdown to Extinction: Live,the following year.Another track fromThirteen, \"Whose Life (Is It Anyways?)\", was nominated for Best Hard Rock/Metal Performance at the2013 Grammy Awards, but lost toHalestorm's \"Love Bites (So Do I)\". In August, Megadeth announced the recording of its fourteenth album with producer Johnny K.At the start of 2013, Megadeth leftRoadrunner Recordsfor Mustaine's newly founded label, Tradecraft, distributed throughUniversal Music Group.The album,Super Collider, was released in June and debuted at number six on theBillboard200, the band's highest chart position since 1994'sYouthanasia.Critical reaction to the album, however, was largely negative, with criticism directed towards the album's deviation from the band's traditional metal sound.Shortly after the release ofSuper Collider, Mustaine stated that he had already started thinking about a fifteenth Megadeth album. He said this had been spurred by the death of Slayer guitaristJeff Hanneman,", "Hanneman, which gave him a sense of mortality.Mustaine elaborated: \"You know, time is short. Nobody knows how long they're gonna live. You see what happened with Jeff Hanneman, so I wanna write as much as I can while I can.\" The 2013 edition of Gigantour featuredBlack Label Society,Hellyeah,Device, andNewstedas opening bands.At the final show,Jason Newsted, Metallica's former bassist, joined Megadeth onstage to perform \"Phantom Lord\", a song Mustaine had co-written during his stint with Metallica.Early in 2014, Megadeth was slated to play theSoundwavefestival in Australia, but pulled out over a disagreement with tour promoter A. J. Maddah concerning the band's sideshows with Newsted.Icon, an eleven-song compilation of Megadeth's Capitol-era material, was released as part of Universal Music'sIcon seriesin February. Megadeth encountered several setbacks throughout 2014. After Ellefson's brother died of cancer in May, the band cancelled its June tour dates to allow him to mourn.A planned August concert inTel", "concert inTel Avivwas canceled due to anarmed conflict between Israel and Gaza.Megadeth was scheduled to appear onMotörhead's Motörboat cruise in late September, but withdrew because of Mustaine's complications following his cervical spine surgery.In late November, Drover quit the band after ten years, wanting to pursue his own musical interests, but has said he is grateful for the career Mustaine gave him.This was quickly followed by the departure of Broderick, due to artistic and musical differences.Ellefson denied rumors that Megadeth would disband, and said he and Mustaine would continue working on new music.Mustaine later said one of the reasons for Broderick and Drover leaving was their frustration over Megadeth's fan base demanding a reunion with Friedman and Menza. 2015–2018:Dystopia Lamb of GoddrummerChris Adlerand guitaristKiko LoureiroofAngrawere brought in to perform on Megadeth's fifteenth studio album after Mustaine unsuccessfully attempted to reunite theRust in Peacelineup.In October 2015,", "October 2015, Megadeth streamed \"Fatal Illusion\" off the albumDystopia, which was released in January 2016.In support ofDystopia, Megadeth embarked on a North American tour in February and March withSuicidal Tendencies,Children of BodomandHavok(though Havok was soon removed from the tour by Megadeth's management following a dispute over a contract).Mustaine announced that Adler, who was performing with both Lamb of God and Megadeth, was no longer in the band due to scheduling conflicts between the two bands. He was replaced byDirk VerbeurenfromSoilwork, on Adler's recommendation.A second US tour took place in September and October, with support fromAmon Amarth, Suicidal Tendencies,Metal Church,andButcher Babies.Former drummer Menza died of a heart attack on May 21, 2016, while performing with OHM at ajazz clubin Los Angeles. Asked about any further Big Four gigs, Mustaine called for \"the powers-that-be\" to help put together a new Big Four tour in 2017 as all the respective bands were promoting new", "were promoting new albums.Dystopia's title track won theGrammy Award for Best Metal Performanceat the2017 Grammy Awards, the band's first win after 12 nominations.Mustaine, Loureiro, Ellefson, and Verbeuren attended the ceremony; however, album drummer and award recipient Chris Adlerdid not. While accepting the award, the house band played Mustaine's former band Metallica's \"Master of Puppets\" causing some controversy among fans. In a June 2017 interview with No Brown M&Ms, Mustaine said that Megadeth would enter the studio at the end of the year to begin working on their sixteenth studio album.A month later, Mustaine stated on Twitter that he had begun \"collecting ideas\" for the new album, but stated that they would \"probably\" enter the studio in mid-2018 to begin recording it for a 2019 release.The band joined withScorpionsfor a co-headlining tour in the fall of 2017. In 2018, Megadeth marked their 35th anniversary by re-releasing their 1985 debut albumKilling Is My Business... And Business Is Good!,", "Business Is Good!, dubbedKilling Is My Business... and Business Is Good! - The Final Killon June 8, 2018, as a deluxe package containing remastered versions of all songs to Mustaine's intended vision, a re-cut version of \"These Boots\" lyrically adjusted toLee Hazlewood's version, rare live performances of songs off the album during Alice Cooper's Live in the Flesh Tour and the 1984 three song demo. 2019–2023: Ellefson's second departure andThe Sick, the Dying... and the Dead! On May 10, 2019, Megadeth entered the studio inFranklin, Tennessee, to begin pre-production of the next album, once again teaming up withDystopiaco-producer Chris Rakestraw.On June 17, the band announced that all shows scheduled in 2019 (with the exception of the MegaCruise) would be cancelled due to Mustaine being diagnosed with throat cancer;of all the cancelled dates, the band was scheduled to supportOzzy Osbourneon the North American leg of theNo More Tours IItour,which had been postponed from the summer of 2019 to the summer of", "to the summer of 2020 due to Osbourne sustaining an injury while dealing with pneumonia. They were replaced byMarilyn Mansoninstead.Despite Mustaine's illness, the band vowed to continue working on their new album.On November 6, Mustaine shared a video onInstagramteasing a track from the band's upcoming album,which was originally set for release in 2019.On July 17, Megadeth announced their partnership withGimme RadioandRichard Childress Racingon the No. 2 Gimme RadioChevrolet Camaro, which was driven byXfinity SeriesdriverTyler Reddickat theNew Hampshire 200on July 20.On August 21, the band announced that they would embark on their first tour since Mustaine's illness in January and February 2020, withFive Finger Death PunchandBad Wolvessupporting on the European tour. The band was originally scheduled to perform on the first-ever MegaCruise to coincide with the release of the next album,due to sail on October 13, 2019, fromLos Angelesand hit ports ofSan DiegoandEnsenadabefore returning on October 18,", "on October 18, including performances by heavy metal acts such asLamb of God,Anthrax,Testament,Overkill,Corrosion of Conformity,Queensrÿche,Armored Saint,Metal Church,Suicidal Tendencies,DragonForce,Doro,John 5,Death AngelandToothgrinder,however, Mustaine was not present due to his illness. It was instead a live performance featuring members of each respective band playingKisssongs. Megadeth was originally scheduled to embark on a co-headlining tour in North America with Lamb of God dubbed \"The Metal Tour of the Year\" in the summer of 2020, withTriviumandIn Flamesas support acts,but was postponed due to theCOVID-19 pandemic. The tour was rescheduled for the summer of 2021,withHatebreedreplacing In Flames due to the latter being forced to withdraw from the line-up due to international visa issues caused by the pandemic.Megadeth re-entered the studio in Nashville in mid-2020 to resume recording their new album, tentatively planned for release in 2021.While hosting a Masterclass \"Front Row Live\" for fans", "Row Live\" for fans viaZoomon January 9, 2021, Mustaine announced the title of the band's sixteenth album would be calledThe Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!, however he indicated that the title might be subject to change. In May 2021, sexually explicit videos of Ellefson were leaked to social media. The videos, reportedly recorded by a 19-year-old fan who was in correspondence with Ellefson, led to initial accusations of child grooming. Ellefson and the fan denied these claims in separate statements and maintained their encounters were consensual.On May 24, Megadeth issued a statement announcing Ellefson's dismissal from the band.Ellefson later confirmed that he had actually been dismissed ten days earlier on May 14; the videos originally surfaced on May 10.Following the controversy, Mustaine said there would be no chance for Ellefson to rejoin the band, while Ellefson said he would pursue legal action against the leaked videos. On Mustaine's Gimme Radio programThe Dave Mustaine Showon June 17, he said that", "17, he said that the bass tracks recorded by Ellefson in May 2020 would not appear on the upcoming album and would be re-recorded by a different bassist,which was completed a short time later, but did not say who it was. He also revealed a song title from the album called \"The Dogs of Chernobyl\".Mustaine confirmed soon after that a new bassist was chosen with a picture showing the neck of the bass guitar and the unknown member being shown on the floor behind a chair, however, he did not reveal the name, but would announce it soon.Former bassistJames LoMenzofilled in for the band's upcoming tour with Lamb of God,whileSteve Di GiorgioofTestamentperformed as a session bassist onThe Sick, the Dying... and the Dead!, which was released in September 2022.LoMenzo was announced as the band's official bassist in May 2022. After several teasers,\"We'll Be Back\", the first single from the record, was released on June 23,along with the tracklist, followed by next singles \"Night Stalkers\" and \"Soldier On!\", released on", "On!\", released on July 22and August 12respectively. In November 2022, the band released a cover of aJudas Priestsong titled \"Delivering The Goods\" from their 1978 album,Killing Machine. On February 27, 2023, Megadeth was joined by former guitarist Marty Friedman where they performed three songs at the Budokan in Japan. This marked Friedman's first performance with the band since 2000.On June 23, former drummerLee Rauschdied at the age of 58. 2023–present: Kiko Loureiro's departure and upcoming seventeenth studio album On September 6, 2023, it was announced that lead guitaristKiko Loureirowould temporarily be leaving the North American portion of the tour and that he would be replaced byTeemu Mäntysaari.On November 20, 2023, Mäntysaari joined Megadeth as their lead guitarist, after Loureiro announced he would be extending his absence from the band.Loureiro said in a November 28, 2023 podcast interview that he was no longer in the band.Loureiro explained his departure in a January 2024 interview withGuitar", "withGuitar World, saying: “I had two viable options: to be in Megadeth or not. I chose my personal life. No regrets”. In a December 2023 interview onThe SDR Show, Mustaine revealed his intention to release at least three more studio albums as Megadeth, with the first to be released in 2025: \"If it takes two years between an album — let's just say it does, if I'm able to put them out fast — it'll probably be three years, but let's just say it's two years. And I put an album out. We've still got about a year left on this one, at least. So that'll take us into '25.\" Controversies Mustaine has made numerous inflammatory statements in the press,usually regarding issues with former Metallica bandmates. The feud stemmed from his ejection from the band, how it was conducted, and disagreements on songwriting credits.Mustaine expressed his anger in the movieMetallica: Some Kind of Monster,in a scene he later disapproved of as he felt he was mischaracterized, and that it did not represent the full extent of what", "full extent of what happened during the meeting. During a live performance of \"Anarchy in the U.K.\" at a 1988 show inAntrim,Northern Ireland, Mustaine dedicated the song to \"the cause\" of \"giving Ireland back to the Irish!\"Before the final song, Mustaine said, \"This one's for the cause! Give Ireland back to the Irish!\"This elicited a riot and fighting among the audience betweenIrish Nationalists, the majority of whom areCatholic, and the predominantlyProtestant,British Unionistsin attendance. The band had to travel in a bulletproof bus back toDublin.This incident served as inspiration for the song \"Holy Wars... The Punishment Due\". Controversial or misinterpreted lyrics have caused complications for the band. In 1988,MTVdeemed that the song \"In My Darkest Hour\" encouraged suicide and banned the video.The station banned the video for \"A Tout le Monde\" for the same reason, though Mustaine said the song was written from the perspective of a dying man saying his last words to his loved ones.According to him, MTV", "to him, MTV considered the videos for \"Skin o' My Teeth\" and \"Symphony of Destruction\" a \"little bit too harsh\" and refused to play them. During a world tour in 2001, the Malaysian government canceled the band's show in the nation's capital because the authorities had a negative perception of the group's image and music.The government deemed the band's mascot, Vic Rattlehead, as inappropriate and told the members that they would be arrested if they performed.Dave Mustaine responded: \"I recognize what the Malaysian government is trying to do, and it is admirable of them trying to protect the young people in the country. But it just shows the degree of ignorance and apathy that the government has toward the problem.\" In 2003, after recovering from an arm injury that threatened to end his career, Mustaine became aborn-againChristian.Minor controversy was sparked by Mustaine's announcement that Megadeth would not play certain songs live due to his conversion.In May 2005, Mustaine allegedly threatened to cancel", "to cancel shows in Greece and Israel withextreme metalbandsRotting ChristandDissectiondue to the bands' anti-Christian beliefs. This caused the two bands to cancel appearances. In July 2004, former bassist Ellefson sued Mustaine for $18.5 million in theUnited States District Court for the Southern District of New York. Ellefson alleged that Mustaine short-changed him on profits including tour merchandise and publishing royalties.The suit was dismissed in 2005, and Mustaine filed a countersuit alleging that Ellefson had used the band's name in an advertisement for musical equipment;the suit was settled out of court. On May 10, 2021, sexually explicit videos of Ellefson were posted on Twitter. The videos, reportedly recorded by a fan that Ellefson was in correspondence with, initially led to accusations of child grooming. However, Ellefson and the other party both denied the accusations, and the fan publicly claimed they were a consenting adult and the videos were unknowingly released by a third party. The", "a third party. The Scottsdale Police Department (SPD) was contacted by Ellefson, who sought charges for revenge porn. Ellefson took a polygraph test to affirm his claims and presented police with a photo of the fan's driver's license to prove their age. He also shared screen shots of Snapchat and WhatsApp messages related to the allegations. Ellefson's partner admitted that she had shared the video with some friends but wasn't sure how it got leaked out to others. The SPD report states the fan \"was remorseful and agreed to send out a social media statement on...Instagram\" that they were \"a willing consenting adult during their mutual virtual sexual encounter.\" Ellefson then posted her statement and one of his own on May 10, asserting that the allegations of grooming were false. Ellefson stated he has not been extorted in any way, and he believes the videos of their consensual adult encounter were not intentionally leaked.An official statement released the next day from Megadeth stated that the situation was", "the situation was being \"watched closely\".Mustaine announced on May 24, 2021, that Ellefson was fired from the band. Artistry Influences and style Traditionalheavy metalbands such asUFO,Black Sabbath,Budgie,Judas Priest,new wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) bands such asRaven,Motörhead,Iron Maiden,Diamond Head, andVenom, andpunk rockbands such as theSex PistolsandRamoneshad a significant influence on Megadeth's sound.Hard rockbands such asAC/DC,Queen,Led Zeppelin,andRush,as well as German acts likeScorpionsandAccept,were also influential on the group's guitar style. Although the music has roots in punk,university professor Jason Bivins wrote that Megadeth followed the basic blueprint of Motörhead and Iron Maiden. He described the style as a mix of \"the instrumental virtuosity of the NWOBHM with the speed and aggression ofhardcore punk\", while also drawing lyrical inspiration from the horror-themed punk bandMisfits.Mustaine has also listed albums bythe BeatlesandDavid Bowieas recordings that influenced him.", "influenced him. Mustaine is the band's primary songwriter. He develops songs starting with a particular riff that, with modifications, becomes the central part of the song.He has said that song fragments are composed separately, and then the band makes a compact structure from them.Drummer Shawn Drover stated that Mustaine had saved many riffs over the years and that some recent material is based on those demo recordings.Ellefson stated that the band constantly creates new material, and that making a recording begins with exchanging ideas after which the band enters the studio and discusses the concept, direction, artwork, and song titles.The lyrics are usually written after the music is arranged.Discussing the band's lyrics, Mustaine said that many of the themes are derived from literature, such as the novels ofGeorge Orwell. The music of Megadeth and its underground metal contemporaries from the 1980s featured harsh vocals,double bass drumpatterns,staccatoriffing,power chords,tremolo picking, and", "picking, and screeching lead guitar work; albums from this period were produced on low budgets.After forming Megadeth, Mustaine followed the thrash metal style of his previous band, Metallica, with more emphasis on speed and intensity.When asked to describe Megadeth's guitar style, Mustaine answered: \"When you go to a show and see a guitar player who just stands there, that's a guitar player. A thrash guitar player is a guy who plays like he wants to beat the guitar's guts out.\"Most of the songs are recorded in standardguitar tuningas Mustaine believes it to provide a superior melody to alternative methods of tuning.In 2017, David Ellefson talked in an interview about how the band recently started to use a lower tuning saying: \"it's just natural with age, for singers it can be a struggle, so rather than quit, than not play, how do you work it around? Well, let's drop the guitars, let's find a way to work around it.\" During the band's early days, Mustaine was the rhythm guitarist, while Chris Poland played", "Chris Poland played lead. Poland performed only on Megadeth's first two albums at the time of the book's release; (he would go on to play on the 2004 albumThe System Has Failed); music journalists Pete Prown and Harvey P. Newquist credit him with making the music more colorful because of hisjazzinfluences.According to formerMetal Maniacseditor Jeff Wagner, the band's songwriting techniques peaked with the fourth album,Rust in Peace, which he described as a \"flurry of precision and fluidity, making good on Megadeth's claim to being the world's state-of-the-artspeed metalband\".Musicologist Glenn Pillsbury stated the guitar work on the album was a mixture of Mustaine's \"controlled chaos\" and the \"technical brilliance\" of Marty Friedman.Studio efforts released in the mid- and late 1990s featured songs with compact structures and less complicated riffing. Megadeth's lyrics often focus on death, war, politics, and religion.The lyricism centers on nihilistic themes, but occasionally deals with topics such as", "with topics such as alienation and social problems.The earliest releases featured themes such as occultism, graphic violence, and Satanism.Nuclear warfareand government conspiracy were preoccupations on albums such asRust in PeaceandCountdown to Extinction.During Megadeth's commercial peak, Mustaine elaborated on more personal themes such as addiction and intimate relationships. For the lyrics onCryptic Writings, Mustaine said that he wanted to write songs that had more appeal to a wider audience.The title ofUnited Abominationsis a satiric play on the name of theUnited Nations; Mustaine criticized the organization's ineffectiveness on a number of songs on that album. Legacy Having sold more than 50 million units worldwide, Megadeth is one of the few bands from the 1980s American underground metal scene to have achieved mass commercial success.Along with contemporaries Metallica, Slayer, and Anthrax, Megadeth is regarded as one of the core founding groups of thrash metal.These bands are often referred to as", "referred to as the \"big four\" of thrash metal,responsible for the genre's development and popularization.Loudwireranked Megadeth the third best thrash metal band of all time, praising the group's \"provoking lyrics and mind-warping virtuosity\".CMJ New Music Reportcalled the band's debut album a seminal release and a representative of \"the golden age of speed metal\".Billboardcalled the band's second albumPeace Sells... but Who's Buying?a \"landmark of the thrash movement\" whose lyrics it found still relevant.MTV also recognized the band as an influential metal act, highlighting the technical aspect of the early albums. Megadeth is considered one of the most musically influential groups that originated in the 1980s. As part of the early American thrash metal movement, the band's music was a direct influence ondeath metal.SociologistKeith Kahn-Harriswrote that the mainstream success of Megadeth was one of the reasons for the expansion ofextreme metalto countries where it had previously been unknown.The band's", "unknown.The band's sound and album artwork influenced a number of thrash metal bands in the 21st century,includingToxic HolocaustandWarbringer.According toNielsen SoundScan, Megadeth has sold 9.2 million copies of its albums in the United States between 1991 and 2014. Band members Current members Discography Studio albums Accolades Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards: Clio Awards: Genesis Awards: Grammy Awards: LoudwireMusic Awards: Metal HammerGolden Gods Awards: RevolverGolden Gods Awards: Footnotes References Bibliography External links", "Error fetching content: 404 Client Error: Not Found for url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_(American_band", "Kill 'Em All Kill 'Em Allis the debut studio album by the Americanheavy metalbandMetallica, released on July 25, 1983, through the independent labelMegaforce Records. After forming in 1981, Metallica began by playing shows in local clubs in Los Angeles. They recorded severaldemosto gain attention from club owners and eventually relocated to San Francisco to secure the services of bassistCliff Burton. The group'sNo Life 'til Leatherdemo tape (1982) was noticed by Megaforce label headJon Zazula, who signed them and provided a budget of $15,000 (equivalent to $48,835.49 in 2024) for recording. The album was recorded in May with producer Paul Curcio at the Music America Studios inRochester, New York. It was originally intended to be titledMetal Up Your Ass, with cover art featuring a hand clutching a dagger emerging from a toilet bowl. Zazula convinced the band to change the name because distributors feared that releasing an album with such an offensive title and artwork would diminish its chances of commercial", "of commercial success. Metallica promoted the album on the two-month co-headliningKill 'Em All for Onetour with English heavy metal bandRavenin the US. The album also generated two singles: \"Whiplash\" and \"Jump in the Fire\". Although the initial shipment was 15,000 copies in the US, the album sold 60,000 copies worldwide by the end of Metallica's Seven Dates of Hell European tour in 1984. The album did not enter theBillboard200until 1986, when it peaked at number 155, following Metallica's commercial success with its third studio album,Master of Puppets; the 1988Elektrareissue peaked at number 120.Kill 'Em Allwas critically praised at the time of its release and has since been regarded as a groundbreaking album forthrash metal, because of its \"precise musicianship, which fusednew wave of British heavy metalriffs withhardcore punktempos\". It was also retrospectively placed on a few publications' best album lists. The album's musical approach and lyrics were markedly different from rock's mainstream of the", "mainstream of the early 1980s and inspired a number of bands who followed in a similar manner. It was certified3× Platinumby theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 1999 for shipping three million copies in the United States. Background and recording Metallica was formed in 1981 in Los Angeles by drummerLars Ulrichand by vocalist/rhythm guitaristJames Hetfield. Before settling on a definitive lineup,Metal Blade RecordsownerBrian Slagelasked Metallica to record a song for the first edition of hisMetal Massacrecompilation. Hetfield and Ulrich chose \"Hit the Lights\" from Hetfield's and his childhood friendRon McGovney's previous bandLeather Charm, and recorded it with Hetfield on vocals, McGovney on bass, and temporary guitarist Lloyd Grant. The band's first lineup featured Hetfield, Ulrich, McGovney, and guitaristDave Mustaine, who was acquired through a newspaper advertisement. The band practiced in McGovney's garage and looked for gigs at local clubs. Metallica's first show was on March 14,", "was on March 14, 1982, at the Radio City inAnaheim. The nine-song setlist consisted of two originals (\"Hit the Lights\" and an unfinished version of \"Jump in the Fire\" from Mustaine's earlier band Panic) and covers ofnew wave of British heavy metal(NWOBHM) bands such asDiamond Head,Blitzkrieg,Savage, andSweet Savage. The gig did not go as well as planned, because Mustaine had problems with the guitardistortion pedal, and broke a string during a song. Metallica's second gig was on March 27, 1982, atHollywood'sWhisky a Go Go, opening forSaxon. AlthoughMötley Crüewas originally scheduled to open the show, the group canceled because of its growing popularity. Metallica recorded a three-song demo to persuade the venue's management to allow the band to open for Saxon. Metallica's third concert was in April 1982, the first time \"The Mechanix\",written by Mustaine during his tenure with Panic, was played.Mustaine interacted with the fans at Metallica's earliest shows because Hetfield was shy. To garner attention from", "attention from club owners, Metallica recorded thePower Metaldemo in April 1982, which featured \"Motorbreath\" in addition to the already-performed originals. The logo, displaying the band's name with the first and last letter drawn larger with sharpserifsand italicized, was designed by Hetfield.TheNo Life 'til Leatherdemo was recorded in July 1982, and it created a buzz in the undergroundtape tradingcircles.No Life 'til Leatherfeatured a re-recorded version of \"Hit the Lights\", which appeared on the second pressing ofMetal Massacre, in addition to new songs such as \"Phantom Lord\", \"Seek & Destroy\", and \"Metal Militia\". The recording andmasteringwere financed by Kenny Kane, owner of the punk label High Velocity, and distributed by Ulrich and his friend Pat Scott.Because of tensions with Mustaine, McGovney left the band in December. Ulrich was impressed byCliff Burton's performance withTraumaatThe Troubadourin West Hollywood, and offered to let him join the band.Burton joined on the condition that Metallica", "that Metallica would relocate to the San Francisco area.Moving toEl Cerritoin February 1983, the band stayed and rehearsed atExodusmanagerMark Whitaker's house, which they called the \"Metallica Mansion\".Metallica intended to record its debut in Los Angeles on Slagel's independent label on an $8,000 budget ($24,722 in 2023). Slagel could not afford the record, and Ulrich contactedJon Zazula, a New Jersey record store owner and promoter of heavy metal bands on the East Coast who had already heardNo Life 'til Leather. Metallica rented aU-Haultruck and drove to New Jersey in late March,and upon arrival, allowed Zazula to sell copies ofNo Life 'til Leatherto help him foundMegaforce Recordsbecause no label wanted to finance the album's recording. Hetfield and Ulrich fired Mustaine on the morning of April 11 after a gig in New York, because of his drug and alcohol problems, overly aggressive behavior, and clashes with bandmates.On Whitaker's recommendation, Metallica recruitedKirk Hammett, who played in Exodus and", "in Exodus and was a one-time student ofJoe Satriani. Hammett learned the songs on his flight to New York and started recording the album with Metallica barely a month later. Metallica met producer Paul Curcio at Music America Studios inRochester, and recorded the album in two weeks.Unable to afford a hotel during the recording sessions, the band members stayed over in people's houses in Rochester and at the Music Factory inJamaica, Queens, whereAnthraxheld rehearsals.Curcio had set the studio equipment as if he were recording an ordinary rock band. He thought the initial tapes sounded very distorted and tried to compensate by turning down the knobs.Metallica resented Curcio's involvement, because he seemed uninterested, and had little impact on the sound.Although Zazula wanted Hammett to replicate Mustaine's solos, Hammett's guitar solos on the album were partially based on Mustaine's original solos, with the first four bars of most solos written by Mustaine before his departure.Despite their differences,", "their differences, Mustaine's contributions to the early years of Metallica were still acknowledged, and he received four co-writing credits onKill 'Em All.Zazula was not pleased with the initialmixbecause he thought that the drums were too loud, and the guitars were too low in the mix. The remix was done by sound engineer Chris Bubacz, according to Zazula's instructions.The final cost for the record rounded to an estimated $15,000 ($46,354 in 2023), which nearly caused Zazula to go bankrupt. \"This was mortgage money I'm spending, not something I've got put by I'm going to invest,\" he said later.Zazula had a hard time finding a distributor for the record, but he eventually convincedRelativity Recordsto distribute the album in the US and Canada, andMusic for Nationsin Europe. The band intended to title the albumMetal Up Your Asswith a cover featuring a hand clutching a dagger emerging from a toilet bowl. However, Zazula convinced them to change the title, because he thought that distributors would not stock", "would not stock it as it was too explicit to display. The final cover featured the shadow of a hand letting go of a bloodied hammer.Burton was credited with coming up with the nameKill 'Em All—referring to timid record distributors, saying, \"Those record company fuckers ... kill 'em all!\"—as a response to the situation.Ulrich thoughtKill 'Em Allwas a good name, and Zazula agreed.Burton suggested to Gary L. Heard, also responsible for the Metallica photograph on the back cover, to feature a bloodied hammer on the album art. According to Hammett, \"Cliff carried a hammer with him everywhere he went. He always had a hammer in his luggage, and he would take it out occasionally and start destroying things.\"Even though the original title was unused, the band did later release a \"Metal Up Your Ass\" T-shirt with the proposed artwork.A livebootleg recordingof a 1982 performance at theOld Waldorf, titledMetal Up Your Ass (Live), featured the original cover artwork.Original pressings of the album came with an", "album came with an innersleevethat included pictures and lyrics as well as a silver label on the vinyl. Subsequent pressings had a blank white sleeve and a standard album label. The 1988 reissue re-introduced the lyrics and photos. The original release can be distinguished by the silver labels with the track listing but without track lengths. Every issue produced has had the phrase \"Bang That Head That Doesn't Bang\". The phrase \"Bang That Head That Doesn't Bang\" was dedicated to San Francisco fan Rich Burch, known for hisheadbangingat the band's early shows. Music and lyrics \"Kill 'Em All's lyrics created as much excitement as the band's music. Taken together, the words of the songs on the album form a single theme. It is aconcept albumthat heralds the breakthrough of a new subgenre of metal, its fans, and its leader, Metallica. It is a celebration of metal. It is a call to arms to a new generation of metalheads, many of whom were already armed and ready.\" —Deena Weinstein,Essays on Debut Albums Kill 'Em", "Albums Kill 'Em Allfeatures intricate riffing reminiscent of theNWOBHMbands played at high velocity. The album is considered crucial inthrash metal's genesis because it introduced fast percussion, low-register chords, andshreddingleads to the genre.Hammett played somepentatonicpatterns in addition to his breakneck solos.Ulrich adopted adouble timesnare pattern that would become a mainstay on Metallica's subsequent albums. Hetfield's vocals evolved from the melodic wail onNo Life 'til Leatherto a rough-edged bark, and the entire band played faster and more accurately onKill 'Em All.AuthorJoel McIverdescribed Burton's and Hetfield's performances as nearly virtuosic, highlighting Burton's smooth-sounding bass and Hetfield's precise picking skills.According to journalistChuck Eddy, the juvenile lyrical approach to topics such as warfare, violence and life on the road gives the album a \"naive charm\".The musical approach onKill 'Em Allwas in contrast to theglam metalbands who dominated the charts in the early", "charts in the early 1980s.Because of its rebellious nature and Metallica's street appearance, it appealed to fans who were not into the mainstream of hard rock. \"Hit the Lights\" was based on an unfinished Leather Charm song written by Hetfield and Hugh Tanner.Hetfield had brought the majority of the song to Ulrich, and the two worked out different arrangements. Performed at 160beats per minute, \"Hit the Lights\" opens with fade-in distorted guitars and a short shriek by Hetfield. The song is driven by the16th noterepeated main riff and the continuouseighth notesnare drum hits. The lyrics celebrate heavy metal itself and are sung with short and high-pitched vocals.The song ends with several lengthy guitar solos by Hammett, who performed cleaner and more melodic versions of Mustaine's leads. \"The Four Horsemen\" is a revamp of the Mustaine-penned \"The Mechanix\", which originally had lyrics about having sex at a gas station.A modified version of his composition with the original lyrics appeared onMegadeth's", "onMegadeth's debutKilling Is My Business... and Business Is Good!(1985), named \"Mechanix\". Although Mustaine told Metallica not to use any of his music, Hetfield wrote lyrics about theFour Horsemen of the Apocalypseand added abridgeand cleanly picked guitar solo in the middle.Mustaine said the bridge was inspired by the main riff inLynyrd Skynyrd's \"Sweet Home Alabama\". \"Motorbreath\" was written by Hetfield during his time in Leather Charm and tells about life on the road. The song is based on a four-chord verse and a stop-and-start chorus.The most recognizable parts are Ulrich'sdrum rollsin each chorus and the riff that accompanies Hammett's solos. \"Jump in the Fire\" was the first song everwritten by Mustaine, with lyrics about teenage sexual experience.Hetfield's revised lyrics for the album were written fromSatan's point of view, describing how the devil watches people killing each other, and is sure they will go tohellfor their actions.\"Jump in the Fire\" was released as a single in the UK in February", "the UK in February 1984 to promote a UK tour withVenom.The single featured \"Phantom Lord\" and \"Seek & Destroy\" as live tracks, although they are actually studio recordings with fake crowd noise dubbed over them.The single's cover art features an oil painting titledThe Devils of D-Day, created by artistLes Edwardsin 1978. \"(Anesthesia)-Pulling Teeth\" is a bass solo by Burton, accompanied on drums by Ulrich. A staple of Burton's live performances since his high school days in the band Agents of Misfortune,the instrumental track featured Burton's distinctive \"lead-bass\" style of playing, incorporating heavy distortion, use ofwah-wah pedalandtapping.Bubacz introduces the track as \"Bass solo, take one\",informing listeners that the song was recorded in one take.\"(Anesthesia)-Pulling Teeth\" was the bass solo that Burton was playing when Hetfield and Ulrich first saw him at a gig.Hetfield stated: \"We heard this wild solo going on and thought, 'I don't see any guitar player up there.' We were both counting the", "both counting the strings and I finally turned to Lars and said, 'Dude, that's a bass!' Cliff was up there on stage with his band Trauma with a wah-wah pedal and his huge mop of red hair. He didn't care whether people were there. He was looking down at his bass, playing.\"For the album version, Cliff Burton insisted on recording this track alone in an empty room, while the studio technicians were downstairs. He made this recording in one take, after about twenty minutes of preparation. \"Whiplash\" was the album's first single, issued on August 8, 1983.It features a swift rhythm line of straight 16th notes played at about 200 beats per minute. Hetfield and Burton performed withpalm mutedtechnique and precise metronomic control.The lyrics celebrate crowd energy and headbanging.Rock journalistMick Wallwrote that \"Whiplash\" signified the birth of thrash metal, stating: \"If one wishes to identify the very moment thrash metal arrived spitting and snarling into the world, 'Whiplash' is indisputably it.\" \"Phantom", "it.\" \"Phantom Lord\" is a lyrical nod to devilry. The song begins with a synthesized bass drone and contains a middle section with clean, arpeggiated guitar chords. Written by Mustaine, its central riff is in NWOBHM fashion. \"No Remorse\" is a mid-tempo song that suddenly accelerates its tempo in the fifth minute.The song is about not feeling any remorse or sense of repentance during battle. \"Seek & Destroy\" was inspired by Diamond Head's \"Dead Reckoning\"and is the first song Metallica recorded during theKill 'Em Allsessions.Hetfield wrote the main riff in his truck outside a Los Angeles sticker factory where he was working.Because of its simple, one-line chorus, the song became a permanent setlist fixture and a crowd singalong. \"Metal Militia\", one of the fastest songs on the album, is about heavy metal's way of life andnonconformity. Mustaine composed the main riff, which emulates a marching army. The song ends with tramping feet and bullet ricochet in a fade-out. Reception Kill 'Em Allreceived widespread", "widespread critical acclaim. Bernard Doe ofMetal ForcesdescribedKill 'Em Allas one of the fastest and heaviest albums ever recorded, and remarked that the album is not for the faint-hearted.Greg Kotof theChicago Tribuneacknowledged it as the \"speed metalprototype\", but felt the lyrical replication ofJudas Priestand theMisfitskept the album short from becoming a classic.In a retrospective review,BillboardpraisedKill 'Em Allfor changing the face of popular music with its unique combination of punk and metal.AllMusic's Steve Huey called it \"the true birth of thrash\". He praised Hetfield's highly technical rhythm guitar style and said that the band was \"playing with tightly controlled fury even at the most ridiculously fast tempos\".Rob Kemp, writing inThe Rolling Stone Album Guide, credited the album for consolidating the punk rock and heavy metal scenes, but felt that apart from \"Seek & Destroy\" and \"(Anesthesia)-Pulling Teeth\", most of the album had the band \"trying to look tough\" over enthusiastic but", "enthusiastic but unfinished riff-based songs. JournalistMartin PopoffsaidKill 'Em Alldifferentiated from the debuts by Metallica'sBay Areacontemporaries because the fans could identify with Hetfield's lyrics and the band's appearance.Spin's Chuck Eddy consideredKill 'Em Allthe inception of the \"extreme metalmania\" of the early 1980s. He noted the album did not receive much critical praise at the time of its release but said it aged well and opened the doors for the less commercially successful bands.Although McIver credits Venom'sWelcome to Hell(1981) as the first thrash metal album, he acknowledgedKill 'Em Allas a major influence on the flourishing American heavy metal scene.Despite its \"less-than-perfect\" production,Loudwire's Jon Wiederhorn said thatKill 'Em Allsounds like an \"influential slice of history\" and stands on the same level as classic albums byBlack Sabbath,Iron Maiden, and Judas Priest. Kill 'Em Allwas released on July 25, 1983, by Megaforce with an initial pressing of 15,000 copies.Because of", "copies.Because of the label's financial restrictions, the album was pressed in batches of 500 copies.Kill 'Em Allhad sold 17,000 copies in the US by the end of the year.Similarly to punk rock acts, Metallica promoted its material through the tape trading network and independent music magazines such asMetal Forcesin the UK andMetal Maniain the US.The album did not enter theBillboard200chart until 1986, when it peaked at number 155 following Metallica's commercial success with its third studio albumMaster of Puppets.The 1988 re-issue onElektra Recordsalso charted on theBillboard200, peaking at number 120.It was certified3× Platinumby theRecording Industry Association of America(RIAA) in 1999 for shipping three million copies in the United States.Despite being the lowest selling Metallica studio album, it helped the band establish its image and build a fanbase in its inaugural years. Kill 'Em All, as the first thrash metal album released in the US, had a substantial impact on the emerging scene and inspired", "scene and inspired numerous bands with its aggression and austere seriousness.GuitaristKerry KingacknowledgedSlayerwas still finding its sound while Metallica had already determined its image and musical identity. Anthrax guitaristScott Ianwas impressed by the album's heaviness and songwriting and said it influenced him as much as the albums by Iron Maiden.Dream Theater's drummerMike Portnoyobserved thatKill 'Em Allsurpassed the NWOBHM bands in terms of sheer velocity and cited Burton's bass solo as the album's peak.Guitarist Ulf Cederlund of Swedishblack metalbandMorbidcited \"Motorbreath\" and \"Metal Militia\" as songs that influenced him as a young musician.Kill 'Em Allwas ranked at number 35 onRolling Stone's list of The 100 Greatest Albums of the '80s.Additionally, the album placed at number 54 on \"The 100 Best Debut Albums of All Time\"and again at number 35 on \"100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time\",two lists compiled by the same magazine.Kerrang!listed the album at number 29 among the \"100 Greatest Heavy", "\"100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time\".In 2010,Consequence of Soundranked it number 94 among its \"Top 100 Albums Ever\". Touring In late July 1983, Metallica embarked on the two-month Kill 'Em All for One tour with British co-headlinersRaven. The tour name melded the titles of the albums the two bands were promoting: Metallica'sKill 'Em Alland Raven'sAll for One, both released on Megaforce. The two groups met in Zazula's home two days before the tour began and traveled in the same vehicle throughout the tour with fiveroadiesand sound engineer Whitaker. The tour was set to conclude with three shows in San Francisco, thus Hetfield painted \"No Life 'til Frisco\" on the Winnebago tour bus. The tour had a few poorly attended gigs, such as a performance at the Cheers club inBabylon, New York, attended by some 50 people. After the conclusion of Kill 'Em All for One in early September, Metallica returned to El Cerrito to work on new material. Seven weeks after the tour ended, Metallica booked a number of", "booked a number of performances at Bay Area clubs, the first a Halloween gig at the Keystone inPalo Alto. At the Country Club inReseda, the group debuted \"Fight Fire with Fire\" and \"Creeping Death\", along with an early version of \"The Call of Ktulu\", then titled \"When Hell Freezes Over\". Three days later, at a gig at The Stone in San Francisco, Metallica premiered \"Ride the Lightning\", the title track from the upcoming album. In December, Metallica went on a short tour in the Midwest and eastern United States with a three-man road crew: Whitaker, guitar technicianJohn Marshall, and drum technician Dave Marrs. The concert of January 14, 1984, in Boston, was canceled because the band's equipment was stolen the night before. In February, Metallica embarked on its first European trek withTwisted Sister, supporting Venom's Seven Dates of Hell tour.The tour was sponsored by Metallica's UK distributor, Music for Nations, who released the \"Jump in the Fire\" EP for that occasion. The first show was at theVolkshausin", "at theVolkshausin Zurich on February 3.At the Aardschok Festival inZwolleon February 11, Metallica played in front of 7,000 people, its largest audience at the time. The tour stretched through countries such as Italy, Germany, France, and Belgium, culminating in two sold-out shows at theMarquee Clubin London.After concluding the Seven Dates of Hell tour, Metallica headed toSweet Silence Studiosin Copenhagen to record its second album,Ride the Lightning.By the end of the tour,Kill 'Em Allhad sold 60,000 copies worldwide and Metallica began to gain international recognition.On June 8, 2013, at theOrion Festival, billed as the fictional band Dehaan, Metallica played the album in its entirety for the first time ever to mark the 30 year anniversary of the album. Track listing Original release All lyrics written byJames Hetfield, except where noted. The bonus tracks on the 1988 re-release were originally recorded as B-sides for the \"Creeping Death\" single in 1984, later known asGarage Days Revisited, and would", "and would later appear on the compilation albumGarage Inc.(1998). The bonus tracks on the digital reissue was recorded live at theSeattle Coliseum,Seattle, Washington, on August 29, 1989, and also appeared on the live albumLive Shit: Binge & Purge(1993). 2016 deluxe edition In 2016, the album was remastered and reissued in a limited edition deluxe box set with an expanded track listing and bonus content. The deluxe edition set includes the original album on vinyl and CD, apicture discwith the original \"Jump in the Fire\" single tracklist, four CDs of interviews, rough mixes, and live recordings recorded from 1983 to 1984, and a DVD of a live concert in Chicago. Personnel Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes. Metallica Production Artwork Charts Certifications *Sales figures based on certification alone.^Shipments figures based on certification alone.‡Sales+streaming figures based on certification alone. References Bibliography External links", "Show No Mercy Show No Mercyis the debutstudio albumby Americanthrash metalbandSlayer, released in December 1983 byMetal Blade Records.Brian Slagelsigned the band to the label after watching them perform anIron Maidencover. The band self-financed their full-length debut, combining the savings of vocalistTom Araya, who was employed as arespiratory therapist, and money borrowed from guitaristKerry King's father. Touring extensively promoting the album, the band brought close friends and family members along the trip, who helped backstage with lighting and sound. Although the album was criticized for its poor production quality, it became Metal Blade's highest-selling release,producing the songs \"The Antichrist\", \"Die by the Sword\" and \"Black Magic\", which were played at Slayer's live shows regularly. Recording Slayer was the opening act forBitchat the Woodstock Club inLos Angeles, performing eight songs—six beingcovers.While performing anIron Maidencover, the band was spotted byBrian Slagel, a former music", "a former music journalist who had recently foundedMetal Blade Records. Slagel met with the band backstage and asked if they would like to be featured on the label's upcomingMetal Massacre IIIcompilation; the band agreed.The band's appearance on the compilation created underground buzz, which led to Slagel signing the band with Metal Blade Records.Recorded in Los Angeles,Show No Mercywas financed by vocalistTom Araya, who used his earnings as arespiratory therapist,and money borrowed from guitaristKerry King's father.King says the album is \"fuckin' Iron Maiden here and there\".Vocalist Araya assertsVenom,Judas Priest,Iron Maiden, andMercyful Fatewere big influences on the record, as guitarist King was into theSatanicimage. Lombardo said in 2015 that he was not pleased with how the drums were recorded. The engineer at the time had difficulties getting the right mix between the toms and the cymbals because they were too loud. The solution was to dampen the cymbals with towels and record the toms and cymbals", "toms and cymbals separately. As such, Lombardo calledShow No Mercyhis least favorite Slayer album, although he emphasized that the songs were great, just not his performance. Gene Hoglan, later known as the drummer for bands likeDark AngelandDeath, provided backing vocals on the song \"Evil Has No Boundaries\".\"Back at the time it was Jeff and Kerry doing the 'Evil!' You know, it didn't sound too heavy and I mentioned to like Tom or Jeff or somebody like, 'You know you guys should consider...maybe consider doing like big gang vocals on that, make it sound evil like demons and stuff,' and they were like 'Good idea.' But how about now, we got about eight dudes sitting around in the studio, and now everybody jumped up and yelled 'EVIL!!!' So I was like 'Cool' because I'm like, 'I wanna sing on this record somehow, that's how I can do it,' totally unplanned you know?! Sure enough they were like, 'Fuck we have the time, let's do it.' So I was like 'Yeah, I got to sing on it!'\"On recording the drums, Slagel wanted", "Slagel wanted drummerDave Lombardoto play without usingcymbalsdue to the amount of noise they made, as he was unsure if he could siphon the noise out, which he eventually did. The band used Satanic themes in both lyrics and live performances to gain notice among the metal community and \"to fuck with people\".The back cover featured 'side 666' and inverted crosses, with Hanneman playing his guitar.Due to the imagery and lyrical content, Slayer received mail from theParents Music Resource Centertelling the band to stop releasing records. Araya comments, \"Back then you had that PMRC, who literally took everything to heart. When in actuality you're trying to create an image. You're trying to scare people on purpose.\"The album produced the songs \"The Antichrist\", \"Die by the Sword\", and \"Black Magic\", which were played at Slayer's live shows regularly. Touring The band went on their first tour of the United States after the album's release—Slagel gave the band a list of addresses and contact numbers of the venues.", "of the venues. Araya was still working at the hospital, and called the members saying, \"Today's the day. Are we gonna do this?\"The band knew if they did not tour now, they never would. So they set out taking Araya'sCamaroandU-Haul. During the first leg of the tour, Slayer had no manager; Doug Goodman, who had met the band when he was first in line for their first show in Northern California (opening forLȧȧz Rockit) took a vacation from his job at a grocery store to help out on the tour, eventually becoming the band's \"tour guide\". Goodman now tour manages acts such asGreen DayandBeck. Kevin Reed, a friend of the band, set up the drums and lighting when touring with the band. Reed's father, Lawrence R. Reed, drew theMinotaurwith a sword on the album's cover.Araya's younger brother, Johnny Araya, who was thirteen or fourteen at the time, was aroadiewho set up the back line and sound.The band hardly made enough money to sustain themselves, only buying the \"essentials\" such as food, gas, and beer. Araya asserts,", "Araya asserts, \"We basically used whatever money we got to get from point A to point B. When we got back, Brian was like, 'So, where's the money?' And we were like, 'What money?' At that time, we didn't realize that you had to ask for money up front. I think he got a lot of money sent directly to him, and we were supposed to pick up the rest.\" The band performed in a hotel inWinnipeg, where the basement was the club. Araya comments, \"We stayed there for like four or five days, I think. We sawVerbal Abuseplay there. Then we played a place in Boston called the Lizard Lounge. In fact, a car had run into the front of the building, and it was all boarded up, but we still played there.\"When one of the guitarists broke a string Araya would hand them the bass, Hanneman stating, \"We'd argue about it, too—like, 'I wanna play bass for a while!'\" Reception Although the band did not have enough time to sell any records while touring,the album becameMetal Blade Records' highest selling release.Five thousand copies was the", "copies was the label's average.Show No Mercywent on to sell between 15,500 and 20,000 copies in the United States; it also went on to sell more than 15,000 overseas, as Metal Blade had worldwide rights.The success of the album led to Slagel wanting the band to release a new record and anextended play. Show No Mercywas met with polarized opinions and reviews mostly leaning on the negative side when it was issued, but in some recent reviews it came to be considered a classic album. In 1984, Dave Dickson ofKerrang!crushed the album defining it \"pure, unadulterated junk\",while Bernard Doe ofMetal Forcescalled the record \"one of the heaviest, fastest, most awesome albums of all time!\"The German magazineRock HardgaveShow No Mercya positive review, which remarked how Slayer were \"actually the hardest and fastest\" in comparison with their contemporariesMetallicaandExciter, and defined their music as \"heavy metal punk.\"AllMusicreviewer Jeremy Ulrey had mixed feelings towards the album, saying that even though the", "even though the musicianship and production were \"amateurish\" compared to Slayer's later releases, the album remains a \"solid, if inessential, part of the Slayer legacy\". Users voted 4/5 at AllMusic.Sputnikmusic staff member Hernan M. Campbell described the album as \"fast, heavy, and mean, inducing an inescapable atmosphere of utter atrocity.\" He noted that the \"lo-fi\" production quality gives the album a \"classic\" feeling. Canadian journalistMartin PopoffpraisedShow No Mercyfor being as \"seminal\" as Metallica'sKill 'Em All\"in defining state-of-the-art speed metal\" and for inspiring new bands to \"expand the limits of metal.\" However, he \"found the record stiff and one dimensional\", with \"its style laid down in stifling arrangements.\"Fenriz, drummer forDarkthrone, citedShow No Mercyas the inspiration for the band's \"current style of fusingNWOBHMwithblack metal\".Terry ButlerofObituaryand former member ofDeathdefined the album as \"the blueprint for the beginning ofdeath metal\" and said: \"When I heardShow No", "I heardShow No MercyI wanted to play that way....It was a whole new level of mayhem. I wanted to play that way\". System of a Down'sDaron Malakianhas praisedShow No Mercyas an influential album that helped shape him as a person and artist. He claimed he introduced heavy metal to the people of Iraq with this album when he lived there at age 14. Track listing The 1987 re-issue also features songs from theHaunting the ChapelEP. Personnel Charts References" ]